yC-NRLF B 3 113 &B3 EUROPE lO^WINSLOW DCHEATH e^COMPANY BOSTON If OF THE [f UNIVERSITY GEOGRAPHY READERS— IV EUROPE BY 1. O. WINSLOW BOSTON, U.S.A. D. C. HEATH & CO,, PUBLISHERS 1910 wmsLOW's GEOGRAPHY EEADERS The Earth and Its People The United States OaR American Nekjhboks Europe Distant Countkies Copyright, 1910, by D. C. HEATH & CO. EDUCATION LIBR. PREFACE The purpose of this series is to occupy middle ground between the customary text-books and geographical readers, and to combine the essential advantages of both. The two extremes, whether employed separately or to- gether, fail to meet the practical needs of the average school- room. The text-books adhere to the scientific method, at a sacrifice of the practical or pedagogical method. The teacher finds it difficult either to assign a definite lesson for study from the books or to use them for class exercises in reading and discussion. In their completeness the text-books con- tain so much that selection is difficult, and the attempt to teach the whole is disastrous. Geographical readers, in the form of stories of travel, go so far to the other extreme that they also fall outside of the daily task of the geography teacher. Courses of study very properly call for definite concepts and facts. After serious attention has been given to these, there is but little time to spare in the regular curriculum for lighter reading. There is need of books that shall select the essentials and set them forth in such an explicit and straightforward man- ner that they may be easily used, both for preparatory read- ing and for study and recitation. It is the design of these books to supply that want. Since they occupy a unique position, they should not be judged according to existing standards, but according to practical needs. Care lias been taken to make the series genuinely progres- sive. Each book builds upon the foundation laid in previous ivi5'r'?0f >/ iv PREFACE books. Such topics as have been treated in earlier books are omitted, or briefly mentioned for the purpose of review, or treated from a more mature standpoint. In choice of words and style there is a gradual advancement through the series corresponding to the advancing ability of pupils of the several grades. Unusual attention has been given to tlie industrial and commercial aspects of the subject, in the belief that these are of fundamental importance and of natural interest to children. The fact that political geography, or the geog- raj^y of locations, is wrought out in close connection with such industrial and commercial development renders it more significant and more easily remembered. Topics of fundamental importance are fully explained in the text, but many minor points, which may be easily ascer- tained or inferred by pupils, are reserved and given at the end of each chapter, either in the form of questions or brief statements accompanied by questions. These exercises, supplemented by map sketching and other work that is here and there suggested, will provide definite lessons for the study period, Avhich many teachers find it difficult to arrange. The review questions relate to principal points explained in the text, and may be employed either for the daily assign- ment of lessons or for occasional review. It is believed that these questions, togetber with the exercises given in connec- tion with each chapter, include as much as pupils of ele- mentary grades should be expected to learn. CONTENTS PAGE Europe • . 1 Physical Features and Climate 1 Tlie People of Europe 6 The British Isles 13 England 18 Cities and Interesting Localities 25 Scotland 33 Ireland 37 Fkaxce 44 Industries and Cities 51 The Netherlands 55 Belgium 63 Spain and Portugal 68 Industries and Cities 74 Norway 82 Sweden 90 Denmark 95 Germany 99 Industries and Cities 107 Switzerland ............ 114 Italy 124 Industries and Cities 131 Austria-Hungary 139 Russia 146 Industries and Cities 153 Turkey 161 Smaller Balkan Countries 169 Appendix ............ 178 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 181 LIST OF MAPS Commercial Map of the AYorld (colored) .... facing 1 Relief Map of Europe 3 Gulf Stream 4 Europe (colored) 7 Western Europe (colored) 15 British Coal Fields 20 Central Europe (colored) 85 IV EUROPE EUROPE Of all the great bodies of land on the earth, Europe is in many respects the most important. It has taken a greater part than any other continent in the civilization of the human race. We justly regard the United States as the equal of any other nation in the intelligence and progress of its people, but civilization in America is com- paratively recent. Not very long ago its inhabitants were savages, whereas Europe for hundreds and even thousands of years has been the home of enlightened people. Because the ancestors of most of the inhabitants of the United States once lived in Enrope, the high cliar- acter and great success of our people are in part due to that continent, and this fact renders a study of Europe especially interesting to us. I. Physical Features and Climate Although Europe and Asia really form one body of land, to which the name Eurasia has been given, Europe differs from Asia so greatly in respect to natnral fea- tures and inhabitants that it is most convenient to consider it separately. We shall do well to give attention, first, to the moun- tain systems, valleys, and plains ; to the rivers and other bodies of water ; and to heat and cold, and wind and rain, because the physical features and climate of any 2 EUROPE part of the earth are eitlier an assistance or a hindrance to the welfare of the people. There are in Europe, as in America, mountains that are very ancient and others that have been more recently formed. The comparatively low mountains in Norway, Scotland, and other parts of northwestern Europe are the remains of an ancient system like the Appalachian Sys- tem in the United States. The more lofty Alps, Pyrenees, and Caucasus Mountains in the southern part correspond more nearly to the systems in the western part of North America. In the central and northeastern portions of the con- tinent there are vast, gently sloping lowlands across which rivers flow in various directions. During the Glacial Period, when the ice sheet covered a part of North America, a similar sheet covered north- ern Europe and produced effects like those in our own country. Rocks were ground into soil, and numerous ponds, lakes, and waterfalls were formed. The climate in the western part of Europe is much milder than that in the eastern part of North America at a corresponding latitude. This is due chiefly to the direction of the wind. Most of Europe, like the north- ern part of the United States, is in the region of prevailing westerly or southwesterly winds. Since in winter the ocean does not become cooled so fast as the land, the wind that reaches Europe after blowing over the surface of the Atlantic renders the climate milder than it otherwise would be. This modifying influence of the ocean is somewhat increased by a current of warm water that moves from PHYSICAL FEATURES AND CLniATE the tropical regions across the Atlantic and gives the waters near the western coast of Europe a higher temperature. There are similar currents in various parts of the world. They are probably caused by prevailing winds. EUROPE Wherever wind blows across the surface of water it tends to push the water along, and in those parts of the ocean where it blows in certain directions the greater part of the time, there are naturally movements of the water in the same directions. As the directions of the pre- vailing winds differ in different regions, so the movements of the water have different directions, and in some places great cir- cular currents, or ed- dies, are formed in the ocean. The Gulf stream By mingling the warm waters of the tropics with the cold waters of the temperate and polar regions, these currents decrease the differences in temperature in the ocean and have some effect in preventing extremes in climate. The current that affects the climate of western Europe passes into the Atlantic from the Gulf of Mex- ico, and is therefore called the Gulf Stream. As it passes between Florida and Cuba on its way from the Gulf, it is about fifty miles wide and several hundred feet deep. Its movement across the Atlantic is only a few miles per day. The climate of the Atlantic coast of the United States, as far north as New York City, is rendered milder in winter by the Gulf Stream. Along the PHYSICAL FEATURES AND CLBIATE 5 American coast farther north a stream called the Arctic Current, or the Labrador Current, brings cold water and floating ice from the Arctic regions and adds to the severity of the winters. When the Pilgrims came to America, they landed at a point farther south than England and expected to find the climate warmer, but were disappointed in finding it colder instead. In summer the surface of the land becomes heated more than the water, and the westerly winds render the summers of western Europe cooler. This effect is similar to that produced by westerly winds in the western parts of the United States. In the central and eastern parts of both Europe and the United States it is much colder in winter and warmer in summer than farther west, because the temperature of the wind becomes changed by the temperature of the land over which it blows. In the central part of the United States, since there are no mountain ranges running east and west, the climate in the south is rendered cooler, and that in the north warmer, by winds from the north and the south. The mountains extending across southern Europe pre- vent such a free movement of the air ; hence there is a marked difference in the climate of the regions north and south of the mountains. 1 state the direction of Europe from each of the other continents. 2. How does the coast line of Europe differ from that of South America? 3. What oceans border on Europe? 4. Name the large seas and bays that border on Europe. 5. Locate th.e following mountain ranges: Alps; Pyrenees; Cau- casus; Ural; Balkan; Carpathian. EUROPE 6. Name three rivers that rise in the Alps. Into what bodies of water do they flow? 7. About one fourth of the river water of Europe flows into the Black Sea. Name several large rivers that flow into that sea. 8. What large river flows into the Caspian Sea? 9. What part of the coast of North America is about as far north as the British Isles? 10. Sketch an outline map of Europe and indicate the names of the large bodies of water that border upon it. 2. The People of Europe The entire continent of Etn-ope is not very much larger than the United States, but it is divided into many separate coun- tries whose inhabitants speak various languages. During the long period since the earliest times of which we have knowledge there have been many changes among the peoples of Europe. Most of the present inhabitants are branches of the White, or Cauca- sian, Race. It is believed that the ancestors of all these peoples were once united and spoke the same lan- guage. It is also generally believed that the original home of the race was in Asia, and that branches of the family gradually emigrated westward into Europe. One of these divisions, known as the Greeks, occupied a peninsula extending into the Mediterranean Sea. Inhabitants of Northern Europe more than 2000 Years Ago The clothing, weapons, and ornaments are copied from discoveries in the peat of Denmark EUROPE The Greeks also colonized numerous islands in the Medi- terranean. In their southern home they became highly civilized. The works of art and literature that they produced have never been surpassed, and are still studied and admired. In their government, however, there was not sufficient strength. Their country was divided into small states that were not firmly united, and they were finally conquered by other nations. The Romans, who dwelt in Italy, were the most powerful peo- ple of the an- cient world. They formed a strong and united govern- ment. They produced a system of laws and enforced them wisely. They gave great attention to military discipline and maintained such mighty armies that no foreign power could stand against them. They con- quered all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea and many barbarous tribes, and all these were united in one vast empire, with Rome for its capital. It was a great advantage to these various peoples to be brought under Roman rule. They all learned from the Romans a respect for law and good government. The Romans, like the Greeks, were highly educated, and the benefits of their education were imparted, in some degree, to the peoples whom they conquered. A Greek Temple THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE Perhaps the greatest advantage was the introduction of Christianity. The Romans at first persecuted the Christians, but after about three centuries the Christian religion was adopted by the Roman govern- ment and was introduced into all parts of the empire. After a time the power of the Romans began to decline. With their increase in riches the rulers and leading citi- zens gradually became less pa- triotic and lived The Appian Way — a celebrated Roman Road more at ease. They had conquered all the tribes as far north as the Rhine and Danube rivers, but beyond those rivers there were Teutonic tribes in the western part of Europe and Slavonic tribes in the eastern part, which belonged to other branches of the great family of the Caucasian Race. While the Roman armies were conquering farther south these tribes did not venture to attack them, but after the reputation of the Romans had begun to decline they boldly crossed the rivers and finally overran a large part of the Roman Empire. 10 EUROPE The Northern Horde Invading Italy After these barbarous tribes had conquered the Ro- mans the great empire gradually broke up. A period of about a thousand years, called the Middle Ages, followed. It was a time in which there w^ere almost constant wars among the different rulers of the nu- merous sections of Europe. Gradually, however, affairs became more settled, stronger governments were formed, learning revived, and the people began to make use- ful discoveries and inventions. At present the nations of Europe and the people who have emigrated from Europe are the leaders in the progress of the race. The nature of the land surface of Europe, the relation between the land and the water, and the climate, have greatly favored prosperity. The irregularity of the coast has also been of great advantage. Bodies of water afford an easy means of communication between different countries and different parts of the same country. Since many seas, gulfs, and bays extend THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE 11 into the continent and there are good harbors near the mouths of the rivers, a large proportion of the people have been able to carry on trade with one an- other. Under such conditions, too, the influence of im- provements made in one part of the continent is readily extended to other parts. Whenever valuable discoveries and inventions are made in one country, other countries soon adopt them and profit by them. The fact that Europe has a central situation among the continents of the earth has enabled it to carry on foreign trade more easily with Asia, Africa, and America. The varied form of the land, also, and the numerous sources of wealth give a variety of advantages. Hills and mountains, providing water power for manufactur- ing, fertile valleys for agriculture and grazing, and mines of coal, iron, and other minerals, are very gen- erally distributed over the continent. They afford opportunities for many occupations. The climate of Europe, wbich is mainly temperate, is upon the whole very favorable for tlie health and the general welfare of its inhabitants. The people of southern Europe are of mixed ancestry. They are descendants in part from the Romans, in part from the native peoples whom the Romans conquered, and in part from the tribes of the north that overran the Roman Empire. The Romans had a darker com- plexion than the northern tribes, and the inhabitants of the countries along the Mediterranean Sea at present are generally darker than those in the north. The English, Germans, Dutch, Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes belong 12 EUROPE to the Teutonic branch of the Caucasian Race. The French, Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, and Greeks are often called the Greco-Latin peoples. The Russians, Bulgarians, Servians, Bohemians, and Poles have mostly descended from Slavonic tribes. The Finns, Lapps, and Magyars belong to the Yellow Race. Finlanders 1. What countries of Europe border on the Mediterranean Sea? 2. What countries border on the Baltic Sea? 3. Which countries form peninsulas? 4. Across which countries does the Ai-ctic Circle extend? 5. What large city of Europe is nearly on the parallel of latitude that forms the northern boundary of the United States? 6. What countries of Europe lie wholly north of that parallel ? 7. What state on our Atlantic coast extends about as far south as the southern boundary of Europe? 8. In what part of Europe are Finland and Lapland? 9. Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy are called the great powers of Europe. Name the capital city of each of these countries. 10. Sketch a map of Europe showing the largest rivers, the chief mountain ranges, and the boundaries of the countries. THE BRITLSU ISLES 13 3. The British Isles The two large islands near the western coast of Europe are called the British Isles. The larger of these, consisting of England, Scotland, and Wales, is known as Great Britain. Great Britain and Ireland together are often called the United Kingdom of Great Windsor Castle - One of the Royal Palaces Britain and Ireland, or simply the United Kingdom. England, Scotland, and Ireland were once separate nations. After centuries of war and jealousy between England and Scotland the two were united, and after- ward Ireland was joined to Great Britain. These two islands together are not so large as many of our states, such as Montana or California, but they are the home country of one of the greatest nations of the world. The United Kingdom with its colonies is called the British Empire, and to that empire belong Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, a great amount of ter- ritory in Africa, British Guiana in South America, and 14 EUROPE numerous other smaller colonies scattered over the entire world. All this territory together amounts to about one fifth of the land surface of the earth, and the people who dwell in the scattered parts of the great empire comprise about one fourth of all the earth's inhabitants. Stonehenge — Ruins of a Temple of the Early Britons The earliest inhabitants of the British Isles of whom we have definite knowledge were the Celts, a branch of the Caucasian Race. In the year 55 b. c. the Romans invaded Great Britain and gained control of a large part of it. They constructed good roads and made other improvements, but after a time they withdrew from the island. Then the Danes gained a foothold in England and for some time ruled over a part of it. Other Teutonic tribes, called Angles and Saxons, con- quered the country at a later time, and from the Angles it was called Angle-Land, or England. The inhabitants of the regions along the northern 16 EUROPE coast of Europe in these early times were called North- men. They were a powerful and warlike race of sea- men and were much dreaded by the inhabitants of countries farther south. The Northmen gained posses- sion of a section of northern France, afterward called Normandy. In the year 1066 the Normans, under their king William the Conqueror, crossed over to England, Cottages of Celts in Scotch Highlands defeated the English, and became the ruling class in the country. Even at the present time many Englishmen are proud of the fact that they have descended from Norman ancestors. The Celts were driven back to the north by these various invaders, and their descendants now dwell in Ireland, in the Highlands of northern Scotland, and in the country of Wales. It is believed that the mainland of Europe once ex- tended much farther west than now, and that by the sinking of the land the ocean has covered a large extent of territory, leaving the British Isles and the neighbor- THE BRITISH ISLES 17 ing smaller islands above the surface, because they were the highest parts of the land. The sinking of the land on that side of the Atlantic produced effects similar to those along our New England coast. The water flowed into the valleys among the hills, producing an uneven coast and many good harbors. Stratford on Avon A range of mountains once occupied a large part of the British Isles, but it has been worn away. The re- mains of these mountains are seen in the hills that cover the greater part of Scotland and the western part of England. The surface of England consists of level land and low hills, and there is a small section of lowland in the southern part of Scotland. The effects of the Ice Sheet in the British Isles are simi- lar to those in our New England. The soil is largely composed of glacial drift and is of various kinds. 18 EUROPE The favoraljle climate of these islands has contributed much to their development. Since they are surrounded by water, the temperature of the ocean produces greater effects upon them than upon the mainland of Europe. The weather is neither very warm in summer nor ex- tremely cold in winter. The prevailing winds from the ocean are well supplied with moisture and provide an abundance of rain. 1. Name the bodies of water that surround Great Britain. 2. Locate the Isle of Man and the Isle of Wight. 3. Where is Lands End? 4. Where are the Cheviot Hills and the Grampian Hills? 5. Where are the Cambrian Mountains? 6. Name two rivers in Scotland. 7. What two rivers are in southern England and into what bodies of water do they flow? 8. Name two rivers in northern England and state into what waters they flow. 9. Sketch a map of the British Isles, indicating the names of the principal hills and mountains, the rivers, and the most important of the surrounding bodies of water. 4. England We regard England as our mother country because the first permanent white settlers in America came from England, and it was mainly through their efforts that our country was defended and developed in its early years. The fact that we speak the same language as the English people also gives us a strong feeling of friendship toward them. The same ability and energy that were displayed by the American colonists have given the English at home the highest success among the nations of tlie world. Although their country in the beginning consisted of ENGLAND 19 one small island, they have sent their ships to all parts of the earth and have gained a vast empire. We believe that our prosperity is partly due to the fact that we have a government by tlie people. Although the English government is called a monarchy, the King or Queen, who is the head, has comparatively little power. The Prime Minister has a more active part, vHuifii^^ ^ .j^'" .:;>^^<>^ Hall of the House of Commons because he is the leader of Parliament. Most of the power of the English government is in the hands of the Parliament, which consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords consists of dukes, earls, barons, and ])ishops, who hold the office for life, but the members of the House of Commons are elected by tlie people. The British people are among the greatest manu- facturers in tlie world. In early times woolen cloth was made on liand looms, but after machinery was 20 EUROPE invented mills were built beside the rivers. Although the rivers of England are very small in comparison with those of the United States, there is so much rain that they furnish water power during all the year. After steam engines came into use steam power also was employed, because coal was cheap and abundant. At first woolen cloth was made only from the wool raised in the coun- try, but the Eng- lish became such skillful manufac- turers that they soon began to im- port wool from other countries. At a later time cotton mills also were built. The British people now manufacture a vast quantity of wool imported from Australia, New Zea- land, and South America, and a great amount of cotton from the United States and some other countries. Great Britain has special advantages for manufactur- ing iron and steel. Its mines of coal and iron are near each other; in some localities both minerals are BRITISH COALFIELDS ENGLAND 21 found in the same mines. Millions of English people are employed in the coal and iron mines, and in the factories and shops, where articles are manufactured to be sold in all parts of the world. One of the few places in the world where much tin has been obtained is in the southwestern part of Eng- land. Supplies of tin have been mined there for over Anne Hathaway's Cottage two thousand years. The ancient peoples who lived along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea were accus- tomed to make voyages to England in order to get tin for their bronze implements. In a country in which the people are so largely de- voted to manufacturing, a great amount of food is im- ported to supply the workmen and their families. The greater part of the land of England is now devoted to grazing. Much of it is hilly or otherwise poor for agriculture, like much of the land of New England. 22 EUROPE Agricultural crops can be raised so much more easily on the great fertile plains of other countries that it is more profitable to import most foodstuffs than to try to raise them in England, except where conditions are very favorable. The moist climate of England causes grasses to thrive, and the winters are so mild that live stock can be The Herring Fleet at Wick left outdoors all winter. The country is particularly noted for its fine breeds of sheep. Even the King raises sheep on his estates and frequently takes prizes at English fairs. There are other conditions that hinder agricultural prosperity in England. Much of the land is owned in large estates by members of the English aristocracy, and each estate is divided into small farms that are leased to tenants. The tenant farmers pay rent for the land, and are not so interested in improving it as those who ENGLAND 23 own their farms. Thousands of acres in some parts of Enghmd are kept as game preserves, or hunting grounds, for the pleasure of their owners. The food supply is somewhat increased by large quantities of fish taken from the waters of the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Shipping on the Thames England could not be such a manufacturing country without carrying on a great amount of commerce. A vast number of ships are required to bring the raw ma- terials to be manufactured and to carry away the manu- factured products to the markets of the world. In such an island country many of the people have very naturally taken to shipbuilding and a seafaring life. This is partly due to the great number of safe harbors. Eng- land alone has about one hundred ports on the seacoast and along the rivers. 24 EUROPE About one half of all the merchant ships of the world belong to the British. In addition to these the govern- ment is obliged to maintain a vast navy of warships to protect her interests, not only in the home country but also among the widely scattered British colonies. London Bridge 1. Where was the first permanent EngUsh settlement in America, and when was it made? 2. Where and when was the first permanent settlement in New England ? 3. The Channel Islands are noted for their fine breeds of cattle. Where are these islands? 4. In what parts of England are its three great coal fields? 5. The towns on the Tyne River export large quantities of coal. What is the meaning of the expression "As fruitless as carrying coals to New- castle"? 6. Great Britain uses nearly two fifths of the world's supply of cotton. Name some American ports from which much of this is shipped. 7. A large share of the trade of the British colonies is with the mother country. Name some kinds of goods that British merchants would be likely to sell in the colonies, and others that they would be likely to buy there. 8. Most of the British colonies show no desire to separate from Great Britain. Can you give reasons for this? CITIES AND INTERESTING LOCALITIES 5. Cities and Interesting Localities In England there are more than twenty times as many people per square mile as there are in the United States. In a country with such a dense population we should suppose that there would be a number of large cities, and as there cannot be a great amount of agri- culture in such a small country, most of the cities owe The London Custom House their size and prosperity to special advantages for man- ufacturing and commerce. London, on the Thames River, is the largest city in the world. It is difhcult to realize its immense size. It is about fifteen miles long and ten miles wide, and contains more than seven million people. If all of its streets were arranged in a continuous line, they would extend over seven thousand miles, or more than one fourth of the distance around the world. The great size of London is largely due to the fact that it is the greatest commercial center of the world. 26 EUROPE We should begin to realize this if we were to approach the city by passing up the river on a steamer. At its mouth the Thames is six miles wide, but it becomes gradually narrower from the sea to the center of the great city. There is a continual passing of ships of all sizes and descriptions, and soon lines of vessels are seen lying at the docks, that extend along each river bank for more than twenty A London Dock miles. Many of these ships are in their home port, for Great Britain owns over thirty-five thousand vessels. Since London has such a central location in the civil- ized world, it has become a great seat for the exchange of goods among many countries. Cargoes from South America, for example, or from Asia or Africa, may be taken to London and there loaded on other ships and sent to various parts of Europe or America. Aside from such exchanges, a great amount of ship- ping is required to supply the wants of London itself and of other British cities that obtain their supplies from London. A vast amount of food is needed for so many millions of people. British farmers do not produce more than one tenth of the food supply of the country. Great Britain imports every year over one hundred million CITIES AND INTERESTING LOCALITIES 27 dollars worth of butter and over two hundred and fifty million pounds of tea. Thousands of British ships are constantly loading with food supplies in the ports of America, Russia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and many other })arts of the world. St. Paul's Cathedral We have also a great interest in London because it is a very old city. It was in existence more than two thousand years ago. Our city of New York is rapidly approaching the present size of London and may at some time surpass it, but everything in New York is of comparatively recent date. Among the buildings that have interesting historical associations are St. Paul's Cathedral, Westminster Abbey, and the Tower of London. The dome of St. Paul's is one of the largest in the world. Its top is three hundred and sixty-five feet above the street. 28 EUROPE Westminster Abbey has been called a "Temple of Fame." The graves of England's kings and other cele- brated persons have been made beneath its pavement for the past eight hundred years, and many monuments, busts, and tablets do them honor. It is gratifying to American travelers to find our own poet Longfellow ^,^/1^i|S'^*M*ii~T ^ Westminster Abbey honored by a bust among these memorials of Eng- land's great men. The Tower of London was at first a royal castle, then a prison, but it is now used partly as barracks for soldiers, and partly as an armory and museum. The oldest part of the present structure was built in the year 1078 by the Norman king, William the Conqueror. Much cruelty and suffering have been connected with its history. The old English kings were accustomed to rid themselves of personal enemies by thrusting them CITIES AND INTERESTING LOCALITIES 29 into the Tower, where some were killed without trial, and others imprisoned as long as they lived. The building called the Houses of Parliament, where the House of Lords and the House of Commons meet, is an immense structure covering eight acres of land. In addition to a great number of independent banks such as we have in the United States, England has one The Tower of London central bank with numerous branches. The Bank of England, as it is called, is the greatest financial center in the world. No one ever fears that it will fail. Its vaults always contain hundreds of millions of dollars. Although London is an interesting city, it has some disadvantages. Every one has heard of the London fog. This is due chiefly to the moist climate. It is believed that the fog is increased in winter by the smoke that rises from the fires of the city. Each particle of smoke gathers moisture about itself and becomes a particle of fog. 30 EUROPE In the region of the coal fields in northern England is a gronp of noted manufacturing cities. Manchester is a great center for cotton trade and cotton manufacturing. Its supplies of cotton are brought from America, India, and Egypt. By the Manchester Canal ocean vessels loaded with cotton are able to take cargoes past the port of Liverpool directly to their destination. The Manchester Canal Leeds is a great center for woolen trade and woolen manufacturing. Its supplies come principally from Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina. The manufac- ture of woolen goods is the chief industry in other towns in the vicinity, in which immense quantities of worsted goods, carpets, blankets, and other articles are produced. Birmingham is the great metal-working city of Eng- land. A variety of iron suitable for making the best steel is found near by, and is converted into products of all forms and sizes, from great machines and steam CITIES AND IXTERESTlXd LOCALITIES ;U engines to nails, screws, pins, needles, and pens. Sheffield is particularly noted for the production of fine cutlery. For all this manufacturing region Liverpool is the great seaport. It is the most natural port of entrance into Great Britain from America. Ships that enter the port of Liverpool are loaded with cotton and wool for the mills of the manufacti district, and with wheat. The Houses of Parliament beef, pork, and other supplies for the manufacturing population. On their return voyage they carry articles of English manufacture. American travelers in England find nuich to interest them outside the great centers of industry. The coun- try is full of places of great historic interest. The rural districts are beautiful. Along the highways are green hedges and flowers, and pretty vine-covered cottages. Now and then one comes upon an ancient castle, and there are numerous large mansions, where the English 32 EUROPE gentry live. In the lake region in northwestern England the country is extremely beautiful. Wales, in the western part of the island, is also an attractive region. It is noted for the fine sheep that graze among its hills and mountains, and for its rich mines of coal and iron. The Bank of England 1. Before the discovery of America the cities of the western coast of England grew very slowly. What was the reason fbr this? 2. Bristol was once the second city of England in size. From that port John and Sebastian Cabot sailed to America. Where is it ? 3. Why has Liverpool greatly surpassed Bristol in its growth? 4. We send more products to Liverpool than to any other city in the world. Why do we send more to Liverpool than to London? 5. In what direction from Liverpool is Leeds? 6. Fine cloth is made at Bradford. Near what larger city is it? 7. Hull is an important fishing port. Where is it? 8. Cardiff exports a great amovmt of coal. Where is it situated? 9. Oxford and Cambridge are famous university towns. In what direction is each from London? 10. Compare the population of London with that of Scotland. 11. The meridian that passes through Greenwich, a part of London, is the meridian from which longitude is reckoned. About how many west of (irecnwich is your home? 12. Sketch a map of England and locate the important cities. SCOTLAND 33 6. Scotland Much that we have learned about England may also be applied to Scotland, the country consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain. This country is more mountainous than England, and has no great sources of wealth. The northern portion of Scot- land is almost entirely covered with rugged hills and moun- tains and is called the High- lands. South of the High- lands is a more nearly level re- gion called the Lowlands. Still farther south is another region of hilly upland. More than one half of the people of the country live in the Lowlands, and the greater part of the wealth and industry is found there. The Scottish people are now loyal British sul)jects, Copyright l)y I'mlerwuoil ,v i i!!.i\'. The Highland Kilt and the Firth of Forth Bridge 34 EUROPE but their ancestors once fouglit very bravely against the English in defense of their independence. Many years ago the inhabitants of the Highlands belonged to sepa- rate clans, each of which was nnder the leadership of a chief. These clans lived by hunting and by raising sheep and cattle. They often fought against one an- other or united to fight against a common foe. Many of the stories of Sir Walter Scott are based up- on the val- iant deeds of the Highland chiefs and their clans- men. The peo- ple of Scot- land are proud of their an- cestry and de- light in dress- ing t h e m - selves occasionally in the old Highland costumes. Among those whose names are always associated with Scotland are Mary, " Queen of Scots," and the plowboy poet, Robert Burns. Many thousand people every year visit the birthplace of Burns at Ayr. In the Lowlands of Scotland there are rich mines Cop3 nght by Undorwond & Underwood, N. Y. Shipbuilding on the Clyde SCOTLAND 35 of coal and iron, and large manufacturing cities and towns, as in corresponding regions of England. Glasgow, on the Clyde River, has become the second largest city of Great Britain. It is near the coal and iron fields of southern Scotland and is also the center of trade for the excellent farming region of the Lowlands. Besides producing clothing, carpets, and many other Edinburgh Castle articles from cotton and wool, it manufactures much machinery and a great number of steel ships. Immense shipyards extend along the banks of the Clyde. Many of the largest ships upon the ocean were constructed by the ship-builders of Glasgow. Edinburgh is one of the few important cities of the world that do not owe their size to manufacturing or commerce. It was the capital city of Scotland, and was built on and around a great rock between the hills and the sea. It was the scene of many interesting events 36 EUROPE in the old struggle between England and Scotland. It is one of the most beautiful cities in Europe and contains a great nniversitj. Much cotton is manufactured both in Glasgow and in Paisley. A great amount of cotton thread is made in the latter city. In recent times the Highlands of Scotland have be- come famous pleasure resorts. Many vast estates are owned by wealthy Eng- lishmen and Americans, and are used as pri- vate hunting grounds. The country is beautiful everywhere. It is sometimes called the land of lieather. Heather is a Ellen's Isle lo^y green bush, with a purple flower that gives the autumn landscape a delightful color. It is to be seen on morasses and waste lands in England and on the continent of Europe, but in Scotland it grows on the hills almost everywhere. Many tourists visit the lakes of Scotland, two of which are Loch Lomond and Loch Katrine. The latter contains Ellen's Isle, the scene of Sir Walter Scott's poem, " The Lady of the Lake." IRELAND 37 1. The rainfall along the western coast of Scotland is twice as great as that along the eastern coast. Can you tell why? 2. In Scotland the name firth is given to the wide mouth of a river, which we call an estuary. Name three firths in Scotland. 3. Ben Nevis, a granite peak, is the highest point in the British Isles. In what part of Scotland is it? 4. In what direction from Glasgow is Paisley? 5. Aberdeen is a fishing center. Where is it situated? 6. Dundee manufactures large quantities of goods from jute, a fiber imported from Asia. In what part of Scotland is Dundee? 7. In what part of Scotland is AjT, the home of Robert Burns? 8. Where are the Orkney Islands? 9. Near what part of the coast of Scotland are the Hebrides? 10. Shetland ponies are from the Shetland I.sl- ands. AVhere are these islands? 11. Sketch a map of Scotland, locating the rivers and firths, and the cities and towns and other points of interest. Blarney Castle 7. Ireland The people of Ireland, although living so near the island of Great Britain and belonging to the United Kingdom, have been far less prosperous than their neigh- bors across the Irish Sea. Ireland lacks the water power, the coal for steam power, and the rich mines of iron ore that have brought wealth to Great Britain. 38 EUROPE A ridge of hills extends around the coast, and the interior is a basin of lower land, well suited to agri- culture. A farming people in such a country might have gained a comfortable living had they owned the land that they tilled. A large proportion of the soil, however, has been owned in large estates by English and Irish land- lords, who have divided their hold- ings into small farms and leased these to Irish ten- ants. The large part of the in- come required to pay the rent has often left but lit- tle for the support of the farmers. In addition to such live stock as they could raise, Irish farmers have depended, mainly upon the crop of potatoes for their food and for the payment of rent to the landlords. In 1 846 the potato crop failed and more than a million people died of starva- tion. A million more at that time came to the United States to seek more favorable conditions. Since then many thousands every year have crossed the Atlantic and have been added to our population. If we should in- Copyright by T'luliT-rt ni>ii Thatched Cottage in an Irish Village IRELAND 39 elude among the Irish people of the United States all those whose parents or grandparents or great-grand- parents once lived in Ireland, the number would amount to twice that of the present population of the home country. Of late the British gov- ernment has attempted to improve the hard condi- tions of Irisli farmers. By the Land Act of 1903 the sum of one hundred mil- lion pounds, or five hun- dred million dollars, was appropriated for the purpose of purchasing estates in Ireland and afterward selling the land to the tenants on easy terms. The government is also endeavoring to bring about other needed reforms to render the people more contented and happy. In some parts of the country, however, agriculture has been more flourishing. There are good farms in central Ireland, and even finer ones in the north, where the people are more prosperous than in the other sections. In the absence of coal the Irish people are fortunate Gathering Peat 40 EUROPE in having an abundance of peat for fuel. Peat may be regarded as partially formed coal. It is found in marshy bogs, where masses of soft, dark-colored, decayed vegetable matter have been collecting for thousands of years and lack only immense pressure to change them to mineral coal. After blocks of peat have been dug out C'upyriKlit, by T'mlcrw (lod A rndenvood, N. Y. Reeling Flax in a Belfast Linen Factory of the bogs and dried in the sun, they burn readily and are sold as the common fuel of the country. In the northeastern part of Ireland the soil and climate are favorable for flax, and the people of that section manufacture a large amount of Ihien goods from the flax raised at home and from supplies that are im- ported. The dampness of the climate is an advantage both in raising flax and in preparing the fiber. The city of Belfast is noted everywhere for the manu- facture of linen. It has the largest linen mill in the IRELAND 41 world. Much cotton also is manufactured at Belfast and many ships are built there. It is situated at a con- venient point for sliippiiig. It is a beautiful city, also, as well as the chief manufacturing city of Ireland. Cork is the metropolis, or chief city, of southern Ire- land. It is a trading center for agricultural products, has a fine harbor, and is noted for the live stock, meat, Sackville Street, Dublin and butter that it ships to foreign markets. The port of Queenstown, where American steamers often call on their way to Liverpool, is on the same harbor. Dublin is one of the fine cities of Europe. Its facto- ries produce a large amount of a kind of dress goods called Irish poplin. Large quantities of farm products are shipped from Dublin to England. Ireland is often called the Emerald Isle. This is because the moist climate keeps the vegetation green. The region of the Lakes of Killarney in the southwest is especially attractive. 42 EUROPE 1. Many of the inhabitants along the northern coast of Ireland are of Scottish descent. Can you give the reason for this? 2. From what ports may Belfast obtain supplies of coal? 3. About how far is it from Belfast to Liverpool? 4. Name some articles that are made of linen. 5. Long ago linen cloth was cheaper than cotton cloth. Can you give the reasons? 6. About how far is it from Queenstown to Liverpool? 7. In what direction is Liverpool from Dublin? S. On what river is Limerick? 9. Where is Galway? 10. In what part of Ireland is Londonderry? 11. In what direction from Cork are the Lakes of Killarney? 12. Sketch a map of Ireland and locate the cities mentioned. Review 1. Why is the study of the continent of Europe especially interesting to us? 2. Describe the mountains of Europe. 3. Why are there many lakes and waterfalls in northern Europe? 4. Why is the climate of western Europe much milder than that of the eastern part of the United States? 5. Give an explanation of ocean currents. 6. Describe the Ciulf Stream. 7. Explain the difference in temperature between the western part of Europe and the eastern part. 8. Why is there a greater difference in climate between northern and southern Europe than between the northern and southern parts of the United States? 9. Tell about the ancestors of the people of Europe. 10. Give an account of the ancient Romans. 11. Explain why the Roman Empire was an advantage to the world. 12. Tell about the fall of the Roman Empire. 13. Describe the condition of Europe during the Middle Ages. 14. How has the form of the continent of Europe been favorable to its inhabitants? 15. Tell about the people of southern Europe. 16. State to what races the various peoples of the continent belong. 17. What are meant by Great Britain and the United Kingdom? 18. Name the parts of the earth that belong to the British Empire. 19. Tell about the early inhabitants of Great Britain. 20. Tell about the Northmen. 21. State how the British Isles have probably been formed. REVIEW 43 Warwick Castle, England 22. Describe the surface of Great Britain. 23. Explain the climate of the British Isles. 24. Explain the English form of government. 25. Give an account of the development of manufacturing in Great Britain. 26. What advantages have the British for manufacturing? 27. Tell about the tin mines of Great Britain. 2S. Why is much land in England devoted to grazing? 29. To whom does most of the land in England belong? 30. Why do the English people own a great number of ships? 31. Why do they maintain a large navy? 32. How dense is the population of England? 33. Tell about the size of London. 34. Why has it become so large? 35. Tell about St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster Abbey. 36. Tell about the Tower of London and the Houses of Parliament. 37. Tell about the Bank of England. 38. Describe Manchester and the Manchester Canal. 39. For what is Leeds noted? 40. Wliat cities are noted for metal-working industries? 4L Pvxplain the importance of Liverpool. 42. Describe the rural districts of England. 43. For what is Wales noted? 44. How does Scotland differ from England? 45. Describe the dilTcroiit sections of Scotland. 46. Give a brief account of the Scoltisli IlighlaiuhM's. 47. Tell about two distinguished Scotchmen. 44 EUROPE 4S. Where are the coal and iron mines of Scotland? 49. Describe the city of Glasgow. 50. Describe the city of Edinburgh. 51. State some of the attractions of Scotland as a pleasure resort. 52. What sources of wealth, that are found in Great Britain, are lack- ing in Ireland? 53. Describe the land surface of Ireland. 54. What condition has hindered the prcsperity of Irish farmers? 55. Tell about the emigration of Irish people to America. 56. What improvement of conditions in Ireland has recently been made by the British Govern- ment? 57. Tell about the use of peat for fuel. 58. Tell about the linen industry. 59. Describe the city of Belfast. 60. Tell about Cork and Queenstown. 61. For what is Dublin noted? 62. Describe the scenery of Ireland. Ancient Tower at Nimes 8. France It is only about twenty miles across the Strait of Dover from England to France. That coun- try is about twice as large as the state of California. It is smaller than the state of Texas. It will aid us in form- ing correct notions about the size of many of the countries of Europe if we think of them as corresponding in area to the larger or smaller states of the United States. Since, however, European countries have had a much longer period of civilization than any part of America, they are naturally of greater importance in respect to population and wealth than our states of corresponding size. FRAXC'E 45 The French people are mostly descendants of the early inhabitants, who were called Gauls, of the Romans who conquered the Gauls, and of the Northmen, or Normans, who settled in the northern part of France. After the Roman Empire was broken up wars were continued for many years among the different tribes and peoples, but finally all these became united in one A French Chateau nation. No ranges of lofty mountains extend across the country to divide it into parts, and prevent the union of the people. The mountains in the south and east, and the ocean and seas on the other sides, form natural barriers of separation from other countries. At times in its history France has been one of the most powerful nations in the world, but it has had many misfortunes. Every one has read about the terrible French Revolution. The kings and nobles had become so oppressive and selfish that the people rebelled and overthrew them. We are familiar, also, with the life of Napoleon Bonaparte, who after the Revolution became 46 EUROPE the leader of the French army and the Emperor of France. He conquered many of the countries of Europe, but was at last defeated and sent into exile. France has now a republican form of government similar to that of the United States. It is one of the great powers of Europe, and has foreign possessions in Asia, Africa, and South America, and many islands. The land and climate of France make it suitable for the home of a prosperous and happy people. In the southeastern part are high- lands and hills, but the remainder consists most- ly of rolling plains. The rivers are generally free from waterfalls, and hence are navigable for long distances. Because the country is so nearly level it is easy to build canals connecting the rivers, and by rivers and canals it is possible for boats to pass from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea. The westerly winds supply an ample rainfall, and on account of the absence of mountains this is well dis- tributed over the whole country. Notre Dame and Canal Branch of the Seine FRANCE 47 The great amount of comparatively level and fertile land has made France an important agricultural country. Its soil yields a great variety of produce. In the north- ern and central parts large quantities of wheat and other grains are raised, as well as a great amount of sugar beets. More wheat is raised in France than in any other European coun- try except Rus- sia. Orchards of apples, peach- es, and pears also flourish. In the southern regions oranges, lemons, olives, and mulberry trees abound. Many provinces are nearly cov- ered with vine- yards, and France is the chief wine-producing country of the world. About one half of the people are engaged in farming. There are nearly as many farms as there are in the whole of the United States, but since France is so much smaller than the United States, the average size of its farms is not large. The farming people, however, are very in- dustrious, and by care and skill secure profitable crops. Breton Peasants Threshing 48 EUROPE The system of farming is very different from that in America. On French farms there are no buildings. The people live together in villages and go out in the morning to work upon the land. The wives of the farmers are very industrious. Many of them assist in the fields in the busy farm- ing season and spend their leisure moments in making em- broidery and lace. The fact that French farmers own their land, in- stead of holding it as tenants as the farmers of many European countries do, makes them more careful nderwood & Underwood, N.Y. ^t^^ ludustrioUS Peasants making Wooden Shoes ^^^ more con- tented. Very few French people are inclined to leave their native country and settle in foreign lands. Although France has but little water power or coal, it is one of the leading manufacturing countries. This is partly because coal and iron can be obtained so easily from the neighboring countries of Belgium, Germany, FRANCE 49 and England, and partly because the French are very skillful. They have a natural taste for that which is graceful and delicate, and in manufacturing fine articles of dress and other fancy goods they are recognized as the leaders of the world. The prep- aration of fine leather and the manufacture of kid gloves and other leather goods is an impor- tant industry. A narrow re- gion along the southeastern coast of the coun- try and extend- ing into Italy, known as the Riviera, is a delightful winter resort. It is protected by mountains from cold winds from the north, while from the south it has the balmy breezes of the Mediterranean. Tropical fruits, palm trees, and roses are abundant. In the region of the Riviera there is one very inter- esting industry. A large part of the perfumery of the world is produced in the vicinity of the town of Grasse, near the city of Nice. In the valleys near the town there are thousands of acres of flower beds from which perfumery is obtained. The blossoms are placed be- tween sheets of glass that have been rubbed with lard, Cannes — A Seaside Paradise 50 EUROPE and the oil of the flowers passes into the lard. After- wards the perfumery is separated from the lard by the use of alcohol. In making attar of roses and eau de cologne blossoms are thrown into melted lard. It re- quires a thousand pounds of rose petals to make a single pound of attar of roses. This industry gives employ- ment to many women and children of the town of Grasse. Grasse, the Centre of the Perfume Industry 1. What waters border on France? 2. What countries form parts of the boundary of France? 3. Where are the Cevennes Mountains? 4. Mt. Blanc, the highest peak of the Alps, is mostly on the French side of the boundary line. How far is it from the Mediterranean Sea? 5. Name four important rivers in France. 6. Into what body of water does each of these rivers flow? 7. If there were mountain ranges in the western part of France, how would they affect the even distribution of the rainfall? 8. A large island in the Mediterranean Sea, noted as the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte, is within sight from the Riviera. What island is it? 9. What possession has France in South America? CITIES OF FllANXE 51 9. The Cities of France Paris, the capital of France and the largest city on the continent of Europe, is in many respects as interest- ing as London. Its history, like that of London, ex- tends back into the past for many centuries. A little island in the Seine River, called the Isle de la Cite, was the chief town of a tribe named the Parisii at the time when the Roman general Julius Caesar con- ^ ^ Panorama of seven Bridges on the Seine quered b ranee, or Gaul as it was then called. From this small begin- ning the city has spread for miles along the river. It has always been a capital city and was the residence of the kings of France for nearly a thousand years. It is the great commercial and agricultural center of France. It is easily reached by rivers, canals, and rail- roads and is situated in the midst of a rich farming region. Much manufacturing is done at Paris. It is specially noted for the manufacture of ladies' wearing apparel and of various kinds of artistic goods. Articles made in Paris are sure to find a market because that city establishes the fashions for the whole world. 52 EUROPE Paris is a very beautiful city. Its citizens have taken great care to lay out streets, design parks, and con- struct buildings so as to make everything pleasing to the eye. Many thousands of travelers every year visit the art galleries, parks, and other points of interest in Paris. A Street in Paris In the oldest part of the city, on the island in the Seine, is the famous old cathedral of Notre Dame. Among the most attractive places are the garden of the Tuileries, in .which formerly stood a palace of the kings of France, the Place de la Concorde, surrounded by parks and beautiful buildings, and the Champs Elysees, a beautiful garden with wide avenues extend- ing across it. The Louvre, formerly a palace, is one of the finest art galleries in the world. In the palace at Versailles, in the suburbs of the city, there are now over two thousand valuable works of art. CITIES OF FRANCE 53 It reciclies a height of nine hundred feet above The first object to be seen when approaching Paris, and the last when departing, is the great Eiffel Tower, which was erected at the time of tlie Paris Exposition in 1889 the street and is believed to be the "loftiest struc- ture ever erected on the face of the earth." Havre, at the mouth of the Seine River, is the seaport for Paris and the great forwarding port for northern France. Large ocean vessels de- liver and receive their passengers and goods at Havre. A num- ber of steamship lines from New York and other great ports termi- nate there. Ships at the wharves are almost continually unloading American wheat and cotton. Lyons is, next to Paris, the largest manufacturing city of France. It is a great silk-producing and silk- manufacturing center. Many thousands of people in southern France are engaged in raising nuilberry trees C'op.vri.i.'lit by Underwood it I'ndcrwuud, N. Y. Champs Elysees 54 EUROPE and feeding their leaves to silkworms, and many thou- sands more are employed in the silk mills at Lyons. Large quantities of woolen goods also are manufactured there. The port of Marseilles is situated on the southern coast not far from the mouth of the Rhone River. Its importance is increased by the fact that the Rhone, in places, is too shallow to admit the largest vessels. In the Porcelain District, Limoges Grain, silk, coffee, and other goods are unloaded at Marseilles and forwarded by smaller vessels and rail- roads to the Rhone valley and the interior of France. It is an ancient city. Navigators for many centuries have found shelter in its harbor, and it is still the lead- ing port of the IMediterranean. There are several other important cities. Rouen is the greatest cotton -manufacturing city of France. Bor- deaux is the leading wine port of the world. St. Etienne is particularly noted for the manufacture of ribbons. Over forty thousand people in that city and its vicinity are engaged in the ribbon industry. THE NETHERLANDS 1. Can you give reasons why France is favorably situated for commerce? 2. About how far is Havre from Paris? 3. Havre has a large trade with Brazil. Name a product that is probably imported into France from that country. 4. Name goods that ships would be likely to take to South America in making the return voyage from Havre. 5. Large quantities of wool are imported into France from the coun- tries that border on the Plata River. What countries are they? 6. Bordeaux is near the mouth of what river? 7. At Limoges fine porcelain is made. Where is it situated? 8. About how far from Lyons is St. Etienne? 9. Brest and Cherbourg are French naval sta- tions. Where are they? 10. What city of France is di- rectly opposite Dover, England? n. Lille is noted for its woolen manufactures. In what part of France is it? 12. Sketch a map of France and locate the most important cities and towns. 10. The Netherlands Across the North Sea east of England is the small country called the Netherlands. The name, which means the Lowlands, is a very proper one, since this is the lowest and flattest country in Europe. It is also sometimes called Holland. Not only is the country very flat, but much of it is below the level of the sea. In fact the sea once covered a portion of it, but has been A Village Street in Holland 56 ' EUROPE driven back by the Dutch iDhabitants. The methods by which these people have extended the borders of their little country and have gained homes and fertile farms from the bed of the ocean show great energy and skill. If we were to visit Holland, our attention would be attracted at once by the dikes, the canals, and the great windmills. The dikes are huge embankments that hold back the ocean. Some of these are over three hundred feet thick and from thirty to sixty feet high. A body of water is removed in this way. A dike is first extended across an arm of the sea, and then the water of the enclosed lake is pumped up high enough to flow over into the ocean. This often requires the work of immense pumps for many months, and in some cases even years. Hundreds of millions of dollars have been expended in constructing dikes, and it takes several millions every year to keep them in repair. There are now about two thousand miles of dikes in the country, and the people are continually building more. A long dike, now under construction, will shut out the great body of water called the Zuyder Zee. This will add to the territory of the Dutch hundreds of square miles of excellent farming land. During the stormy winter season the dikes are care- fully watched. If a leak is discovered by a watchman, an alarm bell is rung, and all the men, women, and children of the vicinity must hasten to the spot to assist in stopping the water. A small leak would soon become larger, and in a short time there would be a terrible flood. THE XETHElir.AXDS 57 After a dike lias been built and the water removed there are further difficulties to contend with. More water comes in the form of rain, and this must be continually pumped out that the land may be dry enough for healthful homes and for crops. For the purpose of draining the land the country is covered with a network of ditches and canals. The surplus A Scene in Holland water runs into ditches, and from these is pumped up into canals with higher banks. From these the water is again pumped into still higher and larger canals. It is finally raised, in this way, above the level of the ocean and flows out. At the points where the water from the great canals flows into the ocean there are gates which prevent it from flowing back at high tide. The Dutch canals lia\'e many other important uses. They are used for traveling and transportation. The farmer rows to the pasture to milk his cows or to the 58 EUROPE fields to gather the crops. The people often travel in boats to market and to church. It is said that there are over fifty thousand people in the Netherlands whose homes are in barges on the canals. Many of them spend their whole lives there from infancy to old age. They move about from place On the Canal at Rotterdam to place to carry on trade. The barges are moved by sails when the wind is favorable, but much of the time men, women, and children are seen walking on the banks and pulling at the barge ropes. Plants and birds, and even cows, are sometimes kept on these barges, or house boats. About thirty thousand children in Holland live in this way, and since they move about so much it is difficult for the government to be sure that they all attend the schools. During the winter months the canals are frozen over, and there is much skating everywhere. The farmers skate to market and the children to school. The Dutch people are very thrifty j there are almost THE NETHERLANDS 59 no beggars among them. They have gained their wealth largely by cultivating the land. The level lowland, particularly that part which was once the bed of the ocean, is very fertile and produces large crops. The greater part, however, is used for pasturing. In the moist climate that prevails along the western coast grass grows so abundantly tliat the land is very profit- A Home on the Canal able for pasturing farm animals. Across the level farms cattle, horses, sheep, and swine are to be seen in every direction. The butter and cheese of the Nether- lands have an excellent reputation and are exported in large amounts. Many vegetables and flowers are raised, and sold in the cities of Europe. Holland, of course, has no water power, and since it has but little coal manufacturing is by means of im- ported coal and windmills. Winds from the ocean blow very regularly over the flat country, and windmills are used not only to drive the pumps for draining the land but also to finmish pow(M' for various purposes. Nearly every farmer in tlie country has a windmill. 60 EUROPE The Dutch people deserve much credit for the courage and patience with which they have overcome the greatest difficulties. They not only have gained their land by a struggle against the sea, but they are obliged to con- tinue the struggle. A traveler in the country once remarked that he was surprised that Dutchmen ever dared to go to sleep. These people are noted for extreme neat- ness. The time that the women can spare from working in the fields and making the clothing for their families is spent in keeping their homes spot- less. In the cities and larger towns the customs and dress of the Dutch people are much like those of other Europeans and Americans, but in some of the provinces the old dress is still to be seen. The men wear very broad trousers, and many of the women wear a great number of skirts and petticoats to give themselves a broad appearance. Little Dutch children, when dressed in their best cos- tumes, are as gay as butterflies. They clatter along .li A Underwood, N. Y. Dutch Costumes THE NETIIEIU.ANDS Gl to school in wooden shoes, but leave these at the school- house door and sit in their stockings. Although the home country of the Dutch people is small, they have gained important colonial possessions, and they own many ships that are engaged in carrying on trade with the colonies and with other countries. The most important of the colonies are several large Amsterdam islands and a great number of smaller islands in the East Indies. They also own Dutch Guiana and several small islands of the West Indies. All the colonies of the Netherlands together contain about sixty times as much territory as the home country. The three important cities of the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and The Hague. The king or queen is always crowned at Amsterdam, but the royal residence is at The Hague, as well as most of the government buildings. Amsterdam is built upon a great number of islands joined together by about three hundred bridges. It is 62 EUROPE the great commercial center for trade with the Dutch colonies as well as with other countries. It is a great market for coffee and spices from the East, It is spe- cially noted for the industry of cutting and polishing dia- monds, most of which come from the mines of South Africa. Hundreds of men, women, and children are employed in the diamond factories. As diamonds come The Hague from the mines they are usually imperfect in form. In the factories they are split and polished and thus changed to tlie sparkling gems that we see. The tools for work- ing upon diamonds must themselves contain diamonds, because nothing else would be hard enough for the pur- pose. All the diamond dust is carefully saved for polish- ing other diamonds. The saws used for cutting are made of wires covered with a coating of diamond dust. 1. Tell briefly about the early Dutch settlements in the United j^tates. 2. Name five of the largest islands of the East Indies. BELGIUM 63 3. On wliat oceans would a vessel sail in going from Amsterdam to Java by way of the Cape of (jood Hope? 4. About how far is it from Amsterdam to the Cape of (!ooY 125 perity of the country lias increased, and Italy is now reckoned among the great powers of Europe. Italy is separated from Switzerland and France on the north and northwest by the lofty Alps. The Apennines extend through nearly the entire length of the country. The level lowlands are mostly along Farmhouse in Northern Italy the coast between the mountains and the sea, or in the river valleys. The largest extent of lowland is in the north, in the valley of the Po River between the Alps and the Apennines. In this valley the land has been formed in the same manner as that on the plains of South America and in portions of our Mississippi Valley. Long ago that part of Italy was under the sea. The ocean bottom was gradually covered with soil and after- ward rose above the surface and became fertile land. A large quantity of waste from tlie mountains is still washed into the river Po and is either carried to its mouth to extend the delta into the sea or is de- posited along its bed. This deposit has slowly raised 12G EUROPE the bed of the river, so that parts of it are now higher than the level of the land across which it flows, and dikes have been constructed to prevent an overflow. The climate of Italy is mild and free from extremes. The high mountains on the north are a protection from cold north winds, and the winds from the Mediterranean Sea tend to keep the temperature uniform. Since the moun- tains extend along the interior, they do not render the climate drier, as in Spain. There is more rain in Italy in winter than in summer, for the same reason as in Farming in Italy ^^^^ g^^^g of Q.^^^_ fornia, that is, because the belt of westerly winds, which bring most of the rain, moves north in the summer season. There is less rain in the southern part than in the northern part, because south of the belt of west- erly winds is the belt of horse latitudes in which the air that rises in the vicinity of the equator and moves toward the north settles down again toward the earth and, becoming warmer rather than cooler, generally yields no rain. The warm and sunny climate of Italy is favorable to the growth of crops, and agriculture is the leading industry. In some sections there is suflicient rain, but in others irrigation is commonly practiced. Water ITALY 127 descending in many streams from the mountains is easily conducted over the land. Large quantities are stored in lakes and reservoirs for use when the dry sea- son comes. By this means several crops a year are often produced upon the same land. Grinding Olives to make Oil Agriculture is most flourishing in the valley of the Po River. The mulberry tree also thrives there, and northern Italy produces more raw silk than any other region in Europe. A large part of this silk is manu- factured in the United States. Olive oil, which is produced in nearly all countries about the Mediterranean, is a very important product of Italy. Late in the autumn, when the olives become ripe and purple, they are gathered and ground in stone mills. The pulp is then placed under great pressure in wooden presses. The best oil is that which flows away first, before the pressure becomes very great. Italians are accustomed to eat olive oil with bread, instead of butter, but the greater part is sent to other countries. 128 EUROPE Most of the pickled olives, such as are common in our markets, are picked before they have ripened and hence have a green color. Macaroni is made in Italy from a special variety of wheat, containing a large amount of gluten. The long strips are made by pressing paste through holes in cylinders. They are then placed upon racks to dry. A 1 1 e m p t s have been made to intro- duce the pro- duction of ma- caroni wheat into the Uni- ted States, but most of our macaroni is Drying Macaroni g^ijj imported. Vineyards are to be seen in all parts of Italy and more wine is produced there than in any other country except France. Since the Italians have no coal, they depend upon water power and electric power for manufacturing. There are some factories for the manufacture of silk, wool, and cotton, but the greater part of the raw products of the country is exported to Switzerland, France, the United States, and other manufacturing countries. The people are very artistic. They are noted for the fine ITALY 129 statuary, wood carvings, earthenware, and glass work that they produce. A large amount of sul[)hur is obtained from the vicin- ity of Mt. Etna, in Sicily. Much of the sulphur used in the United States comes from that source. Italian Peasants in Sicily Italian marble has had a high reputation for many centuries. The Romans made use of it for their splen- did buildings and statues, and at the present time it is in demand throughout the world on account of its great beauty. An impleasant thought in connection with this sunny country is the fact that most of the people are very poor. The population is dense, and there does not seem to be room enough for so many to obtain a comfortable living. Besides this the people are taxed heavily for the support of the government. Conditions are the worst in southern Italy, and thousands from that region are striv- 130 EUROPE ing to overcome their poverty by emigrating. Many come to America and many go to Argentina. A large number of Italians are now settling in the countries of northern Africa. The Roman Forum 2000 Years Ago 1. What countries border on Italy? 2. Name the bodies of water around Italy. 3. What two bodies of water are connected by the Strait of Otranto? 4. Where is the Strait of Messina? 5. Locate the islands in the Mediterranean Sea that belong to Italy. 6. The island of Malta belongs to Great Britain and is strongly forti- fied. Where is it? 7. About how long is the Italian peninsula? 8. Why is Italy well situated for carrying on commerce? 9. Why are tlie summits of the Apennines covered with snow during the winter only, while those of the Alps are covered during the entire year? 10. Compare the latitude of southern Italy with that of southern California. 11. We send to Italy cotton, wheat, tobacco, copper,' and farm ma- chinery. Mention some of our states in which these are produced. 12. Find how many people there are in Italy per square mile. ITALY 131 21. Italian Cities Some of the cities of Italy are very old and contain objects of historic interest that have existed through many centuries. In some of these cities there are famous art galleries in which the works of Italian artists have been preserved. ^^%M:''''^'' Island in the Tiber, Rome Rome has been called the " Eternal City." It was the capital of the ancient Roman Empire. As the home of the Pope it has been for many centuries the center of the Roman Catholic Church. It is now the capital city of Italy. Many travelers are attracted to Rome by the ruins of structures of ancient splendor. One of these is the Colosseum, an open-air theater in which there were seats for eighty-seven thousand people. Tlie Roman Forum was an open space, originally a market in which the citizens congregated. Here Cicero and other Roman 132 EUROPE orators delivered their famous orations. Columns and crumbling walls about the Forum give some idea of the grand and beautiful buildings that once surrounded it. St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome is the largest church in the world. The adjoining Vatican, which is the residence of the Pope, is an immense palace. It contains as many ■ ■'Til [11 ^iiiifjii St. Peter's, and part of the Vatican as eleven thousand rooms. In its art galleries are choice paintings, statues, vases, and other works of art. In the Sistine Chapel, a part of the Vatican, there are cele- brated paintings by Michelangelo. The city of Venice has had a peculiar history. When the tribes from the north invaded Italy, some of the inhab- itants fled from the mainland to a group of small islands. Making these their home, they became venturesome sail- ors, carrying on commerce between Europe and eastern countries, and Venice grew rich and powerful. The buildings of this city rest upon more than one hundred ITALY 133 islands. Canals among the islands and across them serve as streets, and over these there are several hun- dred bridges. One famous bridge, tlie Rialto, which is mentioned in Shakspeare's " Merchant of Venice," is more than four hundred years old. Among the public Venice — Beginning of the Grand Canal buildings of interest are St. Mark's Cathedral, one of the finest in Europe, and the palace of the chief official, who was called the Doge. The silence in the city of Venice is very impres- sive. There are no horses and carts clattering over pavements. The people generally travel about in light boats, called gondolas. The boatmen, called gondoliers, stand upon the sterns of the boats and row them along. The city is now connected by a railroad with the mainland of Italy, and since the 134 EUROPE construction of tunnels through the Alps trade with other countries of Europe is carried on much more easily than in the time when goods were carried over the mountain passes. After the long period of the Middle Ages learning began to revive in Italy. The city of Florence was the Florence and the Ponte Vecchio center of this revival. Many of its citizens became famous. Among them were Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, both of whom were architects, sculptors, and painters, and Dante, the great Italian poet. In Florence there are many old frescoed buildings. The dome of the cathedral is only a little smaller than that of St. Peter's. The campanile, or bell tower, designed by Giotto, is nearly three hundred feet high, and is regarded as extremely beautiful. The largest Italian city is Naples. It is situated on the beautiful Bay of Naples and has an excellent har- ITALY 135 bor. It is the center of the agricultural interests of southern Italy. In ancient times it was an important seaport of the Romans, and then it was a city of wealth and beauty. Since then it has changed greatly. Its narrow streets are now crowded with people, thousands of Avhom suffer from extreme poverty. Naples and Vesuvius Naples has become familiar to the world because of the volcano of Vesuvius, which stands across the bay to the south of the city. In the year 79 a. d. this volcano became active, and a great eruption occurred that destroyed many towns and buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. These two cities were forgotten for many centuries, but about a century ago a peasant, while digging a well, struck his spade 136 EUROPE against a statue, and the interest that this aroused led to the discovery of the ruins of Pompeii. Excavations have revealed streets and buildings and many inter- esting objects. Even the forms of human beings and of dogs have been preserved. From all these discov- eries much has been learned about the life of the Ruins at Pompeii ancient Romans. In the museum at Naples there are many curiosities which have been taken from the buried cities. Since that time Vesuvius has had many eruptions. One of the most destructive was in the year 1906, when many villages were destroyed by streams of hot lava and falling dust. The violent eruption of such a vol- cano is a most terrifying sight. While a dense cloud of steam is poured from the summit there are heavy rumblings beneath, and by sudden and loud explosions ITALY 137 hot lava is thrown high into the air. This process is continually repeated while the eruption lasts. Messina, across the Strait of Messina in Sicily, has been a city of considerable importance. The Messina oranges, common in our markets, remind us that it is a port for the shipment of the fruits of southern Italy Milan and Sicily. In the year 1908 this city was visited by the most terrible disaster that has ever been known in Europe. A violent earthquake, in about half a minute of time, destroyed the lives of over two hundred thou- sand people in Messina and other towns of the vicinity and over a billion dollars worth of property. Many people were killed by falling buildings; many were drowned by a great wave that swept in from the sea, and some were burned by fires that broke out in the ruins. 138 EUROPE In northern Italy, Milan is the center of the silk trade of the country. Railroads from Milan through Alpine tunnels make it a great commercial center. It contains a iliagnificent cathedral. Genoa is a seaport of much importance. Centuries ago it shared with Venice the overland trade between Europe and Asia. It is famous also as the birthplace of Columbus. 1. Rome is on the Tiber River. About how far is it from the coast? 2. About how far is it from Rome to Florence? 3. What city of Canada is in about the same latitude as Venice? 4. Milan is in what direction from Venice? 5. Turin, like Milan, is- a center of trade between Italy and the countries beyond the Alps. About how far is it from Milan? 6. In what direction from Genoa is Milan? 7. Pisa has a wonderful leaning tower. In what direction is it from Florence? 8. Brindisi is an important jiort of southern Italy, the coast is it situated? 9. In what part of Sicily is the volcano, Mt Tower at Pisa On what part of The Roman Colosseum Etna? 10. Palermo is in a fruit district of Sicily. In what part of the island is it? 11. Find how large the leading cities of Italy are and name them in the order of population. 12. Make a map of Italy, showing the mountains, rivers, and principal cities. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 139 22. Austria-Hungary The Empire of Austria-Hungary was formed in 1869 by the union of the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. No other nation of the work! has such a mixture of differ- ent peoples as are Hving in this double monarchy. There are about twenty nationali- ties, and it is not unusual to find three or four lan- guages' spoken in one small village. Among the vari- ous peoples are many wandering gypsies. In one of the eastern prov- inces alone there are nearly one hundred thousand of them. This condition of the population is unfortunate, since nothing tends more to prevent the parts of a nation from becoming iniited than the inability of the people to speak the same language. The mixture of races in Austria-Hungary is largely because the empire is built upon the ruins of nations Gypsy Family, Eastern Austria 140 EUROPE and tribes that have lost their power. Through many centuries there was a tendency for tribes from Asia to emigrate and force their way into this southeastern corner of Europe. In times of warfare armies moving either to the east or to tlie west have naturally followed Valley of the Danube the valley of the Danube River, and have repeatedly overrun that region and brought calamity upon it. At the present time the different peoples retain very strong prejudices against one another. It is difficult to arouse in them a spirit of patriotic pride in a connnon country. The necessity of combining for the common defense against other nations has been the strongest bond of union. Austria alone might be taken into the German Empire, and Hungary alone might easily be overcome by Russia, but the two together would be able to furnish an army of three or four million men for the common defense. Each of the seventeen provinces has a legislative AUSTRIA-HUx\GARY 141 assembly, or diet, of its own, and Austria and Hungary have their separate parhaments. Besides these there is a legislative body composed of members from the two parliaments. Tliis has authority in all matters relating to the empire as a whole. J^^ -~\ r'-C^^ .-V - '?^'" '*^"^Li f iitf^l ^^m 1 ' j ^^^^^^1 ~^i«^^r m „. "^^SS^ Hungarian Peasants The Austrians are a Germanic people. The most numerous and important people of Hungary are Hun- garians, or Magyars, who belong to the Slavonic branch of the Caucasian Race. They are a most attractive people, very polite and fond of music and social life. They live in villages of low huts with thatched roofs. This country is famous for varied and beautiful scenery. It is separated from surrounding countries on nearly all sides by mountain ranges, aud much of its surface is covered with mountains. A section in the west adjoining Switzerland resembles that country. It is known as the Austrian Tyrol. In the east the province of Transylvania is of the same nature and scarcely less beautiful. 142 EUROPE In the interior the valley of the Danube forms the broad plain of Hungary, which is hemmed in by a circuit of mountains. This great river is of immense importance for travel and commerce. It is navigable from a point near the German border throughout its National Dance, Roumanians, Transylvania entire course to the Black Sea. This is of special advantage because the mountains in the southwest render the passage to the Adriatic Sea very difficult. In such a mountainous country there is naturally a great variety of temperature and rainfall and hence of agricultural products. The Danube valley is one of the great wheat-producing regions of Europe, yet the people themselves, like the peasants of Germany, live largely upon rye bread. Most of the wheat is exported. Austria-Hungary produces more grain than any other country of Europe except Russia. In the cities of Europe Hungarian flour is regarded as the best variety and is sold at the highest prices. AUSTRI A-H UXGARY 143 The mountains and hills are covered with forests and yield much lumber. Where the forests have been cut down herds of sheep and goats are pastured among the hills. Many cattle also are raised. There are supplies of coal and iron in the mountains, Parliament House and Cathedral, Vienna and many rich mines of other minerals. Although there is such an abundance of materials and water power is plentiful, manufacturing has not yet de- veloped. The people still do a large part of their manufacturing on small machines or by hand at home. The truth is that most of them have been kept in a backward condition through the unfortunate circum- stances of their history, and they are only beginning to enjoy the advantages of modern civilization. When these people are better informed and more thoroughly united, Austria-Hungary, by reason of its great natural resources, may become one of the leading manufacturing countries of Europe. The largest city is Vienna, the capital of Austria. It 144 EUROPE is situated at a point where the Danube flows through an opening between the mountains. Vienna is a great center for railroads and for trade between eastern and w^estern Europe. It has great wealth and is said to be the gayest city of Europe except Paris. It is one of the Palace and Bridge, Budapest oldest cities of Europe. When the Turks from Asia strove to lead their armies across the mountains into central Europe, Vienna became a stronghold of defense and succeeded in checking the advance of the Turks. Budapest, the capital of Hungary, is a twin city, con- sisting of Buda and Pest. These two towns were united in 1872. They are on opposite sides of the Danube and are connected by a long bridge. Buda is built on hills and bluffs above the river and contains a number of palaces and fortresses. Pest is on a sandy plain. It is much larger than Buda and is growing rapidly. It con- tains many large steam flour mills, and hundreds of vessels at its wharves are constantly unloading grain and loading again with flour. AUSTRI A-I I UNGARY 145 The largest seaport is Trieste, which has a good harbor and is connected with Vienna by a railroad, which has been built across the mountains at great expense. This road has many steep grades and viaducts and tunnels. It af- fords beautiful scen- ery for travelers, but is an expensive route for the transportation of goods. 1 . What mountain ranges form parts of the boundary of Austria -Hun- gary? 2. Give reasons why this country has not a large ocean commerce. 3. Why has the Rhine River greater advantages for transportation than the Danube? 4. Much fine glassware is made in Bohemia because of the sand and coloring matter found there. In what part of the country is Bohemia? 5. Some of the best deposits of coal and iron in Austria-Hungary are near Pragup. Where is that city situated? 6. Kronstadt is a prosperous manufacturing city. In what part of the country is it? 7. Innsbruck is a favorite resort for summer tourists. In what direc- tion is it from Vienna? 8. At Carlsbad there are celebrated hot springs. About how far is it from Prague? 9. There are regular lines of steamers from Trieste to New York. Across what waters do vessels go in making the voyage? 10. Make a map of Austria, showing mountains, rivers, and cities. Pulver Tower, Prague 146 EUROPE 23. Russia Russia is the largest country in the world. It extends from central Europe to the eastern coast of Asia, and comprises more than one half of the continent of Europe and more than one third of Asia. It includes about one fifth of all the land surface of the earth. The Dnieper at Kiev European Russia has but little variety of physical fea- tures. It is for the most part a vast plain, with scarcely a hill to be seen. The surface from all sides rises slightly, forming a low plateau in the central part. The Valdai Hills on this plateau form the parting of the waters that flow toward the Arctic Ocean and the Caspian Sea. The rivers rising in this central plateau flow slowly away in various directions. In the absence of steep slopes and waterfalls many of these rivers are navigable for nearly their entire length. Canals are easily constructed con- RUSSIA 147 necting the liead waters of the rivers so that boats may pass up one river and down another, thus finding a way from one part of the country to another. There are nearly fifty thousand miles of navigable waterways in Russia. The Caspian Sea, between Europe and Asia, is mostly within Russian territory. It is the largest inland sea in the world. It is in a low depression of the land and is about eighty- five feet lower than the level of the ocean. Since it has no outlet, it is very salt, like our Great Salt Lake. It was formerly nuich larger than at present, but evaporation removes the water faster than it is poured in by the rivers, and so it is slowly becoming smaller. Russia has great extremes of climate. At such a distance from the Atlantic the westerly winds have lost their modifying effects, and their temperature cor- responds to that of the land over which they have passed. The summers are warm, but the winters, ex- cept in the southern part, are long and very cold. The rainfall is not so great as in western Europe. Sunday Morning Gathering near St. Petersburg 148 EUROPE Although there are no lofty mountain ranges extending north and south to rob the winds of moisture, so much rain falls from the air in its passage across Europe from the Atlantic that there is not enough moisture remain- ing to provide Russia with an abundant supply. In the western part there is generally enough for agricultural purposes, but in the east droughts are liable to occur. Southern Russia is south of the belt of prevailing westerly winds and is therefore so dry that large areas are suit- able only for herding. In northern and central Russia the climate and vegetation are similar to those of the northern portion of North America. On the northern plains, or tundras, the climate is too severe for the growth of trees. The ground is frozen to a great depth. In summer the sur- face thaws only enough to support a growth of moss. Farther south the country is covered with vast forests hundreds of miles in extent, and in these are many fur- bearing animals. South of the central forest regions are broad treeless plains called steppes. These are similar to the prairie lands and the Great Plains of the United States. Most of the Russians are descendants of Slavonic peoples, or Slavs. Their country is so remote from the seacoast and was formerly so much overrun by tribes of barbarians that for centuries it remained far behind the other countries of Europe in the matter of progress. At length the Czar, Peter the Great, under- took to introduce among his people the civilization of the west. He forced upon some of his subjects many new methods and customs, and Russia became a power RUSSIA 149 in Europe. The population of Russia in Europe is about as great as that of the whole of North America, and most of the inhabitants live upon the fertile plains between the forests and the arid steppes of the south. In all there are about one hundred and forty mil- lion peo])le, a large proportion of Avhom were once Russian Peasants on the way to Work the serfs, or slaves, of wealthy nobles. These were emancipated by the Czar known as Alexander the Great. A large amount of land was divided among the liberated serfs, each serf receiving a small homestead. The increase of population has reduced the amount of land for each family to such an extent that most of the people are very poor. A large amount of Russian territory is owned in great estates by the Czar, the Russian nobility, and the government, and only a part of such territory is cultivated. The peasants need the use of this idle land and for some time have been de- manding it of tlie government. 150 EUROPE The dissatisfaction of the peasants has caused serious troubles and occasional riots and assassinations. In form, the government has 'been an absolute monarchy. The will of the Czar and his advisers has been supreme, and the masses of the people have been subject to very severe laws. No peasant, for example, could sell his Palaces of Nobles, St. Petersburg land, or leave home and travel from one town to an- other, without permission from government officials. A Russian statesman once said, " In this country nothing is permitted. Everything is either done by order or for- bidden." To us liberty-loving Americans such restric- tions seem very severe, as indeed they are ; but we should remember, on the other hand, the difficulty of ruling such a number of ignorant people, more than one hun- dred million of whom can neither read nor write. The government has now granted the people some reform measures. The peasants are permitted to change their residences as they wish. They are also permitted to choose a representative assembly called the douma, RUSSIA 151 but this assembly is granted very little power in making the laws of the empire. Members of such a body, elected by ignorant peasants, cannot be expected to make wise laws for the government of all. Althougli there is great need of reform, it will probably be many The Great Saturday Market, Helsingfors, Finland years before the hundred million peasants will be capable of exercising self-government to a very great extent. As one of our own statesmen has declared, " The capacity for self-government does not come to man by nature; it is an art to be learned." There are many Jews among the tradesmen of the towns and villages of western Russia, and prejudices against these have often led to riots and bloodshed. Many Russian Jews have emigrated to America on account of the fear of massacre. In 1906 as many as two hundred thousand of them came to this country. 152 EUROPE Finland, in the northwestern part of Russia south of Lapland, belongs to the Russian Empire, but is partially independent. It has a parliament, but the Czar has the right to veto any acts that he disapproves. This relation has led to frequent troubles, and many Fhms have emigrated to the United States on account of their dislike of the Russian a^overnment. In the Caucasus Mountains, 16,400 feet above the Sea A section of the western part of Russia, which borders on Germany and Austria-Hungary, was once a part of Poland. This was an independent nation with a terri- tory extending from the Carpathian Mountains to the Baltic Sea. After severe struggles with neighboring countries it was finally conquered and divided among the three countries, Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 1. What countries border on European Russia? 2. Name the bodies of water that form the border of Russia. 3. Name several smaller gulfs and seas that are partly within the borders of the country. RUSSIA 153 4. WTiere are the Ural Mountains and the Caucasus Mountains? 5. Mt. Elbruz, a peak of the Caucasus Mountains, is tlie highest mountain in Europe. Find how much higher it is than Mt. Blanc. 6. ^\'llat are the three largest rivers of Russia, and into what bodies of water do they flow? 7. What effect must the long and severe winters have upon the use- fulness of these rivers? 8. Why does the fact that the Caspian Sea has no outlet render it of little use for commerce? 9. What part of Russia borders on the ocean, and why is this of little advantage? 10. Across about how many degrees of latitude does Russia extend? 11. Why is the climate of northern Russia more severe than that of the northern part of Norway? 24. Russian Industries and Cities Russica is one of the leading agricnltural countries of the world. A very large proportion of the people are either personally engaged in agriculture or are otherwise interested in it. The richest farming region is the "black earth" belt, south of the line of the great forests. This is a vast belt of very fertile soil reaching across European Russia from the Carpathian Mountains to the Ural Mountains. South of this belt and extending from the central part of the country to the east is the region of grassy plains, or steppes. These extend entirely across Asia to the Pacific coast, and yield excellent harvests of grain. Among the principal crops are grain, sugar beets, flax, and hemp. Russian peasants, like those in some other European countries, raise rye for their own bread and wheat for a market crop. The Russian wheat crop has been increasing rapidly, and in 1909 exceeded that of the United States. Much more tlian one half of all the flax produced in the world is raised in Russia. 154 EUROPE Peasant "Woman Cutting Wheat Many Russian nobles own estates of thousands of acres each. They employ peasants at low wages to work upon their land. But most of the crops are raised upon the small farms of poor and ignorant peasants, who are - I allotted small ' %it f ^ amounts of land by the local authori- ties. About one hundred million of these people live in one hundred thou- sand villages. Under re- cent provisions of the government some of the most thrifty peasants are buying their land and adopting more improved methods of farming, but such improve- ments are very slow. Most of the villages are remote from railroads and larger towns, and the benefits of improved conditions reach them slowly. There are in Russia no agricultural papers or experiment stations to aid the farmers, such as we have in the United States. The great masses of the people live several centuries behind the standard of the countries of western Europe. On the arid steppes of the south herds of cattle, sheep, and horses are pastured. In the springtime these steppes are covered with green grass and beautiful flowers, but as the season advances all vegetation is withered by the hot sun. RUSSIAN INDUSTRIES AND CITIES 155 A vast amount of lumber and wood is obtained from the forests, which cover more than one third of the country. The more thickly settled countries of Europe depend partly upon Russia for their lumber supply, and wood is the chief fuel in Russian houses and even in the factories. Russia contains large coal and iron mines, as well as other minerals ; but most of the mines are still at long Farm House in Caucasia distances from railroads, and hence their development is slow. The Ural Mountains are especially rich in various minerals. Nearly all of the world's supply of platinum is obtained from the western slope of these mountains. Next to the United States, Russia produces more petroleum than any other country. An immense quan- tity is obtained in the province of Caucasia near the shore of the Caspian Sea. The town of Baku is the center of this industry. Most of its people and those of the surrounding region are at work at its oil wells or 156 EUROPE in the refineries. Russian oil is poorer in quality than American, and the greater part of it is used as fuel in factories and on locomotives and steamboats. For a country of such great size there are but few Russia. This is partly due to the fact large cities in m^ J^^^^^^i^u '^^t^^^j^ 1^^^^^ , • ■ hIH ^^^a Moscow that the people have been ignorant and poor and have supplied' their wants chiefly from the farms and from home manufactures. Another explanation is that in the past there have been small opportunities for carry- in o- on commerce with other countries. We usually expect to find the large cities of a country upon the seacoast or near the mouths of rivers, but until recent times Russia has not had such situa- tions available. Moscow, the ancient capital, was located near the center of the country. Although this RUSSIAN IXDUSTRIKS AND CITIES 157 was not a favorable situation for commercial relations with foreign countries, it was the natural center for trade and communication at home. It is a railroad center, and it has been easy to build canals from Moscow connecting with rivers leading to all parts of the empire. Although Moscow is no longer the capital, it is still the cher- ished city of the people. The Russians belong to the Greek divi- • n ,1 Church and the Tower of Ivan, in the Kremlin Catholic Church. They are much devoted to their re- ligion and regard Moscow as the Holy City, The oldest part of the city, called the Kremlin, is surrounded by high walls, which were once built to defend the capital against the attacks of wild Tartar tribes. The Kremlin contains the old government buildings, palaces, and beautiful churches with gilded domes. The celebrated bell tower in the Kremlin, called the Ivan Tower, is three hundred and twenty-five feet high and contains thirty-six large bells, some of which are made of silver. In Russia bells are regarded as sacred instruments of 158 EUROPE worship, and many are made at great expense to pro- duce soft, rich tones. About two hundred years ago the Czar, Peter the Great, was determined to found a city with access to the sea. After gaining new territory bordering on the Baltic Sea, St. Petersburg from across the Neva he founded the city of St. Petersburg and made it the capital of the country. The circumstances connected with the building of this city were very peculiar. Cities ordinarily spring up by gradual growth at points where manufacturing or commerce naturally brings many people together. The site of St. Petersburg had been a marshy, unhealthful region with a sparse population. The city was brought into existence chiefly through the determination of a single powerful Czar. Thousands of workmen were sent to the spot to erect houses, and people were even forced to remove from other parts of Russia and occupy them. The Neva River, on which the city was built, was so shallow that a canal twenty miles long had to be constructed that vessels might reach the sea. The climate is so severe that both canal RUSSIAN INDUSTRIES AND CITIES 159 and river are frozen over during several months of the year and navigation becomes impossible. The need of a port leading to the sea is so great that, notwithstand- ing all these disadvantages, St. Petersburg has become a large and flourishing city. No ex- pense has been spared to make it equal in splendor to other capitals of Europe. St. Isaac's Cathedral was constructed from very val- uable materi- als at a cost of many millions of dollars. The Nevski Prospekt is one of the finest streets in Europe. After the Russians succeeded in extending their terri- tory to the Black Sea, more than a century ago, the city of Odessa sprang up. Through this port Russia has commerce with the outer world by way of the Medi- terranean. Odessa is the main outlet for the wheat fields of southern Russia. It contains large flour mills and is a great center for the shipment of grain. Much of the inland trade of Russia is carried on by means of fairs. The largest fair in the world is held Nevski Prospekt, St. Petersburg IGO EUROPE every summer at Nijni Novgorod. Thousands of people assemble there from various parts of Europe and Asia and exchange goods of many kinds, including furs from the forest re- gions of Eus- sia, tea from China, and manufactured articles from western Eu- rope. Thou- sands of other fairs are held every year in various parts of the coun- d - ^■^ ~^wm ■MM P S |^ra[--^-^'v^ w ' Hffi^^V^^^HI Copyright by Keys Fair at Nijni Novgorod try. 1. Find another European city that is in about the same hititude as St. Petersburg. 2. Find what cities of Europe are larger than St. Petersburg. 3. Wliy are there no large cities in the northern and eastern parts of Russia? 4. Archangel is the largest port on the Arctic Ocean. Give reasons why it is of comparatively little importance as a port. 5. Through what waters does a vessel pass in a voyage from Odessa to the Mediterranean Sea? 6. Why are the ports of the Caspian Sea of but little use? 7. Petroleum is shipped from Baku into the interior of Russia by way of the Volga River. How far is Baku from the mouth of the Volga? 8. A large amount of kerosene is shipped from the port of Batum. On what part of the coast of the Black Sea is that port? 9. In what part of Russia is Warsaw, the former capital of Poland? 10. Lodz is a manufacturing center. How far is it from Warsaw? 11. Tiflis is an important commercial city of the Russian province of Trans-Caucasia. Near what range of mountains is it? 12. Sketch a map of Russia, showing the rivers and important cities. TURKEY 161 25. Turkey The large peninsula that extends south from Austria- Hungary and Russia is often called the Balkan Penin- sula, and the countries of which it is composed are called the Balkan countries. Its population consists of many peoples, and it is divided into several small coun- A Turkish Family near Constantinople tries. This is partly due to mountain ranges forming natural divisions and partly to contests and wars that have occurred. The southern portion of the peninsula was the home of the ancient Greeks, a nation far advanced in civiliza- tion. At a later time the Romans overcame the Greeks, and the Balkan Peninsula became a part of the Roman Empire. When the power of the Romans declined, Slavs from Russia appeared and made room for them- 162 EUROPE selves by driving out the Greeks and Romans. These Slavs, who were later known as Servians and Bulgari- ans, became civiKzed, and adopted the Christian religion. succeeded in crossing from Asia and established them- selves in south- eastern Europe. This conquest of the Turks was a great disaster. They are natu- rally cruel and selfish, and their rulers have op- pressed their sub- jects with heavy taxes, and have taken no interest in improvements. According to the Mohammedan re- ligion the Turks Turkish Women, Constantinople believe that they ought to persecute those who do not adopt their faith. Their government has been so cruel and unjust that the Christian nations of the world have been obliged to in- terfere in behalf of foreign Christians residing in the country. During the past century the inhabitants of several sections of the peninsula have succeeded in freeing In the year 1453 the Turks sue 1 ii /\ ^ Ik J \j)kMm Bk i mBm^fJ^K^ n 'J "^^Mk^^^ raf / ^H^^' " d| IP f^^i^^^^ tjjps'^ 'i .'''^^^ TURKEY 163 themselves from Turkish rule. The Turks now hold but a small amount of territory in Europe. The Chris- tian nations might easily have driven them back into Asia or have taken possession of their country. The bad government of the Turks and their cruelty to others would have been a sufficient reason for taking this course, but it is so difficult for the nations of Europe to agree upon such a mat- ter that nothing has been done. Each nation is afraid that some other will gain undue advantage in such an under- taking, or that troubles growing- out of it will lead to a terrible Euro- pean war. Recently the world has been surprised and encouraged by a revolu- tion and an attempted reformation made by some of the Turks of their own accord. Increased contact with the outer world and an acquaintance with the ideas and customs of enlightened nations have made Date Seller, Constantinople 164 EUROPE the younger generation more liberal and progressive than their fathers. In 1908 an organized liberal party, who called themselves the '' Young Turks," became so powerful that they persuaded a portion of the Turkish army to join their cause. The ruling Sultan was forced to yield to their demands and promised the country a partially representative government and a constitution providing education, freedom of worship, reform in taxes, and equality before the law. The Sultan, however, did not fulfill his promises, and in 1909 the army of the " Young Turks " marched to tlie capital, deposed the Sultan, and appointed another of their own choice. In Turkey there are many natural advantages, but the people have not profited by them. There is much fertile land, but farming is done so poorly that it yields small returns. Although there are excellent oppor- tunities for manufacturing, the manufactured products are mostly handmade goods. In enlightened and pro- gressive countries the governments strive to encourage the people and aid them in making improvements in all their industries. In Turkey, on the other hand, the people have not only been neglected but have often been prevented from endeavoring to gain wealth by the fact that the tax gatherer would be likely to rob them of the greater part of it. Farmers have sometimes left portions of their land uncultivated or have destroyed portions of their crops in order to avoid taxation. Constantinople, the capital of the Turkish Empire, has long been a famous city. It was named after the Roman emperor Constantine, who made it his capital, and under the Romans it became rich and prosperous. TURKF.Y 165 Under the Turks it has lost much of its former pros- perity and beauty. It has a very desirable location for the purposes of commerce. It is at the easiest point for passage between Europe and Asia and at the meet- ing point of three bodies of water, the Sea of Marmora, Constantinople and the Golden Horn the Bosporus, and the Golden Horn. It is situated on both sides of the Golden Horn, which is a deep, narrow bay and receives its name because of the value of the commerce that it accommodates. At Constantinople the Turks have strong fortifica- tions on the hills along the shore of the Bosporus. They could easily prevent the passage of even powerful warships. They thus control the only waterway be- tween the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Other 166 EUROPE nations have looked with longing eyes upon this city, and it has been in part the fear that some one of them might secure such a ureat advantage that has prevented the powers of Europe from undertaking to overthrow the Turkish govern- ment. Constantinople has been called the "Crossroads" of the two conti- nents of Europe and Asia. Many Europeans, as well as Turks and other Asiatic people, dwell there for pur- poses of trade. The Turks, or Mussulmen as they are some- times called, mingle freely with Christians and Jews during the business hours of the day, but at night the several classes retire to their own quarters. The Euro- pean quarter of the city is on the northern bank of the Golden Horn. The business portion of this is called Galata and the residential section Pera. The Turkish section, on the southern bank, is called Stamboul. Across the Galata Bridge, which connects the Turkish and the Reading the Koran TURKEY 167 European sections, throngs of people of many nations of Europe and Asia are continually passing. In Staniboul the streets are narrow and filthy. There are everywhere indications of neglect. Yet the Turks have certain commendable traits. They follow faithfully the teachings of their prophet Mohammed as The Bosporus given in their bible, the Koran. The Koran teaches the virtue of personal cleanliness, and every good Turk washes his bauds thoroughly before eating. The Koran forbids games of chance, hence there is no gambling. Strong drink is denied to the faithful followers of the Prophet, and there is but little drunkenness. There are notable structures in Constantinople. The Mosque of St. Sophia was at first a Christian edifice, built by a Roman emperor more than thirteen centuries ago. About the mosque the Turks have erected tall minarets which officials, called muezzins, ascend five times a day to call the people to prayer. The people then fall upon their knees and bow their heads with 168 EUROPE their faces toward Mecca, an Asiatic city which is re- garded as the Holy City of the Mohammedans because it was the birthplace of Mohammed. There are nearly five hundred Turkish churches, or mosques, in Stamboul and nearly a thousand minarets. A School in Constantinople The climate at Constantinople is very agreeable and the natural surroundings are beautiful. There are deliglitful resorts along the shores of the Bosporus. One of these, on the European side, is called the " Sweet Waters of Europe," and another, on the opposite shore, the " Sweet Waters of Asia." 1. What countries of the Balkan Peninsula border on Turlcey? 2. What large bodies of water border on Turkey? 3. Find how many European cities are larger than Constantinople. SMALLER BALKAN COUNTRIES 169 4. Wliy would it be a special advantage to Russia to obtain possession of Constantinople? 5. How would the market for the crops of southern Russia be affected if Russian ships were not permitted to pass through the Bosporus? 6. How far is it across the Black Sea, from Constantinople to Odessa? 7. Many hides and sheepskins are exported from rfalonica. In what part of Turkey is it? 8. Adrianople is an important to\TO. In what direction from Constan- tinople is it? 9. Sketch a map of the Balkan Peninsula, showing its mountains and rivers and the bodies of water around it. 26. Smaller Balkan Countries Besides Turkey, there are now five small countries, or states, in the Balkan Peninsula. They are Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, and Greece. All these have had a sad history and have passed through many struggles before relieving themselves from Turkish oppression. Roumania and Bulgaria are the largest of these states and by nature the most favored with sources of wealth. Both of them have, for a long time, been partially independent of Turkey. Roumania became entirely so in 1878 and Bulgaria in 1909. A large proportion of the people were once serfs, like the peasants of Russia, and are backward in their methods of agriculture. The fertile plain of the valley of the Danube River reaches across portions of both countries, and large crops of wheat and corn are produced. Roumania is one of the leading countries of Europe in the production of grain. Near the center of Bulgaria there is a noted warm valley, called the " Valley of Roses," in which a great amount of the perfume, attar of roses, is produced. Servia also is a very fertile country and produces 170 EUROPE much corn and wheat. Among its beech and oak forests many swine are raised. Tliese are kept in the woods where they feed upon beechnuts and acorns. The people of the small coun- try of Montenegro have had a most tragic history. They once occu- pied a much lar- ger territory, but little by little they were obliged to surrender the most fertile por- tions of their land to the Turks, who finally drove them back to the mountains. The name Montene- A Roumanian Inn gYO, which means "Black Moun- tain," is very ap- propriate. The land is so rugged and stony that it is suitable only for pasture, and the people get their living mostly by stock-raising and fishing. Wherever there is sufficient soil, little vegetable gardens are cultivated. The soil is valued so highly that often stone walls are built to prevent it from being washed away by the rain. The Montenegrins are proud of their independence, SMALLER BALKAN COUNTRIES 171 and prefer freedom in these barren mountains to sub- jection to a foreign power under easier conditions. The necessity of fighting frequently against the Turks has kept the little country prepared for war. For hun- dreds of years the men have regarded it as their chief BBBBHIjW^llBlpBMs-s*. ^^"^'"^m^A^^SA BB^BBBKBBP^'^^ffi^^^l^^B Athens business to protect their families from the Turks ; hence most of the hard work is done by the women. It is the ambition of every boy to become a soldier like his father. Cettinje, the capital of Montenegro, is a mere village surrounded by mountains. Several tiuies the Turks have succeeded in reaching the capital, but the Monte- negrins have always driven them out. On one occasion a little army of eight thousand brave Montenegrins defeated an army of sixty thousand Turks. Greece, which consists of the southern end of the 172 EUROPE peninsula cand many neighboring islands, is not very important in the matter of industries or wealth, but it will always hold a prominent place in the thoughts and feelings of the civilized world. It is often called the "Cradle of our Civilization." Mankind has advanced by gradual stages, each generation profiting by whatever was great and good in earlier generations. The Greeks were the wisest and most learned people of ancient times. We still study the writings of their great men, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, and the fragments of their works of art are the most valuable models from which we copy. Doubtless the sunny climate, with its clear atmos- phere and charming views of mountains and sea, had much to do with rendering a country with so few natural resources the cherished home of a highly culti- vated people. Moreover, Greece was well situated for carrying on trade among the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. On account of numerous gulfs and bays no section is remote from the sea, and this nearness to the water made the seafaring life naturally attractive. The Greeks became a great commercial nation, and this helped to spread the benefits of their culture over the world. At the present time many Greek sailors are engaged in carrying on commerce between the ports of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. In the year 1830, through the assistance of several nations of Europe, Greece became independent of Turkey, and since that time its condition has greatly improved. The country contains no coal or water power. It is south of the belt of westerly winds, and SMALLER BALKAN COUNTRIES 173 the rainfall in summer is not generally sufficient for successful agriculture without irrigation. Many Greek shepherds care for herds of sheep and goats. The cultivated crops include many fruits. A large quantity of a variety of very small grapes, which we com- monly call currants, are raised and dried, and these con- stitute a large part of the exports of the country. In the mmiw Ruins of the Acropolis, Athens southern part of Greece, particularly in the vicinity of Corinth, the country is covered with vines from which these grapes are gathered. The ancient Greeks made much account of honey from Mt. Hymettus, and honey from the same mountain is still common in Greek markets. Athens, the capital and largest city of Greece, was one of the most famous cities of ancient times. It was the great center of learning and fine arts for the Greek people and for the world. The city still contains won- derful ruins, that give some idea of its past glory. 174 EUROPE The most conspicuous part of Athens is the Acropolis, a lofty mass of rock four hundred feet wide and a thou- sand feet long. Since its walls are nearly perpendicular on three sides, it forms a natural fortress. It was probably because it could be easily defended that it was selected as a stronghold by the ancients and became the origin of a city. Upon the Acropolis the most beautiful and sacred temples were erected. The ruins of one, the Parthenon, are famous throughout the world. Although Athens has no large business interests to cause a growth in its population, the associations of the past render it so attractive that it is continually increasing in size. In three fourths of a century it has grown from a town with a population of a few hundreds to a city of over one hundred thousand people. It now has a university of over a thousand students, to which scholars are attracted from all parts of the world. 1. What mountains and rivers form the greater part of the boundary of Roumania? 2. What countries border on Bulgaria? 3. Name and locate the capitals of Roumania and Bulgaria. 4. What countries border on Servia? 5. What city is the capital of Servia, and why has it a good location? 6. How does Montenegro compare with Belgium in area and population? 7. On what waters would a vessel sail in a voyage from London to Piraeus, the port of Athens? 8. So little wheat is raised in Greece that a large part of the supply is imported. Suggest a country from which it may be obtained. 9. The island of Crete was partially separated from Turkey in 1898 and placed under the protection of Greece. Its people are mainly Greeks. Where is it situated ? 10. Sketch a map of the Balkan Peninsula, showing the boundaries of the countries and the chief cities. REVIEW 175 Review • 1. Of whom are the present Italians descendants? 2. Give a brief history of Italy. 3. Describe the physical features of the country. 4. Why are dikes necessary on the banks of the Po River? 5. Why is the climate of Italy free from extremes of heat and cold? 6. Tell about the rainfall in different parts of the country. 7. Tell about the industry of agriculture. 8. Explain how olive oil is produced. 9. How is maca- roni prepared? 10. What kind of power have the Italians for manufacturing? 11. Name articles which they are accus- tomed to make. 12. Where is sul- phur obtained? 13. Tell about Ital- ian marble. 14. Why are many Italians very poor? 15. To w^hat coun- tries do many emi- grate? 16. Why is Rome called " The Eternal City"? 17. Describe the Colosseum. 18. 19. 20. Harvesting Grapes Tell about the Roman Forum. Describe St. Peter's Cathedral and the Vatican. Give an account of the origin of Venice. 21. Describe the city of Venice. 22. Give interesting facts about the city of Florence. 23. Describe the largest city of Italy. 24. Tell about the volcano of Vesuvius. 25. Describe a volcanic eruption. 176 EUROPE I 26. Give an account of the Messina earthquake. 27. Tell about the city of Milan. , 28. For what is Genoa noted? 29. Tell about the people of Austria-Hungary. t 30. What was the cause of such a mixture of different peoples? I 31. What tends to keep them united in one nation? '| 32. Explain the government of Austria-Hungary. J 33. Tell about the Magyars. j 34. Describe the scenery of the country'. j 35. Why is the Danube River a great advantage? 1 36. What are the chief agricultural products? I 37. Why has not manufacturing developed in Austria-Hungary? j 38. Tell about the city of Vienna. j 39. Describe the city of Budapest. | 40. Why is not the port of Trieste of very great advantage to the i country? i 41. Tell about the size of Russia. i 42. Describe the physical features of European Russia. j 43. Tell about the Caspian Sea. ' 44. Explain the climate of Russia. I 45. Tell about the different sections, or belts, of the country in order, from north to south. 46. Tell about the early history of the Russians. ■■ 47. How great is the population of Russia? 48. Explain the condition of Russian peasants. ] 49. Tell about the troubles in the government of Russia. 50. Why have many Russian Jews emigrated to America? 51. Tell about the conditions in Finland. ' 52. Tell about the country of Poland. 53. Where are the richest farming and grazing regions of Russia? 54. What are some of the crops of the country? j 55. Tell about the farms of the peasants. 56. Why are agricultural improvements slow in Russia? 57. Describe the arid steppes. i 58. Tell about Russian forests. ] 59. Tell about the minerals of Russia. 60. Where is Russian petroleum obtained? 61. Explain the location of the city of Moscow. 62. Describe the objects of interest in the Kremlin. 63. Give an account of the origin of St. Petersburg. I 64. Give interesting facts about St. Petersburg. ' 65. Tell about the port of Odessa. ' 66. Tell about fairs in Russia. REVIEW 177 67. Why are there several countries in the Balkan Peninsvila? 68. Give a brief history of the people of this peninsula. 69. Tell about the Turks. 70. Why has the bad government of the Turks been permitted to continue ? 71. Give an ac- count of the recent revolution in Tur- key. 72. Why have not irfdustries in Turkey been de- veloped? 73. Tell about the history of Con- stantinople. 74. Explain the favorable loca- tion of that city. 75. What are the three principal sections of the city? 76. Describe the Turkish sec- tion. 77. Tell about Mohammedan mosques and min- arets. 78. What are the natural attractions of the vicinity of Constantinople ': 79. Name the smaller states of the Balkan Peninsula. 80. Tell about Roumania and Bulgaria. 81. What are the industries of Servia? 82. Why have the Montenegrins such a small country? 83. How do they obtain a living? 84. Tell about their struggles against the Turks. 85. Why is Greece called the "Cradle of our Civilization"? 86. Why did the ancient Greeks become a great commercial nation? 87. Tell about the climate of Greece. 88. Mention some of the products of the country. 89. Describe the city of Athens. Market at Moscow APPENDIX Area and Population The figures for population are aci-ordiug to the uiost recent census or estimate. Area, in ropii-A- Area ik POI'ITLA- Sq. Mr. TION Sq. Mi. TKIN Austria-Hungary 261,294 47,153,000 Montenegro 3,030 250,000 Belgium li,:373 6,693,548 Netherlands 12,(548 5,747,269 British Isles 121,391 41,976,827 Norway 124,130 2,330,364 Bulgaria 37,320 4,035,623 Portugal 35,490 5.432,132 Denmark 15,592 2,605,268 Rumania 50,720 6,684,265 England and Wales 58,324 32,527,843 Russia in Europe 1,976,586 111,279,500 France 207,054 39,252,245 Scotland 30,405 4.472,103 German Empire 208,780 60,641,278 Servia 18,650 2,(588,025 Greece 25,014 2,631.952 Spain 190,050 19,712,585 Iceland 39,75(5 78,470 Sweden 172,87(5 5,377,713 Ireland 32,360 4,458,775 Switzerland 15,97(5 3,325,000 Italy 110,550 33,910,000 Cit Turkey in Europe ies 65,350 6,130,200 Aberdeen, Scotland 143,722 Bristol, England 372,785 Adrianople, Turkey 81,000 Bruges, Belgium 53,281 Amsterdam, Netherlands 565,65(5 Brussels, Belgium 629,917 Antwerp, Belgium 310,903 Bucharest, Rumania 276,178 Athens, Greece 167,479 Budapest, Austria-Hungary 732,322 Barcelona, Spain 533,000 Cadiz, Spain (59,382 Basel, Switzerland 129,470 Calais, France 66,627 Belfast, England 349,180 Cambridge, England 120,264 Belgrade, Servia 77,816 Cardiff, Wales 191,446 Bergen, Norway 72,251 Cartagena, Spain 99,871 Berlin, Germany 2,040,148 Catania, Italy 150,000 Bern, Switzerland 74,(i5l Cettinje, Montenegro 4,500 Birmingham, England 558,357 Chemnitz, Germai y 244,927 Bologna, Italy 152,009 Christiania, Norw ly 227,626 Bordeaux, France 251,917 Cologne, Germany 428,722 Bradford, England 292,136 Constantinople, Turkey 1,106,000 Bremen, Germany 214,861 Copenhagen, Denmark 426,540 Breslau, Germany 470,904 Cordoba, Spain 58,275 178 APPENDIX 179 Cork, Ireland 7(5,122 Danzig, Germany 15i),()48 Dresden, Gerniany 51(5, {t!H) Dublin, Ireland 2iK),6:iS Dundee, Scotland 100,871 Edinburgh, Scotland 350,524 Essen, Germany 231,3()0 Florence, Italy 20<),000 Fraukfort, Germany ;m,978 Geneva, Switzerland 11S,25() Genoa, Italy 234,710 Ghent, Belgium 1(>4,117 Glasgow, Scotland 859,715 Gothenburg, Sweden 100,523 Granada, Spain 75,900 Haarlem, Netherlands 70,152 Hague, The, Netherlands 254,505 Hamburg, Germany 802,793 Hanover, Germany 250,024 Havre, France 132,430 Helsingfors, Finland 117,317 Hull, England 241,000 Kiel, Germany 103,772 Kiev, Russia 319,000 Konigsberg, Germany 223,770 Leeds, England 477,107 Leghyrn, Italy 98,000 Leicester, England 240,172 Leipzig, Germany 503,072 Liege, Belgium 173,939 Lille, France 205,002 Limerick, Ireland 38,151 Limoges, France 88,597 Lisbon, Spain :«G,000 Liverpool, England 753,203 Lodz, Russia 351,570 London, England 4,795,757 London (Greater) 7,323,570 Londonderry, Ireland 39,892 Lucerne, Switzerland 35,433 Lyons, France 472,114 Madrid, Spain 539,835 Magdeburg, Germany 240,033 Malaga, Spain 130,109 Manchester, England 049,251 Marseilles, France 517,498 Mechlin, Belgium 59,107 Messina, Italy 150,000 Milan, Italy 493,241 Moscow, Russia 1,359,254 Munich, Germany 538,983 Naples, Italy 503,540 Newcastle, England 277,257 Nice, France 131,232 Nijni Novgorod, Russia 5)0,053 Nottingham, England 200,449 Nuremberg, Germany 294,426 Odessa, Russia 449,673 Oporto, Portugal 167,955 Ostend, Belgium 42,409 Oxford, England 51,<)00 Paisley, Scotland f)0,305 Palermo, Italy 309,0iV4 Paris, France 2,703,393 Pirseus, Greece 71,505 Pisa, Italy 61,321 Portsmouth, England 211,493 Prague, Austria-Hungary 228,045 Rheims, France 108,000 Riga, Russia 282,230 Rome, Italy 462,743 Rotterdam, Netherlands 403,350 Roubaix, France 121,017 Rouen, France 118,459 St. Etienne, France 140,788 St. Petersburg, Russia 1,078,000 Salonica, Turkey 150,000 Seville, Spain 148,315 Southampton, England 122,19(; Stettin, Germany 224,119 Stockholm, Sweden 337,400 Strassburg, Germany 107,<)78 Stuttgart, Germany 249,280 Trieste, Austria-Hungary 205,130 Trondhjem, Norway 38,180 Valencia, Spain 213,530 Venice, Italy 151,840 Vienna, Austria-Hungary 1,999,912 Warsaw. Russia 750,420 Zurich, Switzerland 187,000 180 Mt. Elljurz, Russia Mt. Blane, France Monte Rosa, Italy Volga, Russia Danube, Austria-Hungary Dnieper, Russia Dwiua, Russia APPENDIX Mountains IlEIOllT IN Height in Fekt Feet 18,493 Mt. Etna, Sicily 10,f)00 15,781 Mt. Olympus, Turkey 9,740 15,210 Mt. Vesuvius, Italy 4,200 Rivers Len,;tii in Length in Miles Miles 2,400 Rhine, Germany 800 1,770 Elbe, Germany 725 1,200 Rhone, France 500 1,000 Seine, France 480 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY KEY TO PRONUNCIATK^N rt, as in fat ; a, as in fate ; «, as in far ; d,, as in fall ; e, as in pen ; e, as in mete ; e, as in her ; i, as in pin ; I, as in pine ; o, as in 7iot ; o, as in note ; o, as in move ; ?(, as in tub ; u, as in mute ; u, as in 2iull ; r/, as in get ; (/. as in fjem ; r, as in cat ; r, as in cent. A double dot under a or o (a, o) indicates tliat its sound is shortened to tliat of ?t in but. Italicized letters are silent. The sign ' tells upon which syllable the ac- cent is placed. The numbers refer to pages in the book. Ab-er-deen', 37. A-crop'-o-li.s, 173, 174. Ad-ri-an-op'-le, 169. Ad-ri-at'-ic Sea, 142. vle-ge'-an Sea, 7. Al-ca'-ziir, 79. Al-ham'-bra, 69. Al-mii-den', 79. Alps Mountains, 2, 114, 115, 117. Al'-torf, 116. Am'-ster-dam, 61, 02, 63. Angles (ang'-glz), 14. Ant'-werp, 66, 67. Ap'-en-nine.s, 125. ArcA-an'-gel, 160. Arc'-tic Current, 5. Ar'-is-totle, 172. Arl'-berg Tunnel, 118. Ath'-ens, 173. At'-tar of roses, 50, 109. AHs'-tri-a, 139. A?