HG 9715 N3 l/i)!il ''"Hiriiiii mm m i' if National Fixe i»rote<^ii'A5S^tJj^ ^F^'" ClFT C. HEL-L-ER CONSUUTlWCi L,- -- SAN FBANCISCO, CAU C. HELLER*— CONSULTING i , . v.., . . - ;« FIELD PRACTICE An Inspection Manual FOR PROPERTY OWNERS, FIRE DEPARTMENTS AND INSPECTION OFFICES COVERING COMMON FIRE HAZARDS AND THEIR SAFEGUARDING AND FIRE PROTECTION AND UPKEEP I ,193-«^\FDITiaN ^ — J — '-TT^— . PRICE, $1.50 PUBLISHED BY NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION 'i 87 MILK STREET, BOSTON, MASS. f^^ i^ f^:3 c^l Copyright 1914 BY National Fire Protection Association * < c c c c c ; [ c* * » » ' c * t c c v^ith pub- lished rules. 4. COMPRESSED OR LIQUID GASES In commercial use are found the well-known Pintsch gas used for car lighting, a limited use of compressed illuminating gas, and the special petroleum distillate gas known as Blaugas. The latter gas is taken, on account of its great heat content, as a basis of comparison. Blaugas is used for lighting and for flame welding and in some instances for heating in connection with muffles or with small furnaces. The extraordinary heating power, the high pressure of storage and great liberation of energy to be expected at an early stage of fire attack, and the power of asphyxiation, indicate a need for full caution in the use and handling of any and all of the compressed fuel gases. The following recommendations are intended as a digest of experience toward the establishment of reasonable safeguards in the use of a product of this character: — 1. The storage cylinder to conform to specifications of the U. S. Interstate Commerce Commission. These specifications provide for a seamless container, of known quality of metal, annealed, passed through a hydrostatic test and made with a liberal factor of safety based on a temperature of 130 degrees F. FIELD PRACTICE 29 2. All high pressure apparatus, including expansion tank, to be placed outside of the main premises, preferably in an in- substantial detached hut, or if room is not available, then below ground in a liberally ventilated vault. 3. The reduction of pressure to be taken by two steps, using an expansion tank between reductions, the pressure allowable on the expansion tank to be less than one tenth of the maximum initial pressure in the storage cylinders. 4. The working pressure in house piping not to exceed half a pound for ordinary use, nor two pounds as a relief point maximum. 5. The house pressure to be protected by a mercury seal relief, and the high pressure to be guarded by a safety valve placed to directly protect the intermediate or expansion tank. 6. All means of adjustment and regulation to be so piped as to come within and be protected by a locked and ventilated metal box, with view to preventing tampering. The cylinders for commercial use are charged to about 2,000 pounds per square inch, on which account large containers would be too heavy if of requisite strength and cannot be used — the ordinary container holds about 20 pounds of the liquid or approximately three gallons which in expanding yields about 240 cubic feet of free gas. The gas is explosive when mixed with air in from 5 to 8 parts of gas to 100 of air. The explosive power of Blaugas is necessarily high because of its thermal capacity, which exceeds threefold that of ordinary illuminating gas. Because of the high pressure in the cylinders it would seem peculiarly sensitive and dangerous should a small fire weaken a storage cylinder or drum, and as the drums or cylinders as used are about the same size as those used for other commercial gases the comparative destructive power in case of fire would appear to be in propor- tion to the thermal capacity multiplied by the pressure. 5. KEROSENE AND KEROSENE VAPOR Lighting in various forms by kerosene or coal oil is found almost everywhere. In addition to an open flame, the oil in case of fire immediately 30 FIELD PRACTICE contributes inflammable liquid which aids in the spread of flames, and under certain conditions an explosion occurs. This means of lighting, therefore, carries with it both a fire and explosion hazard. (^See no/e.) Where possible, approved electric or gas lighting systems should be used instead of oil of any nature. Good maintenance and care are necessary at all times, and the following precautions of safety should receive attention : — (a) The bowl or receptacle containing oil should not be of glass or of breakable material, but be constructed of substantial metal. (b) Receptacles containing oil should never be filled to an overflow point, but filled to a point that will permit an air space above the oil. Receptacles should not be permitted to become dry or empty, and should be filled at regular intervals. Lamps used regularly should receive daily examination. (c) Lamps should not be filled while burning. Cleaning cloths and waste should be kept in approved metal waste can. Old wicks, when removed should be burned immediately. (d) All portable lamps should be so designed that they may not be readily upset or overturned. (e) Suspended lamps should preferably be securely fastened to rigid fixtures; should be free from contact with partitions, shelving, ceiling, and combus- tible material. Proper shields should be provided overhead when lamps are placed within 24 inches of combustible ceiling or material above. (f ) Lamps should not be permitted to burn indefinitely in dark cellars, area ways, halls, attics, or at places which are not constantly under supervision. (g) Property owners or tenants should not leave premises unoccupied indefinitely and permit lights to burn during their absence. This is a common cause of fires. (h) Lamps should not be suspended nor placed where there is a strong or con- tinuous draft, unless properly shielded. (i) Burners must be securely fastened to oil receptacle and should be kept clean and properly adjusted at all times. See that small vent pipe through burner is kept clean. (j) Wicks should never be permitted to become so short as to fail to readily absorb oil from receptacles. When receptacles are filled, wicks should be carefully examined, and immediately replaced if too short. Wicks must be kept evenly trimmed and must be of proper width to fit burner. Narrow wicks are dangerous. Wicks must be kept free from crusty accumulation of carbon deposits, and must not be allowed to become shreddy or ragged . (k) Inflammable shades should never be used, nor should chandeliers nor fixtures be decorated with combustible material for artistic purposes or otherwise. This practice in particular should be condemned. (1) Chimneys should be securely adjusted to burner frames. Cracked chimneys should immediately be replaced with new ones. Do not glue paper or cloth over cracks of chimneys. FIELD PRACTICE 81 (m) Kerosene Distributing- Systems should be installed and maintained in ac- cordance with standard regulations. Storage tank should be outside of building, free from exposure to open Hame or light, and so located as to be free from tampering. The piping system should be carefully gone over, joints, connections and valves observed, the air vent in burner from flame to oil chamber should be kept clean and free at all times, and the same careful scrutiny shown as is required for other lighting systems. C See published standards for ** Kerosene Oil Pressure Systems.*') Note. — Oils vaporize by the application of heat. The temperature at which vaporization takes place varies roughly according to their density : Some of the heavier oils used for lubricants will not give off a vapor until they have been heated to about 600 degrees Fahrenheit. It is the vapor which bums. When ordinary air has approximately 2>^ to 83^ per cent of this vapor mixed with it there is formed what is termed an explosive mixture, for an explosion may be produced by igniting the combination as is done in the cylinder of an automobile engine. Vapor from petroleum or its products is heavier than air and therefore sinks to the floor. One should see that there is as little opportunity as possible for the formation of these vapors and when such vapors must be produced, provide for their safe handling. Crude oil and gasoline present the greatest hazard of all pe. troleum products because they vaporize at and below normal temperature. Practically in the same class with gasoline are naphtha and benzine. Next come some turpentine substitutes made from petroleum which vaporize at approximately 90 degrees Fahrenheit; then kerosene which vaporizes at slightly above normal temperature; and finally lubricating oils which vaporize at such high points that their vapor is not a factor in itself because it is not produced under any ordinary ways of handling or using the lubricants. 6. GASOLINE VAPOR Gasoline Vapor Lighting Sjstetns, similar to Acetylene Lighting, are more frequently found in country homes, country clubs and hotels, isolated institutions, and in localities where it is not convenient to obtain electricity or gas from a central station. These systems are found also in many villages and towns. Certain states prohibit by law the use of gasoline for lighting purposes. Before attempting to make an examination of systems of this kind, the standard regulations for their installation should be care- fully read. Approved devices and systems only should be installed. They should be closely watched by some one understanding their danger, and especial supervision should be given the handling of gasoline. Lighting by means of gasoline vapor is commonly con- 32 FIELD PRACTICE ducted through various methods ; by machines having outside carburetor; by machines having inside carburetor; sj'stems having outside tanks and inside flame heated generators ; systems having inside tanks and inside flame heated generators, and individual gasoline vapor lamps. Machines which do not introduce liquid gasoline into the building are regarded from a safety viewpoint as constituting the least dangerous type of gasoline gas machines. Individual gasoline vapor lamps in particular, and machines having inside carburetors or inside flame heated generators, are regarded as the most dangerous. Aside from the importance of keeping on hand the smallest quantity of gasoline possible, and handling that with extreme care, in the open daylight, re- examinations and inspections should be made in connection with the printed regulations governing the installation of these systems. Occasional observance of piping system, joints, connections, valves, lamps and burners, should be made, and the same careful scrutiny shown as is required for other lighting systems. 7. CANDLES. LANTERNS AND TORCHES It is often found necessary to use portable lights of this character, but as a usual thing some one is present, which modifies their hazards somewhat. (a) Devices of this nature should not be permitted to burn for indefinite periods without inspection. (b) Candles should be inserted in metal holders adapted for catching melted wax and burnt wicks. (C) Flaming hand torches are dangerous. Gasoline torches of the gravity type should be avoided. Where their use is absolutely necessary, gasoline torches should be suspended as far as possible from combustible material. (d) Safety kerosene lanterns, with a non-removable front, rod guards protecting the globe and otherwise substantially adapted for portable use, should be used where possible, in lieu of poorly constructed and dangerous portable devices. (e) Where it is necessary to occasionally visit dark cellars, attics and the like, electric hand flash lights are very practicable. (f) The same supervision as is given oil lighting with respect to filling, trim- ming, handling of oil, care, etc., should be followed with respect to these devices. (k) When these devices are not in actual service, they should be stored in a metal-lined enclosure, or outside of main buildings. n HEATING HAZARDS 1. Radiation and Conduction of Heat. 2. Elffect of Continuous Heat upon Heating Devices. 3. Furnaces and Heating Devices of a Fixed or Stationary Type — Grading of Furnaces — Setting and Mounting — Clearance — General Features of Installation. 4. Furnace Stacks, Chimneys and Flues* Breeching — Features of Installation. 5. Hand or Movable Furnaces. 6. Miscellaneous Heating Devices — Special Treatment of. 7. Common Miscellaneous Hazards, in Connection ^H^ith Use of Heat. nA » >-vv^vit« ^' FIELD PRACTICE 35 ICTION OF HEAT Every heated body, whatever may be the source of its heat, tends to give off this heat either by radiation if air only is in contact therewith, or by conduction if in contact with a solid body. Air so heated becomes lighter, and if not confined rises and tends to escape and allow the cooler air to take its place, thus limiting the temperature : Solid bodies on the other hand, since they do not move, continue to absorb heat whether by radiation or conduction, and the temperature attained will depend upon their nature and the temperature of the body from which the heat is received. If the solid body is of a combustible nature this temper- ature may equal its ignition temperature, in which case fire ensues. The intervention of an air space preventing direct contact of combustible material with the heated body, is essential. If the air space is limited, an incombustible solid or retardant should be interposed, so arranged as to form an air space between the heat radiating surface and the retardant, and another between the retar- dant and the combustible material. The air currents set up by this means will prevent the combustible material attaining a dangerous temperature. In safeguarding the hazard of heat absorption the combustible nature of surroundings should be observed, and the location and maximum temperature of the heating apparatus and nature of fuel used therein noted. These elements must be considered in pro- viding ventilation and protection of heating apparatus. The lack of air circulation between a fire chamber and a retar- dant, renders the retardant subject to the same degree of heat as the fire chamber, and the lack of an air space between the outer surface of a solid retardant and combustible material, renders the combustible material subject to heat absorption, which produces fire. ^y^w observing the effect of direct heat it is a simple rule to remember that anything uncomfortable to the bare hand may sooner or later set fire to wood : the electric bulb too warm for the hand should have a wire screen ;/the heated surface over gas jet where too warm for the hand requires protection ; the bottom of a cooker similarly requires an air space ; the roof around a boiler 36 FIELD PRACTICE stack should be cut away to a point always comfortable to the hand, and so on. In order that the importance of air circulation and proper thickness of materials of retardants may be emphasized, the following instances of fires due to absorption and transmission of direct heat, are herein mentioned : — " A fire occurred in a stock of Manila paper, in original packages, while solidly stored upon a cement finished floor, directly above a battery of high pressure boilers. The boilers were bricked in and arched over, having an air space of twenty-eight inches between top of same and ceiling, the ceiling or floor above being constructed of ten inch staggered hollow-tile and concrete, over which was a two inch layer of concrete. The paper was stored upon this floor, and mysteriously caught fire upon two different occasions. A later examination of the floor showed that it was too hot upon which to lay the bare hand, conclu- sively proving that the paper ignited from heat transmitted from boilers through twelve inches of fire retardant, even with an air space of twenty-eight inches underneath floor. In this insbince there appeared to be sufficient air space and a proper retardant, yet there was a lack of air circulation, the heat being permitted to bank above the boilers." "There is another instance of a dry goods stock catching fire in shelving built against a twelve inch solid brick wall. The adjoining building burned, the heat from same being so intense as to ignite material on the other side of wall separating the two buildings." "Another illustration is that of a hotel range setting fire to timbers through five inches of reinforced concrete — and another case where a japan oven, in which the temperature was seldom higher than 200 degrees Fahr. and in which the gas burners were six inches above the metal bottom, set fire to a mill floor through three inches of hollow tile and asbestos above and below such tile." In the installation of furnaces and heating devices, especially those producing high temperatures, the importance of ventilation, air spaces, and thickness of retardants, must receive careful treatment. 2. EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS HEAT UPON HEATING DEVICES Fire hazards produced in connection with furnaces, ovens, boilers, and other heating appliances, arise from heat and flame of the fuel employed. Necessarily, aside from the setting and arrangement of all such devices, attention must be given to the construction of the fire box or burning chamber, interior lining and exterior covering, arrangement of burners and grates, means of draft and removal of excessive heat and explosive gases, and removal of ashes and residue. FIELD PRACTICE 37 An occasional examination of these features should be made by inspectors and property owners. All chambers or kettles in which are heated metals, gums, oils, grease, and other articles of manufacture, require an occasional examination. Constant operation of heating devices under intense heat in time will establish deterioration of their parts. Most devices are safe when originally installed and it is important that their upkeep be constantly watched. Lack of subsequent care and attention invites fire. Fuel for domestic and manufacturing purposes embraces mainly: hard and soft coal, coke, wood, artificial and natural gas, fuel oil and petroleum products, alcohol, pyrites, etc., many ot which produce dangerous gases. In each instance the fuel employed, its nature of feed, degree of heat generated, burning system and draft, etc., should receive attention. 3. FURNACES AND HEATING DEVICES OF A FIXED OR STATIONARY CHARACTER These embrace heating devices of a fixed or stationary type not later classed herein as hand or movable. The types and purposes for which these devices are used are many. In installing them important features to consider are the proximity and com- bustibility of the contents of the building or room in which located; setting, ventilation and location; the nature of fuel used; maximum temperature required, and the handling of heated materials in connection therewith. In considering the proper installation of these heating devices especial attention should be given the preceding articles headed "Radiation and Conduction of Heat" and "Effect of Continuous Heat upon Heating Devices." These articles em- phasize the importance of proper installation and maintenance of heating devices. In order to distinguish the relative hazard of stationary furnaces of all classes in common use, these devices may be graded in a general way according to temperature at firing box, as follows: — 38 FIELD PRACTICE "Low." — Embracing all furnaces up to the melting point of lead, 600 degrees Fahr. "Medium." — Embracing all furnaces with temperatures necessary to produce high pressure steam, anneal metals, glass, etc., 600 to 1,500 degrees Fahr. "High." — Embracing all furnaces with temperatures neces- sary for ore roasting, bloom or billet heating, iron smelting or fusing, 1,500 degrees Fahr. and upwards. Note. — Furnaces grading "High" may grade as "Medium" with respect to installation and clearance when not over 100 cubic feet in size (outside measure- ment). This to apply where the heating device in all respects may conform to all maximum safeguards, as later provided for herein. As an illustration, the temperatures required in melting metals vary greatly according to the metal — hence the heat radiation is greater from some types of devices than from others, and more adequate protective measures are required. The following Table of Temperatures relating to metals is use- ful as an illustration: — TABLE OF TEMPERATURES. Fusion Point of Metals. Fahr. Fahr. Blast Furnace Slag 2500° Iron (wrought) 3300°-4000° Bessemer Retort Slag 3100° Lead 630" Brass 1600° Manganese-Steel 2300° Bronze 1450* Nickel 2700° Cast Iron (pig) 2000°-2400° Silver 1750° Copper 2000° Soft Solder 340* Ferro-nickel Steel 2250° Steel 2400°-3300' Gold 1950° Tin 450° Iron (pure) 3275° Zinc 775° Note: Table of Temperatures and important sections of list of Furnaces reprinted herein from Analytic System for the Measurement of Relative Fire Hazard, by permission of Manager of Western Actuarial Bureau. The following lists of representative types of Fixed Furnaces or Heating Devices, graded according to the approximate temperature required at the firing box, will be found useful for FIELD PRACTICE '-V,) reference in instances of original installations and for com- parison with existing installations. As will be noted, three grades are designated: "Low Grade," "Medium Grade" and "High Grade." Furnaces and heating devices vary in construction, according to the functions they are designed to perform. Certain types are constructed of metal entirely covered with brick or other masonry; certain types are of metal without covering, but well braced with metal supports; other types have an inner lining of metal or fire clay products or an outer covering, and in instances air spaces and incombustible fillers between the outer and inner walls. Furnaces of the "Medium" and "High" grade of large design will frequently be found in buildings of fireproof con- struction throughout, or in basement or on grade floor of build- ings having incombustible floors, walls and interior finish. They should preferably be installed in buildings of this construction. Other types of furnaces will be found, usually of smaller capacity but of similar construction, resting upon masonry or iron supports, having air space between bottom of fire and ash chamber and floor, in some instances on combustible floors. Not only is the setting of the device worthy of special note, but the ventilation, smoke, gas and heat disposal, and clearance from combustible material, must receive equal attention. In order to condense the consideration of these heating devices, it is deemed advisable to treat them in a general way. The lists herein mentioned cover the more frequently found representative types. All other furnaces not mentioned, and not otherwise specified in this pamphlet, should be installed in a like manner to this basic definition. 40 FIELD PRACTICE REPRESENTATIVE TYPES OF FIXED FURNACES. GRADED ACCORDING TO TEMPERATURE AT FURNACE-SETTING AND MOUNTING — CLEARANCE, AND GENERAL FEATURES OF INSTALLATION 1. LOW GRADE. Developing heat at Furnace up to 600° F. Annealing Baths for hard glass Japanning Ovens. (fats, paraffine, salts or metals) . Bake Ovens (in bakeries). *Boiling Vats, for w^ood fibre, straw, lignin, etc. Fur- (spent and * Candy Furnaces. Coffee Roasting Ovens. Cooking Ranges. Core Ovens. *Cruller Furnaces. Feed Drying Ovens. Fertilizing Drying Ovens. Forge Furnaces (solid fuel). Gypsum Kilns. Hardening Furnaces (below dark red). Hot Air Engine Furnaces. Hot Air, Hot Water and Small Steam Heating Furnaces and Boilers. * See paragraph (c) under important features of general installation. Ladle Drying Furnaces. Lead Melting Furnaces. Nickel Plate (drying) naces. Paraffine Furnaces. Recuperative Furnaces materials). Rendering Furnaces. Rosin Melting Furnaces. Stereotj'pe Furnaces. Sulphur Furnaces. Tripoli Kilns (clay, coke gypsum). Type Foundry Furnaces. Wood Drying Furnaces. Wood Impregnating Furnaces. Zinc Amalgamating Furnaces. Setting, Mounting and Clearance of Furnaces Grading "Low." Furnaces should preferably be mounted only on fireproof floors. If neces- sary to place them above or over combustible floors the following requirements as to mounting and clearance should govern. Air channels in foundations to be continuous and open at ends. Furnaces without legs, or v^rith legs providing an air space less than four inches between ash box or bottom of firing chamber and combustible floor, should have the combustible floor protected with sheet metal or y^-inch asbestos covered with two courses of 4-inch hollow tile or its equivalent, this FIELD PRACTICE 41 in turn covered with at least ^^ a -inch boiler iron ash plate or pan. Three courses of brick with the top course laid on edjje, producing ventilating space between them, may be accepted as equivalent to two courses of 4-inch tile. The Hoor frottct ion should extend 12 inches beyond furnace at sides, rear and front when gas, electricity or liquid fuel is used; the floor protection should extend at least 24 inches in front when solid fuel is used, and consist of sheet metal or l,^.inch asbestos covered with 4-inch hollow tile or its equivalent. Furnaces vrith leits, providing an air space of not less than 4 inches between the ash box or bottom of firing chamber and combustible floor, should have the combustible floor protected with sheet metal or i^-inch asbestos, covered with 4-inch hollow tile or its equivalent, extending at least 12 inches beyond furnace at sides and rear and front; if solid fuel is used extension at front to be at least 24 inches. Heaiin^ devices with le^s, providing an air space not less than 18 inches between the ash box or bottom of firing chamber and combustible floor, may require no especial protection for the combustible floor except when solid fuel is used, in which case the floor should be covered with sheet metal or its equivalent. Care should be taken that fire and ash boxes of furnaces are so designed as to confine the fuel and ashes therein. Clearance Above, at Sides, Rear and In Front. Clearance from unprotected combustible material above and lateral (includ- ing fronts, sides and rear) should show the following minimum distances: — Furnaces without setting of brick or its Above Sides and Rear In Front equivalent 48 in. 36 in. 48 in. Furnaces with setting of brick or its equiv- alent 36 in. 24 in. 48 in. NOTK. — See Special Notes and Important Features of Installation. 2. MEDIUM GRADE. Developing heat at Furnace 600° to 1500° F. Alabaster Gypsum Kilns. Lehrs and Glory Holes. Annealing Furnaces (glass or Lime Kilns. metal — small). Porcelain Biscuit Kilns. Charcoal Furnaces. Pulp Driers (direct fire heated) Cold Stirring Furnaces. Smoke Houses. Feed Driers (direct fire heated) . Steam Boilers. Fertilizer Driers (direct fire Water-glass Kilns. heated). Wood-distilling Furnaces. Galvanizing Furnaces. Wood-gas Retorts. Gas Producers. Hardening Furnaces (cherry to pale red) . 42 FIELD PRACTICE Setting, Mounting and Clearance of Furnaces Grading '* Medium." Furnaces -without le^s or -H'ith le^s, providing an air space less than 18 inches below ash box or bottom of firing chamber, should rest upon a floor made exclusively of fireproof arches between steel " I " beams or the equivalent thereof, or upon earth floor. Such floors to extend at least three feet beyond the sides and rear of furnace and at least eight feet in front thereof. Furnaces >vith le^s, providing an air space of not less than 18 inches between the ash box or bottom of firing chamber and combustible floor, should have the combustible floor protected with sheet metal or y^-inch asbestos, covered with four inches hollow tile or its equivalent, the same to eTLtidnA four feet at front and 18 inches at sides and rear beyond furnace. Care should be taken that fire and ash boxes of furnaces are so designed as to confine the fuel and ashes therein. Clearance Above, at Sides, Rear and in Front. Clearance from unprotected combustible material above and lateral (includ- ing front, sides and rear) should show the following minimum distances : — Furnaces without setting of brick or its Above Sides and Rear In Front equivalent , 48 in. 36 in. 96 in. Furnaces with setting of brick or its equiv- alent 36 in. 24 in. 96 in. Note. — See Special Notes and Important Features of Installation. 3. HIGH GRADE. Developing heat at Furnace 1500° F. and upward. Annealing Furnaces. Bessemer Retorts. Billet and Bloom Furnaces- Blast Furnaces. Bone Calcining Furnaces. Brass Furnaces. Carbon Point Furnaces. Cement, Brick and Tile Kilns. Coal and Water Gas Retorts. Cupolas. Earthenware Kilns. Glass Blow Furnaces. Glass Furnaces (smelting). Glass Kilns. Open Hearth Furnaces. Ore Roasting Furnaces. Porcelain Baking and Glazing Kilns. Pot-arches. Puddling Furnaces. Regenerative Furnaces. Reverbatory Furnaces. Stacks, Carburetor or Super- heating Furnaces {\x\ water gas works). Welding Furnaces. Wood Carbonizing Furnaces. FIELD PRACTICE 43 Setting, Mounting and Clearance of Furnaces Grading "High." In installing Furnaces of this grade, floor should be of exclusively fireproof construction, or of earth, to a distance of at least 30 feet in front and 10 feet at sides and rear. Clearance Above, at Sides, Rear and In Front. Clearance from unprotected combustible material above and lateral (includ- ing front, sides and rear) should show the following minimum distances : — Above Sides and Rear In Front Furnaces of this type 15 ft. 10 ft. 30 ft. Note. — See Special Notes and Important Features of Installation. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF GENERAL INSTALLATION AND SPECIAL NOTES. (Applying to all Fixed Furnace Installations.) (a) Where conditions will permit, these devices, especially those of the " Me- dium " or " High " grade, should be installed in separate buildings, or cut-off sections, preferably of fireproof construction throughout. (b) Ventilation: In addition to clearance specified, means of carrying off heat must be provided overhead, especially in buildings or rooms having a combustible roof or sides. This is especially important in instances of furnaces grading ♦• Medium" or '* High." Blower systems, wall or roof ventilators, the latter preferably of incombustible construction, should be provided for this purpose. The clearances serve as a break to reduce heat radiation, but means must be provided to prevent heat from banking against combustible wood- work. Air circulation should be provided to prevent this banking of heat. (c) The low temperatures required in candy furnaces, boiling vats, melting furnaces, etc., may warrant grading them as *• low." However, special precautions should be taken in order that none of the contents in boiling over may reach combustible material, and such furnaces should be equipped with hoods, special overhead ventilation, or other means for taking care of hot vapors, fumes, gases and heat. The above, together with hot air circulation, is important. (d) Utilized Dump : All rooms or parts of rooms where heated metal is cast, rolled or power forged, should have earth or fireproof floor to a distance of 30 feet from any point where the metal is handled or manipulated in its heated condition; all side walls, partitions, and post and column supports should be incombustible to a distance of 10 feet above and 30 feet at sides from any point where the metal is handled or manipulated in its heated condition. (e) Waste Dump: Where waste dump is removed in its heated condition from furnaces grading " Medium " or •• High," the required clearance at sides from combustible material should be the same as for furnace at front. 44 FIELD PRACTICE (f) In safeguarding heating devices at sides, front, rear and above, first attach incombustible insulation to the heating device itself, and then, in addition, provide insulation for nearby combustible material. Keep in mind the value of air space and ventilation between heating devices and combustible material. (jf) The insulation and protection of breeching, metal stacks and similar features should receive treatment as provided under " Furnace Stacks, Chimneys and Flues." (h) All cold air ducts leading to furnaces, for ventilation, should be of incom- bustible construction, and in no event should they be permitted, if con- structed of wood, to come within the proper clearance advocated between furnaces and and other combustible material. SPECIAL NOTES. Note 1. — If furnace supports boiler or oven, space above should be measured from surface of boiler or oven. Note 2, — If furnace has peep holes or checker work, distance should be measured to furnace wall. Note 3. — If firing is done on more than one side of furnace, treat such side as front. Note 4. — In the case of brick ovens, with walls not less than twelve inches thick extending through floors, clearance requirements from that part of oven which is at least one full story above fire box, may be waived, when in the judgment of the inspector there is no danger from walls of oven being in contact with com- bustible material. Note 5. — P'urnaces of the upright type which constitute their own stacks (such as foundry cupolas) do not require overhead clearance as to roof, but where passing through combustible roof, clearance should be provided as specified under " Furnace Stacks, Chimneys and Flues." Clearance from charging door to com- bustible material above and in front should not be less than 10 feet. Note 6. — In the case of open forges using solid fuel, clearance to combus- tible material from all sides of forge should be at least 6 inches. Note 7. — In dwellings, apartments and mercantile stores, there will often be found poorly installed house heating devices such as hot air furnaces, hot water heaters, low pressure steam boilers, etc., not having the required clearance be- tween the top of device, breeching, flue and combustible floor or ceiling above. In such instances proper insulation should be provided in the proper place. Conditions may permit flue or breeching to be insulated with two to four inches magnesia lagging or equivalent, leaving the ceiling open for inspection. The top of the heating device may be similarly insulated, covered with at least four inches of sand or other insulation. An air circulating space should be provided if surface above is of combustible material. In addition to this, the contour of the combus- tible material may be covered with asbestos board or its equivalent, but should be so Installed as to allow no concealed space or pockets. This protection should extend 4 feet beyond the front of heating device, so that heat and flames emanating from furnace door may be guarded from contact with combustible ceiling. The vital feature to consider is the circulation of air above the heating unit; in some instances to provide this may require special connection to the open air by means of a metal duct. FIELD PRACTICE 45 4. FURNACE STACKS. CHIMNEYS AND FLUES In addition to the arrangement and setting of Furnaces, great importance is attached to the construction and installation of chimneys and flues, breeching, and chambers intended to carry off smoke and excessive heat. This particular section deals with these devices found in connection with industrial and mercantile establishments. A special section in this book will be found elseM'-here dealing -with these installations in DM^ellings. Ordinarily two types of chimneys will be found, the sub- stantial brick chimney and the metal stack. The following recommendations as to installation of stacks, chimneys and flues should be observed : — 1. BRICK, STONE OR REINFORCED CONCRETE STACKS AND CHIMNEYS. Chimneys of this construction should be built from the ground. They shall not be corbeled out of a brick wall more than 8 inches, corbeling to consist of at least five courses of brick. Chimneys should be lined on the inside with well burned terra cotta or fire clay tile set in portland cement mortar. The lining of chimneys should be continuous from the bottom of the flue to its extreme height. All chimneys should be capped with terra cotta, stone, concrete or cast iron. Portland cement mortar only should be used in the construction of chimneys. All chimneys should project at least 3 feet above the point of contact with a flat roof, or 2 feet above the ridge of a pitched roof. Brick set on edge should not be permitted in chimney construction. Thickness of walls and interior lining should be determined by the nature of the heating device and its temperature, the following minimum thicknesses being prescribed, viz. : From Heating Devices Grading herein as " Lom^ ** and "Medinm**» Walls should be not less than 8 inches thick and lined inside with fire clay, same to be continuous for full length of chimney. This may be modified only in instances of small heating devices devel- oping heat less than the " Low " grade classification ; such as stoves of dwellings. From Heating Devices Grading herein as ••Hi4h**i Walls should be not less than 12 inches thick and lined inside with fire clay, as above described, of not less than 4 inches in thickness, the lining to continue for a distance of at least 25 feet from the point where the smoke connection of the heating device enters the flue. This should be considered as a minimum thickness in connection with heating devices of the *' High " grade, and it is by no means an excessive 46 FIELD PRACTICE requirement to recommend two 8 inch thicknesses of masonry with an interior air space between the walls, and 4 inches of fire clay lining, 2. METAL STACKS. Metal smoke stacks, of adequate thickness, properly riveted, jointed and braced at least every 20 feet, and otherwise substantially and securely set up, may be used in connection with heating devices of all grades. These stacks should have a clearance from all combustible material of not less than one-half the diameter of the stack, but in no case less than 24 inches. Substantial screens or other guards should be placed at least 24 inches from the stack to prevent contact with combustible contents. Where such a stack passes through a roof, it should be guarded by a galvanized iron ventilating thimble extending from at least 9 inches below the under side of the ceiling or roof beams to at least 9 inches above the roof, and the ventilating thimble should have a clearance of not less than 18 inches. In instances of furnaces grading '• low " this clearance may be reduced to 9 inches. All stacks should project at least 10 feet above the roof of adjacent property, and when placed outside should not be located within 2 feet of building wail if of combustible material, nor within 4 inches of brick walls, and 2 feet distant from window openings therein. Metal stacks should not be permitted to pass through floors of build- ing, such installations being regarded as dangerous and impracticable to properly safeguard. In instances where inside metal stacks previously installed may be found, and conditions may not permit stack to be placed outside, the stack should be completely surrounded by an enclosure of 8 inch brick, or 6 inch hollow tile, with a 4 inch air space between stack and this insulation. In buildings of fireproof construction, metal stacks may be permitted inside in fireproof enclosures with air space, such enclosures not to be used for vent shafts nor similar purposes. 3. FURNACE FLUES, BREECHING, AND IMPORTANT FEATURES OF INSTALLATION. (a) In the installation of brick chimneys no wooden beams nor joists should be placed within 2 inches of the outside face thereof, whether . the same be for smoke, air or other purpose. All spaces between the chimney and the wooden beams should be solidly filled with mortar, mineral wool or other incombustible material. No wooden furring nor studding should be placed against any chimney; the plastering should be directly on the masonry, or on metal lathing. (b) All smoke flues should be at least sixty-four square inches in area if connected with furnaces grading '• Low," If of a higher grade they should be at least ninety-six square inches in area, not including the thickness of the flue lining in each case. (c) Metal breeching, smoke pipes and hot chambers in connection with heating devices should have a clearance above and at sides to com- bustible material of at least 18 inches from heating devices grading FIELD PRACTICE 47 "Low "and 36 inches from heating devices of higher grades, or be insulated with two to four inches magnesia lagging or equivalent, and in addition the contour of exposed combustible material covered with asbestos or its equivalent. Under this insulation of incombustible material a clearance of one-half the above named distances may be acceptable. (d) Chimneys or flues supported by floors, wooden beams, wooden posts, etc., are dangerous, and should be condemned. Tile or crock flues are also a dangerous substitute, and should be removed and replaced by recognized brick flues or chimneys. (e) Smoke pipes should not be permitted to pass through a wooden lath and plaster partition; in instances where found they should be preferably removed, or if permitted should be protected by galvanized iron ventilated thimbles at least 12 inches larger in diameter than the pipe, or by galvanized iron thimbles built in at least 8 inches of brick work or other incombustible material. Stove pipes passing through floors, closets, blind attics (and similar concealed spaces) are dangerous, and their removal should be requested. (f) Chimneys and stacks to be provided with metal door into flue near base of same for cleaning purposes. (g) Heating devices using natural gas for fuel should invariably be provided with means of ventilation to the outside air, to carry off burnt fumes. Burnt fumes from natural gas are poisonous. (h) Open fire places should be protected by substantial wire screens. Natural gas fire places should have a standard flue leading to the outside. Note: The mortar of brick or stone chimneys is subject to disintegration under natural gas fumes, and chimneys subject to this should have an interlining of terra cotta or fire clay. 5. HAND OR MOVABLE FURNACES OR HEATERS Heating devices belonging to this class are of various types and will be found in properties of all kinds. Thej embrace such devices as Gas Plates or Crowns, Gas and Electric Heaters, Glue Kettles, Cupels, Crucibles, Pressing Iron Heaters, Soldering Iron Heaters and Pots, Portable Forges, and all types of mov- able, semi-stationary and stationary heating devices commonly found for performing bench and hand work. Being of many types, various heating methods will be found: Gases, electricity, coke, charcoal, coal, alcohol, kerosene, gas- oline and fuel oil are the more common fuels. All devices of this character resting upon tables, benches, shelves or other combustible surfaces, should receive close 48 FIELD PRACTICE examination as to their construction, setting and clearance. The best and safest manner of protecting heaters of this class is to provide metal stands, benches, tables or racks and securely mount them thereon, providing safe clearance at sides, top and rear, from combustible material. In no event should they rest upon woodwork without having an insulation of 4-inch hollow tile or equivalent. Where all-metal supports cannot be provided the following arrangements may serve as substitutes : — (a) Mounting: Furnaces should be constructed so as to rest on metal legs at least 4 inches in height, and when set upon combustible surfaces, a course of 4 inch hollow tile, solidly bound together, or its equivalent, should serve as a base underneath legs. In instances where solid fuel is used insulation should extend far enough beyond the front of device to prevent coals or ashes from coming in contact with combustible material, (b) Clearance: Furnaces to have a clearance of at least eighteen inches from combustible material at sides and rear, and at least four feet clearance overhead. Excessive vertical flame from device, if any, should be protected overhead by metal hood or flashing. (C) Gas connections : Where gas is employed the same should be connected solidly with gas pipe from service branch to furnace, shut-off" valve to be located at service supply end only, and not at furnace. Where a series of gas burners or heaters are used and are supplied from one service supply pipe, such as are found in kitchen ranges, dry rooms, etc., a valve should be provided which will cut off" the entire gas supply to all burners. (d) Gas connections of combustible, flexible tubing are dangerous and their use should be limited to portable devices. Where found impracticable to require the removal of flexible tubing, see that there is but one shut-oft valve for each device, the same to be located in iron pipe back of point where tubing connects and not at the device. Limit tubing to length absolutely necessary and request that frequent inspection for leaks and deterioration be made. Where signs of deterioration are apparent new tubing should be provided. (e) Condemn the use of natural gas heaters having no means of ventilation to the outside. Burnt natural gas fumes are poisonous, and are not readily detected. Open fire places should be protected by substantial wire screens. Such places using natural gas should invariably have a flue leading to the outside. Note: The mortar of brick or stone chimneys is subject to disintegration under natural gas fumes, and chimneys subject to this should have an interlining of terra cotta or fire clay. (t) Electric irons should have a cut-out and indicating switch, and rest on stands as designated under (h). Note : It is advisable to connect in multiple with the heaters, an incandes- cent light of low candle power, as it shows at a glance whether or not the switch is open, and tends to prevent its being left closed through oversight. FIELD PRACTICE 49 (g) Electric radiators, g^Iow-lainps, dental sterilizers, and other types of electric heaters, should never be placed against combustible material, and should be otherwise safeguarded. (h) Sad or tailor iron stands should be of metal, having metal legs at least 4 inches high. Woodwork under such stands should be covered with l/^ inch asbestos and sheet metal, and be placed where the stand customarily rests. In lieu of attaching insulation directly to woodwork, the stand may have a base of insulating material, same to be not less than % inch in thickness and permanently attached thereto, in which event legs should be at least V-f^ inches above top of base. (1) Where natural gas is supplied from private natural gas wells, excessive pressure should be guarded against. The gas wells should have a duplicate system of pressure regulation, one at outlet from well and one between well outlet and service connection, or at outlet from gasometer or storage tank, if any. Where pressure from private natural gas wells is greater than 50 pounds, there should be at least two pressure regulators at well, in order that in no event a pressure exceeding eight ounces could be delivered at burners. Special inquiry should be made, in instances of private gas wells, as to the probable extent of supply and pressure fluctuations. (J) In general, all heating devices of this character require constant care. They should be kept clean and in good working order, any fuel and ashes in connection therewith should be kept in metal receptacles. Metal racks or stands should be provided for holding hot tools, instruments or devices heated. See that there is proper ventilation, and that chimney and flue connections, where found and required, are safe. 6. MISCELLANEOUS STATIONARY HEATING DEVICES REQUIRING SPECIAL TREATMENT A list of miscellaneous types of Furnaces and Heating Devices which require special attention as to setting and arrange- ment, together with their common hazards, is given herewith. It would require much space to cover all such devices, hence representative types only, and those most commonly found are included. 1 . KITCHEN RANGES AND THEIR VENTILATION. These devices require setting and arrangement as outlined under Fixed Furnaces, grading "Low." The fire hazard is not alone confined to the setting of the range. Devices for carrying away greasy vapors and excess heat must be provided. 50 FIELD PRACTICE In hotels, club houses, restaurants and other occupancies having an extensive kitchen, a hazard of no little consequence exists in connection with the cooking range and its ventilating system. It is important that these systems be given attention at the time of installation. The hazards in connection therewith are numerous, important features to be considered being as follows. {See also Blower Syslems): — (a) Mounting and clearance of the range should be in accordance with installa- tion of Fixed Furnaces grading " low." (b) The ducts for carrying away greasy vapor and excess heat should be con- structed of metal at least No. 16 U. S. gauge, so substantially built that they may be burned out without damage to the building, or to building contents. This can be done with safety only when the ducts are properly constructed and installed. (The only manner in which to thoroughly remove grease and gum from the interior of these ducts is to permit them to burn out under a flash fire.) (c) It is important that this be a separate system having no connection with other house ventilating systems (as is often found). (d) Ducts should not be connected to stacks, chimneys, or flues, used for other purposes. (e) The ducts must be large enough to adequately and promptly take care of vapors and fumes, the size to be governed by area of kitchen and change of air required therein per minute. (f) All ranges should be provided with hoods. The range hood and shields should be properly constructed of substantial metal, and should be large enough to collect all greasy vapors arising from the burners. (jf) Fans and power apparatus in connection with the syste.m should be located in an absolutely incombustible enclosure, and have ventilation to the open air. (h) All existing systems, especially those of an extensive nature, if not installed in this manner, must be regarded as dangerous. (Many hotel and restaurant fires are due to these defective systems.) ( i ) In many kitchens there will be found additional cooking and baking devices which should also be carefully examined. 2. HOT AIR DUCTS AND HEAT CONVEYORS. These systems, where passing through fire division walls, or walls serving as cutoffs from one section of building to another, should be provided with approved automatic closing dampers, the ducts to fit tightly about the opening through the wall. Where passing through combustible partitions or through combustible floors, similar air space clearance and insulation should be given as in pamphlet on Blower Systems. FIELD PRACTICE 61 3. STOVES: LARGE COAL OR WOOD BURNING, AND BUSHELING. If set on combustible floors, these devices should be installed in accordance with Fixed Furnaces, grading "Low." All stove pipes should be properly connected to stove, and to chimney or flue, and proper clearance provided, as outlined under Stacks, Chimneys and Flues. Long lengths of pipe are dangerous. Heating devices of this nature, while ordinarily grading as "Low," should not be permitted in rooms where woodworking, painting, japanning, finishing or upholstering is done, nor where inflammable liquids are stored or handled ; heating devices with open flame in such rooms are dangerous. 4-. HOT AIR, HOT WATER AND LOW PRESSURE STEAM HEATING FURNACES. Heating devices of this character, for ordinary use, should be mounted and have clearance as outlined under Fixed Furnaces, grading "Low." The following features in particular require careful observation : — (,a) Where this clearance is not obtainable, direct insulation to heating device, breeching or flues should be provided, and if necessary, in addition thereto, ceiling above should be insulated as outlined under Fixed Fur- naces. In no case should the clearance be reduced more than one half that specified, A covering of at least four inches of sand on top of casing, in all heaters not otherwise encased, is a good means of insulation. (See note 7 on " Types of Fixed Furnaces.") (b) All cold air ducts, heating conveyors and ducts, should be of incombustible construction. (c) All heater pipes from hot air furnaces where passing through combustible partitions or floors should be doubled tin pipes with at least 1-inch air sp.ace between them. (d) Horizontal hot air pipes leading from furnace should be not less than 6 inches from any woodwork, unless the woodwork is covered with loose fitting tin, or the pipe is covered with at least i^ inch of corrugated asbes- tos, in which latter cases the distance from the woodwork may be reduced to not less than 3 inches. This relates to heating pipes only, not to flue. (e) No hot air pipe should be placed in a wooden stud partition, or any wooden enclosure nearer than 8 feet horizontal distance from the furnace. (f) Hot air pipes contained in combustible partitions should be placed inside another pipe arranged to maintain i/^-inch air space between the two on all sides, or be securely covered with ^^ inch of corrugated asbestos. Neither the outer pipe nor the covering should be within 1^ inches of wooden 52 FIELD PRACTICE studding, and no wooden lath should be used to cover the portion of the partition in which the hot air pipe is located. (g) Hot air pipes in closets should be double, with a space of at least 1 inch between them on all sides. (h) All hot air furnaces should have at least one register without valve or louvres, to prevent overheating. (I) A register located over a brick furnace should be supported by a brick shaft built up from the cover of the hot-air chamber; said shaft should be lined with a metal pipe, and no woodwork should be within 2 inches of the outer face of the shaft. (j) A register box placed in the floor over a portable furnace should have an open space around it of not less than 4 inches on all sides, and be sup- ported by an incombustible border. (k) Hot air registers placed in any woodwork or combustible floors should be surrounded with a border of incombustible material, not less than 2 inches wide, securely set in place. (1) Register boxes should be of metal and be double; the distance between the two should be not less than 1 inch; or they may be single if covered with asbestos not less than i/g inch in thickness, and if all woodwork within 2 inches be covered with tin. (m) All steam mains, radiators and steam pipes should be installed and main- tained as outlined under Section ** Steam Mains and Steam Pipes," 5. DUCTLESS HEATING AND VENTILATING AND DRY CLOSET SYSTEMS. These systems were formerly frequently found in connection with schoolhouses, churches and institutions, and consisted of a system of hot air heating and ventilation, which permitted hot air to pass through spaces between floors and ceilings, through partitions and through other hidden spaces. Heat was delivered from furnaces into brick heating flues or chambers, and from there permitted to circulate through the spaces above named. Many fires of an extensive nature were due to this system. Where found, effort should be made to have it replaced by a modern heating method. The "dry closet" system is also equally or more dangerous. This refers to a method of using direct fire in disposing of refuse and renovating large toilet closets. In inspecting schools and institutions, inspectors should be on the lookout for these antiquated systems. 6. GAS (NATURAL) FLOOR HEATERS. This type of heater will be found in many localities. It is a device constructed of metal set in the floor, the burners being FIELD PRACTICE 53 attached and suspended under the floor. These heaters are usually found on the first floor of buildings. The heat is deliv- ered through a floor register directly above the drum of the heater. The open gas flame is visible through the register. These devices are a poor and dangerous makeshift for a sub- stantial heater or gas stove, and should be condemned. A serious danger to life in connection therewith is the absence of any flue to carry off burnt fumes and gases. 7. STEAM MAINS AND STEAM PIPES. (a) Pipes conveying main supply of steam should be wrapped with magnesia or asbestos covering, and where passing through wood partitions should have a clear space of at least one inch. Steampipe covering should preferably be carried in a single piece through floors and partitions. (b) It is advisable to examine covering, which may be done with a penknife. Very often it will be found that a cheap covering of combustible material has been substituted. (c) Steam mains should not rest on combustible material; should have metal hangers to support them, and the outer covering should be fastened to pipe with brass bands. (d) Steam heating pipes should rest on metal hangers or supports, and where passing through combustible floors or partitions should have at least a one-half inch air space from combustible material and a metal collar or thimble. (e) Steam radiators and steam pipes must not be used as receptacles on which to dry rags, clothes, or other combustible material. (f ) Where radiators are placed in window recesses, or concealed spaces, care should be taken to see that such places have a non-combustible lining, and ample air circulation. These enclosures should be cleaned and kept free from dust. (g) All steam pipes should be so installed that they cannot come in contact with combustible material of any character. 8. AUTOGENOUS WELDING. All installations of Oxy-Acetylene Heating and Welding apparatus should strictly conform to published standard regula- tions governing the same. The follov^^ing observations of existing installations should be made : — (a) Acetylene gas machines should be of approved type, and installed outside of main building. (b) Acetylene gas storage tanks should be of approved design, and must not be charged to a service pressure in excess of 250 pounds per square inch at a temperature of 70 degrees Fahr. Tanks in excess of one day's supply should not be kept inside of main building. 54 FIELD PRACTICE (c) Chemicals used in oxygen generation should be limited to not more than one day's supply inside of main buildings; if mixed on the premises, mixing should be done in iron drums and extreme care used to prevent spilling. (d) Oxygen generators should be located outside of main buildings. (e) Oxygen storage tanks should be of approved design, provided with some practicable means of automatically relieving excessive pressure due to fire or other cause, and limited to not more than one day's supply inside of main building. (f) The storage and handling of Calcium Carbide to be in accordance with published Standard regulations. 9. CORE OVENS. These should be installed, in all respects, as outlined under "Fixed Furnaces," grading "Low." This applies to large core ovens of the brick type, and large metal ovens. Portable metal ovens should rest on legs of metal, not less than 12 inches high, unless upon non-combustible floor. (a) All interior racks or stands must be of metal construction. (b) The storage of patterns, flasks or follow-boards must not be permitted on or about these ovens. 10. FORGES. Forges should be constructed and installed in accordance with rules governing "Fixed Furnaces," grading "Low." All fixed coal forges should have substantial flues, be properly hooded, and where exposed to woodwork, or in rooms where there is combustible material, be provided with metal shields. Portable metal coal or coke forges should have metal ash pan, suspended not less than 8 inches above floor. Floor under anvils and drop hammers should be of incom- bustible material. Forges must be regarded as devices having open flames, and should not be permitted in rooms where there is woodworking, painting, finishing, or handling of volatiles. 1 1. CUPOLAS. The modern foundry Cupola should be so arranged that it constitutes an iron or fireproof wing or section of building in which it is located, with respect to roof, charging floor, and side walls. This relates as well to the construction and arrangement FIELD PRACTICE ;>» of casting floor and dump. These devices should be installed in accordance with "Fixed Furnaces," grading "High," outlined herein. Existing cupolas not found in accordance with these requirements should be required to have at least a '24 inch clearance at charging floor and roof with a metal collar intervening and extending at least six inches below all woodwork, if charging floor or roof is of combustible construction. Cupola must extend at least 10 feet above the highest point of any roof of combustible construction within a radius of 50 feet. Roof covering near cupola to be of non-combuslible material. If the charging floor is less than 8 feet above the dump floor, the former should be of fireproof construction. All side walls, partitions and post and col- umn supports to be incombustible to a distance of 10 feet above and 30 feet at sides from any point where metal is handled or manipulated in its heated condition. The main supply of wood, coke, or fuel should not be kept within an expos- ing distance of cupolas. 12. MELTING AND RENDERING KETTLES, ETC. Boiling and heating kettles are of various types. Their hazards depend upon the manner of heating their contents, and the properties of the contents as regards danger of ignition, boiling over, and tendency to produce explosive vapors. Varnish boilers, oil stills, bleachers, agitators and extra hazardous boiling kettles, should be located in separate buildings preferably of fireproof construction, and always so installed that when kettle contents catch fire, as they frequently do, flames will do no damage beyond loss of kettle contents. Brick hearths and chimneys are advised for such purposes. Kettles in excess of two-gallon capacity, if heated by direct fire heat, are considered more hazardous than those heated by steam or electricity, but the increased hazard may be somewhat reduced if the kettle is provided with safeguards to prevent any possible over- flow from endangering other combustible material. If not in a separate building, such kettles should be enclosed in a separate room with floor, ceiling and sides made entirely of incombustible material. Entrance to room from other parts of floor should be protected by a fire door. Sill of door should be raised sufficiently to prevent overflow of heated contents of kettle. In the case of small kettles where the total capacity does not exceed approximately two gallons, direct fire heat may be acceptable if the kettle is fitted with a projecting flange to catch any overflow, or if the kettle is placed in a pan so insulated from 56 FIELD PRACTICE combustible material that the entire contents of the kettle might boil over into the pan and burn therein without danger. Kettles should preferably be heated by steam, hot water, or electricity. Water jacketed kettles heated by properly guarded gas burners may be acceptable when steam is not available. Kettles should be provided with covers having long handles for prompt smothering of flames therein. A supply of wet burlap bags provides a good means of smothering oil or grease fires, and in addition to this a mixture of sand and sawdust in equal parts with addition of about ten per cent of crude bicarbonate of soda, in pails, should be at hand. 13. INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. These devices, used in connection with the industry of poul- try raising, constitute a special hazard. They are sometimes found in domestic or experimental use in the basements of dwell- ings, apartments or stables. Systems which do not require the use of lamps and kerosene oil are considered the least hazardous. These devices are heated in several ways, by coal, hot water, electricity, gas and oil. They all require constant care and should be under supervision while in operation. The same general rules that govern Lighting and Heating Devices should apply in the installation and maintenance of these devices. 14. FRUIT RIPENING. (a) Lamps used for this purpose should have metal bowls, and be suspended overhead by iron supports with ample clearance to combustible material. Constant care should be given lamps. (b) If gas burners are used, same must be placed at least five inches from floor; iron piping to be used throughout; gas jets to be rigidly fixed, and have at least a 36-inch clear space overhead. Burner to be at least twelve inches from combustible material in other directions. (c) The use of gasoline stoves or torches for this purpose should be prohibited. (d) Sulphur pots for sulphuring dry fruits should be arranged so that the con- tents will not boil over and drop upon combustible material. A non- combustible floor is recommended. (e) No hay, straw, excelsior, nor like combustible material should be kept in the room. Keep such materials in metal or fireproof bins or rooms. (f) Rooms of this nature should be constructed as nearly as possible of incom- bustible materials. FIELD PRACTICE 67 15. BLEACHING. Sodium peroxide, sodium dioxide, barium dioxide (or by whatever term known) and sulphur, in excess of one day's supply, should be stored outside of main building. Sulphur pots must be so constructed that if the sulphur boils over it cannot drop upon combustible material. In broom corn factories metal hoods and shields should be provided to prevent corn from falling into or against the pots. Bleaching room should be outside of main building. Where found in main building, room should be constructed of incom- bustible material, properly cut off, and well ventilated to the outside. 16. GRAIN BLEACHERS. These devices should be of brick, concrete or other fireproof construction, or, if of cribbed construction, to be protected on the outside by brick, concrete, metal or other incombustible material. To be at least twenty-five feet from frame elevators, but may be set not closer than six feet to a brick or fireproof elevator, provided there are no unprotected openings in elevator wall within twenty-five feet of bleacher. To be connected to the elevator above and below by metal spouts, properly cut off by two automatic valves in each spout. (a) All conveyors to be of metal screw type in metal or concrete casing; no com- bustible material to be used between bleacher and elevator. (b) Sulphur burning furnace to be set at least twenty-five feet distant from bleacher in the direction away from the elevator; to be of fireproof con- struction; to be unenclosed, except by an enclosure of fireproof con- struction. (c) When necessary to set furnace closer to bleacher than above specified, it may be done provided the fume pipe is not less than twenty-five feet in length. 17. JAPAN AND ENAMELING OVENS. These devices contribute a serious explosion hazard. This hazard may be measured largely by the degree of heat required, the ingredients of the mixture used as regards volatile proper- ties, and the manner of heating and ventilating the oven. These ovens should be located in an outside building, or a 68 FIELD PRACTICE building designed for the purpose, cut off from main structures. Such buildings should be of incombustible material and well ventilated. To reduce the danger, especially to loss of life, from explosion, the safest method is to provide, in addition to necessary vents to the open air, a self-releasing roof or ceiling trap at oven, which in the event of an explosion will permit the force of the same to escape. Ovens constructed of brick and located inside of main build- ing should be installed in accordance with rules for "Fixed Fur- naces," grading "Low." Special attention should be given the matter of ventilation and construction of doors thereto. Ovens constructed of metal, regardless of location, should have double walls, the space between to be not less than li inches and be filled with vitrified cellular asbestos boards or other equally efficient insulation which will not settle. Their installation should conform to rules for "Fixed Furnaces," grading "Low." (a) Small metal lacquering ovens resting- on legs, and requiring but a low tem- perature (as is usually found), if on combustible floor, the floor directly under oven should be protected with a layer of four-inch hollow tile or its equivalent. These ovens should be ventilated and be at least eight feet from combustible material. Ovens of this type heated by direct fire, require ample ventilation. (b) Heating by direct fire in the oven is extra-hazardous. Owing to the nature of the thinner used in japan and enamel, the vapor thrown off in the drying process is liable to ignition (an explosion resulting) where an open flame is used. This danger can be reduced only by providing good ventilation. (c) Where steam or electricity will not answer, and direct fire heat is used, the most modern arrangement provides for the separation of the fire chamber from the baking department, by means of a tight incombustible partition. This is of special importance, and the oven should invariably be so devised that there will be no flame in the baking compartment, d) Each oven should ha ve a ventilating pipe of not less than No. 22 U. S. gauge metal, run as directly as possible to the outside air. (e) Ovens of 200 cubic feet capacity or less should have a ventilating pipe not less than eight inches in diameter. (f) Ovens having a greater capacity than 200 cubic feet should have twenty square inches of vent pipe for each 100 cubic feet capacity. (g) Each vent pipe should be provided with a damper. The damper and doors to oven should be arranged so that the opening of the door or doors will open the damper. One or more hinged relief covers should be provided in the top of the oven, as previously suggested. (h) Ovens should be provided with steam jets, installed in accordance with recommendations under item *' Steam Jets." FIELD PRACTICE 59 (i) All material before being placed in ovens to be baked should remain in the open for a period long enough for excessive coating and drippings of japan mixture to drain ofT", drippings to be caught in metal receptacles or to drain into dip tank. (J) In instances of japanning on a large scale in main building, the room should be of fireproof construction, preferably located on top floor of building with ventilation in the roof and at the floor line, communication to room to be protected with an approved fire door, and oven doors to be of No. 12 or No. 14 U. S. gauge metal, with proper angle iron reinforcements and standard fastenings and appliances for holding door closed. If possible, door should be made self-closing. (k) In instances of japanning on a small or moderate scale in main building, the same should be done in a room having vapor-tight Incombustible walls, ceiling and floor, with ventilation at the floor level and overhead to the outside air. (1) Rooms in which japanning is done should be free from other occupancy or storage. Dip tanks should not be located in these rooms, nor should there be any oils or coating mixture present therein. (m) The ovens should be kept free from accumulations of gummy drippings. (n) Special inquiry should be made as to the maximum temperature required in each instance, and a greater temperature should not be maintained. (o) Inquiry should also be made as to the materials composing the japanning mixture. {See also Dip Tanks.) 18. DRY ROOMS. Rooms used for drying purposes, in which heat of higher than ordinary temperature is required, should be especially designed and constructed to confine the hazard therein. Where not in a separate building, so constructed, nor other- wise cut-off from main building, the walls, ceilings and floors of dry rooms should be constructed of incombustible material ; fire doors of the vertical shaft type should protect openings into such room. If metal is used on metal framing, the sheet metal should be not less than No. 16 U. S. gauge in thickness, and be riveted to angle iron or equivalent frames. The floor of the dry room should be at least 4 inches thick of incombustible material. Re- gardless of the degree of temperature required, whether low or high, wood or wood-lined rooms are not recommended. Heat should be steam, hot water, or hot air, with pipes located preferably overhead or at sides. If not overhead, pipes should be shielded so as to maintain at least 2 inches clearance from combustible material. 60 FIELD PRACTICE Direct heating devices, having an open flame, are more hazardous than steam or hot water. The increased hazard there- from may be reduced if the source of heat is protected on the floor by at least a 4-inch base of incombustible material, and a substantial wire screen, or other guard, is placed at least 18 inches above, and 12 inches from the sides. Dry rooms should have ventilation to the outside of the building. A vent pipe, if necessary, should be made of not less than No. 22 U. S. gauge metal with lapped seams and riveted joints, run as directly as possible to the outside, and provided with a suitable hood or shield. The pipe should be at least 6 inches from combustible material. Dry rooms should be provided with automatic sprinklers having a constant source of water or steam supply installed as per recommendations under ''Steam Jets." Care should be taken to keep dry rooms clean and free from dust and accumulation of foreign material. Small Caul Boxes, dry and heating boxes or enclosures should be similarly constructed of metal, and racks and hangers therein should be of metal. Steam pipes may constitute the bottom of same, if pipes are protected by metal screens to pre- vent material from coming directly in contact with same. {See Section No. 19, lumber drying' and dry kilns.) 19. LUMBER DRYING AND DRY KILNS. A common (and special) hazard found in connection with Woodworking establishments is the Dry Kiln, an enclosure used for seasoning or drying lumber by means of artificial heat. {For further details see refort of this Associatiofi on Lumber and Lumber Drying.) A medium to high temperature is usually required. The common method of heating is by steam pipes, the heat therefrom being circulated in various ways to perform the necessary seasoning functions. Another method of convey- ing heat is by locating steam coils at the end of the kiln, or in a separate chamber, and delivering, by means of a forced draft, hot air from the coils through the lumber piles. These methods of heating dry rooms, particularly the latter, have never been recognized as safe measures, and have resulted in many fires. FIELD PRACTICK 61 The more recent method of drying lumber and cut stock by use of the so-called "Moist Air Kiln" is much superior to the methods heretofore in common use. The new dryer shows a marked reduction in the fire hazard, and such superiority in quality of lumber over that produced by the older types of dry rooms as to make its general introduction a necessity to a modern Woodworking plant. The common type of steam heated Dry Room is said to have an average fire life of but a little over five years. With the increased use of the new kilns, a general reduction in fire losses in Woodworking factories will result. In general, the distin- guishing feature of the new dryers is the manipulation of moist air in drying the lumber. The moisture facilitates and improves the process by keeping the pores at the outer surface of the wood open, thereby allowing the sap and moisture deep within the wood to escape. The features which lessen the danger from fire in the use of the new moist air kilns are as follows : — (1) Superior design and construction, both as regards the building and the manner of supporting the steam pipes and trucks. (2) Cleanliness, due to the ample space below the steam pipes, preventing their contact with wood waste and providing easy access for removing accumula- tion of chips and other refuse. (3) A continuous circulation of very moist air in place of the baking process of some kilns, or the strong draft used in the blower kilns. This prevents an accumulation of heat above the normal. There appears to be no carboniza- tion of the woodwork inside the new kiln. (4) The large capacity of output of the new kilns enables a given plant to operate with less space devoted to dry rooms than in the older systems. Although the hazard of lumber drying may be considered as minimized where a good type of the moist air kiln is used, the usual precautions should be taken against fire, such as the in- stallation of automatic sprinklers, hand hose or chemical extin- guishers at the receiving door, etc. The replacing of old style dry kilns by the new ones should be encouraged. Wooden construction should be discouraged, and location inside the main building permitted only where abso- lutely necessary. All types of dry kilns should be of fireproof construction. They should preferably be detached from main building and from lumber yards. Where located in connection with main buildings 62 FIELD PRACTICE dry kilns introduce a serious hazard regardless of type of construction. Important features to observe aside from the construction of dry kilns, are ventilation, circulation, cleanliness, safe arrange- ment of steam coils, proper cut-offs to communications therein, and means of fire extinguishment. Automatic sprinklers con- stitute the best protection. 20. STEAM CHESTS AND BENDING. These use moist heat or steam for bending, sweating and sizing wood. Where steam is used there is very little hazard in connection with these devices. There are instances, however, where the source of heat is inside the compartment, supplied by gas, coal oil lamp, gasoline, etc. Under such conditions, if permitted at all, these devices should be treated similarly to recommendations for Dry Rooms. 21. COFFEE AND PEANUT ROASTERS. These devices are usually found in main building of plants, and should be installed as outlined under "Fixed Furnaces," grading ''Low." (a) Especial attention should be given the matter of ventilation, mounting, clear- ance, and construction of flues. (b) Chaff and scale from roasters should be drawn off by a metal blow pipe system of as short length as possible, said material to be blown outside of building and into an incombustible receptacle. Automatic dampers should be provided at all blower outlets. All chutes and hoppers should be of metal, with metal cover at outlets. (c) Cooling pans should be provided for coffee and peanut roasters. They should be constructed of metal and have metal blow pipes attached to them. (d) Especial attention should be given to the handling and disposition of fuel and ashes. 22. SMOKE HOUSES. Smoke houses of an extensive nature for curing meat and fish should be built of brick or similar material, having a non- combustible roof, floor, and interior framing, racks, hangers and treads of iron. FIELD PRACTICE 68 Smoke houses preferably should be detached from main building, but where communicating therewith all openings should be provided with standard metal doors. Communication to firing pit at base should be similarly protected. Adjoining smoke houses should extend above the roof of main building, unless a fire wall intervenes or roof of main building is of fireproof construction. Small smoke houses for retail butchers may be located on the first or main floor of building, and should have 12-inch brick walls, or equivalent, and roof of brick arch, tile or concrete. Foundation should be of solid non-combustible material. Flue to have 8-inch brick walls. Portable metal smoke houses should preferably be placed outside of building. Where located inside, walls to be double of at least No. 20 gauge metal, space between metal to be not less than li inch and filled with asbestos (vitrified cellular form) : smoke pipe to be of not less than No. 16 gauge metal, all joints riveted and connected to 8-inch brick chimney. Clearance and mounting to be as designated under Fixed Furnaces, grading "Medium." Racks and hangers to be of metal. Smoke houses should have an iron shield placed at least 3 feet above fire. It is advisable to provide automatic sprinklers or a steam jet in smoke houses, where steam is available. 7. COMMONLY FOUND MISCELLANEOUS HAZARDS 1. DIP TANKS. In connection with japan and enameling ovens will also be found the dip tank hazard. (a) These tanks should be of metal, limited to the smallest size practicable for the purpose required. They should rest either upon an incombustible floor, or a floor covered with metal so as to be readily cleaned, (b) They should have metal tops or covers which should always be in place when the tanks are not in use, covers preferably to be automatic closing. Covers may be permanently attached to ends of tank, arranged to operate automatically by means of fusible links and counterbalance weights. (c) Dip tanks should be provided with an overflow pipe and metal drip boards, so that excessive liquid may flow into catch drain. The drain pipe should 64 FIELD PRACTICE be near the bottom of all tanks, and contents of tank should be drawn oflf at night and returned to oil house or vault. (d) Dip tanks should be located in a room used exclusively for dipping purposes, preferably detached or properly cut off above grade with no basement below. Not to exceed one day's supply of oils and mixtures should be kept therein. (e) Dipping rooms of an extensive nature should be in a detached building, or properly cut off from main building, room preferably to be fireproof or of incombustible finish. (f) There should be no open lights nor flame in room in which dipping is carried on. Electric lights should have vapor-proof globes, keyless sockets; switches to be outside of room. Steam heating is advised. (g) Dipping room should be well ventilated to the open air. Special inquiry should be made as to the mixtures comprising the dipping fluid, and place of storage of main supply. (h) An ample supply of pails of sand, chemical extinguishers, and blankets should be at hand. A mixture of sawdust and bicarbonate of soda should be available in pails. Steam jets or automatic sprinklers are also advisable. (i) New installations should be installed in accordance with requirements out- lined in special pamphlet. 2. PLATING. Plating should be separated from other processes. (a) The handling of acids and other fluids should receive careful attention and be stored and handled so as to avoid spilling. (b) Concentrated acids, particularly nitric, are hazardous when brought in con- tact with wood, excelsior, paper, or cellulose products. (C) Dynamo and wiring must be properly installed. (d) Steam heated " sawdust " dry boxes should be of metal construction. (See Chemicals, Paints and Oils.) 3. BLOWER SYSTEMS FOR HEATING, VENTILATING, STOCK AND REFUSE CONVEYING. These systems are essential and often an economic necessity. They should be properly constructed and installed in order that the hazard created by them may be reduced to a minimum. All new installations should be in accordance with published standards, and existing systems should be improved to conform therewith as far as possible. Blower systems are installed principally for the purpose of automatically carrying off explosive and inflammable material through conveyors to a point of safety. They may be found in FIELD PRACTICE G5 connection with woodworking, tlour, cereal, malt and other mills; Sanders, polishing and buffing wheels ; coffee and peanut roasters, large cooking ranges; and machinery and devices producing refuse, dust, lint, shavings, and high inflammables. Blower systems are also commonly used in connection with heating, ventilating and stock conveying. In many instances they extend over large areas, through floors, partitions and division and fire walls. They should invariably constitute a separate and distinct system, designed solely to serve the function for which they are provided. All ducts should be run as direct as possible, avoiding all unnecessary penetration of fire or division walls, floors, partitions or concealed spaces. Extensive blower systems are common for heating and ventil- ating. In these systems, automatic dampers or stops are necessary where ducts pass through cut-off walls, floors or partitions. Stock conveyors should also have such dampers or stops. Refuse conveying systems perform the function of carrying combustible and explosive refuse or dust to a point of safety, and their construction and installation must be adequate to successfully accomplish this. The following are important features to be considered in blower systems : — (a) Ducts should be of metal where practicable. The connections to machinery and to vault or terminal should be examined. (b) See if all parts of the fan, cyclone, separator and motive power are accessible. Note the arrangement of journals and bearings. The fan room should be constructed of incombustible material, all doors thereto to be of the self, closing type. (c) Observe if dampers are installed where passing through division walls and floors. (d) Hot pipes where passing through combustible partitions or floors should have proper clearance. Independent floor systems are advised where possible. (e) Rooms, chambers or vaults for receiving materials should be of fire-resistive construction. Ventilation and fire protection should be provided. Auto- matic sprinklers or steam jets are preferable. (f) These devices should be installed and maintained in accordance with standard regulations separately published, in order to adequately and safely perform the service for which they are intended. 4. PICKER AND GARNETTING ROOMS. Unless in detached or cut off buildings Pickers for cotton, wool, moss, hair, excelsior, etc., and nappers, should be in a room used exclusively for that purpose, a window or other out- 66 FIELD PRACTICE side ventilation to be provided. The sides and top of such rooms (if not in fireproof building) should be of incombustible material, such as metal lath and plaster on metal framing, or double sheet metal with hollow space of at least 1^-inch. This space may be filled in with vitrified cellular asbestos or its equivalent. Tile protection or its equivalent maj also be used. Floors to be made of 2-inch tile or cement, or their equivalent. Any communication into main section of building should have a substantial self-closing door equivalent to the construction of the sides of the room; any openings for stock spouts, etc., to have automatic dampers or traps. (a) Such rooms should be equipped with automatic sprinklers. Where sprinklers cannot be provided, but steam is obtainable, a live steam jet should be in- stalled therein, the same to be in accordance with recommendations under Steam Jets. (b) Where the main section of building is not provided with sprinklers, it is not a difficult matter to provide sprinklers in rooms of this character. (c) A chemical fire extinguisher should be kept outside of door leading to the room, (d) Machinery bearings must be kept clean and free from dust and accumula- tions, and no other combustible material should be stored therein. Room should be cleaned daily. (e) There should be no open light nor flame in room. 5. BUFFING WHEELS. Buffing or polishing wheels, emery wheels, etc., create a dust explosion hazard, the material usually being of a highly in- flammable nature. (a) They should be located in a room designed for that purpose and all wood- work and combustible finish therein flashed with metal. (b) These devices should be connected to a metal blow pipe system discharging into tight metal receptacles or fireproof enclosures located outside of building. If used in connection with celluloid they should discharge into water. Lint and dust therefrom should never be discharged into a furnace. In small shops, inside vaults built of boiler plate, with tight fitting boiler plate covers and having outside ventilation, are good substitutes. (See pamphlet on Blower Systems.) (c) Buffing rooms should be well ventilated to the outside air, and there should be no open flame light therein. The room should be lighted by electricity with globes provided with screens, keyless sockets and switches outside of room, (d) All shafting should be kept free from accumulations of lint and dust. FIELD PRACTICE 07 (e) Hoods at intakes must be of sufficient size to accommodate tlie size of stock worked, in order to prevent choking and to insure constant operation of conveyor system. (f) Where this hazard is extensive, a detached or cut off section should be pro- vided for its exclusive occupancy. (g) Chemical extinguishers should be provided in buffing rooms. 6. CLEANING MACHINERY. Cleaning machinery should vent outside or to a good dust- collecting system, and be provided with magnets and explosion vent or relief valve. 7. CORN SHELLERS. These should have dust pipes attached, venting to the outside. Open lights and flames should be kept at least 20 feet distant from the location of these devices. 8. DRIP CUPS AND PANS. (a) Metal drip pans should be provided under all machines using oil, to catch drippings, metal borings, shavings, etc. (b) Metal borings or shavings in which oil is used should never be deposited in wooden receptacles, but should be conveyed outside of building and stored in metal cans or on an incombustible floor. (See Spontaneous Ignition.) (c) The contents of all drip pans should be removed from the building each night in metal receptacles. (d) Metal drip cups should also be installed under all shaft bearings, including elevator machinery suspended from ceiling. (e) In all instances oil and grease should be prevented from coming in contact with floors and walls by the use of metal pans or cups. (See Care and Maintenance.) (f) Where substitutes will serve the purpose, oil should not be used for cutting, drilling, etc. 9. TESTING BY GASOLINE. Testing by gasoline or other volatiles should be conducted in an isolated building. (a) Where it is found necessary to test inside of main buildings, rooms should be protected as specified for Japan and Enameling Ovens, and Dipping Rooms. (b) Open receptacles containing gasoline should never be used in main rooms for cleaning machinery, or for dipping parts of stock. ( See also Chemi- cals, Paints and Oils.) 68 FIELD PRACTICE lO. MIXING AND COMPOUNDING. The mixing and compounding of chemicals, volatiles and explosives, with other matter, is regarded as extra-hazardous, and these processes should invariably be conducted with extreme care. (See also Chemicals^ Paints and Oils.) Separate buildings should be selected for this process. Where conducted inside of main building, a well cut-off section, of incom- bustible finish, should be provided. Such enclosures should be well ventilated to the open air, should be free from direct fire heat and should be lighted by approved electrical installation with vapor-proof globes, keyless sockets, and with switches outside of room. Volatiles and other oils should be pumped to room through an approved piping system, with shut-off valves. No gravity nor air pressure systems to be permitted (unless by special arrangement). Excess quantities of volatiles and mixtures should be kept outside of building. Chemical extinguishers, sand pails, burlap, sawdust and bicarbonate of soda constitute good means of hand fire extin- guishment in rooms of this occupancy. 1 1 . EXPLOSIVES AND FIRE WORKS. These products should invariably be handled as required by State law or City Ordinance, and as specified under condition of fire insurance policy, if insurance is carried on the property affected. 12. FIXED AMMUNITION. Should be limited to the smallest amount possible, and if not kept on grade floor should be in a room enclosed by wire netting (1-4 inch mesh) supported by iron or heavy wooden supports. All employees and the fire department headquarters should invariably be advised of the location and extent of fixed ammu- nition. A conspicuous sign should be posted designating its location. 13. EGG CANDLING. Should be done by electric lamps, wiring installation to be standard. FIELD PRACTICE dd The storage of excelsior and case pads in egg candling rooms should not be encouraged. 14. ASHES. CUTTINGS, CLIPPINGS, ETC. See Care and Maintenance. 15. WORKMEN'S CLOTHES. See Care and Maintenance. 1 6. OILY WASTE AND WASTE CANS. See Care and Maintenance, and Drip Cups and Pans. Ill POWER HAZARDS 1. Steam Boilers. 2. Electric Power — Electric Motors. 3. Gas and Gasoline Engines. 4. Fuel Oil under Boilers and Furnaces, and for Do- mestic Use. 5. Refrigeration. FIELD PRACTICE 78 POWER HAZARDS The location and arrangement of the equipment furnishing power should receive especial consideration. Continuous operation of machinery is dependent upon the power plant, the disablement of which, either by fire or other means, entails delays and incon- venience. It is therefore of great importance that the power plant be so installed that it may not be rendered inoperative by fire. (See Steam Boilers under Fire Protection.) Motive power is obtained from numerous sources: Steam, dependent upon boilers ; steam, transmitted from a central station ; electricity, generated on the premises or transmitted from a central station ; gas and gasoline engines on the premises. The common fuels used for generating motive power are Coal, Gas, Gasoline and Fuel Oil. In many instances Coke and Wood are used. Where possible, a detached building of fireproof construction throughout should be provided for power and heating equipment, to be used exclusively for the same. Where space will not permit of this the best substitute is a fireproof compartment for housing the power equipment, properly cut off from building or buildings constituting the main structure. Where this is not possible, the following methods of installation and maintenance should be followed. 1. STEAM BOILERS These should be installed in accordance with recommendations for Fixed Furnaces, grading " Medium." Where not in a fireproof building, their setting, mounting and clearance should be in strict conformity therewith. This also applies to the arrangement and clearance of breeching, stacks and chimneys. It is preferable to have the Engine Room in a separate compartment. In the proper maintenance of boiler and engine rooms, the following features should receive attention : — (a) Examine setting of boiler or boilers, and clearance at sides and top. This applies to boiler, breeching and stack. (b) Fuel should not be stored against boiler walls or in wood enclosures. Cer- tain fuels are liable to self-ignition. 74\ FIELD PRACTICE (c) Ashes should not be stored nor dumped upon a combustible floor. If not conveyed from furnace by a conveyor system to outside dump, ashes should be placed in metal barrels and removed from boiler room daily. (d) Boilers and engines should be under the supervision of licensed men, and should receive customary State inspection. Boilers should be cleaned at proper intervals, should never be permitted to carry too low water level, nor should they be filled with cold water while in a heated state. (e) Boiler and engine room should be occupied exclusively for power purposes and be free from unnecessary storage of combustibles, refuse or oils. Daily supply of oils necessary in engine room should be kept in metal cans, with metal drip pans. (f) Top of boilers should not be used for the storage or drying of combustible material, such as lumber, workmen's clothes or odds and ends. (g) If floor of engine room is of wood, it should be kept free from oil and grease, and metal drip pans provided where necessary, (h) Where it is necessary to protect ceiling or roof above boilers, asbestos and sheet metal should be provided in such a way as to follow the contour thereof and thus leave no concealed spaces between joists. In lieu of this, conditions may permit flue, etc., to be insulated with two to four inches magnesia lagging or equivalent, leaving the ceiling open for inspection. (See Furnaces and Stacks. ) 1. STEAM BOILER EXPLOSION PRECAUTIONS. Steam boilers are subject to explosion, which is frequently the result of deterioration through neglect, or the lack of careful exam- ination before starting fires after a period of inaction. While expert inspection is desirable, intelligent care and under- standing of these devices are possible to everyone. Boilers out of commission in summer should be overhauled at the time they are shut down, to insure proper operative condition when fires are again started. Thorough examination and certified test by a com- petent boiler inspector is advocated. The following points should receive consideration : — (a) Before filling boiler with water, every accessible part of it, both internally and externally, should be thoroughly cleaned. (b) Take down smokepipe and remove soot from it; in case of tubular or flue boilers, clean out the tubes or flues. When replaced, examine the joints, making sure of their tightness, giving attention also to supports. (c) Examine brick work of setting; see that external surface of boiler is clean and in good repair; and remove all soot, dust and ashes from grates, etc. (d) See that gauge-cocks and connections to water column are clear of sediment and are operative— if necessary, temporarily remove them to determine this. After replacing, frequently operate gauge-cocks. (e) Examine feed valve, ascertaining if any parts of boiler show corrosion or pitting and, if so, cleanse and dry the metal ; if necessary, scrape and brush it, painting the affected parts with red lead and oil, allowing same to dry thoroughly — then clean with hose stream. FIELD PRACTICE 75 (f) In filling: boiler, leave a vent open somewhere for escape of air. If boiler is to be filled only to working level, open the upper gauge-cock, but if it is to be completely filled ease safety valve from its seat, or leave some other opening at or near top of boiler to prevent trapping of air in upper part of boiler. (g) When feasible, safety valve should be tested by hydrostatic pressure before boiler is placed in service to see that it operates at the pressure for which it is supposed to be set. (h) Look over boiler accessories and attachments. Raise safety valve from its seat and if it does not operate freely, see at once that the trouble is cor- rected before firing. Examine diaphragm of automatic damper regulator, seeing that it is positively operative. If not, replace it with a new one. See that diaphragm connections and dampers work smoothly and easily. (I) Run fire low at start, increasing slowly- :ht around same, and if its capacity of enclosure is sufficient to hold the entire oil contents. (p) Air pressure and gravity feed systems from main supply tank or tanks should be discouraged. Either a direct pumping system or auxiliary g-ravity supply tanks of a small capacity are preferable methods for sup- plying oil to burners. (q) Observe if sfcindpipes or auxiliary tanks, if used, exceed the required capacity of ten gallons each, for manufacturing use. Note their construction, and if they are equipped with an overflow pipe so arranged that the oil will automatically drain back to main supply tank immediately upon closing down of pump. (r) A card giving complete instructions regarding care and operation of system should be permanently placed in a conspicuous location. A competent man should be in charge to superintend system. 5. REFRIGERATION. While recognized generally as a special hazard, refrigeration equipments have now become common, and are found in many wholesale and retail commercial establishments, as well as in manufacturing plants. Their hazards should be understood and installations guarded accordingly. While sometimes located in a separate building or section cut off from main building, as it should be, this equipment will be often found in main building. Brine circulation and the direct expansion ammonia system are the two processes used in refrigeration. The latter process is considered the more hazardous, and the following features should be closely observed : — Ammonia as a Refrigerating Medium. (a) Ammonia gas charged with vaporized oil is explosive when mixed with air. Refrigerating plants should, therefore, be located in rooms cut off in a standard manner from boiler rooms, electric generating plants, etc., or rooms in which any open fires or lights may be present. No lighting, other thanjncandescent electric lamps, and no stoves, forges, torches, nor other open fires should be allowed in the refrigerating machinery room. (b) Escaping ammonia interferes seriously with the work of the firemen, due to its suffocating effects. Brine circulation in cold storage rooms is, there- fore, preferable to direct expansion of ammonia. The use of cold air ducts and power-driven fans in cold storage rooms is also objectionable, unless provision is made for automatic closing dampers in ducts and for stopping of fans. 82 FIELD PRACTICE (c) Ammonia containers (steel drums or cylinders) should be kept in cold tem- peratures, and where they are not likely to be exposed to a fire in the plant. (d) Cojnpression System : Compressors discharge ammonia normally at a pres- sure of 125 to 170 pounds; abnormally high pressure in cylinder, due to derangement of machinery or back flow of liquid, may cause a break permitting vaporized oil and ammonia to escape. (e) Steam or water power is preferred for operating compressors, to electricity, gas or oil power. Automatic stop devices for compressors, however, are available for all kinds of power, and where electric power is used, are simple and reliable. (f) Relief valves should be provided in cylinder heads of compressors, and should preferably be made to discharge outside of building. (g) Injection of oil to cylinders for cooling purposes is not considered desirable. (Water-cooled cylinders are generally used.) Note. — It is suggested that automatic check valves be provided in dis- charge and suction pipes to prevent escape of entire charge of ammonia in the event of accident to compressor. Ammonia compressors should not be used in connection with air testing of piping wherein ammonia has been previously used, (h) Breakage of glass gauges on oil traps or liquid ammonia receivers may permit vapors to escape, consequently, outside blow-off valve should be provided on condensers for the discharge of non-condensable gases or air when necessary. The cocks on glass gauges at oil traps and liquid receivers should be kept closed except for inspection from time to time when necessary; gauges should be fitted with automatic ball stops. Carbon Dioxide as a Refrigerating- Medium. (a) High pressure (1,000 pounds), as used in these systems, increases the danger of explosions or breaks. (b) The hazard from vaporized oil in the compressor is also probably increased, owing to greater quantity used and high pressure at which these systems are operated. (c) Practically the same safeguards should be provided as suggested for ammonia systems. Escaping carbon dioxide gas is, however, not so injurious as ammonia gas. IV CHEMICALS, PAINTS AND OILS 1. Chemicals. 2. Chemicals that are Rendered Hazardous if Influ- enced by Water or Moisture. 3. Sulphur and Phosphorus. 4. Nitrates and Chlorates. 5. Picric Acid. 6. Nitro-Cellulose or Soluble Gun-Cotton. 7. Experimental Work. 8. Inflammable Volatiles. 9. Storage and Handling of Inflammable Volatiles — Gasoline, etc. 10. Paints and Oils — Paint Stock. 11. Lacquers. 12. Paint and Oil Stock Room Precautions. FIELD PRACTICE 86 HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS. PAINTS. OILS AND INFLAMMABLE VOLATILES Various chemicals, as well as paints and oils, are liable to be found in most manufacturing, and in some mercantile properties. Some chemicals possess hazards inherent in themselves, while others are hazardous only when in contact with substances with which they will readily combine. It is important, therefore, that where chemicals of any kind are used, their nature should be ascertained, and the manner in which they are kept or stored should be investigated ; also the way in which they are handled in actual use. Stocks of white lead, zinc and colors ground in oil do not possess any special hazards, except that being combustible, they will burn freely if heated to their ignition temperature. The handling and use of paints do, however, present serious hazards, if materials such as rags, paper, sawdust, etc., which have absorbed them, are not promptly removed or destroyed. Some mixed paints and many varnishes contain inflammable volatiles, and where these are prepared or used, special precau- tions are necessary as regards open lights or fires. 1. CHEMICALS (a) Carboys of strong- acids should if possible be stored outside. If inside, they should be in a well drained and well ventilated room, as the liberated fumes from broken carboys, or fumes caused by the action of acids on other materials, not only retard the work of extinguishing a fire, but may be fatal to life. Nitric acid is especially dangerous in this respect. (b) The surroundings of carboys containing nitric or sulphuric acid should be kept free from combustible material such as straw, hay, shavings, paper, etc., as the leaking acid from a broken carboy coming into contact there- with would result in heating and possible ignition. For this reason, nitric acid carboys are now packed in cork chips instead of hay. Where strong acids are used from carboys, some form of rocking devices, such as are now on the market, should be used, as they minimize the danger of breakage. It is also recommended that under each carboy should be placed a shallow lead-lined tray or pan having a capacity some- what in excess of the carboy. 86 FIELD PRACTICK (c) Burlap used for securing- the stoppers in carboys containing strong nitric acid sliould be destroyed when removed, for it is easily ignited if acted upon by the acid. "When storing strong ammonia, or anhydrous ammonia, it should be remem- bered that their fumes, while not inflammable, seriously interfere with the work of the firemen. 2. CHEMICALS THAT ARE RENDERED HAZARDOUS IF INFLUENCED BY WATER OR MOISTURE Lime, sodium peroxide and zinc dust, if moderately moistened with water, may evolve sufficient heat to ignite com- bustible material in contact with them. Lime should be stored in a dry location, preferably above ground level. Sodium peroxide, found in straw works and some woolen mills, usually comes packed in 10 pound screw top cans and should be kept where not exposed to moisture or corrosion. It should be carefully prevented from coming into contact with any combustible material while being used, for if slightly mois- tened, fire is likely to ensue and the heat evolved is intense. When sodium peroxide is dissolved in water, the heat is absorbed by the water without danger. Zinc dust, found in dye works, sherardizing works and laboratories, if moistened or acted upon by acid solutions, may evolve heat so rapidly as to ignite combustible material and its presence in zinc oxide probably accounts for some fires, reported as due to zinc oxide. Calcium carbide generates acetylene gas if moistened and should be stored and used according to regulations given in separately published pamphlet. Metallic sodium and potassium, found in wholesale drug and chemical houses and laboratories, oxidize so rapidly that they must be kept immersed in a petroleum oil such as kero- sene, and the bottles containing same should rest in an outer receptacle and be protected against breakage, as a fire may ensue if contents are moistened. 3. SULPHUR AND PHOSPHORUS Sulphur, if kept from contact with fire or certain chemicals, is comparatively harmless. It ignites at the rather low tem- FIELD PRACTICE 87 perature of 480 degrees Fahr., and a relatively small spark may cause ignition, which may escape detection for some time. In drug rooms of dye works and mills, in pharmaceutical works and all plants where oxidizing agents, such as potassium or sodium chlorates or nitrates are kept or used, great care should be observed that these substances do not come into con- tact with sulphur (as for example, by allowing spilled material to remain upon the floor), as the mixture may ignite or explode by rolling a truck over, or by walking upon it. Yellow phosphorus is not commonly met with, but may be found in wholesale drug and chemical houses and in laboratories. It is kept under water in glass bottles which should be enclosed in tin cases. In laboratories, it may be found in apparatus used for gas analysis, in which case this type of enclosure is impossible. It should be remembered that this material becomes hazardous if the water is allowed to freeze. Red phosphorus is harmless as regards friction, is not hazardous unless highly heated or brought into contact with flame or some oxidizing agent. 4. NITRATES AND CHLORATES Sodium and potassium chlorates and nitrates, while not in- flammable, are a serious hazard. When heated, they evolve oxygen and increase the intensity of a fire. Nitrates, found in chemical and fertilizer works, should be stored in non-combustible bins, such as brick or concrete. As nitrates absorb moisture from the air, wooden bins containing this material finally become impregnated with the salt, are con- sequently easily ignited, and ensuing combustion is intensely rapid. Nitrates are usually shipped in burlap bags, which should be emptied as soon as received and the bags burned or thoroughly washed. Partial washing and drying may render the bags more readily combustible than those unwashed. Sodium and potassium chlorates are usually packed in 100 pound wooden kegs, either as crystals or powder. These sub- stances, when used in chemical works, are generally well cared for. They may be found in dye and print works, in some 88 FIELD PRACTICE hosiery mills, and in pharmaceutical works, in the making of tablets. Chlorates in contact with organic matter, some dyes and other materials, either under pressure or at an elevated tempera- ture, are liable to cause explosion or fire, and wherever they are used care should be taken to keep floors clean and free from spilled or waste chlorates, as friction may cause ignition. Although medicinal tablets of pure potassium chlorate are harmless, tablets containing sugar, tannic acid and various medicinal components with the chlorates, are liable to explode while in the tablet machine and are hazardous. Chlorates, if used in any considerable quantity, should be stored outside and brought in as needed. 5. PICRIC ACID Picric acid and sodium and potassium picrates may be found in dye rooms of silk mills and in leather finishing plants, making colored leather. Picric acid, a yellow crystalline powder, although a tri-nitro compound, if heated or ignited usually burns without explosion. If, however, it is heated in contact with metallic oxides or even lime, explosion will occur, and the shock occasioned thereby is likely to explode any quantity of picric acid nearby. In contact with oxidizing agents, such as potassium chlorate, it will explode by percussion. In using this substance it should be remembered that while in a dry state its mixture with other substances may be dangerous. Sodium and ammonium picrates are explosive if heated and potassium picrate explodes by either heat or percussion. These salts are easily made by mixing solutions of picric acid with the alkaline carbonates, and may be made at the works where used. In such cases if the product is used in dilute solu- tions, instead of being dried, the hazard will be slight. 6. NITRO-CELLULOSE OR SOLURLE GUN-COTTON Soluble nitro-cotton may be found in pharmaceutical works, for making collodion, in artificial leather plants, for coating cotton cloth, in those metal working plants where FIELD PRACTICE 89 lacquer is made on the premises, and in fuse and cut-out plants for indicators on cartridge fuses. In some plants it is received dissolved in a solvent, in which case the compound is no more hazardous than the solvent. In others, it comes dry packed in paper bags or cartons. The dry nitro-cotton found in trade is often liable to spontaneous decomposition and should be stored outside, brought in as needed and at once put into solution. Dry nitro-cotton is also found in photo-engraving and pub- lishing plants, where half-tone work is done, being used for wet plate photography, when dissolved in ether. Only a minimum quantity should be kept inside. Only chemicals of recognized hazards have been considered. It would be impracticable to consider, in this manual, all possible, though perhaps remote chemical hazards, — as for example, the almost innumerable dyes now on the market and being increased each year. Some contain nitrogen and oxygen and if mixed with certain chemicals in a dry condition would be hazardous. Under ordinary conditions of use they are safe. 7. EXPERIMENTAL WORK Many explosives are easily produced from single sub- tances. Iodine and strong ammonia form nitrogen iodide. This compound when dry is easily exploded by a comparatively slight rise in temperature or by the slightest friction. Nitrogen chloride, one of the most dangerous explosives, which contact even with turpentine, grease, alcohol, etc., will explode, is produced when chlorine gas acts upon ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) or when an electric current is passed through a saturated solution of this salt. An acid solution of nitrate of mercury poured into alcohol forms the powerful explosive, mercury fulminate, used for primers and detonators. Similarly an acid solution of silver nitrate forms silver ful- minate, a still more powerful explosive. It should be remembered therefore that the experimental mixing of two or more chemicals may be hazardous and that experiments attempted by others than experienced chemists should be with minimum quantities and in a location where the damage would be minimized should fire or explosion ensue. 90 FIELD PRACTICE 8. INFLAMMABLE VOLATILES The relative hazards of inflammable volatiles are usually determined by their flash points. The flash point of a substance is the temperature at which sufficient vapor is generated to cause it to flash or explode, without igniting the liquid, when a small flame or spark is brought into contact therewith. The burning or fire point is somewhat higher, and is that temperature at which the vapor, when ignited, will continue to burn. The following list comprises the more common inflammable volatiles with their approximate flash points and the density of their vapor as compared with air. Flash Point. Vapor Density Compared with Air. (Air = 1. Example. — Acetone, Density of Acetone ao'—se- F. Vapor twice that of Air.) 2 Alcohol, 61°" 1.6 Alcohol (Wood) 35'— bO' " 1.1 Alcohol (Denatured) 55"" 1.4 Amyl Acetate, 65»-70» " 4.6 Benzole 14'" 2.9 to 3. Columbian Spirits, 44°" 1.1 Carbon Disulphide, —29° " 1.5 Collodion, 40° or lower. Ether, —29° F. 2.6 Gasoline, —4'"' 2.9 to 3. Naphtha, » 3.6 approx. Petroleum Ether, " 2.5 Turpentine, 96° F, , or lower. 5. Lacquer, 75° F. to OF . or below. The term Benzene or Benzine has been omitted from above list in order to prevent confusion between the coal tar and petroleum products. The term benzene, properly speaking, refers to the pure coal tar product, not commonly found. Benzole, which is a coal tar product, contains benzene in vary- ing amounts. The word benzene, however, is commonly applied to various pretroleum products whose characteristics would be covered under the terms Naphtha or Gasoline. FIELD PRACTICE 91 9. STORAGE AND HANDLING OF INFLAM- MABLE VOLATILES — GASOLINE, ETC. In handling and storing these dangerous substances, the fol- lowing should be observed: — (a) Gasoline, naphtha and other fluids which emit an inflammable vapor below the temperature of 100 degrees Fahr. should be stored outside all build- ings in steel tanks buried underground, or otherwise isolated, in accord- ance with standard regulations, (b) In printing and similar establishments any of the volatile fluids herein described maybe used in an approved safety can or cans with combined capacity not exceeding five (5) gallons. When not in actual use they should be kept outside of building on a metal shelf securely fastened to the wall but not directly in front of a window; the shelf should be pro- vided with a guard rail so that the can cannot be readily dislodged by accident.* (c) The use of fire escapes for storage of inflammable fluids or other materials is mischievous, and in many states is prohibited by law. *NoTE. — A box of sheet iron or other incombustible material is recom- mended as a protection against weather, and a convenient method of putting the supply under lock and key; the box will also fulfill the requirement for a guard. Small openings to be provided near top and bottom of box for ventilation. (Also see Dwelling House Hazards.") 10. PAINTS AND OILS — PAINT STOCK The hazards attending a paint stock room are: First, spon- taneous ignition, due to carelessness in not removing and destroying all inflammable material, such as rags, waste, saw- dust, etc., which have become impregnated with paint or oil. Second, danger of vapor ignition if inflammable volatiles are present or used as solvents in processes of manufacture. All paints and paint oils should be considered hazardous as regards spontaneous ignition, if fibrous combustible material be impregnated with them. The flash point of turpentine is above 80 degrees Fahr., and paints mixed with linseed oil and turpentine are safe, as regards flash ignition, at room temperature. Various turpentine substitutes have flash points from 32 degrees Fahr. up. Paint in which a low flash point compound is used is a hazard if flame or an open light be brought near the containing vessel or a freshly painted surface. Many ready mixed paints, especially of cheaper grades, have a low flash point. 92 FIELD PRACTICE Varnishes are of two kinds, so-called turpentine varnishes and alcohol or spirit varnishes. All spirit varnishes present a flash hazard, and so do many of the so-called turpentine varnishes, owing to the inflammable solvents used. 11. LACQUERS Lacquers are of two kinds, alcohol shellac lacquers, having a flash point above that of the alcohol or other solvent in them, and the amyl acetate lacquers, consisting of soluble nitro-cotton, dissolved in amyl acetate (so-called banana oil) and other solvents. Some of these lacquers may contain 50 per cent of low flash point solvent, the odor of which is completely masked by the amyl acetate. All lacquers, unless known to have a high flash point, should be considered hazardous, and only a minimum quantity allowed outside the stock room or vault. 12. PAINT AND OIL STOCK ROOM PRECAUTIONS (a) A well ventilated fireproof vault, if possible, should be provided for paint storage, and where this is not feasible, the room used for this purpose should have a concrete floor and be well ventilated both at the floor level and overhead. (b) Oils, thinners and solvents should always be kept in metal tanks or cans, which preferably will not permit of gravity feed. (c) Metal drip pans should be placed under all faucets and be frequently and systematically cleaned. (d) When an absorbent is necessary, sand should be used and immediately disposed of. Never use sawdust. (e) All benches should have metal or metal covered tops and these should be kept thoroughly cleaned. (f) Paint and oil drippings should be removed daily. (g) Employees' clothing should be kept in well ventilated metal lockers, located elsewhere than in stock room. (h) No open lights nor portable oil lamps should be used. Rules of the National Electrical Code covering the installation of electric lights where inflammable vapors are present should be strictly adhered to. (i) Dry lampblack of any kind should be kept in metal cans or barrels provided with metal covers. V SPONTANEOUS IGNITION AND DUST EXPLOSIONS 1. Spontaneous Ignition. 2. Dust Explosions. 3. Goal Dust. 4. Other £!xplosive Dusts. 5. Metallic PoM^ders. 6. Smoke Explosions. FIELD PRACTICE 95 1. SPONTANEOUS IGNITION. The phenomenon of spontaneous ignition has been the sub- ject of exhaustive study for many years, and is still one of exceeding interest from the frequency with which it occurs, and from the fact that there is apparently so little general knowledge of the conditions favorable to its occurrence. If the origin of fire is not clearly apparent, the cause is usually assigned to spontaneous combustion, without any particular effort being made to ascertain if this assumption is correct, or it is said to be unknown, while full knowledge of the conditions existing prior to the occurrence would show that very simple precautions would probably have removed the danger. In the more hazardous processes of manufacture, conducted by experts, the dangers are recognized and safeguarded, but the unskilled, careless and indifferent are responsible for enormous losses that can, in great measure, be easily prevented by under- standing a few simple principles. Therefore, it is not the intention to cover all possible chem- ical combinations that will produce fire experimentally; the manufacturing works chemist being aware of the peculiar qual- ities of the substances in hand will naturally exercise care in restricting dangerous chemicals to small quantities, and his experiments are usually conducted in such a manner that acci- dental fire in the laboratory can do no serious damage. It is rather the intention to enumerate in a general way those combina- tions of substances more commonly found in vapious industries. Spontaneous ignition of vegetable, animal and metallic sub- stances may be defined as follows :— "Ignition by the internal development of heat without the action of an external agent." The action is as follows: Porous substances absorb air, oxidation raises the temperature, which in turn accelerates the oxidation with increasing rapidity until fire ensues. The low conducting power of porous substances greatly facilitates com- bustion, by preventing the dissipation of the heat generated. "Oxidation always produces heat, but most frequently in such small quantities that it is imperceptible. Nevertheless, however slight the heat evolved in the oxidation of a substance 96 FIELD PRACTICE may be, if confined it will usually in time raise the temperature of the substance undergoing oxidation to the point of ignition, resulting in fire. Chemically, therefore, a fire may be described as oxidation at a temperature at or above the point of ignition of the oxidized substance; also as a phenomenon, due to com- bustion or oxidation of a substance, evolving heat and light." Moisture is a factor in nearly every known case of sponta- neous ignition. The constituents of organic bodies are few in number: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen form all the combina- tions peculiar to organic substances. In addition to these, how- ever, sulphur, phosphorus and iron sometimes occur in small quantities in organic products. Carbon is always found in organic bodies, and is the only constant element. Oxygen is the most widely diffused and important of the elements; it forms over one fifth of the atmosphere; eight ninths of all water, and probably one third of the earth's crust. It has also the widest range of affinity of known substances, this action of combining being known as oxidation, and by its immediate agency combustion and life are alone sustained. Oxygen is the principal supporter of combustion, and all ordinary combustion is the combination of the oxygen of the air with the burning substance. Wood subjected to direct contact with fire is quickly con- sumed, its carbon and hydrogen combine with the oxygen of the air forming carbonic acid gas, water, and unconsumed gases which pass off in smoke, and there remains but a small quantity of ash. Wood exposed to moisture in the presence of air decays or "dry rots," which is exactly the same process except that the com- bustion is much slower; and a log of wood may require many years for complete consumption. On the other hand, wood has been preserved for many centuries in the dry climate of Egypt. The amount of heat generated is precisely the same in slow as in rapid combustion of equal quantities of material, but in slow combustion it is unnoticeable. Another form of slow combustion is the rusting of metals, principally iron, which in the form of fine borings, filings and turnings exposed to the elements in large quantities will cause a decided rise in temperature through oxidation. FIELD PRACTICE 97 Another example of slow combustion, for the purpose of illustration, is that of respiration, the fuel being the non- nitrogenized substances, as starch and sugar, consumed as part of the sustenance of animals, the amount of heat produced being the same as would be set free by burning. Therefore ordinary combustion, decay and respiration are chemical processes, ditifering only in the rapidity and completeness with which they occur, and the products of combustion, decay and respiration are chiefly carbonic acid gas, water and ammonia. Various substances have an affinity for oxygen to a greater or smaller degree, and the chemical action is therefore more rapid in some mixtures than in others. !No -vegetable oil -^vill cause spontaneons ignition unless it has the property of dryinil by- reason of absorbing oxygen, and no animal oil ^vill cause spontaneous ignition unless it has the property of becoming rancid. The danger of causing fire is directly proportionate to the degree that an oil may have either the one or the other of these properties. Mineral oils in their liquid state have no affinity for oxygen, and are there- fore less hazardous than veg-etable oils, but it is well to bear in mind that ** Oiled everything is dangerous,** and that moisture promotes spon- taneous ignition. 1 . PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED. It is obvious that prevention of fire among many substances, some of which are listed below, requires constant and careful supervision on the part of those in authority, and by inspectors. (a) As to their storage and use. (b) To safeguard the storage of ra^v materials that in combination >v^ith others •will cause chemical action. (c) To exercise the utmost care in giving proper attention to partly finished and unfinished stocks, hazardous in themselves, as their values increase in proportion as the products approach completion, >v^ith corresponding increase in losses that may occur through damage by fire and M^ater. 2. SUBSTANCES SUBJECT THERETO. (Items marked with asterisk (*) if combined with mineral oil may not ignite spontaneously, but are rendered more inflammable.) Among the many substances subject to spontaneous ignition, the following will be more commonly found in general manu- facturing and storage properties. 98 FIELD PRACTICE Agricultural products, such as hay, straw, clover (damp, tightly packed and unventilated). Aniline black (oxidizing processes). Artificial manures, fertilizers (damp and oily). Barley (damp, heats and chars). *Bone black (with oils or fats, moisture). Blacking (with rags, fibres, etc.). Briquettes (coal, with organic material as a binder). Bituminous coal — in large piles, due to the presence of sulphur (pyrites), mois- ture and lack of sufficient ventilation. Many cargoes of coal have been destroyed from these causes. Broom corn (tightly packed). Buffing wheels (oily, with moisture and polishing materials, refuse from wheels). Carbides (damp or wet). ♦Carbon black (with oil, moisture). Card strippings (in textile mills, excepting cotton mills). Cat-tail rushes (damp, oily). Cellulose — woody fibre, in insoluble part of vegetable products, cotton, paper, etc. (oily, with moisture), identical in composition with starch and dextrin. Charcoal (with moisture) — it has the property of absorbing gases to a most remarkable degree at common temperatures, this is illustrated by its absorption of odors, and by its use as a filtering medium. Recently- heated charcoal will soon take up many times its own volume of air. Steam heat drives out the moisture and resinous substances from wood which is then left in condition to absorb oxygen. Any steam pipe, no matter how low the pressure of steam, will in time char wood, and char- coal produced at a low temperature will have a low ignition point. The temperature of steam is very high at low pressure, viz. : 15 lbs.^250° F.; 50 lbs .=298" F.; and 100 lbs.=338'' F., therefore carbonization taks place where least expected. When cooled, charred wood will absorb oxygen more readily than if kept heated continuously. The N. F. P. A, Quarterly of January, 1911, gives fifty well authenticated cases of fire from the charring of wood and other substances. Even the fireless cooker has been responsible for fires caused by continued heating of the packing material, sawdust, excelsior, hay, etc., and the presence of moisture and grease from cooking. Powdered charcoal is especially susceptible to spontaneous ignition with moisture, vegetable oils, etc. Chrome tanned leather buffings. *Clothing, overalls, aprons — (oily). Cloths (polishing). Clover — see hay. Coal — see Bituminous. *Cocoa fibre (with oil and moisture). Colophony (resin, if powdered). Colors — dry (some, with moisture or oils). Cordage oil on hemp — rope and twine stock. Cork dust, ground cork with oil, ground cork in bags. FIELD PRACTICE 99 Cork carpet— see linoleum. Corn from distilleries — (spent). ♦Cotton, cotton waste (oily). Cotton seed, hulls, press cloths. ♦Cotton linters (oily). Desiccating oils (drying). ♦Dust, wood, cork, buffing — (with vegetable oils, organic dyes, acids). Dry colors (some, with moisture and oils). Dryers, lacquers (with fibrous material). Dyed piece goods (especially blacks, cottons, silks, mixed yarns, tightly rolled or packed). Dye woods (chipped or ground). Essential oils (with fibrous material). Fertilizers (artificial, moist). ♦Fibrous materials (with oils, acids). Fibres in bales — various. Fish scrap (with moisture). Flax, flax seed meal (with moisture). Fleshings — refuse from beam houses, tanneries. Floor oiling and polishing rags. Garbage tankage (with moisture and grease). Grain — green or improperly dried (with pressure, oil from bearings). Grass — (tightly packed without ventilation). '• Grey Cloth," in calico print works (fermentation of sizing materials). Hay — (with moisture and improperly ventilated). Hemp, in bales, hemp combings (moisture). Hops (packed damp) . Inky cloths used in wiping rollers, engraved plates, etc., in printing and lith- ographing establishments. Iron filings, borings and turnings. (with oil and moisture.) Jute. Kapok — fibre used in pillows, also in life preservers owing to its buoyancy. Lacquers (with rags and waste). ♦Lampblack (with fats, oils, sulphur, moisture). Lard oil (saponifying). Leather scrapings from cutting boards. Leather shavings used in tumbling barrels. Leatherboard scrap. Lime — (with water, slacking quicklime). Linoleum — in drying and storage. It is usually necessary to provide arti- ficial heat in drying the products of oil cloth and linoleum factories, but occasionally the oxidation of the material is so rapid that no heat is required, particularly so with cork carpet which is a form of floor cover- ing similar to linoleum but heavier and coarser in its general makeup. These products are suspended in close vertical folds or festoons in high buildings as they are run direct from the calendering rolls, which dis- tribute the cork and oxidized oil mixtures upon the burlap backings. Small particles of the coating mixtures are disengaged from the spongy mass and lodge in the lower folds of the material, where heat is some- 100 FIELD PRACTICE times generated so rapidly that the employees are required to examine the lower folds every few minutes and sweep out all loose material found therein. The folds or vertical pieces of material coming in contact will also heat sufficiently to ignite. Linseed oil (with lampblack, cotton, cotton waste, rags, fibrous materials, sawdust, etc.) Linseed oil oxidized on cheese cloth. Lithographs in large piles. Malt — spent, imperfectly dried, malt culms. Metallic powders — bronze, aluminum, magnesium, zinc (with moisture). Nitre (saltpetre) bags, washed and dried. Nitro-cellulose compounds. Nitro and sulphur compounds. Oils, dryers (with fibrous material). Oil cake meal. Oil cloth, floor and table, in piles. Oiled clothing, cuttings from. Oily rags, waste, polishing cloths, dropped in barrels of lampblack, sawdust, dry colors, etc. Painted cloth, canvas, curtains (oil paints). Paper mill stock, oily rags, rope, bagging, straw. Powdered charcoal (with oil, moisture). Press cloths (with Fuller's earth). Pyrites — sulphide of iron. Pyroxylin plastics— nitro-cellulose products. Red oil — (oleic acid, saponified for use on wool stock). Resins (powdered). Rosin oil (with carbon black, etc.). Rubbing rags (oily). Saltpetre (nitre) bags. ♦Sawdust (with vegetable oils, organic dyes, acids, as an absorbent of oils, drippings, etc., used in cuspidors). Silks, black-dyed, weighted or loaded, tightly rolled or packed. Sodium peroxide, with water and fibrous substances. Spanish black foily with moisture). Steampipes — see charcoal. Straw — tightly packed, without ventilation. Sulphur — Black-dyed yarns, etc. (with moisture). Sulphur (with chlorates, lampblack, charcoal). Superphosphates. Tan (ground bark, with moisture). Tankage, garbage. Tobacco leaves, imperfectly " ordered " or dried. *Tow (oily with moisture). ♦Waste (oily, unclean) . Wool, " green," freshly sheared (baled with foreign material, moisture). ♦Zinc, white (with oil). FIELD PRACTICtt 101 2. DUST EXPLOSIONS It is not the purpose here to enlarge upbn *th.^ ciange»-F. of v-ell known high explosives such as nitro-compounds, fulminates, etc.^ but to call attention to the many apparently simple and harm- less substances in which danger is hidden until some entirely unexpected circumstance may cause a succession of events resulting in disaster. Numerous organic substpnces, made up chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, such as alfalfa, bran, celluloid, chaff, charcoal, coal, cork, cottonj'dextrin, feather, flock, flour, grain, lampblack, leather, lycopodium, malt, naphthalene, paper, resins, starch, sugar, sulphur, tan, tow, wood or wool dust; or in fact any kind of combustible dust will explode with violence under favorable conditions, when mixed with the proper proportion of air and ignited by a flame or spark. "The chief reason for this ready inflammability of dust is the occlusion of atmospheric air or other gases, by the minute particles of dust, which act like an absorbent sponge. Laden with gas or vapor these dust particles form a highly inflammable material, which ignites with great rapidity, forming an atmosphere of hydro-carbons and carbon monoxide that furnishes with the remaining air an explosive mixture, which is ignited and exploded by the flame of the burning dust. Consequently, dust explosions occur in two stages, the ignition of the dust particles, and the explosion of the resulting and ready formed gaseous products. These phases follow in such rapid succession as to form practically one operation. Pure metallic dust of various kinds may also explode without the presence of any gas besides air. Both organic and metallic dusts become far more explosive when mixed with substances liberating oxygen." Explosions may be remote from open lights or fires, the presence of open chutes, stairways and elevator shafts allowing clouds of dust to fill all intervening spaces, with the result of a flash-back to the source of dust production. " An atmosphere of dust may be in contact with a flame without explosion, because the precise conditions are not present; but the moment they arrive the flames shoot through the mass with ever-increasing energy, and explosion follows." The infrequency of explosions with the different substances or dusts mentioned is chiefly due to the absence at times of the conditions necessary to produce an explosion. The inflammable substance must be in a very finely divided state ; the diffusion of dust must be complete within a circumscribed area; there must 102 FIELD PRACTICE be an dfts^i^ce o'f "excessive' humiditj, and there must be direct contact between the explosive mixture and a flame, or a spark ci' sufRc;i!ent; Jrite-nsiiy, to ignite t\\e mass. ,'' In' S^rTn'kli&red 'bui'ldings 'conditions favorable to an explo- sion may be partly nullified by the opportune opening of sprinklers, which furnish an excess of moisture tending to cool the atmosphere of dust below the point of ignition. Dust from fibres dyed with certain chemicals which absorb oxygen is much more hazardous than that from the raw stock ; thus the combustibility of a fibre increases directly with the affinity it has for the oxygen of the air. With the exception of coal, flour and starch, wood dust is probably produced in larger quantities and by a greater number of processes than any other organic dust, and at the same time it is handled more carelessly than any other dust. The necessity of its rapid removal to avoid congestion around machinery often makes its safe disposal a difficult problem, involving large outlay for dust collecting systems which in themselves are often responsible for fires and explosions that occur through friction of neglected and improperly lubricated fan bearings. The breakdown of dust collecting machinery has been the indirect cause of explosions with loss of life, resulting from efforts to dispose of dust and shavings by direct hand firing while the collecting system was inoperative. Wood dust explosions have been caused by dislodging masses of shavings and dust from projections in the walls of vaults, and the clouds of dust becom- ing ignited by open lights or furnace fires nearby. The dust from sandpapering machines being naturally very fine and dry, and as it is produced rapidly in large quantities, must necessarily be conducted to some receptacle by a blower system, and therein lies the danger of thorough diffusion with an abundance of air extremely favorable to rapid combustion. The proper disposal of dust, of any description, is direct from the machine by which it is produced through well con- structed smooth metal piping or conduits and exhaust fan, to a ventilated and screened centrifugal dust collector, preferably above the roof of building, and thence to the proper receptacle, storage vault or furnace as required by the nature of the material. FIELD PRACTICE 103 3. COAL DUST The frequency with which disastrous explosions with great loss of life have occurred in mines, has caused the United States Bureau of Mines to make an exhaustive study of the conditions which lead up to mine explosions, and the methods of prevent- ing them. It seeks to determine what explosives can be used with least risk in mines where gas or inflammable dust may be found. In mines, stone dust is stored on shelves at sides. In case of a coal dust explosion this stone dust is disturbed and dilutes the inflammable (coal) dust. (Government methods). In the ordinary process of breaking down masses of bituminous coal, large quantities of dust are produced and this is often ignited by unsafe lamps, and by the explosives used in mining. Coal dust explosions also occur in the coal grinding mills of cement plants, where the dust is used as fuel in the rotary kiln. 4. OTHER EXPLOSIVE DUSTS Grinding, sifting and barreling powdered sugar in the presence of open gas lights caused an explosion in a Philadel- phia refinery on August 20, 1891. A large number of empty barrels lined with tissue paper were standing about, and the paper was ignited in nearly all. Forty-seven sprinklers were opened by the intense heat. Another sugar dust explosion occurred in a Philadelphia re- fined sugar warehouse on February 27, 1914, caused by worn bearings in a grinding mill, which allowed the mill discs to come in contact, striking fire. Thirteen sprinklers were opened on this occasion. The March, 1914, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Philadel- phia, cites a case of paper dust explosion in Lille, France, May, 1913, in a factory where the edges of rolls of paper were being ground smooth. In modern magazine binderies the edges of the books are trimmed by circular saws or knives, resulting in an immense amount of fine paper dust. This dust is often chuted to the basement waste paper vaults and under favorable conditions would cause an explosion. 104 FIELD PRACTICE Dust explosions are not uncommon in grain elevators, starch, flour and cereal mills. A disastrous grain or flour dust explosion occurred in the Husted Mills, Buffalo, on June 24, 1913, which resulted in a loss of over 30 lives. Bark and buffing mills in tanneries ; dusters and rag cutters in paper mills; bolting reels in starch factories; starch shakers and sifters in candy factories; malt mills, alfalfa mills; cork mills; wheat and other cereal cleaning machines, buffing and polishing wheels, etc., are sources of plentiful dust production. However, the escape of flour and sugar dust is a waste of product and these substances are more carefully guarded in modern plants. Dust from the manufacture of celluloid articles is violently explosive, and should be deposited under water. GENERAL FEATURES TO OBSERVE (a) Note the general condition of all dust producing or dust agitat- ing machinery, such as grinding mills, bolting and sifting reels, etc., and enclosure of machinery. Elimination of all spark-producing apparatus should be required. (b) See if magnets are provided in feed to grinding rolls. (c) Note the method of dust and shavings collection and disposal. (d) Observe the construction of storage bins and vaults, vents and out-offs. (e) Note the distance of vault doors from boiler and other fires, open lights, etc. (f) Inquire as to use of matches and smoking by employees. Permit no lighting system other than electric in dust-producing (g) Note place of storage of po^vdered substances affected by moisture. (h) Inquire as to knovrledge of employees in reference to dust and chemical explosion hazards. (i) Dust-producing rooms should be in a ^vell cut-off section, or in a detached building, separate from other processes and occupancies. 5. METALLIC POWDERS 1. BRONZE. When metals or their alloys are reduced to impalpable powder they become readily ignitible. When packed and stored in a perfectly dry state there is little danger in such materials. FIELD TRACTICE 105 but when exposed in a loose condition to the action of air and moisture rapid oxidation proceeds, and the gases given off from these metallic powders are liable to explosion in the presence of carriers of oxygen. Aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc and various alloys of these metals are more commonly found in the form of bronze powders, and the danger of explosion is practically the same with powder from one metal or from two or three metals in combination. 2. FLASHLIGHT. Aluminum and magnesium powders, mixed with chlorate of potash and other carriers of oxygen for intensification, ignite readily, are highly explosive and under certain conditions are extremely hazardous. Six explosions of flash powders, in the process of manu- facture, have occurred in Philadelphia, resulting in the loss of seven lives. Observe if these metallic poM^ders of various kinds are kept in cool, dry places; this applies as >vell to both place of manufacture and place of storage. 6. SMOI^E EXPLOSIONS Distinct from, yet closely allied with, explosions of inflam- mable dust, are explosions caused by the ignition of mixtures of air with the minute particles of unconsumed carbon and invisible gaseous matter, in smoke from the imperfect combustion of organic substances. These "smoke explosions" frequently occur in burning buildings and are commonly termed "back drafts," or "hot air explosions." All fires are subject to "smoke explosions," but these, how- ever, cannot be obviated by efforts of the Inspector. The many instances of record in which fires have occurred from spontaneous origin, and where dust explosions have caused serious damage to buildings and subsequent destruction by fire resulting from explosions, would require too much space for publication herewith. VI CARE AND MAINTENANCE FIELD PRACTICE 109 GENERAL CARE AND MAINTENANCE The care and maintenance of a plant, or the housekeeping, is a feature of tire protection that can be understood hy every- one connected with an establishment, from the lowest to the highest, and it is considered the most important single feature of protection. It therefore deserves most careful attention, and any Manager who does not develop this feature to the utmost is losing a fine opportunity to improve his plant. The Inspector or Engineer examining a plant, or recommending protection features, should not overlook this means of protection, but should take the time to study out and to emphasize to the property owner, or man in charge, the importance of such organization of his workmen as will produce the best results. To accomplish this, a system of inspection by a competent man in the employ of the property owner is recommended. The following points are briefly suggested as a guide for the laying out of such a service, as well as a guide to any inspector, whether official or private. In addition to the special points brought out under this head- ing, it is of course assumed that the preceding and following articles making up this manual will also be consulted by the Inspector. ESSENTIAL POINTS FOR INSPECTOR AND PROPERTY OWNER A system of daily or weekly self-inspection of the plant should be inaugurated, and reports made out on specially pre- pared blanks to be signed by the Inspector and turned in to the man in charge of the plant on the day of inspection. The Inspection Department having jurisdiction, when consulted, will always be glad to advise the property owners as to the form of report blank which will best suit the conditions. The man chosen for this inspection duty should be of good judgment, and preferably a man of some knowledge of mechan- ical appliances. His first duty should be to fully inform himself in regard to all fire appliances forming the protection of the plant, and second he should notify the chief of the plant fire 110 FIELD PRACTICE department or other official under whose jurisdiction it comes whenever anything is found out of place or out of commission, in addition to noting the fact in its proper place on the printed report blank. (a) He should report on the work done by the cleaning force whether the latter is under his charge or not. (b) He should indicate in his report any rooms or sections of the plant which are not given proper attention by the cleaning force, (c) He should see that all rubbish is removed daily, and that all sweepings and other refuse are taken out of the building to some safe place by the cleaners before they leave the works. (d) He should see that the workmen in their daily operations make use of the metal oily waste cans. (e) He should see that all ashes are properly handled and removed from the building, prohibiting the use of any wooden receptacles. (f ) He should make note of and report on any hazardous stock such as chemicals, oils, etc., which are not being handled by the workmen in accordance with the rules of the Company. (g) He should report any instance of smoking or the carrying of other than ♦' safety" matches, which comes under his observation, and see that "No Smoking" signs are in place, (h) He should see that inflammable packing material is carefully handled and properly disposed of, that there may be no surplus exposed after the factory is closed. The inspector should review the watchman's records, and occasionally visit the plant at night to check up his work. The inspector should take the time and trouble to explain to the watchman the use of the fire apparatus to such an extent that the watchman can give the proper alarms and start in motion any of the pumps or other fire appliances which are not absolutely automatic. The watchman should be encouraged to assist the inspector by calling to the inspector's attention any conditions that he may observe during his rounds that would be of interest to the inspector in his work. (a) The inspector should, on each round, examine all fire pails and barrels, re- porting any that are not full or contain foul water or are in danger of freezing. (b) Whenever sand pails are provided as required in painting or oiling depart- ments, the same attention as to cleanliness should be given, and he should also see that the proper scoops are in place for use in distributing sand, (c) The chemical extinguishers should be checked up on each round to see that they are in place. They should be discharged, cleaned and recharged at least once every twelve months, and there should be a tag attached to each extinguisher bearing the date when last recharged and stating by whom. FIELD PRACTICE 111 (d) The inspector should see that all fire doors, shutters or other devices for protecting- openings in walls or floors are in good repair and in good working order. These should be tested at least weekly and all tracks kept clean and moving parts oiled and in easy working order at all times. (e) He should examine the automatic sprinkler system, outside yard hydrant system, inside standpipe system, outside hose houses, hydrants, post indicator valves, ladders, lanterns, etc., to see that everything is in place, in good working order and ready for instant use. (For example, lanterns without wicks, without oil or without means for making a light would be useless.) The inspector should accompany when possible the official inspectors when making their regular observations and tests. He should require that the visiting inspector explain in detail just what is recommended as the best practices by experts. He should co-operate with the insurance representatives and should understand that perfect records at all times do not indicate the best service by the plant inspector, for the reason that no plant can be operated year in and year out without some of the ideal conditions falling more or less below standard, and the failure on the part of the plant inspector to report these conditions when they occur tends to discredit the value of his reports to an intelligent fire protection engineer and to the owner of the property. The inspector and the manager should both interest the department heads in general orderliness and cleanli- ness on the part of the help and should make each depart- ment superintendent responsible for his room or section. If a plant inspector is not employed, the manager or man in charge should make use of these suggestions in making his own personal inspections, but a sys- tematic inspection by a responsible man is essential to effective care and maintenance. It is further recommended that the president, general manager, or some other high official make an occasional inspection of the premises or plant from a fire protection standpoint, that the importance of fire protection and maintenance may be impressed upon the help. 1 . WASTE CANS. Greasy and oily waste is subject to spontaneous ignition. The greatest care should be taken in its disposition. Unless it is immediately burned after using, all waste should be deposited 112 FIELD PRACTICE in standard metal waste cans. The construction of the waste can is of vital importance, and non-standard cans are of but little value. Observe the following: — (a) Note if cans are of approved type and in sound condition, if lid is operative and self-closing-, legs are secure, and handles are in place. (b) Oily waste must not be allowed to remain in cans over night, but should be burned every evening. (c) See that there is an ample number of waste cans provided, and that they are conveniently placed for use of employees. (d) Should it be the practice to reclaim oil from waste and use waste again, see that process is conducted in a fireproof room, or in a well detached building. 2. SAFETY VOLATILE OIL CANS. In establishments where benzine, gasoline, naphtha and other inflammable liquids are used for cleaning or spraying, care should be taken to see that the smallest quantities possible are used, and that the same are handled in approved safety cans especially designed for the purpose. (a) Ascertain for what purpose inflammable liquids may be used, and if a substi- tute not so hazardous could be employed. (b) Find out where cans are stored over night, when they are filled, and where main supply of oil is stored. (c) Do not permit cans to be placed in rooms having open lights or fires. (d) Cans should range in size from one pint to one gallon, should be substan- tially constructed, w^ithout leak, and must have proper working automatic valve outlet. They should be of standard type. (e) In furniture factories, and where finishing is done, benzine or naphtha must not be used by workmen for washing hands. Crude oil or kerosene is a good substitute to remove varnish and filler from the hands where special preparations are not provided. (f) Inflammable liquids are dangerous regardless of the manner in which they are used, and by no means should they be permitted in open pans, pails or other open receptacles. {See also Chemicals, Paints and Oils.) 3. ASH CANS AND REFUSE BARRELS AND RECEPTA- CLES. Extreme care should be given the storage of ashes, cuttings, clippings, rubbish and useless material, and the same promptly removed from premises. Many fires are due to careless handling and storage of refuse and ashes. Wooden boxes or barrels should never be used for temporary disposition of these materi- als. Municipal laws should require the use and maintenance of metal receptacles. FIELD PRACTICE 113 (a) Observe if receptacles used are of standard type, If they are in good condition, provided with handles, cover, and properly flanged at bottom with at least a '^-inch air space between bottom and floor. (b) Sec that an ample number of receptacles is provided, that they are not over- loaded, and are promptly emptied. General removal of this material by the municipality should be urged. It should never be stored on wooden floors. (c) Do not permit ashes to be stacked against combustible partitions, or lie upon combustible floors, after being removed from boilers, stoves or furnaces. 4-. METAL LOCKERS. Substantially constructed and properly ventilated metal lockers for employees' clothes should be a requirement of every establishment. Sanitary measures alone demand this. The old wood closets, lockers and enclosures liable to be used as a catch- all for discarded and greasy garments are things an up-to-date employer will not tolerate. (a) Each employee should have the exclusive use of a metal locker, and should be instructed to use the same, to keep it clean and free from dust and odd material. (b) Lockers should preferably rest on a non-combustible floor, and away from partitions other than brick and should be kept in rooms designed for them. (c) Employees should be cautioned not to place wet garments on steam radiators or registers to dry. They should be hung up so as to admit of air circulation. (d) Employees should be instructed not to leave matches in clothes while in lockers. The use of safety matches should be required. (e) Locker room should have direct circulation to the open air. (f) In painting, varnishing, dipping establishments, etc., working clothes should preferably be kept in lockers located in a room of non-combustible con- struction, properly cut off by a standard fire door, and have ventilation to the outside. /^v NO SMOKING PRECAUTIONS. The custom of smoking tobacco in various forms is uni- versal among men, and one impossible to eliminate. Many fires owe their origin to smoking, and to carelessness in the use of matches, disposal of ashes and burning tobacco. Frequently in industrial plants smoking can be safely per- mitted at noon, in certain quarters, such as locker rooms (with a man on guard), boiler rooms, blacksmith shops, etc. Men will smoke, and if they have a time and place to do so they can be controlled. 114 FIELD PRACTICE ^^Conspicuous signs, bearing the words "No Smoking," should be posted where smoking is hazardous. An employer, to obtain the very best results from his employees, should absolutely prohibit smoking during working hours. t-^^C penalty should be inflicted for violation of such rules, and perhaps a premium given the abstainers. In stores and mercantile establishments warning by means of proper signs should be posted, requesting customers not to smoke on the premises. The employees should be instructed to report to the superintendent or foreman any customers not ob- serving this warning. Merchants would do well to procure the enactment of a local ordinance which would prohibit smoking in mercantile establishments. The inspector should make particular note of the smoking hazard, and should persuade employers to prepare and post signs of this nature, so wording them as to appeal to employees, impressing upon them the fact that "smoking" is a fire hazard, and that carelessness in connection therewith may destroy their means of employment and income. Substantial and conspicu- ously lettered signs, reading something as follows, are recom- mended : — THIS COMPANY POSITIVELY PROHIBITS SMOKING Why? Should this plant burn, employees as well as the Company would be the losers. Em- ployment here would cease. NO SMOKING I Should you see anyone smoking on these premises, you are authorized to notify him that it is against this Company's rules. It is to your interest to help us enforce this rule. FIELD I'RACTICK 115 6. HOLIDAY AND OTHER DISPLAYS AND SAFEGUARDS. The use of Christmas greens, harvest specimens, autumn leaves, dried grasses, etc., either natural or artificial, and other highly inflammable materials, such as scenery, draperies of cheese cloth, cotton bunting, cotton to represent snow, artificial flowers, tissue paper festoons, ornaments, etc., are decidedly objectionable from a fire hazard standpoint; particularly so when these materials are used in conjunction with illuminated signs and other lighting effects in churches, schools, exhibition halls, department stores and other mercantile establishments. Such displays are usually temporary, put up in a hasty manner by persons with no thought nor understanding of possible con- sequences ; and in crowded stores or places of assemblage the danger of panic and loss of life in the event of fire cannot be overestimated. It is impossible to make displays of this character per- fectly safe, even with the decorative materials *' fire- proofed." Artificial flo-w^ers, tissue paper ornaments, etc., extensively used for such purposes, and impregnated •with various chemical substances, can be purchased at slight additional cost above that of ordinary materials. While the decorations so treated -u^ill not readily inflame, they w^ill char w^hen brought into contact >vith open lights, incandescent lamp bulbs, gas arcs, etc., and the charred material -when falling retains sufficient heat to ignite combustibles. (a) Absolutely prohibit the use of candles for illumination of Christmas trees. (b) Special attention is necessary to the general scheme of decoration; see that decorative materials are not arranged in continuous festoons from post to post; require breaks or gaps between series of decorations to prevent rapid spread of fire. (c) See that all decorative effects are clear of gas drops or chandeliers. (d) Require all electric wiring to be in accordance with the National Electrical Code. Observe the particular manner in which all wiring is arranged in connection with illuminated signs, booths, demonstrations of domestic appliances, etc. Pins and tacks driven through lamp cords have caused short circuits, resulting in serious fires. (e) Examine all motors, shafting, wiring, etc., concealed under tables and benches, temporarily used in so-called industrial exhibitions ; such machinery is fre- quently installed without due regard to safety of operation and without proper care in reference to lubrication, disposition of wiping rags, etc. 116 FIELD PRACTICE (f) Motion picture exhibits are to be found in most fairs or bazaars, and the wir- ing of portable outfits is subject to more or less abrasion of insulation through frequent handling, splices are often loosely made and not properly taped, (g) Demonstrations of cooking, pop corn and candy making, glass blowing, gas and gasoline engines, lighting systems, or any exhibit requiring the use of matches and lire should receive careful inspection, particularly so with reference to the supply and use of oils or fuels, and the arrangement of exhaust pipes. (h) Arrange all gas heated apparatus so as to be well removed from walls or in- flammable material. These devices should rest upon an all metal stand or base, and be directly connected up with gas pipe. No rubber nor flexible tubing should be permitted unless in small lengths, well guarded, with cut-off valve at metal pipe only. (i) Discourage the use of light screens, draperies and curtains on small platforms or stages lighted by oil lamps, open gas foot, border or bunch lights. (j) See that all aisles, stairways, passage ways, exits, etc., are free of obstruc- tions, such as chairs, movable counters or tables. (k) Require liberal installation of water pails, chemical extinguishers, fire hose, etc., also NO SMOKING signs in prominent places. vn CHIMNEYS AND FLUES FIELD PRACTICE 119 CHIMNEYS AND FLUES IN DWELLINGS Defective flues are among the most frequent causes of fire. Fires caused by defective flues are preventable. Everybody ought to learn, remember and enforce the main factors contributing to safe flue construction which are designed to make the smoke, flame, heat and gases of combustion go into the open air through the top of the chimney rather than into the building through its sides. Because fires from defective flues start underneath roofs, back of ranges, under hearths, and in other places not in plain view, it does not follow that there is anything hidden or mys- terious about them or anything which cannot be readily under- stood. The following recommendations, read in connection with the accompanying illustrations, will, if understood and observed by the reader, enable him to guard the lives and property of his family against fire from this cause. a. Build all chimneys from the itronnd np. !Noiie of iheir weiilht should be carried by anythinit except their proper foundations. Foundations should be at least twelve inches wider all around than the area of the chimney and be started well below the frost line. No chimney should be started or built upon any floor or beam of wood. When a chimney is to be cut off below, in whole or in part, it should be wholly supported by brick or stone work, or steel construction, properly erected from the ground up. The practice of supporting chimneys or flues on wooden or iron brackets,or iron stirrups, however carefully devised, is hazardous. A small fire around the base from any cause may drop the flue and allow draft for rapid spread of fire. b. Build all chimneys to a point at least three feet above flat roofs, and tw^o feet above the ridge of peak roofs. Under no circumstances should the brick work of the chimney be extended out over the roof by the projection of the course of brick nearest to it. Such a shoulder or overhanging projection will inevitably cause cracks in the chimney in case the chimney settles, the roof in such event lifting the upper portion by means of the overhang, or shoulder, and causing a crack at the most dangerous of all places. The chimney should be carried up of uniform thickness to the top, copper flashing being relied upon to prevent leaks at the joint with the roof. 120 FIELD PRACTICE c. For domestic heating and cooking stoT'es only, chimney avails may be but fonr inches thick if a suitable flue lining of fire clay is provided therein. For the best results ho^v^ever no chimney >v^all should be less than eight inches (t^^o courses of brick) in thickness, and cement mortar only should be used. Chimneys with but four-inch exterior walls are not always satisfactory. They readily crack and are also easily chilled, which causes a bad draft. Where fireplaces are built of stone, the minimum thickness of the wall should be twelve inches. The upper part of chimney walls may be only four inches in thickness, from a point at least six inches above the roof to the top of chimney, provided the chimney be capped with terra cotta, stone or cement, or the bricks be carefully bonded or anchored together. The best coping is a three-inch blue-stone, and it is im- portant to see that the holes cut in the capstone correspond in size with the flues ; otherwise shoulders will be formed and the draft of the flue interfered with. d. The 'w^alls of brick buildings -H^hen not less than thirteen inches in thickness may form part of chimney or flue. In no case should a chimney or flue be corbeled out more than eight inches from the -Mrall, and in all cases the corbeling should consist of at least five courses of brick. Flues in party ^v^alls should not extend beyond the center of said Myalls, and their presence should be permanently indi- cated on both sides of w^alls. e. Build all chimneys large enough to give a separate flue for each fire, using fire clay or terra-cotta tile linings at least one inch in thickness. This is to prevent disintegration of mortar and brick from gas fumes. The fire clay lining is not subject to disintegration by any of the ordinary flue gases. The lining should be put in as the flue is constructed, using great care to see that the joints in same are carefully made. When two or more separate flues are provided in chimney, the division walls between flues may be only four inches in thickness. Two connections to a single flue will result in fire from one communicating to the opening of the other and thousands of fires have originated in this manner. Flues in throat capacity should not be less than eight by eight FIELD PRACTICE 12 1 inches on the inside, and for fireplaces in which wood is to be used they should be eight by twelve inches (or better, twelve inches by twelve inches) in the clear. A good rule is to make the flue size not less than one-tenth the area of the fireplace opening. Green or unseasoned firewood will require a flue of this size to insure a good draft and prevent smoking. The furnace flue should also be not less than eight by twelve inches in any case. Be careful to see that the flues are properly built. Faults cannot be remedied afterward. All flues should be as nearly vertical as possible. Masons are often careless about lining the flue even where the specifications call for it, and are apt to omit it until they get to the straight part of the flue. This makes the flue dangerous at its hottest point, near the fireplace, especially if it be sur- rounded by only four inches of brickwork. Make sure that the flue lining is carried up from the throat of the fireplace. Where flue linings are not provided, be careful to see that all joints are struck smooth on the inside, and that projections of bricks or mortar are not allowed, and also that no parging or plastering of the inside of the flue is permitted under any cir- cumstances. The plastering is liable to fall afterward, under the influence of heat and rain, and not only stop up the flue, but tear out the plaster between the joints of the bricks. The flue lining will prove the cheapest in the end, for it will maintain a smooth throat and thus discourage nest-building by chimney swallows. All flues in every building should be properly cleaned and all rubbish removed, and the flues left smooth on the inside upon the completion of the building. If there is an old chimney in your house and you can feel great heat from the flue by putting your hand on the plaster in a room, then there is probably no lining in the flue and the walls are only four inches thick. Have the chimney examined. It may be that it is dangerous. A little piece of flooring taken up close to the flue will show at once whether or not the beams have been properly trimmed away from it. There are various ways to remove this danger. The beams can be temporarily supported from below, cut off short and a head piece trimmed in so as to remove the proximity of the wood from the flue ; or 122 FIELD PRACTICE the flue itself can be lined. In that case the brick front of the flue must first be cut out. Sometimes it is then impracticable to get a burned clay or terra-cotta lining inside of the old flue be- cause it would reduce the area of the flue too much and seriously impede the draft. In these cases it is common to line the flue with sheet iron pipe with well-locked joints using at least No. 10 gauge metal for the pipe. Such iron pipe can also be more readily placed in an old flue than terra cotta lining. After the lining is in place the brick front face of the flue should be relaid in Portland cement mortar. f. Do not run floor Joists or other -vv^ood^vork into chimneys or flues nor allo^v 'ovood casing, lathing or furring >vithin t^vo inches of chimney breasts. Where the chimney breast over the fireplace or mantel is furred out and finished with lath and plaster, only metal lath should be used. If the mantel is of wood, it should not project far enough to be blistered or ignited. Care should be exercised in its selection. g. All floor timbers should be " trimmed ** clear of the hearths and brick>^ork of the chimney, so as not to be in contact >vith it at any point. This is easily secured by what are known as "header" beams, carried in front of the fireplace and at least twenty inches from the chimney breast, supported by the "trimmer" beams, which enter the wall on each side of the chimney. (See illustration.) These should not approach the side of the chim- ney closer than four inches. The intervening "tail" beams, as they are called, are mortised into the header. Where more than three tail beams are framed into the header, however, it should be supported in iron stirrups by which the weight is carried on the trimmer beams without mortising into them by "tenon and tusk" joints, which sacrifice material and carrying capacity. In this way the floor beams are free of contact with chimney flues. All hearths should be laid on trimmer arches of brick or a re- inforced concrete slab carried across from the chimney breast to the header beam already described, so that the hearth shall not rest upon or near wooden beams in any case. (See illus- tration.) The length of trimmer arches should not be less than FIELD PRACTICE 123 the width of the chimney breasts ; nor their width less than twenty inches measured from the face of the chimney breasts. h. Line fireplaces w^ith fire brick or cast iron. If ash pits are provided, do not pile ivood or rubbish aiiainst their doors in base- ment. Keep free space around them so that ashes can be readily re- moved and also that coals cannot possibly come in contact w^ith com- bustible material. When a heater is placed in a fireplace, the hearth should be the full width of the heater, and the mantels should be non-com- bustible. Fireplaces should never be closed with a wood fire board ; nor should a wood mantel or other woodwork be exposed back of a "summer piece"; the iron work of the latter should be placed against the brick or stone work of the fireplace. i. Be careful of Joints betM>-een stovepipes and flues, and use thimbles and connections in accordance >vith specification and ordi- nances. If a stovepipe is taken down to be cleaned, be sure that it is replaced and safely plastered in position. i rRtMMB:H /T/TIL /r/L HEADER v^ N^ARTH FiREPLfiCe -HEf^DER t 2 T/f/ATMCR ^ A great many fires start at the point where stovepipe enters the flue. Stovepipes must never be allowed to come into con- tact with combustible material. 124 FIELD PRACTICE If a stove should be placed in a room in which there is no smoke-flue, and the stovepipe has to pass through a lath and Sketch showing flues built in wall; the center flue shows the lining pipe. If flue is in a party wall its presence should be indicated on opposite side by a projecting course of brick. (Not shown in this sketch.) plaster or wood partition to connect with one, great care is re- quired to make it safe. Stovepipe should be guarded by a gal- vanized iron thimble having double walls with ventilation through the air space; thimbles to be at least twelve inches larger than the pipes passing through them. If the smoke pipe should be connected to a furnace and heated to a high tempera- ture, then the diameter of the guard-casing should be increased to a suitable size. The stovepipe should not be placed closer than six inches to woodwork, and at this distance it is always well to shield it. In all cases where metal is used to protect wood, there should be an air space between the metal and the woodwork to be protected. J. After remo-ving a stovepipe from a chimney, close the opening vrith a metal flue stop; if the flue connection is left open fire may communicate, and if it is closed by being stuffed full of rags or paper the chances are that it -H'ill communicate. FIELD PRACTICE 125 126 FIELD PRACTICE INSTRUCTIONS FOR REPAIRING OLD CHIMNEYS. Where soft coal is used, it is necessary to rebuild chimney tops every few years. In order to ascertain if chimneys need rebuilding, climb to the top and look down inside. If mortar has fallen out from between the bricks on the inside, it will soon do so all the way through the wall. Take an ice pick or other sharp implement and try to push it through the mortar; if you can do so, rebuild at once, as follows : — Tear it down to a point below the roof, get fire clay tiling of the same size as the inside measurement of the chimney, set it in the top of the flue and build up with good hard brick laid in cement, consisting of t-wo parts of sharp river sand and one part of good Portland cement. Mix and lay quickly before the cement hardens. This will make a solid brick, tile and cement chimney through the roof, where there is most danger, and is the best that can be done unless torn down to the ground and rebuilt, which is quite expensive and seldom necessary. Build the chimney at least three feet above the peak of the roof. Do not under anv circumstances " top off " a chimney with tiling or metal, as they are soon destroyed by the sulphurous acid gas in the coal smoke, and either fall or are blown off, frequently damaging the roof. Build it all the way up with brick, tiling lined, as indicated above. ■ VIII DWELLING HOUSE HAZARDS FIELD PRACTICE 129 DWELLING HOUSE HAZARDS Ho-H^ to Prevent Fires in the Home Fires in the home are easier io prevent than to extinitnish. Unlike factory fires, many of w^hich are due to causes insepar- able from manufacturing, practically every dwellinii house fire is due to carelessness or neitlect. Especial care should be taken in the home to prevent fires from startinit, because when they do start there is seldom a man about io extini^uish them. Where w^omen and de- fenseless children are housed, every human consideration demands the utmost vii^ilance on the part of those responsible for their welfare. If the suilitestions herein are understood and heeded, many a life may be saved and many a home successfully (guarded against destruction by fire. 1. HOUSEKEEPING. The attic, cellar and all closets and outbuildings should be cleaned at least once every year, and all useless material and rubbish removed therefrom and burned. These unnecessary accumulations are dangerous, and are the causes of many fires. Store all remaining material neatly so that a clear passage may be had between or around boxes, cases, barrels, etc. Metal waste baskets only should be used. In storing clothing, first remove all matches or other material from the pockets and then carefully fold and neatly place away. Do not hang clothes where they will be near hot chimneys. Do not go into closets with lighted matches or candles. Care should be exercised in burning leaves, dead grass or rubbish. Keep these fires a safe distance from buildings, and never light them on windy days. Do not bank houses in the winter with straw, excelsior or other readily inflammable material ; a chimney spark or carelessly thrown match may ignite it. Do not permit painters, in repainting, to burn off old paint with torches or flame. This has caused many fires. Carpenters, plumbers and repair men should be requested to use care in handling blow torches, heaters, oils, shavings, etc., in repairing. Call these hazards to their attention. 130 FIELD PRACTICE 2. MATCHES. Use only safety matches, and make it impossible for chil- dren to get them. Always place burned matches in metal recep- tacles, never throw them on the floor or into waste baskets. 3. SMOKING. To smoke in garages, in bed, or around stables containing hay is deliberately to invite disaster. 4. LIGHTING HAZARDS. Swinging gas brackets are dangerous, and never should be allowed near curtains or dressers. Fix them rigidly so as to avoid contact with combustible material. If open gas flames are within three feet of ceiling, see that ceiling is protected by smoke bell suspended above the flame. Tips for gas lights are inexpensive, while a light used with a broken tip or without a tip often causes fire. Don't use pendant gas mantles unless protected underneath with wire gauze. Hot carbon deposits form and drop from mantles of gas arc lamps. A globe closed at the bottom is safer. Examine the gas meter, see that it is securely set and well connected, and is not located near open lights or furnaces. An outside gas shut-off valve to service connection is desirable. Never look for gas leaks with a match, candle or lamp. Where a dwelling is lighted by a gasoline vapor or acetylene gas system the rules governing the safe use of these illuminants should be carefully studied and rigidly observed. Illuminating oils should be kept in closed metal cans in a safe place, and lamps should never be filled except by daylight. Kerosene lamps should be kept clean and properly trimmed and should never be filled when lighted. If allowed to burn all night, select one that contains much more than enough oil. A dirty lamp containing only a little oil is unsafe. Lamps with broad bases are preferable. Care must be taken not to place them near inflammable material, under shelves, nor to set nor leave lamps or lanterns in stables or other places where animals may upset them. Never allow little children to carry lamps, and never set a lamp on a table cover. Children may pull it over. FIELD PRACTICE 181 Do not use paper or decorative shades of inflammable material on lamps or electric light bulbs. Electricity is a hidden hazard, and extends throughout the wire system in a building. Be sure it is safely installed, and have the system carefully inspected and passed upon by a recog- nized electrical inspector. Many fires are due to defective electric wiring. Do not destroy the insulation on electric light, fan or heater wires by hanging them on hooks or nails. Immediately repair or replace any defective switches, fuses, sockets, etc. A fuse is the "safety valve" of an electric system, and should never be replaced by one of larger size or any other material. Before attaching electric irons, vacuum cleaners, cooking utensils or any other electrical device to your lighting circuits or sockets, consult an electrician as to the ability of your wiring to withstand this additional load. Electric wiring systems are designed to carry only a certain current, and if overloaded may cause fires. Numerous fires have been caused by leaving electric irons with the current on. Disconnect them immediately when through using. 5. HEATING HAZARDS. Coal and kindling should preferably be kept within a brick or stone enclosure and not stored against frame partitions nor directly against walls of boiler or furnace rooms. Never put kindling into the oven. Deposit all ashes in metal receptacles or upon non-com- bustible floors, removing same from building at least once a week. Barrels or boxes should not be used for storing or carry- ing ashes unless they are constructed entirely of metal. Before starting fires in the autumn, thoroughly clean out furnace and flues thereto, also fireplaces. Carefully examine them and immediately repair or replace any defective part. Don't burn out chimneys and flues by making an especially hot fire with paper, etc. Main chimneys should be cleaned from roof to cellar, and all stovepipes where entering them provided with metal collar and rigidly fixed in place. Replace any tile, crock or flimsy flues and chimneys with substantial brick chim- neys. Long lengths of metal stovepipe are dangerous. At least 182 FIELD PRACTICE a thirty-six inch clearance is necessary between top and sides of furnace, breeching and flues from ceiling, partitions and other combustible material. Repair at once any broken plaster in ceil- ing or partition walls. Do not have steam pipes in contact with woodwork or near inflammable materials, and do not permit rubbish to accumulate behind steam coils or radiators. Natural gas stoves or other heaters should have a ventilating flue to carry off the burned gas fumes, which are poisonous. Do not use rubber or similar flexible tubing, but connect all gas stoves rigidly and securely to gas pipe. Examine valves and see that they are tight and do not leak. Never permit a stove of any kind to be set up without tile, stone, brick, concrete or metal protection underneath, or near a partition without a metal shield and air space. Never run stovepipes through partitions, without the pro- tection prescribed in Chimneys and Flues, nor paste paper over flue holes. All types of open fireplaces or stoves, especially where there are children, should be provided with substantial spark screens. Don't throw waste paper on an open fire. Every period of extreme cold results in numerous fires due to forcing the heating apparatus. Keep this in mind next winter. Watch your heater. Keep hoods and pipes of kitchen range free from grease and lint by cleaning with hot water and lye. Do not hang clothes or bags near stoves, or on stovepipes or steam pipes. Do not allow your family to jeopardize their lives by pour- ing kerosene onto the kitchen fire to hurry it along. Do not try to start fires in stoves and furnaces or any place else with oil. Any oil that can be of assistance in the starting of fire is dan- gerous for that use. Extreme care should be used with alcohol or kerosene stoves. They should always be filled in the daylight and away from any open flame. 6. GASOLINE AND EXPLOSIVES. Do not use patent cleaning fluids, polish or chemicals unless you know something about them. Many of these contain explo- sives and oils of a dangerous character. FIELD PRACTICE 133 Do all gasoline cleaning in the open air, and caution the members of the family to refrain from using gasoline or like volatiles in the house. This material should not be kept in the house nor in glass bottles. Beware of rags or cloths used in oiling floors or cleaning or polishing furniture. They may ignite spontaneously. Be sure and burn them after using. Leaving them about for only a few hours may mean a fire. 7. FIRE PROTECTION. One or more approved chemical fire extinguishers should be placed in every home. They must be protected against freezing. It is well to see that the garden hose may be attached to the kitchen faucet. 8. THE FAMILY GARAGE. Never allow open flame lights in a garage. Run the auto outside when filling the tank so that gasoline vapors will dissi- pate. Do not keep quantities of gasoline or calcium carbide inside of garage or dwelling. An approved underground storage tank is the safest method for keeping gasoline. A metal waste can should be located at a convenient place outside the garage for all waste and greasy rags. Burn these every week. It is unsafe to use sawdust or shavings to absorb grease and oil in a garage. If the floor is wooden, scrub it occasionally with hot water and lye. The use of gasoline for cleaning parts of the automobile in the garage is a dangerous thing. The garage should not be heated by means of stove or open fire of any kind, unless same is isolated in another room so that the gasoline vapors of garage cannot possibly get to it. Gasoline vapor travels. Keep an approved fire extinguisher and a pail of sand in garage. Water thrown on burning gasoline merely serves to spread it; sand does not. 134 FIELD PRACTICE 9. IN GENERAL. Have the telephone number of the nearest fire station on a special card at your telephone. Familiarize the family with the operation of the nearest fire alarm box. After operating a fire alarm, stay near it to direct the fireman to the fire. Every minute is significant. Don't fail to notify the chief of the fire department of any- thing you may see that is dangerous or liable to cause fire. SECTION TWO FIRE PROTECTION AND UPKEEP (Automatic and Hand or Manual) I. AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS II. FIRE PROTECTION IN^ GENERAL I. AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS Functions, Design and Reliability. 1. Sprinklers and their Distribution. 2. Feed Mains and Risers. 3. Gate Valves and Fittings. 4. Check Valves. 5. Dry Pipe Valves. 6. Alarm Valves to Automatic Sprinkler Systems. 7. Underground Pipes. 8. Water Supplies to Automatic Sprinkler Systems. A. Publio B. Private FIELD PRACTICE 139 AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS FUNCTIONS. DESIGN AND RELIABILITY The present day approved type of automatic sprinkler is a device representing years of experiment by experts, who have made careful study, tests and practical demonstrations of its fire extinguishing value. The life of an automatic sprinkler depends primarily upon its design, quality of workmanship, and ability to retain for ex- tended periods sufficient motive power, independent of water pressures, to overcome all reasonable obstructions to its free operation. The reliability of a sprinkler in practice therefore depends not only upon the influence of surrounding conditions but also upon the excellence of its design and construction. The more important influences which tend to decrease the reliability of a device of this character are the effects of corro- sion resulting from acid and alkaline fumes and the effects of "loading" by such materials as paper pulp, sawdust, drying oils, lint, caked dust from grinding processes, etc. The present approved types of sprinklers are not affected as much by the above conditions as are the sprinklers of the earlier issues, or those of antiquated design, although all sprinklers are thus influenced to a greater or less extent. However, the visual condition of a sprinkler is not always a true criterion of reliabil- ity, particularly in the earlier or unapproved types. Inspectors are therefore cautioned to give particular attention not only to the physical condition of the sprinklers, as indicated by a visual examination, but also to determine whether the sprinklers are of an approved type. Where sprinklers are found in service showing evidences of deterioration or of questionable operative value, it is advisable to obtain at least twelve representa- tive samples and forward them to the Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., for an official test and report. These sprinklers should be carefully removed so that 140 FIELD PRACTICE their condition when tested will be the same as when in service. Care should also be taken to see that these sprinklers are immediately replaced by other sprinklers. The Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., in its report dwells not only upon the results of such tests, but also renders a positive official opinion as to whether or not the sprinklers are defective or unreliable for continued service. These reports give information not only as to the sensitiveness of the sprink- ler and the action of the sprinkler in opening, but detailed information as to the results of previous tests upon the same type of sprinkler and its field records. Uniform application of tests are essential, and it is not recommended that lay- men or inspectors in the field, not having the necessary knowledge and apparatus, should ever undertake officially to pass upon questionable sprinklers. This should be left with the Underwriters* Laboratories, Inc., for systematic and official treat- ment, especially since in the majority of cases the demarcation between reliability and unreliability of the device cannot be accurately determined except by laboratory tests. 1. SPRINKLERS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION (a) Note the type and design of the sprinkler and the year of its manufacture. If complete installation consists of various types of sprinklers, note each type installed, (b) Note if the sprinklers are placed in an upright or pendent position. (Up- right position is preferable, and when possible should be followed.) If the sprinklers are installed on a dry-pipe sysiem, they should not be installed in a pendent position. (c) The distance of the deflectors from the ceiling or bottom of the joists should not be less than three inches nor more than ten inches. The deflectors should be parallel to the ceiling, roof, or the incline of stairs, but when installed in the peak of a pitched roof, they should be horizontal. (d) Observe any building or room from which sprinklers are omitted, including such places as basements, lofts, towers, under stairs, under skylights, and inside elevator ^vells, vertical shafts, in belt, cable, pipe, gear and pulley boxes, inside small enclosures, such as drying and heating boxes, dry room enclosures, chutes, conveyor trunks, cupboards and closets (unless open at the top) , Such places should have sprinklers. Sprinklers should not be omitted from any room merely because it is damp, wet, or of fire- resistive construction. Observe also if there are sprinklers inside all show windows, boxed ma- chines, metal air ducts, ventilators, concealed spaces, under large shelves, benches and tables, under overhead storage racks, under platforms and similar water sheds. All such surfaces over four feet in width should have sprinklers. In order not to exceed the schedule capacity of piping it is frequently advisable to require that additional sprinklers needed in a story be placed on a pipe extending up from the story FIELD PRACTICE 141 below. A sprinkler head needed in a counter-shaft box or in a caul box or under work bench can be installed in this manner. (e) There should be mnintained on the premises never less than six extra sprinklers, to replace promptly any fused by fire or in any way injured. (f) Sprinklers must not be obstructed by highly piled stock or material, nor by partitions or walls which might prevent free and proper water distribution. A clearance of at least twenty-four inches is imperative under ceilings, and thirty-six inches is advisable. (fir) Check up additional branches and sprinklers installed since original instal- lation, noting that system, particularly in the smaller distributing pipes, has not become overloaded by exceeding the pipe schedule limit. (h) Observe if proper schedule of spacing is followed, which spacing must strictly conform to standard respecting ceiling construction. (1) Determine whether any change in the occupancy of the building has taken place since the original installation, which may have required high degree sprinklers. Ordinary degree sprinklers should be substituted for high degree sprinklers, where the latter are made unnecessary. Hiilh decree sprinklers should be used only -vrhen absolutely- necessary. When used, the fusinii points should be as low as the conditions -will safely permit. The melting degree point of sprinklers in service may readily be ascertained by noting painted color of sprinkler head frame, viz., if painted Red, 360°; if painted Blue, 286°; if painted White, 212°; Brass finish, 165°. (Old unapproved sprin- klers, however, are misleading in this respect, as this color scheme was not adopted uniformly until about 1905.) In instances of change of occupany, observe if building heating arrangements have been so modified as to necessitate transfer from wet to dry systems. (J) When the sprinklers are subjected to severe conditions of corrosion, they should be protected by some corrosion resisting material. Two methods are now employed by sprinkler companies for protecting sprinklers against such conditions, one of which consists in coating ordinary degree heads with a compound which softens before the fusing point of the solder is reached, and the other of sealing the working parts with a glass cover which, upon the operation of the releasing device, is blown off by the air or water pressure. The former is designed for use on ordinary degree sprinklers only, while the latter is designed for use on sprinklers installed in an upright position only. 142 FIELD PRACTICE (k) Require prompt removal from sprinklers of all coatings of paint, excessive deposits or incrustations, whitewash, bronzing- or other coating, or request the replacement of the sprinklers. This does not apply to approved coatings or corrosion-resisting materials applied by the manufacturers of the sprinkler. In case these coaiin^s have been on the devices for some time and there is some question as to ^vhether the sprinklers have been cleaned efficiently, t-welve representative sanaples should be removed from the piping and sent to the Under^v^riters' Laboratories, Inc., for examination and official report as to their reliability. (1) Approved hangers supporting sprinkler lines must be used and be secured by screws in wood ceilings, and inserts or bolts in fireproof ceilings. (Nails should never be used.) The vibration of floors often loosens hangers. This is knoM^n to have -weakened the releasing mechanisms of sprinklers on the lines -where it has occurred. (m) Note that all pipes have the proper pitch in order that pockets to catch sedi- ment and frost may not form. This feature is of special importance in dry-pipe systems. Care should be taken that heads are not raised up between the joists. The proper correction is to lower the other lines, taking care to still maintain proper drainage. (n) Observe whether sprinkler piping is used for the support of stocks, clothing, etc. Sprinkler piping must not be used for such purposes. (o) In buildings of large area, or buildings subject to continued drafts, the im- portance of heat banking curtains should not be overlooked. Vertical openings, not otherwise cut off, should have heat banking curtains. 2. FEED MAINS AND RISERS The proper location of feed mains is a very important item in installing a sprinkler equipment. The "center central" feed is preferred, especially in cases where the width of a room re- quires more than six sprinklers on a single branch line. The "side central" feed may often be used without detriment, but the "end" feed has not been approved for many years, and will rarely be found. The number of risers is governed primarily by the number of sprinklers on a single floor of a building, when floors are not cut by open light wells, stairways, elevators, etc. The main water supplies should enter the sprinkler system at the foot of each riser. (In comparatively rare instances, where the only automatic supplies are gravity and/or pressure FIELD PRACTICE 148 tanks, the Inspection Department having jurisdiction may have made a special ruling, permitting such tanks to connect to top of riser.) (a) There should be a ^4,-inch test pipe having a standard brass ^^-inch outlet at top of each riser; this should be operated at each inspection to observe if there is free flow at good pressure. (This to apply on wet systems only.) Note that this is so located as not to cause water damage to other property. Note. — In many instances a connection -will be found near test valve where inspector can attach his ilauite and ascertain pressure available. (b) A drain valve (generally two inches in size) is located at foot of each riser. This should be opened wide at each inspection for a sufficiently long period to determine that the pressure holds up and that there is no obstruc- tion in riser. (See Dry- Pipe Valves.) This flowinil pressure test is greatly increased in value if a ilauile connection is provided in riser, opposite drain valve, so that inspec- tor's ilauiie can be attached and comparative pressure readinils taken at succeedintl inspections. For instance, if the normal static pres- sure is 50 lbs., and upon opening valve pressure normally drops to 45 lbs., it w^ill be apparent if at some inspection the pressure drops io (say) 35 lbs. (or under), that there is some obstruction to the flo>v- w^hich should be removed. Systems equipped >vith supervisory or Central Station Alarm service should not be tested without first obtaining special permission from supervising office. In such properties as paint and varnish works, oil works, wholesale drug houses, and where extensive process piping systems are used, the painting of the various pipe lines will be found a convenience in distinguishing these systems. Sprinkler and water lines might be designated by red paint, gas lines by green paint, domestic process lines by blue paint, etc. Never paint the sprinkler heads. 3. GATE VALVES AND FITTINGS The property owner and the inspector should know the exact location of all inside gate valves, as well as outside ones pro- vided with indicator posts or requiring key to open. It is good practice to locate at several points about the premises, preferably under glass, a plan showing piping and valves. 144 FIELD PRACTICE Indicator posts attached to underground valves controlling sprinkler systems are now standard practice. They are quickly accessible in event of fire breaking out while water is shut off for repairs ; and, in event of sprinkler failure, they can be closed to prevent water waste. Valves inside of buildings, or those located in pits, should be of the straightway, outside screw and yoke, or other approved indicator pattern. The O. S. and Y. type valve is far prefer- able, owing to its simplicity of design and operation, and the fact that the projecting stem shows the position of gate. 1. INDICATOR POSTS. The following features should be covered : — (a) Attachment should be by bolts or lugs rather than by set screws, as the latter corrode and lose their hold. (b) Posts should be kept well painted. (c) Posts should be marked as to section which they control. (d) Posts preferably should be locked open. (e) If wrenches are not kept on posts, they should be at a known and accessible point. (f) Targets and glass protecting them should be in good condition. 2. UNDERGROUND VALVES. Valves controlling water supplies, provided for shutting off water to permit of repairs, etc., should be inspected with regard to the following: — (a) If located in pits, to be of the O. S. and Y. type, sealed or strapped open. (b) To protect stems against dirt, O. S. and Y. valves in pits are sometimes pro- vided with a loose metal sleeve fitting over the stem. (c) Underground gates, requiring key to operate, should have sleeves projecting above ground, cover to keep out dirt and ice, and sleeve should be free from any kind of accumulation. (d) See that wrenches are provided for operation of underground valves, and that they are kept at accessible points. All underground valves should have the same sized nuts on valve stem. 3. INSIDE VALVES. Valves connected with pumps, tanks, sprinkler risers, con- trolling sections of sprinkler system, etc., should be inspected with regard to the following: — (a) Valves should be open, except for shutting off small sections during cold weather or where special conditions require their being kept closed. FIELD PRACTICE 145 (b) Valves should be strapped or sealed open. (c) When under central station control, straps and seals may be omitted. (d) Valves should be easily accessible, and in no way obstructed. (e) A permanent ladder should be installed at all valves located at ceilings or at other high elevations. Treads may be installed on risers leading to floor valves. (f) See that drain valves are properly located and in good condition. (See Feed Mains and Risers.) 4. INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS. (a) All gate valves should have bronze stems. (b) All valves should be of the straightway type. (c) Each water supply should have individual gate valves. (d) No floor valves should be attached to dry pipe systems. 5. TESTS. It is generally considered good policy to close all valves at least once a year, and then to open them, to demonstrate that they are in operating condition. (Under no conditions should this be done without permission from management.) Frequent tests are objectionable, because they are likely to cause valve stuffing boxes to leak. However, the exact condition of packing should be ascertained. Valve stems should be properly oiled and greased at least once a year. (Under no conditions should this be done without permission of management and from In- spection Department having jurisdiction. Before leaving plant Inspector should assure himself that all valves are open.) 6. DIRECTION TO CLOSE. Valves should be examined to determine the direction in which they close. All valves, especially underground ones, in any one plant, preferably should be of the same type. 4. CHECK VALVES Check valves are required to prevent back flow where pressures vary. The connection between each water supply and the piping system should be provided with a check valve. (It is customary also to provide a gate valve in the same line with each check valve, and this gate valve should always be on the system or down stream side of the check valve, so that if it is neces- 146 FIELD PRACTICE sary to repair the check valve the gate valve can be closed, and protection maintained on the system by means of the other water supplies. When the water supplies are automatic — such as a city water or tank supply — a gate valve is also ordinarily installed on the supply side of the check valve.) Check valves of the straightway pattern only are approved. There should be ample clearance around the clapper to insure against its being obstructed by corrosion or incrustations. (Clapper and seat should preferably be of bronze for the same reason. ) As check valves are not wholly reliable when placed ver- tically, they should always be installed in a horizontal position. Check valves should ordinarily be installed underground (in frostproof pits, well drained), so that they will not be affected by falling walls or other disaster. Each steamer connection should be provided with a check valve, and should be connected on system side of the check valve in supply main, and preferably between check valve and gate valve. A three-fourths inch drip pipe and valve should be provided for drainage. In large dry-pipe systems check valves (especially con- structed for the purpose) will occasionally be found in the sectional feeds. These are installed for the purpose of quicken- ing the action of the dry-pipe valve by making it unnecessary to exhaust the air pressure in the entire dry-pipe system in case of fire. Such is not modern practice, and in large systems recom- mend that lines be sub-divided and one or more additional dry- pipe valves installed. In some localities where fire pumps take water from sources of doubtful cleanliness, the city authorities require the so- called "double-check" system, in order to insure the non-con- tamination of the city water. (a) Note that check valves are installed where necessary, (b) See that all check valves are properly installed. On many check valves -w^ill be found arrows pointing in the di- rection of flow. Also the Ings on sides of body show on supply side. (c) Where there is reason to suspect that check valve clappers have been re- moved or that check valves are not seating properly, specific examination should be made. (d) Check valves should be tested occasionally for tightness by raising pressure. FIELD PRACTICE 147 5. DRY PIPE VALVES In many buildings it is impossible to heat the premises properly so as to prevent water in sprinkler pipes from freezing, and in such cases it is necessary to install a dry-pipe system. Such a system introduces possibilities of mechanical failure, and retards promptness with which water reaches fire, and it is not recommended unless heating is impracticable. Its use, however, is far preferable to shutting off water during the winter months. (Published rules covering Automatic Sprinklers should be consulted.) The number of sprinklers dependent upon one dry valve should not exceed 600, and preferably not 300. Where systems comprise over 500 heads, two or more dry valves should be pro- vided, the system being divided horizontally. Frequent inspection of dry valves is necessary. (a) Type of Valve. Note type and design of valve. Only approved valves should be used. Many of the older types of dry valves are unreliable. (b) Settinit. Determine if valve is properly set. This is not readily apparent with certain forms of valves. (c) Pressures. See that gauges register water pressure below dry valve and air pressure above. Air pressure ordinarily should not exceed 40 lbs. Check gauges with inspector's gauge. (d) Operate 2-inch drain valve below dry-pipe valve to make sure water supply is clear up to dry valve. (e) Make absolutely sure that eniire system of piping is free from water. Ice may shut off the air and prevent the valve tripping. This can be deter- mined by blowing out all drips and drain outlets. (f) Water Column. Leakage past dry valve, or drainage or condensation from system may cause water column. Open draw-off or test valve to remove such water. (g) Fittings. See that automatic drain, gauge connections, drip cups, and other fittings are in place and properly adjusted, (h) Air Connections. Air line valves to be kept closed. Air compressors to be connected, and to be in good working order. (See Air Compressors.) Note. — In extensive dry-pipe systems such as obtain in piers, warehouses, car barns, etc., it is sometimes the practice to maintain automatic air compressors, in which case it is necessary that the air line valves be kept open at all times, (i) Alarm Connections. Examine and test alarm circuit closers, and see that wiring is properly installed, and not subject to mechanical injury. (See Section on Alarm Valves.) 148 FIELD PRACTICE (J) Cabinets. In unheated buildings, dry valves must be placed in frost-proof, heated cabinets, so as to be reliable. See that sprinkler head, provided with shut-off valve, is placed in cabinet, and connected to riser below dry- pipe valve. See that shut-off valve is open. Note. — Unless there is an alarm valve in supply pipe the sprinkler head should preferably be on dry-pipe system; otherwise no alarm will be received upon operation of this head. (k) Examine latches, springs, and condilion of seat, where possible, making sure of operative condition. Inspector should become thoroughly- familiar 'H'ith the design and methods of operating various types of mechanical and differential dry-pipe valves before attempting to test them. See that tests,* if ne- cessary during cold -H'eather, do not result in M^ater being left in riser or piping. It may freeze and cause damage. 6. ALARM VALVES TO AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS The value of a reliable sprinkler alarm cannot be over- estimated, and every automatic sprinkler system, either wet or dry, should contain an alarm valve connection or valves so constructed and arranged that any flow of water through j;he system will oper- ate an electric or mechanical gong, or both. It may become neces- sary to call in human aid to complete the work of extinguishment. An alarm valve will also give notice in event of leakage or break in the system, thus saving water damage. An alarm valve equip- ment should be made an absolute requirement. (a) Type. Devices in which portions of the mechanism are liable to stick or otherwise become deranged, which may retard the flow of water through the valve, give false alarms, lack sensitiveness, etc., are objectionable. (b) Dry-Pipe Valve Alarms. These should have both electrical and water motor connections or alarms. If system is allowed to remain wet a por- tion of the year, the alarm feature may be lost during that time if connected to the dry valve proper. An independent water flow alarm below the dry valve is believed to be superior to one attached to it. (c) Tests. Test wet-pipe system by opening test pipe at top of riser, and note whether gong or gongs are operating. Dry valves should be fitted with a by-pass to enable circuit closing device to be tested without tripping valve. FIELD PRACTICE 149 (d) Gon^s. Note location, condition, and strength of electric and mechanically operated gongs. See that source of current supply for electric gongs is ample and reliable. Make certain that water motor and gong striking mechanism is in good con- dition, and that it operates readily. See that exterior gongs are protected against the weather, and against birds and insects. (e) Wiring. Carefully observe all wiring in connection with alarm system to see that it is properly installed and not subject to mechanical injury. (See Section on Signaling Systems.) Before testinil an alarm sysiem, be sure that the same is not con- nected \o a central station or to the public fire department. If so con- nected, proper notification should be i^iven before test is made. This M^ill also apply to local alarms >v^here there is daniler of ex> citinil employees. 7. UNDERGROUND PIPES Inspection Department having jurisdiction should have a complete lay-out plan of entire underground piping system, as originally installed. This plan should be accurately drawn to scale (generally fifty feet equals one inch) , and should show water supplies, valves, hydrants, all pipe sizes, special fittings, etc. Any and all changes in, or additions to the system, should be carefully and accurately noted on plan from time to time. It is essential that copies of this plan be displayed conspicuously in various por- tions of the property (such as the office, engine room or gate house), so that the extent, purposes and means of control of the system may be thoroughly understood. Changes should not be made without the knowledge and con- sent of the Inspection Department having jurisdiction, and noti- fication should always be given the Inspection Department when it becomes necessary to shut off the water. (Conditions can be anticipated and reasonable advance notification given, except in case of emergencies, which necessitate immediate repairs.) Inasmuch as the underground system is necessarily not subject to visual inspection after installation, the utmost care should be taken at time of installation. Features especially to be observed include quality of pipe installed, depth, location, caulking of joints and workmanship, (a) Any leaks in the piping should be immediately repaired. 150 FIELD PRACTICE (b) Tests may he made at a hydrostatic pressure about one-half greater than would be anticipated at time of fire (ordinarily 200 lbs. test is satisfactory) in order to determine the presence of leaks or service connections. It is advisable, when possible, to make such tests before the piping is covered up. Furthermore, care should be taken not to put excess pressures on old systems when testing new work. (Pressure may be applied exclusively to new work by the use of a hand pump.) Undue moisture on ground surface often indicates the exist- ence of leaks. Connections from fire protectiv^e systems for service or domestic services are objectionable and are ordinarily- not per- mitted. (c) Tests may be made at convenient intervals by flushing through hydrants or other hose connections, in order to determine that the underground piping is free from obstructions. Aside from the above there is little that can be done bj waj of reinspecting underground piping. However, changes or additions are commonlj made from time to time in practically all systems. As the same essential procedure is necessary to insure the proper installation of additions or extensions to existing piping systems, as is necessary in the case of an original installation, the following points should be carefully observed : — (d) All underground mains should be of best quality cast iron, with bell and spigot ends, of proper sizes and laid approximately as indicated on the layout plan submitted by Inspection Department having jurisdiction. P^o pipe smaller than 6 inches in diameter should be installed underground. (e) Cast-iron piping (where normal pressures do not exceed 125 lbs.) should comply with the standard specifications of the American Waterworks As- sociation for Class " C " pipe, adopted May 12, 1908:— Size of Pipe Weight 6 inches 35.8 pounds per ft. 8 inches 52.1 pounds " 10 inches 70.8 pounds " 12 inches 91.7 pounds " 14 inches 116.7 pounds '* 16 inches 143.8 pounds " A written certificate should be required from the pipe manufacturers to the effect that all piping furnished complies with the specifications. Where higher normal pressures are encountered heavier piping should be required. Suction pipes for pumps may be lighter, also pipe near reser- voirs where the pressure is light. (f) All piping should be rejected when walls are uneven and/or when weights are more than 5 per cent less than standard. FIELD PRACTICE 151 (K) Piping should have carefully leaded joints, and be laid to hear on entire lenjfth and deej) cnouj^h to be out of reach of frost. Sand and |< ravel should be well tamped under and around pipes, I^ight gravelly soils permit cold to go to a greater depth than do wet, heavy soils. (Extra depth is required because there is usually no circulation in a fire system.) If soil in of a (iiiicksand nature it may be necessary to sup- port the pipiuit on piers. Do not bury pipinil in ashes. (h) As few changes of grade and direction should be made as possible, and these should be eflected by special fittings and not by shifting the piping in the joints. (I) All elbows, bends, etc., should be securely braced and clamped. Underilround pipe extendinii under railroad tracks requires special supports and reinforcement at Joints. (j) Care must be taken in laying, that piping is kept clean inside and free from stones, grit, dirt, workmen's clothes or tools, and ail other foreign materials. Each length of pipe and fittinil should be examined inside and lliven a hammer test before layinil« and system should be thorouilhly flushed out throut^h the hydrants after completion. (k) All joints should be properly leaded with soft pig lead, only plain jute pack- ing or oakum to be used and in the smallest quantities necessary to stop the lead. Each joint should be properly caulked in a workmanlike manner. (1) All new extensions to original systems should be subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 200 lbs. per square inch or more (depending on local condi- tions) for a period of two hours, and the system should not be considered acceptably tight ualess this pressure can be maintained practically con- stant without pumping. At the close of this test, valves and hydrants should be opened and closed to develop water hammer, such as may be reasonably expected at time of fire. Only occasionally M'^ill conditions be encountered >v^hich necessi- tate a higher test pressure than 200 lbs. When the static or special fire pressure is above 100 lbs., the test pressure applied should ex- ceed such static or special fire pressure by about 50 lbs., but in all such cases specific advices should be obtained from the Inspection Department having Jurisdiction. 8. WATER SUPPLIES TO AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS A. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES The efficiency of any source of water supply depends entirely upon its reliability to furnish an adequate volume of water with satisfactory pressure at all times and under all con- ditions that may arise. 152 FIELD PRACTICE The various public waterworks systems are as follows : — (a) Gravity, with an effective head and vohime at hydrants, (b) Hydraulic power pumps in duplicate, with auxiliary storage reservoir. (c) Steam power pumps in duplicate, with standpipe or storage reservoir. (d) Direct pressure supply from hydraulic power pumps in duplicate, without standpipe or storage reservoir. (e) Direct pressure supply from steam power pumps in duplicate, without stand- pipe or storage reservoir. (f) Direct pressure supply from electric power installations. 1. GRAVITY. Thwnost simple and reliable source of supply for all purposes is from town or city gravity waterworks system, provided the reservoir is of ample capacity to furnish water for several days' ordinary consumption. This reservoir should be located near the distribution center at an elevation of at least two hundred feet above the higher street levels, and be fed by unfailing streams, springs or duplicate pumping engines. The delivery mains and distribution system should be of adequate size and well arranged for continuous service, and the water pressure suflficient to give not less than forty pounds per square inch at the upper stories of build- ings, — say six stories in height, — at all times under normal con- ditions. Such supplies usually have the advantage of constant supervision of corporation or municipal authorities. Under such conditions of water supply automatic sprinkler systems may be expected to reach the highest degree of efficiency, and reliance can be placed upon effective service from either public or private hose streams. 2. GRAVITY SYSTEM WITH CONTINUOUS PUMPING AND AUXILIARY STORAGE. In the absence of a gravity reservoir of sufficient capacity to supply the ordinary consumption of water during a period of one week without replenishing, a combination of gravity and direct pressure pumpage systems will, under all ordinary conditions of service, give results that are perfectly satisfactory, provided the pumping facilities are in duplicate, and the reservoir or standpipe is of sufficient capacity to supply the ordinary demand during periods of two or three days, while there may be a temporary reduction in the initial source of supply due to drought, etc. Pumping engines, FIELD PRACTICE 153 driven by hydraulic power, are dependent, of course, upon flowing streams, and in long continued dry weather there may be serious interruption to the normal flow for power purposes, with consequent diminution of the service supply. 3. DIRECT PRESSURE SUPPLY. Direct pressure hydraulic or steam power pumping systems supplied by separate units in well-arranged stations of fire-resistive construction; boilers in separate buildings; facilities for storage of coal supply for at least one month; with force mains in duplicate, are considered fairly satisfactory, but there is the ever-present danger of interruption to service due to breakdowns of turbines, boilers, engines, etc. The electric power pumping station is subject to the same interference with regular service as the steam power station, in addition to the various difHculties that may occur through electrical disturbances. All of the foregoing will apply as well, in proportion, to private installation for the fire protection of large establishments. 4. TESTING AND GAUGES. The inspector should be provided with an accurate pressure gauge graduated from to 200 pounds, also several small brass bushings of various sizes, so that connections can be made with outlets from one-fourth inch to one and one-half inches, for purposes of comparison with gauges permanently attached. Com- bination pressure and altitude gauges may be useful in many instances. A tapered rubber plug or large stopper with metal tube through center for gauge connection may be inserted in the nozzle of a play pipe or other smooth outlet in the absence of a threaded connection. A gauge with Pitot tube attachment is recommended to be used in all water flow tests from hose nozzles. (See booklet. Fire Engine Tests a7id Fire Stream Tables^ published by the National Board of Fire Underwriters.) (a) Note the pressure indicated by gauge if there is one permanently attached to the system. (b) Open main drain valve or other outlet and allow full flow of water for at least two minutes; tap the gauge lightly and observe any movement of the gauge pointer. Note the flowing pressure with outlet Avide open. 154 FIELD PRACTICE (c) Close the outlet and again note the pressure indicated. (d) Attach inspector's gauge and note pres>ure recorded in comparison with that indicated by permanent gauge. If the gauge is attached at the lower level of the system, the pressure at the upper level can be approximated by deducting 0.43 pounds for each foot of elevation above the position of gauge. The water flow from an open outlet with reduction in pressure and subsequent recovery upon closing the outlet, will serve as a partial test as to the water supply being fully turned on ; it will also indicate any unusual obstruction in the piping. In making waterflow tests on sprinkler equip- ments, test the flow from main drain pipe in each sprinklered building. This flo^v-in^ pressure test is greatly increased in ^alue if a gauge connection is provided in riser, opposite drain valve, so that inspector's gauge can be attached and comparative pressure readings taken at succeeding inspections. For instance, if the normal static pressure is 50 lbs., and upon opening valve pressure normally drops to 4S lbs., it Mi'ill be apparent if the pressure drops at some inspec- tion to (say) 35 lbs. (or under), that there must be some obstruction to the flow which should be removed. Make due allow^ance as to the location of the gauge. The further from the test pipe it is located the greater w^ill be the floor pressure observed. Systems equipped w^ith supervisory or Central Station Alarm Service should not be tested ^v^ithout first obtaining special permission from supervising. off ice. (e) Make record of test with date, for reference at future inspections. B. PRIVATE WATER SUPPLIES 1. FIRE PUMPS. Steam, electric and hydraulic pumps for fire protection, in common with other important devices upon which dependence must be placed, must be of satisfactory design, safely installed, and subjected to at least weekly operating tests. At least two active employees at each plant maintaining a fire pump should be familiar with its mechanical and automatic contrivances, and capable of operating it. The boiler, dynamo, motor or water wheel from which power is derived, as well as the source of suction supply, should be subject to careful scrutiny. The mere fact that there is a fire pump on the premises does not guarantee that it will always work. A careful examination FIELD PRACTICE 155 of all the factors entering should be followed by an adequate operating test. Records of this should be filed. A. Steam Fire Pumps. (Sec also Sleam Boilers.) (a) Design. Should be Standard. " Trade " pumps, especially if of old design, frequently are unable to meet demands of fire service. (b) Location. Pumps should preferably be located in fireproof room, as near to boiler as possible, cut off from rest of plant and accessible from outside. An unexposed separate building for pump and boiler is preferred (one watchman cannot run pump and fires if pump is away from the boilers, and a long steam line is subject to injury). (c) Maintenance. Pump should be always in the best of condition, ready for instant service. Tests will usually develop defects. Leaking valves, defective packing, worn piston rods, etc., are frequent defects. (dj Steam Supply* Steam supply should be examined with a view to the fol- lowing: — ( See also Steam Boilers.) ( 1 ) Steam main or mains should be run in such a manner as to be free from possible damaiie through burninil of buildini^s and falling of avails. (2) Mains should be run as direct as possible. Throttle valTe should be of globe pattern and should al'H^ays be in horizon- tal pipe. (3) Main should be an independent line from header on boiler. (4) All other connections in boiler house should have valves in boiler house, so as to concentrate the supply to pump. (5) If supplied by i-wo lines, each line should be valved in boiler house, and also in pump room. (6) Steam line should be properly trapped so as to take care of condensation, and so installed as to take care of expansion and contraction. (7) Minimum steam pressure of 50 lbs. should be maintained at all times. (8) Recordinj^ steam gauge preferably should be provided, to be carefully examined, and dials to be filed daily. (e) Cylinder Cocks. These cocks, on bottom of steam cylinders, must be kept open so as to relieve cylinders from condensation, and they should discharge into open cups connected with sewer. (f) Suction Connection. Pump taking water under head must have indicator or O. S. and Y. valve in each suction supply. Where pump takes suction under lift, a foot valve may be supplied where lift approximates fifteen feet or where suction pipe is long. Strainers are generally needed where suction is taken from reservoir or stream. Orifice of strainers should be ten times the area of suction pipe. 156 FIELD PRACTICE (g) Priming Tank. This must be provided where pumps take suction under a lift, unless there is another reliable source of water supply. A priming- tank should have a capacity of not less than one-half of the rated capacity of pump. (h) Reservoir. If reservoir is provided with automatic fill connection, its efficiency should be tested by drawing water from reservoir. (i) Discharge Connection. Gate valve in the discharge line must be open at all times. (j) Care and Tests. The following is suggested : — (1) Pump room should be kept clean, heated, and ivell lighted (2) Pump io be kept ■w^ell lubricated at all times. (3) Ample supply of oils to be kept in pump room, in metal cans, 'H'ith drip pans. (4) Pump to be run at least once a ^iveek, for a period of several minutes, preferably at full capacity. (5) See if relief valve is properly adjusted. (6) At each inspection run the pump and discharge through relief valve. (k) Automatic Regulator. If provided, automatic regulator should be adjusted to maintain a pressure of seventy-five pounds at the ground level, plus any additional pressure which may be required to maintain twenty- five pounds pressure upon highest sprinklers in sprinklered properties. Automatic regulator should be of approved type. Many no>v in use are poorly designed. Regulator should be tested, and required to maintain the desired -Heater pressure (within lO per cent) at any speed of pump from zero to full speed. Regulator should alivays be placed on by-pass, having valve above and below^ to permit of repairs; valve in addition to be pro- vided in main line. (1) Auxiliary Pump. Auxiliary pump, if used to prevent needless travel on the part of fire pump, should have regulator set about five to ten pounds higher than regulator on fire pump. Auxiliary pump should be of approved type, and not less in size than 7x3x6 inches. Steam Boilers. (/« connection with Fire Pumps') (See also Fire Pumps.) The proper maintenance and safeguarding of a boiler plant upon which one or more fire pumps are dependent for steam supply is most important, else it may not be possible to operate the pumps at the time most needed. (a) See that a steam pressure of at least 50 lbs. is constantly maintained in sufficient volume to operate pumps to full capacity on short notice. FIELD PRACTICE 157 A steam preasnre rerordinil ilauile is jlenerally required, and the rerords sliould be examined to make sure that steam pressure has been maintained properly since last inspection. (b) Observe if there is suflicient reserve supply of fuel on hand. Do not permit coal to be stacked against boiler walls, nor stored in bins of combustible material. In some oases 'where there are no facilities for maintaininit a lar^e reserve supply of coal the supply may be replenished daily, but inquiry should always be made as to exact conditions applying and in no case should there be less than forty-eiiiht hours* supply on hand. (c) Observe if the Korse power of boilers on which steam is maintained is suffi- cient to operate all fire pumps on premises to full capacity. Forty h. p. should be maintained for each 250 ^als. per minute of pumping capacity, but in no case should a boiler of less than lOO h. p. be provided for a 500-ital. pump. There should always be at least two boilers. (d) See that steam piping in boiler house is so arranged that any one or all boilers may be reserved exclusively for fire pump supply. Valves in fire pump steam supply pipes should be kept open at all times with steam up to throttle valves on pump. (e) See that proper facilities have been provided for feeding water to boilers. A 2," pipe from the fire pump should be connected to feed boilers, in addition to the regular boiler feed (which may be injectors, service pumps, city water, etc.). (f) Ascertain if boilers are kept under regular inspection by the State and / or a reliable boiler insurance company. Ascertain highest pressure allowed by said authorities and note if such pressures are being exceeded. (g) Note if boiler room and fire pumps are properly cut off from remainder of property and free from probable interference by lire. (h) Observe boiler setting, and see that there is sufficient clearance between tops and sides of boilers and woodwork ; also if flues and stacks are properly insulated from roof or walls. ( See Section Sieam Boilers under Power Hazards.) (!) Floods and high water should be guarded against in locating boiler house and setting of pumps and boilers. While this may be impossible in some instances, yet floods have demonstrated the advisability of guarding against disability of boilers and pumps from high water. B. Electrically Driven Fire Pumps. Note. — Motor driven fire pumps are principally of the rotary cam and centrifugal types. A considerable portion of the sug- gestions pertaining to steam fire pumps, applies to electric fire 158 FIELD PRACTICE pumps also. In addition, the following features should be investigated : — (a) Priming. Centrifugal pumps are difficult to start unless thoroughly primed. Where possible centrifugal pump should take suction under a head; gate valve in suction line should be kept open. Where water is lifted and priming tank is kept automatically filled, the priming connection should be normally open. (b) Controlling Apparatus. Automatic regulator and other controlling devices must bh kept in proper working order. (c) Protection of Electrical Apparatus. This must be protected against leakage from pump. Sheet metal shields are advised. (d) Current Supply. This is of primary importance. If possible, there should be two independent sources of supply. Circuits to pump should be so run as to be protected against fire and collapsing buildings. If possible, they should be underground. If alter, nating current is used, note if transformers are in a fireproof vault. See if a circuit breaker is used in motor leads. If other portions of plant take current from same source as fire pump, it should be possible to cut off these connections in the pump room itself, or at some other safe point. C Rotary Pumps. Note. — These are used primarily with water wheels and are not recommended where other types can be installed. (a) Source of PoM^er. Capacity and condition of electric power, water wheel, reliability of water supply, driving mechanism, etc., should be carefully examined. If electric power, 35 to 40 h. p. per fire stream is required. fb) Tests of Pumps. It is especially desirable to run pumps for a considerable period of time and to determine discharge capacity. (c) Inspection of Pumps. Common defects are rusting of pump, breaking of buckets, broken driving gears, etc. (d) Location of Pumps. Pumps are frequently in basements or other out-of the way points, where access at time of fire might be diflScult if not impossible. (e) There should be enough lubricant on hand to run pump for several hours. (f) Test the same as steam pumps. 2. GRAVITY TANKS. Responsibility for the upkeep, care and maintenance of gravity tanks must rest upon the owner. Where exposed severely to changeable weather, tanks require frequent inspection. The failure periodically to inspect tanks and structures, not only FIELD PRACTICE loU creates danger of loss of life by collapse (or otherwise) but such collapse or failure of tank or structure might entirely cripple a sprinkler installation, and entail a great property loss. (a) Observe foundation, tower or structure supporting tank, noting any evidence of weakness or sagging of same from original construction. (b) Steel or wood structures must be kept thoroughly painted. If steel struc- ture, note if it is riveted together, or bolted, and if heads of bolts are bat- tered, and if uprights are securely fastened to foundations. See that bolts are not loose. (Bolted trestles are not standard. Parts should be riveted.) (c) All tanks must have a substantial platform (at base of tank) surrounded by a railing. (d) Steel trestle work where inside of building and passing through floors should be well insulated, all metal to be covered with at least a 2 inch thickness of approved fireproofing. Special attention is called to the ne- cessity of safeguarding against corrosion at the point where steel sup- ports may pass through roof. (e) Tank to be of size to contain required capacity for fire system. Water supply therein should supply fire system only. Special permission must be obtained in instances where outlets are provided for other domestic use. (f) Note whether water contains sediment. Sediment in tank should be removed, as accumulations are liable eventually to clog sprinkler pipes. A record should be kept of date when tank is cleaned. Tank should be cleaned out at regular intervals — at least annually. (g) There must be a substantial permanent ladder or stairway provided, in order to give easy access to and about tank. (h) If tank is exposed to weather, a suitable cover must be provided. If of wood, to be double, with air space between. All joints to be tight, especially where cover rests on top of staves. If of steel or concrete, cover to be of similar construction to sides of tank and of sufficient thickness to give proper stability. Note if proper trap door, at least 20 x 26 inches, is pro- vided in cover and is in good working order. (1) Find out if discharge pipe extends proper distance above bottom of tank on inside; it should extend up at least 4 inches in flat bottom tanks, and at least 18 inches in tanks having a conical or oval shaped bottom. (j) Observe if there is an expansion joint in vertical pipe leading to tank, or a swing joint for tank located over building. (k) Discharge pipe should never be less than 6 inches in diameter, and never less than size of largest sprinkler riser. (1) Note that piping to and from tank, if exposed to weather, is well protected against freezing. ( See Gravity Tank Pamphlet.) (m) Ascertain if tank and tank riser are provided with proper heating arrange- ments to prevent freezing; also if heating apparatus is reliable at all times. (See Gravity Tank Pamphlet for the various methods employed.) Hot water circulation is most reliable and economical. This plan is recom- mended above all others. 160 FIELD PRACTICE (n) Note if tank has proper overflow pipe near the top, with proper discharge. It is necessary to fill the tank to point of overflow, and observe discharge, (o) Note size and location of filling pipe, the same to be not less than 1^ inches in diameter, and to discharge at top of tank above water level. If filled by a by-pass around check valve, the same should contain a gate valve, to be kept closed at all times except when in actual use. (p) Each tank should have drain independent of olher tanks and of sprinkler systems, (q) Each tank should have telltale device, either an approved indicator, mercury gauge, or float telltale. Some means of indicating the height of water in feet in tank is essential. Inspector must see for himself the water level in tank as indicating devices sometimes fail. Inspector should overflow tank in case it cannot be thoroughly inspected, (r) Note if wooden tank or tower is equipped with approved lightning rods, (s) Carefully note the condition of tank. If of wood, observe if free from rot, and if staves and other parts are free from leak and in good condition. Note carefully the condition of hoops, lugs and supports. Ronnd hoops only- are reliable for long service. Flat hoops should be replaced at once — they rust readily, especially if located in enclosed to>v^ers or rooms. (t) Observe if the necessary gate and check valves are properly installed in tank drop pipe, and protected against freezing, but accessible. (u) Other details relating to the installation of Gravity Tanks will be found in pamphlet on Gravity Tanks. 3. PRESSURE TANKS. The air pressure tank forms a generally reliable source of automatic water supply, and while the supply is of limited capacity, an advantage is obtained by the heavy initial discharge making sprinklers more effective than with the pressures ordinarily available. Pressure tanks, however, are not desirable for dry pipe sys- tems on account of lack of capacity to fill system and hold reserve. From the N. F. P. A. records it appears that the greater number of fires satisfactorily controlled by sprinklers have been in plants with primary supply from public waterworks systems and private gravity tanks ; but statistics show that in a large number of instances specially tabulated, where fires were either extinguished or practically extinguished, the pressure tank has shown an efficiency of 83%, as compared with 69% for automatic pumps, 67% for public waterworks, and 59% for FIELD PRACTICE ICl private gravity tanks. This apparent superiority of the pressure tank supply is due to the fact that pressure tanks were usually located in properties having a majority of small (one sprinkler) fires. (a) Note the air pressure indicated by gauge on tank; tap the gauge lightly to see that the pointer moves freely. Attach inspector's gauge and compare pressure indicated by permanent gauge. If gauges indicate low pressure, require pressure to be increased to proper amount. Correct water level should be determined first. (b) Examine the dials of recording gauge, if there is one attached to tank. (C) See that all hand valves in air and water supply pipes, water-column and glass gauge connections, etc., are properly closed, and that the glass gauge is free of water. (d) To test water level :— 1. Open the valves at top of colnmn and ^lass ^antfe, thns ad- mitting air pressure to ^lass itaufte. 2« Slo^'ly open valves at bottom of colnmn and ^lass ilanile, 'vrhich M'ill allo^v^ -prater to rise in the i^lass and sho>v the true level of >vater in tank. If the water is low, require tank to be filled to two-thirds line. If water is hii^h, regu- late accordingly. 3. See that >rater level mark and amount of pressure io be car> ried are prominently marked on the tank. A special mark- ing plate is required. 4. Close all air and water valves, and open drip cock under itlass ilau^e. (e) Observe the general conditions of upkeep in connection with the tank in reference to water leaks, discharge outlet valve, drain pipe, tank-house heating arrangements, air and water supply pumps, etc. (f) See that there is a pump for properly filling pressure tank with water, noting that enough pressure is afforded to pump water while tank is under seventy- five to eighty pounds pressure, without reducing such pressure. Objections are found in instances where tank water supply is furnished direct from a weak city source, which necessitates release of air from tank. (g) Note if air compressor is of ample capacity, and is properly maintained, (h) It is good practice to have installed on each air and filling line to pressure tank a properly located and adjusted relief valve. Inspectors should ob- serve whether such valves are installed, and if so, see that they are prop- erly adjusted.; (See Air Pumps Section.) 4. STEAMER CONNECTIONS Steamer connections to automatic sprinkler equipments re- quire frequent observation; they should always be in readiness for service. The accidental failure of other water supplies would 162 FIELD PRACTICE render the steamer connection a source of almost equal value in instances of fire under headway. (See also sections on Inside Stajidpipe and Hose Systems and Open Sprinklers,) (a) Connection pipe should be designated by plate "Automatic Sprinkler Con- nection " and conspicuously located at an accessible point which may be readily seen by the Fire Department. The connection should be free from obstructions, giving the Fire Department direct access to same. Standpipe steamer connections (apart from sprinkler system) are frequently found. These should be especially desiijnated, so as to avoid any confusion in instances of use. (b) Note whether steamer pipe connection to underground main system is prop- erly located, on system side of city check valve. (c) It should be determined if the captain and men at the nearest fire station are familiar with the location of connection, if they fully understand the importance of instantly connecting up to same upon arrival, and whether or not they will do so in case of fire. (d) Caps should be kept over inlets at all times, be attached to the pipes, and threads kept well lubricated. Each Siamese intake pipe should be pro- vided with proper flapper, check valve, drip and gaskets. (e) It is advisable occasionally to remove the caps and observe whether or not there are any stones or other obstructions inside. Care should be taken to replace caps after such examinations. 5. AIR PUMPS AND COMBINATION AIR COMPRESSOR AND WATER PUMPS FOR FILLING PURPOSES In inspecting air pumps for supplying dry-pipe sprinkler systems and pressure tanks three types will be encountered: the belt driven pump, the electrically driven pump and the steam air compressor. It is becoming customary to have a combined air pump and water pump connected up with a motor for pressure tank work. Owing to the various types of air compressors and water pumps on the market, it would be almost impossible to go into detail as to the construction of each type, but it is strongly recommended that the equipment where a combination air and water pump is installed, should consist of a vertical single acting triplex water pump with brass valves and packing glands, and a two cylinder single acting air compressor, both to be driven through friction clutches and gears by an electric motor. This equipment should be properly mounted on a substantial base, and equipped with necessary oil and grease cups, blow-off valve and air chamber. FIELD PRACTICE 1C3 The capacity of the above mentioned combination of air and water pumps depends entirely upon the number of dry systems, pressure and gravity tanks in use, but in no case should the capacity be less than the following: — Water Air Gal. per Min. Cu. Ft. per Min. 35 11 50 20 (a) Sec that pump is properly connected to system, and test same by turning the pump over a few times to see that it is in good working order. (b) See that check and gate valve is located close to the pump for ease of opera- tion. (c) See that pump is properly oiled, and that man in charge of it oils the pump in the right way. (d) Examine the source of power and see that the belts, steam supply and elec trie wiring are propeily arranged. (e) See that air supply is taken from the outside or from a room having dry air and the intake protected by a screen. Providing it is not convenient to install an electrically driven compressor, a standard make steam compressor should be installed having the prescribed air capacity, as the belt driven power compressors are very unsatisfactory. II. FIRE PROTECTION IN GENERAL 1. Yard Hydrants. 2. Hose and Equipment for Yard Hydrant Use. 3. Inside Standpipes and Hose Systems. 4. Open Sprinklers. 5. Steam Jets. 6. Chemical Fire Extinguishers. 7. Water Casks and Pails. 8. Night Watchman. 9. Signaling Systems. 10. Care of Fire Appliances in Winter — Cold Weather Precautions. 11. Maintenance of Fire Doors and Shutters. 12. Wired Glass WindoM^s M^ith Metal Frame and Sash. 13. Stairways, Flevators and Vertical Shaft Fnclo- sures. 14. Tarpaulins and Blankets. 15. Whitew^ash Coating as a Fire Retardant. 16. Fireproof Coating Mixtures. 17. Skids and Raised Platforms. 18. Scuppers. FIELD PRACTICE 167 FIRE PROTECTION IN GENERAL 1. YARD HYDRANTS Hydrants in new installations should conform in all particu- lars to standard, with two or more 2i inch outlets (fitted with independent hose gates). Care should be taken that threads on hose outlets correspond exactly to the threads on the public fire department hose, or if there is no public fire department, threads should correspond to the hose couplings at nearest mill. In installing new hydrants care should be taken that they are fastened to the piping in a secure manner, by means of clamps attached to lugs cast on hydrant body. Each hydrant should be set on flat stone and gravel, and broken material placed under and around to give proper drainage. (a) Observe if any hydrants are leaking, and if so require immediate repairs. (b) See that hydrant stems and caps are well lubricated. (c) See that the arrow (indicating proper direction to turn hydrant to open) is not obliterated. If it is, require a new arrow to be painted on. (d) All hydrants should be flushed out thoroughly at least yearly. (e) To test hydrants properly attach gauge to special testing outlet (or if there is no gauge outlet, gauge plug can be inserted in a nozzle, and the gauge attached to one outlet) and obtain static pressure by opening hydrant, then flowing pressure by opening one or more outlets. (f) Do not test hydrants in cold weather by opening them. There is too much liability of their draining improperly, and consequent danger that they will freeze after the test. If there is reason to suspect that hydrants are not draining properly, test by *' sounding " with the hand on an open outlet. A mild turn of stem will furnish any evidence of frozen conditions. Another means of testing is to lower a weight into hydrant. The presence of ice can be determined by the sound, and water by the wetting of the weight. 2. HOSE AND EQUIPMENT FOR YARD USE It is most important that the hose and equipment shall be properly and conveniently arranged, else there is grave danger of disastrous delay in getting hose streams promptly upon a fire. A hose house, built in accordance with published standard, is ordinarily required over each yard hydrant. (In special in- 168 FIELD PRACTICE stances the Inspection Department having jurisdiction may have approved Other conditions, as, for instance, the location of a standard hose carriage in some convenient place.) (a) See that full complement of hose and implements is in hose houses. The ordinary equipment for a hose house is as follo^vst — ISO ft. to 250 ft. of hose. 2 play pipes iVs'' orifice. 2 fire axes. 2 croM^bars. 2 ladder straps. 1 lantern, kept filled. 4 to 6 spanners. 1 extra hydrant ^v^rench. Extra ivashers for hose couplini^s. (b) See that at least 100 feet of hose is coupled and attached to one hydrant out- let and that play pipe is attached to hose, ready for use in case of emer- gency. (c) See that one hydrant wrench is on hydrant and that extra wrench is hanging iri hydrant house. (d) See that all attached hose in hose house is neatly folded so it may be pulled out without twisting or kinking. (e) See that reserve hose is stored on upper shelf, as shown in published pam- phlet. Reserve hose should be in rolls. (f) Note size, kind, make of hose, and date of manufacture. (Label of Underwriters' Laboratories indicates inspection during manufac- ture.) (jf) Test hose couplings to see if they are interchangeable with other hose and' hose gates, with town hydrants and hose and / or those of nearest neighbors likely to give aid. This should al-H^ays be done at time of installation and repeated "Mrhenever hose has been lent to neighbors or after borroM^ed hose has been returned. (h) All hose should be tested for tightness at least once a year at from 100 to 125 pounds static pressure (except when ordinary pressure encountered ex- ceeds these figures, when higher test pressure is advisable). (i) Water should be run through all cotton rubber lined hose once or twice a year to retard deterioration of the rubber lining. Always drain all hose properly and dry jacket thoroughly before replacing the hose in the houses. (j) Examine hose house roofs and doors to make sure they are weather tight. (k) See that hose houses are clean and free from wasps' nests, rubbish, etc. (1) All precaution possible should be exercised by the management to prevent theft of hose house apparatus or misplacement of same, (m) See that hose house doors open high enough above the ground so they will not be obstructed at any season of the year. FIELD PRACTICE 169 3. INSIDE STANDPIPES AND HOSE SYSTEMS An inside standpipe and hose system should furnish a ready means for the control (by the occupants of a building) of incip- ient fires and also should be capable of furnishing high power streams of large calibre such as are required by fire departments. It is oftentimes the only way whereby effective fire streams may be provided in the upper stories of high buildings. Such a system must be maintained in perfect working order at all times. Frequent inspections are of great importance, especially in view of many actual occurrences where standpipe systems have been found useless in time of necessity, not alone because of deterioration in the perishable part of the equipment (the hose), but because the piping was frozen or choked or clogged with refuse or other foreign material such as workmen's clothing, tools, etc., carelessly thrown or left in the piping at time of installation. Mere visual inspection of the system and its accessories, such as hose, nozzles, etc., will not suffice, though such in- spection is valuable and necessary. In addition it must be determined absolutely that the water and the pressure will be available for the hose lines when the emergency comes. For details of installation requirements (both for original systems and additions to same), water supplies, etc., refer to pamphlet on Interior Standpipe Equipments. 1. HOSE AND EQUIPMENT. Hose should be of the best quality. Unlined linen fire hose is preferable for inside use. (Label of Underwriters' Laboratories indicates inspection during manufac- ture.) It is important that the threads on hose couplings shall be interchangeable with fire department hose and /or nearest neigh- bor likely to aid. There are two classes of standpipe systems, as follows: — (1) Small connections designed to control a fire in its in- cipiency. This class may further be subdivided thus: — (a) Small size standpipes with hose connections at different story levels. (b) Small size connections to the sprinkler system proper. 170 FIELD PRACTICE (2) Large standpipes with hose connections (frequently in- cluding roof hydrants or monitor nozzles) designed to facilitate carrying high power fire streams (required during the more ad- vanced stages of fire) into upper stories of buildings, or to fight fires in buildings close by. Two hose connections are frequently found at hose stations above the sixth story, the extra outlet being provided for addi- tional streams which may be needed in case of a heavy fire. There should be hose attached to each hose connection, with playpipe, and standpipes should be so arranged that fire streams will be effective in all parts of each story using this equipment. Hose should be arranged on a swinging rack or reel of approved design and located within easy reach of persons of average height standing on the floor, and free from all obstruc- tions which will render it difficult of access or which will pre- vent its prompt use in case of necessity. All hose stations should be prominently located. Each should be provided with a conspicuous permanent metallic sign, preferably painted red, reading "FIRE HOSE," to which in the case of stations equipped with large hose should be added "For Fire Department Use Only — Dangerous," and for stations with small hose "For Use by Occupants of Building." Roof hydrants should be so located that at least one stream will be available at any point on a roof. Each roof hydrant should be controlled by a gate valve located under roof and operated by a hand wheel above roof (connected to gate valve by an extension rod). Each roof hydrant should be located in a ventilated hose house similar (both as to construction and equipment) to a hose house for a yard hydrant. Where a roof hydrant is located in a heated roof house, the ordinary hose station equipment as described for standpipes may be employed. Monitor nozzles should be located in commanding positions so that streams can be brought effectively to bear on a fire in adjoining property. They should be connected to standpipe system similarly to roof hydrants and the same method of gate valve control and draining arrangement should be provided. Working parts should be protected from the weather by a cover which can be removed quickly. FIELD PRACTICK 171 The Inspection Department having jurisdiction should have a complete layout plan of entire standpipe system as originally installed. This plan should be accurately drawn to scale (gen- erally one inch equals fifty feet), and show location of each standpipe riser and hose connection, roof hydrant, monitor nozzle, etc., together with piping — both inside and undergound — supplying same, all valves, pipe sizes, water supplies, etc. Any and all changes in, or additions to, the system should be carefully and accurately noted on plan from time to time. It is essential that copies of this' plan be displayed conspicuously in various portions of the property, preferably one at each hose station, but at any rate at office, engine room and gate house, so that the extent, purposes and means of control of the system may be thoroughly understood. Where other fire protec- tion exists — such as sprinklers, hydrants, etc., — one plan should include all data. Changes should not be made without the knowledge and consent of the Inspection Department having jurisdiction, and notification should always be given the In- spection Department when it becomes necessary to shut off the water. (Conditions can be anticipated, and reasonable advance notification given except in case of emergencies, which neces- sitate immediate repairs.) Employees should be familiar with the system, the location of the hose stations, and the handling of heavy fire streams, and to this end it is recommended that "Private Fire Departments" be organized wherever feasible and regularly drilled in the use of the apparatus. ( See pamphlet covering suggestions for " Private Fire Depart- ments.''^ ) (a) See that all valves controlling water supply to standpipe system are sealed or strapped open. Controlling valves should be plainly- marked for identification and should be so located that they -«vill not be rendered inaccessible by heat or falling '^alls. If building changes have been made since installation, make sure that they have not been such as \o endanger the safety of controlling valves. (b) See that each connection from water supply to standpipe is provided with gate and check valves located close to the supply. ( See details of inspection of Gate and Check Valves.) (c) If there are steamer connections, see that they are accessible to fire depart- ment apparatus. 172 FIELD PRACTICE See that steamer connections are provided with female hose coup- lings for all outlets, that threads fit fire department hose couplings and that cap is on each coupling. See that steamer connections have *' Standpipe ** cast on top or otherw^ise plainly and permanently affixed. (See Steamer Connections for details of inspection.) (d) Each hose valve should be provided with an open pet cock arranged to dis- charge any leakage past the valve into an open drain pipe. The system of drain pipes should be large enough to carry off the water where the pet cocks are discharging under pressure, — should be rigidly installed and connected to the sewer or other convenient place for the disposal of the water. Main drain pipes should be connected to a discharge cone to fa- cilitate observation of w^orking conditions. Drain pipes should be installed on steamer connections Mi-ith ball drip valves so as to drain properly the piping bet^reen the check valves and the outside hose couplings. (e) Observe, by actual gauge test, if there is proper static water pressure at top of each standpipe riser. (There should be a gauge [or gauge connec- tion] with pet-cock at top of each standpipe riser. If these are not found, they should be provided.) This is important, not only to determine that there is actually -Heater pressure on the system, but also to be sure that conditions of normal >vater supply and^or pressure have not changed since pre- vious inspection. If either ^vater supply or pressure has become in- adequate the system has lost its efficiency, especially on upper floors. (f) A flowing pressure test, under normal conditions of water supply, should be made at top hose connection of each standpipe riser always at time of original installation, once a year thereafter, and ■M'henever the inspector has reason to suspect riser has become obstructed by reason of freezing or other cause. A separate length of hose, kept for the purpose, should be used and a record should be kept of pressures obtained — both flow^ing and static — for comparative purposes, that the presence of unusual or dangerous conditions may the more readily be recognized. (g) At fall and winter inspections make sure that towers or attic enclosures con- taining standpipes are well heated so that there will be no danger of freezing, (h) See that each hose valve is equipped with an open drip connection, so in- stalled that any slight leakage past valve seat will be carried off and there will be no danger of water seeping into hose, (i) See that gate valves for roof hydrants and monitor nozzles are equipped with drains so that when valves are closed the roof hydrant or monitor nozzle will drain. FIELD PRACTICE ITS (j) See that hose outlet valves are not leaking-, that they are not obstructed and that they can be operated readily if necessary, (k) Observe if hose connections are so arranged that fire streams will be efTective in all parts of each story. (1) See that hose is attached to outlet; that it is neatly folded on rack or properly reeled and that nozzle is attached. When inspector has no proper assurance of ilood qualiiy in the hose, investiitation should be made, a representative leniftth bein^ submitted to heavy water pressure test. (m) If hose equipment is defective or incomplete, renewals or additions to equip- ment should be required. (n) See that in addition to hose and nozzle equipment (where required by In- spection Department having jurisdiction) each hose station is provided with an axe, a lantern, a saw, two spanners and a supply of rubber gaskets. (o) Ascertain if there is any organization of employee's for fighting fire and if so, if they are drilled regularly. Drills where hose is laid out but >vhere water is not turned on are of much value in familiarizinit the employees >vith the equipment* 4. OPEN SPRINKLERS Full and efficient protection against serious exposure fires cannot be expected from open sprinkler systems alone, but in conjunction with standard fire shutters, steel rolling shutters or wired glass windows in standard metal frames, a water curtain or spray from open sprinklers will be of material service, pro- vided an uninterrupted supply of water is available. This can be had only from town or city waterworks systems of excep- tional reliability, or from private pumping plants of large capacity having more than ordinary sources of water supply to draw from. It is presumed that the equipment has been installed in con- formity with standard requirements in all details of construc- tion ; that a sufficient number of sprinkler outlets have been provided to "cover" all vulnerable points on the exposed build- ing, and that a practical test has been made at time of installa- tion to determine the ability of the water supply to furnish an adequate volume and pressure of water to thoroughly drench all exposed surfaces the system is designed to protect. Open sprinkler systems apparently remain unchanged from 174 FIELD PRACTICE year to year, the supposition being that as there are no movable parts subject to corrosive influences, it is merely necessary to turn on the water at a moment's notice, and obtain a full flow of water from all sprinkler orifices. Such, however, is not always the result, owing to the orifices becoming clogged with scale from the piping, or small particles of hard sediment, etc., being carried along through the branch lines. It is, therefore, advisable to make annual or semiannual waterflow tests of open sprinkler systems. In some places this can be done only on holidays, or at times other than during regular business hours. On buildings having more than one side subject to exposure from one direction, all of the sprinklers covering such areas should be tested at the same time, to ascer- tain if the water supply is adequate to feed all sprinklers designed to be so operated. SUGGESTIONS FOR INSPECTION. (a) Prepare a rough diagram of the sides of building equipped, drawing vertical lines to correspond with each vertical row or tier of windows protected, and horizontal lines to represent the number of lines of sprinklers. Mark the vertical lines A, B, C, etc., and the horizontal lines 1, 2, 3, etc, (b) Attach pressure gauges at pump or feed main and at the upper part of the system if possible. (c) See that all windows are tightly closed and, if possible, arrange to have per- sons stationed on each floor of the building with cloths, etc., to absorb any water that may leak in through crevices. Arrange to have gauge pressures noted. (d) Have the water turned on and carefully note any sprinklers that do not make full discharge of water, using the diagram to make a quick record of the heads that are clogged, viz., B, 4; G, 2, etc. As it may be possible to keep water flowing but a few moments, the diagram will serve for consul- tation at leisure after the supply is turned off". Open sprinklers on extreme end of lines are subject to clogging -with sediment and other obstacles. It is advisable to require at end of lines a 12-inch or IS-inch exitension capped at the end, in order to take care of such accumulations, M^hich may be removed. (e) See that the sprinklers so noted are removed, cleaned, replaced and the system perfectly drained after testing. (f) Ascertain if night watchman, day engineer or superintendent, is familiar Avith water controlling valve or valves to open sprinkler system; also whether officers of nearest fire station are familiar with location and operation of system. FIELD PRACTICE 175 5. STEAM JETS AND DRY ROOM SPRINKLERS Steam jets may be of value in such enclosures as shavings vaults, dry kilns, dust collecting rooms, small picker rooms, certain types of drying and japanning ovens, and in other rooms of this nature wherein a fire may be extinguished by means of a prompt flow of steam. Steam properly used, acts to smother the flames. Automatic sprinklers installed in a standard manner constitute the only dependable protection, and their use should never be waived in favor of steam jets. Where protection supplementary to standard protection is desired or where such protection is not available, steam jets may be installed for fire extinguishing purposes. The following features are considered essential to their effective operation: — (a) Steam Jets to Act Automatically-* The use of approved automatic sprinklers to release the ste:im from the pipes is considered essential. The valve on the pipe line should be sealed open at all times. The use of a valve which must be opened in case of fire is not recommended. (b) Steam Supply- to be Ample. It is necessary to have a supply of steam at all times. The minimum pressure should be such that steam can be delivered, with all the outlets wide open, at not less than fifteen pounds at the entrance to the system. (C) Pipe Sizes. The pipe sizes should be in accordance with the rules govern- ing the installation of automatic sprinkler equipments. Where located over 200 feet from the boilers, the feed pipe to the jets should be one size larger than the regular schedule size. The pipe to the boilers should be lagged to prevent condensation. (d) Pipe Supplying Jets to be Independent. The pipe should be an inde- pendent line direct from the boilers. The pipe should be clear of all wood- work or combustible material where passing through partitions, and be substantially supported. (e) Jets Required. Automatic jets to be provided in the proportion of one for each 1000 cubic feet area of the enclosure. Entire cubical contents of the enclosure protected to be figured, including hollow walls, monitors, venti- lators, etc. (f) Spacinil. Jets should be spaced not over ten feet apart. Lines nearest the walls (in both directions) not to be over five feet distant. Pipe lines may be fastened directly to the side walls by metal hangers if desired. A distribution of heads will insure more prompt opening at a fire and will place the steam to better advantage than would one large jet. Heads can best be located overhead as they will be more quickly opened by the heat if near the ceiling. Orifices should point downward unless the heads are subject to injury, in which case they should be located upright, above the pipes. 176 FIELD PRACTICE (g) Distributing Pipes. Distributing pipes should be graded so that water from condensation will remain in the pipes. This will permit of a lower test sprinkler being used than if the steam is in contact with the sprinkler. This method also has the advantage that water will be discharged at first and cool the fire. Where the steam pipe enters from below, an automatic steam trap should be provided, to keep the riser free of water. (h) Openings into Enclosure. All openings should be provided with means for closing them tightly. This includes all ventilators, doors and pipe openings. It is essential for prompt fire extinguishment, that the steam be so confined that no fresh air can be admitted. (1) L.o'w Test Sprinklers Practicable. Use as low a test sprinkler as prac- ticable. A margin of 50 to 75 degrees over the ordinary maximum tem- perature is usually sufficient. 6. CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS These first aid appliances are invaluable in extinguishing in- cipient fires and should be liberally provided and maintained in good condition. (Label of Underwriters' Laboratories indicates inspection of extinguishers during manufacture.) All extinguishers should be conspicuously located, preferably suspended on posts or walls about five feet from floor and should be systematically spaced throughout the entire buildings or floors requiring them. 1 . CARBONIC ACID GAS EXTINGUISHERS (HAND TYPE). (a) Test by actual operation, emptying the contents as at a fire; then require that the extinguisher be immediately refilled and the date of recharging noted on tag provided for that purpose. They should be recharged at least once a year. (b) Carefully examine hose, hose nozzle and connection, observing whether or not the latter shows signs of corrosion. If hose shows signs of deterioration, have a new hose provided. (c) Property owners should keep on hand a quantity of sulphuric acid and bi- carbonate of soda for prompt recharging of extinguishers. (d) Care should be taken that extinguishers are not placed in buildings where they might freeze. During extremely cold weather it is advisable to group the extinguishers in a room sufficiently heated to prevent freezing. 2. EXTINGUISHERS EMPLOYING SPECIAL LIQUIDS WITH LOW FREEZING POINTS. (a) Examine extinguisher carefully to ascertain if it is fully charged with the liquid supplied for its use by the manufacturers. FIELD PRACTICK 177 (b) Examine outlet and any moving parts to ascertain if they are free from corrosion and in perfect working order. (c) Property owners should keep on hand a quantity of the liquid supplied by the manufacturers for use in such extinguishers. 3. CHEMICAL ENGINES ON WHEELS. These are practically an enlarged form of the hand carbonic acid gas extinguisher, and the suggestions given above for their inspection are applicable to the chemical engine. 7. WATER CASKS AND PAILS t SAWDUST AND BICARBONATE OF SODA Note condition of casks or pails as regards decay, leaking or rust, and contents as regards cleanliness. All casks and pails should be well painted, and completely emptied, cleaned and refilled at regular intervals. They should also be covered. So much depends on climatic conditions and temperatures that it is impossible to determine just how often they should be filled, but a careful inspection on the part of the plant inspector may insure their being full at all times. (a) Note that all casks and pails are in readily accessible and prominent locations. Pails should be kept near casks. There should be at least one dozen pails to every 5,000 feet of floor area. If the plant is equipped with pails only they should be suspended from brackets made fast to the walls or posts and not less than five feet from the iloor. (b) If all pails are painted a bright red and marked •♦ For Fire Only** there is less danger of the employees using them for domestic purposes. (c) Note temperature of rooms to determine whether water will freeze in winter. If there is any likelihood of this, there should be dissolved one and one- half pounds of common salt or calcium chloride to each gallon of water. (d) The value of sawdust as a means of extinguishing fire in burning liquids by smothering flame, is recognized. Where volatiles are handled, and where grease and oil boiling is conducted, recommend an ample number of pails of sawdust with about a ten per cent mixture of crude bicarbonate of soda and scoops for them. 8. NIGHT WATCHMAN Care should be given the selection of a night watchman. In permitting a man to assume watch and care over property repre- senting great values, the owner should be particular to employ not only a strong and able-bodied one, but one who is trust- 178 FIELD PRACTICE worthy and honest. In addition, he should be instructed in the operation of all means of fire protection and manner of extin- guishment. A night watchman having these qualifications is entitled to proper compensation, as the nature of his work and the long hours justly warrant such consideration. Too often it is found that the night watchman is a man unfit for such service, — being old, crippled or infirm, — and more worthy as a pensioner than qualified to assume the important duties of a caretaker. As much care should be followed in selecting a night watchman as in securing a bookkeeper or engineer. A watchman should not be overburdened with other duties, such as firing boilers, doing janitor's work, acting as messenger, or be given work which may prevent him from giving undivided attention to observation of the plant under his charge. It should be carefully observed whether or not the night watchman qualifies as follows: — (a) Watchman snould not be permitted to smoke while on duty. He should re- frain from all intoxicants. A watchman without the smoking habit is distinctly preferable. (b) The watchman should know the exact location of all fii-e apparatus on the premise?, and understand how to use it. He must frequently observe whether such apparatus is in operative condition, by practically testing it. He should immediately make report to the management of any defective apparatus, or of the misplacement of the same. (c) The watchman should know the exact location of all fire alarms, of the tele- phone number of fire department headquarters, and the location and number of nearest street fire alarm box. He must also know the name of street and exact number on street of the concern for which he is working. (d) The watchman upon assuming his regular duties should see that all fire doors and shutters are closed and that they are in operative order, where they are not of the self-closing type. He should close doors to stairways and other vertical openings, where not self-closing, (e) The watchman should carefully observe the matter of cleanliness, especially the presence of oily waste, rags, workmen's clothes, rubbish and useless inflammable material. He should take instant care of, or i-emove same, or report to management for attention. (f) The watchman should familiarize himself with location of all furnaces, boilers, heaters, or other heating apparatus, and their arrangement, espe- cially observing upon his rounds the condition of same, and of any com- bustible material nearby. (g) The watchman should know the exact location of gas shut-off valves, and of electric light and power cut-out switches. (h) The watchman should have full instructions as to details of operation of au- tomatic sprinkler equipment, and the turning on and shutting off of water. FIELD PRACTICE 179 (I) The watchman should be instructed as to manner in which to communicate instantly with superintendent or other company officials. (J) The watchman should observe closely the location of storage of acids, chemi- cals, oils and explosives, if any, ji;^iving especial attention to proper main- tenance and care of all such supplies. (k) The watchman should be regular in his rounds, start promptly upon his duties, and not leave the premises until checked out by person or persons relieving him. He should never leave the premises unguarded during duty hours. He should, during his rounds, keep his eye on adjoining exposing properties and in case of a neighboring fire, should turn in a fire alarm. (1) Watchman should not be permitted to use or carry other than safety matches. He should be provided with and use an approved safety lantern or electric lamp. (m) The watchman should never lose sight of the fact that he is entrusted with the important responsibility of protecting large values against loss by fire and that many employees are dependent for their livelihood upon the per- manent operation of the plant and property over which he has charge. (n) The employer should see that route and stations are so located that watchman may cover the entire plant at least hourly. Watchman should not be permitted to devote less than 45 minutes of each hour to " ringing in," nor should be permitted to rush through the plant in a few minutes and then remain idle the balance of the hour. 9. SIGNALING SYSTEMS This subject is a very comprehensive one, covering all such systems, from the very complex central station equipment to the simple local electric bell alarm often found in con- nection with automatic sprinkler systems. For details of construction and installation of the various systems included under the above heading, the Inspector is referred to the sep- arately published regulations. For information in reference to the operation of particular devices, and methods of testing cir- cuits, test records, runner service, etc., the Inspector should apply at the offices of the installing and operating companies. As all central station Manual Fire Alarm, Automatic Fire Alarm, Thermostat, Watchmen's Time Recording and Automatic Sprinkler Supervisory Systems are closed circuits, constantly energized, the Inspector must necessarily refrain from making any individual examination or test "w^ithout special permission from an official source, and reinspections must, therefore, consist largely of examination of service records. 180 FIELD PRACTICE The Inspector is advised to make all examinations of these systems accompanied by an authorized representative of the signaling company. The signaling company's records will, in most instances, furnish satisfactory information in reference to general operative efficiency. (See also Alarm Valves.) 1. MANUAL FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS. (a) Note the general layout of the system, location and accessibility of boxes, condition of exposed interior and exterior wiring, insulator fastenings and supports. (b) Note additions and extensions, and if any new buildings are not covered by the system. (c) Examine test records. 2. AUTOMATIC FIRE ALARM AND THERMOSTAT SYS- TEMS. (a) Observe the general arrangement of circuits, location of thermostats, loca- tion and accessibility of manual boxes, annunciators, etc. (b) Note any portions of the building in which the system is disconnected or to which it has not been extended. (C) See that thermostats have not been boxed within hollow partitions or other very small enclosures that would impair the efficiency of the system in sur- rounding areas. (d) Note any seriously corroded or coated thermostats, connections, loose fastenings, etc. (e) Examine test records. Test local circuits and where possible the outside lines. 3. AUTOMATIC JOURNAL ALARMS. (a) Note the general run of circuits, location of switches, annunciator, gongs, number of thermostats, etc. (\i) See that all bearings are properly equipped and each thermostat in good condition. (c) Observe the method of testing and examine record dials. 4. WATCHMAN'S TIME RECORDING APPARATUS. A. Central Station Systems. (a) Note the location of all watch or clock stations, type of appliances etc. (b) See that all portions of buildings are " covered " in rounds from station to station, and note the rounds made nights, Sundays and holidays. (c) Examine clock dials or records made since previous inspection. (d) Observe if type of boxes is approved. FIELD PRACTICE 181 B. Local or Private Stationary Systems and Portable Watch Clocks. Make same general examination of system as for Central Station System, also particularly observe key stations, noting if keys are in place and securely fastened. Observe if system is of approved type. 5. AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER ALARM AND SUPERVISORY SYSTEMS. (a) Observe the various distinctive features of the system, viz., gate valve, pres- sure gauge, water-level, temperature, water-flow and manual alarm signal devices so tar as a superficial examination can be made, but make no at- tempt to test the system by operation of devices without first obtaining permission. (b) Note gate valves, whether indicating open or closed. If doubt exists, apply to proper authority for permission to test. (c) Examine signal records and request demonstration as to method of receipt from plant and transmission to Fire Department. 6. LOCAL SPRINKLER ALARM SYSTEMS. While the general requirements call for connection to Fire Department houses or to residences of employees nearby, such connections are not always feasible and dependence often has to be placed upon the ordinary gong. (a) Ascertain the location of alarm gongs with reference to probable value in attracting attention in the event of operation. (b) Obtain permission to test before doing so. The sudden ringing of an alarm may cause serious disturbance among employees, and where there is con- nection with a distant house, a false alarm would bring forth prompt con- demnation. ^c) Permission being received, test alarm on wet system by opening test valve, or any opening equivalent to the flow from one sprinkler. (d) Require inoperative alarms to be put in serviceable condition. le) Ascertain if it is customary to make weekly tests of system; if not, suggest that some such systematic plan be followed. 7. WATER MOTOR SPRINKLER ALARMS. These may be considered as signaling devices and the same care should be exercised in testing to avoid unpleasant results. Require repairs or adjustment of alarms found inoperative. 182 FIELD PRACTICE 8. FACTORY ALARMS. In some cities and states, laws require the installation of manually operated alarm gongs to supplement exit drills. The Inspector should not attempt to test such devices without permission. 10. CARE OF FIRE APPLIANCES IN WINTER- COLD WEATHER PRECAUTIONS Cold weather is especially severe upon fire protection appli- ances ; and unless extreme care is exercised the very best instal- lations may suffer temporary disablement. Just prior to the approach of winter it is necessary that attention be given all fire protection appliances and connections, in order that precautions may be taken to forestall damage and disablement from frost. Inspectors should personally assure themselves that every- thing possible is done to prevent cold weather damage, and the following features, in particular, should be directly called to the attention of property owners: — (a) Examine tanks and all pipes, fittings and valves, whether for steam heating, general water service, or fire protection. See that none is frozen or has been frozen, and that they are all in operative condition, and where there is any liability of freezing, provide the necessary protection. (b) See that all valves are open that should be open, and try water outlets to ascertain if all pipes are free and ready for service. (c) See that extra sprinklers are on hand in case of need to replace frozen or melted heads. (d) Be sure that engineer or supervising employee is fully posted as to the pur- pose and intention of every valve and pipe. (e) Try out pumps and see that they are in proper working order. (f) Test all of the hydrants and indicator posts, and see that they drain properly. (g) Instruct the night watchman thoroughly in the use of all fire apparatus and the operation of all valves. (h) Examine the end of suction pipe of fire pump to see that leaves or other refuse matter have not clogged up the holes in the strainer. Installations have been reported where the capacity of the pump has been greatly reduced through such conditions. (I) Attention is called to the liability of water to freeze in casks and pails in cold buildings. Measures should be taken to guard against this, (j) Chemical extinguishers should be emptied and recharged to insure their being in perfect working order, (k) Hydrants should receive especial attention, as should also inside standpipe and connections. FIELD PRACTICE 183 11. MAINTENANCE OF FIRE DOORS AND SHUTTERS Solid walls are generally more eflicient as fire retardants than even the best class of doors used to protect the openings in such walls. The value of any wall structure as a fire stop is, therefore, largely dependent on the number of openings, and the protection afforded by the fire doors, or shutters, closing these openings. It is also evident that the door or shutter designed to protect an opening is of no value unless it closes the open- ing in time of fire, and that its efficiency when in position depends largely upon the manner in which it is attached to the wall and its operative condition. (Labels of the Underwriters' Laboratories on doors, shutters or hardware, therefore, may be taken as evidence of the proper construction of the same at the factory.) It is vindo-H^ as installed may be affected by im- proper installation or by abuse or failure to keep in repair after installation. FIELD PRACTICE 186 13. STAIRWAYS, ELEVATORS AND VERTICAL SHAFT ENCLOSURES Floor openings (unless properly protected) will serve as flues through which a fire may easily extend to all parts of a building. They should, therefore, be thoroughly safeguarded. (See famphlet on Uniform Requirements.') Property owners should be particularly careful not to cut neiv openiniis (for stairways, elevators or other purposes) in any buildinit without havinit first notified the Inspection Department havinit juris- diction and followinit its suililestions as to the proper safeguards. 1. STAIRWAYS. In new factory buildings stairways in separate towers are advised. Of such towers there are two types: — (a) The smokeproof stair tower. This consists of a fireproof tower en- tirely cut of!" from the building by a blank parapeted fire wall. Entrance to the same is by open outside platforms — likewise fireproof — with ap- proved automatic sliding- or swinging fire doors at each opening from the platform to building and to tower. This provides safe means of exit, en- tirely apart from, while attached to, the building. This type of stair tower is recommended as the safest and best. (b) Ordinary stair tower. This is generally of the same construction as the building it serves, stairway may and preferably should be incombustible. Entrance to it is direct from each floor, each doorway being fitted with an approved automatic sliding or swinging fire door. Ordinary stairways may be protected to a certain extent in either of the following ways: — (c) The preferred method is to enclose the stairway entirely from bottom to top in a tight partition. This partition should he at least 2^ inches thick and preferably of cement on metal lath with metal studs plastered on both sides, and when so constructed should have approved automatic sliding or swinging fire doors at doorways opening into each floor. (Municipal ordinances should he referred to where governing.) Note. — In buildings of lire resistive construction, enclosure should be of brick, tile or concrete at least 8 inches thick. In attachiuil fire doors to metal and plaster partitions, care should be taken that special iron framework is provided to carry load and -w^eii^ht of door. (d) When stairway enclosures are not practicable a draft check can be provided by means of heavy trap doors counterbalanced and made automatic by the use of fusible links. This method is not recommended, however, where it is possible to obtain an enclosure, not only because trap doors are liable to be left open but also because, having operated in event of a fire, they cut oft from the occupants what is often the only means of escape. There Is also a possibility of injury to persons should trap door fall or operate at an inopportune moment. 186 FIELD PRACTICE 2. ELEVATORS. They are safest when located in a separate cut-off tower with door opening at the various floors provided with approved auto- matic sliding fire doors. These doors should always be arranged to open only from the elevator side, and should preferably be so equipped that the elevator cannot be run unless they are all closed. The approved type of counterbalanced elevator doors is desirable. As in the case of stairways, elevators are frequently found located inside the buildings. They should be protected in either of the following ways: — (a) A shaft enclosure at least 2^^ inches thick of cement on metal lath extending from bottom to top of eievatorway with approved automatic sliding fire doors at door openings at each floor. Note. — In buildings of fire resistive construction, enclosure should be of brick, tile or concrete at least 8 inches thick. (b) When a shaft enclosure is not deemed practicable, the elevator should always be equipped with automatic hatches. These are so arranged as to operate automatically by the travel of the elevator itself. These hatches are not, however, recommended except when shaft enclosures are not practi- cable, as they are not feasible for fast running elevators. 3. OTHER VERTICAL SHAFT OPENINGS. These are generally for chutes through which goods are passed to floors below, or for hand hoists, dumb waiters, etc. They are most safely arranged when located in an outside structure thoroughly cut off from the building with standard automatic fire doors or shutters at all openings. Tops of chutes should be provided with weighted covers so arranged that they are closed except when goods are being passed through. It is also desirable to install dampers at proper intervals in chutes to check draft in event of fire. Belt holes through floors require the same fire-resistive enclosures as other vertical openings. The holes should be made as small as possible and covered by a housing of heavy galvanized iron or 2" matched plank or its equivalent. There should be at least a 3* curbing around opening at floor to pre- vent water, dirt and refuse from working through. FIELD PRACTICE 187 General Inspection Observations (a) Inspect carefully the arrangement of all stairways, elevators and other vertical shafts and observe if conditions of protection have in any way deteriorated since previous inspection. If so, arrange for the necessary repairs. (b) Observe if new openings have been safeguarded. (C) If any temporary openings have been made, ascertain the probable length of time they will be needed and arrange for temporary trap doors (or other safeguards) to be provided. Close >vatch should be kept on temporary openini^s, "Hrhich should be permanently closed as soon as possible. (d) Test all doors as provided under Care and Maintenance to make sure they are in proper working order and unobstructed. Such doors should be closed at nii^ht and at other times >vhen not in use. (e) Observe if elevator hatches or trap doors are all in proper working order and that none is broken or otherwise in need of repair. Request any needed improvements. (f) Inspect all covers, shutters and dampers on chutes, dumb waiters, etc., to make sure that they are in proper working order and unobstructed. (g) Do not permit combustible material to be stored in landings of elevator or stair shafts. These spaces should be kept clear. 14. TARPAULINS AND BLANKETS Tarpaulins are commonly used by the Fire Insurance Patrol and often by those places of business having organized private fire protection. (The tarpaulins of the Fire Insurance Patrol are made of No. 250 Brown drill, given two coats of a preparation composed of four gallons of Calcutta raw linseed oil mixed with one-half pint of lithia; this takes one hundred and twenty days to dry thoroughly. A better preparation, giving longer life to the covers, and better waterproofing, is obtained by using a mixture as follows: four gallons of Calcutta raw linseed oil, one-half pint of dryer, one-half pint of lithia, one-half pint of turpentine, and one-half pint of beeswax melted and stirred into the mixture. Each cover should receive two coats, which will dry and be ready for use in sixty days.) 188 FIELD PRACTICE (a) The size of the tarpaulins is about 12 by 18 feet, with grommets at conven- ient intervals for hanging them on side walls where necessary to protect stock on shelves. (b) The folding of tarpaulins is important, for if done properly two men can spread them in two motions, and time is an important factor where water is coming through floors upon a stock of goods. The first fold is across the twelve foot width; the cover now occupy- ing 6 by 18 feet; the second fold is in the same direction, making the cover 3 ft. by 18 ft. The next fold is across the length; the cover is now 3 ft. by 9 ft. The next fold is in the same direction and cover occupies 3 ft. by 4>^ ft. It can now be readily handled, stored on the wagons, in trucks or racks, and two men in two motions can spread the cover its full length. (C) Where a factory or place of business has its own Fire Department, it should have also its own salvage corps and have its covers ready for use stacked on a hand truck with end guards or rails, but no sides, so that the covers may be readily taken from the truck on either side, but can be piled up at least three feet high on the truck. (d) The covers used by a private salvage corps may be made of lighter drill, but their protective quality will be accordingly reduced. (e) The members of the corps should be drilled in folding and spreading covers. ( ) They should be instructed how to break joints on covers, and where neces- sary to double cover. (g) They should be taught how to install a cover in the form of a tank under any leak or stream of water. (h) The Fire Insurance Patrol usually remove water from floors, by sweeping it to an elevator shaft or stairway, but where the water is not in such great quantities, a few old blankets quickly spread will absorb a considerable amount which can be squeezed out in a sink or ash can. (1) Tarpaulins should be aired at intervals, and should never be put away unless they are thoroughly clean and dry. 15. WHITEWASH COATING AS A FIRE RETARD ANT The coating of interior wood finish with whitewash will prevent fire from readily igniting surfaces so protected. The U. S. Government Standard mixture is as follows: — Slack one-half bushel of unslacked lime with boiling water, keeping covered during process. Strain and add one peck of salt, dissolved in warm water; three pounds of ground rice, put in water and boiled to a thin paste; one-half pound of powdered Spanish whiting ; one pound clear glue dissolved in hot water. Mix well and let stand for several days. Keep in kettle or receptacle and apply hot as pos- sible with paint or whitewash brush. FIELD PRACTICE 189 16. FIREPROOF COATING MIXTURES The following formula is one of several for the fireproofing of materials, fabrics, etc., together with a list of the compounds generally used, and found effective. (See Note.) One-half pint Fullers earth ; two pints sulphate manganese; two and one-half pints alum; one pint silicate of sodium; one-half pint glue; twenty pints of water; fifteen pints mineral paint. Apply with brush. FIREPROOFING CHEMICALS: Alum, tungstate of soda, silicate of soda and all soda compounds. The compounds of gypsum form adhesive but brittle coatings, i. e., alabastine muresco, indiorine. Care should be exercised to have wood dry to avoid dry rot. The inflammability of wood may be reduced by impregnating it with silicate of soda and precipitating silica with chloride of ammonia or barium. The following are twelve effective anti-pyrenes in flame proofing tests: Ammonium phosphate, ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, calcium chlo- ride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, alum, borax, boric acid and aluminum hydrate, zinc sulphate and stannous chloride. Note. — It should not be overlooked in fireproofing materials that many of them require expert treatment for which certain chemicals are better adapted and more efTective. 17. SKIDS AND RAISED PLATFORMS Goods stored, particularly in lower floors and basements, should be placed on raised skids or skeleton platforms, not less than four inches from floor level, and never placed so as to ob- struct access to sewer connections. (a) Observe that rubbish and accumulations are not permitted to lodge under stock so stored. (b) Where possible goods should be a fair distance from walls and partitions and from bottom of elevator and stairway shafts. 18. SCUPPERS It is recommended that, when feasible, floors be built with a slight pitch (about one inch to twenty feet) and have proper scuppers or drain pipe. (a) Observe if building is provided with scuppers for draining. They should be kept free from obstructions, and the traps should move easily. INDEX 191 INDEX Absorption of heat, 35. Acetylene gas, 23. generator, 27. Air pumps, 162. Air spaces, in connection with heating de- vices, 35. Alarm, manual fire, 180. automatic fire and thermostats, 180. automatic sprinkler and supervisory, 181 . local sprinkler, 181. water motor sprinkler, 181 . Alarm vedves to automatic sprinkler systems. 148. Ammonia as a refrigerating medium, 81 . Ammunition, fixed, 68. "Approved" fittings, etc., 15. Artificial gas, 23. Ash cans, 1 12. Autogenous welding, 53. Automatic sprinkler, 137-163. air pumps and combina- tion air compressor, 162. alarm valves, 1 48. distribution, 140. check valves, 145. dry-pipe valves, 1 47. electrically driven fire pumps, 157. feed mains and risers,. 143. gate valves and fittings, 143. gravity tanks, 158. indicator posts, 1 44. inside valves, 144. installation requirements 145. local alarm systems, 181. melting point of, 141. pressure tanks, 160. private water supplies, 154. protection against cor- rosion, 141. rotary pumps, 158. steam boilers in connec- tion with fire pumps for, 156. steam fire pumps. 155. steamer connections, 161. supervisory systems, 181. tests of gate valves for, 145. underground pipes, 149. underground valves, 1 44. water supplies, 151. Belt holes, 186. Blaugas, 28. Bleaching, 57. Blower systems for heating, ventilating, stock and refuse conveying, 64-65. Boilers, steam, 73. explosion, precautions of, 74. in connectionwith fire pumps, 156. upright, 75. Breeching, furnace, 46. Bronze powders, 104. Brooders, 56. Buffing wheels, 66. c Calcium carbide, 26. Candles, 32. Carbon dioxide as a refrigerating medium. 82. Care and Maintenance, 107. ash cans, refuse barrels, and recepta- cles, 1 12. Christmas trees, 1 15. holiday and other displays, safeguards, metal lockers, 1 13. " no smoking '* precautions, 1 1 3. safety volatile oil cans. 1 12. waste cans. 111. Check valves, 145. Chemical engines on wheels, 177. Chemical fire extinguishers, 1 76. 192 INDEX Chemicals, 85. rendered hazardous by water of moisture, 86. Chemicals, paints and oils, 83. Chimneys and flues in dwellings, 1 1 7. care of old chimneys, 1 26. stovepipes, 124. Chimneys, furnace, 45. suggestions for the construction of, 119-125. Chlorates, 87. Christmas trees, 115. Cleaning machinery, 67. Coffee roasters, 62. Common fire heizards and their safeguard- ing. 17. Commonly found miscellaneous hazards, 63-69. ashes, cuttings and clippings, 69. blower systems for heating, ventilat- ing, stock and refuse conveying, 64-65. buffing wheels, 66. charcoal, spontaneous ignition of, 98. cleaning machinery, 67. coal dust, 103. corn shellers, 67. dip tanks, 63. drip cups and pans, 67. egg candling, 68. explosives and fireworks, 68. fixed ammunition, 68. mixing and compounding, 68. oily waste and waste cans, 69. picker and garnetting rooms, 65. plating, 64. testing by gasoline, 67. workmen's clothes, 69. Compressed or liquid gas, 28. Compressor, combination air, 162. Core ovens, 54. Corn shellers, 67. Crude oil, 3 1 . Cupolas, 54. Cut-outs, 22. D Dip tanks, 63. Displays for holidays, etc., 115. Drip cups and pans, 67. Dry closet systems, 52. Dry pipe valves, 147. Dry rooms, 59. sprinklers, 175. Ductless heating and ventilating systems, 52. Dust explosions, 101-102. in miscellaneous substances, 103. Dwelling house hazards, 1 27- 1 34. family garage, 1 33. fire protection, 133. gasoline and explosives, 132. general suggestions, 134. heating hazards, 131. housekeeping, 129. lighting hazards, 1 30. matches, 130. smoking, 130. stoves, 132. E Effect of continuous heat upon heating de- vices, 36. Egg candling, 68. Electric, heating devices, 23, 131. irons, 48. motors, 77. power, 75-77. Electrical fittings, list of, 15. Electrically driven fire pumps, 1 57. Electricity, lighting by, 2 1 , 131. Elevators, 186. Enameling ovens, 57-59. Engines, gas and gasoline, 77-79. Essential points for inspector and property owner, 109. Elxhaust pipes from gas and gasoline en- gines, 78. Elxperimental work (chemical), 89. Elxplosions, dust, 101-102. coal dust, 103. smoke, 105. Elxplosives, 68. Elxtinguishers, chemical fire, 1 76. Fireplaces, 123. Fireproof coating mixtures, 1 Fireproofing chemicals, 1 89. 193 Fireworks, 68. Fire appliances, list of, 15. Fire doors and shutters, material of, 183. Fire protection and its broad meaning, 3. Fire protection and upkeep. 135. Fire protection in general, 165-189. care of fire appliances in winter, 182. chemical fire extinguishers. 1 76. fireproof coating mixtures. 1 89. hose and equipment for yard use, 167. inside standpipe and hose systems, 169-173. maintenance of fire doors and shutters, 183. night w^atchman, 1 77. open sprinklers, 173. scuppers, 189. signaling systems. 1 79. skids and raised platforms, 189. stairways, elevators and vertical shaft enclosures, 185. steam jets and dry room sprinklers, 175. tarpaulins and blankets, 187. water casks and pails: sawdust and bicarbonate of soda, 177. whitewash coating as a fire retard- ant, 188. wired glass windows in metal frame and sash, 184. yard hydrants. 167. Fire pumps. 1 54, Fires due to heat absorption, 36. Flashlight powders, 105. Flexible tubing for gas connections, 25. Flues. 120-125. furnace, 45. Foreword, 5. Forges, 54. Freezing, protection of apparatus from, 1 82. Fruit ripening, 56. Furnaces or heating devices of a fixed or stationary character, 37. Grading of, 38. low, 40. medium, 41. high. 42. • setting, mounting and clearance of, 42. important features for general in- stallation of. 43. special notes on. 44. Furnaces, hand or movable. 47. stacks, chimneys and flues for, 45. Fuel oil, for domestic use, 79. under boilers and furnaces. 79. Fusing point of metals, 38. Garage, the family, 1 33. Gas. acetylene, 26. Blaugas, 28. compressed or liquid. 28. (natural) floor heaters. 52. jets. 25. lighting, 23. 130. meters. 24. Pintsch. 28. pressure regulations of, 24. public supply, artificial and natural, 23. shut-off valves. 24. Gas and gasoline engines, 77, 79. Gas, oil, mechanicjJ and chemical appli- ances, list of, 1 6. Gasoline gas machines, 32. Gasoline, storage and handling. 9 1 . testing by. 67. vapor, 31. Gate valves and fittings for automatic sprin- klers. 143. Gate valves, testing of. 145. Generating rooms. 65. Generator, acetylene gas. 27. Grain bleachers. 57. Gravity tanks, 1 58. Gun cotton, soluble, 88. Hand or movable furnaces or heaters, 47. Hazards, commonly found, miscellaneous, 63-69. chemicals, paints, oils and inflam- mable volatiles, 85. dwelling house. 127. heating. 33, power, 7 1 . Heat, absorption, 35. conveyors. 50. radiation and conduction. 35. 194 Heaters, gas (natural) floor, 52. Heating devices, electric, 23. Heating hazards, 33. in dwellings, 131. Holiday decorations, 115- Hose and equipment for yard use, 167. Hot air, ducts, 50. furnaces, 51. Hot water furnaces, 5 1 . Housekeeping in dwellings, 1 29. Hydrants, roof, 1 70. yard, 167. Incubators, 56. Indicator posts for automatic sprinkler sys- tems, 144. Inflammable volatiles, 90. storage and handling of, 91. Inside stsmdpipe and hose systems, 1 69. Inspections, by underwriters, 1 6. important items of, 1 3. purpose of, 12. systematic plan for making, 1 1 . Inspector, conduct of, 12. qualifications for the successful, II. report of, 1 4. essential points for, 1 09. testing of apparatus by, 13. Insulation of combustible materied from furnaces, 44. Japan ovens, 57-59. Jets, gas, 25. steam, 175. K Kerosene and kerosene vapor, 29. Kerosene distributing systems, 3 1 . Kettles, melting and rendering, 55. Kilns, dry, 60-61. Kitchen ranges and their ventilation, 49. Label service of the Underwriters' Labora- tories, 15-16. " Labeled " devices, 15. Lacquering ovens, 58, Lacquers, 92. Lamps, kerosene, 30, 130. Lanterns, 32. Lighting, hazards, 1 9. acetylene gas, 26. compressed or liquid gas, 28. electric, 23, 131. gas, 26, 130. gasoline vapor, 3 1 . hazards in dwellings, 1 30. kerosene and kerosene vapor, 29, 130. Linoleum, spontaneous ignition of, 99. Liquid gases, 28. storzige cylinders for, 28. Lockers, metal, 1 13. Lumber drying, 60-61 . M Manual fire alarm systems, 180. Matches, 130. Metal, fusing point of, 38. Metallic powders, 1 04. bronze, 104. flashlight, 105. Meters, gas, 24. Miscellaneous stationary heating devices re- quiring special treatment, 49-63. autogenous welding, 53. bleaching, 57. coffee and peanut roaster, 62. core ovens, 54. cupolas, 54. dry rooms, 59. ductless heating and ventilating and dry closet system, 52. forges, 54. fruit ripening, 56. gas (natural) floor heaters, 52. grain bleachers, 57. hot air ducts and heat conveyors, 50. hot air, hot water and low pressure steam heating furnaces, 5 1 . incubators and brooders, 56. japan and enameling ovens, 57, 59. kitchen ranges and their ventilation, 49. lumber drying and dry kilns, 60, 61. INDEX 195 melting and rendering ketdes, 55. smokehouses, 62. steam chest and bending. 62. steam mains and steatn pipes, 53. stoves, large coal or wood burning and busheling, 51. " Moist air kilns," 61 . Monitor noz2les, 1 70. Motors, factory, 77. N National Board of Fire Underwriters, Regu- lations of, 14. Natural gas, 23. wells, private, 25, 79. Nitrates, 87. Nitro-cellulose, 88. Night watchman, 177. "No smoking" signs, 1 14. o Oil, crude, 31.79. fuel, 79-80. kerosene, 30-31. Ovens, core, 54. japan and enameling, 57-79. Pails, water, 177. Paints and oils, 91 . stock room precautions, 92. Peanut roasters, 62. Phosphorus, 86. Picric acid, 88. Picker rooms, 65. Pintsch gas, 28. Pipes, underground for automatic sprinkler systems, 149. Platforms, raised, 189. Plating, 64. Portable watch clocks for watchmen, 181. Potassium chlorate, 87. Power hazards, 71. electric, 75-77. Pressure, gas, 24. tanks, 160. Private water supplies, 1 54. electrically driven fire pumps, 1 57. gravity tanks. 1 58. pressure tanks, 160. rotary fire pumps, 1 58. steam boilers, connection with, 1 56. steam fire pumps, 155. Property owner, essential points for, 109. Public water supplies. 151. gravity. 152. gravity system of continuous pumping and auxiliary storage, 1 52. pressure supply, 1 53. testing and gauges, 1 53. Pumps, steam fire, 155. electrically driven fire, 157. rotary, 158. R Radiation and conduction of heat, 35. Refrigeration, 81. Refuse barrels and receptacles, 1 1 2. Regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, 14. Repair of old chimneys, 1 26. Report, inspectors, 14. Risers for automatic sprinkler systems, 142. Rfcof hydrants, 1 70. Roasters, coffee and peanut, 62. Rotary pumps, 1 58. Safety volatile oil cans, 1 1 2. I Sawdust and bicarbonate of soda, 177. Scuppers, 189. Setting, mounting and clearance, fixed fur- naces, 40-44. Signaling systems, 1 79. automatic fire alarm and thermostats, 180. automatic journal alarm, 180. automatic sprinkler alarm and super- visory, 181. local sprinkler alarm, 181. manual fire alarm, 1 80. watchman's time recording apparatus, 180. water motor sprinkler alarm, 181 . Skids. 189. Smokehouses, 73. Smokeproof stair tower. 185. Smoke explosions. 105. 196 Smoking, 130. precautions against, 1 1 3. Sprinklers, dry room, 175. open, 173. Spontaneous ignition, 95-100. precautions to be observed, 97. substances subject thereto, 97. Stacks, furnace, 45. metal, 46. Stairways, 185. Standard regulations, 14. Standpipes, inside hose systems, 1 69. Stationary furnaces, 37. Steam boilers, 73. precautions against explo- sions of, 74. Steam chest and bending, 62. Steam fire pumps, 1 55. Steam heating furnaces, low pressure, 5 1 . Steam jets, 175. Steam mains and steam pipes, 53. Steamer connections, 161. Storage cylinders for liquid gas, 28. Stovepipes, 124. Stoves, in dwelling houses, 132. large coal or w^ood burning and busheling, 51. Sulphur, 86. Switches, 22. Tanks, gravity, 158. pressure, 160. • Tarpaulins, 187. Testing of apparatus by inspector, 1 3. Thermostat alarm systems, 1 80. To the inspector and property owner, 11-14 Torches, 32. Transformers, 76. u Underwriters' Laboratories and the label service, 15-16. Upright steam boilers, 75. Valves, alarm to automatic sprinkler sys- tems, 148. check, 145. dry pipe, 147. gas shut-off, 24. gate, 143. Vertical shaft openings, 186. Volatiles, inflammable, 90. w Waste cans. 111. Watchman, night, 1 77. records, 1 1 0. time recording apparatus, 1 80. Water casks and pails, 177. Water supplies to automatic sprinkler sys- tems, 151. Whitewash coating as a fire retardant, 1 88. Windows, wired glass w^ith metal frame and sash, 184. Wiring for electric lighting, 22. Yard hydrants, 1 67. FIELD PRACTICB 197 National Fire Protection Association Executive Office, 87 Milk Street, Boston ACTIVE MEMBERS American Institute of Architects. American Institute of Consulting Engineers. American Institute of Electrical Engineers. American Institute of Heating and Ventilating Engineers. American Institute of Mining Engineers. American Concrete Institute. American Gas Institute. American Electric Railway Association. American Warehousemen's Association. Alabama Fire Prevention Society. Arkansas Actuarial Bureau. Arkansas Fire Prevention Association. Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Co's. Inspection Bureau. Associated Metal Lath Manufacturers. Association of American Portland Cement Manufacturers. Association of Fire Underwriters of "Baltimore City. Board of Fire Underwriters of Allegheny County. Board of Fire Underwiters of the Pacific. Board of Fiie Underwriters of the Territory of Hawaii. Boston Board of Fire Underwriters. Buffalo Association of Fire Underwriters. Bureau for Safe Transportation of Explosives. Canadian Fire Underwriters' Association. Canadian Manufacturers' Association. Chicago Board of Underwriters of Chicago. Cincinnati Fire Prevention Bureau. Cleveland Inspection Bureau. Cotton Insurance Association. Electrical Supply Jobbers Association. Factory Insurance Association. Factory Mutual Laboratories. Fire Underwriters' Electrical Bureau. Fire Underwriters' Inspection Bureau. Florida Fire Prevention Societj'. Georgia Fire Prevention Society. Gypsum Industries Association. Illinois Inspection Bureau. Illinois State Fire Prevention Association. 198 FIELD PRACTICE Independent Petroleum Marketers' Association of U. S., Tlie Indiana Inspection Bureau. Indiana State Fire Prevention Association, Institute of Makers of Explosives. Insurance Association of Providence. International Acetylene Association. International Association of Fire Engineers. International Association of Municipal Electricians. Iowa State Fire Prevention Association. Kansas Inspection and Fire Prevention Office. Kentucky Actuarial Bureau. Kentucky State Fire Prevention Association. Louisiana Fire Prevention Bureau. Louisiana State Society for the Reduction of Fire Waste. Mainland Fire Underwriters' Association of British Columbia. Massachusetts Mutual Fire Insurance Union. Michigan Inspection Bureau. Michigan State Fire Prevention Association. Millers' National Federation. Milwaukee Board of Fire Underwriters. Minnesota State Fire Prevention Association. Mississippi Inspection and Advisory Rating Company, Mississippi Society for the Prevention of Fires. Missouri Fire Prevention Association. Missouri Inspection Bureau, Mutual Fire Prevention Bureau. National Association of Building Owners and Managers. National Association of Credit Men. National Association of Electrical Inspectors. National Association of Insurance Agents, The, National Association of Manufacturers of United States. National Associat'n of Master Gravel and Slag Roofers of America. National Automatic Sprinkler Association, National Board of Fire Underwriters. National Convention of Insurance Commissioners, National Electrical Contractors' Association. National Electric Light Association. National Founders' Association. National Hardware Association of U. S., The National Implement and Vehicle Association. National Lumber Manufacturers' Association. National Paint, Oil and Varnish Association. National Wholesale Druggists' Association. National Wholesale Grocers' Association. Nebraska Inspection Bureau. Nebraska State Fire Prevention Association. New Brunswick Board of Fire Underwriters. New England Bureau of United Inspection. FIELD PRACTICE ]09 New England Insurance Exchange. New Hampshire Board of Fire Underwriters. New Jersey Schedule Rating Expert's Office. New York Board of Fire Underwriters. New York Fire Insurance Exchange. North Carolina Fire Prevention Association. North Dakota State Fire Prevention Association. Nova Scotia Board of Fire Underwriters. Ohio Inspection Bureau. Ohio State Fire Prevention Association. Oklahoma Inspection Bureau. Oklahoma State Fire Prevention Association. , Ontario Fire Prevention Association. Philadelphia Fire Underwriters' Association. Philadelphia Suburban Underwriters' Association. Rocky Mountain Fire Underwriters' Association. South Carolina State Fire Prevention Association. South Dakota State Fire Prevention Association. South-Eastern Underwriters' Association. Southern Cypress Manufacturers' Association. St. Louis Fire Prevention Bureau. Suburban Fire Insurance Exchange. Tennessee Fire Prevention Association. Tennessee Inspection Bureau. Texas Fire Prevention Association. The Union. Underwriters' Association of the District of Columbia. Underwriters' Association of the Middle Department. Underwriters' Association of New York State. Underwriters' Bureau of Middle and Southern States. Underwriters' Bureau of New England. Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc. Vancouver Island Fire Underwriters' Association. Virginia Fire Prevention Association. Western Actuarial Bureau (Fire). Western Canada Fire Underwriters' Association. Western Factory Insurance Association. Western Sprinklered Risk Association. West Virginia Inspection Bureau, West Virginia State Fire Prevention Association. Wisconsin Inspection Bureau. Wisconsin State Fire Prevention Association. UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Returix'to desk from which borrowed. Th,s book is DUE on the last date stamped below. DEC 5 1347 ) 21-100r/i-9,'47(A5702sl6)476 National fire proteo N3 tion association Fi e ld pra etirc^ — -^ Qgc g ijffi 2 D3 THE UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY YC173348