I LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class '^l\'b GENtRI^^ M TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS CLASSICAL SECTION EDITED BY JOHN HENRY WRIGHT, Harvard University BERNADOTTE PERRIN, Yale University ANDREW FLEMING WEST, Princeton University TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS A SCHOOL GRAMMAR OF ATTIC GREEK BY THOMAS DWIGHT GOODELL PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN YALE UNIVERSITY NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY I 902 Copyright, 1902 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY GENERAL PubUsJicd August, 1902 TO MY FORMER PUPILS IX THE HARTFORD PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL AND IX YALE COLLEGE 1881-1902 WHOSE DIFFICULTIES IX LEARXIXG GREEK HAVE BEEX COXSTAXTLY BEFORE ME IX THIS EXDEAYOR TO LIGHTEX THE TASK OF THEIR SUCCESSORS 101923 PEEFACE The invitation to prepare a new Greek Grammar would not have been accepted had I not believed that the time has come for considerable changes in the presentation of the sub- ject to young pupils. Greek studies are still holding their own in this country, because of their intrinsic value in a liberal education. But in order to preserve for them their due place, great improvement must be made in teaching the language, so that a reasonable amount of effort will advance a serious student farther than it ordinarily does at present. And such improvement is possible. Though nothing can make Greek really easy, it need not be so difficult as it has been made. This volume is a sincere endeavor — how far successful only the test of use will show — to aid in meeting the legitimate demand for better results from the time and labor expended. As the first change required, I have sought to simplify grammatical statements to the utmost. Some technical terms consecrated by long tradition have been thrown overboard ; so far as possible terms have been used that are really descriptive and will appear so to beginners. J^early all changes in terminology are of this sort ; only one or two seemed necessary in the other direction. Thus the potential optative disappears, because experience has shown that the term misleads nearly all pupils and some teachers ; the hypo- thetical optative and indicative are made to support each Vm GREEK GRAMMAR other, and students who have begun geometry should find the terms hypothetical and hypothesis mutually explanatory. The phrase formative vowel, for variable vowel, is more dis- tinctly descriptive than the old, and the symbol oie, which is often employed in scientific works, is both more legible and more readily extended to analogous cases than the symbol introduced to our schools by the Hadley-Allen Grammar. Secondly, I have sought to simplify by omission, so far sm that could be done safely with due regard to later progress. It is assumed that those who begin Greek have had at least a year of Latin ; accordingly, whatever is so much like Latin or English as to cause no diflSculty is omitted or barely men- tioned. Only Attic Greek is included ; some confusion is avoided by keeping Epic or other non- Attic forms out of sight until they are needed — that is, until one begins to read Homer, Herodotos, and the lyric poets. And of Attic Greek only those forms are included that are found in the works commonly read in American schools and colleges up to the end of sophomore year, or are quite regular. Rarer forms, and in syntax rarer constructions, such as are naturally explained in lexicon or notes, are also generally omitted. Meantime, some things that other grammars pass over lightly are here given more prominence, because they are things that freshmen need to know and commonly do not know. Yet by this twofold process of simplification the body of the grammar is brought within three hundred pages, in spite of large type and open printing and the greater space given to examples. But it seemed to me a change equally needed was a shift in the point of view as regards syntax. In learning the inflection and vocabulary of any language we first learn the foreign forms and their general meaning; afterward — as soon as may be, but as the second step, not the first — by turning English expressions into the foreign idiom we study PREFACE IX from another standpoint the functions of the forms. (We are not considering the mental process of young children learning the language of people around them, but that of those who already think in one language and are learning another.) The second step is far more difficult than the first. The facts of a language may look very different seen from these two sides. But in learning Greek syntax our pupils have been too often required to take both steps at once. That is, syntactical phenomena are classified by function, and then our grammatical statements try to combine both points of view. This is less true as regards the syntax of cases. There it has been usual to start with form and describe the function ; and though rules mix the two points of view some- what — as when we teach that cause, manner, and means are expressed by the dative — still no great harm is done. Nearly the same may be said of modes and tenses in simple sen- tences ; but with subordinate clauses, the most difficult chap- ter of all syntax, the matter becomes serious. The current formulas are based on a classification by function, as clauses of purpose, condition, and so on, and throw into one func- tional category several distinct forms, while the student finds before him on the Greek page one syntactical form at a time, which he has to interpret. The endeavor to interpret the clauses before him by such rules compels him to shift constantly from one point of view to the other. The natural result is a confusion of mind that greatly hinders progress in understanding Greek. In this grammar I have sought to carry through consistently the principle of classifying by form. This has caused a complete recasting of the syntax of subordinate clauses. Some may at first find the changes here made somewhat disconcerting ; no one recognizes more fully than I the difficulty of the task attempted. But being con- vinced that the reform was imperatively required, I could do nothing less than attack the problem. After my solu- X GREEK GRAMMAR tion was worked out it was submitted to several experienced teachers, who warmly approved it. Subordinate clauses are classified first by the introductory word, next by the mode and tense of the verb ; the description of each form is meant to enable the student to interpret the Greek before him ; directions for translating English into Greek are left to the book on composition and to the teacher. The new system is not only better scientifically, it is more concrete and intel- ligible to beginners. But the system is really not new, since it is the one which lexicons follow as a matter of course, and this agreement between grammar and lexicon is a farther advantage. In the spelling of Greek names the stricter form of trans- literation is followed, except with names like Cyrus, which are also English baptismal names, or those like Athens, which have long ago received an English termination. Two reasons led me to continue here my practice of twenty-five years. First, though many leading Hellenists in England and Amer- ica prefer the Latin spelling as being the traditional one, I think the other is likely to prevail in the end. No tendency of classical studies throughout the last century was more marked than the growing desire to approach Hellenic life and thought directly, and remove every distorting medium both in study and in the presentation of results. Archaeology has been one powerful influence in that direction. Accordingly all our leading museums employ the direct method of trans- literation ; and museums are perhaps the greatest populariz- ing agency for Greek studies. It is not pedantry, but good sense, to help on this tendency and shorten the period of transition. Secondly, the stricter transliteration is simpler ; to expect pupils to Latinize the names adds an unnecessary difiiculty. But the introductory book in preparation to accom- pany the grammar will give both forms and explain both methods of transliteration. PREFACE XI In writing the volume it was impossible to escape, had I wished to, the influence of Hadley's Grammar, which has been familiar to me from boyhood in the original form and since 1884 as revised by the late F. D. Allen. Nearly the same may be said of Professor Goodwin's Grammar and of his Greek Moods and Tenses, in their successive editions. My obliga- tions to these works are very great, and not least in those chapters where I have departed most widely from them. He would be an ungrateful pupil who should forget his debt to his masters, merely because he has by their aid finally learned to look with independent judgment on some portion of their doctrine. Also, like all American Hellenists, I have learned much, and am still learning, from Professor Gilder- sleeve, though I suspect he will think I ought to have learned more. To such a thought on his part my first plea in defense would be the elementary character of this grammar. For young students a simple, clear, and brief statement is essen- tial. (As an instance where the need of brevity has forced a form of wording which is not true literally though true in spirit, section 562 may be referred to. Some infinitives are by origin locatives in form ; but in meaning no locative sense can be traced, so that for the purposes of syntax the assertion that all are originally for datives is not misleading.) Several German grammars have also been of much service, especially those of Kaegi and of Koch, and the two volumes of Kiihner- Blass. Many friends have aided me directly at various stages of my task, whom I wish to thank especially. Professor Wright, of Harvard University, has read critically all the proofs ; Mr. Morrison, of the Hartford High School, has freely placed at my service his unusual skill in teaching ; and my colleagues, Professors Morris, Perrin, and Oertel, have been very kind and helpful, saving me from many errors and furnishing many valuable suggestions. Frequent discussion of the prin- XU GREEK GRAMMAR ciples of syntax with Professor Morris has greatly influenced the development of my views, and I am sure has much im- proved the exposition in this volume ; without the constant aid of Professor Oertel I might often have gone astray in places where even the simplest statements need to be made in the light of a wide knowledge of morphology and of lin- guistic science. Others too numerous to name separately have aided me with criticisms and suggestions at many points, and my wife has in several ways contributed so much that the fact calls for public acknowledgment. Finally, it is probable that some infelicities, and perhaps worse, will be revealed by class-room experience. I shall be grateful for all corrections and suggestions for improvement; and if the book is found useful enough to come to a second edition, I shall hope to make it fill its place better. T. D. G. June, 1902. CONTENTS PAGE Iktroduction 1 L Sounds AND Writing : Alphabet 5 Accent 8 Sound Changes U Vowels 11 Consonants 15 IL Words: A. Nouns and Adjectives 20 L O-Declension : Nouns . 21 IL A-Declension : Nouns . . . . Feminines : First Group . Feminines : Second Group Masculines 23 23 24 25 III. Adjectives of the Vowel Declension 26 IV. Contracted Vowel Stems n-Declension .... 27 30 V. Consonant Declension : Nouns Liquid Stems in -\, -v, -p . Stems in -ep .... Guttural Stems in -k, -y Labial and Dental Stems in -tt, -/3, -t Dental Stems in -t, -5, -d . Neuter Stems in -t . . . Masculine Stems in -vt . Stems in -co-, -oo- .... Stems in -t and -u . . . Stems in -v, -v . Stems in -ev, -av, -ov . Stems in -« and -o . . . Irregular Nouns .... 31 31 33 34 35 35 36 37 37 39 40 . 41 . 43 . 43 XIV GREEK GRAMMAR PAGE VI. Consonant Declension : Adjectives .... 44 Adjectives of Two Endings 45 Comparatives in -wj/ 45 Stems in -€(r 46 Adjectives of Three Endings : Stems in -av . . 47 Stems in -1/ 48 Stems in -avr 48 Adjective Stems in -evr 49 Participial Stems in -evr 50 Stems in -opt 51 Participial Stems in -or (Perfects) .... 53 VII. Comparison of Adjectives ...... 54 VIII. Numeral Adjectives 57 B. Pronouns 60 Personal Pronouns 60 Demonstrative Pronouns 63 Relative Pronouns 64 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns . . . . 65 Correlative Pronouns 68 C. Adverbs 69 Correlative Adverbs 72 D. Verbs 73 A. Verbs of the n-Conjugation 75 I. Vowel Verbs, not contracting .... 76 The Present System 83 The Aorist System 90 The Perfect Active System .... 91 Perfect Middle System 94 The Passive System : ©7j-Passive ... 94 II. Vowel Verbs, Contracting in the Present . . 103 III. Liquid Verbs . 104 IV. Mute Verbs .110 B. Verbs of the Mi-Conjugation 115 I. Verbs in -vvfii 116 II. Verbs in -rjjui, with Stems in -arrj- . . . .118 III. AiSufMi, Tie-nfjLi, "1-nfii 125 IV. Irregular and Defective Mt- Verbs .... 134 Middle and Passive Forms with Peculiar Meaning 139 CONTENTS XV PAGE E. Word-Formation .... .... 141 I. Derivation 141 Verbals 143 Verbal Nouns 142 Verbal Adjectives . . . . . . . 145 Denominatives 148 Denominative Verbs 148 Denominative Adjectives 152 Denominative Nouns 154 II. Composition 158 Compound Verbs 159 Compound Nouns and Adjectives 160 III. Syntax : I. Simple Sentences 168 Indicative Sentences 168 Subjunctive Sentences 177 Optative Sentences 180 Imperative Sentences 183 Negative Sentences 184 Undeveloped and Incomplete Sentences . . . 186 Verbs : Agreement and Voice 188 Nouns : The Cases 191 The Nominative 192 The Genitive 192 The Dative 202 The Accusative 209 Adjectives 215 Special Idioms of Predication 216 The Article 218 Pronouns 222 Infinitives 224 Participles 236 Verbal Adjectives in -TE02 246 Prepositions 247 II. Compound Sentences 248 Parataxis and Hypotaxis 250 III. Complex Sentences 250 M^ Clauses 251 "Os and "Octtis Clauses 253 Other Relative Clauses 258 XVI GREEK GRAMMAR PAGB "Oti, Ai6ri and O'^veKa Clauses 260 Clauses with "Ore, 'OTrt^re, 'ETrei, 'Hj/i/ca, 'OTrr]vlKa , . 263 Clauses with "Eus, "Ecrre, Me'xpt, "Axpi .... 266 'as Clauses 268 "Ottws Clauses 271 no-re Clauses 273 "Im Clauses 274 np^j/ Clauses 276 Et Clauses 277 El with the Indicative 278 'Edu with the Subjunctive 281 El with the Optative 281 Other Uses of Et' 283 Indirect Discourse 284 Particles 287 Word-Order 291 Abbreviations 298 Verb-List 299 Greek Index 315 English Index 330 GREEK GRAMMAR INTEODUCTION Greek is tlie language of tlie ancient peoj^le who called themselves Hellenes, and of their successors to the present day. Their center of abode was, and still is, the country we call Greece (Latin Graecia) and the neighboring islands ; but from a very early period many Greeks were spread over parts of western Asia Minor, and were settled in colonies around other shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the waters that unite them. The sea has always been their main highway. In this language is preserved a large literature of various dates, including the earliest in Europe, and perhaps the greatest of the world. Greek is one of the Indo-European family of languages, of which other members are Sanskrit, Old Persian, Keltic (in- cluding Welsh, Gaelic, Irish), Latin with its descendants (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Kumanian), the Teu- tonic branch (as German, Scandinavian, English), and the Slavic branch (as Russian, Lithuanian, Polish). All these are descended from one parent speech. Though really one when compared with other tongues, 1 1 2 GREEK GRAMMAR Greek was spoken and written differently by different branches of the people. Like all languages, too, it changed with time, and its history has been very long. So we have to distinguish different dialects or forms of Greek and differ- ent periods. In the ancient period the many spoken dialects are mostly included under three general groups, not always easy to keep apart — the Aiolic, Doric, and Ionic, corresponding to divisions of the race. Important seats of the Aiolians were in north- western Asia Minor, Lesbos, Thessaly, and Boiotia (northern group) ; important seats of the Dorians were in Peloponnese, Crete, southern Asia Minor, Sicily, and southern Italy (south- ern group) ; of the lonians, in western Asia Minor and Attica and certain islands between them (middle group). In the literature the dialects were somewhat mingled ; but Sappho (600 B. c.) -rei^resents fairly the Aiolic; Pindar (470 b. c.) and Theokritos (270 b. c.) the Doric; Homer (before 800 B. c.) and Ilerodotos (440 b. c.) the Ionic. The Attic was a branch of Ionic. But the literature of Athens between 500 b. c. and 325 b. c. was so large, so varied, and so great, that its language is better kno^vn than any other dialect, and has especial importance for us. In it are written the tragedies of Aischylos, Sophokles, and Euripi- des, the comedies of Aristophanes, the histories of Thukydi- des and Xenophon, the speeches of Demosthenes and the other Attic orators, the philosophical works of Plato and Aristotle. The superiority of Athens was so marked, in art and gov- INTRODUCTION 3 ernment as well as in letters, that its' dialect became the com^ mon language of tlie educated over all the Mediterranean world. The empire of Alexcmder and his successors, and later that of Rome, aided the spread of this languao-e, and established new literary centers in Alexandria, Antioch, Per- gamon, Rhodes. Thus widely extended, largely among peo- ple not of Greek blood, and more or less changed by time and the use of foreigners, the Attic lost its national character in the cosmopolitan, and became the Common dialect (say from 325 B. c. to 325 a. d,). Polybios, Plutarch, Lucian, and the early Christian Fathers wrote in it ; the New Testament is in a variety of it known as the Hellenistic. Under the Byzantine ox Eastern Roman Empire (325 to 1453 A. D.) this Conmion dialect, always changing slowly, is called Byzantine, with its center at the capital, Constanti- nople. By degrees it developed into the forms now in use by the Greeks, in Greece and the Greek islands, in Asia Minor, Constantinople, and other parts of Turkey-in- Europe. These forms are together known as Modern Greek, w^hich has a large and interesting literature, especially in popular poetry. Unless one lives where Modern Greek is spoken, the study of the language is best begun with Attic Greek, for two rea- sons. Not only is it the best known of the old dialects and the least difficult ; but farther, ancient Athens, by her litera- ture, her art, and her thought, has had a more profound and lasting influence on the world than all the rest of the Greek race together — more, indeed, than any other people ; and the 4 GREEK GRAMMAR . prime object of learning Greek is to gain a first-hand ac- quaintance with a great force in civihzation. This book is intended to contain what one must know of grammar to read with intelhgence the best Athenian litera- ture. One who can do that needs no other grammar for reading the Common, Hellenistic, and Byzantine Greek. PRONUNCIATION 7 b. Much later tlie t in di, rji, col ceased to be pro- nounced, and is not now usually pronounced. Hence it is commonly written under the long vowel, and called L suhscri^jt : a, 77, co. But with a capital this i is still written on the line (adscript) : HI AH I = '1218176 = w8|5? ai^d AIAHS = "AiSt;? = aSi]? Hades. 6 A breathing, not counted as a letter, is written with every initial vowel or diphthong ; the rough breath- ing ( ' ) represents the sound of h preceding the vowel, the smooth breathing ( ' ) merely denotes the ab- sence of the h sound. The breathing is now writ- ten before a capital, but over a small letter. With a diphthong it is written over the second vowel : 'OS09 or oho^ (Jiodos) road; 'Ef or ef (ex) out of; Autos or auTo? (autos) self But if the second vowel of the diphthong is l sub- script or adscript the breathing is put with the first : 'HiSt; or cohrj song. Also, initial p always takes the rough breathing : prjTOip vlietor^ orator. Double p within a word is by some written pp : pivppa myrrh. a. In Attic initial v always has the rough breath- ing : vTTvo<; sleep. 7 The pronunciation above described (1-6) is recommended as the nearest approach practicable, for our schools, to that of Athens about 400 B. c. To c, ^, <^, x are given the sounds now current in Greece, because the ancient sounds for these letters (27 a, 38 b) would increase the difficulties of pupils too much. Otherwise (except for t subscript) the sounds described are nearly those of the Athenians at the time named. 8 SOUNDS AND WRITING 8 Each vowel or diphthong, alone or with one or more consonants, makes a separate syllable. It is customary in writing to join a single consonant, or any group of consonants that may begin a Greek word, with the following vowel, if there be one ; other combinations of con- sonants between vowels are divided : {'-yt-et-a, KT^-/xa, Ke-Kro^-zxat, yt-yi/w-o-Ko), aX-Aos, o-xpo-jxai. But compound words are divided between the members : Trpoa--d-7rTw. ACCENT 9 The accented syllable is marked with one of three signs, called accents. These are The acute accent ( ' ) : 6S6<?. The circumflex accent ( " ) : ttJ? oSov. The grave accent (^ ) : ttjp 6S6p, a. These indicate changes of pitch, or speech-tune, not of stress, in the ancient pronunciation. But now, both in Greece and elsewhere, all alike are pronounced as a simple increase of stress, like the accent in English. 10 The accent mark is put over the vowel o£ the ac- cented syllable ; with a diphthong it is put over the second vowel, unless that is t subscript or adscript. If the vowel has a breathing too, the acute or grave is put at the right of the breathing, the circumflex above the breathing : e \jjl\6v, at, w. With an initial capital the accent and breathing are placed before it : ''O/xt^/oo?, '^n /xeya, "A 18779. 11 The acute can stand only on one of the last three syllables ; the circumflex on one of the last two only, and only on a long vowel or diphthong. ACCENT 9 a. If, then, a vowel has the circumflex accent, it must be long, and no separate mark of length is added. 12 If the ultima is long, the acute can not stand on the antepenult, nor the circumflex on the penult. For exceptions see 93 b. 13 In the penult an accented long vowel or diphthong takes the circumflex, unless that is forbidden by 12. 14 But final at and ot, though long, affect the accent of penult and antepenult as if short ; dpdpcoTroL men, oIkol houses. a. Yet not in oikol at liome, nor in optative verb forms : iravoL. 15 An acute on the ultima changes to the grave when closely followed by another word : ayaOoq dvijp a good mem. a. This change is not made in tl<;, tI interrogative (217) nor before an enclitic (19) ; before a comma usage varies. 16 A few common words have no accent of their own, but seem to rest on the word before or after. Those which thus look forward are called proclitics {irpo-KXivu) lecm for- luard) ; those which look backward are called enclitics (ey- kXivih lean on). 17 The proclitics are a. The article forms 6, tj, olj at ; b. The prepositions et? (e?), ef (e/c), cV ; 0. The conjunction el ; d. 'n? in all uses, excej)t as a demonstrative (thus) ; e. The negative adverb ov {ovk, ovx)- 10 SOUNDS AND WRITING 18 When no companion word follows, on whicli it would lean, a proclitic takes the acute : eyw fiep ov not /, deos m as a godj KaK0)v e^ out of evils. a. When 6, 17, ot, or at is a pronoun (205) many editors print it with an acute, which becomes grave by 15. 19 The enclitics are a. The personal pronouns /xou, /xoi, /xe ; crou, croi, ere ] ov, ot, e ] b. The indefinite pronoun rts in all forms (except oLTTo) ; c. The indefinite adverbs ttou, ttoOi, ttyi, ttoi, iroOevj TTore, TTw, TT(xi%. (Thc corresponding interrogatives are all accented ; see 236.) d. The present indicative of et/xt and <^T7/xt, except the second singular el and (^179. e. The particles ye, re, roij Trep, the inseparable -8e. f. To these add some poetic forms and words, like /xtv, vlv, 20 An enclitic takes an accent a. If emphatic : dXka ae KaXcj Ws you Tm calling. b. If it begins a clause (being then always em- phatic) : (^y-qcrl fxep lie says, indeed. c. If the syllable next before is elided : javr Icrrl for TavToi icm. d. Also, a disyllabic enclitic takes the acute on the ultima, if the word before it has an acute on the pe- nult : \6yov<; TLvd^. e. "EaTL is written thus if it begins a clause, if it means exists or is possible^ and if it follows ovk, fxij, et, ct)9, or /cat. ENCLITICS 11 21 The word before an enclitic a. Keeps its own accent without change : eVet rt? Slcjkol. b. Adds an acute on the ultima, if an acute stands on the antepenult or a circumflex on the penult : c. If it be a proclitic or enclitic, takes an acute : ei (j)rj(TL, el 8e tl^ (jyrjcn. d. The above rules apply also when a word and a following enclitic are printed as one : ovtlvo^, atrti^es, wore. In like manner eWe and j^at)(t from et and i^at. 22 Punctuation. — The comma and period are used as in English. The colon is a point above the line ( • ), taking the place of our colon and semicolon. The mark of a direct question is ( ; ), like oui^ semicolon. SOUND CHANGES 23 Many changes of sound, and therefore of writing, occur in the formation and inflection of words. Va- rious causes combine in various ways to produce them ; to understand them one must observe the ac- tion of the mouth and throat in making speech sounds. The most important relations and changes of Greek sounds are briefly stated in the following sections (24-56). VOWELS 24 Vowels are called open or close according as the moutli in speaking them is more open or less open. The most open vowel is a ; in speaking it both tongue and lips are as much 12 SOUNDS AND WRITING as possible out of the way. In I the tongue narrows the open- ing ; its edges lie close to the teeth, the breath issuing along the middle. In ov the lips are rounded so as to narrow the opening, while the tongue is drawn back. In v the opening is narrowed by the tongue as for I and by the lips as for ov. Thus I, V, and ov are the closest vowel sounds. Between a and I are >/, c, and « ; between d and ov are w and o. These rela- tions are suggested in the following table : Open V (0 € €L O Close (tongue) L I V V ov Close (lips) 25 The short open vowels, a, c, o, often interchange, in root, stem, suffix, and endings. To indicate this variable sound, chang- ing from one to another in various forms, we use the symbols o:€, a:€, and a:e:o. 26 In like manner the long open vowels, d, ?;, w, often inter- change. The pair d:r) is especially frequent in declension, the pair r;:a) in conjugation. a. Less often one of the short open vowels interchanges with one of the long open vowels. Instances are noted as they occur. 27 Originally v represented the sound that was afterward written ov. The two close vowels, t and original v, when followed by a vowel, became consonantal, like our consonants y and to re- spectively ; the same change occurred in Latin, and often oc- curs in English. The earliest Greek had these two conso- nants; the latter survived in some dialects in the classical period, and was represented by f, called vau, or (from its shape) Si-yafifia cUgamma. But in Attic both had disappeared before 500 B. c. Thus arises the rule : The close vowels i and v often disappear between two vowels. See 135. VOWELS 13 a. In observing sound changes the original diphthong ct (from € -|- t) must be distinguished from the digraph et, which represents the simple sound € (anciently = French e) length- ened. So also the original diphthong ov (from o + original v) must be distinguished from the digraph ov, which represents the simple long sound of original v. The rule in 27 applies to the true diphthongs, before they coalesced in pronunciation with the simple et and ov. 28 a. Long and short vowels are sometimes interchanged. The corresponding forms are commonly Short a, €, I, o, V, Long 7} or d, 77, r, w, v. Tragic poets in lyric parts often use Doric d where prose uses 7). b. But when vowel-lengthening results from the loss of one or more following consonants (and sometimes in other cases), a, e, o become 29 Contraction. — Two syllables of the same word, not separated by a consonant (especially if the first ends in a short open vowel), are often united into one. The general rules observed in con- traction are : a. Two like vowels unite into their long, ee becoming ct and 00 becoming ov (that is, the simple digraphs; cp. 27 a). b. A short vowel disappears in a following diphthong that begins with the same vowel or with the corresponding long. c. An o-sound (o, w, ov, ot) prevails over an a- or e-sound (a, d, e, r;, a), o€ and eo becoming ov. d. Of a- and e-sounds the one that precedes prevails. e. An open vowel and a close vowel make a diphthong. 30 a. The accent is unchanged by contraction, unless one of the syllables contracted was accented. b. If the accent was on the first of these, the contract syl- lable has the circumflex ; if on the second, the acute. 14 SOUNDS AND WRITING 31 Hiatus is the pronunciation of an initial vowel immediately after a final vowel. This was avoided, especially in poetry, by care in choosing and arranging words and by v movable (41), and was evaded or softened by elision and crasis. 32 Elision is dropping or slighting a final short vowel before an initial vowel. The slighted vowel is replaced in writing by an apostrophe ( ' ) : dAA' eyw for dAXa eyw. But between the parts of a compound word no apostrophe is written. For consonant changes see 42. a. Verse inscriptions show that the ancients did not much care whether they wrote or omitted the elided vowel. 33 a. Elision is most common in prepositions, conjunctions, and particles, as 8e, dAXd, ye, tc, IttL b. Never elided are a and o in monosyllables, i in Trept, d^^t, /Aex/ot, TL^ TL, and oTL ; also v. "Or must therefore be for ore. 34 An accent on the elided vowel a. Is lost in prepositions and conjunctions : fier avTov, a\X* iy(x) cfjrjiJiL. b. On other words goes back to the penult : Oavixda-r lAe^as (Oavfiaa-To.) a wo7idrous tale I 35 Crasis (/cpdo-is mingling) is like contraction (29) except that it occurs between separate words, which are then written as one. If the first syllable had the rough breathing, that is re- tained over the mingled syllable ; otherwise the smooth breath- ing is written : iywfJLat for eyw oT/xat, av for d di/, wyaOe for w dya^€, TdfJid for tol ifxai. 36 a. Final t of a diphthong disappears in crasis : ovv for ot iv or 6 €1/ : b. Initial a absorbs the vowel or diphthong of a preceding article and of tol ; most vowels and diphthongs absorb the at of Kttt: di/77/3, rdi/Spds, avSpes, avros, rdv, k€l^ for 6 dvrjp^ Tov dvSpos, ol dvSpeSj 6 avros, tol av, kul et. ELISION AND CRASIS 15 But note Kas, Kara, kov, for KCLL 69, Kttt etTO, Kttt Iv. c. "Ercpos is treated as are/aos, probably the older form : drcpo^ for 6 erepos. d. Xote also applications of 42 : Oarepov, xVi X®^» Ool^ariov, for TO IrepoVy kol rj, Koi oi, to i/xdriov. 37 The accent of the first word is lost in crasis, that of the sec- ond retained ; see examples in 35 and 36. CONSONANTS 38 Consonants are classified according as the different organs of speech are active in pronouncing them. a. Those are sonant (voiced) in which the vocal cords are active, as in the vowels. (The vibration may be felt by placing the finger on the throat at the " Adam's apple.") These are A, p, fx, V, y nasal ; f3, S, y (middle mutes) ; and ^ Those are surd (voiceless) in which the vocal cords are at rest. These are o- (sibilant, spirant) ; tt, t, k (smooth mutes) ; (f), 0, X (rough mutes) ; and \j/ and ^. b. Mutes (stopped sounds), as the ancients pronounced them, require complete closure of the mouth passage, by lips or tongue, a brief pressure of the breath behind the bar- rier (the nasal passage being also closed by the soft palate) and then a quick opening of the barrier. Thus the breath finds an explosive exit ; the sound can be but slightly pro- longed, and is not easily pronounced alone. These are TT /3 <f> labial (or 7r-mutes) ; closure by the lips ; T 8 6 dental (or T-mutes) ; closure by the tongue just back of the front upper teeth ; K y X guttural (or /c-mutes) ; closure by the back of the tongue against the soft palate. c. Of these, tt, t, k are smooth mutes, in contrast with <^, 6, X- The latter are rough mutes or aspirates ; in them the opening is more explosive, a tt-, t-, or K-sound followed by 16 SOUNDS AND WRITING a distinct A-sound, as in top-heavy^ liot-liead^ pacTc-Jiorse. In the sonants p, 8, y the breath is checked by the vibrating vocal cords, so that less breath gathers for explosive exit than in the aspirates. The Greeks called these middle mutes, mid- way between the smooth mutes and the aspirates in the force of the final element. d. In the nasals, /x, v, y nasal, the nasal passage is open, the soft palate being lowered ; thus the breath, after passing between the vibrating vocal cords, finds exit through the nose ; the oral passage is closed, in /x, by the lips, in v by the flattened tongue against the front teeth (the lips being open), in 7 nasal by the back of the tongue against the soft palate (the lips being open). e. i/a for TTO", ^ for So- (o- being probably made sonant), and ^ for K<T are called double consonants. 39 These relations are shown in the following table : Voiced Voiceless *-' ^ -^^ -^ Liquids Double Mutes Double _ -^ -^ Conso- ^ — ^ Sibi- Conso- Nasals nant Middle Rough Smooth lant nants Labials ft (3 (}> tt i/^ Dentals X p v ^ 8 6 to- Gutturals y nasal 7 X '^ ^ 40 At the end of a word no consonant could stand but -i/, -p^ or -9, and no consonantal group but -i/^, -^, or -y$. Any other single consonant at the end was dropt ; any other group at the end caused some change. a. Final -Xs occurs in -aX<s salt, sea ; final -vs in Ttpws Tiry7is. The proclitics Ik out of and ov/c, ov^ not are almost a part of the following word, and so are hardly exceptions. 41 A final -v (v movable) was added at will to some words. These are (1) words in -o-t (-i/^t, -^t), (2) verbs in -c in the third singular, (3) icm is, (4) sometimes the irregular rju went and ySeL knew. a. Poetry and inscriptions alike show that v movable was freely added before vowels and consonants ; before vowels it CONSONANTS 17 could be omitted and elision used instead. The writer chose whichever treatment best pleased his ear. 42 Before the rough breathing a smooth mute (tt, t, k) is aspi- rated, becoming <^, 0, or x- This occurs in composition, eli- sion, and crasis ; also in ovk : £7ri -|- 68o?, OLTTO WVj TTtttS T€ j^Sc, KOL Ot, OVK bCCOmG ^<fioSos, a<j> (ov, Trats 0* ^8e, ;;(ot, ov;^. a. This change is merely another way of writing the same sounds (38 c). It is better in such cases (unless perhaps in compounds), and also easier, to keep the ancient sound of </), ^, X and so avoid distorting common words. 43 Before a dental mute (r, 8, 6) a. A labial or guttural mute must agree in aspiration, as smooth, middle, or rough ; the only combinations are ttt, )88, <^^, KT^ y8, x^- (But cK in composition is unchanged.) b. Another dental mute changes to a-. 44 Before /x a. A labial mute (tt, /8, <^) becomes /a, b. A guttural mute (k, y, x) becomes y, c. A dental mute (t, 8, ^) becomes o-. 45 a. With a following o- a labial mute forms j/^, a guttural mute forms ^. b. A dental mute before o- disappears. 46 Before t a r often becomes o-. t and o- sometimes inter- change in other situations ; especially the older (T(t became TT as early as 450 b. c. 47 Two successive syllables are seldom allowed to begin with a rough mute. Accordingly a. In reduplication a rough mute is changed to the smooth. b. In the ^77-passive the aorist imperative ending -6l is changed to -tl. c. The verb-stems Oe- put and 6v- sacrifice become re- and TV- in the ^r/'passive. 2 18 SOUNDS AND WRITING d. Several stems that originally began with one rough mute and ended with another have lost the aspiration at the begin- ning of most forms, but retain the aspiration there whenever the final mute loses it. LIQUIDS 48 Initial p commonly stands for an older fp or ap. When, by inflection or otherwise, a vowel precedes, the f or o- usually appears as p instead of the aspiration. Hence the rule : Initial p is doubled after the augment and reduplication, and in compounds after a short vowel. 49 After a nasal in a few words, by unconsciously closing the nasal passage too soon, a mute is developed. English exam- ples are Thom(p)son, num{h)er (Latin numerus). In Greek we find After fi Si P'. ya/AjSpos for ya/x-pos (root ya/x-), fxeo-Tj/JL^ptd for fJi€(rrjix[€)pid [rj/Jiipd) After v a 8 : dvSpos for dv(€)pos. 60 The nasal v a. Before a labial mute or p. becomes p,. b. Before a guttural mute becomes y nasal. c. Before A or p may be assimilated, becoming X or p. (But see e.) d. But vp. becomes o-p. in forms of <^atVw and from some other verb-stems in -v. e. iv remains unchanged before p : h-pvOp.o^. 51 N before o- within a simple word disappears with length- ening of the vowel before it ; « becomes ct, o becomes ov (27 a and 28 b),— a. In some derivatives. b. In the accusative plural of o stems (62 a). c. In the verb-ending -(i/)cn (older -vtl) (263 a). d. But in the dative plural v before -o-t disappears with- out vowel-lengthening. CONSONANTS 19 52 '^vv in composition a. Changes v to a- before a simple a-. b. Loses V before a- followed by a consonant, and before ^. 53 The group vt, v8, or v$ before o- disappears, with lengthen- ing of the vowel before it (28 b). SIGMA 64 Initial o- followed by a vowel is often weakened to the rough breathing. Compare Greek wo, VTrcp, aAs, cpTro), LO-rrjfxi^ aAAo/xai, Latin sub, super, sal, serpo, sisto, salio. 55 a. Between vowels o- is apt to disappear. b. Between consonants o- disappears. c. When inflection brings two sigmas together, one dis- appears. CONSONANTS WITH IOTA 56 x\fter a consonant t often causes changes. Thus ; a. Xl becomes AA : aAAos, Latin alius. b. After v or p, 6 is transposed and contracts with the stem vowel. c. Kt, yt, or xt, sometimes n, becomes <t(t, later rr. d. 8i, sometimes yt (also yyt), becomes ^. II. WORDS A. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 57 In nouns and adjectives Greek distinguishes more or less fully Three Genders — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Three Numbers — Singular and Plural, and some- times a Dual for two objects only. Five Cases — Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accu- sative, and Vocative. 68 The genders are grammatical, as in Latin. For the most part they agree with the sex, but not always, in the case of creatures that have sex ; and names of many sexless things are masculine or feminine. Gender must be learned by reading and practice. 59 The nominative, accusative, and vocative are used nearly as in Latin. The genitive is used nearly as in Latin, but has also some uses of the Latin ablative, as a from case. The dative is used nearly as in Latin, but has also some uses of the Latin ablative, as a with^ hy^ atj or in case. 60 The stem of a noun or adjective is that part to which the case-endings are added. The character of the stem affects the ending and the way of uniting 20 CASES AND DECLENSIONS 21 61 one to the other. Nouns and adjectives are declined in three ways, named from the last letter of the stem : The O • Declension, for stems in -o ; The A • Declension, for stems in -d ; The Consonant Declension, for stems that end in a consonant or in l or v. The O- and A- Declensions are so much alike that they are together called the Vowel Declension. The article 6 rj to the may be used with any noun, and is a convenient mark of gender. It is declined thus ; Sing. M. F. N. Plu. M. F N. Dual. M. F. N. N. 6 f| t6 N. ol al TOl KA. T(0 G. TOV Tf]S TOV G. T(OV T(OV Tcav G. D. TOIV D. T(3 TTJ TW D. Tois Tats TOLS A. TOV TTIV TO A. TOVS TCLS Td a. The article has no vocative. The interjection w is familiarly used with a vocative noun, without the emotional tone which implies in English. I. 0- Declension: Nouns 62 For examples (jrapaheiyixaTa) see the table on the next page. a. Masculines and feminines are declined alike. There are many more masculines than feminines, but a few femi- nines occur often. They take -s in the nominative singular and change -o to -€ in the vocative singular (25). Note that every dative has t, on the line or subscript. In the accusative plural -ovs is for -o-v?, by 51 b. ^^,j^ss^ ' . =^*^^ j^\ \ O r\ /s rf V"^^^ iT ^ OF THE X i UNIVERSITY ) 22 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Stem . . . (6) pto- (6) dv0pwiro- (^) 68o. (xb) 8«po- Meaning . life mmi road gift Sing. N. 6 pio-s dvGpcoiro-s T| 656-s t6 8(opo-v G. TOV PlO\) dvOpCOTTOl) TT^s 65o{; TOV 8(opo\} D. TCO plCO dvOpcaircp TTJ 68(3 T(0 8(op(o A. TOV plO-V dvGpcoiro-v TT|v 666-v TO 8(opo-v Y. (0 Pl€ dvOpoire <S bhi (0 8(opo-v Plur. N. ol pioi dvSpcoTTOL at 65oi Td 8(opa G. T(OV pl(OV dvOpcoirov T(ov 68(ov T(OV 8(op(ov D. TOLS plOLS dvGpCOTTOLS Tais 68ois^ TOLS 8(OpOLS A. TOVS pious dv6p(OTroi)S Tas 68013$ Td 8(opa Y. <S pioi dvSpcoiroi w 68oi -9 (0 8(opa Du.KA. TO) pl(0 dv0p(OTrco TO) 68(0 TO) 8(op(o G.D. TOLV plOLV dvOpWTTOLV TOLV 68oiv TOLV 8(OpOLV b. The nominative is used for the vocative always in 6e6<i god^ and sometimes in other words. c. Neuters take -v in the nominative, accusative, and voca- tive singular, and change -o to -a in the nominative, accusa- tive, and vocative plural (see 25). 63 a. The accent of the nominative singular is kept throughout, except that b. The rules in 12 and 14 must be followed : see c. In the genitive and dative an accented long ultima takes the circumflex : see 6S()9. 64 In the dative plural poets freely use the older ending -oto-t; so also in the article and in adjectives: ySw/xoto-t rots o-ots, and rolcTLV ifJi7r€LpOL(TL. S. OT. 16, 44. VOWEL DECLEXSIOX: NOUNS 23 II. A - Declension : Nouns 65 Feminine noun-stems in -d may be classed in two groups ; those of the first group retain -d or -a throughout the singular, those of the second group change -a to -tj in all, or in some, singular forms. 66 Feminines : First Group Stem nH.€pa- o-Kia- [Jioipd- Meaning . . . daij sliadow share, fate Sing. K. G. TTJS fjliepd Tl|JL€pdS o-Kia cKids pLOLpa pioipds D. A. Y. 0) fifxepd T)|Xc'pd-V Tip.€pd (TKLCL (TKld-V CTKia [xoipa }iOLpa-v |ioipa Plur. X.Y. G. at TWV T]|JLepai T]p,€pa)V aKiai CTKloiiV [lOLpai [iOLpWV D. A. Tats Tas f]}i€paLS T]HL€pdS aKiats (TKlds fioipais jioipds Dii. KA. TO) fifiepd (TKLa [JLOipd G. D. TOLV fificpaiv cKiaiv (ioipaiv 67 In the singular a. The nominative generally has -d after a vowel, -a after .a consonant. Exceptions are mostly marked by the accent (11-13) : vyUia healthy aXriOeia truths X^P^ Z«7z<ii AT^'Sd Leda. b. If the nominative has -d or -77, the other cases have the same. 24 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES c. If the nominative has -a, the accusative and vocative have the same ; the genitive and dative have 'd after a vowel or />, otherwise -rj. 68 The rules of accent in 63 a-c apply to all declen- sions. But a. The genitive plural in the a-declension always has the ultima circumflexed, because -cov is contracted from -a-oji^ (29 c and 30 b). 69 a. Poets retain the older a in some words where short a appears in prose. b. The dramatists in lyric parts use freely the Doric forms that retain the older d in place of Attic rj; so, too, in the 70 Feminines: Second Group Stem .... TX|ia- vlKa- SaXatrca- Meaning . . . honor victory sea Sing. N. TtR VLKT] edXao-ffa G. TlflTlS VlKTlS 6a\do-(nis D. TL(J.T) VlKT) OaXdcrcrT) A. TL(i11-V VlKTl-V GdXacro-a-v V. TtR VlKTl edXacTcra Plur. N.y. TLJJLai VLKai OdXacro-ai G. TLJJLCOV VLKcav eaXao-o-cov D. TL[JLaLS VlKaLS GaXdo-o-ais A. Tlfias VlKdS edXao-o-ai Du. KA. Tifia VLKd 6aXdcrcrd G. D. Tl|JLaLV VLKaiV GaXdcrcraiv A-DECLEXSION : NOUNS 25 71 genitive plural, -av for -wv ; likewise in the article and in ad- jectives and pronouns of this declension. c. In the dative plural the poets use freely the older ending -ato-t ; so, too, in the article and in adjectives and pronouns (cp. 64). Masculines Stem ..... vtdvia- iroXlTd- TroiTiToL- Meaning . . . young man ciiizen maker, poet Sing. IS". V€dvid-s iro\iTT|-s TTOLllTTi-S G. vedviou TToXlTOU TTOvtyrov D. vedvia TToXlTT] -rroLtiTTJ A. V€dvid-v TroXiT-q-v TTOLTITTJ-V y. vedvid iroXiTa TTOLTlTd Plur. KY. V€dviaL TToXiTai TTOlTITai G. v€dvLa)v ttoXltcov TTOLTITWV D. veaviaLS iroXixaLS TTOlTlTaiS A. vedvids TToXlTdS irOLT|TdS Du. N. A. vcdvid iroXiTd TTOLTlTa G.D. v€dviaLV TToXlTaLV TTOlTITaiV 72 Masculine stems in -a are like feminines, except in the singu- lar, as follows : a. They change -a to -■>; except after c, t, or p. b. The nominative ends in -9. c. The genitive ending -ov is borrowed from the o-de- clension. d. In the vocative nouns in -rr;? have -ra. Also national names in -rys have -a : Ilcpo-rys, Ilcpo-a. The vocative of Sco-- TTori^s master has recessive accent : Sia-TroTa. e. Some proper names in -as (Doric or foreign) make the genitive in -d, and retain a throughout, contrary to 67 c. 26 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES III. Adjectives of the Vowel Declej^sion 73 Many adjectives follow the o-declension, the mas- culine and feminine being alike, as with nouns. Here belong nearly all compound stems in -o. 74 Stem Meaning . . . ^o-vxo- quiet Sing. K. G. D. A. Y. M. F. N. TJoruXOS Ticruxov fjo-uxo^ yvx^ -qo-vxov Plur. N. G. D. A. Y. M. F. N. TIO-VXOL TlO-VXCl f](n3x<ov T|0-1JX0''S T^ciixous -ncruxa T^O-UXOL T^O-UXO' Du. N. A. G. D. T]0"UXO) fjO-UXOLV 75 Still more adjectives have a stem in -o for the mas- culine and neuter, and a stem in -d for the feminine. 76 Stem o-o<j)o-, <ro<j) a- SiKaio-, SiKaid- Meaning . . U'ise just, upright Sing. N. o-o<j)6s 0-0(1)11 o"0(|)6v SiKaios StKaid SiKaiov G. o-o<j)oi) o-o(t>'ns o-oc|)0'u SLKaioi) 8LKaids StKaiov D. (TOct)^ o-o<t)fj aocjxo SiKaico SiKaid SiKaico A. cotjxjv (TO^y\v o'o<t)6v SiKaiov SiKaidv 6iKaiov Y. 0'0(|)€ cro^-x\ o-o<t)6v SiKaie SiKaid 8iKaiov SiKaLOi 8iKaLai SiKata PL N.Y. 0'0<t>OL (to^qS. o'o<j>d G. oro(|)(OV 0'0())COV o-ocbcav SiKaicDV SiKaiwv SiKaicov D. cocIjols o-0(l>ais o-ocbots SLKaioLS SiKaiaLS SiKaiois A. (ro<j)0'US o-o<|>as o-o<|)d SiKaiovs 5iKaids SiKaia Du. N.A. o-o<t)(o o-o(t>a cro(|)(o SiKaio) SLKaid StKaio) G.D. cro<|)oiv OrOct)aLV 0'0<|)OLV SiKaioiv SiKaiaiv SiKaioiv NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 27 77 a. The feminine singular lias -d after e, t, or p, other- wise -7/. b. In the nominative and genitive plural the femi- nine is accented like the masculine, not as it would be in a noun : StVatat and SiKaiajv. 78 Some adjectives are declined now with, now with- out, a separate feminine. Especially in poetry the forms vary. IV. Contracted Vowel Stems 79 Stems in -eo and -oo are contracted (29 a, b, and c. But -ea becomes -d.) 80 Stem . V00-, vou- doTCO-, OCTTOU- Meaning . . mind ho7ie Sing. ^\ 6 (voos) voiis TO (OO-TCOV) OO-TOVV G. (voou) vov (oo-Teoi)) ocToii D. (voc?) v(3 (6o-T€C0) OO-TCO A. (vdov) voOv (6o-T€OV) OO-TOVV Plur. N. (vool) VOL (oo-Tca) oo-Td G. (v6<ov) V(OV (6o-TC0)V) OO-TCOV D. (voois) VOLS (OO-TCOLS) OO-TOLS A. (voovs) voois (oo-Tea) oo-Td The vocative and the dual do not occur. 81 a. Simple nouns take the circumflex on the ultima throughout. b. Compounds keep the accent on the syllable that has it in the nominative singular : e/cTrXou?, e/crXou, eKirXcDv. So also adjectives (83). 28 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 82 Stem .... €ivoo-, fivov- Meaning . . kind, friendly Sing. M. F. N. Plur. M. p. N. N. c-uvous ewoDV €woi ciivoa G. e-uvou €\»VO)V D. cvvco e-uvoLS A. t-uvouv cvvous ciJvoa 83 Compound adjectives of this class retain -oa in the neuter plural uncontracted. For the accent see 81 b. 84 Some stems in -d contract ; they have the circum- flex throughout (30 b). 85 Stem .... Meaning. . 'AOrivaa- 'A9nva- Athena 7td- earth *Ep(jt€a- 'EpH-Ti- Hermes, PI. images of II. KY. G. D. A. 'AGiivd ' AGiivds ' A0Tiva ' Ae-qvdv * EpfiTis ' EpfjLat * EpfJLOl) ' Ep}JL(OV ' EpnTJ ' Epiiais ' Epfifjv * Epfjids 88 Poets use the forms 'A^avd, 'A^avd?, etc. ; also the Doric forms ya, etc., as well as the longer yala, yatas, etc. 87 A few adjectives of color and material in -€09, and a few of number in -ttXoo?, usually contract, and have a separate feminine : 7rop(f)vp€o^, 7rop(j)vp€dj 7rop(j>vpeov dark red] ■)(pv(Teo<;, ^pvaidj ^pvcreov golden ; aTrXoos, airXor), airXoop single. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 29 88 Stem .... <irop<J>vp6o-, 'irop<j)vpca- Meaning. . dark red or purple M. F. N. Sing. ^". irop<j)upo\)s 'Trop<j)upd 'irop<l)\)po{)v G. 'irop<j)\)po{i Trop<t>\)pds 'Trop<t)Dpo'0 D. 'Tropct)upco 'irop(j)upa 'Trop(|)\jpw A. 'irop<j)upo{)v 'irop<))\jpdv iTop<|>i)po{iv Pliir. N. 'irop<j)i)poi 'Trop<|)\)paL Trop<j)upd G. 'irop<t)i)pcov 'irop<l)\)p(ov 'irop<|)\jp<ov D. TrOp<|)\JpOLS 'irop<j)\)pais 'Trop(t)\)pOLS A. Trop<|)i)povs 'Trop<|)\)pds 1T0p<|)l)pd 89 a. Contractions are mostly as in nouns, but the final syllables characteristic of this declension are kept ; hence in the singular -pa (not -pj] : 77 a) and aTrXrj, and in the neuter plural -a (not -t)). b. The contract forms all take the circumflex on the ultima, sometimes contrary to 30 a. 90 Stem . Xpvo-€0-, xpva-iS.- 8nrXoo-, 8nrXod- Mean. goldeii douhh Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N. N. XpucoOs XP^^fl XpiJo'ovv SlitXovs SittXt] SiirXovv G. Xpucoii XP^^^'^S XpiJo-o-O SiirXo-u SLTrXfjs SlttXov D. Xpiio-co xP^o-li Xpiio-co SlttXco SittXtj SlttXw A. Xputroxlv yj^\i(yr\v XpvJo-o-Ov SiirXovv SittXtiv SiirXovv Plur. :n'. XpiiaoL XP^^^^ Xpi3(7d SlttXol SiTrXat SiirXoa G. XpiJo'tov yj^vdSiV Xpvo-cov SlttXcov SiirXtov SlttXcov D. XpiJcroLS XP^^^-^S XP^o'O^S SiirXots SiirXaLS SiirXoLS A. Xpuaovs XP^o'CLS XpiJo-d SLirXovs SiirXds SiirXoa 30 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES fi-DECLEN-SION 91 A few noun and adjective stems have changed -o (generally -do) to -a> (-eco), and are declined as fol- lows (w-declension) : 92 Stem vao-, veo>- 1 '\ao-, f\€a - Meaning . . . temple gracious M. F. N. Sing. JSr.Y. V€(OS l\€(OS tXeojv G. V€(0 lX€(0 D. V€CO tXeco A. V€(OV l\€(OV iXecov Plur. N.Y. V€(0 IXcco cXea G. V€COV iXcwv D. V€(OS lXccos A. V€a)S iXecos cX€a Du. N.A. V€CO iXeo) G. D. vecov t'Xecov 93 a. The w appears in all cases except the neuter plural nominative and accusative ; ot of the usual form be- comes ft). b. The long ultima does not exclude the acute ac- cent from the antepenult — an exception to 12. c. The accent of the nominative singular is retained throughout. (An accented ultima in the genitive and dative is circumjiexed by some editors.) 94 The stem co>-, nominative (17) Iw? dawn^ has in the accusa- tive €0) (not kixiv). So sometimes other nouns and adjectives: TOV MtV<o, Tr]V Keo), etc. 95 The adjective ttAcws full has the regular feminine TrXed, etc. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 31 96 Instead of the regular forms of o-Cjos, a-wd, a-wov safe, iin- liarmed, Attic writers more often use M. F. N. M. F. N. Sing. N. (rm (Twv PI. N. o-o) era A. (ru)V A. crcu? era 97 Sometimes, especially in poetry, the regular forms from stems in -do are used : vdovs, MeveXdo?, iXdot. V. Consonant Declension : Xouns 98 To the consonant declension belong, among nouns, Liquid stems ending in -A, -v, -p. Guttural stems ending in -k, -y -x, Labial and dental stems ending in -tt, -/?, and in -r, -8, -0, Xeuter stems ending in -r, Masculine stems ending in -vt, Stems ending in -eo-, -ao-, Stems ending in -l, -v, Stems ending in -cv, -av, -ov, Stems ending in -a>, -o, Some irregular nouns. 99 Liquid Stems in -X, -v Stem Me AXING . . . (6) UK- salt (6) |iT|V- month (6) dY«v- contest Sing. KY. G. D. A. dX-s dX-ds dX-i aX-a dYcov d-ycav-os d-ycov-L d^cav-a Pliir. K.Y. a. D. A. dX-€S dX-(ov dX-ai dX-as [JLflV-€S fiT|V-(OV |ill-0-L |iTlv-as d-ycbv-es d'ycov-cov d-yco-o-i d^cov-as Du. KA. G. D. dX-€ dX-OLV |xflV-€ (iTjV-OLV d^cov-c d^WV-OLV 32 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 100 In aAs (see 40 a) both stem and case-endings are unchanged throughout. 101 Monosyllabic stems of this declension accent the ending in the genitive and dative ; -wz^ and -oIp take the circumflex. a. Xot so, however, the genitive plural (and dual) of o, Tj, Trat?, 7rat8-os cMlcl, 6 Tpcus, T/oco-os Troja7i, TO ovs, (ir-os ear, 6 8/xco?, 8/xa>-os s/«z;e (poetic). Thus TratS-i', 7rai-(rt, but TratS-wv, iraih-oiv. 102 Liquid Stems {continued) in -v, -p Stem ..... (6) Xt|X6V- (6) 8ai(iov- (6) pT]TOp- Meaning . . . harbor divinity sjieaker Sing. N. \l\L'i\V 6ai|xcov pTJTcap G. \HJL€V-03 8ai[iov-os pTlTOp-OS D. Xl[JL€V-L 8ai|i.ov-L pTJTOp-l A. XilJicv-a Saijiov-a pTJTOp-a y. XLfJLTjV 8aL}JL0v pflTOp Plur.N.y. XlJJl€V-€S 8ai[xov-€s pTJTop-es G. Xl|JI€V-COV 8aL[jL6v-(ov pTlTOp-COV D. XifJie-o-L SaiJJLO-CTL pT|TOp-0-L A. XifjLcv-as 8ai[iov-as pT|TOp-aS Du. KA. Xl|JL€V-€ 8aifJiov-€ pl^TOp-C G. D. Xl}JL€V-OLV 8ai[jL6v-OLV pTlTOp-OLV L03 Stems in -v and -p a. Omit the case-ending -? and lengthen a short ultima (40) : SaLjxwv for 8at/x,o^'-9, prfTiap for prjrop-S. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 33 b. But note 6 BeX(t>L<s dolphin for 8eA<^tv-s and ^ ^^aXa/xU Salamis for 5aAa/xIi/-s. c. As a vocative singular they use the nominative if the ultima is accented ; otherwise the simple stem. d. For Xt/x€-o-t, Sat/jto-o-t, see 51 d. 104 'k-TroXXoiv Apollo has in the accusative singular 'ATroAAwva, but of tener 'AttoAAw ; the vocative is "KiroXXov^ with recessive ac- cent (cp. ScWora, 72 d). 105 A few common stems in -ep make a class by them- selves. They accent the ending in the genitive and dative singular as if monosyllabic, reject e in those cases, change ep to pa in the dative plural, and in the vocative singular have recessive accent (cp. " KttoWovj 104). 106 Stems in -fp Stem . .... (6) iraTep- (6) dvep- (^) FITCp- (Tj) Qvyartp- Meaning . . father man mofher daughter Sing. N. iraTTip dvTip RT11P Gv-ydTTip G. iraTp-os dv6p-cs IJLTlTp-ds Bv-yaxp-ds D. irarp-L dv6p-L RTp-L eu-yaTp-t A. irarep-a dv5p-a }JLT|T€p-a ev-yaxcp-a Y. TTCLTCp dv€p RT€p Gv-yaxep Plur. KY. iraxep-es dv8p-€S p.TlT€p-€S Oxj-yaxep-es G. iraTcp-cov dv5p-(ov |JLT|T€p-<OV Bu-yaxep-cov D. TraTpd-CL dvSpd-cTL [LTl\Tpa-(Tl SD-yaxpd-cri A. iraTcp-as dv8p-as jjniT€p-as Gu-yaxep-as Du. KA. iraTcp-c dv8p-€ RT€p-€ 6u'Yax€p-€ G.D. TraT€p-oiv dv5p-0LV [iT|T€p-OLV ev-yaxep-oiv 34 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 107 In dvrj/o after e was lost 8 was developed between v and p (49). Thus the stem becomes avSp- in most forms ; hence the accent of dvSpoJi/, avSpolv (101). 108 a. Like Trarrjp is declined 6 yao-Trjp (yao-rep-) Z'C//?/. b. [N^early like fjirjrrjp except in accent is Arj/xrjTTjp Deineter, G. ArJiJLY)Tpo<Sy D. A-^fxrjTpL, A. Arj/xr/rpa, V. AyfjLrjTep. 109 Guttural Stems in -k, -y Stem Meaning . . . (6) 4)vXaK- guard (1) al7- goat {i\) <J>a\a77- hatih-UnG Sing.N.Y. G. D. A. <|)'u\a| (|)ij\aK-03 (|)\i\a!<-L <t)'uXaK-a al-y-ds al-yi (t^dXa'yl (t>d\a77-os <t>d\a'Y'Y-L (j^dXa-y^-a Plur. KY. G. D. A. <|)1j\aK-€S <|)u\dK-(OV <|)\iXa|L <|)i3\aK-as al|i at-y-as <j)d\a'Y7-€S <|)a\d77-(ov <t)dXa7|L <j>dXa'Y'Y-as Dii. KY. G. D. 1 (t)ij\aK-€ (j)D\dK OLV ai'Y-€ ai7-0Lv <|)d\a77-€ (^aXd-y^-OLV 110 For -^ and -^i see 45 a. 111 a. In 6 K^pv^, KypvK-o<s Jierald, v becomes short in the nomi- native and vocative singular. So I in 6 cfiolvti, (f>oLvlK-o<s, date- palm. b. The stem Optx- hair follows 47 d; thus 77 Opi^^ tols OpL^L, but rpixos, rpLXh ^P^X^y etc. c. The stem (6) dvaKT- king, cJdef, loses t before -s and -ort, and loses kt in the VOC. sing. : dva^, dvaKr-o?, dvaKx-t, dvaKT-a, di/a^ (also dra in prayer), pi. di/aKr-e?, dj/d/cT-wj/, dva^t, di^aKr-as. So, too, T7 vv$, vvKT-6^, night, makes the dat. pi. w^l. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 35 112 Labial and Dental Stems in -tt, -^, -r Stem Meaning . . . (6) kXwtt- thief (6) *Apap- Arah (6) Y€\«T- . laughter Sing.N.y. G. D. A. kX(o\|/ kXcdtt-os kXcott-i KXcOTT-a "Apa\|/ "Apap-os "Apap-i "Apap-a "Apap-€S 'Apdp-(ov "Apa\|/i "Apap-as "ycXcos 7€XcOT-OS -yeXcoT-i •YcXoiT-a Pliir.N.y. g: A. kXcott-cs kXcott-wv kX(o\|/i KXtOTT-aS -ye'XoT-cs •yeXtoT-tov •yeXco-cri •ycXcax-as Dii. N.Y. G. D. KX<OTr-€ kXcott-oiv "Apap-€ 'Apdp-OLV -yeXcoT-c -ycXcoT-OLV 113 For -\{/ and -i/^t see 45 a; for yeA(o(T)s and yeXa)(T)o-t see 45 b. 114 Dental Stems in -r, -5, -6 Stem Meaning . . . (^) IXm8- hope grace (6, f|) opvie- Sing.KY. G. D. A. €Xiris cXttiS-os cXttlS-i eXmS-a Xdpis XdpLT-os XdpiT-i XdpLV opvis opvie-os opviG-L OpVLV Plur.KY. G. D. A. eXiriS-cs €XTri5-cov cXtti-o-i cXiriS-as XdpiT-€S XapLT-a>v Xdpi-o-i XdpiT-as OpVL6-€S 6pvL6-cov opVL-ai opvlS-as Du. KY. G. D. cXttiS-^ eXiriS-oiv XdpLT-€ XapiT-OLV opvlG-c 6pVL6-oiv 115 Stems in -r, -8, -^ after unaccented t or v lose the mute and take -v in the accusative singular, as if 36 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES they were stems in -t or -v (130) : rj Kopv^ K6pv6-o<; helmet ace. Kopvv. 116 The vocative of Trat?, 7ratS-os child is ttoI. The stem was origi- nally 7rat8- ; hence the irregular accent : irat?, TratSwi', irathoiv (101 and a). 117 The nominative singular is irregular in 6 ttoi;?, ttoS-os foot. 118 Neuter Stems in -t Stem Meaning (rh) <rw(i.aT- hod.y (rb) Tcpar-, rcpacr- portetit Sing. K A.V. G. D. cr(0|xa cr(0|iaT-os (r(0(xaT-i Tcpas T€paT-OS T€paT-l Plur. K A.Y. G. D. (r<o[iaT-a 0-(0|JLdT-(OV acoixa-o-L T€paT-a T€pdT-<OV T€pa-(JL Dual N.Y. G. D. cwixaT-e (r(op,dT-oiv T€paT-€ T€pdT-OLV 119 In the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular neuters take no case-ending ; final -r is dropt (40) ; in TO yaXa, yaXaKT-o^ milh, final -kt is dropt ; repa? is another form of the stem re par- (46). 120 Different but related stems appear in TO vSwp, vSaT-o'i water, to rj-rrap, ^iraT-oS Uver, TO yovv, yoi/ttT-os hnee, to hopv, h6par-o% spear, TO 01)9, wT-os ea7\ TO (}>C)s, <f>wT-6^ light (sing. only). a. ^cos is contracted (hence the accent, 30 b) from older <^aos, which is the common form in verse. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 37 121 Masculine Stems in -vt Stem Meaning .... (6) 7t7avT- giant (6) 68ovT- tooth (6) XeovT- lion Sing. N. V. G. D. A. 7i7ds -yL-yavT-os -yL-yavT-L -yi-yavT-a OSOTJS 666vT-os 656 VT- 1 666vT-a XCCDV XeovT-os Xc'oVT-L Plur. N. V. G. D. A. -yi-yavT-es "yL-ydvT-cov •yi-yd-o-L -yi-yavT-as -yi-yavT-c •yL-ydvT-oiv 666vT-€s 686vT-o)v 68o{>-o-L 686vT-as X€0VT-€S X€6in'-(ov Xcou-o-i X€ovT-as Du. N. y. G. D. 686vT-€ 686vT-0LV XeovT-c X€6VT-01V 122 a. For ytyds (from yiyai/r-s) and 68ovs (from oSorr-s) see 53 and 28 b ; so in the dative plural. b. But many stems in -ovt form the nominative singular as in AeW, omitting -s, dropping t, and lengthening o to w. 123 All noun stems in -vt are masculine. 124 Stems in -fo-, -ao- Stem ...... Meaning ... (to) •y£V€o-- race (Ti») Kpcaor- meat Sing. N. A.y. G. D. •ycvos (•y€V€-os) -yevoDS (■ye've-i) -ycvci Kpcas (Kp€a-os) (Kp€a-i) Kp€COS Kpcai Plur. N. A.y. G. D. (■yevc-a) y^v^ 'Y€ve-(ov "ycvwv "ycve-aL ('y€V€-€) 'yevei (■y€V€-0Lv) -yevoLV (Kp€a-€) (Kp€d-0)V) Kp€a-o-i Kpcd Kpe(ov Du. N. A. G. D. (Kp€a-€) (Kped-OLv) Kpcd Kpecov 38 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 125 a. In neuter stems -ea becomes -09 in the nomina- tive, accusative, and vocative singular (25) ; else- where (T is lost (55 a and c), and concurrent vowels are contracted (29). But the genitive plural -eojv is often left uncontracted. The dual is rare. b. Stems in -ao- likewise lose o- and contract. 126 TO Kepas Jiorn, wmg (of an army), has the inflection of two stems, K€paT- and Kcpaa--. Singular Plural K A.y. G. D. Kcpas KepdT-OS K€pO)S KCpdT-l K€paL K€pdT-a Kcpd K€paT-a)V K€pcov Kcpd-cri 127 Proper names with stems in -ecr are nearly like the masculine of adjectives with stems in -ea- (151-154). (6) 2«KpaT6or- (6) ncpiKXc£(r- Sokrates Perikles Sing. N. ScDKpdTllS (ncplKXcTls) ncplKXllS G. 2a)KpdTous IlepiKXeous D. 2a)KpdT6L (nepiKXeei) IlepLKXeL A. ScaKpdTTi or -'x\v IlepLKXed (IIcpiKXTi) Y. I](OKpaT€S HcpLKXcLS 128 a. Accusatives like rSw/cpar-^v are formed on the model of a- declension masculines (71). For the accent of SwK/aarcs see 153 a. b. The forms in parenthesis appear in poetry. c. Here belongs also 6 "Aprys Ares^ G. "Apcos and "A/aew?, D. "Apei, A. "Apr] and "AprjVy V. "Apes. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 39 129 The one stem in -otr, atSoo-- respect^ shame^ is declined in the sing, only : tj atSw?, atSov?, aiSoi, atSw. 130 Stems in -l and -v Stem (iq) TToXt- (6) ircwv- forcarm, ciihit (rb) doTU- city Meaning ... Sing. N. tt6\l-s iriixv-S do-Tu G. Tt6X€-(03 iTT|xe-ws do-TC-os D. TTOXCL -iriixeL do-TCL A. ttoXl-v TTTIXD-V dcTTD Y. iroXi inix^ dCTTU Plur. KY. TToXeLS TTiixeLS (d(7T€-a) do-T-q G. TToXe-cov TTTixe-cov dcrxe-ov D. irdXe-0-L TTiixc-crL do-T€-0-L A. TToXeis inixas (d(rT€-a) do-T-q Du. X. A. Tr6Xe-€ TTTix^-C do-TC-e G. D. TToXe-OLV TTTIXe-OLV do-re-OLV 131 a. Feminines in -i are a large class, many of tliem nouns of action in -crtg or -rt? (406). Tlie genitive and dative (and the rare dual) have e for l ; and the nominative plural, which is used also as the accusa- tive, has €t. The ending -09 becomes -w? (28 a) ; -w? and -oiv do not exclude the accent from the ante- penult. b. Stems in unaccented -v closely resemble t-stems. The forms in parenthesis in the plural of neuters occur in poetry. 40 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 132 Stems in -v, -v Stem Meaning. . . . (6, i\) a-o-f a-i- swine (6) IxOu-, IxOv- Sing. N". G. D. A. Y. (TV-% (TU-OS CV-l 0-v-v (TV IxOiJ-s IxQv-os ixei3-i IxOij-v ixei$ Plur. KY. G. p. A. (TU-COV (Tv-cri (TOi-S Lx6lJ-€S IxQiJ-cov lxOtj-o-l ixevs Du. KA. G. D. (n5-€ (TU-OLV ixei3-€ IxBiJ-oLV 133 a. Accented -v at tlie end of tlie stem is made long in the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular, whicli in monosyllables are circumilexed. b. In the accusative plural -9? probably results from drop- ping V of the old ending -vi (cp. 62 a and 51 b). 134 Stems in -ev, -av, and -ou (l36) lose v before a vowel (27 ; cp. Lat. ncivis and hos^ hovis). 135 a. Stems in -ev originally had -rjv ; traces of the rj remain (1) in the lengthening of the endings -os, -a, -a? to -ws -d, -as; (2) in the older nominative plural ending -7]<s (contracted from -rj€9) ; open rj later became closer « (24). b. In poetry, less often in prose, the accusative plural is sometimes like the nominative, in -€ts. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 41 136 Stems in -ev, -au, -ov Stem Meaning. . . . (6) lirircv- horseman (Tj) vav- ship (6. n) Pov- Sing. :n'. G. D. A. Y. iTnTc-u-s l-mrc-cas lirirei l-n-TTC-d vav-s V€-(OS VX\-l VOiV-V vav po{l-s po-6s po-t po{)-v Pov Plur. KY. G. D. A. liriTeLS lirirc'-wv lirn-e-O-o-L lirire-ds V€-a)V vau-o-L P6-€S po-(ov po\j-o"i Pov-s Dii. N. A. G. D. LTnr€-OLV V€-OLV p6-€ pO-OLV 137 In vav-j originally vr}\^^ v-q- is retained before a short vowel, but made ve- before a long (w or oi), while vav- stands before a consonant ; -w? keeps the accent of the original -d?. 138 The stem (rj) ol- sheep (originally 6ft-; cp. Lat. oris), is de- clined: Sing. 019, oios, oa, ohy ot; PI. oTes, otwi/, oto-t, oT?. 139 Stems in -cv with a preceding vowel often contract in the gen. and ace. sing, and plu. : Hcipatcws or Ilctpata)?, Ueipatia or Ilapata ; 'Ev/SoiiDV Or El>/3ocov, 'Evf3o€d<; or Ev/3oa<;. 140 Stems in -w and -o (l4l) are few, the latter mostly names of w^omen. 42 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 141 Stems in -o> and -o Stem .... Meaning . . (o) ^p«- (t|) ir€ieo- persuasio7i G. D. A. Y. Sing. Plur. TJpcD-s Tjpw-es TlpCO-OS T]pCO-COV TJpco-i Tipw-cri TJpco-a Tip(o-as TlpW-S Tip(0-€S Tr€L0(O 'ir€L0o'Os Tr€L0OL 716106 ttclOol Dii. N.A. TJpo)-€ G.D. f|p(o-oLv Irregular Nouns 142 Some nouns in frequent use are quite irregular. The com- monest are : 1. rj ywrj woman, wife, otherwise from the stem ywaiK- (which loses -k in the voc. sing.), with irregular accent : S. yvvYj, ywatK-os, yvvaiK-L, yvvaiK-a, ywai, PI. ywaiK-e?, yvvaiK-wv, yvvai^L, yvv(UK-a<s. 2. 6 Zev9, Zeus, V. Zev, but G. Ai-o?, D. At-t, A. At-a. 3. (6, 17) KVOV-, KW-, <:/o^ : S/ / / / / . KVODV, KW-OS, KW-l, KVV-a, KVOV, PI. Ki;j/-€S, Kw-wi/, Kv-art, Kw-as. 4. (6) fxaprv-, fjLapTvp-, ivit7iess : Q / / / / o. /u,aprv-?, jJLapTvp-os, jJiaprvp-L, fxaprvp-a, PI. jxapTvp-cs, fiaprvp-wv, fxapTv-a-L, ixdpTvp-a<s. 5. Besides 6 ovupo^ dream, and to ovapov, regular, appear the stems [ro) 6vap- and ovctpar- : S. ovap, 6veipaT-o<s, ovupar-i, PL ovetpar-a, oi/ctpar-ojv, ovetpaa-L. 6. 17 IIvi;^ P?i^:r makes G. Uvkv-6<s, D. ni;Ki/-i, A. IIvKiz-a. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 43 7. The adjective Trpea-pvs old is in the plural masculine the regular word for envoy, ambassador. In poetry the singular also has the same meaning, as well as that of old, but the prose singular is Trpeo-^evrri?, a noun of the agent (406) from the verb 7rp€(T^€vu). Thus : S. irpecr^evT-^s, -tov, -ry, -Tiijv, -tol, PI. Trpco-ySctS, Trpeo-ySewv, irpea^ea-t, TrpeV^ct?. The prose word for old man is irp^a-^vriq^ (or yepwi/). 8. (ro) TTvp-, TTvp- fire makes its plural of the o-declension : S. TTVp, TTVp-O'i, TTVp-L, PI. TTvpa, TTvpuiv, TTupots camp-fives, beacons. 9. Besides 6 vl6<s son, regular, forms are made from the stem vlv- : S. (vtos) vUo<s, vUl, vUa, (vivs and vlvv, inscriptions), PI. vUts, vtcwv, vlecTL, vicTs, Du. vice, vleoLv. Forms also occur with v for vl : v6<;, vov, veo?. 10. (ri) x"p-? X^P- ^i^ci'i^d: PI. X"P-^5? X^'-P-^^i X^P-^h X^V«^5 Du. x'^lp-e, x€.p-o7.v. a. Poets use also x^P"^^5 X^P'^'? X^P""? X^P'^'^i X^P"^^? X^P'"-^' 143 In poetry the following also are found : 1. Besides SaKpvov tear, regular, also to SaKpv and rots SaKpv-a-L. 2. From (t6) Sop- spear : G. Sop-6s, D. Sop-i and Sopet. For Sopu- and Sopar- see 120. 3. From (to) Kapd- head: X. A. Kapa, D. Kapa. But G. Kpar- OS, D. KpoLT-L', also X. A. TO Kpara. 4. Besides opm (115), forms from the stem opvt- : Si. N. opvi-9, A. 6pvL-v, PL N. A. 6pv€L<;, G. 6pv€-(Dv. 5. Besides 6 XP^^? XP^'''^^ skin, regular, also G. XP^"^^> -^* Xpo-i and xp^' 44 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 144 In some nouns the plural may be of different gender from the singular : 6 o-tros grain, food, pi. ra a-lra ; to o-raStov stade^ race-course, pi. a-rdhoi or a-ToZia. VI. Consonant Declension : Adjectives 145 Some nouns of classes already described were origi- nally adjectives and continued to be used as such, masculine and feminine alike (neuter, too, when there is one) of one ending : ^vyd<;, (^vyctS-o? exiled (like cXtti?, 114), yvyivriq, yvyivrjT-o^ light-armed , TreVry?, 7r€pr)T-o<; poor. With these belong some other adjectives, as fxaKap, fJLOLKap-o^ hlessed (cp. 102), dpTra$, dpiray-o^ rapacious (cp. 109), dyvm, dyva>T-o<s unknown (cp. 112), diraLS, a7rat8-09 childless (cp. 114). 146 Many adjectives are of two endings ; the neuter dif- fers from the masculine in the nominative and accu- sative only. Here are many adjectives compounded of nouns of this declension : G. eueXTTtS-o? of good hope, G. dxdpLT-o<; lacking grace, G. evSaifxov-o(; fortunate, G, evij6ov<; simple-minded. Here belong also comparative adjectives in -cjv (stem in -ov) : fieXnoDv better. M. P. eveXiTLf; N. €i;-€X7rt, dxapL<; evhaLfjLcop evTJOrj<; dxapi, evSaiiJLOP, CONSONANT DECLENSION: ADJECTIVES 45 147 Adjectives of Two Endings €v-8ai(iov- fortunate d-xapi- lacking grace Sing N. G. D. A. Y. M. F. N. c-uSaijicav e-uSaiiJiov €i)6ai|j.ov-os €xi5ai}Jiov-L ciiSaifJLOv-a e-uSaiixov €'u5aL}Jiov M. F. N. dxapi-s dxapi dxdpiT-os dxdpLT-L dxapi-v dxapi dxapi Plur N.V. G. D. A. e-uSaipLOv-cs cii8aifiov-a €xi6ai[JL0-(rL €\i6ai|iov-as c-uSaifiov-a dxdpiT-6S dxdpiT-a dxapLT-(ov dxdpL-cri dxdpLT-as dxdpiT-a Dii. N. A. G. D. c-uSaifiov-e €\i8aL}i6v-oiv dxdpiT-€ dxapiT-oiv 148 The accent is recessive. Stems in -it and -tS follow the rule in 115. For axapt see 40. 149 Comparatives in -cav peXriov- letter Sing. N. G. D. A. V. M. F. N. pcXTlwv peXTiov p€XTlOV-OS pcXriov-i peXTLOV-a, peXxLco peXrlov peXxLov Plur. N.V. G. D. A. p€XTLOV-€S, peXriODS peXriov-a, peXTico peXrlov-wv peXTio-o-i peXriov-as, peXrious peXriov-a, peXxio) Du. N. A. G. D. p€XTlOV-€ peXTidv-OLV 46 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 150 The contracted forms are from a stem in -oa-, the o- disap- pearing between vowels : yScA.Tio((r)a, /3cA.Tt(o (56 a). The accusative plural in -ovs is borrowed from the nominative. The accent is recessive. 161 Stems in -eo- o-af €0--, plain €vi]9€ar-, simple-mi7ided M. F. N. M. F. N. Sing. N. o-a<|>T|S (ract)es €\iTie'ns €'u'q0€s G. (JQl^OV% €1ITJ0OUS D. aa<j)€L €\iTi6€L A. aa(j)Ti (ra(t)cs c-uTje-n ciiriecs y. aa(|)6S eVT\Q£S Plur. N. V. o"a(j)eLS cacj)!! €llTi0€lS e-uTieTi G. o-a<t)(ov €vr\Q(dV D. o'a<|)eGri ^vr\Qc(Ti A. (ra<t)€LS o-a<j)fj ^vr\QeiS €vr\Qi\ 152 a. In the nominative singular -ea becomes -t]^ in the mascu- line and feminine, but remains -es in the neuter (cp. yeVo?, 124, 126 a). The o- disappears between vowels (55 a) and contractions are regular (29 a, c, d, e) : o-a<^ovs from o-ac^eo?, (ra(f>rj from o-a^ea, (ra<f)eL<i from ca^ees, aacfiwv from (Ta<f>i(DV. In the accusative plural cra<^ets is borrowed from the nominative. (Cp. 150.) b. But if -eo- follows a vowel, -ea usually contracts to -a instead of -rj : iv8erj<5 needy ^ (ivSeia) ivSea, and cukAciJs famous, (cvKXeea) evKXca. 153 a. The accent, if it is not on the ultima, is recessive, even in contract forms. b. But not in the neuter forms in -wSes and -^pcs : cvuiScs fragrant, 6rjpLu>Se<i animal, TroSrjpes reaching to the feet. CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 47 154 Names like ^wK/oaTi^s, IIcpiKX^?, AtoyevT^s (127) were origi- nally adjectives of this class. So, too, the noun rpcrjpyjs trireme. 155 Many adjectives whose masculine and neuter are of the consonant declension have a separate feminine in the a-declension. The feminine singular always has short -a in the nominative, accusative, and voca- tive singular. (If the masculine and neuter are of the o-declension, the feminine always has d or y^: see 77 a.) 156 Adjectives of Three Endings : Stems in -au H€\av-, neXaiva- black M. F N Sing. N. fl€\dS |JL€\aLva jxcXav G. fjLeXav-os jJLeXaiin^s [JLcXav-os D. [xeXav-L [jLcXaiVT) jJi€Xav-L A. }i€\av-a fjLcXatvav [jLcXav V. [jieXav [leXaLva [ieXav Phu-. N. V. }JL€\aV-€S [ieXaivai fJieXav-a G. fJLcXdv-cov |jL€Xaiv(ov fJL€Xdv-a)V D. JJL€\a-0-L [ieXaivais fjLeXa-o-L A. [leXav-as [xcXaivds |i€Xav-a Du. N. A. fJl6\aV-€ fjieXaivd }ji€Xav-€ G. D. jjLcXdv-oiv [jLcXaivaiv |i€Xdv-oiv 157 a. For fxiXa^ and /xeAao-t see 51 a and d. b. The feminine stem /xfAatva- is for /jL^Xavcd- (56 b). The stem Tcpev- tender, makes Teprjv, ripava, Tcpcv, etc. 48 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 158 Stems in -v raxv- , Tax6ia- swift M. F. N. Sing. IS". Taxi3-S Tax€La Taxv G. Taxe-os Tax€Lds Taxe-os D. Tax€L Tax€ia Tax€t A. To,yJi-v Taxeiav Taxv Y. Taxv Tax€La Taxv Plur. N y. Tax€LS Taxetat Tax€-a G. Tax€-<ov Taxeicov Taxe-cov D. Tax€-cri TaxeiaLS Taxc-o^i A. Tax€iS Taxeias Tax6-a Du. N. A. Tax€-€ Taxcid Tax€-€ G. D. Tax€-oiv Taxciaiv TaX€-OLV 159 a. Stem and endings combine as in tt^x^^ ^^^ ^^'^^ (130, 131) ; but -ea does not contract, and the accent is on the -v or its representative (c or «). b. In accent all adjectives of this class are like ra^^'s except ^TyAvs, OrjXeia, OrjXv female, feminine, rjiJLi(rv<i, rj/JLLo-eta, yjiiktv Jldlf, and some compounds, of two endings, as Sltttjxvs tivo cubits long. 160 Stems in -avr irttVT-, irao-a- every, all Sing. M. F. N. Plur. M. F. N. N.y. irds irdcra irdv irdvT-€S irdcaL irdvT-a G. TravT-6s iracnis iravT-ds 7rdvT-<ov TTdacov irdvT-cov D. iravT-L irao-xi iravr-i irdcn Trao-ais irdcTL A. irdin-'a irdcrav irdv iravT-as irao-as TrdvT-a CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 49 161 a. For sound-changes see ytyds (121, 122 a) ; but d in ttSi/ is irregular. b. The accent of Trds is irregular, (1) in that Trd? and Trav take the circumflex, (2) in that Travrwv and Traa-t do not fol- low 101, while TravTos and -n-avTi do. 162 a. Compounds of ttci? are regular : aVd?, aVdcra, airav and crv/xTrd?, crvixTrdcraj av^Trav. b. Like these are declined participial stems in -avT : Tracer dg, Travcrdcra, Travcrai/, 7Tav(Tavr-o<^j 7Tavad(n]<;, etc, terra?, icrrdcra, laravy IcndvT-o^^ IcTTdo'rjSj etc. ards, crrdcra, crravj (TTavr-o^, crracTTys, etc. 163 Adjective Stems in -ei/r XopievT-, Xapi€(r<ra- graceful, gracious M. F. N. Sing. K Y. XapUis Xapieo-cra XapUv G. Xapi€VT-os Xapieorcnis XapievT-os D. Xapi€VT-i Xapuo-o-xi Xapi€VT-i A. XapievT-a Xapieo-aav Xapi€V Plur. K y. Xapi€VT-€S XapLCo-crai XCLpievra G. XapL€VT-(OV Xapieccrcav XapLevT-(ov D. Xapicat XapLcVcraLS Xapieo-i A. XapievT-as XapieVo-ds Xapi€VT-a Du. N. A. Xapl€VT-€ XapLcVo-d XapicvT-€ G. D. Xapl€VT-OLV XapL€(ro-aiv XapL€VT-OlV 50 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 184 a. For xap^ets from xapt€(vT)-s see 63 and 28 b; but x^P^^^^ from x^/3te(T)o-t and ;\a/3tWo-a from x^^ptena show a shorter stem form without v. b. But participial stems in -^vt make -cts, -eto-a, -eV, and in the dative plural -Cia-i^ for -e(vT)9, -c(vT)o-a, -cv(t), and -c(vT)o-t. Thus: 165 Participial Stems in -ei/r Tl96VT -, Ti9€t<ra- ]putt\ ng Sing. N. V. tlScis TL0€Laa TL0ev G. TL06VT-OS TL0€LaTlS TL0€VT-OS D. TL0eVT-l TL06l(r'[| TL06VT-L A. Ti0evT-a Ti0€L(rav TL0€V Plur. N. V. T10€VT-€S Ti0€LcraL TL0€VT-a G. Ti0evT-(ov TL0€LO-(OV T10€VT-(OV D. TL0€LaL TL0€i(raLS Tl0€LCri A. Ti0€in'-as Tl0€lO'dS Tl0€VT-a Du. N. A. TL0€VT-€ TiGcio-d Tl0€VT-€ G. D. T10CVT-OIV Tl0€lO'aLV T10€VT-OLV 166 Adjective stems in -ovt are declined like \4.oiv (l21, 122 b), adding the neuter forms in -ov and -ovra and the feminine : kKiJiv^ e/covcra, Ikov willing^ uKcoVy oLKovaa, oLKov unwilling. Participles in -ovt of the ctj-form (when the o be- longs to the tense-suffix, not to the verb-stem) are like aKiiiv and kKo^v : Travcov, navovcra^ iravov stopping^ \nro)v^ XtTTovcra, Xlttov leaving. For participles in •OVT of the /xi-form see 169. CONSONANT DECLENSIONS; ADJECTIVES 51 167 Stems in -ovt aKOVT-, <tKov<ra- unu illing Sing. K. Y. dK(av dLKOxjo-a aKov G. dKOVT-OS dK0\i0'T|S dKOVT-OS D. aKOVT-L dKoii(rx| dKOVT-l A. ClKOVT-a CLKOUOraV aKov Plur. :^. Y. dKOVT-€S dKouo-ai dKovT-a G. dKdVT-(OV aKOVCTCOV dKOVT-COV D. aKouci ClKOXIO-aLS dKODO"L A. dLKOVT-aS CLKOliO'dS dKoin--a Dii. JS". A. (iKOVT-€ aKovo-d dKOVT-€ G. D. oLkovt-oiv aKovaaiv dKoin-'OLV 168 a. Participles in -aovT-, -aovcrd- contract to accented -oj- throughout (29 c) : TlfxdcDv^ Tt/xaovcra, Tiyidovj etc., become Tt/xwr, Tt/Awcra, TLfjLcov, etc. b. Participles in -eovT-, -eovad-y and in -oovt-^ -oovad-y contract to accented -ov- throughout, except that -ea)v and -6a)v make -cjv (29 a-c) : ^ikeaiv, ^ikiovcra, (fyiXeop, etc., become ^ikoiVj (^tXoOcra, (^)ikovv^ etc. hrj\6o}v^ SiqXoovcray SrjXoovy etc., become 8')7Xw^', SrjXovaaj SrjXovv, etc. 169 Participles in -opt- of the /it-form (when the o be- longs to the verb-stem) are like oSovg (121, 122 a), 62 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES adding the neuter forms in -6v and -ovto. and also the feminine : StSov?, StSoucra, StSoz^ giving, 170 Participles in -wt- (of the ^t-form) are like Set/ci^us, h^iKvva-a^ heiKvvv pointing out, SeLKvvvT'0<;j BeLKvvcrr]<;, h€LKPvvT-o<;, etc. a. For ScLKvvs from B€lkvv{vt)s and the dat. plu. SetKvvo-t see 63. 171 Most perfect active participles are declined like etSw? Jmowing (172). The stem ends in -ot, which be- comes -w9 and -OS in the nominative singular ; the feminine stem ends in -via. : TreiravKcoSy TreTravKvla, TrenavKos having stopt. 172 Participial Stems in -ot (Perfects) CISOT- , elSuia- knoiving M. F. N. Sing. KY. €l8cos €i8i)ia €l86s G. €186t-os eL8i)ids €186t-os D. €186t-l €L8\JLa €l86t-i A. clSoT-a €L8\)LaV €i86s Plur. KY. €186t-€S €L8\JLaL €l86T-a G. €l86t-(ov €l8\JI(0V €i86T-a)V D. €i86-(ri €i8\)iaLS €l86-ai A. €l86T-as €L8l)ldS €i86T-a Dn. K A. €l86T-€ €l8\)id c 186t-€ G. D. €i86t-oiv €l8viaLV €186t-olv CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 53 173 A few perfect active participles (of ftt-verbs) in -aws are con- tracted and form the feminine irregularly : eo-Tos standing, €(TT(D<ra, €(TTOiTO<Sy €OTWTOS, etc. The neuter cotos retains the characteristic final syllable -OS instead of becoming ia-ru)^. More irregular is Te6v€w<Sy Tc^j/cwo-a, tc^vcos dead, TiOvcwToSi TiOveuxrr]';, reOvewro^j etc. 174 Two common adjectives, />ceya? and ttoXv?, have a shorter stem and irregular form in the nominative and accusative singular masculine and neuter only, but are otherwise regular in the vowel declension. Thus: 175 [uya-, [LiyaXo-f (icyaXd- tall, great iroXv-, TToXXo-, -iroXXa- much, plur. many M. F. N. Sing. ]Sr. lic-ya-s [le-ydXTi H.€7a G. lJL€"YdXoi) ixe-YdXiis [Ac-ydXcu D. jie-yaXw H-^VclXt) jJLC^dXco A. (ie-ya-v jic-ydXiiv \Liya Y. \i.iya \LcyaXr\ \Liya Plural regular Sing. N. TToX-us ttoXXti TTOKv G. TToXXoO TToXXfjS TToXXo-O D. TTOXXCO TToXXfj TToXXcp A. TToXxi-v ttoXXtiv TTOXV Y. TToXlJ TToXXll TToXv Plural regular 54 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 176 7r/oao9, TT/adeta, Trpaov mild follows the o-declension in masculine and neuter, but makes the entire feminine, and sometimes other forms, from a stem in -v, like ra^v? (158). VII. Comparison of Adjectives 177 Most adjectives form the comparative by adding -Te/)09 {-T€pdy -repov), tlie superlative by adding -raro? (-raTT7, -7arov)j to tbe masculine stem. Stems in -o with a short penult lengthen o to w : rOSITTVE COMPARATTA'E SUPERLATIVE SiVato? (St/cato-) justy St/caid-repo?, St/cato-raro?, IJLlKp6<; (^yLiKpo-) small, p.lKp6-T€po<;j p.lKpO-TaTO'sj TTLKpof; (iTiKpo-^ hittei% TTLKpo-repo^j TTLKpO-TaTO^;, TTovrjpo^; (iTovrjpo-^ had, TTovrjpo-Tepof;, 7^o^'^7/^o-raT09, (ra(f)TJ<; (crac^ecr-) plain, crac^eV-repo?, (Ta(f)€cr-TaTO<;, €vK\ey]<; (^evKkeecr-) famous, evK\eea-Tepo<;, evKXeecr-rarof;, /xeXct? (/xeXa^'-) hlack, p.e\dp-Tepo^y fxeXdv-TaTo^, y\vKv<; (yXvfCv-) sweet, yXvKv-repo^, yXvKv-Taro^, (^irpecrfivf;) (7r/3€cr/3u-) old, TrpecT^v-Tepo^, Trpeo-ySu-raro?. But o-stems with a short penult : afto9 (afto-) tvorthy, d^Lco^epo*;, d^L(t>-TaTo<;, v€o<; (^'€0-) new, young, peai-Tepo<;, vecjrrato'^, ao(j)6<^ (^ao(j)o-^ wise, (TO<^(xy-Tepo<;, (TO(f)a>-TaTO<s, 178 A few stems drop -o before -rc/oo? and -raro? : yep a id- 9 aged, yepaL-Tepo<;, yepai-Taro^, 7raXatd-9 6>?(i, ancient, 7ra\aL-T€po<;, 7raXat-TaT09, cr;(oXaro-9 leisurely, a\o\ai-T€pof;, a^okai-Taro'^, <^lXo-9 6/6<af7', (<f)L\-T€pOS poet.), <^lX-TaT09. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 55 7raXato9 makes also 7raXatdTepo9, TraXatorarog. For <^tXr€/)09 prose writers use fiaWov (^tXo? (180). 179 The endings -ea-repo^j -ea-Taro^ (in imitation of words like (ra(l)(i(T-Tepo<;) are added to stems in -ov : evhaiixo)v fortunate J €.vhaip.ov-iaTepo^^ euSat^oj^-ecTTaTo?, crco(j)pa)v discreet^ aoic^pov-iaTepo^;, aojc^pov-idTaTO^, a. Some contracting stems in -oo are compared as if -T6/309 and -raro? were added to the nom. sing. mas. : a7rXou9 (aTrXoo-) single, a7r\ova--T€po<;, aTrXoucr-raro?, evpov<; (eui^oo-) kind, evvova-repo^j ^vvova-raro^. b. Xote also ippiofxivo-s strong^ ipp<sifxev-€(rT€po<i, tppw/xev-tcTTaro?, with loss of -o, and ;(a/3i'a?, )(a.pu(r-T€pos, xapUcr-TaTo<;, from the stem xapicT-. (Cp. 164 a.) 180 Comparatives and superlatives are often made by the adverbs jxaXXov more and /xaXto-ra most or r\TTov less and T]KL(TTa least, with the positive : fxaWop <^tXo?, moi^e dear, dearer, ixaXiara ^i\o<;, most dear, dearest, riTTov (J)lXo<; less dear. Participles are compared only in this way. 181 A few common adjectives form the comparative by adding -tcji' (stem -loi', 149), the suj^erlative by add- ing -icrro? (-io-T-q, -LcrTov), to the root of the positive, or to a different form of the stem : Ka/co9 had KaK-i(ov ivorse, KaK-Lo-Toq iDorst oX(j\p6% unseemly, aXa-yj^io^v, ola-yjicno^, (Cp. ro oLcrx-o's unseemliness^ ala-x-ivm sliamc) ixOpo^ hateful, hostile, lx6-ia)v, exO'LcrTo<;, (Cp. exOdi Jiate, TO exOo<: hatred) 56 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES /caXo9 beautifulj KaW-icjv, KaXX-tcrro?, (Cp. TO KciAAos beauty) ^Sv^ agreeable, rj8-icDj/j t^'S-ict-to?, (Cp. -^So/xat be pleased) Tax^^ swift, Odaaaiv (BaTTcov), rdx-^o'To^;, {6daa(i)v is for Taxioiv : see 56 c and 47 d) For the declension of these comparatives see 149. 182 Several common adjectives are irregular, because of sound changes, or because words quite different have come to be grouped together : POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 1. dya96^ good, dfieLPcov, apicTTo^ hrave, excel- lent, able, ^eXricop, ^eXtlctto^ virtuous, Kpeia-aoiv (56 c), Kpdri(TTo<; strong, superior, (Cp. TO Kpa.To<i strength) (\(pa)v, poetic), (X(o(TTo<;, poetic). 2. KaKos bad, KaKicov, KdKicrTo*;, yeipoiv, yeipio-To^;, Tjcro-oiv (56 c), (rjKKTTa, adv., least), 3. /xeya? tall, fiei^^cDV (for p.4yi(TT0^. large, fieylajv), 4. 6Xtyo9 little, iXdo-crcov (56 c), eXa;(tcrro9, pi. few, jjLeLOJv, 5. 7roXu9 much, TrXeicop, irXiov, TrXel(TTo<;. many, (Cp. TrXews, to TrXrj6o<s) 6. pdhios easy pdcov, paaro^;. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 67 183 The following adjectives lack the positive COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE (77/30 hefore) TTp6repo<; former, Trpairo? first (ynep over, beyond) virepTepof; higher, vnepraTo^, high- supeinor, est, supreme. vaT€po<; later, vcrraro? latest. 184 Two superlatives, co-xaros farthest^ extreme^ and vTraros liigJi- est^ and a few others in poetry, contain an old ending -aros. TrpwTos is contracted from Trpd-aros. VIII. NuMEKAL Adjectives 185 The cardinal and ordinal numbers are given in the • table (188). The notation in the second column is Byzantine, and now less used, r (abbreviation for (tt) takes the place of p (27) for six\ o (koppa) and ^ (sampi) are old letters retained for this purpose only. The symbols are combined by addition, the larger sum being written at the left : a^l^= 1902. 186 The ordinal numbers, and the cardinal numbers from ^LaKocrioi on, are adjectives of three endings. The other cardinals are indeclinable, except the first four, which are as follows : 187 IN". cTs fJLia €V Tp€LS Tpia Tco-o-ap€S Tcaaapa G. €V6S HLids €v6s TpLCDV Tccrcrapcov D. €Vl |xia €Vl Tpiai TcVaapori A. €va }JLiav €V Tp€LS Tpia Tccrcrapas TeVcrapa a. hvo (or Sua) in poetry) sometimes has hvolv, dfKJxi) both always has dfjL(f>o'LT/, for the genitive and dative. 58 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Cardinal Ordinal 1 a Js, p.£a, ^v owe TTpwTos first 2 r 8vo 8evT6pos 3 y Tpeis, Tpt'tt TpfTOS 4 b' T^<r<rcp€s, rij-o-apa T^TttpTOS 5 c' ir^VTc ir^HiTTOs 6 ?' n '^KTOS 7 V kirra '^P80}JL0S 8 ^' 6KT(i> 6-y8oos 9 9' Ivve'a '^VttTOS 10 i' 84Ka 8€KaT05 11 itt' ^v8€Ka €Vb€KaT05 12 ^P' SiGScKa 8«8^KaTos 13 Tp€is Kttl 8^,ca TpCros Kal 8€KaTos 14 iS' reo-o-apcs Kal 84kca TCTopTos Kal 8eKaTos 15 u irevTeKa£8€Ka irevTCKaiS^Karos 16 ir' lKKai8€Ka cKKai8€KaTos 17 if €TrTaKai8€Ka €irTaKat8^KaTos 18 it{ OKTOiKdCBiKO. OKTWKaiScKaTOS 19 a €vv6aKai8€Ka evv€aKat84KaTos 20 K cliKocrt fxKoarTos 30 K rpidKOvra TptdKocrrds 40 K-' Tco-o-apctKovTa TCo-o-opaKoo-Tos 50 V irevTi^KovTtt TTCVTI^KOOrTds 60 V C^lilKOVTa €|iriKOO-rds 70 ipSojxirJKOVTa €p8ojJLi]KO<rTds 80 TF 6Y8oViKovTa 678otiKo<rTds 90 ~100 9 €V€VlfJKOVTa €V€V1]KO<rTds P iKardv €KaToerTds 200 <r 8idKo<rioi SidKOorioo-rds 300 r TpiaKoo-iot TpidKoo-ioo-Tds 400 V T€TpaKO<riOl T€TpaKO(rio<rTds 500 <!>' TTCVTaKOO-lOl ircvTaKoo-ioorrds 600 X claKoo-ioi 4|aKO(rio<rTds 700 ¥ eirTaKoo-ioi lirTaKoo-ioirrds 800 <a OKTaKOO-lOl OKTaKoo-totrrds 900 ^' €vaKdo-ioi IvaKoo-iocT-ds 1000 a xtXioi XiXiocrrds 2000 > 8i<r\tXtot SurxiXiocrrds 3000 ,Y rpicrxtXioi TpwrxiXiooT-ds 10000 ^t |Jivpioi (jLupioo-rds NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 59 189 From ouSe eh and /Ar^Se eh not even one are formed the general negatives ovSeh, fxrjSeh no one, declined : Sing. N. ovbeis ov6€|JLia OTjSev Plur. oi)8€V€S G. o\i5€v6s oxiSeiJLLds o-uSevos o-uScvcov D. ovhevi oxiSeiita oiiSevL ovhi(Ti A. o-uSeva ovSeiJLiav ovbev oxiSevas a. Xote the change of accent from ccs to ovScts. b. For ovTt?, fxrJTLs see 224 a. 190 When units, tens, etc., are combined, Km may be omitted if the larger number precedes, otherwise not. Thus 325 is 7reVT€ Kttt €iKO(TL KoL TptdKO(riOt, or TpLOLKOCTLOL KOL €LKO(TL KOL TTCl^TC, or TptaKOCTLOL eiKOCTL 7r€VT€. So with ordinals also. 191 Multiple adjectives are formed in -ttXoi)? -fold: 8t7rXov9 twofold, 7To\\a7T\ov<; manifold, etc. (90, 87) ; 192 Also in -TrXacrto? : StTrXacrio? twice as great or (plural) as 77iany, TroXXaTrXao-iog ma7iy times as great or many. Abstract and collective nouns of number are formed in .-a? (stem -a8), several of which English has adopted : 7) /xova?, /xovaSos iinitij, monad, Scko.^ the numher ten, decad, rj Bvd<;, Svd8o<s pair, duality, decade, rj Tptds, rptaSos irinity, triad, /xvpta? myriad, cKarov fivpidSe^ a million. For numeral adverbs, see 232, 233. 193 When it means countless, a great many, fiipioi is often printed fjLvptoL : in a related sense a singular /Avptos is found : iv ttcvi^ jxvpLa in the depths of poverty. 60 PRONOUNS 194 B. PRONOUNS Personal Pronouns First Person Second Person Third Person Sing. N. G. D. A. €\LOV, \LOV k[L0i, jXOl crv thou, you aov, crov (701, croi oS his, of him, etc. ot € Plur. N. G. D. A. f||jL6LS we f)|ICOV i\[LlV €[JL6LS you v\uv (r<l)(ov 0-<|)LO'L ac))ds Du. N. A. G. D. (V(0), (vcov) (0-<|)(0) ((r<t>(3v) 195 a. The enclitic forms (19 a) are used when the pronoun is without emphasis ; the corresponding accented forms are em- phatic. b. But the accented forms are regularly used with prepo- sitions, though we find xpos fxe, 7rp6<s a-e, and some others. c. For stronger emphasis the enclitic ye is added to some forms j in lywye, efjLotye the accent is drawn back. 196 Poets use rjfitv, vfitv, less often rjfid<;, vfxds, for metrical con- venience ; also the old forms a-iOev for a-ov, Wev for ov, viv, or (T<ji€ for the ace. sing, and plu. of the third person, and acfuv for (r(f>L(ri. The dual forms are confined to poetry. 197 The personal pronoun of the third person is rare in Attic prose ; ol and o-</)to-t occur oftenest, and are reflexive (200). In its place is used avro? in the oblique cases. PRONOUNS 61 198 Auro9, avTT], avT6(v) is declined like o-o(l)6<; (76), ex- cept that there is no vocative and the neuter singular nominative and accusative drops -p. Only the phrase TO avToiv) often retains -v. 199 Autos bas three meanings ; a. Standing alone in the oblique cases, liinij her, it, them, etc. (197). b. Standing after the .article, same, Lat. idem. c. Without the article, agreeing in case with a noun or pronoun, or standing alone in the nominative, self, Lat. ipse, 200 Reflexive pronouns (refen-ing back to the subject) are made by adding aurd? to the personal pronouns ; they are needed only in oblique cases. (See 203.) 201 The indefinite aXXos, aXX^^, aXXo other (Lat. alius, alia, aliud), used both adjectively and substantively, is declined like avros (198). 202 The reciprocal pronoun, meaning one another, each other, is formed from aXXo? by doubling the stem. It is not needed in the singular nor in the nomina- tive : M. F. N. Phi. G. D. A. dXXT|Xo)V dXXtjXoLS dXXrjXous dXXriXcov dXXtjXats dXXrjXds dXX-qXojv dXXrjXoLS dXXtiXa Dii. G. D. A. dXXrjXoiv dXX-qXco dXXriXaiv dXXiiXd dXXrjXoiv dXX-nXo) 62 PRONOUNS 203 First Person Second Person Sing. G. D. A. €fiaVTOV, -Ti\s of myself, etc. €|JLa\)TW, -TTJ 6[JLa\)T<5v, -TllV o-eauToO, -xfis of thy- self, etc. ceavTco, -ttj aeavTov, -ttiv Plur. G. D. A. f|}JLcov a-uTwv of our- selves, etc. fi|iLV avTois, -xais f)[ids a-uToiJS, -Tas v|X(ov aiiTcov of your- selves, etc. ufJLLV a-uTois, -Tats v|ids a-uTovs, -TCLS Third Person Sing. G. D. A. lauTOv, -TT\% of himself , of herself , etc. €aVT(3, -TTJ CaVTOV, -T11V Plur. G. D. A. cr<|>cov a-uTcov or eavTcov of themselves, etc. a(|)icriv a-uTOLS, -rats or cavTois, -rats cr<l>ds avTovs, -Tas or cavTO-us, -xds, -tcl a. Instead of creaurov, etc., and eaurov, etc., the contracted forms ctoajtov and avTov, etc., are also used. 204 Possessive pronouns, formed from the personal pro- €/Lto9, -7}, -ov my, mine, 7]fji€Tepo<;, -d, -ov our, (TO*;, (TTj, (Tov, thy, thine, vfierepos, -a, -op, your, your, yours. Also in poetry OS, 7], 6v his, its, her (T<f>iTepo?, -d, -ov their, theirs, dfjios (or oifios), -rj, -6v our (sometimes my). a. <TffiiTtpo<i occurs in prose in a reflexive sense, their own. PRONOUNS 63 205 Demonstrative Pronouns In early Greek 6, 97, ro, the later article (61), was a demonstrative pronoun, this^ that, he, it, etc. ; in Attic this force is retained in a few phrases (see 549). When thus used, some print o, tj, ot, at with the acute — which then always becomes grave (15). a. In poetry 6, 17, ro is also used as a relative pronoun. 206 "OSe, iJSe, rdSe this (Lat. hie) is 6, 17, rd with the en- clitic syllable -8e. For declension see 209. For the accent of o8e, tJSc, otSe, atSe see 21 c and d. 207 Ouro9, avT-r)^ tovto this, that (Lat. is, ille) is also formed from 6, 17, TO, and hence begins with r or the rough breathing in the same places (209). 208 'E/ceti^o?, eKeivr), eKelvo that yonder (in poetry also /cetfo?, K^vT], Kelvo) is declined like avros (198). 209 Sing. N. 686 Tl8€ Td86 oStOS aVTT| TOVTO G. ToiiSe TfjC786 T0{)8€ TOIJTOU Ta-UT-qS TOTJTOU D. TcoSe Tfj8€ TC086 TOIJTCO TaVTT) TOVTW A. TovSe TTJV8€ t68€ ToOtOV TaxlTTlV TOVTO Plur. IN". 018c a'L8€ Td8€ oStoi auTai TavTa G. T(0V8€ TC0V86 TC0V8€ TOVTCOV TOVTCOV TOVTCOV D. TOLO-86 TaL0"8e T0L0-8€ TOVTOIS TaVTaiS TOVTOIS A. Toiio'8€ Tao-8€ Td8€ TOVTovs TavTds TavTa Du. N .A. TC08€ Ta)8€ Ta)8€ TOVTO) TOVTO) TOVTO) G .D. T0LV86 T0LV86 T0LV8€ TOVTOLV TOVTOLV TOVTOLV a. For Toto-tSe, rato-tSe, etc., cp. 64 and 69 c. 64 PRONOUNS 210 To all forms of oSe and ovtos the syllable -i is often added, sometimes also to other demonstratives, to point to something still more clearly as near at hand. This -i always takes the accent ; before it -e, -o, and -a are lost : 6St, ovroai this 7nan here. So tovtovI, TavTTjaij TOVTL^ ravrt^ roSi, ovrodj toiovtovL 211 With oSe go TotocrSe, TotaSe, Toiovhe such, Lat. talis (of quality) ; Too-ocrSe, roo-T^Se, Toaovhe SO much^ SO great (Lat. tantuSj pi. SO many, Lat. tot] of this size or number ; TTyXtfcocrSe, TrjXiKTJ^e, TrjXLKovhe SO great, SO old, a. Poets often use the simpler forms without -Se : rotos, -a, -OV ; TOO-OS, -17, -OV ; TTjXlKO'S, -rj, -OV. 212 With o5ro9 go TOLOVTO<;, Toiavrrfy toiovto(v) talis] ToaovTo^j TocravTr), too'ovto(v) tantus, pi. tot] Tr)\LK0VT0<;y rrjXLKavrr], Tr)\iKovTo(y) SO great or old. Relative Pronouns 213 In early Greek 09, rj, was demonstrative, like 6, rj, TO (205) ; in Attic it retains this force in a few phrases (560), but is commonly relative, meaning who, which, that. The forms are 214 Sing. IS". G. D. A. 6s ii '6 oS Plur. [N". G. D. A. ot ai a (I)V (OV (bv oTs als ois oijs as a Du. X. A. cS G.D oTv (Fem. rarely a, atv) PRONOUNS 65 215 To the demonstratives in 211, 212 correspond the rela- tives ofo9, olay olov of which hind^ [sucTi] as, qualis (of quality) ; ocro9, 00-17, 6(Tov of which size or number , [as great or many'] as, quantus or quot (of quantity) ; r}\LKo<;, rfKiKT), tjXlkov of which age or value. 216 The enclitic particle -Trcp added to a relative pronoun (or adverb; see 236) makes more distinct the reference to the antecedent, which is thereby emphasized : oTrep which very thing^ the very thing which^ wo-n-ep just as : OiXo) airep a-v I wish the very things that you do (E. it. 991). Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns 217 The interrogative pronoun Tiq, tl who? what? and the indefinite pronoun rt?, rt some one, something, any one, anything, are spelt alike but differ in accent (219). Interrogativ^e ti% never changes the acute to the grave (15 and a) ; forms of two syllables accent the first. Indefinite 719 is enclitic (19 b) ; disyllabic forms that require an accent (20 d) have it on the ultima. a. The poetic form arra is not enclitic. 218 The enclitic rt? added to 09 makes the indefinite or general relative pronoun 00-719, 17719, 071 any one who, anything which, whoever, etc. (220). For the accent see 21 a, d. In a similar way 719 following other relatives (215, 222) makes their reference more general or inclusive. 66 PRONOUNS Interrogative InDEFIxVITE Sing. IS". TIS TL TIS TL G. TIVOS, TO-U TIVOS, T0\) D. TLVl, TCtt TlVl, T(0 A. Tiva Tl TlVa Tl Plur. IN". TLV€S TLVa TLV6S TLVa (dTTa) G. TLVCOV TIVCOV D. Tiai Tiai A. Tivas TLva TLvas Tiva (ciTTa) Du. IS^. A. TIV€ TIV€ G.D. TIVOIV TLVOLV Sing. N. oo-Tis TJTIS OTl G. oStlvos, otou Vtlvos OUTLVOS, 0T0\) D. (OTIVL, OT(0 TjTLVL (OTIVI, OTCO A. OVTLVa TJVTlVa OTL Plur. N. 01TIV6S aLTlV€S dTLva, dTTa G. (bVTlVCOV, OTCOV WVTIVCOV 5vTLV(0V, OTCOV D. oto-TLCTl, 6tOIS aiO-TLCTL oTo-TiaL, OTOLS A. owTivas do-Tivas dTLva, dTTa Du. K A. oStivc WTIV€ WTLV6 G.D. OLin-ivoiv otvTlVOLV oTvTLVOlV 221 a. The shorter forms otov, otco, arra, otojv^ orot?, espe- cially oTov and otm, are more common than the cor- responding trisyllabic forms. b. The neuter art is usually printed o tl or PRONOUNS 67 o, TL to distinguisli it from the conjunction Stl tlia% because, which is merely a special use of the same word. c. The addition of ovv makes the most inclusive general pronoun, with loss of all relative or interroga- tive force : oaTiaovv any one ivhatever, otlovv any- thing whatever ; ace. ovtivovv^ y]vTivovv, etc. 222 Other interrogative pronouns, and the corresponding indefinite or general relatives (made by prefixing the relative stem 6-), are : INTERROGATIVES GENERAL RELATIVES 77076/309 ivhich (of two) ? oTTOTepo^; tvhichever (of two), TToto? of what sort f ottoIo^ of whatever sort, TToa-o^i how large ? ^\, how oiroo-o^s of wlmtever size many? (number), TTTyXt/co? hovj great f how ottt^Xi/co? of whatever age old? or size. 223 All indefinite or general relative words (sometimes also the simple relatives) are used as indirect inter- rogatives. 224 The general negative pronouns ovSet? and fxyj^eis have been given in 189. So from ovS' (/xT/S*) €T€po<; we have ouSerepo? and fxr]heTepos neither of the two. a. Poets use ovrts and /ArJTtg for ou8et5 and /xrySei's ; the neuter forms ovtl and /xrJTt are used also in prose as a dverb s (230), not at all UNIVERSITY 68 PRONOUNS 225 The indefinite 6 (17, to) Seli/a so-and-so^ wliaf s-Ms- name, is used as indeclinable, and is also declined : Sing. N. 6 helva Plu. N. ol heLV€<; G. Tov Setz^o? G. T(t)v Beivcov A. TOV SeLva A. Tov<; Setz^a? 226 The relations of form and meaning between the cor- relative pronouns are shown in the table (227) ; forms in parenthesis are poetic or rare. 227 Correlative Pronouns DE3I0NSTRATIVE Relative (Specific) Interroga- tive (Direct and Indirect) Indefinite (Enclitic) General Rel., Indir. Interrog. (6, 6s) o6€ hie oStos is, ille €K€lVOS ille (6) 8s ivlio TLS who 9 TIS some one, any one OO-TLS whoever, any one who (tolos) Toioo-Se TOIOVTOS talis oTos qualis TTOIOS of what sort 9 (iroios) of some sort OTTOIOS of ivhatever sort (too-os) 1 tot TOCOVTOS J OOroS qua7itus, quot TTCO-OS how large 9 how many 9 (iTOO'OS) of some size oirdaos of whatever size, number (ttiXikos) TTiXiKoo-Sc TTjXlKOVTOS so old, so im- por- tant flXlKOS of which age TT-qXlKOS of what age 9 (irTlXlKOS) of some age OTTTlXlKOS of whatever age €T€pOS alter irdTCpos uter 9 (irdTcpos) oiroTcpos whichever ADVERBS 69 C. ADVERBS Several endings denoting place are mucli like case- endings ; some words formed witli tliem may be taken either as adverbs or as nouns. The endings are -t, -01, -at at or in, for the place where (locative) ; -Oev from, for tke place whence (ablative) ; -8e, -ae, -^e to or toward, for the place ivhither. The ending -§€ is added to the accusative (cp. accusative of limit, 533) ; -^€ seems to be for -crSe, -Se being added to the accusative plural ; -i may be re- garded as forming a locative singular, -cri a locative plural. oIkoi (14 a) at \ome. aXkoOi elsewhere, ^AOTjvrjo-L in Athens, ^EXevalvL at J^levsis, iT€pa)9i on the other side, Ovpacri at the doors^ ivSo0L, ivSov within, oLKoOev from home, aWoOev from elsewhere, ^KOriv'r]Oevfrom Athens, '"EiXevcrlpoOev from IlJleiisis, eripojOev from the other side, irdvToOev from every side, dv pad ^v from without, evhoOev from ivithin, oLKaSe homeward, aXXocre else- whither, 'Adijvdi^e to Athens, 'EXevalvoiSe to Eleusis, erepojcre to the other side, TrdpToae in all directions, 6vpd^€ out of doors, TO ADVERBS XdjJ^cLL on the ^a^xadev from ;(a/xa^€ to the ground^ the ground^ ground, a. Several adverbs of the place lohere end in -ov : TTavTCLyov every- iravraxoOev from iravTaxocre in all where, everywhere, directions, avTov in the very avToOev from the avrocre to the very place, very place, place. 229 Adverbs of manner in -a>9 are made from many adjec- tives and some participles and pronouns ; they are like the genitive plural masculine, with -9 in place of -v: (T0(j)6^ wise, gen. pi. (rocj)^^, (ro(j)a)<; wisely, SLKaLO<; just, hiKai(i)v, hiKaioj^ justly, aXr)9y]^ time, dXrjOcjv, dXr]9o)<; truly, 7)hv<; pleasant, rjSeojv, 7jSea)<; pleasantly, elKcj<s like, elKOTojv, elKOToj^ naturally, r€Tayii€vo<; reTayixivoiv, reray/AeVw? in an arranged, orderly way. 230 For many adjectives the neuter accusative, singular or plural, is used as an adverb : irokv much, ttoXXcc many times, ixLKpov a little, fxeya and ixeydXa greatly, Trpcorov and TrpojTa first. 231 Some common adverbs do not readily fall into classes. Thus the adverb for dya^o? is cv well-^ from raxv'i the old adverb rdxa quicMy means in prose perhaps, while Ta^cws or raxv means quichly ; from several prepositions are made adverbs in -w: aj/o) above, upward, /carw below, co-w within, c^w outside, Trpoa-oi forward, iroppu), TTopa-u) farther on, afar. Other adverbial endings are -B6v, -Srjv, -a-ri, -et: €vSov ivithin, a-Toixq^ov in rows, KpvpSrjv secretly, vewo-Tt lately, IXk-qvia-Ti in Greek, d/xaxet with- out fighting, iravh-qixu with full levy. ADVERBS 71 232 Adverbs of number for the first three cardinal num- bers are aVaf once^ St? twice ^ Tpi% thrice. For higher numbers the adverbs end in -a/ct? : rerpa/ct? four timeSj TrevTOLKL^; five times^ o/cra/ct? eight times, ipdKL<; nine times, elKO(TdKL<; twenty times, kKaTovT(XKi<;, etc. On the same model are made others, like TroXXa/ct? often from ttoXu?, oXtya/ct? a few times, seldom, irXeov- dKL<; more times, oadKi<; as often as. 233 Other adverbs of number, commonly denoting division, are fjiovaxr} (fjiovo?, fiovaxos) singly^ in one way only, Sixa and 81x17 in two parts, doubly, rpixa and rpixxi in three parts, triply, TToXXaxlj in many ivays, Travraxfj iyi every ivay. 234 Adverbs derived from adjectives, and some others, are compared like adjectives ; for the comparative the neuter accusative singular is used, for the superlative the neuter accusative plural : POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE (T0(j)aj(; wisely, cro(f)(oT€poi', ao(f)(jJTaTa, o-a(j)(t)<; clearly, aa(j)4(Trepov, crac^ecrraTa, TjSeojf; pleasa7ltly, rjSjov, rj^LCTTa, TToXv much, 7r\4ov, TrXeto-ra, Ta^fw? quicMy, Odrrov, rd^icTTa, ev ivell, afxeLvov, better, apicrra, best, fjidXa vei^y, fxdWop more, rather, /xaXto-ra most. 235 Some adverbs of place have the comparative and superlative in -co : dv(o above, dvcorepco, dvcoTdro), iyyvs near, iyyvrepco, iyyvrdTco. iyyvTepov, ADVERBS 236 COKRELATIVE AdVERBS Demonstrative Rela- tive (Specific) Interrog- ative (Direct and Ind.) Indefi- nite (Enclitic) General Relative, Indirect Interrogative (€V0a here) €V0d5€ here €VTav0a there €K€L yonder oS where €V0a where TTOO where 9 TTOV some- where OTTOU wherever, where (€V0€V thence) €V0ev86 thence €VT€V0€V from here Ik€L0€V from yonder O0€V whence €V0€V whence Tr60€v whence 9 iro0€v from some- where 6'ir60€v whencesoever, whence (€V0a hither) €V0d8€ hither €VTa{)0a ^ hither ov {ivTOM^ol)] thither CKCLO-C thither ol whither €V0a whither TTOt whither 9 TTOL to some place OTTO I whithersoever, whither t6t€ then VVV now 8t€ when iroTC when 9 iroTC sometime oiroTC tvhenever, when TTlVLKd8€ yust TTiviKavTaJ then T]VLKa just when TTTlVLKa just when 9 OTTTIVLKa just when (o)S) so, thus 58€ \ in this oaiTco(s)i «^«y €K€lV(OS in that tvay as, hoiv irws how 9 TTCOS somehow oirws how Txi8« TavTTi in this or • that direc- tion or way in ivhich way TTTJ in what way 9 m some way OTTTI i7i which way VERBS 73 237 In the table (236) the common adverbs from pro- nominal stems, and some others of like significance, are arrano-ed so as to show their relations of form and meaning. Those in parenthesis are poetic or much less usual. 238 In prose €v6a and evOev are mostly relative ; but they are de- monstrative with /xeV 8e, and in the phrases evOa koL tvOa here and there^ hither and thither^ tvO^v koX tvBiv from this nde and that^ and often in poetry. 239 Like os (214) ws was originally demonstrative; poets often so use it (accented ws or ws), and prose writers in a few phrases : /cat w? even so, ov8* <Ss not even thus. 240 a. With interrogatives ttotc adds an emotional tone : tl irore ivhat, pray? irov ttotc tvJiere in the world? b. Several compounds are made with ttotc, as ovttotc, /itJttotc, ovSeVore never, ovttwttotc never yet. c. On the same model are formed oAAotc at another time, eK(x(TTOTe each time. d. Tori is used only in the phrase totI ixlv . . . totc 8c at one time . . . at another time. 241 All the relatives and indirect interrogatives become subordi- nating conjunctions ; their meaning is then much influenced by the mode of the verb. D. VERBS 242 The forms of the verb ai'e classed under Three Voices —Active, Middle, Passive ; Four Finite Modes — Indicative, Subjunctive, Op- tative, Imperative — besides the Infinitive, or verbal noun, and the Participle, or verbal adjective ; 74: VERBS Seven Tenses — Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect ; Three Numbers — Singular, Plural, Dual ; Three Persons, as in English and Latin. 243 Two Conjugations, the Mt-conjugation and the XI- conjugation (from the final syllable of the present indicative active) are distinguished in the present and imperfect only ; elsewhere they are alike. 244 The active and passive voices are used about as in Latin ; the middle indicates that the subject acts on itself or with some reference to self. (See 600.) The passive and middle have the same form, except in the future and aorist. 245 The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, with the infini- tive and participle, are used nearly as in Latin ; the optative is the mode of wishing, and of hypothetical and softened statement. (See 476, 479.) 246 The tenses of the indicative are classed as Primary — the Present, Future, Perfect, Future Perfect ; and Secondary, or Historical — the Imperfect, Aorist, Pluperfect. 247 The tenses are used (in the indicative) nearly as in Latin or English. The aorist {a-6pL(TTo<s undefined) in the indicative has for its leading use that of the English simple past tense. 248 The verb-stem is the part that appears in all the forms and stands for the general or fundamental meaning, which the other elements modify by add- ing a specific setting. Verbs are called vowel verbs, liquid verbs, mute verbs, from the last letter of VERBS 75 the verb-stem. Thus Trauo) is a vowel verb of the w-conjugation, the verb-stem being nav- stop ; Travco J stop (transitive), Travo^ai I stop myself or cease (middle), or am stopt (passive). a. But the terms o>-verb and /xi-verb are used to denote the conjugation to which the present and imperfect belong. 249 The accent of verbs is recessive. For exceptions see 285, 296 a, 297, 300 d, (165), 349 and a. 250 Verb forms will be described in the following order : A. VeEBS of the O - Cois'JUGATIOli I. Vowel verbs, not contracting. II. Vowel verbs contracting in the present system. III. Liquid verbs. IV. Mute verbs. B. Verbs of the Mt- Conjugation^ I. Verbs in -vi5/x6. II. Verbs in -r;/xt, with stem in -a-.r}-. III. At8a)/xt, TiOrjfJLL, irjfiL. IV. Irregular and defective fti-verbs. 251 Verb-forms, while by meaning they fall into voices, modes, tenses, etc., also group themselves by forma- tion in tense-systems, each system having one tense- stem throughout. These tense-systems, and with them all the formative elements of regular verbs, are described in the following sections. Travco is an ex- ample of regular vowel verbs, with verb-stem ending in a long vowel or diphthong (252-254). 7e 12 -VERBS 252 Active Paradigm : Indicative Subjunctive Primary Tenses Secondary Tenses |Si. 1 irav-tii €-irai)-o-v irav-co 2 irav-eis c-irav-c-s irav-xis 3 iraoj-CL €-Tra\)-€ iraij-T) ;fi. 1 ira'u-o-p.cv €-'ira\i-o-|X€V ira-u-co-iiev ^ ■< 2 irav-e-TC e-TTav-e-Tc TTa-U-TI-TC 3 ira-u-ouo-i €-TTai)-0-V TTa-U-OXTL |Du 2 ira-u-c-Tov c-Tra\)-€-Tov Tra\>-T|-Tov 3 iraij-c-Tov c-iraD-c-TTiv irav-Ti-Tov Si. 1 ira-u-cro) H 2 ira-u-o-CLS H ■ 3 irav-crci etc. as in the pres. • Si. 1 €-irai)-(ra ira-u-crco 2 €-Tra\)-o-a-s irav-o'Tis O 3 c-irau-o-e ira-u-o-T) 1 €-'rra\;-(ra-}i€V Tra\>-o-(o-|X€V 2 €-'Tra'u-o-a-T€ Trail -cni-Ts 3 c-irav-cra-v iraxi-ccocrL Du. 2 l-iraii-o-a-Tov Trav-cTi-Tov 3 €-Trau-o-a-TT|v Trav-o"T]-Tov fa as 1 TT^-irau-Ka c-ire-TraiJ-KTi, -€iv TTC-ira'u-Ko) 2 TTC-Trav-Kas C-TTC-iraxl-KTl-S, -€LS ire-TraiJ-KTis s |Pi- 3 Tr€-'ira\j-K€ e-ire-TraiJ-Kei etc. 1 TTC-Tra-u-Ka-jJicv c-irc-iraij-Kci-ixev as in pres. H 2 3 ire-iraii-Ka-Te TTC-TTaV-KdO-l e-ire-TTa-u-KCL-TC c-ire-iraxi-KC-o-av or TreiravKws (o, §Du. 2 ire-Tra-u-Ka-TOV €-ir€-ira\)-K€i-Tov US, If Ph 3 ire-irav-Ka-TOv e-ire-irav-Kci-TTiv etc. VOWEL VERBS T7 iravo) (irav-) stop Active Optative Imperative Infinitive and Participle TTa-U-OL-IJLL Inf. irav-eiv irav-OL-s iraO-c irav-oi irav-e-To) ira-u-OL-fJiev Ptc. ira-u-cov Traxi-OL-Te irav-e-TC irav-ODcra Trai3-0L€-v Trau-o-VTcov * irav-ov ira-u-OL-Tov Trai3-€-Tov (See 166) ira\j-OL-TT|v Tra\)-€-Tcov Trai3-<roi-|JLi Inf. ira-u-crcLV iraxi-oroL-s TTav-croL Ptc. Tra-u-crcov etc. ira-u-o-ouo-a as in the pres. ira-O-cov (See 166) irav-craL-iXL iraii-o-€La-s, -craL-s iraO-o-ov Inf. Trav-cai iraii-creLe, -craL iraD-o-d-To) iraii-o-ai-iiev Ptc. TTaTj-ads TraxJ-aai-Te iraxi-aa-Te iraij-adcra irav-o-CLa-v, -craie-v Trav-crd-VTwv iraO-crav Tra-u-crai-Tov TTaii-cra-Tov (See 162 b) irau-o'aL-T'qv iraD-o-d-Tcov ' irc-Trav-Koi-jii Inf. ire-irau-Ke-vai ire-iraiJ-KOL-s etc. Ptc. ire-irau-Kws as in pres. ire-Trau-Kuta or ire-irau-Kos ircirauKojs €1'tiv, (See 171) Cl'-ns, €LT1 etc. ^ Later irav-^-rwo-av. ^ Later irav-a-d-raxrav. 78 12 -VERBS 253 Middle Paradigm: Indicative Subjunctive Primary Tenses Secondary Tenses g Si. 1 Tra-u-o-iJiai €-irav-6-fJL'riv ira-u-cD-iJLai fa 2 iraii-Ti, -€L t-TTa-u-ou ira-u-T) Ph 3 ira\»-€-TaL c-irau-e-To irav-Ti-TaL 1 2 irau-o-ficSa iraxi-€-o-0€ e-irau-o-iJLeea e-TraTj-€-<r6€ -irav-ca-fJLeea irav-Ti-o-Ge H I?; 3 Tra-u-o-vxai e-ira-u-o-VTO ira-u-co-VTai 1 Du . 2 ira-u-e-aOov c-TTaii-e-o-eov ira-u-Ti-aeov OS 3 irav-e-crOov €-Trau-€-a6T|v irav-Ti-o-Gov Si. 1 TraT3-ao-|xai as 2 irav-o-T), -a€i H 3 irav-cre-Tai etc. as in the pres. Si. 1 €-ira\)-o-d-|XT|V irav-aco-ixaL 2 c-ira'U-o'a) Traoj-o-Ti 3 c-TTav-cra-TO ira-u-o-Ti-Tai % PL 1 l-TTav-o-d-ixeea TTau-crcb-iJLeGa o <(5 2 c-ira-u-o-a-aee ira-u-o-'n-o'ee 3 e-Tra-u-o-a-VTo irav-o-CD-VTai Du 2 c-Traxi-o-a-o-Gov Traxi-o-Ti-o-Gov 3 €-irau-ad-a0Tiv irav-CTTi-aeov S Si. 1 irc-iraD-iJLaL c-Tre-irav-fJLTiv ireirauiJLevos S fa 2 Tr€-Tra\)-(rai c-Tre-iraD-ao T]S (Xi 3 ire-irau-Tai €-Tre-Trau-TO 1 2 'ir€-'ira\l-|JL€ea TTC-Trav-o-Ge c-Tre-irail-ixeea l-irc-Trau-o-ee TTCiravixcvoL a>jji€v s 3 irt-iTav-in-aL e-ire-TTav-VTO a)cri S Du 2 ir€-Tra\)-(r0ov c-irc-irav-aeov 'ir€'ira\)|Ji€V(o t|tov ^ 3 irc-TTau-creov €-'ir€-'ira'U-o-eT]V TITOV VOWEL VERBS 79 -iravb) (irav-) stop Middle Optative Imperative Infinitive and Participle TTav-oi-[Lr\v Inf. irav-c-crGai ira-u-oi-o irav-ou iraxi-oi-TO irav-c-aGco Ptc. irav-o-fJLcvos TTaD-OL-fJL€ea irav-o-ixevTi ira-u-OL-crSe TTOiv-c-dQe irau-d-iievov ira-u-OL-VTO TraD-€-o-0(ov (See 76) iraxi-OL-o-Gov Tra\)-€-aeov ira})-oi-(TQT\v Trai)-€-o-6o)V irau-croi-ii'tiv Inf. iral3-<r€-o-Gai irav-croi-o iraxi-o-OL-TO Ptc. iraD-ad-fjLcvos etc. irau-cro-ixcvTi as in the pres. Tra\j-(rd-|Jievov irau-aai-ixTiv iraxi-o-aL-o TraO-o-ai Inf. irav-cra-orGaL iraiJ-o-aL-TO irau-crd-crGa) •Tra\)-o-ai-|JL€0a Ptc. irau-o-d-fjievos TTav-aai-arQ^ ira-u-aa-aGe irau-o-a-fJLcvti iraii-o-ai-VTo iraD-dd-aGcov iTa\)-ad-[i€vov Traii-craL-o-6ov Trail -(ra-cGov irau-o-ai-o-eTiv Tra\j-ad-o"G(ov ir€Trai)|X€vos €lt|v Inf. Tre-irav-o-Gai €L11S ire-irau-cro €L11 ire-iraTj-crGo) Ptc. 'ir€-'irau-(JL€Vos irCTTaVfJieVOl €LT|fJL€V TT€-ira\J-|JL€VTl €LT|T6 ire-TTau-o-Gc ir€-Trau-jJi€vov €LT|(rav Tre-iraxi-o-Gwv ir€ira\)|xev(o cltitov Trc-irav-cGov €ir\Tr\v irc-ira'U-o'Gwv 80 fl- VERBS Passive Paradigm : Indicative Subjunctive Primary Secondary Tenses Tenses |Si- 1 iraii-o-iJLai c-irau-o-fjiiiv iraij-(o-|xai fa 2 irav-T), -€L e-iraiJ-OD iraii-xi P4 PL, 3 'iraii-€-Tai c-iraiJ-c-TO iraii-'n-Tai |P1. 1 etc. etc. etc. 2 1 1 3 1 J^U 2 Like the Middle, p. 78 £ 3 Si. 1 2 3 Tra\)-9TJ-<ro-|iaL Traxj-eTJ-o-x), -€i irav-G'q-o'e-TaL |pi. 1 Tra\)-6'q-(r6-[X€6a 2 'ira\)-0Ti-o-€-o'9€ fe 3 irau-eii-o-o-VTai Du 2 3 iravj-STi-o-c-o-Oov irav-6Ti-o'€-o-6ov Si. 1 c-Tra-u-S-ri-v TTav-So) 2 c-iraiJ-eTi-s irav-OTJ-s 3 €-iraij-0Ti irau-Sfi ^ PI. 1 c-iraiJ-Bii-iJLev iraD-Gco-ixev o < 2 ^-Trai3-6T|-T€ irav-6fi-T€ 3 c-Tra-u-Oti-o-av TTau-eoao-i Du 2 c-iraii-OTi-Tov Trau-Sfj-Tov 3 €-irai)-6Ti-TTiv ira\)-9fj-Tov 1 ^'- 1 Tr€-Tra\)-HLat €-Tr€-'n'a'u-fiT|v ireiraviJievos S fa 2 3 ire-TraD-craL irc-irav-TaL c-irc-Trau-cro c-Tre-irau-TO •gs 1 2 3 etc. etc. etc. « § 1 Du 2 Like J the Middle, p. 78 3 VOWEL VERBS 81 travoi (irau-) stop Passive Optative Imperative Infinitive and Participle 7rau-oi-|iT|v -ira-u-OL-o TTCiV-OV Inf. irai3-€-a6aL ira-u-oi-TO irau-c-o-Go) etc. etc. Ptc. irau-o-ixevos Like tlie Middle, p. 79 ira\)-6Ti-o'oi-|JL'nv Inf. irav-Gri-ac-o-Gai Trav-Qr\-(TOi-o TTav-Qr\-(joi-To Ptc. TraD-G-q-o-o-iicvos Trav-QT]-(Joi-[L€Qa Trav-QT]-(TO-\LivT] 'naiV-Qr\-(TOi-(yQ^ Trav-0Ti-o-d-|i€vov ira\)-6T|-o-0L-VT0 irau-GTi-o-oi-o-eov Trav-e-n-oroi-crGTiv irau-GciTi-v Inf. irau-eii-vai TTa\J-9€lT|-S 'Trav-BT\-Ti Tra\)-6€iT| irau-0T|-T(«) Ptc. 1Ta\)-6€LS TraD-6€lTl-}Jl€V, -6€LfI€V Trau-0€Lcra iraD-9eiTi-T€, -Setxc iraii-BTi-Te irav-Scv iraxj-OeiTj-o-av, -Setev Tra\)-6€-VT(ov (See 165) TraD-6€iT|-Tov, -SeiTov TraTJ-6T|-Tov irau-OcLTj-TTiv, -6€itt|v irau-Gii-Tov Tr€ira\)|i€v6s €it|v ire-TTau-ao Inf. ire-Trav-o-eat €11^9 ire-Tra-u-aGo) €tTl Ptc. ir€-irau-|i€VOS etc. etc. Like the Middle, p. 79 82 fl- VERBS A. Verbs of the O- Conjugation I. Vowel Verbs, not Contracting The Present System 255 The present system includes the indicative present and imperfect, with the subjunctive, optative, impera- tive, infinitive, and participle, active and middle (pas- sive). All regular w-verbs are conjugated in the present system like iravoi (252-254). 256 The present stem (indicative) is made from the verb- stem in several ways, and verbs are classed (in the present system) accordingly. For convenience in later use (since all w-presents are in- flected alike), the modes of forming the present stem in all classes of (o-presents are here described together (257-262). 257 (1) Formative-Towel Class. — The suffix -o:e- (25), called the formative vowel, is added. Verbs that have a stronger and weaker form of the root take in this system the stronger : VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND, TTav- stop, TTavo'.e- (i. e. iravo-y Traue-), irava), Xltt-j XeuTT- leave, XeLiro'.e-, Xcittw, (^vy-, ^evy- flee, (^evyo\e-, <^euyw. a. In ytyvo/Attt hecome, for yi-yev-o-fxai, the verb-stem is re- duplicated. This present reduplication consists in prefixing the initial consonant with t. So also in TTtTTTO) fall, for TTt-ircr-a), lo-xo) hold, for o-t-ccx-w (54), TtKTo) Iring forth, for Tt-reK-w. VOWEL VERBS 83 b. Verb-stems in -v-, -ev- lose v between vowels (27) : 7rA.eu) sail, for TrAev-w (ttXv-, ttAcv-) ; pew jlow, for peu-o) (pv-, pcv-) ; TTi/ew J?0?^, for Trvev-o) (ttvi;-, ttvcv-). 258 (2) Tau Class.— The suffix -To\e- is added. The verb- stem always ends in a labial mute, which becomes it before r (38 b, 43 a) : VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. pl(l)-, pL(j)- throw. pliTTo'.e-, pLTTTO), TVTT- strihe, rvTTTo'.e-, TVTTTOJ, ySXayS- harm. ^XaTTTO'.e-, /BXaTTTOJ. Kpv(f)- hide. KpVTTTO'.e-, KpVTTTO), racf)- (47 d) huri/, OaTTTo'.e-, OdlTTOJ, 259 (3) Iota Class. — The suffix -loie- is added ; for sound- changes see 66 : VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. a. ^aX- throw, 6(f)eX' iiici^ease, jSaWo'.e-, 6(f)e\\o:e-, fidWo), 6(^eXX&i. But 6(fi€i\(i) ozve (6<^eX-) is like those under I ). b. (f)av- show, Tev- stretch. (fyaivo'.e-, reivo'.e-. (j)aLi'a), Teivo), (TTrep- SOW, dpLvv- ivardoff, Kpiv decide. (TTTeipo'.e, dpLvvo'.e-, Kplvo'.e-, (TTreipo), dpLVVO), Kptvo), c. (j)v\aK- guard. (f)vXacr(To:€-, (j)v\dcr(Tco, ray- arrange, Tapax' disturb, TacTcro'.e-, Tapaacro'.e-, rdcrcro), rapdcrao), 84 fi- VERBS VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. d. (jypaS- tell, <^pa^o:e-, (^pa^oi, ikmS- hope, iXm^ole-y ikirit^d), olfJLOjy- lament, olfjuojl^o'.e-, olfxa)(,a), Kkayy- cry out, Kkat^o'.e-, KXd^o), (TakiTiyy- blow trumpet, aakint^o'.e-, aoKiTit.o), e. The verb-stems Kav- hum and KXav- iveep give Katw and KAatw, with loss of V (27), farther shortened in prose to Kaw and /cAaco. 260 (4) Inceptive Class. — The suffix -aKo:e- or -LaKo'.e- is added : VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IxND. ape- please, dpecrKole-, dpeo-Kco, evp- find, evpLCTKo'.e-, evpicKO}, a. The class is so named because some verbs in it imply beginning or becoming, as yrjpda-Koi grow old, (yypd-), ytyi/wo-Kw come to know, perceive (yvo:o>-, 28 a). b. Several presents take a reduplication (257 a), as yt-yvw- a-Kixi recognize (yvo:o)-). -n-aa-x^ {iraO-, pres. stem iraa-xoie-) stiff er is irregular for TraO-crKia, 8t8ao-Ko> (StSa^-) teach is for StSax-o-Kw. 261 (5) Nasal Class. — A suffix containing v is added. a. The suffix -vo\e- is added : VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. r€/x- cut, refjLvo'.e-, refjivco, b. The suffix -avoie- is added : dfjLapT- err, dfxapTapo'.e-, dixapTavco. c. The suffix -avo'.e- is added, witli an inserted nasal in the verb-stem : VOWEL VERBS 85 VERB-STEM PRES. STEM Xaix/Savo'.e-j fjLavOavo'.e-j \a^- take^ fjiad- learn, Xa^- ff^i % lot, Xay)(^avo:e-, d. The suffix -vvoie- is added : eXa- drive, iXavvo'.e-, e. The suffix -veo:e- is added : LK- come, PRES. IXD. fiavOdvco, \ay^dv(xi. i\ avi/o). LKV€o:e LKveojJLai. 262 Sometimes a verb-stem is in the present tense-system (or in some other) longer by an added crj or o-m. Thus : Pres. SoKco) (8o/c€-) seem, fut. S6^(d (Sok-) sJuiU seem, Pres. aXLo-KOfmL (oA-) fl!m taketi, fut. dAwo-o/xat (dAw-) ^A^Z/ Z'e Pres. ixavOdvoi {fjLa6-) learn perf. fjicfjidOrjKa (fMaOrj-) have learned. 263 The personal endings of the indicative are partially different in the primary and secondary tenses ; they also distinguish the active and middle (passive) voices. Active Middle and Passive Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Si. 1. -flL -V -/xac -firju 2. -? -5 -crai -(TO 3. -CTL -Tai -TO PL 1. -fjLev -^€V -fieOa -fjLeOa 2. -re -re -dOe -aSe 8. -(^)o-L, -aai -V, -aav -vTai -VTO Du. 2. -TOP -TOV -crOov -aOov 3. -TOV -TTJV -crOov -a6y]v 86 fi- VERBS a. The formative vowel is o before ft or v of the ending, elsewhere e. But in combination with the primary active endings we have -o) instead of -o-fxi, -€tS " " -C-S, -a " " -€-tn, 'OVa-L " " -o{v)(TL (51 C). The endings -do-t and -o-av never go with the formative vowel (see 355). b. In the middle (passive) -c-o-at becomes -y (55 a and 29 d), later -et, -€-(ro becomes -ov (56 a and 29 c). c. Poets often use the ending -fiea-Oa for -fieOa. For -arai and -aro in place of -vrat and -vto see 270 a, 345 c. For -s a few verbs have -a-Oa (381, 384, 385, 386). 264 The imperfect (also tlie other secondary tenses in the indicative) takes the augment, the sign of past time. a. In poetry the augment is sometimes omitted. 265 The augment has two forms : a. The syllabic augment is e-, prefixed to a stem beginning with a consonant. Initial p is doubled (48) : piirToi iliroWj impf. eppliTTov. b. The temporal augment is the lengthening of an initial vowel : a-, d-, and e- become t;-, ov- is un- changed ; in later Greek ev- and et- are unchanged : ayoi lead, impf. rjyovj ikTTL^O) hope, rjkTTL^^OV, eLKoii^o) make like^ rjKat,ov, eiKat^ov, OTrXLt^o) arm, wTrXt^or, OLOfjLai think J cpofjiTjv, VOWEL VERBS 87 i/cerevoi entreaty iKerevovj alcrOdvoixai percewe, i^crOavofJuriVj aSco sing, Ti^ov, eVpLCTKOJ findj rjVpLCTKOV, evpicTKov. 266 PovXo/uLi ivisli^ Svvafxat can, fiiWoi iiitend take either e- or rj- as augment : rj/SovXojxrjv, i^Swa/xryv, ^/xeAAov, or i^ovXofjL-qv, etc. 267 Some verbs that have lost an initial consonant still take the syllabic augment ; cc- then becomes a-. Among the most fre- quent are cxcu Jiave (ex- for o-cx-, 54), impf. cTxov, eTTOfiai foUoiV (cTT- for creTr-), eiTrojxrjv, cpTTO) creep {ep-n-- for a-epir-, Lat. serpo), elp-n-ov, ido) let, permit, etwv, lOi^in accustom, €l6l^ov, opdoi see, koipiiiv, oiOioi p)Usll, i(l)6ovv. a. €u)po)v and some others have a double augment, syllabic and temporal. 268 A verb compounded with a preposition augments the simple form ; a preposition ending in a consonant then recovers its original form : ava-/3aLP0) go up, impf. av-i^aivov, elcr-dyo) lead in, elcr-rjyov, (TvX-Xeyoj collect, (Tvv-eXeyov, av-o-Kevdi^o) pach up, avv-eaKevai^ov, ifjL-pdX\(o throw in, iv-e/SaXXov, iy-ypd(l)0) write in, iv-eypacjyov, eK-^dXXo) throw out, i^-e/SaXXov. For elision see 32, 33. 88 fl- VERBS a. The accent never stands before the augment syllable : ela^yov (not cto-Tyyov). b. Verbs derived from words that begin with a preposition generally take the augment as if the verb itself were a com- pound ; but there are exceptions : viroTTTtvoi suspect {yTT-OTTTO'i suspicious), VTr-uyiTTevov, i-TTLopKia) perjure oneself {iTriopKos perjured), eTn-wpKow, ivOvfieoixau lay to heart {ivOvpaos taken to heart), iv-cOvp.ovpii]v. But ivavTioopLat Oppose (ivavTLO<s Opposite), rjvavTLOvpLTjv. c. A few compounds put the augment before the prepo- sition : KaOi'CopLai sit clown lKa6^1^6p,r]v, KaOi^iD seat, €.K(x6it,ov, KaOivSoi sleep iKdOevSov or KaOrjvSov. d. A double augment is found in r)p,<f>€yv6ovv from dp,<f>iyvo€(x), and r]V€LxopL7)v from dv-€\op,ai. (So in the aorist yvecrxop-fji'') 269 The subjunctive takes tlie primary endings ; -oie- be- comes 0) before fx or v, elsewhere rj. Thus -(o'.rj- is the mode-suffix, appearing throughout the subjunc- tive, vs^hich is otherwise like the indicative. 270 The optative takes the secondary endings, but with 'fiL instead of -v. The formative vowel is o, which makes a diphthong with the mode-suffix -i- (or -te- in the third plural active). In the middle -^ro loses o- (55 a). a. Poets not infrequently use the ending -aro for -vto in the present and aorist optative (cp. 344 c). VOWEL VERBS 89 271 The imperative endings are ACTIVE MIDDLE, PASSIVE Si. 2^ -e,, -s -(TO 3. -TCO -crSo) PI. 2. -re -(T0e 3. -VTOJV (^-Tcocrav) -aOo) (^-(rOcjcrav) Du. 2. 'TOV -dOov 3. -TOiV -crdcDv 272 Tlie formative vowel is o before -vtojvj elsewhere c. '6l and -9 are omitted in w-presents ; -rcoaav and -aOoicrav are rare or late. In the middle -^-cro loses o- and contracts. 273 The infinitive endings are ACTIVE MIDDLE, PASSIVE 274 In &)-presents the formative vowel and endings com- bined are -e-ep^ contracted to -etj^, and -e-adai. 275 The participial endings are Active, -VT-, Middle and Passive, -fxepo-, before which the formative vowel is o. 276 Active participles are declined like aKcov (I66, 167) ; middle participles are regular in the vowel declension (76). The Future System 277 This includes an indicative, optative, infinitive, and participle, active and middle. (For the future pas- sive see 310.) 90 ft -VERBS 278 The future stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the suffix -o-o'.e- {sigmatic future). The inflection is like that of the present system. The Aorist System 279 This includes an indicative, subjunctive, optative, im- perative, with infinitive and participle, active and middle. (For the passive see 302-309.) 280 The aorist stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the suf- fix -(ra:€-, which becomes -a-oi-.-q- in the subjunctive {sigmatic or a-a-aorist). 281 The indicative takes the augment (264, 265) and the second- ary endings (263) ; in the third singular active the tense- suffix is -0-C-. In the middle -o-a-o-o becomes -o-w (55 a and 29 c). 282 The subjunctive has the combined tense- and mode-suffix -a-oi'.r)-, and is inflected like the subjunctive present. 283 The optative contracts the tense-suffix -o-a- with the mode- suffix -I- (-te- in the third plural active). But in the active the forms with -o-e- and -ta- (2d sing, and 3d plu.) or -tc- (3d sing.) are more common. In the middle -o-at-o-o becomes -o-aio. 284 The imperative takes the tense-suffix -o-a-; but -crov in the active second singular and -o-at in the middle second singular stand irregularly for the combined tense-suffix and ending. 285 The infinitive takes -o-at in the active (irregularly) for com- bined tense-suffix and ending, and always accents the penult (contrary to 249) : TratSeOo-at from TratSevw educate. 286 The participles take the tense-suffix -ora- ; the active participle is declined like aTrds (162), the middle is regular in the vowel declension. VOWEL VERBS 91 The Perfect Active System 287 This includes a perfect and pluperfect indicative and a perfect subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and par- ticiple, in the active. 288 The perfect stem (active) takes a reduplication (289) and adds the tense-suffix -Ka-, which becomes -/cry-, -Ket-, or -kc- in the pluperfect, -Kia-.r]- in the subjunctive, -ko- in the optative, -Kc- in the infinitive, -kot-^ -kws, -kvlo. in the participle, (xa- perfect.) 289 The perfect reduplication is formed as follows : a. If the verb-stem begins with a single consonant (except /)), that consonant with e is prefixt, a rough mute changing to the smooth (47 a) : KeKevo) (^KeXev-) bid^ /ce-KeXeu-zca, KcoXvo) (fcojXu-) hinderj Ke-KcoXv-Ka, ^opevcx) (j(opev^ dance, Ke-^opev-Ka, ^vrevo) (</)VT€v-) plant, 7r€-(f)VT€v-Ka, 07]pev(i) {Otjp^v-^ hunt, re-drjpev-Ka. b. If the verb-stem begins with a mute and liquid (39) the mute with e is prefixt : TrXeiw (ttXu-, ttXcu-) sail, TTe-irXev-Ka. c. Otherwise the reduplication is like the augment (265) : (TTpaTevo) ((TTparev-) serve in the army, i-a-rpdrev-Ka, C^jTeo) (^r]Te:r)-) seek, i-^TJTrj-Ka, piiTTO) {pl(f)-) throio, ip-pl(f)a (48), dSt/ceo) (^dSiKe'.T)-^ icrong, -q-SiKrjKa* 92 fi- VERBS d. But yiyviaa-KU) (yvo-.o)-) come to Tcnow makes l-yvwKa ; also KTaofxaL (KTa:r}-) acquire makes Ki-KTrj/xaL, TriTTTO) (tTCT-, TTTO)-) fall makcS Tre-TTTWKa, fiifjLVT^a-Koi (fivrj-) remind makes ixi-^v-qixai. 290 A verb compounded with a preposition reduplicates the simple form : (Tvy-)(op€V(o dance with, crvy-Kc^opevKaj dva-^aLvo) go up, dva-^e/SrjKa^ ela-dyco lead in, elcr-rj^a (^ee a). a. The accent never stands before the reduplication. 291 Irregular reduplication is found in the following verbs, some of which are rather frequent : a. The verbs described in 267 (if they have a perfect stem) make the reduplication like the augment : caw letf impf. €LO)Vf pf. ctaKa, ipyd^ofxaL WOrJc, elpya^ofjirjv, ct/oya(r/xai, uiOeo) push, i-wOovv, twc/xai, wveo/Attt iuy, iiovovfirjv, iiovrjjjiai. With double reduplication : opdu) see, i(i)p(i)v, koipaKa, dv-otyio open, dv-€<oyov, dv-eioxa. So too the root lk-, clk-, makes the perfect cotAca «w like, plup. i(OK€LV. b. Several verbs beginning with a liquid take ct- as re- duplication : Xafxpdviii talce, pf. €t-\rj(f>a, eL-Xr}pfiaL, Xayxdvd) get by lot, €L-\y)xa, root pe:r}- speak, €L-pr]Ka, €L-pr)fJLai, root ficp; flap- divide, iL-fjcaprai it is fated, Sta-XiyofiaL converse, St-ei-Acy/xai, crv\-\iy(ii gather, o-w-ctXoxa, (Tvv-ei-XeyfJtAxi. Similarly the defective etioOa a7n wont. VOWEL VERBS 93 c. Some verbs beginning with a, e, o reduplicate by pre- fixing the vowel and the following consonant, lengthening the vowel of the second syllable {Attic redujjHcatiofi) : OLKOvo) heaVy pf. aK-rjKoa^ iXavvio dr^ive, i\-rj\aKa, eAeyxw test, eA-T^Acy/xat, opvTTOi dig, op-wpvxa.. Also cyetpoj tvake, iyp-rjyopa (332). The pluperfect of these verbs augments only initial a and o. d. The verbs described in 268 b take the reduplication in the same place as the augment. 292 The perfect active indicative takes the primary endings ; but in the sing, -pa and -o-t are omitted, the tense-suffix becom- ing -K€- in the third person ; -Ka-(v)trt becomes -Kdo-t (51 c). 293 The pluperfect augments the reduplicated stem ; if the re- duplication is like the augment of the imperfect (289 c), no change is made. The tense-suffix is -ktj-, -/cei-, or -/ce- as in the paradigm ; in the plural and dual both -k€- and -Kct- are found. The secondary endings are used, with -o-av in the third plural ; the older form in -kyj omits -v in the first person singular. 294 The subjunctive adds the combined suffix -Kwirj- to the re- duplicated stem, and is inflected like the present active subjv. In place of these forms are used also compound forms, the perfect active participle wdth the subjunctive of ct/xt am (384). 295 The optative adds to the reduplicated stem the combined suf- fix -Kot-, and is inflected like the present active optative. Compound forms, the perfect active participle with the present optative of ci/xt am, are also used. 296 The infinitive adds -Ke-vat to the reduplicated stem. a. All infinitives in -vat accent the penult. 297 The participle adds to the reduplicated stem the combined suffix -Ka)9, -KVLd, -K09, -KOT; aud Is decHncd like etSws (172). 94 n- VERBS Perfect Middle System 298 This includes an indicative perfect and pluperfect, a subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and participle ; also a future perfect passive indicative, optative, infinitive, and participle. 299 The tense-stem is the reduplicated verb-stem, with no tense- suffix. 300 a. The indicative takes the primary endings in the perfect, the secondary endings in the pluperfect. b. The subjunctive and optative are compound forms — the perfect middle participle with the present subjunctive and optative of et/xt a7n (384). c. The imperative takes the regular imperative endings. d. The infinitive takes the ending -o-^at, the participle the ending -/xeVos (-fjiivrj, -/xeVov) ; both always accent the penult. 301 The future perfect passive adds to the reduplicated stem the future suffix (278) with the middle endings. Thus : Ind. 7re-7rau-o-o-/Aat, etc., I sliall licive been stopt. Opt. Tre-Trav-a-OL-fxrjv, Ctc. Inf. Tre-Tvav-cre-arOaL. Ptc. 7r€-Trav-(r6-fjL€Vos, etc. The Passive System : &7} - Passive 302 This includes an aorist and a future. The passive stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the passive suffix, which is -9r)- before a single consonant, -0e- before two consonants or a vowel. {®r}-passive.^ 303 The aorist passive takes the active endings throughout. 304 The indicative takes the augment (265) and the secondary endings, with -o-av in the third plural. VOWEL VERBS 95 305 The subjunctive adds to the passive-stem the mode-suffix -o):r)-; -Oioi-.-q- contracts to -6oi- or -^?}-, and the inflection, except for accent, is like any active subjunctive. 306 Tlie optative adds to the passive stem the mode-suffix -i-q-, in the plural and dual -t- or -lyj- (-te- in the third plural) ; -6e-L- contracts to -^et-, and hence the accent can not pre- cede -^et-. 307 The imperative adds to the passive-stem the imperative end- ings, with -Tt for -Ol (47 and b). 308 The infinitive adds -vat to the passive-stem, and accents the penult (296 a). 309 The participle adds -vt- to the passive stem, and is declined as in 165. 310 The future passive adds to the passive stem the future suffix -a-o:^- with the middle endings, in the indicative, optative, in- finitive, and participle. 311 The principal parts of a verb are the first form of every system used in it ; thus they indicate the entire conjugation : TTav- stop, TTavo) Travcro) Verb-stem, Present system, Future system, Aorist system, Perfect act. syst.. Perfect mid. syst.. Passive system. enavcTa TrenavKa TreTTavjJLaL iTravOrjv Koikv- ]dnde)\ KCoXvO) KcoXvcro) iKcoXvcra KEKCoXvKa 312 Two common verb-stems, 6v- sacrifice and A.i;- loose^ have v in the present, future, and o-a-aorist, elsewhere v : Ovoi, Ovo-m, Wvaa, re^VKa, TeOvfxaL, IrvQ-qv (47 c). A few others are irregular or variable. (See, in the Verb- list, dvi^O), SvCO, TtOJ.) 96 fi- VERBS Tljjtdw (Ti(j[.a:Ti-) honor Active Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect S. 1 TLfJL(d(0)c0 €TlJJL(aOV)(0-V TL|i(dco)(0 2 TL[JL(d€is)as €Ti}i(a€s)d-s TL|x(dT|s)as 3 TL|JL(d€L)a €Tl}JL(a€)d Tiji(dT|)a P. 1 Tril(do)(0-fl.€V €TL|JL(do)(0-|X€V TLJJL(d<0)(0-|JL€V 2 Tlfi(d€)d-T€ €Tl}JL(d€)d-T€ TL|JL(dT|)d-T€ 3 Tl|l(d0\))(0(Jl €TX[JL(aOV)(0-V TLJJL(d(0)(0<rL D. 2 TLp.(d€)d-TOV €TLJl(d€)d-TOV TL|JL(d'n)d-TOV 3 TL|X(d€)d-TOV €TL}x(a€)a-TT|V TlfJL(dT|)d-TOV Middle S. 1 TLJJL(do)(b-}JLaL €Tt}J.(a6)(0-|JLTlV TL|JL(d0))(0-}JLaL 2 Tlll(d€L)a €Tl|JL(d0\))(0 TL|x(dT|)a 3 TL|i(d€)d-Tai €TL|JL(d€)d-TO T L|JL(dT| )d-TaL P. 1 TL[i(a6)<o-|JL€ea €TL|jL(a6)a)-|jL€ea TL|i(a(o)to-|Ji€ea 2 TLli(d€)d-0'e€ €TL[JL(d€)d-0'e€ TLjjL(dT|)d-cre€ 3 TL|l(do)(0-VTaL €TL|JL(do)(0-VTO TL|j.(d<o)co-VTaL D. 2 TLJJl(d€)d-0'90V eTl(i(de)d-(r6ov TL|JL(dTl)d-O-0OV 3 Tl|JL(d€)d-O-0OV €TLjjL(a€)d-o'9'qv TL|x(dT|)d-O'60V Principal Present Future AORIST TlfJLdcO TLIXTJO-O) €TL|JL'q<ra CONTRACT VERBS 97 Tipidw (TifAaiT]-) honor Voice Optative Imperative Infinitive, Participle Tr|JL(d0L)C0-|JlL, -COtlV TLJJL(dOL)(3s, -COTIS TL|i(dOL)(0, -COT] TL|i(dOL)(3-|X€V, -coTifiev TLli(d0l)(0-T€, -COtlTC TL[JL(dOL)(3€-V Tl|Jl(d0L)(3-T0V, -COTITOV TLJJL(aOL)(0-T11V, -WTITtlV Tl|i(a€)d TL[i(a€)a-Ta) TL[i(d€)d-T€ TL|i(a6)(o-VTa)V TL|JL(de)d-TOV Tr}JL(a€)a-TCOV Infinitive Tr|ji(d€iv)dv Participle TL|JL(d(OV)(OV (168 a) Voice Tl|i(aOL)(0-[i'nV TlfJL(d0l)c3-0 TL|i(d0l)(3-T0 Ti[ji(aoi)co-|i€0a Tl(x(doi)w-O'0€ TL|i(dOL)(3-VTO TL|JL(doL)w-O-0OV TL(i(aoL)co-o-0'nv Ti|x(do\))(J> TL[jL(a€)a-o-0co TL|i(d€)d-cr0€ TL|i(a€)a-o-0(ov TL|JL(d€)d-O-0OV TL|JL(a€)a-O-0(OV Infinitive TL|JL(d€)d-(r0ai Participle Trji(a6)(o-|JL€vos Parts Perfect Active Perfect Middle Aorist Passive TCTllJLtlKa T€Tl|JLTlJJLai CTLJJLTJ0'qV 98 fi- VERBS 314 TTOiib) (iroi€:T]-) make, do Active Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect S. 1 Troi(€(o)co €'Troi(€ov)ou-v 'TrOL(€Ci))(0 2 'TrOL(€€lS)€lS €'TrOl(€€S)€L-S 'irOL(€Tls)Tis 3 'irOL(€€L)€L €TrOL(€€)€l 'n-OL(€T|)Ti P. 1 'TrOL(€0)o{i-|JL€V eTroL(€o)oa)-|X€V 'noi(€co)a)-[JL€V 2 TTOl(€e)€L-T€ €'irOL(€€)€L-T€ ir0l(€'n)Tl-T6 3 'TrOL(€Ol))o{)0'L €1T0l(€0V)0\)-V 'iroL(€o>)(0(rL D. 2 TrOl(€€)€L-TOV €'TrOl(€€)6L-TOV 'irOL(€T|)f]-TOV 3 TrOl(€6)eL-TOV €'irOL(€e)€l-TT|V TrOl(€Tl)fl-TOV Middle S. 1 7roL(€o)oa)-|JLaL €'irOL(€6)0'U-|lT|V Troi(€(o)<o-|JLai 2 iroi{iei)€X €'TrOl(€O\))O'0 'Troi(eTi)fi 3 TrOL(€€)€L-TaL €'n'OL(€€)€L-TO TrOl(€Tl)Tl-TaL P. 1 'iroi(€6)oi;-[JL€0a €'Troi(€6)o\l-jJL€9a 'TroL(€(o)(o-}X€9a 2 'irOL(€€)€L-O-0€ €irOl(€€)€L-0'e€ 'irOL(€T|)Tl-0'9€ 3 TroL(eo)oa)-in-aL C'TrOL(€0)oi)-VTO iroi(6(o)(o-VTai D. 2 TT0l(€€)€L-0-90V €'iroi(€€)€i-cr0ov iroi(€T|)fi-o-9ov 3 'ir0L(€€)€L-(r90V €Troi(€€)€i-o-9'riv iroi(€T|)Ti-cr9ov Principal Present Future Aorist 1 TTOL€(0 TroLTJo-a) liroiTicra CONTEACT VERBS 99 iroUo) (iroi€:T]-) make, do Voice Optative Imperative Infinitive, Participle ir0l(€0L)0l-|JLl, -OLllV Tr0L(€0lS)0l-S, -OlTjS TrOl(€€)€l Infinitive 'ir0l(€0l)0l, -OLTl 'n'Ol(€€)€l-TC0 'irOL(6€LV)€LV Tr0L(€0L)0L-|Jl€V, -OlTlfiCV TT0i(€0l)0L-T€, -01T|T€ 'irOl(€€)€l-T€ Participle ir0L(€0L)0l€-V 'TroL(€6)oai-VTcov 'n-oi(€(ov)cov TrOL(€OL)OL-TOV, -Ol-qTOV 'n-OL(€€)€L-TOV (168 b) 'ir0L(€0l)0l-TTlV, -OITITTIV irOl(€€)€l-T(0V Voice 'Tr0l(€0l)0l-[JLT1V 'TrOl(€OL)OL-0 'Troi(€ou)oa) Infinitive 'TrOL(€OL)OL-TO 'iroL(€€)€i-(r9<o 'n-oi(€€)€L-oreai 'irOL(€OL)OL-}i€6a 'irOL(€OL)OL-Cr0€ 'irOl(€€)€L-aG€ Participle TrOL(€OL)OL-VTO 'iroL(€€)€i-Grecav iroi(€6)o'u-|X€Vos 'iroL(€Oi)oL-o-eov TrOL(€€)€L-0-eOV 'iroi(€oi)oL-(r6'riv 'iroi(€€)€L-a8(ov Parts Perfect Active Perfect Middle AoRiST Passive ireiroiTiKa TTCTTOLTIIJLaL €ttolii6t|v 100 n- VERBS SovXod) (8ovXo:(i>-) enslave Active Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect S. 1 2 3 P. 1 2 3 D. 2 3 8o\)\(da>)co 8o\j\(6€Ls)ois 8o\jX(6€l)ol 8o\)\(6o)oi}-|JL€V 80U\(6€)0{)-T€ 8ov\(6ov)o{;crL 80l)X(6€)0V-T0V 8o\)X(6€)o{i-Tov €8oij\(oov)o\)-v €80'U\(0€S)01)-S €80'U\(0€)0\) €80\)X(60)0l)-|X€V €80l)\(6€)0a)-T€ e8o'u\(oov)o\)-v €8o\)\(6€)oi)-TOV €8o\)\(oe)o'u-T'riv 8o\)\(6co)(o 8oi)X(6t|s)ois 8o\)\(6t|)oi 8o\)X(6(o)co-|X€v 8o\)\(6t|)(o-t€ 8oi)\(6o))(oo-i 8o\)\(6ti)co-Tov 8o\)\(6ti)(o-tov Middle S. 1 2 3 P. 1 2 3 D. 2 3 8o\)\(6o)o{l-|iai 80l)\(6€L)0t 6ou\(6€)oa}-Tai 8oD\(od)oi3-}JL60a 8oi)\(6€)oi)-o-0€ 8ou\(6o)oi)-vTai 8oD\(6€)o{)-a0ov 8oD\(6€)o{i-(r0ov €8ov\(o6)o'u-|JL'qv €8o\)\(6o\j)o{) €8o\)X(6€)oi)-TO €8o\)X(o6)o'u-fJi€0a €8oD\(6€)O'O-(r0€ €8oi)X(6o)oa;-VTO €8o\)\(66)o{)-o-0ov €8o\j\(oe)o'u-or0Tiv 8o\)\(6cD)a)-|jLai 8oi}\(6T|)ot 8oi)X(6'ri)<o-Tai 8oD\(o(o)co-jJL€0a 8oi)\(6t|)co-o'0€ 8ou\(6ii)(o-VTaL 8o\)\(6t|)(o-o-0ov 8ou\(6T|)co-(r0ov Principal Present Future Aorist 8od\6o) 8ov\cocro) €8oiL)\(0(ra CONTRACT VERBS 101 SovXoo) (8ov\o:«-) enslave Voice Optative Imperative Infinitive, Participle 60l)\(60Lj0L-}IL, -01T|V 6o\jX(doLS)oi-s, -oiiis 8oii\(o€)oi) Infinitive 50\)X(d0L)0L, -OlTl 6ouX(0€)0'U-TCO 8ovX(6€Lv)oi}v 8o\j\( 6ol)o L-[JL€V, -OLT||Jl€V 5ouX(6ol)ol-t€, -oltit€ 6oi)X(de)oi)-T€ Participle 6o\jX(6ol)ol€-v 8ovX(o6)OTJ-VTCOV 8ovjX(6o)v)(ov 8o\)X(6ol)oL-TOV, -01T|T0V 8oi)X(66)o{l-TOV (168 c) 80\)X(001)0L-TT1V, -0L11TT|V 8ouX(0€J01J-TCOV Voice 8o\)X(ooL )oi- \Ly\v 8o\jX(6ol)ol-o 8ouX(6ov)o{) Infinitive 8o\jX(dOL)OL-TO 8o\)X(o€)ol3-cr9(o 8o\)X(6€)o{)-(r0ai 8o\)X(oOL)OL-}JL€0a 8o\)X(6oL)oL-cr0€ 8o\)X(6€)oa)-o'e€ Participle 8o\jX(6ol)ol-vto 8o\)X(oc)oTj-cr6(ov 8o\jX(o6)ov-|X€vos 8o\)X(6ol)ol-o-6ov 8oDX(6€)o{i-o'9ov 8odX(ooi)oi-o-6t|v 8o\jXfo€)o\i-cr9o)V Parts Perfect Active Perfect Middle AoRisT Passive 8e8o'uX(oKa 8€8o'uX(ojiaL 68o\)Xa)eT|v 102 fl- VERBS II. Vowel Verbs, Contracting in the Present 316 Verbs in -do), -ew, -oo) contract the stem-vowel a, e, o in the present system with the succeeding vowel, in accordance with 29 and 30. (Paradigms, 313-315.) a. Note also that l in the second syllable is re- tained (on the line or subscript), and that o with an t-diphthong (et, ot, rj) gives ot. But b. In the infinitive, -eiv (from -e-ev, 274) was no true diphthong (27 a) ; hence -d-eup gives -av and -o-eLv gives -ovT/j without i. 317 Outside of the present system the stem-vowel a, e, o is lengthened (28 a) ; a becomes d after e, t, or p, otherwise rj : Orjpdoj liunt^ fut. Orjpdo-co, etc. ; tdojjiaL heal, fut. ida-ofxai, etc. ; rlfjudo) honor, fut. TLfjujao), etc. a. But xpao/xat use and d>cpoao/xat Uste7i are irregular : XpdojxaL^ Xpi^ao/xaL, ixpr)(rdijir)v, K(.)(p'q^aL^ d/cpoao/xat, aKpoctcro/xai, r)Kpod(rd]JL7]v, yKpod/JLai. 318 In the paradigms (313-315) the uncontracted vowels are in parenthesis, the contract syllable follows next ; for the uncon- tracted form read the parenthesis and omit the contract sylla- ble, for the contract form omit the parenthesis. 319 In the present optative active the mode suffix -ltj- is more common in the singular, but rare elsewhere. 320 Seven verbs in -dw contract to rj instead of d. The most fre- quent are ^dw live, ■xpdop.ai use, SuiJ/do) thirst, Treivdw hunger : CONTRACT VERBS 103 321 Monosyllabic stems in -e contract only in the forms that give €t. Thus irXc- (see 257 b) sail makes ttAci?, TrAet, €7rXct9, hrXci, ttXuv^ but TrXeo), TrXiofxev, irXirj^, TrAcoi/xt, etc. a. 8ew Mud sometimes contracts throughout, but Sew lack and Seo/xat ask follow the rule. 322 A few verb-stems in -a and -e, with still fewer in -o, do not lengthen that vowel in any system ; some of these assume a in the perfect middle or in the passive system or both : Verb-stems yeXa- laugJij cnra- draw, reXe-Jinish, Present Future Aorist Perf. Act. Perf. Mid. Aor. Pass. yeXao) yeXacro) iyeXaaa iyeXdcrOrjv cnraoj cnrdcrco icnraaa ecnraKa ^(TTTacTjiai icr7rda6r]v reXeo) TeXecro) ireXecra rereXe/ca rereXecTfJiaL ireXeaOrjp The stem alpe- ajpp'ove neither lengthens e in Attic nor takes cr ; two compounds, eV-ati/ew praise and TTttp-ati^ecj advise, are frequent. (But rjvrjjjiai is found.) a. In some verbs (as reXc-, cp. to t€Xo<s end) the o- clearly belonged to the original stem, and has been lost except before fjL and T ; others appear to have imitated these by inserting a- before fx and r. b. The perfect and pluperfect indicative middle have in the third plural a compound form ; the whole inflection (showing also the form of the participle) is as follows : fi- VERBS PERFECT INDICATIVE PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE 1. reTeXea-fiai iTeTeXecr-fJirjv 2. rereXe-crat irereXe-ao 3. TereXecr-TaL iT€TeXea-To 1. TeTekea-fJLeda eTereXecr-iJieOa 2. TeTeXe-ade eTeriXe-crde 3. TereXea-fJievoL eto-t TereXea-^iivoi rjaav 2. TeriXe-o-Oov ireTeXe-crdov 3. rereXe-o-dov iTeTeXe-aOrjv 104 S. P. D. c. The future of TeAeco finish and of KaXeio call commonly drops o- and contracts, thus becoming like the present : tcAw, TcAet9, rcAei, etc. So also ixa^ov/JiaL for fiax^crofjiai, from ixd)(OfJiaL (fia;^-, fJiOL)(€-) fight, and iXd for cAao-w, from eAavi/w (eAa-) drive. III. Liquid Verbs 323 Verb-stems ending in X, /x, j^, or p usually form the future and aorist stems, sometimes also the perfect active and the passive stems, in a slightly different way. (Liquid future, liquid aorist, a -perfect, rj- passive.) 324 In the future they add to the verb-stem the suiSx -€o:€- (originally -eaoie-), and then contract. (Liquid future,) 325 The inflection throughout — indicative, optative, infinitive, participle — is like that of contract presents in -ew (331). 326 A contract future middle with the suffix -o-eo-.e- (so-called Doric future) is formed from the mute verbs ttltttii), TrAew, LIQUID VERBS 105 327 Liquid verbs usually form tlie aorist stem (indicative) by adding to tlie verb-stem the suffix -a:e- and length- enino; the stem- vowel ; a in the stem leno^thens to d after i or p, otherwise to 17 ; e lengthens to et. (^Li- quid aorist.^ a. But KcpSatVo) (KcpSai/-) gain makes iKcpSdva. 328 The inflection throughout is like that of the o-a-aorist, omit- ting o- (331). 329 The present stem of these verbs may be of the forma- tive-vowel class (257), the t-class (259), or the nasal class (261), as shown by the principal parts. (See Verb-list.) Thus oreXXw (crreX-, o-raX-, 259 a) se?idj fut. areXo), aor. ecrretXa, pf. act. ecrraX/ca, pf. mid. e- o-raX/xat (338, 339), aor. pass. iaToXiqv (334-337). 330 Other frequent combinations are shown in the follow ino; verbs : for other tenses of these verbs see Verb- list. PRESENT FUTURE AORIST atpo) (dp-, 259 b) raise, dpco (dp-eote-), ^pa (dp-are-), (^atVco ((f)av-, 259 b) shotv, (j)av(o, effirjvaj KaOaipcx) (fca^ap-, 259 b) Kadapoj, eKciOrjpaj cleanse, KTELvo) (^KTev-j 259 b) Mil, KTevcj, €KTeiva, Kpivoi (^Kpiv-, 259 b) decide, Kpivco, eKplva, dfjivpo) (d/xui^-, 259 b) diivvco, 7)fxvpa, ward off, /xeVo) (/xei/-, 257) remain, jxevco, e/xetj/a. a. Kot all liquid verbs follow these formations ; especially several form the aorist according to 347. 106 fi- VERBS 331 Liquid Future and Aorist, Indicative Subjunctive Si. 1 2 3 0-T€\-CO cTeX-eis 0-T€\-€t P4 >- PI. 1 (TTcX-OV-liCV 2 CrT€\-€l-T€ 3 O-TCX-OVO-L w Du. 2 O-TCX-CL-TOV PS H 3 0'T€X-€L-TOV Si. 1 (rT€X-oi)-|jiai 2 CTTcX-fj 3 CrT€X-€L-TaL h3 PI. 1 o-T€X-oi3-jJi€0a 2 0'TeX-€L-0'6€ ^ 3 cxeX-oii-VTaL Du. 2 3 (rT€X-€l-(760V o-T€X-eL-o-0ov Si. 1 e-o-TCLXa cttclXco 2 c-(rT€iXa-s o-t€iXt|s 3 €-(rT€LX€ CrT€lXT| F PL 1 €-0-T€lXa-JJL€V 0-T€lX(0-[JL€V 2 €-CrT€LXa-T€ 0-T€iXt1-T€ 3 €-0-T€LXa-V crxeiXaxTL Du. 2 €-(rT€LXa-TOV o-TeiX-q-Tov C <1 3 k-(n^i\6i-Tr\v o-t€lXt|-tov Si. 1 i-(yT^i\a-\Lr\v O-T€lX(0-|iaL 2 €-(rT€lXo> (yTd\r\ H 3 e-cTciXa-To o-TeiX-q-TaL iJ 9 PL 1 €-O-TCLXd-|i€0a o-T€LX6-p-€ea 1^ 2 €-(rT€iXa-or9€ o-t€iXt|-o-6€ f^ 3 €-aT€iXa-i^ro o-TeiXto-VTai Du. 2 e-o-TeiXa-crSov o-TeiXri-o-Bov Q €-0-T€LXd-0-eTlV crT€LXT|-o-9ov LIQUID VERBS (TTcXXft) (o-TcX-, o-raX-) send 107 Optative Imperative Infinitive and Participle (rTcX-OL-|JlL, -01T|-V Infinitive (j-TeX-ot-s, -oiT|-s (rx€X-€iv o-xeX-oL, -oi-q 0-T€X-OL-}i€V Participle 0-TeX-OL-T€ (TXcX-tOV 0-T€X-OL€-V cxeX-ovaa o-xeX-OL-Tov cxeX-oxlv aX€X-OL-XTlV (TT^\-oi-[Lr\V Infinitive axeX-OL-o o-xeX-et-crGaL axeX-OL-xo ax€X-oi-|i€9a Participle ax€X-OL-cr0€ (j-xeX-ov-ficvos (j-xeX-OL-vxo (TxeX-oL-crOov o"xeX-oi-crGT|y ax€iXai-fiL Infinitive cxeiXaL-s, -€La-s cxclXov (rreXXai (TXeiXaL, -€L€ (TxeiXd-xca (TxeiXaL-fJiev Participle (TxeiXaL-xe (TxeiXa-xe (TxeiXds (TxeiXaLe-v, -cta-v (rx€LXd-vx(ov o-xeiXdaa orxetXai-xov cxeiXa-xov crxeiXav (rxcLXai-xTiv 0-X€LXd-X(OV o-xeiXai-fJiTiv Infinitive crx€iXaL-o (TxetXai o-x€iXa-o-Gai crx€iXaL-xo crx€iXd-cr6(o o-x€LXaL-[ie9a Participle o-xeiXai-cGe o-xeiXa-o-Ge CrX€LXd-fJL€VOS crx€iXaL-vxo crxeiXd-o-Gcov orxeLXai-o-Gov cxeiXa-o-Gov o-xeiXaL-o-GTiv o-xeiXd-o-Gcov 108 fl- VERBS 332 A - Perfect. — Some liquid and mute verbs make a per- fect active system without k, with the tense-suftix -a- (indicative), generally with a change of vowel or consonant in the stem, often with intransitive or present meaning. Thus (/)aiVw (<^az^-) show, besides the Aca-perfect ire-^ay-Ka have shown^ makes ire-cfirjv-a have appeared', KTeiPco (kt€v-, ktov-) hill makes -4-KTov-a have hilled (in prose always d-n-eKTova) ; iyeipo) (iyep-^ waken, makes iyp-yjyop-a am awake (Attic reduplication, 291 c) ; so also olkovco (olkov-) hear, aK-yJKo-a (for aK-rjKof-a, 27) have heard, 333 The inflection is like that of the /ca-perfect (synopsis, 336). 334 H- Passive. — Some liquid and mute verbs take -rj-.e- instead of -Orjie- as passive suffix ; an e in the verb- stem usually becomes a : as crreXXw (crreX-, o-raX-) send, i-ardX-rjv. 335 The inflection is like that of the ^77-passive, except that the imperative ending -Ol is not changed (synopsis, 336). 336 Synopsis of (f)aipco (<^aj/-) sJiow, in Liquid Aorist a -Perfect H- Passive Indie. ir€<|)tiva ^T\va kTr^<^r\vr\ lct)dvTiv Subjv. ^r\V(i) iTe^r\voi <t)av(o Opt. <|)T)VaLfil irC<|)T|VOL|XL (t)av€i'qv Impv. <|)T^VOV (^aiVT]Bi Inf. <^r[vai ir€<t)TlV€VaL <t)avfjvai Ptc. <t>Tivds 'ir€<|>T|va)S <|>avcis a. The future passive is formed regularly (310) : <}>av'^ao^aL, LIQUID VERBS 109 b. H-passives are also formed from some mute verbs ; see in the Verb-list ySAaTrroj, ypa^w, pcTrrco, crrpit^oi. 337 Most verbs have only one of these passives ; if both are made, some difference of meaning may appear ; as from (f)aLvoj {(^av-) show, icjidvOrji' was shown (pas- sive), icfxiv-qv ajypeared (intransitive). 338 In the perfect middle system the final consonant in the stem caused certain changes (paradigms, 339). 339 Perfect Middle System, Liquid Verbs Indic. Perfect Pluperfect Imperative Si. 1 2 'Tr€c|)ao--|iaL ('ire<t)av-o-ai) €Tr€cj)d(r-[JLT|v (eirettjav-o-o) (ir€(|)av-(ro) 3 'ir€(j)av-TaL €Tr€(t)aV-TO ir€<()dv-0co PI. 1 2 'n"€(t)dcr-|xe9a Tr€ct)av-9€ €Tr€<j)do--}i60a €Tr6<j)av-0€ Tr€<t)av-0€ 3 Du. 2 'ir€(t>acr|jLevoi elai Tr€<t)av-0ov 'Trec|)ao-|X€VOL r^aav €TTe<t)av-0ov 'ir€(|)dv-0(ov 'n-€c|)av-0ov 3 'ire<l>av-0ov €ir€<|)dv-0T|V 'Tre<|)dv-0(ov Subjunctive Optative Infinitive ir€<j)ao-fJL€vos « 'rr€<|)aa|icvos cltiv Tr€(|)dv-0at Indic. Perfect Pluperfect Ijiperative Si. 1 2 €VTa\-[j,ai ecTaX-crai co-TdX-iiTiv eo-xaX-o-o ecTaX-cro 3 €crTa\-Tai ecTTaX-TO €o-TdX-0a) PL 1 2 €o-Td\~[i€9a co-TaX-Gc €o-TdX-fi€0a €O'TaX-06 co-TaX-0€ 3 Du. 2 e(jTa\}JLevoL cIctl ecTaX-Sov ccTTaXfJLevoL Tjcrav €O'TaX-0ov €o-TdX-0a>v €(rTaX-0ov 3 €(rTa\-eov €(rTdX-0T]v €O-TdX-0(OV Subjunctive Optative Infinitive 6(rTaX|JL€Vos CO €o-TaXfJL€Vos el'-qv €(rTdX-0ai 110 12 -VERBS a. The endings -vrat, -vto after a consonant being almost unpronounceable, compound forms are used. b. In the subjunctive and optative compound forms are used. c. Forms in -vo-at and -vo-o do not occur ; compound forms may have been used. d. See also 50 d and 65 b : 7re-<5f)ao--/xat for 7r€-^av-/xat, i-o-rdX- 6ai for i-crraX-crOaL. IV. Mute Verbs 340 The present system of mute verbs may be of the formative - vowel class (257), the r-class (258), the t-class (259), the inceptive class (260), or the nasal class (26l). In other systems many sound-changes occur where consonants come together. 341 The formation of the various tense-stems is illustrated in the following: : Present Future Aorist Pf . Act. Pf. Mid. Aor. Pass. Present Future Aorist Pf. Act. Pf. Mid. Aor. Pass. (ypacj)-) iDvite ypdfjyo) (257) ypdxjjo) (45 a) eypaxfja (45 a) yeypa<j)a (332) yiy pafxyiai (44 a) iypd^7]v (334) (fi\a/3-) injure ^XdirTO) (258) /3Xaxjj(o e^Xaxjja /5e^Xa^a (342 b) /3€/3\aiJLfjLaL e^\d(^er)v (43 a) i^\d/3r]v {plj>-, pi4>-) throw piiTToj (258) epplxfja (48) €ppl(f)a epplfJifiaL ippL(l>Or)v and ippL(f)rjv (Tre/xTT-) send TTEfJiTrCO TrepA^foi €7TefjLxjja 7T€7TOfji(j)a (342 b) TTeTTefifjiai (344 a) inefjicj^Orjv MUTE VERBS 111 {tt^lO-) persuade (yu/xj^aS-) exercise Present ireiOo} yvfjivd^o) (269 d, 56 d) Future Treido) (45 b) yvfivdcroj (45 b) Aorist eTretcra iyvfjivaaa Pf. Act. TreWet/ca (342 a) TrenoiOa (332) yeyvfjivaKa (342 a) Pf. Mid. TreVetcr/xat (44 c) yeyvpLvacrpiai (44 c) Aor. Pass. i-n-eLO-Orjv (43 b) iyvpivdcrOiqv (43 b) (dpx-) he first, begin, rule (aXXay-) clicinge Present dpXco dXXdcrcroj (259 c, 56 c) Future dp^co (45 a) dXXd^o) Aorist y^a rjXXa^a Pf. Act. VPX^ TjXXaxa (342 b) Pf. Mid. ^pyixai (44 b) rjXXayfjLai Aor. Pass. ripxOr]v rjXXdxOrjv rjXXayr^v 342 a. In the ko t-perfect a r-mute disappears before k. b. In the a-perfect most stems ending in a tt- or K-mute aspirate the mute, often changing the stem vowel also. 343 The sound-changes in the perfect middle system are shown in the paradigms (345). 344 a. In the perfect middle of 7re/x7rw {-n-efXTr-) send, 7rc7r6/x-/i.ai is written, since /x/x/a can hardly be pronounced otherwise than as /A/x. So 7re7re)u,-/xe^a, TreTrefi-fJievo'b. b. e'Aeyxw (iXeyx-) test makes iX-qXcy-fiaL, i\r]\ey-fjL€VO<s (drop- ping one y from yy-/x), but iXrjXeyiaL, etc. c. Older writers have in the perf. and plup. ind. mid. 3d plu. a few forms in -arat, -aro, before which a tt- or K-mute is aspirated: TeTa;(-arat, €TeTa;(-aTO, for rcTay/xivoi d(TL, rja-av. (Cp. 270 a.) 112 fi- VERBS Perfect Middle System, Mute Verbs IxDic. Perfect Indic. Pluperfect Imperative Si. 1 TTe'rr€Lo--jj.ai €'ir€'ir€LO--JJL'tlV 2 ireirei-o-aL eircirei-o'o Trc-Trei-o-o 3 ireTreicr-TaL €Tr€Tr€LCr-TO ireTrei-o-eo) PL 1 ireTTeiV-ixeea €'ir€'ir€io--|JL€0a 2 'rreT7€L-o-9e circTrei-o-ee ireTrei-crGc 3 Du. 2 ireTT^l(T\i.€VOl €1(71 Treirei-o-Oov ireireicrpLevoi T|(rav lireTTCi-o'Sov TreireL-orewv ireirei-o-eov 3 ireireL-o-Sov CTreTrei-crSTiv ircirei-o-ecDV Subjunctive Optative Infinitive '7r€ir€lO-[JL€VOS (0 ircTTCiiJLevos €it]V ireire 1-0-0 ai Si. 1 2 3 PL 1 2 'ye'YpaiJL-fJLai ^e-ypavl/ai •ye'Y pair-Tat 7€"Ypd}j,-}JLe9a •Y€"ypa<|)-6€ (55 b) e'yeYpdp.-fJiTiv kyeypa\\fO €'Ye'YpaTr-To c-yeYpdix-jJicGa €'Y6'Ypa<|)-e€ -ye-Ypdc^-Go) 'Y€'Ypa<t>-0€ 3 Du. 2 3 •ye-ypajJifxevoL clo-l 'Ye'Ypa(j)-6ov "Ye'Ypacj)-0ov -ye-ypajJiixevoL Tjcrav €"Ye'Ypa(j)-0ov €'Y€'Ypdc[)-eTiv •Y€'ypd(j)-0cov 'Y€'Ypacj)-Gov "y€'ypdc^-0cov Subjunctive Optative Infinitive •yc-YpaixjJLevos co -yeYpafJUJievos €lt|v "Y€'ypdct>-0aL Si. 1 2 3 PL 1 2 3 Du. 2 3 TJXXaY-jJLai TJ\\a|aL TJWaK-xai f|\\d7-|JL€9a Tj\\ax-e€ T|\Xa7}Jl€V0L €10-1 TJXXax-Qov TJXXax-eov f|XXd7-|XTiv TJXXa|o TlXXaK-TO f|XXd7-fJL€6a -nXXax-Gc f|XXa7|JLevoL -qcav TJXXax-Qov f|XXdx-9T|v TJXXa|o f|XXdx-0<«) TJXXax-Oe f|XXdx-0cov TJXXax-0ov f|XXdx-0o>v Subjunctive Optative Infinitive T|XXa7fJi€Vos w fiXXa^pievos cltiv T|XXdx-0ai MUTE VERBS 113 346 a. Futures in -co. — Verbs in -i^oj (verb-stems in -tS-) commoDly make tlie future in -tw, dropping S and taking the suffix -eoie-, which then contracts as in the liquid future (324) : /co/xt^cu (/co/xt8-) carry ^ /co/xtw. In later Greek the forms in -icro) occur. b. A few verbs in -a^o> (stems in -aS-) drop o- in the future and contract, like presents in -aw (316) : pipd^o) (/8ty8a8-) make go, pL/Sda-o), contracted to /St/Sw, ^t/3a5, etc. 347 Formative- Vowel or Thematic Aorist. — Many mute verbs and some liquid verbs make the aorist active and middle by adding the suffix -o:e- to the verb- stem, in the weak form if it has one. The inflection is like that of a present system ; in meaning this aorist does not differ from the aa- aorist : XetVw (Xenr-, Xltt-) leave^ IXnrov (348). 348 Formative-Vowel Aorist Active Middle Ind. e-Xiir-o-v c-Xiir-d-iiTiv c-Xltt-c-s e-XiTT-ot) €-Xnr-€ €-XlTr-€-TO etc. etc. Snbjv. XlTT-CO Xiir-o)-|JLai Opt. XiTr-oi-jii Xnr-oi-[jLTiv Impv. XiTr€ Xiir-oi) Inf. Xnr-€LV Xiir-e-crOai Ptc. Xltt-cov XLir-6-jJi€vos 349 The accent of the infinitive and participle and of the im- perative middle second singular is on the formative vowel. This gives -etv (for -e-ev), 'i-a-Oai, -wv, and -ov (for -c-(cr)o). 8 114 fi- VERBS a. Five verbs also accent the formative vowel in the impv. second sing, active : elire say, ikOe come, evpi find, iSi see, XaySe take. But in compounds their accent is recessive. 360 Verbs that make a formative- vowel aorist are very fre- quent, and are often irregular. Among the commonest ^ ^ • Present Aorist 1. Xaji/Bdvo) (Xa/B-j Xtj/S-) eXa^ov, Xd/3a), Xd^oLfjiL, Xa/Be take, (349 a), Xafielv, Xa^cov. 2. (j)evyo) {<^evy-j (f)vy-j e(l)vyoi', (f)vya), (j>vyoLiJii, (j^vye, flee, ^vyeiVj (j)vy(6p. 3. Trdo'xoj (jraO-y 260 b) iiTaOov, TrdOco, TrdOoLfjn, rrdOe, suffer, TTaOelv, TTa6a)v. 4. pdXXo) (^aX-j /3Xrj-^ e^aXov, ^dXco, /BdXoiixL^/BdXe, throw J * /SaXeuv, /BaXcov. 5. ytyvofxaL {y^v-, yov-, iyepofjirjv, yei^ojixau, yevoi- yevrj-) become, fjLTjv, yevov^ yeveaOat, ye- 6. exoi (o-ex; e'x-, ct^-, eVxoz^, ax^y o-xoLrjv, crxe? (txt) ^Ci'^e, hold, (271), crxetJ^, ax^^v. (In compounds the subjunctive and imperative have reces- sive accent : Tra/oao-xw, Trapao-xe?.) 7. opdoi {opa-, 18- ; 391) elSoi^ (^67), tSoj, Ihoiixi, tSe see, (349 a), Ihelv, IScot/. 8. (j)r]iJiL (^(j)a'.7]-, f^TT-, eiTTOv, eiTro), eiiroiiJiL, elne 391) say, (349 a), elTrelv, enTd)v. 9. alpeo) (alpe.r]-, eX-) elXov, iXco, iXoLfJn, eXe, iXeli; seize, kXojv. 10. dyo} (ay-^ lead, drive, rjyayov (with reduplica- tion), dydyo), dydyoLfJH, ay aye, dyayelv, dyayoiv. MI -VERBS 115 351 Besides the formative-vowel aorists etTrov said (<^r7/xt) and ^vcyKoi/ hore (<^€p(o) are found forms of an aorist in a : ciTra, ctTTtt?, etc., and •^veyKa, •^veyKtt?, etc. 352 Verbal Adjectives are formed by adding -t6<; {-nj, -^ov) and -Teo<; (-d, -ov) to the verb-stem as it appears in the aorist passive (observing the rule in 43) ; some- times an extra a- appears before the r. 353 Most verbals in -to<; either (1) denote the capability or possibility of the action of the verb (cp. Latin -MUsy English -able)y or (2) have the force of a per- fect passive participle (Latin -tus) : i,r]\o)T6<^ enviaUe or envied from {T^Xdw, por]-T6<^ tliinlcable from z^oeo), TTOLTj-Tos made from iroiio}. a. Some verbals in -tos have an active meaning : pv-ro^ flowing from pew. b. Compound verbals in -to^ in the first meaning accent the ultima and have three endings ; in the second meaning they have recessive accent and two endings : 8ta/?aTos (->/, -oV) fordable from 8ta/?atVw, ay pain-os (-ov) unicritten from ypa<^w. 354 The verbal in -Tio<; has the general force (but not all the uses) of the Latin gerundive or jDarticiple in -ndus\ 7rpdK-Teo<; requiring to he donej faciendus. B. Verbs of the Mt-CoxjuGATio^^" 355 The distinction between the w-conjugation and the /xi-conjugation applies only to the present system. In the /Ltt-conjugation the present stem does not end in -o:€-, and the fuller endings -/xt, -9, -cjt, -acri, -crav (263) are used. There are two classes : 356 (1) Nasal Class (cp. 281). — The suffix -w.v-, after a vowel 'vvv'.v-, is added to the verb-stem : 116 MI -VERBS VERB-STEM PRES, STEM PRES. IND. 8et/c- point at, heiKvv'.v-, SeLKvvfjn, K€pa- mix, Kepavvv'.v-, Kepavvvfjn, 357 (2) Root Class. — The present stem is tlie verb-stem, always a root, sometimes reduplicated : VERB-STEM PRES. INDIC, (j)a:r}- say, ^iq^jn (19 d), aralrj- set up, lo-TrjfjLi (257 a, 64). I. Verbs in -pvijii 358 Verbs in -vvixi show the simplest form of /^t-present (paradigm, 360). (1) The final stem-vowel is long in the singular of the active indicative present and imperfect, and in the second singular of the active imj)erative ; else- where it is short. (2) The endings are unchanged : -dcrt and -aai/ are used in the active third plural ; -Ol is omitted. (3) The infinitive active takes -vau and accents the penult (296 a). (4) The active participle accents the final vowel of the present stem (l70). (5) The subjunctive and optative follow the co-con- jugation. Sometimes the indicative also follows the orconjugation. 359 The other verbs of this class are the following, which see in the Verb-list : (a) Vowel verbs : Kcpavvvfjn mix, KpefjLdvvvfjLt hang, Treravvv/jLi spread, a-KiSdwvfiL scatter, a-piwvixi quench, poivvvixi strengthen, o-TpwvvvjxL spread. MI -VERBS 117 360 (b) Liquid verbs : oXXvfxi lose, destroy, ojxvv^i swear. (c) Mute verbs, in -y : ^evyvvfjn join, /xetyvv/xt mix, Tn/jyvvfiL fix, pT^yvvfjLL break. Ae^KvvjjLi (SeiK-) point at Active Middle (Passive) Indie. Si. 1 8€lK-Vi)-JiL 8eiK-v\)-}JLai Pres. 2 8€LK-Vl)-S 8€iK-v\)-(raL 3 8€IK-Vi)-0"L 8€lK-VD-TaL PL 1 8€iK-VD-|iev 8€LK-Vxi-lJL€9a 2 8€IK-VU-T€ 8€iK-v\)-cre€ 3 8€LK-V\i-dO'L 8€lK-V\J-VTai Du. 2 8€IK-VU-T0V 8€IK-V\)-O-0OV 3 8€IK-V\)-T0V 86lK-VU-0-eOV Iniperf. Si. 1 €-8€LK-V\3-V €-8eiK-v'u-|niv 2 €-8eiK-vi)-s €-8€iK-v\;-o-o 3 k-haK-vv €-8€lK-VU-T0 PI. 1 k-hdK-vv-\iev €-8€LK-V'U-|JLe0a 2 €-8€lK-Vl)-T€ €-8eiK-vi)-o-6€ 3 €-8€iK-vu-(rav €-8ciK-VU-VT0 Du. 2 €-8€lK-VU-T0V €-8€LK-VU-(jG0V 3 €-8€lK-V'U-TT|V €-8€lK-V'U-0-eT|V Subjv. Si. 1 8€LK-v'u-o), etc. 8cLK-v'u-co-|iai, ete. Opt. Si. 1 8€LK-vij-0L-jjLi, ete. 8€LK-vi)-oi-|iTiv, ete. Impv. Si. 2 hdK-VV 8CLK-VU-0-0 3 8€LK-V'U-T0) 8€iK-vij-(r0o) PI. 2 8ciK-VV-T€ 8€lK-V\)-O-0€ 3 8€LK-V\I-VT(0V 8€LK-vxi-cr0cov Du. 2 8€lK-Vl)-T0V 8€iK-v\)-cr0ov 3 8€IK-V'U-T<0V 8€LK-V1J-(r0(OV Inf. 8€lK-VlJ-VaL 8€iK-v\j-o-0ai Partic. 8€LK-viJS, -va)o-a, -vvv 8€IK-V'U-|X€V0S Principal parts : 8€iKvi3jJLi, 8€i|(o, e8€L|a, 868€ixa, 8€8€L'YfJLai, e8eix0'nv. 118 MI -VERBS II. Verbs in -r)fJiLy with Stem in -alrj- 361 Verbs of the root class (357) with present stem in -aiT^- follow laTTjixL (362). They are like heLKvvfjLL except as follows : (1) d-dcTL contracts to -ao-t. Present System of Active Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect Si. 1 i-(mi]-\Li 't-(TTT\-V l-CTCO 2 L-CTTTI-S l-(TTT]-S l-O-TTJS 3 L-0'TT|-0'L l-O-TTl l-O-TTJ PI. 1 I'-dTa-fJiev l-crTa-fJL€V l-cTco-fJiev 2 i-crTa-T€ l-0-Ta-T€ l-(rTfi-T€ 3 l-o-TCLcri i-o-Ta-o-av {-(ttSxti Dii. 2 L-0-Ta-TOV l-CTa-TOV l-CTTTl-TOV 3 l-0-Ta-TOV t-CTTd-TllV l-0-TTl-TOV Middle Si. 1 L-o-Ta-jxai i-o-Td-ix-qv l-0-TO)-|JiaL 2 i-o-Ta-o-ai i-cTa-co l-aTTJ 3 i-o-Ta-Tai i-crxa-TO l-O-TTl-TaL PI. 1 l-(rTd-|JL€6a c-o-Td-jJLeSa l-o-Tw-iJLeGa 2 L-cTTa-o-Gc i-o-Ta-cGe l-O'TTl-O'0€ 3 i-o-Ta-VTai l-CTTa-VTO l-O-T(0-VTai Dn. 2 i-cTTa-o-Gov L-o-Ta-o-0ov 1-O-TT1-O-0OV 3 L-cTa-o-Oov i-crTd-(r0T|v l-crTTi-o-0ov MI -VERBS 119 (2) The subjunctive contracts -doj- and -drj- to -w- and -17-. (3) The optative mode-suffix is -irj-, or in the plu- ral and dual more often -i- (-le- in the third plural), added directly to the stem. The accent never stands before the mode-suffix. (Cp. the passive aor. opt.) to-Tiiixi (<rTa:ii-) set, stand Voice Optative Imperative Infinitive, Participle l-o-TaiTi-v l-(rraLT|-s l-o-TaLTi l-CTTat-jiev, -a{.T\-[L^v l-o-Tai-TC, -ai-q-TC l-0Tai€-v, -aiii-crav Uo-Tai-Tov, -aiT|-TOV l-crxai-TTiv, -aiTi-Tiiv l-0"Td-TCO l-0-Ta-T€ l-o-xd-VTcov L-a-ra-Tov l-o-xd-Tcov Infinitive l-o-Td-vai Participle l-CTdS l-o-Tdcra l-o-Tdv (162 b) Voice l-o'Tai-fJL'nv l-cTat-o l-o-Tai-TO l-cTai-iieOa l-o-Tat-crOe l-O-Tai-VTO l-(rTaL-cr6ov l-CTTai-o-GTiv L-CTTa-cro l-o-Td-cGco i-o-Ta-o-Gc l-oTd-aOcov i-&Ta-(TQov l-CTTd-o-ecav Infinitive i-o-Ta-o-Gai Participle l-0-Td-|i€VOS l-0-Ta-|JL€VT| etc. 120 MI -VERBS "lo-TT^/xt and its compounds are very common, and tlie different tenses often require different translations. The fundamental distinctions are shown in the follow- ing table : Transitive Intransitive Passive Active Indir. Mid. place oneself be placed set set for oneself Present IdTtllJLl lo-TttfJiai Lo-TajJLai LcrxajJiai Future O-TTJO-CO O-TTIO-OIJLaL 0'TT10'0|iai (rTa6T|(ro|JLai Aorist co-T-qcra €0-TT|0'dp.'nV <i(TT'X\V €C7Td0TlV Perfect ecTTTiKa stand Pluperf. Clo-TTJKTI was stand- ing Put. Pf . €O-TTi|(0 shall stand The intransitive forms also serve for the passive, as with many other verbs. For io-rrjv see 366, for ia-T-^ioi see 364. a. Similarly in compounds : Present d(f)L(TTrjiiL set of from, cause to revolt, mid. revolt, pass, am set off; Future aTroa-Tyjo-co shall cause to revolt, mid. shall revolt, pass, shall be set off; 2a-Aor. oLTreo-Trjcra caused to revolt, mid. got to revolt, pass, was set off ; Eoot-Aor. dTrea-TTjv revolted. Perfect d^ia-T-qKa am in revolt, dcjieLaTTJKrj was in revolt MI -VERBS 121 Likewise KaOia-T-qixL set down^ settle^ KaTao-Ttjcrco shall settle (trans.), Kareo-Trjaa settled (trans.), Kare- o-TTjj/ became settled^ KaOea-TrjKa am settled, KadeLa-TiJKr) was settled. 364 A future perfect active ia-ri^ioi shall stand is formed by add- ing ttie future suffix and endings to io-rr^K- as a perfect stem. In like manner 6vycrK(a die forms TeOv^iw shall be dead from 365 The following verbs (which see in the Verb-list) are like la-TrjfXL in the present system : ovCvqiii henefit^ mid. le advan- taged, TTLfnrXrjfXL fill, TTLfjLTrprjfiL set OH fire (more frequent in the compound c/ATrtTrpiy/xi), aya/xai admire, SvvafJicu COn, iTTLO-TafjLaL hnoic, %Lnder stand. c8vva(o-)o regularly becomes cSuVw. a. The deponents in this list have recessive accent in the subjv. and opt., herein differing from ttmy/u : Subjv. Sww/Attt, Swry, SvvTTTai, etc., Opt. Swato, €7rio-TatTO, ayatvTO. Likewise in the root-aorist (366) wv-qix-qv from SvLvrj/jiL : ovato, ovaiTO, ovaivro, and from iTrpLafxrjv (pres. wvio/xai) ; Trptoi- fiai, etc. 366 Root-Aorist. — Some (&■ and /xi-verbs, all of them hav- ing vowel-stems, make an active aorist in w^hich the endings are added directly to the root as tense stem (root-aorist). In so far it is like the /xt-present and imperfect. In meaning it is like other aorists ; but if the verb has also a o-a-aorist, that is causative and the root-aorist intransitive. Thus from 10-717 /xi, ecr- TTjaa I set or caused to stand, icTrjv I placed myself or took my place ; from yiyvcocrKco recognize, iyoiv ; from Suoj enter, iSvp. (Paradigms, 367.) 122 MI- VERBS 367 ROOT-AORISTS Indicative Subjunctive Optative Si. 1 €-CrTT|-V crTcI> CTTaiTl-V 2 ecTTi-s O-TfjS (TTair]-s 3 €-crTii O-TT] (TTair\ PL 1 €-(rTT|-|Jl€V CrT(0-|l€V (TTaL-fiCV, CTaiTI-fJlCV 2 €-0-TTl-T€ 0-TT]-T€ 0'TaL-T€, crTaiT|-T€ 3 €-crTTi-orav (TTCOCri 0-TaL€-V, o-Tai-q-crav Du. 2 <i-(TTT]-TOV O-TTl-TOV O-Tat-TOV, CTTaiTl-TOV 3 C-O-TTJ-TTjV CTTTJ-TOV o-Tai-TTiv, (TTaiTi-TllV Si. 1 €-'YV(0-V yv(o -yvoiii-v 2 C-YVCO-S Vvcgs •yvoLTi-s 3 €-"YV(0 -yvco 'yVOLTI PI. 1 €-7V(0-lX€V -yvw-fjiev -yvoL-ixev, yvoiK\-\L^v 2 e-'YVo)-T€ "YVO)-T€ 'YVOl-T€, "yVOlTl-T€ 3 c-'yvw-o'av "yvwcri "YVOL€-V, •yvoLTi-crav Du. 2 €-'YV(0-TOV "yvw-TOV •yVOL-TOV, 'YV01T|-T0V 3 €-"YV(0-T'qV •yvto-TOV 'yvoi-T'nv, "YVOlll-TTIV Si. 1 €-8iJ-v 8^0) 2 €-8i5-s 813x1$ 3 €-8i) 8lJT| PI. 1 €-8i)-|i€V 8lJ(0-|X€V 2 €-8iJ-T€ 8'u'ri-T€ 3 €-8\3-(rav 8\icoo'L Du. 2 €-8lJ-T0V 8xiTl-T0V 3 €-8ij-TT|V 8'U'q-Tov 368 Tlie root-vowel is long (t/, oj, v) before a single consonant, short (a, e, o, v) before a vowel or two consonants change. The endings are added without MI -VERBS 123 2<rTT]V, 'iiyvuiv, '<iSvv biPERATIVE Infixitive, Participle 0-TT]-TCO (TTT1-T€ CTTd-VTCOV (TTTl-TOV (TTTI-TCOV Infinitive o-TTi-vai Participle cTas, (TTdcra, cTdv (162 b) 7VC0-T(O -yvco-Te -yvd-VTcov •yvco-Tov •yvco-Twv Infinitive •yvw-vaL Participle ■yvo-us, 7Vovo-a, -yvdv (169) 8^-01 8v-T0) 8'U-VTCOV 8i)-Tov 8u-T(0V Infinitive 8{)-vaL Participle 8^s, 8wa, 8ilv (170) In the subjunctive and optative a, e, o contract with the mode-suffix ; 017 gives w, 017 gives co. a. The entire system is like the T7-passive aorist (334, 336), except for the final vowel of the stem, and some resulting contractions. 124: MI -VERBS 369 Eoot-aorist forms are also found, some of them frequently, from (a) paivtji iPaiT]-) go : ejSrjv, Pio, ^curjv, PtjOl, prjvai, )8as. SuhJY. fiia, Pfj<s, ^y, etc. -SiSpda-KOi (8pa:d-) run away, only in composition, esp. diro- SiSpdo-KO) : eSpctj/, e8pa,9, etc, 8pw, Spas, etc, Spairjv, hpaOt, Spavai, Spa's. KT€Lv<j) (kt€v-, KTaiTj-) Mil (root-aor. poetic) : €KTdVf €/CTaS, €KTd ', ptC. KTttS, KTOL/JLeVO^. 6vLV7}fjiL (6va:7]-) benefit (root-aor. intr.) : u>vT^fJiy]v, 6vaLfX7)v (365 a), ovrjcro, ovaaOai, ovyfxevo^. TrerofiaL (ttct-, TTTairj-) fiy : CTTTTyv, TTTat-qv^ TTTrjvai, TTTttS (act. poetic), mid. cTTTtt/xT^v, irracr^at, tttci/acvoS. Eoot (TXairj-) endure : erXr]v, tXw, rAairyv, tX^Ol, rXrjvaL, tAos. Eoot (Trpia-) buy (present wveofiai) : cTrpta/xryv, Trptto/iat (365 a), 7rptat//,7yi/, 7rptao"^at, Trpidfxevo'S. <f>6dvoi {(f>Oa:r]-) get ahead of I €<f)6rjv, (fiOio, <f>6aLr]v, tfiOyjvai, (f>6d^. (b) a-pivvvixL (a-peiT]-) que7ich : €0-^>yv went out, (T/3r]vaL, {c) aXio-Ko/jiaL (oA-, dAo:o)-) 05m captured: edX(DV or T^Awv, dAw, dAotiyi/, dAwi/at, oAoijS. ^100) (Plo'.io-) live : (tZ) <^vo) (<3!)v:i5-) produce : €<f>vv was born, am, <f>v(o, <]>vvai, <j!)vs. 370 Root-Perfect. — A few verbs have some perfect active forms without a tense-suffix, the endings being added directly to the reduplicated verb-stem, always a root. Thus (1) From LCTTrjfjLL, besides the regular fca-perfect, occur, in the intransitive sense, stand, MI -VERBS 125 Ind. €o-Ta-|Ji€v Subjv. €(rT(o Inf. €crTd-vai CO-Ta-TC €0-Tci)fJL€V eo-Tclcri co-Tcao-L Ptc. taTcos ecTTa-TOV Opt. co-TaiTjv, etc. (173) Plup. ccTTa-crav Impv. cVxa-Oi, etc. (2) From /Batvajj besides ^€^r]Ka am gone, stand fast, occur ind. 3d pi. ^ej^aaij subjv. 3d. pi. /Se/Bcjcriy ptc. fief^m, like ecrrcrjg. (3) From yiyvoyiai, besides yivovaj occurs yeycosj like ecrrw?. (4) From Ovrjo-Kco, besides riOviqKa am dead, occur Ind. Te0va-}i€v Opt. T€0vaiT|v T€0va-T€ Impv. T€6va-6i T€0vd(ri Inf. T€0vd-vai Te0va-Tov Ptc. T€0ve(os (173) Plup. €T€0va-o-av (5) Besides SeSot/ca (St-, Set-, Sot-) fear, and the a-perfect SeSta, SeSte, SeSteVat, occur Ind. 8€8l-jji€V Plup. cSeSi-aav 6e8L-T€ Subjv. SeSioi) SeSi-do-i Ptc. ScSlws, SeSiuia, ScSids (6) From eot/ca (Ik-, eU-j ot/c-) am like, appear, plup. eotKif], occur Ind. €0L7-|JL€V Inf. clKcvai €L§dO-L Ptc. €lK(OS, €lKl)ia, CIKOS in. AiScOfJLL, TL9r)fJLL, '^IrjlJLL 371 Three very common verbs — StSw/xt ^^^^, TiOiqixi put, IrjfjLL send — are nearly like lariqixi, but agree in cer- tain differences from IcrTrjiJiL in the present and root- aorist systems, as also in forming a peculiar /ca- aorist. (Paradigms, 372-374.) 126 MI -VERBS 8i8(0|xi (80 :a)-) give Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect w Si. 1 8l-8o)-|ii €-8i-6o\)v 8 1-8(0 >. 2 8i-8o>-s €-8l-8o\)s 8l-8w-s 3 8i-8o)-o-L €-81-801) 8i-8(o H PL 1 2 81-80- |X€V €-8l-8o-(X€V 8l-8o-T€ €-8l-8o-T€ 8L-8co-fJLev 8l-8(o-t€ Ifl 3 8L-86-do'L €-8L-8o-o'av 8l-8(o-o-i Du. 2 8l-8o-tov €-8l-8o-tov 8l-8co-tov P^_ 3 8l-8o-tov €-8l-86-ttiv 8l-8(o-tov ^ Si. 1 2 8i-8o-iJLaL €-8l-86-[jltiv 8L-8o-o'aL c-8i-8o-o'o 8L-8(o-fJLai 8l-8w a 3 8L-8o-TaL €-8l-8o-to 8L-8co-TaL PI. 1 2 8L-86-}JL€6a €-8L-86-|X€9a 8L-8o-o-e€ ^-8L-8o-o-e€ 8L-8(o-fJi€0a 8L-8(o-o-e€ CO 3 8i-8o-VTaL €-8l-8o-vto 8L-8a)-VTaL Oh Dn. 2 8l-8o-o-6ov €-8L-8o-o-eov 8L-8(o-o-eov Ph 3 8l-8o-o'6ov e-8L-86-o-9T|v 8i-8(o-o-Gov Si. 1 (€-8<o-Ka) 8(0 &3 2 (€-8o)-Kas) 8(3-s H 3 (€-8(0-K€) 8(^ PL 1 2 €-8o-}Jl€V €-8o-T€ 8(0-[JL€V 8(b-T€ m 3 €-8o-o'av 8(0-0-1 J Du. 2 €-8o-TOV 8(0-T0V <1 3 €-86-TT|V 8(0-TOV Si. 1 2 €-86-}AT|V €-8o\) 6(o-|xaL 8(3 a 3 €-80-T0 8(o-TaL PL 1 2 €-86-|X€6a €-8o-o-e€ 8(o-|jL€0a 8o)-o-0€ (^ 3 €-8o-VTO 8(o-VTaL (4 Du. 2 €-8o-o-eov 8(o-o"6ov < 3 €-86-o-eiiv 8(o-o-6ov MI -VERBS 127 8iSwp.t (8o:<»-) give Optative Imperative Infinitive, Participle 8l-50LT|-V 6l-8oit|-s 8i-8o\) Infinitive 6l-5oiti 8L-86-TCi) 8i-86-vai 8i-6oL-|iev 5L-8oiT|-|i€v Participle 5l-50L-TC 8l-80LTl-T€ 8l-8o-t€ 8l-8o'us 8i-8oL€-v 8i-8oL'q-o"av 8L-86-in-(ov, -Twaav 81-80-0 o-a 81-80L-TOV 8l-8oit|-tov 81-80-Tov 8i-86v 8i-8oi-TT|v 8l-8olt]-ttiv 81-86-Tcov (169) 8l-8ol-}jltiv 8l-8ol-o 81-80-0-0 Infinitive 8l-8ol-to 8i-86-o-0(») 8L-8o-o'0ai 8L-8oi-|ie6a Participle 8l-8ol-o-9€ 8l-8o-o-9€ 8i-86-}JL€Vos 8l-8ol-vto 8i-86-o-ecov, -o-Ococav 8L-8o-|jLexni 8L-8oL-creov 8i-8o-o-0ov 8i-86-}j.€vov 6l-8ol-o-6t|v 8l-86-o"0o)V 8oiT|-V hob(\-s 86-s Infinitive 80LT| 86-Tco 8o{i-vai 80L-lXeV 80LT|-1X€V ■ Participle 80L-T€ 801T1-T€ 86-T€ 8o'us 8oi€-v 801'q-o-av 86-VT(ov, -Tcoo-av hovdo. 80L-TOV 80LT|-T0V 86-Tov 86v 80L-TT|V 80LT]-TT|V 86-T(ov (169) 80l-|iT|V 801-0 hov Infinitive 80L-TO 8d-a0(o 86-o-0aL 8oL-|j.e0a Participle 8oL-cr6€ 86-o-0€ 86-}JL€VOS 80L-VT0 86-o-0(ov, -cSwo-av 8o-[JL€VT| 8oL-cr0ov 86-O-0OV 86-fJL€VOV 8oi-cr6Tiv 86-o-0o)V 128 MI -VERBS 373 t£9t]|jli (0€:ti-) ptit Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect H Si. 1 TL-6t|-|JLI €-TL-eT|-V TL-0(O > 2 Tl-e-ri-S €-Tl-6€LS TL-0fi-S < 3 TL-0tl-O-L €-TL-6€l Tt-0Ti H PI. 1 Tl-e€-|Jl€V €-Tl-e6-|X€V TL-0(O-|i€V 2 Tl-0€-T€ €-Tl-0€-T€ TI-0T1-T6 C/J 3 TL-Gc-do-L €-Ti-e€-o-av Tl-0(O-Cri 33 Dii. 2 Tl-Gc-TOV €-Tl-e€-TOV TI-0T1-TOV flH 3 Tl-0€-TOV €-Tl-6€-TTlV Tl-0fi-TOV H Si. 1 Tl-6€-|JLaL €-TL-e6-JJLT]V Tl-0(D-fJiai 1-3 Q 2 TL-ee-aai e-Ti-Ge-ao Tl-0Ti 3 3 Tl-Gc-Tai €-Tl-6€-T0 TL-0T1-Tai H PI. 1 TL-e€-|X€ea €-TL-ee-|X€ea Tl-0(O-fJl€0a OJ >* 2 TL-9€-0-6€ €-Tl-e€-Or0€ TI-0T1-O-06 (/} 3 Tl-0€-VTai 6-TL-06-VTO TL-0(b-VTaL C4 Dii. 2 TI-06-O-0OV €-TL-0€-Cr0OV TL-0Tl-(r0OV P4 3 Tl-0€-Cr0OV €-TL-0€-Or011V Tl-0f]-O-0OV W Si. 1 (€-011-Ka) 06> 2 (€-0Tl-Ka-S) efi-s 3 (€-0Tl-K6) efi H PI. 1 €-0€-HL€V 0(O-|JL€V So 2 €-0€-T€ 0fi-T€ c/} 3 €-0€-o-av 0(o-(rL o Du. 2 €-0€-TOV 0T1-TOV 3 6-0C-T11V 0T]-TOV fH Si. 1 €-0€-ii'qv 0(O-(JLaL p 2 €-0O\) efi Q 3 €-0€-TO 0Tl-TaL f^ PI. 1 €-0e-|X€0a 0(O-}JL€0a W3 2 €-0€-(r0€ 0il-o-0€ c/i 3 €-0€-VTO 06)-VTaL C3 o Du. 2 €-0€-(r0OV 0f|-o-0ov < 3 €-0e-o-0iiv 0T1-O-0OV MI -VERBS 129 Tf0Tini {Qe.r\-) put Optative Imperative Infixitive, Participle TL-0€lT|-V TL-e€LT|-S Tl-061 Infinitive Tl-GCITI Tl-0e-T(O TL-0€-Vai Tl-0€L-|i€V TL-eeitl-liCV Participle TL-06L-T6 TL-6€LT|-Te Tl-0€-T€ TI-0CLS Tl-0€l€-V TL-e€LT|-0-aV Tt-0e-VTCOV TL-0€LO-a TL-0eL-TOV TL-0€IT|-TOV Tl-0€-TOV Tl-0€V Tl-0€L-TT|V TL-0eiTJ-TT|V TL-0€-T<OV (165) TL-0€L-|iTlV TL-0OL-[JL'riV TI-06L-O Tl-001-0 Ti-0€-<ro Infinitive TI-06L-TO TI-0OL-TO Tl-0€-<r0CO Ti-0€-o-0at Tl-0€L-|X€0a TL-0OL-fI€0a Participle TI-06L-O-06 TL-0OL-Cr0€ Tl-0€-O-0€ TL-0e-|JL€VOS Tl-0€L-VTO TI-0OL-VTO Ti-0e-o-0cov TL-0€-|X€VT| TL-0eL-(r0OV TL-0OL-(r0OV Tl-0€-O-0OV Tl-0€-|i€VOV TL-0€L-(r0T|V TL-0OL-O'0T|V Tl-06-Cr0(OV 0CIT|-V 0€111-S 0€-S Infinitive 0€IT1 0€-Ta) 0€L-vai 0€l-|JL€V 0€ill-fJL€V Participle 0€L-T€ 06l'ri-T€ 0€-T€ 0€lS 0ei€-v 0€iTi-aav 0€-VT(OV 0€L(ra 0eL-TOV 0eiTl-TOV 0€-TOV 0€V 0€i-T'qV 0€LT|-TT1V 0e-Ta)V (165) 0€l-|J.T|V 061-0 Qov Infinitive 06L-TO (-0OLTO) 0€-o'0ai 0e-o'0ai 0€L-|jL€0a (-0oifie0a) Participle 0€L-O-0€ 0£-O-0€ 0€-|i€VOS 06L-VTO (-0OLVTO) 0e-cr0cov 0€-|JL6V11 06L-cr0ov 0€-(r0ov 0€-p.€l^V 0€l-(r0T|V 06-(r0(ov 130 MI -VERBS frjut (6:tj-) send Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect ^ Si. 1 t'-Tl-fil l-€l-V t-(0 > 2 C-Tl-S, l-€LS L-€l-S v¥ 3 l-r\-(J\.y C-€l l-€L H H PI. 1 l-€-fI€V l-€-(JL€V l-(0-|JL€V 2 t-C-TC l-€-T€ t-fl-T€ 3 t-dcri L-€-o-av i-co-o-i 1 Du. 2 L-6-T0V l-€-T0V \.-r\-Tov P-i 3 l-€-TOV i-i-Tr\v C-Tl-TOV Si. 1 2 L-€-|iaL t-€'-|jniv l-€-0-0 L-(0-|JLai 3 3 i-€-Tai L-€-T0 i-fj-Tat H PI. 1 2 t'-€-O-0€ t-€'-|i€6a l-€-0-G€ L-O>-fI€0a t-Tl-0-G€ 3 t-€-VTaL L-€-VT0 i-(o-VTai P4 Du. 2 t-€-o-Gov i-€-o-Gov i-f]-aGov ?U 3 L-e-o-Gov i-e'-o-Gtiv i-t)-o-Gov Si. 1 (V^a) (0 PL 2 3 1 (^-K€) fis S-Hl€V tZ3 2 3 €T-T€ €L-crav CO-Ori O <1 Du. 2 3 61-TOV tJ-tov T]-TOV Q Q '5- Si. 1 2 3 €L-|XT1V €1-0-0 el-TO £-fJLai -n-Tai f=5 PI. 1 2 3 €L-|J.€ea €1-0-06 €L-VT0 o)-|Ji€Ga 5-o-G€ S-vrai O Du. .2 €i-o-eov T]-o-Gov ^ 3 €l-o-6tiv TJ-o-Gov MI -VERBS 131 CTiiJii (l:<q-) send Optative Imperative Infinitive, Participle t-€lT|-V i-CL-q-s C-€L Infinitive C-6LT1 L-€-TO) C-€-vai t-€l-[I€V, t-€lll-JJ.€V Participle t-€l-T€, L-€LT1-T€ L-€-T€ i-«s L-€L€-V, i-€iT|-(rav C-€-VTO)V i-«t<ra l-€L-TOV, t-€lT|-TOV L-6-T0V t-ev l-€l-TT|V, L-CLTJ-TTIV t-6-T(0V (165) i-€i-|jniv t-€l-0 C-€-(ro Infinitive C-€t-TO U-c-cr0(o i-€-o-0aL t-€L-|J.€ea Participle [-€i-(r0€ C-c-o-ee t-€-JJl€VOS C-61-VT0 i-€-a-6cov t-€-fAeVTl i-ci-ciGov i-c-aOov t-€-|X€VOV L-Cl-O-etlV i-e-crSov €LT1-V €tll-S €-S Infinitive ^^^ €-T(0 €L-VaL €l-|X€V, €IT|-}JL€V Participle €l-T€, €ltl-T€ €-T€ €ts cle-v, ci-q-o-av €-in-(OV ctcra ct-TOV, CL-q-TOV C-TOV €V 61-TTlV, €lTi-TTlV €-T(OV (165) ei-fi-qv €l-0 o5 Infinitive cT-TO e-cOo) €-cr0aL €l-[JL€ea Participle ct-o-ee e-(je€ €-|Jl€VOS CL-VTO €-cr0(ov i-^ivy\ cT-aGov c-o-Gov €-|Jl€VOV €i-o-6tiv €-o-6cov ^_-— J^'^-^ 132 MI -VERBS 375 Tlie principal parts of tlie above verbs are StSw/xt, Sajcrw, eScoKaj SeSw/ca, 8e8o/xat, iSoOrjVy TLdrjjjiL, 07](ro), edrjKa, redrjKaj TeOefiaUy iTeOrjv (47 c), trjfjLLj yjcrcoy '^Ka, -et/ca (for e-e-fca), -ef/iai, -eWr]!/. a. Many forms of Irjfii are found only in compo- sition. The reduplication syllable of 117 /xt is irregu- lar in being generally long. (Cp. TriTrro).) 376 In the present system (1) UdcTL is always contracted to tao-t. (2) Forms of the w-conj Ligation, like those of contract verbs in -ew and -ow (314, 316), are used Often in the present indicatives rt^ets, rt^et, tets, tec, Generally in the imperfects iTcOets, ItlOcl^ Always in the imperfects eSiSow, eStSov?, eStSov, and tetv, tets, tet, and the imperatives StSov, rt^et, t"'ci. 377 Occasional forms like tlOoIto, avvOoiro, iTrtOoLiJLeOa, irpooiTO^ Trpo- oti/ro, or (with changed accent) riO-qrai^ Trpoo-OrjraL, TrporjTaL, iiTL- OwvTaL, tlOolto, (TvvOoiTO, TTpooiVTo, afx^LOLTe^ oifXffiLOLev , SiYQ due to the same leaning toward the w-conjugation. 378 In the root-aorist the indicative active lacks the singular ; in- stead are used forms of a Ka-aorist — like the o-a-aorist, but with K for 0-. This Ktt-formation sometimes occurs in the plural and dual, and occasionally in the middle : WrjKav^ iSwKa/xev, TTpo^Kavro, 379 In the root-aorist, further, (1) The stem remains short {ho-, Oe-, I-) throughout, except in the infinitives SoWat, ^et-mt, el-vau (Perhaps the ending here was -cvat instead of -vat.) e- takes the syllabic augment (267) and contracts with it to et-. (2) The imperatives 80s, Bis, Is have -s for -Oi. (In like manner o-xes, aor. impv. act. 2d sing, of cx^.) MI -VERBS 133 (3) The ending -a-o after a sJiort vowel generally drops tr and contracts. (4) Compounds of So?, Oh, h accent the penult : (xttoSo?. Compounded with a monosyllabic preposition Sov, 6ov, ov retain the circumflex ; but they throw the accent back on a dissyllable : ivSov, acf>ov, KardOov. The infinitives 800-^at, Oia-Oai, laOai in composition retain the accent : Trpoa-Oea-OaL, Trpoea-Oai. 380 The various ways of forming the tenses of verbs have now been shown, and are here grouped together. 1. Present System : A. 12 -Conjugation — Formative-vowel class, sufiix -o:e- (257), Tau class, sufiix -ro-.e- (258), Iota class, suffix -to:e- (259), Inceptive class, suffix -o-ko-.c-, -lo-ko-.c- (260), Nasal class, suffix -vote-, -avo-.e- (with or without inserted nasal), -woic-, -v€o:c- (261) ; B. Mt- Conjugation — Nasal class, -w.v-, -vw-.v- (356), Eoot class, no suffix (357). 2. Future System : Common or sigmatic future, suffix -a-o-.e- (278), Liquid future, suffix -eo:e- (324; cp. 346), "Doric future," suffix -(r€o:e- (326). 3. Aorist System : Sa-aorist, suffix -o-a:c- (280), Liquid aorist, suffix -a.e- with vowel-lengthening (327), Thematic or formative-vowel aorist, suffix -o:e- (347), Root-aorist, no suffix (366). 4. Perfect Active System : Ka-perfect, suffix -Ka:e- with reduplication (288), A-perfect, suffix -a-.e- with reduplication (332), Root perfect, no suffix, with reduplication (370). 134 MI -VERBS 5. Perfect Middle System : Ko suffix, with reduplication (299). 6. Passive System : 0i;-passive, suffix -Oeirj- (302), H-passive, suffix -eirj- (334). IV. Irregular and Defective Ml -Verbs 381 A few verbs are quite common and more or less irregular in tlie present system, but in other systems are less common or never found. Some have a future system which is nearly or quite regular (382-389). 382 <j)T]|jLi (<}>tt:ti-) say Ind. Pres. Impf. SUBJV. Opt. Impv. (|)Tl-fiL €-<t)ll-V (|>(0 ^ai^-v 4>fi-s c-<|>T|-o'0a <t>Tis <t>aLT|-s (t>d-eL (t)T|-crL Hn <t>Ti <t)aLii <()d-T(0 <t)a-lJL€V €-<j)a-fi€V <|)CO-fJL€V <|>ai-|JL€V <|)a-T€ C-(t)a-T€ <|)T1-T€ ^aiT\-T€ <|)d-T€ <|)dO'L €-<t)a-o'av <|)<ocri <|)ai€-v <t)d-VT(OV <t)a-Tov €-<t)a-Tov ^i\-TOV <|)aL-TOV <t)d-TOV <|)a-Tov €-<|)d-TTlV <|)fj-TOV <|)ai-TT|V <t>d-T(OV Inf. (j)d-vaL Put. <t)Ti-C rco Ptc. ( ct>as) <t)do-Kcov Aor. *i-<^T] -era a. The present indie, except (jirjs, is enclitic (19 d). b. The impf. and (jbavat have also the aorist meaning. c. In the opt. cfiairjfjiev and ffiaLrja-av are also found. d. Poets use <^a5, etc., but only <j!>ao-Kwv, etc., occur in prose. Except in the participle, the forms of ^ao-Kw imply repetition : keep sayi7ig^ assert. MI- VERBS 135 e. ov (fyrj/jLL means nego : deny, refuse, say no. f. Poets have a few middle forms, with no translatable difference of meaning. 383 With (f>r]iJiL belong the three forms -^fxi (enclitic), yv, 5 (Lat. aio), equivalent to ^-7/xt, ^cf>r)v, £(f>7]. The formulas ^v 8' cyw said I, y 8* os said he, are much used in reporting conver- sations. 384 €l|xt (co--) Slim, am, etc. IxD. Pres. Impf. SUBJV. Opt. Impv, CL|JLL €t k(T-Tl €(r-|JL€V la--T€ €10-1 €(r-TOV Icr-Tov r T1T€ T\(TaV -^cr-Tov T]<T-TT\V S-|X€V T|-T€ S-cri ^-TOV €lT\-[LCVf €T-|i€V cl'ti-crav, cTc-v €l'T|-TOV, el-TOV Lcr-et €<r-T€ €0--T(OV €0--TOV €(r-T(OV Inf. €ivaL Fut. ccrojjLaL (3d sing. ccrraL), Part. oSv, oxicra, 6v Ictolijltiv, €cr€(r0aL, €cr6|jL€V0S a. In the subjv., opt., and ptc. o- is dropt (55 a) and contraction follows : w for e(o-)a), etr^v for icr-Ltjv, (OV for €(o-)wv. ctvot is for €cr-vat. b. The pres. ind., except el, is enclitic as copula (19 d), but accented when it means exist. The third sing, is written ecm (1) at the beginning of its clause, (2) in the meaning exists, (3) in the meaning it is pos- sible or alloiued, (4) after ovk, /xrj, el, ws, Kac. c. In the impf. the form ^(rre also occurs. d. The ptc. keeps its accent in composition : irapuiv, -n-a- poxkra. Also the fut. ta-rai : TrapioTai. 136 385 MI -VERBS €ljii (1-, €l-) go, Lat. Ire (cp. Uer) Ind. Pres. Impf, SUBJV. Opt. Impv. €L-|Jll €l €L-orL L-fl€V L-T€ L-dO-L L-TOV L-TOV fa TJ-cLo-Ga TJ-CL ^-|X€V ^-TC f|-orav •Q-TOV TJ-TTIV L-(0 t-Tl L-C«)-[i€V L-T1-T€ L-(00rL L-Tl-TOV L-11-T0V L-OL-}JLL L-OL-S L-OL L-OL-|JL€V L-OL-T€ L-0L6-V L-0 L-TOV L-Ol-TllV l-Gl l'-to) L-T€ L-6-VT(0V L-TOV L-T(i)V Inf. L-€-vai Ptc. L-(ov, L-oOo-a, L-6v a. In the impf. are found also ^co-av and (in later writers) b. The pres. ind. has a future meaning : am going ^ shall go. The subjv. and opt. have now present and now future mean- ing. The impf. and ptc. have also the force of an aorist. otStt (18-, ol8-) hnow Ind. Pres. Impf. Subjv. Impv. oT8-a OL-o-Oa oT8-€ LO--|Jl€V 10'-T€ LO-dCL LO'-TOV LO'-TOV 'g8-T|-o'9a 'S8-€L '§0'-lX€V fja-Tc •rj8-€-o'av '§0'-TOV TJo'-TtlV €l8-C0 €L8-Tis etc. iv-eL Lff-TO) LC-TC lV-TO)V LO'-TOV iV-TCOV Opt. €l8-€IT1-V € 18-6111-$ etc. Inf. €l8-€vaL Ptc. €l8(5s (172) Fut. €LO-0|JLaL MI -VERBS 137 387 a. In the impf. are found also >5Se/xev, rjSiTc, rja-av, and (in later writers) ySecv, ySeis, rySct/nev, ^Setre, yScLaav. b. The root of oTSa (18-) is the same as that of elSov I saio and Lat. video ; but the above forms never mean see. c. The future eto-o/xat often means shall learn. d. The ptc. etSws has the form of a perfect, though present in meaning. Also oT8a, ola-Oa^ oTSe are somewhat like an a-perfect, but are always present in meaning; to-//ev, etc., the plural and dual, are present in form as well. The imperfect is also in part like a pluperfect in inflection ; but compare the imperfect of cTfugo (385). K€i(jLai (k€i-) lie, am laid Ind. Present Imperfect Subjunctive K€l-|JLai €-K€L-|JLllV K€-0)-|JLaL K€L-(raL €-K€L-(rO etc. K6L-TaL €-K€L-TO Optative K€L-|Jl€9a €-K€L-|X€6a K€-OL-fIT|V K€l-0-9€ €-K€L-0-e€ etc. K€L-VTaL €-K€L-in-0 Imperative Ket-o-eov €-K€L-O-0OV KCL-O-O KeL-crGov €-K6L-cr0T|V K€i-(r0(ov, etc. Inf. KCL-o-eaL Ptc. K€L-JI€VOS Fut. K€lO-0|iaL a. The infinitive Keia-Oat keeps its accent in composition : KaraKelaOai. b. Of the subjv. and opt. only K€r}TaL, Kerja-Oe, KcWrat, KeoLTO, kIolvto are found. c. Kct/Attt is often used as a perfect passive for TtO-qixi put : i/o/xovs tlOtjo-l he lays down laws ; vo/xot KeivraL laws are estab- lished. So in compounds also. 138 MI -VERBS 388 ■fjliai (vjor) sit Ind. Pres. Impf. Tl-K-ai r[-\n]v Siibjv. wanting T\-<Tai r\-(TO Opt. wanting T\(r-Tai TjCr-TO Impv. TJ-|X€9a 'fi-jJL€6a r\-(TO, Ti-o-6€ ^-o-Ge TJ-crGcD r\-VTOii T]-VTO etc. r\-(TQov T]-o-Gov Inf. Tj-cGat T^-cOov TJ-o-Griv PtC. TJ-|JL6V0S a. The stem loses o- except before -rat and -to, 389 For T7/Aat Attic prose always uses the compound KoiOrjixaL (fca^T^-) sit. Ind. Pres. Imperfect Impv. KdG-q-iJLai KdG-ri-craL KdGT|-TaL etc. l-KaQr\-\Lev or KaGfj-fiev €-KdGT|-o-o or KaGfj-o-o €-KdGti-TO or KaGfio--TO etc. etc. KdG-q-o-o KaGri-o-Go) etc. Inf. KaG-q-crGaL Ptc. KaGrj-ixcvos a. The subjv. and opt. are rare (/ca^w/xe^a, KaOrjfjiyv, or Ka6oLfjL7]v) ; their place is filled by Ka^t^o/xat (see Verb-list). 390 The noun ^^77 ?2.^^4 by the usual omission of eo-rt, appears like an impersonal verb in the pres. ind. 3d sing., there is need^ one ouglit^ Lat. oportet By crasis with rjv, Tjj etrjj elz/at, eo-rat are made XPV^ ^^^ (with an extra augment) i-^prjv, XPVi XP^^Vj XPV^^^y XPV^'''^'" MI -VERBS 139 391 Two or more defective verbs may supplement one another and so make up what serves as one complete verb. This has happened with some of the commonest verbs, as in English am, is, are, was, he, or go, went. So in Greek for the aorist and perfect of ct/xt are used iyevofjirjv and yiyova from ytyvo- fiat iecome ; the roots 6pa:d-, Sir-, and IS-, all meaning see, to- gether make up opdw, oxj/ofiai, ctSov, iwpdKa, oTroiira, Icopa/xat, wfjifiaty tL)cf)dr]v, See in the Yerb-list also alpio), tpxop'O.i, ia-Oto), ^dw, rpexo), cftipoi, Xcyo), wveoyu-at. Middle and Passive Foems with Peculiar Meaning 392 In many verbs otherwise active the future active is wanting and the future middle has the active mean- ing. Especially common are OLKOvw, aKova-ofxai hear, fxavOdvo), /-ta^iycroju-at learn, dixapTavo), dfiapTT^croixaL fail, oTSa, ctcro/xat ]c7lOW, d-n-o-Ovyja-Kiii, aTroOavov/xaL die, o/jlvv/xl, 6p.ovp.aL SWear, paSiliii, /3aSiovpLaL walh, opdio, 6i}/op,aL see, yiyvdxTKOi, yvwcro/xat recognize, Trd(rx<Ji, Trciorop.aL suffer, StwKO), Siw^o/Attt pursue, TrtTTTCo, TTCo-ov/xat fall, elp.L, ea-opxLi am, be, etc., uXeco, irXeva-ofxai sail, CTraiveo), 67ratvco-o/>tat praise, Tpix,'^, Spap.ovp.ai run, Kdpjvoi, Kap.ovp.aL am iveary, rvyxdvw, T€v^op.aL happen, Xayxdvoi, X^^o/xat get hy lot or fate, <f>€vyoi, <p€v^op.aL flee. Xap.(3dv(o, X-^ij/opLaL talce, 393 The future middle of some verbs has the passive meaning ; among the more common are dSLKrja-opiaL shall he ivronged, oi^cXrj(Top.aL shall he benefited, av^riarop.aL shall he increased, rapd^op.aL shall he disturbed, olKrja-opiaL shall he administered, 6pe\J/op.aL shall he nurtured, TToXLopKria-opLaL shall he besieged, c{ivXd^op.aL shall he guarded. a. Some others have in the passive sense both middle and passive forms: 14:0 MI -VERBS ^7]fXL(o(rofjLaL and t,r]fiHi)67JorofjLaL shall he damaged^ d7ro-(TT€pyj(TOfx,aL and -crTeprjO-^a-ofjiat shall be deprived, Tifirja-ojxaL and Tljx-qdrjcro ^Lai shall he honored. 394 Of deponent verbs (middle or passive in form but active in meaning; cp. 601) some have in the aorist tense middle forms (middle deponents)^ others passive forms (passive deponents). Among middle deponents many have also the passive aorist with passive mean- ing, as alndofJiaL accuse, rjria(rd^'Y]v accused, rJTLaOrjv was accused. So also Se;(o/xat accept, Xv/jLaLvo/xai injure, SuypiofxaL present, fjL€/x(f>o/jiai hlame, ipyd^ofxat ivorJc, jju/xeo/xai imitate, aTTOKpivofjiaL answer, ^erairiixTrofxaL send for, XoyL^ofiai rechon, IvriXXofiaL enjoin upon. 395 Most passive dej)onents have in the future the middle forms : jSorXo/Atti luish, ^ovXrjcro [xai, i/SovXyOrjV, Seo/xat want, ash, Sc^o-o/iat, i^erjOrjv, SvvafJLai can, SvvT^crofjLaL, iSvvrjdyjv, OLOfJLat thinh, olrjo-opLai, wrjOrjv. a. But some passive deponents have in the future both middle and passive forms : atSeo/xat respect, atSecro/xai, and alSea-Orja-o/JiaL, SiaXiyofJiaL converse, SiaXe^ojJiai, and BtaXexOi^a-oixaL. b. The following have only passive forms in both aorist and future : €pafjLai love, rjpd(r$r)v, ipacOya-o/JiaL, rjSofxai am pleased, yja-Orjv, rja-Orjcroixai, rfTTaofxaL am WOrstcd, rjTTT^Orjv, TfTTrja-OycroixaL. 396 The perfect of some deponents has both active and passive meanings : WORD-FORMATION 141 cipyao-Tttt he has worked or it has heen worked, i(ovr}fiat I have bought or have dee?i bought. E. WORD-FORMATION 397 Words are formed from other words in two ways : (1) By adding a suffix to an existing stem, or by slightly changing an ending so as to make a new one (derivation ; the new word is derived from the old). (2) By putting two words or stems together into one (composition ; the new word is a compound of the two). a. Declension and conjugation are special forms of deriva- tion, so clearly marked in character that they properly receive separate names. The formation of adverbs has been treated in connection with declension (228-237), but might have been treated here. So with the numeral adjectives, adverbs, and nouns described in 191, 192. 398 Many Greek stems took their existing form so early that they can not now be analyzed into their parts. For us these are root words, of the original stock of the language. Often their likeness to other Greek words, or to words in kindred languages, throws light on their earlier history ; but the study of such relations belongs to comparative philology. In the following sections are treated only the most common types of word-formation ; but these alone are enough to show how the bulk of the copious Greek vocabulary has been made, and to assist greatly in learning that vocabulary. I. DERIVATION 399 Words formed directly from a verb-stem are called verbals ; those formed from a noun or adjective stem are called denominatives. 142 word-formatio:n" 400 a. The shifting of vowels described in 26 and 26 is frequent in derivation, as in declension and conjugation. b. As in conjugation (cp. 322 and a) a o-, of uncertain origin, is sometimes added to a verb-stem before a suffix. So also 6 in o-ra-O-fjios station from o-ra- stand, and in pv-O-fxos rhythm from pew {pv-) fioiv. c. A final stem-vowel and the vowel of a suffix often con- tract. d. A final vowel of a stem is sometimes dropt before a vowel. e. The consonant changes described in 45-65 are made, as in conjugation (341, 346). f. A final consonant is sometimes dropt before the ending. VERBALS 401 A few verbals, nouns and adjectives, are made from verb- stems without a suffix, by simply adding the case-endings of the consonant declension : 7] 6iJ/ (oTT-) voice, from etTretv (cTT-) speaTc, y] TTTV^ (tTTVX-) fold, 7rTV(T(T0i {tTTVX-) fold, 6 kXmij/ (kAodtt-) thief, KXiirroi (kXctt-) steal, 7} <f>k6$ (</)Aoy-) flame, c^Aeyw (<^A.ey-) bum, apira^ (dpTray-) plundering, dpTrd^o) (dpiray-) seize^ rj ^Tv^ {(TTvy-) Styx, root seen in a-Tvy-io) hate. Verbal Nouns 402 Nouns are made from verb-stems by adding a variety of suffixes. The meaning of the suffix is often vague, made clear only by the nature of the verb, by the gender of the noun, or by usage. But many verbal nouns fall into fairly distinct classes, denoting the agent or doer^ the action^ the result of the action, or VERBALS 143 the instrument. Again, many abstract nouns and nouns of action have become concrete, so that the original force is changed. a. The accent sometimes varies on different nouns with the same suffix. When the accent regularly falls on the suf- fix, that will be indicated ; otherwise the accent must be learned from the examples and in reading. 403 The suffix -o, nom. mas. and fem. -os, neut. -ov, is one of the most common, of very various meaning; an e in the verb- stem regularly changes to o (25) : Aoy-os speech^ from A-eyw (Aey-) spealc^ <rT6X-o<s expedition^ o-reXXo) (a-TeX-) equip, send, Spofji-os running, Spafieiv (8pa/x-) run, ^vy-6v yolce, ^evyvvfjn (C^y-, ^evy-) join, vofjb-os custom, law, vifxo) (v^fx-) distribute, <l)6p-o^ tribute, <l>ep(o (</>ep-) bring, bear, dpx-6's ruler, "^PX^ ("PX") ^^^^^5 Tpo<fi-6s (6, 17) nurse, rpecfuD (rpecj)-) nourish. a. The suffix is accented when it denotes the agent. b. Many nouns whose origin is obscure, or can be traced only by comparing other languages, plainly have this ending : oTk-os house, x^p-os place. 404 The suffix -d, nom. -d or -t], forms many nouns. Most of them denote the action, but many have taken on a concrete meaning, so that the force of the suffix is very various : apx-ri beginning, rule, ^px^ i^PX~) ci'^ first, povX-rj will, plan, /3ovAo/xat {(3ovX-) wish, xap-d jog, X^^P^ (x^P-) rejoice, fJidx-ri battle, /jtaxo/xat (ftaX") fight, dyopd marhet-place, dyeipoi (dyep-) gather, o-TTovS-rj haste, eagerness, a-TrevSo) {a-n-evS-) hasten. a. Most of these accent the suffix, but some common words accent the penult. IM WORD-FORMATION b. This ending also appears in many nouns whose origin is uncertain or traceable only by comparing other languages ; 8iK-rj judgment (in law), right .^ x^P-^ land. -Top, -Td, -cv. nom. -Tctpa, -rpia, -TptS, -TLS. 405 The agent or doer is denoted by the suffixes Mas. -Tr7P, nom. -rrjp, Fem. -retpd, -Twp, -Tpia, ■T7JS, -rptS, -rtS, -€vs (cp. 430 a), fem. <To)-T€Lpa, (Tio^oi ((TO)-) save, ?r, OT^A-XTJTr-rpta, crvWafjiPdvoi ((rvv-XrjIS-) take 2Vlt7l, criiy-Trjp savior, (TvX-Xrjir-TOip piq-Tijip spealcer, la-Tiop (for Fi8-T0)p) one who hnoivs, TTotTy-rrJs malcer, poet, iroLrj-rpia, avXrj-TTJ'S flute-player, avXrj-rpi'i, 7rpo-<j>'q-Tr]<s prophet, Trpo-fftrj-TLS, ypa<f>-€vs writer. €L-p7]-Ka {pe-.r]-) have spohen, oTSa (18-, oi8-) hnoiv, TTotew (Troic.y]-) maTce, avXew (avXcrj-) play thefliite, 7rp6-(l>r)ixL [7rpo-(fia:r)-) spealcfor, ypdcfxji (ypacf>-) tvrite. 406 The action is denoted by the following suffixes, but in many cases the meaning has become concrete : -Tl, -o-t, -(TLOL, nom. -Tt5, TTtcr-Tts faith, KpL-(TLs decision, 7rpa$L<S actio7i, 8oKifxa-a-Ld scrutiny, TTcv-td poverty, 7rat8-ta play, 68vp-fi6^ availing, ee-o-'/xos (400 b) bond, (TTa-6-p.6<i (400 b) station, rl-fjirj honor, yv<a-fi7j opinion, -La, nom. -la, -fXO, "i^-o^j -fxd, -fMTJ. TTCiOoi {ttlO-) ivin over, mid. trust, KptvdD (KpL-) decide, 7rpd(Tcr(D (Trpdy-) do, 8oKiiJLdlo) (8oKi/xa8-) scrutinize, irevo/JLaL (irev-) am pOOr, Tratlco (TratS-) play, oSvpo/Attt [68vp-) wailf 8eo) (Sc-) dind, LcrTTjixL [crra-^ set, Tidi (tI-) honor, yiyvoidKOi (yvo:a>-) Opine, VERBALS 145 a. From verb-stems in -ev (417 a) are formed many nouns in -Ld. By loss of v (27) -ev-cd becomes -etd. SovXeid slavery, SovXevo) (SovXcv-) am a slave, /Sao-tXeta reign, kingdom, paa-tXevoi (/Jao-tXev-) am king. 407 The result of an action is denoted by the following suffixes ; but many nouns formed with them have other meanings : -/x-ar, nom. -/xa (neut.), -^o-, nom. -os (neut.). Trpay-fia deed, thing, Trpda-aw {irpdy-) do, TTOLTj-fjia thing made, poem, ttoUw (ttoict]-) make, ofi-fia (poetic) ege, oKJ/o/jLai (ott-) shall see, yeV-os race, ytyvo/>tai (yev-) am iom, if/evS-o^ falsehood, if/evSofiaL {KJ/evS-) speaTc falsely, aOiv-o^ strength, crOivo) {a-Ocv-) am strong. 408 The means or instrument — and also other relations— are de- noted by -rpo or -6po, nom. -rpov or -Opov. (TKYJir-Tpov staff, a-KrjirTOi (crKr/7r-) prop, Xov-Tpov Tjatli, Aovo) (Aov-) halite, KXeZ-Opov fastening, kAcioo- {kX^i-) close, dp-Opov joint, apaptaKw (ap-) ft, pd-Opov basis, jSacvo} (pa-) step, stand firm. a. A related suffix is -Tpd : TraXai-a--Tpd icrestUng- place, TratXatw (TraXat-) icrestU, 6pxri-<T-Tpd dancingplace, ' opxeo/aat (opx^:^-) dance, yy-Tpd (also yy-rpoi) pot, X^^ (x^") P02ir. 409 The various infinitives are a special class of verbal nouns (see 662). Verbal Adjectives 410 With the suffix -o (cp. 403) are formed some words that may be used as adjectives or nouns at will. As adjectives some have a feminine in -d (cp. 404), others are of two endings. Not a few such adjectives (or nouns) are used as the second part of a compound (446 c), though not found separately : 10 146 WORD-FORMATION AotTT-os (^7, -6v) left, remaining, ayoiy-6's (reduplicated) leading, guide, -^oL-os making (400 d), -fidx-o^ fighting, -•>/y-os leading, ■<f)6p-os bearing, •^Ko-os (27) hearing, 411 The verbals in -ro-s and -rco-s, made from most verbs, have been briefly described (352-354). Those in -to-s have a wide range of meaning, usually passive, sometimes active, in some cases resembling a perfect active participle : XetTTO) (ActTT-) leave, ayo) drive, lead, TTOiio) (ttolc-) malce, fidxofxat (/i-ax-) fight, dyoi (dy-) drive, lead, <}>€po} (<^e/3-) bear, oLKovo) (aKov-) hear. ^wa-Tos aNe [sict.), possible (pass.), irXavrj'Tos ivandering, tXtj-to^ enduring or endurable, 7rt(r-Tos trustivorthy, faithful, Kporrj-Tos pounded or rattling, v7r-o7r-To<s suspected or sus- picious,^ a-7rpdK-ros (440) undone or having done nothing. Svva/jiaL (Svva-) can, irXavdu) (TrXava:7]-) wander, rXdo) (rXairj-) endure, TTuOoi (ttlO-) win, trust, Kporiui [KpoTciT]-) pound, vTr-oij/oixaL (vtt-ott-) shall eye stealthily, irpdcra-iii {irpay-^ do. 412 Many verbal adjectives, active, passive, or indeterminate, are formed with the suffixes -vo or -avo, -Xo -eAo, -po -^po, oTvy-vos hateful, hated, cre/x-vos (for (re^-vos) revered, solemn, ScL-vo's fearful, T€pir-v6<s delightful, nom. -(a)vos, -rj, -6v, -(e)Xos, -?;, -oV, -(e)pos, -a, -6v. root <TTvy-, arrvyid) (crruye-) /iOfi^e, (ri(3op.aL (crcp-) revere, SeSoLKa (8t-, 8«-, Sot-) fear, TepTTo) (rcpTT-) delight. * Cp. the two meanings of suspicious in a suspicioiis man and a s«5- picious circumstance. VERBALS 147 t/c-ai/o5 sufficieyit, caimVle^ Uvco/Aat (ik-) arrive^ TTiO-avo's persuasive, ttglOu) {ttlO-, ttclO-) icin over, Set-A-os timid (cp. Setvds), hihoiKa (8t-, Set-, 8ot-) /e«r, <rTv<f>-€k6s compact, a-rvKJiu} {(TTv<f>-) draiu together, ix0-p6? hateful, hating, Ix^w (e'x^-) hate, Aa/xTT-pd? splendid, Xd/xTro) [Xa/jLir-) shine, lx€X.€T7]-p6<i practising I) practised, /xeAeraw (fxeXcTa-.r)-) practise, i(r)(y-p6s strojig, la-xioi (tcrxv-) ^e strong, ^Xa^-ep6s harjnful, fSkdirrin {^Xap-) harm, <f>av-ep6? plain, cfxuvw {(f>av-) shoiv, a-Tvy-epo'S hateful, hated (cp. o-rvyvds). a. Some nouns formed with like suffixes are closely related to these, and may have been originally adjectives : o-T€<^ai/d5 wreath, crown, (TT€<j>ui {(mcj>-) put around, hperr-avov SCythe, hpeiria [8p€7r-) pluck, Cull, a-rq-k-q column, monument, Iottjixl {a-ra-.-q-) set up, tf>v-\ov, <j>v-Xrj trihe, cla?i, </>va) mal'e groic, 8(x)-pov gift, 8tSto/xt (8o:(o-) give. 413 Other suffixes that form verbal adjectives are a. -V, nom. -vs, eta, -v. r]^v<s 2^l6asing, ^So/xat (178-) am pleased. (In rax-v? su'ift, ^ap-v? heavy, and others, the root does not appear in Greek as a verb-stem.) b. -eo", nom. -779, -€S. \f/€vS-r]'S false, if/evSojJiaL (\f/€vS-) lie. (Many adjectives in --79 are compounds ; see 446, 447.) c. -fjiov, nom. -fx(j)v, -p.ov. r\rj-fx(i)v enduring, icretched, rXaw (rAai-^-) endure, fivq-pioiv mindful, fxiixvyja-KO) (p^vrj-) remind, alS-q-pnov respectful, alSeopun respect, hn-Xrja--iJHi)v forgetful, e7n-Xav6dvofJiaL (^XaO-, XrjO-) forget. 148 WORD-FORMATION Here belong also some nouns in -fiMv : rjy€-fx(i)v leader, r/yeo/xat {rjye-.r}-) lead. d. -LKo, nom. -tKos, -ij, -6v, often suggesting 171- clination to ov fitness for an action (cp. 425) : apx-iKO'; fit to rule, apx^ (^PX") "^uU, ypacfi-LKos suited to luritmg or ypa^fna (ypa<^-) ivrite or paint, painting, e. -TtKo, nom. -rt/co?, -•»;, -6v, developed from -iko^ by use with verbals in -tos : TTpd/c-TtKos inclined to act, Trpda-a-o) (Trpdy-) do, XoyL(r-TLK6<s skilled in reckoning, Xoyt^opat (AoytS-) reckon, yvpvacr-TiKo's fond of exercise, yvpvd^o) (yvpvaS-) exercise, crKeir-TLKos disposed to examine, a-Kiirropai (o-KCTT-) look care- fully. f. -L>xo and -(TLfjio, nom. -(o-)i/>io9, -rj, -ov : rp6({>-Lixo? nourishing, nourished, rpicjxo (t/3€<^-) rear, TrAw-iftos navigable, irXiai (ttXv-) sail, pdx-ipo's fit to fight, pdxopat {pax-) fight, Xpy]-a-ipos useful, xp^^l^^'- ixp"-'!') "^^^j Kav-cripos combustible, Kcto) [Kav-) bum. 414 Tlie various participles are special classes of verbal adjectives. DENOMINATIVES Denominative Verbs 415 Verb-stems are made from nouns (1) By merely adding the endings of conjugation, the stem being unchanged, except by the usual pro- cesses of conjugation ; (2) By changing the final stem-vowel ; (3) By adding a new element ; the final stem- vowel may be changed at the same time. All under DENOMINATIVE VERBS 149 this head belong in the present system to the -l class (259) ; originally the presents of the other types be- longed to the same class, although in Attic Greek the L no longer appears. Thus arose, with some crossing of types, several models, on which denominative A^erbs were made pretty freely ; the classes are clearly separated in form, much less clearly in meaning. 416 a. Stems in -o:o), pres. ind. in -o'w, regularly transitive, often causative : SovXo-oi (SovXoioy-) enslave^ ^ovXo'i slave^ ct^to-w (d^to:w-) deem ivorthy or ft, a^io? worthy. On the same model, from other stems, with a change of vowel : t,7]iJLi6-w [^rjixLoioi-) ptmish, ^rj/xLo. dfwiage, pi^6-(j) (pt^o:w-) cause to root, pL^a root. From consonant stems, with added -o : /xacrrtyo-o) (/xao-rtyo:a)-) tuhip, fxacTTL^ (jxaaTly-) wllip. b. Stems in -a:d or -a-.-q, pres. in -aw : Tt/xa-co {Tlfxa-.T)-) 7l07l0r, rlfxy JwJlOr, viKa-oi (vlKa:r]-) am victorious, vIky] victory, rfTa-oixai (jjTTa'.y]-) ain worsted, rJTTa defeat. From stems in -o, with change of vowel : dpLo-Ta-o) [dpca-Tair]-) hrcalcfast, dpta-Tov irealcfast, yod-OfJiaL [yoa:rj-) ZVail, y6o<s IVail. c. stems in -cit^, pres. in -ew, generally intransitive : oLK€-<a (oiKcir;-) divell, ot/cos liouse, <f>iXe-<i) {cfjiXeir}-) love, (jiiXo^ friend, oLTroSrjfxi-w {diro^fjie-.r}-) am abroad, a7r6Sr)fjio<s away fro7?i home, aTTope-ui [aTTope-.r]-) am at a loss, d7ropo<; Without resourccs. or poor, 150 WORD-FORMATION From stems in -eo-, with loss of o- (65 a) : Kpare-o) (Kparc:?;-) am strong, rule, KpdTo<s (Kparea--) strength, acrO€V€-(x) [aa-Oeve-.Y]-) am weak, HI, aa-Oevrj^, -€S tveak, €VTvx€-iii {evTvxe-.r}-) am fortunate, evr^x^?, -C9 fortunate. From consonant-stems, with added -c : <TO)(f>pove-o) [(r(j)(f>pov€:7j-) am discreet, o-w^pwi/ of sound mind, io-Topi-o) (IcrTope'.rj-) investigate, Lo-riop one tvJio hnoivs (405). 417 a. Stems in -ev, pres. indie, in -cvw : ^aa-tXev-u) (ySao-tXcv-) reign, /3a(rtX€v<s Mng, iTTTrev-o) (tTTTrei;-) serve in the L7nr€v<i horseman. cavalry. From other vowel-stems, with change of vowel : VTTOTTTev-oi (tiTTOTTTCV-) SUSpCct, V7ro7rTO<s SUSplcWUS, 7rop€v-o) {iropev-) 7nalce proceed, 7r6po<s passage, 7ncrT€v-(D (TTto-rei;-) trUSt, ttlo-tos faithful, pov\ev-w [/3ovX€v-) plan, PovX-q wHl, plan, iKercTj-o) (iKcrev-) entreat, LKeTrj's suppliant, aXyjOeviji (aXrjOev-) spcah truth, aX-qOrj';, -c? tr^ie. From consonant-stems, with added -eu : TratSev-o) (TratScu-) educate, 7rai<s (TratS-) child, <j)vyaB€v-o) ((^vyaSev-) exile, (jivyds [cfivyaS-) exHe. b. A few stems in -v, pres. in -vw : SttKpv-tu (SaKpv-) weep, SaKpv tear, yrjpv-o) [yrjpv-) speak, sing, yrjpv<s voice. 418 Stems in -tS, pres. ind. in -t^o) (t-class, 259 d) : IX-rrilisi (iXiriS-) hope, a^iticipate, iX-Trt's (cATTtS-) hope, ipi^o) {iptS-) quarrel, epi9 (ipiB-) strife. From other stems, with change or addition of the final element : Xapitofxai (xaptS-) do favor, X^P^^ h(P^9^'^~) ^^^<^^) opitsa (6/otS-) limit, hound, opos boundary, retxi'^w (rcixtS-) iuHd a wall, T€lxo^ (Tct;(€or-) toall, DENOMINATIVE VERBS 151 aOpoL^oi {aOpoiS-) assemble., a^/aoos, aOpoo<s in a crowds iXXrjvL^ix) (iXXrjvLS-) speak Greek, "EAAryv Greeh^ X^p^Cf^ ix'^P'-^) ^^^ apart, X^P^'^ (adv ) apart. For ifiTToSL^oi and ScaxeLpt^oi see 448 "a. a. Similar in the present only is o-aATrt^w (o-oATrtyy-) sound tlie trumpet, from a-dXTriy^ trumpet ; but aor. la-akiny^a. 419 Stems in -a8, pres. in -a^w (t-class, 269 d), are partly from noun-stems in -ar, but mostly from noun-stems in -a and adjective-stems in -o, with change of -d or -o : Oavixd^o) (OavfJiaS-) lOOlldeV, Oavfxa (OavfJLaT-) tVOnder, ovofjLOL^w [ovofxaS-) name, ovo/xa (ovo/AttT-) name, SiKa^o) (8tKa8-) give judgme^it, SUrj decision, justice, /?ta^o/xat {/3iaS-) use force, pCa violence, drt/Aa^o) (drt/xaS-) disJionor, aTlixo<: unhonored. Also from other stems, with the final element changed to -a8 : Sixd^w (hixa-h-) divide in two, St^a (ady.) i7i tico parts, o-rao-ia^o) (araa-iah-) jorm a crra.(Ti% (o-rao-t-) faction, faction, 420 Stems in -av, pres. in -atVo) (t-class, 259 b). These are partly from noun- or adjective-stems in -av, but oftener from others, with change of the final element, or with an addition : ixeXatvix) (jxcXav-) hlachcn, /i-eAd? (/xcAav-) MacTc, TTOLfjiaLvo) {TroL/xav-) herd, TTOLixTjv (TTOLfjiev-) herdsman, evcl>paivoi (€V(f>pav-) gladden, €V<f>p(DV [evcfipov-) glad, crrjixaLVii) (crrjixav-) signify, (rrj/xa {crr]piaT-) sig7l, XaXeTratvo) (xoAeTrav-) am angry, x'^AcTTo? (;^aA€7ro-) hard, angry, KepSaLVii) [KcpSav-) gain, KepSo<; (/cepSco--) gain. 421 stems in -w, pres. in -vvw (i-class, 259 b). These are largely from adjective-stems in -v, but also from other stems, which are changed or extended to conform to the model : Papvvoi {/Bapvv-) make heavy, ySapvs heavy, Taxvvoi (raxw-) hasten, Taxys swift) 152 WORD-FORMATION Xa/jLTTpvyo) (XafMirpw-) brighten, al(rxvvo) (aiV^w-) make ashamed, IxrjKvvu) [jxyjKvv-) lengthe7i, Aa/xTTpos shining, ato-xos shame, lJLrJKo<s length. 422 Similar formations, with presents of the i-class, are seen in ayyiXXio (dyyeA.-) repovt, reKfiaipo/xai [reK/xap-) settle hy signs, infer, KaOaipoi (KaOap-) cUanse, purify, ixOatpo) (ixOap-) hate, liapTvpofxai [fxapTvp-) call to witness, t/x-etpo) ()/>(-€/>-) long for, olKTipU) (otKTip-) pity, Trat^o) (TratS-) play, [ ayyeXos messenger, TeKfiap sign, Ka6ap6<s clean, txOo<s hatred, fjidpTv<s witness, 'ip^cpos longing, oTkto<s pity, Trats (7rat8-) child. 423 The differences of use between the above verb-formations are best seen when two verbs are made from one stem : oiK€(j) dwell, drl/Aoo) disfranchise, fiaprvpioi am a witness, testify, KaOapevo) am pure, BovXevcD am a slave, TToXeyaeto 7nake ivar, a-o}cf>pove(i) am discreet. oLKiCio settle (a town), oLTlixd^u) dishonor, /xapTvpo/xaL call to WltflCSS, KaOaipoi cleanse, SovXooi enslave, TToXe/jLoo) make hostile, (ro}<f>povL^oi make discreet, chastise. Denominative A djectives 424 The suffix -to, fem. -ta, nom. -to?, (-td,) -tov, is most widely used to form adjectives from noun-stems. A final stem-vowel contracts with i, or it may be changed or dropt. The mean- ing of the suffix is vague, pertaining to the noun, in some way which the noun or the context makes clear : StKtttos just, right, SUrj (SiKd-) justice, right, dpxoLos ancient, dpxy (dpxo^-) hegi^ming, dyopaio<s of the market, ayopd market. DENOMINATIVE ADJECTIVES 153 paa-iXcLo<5 (27) royal., the Mng^s., ySao-tXcu'-s king., TeAa/xcov-ios of Telamou., cro)Trjp-Los saving., of safety., oIk€los domestic^ one^s own, ayp-LO<s wild, TToXcix-Lo's Jiostile, KopLvO-Lo<s Corintliian, MrA.->Jo-to9 (46) Milesian, alSolos revered, TeAa/xwj/ Telamon, o-wrrip savior, oTko-s Jioiise, property, dypo-? field, 7roAe/xo-9 ivar, KopLvOo's Corinth, MiXrp-o<s Miletos, atSws (129) respect, reverence. a. In some adjectives the suflBx appears to be -^lo, nom. -etos : yuj/atK-etos of loomen, yvvr] (yvvatK-) ivoman. 425 The suffix -lko, nom. -iko?, -rj, -6v, is added to noun-stems as well as to yerb-stems (413 d) ; in some cases the starting-point may have been either. A final stem-vowel is dropt ; but with i-stems the ending is probably -ko : ^aarLX-LKo^ hlnghj, pacnXivs king, jSapfSap-LKos larlarian, (Sdp(3apo<; foreigner, €\Xr)v-LK6<s Greeh, "EXXrjv Greeh, SapetKos (for 8apei-tKo?) daric, Aapeto? Davcios, TToXcfji-LKo^ icarlihe, ttoAc/xos ivar, yeoipy-LKo? sJcUled in farming, yeoipy 6^ farmer, a-Tparrjy-LKos skilled as a general, a-TpaTrjyos general, <f>vcrL-K6s 9iatiiral, physical, <f>v(rL? nature. Many of these, by omission of rixvi art, become nouns : fjLova-LKT^ 7nusic, ypajxiJiaTLKy grammar. 426 The suffixes -eo, nom. -ov<s, -yj, -ovv (87), and -lvo, nom. -lvo<;j -rj, rov, form adjectives of material : dpyvp-€0<;, apyvpovs of silver, apyvpo? sUvcr, Xl6-lvo^ of stone, XlOo<s stone, $vX-Lvo<s wooden, $vXov ivood. But they also have in other words a more general meaning : (f)OLviK€o<;, (f)OLvlKov<s rcd, ^oLVL^ Phce?iicia7i, aXr]0-Lv6<; genuine, aX-rjOrj^ true, avOpwTT-Lvo's, dv6p(i)7rcLo<s human, dv0poy7ro<s man. 154 WORD-FORMATION Several in -lv6s are made from words denoting time : iap-Lv6^ of spring^ tap spring^ oTTwp-Lvos autumnal, o-rrcopa harvest, rjfji€p-Lv6s of daytime, rjfxipd dag. 427 The suffix -evr, nom. -ets, -ecro-a, -ev, in a few adjectives means endoived or supplied with : XapL-cLs graceful, X^P'-'^ (x"P'"5 X^P'-'^-) g'fdce, <l>o}vrj-ei<s possessing voice or speech, ^lavrj voice. Hence cfxovrjev {ypafxiia) a voiuel. 428 The suffixes -ipio, -vo, -po are added to noun-stems as well as to verb-stems (cp. 412). In some cases either verb or noun may have been the base : aAK-t/xo9 mighty, dXKrj prowess, (f>p6v-iixo<s se7isible, cf^pyv (^pev-) mind, 6pei-v6s (for opecr-i/o?) of the opo's (^op€(T-) mountain, mountains, dXyct-vo? (for dAyeo--vo?) painful, aXyos (dXyeo--) pain, Xv7rr}-p6<; painful, Xxhrrj pain, Xvirioi grieve, (j>6ovc-p6<i grudging, <ji66vo<s envy, ^Oovim grudge, 8po(re-p6<i deiuy, Spoa-os deiv, TTov-q-po's toilsome, had, ttovos toil, distress. Perhaps in irovr^po^ and some others --qpo was thought of as the suffix : fioxOrjpos wretched, pLoxOo^ (fioxOo-) pain, avOrjpos flowery, avOo^ (dvOio--) floioer. Denominative Nouns 429 Nouns of quality (all feminine) are made from adjectives, and occasionally from nouns, by adding to the stem the suffixes -Ti)T, -id, -a-vvd. Abstract nouns often become concrete, being applied to special instances of the quality or action : a. Suffix -rrjT, nom. -rrj's (cp. Lat. -tdt, -tds) : DENOMINATIVE NOUNS 155 TTLorTo^rj^ faithfulness, ((r)/juKp6-T7)<s smallness, Traxv^rj^ thickness, TTto-To-s faithful, ((T)iJUKp6-s small, Traxv-'s thick. b. Suffix -ta, nom. -td or -ta, before which a final stem- vowel is lost : <f>LX-id friendship, diroLK-Ld colony, €vSaLfjiov-Ld happiness, cvvoia good-ivill, dXyOeLa (for dXrjOccr-ia) truth, <f>LXo-<; friend, ttTTotKo-s away from home, evSaLjjicov happy, ivvoo-<s friendly, kind, d\rjOrj<i [dXrjOea--) true. da-Oiveia (for dcrd^v€(r-La) iveahness, do-^evrjs {daOiv^a--) iveah, dOava(r-Ld (46) immortality, dOdvaro-<s immortal, €V€py€(r-Ld (46) he7iefaction, c^epycTT/? benefactor. c. Suffix -a-vvd, nom. -o-vvrj, before which a final consonant of the stem is lost : SLKaio-(rvv7] Justice, cro}cl>po-<rvvr) self-C07ltrol, SiKaLo-s Just, right, (T(l)cf>p(DV (o-W<^p01/-) Self- co7itrolled. 430 IN'ouns denoting a person who has to do icith something are made with the suffixes -cv, -rd, -nS (cp. 405). a. Suffix -cv, nom. -cv?, masc, some forming a feminine in -eta. A final stem-vowel is lost before the suffix : vKiT-tm horseman, hnro-^ horse, Up-evs priest, Up-eta jjriestess, Up6-<s sacred, ypaixfjiaT-€v<s clerk, secretary, ypd/x/xa (ypa/^/xar-) writing. b. Suffix -Td, nom. -rr;?, masc, some forming a feminine in -Ti8, nom. -tl<s. A final stem-vowel before the ending is often changed in some way : 7roXt-TT75, fem. 7roAt-Tt9, citizen, 7roAt-s state, o-rpaTt(o-Tr;s soldier, (TTpartd army, vryo-tw-TT/?, fem. vr](TL(ii-TL's, islander, vrjcrto-v, vrjCTo-'s island, Sr}p.6-Tr}<s demesman, Stj/jlo-^ deme, oiK€-T>7S, fem. oiK6-Tt?, house-servant, oTko-s house, Sea-fKo-rrjs, fem. Secr/xco-Tts, prisoner, Scarfws dond. 156 WORD-FORMATION 431 Several suffixes form nouns, many of which (but not all) have a dimimitive meaning, or a caressing or a conte7nptuous tone ; the end of the stem often suffers a change. a. Suffix -to, nom. -tov, neut. : TraiS-LO-v little cJdld, Trats (TratS-) cJlild^ aKovT-io-v javelin^ aKOiv (aKovT-) spear, ^iPX-Lo-v hooh^ ySiySAo-s pa2)yrus^ book^ Xpvo-Lo-v gold piece, xp^^^~'^ gold, TTiS-Lo-v plain, TreSo-v ground, Xiop-Lo-v fortress, )(C)po-<s, x^P^ place. b. Suffix -Lo-Ko, -LCTKa, nom. -iV/cos masc, -lo-kt) fern. : vedv-i(TKo<s youth, yoimgster, vedvLd-^ youth, TraiS-LCTKos little hoy, Trai'S (jraLS-) child. iraih-icrK-q little girl. c. Also the suffixes -dpio-v, -lSlo-v, -vX.Xlo-v : ■jratS-dpLO-v little chap, TTttts (TratS-) child, oIk-lSlo-v little house, oTkos house, ^oiKpar-iSLo-v dear little Sohrates, ^<jiKpdTr}<s {-^a--) Sohrates, dZ-vXkio-v little picture, idyl, d^o<s (ctSco--) form. 432 Words denoting a place are made with the suffixes -to, -cto, -rrjpLo, -wv, often with some change at the end of the stem. a. Suffix -to, -6to, nom. -lov, -ctov, neut. : p.vpoTrdiX-Lo-v perfumer^s shop, fjLvpoTrwXrj? perfume-seller, Kovpeco-v (27) barber's shop, Kovpev-<s barber, fiov<T-€Lo-v place of the muses, /xova-a muse. In other instances the force of the ending is vague : dyycto-v (for ayyccr-tov) dish, ayyo5 (dyyco--) dish, VCSScl, vessel, (rr)ix€io-v sign, note, (rrj/xa (o-^/xar-) mark. b. Suffix -rr}pLo, nom. -Trjpiov, neut., apparently made by adding -lo to nouns in -Tr)p (405), which were later crowded out by the forms in -nys : DENOxMINATIVE NOUNS 157 SiKacr-Typ-Lorv court, {^LKOxTTTip) 8iKa(TTrj<S judgB, Povkev-rrjp-LO-v COUncil-hall, (povkev-r-qp) /JovAeuTTJs coun- cilor, Sca-jJiOi-Trjp-LO-v priSOn, 8etr/xo-s bo?ld. Probably in some cases the starting-point was the verb, without thought of an intervening noun : IpyacT-Trjpio-v IVOrTcsllOp, ipyd^o/xai (ipyaS-) IVOrlc, c. Suffix -<i)v, nom. -wv, masc., with loss of a final stem- vowel : d/xTTcX-wv vineyard, d/^TrcXos vine, 7rapOev-wv maiden's room, -n-apOevo-^ maiden, avhp-ijiv 7nen's liall, dvyp (avSp-) man. Some of these are enlarged by the ending -trtS, nom. -trt?, fem. : di/8p(oi/-tTt9 me7i's quarters, ywatAcwv-trt? ivomen's quarters. 433 ^oiins denoting descent {patronymics) are made from names of persons by adding -8d or -tSa, nom. -Sry? or -tS?;?, masc, and -S or -tS, nom. -(d)s or -ts, fem., sometimes with changes at the end of the stem. a. Bopea-87;?, fem. Bopea-s, son (daugJiter) of Bopea-?, AiV€a-S>7? Atvea? (Atvetds). Nouns of this type caused -dSr]<s and -as to be taken as endings for making other names : ©ea-TL-dSr}^, ©ecTTt-a? (-a8-), ©eo-Tio-9, *A(TK\ri7n-d8rj<;, ^AcrKXi/JTno-S. ]S"ames of this type caused -taSrys to be taken as an ending to form other nouns : TcXa/xwv-taSr;?, TeXa/Awv. b. KcKpoTT-tSr/?, fem. Ke/cpoTr-ts, KiKpoxj/ (KcKpOTT-), Kpov-t8->79, Kpwo-s, Aava-t8r)<s, fem. Aava-t's (-tS), Aavao-S. c. Many such words were ordinary proper names, not de- noting descent : EuplTrtSr;?, Ba/<;)^Xt87ys, 'AptoretSTys. 158 WORD-FORMATION d. These endings were probably at first less definite in meaning, like -to (424), and that more general force appears in some words, especially in poetry. 434 Xouns (and adjectives) that mark a person as helonging to some people or city (gentiles) are made with the suffixes -6v, -ra^ -i8, -TtS. These are but special uses under headings already given. a. Suffix -€v (cp. 430 a), fem. -t8 (cp. 433 b and d) : Mcyap-ev?, fem. Meya/o-6s (-tS-), Meg avian ^ Meyapa (neut. pL), Evy8o-€v-s, fem. Ev/io-LS (-tS-) of Euhoia^ Ev^ota, Krjcfna-L-ev's of the KepMsian deme^ KrjcfHa-id. b. Suffix -ra, fem. -rtS (cp. 430 b) : Alylvrj-T7]<s, fem. ALylvrj-TL<s of Aigina, Atylva, '^vPapi-TT]?, fem. ^v^apL-TL^ Sybarite^ ^vf3apL-<s, 'HTTetpco-rr;?, fem. 'H7retpw-TiS Epirote, "HTretpo-s. In several the ending seems to be -wtt^s, -wrt? : 2iK€A,t-a)T»;9, fem. ^tKcXt-wrts, Sicilian^ 5tKeA.td. IT. COMPOSITION 435 Compound words are analyzed by dividing into two members only ; if either member is itself a compound, that is treated in the same way, and so on. a. A few particles or adverbs are mere groups of three or more separate words, which might have been printed sepa- rately with no great change of meaning. Such are rot-yap-ow, Kar-avTi-TTcpd^. These are not included here. 436 The second member alone of a compound carries the inflection, as verb, noun, or adjective. The first mem- ber is an uninflected word — as a preposition, or the adverb eu, or the inseparable a(v)- or Svcr- (441, 444) — or is used in the stem-form. COMPOUND VERBS 159 a. In the pronoun oo-rt? both parts are declined (220). b. In a few words the first member is a noun in some case- form : v€a)(T-oLKOL ship-houses, vavcrL-7ropo<s passable by ships, 68ol- TTo/oos traveler (68ot- locative, 228), 6peL-ftdTr)<s ivalkmg on the mountain, *EAA7jo--7rovTo? Rene's sea, Hellespont. Compound Verbs 437 Prepositions alone can stand as tlie first member of a compound verb ; the second member remains un- changed. The name preposition (Trpd-^ecrt?) arose from this use. For sound changes see 32, 42, 50, 52. a. All prepositions were first adverbs, modifying the verb. When the connection with a verb became very close, the two were regarded as one word, a compound ; but the older use was also retained. Especially in poetry a preposition may be written separately {tmesis, rfjirja-LS cutting) as an adverb, which in prose would be joined to the verb. (Cp. English set off and offset, trodden down and downtrodden. The older use is still very common with English prepositions.) b. Note applications of 435. Thus o-w-am^atVo) go tip with, a compound of o-vv and avafBaivoi, which is a compound of avd and /3atVo). 438 a. Not every verb that begins with a preposition is a compound ; it may be a denominative (415-423) from a compound noun or adjective. Thus vTroirrevo} suspect is from the compound vTr-oTrro?, but is not itself a compound. b. So, too, other denominative verbs from com- pounds are not themselves compounds. Thus vav- /xaxew fight ly sea is from vav-fjidxo<; (446 a), but is not itself a compound of vavs and a verb (437) ; 160 WORD-FORMATION €vTvx^(o is from evrvxv^ (447), but is not itself a compound of ev and a verb. Compound Nouns and Adjectives 439 The first member of a noun or adjective may be a preposition or adverb (440, 441), a verb-stem (442), or the stem of a noun or adjective (443). The second member is the stem of a noun, adjective, or verb, with the changes or additions that were felt to be natural for declension. a. The accent is generally recessive, but there are many exceptions ; the most easily classified will be mentioned. 440 a. A preposition may be prefixt simply as an adverb to some nouns and adjectives, with no further change than with verbs (437) : av-oSos way or march iip^ (XTro-o-Tao-t? standing off, revolt, iiTL-povXi^ apian against, cru/x-7ras all together, o-uv-atrtos Jointly causing, b. Different from these are nouns derived from compound verbs and adjectives : (TvvOrjfjia ivatchtvord (407), from o-w-TtOrjiJLL, TTpoOvfjLLd eagerness (429 b), irpo-Ovfjco^ (447 b), aTTOLKid colony (429 b), aTr-otKo? (448). But in some cases either method may have been followed. 441 The adverbs irai^ altogetliei\ ev well, also the insep- arables a(v)- not and 8ucr- ill, are preiixt in like manner to a few adjectives, and the last three to many verbals in -ro<; : avd. 68o5, (XTro, o-Tao-t9, i-TTL, povXri, crvv. Tra?, (TVV, atrto?. COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 161 Swaros ahle^ possible, raXd's tvretched, raKTos arranged, TTopcvTos passable. TTOLv-croffio^ exceedi7igly ivise, (ro<fi6<s ivise, Trav-TXrjfjuov all-enduring , wretched, TXyjfjuov wretched, cv-SoKt/Aos ivell-approved, glorious, Sokl/xo^ approved, d-SoKLfio? lui-approved, in-glorious, d-Swaros un-ahle, im-possible, Sv(r-TaXds in hard miser g, €v-TaKTo^ well-arranged, a-TttKTo? un-arranged, Bv(r-7r6p€VTo<; hardly passable, a. But these simple compounds must not be confused with those described in 447, which have the same first member in a different relation to the second (444). 442 A verb-stem stands in some adjectives and nouns as the first member — either the stem simply, or with an added vowel, or with added -ai (-cr before a vowel). The second member is thought of as object (accusa- tive, genitive, or dative) of the first. Cp. English hreahnech^ tell-tale, loose-strife. apx<Ji rule, T€KTwv builder, cfiipoi bring, iyyvrj surety, apx-i-^eKTOiv 77iaster-builder, <^ep-€yyi;o9 bringing surety, capable, XtTT-o-ra^td desertion {leaving the ranhs), Xv-a-L-^eXri? paying charges, profitable, iretO-apxo's obedient to commarid, plcr-o-h-qpio's hating tlie people, <f>LX-dvOp(i>7ro^ loving man. The last two perhaps belong rather under 449. a. The syllables dpx-, apx^-? <^PX'"? came to be a mere prefix meaning leader, first, Eng. arch-, archi-. 443 A noun or adjective as the first member appears as a bare stem, and this may suffer various changes. 11 XctVo) ( XiTT- ) leave, ra^ts ranh, Xi(i) loose, riXo^ charge, TretOofxat obey, apX'? ^^^^^j pla-i-oi hate, 877/A09 people, cfaXeix) love, dvOpioTTos man. 162 WOED-FORMATION a. The final vowel, or even more, may be lost or changed : <f)vX-apxo^ tribe-leader, cfivXrj tribe, TpLTfp-apxo's ca2)tain of a trireme, rpLrjpr]<s trireme, (TTpar-rjyos army-leader, a-Tparos army, pa-OvfjLo<s of easy spirit, lazy, pa-Bios easy ; the ending of derivation, -8to9, is omitted. b. Since o-stems were especially frequent in such com- pounds, they became a model to which other stems were often conformed. Hence o may replace a final d or the suffix -co-, or may be added to a consonantal stem : Avp-o-TTotos lyre-maker, Xvpd lyre. <rK€v-o-(f>6pos baggage carrying, st. o-kcvco-- baggage. fjir]Tp-6-7ro\Ls mother-city, st. fx,r]T{e)p- mother. c. Contractions may occur ; KaKovpyo^ (Epio Ka/co [f ] cpyos) evil-doer. irav-ovpyos doing anythi?ig and everything, scoundrel — per- haps made on the analogy of KaKovpyo^. Tlpniip6<i (for rliJia-Fop6<i) Upholding honor. 444 Certain elements enter as the first member into many compounds, in whicli they have tlie force of an adverb or an adjective, as tlie second member may require. These are (cp. 441) : eS well^ in composition well^ easily, or cjood^ Sus- (inseparable), ill^ with difficulty^ or had^ o^iy)- negative (inseparable), not, or no., rjfXL- (inseparable), Lat. semi-, half. With these may be put KaXXi-, which is not used sepa- rately, but in many compounds takes the place of KaXo? or kclXQ)s. a. In a-KoXovOo? accompanying, following (KeXcvOos path), and a-6poo<s or SiOpoos thronging, together (0p6o<s fioise of a COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 163 crotvd) the first element is d- copulative (for o-a-) related to afxa and ofjLo- together. 445 In meaning^ when the first member represents a noun or adjective, the relation between the tw^o parts may vary greatly, and is gathered from their separate meanings ; especially the poets make combinations very freely. (Even greater freedom is usual in Eng- lish.) But certain classes are large, and these it is convenient to name. a. Determinative Compounds. — The first member makes more specific {determines) the meaning of the second ; the whole denotes a particular case of what the second part denotes alone — e. g., school-hoys are one class of hoys, well-made is made in a particular way (446). b. Possessive Compounds. — These are adjectives, being noun-compounds of the determinative class, but with the idea oi jjossession understood. Thus yellow- throat does not mean a yelloiv throaty but a bird hav- ing a yellow throat ; the idea of having is not ex- pressed, but from frequent use is understood. In English many of these end in -ed^ on the model of participles : hald-headed, warm-hearted^ sword-shaped (447). c. Prepositional-Phrase Compounds. — A phrase con- sisting of a preposition and its object is made a single word, with the force, and in Greek the inflection, of an adjective (which like other adjectives may become a noun). Thus out-door sports are played cntt of doors, an wider-ground passage is sub-terranean (448). 164 WORD-FORMATION 446 Determinative Compounds (445 a) are of two classes, not always distinguishable. a. Dependent Compounds : the first member is a noun that may be regarded as modifying the second, as if dependent on it in some case-relation : (TTpaT-r]y6<s leader of an army, Aox-ayos leader of a company, Xoyo-ypd<f>o<s speecJi-tvriter, vav-fjLdxo<s fighting with ships, o-rpard-TreSoi/ camp, Xoyo-TToto? speech-maTcer, inventor of tales, X^ip-o-TToirjTo^ hand-made, vSp-o-(f)6po^ water-carrier, avTo-fxaro's self-impelled, rptrjpr]^ triply-fitted. CTTpaTO-s, -r)y6<s [dyw), Xoxo'S, -ayo? ' (ayo)), Xoyos, ypd(fiO<s {ypdfjuii), vav<5, -jjidxo'S (^fxdxoficLi) , cTTparov TreSov, XoyOUS TTOtCOVj ;j(ep(Tt TToirjTO'i, vSuyp, -c]i6po<; (^epco), avTos, root fxa-, rpu'S, dpapL(TKOi, b. Descriptive Compounds : the first member is an adjective modifying a noun as the second, or is an adverb modifying an adjective or participle as the second. (Cp. English hlue-hird and new-horn^ De- scriptive compounds are fewer than dependents. fjMv-apxo<: sole ruler, fjL€(r-r)p./3ptd (49) mid-day, oLKp-o-TToXi? upper city, citadel, iJ/evS-o-ixapTvpLOL false Witness, rifiL-ovo<s half-ass, mule, yjPii-Ppwro<i half-eaten, €vSr]Xo? quite clear, irepL-epyos over-active. fjLovo^, apxos, /xearrj rj/Jiipa, d-Kpa TToXt?, \p€vSrj<; /iiapTvpid, rjfxi- (444), 6Vo9, ^ifSpdycTKu) eat, €V, SrjXo9, Trepi, -epyo? (rOOt e/oy). e. Many determinatives have as latter member a word that does not occur separately, or not in that sense (410) ; in some cases the lack is accidental. Thus apx6^, dyos (a), aywyos are COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 165 found separately, but not -r/yo?, -ypa</»os, -ftaxos, -ttoio? ; while (f>6po<s, 8o/>to9, Spo/jios are used, but not in the sense in which they form many compounds. d. Determinatives of the o-declension, if the second part is active, accent the penult if that is short, otherwise the ulti- ma : A.t^o-/3oAo? stone-thr Giving^ vai;-/>ta;(os, Xoyo-^otos. (But not compounds in -apxo<s and -©xos, which have recessive accent; and other exceptions occur.) 447 Possessive Compounds (445 b). — In these the idea of having is added in thought to a determinative ; in a few the added idea is rather that of bei7ig : rpi-TTov^ having three feet, three-footed, TToXv-dvOpuiTTo'i having many men, populous, Sv(r-7ropo<s havijig a hard passage, (.v-vov^ ic ell-minded, Jcindly, iv-Tvxn^ having good fortune, fortunate, 6/>to-Tpa7re^os having the same table, table-companion, 6/xo-Aoyos having common speech or ratio, agreeing, homologous. ofjio- appears only in composition ; but cp. the adv. o/xoC, adj. o/xoto?. ^eo-ctSr)? having a god's appearance, godlike (cTSo?). From -€tS>7?, contracting with a preceding vow^el, was formed the derivative ending -w8r)<s, and English -oid. a. Many compounds of this class begin with d(v)- negative, which may be either a not, denying the idea of possession, or a 710 modifying the noun : d-^opo<s 7iot having a passage, or having no passage, d-rlfjLo^ without honor, disfranchised. b. Prepositions often have an adjectival force in such com- pounds (cp. 440 a) : Tvpo-Ovfxo? having a forivard spirit, eager (Ovfios), dp,cf)L-Ovpo? having a door on both sides, double-doored {6vpd)y fx€T-oLKos having one's dwelling tvith, resident alien (oTkos), 166 WORD-FORMATION ev-Oeo^ having a god ivithin^ inspired^ €<f)-e8pos Jiavmg a dy-seat {one ivlio lias draivn a " lye "), irdp-eSpos having a seat heside^ assessor. 448 Prepositional-Phrase Compounds (444 c). — These con- sist of a preposition and its noun, witli tlie idea of heirig added : Trapd-So^o? contrary to opinion, unex- -n-apa 86^av, pected, 7rapd-voiJLo<s against the law, illegal, Trapa vo/xov, Trapa-Oakdmos beside the sea, Trapa OdXaTTav, tpL-iropo'i on a journey, traveler, importer, Iv -n-opw, iv-OvfjLLos in the heart or mind, iv 0vfx<2, icji-oSios for a journey, e</)' 68(2 or 6S6v, i(f>-i^fjL€po^ lasting for a day, c^' VI^^P9-^ liTL-x'^Lpov something on the hand, wages, lirl x^^Ph 7rpo-d(TTLo<s suburban, 7rp6 da-reio'S, ifji-fji€Xrj<s in tune, iv p.i\u, 7rXr)ix-fji€X^<s out of tune, ttXtjv {beyo7id) /xiXov?, Ik-toko's out of place, strange, ck tottov, d7r6-Sr)fJLO<5 out of the COUJltry, dirb SyfJLOv, VTT-evdvvo^ subject to accounting, vir evOvvai<S. a. From the phrase iK ttoSmv was made the adverb iKiroSwv out of the way. On this model was formed the opposite ifi- TToSwi/ ill the way ; from this was formed the adjective i/x7r6Sio<s and the verb ipLTroScCo) (418). In like manner from the phrase Sea x^tpwi/ through or in the hands, is made the verb Staxetpt^w have in hand, 7nanage. 449 Instead of a preposition the first member is some- times a verbal adjective governing a noun as the sec- ond member, the whole being an adjective : d^Lo-Xoyos worth mentio7iing, a^tos Xoyov, d^to-Xpews good for the obligation, suf- a^tos xP^ov<s, fcient, COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 167 la-o-Oeos equal to a god, godlike^ ta-o? Oeco, <3f)iXo-KtV8i5vo5 fond of danger, </)tAos KLvhvvov. a. These are much like the verb-object compounds in 442 ; they are also like dependent compounds (446 a), in that one member depends on the other. But they are perhaps more like prepositional-phrase compounds (448) ; in both classes a familiar phrase, in which the first word governs the second, has received the inflection of an adjective. III. SYNTAX 450 Syntax (crvz^raft? arranging together^ treats of the use of words in combination, usually in sentences, whicli may be simple, compound, or complex. For undeveloped and incomplete sentences see 490-493. I. SIMPLE SENTENCES 461 A simple sentence consists of one finite verb, with or without other words. According to the mode of the verb we distinguish Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, and Imperative sen- tences. Some forms of Negative and Incomplete sen- tences will also be treated separately. INDICATIVE SENTENCES 452 The Indicative presents the action or state as real, in assertions, denials, exclamations, and questions. (But see 461 c, 467 c.) 453 The tenses are used nearly as in English, but not altogether so ; and their force (like that of all words and forms) is af- fected by the general meaning of the verb, by the context, or by other circumstances. The leading types are illustrated in 454-470; those in which Greek agrees with English are 168 INDICATIVE SENTENCES 169 treated briefly, more prominence being given to those in which the two languages differ. 454 Present Indicatiye. a. OuSck £Tt rjfXLv fidx^raL no One fight s ivith us any longer. An. II. 1, 4. b. Y^vpov /xcraTre/xTTeTat Cyrus lie sends for. An. I. 1, 2. {Historical Present.) c. Tt l^€Xavv€T€ rjixas ; ivhy are you di'iving {trying to drive) us out? II. ii. 4, 20. {Present of Endeavor.) d. *AAyoj TraAat 1 liave longleeu sorrowing. S. p. 806. {In- clusive Present^ of an action begun in the past and still con- tinuing — generally with an expression of time. English com- monly uses the progressive perfect, as above.) e. Ot <f>povovvT€<s ev Kparovori Travraxov they that have judg- ment every ichere prevail. S. Ai. 1252. {Universal or Ge7ieralized Present.) f. The present of ^kw a?n come and oixop-on am gone may usually be translated by the perfect, have come, etc. Some- times also vl/ctu am victorious, and some others. 456 Future Indicative. a. ^TTovSa? yj TToXc/xov ttTrayycXw; shall I report a truce or war? An. ii. 1, 23. Xrj\j/€TaL /xurOov rdXavrov he shall receive a talent as retvard. Ax. ii. 2, 20. o-vv tovtoi? /xa^ov/xc^a tvith these ice will fight. An. ii. 1, 12. ovk €v6v? d(f>rj(T(D avTov 1 shall not let him go at once. Ap. 29 e. b. In the second person, with ov, a question in the future may become a lively request or command : OvKovv ip€l<; TTore; speah out ! {icouH you ever speah?) S. AN. 244. For ov p.'f] with the f ut. see 489 b. 456 Perfect Indicative. a. *A7roXcXot7rao-tv ^/iS? they have left us. An. i. 4, 8. aK-^Koaxf., ewpaKare, TreTrdv^are yOU have heard, have seen, have suffered. L. 12, 100. 170 SIMPLE SENTENCES b. A completed act may result in a continued state, and some perfects are best rendered by an English present : €yvwKa yap yes^ I Jcnow Mm {have recognized^ Lat. novi). S. OT. 1117. Among the most frequent of these perfects are €(TT7]Ka {have lecome set), stand (363), reOvrjKa {have died), am dead, f^e/SrjKa {have placed my feet firmly) , stand firm, TrecjiVKa {have grown, heen born), am, K€KT7jfjLaL {havc acquivcd), posscss, fiifjivrjiiai {have become fnindful), remember, oAwXa {have gone to ruin), am ruined, iraroLOa {have believed), trust. c. With the above belong some perfects that show little or no trace of a perfect meaning. Such are toLKa am like, toiKc it is Ulcely, €L(j}6a am accustomed, SeSotKtt, SeSta fear, and in poetry many others, SiSopKa see {SipKOfiat) being especially common : ^v KOL SeSopKa's kov /JXeVeis thou hast sight and seest not. S. OT. 413. d. In compound perfects (as in English) the form of ei/tt (or €xo) in the sense of et/xt) expresses a continued state, the participle a completed act ; but in use there is often no clear distinction between these compound forms and simple forms. 457 The Pluperfect transfers the present force of the perfect to past time : Oivo-Y) ircTeLxi-cTTo Oinoe was {already) fortified. T. ii. 18. ela-TrJKyj I 2vas standing, rore 8' a(f>€La-T'JK€(rav but at that time they had revolted. An. i. 1, 6. Trpona-T-qK^i rov ^cvlkov he was in command of the mercenary force. An. i. 2, 1. a. For the pluperfect with av see 469. 458 The Future Perfect denotes an act to be completed in the future, or (often) a future state ; INDICATIVE SENTENCES 171 Ev^vs 'Aptato? d(f3€crTy ^€L^ wcttc ^tXo? r]/xiv ovSeis XeXeiij/e- Tttt Ariaios luill at once %vithdraiL\ so that not a friend ivill he left us. An. II. 4, 5. 8t/cata ttcttov^ws eyw ecro/xat v^' v/x-oii/ / s7i«Z/ have received justice at your hands. Ap. 41 e. 459 The Imperfect generally presents the action either as continuing or as repeated in the past : SrpaTevfjLa crvveXeyero an army ivas being col- lected. An. I. 1, 9. TToXXag 7rpo<^acret9 tjv pia Kev lie hept finding many pretexts. An. n. 3, 21. ravrct toI<^ <^tXot? 8teSt8ou these lie used to distribute to Ids friends. An. i. 9, 22. ravra 7rpd^d<; eKepSaivov fiep ovSev, ifiavTov 8' et? klvSvvov Ka6icrTrjv i7i doing that (assuming that I did it) / was gaining nothing and was bringing myself into danger, l. 7, 32. a. To be continually or repeatedly engaged in an action may imply endeavor, without success (cp. 454 c) : KAeap;(o? tov5 (rrpaTtwrds cySta^cro tei/at, ot 8' avTov cySaA,- Xov Klearchos tried to force the soldiers to go ; hut they threiu stones at him (as often as he tried). An. i. 3, 1. 460 The Imperfects XPI^ ^^ ^XPV^y ^^^^? TTpocrrJKe^ et/co? ^Vj and the like, state an obligation or propriety in past time. Often the context implies that the obligation was not met — that something was not or is not as it should be. OvBe Oaixil^ei^ rjplv Kara/BaLvcov et? tov UeLpaia' XPV^ P'^vToi you donH come down to us in Piraeus at all often ; yet you ought to (i. e., it ivas your duty to come often, and you havenH been doing it), p. r. 328 c. Ticrlya^', ovk ixpv^ alyav why silent? thou shouldst not be silent (i. ^., propriety required that you 1Y2 SIMPLE SENTENCES speak out, and you have not spohen), e. hipp. 297. dXX' ixPV^ Tt hpav you ouglit to have done something, Ar. r. 568. eSet yap to koX to iroLrjcrai koI to jjlt) TTOLrjaai why, yes, we should have done this and this, and not have done that, d. 9, 68. TovaSe yap fir) Irjv e S € i for these ought not to le alive, s. p. 418. elKo^ rjv vfiaq TTpoopaaOai avToi the fitting thing was that you should foresee it (hut you did not). T. vi. 78. ^xiveiv yap i^rjp for it was i7i his power to stand his ground (lie might have stood his ground), d. 3, 17. a. In these cases the obligation or propriety is thought of as existing in the past, perhaps before the act, and as real ; the action or state resulting from failure to meet the obliga- tion may be present, or may continue to the present, though beginning in the past. In some few cases where the Greek took this point of view, it seems to us as if av were needed (461 c). 461 The Imperfect witli av (666) presents the action a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on occasion : AvaXafjL^dvojv avTcov Ta TroLyjfxaTa Sltj p cjt cjv av avTovq taking up their poems, I loould question them (different poets, at one time and another). Ap. 22 b. •^y avaKT ovv av I used to he indignant (whenever people spoke hardly of me), l. 7, 12. b. As something that was to be expected or was probably true : Tt a z^ (f)av€po<; yev6p.evo<; v<^^ vfxcov cwacrxov ; what treatment was I likely to get from you in case of detection f L. 7, 12. tt/jos ttoZov av e tt X e i ; to what INDICATIVE SENTENCES 173 man was lie prohahly sailing ? (can Tie have heen sail- ing f ) S. p. 572. TOTe oxpe rjv koX ra? ^etpag ov k av KaOecjpojv hy that time it was late, and they ivould not he likely to see the hands (raised in voting). H. I. 7, 7. c. As sometliing that would have been in tlie past, or would be now, in an imaginary case, known to be unreal {Hij])othetical Indicative ; cp. 467 c, 468, 469) : Tore S' auTo to it pay ^a av i k piv er o icf)* avTov hut in that case the matter would have heen decided hy itself, D. 18, 224. Kkveiv a v ov^ aira^ i ^ovXo jjltjv I should not wish to hear it even once, s. p. 1239. These three uses are closely related ; the third is by far the most frequent ; the second and third can not always be distinguished. Only the context shows which meaning is in- tended, and whether (under c) past or present time is meant. d. 'EpovXofxrjv av I sJiould ivisli, with the infinitive, is the regular way of saying / wish something were different. Greek puts the suggestion of unreality with the leading verb, Eng- lish puts it with the subordinate clause. Yi jBovXo ix-qv av avrovs aXrjOrj Ae'yeiv /xct^v yap av /cat €/xot rovrov rayaOov fiipo? I ivish they iveve telling the truth ; I too should have a share in that blessing. L. 12, 22. 462 The Aorist Indicative presents an action simply as past ; it corresponds most often to the English simple past (or to the Latin historical perfect) : 'Ei/rav^' Efxeivev there he remained, rrj o-rparia direScoKe pLicrOov he paid the army wages. An. i. 2, 12. yj\6ovj elhov^ ivLKyjcra veni, vidi, vici, I came, saw, con- quered, Plut. Caes., 50. 174 SIMPLE SENTENCES 463 Greek often prefers the aorist, stating something merely as a past occurrence, where English uses the pluperfect or the perfect : Kat (TTparrjyov Sk avTov aTreSet^e 7ie (had) appointed Mm general also. An. i. 1, 2. TroAActKcs iOav/xaa-a I have often iuo7idered. M. i. 1, 1. 464 In verbs whose present denotes a continued state, the aorist often denotes the beginning of that state, or entrance into it (Inceptive or Ingressive Aorist) : d(T0eva) am ill, y^adivqaai fell sick, SaKpvo) weep, IhoLKpvaa hurst into tears, /Sao-iXe-uo) am Jcing, i/BaaiXevo-a became Mng, alycj am silent, iaiyrjcra became silent. Especially common is iaxop got, acquired, from e)((w have: ovk eax^ ^v^ y^^^p-w ^^^ did not adopt the view. D. 18, 201. Tore 8e TT/DoSeSw/ceVat noivTas a v ecrx^^ cdriav in that case (^Athens) woidd have got the blame of betraying all. d. 18, 200. 'iTTTrtd? ecrxe Ty]v o.p-)(f)v Hippias received the rule. t. vi. 54. a. This ingressive force extends to all the modes and to the participles. 465 General truths, commonly expressed by the universal present (454 e) are sometimes stated in the aorist {Gnomic Aorist^ yvw/jLTj a proverb) : Tvxrj rexvrjv wp6(j)(T€v, ov rixvr] tvxw ^Tis fortu7ie gives success to art^ not art to fortune. Men. 466 The distinctions between the simple aorist and the imperfect are sometimes subtle and elusive. Also any action may be looked upon as merely occurring or as continuing ; the choice of tense depends on the point of view. Hence both tenses occur together freely in the same narrative, often where Eng- INDICATIVE SENTENCES 1Y5 lish can not make the distinction without clumsiness. The beginner should watch the tenses carefully, and so gradually learn the distinction. 467 The Aorist with av (666 ; cp. 461) presents the action a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on occasion : 'E/cXeyo^ei/o? tov iTTLTijSeLov eTTatcrev av jpicking out the right man^ he would strike him (i. e., he did this on various occasions). An. h. 3, ii. b. As something that was to be expected, or was probably true : 'O 6ed(TdfjLei'o<; Tret? av ri? dvrjp rjpdcrOri Sato? elvai every man who saw it would get hot to he a war- rior. Ar. r. 1022. 770)9 av 6 jXTj irapcbv iyco tl (T r^hi- K7](T a how was I J one wlio ivasri't there, to do you any harm? D. 37, 57. iirep pcocrdr] S' av Tt9 iKeivo IScov any one on seeing that loould have been strengthened. II. III. 4, 18. TOVTOV TL<; a V (TOL TOLvSpO^; Spdv djJLeiVCJV rjvpeOr] ; who coidd have been found better in action than this man ? (i. e., no one was likely to be found). S. Ai. 119 f. c. As something that would have occurred in an imaginary case, known to be unreal (^Hypothetical Indicative) : 'ETroL7]cr av fxev ovSev av KaKov, firj iraOeiv 8* i<j)v\d^avT' av lotco^ they ivould have done him no harm, but would perhaps have been on their guard against injury. D. 9, 13. 'npXv yevecrOai tjtt Lo-Trjcrev av Tt9 aKovo-d^ before it happened, any one hearing of it ivould have refused to believe it. t. vn. 38. 176 SIMPLE SENTENCES These three uses are closely related ; the third is far the most common ; the second and third can not always he dis- tinguished. 468 a. The aorist with av and the imperfect with av referring to the past differ as do the simple aorist and imperfect (469, 462, 466) ; hut the difference often disappears in good trans- lation. b. The hypothetical indicative (461 c and 467 c) is very common in complex sentences, especially when the imaginary situation, known to he unreal, is described in an ct clause (645, 649). 469 The Pluperfect with dv is used as a hypothetical in- dicative when the real situation would be stated in the perfect : *FiV TOVTCO T(0 TpOTTCp Tj (T a dv fX€ T ET I fJL 0) p OTJ- fjLepo^ in that way you would have revenged your- self on me (the fact being, ovk el /xe TerljjLCjpovfxevos:). L. 7, 20. a. The entire passage (L. 7, 20) illustrates the ease with which the different tenses may be combined in this use : 'E/xot fi€V ovSefjLLOLV av aTToXoytdv v-jreAtTres, avrbs Sk . . . rj(rOa av jxe T€Tt/i,wpov/x-€vo5, . . . OVK av i86 K eis iTvat (TVKOcfxivTr)^, . . . TOT av TrActo-Tov cAa^cs you would liavB left me no defense (but you did leave me a defense, wcAtTrcs), you ivould have revenged yourself (but you have not), you ivould not noio seem to he mor licious (but you do seem so, SoKcts cTmt a-vKoc^dvT-qsi)^ you ivould have got most money (but ovk eAa/3eg). 470 a. A past tense of the Indicative with eWe or el yap (Lat. utlnam) expresses a hopeless and unattainable wish — that something had been that was not, or that something were now that is not. (Cp. 476.) With the imperfect, one wishes continuance ; the SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 177 fact wished away is generally present. With the aorist, one wishes attainment ; the fact wished away is generally past. Et yct/3 TocravTTjv SvpafiLP el^ov that JT had (ovfc exw) SO much power! e. al. 1072. el 6' rjv ^Opeo-TTjf; TrXrjcTLov loould that Orestes were near (he is not). E. EL. 282. €1^6 crot Tore (Tvv€yev6iJiY]T/ would that I had met you then (I did not). M. 1.2, 46. €1^6 ere ixtJTTOT elBofidv O that J had never seen thee (as I did), s. ox. 1217. b. ^^(^ekov owed^ ought, with the infinitive, and w^ith or without eWe or el yap, has the same force ; with the present infinitive it corresponds to the im- perfect, with the aorist infinitive it corresponds to the aorist : 'AXX' axj^eXe Kvpo^ t^rjv Cyrus ought to he alwe, ah! that Cyrus were living ! An. n. 1, 4. jxyj-n-oT axfte- Xov \nrelv tyjv ^Kvpov O that I had never left Slcy- ros. S. p. 969. SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 471 The Subjunctive is used to ask what action, or whether some particular action, is likely, advisable, or desired. (Duhitative; negative fiij.) Such ques- tions are often exclamatory, calling for no answer. a. In the first person : Tt TToiOo) ; what shall I experience f what will hap- pen to me f (Frequent, in many shades of meaning.) dfjLTrXaKo) Tov aov [xopov ; am I to fail of your fate f 12 178 SIMPLE SENTENCES S. AN. 554. 7 t (j)(i) jJLev TTpos TavTa ; aWo tl t) 6 fXoXo- ycojjiep ; what shall we say to this ? anything else than to agree? (shall we not agree?) Cr. 53 d. ri Spdcrco ; hevrepov \ri<^6io KaKos ; what shall I do? shall I he caught in wrong again ? s. p. 908. tt w 9 XtTrdi^av? yevcofjiai; how can I desert the fleet? A. AG. 222. yJt] d'jT o K ptv 0) fxaiy dW erepov eiTTco ; shall I make no reply ^ hut say something else ? Rep. 337 b. dXXa S17 (j)vyrj<; TlfJLtjcrcoiJLaL; shall J then propose the penalty of exile ? Ap. 37 c. (Cp. tivo^ dvTLTlfjLTJa-ofjLaL ; Ap. 36 b, the fut. ind. in tlie same sense.) b. In the third person : n o r TLS ovp ^vyrj; ttoI fxoXwv jxevco ; whither shall one flee ? where shall I go and ahide ? s. ai. 403 f. eira TavT ovTOL IT eicr 6 (DC IV vnep avrcov ere TToieiv ; this, then, are these people to helieve you are doing for them ? D. 22, 64. 472 The Subjunctive may present the action as proposed, desired, or urged. (Hortative, in the first person; negative /xt^.) ^H TratSe?, l(TTa>fjL€(r9a my children, let us rise, S. OT. 147. Sevpo e^av acrr (X) jxev et? rr^v avXrjv kol 7repu6pTe<; avrov Siar pixp o) fxev, elra icofxev let US rise, go out here into the court, and pass the time walk- ing ahout there (until daylight) ; then let us go, Pr. 311 a. ^ip eV ojvrriv lo) let me go to her! (I want to go to her !) Ar. r. 291. ^e/)e 817 koI ras fiapTv SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 1T9 ptd? avayvo) come^ 710 w^ let me also read the testi- mony {I will noiD read?), d. is, 267. Once in the second person, S. p. 300. The first person sing, is often introduced by <^ip^. 473 The Subjunctive with /xt; presents the action as not desired, as unadvisable, or as forbidden. {Proliihi- tive.) a. In the first person (not to be separated from the hortative subjunctive, 472) : M17 avajxev (ti^ev aX\ov<; let ifS not tvait for others. An. m. 1, 24. ^ 7) hrjj dSiKTjd a> let me not he wronged (in entreaty ; cp. b). s. ok. 174. b. In the second person (aorist only) : Mt7 Xltttj^ [jl ovto)<; ^ovov leave me not thus alone. S. p. 470. c. In the third person (aorist only) : MT78et9 eiTTrj let no one say. D. 9, I6. ^y^hevl rovro Trapaa-Trj let this occur to no one. L. 12, 62. 474 The Subjunctive with /x-q sometimes expresses what one fears and desires to avert ; with fj^rj ov, what one fears will not be. This is a variety of the preceding (473), the starting-point of more common uses (see 609, 610) : M-^ (Tov<; 8iacfiOeip7j ydfxovi may slw not spoil thy mar- riage (i. e., I fear she ivill). E. al. 315. /at) ov ireLcrys o-o<^oi;s yo^i ivill not convince the wise, I fear. E. tro. 982. a. This is also softened to a cautious assertion, or made a question : M^ ay poLKorepov y to aXrjOh etTretv I fear ifs rather riicle to speak the truth. Gor. 462 e. dAA.a jjlt] ov tovt rj x'^^^'^ov but I suspect that is 7iot difficult. Ap. 39 a. 180 SIMPLE SENTENCES 475 The Tenses of the subjunctive do not refer to differ- ences of time. The present denotes continuance or repetition; the aorist, simple occurrence or attain- ment ; the perfect (infrequent), denotes a completed act or a continued state. The distinction often dis- appears in translating, but is not to be overlooked. a. The time of independent subjunctives is regu- larly future ; see examples in 471-474. In Homer the subjunctive is often very like the future indicative in meaning, often also the same in form. OPTATIVE SENTENCES 476 The Optative (without av) expresses a wish that something may be, in the future. (Negative /x?f.) This use has given the name to the mode. ES ^vvelev elcrael Oeoi the gods forever graciously abide ivitli you ! S. ot. 275. ovto) vlKiqa-aLixL r iyco Kol voiiit^oiynqv (T0(f)6<; SO may J win the victoi^y and he (eve?') deemed wise. Ar. n. 520. 6X0L0 may you die! (a curse on you!), iiiqhel^ tcwt vfxcov im- vevcreiev may none of you consent to this. D. I8, 324. 477 Such a sentence may be introduced by dOe or d yap, in poetry by el alone (cp. 470) : E r ^ e fXTJTTOTe yvoLrj<; 6? el mayst thou never learn who thou art. s. ot. 1068. el yap iv tovtm eir) may it only depend on that ! Pr. 310 d. 478 Earely the poets use the optative without av as a hypotheti- cal optative (479, 482). OPTATIVE SENTENCES 181 479 The Optative witli av (666) expresses what would be in a supposed case, or in any case likely to occur. {Hypothetical Optative] cp. the hypothetical indica- tive, 461, 467.) The time is not defined, except by the context, but is commonly future, often present, rarely past. Often the statement or question is universal as regards time, applying to past, present, and future alike : 'Eya> 6 KV0L7JV av eU tol irXoia ifx^aiveLV I should hesitate myself to go aboard the boats. An. i. 3, 17. ev9a TToWrjv (TOJ(f)po(TVPr]v KarafJidOoL dv rt? there one would learn (at any time) rmich self-control. An. l 9, 3. TTpo? ^iojv 8' ovK dv Xa/3ot9 a?id by force you ivould never talce him. S. p. 103. ouSe ^xh yap ovhev d v /3\d^eLev ov8e yap dv hvv aiT o for he would not injure me a particle ; he woxdd not even be able to (in any circumstances). Ap. 30 c. 480 What is not really doubted may, from caution or from courtesy, be treated as not yet cei-tain ; hence a wide range of meaning. Mighty could, m.ay, and even m,ust, are often convenient in translating, but the Greek expression is not properly potential (cp. the last ex- ample in 479). OvKovv TTO poL^ dv TifjvSe Scopedv ifiOL ; would you then grant me this gift ? a. pb. 643. {Modest request.) 'tv fiev Ko iiit^oi<; dv aeavTov you may talce your- self off. s. AN. 444. {Softened command.) OvK dv yieO eiyirjv tov Opovov I would not yield the chair (in any case). Ar. r. 830. {Determined re- fusal.) 182 SIMPLE SENTENCES Uax; av oXoLfxav ; liow sliould I find death ? that I might die! e. al. 864. (^Passionate wish.) Uov St]t av elev ol ^ivoi ; where may the strang- ers he ? s. EL. 1450. {Polite question^ of a present fact.) OvToi Se Tct^' av fieLlo) tlvol ao(j)Ldv cro^oi elev hilt these men looidd he {are j^erhaps) wise in some greater wisdom, Ap. 20 d. {Assumed uncertainty^ of a present fact.) BovXoLfjLTjv av I should lihe is a frequent formula, a softened expression of wish. 481 The circumstances to which the statement (or ques- tion) of the optative applies may not need mention, or may be suggested by an expression of time, place, manner, or may be more fully expressed by a par- ticiple, infinitive, or subordinate clause. Relative clauses and d clauses (614 ff., 645 ff.) are often used for this purpose. This applies also to the hypotheti- cal indicative (461, 467). Thus in tv6a ttoXXtjv o-oicfipoa-vvyv KaTajjidOoL av tl<s (under 479) ev6a (with the context) means at court. The interrogatives irco5, TTov, TLS ask tvJiat the circumstances are. t6t€ the7i and StKaticos justly have a similar office. In OavfidloLix av d oTaOa I should be surprised if you know (Pr. 312 c), d oTa-Oa de- scribes the supposed case. In Swat' av el povXoio you could ^ should you so will (E. b. 947), d /SovXolo describes the supposed case. In t6t€ 8* avro to Trpayfjia av eKpivero e^' avTOv (461 c), TOT€ sums up in a word the preceding description of the im- agined circumstances. 482 In poetry the optative without dv is sometimes hypothetical : Tcdv, ZeO, Svva(TLV tl<s dvSpCjv vircpj^acria KaTacr;j(ot; whdt hu- man trespass would constrain thy power ^ Zeus? S. an. 605. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES 183 483 The Tenses of the optative do not refer to time ; they differ as do those of the subjunctive (475). The future optative is not used in simple sentences. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES 484 The Imperative presents an act as willed. It has many shades of meaning, as of command, prohibition, request, wish, supposition, assent, submission. (Nega- tive fJLT].) The tenses differ as in the subjunctive and opta- tive (475, 483). 'AXXa vLv KOfjLLi^eT^ etcrcoy S/xoie? but take her witJi- in, slaves, s. an. 578. x^'-P^? x^^P^'^^ rejoice, fareivell. ddpaei have courage, lovroiv let them go. An. i. 4, 8. fxrjSeU vfjicjv XeyeTco let no one of you spealc. An. i. 3, 15. ecrraj SO he it. In It oj cJ? tw ^€w (J)lXov, the oj? clause marks ltcj as a humble acceptance of divine ordering — let it go as God will. 485 Imperative, subjunctive, and optative, in simple sentences, shade into one another in meaning, and are often found to- gether. A proMMtion in the second or third person, if in the pres- ent tense, is always an imperative ; if in the aorist tense, it is nearly always a subjunctive. MtJt* oKV€tT€ fx-qr* dcfirJT* Itto? KaKov neither he afraid nor let fly an evil word. S. ok. 731. ravrd fiot Trpa^ov, tckvov, KoX fJirj /SpdSvve ft 178' i-n- L/Mvrjo-Orjs tri Tpotd<s do that for me, my sonj delay no more, nor me^ition Troy again. S. p. 1399 f. Trave, /x^ ^€^?/5 Tripd stop, speah 710 farther! S. p. 1275. In An. III. 2, 37, immediately after oAAws ex^'^" ^^t it he otherwise, there follow two optatives of wish, X€tpLcroff>o<i rjyoiro and hvo 184 SIMPLE SENTENCES oTparrjyu) eTnfjLcXoLa-Orjv, which are equally imperative in force, but perhaps more courteous in form. NEGATIVE SENTENCES 486 Ou, or a compound of ov, simply denies. Mif, or a compound of jxij, presents the negation as willed (de- sired^ hoped, aimed at^ assented to, etc.), or as part of an imagined or assumed case. Hence /iif is the regu- lar negative in wishes (470, 476) and in subjunctive and imperative sentences (471-474, 484). For /xt^ with the infinitive and participle see 564, 672, 579 a, 582 c. a. M17 with finite modes in simple sentences and principal clauses regularly expresses a willed negative of one shade or another. Both meanings are in so far one that both represent a negative as conceived, rather than as fact. 487 After ov, alone or in composition, a compound of ov repeats and strengthens the negation ; ' so also a com- pound of ixTj following ixTj : OvTTOTe ipel o u S e 1 9 no man shall ever say. An. I. 3, 5. ^Tj (jivyrjTe firj^aiJifj do not in any case flee. S. p. 789. a. If the second negative is simple, each has its separate force : Kat oi) ypd(fi€L fxev ravra rots 8' ep-yots ov Trotet and he doeS not merely write this and then not carry it out in deeds. D. 9, 27. Here the first ov negatives the combination ypa<jf>et pXv ov 8e TTotet, thus in a sense canceling the second ov. 1 In older English a similar doubling of the negative was common, and is still common among the uneducated, though not in good usage. Thus, from Shakspere, "I can not go no further." — As You Like It, II, 4. NEGATIVE SENTENCES 185 488 Mt^ with the Indicative is used a. Often in questions, intimating a hope of a nega- tive answer ; so also apa jjnj and fxojv (for jjirj ovv). Ml] TL veaxrepov ayyiWei^ ; no serious newSj IliO])ef Pr. 310 b. pjf^ avTOP otet (j^povTLcraL Oavdrov ; you donH suppose lie was anxious about death, do you ? a p. 28 d. /Awi/ Tt ere dSt/cet; he hasnt injured you, has he? Pr. 310 d. b. Sometimes in cautious statement of a present or past fact (cp. 474 and a), intimating a hope (perhaps ironical) that it is not true : 'AAA.' apa fJLT] ov Totavr-qv viroXaii^avWi crov Tr]v jxadrjo-LV €(r€crOai hut perha2Js you mean that your learning will be not lil^e that. Pr. 312 a. c. In both these uses firj has essentially the same force as with finite modes in other simple sentences (486 a). This is plainest in the former, but still traceable in the latter ; a deprecatory statement is made, most often in the interrogative tone (a), but sometimes without it (b). The firj is an expres- sion of desire on the part of the speaker to negative the state- ment; but this desire may be merely assumed, or may be nothing more than surprise that the statement should be true. 489 Idioms (of uncertain explanation). a. Ov ixTj with the Subjunctive is a strong denial referring to the future : Ov Tt /xt) \rj(f)6a) SoXw I shall not he caught hy a trick, a. s. 38. ov jxt) TTid7)Tai he will never yield. S. p. 103. ouSel? fjLrjKeTi fxeiprj tojv ttoXc- [XLOJv not one of the enemy ivill stay any longer. Ax. iv. 8, 13. ov K€T L fjirj SvpTjT at ^acriXev^ r}jjia<^ KaraXa- j^eiv the hing will no longer he ahle to catch us. An. II. 2, 12. 186 SIMPLE SENTENCES b. Ov ixrj with the future indicative is sometimes a strong denial ; in the second person it may be a prohibition : Ov (TOL fxr] /xe^€i/^o/Aat ttotc / will never follow thee. S. e. 1052. oi) fjLT] AaAiyo-cts do7iH keep chattering. An. n. 505. UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES 490 Some expressions are not fully developed sentences, with a subject and predicate. Language begins with simpler forms, sometimes not even distinguishing parts of speech, as is clearly seen in children beginning to talk.^ Such primitive forms remain in use, in all languages, especially in lively conver- sation and in poetry.' They are less formal, more natural for expressing emotion and simple thought. They are found in all stages of development, from the simple interjection to phrases of some length, with verbal forms, and even a subject. 491 Such are a. Interjections : "^O, a, alat, ^ev, lov, ico oh, ah, alas, ha, ho, etc. b. Exclamations without a verb : Aevpo this 10 ay ! here ! firjSkv aydv nothing too far ! tw ixoi fioL Sv(TTYjvo<s tth me unhappy I Zevs '^(orrjp Koi vlkt) Zeus the Savior and victory ! An. i. 8, 16. w fiiaphv rjOo? koI ywatKos va-repov vile nature, subject to a ivojnan ! S. an. 746. c. Titles and headings : Kvpov 'Avay8ao-t9 The Expedition of Cyrus. Ilcpt IIot^rtK^s On Poetry. 'E-Trra IttI ©y^ds Seven against Thehes. ^ "The language of birds is very ancient, and, like other ancient modes of speech, very elliptical ; little is said, but much is meant and understood." — White, Nat. Hist, of SeTborne, Letter 85. 2 Tennyson, for example, uses them very freely: "Sunset and eve- ning star, and one clear call for me." "A plot, a plot, to ruin all !" "God's blessing on the day ! " "A week hence, a week hence." "Ah, the long delay ! " "I to cry out on pride ! " "Scorned, to be scorned by one that I scorn." UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES 187 d. Some words or phrases, introducing a sentence that fol- lows, or summiDg up something that precedes : ^r]fji,€Lov 8e, or T^Kix-qpiov 8c, and as evidence . koX to fii- yiATTov and ivhat is most imi:)ortant . koX tovto avro t6 tov 'Ofirjpov and then as Homer says . Ap. 34 d. So the fre- quent expression koX ravra and that too, in which ravra, like that, stands for the preceding expression, repeated in this abbreviated form, that some new point may be added with emphasis. 492 Exclamatory Infinitives are more like sentences, sometimes having a subject. a. In an imperative sense, often to be rendered by an im- perative : HpC)Tov fxkv Tovro irap vplv avrois (3€/3aLio<S yviovai jlrst of all, this firm conviction in your otvn minds! D. 8, 39. Spda-avTi 'jraOelv to him that did it (to the guilty) suffering. A. c. 312. oU p.y] TreAa^etv go not near these. A. pb. 738. b. As a prayer or wish : ©cot 7^oA.^Ta^ ixrj /xe SovXctd? rvxctv my country'' s gods, not slavery, not that fate for me ! A. s. 239. c. Of surprise, indignation, or other emotion : *E/>ie TraOclv raSc, <^ev / tO Sllff'er this! Ha! A. E. 840. w Svo-ToAatvo, TOidS' avSpa xp^o-t/xov </)(uvctv ah, icretchcd me ! for a good man to speah so! S. ai. 410. tolovtovl Tp€(}>€Lv Kvva to keep a dog like that ! Ar. y. 835. 493 Sentences are often incomplete ; any part that is clearly im- plied may be left unexpressed. a. In many sentences the subject is not expressed, because easily understood, or indefinite, or contained in the verb : $ao-6 they say. koL elx'^v ovtw? and so it teas. An. hi. 1, 31. /taxr?? Set there^s need of a fight. An. ii. 3, 5. Here belong impersonal verbs : Set there is need, xpi opor- tet, 7rpo(TrJK€L it behooves, /xcAct it is a care, etc. 188 SIMPLE SENTENCES b. The verb is often omitted, especially t'o-rt, elat and other common verbs that are suggested by the context : ^TTOvSat /JL€V jxevovcriv, a7riov(TL Be rj Trpo'iovcn TroXe/xo? a truce if we stay^ if we leave or advance, war. An. ii. 1, 23. fxrj fioL fiv- piov<s ^evovs no ten tliousand mercenaries, please. D. 4, 19. c. Sometimes an adverb or adverbial phrase stands for a whole sentence, as in the common answers vai yes, /AaAto-ra certainly, ov no, ov Srjra of course not, 7io indeed, irdw fxlv ovv assuredly, vrj Ata yes, iy Zeus, fia tovs Oeovs by heave?i, no, KaXQ)<s very well, cv ye bravo ! These and the like may be called abbreviated sentences. d. Sometimes it is not clear, nor of any importance, whether an expression is incomplete through omission, or belongs un- der 490, as a more primitive form : OiKTpa ixkv voa-roL^ avSa piteous the cry at the return ! S. e. 193. So also the examples under b. 494 Thus far (451-493) sentences have been treated rather as wholes, the treatment centering in the verb as the backbone of the sentence. In the following sections (495-699) the sepa- rate parts of the simple sentence will be treated in this order : Verbs, Nouns (the Cases), Adjectives, Special Forms of Predi- cation, The Article, Pronouns, Infinitives, Participles, Verbals, Prepositions. Of the verb, since the modes and tenses in simple sentences have already been explained, only Agree- ment and Voice remain to be described. VERBS: AGREEMENT AND VOICE 495 A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person, as in English and Latin. 496 But a neuter plural subject commonly takes a singu- lar verb : VERBS: AGREEMENT AND VOICE 189 n o X X a T(^v vTrot^vy io)v aTrcoXero 7nany of the hag gage-animals died. Ax. i. 5, 5. But also: a-n-avra rj(Tav evwSrj all were siceet-smellmg. An. I. 5, 1. rja-av ravrcL hvo T€txq these were tivo walls. An. I. 4, 4. 497 A dual subject may take a plural verb : 'A8eA</)a) 8uo ixopov kolvov KaTeipydcravTO OUT twO brothers wrought their common death. S. an. 57. 498 The agreement often follows the sense instead of form ; but sometimes it follows the form instead of sense : a. To irXyjOo's otovrai the multitude suppose. T. i. 20. (Agreement with a collective subject.) b. Bao-tAevs koX oi cruv avrw cla-TriTTTeL the Mng ti'ith his followers breaks in. An. i. 10, 1. (The king is thought of as the central figure.) c. "ETre/xt/^e yae 'Aptatos koX ^ApTdo^os Ariaios and Artao- zos sent 7ne. An. ii. 4, 16. (Agreement with the nearer noun only.) d. To pLiCTOV TWV TCL)(piV T) (T aV (TTd^LOL T/3et? thC SpaCC 1)6- tween the walls ivas three stades. An. i. 4, 4. (Agreement with 2u predicate noun.) 499 The Active and Passive voices have the same force as in English. a. Some active verbs are used as passives of other verbs : aiTOKTeivo) Mllj diToOvrjcTKoj (die) am Mlled^ iK/SdWo) cast out J exile J iKirtTTTO) (fall otit), (f)evya) (flee) am exiled, ev or /ca/cw? ttolco do good eu, fcafcw? ttolctx^^ ^^ well or ill to, or badly treated, 190 SIMPLE SENTENCES SiaTLdrjiiL dispose^ bring to Sia/cet/xat am disposed, am a certain disjposition, in (this or that) disposi- tion. 500 The Middle voice expresses an action of the subject a. On himself, as direct object {Direct Middle) : TTavo) mate stop, Trauo/xat stop myself, cease, (j)aLj^o) show, (j)aLvofiai show myself, appear, L(TT7]iJiL set up (cp. 363), tcrra/xat place myself, irddoi persuade, Tret^o/xat persuade myself, he- lleve, hihdo-Ko) teach, StSctcr/co/xat teach myself, learn, aTTTOj fasten, dirrofjiaL tlvo<s fasten myself to something, touch, exoj hold, exofxai tlvo^ hold myself to, cling to, am next to, b. For, to, with reference to himself {Indirect Mid- dle) \ dpyoi am first, dpxoyiai begin for rnyself be- gin my task, TTOLOJ malce, TroLovixai nva (J)lXov maJce one my friend, dy(x) lead, dyofiai yvvaiKa take to myself a wife, marry, l3ov\evo) plan, ^ovXevofxai plan for myself, deliberate, crviJilBovXeva) advise, avix^ovkevo fxai seek advice, alpeco take, seize, alpovfjiai take for myself choose, ^vkdrToi watch, guard, ^vkdrroyiai am on my guard. NOUNS: THE CASES 191 c. From Mmself, froin Ms own ])owers or means {Subjective Middle^ sometimes very like tlie active) : TToiw TTokefjiov cause a war^ iroiovyiai TroXefxov carry on war, TToXlTevofxaL act as a citizen, tahe part in government, d7ro(^atVo/xai yvcDjjurjp sTiow forth my opinion, iTTayyeWofxai tl offer or promise sometliincj {announce from myself^. Tov<; dypd(j)ovs v6^ov<^ ov^ ol dvOpcoTTOL iOepTO dXXd 0eol TOLs dv6pa>7TOL<; eOeaav the unwritten laws not men establislied of themselves, hut gods for men, (See M. lY. 4, 19.) d. The Indirect and the Subjectiye middle can not always be distinguished ; both are sometimes causative : IJi€Ta7r€fX'7rofx,aL TLva seucl for, littve One sent to me, StSao-Ko/Attt Tov TTolSa have the boy taught, SiKa^ofxaL get judgment rendered, iri7ig suit, ypd(f>ofjLaL TLva get a?i indictment {ypa<^rj) U'ritte7i agaiyist one, indict. 601 Deponent verbs are properly middle, in the indirect or sub- jective sense, and the active was not thought necessary. The aorist passive was originally not passive, but merely intransitive, and in some verbs this intransitive sense con- tinued in common use : IhoKct /jlol Tavrrj ireipaa-Oai (roiOrjvai it seemed to 7ne lest to try to attain safety in this way. L. 12, 15. So always ix^pw rejoiced, from x"-^P^- NOUNS : THE CASES 502 A noun (or pronoun) in the same case with another, and denoting the same person or thing, is an apposi- tive if added directly, Sip)redicate if added by means 192 SIMPLE SENTENCES of a verb. Botli appositive and predicate noun may be in any case, according to tbe construction of the primary noun : AvSw/iai Se tt a T 9 'A^tXXews, NeoTrrdXe/xos I am called the son of AcJtilles^ Neoptolemos. s. p. 240 f. (Here Neoptolemos is an appositive to Trat?, which is a predicate noun, agreeing with the understood sub- ject of avScjfjLaL. For special idioms of predication in Greek see 645-548.) For the cases with prepositions, alone or in composition, see 597-599. The Nominative 503 The Nominative case of nouns (or pronouns) is used (1) As the subject of a finite verb, (2) In address, for the vocative : Z € u ? ^aaikevei Zeus is Mrig. a) ^ t X o g eliri O friend, speaJc, a. pb. 562. 504 A Nominative may stand as appositive to a sentence : Nt/Acws w8' ippvOi(rixai, Ztjvl Svo'KXirj's 6ed tJius piUUssly a7n I chastised, a sight of evil fa^ne for Zeus. A. pb. 257. The Genitive 505 The Genitive is a blend of two cases, once distinct. These are (1) The Genitive proper (like the Latin geni- tive), (2) The old Ablative, or From case. In great part the two sets of uses are fairly dis- tinct ; but some uses are puzzling, and must be learned mainly through reading. THE GENITIVE 193 (In Latin the genitive remained pure, and the ablative was blended with the instrumental and the locative. See 528.) 506 The Genitive proper may depend on a noun or pro- noun directly {Adnominal Genitive), The relation intended is gathered only from the nature of the words and from the context ; some combinations oc- cur so often that they are named, but a host of others are too various and elusive to name : ' a. 'H /3acrtXew9 Swa/xt? the hinges poiver {Pos- sessive Genitive^ rj Ic^oSo? tov ar parev fxaro^ the approach of the army {Subjective Genitive), ^nqhe- jjLLd o-coTT] pLd<^ eA.7ri9 710 hope of safety {Objective Genitive), rpicov rj fiepiov 6S6v a three day ^ journey {Genitive of Measure), tmv pivpicDv i\Triho}v fxid one hope in ten thousand {Genitive of the Whole). b. IlXrj9o<; av6 poiTT o)v a nndtitude of men. crlyrj (J)lXojv with silence toward your friends, e. m. 587. eV ftecrw rj fjuwi' kol y8 a o" t X e a> 9 between US and the Icing. An. ii. 2, 3. ^ € w 1/ TToXefios war from the gods. An. II. 5, 7. Tj Tcov K p eicr (T 6v (ov SovXeud servitude to the stronger. T. i. 8. oifxa^aL irer pcov wagon-loads of stones. An. iv. 7, 10. ypa(f)r) aae^eidq indictment for impiety. ahLKruxdrcov opyrj anger at wrong- doing. L. 12, 20. Si alcr^vvTqv Koi olXXtjXo)!^ kol ' Compare, from Shakspere, nighfs predominance, ruin's entrance, tn Ms kingdom's defense, in his country's wreck, an hour's delay, my heart's core, the Norway's king, a summer's cloud, heaven's breath, this night's business, each day's life, life's feast, my scepter's awe ; from J. R. Lowell, Lethe's ooze, battle-odes whose lines, the letters sheath, at life's dear peril. 13 194 SIMPLE SENTENCES Kvpov for shame both lefore one another and hefore Cyrus, An. III. 1, 10. 507 The word on which the adnominal genitive depends a. May be omitted : Ets StSao-KaAov to a teacliefs {Jiouse)^ to school, h "A 1 8 o v in Hades' (abode, realm), in the other ivorld. iv Alovvo-ov in (the precinct) of Dionysos. t^s y^s h-^ixov they ravaged {some) of the land. T. i. 30. See also 510 a. b. May be represented by the article only : El? Ty\v €avT<x)v to their own land. The genitive often stands with a neuter article : To, T^s TToAews the (affairs, interests) of the state, ra fxh Kvpov ovTtoS €^€L TTpos rj/xa<S axTTrep TO. rj^irepa 7rp6<s Ik€lvov Cyrus's relation to us is just like ours to him. An. i. 3, 9. to, tCjv Oewv the (ordering) of the gods. t6 t^s Tvxn^ the (action) of fortune, to twv TrvevixaTCDv the matter of the winds, or simply the ivinds. m t^s i/rv^^s the soul. c. May be a neuter pronoun or adjective, made a noun of degree or quantity : Ets ro(TovTov KaKLd<s rjXOev he came to such a pitch of baseness. L. 12, 67. cts tovto a(f>2^0e fJLO)pLd<s 17 irapav olds you have reached this hight of folly or of madness. D. 9, 54. €7rt jxiya Svva/xews to a great degree of power. d. May be an adverb of place, degree, or condition : IIov y^s ; where on earth, uM terrarum f ttov yviopirjs ttot €*; where in thought are you? S. an. 42. oT do-eAyetds to what pitch of profligacy. D. 4, 9. Trpoo-w tov iroTa/xov far into the river. An. iv. 3, 28. Trrjfxovrj? aAts enough of woe. So with cv, KaKws, wSe, 0)5, tva. Cp. also 518 b. e. May be, really or apparently, a superlative adjective or adverb ( Ge^iitive of the Whole) : *0 fj>ikTaT avhpuiv dearest of men. S. e. 23. /xdXia-Ta roiv 'EXX^viov most among the Greeks. An. i. 6, 5. d<^ei8eo-Tara -n-av- Twv most unsparingly of all. An. i. 9, 13. THE GENITIVE 195 508 A Genitive may be part of tlie predicate, brought into dependence on a noun or pronoun by means of the verb {Predicate Genitive) : '^YLv ovTo<^ T(x)v dfji(f)l MiXrjToi' (jt p ar evo ^liv (ov this man was one of those in military service about MiletOS. Ax. I. 2, 3. TOLOVTOJV icTT € 77 p O J 6 V (x) V of such ancestors are you. An. m. 2, 13. rjv ircjv w? TpiaKovTa he was about thirty years old. Ax. n. 6, 20. ov T (x)v vlK(x)VTa)v icrTL TO, OTrXa TrapaSuSovaL giv- ing up their arms is not the victors^ jpart. Ax. n. 1, 9. a. In the above the verb connects the genitive with the subject ; other verbs may connect a genitive with the object : N o /x t ^ e t KoX vfjLa^ iavr ov elvau he thinks you too are his (captives). Ax. n. 1, 11. r 17 9 ly/xere/ad? d /x, e X e t d 9 av tl<; e ltj Stfcatw? 07ie would justly put it doion to our neglect, d. 1, 10. Trotd? ttolt pd^ av tj yevovs u/xct? nore rvxpiii av eln cov ; pray, of what land or lineage should I rightly call you ? s. p. 222. 509 The From Genitive {AblativaV) is used with verbs to denote a. Separation, source, and the like ; the verb often contains a preposition that would by itself take a from genitive, as aTrd, ef, Trap a, irpo : 'EvTavOa Suecrxov aXXyjXcov there they drew apart from each other. Ax. i. 10, 4. ixjjlXovTo 6 \6- </)09 ra)v LTTiTeajv the hill tvas left bare of the horse- men^ Ax. I. 10, 13. rj 6\pL^ rjXeKT pov ovSep 8 l ^<i>€.p e their appearance was not a whit different from amber ^ 196 SIMPLE SENTENCES An. II. 3, 15. aiTiqWay fxiv 1 tovtcov tcjv TTOVOiV having got rid of these labors. An. iv. 3, 2. rev^ecrOe Kvpov you will obtain it from Cyrus. An. i. 4, is. Setrat avrov ixr) Karakvaai he asJcs of him not to come to terms. An. i. i, lo. T^So/^ai olkovcov aov (f)povLvov<; Xoyovs I ain delighted at hearing from you words of sense. An. h. 5, 16. OLfSet? rjjJidpTavei' Tov dvS p6<; no one missed (went wide of^ his man. An. m. 4, 15. a fXTrXoLKco rov aov jjuo p ov ; am I to fail of thy fate? S. an. 554. dporov yyj<; dv- liv ai to send up fruitage from the earth, s. ot. 270. fidOpojv LCTTacrOe rise from the steps, s. ot. 142. b. That to which something is superior or inferior, with verbs implying comparison (Genitive of Com- parison ; cp. 517) : To Trepielvai t cov (f) lXojv the surpassing his friends. An. i. 9, 24. tt epiyev ea 9 ai rrj^; ^acrtXew? SvvdiJL€o)<; to get the better of the Mng's force, an. II. 1, 13. T ovT ov ov^ TfTTTia 6 (xed a we shall not be outdone by him. An. h. 3, 23. tovto^v iTrXeoveKrelTe you had more than they. An. m. 1, 37. So with 7rpoi)(0), Trpoeo'TrjKa, vTrepi^^co, XeiVo/xat, vtKw/xat, etc. c. Cause, with some verbs of emotion (cp. also 611 c) : T 7] <; i\ev6 € p LOL^ vjjidq evSaLfioj/L^o) I con- gratulate you on your freedom. An. i. 7, 3. pj^ avrov oieu cj) povT LO- ai avdrov ; do you suppose lie was anxious about death f a p. 28 d. So too in exclamations, without a verb, and with adjectives : THE GENITIVE 197 Oljjlol Ta\aLvr]<; ClJl^ unliappy ! S. an. 82. ^ev Trj<; avoids alas for thy folly ! s. e. 920. Oav^daiaL tov KaXkov<; KoX fjL€y€Oov<; wonderful for heauty and size. An. II. 3, 15. d. The agent (source of the action), in poetry, with some passive participles and verbals : KctV->7? hihaKTo. taught iy lier. S. E. 344. <^a)Tos rjiraT-qixevr] deceived ly a liushand. S. at. 807. 510 The Genitive is used as object with many verbs not easy to classify : a. Verbs of sliaring : *AyaOov />tev ov8€v6<: /jlct ea-x^v aXXwv Sk ttoAAcuv Jie tooJc part in no good tiling^ hut in many of another sort. L. 12, 48. So^rys fierdSos impart your thought. E. it. 1030. So with Koiviiivui, />t€T€;(<o, (JLCTaXafi/SdviD, and Aay;(avw when it means get by lot a share in. Some examples may belong either here or under 507 a. b. Some verbs meaning toiich^ talce hold 0/, hegin, try : ^AvTiXdpeorOe Tuiv Trpdy/xarwv lay hold of the busi?iess. D. 1, 20. TOV Xoyov rjpx^ro wSe he began his speech thus. An. hi. 2, 7. tXapov TTj^ ^u)vr]s tov 'Opovrrjv they took hold of Orofites by his girdle. An. i. 6, 10. ©cTTaAcd? i-rri/Sr] he set foot on Thesscdy. D. 1, 12. e^^/w-cvot rovroiv yeppo(f)6poi next to these (cp. 500 a), troops with wicker shields. An. i. 8. 9. ttci- pu)fx€voL ravTr]<s t^s Ta^€co9 makiiig trial of this order. An. III. 2, 38. So with dTTTOfxaL, Oiyydvw, ij/avo), dvTe)(OfxaL. c. Verbs meaning r^de or lead (cp. 509 b) : Twv 'EXXrjvwv rjp^av iKovrayv they rilled the Greeks with their consent. D. 3, 24. tov Se^tov Kcpu)^ rjyeXa-OaL to lead the right wing. An. i. 7. 1. (But rjyovfxaL also takes the dative : rot? oAAots TfyuTo he led the rest. An. ii. 2, 8.) d. Verbs meaning am, claim., reach^ attain : 198 SIMPLE SENTENCES McyoAoov i/^iJ^wv icts ovk av aiJLdpT0L<5 ahnifig at great souls, you would not miss. S. ai. 154. icf>U/jL€vo<s Trj<s dp^^s longing for the rule. T. i. 128. ovk avTiTroLOv fxcO a ySao-tAct t^s ^PXV"^ we do not dispute with the Mng for the sovereignty. An. ii. 3, 23. i^LKV€i(r$aL Tcov (T(f>€v8ovr]T(x)v to reach the slingers. An. hi. 3, 7. tZ/x^s Tvyxa-viiv to obtain honor. An. i. 9, 29. So with (TTOXOi^oiJiai, opiyofiaL, ij/av(o. e. Verbs meaning taste, smell, enjoy : BovAerat Kal crc tovto)v yeva-ao-Oai he ivishes yOU also to taste these. An. i. 9, 26. ri yap aXA' av OLTroXava-aLfxi tov /jbaOrjfiaro^; tvhy, what other good of learning should I enjoy? Ar. n. 1231. So with 6(T(f)paLV0fJLaL, ovLvrjfiL, ripTro/xai, €v<D)(ov/JiaL. 611 The Genitive is used as object witli many verbs that denote an action of the senses or of the mind ; several of these admit the accusative. a. ^Akovo) hear, alcrdavoiLai perceive, and a few others of like meaning : (&opv^ov rfKovcre he heard a noise. An. i. 8, 16. But note r\Kov(T^ TLcrcra(f)€pvov<; tov Kvpov (tt6\ov lie heard of Cyrus's equipment from T. An. i. 2, 5. alo-ddvoixaL likewise takes the gen. or ace. olXXtjXojv ^wieaav they understood one another, t. i. 3, 20. to t o)v tolov- r oiv iOeXeuv olk poacrd ai the willingness to listen to such men. d. 9, 55. b. Verbs meaning remember., forget : MLiJLVT]crK€L<; KaKCJv thou remindest me of sorrows. E. AL. 1045. dXXov Xoyov fxe fxvr) a 9 e rememher some other word. a. pb. 522. p^r^ iinXaO copeOa ttJ? ol- KaSe 6S0V let US not forget the way home. An. m. 2, 25. These verbs may also take the accusative ; a neu- THE GENITIVE 199 ter pronoun as object is always accusative : tov Ev- (fypoLov jjiefjivrjiJLa^oL remembering Eujphraios, D. 9, 6i. c. Verbs meaning care foi\ neglect^ spare, desire : ^ povTj a eo)^ KoX dXr] 9 etd^ Kal ttJ? ^^XV '^ ovK iir L fjLeXel ovSe (j) p ovt L[,eL<; for in telligence and truth and the soul you tahe no care or thought. Ap. 29 e. e/xot 8' ikaaaov Zrjvo<; rj fjurjSev fjueXeu hilt I care less than naught for Zeus. a. pb. 9to. ^p-qixd- Tcov imOvfjLeL he is eager for wealth. An. m. 2, 39. Similarly with fj-cTafiiXet /jlol poenitet me^ ivrpiTrofmi regard^ a/xcAw neglect, oAtywpoi think lightly of, <^€t8o/Aat spare, d^ctScu am unsparing^ ipQ) love, ttclvw hunger for. 512 The Genitive is used witli verbs and adjectives of plenty and want : AL(f)0€pd<? in LfJLTrXacr av ^oprov Kov(j)ov they iDOuld fill skins with hay. Ax. i. 5, 10. rwi^ €771x77- 8 e t oj i^ OVK diT o pij a o fiev we shall not lack pro- visions. An. II. 2, 11. 7rX7ypet9 v8aro9 f%dl of ivatev. An. II. 3, 13. ^py)ixdToiv evnopei he had plenty of money. D. 18, 235. fjidxr]^ Set there is need of a fight, an. h. 3, 5. 513 The Genitive may denote price or value : Uoaov SiSdaKeL ; for how much does he teach f Ap. 20 b. T oiv TTOV o)v tt (oXovc lv r]plv irdvra TaydO^ ol Oeoi for toil cdone the gods sell all good things. Epich. fxlKpd fx€Tpa iroWov dpvpiov small measures for a large sum. An. m. 2, 21. 514 The Genitive with verbs of accusing, convicting, ac- quitting ^enoi^^ the charge. >*s^e ER OF 200 SIMPLE SENTENCES Tlius /cXotttJs atrtw/xat accuse ((j)evyo) am accused) of theft J aael^da^ Slcoko) prosecute (ypdcj^ofxaL indict, elcrdyco hring to trial, aTroiri^vya. am acquitted) for impiety, a. But with KaTr]yopu> accuse, KarayiyvMa-Kw adjudge against, KaTaxprj^^i^ofxaL vote against, and some others, the genitive of the person is governed by the Kara. Tlfiu) estimate a penalty takes the genitive of value ; the active is used of the court, the middle (in a causative sense, get it estimated) of the accuser or accused. AXAa St] <l>vy7]'S Tt/X7^(r(o/x,at; tcrcos yap av fxoi t ovtov rlfxi^- o- a t T c but shall I then put {the penalty) at exile f For perhaps you (the jury) would put it at that amount. Ap. 37 e. 515 The Genitive may denote the thne or space within which something occurs, or to which it belongs : Ov [LojyfxTCLi SeKa rj fjie pwv he will not fight with- in ten days. An. i. 7, 18. dii t ov KaOij kovto<; Xpovov yiyveaOaL occur always within the appro- priate time. D. 4, 35. iiTT aKaiSeKa ar aO fxoyv to)v iyyvrdroi e/c tt}? x^P^^ ovSei/ eixofJiev Xafi^dveLv with- in the sixteen nearest stages we could get nothing from the country. An. h. 3, ii. In prose only a few words of time, and still fewer of place, are freely so used, especially xP^vov, -^fiipd^ by day, wktos by night, co-TTcpa? in the evening, xct/xwvos in winter, Oepov? in summer. Here also belong some adverbs and adverbial phrases of place in the genitive, as avrov on the spot, -n-ov where? ov where (rel.) : ovk ecfiaa-av Uvai Tov TTpoa-o) they refused to go forward. An. i. 3, 1. 516 The Genitive is used with many adjectives. a. Adjectives of like meaning with the above verbs (509- 514); THE GENITIVE 201 Such are trepos different^ 6p<^avos lereft^ iXevOepos free, and in poetry various compounds of a(v)- negative, taking a from genitive ; Also lirrjKoo^ listening^ virrjKoo^ obedient^ /AvrJ/xwv mindful^ €7nfjL€Xrj<s careful, d(/>ei8ris unsparing, atnos causing, iyKpaTrj^s hav- ing control, a^tos worthy, dva^tos unworthy (therefore d^tw think Ivor thy). b. Adjectives of various meanings, best learned from read- ing : 'ETTto-TTJ/Acuv Twv d/A^i Ta^^ets shilled in tactics. An. ii. 1, 7. Upo^ Tri<s 'Apre/xiSos sacred to Artemis. An. v. 3, 13. aTreipot avroiv ivithout experience of them. An. m. 2, 16. 617 With comparative adjectives and adverbs the From Genitive denotes the starting-point of comparison ( Genitive of Comparison ; see 509) : Ilepcrd? eavrov ^eXTiovs Persians superior to himself. An. II. 2, 1. ov Tr\iov eiKoai err aS lcov not more tJian twenty stades. An. m. 2, 34. ovtoctl croc^aj- Tepo<^ ifiov this man here is wiser than I. Ap. 21 c. So with any adjectives that imply comparison : T^ V are paid ttJ? yuax^'^ on the day after the hattle. TToXXaTrXacrtou? vpcov avr (ov ivlKare you defeated many times your own number. An, m. 2, 14. 518 The Genitive is used with a. Adverbs derived from adjectives or verbs that take a genitive : 'Af ta>9 T179 TToXew? in a manner worthy of the state, b. Adverbs of place, time, separation, state : XIo/opw Tov I3lov Oavdrov Sk eyyv? far on in life and 7iear death. Ap. 38 c. €^0) TOV ScLvov out of danger. An. ii. 6, 12. 6i(/e r^s 202 SIMPLE SENTENCES y/x€pd? late in the day. x^P^^ ''"^^ aAXwi/ apart from the rest. \dOpd Twv (rTpaTLWTQ>v Without the knowledge of the soldiers. An. I. 3, 8. So with, ecrco, ivTo^j eKTos, fxera^v, irX-qarLov^ Trpoo-^ev, efXTrpoa-Oev, OTTLO-Oev, a/x^oTipayOev, evdev, 7repd(v), ttojs, ev, and others. Cp. also 507 d. c. ''Avev, ttXtJv, ^XPh I^^Ph ^Ve/ca — adverbs that have become virtually prejDositions (cp. 599). For the Genitive Absolute see 589, 590. The Dative 519 Three cases, once distinct, are blended in the Greek Dative. These are (1) The true Dative, the To or i^^r case, (2) The Instrumental (or Sociative), the With or £y case, (3) The Locative, the At or In case. The English prepositions to and for, ivith and hy, at and in, cover fairly the three sets of uses ; but there are many differences of idiom. The dative is used mostly with verbs and adjectives, but also with nouns, adverbs, and prepositions. 520 The To Dative is used with verbs to denote the indi- rect object : Tavra aTrayyeXw /3a(T iXel this J will report to the hing. An. h. 3, 24. ravra r ol*^ c^tXot? SteSi- hov these he used to distribute to his friends. An. i. 9, 22. dXXa (t)L\oo-6(j)0) eoifcas why, you seem like a philosopher, an. n. i, 13. a. Many Greek verbs take the dative though the THE DATIVE , 203 corresponding English verb takes a direct object, or requires some other preposition than to : 'E7rto-T€uoj/ avTw iJiey trusted liim. Ax. i. 2, 2. 77 e t - cr o fjLai fjLakXov rw ^ew r) vfilv I shall obey the god rather than you, Ap. 29 d. Kupw jreiSapx'^lv to he obedient to Cyrus. An. i. 9, 17. l^ol opyit^ovrai they get angry at me. Ap. 23 c. rw Oeco fiorjOojv aiding the god. Ap. 23 b. rot? ^A6r]vaL0L<; TraprjveL he used to ad- vise the Athenians. T. i. 93. errecrOe tco rjyovixivo) follow your leader. An. h. 2, 4. So with iTTLTljxii), fJLeix(f>oiJLaL, iyKaXu) ilame, <ji6ovoi envy^ oveLBc^oi reproach^ rlfjuopC) avenge o?ie, vTna-xvov^ai promise^ and many others. Some verbs (as /xe^u-^o/xat, ovctSt^co, iTnTlfxC)) take some- times the accusative and sometimes the dative. b. Here belong some semi-impersonal verbs, the subject of which is not an acting person, but a thing or an act : *Eyu,oi /xeA>Jo-€t it shall he my care. An. i. 4, 16. fjieTafxeXrja-ei auTw he icill repent {it tvill repent him). L. 16, 2. cSokci i^Srj TTopevea-Oat avrw avoi it noio seemed test to him to march up (from the coast). Ax. i. 2, 1. T-rj r/XiKLd cTrpcTre it 2cas S2iitahle to his age. Ax. i. 9, 6. So also l^eo-rt it is possible, Bel fjiot Ttvo9 / need something, /xeTeaTL (jloC rtvos I have a share in something, etc. 621 The To Dative may denote the person to whom (rarely the place to which) with verbs of motion : TouToj^ (TO I iirefjixpe this (^wine) he sent to you. Ax. I. 9, 2o. tafjiLOL<; rj\Oe he went to tlie Samians. T. I. 13. 'iXto) lidpiq -qydyer '^\ivav Paris brought Helen to Ilion. e. axd. 103. ttovo^ ttovco ttovov </> e- p € I toil to toil brings toil. s. ai. 866. Much oftener these verbs take Trpo? with the accusative in this sense. 204 SIMPLE SENTENCES 622 The To Dative is used also with some adjectives, ad- verbs, and nouns, more or less like the above verbs in meaning : ToL? TToXe/xtotg IvavTiov^ opposed to the enemy. An. III. 2, 10. TCL Kped Tjv IT a p airXij (T La t ol<; eXac^ei- o L 9 the meat ivas like venison, An. i. 5, 2. OdvaTov TTOLCTL KOLvov elvai Kai dv ay Kalov dv 6 p cjtt oi<; that death is common to all and inevitable for man. An. in. 1, 43. dWd /xoi hrj\6v ecrrt rovro hut this is clear to me. Ap. 41 d. r^ ep.r] rw e^ vttt) pea id my service to the god. A p. 30 a. cr(l)i(Tiv aurots pLovov eTTiTT^Setoj? advantageously to themselves only. T. I. 19, 3. 7Tvpo<; /3poTol^ Sorijp^ o/aa? thou seest the giver of fire to mortals, a. pb. 639. So with vjvov^ friendly^ ixOpo? unfriendly, TroXe/vtio? hostile^ <l)av€p6<s plain, aSrjXo? uncertain, dTrpeTrTJs unlecoming, and many others. 523 The For Dative is used (with verbs, adjectives, ad- verbs, and nouns) to denote the person or thing in- terested or affected : To, aKpa 7) plv it poKar a\api ^dveiv to seize the hights heforehand for us. An. i. 3, 16. ravra /cat z^ e w - T ip (p Kal TT peer fivTepcp ttoltjct o) this I shall do for loth younger and older, Ap. 30 a. i^eoyeiv avrol^ d(T(j)aXeaT€pov 7] rj jxlv fleeing is safer for them than for us. An. m. 2, 19. -^aXeiTov tjv ifjLOL it was difficult for me. T. i. 22. to ydp epvfjba t co cTTpaTo- TT e 8 w ovK av ireix^o'avTo else they would not have built the wall for their camp. t. i. 11. to Is dcrOe- viai T po^7J<; eveKa for the sake of support for the THE DATIVE 205 weak, T. I. 5. ov av fxoL tcovS* air id ; are not you the cause of this for me f s. e. 295. y^iyicnov k6(t [lov dvS pu the greatest ornament for a man, An. i. 9, 23. (TlTy]pi(jiov [Lovov rfj Svv dfjueu ration-money alone * for the force, d. 4, 28. a. Greek often expresses a/br relation where Eng- lish puts the matter in some other way : ^Kvd^y]9i /x, o t koX fiaTvprja-ov come np^ please {for me\ and testify, l. 16, 8. crTTovhai ^ev ixivovai, dir Lov cr L 8e rj tt p o'iov cr l TrdXe/xo? a truce if we stay here^ hut icar if we withdraw or advance {for us remaining^ for us ivithdr awing, etc.). An. h. 1, 23. o-<f)Sv fjL€v ivToXrj Alos ex^i reXoq for you {so far as you are concerned) the command of Zeus hath con- summation, A. PB. 12. (jvv^\6v7i 8* aTrXw? to put it simply {for one putting it simply), d. 4, 7. rt/xTy? aft,o9 TTj TToXet worthy of honor from {ivith reference to) the state. M. i. 2, 62. ovtch'^ araXatVajpo? r ol^ TToXXoi? r] l7]Tr]<TL<; rrj<; dXrjOeLa^ SO lightly do the multitude take {so unlahorious for the multitude is) the search for truth, t. i. 20. ovtoi n aol {w SovXo? aXXa Aof la in no degree as servant to you do I live, hut to Loxias. s. ot. 410. 624 The For Dative also denotes a. The Possessor, with elfxi, yiyvofjiaL, and the like : 'EvTavOa Kvpco /BaatkeLa tjv there Cyrus had a palace. Ax. i. 2, 7. eyevero avrot? 17 tStct irapa- aKevT) fjLeC^^cjv their individual preparation hecame ■ greater {the preparation hecame greater for them). 206 SIMPLE SENTENCES T. I. 19. oi/o/xa avTYJ Kopa-coTT] its (the city^s) name was Korsote, An. i. 5, 4. avdyKT] iari fioL it is neces- sary for me. b. The Agent, regularly with the verbal in -reo<; (596), often with the perfect and pluperfect pas- sive : 'E/xol rovTo ov TTOLTjreov this must not he done hy me. An. i. 3, 15. ttolvS* rj filv tt eir oirjT ai it is all done hy us. An. i. 8, 12. ra tovtol<; ixprj (jy ta fxeva the measures voted hy these men, l. 12, 30. c. The possessor or the agent in these constructions is really the person interested or affected, so that in essence these cases fall under 623 ; but usually /o?' can not be used in translating. 625 The With Dative (Sociative) is used, of person or thing, with words implying association of any kind whatever : 'EiroXefieL rots Spa^C he carried on war with the Thracians, An. i. 1, 9. (to(J>oIs 6 filXcjv /cavro? iK- ^TJo-Tj (70(^09 hy heing with wise m£n you will yourself become wise. Men. ovk dvTLTroLOV fJueO a /Bao-iXel T179 dpxv'^ '^^ do ^^^ dispute with the hing for the sovereignty. An. n. 3, 23. olvco Kepdads avrrjv mix- ing it (the spring) with wine. An. i. 2, 13. a/xa ttj rjfiepd at daylight (with the day). An. n. 1, 2. e/c 8ia- Sox^9 dk\T]XoL<s in relays with each other, d. 4, 21. a. Xote some typical idioms : TeTTapas va9s eXaf^ov avrots avSpdan tliey tooh four sMpS with the crews {with the men themselves). H. i. 2, 12. /x-^ rjixas av rat's rais rpt^Jpccrt KaraSva-y lest he sink US triremes THE DATIVE 207 and all {tvith the triremes themselves). An. i. 3, 17. oXt'yo) a-TpaTev/xaTL ov ToXfi^areL e^eVeo-^at iotth a small army he tvill not dare to folloiV. An. ii. 2, 12. AaKcSai/AoVtot r^kOov -n-pea-- /?eia the Spartans came with an embassy. T. i. 90. eV TavTw y€ ^aOa tovtol<s yotc Were at least in the same place with these men. Ax. iii. 1, 27. 626 The By or With Dative (Instrumental) denotes a. Cause or taeans : ^;)^e8tat9 Sta/3atVoz^T€9 crossing with rafts. An. I. 5, 10. oLKOTj icr^ev ive know hy hearing. T. i. 4. Lcr)(vv TTepieTTOir)aavTo ^^prjfjidTcoy re n pocr 6S a> /cat dXXcov dpxj) they gained superior strength hoth hy access of wealth and hy ride over others, t. i. is. tov- TOL<; TJaOrj Kvpos with these Cyriis was pleased. An. 1.9,26. (^iXtoL ixev koX evvota eirofxevovs ov^iirore d^x^v he never had men who follotved him hy reason of affection and good-will. An. h. 6, 13. ^aXcTrw? ^dpcx) Tols TTapovcTL TT p d y fji a a i I am trouhled at the pres- ent situation. An. i. 3, 3. b. Manner : KpavyT} rroWfj iTTidcnv they ivill come on ivith much shouting. An. i. 7, 4. iroWd r% 'EXXctSo? rw TTaXatw T poTTcp vefxeTaL much of Greece is occupied in the ancient manner, t. i. 5. 7rdvTe<; jiia opfjufj TTpocreKvvrjo-av rov Oeov all with one impulse wor- shiped the god. an. m. 2, 9. Here belong ttJ aX-qOda in truths Aoyw in luord^ Ipyw in deed, anrovSr) earnestly, a-lyfj silently ; also some common ad- verbs, as KOLvrj in common, IStd privately, Brj/xoa-Ld publicly, Tavry this way. 208 SIMPLE SENTENCES c. The Measure of Difference, with a comparative, superlative, or any word implying comparison : 'OXtyo) TrXeLO) a little more, ov ttoXXoi? erecriv varepov not many years later, T. i. 18. KaKucrTa St) fjLaKpcp KCLTeLfxi most wretcliedly hy far do I go down. S. AN. 895. re-^vrj S' dpdyKr)<; daOevearipa [xaKpco A.rt is far weaker than Necessity, a. pb. 530. 527 The At OY In Dative {Locative) denotes a. The Place where (in nouns of place), mostly poetic : Ad/xoi9 Sexier 0aL to receive in their dwellings, S. OT. 818. ert fjieyas ov pav m Zeu? Zeus is still great in heaven, S. e. 174. TrepieppeiTo vtto tov Meter accI kv- kXm it was flowed around in a circle (was completely surrounded) hy the Maskas, An. i. 5, 4. In prose a few proper names are so used (cp. 228), especially names of demes : MapaOcovi at Marathon, MeXtTy in Melite. But generally a preposition precedes : eV ttj oiKta in the house. Also figuratively, of State or Condition : Ovx V7TVC0 y €v8ovTa not slumbering in sleep, S. OT. 65. (jypovTiSo^ TT\dvoi<; in the wanderings of anxious thought. S. ot. 67. rat? i/ivxctt? ippojfjLeve- arepoL stronger in their souls. An. m. i, 42. Examples like the last shade naturally into the following. b. The Particular, or the special sense, in which something is meant (Specifying Dative \ sometimes possibly instrumental, but we more often use in) : Botwrtct^wi^ T 77 4^o)vfi like a Jjoiotian in pronun- ciation. An. III. 1, 26. ot hoKovvTe<^ iia^ipeiv etre cro- THE ACCUSATIVE 209 (ffid euT avh p eia etr aXX?^ rivTiviovv dperrj tJlOSe who are tliourjlit ^wperior whether in wisdom or in hravery or in any other virtue whatever, Ap. 35 a. c. The Time when, in nouns of time with a speci- fying word, and in names of festivals : T^ varepaid on the next day. /xta vvkti in one night. Se/carw e r e t ^vve/Brjaav they came to terms in the tenth year. t. i. 103. UavaOrjvaLOL^; at the Pan- athenaia. 528 The following table shows the relations between the Greek and Latin cases and the older case-system. The nominative, accusative, and vocative remained distinct in both languages. GREEK OLD CASES LATIN r. .,• ( Genitive Genitive Genitive 1 a-, i -• , n \ ( Ablative {from) ^ r Instrumental (ivitJi, dy) V Ablative Dative \ Locative {at^ in) J L Dative (to, for) Dative The Accusative 529 The Accusative is used mostly with verbs, but also with some adjectives and nouns and with certain prepositions. The Outer Object 530 The Accusative is used as the Direct {Outer^ object of a transitive verb : VvoiOi aeavTop hioto thyself. 2L. Many Greek verbs are transitive whose English equivalents require a preposition : '"ApKTov TTore i.TTi<\)epop.iv'r]v ovk erpecrev a bear that once attached him he did not shrink from. An. l 14 210 SIMPLE SENTENCES 9, 6. ovSe A t a ^iviov rjSeo-drj lie felt no sliame even hefore Zeus^ protector of the stranger. An. m. 2, 4. alyav r u x '^ ^ ^^ ^^^P silent about my fortune, A. PB. 106. So, among many others, ala-xvvofiai feel sliame before^ ofivvfii stvear by, XavOdvoi escape the notice of (Lat. lateo), ev or /ca^ws TTotw do good or harm to, <f>v\dTTOfjLaL guard against, dfjivvofjiaL defend myself against, TrAew r-^v OdXaTTov sail over the sea, (fiOdvoi get the start of b. Some intransitive verbs become transitive when com- pounded with certain prepositions, as Sta^atVw cross, dTroSt- Spda-KO) run away from. c. Many verbs vary, and are used now as transitive, now as intransitive. Thus olkovo) hear and ala-OdvofiaL perceive take the accusative and genitive ; />teiu.<^o/xat blame takes the accusa- tive or the dative. Especially in poetry some verbs take the accusative that do not in prose. 531 A few verbal adjectives and nouns admit a direct object (as participles and infinitives of transitive verbs do regularly) : 'ETTto-TTy/Aoves rot. KaOyKovra Jcnowing their duty. C. m. 3, 9. o-€ (jiv^LfjLos able to escape thee. S. an. 787. to. /xercwpa <f>pov- TLo-Trj's one who studies things on high. Ap. 18 b. a. A phrase may be equivalent to a transitive verb, and so take an accusative : TeOvaa-L tw Seet rov^ toiovtovs aTroa-ToXovs they die of fear of (are frightened to death at) such expeditions. D. 4, 45. 532 The Accusative is used after the particles of swear- ing, vTJ and fxd, as with ofjLvvfjn (530 a), vy affirms ; fxd denies, unless vau yes precedes : N17 Ata or vol fid Ata yes, hy Zeus; fid Ata or ov fxd Ata no, hy Zeus, THE ACCUSATIVE 211 533 In poetry the accusative may denote the limit of motion : "H^ct? 'Y^pL(TTTjv TTOTafxbv ov \f/€v8(!)vvfiov thou wilt come to the Brawling stream^ not falsely named. A. pb. 715. o-e toT IXtj- XvOe TTav Kpa.To's to thee all this power has come. S. p. 141. rk 7roT€ dyXaas l^as ®r]^ds what art thou that hast come to glo- rious Thebes? S. ot. 153. 534 Two Accusatives denoting the same person or thing, the direct (outer) object and a predicate accusative, may stand with some verbs : Kv pov cr ar p oLTrr] V iiroiiqae koX err paTiqyov he avTov airihei^e lie made Gyrus satrap, and appointed him general also. An. i. i, 2. tov% lxOv<; ol tvpot 0eov<; ivofjLi^ov the Syrians regarded the fishes as gods. An. I. 4, 9. a. These predicate accusatives shade off gradually into simple appositives ; some cases may be taken in either way : "ESwKtt Swpcav ra XvTpa I gave the ransom as a gift. D. 19, 170. b. In the passive the direct object is made subject ; the other accusative remains a predicate noun, agreeing with the subject : Kvpos KaT€iriiL^Orj craT pairrj'S, err parrjyo^ 8k (XTreSctx^r; Cyrus teas sent dotcn as satrap., and was appointed ge^ieral. An. I. 9, 7. 535 Two Accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing (double outer object), are found with some verbs, especially those meaning as\ demand, teach, remind, hide, deprive : ^Lvpov alreip nXola to ash Gyrus for hoats. An. I. 3, 14. avafJLVijcraj u/xa? Kai rov<; rcov irpoyovoiv Kivhvvov^ I will also remind you of the dangers of 212 SIMPLE SENTENCES your forefathers. An. m. 3, ii. ra 17 /x e r e p' 17 /x a ? dTToo-Tepeu he is dejpriving us of our property. D. 4, so. The Inner Object 536 An Accusative of the Inner object (^Cognate Accusa- tive) is found with many verbs. It repeats the mean- ing of the verb in the form of a noun or pronoun. a. A noun, with a modifying word or clause (rarely omitted) : SrpaTiqyelv ravrrjv ttjv err parrjy lolv to act as general in this campaign. An. i. 3, 15. aWrjv jjih ap- Xr)j^ ovSejjLLav TrwTTore '^p^a I never held any other magistracy. Ap. 32 b. kiv^vv^vo^ tov ^(lyjxTov klvSv- vov I am in the utmost danger. Ap. 34 c. ^wi^vye T7)v ^vy7)v TavTTjv he shared the late exile, a p. 21 a. So hiKoX^eiv hiKr\v TLvd decide a suit, (j)evy€Lv Slktjv TLvd he defendant in a suit^ ypd^^o-dai y po.^r\v nva bring an indictment^ Oveiv rd AvKaia celebrate hy sacrifice the Lyhaiaj etc. b. An adjective or pronoun in the neuter : ''^TTadov TL TOLovTov I had sonic such experience as this. Ap. 22 a. MeXT^Tft) TovTOiv ovre fxeya ovre fjLLK pov TTcoTTOTe ipu4\.7)(Tev Mclctos uevcr cared either much or little about these matters. Ap. 26 b. So r i Xpyjcr^rai tovtco ; what use will he malce of this ? fxiya ^poveiv be proud {think large)^ irdyra rrd- OeaOai render all obedience^ etc. c. Some verbs take both a direct object and a cog- nate accusative : THE ACCUSATIVE 213 'H/Act? TO. aucrx'-o'T a alKicrd^evof; hy inflicting on us iJie most shameful outranges. Ax. m. i, is. e/ca- ar ov evepyereiv rrjv ixeyLcrrrjv eve pyea idv to confer on each the greatest benefaction. Ap. 36 c. erepoi he TToXXa Kay ad a 6/xa? elcnv elpyaafxevoL and others have done many good things to yon. l. i6, 19. The inner object may stand also with the passive : Tt a^LKTjOa.'i VTT ifxov vvv iTTL^ovXevei^ fxoi; tvJiat IVTOng did you receive from me, that you are now scheming against me 9 An. I. 6, 8. d. A few adjectives also take a cognate accusative : ^ocfib<i Tr]v €Ketv(i)v (rocf>LdVi d/jiaOr]<s ttjv a^aOCav wise in their luisdom, ignorant ivith their ignorance. Ap. 22 e. Freer Accusatives 637 The Accusative may specify to what particular or de- tail a statement is meant to apply (Specifying Ac- cusative) : IIoTa/xog KvSz^og ovofiay evpo<; Svo 7rXe6pa)P a river., Kydnos hy name, of two pletlira vn width. An. I. 2, 23. epo)Ti 6i) p,ov eKTr\ayel(j "Idaovof; smitten in heart with love for lason. e. m. 8. diTOTpjt]devTe<i rd^ k: € (^ a X a ? beheaded {having their heads cut off). An. II. 6, 1. ^ekr'iov ecm <t co fid y rj xjfv-^rjv vocrelv His better to be ill in body than in soul. Men. With many words the dative may be used in the same sense (527 b). 538 The Accusative of a noun of time or space may de- note extent : "E/ietj^e 7/0619 7) fiepd^ he remained three days, irr} yeyovo)^ e^SofjiiJKovTa seventy years old. Ap. 17 d. 214 SIMPLE SENTENCES TToXvv xP^^^^ TjTTopovv I lOGS in doubt a long time, Ap. 21 b. 'E^eXavi^et CTTaO fxov eva tt a paa dyy d<; oktco he marches one days journey , eight j^arasangs, airfixov TT]^ *EXXaSo9 ov fjuelov '^ jxvpLa crraSia they were not less than ten thousand stades distant from Greece, An. III. 1, 2. 639 The Accusative may stand in apposition to a clause or sen- tence : "EtAt; OvTrjp yevicrOai Ovyarpo^ ttoXc/xwt/ dpwyav he endured to sacrifice Ms daughter^ as an aid to ivar. A. ag. 236. rwvS' (.Xf-yx^v TovTo fxev ILvOwS' ioiv TrevOov to. xprjaOivTa as a test of this^ first go to Pytho and inquire about the response. S. ot. 603. Here belong expressions like irpolKa as a gift, freely^ X^P'-^ Ttvos as a favor to {for the sahe of) some one, TCKfirjpiov as evi- dence, TO /xcyto-Tov as the chief point, to Xeyofievov as the saying is. When placed before the clause, such expressions may pass over into the use mentioned in 491 d. 540 The Accusative in many expressions has become in effect an adverb. Such Adverbial Accusatives are special forms of the uses described in 536-539, we can not always say which. The following are rather fre- quent : Toj/Se TOP TpoTTov in this manner, rrjv Tax^o-rrjv (oSdz^) by the quickest road, most speedily, ovk apxvi^ not at all, hiKr^v like, in the manner of, rrpcoTop at first, TO TTpojTov first, TO XoLTTov hcreaftcr, tl why ? tl some- what, TOVTO or TavTa for this reason. 541 For the accusative absolute see 591. For the subject of the infinitive see 570 d. ADJECTIVES 215 ADJECTIVES 542 An Adjective takes tlie gender, number, and case of its noun. This applies to all adjectival words that are declined — the article, participles, and adjective pronouns — whether attributive or predicate. 643 The noun with which an adjectival word agrees is often not expressed ; 'H Sc^ta the right hand (x^tp), rrjv Taxio-rr^v the quichest ivay {o^ov), fiaKpdv a long way (6Sov), 61 ttoWol the many. a. Note the two cases that may arise when the subject of an infinitive is omitted : (1) BovXerai (Tocli6<s yevia-Oat he ivishes to hecome tvise. Here the unexpressed subject of the inf. is the same as that of ySovAcTttt, the principal verb ; hence the predicate adjective (ro<l>6<i agrees with the subject of the latter, in the nomi- native. (2) KttKov/ayov ecrri KptO €v t* dTro^ai/eiv, orrparriyov Be fxaxo- fjievov rots iroX^p.toL's it IS like a Criminal to die by sente7ice of courts hut Wee a general to die fighting with the enemy. D. 4, 47. Here KpSkvra. and fxaxofxevov agree with the understood sub- ject of aTTo^avetv, which subject is omitted because indefinite and general. 544 By omission of the noun many adjectives become nouns ; any adjective or participle may be so used, most often with the article (cp. 552, 555 b, 582 a), but also without an article : AiSaKTov iariv r) apeTij virtue is a tiling that may he taught Pr. 320 b. (Here StSafcroV, instead of agreeing in gender with apeTrj, is a predicate noun.) prjTopLKTJ rhetoric^ the art (jexvrj) of speaking. ^16 SIMPLE SENTENCES SPECIAL IDIOMS OF PREDICATION 545 The commonest form of predication is a simple verb ; the copula elfiL or the like with a predicate adjective or noun is also familiar, and is like English and Latin usage ; the predi- cate noun agreeing with the object is described in 534. But Greek employs the predicate noun and adjective (and par- ticiple) more freely than English or Latin does, and in some peculiar idioms/ 546 A Predicate noun or adjective (or pronoun) agreeing with the subject often requires in translation a differ- ent construction : 'Eyo) ere dcr fiev o^ icopaKa I am glad to liave seen you. An. II. 1, 16. 'ETTuaf a tt poT ep a Kvpov et? Tap- crou? dcf)iKeTo Ejpyaxa arrived in Tarsoi hefore Cyrus, An. I. 2, 25. 6 pO pLos 7]K€l<; you have come before sun- rise, Pr. 313 b. o-vjjLTrXeojv iO eXovryj s sailing with them as a volunteer, d. 4, 29. iycj p^ev yeuTcov oIkco TTj 'EXXaSi I live as neighbor to Greece, An. h. 3, 18. ^ English uses many predicate adjectives and nouns in a manner like those in 546, 547; but the words so used are mostly different in meaning from those so used in Greek, and they are much fewer and less common: Benighted walks under the midday sun.— Milton, Comus. To glide a sunheam by the blasted pine. To sit a star upon the sparkling spire.— Tennyson, Princess. Noon lay heavy on flower and tree.— Shelley, To Night. Kneel undisturbed, fair saint. — Thackeray. — May find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor. — Keats, Ode to Autumn. And learns her gone and far from home. — Tennyson, Jw 3Iem., viii. So in many common prose expressions : go harefoot, run dry, lie quiet, live secure, come home hungry, also huild a wall high, strike one dumb, walk oneself lame, drink the stream dry, etc. SPECIAL IDIOMS OF PREDICATION 217 iXeye Trpwro? TLcr(Ta(f)€pvr)<; Tissapliernes spoke first. An. II. 3, 17. TL9 TTore dyXaa? IJSd? S7]/3d<; ; what art tJiou that hast come to glorious Thebes f s. ot. 153. 547 A Predicate adjective or noun agreeing with the object — accusative, genitive, or dative — often requires a different construction in translation : Merewpoi;? i^eKOfJucrav ra? d/xctfd? thei/ lifted the wagons up and brought them out, An. i. 5, 8. yj /BapvSaiiJLova fJi^yjrrjp jjl' €T€K€v surely ill-fated was I at my birth {iny mother bore me as one of evil fate), E. AL. 865. TLva<; ttoO' eSpa? rctcrSe fioi Ood^ere ; what is this session that ye hold? (i. e., tchy sit ye thusf), S. OT. 2. Toi' (TTpaTov iXdaaco rjyayov the army {whicJi) they led {was) smaller, t. i. ii. *Hyov/xej^ot avr ov 6 jjl cov tojv ^vjxpid^oiv leading their allies J but leaving them self-governing, t. i. 97. XeLfxaSCa) y^prjaO ai At] fjLvco to use Lemnos as win- ter quarters, d. 4, 33. 548 The predication is sometimes implied, or merely indi- cated by the order, where it must in English be ex- pressed (cp. 552 d) : Aid TO ^€.ipOTr\rj6 ea L tol<; \l6ol<; acjyevSopai' be- cause the stones used in their slings were big enough to fill the hand. Ax. m. 3, 17. dveufjievr} rfj SiaLTrj by their mode of life being more relaxed^ i. e., because their mode of life was more relaxed, t. i. 6. Std Ty]v XiqcTTeidi' inl ttoXv avricrx^^^ ^^ because piracy had prevailed loidely, t. i. 7. 218 SIMPLE SENTENCES THE ARTICLE 649 The Article 6, yj, to, originally a demonstrative pro- noun, retains that meaning in a few phrases in Attic prose. a. With juieV and Se, in 6 /xeV . . . 6 Se the one . . . the other J in all the cases ; also in to fjuev , . , to Se and TOL /xeV . . . ra Se used adverbially (540) : O I jxev iTo^evovy o I S' e(TJ)ev'^6vo)v some used their bows and others their slings. An. m. 3, 7. ra IX ev TL fjLaxojJieT^oL ra Se avairavo^ievoi now fighting a little and now resting. An. iv. i, 14. b. In 6 Se, 7) Se, TO Se hut (or and) he (she, this), beginning a sentence, when the subject changes : Kvpo(; SlSojctl KXedp^co fivpiov; Sctpet/cov?- 6 Se Xa- ^a)p TO xpvaiov aTpaTevfjua avveke^ev Cyrus gives Klearchos ten thousand darics, and he talcing the money collected an army. An. i. i, 9. c. In TTpo Tov hefore this, earlier] also in koI t6v (jyji', Tov<;) and top (rrjv, tov^) Se, when kol 6s e^y), rj S' o9 (560), and the like are changed to the infinitive in indirect quotation (577, 578) : K a t TOV eiTTelv and that he said, tov he yeKdaai and that he laughed. 650 Poets omit the article freely where prose requires it ; they also use it more freely as a demonstrative, and sometimes (as in Homer) as a relative pronoun. 651 The differences between Greek and English in the use of the article must be learned in reading ; note espe- cially the following : THE ARTICLE 219 a. Xames of persons often take the article : AtaySaAAet rbv Kvpov he slander s Cyrus; but also o-vXA-a/x- pdvec Kvpov he arrests Cyrus. Ax. i. 1, 3. b. Abstract nouns generally have the article : *H (To<j>La. or o-o</>td wisdom. c. With a possessive pronoun or a possessive genitive the noun has the article when a definite person or thing is meant : *E/xo? <^tAos or </)tAos \kov a friend of mine .,\iVi\, 6 c/xos c^i'Aos or 6 cfiiXos fxov my friend (a definite person). Ata, iv ov tw lep<2 i(Tfji€v Zeus, in whose sacred precinct we are. T. m. 14. TTOTafxo? ov TO cvpos a river tvhose width. d. The article alone is often used where English requires a possessive pronoun : Ata^aXXet tov Kvpov Trpos tov aBcX<}>6v he h'ings Cyrus into discredit ivith his brother. An. i. 1, 3. e. Xames of countries, mostly adjectives by origin, com- monly have the article : •H'EXAas Greece. f. Names of peoples often omit the article : *A6r]vaLOL or ol ^AOtjvolol the Athenians. g. Predicate nouns rarely have the article ; the subject and a predicate noun are often thus distinguished (cp. 652) : *Ex^pos av6p(xyn-o? (36 b) the man is an enemy. D. 4, 50. h. For the article with demonstrative pronouns see 553, 654. 662 a. The place just after the article is called the attribu- tive position. Most attributive words take that posi- tion if the noun has an article : Ot ayaOoi SyjixLovpyoi the good artisans, b. Sometimes t he_articleand an attributjre stsmd jifter the noun, as if added as an afterthought : Kara tov^ vofxovsi tov<s Keifiivov^ according to the laivs, the established [laivs). rrjv re ttoAiv Sii^pTraa-av koI to. ^ao-tActa to. iv avrfj they plundered both the city and the palace in it. An. I. 2, 26. 220 SIMPLE SENTENCES c. If an adjective (or a participle, adverb, or other expression used adjectively) stands before or after both article and noun (the article being before the noun, in the normal order), it is in the predicate posi- tion^ and is a predicate, whether a verb is expressed or not : 'Aya0ol ol SyjjjLLovpyoi the artisans are good. Kokw TO dO\ov Kol rj cXtti? fjieydXrj the jprize is nohle and our hope great, Ph. 114 c. d. An adjective in the predicate position with a noun in the genitive, dative, or accusative often requires special care in translating (cp. 648) : Mer' a K paL(j)vov<; T'fj<? fv/x/xa;)(td9 with the alli- ance still intact. T. i. 19. 8ta <^tXtd? r^? x^P^"^ oLTrd^eL he will unake the country friendly in leading us thi'ough. An. I. 3, 14. Kv/D09 xfjik-qv e^wz^ rrji' Ke(j)a\r)v et? rrji' fjioixv^ '<oiOi(TTaTo Cyrus went into the battle with his head hare. An. i. 8, 6. ovk ifiov ipco rov \6yop, aXX' et? d^Loxp^oiv vfjLLv Tov \eyovTa dvoiao) tlie statement I shall onahe will not he mine^ hut the speaker to whom I shall refer it loill he sufficient for you. Ap. 20 e. 553 But oSe, ovTo^^ and iKelvo^; regularly take the predi- cate position, the noun reguiring the article; when the article is omitted, the noun or the pronoun is a predicate : Efcetz^o? 6 TTat? or 6 Trat? i Ke2vo<; yonder hoy. But T avTiqv el privrjv vrrokaiJi^dvei he understands this to he peace, d. 9, 9. r w S e <^ t X o) ;)^pw/xat I treat this man as a friend. THE ARTICLE 221 a. Proper names, however, may omit the article ; and if another adjectival expression is used Avith the pronoun, the latter 7nay stand in the attributive position : "OSe (6) '^wKpaTTj? this Socrates, ra? CTTtcrroXi/xatous ravrds Swa/xets these forces on paper (forces that figure in dispatches). D. 4, 19. TttS i^aLcf)vr)<s ravrds o-Tparetds these sudclen expedi- tions. D. 4, 17. But also Ik Trjs d/AcActd? ravTTjs r^s aydv OUt of this too great carelessness. D. 4, 17. 554 Likewise €KacrTo<;, eKarepos, dfjL(j)0)y diJL(j)6T€po<; take tlie predicate position, if the noun has the article. So also a personal or a relative pronoun in the possessive genitive (e/iov, fiov, rjjJLwVy crov, v/jlcov, avTov, avrwi', ov, S)Vj etc.), with the same exception for the personal pronouns as for oSe, etc. (553 a) : To) TToihe d[i(f)OT e pcj hotll his SOUS. rj 770X19 rjfjLwv our state. a. But the reflexives used possessively {liiavrov, kavrov, etc.) take the attributive position, if the article is present : 'H kavTov x^P^ ^^'^^ ^^^ laJid. 555 a. An adverbial expression is made adjectival by standing in the attributive position : Ot irdXaL 'AOrjvoiOL the Athenians of old. rj oLKaSe 686s the tvay ho7ne. twv olkol dvriaracrKx)' TO)v his ojyponents at home. An. i. i, lo. rjTore pcojjLT] T(op AaKeSaLfxovLcov, rj vvv vj^pLS tovtov the strength of the Spartans then, the insolence of this man noio. D. 4, 3. b. An adjectival expression is made in effect a noun by having an article before it and no noun after it : Ot 77 a X a t the men of old. ol ttoXXo l the many, the masses, ol d/K^l^Aj/uro^ Anytos and his fol- 222 SIMPLE SENTENCES lowers (those about Anytos), 6 ^ovXojxevos any one who wishes, ovk eo-nv 6 ToXfxT] acov there is no one loho will dare. An. h. 3, 5. c. Any quoted word, phrase, or clause is made a noun by prefixing to : To fjLTjSev aydv the saying^ '"' Nothing 1 00 far. "^^ d. Some adverbial expressions are extended and made ad- verbial accusatives (540) by prefixing r6 or ra : Ta vvv now. TO KttT* €/>t€ tts Tegavcls me. to h\ ottws, TovTo Aeye })ut the how^ tell us that. D. 3, 10. 656 Distinguisli TToWd many things^ ra TroWd most things^ in most cases ; TTokv muchj TO TTokv the greater part ; irXeicTTOL very many^ ol 7r\eicrroi most people, the majority. Also r) fxecrrj ttoXc? the city between (two others), /xecTTy "T] TToXts or J] TToXt? /AecTT/ the midst of the city ; Tj icrxdrrj x^P^ the farthest land, io-xdrr) rj X^P^ ^^ V X^P^ icrxdrr] the edge of the land ; 6 [Lovo^ vto9 the only son, fjLovos 6 utd? or 6 uto? fjLovo^; the son only. PRONOUNS 557 The endings of the verb indicate the person (first, second, or third) with sufficient clearness ; hence the personal pronouns in the nominative, eyw, av, r}fji€L<;, u/xet?, are used only when emphasized. So in the third person ovto<;, oSe, or eKeivos as subjeqjb : PRONOUNS 223. 'Eyw oKvoLTjv OLT/ ifx/BaLveLv I should myself hesi- tate to go aboard, An. i. 3, 17. aXX' elhev tovto Ka\a>s eKelvo^ but HE saw this clearly, d. 4, 5. 658 For the three meanings of auros see 199. Note that when standing alone in the nominative auros always means ipse^ emphasizing some word understood : AvTos ^wetSoj? (ji-qa-Lv; does lie say it of his oiun Icnoivledgef S. OT. 704. rj^ei yap avrd things ivill come of themselves. S. ot. 341. avTos £<^r/ he himself (the master) said it, ipse dixit. In other cases also the word emphasized by avro? may be omitted : nXevareW €t5 ravrd? avro t S iiJi/3a(TLv yOU must Sail, going 071 toard in person {vfiiv being understood). D. 4, 16. a. Note also the idiomatic use of avros with an ordinal numeral : *Hip€^i; Trpea-jSevrrjs ScKaro? avT6<s he ivas chosen amhassor dor with nine others {himself tenth). II. ii. 2, 17. 559 In phrases like -q/xerepa avroiv our own things the possessive pronoun (adjective) and the possessive genitive are put side by side, as equivalent constructions, instead of Ty/xwv avrcuv, etc. 560 "O? retains its earlier force, as a demonstrative, in a few phrases : '^H 8' 9 said he. koI 65 6(^17 and he said. So Koi 77, /cat ot. Cp. 549. a. For the use of os as a relative see 613, 614. 561 a. Ovro5 in the nominative is sometimes used in call- ing to a person : Ovro9, TL 7roLeL<? you there, what are you doing? Ar. r. 198. b. Note also o8e, ovrro^^, or e/ceti/09 in the predicate, translated by here, there, etc. : •224 SIMPLE SENTENCES "O S' Ik SofjLojv Trepa here he comes from the house, S. AN. 386. vrjeq eKelv ai iTmrXeovcn yonder are ships sailing in. t. i. si. otSe TratSe? crTeixov(Ti here come the hoys, e. m. 46. INFINITIVES 562 The Infinitive is a verbal noun wliose range of use has been much enlarged. Originally a to oy for dative, it retains that force in some of the most common con- structions (665, 566) ; the others are developed from this, but the connection is not always clear. The English infinitive with to is in many uses closely parallel. a. As a verb, the Infinitive has voice and tense, though it does not distinguish person or number; it may take a subject in the accusative, and an object (accusative, genitive, or dative), like the rest of the verb to which it belongs ; it is modified by adverbs and particles, including av. As a noun it may in some uses take the article (neuter) and so be marked as having a noun construction in any case but the vocative. 563 The present, aorist, and perfect Tenses of the Infini- tive distinguish kinds of action (as in the subjunc- tive, optative, and imperative, 475, 483, 484), not dif- ferences of time. The future puts the action in a time later than that of the principal verb. a. When the infinitive represents a finite verb, it retains the tense and tense meaning of the form which it replaces (577). 564 The negative with an infinitive is usually fxrj, except when the infinitive represents an original finite verb INFINITIVES 225 which had ov ; and even then after some verbs there is a tendency to change ov to fxij (579 a). 565 The Infinitive may be connected, as a to ov for dative, with verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or with a whole phrase : Tr^v ^(i)pav iweTpexlfe S ca piT dcr ai rot? '^^Wrjcnv he gave the land over to the Greeks to plunder {^forijhin- dering). Ax. i, 2, 19. TroXXat dfia^ai rjcrav (j)epecr at tliere were many tvagons to he carried off. Ax. n. i, 6. ov^ a>pd Kad evSeiv ouS* afxekeiv rjfJL(t)P avrcov it is no time for sleeping or for leing careless of ourselves. Ax. I. 3, 11. a. This Dative Infinitive has a wide range of mean- ing, from simple purpose to cases where it merely defines the application of a Avord or phrase. The dative force can usually be seen, but in or some other preposition may be necessary in translation : EtXeo-^e dpx^i^v fjLov you cliose (tJiem) to rule over me. Ap. 28 e. eTOLjjLos \eyeiv ready to speak (^for speaking). Seuvo^ \iyeiv skilled in {with reference to) speaking, ovx v^^a aKoveiv not pleasant to ■hear. D. 4, 38. oXo^ det TTore /xeraySaXXecr^at {such^ as to he alivays changing, h. n. 3, 45. . iKavoq Td<; oLKpoTTokuq (jyvXcLTTeiv sufficient for guarding the citadels. Ax. i. 2, l. Y^Xiap-yo^ cnvyvo% r^v o pdv Klearchos was repulsive to see. Ax. n. 6, 9. ovroi o-vvexO^Lv dXXd (Tvp.j)iXelv e^vv I am not one {ivas not horn) to join in hatred, hut in love. s. ax. 523. ToaovTov hid) bp.oXoyelv SO far am I from 15 226 SIMPLE SENTENCES agreeing {I lack so much with reference to agreeing). D. 9, 17. v6(Tr)fjia jjuel^ov rj (j)€peLv a trouble too great to bear (greater than for bearing^, s. ot. 1293. b. Note the use with Ixw : OvSei/ €tx€ <l>pd(raL he had nothing to tell. S. ot. 119. This easily passes into the meaning he could tell nothing ; hence €Xw becomes practically equal to Swa/^ai, taking an infinitive (most often a word of saying) with or without an object : ovSk Sivpo toi/T€s €K T^s x'^^po''^ ovSev €LxofJicv XafjL/3dv€iv even when coining hither we could not taJce anything from the country. An. ii. 2, 11. 666 The Infinitive with w? or aio-re is used a. With adjectives in the comparative, or imply- ing comparison : 'OXtyot ws iyKpaTets elvai too few to Iiave power. C. IV. 5, 15. ^paxvrepa rj w? i^LKvelaOai too short to reach. An. m. 3, 7. eXarrw €\ovTa h-uvapLiv rj axTTe Tov<; (J)lXov<; cjcjyeXelv having too little force to aid his friends (less than as for aiding), h. iv. 8, 23. yepojv eKeivo^ axTTe a a)(j)€\e2v he is old for aiding you. E. AND. 80. b. To denote result, especially an intended result ; wcrre is the usual word in prose, often preceded by a demonstrative ; the idea of intention gradually fades out : YXyov ra openava et? yrjv f^XeTrovra w? Z laKoir- T€Lv they had the scytlies extending toivard the ground (as) for cutting in tivo (whomever they came on). An. I. 8, 10. vTreXctcrd? w? crvv avTrj a at riding u/p so as to meet him. An. i. 8, 15. vvkt6% teVai, ws fjurj INFINITIVES 227 opaaOai to go hy night so as not to he seen. Ax. iv. 6, 13. -^povcp TTOT i^eiTpd^av W9 Sovpau hiKTjv at length they have lorought it out so as to pay the pen- alty, S. AN. 303. MT^^az^al TToXXat elaiv coctt e S La(f) evy eiv Odva- Tov many devices there are for escaping death. Ap. 39 a. TTOLPTas ovTO) StttTt^ei? ojcTTe avTco (f)L\ov^ eXvau SO disposing all {jnitting all into such disp)osition) as to he friendly to him. Ax. i. i, 5. e)^oj r/jtTypet? wcrre ikelv TO iKetpcov it\oiov I have triremes so as to catch their hoat. Ax. i. 4, 8. 8etV iiriqTreiXei, wcrr' ovre vvk- TOf; VTTVov ovT i^ r)iJiepd<; e/xe ar ey d^eLv he made dreadful threats^ so that neither hy night nor day did sleep cover me. s. e. 780 f. The last example comes very close to tlie use of ware witli an indicative, de- noting an actual result (639 a). c. Sometimes oio-Tc. with the infinitive states a condition or proviso (cp. 567) : Twv XolttCjv apx^LV 'EAXt/j/wv, ware aurov? vTraKoveiv /Jao-tAet to rule the rest of the Greeks, provided they ivoiild (so as to) themselves ohey the Iciyig. D. 6, 11. 567 The Infinitive after ec^' w or ec^' wre states a condi- tion or proviso : I o ecpacrav aTTOococreLv ecp co firj Kaeiv rag otKta? and they said they would give hach (the dead), on con- dition of their not hurning the houses. Ax. iv. 3, 19. d(f)L€fjL€v cr€j eVt rovrcp fxevroL, i(f)* <5t€ fjL7]K€TL (^tXo- o-o(j)€2v we let you off^ on this condition hotvever, that you no longer seek tvisdom. Ap. 29 c. 228 SIMPLE SENTENCES 668 The Infinitive is used with TrptV before : ALe^r)crav tt p iv rov^ aXXov<; oltt o k ptv acr au they crossed before tlie others answered. An. i. 4, i6. Kareiyii irpiv fxoi fJLoipav e^rJKeiv ^iov I go down before 7ny allotted term of life is over. s. an. 896. For irpiv with finite modes see 644. a. Earely Trporepov rj with the infinitive has the same mean- ing. 669 The Infinitive is used in some idiomatic phrases, partly off- shoots of the dative infinitive (666 a and b), partly standing nearer to the adverbial accusative (540). Among the most frequent are : *Os €t7ret]/ or ws eTTos eiTTcti/ SO to speah^ softening an expres- sion that might seem too strong, (ws) o-wcAoVrt dirdv in a word (for one to say^ taking it together)., w? dKaa-ai to make a guess^ i/xoL 8oK€Lv, in my vietv, as it seems to me, oXtyov Setv almost (to lack little), iKibv cTvat willingly, to vvv elvai for the present, to Kara tovtov ehat as regards him. 570 The Infinitive is used as object with many verbs : a. As the only object : liiOelv Tirana? ovk rjSvvijOrjv J coidd not per- suade the Titans, a. pb. 220. e/xeXXe /caraXuetj/ he loas intending to halt. An. i. 8, 1. et? IllcrtSd? fiovXo- /xei^o? err parevecrO au Wishing to make an expedi- tion against the Pisidians, An. i. 1, 11. ^o^oiprqv av eVecr^at I should be afraid to follow. An. i. 3, 17. b. With /xeAXo) intend, am about, the future infinitive is often used (also the present, sometimes the aorist) : MeAAo) v/^ias 8 1 S a ^ e t V I am ahout to explain to you. Ap. 21 b. e/xeXXev avrui KaXw re KayaOoi Troi-^acLv he was likely to make them what they should he. Ap. 20 a. efxeXXc KaraXvetv he INFINITIVES 229 was alout to halt. An. i. 8, 1. /xeAAw -n-aOelv I am aloiit to suffer. A. pb. 652. In all other uses the future infinitive may be regarded as representing an indicative (577, 578). c. With another object : Tou9 67r\tTd<; eKeXevaev avrov ^elvai he hade the hoplites remain there. An. i. 5, 13. iiroLrjae ^vevvecriv fjLrj hvvacrOai /caret yrjv ivavriovcrOaL ^vpco (the Spar- tan naval commander) made 8yennesis unable to op- pose Gyrus hy land. h. m. l, l. at y^hovaX ireiOovcTi T7)v ^vxy]v jjirj cr CO (f) pov el V pleasures urge the soul not to use self-control, m. i. 2, 23. d. From such uses as the last the accusative came to be regarded * as the subject of the infinitive : 'E^ouXero ro) TratSe afX(j)OT€p(o irapelvaL he wished both his sons to he near. an. i. i, i. ScoKpdrrj^; TjyeLTo 9eovs iravTa elhivai Sohrates believed that the gods Iciioio everything, m. i. i, lo. Thus arose the infinitive clause with subject accusative, which received a wide extension, as in Latin. 571 The subject of an infinitive is omitted when it is the same as that of the leading verb ; a modifier of the subject, whether predicative or attributive, then agrees with the subject of the leading verb : *0 S' VTT eerier o avhpX e/cacrrw hoxj eiv Trivre dpyv- ^ A similar growth can be traced in English, in such a sequence as : (1) It is good for us to he here, (2) For us to be here is good, (3) For us to be here is a proof of our friendship. In (1) for us modifies good ; in (2) the same construction is possible, but one is inclined to take for us to be here as a clause, the subject of is good ; in (3) the last construction is the only one possible. 230 SIMPLE SENTENCES pLov fjLvoL'; and he promised that he woidd give five minae in money to each man (cp. 677 a). An. i. 4, 13. Heparjs e^i? elvai he said he tvas a Persian, An. IV. 4, 17. a. A predicate noun or adjective remains in the nomi- native when the infinitive, with subject omitted, has the article, or depends on a preposition : 'Opeyo/xevot ToO Trpwros lKa<jro^ y lyv ^a-Oai stfiving each to get ahead of the other {to 'become first). T. n. 65, 10. ovk iirl Tw SovXoL elvai cKTrc/xTroj/rat uttolkol not 071 the iasis of being subjects are colo7iists sent out. T. i. 34, 1. b. If the subject is omitted because indefinite or general, a predicate or attributive modifier of it is in the accusative : AtKtttov €v TrpaTTovra /xe jxvrjo-O ai Oeov it is jUSt to re- 7nember God when one is prospering. Men. c. When the omitted subject is the same as the object of the leading verb, that object being in the genitive or dative, a modifier of the subject may be either in the same case or in the accusative : Kvpo^ irapayyeWei KXeap^co \a ^ovr i r^Kuv ocrov Tjv avTcp (TTparevfJiaj Kai Hei^ia r)K€iv TrapayyiWei Xa- ^6vT a Tov<; d\Xov<; Cyrus ordered Klearchos to come, hringing all the force he had ; and he ordered Xenias to come, hringing the others. An. i. 2, 1. YJvpov iSeovro ct)9 TT p oOvfxoT dr ov yev4(T0 ai they ashed Cyrus to shotv himself as zealous as possible, h. i. 5, 2. 572 With verbs meaning forhid, prevent, deny, escape, or aim in any way at a negative effect/ the infini- ^ Cp. " You may as well forbid the mountain pines To wag their high tops, and to make no noise, When they are fretten with the gusts of heaven." Mer. of Ven., iv, 1. INFINITIVES 231 tive often has /lat;, tliougli Englisli omits the nega- tive : 'Aj/reXeyd^ rti^e? firj livai Traz^ra? S077ie opposed^ urging that all should not go, An. n. 5, 29. rov avhp OLTravSco fJLyjr^ ev^e^ea 9 ai jxiJTe 7rpo(j(j)(ove'LV riva this man I forhid any one to receive or address, S. OT. 238. eyo) fjiovo^; rjvavTLcoOrji' jitT^Sei/ Trouelv irapa Tov^ pojjLov^; I alone opposed doing anything contrary to the latvs. Ap. 32 b. filKpop i^e(j)vy€ firj Karaire- T pcoOrjvcLL he barely escaped being stoned to death. An. I. 3, 2. Karapvel fxrj heh p aKevau raSe ; do you deny that you have done this ? s. ax. 442. a. M^ with an infinitive becomes /a^ ov if the leading verb has a negative, or is in a question implying a negative : OvScv eSwaro dvT€;(etv /x^ ov \a. p it, f.(T B ai lie COuld fiot liold out at all against granting the favor. C. i. 4, 2. rt 8^Ta /xeAAeis IXT] ov ycyiov LOT K€Lv TO TTOLv ; tvliy then do you delay (i. e., do not delay) to tell the whole? A. pb. 654. rt c/xttoSojv /xr) ov^t airoOavelv; ivhat is to hinder (i.e., ovScv i/jLTToSwv) our heing put to death 9 An. hi. 1, 13. b. Most of these verbs admit also the simple infinitive without ^rf or /a^ ov : Tl KO}Xv€L Kol TO. oLKpa -qfuv KiXcveLV Kvpov TTpoKaToXafx^dviiv ', ivhat hinders our bidding Cyrus occupy the hights also for us? An. I. 3, 16. c. With verbs of hindering and the like the infinitive may also have the article tov^ as a from genitive (509) : K.(i)Xv(r€Lev av rov kolclv eTTtovra? he tvould prevent them from this attaclcing and btirning. An. i. 6, 2. 673 Some of the above infinitives, even those plainly dative in ori- gin, occasionally have t6, especially in poetry : OvTOL €ia-LV jJLOVOL CTL TJfUV ifXTToSoiV TO fXT] rj^YJ cTvaL €vOa TTttAai o-n-evSofiev these alonc are still in the way of our toeing at once 232 SIMPLE SENTENCES ivliere tue have so long leen eager to he. An. iv. 8, 14. to pCa ttoXItwv Spav £<^i}v d/xijxavo? act in defiance of the state I can not. S. AN. 79 f. KapStds 8* e^io-Ttt/xat to 8pav yet from my hearfs purpose I ivithclraiu to do it. S. an. 1106. <^6^o<i av$' vttvov -napa- a-Tarei, to /jirj jSXecfiapa a-vjxpaXelv fear instead of sleep stands near, that I close not my eyes. A. a. 15. The TO seems to bring these infinitives into connection with the specifying accusative (537), whicli is in effect much like a looser for dative, such as we translate by with reference to (523 a). 574 Tlie Infinitive without or with to is used as the sub- ject of many verbs — also as a predicate noun or an appositive : TpdfjijjLaTa fxaO elv Set koX fxaOoPTa vovp e ^ eiv one must learn letters^ and after learning them have Sefise, Men. iSoKei [jlol ravrrj ir ei pacrO ai croiOrjvai it seemed to me best to try to save myself in this way. L. 13, 15. dyaOoi<; vplv TrpocnJKeL elv ai it hefits you to he hrave. An. m. 2, ll. tovto vficov SeojJLaij fjujre av- IJidt^eiv fX7]Te 6 opv ^elv this I ash of yoUj neither to he surprised nor to make a disturhance. Ap. it c a. Instead of an impersonal verb with the infinitive as sub- ject, a personal construction is often used with the infinitive depending on the verb or adjective : Kat yap ov^\ rroppio SoKov/xev /jlol avTov KaOrjcrOaL (instead of ov SoK€L KaOrjorOai) for in fact we seem to he encamped not far from him. An. i. 3, 12. Stxato? ei/^t dTroAoy^o-ao-^at (instead of StKaioi/ co-Ttv d.) it is right that I m alee my defense. Ap. 18 a. 575 The Infinitive with rov or rco may be used in any genitive or dative construction that is suitable to its meaning : INFINITIVES 233 Nebt? TO alyav KpelrTov ecrrt r ov XaXelv for young people silence is better than talking. Men. ap- faj^re? r ov hia^aiveLv heing first in crossing. An. 1.4,15. Ikto^ el Tov fxeWeLv oltt oO vrjcr k€lv av- piov you are free from the prospect of dying to-morrow, Cr. 46 e. TO 8e TTf iTTLfJieXeLa Trepieivai tcov (fyCXcov kol T (p 7rpo6vfJie2a9ai yapit^eadai, TavTa ifJiOLye jxaX- Xop SoKei ayacTTa elvai hut tlie excelling his friends in attentiveness and in Ms eagerness to do favors, this ratlier to my mind appears admirable, an. i. 9, 24. ov Trpo? T (o TToXet? avTj pTj Kev ai TiOrjcn tol HvOua ; be- sides having destroyed states, does he not conduct the Pythian festival ? D. 9, 32. eVt r &> awoicreiv Tama ireirela-O ai Xeyeuv alpovp.ai I choose to spealc because of my conviction that these measures will be for your interest, d. 4, 5i. Kiv^wevaaiT av tco top 'EWtJo-- TTovTov aXXoT pLcodrjp at you would be endangered by the fact that the Hellespont has become another'^ s, D. 9, 18. 576 An Infinitive with tov is sometimes used tQ express purpose : MtVo)5 TO XxjCTTLKov KaOrjpiL TOV TttS TTpoaoSovs fxaXXov l i V a L avTio Mmos put doivn piracy, that his 7'evenues might cofne to him better. T. i. 4. This may be regarded as a genitive of cause ; v-n-ep or eve/ca is sometimes put with it. 577 An Infinitive clause, with or without the article, often represents a sentence with a finite verb ; the original sentence is thus changed to a noun and made part of another sentence, in one of the constructions above described. Most often such an infinitive is the sub- 234: SIMPLE SENTENCES ject or object of a verb of saying or tlmiking — that is, a verb meaning say, tell, Jiear, learn, or thinh, be- lieve, hnow, and the like. In such infinitive clauses a. The original tense and tense-meaning are re- tained, the time (if the original verb was an indica- tive) being relative to that of the principal verb. The future infinitive is found chiefly in this use. An imperfect or pluperfect indicative, as these tenses are not made in the infinitive, is represented by the present or perfect — the infinitive of the same tense-system. b. If the original sentence had ov, that is usually retained, but is sometimes changed to /xt; (579 a). c. If an original indicative or optative had av, that is retained. Thus av with an infinitive shows that the infinitive represents an indicative or optative with av (579). 578 The Infinitive representing a finite verb often stands as object with certain verbs of saying or tMnhing : 'Eyw ^7)1X1 ravra <l>kvdpid<; elvai (representing ravra <^\vdpiai etcrt) I say tJiat this is nonsense. An. I. 3, 17. avT i\ey eiv (f)rj^ Tol<i /BovXojxevoL^; rjixd^ dno- Xiaai you say you spohe against (avreXeyov, 577 a) those who wished to destroy us, l. 12, 26. ovk e(j)r} 6 fjielcrO at he said he would not taJce an oath (ovk ofjLOVfxaL). n. I. 3, 11. 6ix6aavTe<; opKov^ rj jjltjv jxr) fjivrjo-LKaKt] creLv taking oaths that they would verily maintain amnesty for the j^ast {ov fivrjo-LKaKijao), ov being here changed to fjnj because of the idea of will implied in an oath), n. n. 4, 43. INFINITIVES 235 No/itX<^ v/xa? ifjiol elvai koi irarpiha koL (J)l\ovs I think you are (yixels iare) to me both country and friends, An. i. 3, 6. 'oloixepou ra Trdvra vIkolv koX Kvpov 1,7] V tJmiking they loere completely mctorious and Gyrus was alive (viKWfjiev, ^tJ). Ax. n. i, i. ^^a? iycoye olkovo) tov<; Aa/ceSai/xoz^tov? cac TraiScov KkeTrreiv fieXerav I hear that you Spartans practise stealing from childhood (/AeXerare). An. iv. 6, 14. Treicreo-d ai TTpoaSoKcov expecting that he will suffer (Tretcrojitat). D. 6, 18. apa it po ah o kolv avrov<; roiavTa TreiOeaO ai oieaOe do you suppose they expected (irpoaeSoKcov) to he suffering like this f d. 6, 20. a. So also as the subject (with Xeyerat and the like, 574), as appositive, and in the personal construction (574 a) : 'EAcyero Ku/aw Sovvat ^-qy.a.Ta TroXXd she ICaS Said to liave giveyi Cyrus a large su7n. An. i. 2, 12. Tov<i dyaOovs ek TroXe/jiov wfjioXoyrjTo 8ta<^€/3ovTw? rlfjidv lie was acTc7iowledged to lionor ex- ceptio7ially those who ivere good for war. An. i. 9, 14. koX ydp ovSk TToppo) SoKov/xev /xoi avrov KaOrjcrOat for We seeM tO me to ie encamped hy no means far from him. An. i. 3, 12. b. Future infinitives with ui(n(. fall under this head, scarcely differing at all from ^(tt^ with a future indicative (639 a) : Mwpia TYjXiKavTrjv riyela-Oai ttoXlv olk€iv to fieyeOo'; wcrre jxr] 8ct- vov 7reto-€o-^at it is folly to thinh the state we live in is so great that tve shall suffer nothing serious. D. 9, 67. 579 An Infinitive with dv represents an indicative or optative witli dv (461, 467, 479, 480), the context alone determining which : 'Akovco KaKehaip.oviov<; rore ipi^akovra^ a v koX Ka- K(0(TavTa<; ttjv ya)pav dv a^o) p elv in olkov irdXiv I hear that the Spartans in those times^ after invading 236 SIMPLE SENTENCES and TO/vaging the land, woidd then tvithdraw toward home again (avexf^pow av, 461 a), d. 9, 48. KOpo? apiCTTO^ a V So/cet ap^o)v yeve&O ai it seems likely that Cyrus loould have been an unusually good ruler (^dpiaTos av kyivero^ 467 c). 0. 4, 18. apa avTov^ Xe- yovTo<; av nvos ttictt ever ai otecrOe ; do you think they ivould have believed any one if he said it? (\eyovTO<; av Tivo<; irficTTevaav ;) D. 6, 20. Sw vixiv p,ev av oXfiai elvai TtfXLo<; ^vith you J think I should be in honor (jtixio^ av eirjv, 479). An. i. 3, 6. iirLCTTeve fjL7)S€v av irapa ra? airovha^^ TraOelv he was confident that he would stiff er nothing contrary to the agreement {ovSev av 7ra^ot/xi). An. i. 9, s. a. Some of the above examples illustrate the tendency to change original ov to /xtJ with the infinitive after words mean- ing stvear, promise, Jiope, and the like ; the notion of tvill in the verb seems to affect the negative. For exclamatory and imperative infinitives see 492. For farther treatment of indirect discourse see 667-664. PARTICIPLES 580 The Participle is a verbal adjective, essentially like the English participle in use ; but its full declension enabled the range of the Greek participle to be ex- tended much farther in some directions. a. As a verb the participle has voice and tense, and may take an object (accusative, genitive, or dative) or an adverbial modifier. As an adjective it is declined, and agrees with a noun or pronoun, (1) attributively, with or without the article, (2) as a predicate, belonging to either subject or object. PARTICIPLES 237 681 The present, aorist, and perfect tenses of the participle denote the kind of action rather than time ; the present denotes con- tinuance or repetition, the aorist denotes simple occurrence or attainment, the perfect denotes a completed act or a con- tinued state (cp. 475, 563). a. But when a participle represents an indicative clause, the tenses retain the tense-meaning of the indicative, and de- note time present, past, or future relatively to that of the lead- ing verb. The future participle is always so used ; for the other tenses the context alone determines whether the time- value is intended or not (cp. 677). Note examples in the following sections. 682 The Attributive Participle agrees directly witli a noun, witli or without an article : To, KaO eaTT] KOT a irpdyfjiaTa the existing situa- tion (c(ffairs^ government). K:e/caXXte7ri7/xeVot>9 Xoyov9 finely worded speeches. Ap. it b. a. The Attributive Participle is often used without a noun, thus becoming itself a noun (555 b). Such a phrase, if brief, may sometimes be rendered by an English noun ; if longer, its nearest equivalent is a relative clause : Ot AeyovTcs the speakers, ol aKovovTcs tlie hearers, ol evoiKovvres the inhabitants, rf re/covcra the mother, €LKrj Xeyofiiva things stated carelessly, ra avrots /3e^tw/xeVa their lives {things lived hy tliein), to. So^^avra t^ o-r/aarta the opin- ion {decision) of the army. An. i. 3, 20. Ot ravrriv r-qv (fitjfjirjv Kara(TK€8dcravT€<S those ivho have spread this report', tov? raura t,r]TovvTa^ those who investi- gate these matters. Ap. 18 c w KaTaif/rjcfua-d/jLevoL fxov you who voted agai7ist me. A p. 39 b. b. Common phrases are 6 fiovX6fjievo<s any one who wishes, 6 Tv^wv any chance comer. Note also KaAov/^evo? and Acyo/xevos in phrases like Kprjvrj rj MtSov KaXovfjiiv-q the spring called 238 SIMPLE SENTENCES Midas'' s^ the so-called spri7ig of Midas \ tov Uphv KaXov^x^vov TToXefiov the war called Sacred^ the so-called Sacred war. c. With ov such a participial phrase refers to a particular person, thing, or class ; with fLrj (486) the phrase is more gen- eral, a merely supposed case : Tots fxr] TTct^o/xevots fxereixeXe any ivho did iiot talce his advice repented. M. i. 1, 4. (rot's ov Tret^o/^evots would have meant those people, a definite class, tvho in fact did not take his advice.) 683 A Participle often agrees attributively with a noun or pronoun, without the article, adding some circum- stance of the main action. {Circumstantial Parti- ciple?) English uses the same construction, hut less freely ; a better rendering is often a relative clause, or an adverbial phrase or clause (of time, manner, cause, means, concession, condition), or even another verb parallel to the leading verb. The circumstantial participle without av represents an indica- tive ; the tense therefore generally denotes time (581 a). *H fJiTJrrjp vnrjp^e Kvpco (fyiXovcr a avrov fxaWov his mother sufpjported Cyrus., loving him more, An. i. i, 4. d Kova dcr L to2<s (TTpaTrjyoi^ ravra eSof e to cTTpdrevyia avvayayeiv on hearing this the generals decided to call together the army, Axx. iv. 4, lo. 6 Se eXirtSa? Xeycov SiTJye but he Icept putting tliem off by talking hope- fully. An. I. 2, 11. TTpcoTov fjL€v iSaKpve ttoXw ^povov iaTa><; first he stood and wept for some time. An. i. 3, 2. ravra yap fcaXoi? iyco € t 8 w 9 StwXecra this, though I hriew it well^ I had let slip, s. ot. 318. a. Certain participles occur often in idiomatic use, as ap- Xofx^^vo's (beginning) at first, reXevTwv (ending) finally , tx'^v (hold- ing on) constantly, Oappwv boldly, XaOwv secretly, dvv<rds quickly PARTICIPLES 239 Xat/owv without punisliment^ ^AatW ivith sorrow. Also exoiv, dy(Dv, Aa/3wv, cf^ipwv, xpto/xevos may often be translated tvith : TeAcvrojv ovv eVt tov<s x^'-porexvas ya SO finally I We7lt to tllG artisans. Ap. 22 c. ov n ^^^atpwv 8ts ye 7rrjfxova<s epct? ?zof «^i77i- OM^ sorroio slialt tliou twice spealc luords so dire. S. ot. 363. npo|€vo9 -rrapTjv l^wv oTrXtrd? Proxenos came with hoplifes. An. I. 2, 3. b. The future participle in this use often expresses inten- tion or purpose : AvLCTTavTO ol fjikv CK Tov avTOfxaTov Xi^ovTCS a lyiyviocrKov some rose of their oivn accord to say ivhat they thought. An. i. 3, 13. TrefJuf/aL kol tt poKar aX-qxp o [xiv ov<5 to, aKpa to send 71ien to seize the hights in advance. An. i. 3, 14. 684 Predicate Participles are used like predicate adjec- tives (545-548), witli extensions into certain special idioms. The compound tenses, consisting of €t/xt and a participle agreeing with the subject, are the simplest type. 685 A Predicate Participle agreeing with the siihject is often used a. With verbs that express existence in some par- ticular IV ay., as Tvyxdvo) am hy chance^ happen to he, \av6dvoj am secretly or ivithotit the hnowledge of, (j)6dpco am first, get the start in, Sidyco, SiareXo), SiayLyvofiai am coritinuously, Tceep on, (f)aLvofjLaL (also 817X09 or (f)av€p6<; elfxi) am plainly \ Hap COP krvyyave he happened to he there. An. i. 1, 2. Irvyyavov \eyo)v I was just saying. An. hi. 2, 10. ^ovXoLfjLTjv av \a0eiv avTOv dir e\0 div I should lihe to get away without his hiowing it (to he-hidden-from him 240 SIMPLE SENTENCES going away), an. i. 3, 17. ^Odvovcnv eVl rw aKpco yevojjLevoL tov<; TroXe/^tov? they anticipate the enemy in getting v/pon the hight. An. m. 4, 49. hieTi\ovv ^pco jjuevoi To1<; tcdv TroXefiLcov To^evfJiacrL they kept using the enemies' arrows. An. m. 4, 17. ov ^0 ovciiv TOL<; <^avepo)<; TrXovTovcnp i(j)aLpeTo he was plainly not envious of the openly tvealthy (it was plain that he did not envy). An. i. 9, 19. b. With verbs meaning hegin^ cease^ endure^ grow weary ^ and tlie like : OvTTore iiravofjuQv r}fxa<; olKripajv I never ceased pitying ourselves. An. m. 1, 19. d7TeLpr]Ka rjSr] crvcr- K€v ai^o [Jiev OS kol t p e^ co v koI tol oVXa (f)€ p o)v I am tired now of packing up and running and carry- ing my arms. An. v. 1, 2. c. With otxo/xat am gone a predicate participle may specify the manner of going, and so contain the main thought : Et9 TO irpoaOev oi)(ovTaL Slcj kovt e<; they have gone forward in pursuit. An. i. 10, 5. ^x'^ro direXav- voiv he loent riding aivay, or simply, he rode away. An. II. 4, 24. With YjKw and some others the idioms differ but little from 'English usage. d. A Participle agreeing with the subject is so used with some verbs that one can not say certainly whether it is a cir- cumstantial or a predicate participle : l^ovrov ovx rjTTrja-ojxcOa ev ttoioOvtcs we shall not he heliind Mm in well-doing. An. m. 2, 23. dStKct tov^; viovi 8ta<^^ctpwv he is guilty of corrupting the young. M. i. 1, l. So with a number of verbs meaning endure, am pleased, content, indig- nant, ashamed, etc. PARTICIPLES 241 586 A Predicate Participle agreeing with the object is often used a. With some verbs meaning perceive (with the senses or w^ith the mind), rememhei\ hnoiv^ and the like: ElSe KXdap^ov SueXavvovra he saw Klearclios riding through. Ax. i. 5, 12. ovk ffSeaav avrov TeOvrj- KOTa tJtey did not hnow that he was dead. Ax. i. lo, 16. 75817 hi TLVdiv rjaOofJLiqv Kal Slol ravra a^9 o ix iv cjjv /xoi and now I have observed that some felt unpleasantly toward me for this reason too, l. 16, 20. rjKovad -rrore avTov nepl (^i\<jjv S iaXey o fievov I once heard him talking about friends. M. n. 4, 1. yaipovdiv i^era- t^o fxiv oi<^ rot? olofxevoLf; fxev elvai (TO(J)ol^ ovctl 8' ov they delight in the examination of those tvho think tliey are loise but are not. ap. 33 c. b. With verbs meaning show^ make known^ and the like: Kvpov eTTiarpaTevovTa irpoiTo^ rjyyeika I ivas the first to report that Gyrus tvas marching against him. Ax. II. 3, 19. e/xe toivvv ovSetg av anoBeL^eiev airevexO ivTa no one, now, could show that my name was handed in. l. 16, 7. 587 With some verbs a predicate participle may agree with either subject or object, according to the meaning (cp. 586) : "la-Oi /xevTOL dv6r]To<; wv be sure^ however^ that you are foolish. Ax. II. 1, 13. rjixeis ahvvaroL opw/xcv ovre? TrepLyev ecrOaL we See that tee are unable to get the upper hand. T. i. 32. ya-Oer rfSc- Krjfievrj she perceived that she had beeri u^ronged. E. m. 26. cyw ov ^woiSa i/xavrw cro(fi6s wv I am not co7iscious of being wise, 16 242 SIMPLE SENTENCES Ap. 21 b. Cp. ifxavTi^ ^vvySr} ovSkv iir LcrTa/xevo) I ivas con- scious that I k?ietu 7iotliing (Ap. 22 d), with no essential differ- ence of meaning, because subject and object are the same person. 688 a. Most of the above verbs admit also as object a on clause (622). b. 'Akoi^w, alo-OdvofjiaL, TrvvOdvofjiai admit three constructions, usually distinct in meaning : d/cov(o Ttvos w. ptc. / hear^ with my own ears, something going on ; oLKovo) ri (or TLvd) w. ptc. / hear, am told, that ; aKovm w. ace. and inf. / hear, as report, or tradition, that . c. In like manner several verbs admit either a predicate participle or an infinitive, with different meaning : WITH PARTICIPLE ffyaLvofiat I plainly am. WITH INFINITIVE it appears {but may not true) that I ; to do something. apxofULL am at the heginning of, aiSovfxat i am ashamed of, \ al(Txvvofxai \ do with shame, ) ytyvtoo-KO) rccognize iTTLo-Tafxai understand that oT8a know I some- fiavOdvoi learn ' thing iTTtXavOdvof/xiL forget is, fxefjivrjfjLaL remember 589 A Participle may agree with a genitive which is not dependent on any other word ; the two are then in the Ge7iitive Absolute : ^Av€/3r) eVl TOL oprj ovSevo<; kcoXvovt o<; he went vp on the mountains, no one hindering. An. i. 2, 22. a. 'Ekwi/ willing and aKwv tinwilling are treated as par- ticiples : undertake, set about ; am ashamed to, refrain for shame ; decide understand how knoiv hoiv learn {lioiv) forget {how) remember PARTICIPLES 243 "A/covTo? oLTTLiov Kvpov gotug aiuay ivitliout Cyruses con- sent {Cyrus imwilUng). Ax. i. 3, 17. 590 In effect the Genitive Absolute is an abbreviated ad- verbial clause, of time, cause, condition, concession, or merely of attendant circumstance. These relations are not stated, but only implied in the context ; often one can not say which of two or more relations is more prominent : T ovTcop \e^0 4vr cov avicrrrjo-av til is sauI, they rose. Ax. III. 3, 1. ovhev tojp SeoPTOJV ir oiovvT (t)V v^ctjv KaKcj^ TOL irpdyixara ej^et affairs are in a had way ivliile (because ?) you are doing notJiing of ivliat you shoidd. D. 4, 2. koX ixeTaTrefnTOfiepov avrov ovK ideko) i\ddv even though he is sending for me^ I am univilling to go. Ax. i. 3, lo. a. The Participle may stand alone in the genitive absolute when the noun or pronoun is readily supplied from the con- text : 'EvreC^ev it polo v Tin v i<fiaiv€TO txvr] Linriov aS they loeilt 071 from there^ tracks of horses appeared. Ax. i. 6, 1. 591 A Participle may be in the Accusative Absolute instead of the genitive, when it is impersonal, or has an infinitive as subject : 'E^ov cJpyjv-qv ex^LV atpetrat TroAe/xctv whe?l it is pOSSlMe to have peace., he chooses tear. Ax. ii. 6, 6. oTo-^a, p.i\ov yi o-ol you k7i02v, since it is of interest to you. Ap. 24 d. So TrpocrrJKov since (or though) it is fitting, 8o|av it having heen agreed to., ah-qXov 6v it leing uncertain, rv^pv ly chance., and others. a. Even personal expressions are sometimes in the accusa- tive absolute, especially with ws or wo-7rep (593 c, d) : '^o)Kpdrr]<; tjvx'^to Trpos tov<s Oeovs (XTrAw? TdyaOa StSovat, ws rov^ Oeovs KoXXia-Ta etSoras Sokrates used to pray to the gods simply to give what teas good, feeling that the gods knew best {tvhat is good). M. i. 3, 2. 244: SIMPLE SENTENCES 592 A few adverbs, though belonging grammatically to the verb, often stand with and seem to modify a circumstantial par- ticiple ; such are a/xo, /xcra^v, €vOv<s, avTLKa, o/xcas : "A /A a TavT ctTTwv dv€(TT7j iinmediately as he said this he rose. An. hi. 1, 47. TroXKa-^ov fxe eTrecr^^e Aeyovra ficra^v if often checked me in the midst of my words {checked me mid- way, while Speaki7ig). Ap. 40 b. cvOvs TratSe? ovre? fxavOd- vova-Lv apx^i-v t€ kol apx^cOai immediately, tuhile hoys, they learn hoth to rule and to he ruled. An. i. 9, 4. iprjo-ofiaL Bk koI Ka/cws Trao-xovo-' o/xws / will ash, though wronged, none the less. E. M. 280. 693 Certain particles make raore distinct the relation of thouglit between the circumstantial participle and the rest of the sentence. a. "Are (less often olov^ oTa) shows that the par- ticiple is causal : 'EttI ttoXv rjv TOL VTTO^vyiaj are Slol crT€prj<; Trj<; oSov TTopevo iJi€pa the baggage animals extended a long way., because the road they were following was narrow. An. IV. 2, 13. b. KaLTrep (also /cat, though less distinctly) shows that the participle is concessive : Ou9 iyo) jxaWov (jyo^ovjJiaL r) tov<; d/^(^t Avvtov, Kaiirep ovt a<; kol tovtov<; Seuvovs whom I fear more than Anytos and his friends., although these also are formidable. Ap. 18 b. c. 'n? with a participle is often rendered by as ; but the idiom has been extended far beyond what is possible in English. In many cases w? implies that the statement of the participle is the thought of some PARTICIPLES 245 one mentioned in the context ; the translation must vary with the situation : Trjv -^copdv iTTeTpexjje hiapTracrai tol<s '^EkXrjcni' o) 9 TToXefjLLdv ovcrap he turned the land over to the GreeJcs to plu7idei% as heing hostile. An. i. 2, 19. crvWapi^dvei Kvpov w? OLTTo KTevwv he arrested Cyrns^ as intend- ing to hill him. an. i. 1, 3. ^EXeye dappeip ws KaraaTTjaopLivoiv rovroiv et9 TO hiov he told him to have no fear^ assuring him that this woidd settle itself properly. An. i. 3, 8. -^X- Oov iiTL Tiva rcov Sokovvtcjv cro(f)(x)v elvau, o) 9 ivravOa i\iy^(x)v TO pLavreiov I went to one of the men ivho seemed to he luise, thinking that there 1 should test the oracle. Ap. 21 c. iKTTt7rT0vr€<; Trap* 'AOr)paLov<; w 9 ySe- ^aiov 6 V dvexcopovv when exiled they withdrew to the Athenians^ with the idea that it was safe there, t. i. 2. d. "Qo-Trep just as, even as (cp. 216) is a strengthened w?, but it often requires a different translation : ''AAAoS dv€(TTr] cTTtSetKi/vs rrjv evT^Oeiav tov tol TrXola alrelv KeXevov- T09, wcTTrep TrdXiv tov cttoXov J^vpov ttolov jx€vov another arose, jjointing out the sim'plicity of the man who suggested ashing for boats, just as if Cyrus were making the expedition lack again. An. I. 3, 16. KaraKetfjieOa wa-irep i^ov rjcrvxtdv dyctv we are lying here just as if it icere possible to remain quiet. An. in. 1, 14. 594 With some verbs of knowing, thinking, saying, w? is used with a predicate participle ; in some cases a circumstantial parti- ciple with ws is used where we might expect a predicate par- ticiple : fi 9 /xev (TTpaTrjyi^a-ovTa ifxk TavT7]v rrjv (npaT-qytdv /xiySei? v/Acuv AcyeVo) let no one of you speak icitli the idea that I ivill retain command in this campaign (591 a). An. i. 3, 15. St^Aois 8' ws TL a-rjfjiavCiv viov you shoiv that you have something neiu 246 SIMPLE SENTENCES to reveal (you slioiv as one ahout to reveal). S. an. 242. ws Tro- Ae/Aov oi/Tos Trap' vfxoiv airayyekw shall I report from you that there is ivar 9 [shall I report with the understanding that there is ivar f). An. ii. 1, 21. 595 A Participle with av represents an optative or indica- tive with av, the context alone determining which (cp. 579) : Alrei f eVov?, w? ovto) tt e p ly evo jxev o<; av rcov avTLG-Ta(Tio)TO)v he asks for mercenaries, saying that thus he should get the hetter of his opponents (repre- senting TrepLyevoifjirjv av). An. i. 1, 10. %a>KpdTrj<; pa- Slco<; av a (f> e 9 el (; viro rcov SiKacTTcov TrpoeiXero drro- Oavdv Sohrates, who would easily have heen acquitted hy the judges, chose to die, m. iv. 4, 4. VERBAL ADJECTIVES IN -TE02 596 The Verbal in -Teo<; (cp. 352, 354) is generally passive in meaning; it may be used in the personal or the impersonal construction ; the agent in either construc- tion is expressed by a dative (524 b). a. The personal construction gives more promi- nence to the subject, with which the verbal agrees, as attributive or as predicate ; the copula is often omitted : 'EjLtot Tovro ov TTOLrjT eov this must not be done hy me, An. i. 3, is. ov Toaavra opr) opdre {jfjulv ovra TTopevrea ; do you not see so many mountains that must he traversed hy you ? An. h. 5, 18. b. The impersonal construction gives more promi- nence to the action ; the verbal is in the neuter sin- PREPOSITIONS 247 gular (sometimes in the plural), and may take an object ; the copula is often omitted : 'Hfilv y virep Trj<; iXevOeptds ay oiv lar 4ov W€ at least must 'make a struggle for freedom, d. 9, 70. Iriov ovv iirl a7ravra<; tov<; tl So/cou^^ra? etSeVat T had to go therefore (the context shows that '^v is understood) to all those who appeared to have some hnovjledge. Ap. 21 e. Tov<; (J)lXov<; ev € py errjT eov , rwv ^oaKrjixdrcov iiri- jjL€\r]T€ov one must benefit Ms friends, one must ca/re for his flocks. M. n. 1, 28. c. Some verbals in -rio^ have the meaning of the middle voice : Treta-Teov 0716 must obey^ ^v\a.Krkov we must he on our guard. PREPOSITIONS 597 All Prepositions were once adverbs ; Homer uses them as such freely, the Attic poets occasionally ; in Attic prose tt/oos alone is so used (cp. 437 a). But their special office, along with their use in composition (437, 440 a), is to connect nouns or pronouns with other words, making the relation plainer than the case ending would alone. a. The details of the use and meaning of prepositions are best learned from reading, and from vocabularies and the dic- tionary ; some of the chief distinctions only are given here. 598 *Aj/a, et9 or e? (and w?) take the Accusative ; 'Ei^ and avv take the Dative only ; 'Ai^rt, aTTo, ef, and upo take the Genitive only ; Ata, /caret, /xera, virip take the Accusative and Genitive ; 'AjLt(^t, eVt, TTapdj irepi^ Trpo^;, viro take the Accusa- tive, Genitive, and Dative. a. A preposition joined to a verb may affect the case of a noun or pronoun precisely as if it were not in composition. 248 COMPOUND SENTENCES b. The meaning of the noun or pronoun, or of the verb, often determines the meaning of the preposition ; a relation that is natural in one situation may be impossible in another. This principle has a wide application. Thus : ek rov TrorafjLov into the river, els dvSpa<s eyypdt^uv to enroll among men, ei? 8wa- liiv to the extent of one's power, ck TpidKovra to the number of thirty ; virh yijs under ground, v<j) rjfxiov Tl/iw/Aevos honored hy us ; Trapa tov Trora/xov oloiigside of the river, irapa paaikea to the king's side. 599 Besides the prepositions proper (i. e., those which may be compounded with verbs), a number of adverbs are often used with the genitive, and hence are called improper preposi- tions. Such are avev without, dxpi and /x-exp^ as far as, p-era^v between, ttXi^v except, hcKa (etvcKa, eVeKev) 071 account of, cyyvs and TrXyjcrtov 7iear, etc. (cp. 618 b, c). 11. COMPOUND SENTENCES 600 Successive independent sentences in Greek are usu- ally joined together in one of four ways : (1) By a coordinating conjunction; (2) By a demonstrative pronoun or adverb; this may be in the earlier sentence, pointing forward, or in the latter, pointing backward ; (3) By a relative pronoun or adverb, at the begin- nincr of the second sentence ; (4) By a particle standing early in the second sentence, and referring to the preceding sentence. a. Absence of such a connective [da-vvherov not bound together, asyndeton), though so common in English, is gener- ally in Greek a mark of emotion. Thus the following passage (L. 12, 100) shows far more feeling than the English version : aKryKoarc, ewpa/care, TrcTToV^aTC, c^cre • StKa^ere yoU have heard, seen, suffered, you have him-, give judgment. COMPOUND SENTENCES 249 b. Eepetition of some significant word {ava<f>opd anapliora)^ with asyndeton, is an emotional way of connecting sentences : Tt' ovv l(TTL TovTo ; aTTLcrr la. ravTrjv cf>v\dTT€T€, ravTrj^ avrir X^a-Oe what, then, is this? Distrust. Guard this, cling to this. D. 6, 24. 601 When successive sentences, independent in construc- tion, are joined by a coordinating conjunction, and are so united in speaking as to make one, the whole is called a Compound Sentence. 602 The principal coordinating conjunctions are the following ; details of their use and meaning are to be learned in reading ; nearly all have other uses too (cp. 665-673). a. Copulative Conjunctions : Kat, re (enclitic) aiid ; ovSe, fJir)S€, ovT€, jx-qre and UOt, nor. Kat . . . Kat, T€ . . . Kat both . . . and, ovT€ . . . ovT€, fn]T€ . . . jxrjTe neither . . . nor, are fre- quent combinations. b. Adversative Conjunctions : aXka hut, 8c (postpositive) lut, and, ardp hut, however, fiivTot (postpositive) however, yet, KairoL and yet. c. Disjunctive Conjunction : rj or. rj ... t] either .. . or, is a frequent combination. d. Inferential Conjunctions : dpa then, accordi^igly, as it seems; ovv therefore, then; vw or vvv (enclitic and poetic), tol- vvv unemphatic 7iow, then (cp. 673). e. Causal Conjunction : yap for (cp. 672). 603 Instead of a full compound sentence, a sentence with a com- pound subject or a compound predicate may be used {Abbre- viated Compoimd Sentence) : 'O Se Tret^erat Kat (rvA.Xa/x/3av€t Kvpov he believed it and arrested Cyrus. An. i. 1, H, cTra^tws yap ^ol(3o<;, d^tw? 8c (TV Trpo Tov OavovTO^ rrjvS' eOecrO* i7rLcrTpo(f>T^v for right tUOrthily hath Phoibos, and ivorthily hast thou, bestowed this care for him that is dead. S. ot. 133 f. 250 COMPLEX SENTENCES PARATAXIS AND HYPOTAXIS 604 When two sentences, independent in form, are so united in speaking that one is subordinate to the other in thought, they are called Par atactic'^ {TrapaTaa-a-oi arrange beside). In form, as written, they are simply coordinate sentences not joined together by a conjunction : 'E-TriVrao-^e kol v/xct?, olfxai you hnow it yourselvBS^ I thinh. An. III. 2, 8. r]hi(TT av (XKovo-ai/xt to ovofxa, tl<s ovto)<s icrrl 8etvos Xeyeiv; I sJiould like Very much to hear the name, tuho is so skilled iyi talking 9 An. n. 5, 15. ev fxivTot lam, iraa-av vfuv rrjv aX-qOetav epoi he assured, hoiuever, I shall tell you the ivhole truth. Ap. 20 d. LKvovfjiai [xy] 7rpoSov<5 rjixas yevy do not aia7ldon US, I entreat. S. ai. 588. 605 Out of such paratactic sentences have grown all types of Sub- ordination, or Hypotaxis (vTroTaa-a-oi arrange under). A sen- tence is 8uhordi7iate when it is made part of another, with the value of a noun, adjective, or adverb. III. COMPLEX SE^^TEXCES 606 A Complex Sentence consists of a principal sentence and one or more subordinate sentences, which are then called clauses. a. The Principal or Leading clause may be of any type of simple sentence (451-489). b. A Subordinate clause is marked (1) Always by an introductory subordinating word ; (2) Often by a change of mode ; (3) Sometimes by a change of person, in verb and pronoun ; 1 Such sentences are even more common in English of familiar style than in Greek literature as we have it. MVj CLAUSES 251 (4) Sometimes by a change of tense ; but only in the indicative, from present to imperfect or from per- fect to pluperfect.' c. A direct quotation, or an indirect question that retains the direct form, though clearly subordinate, can hardly be separated from cases of parataxis (604). 607 The tenses in subordinate clauses have the same force as in simple sentences ; but when they denote time, their time is often merely relative to that of the lead- ing clause. 608 Since the introductory subordinating word is what always and most clearly marks the subordinate clause, that is made the basis for classifying and describing such clauses. 609 Three functions, in the following order of development, may belong to a subordinating word : (1) It has its own construction in the subordinate clause, as adverb, pronoun, or adjective. (2) It connects the subordinate clause with some word, expressed or implied, in the leading clause. (3) Both these functions fall into the background, and ' one or both may disappear, as the subordinating word comes more distinctly to denote the relation of clause to clause, rather than of word to word. Mti clauses 610 Mr; (cp. 486) is often a subordinating conjunction (lest, that, that not) after expressions of fear or caution, * In English, change of order is often the only sign of subordination ; so sometimes change of tense. 252 COMPLEX SENTENCES and sometimes after expressions of preventive action implying caution. (Negative ov. Cp. also 474.) 611 In Mif clauses a. An indicative (present, perfect, imperfect, ao- rist) denotes a present or past fact : AeSoLKa fjLTj Tr\rjyo)v 8eei Tin afraid you need a whipping, Ar. n. 493. c[)0^ovfJieda /x 17 afji(f)OT€pa)V rj fxapTT] KafjL€p we fear that we have failed of both. T. III. 53. b. A subjunctive (rarely the future indicative) de- notes something still future, or treated as unsettled : Okvol7)v av €19 TOL TrXota ifx^aiveLVy jjirj rjjxa^ Kara- hvcrrj I should hesitate to go aboard the boats^ lest he sink us, An. i. 3, 17. SeStw? fxr) \a^d)v fxe hiKr)v iiriOrj fearing that he will take and punish me. An. I. 3, 10. opa fjLT} ajjia rco KaKco koX alcT^pa fj beware lest it be (see that it be not) shameful too as well as evil, Cr. 46 a. TravaaLy p. 7) iff) ev p €0 fj <; avov<; stop, that you be not found foolish, s. an. 281. Note that lest and that not are often equivalent. In the last example we might say lest you le found ; fxr] ov l<j>€.vpSrj<i would be lest you le not found — the negative of ^r] i(fievpeOyj<s. c. An optative denotes something future or treated as unsettled at the time of the principal verb, and also presents it as more remote from the speaker or writer — e. g., as the thought of another person, or as belonging to a past or an improbable situation. The optative is therefore common after a past tense and after another optative, but is otherwise rare : "Os AND "Oo-ris CLAUSES 253 ^ESetcraz/ ol "EXXi^t'e? fXTj tt p ocr dyoiev Trpo? to K€pa^ the Greeks feared they would advance on their jiank. An. i. lO, 9. eSo/cet airiivai inl to aTpaToireSop fjLT) eVt^ecrtg yivoiTo it seemed best to go hack to the camp, lest an attach should he made. An. iv. 4, 22. virai Tt? dp/3vXd<; \voLy /x ij rt? TrpoacoOev o/A/xaro? /3dXoL ^dovo^ let one undo my shoes, lest from afar an envious look should smite me. a. a. 938. "Os AND "Oo-TLS CLAUSES 612 The Relative Pronoun og (213) connects its clause with some noun or pronoun, and lias its own construction in the subordinate clause. (So of its compounds ocnrepy oaTL<;, etc.) a. The connecting force of 09 may be no stronger than that of a demonstrative. The os clause is then really inde- pendent. When clearly subordinate, the os clause often precedes the leading clause, or may be included within it. 613 a. The Eelative Pronouns take their gender, number, and person from the antecedent ; but sense may pre- vail over form, and when the relative is the subject a predicate noun sometimes prevails over the ante- cedent. b. The Relative is often attracted from its proper case to the case of the antecedent, especially /rom the accusative to the genitive or dative : ^Ai^8p€9 d^LOi Trj<; iXevO e p Ld<; 179 KeKTrjcrOe men ivorthy of the freedom which you possess. Ax. i. 7, 3. (l)oj3oLiJLrjv avT(^r)y€fx6vL w 80117 iireadai I should 254 COMPLEX SENTENCES fear to folloiv the guide whom he may give, An. i. 3, 17. c. Rarely the antecedent is attracted to the case of the relative, the two standing side by side : *Ai/€tA€v avTw 6 'AttoAAwi/ 6 eol^s ol<s eSei Ovciv Apollo in re- sponse told him tlie gods to ivliom lie should sacrifice. An. III. 1, 6. d. The antecedent may be taken up into the subordinate clause, OS agreeing with it adjectively : TouTovs apxovras liroUi rj<S KaT€crTpecf>CTo ;>(wpds these he made rulers of the territory which {of what territory) he suldued. An. I. 9, 14. The antecedent may be omitted ; it is often indefinite and therefore not expressed ; it may none the less attract the rela- tive from the accusative to the genitive or dative (613 b) : Nvi/ hraLVoi ere icfi' ols Aeyets re kol Trparrets now I praise you for lohat you hoth say and do. An. hi. 1, 45. a /x^ oTSa ovSe oto/xat elSevai what I do not Jcnow, I also do not think I hnoiv. Ap. 21 d. e/xyaei/OjUei/ oX'i oiixoXoyrjcrafxev 8tKat06S ovg-lv rj ov; do We abide hy luhat we agreed was just, or not ? Cr. 50 a. a. From the customary omission of the antecedent have arisen some common idiomatic expressions : ela-lv oi, more often ) some, literally the7'e are who, e(TTLV OL {wv, 6i<i, ovs, o) ) ctc. ea-Tiv oa-TLs; (interrogative) is there any 07ie ivho? iviore (from evt ore) sometimes, €(TTLv ov somewhere, ea-TLv fi in some way, ovK €(TTLv oTTws thcre is no way how. b. AVith these may be put ovSds o(ttl<s ov there is no one ivho . . . not ; through omission of the verb and the attrac- tion of the antecedent to the case of the relative (613 c), the phrase is treated as a single pronoun meaning every one, and is then declined : "Os AND "Oo-rts CLAUSES 255 OvSeva ovTLV* ov KareKAao-e he l)7'olce cloWfl evevy 0716. Ph. 117 a. 615 A "05 Clause may take any form that is used in simple sen- tences (461-489). It may suggest cause, purpose, concession, and other relations. The negative is ov or /^rj according to the meaning : TotovTOVS eTTCTre/x-TTovo-t' /xot, ots tfjieL<s ovk av SiKaCwS ttlo"- T€voLT€ they send against 7ne such people^ whom you would not justly believe. L. 7, 40. o /x.^ yevotro which heaven forMd {tnay ivhich not happen I). eSo$e rw Srjfjuo TpiaKovra avSpas iXi- (tOul, o t tovs Trarpi'ovs vofiov^ avyy pd\j/ov(T l^ Koh^ ovs tvoWt^v- (T over I the people voted to choose thirty men to codify the ances- tral laws^ in accordance icith which they should conduct the govermnent. H. n. 3, 2. TroTa/xov, ov fxr) Trepda-rj's a river ^ which do not thou pass. A. PB. 744. TrXdvrjv cfipda-w, yv iyypd- cf>ov (TV p.vr)pLocnv Se'Arot? ^pcvoiv I tcill tell thy wandering^ which do thou lorite in the tablets of thy me^nory. A. pb. 815. a. Instead of repeating a relative in a different case in the same sentence, Greek usually changes to a demonstrative or relative pronoun, or leaves the relative to be supplied : 'B,€VO<f>ii)V, OS ovre a-Tparrjyos ovre o-rpaTidiT'qS u>v crvvf] koXov- $€1, dXXa Hpo^evos avrov fjieTeTrefJuj/aTo JietlOphon, who ivas icith them neitlier as genercd 7ior as soldier., but Proxe7ios had sent for him. Ax. iii. 1, 4. 616 In "09 Clauses that differ in form from simple sen- tences, a. A subjunctive (with av^ which is sometimes omitted in poetry, rarely in prose) describes a sup- posed or assumed case, which may or may not be real. The time is future, or present in the generalized sense (i. e., applying to present, past, and future alike). The subjunctive is especially common when the ante- cedent is indefinite : 256 COMPLEX SENTENCES 'O avrjp TToWov dfto? <^iXos w av <^tXo9 fj the man is a valuable friend to any one to whom he is a friend (generalized present). An. i. 3, 12. rw av^pi ov kv eXrjcrOe ireiao p.ai I will obey the man lohom you choose (in tlie future). An. i. 8, 15. w fxaKoipLOL Brjra ot av vfjLMv iir l8 (OCT L tyjv TracTCDv rj^Lanqp yjixepav O blessedj therefore, whoever among you shall behold that sweetest day of all ! n. n. 4, 17. TtJoi/ TrrjfiovCjv fxaXicTTa Xvttovct at (fiavCxr avOaiperoL tllOSe griefs give most pain that are seen to he self-clioseyi. S. ot. 1231. SeSoLKa jxr} ovk e)((o LKavovs ots 8w^ I fear I sJiall not have enough people to ivhom to give. An. i. 7, 7. b. An optative (without av) describes an assumed case, but as more remote in thought from the speaker ; e. g., as the thought of another person, or as part of a past or imaginary or improbable situation. The time is future, or present in the generalized sense, with ref- erence to the time of the main verb. The optative is es23ecially common after a past tense, and when the antecedent is indefinite, or the assumed situation is thought of as having occurred repeatedly : ^KirriyyeWov 01 Trpecr^et? ec^' of 9 ot AaAceSat/xoi^tot TToiolvTo rrjv elprjvrjv the envoys reported on what terms the Spartans offered to make the peace, h. n. 2, 22. TrpoTepov OVK e^cov 7Tp6(j)acnv i(j) 7) 9 rov f^iov \6yov SoLTjv, vvv\ eiLXrj(f)a whereas before I had no pretext ^ others explain this differently. But cp. Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, 588-540. Both in relative clauses and in et clauses with the subjunctive iiv is omitted regularly in Homer, often in Attic poets, and certainly sometimes in Attic prose.' In this example tv would have been natural; the omis- sion does not change the meaning. Cp. also 621 a. "Os AND "OcTTis CLAUSES 257 on which to give an account of my life, now I have got one, l. 24, i. 'OKvoLr)p av et? ra TrXota i^^aiveiv a rjfuv Ki)po9 8 17^ I should hesitate to go aboard any boats given by Cyrus (supposing him to give any). An. i. 3, 17. dXX' ov TToXt? cTTT] (reue^ rovSe )(pr) Kkveiv but ivhom- soever the state appoints, him we should obey. s. an. 666. 'Aei 77/009 M eiT) €pyo), tovto eirpaTTev always, at whatsoever task he was, that he strictly pursued, h. iv. 8, 22. 617 In place of a subjunctive or optative in o? clauses one could in any instance use the indicative. This merely left unex- pressed (except by the context, which is usually enough, as in English) the suggestion conveyed by the other modes : ''A /at) otSa, ouSc oioynat etSeVat ivliat I do 710 f kfioto, neither do I think I know, Ap. 21 d. (Here fjcrj shows that the ex- pression is general — ivhatevei\ at any time, I do not knoiv.) OvK hi cfipovTcSo-s €7x°^ ^ ''■'^ dAe^erat nov is there any iveapon of thought ivhereivith to defend {ivherewith one shall defend). S. ot. 170. Hapov fioL firj Oaveiv virep ai$€v, aX\* avSpa a-)(€Lv ©ecro-aXoov ov rjOeXov though it was i7i my poicer not to die for you, hut to get as hushand lohom I would of the Thessalians. E. al. 285. (Alkestis had no one man in mind ; the expression is general.) 618 "Ocrrt? Clauses take all the forms of "O? Clauses (615, 616), and the modes have the same force. But though the antecedent is usually indefinite, the indicative (617) is more frequent than in "O? Clauses : a. Subjunctive: aTrd? 8e rpd^v^ ocrrt? ap viov K parrj and every one is harsh thafs nexo in power. A. PB. 35. (Tvv viiiv 6 T L av Ser) 7r€tcro/xat with you I will suffer whatever we must, An. i. 3, 5. 17 258 COMPLEX SENTENCES Without av : KoKov rot yAwo-cr* oria Trtcrr^ '^^PV H is a fin e tiling^ whoever has a trusty tongue. E. it. 1064. b. Optative: ovcniv ql% -^peir) ap^eiv Traprjy- ■ yeWov they gave orders what men should hold office. L. 12, 44. ala^pov vixlv KoX Tjvrivovv [81^171^] aTroknreiv TjvT IV a Tt9 /3 ovXoLTO TTapoL TovTcov Xajx^dveiv it is shameful for you that any (^penalty^ ivhatever should he lacking which any one might rvish to exact from these men. l. 12, 84. (Here the optative hightens to the utmost the inclusiveness of the expression — the most unlikely wish could not go too far.) c. Indicative where subjunctive or optative would have been appropriate : "Oo-Tts tpjv iTTLOvjxeL^ TTCipddOoi vIkolv wlioever is eager to live, let him try to conquer. An. hi. 2, 39. -jrapia-xov ifiavrov 6 TL povXea-Oe ^rjo-Oai I offered myself for you to treat in whatever way you ivill. L. 7, 40. 619 "Oo-rt? with an indicative often suggests cause, purpose, or result, by treating a definite antecedent as indefinite in order to characterize it (generally of persons) : Tt TOV 6€o2<S t^KTTOV OV (TTUyetS OeOV, O (T T t S TO (TOV OrjVTOLCTL 7rpov8(jDK€v yepas why dost thou not hate this god, to gods most hateful, one who betrayed thy prize to men? A. pb. 38. UpecrlSeLdv Trifnreiv ^ris ravT ipel to send an efuMssy to say this. D. l, 2. Tl<s ovTOi jxacveTai oo-rts ov ^ovXerat (tol (ftlXos cTvai who IS so mad as not to icish to le your friend? An. ii. 5, 12. OTHER RELATIVE CLAUSES 620 Like "O? and "Ocrri? Clauses, in construction and in the use of modes, are Clauses introduced by the other Relative Pronouns, o, o(jo<i.^ 0X0% y]KiKo% orrocrosj oirolos, OTHER RELATIVE CLAUSES 259 oTTT^XtKo?, oTTorepo^ (227), or by the Kelative Adverbs ovj oOev, ol, f), oTTou, OTToOevj oTTOLy oTTTj, OY hj €p6a, evOev^ wlien these are relative (236) : AeOpd ixoL (^(x)vei ^Xeircov ocr av a i p ojt cj look this tvay and answer wJiatever I ash you. s. ot. 1122. avv vfjuv fxev av ot/xat eivai rt/xto? ottov av o) tvitll you I thinh I sJiould he in honor wherever I am. An. I. 3, 6. 'O a o)v \p av o L fji i Travroiv rcovS* ael p.erei^eTiqv all that I touched^ this they ahoays both shared, s. ot. i4G4. OTTOV fxev aTpaTTjyo^ crajg etT/, rov (TTparriyov irape- KokovVy OTToOev he oi^oiro, rov virocTTpdnqyov ivlierever a general was safe, they invited the general, and from tvhatever division he was gone, the second in command. An. m. 1, 32. 'Ev T-fl Kvpov o-p-^rj cyeVero dSctos iropevecrOai OTry rii iqSeX^v in Cyrus's iwovince it Iccame possible to travel fearlessly wher- ever one ivislied. An. i. 9, 13. Kpvi{/(D t6S^ ^yx°'* ^y^o. jxt^ rt? oif/eraL I ivill hide this sivord ivhere none shall see it. S. ai. 659. a. "Oo-o? and olo^ are often exclamatory, with no antecedent expressed ; the clause then has the form of a simple sentence. rjXiKos and other relatives are sometimes so used : "Oo-os Trap' vfuv 6 <f>06vo9 ^vXaaa-^rai hoiv great the envy that is stored tvith you I S. ot. 382. olov p! aKova-avr dpruos €^€L \f/v^<s irXavrjiia what icandeving of soul, at hearing this just noiv, possesses me ! S. ot. 726. 621 The general relatives, oo-rts, ottoo-os, etc. (227), and ottov, o-rroOev, etc. (236), are also indirect interrogatives, used in quoted questions. The direct interrogatives (227, 236) are also used in indirect questions. Such clauses have the form of a simple sentence ; but when they depend on a historical tense (246), an indicative or 260 COMPLEX SENTENCES subjunctive of the direct form may be changed to the opta- tive. "O Tt vynets TrcTTov^are ovk oTSa Jiotv you have heen affected {ivliat you have experienced) I do not knoiv. Ap. 17 a. otto tots Aoyots €7reto-e JLvpov aXXrj yiypaiTTai hy ichat arguments he con- vinced Cyrus has heen written elsewhere. An. ii. 6, 4. ovk l^^ (T6<f>L(r/jL OTO) (XTraAXaycu I have no device whereby I shall escape. A. PB. 487. (Direct : rtVt a-Oi^tV/Aart aTraAAayoj; 471.) "O/xoLOL rj(rav Oavfid^ova-LV ottol ttotc t p eif/ov rat ol "EAAt/vcs KOL T t €v vw ex o t e v they ivere like people who wondered tchither the Greeks would turn and what they had in mind. An. III. 5, 13. a. By omission of the antecedent, o? and the other simple relatives become sometimes in effect indirect interrogatives : Ei^€ iLTjirore yoLrj<s os et mayst thou never learn who thou art. S. OT. 1068. Perhaps SeSoLKa fxrj OVK e^w t/cavou? ots 8co (An. i. 7, 7) also belongs here, because fxy ovk e^w o tl 8co, a quoted dubitative subjunctive (471), stands just before, in the same sentence. Cp. 615 a, foot-note. "On, AiOTi, AND Ow6Ka CLAUSES 622 "Ort, the neuter of octtls, becomes a subordinating conjunction (that) after many words of thinking, saying, and the like ; it introduces quoted Avords or thoughts, those of another or of the speaker, as an object, subject, or appositive clause : ^^vvoiqaoLTO) on TravTa^ov ravra y lyv et ai let liinn reflect that this happens everywhere, ii. n. 8, 24. tovto ytyvaxTKCDV, on 77 8' ecrrlv rj crcot^ovcTa recognizing thiSj that it is she (the state) that saves us. s. an. iss. eXeyov on Kvpo? reOvr) Kev they said that Cyrus was dead. An. h. 1, 3. On, AioVi, AXD OiJv€Ka CLAUSES 261 a. "Otl also introduces subject and appositive clauses of the same kind after S^Xov ia-n it is plain, etKos eo-rt it is probable, and the like ; these clauses are treated as quoted thoughts : ArjXov OTt Trava-ofxai 6 ye aKOJV ttolQ) it is plain that I shall stop doing what I do unintentiotially. Ap. 26 a. aAXw? yvwa-- Tov OTt dXrjOrj Acyw on other grounds it may he perceived that I tell the truth. H. ii. 3, 44. b. "Otl has also the force of in that and because ; in these senses it may introduce any form of the indicative sentence or of the hypothetical optative (479) : To, iilv oAAa 6pOC)<s ^Kov(ra<s- or l Bk koL i/xk o t € t eiTrttv tovto, 7rapriKov(ra<s the rest you heard rightly ; but in that you suppose I too said this, you heard ivrongly. Pr. 330 e. ala-xvvofxevo'i OTL (TvvoiSa e/xavTw iij/€vaix€vo<s avTov ashamed bccause I am conscious of having deceived him. An. i. 3, 10. fjurj Oavfjid^ere OTL xaAcTTw? (fiipu) do not be surprised that I feel badly. An. i. 3, 3. TL TTOT ovv Tii)v ijjiOL TTeTTpdy/xiviov ov)(i /xe/AVT/rat ; otl tcov dSLK-tjixoLTOiv av i/jLefiv-qTo rcov avTov ivhy, pray, has he 7iot men- tioned my acts? Because he ivould have mentioned his own wrong-doings. D. 18, 79. c. A OTt clause often precedes its leading clause : "OTt dStKcto-^at vop^L^eL vc{>' rj/xwv oTSa that he thinks him- self wronged by us I am sure. An. i. 3, 10. 623 A quotation introduced by oTt may retain its original form, as a simple, compound, or complex sentence (direct quotation) ; OTt is then merely a mark of quotation, not to be translated : 'O? d7ro(f>avC)V tw )(py](rfJi<Z otl " ovTOcri ifJiov aocfxjjTcpo^ Icttl, av 8' Ipx e<j>Y)(TOa" thinking that I should shotv to the oracle, " This man here is wiser than I, but you said 1 2uas.^' Ap. 21 c. 624 a. An Indirect Quotation with otl usually retains tlie tense and mode of the direct form : ^avepo)<; elirev otl tj fiep 7t6\l<; cr(f)cov reret^^icr- rat Tjhr] he said openly that their city was already 262 COMPLEX SENTENCES walled. T. I. 91. TOVTO Ka\a)<; r^TTiaravTO, on aXXw? ixev ovx ^^^^ ^^ eaovTai TTepiyeveaOai tJiey Tcnew this well^ that otherwise tliey would he unable to get the iippe7' hand, l. 12, 45. b. But after a historical tense an optative may stand in tlie indirect form for an indicative or sub- junctive of tlie direct form : Ki}po9 e\eyev on rj 6809 ecroiro 7rpo9 ^aaikea Cyrus said that their marcJi would he (direct, earai) against the Icing. An. i. 4, 11. eXeyov on Kupo? ^xev r eOvr) Kev 'Aptato? §e 7re(j)€vya)<; eliq koI \eyoi on TavTTjv fiev Trjv rjixepdv it € p l fxev o'iev avTOv<;^ rfj 8e dWr) oLTTiivai c^atT^ they said that Cyrus was dead (direct, ridv^K^^ and that Ariaios had fled (Trec^evyw? eVrt, 7re(^€vye), and said (Xeyei or eXeye) that during this day he would wait for them (the messenger said TrepLfjLeveLj Ariaios said irepip^evco), and that he decla/red {€(j)r)) that on the next day he ivoidd depart. An. h. 1, 3. Note that a pres. opt. may represent the imperfect indie. ; but the change to the optative is never made when it could cause ambiguity. c. Sometimes a present or perfect indicative of the direct form is changed to an imperfect or pluperfect in the indirect, as is usual in English : 'El/ TToXXrl aTTopta -^(rav ol "EAXryve?, ivvoovjxevoi fxkv or l Ittl rats jSacrtAcws 6vpaL<s y crav , TrpovScSwKetrav 8e avrovs koI ol ^dp/Sa- poi the Greehs ivere in great difficulty^ refiecting that they were at the hinges gates (direct, IttI rah OvpaL<; eo-yaeV), and that the barbarians also had abandoned them {r]ixa<s Tr/ooSeSw/cao-i). An. III. 1, 3. 625 By the omission of verbs arise expressions like SrjXov Stl evi- dently, oTS' oTt / am sure, surely, ovx ^'^^ i^^^ ^^'^ ^P^ ^'^0 ^^^ CLAUSES WITH "Ore, 'EircC, ETC. 263 merely^ jxr] on (for fxrj et7ro>, €L7rr}S, V7roXdl3rj'S ort) TlOt to Say^ TlOt only. 626 AioTt (for 8ta ort) wherefore^ because^ that., is used like on, often in the sense of because., sometimes in the sense of that. ovv€Ka (for ov eveKtt) tvherefore, that, is used like on in poetic style : *ETvy;(ave €<^* dixd^rjq Tropcvo/xcvos Stori ir ir pioro it hap- pened that he tvas riding in a wagon^ because he was ivounded. An. II. 2, 14. OvTos 8c fxoL <j>iXo<i ovv€K 'ArpctSd? (TTvyel this man is my friend because he hates the Atreidai. S. ph. 586. la-di tovto irpoiTov ovv€Ka "EAAt^vc? ia-fxev Jcnow this first, that we are Greeks. S. ph. 232. CLAUSES WITH "Ot€, 'Ottotc, 'Eirei, 'HviKa, 'OiniviKa 627 ''Ore wMlej when, and 'Oirore wlienever (236), intro- duce temporal clauses, the time of which is commonly the same as that of the leading verb. When av with the subjunctive follows, av is joined to the conjunc- tion ; oT^ av becomes orav, oirore av becomes birorav. "Ore and 'OTrore, like iclien, since, while^ often take a causal meaning ; rarely they take a concessive mean- ing, altliougli. "Ore and ^Oirore Clauses are like "O? and "Ocrrt? Clauses. With the subjunctive they are always tem- poral : ''Ore TavTa tjv, (j\ehov fiecrau -qaav vvKje^ it was about midniglit ivhen this was tahing place. An. m. i, 34. ivTavOa 'Bep^r]^;^ ore eK T7J<; 'EXXaSo? aTre^wpei, Xeyerai OLKO^ofJirjcraL Tavra ra ySacrtXeia there Xevxes 1 Lat. cum has like changes of meaning ; but the Greek use of modes must not be confused with the Latin. 264 COMPLEX SENTENCES is said to have huilt tliis palace when he was returning fronn Greece. An. i. 2, 9. (Here the inf. oiKohojjirjo-aL, representing an aor. indie, is tlie leading verb for the ore clause which fixes its time.) ot^ ovv irapaivova ovSev €9 7T\iov TTOLCOy 77/309 CTC LKeTi^ dcfilyfJiaL since then I accomplish nanght hy advising (liim), to thee I have come, a suppliant. S. ox. 918. ^aXcTra ra irap- ovTa, OTTO re avhpcov (TTpaTrjycjv tolovtwv aTepo- [led a the present situation is hard, since tve are hereft of such commanders. Ax\. m. 2, 2. 'Orav <T7T€v8r] rt? aurdg, x^ ^^^^ avvaTTTeTai whenever one shows zeal himself j God also aids. a. p. 744. orav hrj (xr) crOivoj TreTravaofiai I will stop when in truth I have no more strength, s. an. 91. ''Ore e^co rov heivov y iv oivt o^ iroWol avTov airi- XeiTTov whenever they got out of danger, many would leave him. An. n. 6, 12. a Ik^vo^ iOrjpevev oltto Ittttov OTTore yvfJivdcrai /3 ovXolt o eavrov re Kai tovs tV- TTov^ tvhich he used to hunt on horsehach, whenever he wished to exercise both himself and his horses. An. i. 2, 7. 628 Evre and cvt av in poetry have the same meaning and use as ore and orav : Etire y e^ aiXTrriav AtaS fieTeyv m(t6 t] Ovfiov nOlV that AiaS, beyond our hope, has repented of his tvrath. S. ai. 715. evrc TTOVTOS iv ixc(Tr]ixj3pLva2<s KOLTai^ oLKvixiov vr)vefJiOL<s evSoL Trecrwv * The opt. in subordinate clauses of repeated past action, the use of the impf. and aor. indie, with &v in principal clauses for occasional past action (361 a, 367 a), and our similar use of would, as in translating the above sentence, all seem to proceed from the same mental tendency. Instead of making the statement in the form of a fact, it is made in the form of a supposed case; the context shows that the case assumed is understood as a typical one, such as occurred repeatedly. CLAUSES WITH "Ore, 'Eircf, ETC. 265 whenever the sea fell waveless in its calm 7nidday couch and slept. A. A. 570. 629 'ETTct when^ after tliat^ after ^ introduces temporal clauses, the time of whicli is earlier than that of the leading clause. When av with the subjunctive follows, av unites with eVet and forms iiTrjv or eTrdv. 'Ettci also takes a causal, rarely a concessive, mean- ing — since^ whiles whereas, rarely although. *E7r€t Clauses are like "O? and ''Ore Clauses. With the subjunctive they are always temporal. 'ETTctST^ (with av, eVetSai^) is a strengthened form of eVet. eVetSaz/ is more frequent than iirriv or 'Ettci er€XeuTT7cre Act/aeto?, Ticr(Ta(j)€pj/r]<; Sta- ^dXXei Kvpop after Dareios died, lissaphernes slan- dered Cyrus. An. I. 1, 3. cTret u/xeZ? e^ot ovk iOi- Xere TreiOeaO ai, iyco avv vfjilv expofxai since you are imivilling to obey me, I ^oill folloio you. An. i. 3, 6. € 77 e 1 8 17 Ki}y909 i KaXety Xa^cov vfjid<; iTropevofJLrjv when Cyrus called, I tooh you and went. An. i. 3, 4. lirel Tovro iyivero koX tov^ veKpoiJ<; vttoctttop^ov^ dire- 8 lB oa av, TTpocriovTe'^ dXXyjXov^; ttoXXoI SieXeyovro after this was over and they loere giving hach the dead under a truce, many approached and talked ivith each other, n. n. 4, 19. 'O 8' viricr^eTo dvhpX eKdara) Sco(T€lv Trivre dypvpiov ixvd<; iwrjv el<; ^a^vXoiva rJKOjai and he promised that he would give each man five minae in money after they should get to Babylon (the mode of the direct form, lirriv y^Kcofiev, retained), an. 1.4, 13. eirei- 266 COMPLEX SENTENCES Sap oLTravTCL dKovo-rjre Kptvare after you have lieard all, then judge, d. 4, 14. aav Koi TToXiv err el tt^tj a idt^oiev ol lttttol, ravTov iiTOLovv the asses, whenever any one pursued them, would run forward and then stand still ; and again they would do the same whenever the horses dreiv near. An. I. 5, 2. iireiSy] dv oiy^d (.it), elafjiJiev irapd rov ^ (OK parr) as soon as it (the prison) was opened, ive used to go in where Sohmtes was. Ph. so d. a. 'E-TTct clauses may, like os clauses (612 a), be so loosely joined to the preceding sentence as to be in fact independent : *E7r€t /cat TovTO ye //-ot SoKet KaXov etvat altJlOUgll this toO seems to me to he a fine thing. A p. 19 e. 630 'Hi/tKa ivhen and 'OTrrjvLKa whenever are like ore and ottotc in meaning and use, but they generally define the time more precisely— ;/t^5^ tvhen, at the very time luhen ; they are much less frequent than ore and ottoVc : *Hi/tKa SuXt] iy tyv €t o, icfjdvr) KovLoprbs wcnrep v€<l>iXrj XevKrj just as evening was coming on^ there apj^eared a rising of dust ^ like a luhiie cloud. Ax. i, 8, 8. i-mx^Lpei yvLKa av rjjxd^ jxr] SwaifjieOa Ikcl(T€. dc^tKeV^at he mahcs attempts just ivhen ive should he unahle to get there. D. 4, 31. 'E^ap^w ph/ ovv iyoi rjv lk av KaLpb<s rj Tratava I tvill mgself, then.) lead in a paean when the right moment comes. II. ii. 4, 17. EtpTTC 8' aXkoT aXkaya. tot av etAvo/zevo?, av lk* i^avecrj BaKc- 6vp,o<; ard then he would drag himself this wag and that (after food), whenever the devouring anguish ahated. S. pn. 705. CLAUSES WITH "E(OS, "EcTTC, Me'xpl, "Axpl 631 "Ew? ivhile, so long as, until, likewise "Ecr-re, Mex/at ov, lAiyjpi,"" K^pi {pv), until, so long as, introduce Relative Clauses of time. The indicative states a fact, present CLAUSES WITH "Ews, "Eo-re, M^xpi, "Axpi 267 or past ; tlie subjunctive (with avj sometimes with- out) and the optative (without av) have the same force as in os clauses (615 a, b). In the sense of loliile^ so long as, they naturally take one of the tenses of continuance (present, imper- fect, perfect) ; in the sense of U7itil they generally take the aorist : 'Eoj? fxiv o fxev avrov, (jKeTrriov [xol So/ccl onco^;, ktX, ivliile we remain here^ it seems to me we must consider llOW^ etc. Ax. I. 3, 11. € w 9 y^v irl fJLOLTO, ttlcttov eav- Tov irapei^ev SO long as he was honored^ he shoioed himself faitlif id. L. 12, G6. Upoo'iJLeLvavTe<; € w 9 tov<; v€Kpov<s dv e lXopt o ol 7rpoo-if]KopTe<; waiting vntil their hinsmen had tahen iip the dead. H. h. 4, 7. raGra iiToiovv pii^pi aK6T0<; iyivero this they hept doing till darhiess came on. An. IV. 2, 4. ''Ea)9 8' av ovv i k fjid9r)<;, e^ iXniSa but keep hope at any rate until you learn the whole, s. ot. 835. 6 w 9 dv cr (p (^rjT aL to o'/<:a(^o9, rore ^pir) Kau vavriqv KoX Kv^epvTjTiqv Trpo6vp.ov^ elvai while the hoat is safe^ then ought both sailor and pilot to he zealous. D. 9, 69. pi 4^ pi dv 7] KO)y al aTTovSal p^evovroiv let the truce con- tinue till I return. Ax. n. 3, 24. eVtcrx€9 e9 r' dv koI rd XoLird it pocr pdO r)<? wait till thou hast also learned the rest. a. pb. 723. ^ESof ei^ ovv irpoiivai eco 9 Ki^pw av p, pei^ eiav they decided to go o?i, until they should join Cyrus. An. II. 1, 2. TTepiepeve pixp^ eXOoi he tvaited for him to come {till lie should come). H. i. 3, 11. 268 COMPLEX SENTENCES a. A ews clause has the indicative also when the action is known to be impossible, because dependent on a clause that implies unreality : vavTOy rj(rxvx^o.v av Tjyov I sJiould Tiave icaited^ until most of the several speakers had set forth their view, and should have kept still D. 4, 1. b. Some of the above clauses with cw?, etc., and the sub- junctive or optative imply both purpose and condition, while at the same time they are primarily temporal. *i2s CLAUSES 632 'Os as, ho2V, and ws thus, so, are adverbs of manner from os (339) ; they differ only in accent, ws corresponding to the older demonstrative form of o<s, and w? to the relative form ; sometimes ws itself is accented (18, 21 c). The uses of ws as a subordinating conjunction fall under two classes : A. Corresponding to those of o? and other relative pro- nouns, B. Showing farther developments in special directions. 633 A. 'n? as, hoiu, i7i luhich way, corresponds closely to o? in meaning, and introduces clauses like os clauses ; most of them are like simple sentences (615), but some have the subjunc- tive and optative in the manner described in 616 a and b. a. As purely relative, in comparisons, often in the strength- ened form wo-TTcp. Though a conjunction, w? retains the force of an adverb in its own clause : 'EKcXevcre rov<5 "EXXryva?, w s vofio^i avrot? et? fxaxw^ ovto) raxOrj- vdL KOL arTrjvat he directed the Greeks, as was their custom for hattle, so to arrange themselves and take position. An. i. 2, 15. OaTTov rj 0)9 av t^ero more quickly than {as) one would have thought. An. i. 5, 8. ws o raSc irop^v oXolto as may he that wrought this perish. S. e. 126. •fis CLAUSES 269 Often the antecedent is a sentence or phrase : w s />t€v rots ttXclo-tols iSoKovv, <f)L\oTiixr}04vT€9, OTL kt\. beinff jealoiis, as they appeared to the majority^ because^ etc. An. i. 4, 7. So w? cAe- 7€To «s ?^a5 said, ws d/covw a^ / hear, and many like expres- sions. b. As indirect interrogative : 'E^TJyyetAe ttjv Kpiariv 'OpoVrd, ws iyevero he reported the trial of Orontes, how it ivas conducted. Ax. i. 6, 5. a/covo-ov ws €/3(u /^ear how I shall tell it. S. ot. 547. olcrG' a>s ttoltjo-ov; do you know how you should do ? (literally, do you knoiv how do?) S. OT. 543. In this use also ws retains its force as adverb. c. Temporal : *0 8' ws aTTrjXOe fSovXevcrai hut he, as he ivent away, con- sidered. An I. 1, 4. (I)S et8e KAeapxoi/ SteAavVovra, t?y(rt t^ d^tVry ivhen he saw Klearchos riding through, he threio his ax at him. An. i. 5, 12. d. Causal : A€o/u,ttt (Tov 7rapafji€LvaL rffuv, w? eyw ov8' av evos ^8Zov ukov- o-at/At / ^e^ ^0?^ ^0 ^^rt/y with us, as there is not one ichom I would more gladly hear. Pr. 335 d. e. Such clauses, like those introduced by os and eVet (629 a), are often so loosely connected with the main verb as to be really independent sentences. f. Some common phrases have arisen from the omission of a verb. Thus clauses like w 5 fidXio-Ta iSvvaro as he ivas most able (An. i. 1, 6), and cb? av hvvoifxat hi eAa^to-Tcov in as brief terms as I can (L. 12. 3), are abbreviated to ws /xdXta-ra and ws Si iXaxt(TT(j)v. In this Avay (1)9 becomes merely a means of strengthening a superlative : w? /3iXTL(rTo<; as good as possible. 634 B. Two special uses of w? have been developed from the rela- tive meaning (633 a). These are (1) the declarative, (2) the final, denoting purpose. 270 COMPLEX SENTENCES 635 Clauses witli 'H? declarative^ meaning liow^ that, are like Clauses with "On meaning that (622) : OvTTore ipel ov8el<; o) 9 iyo) ttjv tcjv jSapjBdpcov (j)L\Ldp el\6 fjLTjv no one shall ever say that I chose the friend- ship of the harharians. An. i. 3, 5. o) s §e tovto ovtoj<; €X € t, ireipdcroixaL koX vpuv eTTiSetf at and that this is so, I will try to show you also, Ap. 24 c. 636 Clauses with '^.s final, denoting purpose, meaning that, in order that, are frequent in poetry, but rare in prose, except in Xenophon. With w? in this sense a. A subjunctive (often with dv) denotes a pur- . pose still to be accomplished : Act ^€019 hovvai hiKrjv, a)9 av S ihax^jj he must pay the penalty to the gods, that he may he taught (in a way in which he may), a. pb. lo. aj^S'avfjidOrj^; on ovS* av ifxeis St/catco? e/xot aTncrTOLrjTe, avrdKovcrov hut that you may learn thai you also would not justly distrust me, hear in turn. An. h. 5, 16. b. An optative (without dv) denotes a purpose of the same kind, but more remote from the speaker — e. g., as that of another person, or of a past situation, or as less likely to be accomplished. The optative is common after a past tense : 'iKopirjv TO Tlv0LKov fxavreiov, w? (judO o t fx* otco TpoTTO) TTaTpl St/cctg dpoifjLiQv I came to the Pythian oracle, that I might learn in what ivay I should gain justice for my father, s. e. 33. irpoa-Kakwv tov<; ^lKovs icnrovSaLoXoyeLTo w? 87)\o Crj ovs rl/xa he used to call "Ottws clauses 271 Ms friends and talk seriously with ihem^ so as to sJioiv whom he honored, an. i. 9, 28. c. A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part of an imaginary, unreal situation expressed or implied in the leading clause : Et yap [L V7T0 yrjv jJKev, &> ? /Ai^Ve ^eo? iirjre rt? dWos TO tcrS' iireyTjOeL oh that he had sent me under the earthy that neither god nor any other creature might he rejoicing at this. a. pb. 165. ri fx ov Xa/Bcbv eKreuva^;, ojs eSet^a fiijiTOTe ifxavTOP avO pciyiroiaiv lohy did you not take and day me, that I might never have shown myself to men. s. ot. 1392. d. For 0)9 with a participle see 693 c. For 0)9 with an infinitive see 566. 637 "Qa-n-ep is a strengthened o)9, used only in a relative and com- parative sense — even as, just as. "Qa-n-ep clauses are therefore like simple sentences : "fl or TT e p r7r7ro9 €iyev^9 ev tolctl 8€tvot9 Ovfjiov ovk dTrwAecrcv, o)o-a^jTO)9 Sk (TV rjfias oTpvvus even as a horse of nolle dlood does not lose heart (465) in danger, so thou dost spur us on. S. e. 25. "Oir(OS CLAUSES 638 "^Ottw? is the general relative and indirect interroga- tive to 0)9 and 770)9. ''0770)9 Clauses are like '119 Clauses, but some types are more frequent (and others less fre- quent) with O770)9. The following are common. a. With a future indicative, after expressions of planning or effort, to denote the aim : ^KeTTTeov fjioi So/cei elvau o 77 o) 9 dcr<^aXecrraTa fi € - vov iJL€v it seems to me we must consider how we shall 272 COMPLEX SENTENCES remain most safely. An. i. 3, il. ^ovkeverai o tt w 9 fiijirore eri ecrrac eVt rw dSeXc^w he considered how he should never again he dependent on his brother. An. I. 1, 4. OTTO)? /cat vy^^% ifxe iiraivecreTe e/xol fxeXTJcreL it shall he m.y care that you too shall praise me. An. I. 4, 16. aWo n rj rrepl ttoWov Troiet oircos w? ^eXTLaroL ol vearrepoi eaovrai; donH you think it very important that the young shall he as good as pos- sible ? Ap. 24 d. b. Out of the preceding, by omission of the main verb, has grown the use of oVw? and ottws /xtJ with a future indicative to express a command or prohibition. A leading verb is no longer thought of, and the ottws clause becomes a form of sim- ple sentence : Ottws ovv ecrea-Oe avSpes ol^lol rrj'S iXevOepcds pTOVe yOUV- selves men ivorthy of your freedom. An. i. 7, 3. ottws /x^ 7roti}(reT€ o TroAAa/ct? v/xas ef3kai(/e see that you doTiH do wliat has injured you often. D. 4, 20. c. With a subjunctive, often with av., or an opta- tive without av, expressing purpose ; in legal and official style oVw? aV with a subjunctive is frequent : ^Icr^t TTOLv TO Spcofjiepov, OTTO)^ av et8w9 tjiAv ay- yeiXr)^ cracfirj learn all that is going on, that you may with knowledge bring a clear report to us, s. e. 40. Set TreipacrOai o tt w 5 /caXw? vlKCJvre^ cr co^coixe9 a we must try horo we may save ourselves by conquering nobly. Ax. III. 2, 3. ATreKpti/aTO on avrco pieXoi 7ra>? KaXa)<; €)(ol he replied that he was taking care that it should be well. An. I. 8, 13. \kclvo% pkv ^povTiC^eiv r^v ottcos ^X^^ V "fioTc CLAUSES 273 arparia avrco tol iiTLTTJ^eLa lie tvas comjpetent to provide liow Ms army should have supplies. Ax. n. 6, 8. d. After expressions of caution or fear a clause Avitli ottws firj sometimes takes the place of a /xtJ clause (610, 611) : AeSoiKtt OTTO) 9 i^r] rjfxlv dvdyKr] yevjyo-erat I fear that neces- sity win come U2)0n us. D. 9, 75. <fivXdTTov ottws /z^ ets rovvav- TLov e\6y^ take care that you do not run into the very opposite. M. in. 6, 16. Slightly different is t^v Oehv 8' ottcos XdOu) SeSotKa but I fear I shall not escape the goddess (literally, / fear the goddess, hoiv I shall escape her). E. it. 905. e. The common phrase ovk ta-nv ottws there is not hoiv is translated variously according to the context : Ovk tcTTiv ottw? ovk eTnO-^o-eraL rjijuv it is impossible that he will not attack us. An. ii. 4, 3. ovk la-riv o-n-ws a-v ravra ov^i aTTOTreLpcjfJicvo'S rjfxwv iypdif/u) ttjv ypa<fir]v TavTrjv tt Ca7l not he hut that you brought this indictmeut by way of making trial of us. Ap. 27 e. OVK €cr^' ottoos oi//^et cri; SeO/a' eXBovTa /xe you surely luill never see me come here. S. an. 329. "12crT€ CLAUSES 639 "^(TT^ (ws or 0)5 and re) has three meanings and uses : . a. And so, so that, with any finite mode. The mode has the same force as in simple sentences ; in fact the wa-re clause is often independent : "i^a-Tc ySaortXevs rrjv fxev Trpo? iavTov iTrtjSovXrjv ovk rfcrO dv €To so tliat the king did not perceive the plot against himself. An. i. 1, 8. ioa-TC /xrjSlv Sl dXXo fxe r/yeto-^e ravryv Troietcr^at r^v diro- Xoytdv SO do not suppose that I make this defense for any other reason. L. 16, 8. b. As, like w^ and wa-irep in comparisons, mostly without a verh expressed : Tlavre?, wctc To^orat o-kottov, to^€V£T dvSpb^ roOSe yOU all shoot at me, as archers at a mark. S. an. 1033. c. So as to, so that, with an infinitive, see 566. 18 274 COMPLEX SENTENCES "Iva CLAUSES 640 "Iz/a has two meaDings and uses : (1) Relative, ivliere ; in poetry this older meaning is still the prevailing one ; (2) Final, denoting purpose, in order that, that ; in prose this is the most frequent final conjunction. 641 Clauses with "l^'a relative are like "O? Clauses (615) ; the verb is generally in the indicative ; Iva sometimes becomes an indirect interrogative : 'E^* ayopaj Iva vfjuojv ttoWoI d kt] k6 dcr l in the 7narlcet-place, where many of you have heard me, Ap. 17 c. TwS' diravOpMiTCO Trdyco, Iv^ ovre (j)a)vrjv ovre tov fjiop(j)r}p jSpcyrojv oi//ei to this lone hight^ where neither voice nor form of any mortal shalt thou behold, a. tb. 21. o/oa? Iv rJKeis; dost see where thou art come f s. ot. 687. 642 In Clauses with "ivafifial (cp. 636) : a. A subjunctive (without dv) denotes a purpose still to be accomplished : iw avopi ov av eArjcrue TreLcrofxaL, uva €LOrjT€ otl Kol dp^eaOai eTTicrra/xat I will ohey the man whom you elect, that you may Icnow that I understand also how to he ruled. An. i. 3, 15. a 'A^poKo/Jids KarcKavaev, Iva ixrj Kvpo<; Sia^rj which (hoats^ AbroJcomas huriied, that Cyrus might not cross. An. i. 4, I8. b. An optative (without dv) denotes a purpose of the same kind, but more remote from the speaker — e. g., that of another person, or of a past situation, or "Iva CLAUSES 275 a purpose less likely to be realized. The optative is common after a past tense, and when subordinate to another optative : Aa/3cbv L)/xa9 iiropevo^iqvj Iva oi(^e\oiriv avrov dv6' S)v ev eiraOov vn Ik^lvov I took you and came, that I might aid hhn in return for the kindness I had received from him. An. i. 3, 4. MevcDv S17X09 rjv iiriOv- ix(x)v TLfJiacrOai Iva TrXeico Kephaiv 01 Menon was plainly eager to he honored^ that he might make greater gains. An. h. 6, 21. dvixbv yivoiTO X^^P^ irXrjpoJcraL 7T0T€j Iv^ at MvKrji>aL yvolev 77} ay it some time he mine to satisfy with deeds my longing, that Mykenai might learn, etc. s. ph. 325. c. A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part of an imaginary, unreal situation, expressed or implied in the leading clause : Ou yap ^XPV^ ap^ovra^ oIk€lov^ elvaL, iv^ rfv q}^ a\r)6cos T179 TToXeo)? rj Suz^a/xt? ; ought there not to have heen commanders of your own, that the forces might really helong to the state ? d. 4, 27. ovk av layoix-^v, Iv rj TV(^\6<; re /cat kKvmv /xT^SeV I should not have refrained, that I might he hoth hlind and deaf S. OT. 1389. d. Kote that any clause of purpose, if its leading clause implies that the case is already impossible, takes a past tense of the indicative. This is a form of attraction, the mode of the leading clause determining the mode of the subordinate clause. In the same way, any clause dependent on an optative is generally attracted to the optative. 276 COMPLEX SENTENCES IIpiV CLAUSES 643 The comparative adverb Trptv earlier, before, is used often with the infinitive (see 668). It also becomes a subordinating con- junction ; it may then often be best rendered until. 644 In Clauses with IlptV a. An indicative denotes a past fact : OvK levai YjOeXej irpiv 7) yvvrj avrov eireicre Kat Trtcrrei? eXa/B e lie was not willing to go^ until his ivife persuaded him and he had received pledges. An. i. 2, 26. S/xd^eWa? yap dptcTTT], tt p\v avrov elXe Alo^oXov irXrJKTpov TTvpos Kepavviov for he was ivont to raise the dead^ until the Zeus-hurled holt of thunderous fire de- stroyed him. E. AL. 128. b. A subjunctive (usually witli av) describes not a real but a supposed or anticipated case ; the time is future, or present in the generalized sense : Aetrat avrov (xr) npocrdev KaraXvaai irpiv av avrco orvpL^ov\€.v(Trirai he ashs him not to come to terms before consulting with him. An. i. i, lo. pJri areva^e rrplv fjiddrj^; no more lament., hefore thou learnest. S. p. 917. alcrxpov rjyovfxai irporepov TravaaaOai, rrplv av iffxei^ irepX avrojv o n av /SovXrjcrde xjjrj (j) uarj <t 6 e I think it a shame to stop hefore you shall have voted ivhat you loill about them. l. 22, 4. c. An optative (without dv^ describes a supposed case, but more remote in thought from the speaker — as the thought of another, or as part of a past or an imaginary situation ; the optative is not frequent : El CLAUSES 277 'TTTOcr^d/xej^o? aurot? (jlt] irpoaOev iravcraaOaL tt p\v avTov^; KaraydyoL oiKahe prmnising therti that lie would not stop till he should restore them to their homes. An. I. 2, 2. ovTTOT eycxiy av, it plv tSot/x' op- dov €7ro(;y iJLefji(j)oiJi€v(x)v av KaTa^airjv never woidd I^ before I see the word made good^ say yea when they do hlame him. s. ot. 505. d. An indicative irptv clause generally lias a negative lead- ing clause ; subjunctive and optative irpiv clauses nearly always do. When the leading clause is affirmative, TrptV generally takes the infinitive ; in the meaning 'before^ when until can not be substituted, it takes the infinitive even after a negative. El CLAUSES What is stated not as a fact but as a supposition, assumed in order to base upon it another statement, is called a condition ; any word or form of words that so states something is a condi- tional expression. Common conditional expressions in English are such as begin with t/, unless^ suppose^ in case^ 07i the chance that, 2uhoever^ ivhenever^ etc. ; inversion of subject and predi- cate may have the same meaning, as Were I Brutus, or Should you ask 7ne} Several forms of conditional expression in Greek, used for stating a supposed case, have been already noted (481, 616, 618, 620, 627, 629-631) ; but the fullest and most dis- tinct form is the d clause. A conditional sentence consists of a conditional clause or condition {protasis) and a principal clause, the conclusion (apodosis). ^ Other frequent forms of condition are illustrated in What matter, so I help him back to life. — Tennyson, Lane, and El. Not without she wills it. — Tennyson, Lane, and El. Man gets no other light, Search he a thousand years, — M. Arnold, Emped. Imperative and interrogative sentences, in both English and Greek, sometimes have the same office. ..j:g^ ": -rr==^ \ B n A nf )^ OF THE [ UNIVERSITY OF 278 COMPLEX SENTENCES 643 Et if introduces conditional clauses, stating a sup- posed or assumed case. (For other meanings of the €t clause see 654, 655.) Et clauses may have the verb in (A) the indicative, (B) the subjunctive, (C) the optative. The negative is /xtJ. The con- clusion may be any form of simple sentence; but certain forms of conclusion and condition are naturally more apt to go together. A. Et uritli the Indicative 647 El with the present indicative, also with the perfect, imperfect, and aorist, presents the supposition simply, without implying anything as to its reality or proba- bility ; the tenses have the same force as in simple sentences {Simple or Logical Condition, present or past) : EiTrep ye AdpeLOv icrrl Trat?, ovk a/xa^et ravr iyo) \rj\\fo^ai if he is indeed a son of Dareios, I shall not take this without a battle. An. i. 7, 9. Oav^idt^oiii av el olcrOa I should he surprised if you Icnoiv. Pr. 312 c. (j)y]crov<TL St] [xe cro^ov elvai, e I /cat fjiij el fxi they will say of course that I am wise, although {if in fact) I am not. The Kai hints, without quite assert- ing, that the case is not merely assumed, but real. Ap. 38 c. Ov davfJiacrTOP S* el Tore ra? fiopLa^ i^ e kottt ov it is not surpynsing if at that time they cut out the sacred olive-trees, l. 7, 7. et Kepiaiveiv i/3ovXov, TOT av irXelcTTov e\a^e<; if you loished to make money, you would in tluit case have got most. The et clause here is a simple condition ; TOTe is a conditional ex- El CLAUSES 2Y9 pression that resumes an earlier clause and stands for an unreal condition (649). L. 7, 20. e i ravr alado- />te^'09 iyoj S LeKcoXvcT a^ ravr'' icrrl TTpohoriqv elvaL tojv <^i\o)v ; if I^ perceiving this, preve7ited it, is that being a betrayer of one'' s friends ? h. n. 3, 46. 648 The future indicative in an Et Clause a. Is in form a simple future condition ; sometimes it is equivalent to /xeXXw with an infinitive, denoting present intention or expectation : E I TovTov KaT axjjT] (l)Le'La6 €j SrjXoL icreaOe w? 6p- yii^ofxevoL tol^; TreirpdyfjLevoL^ if you vote against this man, it will be plain that you are angry at their deeds. L. 12, 90. aavvera vvv ipovixev, e l cri y evcj) p avcj we will talk nonsense now, if I shall {thereby^ please you. E. lA. 654. el ovv 01 hoKovvTe<; hia^epeiv tolovtol ea ovT ai, alcrxpov av etr) if tlien those loho are thought superior are to be like that, it would be a shame. Ap. 35 a. b. It often suggests threat, warning, or earnest appeal {Emotional Future Condition) : Et V (f)r] (T 6 fJLeO a kol cttI ^aaiXei y evrj a 6 fxeO a, TL olofjieOa TTeLcrea-B ai ; if loe yield and come into the hing'^s power, what treatment do we expect ? Ax. m. 1, 17. el TliJL(i)pT](reL<; UarpoKXco tov (^ovov koX ^KTOpa OLTT o KTeve2<;, avro? oLTroOavel if you shall avenge the slaying of PatroMos and hill Hektor, you will your- self die. A p. 28 c. In such cases tlie indicative presents the supposition more distinctly as a possible future fact ; if the consequences will 280 COMPLEX SENTENCES be serious, it gives a " minatory or monitory " tone to force one to look at them in that way. 649 Et with tlie indicative imperfect and aorist, rarely tlie pluperfect, is used to imply that the supposition is past realization, opposed to a known fact ( Unreal Past Condition). The imperfect is used when the reality would be expressed by the present or imperfect, the aorist when the reality would be expressed by the aorist, the pluperfect w^hen the reality would be expressed by the perfect : <I>w9 et 1X7) el^o fxevj o/iotot toi<; tv(J)\ol<; av rjixev if we did not have light (as we do) ive should he like the hlind. M. iv. 3, 3. ovk av vrjcratv e/cparet, e I fxij tl Kal vavTLKov €.l^e he would not have ruled over is- lands j if he had not had some naval force (therefore he had, elxe vavriKov), T. i. 9. E 6 /xt) D/x€ts rj\0 ere iiropevoyieOa av inl ySacrtXed if you had not come (but you did, T^X^ere), we should now he marching against the Mng. An. n. i, 4. e t rt? cr€ rj per o^ tl av aireKptvcx) ; if some one had asked you (nobody did), what should you have answered? Pr. 311 b. € t ere Tv^Tj ir p ovtt e fjLxjj e Kal rj\LKid<; eirij^rj- (T€Vy eXTTtSt y TjaOa /xeya9 if fortune had guided thee on and hrought thee to manhood^ in hope at least tlwu wast great, cia. 22G3. El € Ke KTT) fjLTjv ovcTLaVy €77* dcTpd^r]^ av OJ^OVfXiqV if I possessed property^ I should ride on a saddle, L. 24, 11. El CLAUSES 281 B. 'Eav ivith the Suhjunctive 650 The subjunctive takes av (rarely omitted), wMcIl is joined with et, forming idv (often contracted to r]v or av). The subjunctive puts the supposition simply, re- ferring it either to future time, or to any or all time (the generalizing present), whichever the context, especially the leading clause, may indicate (^Simple Future Condition, or General Condition). *Hz/ ikkv fjL€va) fxevj cnrovSaC if we remain, a truce. An. II. 1, 23. y^v TOVTO X ayS o) /x e ^', ou SvpTJcrovrai fxe- veiv if we take tliis^ tliey will not he able to remain. An. III. 4, 41. eai^ 8' aTTT^ to yaip^iv^ raW^ iyo) Kair- vov (T/cta? ovK av TTpiai^iqv hut if joy he (jone^ tlie rest I ivould not for a vapor'^s sJiadoiv huy. s. an. iito. El Tt vv^ ^^^7 rovT in r^jiap ep^eTai if night leaves aught ^ this the day assails, s. ot. 198. a. For lav meaning on the chance that, see 662. b. Greek also uses the present indicative (with d) in gen- eral conditions, as English does (cp. 617). c. Greek and Latin uses of the subjunctive in conditions must not be confused. Idv with the subjunctive corresponds to si with the future or future perfect indicative ; si with the subjunctive corresponds to d with the optative (651) : lav TOVTO TTOL-qa-Tjs si hoc fades or fecer is. C. El 2vith the Optative 651 Et with the optative (without av) presents the sup- position as more remote in thought (616 b) — (1) As a mere possibility, generally future, some- times present or general {Possible Condition), .282 COMPLEX SENTENCES (2) As part of a past situation wliicli occurred repeatedly {Past Repeated Condition), (3) As the thought of another person or an ear- lier time (^i^6>^^(i Condition) ; the future optative in such a condition always represents a future indicative of the original form : OvK av Oavfjidl^oLfjiL el ol iroke^xioi rjfjuv iiraKo- \ov0 olev I sJiould not he siirpi'ised if the enemy should folloiD us. An. hi. 2, 35. XvTTOVfievoLS 6;5(X')7pd9, € I fjioXoL, ^eVo? a guest annoys the sorrowing^ if he come. E. AL. 540. KoX tovto ye /xot Sofcet Kokov elvai^ e I Tt9 ofo9 T e Ir) iraiheveiv avOpoyirov^ this too seems to me a fine thing^ if one he really ahle to educate people. Ap. 19 e. Et St; TTore tto pevoLT o koL TrXeicrTot (xeWoiev oxjjecrOaLj irpocrKaXoiv tov<; c^iXou? icnrovSaLoXoyelTo if ever he was on the march and many woidd see it^ he would call his friends and talk seriously with them.. An. I. 9, 28. roiv ttoWojv etri? alcr o lt o, icriyd if any of the popular party perceived it^ he said nothing. D. 9, 61. ^YAl3ov\y]0r)craif 'EXevcrtz^a eftStwcracr^at, ojare elvai (T(I)LG-L KaTa(f)vyrjv el Seijcreie they wished to make Eleusis their own^ so as to have it as a refvge in case of need. H. n. 4, 8. yvov<; 6 Kptrtd? OTi el eiT lt p exjjoi TTJ ^ovXrj ?na\\fy)^it^ecr6aL irepl avrov Stac^eufotro Krit- ias^ recognizing that, if he should allow the council to decide ahout him hy a vote, he would escape (direct, Ct eTTLTpexpO)). n. II. 3, 50. El CLAUSES 283 a. Earely d with the optative expresses an unreal condi- tion, as in Homer. 652 'Eav with the subjunctive, and after a past tense el with the optative, are sometimes to be translated on the chance that, in the hope that, if perchance ; the future supposition of the la.v or d clause is a motive for the action of the leading clause : OvKow arpefji I^€t9, r]v tl koI •^ophrj<i XajSy^ WOn't yOU keep quiet then, on the chance of getting some sausage too ? Ar. r. 330. Tre/xi/^avre? Trpicr/Seis, €t ttws tt etcr etav firj cr^wv Trept vewrept^eLv firjSiv sending envoys, in hopes they might {if haply they might) induce them to make no innovations in regard to them. T. i. 58. 653 Etre . . . ctre and lav re . . . lav t€ luhether . . . or, introduce alternative conditions, with indicative, subjunctive, or optative : IlavTco? Stjttov, lav re av Kal "Avvtos ov cfyrjre lav T€ <f)rjT€ it certainly is so, ichether you and Anytos say 7io or say yes. Ap. 25 b. 654 After expressions of wonder, indignation, and some other emotions, €t witli the indicative is used to de- scribe, in the milder form of a supposition, the fact that causes the emotion. In such clauses d may sometimes be translated if, but oftener that : ©av/xa^oj 8' eycoye el /xT^Set? vfjiwi/ jjltJt iv Oi) fxel- rat iirjT 6 pyC^erai but I am for ray xjart sur- prised that no one of you hears it in mind or is angry, D. 4, 43. Other Uses of Et 655 After expressions of doubt or inquiry, et with the indicative (rarely lav with the subjunctive) becomes an indirect question. In such clauses d (or idv) may sometimes be translated if but more often whether : Et \jAv Stj St/cata ironjcroj ovk olSa tvhether T shall he doing right I do not hiow. Ax. i. 3, 5. et ^v {jltto- 284 COMPLEX SENTENCES vTj (T ei<; kclI ^vv e py dcTTj aKoirei see whether thou wilt worh with me and share the deed. s. an. 41. 656 By omission of the verb some common phrases have arisen : a. Et /jtr; except^ d jxtj 8id except for : 'ATToXeVat Trap€(TK€va^ovTO rrjv ttoAiv, et firj 8l avSpa<; ayaOov^ they 2vere preparing to destroy the state^ except for {had it not been for) some good men. L. 12, 60. b. "fio-Tre/a av d as, Uhe \ the av suggests a hypothetical in- dicative or optative as a conclusion to an d clause : Eu^vS rjcnrd^ero avrov axTTrep av el rrdXai cjiiXwv daTrd^oLTo he greeted him at once, just as if one should greet an old frie^id. C. I. 3, 2. (do-Tra^otTo might have been omitted.) c. El Se ijnq otherivise also introduces a supposition contrary to something that precedes — often where fxri seems unneces- sary, sometimes where we should expect Idv instead of ct : 'A7rT7T€t rd xPVf^oLTa' ct Sc fit], TroXe/Jii^a-eLV t<j>r) avTOL<; he de- manded the return of the property ; otherivise he said he would make rear on them. H. i. 3, 3. /x^ TroLrja-ys Tama, el Sk jjl yj, aiTLav c^cts do not do this, else you tuill he blamed. An. vn. 1, 8. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 657 Words or thoughts so quoted as to be made grammatically subordinate in form to a verb or other expression meaning say, thinh, hear, or the like, are indirect quotations ; a direct quotation retains the original form. The forms used in indirect discourse have been already given in their proper places ; for convenience they are here briefly summed up together. 658 Simple sentences and principal clauses (not interrogative) in indirect quotation are put in the infinitive after certain verbs (577-579) — after <^?7/xt, oto/xai, and. vo/xt^w regularly in prose, seldom after Aeyw and dirov, except in the sense of hid. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 285 659 After most other verbs such clauses are introduced by on or ws (624, 635) ; the original tense is retained, the original mode is retained always after primary tenses and often after historical tenses. (But see 624 c.) a. But after historical tenses an indicative or subjunctive may be changed to an optative, unless that would cause am- biguity ; an indicative with av (461, 467, 469) is retained un- changed, to avoid confusion with a hypothetical optative. b. After one or more on or ws clauses, when the introduc- tory verb of saying is no longer near, a succeeding principal clause may be in the infinitive — as if the introductory verb had been one that requires the infinitive. 660 After verbs of thinking, hearing, and the like, that take a predicate participle agreeing with the object (586), the lead- ing verb of a brief quotation may be changed to a predicate participle. (See examples under 586.) 661 Direct questions, when made indirect, retain the original mode and tense ; but after historical tenses they may change an indicative or subjunctive to the optative, like on clauses (659 a). Xote especially that no indirect question has the subjunc- tive unless the direct form has it (dubitative subjunctive, 471) ; and that the optative is never required, even after a past tense. 662 Subordinate clauses of indirect discourse retain the mode and tense of the direct form always after a primary tense, often after a historical tense. But after a historical tense they may change an indicative or subjunctive to an optative, unless that would cause ambiguity ; a past tense of the indicative in an unreal condition (649), or in a clause that expresses a pur- pose past attainment (636 c, 642 c), is retained unchanged, to avoid confusion with other forms of conditional or final clauses. 286 COMPLEX SENTENCES 663 A long quotation carried through strictly in the indirect form, as is so often done in Latin, would have seemed in Greek monotonous and dull. The Greek preferred to vary it by repeating ecfir), by inserting ecfirj xprjvai or iKeXeva-e before an expression of will, and by shifting from indirect to direct forms. English resembles Greek rather than Latin in this respect. 664 Examples of Indirect Discourse. 'AyaTrycreLV fxe t<j>a<TK€v el to o-w/xa crwcrdi lie said I lUOUld he satisfied if I should save my life (direct, ayairrja-u^ d o-wo-eis). L. 12, 11. '^Hkci/ ayyeXos X.iyo)v on XeXonrihs elrj %vivv€.(TL<i ra uKpa, €7ret ycrOiTO TO Mevoivos aTpaTevfJia otl ■^St) iv KlXiklo, rjv there Came a messenger saying that Syennesis had left the hights after he perceived that Merlon's force was already in Kilihia (direct, XkXovKt, iireL rjaSeTO otl rjv. For rjv see 624 c). An. i. 2, 21. 'O Se aircKpivaTO otl olkovol A ^ o k6 fidv, ixOpbv avSpa, iirl T(p YiVcfipaTrj TTora/Aw etvat, a7re)(0VTa SwSeKa crTaO/JLOvs' Trpos tovtov ovv ecfir) ^ovXecOaL iXOelv kolv /xkv fj iKel, ttjv Slktjv e(fi7) XPV~ ^€lv CTTt^etvat avrw, -^v Sk cfievyrj, y^fxel^ e/cet irpos Taxrra ^ovXeva-ojxeOa he ansivered that lie had heard (d/couoo) that Abrohomas^ an ene- my of his, was near the river Euphrates, twelve days' march distant (this fact would have been reported to Cyrus in the form *AI3poK6fjid<: 1(ttl) ; against him therefore he said he wished (direct, ^ovAo/xat) to go ; and if he proved to he there (direct form retained), he said he wished to punish him (direct, XPV^^) J hut if he retreats, lue will there concert measures in regard to this (direct quotation). An. i. 3, 20. In An. I. 3, 14, kXia-OaL depends on ciTre in the sense of hade, urged, representing a hortative subjunctive cAw/xe^a or an im- perative IXecrOc. Similarly ayopdlea-OaL, (TV(TKevat,ecr6aL, atretv, o-wTttTTco-^ai, TTifxij/aL. Meantime el jSovXcTaL remains in the direct form ; ri Se ayopa rjv is a remark of Xenophon, not of the soldier ; w? dTroTrXeotei/ represents ws airoTrXioifxev of the direct ; iav StSo) and ctTrd^et are unchanged, as are (jiOdo-uio-L and ex^ficv. PARTICLES 287 PARTICLES 665 A class of words called Particles^ some of them conjunctions, some adverbs, some both at once, are used freely in Greek to make clearer certain relations between ideas. Most of the ordinary conjunctions have practical equivalents in English, and hence make no difficulty. (See, e. g., 602.) But for som.e of the commonest particles, adverbial in character, or partly adverbial and partly conjunctional, English has no precise equivalents in separate words ; we express only by stress, by pauses, and by tones or changes of pitch (speech-tune) what in Greek is fully expressed, by these particles and by word- order, on the printed page. The force of such particles can be really learned only by observation in reading, especially while reading aloud and while listening to such reading. The following sections (666-673) describe briefly the more distinct meanings of the particles that most require attention, although such a description can not be very exact. Particles which can not begin a clause are postpositive, and are marked in the following list by an asterisk, as * av. 666 ^"kv marks the action of a verb as more or less uncertain, either (1) as contingent on circumstances not yet realized, or (2) as itself merely supposed. The first use is seen in the hypothetical indicative and optative (461, 467, 479) ; in the second use av stands (or may stand) with most classes of sub- ordinate subjunctives (616 a, 618 a, 620, 627-632, 636 a, 638 c, 644, 650). av is not used with subordinate /u-tj clauses nor with quoted dubitative subjunctives, because it was not used with the simple subjunctive sentences from which these subordi- nate clauses arose ; it nearly dropt out of purpose clauses, though oTTws and w? clauses often retain it. a. Earely av stands with a future indicative to mark it as contingent, or with a future participle representing such an indicative. 667 The negative adverbs ov and /xtJ have been described (486) ; their compounds differ in meaning as do simple ov and yu,?}. 288 COMPLEX SENTENCES Ov8e (fJt'rjSe) is the negative of 8e and /cat, (1) as conjunction, but not, and not^ nor^ especially in continuing a negative ; (2) as adverb, emphasizing the following word or phrase, nor yet^ also not, not . . . either, not eve?i. 668 *A/oa and rj mark a sentence as interrogative, implying nothing as to the answer expected. For fjt.ri and /awi/ in questions see 488 a, c. ov in a question is like English not, implying that the answer yes is expected ; so also ovKovv, but less strongly, apa before ixrj or ov merely makes the interrogative force more distinct. IloTcpov (TTorepa) . . . rj introduce the members of an alter- native question, utriim . . . an. ( Whether . . . or was for- merly used in the same sense, but tuhether is not so used in modern prose in a direct question.) 669 a. ^MeV, a weaker form of /atJv (671 a), implies that the word • before it, or the phrase in which it stands, is thought of as contrasted with something that is to follow ; the second con- trasted member is usually marked by * 8e, sometimes by aXka or some other adversative conjunction, but is sometimes left unexpressed. /xeV and 8e are very frequent, marking a great variety of contrasted ideas, often where English or Latin would use for the former member a concessive clause, intro- duced by although and the like. Note that Sc is always a conjunction ; hence fteV . . . hi can be used only when the second member requires a lut or and. b. * MeVrot (/xeV and rot, 671 e) generally marks a contrast or a transition to a different topic, hoivever, yet. But sometimes the older force of /xeV (=/>i7/v) is more prominent — certainly, surely. So sometimes in other combi- nations, as Travv fxev ovv assuredly, certainly. 670 a. Kat (besides its use as a conjunction, and) is an adverb, also, evpn, emphasizing the following word or phrase. , Kat €t is even if, el Kai if in fact, although, koI 8r/ Kat and of course also, and in particular. PARTICLES 289 b. KatTot is slightly adversative, and yet. c. KatVep aWiough stands only with participles (593 b). 671 Several particles are intensive, denoting emphasis or stress, of slightly varying degree and kind. a. M^v in truth is the strongest, often giving prominence to the whole statement rather than to a single word ; 5 M^ verily introduces the formula of an oath ; Kat /t-^v and surely^ and see, in tragedy often calls attention to a newcomer. The weakened form /xeV sometimes retains a similar force (cp. 669). b. The enclitic *y€ emphasizes the preceding word by restriction. At least has a like force, but is usually too strong ; a slight stress of voice is sometimes the only transla- tion possible. * yovv (ye and ovv, 673 a) is a stronger at least, at any rate. c. The most untranslatable and elusive is *8//. (1) Its force falls on a single preceding word (though another particle may intervene), marking the idea as obvious, definite, positive; 8^Aa hrj quite plain, iroXXol h-q a great many, KdXXL(TTo<i Sri the very finest, clearly the finest, ovrtos 8?} in just this icay, irov h-q; ichere, pray? d Srj if indeed, opare 8rj you see, of course, t6t€ Srj then indeed. Sometimes it gives an ironical tone, forsooth, as he claims. (2) Its force extends to a whole clause, near the beginning of which it stands ; it then marks the statement as obvious, to be expected under the circumstances ; it may thus become inferential, of course, you see, clearly, accordingly. d. The form * Brjra surely is a stronger, S-^ttov {8y and irov) a weaker 8?;. Srjirov is often ironical, douMless, I suppose. BrjOev is almost always ironical, forsooth. e. The enclitic *Tot is by origin a for dative of crv (older Tv) ; thus it calls the listener's attention to the statement, as one that concerns him. The translation is various ; doubtless, you know, he assured, have a similar tone, but are usually too 19 290 COMPLEX SENTENCES strong. Frequent compounds are fjiivroL (669 b), ovtol surely not. For rotVw, etc., see 673 b. 672 From ye apa (673 a) is formed * ydp, which has several distinct uses, with some that are transitional between these. a. Adverbially, yap makes the preceding word prominent, somewhat as ye does, while suggesting, like apa, that the pre- ceding sentence has something to do with this prominence. Especially in questions yap denotes surprise, or some kindred emotion: ris yap av i^TjO-q; tvliy, tclio loould have thought! D. 9, 68. yivoLTo yap av tl Kaivorepov ; COuld there possiMy be anything newer! D. 4, 10. Also in answers, or other state- ments positively made, with some reference to a preceding statement: rj yap avdyKrj (An. I. 6, 8) or dvdyKrj yap I must indeed ! With these belongs the use of yap in wishes (470 a, 477). yap in this group of uses may be called yap emotional. b. Often a narrative or explanation that has just been promised is introduced by yap explanatory. The nearest Eng- lish equivalent is namely; sometimes we may translate hj for example, that is ; but more often English in such cases has no introductory word : v/xas etSws SiSd^m. to pikv yap TrXrjOo? TToXv ktX. I icill explain to you. Their number is large, etc. An. I. 7, 4. Whether this yap is an adverb or a conjunction it is difficult to say. c. As a conjunction, ydp causal introduces a reason ; the sentence with ydp generally follows that for which it gives the cause. Sometimes the ydp clause precedes or is inserted par- enthetically within the other sentence ; ydp may then usually be rendered since. d. Ka6 ydp is sometimes for even, for also, /cat being adverb- ial and emphasizing the next following word ; but more often Kai is a conjunction and yap adverbial, and in fact ; sometimes it is impossible to determine w^hich was the conjunction, k<u ydp having become a standing formula : WORD-ORDER 291 TovTo iiroUi £K Tov ;(aAc7ros ilvaf Kal yap bpav CTvyio'S rjv kol ttJ <f)U)vfi Tpdxv<; this he did by heivg severe; his very appear- ance was disagreeable and his voice harsh. An. ii. 6, 9. In dAAa yap the yap is almost always adverbial, dni i7i fact, hut really, 673 a. The particles * apa, * ovv, and (in poetry) enclitic * vw or * vvv are inferential, translated therefore, accordingly, so, as it ajjpears, unaccented noiv or then. St} sometimes approaches these in meaning (671 c). b. The syllable rot- (not the same as * tol, 671 e), probably another form of the demonstrative tw, as a with or hy dative, appears in ^ tol-vw accordingly, well then, farther; also in rot- ydp, TOL-ydp-TOL, Toi-yap-ovv, more strongly inferential, therefore, and so, for just that reason, ydp is here adverbial, the final -Tot of roL-ydp-TOL is the enclitic (671 e). WORD-ORDER 674 Each language has its own ways of arranging words within the sentence, ways natural to the native speaker, but more or less strange at first to others. English, Greek, Latin, French, German, all differ considerably from one another in word- order. The following sections describe the more striking differences between Greek word-order and English. 675 The order of words in Greek is much freer than in English, because Greek has fuller inflections. Thus the boy saiv a man means one thing, a man saic the boy means another, saiv a man the boy means nothing ; but the Greek could say 6 Trats etScv dvSpa, dvSpa cTScv 6 Trat?, ctSci/ dvSpa 6 TTttt?, or avSpa 6 Trats cTScv, all with equal clearness, with no change in syntax or essential meaning, but merely with different emphasis. In English the word-order is the most important means of indicating syntax ; in Greek it serves this purpose to a far less extent, but is the chief means, along with particles, of indicating what we call rhetorical effects. 292 COMPLEX SENTENCES 676 Certain requirements of position for certain words and mean- ings have been described above — the attributive and predicate positions (552, 555, 556), the special rule for oSe, ovtos, eKetvo?, etc. (553, 554 and a), the meanings of avros according to its position (199), the fact that many words are postpositive (665- 673), and that some particles throw their force on the preced- ing word (as /xeV, Si, ye, yovv, 8rJ) while others throw their force on what follows (as Kat, ovSe, fii^v). Also, as in English, a preposition usually precedes its noun, a conjunction begins its clause, any word that looks back to a preceding clause is likely to stand near the beginning, any word that looks for- ward to the next clause is likely to stand near the end. These general requirements, and the necessity for clearness of syn- tax, take precedence of all other principles. 677 The above requirements being met, and other things being equal, the more important precedes, the less important follows ; the degree of importance dimin- ishes from the beginning of the clause to the end, the final place is that of least prominence. a. As regards the final place, this is the opposite of the rule in English, which makes the final place the most promi- nent. In reading English aloud — or Greek that one does not understand — the tendency is to put most stress on the last word ; this must be reversed in reading Greek. In trans- lating, the relative prominence is sometimes best preserved in English by reversing the Greek order. b. A longer grammatical unit (sentence or clause) may be divided into smaller rhetorical units, each consisting of sev- eral words ; the above rule then applies to each rhetorical member as well as to the whole clause. Thus the first word after a pause in Greek receives the prominence of a last word before a pause in English. 678 The importance that determines order may be logical or emo- tional ; the two kinds are in most sentences more or less com- WORD-ORDER 293 bined, and are not always clearly separable in thought. Logi- cal importance is relative prominence in a complex thought, viewed wholly without emotion, as a simple fact or a scientific statement ; the relative logical importance of the same ele- ments of a thought may vary with varying circumstances (679). But most things are looked upon with more or less of feeling, which may give them, to the speaker or listener, a relative importance very different from that of logic or of abstract thought ; this is their emotional importance (680). The term emphasis denotes generally emotional importance, but is used also of marked logical importance. Order determined mainly by logical importance. a. "EoTtv ovv T/3aya)8td fu/JirjcrL^ 7rpd^€(ii<s (nrovSo.Ld'i kol TeA.€t'aS, fiiyedo'S i)(ov(Tr)<5, rjSvo-fxevio Aoyo), X'^P'-'* ^i«^<J'tov twv ctScov iv rot? lxopLOL% SpwvToiv Koi ov Bl aTTayycAtds. This is Aristotle's defini- tion of tragedy (Poet. 6). The preceding discussion (to which ovv refers us) has included tragedy, and has reached the point where the question is now, not so much what tragedy is, but rather what tragedy is^ in view of the preceding argument ; hence ta-nv stands first. The central fact in the essence of tragedy is fxiix-qo-L'i imitative presentation ; then follow the various restrictions, that gradually narrow the general state- ment down to a definition, proceeding always from the general to the particular. In its essence, then, tragedy is the repre- sentation of an action that has dignity, completeness, and mag- nitude, in artistic language, ivith each kind of verse kept sepa- rate in the parts, presented hy people acting instead of through narrative. b. General rules, applying this principle in detail, in the simple unemotional sentence, are : (1) An arrangement without emphasis is subject, its modi- fiers, predicate, modifiers of the predicate. This often agrees closely with the English order. (2) An adjective, or adnominal genitive, or appositive, unless for some reason emphatic, is apt to follow its noun. 294: COMPLEX SENTENCES But if the noun has the article, any attributive expression takes the attributive position (552). (3) Modifiers of a verb (except the negatives) are apt to follow the verb. (4) But circumstances may give special importance to a modifier, and therefore place it earlier. c. An example of simple narrative is : 'Ei/Te9^ei/ i^eXavvei crTaOfJLov<s Bvo TrapacrayyaS 8eKa ets neAra?, ttoXlv OLKovfxivqv. evravO^ efxetvev i^/xe/ads rpets • iv als Hcvtds 6 'Ap- KttS TO. A.vKaLa eOvcre kol dywva WrjKe- rd Se aOXa ^(rav o-rAeyytSe? XP^~ crat* iO€o)pu Se tov dywva kol K£)po9. An. i. 2, 10. Here the de- monstratives ivrevOev and ivravOa, and the relative iv ah, point back to the preceding sentence and form the connection ; i$€Xavv€L and €fj.eLvev contain the central idea of these clauses ; the numeral follows its noun. Xenias is a new person intro- duced, who interrupts the monotony by a festival ; the name of the festival, rd AuVata, is more important than eOva-c, which was the regular verb denoting such a celebration ; so with dywva and eOrjKc. The prizes were strigils is our natural order also, but the relative importance of the pair a-TXeyyiSes ^va-al is represented in English by the opposite order, golden strigils. In the last clause the important item was that the prince him- self was a spectator ; e^ewpet is duly marked by its position, Kvpos is made prominent by Kai (cp. 681 b). In such simple narrative note that chronological order may often determine the order of presentation, when lucidity is a prime object. 680 Order influenced by emotional prominence. '12? fxkv (TTpaTTjyycrovTa e/xe Tavrrjv Tr]V CTTpaTyytdv f.t7)Sel<S vfxwv AeyeVo) let fio One of you speak tvith the idea that I am going to act as general in this plan of campaign. An. i. 3, 15. a-rpcnr]- yqa-ovTa e/xe contains the central idea which the speaker wishes to remove from their minds ; /acV looks forward to a following clause, to be contrasted with this. WORD-ORDER 295 In An. I. 4, 3, eTTTaxocrtov? e^tov oTrXtrd? and rcrpaKoa-LOL OTrXirat, the stress laid on the numbers, which are somewhat contrasted with each other, places them before the nouns. In Ax. i, 3, 17, /3ovXoLfxr)v S' av dKovTo'S dTriwv Kvpov Aa^ctv avrbv aTreXOwv I sliould wisli^ if I am going aicay icitliout Cyrus'^s consent^ to get away witliout Ms hnoidedge, aKovTo<s and XaOclv are contrasted and emphasized. In Ap. 40 d, Oavfxda-iov K€pSo<s av clrj 6 Odvaros a wonderful gain ivould death le^ Oav/Mda-cov is the most em- phasized word and K€pBo<i next, while the subject, 6 Odvaros, is here the least important, and might almost have been omitted. Sometimes, of two or more coordinate expressions, which in English would be so arranged that the most important would come last, the first is in Greek plainly the most empha- sized : fJirj icf)€vpeOrj<S dvovs re kol yepoiv d/jui lest tllOU he found hoth old and foolish too. S. ax. 281. a. When the clause is apparently complete, a new element — noun, pronoun, verb, but especially an adverb — may be added after a slight pause, as if an afterthought. The added word is then the first after a pause and is thereby made promi- nent, though it may be also the last in the clause ; it virtually makes a clause by itself. b. Sometimes a form of the periodic style, so common in Latin, is followed in Greek also, when a more even stress and an air of calm dignity is suitable : tt^v Toiv vreAas avrol i7r€X06vT€<; ov ;j(aA€7ra)S iv t^ dAAorptia tov<s irepl twv olkccwv dfivvo/Jievov^ H-^X^ fievoL TOi TrAct'w Kparovp^cv when we ourselves invade otir neigh- bors^ territory^ without difficulty^ on alien soil, though against men who are acting in defeyise of their oicn, we more often prevail. T. ir. 39. This is the style of one who is conscious that every word is laden with meaning, and will be weighed. Since there are many ways of indicating the importance of words besides order, it often happens that an emphasized word stands where the order alone would leave it in the back- ground. Other means of emphasis are : 296 COMPLEX SENTENCES a. The personal pronouns eyw, o-v, y/xels, etc., also avros standing alone in the nominative, or in any case in the predi- cate position, also oSe, ovtos, or iKuvo's used as a personal pro- noun in the nominative, are emphatic in any position. Thus in D. 1, 9, r)v$T^cra/jL€v, w avSpe? 'A^T^j/atot, ^tAtTTTTov rjfJLcls tve OUr- selves, men of Athens^ have given Philip his present poiver, 7]v$rj(TafX€v is emphasized strongly by position, i^/xets by being expressed at all ; the place at the end does not affect rj/xels one way or the other — unless indeed a slight pause was made be- fore it (680 a). b. Adverbs and particles like Kac, ovSi, fxriv, Brj, all indicate prominence. c. Simple repetition, or the use of two synonyms for one idea, delays attention longer and so makes an idea prominent. d. Any form of parallelism in expression, whether of repe- tition or of contrast, calls attention to both members. Thus fjL€v and 8e, similarity of ending {h^oiorikcvrov rime), and the use of the same word in different cases side by side (682 b), always give emphasis. In this way an important word may stand last without danger of being slighted. 682 Certain combinations were so frequent that we may call them fashions of word-order. Especially noticeable are a. Chiasmus (" criss-cross " order, from the shape of the letter X) reverses in the second of two parallel phrases the order of the first ; this gives equal prominence to each mem- ber in both phrases : koXov to aOXov koI tj cXttis ficydXr] noble is the prize and our hope great. Ph. 114 c. KaXbv TO aOXov 7) eATTt? /xeydXr] b. Two words of like sound or derivation but of contrasted meaning, or two forms of the same word in different construc- tions, are apt to be put near each other : ra twv Oewv tvTlfx drl- fjidcrda !;(€ what the gods honor, in dishonor hold. S. an. 77. WORD-ORDER 297 c. When the same word is repeated in two contrasted mem- bers which contain fxiv and Si, the repeated word stands first, followed by fiev and Sc. This usage doubtless began with clauses in which the repeated word was emphatic ; but it became the rule, as early as Homer, even when the repeated word was unimportant : Trao-a /xei/ 686<S cvTropos ttSs 8e Trora/xos 8ia- /Jaros every road is easy, and every river can he crossed. An. ii. 5, 9. Here the contrast is not between uao-a and ttSs, but between the remainder of the clauses, although every is an important idea. In Ax. i. 2, 3, TpLdKoatov^ /xcv oxA-trd? TpLdKocrLov<s 8c TTcArao-ra? cxwv TrapeyeVcro, the importance of the number would not of itself have placed it first. d. At the end of a clause an adjective and its noun are often separated by a verb-form. This usually is the order that gives the natural emphasis ; but it came to be sometimes little more than a rhetorical fashion : et tolwv 6 <J>t'A67r7ros t6t€ ravTTjv io-^e rrjv yvuifx-qv, ovk av rocravTrjv ^KTYjaaro SvvajjiLV if til en Pliilip at tliat time liad adopted this opinion, lie would not have acquired so great poioer. D. 4, 5. 683 Finally, considerations of euphony, especially of rhythm, often affected word-order, as in English ; but this influence is diffi- cult for us to trace in prose, because Greek prose rhythm (like that of verse) was determined by the quantity of the syllables, which we feel less strongly than the Greeks did. ABBEEVIATIONS In citing examples A. = Aischylos (WecJcletn), A., Agamemnon, c, Choephoroi, E., Eumenides, p., Persians, PB., Prometheus Bound, s., Seven against Thebes. Ar. = Aristophanes {Bergk), N., Nubes (Clouds), R., Ranae (Frogs), v., Vespae (Wasps). CIA. = Corpus Inscriptionum Atti- carum. D. = Demosthenes. E. = Euripides {Nauck), AL., Alkestis, AND., Andromache, B., Bacchae, HIPP., Hippolytos, lA., Iphigenia at Aulis, IT., Iphigenia among the Tau- rians, M., Medea. Epich. = Epicharmos. L. = Lysias. Men. = Menander. Plato is cited thus : Ap. = Apology, Cr. = Crito, GoR. = Gorgias, Ph. = Phaedo, Pr. = Protagoras, Rep. = Republic. Plut. Caes. = Plutarch's Caesar. S. = Sophokles (Jebb), AL, Aias, AN., Antigone, E., Elektra, OT., Oedipus Tyrannus, OK., Oedipus at Kolonos, p., Philoktetes. T. = Thukydides. Xenophon is cited thus : An. = Anabasis, C. = Cyropaedia, H. = Hellenica, M. = Memorabilia, 0. = Oeconomicus. Most of the other abbreviations need no explanation ; but cp. = com- pare, irapf. = imperfect, impv. = imperative, kt\. = Koi ra Xoiird = and so forth. 298 VERB-LIST Note. — This list is intended to contain all verbs of classical Attic Greek whose forms can cause diiRculty to the student. But rare forms are sometimes omitted, especially such as occur only in lyric parts of the drama, or in works not likely to be read until the student is beyond dependence on an elementary grammar. In many doubtful cases it seemed better to err on the side of inclusion rather than of omission. The forms that belonged to prose or to spoken Attic are in full-faced type ; those in ordinary type belonged to poetry. Yet in some cases a simple verb that appears only in composition in prose is recorded as a prose form ; also verbs in -ffffo), -rrta, are recorded with <ra; though the regular prose form had tt. The class of the present system is given after the verb-stem, unless the present belongs to the formative-vowel class or to the root-class. "A-yafJiai (a-ya-, 365 and a) admire, i\ya<rdr\v. ayyiSXci (ayytK-, i cl.) announce, ayyikta, V\yyi\Xa., iiYY^^i^o-j i^YY^^H'*'-* "^YY^XO-qv. aydpia (aY^p-, i cl.) gather, ^y^ipa. &.yvv^\. (oLY-, ttY", nas. cl.) break. &|«, ?a|a, ^aYa, layvy. &y<a (oLY-) lead, &|a), i^YO-Yov (350, 10), Tjxa, ^yF^^^^j ^X^^' aeipca (aep-, i cl.) lift, older form of atpw, which see. aSft) (tt8-, for aetS-) sing, a(ro|Jiai, fjcra, T](r9iiv. al8^o|jLat (ai86-) and a^Bo,uai (alB-) respect, ai5^<ro|iai, •n.Seo-jiai, f|8l(r0T]v. alv^w (alv€:Ti-) praise, alveo-w, r^vi<ra, fvcKa, f,vii[iai, r\vidy\v. aXpita (aip€:Ti-, IX-) seize, aiprjo-cu, cIXov (350. 9), f.pT]Ka, rpii|ji,at, f,p^8Tiv. atpo) (ap-, I cl.) lift, ap», ^pa, ^pKa, ^pu-ai, <^p9T]V. al(r9dvo[iai (al<r9-, al(r9ii-, nas. cl.) perceive. al(r9irj(rofiai, f(r9d|iiiv, ■no-9'qjJLai. ata-eu) {olCk-, i cl.) and atro-o) rush, dt|« and d^^w, ^i|o and f^a. oX<jyyv(a {aXu\vv-f i cl., 421) shame, al<rxvvw, y\fr\vva., f|<rxvv9'qv. aKovci) (cLKOu-) hear. aKov(ro|xai, fJKoucra, aKil]Koa (291 c), i?|Kovi<r9iiv. d\€{<j>« (d\i<|)-, d\€i<J>-) anoint, dX:i\|/«, i^\€i\|fa, d\^\i4>a (291 c), dXi^Xt|Ji|iai, 399 300 GREEK GRAMMAR dAe^o) (ctAe^-, ccAe/c-) ivard off, aki^ofxai, r]\€^oi/jLr]v. aXCo-Konai (aX-, aXo:w-, incep. cl.) am captured, aXwo-ofiai, laXwv or fjXtov (267, 369 c), cdXcoKa or 'fjXwKa. dXXdcra-o) (aXXav, t cl.) change, dXXd|a), ijXXa^a, ijXXaxa, ^^XXaYjxat (345), ■f|XXdx9iiv and if|XXd7T]v. &XXo|xai (dX-, I cl.) leap, dXov)j.ai (324) i\\a\i.r\v. aKvcTKU) (for aKvK-ffKU), clKvk-, cp. 8i8d(rKci), incep. cl.) avoid, oAu|a>, ^Xv^a. dfiaprdvia (djiapr-, duaprif]-, nas. cl.) err, d|xapTif]aro)JLai, -fjfjLapTov, i]\i.apT't\Ka, ^p.dpTT]|Xai, TJfJLapTIQSTJV. d/iTr-e'xw and afxiT-i<Tx<» (d|jL<|)C + ^X**! ^^OC**) ^''«/> about, put on, afitpe^w, ijjJL'iri- (Txov. M id. d|X7r€xo[iai, dfiirio-xofJLai, afiTriax'^^o/xai have on, d|JL<J>e|o(j,ai, •i\\L'ic- lo-xop-iiv and '^p.Tr-c<rx6p.Tiv (cp. 268 d). aixirKaKiffKu (d/x7rAa/c-, a/xTrAcucr;-, incep. cl.) miss, ^jXTtXaKov, TifiirKaKrifxai. d|xvva) (djJLW-, i cl.) ward off, d{xvv(o, i^(i.vva. dp,(j}i--Yvo€a> doubt, impf. •f||x<j)-€7voouv (268 d), 'f|}jL<J)-€YV0T]<ra. dva-pi.w(rKO|xai : see Pidto. av-aXCa-KM (-aX-, -dXo:w-, incep. cl.) and dv-aXoo) spend, dv-dXwo-o), a,v-r\K<a<ra, dv-TJXcoKa, dv-irjXa)(JLai, dv-tiXtoO-qv. dv-oC-yviJixi, av-oCyca (see o\!yvu(j.i) ope7i, impf. dv€u»Yov (267 a), dv-o£|«, dv-e(u|a (267 a), dv-^u»xa (291 a), dv-^tt»7(xai, av-i(u\Qy\v (snbjv. dv-oix6w, etc.). dvvo) (dvu-) sometimes dvuo), also olvvto) accomplish, dvvo-o), i^vvtra, i^vvKa, ijvvcrp.ai. i£;/tw7a (dj/wy-) command, root perf. (370), with pres. meaning, ^.vaya^, ^vui-yc, impv. &vux^h ^vwxOe. dTr-€x9dvo|jtai (-€X^"> '^^s. cl.) become odious, dir-cxO^o-ojJLai, a.ir-rwQ6iLT\v, dir- ■flXeTijxttt. diTTdi (d<))-, T cl.) fasten, kindle, dv(;a), t]\|/a, t]jx|iai, •fj<J>9T]v. apapiffKd) {ap-, incep. cl.) fit, ^pcra, ^papov, &pdpa. dpdcro-o) (dpa^-, i cl.) bang, slam, dpd^ci), ^pa^a, ir|pdxOTjv. dp^o-KO) (dpe-, incep. cl.) please, api<r<a, i^peo-a, nipecrd-qv. dpK^co (dpK€-) assist, suffice, dpK^o-o), i^pK€o-a. apix6Ca}, dpp,0TT« (dp|j.OT-, i cl.) fit, dp|xdo-», -flpixocra, fjpfioo-p.ai, TJp(id(r9T]v. dpuvfiai (ap-, nas. cl.) win, apovfiai, iipSfxrjv. dpdo) (dpo-) ploiv, ijpoo-a, ■i\p6Q'r\v. dpTrd^o) (dpiraY", dpira8-, i cl.) seize, -dpird(rofi.ai and -dpirdo-w, {jpirao-a, fjp- iraKa, -flpTrao-fxai, iqpTrdo-O-riv. apvo) (apv-) and dptiro) draw water, -i^pvo-a, t|pv9t]v. dpXw (dpx") am first, begin, rule, dpi<«), ^p|a, ^pYjiai, ijpxO'nv. avaiuco, avaCvo) (avav-, t cl.) drg, atiavd), i^viiiva, i^vdvOiiv. av^dvo) (av|-, avlt]-, nas. cl.) and ail^w increase, aii^irjcra), Tii)|T]o-a, T]{»|TiKa, "qiJlTlfjiai, iiv|tj9t]v. dx0op.at (dx9-, dx9€(r-) am vext, dx96o-o(iai, irjx9^(r9i]v. VERB-LIST 301 BaCvft) (pa-.T]-, Pav-, i cl.) go, pii(ro|xai ()8T]cra> causative), l^r^ (369 a), ejSTjo-a (causa live), p6pT]Ka, -p4pa{iai, -epdS-qv. pdWw (paX-, pXr]-, I cl.) ^Arot^, paX«, ^paXov (350, 4), p^pXT]Ka, pcpX-qnai, €pXTJ0TlV. pdiTTw (Pa<j)-, T Q\.)dip, pd\|/«, ?pai|/a, p^pan^ai, €pd4)Tiv, ifidcpdrju. PaaTaCu) (^aa-raS-, i cl.) carry, jSatrTcio-co, i^daTaaa. pipdto) (pipaS-, I cl.) maAre ^fo (causative of paivw), pipdcrw and pipw (346 b), -epfpao-a. ^i^puxTKU} {0po:u}-, incep. cl.) eaY, fiefipcoKa, fiefipu/xai. ^i6u> ()8io:a)-) ZiVe. piwo-o|iai, ePtW (369 c), PepCwKa, Pepitofxai. dva-Piwo-KOfxai revive, dveP^oxra, av-i^loiv. pXdirro) (pXap-, t cl.) injure, pXdx|/a), ?pXa\I/a, p4pXa4)a, pepXa|X(iai, €pXd<j)9Tiv, €pXdpTiv. pXaoTdvw (pXatTT-, pXao-rt]-, nas. cl.) sjyrout, fiAaarriau}, ^pXacTov, (PiepXdo-- Ti\Ka. pXe'irw (pXcTT-) lool-j pX€»|/o|iai, ^pX€\|/a. PoiiXojJiai (povX-, PovX-q-) ivish, PovXi^crofiai, PtPovX-qnai, €pouXirj0T]v (266). Pp^X" (PP^X-) u'ef, ^Ppega, p€pp€7(iai, eppexQ-qv. fiptew ifipW') am heavy, fipitru^ efiplcra, fiifipWa. Ppuxdo|xat (Ppvx-> Pp^XO-'I") bellow, fiefipvxa, fipvx'^Qf^is. Pvve'w (Pv:v-, nas. cl.) stop up, ptio-o), 'i^va-a, pe'Pvo-fiai. rajx^w (7a|JL-, Yaiie:!]-) marry (act. of a man, mid. of a woman), ya^a, tyry^o.j ■YtYdjJLTiKa, -y67d)Ji't]fJLai. y^fojva, pf. with pres. meaning, (70;!'-) shout, also '^^'yaivita (7€ya>j/€:7j-) and ycywviaKU} (7€7ct)»'-, incep. cl.), 7 €70)1/7] (r&>, iyeywi/'ncra. -yeXdb) ("ycXa-) laugh, -yeXdcroixai (322), e^^Xao-a, eYeXdcrO-qv. 77j0ea) (77J0-, yr]Qe:T]-) rejoice, yndriau), iyrjdr)(Ta, ^CYiiOa. "yqpdo-Kaj ("yqpd-, incep. cl.), also yr]pdci} {ynpa-) grow old, 'Y'np&(r(i>, €7if|pd(ra, ■yc^TipaKa. ■y£-yvo|iai (y€v-, 70V-, 7€vt|-, 257 a) become, Yev^<ro(j.ai, lYcvdji-qv, 7€Yova, 767^- vqjjLat. For ycyus see 370, (3). •yiYVwo-Koi (yvo.'o)-, incep. cl.) come ^ hnoiv, recognize, Yv«<ro(jiai, i-^v<av (366. 367), ^YVwKa, ^Tvoxriiai, l7v«<r0T]v. •ypd4>a> (7pa<J)-) mark, write, Ypdx{/w, ^Ypa.}/a, 7€7pa,(j)a, "y6Ypa|Xjxai, €7pd(j)T)v. (See 341, 345.) AdKvo) (SttK-, 8t]k-, nas. cl.) hite, S^^ofxai, 28aKov, 848t]Ynai, eSVjxQtlv. ^apQdvo} {Sap6-, SapOrj-, nas. cl.) sleep, ^Sapdov, SeSdpdtjKa. 8€8oiKa, SeSia, 370, (5). 8eCKVv|jii (8€iK-, nas. cl) point at, 358-360. SepKo/xai {5epK-, SopK-, dpoK-) see, (SpaKov, 545opKa (456 c). 302 GREEK GRAMMAR 84po) (Sep-, Sop-) skin, flay, Sepw, ^Seipa, ScSapp-ai, I8dpt|v. 8^X^H'<^>' (S^X") receive, S^^ofxai, IScldjiiiv, Se'ScYfiai, cSexQ^lv. 8^0) (8€:t|-) bind, 8irjj-a), ?8T]o-a, 848eKa, SeScfxai, €840t]v. 860) (8c-, 8CTJ-) lack, Seifjo-w, eS^-qo-a, ScSeriKa. Impers. Set ^Aere ^s neetZ, 8cirj(rci, ISe'-qc-e. Dep. 8^o{iai ask, request, 8€ifj<ro|xai, SeS^Tjjxai, cSeirjGTjv. 8iaiTd<«) (8iai,Ta:Tj-) diet^ arbitrate, 8taiT'^<ra), e8ifiTiio-a, 8€8ifjTT|Ka, 8€8ifiTt]|iat, eSiTiTi^O-qv. 8t8d(rKw (8i8ax-, incep. cl., 260 l) teach, 8i8d|«, €8t8a|a, 8e8£8axa, ScS^SaYp-ai, e8i8dx8iiv. -8i8pd(rKa> (8pa:a-, incep. cl.) run aivay, -8pd<ro|ji,ai, -^Spav (369 a), -Se'SpaKO. 8i'8«iii, 372, 375. Zi^6.o} (5ti|/o:rj, 320) thirst, Sixp-fjcru), i5i\pr](ra. SiuKO) (81WK-) pursue, 8i(o§op,ai, cSfco^a, ScSfuxa, 8i£8{a>Y[iaL, €8iwx9t]v. 8oK6a) (80K-, 8oK6:i^-) thiiik, seem, 8d|b), ^8o^a, 8e8oY[xai, eSdxQ'qv. Also So/c^a"«, idSKTjcra, SeSJ/cTjKo, SeSei/CTj^ot, iSoKrjdriv. 8pap.ov}j.ai : see rp^x*** Spd(T(roiJ.ai {Spay-, i cl.) grasp, iSpa^dfiriPj SeSpay/xat. 8pd(tf (8pa:d-) do, 8pdo-a), ^Spdcra, 8^8pdKa, 8e8pdp,ai, kBpta-Qtiv. Svvafiai, (SvvatT]-, 266, 365 a) can, 8vvi^(ro)i.ai, 8€8iivT]p.ai, €8wtj0t]v. 8va) (8i>:v-) e7iter, Zv<r<a (causative), ^8u<ra (causative), ^8w (366, 367), Se'SvKa, 8^8i;Ka, 8€8«}JLai, eSuO-qv. *Eda) (€a:a-, 267) let, permit, Ido-co, d^do-a, ctdKa (291 a), etdjiai, €ld9Tiv. €-y€Cpw (l^cp-, €7op-, €7p-, I cl.) rouse, waken, €7€p«, iJYcipa, T|7pd|it)v, eypi^Yopa (291 c, 332) am awake, €Yi^Y€pp.ai (291 c), i\^ip^-t\v. ^8op,ai, l8ir)8oKa : see €o-9£b). 'i^o^iai (eS- for (reS-, i cl.) SiY, chiefly in comp. with Kara. See KaOe^oixat. iQikci and 0l\o) (I0€\-, eOeXt]-) am willing, e8€Xiri<ra), OcXtjo-o), f|9^XT]o-a, ^OeXTjKa. c9it« (€0t8-, I cl, 267), accustom, I9k3 (346 a), eWto-a, €t0iKa (291 a), ciOio-jiai, €l0t<r0T]V. cISov : see opdco. €l8«s (172), €l8€vai : see oI8a. clKd^cD (elKa8-, i cl.) make like, conjecture, elKdo-u, e\!Ka<ra or '^Kao-a, dKoa^iai or ^Kao-piai, €lKd(r6T]v. cIkws : see ^oiKa. €1(11 am, 384 ; clfxi go, 385. clirov (€lir-, aor.) said, 350, 8, and 351 ; for other tenses see (pyj^ii. €lfpYvv(j.t (€tpY-, nas. cl.), also cl'pYO) shut in, €ifp|o), clp^a, clp7p.ai, etpxQilv. etpYw (elpY") shut out, €\Ip|<«), etc., like the preceding, except in the breathing. €'i(i>0a am accustomed, plup. elw0€iv, 456 c. €Xaxivti> (IXtt-, nas. cl.) drive, k\St (322 c), ^jXao-a, cXVjXaKa (291 c), cXTJXa}iai, "jjXdOtiv. VERB-LIST 303 ikiyxoi (eX.€YX-) ^^^^^ cX^y^w, i^Xc^fa, IX^XcYjJtai (344 t), iiXiyxQtiv. tXeiv, elXov : see aip^co. i\€V(rofxai, eXifjXvGa : see ^pxojxai. 4X961V, ^XOov : see ?pxop.at. eXfo-o-ft) (IXiK-, I cl., 267) and €iXC<ro-« M>tnc?, tXtlo and €lXC|ci), ctXi^a, ctXiYH-o-i, '^Xkw (IXk-, IXku-, 267), ^|«, €l'XKV(ra, etXKUKa (291 a), el'XKuo-jjiai, cIXkvo-Otiv. Later, eXKixo, kKKvcTw. IXirCtu (^XttiS-, I cl.) expect, hope, {jXirKra, '#|X'irC<r0t]v. €jjLeft) (Iji-, €(!€-) vomit, €|xov(j,at, ■l^p,€<rtt. eiiiroXdft) (efiiroXa:!]-) get hy trade, trade m, -fnxTrdXiiKa, ^iroXTJQ'qv. cvavTioofjLai, 268 b. 6V€YK€iv, ^ve^Ko., -J^vcYKov, Ivi^voxa, evi^vcYH'Q'i' : see ^ip(a. ivtTTW (eV + (Teir-, ctt-, 0"7r-), also iuvcirco (for iv-ffiiru)), tviffirov {ivi-cnrw, iyi-airoifiif ivi-a-Kis like cx^s and iirl-ffx^s, ivi-cir^^v). ev8vp,4o)j.ai (€v + 0v(w:t]-) hear in mind, lv9vp.i^(ro|xai, €VTedtj|XT])ji,ai, IvedCp.^- 0tiv. (Vfvixi (e-, older feo--, Lat. ves-tio, nas. cl.) clothe, partic. €'//i€j/os. In prose d|X([>i^vvv|ii, dp.<{>i(o (for aixcpicao}, like reAew, 322 c), d|x<}>i^(ro{iai, f||x4>£c(ra (268 c), -f|p.({>Ceo-|jLai. cvoxXc'w (cv + oxXet-q-, 268 d) annoy, f|v«xXTi<ra, irivtoxXilKa, fivcoxX-qjiai. ^oiKtt (Ik-, €iK-, oIk") am like, 370, (6). eoprdto) (lopraS-, i cl.) heep festival, impf. ec&pratov. itzdyia (cTTCi-y-) jaress forward, circC^oiiai, ^ireCx^'HV. €iri|i€X^o(j.ai, lirip.eXo)iai ; see (jieXcD. cirtorrajiat (eTrwrrarT]-, 365 and a) understand, lirto-T^crofiai, •fjTri(rT^9't]v. '^■iro|xat {kit- for o-ctt-, ott-, 267) follow, ^\|/o(iai, £(nrdp.T]v (<nrM[Jiai, (nroCp,Tiv, (TiroVf <nr^<r9ai, <nrd(J.6Vos). Ipdo) and epafiai (€pa-) /ore, irjpd(r0t]v. €p7d5ojjiat(€pYa8-, i cl., 267) work, cpYd(ro|xai, €lpYa<rd{iT]v, €\!pYa(r(jiai, clpYao-OTjv. cpSft) (ep5-, epy-) doj also epSw and ^e^w (pey-, i cl.), ep|co and pe|a>, ep^a and epe^a. €p£i8ci> (cpeiS-) pi^op, kpda-b), {jpeio-a, {)p€iKa, lpifjpcio-|xai (291 c), •i\pii<rQ'r\v. ipeiiru) {epiir-, fpeiir-) throiV down, ipfiypu, i]pnrov, ip-fjpiira (291 c), ip-f^pififiaiy ipei(pdr]v. kpil<a (€pi8-, I cl.) contend, ijpio-a. '^pir« (cpir-, 267) go, creep, '^pxj/o). Also kpirvCa, cl'pirvo-a, ippa {epp-, ippf)-) go, begone, IppVjo-o), ¥ippt\a-a. epvKCi) (epvK-) hold hack, ^pv|a. ^pXop,ai (€px-» e'Aew^-, €Xv9-, IX9-) ^0, iKeva-o/xai, ^X9ov (1X9^, 349 a), and ijAvOoi', IX^Xv9a (291 c). cp»; e'iCpt|Ka, cppirj9'qv : see <{>t])i,i. 304: GREEK GRAMMAR Ipcordci) (ep«Ta:i]-) ash, Ipwr^o-w, fipwr-qo-a, 'f|p(Grt]Ka. But the common fut. and aor. are (from cp-, Ipr]-) epi/jo-ofjiai, T|p6p.nv, of which the pres. tpojxai is rare. ia-Uia (lo-9i-, €8-, 18c-, €8o-, ^ixr^-) eat, ^8o(jiat (without fut. suflQx), '^4>a7ov, khi\- 8oKa, €8iQ8e(r(xai, fj84o-9'qv. €o-iro|iT]v : see ^irofxau 6<rTida> (€<rTia:a-, 267), €icrTia(ra, €i<rT(aKa (291 a), €to-T(d|xat, €i<rTtcL9i]v. eu'Soj (eiiS-, cwSrj-) sleep, €u8rj(r«, -euSTjca. Commonly Ka9cv8o>, which see. €vp^<rKw (€vp-, €vp€:t]-, incep. cl.) find, cvpiqcro), i]vpov, Tivp-qKa, Tivpii|iaw, TivplOtjv. ev(j>paCv(i) (eu<})pav-) cheer, ev4>pavco, -qilijjpdva, 'r,v<}>pdv9T]v. cilXoP'*'' ('^X") P^^(^y> ti{|o(xai, Tjv|dp,Tiv, iilYjiai. ixdalpw (ixdap-) hate, ix(^apov/xai, iJx^VP°- '(i\(a (<r€x-, €x-, €X-> o^-> <nC«:'n-) ^«^'e, ^?w and o-x^o-w, ^<rxov (350, 6), ^xxriKa, ^(Txilixai, icrx^O^v- Also pres. tcrx« for o-jorexco, 257 a. ^\|/« (c\j/-, k^y\-) boil, €\|/ifio-(«), fjiffrio-a. Zdo), 320. li-Cyvv\i.\. {Ivy-, livy-, nas. cl.) Join, yoke, Uvi<a, ^t^v^a, ^t^uYH-ciij ^U^xP'^v, lX,()yr\v. tew (tc-) boil, intr., teVw, ^t€0"a- twvvup (t«>-, nas. cl.) ^iVc?, ?5«ora, '(il<aiM\. and iltw<r|jittt. ''H8o|xai (1^8-) am pleased, ^a-Qr\v. TJixai, 388, 389. ^il^L, ^v, ^, 383. ©dXXo) (9aX-, 9t]\-, i cl.) bloom, floiirish, r^QriKa with present meaning (456 b). 9dTrTft) (9a'n--, Ttt<j)-, 47 d, t cl.) bury, 9dv|/a), ^9at)/a, T69a|j.p,ai, lTd<j>iiv. 9ai»p.dtw (9au(xa8-, i cl.) wonder, 9avp.do-o|iai, €9avp.a<ra, T€9ttv(jiaKa, 69aj- p.d(r9T]v. 9iXu> : see €9€\(«). 9ia) (9€u-, 9€-) n^n, 9€iio-op.ai. 0t77ova> {Oiy-, nas. cl.) touch, Bi^oinai, ediyov. eXtpo) (9Xxp-, 9\tp-) squeeze, Q\i]f(a, ?9\X\|/a, T^9\T|x|xai, €9\t<j)9Tiv, €9X£piiv. QvriffKO), for Qvfi-KTKti) (Oav; Qvq-, incep. cl.) die, Qavovfiai, tQavov, Ti^vr\KO. (370, 4), T€9vir||(o (364). In prose regularly d'!ro9vfio-Kw. 9p^|o(ji.ai, ^9pc|a : see rp^x*** 9p4\j/a), ^9p6i|/a : see Tp^(j>a>. 9piiTrT0) (9puTr-, t cl.) iveaken, 9pv\j/w, ^9pv\|fa, Tl9pu(ip.ai. dpc^a-Kco {6op-, Opci}-, incep, cl.) leap, dopovfxai, eOopop. 0WW (9u:v-) sacrifice, 9uo-w, ^9v<ra, T49uKa, T€9u(xai, €tu9iiv (47 c). VERB-LIST 305 'I8€iv, €t8ov: see opdo). il<a (It-, tti-), chiefly in com p. with Kara : see KaQCi<a. i'T]|i.i (er-q-) setid, i\tr<a, rjKa (378), cka, €l|iai, dQtiv, 374, 375. iKv^onat (iK-, nas. cl.) coirie, t^ojiai, iKdjXTjv, lY|xai. In prose usually d<|>- iKv^o|j.ai. iXd(rKop,ai (iXa-, incep. cl.) propitiate, iXd<ro|JLai, i'Xa(rdp.T]v, iXdaO-qv. to-jjiev, to-do-i, 386. i<rTr]\Li (<rTa:r\-) set, station, o-rifjo-o), 'dcrr^tra, ?<rTT]v, '^(rrqKtt (plup. sometimes da-T-fiKT]), eo-Tde-qv. 362-364, 366, 367. i<r\<a : see ^X"* KaQaCpto (Ka9ap-, i cl.) cleanse, KaOapw, tKdOriptt and CKdfldpa, K€Kd0ap|xai, fiKaddpO-qv. Ka9^Jo|xav (Kara + eS-, i cl.) sit, impf. €Ka0€td|niv (268 c) and Kaee(6iJLr}v, Ktt9€- 8ov|Jiiai (for KadeSecro/xai). Cp, KadC^O). KaOevSb) (Kara + €v8-, 6v8t]-) sleep (inipf., sec 268 c). Ka9€v8^(r(i). Kd9i}[iai, 389. KaQClot (Kard + VC,-, itt]-) seat, sit, Ka9i« (cp. 346 a), Ka9itTi<ro|iai, €Kd9i(ra (268 c) and KaQla-a, Cp. Ka9c?op.ai. Kaiuco {Kav-f t cl.) Jcill, Kavw, iKavov. Only in the compound KaraKaCvw in prose. KaCft), Kdw (Kay-, Kd-, i cl., 259 e) hum, Kaviirw, ^Kavo-a, K^KavKa, K^Kavp.ai, €Kav9'qv. KoXi<a (KttXc-, kXi]-) ca/Z, KaXw (322 c), cKaXeo-a, K^KX-qKa, K€KXT](Jiai, €kXt)9t|v. KaXviTTw (KaXvP", t cl.) cove?; KaXv\|/(i), €KdXv\{/a, K€KdXv(jip.ai, cKaXv<t>9T^v. Kd|j.v(i) (Kap.-, K|iT]-, nas. cl.) lahor, am tired, KapoOpai, ^Kapov, K€KpT]Ka. Kdp-n-TO) (Kapir-, t cl.) &e/ic?, Kdp\(/a), ^Kap\)/a, K^Kappai, eKdp<j>9T]v. K€ipai, 387. Kcfpo) (Kcp-, Kap-, I cl.) shear, Kcpw, ^Kcipa, KCKappai. KeXevo) (kcXcu-) hid, KeXcvcrco, CKcXevo-a, KCK^XevKa, KCK^Xcvo-pai, lKeXcv(r9T]V. KeAAw (/ceA.-, i cl.) SriH^ ^0 s/<0?'e, K^Kau, iKeXcra. Cp. okcWcd. Kcpdwvpi (Kcpa-, Kpd-) mio:, CKcpao-a, K^Kpdpai, iKpdQi\v and eKepdo-9T]V. K€p8aCva) (K€p8av-, t cl.) gain, K€p8av«, €K4p8dva (327 a). Kcvdoo (Kevd-) hide, Kevcro), eK€v(ra, KCKevda (456 b). KT|8opai (kt]8-, K'q8c-) sorroiv, care for, eK'r]8e(rdp't]v. KT]pv(ro-(i) (KTipvK-, t cl.) proclaim, K'qpij^a), iKirjpvIa, KCK^jpuxa, KCKifjpvYpai, Ikt]- ptJx9Tiv. Ki7Xaj'a> (k^X"5 f*X^'» ^^^S. cl.) reach, Kix'ticofiai, ^kixov. kCxP'HH''' (XpO'-'H") ^ewc?, mid. borrow, )(jp-f\<r<a, '4xpt\<ra, k^xPT^^j k^XP'HK-"-"" K\d((o {K\a-)y-, I cl., 259 d) resound, KKay^u, ^KXay^a, KfKhayya. KKaiu}, KXdo) (xXav-, KXd-, i cl.) weep, KXavo-opai, ^KXavca, K^KXavpai. icXdo) (KXa-) hreak, ^KXao-a, KCKXao-pat, lKXd(r9'qv. 30 306 GREEK GRAMMAR kkiirra (kXctt-, KXair-, kXott-, t cl.) steal, icX4\|/(i), ^KXcij/a, KeKXo4>a, K^KXeiijjiat, eKXttTTIlV. kXtJcd and kXc^co (kXt|-, kXci-) shut, kXtJo-o), ?KXT)<ra, K^KXrjKa, K^KXufiai, 6KX'ji<r0TjVt Also icXeforo), ^KXcio-a, etc. KXjfvw (kXiv-, kXi-, I cl.) lean, kXivw, ^KXiva, K^KXifiai, €kXi9t]v, €kXCvt]v. KvaCbt (Kvai-) scratch, Kvalffw, ?Kvat<ra, KCKvaiKa, KCKvawrjxai, €Kva£<r9T]v. Kvdh) (KvaiT]-, 320) scrape, ^Kvii<ra, CKV^crO-qv. Ko^iX,<ji (KOfiiS-, I cl.) carry, Kop.iw (346 a), eKd{jLi(ra, KeKO|jiiKa, KCKo}jLi(r[j.ai, cko- |jiC(r9T]v. KOTTTW (kOTT-, T cl.) CUt, KOt|/0), ^KO^/a, K^KO(}>a, K€KOfX}Jiai, iKOTT-qV. Kopevuvfxi late (Kope-, nas. cl.) sa^e, KCKopeo-fiai, iKopea-drjv. Kpdtw (Kpa^-, Kpay-, i cl.) cr^/ o?^^, ^KpaYov, KCKpd-ya. Kpalvco {npav-, i cl.) accomplish, Kpavw, eKpava, iKpduOrjp. Kp^)jia|xai (Kpcfxa:-!]-) hang, intr., Kpc|xi^o-o)JLai.. Kp£|Jidvvvp.i (KpcfAtt-, nas. cl.) hang, trans., Kpcp,co, iKp^fxao-a, iKpcfido-Ot^v. Kpi'vo) (Kpiv-, Kpi-, I q\.) judge, Kpivto, ^KpXva, KCKpiKa, K^Kpifxai, eKp(dr]v. Kpovo) (Kpov-) 6ea^, Kpovorco, ^Kpovo-a, KCKpovKa, KeKpov(a)p.ai, eKpovo-B-qv. KpUTTTW (KpV<}>-, T Cl.) ^ic?e, Kpv\)/(0, ^Kpvv{/a, KCKpUfJlfJiai, eKpU(}>6T]V, €KpV(j)r)V. KTdo|j.ak (KTati]-) acquire, KT^o-ojjLai, cK-nio-dnTiv, KCKT-qjiai (rarely ^KTTjfxai) possess (456 b). KTCCVO) (kT€V-, KTaV-, KTOV-, I cl.) kill, KT6VW, J;KT€lVa, iKTaVOV, dir-CKTOVa, t/CTCtJ/, (KTatct-, 369 a). Also dTro-KrCvvvji-i (/crt-). kt/^oj (/cTtS-, t c\.) found, Krlaa, iKTiaa, ^KTia-fiai, iKriadriv. Kv\i<a (kvXT-) and kvXCvSo) (kuXivS-) roll, iKvKlaa, K€Kv\i<TfjLai, iKvKiaQrjv. Kvvlfa) (ku-, nas. cl.) kiss, tKvaa. irpoa-Kwifa (-kuvcit]-) do homage, regular. KlJlTTW (kV(|)-, T cl.) stoop, KV\)/Ci), ^Kl}\]/a, K€KV(j>a. Kvp€(o {Kvp-, Kvp€-) happen, Kvpau) and Kvpiiaa, tnvpffa and eKvprjaa. Aa.y\av<a (XaX", XtiX", nas. cl.) get hy lot, XTJlop-ai, ^axov, ctXtixa- (291 b), ctXT^-yiiai, €Xtjx9t]v. Xttp.pdvw (XaP", Xrip-, nas. cl.) take, XTJ\|;o[ji.ai, ?Xapov (350, 1), 6tX'ti4>a (291 b), etX'qjxiiai, i\i\^^'r\v. Xd}JLirco (Xa|JLTr-) shine, Kdjx^w, ^ap,i|/a, AeA.ou7ra. Xav9dva) (Xa9-, Xti9-, nas. cl.) lie hid, escape the notice of, X^o-o), {!Xa9ov, X^XTi9a, XeXiqa-fjiat. Also \i]B(c. Xda-Kw (for KoK-ffKu, KaK-, Ad/c-, KaK-q-, incep. cl.) speak, XaK-fia-ofiai, iXaK-riffa and (tXaKOV, \4\a.Ka. •\iy<a (Xe-y-) gather, -\4^<a, -(Kf^a, -ciXoxa (291 b), -etX€7p.ai, rarely -X^Xe7|xai, -l\iyT\Vf -IX6x9rjV. Attic in compounds only. \iyoi (XcY") speak, X^|a>, ^Xe^a (ctp-qKa : see cj)!!}!.^, X^Xcyp-ai (but 8i-€CX€YK>oii, 291 b), iki\9r\v. XcCiTft) (XiTT-, XcMT-, Xotir-) leave, Xd^a, ^iirov (348), X^Xonra, X^Xcip.|xai, IX€C4>9'r]v. VERB-LIST 307 \r]ea} : see XavGdvw. Xovft) (Xov-) u'cisk, veg. Also \6o} (ao-), contracting in the present system, as ^Xov, IXo{)|xev, Xovo-9ai, Xov|i€vos. Xvo) (Xv:v-) loose, Xt;<r(D, ^vcra, Xe'XuKa, Xe'Xvjjiai, €Xii0T]v. MaCvb) (fiav-, i cl.) madden, ^ji-qva, iiliA-qva a77i mad (456 b) ; |iaCvop.ai am mad, l\iavic\v, |xav9dv(>> (|ui9-, nas. cl.) learn, (iaOil^o-opxii, l|ia6ov, |i6{id9T]Ka. fxapTTTOi) {ixapTT-, T cl.) seize, ^idpy^Kt)., ffiap^pa. (jLapTCpojiat (jxapTvp-, i cl. ; see 423), call to witness, cp.apriJpdfi.'qv. [ido-o-o) (jia-y-, i el.) knead, p.d^«, ^|xa|a, }ilp.a\a, [ie'jJiaYnai, €p.dx9'qv. |jtdxo|JLai (jiaX", ^o.\i:r\-) fight, jiaxovftai (322 c), €[jLax€<rdp,iiv, ixeiidx-nixai. |ji€i7vi)|JLi (fii-Y-, |A€t7-> nas. cl.) mix, ixci^ca, ?|i€i|a, fi^(X€iYp.ai, k^d\<^^v, tp-^Y-qv. (ieXXo) (|i€XX-, [ieXX-q-, 266) intend, (ji,€XXt|o-u), lneXXrio-a. lAcXo) (jJLcX-, jicXt]-) care /or, ptcX^o-a), Ifi^X-qo-a, )xe)i€XT]Ka, ficii^Xi^iiai, €|ji,€Xtj9t]v. Impers. p.4X€i, etc. ; otherwise, in Attic prose, only in dep. compounds, eiri|Ji€Xo[j.ai or eirifxcXeofjiai, cirincXi^o-ofjLai, etc., and }iCTa{ieXo}jiai.. H^jiJJx'H-ai (|Ji.€H.<}>-) blame, ji€|A\j/o[iai, €|i€[jL\|/d|XTiv. ^ivia (|i€v-, |Jtevii-) remain, ncvw, ^{leiva, |i€|x€VT]Ka. Ix-qSo/iai (/H7j5-) devise, ixr^a-ofxai, ifxriadix-qv. \uyvv\Li, late spelling for (icC-yvi/jit. jxi/xv^a-Ko} and ixifj.vr](TK(i} {/xya-.r]-, incep. cl.) remind, ijiu-fjcrco, tfimiffa, |ilfiVT]{i,ai (456 b; subjv. ^6p,vcj|ie9a, opt. (i€|ivf|o, (icuvfiTO, (i€|xvf|fi€9a, also |X€}ji,vwo, |jL€|iviuTo, n€|jLV(w}JL€9a, are found), c^J.v1^<^91]v. In prose dvap.i}ivn<rKw and {iiro(i. fxifivu = /xeVftj. jxiffyw = fieiyvvixi. ifioX-) come, fut. ftoAoDuot, aor. iixoXov. Ne'ixo) (veii-, vc|iTi-) distribute, vh>m, ^V6i}ia, v€V6|x'qKa, v€v^|iti[iat, €V€jJiirj9T]v. v€» (vv-, V6V-, 257 b; su'im, viva-ov\i.a.i (326), ^vevo-a, ve'vcvKa. n'^a; (»'*7-, Vi/S-, t cl.) ivash, vlipo), ti/trpa, v^vifx^iai. vop,it« (vojiiS-, t cl.) thinJc, believe, vofxiw (346 a), evd|Ai<rtt, vcvo|jLiKa, v€vdni<r- |iai, lvo{XkG-9T]v. S'Hpa^vco (l-qpav-, i cl.) £?rj/, ^tipavw, l|T|pava, €^ifjpa<rp,ai, kir\pdvQif\v. "O^w (68-, otT]-, I cl.) smell, 6X,r\<r<a, w^i](ra. oXyvvfxi {oiy-, nas. cl.), also ol^ctf oj9e7i ; mostly in compounds ; see ayoiyyv^u olSa, 386. olSe'w (o18c:t]-), also olhauw, swell, ^iST^o-a, ^SiiKa. oiKTtpo) (o'lKTtp-, I cl.) pity, wKTipa (late olKreipa), ^KT(ipoi). 308 GREEK GRAMMAR ol^ofiai., oljjLai (ol-, oIt)-) think (irapf. commonly ^^ur/i'), olTJo-o|xai, ^i\^r\v, oCo-o) : see ^ip<a. otxo|Jiai (olx", olxtl") am gonCi olxi^o-o|jiai, ^xrj/ca. oKcXXo) (oKcX-, I el.) hring to shore, wKciXa, prose form of KeWw. 6Xicr9dv&> and 6Xio-9aCv« (6Xi(r0-, nas. cl.) slip, «Xi<r0ov. oWvui, for oXvvjxi (6X-, oXc-, nas. cl.) lose, destroy, d\w (cp. 322 c), &\e(ra, u}\6firiv was lost, ruined, oAc^Aewra, oAcoAa (291 c) am lost, ruified. In prose dir-oXXiJui, etc. 5fjLviJ|xi (ofJi-, 6(1.0-, nas. cl.) swear, 6)j.ov|j.ai, wfjiocra, 6)JL(6|ji,oKa (291 c), 6}Ji(o|xo(r- liai, u>pid9T]v and a>|Jido-6T]V. ofxSpyvvnt {ofiopy-y nas. cl.) w^tpe, 6fi6p^o/xai, &>fiop^a. Only compounds in prose. 6v£vT]p.t (ovaiT]-, redupl. in pres., 365) henefit, ovqcrw, t5vT](ra, «v%tiv (369 a), u)vi]Q'r\V' o^uuco {d^vv; I cl.) sharpen, -o^wu, H^vva, -ic^vfi/xai, w^vvdrjp. Only compounds in prose. ijirwira, 6^o\iXLi : see opdo). opdw (6pa:d-, ott-, 18-, 267 a) see, 6iJ/o(jLai, cISov (350, 7), edp&Ka, IwpdKa (291 a), oTTooira (291 c), ((opdfiai and wp-fxai, cS((>9t]v. dpiYh) (6p€Y-) reach, opc^co, wpe^a. opj/y/it (op-, nas. cl.) raise, rouse, mid. 7'ise, rush, opau, S>p(Ta, opwpa (291 c) am aroiised (456 b). opvo-o-o) (opuY-, I cl.) dig, 6pv|(tf, wpu|a, opwpvxa (291 c), 6p(opvY)jLai, wpvx^'HV. 6(r<{>pa{vo}:.ai (6<r^pav-, 6(r<j>p-, 6(r4)p'q-) smell, 6(r4>p'^(rop.ai, te>(r()>pd[jLi]v, w(T<pp6.v- 6^ii\<a (6(j)€X-, 64>€iXti-) owe, d<})€iX^<r«, w<}>€Xov, a><})€£X'r](ra, a)<j)c(X'riKa, a)<J)€i- X^9'nv. 6{|)Xi(rKdv« (d(J)Xi<rK-', 64>X-, 64)X'q-, nas. cl.) lose a suit, am convicted of, or condemned to, 6(j>XTi(ro), a)({>Xov, ca({;X'r]Ka, (i)4>X'T])iai. TlaUa (irai-, TraiTj-) strike, ira{(rcD and iranfjo-o}, iTrawra, Tr^iraiKa, £iraCo-9T]v. TTCtAAw (iraA-, t cl.) shake, CTrrjAa, TreVaA/xat. (TTCt-) acquire, iracrofiai, iirdad/xriu, ireirdfiai. irdcra-aj (irar-, i cl.) sprinkle, ird<rft), ^irao-a, 6'irdor9T]v. irdcrxft) (ira9-, '7r€v9-, 7rov9-, incep. cl., 260 b) suffer, ircCo-ojiai (for irev0-o-O|Uai, 53), ?'7ra9ov, '7r^irov9a. 7rc£9a) (^19-, Tr€t9-, -77019-) persuade, ircfcrw, ^Treio-a, 6Tri9djj.i]v, ir^irciKa, 7r^7roi.9a believe, trust (456 b), Tr^ireio-jxai, lTr€£<r9T|v. ircivdo) (irciva-) hunger, 320. 7rcCo-o|xai : see Trdo^w. -ir^XdCo) (TreAaS-, TreAo-, irAct-, t cl.), also ireXdOw, irXddco approach, TreAw (like ^Aa>, 322 c), iirihaffa, itrehda-driv and iir\dQi)v. VERB-LIST 309 ir^fiirw (ir€{jnr-, irojiir-) escort, send, irejixl/w, ^ircjjuj/a, ir^iro(t(f>a, ir^ircjiiiai (344 a), €'rr€|i4>0'qv. TTtpaCvcD (TTtpav-, I cl.) ^ro through, finish, irepavw, CTrcpdva, Treirepao-iiai, lirc- pdv6t]v. 7rep0co (7rep0-) c^ac/i:, irepaco, iTrepaa. (The pi'OSe word is iropGcw.) TT^a-o-w ("jrcK-, TTCir-, i cl.) cook, ir^if/ca, ^ir€\]/a, ir€irep.|iai, C'ir^<|>9Tiv. ir€Tdvvu(ii (ir€Ta-, irra-, nas. cl.) spread, ircT« (like eAcD, 322 c), €ir^Tacra, Trc'ir- rafxai, iTrcrdirdrjv. ireTojjtai (ircr-, ttt-, irTaiT]-, ttctt]-) ^^, irTTjo-ojiai and ircnqo-oiiat, 6irTdjxi]v and cTTTTjj/ (369 a). ■Kivdofxai = irvvddvo|iai. •jr'f\yvv[Li (TTiry-, iray-, nas. cl.)^a:, ir-nlo), ^iriila, iriTn\ya (456 b), liraYTiv. •irCiJnrXiiiJLt (irXaiTj-, pres. reduplication with inserted /u) fill, irXiqcro), ^irX-qo-a, •jrlirXTiKa, ir^TrXTKiai and ir^irXTjoriiai, eirX-^o-Oiiv. In prose only in compo- sition : €|X'7r£(|A)irXT]p,i, etc. irCp.irpiiiJLi (irpaiT]-, with inserted p, as in irCpirXTHii) burn, irpTJo-a), ^irpiia-tt, •n-€irpTip.ai, l'irp-f\(rdr\v. In prose €pTrC(p)irpTipi, etc. irtvo) (tti:!-, iroiw-, nas. cl.) drink, tzio^ax and 7r<o/xat (without fut. suffix), hriov, TT^irtoKa, ir^iropai, lirdO-qv. irnrpdo-Kw (irpd-, incej). cl.) sell, ireirpaKa, 7r^irpd[iai, eirpdO-qv. iruX^o) is the common pres. irtiTTw (ttct-, irco--, irTw-, 257 a) fcill^ 7re(rovpai (326), ^irco-ov, ir^irTCDKa. •nlrvw = iriTTTW. irXdo-oroj (irXttT-, \. c\.) form, ^irXao-a, ir^irXao-p-ai, CTrXdo-O-qv. irX^Kft) (ttXck-, irXttK-) plait, tivist, ^irXela, iriirke^^o.i, lirXdK-qv, IttXc'xOiiv. TrXeo) (irXv-, irXev-, 257 b) sail, irXciio-op.ai and TrXcvo-ovpiai (like Treaovfj-ai, 326), ^irXtvo-a, ircTrXevKa, ireirXcuo-p.ai. TrXiri<ro-<i> (irXiiY-, i cl.) strike, irXifj^co, ^TrX-q^a, iriirXtiya, Tritrkriyiiai, lirXifiY'qv. irXvvft) (irXvv-, irXu-, i cl.) ivash, 'Tr\vy&, ^irXiiva, Tr^irXvp-ai, iTr\v9r\v. trvib) (ttvv-, irv€u-, 257 b) breathe, hloiv, irv€vo-opai and irvcvo-ovpai (like ireo-oG- fiai, 326), ^irvevo-a, Tr^irvcuKa. irvtYO) (irviY-, irvtY-) choke, irvtlco, ^irvXia, irlirviYpai, Ittv^yiiv. {irop-, irpoo-) give, allot, eiropov, ireirpwTai it is fated. irpdo-oro) (irpdY-, i cl.) do, arpd^co, 2irpd^a, ir^irpdYa and TrcTrpdxa, ir^TrpdYp-ai, lirpdxQtiv. irpCao-6ai, eirpidpiiv : see a>v€0|ji,ai. Trpiu) (irpT-) saiv, ^irpio-a, ir^irpTo-p.ai, lirpio-Oiiv. TrTdpvup.ai (irrap-, nas. cl.) sneeze, ^irTapov. ■n-TTJa-o-o) (ttttik-, i cl.) cronch, cower, hrrr^ifl., hTr'r\yja.. TTTlio-O-ft) (iTTUX-, I cl.) fold, trTXi^Vti ^TTTV^a, ^TTTU-yP'Cl'') CTTTyxOlv. TTTVft) (7rTu:0-) spiY, eTTTvaa. TTTdxTcot = irr'hffiToa, 810 GREEK GRAMMAR irvvddvojxai. (irv0-, ir€v0-, nas. cl.) inquire, hear, ireto-ofiai, eirvOofJi'qv, ir€in«r- |i.ai. 'Pafvw (pav-, I cl.) sprinkle, pavw, ^ppdva, Ippdv9i]v. pdirro) (pa<|)-, t cl.) sew, stitch, pdxj/o), ^ppa\|/a, ^ppa|X}jLai, €ppd4>i]v. ^eX*" ' see ep5«. p^cD (pu-, p€u-, pvT]-, 257 b) ^oz^, peii(ro|xai and pviqo-ofxai, €ppvT]Ka, Ippui^v. p^-yvviii (pilY", p«7-> paV", nas. cl.) hreak, pr'ilw, '^pp-q^a, ^ppw^a, eppd-yTjv. piTTTco (pt4>-> p«'<j>-> T cl.), also pIiTT^w (pIiTTc-) tkrow, pi^b), ^ppi\j/a, '^ppl:{:a, ?ppiji}iat, €ppif<|>9T]v and cpp£<j)T]v. puojxai {pi)-) preserve, pvcrofxai, ippvcrdfirju. pdouvv/xi late (pw-, nas. cl.) strengthen, -^ppwo-a, ?pp«[x.ai, Ippctfo-Otiv. SaCvw (<rav-, i cl.) /az^w- i^pow, ^crriva. aaipo) {(Tap-, ffrjp-, i cl.) sweep, earipa, o-4(rr]ptt ^?•^7^. o-aXir^tw (<raXTrtYY-> ^ cl.) i/oz^; trumpet, I(rd\irt7|a. o-dTTO) (oraY", I cl.) pack, a-i<r(x.y^ox. o-p^vvujJii (o-pc:-!!-, nas. cl.) quench, o-p^o-w, -o-prjo-ojiai, ^o-pco-a, eo-jSTji/ (369 b), -?o-pT]Ka (456 b), l(rp€<r9Tiv. Q-dui (o-ei-) shake, o-eio-w, iff^icray (r€<r€iKa, <r4o-€io-|jiai, la-eCo-Biriv. <ni|AaCvo> (o~qjxav-, i cl.) show, cn]|iavw, €<rTJ|jLiiva, <r€<rTi|xa(r|i,ai, €on](idv0T]v. (T^irw ((rqir-, <rttir-) maA:e ro^, (r^\//eo, o-4<rr]ira (456 b), IcrdTTTjv. o-KdiTTO) (o-Katj)-, T cl.) fZi^^, o-Kd^o), ^(rKa\{ra, ^(rKa({)a, ^o-KafjifJiai, eo-Kd(j>t]V. <rK€8dwi>|Jii ((TKcSa-, nas. cl.) scatter, o-kcSw (like iKu, 322 c), €o-K48a<ra, lo-ic^- 8ao-^ai, lo-KcSdo-Stiv. Also pres. (tkISptj/jli. o-K^TTTojiat (a-Kitr-, t cl.) view, more often (TKoiriu in pres. syst., o-K^xJ/o[iai, e(rK€\{/d}Jk'qv, ^crK€p.|iai. <rKir]TrTo> (<rKT]Tr-, t cl.) prop, (rK^\|/(o, ^o-KTivlfa, 2<rKT][A|xat, l<rK^(J)0T]v. o-Koireo), in pres. syst. for <rK€TrTO|iai. o-KwirTo) (o-Kwir-, t q\.) jeer, (rK(tf\{/o|jLai, ?<rKft)x}/a, Io-k«<J)0t]V. {nrdw (o-ira-) draw, (nrdo-cj, ?<nrao-a, '^<nraKtt, ^<nra<r|j.ai, €oird(r0i]v. (nreCpcD (oirep-, crirap-, i cl.) sow, o-rrcpd), ^onreipa, ^onrapjjiai, l(nra.pt\v. o-irevSw (o-TrevS-) j90itr a libation, <nrcCcro> (53), ^(nrewra (53), ^o-ircKrjxai. o-ireilSci) (o-TTCuS-) hasten, <nr€V(ro), ^<nr€u<rtt. o-To^o) (o-ray-, t cl.) cZroj9, cffra^a. CTcifiu} {(TT^i^-, (TTifirj-) tread, ^a-retrpa, icrTlfi'r}fiai. oreXXo) ((rreX-, o-raX-, i cl.) equip, send, otcXw, ^(rrciXa (331), ^oToXKa, ^cTaXjiat, lo-rdX-qv. aTivdt,<a (cTTCvaY", i cl.) groan, arreud^cc, lo-r^va^a. OT^PYw ((TTepY", CTTopY") love, a-rip^u, ^o-repla, caTopya. (TTipibi (oPTcpc-), oTTcp^aKCi) (<rT6p-, incep. cl.) deprive, <rTipi\<r<a, etc. (rT^pop.ai (o-T€p-) am in ivant. VERB-LIST 311 a-rtlb) (o-TiY", I cl.) pricJc, (rri^<a, ^crriYjjiai. OTdpvv|ii (o-Top-, nas. cl.) spread, a-Topai (like reXw, 322 c), lorTop€<rtt. o-Tpecjxi) (o^petj)-, o-Tpo<J)-, <rTpa<j)-) ^<<r/i, arrpiy^otf 'itrr pe]fa., ia-rpo^a, ^(rTpa)i)xai, €(rTpd<J>T]V. <rTpwvvi;(JLi ((rrpw-, nas. cl.) spread, ffTpdixTu)^ ^(rrpoxra, ^o-Tpa>|iai, iarpdod-nv, (rtpdCo and (r^a.TT<a {<r^a.y-, i cl.) slay, (r<|>d^a), ^(r<j>a|a, *^o-<{>a'Y}j,ai, i(T(pdyT}v. (r<t>dXX(d (o-<}>a\-, i cl.) /r^}j, o-4>aXw, ^(r<j>'q\a, ^<r4>aX|iat, €<r4)dXT]v. o-wtto (for (roo'iCw, o-«i8-, o-«-, i cl.) save, o-cio-o), ^o-oxra, o-^o-coKa, a-ia-iaiiOLi and cri(r(o(r[JLai, l<ra)9T]V. Tapdcro-« (ropax-) i- cl.) disturb, T(tpd|cc, Irdpa^a, Tcrdpa-yiiai, CTapd^STlv. rdo-o-o) (raY", i cl.) arra^ige, ra^oi, 'dra^a, riTa\a., rirayiiai, Ird^Oilv. Ta4>i]vai, €Td<j)'qv : see Gdirrw. T6iva> (t€v-, Ttt-, I cl.) stretch, revw, ^'rciva, Tc'raKa, Wrajiai, IrdOTjv. T€K€lV, ^T€KOV : SBC TlKTCi). T€Kixaip(o rare, T€K|iaipo(iai (rcKjiap-, i cl.) fix by a marJc, infer, T€K|xapovp.ai, 6T€KfJ,T|pd|l'r]V. TcXcw {Tiki-) finish, tcXw (322 c), crcXeo-a, rcr^XcKa, TCT^Xeo-jxai (322, a, b), trc- Xeo-S-qv. TeAAw (reA.-, i cl.) cawse to rise, rise, ir^iKa, -TeToA^uat. More frequent in composition : dvareXXo), lvT^XXo|iai. T^{xv6) (t6|jl-, Tap.-, Tfi-q-, nas. cl.) cut, n^St, 'iny-ov and ^rajiov, WruTiKa, t€T|jlt]- |iai, 6T|xt]9t]v. TipTTO) (repir-) delight, rfprpo), eTepi|/a, iTipcpOrju. T6ux<w (t^X"? TfwX") ^G^^'6, T6j;|c«j, eTeu|a, TfTvy /jiai. ri\K<a (TttK-, TT]K-) 7;?e?^, ttjIw, ^r-qla, TerqKa (456 b), lTdKt]V. t£0ti|jli : see 375, 372. tCkto) (t€k-, TOK-, 257 a) bear, ?4^o(iai, ^reKov, reroKa. T^vft) (ti:I-, T€i-) pay, T€£<r«, ?T€tcra, T^rciKa, T€T€i(r|xai, iTcCo-fl'qv. Later, and often in ovir editions, tio-o), ^Tto-a, etc. TiTpwcTKo) (rpw-, incep. cl.) ivound, rpwo-o), ^-^pwo-a, Tirpjojiai, €Tpw9T]V. (tAo:tj-) endure, rX^fta-ofxai, irX-qv (369 a), TfT\7]Ka. rpiira (rpeir-, Tpoir-, Tpair-) ^?<rw, Tp4ij/w, ^Tp€\|/a, T4Tpo<j>a, T€Tpap,nai, Irpd- irqv, eTp€(j)9t]V. rpi^b) (Tp6<j)- for 0pe(^-, 47 d, Tpo<|>-, rpaij)-) nourish, Qpi]f(a, ^9p€^a, T€Tpo4,a, T€9pa|x|iai, €Tpd<|)T]v. Tpe'xo) (rpcx- for 0p6x-, 47 d. Spafi-, 8pa|xTi-) r?/w. Spajiovjiai, ?8pa|iov, 8cSpd- |XT]Ka, 8€8pd|iT|fjiat. Also rarely -9p^^op,ai, cOp'^^a. rpiia (Tp6-) tremble, 'irpecra. rpi^o) (rpXP", TptP") r?<i, Tpt]/&), ^Tpi^/a, TlTpi{|)a, rlrpTunai, lTpt:|>9Tiv, irpi^r\v. TpioY« (rpcoY-, Tpa^-) gnaw. Tpw|onai, ^rpayov, TCTp(i)'yH''°''" Tvyxdvw (tuX"> t€ux-> '""^X'^'j ^^^S- <^^) happen, rcj^ojiai, ^t^xov, T€Tux'nKa. 312 GREEK GRAMMAR rvirra (rxm-, tvittt]-, t cl.) strike, tuttti^o-w, Irviniv. Tv<|>(i) (tv<J)-, tu<|>-, for Ovp-, 47 d) smoke, T€0iiji.}i,ai, €tu<J)T]v. ' Yirwrxv^ofiai (inro + l<rx-, <rx-} o^^-j nas. cl.) promise, {»'jro(rxif](ro(i.ai, virc- i (TXonTiv, vircirx-qfiat. Cp. ^X"* i^aiv<a {it^av-f i cl.) weave, v^avu, v^y\va, i^aa-^ai, v^avQr\v. </« (iJ-) ram, i»o-a), i<ra, vo-}iai, vadriv. 4>aY€tv, ^(paYov ; see lo-OCo), <j)a£v« (<j)av-, <|>iiv-, i cl.) show, 4>avc0, ^<|>iiva, '7r€<j>a7Ka, tzi^r^vo. (332), ir^<j>a(r(Jiai (339), €<j)dvTiv, 6<|)dv0Tiv (337). <{>dpYvv)j,i = (}>pd'yvv[j,(,. <|>e£8o}iai (<{>ei8-) spare, <j>e£(ro|xai, l(j)€i(rdftT]v. 4)^p« (<j>€p-, ol-, €V€7K-, €V€K-, €voK-) Jcar, oto-w, i^veYKov and ^jvcyKa, Iv^voxa (291 c), lvifjv6Y|iai, -^v^xOilv. <|)€V70) (<j)VY-| <|>€V7-) flee, <}>€v^ofjLai and 4>€viov|xai (326), 'i^vyov, tri^fvya.. <j)T]Hi (<j)a:'q-, 382) say, <|)^<ra), ^<j>Ti<ra. Also (Ip-, pcii]-) Ipw, c1ipT]Ka (291 b), €\!p'r])iai, cppTJOtiv. See also elirov. <j>0dva) (<|)0a:T]-, nas. cl.), anticipate, <{>9ir](ro)jiai and <{)6d(rci), '^<})9aora, 'i^^r\v (369 a). <{)9cCpfa> (<i>9€p-, <{>9ap-, ({>9op-) corrupt, 4>9€pw, ^4>9€ipa, '^4>9apKa, i(pQopa, ^<j>9ap- }j.ai, l<}>9dp'qv. <|)9tv« (4>9i-, <j>9iv-) ivaste, perish, (fyeia-u, itpOicra, i(p6ifiai. <j>pd7vv(Jii (4)paY-, nas. cl.), also (j>pdo-(ro> (t cl.) enclose, ^^^pctia, ir^^jpaYiiai, €({)pdx9T]v. ^pdt«> (<|>pa8-, I cl.) tell, ({>pdo-(i>, ^<|>pa(ra, 7rl<{>paKa, ire<j}pa(r)JLai, icppdcrdrjv. <j>pi(r(ro> (<j)pXK-, I cl.) bristle, shudder, ^<J>pi|a, ir^<j>plKa. 4>pvY(» (<}>pvY") '''oast, <j>pv^<i), ^<|>pv|a, '7r4<|)pi>Y}iai. ipvyydvoi {(pvy-, nas. cl.) = ({>€VY^* <f>v\d(r(ra> (<}>vXaK-, i cl.) guard, <}>vXd^o), e<j)uXa|a, 7r€<j)i>Xttxa, ir€<j)iiXaYfxai, €<j)vXdx9'riv. «j)vpo) (<j>vp-, <t>vp-) m^a;, 'ir^<}>vpfiai. <j>v(i) (<|)v:v-) produce, <})tJo-«, ^<^iJ(ra, ^<j)vv (369 d), ir44)iJKa (456 b). Xaipo) (xap-, xa'P«:'n-> X^fl-* «• cl.) rejoice, xo-ipV"* Kcxdpr^Ka, Kexdpvfiai, Ixdp-nv. XaXdo) (xaXtt-) loosen, IxdXao-a, Ix^^a-o'S'nv. Xdo-Kw (xa-, xo-v-, X'H^-, ineep. cl.) ^ape, xo-voCjiai, ^xo-^ov, k^xIvo-* X^« (x^-j X*^'> 257 b) pour, \i<a (without fut. sviffix), ^x^^-j Kc'xvKa, Kexup-ai, Ixv9tjv. \6<a {\o:<a-) heap, x^Kra, ^\<aa-af kIx^i^o-j Klxw<r|iai, lx«cr9Tiv. Xpdo|jiai (xpO'J'n-j 320) use, xp^o-opiai (317 a), expTjordixTiv, K4xpilK<ai, 6XP^°"®1^' VERB-LIST 313 Xpdo) (xpa^'H-) 320) give an oracle, xp^o-w> ^XP'HO"*) Ixp^o"0t]v. Xpi^, 390. dirdxpil it suffices, inf. diroxp^v, impf. dTre'xpT]. Xpto) (xp"i-) anoint, sting, xpto-w, ?XP^°"*> K^xpli^ai and Kixpla-^a)., i\pifr^t\v. Xpwt«, xpo't'C'^ (XPf S-> XPo"*5"s •• cl.), xp^^^^^H-^ (XP'^'j ii^s. cl.) co^or, K€xp«<r|jLtti, €XP«<r0Tiv. ^€v8o> (^I'cvS-) deceive, ^€v<r<a, i^ivcra, ^\)/€V(r(i.ai, c^|/6v(r6i]v. ^vx" (xj/vx", ^v\-) cool, \|/i>|«, ^xj/u^a, ^\j/v7|iai, &^^\9r\v and i^'^X'HV* *Q.Qi<a («9-, wQc-, 267) j9?<sA, woro), ^wo-a, ^wo-fiai (291 a), IwcrOtiv. «v^o|xtti ((oveiT]-, Trpia-, 267) buy, «vifj<ro}j.ai, lirptdjxiiv (369 a), €»VT]|iai (291 a), GREEK INDEX Note. — The Indexes are intended to supplement the Table of Con- tents and the Verb-List ; for verb forms look first in the latter. Refer- ences are to sections ; but a few references in the English Index are to pp. 1-3 of the Introduction. A, quantity 4 ; initial a in era- sis 36 b ; interchanges with €, o 25 ; aor. in 351 ; d- neg. 444 ; d- copulative 444 a. d, retained in poetry 69 a, b ; after c, t, p 77 a, 317 ; inter- changes with 7), (0 26. -d, suffix 404. dya^o?, compared 182, 1. dyvws 145. ayo), meaning of mid. 500 b. dywv 99. ayo)v 583 a. -dSf}?, -d?, suffix 433. -d^w, f ut. of verbs in 346 b. 'AOdvd, 'AOyva 85, 86. 'AOrjvdle, ^AOrjvrjOev, ^AOriviqcn 228. at, diphthong 5 and a ; final, effect on accent 14. dt, a, diphthong 5 and b. m, pronoun 18 a. at8(us 129. al^ 109. atp€(o, meaning of mid. 500 b. alarOdvofJLaL^ w. gen. 511 a ; w. ace. and gen. 530 c ; three constructions 588 b. ato-xpo5, compared 181. ala-xvvoixai^ w. acc. 530 a. atrio?, w. gen. 516 a. -d/ct9, adv. ending 232. oLKovui, w. gen. 511 a ; w. acc. and gen. 530 c ; three con- structions 588 b. dxpodo/xat 317 a. aKO)v 167 ; as partic. 589 a. dAXdo-o-o) 341, 345. dWrjXoiV 202. dXXoOev, dAAo^t 228. dAAos 201. dAAoo-c 228. dAs 40 a ; declined 99, 100. d/xa, w. partic. 592. d/xeAoj, w. gen. 511 c. dfjio'; (d/xds) 204. d/Ac^t, w. acc, gen., and dat. 598. d/X^tOt€V, dfJL(f>LOLT€ 377. dfx(f>6Tepo<;, w. art. 554. 315 316 GREEK GRAMMAR oLfjicfiOTepoiiOev, w. gen. 518 b. a/x<^w, w, art. 554. dixvvofiai, w. acc. 530 a. a(v)-, neg. 441, 444, 447 a. -ai/, for wv 69 b. dv, w. impf . indie. 461, 468 ; w. plup. indie. 469 ; w. aor. in- die. 467, 468; w. opt. 479, 480 ; w. infin. 579 ; w. partie. 595 ; w. oT€, oxoTc 627 ; w. cTTCi, cTTctSij 629 ; general uses 666 and a. dm, w. aee. 598. dva^ 111 C. dvd^tos, w. gen. 516 a. ava<jiopd 600 b. avSpes 36 b. dv€v^ w. gen. 518 c, 599. di/i}p, declined 106, 107 ; avrjp^ 36 b. dvOpayjros 62. -avo, suffix 412. -avo:e-, suffix 261 b, c. dvrexo/xat, W. gen. 510 b. dvTt, w. gen. 598. dvvcra? 583 a. d^to9, compared 177; w. gen. 516 a. aTTtttS 145. dTTtt^ 232. ttTrAoo?, d7rAov9, declined 87-90 ; compared 179 a. ttTTo, w. gen. 598. oLTToOvricrKo), as pass. 499. 'AttoXXcov 104. dTrTOfiaL, w. gen. 510 b. aTTTw, meaning of mid. 500 a. d/aa, inferential particle 673 a. dpa, interrog. 668; apa fx-j 488 a. "Apaij/ 112. "ApT^s 128 c. -dpio-v^ dim. suffix 431 c. dpx", dpxe-, d/oxt-, prefix 442 a. dp)(6iJi€vos 583 a. dpxw 341 ; meaning of mid. 500 b. dpira^ 145. -d9, names in 72 e. -d?, in nouns of number 192. doTTV 130. dcrvvherov 600 a. -arat, for -vrat, 344 C. arc, w. partic. 593 a. drepo'S 36 C. -aro, for -vro 270 a, 344 c. drra 217 a. av, diphthong 5 and a. avTLKa, w. partic. 592. avToOev 228 a. auTos 197, 198 ; meaning 199 ; w. ordinal 558 a. ayro? 36 b. avToa-e 228 a. avTov, adv. 228 a, 515. avTov, for eavTOv 203 a. dcf>€L8y';, w. gen. 516 a. d<^ct8w, w. gen. 511 c. dcfiLcrTrjiXL 363 a. axo-pt-'S 147. dxpt 33 b ; w. gen. 518 c, 599 ; dxpi clauses 631. GREEK INDEX 317 -aw, verbs in, contracting to ry instead of d 320. B 38 a, b, and c, 39, 44 a ; after ,^,49. ^eygao-t, ^efSwa-L, ^e/Jw?, root perf. 370 (2). /Se^rjKa 456 b. yScArtwv, declined 149, 150 ; compared 182, 1. PovXevw, meaning of mid. 500 b. PovXofjiaL, augment 266. jSovs 136. r 38 a, b, c, and d, 39, 44 b ; nasal 3. ya, yaia 86. ydp 672. yaa-Trfp 108 a. ye 19 e, 671 b. yeyws, root perf. 370 (3). yeAaw 322. yeXwS 112. yci/os 124. ycpatos, compared 178. y^85. ytyds 121, 122 a. ytyvojaat 257 a. ytyvwo-Kw 289 d ; redupl. 260 b. yAv/cv? 177. yovv 120. yovv 671 b. ypac/xo 341, 345. yvjxvdt^oi 341. yvixvrj<s 145. yvvrj 142, 1. A 38 a, b, and c, 39, 44 c ; after v49. -Bd, -i8d, -8, -(8, patronym. suf- fix 433. BaLjJiiov 102. SaKpvov, SaKpv 143, 1. 8e, conj. 669. -8e 19 e. SeSifiev, root perf. 370 (5). SiSoiKa, 8c8ta, as pres. 456 c. huKVVIXl 360. 8eiKi/vs 170 a. 8€tva 225. BeX<^U 103 b. 8evT€po9 188. Seo) 321 a. 8>; 671 c, 673 a. SryXowv, SrjXwv 168 b. AyjfirJTrjp 108 b. Srjjxoa-La 526 b. -877V, adv. ending 231. 8>i7roi; 671 d. 8^Ta 671 d. 8ta, w. acc. and gen. 598. 8tay(o 585 a. 8(aK€t/>tai, as pass. 499. 8ia;(eipt^(o 448 a. 8i8ao-/c(o, redupl. 260 b ; mean- ing of mid. 500 a. 8tya/>t/xa 27. 8tKato9, declined 76 ; compared 177. AtoyeVr/s 154. 318 GREEK GRAMMAR SioTL clauses 626. Sltttixv^ 159 b. SlttXovs, declined 90. 8t? 232. StcfyOoyyoL 5. 8tX«j ^f-XV^ ^dv. of number 233. Sfwos 101 a. -86v, adv. ending 231. Bopo^ 143, 2. 86pv 120. SovXoo) 315. SvvafiaL 266, 365 and a, 395. Svo 187 a, 188. Svo--, prefix 441, 444. Swpov 62. E, quantity 4 ; pronun. 7 ; be- comes ct 51 ; formative vowel 263 a ; changes to o 403. €- augment 265 a. €, enclitic 19 a. cav re . . . cav T€ 653. cavToO 203. cyyvs, w. gen. 599. cyKoAw, w. dat. 520 a. cyK/oarrjs, w. gen. 516 a. eyv(DV 367. cyw 194. eycoyc, t/Aoiyc 195 C. 18a 460. c-8i5v 367. I^ei/ 196. €1, diphthong 5 ; and digraph 27 a. el, proclitic 17 c; ct clauses 477, 645-656. ei-, as redupl. 291 b. c?, name of letter 1 b. -€t, adv. ending 231. ct yap, in wishes 470, 477. cl 8e /X7^ 656 c. ctSws 172. ct^c 21 d ; in wishes 470, 477. CIKOS -^v 460. ct />t77, ct p.r] 8ta 656 a. ctKcVat, cIkw^^ root perf. 370 (6). eifjLL, enclitic 19 d ; con jug. 384 ; in compound perfs. 456 d. el/XL 385 and a. ei^'do-t, root perf. 370 (6). -cto adj. suff. 424 a ; place suff. 432 and a. ctTTc 349 a. ctTTov, w. infin. 658. cts(e?), proclit. 17 b; w. ace. 598. CIS declined 187. ciTc . . . ctrc 653*. ctco^a 456 C. iKi see c^. cKaoTos, w. art. 554. cKct and iKeWev 236. cKcti/os 208 , correl. pron. 227 ; pred. position 553 ; in pred. 561b. CKCtVcDS 236. cKelcre 236. iKeXeva-c, in indir. disc. 663. iKTriTTTd), as pass. 499. iKTToSwv 448 a. iKTos, w. gen. 518 b. e/cwv, as partic. 589 a. GREEK INDEX 319 iXcvOepos, w. gen. 516 a. 'EAeucrti/a^e, 'EAevo-tvt, 'EAevcrtvo- eev 228. iXei 349 a. -eAo, suff. 412. ^TTtS 114. i\Q> 322 c. ifxavTov 203. e^d? 204. c/x7ro8t'^(o, c/u,7rd8t09, Ifxirohuiv 448 a. t^TTpoa-Oev, w. gen. 518 b. cv, proclit. 17 b ; w. dat. 598. IrSo^ev, €vSo6l, ei^Sov 228. ci/e/ca, w. gen. 518 c, 599. Iv^a, €v^€v 236, 238 ; e^Oa clauses 620. ivOdBe 236. ej/^cv, w. gen. 518 b; li/^ev clauses 620. IvOivSe 236. . ivOvixeoixai, augment 268 b. ivLOT€ 614 a. ivavTLoofxaL, augment 268 b. -€VT, adj. suff. 427. ivravOa, ivravOoL 236. ivT€v6€V 236. €vrd9, w. gen. 518 b. ivrpeTTOfxaL^ W. gen. 511 0. c^(eK), proclitic 17 b; w. gen. 598. -€o, adj. suff. 426. -€o:€-, fut. suff. 324. €OLyfjLev, root perf. 370 (6). cotKa, redupl. 291 a; pres. in meaning 456 c. iireL, iTrciBrj clauses 629. ctttJkoo?, w. gen. 516 a. eVt 598. iTnOoLfxcOa, cTrt^wvrat 377. iirLfjLeXrjS, w. gen. 516 a. imopKeo) 268 b. iTnTLfjLWj w. dat. or ace. 520 a. ipya^ofiai 291. Ipyo), dat. 526 b. 'Epfxrj^ 85. -epo, suff. 412. ipp(Dfx€vo^, compared 179 b. cptu, w. gen. 511 c. €5, proclitic 17 b; w. ace. 598. -€0- following vowel in adj., resulting contraction, 152 b. -69, suff. 407, 413 b. -e-o-at, becomes -rj or -et 263 b. -€-(To, becomes -ov 263 b. eoTripds, gen. 515. ea-rafxev etc., root perf. 370 (1). ea-re clauses 631. -cc-Tcpos, comp. ending 179. tcTT-qv 367. eoTrjKo, as pres. 456 b. lo-Tt 20 e ; 384 b ; eo-rt, cto-t, omitted 493 b. etTTtv OL (ov, ^) 614 a ; Io-tlv oo-Tt9, interrog. 614 a. kcTTUi'S 173. e(T)(aTO'S 184. co-o), w. gen. 518 b. £rcpo9, in crasis 36 c; correl. pron. 227 ; w. gen. 516 a. cTcpco^t, crcpw^ev, kripoicrf. 228. cv, diphthong 5. 320 GREEK GRAMMAR ev 231; prefix 441, 444; w. gen. 518 b ; w. ttolw 530 a. -€v, suff. 405, 430 and a, 434 and a. -cr-, verb-stems in 257 b. evSatfjLOiv 146 ; declined 147 ; compared 179. eveX-n-LS 146. evrjOrjs 146 ; declined 151. €vOv<s, w. partic. 592. cwAery?, Compared 177. cwov?, declined 82 ; compared 179 a. ev Trao-xo), as pass. 499. €vp€ 349 a. -CVS : see -ev. €VT€ clauses 628. €vu>xovixaL, w. gen. 510 e. e<{>r}, e(f>7) xPW^h i^i indir. dis. 663. i<j> w or e<^' (St€, w. infin. 567. cx^po's 181. ixpw 390, 460. €xo) 565 b ; mean, of mid. 500 a. €xwv 583 a. koipoiv 267 a. €ws, declined 94. €0)9 clauses 631. Z 38 a and e, 39. -^€, place ending 228. H, quantity 4. ^, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. 5, interrog. 668. lyt, iy, diphthong 5. 17, correl. adv. 236 ; clauses 620. ^8et 41. riv K eyw, ^ 8' os 383. 178^?, compared 181. 17/cw, as perf. 454 f . tjXlko's 215 ; correl. pron. 227 ; clauses 620. Yjiiai 388 a. T7/xcpa, declined 66 ; gen. 515. rjfJi^Tepo^ 204 ; W. avTOiv 559. rjiiL, rjv, 5 383. T7/xt-, insep. prefix 444. rjpiLV 196. y/xL(rv<s 159 b. -^fjLKfieyvoovv, double augm. 268 d. rjvcLxojj^rfv, double augm. 268 d. rjvLKa, correl. adv. 236; clauses 630. rJTrap 120. -rjpes, neuter forms in 153 a. -rjpo, suff. 428. yp(o<i 141. -r;s see -eo". rj(T(TMv, compared 182, 2. rj(TT€ impf. 384 c. rjcrvxp'S 74. rJTTov, 7]KL(TTa, comparcd 180. 77V, diphthong 5. ©, pronun. and sound changes 7, 38 a, b, c, 39, 42, 44 c ; added to verb-stem 400 b. Oakaa-aa 70. Oappuiv 583 a. Oarepov 36 d. -^e, becomes re- 47 c GREEK INDEX 321 -Oev, place ending 228. ^eos, vocative 62 b. -6ri:€, passive suS. 302. 0^\v? 159 b. -^i, becomes -n 47 b ; place ending 228. Otyydvo), w. gen. 510 b. Ovrja-KO), fut. perf. of 364. OoifidTLOV 36 d. epL$ 111 b. -Opo, -Opov, suff. 408. 6v-, becomes tv- 47 c. 6v-^ verb stem 312. Ovydrrjp 106. OvpdOev, Ovpd^e, Bvpdcn 228. I, quantity 4 ; adscript and subscript 5 b ; disappearing 27 ; final, in crasis 36 a ; changes produced by 56. -t, place ending 228. -t, demons, ending 210. -t-, -te-, -177", mode suff. 270, 306, 319. -id, suff. 406 and a, 429 and b. -taSryS, suff. 433. -i8, suff. 434 and a. iSe 349 a. iSta, dat. 526 b. -t^to, verbs in 346. jy^ixi 371, 374, 375. -iKo, suff. 413 d, 425. t"A.ea)9, declined 92. -t/xo, suff. 413 f, 428. Xva clauses 640-642. -tvo, -tvo9, suff. 426. 21 -10, suff. 424, 431 a, 432 and a. -to:e-, tense suff. 259. iTTTrev?, declined 136. -L(TKo, suff. 431 b. -L(TKo\€-^ tense suff. 260. terra?, declined 162 b. IcTT-qixL 362, 363 ; fut. perf. 364 ; root-aor. 367, 368 ; meaning of mid. 500 a. lo-xw, redupl. 257 a. -tb-w, forms in 346 a. -tTtS, ending 432 c. IxOis, declined 132. -\uiVy -LG'TO'S 181. K 38 a, b, c, 39, 44 b. Ktt-aorist 378. -/ca-, tense sulf. 288, 378. KaOi^ofxai, augment 268 c. Ktt^evSw, augment 268 c. KaOrjfjLaL 389. KaOc^w, augment 268 c. KadiorTrjixi 363 a. Kttt', in crasis 36 b ; in numerals, 190 ; w. par tic. 593 b ; adv. 670 a ; kol ydp 672 d ; /cat t6v and infin. 549 c. KatVep, w. partic. 593 b. 670 c. Kairoi 670 b. KttKo?, compared 181, 182, 2. KaK(09, w. TToiw 530 a. Kafcws 7racr;)(<i), as pasS. 499. KoAew, fut. 322 c. AcaXAi-, insep. prefix 444. KaXo9, compared 181. KttF (Kttt ev) 36 b. 322 GREEK GRAMMAR KaTaytyvtocTKO), W. gen. 514 a. KaTa\}/r]cf>Lt,ofxaL, w. gen. 514 a. KaTTjyopd), w. gen. 514 a. Kapd 143, 3. Kas {kol €s) 36 b. Kara, w. acc. and gen. 598. Kci 36 b. KeKTrj/xaL 456 b. Kct/xat 387. K€LVO<S 208. -K€-vat, inf. suff. 296. /cepa?, declined 126. KepSatVo) 327 a. Kews, acc. of 94. -KT)-, -KiL-, -Kc-, tense suff. 293. KTjpv^ 111 a. KXato) 259 e ; KXatW 583 a. kAwi/^ 112. -Ko^ siilf. 425. -Kot-, suff. 295. KOLvrj, dat. 526 b. Kpa(n<s 35. Kpea?, declined 124. Kpetcrcroiv 182, 1. -KT, dropt 119. KTaofxai^ perf. redupl. of 289 d. Kuwv 142, 3. -K<o:7;-, suff. 294. -K0)9, -KVLd-, -K09, -KOT-, Suff. 297. A 38 a, 39. Aajge 349 a. Aa^wi/ 583 a. Xav^avw, w. acc. 530 a ; w. partic. 585 a. Xeyo), w. infin. 658. AeW, declined 121. \LfX7Jv 102. -Ao, suff. 412. Aoyo), dat. 526 b. Ai3-, verb-stem 312. XwWV, AwCTTOS 182, 1. M 38 a, d, 39. -/xa : see -fxar. fxa, in oaths w. acc. 532. -fjid, suff. 406. /XOLKap 145. /xaAAov, fidXtcrTa, to form comp. and sup. 180. Mapa^wvt, loc. dat. 527 a. fidpTvs 142, 4. -jaar, Suff. 407. Ixa^ovjxaL 322 C. /x€, enclit. 19 a. fx€ya<: declined 175; compared 182, 3. flCLiDV 182, 4. />teAds, declined 156, 157 a, b ; compared 177. MeXiTy, loc. dat. 527 a. /xcAAw, augment of 266 ; w. in- fin. 570 b. pjfivrjixai, as pres. 456 b. /x,e/x<^o/>tat, w. acc. or dat. 520 a, 530 c. jjiiv (fj-T^v) 669 a. -lx€VO<s {-fievrj, -fievov), partic. end. 300 d. fjiivTOL 669 b. -/xeo-^a, for -fieOa 263 C. fierd, w. acc. and gen, 598. GREEK INDEX 323 /xera/xeAet, W. gen. 511 C. fji€Ta$v, w. gen. 518 b, 599 ; w. partic. 592. fiixP'- 33 b ; w. gen. 518 c, 599 ; clauses 631. ^^ 486-489 ; w. infin. 564, 572 ; becomes /xr) ov 572 a; w. partic. phrase 582 c ; clauses 610, 611. . -fjirj, suff. 406. firj^e 667 ; fJ^rjSe ct?, />i7;8ets, 189. fxrjhinpo'i 224. /xtJv, declined 99. /xtJv, particle 671 a. fMTfJTfjp, declined 106. fjLTjTLs, poet. 224 a. fuKpos, compared 177. fJLLIJLVT](rKOi 289 d. fjiiv 19 f. MtV(o9, ace. of 94. /xvTJ/xcoi/, w. gen. 516 a. -/xo, suff. 406. fjioi, enclitic 19 a. fjLolpa^ declined 66. -fjLov, suff. 413. fxova^rj 233. -/A09, see -fto. /xou, enclitic 19 a. fJLVpLOL [iXVpioi) 193. /Awv 488 a. N 38 a, d, 39 ; movable 31, 41 ; changes of 50; before o- 51. -V, stems in 103 a ; neut. end. 62 c. -vai, inf. in 296, 308. vat-^^L 21 d. vav9, declined 136, 137. vS, before o- 53. vedvtas, declined 71. -veo:€-^ pres. suff. 261 e. v€os, compared 177. veto?, declined 92. VTJ, in oath w. ace. 532. v^, before o- 53. vtKry, declined 70. vIkw, as perf. 454 f. viv 19 f, 196. -vo, suff. 412, 428. -i/o:€-, pres. suff. 261 a. v6o^^ declined 80. vT, before o- 53. -vrat, -i/To, after consonants 339 a. -vv/At, verbs in 358. vvv 19 f; or vw 673 a. vw 236. vu^ 111 c ; gen. 515. H 38 a, e, 39. I^et, name of letter 1 b. O, quantity 4 ; becomes ov 51. 6, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. -o, suffix 403, 410. 6, rj, TO, declined 61 ; as rel. pron. 205 a ; syntax 549- 556. o8€, ^8e, T6h€, declined 206, 209 ; demons. 227 ; takes pred. position 553 ; in pred. 561 b. 68t, ovToa-f, etc., 210. 324 GREEK GRAMMAR 68os, declined 62. 680VS, declined 121, 122 a. -o:c-, formative vowel 257. oOev 236 ; clauses 620. ot, diphthong 5 ; effect on ac- cent 14. ot, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. ot, ot, reflex, pron, 19 a, 194, 195 a. oT, adv. 236 ; clauses 620. otSa 386. OLKaSe 228. oiKot, accent 14 a ; adv. 228. oio/Attt, w. infin. 658. oTov, Ota, w. partic. 593 a. oTo^ 215, 227 ; clauses 620 a. oh 138. -otort, dat. pi. 64. otxo/xat, w. partic. 585 c. oAtyaKtS 232. oAtyo?, compared 182, 4. oXtyw/3(o, w. gen. 511 c. oAwAa 456 b. oixvvfjLL, w. ace. 530 a. ofjLoioreXevTov 681 d. o/Aws, w. partic. 592. ovap 142, 5. ovctStto), w. dat. or ace. 520 a. ovetpos 142, 5. ovLvrjjxij w. gen. 510 e. OTTrj, oTrrjVLKa, oiroOev, ottol 236 ; clauses 620, 621. birrjXLKo^ 222 ; clauses 620. oTTto-^ei/, w. gen. 518 b. oTToTos 222, 227 ; clauses 620. oTToVos, 222, 227; clauses 620, 621. oTTore 236 ; clauses 627. oTTorepos 222, 227 ; clauses 620. oTTov 236 ; clauses 620, 621. oTTws 236 ; clauses 638. 6pd(x), double redupl. 291 a. opiyofxai, w. gen. 510 d. o/ovls, declined 114 ; 143, 4. 6p<fiav6s, w. gen. 516 a. -09 : see -eo-. -05, -ov : see suffix -o. OS, poss. pron. 204. o(TaKi<i 232. OS, ^, 2, declined 213, 214 ; 227 ; as demons. 560 ; indir. inter- rog. 621 a; os clauses 612- 617. ocros 215, 227 ; clauses 620, 621. oa-riov^ declined 80. oo-Tts 218, 220, 227 ; clauses 612- 619 ; as indir. interrog. 621. 0(TTLa-OVV 221 C. 6(Tcj>paivojxaL, w. gen. 510 e. 6t€ 236 ; clauses 627. oTt 33 b ; clauses 588 a, 622- 625, 659 and b. ov, diph. and digraph 5, 27 a. ov (ouAc, o^x), enclitic 17 e ; neg. adv. 486, 487, 667 ; w. infin. 564; w. partic. 582 c; in questions 668; changed to /xri 577 b, 579 a. ov, name of letter 1 b. ov, ov, reflex, pron. 19 a, 194, 195 a, 197. GREEK INDEX 325 ov, adv. 236, 515 ; oS clauses 620. ovSc, neg. of 8e 667 ; ovSe ets, ovSets 189. ovSeU 6crTL<s ov 614 b. ovSerepo? 224. ovK £o-Ttv oTTws 614 a, 638 e. ovKovv, interrog. 668. ov firj 489. o^v 673 a. ovv€Ka clauses 626. oSs 101 a, 120. oi;ti?, poet. 224 a. o^Ito?, declined 207, 209, 227 ; pred. position 553 ; in ex- clam. 561 a ; in pred. 561 b. 6<^€tX(o 259 a. n 38, 39, 44 a. 7rat9, accent 101 a; declined 116. TToAato?, compared 178. TTttj/, prefix 441. TravTa)(rj 233. Travra^ov, iravTa^^oOev, TravTa)(6(Te 228 a. TrdvToOev, TravToae 228. Trapd, w. acc, gcn., and dat. 598. Tra? 160-162. Trao-xw, redupl. 260 b. TraTrjp, declined 106. Travo-as, declined 162 b. Tret, name of letter 1 b. Tretvw, w. gen. 511 c. Trei/iys 145. TreVot^a, perf. 456 b. 7r6/D, enclitic 19 e. -Trep 216. 7r€/3d(v), w. gen. 518 b. TTcpt, not elided 33 b ; w. acc, gen., and dat. 598. UepLKkris, declined 127; origi- nally adj. 154. 7re<fiVKa, perf. 456 b. TTT} enclitic 19 c, 236. Trfj 236. TTT^AtKo? 222, 227. TT-qvLKa 236. 7r^X^^5 declined 130. 7nKp6<s 1?7. TTtTrro), redupl. 257 a ; perf. redupl. 289 d. -TrAacrtos 192. TrActo-TOi, ol TrAettrrot 556. TrAeova/cts 232. TrAeo), w. acc. 530 a. ttAccus 95. ■n-Xrjv, TV. gen. 518 c, 599. irX-qa-iov, w. gen. 518 b, 599. -ttAous 191. Hvv^ 142, 6. TTo^ei/, enclitic 19 c, 236. TToOev 236. TTo^t, TTot, enclitic 19 c. TTOt 236. TTotryrr/?, declined 71. TToros 222, 227. TTotw, meaning of mid. 500 b. TToAt?, declined 130. 7roAtT?75, declined 71. TToAAo, TO, TToAAa 556. 7roAAa/ct9 232. 326 GREEK GRAMMAR iroXXaxrj 233. TToXv, TO TToXv 556. TToXvs, declined 175 ; compared 182, 5. TTovTjpo^, compared 177. TTop^vpeos, TTop^vpov'i 87, 88. TToo-os 222, 227. TTOTc, enclitic 19 c, 236, 240 a and b. TTore 236. TTOTCpOl/ . . . ri 668. TToVepos 222, 227. TTov, enclitic 19 c, 236. TTov 236, 481, 515. TTOVS 117. Trpaos 176. 7rpeo-y8v9, Trpca-jBevri^^ declined 142, 7; compared 177. irpLv w. infin. 568, 643 ; tt/oiV clauses 644. TTpo, w. gen. 598. TrporjraL, Trpooivro, Trpootvro, tt/oo- oZto 377. TrpoOeort? 437. TT/aotKa, adv. acc. 539. 7r/)09, w. acc. 521 ; w. acc, gen., and dat. 598. TTpoo-yJKc, impf. 460. TrpoarOrjTat 377. Trpoa-Oev, w. gen. 518 b. Trporepov -?, w. infin. 568 a. irpoTcpo^^ lacks positive 183. Trpo Tou 549 C. 7r/)WT09 183, 184. 7rvv6dvop.ai, constructions 588 b. TrOp, declined 142, 8. TTw, enclitic 19 c. TTws, enclitic 19 c, 236. TTw? 236 ; interrog. 481 ; w. gen. 518 b. P 38 a, 39 ; doubled 48 ; initial 265. paStos, compared 182, 6. prJTiDp, declined 102. -po, suff. 412, 428. 5 38 a, 39 ; initial 54 ; disap- pears 55 a, b, c ; from t 46 ; lost except before p. and t, 322 a ; added to verb-stem 400 b. -o-a:€-, aorist suS. 280. -a-ai, inf. suff. 285. -crai-a-o, becomes -a-aio 283. ^aXafxU 103 b. cravTOv, for creavrov 203 a. (racf)7J<s, declined 151, 152 ; com- pared 177. o-e, enclitic 19 a. -o-e, place ending 228. creavTov 203. a-iOev 196. .o-€o:€-, fut. suil. 326. -o-^a, for -5 263 c. -o-^at, inf. ending 300 d. -o-t, place ending 228 ; suff. 406. -o-ta, suff. 406. a-lyrj, dat. 526 b. -o-tJ, suff. 406. o-tT09, o-tra 144. o-Kta, declined 6Q. GREEK INDEX 327 -a-Ko-.e-, tense suff. 260. -a-o'.e- int. suff. 278, 310. trot, enclitic 19 a. -(Tov, -crat 284. cro?, poss. pron. 204. (TOV, enclitic 19 a. a-o(fi6?^ declined 76; compared 177. a-TTovSr}, dat. 526 b. a-a- = TT 46. o-tolSlov 144. oTtts, declined 162 b. -o-Tt, adv. ending 231. a-TOXa^ofxaL, w. gen. 510 d. (TV, pers. pron. 194. a-vfjL^ovXevu), meaning of mid. 500 b. o-w, in comp. 52 ; w. dat. 598. -a-vvd, suff. 429 and c. (TVvOoLTO, CrvvOoLTO 377. o-C?, declined 132. o-(^e, enclitic 19 f ; poet. 196. crcf>eTepo<s 204 and a. (r(f)i, enclitic 19 f. (T(f)iv, 196. crcfiLa-L, enclitic 19 f. cr<^tVt 197. (r(j><i)v^ for iavTwv 203. o-xoXato?, compared 178. iSwKparry?, declined 127 ; accent 128 a, 153 a ; orig. adj. 154. o-w/xa, declined 118. 0-W09, o-w?, declined 96. o-(o<^pa)v, compared 179. T 38 a-c, 39, 44 c ; before t 46 ; changed to a- 46. -T, dropt 119. -Td, suff. 405, 430 and b ; 434 and b. rav 36 b. TdvSp6<s 36 b. -raro?, superl. ending 177. TOLXOi, rax €0)9 231. rax^?, declined 158; compared 181. re, enclitic 19 e. reOvafxev etc., root pcrf. 370 (4). re^j/ew? 173. riOvrjKa, as pres. 456 b. -Tctpd, suff. 405. T€KixypLov, ace. 539. reXevTuii/ 583 a. -T€o^, verb. adjs. in 411. repas 119 repryv 157 b. -repos comp. ending 177. repTTO/xat, w. gen. 510 c. TcWap€5 187, 188. T>J, TT^Se, ravrr) 236. T^ aXrjOeia, dat. 526 b. T-qkUos, poet. 211 a, 227. T7/AtKocr8e, 211, 227. TryXtKOvro?, 212, 227. TrjVLKdSe, TrjVLKavra 236. -T>7p, suff. 405. -rrypto, place suff. 432 b. -Ty]<:^ suff. 405. -T>7T, suff. 429 a. -TL, pers. end. for -6l 307. -Tt, suff. 406. -TiS, suff. 430 and b ; 434 and b. TiOcLS 165. 328 GREEK GRAMMAR TiOyfTai, tlOolto, tlOolto 377. -TLKo, suff. 413 e. Tt/Aao) 313 ; TLfLaoiv, tI/xix)v 168 a. rlfirj, declined 70. tI/aw, w. gen. 514 a. rl/JLiJipw, w. dat. 520 a. Ttpws, 40 a. Tt5, enclitic 19 b; indef. 217, 219. Tt9, accent 15 a ; interrog. 217, 481 ; declined 219 ; 227. -Ti5, suff. 406. -To:e-, tense suff. 258. Tot, enclitic 19 e ; in crasis 36 b ; particle 671 e, 673 b. Totos, TOLoa-Se 211 and a, 227. TOiovros 212, 227. Toto-tSe, Tttto-iSc 209 a. TO Xcyofxevov., appos. 539. TO fteyto-Tov, appos. 539. Tov Se and infin. 549 c. -Top, suff. 405. 'TO-?, verb. adj. 411. ToVos 211 a, 227. Too-oVSe 211, 227. Tocrow-09 212, 227. Tore 236, 481. Tore 240 d. -rpa, suff. 408 a. Tpels 187, 188. -rpid, suff. 405. -TpuS, -TiS, suff. 405. TpLYipiq<s 154. Tpts 232. -rpt?, -Ti9, suf[. 405. Tptros 188. -rpo, -rpov, suff. 408. Tpws 101 a. Tfyxai'<*>> w. part. 585 a. -Tw/a, suff. 405. Y, quantity 4; pronun., etc. 27 ; not elided 33 b. V, name of letter 1 b. -•u, suff. 413 a. vSwp 120. VI, diphthong 5. vto5 declined 142, 9. vixiv, poet. 196. -vvo's-, pres. suff. 261 d. vVaros 184. viripTepo? 183. vTT-jJKoos, w. gen. 516 a. vTTto-^^ov/Aat, w. dat. 520 a. I'TTo, w. ace, gen., and dat. 598. vTTOTTTevo), augm. 268 b. -vs, -€ta, -V, siiif. 413 a. va-Tepos 183. <!> 7, 38, 39, 42, 44 a. (fiaLVOfJiaL 585 a. cfiaLvo), meaning of mid. 500 a. <lid\ayi, declined 109. <f)€i, name of letter 1 b. <^€iSo/xat, w. gen. 511 c. (fjipoiv 583 a. <^r;yu.t, enclitic 19 d ; inflection 382 ; w. infin. 658. c^^avo), w. acc. 530 a ; w. partic. 585 a. GREEK INDEX 329 (fiOovio, w. dat. 520 a. ^iXiiiiVi <f>L\a)v 168 b. «^tAo9, compared 178. (f>oivL^ 111 a. (f>vyds 145. <^vXaTro/xat, meaning of mid. 500 b ; w. ace. 530 a. <f)vXa^ declined 109. <^a>9 120 and a. X 7, 38, 39, 42, 44 b. ^acpiov 583 a. ^afxai, ^afiaOev, ;(a/xa^€ 228. xapici?, declined 163, 164 a; 179 b. Xaptv, acc. 539. Xapi?, declined 114. xa, name of letter 1 b. Xctp, declined 142, 10. Xetpcov, compared 182, 2. xy 36 d. Xot 36 d. xpo-oiiai 317 a, 320. XP'^i 390. XP^v, impf. 460. xpovos, gen. 515. Xpw?, xpoo'i 143, 5. Xpva-eo's, xp^^ovs, declined 87, 90. )^o)fji,€vo<s 583 a. ^I' 38 a, e, 39. ij/avo), w. gen. 510 b, d. i/^et, name of letter 1 b. O, quantity 4. -o), adv. ending 231, 235. w, name of letter 1 b. w, interjection 61 a. wSc, OVTCUS 236. -wSes, neuter forms in 153 a. -wSt/s, from -oetSv;? 447. -wiiy-, mode suff. 269, 305. (ot, o), diphthong 5. -cov, place suli. 432 c. -(OS, adverbs in 229. ws, proclitic 17 d ; w. infin. 566 a and b ; w. acc. absol. 591 a ; w. partic. 593 c, 594 ; o)? clauses 632-636, 659 and b. (Ss, ws 236, 239. wo-TTc/), w. acc. absol. 591 a ; just as, even as 593 d ; strengthened ws 633 a, 637 ; oicnrcp av el 656 b. Si(TT€, w. infin. 566 ; w. fut. infin. 578 b ; Sia-re clauses 639. -(0T->7?, suff. 434 b. wv, diphthong 5. (S</)eXoi/ 470 b. ENGLISH INDEX Accent, general rules 9-16 ; in contraction 30 ; in crasis 37 ; in elision 34; of nouns 63, 68, 81, 84, 93 b and c, 131 a, 133 a ; of monosyll. cons, stems 101 ; recessive in cer- tain vocatives 72 d, 104, 105, 128 a, 153 a ; of adjs., fern, plu. 77 b ; of contract adjs. 89 b ; recessive in certain adjs. 148, 150, 153 a ; of verbs 268 a, 296, 300 d, 349 and a, 362 (3), 379 (4), 384 d; of verbal nouns 402 a; of compounds 439 a. Accusative neuter as adv. 230, 234. Action, suffixes denoting 406. Adscript t 5 b. Agent, suffixes denoting 405 ; expressed by gen. 509 d ; by dat. 524 b, 596. Aiolic dialect p. 2. Aischylos p. 2. Aorist 247 ; system (sigmatic) 279 ; passive 303 ; liquid 323, 327 ; form, vowel or thematic 347,348; in -a 351; root 366, 330 379 ; in -Ka 371 ; indicative 462, 468 ; in a wish 470 a ; passive 501. See Tenses. Apostrophe 32. Appositive 502 ; to a sentence 504. xiristophanes p. 2. Aristotle p. 2. Article 61. Asyndeton 600 a. Attic dialect p. 2 ; Attic redu- plication 291 c. Attraction, of rel. pron. 613 b ; of antecedent 613 c ; of mode 642 d. Attributive position 552 a. Augment 264, 265-268 ; of plupf. 293. Breathings 6. Byzantine, empire and dialect p. 3. Cases 59. Chiasmus 682 a. Christian Fathers p. 3. Circumstantial participle 583. Common dialect p. 3. Composition 397. ENGLISH INDEX 331 Compounds, analysis of 435 ; syllabication of 8. Conditional expressions 645. Conjunctions, coordinating 602; subordinating, see Ta- ble of Contents. Consonants, classified 38, 39 ; sound changes of 38-56 ; final 40. Contraction, general rules 29 ; accent in 30; in adjectives 89 a. Correlative pronouns, table 227 ; adverbs, table 236. Crasis 31, 35, 36 ; accent in 37. Defective verbs, supplement- ing one another 391. Demosthenes p. 2. Denominatives 399. Dependent compounds 446 a. Deponent verbs 394, 501 ; perf. of 396. Derivation 397. Descent, nouns denoting 433. Descriptive compounds 446 b. Determinative compounds 445 a, 446. Dialects of Greek p. 2. Digraph and diphthong u and ov 27 a. Diminutives 431. Diphthongs 5. Direct middle 500 a. Disappearance of close vowels 27. Doric dialect p. 2. Doric forms retaining d 69 b, 72 e. Double augment 267 a, 268 d. Double negatives 487. Dubitative subjv. 471. Eastern Roman Empire p. 3. Elision 31-33 ; accent in 34. Empire of Alexander p. 3. Enclitics 16, 19-21. Euripides p. 2. Exclamations 491 b, 509 c. Formative-vowel aorist 347, 348. Future, of vowel verbs 277, 278 ; liquid 323, 324 ; Doric 326 ; in -w 346 a ; mid. with act. meaning 392 ; mid. with pass, meaning 393 ; passive 310. See Tenses. Genders 58 ; diff. in sing, and plu. 144. Genitive absolute 589, 590. Gentile nouns 434. Gnomic aorist 465. Greek language, dialects and periods pp. 1-3. Headings and titles 491 c. Hellenistic dialect p. 3. Herodotos p. 2. Hiatus 31. Historical tenses 246. 332 GREEK GRAMMAR Homer p. 2. Hopeless wish 470 a. Hortative subjunctive 472. Hypothetical indie. 461 c, 467 c, 468 b ; optative 479-482. Imperative mode 245 ; endings 271 ; uses of 484, 485 ; tenses of 484. Imperfect 264, 459-461, 470 a. Impersonal verbs 493 a, 520 b. Inceptive aorist 464. Inceptive class 260. Indicative mode 245, 281 ; pers. endings 263 ; in simple sen- tences 452-470, 488, 489 b ; in subordinate clauses 617, 618, 620, 622, 624, 627-635, 636 c, 638 a, b, d, e, 639,641, 642 c, 644 a, 647-649, 655. Indirect middle 500 b and d. Indirect quotation 624 a, 657- 664. Infinitive, endings 273 ; uses 245, 492, 562-579, 658. Ingressive aorist 464. Interchange of open vowels 25, 26 ; of long and short vowels 28. Interjections 491 a. Ionic dialect p. 2. Liquids, sound changes in 48- 53. Liquid verbs 248. Lucian p. 3. Middle, direct 500 a ; indirect 500 b and d; participles, declined 276. Modern Greek p. 3. Modes 242. Mode-suffix, of subjv. 269 ; of opt. 270. Movable consonant 31. Mutes, sound changes in 42- 47. Nasal class 261, 356. Nasals, pronunciation 38 d. Negatives, double 487. New Testament p. 3. Nom. for voc. 62 b, 103 c. Number, adverbs of 232 ; nouns of 192. Optative mode 245, 476-483, 485 ; in subord. clauses, 611 c, 616 b, 618 b, 620, 624 b, 627, 629-631, 636 b, 638 c, 642 b, 644 c, 651, 659 a. Participle 245 ; declension of 162 b, 164 b, 166, 168-173, 276; compared 180; end- ings 275 ; syntax 580-595. Passive voice 244; fut. perf. pass. 301 ; ^77-pass. 302-310 ; 17-pass. 334-337 ; pass, depo- nents 394, 395 ; use 499, 501. Patronymics 433. Perfect, Ka-perf. 287-297, 342 ; a-perf . 332, 333, 342 b ; root ENGLISH INDEX 333 perf. 370 ; mid. 298-301, 338, 339 ; of some deponents 396; rendered by pres. 456 b and c. Periods of Greek language p. 2f. Personal endings, indie. 263 ; impv. 271. Pindar p. 2. Place, endings denoting 228. Plato p. 2. Pluperfect 469, 649. Plutarch p. 3. Polybios p. 3. Possessive compounds 445 b, 447. Possessive pronouns 204. Predicate nouns 502. Predicate position 552 c. Prepositional - phrase com- pounds 445 c, 448. Prepositions 437, 440 a, 447 b. Present system, classes in 256- 262, 356, 357. See Tenses. Primary tenses 246. Principal parts of verb 311. Proclitics 16-18. Prohibition 485. Prohibitive subjunctive 473. Pronunciation 1-7, 38. Punctuation 22. Purpose, expressions of 565 a, 576, 615, 619, 631 b, 634, 636, 638 a, c, d, 640, 642. Quality, nouns of 429. Quantity of vowels 4. Questions 488. Reciprocal pronoun 202. Reduplication, pres. 257 a ; perf. 289-291. Reflexive pronouns 197, 200, 203. Relative words as indir. in- terrog. 223, 621. Result, suffixes denoting 407. Roman Empire p. 3. Sappho p. 2. Secondary tenses 246. Sociative 525. Sophokles p. 2. Speech-tune 9 a. Stem of noun or adj. 60. Subjective middle 500 c and d. Subjunctive 245, 269 ; tenses of 475 ; w. ov fxrj 489 a ; in simple sent. 471-475 ; in subord. clauses 611 b, 616 a, 618 a, 620, 627-631, 636 a, 638 c, 642 a, 644 b, 650, 652. Suffix in derivation, meaning 402. Syllables 8. Tenses 242, 247 ; of Xcrr-qiii 363 ; of indie. 453-470 ; of subjv. 475 ; of opt. 483 ; of impv. 484 ; of infin. 563 ; of par- 334 GREEK GRAMMAR tic. 581 ; in subord. clauses 607. Theokritos p. 2. Thukydides p. 2. Titles and headings 491 c. Tmesis 437 a. Verbal nouns and adjs. 399, 402-414. Verbals in -tos and -reos 352- 354, 411, 596. Verbs, accent, see Accent ; de- fective supplementing one another 391 ; impers. 493 a ; semi-inipers. 520 b ; omitted 493 b ; depon. 394, 396, 501, Verb-stems 248, in compounds 442 ; from nouns 415. Voices 242, 244, 499, 501. Vowels, open or close 24; lengthening of 28 b. Wish, expressions of 470 a, 476-478. Xenophon p. 2. V OF THE U) UNlVERSiTV TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS. THE CLASSICAL SERIES A Nem) Series of La.tin and Greek Texts for Secondary Schools, under the editorial charge of John Henry Wright, A.M., LL.D., Harvard University Bcrnadotte Pcrrin, Ph.D., LL.D., Yalc University Andrew Fleming West, Ph.D.,LL.D., Princeton University These names guarantee the highest standard of scholarship and pedagogic fitness. The whole series throughout is based on the lines laid down in the Report of the Committee of Twelve of the American Philological Asso- ciation to the National Educational Association. These lines are now universally accepted as defining the ideal clas- sical course for secondary schools. The Twentieth Centuiy Classical Texts satisfy at every point this universal requirement. The methods of teaching Latin and Greek as revised and now adopted by American educators call for a less pedantic, more human- istic style, dominantly literary in spirit, giving a clear, forceful impres- sion of ancient life and thought. 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