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 THE TREATMENT OF THE PROBLEM OF 
 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL- 
 STUDY COURSES IN THE CHURCHES 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY 
 
 OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE 
 
 IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 CLARENCE DAN BLACHLY 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
 1930 
 
,*;«'" 
 
Zbc mntvecattp ot Cbicaoo 
 
 THE TREATMENT OF THE PROBLEM OF 
 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL- 
 STUDY COURSES IN THE CHURCHES 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY 
 
 OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE 
 
 IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 BY 
 
 CLARENCE DAN BLACHLY 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
 1920 
 
Copyright 1920 By 
 The University of Chicago 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 Published January 1920 
 
 i^C-rtM?v*C3S 
 
 
PREFACE 
 
 It is proposed in this thesis to discuss one phase of a rather 
 remarkable development among many of the Protestant Churches in 
 America today. This development is related in part to the general 
 progress of educational method and in part to the modern rise of 
 social science ; it is partially due to the insistent demands made by 
 the laboring classes in recent years for social readjustment. Modern 
 educational method including in its sphere the churches, has effected 
 the present great interest and activity in religious education. Social 
 science has attempted to infuse into the teaching of the Sunday school 
 some of the results of modern sociological investigation. Changed 
 industrial conditions have made it necessary in many cases for the 
 churches to readjust their methods and programs in an attempt to 
 bring guidance, peace and religious healing to a new society. These 
 three movements, more or less unconsciously combining, have resulted 
 in many of the church denominations in the introduction of "social 
 study" courses dealing with problems of civics, industry and soci- 
 ology. 
 
 The following analysis deals with one phase of the social study 
 movement : its treatment in these courses of the problem of capital 
 and labor.^ This single aspect has been chosen in order to make 
 the task as definite as possible. It is believed, however, that the prin- 
 ciples underlying the detailed subject are applicable, in many cases, 
 to the whole problem of sociological study in the churches. 
 
 The material for the discussion has been secured chiefly from 
 the following sources : 
 
 1. Correspondence with national Social Service Commissions, de- 
 nominational and inter-denominational. 
 
 2. Correspondence with many state and district social service 
 committees and commissions. 
 
 3. Several hundred pertinent pamphlets, folders, reports, etc., 
 issued by various church denominations and religious bodies. 
 
 ^The term "problem of capital and labor" is used in the following pages 
 to denote the various most common problems of relationship between capital 
 and labor, as understood in common parlaijce. 
 
 433174 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 4. Replies to letters and questionnaires sent to 60 churches having 
 "social study" classes. 
 
 5. Texts of all social study courses used in the leading Protestant 
 denominations (in so far as extended correspondence and investiga- 
 tion revealed). 
 
 6. Principal denominational periodicals covering the period from 
 1913-17. 
 
 7. Recent works available in the Congressional Library, at Wash- 
 ington, D. C, on the subject of the Sunday school and Sunday school 
 classes.^ 
 
 8. Numerous volumes on religion and religious education. (The 
 most important of these appear in the bibliography.) 
 
 9. Extended discussions of the problem with church leaders dur- 
 ing one year spent by the writer as Executive Secretary of the Social 
 Service Commission of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the Dio- 
 cese of Chicago. 
 
 An expression of gratitude is due many persons for friendly coun- 
 sel and cheerful response to numerous inquiries. The author's wife 
 and constant co-laborer, Margaret Bacon Blachly, unselfishly per- 
 formed much of the necessary work in the preparation of this thesis 
 and largely inspired the incentive to its completion. There is also 
 acknowledged particular indebtedness for encouragement and assis- 
 tance to the members of the Social Service Commission of the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church of the Diocese of Chicago during the 
 year 191 5-1 6, especially to the chairman, Mr. William C. Graves, and 
 the secretary, Mr. Carl B. Roden. 
 
 iThere was, however, little material bearing directly upon the special phase 
 under investigation. See appended bibliography for list. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PACE 
 
 I. Introduction i 
 
 II. OFFiaAL Attitude of Churches toward the Problem of Capi- 
 tal A>fD Labor 8 
 
 A. Seriousness of Present Industrial and Social Conditions as Viewed 
 
 by the Churches 8 
 
 1. Capital 8 
 
 2. Social Classes and Laborers 9 
 
 3. The Economic Order 10 
 
 B. The Challenge to the Churches 12 
 
 1. General 12 
 
 2. The Challenge 12 
 
 C. The Churches' Need for Study of Social and Industrial Conditions 14 
 
 1. General Need of Study 14 
 
 2. Who ShaU Study ? 16 
 
 3. Direct Recommendations to Churches to Introduce Social Study 17 
 
 D. Summary 17 
 
 III. General Description OF Social Study Courses .... 19 
 
 A. Gospel of the Kingdom 19 
 
 B. Social Studies for Adult Classes and Brotherhoods . ... 20 
 
 C. Friends' Firsl-Day School Graded Lessons 22 
 
 D. Social Service Pamphlets Issued by the Social Service Commission 
 
 of the Northern Baptist Convention 22 
 
 E. Unitarian Social Service Series 22 
 
 F. Poverty and Wealth, by lla-TvyF. Ward 23 
 
 G. Christianizing Community Life, by Usury F.W^Td ... 23 
 H. International Sunday School Series 24 
 
 IV. Methods of Treating the Problem of Capital and Labor in 
 
 Social Study Courses 27 
 
 A. Introduction 27 
 
 B. Religious or Evangelical Treatment 28 
 
 1. Introductory 28 
 
 2. Descriptionof Present Conditions Given in Texts ... 28 
 
 a) Poverty 29 
 
 b) Wealth 31 
 
 c) Social Classes 32 
 
 vii 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 3. Teaching in Evangelical Group of Social Study Texts, in 
 
 regard to Conditions Presented 32 
 
 a) Economic Treatment 32 
 
 b) Moral and Spiritual Issues 34 
 
 C. Treatment from the Standpoint of Applied Sociology and Social 
 
 Legislation 45 
 
 1 . Social Duties from a Christian Point of View, Charles Richmond 
 Henderson 45 
 
 2. The Social Creed of the Churches, Harry F. Ward ... 46 
 
 3. Social Service Pamphlets, issued by the American Baptist 
 Publication Society 47 
 
 4. Unitarian Social Service Bulletins 48 
 
 D." Use of Foregoing Series (Rehgious and Sociological Treatments) 
 
 in Social Study Classes 48 
 
 E. Attempts at Combining Religious and Sociological Treatments 
 
 of Problem of Capital and Labor 49 
 
 1. Gospel of the Kingdom ^tnes 50 
 
 a) Description 50 
 
 h) Use and Results 57 
 
 2. The Bible and Social Living {Metho(^st) 65 
 
 a) Description and Use 65 
 
 3. The Bible and Social Living {Baptist) 72 
 
 a) Description and Use 72 
 
 F. Summary 77 
 
 V. General Summary AND Conclusions 78 
 
 Bibliography 84 
 
 Appendix 89 
 
.' i •.•' 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The church, being an organization for the teaching and inculcation 
 of rehgion, there are those who would deduce, according to their 
 own idea of religion, just what should be its function in educational 
 as well as other spheres. Extended study and research have shown, 
 however, that the term religion may include quite properly a very 
 large number of meanings. In the words of a recent writer: 
 
 We must at the outset realize the impossibility of framing a definition 
 of religion that shall cover all of its historic aspects. There lies here 
 before our eyes a confused and ever-changing mass of emotions, beliefs, 
 rites and acts, there is no common factor that runs through them all, 
 no one thing that all phases of religion have had in common that is not 
 also to be found in other spheres of human activity.^ 
 
 If we grant the impossibility of basing our conclusions concerning 
 church or Sunday school methods on any deductive reasoning from 
 any universally accepted definition of the religious function, it will 
 be necessary to treat the problem from the standpoint of actual 
 thought and action in this field by existing churches and schools or by 
 recognized leaders. 
 
 The interest in the study of present civic, industrial and social 
 problems in the church schools has arisen in conjunction with the 
 more comprehensive, so-called "social service" movement in the 
 churches. This movement, though a logical development of the 
 social spirit of Christian teaching, arose out of the peculiar economic 
 relations of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century. 
 The industrial revolution with the modern wage system, the con- 
 centration of great numbers of working people in urban centers, and 
 the resulting class diflPerentiations may be deemed its background. 
 
 One of the foremost causes of the Social Service Movement was. 
 and is. Socialism. 
 
 The alienation of modern socialists from the Church has done probably 
 more than anything else to turn the attention of the Church to social 
 questions and to enlist its support for social reform the Church 
 
 iDurant Drake, Problems of Religion (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916), p. 12. 
 
'2 ' ''"• 'CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 as an organization has been awakened to the situation chiefly by the 
 hostihty of which it has become conscious. It must meet the new condi- 
 tions or lose its place as the religion of the people. As a result many 
 organizations have been formed, such as the Guild of St. Matthew and 
 the Christian Social Union in England, the Freimde der Christlichen Welt 
 and the Christlichsozialer Congress in Germany, and the Christian Social 
 Union and the Brotherhood of the Kingdom in America, with the par- 
 ticular purpose of showing the laboring classes that the Church is con- 
 cerned for their welfare and thus winning back their support. Some 
 of their members are avowedly and radically socialistic, others are quite 
 the reverse, believing that the reign of the spirit of brotherhood within 
 the framework of the existing economic system is the great end to be 
 aimed at.^ 
 
 Furthermore, the fact that socialism seemed to be estabhshing 
 itself almost as a rival religion to the Christian church was no small 
 factor in leading the church to attempt some solution of social prob- 
 lems. 
 
 Finally it should not be overlooked that socialism itself, the cause not 
 of an individual, but of a whole class of society, and that the most desti- 
 tute class, meets those needs of reverence, devotion, self-forgetfulness, 
 enthusiasm, and hope to which religion commonly ministers, and thus 
 constitutes for multitudes an adequate substitute for religion, or perhaps 
 it might fairly be said a new religion in place of the old.^ 
 
 There are fifteen socialist Sunday schools in operation in New York 
 City: in Rochester and Buffalo there are single schools: in Hartford, 
 Connecticut, there is a school: in the vicinity of Boston, Maiden, and 
 Lynn, Massachusetts, there are about five schools. In Baltimore there 
 
 is a large school, and also in Washington, D. C (New York 
 
 City attendance about 4,000. As to the attendance in other cities it can 
 only be estimated. Three thousand would probably be a conservative 
 figure) .* 
 
 Pittsburgh has a socialist church, the United People's Church of 
 Pittsburgh. The original membership was 85 and the increase during 
 the year 1914-15 was 228. Their creed follows: 
 
 We declare our object to be the establishment of the Kingdom of 
 God and His justice on earth by destroying the profit system, educating 
 
 2McGiffert, The Rise of Modern Religious Ideas, p. 270. 
 ^Ibid., p. 269. 
 
 ■^Article on Socialist Sunday Schools, Encyc. of Sunday Schools and 
 Religious Education, III, 973~74- 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 and organizing the people, preaching true catholicity and righteousness 
 and practising charity to all.'* 
 
 Closely connected with the alienation of the Socialists was the 
 failure of large groups of laboring people to affiliate themselves 
 with the Protestant churches. During the twenty years from 1890 to 
 1910, there was a great influx of foreign workingmen into the cities of 
 the United States. These immigrants gradually crowded into the 
 neighborhoods about the city center, while the original "better class" 
 inhabitants of the one-time well-to-do residence districts moved into 
 the suburbs. The large Protestant churches that had been estab- 
 lished by the earlier residents were deserted by their wealthy mem- 
 bers, and the neighborhoods were rapidly filled by immigrants, who 
 besides being laboring people were generally Catholics. Obviously, 
 the newcomers did not take the places of those who had left. In 
 New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and other centers large churches 
 were left almost desolate in the midst of a great population which 
 did not attend their services. Churches die hard ; and naturally their 
 leaders began to make efforts to win these working people. But the 
 formerly wealthy institutions found their task difficult, since many 
 of the laboring group had imbibed ideas of enmity against the well- 
 to-do. Other causes also led to a visible separation of the churches 
 and the working classes. 
 
 The most startling truth that can be told is lately being told so often 
 that it is ceasing to startle us. It is this : That the modern church and the 
 wage-earning class are mutually estranged. ^ 
 
 Our city churches are not proportionately constituted of manual labor- 
 ers and still less of trades-unionists. The seriousness of the matter lies not 
 only in the great numbers alienated, but in the further facts, first, that 
 the evil is characteristic of our cities where all the social problems have 
 appeared in their most difficult forms ; second, that the classes concerned 
 are partially inclusive of organized labor.' 
 
 Thus it became evident that if Protestantism were going to thrive 
 in certain large regions of the cities it would be necessary to win 
 organized labor. This naturally led to a study of the economic diffi- 
 culties in the way. Many of these semi-deserted churches became 
 
 ^Thc Christian Century. June, 191 5. P- 10. 
 
 •Balch, Christianity and the Labor Movement, p. 7. 
 
 ''Ibid., p. 14. 
 
4 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 institutional in character,® thus attempting directly to attack various 
 social problems connected with the laboring population; and from 
 such agencies has arisen to a considerable extent, the interest in prob- 
 lems pertaining to the proletariat. 
 
 At the same time various non-religious agencies were rendering 
 a great uplift service among the laboring people. There were the 
 settlements, nurseries, welfare agencies, constituting vast propa- 
 ganda of social service which without any religious creed attracted 
 large numbers of the working-class group. 
 
 It has been said that the church having failed, outside agencies have 
 arisen and today they are taking the place of the church; and reference 
 is made to the Young Men's Christian Association, the Rescue Missions, 
 the Salvation Army, and other philanthropic and relief agencies. There 
 is a measure of truth in this statement.^ 
 
 One of the chief phases of this modern peril (to the church) is our 
 failure to make the church attractive to the multitudes.^" 
 
 The church, then, because of competition was compelled to enter 
 the field of social service. This involved an effort to orient itself 
 in the problems of capital and labor that so largely affected the field. 
 
 A number of men who had either been laboring people themselves 
 or who had had large experience with laborers entered the ministry. 
 Such were Edward A. Steiner, Charles Rauschenbusch, Charles 
 Stelzle. These men were fired with sympathy for the laboring popu- 
 lation and, at the same time, filled with zeal for the teachings and 
 ideals of the Church. Therefore, they endeavored to apply, and 
 largely influenced others to apply, these teachings to industrial prob- 
 lems. 
 
 The foregoing were some of the conditions from which developed 
 the "social service movement." Probably the first organization for 
 
 ^Berkley Temple (Congregational), Morgan Memorial Church (Unitarian 
 and Methodist), Ruggles Street Baptist Church and Bulfinch Place Church 
 (Unitarian), of Boston; St. Bartholomew's Parish House (Protestant Epis- 
 copal), St. George's Church (Protestant Episcopal), Holy Communion Church 
 (Protestant Episcopal), Church of the Land and Sea (Presbyterian), Spring 
 Street Presbyterian Church, of New York City; First Congregational Church, 
 of Jersey City; Baptist Temple, in Philadelphia; Good Samaritan Cathedral, 
 in San Francisco. See Womer, The Church and the Labor Conflict, p. 75. 
 
 ^Stelzle, American Social and Religious Conditions, p. 199. 
 
 loE. L. Earp, The Social Engineer (New York, Eaton & Plains), 191 1. 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 "Social Christianity" in this country was that composed of a few 
 clergymen of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who in 1887 or- 
 ganized the "Church Association for the Advancement of the In- 
 terests of Labor" ; the second apparently being "The Brotherhood 
 of the Kingdom," formed by the Baptists in 1893 and later broadly 
 inter-denominationalized. The Presbyterians established a Depart- 
 ment of Church and Labor in 1903. 
 
 The honor of making the first ringing declaration in a national con- 
 vention belongs to the M.E. Church. Every General Conference since 
 1892 had been memorialized by some minor body pleading for action. 
 In 1908 no less than thirteen annual conferences beside various preachers' 
 meetings presented memorials. The bishops in a cautious way devoted 
 a large part of their episcopal address to the subject. The Committee 
 on the State of the Church presented a brave and outspoken report, 
 culminating in a kind of Bill of Rights for labor, and ending in a splendid 
 summons to all the militant forces of this church to do their part in the 
 pressing duty of the hour. 
 
 Immediately after the M.E. General Conference, in December, 1908, 
 the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America was organized 
 at Philadelphia, representing and uniting thirty-three Protestant denom- 
 inations The Bill of Rights adopted by the Methodist Confer- 
 ence was presented with some changes and adopted without the slightest 
 disposition to halt it at any point. 
 
 Nearly every great denominational convention since that time has 
 felt the obligation to make a serious pronouncement on the social ques- 
 tion. 
 
 One of the first results of the formation of the Federal Council of the 
 Churches of Christ in America was the organization of a Commission on 
 the Church and Social Service. This has co-ordinated the work of the 
 various denominations in this field. '^ 
 
 Since 1908 nearly all the leading denominations have organized 
 national social service commissions and a number of state, diocese or 
 district commissions, the work of all these groups being the co-ordi- 
 nation of effort and the furtherance of the general program of social 
 service in their several fields of jurisdiction. It may not be amiss 
 at this point to state 'as briefly as possible just what the program 
 and method of the Social Service movement really are. Perhaps 
 this can be done best by a direct quotation — taken from one denom- 
 inational leaflet, but representative of all. 
 
 ^'^The Church and Social Scn'icc, pp. 19 and 20. 
 
6 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 1. What is social service? 
 
 That form of effort for man's redemption which seeks to upHft and 
 transform his community life. As such it is the social application of 
 Christian principles, and a new name for that spirit of philanthropy and 
 service which is as old as Christianity. 
 
 2. Why do you call it social service ? 
 
 Because it deals with man as a social being in his social relations and 
 with social causes and conditions : because it demands social and collective 
 action, and seeks not only to save men but to embody their Christian life 
 in social institutions. 
 
 4. What is the fundamental idea of social service? 
 
 The idea of the Kingdom of God, which in the Christian conception 
 of things may mean much more than a human society on earth, but can 
 never mean anything less. 
 
 7. What are the chief items in the social service program? 
 
 The relief of need and distress, the prevention of poverty and crime, 
 the provision for all of the conditions of a clean, healthy, moral, anu 
 spiritual life, the creation of a social atmosphere which shall induce a 
 right course of conduct, the adjustment of men's relations in justice and 
 brotherhood. 
 
 9. What are the methods of social service? 
 
 It seeks to relieve distress and need in such ways as to help men most 
 effectually ; it also seeks to discover the causes and conditions of poverty, 
 sickness, crime and misery, and then to remove bad causes and conditions 
 and create good causes and conditions; it believes that the church, the 
 family, the school, the state are all means and agencies through which 
 these ends may be sought. 
 
 13. What can a church do in behalf of social betterment? 
 
 It can have one or more classes engaged in social-service study : it can 
 have committees studying the various agencies of social uplift in the com- 
 munity : it can have a positive and constructive program and can organize 
 their efforts for effective work. 
 
 14. Name several immediate and practical things that can be done. 
 Secure for every worker one day's rest in seven; have a censorship 
 
 committee of all moving-picture and other shows; equip a playground 
 within half a mile of every home in the city; make efficient the agencies 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 seeking to suppress gambling, the social evil, alcohol, and all habit-forming 
 drugs; see that there is a good child-labor law and that it is enforced. 
 
 16. What is the ultimate purpose of social service? 
 
 It seeks to create such a social order in the world as shall realize the 
 Christian ideal of human society, to give each soul a true inheritance in 
 life to develop a perfect life in a perfect society, and to make Jesus Christ 
 a fact in the universal life of the world. ^2 
 
 It may be observed from the foregoing catechism that one of 
 the elements of the program of this social service movement is study 
 of the field and problems of social service. It is this aspect of the 
 movement that shall engage our attention in general, and in particu- 
 lar it is the treatment of the problem of capital and labor in such 
 social study that shall receive our special interest. 
 
 "American Baptist Publication Society, A Social Service Catechism. 
 Published for Social Service Commission of the Northern Baptist Convention, 
 Bull. No. I. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 OFFICIAL ATTITUDE OF CHURCHES TOWARD THE PROB- 
 LEM OF CAPITAL AND LABOR 
 
 Introduction. — As has been pointed out in the general introduc- 
 tion the churches have recognized in recent years that it is necessary 
 for them, if they are to maintain any true leadership in the field of 
 social morality, to take an active part in momentous moral and social 
 problems that confront modern society. Especially have the ques- 
 tions of capital and labor seemed to demand the deepest considera- 
 tion of "the church."^ First it was incumbent upon her to define an 
 attitude in regard to these problems. With this done, she could 
 formulate and attempt to promulgate, in sermons and in courses of 
 instruction, a body of teachings concerning them. 
 
 Beginning with 1908, therefore, church councils and conventions 
 frequently gave expression to their attitude toward those industrial 
 problems that to a certain extent had caused division in society. 
 Before we undertake to study the teachings regarding capital and 
 labor in church study classes, it will be well to examine the official 
 expressions of the churches with reference to this matter, for the 
 type and method of instruction will certainly be largely determined 
 by the attitude of the teaching body. Such examination will be 
 attempted in the following section. 
 
 A. SERIOUSNESS OF PRESENT INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 
 AS VIEWED BY THE CHURCHES 
 
 I. CAPITAL 
 
 The expressed official attitude of "the church"^ toward "capital" 
 will be seen as somewhat critical. We shall find this reaction rather 
 characteristic throughout the discussion of the church's treatment 
 of the industrial problem. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Board of Bishops in 1912 registered a 
 protest against organized capital in the following language: 
 
 ^The term, "the church," is used to denote the principal branches of the 
 Protestant church, thirty-one of which are affiliated under "The Federal Coun- 
 cil of the Churches of Christ in America." 
 
ATTITUDE OF CHLRCHES TOWARD THE PROBLEM 9 
 
 ". . . . Organized capital stands indicted at the bar of public judg- 
 ment for the gravest crimes against the common welfare "- 
 
 The Federal Council of Churches, representing 31 Protestant 
 denominations, in the same year also issued a strong statement 
 against the capitalistic interests as follows : 
 
 That powerful interests have not ceased to take toll of our labor, to 
 levy tribute on the people, to exercise a taxing power without authority, 
 and that they are thereby continuing to amass the wealth of the nation in 
 dangerous aggregations, there is common consent.^ 
 
 The Commission on Social Service of the American Christian 
 Convention says : 
 
 When the great merchant princes of our time become millionaires, and 
 a pitifully small wage is paid to the girls that work in their emporiums, 
 do you think religion should have anything to say to the princes of 
 finance?* 
 
 The Social Sennce Message of the Men and Religion Forward 
 Movement says : 
 
 The most fundamental form of social service is to put a stop to 
 unearned profits.^ 
 
 The Northern Baptist Social Service Commission protests against 
 monopoly, saying : 
 
 The resources of the earth, being the heritage of the people, should 
 not be monopolized by the few to the disadvantage of the many ; . . . . 
 benefit enjoyed should hold direct relation to service rendered. * 
 
 The statement already quoted by the Federal Council of Churches 
 of Christ in America is a fairly good representation of the attitude 
 of the particular denominations towards capital. 
 
 2. SOCIAL CLASSES AND LABORERS 
 
 a) Social Classes. — There is general recognition that conflicting 
 social classes exist. "Of course it is class-conscious labor which is 
 joining the issue with capital," says Home Mission Methods of the 
 
 2H. F. Ward. Social Service Year Book (New York American Mission- 
 ary Movement. 1916), p. 221. 
 
 ^Ibid., 223. 
 
 ■•Commission on Social Service, American Christian Convention, Year 
 Book, 1914, p. 210. 
 
 ^Ward, op. cit., p. 215. «Ward. op. cit.. p. 216. 
 
lO CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 Presbyterian Church North, "and precipitating the present acute in- 
 dustrial conditions." And again the same official organ says : "It is 
 manifestly impossible for the church or any other official organ to 
 overlook the fact that classes exist." 
 
 The Indiana Baptist Convention, 1910, issued the following state- 
 ment : 
 
 Between the working classes and the predatory classes there is a con- 
 stant conflict of interest and effort Between the workers and the 
 
 exploiters, as economic classes into which society as a whole is divided, 
 the conflict of interest and effort is fundamental, world-wide, and 
 constant.'^ 
 
 The Federal Council of Churches sees it as a part of the natural 
 order that working men should organize for social and industrial 
 betterment. 
 
 b) Demands of Workingmen for Rights. — There is general sym- 
 pathy expressed with the workingmen in their demand for more 
 rights. The "Social Service Message" of the "Men and Religion 
 Forward Movement" emphasizes the fact that in a righteous eco- 
 nomic order all who work with hand and brain should have the full 
 reward of their work.'^ The Northern Baptist Convention, 1914, 
 finds that "The hunger for social justice lies at the bottom of the 
 unrest of our time,"^ and the Congregational National Council, 1915, 
 declares the "industrial unrest throughout the world is an expression 
 of the demand of the workers for a voice in determining the condi- 
 tions that so largely affect their lives. "^^ The Protestant-Episcopal 
 Church in 191 5 declared that business must be conducted for the 
 common good, "if need be, under the effective direction of the rank 
 and file,"^^ and the Congregational National Council, 1915, also voices 
 this sentiment.^ - 
 
 3. THE ECONOMIC ORDER 
 
 a) General. — It is generally recognized in official church utter- 
 ances that a fundamental change in the economic order is imminent. 
 As it now is, the economic order is thoroughly unsatisfactory. So 
 the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America in 1908 recog- 
 nizes that "there are many phases of present industrial conditions 
 
 ■'^Ward, op. cit., p. 234. ^^Ibid., p. 203. 
 
 ^Ibid., p. 215. ^'^Ibid., p. 225. 
 
 ^Ibid., p. 231. ^^Ibid., p. 203. 
 
ATTITUDE OF CHURCHES TOWARD THE PROBLEM ii 
 
 that cry aloud for immediate remedy."'"' And adds that "multitudes 
 are deprived by what are called economic laws of that opportunity to 
 which every man has a right." An official organ of the Episcopal 
 Church, Social Service and the Episcopal Church, believes that "the 
 fundamental issue is not social amelioration, but social reconstruc- 
 tion."^'' The Northern Baptist Convention, 1913, views with alarm 
 the condition of affairs in the industrial world, ^^ and the General 
 Assembly of the United Presbyterian Church, 1913, states that "the 
 problems of capital and labor have become in a certain sense the 
 paramount concern of the nations of the world.""' The Five Years* 
 Meeting of Friends, 191 1, finds the warfare of capital and labor 
 back of all the problems of the modern world,'' and the Report of the 
 Social Senice Commission, Protestant Episcopal Diocese of Chicago, 
 1909, claims that "Our modern competitive industrial system results 
 in conditions which are essentially un-Christian and unjust to the 
 men that produce the wealth,'* while the Presbyterian Church, in an 
 official publication, What the Presbyterian Church Believes about 
 Social Problems,^^ gives the problem of capital and labor as one of 
 the four great secular questions of the day. 
 
 b) Urgent Need of Change. — In the face of such conditions as 
 have been recognized, it is natural that there should be expression of 
 an urgent need for change. So the Protestant Episcopal General 
 Convention, 1913, declares that "A growing number of Christian 
 men and women see that conditions, social and industrial, which 
 obtain today, are not compatible with the realization of the Kingdom 
 of God."-'^ 
 
 The General Assembly of the United Presbyterian Church, 191 3. 
 believes that "complacency can exist only in the hearts of those who 
 are ignorant of the inequalities and injustice of our present social 
 order."-' The Five Year Meeting of Friends, 1911, says: 
 
 In order to preserve the Christian civilization which our fathers built 
 by their sacrifice, and in order to carry it forward to fuller perfection, we 
 
 ^^The Church and Modern Industry (Federal Council of Churches of 
 Christ in America. 1908), p. 10. 
 i*Ward, op. cit., p. 215. 
 
 ^^Ibid., p. 207. ^'Ibid.. p. 211. 
 
 ^^Ibid., p. 209. 18/fcirf., p. 237. 
 
 »»P. 4 (Presbjterian Board of Publication, 1911.) 
 
 20Ward, op. cit., p. 213. -^Ibid., p. 213. 
 
12 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 must work out an order of industry and commerce which shall be at least 
 an approximate expression of the fact that all men are a great family with 
 one Father.-^ 
 
 The Federal Council of Churches, 1908, with the following drastic 
 description of present conditions, calls for a radical change : 
 
 There are many phases of the present industrial conditions in the 
 United States which cry aloud for immediate remedy .... multitudes 
 are deprived by what are called economic laws of that opportunity to 
 which every man has a right. When automatic movements cause injustice 
 and disaster, the autonomy should be destroyed. That to these impersonal 
 causes were added the cruelties of greed, the heartlessness of ambition and 
 the cold indifference of corporate selfishness, every friend of his fellow 
 men must with grief and shame admit. The unemployed are an "army." 
 The "accidents" of factories and railroads crowd our institutions and tene- 
 ments with widows and orphans. The stress of reckless competition 
 which loads manhood with oppressive burdens, bears upon the frail 
 strength of womanhood, and turns sunny childhood into drudgery, dwarfs 
 our stature, saps our vitality, crowds our prisons, vitiates our virtue and 
 darkens our old age. The "homes" of the wage-earners in our great cen- 
 ters are an indictment of our civilization. The meagre income which is 
 easily reckoned sufficient by the fortunate who are not forced to live upon 
 it is without warrant or reason. ^^ 
 
 The foregoing citations indicate that the expressed official atti- 
 tude of the churches toward the problem of capital" and labor is 
 dynamic and sympathetic with labor. There is general recognition 
 that society is far away from the goal of a Christian civilization, 
 and that there is needed a great cultural work by and for both 
 individuals and groups. Truly a rich field for any agency like the 
 church to scatter the civilizing influence of knowledge, social sym- 
 pathy, and comprehension! The call to the churches to perform 
 this work is given attention in the following section. 
 
 B. THE CHALLENGE TO THE CHURCHES 
 
 1. General. — In the semi-civilization so darkly depicted by the 
 official utterances of the church, her official representative bodies rec- 
 ognize a great opportunity for service. 
 
 2. The Challenge. 
 
 a) Opportunity of the Churches. — The Federal Council of 
 Churches, 1912, sees "the masses of the people divided among them- 
 
 '^Op. cit., p. 211. '^Ibid., p. 206. 
 
ATTITUDE OF CHURCHES TOWARD THE PROBLEM 13 
 
 selves, and the movement of social crisis giving the church the sov- 
 ereign opportunity of all her history to establish peace with the 
 administering hand of justice.-* The same council reminds the church 
 that it has an unrealized power which, if rightly used, could solve 
 the problems of society ; and again it urges faith that the gospel pro- 
 fessed by the churches of Christ in America may be equal to the task. 
 
 b) Duty of the Churches. — The Protestant Episcopal General 
 Council, 191 3, believes that "it is patent that the time has come when 
 the church must face this issue; if she is to stand as a church of 
 humanity she can no longer afford to ignore the demand or the chal- 
 lenge of the wage-earners.-'' 
 
 The United Presbyterian Brotherhood, 1912, declares that if the 
 church has the spirit of Christ it cannot rest content so long as 
 oppression and injustice reign in the economic world.-" The Re- 
 formed Church in the United States believes that the church has a 
 vital interest in the social relations of men and owes a duty in the 
 solution of every social problem.-^ The Men and Religion Forward 
 Movement finds that "the duty of creating a righteous economic order 
 is upon us all."-^ The Federal Council of Churches, 1912, believes 
 the time has come when the church must earnestly and sympathet- 
 ically make tlie problems of the workers and the people its problems.-" 
 The Joint Commission on Social Service for the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church, 1 91 3, resolves that the "Convention should go on record as 
 favoring a general recognition of the church's duty with reference to 
 the cause of injustice. "■^'^ 
 
 It is thus plainly shown that the churches recognize the serious 
 problems of industry, and recognize that they, as society's organiza- 
 tion for maintaining and furthering high and sincere social morality 
 and justice, are in duty bound to attack this problem with all the 
 power they can employ. The next question, however, that presents 
 itself is: how, and in what manner, is the church to attack these 
 great industrial problems? 
 
 c) General Function of Churches in the Situation. — The church 
 must "inspire the consciousness of individuals," the Congregational 
 National Council affirms. It must "concern itself more and more in 
 
 2-»Ward, np. cit., p. 223. 
 
 ^^Ibid., p. 213. 2"/tirf., p. 2\\. -^Ibid.. p. 22.4. 
 
 2"/6i<f., p. 213. -''Ibid., p. 224. 3'>lbid., p. 208. 
 
14 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 setting forth the facts in regard to social wrongs." (General Assem- 
 bly, United Presbyterian Church, 191 3.) It must make the social 
 order the outward and material expression of a moral and spiritual 
 principle. (Federal Council of Churches, 191 2.) 
 
 In other words, the method of the church in seeking to remove 
 the social wrongs described and to bring in a better civilization is 
 educating the intelligence and sympathy of men to form a co-opera- 
 tive instead of the more or less predatory society as it now exists. 
 Therefore the church recognizes as pre-eminent the need for study 
 of social conditions, relationships, and principles. The recognition 
 of this need is discussed in the following section. 
 
 C. THE church's NEED FOR STUDY OF SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL 
 
 CONDITIONS 
 
 I. GENERAL NEED OF STUDY 
 
 a) General. — The consciousness has come over the church that 
 vague ideas of the old-fashioned — and still valid — principles of indi- 
 vidual morality, such as thrift, patience, temperance, love of one's 
 "next" are not a sufificient equipment for the citizen of the modern 
 industrial and commercial capitalistic society. The Commission on | 
 
 the Church and Social Service, Federal Council of Churches, in one _ | 
 
 of its publications, a pamphlet on social studies, says : | 
 
 The churches have long confessed their obligation to instruct the 
 
 people in individual needs and duties. They have also given much atten- ^ 
 
 tion to the instruction of men in their relations and obligations to God. |. 
 
 But the churches have thus far not given a proportionate amount of atten- | 
 
 tion to the relations and obligations of men to one another The | 
 
 church that would fulfil its whole mission must therefore interpret the f, 
 meaning of social relations, instruct the people in their social duties, and 
 give the young an adequate ethical equipment for social living. 
 
 The church should teach men how to apply religion to all life — per- | 
 
 sonal, social, and industrial. | 
 
 Also : I 
 
 The Commission on the Church and Social Service further states : | 
 
 "The most important work of the immediate future is the education '■. 
 
 of the people of our churches" (in social problems and needs) .^^ The i 
 
 Methodist Brotherhood says : "We cannot emphasize education too | 
 
 s'The Report of the Commission of the Church and Social Service to the 
 Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America, 1912, p. 10. 
 
ATTITUDE OF CHURCHES TOWARD THE PROBLEM 15 
 
 iiuich."'^- The Social Service Year Book ( 1916) of the Churches 
 says : "Without the more fundamental work of education, no lasting 
 result can be achieved" (p. 145) ; and another pamphlet published 
 by the Federal Council, Training in Citizenship for the Kingdom, 
 says, "Men must be organized for study." 
 
 b) Social Intelligence Necessary. — In a pamphlet published by 
 the American Baptist Publishing Society, entitled A Social Program 
 for a Social Church, p. 4, it is said, "All permanent interest and 
 effective work in social service must be based upon clear knowledge 
 of the facts." The American Unitarian Association affirms that 
 
 "enthusiasm does not go far in solving social problems 
 
 leaders, both ministers and laymen, must be trained in principles 
 and methods. "^-^ The same body admits the churches' efforts to im- 
 prove the social and industrial situation have so far had little effect 
 because there was an insufficiency of accurate information and 
 knowledge of social principles (p. 56). The Methodist Federation 
 of Social Service says, "The great task of the social service move- 
 ment is still the work of education."^* The Methodist Church, in a 
 pamphlet entitled Social Sendee for Young People, says, "Service 
 to be successful must be intelligent. To be intelligent it must be 
 based upon knowledge of accepted principles." Study classes and 
 reading courses are urged. A Northern Baptist Convention an- 
 nouncement says: "We have learned that things have causes, and 
 we do not know anything till we know its causes and results. Social 
 evils have social causes and require social remedies.^'' It is thus seen 
 that the church recognizes the need of social study to form social 
 intelligence. There is also a need of study to fulfil Christian and 
 moral obligations. 
 
 c) Need of Study to Fulfil Christian and Moral Duties. — "The 
 primal duty of the church in social service is to awaken the con- 
 sciences of the members to the present situation." {Studying for 
 Sendee, pamphlet issued by the Methodist Book Concern.) "We 
 must teach men what to do in order to get their family life, their 
 
 '■^-Thc Brotherhood and Social Scn-icc, pamphlet issued by Methodist 
 Brotherhood. 
 
 ^^Nincteenth Anniversary of the American Unitarian Association, p. 54. 
 
 3<Pamphlet, Suggestions for Individual Service. Methodist Federation of 
 Social Service. 
 
 3'Ward, op. cit., p. 143. 
 
1 6 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 community, their business, their poHtics, their industry on a Christian 
 basis." (Batten, Training in Citizenship for the Kingdom, p. 7.) 
 
 d) Special Need for the Study of Industrial Questions. — The 
 Federal Council recommends especially that "the study of existing 
 conditions in the industrial world .... be more definitely enforced 
 as an immediate Christian duty."^^*' The Unitarian Commission rec- 
 ommends that the church pay particular attention in study classes to 
 different phases of the industrial situation.^'' The Northern Baptists 
 emphasize the need to prepare people for life in the industrial order. 
 The Secretary of the Social Service Commission, Northern Baptist 
 Convention, says that the church must teach men how to be in right 
 relations with each other in the mill, the factory, the city, etc.^^ The 
 Report of the Brotherhood Council of the Baptist Church, 191 5, 
 emphasizes need of social study courses on the industrial order.^** 
 The same is recommended by the Commission on Social Service of 
 the Congregational Church, 1913.*" 
 
 It is thus apparent that one of the most important methods recog- 
 nized by these agencies of the church for performing its duties rela- 
 tive to the betterment of industrial conditions and social relations is 
 the study of the problems of capital, labor and industry in classes 
 and other church bodies. The practical result of the recognition of 
 serious social ills and problems and the acceptance of its duty by the 
 Church is the inauguration and maintenance of social study courses 
 where a high social intelligence and keen and comprehensive moral 
 sense may be inculcated. Upon such high social intelligence, such 
 quickened and widened moral and social consciousness depends, in 
 the view of at least the social service bodies of the church, an efficient 
 society, Christ-like in its spirit. 
 
 2. WHO SHALL STUDY? 
 
 There remains to be settled, however, the question as to what 
 groups shall study these matters. The Protestant Episcopal Gen- 
 eral Convention calls upon "every communicant, clerical and lay, 
 seriously to take part and to study the complex conditions under 
 
 3«r/f(? Church and Modem Industry, pamphlet, p. 19. 
 
 ^'The Report of the Unitarian Commission, pamphlet, p. 6. 
 
 ssBatten, Training in Citizenship, p. 9. 
 
 ^^Rcport of Brotherhood Council, 1915- 
 
 ^^Report of Commission on Social Service, Congregational Church, 1913. 
 
ATTITUDE OF CHURCHES TOWARD THE PROBLEM 17 
 
 which we are called upon to live."*' The report of the Unitarian Com- 
 mission advises adapted study classes for "children and older mem- 
 bers of the congregation. "*- 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church regards the Sunday school as 
 the most important agency for social study ."'^ The Joint Commission 
 on Social Service of the Protestant Episcopal Church** has a similar 
 view. The Congregational Church recommends social study for all 
 young people,*"' and the Northern Baptist Convention recommends 
 one or more classes in social study in every church.*" 
 
 3. DIRECT RECOMMENU.MIONS TO CHURCH TO I.VTRODUCE SOCIAL STUDY 
 
 The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church urges "all the 
 members of our church to give serious study to social problems."*' 
 
 The Northern Baptist Convention recommends that every church 
 have a comprehensive program of social education,*^ and the Social 
 Service Commission of the same body makes a similar recommenda- 
 tion.*'' 
 
 D. SUMMARY 
 
 The foregoing, it is believed, has served to show, ( i ) the realiza- 
 tion by many leaders in the churches that there exist critical and 
 important social problems; (2) that one of the most important of 
 these problems is that of capital and labor; (3) that in the task of 
 rr.ising and advancing our society in civilization the church must, if 
 she continue to live, perform an important part; (4) that the ad- 
 vancement of civilization and the solution of social problems depend 
 
 *i\Vard, op. cit., 214. 
 
 *-The Report of the Unitarian Commission (Boston American Unitarian 
 Association), p. 5. 
 
 <3Ward. op. cit., 150. 
 
 **Social Service in the Episcopal Church, 1914. 
 
 *''A Program of Religious Instruction in the Social Church, Commission 
 on Moral and Religious Education, National Council of Congregational 
 Churches, 1915, p. 16. 
 
 ■•M Five Years' Program, adopted by the Northern Baptist Convention. 
 Los Angeles, Cal. May 24, 1915. 
 
 *Hl'hat the Church Believes About Social Problems, issued by Presbj'terian 
 General Assembly, p. 13. 
 
 **'VVard, op. cit., p. 142. 
 
 *^Report of the Social Sen-ice Commission, Northern Baptist Convention. 
 1915, P- 6. 
 
1 8 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 in large measure upon the social intelligence and consciousness of 
 the mass of the people ; (5) that the church has a very large task of 
 social education which she should perform by conducting suit- 
 able social study classes in the Sunday schools and in other church 
 bodies and societies adapted to such study ; (6) that serious attention 
 should be devoted in these study classes to the problem of capital 
 and labor. 
 
 To be sure, it may be objected that the utterances quoted repre- 
 sent but a small element of the church. The larger part of the rank 
 and file may never have heard of these resolutions adopted in con- 
 ventions. The fact, however, that they are the official, deliberative 
 utterances of the most important organs and representatives of the 
 church gives them weight. They are presented, not as an indication 
 of a movement of the rank and file, but as deliberate expression on 
 the part of the church leaders of a movement in which they have 
 announced themselves ready to engage actively. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF EXISTING SOCIAL STUDY 
 COURSES 
 
 Most denominations have made beginnings in social study, but 
 as the work is new and of a nature considerably different from any 
 attempted previously, the progress has not been very rapid (although 
 perhaps as marked as it is reasonable to expect). There follows a 
 brief description of such courses as are already in use. ' The treat- 
 ment of the problem of capital and labor in these courses will be 
 considered in a detailed way in a later section. 
 
 A. "the gospel of the kingdom" (now called "studies in social 
 progress") 2 
 
 This is a monthly publication issued by the American Institute 
 of Social Service, New York. It contains for each Sunday a lesson 
 on some social subject, including Bible references, and a discussion of 
 a social problem involved ; also numerous contributions from various 
 authorities on different phases of social phenomena. The publica- 
 tion was begun in 1908 and has continued until the present time 
 (under the new name since 1917). The following subjects, directly 
 or indirectly bearing upon capital and labor, are some of those 
 treated : Child labor, women in industry, the organization of labor, 
 socialism, immigration, labor conditions, the humble and the king- 
 dom, reduction of the hours of labor, a release from employment one 
 day in seven, a living wage, poverty, wealth, eugenics, etc. In addi- 
 tion, practically all other social problems have been given more or 
 less attention in this series. Housing, the race problem, crime, in- 
 temperance, marriage, politics, social evil, tuberculosis, defectives, 
 unemployment, marriage and divorce, peace, all have been discussed. 
 The former editor of this series, the late Dr. Josiah Strong, was a 
 man of recognized standing in the sociological world (as is also the 
 p-esent editor, Rudolph M. Binder. Ph.D.). 
 
 iSee also Appendix. 
 ^Publication discontinued. 
 
 19 
 
20 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 These studies are used quite extensively by churches and Sunday 
 schools, reaching in round numbers about 5,000 subscribers. (Letter 
 received from the publishers by author of this thesis.) In addition 
 many back numbers are distributed to classes. 
 
 B. "social studies for adult classes and brotherhoods"^ 
 
 This folder, issued by the Commission on Religious and Moral 
 Education of the Northern Baptist Convention, gives lists of texts 
 for use in social study, the outlines of courses to be developed from 
 these texts, and suggestions for the conduct of the courses. The 
 courses outlined are as follows : 
 
 1. The Social Ethics of the Old Testament. (For Brotherhoods, 
 Adult Classes, and Social Study Groups.) 
 
 2. The Social Ideals of Christ. (For Adult Classes, Young 
 People, and Brotherhoods.) Subjects: "The Kingdom of God;" 
 origin of the idea ; its meaning ; Jesus' social and ethical teaching on 
 the kingdom, sin, righteousness, goodness, service, wealth, brother- ^ 
 hood, wages, family, the church and state reform, progress, etc. ^ 
 
 3. The Social Awakening. (For Adult Classes, Social Study 
 Classes, etc.) A careful study of the new social awakening. 
 
 4. The Principles of Social Service. (For Adult Classes. Broth- 
 erhoods, and Social Study Groups.) 
 
 5. Social Institutions. (For Adult Classes, Men's Classes, Social 
 Study Classes, etc.) Institutions studied: the family, eugenics, the 
 church, the state, duties of citizens, the city, the school, successses 
 and failure, character-training, moral instruction, the labor union, 
 the fraternal society, social and voluntary organizations. 
 
 6. Social Duties. (For Young People, Social Study Classes, 
 Men's Classes, etc.) 
 
 Method: Explanation of social duties, awakening of moral judg- 
 ments, consideration of right and adjustment of social relations. 
 
 7. Social Problems. (For Adult Classes, Men's Classes, Social 
 Study Classes, etc.). Problems to be studied at first hand include spe- 
 cifically impurity, intemperance, child labor, immigration, the city, 
 concentration of wealth, etc. 
 
 8. Social Activity. (For Young People, Men's Classes, Social 
 Study Classes.) "The aim in this course is to awaken an interest in 
 
 3Can be obtained from Baptist Department, Social Service and Brother- 
 hood. American Baptist Publishing Society, 1701-1703 Chestnut Street, Phila- 
 delphia. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 21 
 
 objects and causes beyond self ; to direct activity, study community 
 needs, etc." 
 
 Topics relating to the problems of capital and labor are included 
 in the outlines of several of the courses. "Social Ideals of Christ" 
 mentions wealth, brotherhood and wages ; the texts suggested are : 
 Mathews, The Social Gospel and The Social Teaching of Jesus; 
 Stead, The Kingdom of God, Part III, and Henderson, Social Duties 
 from a Christian Point of View. 
 
 "The Principles of Social Service" discusses among other themes 
 "Social Service and Industry." No published reference texts are 
 given. 
 
 "Social Institutions" includes a study of the labor union, meaning 
 of labor and the history of labor organizations, giving the following 
 references : certain volumes of the "Social Service Series ;" Thomp- 
 son, The Divine Order of Human Society; Westcott, Social Aspects 
 of Christianity ; Batten, The Christian State; Devine, The Family and 
 Social Work; Sears, The Redemption of the City; Earp, Social 
 Aspects of Religious Institutions. 
 
 The course on Social Duties considers, among other topics, "just 
 and unjust relations between workers and employers," recommending 
 as a further discussion of the topic Henderson's Social Duties from 
 the Christian Point of Viezv. 
 
 Course 7 on "Social Problems" includes "Women's Labor," 
 "Monopoly," "Concentration of Wealth," "Poverty," "The Rest 
 Day," "Socialism," and "Industrial Peace." References given are : 
 Volumes of "Social Service Series,"* Strong's Gospel of the King- 
 dom, Ellwood's Sociology and Modern Social Problems, and Stelzle, 
 American Moral and Social Conditions. 
 
 The manner in which industrial problems are presented in the 
 aforementioned texts will be described in the following section on 
 "Methods of Treatment." Most of them being written from the 
 evangelical point of view are considered under "Religious or Evan- 
 gelical Treatment" ; but Henderson's Social Duties from a Christian 
 Point of Vieic, together with the volumes from the "Social Service 
 Series" are discussed in the section entitled "Treatment from the 
 Standpoint of Applied Sociology and Social Legislation." 
 
 ••See page 47 for discussion of these pamphlets issued by the Northern 
 Baptist Convention. - - - 
 
22 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 c. "friends' first-day school graded lessons"^ 
 
 These are a series of brief booklets treating current social prob- 
 lems, such as the family, aspects of law and morality, the labor prob- 
 lem, immigration, wages, race problem, marriage and divorce, taxa- 
 tion, the care of the poor, public education, public health and safety, 
 the drink question, etc. Somewhat like the "Gospel of the Kingdom 
 Series," they give references to the scripture and a brief discussion 
 oi the subject. 
 
 d. social service pamphlets issued by the social service 
 commission of the northern baptist convention® 
 
 This is a series of neatly bound pamphlets varying from 20 to 100 
 pages, each dealing with some social problem. The general groups 
 treated are: i. The church and the family; 2. The church and 
 wealth and industry. Under the latter subject the following pam- 
 phlets have been issued: C. R. Henderson, A Reasonable Social 
 Policy for Christian People; C. R. Henderson, Workingmen's Insur- 
 ance; Charles Stelzle, The Church and the Labor Movement; Mary 
 Lathrop Goss, Welfare Work by Corporations; Owen R. Lovejoy, 
 Child Labor; O. C. Horseman, One Day Rest in Seven; Scott Near- 
 ing. Women in American Industry; Prof. C. S. Gardner, The Accu- 
 mulation of Wealth. 
 
 Other main groups are : 3. The community and the church ; 
 4. The church and politics, and 5. The church and social waste. The 
 series is used in social study classes, but more extensively as small 
 reference books for church workers. 
 
 e. unitarian social service series^ 
 
 This group is a series of pamphlets similar to those issued by the 
 Social Service Commission of the Northern Baptist Convention. Up 
 to 1917 there had been published about 35 neatly bound pamphlets, 
 averaging from 50 to 125 pages each, and written by authors of 
 recognized standing. A communication from the American Unita- 
 rian Association states that they are used in churches quite consider- 
 
 "Published by Friends' General Conference, Central Bureau, 150 North 
 15th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 ^Published by American Baptist Publication Society, 1701-1703 Chestnut 
 St., Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 ''Published by American Unitarian Association, 25 Beacon St., Boston, 
 Mass. 
 
 
DESCRIPTION OF SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 23 
 
 ably, although the exact number of classes is not known. The indus- 
 trial problems dealt with are : A Remedy for Industrial Warfare, by 
 Charles W. Eliot ; Some Unsettled Questions about Child Labor, 
 Owen R. Lovejoy ; The Democracy of the Kingdom, Rt. Rev. Charles 
 D. Williams, D.D. ; A Practical Platform for Social Progress, Charles 
 
 F. Dole. 
 
 F. POVERTY AND WEALTH, BY HARRY F. WARD. (1916) 
 
 Poverty and Wealth is a popular text, treating in a clear sane 
 way the following subjects : Destitution and its relief, disease, desti- 
 tution and poverty, moral causes of poverty, the question of low in- 
 comes, luxury, unjust wealth, the effects of poverty, lessening poverty 
 by increasing efficiency, the attack on poverty by remedial measures. 
 the question of distribution, the control of natural resources. There 
 is given a good bibliography. The book is small and compact (132 
 pages), but is full of information. Each topic is taken up as a 
 lesson, with scripture references and questions. This text has been 
 endorsed by conferences of the Methodist church and its use is being 
 rapidly extended, although it is not known how many classes are 
 using it. 
 
 G. CHRISTIANIZING COMMUNITY LIFE, II. F. WARD AND R. H. EDWARDS 
 
 A recent social study text, successful particularly in Y. M. C. A. 
 classes, is that of H. F. Ward and R. H. Edwards, entitled Christian- 
 izing Community Life (Association Press, 1917). It follows an out- 
 line prepared by a sub-committee on college courses of the Sunday 
 School Council of Evangelical Denominations, and Committee on 
 Voluntary Study of the Council of North American Student Move- 
 ments. The contents are as follows : 
 
 i. The World-Wide Community Task 
 
 ii. The Family at the Center 
 iii. The Child in the Midst 
 iv. Training for Full Efficiency 
 
 V. Restoring the Weak 
 vi. Protecting the Worker 
 vii. Industrial Democracy, 
 viii. Establishing Equal Justice 
 ix. Good Government 
 
 X. Overthrowing the Common Enemy 
 xi. Making the Church Christian 
 xii. The Commonwealth of God 
 
24 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 Chapter vi, "Protecting the Worker," has these sub-divisions : 
 Getting a Right Attitude toward the Worker, The Value of Life, The 
 Workers Want a Chance at Life, A Rest Day Helps, Who Gets Too 
 Much? (The latter question is left unanswered.) As the topics 
 suggest, ethical considerations rather than the economics of the 
 schools are emphasized. They are all treated in Dr. Ward's char- 
 acteristic, sympathetic jnanner, and from the same point of view as 
 other texts of his to be examined later in this paper (see pages 65 ff). 
 
 Chapter vii, "Industrial Democracy," includes the following 
 topics : Wanted : More than a Full Dinner-pail, and Recognition of 
 Human Values. It suggests the extension of industrial control to all 
 the workers ; the strong should be the ministers, and the workers the 
 owners. On the basis of the text Isaiah 65 : 17, "They shall not build 
 and another inhabit," the question is asked. Can such a social order 
 involve anything less than that the workers shall also be owners? 
 Obviously, labor organizations are favored. 
 
 H. THE INTERNATIONAL SUNDAY SCHOOL LESSONS. GRADED SERIES. 
 SENIOR COURSE 
 
 These are outlines of courses issued for the Sunday school by the 
 International Lesson Committee. The series was first published 
 August 4, 191 5. Each denomination generally supplies its own text 
 on the outlines, since the latter give only the subjects to be treated 
 and the scripture references. The following subjects are included in 
 the series (i) The Family (5 lessons) ; (2) The Community (6 les- 
 sons) ; (3) The State (6 lessons) ; (4) The Church (6 lessons) ; 
 (5) The Industrial Order (12 lessons) ; (6) Bible Spokesmen of the 
 Kingdom of God (12 lessons). 
 
 The fifth group comprises certain sub-divisions : Work a Law of 
 Life ; Work as a Social Service ; The Specialization of Work; Social- 
 ized Industry ; The Return for Labor ; The Right Use of Money ; 
 Ownership, Partnership in Industry; A Worthy Task; Relating 
 One's Self to the Industrial Order, Improving Industrial Conditions ; 
 Christ and the Industrial Order. 
 
 Following the outline of this series two texts have lately been 
 written, both entitled The Bible and Social Living, one being pub- 
 lished by the Methodist Book Concern, the other by the Baptist Pub- 
 lication Society. These will be more fully described on later pages. 
 
 A similar outline is now (1918) about ready for adult classes. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 25 
 
 As has probably been observed in the preceding descriptions, 
 otlier social subjects have considerably more treatment than the prob- 
 lem of Capital and Labor. There seems to have been some tendency 
 to avoid as far as possible this knotty problem, and to devote more 
 attention to matters that might arouse less difference of opinion. In 
 view of the importance given to it in the official utterances of the 
 churches, however, it has inevitably received some attention in the 
 studies just described, in fact sufficient to reveal a method of 
 treatment. 
 
 All of the studies and texts therein used have been carefully 
 examined by the writer, wherever the subject of capital and labor, or 
 subjects closely related, were treated. 
 
 NOTE 
 
 The Joint Commission on Social Service of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church has projected the following series, although as yet only part of 
 the Hot has been published : 
 What is Social Service? 
 
 I. SOCI.XL STUDY OF THE BIBLE 
 
 The Social Teaching of the Prophets 
 
 Social Legislation in the Old Testament 
 
 The Relation of Church and State in the Old Testament 
 
 The Social Significance of the Gospels 
 
 The Social Significance of the Other New Testament Writings 
 
 II. SOCIAL STUDY OF CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 Social Aspects of Church History : The Early Period 
 Social Aspects of Church History : The Medieval Period 
 Social Aspects of Church History: Since the Reformation 
 
 III. THE MODERN SOCIAL PROBLEM 
 
 Tlio Twofold Nature of the Modern Social Problem : A Problem of 
 Ultimate Reconstruction and a Problem of Immediate Amelioration 
 
 The Industrial or Urban Community: Concentration of Population: 
 Housing 
 
 The Problem of Labor : Wages 
 
 The Problem of Labor: Hours and Conditions 
 
 The Problem of Labor : Unemployment 
 
 Industrial Solutions: Trade Unionism 
 
 Industrial Solutions : Socialism 
 
 Industrial Solutions: Syndicalism 
 
26 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 h 
 
 Industrial Solutions : The Co-operative Movement ; Co-partnership and , 
 
 Profit Sharing; Scientific Management 
 Industrial Disputes: Strikes, Lockouts, etc. 
 The Problem of the Agricultural or Rural Community: Segregation of 
 
 Population 
 The Church's Relation to Better Farming: "No flourishing Church on 
 
 impoverished soil." 
 The Church's Relation to the Improvement of Rural Living Conditions, 
 
 Recreation, and Education 
 The Problem of the Suburban Community 
 The Problem of Immigration 
 The Problem of Recreation 
 The Problem of Social Waste 
 Social Legislation 
 
 IV. METHODS OF SERVICE 
 
 Social Agencies 
 
 How the Episcopal Church Works in the Social Field 
 The Three Principles of Social Action by the Parish 
 Education for Service 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 METHODS OF TRE.\TIXG THE PROBLEM OF CAPITAL AND 
 LABOR 
 
 A. INTRODUCTION 
 
 The method of treating the problem of capital and labor in the 
 foregoing courses will be provisionally classified in three groups, as 
 follows •} 
 
 1. Religious or Evangelical Treatment. This stresses the relig- 
 ious point of view, and is found to a considerable extent in the texts 
 recommended for adult classes in Folder No. 3 of the Committee on 
 Religious and Moral Education of the Northern Baptist Convention, 
 including the following : 
 
 Mathews, The Social Gospel 
 
 Mathews, The Social Teaching of Jesus 
 
 Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis 
 
 Batten, The Social Task of Christianity 
 
 Batten, The Christian State 
 
 Peabody, Jesus Christ and the Social Question 
 
 Strong, The Next Great Azvakening 
 
 Gladden, The Church and Modern Society 
 
 Thompson, The Divine Order of Human Society 
 
 Williams, Democracy and the Kingdom 
 
 2. Treatment from the Standpoint of Applied Sociology or of 
 Social Legislation. This does not stress the religious point of view, 
 but rather presents the problem as a plain statement of conditions 
 and a discussion of sociological and legislative programs for im- 
 provement. The following texts are representative : 
 
 Henderson, Social Duties from a Christian Point of View 
 Ward, Social Creed of the Churches 
 Ellwood, Sociology and Modern Social Problems 
 
 (In Social Studies recommended by the Northern Baptist Convention.) 
 Social Service Pamphlets issued by the Social Service Commission of 
 the Northern Baptist Convention. 
 
 iJt is not claimed that the texts put into one group do not employ more or 
 less the methods of texts classified in another group. The classification is 
 based on prcdominaimg tendencies of treatment. 
 
28 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 Unitarian Social Service Series 
 
 Friends' First Day School Graded Lessons 
 
 3. Treatment Essaying a Combination of the First Tivo Methods. 
 Here we find scriptural lessons used as a basis, and, although the 
 religious point of view is emphasized, there is a distinct attempt to 
 fuse with it present day sociological data and programs. This method 
 is illustrated by : 
 
 Ward, H. F. : Poverty and Wealth. 
 
 "The Gospel of the Kingdom and Studies in Social Progress." 
 
 "The Bible and Social Living" texts (both Methodist and Baptist). 
 
 In the pages to follow, each of these groups will be more fully 
 described, an attempt will be made to justify the grouping used, and 
 the treatment given the problem of capital and labor in each group 
 will be outlined and discussed. 
 
 B. RELIGIOUS OR EVANGELICAL TREATMENT 
 I. INTRODUCTION 
 
 The books illustrative of this treatment are all written from the 
 standpoint of the church, and assume that Christianity is the one 
 saving power of society. It is the application of Christian principles 
 to present conditions and problems that is seen as the adequate 
 method of meeting the same. The problem of Capital and Labor is 
 not given special, extended, and systematic treatment, but wherever 
 considered it appears as a problem of moral and spiritual issues. 
 Our discussion of this treatment is divided into two parts — "Descrip- 
 tion in Social Study Texts of Present Conditions" and "Teaching in 
 Social Study Courses regarding these Conditions." Of course the 
 subject is taken up in various orders in the different texts, but the 
 data have been gathered from all and arranged in the above order 
 for the purpose of analysis. 
 
 2. DESCRIPTION OF PRESENT CONDITIONS IN TEXTS 
 
 Considerable attention is given to the presentation of the facts 
 of social loss and distress in present society. These descriptions 
 awaken the lively sympathy and oftentimes the indignation of the 
 student because such conditions exist. Since a careful review is 
 manifestly impossible in this thesis, there will be noted in the follow- 
 ing sections representative statements concerning some of the more 
 important conditions. 
 
METHODS OF TREA TING THE PROBLEM 29 
 
 a) Poverty 
 
 There is abundance for all in this country (Christianity and the 
 Social Crisis, p. 214; Church and Modern Life, p. 141 ; Our World, 
 p. 152), but in spite of this fact there exist appalling poverty and 
 suffering among large classes of the population. In London the class 
 in poverty is 30 per cent of the total (Social Task of the Churches, 
 p. 41 ) ; 4,000,000 persons are dependent on public relief in the United 
 States (Christianity and Social Crisis). 
 
 (i) Frequent references to low wages and long hours of work- 
 ingmen and to child labor occur in these studies. 
 
 (2) Subjection of the Poor. — "If you are poor and rendering 
 service, you must be modest, polite, humble, and even subservient in 
 your demeanor. But if you are rich, perhaps idle and useless to 
 society, you are above the rule of manners." (Democracy of the 
 Kingdom, p. 9.) IThe entire industrial life is a reign of fear. (Chris- 
 tianity and Social Crisis, p. 295.) 
 
 (3) Contrasts between Wealth and Poverty. — The assertions 
 that the poor are poor through their own fault are lies dressed up in 
 truth. {Christianity and Social Crisis, p. 350.) Popular discontent 
 is created because, with unprecedented increase of wealth, the poor 
 are ground down to bare existence. [Our World, p, 152.) Division 
 of classes causes dissatisfaction. {Social Gospel, p. 99.) 
 
 (4) Distress among Wage-earners. — Much attention is given to 
 showing continued distress among wage-earners, but the three fol- 
 lowing extracts are typical : 
 
 Men are discovering that society is poor and miserable and naked and 
 destitute ; they are discovering that many members of the race are grow- 
 ing up in conditions which practically make impossible a full and worthy 
 and human life. They are finding that many persons are really disin- 
 herited by society, and have no real heritage in life: they are finding that, 
 through the toils and sacrifices of the generation past, society has come 
 into a vast heritage of achievement and resources ; and yet, through neg- 
 lect on the part of many or through fraud on the part of some, this great 
 heritage has fallen into few hands and the great mass of people have no 
 fair share of it.- 
 
 The cries of millions of overworked, underfed, pale-faced men and 
 women and children have entered into the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth. 
 
 2S. Z. Batten, The Social Task of Christianity (F. H. Revell Co.. 191 0. 
 
 P- 35- 
 
30 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 There ought not to be any poor people in this country. If it were a 
 thoroughly Christian country, there would not be.^ 
 
 You remember William Dean Howells' dream of the fete champetre, 
 wherein society, arrayed in its best, was dancing upon the greensward 
 spotted with red daisies. But upon closer scrutiny the greensward proved 
 to be compacted of livid human faces, men and women and little children, 
 and the red daisies were spots and gouts of human blood where the sharp 
 heels of the careless dancers struck into the living flesh. That picture is 
 not untrue to much of our fashionable society life.* 
 
 (5) Bitterness among the Poor. — There is space for but one 
 extract, but several of these texts recognize the bitterness among the 
 poor. 
 
 I have gone much among the people of the alleys and the slums, even 
 the so-called anarchists and socialists; and I have found that frequently 
 to them the men of the offices and the women of the mansions were not 
 real human beings with the same red blood in their veins that flowed in 
 their own, people who loved and hated and had children, but artificial 
 beings, frankensteins, creatures of iron and steel, taskmasters, the instru- 
 ments of their exploitation, or the idle appropriators and enjoyers of the 
 fruits of their toil.^ 
 
 (6) Evil Effects of Poverty. — Unemployment drives to drink, 
 pauperism, lack of self-respect. {Christianity and the Social Crisis, 
 p. 238.) 
 
 (7) Lack of Opportunity of Poor. — The texts recognize more or 
 less the lack of opportunity among the poor. Some are socialistic, 
 as the following: 
 
 A large proportion of the population in the prevailing state of society 
 take part in the rivalry of life only under conditions which absolutely pre- 
 clude them, whatever their natural merit or ability, from any real chance 
 therein. They come into the world and find the best positions not only 
 already filled, but practically occupied in perpetuity. For, under the great 
 body of rights which wealth has inherited from feudalism, we, to all 
 intents and purposes, allow the wealthy classes to retain control of these 
 positions generation after generation, to the permanent exclusion of the 
 rest of the people.^ 
 
 ^Church and Modern Life, p. 141. 
 
 ^Williams, The Democracy of the Kingdom. 
 
 ^Ibid., p. 9. 
 
 ^''Social Task of Christianity." Quoted from Kidd, Social Evolution, 
 P- 35. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 31 
 
 Discussio)i. — The foregoing brings out vividly one element in 
 the religious method of treatment in the social study courses — the 
 strong appeal to sympathy and a sense of justice, a statement of con- 
 ditions so made as to arouse in any normal man the vivid sympathy 
 and moral indignation that such conditions are allowed to exist. 
 Instinctively one asks, "Whose fault is it?" realizing that, stronger 
 than any nice reasoning and logic of the "classicists," is the insistent 
 deep sense that something is wrong and ought to be righted. 
 
 b) Wealth 
 
 General inequality and dangers of too great concentration of 
 wealth are the subject of the greater part of the description under 
 this heading. Striking facts are presented in proof of the existing 
 inequality. 
 
 (i) Distribution of Wealth. — Two per cent of the people in the 
 United States own 60 per cent of the wealth, 33 per cent own 95 per 
 cent of the wealth, and 65 per cent own 5 per cent of the wealth. 
 {The Living Wage a Religious Necessity, p. 18.) Other similar facts 
 are given. 
 
 (2) Complacency of Wealth. — One citation follows: 
 
 I have gone much among the men and women of the offices and the 
 avenues, and I have found that to them often the people of the slums and 
 alleys were not real, human beings at all, made of the same human clay, 
 with the same human feelings and passions in their hearts, the same 
 motives and aspirations, to be measured and judged by the same stand- 
 ards; but they were only the hands that did the work, the tools of their 
 industries and service, or the recipients of their charities, the mud-sills, 
 sunk out of sight and out of mind, which supported the fabric of society 
 in which they disported themselves pleasantly and carelessly.' 
 
 (3) Autocracy of Wealth. — The following passage will suffice to 
 indicate the opinion concerning the autocracy of wealth expressed in 
 one of the representative texts of the study courses : 
 
 The simple facts of the case are that a few men, by the use of great 
 skill and large capital, are getting control of the means of production 
 and distribution and are fastening upon the necks of the people an indus- 
 trial autocracy more irresponsible and tyrannical than the world has ever 
 known.* 
 
 ''The Democracy of the Kingdom, p. 7. 
 
 ^The Christian State, p. 7. A similar view is expressed in 'Our H'orld" 
 (p. 141), "Christianity and the Social Crisis" (p. 400/) 
 
32 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 c) Social Classes 
 The existence of social classes is generally recognized. 
 
 ( 1 ) Recognition of Classes. — "We have our proprietary and ex- 
 propriated classes, the owners and the owned." (Democracy of the 
 Kingdom, p. 3.) "The existence of at least two distinct classes is 
 inherent in the nature of capitalistic organization of industry." 
 (Christianity and the Social Crisis, p. 219.) "In time we shall have 
 three layers of population on the land." (Christianity and the Social 
 Crisis, p. 225.) "More and more the industrial world finds itself 
 occupied by two armed camps." (Jesus Christ and the Social Ques- 
 tion, p. 269.) 
 
 (2) Description of Conditions. — Between capital and labor is a 
 war (Our World, p. 124) ; the range of opportunity in industrial and 
 social life is steadily narrowing for the great majority of men (Chris- 
 tian State, p. 230). The capitalistic system as it now is will lead to 
 increasing estrangement between classes (Our World, p. 124). 
 
 Summary. — The social study courses of this group contend that 
 at the present time, though there is a natural abundance for every- 
 one, nevertheless a large proportion of the population is in constant 
 misery, want, and suffering because of low wages, that the greater 
 part of the wealth of the country is in the hands of a comparatively 
 small class, and that there is much dissatisfaction and bitterness 
 because of this unequal distribution of wealth. The conditions pre- 
 sented are so serious as to call for the most careful and sincere 
 thought. No one dare remain indififerent in the face of facts such 
 as have been presented. We might expect that with the description 
 of such serious conditions there would be given the most careful 
 analysis of the causes and reasons for this distress and economic 
 inequality. We might expect that these problems which are at least 
 in part economic would receive a treatment that would include what- 
 ever insight the science of economics is able to give. We shall there- 
 fore next consider the teachings in these texts in regard to the condi- 
 tions so vividly presented, examining first their economic treatment. 
 
 3. TEACHINGS IN EVANGELICAL GROUP OF SOCIAL STUDY IN REGARD TO ■^,- 
 
 CONDITIONS PRESENTED 
 
 a) Economic Treatment 
 (i) Although we might have expected, after the description of 
 appalling industrial conditions contained in this group of social serv- 
 ice texts, a careful economic treatment of the causes of these condi- 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 
 
 33 
 
 tions, we find scarcely any reference to economic knowledge or 
 economic principles. This may be due to several causes. The cler- 
 ical scholars who have written the majority of the texts may be 
 unfamiliar with economics, or there may be general distrust of a 
 science that, after decades of activity, is apparently unable to oflfer 
 means whereby the present distress can be prevented. It may be 
 the feeling that economics, with its principle of self-interest, has 
 nothing in common with the altruism of Christianity. At any rate, 
 there is a remarkable lack of economic method in these courses which 
 are dealing with subjects supposed to be at least partially economic. 
 We may examine the courses, however, to see if they have any 
 material regarding some of the more important economic categories. 
 
 (2) and (3) Capital and Interest. — There is no treatment of the 
 nature of capital, the necessity for its existence in an advanced 
 society, or the manner in which it arises. Neither is there any sug- 
 gestion given as to how it is maintained nor how it might be main- 
 tained in other ways. 
 
 Although the capitalistic classes undoubtedly derive their incomes 
 largely from interest, and although interest is one of the chief char- 
 acteristics of modern social organization, the student of these texts 
 derives practically no information regarding its nature and operation. 
 If the leisure class is able to live in luxury because of interest, and 
 the laboring class apparently is reduced to small wages largely be- 
 cause of the necessity for paying large dividends (interest), it would 
 seem that in any consideration of the problem of capital and labor 
 attention might be given to this nexus of the problem. The foregoing 
 texts, however, do not treat this subject which occupies so large an 
 amount of space in economic literature. 
 
 Nevertheless, there are reasons why the nature of capital and 
 interest should not be discussed in these texts. The greatest dis- 
 agreement exists among economists concerning their true nature. 
 They are still the subject of inquiry. They occupy the same position 
 in the world of social science, perhaps, as does cancer in the world 
 of medicine. None of the several theories advanced has been estab- 
 lished to the general satisfaction of all students. Furthermore, it is 
 a serious problem to know what acceptable explanations of capital 
 and interest may be given in courses whose students include both 
 classes affected. Perhaps the wisest plan is to state the simple truth, 
 that here is a matter of the utmost importance whose nature is still 
 not adequately known by those who have long investigated it. This 
 
34 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 method, it seems, would be better than practically ignoring it, or 
 adopting some radical theory simply for the sake of having one. It 
 is far better to admit ignorance than to ignore that about which we 
 have inadequate knowledge, better also to admit ignorance than to 
 formulate a "snap" theory. As will be indicated later, the teaching 
 of the known facts relating to these problems may be of decisive 
 significance, and point the way to an eventual definition and descrip- 
 tion of capital and interest. 
 
 (4) Wages. — The economic consideration of wages receives only 
 slight attention. Professor Rauschenbusch, in Christianity and the 
 Social Crisis, derives a law of wages which he expresses as follows : 
 
 If a man is poor or if he has a large family he can be induced to take 
 less. If he is devoted to his family and if they are sick he may take still 
 less. The less he needs the more he can get ; the more he needs the less 
 he will get.^ 
 
 (5) Rent. — This subject receives scarcely any economic treat- 
 ment and the student remains uninformed concerning the reasons for 
 rent. The topic of land reform appears in different texts, but there 
 is no agreement of opinion regarding it. In one of the older texts, 
 The Divine Order of Human Society, p. 140, it is stated that the 
 "land reformers would cut the tap-root of the family," while A 
 Practical Program for Social Reform, p. 39, suggests "it may be 
 necessary to alter our land system to cure unemployment" ; to give all 
 the people more natural access to the land is regarded as a possibly 
 necessary step in this direction. 
 
 b) Moral and Spiritual Issues 
 
 (i) General. — If the economic treatment of the factors involved 
 in the problem of capital and labor is, perhaps, deficient, the moral 
 and spiritual factors are given elaborate attention. In the exami- 
 nation of these factors two main considerations are to be kept in 
 mind: (a) Are the moral principles stated in a manner intelligible 
 to the modern man, and (b) Are they made applicable to definite 
 situations, or is such applicability indicated? For example, if such 
 a principle as justice is recommended to solve the present industrial 
 difficulties, is the student shown exactly how this principle may be 
 applied in particular and general complex social situations of the 
 
 ^Christianity and the Social Crisis, p. 231. 
 
 I 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 35 
 
 present day ? With these queries in mind we may examine the moral 
 and spiritual treatment of the problem of capital and labor in the 
 social study courses which emphasize the religious point of view. 
 
 (2) Moral and Spiritual Nature of Problem. — The problem of 
 capital and labor is regarded as essentially moral rather than eco- 
 nomic. {The Social Gospel, p. 85; The Next Great Azvakening, p. 
 199.) It cannot be settled until men emphasize duties rather than 
 rights (Ibid., p. 199.) "The chief difficulty with modern social life 
 .... is not a mechanical difficulty, but a social fault." (Jesus 
 Christ and the Social Question.) 
 
 The studies take the position that the whole question needs to be 
 lifted above the economic plane. The Christian aim is not "to make 
 the poor rich," but "to make the bad good." {Jesus Christ and the 
 Social Question, p. 294.) "Industrial life must be lifted to the level 
 of moral opportunity and taken in hand as a trust from God." {Ibid.) 
 "jesus counts on character to bring about economic transformation." 
 {Ibid., p. 295.) "The teaching of Jesus begins with a sense of spir- 
 itual need and ends with the idea of a spiritual kingdom." {Ibid., p. 
 294.) "The Christian principle of love must become increasingly 
 supreme in our economic world." {The Social Gospel, p. 85.) 
 
 These statements combine a social impulse with a bit of mysti- 
 cism. The first impulse which recognizes so-called economic 
 problems as fundamentally social problems is in line with recent 
 developments in economic thought which are expressed by Dr. 
 Amonn who finds the content of the economic problem not in ma- 
 terial versus psychic nature (goods versus wants), but in its social 
 nature.^*^ 
 
 The inference to be drawn from the above citations from the 
 study courses is seemingly that the economic problem must be re- 
 garded primarily as social rather than as a problem of the individual 
 versus material goods, and as this is in agreement with the most 
 
 io"Eine theoretische Einheit bilden diese Problcme nicht wegen ihres 
 irgendwie bestimmten wirtschaftlichen Characters, sondern wegen ihrer all- 
 gemeinen wesentlichen sozialen Natur. Nicht die Besonderheiten ihrer em- 
 pirischen Erscheiiiungsform bei Sachgiiterproduktion und Verkehr interes- 
 sieren in erster Linie die National-Okonomie. sondern ihre soziale Erschei- 
 nungsform in allgemein und unabhangig von jener." (Amonn: Objckt u. 
 Grundbcgriffc dcr thcorctischcn Xatiotial-Okonoiutc, 191 1, p. 168.) "Damit 
 halten wir es fiir begriindet, die National-Okonomie im methodolischen Sinn — 
 nicht als Wirtschaftswissenschaft — sondern als Sozialwissenschaft aufzu- 
 fassen." {Ibid., p. 158.) 
 
36 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 recent economic thought, it must be considered as an important and 
 valid sociological aspect. 
 
 Agreeing, then, with the teaching of the "social studies" that the 
 pjoblem of capital and labor is essentially social, in "the sense that 
 all economic problems are social problems," we may examine the 
 method in which these studies seek the moral solution of this prob- 
 lem. It will be found that characteristically they invoke a few great 
 principles upon which special stress is laid for solving the problem 
 of capital and labor. They are as follows : ( i ) Personality, rather 
 than property. (2) Justice. (3) Brotherhood. (4) Service. Our 
 next task is to examine the treatment of each of these principles and 
 their application to the problem in question. In the consideration of 
 each principle a brief criticism, not necessarily destructive, will be 
 offered, and at the end a general discussion of this method of attack- 
 ing the industrial problem. 
 
 (3) Personality versus Property. — The studies of this group see 
 as one of the causes of distress the fact that property is put above 
 personality. "Our industrial establishments are institutions for the 
 creation of dividends, and not for the fostering of human life." 
 {Christianity and the Social Crisis, p. 370.) There will be no solu- 
 tion "until our industrial world is organized on the basis of the 
 supremacy of the human element in life" (The Social Gospel, p. 109) ; 
 "the social order is not a product of mechanism, but of personality." 
 (Jesus Christ and the Social Question, p. 102.) "Use to persons 
 .... and not the gain of things is the only end." (Divine Order of 
 Human Society, p. 147.) "Questions of property should always be 
 subordinate to the interests of persons." (Divine Order of Human 
 Society, p. 137.) "The force of religious spirit should be bent toward 
 asserting the supremacy of life over property." (Christianity and 
 the Social Crisis, p. 413.) The estimate of the worth of personality 
 must be increased. (Church and Labor, p. 107.) "Economic schemes 
 are to be estimated by their contribution to personality." (Jesus 
 Christ and the Social Question, p. 282.) 
 
 These citations are intended to teach that an exaltation of per- 
 sonality over property would help largely toward a solution of indus- 
 trial problems, but from the point of view of psychology it must be 
 confessed that this principle is vague. Again it is not clearly pointed 
 out in these studies how the principle may be applied in specific in- 
 stances. Psychologically, the distinction between personality and 
 property is not thoroughly justified. As William James clearly 
 
 i 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 37 
 
 shows, property is a part of personality. A man's natural posses- 
 sions are very much an element of his personality. The same man 
 with fine clothes, a big bank account and an automobile is a very 
 different personality from what he would be if jobless and hungry. 
 We cannot divide ourselves so completely from our material posses- 
 sions. We seek property because with property we have power and 
 mastery and thus enlargement of personality. The man who can 
 command railroads and ships, factories and mines, whose influence 
 extends into a hundred branches of industry, has the personality of 
 a small god. No one (except the miser) cares for property in itself, 
 but principally because property becomes part of one's personality, 
 capable of expanding it and making it free. 
 
 The idea of putting personality against property probably goes 
 back to the conception of the soul as an independent unit, existing 
 exclusive of visible things. The personality or soul, according to 
 this thought, is an independent unity and it stands oiT and may or 
 may not use property. 
 
 According to the other conception, personality is the total 
 experience. 
 
 At any rate if one has the time or the energy to give such formulae 
 AS personality versus property careful consideration, he is led into 
 insoluble metaphysical questions which do not cast much light upon 
 practical problems, or else he is forced to seek simpler and more 
 practical explanations. 
 
 Undoubtedly there are deep truths underlying the exaltation of 
 persons and personality over property, but do they not require much 
 more definite statement in order to be applied by the practical man 
 to the problems of capital and labor? 
 
 If the truths underlying the rather vague citations from the texts 
 were put in simpler and more definite form, would they not perhaps 
 resolve themselves into teachings similar to the following? 
 
 ''Plenty of physical exercise is better for health and happiness 
 than the possession of a big motor car!" 
 
 "A big house is of no value to one unless he can use it," etc. 
 
 If some general statement were desired, would it not be clearer 
 to say that a man's experience is the relation between his mind and 
 body and his environment (social and physical) and it is just as im- 
 portant to improve and complete the former as the latter? 
 
 It is the belief of the writer that further perusal of this essay 
 will tend to indicate that the substitution of plain, scientific, definite 
 
38 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 facts for somewhat general and theological formulae is practically 
 advantageous, especially in so difficult a field as that of industrial 
 questions. 
 
 (4) Justice. — This is a principle that all admit would materially 
 aid in the solution of all social problems if men could only agree 
 upon exactly what justice is ! The social studies consider the prin- 
 ciple of justice as one of the surest means of solving the industrial 
 problem. The industrial conflict, on the part of the handworking 
 class, is a "passionate demand for industrial justice. (Jesus Christ 
 arid the Social Question, p. 272.) "The rise of class consciousness 
 is due to a sense of injustice." (The Social Gospel, p. 75.) "It is the 
 sense of inequity which gives the present social situation its specific 
 character." (Jesus Christ and the Social Question, p. 185.) "The 
 time has come .... to attune the conditions of industrial life to 
 justice." (Social Order in Religion, p. 9.) "Our blessings have 
 failed to bless us because they were not based on justice." (Christi- 
 anity and the Social Crisis, p. 233.) The churches "must arouse and 
 inspire men to go forth and make justice prevail in the earth." 
 (Social Task of Christianity, p. 126.) "The crucial point of attack 
 on poverty is therefore the campaign for social justice." (Poverty 
 and Wealth, p. 117.) 
 
 A just distribution is called for: "In a free and just society 
 every man is entitled to the product of his own industry." (The 
 Christian State, p. 224.) "It has become necessary to adopt some 
 standard of justice for the distribution of wealth" (Social Creed of 
 the Churches, p. 165). "They must see that gains received and privi- 
 leges enjoyed bear some proportion to service rendered and obHga- 
 tions fulfilled." (Social Task of Christianity, p. 126.) 
 
 The last two citations certainly approach definiteness more than 
 the others, but it is one of the biggest problems of economics to deter- 
 mine just what is the product of any man's industry. That is re- 
 garded as being at the heart of the economic problem. 
 
 But the principle of justice that is to be applied to the industrial 
 problem needs now to be considered. 
 
 F. Rank in Etudes de morale shows that it is impossible to con- 
 sider justice as an absolute principle. Efforts have been made to 
 formulate the principles of justice from metaphysical grounds, phys- 
 ical, chemical, or biological laws. These have all failed. The hedonis- 
 tic theory has also been used to establish a principle of justice and 
 has failed. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 39 
 
 The hedonistic theory of individual happiness is an o priori theory 
 which has no justification in itself. Happiness is not a criterion of our 
 ideal of justice.^^ "We have shown that conceptions (of justice) which 
 rest upon metaphysical, psychological, or biological grounds have no 
 value, and we are forced to the conclusion to consider justice as a social 
 belief of our time in a given movement and a given society."^^ 
 
 Dr. Sarlo'^ likewise finds that "justice presents such a complica- 
 tion in its psychological elements and in its historical evolution that 
 it is very difficult to determine its contents except as exactly the moral 
 valuation occurring in various evolutionary stages (of society)," and 
 further "justice is closely connected with economic, social, and polit- 
 ical conditions, with the total complex of phenomena .... of a 
 given people, and consequently to write the history of justice it is 
 necessary to write the history of property, of the family, of the State, 
 of Law in all their forms." 
 
 In other words, abstract justice is no definite and permanent 
 principle by which things may be ordered. Justice as understood at 
 a given time is nothing other than the prevailing belief about human 
 relations, and it accordingly changes with every change in the social 
 order. To attempt to clarify the present social problem by an appeal 
 to justice is practically to seek to solve the prevailing social perplexity 
 in regard to social problems by an appeal to the prevailing social 
 understanding of, or belief concerning, these problems. 
 
 That is the very difficulty. There are so many ideas of what 
 justice is. The employer, smarting under repeated losses caused by 
 undeveloped labor leadership, has a very different conception of 
 industrial justice from that of the enthusiastic uplifter who is too 
 often ignorant of economics. If public opinion in a Democracy 
 could only be made to agree on some standard of justice, it might 
 not be long before systematic attempts were made to adjust the situ- 
 ation. But there is the trouble. Each group has a different idea of 
 justice. The very greatest danger lies in having any man assume that 
 his concrete idea of what justice is, coincides with that of all others, 
 calling others unjust if their actions do not conform to his standards. 
 
 What is necessary is not an abstract appeal to justice but a con- 
 vincing demonstration to all classes of what is just. 
 
 J'F. Rank, Etudes de morale, p. 286. 
 12F. Rank, "Etudes de Morale." 
 ^^Principii di scietica etica, 1907, p. 2l6. 
 
40 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 Of course an appeal to act in accordance with generally accepted 
 standards is useful. But in the field of capital and labor there are 
 few generally accepted standards. It is these standards that have to 
 be created. The appeal to justice sounds good. It is liable to make 
 people feel that a solution has been reached. But in the problem of 
 capital and labor it is largely misleading, and prevents effort and 
 study towards finding an actual and practical method of attacking the 
 problem. 
 
 Therefore we must conclude that the appeal to abstract justice 
 in this particular instance is not a sufficiently practical way of meet- 
 ing the problem, although we would not minimize the need of empha- 
 sizing justice so far as public opinion has made the principle of justice 
 applicable to this problem. 
 
 (5) Brotherhood. — In the first group of social study texts the 
 third great principle proposed for the solution of the differences of 
 capital and labor is that of brotherhood, and it is the idea of brother- 
 hood that seems to have been in the mind of Jesus. To understand 
 this concept we must look for a moment at the history and thought of 
 Israel to see how it developed. The early clans that settled in Palestine 
 were organized on the patriarchal order. Israel was a federation of 
 families. The unit of organization was the family; the type and 
 pattern of the social organization was that of the family. Abraham, 
 the common father, was the center of the tribal life. But as the 
 nation grew and absorbed other thoughts the state concept, the indi- 
 vidualistic idea of human relations, became more and more prominent. 
 There was a continual contest then between these two lines of 
 thought. Jesus represented the clan idea, the family principle applied 
 to human relations, and he generalized this idea to apply to all men. 
 Brotherhood means the family principle. 
 
 We find the social studies emphasizing this principle : 
 
 "The Kingdom of God, according to Jesus, is to be found in the 
 gradually realized and finally perfected brotherhood of man." (Jesus 
 Christ and the Social Question, p. 286.) "In Christ all men are 
 brethren." (Social Aspect of Christianity, p. 9.) "Jesus Christ 
 looked at the laborer as a brother." (Gospel of the Kingdom, p. 
 135.) "It is rather with developing .... a sense of fraternity" 
 .... that solution will be reached. (The Social Gospel, p. 100.) 
 "The first point to be settled is as to whether an existing economic 
 institution .... tends to the establishment of fraternity" (Social 
 Teaching of Jesus, p. 156). "The equality of fraternity does not 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 41 
 
 consist in duplication of powers, but in the enjoyment and the exer- 
 cise of love" {Social Teaching of Jesus, p. 172). "We are our 
 brothers' keepers .... {Social Aspect of Christianity, p. 100). 
 "To sum up, then, these .... thoughts .... men are brethren," 
 .... etc. {Social Aspect of Christianity, p. 15). "The love that 
 springs from a sense of brotherhood will never be satisfied until it 
 has established a social order in which fraternity will characterize all 
 phases of social life" {Social Teaching of Jesus, p. 195). "The 
 question is whether the ideal of ... . economic fraternity can today 
 depend on any great and conquering class" {Christianity and the 
 Social Crisis, p. 403). "The church must open the way for the free 
 circulation of the red blood of a common humanity" {The Democracy 
 of the Kingdom, p. 23). "Men could not go on for generations 
 saying Father to God w'ithout the inevitable sequence, the brother- 
 hood of man .... {Gospel of the Kingdom, v. 6, 1914, p. 16). 
 "It believes in Jesus' teaching of the children of men as one great 
 family, with one Father" {Poverty and Wealth, p. 122). The work 
 of the Department of Agriculture shows "what may be done when 
 v/e abandon the policeman theory of government and adopt the family 
 theory" {Christianity and the Social Crisis, p. 399). 
 
 Now, in applying the family or the clan idea to present society, 
 two aspects of this relation must be kept distinct. First, the family 
 organization of society was an organic or biological organization ; it 
 was more or less unconscious, and depended upon the biological rela- 
 tions of the members. The overcoming of the family organization 
 of society and the substitution therefor of the individualistic organi- 
 zation was a great step in advance, inasmuch as it replaced the bio- 
 logical with the partially psychological organization of society. Far 
 from having the ancient idea of society in which each person biolog- 
 ically or by birth was assigned his or her particular place, the modern 
 democratic struggle is toward organic indifference and social organi- 
 zation on a psychological basis. That is the heart of the democratic 
 ideal, the "Ueberwindung" of the patriarchal organic organization, 
 and the establishment of a psychological organization, based upon 
 the intelligence and free wills of free individuals not bound by 
 organic restrictions. The suffrage agitation is part of this move- 
 ment. In this sense we must regard the family ideal given in the 
 church studies as not expressing adequately the democratic spirit of 
 organization. 
 
42 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 On the other hand, a fundamental psychological truth is brought 
 forth in the "brotherhood" or family idea. The family by its con- 
 stant association tends to become a psychological unity. The minds 
 of all tend to react in the same way; the sympathies of all are one. 
 So close is the family association; so often do the sympathies, the 
 pains, sorrows, and fears of all the members act together, that 
 eventually the pain or sorrow of one becomes the pain or sorrow of 
 all. It is this close psychological union, or identity that is necessary 
 for efficient social organisation. This is the great truth in the prin- 
 ciple of brotherhood. Only as the members of society think, feel, 
 and sympathize together can there be any solution of social difficul- 
 ties. The development of this coordinated psychosis is one of the 
 great tasks of the church and cannot be omitted in the solution of 
 social problems. Such united psychosis, social sympathy, and co- 
 operation can be achieved by bringing people together, and inducing 
 them to think and feel together. Only in this way can there be devel- 
 oped mutual understanding and the possibility of psychological or- 
 ganization. Herein lies the great task and opportunity of the church. 
 Only as the capitalist and working class can be brought together in 
 simultaneous sympathy and feeling and thought can there be reached 
 the common social understanding without which the problem of 
 capital and labor remains insoluble. The principle of brotherhood 
 is a wonderfully potent influence for the solution of social problems, 
 but for availability in modern conditions it needs a modern socio- 
 psychological interpretation. This is not developed in the social 
 study courses, and so the principle remains abstract and difficult of 
 application. 
 
 (6) Service versus Self-interest. — The remaining great principle 
 invoked in the studies is the principle of service versus self-interest. 
 "The only other way really to attack combination is to attack selfish- 
 ness, its cause" {Gospel of the Kingdom, v. 1912, p. 21). "When 
 employers and employed are all filled with the spirit of Christ, the 
 wage system will not be a means of exploitation" {Church and 
 Modern Life, p. 150). "Suppose capital and labor were brought 
 under the law of service; there could be no more conflict between 
 them" {The Next Great Awakening, p. 202). "The day must come 
 when going into business for merely personal reasons will be deemed 
 as disgraceful as entering politics with such a notion is now seen to 
 be" {Gospel of the Kingdom-, p. 161). "What is it that can restore 
 the sense of unity to such divided lines ? It is the spirit of service." 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 43 
 
 (Jesus Christ and the Social Question). "Man is stronger and more 
 blessed through sacrifice than through self-assertion" (Social Aspects 
 of Christianity, p. 43). "The spirit of sacrifice .... gives all of 
 self and all of substance" (The Next Great Awakening, p. 129). 
 "All individual activity must be subject to the Christian law of serv- 
 ice (The Accumulation of Wealth, p. 20). "Holy love, realizing 
 itself in service and sacrifice, is the only effective principle governing 
 property" (Social Teachings of Christ, p. 37). 
 
 The studies find a striking difference between Christian and eco- 
 nomic laws. "The great words of the old political economy and the 
 present day business world are not need and service, but supply and 
 demand" (The Next Great Awakening, p. 164). "Selfishness as the 
 inspiring motive of industry has had the sanction of orthodox eco- 
 nomic science" (Our World, p. 103). "Competitive industry and 
 commerce are based on selfishness .... just as Christianity is 
 based on love" (Christianity and the Social Crisis, p. 310). "The 
 ideal of gain as the end of labor must give way to the ideal of use or 
 service in both classes." Business ought to be organized on the law of 
 love ( The Next Great Azvakcning, p. 139). "The law of Christ, when- 
 ever it finds expression, reverses the law of trade" {Christianity and 
 the Social Crisis, p. 31 1 ) . "The law of profit is, take all you can and 
 give as little as you can. The law of service is, give all you can and 
 take only what you need" (Poverty and Wealth, p. 122). 
 
 It would seem that there is no more pressing matter for modern 
 psycholog}' to seek to clarify than the confusion between egotistic 
 and altruistic motives. On the one hand a representative economist 
 like Seligman builds up a science of human conduct on the economic 
 motive which, according to him, is "that which [leads] man to secure 
 the most pleasure for the least pain."^* and on the other hand, the 
 following representative sentiments are expressed in the studies : 
 "The central truth of morals" (the norm of social relationship) is 
 "that man .... is more blessed through sacrifice than through 
 self-assertion" (Social Aspects of Christianity, p. 43). and "the spirit 
 of sacrifice" (which is the Christian spirit) "gives all and longs for 
 more to fill the measure of the world's great need" (The Next 
 Great Awakening, p. 129). There is certainly a great deal of differ- 
 ence between sacrifice and pleasure as a motive, or even between 
 service and pleasure as a motive. The studies would build up a 
 society on the former, the economic sciences on the latter motives. 
 
 '^Seligman, Principles of Economics, p. 4. 
 
44 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 It is certain that the question of motives of social action needs much 
 pragmatic investigation before any valuable conclusions can be drawn 
 therefrom. The studies assume that the motive of service is so 
 strong a force, actually and potentially, that the whole social order 
 may be built upon it as fundamental. The economists, in a legitimate 
 process of abstraction, would eliminate this as a pure motive. If 
 group and social sympathies frequently contradict and are stronger 
 than individual interests, the basis of present economics falls. If it 
 be true (and psychologically it is possible) that a large part of the 
 motives of the average man are those occasioned by social norms 
 irrespective of his own well-being or individual feelings in the matter, 
 in other words if a large part of human motives are occasioned by 
 customs and social imperatives that do not add to pleasure (as com- 
 monly understood), much economic philosophy breaks down. This 
 principle should be treated in the light of social psychology. 
 
 But the social studies are not definite enough in making intelli- 
 gible the motive of "service." It would seem that a principle upon 
 which so much importance is placed should be worthy of analysis 
 sufficient for the reasonably intelligent person to understand its prin- 
 cipal implications. This explanation is not given in the studies, and 
 one is left wfth a vague, mystic idea which, because of its vagueness, 
 is weak, and without further elaboration and interpretation must be 
 held inadequate as a means of solution for the problem in hand. 
 
 (7) General Criticism of Spiritual and Moral Issues. — The first 
 criticism that applies to the moral and spiritual solutions given in 
 the social studies for the problem of capital and labor is that the 
 principles given are not connected in a definite way with the actual 
 factors of the problem. An employer may desire to be just, broth- 
 erly, serviceable, but that does not make it possible to pay more than 
 a competitive wage, or to retain his employees during a business 
 depression. The studies fail to point out precisely how these prin- 
 ciples may be applied. 
 
 The second criticism is that the principles are vague, and, as this 
 paper has endeavored to indicate, not subjected to a sufficient socio- 
 psychological analysis. 
 
 It may be objected to the foregoing criticism that the churches are 
 not endeavoring to teach specific programs, but merely to inculcate 
 nght attitudes, and in emphasizing brotherhood, service, personality, 
 they are fulfilling this adequately. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 45 
 
 In reply it may be said that one of the most dangerou« situations 
 exists when people feel that they have the right attitude toward a 
 problem, but do not know how to act toward it. Having the emotion 
 of brotherly love and willingness to serve aroused is too often a sub- 
 stitute for the deed that really corrects a bad situation. This em- 
 phasis upon attitude, rather than upon the knowledge of how to act, 
 seems a palpable fault in the social study courses. It is vain to incul- 
 cate a proper attitude unless provision is assured that there will be 
 forthcoming information and knowledge thru which the attitude 
 may be converted into action. We maintain that the churches should 
 help to supply this knowledge. 
 
 In general, the treatment of the problem of capital and labor in 
 this group of texts is too abstract and metaphysical. The problem is 
 attacked from a theological point of view, and, although many good 
 thoughts are suggested, the treatment is not definite and scientific 
 enough to satisfy an inquirer anxious to find real means of meeting 
 industrial problems. 
 
 C. TREATMENT FROM THE STANDPOINT OF APPLIED SOCIOLOGY AND 
 SOCIAL LEGISLATION 
 
 As has been said, these texts discuss the social problems involved 
 largely from a sociological standpoint with relatively slight appeal to 
 the religious emotions. 
 
 I. Social Duties from a Christian Point of View, by Charles R. 
 Henderson, is in essence a summary of the principles of social wel- 
 fare as embodied in the progressive program of social legislation. It 
 really consists of the elements of practical social science. It discusses 
 duties relating to the family, material conditions of family life, neg- 
 lected children, workingmen, social duties in rural communities, 
 civics, charities and corrections, corporations, business and leisure 
 classes, government and international relations. Chapter v — Social 
 Duty to Workingmen — is typical. In this chapter. Professor Hen- 
 derson discusses the need for a social policy which ahall look toward 
 improvement of the conditions of the hand-working classes, and out- 
 lines the elements of such a policy as follows: (a) Protection 
 against accidents and disease, including the extent and evils of acci- 
 dents ; {b) The labor contract, regulating the means of securing em- 
 ployment and enacting laws clarifying the various relations between 
 employer and employee; (c) Careful regulation of wage payment; 
 
46 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 (d) Public supervision of the education and employment of children ; 
 
 (e) Protection of the women workers by the state; (/) Progressive 
 state control of factory and workshop regulations, legal rights, indus- 
 trial insurance, and provisions for the higher life of the working 
 people. In Chapter xiii the rights and responsibilities of the great 
 corporations are discussed, and there is advocated the development 
 of law and state commissions for their control. Socialism and busi- 
 ness management receive brief, conservative treatment in Chapter 
 xiv, in which there are indicated the dangers and disadvantages of 
 luxurious idleness. Primarily a treatise on practical sociology, this 
 book shows little attempt to assume a religious coloring. 
 
 2. The Social Creed of the Churches, by Dr. Harry F. Ward, is 
 of similar nature. It is an extended discussion of the various articles 
 of the so-called "social creed of the churches" adopted by the Federal 
 Council of the Churches of Christ in America in 1908. The articles 
 of this creed follow : 
 
 The churches should cooperate with all men in every legitimate way 
 ill improving the conditions of working people. The churches through 
 the Federal Council have adopted a declaration of Social Standards 
 containing the following : 
 
 a) For equal rights and complete justice for all men in all stations 
 of life. 
 
 b) For the protection of the family, by the single standard of purity, 
 uniform divorce laws, proper relations of marriage, and proper housing. 
 
 c) For the fullest possible development for every child, especially by 
 the provision of proper education and recreation. 
 
 d) For the abolition of child labor. 
 
 e) For such regulation of the conditions of toil for women as shall 
 safeguard the physical and moral health of the community. 
 
 /) For the abatement and prevention of poverty. 
 
 g) For the protection of the individual and society from the social, 
 economic, and moral waste of the liquor traffic. 
 
 h) For the conservation of health. 
 
 i) For the protection of the worker from dangerous machinery, occu- 
 pational diseases, and mortality. 
 
 j) For the right of all men for the opportunity of self-maintenance, 
 for safeguarding this right against encroachments of every kind, and for 
 the protection of workers from the hardships of enforced employment. 
 
 k) For the suitable provision for the old age of the workers, and for 
 those incapacitated by injury. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 47 
 
 /) For the right of employers and employees alike to organize; and 
 for adequate means of conciliation and arbitration of industrial disputes. 
 
 m) For a release from employment one day in seven. 
 
 n) For the gradual and reasonable reduction of the hours of labor to 
 the lowest practicable point, and for that degree of leisure for all which 
 i? a condition of the highest human life. 
 
 0) For a living wage as a minimum in every industry, and for the 
 highest wage that each industry can afford. 
 
 p) For a new emphasis upon the application of Christian principles to 
 the acquisition and use of property, and for the most equitable division 
 of the product of industry that can ultimately be devised. 
 
 Each of these articles is discussed on the basis of statistical and 
 other data from government reports and sociological literature ; pres- 
 ent legal conditions are described and progressive legislation recom- 
 mended. On the whole the book takes the position that reform is to 
 be accomplished to a great extent through legislation. In the words 
 of the author the book 
 
 endeavors to define each of these standards (adopted in the Social Creed 
 of the Churches), describe the conditions that demand its realization, 
 state what has been done or is proposed to realize it by legislation, by 
 State or voluntary activity, and suggest broadly how the churches may 
 cooperate with these endeavors or act upon their own initiative. 
 
 3. The "Social Service Pamphlets" issued by the American Bap- 
 tist Publication Society employ the same general method. The sub- 
 ject, "The Church and Wealth and Industry," includes several 
 pamphlets briefly characterized below. 
 
 A Reasonable Policy for Christian People, by Charles R. Hen- 
 derson, summarizes the discussions of the larger book — Social Duties 
 (see page 85). The Church and the Labor Movement, by Charles 
 Slelzle, is an historical treatment of the relations of the churches and 
 labor in recent years in the United States. Welfare Work by Cor- 
 porations, by Mrs. Mary Lathrop Goss, as the title suggests, describes 
 the welfare work done by such corporations as the United States 
 Steel Corporation, the International Harvester Company, etc. Child 
 Labor, by Owen R. Lovejoy, discusses the question from the view- 
 point of the social worker. Workingmen's Insurance, by Charles R. 
 Henderson, and One Rest-day in Seven, by C. C. Horsman, are purely 
 sociological in character. IV omen in American Industry, by Scott 
 Nearing, is a statistical work. 
 
48 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 4. The "Social Service Bulletins," covering a wide variety of 
 subjects, as announced by the American Unitarian Association on the 
 cover of the bulletins, are "to offer suggestions for the conduct of 
 work for the common good in our churches, and also to give circula- 
 tion to articles of value on different phases of the social question" — 
 written indeed from the sociological rather than from the religious 
 viewpoint. 
 
 Of a similar sociological nature are the studies published by the 
 Society of Friends, and a series of pamphlets projected by the Joint 
 Commission on Social Service of the Protestant' Episcopal Church 
 (see page 25). 
 
 The criticism that appears applicable to the texts described in this 
 section is that they do not sufficiently emphasize religious values, 
 methods and sentiments, to be well-adapted to church use. Practical 
 sociology and legislative reform are important and valuable subjects 
 of knowledge, but in religious schools the heart apparently hungers 
 for emotional quickening, direct spiritual union with the good, and 
 pines vmder very extended discussion of exclusively economic and 
 sociological problems. 
 
 D. USE OF THE FOREGOING SERIES IN SOCIAL STUDY CLASSES 
 
 Most of the series described in the foregoing sections have been 
 in use for several years, and their adoption in social study classes 
 recommended. Consequently, it will be of interest to inquire as to 
 the extent and results of their use. Up to the year 19 16 these were, 
 with the exception of the "Gospel of the Kingdom," practically the 
 only social service study texts in the field, so that the success of social 
 service study in churches up to that time may be regarded as some- 
 Mdiat indicative of the success of these studies. From all the evidence 
 the writer has been able to gather, this appears to be comparatively 
 little. Of over 100 Episcopal churches in the diocese of Chicago, 
 known to the writer in 191 6, not more than one (so far as investi- 
 gation revealed) had church classes engaged in the study of social 
 problems. Letters were written to the secretaries of all the National 
 denominational social service commissions, and not one could give 
 any approximation of the number of churches in his denomination 
 where social service study was being done. They could merely point 
 to a very few more or less prominent city churches here and there 
 which had attempted some type of this work. Of 40 Social Service 
 
METHODS OF TREA TING THE PROBLEM 49 
 
 Commissions of the Protestant Episcopal Church, reporting the social 
 st-rvice activities in their territories for the year 191 5, not more than 
 one or two referred to social service study in their respective dio- 
 ceses.^- In a canvass concerning social service activities made by 
 the writer in some 30 Protestant churches in the city of Baltimore in 
 1916, not any claimed to have social study classes. The General Sec- 
 retary of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of Friends wrote to the 
 author (December 11, 1917). "They [social service pamphlets] were 
 not particularly unpopular as lesson series go, but did not meet with 
 so cordial a response as Bible lessons of the same grade would have 
 done." 
 
 The American Unitarian Association writes that "a considerable 
 number of our social service bulletins are sent to churches, Sunday 
 schools, colleges, and social service agencies. We cannot tell you, 
 however, the exact use to which they are put." 
 
 The writer examined many numbers of religious periodicals be- 
 tween the years 1914 and 1917, ^^ and found no mention of the use of 
 the above named courses. This seems to be another indication that 
 the studies received little attention. 
 
 Since the majority of church formations are so loosely organized, 
 it is practically impossible to obtain statistics relating to the number 
 of social study classes. The relative failure to report this type of 
 work and the known facts just cited would tend to indicate that the 
 two types of series just described have never been put to very ex- 
 tended use in social study classes in the Churches and Sunday schools. 
 
 E. ATTEMPT AT COMBINING RELIGIOUS AND SOCIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 
 OF PROBLEM OF CAPITAL AND LABOR 
 
 The principal examples of this method are found in the "Gospel of 
 the Kingdom" Series ( see the general description of this on page 19), 
 and in the texts based upon the outline prepared by the International 
 Sunday School Committee. 
 
 ^'"•What the Episcopal Church Is Doing in the Field of Social Service, 
 The Joint Commission on Social Service, Protestant Episcopal Church, New 
 York. 
 
 ^'■'Numbers examined: Advocate (M. E. Church, South), 1914-15; Sun- 
 day School Times, 1915-16; Christian Century (Disciples), 1914-15; The Ad- 
 vance (Congregational), 1915-16; Christian Herald, July to December, 1916; 
 Churchman, January to June, 1916; Congregationalist and Christian World, 
 July to December. 1916; Continent, July to December, 1915. 
 
50 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 I. "gospel of the kingdom," or "studies in social progress" 
 a) Description. — (Also see general description, page 19). 
 This series, extending over a number of years, treats the problems 
 
 of capital and labor directly and indirectly in several different yearly 
 
 series. 
 
 The following list of lessons gives the principal subjects under 
 
 which capital and labor and related problems are discussed : 
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 1908 
 October 4-10. The Ethics of Work 
 
 11-17. The Facts as to Child Labor 
 18-24. Child Labor and Legislation 
 25-31. What the Church Can Do 
 
 WOMEN IN INDUSTRY 
 
 November 1-7. Working Women 
 8-14. Women's Wages 
 15-21. Effects on Home Life 
 22-28. Sweating and Consumers' League 
 29-Dec. 5. What the Church Can Do 
 
 WEALTH AND CAPITAL 
 
 December 6-12. Use of Wealth 
 
 13-19. Distribution of Wealth 
 20-26. Corporate Capital 
 27-Jan. 2, 1909. Labor and Capital 
 
 THE ORGANIZATION OF LABOR 
 1909 
 January 3-9. Trade Unions 
 
 10-16. Strikes and Their Lessons 
 17-23. Industrial Peace; Open or Closed Shop 
 24-30. Number and Character of the Unemployed 
 31-Feb. 6. Causes of Unemployment and Methods of Relief. 
 
 SOCIALISM 
 
 May 2-8. What is Socialism? 
 9-15. Growth of Socialism 
 
 16-22. The Individual and Socialism 
 
 23-29. Objections to Socialism 
 30-June 5. Christian Socialism 
 
 I 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 51 
 
 IMMIGRATION 
 
 June 6-12. Facts of Immigration 
 
 13-19. The Immigrant and the City 
 20-26. Exclusion Laws 
 27-July3. The Church and the Foreigner 
 
 LABOR CONDITIONS 
 
 September 5-1 1. Hours of Labor 
 
 12-18. Industrial Accidents 
 19-25. Industrial Betterment 
 26-Oct. 2. The Church and the Workingman 
 
 July, 191 i. The Gradual and Reasonable Reduction of the Hours 
 OF Labor to the Lowest Practicable Point, and That Degree 
 OF Leisure for All Which is a Condition of the Highest 
 Human Life 
 
 1. Existing Hours of Labor 
 
 2. Evils of Long Hours 
 
 3. Advantages of Short Hours 
 
 4. Eflfect Upon Employers' Interests 
 
 5. What Can the Church and Organized Labor Do about It? 
 
 August. A Release from Employment One Day in Seven 
 
 1. The Workers' Need of Rest One Day in Seven 
 
 2. The Domestic and Social Need 
 
 3. What Sunday Work Is Necessary ? 
 
 4. What Can We Do about It? 
 
 September. 1911. A Living Wage as a Minimum in Every Industry, 
 AND the Highest Wage That Each Industry Can Afford 
 
 1. Existing Wages 
 
 2. The Rising Cost of Living 
 
 3. Organized Labor and Wages 
 
 4. Christian Principles as to Wages 
 
 October, 191 i. Accidents 
 
 1. Christ's Valuation of Life 
 
 2. Our Increasing Number of Accidents 
 
 3. The Reduction of Accidents in Foreign Countries 
 
 4. What We Should Do 
 
 5. Employers' Liability 
 
52 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 November, 191 i. Sanitation and Hygiene 
 
 1. Health a Christian Duty 
 
 2. Unsanitary Occupations 
 
 3. Sanitary Legislation 
 
 4. Housing and Sanitation 
 
 May, 1912. Strikes 
 7. The Causes 
 14. The Employee's Side 
 21. The Employer's Side 
 28. The Public 
 
 September, 1912. Profit Sharing 
 
 3. Its Possibilities and Impossibilities 
 10. Forms of Profit Sharing 
 17. Co-operation 
 24. The Workingman's Share 
 
 The above topics show^ the many different phases of one branch 
 of social problems included in the "Gospel of the Kingdom" publi- 
 cation. 
 
 In the 1908-09 series the lessons are generally divided into three 
 or four parts. Part one is entitled "Scriptural Basis." In it are 
 given a number of texts bearing upon the subject of the lesson, and 
 these references are explained. 
 
 Thus there are presented the attitude and ideas of the Bible 
 writers upon the problem as it existed in their day, usually bringing 
 the matter into a strongly ethical and religious light. 
 
 The second part of the lesson entitled "Facts" gives as far as 
 are available the facts and statistics covering the subject in question 
 and the amount of information is often surprising. There usually 
 follows a discussion including impartial arguments pro and con. 
 
 The third part, "Subjects for Study," suggests various sub-topics 
 for further investigation with references therefor in standard works 
 of economics and sociology. 
 
 The lesson is completed by a fourth part, "Subjects for Discus- 
 sion," in which are enumerated four or five pertinent questions. 
 
 No attempt is made to present the theoretical economic doctrines 
 of capital, rent, interest, wages, etc., but there are given facts and 
 various sociological views. The material presented is such as may 
 be found in standard texts on labor problems or about what an im- 
 partial college professor would give without the abstract theory. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 53 
 
 There exists an abundance of authoritative statistics on matters such 
 as child labor, hours of labor, wages, and conditions of work, trade 
 unions, immigration, accidents, sanitation and hygiene, strikes, profit 
 sharing, etc. All the data and facts presented in the lessons are given 
 a religious and ethical setting. 
 
 The following extracts from the lesson for December 6-12, 1918, 
 show the scriptural references, and the ethical treatment of the 
 subject : 
 
 NATURE AND USE OF WEALTH 
 
 Scriptural Basis. — All things belong to God. Deut. 10: 14; Ps. 24: I ; 
 Hag. 2 : 8. — Wealth a peril. Luke 6 : 24 ; 16 : 19-31 ; Matt. 13 : 22 ; 6 : 19, 24 ; 
 19 : 23-26 ; Luke 14 : 33. — Wealth a trust. Matt. 25 : 14-30 ; Luke 19 : 13-27 ; 
 16: II. We have some dozens of words to express the various aspects or 
 characteristics of our possessions, indicating how large a place is occupied 
 in our life by property. Of these many words we shall employ wealth as 
 perhaps most nearly comprehending all. 
 
 Modern Christians generally, with these parables in mind, would 
 acknowledge that wealth is a trust, however inadequate their appreciation 
 of it, but they never seem to deem it a peril. \i they do. they are all will- 
 ing and anxious to brave it. Rare indeed is the man who does not dare 
 to be rich ; and almost as rare is the rich man who has not suffered from 
 braving this peril. 
 
 Thus one conception of wealth ignores one class of Christ's teachings 
 on the subject, while the other conception ignores the other class. They 
 are, therefore, both mistaken. 
 
 The following interpretation finds a perfect harmony between the two 
 classes of Jesus' sayings, and lays the same emphasis on both : 
 
 Jesus requires of every disciple the absolute and literal surrender of 
 his substance-^ez'ery farthing of it — for the uses of the kingdom of God. 
 All possessions are to be regarded henceforth not as the holder's property 
 but as a trust from God to be administered according to the will of the 
 owner. ^'' 
 
 Extracts from the lesson for December 20, 1908, and April 14, 
 1918, show the discussion of the "scripture basis" and the citation 
 of facts : 
 
 CORPORATE CAPITAL— December 20-26 
 
 L Scripture Basis.— Gen. 41:46-49 and 53-57. 47:13-26; Gal. 6:10; 
 Luke 12:48 (loc. cit.), 6:24. The story of Joseph contains a most inter- 
 esting account of the first "corner" in grain and of the consequent eco- 
 nomic and social changes in Egypt, (i) Joseph, the wise statesman and 
 
 ^''Gospel of the Kingdom, December, 1918, pp. 18 and 19. 
 
54 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 capitalist, who buys up the cereals of Egypt and becomes the savior of 
 that and neighboring countries. (2) Joseph, the shrewd politician, uses 
 that advantage to enslave the people, and make them in every respect 
 dependent on Pharaoh. (3) This incident shows clearly both the benefi- 
 cent and the baneful power of capital. (4) The spirit of Christianity 
 requires that men should use whatever power they may possess for the 
 service of their fellow-men as they "have opportunity." (5) If that 
 power is misused, it is a betrayal of a sacred trust, and incurs the denun- 
 ciation "Wo unto you that are rich." 
 
 II. Facts. — (i) Definition. By corporate capital we mean wealth 
 that is pooled.^^ 
 
 Another citation shows the method of treating facts. 
 
 SPECIFIC ENDEMIC DISEASES 
 
 It would be impossible to discuss, even briefly, the various endemic 
 diseases. Three will, consequently, be selected — tuberculosis, malaria, 
 and hookworm — because they affect, singly and collectively, a larger 
 number of people than perhaps all others combined. Fortunately, each 
 of them is now under control, at least in those parts of the civilized world 
 where people are willing to observe the laws of hygiene and of sanitation. 
 
 Tuberculosis is the most familiar of the three, since there is scarcely a 
 person in our country who has not had a friend or acquaintance afflicted 
 with it. Consumption, in its various forms, is caused by a rod-shaped 
 parasite or fungus, discovered by Dr. Robert Koch, of Berlin, in 1882. 
 It kills on an average 160,000 persons per year in the United States. This 
 means from one-tenth to one-seventh of all our people, or about one-third 
 of all those who die between the ages of 18 and 45. Those suffering from 
 this disease number not less than 1,000,000 persons in our country. 
 Ozving to the greater exposure to cold and other conditions of work, more 
 men die from tuberculosis than women — dj per cent of deaths from this 
 disease in New York city occurring among men. Dusty trades produce 
 an unusually high mortality from consumption. The negroes have a mor- 
 tality rate more than ^00 per cent greater than the white — 450 as against 
 148 per 100,000 of the population in ipio. Owing to the various measures 
 taken, tuberculosis is rapidly decreasing. In cities where anti-tuberculosis 
 campaigns have been waged the death-rate has declined in a decade ( 1904 
 to 1914) from 200.7 to 146.8 per 100,000 of the population. And the day 
 will soon come when consumption will be as rare in a civilized commu- 
 nity as smallpox is at present. We know the cause of the disease and 
 will be able to eliminate it. 
 
 isp. 22. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 55 
 
 Regarding labor and capital the position is taken that the present 
 aims of both are wrong. 
 
 Generally speaking, capital and labor are each organized to secure the 
 largest returns to itself. Their object ought to be to render the largest 
 service to society in general and to each other in particular. In one 
 word, industry needs to be Christianized.^" 
 
 On the basis of former criticisms it is maintained that this state- 
 ment might be more definite. Thorough-going discussion of details, 
 however, and the presentation of numerous facts bearing on many 
 phases of industrial problems (as suggested by the list of subjects 
 treated), give a good deal of light for the application of the above 
 principle. 
 
 The question of socialism is treated from many angles, under 
 the following topics: "What is Socialism?" "Growth of Socialism," 
 "The Individual and Socialism," "Objections to Socialism," and 
 "Christian Socialism." {Gospel of the Kingdom, May, IQ09.) No 
 new theories are advanced, and no sides are taken. A plain account 
 of the history of socialism and the most common arguments for and 
 against are given. In the discussion, however, there are woven 
 many ethical and religious observations, such as the following: 
 
 WHAT IS SOCIALISM? 
 
 I. Scripture Basis. — Prov. 22:2. According to this passage the rich 
 and poor shall meet together on the basis of the common fatherhood of 
 God. This fatherhood means the brotherhood of man ; and the socialists 
 claim that the rich and poor shall meet as brothers, with equal opportuni- 
 ties as far as external conditions are concerned. A fraternal organiza- 
 tion of society will thus become possible, it is claimed, where there will be 
 neither rich nor poor, but brothers in comfortable circumstances.-" 
 
 In some of the later numbers (1916) the scripture references 
 were omitted, but in the 1917-18 series appear again. Two letters 
 received by the writer from users of these studies said that the 
 classes complained unless considerable attention was given to the 
 scriptures. 
 
 ^^Gospd of the Kingdom, December, 1918, p. 24. 
 ^'^Gospel of the KiiigJoni, May, 1909, p. 59. 
 
56 
 
 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 An extract taken from the December number (1917) in its dis- 
 cussion of the problem of wealth and poverty shows a rather rich 
 use of scriptural material : 
 
 The writings of the prophets are full of denunciations of the plutocrats 
 of their day. They dwelt in palaces of ivory and of hewn stone, and had 
 both summer and winter houses (Amos 3: 12, 15; 5: 11). They reposed 
 on couches of ivory, and ate selected lambs and fatted calves. They 
 drank beakers of rare wines, and sang improvised songs to the accom- 
 paniment of their musical instruments (Amos 6:4 fi.; 8:10). Hosea 
 speaks of their palaces, their mirth, their feasts, and the treasure or their 
 goodly vessels (Hos. 2: 11 ; 8: 14; 13: 15). Isaiah speaks of their great 
 and fair houses, the harp, the lute, the tabret, and the pipe in their feasts, 
 their glory, their pomp, and their costly chariots (Isa. 5:9, 11, 14; 22: 18), 
 The wives of these aristocrats were as voluptuous as their husbands. 
 Amos calls them "Fat cows of Bashan that are in the mountains of 
 Samaria" (Amos 4:1). Isaiah calls them "women that are at ease, care- 
 less daughters" (Isa. 32:9), and in 3: 16-24 he gives in derision a long 
 list of the articles that are necessary to complete their toilets. The con- 
 stant round of feasts made drunkenness habitual in the upper classes (cf. 
 Amos 6 : 6 ff. ; 4 : i) . Sexual license also was frightfully prevalent among 
 the wealthy (Amos 2:7; Hos. 4: 14; 7:4). 
 
 This is a perfect description of the life of the modern idle rich. Their 
 time is spent in devising new forms of wasteful extravagance. They 
 have their different houses for every season of the year. They have 
 their horses, their automobiles, and their yachts. Life is a constant 
 round of costly and often vicious pleasures. In such hands wealth is a 
 constant menace to the moral welfare of society. 
 
 The later numbers have not followed the strict lesson divisions of 
 earlier years, but the general method of treatment is the same. 
 
 The above citations show how a conservative kind of modern 
 sociology is combined with moral and religious teaching. In its 
 treatment of the problem of capital and labor, this series does not 
 endeavor to expound the economic theories concerning wages, rent, 
 interest, etc., but adopts, as do the studies in Group 2, the position of 
 "meliorism," advocating all the generally accepted types of pro- 
 gressive social legislation and organization. 
 
 The principles underlying the treatment of social problems by 
 the American Institute of Social Service are stated by their general 
 secretary, Nathaniel P. Pratt, in a letter to the writer (December 10, 
 1917), as follows: 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 57 
 
 The American Institute is not a propagandist organization. In the 
 preparation of these Studies our purpose is not to take sides in disputed 
 problems but simply to present the facts — giving these facts a spiritual 
 interpretation in their application to modern problems. 
 
 Regarding the success of the studies, Dr. Pratt writes in the 
 same letter: 
 
 Approximately 400 classes in connection with churches, Y. M. C. A.'s, 
 colleges, etc., are using our "Studies in Social Progress in the Gospel of 
 the Kingdom" as texts. For the most part those subscribing for single 
 copies, either ministers or laymen, are using these Studies in their own 
 preparation as teachers of classes or in connection with addresses. 
 
 b) Use and Results. — The writer addressed letters of inquir>' to 
 sixty churches, church schools, and class leaders, using these studies, 
 and all answers were favorable in their comments. The inquiries 
 did not include a questionnaire, but requested the informant to give 
 some data concerning the size, age, groups, and general character of 
 the class reported, the methods of teaching, and the results obtained. 
 There were received in response to the inquiry twenty-four replies, 
 representing Congregational, Presbyterian, Methodist Episcopal, 
 Unitarian, Christian, and Universalist churches. The average length 
 of time during which the Social Service Institute series had been in 
 use among the 10 church schools answering on the point, was 2.8 
 years. Nearly all the classes were composed of men, although one 
 included women "as keenly interested as the men." One class con- 
 sisted of youths from 18 to 25 years of age; three comprised men 
 over 30 years old ; the others were from 20 up or were termed 
 "adults." One correspondent stated that he thought this course 
 fitted only for "grown ups." 
 
 The class members included some from almost every occupation 
 and profession ; one class consisted of "mill and factory men," an- 
 other was a combination of tradesmen, one lawyer, one merchant, 
 and one dentist ; still another represented shop-men, clerks, and col- 
 lege men; a class of 25 was composed of "lawyers, doctors, bankers, 
 farmers, newspaper men, clerks, real estate men, and a Sunday 
 School superintendent"; another, "business and professional men, 
 employers, and employees" ; and finally there was a combination of 
 "business men, college professors, farmers, and working people." 
 One correspondent writes : "Among our membership we have Single 
 Taxers, Prohibitionists, Socialists, who, with doctors of both the old 
 
58 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 and new schools, professional men of various shades, make up a 
 rather motley congregation. They are heterodox on all lines but 
 united on the necessity of interpreting the Bible from the social point 
 of view. Most of them believe that the social factor is the only one 
 that can make religion worth while," Certainly it would seem that 
 to get together for friendly study and discussion men with view 
 points so diverse on many questions ought to be conducive to greater 
 understanding and charity. 
 
 In size the classes ranged from 20 to 100, the majority containing 
 from 25 to 30 members ; three numbered 40 and one 100. Presuma- 
 bly the group whose number was adaptable to discussion proved 
 superior to the large lecture class, especially since practically all the 
 classes used discussion the greater part of the time, as the "method 
 of teaching." 
 
 In one class the "men take turns in presenting the thought of the 
 lesson and then there is general discussion." One very successful 
 class was addressed once a month by some social worker or member 
 of the city administration, and also made, from time to time, visits 
 to the various "city and social institutions." The methods used in 
 four apparently successful classes are thus described in the words 
 of the informants : 
 
 (i) We use the Social Service course as a text. The leader devotes 
 20 to 30 minutes to a presentation of the lesson, after which there is a 
 half-hour's discussion by the class. These discussions have been so inter- 
 esting that the allowed hour is always too short. Much of the success 
 depends upon the ability of the leader to keep the members confined to 
 the text. The average mortal will wander all around town if he is not 
 lassoed and brought up with a jerk. This requires tact on the part of 
 the leader. 
 
 (2) We appoint leaders for each evening several weeks ahead. Some 
 do some research work and gather material from various sources, while 
 others confine themselves to the outline as given in the regular study. 
 Last summer when we closed for three months we asked several to read 
 helpful books along the line of our study and give a review of what they 
 read at our class meetings. 
 
 (3) First of all I lay close emphasis upon the principles of the lesson 
 as found in various sections of the Bible. I select a capable reader of 
 the class to read these scripture references. I request the Bible to be 
 present as our textbook and for reference purposes. Secondly — I use the 
 blackboard as an outline medium for the lesson assigned. Also, include 
 a bibliography and excerpts of authority upon the same. I sectionalize 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 59 
 
 the lesson and call for questions upon each section, which at times be- 
 comes very interesting and reveals the measure of lay reading and think- 
 ing upon the question. A difference of opinion naturally arises but in 
 good will and gives the teacher a large opportunity to clinch the truth. 
 Select a group of questions beforehand for a select group of students as a 
 means of inspiration to study and larger interest in the groups of the 
 study itself. The lessons are never burdensome, but much regret is often 
 expressed because of lack of time. 
 
 (4) Our method is to get at the lesson taught by the scriptural refer- 
 ence, then the historical reference contained in the lesson, and then go to 
 the present day for investigation to see what society is now doing in con- 
 trast with the ancient system. Oftentimes we discover the same old thing 
 going on with only a difference in the form of control. If there has been 
 advancement, we point it out ; while we always seek to learn the cause of 
 the progress or failure. Of course these lessons require breadth of 
 reading and learning, but their tendency is in the direction of improvement 
 in every event. 
 
 If any good thought occurs to me during the week. I keep it in mind 
 for use. I try to keep before the class constantly the thought that the old 
 form of teaching Christianity must go. That pious sermons on Sunday 
 morning and long-faced prayer meetings on Wednesday evening have 
 been fostered for years with a view of getting ready to go to Heaven when 
 we die, while this world was intended for a happy people to live in. That 
 there is no substantial Christianity in a people who love a system which 
 fosters poverty, filth, and ignorance and admires the successful fellow 
 because he has the means of happiness. The masses must move on phys- 
 ically, materially, and intellectually in order to grow morally. Christianity 
 has failed to get the right hold on the people so long as they are unprepared 
 to welcome changes which mean the happiness of the masses. While we 
 steer clear of socialism and the great majority of the class have no use for 
 it, we do not hesitate to attack laws which enrich the few. 
 
 Practically all the correspondents agree that the interest in their 
 classes has been good. We insert some replies relative to this point : 
 
 "Since we took up the pamphlet, 'Studies in Social Progress,' interest 
 has just about doubled." 
 
 "Much more interest than any plan in the past." 
 
 "The interest has been well-maintained throughout the entire time 
 and I believe that through the agency of these lessons I can secure the 
 interest and attendance of a type of men who would not ordinarily attend 
 Sunday School." 
 
 "Men feel that lessons of this sort fill a long-felt want." 
 
 "Interest has been good." 
 
6o CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 "The class holds the men as I have never seen them held." 
 
 "The lessons are stimulating to one who is interested in Social Service 
 
 work." 
 
 "Excellent. Never ready to go home when study hour is up." 
 
 "Interest in this line of study seems considerable." « 
 
 "The men were more regular in attendance than any other class I fti 
 
 ever taught." 
 
 The results of the use of the above studies may be partly ascer- 
 tained from the following quotations, all taken from replies to our 
 inquiries, each number representing a different letter : 
 
 1. "Altogether, I think we have profited a great deal by using the 
 Social Studies and can recommend them to any body of men." 
 
 2. "These studies have done much to give the men the social view of 
 the Gospel as well as to attract men who would not otherwise attend 
 church." 
 
 3. "Personally, I believe that there never has been a religious move- 
 ment in history that has been worth while, that has not been based mainly 
 on the social and economic factors. There seems to be a general recogni- 
 tion of this fact, and that it is revolutionizing the study of the Bible. It 
 is due to this that we have taken up the course. That it will be of great 
 value to the class, and attract others to the church, is generally admitted 
 by our church officials." 
 
 4. "On the whole, I believe we have accomplished some good — at any 
 rate, I feel it is a step in the right direction to get the church linked with 
 the social, civil, and industrial problems of our day; and I do not know of 
 any better way than by getting the men of the church to study these prob- 
 lems from a Christian point of view." 
 
 5. "Brought about wider understanding as well as a deeper sympathy 
 in the attitude of the men toward social and industrial problems." 
 
 6. "attracts mill and factory men." 
 
 7. "stimulates interest in local problems." 
 8 
 
 9. "They are all thoughtful, studious men and dig deep into meta- 
 physical, philosophical, psychological subjects, and they seem to enjoy it." 
 
 10. "I find the men heartily in sympathy with everything looking for 
 community betterment. They have decided to take up the Uniform Les- 
 sons for the coming year, principally because they did not get enough 
 Bible in these. After a year they will be willing to come back to these 
 again." 
 
 II 
 
 12. "confident their lives have been influenced by the studies." 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 6i 
 
 13. The class "developed a community thought, had learned to get on 
 together The most decided benefit was to get several men inter- 
 ested in the work of the church that never were interested before." 
 
 14 
 
 15. "can recommend it very highly .... leads to discussion along 
 advanced lines." 
 
 16 
 
 17. "The Results. — You have a crystallized sentiment for social right- 
 eousness as an expression of a real religious experience. A demand for 
 better things in the community life in all its departments. It gives pres- 
 tige to the effectiveness of the church and shows that the church stands 
 for the things of value to life. I wish the ministry could catch the vision 
 of the value of these studies." 
 
 18. "(i) A better appreciation of the bearing of Christianity upon 
 social life and the problems of modern society. 
 
 "(2) An awakening of the social conscience. 
 
 "(3) .... a keener interest in civic life, as it relates to the commu- 
 nity and the state and the nation. 
 
 "(4) A deeper sense of responsibility for a wholesome community 
 life especially in matters of recreation and amusement." 
 
 19. "They entered more fully into the class discussion than any men 
 I ever had in a class before." 
 
 20. "We have just formed a federation, not of churches but of indi- 
 vidual Christians — an enthusiastic group of over a hundred are doing 
 good work." 
 
 21. "The best general result I see is in a growing interest and the 
 acceptance of the teaching that Christianity is intended to improve the 
 condition of people on this earth." 
 
 22. "draw a number of men who could not be gotten to study a lesson 
 from the Bible." 
 
 In addition to the general results, certain direct ones in definite 
 action are recorded as follows : 
 
 5. "men of the class have taken the initiative in the way of local 
 movements which have looked toward social betterment." 
 
 13. "They developed a small system of co-operative buying and mutual 
 aid." 
 
 18. "As a more particular result I think one of our men who is man- 
 ager of a plant where from 100 to 200 people are employed has been more 
 disposed to consider the interests of the employees." 
 
 20. "Had committees working along various lines in which we were 
 interested." 
 
62 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 The following extracts indicate some of the difficulties and com- 
 pensations of social study classes : 
 
 ( 1 ) The difficulty which I have found, however, in this course, as in 
 all other Sunday school classes, is that men do not find time or take time 
 to study the subjects during the week. They come to the class willing to 
 give their own ideas about the subject under consideration, but their ideas 
 are not illuminated by general reading or previous study or investigation. 
 1 did succeed in 191 5 in getting some study by the class. The studies 
 that year were on War and Peace. I ordered many pamphlets, leaflets 
 and reports issued by the three peace societies or foundations in this 
 country and assigned this literature to men for special reports, supple- 
 menting the lesson matter for the day. In some cases I got good results ; 
 in some they were not at all satisfactory. Many men in trades and busi- 
 ness are not trained to make a thorough study and report on a subject. 
 
 After three years' experience I am convinced that about the best one 
 can do with such a class is to make a thorough study of the lesson himself 
 and then, by carefully prepared questions, lead the discussion of the sub- 
 jects given for study. 
 
 In the nature of the case, it can not be thorough work as could a college 
 class. But I still believe that it is more satisfactory than the old Inter- 
 national Sunday School Lessons, and more satisfactory than any other 
 studies I have used — and I have tried several. 
 
 It is better to have the men of the church together than not get them 
 at all. And it is better to get them to discuss subjects of personal and com- 
 munity welfare even if they have not had time to prepare for it than not 
 have them consider such subjects at all. They will disagree, but the tact- 
 ful leader can direct the discussion so that they will agree to disagree. 
 
 (2) Of course opinions vary. Some of the men think the lessons 
 smack a little too much of socialism, or rather give rise to too much dis- 
 cussion along socialistic lines, so that we have been called "a bunch of 
 socialists;" others think that at times the lessons have not had enough 
 Bible references in them for a Sunday School class such as ours is, and to 
 this last I also agree. 
 
 (3) I presume you require as an intelligent setting my experience in 
 using "Studies in Social Progress" for the past nine years, as I have used 
 them in three different churches. 
 
 First, I have found in each instance a stagnation of progress and 
 interest in the large things of the Kingdom as a result of a too much 
 emphasis on traditional theology and interpretation of religious truth. 
 
 Second, people are not opposed to progressive thinking along religious 
 lines any more than they are along scientific or governmental. 
 
METHODS OF TREA TING THE PROBLEM 63 
 
 Third, they hunger for an interpretation of the principles of Christi- 
 anity in the terms of social relations. They want a gospel of life. Some- 
 thing that will affect the conditions of every day living. A remedy for 
 life's ills, a solvent for life's problems. It is life, full, rich, and free, ever 
 flowing fresh from the streams of God's thought is what the people 
 demand. 
 
 Fourth, the introduction of the social studies brings a more lasting 
 revival of real value to social life and religious duties than any other 
 means I know of. It reveals religion in action. Religion as a product 
 of social relations with God and the Christ, to be expressed in social rela- 
 tionship one to another. The principles of God's revelation are of more 
 value to life than all of men's interpretations of them in past ages. We 
 need a religion for this age and the social studies reveal it. My churches 
 have all prospered and I owe it to this fact of interest. 
 
 In one of the numbers of the Gospel of the Kingdom, the follow- 
 ing letter is reproduced under the heading: "What One of Our 
 Classes Has Done and What More Should Do." 
 
 Centre Congregational Church, 
 Brattleboro, Vt., July 29, 191 1. 
 Mr. M. J. Whitty, Sec. Bible House, 
 
 Astor Place, New York City 
 My dear Mr. Whitty : 
 
 Yours of the 24th inquiring about our use of Gospel of the Kingdom 
 Lessons to hand. In October we organized a brotherhood in our church. 
 One branch of the work we took up was the study of social problems based 
 on your lessons. We were fortunate in having as teacher a trained 
 worker, Mr. John R. Howard, Jr. Our purpose was to make the lessons 
 as practical as possible; so we took in order the subjects of special interest 
 to the community. 
 
 We soon are to have a large cotton mill in our town. That raised 
 the question of Child Labor, so our first topic was "Child Labor." We 
 spent three Sunday mornings considering various phases of the subject. 
 In the meantime we made a careful investigation of conditions in our 
 own town. This report was of special interest to members of the class 
 who formerly had believed there was no child labor in our community. 
 We also learned that the state laws regulating child labor were very lax. 
 A legal member of the class drafted a new child-labor bill regulating child 
 labor in the state and saw that it passed the legislature which was then 
 in session. A stereopticon lecture on a Sunday evening, by Owen R. 
 Lovejoy, emphasized the seriousness of the question in other parts of the 
 country. 
 
I 
 
 64 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 The new cotton mill would bring a great many families to the town 
 and it was necessary to have houses provided for them; so our second 
 topic was Housing. We considered this question in the same way and had 
 W. E. C. Nazro of the Plymouth Cordage Co. give a stereopticon lecture 
 showing what could be done by a factory community in caring for its 
 employees. As a result, the new tenement-houses will be much more 
 sanitary and satisfactory than they otherwise would have been. 
 
 In March the town was to vote upon the license question; so our 
 third topic was Temperance. We considered the different phases of 
 this subject, endeavoring to learn the actual facts of the problem. The 
 result of this study was doubtless responsible in a large measure for the 
 overwhelming majority in favor of no license. 
 
 We are covering the whole field of social problems in this practical 
 manner,- members of the class doing most of the work of investigation 
 under the direction of our efficient leader. This study paved the way for 
 the better Brattleboro campaign of which you have heard and which 
 resulted in a tremendous uplift to the community. A copy of The Brother- 
 hood Era covers this campaign. There also were articles in The Congre- 
 gationalist, The Continent, and Western New England, a magazine 
 published by the Springfield Board of Trade, Springfield, Mass. The 
 Literary Digest copied one column from The Continent. 
 
 Very sincerely yours, 
 
 R. M. Houghton 
 
 It would appear from the foregoing testimony that the social 
 study classes, as conceived by the American Institute of Social Serv- 
 ice, have been successful among adult classes and have come to remain 
 permanently, and that their treatment of industrial problems is one 
 v/hich does not disrupt the church nor cause bitterness therein. Of 
 course, the foregoing comments and criticisms from users of this 
 text apply to the Gospel of the Kingdom or "Studies in Social Prog- 
 ress" as a whole, and not alone to their treatment of the problem of 
 capital and labor. Since the problems of capital and labor occupy so 
 much space in the series, and are so intermingled with other subjects, 
 all being treated by the same general methods, it was felt wiser to ask 
 of the correspondents questions on the series as a whole and take the 
 answers as representatively applicable to the capital and labor treat- 
 ment. To attempt to separate these subjects from the others, it 
 was felt, would create confusion calculated to lessen the value of 
 the inquiry. 
 
 
METHODS OF TREATING TBE PROBLEM 65 
 
 2. "the bible and social living"-' 
 ( methodist) 
 
 Description and Use. — These are texts issued quarterly, including 
 a small book for students and a manual for the teacher. They follow 
 rather closely, though not exactly, the outline prepared for this grade 
 by the International Sunday School Committee, and are designed for 
 young people from seventeen to twenty years of age. 
 
 Neither the Methodist nor the Baptist texts on "The Bible and 
 Social Living" discuss the problems of capital and labor in a sys- 
 tematic or comprehensive manner. They merely follow the outline 
 prepared by the International Sunday School Committee, which 
 gives substantially the topics below. Certain more or less discon- 
 nected phases of the subject are presented in an empirical way with- 
 out any attempt at connected theory. Our description of these 
 courses will therefore be confined to the treatment of various more 
 cr less disconnected subjects. So far as we can speak of "method" 
 in these texts, it consists of selecting various pertinent subjects and 
 treating them in a common sense, factual manner, giving plenty of 
 concrete material, calculated to influence the ethical and religious 
 feelings ; there are also included many scientific facts bearing upon 
 health and welfare, a liberal use being made of Bible texts and stories. 
 
 The part dealing with "The Industrial Order," fairly typical of 
 the other sections, treats the following subjects : Young People at 
 Work, The Work of Women, Protecting the Worker, The Living 
 Wage, Making a Better Industrial World, The Meaning of Work, 
 Choosing One's Life Work, The Rewards for Toil, The Right Use 
 of Money, Ownership, Brotherhood in Industr}-, Working Together, 
 Jesus and the World of Work. 
 
 Each lesson begins with a number of biblical references, and is 
 divided into three or four parts. For example, the first lesson in 
 this quarter, "Young People at Work," is treated as follows : 
 
 YOUNG PEOPLE AT WORK 
 Biblical References: Zechariah 8:1-8; Matthew 18: 1-6. 
 
 I. THE CALL FOR HELP 
 
 I. A Contrast. In a small town near an Eastern city there is a cele- 
 brated private Boys' School. It possesses all possible equipment and 
 
 21 Senior Graded Series, Fourth Year. (Prepared by Harry F. Ward.) 
 The Methodist Book Concern, N. Y., 1916. 
 
66 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 uses all possible methods for the development of manhood, physically, 
 mentally, and morally. It is so renowned that when a boy is born, in 
 certain wealthy families, his name is registered on the waiting list of 
 that school in order that he may be sure of getting its advantages. 
 
 In the same town there is also a steel mill. Walking along the streets 
 of that town one Sunday morning at church time, the writer met two 
 boys of sixteen or seventeen, the same age as the boys just finishing their 
 work in the school. But these boys were not like those in the school. 
 Their slouching, shambling walk showed the lack of physical strength. 
 Their mental development was indicated by the remark with which one 
 of them greeted the lurid poster of the cheap picture show, "Gee ! I wish 
 I had a dime to see that !" Their faces were black and they carried dinner 
 pails in their hands. They were not going to church that Sunday morning. 
 They were going home from their night's work in the steel mill. 
 
 Our studies of the previous quarter have shown us that, according to 
 the teachings of Jesus, every life has the right to the full development of 
 all its powers. These boys have been denied the opportunity for develop- 
 ment that has been given to the sons of the rich who attend the private 
 school. What obligation does this place upon Christians in their attitude 
 toward such conditions of work for young people ? 
 
 2. Some More Facts. The National Child Labor Committee says : 
 
 Over a million children are at work in the United States in factories, 
 fields, stores, mines, and streets. They should be in school and at play. 
 
 Child labor lessens their chance of a successful life. It weakens their 
 bodies and stunts their minds. It fails to train them for citizenship; it 
 makes them inefficient. It cheats them of childhood and reacts upon 
 us all. 
 
 Contrast this with that vision which the ancient prophet gives us of 
 the Holy City, whose streets are full of playing children (Zechariah 8:5). 
 Remember that this means not simply that childhood is denied its rights 
 to joyous play, but that it is deprived of its proper opportunity for 
 development. 
 
 In most of our States children under fourteen have been taken out of 
 the mills and mines and factories, because such work destroys childhood. 
 But many of the occupations into which young people go between fourteen 
 and sixteen, or even over sixteen, add nothing to their development. 
 Many of these young people will never have as good health or as capable 
 minds as those who have been protected by good homes and permitted 
 tc finish their education. 
 
 o) Blind Alley Trades. Many of these occupations are known as 
 blind alley trades. They offer no opportunity for advancement. There 
 is no way out and up for the young workers. An investigation in Massa- 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 67 
 
 chusetts to discover the effect of the first few years of factory life upon 
 boys and girls showed that at the end of the second year of employment, 
 many of them were less capable than when they left school and were 
 receiving less wages 
 
 A young Swedish boy left one place of factory work after another, 
 saying he "could not stand it." After he had lost his ninth place, he 
 declared he would leave the city and allow his mother and young sisters 
 to shift for themselves. At this crisis a friend found him a place as 
 lineman in a telephone company. The outdoor work held his interest 
 and he became the steady support of his family 
 
 A common ground for opposition to the law prohibiting the employ- 
 ment of young people between fourteen and sixteen for more than eight 
 hours a day is that it drives them upon the streets. How would you 
 answer this argument? 
 
 Another reason is that it works hardship to needy mothers who need 
 the wages of these young people. Answer this. 
 
 b) Street Trades. One form of work for young people which has 
 received little attention, and which exists even in small towns, is the street 
 trades 
 
 Are there any boys working at street trades in your community? Is 
 their work necessary for the community? For them? What is the effect 
 of their work upon them? What should be done for them? 
 
 c) Work in the Fields. In the State of Colorado there are 5,000 boys 
 and girls who do not "chase butterflies or splash around in the old swim- 
 ming hole." They are working in the sugar beet fields. Some of them 
 are as young as seven and eight years, and the average workday in the 
 rush season is twelve hours. One fourteen-year-old girl cut the tops off 
 
 five tons of beets in a day As a result, only 45 per cent of the beet 
 
 working children were found to be in their normal grades. One little 
 first-grader hurried into school one morning, panting for breath, and said 
 to the teacher, "I tried not to be late, 'cause I want to get a good report, 
 but I had to do five rows of beets before I came, and I've been up since 
 four o'clock workin' on 'em!" 
 
 Is the education of young people hindered or helped by tlieir work on 
 the farms in your locality? 
 
 Is their work so pleasant and congenial that it tends to keep them on 
 the farm? Could it be made so? 
 
 A preacher refused to support a child labor law because he had worked 
 on the farm as a boy and .>^aid it was good for him. What do you think 
 of his argument? 
 
!i 
 
 68 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 Do farmers in your section generally regard youth above sixteen as 
 a time for educational development or a time for work? If the latter, 
 how could their attitude be changed? 
 
 II. WHAT CAN BE DONE 
 
 1. Improve the Laws 
 
 2, A New Value for Childhood. Before the necessary steps can be 
 taken to emancipate young life from improper conditions of work, Jesus' 
 teaching concerning the value of child life must prevail 
 
 How does Matthew i8 : 6 apply to parents or employers who are 
 responsible for child labor? 
 
 There are many parents who rebel bitterly against having to send their 
 children to work when they ought to be in school, but they are compelled 
 by poverty to do it. Who is to blame in such cases? Where is the % 
 
 remedy ? 
 
 Certain Southern cotton manufacturers, in opposing the Federal child 
 labor bill, argued that a piece of cotton made by child labor was just as 
 wide, just as long, and just as good as that made by adults. What do you 
 think of this argument? 
 
 How can Jesus' teaching concerning childhood come to prevail — by 
 preaching or by legislation ? 
 
 TO THINK ABOUT DURING THE WEEK 
 
 1. List all the different kinds of work which young women are doing 
 in the industrial world that come directly or indirectly under your 
 observation. 
 
 2. Observe closely the conditions under which young women are 
 working locally, particularly the hours, and whether or not there is any 
 night work. Can you determine the effect of their work upon health and 
 strength ? 
 
 3. Whom do you honor most and whom does your community honor 
 most, the society woman or the woman who is helping to do the work of 
 the world ? 
 
 Other subjects are given somewhat similar treatment. "The 
 Work of Women," after beginning with a number of biblical texts, 
 describes the occupations in which women labor, under the sub- 
 heading, "Where They Work." "Work and Motherhood" discusses 
 this problem from the point of view of (i) modern physiological 
 and social science, and (2) the adverse modern conditions under 
 which women work in factories, laundries, hotels, and stores. These 
 are all illustrated with concrete cases as follows : 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 69 
 
 In Factories. — As typical of bad conditions of factory work, take the 
 following account of a bag and hemp factory : 
 
 Workers have to fill a shuttle every minute and a half or two minutes. 
 This necessitates the strain of constant vigilance, as the breaking of the 
 thread causes unevenness, and for this operators are laid off for two or 
 three days. The operators are at such a tension that they not only stand 
 all day, but many cannot even bend their knees. The air is thick with 
 lint, which the workers inhale. The throat and eyes are terribly affected; 
 and it is necessary to work with the head bound up, and to comb the lint 
 from the eyebrows. 
 
 Here is an account of the living accommodations for some hotel 
 workers : 
 
 The girl employees ate in a room just under the kitchen, which looked 
 more like a storeroom than a dining-room. It was directly opposite the 
 boilers and the heat was intense. The room was dark and uninviting. 
 The food was cold and poor. The tables were covered with old. greasy, 
 blue oilcloth. The no"ise of the machinery, the dark entrance, and the 
 lack of fresh air were enough to take away appetite. 
 
 A young girl of twenty-four who had been for three years in a large 
 department store earned $6 a week. She "doesn't mind the work fo much, 
 although selling notions is very trying, because people are so fussy." 
 She said her feet were giving out, however, and it was all she could do 
 to get home at night ; she found that the draughts from the doors blow- 
 ing constantly on her gave her repeated colds, and the dust caused by so 
 many people passing hurt her throat ; she was tired, and "wished she was 
 dead." 
 
 These facts are considered as a "challenge to action," and sugges- 
 tions are made as to what young people may do to help change the 
 existing conditions. 
 
 The section on "Protecting the Worker" gives concrete stories 
 illustrating the loss and suffering caused by accidents ; it describes 
 the "Safety First" movements and progress toward elimination of 
 occupational disease. 
 
 "The Living Wage" is treated in somewhat the same way, actual 
 accounts of suffering caused by insufficient wages being given and 
 results to the community of under-pay. The Bible is quoted in sup- 
 port of a living wage. 
 
 The chapter on "Making a Better Industrial World" describes 
 instances where employers have sought the welfare of their em- 
 ployees by adequate wages and welfare work, discusses briefly the 
 
70 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 faults and accomplishments of trade unions and improvements 
 through labor legislation. 
 
 In this way there are presented very forcibly the hardships suf- 
 fered by the poor and more lowly workers, and a strong appeal is 
 made to the emotions of pity and sympathy. 
 
 For general industrial betterment, regulation and supervision of 
 safety conditions by the state are recommended, also accident and 
 disability insurance. 
 
 To promote industrial peace there should be a public opinion 
 that would compel arbitration. The state should know the conditions 
 that exist in industries and make the facts known. 
 
 Two lessons are devoted to the subjects, "Work as a Law of 
 Life," and "Work as a Social Service." In these lessons the dignity, 
 sacredness, and duty of labor are dwelt upon and the social aspects 
 of modern work, its far-reaching relations and meaning for society 
 are developed. 
 
 Chapters entitled "The Meaning of Work" and "Choosing One's 
 Life Work" are ethical discussions of the problem of industry. "The 
 Rewards of Toil" lift the subject from the mere consideration of 
 money wages to the plane of joy in service. 
 
 "Ownership" receives a highly ethical treatment, being presented 
 as the following description indicates: 
 
 I. THE RIGHTS OF PROPERTY 
 
 a) What are they? b) The question of title. 
 
 The Question of Title, (i) Is a legal title sufficient? Most people 
 think that their right to do as they please with property depends on the 
 fact that the law gives them a title to it. But this was not sufficient for 
 the prophets or for Jesus. Possession is nine points of the law, and the 
 beginning of title is often possession by force. Ahab had such a title to 
 Naboth's vineyard, but the prophet declared the judgment of God upon 
 him for his act (i Kings 21). The scribes and the Pharisees had clear 
 title to the widows' houses they had taken by foreclosure of mortgage, 
 but Jesus gave them his bitterest condemnation for this practice. Many 
 of the greatest estates in England were acquired in the beginning by the 
 nobles fencing in the common lands of the people, or by their taking, or 
 being given, lands that belonged to the church. Most of the farming 
 lands of this country were taken away from the Indians without com- 
 pensation. Title to real estate of great value in the cities often rests on 
 the accident of some ancestor happening to settle on that spot. A list of 
 four thousand millionaires shows that over thirty-five hundred of them 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 71 
 
 had made their fortunes by getting hold first of some natural resource 
 that all the people needed to use, or by the aid of some monopoly in 
 business which gave them superior advantage over others. 
 
 Do you think that the children of men who have made great fortunes, 
 who are doing nothing to support themselves or for the public good, 
 should be protected absolutely in their inheritance? 
 
 The abolition of slavery abolished the legal title in one kind of propn 
 erty. If title to other kinds of property, for example, natural resources, 
 should prove equally dangerous to life and liberty, would the nation also 
 be justified in abolishing that title? 
 
 (2) Oivnership and Use. Should the title to property depend upon 
 the use which is made of it? Will the world of tomorrow insist that 
 those who have possessions shall justify their ownership by using them 
 for the common good? The argument is made that the white race is 
 justified in taking the land formerly owned by the North American Indians 
 or by the Africans, because they were not using it either for their own 
 best good or for the benefit of the world. This places a heavy obligation 
 upon the white race. 
 
 2. LIMITING THE RIGHTS OF PROPERTY 
 
 This section discusses the way in which arbitrary property powers 
 may be limited by social legislation. 
 
 The next tw^o lessons are a strong plea for brotherhood in indus- 
 try, the subject being presented in a concrete way that appeals to the 
 imagination as well as to the sympathetic and social emotions. The 
 last lesson in the same way describes Jesus' attitude of sympathy and 
 service in the world of work, regarding the principles of his teaching 
 a? the law of love and the use of material things for the development 
 of the spirit. 
 
 The preceding citations show how, in a limited way. scientific 
 truths concerning health {fatigue, nourishment, dusty trades, etc.), 
 education, and morality are combined with religious and ethical teach- 
 ings. To a certain extent it is a combination of the religious and 
 ethical teaching of the Bible with the facts of modern science. 
 
 The success of this series is indicated by the fact that 60,000 
 texts (including four Students' Books) were sold in less than two 
 years after their first publication. (Letter from Editor "The Bible 
 and Social Living," Methodist Book Concern, December, 191 7.) 
 (The editors, on account of pressure of work, were unable to give 
 names and addresses of users.) 
 
72 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 3. "the bible and social LIVING"22 
 (baptist) 
 
 I. Description and Use. — This course treats many of the same 
 subjects as the preceding course, in much the same general way but 
 without so many concrete ilkistrations.^^ 
 
 The method of treating the "Industrial Order" is thus stated in 
 the Introduction of the Teachers' Text Book, Part III : 
 
 In all of these lessons we are seeking to know and measure values, 
 and we are preparing ourselves for definite and practical action. It is 
 desirable that the freest possible discussion of the lessons should be 
 secured. In this way the members of the class may be encouraged to think 
 and make valuations for themselves. But just here is a danger. Some of 
 these lessons deal with live issues and moot questions ; most of them are 
 subjects on which all have some ideas. There is a danger lest the dis- 
 cussion be prolonged and obscure the chief point. Do not allow the class 
 to miss the main truth in the discussion of some incidental matter. The 
 class should try to visualize a situation and see the subject as a whole. 
 The teacher should do everything possible to induce the pupils to make 
 themselves familiar with the text of their handbook. The teacher should 
 avoid, as far as possible, the lecture method and should encourage ques- 
 tions. Keep in mind this principle : that our primary purpose is not to 
 pour information into the mind, but to enable the pupil to realize a situa- 
 tion and to make right social adjustments. 
 
 This method is not co concrete as that of the Methodist Course 
 of the same name ; it deals more with general principles, at the same 
 time, however, advocating a progressive policy of social legislation, 
 organization, and education. The primary thoughts as to capital and 
 labor are that life must always be the ultimate criterion of value in 
 economic transactions, and that social and economic processes must 
 
 22Keystone International Graded Sunday School Lessons, Senior Course. 
 American Baptist Educational Society, 1917. 
 
 23Topics treated in "The Bible and Social Living," Fourth Year, Part III : 
 The Industrial Order, published by American Baptist Publication Society are : 
 I. Work a Law of Life; 2. Work as a Social Service; 3. The Specialization 
 of Work; 4. Socialized Industry; 5. The Return for Labor; 6. The Right Use 
 of Money; 7. Ownership; 8. Partnership in Industry; 9. A Worthy Task; 
 10. Relating Oneself to the Industrial Order; 11. Improving Industrial Con- 
 ditions; 12. Christ and the Industrial Order; 13. Review: The Proving 
 Ground of Love. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 73 
 
 consist in a socialization of interests.-* ("The Bible and Social Liv- 
 ing." Fourth Year, Part III, Teachers' Manual, p. 156. American 
 Baptist Publication Society.) 
 
 No general panacea for economic ills is offered but certain 
 remedies are suggested : 
 
 More and more it is becoming evident that the rate of wages is con- 
 trolled by human action — that is, by factors that can be known and 
 reached. It may not be possible to effect any sudden changes, but some- 
 thing can be done by studying causes, by conscious effort, and wise social 
 action. The nation must adopt a constructive and comprehensive program 
 of wage increase. 
 
 We realize fully that economic laws cannot be suspended by act of 
 legislature and wages cannot be permanently increased by governmental 
 decree. But many things can be done to lift the pressure and change 
 industrial conditions. Society can forbid the overcapitalization of an 
 industry. Something can be done by the judicious supervision of immi- 
 gration. Something can be done by a minimum wage law, as in Wiscon- 
 sin, which provides that every wage paid or agreed to be paid by an 
 employer to any female or minor employee shall not be less than a living 
 wage. Something can be done by the creation of a wage commission to 
 pass upon questions, take cost of living into account, and determine what 
 is a living wage. Such laws are in successful operation in New Zealand 
 and Australia, and a notable beginning has been made in many of the 
 American states. Much can be done by the state determining the plane 
 of industrial action and providing that all industries shall be conducted 
 with regard for the human factors involved. 
 
 Collective bargaining, the bonus system, and profit sharing are 
 also advocated." 
 
 The question of the ownership of property receives the following 
 treatment : 
 
 We have stated two principles which may guide us here : Every man 
 i.- entitled to all that he makes; and everyone should earn all that he 
 receives. Here we add a third principle, that it should be possible for 
 everyone to earn and possess something. This means that society must 
 create such a system as shall make it possible for every man to work and 
 earn what he needs. This is not the case today, as we all know. There 
 
 -^As Professor Small has maintained, interests are the prime social and 
 economic factors. Individual and economic interests, however, can be made to 
 harmonize with, or be subordinated to, the greater social interest. 
 
 ^•'Ibid.. pp. 163-4. 
 
74 CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 is much poverty for which the individuals themselves are not directly 
 
 responsible. In the present system a large proportion of M^orkers do not 
 
 receive a living v^age and can accumulate nothing beyond the day. In 
 
 this system there is much unemployment for a part of the time, and this 
 
 makes it impossible for many to get ahead. The strain of industry is so ; 
 
 severe that many persons are old at forty and are cast aside as so much 
 
 junk. 
 
 In saying, therefore, that society must create such a system as shall i 
 
 make it possible for every person to possess sufficient property for a com- ; 
 
 plete life, we imply that society shall guarantee such means as lead to the | 
 
 end. That is, society must deal with the question and must make it pos- i 
 
 sible for every person to find work. This question of employment can | 
 
 never be settled by the individual alone. We know today that much un- 
 employment is due to social conditions and grows out of social maladjust- 
 ment. Society must therefore deal with these cases and conditions and 
 devise a system in which unemployment is reduced to the lowest minimum. j 
 
 It must provide all citizens with such an education and training as shall 
 make them efficient workers and enable them to maintain their footing. ' 
 
 It must seek to equalize advantages and provide fit opportunity for men \ 
 
 in infinite variety. It must control the common heritage and provide that 
 a few shall not monopolize the earth's resources to the disadvantage of 
 many. 
 
 Second, society must create such a social system as shall establish a 
 direct relation between service and reward.^^ 
 
 Industrial partnership and cooperative management of industry 
 by its workers are presented as reasonable ideals. 
 
 The present industrial system is not working well today. Everywhere 
 we have friction, unrest, strife, even open warfare. It is not too much 
 to say that the wage system, with corporate and autocratic control and 
 depersonalized relations between men, has broken down on our hands and 
 must give place to a better, more human, more brotherly system. "Capital 
 and labor," says Prof. A. W. Small, "in their present status are impossible 
 in perpetuity as the ancient social division into freemen and slaves.''^^ 
 The whole drift of our time is toward industrial partnership. 
 
 These partners should have a voice in determining the policies of the 
 enterprise. Everything that concerns the enterprise should be known by 
 all the members of the council, and its policies should be determined by 
 the partners. The wages paid and dividends made should be based upon 
 a full knowledge of the enterprise. No group of partners should feel 
 
 26Teacher's Text Book. 
 
 '^''American Journal of Sociology, March, 1916. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 75 
 
 free to take all that they can; the claim of each should be balanced by 
 the claims of all. The profits of the enterprise should be divided pro rata 
 among the partners. The whole conduct of the enterprise should repre- 
 sent the judgment and cooperation of all. 
 
 Industrial Partnership. Several things are implied in industrial part- 
 nership which must be noted carefully, (i) We must recognize the fact 
 that all the parties in industry are partners in the enterprise. Each party 
 must learn to respect the other, and must think of him not as a rival to be 
 suspected, but as a partner to be trusted. We grant freely that the suc- 
 cessful working of the enterprise depends in large measure upon the skill 
 and foresight of certain directors and managers. But the working of the 
 enterprise depends no less upon the skill and fidelity of the common 
 workers. The men who unite their lives in this way thereby become 
 partners and should always recognize one another as such 
 
 The course is based definitely on Bible lessons — those recom- 
 mended in the International Outlines — and references are given to a 
 number of standard books for further study. The following for 
 Lesson 27, "Work a Law of Life," may be cited as typical. 
 
 Biblical Material, (i) Work a part of God's plan: Genesis 1:26-31; 
 2:15. 
 
 (2) Work necessary to life : Proverbs 6:6-11; 24 : 30-34. 
 
 (3) Work a moral duty: Exodus 20:9; II Thessalonians 3: 12. 
 
 (4) Christ the worker: Mark 6: 1-6. 
 
 (5) God at work: John 5:17. 
 
 References for Further Study. Boardman, The Creative Week, pp. 
 201-07; Dale, Laws of Christ for Common Life, Chap i ; Carlyle, Past and 
 Present, Book iii, Chap, iv ; Ruskin, Fors Clavigera, Letter Ixiv. 
 
 Religious and moral values are continually emphasized. Note 
 the following extracts, selected from different lessons. 
 
 In these lessons we seek to analyze some of the complex situations of 
 life and to discover the religious significance of each concrete act. We 
 seek also to form firm convictions as to relative values, in life, and then 
 to relate life to life's tasks and to God's will. These lessons having to do 
 with the Industrial Order ofifer a splendid opportunity for this work of 
 religious interpretation and moral valuation. The teacher will find it 
 worth while to give special attention to these lessons ; in part because they 
 deal with subjects not fully discussed in the classroom, and in part because 
 of the growing importance of such questions in our modern world (p. 139). 
 
 In all of these lessons we seek to interpret religion in terms of life, 
 and to view life in the light of religion. In this lesson the teacher has an 
 
76 CAPITAL AND LABOR' IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 opportunity for showing the breadth of Christ's sympathies and illustrat- 
 ing his interest in working people. More than that, it offers an oppor- 
 tunity for relating Christ to social life and interpreting his teaching and 
 example on some social questions (p. 204). 
 
 To the spiritual man all things are spiritual. It is important that this 
 truth be recognized ; then teacher and class will approach these lessons in 
 a reverent spirit and will realize that they are finding the will of God in 
 their industrial life (p. 148). 
 
 One purpose of these lessons is to interpret the religious meaning of 
 man's social nature and give man a scale of social values. 
 
 .... This lesson has two aspects ; one deals with the nature, quality, 
 and value of the task itself. The other considers the spirit and attitude of 
 the worker himself toward his life-task. Both aspects should be carefully 
 noted and should be considered together as parts of one truth (p. 187). 
 
 These citations, all taken from that part of the text dealing with 
 the industrial order, indicate the emphasis placed throughout the 
 course on those phases of the industrial problem which are not purely 
 economic or scientific. Furthermore, the importance given religious 
 and moral phases suggests a feeling on the part of the authors, that 
 in church schools this can not be omitted even in the treatment of 
 problems appearing to some as purely economic and sociological. 
 Naturally, such a situation presents certain difficulties when dealing 
 with a subject like that of capital and labor. 
 
 Finally, it may be said, careful examination shows that this course, 
 as compared with the Methodist plan of the same name, is somewhat 
 broad and abstract, apparently adapted to older students ; written, 
 nevertheless, in a very human way, strongly emphasizing religious 
 and moral values, and right personal relations. In the treatment of 
 capital and labor problems, this course does not consider the economic 
 doctrines of rent, wages, interest, etc., being in no sense an effort to 
 teach economics as such. 
 
 The success of the series has been considerable, although no 
 exact statistics are available, ^s A personal letter from the editor 
 under date of March i, 1918, states: 
 
 We have not collected any data as to the detailed value put upon the 
 course by those who have been using it. However, we are hearing from 
 numerous sources many commendations of the course itself. 
 
 28 The publishers were unable to give the writer the names and addresses of 
 a number of church schools using this series. 
 
METHODS OF TREATING THE PROBLEM 77 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 The outstanding characteristic of the courses described in this 
 section is that they are based upon and constantly refer to scriptural, 
 ethical, and religious teachings, including the stories and "value" 
 lessons from the Bible, concrete facts and conditions of the present 
 day being described in such a way as to appeal to the sympathy and 
 sense of solidarity. Scientific truths regarding fatigue, nutrition, 
 hygiene, recreation, education, and social conditions are, to a certain 
 extent, fused with the religious values, but no attempt is made from 
 the point of view of economic science to give a general theoretical 
 explanation of the problems of capital and labor. The descriptions 
 of these courses may appear somewhat disconnected, with a lack of 
 systematic organization. This is partly owing to the way in which 
 the subjects have been treated in the courses. No systematized 
 method or sequence of subjects has been adopted in the texts under 
 consideration. Various subjects of interest have been included and 
 treated in an empirical and somewhat "experimental" manner. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 It is hoped that this thesis will help to point out some of the 
 principles of treatment in the process of demonstration through these 
 attempts to handle a difficult subject, and that the experience so ex- 
 hibited may be advantageously used later in developing a standard- 
 ized method for the treatment of such problems in social study classes. 
 It is believed, however, that development of these principles must be 
 largely incidental to the inevitable process of reconstruction in the 
 more inclusive sense. For that reason it would be untimely to 
 attempt formulation of further conclusions from the evidence here 
 organized. 
 
 i 
 
PARTIAL LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED 
 
 I, GENERAL WORKS ON RELIGION 
 
 Edward Scribner Ames, Ph.D., The Psychology of Religious Experience, 
 Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1910. 
 
 Samuel A. Barnett, Religion and Politics, London : Wells, Gardner, Day- 
 ton &Co., Ltd., 191 1. 
 
 Wilhelm Bousset, What Is Religion? London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1908. 
 
 Durant Drake, Problems of Religion, New York : Houghton, Mifflin Co., 
 1916. 
 
 William Wilson Elwang, The Social Function of Religious Belief. Uni- 
 versity of Missouri. Studies H, No. i, 1908. 
 
 G. T. Ladd, The Philosophy of Religion, New York: Charles Scribners' 
 Sons, 1905. 
 
 Arthur Cushman McGiffert, The Rise of Modern Religious Ideals. 
 
 Emil Carl Wilm, The Problem of Religion, Boston and New York : The 
 Pilgrim Press, 1912. 
 
 II. WORKS DEALING WITH RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND THE SUNDAY 
 SCHOOL 
 
 Wm. G. Ballantine, Religious Education and the Coming Social Order, 
 Boston: Pilgrim Press, 1917. 
 
 F. Beard, Graded Missionary Education in the Church School. 
 W. S. Bovard, Adults in the Sunday School. 
 
 P. F. Burroughs, The Present Day Sunday School. 
 
 G. A. Coe, A Social Theory of Religious Education, New York : Scrib- 
 ners', 1917. 
 
 R. E. Diffendorfer, Missionary Education, New York: Abingdon Press, 
 1917. 
 
 E. J. Dennen, The Sunday School under Scientific Management. 
 
 J. T. Paris, The Sunday School at Work. 
 
 C. W. Heath, The Essentials of Religious Education, Boston : Sherman, 
 French & Co., 1916. 
 
 OfUcial Report of the 14th International Sunday School Convention, Or- 
 ganized Sunday School Work in America, 1911-14, Chicago, 1914. 
 
 M. Lawrance, The Sunday School Organized for Service. 
 
 E. A. Miller, Making the Old Sunday School Neiv. 
 
 W. C. Pearce, The Adult Bible Class. 
 
 78 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 79 
 
 Edwin Wilbur Rice, The Sunday School Movement. 
 C. L. White, The Church at Work. 
 
 Volumes of '"Religious Education" published by Religious Education 
 Association, Chicago. 
 
 III. PARTIAL LIST OF TEXTS REFERRED TO, INCLUDING THOSE USED IN 
 SOCIAL SERVICE STUDIES 
 
 Alfred Amonn, Objekt und Grundbegriffe der theoretischen National- 
 
 Okonomie, Wien und Leipzig: F. Deuticke, 1911. 
 S. Z. Batten, The Social Task of Christianity, F. H. Revell & Co., 1911. 
 
 The Christian State, Philadelphia: Griffith & Rowland Press, 1909. 
 
 Training for Citizenship in the Kingdom of God, American Bapt. 
 
 Publ. Soc. Bull. 19. 
 Chas. F. Dole, The Ethics of Progress, New York : T. Y. Crowell & Co., 
 
 1909. 
 A Practical Platform for Social Progress, Boston : Amer. Unit. 
 
 Assn., Eaton & Mains. 
 Edwin L. Earp, Social Aspects of Religious Institutions, New York. 
 Chas. A. Ellwood, Sociology and Modern Social Problems, New York: 
 
 American Book Company, 1913. 
 J. E. Franklin, The Relation of Christianity and Socialism, Amer. Bapt. 
 
 Publ. Soc, 1914. 
 C. T. Gardner, The Accumulation of Wealth, Amer. Bapt. Publ. Soc, 1916. 
 Washington Gladden, The Church and Modern Life, Houghton, Mifflin 
 
 Co., 1908. 
 "Gospel of the Kingdom," Dr. Josiah Strong, Editor, New York American 
 
 Institute for Social Service. 
 M. L. Goss. Welfare Work by Corporations, Amer. Bapt. Publ. Soc. 
 Newton Marshall Hall, Civic Righteousness and Civic Pride, Boston : 
 
 Sherman French & Co., 19 14. 
 C. R. Henderson, Social Duties from a Christian Point of View. 
 F. A. Hinckley, The Individual and the Social Order in Religion, Ameri- 
 can Unitarian Association. 
 Chas. S. iMacfarland, Christian Service in the Modern IVorld, F. H. 
 
 Revell & Co., 1915. 
 Shailer ^lathews, The Social Teachings of Jesus, New York : Macmillan 
 
 Co., 1902. 
 
 The Social Gospel, Griffith Howland Press, 1910. 
 
 Scott Nearing. Women in American Industry, Amer. Bapt. Publ. Soc, 
 
 1915- 
 Francis Greenwood Peabody, Jesus Christ and the Social Question. 
 F. Rank, Etudes de Morales. 
 
8o CAPITAL AND LABOR IN SOCIAL-STUDY COURSES 
 
 W. Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis, New York: Mac- 
 
 millan Co., 1907. 
 Francesco de Sarlo, Principii di scienza etica, Milano : R. Sandron, 1907. 
 F. Herbert Stead, The Kingdom of God, Edinburg: T. & T. Clark. 
 Chas. Stelzle, American Social & Religious Conditions, F. H. Revell Co., 
 
 1912. 
 The Church and the Labor Movement, Philadelphia : Anier. Bapt. 
 
 Publ. Soc. 
 Josiah Strong, Our World, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1913. 
 
 The Next Great Awakening, New York : Baker, Taylor & Co., 1902. 
 
 Thompson, Divine Order of Human Society, Phila. : J. D. Watters, 1891. 
 H. F. Ward, Poverty and Wealth, New York : Methodist Book Concern, 
 
 1916. 
 The Living Wage a Religious Necessity, Amer. Bapt. Publ. Soc, 
 
 1916. 
 
 Social Creed of the Churches, New York : Eaton & Mains Co., 1912. 
 
 Social Service Year Book, New York : Am. Missionary Movement, 
 
 1916. 
 
 -Christianizing Community Life. 
 
 B. T. Westcott, Social Aspects of Christianity, London : Macmillan & Co., 
 
 1888. 
 Rt. Rev. Chas. D. Williams, The Democracy of the Kingdom, American 
 
 Unitarian Association. 
 M. Williams, The Administration of Justice, Amer. Bapt. Publ. Soc, 1914. 
 Year Book, Social Service of the Churches, New York American Mis- 
 sionary Movement, 1916. 
 
 Also numerous pamphlets and reports published by church denomina- 
 tional bodies and social service commissions. 
 
KEY FOR CHURCH STUDY-COURSE REFERENCES 
 
 NAME OF REFERENCE AS GIVEN IN FOOTNOTE 
 
 Accumulation of Wealth 
 
 Christianity and the Social Crisis 
 
 Christian State 
 
 Church and Labor 
 
 Church and Modern Life 
 Creed of the Churches .... 
 Democracy of the Kingdom 
 Divine Order of Human Society 
 Gospel of the Kingdom ... 
 Jesus Christ and the Social Question 
 Living Wage a Religious Necessitj- 
 Next Great Awakening .... 
 
 Our World 
 
 Poverty and Wealth .... 
 
 Practical Program for Social Reform 
 Social Aspect of Christianity 
 
 Social Gospel 
 
 Social Order in Religion 
 Social Task of Christianity 
 Social Teaching of Jesus 
 
 AUTHOR 
 
 S. C. Gardner 
 W. Rauschenbusch 
 S. Z. Batten 
 Chas. Stelzle 
 Washington Gladden 
 H. F. Ward 
 C. D. Williams 
 Thompson 
 Josiah Strong 
 F. G. Peabody 
 H. F. Ward 
 Josiah Strong 
 Josiah Strong 
 H. F. Ward 
 C. F. Dole 
 B. F. Westcott 
 S. Mathews 
 F. A. Hinckley 
 S. Z. Batten 
 S. Mathews 
 
 8i 
 
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rO C6i2. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY