I 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 Class '^l\'b 
 
 GENtRI^^ 
 
 M 
 
TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS 
 
 CLASSICAL SECTION 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 JOHN HENRY WRIGHT, Harvard University 
 BERNADOTTE PERRIN, Yale University 
 
 ANDREW FLEMING WEST, Princeton University 
 
TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS 
 
 A SCHOOL GRAMMAR OF 
 ATTIC GREEK 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS DWIGHT GOODELL 
 
 PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN YALE UNIVERSITY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 I 902 
 
Copyright, 1902 
 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 PubUsJicd August, 1902 
 
TO 
 
 MY FORMER PUPILS IX THE 
 
 HARTFORD PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 AND IX YALE COLLEGE 
 
 1881-1902 
 
 WHOSE DIFFICULTIES IX LEARXIXG GREEK 
 
 HAVE BEEX COXSTAXTLY BEFORE ME 
 
 IX THIS EXDEAYOR TO LIGHTEX THE TASK 
 
 OF THEIR SUCCESSORS 
 
 101923 
 
PEEFACE 
 
 The invitation to prepare a new Greek Grammar would 
 not have been accepted had I not believed that the time has 
 come for considerable changes in the presentation of the sub- 
 ject to young pupils. Greek studies are still holding their 
 own in this country, because of their intrinsic value in a 
 liberal education. But in order to preserve for them their 
 due place, great improvement must be made in teaching the 
 language, so that a reasonable amount of effort will advance 
 a serious student farther than it ordinarily does at present. 
 And such improvement is possible. Though nothing can 
 make Greek really easy, it need not be so difficult as it has 
 been made. This volume is a sincere endeavor — how far 
 successful only the test of use will show — to aid in meeting 
 the legitimate demand for better results from the time and 
 labor expended. 
 
 As the first change required, I have sought to simplify 
 grammatical statements to the utmost. Some technical terms 
 consecrated by long tradition have been thrown overboard ; 
 so far as possible terms have been used that are really 
 descriptive and will appear so to beginners. J^early all 
 changes in terminology are of this sort ; only one or two 
 seemed necessary in the other direction. Thus the potential 
 optative disappears, because experience has shown that the 
 term misleads nearly all pupils and some teachers ; the hypo- 
 thetical optative and indicative are made to support each 
 
Vm GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 other, and students who have begun geometry should find 
 the terms hypothetical and hypothesis mutually explanatory. 
 The phrase formative vowel, for variable vowel, is more dis- 
 tinctly descriptive than the old, and the symbol oie, which is 
 often employed in scientific works, is both more legible and 
 more readily extended to analogous cases than the symbol 
 introduced to our schools by the Hadley-Allen Grammar. 
 
 Secondly, I have sought to simplify by omission, so far sm 
 that could be done safely with due regard to later progress. 
 It is assumed that those who begin Greek have had at least a 
 year of Latin ; accordingly, whatever is so much like Latin 
 or English as to cause no diflSculty is omitted or barely men- 
 tioned. Only Attic Greek is included ; some confusion is 
 avoided by keeping Epic or other non- Attic forms out of sight 
 until they are needed — that is, until one begins to read 
 Homer, Herodotos, and the lyric poets. And of Attic Greek 
 only those forms are included that are found in the works 
 commonly read in American schools and colleges up to the 
 end of sophomore year, or are quite regular. Rarer forms, 
 and in syntax rarer constructions, such as are naturally 
 explained in lexicon or notes, are also generally omitted. 
 Meantime, some things that other grammars pass over lightly 
 are here given more prominence, because they are things that 
 freshmen need to know and commonly do not know. Yet 
 by this twofold process of simplification the body of the 
 grammar is brought within three hundred pages, in spite of 
 large type and open printing and the greater space given to 
 examples. 
 
 But it seemed to me a change equally needed was a shift 
 in the point of view as regards syntax. In learning the 
 inflection and vocabulary of any language we first learn the 
 foreign forms and their general meaning; afterward — as 
 soon as may be, but as the second step, not the first — by 
 turning English expressions into the foreign idiom we study 
 
PREFACE IX 
 
 from another standpoint the functions of the forms. (We 
 are not considering the mental process of young children 
 learning the language of people around them, but that of 
 those who already think in one language and are learning 
 another.) The second step is far more difficult than the first. 
 The facts of a language may look very different seen from 
 these two sides. But in learning Greek syntax our pupils 
 have been too often required to take both steps at once. 
 That is, syntactical phenomena are classified by function, and 
 then our grammatical statements try to combine both points 
 of view. This is less true as regards the syntax of cases. 
 There it has been usual to start with form and describe the 
 function ; and though rules mix the two points of view some- 
 what — as when we teach that cause, manner, and means are 
 expressed by the dative — still no great harm is done. Nearly 
 the same may be said of modes and tenses in simple sen- 
 tences ; but with subordinate clauses, the most difficult chap- 
 ter of all syntax, the matter becomes serious. The current 
 formulas are based on a classification by function, as clauses 
 of purpose, condition, and so on, and throw into one func- 
 tional category several distinct forms, while the student finds 
 before him on the Greek page one syntactical form at a 
 time, which he has to interpret. The endeavor to interpret 
 the clauses before him by such rules compels him to shift 
 constantly from one point of view to the other. The natural 
 result is a confusion of mind that greatly hinders progress 
 in understanding Greek. In this grammar I have sought to 
 carry through consistently the principle of classifying by 
 form. This has caused a complete recasting of the syntax of 
 subordinate clauses. Some may at first find the changes here 
 made somewhat disconcerting ; no one recognizes more fully 
 than I the difficulty of the task attempted. But being con- 
 vinced that the reform was imperatively required, I could 
 do nothing less than attack the problem. After my solu- 
 
X GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 tion was worked out it was submitted to several experienced 
 teachers, who warmly approved it. Subordinate clauses are 
 classified first by the introductory word, next by the mode 
 and tense of the verb ; the description of each form is meant 
 to enable the student to interpret the Greek before him ; 
 directions for translating English into Greek are left to the 
 book on composition and to the teacher. The new system is 
 not only better scientifically, it is more concrete and intel- 
 ligible to beginners. But the system is really not new, since 
 it is the one which lexicons follow as a matter of course, and 
 this agreement between grammar and lexicon is a farther 
 advantage. 
 
 In the spelling of Greek names the stricter form of trans- 
 literation is followed, except with names like Cyrus, which 
 are also English baptismal names, or those like Athens, which 
 have long ago received an English termination. Two reasons 
 led me to continue here my practice of twenty-five years. 
 First, though many leading Hellenists in England and Amer- 
 ica prefer the Latin spelling as being the traditional one, I 
 think the other is likely to prevail in the end. No tendency 
 of classical studies throughout the last century was more 
 marked than the growing desire to approach Hellenic life and 
 thought directly, and remove every distorting medium both 
 in study and in the presentation of results. Archaeology has 
 been one powerful influence in that direction. Accordingly 
 all our leading museums employ the direct method of trans- 
 literation ; and museums are perhaps the greatest populariz- 
 ing agency for Greek studies. It is not pedantry, but good 
 sense, to help on this tendency and shorten the period of 
 transition. Secondly, the stricter transliteration is simpler ; 
 to expect pupils to Latinize the names adds an unnecessary 
 difiiculty. But the introductory book in preparation to accom- 
 pany the grammar will give both forms and explain both 
 methods of transliteration. 
 
PREFACE XI 
 
 In writing the volume it was impossible to escape, had I 
 wished to, the influence of Hadley's Grammar, which has been 
 familiar to me from boyhood in the original form and since 
 1884 as revised by the late F. D. Allen. Nearly the same may 
 be said of Professor Goodwin's Grammar and of his Greek 
 Moods and Tenses, in their successive editions. My obliga- 
 tions to these works are very great, and not least in those 
 chapters where I have departed most widely from them. 
 He would be an ungrateful pupil who should forget his debt 
 to his masters, merely because he has by their aid finally 
 learned to look with independent judgment on some portion 
 of their doctrine. Also, like all American Hellenists, I have 
 learned much, and am still learning, from Professor Gilder- 
 sleeve, though I suspect he will think I ought to have learned 
 more. To such a thought on his part my first plea in defense 
 would be the elementary character of this grammar. For 
 young students a simple, clear, and brief statement is essen- 
 tial. (As an instance where the need of brevity has forced a 
 form of wording which is not true literally though true in 
 spirit, section 562 may be referred to. Some infinitives are 
 by origin locatives in form ; but in meaning no locative sense 
 can be traced, so that for the purposes of syntax the assertion 
 that all are originally for datives is not misleading.) Several 
 German grammars have also been of much service, especially 
 those of Kaegi and of Koch, and the two volumes of Kiihner- 
 Blass. 
 
 Many friends have aided me directly at various stages of 
 my task, whom I wish to thank especially. Professor Wright, 
 of Harvard University, has read critically all the proofs ; 
 Mr. Morrison, of the Hartford High School, has freely placed 
 at my service his unusual skill in teaching ; and my colleagues, 
 Professors Morris, Perrin, and Oertel, have been very kind 
 and helpful, saving me from many errors and furnishing 
 many valuable suggestions. Frequent discussion of the prin- 
 
XU GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 ciples of syntax with Professor Morris has greatly influenced 
 the development of my views, and I am sure has much im- 
 proved the exposition in this volume ; without the constant 
 aid of Professor Oertel I might often have gone astray in 
 places where even the simplest statements need to be made 
 in the light of a wide knowledge of morphology and of lin- 
 guistic science. Others too numerous to name separately 
 have aided me with criticisms and suggestions at many points, 
 and my wife has in several ways contributed so much that 
 the fact calls for public acknowledgment. 
 
 Finally, it is probable that some infelicities, and perhaps 
 worse, will be revealed by class-room experience. I shall be 
 grateful for all corrections and suggestions for improvement; 
 and if the book is found useful enough to come to a second 
 edition, I shall hope to make it fill its place better. 
 
 T. D. G. 
 
 June, 1902. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Iktroduction 1 
 
 L Sounds 
 
 AND Writing : 
 
 Alphabet 5 
 
 Accent 
 
 8 
 
 Sound Changes U 
 
 Vowels 11 
 
 Consonants 15 
 
 IL Words: 
 
 
 A. Nouns and Adjectives 20 
 
 L 
 
 O-Declension : Nouns . 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 IL 
 
 A-Declension : Nouns . . . . 
 Feminines : First Group . 
 Feminines : Second Group 
 Masculines 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 
 III. 
 
 Adjectives of the Vowel Declension 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 IV. 
 
 Contracted Vowel Stems 
 n-Declension .... 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 30 
 
 V. 
 
 Consonant Declension : Nouns 
 Liquid Stems in -\, -v, -p . 
 Stems in -ep .... 
 Guttural Stems in -k, -y 
 Labial and Dental Stems in -tt, -/3, -t 
 Dental Stems in -t, -5, -d . 
 Neuter Stems in -t . . . 
 Masculine Stems in -vt . 
 Stems in -co-, -oo- .... 
 Stems in -t and -u . . . 
 Stems in -v, -v . 
 Stems in -ev, -av, -ov . 
 Stems in -« and -o . . . 
 Irregular Nouns .... 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 . 41 
 
 . 43 
 
 . 43 
 
XIV GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 PAGE 
 
 VI. Consonant Declension : Adjectives .... 44 
 
 Adjectives of Two Endings 45 
 
 Comparatives in -wj/ 45 
 
 Stems in -€(r 46 
 
 Adjectives of Three Endings : Stems in -av . . 47 
 
 Stems in -1/ 48 
 
 Stems in -avr 48 
 
 Adjective Stems in -evr 49 
 
 Participial Stems in -evr 50 
 
 Stems in -opt 51 
 
 Participial Stems in -or (Perfects) .... 53 
 
 VII. Comparison of Adjectives ...... 54 
 
 VIII. Numeral Adjectives 57 
 
 B. Pronouns 60 
 
 Personal Pronouns 60 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns 63 
 
 Relative Pronouns 64 
 
 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns . . . . 65 
 
 Correlative Pronouns 68 
 
 C. Adverbs 69 
 
 Correlative Adverbs 72 
 
 D. Verbs 73 
 
 A. Verbs of the n-Conjugation 75 
 
 I. Vowel Verbs, not contracting .... 76 
 
 The Present System 83 
 
 The Aorist System 90 
 
 The Perfect Active System .... 91 
 
 Perfect Middle System 94 
 
 The Passive System : ©7j-Passive ... 94 
 
 II. Vowel Verbs, Contracting in the Present . . 103 
 
 III. Liquid Verbs . 104 
 
 IV. Mute Verbs .110 
 
 B. Verbs of the Mi-Conjugation 115 
 
 I. Verbs in -vvfii 116 
 
 II. Verbs in -rjjui, with Stems in -arrj- . . . .118 
 
 III. AiSufMi, Tie-nfjLi, "1-nfii 125 
 
 IV. Irregular and Defective Mt- Verbs .... 134 
 Middle and Passive Forms with Peculiar Meaning 139 
 
CONTENTS XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 E. Word-Formation .... .... 141 
 
 I. Derivation 141 
 
 Verbals 143 
 
 Verbal Nouns 142 
 
 Verbal Adjectives . . . . . . . 145 
 
 Denominatives 148 
 
 Denominative Verbs 148 
 
 Denominative Adjectives 152 
 
 Denominative Nouns 154 
 
 II. Composition 158 
 
 Compound Verbs 159 
 
 Compound Nouns and Adjectives 160 
 
 III. Syntax : 
 
 I. Simple Sentences 168 
 
 Indicative Sentences 168 
 
 Subjunctive Sentences 177 
 
 Optative Sentences 180 
 
 Imperative Sentences 183 
 
 Negative Sentences 184 
 
 Undeveloped and Incomplete Sentences . . . 186 
 
 Verbs : Agreement and Voice 188 
 
 Nouns : The Cases 191 
 
 The Nominative 192 
 
 The Genitive 192 
 
 The Dative 202 
 
 The Accusative 209 
 
 Adjectives 215 
 
 Special Idioms of Predication 216 
 
 The Article 218 
 
 Pronouns 222 
 
 Infinitives 224 
 
 Participles 236 
 
 Verbal Adjectives in -TE02 246 
 
 Prepositions 247 
 
 II. Compound Sentences 248 
 
 Parataxis and Hypotaxis 250 
 
 III. Complex Sentences 250 
 
 M^ Clauses 251 
 
 "Os and "Octtis Clauses 253 
 
 Other Relative Clauses 258 
 
XVI GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 PAGB 
 
 "Oti, Ai6ri and O'^veKa Clauses 260 
 
 Clauses with "Ore, 'OTrt^re, 'ETrei, 'Hj/i/ca, 'OTrr]vlKa , . 263 
 
 Clauses with "Eus, "Ecrre, Me'xpt, "Axpi .... 266 
 
 'as Clauses 268 
 
 "Ottws Clauses 271 
 
 no-re Clauses 273 
 
 "Im Clauses 274 
 
 np^j/ Clauses 276 
 
 Et Clauses 277 
 
 El with the Indicative 278 
 
 'Edu with the Subjunctive 281 
 
 El with the Optative 281 
 
 Other Uses of Et' 283 
 
 Indirect Discourse 284 
 
 Particles 287 
 
 Word-Order 291 
 
 Abbreviations 298 
 
 Verb-List 299 
 
 Greek Index 315 
 
 English Index 330 
 
GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 INTEODUCTION 
 
 Greek is tlie language of tlie ancient peoj^le who called 
 themselves Hellenes, and of their successors to the present 
 day. Their center of abode was, and still is, the country we 
 call Greece (Latin Graecia) and the neighboring islands ; but 
 from a very early period many Greeks were spread over parts 
 of western Asia Minor, and were settled in colonies around 
 other shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the 
 waters that unite them. The sea has always been their main 
 highway. In this language is preserved a large literature of 
 various dates, including the earliest in Europe, and perhaps 
 the greatest of the world. 
 
 Greek is one of the Indo-European family of languages, of 
 which other members are Sanskrit, Old Persian, Keltic (in- 
 cluding Welsh, Gaelic, Irish), Latin with its descendants 
 (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Kumanian), the Teu- 
 tonic branch (as German, Scandinavian, English), and the 
 Slavic branch (as Russian, Lithuanian, Polish). All these 
 are descended from one parent speech. 
 
 Though really one when compared with other tongues, 
 1 1 
 
2 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 Greek was spoken and written differently by different branches 
 of the people. Like all languages, too, it changed with 
 time, and its history has been very long. So we have to 
 distinguish different dialects or forms of Greek and differ- 
 ent periods. 
 
 In the ancient period the many spoken dialects are mostly 
 included under three general groups, not always easy to keep 
 apart — the Aiolic, Doric, and Ionic, corresponding to divisions 
 of the race. Important seats of the Aiolians were in north- 
 western Asia Minor, Lesbos, Thessaly, and Boiotia (northern 
 group) ; important seats of the Dorians were in Peloponnese, 
 Crete, southern Asia Minor, Sicily, and southern Italy (south- 
 ern group) ; of the lonians, in western Asia Minor and Attica 
 and certain islands between them (middle group). In the 
 literature the dialects were somewhat mingled ; but Sappho 
 (600 B. c.) -rei^resents fairly the Aiolic; Pindar (470 b. c.) 
 and Theokritos (270 b. c.) the Doric; Homer (before 800 
 B. c.) and Ilerodotos (440 b. c.) the Ionic. 
 
 The Attic was a branch of Ionic. But the literature of 
 Athens between 500 b. c. and 325 b. c. was so large, so 
 varied, and so great, that its language is better kno^vn than 
 any other dialect, and has especial importance for us. In it 
 are written the tragedies of Aischylos, Sophokles, and Euripi- 
 des, the comedies of Aristophanes, the histories of Thukydi- 
 des and Xenophon, the speeches of Demosthenes and the 
 other Attic orators, the philosophical works of Plato and 
 Aristotle. 
 
 The superiority of Athens was so marked, in art and gov- 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 ernment as well as in letters, that its' dialect became the com^ 
 mon language of tlie educated over all the Mediterranean 
 world. The empire of Alexcmder and his successors, and 
 later that of Rome, aided the spread of this languao-e, and 
 established new literary centers in Alexandria, Antioch, Per- 
 gamon, Rhodes. Thus widely extended, largely among peo- 
 ple not of Greek blood, and more or less changed by time 
 and the use of foreigners, the Attic lost its national character 
 in the cosmopolitan, and became the Common dialect (say from 
 325 B. c. to 325 a. d,). Polybios, Plutarch, Lucian, and the 
 early Christian Fathers wrote in it ; the New Testament is in 
 a variety of it known as the Hellenistic. 
 
 Under the Byzantine ox Eastern Roman Empire (325 to 
 1453 A. D.) this Conmion dialect, always changing slowly, is 
 called Byzantine, with its center at the capital, Constanti- 
 nople. By degrees it developed into the forms now in 
 use by the Greeks, in Greece and the Greek islands, in 
 Asia Minor, Constantinople, and other parts of Turkey-in- 
 Europe. These forms are together known as Modern Greek, 
 w^hich has a large and interesting literature, especially in 
 popular poetry. 
 
 Unless one lives where Modern Greek is spoken, the study 
 of the language is best begun with Attic Greek, for two rea- 
 sons. Not only is it the best known of the old dialects and 
 the least difficult ; but farther, ancient Athens, by her litera- 
 ture, her art, and her thought, has had a more profound and 
 lasting influence on the world than all the rest of the Greek 
 race together — more, indeed, than any other people ; and the 
 
4 GREEK GRAMMAR . 
 
 prime object of learning Greek is to gain a first-hand ac- 
 quaintance with a great force in civihzation. 
 
 This book is intended to contain what one must know of 
 grammar to read with intelhgence the best Athenian litera- 
 ture. One who can do that needs no other grammar for 
 reading the Common, Hellenistic, and Byzantine Greek. 
 
PRONUNCIATION 7 
 
 b. Much later tlie t in di, rji, col ceased to be pro- 
 nounced, and is not now usually pronounced. Hence 
 it is commonly written under the long vowel, and 
 called L suhscri^jt : a, 77, co. But with a capital this i 
 is still written on the line (adscript) : HI AH I = 
 '1218176 = w8|5? ai^d AIAHS = "AiSt;? = aSi]? Hades. 
 
 6 A breathing, not counted as a letter, is written with 
 every initial vowel or diphthong ; the rough breath- 
 ing ( ' ) represents the sound of h preceding the vowel, 
 the smooth breathing ( ' ) merely denotes the ab- 
 sence of the h sound. The breathing is now writ- 
 ten before a capital, but over a small letter. With a 
 diphthong it is written over the second vowel : 'OS09 
 or oho^ (Jiodos) road; 'Ef or ef (ex) out of; Autos or 
 auTo? (autos) self 
 
 But if the second vowel of the diphthong is l sub- 
 script or adscript the breathing is put with the first : 
 'HiSt; or cohrj song. 
 
 Also, initial p always takes the rough breathing : 
 prjTOip vlietor^ orator. Double p within a word is by 
 some written pp : pivppa myrrh. 
 
 a. In Attic initial v always has the rough breath- 
 ing : vTTvo<; sleep. 
 
 7 The pronunciation above described (1-6) is recommended as 
 the nearest approach practicable, for our schools, to that of 
 Athens about 400 B. c. To c, ^, <^, x are given the sounds 
 now current in Greece, because the ancient sounds for these 
 letters (27 a, 38 b) would increase the difficulties of pupils too 
 much. Otherwise (except for t subscript) the sounds described 
 are nearly those of the Athenians at the time named. 
 
8 SOUNDS AND WRITING 
 
 8 Each vowel or diphthong, alone or with one or more 
 consonants, makes a separate syllable. 
 
 It is customary in writing to join a single consonant, or any 
 group of consonants that may begin a Greek word, with the 
 following vowel, if there be one ; other combinations of con- 
 sonants between vowels are divided : {'-yt-et-a, KT^-/xa, Ke-Kro^-zxat, 
 yt-yi/w-o-Ko), aX-Aos, o-xpo-jxai. But compound words are divided 
 between the members : Trpoa--d-7rTw. 
 
 ACCENT 
 
 9 The accented syllable is marked with one of three 
 signs, called accents. These are 
 
 The acute accent ( ' ) : 6S6<?. 
 
 The circumflex accent ( " ) : ttJ? oSov. 
 
 The grave accent (^ ) : ttjp 6S6p, 
 
 a. These indicate changes of pitch, or speech-tune, not of 
 stress, in the ancient pronunciation. But now, both in Greece 
 and elsewhere, all alike are pronounced as a simple increase of 
 stress, like the accent in English. 
 
 10 The accent mark is put over the vowel o£ the ac- 
 cented syllable ; with a diphthong it is put over the 
 second vowel, unless that is t subscript or adscript. 
 If the vowel has a breathing too, the acute or grave 
 is put at the right of the breathing, the circumflex 
 above the breathing : e \jjl\6v, at, w. 
 
 With an initial capital the accent and breathing 
 are placed before it : ''O/xt^/oo?, '^n /xeya, "A 18779. 
 
 11 The acute can stand only on one of the last three 
 syllables ; the circumflex on one of the last two only, 
 and only on a long vowel or diphthong. 
 
ACCENT 9 
 
 a. If, then, a vowel has the circumflex accent, it must be 
 long, and no separate mark of length is added. 
 
 12 If the ultima is long, the acute can not stand on 
 the antepenult, nor the circumflex on the penult. 
 For exceptions see 93 b. 
 
 13 In the penult an accented long vowel or diphthong 
 takes the circumflex, unless that is forbidden by 12. 
 
 14 But final at and ot, though long, affect the accent 
 of penult and antepenult as if short ; dpdpcoTroL men, 
 oIkol houses. 
 
 a. Yet not in oikol at liome, nor in optative verb forms : 
 
 iravoL. 
 
 15 An acute on the ultima changes to the grave when 
 closely followed by another word : ayaOoq dvijp a 
 good mem. 
 
 a. This change is not made in tl<;, tI interrogative (217) 
 nor before an enclitic (19) ; before a comma usage varies. 
 
 16 A few common words have no accent of their own, but 
 seem to rest on the word before or after. Those which 
 thus look forward are called proclitics {irpo-KXivu) lecm for- 
 luard) ; those which look backward are called enclitics (ey- 
 kXivih lean on). 
 
 17 The proclitics are 
 
 a. The article forms 6, tj, olj at ; 
 
 b. The prepositions et? (e?), ef (e/c), cV ; 
 0. The conjunction el ; 
 
 d. 'n? in all uses, excej)t as a demonstrative (thus) ; 
 
 e. The negative adverb ov {ovk, ovx)- 
 
10 SOUNDS AND WRITING 
 
 18 When no companion word follows, on whicli it 
 would lean, a proclitic takes the acute : eyw fiep ov 
 not /, deos m as a godj KaK0)v e^ out of evils. 
 
 a. When 6, 17, ot, or at is a pronoun (205) many editors print 
 it with an acute, which becomes grave by 15. 
 
 19 The enclitics are 
 
 a. The personal pronouns /xou, /xoi, /xe ; crou, croi, 
 ere ] ov, ot, e ] 
 
 b. The indefinite pronoun rts in all forms (except 
 oLTTo) ; 
 
 c. The indefinite adverbs ttou, ttoOi, ttyi, ttoi, iroOevj 
 TTore, TTw, TT(xi%. (Thc corresponding interrogatives are 
 all accented ; see 236.) 
 
 d. The present indicative of et/xt and <^T7/xt, except 
 the second singular el and (^179. 
 
 e. The particles ye, re, roij Trep, the inseparable -8e. 
 
 f. To these add some poetic forms and words, like /xtv, vlv, 
 
 20 An enclitic takes an accent 
 
 a. If emphatic : dXka ae KaXcj Ws you Tm calling. 
 
 b. If it begins a clause (being then always em- 
 phatic) : (^y-qcrl fxep lie says, indeed. 
 
 c. If the syllable next before is elided : javr Icrrl 
 for TavToi icm. 
 
 d. Also, a disyllabic enclitic takes the acute on the 
 ultima, if the word before it has an acute on the pe- 
 nult : \6yov<; TLvd^. 
 
 e. "EaTL is written thus if it begins a clause, if it 
 means exists or is possible^ and if it follows ovk, fxij, et, 
 ct)9, or /cat. 
 
ENCLITICS 11 
 
 21 The word before an enclitic 
 
 a. Keeps its own accent without change : eVet rt? 
 Slcjkol. 
 
 b. Adds an acute on the ultima, if an acute stands 
 on the antepenult or a circumflex on the penult : 
 
 c. If it be a proclitic or enclitic, takes an acute : ei 
 (j)rj(TL, el 8e tl^ (jyrjcn. 
 
 d. The above rules apply also when a word and a 
 following enclitic are printed as one : ovtlvo^, atrti^es, 
 wore. In like manner eWe and j^at)(t from et and i^at. 
 
 22 Punctuation. — The comma and period are used as in 
 English. The colon is a point above the line ( • ), 
 taking the place of our colon and semicolon. The 
 mark of a direct question is ( ; ), like oui^ semicolon. 
 
 SOUND CHANGES 
 
 23 Many changes of sound, and therefore of writing, 
 occur in the formation and inflection of words. Va- 
 rious causes combine in various ways to produce 
 them ; to understand them one must observe the ac- 
 tion of the mouth and throat in making speech sounds. 
 The most important relations and changes of Greek 
 sounds are briefly stated in the following sections 
 (24-56). 
 
 VOWELS 
 
 24 Vowels are called open or close according as the moutli in 
 speaking them is more open or less open. The most open 
 vowel is a ; in speaking it both tongue and lips are as much 
 
12 SOUNDS AND WRITING 
 
 as possible out of the way. In I the tongue narrows the open- 
 ing ; its edges lie close to the teeth, the breath issuing along 
 the middle. In ov the lips are rounded so as to narrow the 
 opening, while the tongue is drawn back. In v the opening 
 is narrowed by the tongue as for I and by the lips as for ov. 
 Thus I, V, and ov are the closest vowel sounds. Between a and 
 I are >/, c, and « ; between d and ov are w and o. These rela- 
 tions are suggested in the following table : 
 
 Open 
 
 
 V 
 
 (0 
 
 
 € €L 
 
 O 
 
 Close (tongue) 
 
 L I V 
 
 V ov 
 
 Close (lips) 
 
 25 The short open vowels, a, c, o, often interchange, in root, stem, 
 suffix, and endings. To indicate this variable sound, chang- 
 ing from one to another in various forms, we use the symbols 
 o:€, a:€, and a:e:o. 
 
 26 In like manner the long open vowels, d, ?;, w, often inter- 
 change. The pair d:r) is especially frequent in declension, 
 the pair r;:a) in conjugation. 
 
 a. Less often one of the short open vowels interchanges 
 with one of the long open vowels. Instances are noted as 
 they occur. 
 
 27 Originally v represented the sound that was afterward written 
 ov. The two close vowels, t and original v, when followed by 
 a vowel, became consonantal, like our consonants y and to re- 
 spectively ; the same change occurred in Latin, and often oc- 
 curs in English. The earliest Greek had these two conso- 
 nants; the latter survived in some dialects in the classical 
 period, and was represented by f, called vau, or (from its 
 shape) Si-yafifia cUgamma. But in Attic both had disappeared 
 before 500 B. c. Thus arises the rule : 
 
 The close vowels i and v often disappear between two 
 vowels. See 135. 
 
VOWELS 13 
 
 a. In observing sound changes the original diphthong ct 
 (from € -|- t) must be distinguished from the digraph et, which 
 represents the simple sound € (anciently = French e) length- 
 ened. So also the original diphthong ov (from o + original v) 
 must be distinguished from the digraph ov, which represents 
 the simple long sound of original v. The rule in 27 applies to 
 the true diphthongs, before they coalesced in pronunciation 
 with the simple et and ov. 
 
 28 a. Long and short vowels are sometimes interchanged. The 
 corresponding forms are commonly 
 
 Short a, €, I, o, V, 
 
 Long 7} or d, 77, r, w, v. 
 Tragic poets in lyric parts often use Doric d where prose 
 uses 7). 
 
 b. But when vowel-lengthening results from the loss of one 
 or more following consonants (and sometimes in other cases), 
 
 a, e, o become 
 
 29 Contraction. — Two syllables of the same word, not separated by 
 a consonant (especially if the first ends in a short open vowel), 
 are often united into one. The general rules observed in con- 
 traction are : 
 
 a. Two like vowels unite into their long, ee becoming ct and 
 00 becoming ov (that is, the simple digraphs; cp. 27 a). 
 
 b. A short vowel disappears in a following diphthong that 
 begins with the same vowel or with the corresponding long. 
 
 c. An o-sound (o, w, ov, ot) prevails over an a- or e-sound 
 (a, d, e, r;, a), o€ and eo becoming ov. 
 
 d. Of a- and e-sounds the one that precedes prevails. 
 
 e. An open vowel and a close vowel make a diphthong. 
 
 30 a. The accent is unchanged by contraction, unless one of the 
 syllables contracted was accented. 
 
 b. If the accent was on the first of these, the contract syl- 
 lable has the circumflex ; if on the second, the acute. 
 
14 SOUNDS AND WRITING 
 
 31 Hiatus is the pronunciation of an initial vowel immediately 
 after a final vowel. This was avoided, especially in poetry, by 
 care in choosing and arranging words and by v movable (41), 
 and was evaded or softened by elision and crasis. 
 
 32 Elision is dropping or slighting a final short vowel before 
 an initial vowel. The slighted vowel is replaced in writing by 
 an apostrophe ( ' ) : dAA' eyw for dAXa eyw. 
 
 But between the parts of a compound word no apostrophe 
 is written. 
 
 For consonant changes see 42. 
 
 a. Verse inscriptions show that the ancients did not much 
 care whether they wrote or omitted the elided vowel. 
 
 33 a. Elision is most common in prepositions, conjunctions, and 
 particles, as 8e, dAXd, ye, tc, IttL 
 
 b. Never elided are a and o in monosyllables, i in Trept, d^^t, 
 /Aex/ot, TL^ TL, and oTL ; also v. "Or must therefore be for ore. 
 
 34 An accent on the elided vowel 
 
 a. Is lost in prepositions and conjunctions : fier avTov, a\X* 
 
 iy(x) cfjrjiJiL. 
 
 b. On other words goes back to the penult : Oavixda-r lAe^as 
 (Oavfiaa-To.) a wo7idrous tale I 
 
 35 Crasis (/cpdo-is mingling) is like contraction (29) except that 
 it occurs between separate words, which are then written as 
 one. If the first syllable had the rough breathing, that is re- 
 tained over the mingled syllable ; otherwise the smooth breath- 
 ing is written : iywfJLat for eyw oT/xat, av for d di/, wyaOe for w 
 dya^€, TdfJid for tol ifxai. 
 
 36 a. Final t of a diphthong disappears in crasis : ovv for ot iv 
 or 6 €1/ : 
 
 b. Initial a absorbs the vowel or diphthong of a preceding 
 article and of tol ; most vowels and diphthongs absorb the at 
 of Kttt: 
 
 di/77/3, rdi/Spds, avSpes, avros, rdv, k€l^ 
 
 for 6 dvrjp^ Tov dvSpos, ol dvSpeSj 6 avros, tol av, kul et. 
 
ELISION AND CRASIS 15 
 
 But note Kas, Kara, kov, 
 
 for KCLL 69, Kttt etTO, Kttt Iv. 
 
 c. "Ercpos is treated as are/aos, probably the older form : 
 drcpo^ for 6 erepos. 
 
 d. Xote also applications of 42 : 
 
 Oarepov, xVi X®^» Ool^ariov, 
 
 for TO IrepoVy kol rj, Koi oi, to i/xdriov. 
 
 37 The accent of the first word is lost in crasis, that of the sec- 
 ond retained ; see examples in 35 and 36. 
 
 CONSONANTS 
 
 38 Consonants are classified according as the different organs of 
 speech are active in pronouncing them. 
 
 a. Those are sonant (voiced) in which the vocal cords are 
 active, as in the vowels. (The vibration may be felt by placing 
 the finger on the throat at the " Adam's apple.") These are 
 A, p, fx, V, y nasal ; f3, S, y (middle mutes) ; and ^ 
 
 Those are surd (voiceless) in which the vocal cords are at 
 rest. These are o- (sibilant, spirant) ; tt, t, k (smooth mutes) ; 
 (f), 0, X (rough mutes) ; and \j/ and ^. 
 
 b. Mutes (stopped sounds), as the ancients pronounced 
 them, require complete closure of the mouth passage, by 
 lips or tongue, a brief pressure of the breath behind the bar- 
 rier (the nasal passage being also closed by the soft palate) 
 and then a quick opening of the barrier. Thus the breath 
 finds an explosive exit ; the sound can be but slightly pro- 
 longed, and is not easily pronounced alone. These are 
 
 TT /3 <f> labial (or 7r-mutes) ; closure by the lips ; 
 
 T 8 6 dental (or T-mutes) ; closure by the tongue just 
 
 back of the front upper teeth ; 
 K y X guttural (or /c-mutes) ; closure by the back of the 
 
 tongue against the soft palate. 
 
 c. Of these, tt, t, k are smooth mutes, in contrast with <^, 
 6, X- The latter are rough mutes or aspirates ; in them the 
 opening is more explosive, a tt-, t-, or K-sound followed by 
 
16 SOUNDS AND WRITING 
 
 a distinct A-sound, as in top-heavy^ liot-liead^ pacTc-Jiorse. In 
 the sonants p, 8, y the breath is checked by the vibrating 
 vocal cords, so that less breath gathers for explosive exit than 
 in the aspirates. The Greeks called these middle mutes, mid- 
 way between the smooth mutes and the aspirates in the force 
 of the final element. 
 
 d. In the nasals, /x, v, y nasal, the nasal passage is open, 
 the soft palate being lowered ; thus the breath, after passing 
 between the vibrating vocal cords, finds exit through the 
 nose ; the oral passage is closed, in /x, by the lips, in v by the 
 flattened tongue against the front teeth (the lips being open), 
 in 7 nasal by the back of the tongue against the soft palate 
 (the lips being open). 
 
 e. i/a for TTO", ^ for So- (o- being probably made sonant), and 
 ^ for K<T are called double consonants. 
 
 39 These relations are shown in the following table : 
 
 Voiced Voiceless 
 
 *-' ^ -^^ -^ 
 
 Liquids Double Mutes Double 
 
 _ -^ -^ Conso- ^ — ^ Sibi- Conso- 
 
 Nasals nant Middle Rough Smooth lant nants 
 
 Labials ft (3 (}> tt i/^ 
 
 Dentals X p v ^ 8 6 to- 
 
 Gutturals y nasal 7 X '^ ^ 
 
 40 At the end of a word no consonant could stand but -i/, -p^ 
 or -9, and no consonantal group but -i/^, -^, or -y$. Any other 
 single consonant at the end was dropt ; any other group at the 
 end caused some change. 
 
 a. Final -Xs occurs in -aX<s salt, sea ; final -vs in Ttpws 
 Tiry7is. The proclitics Ik out of and ov/c, ov^ not are almost 
 a part of the following word, and so are hardly exceptions. 
 
 41 A final -v (v movable) was added at will to some words. 
 These are (1) words in -o-t (-i/^t, -^t), (2) verbs in -c in the third 
 singular, (3) icm is, (4) sometimes the irregular rju went and 
 ySeL knew. 
 
 a. Poetry and inscriptions alike show that v movable was 
 freely added before vowels and consonants ; before vowels it 
 
CONSONANTS 17 
 
 could be omitted and elision used instead. The writer chose 
 whichever treatment best pleased his ear. 
 
 42 Before the rough breathing a smooth mute (tt, t, k) is aspi- 
 rated, becoming <^, 0, or x- This occurs in composition, eli- 
 sion, and crasis ; also in ovk : 
 
 £7ri -|- 68o?, OLTTO WVj TTtttS T€ j^Sc, KOL Ot, OVK bCCOmG 
 
 ^<fioSos, a<j> (ov, Trats 0* ^8e, ;;(ot, ov;^. 
 
 a. This change is merely another way of writing the same 
 sounds (38 c). It is better in such cases (unless perhaps in 
 compounds), and also easier, to keep the ancient sound of 
 </), ^, X and so avoid distorting common words. 
 
 43 Before a dental mute (r, 8, 6) 
 
 a. A labial or guttural mute must agree in aspiration, as 
 smooth, middle, or rough ; the only combinations are ttt, )88, 
 <^^, KT^ y8, x^- (But cK in composition is unchanged.) 
 
 b. Another dental mute changes to a-. 
 
 44 Before /x 
 
 a. A labial mute (tt, /8, <^) becomes /a, 
 
 b. A guttural mute (k, y, x) becomes y, 
 
 c. A dental mute (t, 8, ^) becomes o-. 
 
 45 a. With a following o- a labial mute forms j/^, a guttural 
 mute forms ^. 
 
 b. A dental mute before o- disappears. 
 
 46 Before t a r often becomes o-. t and o- sometimes inter- 
 change in other situations ; especially the older (T(t became 
 TT as early as 450 b. c. 
 
 47 Two successive syllables are seldom allowed to begin with a 
 rough mute. Accordingly 
 
 a. In reduplication a rough mute is changed to the smooth. 
 
 b. In the ^77-passive the aorist imperative ending -6l is 
 changed to -tl. 
 
 c. The verb-stems Oe- put and 6v- sacrifice become re- and 
 TV- in the ^r/'passive. 
 
 2 
 
18 SOUNDS AND WRITING 
 
 d. Several stems that originally began with one rough mute 
 and ended with another have lost the aspiration at the begin- 
 ning of most forms, but retain the aspiration there whenever 
 the final mute loses it. 
 
 LIQUIDS 
 
 48 Initial p commonly stands for an older fp or ap. When, by 
 inflection or otherwise, a vowel precedes, the f or o- usually 
 appears as p instead of the aspiration. Hence the rule : 
 
 Initial p is doubled after the augment and reduplication, 
 and in compounds after a short vowel. 
 
 49 After a nasal in a few words, by unconsciously closing the 
 nasal passage too soon, a mute is developed. English exam- 
 ples are Thom(p)son, num{h)er (Latin numerus). In Greek 
 we find 
 
 After fi Si P'. ya/AjSpos for ya/x-pos (root ya/x-), 
 
 fxeo-Tj/JL^ptd for fJi€(rrjix[€)pid [rj/Jiipd) 
 
 After v a 8 : dvSpos for dv(€)pos. 
 
 60 The nasal v 
 
 a. Before a labial mute or p. becomes p,. 
 
 b. Before a guttural mute becomes y nasal. 
 
 c. Before A or p may be assimilated, becoming X or p. 
 (But see e.) 
 
 d. But vp. becomes o-p. in forms of <^atVw and from some 
 other verb-stems in -v. 
 
 e. iv remains unchanged before p : h-pvOp.o^. 
 
 51 N before o- within a simple word disappears with length- 
 ening of the vowel before it ; « becomes ct, o becomes ov 
 (27 a and 28 b),— 
 
 a. In some derivatives. 
 
 b. In the accusative plural of o stems (62 a). 
 
 c. In the verb-ending -(i/)cn (older -vtl) (263 a). 
 
 d. But in the dative plural v before -o-t disappears with- 
 out vowel-lengthening. 
 
CONSONANTS 19 
 
 52 '^vv in composition 
 
 a. Changes v to a- before a simple a-. 
 
 b. Loses V before a- followed by a consonant, and before ^. 
 
 53 The group vt, v8, or v$ before o- disappears, with lengthen- 
 ing of the vowel before it (28 b). 
 
 SIGMA 
 
 64 Initial o- followed by a vowel is often weakened to the rough 
 breathing. Compare 
 
 Greek wo, VTrcp, aAs, cpTro), LO-rrjfxi^ aAAo/xai, 
 
 Latin sub, super, sal, serpo, sisto, salio. 
 
 55 a. Between vowels o- is apt to disappear. 
 
 b. Between consonants o- disappears. 
 
 c. When inflection brings two sigmas together, one dis- 
 appears. 
 
 CONSONANTS WITH IOTA 
 
 56 x\fter a consonant t often causes changes. Thus ; 
 
 a. Xl becomes AA : aAAos, Latin alius. 
 
 b. After v or p, 6 is transposed and contracts with the 
 stem vowel. 
 
 c. Kt, yt, or xt, sometimes n, becomes <t(t, later rr. 
 
 d. 8i, sometimes yt (also yyt), becomes ^. 
 
II. WORDS 
 
 A. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 57 In nouns and adjectives Greek distinguishes more or 
 less fully 
 
 Three Genders — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 
 
 Three Numbers — Singular and Plural, and some- 
 times a Dual for two objects only. 
 
 Five Cases — Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accu- 
 sative, and Vocative. 
 
 68 The genders are grammatical, as in Latin. For the 
 most part they agree with the sex, but not always, 
 in the case of creatures that have sex ; and names 
 of many sexless things are masculine or feminine. 
 Gender must be learned by reading and practice. 
 
 59 The nominative, accusative, and vocative are used 
 nearly as in Latin. The genitive is used nearly as in 
 Latin, but has also some uses of the Latin ablative, as 
 a from case. The dative is used nearly as in Latin, 
 but has also some uses of the Latin ablative, as a 
 with^ hy^ atj or in case. 
 
 60 The stem of a noun or adjective is that part to 
 which the case-endings are added. The character of 
 the stem affects the ending and the way of uniting 
 
 20 
 
CASES AND DECLENSIONS 
 
 21 
 
 61 
 
 one to the other. Nouns and adjectives are declined 
 in three ways, named from the last letter of the stem : 
 
 The O • Declension, for stems in -o ; 
 
 The A • Declension, for stems in -d ; 
 
 The Consonant Declension, for stems that end in a 
 consonant or in l or v. 
 
 The O- and A- Declensions are so much alike that 
 they are together called the Vowel Declension. 
 
 The article 6 rj to the may be used with any noun, 
 and is a convenient mark of gender. It is declined 
 thus ; 
 
 Sing. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 M. F 
 
 N. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 N. 
 
 6 f| t6 
 
 N. 
 
 ol al 
 
 TOl 
 
 KA. 
 
 T(0 
 
 G. 
 
 TOV Tf]S TOV 
 
 G. 
 
 T(OV T(OV 
 
 Tcav 
 
 G. D. 
 
 TOIV 
 
 D. 
 
 T(3 TTJ TW 
 
 D. 
 
 Tois Tats 
 
 TOLS 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 TOV TTIV TO 
 
 A. 
 
 TOVS TCLS 
 
 Td 
 
 
 
 a. The article has no vocative. The interjection w is 
 familiarly used with a vocative noun, without the emotional 
 tone which implies in English. 
 
 I. 0- Declension: Nouns 
 
 62 For examples (jrapaheiyixaTa) see the table on the 
 next page. 
 
 a. Masculines and feminines are declined alike. There 
 are many more masculines than feminines, but a few femi- 
 nines occur often. They take -s in the nominative singular 
 and change -o to -€ in the vocative singular (25). Note that 
 every dative has t, on the line or subscript. In the accusative 
 plural -ovs is for -o-v?, by 51 b. ^^,j^ss^ ' . =^*^^ 
 
 j^\ \ O r\ /s rf V"^^^ 
 iT ^ OF THE X 
 
 i UNIVERSITY ) 
 
22 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 Stem . . . 
 
 (6) pto- 
 
 (6) dv0pwiro- 
 
 (^) 68o. 
 
 (xb) 8«po- 
 
 Meaning . 
 
 life 
 
 mmi 
 
 road 
 
 
 gift 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 6 pio-s 
 
 dvGpcoiro-s 
 
 T| 656-s 
 
 t6 
 
 8(opo-v 
 
 G. 
 
 TOV PlO\) 
 
 dvOpCOTTOl) 
 
 TT^s 65o{; 
 
 TOV 
 
 8(opo\} 
 
 D. 
 
 TCO plCO 
 
 dvOpcaircp 
 
 TTJ 68(3 
 
 T(0 
 
 8(op(o 
 
 A. 
 
 TOV plO-V 
 
 dvGpcoiro-v 
 
 TT|v 666-v 
 
 TO 
 
 8(opo-v 
 
 Y. 
 
 (0 Pl€ 
 
 dvOpoire 
 
 <S bhi 
 
 (0 
 
 8(opo-v 
 
 Plur. N. 
 
 ol pioi 
 
 dvSpcoTTOL 
 
 at 65oi 
 
 Td 
 
 8(opa 
 
 G. 
 
 T(OV pl(OV 
 
 dvOpcoirov 
 
 T(ov 68(ov 
 
 T(OV 
 
 8(op(ov 
 
 D. 
 
 TOLS plOLS 
 
 dvGpCOTTOLS 
 
 Tais 68ois^ 
 
 TOLS 
 
 8(OpOLS 
 
 A. 
 
 TOVS pious 
 
 dv6p(OTroi)S 
 
 Tas 68013$ 
 
 Td 
 
 8(opa 
 
 Y. 
 
 <S pioi 
 
 dvSpcoiroi 
 
 w 68oi 
 
 -9 
 (0 
 
 8(opa 
 
 Du.KA. 
 
 TO) pl(0 
 
 dv0p(OTrco 
 
 TO) 68(0 
 
 TO) 
 
 8(op(o 
 
 G.D. 
 
 TOLV plOLV 
 
 dvOpWTTOLV 
 
 TOLV 68oiv 
 
 TOLV 
 
 8(OpOLV 
 
 b. The nominative is used for the vocative always in 6e6<i 
 god^ and sometimes in other words. 
 
 c. Neuters take -v in the nominative, accusative, and voca- 
 tive singular, and change -o to -a in the nominative, accusa- 
 tive, and vocative plural (see 25). 
 
 63 a. The accent of the nominative singular is kept 
 throughout, except that 
 
 b. The rules in 12 and 14 must be followed : see 
 
 c. In the genitive and dative an accented long 
 ultima takes the circumflex : see 6S()9. 
 
 64 In the dative plural poets freely use the older ending -oto-t; 
 so also in the article and in adjectives: ySw/xoto-t rots o-ots, and 
 
 rolcTLV ifJi7r€LpOL(TL. S. OT. 16, 44. 
 
VOWEL DECLEXSIOX: NOUNS 
 
 23 
 
 II. A - Declension : Nouns 
 
 65 Feminine noun-stems in -d may be classed in two 
 groups ; those of the first group retain -d or -a 
 throughout the singular, those of the second group 
 change -a to -tj in all, or in some, singular forms. 
 
 66 
 
 Feminines : First Group 
 
 Stem 
 
 
 nH.€pa- 
 
 o-Kia- 
 
 [Jioipd- 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 
 daij 
 
 sliadow 
 
 share, fate 
 
 Sing. K. 
 G. 
 
 TTJS 
 
 fjliepd 
 
 Tl|JL€pdS 
 
 o-Kia 
 cKids 
 
 pLOLpa 
 pioipds 
 
 D. 
 A. 
 Y. 
 
 0) 
 
 fifxepd 
 
 T)|Xc'pd-V 
 Tip.€pd 
 
 (TKLCL 
 
 (TKld-V 
 
 CTKia 
 
 [xoipa 
 
 }iOLpa-v 
 
 |ioipa 
 
 Plur. X.Y. 
 G. 
 
 at 
 
 TWV 
 
 T]|JLepai 
 
 T]p,€pa)V 
 
 aKiai 
 
 CTKloiiV 
 
 [lOLpai 
 
 [iOLpWV 
 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 Tats 
 Tas 
 
 f]}i€paLS 
 
 T]HL€pdS 
 
 aKiats 
 
 (TKlds 
 
 fioipais 
 jioipds 
 
 Dii. KA. 
 
 TO) 
 
 fifiepd 
 
 (TKLa 
 
 [JLOipd 
 
 G. D. 
 
 TOLV 
 
 fificpaiv 
 
 cKiaiv 
 
 (ioipaiv 
 
 67 In the singular 
 
 a. The nominative generally has -d after a vowel, 
 -a after .a consonant. Exceptions are mostly marked 
 by the accent (11-13) : vyUia healthy aXriOeia truths 
 X^P^ Z«7z<ii AT^'Sd Leda. 
 
 b. If the nominative has -d or -77, the other cases 
 have the same. 
 
24 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 c. If the nominative has -a, the accusative and 
 vocative have the same ; the genitive and dative 
 have 'd after a vowel or />, otherwise -rj. 
 
 68 The rules of accent in 63 a-c apply to all declen- 
 sions. But 
 
 a. The genitive plural in the a-declension always 
 has the ultima circumflexed, because -cov is contracted 
 from -a-oji^ (29 c and 30 b). 
 
 69 a. Poets retain the older a in some words where short a 
 appears in prose. 
 
 b. The dramatists in lyric parts use freely the Doric forms 
 that retain the older d in place of Attic rj; so, too, in the 
 
 70 
 
 Feminines: Second Group 
 
 Stem .... 
 
 TX|ia- 
 
 vlKa- 
 
 SaXatrca- 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 honor 
 
 victory 
 
 sea 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 TtR 
 
 VLKT] 
 
 edXao-ffa 
 
 G. 
 
 TlflTlS 
 
 VlKTlS 
 
 6a\do-(nis 
 
 D. 
 
 TL(J.T) 
 
 VlKT) 
 
 OaXdcrcrT) 
 
 A. 
 
 TL(i11-V 
 
 VlKTl-V 
 
 GdXacro-a-v 
 
 V. 
 
 TtR 
 
 VlKTl 
 
 edXacTcra 
 
 Plur. N.y. 
 
 TLJJLai 
 
 VLKai 
 
 OdXacro-ai 
 
 G. 
 
 TLJJLCOV 
 
 VLKcav 
 
 eaXao-o-cov 
 
 D. 
 
 TL[JLaLS 
 
 VlKaLS 
 
 GaXdo-o-ais 
 
 A. 
 
 Tlfias 
 
 VlKdS 
 
 edXao-o-ai 
 
 Du. KA. 
 
 Tifia 
 
 VLKd 
 
 6aXdcrcrd 
 
 G. D. 
 
 Tl|JLaLV 
 
 VLKaiV 
 
 GaXdcrcraiv 
 
A-DECLEXSION : NOUNS 
 
 25 
 
 71 
 
 genitive plural, -av for -wv ; likewise in the article and in ad- 
 jectives and pronouns of this declension. 
 
 c. In the dative plural the poets use freely the older ending 
 -ato-t ; so, too, in the article and in adjectives and pronouns 
 (cp. 64). 
 
 Masculines 
 
 Stem ..... 
 
 vtdvia- 
 
 iroXlTd- 
 
 TroiTiToL- 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 young man 
 
 ciiizen 
 
 maker, poet 
 
 Sing. IS". 
 
 V€dvid-s 
 
 iro\iTT|-s 
 
 TTOLllTTi-S 
 
 G. 
 
 vedviou 
 
 TToXlTOU 
 
 TTOvtyrov 
 
 D. 
 
 vedvia 
 
 TToXlTT] 
 
 -rroLtiTTJ 
 
 A. 
 
 V€dvid-v 
 
 TroXiT-q-v 
 
 TTOLTITTJ-V 
 
 y. 
 
 vedvid 
 
 iroXiTa 
 
 TTOLTlTd 
 
 Plur. KY. 
 
 V€dviaL 
 
 TToXiTai 
 
 TTOlTITai 
 
 G. 
 
 v€dvLa)v 
 
 ttoXltcov 
 
 TTOLTITWV 
 
 D. 
 
 veaviaLS 
 
 iroXixaLS 
 
 TTOlTlTaiS 
 
 A. 
 
 vedvids 
 
 TToXlTdS 
 
 irOLT|TdS 
 
 Du. N. A. 
 
 vcdvid 
 
 iroXiTd 
 
 TTOLTlTa 
 
 G.D. 
 
 v€dviaLV 
 
 TToXlTaLV 
 
 TTOlTITaiV 
 
 72 Masculine stems in -a are like feminines, except in the singu- 
 lar, as follows : 
 
 a. They change -a to -■>; except after c, t, or p. 
 
 b. The nominative ends in -9. 
 
 c. The genitive ending -ov is borrowed from the o-de- 
 clension. 
 
 d. In the vocative nouns in -rr;? have -ra. Also national 
 names in -rys have -a : Ilcpo-rys, Ilcpo-a. The vocative of Sco-- 
 TTori^s master has recessive accent : Sia-TroTa. 
 
 e. Some proper names in -as (Doric or foreign) make the 
 genitive in -d, and retain a throughout, contrary to 67 c. 
 
26 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 III. Adjectives of the Vowel Declej^sion 
 
 73 Many adjectives follow the o-declension, the mas- 
 culine and feminine being alike, as with nouns. Here 
 belong nearly all compound stems in -o. 
 
 74 
 
 Stem 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 ^o-vxo- 
 
 quiet 
 
 Sing. K. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 Y. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 TJoruXOS Ticruxov 
 
 fjo-uxo^ 
 
 yvx^ 
 
 -qo-vxov 
 
 Plur. N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 Y. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 TIO-VXOL TlO-VXCl 
 
 f](n3x<ov 
 
 T|0-1JX0''S 
 
 T^ciixous -ncruxa 
 
 T^O-UXOL T^O-UXO' 
 
 Du. N. A. 
 G. D. 
 
 T]0"UXO) 
 fjO-UXOLV 
 
 75 Still more adjectives have a stem in -o for the mas- 
 culine and neuter, and a stem in -d for the feminine. 
 
 76 
 
 Stem 
 
 o-o<j)o-, <ro<j) 
 
 a- 
 
 SiKaio-, SiKaid- 
 
 Meaning . . 
 
 
 U'ise 
 
 
 just, upright 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 o-o<j)6s 
 
 0-0(1)11 
 
 o"0(|)6v 
 
 SiKaios StKaid SiKaiov 
 
 G. 
 
 o-o<j)oi) 
 
 o-o(t>'ns 
 
 o-oc|)0'u 
 
 SLKaioi) 8LKaids StKaiov 
 
 D. 
 
 (TOct)^ 
 
 o-o<t)fj 
 
 aocjxo 
 
 SiKaico SiKaid SiKaico 
 
 A. 
 
 cotjxjv 
 
 (TO^y\v 
 
 o'o<t)6v 
 
 SiKaiov SiKaidv 6iKaiov 
 
 Y. 
 
 0'0(|)€ 
 
 cro^-x\ 
 
 o-o<t)6v 
 
 SiKaie SiKaid 8iKaiov 
 SiKaLOi 8iKaLai SiKata 
 
 PL N.Y. 
 
 0'0<t>OL 
 
 (to^qS. 
 
 o'o<j>d 
 
 G. 
 
 oro(|)(OV 
 
 0'0())COV 
 
 o-ocbcav 
 
 SiKaicDV SiKaiwv SiKaicov 
 
 D. 
 
 cocIjols 
 
 o-0(l>ais o-ocbots 
 
 SLKaioLS SiKaiaLS SiKaiois 
 
 A. 
 
 (ro<j)0'US o-o<|>as 
 
 o-o<|)d 
 
 SiKaiovs 5iKaids SiKaia 
 
 Du. N.A. 
 
 o-o<t)(o 
 
 o-o(t>a 
 
 cro(|)(o 
 
 SiKaio) SLKaid StKaio) 
 
 G.D. 
 
 cro<|)oiv 
 
 OrOct)aLV 0'0<|)OLV 
 
 SiKaioiv SiKaiaiv SiKaioiv 
 
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 27 
 
 77 a. The feminine singular lias -d after e, t, or p, other- 
 wise -7/. 
 
 b. In the nominative and genitive plural the femi- 
 nine is accented like the masculine, not as it would 
 be in a noun : StVatat and SiKaiajv. 
 
 78 Some adjectives are declined now with, now with- 
 out, a separate feminine. Especially in poetry the 
 forms vary. 
 
 IV. Contracted Vowel Stems 
 
 79 Stems in -eo and -oo are contracted (29 a, b, and c. 
 But -ea becomes -d.) 
 
 80 
 
 Stem . 
 
 
 V00-, vou- 
 
 doTCO-, OCTTOU- 
 
 Meaning . . 
 
 mind 
 
 
 ho7ie 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 ^\ 
 
 6 (voos) 
 
 voiis 
 
 TO (OO-TCOV) 
 
 OO-TOVV 
 
 
 G. 
 
 (voou) 
 
 vov 
 
 (oo-Teoi)) 
 
 ocToii 
 
 
 D. 
 
 (voc?) 
 
 v(3 
 
 (6o-T€C0) 
 
 OO-TCO 
 
 
 A. 
 
 (vdov) 
 
 voOv 
 
 (6o-T€OV) 
 
 OO-TOVV 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. 
 
 (vool) 
 
 VOL 
 
 (oo-Tca) 
 
 oo-Td 
 
 
 G. 
 
 (v6<ov) 
 
 V(OV 
 
 (6o-TC0)V) 
 
 OO-TCOV 
 
 
 D. 
 
 (voois) 
 
 VOLS 
 
 (OO-TCOLS) 
 
 OO-TOLS 
 
 
 A. 
 
 (voovs) 
 
 voois 
 
 (oo-Tea) 
 
 oo-Td 
 
 The vocative and the dual do not occur. 
 
 81 a. Simple nouns take the circumflex on the ultima 
 throughout. 
 
 b. Compounds keep the accent on the syllable that 
 has it in the nominative singular : e/cTrXou?, e/crXou, 
 eKirXcDv. So also adjectives (83). 
 
28 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 82 
 
 Stem .... 
 
 €ivoo-, fivov- 
 
 Meaning . . 
 
 kind, friendly 
 
 Sing. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 Plur. M. p. N. 
 
 N. 
 
 c-uvous ewoDV 
 
 €woi ciivoa 
 
 G. 
 
 e-uvou 
 
 €\»VO)V 
 
 D. 
 
 cvvco 
 
 e-uvoLS 
 
 A. 
 
 t-uvouv 
 
 cvvous ciJvoa 
 
 83 Compound adjectives of this class retain -oa in the 
 neuter plural uncontracted. For the accent see 81 b. 
 
 84 Some stems in -d contract ; they have the circum- 
 flex throughout (30 b). 
 
 85 
 
 Stem .... 
 Meaning. . 
 
 'AOrivaa- 
 'A9nva- 
 
 Athena 
 
 7td- 
 
 earth 
 
 *Ep(jt€a- 
 'EpH-Ti- 
 
 Hermes, PI. images of II. 
 
 KY. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 'AGiivd 
 ' AGiivds 
 ' A0Tiva 
 ' Ae-qvdv 
 
 
 * EpfiTis ' EpfjLat 
 
 * EpfJLOl) ' Ep}JL(OV 
 
 ' EpnTJ ' Epiiais 
 ' Epfifjv * Epfjids 
 
 88 Poets use the forms 'A^avd, 'A^avd?, etc. ; also the Doric 
 forms ya, etc., as well as the longer yala, yatas, etc. 
 
 87 A few adjectives of color and material in -€09, and 
 a few of number in -ttXoo?, usually contract, and have 
 a separate feminine : 
 
 7rop(f)vp€o^, 7rop(j)vp€dj 7rop(j>vpeov dark red] 
 ■)(pv(Teo<;, ^pvaidj ^pvcreov golden ; 
 
 aTrXoos, airXor), airXoop single. 
 
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 29 
 
 88 
 
 Stem .... 
 
 
 <irop<J>vp6o-, 'irop<j)vpca- 
 
 
 Meaning. . 
 
 
 dark red or purple 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Sing. ^". 
 
 irop<j)upo\)s 
 
 'Trop<j)upd 
 
 'irop<l)\)po{)v 
 
 G. 
 
 'irop<j)\)po{i 
 
 Trop<t>\)pds 
 
 'Trop<t)Dpo'0 
 
 D. 
 
 'Tropct)upco 
 
 'irop(j)upa 
 
 'Trop(|)\jpw 
 
 A. 
 
 'irop<j)upo{)v 
 
 'irop<))\jpdv 
 
 iTop<|>i)po{iv 
 
 Pliir. N. 
 
 'irop<j)i)poi 
 
 'Trop<|)\)paL 
 
 Trop<j)upd 
 
 G. 
 
 'irop<t)i)pcov 
 
 'irop<l)\)p(ov 
 
 'irop<|)\jp<ov 
 
 D. 
 
 TrOp<|)\JpOLS 
 
 'irop<j)\)pais 
 
 'Trop(t)\)pOLS 
 
 A. 
 
 Trop<|)i)povs 
 
 'Trop<|)\)pds 
 
 1T0p<|)l)pd 
 
 89 a. Contractions are mostly as in nouns, but the final 
 syllables characteristic of this declension are kept ; 
 hence in the singular -pa (not -pj] : 77 a) and aTrXrj, 
 and in the neuter plural -a (not -t)). 
 
 b. The contract forms all take the circumflex on 
 the ultima, sometimes contrary to 30 a. 
 
 90 
 
 Stem . 
 
 Xpvo-€0-, xpva-iS.- 
 
 8nrXoo-, 8nrXod- 
 
 Mean. 
 
 goldeii 
 
 
 douhh 
 
 Sing. 
 
 M. F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 N. 
 
 XpucoOs XP^^fl 
 
 XpiJo'ovv 
 
 SlitXovs SittXt] SiirXovv 
 
 G. 
 
 Xpucoii XP^^^'^S 
 
 XpiJo-o-O 
 
 SiirXo-u SLTrXfjs SlttXov 
 
 D. 
 
 Xpiio-co xP^o-li 
 
 Xpiio-co 
 
 SlttXco SittXtj SlttXw 
 
 A. 
 
 Xputroxlv yj^\i(yr\v 
 
 XpvJo-o-Ov 
 
 SiirXovv SittXtiv SiirXovv 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 :n'. 
 
 XpiiaoL XP^^^^ 
 
 Xpi3(7d 
 
 SlttXol SiTrXat SiirXoa 
 
 G. 
 
 XpiJo'tov yj^vdSiV 
 
 Xpvo-cov 
 
 SlttXcov SiirXtov SlttXcov 
 
 D. 
 
 XpiJcroLS XP^^^-^S XP^o'O^S 
 
 SiirXots SiirXaLS SiirXoLS 
 
 A. 
 
 Xpuaovs XP^o'CLS 
 
 XpiJo-d 
 
 SLirXovs SiirXds SiirXoa 
 
30 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 fi-DECLEN-SION 
 
 91 A few noun and adjective stems have changed -o 
 (generally -do) to -a> (-eco), and are declined as fol- 
 lows (w-declension) : 
 
 92 
 
 Stem 
 
 vao-, veo>- 
 
 1 
 
 '\ao-, f\€a 
 
 - 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 temple 
 
 
 gracious 
 
 
 
 
 M. F. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 Sing. JSr.Y. 
 
 V€(OS 
 
 l\€(OS 
 
 
 tXeojv 
 
 G. 
 
 V€(0 
 
 
 lX€(0 
 
 
 D. 
 
 V€CO 
 
 
 tXeco 
 
 
 A. 
 
 V€(OV 
 
 l\€(OV 
 
 
 iXecov 
 
 Plur. N.Y. 
 
 V€(0 
 
 IXcco 
 
 
 cXea 
 
 G. 
 
 V€COV 
 
 
 iXcwv 
 
 
 D. 
 
 V€(OS 
 
 
 lXccos 
 
 
 A. 
 
 V€a)S 
 
 iXecos 
 
 
 cX€a 
 
 Du. N.A. 
 
 V€CO 
 
 
 iXeo) 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 vecov 
 
 
 t'Xecov 
 
 
 93 a. The w appears in all cases except the neuter plural 
 nominative and accusative ; ot of the usual form be- 
 comes ft). 
 
 b. The long ultima does not exclude the acute ac- 
 cent from the antepenult — an exception to 12. 
 
 c. The accent of the nominative singular is retained 
 throughout. (An accented ultima in the genitive 
 and dative is circumjiexed by some editors.) 
 
 94 The stem co>-, nominative (17) Iw? dawn^ has in the accusa- 
 tive €0) (not kixiv). So sometimes other nouns and adjectives: 
 
 TOV MtV<o, Tr]V Keo), etc. 
 
 95 The adjective ttAcws full has the regular feminine TrXed, etc. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 
 
 31 
 
 96 Instead of the regular forms of o-Cjos, a-wd, a-wov safe, iin- 
 liarmed, Attic writers more often use 
 
 M. F. N. M. F. N. 
 
 Sing. N. (rm (Twv PI. N. o-o) era 
 
 A. (ru)V A. crcu? era 
 
 97 Sometimes, especially in poetry, the regular forms from 
 stems in -do are used : vdovs, MeveXdo?, iXdot. 
 
 V. Consonant Declension : Xouns 
 
 98 To the consonant declension belong, among nouns, 
 
 Liquid stems ending in -A, -v, -p. 
 
 Guttural stems ending in -k, -y -x, 
 
 Labial and dental stems ending in -tt, -/?, and in -r, -8, -0, 
 
 Xeuter stems ending in -r, 
 
 Masculine stems ending in -vt, 
 
 Stems ending in -eo-, -ao-, 
 
 Stems ending in -l, -v, 
 
 Stems ending in -cv, -av, -ov, 
 
 Stems ending in -a>, -o, 
 
 Some irregular nouns. 
 
 99 
 
 Liquid Stems in -X, -v 
 
 Stem 
 
 Me AXING . . . 
 
 (6) UK- 
 salt 
 
 (6) |iT|V- 
 
 month 
 
 (6) dY«v- 
 contest 
 
 Sing. KY. 
 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 dX-s 
 dX-ds 
 dX-i 
 aX-a 
 
 
 dYcov 
 d-ycav-os 
 d-ycov-L 
 d^cav-a 
 
 Pliir. K.Y. 
 
 a. 
 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 dX-€S 
 dX-(ov 
 dX-ai 
 dX-as 
 
 [JLflV-€S 
 fiT|V-(OV 
 |ill-0-L 
 
 |iTlv-as 
 
 d-ycbv-es 
 d'ycov-cov 
 d-yco-o-i 
 d^cov-as 
 
 Du. KA. 
 G. D. 
 
 dX-€ 
 
 dX-OLV 
 
 |xflV-€ 
 (iTjV-OLV 
 
 d^cov-c 
 
 d^WV-OLV 
 
32 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 100 In aAs (see 40 a) both stem and case-endings are unchanged 
 throughout. 
 
 101 Monosyllabic stems of this declension accent the 
 ending in the genitive and dative ; -wz^ and -oIp take 
 the circumflex. 
 
 a. Xot so, however, the genitive plural (and dual) of 
 
 o, Tj, Trat?, 7rat8-os cMlcl, 
 
 6 Tpcus, T/oco-os Troja7i, 
 
 TO ovs, (ir-os ear, 
 
 6 8/xco?, 8/xa>-os s/«z;e (poetic). 
 
 Thus TratS-i', 7rai-(rt, but TratS-wv, iraih-oiv. 
 
 102 
 
 Liquid Stems {continued) in -v, -p 
 
 Stem ..... 
 
 (6) Xt|X6V- 
 
 (6) 8ai(iov- 
 
 (6) pT]TOp- 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 harbor 
 
 divinity 
 
 sjieaker 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 \l\L'i\V 
 
 6ai|xcov 
 
 pTJTcap 
 
 G. 
 
 \HJL€V-03 
 
 8ai[iov-os 
 
 pTlTOp-OS 
 
 D. 
 
 Xl[JL€V-L 
 
 8ai|i.ov-L 
 
 pTJTOp-l 
 
 A. 
 
 XilJicv-a 
 
 Saijiov-a 
 
 pTJTOp-a 
 
 y. 
 
 XLfJLTjV 
 
 8aL}JL0v 
 
 pflTOp 
 
 Plur.N.y. 
 
 XlJJl€V-€S 
 
 8ai[xov-€s 
 
 pTJTop-es 
 
 G. 
 
 Xl|JI€V-COV 
 
 8aL[jL6v-(ov 
 
 pTlTOp-COV 
 
 D. 
 
 XifJie-o-L 
 
 SaiJJLO-CTL 
 
 pT|TOp-0-L 
 
 A. 
 
 XifjLcv-as 
 
 8ai[iov-as 
 
 pT|TOp-aS 
 
 Du. KA. 
 
 Xl|JL€V-€ 
 
 8aifJiov-€ 
 
 pl^TOp-C 
 
 G. D. 
 
 Xl}JL€V-OLV 
 
 8ai[jL6v-OLV 
 
 pTlTOp-OLV 
 
 L03 Stems in -v and -p 
 
 a. Omit the case-ending -? and lengthen a short ultima 
 
 (40) : SaLjxwv for 8at/x,o^'-9, prfTiap for prjrop-S. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 
 
 33 
 
 b. But note 6 BeX(t>L<s dolphin for 8eA<^tv-s and ^ ^^aXa/xU 
 Salamis for 5aAa/xIi/-s. 
 
 c. As a vocative singular they use the nominative if the 
 ultima is accented ; otherwise the simple stem. 
 
 d. For Xt/x€-o-t, Sat/jto-o-t, see 51 d. 
 
 104 'k-TroXXoiv Apollo has in the accusative singular 'ATroAAwva, but 
 of tener 'AttoAAw ; the vocative is "KiroXXov^ with recessive ac- 
 cent (cp. ScWora, 72 d). 
 
 105 A few common stems in -ep make a class by them- 
 selves. They accent the ending in the genitive and 
 dative singular as if monosyllabic, reject e in those 
 cases, change ep to pa in the dative plural, and in 
 the vocative singular have recessive accent (cp. 
 " KttoWovj 104). 
 
 106 Stems in -fp 
 
 Stem . 
 
 .... 
 
 (6) iraTep- 
 
 (6) dvep- 
 
 (^) FITCp- 
 
 (Tj) Qvyartp- 
 
 Meaning . . 
 
 father 
 
 man 
 
 mofher 
 
 daughter 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. 
 
 iraTTip 
 
 dvTip 
 
 RT11P 
 
 Gv-ydTTip 
 
 
 G. 
 
 iraTp-os 
 
 dv6p-cs 
 
 IJLTlTp-ds 
 
 Bv-yaxp-ds 
 
 
 D. 
 
 irarp-L 
 
 dv6p-L 
 
 RTp-L 
 
 eu-yaTp-t 
 
 
 A. 
 
 irarep-a 
 
 dv5p-a 
 
 }JLT|T€p-a 
 
 ev-yaxcp-a 
 
 
 Y. 
 
 TTCLTCp 
 
 dv€p 
 
 RT€p 
 
 Gv-yaxep 
 
 Plur. 
 
 KY. 
 
 iraxep-es 
 
 dv8p-€S 
 
 p.TlT€p-€S 
 
 Oxj-yaxep-es 
 
 
 G. 
 
 iraTcp-cov 
 
 dv5p-(ov 
 
 |JLT|T€p-<OV 
 
 Bu-yaxep-cov 
 
 
 D. 
 
 TraTpd-CL 
 
 dvSpd-cTL 
 
 [LTl\Tpa-(Tl 
 
 SD-yaxpd-cri 
 
 
 A. 
 
 iraTcp-as 
 
 dv8p-as 
 
 jjniT€p-as 
 
 Gu-yaxep-as 
 
 Du. 
 
 KA. 
 
 iraTcp-c 
 
 dv8p-€ 
 
 RT€p-€ 
 
 6u'Yax€p-€ 
 
 
 G.D. 
 
 TraT€p-oiv 
 
 dv5p-0LV 
 
 [iT|T€p-OLV 
 
 ev-yaxep-oiv 
 
34 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 107 In dvrj/o after e was lost 8 was developed between v and p 
 (49). Thus the stem becomes avSp- in most forms ; hence the 
 accent of dvSpoJi/, avSpolv (101). 
 
 108 a. Like Trarrjp is declined 6 yao-Trjp (yao-rep-) Z'C//?/. 
 
 b. [N^early like fjirjrrjp except in accent is Arj/xrjTTjp Deineter, G. 
 
 ArJiJLY)Tpo<Sy D. A-^fxrjTpL, A. Arj/xr/rpa, V. AyfjLrjTep. 
 
 109 
 
 Guttural Stems in -k, -y 
 
 Stem 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 (6) 4)vXaK- 
 guard 
 
 (1) al7- 
 goat 
 
 {i\) <J>a\a77- 
 hatih-UnG 
 
 Sing.N.Y. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 <|)'u\a| 
 (|)ij\aK-03 
 (|)\i\a!<-L 
 <t)'uXaK-a 
 
 al-y-ds 
 al-yi 
 
 (t^dXa'yl 
 (t>d\a77-os 
 <t>d\a'Y'Y-L 
 (j^dXa-y^-a 
 
 Plur. KY. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 <|)1j\aK-€S 
 <|)u\dK-(OV 
 
 <|)\iXa|L 
 <|)i3\aK-as 
 
 al|i 
 at-y-as 
 
 <j)d\a'Y7-€S 
 <|)a\d77-(ov 
 <t)dXa7|L 
 <j>dXa'Y'Y-as 
 
 Dii. KY. 
 
 G. D. 
 
 1 
 
 (t)ij\aK-€ 
 
 (j)D\dK OLV 
 
 ai'Y-€ 
 ai7-0Lv 
 
 <|)d\a77-€ 
 (^aXd-y^-OLV 
 
 110 For -^ and -^i see 45 a. 
 
 111 a. In 6 K^pv^, KypvK-o<s Jierald, v becomes short in the nomi- 
 native and vocative singular. So I in 6 cfiolvti, (f>oLvlK-o<s, date- 
 palm. 
 
 b. The stem Optx- hair follows 47 d; thus 77 Opi^^ tols 
 OpL^L, but rpixos, rpLXh ^P^X^y etc. 
 
 c. The stem (6) dvaKT- king, cJdef, loses t before -s and -ort, 
 
 and loses kt in the VOC. sing. : dva^, dvaKr-o?, dvaKx-t, dvaKT-a, 
 di/a^ (also dra in prayer), pi. di/aKr-e?, dj/d/cT-wj/, dva^t, di^aKr-as. 
 
 So, too, T7 vv$, vvKT-6^, night, makes the dat. pi. w^l. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 
 
 35 
 
 112 
 
 Labial and Dental Stems in -tt, -^, -r 
 
 Stem 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 (6) kXwtt- 
 thief 
 
 (6) *Apap- 
 Arah 
 
 (6) Y€\«T- 
 
 . laughter 
 
 Sing.N.y. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 kX(o\|/ 
 
 kXcdtt-os 
 
 kXcott-i 
 
 KXcOTT-a 
 
 "Apa\|/ 
 "Apap-os 
 "Apap-i 
 "Apap-a 
 
 "Apap-€S 
 'Apdp-(ov 
 "Apa\|/i 
 "Apap-as 
 
 "ycXcos 
 
 7€XcOT-OS 
 
 -yeXcoT-i 
 •YcXoiT-a 
 
 Pliir.N.y. 
 
 g: 
 
 A. 
 
 kXcott-cs 
 
 kXcott-wv 
 
 kX(o\|/i 
 
 KXtOTT-aS 
 
 -ye'XoT-cs 
 •yeXtoT-tov 
 •yeXco-cri 
 •ycXcax-as 
 
 Dii. N.Y. 
 G. D. 
 
 KX<OTr-€ 
 
 kXcott-oiv 
 
 "Apap-€ 
 'Apdp-OLV 
 
 -yeXcoT-c 
 -ycXcoT-OLV 
 
 113 For -\{/ and -i/^t see 45 a; for yeA(o(T)s and yeXa)(T)o-t see 45 b. 
 
 114 Dental Stems in -r, -5, -6 
 
 Stem 
 
 Meaning . . . 
 
 (^) IXm8- 
 
 hope 
 
 grace 
 
 (6, f|) opvie- 
 
 Sing.KY. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 €Xiris 
 cXttiS-os 
 cXttlS-i 
 eXmS-a 
 
 Xdpis 
 XdpLT-os 
 XdpiT-i 
 XdpLV 
 
 opvis 
 
 opvie-os 
 
 opviG-L 
 
 OpVLV 
 
 Plur.KY. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 eXiriS-cs 
 €XTri5-cov 
 cXtti-o-i 
 cXiriS-as 
 
 XdpiT-€S 
 XapLT-a>v 
 Xdpi-o-i 
 XdpiT-as 
 
 OpVL6-€S 
 
 6pvL6-cov 
 
 opVL-ai 
 
 opvlS-as 
 
 Du. KY. 
 G. D. 
 
 cXttiS-^ 
 eXiriS-oiv 
 
 XdpLT-€ 
 XapiT-OLV 
 
 opvlG-c 
 6pVL6-oiv 
 
 115 Stems in -r, -8, -^ after unaccented t or v lose the 
 mute and take -v in the accusative singular, as if 
 
36 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 they were stems in -t or -v (130) : rj Kopv^ K6pv6-o<; 
 
 helmet 
 
 ace. Kopvv. 
 
 116 The vocative of Trat?, 7ratS-os child is ttoI. The stem was origi- 
 nally 7rat8- ; hence the irregular accent : irat?, TratSwi', irathoiv 
 (101 and a). 
 
 117 The nominative singular is irregular in 6 ttoi;?, ttoS-os foot. 
 
 118 
 
 Neuter Stems in -t 
 
 Stem 
 
 Meaning 
 
 (rh) <rw(i.aT- 
 hod.y 
 
 (rb) Tcpar-, rcpacr- 
 
 portetit 
 
 Sing. K A.V. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 cr(0|xa 
 
 cr(0|iaT-os 
 
 (r(0(xaT-i 
 
 Tcpas 
 
 T€paT-OS 
 T€paT-l 
 
 Plur. K A.Y. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 (r<o[iaT-a 
 
 0-(0|JLdT-(OV 
 
 acoixa-o-L 
 
 T€paT-a 
 
 T€pdT-<OV 
 T€pa-(JL 
 
 Dual N.Y. 
 G. D. 
 
 cwixaT-e 
 (r(op,dT-oiv 
 
 T€paT-€ 
 T€pdT-OLV 
 
 119 In the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular 
 neuters take no case-ending ; final -r is dropt (40) ; 
 in TO yaXa, yaXaKT-o^ milh, final -kt is dropt ; repa? 
 is another form of the stem re par- (46). 
 
 120 Different but related stems appear in 
 
 TO vSwp, vSaT-o'i water, to rj-rrap, ^iraT-oS Uver, 
 
 TO yovv, yoi/ttT-os hnee, to hopv, h6par-o% spear, 
 TO 01)9, wT-os ea7\ TO (}>C)s, <f>wT-6^ light (sing. only). 
 
 a. ^cos is contracted (hence the accent, 30 b) from older 
 <^aos, which is the common form in verse. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 
 
 37 
 
 121 
 
 Masculine Stems in -vt 
 
 Stem 
 
 Meaning .... 
 
 (6) 7t7avT- 
 
 giant 
 
 (6) 68ovT- 
 
 tooth 
 
 (6) XeovT- 
 lion 
 
 Sing. N. V. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 7i7ds 
 -yL-yavT-os 
 -yL-yavT-L 
 -yi-yavT-a 
 
 OSOTJS 
 
 666vT-os 
 656 VT- 1 
 666vT-a 
 
 XCCDV 
 
 XeovT-os 
 
 Xc'oVT-L 
 
 Plur. N. V. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 -yi-yavT-es 
 "yL-ydvT-cov 
 •yi-yd-o-L 
 -yi-yavT-as 
 
 -yi-yavT-c 
 •yL-ydvT-oiv 
 
 666vT-€s 
 686vT-o)v 
 68o{>-o-L 
 686vT-as 
 
 X€0VT-€S 
 
 X€6in'-(ov 
 
 Xcou-o-i 
 
 X€ovT-as 
 
 Du. N. y. 
 G. D. 
 
 686vT-€ 
 686vT-0LV 
 
 XeovT-c 
 
 X€6VT-01V 
 
 122 a. For ytyds (from yiyai/r-s) and 68ovs (from oSorr-s) see 53 
 and 28 b ; so in the dative plural. 
 
 b. But many stems in -ovt form the nominative singular 
 as in AeW, omitting -s, dropping t, and lengthening o to w. 
 
 123 All noun stems in -vt are masculine. 
 
 124 
 
 Stems in -fo-, -ao- 
 
 Stem ...... 
 
 Meaning ... 
 
 (to) •y£V€o-- 
 race 
 
 (Ti») Kpcaor- 
 meat 
 
 Sing. N. A.y. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 •ycvos 
 
 (•y€V€-os) -yevoDS 
 (■ye've-i) -ycvci 
 
 Kpcas 
 (Kp€a-os) 
 (Kp€a-i) 
 
 Kp€COS 
 
 Kpcai 
 
 Plur. N. A.y. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 (■yevc-a) y^v^ 
 'Y€ve-(ov "ycvwv 
 "ycve-aL 
 
 ('y€V€-€) 'yevei 
 (■y€V€-0Lv) -yevoLV 
 
 (Kp€a-€) 
 (Kp€d-0)V) 
 
 Kp€a-o-i 
 
 Kpcd 
 Kpe(ov 
 
 Du. N. A. 
 G. D. 
 
 (Kp€a-€) 
 
 (Kped-OLv) 
 
 Kpcd 
 
 Kpecov 
 
38 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 125 a. In neuter stems -ea becomes -09 in the nomina- 
 tive, accusative, and vocative singular (25) ; else- 
 where (T is lost (55 a and c), and concurrent vowels 
 are contracted (29). But the genitive plural -eojv is 
 often left uncontracted. The dual is rare. 
 
 b. Stems in -ao- likewise lose o- and contract. 
 
 126 TO Kepas Jiorn, wmg (of an army), has the inflection of two 
 stems, K€paT- and Kcpaa--. 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 Plural 
 
 K A.y. 
 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 Kcpas 
 
 KepdT-OS K€pO)S 
 KCpdT-l K€paL 
 
 K€pdT-a Kcpd 
 K€paT-a)V K€pcov 
 Kcpd-cri 
 
 127 Proper names with stems in -ecr are nearly like the 
 masculine of adjectives with stems in -ea- (151-154). 
 
 
 (6) 2«KpaT6or- 
 
 (6) ncpiKXc£(r- 
 
 
 Sokrates 
 
 Perikles 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 ScDKpdTllS 
 
 (ncplKXcTls) ncplKXllS 
 
 G. 
 
 2a)KpdTous 
 
 IlepiKXeous 
 
 D. 
 
 2a)KpdT6L 
 
 (nepiKXeei) IlepLKXeL 
 
 A. 
 
 ScaKpdTTi or -'x\v 
 
 IlepLKXed (IIcpiKXTi) 
 
 Y. 
 
 I](OKpaT€S 
 
 HcpLKXcLS 
 
 128 a. Accusatives like rSw/cpar-^v are formed on the model of a- 
 declension masculines (71). For the accent of SwK/aarcs see 
 153 a. 
 
 b. The forms in parenthesis appear in poetry. 
 
 c. Here belongs also 6 "Aprys Ares^ G. "Apcos and "A/aew?, D. 
 "Apei, A. "Apr] and "AprjVy V. "Apes. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 
 
 39 
 
 129 The one stem in -otr, atSoo-- respect^ shame^ is declined in the 
 
 sing, only : tj atSw?, atSov?, aiSoi, atSw. 
 
 130 
 
 Stems in -l and -v 
 
 Stem 
 
 (iq) TToXt- 
 
 (6) ircwv- 
 forcarm, ciihit 
 
 (rb) doTU- 
 city 
 
 Meaning ... 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. 
 
 tt6\l-s 
 
 iriixv-S 
 
 do-Tu 
 
 
 G. 
 
 Tt6X€-(03 
 
 iTT|xe-ws 
 
 do-TC-os 
 
 
 D. 
 
 TTOXCL 
 
 -iriixeL 
 
 do-TCL 
 
 
 A. 
 
 ttoXl-v 
 
 TTTIXD-V 
 
 dcTTD 
 
 
 Y. 
 
 iroXi 
 
 inix^ 
 
 dCTTU 
 
 Plur. 
 
 KY. 
 
 TToXeLS 
 
 TTiixeLS 
 
 (d(7T€-a) do-T-q 
 
 
 G. 
 
 TToXe-cov 
 
 TTTixe-cov 
 
 dcrxe-ov 
 
 
 D. 
 
 irdXe-0-L 
 
 TTiixc-crL 
 
 do-T€-0-L 
 
 
 A. 
 
 TToXeis 
 
 inixas 
 
 (d(rT€-a) do-T-q 
 
 Du. 
 
 X. A. 
 
 Tr6Xe-€ 
 
 TTTix^-C 
 
 do-TC-e 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 TToXe-OLV 
 
 TTTIXe-OLV 
 
 do-re-OLV 
 
 131 a. Feminines in -i are a large class, many of tliem 
 nouns of action in -crtg or -rt? (406). Tlie genitive 
 and dative (and the rare dual) have e for l ; and the 
 nominative plural, which is used also as the accusa- 
 tive, has €t. The ending -09 becomes -w? (28 a) ; -w? 
 and -oiv do not exclude the accent from the ante- 
 penult. 
 
 b. Stems in unaccented -v closely resemble t-stems. The 
 forms in parenthesis in the plural of neuters occur in 
 poetry. 
 
40 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 132 
 
 Stems in -v, -v 
 
 Stem 
 
 Meaning. . . . 
 
 (6, i\) a-o-f a-i- 
 
 swine 
 
 (6) IxOu-, IxOv- 
 
 Sing. N". 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 Y. 
 
 (TV-% 
 
 (TU-OS 
 
 CV-l 
 
 0-v-v 
 
 (TV 
 
 IxOiJ-s 
 IxQv-os 
 
 ixei3-i 
 
 IxOij-v 
 
 ixei$ 
 
 Plur. KY. 
 G. 
 
 p. 
 A. 
 
 (TU-COV 
 
 (Tv-cri 
 
 (TOi-S 
 
 Lx6lJ-€S 
 
 IxQiJ-cov 
 lxOtj-o-l 
 
 ixevs 
 
 Du. KA. 
 G. D. 
 
 (n5-€ 
 
 (TU-OLV 
 
 ixei3-€ 
 
 IxBiJ-oLV 
 
 133 a. Accented -v at tlie end of tlie stem is made long 
 
 in the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular, 
 
 whicli in monosyllables are circumilexed. 
 
 b. In the accusative plural -9? probably results from drop- 
 ping V of the old ending -vi (cp. 62 a and 51 b). 
 
 134 Stems in -ev, -av, and -ou (l36) lose v before a vowel 
 (27 ; cp. Lat. ncivis and hos^ hovis). 
 
 135 a. Stems in -ev originally had -rjv ; traces of the rj remain (1) 
 in the lengthening of the endings -os, -a, -a? to -ws -d, -as; 
 (2) in the older nominative plural ending -7]<s (contracted from 
 -rj€9) ; open rj later became closer « (24). 
 
 b. In poetry, less often in prose, the accusative plural is 
 sometimes like the nominative, in -€ts. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 
 
 41 
 
 136 
 
 Stems in -ev, -au, -ov 
 
 Stem 
 
 Meaning. . . . 
 
 (6) lirircv- 
 horseman 
 
 (Tj) vav- 
 ship 
 
 (6. n) Pov- 
 
 Sing. :n'. 
 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 Y. 
 
 iTnTc-u-s 
 l-mrc-cas 
 lirirei 
 l-n-TTC-d 
 
 vav-s 
 
 V€-(OS 
 
 VX\-l 
 
 VOiV-V 
 
 vav 
 
 po{l-s 
 
 po-6s 
 
 po-t 
 
 po{)-v 
 
 Pov 
 
 Plur. KY. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 liriTeLS 
 lirirc'-wv 
 lirn-e-O-o-L 
 lirire-ds 
 
 V€-a)V 
 vau-o-L 
 
 P6-€S 
 po-(ov 
 po\j-o"i 
 Pov-s 
 
 Dii. N. A. 
 G. D. 
 
 LTnr€-OLV 
 
 V€-OLV 
 
 p6-€ 
 
 pO-OLV 
 
 137 In vav-j originally vr}\^^ v-q- is retained before a short 
 vowel, but made ve- before a long (w or oi), while 
 vav- stands before a consonant ; -w? keeps the accent 
 of the original -d?. 
 
 138 The stem (rj) ol- sheep (originally 6ft-; cp. Lat. oris), is de- 
 clined: Sing. 019, oios, oa, ohy ot; PI. oTes, otwi/, oto-t, oT?. 
 
 139 Stems in -cv with a preceding vowel often contract in the 
 gen. and ace. sing, and plu. : Hcipatcws or Ilctpata)?, Ueipatia or 
 
 Ilapata ; 'Ev/SoiiDV Or El>/3ocov, 'Evf3o€d<; or Ev/3oa<;. 
 
 140 Stems in -w and -o (l4l) are few, the latter mostly 
 names of w^omen. 
 
42 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 141 
 
 Stems in -o> and -o 
 
 Stem .... 
 Meaning . . 
 
 (o) ^p«- 
 
 (t|) ir€ieo- 
 persuasio7i 
 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 Y. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 TJpcD-s Tjpw-es 
 
 TlpCO-OS T]pCO-COV 
 
 TJpco-i Tipw-cri 
 TJpco-a Tip(o-as 
 
 TlpW-S Tip(0-€S 
 
 Tr€L0(O 
 
 'ir€L0o'Os 
 
 Tr€L0OL 
 716106 
 
 ttclOol 
 
 
 Dii. N.A. TJpo)-€ G.D. f|p(o-oLv 
 
 
 Irregular Nouns 
 
 142 Some nouns in frequent use are quite irregular. The com- 
 monest are : 
 
 1. rj ywrj woman, wife, otherwise from the stem ywaiK- 
 (which loses -k in the voc. sing.), with irregular accent : 
 
 S. yvvYj, ywatK-os, yvvaiK-L, yvvaiK-a, ywai, 
 PI. ywaiK-e?, yvvaiK-wv, yvvai^L, yvv(UK-a<s. 
 
 2. 6 Zev9, Zeus, V. Zev, but G. Ai-o?, D. At-t, A. At-a. 
 
 3. (6, 17) KVOV-, KW-, <:/o^ : 
 
 S/ / / / / 
 
 . KVODV, KW-OS, KW-l, KVV-a, KVOV, 
 
 PI. Ki;j/-€S, Kw-wi/, Kv-art, Kw-as. 
 
 4. (6) fxaprv-, fjLapTvp-, ivit7iess : 
 
 Q / / / / 
 
 o. /u,aprv-?, jJLapTvp-os, jJiaprvp-L, fxaprvp-a, 
 PI. jxapTvp-cs, fiaprvp-wv, fxapTv-a-L, ixdpTvp-a<s. 
 
 5. Besides 6 ovupo^ dream, and to ovapov, regular, appear 
 the stems [ro) 6vap- and ovctpar- : 
 
 S. ovap, 6veipaT-o<s, ovupar-i, 
 
 PL ovetpar-a, oi/ctpar-ojv, ovetpaa-L. 
 
 6. 17 IIvi;^ P?i^:r makes G. Uvkv-6<s, D. ni;Ki/-i, A. IIvKiz-a. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 43 
 
 7. The adjective Trpea-pvs old is in the plural masculine the 
 regular word for envoy, ambassador. In poetry the singular 
 also has the same meaning, as well as that of old, but the prose 
 singular is Trpeo-^evrri?, a noun of the agent (406) from the 
 verb 7rp€(T^€vu). Thus : 
 
 S. irpecr^evT-^s, -tov, -ry, -Tiijv, -tol, 
 
 PI. Trpco-ySctS, Trpeo-ySewv, irpea^ea-t, TrpeV^ct?. 
 
 The prose word for old man is irp^a-^vriq^ (or yepwi/). 
 
 8. (ro) TTvp-, TTvp- fire makes its plural of the o-declension : 
 
 S. TTVp, TTVp-O'i, TTVp-L, 
 
 PI. TTvpa, TTvpuiv, TTupots camp-fives, beacons. 
 
 9. Besides 6 vl6<s son, regular, forms are made from the 
 stem vlv- : 
 
 S. (vtos) vUo<s, vUl, vUa, (vivs and vlvv, inscriptions), 
 
 PI. vUts, vtcwv, vlecTL, vicTs, 
 Du. vice, vleoLv. 
 Forms also occur with v for vl : v6<;, vov, veo?. 
 
 10. (ri) x"p-? X^P- ^i^ci'i^d: 
 
 PI. X"P-^5? X^'-P-^^i X^P-^h X^V«^5 
 Du. x'^lp-e, x€.p-o7.v. 
 
 a. Poets use also x^P"^^5 X^P'^'? X^P""? X^P'^'^i X^P"^^? X^P'"-^' 
 143 In poetry the following also are found : 
 
 1. Besides SaKpvov tear, regular, also to SaKpv and rots 
 
 SaKpv-a-L. 
 
 2. From (t6) Sop- spear : G. Sop-6s, D. Sop-i and Sopet. For 
 Sopu- and Sopar- see 120. 
 
 3. From (to) Kapd- head: X. A. Kapa, D. Kapa. But G. Kpar- 
 
 OS, D. KpoLT-L', also X. A. TO Kpara. 
 
 4. Besides opm (115), forms from the stem opvt- : 
 
 Si. N. opvi-9, A. 6pvL-v, PL N. A. 6pv€L<;, G. 6pv€-(Dv. 
 
 5. Besides 6 XP^^? XP^'''^^ skin, regular, also G. XP^"^^> -^* 
 Xpo-i and xp^' 
 
44 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 144 In some nouns the plural may be of different gender from 
 the singular : 6 o-tros grain, food, pi. ra a-lra ; to o-raStov stade^ 
 
 race-course, pi. a-rdhoi or a-ToZia. 
 
 VI. Consonant Declension : Adjectives 
 
 145 Some nouns of classes already described were origi- 
 nally adjectives and continued to be used as such, 
 masculine and feminine alike (neuter, too, when there 
 is one) of one ending : 
 
 ^vyd<;, (^vyctS-o? exiled (like cXtti?, 114), 
 yvyivriq, yvyivrjT-o^ light-armed , 
 TreVry?, 7r€pr)T-o<; poor. 
 
 With these belong some other adjectives, as 
 
 fxaKap, fJLOLKap-o^ hlessed (cp. 102), 
 dpTra$, dpiray-o^ rapacious (cp. 109), 
 dyvm, dyva>T-o<s unknown (cp. 112), 
 diraLS, a7rat8-09 childless (cp. 114). 
 
 146 Many adjectives are of two endings ; the neuter dif- 
 fers from the masculine in the nominative and accu- 
 sative only. Here are many adjectives compounded 
 of nouns of this declension : 
 
 G. eueXTTtS-o? of good hope, 
 
 G. dxdpLT-o<; lacking grace, 
 
 G. evSaifxov-o(; fortunate, 
 
 G, evij6ov<; simple-minded. 
 
 Here belong also comparative adjectives in -cjv 
 (stem in -ov) : fieXnoDv better. 
 
 M. P. 
 eveXiTLf; 
 
 N. 
 €i;-€X7rt, 
 
 dxapL<; 
 
 evhaLfjLcop 
 
 evTJOrj<; 
 
 dxapi, 
 evSaiiJLOP, 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSION: ADJECTIVES 
 
 45 
 
 147 
 
 Adjectives of Two Endings 
 
 
 €v-8ai(iov- fortunate 
 
 d-xapi- lacking grace 
 
 Sing 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 Y. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 c-uSaijicav e-uSaiiJiov 
 
 €i)6ai|j.ov-os 
 
 €xi5ai}Jiov-L 
 ciiSaifJLOv-a e-uSaiixov 
 
 €'u5aL}Jiov 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 dxapi-s dxapi 
 dxdpiT-os 
 dxdpLT-L 
 
 dxapi-v dxapi 
 dxapi 
 
 Plur 
 
 N.V. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 e-uSaipLOv-cs cii8aifiov-a 
 
 €xi6ai[JL0-(rL 
 €\i6ai|iov-as c-uSaifiov-a 
 
 dxdpiT-6S dxdpiT-a 
 
 dxapLT-(ov 
 
 dxdpL-cri 
 dxdpLT-as dxdpiT-a 
 
 Dii. 
 
 N. A. 
 G. D. 
 
 c-uSaifiov-e 
 €\i8aL}i6v-oiv 
 
 dxdpiT-€ 
 dxapiT-oiv 
 
 148 The accent is recessive. Stems in -it and -tS follow the rule 
 in 115. For axapt see 40. 
 
 149 
 
 Comparatives in -cav 
 
 
 peXriov- letter 
 
 Sing. N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 V. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 pcXTlwv peXTiov 
 
 p€XTlOV-OS 
 
 pcXriov-i 
 peXTLOV-a, peXxLco peXrlov 
 peXxLov 
 
 Plur. N.V. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 p€XTLOV-€S, peXriODS peXriov-a, peXTico 
 
 peXrlov-wv 
 
 peXTio-o-i 
 peXriov-as, peXrious peXriov-a, peXxio) 
 
 Du. N. A. 
 G. D. 
 
 p€XTlOV-€ 
 
 peXTidv-OLV 
 
46 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 150 The contracted forms are from a stem in -oa-, the o- disap- 
 pearing between vowels : yScA.Tio((r)a, /3cA.Tt(o (56 a). The 
 accusative plural in -ovs is borrowed from the nominative. 
 The accent is recessive. 
 
 161 
 
 Stems in -eo- 
 
 
 o-af €0--, plain 
 
 €vi]9€ar-, simple-mi7ided 
 
 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. 
 
 o-a<|>T|S (ract)es 
 
 €\iTie'ns €'u'q0€s 
 
 
 G. 
 
 (JQl^OV% 
 
 €1ITJ0OUS 
 
 
 D. 
 
 aa<j)€L 
 
 €\iTi6€L 
 
 
 A. 
 
 aa(j)Ti (ra(t)cs 
 
 c-uTje-n ciiriecs 
 
 
 y. 
 
 aa(|)6S 
 
 eVT\Q£S 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 o"a(j)eLS cacj)!! 
 
 €llTi0€lS e-uTieTi 
 
 
 G. 
 
 o-a<t)(ov 
 
 €vr\Q(dV 
 
 
 D. 
 
 o'a<|)eGri 
 
 ^vr\Qc(Ti 
 
 
 A. 
 
 (ra<t)€LS o-a<j)fj 
 
 ^vr\QeiS €vr\Qi\ 
 
 152 a. In the nominative singular -ea becomes -t]^ in the mascu- 
 line and feminine, but remains -es in the neuter (cp. yeVo?, 
 124, 126 a). The o- disappears between vowels (55 a) and 
 contractions are regular (29 a, c, d, e) : o-a<^ovs from o-ac^eo?, 
 
 (ra(f>rj from o-a^ea, (ra<f)eL<i from ca^ees, aacfiwv from (Ta<f>i(DV. In 
 
 the accusative plural cra<^ets is borrowed from the nominative. 
 (Cp. 150.) 
 
 b. But if -eo- follows a vowel, -ea usually contracts to -a 
 instead of -rj : iv8erj<5 needy ^ (ivSeia) ivSea, and cukAciJs famous, 
 
 (cvKXeea) evKXca. 
 
 153 a. The accent, if it is not on the ultima, is recessive, 
 even in contract forms. 
 
 b. But not in the neuter forms in -wSes and -^pcs : cvuiScs 
 fragrant, 6rjpLu>Se<i animal, TroSrjpes reaching to the feet. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 
 
 47 
 
 154 Names like ^wK/oaTi^s, IIcpiKX^?, AtoyevT^s (127) were origi- 
 nally adjectives of this class. So, too, the noun rpcrjpyjs 
 trireme. 
 
 155 Many adjectives whose masculine and neuter are of 
 the consonant declension have a separate feminine 
 in the a-declension. The feminine singular always 
 has short -a in the nominative, accusative, and voca- 
 tive singular. (If the masculine and neuter are of 
 the o-declension, the feminine always has d or y^: 
 see 77 a.) 
 
 156 
 
 Adjectives of Three Endings : Stems in -au 
 
 
 H€\av-, neXaiva- black 
 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F 
 
 N 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. 
 
 fl€\dS 
 
 |JL€\aLva 
 
 jxcXav 
 
 
 G. 
 
 fjLeXav-os 
 
 jJLeXaiin^s 
 
 [JLcXav-os 
 
 
 D. 
 
 [xeXav-L 
 
 [jLcXaiVT) 
 
 jJi€Xav-L 
 
 
 A. 
 
 }i€\av-a 
 
 fjLcXatvav 
 
 [jLcXav 
 
 
 V. 
 
 [jieXav 
 
 [leXaLva 
 
 [ieXav 
 
 Phu-. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 }JL€\aV-€S 
 
 [ieXaivai 
 
 fJieXav-a 
 
 
 G. 
 
 fJLcXdv-cov 
 
 |jL€Xaiv(ov 
 
 fJL€Xdv-a)V 
 
 
 D. 
 
 JJL€\a-0-L 
 
 [ieXaivais 
 
 fjLeXa-o-L 
 
 
 A. 
 
 [leXav-as 
 
 [xcXaivds 
 
 |i€Xav-a 
 
 Du. 
 
 N. A. 
 
 fJl6\aV-€ 
 
 fjieXaivd 
 
 }ji€Xav-€ 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 jjLcXdv-oiv 
 
 [jLcXaivaiv 
 
 |i€Xdv-oiv 
 
 157 a. For fxiXa^ and /xeAao-t see 51 a and d. 
 
 b. The feminine stem /xfAatva- is for /jL^Xavcd- (56 b). The 
 stem Tcpev- tender, makes Teprjv, ripava, Tcpcv, etc. 
 
48 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 158 
 
 Stems in -v 
 
 
 raxv- 
 
 , Tax6ia- swift 
 
 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 IS". 
 
 Taxi3-S 
 
 Tax€La 
 
 Taxv 
 
 
 
 G. 
 
 Taxe-os 
 
 Tax€Lds 
 
 Taxe-os 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Tax€L 
 
 Tax€ia 
 
 Tax€t 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 To,yJi-v 
 
 Taxeiav 
 
 Taxv 
 
 
 
 Y. 
 
 Taxv 
 
 Tax€La 
 
 Taxv 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N 
 
 y. 
 
 Tax€LS 
 
 Taxetat 
 
 Tax€-a 
 
 
 
 G. 
 
 Tax€-<ov 
 
 Taxeicov 
 
 Taxe-cov 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Tax€-cri 
 
 TaxeiaLS 
 
 Taxc-o^i 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Tax€iS 
 
 Taxeias 
 
 Tax6-a 
 
 Du. 
 
 N. 
 
 A. 
 
 Tax€-€ 
 
 Taxcid 
 
 Tax€-€ 
 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 Tax€-oiv 
 
 Taxciaiv 
 
 TaX€-OLV 
 
 159 a. Stem and endings combine as in tt^x^^ ^^^ ^^'^^ (130, 131) ; 
 but -ea does not contract, and the accent is on the -v or its 
 representative (c or «). 
 
 b. In accent all adjectives of this class are like ra^^'s 
 except ^TyAvs, OrjXeia, OrjXv female, feminine, 
 
 rjiJLi(rv<i, rj/JLLo-eta, yjiiktv Jldlf, 
 
 and some compounds, of two endings, as Sltttjxvs tivo cubits 
 long. 
 
 160 
 
 Stems in -avr 
 
 
 irttVT-, irao-a- every, all 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 Plur. M. F. 
 
 N. 
 
 N.y. 
 
 irds irdcra irdv 
 
 irdvT-€S irdcaL 
 
 irdvT-a 
 
 G. 
 
 TravT-6s iracnis iravT-ds 
 
 7rdvT-<ov TTdacov 
 
 irdvT-cov 
 
 D. 
 
 iravT-L irao-xi iravr-i 
 
 irdcn Trao-ais 
 
 irdcTL 
 
 A. 
 
 irdin-'a irdcrav irdv 
 
 iravT-as irao-as 
 
 TrdvT-a 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 
 
 49 
 
 161 a. For sound-changes see ytyds (121, 122 a) ; but d in ttSi/ is 
 irregular. 
 
 b. The accent of Trds is irregular, (1) in that Trd? and Trav 
 take the circumflex, (2) in that Travrwv and Traa-t do not fol- 
 low 101, while TravTos and -n-avTi do. 
 
 162 a. Compounds of ttci? are regular : aVd?, aVdcra, 
 airav and crv/xTrd?, crvixTrdcraj av^Trav. 
 
 b. Like these are declined participial stems in -avT : 
 Tracer dg, Travcrdcra, Travcrai/, 
 7Tav(Tavr-o<^j 7Tavad(n]<;, etc, 
 terra?, icrrdcra, laravy 
 IcndvT-o^^ IcTTdo'rjSj etc. 
 ards, crrdcra, crravj 
 (TTavr-o^, crracTTys, etc. 
 
 163 
 
 Adjective Stems in -ei/r 
 
 
 XopievT-, 
 
 Xapi€(r<ra- graceful, gracious 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 K Y. 
 
 XapUis 
 
 Xapieo-cra 
 
 XapUv 
 
 
 G. 
 
 Xapi€VT-os 
 
 Xapieorcnis 
 
 XapievT-os 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Xapi€VT-i 
 
 Xapuo-o-xi 
 
 Xapi€VT-i 
 
 
 A. 
 
 XapievT-a 
 
 Xapieo-aav 
 
 Xapi€V 
 
 Plur. 
 
 K y. 
 
 Xapi€VT-€S 
 
 XapLCo-crai 
 
 XCLpievra 
 
 
 G. 
 
 XapL€VT-(OV 
 
 Xapieccrcav 
 
 XapLevT-(ov 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Xapicat 
 
 XapLcVcraLS 
 
 Xapieo-i 
 
 
 A. 
 
 XapievT-as 
 
 XapieVo-ds 
 
 Xapi€VT-a 
 
 Du. 
 
 N. A. 
 
 Xapl€VT-€ 
 
 XapLcVo-d 
 
 XapicvT-€ 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 Xapl€VT-OLV 
 
 XapL€(ro-aiv 
 
 XapL€VT-OlV 
 
50 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 184 a. For xap^ets from xapt€(vT)-s see 63 and 28 b; but x^P^^^^ 
 from x^/3te(T)o-t and ;\a/3tWo-a from x^^ptena show a shorter 
 stem form without v. 
 
 b. But participial stems in -^vt make -cts, -eto-a, -eV, and in 
 the dative plural -Cia-i^ for -e(vT)9, -c(vT)o-a, -cv(t), and -c(vT)o-t. 
 Thus: 
 
 165 
 
 Participial Stems in -ei/r 
 
 
 Tl96VT 
 
 -, Ti9€t<ra- ]putt\ 
 
 ng 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 tlScis 
 
 TL0€Laa 
 
 TL0ev 
 
 
 G. 
 
 TL06VT-OS 
 
 TL0€LaTlS 
 
 TL0€VT-OS 
 
 
 D. 
 
 TL0eVT-l 
 
 TL06l(r'[| 
 
 TL06VT-L 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Ti0evT-a 
 
 Ti0€L(rav 
 
 TL0€V 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 T10€VT-€S 
 
 Ti0€LcraL 
 
 TL0€VT-a 
 
 
 G. 
 
 Ti0evT-(ov 
 
 TL0€LO-(OV 
 
 T10€VT-(OV 
 
 
 D. 
 
 TL0€LaL 
 
 TL0€i(raLS 
 
 Tl0€LCri 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Ti0€in'-as 
 
 Tl0€lO'dS 
 
 Tl0€VT-a 
 
 Du. 
 
 N. A. 
 
 TL0€VT-€ 
 
 TiGcio-d 
 
 Tl0€VT-€ 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 T10CVT-OIV 
 
 Tl0€lO'aLV 
 
 T10€VT-OLV 
 
 166 Adjective stems in -ovt are declined like \4.oiv (l21, 
 122 b), adding the neuter forms in -ov and -ovra and 
 the feminine : kKiJiv^ e/covcra, Ikov willing^ uKcoVy 
 
 oLKovaa, oLKov unwilling. 
 
 Participles in -ovt of the ctj-form (when the o be- 
 longs to the tense-suffix, not to the verb-stem) are 
 like aKiiiv and kKo^v : Travcov, navovcra^ iravov stopping^ 
 \nro)v^ XtTTovcra, Xlttov leaving. For participles in 
 •OVT of the /xi-form see 169. 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSIONS; ADJECTIVES 
 
 51 
 
 167 
 
 Stems in -ovt 
 
 
 aKOVT-, 
 
 <tKov<ra- unu 
 
 illing 
 
 Sing. 
 
 K. 
 
 Y. 
 
 dK(av 
 
 dLKOxjo-a 
 
 aKov 
 
 
 
 G. 
 
 dKOVT-OS 
 
 dK0\i0'T|S 
 
 dKOVT-OS 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 aKOVT-L 
 
 dKoii(rx| 
 
 dKOVT-l 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 ClKOVT-a 
 
 CLKOUOraV 
 
 aKov 
 
 Plur. 
 
 :^. 
 
 Y. 
 
 dKOVT-€S 
 
 dKouo-ai 
 
 dKovT-a 
 
 
 
 G. 
 
 dKdVT-(OV 
 
 aKOVCTCOV 
 
 dKOVT-COV 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 aKouci 
 
 ClKOXIO-aLS 
 
 dKODO"L 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 dLKOVT-aS 
 
 CLKOliO'dS 
 
 dKoin--a 
 
 Dii. 
 
 JS". 
 
 A. 
 
 (iKOVT-€ 
 
 aKovo-d 
 
 dKOVT-€ 
 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 oLkovt-oiv 
 
 aKovaaiv 
 
 dKoin-'OLV 
 
 168 a. Participles in -aovT-, -aovcrd- contract to accented 
 -oj- throughout (29 c) : 
 
 TlfxdcDv^ Tt/xaovcra, Tiyidovj etc., become 
 Tt/xwr, Tt/Awcra, TLfjLcov, etc. 
 
 b. Participles in -eovT-, -eovad-y and in -oovt-^ 
 -oovad-y contract to accented -ov- throughout, except 
 that -ea)v and -6a)v make -cjv (29 a-c) : 
 
 ^ikeaiv, ^ikiovcra, (fyiXeop, etc., become 
 ^ikoiVj (^tXoOcra, (^)ikovv^ etc. 
 
 hrj\6o}v^ SiqXoovcray SrjXoovy etc., become 
 8')7Xw^', SrjXovaaj SrjXovv, etc. 
 
 169 Participles in -opt- of the /it-form (when the o be- 
 longs to the verb-stem) are like oSovg (121, 122 a), 
 
62 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 adding the neuter forms in -6v and -ovto. and also 
 the feminine : StSov?, StSoucra, StSoz^ giving, 
 
 170 Participles in -wt- (of the ^t-form) are like 
 
 Set/ci^us, h^iKvva-a^ heiKvvv pointing out, 
 
 SeLKvvvT'0<;j BeLKvvcrr]<;, h€LKPvvT-o<;, etc. 
 
 a. For ScLKvvs from B€lkvv{vt)s and the dat. plu. SetKvvo-t 
 see 63. 
 
 171 Most perfect active participles are declined like etSw? 
 Jmowing (172). The stem ends in -ot, which be- 
 comes -w9 and -OS in the nominative singular ; the 
 feminine stem ends in -via. : TreiravKcoSy TreTravKvla, 
 TrenavKos having stopt. 
 
 172 
 
 Participial Stems in -ot (Perfects) 
 
 
 CISOT- 
 
 , elSuia- knoiving 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 KY. 
 
 €l8cos 
 
 €i8i)ia 
 
 €l86s 
 
 
 G. 
 
 €186t-os 
 
 eL8i)ids 
 
 €186t-os 
 
 
 D. 
 
 €186t-l 
 
 €L8\JLa 
 
 €l86t-i 
 
 
 A. 
 
 clSoT-a 
 
 €L8\)LaV 
 
 €i86s 
 
 Plur. 
 
 KY. 
 
 €186t-€S 
 
 €L8\JLaL 
 
 €l86T-a 
 
 
 G. 
 
 €l86t-(ov 
 
 €l8\JI(0V 
 
 €i86T-a)V 
 
 
 D. 
 
 €i86-(ri 
 
 €i8\)iaLS 
 
 €l86-ai 
 
 
 A. 
 
 €l86T-as 
 
 €L8l)ldS 
 
 €i86T-a 
 
 Dn. 
 
 K A. 
 
 €l86T-€ 
 
 €l8\)id 
 
 c 186t-€ 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 €i86t-oiv 
 
 €l8viaLV 
 
 €186t-olv 
 
CONSONANT DECLENSIONS: ADJECTIVES 
 
 53 
 
 173 A few perfect active participles (of ftt-verbs) in -aws are con- 
 tracted and form the feminine irregularly : 
 
 eo-Tos standing, 
 
 €(TT(D<ra, 
 
 €(TTOiTO<Sy 
 
 €OTWTOS, etc. 
 
 The neuter cotos retains the characteristic final syllable 
 -OS instead of becoming ia-ru)^. More irregular is 
 
 Te6v€w<Sy Tc^j/cwo-a, tc^vcos dead, 
 
 TiOvcwToSi TiOveuxrr]';, reOvewro^j etc. 
 
 174 Two common adjectives, />ceya? and ttoXv?, have a 
 shorter stem and irregular form in the nominative 
 and accusative singular masculine and neuter only, 
 but are otherwise regular in the vowel declension. 
 Thus: 
 
 175 
 
 
 [uya-, [LiyaXo-f (icyaXd- tall, great 
 
 
 iroXv-, TToXXo-, -iroXXa- much, 
 
 plur. many 
 
 
 M. F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Sing. ]Sr. 
 
 lic-ya-s [le-ydXTi 
 
 H.€7a 
 
 G. 
 
 lJL€"YdXoi) ixe-YdXiis 
 
 [Ac-ydXcu 
 
 D. 
 
 jie-yaXw H-^VclXt) 
 
 jJLC^dXco 
 
 A. 
 
 (ie-ya-v jic-ydXiiv 
 
 \Liya 
 
 Y. 
 
 \i.iya \LcyaXr\ 
 
 \Liya 
 
 
 Plural regular 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 TToX-us ttoXXti 
 
 TTOKv 
 
 G. 
 
 TToXXoO TToXXfjS 
 
 TToXXo-O 
 
 D. 
 
 TTOXXCO TToXXfj 
 
 TToXXcp 
 
 A. 
 
 TToXxi-v ttoXXtiv 
 
 TTOXV 
 
 Y. 
 
 TToXlJ TToXXll 
 
 TToXv 
 
 
 Plural regular 
 
 
54 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 176 7r/oao9, TT/adeta, Trpaov mild follows the o-declension in masculine 
 and neuter, but makes the entire feminine, and sometimes 
 other forms, from a stem in -v, like ra^v? (158). 
 
 VII. Comparison of Adjectives 
 
 177 Most adjectives form the comparative by adding 
 -Te/)09 {-T€pdy -repov), tlie superlative by adding -raro? 
 (-raTT7, -7arov)j to tbe masculine stem. Stems in -o 
 with a short penult lengthen o to w : 
 
 rOSITTVE COMPARATTA'E SUPERLATIVE 
 
 SiVato? (St/cato-) justy St/caid-repo?, St/cato-raro?, 
 
 IJLlKp6<; (^yLiKpo-) small, p.lKp6-T€po<;j p.lKpO-TaTO'sj 
 
 TTLKpof; (iTiKpo-^ hittei% TTLKpo-repo^j TTLKpO-TaTO^;, 
 
 TTovrjpo^; (iTovrjpo-^ had, TTovrjpo-Tepof;, 7^o^'^7/^o-raT09, 
 
 (ra(f)TJ<; (crac^ecr-) plain, crac^eV-repo?, (Ta(f)€cr-TaTO<;, 
 
 €vK\ey]<; (^evKkeecr-) famous, evK\eea-Tepo<;, evKXeecr-rarof;, 
 
 /xeXct? (/xeXa^'-) hlack, p.e\dp-Tepo^y fxeXdv-TaTo^, 
 
 y\vKv<; (yXvfCv-) sweet, yXvKv-repo^, yXvKv-Taro^, 
 
 (^irpecrfivf;) (7r/3€cr/3u-) old, TrpecT^v-Tepo^, Trpeo-ySu-raro?. 
 
 But o-stems with a short penult : 
 
 afto9 (afto-) tvorthy, d^Lco^epo*;, d^L(t>-TaTo<;, 
 
 v€o<; (^'€0-) new, young, peai-Tepo<;, vecjrrato'^, 
 
 ao(j)6<^ (^ao(j)o-^ wise, (TO<^(xy-Tepo<;, (TO(f)a>-TaTO<s, 
 
 178 A few stems drop -o before -rc/oo? and -raro? : 
 
 yep a id- 9 aged, yepaL-Tepo<;, yepai-Taro^, 
 
 7raXatd-9 6>?(i, ancient, 7ra\aL-T€po<;, 7raXat-TaT09, 
 
 cr;(oXaro-9 leisurely, a\o\ai-T€pof;, a^okai-Taro'^, 
 
 <^lXo-9 6/6<af7', (<f)L\-T€pOS poet.), <^lX-TaT09. 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 55 
 
 7raXato9 makes also 7raXatdTepo9, TraXatorarog. For 
 <^tXr€/)09 prose writers use fiaWov (^tXo? (180). 
 
 179 The endings -ea-repo^j -ea-Taro^ (in imitation of words 
 like (ra(l)(i(T-Tepo<;) are added to stems in -ov : 
 
 evhaiixo)v fortunate J €.vhaip.ov-iaTepo^^ euSat^oj^-ecTTaTo?, 
 crco(j)pa)v discreet^ aoic^pov-iaTepo^;, aojc^pov-idTaTO^, 
 
 a. Some contracting stems in -oo are compared as if 
 -T6/309 and -raro? were added to the nom. sing. mas. : 
 
 a7rXou9 (aTrXoo-) single, a7r\ova--T€po<;, aTrXoucr-raro?, 
 evpov<; (eui^oo-) kind, evvova-repo^j ^vvova-raro^. 
 
 b. Xote also ippiofxivo-s strong^ ipp<sifxev-€(rT€po<i, tppw/xev-tcTTaro?, 
 with loss of -o, and ;(a/3i'a?, )(a.pu(r-T€pos, xapUcr-TaTo<;, from the 
 
 stem xapicT-. (Cp. 164 a.) 
 
 180 Comparatives and superlatives are often made by the 
 adverbs jxaXXov more and /xaXto-ra most or r\TTov less 
 and T]KL(TTa least, with the positive : fxaWop <^tXo?, 
 moi^e dear, dearer, ixaXiara ^i\o<;, most dear, dearest, 
 riTTov (J)lXo<; less dear. 
 
 Participles are compared only in this way. 
 
 181 A few common adjectives form the comparative by 
 adding -tcji' (stem -loi', 149), the suj^erlative by add- 
 ing -icrro? (-io-T-q, -LcrTov), to the root of the positive, 
 or to a different form of the stem : 
 
 Ka/co9 had KaK-i(ov ivorse, KaK-Lo-Toq iDorst 
 
 oX(j\p6% unseemly, aXa-yj^io^v, ola-yjicno^, 
 
 (Cp. ro oLcrx-o's unseemliness^ ala-x-ivm sliamc) 
 
 ixOpo^ hateful, hostile, lx6-ia)v, exO'LcrTo<;, 
 
 (Cp. exOdi Jiate, TO exOo<: hatred) 
 
56 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 /caXo9 beautifulj KaW-icjv, KaXX-tcrro?, 
 
 (Cp. TO KciAAos beauty) 
 
 ^Sv^ agreeable, rj8-icDj/j t^'S-ict-to?, 
 
 (Cp. -^So/xat be pleased) 
 
 Tax^^ swift, Odaaaiv (BaTTcov), rdx-^o'To^;, 
 
 {6daa(i)v is for Taxioiv : see 56 c and 47 d) 
 
 For the declension of these comparatives see 149. 
 
 182 Several common adjectives are irregular, because of 
 sound changes, or because words quite different have 
 come to be grouped together : 
 
 POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
 
 1. dya96^ good, dfieLPcov, apicTTo^ hrave, excel- 
 
 lent, able, 
 ^eXricop, ^eXtlctto^ virtuous, 
 
 Kpeia-aoiv (56 c), Kpdri(TTo<; strong, 
 
 superior, 
 (Cp. TO Kpa.To<i strength) 
 
 (\(pa)v, poetic), (X(o(TTo<;, poetic). 
 
 2. KaKos bad, KaKicov, KdKicrTo*;, 
 
 yeipoiv, yeipio-To^;, 
 
 Tjcro-oiv (56 c), (rjKKTTa, adv., least), 
 
 3. /xeya? tall, fiei^^cDV (for p.4yi(TT0^. 
 
 large, fieylajv), 
 
 4. 6Xtyo9 little, iXdo-crcov (56 c), eXa;(tcrro9, 
 
 pi. few, jjLeLOJv, 
 
 5. 7roXu9 much, TrXeicop, irXiov, TrXel(TTo<;. 
 
 many, (Cp. TrXews, to TrXrj6o<s) 
 
 6. pdhios easy pdcov, paaro^;. 
 
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 67 
 
 183 The following adjectives lack the positive 
 
 COMPARATIVE 
 
 SUPERLATIVE 
 
 (77/30 hefore) TTp6repo<; former, Trpairo? first 
 
 (ynep over, beyond) virepTepof; higher, vnepraTo^, high- 
 
 supeinor, est, supreme. 
 
 vaT€po<; later, vcrraro? latest. 
 
 184 Two superlatives, co-xaros farthest^ extreme^ and vTraros liigJi- 
 est^ and a few others in poetry, contain an old ending -aros. 
 TrpwTos is contracted from Trpd-aros. 
 
 VIII. NuMEKAL Adjectives 
 
 185 The cardinal and ordinal numbers are given in the 
 • table (188). 
 
 The notation in the second column is Byzantine, and now 
 less used, r (abbreviation for (tt) takes the place of p (27) 
 for six\ o (koppa) and ^ (sampi) are old letters retained for 
 this purpose only. The symbols are combined by addition, 
 the larger sum being written at the left : a^l^= 1902. 
 
 186 The ordinal numbers, and the cardinal numbers from 
 ^LaKocrioi on, are adjectives of three endings. The 
 other cardinals are indeclinable, except the first four, 
 which are as follows : 
 
 187 
 
 IN". 
 
 cTs 
 
 fJLia 
 
 €V 
 
 Tp€LS Tpia 
 
 Tco-o-ap€S Tcaaapa 
 
 G. 
 
 €V6S 
 
 HLids 
 
 €v6s 
 
 TpLCDV 
 
 Tccrcrapcov 
 
 D. 
 
 €Vl 
 
 |xia 
 
 €Vl 
 
 Tpiai 
 
 TcVaapori 
 
 A. 
 
 €va 
 
 }JLiav 
 
 €V 
 
 Tp€LS Tpia 
 
 Tccrcrapas TeVcrapa 
 
 a. hvo (or Sua) in poetry) sometimes has hvolv, 
 dfKJxi) both always has dfjL(f>o'LT/, for the genitive and 
 dative. 
 
58 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 
 
 Cardinal 
 
 Ordinal 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 Js, p.£a, ^v owe 
 
 TTpwTos first 
 
 2 
 
 r 
 
 8vo 
 
 8evT6pos 
 
 3 
 
 y 
 
 Tpeis, Tpt'tt 
 
 TpfTOS 
 
 4 
 
 b' 
 
 T^<r<rcp€s, rij-o-apa 
 
 T^TttpTOS 
 
 5 
 
 c' 
 
 ir^VTc 
 
 ir^HiTTOs 
 
 6 
 
 ?' 
 
 n 
 
 '^KTOS 
 
 7 
 
 V 
 
 kirra 
 
 '^P80}JL0S 
 
 8 
 
 ^' 
 
 6KT(i> 
 
 6-y8oos 
 
 9 
 
 9' 
 
 Ivve'a 
 
 '^VttTOS 
 
 10 
 
 i' 
 
 84Ka 
 
 8€KaT05 
 
 11 
 
 itt' 
 
 ^v8€Ka 
 
 €Vb€KaT05 
 
 12 
 
 ^P' 
 
 SiGScKa 
 
 8«8^KaTos 
 
 13 
 
 
 Tp€is Kttl 8^,ca 
 
 TpCros Kal 8€KaTos 
 
 14 
 
 iS' 
 
 reo-o-apcs Kal 84kca 
 
 TCTopTos Kal 8eKaTos 
 
 15 
 
 u 
 
 irevTeKa£8€Ka 
 
 irevTCKaiS^Karos 
 
 16 
 
 ir' 
 
 lKKai8€Ka 
 
 cKKai8€KaTos 
 
 17 
 
 if 
 
 €TrTaKai8€Ka 
 
 €irTaKat8^KaTos 
 
 18 
 
 it{ 
 
 OKTOiKdCBiKO. 
 
 OKTWKaiScKaTOS 
 
 19 
 
 a 
 
 €vv6aKai8€Ka 
 
 evv€aKat84KaTos 
 
 20 
 
 K 
 
 cliKocrt 
 
 fxKoarTos 
 
 30 
 
 K 
 
 rpidKOvra 
 
 TptdKocrrds 
 
 40 
 
 K-' 
 
 Tco-o-apctKovTa 
 
 TCo-o-opaKoo-Tos 
 
 50 
 
 V 
 
 irevTi^KovTtt 
 
 TTCVTI^KOOrTds 
 
 60 
 
 V 
 
 C^lilKOVTa 
 
 €|iriKOO-rds 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 ipSojxirJKOVTa 
 
 €p8ojJLi]KO<rTds 
 
 80 
 
 TF 
 
 6Y8oViKovTa 
 
 678otiKo<rTds 
 
 90 
 ~100 
 
 9 
 
 €V€VlfJKOVTa 
 
 €V€V1]KO<rTds 
 
 P 
 
 iKardv 
 
 €KaToerTds 
 
 200 
 
 <r 
 
 8idKo<rioi 
 
 SidKOorioo-rds 
 
 300 
 
 r 
 
 TpiaKoo-iot 
 
 TpidKoo-ioo-Tds 
 
 400 
 
 V 
 
 T€TpaKO<riOl 
 
 T€TpaKO(rio<rTds 
 
 500 
 
 <!>' 
 
 TTCVTaKOO-lOl 
 
 ircvTaKoo-ioorrds 
 
 600 
 
 X 
 
 claKoo-ioi 
 
 4|aKO(rio<rTds 
 
 700 
 
 ¥ 
 
 eirTaKoo-ioi 
 
 lirTaKoo-ioirrds 
 
 800 
 
 <a 
 
 OKTaKOO-lOl 
 
 OKTaKoo-totrrds 
 
 900 
 
 ^' 
 
 €vaKdo-ioi 
 
 IvaKoo-iocT-ds 
 
 1000 
 
 a 
 
 xtXioi 
 
 XiXiocrrds 
 
 2000 
 
 > 
 
 8i<r\tXtot 
 
 SurxiXiocrrds 
 
 3000 
 
 ,Y 
 
 rpicrxtXioi 
 
 TpwrxiXiooT-ds 
 
 10000 
 
 ^t 
 
 |Jivpioi 
 
 (jLupioo-rds 
 
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 
 
 59 
 
 189 From ouSe eh and /Ar^Se eh not even one are formed 
 the general negatives ovSeh, fxrjSeh no one, declined : 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 ovbeis 
 
 ov6€|JLia 
 
 OTjSev 
 
 Plur. oi)8€V€S 
 
 G. 
 
 o\i5€v6s 
 
 oxiSeiJLLds 
 
 o-uSevos 
 
 o-uScvcov 
 
 D. 
 
 ovhevi 
 
 oxiSeiita 
 
 oiiSevL 
 
 ovhi(Ti 
 
 A. 
 
 o-uSeva 
 
 ovSeiJLiav 
 
 ovbev 
 
 oxiSevas 
 
 a. Xote the change of accent from ccs to ovScts. 
 
 b. For ovTt?, fxrJTLs see 224 a. 
 
 190 When units, tens, etc., are combined, Km may be omitted if 
 the larger number precedes, otherwise not. Thus 325 is 
 
 7reVT€ Kttt €iKO(TL KoL TptdKO(riOt, 
 or TpLOLKOCTLOL KOL €LKO(TL KOL TTCl^TC, 
 or TptaKOCTLOL eiKOCTL 7r€VT€. 
 
 So with ordinals also. 
 
 191 Multiple adjectives are formed in -ttXoi)? -fold: 
 8t7rXov9 twofold, 7To\\a7T\ov<; manifold, etc. (90, 87) ; 
 
 192 Also in -TrXacrto? : StTrXacrio? twice as great or 
 (plural) as 77iany, TroXXaTrXao-iog ma7iy times as great 
 or many. 
 
 Abstract and collective nouns of number are formed in 
 .-a? (stem -a8), several of which English has adopted : 
 
 7) /xova?, /xovaSos iinitij, monad, Scko.^ the numher ten, decad, 
 
 rj Bvd<;, Svd8o<s pair, duality, decade, 
 
 rj Tptds, rptaSos irinity, triad, /xvpta? myriad, 
 
 cKarov fivpidSe^ a million. 
 
 For numeral adverbs, see 232, 233. 
 
 193 When it means countless, a great many, fiipioi is often printed 
 fjLvptoL : in a related sense a singular /Avptos is found : iv ttcvi^ 
 jxvpLa in the depths of poverty. 
 
60 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 194 
 
 
 B. PRONOUNS 
 Personal Pronouns 
 
 
 First Person 
 
 Second Person 
 
 Third Person 
 
 Sing. N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 €\LOV, \LOV 
 k[L0i, jXOl 
 
 crv thou, you 
 aov, crov 
 (701, croi 
 
 
 oS his, of him, etc. 
 ot 
 
 € 
 
 Plur. N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 f||jL6LS we 
 
 f)|ICOV 
 i\[LlV 
 
 €[JL6LS you 
 
 v\uv 
 
 
 (r<l)(ov 
 
 0-<|)LO'L 
 
 ac))ds 
 
 Du. N. A. 
 G. D. 
 
 (V(0), 
 
 (vcov) 
 
 (0-<|)(0) 
 
 ((r<t>(3v) 
 
 
 195 a. The enclitic forms (19 a) are used when the pronoun is 
 without emphasis ; the corresponding accented forms are em- 
 phatic. 
 
 b. But the accented forms are regularly used with prepo- 
 sitions, though we find xpos fxe, 7rp6<s a-e, and some others. 
 
 c. For stronger emphasis the enclitic ye is added to some 
 forms j in lywye, efjLotye the accent is drawn back. 
 
 196 Poets use rjfitv, vfitv, less often rjfid<;, vfxds, for metrical con- 
 venience ; also the old forms a-iOev for a-ov, Wev for ov, viv, or 
 (T<ji€ for the ace. sing, and plu. of the third person, and acfuv 
 for (r(f>L(ri. The dual forms are confined to poetry. 
 
 197 The personal pronoun of the third person is rare in Attic 
 prose ; ol and o-</)to-t occur oftenest, and are reflexive (200). 
 In its place is used avro? in the oblique cases. 
 
PRONOUNS 
 
 61 
 
 198 Auro9, avTT], avT6(v) is declined like o-o(l)6<; (76), ex- 
 cept that there is no vocative and the neuter singular 
 nominative and accusative drops -p. Only the phrase 
 TO avToiv) often retains -v. 
 
 199 Autos bas three meanings ; 
 
 a. Standing alone in the oblique cases, liinij her, it, 
 them, etc. (197). 
 
 b. Standing after the .article, same, Lat. idem. 
 
 c. Without the article, agreeing in case with a noun 
 or pronoun, or standing alone in the nominative, self, 
 Lat. ipse, 
 
 200 Reflexive pronouns (refen-ing back to the subject) are 
 made by adding aurd? to the personal pronouns ; 
 they are needed only in oblique cases. (See 203.) 
 
 201 The indefinite aXXos, aXX^^, aXXo other (Lat. alius, 
 alia, aliud), used both adjectively and substantively, 
 is declined like avros (198). 
 
 202 The reciprocal pronoun, meaning one another, each 
 other, is formed from aXXo? by doubling the stem. 
 It is not needed in the singular nor in the nomina- 
 tive : 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Phi. G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 dXXT|Xo)V 
 dXXtjXoLS 
 dXXrjXous 
 
 dXXriXcov 
 dXXtjXats 
 dXXrjXds 
 
 dXX-qXojv 
 dXXrjXoLS 
 dXXtiXa 
 
 Dii. G. D. 
 A. 
 
 dXXrjXoiv 
 dXX-qXco 
 
 dXXriXaiv 
 dXXiiXd 
 
 dXXrjXoiv 
 dXX-nXo) 
 
62 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 203 
 
 
 First Person 
 
 Second Person 
 
 Sing. G. 
 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 €fiaVTOV, -Ti\s of 
 myself, etc. 
 
 €|JLa\)TW, -TTJ 
 6[JLa\)T<5v, -TllV 
 
 o-eauToO, -xfis of thy- 
 self, etc. 
 ceavTco, -ttj 
 aeavTov, -ttiv 
 
 Plur. G. 
 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 f|}JLcov a-uTwv of our- 
 selves, etc. 
 fi|iLV avTois, -xais 
 f)[ids a-uToiJS, -Tas 
 
 v|X(ov aiiTcov of your- 
 selves, etc. 
 ufJLLV a-uTois, -Tats 
 v|ids a-uTovs, -TCLS 
 
 
 Third Person 
 
 Sing. G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 lauTOv, -TT\% of himself , of herself , etc. 
 
 €aVT(3, -TTJ 
 CaVTOV, -T11V 
 
 Plur. G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 cr<|>cov a-uTcov or eavTcov of themselves, etc. 
 a(|)icriv a-uTOLS, -rats or cavTois, -rats 
 cr<l>ds avTovs, -Tas or cavTO-us, -xds, -tcl 
 
 a. Instead of creaurov, etc., and eaurov, etc., the 
 contracted forms ctoajtov and avTov, etc., are also used. 
 
 204 Possessive pronouns, formed from the personal pro- 
 
 €/Lto9, -7}, -ov my, mine, 7]fji€Tepo<;, -d, -ov our, 
 
 (TO*;, (TTj, (Tov, thy, thine, vfierepos, -a, -op, your, 
 your, yours. 
 
 Also in poetry 
 OS, 7], 6v his, its, her (T<f>iTepo?, -d, -ov their, theirs, 
 dfjios (or oifios), -rj, -6v our (sometimes my). 
 
 a. <TffiiTtpo<i occurs in prose in a reflexive sense, their own. 
 
PRONOUNS 
 
 63 
 
 205 Demonstrative Pronouns 
 
 In early Greek 6, 97, ro, the later article (61), was 
 a demonstrative pronoun, this^ that, he, it, etc. ; in 
 Attic this force is retained in a few phrases (see 549). 
 When thus used, some print o, tj, ot, at with the 
 acute — which then always becomes grave (15). 
 a. In poetry 6, 17, ro is also used as a relative pronoun. 
 
 206 "OSe, iJSe, rdSe this (Lat. hie) is 6, 17, rd with the en- 
 clitic syllable -8e. For declension see 209. For the 
 accent of o8e, tJSc, otSe, atSe see 21 c and d. 
 
 207 Ouro9, avT-r)^ tovto this, that (Lat. is, ille) is also formed 
 from 6, 17, TO, and hence begins with r or the rough 
 breathing in the same places (209). 
 
 208 'E/ceti^o?, eKeivr), eKelvo that yonder (in poetry also 
 /cetfo?, K^vT], Kelvo) is declined like avros (198). 
 
 209 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. 
 
 686 
 
 Tl8€ 
 
 Td86 
 
 oStOS aVTT| TOVTO 
 
 
 G. 
 
 ToiiSe 
 
 TfjC786 
 
 T0{)8€ 
 
 TOIJTOU Ta-UT-qS TOTJTOU 
 
 
 D. 
 
 TcoSe 
 
 Tfj8€ 
 
 TC086 
 
 TOIJTCO TaVTT) TOVTW 
 
 
 A. 
 
 TovSe 
 
 TTJV8€ 
 
 t68€ 
 
 ToOtOV TaxlTTlV TOVTO 
 
 Plur. 
 
 IN". 
 
 018c 
 
 a'L8€ 
 
 Td8€ 
 
 oStoi auTai TavTa 
 
 
 G. 
 
 T(0V8€ 
 
 TC0V86 
 
 TC0V8€ 
 
 TOVTCOV TOVTCOV TOVTCOV 
 
 
 D. 
 
 TOLO-86 
 
 TaL0"8e 
 
 T0L0-8€ 
 
 TOVTOIS TaVTaiS TOVTOIS 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Toiio'8€ Tao-8€ 
 
 Td8€ 
 
 TOVTovs TavTds TavTa 
 
 Du. N 
 
 .A. 
 
 TC08€ 
 
 Ta)8€ 
 
 Ta)8€ 
 
 TOVTO) TOVTO) TOVTO) 
 
 G 
 
 .D. 
 
 T0LV86 
 
 T0LV86 
 
 T0LV8€ 
 
 TOVTOLV TOVTOLV TOVTOLV 
 
 a. For Toto-tSe, rato-tSe, etc., cp. 64 and 69 c. 
 
64 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 210 To all forms of oSe and ovtos the syllable -i is often 
 added, sometimes also to other demonstratives, to 
 point to something still more clearly as near at hand. 
 This -i always takes the accent ; before it -e, -o, and 
 -a are lost : 6St, ovroai this 7nan here. So tovtovI, 
 TavTTjaij TOVTL^ ravrt^ roSi, ovrodj toiovtovL 
 
 211 With oSe go 
 
 TotocrSe, TotaSe, Toiovhe such, Lat. talis (of quality) ; 
 Too-ocrSe, roo-T^Se, Toaovhe SO much^ SO great (Lat. 
 
 tantuSj pi. SO many, Lat. tot] of this size or 
 
 number ; 
 TTyXtfcocrSe, TrjXiKTJ^e, TrjXLKovhe SO great, SO old, 
 a. Poets often use the simpler forms without -Se : rotos, -a, 
 
 -OV ; TOO-OS, -17, -OV ; TTjXlKO'S, -rj, -OV. 
 
 212 With o5ro9 go 
 
 TOLOVTO<;, Toiavrrfy toiovto(v) talis] 
 
 ToaovTo^j TocravTr), too'ovto(v) tantus, pi. tot] 
 
 Tr)\LK0VT0<;y rrjXLKavrr], Tr)\iKovTo(y) SO great or old. 
 
 Relative Pronouns 
 
 213 In early Greek 09, rj, was demonstrative, like 6, rj, 
 TO (205) ; in Attic it retains this force in a few phrases 
 (560), but is commonly relative, meaning who, which, 
 that. The forms are 
 
 214 
 
 Sing. IS". 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 6s ii 
 
 '6 
 oS 
 
 
 
 Plur. [N". 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 ot ai a 
 (I)V (OV (bv 
 oTs als ois 
 oijs as a 
 
 Du. X. A. cS 
 
 G.D 
 
 oTv (Fem. rarely a, atv) 
 
PRONOUNS 65 
 
 215 To the demonstratives in 211, 212 correspond the rela- 
 tives 
 
 ofo9, olay olov of which hind^ [sucTi] as, qualis (of 
 
 quality) ; 
 ocro9, 00-17, 6(Tov of which size or number , [as great 
 
 or many'] as, quantus or quot (of quantity) ; 
 r}\LKo<;, rfKiKT), tjXlkov of which age or value. 
 
 216 The enclitic particle -Trcp added to a relative pronoun (or 
 adverb; see 236) makes more distinct the reference to the 
 antecedent, which is thereby emphasized : oTrep which very 
 thing^ the very thing which^ wo-n-ep just as : OiXo) airep a-v I wish 
 the very things that you do (E. it. 991). 
 
 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns 
 
 217 The interrogative pronoun Tiq, tl who? what? and 
 the indefinite pronoun rt?, rt some one, something, 
 any one, anything, are spelt alike but differ in accent 
 (219). 
 
 Interrogativ^e ti% never changes the acute to the 
 grave (15 and a) ; forms of two syllables accent the 
 first. 
 
 Indefinite 719 is enclitic (19 b) ; disyllabic forms 
 that require an accent (20 d) have it on the ultima. 
 
 a. The poetic form arra is not enclitic. 
 
 218 The enclitic rt? added to 09 makes the indefinite or 
 general relative pronoun 00-719, 17719, 071 any one 
 who, anything which, whoever, etc. (220). For the 
 accent see 21 a, d. 
 
 In a similar way 719 following other relatives (215, 
 222) makes their reference more general or inclusive. 
 
66 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 
 Interrogative 
 
 InDEFIxVITE 
 
 Sing. IS". 
 
 TIS TL 
 
 TIS TL 
 
 G. 
 
 TIVOS, TO-U 
 
 TIVOS, T0\) 
 
 D. 
 
 TLVl, TCtt 
 
 TlVl, T(0 
 
 A. 
 
 Tiva Tl 
 
 TlVa Tl 
 
 Plur. IN". 
 
 TLV€S TLVa 
 
 TLV6S TLVa (dTTa) 
 
 G. 
 
 TLVCOV 
 
 TIVCOV 
 
 D. 
 
 Tiai 
 
 Tiai 
 
 A. 
 
 Tivas TLva 
 
 TLvas Tiva (ciTTa) 
 
 Du. IS^. A. 
 
 TIV€ 
 
 TIV€ 
 
 G.D. 
 
 TIVOIV 
 
 TLVOLV 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 oo-Tis 
 
 TJTIS 
 
 OTl 
 
 G. 
 
 oStlvos, otou 
 
 Vtlvos 
 
 OUTLVOS, 0T0\) 
 
 D. 
 
 (OTIVL, OT(0 
 
 TjTLVL 
 
 (OTIVI, OTCO 
 
 A. 
 
 OVTLVa 
 
 TJVTlVa 
 
 OTL 
 
 Plur. N. 
 
 01TIV6S 
 
 aLTlV€S 
 
 dTLva, dTTa 
 
 G. 
 
 (bVTlVCOV, OTCOV 
 
 WVTIVCOV 
 
 5vTLV(0V, OTCOV 
 
 D. 
 
 oto-TLCTl, 6tOIS 
 
 aiO-TLCTL 
 
 oTo-TiaL, OTOLS 
 
 A. 
 
 owTivas 
 
 do-Tivas 
 
 dTLva, dTTa 
 
 Du. K A. 
 
 oStivc 
 
 WTIV€ 
 
 WTLV6 
 
 G.D. 
 
 OLin-ivoiv 
 
 otvTlVOLV 
 
 oTvTLVOlV 
 
 221 a. The shorter forms otov, otco, arra, otojv^ orot?, espe- 
 cially oTov and otm, are more common than the cor- 
 responding trisyllabic forms. 
 
 b. The neuter art is usually printed o tl or 
 
PRONOUNS 67 
 
 o, TL to distinguisli it from the conjunction Stl tlia% 
 because, which is merely a special use of the same 
 word. 
 
 c. The addition of ovv makes the most inclusive 
 general pronoun, with loss of all relative or interroga- 
 tive force : oaTiaovv any one ivhatever, otlovv any- 
 thing whatever ; ace. ovtivovv^ y]vTivovv, etc. 
 
 222 Other interrogative pronouns, and the corresponding 
 indefinite or general relatives (made by prefixing 
 the relative stem 6-), are : 
 
 INTERROGATIVES GENERAL RELATIVES 
 
 77076/309 ivhich (of two) ? oTTOTepo^; tvhichever (of 
 
 two), 
 
 TToto? of what sort f ottoIo^ of whatever sort, 
 
 TToa-o^i how large ? ^\, how oiroo-o^s of wlmtever size 
 
 many? (number), 
 
 TTTyXt/co? hovj great f how ottt^Xi/co? of whatever age 
 
 old? or size. 
 
 223 All indefinite or general relative words (sometimes 
 also the simple relatives) are used as indirect inter- 
 rogatives. 
 
 224 The general negative pronouns ovSet? and fxyj^eis have 
 been given in 189. 
 
 So from ovS' (/xT/S*) €T€po<; we have ouSerepo? and 
 
 fxr]heTepos neither of the two. 
 
 a. Poets use ovrts and /ArJTtg for ou8et5 and /xrySei's ; the 
 neuter forms ovtl and /xrJTt are used also in prose as a dverb s 
 (230), not at all 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
68 PRONOUNS 
 
 225 The indefinite 6 (17, to) Seli/a so-and-so^ wliaf s-Ms- 
 name, is used as indeclinable, and is also declined : 
 
 Sing. N. 6 helva Plu. N. ol heLV€<; 
 
 G. Tov Setz^o? G. T(t)v Beivcov 
 
 A. TOV SeLva A. Tov<; Setz^a? 
 
 226 The relations of form and meaning between the cor- 
 relative pronouns are shown in the table (227) ; forms 
 in parenthesis are poetic or rare. 
 
 227 
 
 Correlative Pronouns 
 
 DE3I0NSTRATIVE 
 
 Relative 
 
 (Specific) 
 
 Interroga- 
 tive 
 (Direct and 
 Indirect) 
 
 Indefinite 
 (Enclitic) 
 
 General 
 
 Rel., Indir. 
 
 Interrog. 
 
 (6, 6s) o6€ hie 
 
 oStos is, ille 
 €K€lVOS ille 
 
 (6) 8s 
 
 ivlio 
 
 TLS 
 
 who 9 
 
 TIS 
 
 some one, 
 any one 
 
 OO-TLS 
 
 whoever, 
 any one who 
 
 (tolos) 
 Toioo-Se 
 
 TOIOVTOS 
 
 talis 
 
 oTos 
 
 qualis 
 
 TTOIOS 
 
 of what 
 sort 9 
 
 (iroios) 
 
 of some 
 sort 
 
 OTTOIOS 
 
 of ivhatever 
 sort 
 
 (too-os) 1 
 
 tot 
 TOCOVTOS J 
 
 OOroS 
 
 qua7itus, 
 quot 
 
 TTCO-OS 
 
 how large 9 
 how many 9 
 
 (iTOO'OS) 
 
 of some 
 
 size 
 
 oirdaos 
 
 of whatever 
 size, number 
 
 (ttiXikos) 
 TTiXiKoo-Sc 
 
 TTjXlKOVTOS 
 
 so old, 
 so im- 
 por- 
 tant 
 
 flXlKOS 
 
 of which 
 age 
 
 TT-qXlKOS 
 
 of what 
 age 9 
 
 (irTlXlKOS) 
 
 of some 
 age 
 
 OTTTlXlKOS 
 
 of whatever 
 age 
 
 €T€pOS alter 
 
 
 irdTCpos 
 
 uter 9 
 
 (irdTcpos) 
 
 oiroTcpos 
 
 whichever 
 
ADVERBS 
 
 69 
 
 C. ADVERBS 
 
 Several endings denoting place are mucli like case- 
 endings ; some words formed witli tliem may be taken 
 either as adverbs or as nouns. The endings are 
 
 -t, -01, -at at or in, for the place where (locative) ; 
 -Oev from, for tke place whence (ablative) ; 
 -8e, -ae, -^e to or toward, for the place ivhither. 
 
 The ending -§€ is added to the accusative (cp. 
 accusative of limit, 533) ; -^€ seems to be for -crSe, -Se 
 being added to the accusative plural ; -i may be re- 
 garded as forming a locative singular, -cri a locative 
 plural. 
 
 oIkoi (14 a) at 
 
 \ome. 
 
 aXkoOi elsewhere, 
 
 ^AOTjvrjo-L in 
 
 Athens, 
 ^EXevalvL at 
 
 J^levsis, 
 iT€pa)9i on the 
 
 other side, 
 
 Ovpacri at the 
 
 doors^ 
 ivSo0L, ivSov 
 
 within, 
 
 oLKoOev from 
 
 home, 
 aWoOev from 
 
 elsewhere, 
 ^KOriv'r]Oevfrom 
 
 Athens, 
 '"EiXevcrlpoOev 
 
 from IlJleiisis, 
 eripojOev from 
 
 the other side, 
 irdvToOev from 
 
 every side, 
 dv pad ^v from 
 
 without, 
 evhoOev from 
 
 ivithin, 
 
 oLKaSe homeward, 
 
 aXXocre else- 
 
 whither, 
 'Adijvdi^e to 
 
 Athens, 
 'EXevalvoiSe to 
 
 Eleusis, 
 erepojcre to the 
 
 other side, 
 TrdpToae in all 
 
 directions, 
 6vpd^€ out of 
 
 doors, 
 
TO ADVERBS 
 
 XdjJ^cLL on the ^a^xadev from ;(a/xa^€ to the 
 
 ground^ the ground^ ground, 
 
 a. Several adverbs of the place lohere end in -ov : 
 TTavTCLyov every- iravraxoOev from iravTaxocre in all 
 
 where, everywhere, directions, 
 
 avTov in the very avToOev from the avrocre to the very 
 
 place, very place, place. 
 
 229 Adverbs of manner in -a>9 are made from many adjec- 
 tives and some participles and pronouns ; they are like 
 the genitive plural masculine, with -9 in place of -v: 
 
 (T0(j)6^ wise, gen. pi. (rocj)^^, (ro(j)a)<; wisely, 
 
 SLKaLO<; just, hiKai(i)v, hiKaioj^ justly, 
 
 aXr)9y]^ time, dXrjOcjv, dXr]9o)<; truly, 
 
 7)hv<; pleasant, rjSeojv, 7jSea)<; pleasantly, 
 
 elKcj<s like, elKOTojv, elKOToj^ naturally, 
 
 r€Tayii€vo<; reTayixivoiv, reray/AeVw? in an 
 arranged, orderly way. 
 
 230 For many adjectives the neuter accusative, singular or 
 plural, is used as an adverb : irokv much, ttoXXcc many 
 times, ixLKpov a little, fxeya and ixeydXa greatly, Trpcorov 
 and TrpojTa first. 
 
 231 Some common adverbs do not readily fall into classes. Thus 
 the adverb for dya^o? is cv well-^ from raxv'i the old adverb 
 rdxa quicMy means in prose perhaps, while Ta^cws or raxv 
 means quichly ; from several prepositions are made adverbs in 
 -w: aj/o) above, upward, /carw below, co-w within, c^w outside, 
 Trpoa-oi forward, iroppu), TTopa-u) farther on, afar. Other adverbial 
 endings are -B6v, -Srjv, -a-ri, -et: €vSov ivithin, a-Toixq^ov in rows, 
 KpvpSrjv secretly, vewo-Tt lately, IXk-qvia-Ti in Greek, d/xaxet with- 
 out fighting, iravh-qixu with full levy. 
 
ADVERBS 71 
 
 232 Adverbs of number for the first three cardinal num- 
 bers are aVaf once^ St? twice ^ Tpi% thrice. For higher 
 numbers the adverbs end in -a/ct? : rerpa/ct? four 
 timeSj TrevTOLKL^; five times^ o/cra/ct? eight times, ipdKL<; 
 nine times, elKO(TdKL<; twenty times, kKaTovT(XKi<;, etc. 
 
 On the same model are made others, like TroXXa/ct? 
 often from ttoXu?, oXtya/ct? a few times, seldom, irXeov- 
 dKL<; more times, oadKi<; as often as. 
 
 233 Other adverbs of number, commonly denoting division, are 
 fjiovaxr} (fjiovo?, fiovaxos) singly^ in one way only, Sixa and 81x17 
 in two parts, doubly, rpixa and rpixxi in three parts, triply, 
 TToXXaxlj in many ivays, Travraxfj iyi every ivay. 
 
 234 Adverbs derived from adjectives, and some others, 
 are compared like adjectives ; for the comparative the 
 neuter accusative singular is used, for the superlative 
 the neuter accusative plural : 
 
 POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
 
 (T0(j)aj(; wisely, cro(f)(oT€poi', ao(f)(jJTaTa, 
 
 o-a(j)(t)<; clearly, aa(j)4(Trepov, crac^ecrraTa, 
 
 TjSeojf; pleasa7ltly, rjSjov, rj^LCTTa, 
 
 TToXv much, 7r\4ov, TrXeto-ra, 
 
 Ta^fw? quicMy, Odrrov, rd^icTTa, 
 
 ev ivell, afxeLvov, better, apicrra, best, 
 
 fjidXa vei^y, fxdWop more, rather, /xaXto-ra most. 
 
 235 Some adverbs of place have the comparative and 
 superlative in -co : 
 
 dv(o above, dvcorepco, dvcoTdro), 
 
 iyyvs near, iyyvrepco, iyyvrdTco. 
 
 iyyvTepov, 
 
ADVERBS 
 
 236 
 
 COKRELATIVE AdVERBS 
 
 Demonstrative 
 
 Rela- 
 tive 
 (Specific) 
 
 Interrog- 
 ative 
 (Direct 
 
 and Ind.) 
 
 Indefi- 
 nite 
 (Enclitic) 
 
 General 
 
 Relative, 
 
 Indirect 
 
 Interrogative 
 
 (€V0a here) 
 €V0d5€ here 
 €VTav0a there 
 €K€L yonder 
 
 oS 
 
 where 
 
 €V0a 
 
 where 
 
 TTOO 
 
 where 9 
 
 TTOV 
 
 some- 
 where 
 
 OTTOU 
 
 wherever, 
 where 
 
 (€V0€V thence) 
 €V0ev86 thence 
 €VT€V0€V from here 
 Ik€L0€V from yonder 
 
 O0€V 
 
 whence 
 
 €V0€V 
 
 whence 
 
 Tr60€v 
 
 whence 9 
 
 iro0€v 
 
 from 
 some- 
 where 
 
 6'ir60€v 
 
 whencesoever, 
 whence 
 
 (€V0a hither) 
 €V0d8€ hither 
 
 €VTa{)0a ^ hither ov 
 {ivTOM^ol)] thither 
 
 CKCLO-C thither 
 
 ol 
 
 whither 
 
 €V0a 
 
 whither 
 
 TTOt 
 
 whither 9 
 
 TTOL 
 
 to some 
 place 
 
 OTTO I 
 
 whithersoever, 
 whither 
 
 t6t€ then 
 VVV now 
 
 8t€ 
 
 when 
 
 iroTC 
 
 when 9 
 
 iroTC 
 
 sometime 
 
 oiroTC 
 
 tvhenever, when 
 
 TTlVLKd8€ yust 
 
 TTiviKavTaJ then 
 
 T]VLKa 
 
 just when 
 
 TTTlVLKa 
 
 just when 9 
 
 
 OTTTIVLKa 
 
 just when 
 
 (o)S) so, thus 
 58€ \ in this 
 
 oaiTco(s)i «^«y 
 
 €K€lV(OS in that tvay 
 
 as, hoiv 
 
 irws 
 
 how 9 
 
 TTCOS 
 
 somehow 
 
 oirws 
 
 how 
 
 Txi8« 
 TavTTi 
 
 in this or 
 • that direc- 
 tion or way 
 
 in ivhich 
 way 
 
 TTTJ 
 
 in what 
 way 9 
 
 m some 
 way 
 
 OTTTI 
 
 i7i which way 
 
VERBS 73 
 
 237 In the table (236) the common adverbs from pro- 
 nominal stems, and some others of like significance, 
 are arrano-ed so as to show their relations of form and 
 meaning. Those in parenthesis are poetic or much 
 less usual. 
 
 238 In prose €v6a and evOev are mostly relative ; but they are de- 
 monstrative with /xeV 8e, and in the phrases evOa koL tvOa 
 
 here and there^ hither and thither^ tvO^v koX tvBiv from this 
 nde and that^ and often in poetry. 
 
 239 Like os (214) ws was originally demonstrative; poets often 
 so use it (accented ws or ws), and prose writers in a few 
 phrases : /cat w? even so, ov8* <Ss not even thus. 
 
 240 a. With interrogatives ttotc adds an emotional tone : tl irore 
 ivhat, pray? irov ttotc tvJiere in the world? 
 
 b. Several compounds are made with ttotc, as ovttotc, /itJttotc, 
 ovSeVore never, ovttwttotc never yet. 
 
 c. On the same model are formed oAAotc at another time, 
 eK(x(TTOTe each time. 
 
 d. Tori is used only in the phrase totI ixlv . . . totc 8c at 
 one time . . . at another time. 
 
 241 All the relatives and indirect interrogatives become subordi- 
 nating conjunctions ; their meaning is then much influenced 
 by the mode of the verb. 
 
 D. VERBS 
 
 242 The forms of the verb ai'e classed under 
 
 Three Voices —Active, Middle, Passive ; 
 Four Finite Modes — Indicative, Subjunctive, Op- 
 tative, Imperative — besides the Infinitive, or verbal 
 noun, and the Participle, or verbal adjective ; 
 
74: VERBS 
 
 Seven Tenses — Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, 
 Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect ; 
 
 Three Numbers — Singular, Plural, Dual ; 
 Three Persons, as in English and Latin. 
 
 243 Two Conjugations, the Mt-conjugation and the XI- 
 conjugation (from the final syllable of the present 
 indicative active) are distinguished in the present and 
 imperfect only ; elsewhere they are alike. 
 
 244 The active and passive voices are used about as in Latin ; the 
 middle indicates that the subject acts on itself or with some 
 reference to self. (See 600.) The passive and middle have 
 the same form, except in the future and aorist. 
 
 245 The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, with the infini- 
 tive and participle, are used nearly as in Latin ; the optative 
 is the mode of wishing, and of hypothetical and softened 
 statement. (See 476, 479.) 
 
 246 The tenses of the indicative are classed as 
 
 Primary — the Present, Future, Perfect, Future 
 Perfect ; and 
 
 Secondary, or Historical — the Imperfect, Aorist, 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 247 The tenses are used (in the indicative) nearly as in Latin or 
 English. The aorist {a-6pL(TTo<s undefined) in the indicative 
 has for its leading use that of the English simple past tense. 
 
 248 The verb-stem is the part that appears in all the 
 forms and stands for the general or fundamental 
 meaning, which the other elements modify by add- 
 ing a specific setting. Verbs are called vowel verbs, 
 liquid verbs, mute verbs, from the last letter of 
 
VERBS 75 
 
 the verb-stem. Thus Trauo) is a vowel verb of the 
 w-conjugation, the verb-stem being nav- stop ; Travco 
 J stop (transitive), Travo^ai I stop myself or cease 
 (middle), or am stopt (passive). 
 
 a. But the terms o>-verb and /xi-verb are used to denote the 
 conjugation to which the present and imperfect belong. 
 
 249 The accent of verbs is recessive. For exceptions see 
 285, 296 a, 297, 300 d, (165), 349 and a. 
 
 250 Verb forms will be described in the following order : 
 
 A. VeEBS of the O - Cois'JUGATIOli 
 
 I. Vowel verbs, not contracting. 
 
 II. Vowel verbs contracting in the present system. 
 
 III. Liquid verbs. 
 
 IV. Mute verbs. 
 
 B. Verbs of the Mt- Conjugation^ 
 
 I. Verbs in -vi5/x6. 
 
 II. Verbs in -r;/xt, with stem in -a-.r}-. 
 
 III. At8a)/xt, TiOrjfJLL, irjfiL. 
 
 IV. Irregular and defective fti-verbs. 
 
 251 Verb-forms, while by meaning they fall into voices, 
 modes, tenses, etc., also group themselves by forma- 
 tion in tense-systems, each system having one tense- 
 stem throughout. These tense-systems, and with 
 them all the formative elements of regular verbs, are 
 described in the following sections. Travco is an ex- 
 ample of regular vowel verbs, with verb-stem ending 
 in a long vowel or diphthong (252-254). 
 
7e 
 
 12 -VERBS 
 
 252 
 
 
 
 
 Active 
 
 Paradigm : 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Primary Tenses 
 
 Secondary Tenses 
 
 |Si. 
 
 1 
 
 irav-tii 
 
 €-irai)-o-v 
 
 irav-co 
 
 
 2 
 
 irav-eis 
 
 c-irav-c-s 
 
 irav-xis 
 
 
 3 
 
 iraoj-CL 
 
 €-Tra\)-€ 
 
 iraij-T) 
 
 ;fi. 
 
 1 
 
 ira'u-o-p.cv 
 
 €-'ira\i-o-|X€V 
 
 ira-u-co-iiev 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■< 
 
 2 
 
 irav-e-TC 
 
 e-TTav-e-Tc 
 
 TTa-U-TI-TC 
 
 
 3 
 
 ira-u-ouo-i 
 
 €-TTai)-0-V 
 
 TTa-U-OXTL 
 
 |Du 
 
 2 
 
 ira-u-c-Tov 
 
 c-Tra\)-€-Tov 
 
 Tra\>-T|-Tov 
 
 
 3 
 
 iraij-c-Tov 
 
 c-iraD-c-TTiv 
 
 irav-Ti-Tov 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 ira-u-cro) 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 ira-u-o-CLS 
 
 
 
 H ■ 
 
 3 
 
 irav-crci 
 
 etc. 
 as in the pres. 
 
 
 • 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 
 €-irai)-(ra 
 
 ira-u-crco 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 €-Tra\)-o-a-s 
 
 irav-o'Tis 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 
 c-irau-o-e 
 
 ira-u-o-T) 
 
 1 
 
 
 €-'rra\;-(ra-}i€V 
 
 Tra\>-o-(o-|X€V 
 
 2 
 
 
 €-'Tra'u-o-a-T€ 
 
 Trail -cni-Ts 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 c-irav-cra-v 
 
 iraxi-ccocrL 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 
 l-iraii-o-a-Tov 
 
 Trav-cTi-Tov 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 €-Trau-o-a-TT|v 
 
 Trav-o"T]-Tov 
 
 fa 
 
 as 
 
 1 
 
 TT^-irau-Ka 
 
 c-ire-TraiJ-KTi, -€iv 
 
 TTC-ira'u-Ko) 
 
 2 
 
 TTC-Trav-Kas 
 
 C-TTC-iraxl-KTl-S, -€LS 
 
 ire-TraiJ-KTis 
 
 s 
 |Pi- 
 
 3 
 
 Tr€-'ira\j-K€ 
 
 e-ire-TraiJ-Kei 
 
 etc. 
 
 1 
 
 TTC-Tra-u-Ka-jJicv 
 
 c-irc-iraij-Kci-ixev 
 
 as in pres. 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 ire-iraii-Ka-Te 
 
 TTC-TTaV-KdO-l 
 
 e-ire-TTa-u-KCL-TC 
 c-ire-iraxi-KC-o-av 
 
 or 
 TreiravKws (o, 
 
 §Du. 
 
 2 
 
 ire-Tra-u-Ka-TOV 
 
 €-ir€-ira\)-K€i-Tov 
 
 US, If 
 
 Ph 
 
 3 
 
 ire-irav-Ka-TOv 
 
 e-ire-irav-Kci-TTiv 
 
 etc. 
 
VOWEL VERBS 
 
 T7 
 
 iravo) (irav-) stop 
 
 Active 
 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive and 
 Participle 
 
 TTa-U-OL-IJLL 
 
 
 Inf. irav-eiv 
 
 irav-OL-s 
 
 iraO-c 
 
 
 irav-oi 
 
 irav-e-To) 
 
 
 ira-u-OL-fJiev 
 
 
 Ptc. ira-u-cov 
 
 Traxi-OL-Te 
 
 irav-e-TC 
 
 irav-ODcra 
 
 Trai3-0L€-v 
 
 Trau-o-VTcov * 
 
 irav-ov 
 
 ira-u-OL-Tov 
 
 Trai3-€-Tov 
 
 (See 166) 
 
 ira\j-OL-TT|v 
 
 Tra\)-€-Tcov 
 
 
 Trai3-<roi-|JLi 
 
 
 Inf. ira-u-crcLV 
 
 iraxi-oroL-s 
 
 
 
 TTav-croL 
 
 
 Ptc. Tra-u-crcov 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 ira-u-o-ouo-a 
 
 as in the pres. 
 
 
 ira-O-cov 
 
 (See 166) 
 
 irav-craL-iXL 
 
 
 
 iraii-o-€La-s, -craL-s 
 
 iraO-o-ov 
 
 Inf. Trav-cai 
 
 iraii-creLe, -craL 
 
 iraD-o-d-To) 
 
 
 iraii-o-ai-iiev 
 
 
 Ptc. TTaTj-ads 
 
 TraxJ-aai-Te 
 
 iraxi-aa-Te 
 
 iraij-adcra 
 
 irav-o-CLa-v, -craie-v 
 
 Trav-crd-VTwv 
 
 iraO-crav 
 
 Tra-u-crai-Tov 
 
 TTaii-cra-Tov 
 
 (See 162 b) 
 
 irau-o'aL-T'qv 
 
 iraD-o-d-Tcov ' 
 
 
 irc-Trav-Koi-jii 
 
 
 Inf. ire-irau-Ke-vai 
 
 ire-iraiJ-KOL-s 
 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 Ptc. ire-irau-Kws 
 
 as in pres. 
 
 
 ire-Trau-Kuta 
 
 or 
 
 
 ire-irau-Kos 
 
 ircirauKojs €1'tiv, 
 
 
 (See 171) 
 
 Cl'-ns, €LT1 
 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 ^ Later irav-^-rwo-av. 
 
 ^ Later irav-a-d-raxrav. 
 
78 
 
 12 -VERBS 
 
 253 
 
 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 Paradigm: 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Primary 
 
 Tenses 
 
 Secondary 
 Tenses 
 
 g Si. 
 
 1 
 
 Tra-u-o-iJiai 
 
 €-irav-6-fJL'riv 
 
 ira-u-cD-iJLai 
 
 fa 
 
 2 
 
 iraii-Ti, -€L 
 
 t-TTa-u-ou 
 
 ira-u-T) 
 
 Ph 
 
 3 
 
 ira\»-€-TaL 
 
 c-irau-e-To 
 
 irav-Ti-TaL 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 irau-o-ficSa 
 iraxi-€-o-0€ 
 
 e-irau-o-iJLeea 
 e-TraTj-€-<r6€ 
 
 -irav-ca-fJLeea 
 irav-Ti-o-Ge 
 
 H 
 I?; 
 
 3 
 
 Tra-u-o-vxai 
 
 e-ira-u-o-VTO 
 
 ira-u-co-VTai 
 
 1 Du 
 
 . 2 
 
 ira-u-e-aOov 
 
 c-TTaii-e-o-eov 
 
 ira-u-Ti-aeov 
 
 OS 
 
 3 
 
 irav-e-crOov 
 
 €-Trau-€-a6T|v 
 
 irav-Ti-o-Gov 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 TraT3-ao-|xai 
 
 
 
 as 
 
 2 
 
 irav-o-T), -a€i 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 irav-cre-Tai 
 
 etc. 
 as in the pres. 
 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 
 €-ira\)-o-d-|XT|V 
 
 irav-aco-ixaL 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 c-ira'U-o'a) 
 
 Traoj-o-Ti 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 c-TTav-cra-TO 
 
 ira-u-o-Ti-Tai 
 
 % PL 
 
 1 
 
 
 l-TTav-o-d-ixeea 
 
 TTau-crcb-iJLeGa 
 
 o 
 <(5 
 
 2 
 
 
 c-ira-u-o-a-aee 
 
 ira-u-o-'n-o'ee 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 e-Tra-u-o-a-VTo 
 
 irav-o-CD-VTai 
 
 Du 
 
 2 
 
 
 c-Traxi-o-a-o-Gov 
 
 Traxi-o-Ti-o-Gov 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 €-irau-ad-a0Tiv 
 
 irav-CTTi-aeov 
 
 S Si. 
 
 1 
 
 irc-iraD-iJLaL 
 
 c-Tre-irav-fJLTiv 
 
 ireirauiJLevos S 
 
 fa 
 
 2 
 
 Tr€-Tra\)-(rai 
 
 c-Tre-iraD-ao 
 
 T]S 
 
 (Xi 
 
 3 
 
 ire-irau-Tai 
 
 €-Tre-Trau-TO 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 'ir€-'ira\l-|JL€ea 
 TTC-Trav-o-Ge 
 
 c-Tre-irail-ixeea 
 l-irc-Trau-o-ee 
 
 TTCiravixcvoL a>jji€v 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 irt-iTav-in-aL 
 
 e-ire-TTav-VTO 
 
 a)cri 
 
 S Du 
 
 2 
 
 ir€-Tra\)-(r0ov 
 
 c-irc-irav-aeov 
 
 'ir€'ira\)|Ji€V(o t|tov 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 irc-TTau-creov 
 
 €-'ir€-'ira'U-o-eT]V 
 
 TITOV 
 
VOWEL VERBS 
 
 79 
 
 -iravb) (irav-) stop 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive and 
 Participle 
 
 TTav-oi-[Lr\v 
 
 
 Inf. irav-c-crGai 
 
 ira-u-oi-o 
 
 irav-ou 
 
 
 iraxi-oi-TO 
 
 irav-c-aGco 
 
 Ptc. irav-o-fJLcvos 
 
 TTaD-OL-fJL€ea 
 
 
 irav-o-ixevTi 
 
 ira-u-OL-crSe 
 
 TTOiv-c-dQe 
 
 irau-d-iievov 
 
 ira-u-OL-VTO 
 
 TraD-€-o-0(ov 
 
 (See 76) 
 
 iraxi-OL-o-Gov 
 
 Tra\)-€-aeov 
 
 
 ira})-oi-(TQT\v 
 
 Trai)-€-o-6o)V 
 
 
 irau-croi-ii'tiv 
 
 
 Inf. iral3-<r€-o-Gai 
 
 irav-croi-o 
 
 
 
 iraxi-o-OL-TO 
 
 
 Ptc. iraD-ad-fjLcvos 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 irau-cro-ixcvTi 
 
 as in the pres. 
 
 
 Tra\j-(rd-|Jievov 
 
 irau-aai-ixTiv 
 
 
 
 iraxi-o-aL-o 
 
 TraO-o-ai 
 
 Inf. irav-cra-orGaL 
 
 iraiJ-o-aL-TO 
 
 irau-crd-crGa) 
 
 
 •Tra\)-o-ai-|JL€0a 
 
 
 Ptc. irau-o-d-fjievos 
 
 TTav-aai-arQ^ 
 
 ira-u-aa-aGe 
 
 irau-o-a-fJLcvti 
 
 iraii-o-ai-VTo 
 
 iraD-dd-aGcov 
 
 iTa\)-ad-[i€vov 
 
 Traii-craL-o-6ov 
 
 Trail -(ra-cGov 
 
 
 irau-o-ai-o-eTiv 
 
 Tra\j-ad-o"G(ov 
 
 
 ir€Trai)|X€vos €lt|v 
 
 
 Inf. Tre-irav-o-Gai 
 
 €L11S 
 
 ire-irau-cro 
 
 
 €L11 
 
 ire-iraTj-crGo) 
 
 Ptc. 'ir€-'irau-(JL€Vos 
 
 irCTTaVfJieVOl €LT|fJL€V 
 
 
 TT€-ira\J-|JL€VTl 
 
 €LT|T6 
 
 ire-TTau-o-Gc 
 
 ir€-Trau-jJi€vov 
 
 €LT|(rav 
 
 Tre-iraxi-o-Gwv 
 
 
 ir€ira\)|xev(o cltitov 
 
 Trc-irav-cGov 
 
 
 €ir\Tr\v 
 
 irc-ira'U-o'Gwv 
 
 
80 
 
 fl- VERBS 
 
 
 
 
 Passive 
 
 Paradigm : 
 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Primary 
 
 Secondary 
 
 
 
 Tenses 
 
 Tenses 
 
 
 |Si- 
 
 1 
 
 iraii-o-iJLai 
 
 c-irau-o-fjiiiv 
 
 iraij-(o-|xai 
 
 fa 
 
 2 
 
 irav-T), -€L 
 
 e-iraiJ-OD 
 
 iraii-xi 
 
 P4 
 
 PL, 
 
 3 
 
 'iraii-€-Tai 
 
 c-iraiJ-c-TO 
 
 iraii-'n-Tai 
 
 |P1. 
 
 1 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 J^U 
 
 2 
 
 Like the Middle, p. 78 
 
 £ 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 Tra\)-9TJ-<ro-|iaL 
 Traxj-eTJ-o-x), -€i 
 irav-G'q-o'e-TaL 
 
 
 
 |pi. 
 
 1 
 
 Tra\)-6'q-(r6-[X€6a 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 'ira\)-0Ti-o-€-o'9€ 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 3 
 
 irau-eii-o-o-VTai 
 
 
 
 Du 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 iravj-STi-o-c-o-Oov 
 irav-6Ti-o'€-o-6ov 
 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 
 c-Tra-u-S-ri-v 
 
 TTav-So) 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 c-iraiJ-eTi-s 
 
 irav-OTJ-s 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 €-iraij-0Ti 
 
 irau-Sfi 
 
 ^ PI. 
 
 1 
 
 
 c-iraiJ-Bii-iJLev 
 
 iraD-Gco-ixev 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 2 
 
 
 ^-Trai3-6T|-T€ 
 
 irav-6fi-T€ 
 
 3 
 
 
 c-Tra-u-Oti-o-av 
 
 TTau-eoao-i 
 
 Du 
 
 2 
 
 
 c-iraii-OTi-Tov 
 
 Trau-Sfj-Tov 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 €-irai)-6Ti-TTiv 
 
 ira\)-9fj-Tov 
 
 1 ^'- 
 
 1 
 
 Tr€-Tra\)-HLat 
 
 €-Tr€-'n'a'u-fiT|v 
 
 ireiraviJievos S 
 
 fa 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 ire-TraD-craL 
 irc-irav-TaL 
 
 c-irc-Trau-cro 
 c-Tre-irau-TO 
 
 •gs 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 « 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 1 Du 
 
 2 
 
 Like 
 
 J the Middle, p. 78 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
VOWEL VERBS 
 
 81 
 
 travoi (irau-) stop 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive and 
 Participle 
 
 7rau-oi-|iT|v 
 
 
 
 -ira-u-OL-o 
 
 TTCiV-OV 
 
 Inf. irai3-€-a6aL 
 
 ira-u-oi-TO 
 
 irau-c-o-Go) 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 Ptc. irau-o-ixevos 
 
 Like tlie Middle, 
 
 p. 79 
 
 ira\)-6Ti-o'oi-|JL'nv 
 
 
 Inf. irav-Gri-ac-o-Gai 
 
 Trav-Qr\-(TOi-o 
 
 
 
 TTav-Qr\-(joi-To 
 
 
 Ptc. TraD-G-q-o-o-iicvos 
 
 Trav-QT]-(Joi-[L€Qa 
 
 
 Trav-QT]-(TO-\LivT] 
 
 'naiV-Qr\-(TOi-(yQ^ 
 
 
 Trav-0Ti-o-d-|i€vov 
 
 ira\)-6T|-o-0L-VT0 
 
 
 
 irau-GTi-o-oi-o-eov 
 
 
 
 Trav-e-n-oroi-crGTiv 
 
 
 
 irau-GciTi-v 
 
 
 Inf. irau-eii-vai 
 
 TTa\J-9€lT|-S 
 
 'Trav-BT\-Ti 
 
 
 Tra\)-6€iT| 
 
 irau-0T|-T(«) 
 
 Ptc. 1Ta\)-6€LS 
 
 TraD-6€lTl-}Jl€V, -6€LfI€V 
 
 
 Trau-0€Lcra 
 
 iraD-9eiTi-T€, -Setxc iraii-BTi-Te 
 
 irav-Scv 
 
 iraxj-OeiTj-o-av, -Setev Tra\)-6€-VT(ov 
 
 (See 165) 
 
 TraD-6€iT|-Tov, -SeiTov TraTJ-6T|-Tov 
 
 
 irau-OcLTj-TTiv, -6€itt|v irau-Gii-Tov 
 
 
 Tr€ira\)|i€v6s €it|v 
 
 ire-TTau-ao 
 
 Inf. ire-Trav-o-eat 
 
 €11^9 
 
 ire-Tra-u-aGo) 
 
 
 €tTl 
 
 
 Ptc. ir€-irau-|i€VOS 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 Like the Middle, 
 
 p. 79 
 
82 fl- VERBS 
 
 A. Verbs of the O- Conjugation 
 
 I. Vowel Verbs, not Contracting 
 The Present System 
 
 255 The present system includes the indicative present 
 and imperfect, with the subjunctive, optative, impera- 
 tive, infinitive, and participle, active and middle (pas- 
 sive). All regular w-verbs are conjugated in the 
 present system like iravoi (252-254). 
 
 256 The present stem (indicative) is made from the verb- 
 stem in several ways, and verbs are classed (in the 
 present system) accordingly. 
 
 For convenience in later use (since all w-presents are in- 
 flected alike), the modes of forming the present stem in all 
 classes of (o-presents are here described together (257-262). 
 
 257 (1) Formative-Towel Class. — The suffix -o:e- (25), 
 called the formative vowel, is added. Verbs that 
 have a stronger and weaker form of the root take in 
 this system the stronger : 
 
 VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND, 
 
 TTav- stop, TTavo'.e- (i. e. iravo-y Traue-), irava), 
 
 Xltt-j XeuTT- leave, XeLiro'.e-, Xcittw, 
 
 (^vy-, ^evy- flee, (^evyo\e-, <^euyw. 
 
 a. In ytyvo/Attt hecome, for yi-yev-o-fxai, the verb-stem is re- 
 duplicated. This present reduplication consists in prefixing 
 the initial consonant with t. So also in 
 
 TTtTTTO) fall, for TTt-ircr-a), 
 
 lo-xo) hold, for o-t-ccx-w (54), 
 TtKTo) Iring forth, for Tt-reK-w. 
 
VOWEL VERBS 
 
 83 
 
 b. Verb-stems in -v-, -ev- lose v between vowels (27) : 
 
 7rA.eu) sail, for TrAev-w (ttXv-, ttAcv-) ; pew jlow, for peu-o) (pv-, pcv-) ; 
 TTi/ew J?0?^, for Trvev-o) (ttvi;-, ttvcv-). 
 
 258 (2) Tau Class.— The suffix -To\e- is added. The verb- 
 stem always ends in a labial mute, which becomes it 
 before r (38 b, 43 a) : 
 
 VERB-STEM 
 
 PRES. STEM 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 pl(l)-, pL(j)- throw. 
 
 pliTTo'.e-, 
 
 pLTTTO), 
 
 TVTT- strihe, 
 
 rvTTTo'.e-, 
 
 TVTTTOJ, 
 
 ySXayS- harm. 
 
 ^XaTTTO'.e-, 
 
 /BXaTTTOJ. 
 
 Kpv(f)- hide. 
 
 KpVTTTO'.e-, 
 
 KpVTTTO), 
 
 racf)- (47 d) huri/, 
 
 OaTTTo'.e-, 
 
 OdlTTOJ, 
 
 259 (3) Iota Class. — The suffix -loie- is added ; for sound- 
 changes see 66 : 
 
 
 VERB-STEM 
 
 PRES. STEM 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 a. 
 
 ^aX- throw, 
 6(f)eX' iiici^ease, 
 
 jSaWo'.e-, 
 6(f)e\\o:e-, 
 
 fidWo), 
 6(^eXX&i. 
 
 
 But 6(fi€i\(i) ozve (6<^eX-) 
 
 is like those under I 
 
 ). 
 
 b. 
 
 (f)av- show, 
 Tev- stretch. 
 
 (fyaivo'.e-, 
 reivo'.e-. 
 
 (j)aLi'a), 
 Teivo), 
 
 
 (TTrep- SOW, 
 dpLvv- ivardoff, 
 Kpiv decide. 
 
 (TTTeipo'.e, 
 dpLvvo'.e-, 
 Kplvo'.e-, 
 
 (TTreipo), 
 
 dpLVVO), 
 
 Kptvo), 
 
 c. 
 
 (j)v\aK- guard. 
 
 (f)vXacr(To:€-, 
 
 (j)v\dcr(Tco, 
 
 
 ray- arrange, 
 Tapax' disturb, 
 
 TacTcro'.e-, 
 Tapaacro'.e-, 
 
 rdcrcro), 
 rapdcrao), 
 
84 fi- VERBS 
 
 VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. 
 
 d. (jypaS- tell, <^pa^o:e-, (^pa^oi, 
 
 ikmS- hope, iXm^ole-y ikirit^d), 
 
 olfJLOjy- lament, olfjuojl^o'.e-, olfxa)(,a), 
 
 Kkayy- cry out, Kkat^o'.e-, KXd^o), 
 
 (TakiTiyy- blow trumpet, aakint^o'.e-, aoKiTit.o), 
 
 e. The verb-stems Kav- hum and KXav- iveep give Katw and 
 KAatw, with loss of V (27), farther shortened in prose to Kaw 
 and /cAaco. 
 
 260 (4) Inceptive Class. — The suffix -aKo:e- or -LaKo'.e- is 
 added : 
 
 VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IxND. 
 
 ape- please, dpecrKole-, dpeo-Kco, 
 
 evp- find, evpLCTKo'.e-, evpicKO}, 
 
 a. The class is so named because some verbs in it imply 
 beginning or becoming, as yrjpda-Koi grow old, (yypd-), ytyi/wo-Kw 
 come to know, perceive (yvo:o>-, 28 a). 
 
 b. Several presents take a reduplication (257 a), as yt-yvw- 
 a-Kixi recognize (yvo:o)-). -n-aa-x^ {iraO-, pres. stem iraa-xoie-) stiff er 
 is irregular for TraO-crKia, 8t8ao-Ko> (StSa^-) teach is for StSax-o-Kw. 
 
 261 (5) Nasal Class. — A suffix containing v is added. 
 
 a. The suffix -vo\e- is added : 
 
 VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. 
 
 r€/x- cut, refjLvo'.e-, refjivco, 
 
 b. The suffix -avoie- is added : 
 
 dfjLapT- err, dfxapTapo'.e-, dixapTavco. 
 
 c. The suffix -avo'.e- is added, witli an inserted 
 nasal in the verb-stem : 
 
VOWEL VERBS 
 
 85 
 
 VERB-STEM 
 
 PRES. STEM 
 
 Xaix/Savo'.e-j 
 fjLavOavo'.e-j 
 
 \a^- take^ 
 
 fjiad- learn, 
 
 Xa^- ff^i % lot, Xay)(^avo:e-, 
 
 d. The suffix -vvoie- is added : 
 eXa- drive, iXavvo'.e-, 
 
 e. The suffix -veo:e- is added : 
 LK- come, 
 
 PRES. IXD. 
 
 fiavOdvco, 
 \ay^dv(xi. 
 
 i\ 
 
 avi/o). 
 
 LKV€o:e 
 
 LKveojJLai. 
 
 262 Sometimes a verb-stem is in the present tense-system (or in 
 some other) longer by an added crj or o-m. Thus : 
 
 Pres. SoKco) (8o/c€-) seem, fut. S6^(d (Sok-) sJuiU seem, 
 
 Pres. aXLo-KOfmL (oA-) fl!m taketi, fut. dAwo-o/xat (dAw-) ^A^Z/ Z'e 
 
 Pres. ixavOdvoi {fjLa6-) learn perf. fjicfjidOrjKa (fMaOrj-) have 
 
 learned. 
 
 263 The personal endings of the indicative are partially 
 different in the primary and secondary tenses ; they 
 also distinguish the active and middle (passive) voices. 
 
 
 
 
 Active 
 
 
 Middle and Passive 
 
 
 
 Primary 
 
 
 Secondary 
 
 Primary 
 
 Secondary 
 
 Si. 
 
 1. 
 
 -flL 
 
 
 -V 
 
 -/xac 
 
 -firju 
 
 
 2. 
 
 -? 
 
 
 -5 
 
 -crai 
 
 -(TO 
 
 
 3. 
 
 -CTL 
 
 
 
 
 -Tai 
 
 -TO 
 
 PL 
 
 1. 
 
 -fjLev 
 
 
 -^€V 
 
 -fieOa 
 
 -fjLeOa 
 
 
 2. 
 
 -re 
 
 
 -re 
 
 -dOe 
 
 -aSe 
 
 
 8. 
 
 -(^)o-L, 
 
 -aai 
 
 -V, -aav 
 
 -vTai 
 
 -VTO 
 
 Du. 
 
 2. 
 
 -TOP 
 
 
 -TOV 
 
 -crOov 
 
 -aOov 
 
 
 3. 
 
 -TOV 
 
 
 -TTJV 
 
 -crOov 
 
 -a6y]v 
 
86 fi- VERBS 
 
 a. The formative vowel is o before ft or v of the ending, 
 elsewhere e. But in combination with the primary active 
 endings we have 
 
 -o) instead of -o-fxi, 
 
 -€tS " " -C-S, 
 
 -a " " -€-tn, 
 
 'OVa-L " " -o{v)(TL (51 C). 
 
 The endings -do-t and -o-av never go with the formative 
 vowel (see 355). 
 
 b. In the middle (passive) 
 
 -c-o-at becomes -y (55 a and 29 d), later -et, 
 -€-(ro becomes -ov (56 a and 29 c). 
 
 c. Poets often use the ending -fiea-Oa for -fieOa. For -arai 
 and -aro in place of -vrat and -vto see 270 a, 345 c. For -s 
 a few verbs have -a-Oa (381, 384, 385, 386). 
 
 264 The imperfect (also tlie other secondary tenses in the 
 indicative) takes the augment, the sign of past time. 
 
 a. In poetry the augment is sometimes omitted. 
 
 265 The augment has two forms : 
 
 a. The syllabic augment is e-, prefixed to a stem 
 beginning with a consonant. 
 
 Initial p is doubled (48) : piirToi iliroWj impf. 
 eppliTTov. 
 
 b. The temporal augment is the lengthening of an 
 initial vowel : a-, d-, and e- become t;-, ov- is un- 
 changed ; in later Greek ev- and et- are unchanged : 
 
 ayoi lead, impf. rjyovj 
 
 ikTTL^O) hope, rjkTTL^^OV, 
 
 eLKoii^o) make like^ rjKat,ov, eiKat^ov, 
 
 OTrXLt^o) arm, wTrXt^or, 
 
 OLOfjLai think J cpofjiTjv, 
 
VOWEL VERBS 87 
 
 i/cerevoi entreaty iKerevovj 
 
 alcrOdvoixai percewe, i^crOavofJuriVj 
 
 aSco sing, Ti^ov, 
 
 eVpLCTKOJ findj rjVpLCTKOV, evpicTKov. 
 
 266 PovXo/uLi ivisli^ Svvafxat can, fiiWoi iiitend take either e- or rj- 
 
 as augment : rj/SovXojxrjv, i^Swa/xryv, ^/xeAAov, or i^ovXofjL-qv, etc. 
 
 267 Some verbs that have lost an initial consonant still take the 
 syllabic augment ; cc- then becomes a-. Among the most fre- 
 quent are 
 
 cxcu Jiave (ex- for o-cx-, 54), impf. cTxov, 
 
 eTTOfiai foUoiV (cTT- for creTr-), eiTrojxrjv, 
 
 cpTTO) creep {ep-n-- for a-epir-, Lat. serpo), elp-n-ov, 
 ido) let, permit, etwv, 
 
 lOi^in accustom, €l6l^ov, 
 
 opdoi see, koipiiiv, 
 
 oiOioi p)Usll, i(l)6ovv. 
 
 a. €u)po)v and some others have a double augment, syllabic 
 and temporal. 
 
 268 A verb compounded with a preposition augments the 
 simple form ; a preposition ending in a consonant 
 then recovers its original form : 
 
 ava-/3aLP0) go up, impf. av-i^aivov, 
 
 elcr-dyo) lead in, elcr-rjyov, 
 
 (TvX-Xeyoj collect, (Tvv-eXeyov, 
 
 av-o-Kevdi^o) pach up, avv-eaKevai^ov, 
 
 ifjL-pdX\(o throw in, iv-e/SaXXov, 
 
 iy-ypd(l)0) write in, iv-eypacjyov, 
 
 eK-^dXXo) throw out, i^-e/SaXXov. 
 
 For elision see 32, 33. 
 
88 fl- VERBS 
 
 a. The accent never stands before the augment syllable : 
 
 ela^yov (not cto-Tyyov). 
 
 b. Verbs derived from words that begin with a preposition 
 generally take the augment as if the verb itself were a com- 
 pound ; but there are exceptions : 
 
 viroTTTtvoi suspect {yTT-OTTTO'i suspicious), VTr-uyiTTevov, 
 
 i-TTLopKia) perjure oneself {iTriopKos perjured), eTn-wpKow, 
 
 ivOvfieoixau lay to heart {ivOvpaos taken to heart), iv-cOvp.ovpii]v. 
 
 But 
 
 ivavTioopLat Oppose (ivavTLO<s Opposite), rjvavTLOvpLTjv. 
 
 c. A few compounds put the augment before the prepo- 
 sition : 
 
 KaOi'CopLai sit clown lKa6^1^6p,r]v, 
 
 KaOi^iD seat, €.K(x6it,ov, 
 
 KaOivSoi sleep iKdOevSov or KaOrjvSov. 
 
 d. A double augment is found in r)p,<f>€yv6ovv from dp,<f>iyvo€(x), 
 and r]V€LxopL7)v from dv-€\op,ai. (So in the aorist yvecrxop-fji'') 
 
 269 The subjunctive takes tlie primary endings ; -oie- be- 
 comes 0) before fx or v, elsewhere rj. Thus -(o'.rj- is 
 the mode-suffix, appearing throughout the subjunc- 
 tive, vs^hich is otherwise like the indicative. 
 
 270 The optative takes the secondary endings, but with 
 'fiL instead of -v. The formative vowel is o, which 
 makes a diphthong with the mode-suffix -i- (or -te- in 
 the third plural active). 
 
 In the middle -^ro loses o- (55 a). 
 
 a. Poets not infrequently use the ending -aro for -vto in 
 the present and aorist optative (cp. 344 c). 
 
VOWEL VERBS 89 
 
 271 The imperative endings are 
 
 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 
 
 MIDDLE, PASSIVE 
 
 Si. 
 
 2^ 
 
 -e,, -s 
 
 
 
 -(TO 
 
 
 3. 
 
 -TCO 
 
 
 
 -crSo) 
 
 PI. 
 
 2. 
 
 -re 
 
 
 
 -(T0e 
 
 
 3. 
 
 -VTOJV 
 
 (^-Tcocrav) 
 
 -aOo) (^-(rOcjcrav) 
 
 Du. 
 
 2. 
 
 'TOV 
 
 
 
 -dOov 
 
 
 3. 
 
 -TOiV 
 
 
 
 -crdcDv 
 
 272 Tlie formative vowel is o before -vtojvj elsewhere c. 
 '6l and -9 are omitted in w-presents ; -rcoaav and 
 -aOoicrav are rare or late. 
 
 In the middle -^-cro loses o- and contracts. 
 
 273 The infinitive endings are 
 
 ACTIVE MIDDLE, PASSIVE 
 
 274 In &)-presents the formative vowel and endings com- 
 bined are -e-ep^ contracted to -etj^, and -e-adai. 
 
 275 The participial endings are 
 
 Active, -VT-, Middle and Passive, -fxepo-, 
 before which the formative vowel is o. 
 
 276 Active participles are declined like aKcov (I66, 167) ; 
 middle participles are regular in the vowel declension 
 
 (76). 
 
 The Future System 
 
 277 This includes an indicative, optative, infinitive, and 
 participle, active and middle. (For the future pas- 
 sive see 310.) 
 
90 ft -VERBS 
 
 278 The future stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the 
 suffix -o-o'.e- {sigmatic future). 
 
 The inflection is like that of the present system. 
 
 The Aorist System 
 
 279 This includes an indicative, subjunctive, optative, im- 
 perative, with infinitive and participle, active and 
 middle. (For the passive see 302-309.) 
 
 280 The aorist stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the suf- 
 fix -(ra:€-, which becomes -a-oi-.-q- in the subjunctive {sigmatic 
 or a-a-aorist). 
 
 281 The indicative takes the augment (264, 265) and the second- 
 ary endings (263) ; in the third singular active the tense- 
 suffix is -0-C-. 
 
 In the middle -o-a-o-o becomes -o-w (55 a and 29 c). 
 
 282 The subjunctive has the combined tense- and mode-suffix 
 -a-oi'.r)-, and is inflected like the subjunctive present. 
 
 283 The optative contracts the tense-suffix -o-a- with the mode- 
 suffix -I- (-te- in the third plural active). But in the active 
 the forms with -o-e- and -ta- (2d sing, and 3d plu.) or -tc- (3d 
 sing.) are more common. 
 
 In the middle -o-at-o-o becomes -o-aio. 
 
 284 The imperative takes the tense-suffix -o-a-; but -crov in the 
 active second singular and -o-at in the middle second singular 
 stand irregularly for the combined tense-suffix and ending. 
 
 285 The infinitive takes -o-at in the active (irregularly) for com- 
 bined tense-suffix and ending, and always accents the penult 
 (contrary to 249) : TratSeOo-at from TratSevw educate. 
 
 286 The participles take the tense-suffix -ora- ; the active participle 
 is declined like aTrds (162), the middle is regular in the vowel 
 declension. 
 
VOWEL VERBS 91 
 
 The Perfect Active System 
 
 287 This includes a perfect and pluperfect indicative and 
 a perfect subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and par- 
 ticiple, in the active. 
 
 288 The perfect stem (active) takes a reduplication (289) and 
 adds the tense-suffix -Ka-, which becomes -/cry-, -Ket-, or -kc- in 
 the pluperfect, -Kia-.r]- in the subjunctive, -ko- in the optative, 
 -Kc- in the infinitive, -kot-^ -kws, -kvlo. in the participle, (xa- 
 perfect.) 
 
 289 The perfect reduplication is formed as follows : 
 
 a. If the verb-stem begins with a single consonant 
 (except /)), that consonant with e is prefixt, a rough 
 mute changing to the smooth (47 a) : 
 
 KeKevo) (^KeXev-) bid^ /ce-KeXeu-zca, 
 
 KcoXvo) (fcojXu-) hinderj Ke-KcoXv-Ka, 
 
 ^opevcx) (j(opev^ dance, Ke-^opev-Ka, 
 
 ^vrevo) (</)VT€v-) plant, 7r€-(f)VT€v-Ka, 
 
 07]pev(i) {Otjp^v-^ hunt, re-drjpev-Ka. 
 
 b. If the verb-stem begins with a mute and liquid 
 (39) the mute with e is prefixt : 
 
 TrXeiw (ttXu-, ttXcu-) sail, TTe-irXev-Ka. 
 
 c. Otherwise the reduplication is like the augment 
 (265) : 
 
 (TTpaTevo) ((TTparev-) serve in the army, i-a-rpdrev-Ka, 
 
 C^jTeo) (^r]Te:r)-) seek, i-^TJTrj-Ka, 
 
 piiTTO) {pl(f)-) throio, ip-pl(f)a (48), 
 
 dSt/ceo) (^dSiKe'.T)-^ icrong, -q-SiKrjKa* 
 
92 fi- VERBS 
 
 d. But yiyviaa-KU) (yvo-.o)-) come to Tcnow makes l-yvwKa ; also 
 KTaofxaL (KTa:r}-) acquire makes Ki-KTrj/xaL, 
 
 TriTTTO) (tTCT-, TTTO)-) fall makcS Tre-TTTWKa, 
 
 fiifjLVT^a-Koi (fivrj-) remind makes ixi-^v-qixai. 
 
 290 A verb compounded with a preposition reduplicates 
 the simple form : 
 
 (Tvy-)(op€V(o dance with, crvy-Kc^opevKaj 
 
 dva-^aLvo) go up, dva-^e/SrjKa^ 
 
 ela-dyco lead in, elcr-rj^a (^ee a). 
 
 a. The accent never stands before the reduplication. 
 
 291 Irregular reduplication is found in the following verbs, some 
 of which are rather frequent : 
 
 a. The verbs described in 267 (if they have a perfect 
 stem) make the reduplication like the augment : 
 
 caw letf impf. €LO)Vf pf. ctaKa, 
 ipyd^ofxaL WOrJc, elpya^ofjirjv, ct/oya(r/xai, 
 
 uiOeo) push, i-wOovv, twc/xai, 
 
 wveo/Attt iuy, iiovovfirjv, iiovrjjjiai. 
 
 With double reduplication : 
 
 opdu) see, i(i)p(i)v, koipaKa, 
 
 dv-otyio open, dv-€<oyov, dv-eioxa. 
 
 So too the root lk-, clk-, makes the perfect cotAca «w like, 
 
 plup. i(OK€LV. 
 
 b. Several verbs beginning with a liquid take ct- as re- 
 duplication : 
 
 Xafxpdviii talce, pf. €t-\rj(f>a, eL-Xr}pfiaL, 
 
 Xayxdvd) get by lot, €L-\y)xa, 
 
 root pe:r}- speak, €L-pr]Ka, €L-pr)fJLai, 
 
 root ficp; flap- divide, iL-fjcaprai it is fated, 
 
 Sta-XiyofiaL converse, St-ei-Acy/xai, 
 
 crv\-\iy(ii gather, o-w-ctXoxa, (Tvv-ei-XeyfJtAxi. 
 
 Similarly the defective etioOa a7n wont. 
 
VOWEL VERBS 93 
 
 c. Some verbs beginning with a, e, o reduplicate by pre- 
 fixing the vowel and the following consonant, lengthening the 
 vowel of the second syllable {Attic redujjHcatiofi) : 
 
 OLKOvo) heaVy pf. aK-rjKoa^ 
 iXavvio dr^ive, i\-rj\aKa, 
 
 eAeyxw test, eA-T^Acy/xat, 
 
 opvTTOi dig, op-wpvxa.. 
 
 Also cyetpoj tvake, iyp-rjyopa (332). 
 
 The pluperfect of these verbs augments only initial a and o. 
 
 d. The verbs described in 268 b take the reduplication in 
 the same place as the augment. 
 
 292 The perfect active indicative takes the primary endings ; but 
 in the sing, -pa and -o-t are omitted, the tense-suffix becom- 
 ing -K€- in the third person ; -Ka-(v)trt becomes -Kdo-t (51 c). 
 
 293 The pluperfect augments the reduplicated stem ; if the re- 
 duplication is like the augment of the imperfect (289 c), no 
 change is made. The tense-suffix is -ktj-, -/cei-, or -/ce- as in the 
 paradigm ; in the plural and dual both -k€- and -Kct- are found. 
 The secondary endings are used, with -o-av in the third plural ; 
 the older form in -kyj omits -v in the first person singular. 
 
 294 The subjunctive adds the combined suffix -Kwirj- to the re- 
 duplicated stem, and is inflected like the present active subjv. 
 
 In place of these forms are used also compound forms, the 
 perfect active participle wdth the subjunctive of ct/xt am (384). 
 
 295 The optative adds to the reduplicated stem the combined suf- 
 fix -Kot-, and is inflected like the present active optative. 
 
 Compound forms, the perfect active participle with the 
 present optative of ci/xt am, are also used. 
 
 296 The infinitive adds -Ke-vat to the reduplicated stem. 
 
 a. All infinitives in -vat accent the penult. 
 
 297 The participle adds to the reduplicated stem the combined 
 suffix -Ka)9, -KVLd, -K09, -KOT; aud Is decHncd like etSws (172). 
 
94 n- VERBS 
 
 Perfect Middle System 
 
 298 This includes an indicative perfect and pluperfect, a 
 subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and participle ; also 
 a future perfect passive indicative, optative, infinitive, 
 and participle. 
 
 299 The tense-stem is the reduplicated verb-stem, with no tense- 
 suffix. 
 
 300 a. The indicative takes the primary endings in the perfect, 
 the secondary endings in the pluperfect. 
 
 b. The subjunctive and optative are compound forms — the 
 perfect middle participle with the present subjunctive and 
 optative of et/xt a7n (384). 
 
 c. The imperative takes the regular imperative endings. 
 
 d. The infinitive takes the ending -o-^at, the participle the 
 ending -/xeVos (-fjiivrj, -/xeVov) ; both always accent the penult. 
 
 301 The future perfect passive adds to the reduplicated stem the 
 future suffix (278) with the middle endings. Thus : 
 
 Ind. 7re-7rau-o-o-/Aat, etc., I sliall licive been stopt. 
 
 Opt. Tre-Trav-a-OL-fxrjv, Ctc. 
 
 Inf. Tre-Tvav-cre-arOaL. 
 
 Ptc. 7r€-Trav-(r6-fjL€Vos, etc. 
 
 The Passive System : &7} - Passive 
 
 302 This includes an aorist and a future. The passive 
 stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the passive 
 suffix, which is -9r)- before a single consonant, -0e- 
 before two consonants or a vowel. {®r}-passive.^ 
 
 303 The aorist passive takes the active endings throughout. 
 
 304 The indicative takes the augment (265) and the secondary 
 endings, with -o-av in the third plural. 
 
VOWEL VERBS 
 
 95 
 
 305 The subjunctive adds to the passive-stem the mode-suffix -o):r)-; 
 -Oioi-.-q- contracts to -6oi- or -^?}-, and the inflection, except for 
 accent, is like any active subjunctive. 
 
 306 Tlie optative adds to the passive stem the mode-suffix -i-q-, 
 in the plural and dual -t- or -lyj- (-te- in the third plural) ; 
 -6e-L- contracts to -^et-, and hence the accent can not pre- 
 cede -^et-. 
 
 307 The imperative adds to the passive-stem the imperative end- 
 ings, with -Tt for -Ol (47 and b). 
 
 308 The infinitive adds -vat to the passive-stem, and accents the 
 penult (296 a). 
 
 309 The participle adds -vt- to the passive stem, and is declined 
 as in 165. 
 
 310 The future passive adds to the passive stem the future suffix 
 -a-o:^- with the middle endings, in the indicative, optative, in- 
 finitive, and participle. 
 
 311 The principal parts of a verb are the first form of 
 every system used in it ; thus they indicate the entire 
 conjugation : 
 
 TTav- stop, 
 
 TTavo) 
 
 Travcro) 
 
 Verb-stem, 
 Present system, 
 Future system, 
 Aorist system, 
 Perfect act. syst.. 
 Perfect mid. syst.. 
 Passive system. 
 
 enavcTa 
 TrenavKa 
 TreTTavjJLaL 
 iTravOrjv 
 
 Koikv- ]dnde)\ 
 
 KCoXvO) 
 
 KcoXvcro) 
 iKcoXvcra 
 
 KEKCoXvKa 
 
 312 Two common verb-stems, 6v- sacrifice and A.i;- loose^ have v in 
 the present, future, and o-a-aorist, elsewhere v : Ovoi, Ovo-m, 
 
 Wvaa, re^VKa, TeOvfxaL, IrvQ-qv (47 c). 
 
 A few others are irregular or variable. (See, in the Verb- 
 list, dvi^O), SvCO, TtOJ.) 
 
96 
 
 fi- VERBS 
 
 Tljjtdw (Ti(j[.a:Ti-) honor 
 
 Active 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 TLfJL(d(0)c0 
 
 €TlJJL(aOV)(0-V 
 
 TL|i(dco)(0 
 
 2 
 
 TL[JL(d€is)as 
 
 €Ti}i(a€s)d-s 
 
 TL|x(dT|s)as 
 
 3 
 
 TL|JL(d€L)a 
 
 €Tl}JL(a€)d 
 
 Tiji(dT|)a 
 
 P. 1 
 
 Tril(do)(0-fl.€V 
 
 €TL|JL(do)(0-|X€V 
 
 TLJJL(d<0)(0-|JL€V 
 
 2 
 
 Tlfi(d€)d-T€ 
 
 €Tl}JL(d€)d-T€ 
 
 TL|JL(dT|)d-T€ 
 
 3 
 
 Tl|l(d0\))(0(Jl 
 
 €TX[JL(aOV)(0-V 
 
 TLJJL(d(0)(0<rL 
 
 D. 2 
 
 TLp.(d€)d-TOV 
 
 €TLJl(d€)d-TOV 
 
 TL|JL(d'n)d-TOV 
 
 3 
 
 TL|X(d€)d-TOV 
 
 €TL}x(a€)a-TT|V 
 
 TlfJL(dT|)d-TOV 
 
 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 S. 1 
 
 TLJJL(do)(b-}JLaL 
 
 €Tt}J.(a6)(0-|JLTlV 
 
 TL|JL(d0))(0-}JLaL 
 
 2 
 
 Tlll(d€L)a 
 
 €Tl|JL(d0\))(0 
 
 TL|x(dT|)a 
 
 3 
 
 TL|i(d€)d-Tai 
 
 €TL|JL(d€)d-TO 
 
 T L|JL(dT| )d-TaL 
 
 P. 1 
 
 TL[i(a6)<o-|JL€ea 
 
 €TL|jL(a6)a)-|jL€ea 
 
 TL|i(a(o)to-|Ji€ea 
 
 2 
 
 TLli(d€)d-0'e€ 
 
 €TL[JL(d€)d-0'e€ 
 
 TLjjL(dT|)d-cre€ 
 
 3 
 
 TL|l(do)(0-VTaL 
 
 €TL|JL(do)(0-VTO 
 
 TL|j.(d<o)co-VTaL 
 
 D. 2 
 
 TLJJl(d€)d-0'90V 
 
 eTl(i(de)d-(r6ov 
 
 TL|JL(dTl)d-O-0OV 
 
 3 
 
 Tl|JL(d€)d-O-0OV 
 
 €TLjjL(a€)d-o'9'qv 
 
 TL|x(dT|)d-O'60V 
 
 
 
 
 Principal 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Future 
 
 AORIST 
 
 
 TlfJLdcO 
 
 TLIXTJO-O) 
 
 €TL|JL'q<ra 
 
CONTRACT VERBS 
 
 97 
 
 Tipidw (TifAaiT]-) honor 
 
 Voice 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive, 
 Participle 
 
 Tr|JL(d0L)C0-|JlL, -COtlV 
 TLJJL(dOL)(3s, -COTIS 
 TL|i(dOL)(0, -COT] 
 TL|i(dOL)(3-|X€V, -coTifiev 
 TLli(d0l)(0-T€, -COtlTC 
 TL[JL(dOL)(3€-V 
 Tl|Jl(d0L)(3-T0V, -COTITOV 
 TLJJL(aOL)(0-T11V, -WTITtlV 
 
 Tl|i(a€)d 
 TL[i(a€)a-Ta) 
 
 TL[i(d€)d-T€ 
 
 TL|i(a6)(o-VTa)V 
 
 TL|JL(de)d-TOV 
 Tr}JL(a€)a-TCOV 
 
 Infinitive 
 Tr|ji(d€iv)dv 
 
 Participle 
 
 TL|JL(d(OV)(OV 
 
 (168 a) 
 
 Voice 
 
 
 
 Tl|i(aOL)(0-[i'nV 
 
 TlfJL(d0l)c3-0 
 
 TL|i(d0l)(3-T0 
 
 Ti[ji(aoi)co-|i€0a 
 
 Tl(x(doi)w-O'0€ 
 TL|i(dOL)(3-VTO 
 TL|JL(doL)w-O-0OV 
 
 TL(i(aoL)co-o-0'nv 
 
 Ti|x(do\))(J> 
 TL[jL(a€)a-o-0co 
 
 TL|i(d€)d-cr0€ 
 TL|i(a€)a-o-0(ov 
 
 TL|JL(d€)d-O-0OV 
 TL|JL(a€)a-O-0(OV 
 
 Infinitive 
 TL|JL(d€)d-(r0ai 
 
 Participle 
 Trji(a6)(o-|JL€vos 
 
 Parts 
 
 
 
 Perfect Active 
 
 Perfect Middle 
 
 Aorist Passive 
 
 TCTllJLtlKa 
 
 T€Tl|JLTlJJLai 
 
 CTLJJLTJ0'qV 
 
98 
 
 fi- VERBS 
 
 314 
 
 TTOiib) (iroi€:T]-) make, do 
 
 Active 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 
 
 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 
 S. 1 
 
 Troi(€(o)co 
 
 €'Troi(€ov)ou-v 
 
 'TrOL(€Ci))(0 
 
 2 
 
 'TrOL(€€lS)€lS 
 
 €'TrOl(€€S)€L-S 
 
 'irOL(€Tls)Tis 
 
 3 
 
 'irOL(€€L)€L 
 
 €TrOL(€€)€l 
 
 'n-OL(€T|)Ti 
 
 P. 1 
 
 'TrOL(€0)o{i-|JL€V 
 
 eTroL(€o)oa)-|X€V 
 
 'noi(€co)a)-[JL€V 
 
 2 
 
 TTOl(€e)€L-T€ 
 
 €'irOL(€€)€L-T€ 
 
 ir0l(€'n)Tl-T6 
 
 3 
 
 'TrOL(€Ol))o{)0'L 
 
 €1T0l(€0V)0\)-V 
 
 'iroL(€o>)(0(rL 
 
 D. 2 
 
 TrOl(€€)€L-TOV 
 
 €'TrOl(€€)6L-TOV 
 
 'irOL(€T|)f]-TOV 
 
 3 
 
 TrOl(€6)eL-TOV 
 
 €'irOL(€e)€l-TT|V 
 
 TrOl(€Tl)fl-TOV 
 
 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 S. 1 
 
 7roL(€o)oa)-|JLaL 
 
 €'irOL(€6)0'U-|lT|V 
 
 Troi(€(o)<o-|JLai 
 
 2 
 
 iroi{iei)€X 
 
 €'TrOl(€O\))O'0 
 
 'Troi(eTi)fi 
 
 3 
 
 TrOL(€€)€L-TaL 
 
 €'n'OL(€€)€L-TO 
 
 TrOl(€Tl)Tl-TaL 
 
 P. 1 
 
 'iroi(€6)oi;-[JL€0a 
 
 €'Troi(€6)o\l-jJL€9a 
 
 'TroL(€(o)(o-}X€9a 
 
 2 
 
 'irOL(€€)€L-O-0€ 
 
 €irOl(€€)€L-0'e€ 
 
 'irOL(€T|)Tl-0'9€ 
 
 3 
 
 TroL(eo)oa)-in-aL 
 
 C'TrOL(€0)oi)-VTO 
 
 iroi(6(o)(o-VTai 
 
 D. 2 
 
 TT0l(€€)€L-0-90V 
 
 €'iroi(€€)€i-cr0ov 
 
 iroi(€T|)fi-o-9ov 
 
 3 
 
 'ir0L(€€)€L-(r90V 
 
 €Troi(€€)€i-o-9'riv 
 
 iroi(€T|)Ti-cr9ov 
 
 
 
 
 Principal 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Future 
 
 Aorist 
 
 1 
 
 TTOL€(0 
 
 TroLTJo-a) 
 
 liroiTicra 
 
CONTEACT VERBS 
 
 99 
 
 iroUo) (iroi€:T]-) make, do 
 
 Voice 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive, 
 Participle 
 
 ir0l(€0L)0l-|JLl, -OLllV 
 
 
 
 Tr0L(€0lS)0l-S, -OlTjS 
 
 TrOl(€€)€l 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 'ir0l(€0l)0l, -OLTl 
 
 'n'Ol(€€)€l-TC0 
 
 'irOL(6€LV)€LV 
 
 Tr0L(€0L)0L-|Jl€V, -OlTlfiCV 
 
 
 
 TT0i(€0l)0L-T€, -01T|T€ 
 
 'irOl(€€)€l-T€ 
 
 Participle 
 
 ir0L(€0L)0l€-V 
 
 'TroL(€6)oai-VTcov 
 
 'n-oi(€(ov)cov 
 
 TrOL(€OL)OL-TOV, -Ol-qTOV 
 
 'n-OL(€€)€L-TOV 
 
 (168 b) 
 
 'ir0L(€0l)0l-TTlV, -OITITTIV 
 
 irOl(€€)€l-T(0V 
 
 
 Voice 
 
 
 
 'Tr0l(€0l)0l-[JLT1V 
 
 
 
 'TrOl(€OL)OL-0 
 
 'Troi(€ou)oa) 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 'TrOL(€OL)OL-TO 
 
 'iroL(€€)€i-(r9<o 
 
 'n-oi(€€)€L-oreai 
 
 'irOL(€OL)OL-}i€6a 
 
 
 
 'irOL(€OL)OL-Cr0€ 
 
 'irOl(€€)€L-aG€ 
 
 Participle 
 
 TrOL(€OL)OL-VTO 
 
 'iroL(€€)€i-Grecav 
 
 iroi(€6)o'u-|X€Vos 
 
 'iroL(€Oi)oL-o-eov 
 
 TrOL(€€)€L-0-eOV 
 
 
 'iroi(€oi)oL-(r6'riv 
 
 'iroi(€€)€L-a8(ov 
 
 
 Parts 
 
 
 
 Perfect Active 
 
 Perfect Middle 
 
 AoRiST Passive 
 
 ireiroiTiKa 
 
 TTCTTOLTIIJLaL 
 
 €ttolii6t|v 
 
100 
 
 n- VERBS 
 
 SovXod) (8ovXo:(i>-) enslave 
 
 Active 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 S. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 P. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 D. 2 
 3 
 
 8o\)\(da>)co 
 8o\j\(6€Ls)ois 
 8o\jX(6€l)ol 
 8o\)\(6o)oi}-|JL€V 
 
 80U\(6€)0{)-T€ 
 
 8ov\(6ov)o{;crL 
 
 80l)X(6€)0V-T0V 
 
 8o\)X(6€)o{i-Tov 
 
 €8oij\(oov)o\)-v 
 
 €80'U\(0€S)01)-S 
 €80'U\(0€)0\) 
 €80\)X(60)0l)-|X€V 
 €80l)\(6€)0a)-T€ 
 
 e8o'u\(oov)o\)-v 
 
 €8o\)\(6€)oi)-TOV 
 
 €8o\)\(oe)o'u-T'riv 
 
 8o\)\(6co)(o 
 
 8oi)X(6t|s)ois 
 
 8o\)\(6t|)oi 
 
 8o\)X(6(o)co-|X€v 
 
 8o\)\(6t|)(o-t€ 
 
 8oi)\(6o))(oo-i 
 
 8o\)\(6ti)co-Tov 
 
 8o\)\(6ti)(o-tov 
 
 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 S. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 P. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 D. 2 
 3 
 
 8o\)\(6o)o{l-|iai 
 
 80l)\(6€L)0t 
 
 6ou\(6€)oa}-Tai 
 
 8oD\(od)oi3-}JL60a 
 
 8oi)\(6€)oi)-o-0€ 
 
 8ou\(6o)oi)-vTai 
 
 8oD\(6€)o{)-a0ov 
 
 8oD\(6€)o{i-(r0ov 
 
 €8ov\(o6)o'u-|JL'qv 
 €8o\)\(6o\j)o{) 
 
 €8o\)X(6€)oi)-TO 
 
 €8o\)X(o6)o'u-fJi€0a 
 
 €8oD\(6€)O'O-(r0€ 
 
 €8oi)X(6o)oa;-VTO 
 
 €8o\)\(66)o{)-o-0ov 
 
 €8o\j\(oe)o'u-or0Tiv 
 
 8o\)\(6cD)a)-|jLai 
 
 8oi}\(6T|)ot 
 
 8oi)X(6'ri)<o-Tai 
 
 8oD\(o(o)co-jJL€0a 
 
 8oi)\(6t|)co-o'0€ 
 
 8ou\(6ii)(o-VTaL 
 
 8o\)\(6t|)(o-o-0ov 
 
 8ou\(6T|)co-(r0ov 
 
 
 
 
 Principal 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Future 
 
 Aorist 
 
 
 8od\6o) 
 
 8ov\cocro) 
 
 €8oiL)\(0(ra 
 
CONTRACT VERBS 
 
 101 
 
 SovXoo) (8ov\o:«-) enslave 
 
 Voice 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive, 
 Participle 
 
 60l)\(60Lj0L-}IL, -01T|V 
 
 
 6o\jX(doLS)oi-s, -oiiis 8oii\(o€)oi) 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 50\)X(d0L)0L, -OlTl 6ouX(0€)0'U-TCO 
 
 8ovX(6€Lv)oi}v 
 
 8o\j\( 6ol)o L-[JL€V, -OLT||Jl€V 
 
 
 5ouX(6ol)ol-t€, -oltit€ 6oi)X(de)oi)-T€ 
 
 Participle 
 
 6o\jX(6ol)ol€-v 
 
 8ovX(o6)OTJ-VTCOV 
 
 8ovjX(6o)v)(ov 
 
 8o\)X(6ol)oL-TOV, -01T|T0V 8oi)X(66)o{l-TOV 
 
 (168 c) 
 
 80\)X(001)0L-TT1V, -0L11TT|V 
 
 8ouX(0€J01J-TCOV 
 
 
 Voice 
 
 
 
 8o\)X(ooL )oi- \Ly\v 
 
 
 
 8o\jX(6ol)ol-o 
 
 8ouX(6ov)o{) 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 8o\jX(dOL)OL-TO 
 
 8o\)X(o€)ol3-cr9(o 
 
 8o\)X(6€)o{)-(r0ai 
 
 8o\)X(oOL)OL-}JL€0a 
 
 
 
 8o\)X(6oL)oL-cr0€ 
 
 8o\)X(6€)oa)-o'e€ 
 
 Participle 
 
 8o\jX(6ol)ol-vto 
 
 8o\)X(oc)oTj-cr6(ov 
 
 8o\jX(o6)ov-|X€vos 
 
 8o\)X(6ol)ol-o-6ov 
 
 8oDX(6€)o{i-o'9ov 
 
 
 8odX(ooi)oi-o-6t|v 
 
 8o\jXfo€)o\i-cr9o)V 
 
 
 Parts 
 
 
 
 Perfect Active 
 
 Perfect Middle 
 
 AoRisT Passive 
 
 8e8o'uX(oKa 
 
 8€8o'uX(ojiaL 
 
 68o\)Xa)eT|v 
 
102 fl- VERBS 
 
 II. Vowel Verbs, Contracting in the Present 
 
 316 Verbs in -do), -ew, -oo) contract the stem-vowel a, e, o 
 in the present system with the succeeding vowel, in 
 accordance with 29 and 30. (Paradigms, 313-315.) 
 
 a. Note also that l in the second syllable is re- 
 tained (on the line or subscript), and that o with an 
 t-diphthong (et, ot, rj) gives ot. But 
 
 b. In the infinitive, -eiv (from -e-ev, 274) was no 
 true diphthong (27 a) ; hence -d-eup gives -av and 
 -o-eLv gives -ovT/j without i. 
 
 317 Outside of the present system the stem-vowel a, e, o 
 is lengthened (28 a) ; a becomes d after e, t, or p, 
 otherwise rj : Orjpdoj liunt^ fut. Orjpdo-co, etc. ; tdojjiaL 
 heal, fut. ida-ofxai, etc. ; rlfjudo) honor, fut. TLfjujao), etc. 
 
 a. But xpao/xat use and d>cpoao/xat Uste7i are irregular : 
 
 XpdojxaL^ Xpi^ao/xaL, ixpr)(rdijir)v, K(.)(p'q^aL^ 
 
 d/cpoao/xat, aKpoctcro/xai, r)Kpod(rd]JL7]v, yKpod/JLai. 
 
 318 In the paradigms (313-315) the uncontracted vowels are in 
 parenthesis, the contract syllable follows next ; for the uncon- 
 tracted form read the parenthesis and omit the contract sylla- 
 ble, for the contract form omit the parenthesis. 
 
 319 In the present optative active the mode suffix -ltj- is more 
 common in the singular, but rare elsewhere. 
 
 320 Seven verbs in -dw contract to rj instead of d. The most fre- 
 quent are ^dw live, ■xpdop.ai use, SuiJ/do) thirst, Treivdw hunger : 
 
CONTRACT VERBS 
 
 103 
 
 321 Monosyllabic stems in -e contract only in the forms that give 
 €t. Thus irXc- (see 257 b) sail makes ttAci?, TrAet, €7rXct9, hrXci, 
 
 ttXuv^ but TrXeo), TrXiofxev, irXirj^, TrAcoi/xt, etc. 
 
 a. 8ew Mud sometimes contracts throughout, but Sew lack 
 and Seo/xat ask follow the rule. 
 
 322 A few verb-stems in -a and -e, with still fewer in -o, 
 do not lengthen that vowel in any system ; some of 
 these assume a in the perfect middle or in the 
 passive system or both : 
 
 Verb-stems yeXa- laugJij cnra- draw, reXe-Jinish, 
 
 Present 
 Future 
 Aorist 
 Perf. Act. 
 Perf. Mid. 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 yeXao) 
 
 yeXacro) 
 
 iyeXaaa 
 
 iyeXdcrOrjv 
 
 cnraoj 
 
 cnrdcrco 
 
 icnraaa 
 
 ecnraKa 
 
 ^(TTTacTjiai 
 
 icr7rda6r]v 
 
 reXeo) 
 
 TeXecro) 
 
 ireXecra 
 
 rereXe/ca 
 
 rereXecTfJiaL 
 
 ireXeaOrjp 
 
 The stem alpe- ajpp'ove neither lengthens e in 
 Attic nor takes cr ; two compounds, eV-ati/ew praise 
 and TTttp-ati^ecj advise, are frequent. (But rjvrjjjiai is 
 found.) 
 
 a. In some verbs (as reXc-, cp. to t€Xo<s end) the o- clearly 
 belonged to the original stem, and has been lost except before 
 fjL and T ; others appear to have imitated these by inserting a- 
 before fx and r. 
 
 b. The perfect and pluperfect indicative middle have in 
 the third plural a compound form ; the whole inflection 
 (showing also the form of the participle) is as follows : 
 

 
 fi- VERBS 
 
 
 
 PERFECT INDICATIVE 
 
 PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE 
 
 1. 
 
 reTeXea-fiai 
 
 
 iTeTeXecr-fJirjv 
 
 2. 
 
 rereXe-crat 
 
 
 irereXe-ao 
 
 3. 
 
 TereXecr-TaL 
 
 
 iT€TeXea-To 
 
 1. 
 
 TeTekea-fJLeda 
 
 
 eTereXecr-iJieOa 
 
 2. 
 
 TeTeXe-ade 
 
 
 eTeriXe-crde 
 
 3. 
 
 TereXea-fJievoL 
 
 eto-t 
 
 TereXea-^iivoi rjaav 
 
 2. 
 
 TeriXe-o-Oov 
 
 
 ireTeXe-crdov 
 
 3. 
 
 rereXe-o-dov 
 
 
 iTeTeXe-aOrjv 
 
 104 
 
 S. 
 
 P. 
 
 D. 
 
 c. The future of TeAeco finish and of KaXeio call commonly 
 drops o- and contracts, thus becoming like the present : tcAw, 
 TcAet9, rcAei, etc. 
 
 So also ixa^ov/JiaL for fiax^crofjiai, from ixd)(OfJiaL (fia;^-, fJiOL)(€-) 
 
 fight, and iXd for cAao-w, from eAavi/w (eAa-) drive. 
 
 III. Liquid Verbs 
 
 323 Verb-stems ending in X, /x, j^, or p usually form the 
 future and aorist stems, sometimes also the perfect 
 active and the passive stems, in a slightly different 
 way. (Liquid future, liquid aorist, a -perfect, rj- 
 passive.) 
 
 324 In the future they add to the verb-stem the suiSx 
 -€o:€- (originally -eaoie-), and then contract. (Liquid 
 future,) 
 
 325 The inflection throughout — indicative, optative, infinitive, 
 participle — is like that of contract presents in -ew (331). 
 
 326 A contract future middle with the suffix -o-eo-.e- (so-called 
 Doric future) is formed from the mute verbs ttltttii), TrAew, 
 
LIQUID VERBS 105 
 
 327 Liquid verbs usually form tlie aorist stem (indicative) 
 by adding to tlie verb-stem the suffix -a:e- and length- 
 enino; the stem- vowel ; a in the stem leno^thens to d 
 after i or p, otherwise to 17 ; e lengthens to et. (^Li- 
 quid aorist.^ 
 
 a. But KcpSatVo) (KcpSai/-) gain makes iKcpSdva. 
 
 328 The inflection throughout is like that of the o-a-aorist, omit- 
 ting o- (331). 
 
 329 The present stem of these verbs may be of the forma- 
 tive-vowel class (257), the t-class (259), or the nasal 
 class (261), as shown by the principal parts. (See 
 Verb-list.) Thus oreXXw (crreX-, o-raX-, 259 a) se?idj 
 fut. areXo), aor. ecrretXa, pf. act. ecrraX/ca, pf. mid. e- 
 o-raX/xat (338, 339), aor. pass. iaToXiqv (334-337). 
 
 330 Other frequent combinations are shown in the follow 
 ino; verbs : for other tenses of these verbs see Verb- 
 list. 
 
 PRESENT FUTURE AORIST 
 
 atpo) (dp-, 259 b) raise, dpco (dp-eote-), ^pa (dp-are-), 
 
 (^atVco ((f)av-, 259 b) shotv, (j)av(o, effirjvaj 
 
 KaOaipcx) (fca^ap-, 259 b) Kadapoj, eKciOrjpaj 
 
 cleanse, 
 
 KTELvo) (^KTev-j 259 b) Mil, KTevcj, €KTeiva, 
 
 Kpivoi (^Kpiv-, 259 b) decide, Kpivco, eKplva, 
 
 dfjivpo) (d/xui^-, 259 b) diivvco, 7)fxvpa, 
 
 ward off, 
 
 /xeVo) (/xei/-, 257) remain, jxevco, e/xetj/a. 
 
 a. Kot all liquid verbs follow these formations ; especially 
 several form the aorist according to 347. 
 
106 
 
 fi- VERBS 
 
 331 
 
 
 
 
 
 Liquid Future and Aorist, 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 0-T€\-CO 
 
 cTeX-eis 
 
 0-T€\-€t 
 
 
 
 P4 
 >- 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 (TTcX-OV-liCV 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 CrT€\-€l-T€ 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 O-TCX-OVO-L 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 O-TCX-CL-TOV 
 
 
 PS 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 0'T€X-€L-TOV 
 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 (rT€X-oi)-|jiai 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 CTTcX-fj 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 CrT€X-€L-TaL 
 
 
 
 h3 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 o-T€X-oi3-jJi€0a 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 0'TeX-€L-0'6€ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 cxeX-oii-VTaL 
 
 
 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 (rT€X-€l-(760V 
 
 o-T€X-eL-o-0ov 
 
 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 e-o-TCLXa 
 
 cttclXco 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 c-(rT€iXa-s 
 
 o-t€iXt|s 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-(rT€LX€ 
 
 CrT€lXT| 
 
 
 F 
 
 PL 
 
 1 
 
 €-0-T€lXa-JJL€V 
 
 0-T€lX(0-[JL€V 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-CrT€LXa-T€ 
 
 0-T€iXt1-T€ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-0-T€LXa-V 
 
 crxeiXaxTL 
 
 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 €-(rT€LXa-TOV 
 
 o-TeiX-q-Tov 
 
 C 
 <1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 k-(n^i\6i-Tr\v 
 
 o-t€lXt|-tov 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 i-(yT^i\a-\Lr\v 
 
 O-T€lX(0-|iaL 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-(rT€lXo> 
 
 (yTd\r\ 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 3 
 
 e-cTciXa-To 
 
 o-TeiX-q-TaL 
 
 
 iJ 
 
 9 
 
 PL 
 
 1 
 
 €-O-TCLXd-|i€0a 
 
 o-T€LX6-p-€ea 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-(rT€iXa-or9€ 
 
 o-t€iXt|-o-6€ 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-aT€iXa-i^ro 
 
 o-TeiXto-VTai 
 
 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 e-o-TeiXa-crSov 
 
 o-TeiXri-o-Bov 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 €-0-T€LXd-0-eTlV 
 
 crT€LXT|-o-9ov 
 
LIQUID VERBS 
 (TTcXXft) (o-TcX-, o-raX-) send 
 
 107 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive and 
 Participle 
 
 (rTcX-OL-|JlL, -01T|-V 
 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 (j-TeX-ot-s, -oiT|-s 
 
 
 (rx€X-€iv 
 
 o-xeX-oL, -oi-q 
 
 
 
 0-T€X-OL-}i€V 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 0-TeX-OL-T€ 
 
 
 (TXcX-tOV 
 
 0-T€X-OL€-V 
 
 
 cxeX-ovaa 
 
 o-xeX-OL-Tov 
 
 
 cxeX-oxlv 
 
 aX€X-OL-XTlV 
 
 
 
 (TT^\-oi-[Lr\V 
 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 axeX-OL-o 
 
 
 o-xeX-et-crGaL 
 
 axeX-OL-xo 
 
 
 
 ax€X-oi-|i€9a 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 ax€X-OL-cr0€ 
 
 
 (j-xeX-ov-ficvos 
 
 (j-xeX-OL-vxo 
 
 
 
 (TxeX-oL-crOov 
 
 
 
 o"xeX-oi-crGT|y 
 
 
 
 ax€iXai-fiL 
 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 cxeiXaL-s, -€La-s 
 
 cxclXov 
 
 (rreXXai 
 
 (TXeiXaL, -€L€ 
 
 (TxeiXd-xca 
 
 
 (TxeiXaL-fJiev 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 (TxeiXaL-xe 
 
 (TxeiXa-xe 
 
 (TxeiXds 
 
 (TxeiXaLe-v, -cta-v 
 
 (rx€LXd-vx(ov 
 
 o-xeiXdaa 
 
 orxetXai-xov 
 
 cxeiXa-xov 
 
 crxeiXav 
 
 (rxcLXai-xTiv 
 
 0-X€LXd-X(OV 
 
 
 o-xeiXai-fJiTiv 
 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 crx€iXaL-o 
 
 (TxetXai 
 
 o-x€iXa-o-Gai 
 
 crx€iXaL-xo 
 
 crx€iXd-cr6(o 
 
 
 o-x€LXaL-[ie9a 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 o-xeiXai-cGe 
 
 o-xeiXa-o-Ge 
 
 CrX€LXd-fJL€VOS 
 
 crx€iXaL-vxo 
 
 crxeiXd-o-Gcov 
 
 
 orxeLXai-o-Gov 
 
 cxeiXa-o-Gov 
 
 
 o-xeiXaL-o-GTiv 
 
 o-xeiXd-o-Gcov 
 
 
108 
 
 fl- VERBS 
 
 332 A - Perfect. — Some liquid and mute verbs make a per- 
 fect active system without k, with the tense-suftix 
 -a- (indicative), generally with a change of vowel 
 or consonant in the stem, often with intransitive or 
 present meaning. Thus (/)aiVw (<^az^-) show, besides 
 the Aca-perfect ire-^ay-Ka have shown^ makes ire-cfirjv-a 
 have appeared', KTeiPco (kt€v-, ktov-) hill makes 
 -4-KTov-a have hilled (in prose always d-n-eKTova) ; 
 iyeipo) (iyep-^ waken, makes iyp-yjyop-a am awake 
 (Attic reduplication, 291 c) ; so also olkovco (olkov-) 
 hear, aK-yJKo-a (for aK-rjKof-a, 27) have heard, 
 
 333 The inflection is like that of the /ca-perfect (synopsis, 336). 
 
 334 H- Passive. — Some liquid and mute verbs take -rj-.e- 
 instead of -Orjie- as passive suffix ; an e in the verb- 
 stem usually becomes a : as crreXXw (crreX-, o-raX-) 
 send, i-ardX-rjv. 
 
 335 The inflection is like that of the ^77-passive, except that the 
 imperative ending -Ol is not changed (synopsis, 336). 
 
 336 
 
 Synopsis of (f)aipco (<^aj/-) sJiow, in 
 Liquid Aorist a -Perfect H- Passive 
 
 Indie. 
 
 
 ir€<|)tiva 
 
 
 
 ^T\va 
 
 kTr^<^r\vr\ 
 
 lct)dvTiv 
 
 Subjv. 
 
 ^r\V(i) 
 
 iTe^r\voi 
 
 <t)av(o 
 
 Opt. 
 
 <|)T)VaLfil 
 
 irC<|)T|VOL|XL 
 
 (t)av€i'qv 
 
 Impv. 
 
 <|)T^VOV 
 
 
 (^aiVT]Bi 
 
 Inf. 
 
 <^r[vai 
 
 ir€<t)TlV€VaL 
 
 <t)avfjvai 
 
 Ptc. 
 
 <t>Tivds 
 
 'ir€<|>T|va)S 
 
 <|>avcis 
 
 a. The future passive is formed regularly (310) : <}>av'^ao^aL, 
 
LIQUID VERBS 
 
 109 
 
 b. H-passives are also formed from some mute verbs ; see 
 
 in the Verb-list ySAaTrroj, ypa^w, pcTrrco, crrpit^oi. 
 
 337 Most verbs have only one of these passives ; if both 
 are made, some difference of meaning may appear ; as 
 from (f)aLvoj {(^av-) show, icjidvOrji' was shown (pas- 
 sive), icfxiv-qv ajypeared (intransitive). 
 
 338 In the perfect middle system the final consonant in 
 the stem caused certain changes (paradigms, 339). 
 
 339 Perfect Middle System, Liquid Verbs 
 
 
 Indic. Perfect 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 2 
 
 'Tr€c|)ao--|iaL 
 ('ire<t)av-o-ai) 
 
 €Tr€cj)d(r-[JLT|v 
 (eirettjav-o-o) 
 
 (ir€(|)av-(ro) 
 
 3 
 
 'ir€(j)av-TaL 
 
 €Tr€(t)aV-TO 
 
 ir€<()dv-0co 
 
 PI. 1 
 
 2 
 
 'n"€(t)dcr-|xe9a 
 Tr€ct)av-9€ 
 
 €Tr€<j)do--}i60a 
 €Tr6<j)av-0€ 
 
 Tr€<t)av-0€ 
 
 3 
 Du. 2 
 
 'ir€(t>acr|jLevoi elai 
 Tr€<t)av-0ov 
 
 'Trec|)ao-|X€VOL r^aav 
 €TTe<t)av-0ov 
 
 'ir€(|)dv-0(ov 
 'n-€c|)av-0ov 
 
 3 
 
 'ire<l>av-0ov 
 
 €ir€<|)dv-0T|V 
 
 'Tre<|)dv-0(ov 
 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Optative 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 
 ir€<j)ao-fJL€vos « 
 
 'rr€<|)aa|icvos cltiv 
 
 Tr€(|)dv-0at 
 
 
 Indic. Perfect 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 Ijiperative 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 2 
 
 €VTa\-[j,ai 
 ecTaX-crai 
 
 co-TdX-iiTiv 
 eo-xaX-o-o 
 
 ecTaX-cro 
 
 3 
 
 €crTa\-Tai 
 
 ecTTaX-TO 
 
 €o-TdX-0a) 
 
 PL 1 
 
 2 
 
 €o-Td\~[i€9a 
 co-TaX-Gc 
 
 €o-TdX-fi€0a 
 
 €O'TaX-06 
 
 co-TaX-0€ 
 
 3 
 Du. 2 
 
 e(jTa\}JLevoL cIctl 
 ecTaX-Sov 
 
 ccTTaXfJLevoL Tjcrav 
 €O'TaX-0ov 
 
 €o-TdX-0a>v 
 €(rTaX-0ov 
 
 3 
 
 €(rTa\-eov 
 
 €(rTdX-0T]v 
 
 €O-TdX-0(OV 
 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Optative 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 
 6(rTaX|JL€Vos CO 
 
 €o-TaXfJL€Vos el'-qv 
 
 €(rTdX-0ai 
 
110 
 
 12 -VERBS 
 
 a. The endings -vrat, -vto after a consonant being almost 
 unpronounceable, compound forms are used. 
 
 b. In the subjunctive and optative compound forms are used. 
 
 c. Forms in -vo-at and -vo-o do not occur ; compound forms 
 may have been used. 
 
 d. See also 50 d and 65 b : 7re-<5f)ao--/xat for 7r€-^av-/xat, i-o-rdX- 
 6ai for i-crraX-crOaL. 
 
 IV. Mute Verbs 
 
 340 The present system of mute verbs may be of the 
 formative - vowel class (257), the r-class (258), the 
 t-class (259), the inceptive class (260), or the nasal 
 class (26l). In other systems many sound-changes 
 occur where consonants come together. 
 
 341 The formation of the various tense-stems is illustrated 
 in the following: : 
 
 Present 
 Future 
 Aorist 
 Pf . Act. 
 Pf. Mid. 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 Present 
 Future 
 Aorist 
 Pf. Act. 
 Pf. Mid. 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 (ypacj)-) iDvite 
 
 ypdfjyo) (257) 
 
 ypdxjjo) (45 a) 
 
 eypaxfja (45 a) 
 
 yeypa<j)a (332) 
 
 yiy pafxyiai (44 a) 
 
 iypd^7]v (334) 
 
 (fi\a/3-) injure 
 ^XdirTO) (258) 
 /3Xaxjj(o 
 e^Xaxjja 
 /5e^Xa^a (342 b) 
 /3€/3\aiJLfjLaL 
 e^\d(^er)v (43 a) 
 i^\d/3r]v 
 
 {plj>-, pi4>-) throw 
 piiTToj (258) 
 
 epplxfja (48) 
 €ppl(f)a 
 epplfJifiaL 
 ippL(l>Or)v and 
 ippL(f)rjv 
 (Tre/xTT-) send 
 
 TTEfJiTrCO 
 
 TrepA^foi 
 
 €7TefjLxjja 
 7T€7TOfji(j)a (342 b) 
 TTeTTefifjiai (344 a) 
 
 inefjicj^Orjv 
 

 MUTE VERBS 111 
 
 
 {tt^lO-) persuade 
 
 (yu/xj^aS-) exercise 
 
 Present 
 
 ireiOo} 
 
 yvfjivd^o) (269 d, 56 d) 
 
 Future 
 
 Treido) (45 b) 
 
 yvfivdcroj (45 b) 
 
 Aorist 
 
 eTretcra 
 
 iyvfjivaaa 
 
 Pf. Act. 
 
 TreWet/ca (342 a) 
 TrenoiOa (332) 
 
 yeyvfjivaKa (342 a) 
 
 Pf. Mid. 
 
 TreVetcr/xat (44 c) 
 
 yeyvpLvacrpiai (44 c) 
 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 i-n-eLO-Orjv (43 b) 
 
 iyvpivdcrOiqv (43 b) 
 
 (dpx-) he first, begin, rule 
 
 (aXXay-) clicinge 
 
 Present 
 
 dpXco 
 
 dXXdcrcroj (259 c, 56 c) 
 
 Future 
 
 dp^co (45 a) 
 
 dXXd^o) 
 
 Aorist 
 
 y^a 
 
 rjXXa^a 
 
 Pf. Act. 
 
 VPX^ 
 
 TjXXaxa (342 b) 
 
 Pf. Mid. 
 
 ^pyixai (44 b) 
 
 rjXXayfjLai 
 
 Aor. Pass. 
 
 ripxOr]v 
 
 rjXXdxOrjv 
 rjXXayr^v 
 
 342 a. In the ko 
 
 t-perfect a r-mute disappears before k. 
 
 b. In the a-perfect most stems ending in a tt- or K-mute 
 
 aspirate the mute, often changing 
 
 the stem vowel also. 
 
 343 The sound-changes in the perfect middle system are shown in 
 the paradigms (345). 
 
 344 a. In the perfect middle of 7re/x7rw {-n-efXTr-) send, 7rc7r6/x-/i.ai is 
 written, since /x/x/a can hardly be pronounced otherwise than 
 
 as /A/x. So 7re7re)u,-/xe^a, TreTrefi-fJievo'b. 
 
 b. e'Aeyxw (iXeyx-) test makes iX-qXcy-fiaL, i\r]\ey-fjL€VO<s (drop- 
 ping one y from yy-/x), but iXrjXeyiaL, etc. 
 
 c. Older writers have in the perf. and plup. ind. mid. 3d 
 plu. a few forms in -arat, -aro, before which a tt- or K-mute is 
 
 aspirated: TeTa;(-arat, €TeTa;(-aTO, for rcTay/xivoi d(TL, rja-av. (Cp. 
 
 270 a.) 
 
112 
 
 fi- VERBS 
 
 Perfect Middle System, Mute Verbs 
 
 
 IxDic. Perfect 
 
 Indic. Pluperfect 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 TTe'rr€Lo--jj.ai 
 
 €'ir€'ir€LO--JJL'tlV 
 
 
 2 
 
 ireirei-o-aL 
 
 eircirei-o'o 
 
 Trc-Trei-o-o 
 
 3 
 
 ireTreicr-TaL 
 
 €Tr€Tr€LCr-TO 
 
 ireTrei-o-eo) 
 
 PL 1 
 
 ireTTeiV-ixeea 
 
 €'ir€'ir€io--|JL€0a 
 
 
 2 
 
 'rreT7€L-o-9e 
 
 circTrei-o-ee 
 
 ireTrei-crGc 
 
 3 
 Du. 2 
 
 ireTT^l(T\i.€VOl €1(71 
 
 Treirei-o-Oov 
 
 ireireicrpLevoi T|(rav 
 lireTTCi-o'Sov 
 
 TreireL-orewv 
 ireirei-o-eov 
 
 3 
 
 ireireL-o-Sov 
 
 CTreTrei-crSTiv 
 
 ircirei-o-ecDV 
 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Optative 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 
 '7r€ir€lO-[JL€VOS (0 
 
 ircTTCiiJLevos €it]V 
 
 ireire 1-0-0 ai 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 PL 1 
 
 2 
 
 'ye'YpaiJL-fJLai 
 ^e-ypavl/ai 
 •ye'Y pair-Tat 
 7€"Ypd}j,-}JLe9a 
 •Y€"ypa<|)-6€ (55 b) 
 
 e'yeYpdp.-fJiTiv 
 
 kyeypa\\fO 
 
 €'Ye'YpaTr-To 
 
 c-yeYpdix-jJicGa 
 
 €'Y6'Ypa<|)-e€ 
 
 -ye-Ypdc^-Go) 
 'Y€'Ypa<t>-0€ 
 
 3 
 
 Du. 2 
 
 3 
 
 •ye-ypajJifxevoL clo-l 
 
 'Ye'Ypa(j)-6ov 
 
 "Ye'Ypacj)-0ov 
 
 -ye-ypajJiixevoL Tjcrav 
 
 €"Ye'Ypa(j)-0ov 
 
 €'Y€'Ypdc[)-eTiv 
 
 •Y€'ypd(j)-0cov 
 'Y€'Ypacj)-Gov 
 "y€'ypdc^-0cov 
 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Optative 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 
 •yc-YpaixjJLevos co 
 
 -yeYpafJUJievos €lt|v 
 
 "Y€'ypdct>-0aL 
 
 Si. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 PL 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 Du. 2 
 3 
 
 TJXXaY-jJLai 
 
 TJ\\a|aL 
 
 TJWaK-xai 
 
 f|\\d7-|JL€9a 
 
 Tj\\ax-e€ 
 
 T|\Xa7}Jl€V0L €10-1 
 
 TJXXax-Qov 
 TJXXax-eov 
 
 f|XXd7-|XTiv 
 TJXXa|o 
 
 TlXXaK-TO 
 
 f|XXd7-fJL€6a 
 -nXXax-Gc 
 f|XXa7|JLevoL -qcav 
 TJXXax-Qov 
 f|XXdx-9T|v 
 
 TJXXa|o 
 f|XXdx-0<«) 
 
 TJXXax-Oe 
 f|XXdx-0cov 
 TJXXax-0ov 
 f|XXdx-0o>v 
 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Optative 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 
 T|XXa7fJi€Vos w 
 
 fiXXa^pievos cltiv 
 
 T|XXdx-0ai 
 
MUTE VERBS 
 
 113 
 
 346 a. Futures in -co. — Verbs in -i^oj (verb-stems in -tS-) 
 commoDly make tlie future in -tw, dropping S and 
 taking the suffix -eoie-, which then contracts as in 
 the liquid future (324) : /co/xt^cu (/co/xt8-) carry ^ /co/xtw. 
 In later Greek the forms in -icro) occur. 
 
 b. A few verbs in -a^o> (stems in -aS-) drop o- in the future 
 and contract, like presents in -aw (316) : pipd^o) (/8ty8a8-) make 
 go, pL/Sda-o), contracted to /St/Sw, ^t/3a5, etc. 
 
 347 Formative- Vowel or Thematic Aorist. — Many mute 
 verbs and some liquid verbs make the aorist active 
 and middle by adding the suffix -o:e- to the verb- 
 stem, in the weak form if it has one. 
 
 The inflection is like that of a present system ; in 
 meaning this aorist does not differ from the aa- 
 aorist : XetVw (Xenr-, Xltt-) leave^ IXnrov (348). 
 
 348 
 
 Formative-Vowel Aorist 
 
 
 Active 
 
 Middle 
 
 Ind. 
 
 e-Xiir-o-v 
 
 c-Xiir-d-iiTiv 
 
 
 c-Xltt-c-s 
 
 e-XiTT-ot) 
 
 
 €-Xnr-€ 
 
 €-XlTr-€-TO 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 Snbjv. 
 
 XlTT-CO 
 
 Xiir-o)-|JLai 
 
 Opt. 
 
 XiTr-oi-jii 
 
 Xnr-oi-[jLTiv 
 
 Impv. 
 
 XiTr€ 
 
 Xiir-oi) 
 
 Inf. 
 
 Xnr-€LV 
 
 Xiir-e-crOai 
 
 Ptc. 
 
 Xltt-cov 
 
 XLir-6-jJi€vos 
 
 349 The accent of the infinitive and participle and of the im- 
 perative middle second singular is on the formative vowel. 
 This gives -etv (for -e-ev), 'i-a-Oai, -wv, and -ov (for -c-(cr)o). 
 8 
 
114 fi- VERBS 
 
 a. Five verbs also accent the formative vowel in the impv. 
 second sing, active : elire say, ikOe come, evpi find, iSi see, XaySe 
 take. But in compounds their accent is recessive. 
 
 360 Verbs that make a formative- vowel aorist are very fre- 
 quent, and are often irregular. Among the commonest 
 
 ^ ^ • Present Aorist 
 
 1. Xaji/Bdvo) (Xa/B-j Xtj/S-) eXa^ov, Xd/3a), Xd^oLfjiL, Xa/Be 
 
 take, (349 a), Xafielv, Xa^cov. 
 
 2. (j)evyo) {<^evy-j (f)vy-j e(l)vyoi', (f)vya), (j>vyoLiJii, (j^vye, 
 
 flee, ^vyeiVj (j)vy(6p. 
 
 3. Trdo'xoj (jraO-y 260 b) iiTaOov, TrdOco, TrdOoLfjn, rrdOe, 
 
 suffer, TTaOelv, TTa6a)v. 
 
 4. pdXXo) (^aX-j /3Xrj-^ e^aXov, ^dXco, /BdXoiixL^/BdXe, 
 
 throw J * /SaXeuv, /BaXcov. 
 
 5. ytyvofxaL {y^v-, yov-, iyepofjirjv, yei^ojixau, yevoi- 
 
 yevrj-) become, fjLTjv, yevov^ yeveaOat, ye- 
 
 6. exoi (o-ex; e'x-, ct^-, eVxoz^, ax^y o-xoLrjv, crxe? 
 
 (txt) ^Ci'^e, hold, (271), crxetJ^, ax^^v. 
 
 (In compounds the subjunctive and imperative have reces- 
 sive accent : Tra/oao-xw, Trapao-xe?.) 
 
 7. opdoi {opa-, 18- ; 391) elSoi^ (^67), tSoj, Ihoiixi, tSe 
 
 see, (349 a), Ihelv, IScot/. 
 
 8. (j)r]iJiL (^(j)a'.7]-, f^TT-, eiTTOv, eiTro), eiiroiiJiL, elne 
 
 391) say, (349 a), elTrelv, enTd)v. 
 
 9. alpeo) (alpe.r]-, eX-) elXov, iXco, iXoLfJn, eXe, iXeli; 
 
 seize, kXojv. 
 
 10. dyo} (ay-^ lead, drive, rjyayov (with reduplica- 
 tion), dydyo), dydyoLfJH, 
 ay aye, dyayelv, dyayoiv. 
 
MI -VERBS 115 
 
 351 Besides the formative-vowel aorists etTrov said (<^r7/xt) and 
 ^vcyKoi/ hore (<^€p(o) are found forms of an aorist in a : ciTra, 
 ctTTtt?, etc., and •^veyKa, •^veyKtt?, etc. 
 
 352 Verbal Adjectives are formed by adding -t6<; {-nj, -^ov) 
 and -Teo<; (-d, -ov) to the verb-stem as it appears in 
 the aorist passive (observing the rule in 43) ; some- 
 times an extra a- appears before the r. 
 
 353 Most verbals in -to<; either (1) denote the capability 
 or possibility of the action of the verb (cp. Latin 
 -MUsy English -able)y or (2) have the force of a per- 
 fect passive participle (Latin -tus) : i,r]\o)T6<^ enviaUe 
 or envied from {T^Xdw, por]-T6<^ tliinlcable from z^oeo), 
 TTOLTj-Tos made from iroiio}. 
 
 a. Some verbals in -tos have an active meaning : pv-ro^ 
 flowing from pew. 
 
 b. Compound verbals in -to^ in the first meaning accent 
 the ultima and have three endings ; in the second meaning 
 they have recessive accent and two endings : 8ta/?aTos (->/, -oV) 
 fordable from 8ta/?atVw, ay pain-os (-ov) unicritten from ypa<^w. 
 
 354 The verbal in -Tio<; has the general force (but not all 
 the uses) of the Latin gerundive or jDarticiple in 
 -ndus\ 7rpdK-Teo<; requiring to he donej faciendus. 
 
 B. Verbs of the Mt-CoxjuGATio^^" 
 
 355 The distinction between the w-conjugation and the 
 /xi-conjugation applies only to the present system. In 
 the /Ltt-conjugation the present stem does not end in 
 -o:€-, and the fuller endings -/xt, -9, -cjt, -acri, -crav 
 (263) are used. There are two classes : 
 
 356 (1) Nasal Class (cp. 281). — The suffix -w.v-, after a 
 vowel 'vvv'.v-, is added to the verb-stem : 
 
116 MI -VERBS 
 
 VERB-STEM PRES, STEM PRES. IND. 
 
 8et/c- point at, heiKvv'.v-, SeLKvvfjn, 
 
 K€pa- mix, Kepavvv'.v-, Kepavvvfjn, 
 
 357 (2) Root Class. — The present stem is tlie verb-stem, 
 always a root, sometimes reduplicated : 
 
 VERB-STEM PRES. INDIC, 
 
 (j)a:r}- say, ^iq^jn (19 d), 
 
 aralrj- set up, lo-TrjfjLi (257 a, 64). 
 
 I. Verbs in -pvijii 
 
 358 Verbs in -vvixi show the simplest form of /^t-present 
 (paradigm, 360). 
 
 (1) The final stem-vowel is long in the singular of 
 the active indicative present and imperfect, and in 
 the second singular of the active imj)erative ; else- 
 where it is short. 
 
 (2) The endings are unchanged : -dcrt and -aai/ 
 are used in the active third plural ; -Ol is omitted. 
 
 (3) The infinitive active takes -vau and accents 
 the penult (296 a). 
 
 (4) The active participle accents the final vowel 
 of the present stem (l70). 
 
 (5) The subjunctive and optative follow the co-con- 
 jugation. Sometimes the indicative also follows the 
 orconjugation. 
 
 359 The other verbs of this class are the following, which see in 
 the Verb-list : 
 
 (a) Vowel verbs : Kcpavvvfjn mix, KpefjLdvvvfjLt hang, Treravvv/jLi 
 spread, a-KiSdwvfiL scatter, a-piwvixi quench, poivvvixi strengthen, 
 o-TpwvvvjxL spread. 
 
MI -VERBS 
 
 117 
 
 360 
 
 (b) Liquid verbs : oXXvfxi lose, destroy, ojxvv^i swear. 
 
 (c) Mute verbs, in -y : ^evyvvfjn join, /xetyvv/xt mix, Tn/jyvvfiL 
 fix, pT^yvvfjLL break. 
 
 Ae^KvvjjLi (SeiK-) point at 
 
 
 
 Active 
 
 Middle (Passive) 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 8€lK-Vi)-JiL 
 
 8eiK-v\)-}JLai 
 
 Pres. 
 
 2 
 
 8€LK-Vl)-S 
 
 8€iK-v\)-(raL 
 
 
 3 
 
 8€IK-Vi)-0"L 
 
 8€lK-VD-TaL 
 
 
 PL 1 
 
 8€iK-VD-|iev 
 
 8€LK-Vxi-lJL€9a 
 
 
 2 
 
 8€IK-VU-T€ 
 
 8€iK-v\)-cre€ 
 
 
 3 
 
 8€LK-V\i-dO'L 
 
 8€lK-V\J-VTai 
 
 
 Du. 2 
 
 8€IK-VU-T0V 
 
 8€IK-V\)-O-0OV 
 
 
 3 
 
 8€IK-V\)-T0V 
 
 86lK-VU-0-eOV 
 
 Iniperf. 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 €-8€LK-V\3-V 
 
 €-8eiK-v'u-|niv 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-8eiK-vi)-s 
 
 €-8€iK-v\;-o-o 
 
 
 3 
 
 k-haK-vv 
 
 €-8€lK-VU-T0 
 
 
 PI. 1 
 
 k-hdK-vv-\iev 
 
 €-8€LK-V'U-|JLe0a 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-8€lK-Vl)-T€ 
 
 €-8eiK-vi)-o-6€ 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-8€iK-vu-(rav 
 
 €-8ciK-VU-VT0 
 
 
 Du. 2 
 
 €-8€lK-VU-T0V 
 
 €-8€LK-VU-(jG0V 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-8€lK-V'U-TT|V 
 
 €-8€lK-V'U-0-eT|V 
 
 Subjv. 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 8€LK-v'u-o), etc. 
 
 8cLK-v'u-co-|iai, ete. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 8€LK-vij-0L-jjLi, ete. 
 
 8€LK-vi)-oi-|iTiv, ete. 
 
 Impv. 
 
 Si. 2 
 
 hdK-VV 
 
 8CLK-VU-0-0 
 
 
 3 
 
 8€LK-V'U-T0) 
 
 8€iK-vij-(r0o) 
 
 
 PI. 2 
 
 8ciK-VV-T€ 
 
 8€lK-V\)-O-0€ 
 
 
 3 
 
 8€LK-V\I-VT(0V 
 
 8€LK-vxi-cr0cov 
 
 
 Du. 2 
 
 8€lK-Vl)-T0V 
 
 8€iK-v\)-cr0ov 
 
 
 3 
 
 8€IK-V'U-T<0V 
 
 8€LK-V1J-(r0(OV 
 
 Inf. 
 
 
 8€lK-VlJ-VaL 
 
 8€iK-v\j-o-0ai 
 
 Partic. 
 
 
 8€LK-viJS, -va)o-a, -vvv 
 
 8€IK-V'U-|X€V0S 
 
 Principal parts : 
 
 8€iKvi3jJLi, 8€i|(o, e8€L|a, 868€ixa, 8€8€L'YfJLai, e8eix0'nv. 
 
118 
 
 MI -VERBS 
 
 II. Verbs in -r)fJiLy with Stem in -alrj- 
 
 361 Verbs of the root class (357) with present stem in 
 -aiT^- follow laTTjixL (362). They are like heLKvvfjLL 
 except as follows : 
 
 (1) d-dcTL contracts to -ao-t. 
 
 Present System of 
 
 Active 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 i-(mi]-\Li 
 
 't-(TTT\-V 
 
 l-CTCO 
 
 
 2 
 
 L-CTTTI-S 
 
 l-(TTT]-S 
 
 l-O-TTJS 
 
 
 3 
 
 L-0'TT|-0'L 
 
 l-O-TTl 
 
 l-O-TTJ 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 I'-dTa-fJiev 
 
 l-crTa-fJL€V 
 
 l-cTco-fJiev 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-crTa-T€ 
 
 l-0-Ta-T€ 
 
 l-(rTfi-T€ 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-o-TCLcri 
 
 i-o-Ta-o-av 
 
 {-(ttSxti 
 
 Dii. 
 
 2 
 
 L-0-Ta-TOV 
 
 l-CTa-TOV 
 
 l-CTTTl-TOV 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-0-Ta-TOV 
 
 t-CTTd-TllV 
 
 l-0-TTl-TOV 
 
 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 L-o-Ta-jxai 
 
 i-o-Td-ix-qv 
 
 l-0-TO)-|JiaL 
 
 
 2 
 
 i-o-Ta-o-ai 
 
 i-cTa-co 
 
 l-aTTJ 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-o-Ta-Tai 
 
 i-crxa-TO 
 
 l-O-TTl-TaL 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 l-(rTd-|JL€6a 
 
 c-o-Td-jJLeSa 
 
 l-o-Tw-iJLeGa 
 
 
 2 
 
 L-cTTa-o-Gc 
 
 i-o-Ta-cGe 
 
 l-O'TTl-O'0€ 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-o-Ta-VTai 
 
 l-CTTa-VTO 
 
 l-O-T(0-VTai 
 
 Dn. 
 
 2 
 
 i-cTTa-o-Gov 
 
 L-o-Ta-o-0ov 
 
 1-O-TT1-O-0OV 
 
 
 3 
 
 L-cTa-o-Oov 
 
 i-crTd-(r0T|v 
 
 l-crTTi-o-0ov 
 
MI -VERBS 
 
 119 
 
 (2) The subjunctive contracts -doj- and -drj- to -w- 
 and -17-. 
 
 (3) The optative mode-suffix is -irj-, or in the plu- 
 ral and dual more often -i- (-le- in the third plural), 
 added directly to the stem. The accent never stands 
 before the mode-suffix. (Cp. the passive aor. opt.) 
 
 to-Tiiixi (<rTa:ii-) set, stand 
 
 Voice 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive, 
 Participle 
 
 l-o-TaiTi-v 
 l-(rraLT|-s 
 l-o-TaLTi 
 
 l-CTTat-jiev, -a{.T\-[L^v 
 l-o-Tai-TC, -ai-q-TC 
 l-0Tai€-v, -aiii-crav 
 Uo-Tai-Tov, -aiT|-TOV 
 l-crxai-TTiv, -aiTi-Tiiv 
 
 l-0"Td-TCO 
 l-0-Ta-T€ 
 
 l-o-xd-VTcov 
 
 L-a-ra-Tov 
 
 l-o-xd-Tcov 
 
 Infinitive 
 l-o-Td-vai 
 
 Participle 
 l-CTdS 
 
 l-o-Tdcra 
 l-o-Tdv (162 b) 
 
 Voice 
 
 
 
 l-o'Tai-fJL'nv 
 
 l-cTat-o 
 
 l-o-Tai-TO 
 
 l-cTai-iieOa 
 
 l-o-Tat-crOe 
 
 l-O-Tai-VTO 
 
 l-(rTaL-cr6ov 
 l-CTTai-o-GTiv 
 
 L-CTTa-cro 
 l-o-Td-cGco 
 
 i-o-Ta-o-Gc 
 l-oTd-aOcov 
 i-&Ta-(TQov 
 l-CTTd-o-ecav 
 
 Infinitive 
 i-o-Ta-o-Gai 
 
 Participle 
 
 l-0-Td-|i€VOS 
 
 l-0-Ta-|JL€VT| 
 
 etc. 
 
120 
 
 MI -VERBS 
 
 "lo-TT^/xt and its compounds are very common, and tlie 
 different tenses often require different translations. 
 The fundamental distinctions are shown in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 
 Transitive 
 
 Intransitive 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 Active 
 
 Indir. Mid. 
 
 place oneself 
 
 be placed 
 
 
 set 
 
 set for oneself 
 
 
 
 Present 
 
 IdTtllJLl 
 
 lo-TttfJiai 
 
 Lo-TajJLai 
 
 LcrxajJiai 
 
 Future 
 
 O-TTJO-CO 
 
 O-TTIO-OIJLaL 
 
 0'TT10'0|iai 
 
 (rTa6T|(ro|JLai 
 
 Aorist 
 
 co-T-qcra 
 
 €0-TT|0'dp.'nV 
 
 <i(TT'X\V 
 
 €C7Td0TlV 
 
 Perfect 
 
 
 
 ecTTTiKa 
 
 stand 
 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 
 
 Clo-TTJKTI 
 
 was stand- 
 ing 
 
 
 Put. Pf . 
 
 
 
 €O-TTi|(0 
 
 shall stand 
 
 
 The intransitive forms also serve for the passive, as with 
 many other verbs. For io-rrjv see 366, for ia-T-^ioi see 364. 
 
 a. Similarly in compounds : 
 
 Present d(f)L(TTrjiiL set of from, cause to revolt, 
 
 mid. revolt, pass, am set off; 
 Future aTroa-Tyjo-co shall cause to revolt, 
 
 mid. shall revolt, pass, shall be set off; 
 2a-Aor. oLTreo-Trjcra caused to revolt, 
 
 mid. got to revolt, pass, was set off ; 
 Eoot-Aor. dTrea-TTjv revolted. 
 Perfect d^ia-T-qKa am in revolt, 
 
 dcjieLaTTJKrj was in revolt 
 
MI -VERBS 121 
 
 Likewise KaOia-T-qixL set down^ settle^ KaTao-Ttjcrco 
 shall settle (trans.), Kareo-Trjaa settled (trans.), Kare- 
 o-TTjj/ became settled^ KaOea-TrjKa am settled, KadeLa-TiJKr) 
 
 was settled. 
 
 364 A future perfect active ia-ri^ioi shall stand is formed by add- 
 ing ttie future suffix and endings to io-rr^K- as a perfect stem. 
 In like manner 6vycrK(a die forms TeOv^iw shall be dead from 
 
 365 The following verbs (which see in the Verb-list) are like 
 la-TrjfXL in the present system : ovCvqiii henefit^ mid. le advan- 
 taged, TTLfnrXrjfXL fill, TTLfjLTrprjfiL set OH fire (more frequent in the 
 
 compound c/ATrtTrpiy/xi), aya/xai admire, SvvafJicu COn, iTTLO-TafjLaL 
 
 hnoic, %Lnder stand. c8vva(o-)o regularly becomes cSuVw. 
 
 a. The deponents in this list have recessive accent in the 
 subjv. and opt., herein differing from ttmy/u : 
 
 Subjv. Sww/Attt, Swry, SvvTTTai, etc., 
 
 Opt. Swato, €7rio-TatTO, ayatvTO. 
 
 Likewise in the root-aorist (366) wv-qix-qv from SvLvrj/jiL : 
 
 ovato, ovaiTO, ovaivro, and from iTrpLafxrjv (pres. wvio/xai) ; Trptoi- 
 fiai, etc. 
 
 366 Root-Aorist. — Some (&■ and /xi-verbs, all of them hav- 
 ing vowel-stems, make an active aorist in w^hich the 
 endings are added directly to the root as tense stem 
 (root-aorist). In so far it is like the /xt-present and 
 imperfect. In meaning it is like other aorists ; but 
 if the verb has also a o-a-aorist, that is causative and 
 the root-aorist intransitive. Thus from 10-717 /xi, ecr- 
 TTjaa I set or caused to stand, icTrjv I placed myself 
 or took my place ; from yiyvcocrKco recognize, iyoiv ; 
 from Suoj enter, iSvp. (Paradigms, 367.) 
 
122 
 
 MI- VERBS 
 
 367 
 
 ROOT-AORISTS 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Optative 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 €-CrTT|-V 
 
 crTcI> 
 
 CTTaiTl-V 
 
 
 2 
 
 ecTTi-s 
 
 O-TfjS 
 
 (TTair]-s 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-crTii 
 
 O-TT] 
 
 (TTair\ 
 
 
 PL 1 
 
 €-(rTT|-|Jl€V 
 
 CrT(0-|l€V 
 
 (TTaL-fiCV, 
 
 CTaiTI-fJlCV 
 
 2 
 
 €-0-TTl-T€ 
 
 0-TT]-T€ 
 
 0'TaL-T€, 
 
 crTaiT|-T€ 
 
 3 
 
 €-crTTi-orav 
 
 (TTCOCri 
 
 0-TaL€-V, 
 
 o-Tai-q-crav 
 
 Du. 2 
 
 <i-(TTT]-TOV 
 
 O-TTl-TOV 
 
 O-Tat-TOV, 
 
 CTTaiTl-TOV 
 
 3 
 
 C-O-TTJ-TTjV 
 
 CTTTJ-TOV 
 
 o-Tai-TTiv, 
 
 (TTaiTi-TllV 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 €-'YV(0-V 
 
 yv(o 
 
 -yvoiii-v 
 
 
 2 
 
 C-YVCO-S 
 
 Vvcgs 
 
 •yvoLTi-s 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-"YV(0 
 
 -yvco 
 
 'yVOLTI 
 
 
 PI. 1 
 
 €-7V(0-lX€V 
 
 -yvw-fjiev 
 
 -yvoL-ixev, 
 
 yvoiK\-\L^v 
 
 2 
 
 e-'YVo)-T€ 
 
 "YVO)-T€ 
 
 'YVOl-T€, 
 
 "yVOlTl-T€ 
 
 3 
 
 c-'yvw-o'av 
 
 "yvwcri 
 
 "YVOL€-V, 
 
 •yvoLTi-crav 
 
 Du. 2 
 
 €-'YV(0-TOV 
 
 "yvw-TOV 
 
 •yVOL-TOV, 
 
 'YV01T|-T0V 
 
 3 
 
 €-"YV(0-T'qV 
 
 •yvto-TOV 
 
 'yvoi-T'nv, 
 
 "YVOlll-TTIV 
 
 Si. 1 
 
 €-8iJ-v 
 
 8^0) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-8i5-s 
 
 813x1$ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-8i) 
 
 8lJT| 
 
 
 
 PI. 1 
 
 €-8i)-|i€V 
 
 8lJ(0-|X€V 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-8iJ-T€ 
 
 8'u'ri-T€ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-8\3-(rav 
 
 8\icoo'L 
 
 
 
 Du. 2 
 
 €-8lJ-T0V 
 
 8xiTl-T0V 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-8ij-TT|V 
 
 8'U'q-Tov 
 
 
 
 368 Tlie root-vowel is long (t/, oj, v) before a single 
 consonant, short (a, e, o, v) before a vowel or 
 two consonants 
 change. 
 
 The endings are added without 
 
MI -VERBS 
 
 123 
 
 2<rTT]V, 'iiyvuiv, '<iSvv 
 
 biPERATIVE 
 
 Infixitive, Participle 
 
 0-TT]-TCO 
 
 (TTT1-T€ 
 CTTd-VTCOV 
 (TTTl-TOV 
 (TTTI-TCOV 
 
 Infinitive 
 o-TTi-vai 
 
 Participle 
 cTas, (TTdcra, cTdv 
 (162 b) 
 
 7VC0-T(O 
 
 -yvco-Te 
 -yvd-VTcov 
 •yvco-Tov 
 •yvco-Twv 
 
 Infinitive 
 •yvw-vaL 
 
 Participle 
 ■yvo-us, 7Vovo-a, -yvdv 
 (169) 
 
 8^-01 
 
 8v-T0) 
 8'U-VTCOV 
 
 8i)-Tov 
 
 8u-T(0V 
 
 Infinitive 
 8{)-vaL 
 
 Participle 
 8^s, 8wa, 8ilv 
 
 (170) 
 
 In the subjunctive and optative a, e, o contract 
 with the mode-suffix ; 017 gives w, 017 gives co. 
 
 a. The entire system is like the T7-passive aorist 
 (334, 336), except for the final vowel of the stem, and 
 some resulting contractions. 
 
124: MI -VERBS 
 
 369 Eoot-aorist forms are also found, some of them frequently, 
 from 
 
 (a) paivtji iPaiT]-) go : 
 
 ejSrjv, Pio, ^curjv, PtjOl, prjvai, )8as. SuhJY. fiia, Pfj<s, ^y, etc. 
 
 -SiSpda-KOi (8pa:d-) run away, only in composition, esp. diro- 
 SiSpdo-KO) : 
 
 eSpctj/, e8pa,9, etc, 8pw, Spas, etc, Spairjv, hpaOt, Spavai, Spa's. 
 
 KT€Lv<j) (kt€v-, KTaiTj-) Mil (root-aor. poetic) : 
 
 €KTdVf €/CTaS, €KTd ', ptC. KTttS, KTOL/JLeVO^. 
 
 6vLV7}fjiL (6va:7]-) benefit (root-aor. intr.) : 
 
 u>vT^fJiy]v, 6vaLfX7)v (365 a), ovrjcro, ovaaOai, ovyfxevo^. 
 
 TrerofiaL (ttct-, TTTairj-) fiy : 
 
 CTTTTyv, TTTat-qv^ TTTrjvai, TTTttS (act. poetic), 
 mid. cTTTtt/xT^v, irracr^at, tttci/acvoS. 
 
 Eoot (TXairj-) endure : 
 
 erXr]v, tXw, rAairyv, tX^Ol, rXrjvaL, tAos. 
 Eoot (Trpia-) buy (present wveofiai) : 
 
 cTrpta/xryv, Trptto/iat (365 a), 7rptat//,7yi/, 7rptao"^at, Trpidfxevo'S. 
 
 <f>6dvoi {(f>Oa:r]-) get ahead of I 
 
 €<f)6rjv, (fiOio, <f>6aLr]v, tfiOyjvai, (f>6d^. 
 
 (b) a-pivvvixL (a-peiT]-) que7ich : 
 
 €0-^>yv went out, (T/3r]vaL, 
 
 {c) aXio-Ko/jiaL (oA-, dAo:o)-) 05m captured: 
 
 edX(DV or T^Awv, dAw, dAotiyi/, dAwi/at, oAoijS. 
 
 ^100) (Plo'.io-) live : 
 
 (tZ) <^vo) (<3!)v:i5-) produce : 
 
 €<f>vv was born, am, <f>v(o, <]>vvai, <j!)vs. 
 
 370 Root-Perfect. — A few verbs have some perfect active 
 forms without a tense-suffix, the endings being added 
 directly to the reduplicated verb-stem, always a root. 
 Thus 
 
 (1) From LCTTrjfjLL, besides the regular fca-perfect, 
 occur, in the intransitive sense, stand, 
 
MI -VERBS 125 
 
 Ind. €o-Ta-|Ji€v Subjv. €(rT(o Inf. €crTd-vai 
 
 CO-Ta-TC €0-Tci)fJL€V 
 
 eo-Tclcri co-Tcao-L Ptc. taTcos 
 
 ecTTa-TOV Opt. co-TaiTjv, etc. (173) 
 
 Plup. ccTTa-crav Impv. cVxa-Oi, etc. 
 
 (2) From /Batvajj besides ^€^r]Ka am gone, stand 
 fast, occur ind. 3d pi. ^ej^aaij subjv. 3d. pi. /Se/Bcjcriy 
 ptc. fief^m, like ecrrcrjg. 
 
 (3) From yiyvoyiai, besides yivovaj occurs yeycosj 
 like ecrrw?. 
 
 (4) From Ovrjo-Kco, besides riOviqKa am dead, occur 
 
 Ind. Te0va-}i€v Opt. T€0vaiT|v 
 
 T€0va-T€ Impv. T€6va-6i 
 
 T€0vd(ri Inf. T€0vd-vai 
 
 Te0va-Tov Ptc. T€0ve(os (173) 
 
 Plup. €T€0va-o-av 
 
 (5) Besides SeSot/ca (St-, Set-, Sot-) fear, and the 
 
 a-perfect SeSta, SeSte, SeSteVat, occur 
 
 Ind. 8€8l-jji€V Plup. cSeSi-aav 
 
 6e8L-T€ Subjv. SeSioi) 
 
 SeSi-do-i Ptc. ScSlws, SeSiuia, ScSids 
 
 (6) From eot/ca (Ik-, eU-j ot/c-) am like, appear, 
 plup. eotKif], occur 
 
 Ind. €0L7-|JL€V Inf. clKcvai 
 
 €L§dO-L Ptc. €lK(OS, €lKl)ia, CIKOS 
 
 in. AiScOfJLL, TL9r)fJLL, '^IrjlJLL 
 
 371 Three very common verbs — StSw/xt ^^^^, TiOiqixi put, 
 IrjfjLL send — are nearly like lariqixi, but agree in cer- 
 tain differences from IcrTrjiJiL in the present and root- 
 aorist systems, as also in forming a peculiar /ca- 
 aorist. (Paradigms, 372-374.) 
 
126 
 
 MI -VERBS 
 
 8i8(0|xi (80 :a)-) give 
 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 
 Present Imperfect 
 
 w 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 8l-8o)-|ii €-8i-6o\)v 
 
 8 1-8(0 
 
 >. 
 
 
 2 
 
 8i-8o>-s €-8l-8o\)s 
 
 8l-8w-s 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 8i-8o)-o-L €-81-801) 
 
 8i-8(o 
 
 H 
 
 PL 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 81-80- |X€V €-8l-8o-(X€V 
 8l-8o-T€ €-8l-8o-T€ 
 
 8L-8co-fJLev 
 8l-8(o-t€ 
 
 Ifl 
 
 
 3 
 
 8L-86-do'L €-8L-8o-o'av 
 
 8l-8(o-o-i 
 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 8l-8o-tov €-8l-8o-tov 
 
 8l-8co-tov 
 
 P^_ 
 
 
 3 
 
 8l-8o-tov €-8l-86-ttiv 
 
 8l-8(o-tov 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8i-8o-iJLaL €-8l-86-[jltiv 
 8L-8o-o'aL c-8i-8o-o'o 
 
 8L-8(o-fJLai 
 8l-8w 
 
 a 
 
 
 3 
 
 8L-8o-TaL €-8l-8o-to 
 
 8L-8co-TaL 
 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8L-86-}JL€6a €-8L-86-|X€9a 
 8L-8o-o-e€ ^-8L-8o-o-e€ 
 
 8L-8(o-fJi€0a 
 8L-8(o-o-e€ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 3 
 
 8i-8o-VTaL €-8l-8o-vto 
 
 8L-8a)-VTaL 
 
 Oh 
 
 Dn. 
 
 2 
 
 8l-8o-o-6ov €-8L-8o-o-eov 
 
 8L-8(o-o-eov 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 3 
 
 8l-8o-o'6ov e-8L-86-o-9T|v 
 
 8i-8(o-o-Gov 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 (€-8<o-Ka) 
 
 8(0 
 
 &3 
 
 
 2 
 
 (€-8o)-Kas) 
 
 8(3-s 
 
 H 
 
 
 3 
 
 (€-8(0-K€) 
 
 8(^ 
 
 PL 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 €-8o-}Jl€V 
 €-8o-T€ 
 
 8(0-[JL€V 
 8(b-T€ 
 
 m 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-8o-o'av 
 
 8(0-0-1 
 
 J 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 €-8o-TOV 
 
 8(0-T0V 
 
 <1 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-86-TT|V 
 
 8(0-TOV 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 €-86-}AT|V 
 €-8o\) 
 
 6(o-|xaL 
 8(3 
 
 a 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-80-T0 
 
 8(o-TaL 
 
 
 PL 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 €-86-|X€6a 
 
 €-8o-o-e€ 
 
 8(o-|jL€0a 
 8o)-o-0€ 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-8o-VTO 
 
 8(o-VTaL 
 
 (4 
 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 €-8o-o-eov 
 
 8(o-o"6ov 
 
 < 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-86-o-eiiv 
 
 8(o-o-6ov 
 
MI -VERBS 
 
 127 
 
 8iSwp.t (8o:<»-) give 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive, 
 Participle 
 
 8l-50LT|-V 
 
 
 
 6l-8oit|-s 
 
 8i-8o\) 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 6l-5oiti 
 
 8L-86-TCi) 
 
 8i-86-vai 
 
 8i-6oL-|iev 5L-8oiT|-|i€v 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 5l-50L-TC 8l-80LTl-T€ 
 
 8l-8o-t€ 
 
 8l-8o'us 
 
 8i-8oL€-v 8i-8oL'q-o"av 
 
 8L-86-in-(ov, -Twaav 
 
 81-80-0 o-a 
 
 81-80L-TOV 8l-8oit|-tov 
 
 81-80-Tov 
 
 8i-86v 
 
 8i-8oi-TT|v 8l-8olt]-ttiv 
 
 81-86-Tcov 
 
 (169) 
 
 8l-8ol-}jltiv 
 
 
 
 8l-8ol-o 
 
 81-80-0-0 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 8l-8ol-to 
 
 8i-86-o-0(») 
 
 8L-8o-o'0ai 
 
 8L-8oi-|ie6a 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 8l-8ol-o-9€ 
 
 8l-8o-o-9€ 
 
 8i-86-}JL€Vos 
 
 8l-8ol-vto 
 
 8i-86-o-ecov, -o-Ococav 
 
 8L-8o-|jLexni 
 
 8L-8oL-creov 
 
 8i-8o-o-0ov 
 
 8i-86-}j.€vov 
 
 6l-8ol-o-6t|v 
 
 8l-86-o"0o)V 
 
 
 8oiT|-V 
 
 
 
 hob(\-s 
 
 86-s 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 80LT| 
 
 86-Tco 
 
 8o{i-vai 
 
 80L-lXeV 80LT|-1X€V 
 
 ■ 
 
 Participle 
 
 80L-T€ 801T1-T€ 
 
 86-T€ 
 
 8o'us 
 
 8oi€-v 801'q-o-av 
 
 86-VT(ov, -Tcoo-av 
 
 hovdo. 
 
 80L-TOV 80LT|-T0V 
 
 86-Tov 
 
 86v 
 
 80L-TT|V 80LT]-TT|V 
 
 86-T(ov 
 
 (169) 
 
 80l-|iT|V 
 
 
 
 801-0 
 
 hov 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 80L-TO 
 
 8d-a0(o 
 
 86-o-0aL 
 
 8oL-|j.e0a 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 8oL-cr6€ 
 
 86-o-0€ 
 
 86-}JL€VOS 
 
 80L-VT0 
 
 86-o-0(ov, -cSwo-av 
 
 8o-[JL€VT| 
 
 8oL-cr0ov 
 
 86-O-0OV 
 
 86-fJL€VOV 
 
 8oi-cr6Tiv 
 
 86-o-0o)V 
 
 
128 
 
 MI -VERBS 
 
 373 
 
 t£9t]|jli (0€:ti-) ptit 
 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present Imperfect 
 
 
 H 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 TL-6t|-|JLI €-TL-eT|-V 
 
 TL-0(O 
 
 > 
 
 
 2 
 
 Tl-e-ri-S €-Tl-6€LS 
 
 TL-0fi-S 
 
 < 
 
 
 3 
 
 TL-0tl-O-L €-TL-6€l 
 
 Tt-0Ti 
 
 H 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 Tl-e€-|Jl€V €-Tl-e6-|X€V 
 
 TL-0(O-|i€V 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Tl-0€-T€ €-Tl-0€-T€ 
 
 TI-0T1-T6 
 
 C/J 
 
 
 3 
 
 TL-Gc-do-L €-Ti-e€-o-av 
 
 Tl-0(O-Cri 
 
 33 
 
 Dii. 
 
 2 
 
 Tl-Gc-TOV €-Tl-e€-TOV 
 
 TI-0T1-TOV 
 
 flH 
 
 
 3 
 
 Tl-0€-TOV €-Tl-6€-TTlV 
 
 Tl-0fi-TOV 
 
 H 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 Tl-6€-|JLaL €-TL-e6-JJLT]V 
 
 Tl-0(D-fJiai 
 
 1-3 
 
 Q 
 
 
 2 
 
 TL-ee-aai e-Ti-Ge-ao 
 
 Tl-0Ti 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 Tl-Gc-Tai €-Tl-6€-T0 
 
 TL-0T1-Tai 
 
 H 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 TL-e€-|X€ea €-TL-ee-|X€ea 
 
 Tl-0(O-fJl€0a 
 
 OJ 
 
 >* 
 
 
 2 
 
 TL-9€-0-6€ €-Tl-e€-Or0€ 
 
 TI-0T1-O-06 
 
 (/} 
 
 
 3 
 
 Tl-0€-VTai 6-TL-06-VTO 
 
 TL-0(b-VTaL 
 
 C4 
 
 Dii. 
 
 2 
 
 TI-06-O-0OV €-TL-0€-Cr0OV 
 
 TL-0Tl-(r0OV 
 
 P4 
 
 
 3 
 
 Tl-0€-Cr0OV €-TL-0€-Or011V 
 
 Tl-0f]-O-0OV 
 
 W 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 (€-011-Ka) 
 
 06> 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 (€-0Tl-Ka-S) 
 
 efi-s 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 (€-0Tl-K6) 
 
 efi 
 
 H 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 €-0€-HL€V 
 
 0(O-|JL€V 
 
 So 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-0€-T€ 
 
 0fi-T€ 
 
 c/} 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-0€-o-av 
 
 0(o-(rL 
 
 o 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 €-0€-TOV 
 
 0T1-TOV 
 
 
 3 
 
 6-0C-T11V 
 
 0T]-TOV 
 
 fH 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 €-0€-ii'qv 
 
 0(O-(JLaL 
 
 p 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-0O\) 
 
 efi 
 
 Q 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-0€-TO 
 
 0Tl-TaL 
 
 f^ 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 €-0e-|X€0a 
 
 0(O-}JL€0a 
 
 W3 
 
 
 2 
 
 €-0€-(r0€ 
 
 0il-o-0€ 
 
 c/i 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-0€-VTO 
 
 06)-VTaL 
 
 C3 
 
 o 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 €-0€-(r0OV 
 
 0f|-o-0ov 
 
 < 
 
 
 3 
 
 €-0e-o-0iiv 
 
 0T1-O-0OV 
 
MI -VERBS 
 
 129 
 
 Tf0Tini {Qe.r\-) put 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infixitive, 
 Participle 
 
 TL-0€lT|-V 
 
 
 
 TL-e€LT|-S 
 
 Tl-061 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 Tl-GCITI 
 
 Tl-0e-T(O 
 
 TL-0€-Vai 
 
 Tl-0€L-|i€V TL-eeitl-liCV 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 TL-06L-T6 TL-6€LT|-Te 
 
 Tl-0€-T€ 
 
 TI-0CLS 
 
 Tl-0€l€-V TL-e€LT|-0-aV 
 
 Tt-0e-VTCOV 
 
 TL-0€LO-a 
 
 TL-0eL-TOV TL-0€IT|-TOV 
 
 Tl-0€-TOV 
 
 Tl-0€V 
 
 Tl-0€L-TT|V TL-0eiTJ-TT|V 
 
 TL-0€-T<OV 
 
 (165) 
 
 TL-0€L-|iTlV TL-0OL-[JL'riV 
 
 
 
 TI-06L-O Tl-001-0 
 
 Ti-0€-<ro 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 TI-06L-TO TI-0OL-TO 
 
 Tl-0€-<r0CO 
 
 Ti-0€-o-0at 
 
 Tl-0€L-|X€0a TL-0OL-fI€0a 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 TI-06L-O-06 TL-0OL-Cr0€ 
 
 Tl-0€-O-0€ 
 
 TL-0e-|JL€VOS 
 
 Tl-0€L-VTO TI-0OL-VTO 
 
 Ti-0e-o-0cov 
 
 TL-0€-|X€VT| 
 
 TL-0eL-(r0OV TL-0OL-(r0OV 
 
 Tl-0€-O-0OV 
 
 Tl-0€-|i€VOV 
 
 TL-0€L-(r0T|V TL-0OL-O'0T|V 
 
 Tl-06-Cr0(OV 
 
 
 0CIT|-V 
 
 
 
 0€111-S 
 
 0€-S 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 0€IT1 
 
 0€-Ta) 
 
 0€L-vai 
 
 0€l-|JL€V 0€ill-fJL€V 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 0€L-T€ 06l'ri-T€ 
 
 0€-T€ 
 
 0€lS 
 
 0ei€-v 0€iTi-aav 
 
 0€-VT(OV 
 
 0€L(ra 
 
 0eL-TOV 0eiTl-TOV 
 
 0€-TOV 
 
 0€V 
 
 0€i-T'qV 0€LT|-TT1V 
 
 0e-Ta)V 
 
 (165) 
 
 0€l-|J.T|V 
 
 
 
 061-0 
 
 Qov 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 06L-TO (-0OLTO) 
 
 0€-o'0ai 
 
 0e-o'0ai 
 
 0€L-|jL€0a (-0oifie0a) 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 0€L-O-0€ 
 
 0£-O-0€ 
 
 0€-|i€VOS 
 
 06L-VTO (-0OLVTO) 
 
 0e-cr0cov 
 
 0€-|JL6V11 
 
 06L-cr0ov 
 
 0€-(r0ov 
 
 0€-p.€l^V 
 
 0€l-(r0T|V 
 
 06-(r0(ov 
 
 
130 
 
 MI -VERBS 
 
 frjut (6:tj-) send 
 
 
 
 
 Indicative 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Present 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 ^ 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 t'-Tl-fil 
 
 l-€l-V 
 
 t-(0 
 
 > 
 
 
 2 
 
 C-Tl-S, l-€LS 
 
 L-€l-S 
 
 v¥ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-r\-(J\.y C-€l 
 
 l-€L 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 l-€-fI€V 
 
 l-€-(JL€V 
 
 l-(0-|JL€V 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 t-C-TC 
 
 l-€-T€ 
 
 t-fl-T€ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 t-dcri 
 
 L-€-o-av 
 
 i-co-o-i 
 
 1 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 L-6-T0V 
 
 l-€-T0V 
 
 \.-r\-Tov 
 
 P-i 
 
 
 3 
 
 l-€-TOV 
 
 i-i-Tr\v 
 
 C-Tl-TOV 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 L-€-|iaL 
 
 t-€'-|jniv 
 
 l-€-0-0 
 
 L-(0-|JLai 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 i-€-Tai 
 
 L-€-T0 
 
 i-fj-Tat 
 
 H 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 t'-€-O-0€ 
 
 t-€'-|i€6a 
 
 l-€-0-G€ 
 
 L-O>-fI€0a 
 t-Tl-0-G€ 
 
 
 3 
 
 t-€-VTaL 
 
 L-€-VT0 
 
 i-(o-VTai 
 
 P4 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 
 t-€-o-Gov 
 
 i-€-o-Gov 
 
 i-f]-aGov 
 
 ?U 
 
 
 3 
 
 L-e-o-Gov 
 
 i-e'-o-Gtiv 
 
 i-t)-o-Gov 
 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 (V^a) 
 
 
 (0 
 
 
 PL 
 
 2 
 3 
 1 
 
 (^-K€) 
 
 
 fis 
 
 S-Hl€V 
 
 tZ3 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 €T-T€ 
 
 €L-crav 
 
 
 CO-Ori 
 
 O 
 <1 
 
 Du. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 61-TOV 
 
 
 tJ-tov 
 
 T]-TOV 
 
 Q 
 Q 
 '5- 
 
 Si. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 €L-|XT1V 
 €1-0-0 
 
 el-TO 
 
 
 £-fJLai 
 -n-Tai 
 
 f=5 
 
 PI. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 €L-|J.€ea 
 
 €1-0-06 
 
 €L-VT0 
 
 
 o)-|Ji€Ga 
 
 5-o-G€ 
 
 S-vrai 
 
 O 
 
 Du. 
 
 .2 
 
 €i-o-eov 
 
 
 T]-o-Gov 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 €l-o-6tiv 
 
 
 TJ-o-Gov 
 
MI -VERBS 
 
 131 
 
 CTiiJii (l:<q-) send 
 
 
 
 
 Optative 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Infinitive, 
 Participle 
 
 
 
 
 t-€lT|-V 
 
 
 
 
 i-CL-q-s 
 
 
 C-€L 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 C-6LT1 
 
 
 L-€-TO) 
 
 C-€-vai 
 
 t-€l-[I€V, 
 
 t-€lll-JJ.€V 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 t-€l-T€, 
 
 L-€LT1-T€ 
 
 L-€-T€ 
 
 i-«s 
 
 L-€L€-V, 
 
 i-€iT|-(rav 
 
 C-€-VTO)V 
 
 i-«t<ra 
 
 l-€L-TOV, 
 
 t-€lT|-TOV 
 
 L-6-T0V 
 
 t-ev 
 
 l-€l-TT|V, 
 
 L-CLTJ-TTIV 
 
 t-6-T(0V 
 
 (165) 
 
 i-€i-|jniv 
 
 
 
 
 t-€l-0 
 
 
 C-€-(ro 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 C-€t-TO 
 
 
 U-c-cr0(o 
 
 i-€-o-0aL 
 
 t-€L-|J.€ea 
 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 [-€i-(r0€ 
 
 
 C-c-o-ee 
 
 t-€-JJl€VOS 
 
 C-61-VT0 
 
 
 i-€-a-6cov 
 
 t-€-fAeVTl 
 
 i-ci-ciGov 
 
 
 i-c-aOov 
 
 t-€-|X€VOV 
 
 L-Cl-O-etlV 
 
 
 i-e-crSov 
 
 
 €LT1-V 
 
 
 
 
 €tll-S 
 
 
 €-S 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 €-T(0 
 
 €L-VaL 
 
 €l-|X€V, 
 
 €IT|-}JL€V 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 €l-T€, 
 
 €ltl-T€ 
 
 €-T€ 
 
 €ts 
 
 cle-v, 
 
 ci-q-o-av 
 
 €-in-(OV 
 
 ctcra 
 
 ct-TOV, 
 
 CL-q-TOV 
 
 C-TOV 
 
 €V 
 
 61-TTlV, 
 
 €lTi-TTlV 
 
 €-T(OV 
 
 (165) 
 
 ei-fi-qv 
 
 
 
 
 €l-0 
 
 
 o5 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 cT-TO 
 
 
 e-cOo) 
 
 €-cr0aL 
 
 €l-[JL€ea 
 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 ct-o-ee 
 
 
 e-(je€ 
 
 €-|Jl€VOS 
 
 CL-VTO 
 
 
 €-cr0(ov 
 
 i-^ivy\ 
 
 cT-aGov 
 
 
 c-o-Gov 
 
 €-|Jl€VOV 
 
 €i-o-6tiv 
 
 
 €-o-6cov 
 
 ^_-— J^'^-^ 
 
132 MI -VERBS 
 
 375 Tlie principal parts of tlie above verbs are 
 
 StSw/xt, Sajcrw, eScoKaj SeSw/ca, 8e8o/xat, iSoOrjVy 
 TLdrjjjiL, 07](ro), edrjKa, redrjKaj TeOefiaUy iTeOrjv (47 c), 
 trjfjLLj yjcrcoy '^Ka, -et/ca (for e-e-fca), -ef/iai, -eWr]!/. 
 
 a. Many forms of Irjfii are found only in compo- 
 sition. The reduplication syllable of 117 /xt is irregu- 
 lar in being generally long. (Cp. TriTrro).) 
 
 376 In the present system 
 
 (1) UdcTL is always contracted to tao-t. 
 
 (2) Forms of the w-conj Ligation, like those of contract 
 verbs in -ew and -ow (314, 316), are used 
 
 Often in the present indicatives rt^ets, rt^et, tets, tec, 
 Generally in the imperfects iTcOets, ItlOcl^ 
 Always in the imperfects eSiSow, eStSov?, eStSov, and tetv, 
 tets, tet, and the imperatives StSov, rt^et, t"'ci. 
 
 377 Occasional forms like tlOoIto, avvOoiro, iTrtOoLiJLeOa, irpooiTO^ Trpo- 
 oti/ro, or (with changed accent) riO-qrai^ Trpoo-OrjraL, TrporjTaL, iiTL- 
 OwvTaL, tlOolto, (TvvOoiTO, TTpooiVTo, afx^LOLTe^ oifXffiLOLev , SiYQ due to 
 
 the same leaning toward the w-conjugation. 
 
 378 In the root-aorist the indicative active lacks the singular ; in- 
 stead are used forms of a Ka-aorist — like the o-a-aorist, but 
 with K for 0-. 
 
 This Ktt-formation sometimes occurs in the plural and dual, 
 and occasionally in the middle : WrjKav^ iSwKa/xev, TTpo^Kavro, 
 
 379 In the root-aorist, further, 
 
 (1) The stem remains short {ho-, Oe-, I-) throughout, except 
 in the infinitives SoWat, ^et-mt, el-vau (Perhaps the ending 
 here was -cvat instead of -vat.) e- takes the syllabic augment 
 (267) and contracts with it to et-. 
 
 (2) The imperatives 80s, Bis, Is have -s for -Oi. (In like 
 manner o-xes, aor. impv. act. 2d sing, of cx^.) 
 
MI -VERBS 133 
 
 (3) The ending -a-o after a sJiort vowel generally drops tr 
 and contracts. 
 
 (4) Compounds of So?, Oh, h accent the penult : (xttoSo?. 
 Compounded with a monosyllabic preposition Sov, 6ov, ov 
 
 retain the circumflex ; but they throw the accent back on a 
 
 dissyllable : ivSov, acf>ov, KardOov. 
 
 The infinitives 800-^at, Oia-Oai, laOai in composition retain 
 the accent : Trpoa-Oea-OaL, Trpoea-Oai. 
 
 380 The various ways of forming the tenses of verbs have now 
 been shown, and are here grouped together. 
 
 1. Present System : 
 
 A. 12 -Conjugation — 
 
 Formative-vowel class, sufiix -o:e- (257), 
 Tau class, sufiix -ro-.e- (258), 
 Iota class, suffix -to:e- (259), 
 Inceptive class, suffix -o-ko-.c-, -lo-ko-.c- (260), 
 Nasal class, suffix -vote-, -avo-.e- (with or without 
 inserted nasal), -woic-, -v€o:c- (261) ; 
 
 B. Mt- Conjugation — 
 
 Nasal class, -w.v-, -vw-.v- (356), 
 Eoot class, no suffix (357). 
 
 2. Future System : 
 
 Common or sigmatic future, suffix -a-o-.e- (278), 
 Liquid future, suffix -eo:e- (324; cp. 346), 
 "Doric future," suffix -(r€o:e- (326). 
 
 3. Aorist System : 
 
 Sa-aorist, suffix -o-a:c- (280), 
 
 Liquid aorist, suffix -a.e- with vowel-lengthening 
 
 (327), 
 Thematic or formative-vowel aorist, suffix -o:e- (347), 
 Root-aorist, no suffix (366). 
 
 4. Perfect Active System : 
 
 Ka-perfect, suffix -Ka:e- with reduplication (288), 
 A-perfect, suffix -a-.e- with reduplication (332), 
 Root perfect, no suffix, with reduplication (370). 
 
134 
 
 MI -VERBS 
 
 5. Perfect Middle System : 
 
 Ko suffix, with reduplication (299). 
 
 6. Passive System : 
 
 0i;-passive, suffix -Oeirj- (302), 
 H-passive, suffix -eirj- (334). 
 
 IV. Irregular and Defective Ml -Verbs 
 
 381 A few verbs are quite common and more or less 
 irregular in tlie present system, but in other systems 
 are less common or never found. Some have a future 
 system which is nearly or quite regular (382-389). 
 
 382 
 
 <j)T]|jLi (<}>tt:ti-) say 
 
 Ind. Pres. 
 
 Impf. 
 
 SUBJV. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Impv. 
 
 (|)Tl-fiL 
 
 €-<t)ll-V 
 
 (|>(0 
 
 ^ai^-v 
 
 
 4>fi-s 
 
 c-<|>T|-o'0a 
 
 <t>Tis 
 
 <t>aLT|-s 
 
 (t>d-eL 
 
 (t)T|-crL 
 
 Hn 
 
 <t>Ti 
 
 <t)aLii 
 
 <()d-T(0 
 
 <t)a-lJL€V 
 
 €-<j)a-fi€V 
 
 <|)CO-fJL€V 
 
 <|>ai-|JL€V 
 
 
 <|)a-T€ 
 
 C-(t)a-T€ 
 
 <|)T1-T€ 
 
 ^aiT\-T€ 
 
 <|)d-T€ 
 
 <|)dO'L 
 
 €-<t)a-o'av 
 
 <|)<ocri 
 
 <|)ai€-v 
 
 <t)d-VT(OV 
 
 <t)a-Tov 
 
 €-<t)a-Tov 
 
 ^i\-TOV 
 
 <|)aL-TOV 
 
 <t)d-TOV 
 
 <|)a-Tov 
 
 €-<|)d-TTlV 
 
 <|)fj-TOV 
 
 <|)ai-TT|V 
 
 <t>d-T(OV 
 
 Inf. 
 
 (j)d-vaL 
 
 
 
 Put. <t)Ti-C 
 
 rco 
 
 Ptc. ( 
 
 ct>as) <t)do-Kcov 
 
 
 
 Aor. *i-<^T] 
 
 -era 
 
 a. The present indie, except (jirjs, is enclitic (19 d). 
 
 b. The impf. and (jbavat have also the aorist meaning. 
 
 c. In the opt. cfiairjfjiev and ffiaLrja-av are also found. 
 
 d. Poets use <^a5, etc., but only <j!>ao-Kwv, etc., occur in 
 prose. Except in the participle, the forms of ^ao-Kw imply 
 repetition : keep sayi7ig^ assert. 
 
MI- VERBS 
 
 135 
 
 e. ov (fyrj/jLL means nego : deny, refuse, say no. 
 
 f. Poets have a few middle forms, with no translatable 
 difference of meaning. 
 
 383 With (f>r]iJiL belong the three forms -^fxi (enclitic), yv, 5 (Lat. 
 aio), equivalent to ^-7/xt, ^cf>r)v, £(f>7]. The formulas ^v 8' cyw 
 said I, y 8* os said he, are much used in reporting conver- 
 sations. 
 
 384 
 
 €l|xt (co--) Slim, am, etc. 
 
 IxD. Pres. 
 
 Impf. 
 
 SUBJV. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Impv, 
 
 CL|JLL 
 €t 
 
 k(T-Tl 
 €(r-|JL€V 
 
 la--T€ 
 
 €10-1 
 €(r-TOV 
 
 Icr-Tov 
 
 r 
 
 T1T€ 
 T\(TaV 
 
 -^cr-Tov 
 
 T]<T-TT\V 
 
 S-|X€V 
 T|-T€ 
 
 S-cri 
 
 ^-TOV 
 
 €lT\-[LCVf €T-|i€V 
 
 cl'ti-crav, cTc-v 
 
 €l'T|-TOV, el-TOV 
 
 Lcr-et 
 
 €<r-T€ 
 €0--T(OV 
 €0--TOV 
 €(r-T(OV 
 
 Inf. €ivaL Fut. ccrojjLaL (3d sing. ccrraL), 
 Part. oSv, oxicra, 6v Ictolijltiv, €cr€(r0aL, €cr6|jL€V0S 
 
 a. In the subjv., opt., and ptc. o- is dropt (55 a) and 
 
 contraction follows : w for e(o-)a), etr^v for icr-Ltjv, (OV for €(o-)wv. 
 ctvot is for €cr-vat. 
 
 b. The pres. ind., except el, is enclitic as copula (19 d), 
 but accented when it means exist. 
 
 The third sing, is written ecm (1) at the beginning of its 
 clause, (2) in the meaning exists, (3) in the meaning it is pos- 
 sible or alloiued, (4) after ovk, /xrj, el, ws, Kac. 
 
 c. In the impf. the form ^(rre also occurs. 
 
 d. The ptc. keeps its accent in composition : irapuiv, -n-a- 
 
 poxkra. Also the fut. ta-rai : TrapioTai. 
 
136 
 
 385 
 
 MI -VERBS 
 €ljii (1-, €l-) go, Lat. Ire (cp. Uer) 
 
 Ind. Pres. 
 
 Impf, 
 
 SUBJV. 
 
 Opt. 
 
 Impv. 
 
 €L-|Jll 
 
 €l 
 
 €L-orL 
 
 L-fl€V 
 
 L-T€ 
 
 L-dO-L 
 
 L-TOV 
 
 L-TOV 
 
 fa 
 TJ-cLo-Ga 
 
 TJ-CL 
 
 ^-|X€V 
 
 ^-TC 
 
 f|-orav 
 
 •Q-TOV 
 TJ-TTIV 
 
 L-(0 
 
 t-Tl 
 
 L-C«)-[i€V 
 
 L-T1-T€ 
 
 L-(00rL 
 
 L-Tl-TOV 
 
 L-11-T0V 
 
 L-OL-}JLL 
 
 L-OL-S 
 
 L-OL 
 
 L-OL-|JL€V 
 
 L-OL-T€ 
 
 L-0L6-V 
 
 L-0 L-TOV 
 
 L-Ol-TllV 
 
 l-Gl 
 l'-to) 
 
 L-T€ 
 
 L-6-VT(0V 
 L-TOV 
 L-T(i)V 
 
 Inf. L-€-vai 
 
 Ptc. L-(ov, L-oOo-a, L-6v 
 
 a. In the impf. are found also ^co-av and (in later writers) 
 
 b. The pres. ind. has a future meaning : am going ^ shall go. 
 The subjv. and opt. have now present and now future mean- 
 ing. The impf. and ptc. have also the force of an aorist. 
 
 otStt (18-, ol8-) hnow 
 
 Ind. Pres. 
 
 Impf. 
 
 Subjv. 
 
 Impv. 
 
 oT8-a 
 
 OL-o-Oa 
 
 oT8-€ 
 
 LO--|Jl€V 
 
 10'-T€ 
 
 LO-dCL 
 
 LO'-TOV 
 
 LO'-TOV 
 
 'g8-T|-o'9a 
 
 'S8-€L 
 '§0'-lX€V 
 
 fja-Tc 
 •rj8-€-o'av 
 
 '§0'-TOV 
 TJo'-TtlV 
 
 €l8-C0 
 €L8-Tis 
 
 etc. 
 
 iv-eL 
 
 Lff-TO) 
 
 LC-TC 
 lV-TO)V 
 LO'-TOV 
 iV-TCOV 
 
 Opt. 
 
 €l8-€IT1-V 
 € 18-6111-$ 
 
 etc. 
 
 Inf. €l8-€vaL 
 
 Ptc. €l8(5s (172) 
 
 Fut. €LO-0|JLaL 
 
MI -VERBS 
 
 137 
 
 387 
 
 a. In the impf. are found also >5Se/xev, rjSiTc, rja-av, and (in 
 
 later writers) ySecv, ySeis, rySct/nev, ^Setre, yScLaav. 
 
 b. The root of oTSa (18-) is the same as that of elSov I saio 
 and Lat. video ; but the above forms never mean see. 
 
 c. The future eto-o/xat often means shall learn. 
 
 d. The ptc. etSws has the form of a perfect, though present 
 in meaning. 
 
 Also oT8a, ola-Oa^ oTSe are somewhat like an a-perfect, but are 
 always present in meaning; to-//ev, etc., the plural and dual, 
 are present in form as well. The imperfect is also in part 
 like a pluperfect in inflection ; but compare the imperfect of 
 cTfugo (385). 
 
 K€i(jLai (k€i-) lie, am laid 
 
 Ind. Present 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 K€l-|JLai 
 
 €-K€L-|JLllV 
 
 K€-0)-|JLaL 
 
 K€L-(raL 
 
 €-K€L-(rO 
 
 etc. 
 
 K6L-TaL 
 
 €-K€L-TO 
 
 Optative 
 
 K€L-|Jl€9a 
 
 €-K€L-|X€6a 
 
 K€-OL-fIT|V 
 
 K€l-0-9€ 
 
 €-K€L-0-e€ 
 
 etc. 
 
 K€L-VTaL 
 
 €-K€L-in-0 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Ket-o-eov 
 
 €-K€L-O-0OV 
 
 KCL-O-O 
 
 KeL-crGov 
 
 €-K6L-cr0T|V 
 
 K€i-(r0(ov, etc. 
 
 Inf. KCL-o-eaL 
 
 Ptc. K€L-JI€VOS 
 
 Fut. K€lO-0|iaL 
 
 a. The infinitive Keia-Oat keeps its accent in composition : 
 KaraKelaOai. 
 
 b. Of the subjv. and opt. only K€r}TaL, Kerja-Oe, KcWrat, KeoLTO, 
 
 kIolvto are found. 
 
 c. Kct/Attt is often used as a perfect passive for TtO-qixi put : 
 i/o/xovs tlOtjo-l he lays down laws ; vo/xot KeivraL laws are estab- 
 lished. So in compounds also. 
 
138 
 
 MI -VERBS 
 
 388 
 
 ■fjliai (vjor) sit 
 
 Ind. Pres. 
 
 Impf. 
 
 
 Tl-K-ai 
 
 r[-\n]v 
 
 Siibjv. wanting 
 
 T\-<Tai 
 
 r\-(TO 
 
 Opt. wanting 
 
 T\(r-Tai 
 
 TjCr-TO 
 
 Impv. 
 
 TJ-|X€9a 
 
 'fi-jJL€6a 
 
 r\-(TO, 
 
 Ti-o-6€ 
 
 ^-o-Ge 
 
 TJ-crGcD 
 
 r\-VTOii 
 
 T]-VTO 
 
 etc. 
 
 r\-(TQov 
 
 T]-o-Gov 
 
 Inf. Tj-cGat 
 
 T^-cOov 
 
 TJ-o-Griv 
 
 PtC. TJ-|JL6V0S 
 
 a. The stem loses o- except before -rat and -to, 
 
 389 For T7/Aat Attic prose always uses the compound 
 KoiOrjixaL (fca^T^-) sit. 
 
 Ind. Pres. 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Impv. 
 
 KdG-q-iJLai 
 KdG-ri-craL 
 
 KdGT|-TaL 
 
 etc. 
 
 l-KaQr\-\Lev or KaGfj-fiev 
 €-KdGT|-o-o or KaGfj-o-o 
 €-KdGti-TO or KaGfio--TO 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 KdG-q-o-o 
 KaGri-o-Go) 
 
 etc. 
 
 Inf. KaG-q-crGaL 
 
 Ptc. KaGrj-ixcvos 
 
 a. The subjv. and opt. are rare (/ca^w/xe^a, KaOrjfjiyv, or 
 Ka6oLfjL7]v) ; their place is filled by Ka^t^o/xat (see Verb-list). 
 
 390 The noun ^^77 ?2.^^4 by the usual omission of eo-rt, 
 appears like an impersonal verb in the pres. ind. 3d 
 sing., there is need^ one ouglit^ Lat. oportet By crasis 
 with rjv, Tjj etrjj elz/at, eo-rat are made XPV^ ^^^ (with 
 an extra augment) i-^prjv, XPVi XP^^Vj XPV^^^y XPV^'''^'" 
 
MI -VERBS 139 
 
 391 Two or more defective verbs may supplement one another 
 and so make up what serves as one complete verb. This has 
 happened with some of the commonest verbs, as in English 
 am, is, are, was, he, or go, went. So in Greek for the aorist 
 and perfect of ct/xt are used iyevofjirjv and yiyova from ytyvo- 
 fiat iecome ; the roots 6pa:d-, Sir-, and IS-, all meaning see, to- 
 gether make up opdw, oxj/ofiai, ctSov, iwpdKa, oTroiira, Icopa/xat, 
 
 wfjifiaty tL)cf)dr]v, See in the Yerb-list also alpio), tpxop'O.i, ia-Oto), 
 
 ^dw, rpexo), cftipoi, Xcyo), wveoyu-at. 
 
 Middle and Passive Foems with Peculiar Meaning 
 
 392 In many verbs otherwise active the future active is 
 wanting and the future middle has the active mean- 
 ing. Especially common are 
 
 OLKOvw, aKova-ofxai hear, fxavOdvo), /-ta^iycroju-at learn, 
 
 dixapTavo), dfiapTT^croixaL fail, oTSa, ctcro/xat ]c7lOW, 
 
 d-n-o-Ovyja-Kiii, aTroOavov/xaL die, o/jlvv/xl, 6p.ovp.aL SWear, 
 
 paSiliii, /3aSiovpLaL walh, opdio, 6i}/op,aL see, 
 
 yiyvdxTKOi, yvwcro/xat recognize, Trd(rx<Ji, Trciorop.aL suffer, 
 
 StwKO), Siw^o/Attt pursue, TrtTTTCo, TTCo-ov/xat fall, 
 
 elp.L, ea-opxLi am, be, etc., uXeco, irXeva-ofxai sail, 
 
 CTraiveo), 67ratvco-o/>tat praise, Tpix,'^, Spap.ovp.ai run, 
 
 Kdpjvoi, Kap.ovp.aL am iveary, rvyxdvw, T€v^op.aL happen, 
 
 Xayxdvoi, X^^o/xat get hy lot or fate, <f>€vyoi, <p€v^op.aL flee. 
 Xap.(3dv(o, X-^ij/opLaL talce, 
 
 393 The future middle of some verbs has the passive 
 meaning ; among the more common are 
 
 dSLKrja-opiaL shall he ivronged, oi^cXrj(Top.aL shall he benefited, 
 
 av^riarop.aL shall he increased, rapd^op.aL shall he disturbed, 
 
 olKrja-opiaL shall he administered, 6pe\J/op.aL shall he nurtured, 
 
 TToXLopKria-opLaL shall he besieged, c{ivXd^op.aL shall he guarded. 
 
 a. Some others have in the passive sense both middle and 
 passive forms: 
 
14:0 MI -VERBS 
 
 ^7]fXL(o(rofjLaL and t,r]fiHi)67JorofjLaL shall he damaged^ 
 d7ro-(TT€pyj(TOfx,aL and -crTeprjO-^a-ofjiat shall be deprived, 
 Tifirja-ojxaL and Tljx-qdrjcro ^Lai shall he honored. 
 
 394 Of deponent verbs (middle or passive in form but 
 active in meaning; cp. 601) some have in the aorist 
 tense middle forms (middle deponents)^ others passive 
 forms (passive deponents). Among middle deponents 
 many have also the passive aorist with passive mean- 
 ing, as alndofJiaL accuse, rjria(rd^'Y]v accused, rJTLaOrjv 
 was accused. So also 
 
 Se;(o/xat accept, Xv/jLaLvo/xai injure, 
 
 SuypiofxaL present, fjL€/x(f>o/jiai hlame, 
 
 ipyd^ofxat ivorJc, jju/xeo/xai imitate, 
 
 aTTOKpivofjiaL answer, ^erairiixTrofxaL send for, 
 
 XoyL^ofiai rechon, IvriXXofiaL enjoin upon. 
 
 395 Most passive dej)onents have in the future the middle 
 forms : 
 
 jSorXo/Atti luish, ^ovXrjcro [xai, i/SovXyOrjV, 
 
 Seo/xat want, ash, Sc^o-o/iat, i^erjOrjv, 
 
 SvvafJLai can, SvvT^crofjLaL, iSvvrjdyjv, 
 
 OLOfJLat thinh, olrjo-opLai, wrjOrjv. 
 
 a. But some passive deponents have in the future both 
 middle and passive forms : 
 
 atSeo/xat respect, atSecro/xai, and alSea-Orja-o/JiaL, 
 
 SiaXiyofJiaL converse, SiaXe^ojJiai, and BtaXexOi^a-oixaL. 
 
 b. The following have only passive forms in both aorist 
 and future : 
 
 €pafjLai love, rjpd(r$r)v, ipacOya-o/JiaL, 
 
 rjSofxai am pleased, yja-Orjv, rja-Orjcroixai, 
 
 rfTTaofxaL am WOrstcd, rjTTT^Orjv, TfTTrja-OycroixaL. 
 
 396 The perfect of some deponents has both active and passive 
 meanings : 
 
WORD-FORMATION 141 
 
 cipyao-Tttt he has worked or it has heen worked, 
 i(ovr}fiat I have bought or have dee?i bought. 
 
 E. WORD-FORMATION 
 
 397 Words are formed from other words in two ways : 
 
 (1) By adding a suffix to an existing stem, or by 
 slightly changing an ending so as to make a new one 
 (derivation ; the new word is derived from the old). 
 
 (2) By putting two words or stems together into 
 one (composition ; the new word is a compound of 
 the two). 
 
 a. Declension and conjugation are special forms of deriva- 
 tion, so clearly marked in character that they properly receive 
 separate names. The formation of adverbs has been treated 
 in connection with declension (228-237), but might have been 
 treated here. So with the numeral adjectives, adverbs, and 
 nouns described in 191, 192. 
 
 398 Many Greek stems took their existing form so early that they 
 can not now be analyzed into their parts. For us these are 
 root words, of the original stock of the language. Often 
 their likeness to other Greek words, or to words in kindred 
 languages, throws light on their earlier history ; but the study 
 of such relations belongs to comparative philology. In the 
 following sections are treated only the most common types of 
 word-formation ; but these alone are enough to show how the 
 bulk of the copious Greek vocabulary has been made, and to 
 assist greatly in learning that vocabulary. 
 
 I. DERIVATION 
 
 399 Words formed directly from a verb-stem are called 
 verbals ; those formed from a noun or adjective stem 
 are called denominatives. 
 
142 word-formatio:n" 
 
 400 a. The shifting of vowels described in 26 and 26 is frequent 
 in derivation, as in declension and conjugation. 
 
 b. As in conjugation (cp. 322 and a) a o-, of uncertain 
 origin, is sometimes added to a verb-stem before a suffix. So 
 also 6 in o-ra-O-fjios station from o-ra- stand, and in pv-O-fxos 
 rhythm from pew {pv-) fioiv. 
 
 c. A final stem-vowel and the vowel of a suffix often con- 
 tract. 
 
 d. A final vowel of a stem is sometimes dropt before a 
 vowel. 
 
 e. The consonant changes described in 45-65 are made, as 
 in conjugation (341, 346). 
 
 f. A final consonant is sometimes dropt before the ending. 
 
 VERBALS 
 
 401 A few verbals, nouns and adjectives, are made from verb- 
 stems without a suffix, by simply adding the case-endings of 
 the consonant declension : 
 
 7] 6iJ/ (oTT-) voice, from etTretv (cTT-) speaTc, 
 
 y] TTTV^ (tTTVX-) fold, 7rTV(T(T0i {tTTVX-) fold, 
 
 6 kXmij/ (kAodtt-) thief, KXiirroi (kXctt-) steal, 
 
 7} <f>k6$ (</)Aoy-) flame, c^Aeyw (<^A.ey-) bum, 
 
 apira^ (dpTray-) plundering, dpTrd^o) (dpiray-) seize^ 
 
 rj ^Tv^ {(TTvy-) Styx, root seen in a-Tvy-io) hate. 
 
 Verbal Nouns 
 
 402 Nouns are made from verb-stems by adding a variety 
 of suffixes. The meaning of the suffix is often vague, 
 made clear only by the nature of the verb, by the 
 gender of the noun, or by usage. But many verbal 
 nouns fall into fairly distinct classes, denoting the 
 agent or doer^ the action^ the result of the action, or 
 
VERBALS 143 
 
 the instrument. Again, many abstract nouns and 
 nouns of action have become concrete, so that the 
 original force is changed. 
 
 a. The accent sometimes varies on different nouns with 
 the same suffix. When the accent regularly falls on the suf- 
 fix, that will be indicated ; otherwise the accent must be 
 learned from the examples and in reading. 
 
 403 The suffix -o, nom. mas. and fem. -os, neut. -ov, is one of the 
 most common, of very various meaning; an e in the verb- 
 stem regularly changes to o (25) : 
 
 Aoy-os speech^ from A-eyw (Aey-) spealc^ 
 
 <rT6X-o<s expedition^ o-reXXo) (a-TeX-) equip, send, 
 
 Spofji-os running, Spafieiv (8pa/x-) run, 
 
 ^vy-6v yolce, ^evyvvfjn (C^y-, ^evy-) join, 
 
 vofjb-os custom, law, vifxo) (v^fx-) distribute, 
 
 <l)6p-o^ tribute, <l>ep(o (</>ep-) bring, bear, 
 
 dpx-6's ruler, "^PX^ ("PX") ^^^^^5 
 
 Tpo<fi-6s (6, 17) nurse, rpecfuD (rpecj)-) nourish. 
 
 a. The suffix is accented when it denotes the agent. 
 
 b. Many nouns whose origin is obscure, or can be traced 
 only by comparing other languages, plainly have this ending : 
 oTk-os house, x^p-os place. 
 
 404 The suffix -d, nom. -d or -t], forms many nouns. Most of 
 them denote the action, but many have taken on a concrete 
 meaning, so that the force of the suffix is very various : 
 
 apx-ri beginning, rule, ^px^ i^PX~) ci'^ first, 
 
 povX-rj will, plan, /3ovAo/xat {(3ovX-) wish, 
 
 xap-d jog, X^^P^ (x^P-) rejoice, 
 
 fJidx-ri battle, /jtaxo/xat (ftaX") fight, 
 
 dyopd marhet-place, dyeipoi (dyep-) gather, 
 
 o-TTovS-rj haste, eagerness, a-TrevSo) {a-n-evS-) hasten. 
 
 a. Most of these accent the suffix, but some common words 
 accent the penult. 
 
IM 
 
 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 b. This ending also appears in many nouns whose origin is 
 uncertain or traceable only by comparing other languages ; 
 8iK-rj judgment (in law), right .^ x^P-^ land. 
 
 -Top, 
 -Td, 
 
 -cv. 
 
 nom. -Tctpa, 
 
 -rpia, 
 
 -TptS, -TLS. 
 
 405 The agent or doer is denoted by the suffixes 
 
 Mas. -Tr7P, nom. -rrjp, Fem. -retpd, 
 
 -Twp, -Tpia, 
 
 ■T7JS, -rptS, -rtS, 
 
 -€vs (cp. 430 a), 
 fem. <To)-T€Lpa, (Tio^oi ((TO)-) save, 
 
 ?r, OT^A-XTJTr-rpta, crvWafjiPdvoi ((rvv-XrjIS-) take 
 2Vlt7l, 
 
 criiy-Trjp savior, 
 (TvX-Xrjir-TOip 
 
 piq-Tijip spealcer, 
 la-Tiop (for Fi8-T0)p) one 
 who hnoivs, 
 
 TTotTy-rrJs malcer, poet, iroLrj-rpia, 
 avXrj-TTJ'S flute-player, avXrj-rpi'i, 
 7rpo-<j>'q-Tr]<s prophet, Trpo-fftrj-TLS, 
 
 ypa<f>-€vs writer. 
 
 €L-p7]-Ka {pe-.r]-) have spohen, 
 oTSa (18-, oi8-) hnoiv, 
 
 TTotew (Troic.y]-) maTce, 
 
 avXew (avXcrj-) play thefliite, 
 
 7rp6-(l>r)ixL [7rpo-(fia:r)-) spealcfor, 
 
 ypdcfxji (ypacf>-) tvrite. 
 
 406 The action is denoted by the following suffixes, but in many 
 cases the meaning has become concrete : 
 
 -Tl, 
 
 -o-t, 
 
 -(TLOL, 
 
 nom. -Tt5, 
 
 TTtcr-Tts faith, 
 KpL-(TLs decision, 
 7rpa$L<S actio7i, 
 8oKifxa-a-Ld scrutiny, 
 TTcv-td poverty, 
 
 7rat8-ta play, 
 
 68vp-fi6^ availing, 
 ee-o-'/xos (400 b) bond, 
 (TTa-6-p.6<i (400 b) station, 
 rl-fjirj honor, 
 yv<a-fi7j opinion, 
 
 -La, nom. -la, 
 
 -fXO, "i^-o^j 
 
 -fxd, -fMTJ. 
 
 TTCiOoi {ttlO-) ivin over, mid. trust, 
 KptvdD (KpL-) decide, 
 
 7rpd(Tcr(D (Trpdy-) do, 
 
 8oKiiJLdlo) (8oKi/xa8-) scrutinize, 
 
 irevo/JLaL (irev-) am pOOr, 
 Tratlco (TratS-) play, 
 
 oSvpo/Attt [68vp-) wailf 
 8eo) (Sc-) dind, 
 
 LcrTTjixL [crra-^ set, 
 
 Tidi (tI-) honor, 
 
 yiyvoidKOi (yvo:a>-) Opine, 
 
VERBALS 145 
 
 a. From verb-stems in -ev (417 a) are formed many nouns 
 in -Ld. By loss of v (27) -ev-cd becomes -etd. 
 
 SovXeid slavery, SovXevo) (SovXcv-) am a slave, 
 
 /Sao-tXeta reign, kingdom, paa-tXevoi (/Jao-tXev-) am king. 
 
 407 The result of an action is denoted by the following suffixes ; 
 but many nouns formed with them have other meanings : 
 
 -/x-ar, nom. -/xa (neut.), -^o-, nom. -os (neut.). 
 
 Trpay-fia deed, thing, Trpda-aw {irpdy-) do, 
 
 TTOLTj-fjia thing made, poem, ttoUw (ttoict]-) make, 
 
 ofi-fia (poetic) ege, oKJ/o/jLai (ott-) shall see, 
 
 yeV-os race, ytyvo/>tai (yev-) am iom, 
 
 if/evS-o^ falsehood, if/evSofiaL {KJ/evS-) speaTc falsely, 
 
 aOiv-o^ strength, crOivo) {a-Ocv-) am strong. 
 
 408 The means or instrument — and also other relations— are de- 
 noted by -rpo or -6po, nom. -rpov or -Opov. 
 
 (TKYJir-Tpov staff, a-KrjirTOi (crKr/7r-) prop, 
 
 Xov-Tpov Tjatli, Aovo) (Aov-) halite, 
 
 KXeZ-Opov fastening, kAcioo- {kX^i-) close, 
 
 dp-Opov joint, apaptaKw (ap-) ft, 
 
 pd-Opov basis, jSacvo} (pa-) step, stand firm. 
 a. A related suffix is -Tpd : 
 
 TraXai-a--Tpd icrestUng- place, TratXatw (TraXat-) icrestU, 
 
 6pxri-<T-Tpd dancingplace, ' opxeo/aat (opx^:^-) dance, 
 
 yy-Tpd (also yy-rpoi) pot, X^^ (x^") P02ir. 
 
 409 The various infinitives are a special class of verbal nouns (see 
 662). 
 
 Verbal Adjectives 
 
 410 With the suffix -o (cp. 403) are formed some words that may 
 be used as adjectives or nouns at will. As adjectives some 
 have a feminine in -d (cp. 404), others are of two endings. 
 Not a few such adjectives (or nouns) are used as the second 
 part of a compound (446 c), though not found separately : 
 
 10 
 
146 
 
 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 AotTT-os (^7, -6v) left, remaining, 
 ayoiy-6's (reduplicated) leading, 
 
 guide, 
 -^oL-os making (400 d), 
 -fidx-o^ fighting, 
 -•>/y-os leading, 
 ■<f)6p-os bearing, 
 •^Ko-os (27) hearing, 
 
 411 The verbals in -ro-s and -rco-s, made from most verbs, have 
 been briefly described (352-354). Those in -to-s have a wide 
 range of meaning, usually passive, sometimes active, in some 
 cases resembling a perfect active participle : 
 
 XetTTO) (ActTT-) leave, 
 ayo) drive, lead, 
 
 TTOiio) (ttolc-) malce, 
 fidxofxat (/i-ax-) fight, 
 dyoi (dy-) drive, lead, 
 <}>€po} (<^e/3-) bear, 
 oLKovo) (aKov-) hear. 
 
 ^wa-Tos aNe [sict.), possible 
 
 (pass.), 
 irXavrj'Tos ivandering, 
 tXtj-to^ enduring or endurable, 
 7rt(r-Tos trustivorthy, faithful, 
 Kporrj-Tos pounded or rattling, 
 v7r-o7r-To<s suspected or sus- 
 picious,^ 
 a-7rpdK-ros (440) undone or 
 having done nothing. 
 
 Svva/jiaL (Svva-) can, 
 
 irXavdu) (TrXava:7]-) wander, 
 rXdo) (rXairj-) endure, 
 TTuOoi (ttlO-) win, trust, 
 Kporiui [KpoTciT]-) pound, 
 
 vTr-oij/oixaL (vtt-ott-) shall eye 
 
 stealthily, 
 irpdcra-iii {irpay-^ do. 
 
 412 Many verbal adjectives, active, passive, or indeterminate, are 
 formed with the suffixes 
 
 -vo or -avo, 
 -Xo -eAo, 
 -po -^po, 
 
 oTvy-vos hateful, hated, 
 cre/x-vos (for (re^-vos) revered, 
 
 solemn, 
 ScL-vo's fearful, 
 T€pir-v6<s delightful, 
 
 nom. -(a)vos, -rj, -6v, 
 
 -(e)Xos, -?;, -oV, 
 
 -(e)pos, -a, -6v. 
 
 root <TTvy-, arrvyid) (crruye-) /iOfi^e, 
 
 (ri(3op.aL (crcp-) revere, 
 
 SeSoLKa (8t-, 8«-, Sot-) fear, 
 TepTTo) (rcpTT-) delight. 
 
 * Cp. the two meanings of suspicious in a suspicioiis man and a s«5- 
 picious circumstance. 
 
VERBALS 147 
 
 t/c-ai/o5 sufficieyit, caimVle^ Uvco/Aat (ik-) arrive^ 
 
 TTiO-avo's persuasive, ttglOu) {ttlO-, ttclO-) icin over, 
 
 Set-A-os timid (cp. Setvds), hihoiKa (8t-, Set-, 8ot-) /e«r, 
 
 <rTv<f>-€k6s compact, a-rvKJiu} {(TTv<f>-) draiu together, 
 
 ix0-p6? hateful, hating, Ix^w (e'x^-) hate, 
 
 Aa/xTT-pd? splendid, Xd/xTro) [Xa/jLir-) shine, 
 
 lx€X.€T7]-p6<i practising I) practised, /xeAeraw (fxeXcTa-.r)-) practise, 
 
 i(r)(y-p6s strojig, la-xioi (tcrxv-) ^e strong, 
 
 ^Xa^-ep6s harjnful, fSkdirrin {^Xap-) harm, 
 
 <f>av-ep6? plain, cfxuvw {(f>av-) shoiv, 
 a-Tvy-epo'S hateful, hated (cp. o-rvyvds). 
 
 a. Some nouns formed with like suffixes are closely related 
 to these, and may have been originally adjectives : 
 
 o-T€<^ai/d5 wreath, crown, (TT€<j>ui {(mcj>-) put around, 
 
 hperr-avov SCythe, hpeiria [8p€7r-) pluck, Cull, 
 
 a-rq-k-q column, monument, Iottjixl {a-ra-.-q-) set up, 
 
 tf>v-\ov, <j>v-Xrj trihe, cla?i, </>va) mal'e groic, 
 
 8(x)-pov gift, 8tSto/xt (8o:(o-) give. 
 
 413 Other suffixes that form verbal adjectives are 
 
 a. -V, nom. -vs, eta, -v. 
 
 r]^v<s 2^l6asing, ^So/xat (178-) am pleased. 
 
 (In rax-v? su'ift, ^ap-v? heavy, and others, the root does 
 not appear in Greek as a verb-stem.) 
 
 b. -eo", nom. -779, -€S. 
 
 \f/€vS-r]'S false, if/evSojJiaL (\f/€vS-) lie. 
 
 (Many adjectives in --79 are compounds ; see 446, 447.) 
 
 c. -fjiov, nom. -fx(j)v, -p.ov. 
 
 r\rj-fx(i)v enduring, icretched, rXaw (rAai-^-) endure, 
 
 fivq-pioiv mindful, fxiixvyja-KO) (p^vrj-) remind, 
 
 alS-q-pnov respectful, alSeopun respect, 
 
 hn-Xrja--iJHi)v forgetful, e7n-Xav6dvofJiaL (^XaO-, XrjO-) 
 
 forget. 
 
148 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 Here belong also some nouns in -fiMv : 
 rjy€-fx(i)v leader, r/yeo/xat {rjye-.r}-) lead. 
 
 d. -LKo, nom. -tKos, -ij, -6v, often suggesting 171- 
 clination to ov fitness for an action (cp. 425) : 
 
 apx-iKO'; fit to rule, apx^ (^PX") "^uU, 
 
 ypacfi-LKos suited to luritmg or ypa^fna (ypa<^-) ivrite or paint, 
 painting, 
 
 e. -TtKo, nom. -rt/co?, -•»;, -6v, developed from -iko^ 
 by use with verbals in -tos : 
 
 TTpd/c-TtKos inclined to act, Trpda-a-o) (Trpdy-) do, 
 
 XoyL(r-TLK6<s skilled in reckoning, Xoyt^opat (AoytS-) reckon, 
 yvpvacr-TiKo's fond of exercise, yvpvd^o) (yvpvaS-) exercise, 
 
 crKeir-TLKos disposed to examine, a-Kiirropai (o-KCTT-) look care- 
 fully. 
 
 f. -L>xo and -(TLfjio, nom. -(o-)i/>io9, -rj, -ov : 
 rp6({>-Lixo? nourishing, nourished, rpicjxo (t/3€<^-) rear, 
 TrAw-iftos navigable, irXiai (ttXv-) sail, 
 pdx-ipo's fit to fight, pdxopat {pax-) fight, 
 Xpy]-a-ipos useful, xp^^l^^'- ixp"-'!') "^^^j 
 Kav-cripos combustible, Kcto) [Kav-) bum. 
 
 414 Tlie various participles are special classes of verbal adjectives. 
 
 DENOMINATIVES 
 
 Denominative Verbs 
 
 415 Verb-stems are made from nouns 
 
 (1) By merely adding the endings of conjugation, 
 the stem being unchanged, except by the usual pro- 
 cesses of conjugation ; 
 
 (2) By changing the final stem-vowel ; 
 
 (3) By adding a new element ; the final stem- 
 vowel may be changed at the same time. All under 
 
DENOMINATIVE VERBS 149 
 
 this head belong in the present system to the -l class 
 (259) ; originally the presents of the other types be- 
 longed to the same class, although in Attic Greek the 
 L no longer appears. 
 
 Thus arose, with some crossing of types, several 
 models, on which denominative A^erbs were made 
 pretty freely ; the classes are clearly separated in 
 form, much less clearly in meaning. 
 
 416 a. Stems in -o:o), pres. ind. in -o'w, regularly transitive, often 
 causative : 
 
 SovXo-oi (SovXoioy-) enslave^ ^ovXo'i slave^ 
 
 ct^to-w (d^to:w-) deem ivorthy or ft, a^io? worthy. 
 
 On the same model, from other stems, with a change of 
 vowel : 
 
 t,7]iJLi6-w [^rjixLoioi-) ptmish, ^rj/xLo. dfwiage, 
 
 pi^6-(j) (pt^o:w-) cause to root, pL^a root. 
 
 From consonant stems, with added -o : 
 
 /xacrrtyo-o) (/xao-rtyo:a)-) tuhip, fxacTTL^ (jxaaTly-) wllip. 
 
 b. Stems in -a:d or -a-.-q, pres. in -aw : 
 
 Tt/xa-co {Tlfxa-.T)-) 7l07l0r, rlfxy JwJlOr, 
 
 viKa-oi (vlKa:r]-) am victorious, vIky] victory, 
 
 rfTa-oixai (jjTTa'.y]-) ain worsted, rJTTa defeat. 
 
 From stems in -o, with change of vowel : 
 dpLo-Ta-o) [dpca-Tair]-) hrcalcfast, dpta-Tov irealcfast, 
 
 yod-OfJiaL [yoa:rj-) ZVail, y6o<s IVail. 
 
 c. stems in -cit^, pres. in -ew, generally intransitive : 
 
 oLK€-<a (oiKcir;-) divell, ot/cos liouse, 
 
 <f>iXe-<i) {cfjiXeir}-) love, (jiiXo^ friend, 
 
 oLTroSrjfxi-w {diro^fjie-.r}-) am abroad, a7r6Sr)fjio<s away fro7?i home, 
 
 aTTope-ui [aTTope-.r]-) am at a loss, d7ropo<; Without resourccs. 
 or poor, 
 
150 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 From stems in -eo-, with loss of o- (65 a) : 
 Kpare-o) (Kparc:?;-) am strong, rule, KpdTo<s (Kparea--) strength, 
 
 acrO€V€-(x) [aa-Oeve-.Y]-) am weak, HI, aa-Oevrj^, -€S tveak, 
 
 €VTvx€-iii {evTvxe-.r}-) am fortunate, evr^x^?, -C9 fortunate. 
 
 From consonant-stems, with added -c : 
 <TO)(f>pove-o) [(r(j)(f>pov€:7j-) am discreet, o-w^pwi/ of sound mind, 
 io-Topi-o) (IcrTope'.rj-) investigate, Lo-riop one tvJio hnoivs (405). 
 
 417 a. Stems in -ev, pres. indie, in -cvw : 
 
 ^aa-tXev-u) (ySao-tXcv-) reign, /3a(rtX€v<s Mng, 
 
 iTTTrev-o) (tTTTrei;-) serve in the L7nr€v<i horseman. 
 
 cavalry. 
 
 From other vowel-stems, with change of vowel : 
 
 VTTOTTTev-oi (tiTTOTTTCV-) SUSpCct, V7ro7rTO<s SUSplcWUS, 
 
 7rop€v-o) {iropev-) 7nalce proceed, 7r6po<s passage, 
 
 7ncrT€v-(D (TTto-rei;-) trUSt, ttlo-tos faithful, 
 
 pov\ev-w [/3ovX€v-) plan, PovX-q wHl, plan, 
 
 iKercTj-o) (iKcrev-) entreat, LKeTrj's suppliant, 
 
 aXyjOeviji (aXrjOev-) spcah truth, aX-qOrj';, -c? tr^ie. 
 
 From consonant-stems, with added -eu : 
 
 TratSev-o) (TratScu-) educate, 7rai<s (TratS-) child, 
 
 <j)vyaB€v-o) ((^vyaSev-) exile, (jivyds [cfivyaS-) exHe. 
 
 b. A few stems in -v, pres. in -vw : 
 SttKpv-tu (SaKpv-) weep, SaKpv tear, 
 
 yrjpv-o) [yrjpv-) speak, sing, yrjpv<s voice. 
 
 418 Stems in -tS, pres. ind. in -t^o) (t-class, 259 d) : 
 IX-rrilisi (iXiriS-) hope, a^iticipate, iX-Trt's (cATTtS-) hope, 
 ipi^o) {iptS-) quarrel, epi9 (ipiB-) strife. 
 
 From other stems, with change or addition of the final 
 element : 
 
 Xapitofxai (xaptS-) do favor, X^P^^ h(P^9^'^~) ^^^<^^) 
 
 opitsa (6/otS-) limit, hound, opos boundary, 
 
 retxi'^w (rcixtS-) iuHd a wall, T€lxo^ (Tct;(€or-) toall, 
 
DENOMINATIVE VERBS 151 
 
 aOpoL^oi {aOpoiS-) assemble., a^/aoos, aOpoo<s in a crowds 
 
 iXXrjvL^ix) (iXXrjvLS-) speak Greek, "EAAryv Greeh^ 
 X^p^Cf^ ix'^P'-^) ^^^ apart, X^P^'^ (adv ) apart. 
 
 For ifiTToSL^oi and ScaxeLpt^oi see 448 "a. 
 
 a. Similar in the present only is o-aATrt^w (o-oATrtyy-) sound 
 tlie trumpet, from a-dXTriy^ trumpet ; but aor. la-akiny^a. 
 
 419 Stems in -a8, pres. in -a^w (t-class, 269 d), are partly from 
 noun-stems in -ar, but mostly from noun-stems in -a and 
 adjective-stems in -o, with change of -d or -o : 
 
 Oavixd^o) (OavfJiaS-) lOOlldeV, Oavfxa (OavfJLaT-) tVOnder, 
 
 ovofjLOL^w [ovofxaS-) name, ovo/xa (ovo/AttT-) name, 
 
 SiKa^o) (8tKa8-) give judgme^it, SUrj decision, justice, 
 
 /?ta^o/xat {/3iaS-) use force, pCa violence, 
 
 drt/Aa^o) (drt/xaS-) disJionor, aTlixo<: unhonored. 
 
 Also from other stems, with the final element changed 
 to -a8 : 
 Sixd^w (hixa-h-) divide in two, St^a (ady.) i7i tico parts, 
 
 o-rao-ia^o) (araa-iah-) jorm a crra.(Ti% (o-rao-t-) faction, 
 
 faction, 
 
 420 Stems in -av, pres. in -atVo) (t-class, 259 b). These are partly 
 from noun- or adjective-stems in -av, but oftener from others, 
 with change of the final element, or with an addition : 
 ixeXatvix) (jxcXav-) hlachcn, /i-eAd? (/xcAav-) MacTc, 
 TTOLfjiaLvo) {TroL/xav-) herd, TTOLixTjv (TTOLfjiev-) herdsman, 
 evcl>paivoi (€V(f>pav-) gladden, €V<f>p(DV [evcfipov-) glad, 
 crrjixaLVii) (crrjixav-) signify, (rrj/xa {crr]piaT-) sig7l, 
 
 XaXeTratvo) (xoAeTrav-) am angry, x'^AcTTo? (;^aA€7ro-) hard, angry, 
 KepSaLVii) [KcpSav-) gain, KepSo<; (/cepSco--) gain. 
 
 421 stems in -w, pres. in -vvw (i-class, 259 b). These are largely 
 from adjective-stems in -v, but also from other stems, which 
 are changed or extended to conform to the model : 
 
 Papvvoi {/Bapvv-) make heavy, ySapvs heavy, 
 
 Taxvvoi (raxw-) hasten, Taxys swift) 
 
152 
 
 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 Xa/jLTTpvyo) (XafMirpw-) brighten, 
 al(rxvvo) (aiV^w-) make ashamed, 
 IxrjKvvu) [jxyjKvv-) lengthe7i, 
 
 Aa/xTTpos shining, 
 ato-xos shame, 
 lJLrJKo<s length. 
 
 422 Similar formations, with presents of the i-class, are seen in 
 
 ayyiXXio (dyyeA.-) repovt, 
 reKfiaipo/xai [reK/xap-) settle hy 
 
 signs, infer, 
 KaOaipoi (KaOap-) cUanse, purify, 
 ixOatpo) (ixOap-) hate, 
 
 liapTvpofxai [fxapTvp-) call to 
 
 witness, 
 t/x-etpo) ()/>(-€/>-) long for, 
 
 olKTipU) (otKTip-) pity, 
 
 Trat^o) (TratS-) play, [ 
 
 ayyeXos messenger, 
 TeKfiap sign, 
 
 Ka6ap6<s clean, 
 txOo<s hatred, 
 fjidpTv<s witness, 
 
 'ip^cpos longing, 
 oTkto<s pity, 
 
 Trats (7rat8-) child. 
 
 423 
 
 The differences of use between the above verb-formations are 
 best seen when two verbs are made from one stem : 
 
 oiK€(j) dwell, 
 
 drl/Aoo) disfranchise, 
 
 fiaprvpioi am a witness, testify, 
 
 KaOapevo) am pure, 
 
 BovXevcD am a slave, 
 
 TToXeyaeto 7nake ivar, 
 
 a-o}cf>pove(i) am discreet. 
 
 oLKiCio settle (a town), 
 oLTlixd^u) dishonor, 
 
 /xapTvpo/xaL call to WltflCSS, 
 
 KaOaipoi cleanse, 
 SovXooi enslave, 
 TToXe/jLoo) make hostile, 
 (ro}<f>povL^oi make discreet, 
 chastise. 
 
 Denominative A djectives 
 
 424 The suffix -to, fem. -ta, nom. -to?, (-td,) -tov, is most widely 
 used to form adjectives from noun-stems. A final stem-vowel 
 contracts with i, or it may be changed or dropt. The mean- 
 ing of the suffix is vague, pertaining to the noun, in some way 
 which the noun or the context makes clear : 
 StKtttos just, right, SUrj (SiKd-) justice, right, 
 
 dpxoLos ancient, dpxy (dpxo^-) hegi^ming, 
 
 dyopaio<s of the market, ayopd market. 
 
DENOMINATIVE ADJECTIVES 
 
 153 
 
 paa-iXcLo<5 (27) royal., the Mng^s., ySao-tXcu'-s king., 
 
 TeAa/xcov-ios of Telamou., 
 cro)Trjp-Los saving., of safety., 
 oIk€los domestic^ one^s own, 
 
 ayp-LO<s wild, 
 
 TToXcix-Lo's Jiostile, 
 KopLvO-Lo<s Corintliian, 
 MrA.->Jo-to9 (46) Milesian, 
 alSolos revered, 
 
 TeAa/xwj/ Telamon, 
 
 o-wrrip savior, 
 
 oTko-s Jioiise, property, 
 
 dypo-? field, 
 
 7roAe/xo-9 ivar, 
 
 KopLvOo's Corinth, 
 
 MiXrp-o<s Miletos, 
 
 atSws (129) respect, reverence. 
 
 a. In some adjectives the suflBx appears to be -^lo, nom. -etos : 
 yuj/atK-etos of loomen, yvvr] (yvvatK-) ivoman. 
 
 425 The suffix -lko, nom. -iko?, -rj, -6v, is added to noun-stems as 
 well as to yerb-stems (413 d) ; in some cases the starting-point 
 may have been either. A final stem-vowel is dropt ; but with 
 i-stems the ending is probably -ko : 
 
 ^aarLX-LKo^ hlnghj, pacnXivs king, 
 
 jSapfSap-LKos larlarian, (Sdp(3apo<; foreigner, 
 
 €\Xr)v-LK6<s Greeh, "EXXrjv Greeh, 
 
 SapetKos (for 8apei-tKo?) daric, Aapeto? Davcios, 
 
 TToXcfji-LKo^ icarlihe, ttoAc/xos ivar, 
 
 yeoipy-LKo? sJcUled in farming, yeoipy 6^ farmer, 
 
 a-Tparrjy-LKos skilled as a general, a-TpaTrjyos general, 
 
 <f>vcrL-K6s 9iatiiral, physical, <f>v(rL? nature. 
 
 Many of these, by omission of rixvi art, become nouns : 
 fjLova-LKT^ 7nusic, ypajxiJiaTLKy grammar. 
 
 426 The suffixes -eo, nom. -ov<s, -yj, -ovv (87), and -lvo, nom. -lvo<;j 
 -rj, rov, form adjectives of material : 
 
 dpyvp-€0<;, apyvpovs of silver, apyvpo? sUvcr, 
 
 Xl6-lvo^ of stone, XlOo<s stone, 
 
 $vX-Lvo<s wooden, $vXov ivood. 
 
 But they also have in other words a more general meaning : 
 (f)OLviK€o<;, (f)OLvlKov<s rcd, ^oLVL^ Phce?iicia7i, 
 
 aXr]0-Lv6<; genuine, aX-rjOrj^ true, 
 
 avOpwTT-Lvo's, dv6p(i)7rcLo<s human, dv0poy7ro<s man. 
 
154 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 Several in -lv6s are made from words denoting time : 
 
 iap-Lv6^ of spring^ tap spring^ 
 
 oTTwp-Lvos autumnal, o-rrcopa harvest, 
 
 rjfji€p-Lv6s of daytime, rjfxipd dag. 
 
 427 The suffix -evr, nom. -ets, -ecro-a, -ev, in a few adjectives means 
 endoived or supplied with : 
 
 XapL-cLs graceful, X^P'-'^ (x"P'"5 X^P'-'^-) g'fdce, 
 
 <l>o}vrj-ei<s possessing voice or speech, ^lavrj voice. 
 
 Hence cfxovrjev {ypafxiia) a voiuel. 
 
 428 The suffixes -ipio, -vo, -po are added to noun-stems as well as to 
 verb-stems (cp. 412). In some cases either verb or noun may 
 have been the base : 
 
 aAK-t/xo9 mighty, dXKrj prowess, 
 
 (f>p6v-iixo<s se7isible, cf^pyv (^pev-) mind, 
 
 6pei-v6s (for opecr-i/o?) of the opo's (^op€(T-) mountain, 
 
 mountains, 
 
 dXyct-vo? (for dAyeo--vo?) painful, aXyos (dXyeo--) pain, 
 
 Xv7rr}-p6<; painful, Xxhrrj pain, Xvirioi grieve, 
 
 (j>6ovc-p6<i grudging, <ji66vo<s envy, ^Oovim grudge, 
 
 8po(re-p6<i deiuy, Spoa-os deiv, 
 
 TTov-q-po's toilsome, had, ttovos toil, distress. 
 
 Perhaps in irovr^po^ and some others --qpo was thought of 
 as the suffix : 
 
 fioxOrjpos wretched, pLoxOo^ (fioxOo-) pain, 
 
 avOrjpos flowery, avOo^ (dvOio--) floioer. 
 
 Denominative Nouns 
 
 429 Nouns of quality (all feminine) are made from adjectives, and 
 occasionally from nouns, by adding to the stem the suffixes 
 -Ti)T, -id, -a-vvd. Abstract nouns often become concrete, being 
 applied to special instances of the quality or action : 
 
 a. Suffix -rrjT, nom. -rrj's (cp. Lat. -tdt, -tds) : 
 
DENOMINATIVE NOUNS 
 
 155 
 
 TTLorTo^rj^ faithfulness, 
 ((r)/juKp6-T7)<s smallness, 
 Traxv^rj^ thickness, 
 
 TTto-To-s faithful, 
 ((T)iJUKp6-s small, 
 Traxv-'s thick. 
 
 b. Suffix -ta, nom. -td or -ta, before which a final stem- 
 vowel is lost : 
 
 <f>LX-id friendship, 
 diroLK-Ld colony, 
 €vSaLfjiov-Ld happiness, 
 cvvoia good-ivill, 
 
 dXyOeLa (for dXrjOccr-ia) truth, 
 
 <f>LXo-<; friend, 
 ttTTotKo-s away from home, 
 evSaLjjicov happy, 
 ivvoo-<s friendly, kind, 
 
 d\rjOrj<i [dXrjOea--) true. 
 
 da-Oiveia (for dcrd^v€(r-La) iveahness, do-^evrjs {daOiv^a--) iveah, 
 
 dOava(r-Ld (46) immortality, dOdvaro-<s immortal, 
 
 €V€py€(r-Ld (46) he7iefaction, c^epycTT/? benefactor. 
 
 c. Suffix -a-vvd, nom. -o-vvrj, before which a final consonant 
 of the stem is lost : 
 
 SLKaio-(rvv7] Justice, 
 cro}cl>po-<rvvr) self-C07ltrol, 
 
 SiKaLo-s Just, right, 
 
 (T(l)cf>p(DV (o-W<^p01/-) Self- 
 
 co7itrolled. 
 
 430 IN'ouns denoting a person who has to do icith something are 
 made with the suffixes -cv, -rd, -nS (cp. 405). 
 
 a. Suffix -cv, nom. -cv?, masc, some forming a feminine in 
 -eta. A final stem-vowel is lost before the suffix : 
 
 vKiT-tm horseman, hnro-^ horse, 
 
 Up-evs priest, Up-eta jjriestess, Up6-<s sacred, 
 
 ypaixfjiaT-€v<s clerk, secretary, ypd/x/xa (ypa/^/xar-) writing. 
 
 b. Suffix -Td, nom. -rr;?, masc, some forming a feminine 
 in -Ti8, nom. -tl<s. A final stem-vowel before the ending is 
 often changed in some way : 
 
 7roXt-TT75, fem. 7roAt-Tt9, citizen, 7roAt-s state, 
 
 o-rpaTt(o-Tr;s soldier, (TTpartd army, 
 
 vryo-tw-TT/?, fem. vr](TL(ii-TL's, islander, vrjcrto-v, vrjCTo-'s island, 
 
 Sr}p.6-Tr}<s demesman, Stj/jlo-^ deme, 
 
 oiK€-T>7S, fem. oiK6-Tt?, house-servant, oTko-s house, 
 
 Sea-fKo-rrjs, fem. Secr/xco-Tts, prisoner, Scarfws dond. 
 
156 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 431 Several suffixes form nouns, many of which (but not all) have 
 a dimimitive meaning, or a caressing or a conte7nptuous tone ; 
 the end of the stem often suffers a change. 
 
 a. Suffix -to, nom. -tov, neut. : 
 
 TraiS-LO-v little cJdld, Trats (TratS-) cJlild^ 
 
 aKovT-io-v javelin^ aKOiv (aKovT-) spear, 
 
 ^iPX-Lo-v hooh^ ySiySAo-s pa2)yrus^ book^ 
 
 Xpvo-Lo-v gold piece, xp^^^~'^ gold, 
 
 TTiS-Lo-v plain, TreSo-v ground, 
 
 Xiop-Lo-v fortress, )(C)po-<s, x^P^ place. 
 
 b. Suffix -Lo-Ko, -LCTKa, nom. -iV/cos masc, -lo-kt) fern. : 
 vedv-i(TKo<s youth, yoimgster, vedvLd-^ youth, 
 
 TraiS-LCTKos little hoy, Trai'S (jraLS-) child. 
 
 iraih-icrK-q little girl. 
 
 c. Also the suffixes -dpio-v, -lSlo-v, -vX.Xlo-v : 
 
 ■jratS-dpLO-v little chap, TTttts (TratS-) child, 
 
 oIk-lSlo-v little house, oTkos house, 
 
 ^oiKpar-iSLo-v dear little Sohrates, ^<jiKpdTr}<s {-^a--) Sohrates, 
 
 dZ-vXkio-v little picture, idyl, d^o<s (ctSco--) form. 
 
 432 Words denoting a place are made with the suffixes -to, -cto, 
 -rrjpLo, -wv, often with some change at the end of the stem. 
 
 a. Suffix -to, -6to, nom. -lov, -ctov, neut. : 
 
 p.vpoTrdiX-Lo-v perfumer^s shop, fjLvpoTrwXrj? perfume-seller, 
 Kovpeco-v (27) barber's shop, Kovpev-<s barber, 
 
 fiov<T-€Lo-v place of the muses, /xova-a muse. 
 
 In other instances the force of the ending is vague : 
 
 dyycto-v (for ayyccr-tov) dish, ayyo5 (dyyco--) dish, VCSScl, 
 
 vessel, 
 (rr)ix€io-v sign, note, (rrj/xa (o-^/xar-) mark. 
 
 b. Suffix -rr}pLo, nom. -Trjpiov, neut., apparently made by 
 adding -lo to nouns in -Tr)p (405), which were later crowded 
 out by the forms in -nys : 
 
DENOxMINATIVE NOUNS 157 
 
 SiKacr-Typ-Lorv court, {^LKOxTTTip) 8iKa(TTrj<S judgB, 
 
 Povkev-rrjp-LO-v COUncil-hall, (povkev-r-qp) /JovAeuTTJs coun- 
 
 cilor, 
 Sca-jJiOi-Trjp-LO-v priSOn, 8etr/xo-s bo?ld. 
 
 Probably in some cases the starting-point was the verb, 
 without thought of an intervening noun : 
 
 IpyacT-Trjpio-v IVOrTcsllOp, ipyd^o/xai (ipyaS-) IVOrlc, 
 
 c. Suffix -<i)v, nom. -wv, masc., with loss of a final stem- 
 vowel : 
 
 d/xTTcX-wv vineyard, d/^TrcXos vine, 
 
 7rapOev-wv maiden's room, -n-apOevo-^ maiden, 
 
 avhp-ijiv 7nen's liall, dvyp (avSp-) man. 
 
 Some of these are enlarged by the ending -trtS, nom. -trt?, 
 fem. : 
 di/8p(oi/-tTt9 me7i's quarters, ywatAcwv-trt? ivomen's quarters. 
 
 433 ^oiins denoting descent {patronymics) are made from names 
 of persons by adding -8d or -tSa, nom. -Sry? or -tS?;?, masc, and 
 -S or -tS, nom. -(d)s or -ts, fem., sometimes with changes at 
 the end of the stem. 
 
 a. Bopea-87;?, fem. Bopea-s, son (daugJiter) of Bopea-?, 
 
 AiV€a-S>7? Atvea? (Atvetds). 
 
 Nouns of this type caused -dSr]<s and -as to be taken as 
 endings for making other names : 
 
 ©ea-TL-dSr}^, ©ecTTt-a? (-a8-), ©eo-Tio-9, 
 
 *A(TK\ri7n-d8rj<;, ^AcrKXi/JTno-S. 
 
 ]S"ames of this type caused -taSrys to be taken as an ending 
 to form other nouns : 
 
 TcXa/xwv-taSr;?, TeXa/Awv. 
 
 b. KcKpoTT-tSr/?, fem. Ke/cpoTr-ts, KiKpoxj/ (KcKpOTT-), 
 Kpov-t8->79, Kpwo-s, 
 Aava-t8r)<s, fem. Aava-t's (-tS), Aavao-S. 
 
 c. Many such words were ordinary proper names, not de- 
 noting descent : EuplTrtSr;?, Ba/<;)^Xt87ys, 'AptoretSTys. 
 
158 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 d. These endings were probably at first less definite in 
 meaning, like -to (424), and that more general force appears 
 in some words, especially in poetry. 
 
 434 Xouns (and adjectives) that mark a person as helonging to 
 some people or city (gentiles) are made with the suffixes -6v, -ra^ 
 -i8, -TtS. These are but special uses under headings already 
 given. 
 
 a. Suffix -€v (cp. 430 a), fem. -t8 (cp. 433 b and d) : 
 Mcyap-ev?, fem. Meya/o-6s (-tS-), Meg avian ^ Meyapa (neut. pL), 
 Evy8o-€v-s, fem. Ev/io-LS (-tS-) of Euhoia^ Ev^ota, 
 Krjcfna-L-ev's of the KepMsian deme^ KrjcfHa-id. 
 
 b. Suffix -ra, fem. -rtS (cp. 430 b) : 
 Alylvrj-T7]<s, fem. ALylvrj-TL<s of Aigina, Atylva, 
 '^vPapi-TT]?, fem. ^v^apL-TL^ Sybarite^ ^vf3apL-<s, 
 
 'HTTetpco-rr;?, fem. 'H7retpw-TiS Epirote, "HTretpo-s. 
 
 In several the ending seems to be -wtt^s, -wrt? : 
 2iK€A,t-a)T»;9, fem. ^tKcXt-wrts, Sicilian^ 5tKeA.td. 
 
 IT. COMPOSITION 
 
 435 Compound words are analyzed by dividing into two 
 members only ; if either member is itself a compound, 
 that is treated in the same way, and so on. 
 
 a. A few particles or adverbs are mere groups of three 
 or more separate words, which might have been printed sepa- 
 rately with no great change of meaning. Such are rot-yap-ow, 
 Kar-avTi-TTcpd^. These are not included here. 
 
 436 The second member alone of a compound carries the 
 inflection, as verb, noun, or adjective. The first mem- 
 ber is an uninflected word — as a preposition, or the 
 adverb eu, or the inseparable a(v)- or Svcr- (441, 444) 
 — or is used in the stem-form. 
 
COMPOUND VERBS 159 
 
 a. In the pronoun oo-rt? both parts are declined (220). 
 
 b. In a few words the first member is a noun in some case- 
 form : v€a)(T-oLKOL ship-houses, vavcrL-7ropo<s passable by ships, 68ol- 
 TTo/oos traveler (68ot- locative, 228), 6peL-ftdTr)<s ivalkmg on the 
 mountain, *EAA7jo--7rovTo? Rene's sea, Hellespont. 
 
 Compound Verbs 
 
 437 Prepositions alone can stand as tlie first member of 
 a compound verb ; the second member remains un- 
 changed. The name preposition (Trpd-^ecrt?) arose 
 from this use. 
 
 For sound changes see 32, 42, 50, 52. 
 
 a. All prepositions were first adverbs, modifying the verb. 
 When the connection with a verb became very close, the two 
 were regarded as one word, a compound ; but the older use 
 was also retained. Especially in poetry a preposition may be 
 written separately {tmesis, rfjirja-LS cutting) as an adverb, which 
 in prose would be joined to the verb. (Cp. English set off and 
 offset, trodden down and downtrodden. The older use is still 
 very common with English prepositions.) 
 
 b. Note applications of 435. Thus o-w-am^atVo) go tip with, 
 a compound of o-vv and avafBaivoi, which is a compound of 
 
 avd and /3atVo). 
 
 438 a. Not every verb that begins with a preposition is 
 a compound ; it may be a denominative (415-423) 
 from a compound noun or adjective. Thus vTroirrevo} 
 suspect is from the compound vTr-oTrro?, but is not 
 itself a compound. 
 
 b. So, too, other denominative verbs from com- 
 pounds are not themselves compounds. Thus vav- 
 /xaxew fight ly sea is from vav-fjidxo<; (446 a), but is 
 not itself a compound of vavs and a verb (437) ; 
 
160 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 €vTvx^(o is from evrvxv^ (447), but is not itself a 
 compound of ev and a verb. 
 
 Compound Nouns and Adjectives 
 
 439 The first member of a noun or adjective may be a 
 preposition or adverb (440, 441), a verb-stem (442), 
 or the stem of a noun or adjective (443). The second 
 member is the stem of a noun, adjective, or verb, 
 with the changes or additions that were felt to be 
 natural for declension. 
 
 a. The accent is generally recessive, but there are many 
 exceptions ; the most easily classified will be mentioned. 
 
 440 a. A preposition may be prefixt simply as an adverb 
 to some nouns and adjectives, with no further change 
 than with verbs (437) : 
 
 av-oSos way or march iip^ 
 (XTro-o-Tao-t? standing off, revolt, 
 iiTL-povXi^ apian against, 
 cru/x-7ras all together, 
 o-uv-atrtos Jointly causing, 
 
 b. Different from these are nouns derived from compound 
 verbs and adjectives : 
 
 (TvvOrjfjia ivatchtvord (407), from o-w-TtOrjiJLL, 
 TTpoOvfjLLd eagerness (429 b), irpo-Ovfjco^ (447 b), 
 
 aTTOLKid colony (429 b), aTr-otKo? (448). 
 
 But in some cases either method may have been followed. 
 
 441 The adverbs irai^ altogetliei\ ev well, also the insep- 
 arables a(v)- not and 8ucr- ill, are preiixt in like 
 manner to a few adjectives, and the last three to 
 many verbals in -ro<; : 
 
 avd. 
 
 68o5, 
 
 (XTro, 
 
 o-Tao-t9, 
 
 i-TTL, 
 
 povXri, 
 
 crvv. 
 
 Tra?, 
 
 (TVV, 
 
 atrto?. 
 
COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 
 
 161 
 
 Swaros ahle^ possible, 
 raXd's tvretched, 
 raKTos arranged, 
 
 TTopcvTos passable. 
 
 TTOLv-croffio^ exceedi7igly ivise, (ro<fi6<s ivise, 
 
 Trav-TXrjfjuov all-enduring , wretched, TXyjfjuov wretched, 
 cv-SoKt/Aos ivell-approved, glorious, Sokl/xo^ approved, 
 d-SoKLfio? lui-approved, in-glorious, 
 d-Swaros un-ahle, im-possible, 
 Sv(r-TaXds in hard miser g, 
 €v-TaKTo^ well-arranged, 
 a-TttKTo? un-arranged, 
 Bv(r-7r6p€VTo<; hardly passable, 
 
 a. But these simple compounds must not be confused with 
 those described in 447, which have the same first member in 
 a different relation to the second (444). 
 
 442 A verb-stem stands in some adjectives and nouns as 
 the first member — either the stem simply, or with an 
 added vowel, or with added -ai (-cr before a vowel). 
 The second member is thought of as object (accusa- 
 tive, genitive, or dative) of the first. Cp. English 
 hreahnech^ tell-tale, loose-strife. 
 
 apx<Ji rule, T€KTwv builder, 
 cfiipoi bring, iyyvrj surety, 
 
 apx-i-^eKTOiv 77iaster-builder, 
 <^ep-€yyi;o9 bringing surety, 
 
 capable, 
 XtTT-o-ra^td desertion {leaving 
 
 the ranhs), 
 Xv-a-L-^eXri? paying charges, 
 
 profitable, 
 iretO-apxo's obedient to commarid, 
 plcr-o-h-qpio's hating tlie people, 
 <f>LX-dvOp(i>7ro^ loving man. 
 
 The last two perhaps belong rather under 449. 
 a. The syllables dpx-, apx^-? <^PX'"? came to be a mere prefix 
 meaning leader, first, Eng. arch-, archi-. 
 
 443 A noun or adjective as the first member appears as a 
 bare stem, and this may suffer various changes. 
 11 
 
 XctVo) ( XiTT- ) leave, ra^ts 
 
 ranh, 
 Xi(i) loose, riXo^ charge, 
 
 TretOofxat obey, apX'? ^^^^^j 
 
 pla-i-oi hate, 877/A09 people, 
 cfaXeix) love, dvOpioTTos man. 
 
162 WOED-FORMATION 
 
 a. The final vowel, or even more, may be lost or changed : 
 
 <f)vX-apxo^ tribe-leader, cfivXrj tribe, 
 
 TpLTfp-apxo's ca2)tain of a trireme, rpLrjpr]<s trireme, 
 (TTpar-rjyos army-leader, a-Tparos army, 
 
 pa-OvfjLo<s of easy spirit, lazy, pa-Bios easy ; the ending of 
 
 derivation, -8to9, is omitted. 
 
 b. Since o-stems were especially frequent in such com- 
 pounds, they became a model to which other stems were often 
 conformed. Hence o may replace a final d or the suffix -co-, 
 or may be added to a consonantal stem : 
 
 Avp-o-TTotos lyre-maker, Xvpd lyre. 
 
 <rK€v-o-(f>6pos baggage carrying, st. o-kcvco-- baggage. 
 fjir]Tp-6-7ro\Ls mother-city, st. fx,r]T{e)p- mother. 
 
 c. Contractions may occur ; 
 
 KaKovpyo^ (Epio Ka/co [f ] cpyos) evil-doer. 
 
 irav-ovpyos doing anythi?ig and everything, scoundrel — per- 
 haps made on the analogy of KaKovpyo^. 
 Tlpniip6<i (for rliJia-Fop6<i) Upholding honor. 
 
 444 Certain elements enter as the first member into many 
 compounds, in whicli they have tlie force of an adverb 
 or an adjective, as tlie second member may require. 
 These are (cp. 441) : 
 
 eS well^ in composition well^ easily, or cjood^ 
 Sus- (inseparable), ill^ with difficulty^ or had^ 
 o^iy)- negative (inseparable), not, or no., 
 rjfXL- (inseparable), Lat. semi-, half. 
 
 With these may be put KaXXi-, which is not used sepa- 
 rately, but in many compounds takes the place of KaXo? or 
 kclXQ)s. 
 
 a. In a-KoXovOo? accompanying, following (KeXcvOos path), 
 and a-6poo<s or SiOpoos thronging, together (0p6o<s fioise of a 
 
COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 163 
 
 crotvd) the first element is d- copulative (for o-a-) related to 
 afxa and ofjLo- together. 
 
 445 In meaning^ when the first member represents a noun 
 or adjective, the relation between the tw^o parts may 
 vary greatly, and is gathered from their separate 
 meanings ; especially the poets make combinations 
 very freely. (Even greater freedom is usual in Eng- 
 lish.) But certain classes are large, and these it is 
 convenient to name. 
 
 a. Determinative Compounds. — The first member 
 makes more specific {determines) the meaning of the 
 second ; the whole denotes a particular case of what 
 the second part denotes alone — e. g., school-hoys are 
 one class of hoys, well-made is made in a particular 
 way (446). 
 
 b. Possessive Compounds. — These are adjectives, 
 being noun-compounds of the determinative class, but 
 with the idea oi jjossession understood. Thus yellow- 
 throat does not mean a yelloiv throaty but a bird hav- 
 ing a yellow throat ; the idea of having is not ex- 
 pressed, but from frequent use is understood. In 
 English many of these end in -ed^ on the model of 
 participles : hald-headed, warm-hearted^ sword-shaped 
 (447). 
 
 c. Prepositional-Phrase Compounds. — A phrase con- 
 sisting of a preposition and its object is made a single 
 word, with the force, and in Greek the inflection, of 
 an adjective (which like other adjectives may become 
 a noun). Thus out-door sports are played cntt of 
 doors, an wider-ground passage is sub-terranean (448). 
 
164 
 
 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 446 Determinative Compounds (445 a) are of two classes, 
 not always distinguishable. 
 
 a. Dependent Compounds : the first member is a 
 noun that may be regarded as modifying the second, 
 as if dependent on it in some case-relation : 
 
 (TTpaT-r]y6<s leader of an army, 
 Aox-ayos leader of a company, 
 Xoyo-ypd<f>o<s speecJi-tvriter, 
 vav-fjLdxo<s fighting with ships, 
 
 o-rpard-TreSoi/ camp, 
 
 Xoyo-TToto? speech-maTcer, inventor of 
 
 tales, 
 X^ip-o-TToirjTo^ hand-made, 
 vSp-o-(f)6po^ water-carrier, 
 avTo-fxaro's self-impelled, 
 rptrjpr]^ triply-fitted. 
 
 CTTpaTO-s, -r)y6<s [dyw), 
 Xoxo'S, -ayo? ' (ayo)), 
 Xoyos, ypd(fiO<s {ypdfjuii), 
 vav<5, -jjidxo'S (^fxdxoficLi) , 
 cTTparov TreSov, 
 
 XoyOUS TTOtCOVj 
 
 ;j(ep(Tt TToirjTO'i, 
 vSuyp, -c]i6po<; (^epco), 
 avTos, root fxa-, 
 rpu'S, dpapL(TKOi, 
 
 b. Descriptive Compounds : the first member is an 
 adjective modifying a noun as the second, or is an 
 adverb modifying an adjective or participle as the 
 second. (Cp. English hlue-hird and new-horn^ De- 
 scriptive compounds are fewer than dependents. 
 
 fjMv-apxo<: sole ruler, 
 fjL€(r-r)p./3ptd (49) mid-day, 
 oLKp-o-TToXi? upper city, citadel, 
 iJ/evS-o-ixapTvpLOL false Witness, 
 rifiL-ovo<s half-ass, mule, 
 yjPii-Ppwro<i half-eaten, 
 €vSr]Xo? quite clear, 
 irepL-epyos over-active. 
 
 fjLovo^, apxos, 
 /xearrj rj/Jiipa, 
 d-Kpa TToXt?, 
 \p€vSrj<; /iiapTvpid, 
 rjfxi- (444), 6Vo9, 
 
 ^ifSpdycTKu) eat, 
 
 €V, SrjXo9, 
 
 Trepi, -epyo? (rOOt e/oy). 
 
 e. Many determinatives have as latter member a word that 
 does not occur separately, or not in that sense (410) ; in some 
 cases the lack is accidental. Thus apx6^, dyos (a), aywyos are 
 
COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 165 
 
 found separately, but not -r/yo?, -ypa</»os, -ftaxos, -ttoio? ; while 
 (f>6po<s, 8o/>to9, Spo/jios are used, but not in the sense in which 
 they form many compounds. 
 
 d. Determinatives of the o-declension, if the second part 
 is active, accent the penult if that is short, otherwise the ulti- 
 ma : A.t^o-/3oAo? stone-thr Giving^ vai;-/>ta;(os, Xoyo-^otos. (But not 
 compounds in -apxo<s and -©xos, which have recessive accent; 
 and other exceptions occur.) 
 
 447 Possessive Compounds (445 b). — In these the idea of 
 having is added in thought to a determinative ; in a 
 few the added idea is rather that of bei7ig : 
 
 rpi-TTov^ having three feet, three-footed, 
 
 TToXv-dvOpuiTTo'i having many men, populous, 
 
 Sv(r-7ropo<s havijig a hard passage, 
 
 (.v-vov^ ic ell-minded, Jcindly, 
 
 iv-Tvxn^ having good fortune, fortunate, 
 
 6/>to-Tpa7re^os having the same table, table-companion, 
 
 6/xo-Aoyos having common speech or ratio, agreeing, homologous. 
 
 ofjio- appears only in composition ; but cp. the adv. o/xoC, 
 adj. o/xoto?. 
 ^eo-ctSr)? having a god's appearance, godlike (cTSo?). 
 
 From -€tS>7?, contracting with a preceding vow^el, was formed 
 the derivative ending -w8r)<s, and English -oid. 
 
 a. Many compounds of this class begin with d(v)- negative, 
 which may be either a not, denying the idea of possession, or 
 a 710 modifying the noun : 
 
 d-^opo<s 7iot having a passage, or having no passage, 
 d-rlfjLo^ without honor, disfranchised. 
 
 b. Prepositions often have an adjectival force in such com- 
 pounds (cp. 440 a) : 
 
 Tvpo-Ovfxo? having a forivard spirit, eager (Ovfios), 
 dp,cf)L-Ovpo? having a door on both sides, double-doored {6vpd)y 
 fx€T-oLKos having one's dwelling tvith, resident alien (oTkos), 
 
166 WORD-FORMATION 
 
 ev-Oeo^ having a god ivithin^ inspired^ 
 
 €<f)-e8pos Jiavmg a dy-seat {one ivlio lias draivn a " lye "), 
 
 irdp-eSpos having a seat heside^ assessor. 
 
 448 Prepositional-Phrase Compounds (444 c). — These con- 
 sist of a preposition and its noun, witli tlie idea of 
 heirig added : 
 
 Trapd-So^o? contrary to opinion, unex- -n-apa 86^av, 
 
 pected, 
 7rapd-voiJLo<s against the law, illegal, Trapa vo/xov, 
 
 Trapa-Oakdmos beside the sea, Trapa OdXaTTav, 
 
 tpL-iropo'i on a journey, traveler, importer, Iv -n-opw, 
 
 iv-OvfjLLos in the heart or mind, iv 0vfx<2, 
 
 icji-oSios for a journey, e</)' 68(2 or 6S6v, 
 
 i(f>-i^fjL€po^ lasting for a day, c^' VI^^P9-^ 
 
 liTL-x'^Lpov something on the hand, wages, lirl x^^Ph 
 
 7rpo-d(TTLo<s suburban, 7rp6 da-reio'S, 
 
 ifji-fji€Xrj<s in tune, iv p.i\u, 
 
 7rXr)ix-fji€X^<s out of tune, ttXtjv {beyo7id) /xiXov?, 
 
 Ik-toko's out of place, strange, ck tottov, 
 
 d7r6-Sr)fJLO<5 out of the COUJltry, dirb SyfJLOv, 
 
 VTT-evdvvo^ subject to accounting, vir evOvvai<S. 
 
 a. From the phrase iK ttoSmv was made the adverb iKiroSwv 
 out of the way. On this model was formed the opposite ifi- 
 TToSwi/ ill the way ; from this was formed the adjective i/x7r6Sio<s 
 and the verb ipLTroScCo) (418). In like manner from the phrase 
 Sea x^tpwi/ through or in the hands, is made the verb Staxetpt^w 
 have in hand, 7nanage. 
 
 449 Instead of a preposition the first member is some- 
 times a verbal adjective governing a noun as the sec- 
 ond member, the whole being an adjective : 
 
 d^Lo-Xoyos worth mentio7iing, a^tos Xoyov, 
 
 d^to-Xpews good for the obligation, suf- a^tos xP^ov<s, 
 fcient, 
 
COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 167 
 
 la-o-Oeos equal to a god, godlike^ ta-o? Oeco, 
 
 <3f)iXo-KtV8i5vo5 fond of danger, </)tAos KLvhvvov. 
 
 a. These are much like the verb-object compounds in 442 ; 
 they are also like dependent compounds (446 a), in that one 
 member depends on the other. But they are perhaps more 
 like prepositional-phrase compounds (448) ; in both classes a 
 familiar phrase, in which the first word governs the second, 
 has received the inflection of an adjective. 
 
III. SYNTAX 
 
 450 Syntax (crvz^raft? arranging together^ treats of the 
 use of words in combination, usually in sentences, 
 whicli may be simple, compound, or complex. 
 
 For undeveloped and incomplete sentences see 490-493. 
 
 I. SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 461 A simple sentence consists of one finite verb, with or 
 without other words. 
 
 According to the mode of the verb we distinguish 
 Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, and Imperative sen- 
 tences. Some forms of Negative and Incomplete sen- 
 tences will also be treated separately. 
 
 INDICATIVE SENTENCES 
 
 452 The Indicative presents the action or state as real, in 
 assertions, denials, exclamations, and questions. (But 
 see 461 c, 467 c.) 
 
 453 The tenses are used nearly as in English, but not altogether 
 so ; and their force (like that of all words and forms) is af- 
 fected by the general meaning of the verb, by the context, or 
 by other circumstances. The leading types are illustrated in 
 454-470; those in which Greek agrees with English are 
 
 168 
 
INDICATIVE SENTENCES 169 
 
 treated briefly, more prominence being given to those in 
 which the two languages differ. 
 
 454 Present Indicatiye. 
 
 a. OuSck £Tt rjfXLv fidx^raL no One fight s ivith us any longer. 
 An. II. 1, 4. 
 
 b. Y^vpov /xcraTre/xTTeTat Cyrus lie sends for. An. I. 1, 2. 
 {Historical Present.) 
 
 c. Tt l^€Xavv€T€ rjixas ; ivhy are you di'iving {trying to 
 drive) us out? II. ii. 4, 20. {Present of Endeavor.) 
 
 d. *AAyoj TraAat 1 liave longleeu sorrowing. S. p. 806. {In- 
 clusive Present^ of an action begun in the past and still con- 
 tinuing — generally with an expression of time. English com- 
 monly uses the progressive perfect, as above.) 
 
 e. Ot <f>povovvT€<s ev Kparovori Travraxov they that have judg- 
 ment every ichere prevail. S. Ai. 1252. {Universal or Ge7ieralized 
 Present.) 
 
 f. The present of ^kw a?n come and oixop-on am gone may 
 usually be translated by the perfect, have come, etc. Some- 
 times also vl/ctu am victorious, and some others. 
 
 456 Future Indicative. 
 
 a. ^TTovSa? yj TToXc/xov ttTrayycXw; shall I report a truce or 
 war? An. ii. 1, 23. Xrj\j/€TaL /xurOov rdXavrov he shall receive 
 a talent as retvard. Ax. ii. 2, 20. o-vv tovtoi? /xa^ov/xc^a tvith 
 these ice will fight. An. ii. 1, 12. ovk €v6v? d(f>rj(T(D avTov 1 
 shall not let him go at once. Ap. 29 e. 
 
 b. In the second person, with ov, a question in the future 
 may become a lively request or command : 
 
 OvKovv ip€l<; TTore; speah out ! {icouH you ever speah?) 
 S. AN. 244. 
 
 For ov p.'f] with the f ut. see 489 b. 
 
 456 Perfect Indicative. 
 
 a. *A7roXcXot7rao-tv ^/iS? they have left us. An. i. 4, 8. 
 
 aK-^Koaxf., ewpaKare, TreTrdv^are yOU have heard, have 
 
 seen, have suffered. L. 12, 100. 
 
170 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 b. A completed act may result in a continued state, and 
 some perfects are best rendered by an English present : 
 
 €yvwKa yap yes^ I Jcnow Mm {have recognized^ Lat. novi). 
 S. OT. 1117. 
 
 Among the most frequent of these perfects are 
 
 €(TT7]Ka {have lecome set), stand (363), 
 reOvrjKa {have died), am dead, 
 f^e/SrjKa {have placed my feet firmly) , stand firm, 
 TrecjiVKa {have grown, heen born), am, 
 K€KT7jfjLaL {havc acquivcd), posscss, 
 fiifjivrjiiai {have become fnindful), remember, 
 oAwXa {have gone to ruin), am ruined, 
 iraroLOa {have believed), trust. 
 
 c. With the above belong some perfects that show little or 
 no trace of a perfect meaning. Such are 
 
 toLKa am like, toiKc it is Ulcely, 
 
 €L(j}6a am accustomed, 
 
 SeSotKtt, SeSta fear, and in poetry many others, SiSopKa see 
 {SipKOfiat) being especially common : 
 
 ^v KOL SeSopKa's kov /JXeVeis thou hast sight and seest not. 
 S. OT. 413. 
 
 d. In compound perfects (as in English) the form of ei/tt 
 (or €xo) in the sense of et/xt) expresses a continued state, the 
 participle a completed act ; but in use there is often no clear 
 distinction between these compound forms and simple forms. 
 
 457 The Pluperfect transfers the present force of the perfect to 
 past time : 
 
 Oivo-Y) ircTeLxi-cTTo Oinoe was {already) fortified. T. ii. 18. 
 
 ela-TrJKyj I 2vas standing, rore 8' a(f>€La-T'JK€(rav but at that 
 time they had revolted. An. i. 1, 6. Trpona-T-qK^i rov ^cvlkov 
 he was in command of the mercenary force. An. i. 2, 1. 
 a. For the pluperfect with av see 469. 
 
 458 The Future Perfect denotes an act to be completed in the 
 future, or (often) a future state ; 
 
INDICATIVE SENTENCES 171 
 
 Ev^vs 'Aptato? d(f3€crTy ^€L^ wcttc ^tXo? r]/xiv ovSeis XeXeiij/e- 
 
 Tttt Ariaios luill at once %vithdraiL\ so that not a friend ivill he 
 
 left us. An. II. 4, 5. 8t/cata ttcttov^ws eyw ecro/xat v^' v/x-oii/ / 
 
 s7i«Z/ have received justice at your hands. Ap. 41 e. 
 
 459 The Imperfect generally presents the action either as 
 continuing or as repeated in the past : 
 
 SrpaTevfjLa crvveXeyero an army ivas being col- 
 lected. An. I. 1, 9. TToXXag 7rpo<^acret9 tjv pia Kev lie 
 hept finding many pretexts. An. n. 3, 21. ravrct toI<^ 
 <^tXot? 8teSt8ou these lie used to distribute to Ids 
 
 friends. An. i. 9, 22. ravra 7rpd^d<; eKepSaivov fiep 
 ovSev, ifiavTov 8' et? klvSvvov Ka6icrTrjv i7i doing that 
 (assuming that I did it) / was gaining nothing and 
 was bringing myself into danger, l. 7, 32. 
 
 a. To be continually or repeatedly engaged in an action 
 may imply endeavor, without success (cp. 454 c) : 
 
 KAeap;(o? tov5 (rrpaTtwrds cySta^cro tei/at, ot 8' avTov cySaA,- 
 
 Xov Klearchos tried to force the soldiers to go ; hut they threiu 
 stones at him (as often as he tried). An. i. 3, 1. 
 
 460 The Imperfects XPI^ ^^ ^XPV^y ^^^^? TTpocrrJKe^ et/co? ^Vj 
 and the like, state an obligation or propriety in past 
 time. Often the context implies that the obligation 
 was not met — that something was not or is not as 
 it should be. 
 
 OvBe Oaixil^ei^ rjplv Kara/BaLvcov et? tov UeLpaia' 
 XPV^ P'^vToi you donH come down to us in Piraeus 
 at all often ; yet you ought to (i. e., it ivas your duty 
 to come often, and you havenH been doing it), p. r. 
 328 c. Ticrlya^', ovk ixpv^ alyav why silent? thou 
 shouldst not be silent (i. ^., propriety required that you 
 
1Y2 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 speak out, and you have not spohen), e. hipp. 297. dXX' 
 ixPV^ Tt hpav you ouglit to have done something, 
 Ar. r. 568. eSet yap to koX to iroLrjcrai koI to jjlt) TTOLrjaai 
 why, yes, we should have done this and this, and not 
 have done that, d. 9, 68. TovaSe yap fir) Irjv e S € i for 
 these ought not to le alive, s. p. 418. elKo^ rjv vfiaq 
 TTpoopaaOai avToi the fitting thing was that you should 
 foresee it (hut you did not). T. vi. 78. ^xiveiv yap 
 i^rjp for it was i7i his power to stand his ground (lie 
 might have stood his ground), d. 3, 17. 
 
 a. In these cases the obligation or propriety is thought of 
 as existing in the past, perhaps before the act, and as real ; 
 the action or state resulting from failure to meet the obliga- 
 tion may be present, or may continue to the present, though 
 beginning in the past. In some few cases where the Greek 
 took this point of view, it seems to us as if av were needed 
 (461 c). 
 
 461 The Imperfect witli av (666) presents the action 
 
 a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on 
 occasion : 
 
 AvaXafjL^dvojv avTcov Ta TroLyjfxaTa Sltj p cjt cjv av 
 avTovq taking up their poems, I loould question them 
 (different poets, at one time and another). Ap. 22 b. 
 •^y avaKT ovv av I used to he indignant (whenever 
 people spoke hardly of me), l. 7, 12. 
 
 b. As something that was to be expected or was 
 probably true : 
 
 Tt a z^ (f)av€po<; yev6p.evo<; v<^^ vfxcov cwacrxov ; 
 what treatment was I likely to get from you in case of 
 detection f L. 7, 12. tt/jos ttoZov av e tt X e i ; to what 
 
INDICATIVE SENTENCES 173 
 
 man was lie prohahly sailing ? (can Tie have heen sail- 
 ing f ) S. p. 572. TOTe oxpe rjv koX ra? ^etpag ov k av 
 KaOecjpojv hy that time it was late, and they ivould 
 not he likely to see the hands (raised in voting). 
 
 H. I. 7, 7. 
 
 c. As sometliing that would have been in tlie past, 
 or would be now, in an imaginary case, known to be 
 unreal {Hij])othetical Indicative ; cp. 467 c, 468, 469) : 
 
 Tore S' auTo to it pay ^a av i k piv er o icf)* avTov 
 hut in that case the matter would have heen decided hy 
 itself, D. 18, 224. Kkveiv a v ov^ aira^ i ^ovXo jjltjv 
 I should not wish to hear it even once, s. p. 1239. 
 
 These three uses are closely related ; the third is by far 
 the most frequent ; the second and third can not always be 
 distinguished. Only the context shows which meaning is in- 
 tended, and whether (under c) past or present time is meant. 
 
 d. 'EpovXofxrjv av I sJiould ivisli, with the infinitive, is the 
 regular way of saying / wish something were different. Greek 
 puts the suggestion of unreality with the leading verb, Eng- 
 lish puts it with the subordinate clause. 
 
 Yi jBovXo ix-qv av avrovs aXrjOrj Ae'yeiv /xct^v yap av /cat 
 
 €/xot rovrov rayaOov fiipo? I ivish they iveve telling the truth ; I 
 too should have a share in that blessing. L. 12, 22. 
 
 462 The Aorist Indicative presents an action simply as 
 past ; it corresponds most often to the English simple 
 past (or to the Latin historical perfect) : 
 
 'Ei/rav^' Efxeivev there he remained, rrj o-rparia 
 direScoKe pLicrOov he paid the army wages. An. i. 2, 12. 
 yj\6ovj elhov^ ivLKyjcra veni, vidi, vici, I came, saw, con- 
 quered, Plut. Caes., 50. 
 
174 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 463 Greek often prefers the aorist, stating something merely as a 
 past occurrence, where English uses the pluperfect or the 
 perfect : 
 
 Kat (TTparrjyov Sk avTov aTreSet^e 7ie (had) appointed Mm 
 
 general also. An. i. 1, 2. TroAActKcs iOav/xaa-a I have often 
 iuo7idered. M. i. 1, 1. 
 
 464 In verbs whose present denotes a continued state, the 
 aorist often denotes the beginning of that state, or 
 entrance into it (Inceptive or Ingressive Aorist) : 
 
 d(T0eva) am ill, y^adivqaai fell sick, 
 
 SaKpvo) weep, IhoLKpvaa hurst into tears, 
 
 /Sao-iXe-uo) am Jcing, i/BaaiXevo-a became Mng, 
 alycj am silent, iaiyrjcra became silent. 
 
 Especially common is iaxop got, acquired, from 
 e)((w have: ovk eax^ ^v^ y^^^p-w ^^^ did not adopt the 
 view. D. 18, 201. Tore 8e TT/DoSeSw/ceVat noivTas a v 
 ecrx^^ cdriav in that case (^Athens) woidd have got 
 the blame of betraying all. d. 18, 200. 'iTTTrtd? ecrxe 
 Ty]v o.p-)(f)v Hippias received the rule. t. vi. 54. 
 
 a. This ingressive force extends to all the modes and to 
 the participles. 
 
 465 General truths, commonly expressed by the universal present 
 (454 e) are sometimes stated in the aorist {Gnomic Aorist^ 
 yvw/jLTj a proverb) : 
 
 Tvxrj rexvrjv wp6(j)(T€v, ov rixvr] tvxw ^Tis fortu7ie gives 
 
 success to art^ not art to fortune. Men. 
 
 466 The distinctions between the simple aorist and the imperfect 
 are sometimes subtle and elusive. Also any action may be 
 looked upon as merely occurring or as continuing ; the choice 
 of tense depends on the point of view. Hence both tenses 
 occur together freely in the same narrative, often where Eng- 
 
INDICATIVE SENTENCES 1Y5 
 
 lish can not make the distinction without clumsiness. The 
 beginner should watch the tenses carefully, and so gradually 
 learn the distinction. 
 
 467 The Aorist with av (666 ; cp. 461) presents the action 
 
 a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on 
 occasion : 
 
 'E/cXeyo^ei/o? tov iTTLTijSeLov eTTatcrev av jpicking 
 out the right man^ he would strike him (i. e., he did 
 this on various occasions). An. h. 3, ii. 
 
 b. As something that was to be expected, or was 
 probably true : 
 
 'O 6ed(TdfjLei'o<; Tret? av ri? dvrjp rjpdcrOri Sato? 
 elvai every man who saw it would get hot to he a war- 
 rior. Ar. r. 1022. 770)9 av 6 jXTj irapcbv iyco tl (T r^hi- 
 K7](T a how was I J one wlio ivasri't there, to do you any 
 harm? D. 37, 57. iirep pcocrdr] S' av Tt9 iKeivo IScov 
 any one on seeing that loould have been strengthened. 
 
 II. III. 4, 18. TOVTOV TL<; a V (TOL TOLvSpO^; Spdv djJLeiVCJV 
 
 rjvpeOr] ; who coidd have been found better in action 
 than this man ? (i. e., no one was likely to be found). 
 
 S. Ai. 119 f. 
 
 c. As something that would have occurred in an 
 imaginary case, known to be unreal (^Hypothetical 
 Indicative) : 
 
 'ETroL7]cr av fxev ovSev av KaKov, firj iraOeiv 8* 
 i<j)v\d^avT' av lotco^ they ivould have done him no 
 harm, but would perhaps have been on their guard 
 against injury. D. 9, 13. 'npXv yevecrOai tjtt Lo-Trjcrev 
 av Tt9 aKovo-d^ before it happened, any one hearing 
 of it ivould have refused to believe it. t. vn. 38. 
 
176 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 These three uses are closely related ; the third is far the 
 most common ; the second and third can not always he dis- 
 tinguished. 
 
 468 a. The aorist with av and the imperfect with av referring to 
 the past differ as do the simple aorist and imperfect (469, 
 462, 466) ; hut the difference often disappears in good trans- 
 lation. 
 
 b. The hypothetical indicative (461 c and 467 c) is very 
 common in complex sentences, especially when the imaginary 
 situation, known to he unreal, is described in an ct clause 
 (645, 649). 
 
 469 The Pluperfect with dv is used as a hypothetical in- 
 dicative when the real situation would be stated in 
 the perfect : 
 
 *FiV TOVTCO T(0 TpOTTCp Tj (T a dv fX€ T ET I fJL 0) p OTJ- 
 
 fjLepo^ in that way you would have revenged your- 
 self on me (the fact being, ovk el /xe TerljjLCjpovfxevos:). 
 
 L. 7, 20. 
 
 a. The entire passage (L. 7, 20) illustrates the ease with 
 which the different tenses may be combined in this use : 'E/xot 
 
 fi€V ovSefjLLOLV av aTToXoytdv v-jreAtTres, avrbs Sk . . . rj(rOa av jxe 
 T€Tt/i,wpov/x-€vo5, . . . OVK av i86 K eis iTvat (TVKOcfxivTr)^, . . . 
 
 TOT av TrActo-Tov cAa^cs you would liavB left me no defense (but 
 you did leave me a defense, wcAtTrcs), you ivould have revenged 
 yourself (but you have not), you ivould not noio seem to he mor 
 licious (but you do seem so, SoKcts cTmt a-vKoc^dvT-qsi)^ you ivould 
 have got most money (but ovk eAa/3eg). 
 
 470 a. A past tense of the Indicative with eWe or el yap 
 (Lat. utlnam) expresses a hopeless and unattainable 
 wish — that something had been that was not, or that 
 something were now that is not. (Cp. 476.) 
 
 With the imperfect, one wishes continuance ; the 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 177 
 
 fact wished away is generally present. With the 
 aorist, one wishes attainment ; the fact wished away 
 is generally past. 
 
 Et yct/3 TocravTTjv SvpafiLP el^ov that JT had 
 (ovfc exw) SO much power! e. al. 1072. el 6' rjv 
 ^Opeo-TTjf; TrXrjcTLov loould that Orestes were near (he 
 is not). E. EL. 282. €1^6 crot Tore (Tvv€yev6iJiY]T/ 
 would that I had met you then (I did not). M. 1.2, 46. 
 €1^6 ere ixtJTTOT elBofidv O that J had never seen 
 thee (as I did), s. ox. 1217. 
 
 b. ^^(^ekov owed^ ought, with the infinitive, and 
 w^ith or without eWe or el yap, has the same force ; 
 with the present infinitive it corresponds to the im- 
 perfect, with the aorist infinitive it corresponds to 
 the aorist : 
 
 'AXX' axj^eXe Kvpo^ t^rjv Cyrus ought to he alwe, 
 ah! that Cyrus were living ! An. n. 1, 4. jxyj-n-oT axfte- 
 Xov \nrelv tyjv ^Kvpov O that I had never left Slcy- 
 ros. S. p. 969. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 
 
 471 The Subjunctive is used to ask what action, or 
 whether some particular action, is likely, advisable, 
 or desired. (Duhitative; negative fiij.) Such ques- 
 tions are often exclamatory, calling for no answer. 
 a. In the first person : 
 
 Tt TToiOo) ; what shall I experience f what will hap- 
 pen to me f (Frequent, in many shades of meaning.) 
 
 dfjLTrXaKo) Tov aov [xopov ; am I to fail of your fate f 
 
 12 
 
178 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 S. AN. 554. 7 t (j)(i) jJLev TTpos TavTa ; aWo tl t) 6 fXoXo- 
 ycojjiep ; what shall we say to this ? anything else 
 than to agree? (shall we not agree?) Cr. 53 d. ri 
 Spdcrco ; hevrepov \ri<^6io KaKos ; what shall I do? 
 shall I he caught in wrong again ? s. p. 908. tt w 9 
 XtTrdi^av? yevcofjiai; how can I desert the fleet? 
 A. AG. 222. yJt] d'jT o K ptv 0) fxaiy dW erepov eiTTco ; 
 shall I make no reply ^ hut say something else ? Rep. 
 337 b. dXXa S17 (j)vyrj<; TlfJLtjcrcoiJLaL; shall J then 
 propose the penalty of exile ? Ap. 37 c. (Cp. tivo^ 
 dvTLTlfjLTJa-ofjLaL ; Ap. 36 b, the fut. ind. in tlie same 
 sense.) 
 
 b. In the third person : 
 
 n o r TLS ovp ^vyrj; ttoI fxoXwv jxevco ; whither shall 
 one flee ? where shall I go and ahide ? s. ai. 403 f. eira 
 TavT ovTOL IT eicr 6 (DC IV vnep avrcov ere TToieiv ; this, 
 then, are these people to helieve you are doing for 
 them ? D. 22, 64. 
 
 472 The Subjunctive may present the action as proposed, 
 desired, or urged. (Hortative, in the first person; 
 negative /xt^.) 
 
 ^H TratSe?, l(TTa>fjL€(r9a my children, let us rise, 
 S. OT. 147. Sevpo e^av acrr (X) jxev et? rr^v avXrjv kol 
 7repu6pTe<; avrov Siar pixp o) fxev, elra icofxev let US 
 rise, go out here into the court, and pass the time walk- 
 ing ahout there (until daylight) ; then let us go, 
 Pr. 311 a. ^ip eV ojvrriv lo) let me go to her! (I 
 want to go to her !) Ar. r. 291. ^e/)e 817 koI ras fiapTv 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 1T9 
 
 ptd? avayvo) come^ 710 w^ let me also read the testi- 
 mony {I will noiD read?), d. is, 267. 
 
 Once in the second person, S. p. 300. 
 
 The first person sing, is often introduced by <^ip^. 
 
 473 The Subjunctive with /xt; presents the action as not 
 desired, as unadvisable, or as forbidden. {Proliihi- 
 tive.) 
 
 a. In the first person (not to be separated from 
 the hortative subjunctive, 472) : 
 
 M17 avajxev (ti^ev aX\ov<; let ifS not tvait for 
 others. An. m. 1, 24. ^ 7) hrjj dSiKTjd a> let me not he 
 wronged (in entreaty ; cp. b). s. ok. 174. 
 
 b. In the second person (aorist only) : 
 
 Mt7 Xltttj^ [jl ovto)<; ^ovov leave me not thus alone. 
 
 S. p. 470. 
 
 c. In the third person (aorist only) : 
 
 MT78et9 eiTTrj let no one say. D. 9, I6. ^y^hevl rovro 
 Trapaa-Trj let this occur to no one. L. 12, 62. 
 
 474 The Subjunctive with /x-q sometimes expresses what one fears 
 and desires to avert ; with fj^rj ov, what one fears will not be. 
 This is a variety of the preceding (473), the starting-point of 
 more common uses (see 609, 610) : 
 
 M-^ (Tov<; 8iacfiOeip7j ydfxovi may slw not spoil thy mar- 
 riage (i. e., I fear she ivill). E. al. 315. /at) ov ireLcrys o-o<^oi;s 
 yo^i ivill not convince the wise, I fear. E. tro. 982. 
 
 a. This is also softened to a cautious assertion, or made a 
 question : 
 
 M^ ay poLKorepov y to aXrjOh etTretv I fear ifs rather riicle 
 
 to speak the truth. Gor. 462 e. dAA.a jjlt] ov tovt rj x'^^^'^ov 
 but I suspect that is 7iot difficult. Ap. 39 a. 
 
180 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 475 The Tenses of the subjunctive do not refer to differ- 
 ences of time. The present denotes continuance or 
 repetition; the aorist, simple occurrence or attain- 
 ment ; the perfect (infrequent), denotes a completed 
 act or a continued state. The distinction often dis- 
 appears in translating, but is not to be overlooked. 
 
 a. The time of independent subjunctives is regu- 
 larly future ; see examples in 471-474. In Homer the 
 subjunctive is often very like the future indicative in 
 meaning, often also the same in form. 
 
 OPTATIVE SENTENCES 
 
 476 The Optative (without av) expresses a wish that 
 something may be, in the future. (Negative /x?f.) 
 This use has given the name to the mode. 
 
 ES ^vvelev elcrael Oeoi the gods forever graciously 
 abide ivitli you ! S. ot. 275. ovto) vlKiqa-aLixL r iyco 
 Kol voiiit^oiynqv (T0(f)6<; SO may J win the victoi^y 
 and he (eve?') deemed wise. Ar. n. 520. 6X0L0 may you 
 die! (a curse on you!), iiiqhel^ tcwt vfxcov im- 
 vevcreiev may none of you consent to this. D. I8, 324. 
 
 477 Such a sentence may be introduced by dOe or d yap, 
 in poetry by el alone (cp. 470) : 
 
 E r ^ e fXTJTTOTe yvoLrj<; 6? el mayst thou never learn 
 who thou art. s. ot. 1068. el yap iv tovtm eir) may 
 it only depend on that ! Pr. 310 d. 
 
 478 Earely the poets use the optative without av as a hypotheti- 
 cal optative (479, 482). 
 
OPTATIVE SENTENCES 181 
 
 479 The Optative witli av (666) expresses what would be 
 in a supposed case, or in any case likely to occur. 
 {Hypothetical Optative] cp. the hypothetical indica- 
 tive, 461, 467.) 
 
 The time is not defined, except by the context, but 
 is commonly future, often present, rarely past. Often 
 the statement or question is universal as regards time, 
 applying to past, present, and future alike : 
 
 'Eya> 6 KV0L7JV av eU tol irXoia ifx^aiveLV I should 
 hesitate myself to go aboard the boats. An. i. 3, 17. ev9a 
 TToWrjv (TOJ(f)po(TVPr]v KarafJidOoL dv rt? there one 
 would learn (at any time) rmich self-control. An. l 9, 3. 
 TTpo? ^iojv 8' ovK dv Xa/3ot9 a?id by force you ivould 
 never talce him. S. p. 103. ouSe ^xh yap ovhev d v 
 /3\d^eLev ov8e yap dv hvv aiT o for he would not 
 injure me a particle ; he woxdd not even be able to (in 
 any circumstances). Ap. 30 c. 
 
 480 What is not really doubted may, from caution or from 
 courtesy, be treated as not yet cei-tain ; hence a wide 
 range of meaning. Mighty could, m.ay, and even m,ust, 
 are often convenient in translating, but the Greek 
 expression is not properly potential (cp. the last ex- 
 ample in 479). 
 
 OvKovv TTO poL^ dv TifjvSe Scopedv ifiOL ; would you 
 then grant me this gift ? a. pb. 643. {Modest request.) 
 
 'tv fiev Ko iiit^oi<; dv aeavTov you may talce your- 
 self off. s. AN. 444. {Softened command.) 
 
 OvK dv yieO eiyirjv tov Opovov I would not yield 
 the chair (in any case). Ar. r. 830. {Determined re- 
 fusal.) 
 
182 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 Uax; av oXoLfxav ; liow sliould I find death ? 
 that I might die! e. al. 864. (^Passionate wish.) 
 
 Uov St]t av elev ol ^ivoi ; where may the strang- 
 ers he ? s. EL. 1450. {Polite question^ of a present fact.) 
 
 OvToi Se Tct^' av fieLlo) tlvol ao(j)Ldv cro^oi elev 
 hilt these men looidd he {are j^erhaps) wise in some 
 greater wisdom, Ap. 20 d. {Assumed uncertainty^ of 
 a present fact.) 
 
 BovXoLfjLTjv av I should lihe is a frequent formula, a 
 softened expression of wish. 
 
 481 The circumstances to which the statement (or ques- 
 tion) of the optative applies may not need mention, 
 or may be suggested by an expression of time, place, 
 manner, or may be more fully expressed by a par- 
 ticiple, infinitive, or subordinate clause. Relative 
 clauses and d clauses (614 ff., 645 ff.) are often used 
 for this purpose. This applies also to the hypotheti- 
 cal indicative (461, 467). 
 
 Thus in tv6a ttoXXtjv o-oicfipoa-vvyv KaTajjidOoL av tl<s (under 479) 
 ev6a (with the context) means at court. The interrogatives 
 irco5, TTov, TLS ask tvJiat the circumstances are. t6t€ the7i and 
 StKaticos justly have a similar office. In OavfidloLix av d oTaOa I 
 should be surprised if you know (Pr. 312 c), d oTa-Oa de- 
 scribes the supposed case. In Swat' av el povXoio you could ^ 
 should you so will (E. b. 947), d /SovXolo describes the supposed 
 
 case. In t6t€ 8* avro to Trpayfjia av eKpivero e^' avTOv (461 c), 
 
 TOT€ sums up in a word the preceding description of the im- 
 agined circumstances. 
 
 482 In poetry the optative without dv is sometimes hypothetical : 
 
 Tcdv, ZeO, Svva(TLV tl<s dvSpCjv vircpj^acria KaTacr;j(ot; whdt hu- 
 man trespass would constrain thy power ^ Zeus? S. an. 605. 
 
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES 183 
 
 483 The Tenses of the optative do not refer to time ; they 
 differ as do those of the subjunctive (475). The 
 future optative is not used in simple sentences. 
 
 IMPERATIVE SENTENCES 
 
 484 The Imperative presents an act as willed. It has 
 many shades of meaning, as of command, prohibition, 
 request, wish, supposition, assent, submission. (Nega- 
 tive fJLT].) 
 
 The tenses differ as in the subjunctive and opta- 
 tive (475, 483). 
 
 'AXXa vLv KOfjLLi^eT^ etcrcoy S/xoie? but take her witJi- 
 in, slaves, s. an. 578. x^'-P^? x^^P^'^^ rejoice, fareivell. 
 ddpaei have courage, lovroiv let them go. An. i. 4, 8. 
 fxrjSeU vfjicjv XeyeTco let no one of you spealc. An. i. 
 3, 15. ecrraj SO he it. In It oj cJ? tw ^€w (J)lXov, the oj? 
 clause marks ltcj as a humble acceptance of divine 
 ordering — let it go as God will. 
 
 485 Imperative, subjunctive, and optative, in simple sentences, 
 shade into one another in meaning, and are often found to- 
 gether. 
 
 A proMMtion in the second or third person, if in the pres- 
 ent tense, is always an imperative ; if in the aorist tense, it is 
 nearly always a subjunctive. 
 
 MtJt* oKV€tT€ fx-qr* dcfirJT* Itto? KaKov neither he afraid 
 nor let fly an evil word. S. ok. 731. ravrd fiot Trpa^ov, tckvov, 
 
 KoX fJirj /SpdSvve ft 178' i-n- L/Mvrjo-Orjs tri Tpotd<s do that for me, 
 
 my sonj delay no more, nor me^ition Troy again. S. p. 1399 f. 
 Trave, /x^ ^€^?/5 Tripd stop, speah 710 farther! S. p. 1275. In 
 An. III. 2, 37, immediately after oAAws ex^'^" ^^t it he otherwise, 
 there follow two optatives of wish, X€tpLcroff>o<i rjyoiro and hvo 
 
184 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 oTparrjyu) eTnfjLcXoLa-Orjv, which are equally imperative in force, 
 but perhaps more courteous in form. 
 
 NEGATIVE SENTENCES 
 
 486 Ou, or a compound of ov, simply denies. Mif, or a 
 compound of jxij, presents the negation as willed (de- 
 sired^ hoped, aimed at^ assented to, etc.), or as part of 
 an imagined or assumed case. Hence /iif is the regu- 
 lar negative in wishes (470, 476) and in subjunctive 
 and imperative sentences (471-474, 484). For /xt^ with 
 the infinitive and participle see 564, 672, 579 a, 582 c. 
 
 a. M17 with finite modes in simple sentences and principal 
 clauses regularly expresses a willed negative of one shade or 
 another. Both meanings are in so far one that both represent 
 a negative as conceived, rather than as fact. 
 
 487 After ov, alone or in composition, a compound of ov 
 repeats and strengthens the negation ; ' so also a com- 
 pound of ixTj following ixTj : 
 
 OvTTOTe ipel o u S e 1 9 no man shall ever say. An. 
 I. 3, 5. ^Tj (jivyrjTe firj^aiJifj do not in any case flee. 
 
 S. p. 789. 
 
 a. If the second negative is simple, each has its separate 
 force : 
 
 Kat oi) ypd(fi€L fxev ravra rots 8' ep-yots ov Trotet and he doeS not 
 
 merely write this and then not carry it out in deeds. D. 9, 27. 
 Here the first ov negatives the combination ypa<jf>et pXv ov 8e 
 TTotet, thus in a sense canceling the second ov. 
 
 1 In older English a similar doubling of the negative was common, 
 and is still common among the uneducated, though not in good usage. 
 Thus, from Shakspere, "I can not go no further." — As You Like 
 It, II, 4. 
 
NEGATIVE SENTENCES 185 
 
 488 Mt^ with the Indicative is used 
 
 a. Often in questions, intimating a hope of a nega- 
 tive answer ; so also apa jjnj and fxojv (for jjirj ovv). 
 
 Ml] TL veaxrepov ayyiWei^ ; no serious newSj IliO])ef 
 Pr. 310 b. pjf^ avTOP otet (j^povTLcraL Oavdrov ; you donH 
 
 suppose lie was anxious about death, do you ? a p. 28 d. 
 /Awi/ Tt ere dSt/cet; he hasnt injured you, has he? 
 
 Pr. 310 d. 
 
 b. Sometimes in cautious statement of a present or past 
 fact (cp. 474 and a), intimating a hope (perhaps ironical) that 
 it is not true : 
 
 'AAA.' apa fJLT] ov Totavr-qv viroXaii^avWi crov Tr]v jxadrjo-LV €(r€crOai 
 
 hut perha2Js you mean that your learning will be not lil^e that. 
 Pr. 312 a. 
 
 c. In both these uses firj has essentially the same force as 
 with finite modes in other simple sentences (486 a). This is 
 plainest in the former, but still traceable in the latter ; a 
 deprecatory statement is made, most often in the interrogative 
 tone (a), but sometimes without it (b). The firj is an expres- 
 sion of desire on the part of the speaker to negative the state- 
 ment; but this desire may be merely assumed, or may be 
 nothing more than surprise that the statement should be true. 
 
 489 Idioms (of uncertain explanation). 
 
 a. Ov ixTj with the Subjunctive is a strong denial 
 referring to the future : 
 
 Ov Tt /xt) \rj(f)6a) SoXw I shall not he caught hy 
 a trick, a. s. 38. ov jxt) TTid7)Tai he will never 
 yield. S. p. 103. ouSel? fjLrjKeTi fxeiprj tojv ttoXc- 
 [XLOJv not one of the enemy ivill stay any longer. Ax. iv. 
 8, 13. ov K€T L fjirj SvpTjT at ^acriXev^ r}jjia<^ KaraXa- 
 j^eiv the hing will no longer he ahle to catch us. An. 
 
 II. 2, 12. 
 
186 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 b. Ov ixrj with the future indicative is sometimes a strong 
 denial ; in the second person it may be a prohibition : 
 
 Ov (TOL fxr] /xe^€i/^o/Aat ttotc / will never follow thee. S. e. 
 1052. oi) fjLT] AaAiyo-cts do7iH keep chattering. An. n. 505. 
 
 UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES 
 
 490 Some expressions are not fully developed sentences, with a 
 subject and predicate. Language begins with simpler forms, 
 sometimes not even distinguishing parts of speech, as is clearly 
 seen in children beginning to talk.^ Such primitive forms 
 remain in use, in all languages, especially in lively conver- 
 sation and in poetry.' They are less formal, more natural for 
 expressing emotion and simple thought. They are found in 
 all stages of development, from the simple interjection to 
 phrases of some length, with verbal forms, and even a subject. 
 
 491 Such are 
 
 a. Interjections : 
 
 "^O, a, alat, ^ev, lov, ico oh, ah, alas, ha, ho, etc. 
 
 b. Exclamations without a verb : 
 
 Aevpo this 10 ay ! here ! firjSkv aydv nothing too far ! tw 
 ixoi fioL Sv(TTYjvo<s tth me unhappy I Zevs '^(orrjp Koi vlkt) Zeus the 
 Savior and victory ! An. i. 8, 16. w fiiaphv rjOo? koI ywatKos 
 va-repov vile nature, subject to a ivojnan ! S. an. 746. 
 
 c. Titles and headings : 
 
 Kvpov 'Avay8ao-t9 The Expedition of Cyrus. Ilcpt IIot^rtK^s 
 On Poetry. 'E-Trra IttI ©y^ds Seven against Thehes. 
 
 ^ "The language of birds is very ancient, and, like other ancient 
 modes of speech, very elliptical ; little is said, but much is meant and 
 understood." — White, Nat. Hist, of SeTborne, Letter 85. 
 
 2 Tennyson, for example, uses them very freely: "Sunset and eve- 
 ning star, and one clear call for me." "A plot, a plot, to ruin all !" 
 "God's blessing on the day ! " "A week hence, a week hence." "Ah, 
 the long delay ! " "I to cry out on pride ! " "Scorned, to be scorned 
 by one that I scorn." 
 
UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES 187 
 
 d. Some words or phrases, introducing a sentence that fol- 
 lows, or summiDg up something that precedes : 
 
 ^r]fji,€Lov 8e, or T^Kix-qpiov 8c, and as evidence . koX to fii- 
 
 yiATTov and ivhat is most imi:)ortant . koX tovto avro t6 tov 
 
 'Ofirjpov and then as Homer says . Ap. 34 d. So the fre- 
 quent expression koX ravra and that too, in which ravra, like 
 that, stands for the preceding expression, repeated in this 
 abbreviated form, that some new point may be added with 
 emphasis. 
 
 492 Exclamatory Infinitives are more like sentences, sometimes 
 having a subject. 
 
 a. In an imperative sense, often to be rendered by an im- 
 perative : 
 
 HpC)Tov fxkv Tovro irap vplv avrois (3€/3aLio<S yviovai jlrst of all, 
 
 this firm conviction in your otvn minds! D. 8, 39. Spda-avTi 
 'jraOelv to him that did it (to the guilty) suffering. A. c. 312. 
 oU p.y] TreAa^etv go not near these. A. pb. 738. 
 
 b. As a prayer or wish : 
 
 ©cot 7^oA.^Ta^ ixrj /xe SovXctd? rvxctv my country'' s gods, not 
 slavery, not that fate for me ! A. s. 239. 
 
 c. Of surprise, indignation, or other emotion : 
 
 *E/>ie TraOclv raSc, <^ev / tO Sllff'er this! Ha! A. E. 840. w 
 Svo-ToAatvo, TOidS' avSpa xp^o-t/xov </)(uvctv ah, icretchcd me ! for 
 a good man to speah so! S. ai. 410. tolovtovl Tp€(}>€Lv Kvva to 
 keep a dog like that ! Ar. y. 835. 
 
 493 Sentences are often incomplete ; any part that is clearly im- 
 plied may be left unexpressed. 
 
 a. In many sentences the subject is not expressed, because 
 easily understood, or indefinite, or contained in the verb : 
 
 $ao-6 they say. koL elx'^v ovtw? and so it teas. An. hi. 1, 31. 
 /taxr?? Set there^s need of a fight. An. ii. 3, 5. 
 
 Here belong impersonal verbs : Set there is need, xpi opor- 
 tet, 7rpo(TrJK€L it behooves, /xcAct it is a care, etc. 
 
188 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 b. The verb is often omitted, especially t'o-rt, elat and other 
 common verbs that are suggested by the context : 
 
 ^TTOvSat /JL€V jxevovcriv, a7riov(TL Be rj Trpo'iovcn TroXe/xo? a truce if 
 
 we stay^ if we leave or advance, war. An. ii. 1, 23. fxrj fioL fiv- 
 piov<s ^evovs no ten tliousand mercenaries, please. D. 4, 19. 
 
 c. Sometimes an adverb or adverbial phrase stands for a 
 whole sentence, as in the common answers vai yes, /AaAto-ra 
 certainly, ov no, ov Srjra of course not, 7io indeed, irdw fxlv ovv 
 assuredly, vrj Ata yes, iy Zeus, fia tovs Oeovs by heave?i, no, 
 KaXQ)<s very well, cv ye bravo ! 
 
 These and the like may be called abbreviated sentences. 
 
 d. Sometimes it is not clear, nor of any importance, whether 
 an expression is incomplete through omission, or belongs un- 
 der 490, as a more primitive form : 
 
 OiKTpa ixkv voa-roL^ avSa piteous the cry at the return ! S. e. 
 193. So also the examples under b. 
 
 494 Thus far (451-493) sentences have been treated rather as 
 wholes, the treatment centering in the verb as the backbone 
 of the sentence. In the following sections (495-699) the sepa- 
 rate parts of the simple sentence will be treated in this order : 
 Verbs, Nouns (the Cases), Adjectives, Special Forms of Predi- 
 cation, The Article, Pronouns, Infinitives, Participles, Verbals, 
 Prepositions. Of the verb, since the modes and tenses in 
 simple sentences have already been explained, only Agree- 
 ment and Voice remain to be described. 
 
 VERBS: AGREEMENT AND VOICE 
 
 495 A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and 
 person, as in English and Latin. 
 
 496 But a neuter plural subject commonly takes a singu- 
 lar verb : 
 
VERBS: AGREEMENT AND VOICE 189 
 
 n o X X a T(^v vTrot^vy io)v aTrcoXero 7nany of the 
 hag gage-animals died. Ax. i. 5, 5. 
 
 But also: a-n-avra rj(Tav evwSrj all were siceet-smellmg. 
 An. I. 5, 1. rja-av ravrcL hvo T€txq these were tivo walls. An. I. 
 4, 4. 
 
 497 A dual subject may take a plural verb : 
 
 'A8eA</)a) 8uo ixopov kolvov KaTeipydcravTO OUT twO brothers 
 
 wrought their common death. S. an. 57. 
 
 498 The agreement often follows the sense instead of form ; but 
 sometimes it follows the form instead of sense : 
 
 a. To irXyjOo's otovrai the multitude suppose. T. i. 20. 
 (Agreement with a collective subject.) 
 
 b. Bao-tAevs koX oi cruv avrw cla-TriTTTeL the Mng ti'ith his 
 
 followers breaks in. An. i. 10, 1. (The king is thought of as 
 the central figure.) 
 
 c. "ETre/xt/^e yae 'Aptatos koX ^ApTdo^os Ariaios and Artao- 
 zos sent 7ne. An. ii. 4, 16. (Agreement with the nearer noun 
 only.) 
 
 d. To pLiCTOV TWV TCL)(piV T) (T aV (TTd^LOL T/3et? thC SpaCC 1)6- 
 
 tween the walls ivas three stades. An. i. 4, 4. (Agreement with 
 2u predicate noun.) 
 
 499 The Active and Passive voices have the same force 
 as in English. 
 
 a. Some active verbs are used as passives of other 
 verbs : 
 aiTOKTeivo) Mllj diToOvrjcTKoj (die) am 
 
 Mlled^ 
 iK/SdWo) cast out J exile J iKirtTTTO) (fall otit), (f)evya) 
 
 (flee) am exiled, 
 ev or /ca/cw? ttolco do good eu, fcafcw? ttolctx^^ ^^ well 
 or ill to, or badly treated, 
 
190 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 SiaTLdrjiiL dispose^ bring to Sia/cet/xat am disposed, am 
 a certain disjposition, in (this or that) disposi- 
 
 tion. 
 
 500 The Middle voice expresses an action of the subject 
 
 a. On himself, as direct object {Direct Middle) : 
 TTavo) mate stop, Trauo/xat stop myself, cease, 
 (j)aLj^o) show, (j)aLvofiai show myself, appear, 
 L(TT7]iJiL set up (cp. 363), tcrra/xat place myself, 
 
 irddoi persuade, Tret^o/xat persuade myself, he- 
 
 lleve, 
 hihdo-Ko) teach, StSctcr/co/xat teach myself, learn, 
 
 aTTTOj fasten, dirrofjiaL tlvo<s fasten myself to 
 
 something, touch, 
 exoj hold, exofxai tlvo^ hold myself to, 
 
 cling to, am next to, 
 
 b. For, to, with reference to himself {Indirect Mid- 
 dle) \ 
 
 dpyoi am first, dpxoyiai begin for rnyself be- 
 
 gin my task, 
 
 TTOLOJ malce, TroLovixai nva (J)lXov maJce one 
 
 my friend, 
 
 dy(x) lead, dyofiai yvvaiKa take to myself 
 
 a wife, marry, 
 
 l3ov\evo) plan, ^ovXevofxai plan for myself, 
 
 deliberate, 
 
 crviJilBovXeva) advise, avix^ovkevo fxai seek advice, 
 
 alpeco take, seize, alpovfjiai take for myself 
 
 choose, 
 
 ^vkdrToi watch, guard, ^vkdrroyiai am on my guard. 
 
NOUNS: THE CASES 191 
 
 c. From Mmself, froin Ms own ])owers or means 
 {Subjective Middle^ sometimes very like tlie active) : 
 TToiw TTokefjiov cause a war^ iroiovyiai TroXefxov carry 
 
 on war, 
 TToXlTevofxaL act as a citizen, tahe part in government, 
 d7ro(^atVo/xai yvcDjjurjp sTiow forth my opinion, 
 iTTayyeWofxai tl offer or promise sometliincj {announce 
 
 from myself^. 
 
 Tov<; dypd(j)ovs v6^ov<^ ov^ ol dvOpcoTTOL iOepTO dXXd 
 0eol TOLs dv6pa>7TOL<; eOeaav the unwritten laws not men 
 establislied of themselves, hut gods for men, (See 
 
 M. lY. 4, 19.) 
 
 d. The Indirect and the Subjectiye middle can not always 
 be distinguished ; both are sometimes causative : 
 IJi€Ta7r€fX'7rofx,aL TLva seucl for, littve One sent to me, 
 
 StSao-Ko/Attt Tov TTolSa have the boy taught, 
 SiKa^ofxaL get judgment rendered, iri7ig suit, 
 ypd(f>ofjLaL TLva get a?i indictment {ypa<^rj) U'ritte7i agaiyist one, 
 indict. 
 
 601 Deponent verbs are properly middle, in the indirect or sub- 
 jective sense, and the active was not thought necessary. 
 
 The aorist passive was originally not passive, but merely 
 intransitive, and in some verbs this intransitive sense con- 
 tinued in common use : IhoKct /jlol Tavrrj ireipaa-Oai (roiOrjvai it 
 seemed to 7ne lest to try to attain safety in this way. L. 12, 15. 
 So always ix^pw rejoiced, from x"-^P^- 
 
 NOUNS : THE CASES 
 
 502 A noun (or pronoun) in the same case with another, 
 and denoting the same person or thing, is an apposi- 
 tive if added directly, Sip)redicate if added by means 
 
192 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 of a verb. Botli appositive and predicate noun may 
 be in any case, according to tbe construction of the 
 primary noun : 
 
 AvSw/iai Se tt a T 9 'A^tXXews, NeoTrrdXe/xos I 
 am called the son of AcJtilles^ Neoptolemos. s. p. 240 f. 
 (Here Neoptolemos is an appositive to Trat?, which is 
 a predicate noun, agreeing with the understood sub- 
 ject of avScjfjLaL. For special idioms of predication in 
 Greek see 645-548.) 
 
 For the cases with prepositions, alone or in composition, 
 see 597-599. 
 
 The Nominative 
 
 503 The Nominative case of nouns (or pronouns) is used 
 
 (1) As the subject of a finite verb, 
 
 (2) In address, for the vocative : 
 
 Z € u ? ^aaikevei Zeus is Mrig. a) ^ t X o g eliri O 
 friend, speaJc, a. pb. 562. 
 
 504 A Nominative may stand as appositive to a sentence : 
 
 Nt/Acws w8' ippvOi(rixai, Ztjvl Svo'KXirj's 6ed tJius piUUssly a7n I 
 chastised, a sight of evil fa^ne for Zeus. A. pb. 257. 
 
 The Genitive 
 
 505 The Genitive is a blend of two cases, once distinct. 
 These are 
 
 (1) The Genitive proper (like the Latin geni- 
 tive), 
 
 (2) The old Ablative, or From case. 
 
 In great part the two sets of uses are fairly dis- 
 tinct ; but some uses are puzzling, and must be 
 learned mainly through reading. 
 
THE GENITIVE 193 
 
 (In Latin the genitive remained pure, and the ablative 
 was blended with the instrumental and the locative. See 
 528.) 
 
 506 The Genitive proper may depend on a noun or pro- 
 noun directly {Adnominal Genitive), The relation 
 intended is gathered only from the nature of the 
 words and from the context ; some combinations oc- 
 cur so often that they are named, but a host of others 
 are too various and elusive to name : ' 
 
 a. 'H /3acrtXew9 Swa/xt? the hinges poiver {Pos- 
 sessive Genitive^ rj Ic^oSo? tov ar parev fxaro^ 
 the approach of the army {Subjective Genitive), ^nqhe- 
 jjLLd o-coTT] pLd<^ eA.7ri9 710 hope of safety {Objective 
 Genitive), rpicov rj fiepiov 6S6v a three day ^ journey 
 {Genitive of Measure), tmv pivpicDv i\Triho}v fxid 
 one hope in ten thousand {Genitive of the Whole). 
 
 b. IlXrj9o<; av6 poiTT o)v a nndtitude of men. crlyrj 
 (J)lXojv with silence toward your friends, e. m. 587. 
 eV ftecrw rj fjuwi' kol y8 a o" t X e a> 9 between US and the 
 Icing. An. ii. 2, 3. ^ € w 1/ TToXefios war from the gods. 
 An. II. 5, 7. Tj Tcov K p eicr (T 6v (ov SovXeud servitude 
 to the stronger. T. i. 8. oifxa^aL irer pcov wagon-loads 
 of stones. An. iv. 7, 10. ypa(f)r) aae^eidq indictment 
 for impiety. ahLKruxdrcov opyrj anger at wrong- 
 doing. L. 12, 20. Si alcr^vvTqv Koi olXXtjXo)!^ kol 
 
 ' Compare, from Shakspere, nighfs predominance, ruin's entrance, tn 
 Ms kingdom's defense, in his country's wreck, an hour's delay, my heart's 
 core, the Norway's king, a summer's cloud, heaven's breath, this night's 
 business, each day's life, life's feast, my scepter's awe ; from J. R. Lowell, 
 Lethe's ooze, battle-odes whose lines, the letters sheath, at life's dear 
 peril. 
 
 13 
 
194 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 Kvpov for shame both lefore one another and hefore 
 Cyrus, An. III. 1, 10. 
 
 507 The word on which the adnominal genitive depends 
 
 a. May be omitted : 
 
 Ets StSao-KaAov to a teacliefs {Jiouse)^ to school, h "A 1 8 o v 
 in Hades' (abode, realm), in the other ivorld. iv Alovvo-ov in 
 (the precinct) of Dionysos. t^s y^s h-^ixov they ravaged 
 {some) of the land. T. i. 30. See also 510 a. 
 
 b. May be represented by the article only : 
 El? Ty\v €avT<x)v to their own land. 
 
 The genitive often stands with a neuter article : 
 
 To, T^s TToAews the (affairs, interests) of the state, ra fxh 
 
 Kvpov ovTtoS €^€L TTpos rj/xa<S axTTrep TO. rj^irepa 7rp6<s Ik€lvov Cyrus's 
 
 relation to us is just like ours to him. An. i. 3, 9. to, tCjv 
 Oewv the (ordering) of the gods. t6 t^s Tvxn^ the (action) of 
 fortune, to twv TrvevixaTCDv the matter of the winds, or simply 
 the ivinds. m t^s i/rv^^s the soul. 
 
 c. May be a neuter pronoun or adjective, made a noun of 
 degree or quantity : 
 
 Ets ro(TovTov KaKLd<s rjXOev he came to such a pitch of 
 
 baseness. L. 12, 67. cts tovto a(f>2^0e fJLO)pLd<s 17 irapav olds 
 
 you have reached this hight of folly or of madness. D. 9, 54. 
 €7rt jxiya Svva/xews to a great degree of power. 
 
 d. May be an adverb of place, degree, or condition : 
 
 IIov y^s ; where on earth, uM terrarum f ttov yviopirjs ttot 
 €*; where in thought are you? S. an. 42. oT do-eAyetds to what 
 pitch of profligacy. D. 4, 9. Trpoo-w tov iroTa/xov far into the 
 river. An. iv. 3, 28. Trrjfxovrj? aAts enough of woe. So with cv, 
 KaKws, wSe, 0)5, tva. Cp. also 518 b. 
 
 e. May be, really or apparently, a superlative adjective or 
 adverb ( Ge^iitive of the Whole) : 
 
 *0 fj>ikTaT avhpuiv dearest of men. S. e. 23. /xdXia-Ta roiv 
 'EXX^viov most among the Greeks. An. i. 6, 5. d<^ei8eo-Tara -n-av- 
 Twv most unsparingly of all. An. i. 9, 13. 
 
THE GENITIVE 195 
 
 508 A Genitive may be part of tlie predicate, brought 
 into dependence on a noun or pronoun by means of 
 the verb {Predicate Genitive) : 
 
 '^YLv ovTo<^ T(x)v dfji(f)l MiXrjToi' (jt p ar evo ^liv (ov 
 this man was one of those in military service about 
 
 MiletOS. Ax. I. 2, 3. TOLOVTOJV icTT € 77 p O J 6 V (x) V of 
 
 such ancestors are you. An. m. 2, 13. rjv ircjv w? 
 TpiaKovTa he was about thirty years old. Ax. n. 6, 20. 
 ov T (x)v vlK(x)VTa)v icrTL TO, OTrXa TrapaSuSovaL giv- 
 ing up their arms is not the victors^ jpart. Ax. n. 1, 9. 
 
 a. In the above the verb connects the genitive 
 with the subject ; other verbs may connect a genitive 
 with the object : 
 
 N o /x t ^ e t KoX vfjLa^ iavr ov elvau he thinks you 
 too are his (captives). Ax. n. 1, 11. r 17 9 ly/xere/ad? 
 d /x, e X e t d 9 av tl<; e ltj Stfcatw? 07ie would justly put 
 it doion to our neglect, d. 1, 10. Trotd? ttolt pd^ av tj 
 yevovs u/xct? nore rvxpiii av eln cov ; pray, of what 
 land or lineage should I rightly call you ? s. p. 222. 
 
 509 The From Genitive {AblativaV) is used with verbs to 
 denote 
 
 a. Separation, source, and the like ; the verb often 
 contains a preposition that would by itself take a 
 from genitive, as aTrd, ef, Trap a, irpo : 
 
 'EvTavOa Suecrxov aXXyjXcov there they drew 
 apart from each other. Ax. i. 10, 4. ixjjlXovTo 6 \6- 
 </)09 ra)v LTTiTeajv the hill tvas left bare of the horse- 
 men^ Ax. I. 10, 13. rj 6\pL^ rjXeKT pov ovSep 8 l ^<i>€.p e 
 their appearance was not a whit different from amber ^ 
 
196 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 An. II. 3, 15. aiTiqWay fxiv 1 tovtcov tcjv TTOVOiV 
 having got rid of these labors. An. iv. 3, 2. rev^ecrOe 
 Kvpov you will obtain it from Cyrus. An. i. 4, is. 
 Setrat avrov ixr) Karakvaai he asJcs of him not to 
 come to terms. An. i. i, lo. T^So/^ai olkovcov aov 
 (f)povLvov<; Xoyovs I ain delighted at hearing from 
 you words of sense. An. h. 5, 16. OLfSet? rjjJidpTavei' 
 
 Tov dvS p6<; no one missed (went wide of^ his 
 man. An. m. 4, 15. a fXTrXoLKco rov aov jjuo p ov ; am 
 I to fail of thy fate? S. an. 554. dporov yyj<; dv- 
 liv ai to send up fruitage from the earth, s. ot. 270. 
 fidOpojv LCTTacrOe rise from the steps, s. ot. 142. 
 
 b. That to which something is superior or inferior, 
 with verbs implying comparison (Genitive of Com- 
 parison ; cp. 517) : 
 
 To Trepielvai t cov (f) lXojv the surpassing his 
 friends. An. i. 9, 24. tt epiyev ea 9 ai rrj^; ^acrtXew? 
 SvvdiJL€o)<; to get the better of the Mng's force, an. 
 II. 1, 13. T ovT ov ov^ TfTTTia 6 (xed a we shall not be 
 outdone by him. An. h. 3, 23. tovto^v iTrXeoveKrelTe you 
 had more than they. An. m. 1, 37. 
 
 So with 7rpoi)(0), Trpoeo'TrjKa, vTrepi^^co, XeiVo/xat, vtKw/xat, etc. 
 
 c. Cause, with some verbs of emotion (cp. also 
 611 c) : 
 
 T 7] <; i\ev6 € p LOL^ vjjidq evSaLfioj/L^o) I con- 
 gratulate you on your freedom. An. i. 7, 3. pj^ avrov 
 oieu cj) povT LO- ai avdrov ; do you suppose lie was 
 anxious about death f a p. 28 d. 
 
 So too in exclamations, without a verb, and with 
 adjectives : 
 
THE GENITIVE 197 
 
 Oljjlol Ta\aLvr]<; ClJl^ unliappy ! S. an. 82. ^ev Trj<; 
 avoids alas for thy folly ! s. e. 920. Oav^daiaL tov 
 KaXkov<; KoX fjL€y€Oov<; wonderful for heauty and size. 
 
 An. II. 3, 15. 
 
 d. The agent (source of the action), in poetry, with some 
 passive participles and verbals : 
 
 KctV->7? hihaKTo. taught iy lier. S. E. 344. <^a)Tos rjiraT-qixevr] 
 
 deceived ly a liushand. S. at. 807. 
 
 510 The Genitive is used as object with many verbs not easy to 
 classify : 
 
 a. Verbs of sliaring : 
 
 *AyaOov />tev ov8€v6<: /jlct ea-x^v aXXwv Sk ttoAAcuv Jie tooJc 
 part in no good tiling^ hut in many of another sort. L. 12, 48. 
 So^rys fierdSos impart your thought. E. it. 1030. 
 
 So with Koiviiivui, />t€T€;(<o, (JLCTaXafi/SdviD, and Aay;(avw when it 
 
 means get by lot a share in. 
 
 Some examples may belong either here or under 507 a. 
 
 b. Some verbs meaning toiich^ talce hold 0/, hegin, try : 
 ^AvTiXdpeorOe Tuiv Trpdy/xarwv lay hold of the busi?iess. D. 1, 20. 
 
 TOV Xoyov rjpx^ro wSe he began his speech thus. An. hi. 2, 7. 
 tXapov TTj^ ^u)vr]s tov 'Opovrrjv they took hold of Orofites by 
 his girdle. An. i. 6, 10. ©cTTaAcd? i-rri/Sr] he set foot on 
 Thesscdy. D. 1, 12. e^^/w-cvot rovroiv yeppo(f)6poi next to 
 these (cp. 500 a), troops with wicker shields. An. i. 8. 9. ttci- 
 pu)fx€voL ravTr]<s t^s Ta^€co9 makiiig trial of this order. 
 An. III. 2, 38. 
 
 So with dTTTOfxaL, Oiyydvw, ij/avo), dvTe)(OfxaL. 
 
 c. Verbs meaning r^de or lead (cp. 509 b) : 
 
 Twv 'EXXrjvwv rjp^av iKovrayv they rilled the Greeks with 
 their consent. D. 3, 24. tov Se^tov Kcpu)^ rjyeXa-OaL to lead 
 the right wing. An. i. 7. 1. (But rjyovfxaL also takes the dative : 
 rot? oAAots TfyuTo he led the rest. An. ii. 2, 8.) 
 
 d. Verbs meaning am, claim., reach^ attain : 
 
198 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 McyoAoov i/^iJ^wv icts ovk av aiJLdpT0L<5 ahnifig at great souls, 
 you would not miss. S. ai. 154. icf>U/jL€vo<s Trj<s dp^^s longing for 
 
 the rule. T. i. 128. ovk avTiTroLOv fxcO a ySao-tAct t^s ^PXV"^ 
 
 we do not dispute with the Mng for the sovereignty. An. ii. 3, 23. 
 i^LKV€i(r$aL Tcov (T(f>€v8ovr]T(x)v to reach the slingers. An. hi. 3, 7. 
 tZ/x^s Tvyxa-viiv to obtain honor. An. i. 9, 29. 
 So with (TTOXOi^oiJiai, opiyofiaL, ij/av(o. 
 
 e. Verbs meaning taste, smell, enjoy : 
 
 BovAerat Kal crc tovto)v yeva-ao-Oai he ivishes yOU also to 
 taste these. An. i. 9, 26. ri yap aXA' av OLTroXava-aLfxi tov 
 
 /jbaOrjfiaro^; tvhy, what other good of learning should I enjoy? 
 Ar. n. 1231. 
 
 So with 6(T(f)paLV0fJLaL, ovLvrjfiL, ripTro/xai, €v<D)(ov/JiaL. 
 
 611 The Genitive is used as object witli many verbs that 
 denote an action of the senses or of the mind ; several 
 of these admit the accusative. 
 
 a. ^Akovo) hear, alcrdavoiLai perceive, and a few 
 others of like meaning : 
 
 (&opv^ov rfKovcre he heard a noise. An. i. 8, 16. But 
 note r\Kov(T^ TLcrcra(f)€pvov<; tov Kvpov (tt6\ov lie heard 
 of Cyrus's equipment from T. An. i. 2, 5. alo-ddvoixaL 
 likewise takes the gen. or ace. olXXtjXojv ^wieaav they 
 understood one another, t. i. 3, 20. to t o)v tolov- 
 r oiv iOeXeuv olk poacrd ai the willingness to listen to 
 such men. d. 9, 55. 
 
 b. Verbs meaning remember., forget : 
 MLiJLVT]crK€L<; KaKCJv thou remindest me of sorrows. 
 
 E. AL. 1045. dXXov Xoyov fxe fxvr) a 9 e rememher some 
 
 other word. a. pb. 522. p^r^ iinXaO copeOa ttJ? ol- 
 
 KaSe 6S0V let US not forget the way home. An. m. 2, 25. 
 
 These verbs may also take the accusative ; a neu- 
 
THE GENITIVE 199 
 
 ter pronoun as object is always accusative : tov Ev- 
 (fypoLov jjiefjivrjiJLa^oL remembering Eujphraios, D. 9, 6i. 
 
 c. Verbs meaning care foi\ neglect^ spare, desire : 
 ^ povTj a eo)^ KoX dXr] 9 etd^ Kal ttJ? ^^XV '^ 
 ovK iir L fjLeXel ovSe (j) p ovt L[,eL<; for in telligence 
 and truth and the soul you tahe no care or thought. 
 Ap. 29 e. e/xot 8' ikaaaov Zrjvo<; rj fjurjSev fjueXeu hilt 
 I care less than naught for Zeus. a. pb. 9to. ^p-qixd- 
 Tcov imOvfjLeL he is eager for wealth. An. m. 2, 39. 
 
 Similarly with fj-cTafiiXet /jlol poenitet me^ ivrpiTrofmi regard^ 
 a/xcAw neglect, oAtywpoi think lightly of, <^€t8o/Aat spare, d^ctScu 
 am unsparing^ ipQ) love, ttclvw hunger for. 
 
 512 The Genitive is used witli verbs and adjectives of 
 plenty and want : 
 
 AL(f)0€pd<? in LfJLTrXacr av ^oprov Kov(j)ov they 
 iDOuld fill skins with hay. Ax. i. 5, 10. rwi^ €771x77- 
 8 e t oj i^ OVK diT o pij a o fiev we shall not lack pro- 
 visions. An. II. 2, 11. 7rX7ypet9 v8aro9 f%dl of ivatev. 
 An. II. 3, 13. ^py)ixdToiv evnopei he had plenty of money. 
 D. 18, 235. fjidxr]^ Set there is need of a fight, an. h. 3, 5. 
 
 513 The Genitive may denote price or value : 
 
 Uoaov SiSdaKeL ; for how much does he teach f 
 Ap. 20 b. T oiv TTOV o)v tt (oXovc lv r]plv irdvra TaydO^ 
 ol Oeoi for toil cdone the gods sell all good things. 
 Epich. fxlKpd fx€Tpa iroWov dpvpiov small measures 
 for a large sum. An. m. 2, 21. 
 
 514 The Genitive with verbs of accusing, convicting, ac- 
 quitting ^enoi^^ the charge. >*s^e 
 
 ER 
 
 OF 
 
200 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 Tlius /cXotttJs atrtw/xat accuse ((j)evyo) am accused) 
 of theft J aael^da^ Slcoko) prosecute (ypdcj^ofxaL indict, 
 elcrdyco hring to trial, aTroiri^vya. am acquitted) for 
 impiety, 
 
 a. But with KaTr]yopu> accuse, KarayiyvMa-Kw adjudge against, 
 KaTaxprj^^i^ofxaL vote against, and some others, the genitive of 
 the person is governed by the Kara. 
 
 Tlfiu) estimate a penalty takes the genitive of value ; the 
 active is used of the court, the middle (in a causative sense, 
 get it estimated) of the accuser or accused. 
 
 AXAa St] <l>vy7]'S Tt/X7^(r(o/x,at; tcrcos yap av fxoi t ovtov rlfxi^- 
 
 o- a t T c but shall I then put {the penalty) at exile f For perhaps 
 you (the jury) would put it at that amount. Ap. 37 e. 
 
 515 The Genitive may denote the thne or space within 
 which something occurs, or to which it belongs : 
 
 Ov [LojyfxTCLi SeKa rj fjie pwv he will not fight with- 
 in ten days. An. i. 7, 18. dii t ov KaOij kovto<; 
 Xpovov yiyveaOaL occur always within the appro- 
 priate time. D. 4, 35. iiTT aKaiSeKa ar aO fxoyv to)v 
 iyyvrdroi e/c tt}? x^P^^ ovSei/ eixofJiev Xafi^dveLv with- 
 in the sixteen nearest stages we could get nothing from 
 the country. An. h. 3, ii. 
 
 In prose only a few words of time, and still fewer of place, are 
 freely so used, especially xP^vov, -^fiipd^ by day, wktos by night, 
 co-TTcpa? in the evening, xct/xwvos in winter, Oepov? in summer. 
 
 Here also belong some adverbs and adverbial phrases of 
 place in the genitive, as avrov on the spot, -n-ov where? ov 
 where (rel.) : ovk ecfiaa-av Uvai Tov TTpoa-o) they refused to go 
 forward. An. i. 3, 1. 
 
 516 The Genitive is used with many adjectives. 
 
 a. Adjectives of like meaning with the above verbs (509- 
 514); 
 
THE GENITIVE 201 
 
 Such are trepos different^ 6p<^avos lereft^ iXevOepos free, and 
 in poetry various compounds of a(v)- negative, taking a from 
 genitive ; 
 
 Also lirrjKoo^ listening^ virrjKoo^ obedient^ /AvrJ/xwv mindful^ 
 €7nfjL€Xrj<s careful, d(/>ei8ris unsparing, atnos causing, iyKpaTrj^s hav- 
 ing control, a^tos worthy, dva^tos unworthy (therefore d^tw 
 think Ivor thy). 
 
 b. Adjectives of various meanings, best learned from read- 
 ing : 
 
 'ETTto-TTJ/Acuv Twv d/A^i Ta^^ets shilled in tactics. An. ii. 1, 7. 
 Upo^ Tri<s 'Apre/xiSos sacred to Artemis. An. v. 3, 13. aTreipot 
 avroiv ivithout experience of them. An. m. 2, 16. 
 
 617 With comparative adjectives and adverbs the From 
 Genitive denotes the starting-point of comparison 
 ( Genitive of Comparison ; see 509) : 
 
 Ilepcrd? eavrov ^eXTiovs Persians superior to 
 himself. An. II. 2, 1. ov Tr\iov eiKoai err aS lcov not 
 more tJian twenty stades. An. m. 2, 34. ovtoctl croc^aj- 
 Tepo<^ ifiov this man here is wiser than I. Ap. 21 c. 
 So with any adjectives that imply comparison : 
 T^ V are paid ttJ? yuax^'^ on the day after the 
 hattle. TToXXaTrXacrtou? vpcov avr (ov ivlKare 
 you defeated many times your own number. An, m. 
 
 2, 14. 
 
 518 The Genitive is used with 
 
 a. Adverbs derived from adjectives or verbs that 
 take a genitive : 
 
 'Af ta>9 T179 TToXew? in a manner worthy of the state, 
 
 b. Adverbs of place, time, separation, state : 
 
 XIo/opw Tov I3lov Oavdrov Sk eyyv? far on in life and 7iear death. 
 Ap. 38 c. €^0) TOV ScLvov out of danger. An. ii. 6, 12. 6i(/e r^s 
 
202 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 y/x€pd? late in the day. x^P^^ ''"^^ aAXwi/ apart from the rest. 
 \dOpd Twv (rTpaTLWTQ>v Without the knowledge of the soldiers. 
 An. I. 3, 8. 
 
 So with, ecrco, ivTo^j eKTos, fxera^v, irX-qarLov^ Trpoo-^ev, efXTrpoa-Oev, 
 OTTLO-Oev, a/x^oTipayOev, evdev, 7repd(v), ttojs, ev, and others. Cp. 
 
 also 507 d. 
 
 c. ''Avev, ttXtJv, ^XPh I^^Ph ^Ve/ca — adverbs that 
 have become virtually prejDositions (cp. 599). 
 For the Genitive Absolute see 589, 590. 
 
 The Dative 
 
 519 Three cases, once distinct, are blended in the Greek 
 Dative. These are 
 
 (1) The true Dative, the To or i^^r case, 
 
 (2) The Instrumental (or Sociative), the With or 
 £y case, 
 
 (3) The Locative, the At or In case. 
 
 The English prepositions to and for, ivith and hy, at and 
 in, cover fairly the three sets of uses ; but there are many 
 differences of idiom. 
 
 The dative is used mostly with verbs and adjectives, but 
 also with nouns, adverbs, and prepositions. 
 
 520 The To Dative is used with verbs to denote the indi- 
 rect object : 
 
 Tavra aTrayyeXw /3a(T iXel this J will report 
 to the hing. An. h. 3, 24. ravra r ol*^ c^tXot? SteSi- 
 hov these he used to distribute to his friends. An. i. 
 9, 22. dXXa (t)L\oo-6(j)0) eoifcas why, you seem like 
 a philosopher, an. n. i, 13. 
 
 a. Many Greek verbs take the dative though the 
 
THE DATIVE , 203 
 
 corresponding English verb takes a direct object, or 
 requires some other preposition than to : 
 
 'E7rto-T€uoj/ avTw iJiey trusted liim. Ax. i. 2, 2. 77 e t - 
 cr o fjLai fjLakXov rw ^ew r) vfilv I shall obey the god 
 rather than you, Ap. 29 d. Kupw jreiSapx'^lv to he 
 obedient to Cyrus. An. i. 9, 17. l^ol opyit^ovrai they 
 get angry at me. Ap. 23 c. rw Oeco fiorjOojv aiding the 
 god. Ap. 23 b. rot? ^A6r]vaL0L<; TraprjveL he used to ad- 
 vise the Athenians. T. i. 93. errecrOe tco rjyovixivo) 
 follow your leader. An. h. 2, 4. 
 
 So with iTTLTljxii), fJLeix(f>oiJLaL, iyKaXu) ilame, <ji6ovoi envy^ oveLBc^oi 
 
 reproach^ rlfjuopC) avenge o?ie, vTna-xvov^ai promise^ and many 
 others. Some verbs (as /xe^u-^o/xat, ovctSt^co, iTnTlfxC)) take some- 
 times the accusative and sometimes the dative. 
 
 b. Here belong some semi-impersonal verbs, the subject of 
 which is not an acting person, but a thing or an act : 
 
 *Eyu,oi /xeA>Jo-€t it shall he my care. An. i. 4, 16. fjieTafxeXrja-ei 
 auTw he icill repent {it tvill repent him). L. 16, 2. cSokci i^Srj 
 TTopevea-Oat avrw avoi it noio seemed test to him to march up 
 (from the coast). Ax. i. 2, 1. T-rj r/XiKLd cTrpcTre it 2cas S2iitahle 
 to his age. Ax. i. 9, 6. 
 
 So also l^eo-rt it is possible, Bel fjiot Ttvo9 / need something, 
 /xeTeaTL (jloC rtvos I have a share in something, etc. 
 
 621 The To Dative may denote the person to whom 
 (rarely the place to which) with verbs of motion : 
 
 TouToj^ (TO I iirefjixpe this (^wine) he sent to you. 
 Ax. I. 9, 2o. tafjiLOL<; rj\Oe he went to tlie Samians. 
 T. I. 13. 'iXto) lidpiq -qydyer '^\ivav Paris brought 
 Helen to Ilion. e. axd. 103. ttovo^ ttovco ttovov </> e- 
 p € I toil to toil brings toil. s. ai. 866. 
 
 Much oftener these verbs take Trpo? with the accusative 
 in this sense. 
 
204 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 622 The To Dative is used also with some adjectives, ad- 
 verbs, and nouns, more or less like the above verbs 
 in meaning : 
 
 ToL? TToXe/xtotg IvavTiov^ opposed to the enemy. An. 
 III. 2, 10. TCL Kped Tjv IT a p airXij (T La t ol<; eXac^ei- 
 o L 9 the meat ivas like venison, An. i. 5, 2. OdvaTov 
 TTOLCTL KOLvov elvai Kai dv ay Kalov dv 6 p cjtt oi<; 
 that death is common to all and inevitable for man. 
 An. in. 1, 43. dWd /xoi hrj\6v ecrrt rovro hut this is 
 clear to me. Ap. 41 d. r^ ep.r] rw e^ vttt) pea id 
 my service to the god. A p. 30 a. cr(l)i(Tiv aurots 
 pLovov eTTiTT^Setoj? advantageously to themselves 
 only. T. I. 19, 3. 7Tvpo<; /3poTol^ Sorijp^ o/aa? thou 
 seest the giver of fire to mortals, a. pb. 639. 
 
 So with vjvov^ friendly^ ixOpo? unfriendly, TroXe/vtio? hostile^ 
 <l)av€p6<s plain, aSrjXo? uncertain, dTrpeTrTJs unlecoming, and many 
 others. 
 
 523 The For Dative is used (with verbs, adjectives, ad- 
 verbs, and nouns) to denote the person or thing in- 
 terested or affected : 
 
 To, aKpa 7) plv it poKar a\api ^dveiv to seize the 
 hights heforehand for us. An. i. 3, 16. ravra /cat z^ e w - 
 T ip (p Kal TT peer fivTepcp ttoltjct o) this I shall do 
 for loth younger and older, Ap. 30 a. i^eoyeiv avrol^ 
 d(T(j)aXeaT€pov 7] rj jxlv fleeing is safer for them 
 than for us. An. m. 2, 19. -^aXeiTov tjv ifjLOL it was 
 difficult for me. T. i. 22. to ydp epvfjba t co cTTpaTo- 
 TT e 8 w ovK av ireix^o'avTo else they would not have 
 built the wall for their camp. t. i. 11. to Is dcrOe- 
 viai T po^7J<; eveKa for the sake of support for the 
 
THE DATIVE 205 
 
 weak, T. I. 5. ov av fxoL tcovS* air id ; are not you 
 the cause of this for me f s. e. 295. y^iyicnov k6(t [lov 
 dvS pu the greatest ornament for a man, An. i. 9, 23. 
 (TlTy]pi(jiov [Lovov rfj Svv dfjueu ration-money alone 
 * for the force, d. 4, 28. 
 
 a. Greek often expresses a/br relation where Eng- 
 lish puts the matter in some other way : 
 
 ^Kvd^y]9i /x, o t koX fiaTvprja-ov come np^ please {for 
 me\ and testify, l. 16, 8. crTTovhai ^ev ixivovai, 
 dir Lov cr L 8e rj tt p o'iov cr l TrdXe/xo? a truce if we 
 stay here^ hut icar if we withdraw or advance {for us 
 remaining^ for us ivithdr awing, etc.). An. h. 1, 23. 
 o-<f)Sv fjL€v ivToXrj Alos ex^i reXoq for you {so far as 
 you are concerned) the command of Zeus hath con- 
 summation, A. PB. 12. (jvv^\6v7i 8* aTrXw? to put 
 it simply {for one putting it simply), d. 4, 7. rt/xTy? 
 aft,o9 TTj TToXet worthy of honor from {ivith reference 
 to) the state. M. i. 2, 62. ovtch'^ araXatVajpo? r ol^ 
 TToXXoi? r] l7]Tr]<TL<; rrj<; dXrjOeLa^ SO lightly do the 
 multitude take {so unlahorious for the multitude is) 
 the search for truth, t. i. 20. ovtoi n aol {w SovXo? 
 aXXa Aof la in no degree as servant to you do I live, 
 hut to Loxias. s. ot. 410. 
 
 624 The For Dative also denotes 
 
 a. The Possessor, with elfxi, yiyvofjiaL, and the like : 
 
 'EvTavOa Kvpco /BaatkeLa tjv there Cyrus had a 
 
 palace. Ax. i. 2, 7. eyevero avrot? 17 tStct irapa- 
 
 aKevT) fjLeC^^cjv their individual preparation hecame 
 
 ■ greater {the preparation hecame greater for them). 
 
206 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 T. I. 19. oi/o/xa avTYJ Kopa-coTT] its (the city^s) name 
 was Korsote, An. i. 5, 4. avdyKT] iari fioL it is neces- 
 sary for me. 
 
 b. The Agent, regularly with the verbal in -reo<; 
 (596), often with the perfect and pluperfect pas- 
 sive : 
 
 'E/xol rovTo ov TTOLTjreov this must not he done 
 hy me. An. i. 3, 15. ttolvS* rj filv tt eir oirjT ai it is all 
 done hy us. An. i. 8, 12. ra tovtol<; ixprj (jy ta fxeva 
 the measures voted hy these men, l. 12, 30. 
 
 c. The possessor or the agent in these constructions is 
 really the person interested or affected, so that in essence 
 these cases fall under 623 ; but usually /o?' can not be used in 
 translating. 
 
 625 The With Dative (Sociative) is used, of person or 
 thing, with words implying association of any kind 
 whatever : 
 
 'EiroXefieL rots Spa^C he carried on war with the 
 Thracians, An. i. 1, 9. (to(J>oIs 6 filXcjv /cavro? iK- 
 ^TJo-Tj (70(^09 hy heing with wise m£n you will yourself 
 become wise. Men. ovk dvTLTroLOV fJueO a /Bao-iXel 
 T179 dpxv'^ '^^ do ^^^ dispute with the hing for the 
 sovereignty. An. n. 3, 23. olvco Kepdads avrrjv mix- 
 ing it (the spring) with wine. An. i. 2, 13. a/xa ttj 
 rjfiepd at daylight (with the day). An. n. 1, 2. e/c 8ia- 
 Sox^9 dk\T]XoL<s in relays with each other, d. 4, 21. 
 
 a. Xote some typical idioms : 
 
 TeTTapas va9s eXaf^ov avrots avSpdan tliey tooh four sMpS 
 
 with the crews {with the men themselves). H. i. 2, 12. /x-^ 
 
 rjixas av rat's rais rpt^Jpccrt KaraSva-y lest he sink US triremes 
 
THE DATIVE 207 
 
 and all {tvith the triremes themselves). An. i. 3, 17. oXt'yo) 
 a-TpaTev/xaTL ov ToXfi^areL e^eVeo-^at iotth a small army he tvill 
 not dare to folloiV. An. ii. 2, 12. AaKcSai/AoVtot r^kOov -n-pea-- 
 
 /?eia the Spartans came with an embassy. T. i. 90. eV TavTw 
 y€ ^aOa tovtol<s yotc Were at least in the same place with these 
 men. Ax. iii. 1, 27. 
 
 626 The By or With Dative (Instrumental) denotes 
 
 a. Cause or taeans : 
 
 ^;)^e8tat9 Sta/3atVoz^T€9 crossing with rafts. An. 
 I. 5, 10. oLKOTj icr^ev ive know hy hearing. T. i. 4. 
 Lcr)(vv TTepieTTOir)aavTo ^^prjfjidTcoy re n pocr 6S a> /cat 
 dXXcov dpxj) they gained superior strength hoth hy 
 access of wealth and hy ride over others, t. i. is. tov- 
 TOL<; TJaOrj Kvpos with these Cyriis was pleased. An. 
 1.9,26. (^iXtoL ixev koX evvota eirofxevovs ov^iirore 
 d^x^v he never had men who follotved him hy reason 
 of affection and good-will. An. h. 6, 13. ^aXcTrw? ^dpcx) 
 Tols TTapovcTL TT p d y fji a a i I am trouhled at the pres- 
 ent situation. An. i. 3, 3. 
 
 b. Manner : 
 
 KpavyT} rroWfj iTTidcnv they ivill come on ivith 
 much shouting. An. i. 7, 4. iroWd r% 'EXXctSo? rw 
 TTaXatw T poTTcp vefxeTaL much of Greece is occupied 
 in the ancient manner, t. i. 5. 7rdvTe<; jiia opfjufj 
 TTpocreKvvrjo-av rov Oeov all with one impulse wor- 
 shiped the god. an. m. 2, 9. 
 
 Here belong ttJ aX-qOda in truths Aoyw in luord^ Ipyw in 
 deed, anrovSr) earnestly, a-lyfj silently ; also some common ad- 
 verbs, as KOLvrj in common, IStd privately, Brj/xoa-Ld publicly, Tavry 
 this way. 
 
208 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 c. The Measure of Difference, with a comparative, 
 superlative, or any word implying comparison : 
 
 'OXtyo) TrXeLO) a little more, ov ttoXXoi? erecriv 
 varepov not many years later, T. i. 18. KaKucrTa St) 
 fjLaKpcp KCLTeLfxi most wretcliedly hy far do I go down. 
 S. AN. 895. re-^vrj S' dpdyKr)<; daOevearipa [xaKpco A.rt 
 is far weaker than Necessity, a. pb. 530. 
 
 527 The At OY In Dative {Locative) denotes 
 
 a. The Place where (in nouns of place), mostly 
 poetic : 
 
 Ad/xoi9 Sexier 0aL to receive in their dwellings, 
 S. OT. 818. ert fjieyas ov pav m Zeu? Zeus is still great 
 in heaven, S. e. 174. TrepieppeiTo vtto tov Meter accI kv- 
 kXm it was flowed around in a circle (was completely 
 surrounded) hy the Maskas, An. i. 5, 4. 
 
 In prose a few proper names are so used (cp. 228), especially 
 names of demes : MapaOcovi at Marathon, MeXtTy in Melite. 
 But generally a preposition precedes : eV ttj oiKta in the house. 
 
 Also figuratively, of State or Condition : 
 Ovx V7TVC0 y €v8ovTa not slumbering in sleep, 
 S. OT. 65. (jypovTiSo^ TT\dvoi<; in the wanderings of 
 anxious thought. S. ot. 67. rat? i/ivxctt? ippojfjLeve- 
 arepoL stronger in their souls. An. m. i, 42. 
 
 Examples like the last shade naturally into the following. 
 
 b. The Particular, or the special sense, in which 
 something is meant (Specifying Dative \ sometimes 
 possibly instrumental, but we more often use in) : 
 
 Botwrtct^wi^ T 77 4^o)vfi like a Jjoiotian in pronun- 
 ciation. An. III. 1, 26. ot hoKovvTe<^ iia^ipeiv etre cro- 
 
THE ACCUSATIVE 209 
 
 (ffid euT avh p eia etr aXX?^ rivTiviovv dperrj tJlOSe 
 who are tliourjlit ^wperior whether in wisdom or in 
 hravery or in any other virtue whatever, Ap. 35 a. 
 
 c. The Time when, in nouns of time with a speci- 
 fying word, and in names of festivals : 
 
 T^ varepaid on the next day. /xta vvkti in one 
 night. Se/carw e r e t ^vve/Brjaav they came to terms 
 in the tenth year. t. i. 103. UavaOrjvaLOL^; at the Pan- 
 athenaia. 
 
 528 The following table shows the relations between the Greek 
 and Latin cases and the older case-system. The nominative, 
 accusative, and vocative remained distinct in both languages. 
 
 GREEK OLD CASES LATIN 
 
 r. .,• ( Genitive Genitive 
 
 Genitive 1 a-, i -• , n \ 
 
 ( Ablative {from) ^ 
 
 r Instrumental (ivitJi, dy) V Ablative 
 
 Dative \ Locative {at^ in) J 
 
 L Dative (to, for) Dative 
 
 The Accusative 
 
 529 The Accusative is used mostly with verbs, but also 
 with some adjectives and nouns and with certain 
 prepositions. 
 
 The Outer Object 
 
 530 The Accusative is used as the Direct {Outer^ object 
 of a transitive verb : 
 
 VvoiOi aeavTop hioto thyself. 
 
 2L. Many Greek verbs are transitive whose English 
 
 equivalents require a preposition : 
 
 '"ApKTov TTore i.TTi<\)epop.iv'r]v ovk erpecrev a bear 
 
 that once attached him he did not shrink from. An. l 
 14 
 
210 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 9, 6. ovSe A t a ^iviov rjSeo-drj lie felt no sliame even 
 hefore Zeus^ protector of the stranger. An. m. 2, 4. 
 alyav r u x '^ ^ ^^ ^^^P silent about my fortune, A. 
 
 PB. 106. 
 
 So, among many others, ala-xvvofiai feel sliame before^ ofivvfii 
 stvear by, XavOdvoi escape the notice of (Lat. lateo), ev or /ca^ws 
 TTotw do good or harm to, <f>v\dTTOfjLaL guard against, dfjivvofjiaL 
 defend myself against, TrAew r-^v OdXaTTov sail over the sea, 
 (fiOdvoi get the start of 
 
 b. Some intransitive verbs become transitive when com- 
 pounded with certain prepositions, as Sta^atVw cross, dTroSt- 
 Spda-KO) run away from. 
 
 c. Many verbs vary, and are used now as transitive, now as 
 intransitive. Thus olkovo) hear and ala-OdvofiaL perceive take 
 the accusative and genitive ; />teiu.<^o/xat blame takes the accusa- 
 tive or the dative. Especially in poetry some verbs take the 
 accusative that do not in prose. 
 
 531 A few verbal adjectives and nouns admit a direct object (as 
 participles and infinitives of transitive verbs do regularly) : 
 
 'ETTto-TTy/Aoves rot. KaOyKovra Jcnowing their duty. C. m. 3, 9. 
 o-€ (jiv^LfjLos able to escape thee. S. an. 787. to. /xercwpa <f>pov- 
 TLo-Trj's one who studies things on high. Ap. 18 b. 
 
 a. A phrase may be equivalent to a transitive verb, and so 
 take an accusative : 
 
 TeOvaa-L tw Seet rov^ toiovtovs aTroa-ToXovs they die of fear 
 
 of (are frightened to death at) such expeditions. D. 4, 45. 
 
 532 The Accusative is used after the particles of swear- 
 ing, vTJ and fxd, as with ofjLvvfjn (530 a), vy affirms ; 
 fxd denies, unless vau yes precedes : 
 
 N17 Ata or vol fid Ata yes, hy Zeus; fid Ata or 
 ov fxd Ata no, hy Zeus, 
 
THE ACCUSATIVE 211 
 
 533 In poetry the accusative may denote the limit of motion : 
 
 "H^ct? 'Y^pL(TTTjv TTOTafxbv ov \f/€v8(!)vvfiov thou wilt come to the 
 Brawling stream^ not falsely named. A. pb. 715. o-e toT IXtj- 
 XvOe TTav Kpa.To's to thee all this power has come. S. p. 141. rk 
 7roT€ dyXaas l^as ®r]^ds what art thou that hast come to glo- 
 rious Thebes? S. ot. 153. 
 
 534 Two Accusatives denoting the same person or thing, 
 the direct (outer) object and a predicate accusative, 
 may stand with some verbs : 
 
 Kv pov cr ar p oLTrr] V iiroiiqae koX err paTiqyov he 
 avTov airihei^e lie made Gyrus satrap, and appointed 
 him general also. An. i. i, 2. tov% lxOv<; ol tvpot 
 0eov<; ivofjLi^ov the Syrians regarded the fishes as 
 
 gods. An. I. 4, 9. 
 
 a. These predicate accusatives shade off gradually into 
 simple appositives ; some cases may be taken in either way : 
 
 "ESwKtt Swpcav ra XvTpa I gave the ransom as a gift. D. 
 19, 170. 
 
 b. In the passive the direct object is made subject ; the 
 other accusative remains a predicate noun, agreeing with the 
 subject : 
 
 Kvpos KaT€iriiL^Orj craT pairrj'S, err parrjyo^ 8k (XTreSctx^r; 
 
 Cyrus teas sent dotcn as satrap., and was appointed ge^ieral. 
 An. I. 9, 7. 
 
 535 Two Accusatives, one of the person and one of the 
 thing (double outer object), are found with some 
 verbs, especially those meaning as\ demand, teach, 
 remind, hide, deprive : 
 
 ^Lvpov alreip nXola to ash Gyrus for hoats. 
 An. I. 3, 14. avafJLVijcraj u/xa? Kai rov<; rcov irpoyovoiv 
 Kivhvvov^ I will also remind you of the dangers of 
 
212 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 your forefathers. An. m. 3, ii. ra 17 /x e r e p' 17 /x a ? 
 dTToo-Tepeu he is dejpriving us of our property. D. 4, so. 
 
 The Inner Object 
 
 536 An Accusative of the Inner object (^Cognate Accusa- 
 tive) is found with many verbs. It repeats the mean- 
 ing of the verb in the form of a noun or pronoun. 
 
 a. A noun, with a modifying word or clause (rarely 
 omitted) : 
 
 SrpaTiqyelv ravrrjv ttjv err parrjy lolv to act as 
 general in this campaign. An. i. 3, 15. aWrjv jjih ap- 
 Xr)j^ ovSejjLLav TrwTTore '^p^a I never held any other 
 magistracy. Ap. 32 b. kiv^vv^vo^ tov ^(lyjxTov klvSv- 
 vov I am in the utmost danger. Ap. 34 c. ^wi^vye 
 T7)v ^vy7)v TavTTjv he shared the late exile, a p. 21 a. 
 So hiKoX^eiv hiKr\v TLvd decide a suit, (j)evy€Lv Slktjv 
 TLvd he defendant in a suit^ ypd^^o-dai y po.^r\v nva 
 bring an indictment^ Oveiv rd AvKaia celebrate hy 
 sacrifice the Lyhaiaj etc. 
 
 b. An adjective or pronoun in the neuter : 
 ''^TTadov TL TOLovTov I had sonic such experience 
 
 as this. Ap. 22 a. MeXT^Tft) TovTOiv ovre fxeya ovre 
 fjLLK pov TTcoTTOTe ipu4\.7)(Tev Mclctos uevcr cared either 
 much or little about these matters. Ap. 26 b. So r i 
 Xpyjcr^rai tovtco ; what use will he malce of this ? 
 fxiya ^poveiv be proud {think large)^ irdyra rrd- 
 OeaOai render all obedience^ etc. 
 
 c. Some verbs take both a direct object and a cog- 
 nate accusative : 
 
THE ACCUSATIVE 213 
 
 'H/Act? TO. aucrx'-o'T a alKicrd^evof; hy inflicting 
 on us iJie most shameful outranges. Ax. m. i, is. e/ca- 
 ar ov evepyereiv rrjv ixeyLcrrrjv eve pyea idv to confer 
 on each the greatest benefaction. Ap. 36 c. erepoi he 
 TToXXa Kay ad a 6/xa? elcnv elpyaafxevoL and others 
 have done many good things to yon. l. i6, 19. 
 
 The inner object may stand also with the passive : 
 
 Tt a^LKTjOa.'i VTT ifxov vvv iTTL^ovXevei^ fxoi; tvJiat IVTOng did 
 
 you receive from me, that you are now scheming against me 9 
 An. I. 6, 8. 
 
 d. A few adjectives also take a cognate accusative : 
 
 ^ocfib<i Tr]v €Ketv(i)v (rocf>LdVi d/jiaOr]<s ttjv a^aOCav wise in their 
 
 luisdom, ignorant ivith their ignorance. Ap. 22 e. 
 Freer Accusatives 
 
 637 The Accusative may specify to what particular or de- 
 tail a statement is meant to apply (Specifying Ac- 
 cusative) : 
 
 IIoTa/xog KvSz^og ovofiay evpo<; Svo 7rXe6pa)P a 
 river., Kydnos hy name, of two pletlira vn width. An. 
 
 I. 2, 23. epo)Ti 6i) p,ov eKTr\ayel(j "Idaovof; smitten in 
 heart with love for lason. e. m. 8. diTOTpjt]devTe<i rd^ 
 k: € (^ a X a ? beheaded {having their heads cut off). An. 
 
 II. 6, 1. ^ekr'iov ecm <t co fid y rj xjfv-^rjv vocrelv His 
 better to be ill in body than in soul. Men. 
 
 With many words the dative may be used in the same 
 sense (527 b). 
 
 538 The Accusative of a noun of time or space may de- 
 note extent : 
 
 "E/ietj^e 7/0619 7) fiepd^ he remained three days, 
 irr} yeyovo)^ e^SofjiiJKovTa seventy years old. Ap. 17 d. 
 
214 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 TToXvv xP^^^^ TjTTopovv I lOGS in doubt a long time, 
 
 Ap. 21 b. 
 
 'E^eXavi^et CTTaO fxov eva tt a paa dyy d<; oktco he 
 marches one days journey , eight j^arasangs, airfixov 
 TT]^ *EXXaSo9 ov fjuelov '^ jxvpLa crraSia they were 
 not less than ten thousand stades distant from Greece, 
 
 An. III. 1, 2. 
 
 639 The Accusative may stand in apposition to a clause or sen- 
 tence : 
 
 "EtAt; OvTrjp yevicrOai Ovyarpo^ ttoXc/xwt/ dpwyav he endured 
 
 to sacrifice Ms daughter^ as an aid to ivar. A. ag. 236. rwvS' 
 
 (.Xf-yx^v TovTo fxev ILvOwS' ioiv TrevOov to. xprjaOivTa as a test of 
 
 this^ first go to Pytho and inquire about the response. S. ot. 603. 
 Here belong expressions like irpolKa as a gift, freely^ X^P'-^ 
 Ttvos as a favor to {for the sahe of) some one, TCKfirjpiov as evi- 
 dence, TO /xcyto-Tov as the chief point, to Xeyofievov as the saying 
 is. When placed before the clause, such expressions may pass 
 over into the use mentioned in 491 d. 
 
 540 The Accusative in many expressions has become in 
 effect an adverb. Such Adverbial Accusatives are 
 special forms of the uses described in 536-539, we can 
 not always say which. The following are rather fre- 
 quent : 
 
 Toj/Se TOP TpoTTov in this manner, rrjv Tax^o-rrjv 
 (oSdz^) by the quickest road, most speedily, ovk apxvi^ 
 not at all, hiKr^v like, in the manner of, rrpcoTop at first, 
 TO TTpojTov first, TO XoLTTov hcreaftcr, tl why ? tl some- 
 what, TOVTO or TavTa for this reason. 
 
 541 For the accusative absolute see 591. For the subject of the 
 infinitive see 570 d. 
 
ADJECTIVES 215 
 
 ADJECTIVES 
 
 542 An Adjective takes tlie gender, number, and case of 
 its noun. This applies to all adjectival words that 
 are declined — the article, participles, and adjective 
 pronouns — whether attributive or predicate. 
 
 643 The noun with which an adjectival word agrees is often not 
 expressed ; 
 
 'H Sc^ta the right hand (x^tp), rrjv Taxio-rr^v the quichest ivay 
 {o^ov), fiaKpdv a long way (6Sov), 61 ttoWol the many. 
 
 a. Note the two cases that may arise when the subject of 
 an infinitive is omitted : 
 
 (1) BovXerai (Tocli6<s yevia-Oat he ivishes to hecome tvise. Here 
 the unexpressed subject of the inf. is the same as that of 
 ySovAcTttt, the principal verb ; hence the predicate adjective 
 (ro<l>6<i agrees with the subject of the latter, in the nomi- 
 native. 
 
 (2) KttKov/ayov ecrri KptO €v t* dTro^ai/eiv, orrparriyov Be fxaxo- 
 
 fjievov rots iroX^p.toL's it IS like a Criminal to die by sente7ice of 
 courts hut Wee a general to die fighting with the enemy. D. 4, 47. 
 Here KpSkvra. and fxaxofxevov agree with the understood sub- 
 ject of aTTo^avetv, which subject is omitted because indefinite 
 and general. 
 
 544 By omission of the noun many adjectives become 
 nouns ; any adjective or participle may be so used, 
 most often with the article (cp. 552, 555 b, 582 a), but 
 also without an article : 
 
 AiSaKTov iariv r) apeTij virtue is a tiling that 
 may he taught Pr. 320 b. (Here StSafcroV, instead 
 of agreeing in gender with apeTrj, is a predicate noun.) 
 prjTopLKTJ rhetoric^ the art (jexvrj) of speaking. 
 
^16 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 SPECIAL IDIOMS OF PREDICATION 
 
 545 The commonest form of predication is a simple verb ; the 
 copula elfiL or the like with a predicate adjective or noun is 
 also familiar, and is like English and Latin usage ; the predi- 
 cate noun agreeing with the object is described in 534. But 
 Greek employs the predicate noun and adjective (and par- 
 ticiple) more freely than English or Latin does, and in some 
 peculiar idioms/ 
 
 546 A Predicate noun or adjective (or pronoun) agreeing 
 with the subject often requires in translation a differ- 
 ent construction : 
 
 'Eyo) ere dcr fiev o^ icopaKa I am glad to liave seen 
 you. An. II. 1, 16. 'ETTuaf a tt poT ep a Kvpov et? Tap- 
 crou? dcf)iKeTo Ejpyaxa arrived in Tarsoi hefore Cyrus, 
 An. I. 2, 25. 6 pO pLos 7]K€l<; you have come before sun- 
 rise, Pr. 313 b. o-vjjLTrXeojv iO eXovryj s sailing with 
 them as a volunteer, d. 4, 29. iycj p^ev yeuTcov oIkco 
 TTj 'EXXaSi I live as neighbor to Greece, An. h. 3, 18. 
 
 ^ English uses many predicate adjectives and nouns in a manner like 
 those in 546, 547; but the words so used are mostly different in meaning 
 from those so used in Greek, and they are much fewer and less common: 
 
 Benighted walks under the midday sun.— Milton, Comus. 
 
 To glide a sunheam by the blasted pine. 
 
 To sit a star upon the sparkling spire.— Tennyson, Princess. 
 
 Noon lay heavy on flower and tree.— Shelley, To Night. 
 
 Kneel undisturbed, fair saint. — Thackeray. 
 
 — May find 
 
 Thee sitting careless on a granary floor. — Keats, Ode to Autumn. 
 
 And learns her gone and far from home. — Tennyson, Jw 3Iem., viii. 
 
 So in many common prose expressions : go harefoot, run dry, lie quiet, 
 live secure, come home hungry, also huild a wall high, strike one dumb, 
 walk oneself lame, drink the stream dry, etc. 
 
SPECIAL IDIOMS OF PREDICATION 217 
 
 iXeye Trpwro? TLcr(Ta(f)€pvr)<; Tissapliernes spoke first. 
 An. II. 3, 17. TL9 TTore dyXaa? IJSd? S7]/3d<; ; what art 
 
 tJiou that hast come to glorious Thebes f s. ot. 153. 
 
 547 A Predicate adjective or noun agreeing with the object 
 — accusative, genitive, or dative — often requires a 
 different construction in translation : 
 
 Merewpoi;? i^eKOfJucrav ra? d/xctfd? thei/ lifted 
 the wagons up and brought them out, An. i. 5, 8. yj 
 /BapvSaiiJLova fJi^yjrrjp jjl' €T€K€v surely ill-fated was 
 I at my birth {iny mother bore me as one of evil fate), 
 E. AL. 865. TLva<; ttoO' eSpa? rctcrSe fioi Ood^ere ; what 
 is this session that ye hold? (i. e., tchy sit ye thusf), 
 S. OT. 2. Toi' (TTpaTov iXdaaco rjyayov the army 
 {whicJi) they led {was) smaller, t. i. ii. 
 
 *Hyov/xej^ot avr ov 6 jjl cov tojv ^vjxpid^oiv leading 
 their allies J but leaving them self-governing, t. i. 97. 
 
 XeLfxaSCa) y^prjaO ai At] fjLvco to use Lemnos as win- 
 ter quarters, d. 4, 33. 
 
 548 The predication is sometimes implied, or merely indi- 
 cated by the order, where it must in English be ex- 
 pressed (cp. 552 d) : 
 
 Aid TO ^€.ipOTr\rj6 ea L tol<; \l6ol<; acjyevSopai' be- 
 cause the stones used in their slings were big enough 
 to fill the hand. Ax. m. 3, 17. dveufjievr} rfj SiaLTrj by 
 their mode of life being more relaxed^ i. e., because 
 their mode of life was more relaxed, t. i. 6. Std Ty]v 
 XiqcTTeidi' inl ttoXv avricrx^^^ ^^ because piracy 
 had prevailed loidely, t. i. 7. 
 
218 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 THE ARTICLE 
 
 649 The Article 6, yj, to, originally a demonstrative pro- 
 noun, retains that meaning in a few phrases in Attic 
 prose. 
 
 a. With juieV and Se, in 6 /xeV . . . 6 Se the one . . . 
 the other J in all the cases ; also in to fjuev , . , to Se 
 and TOL /xeV . . . ra Se used adverbially (540) : 
 
 O I jxev iTo^evovy o I S' e(TJ)ev'^6vo)v some used 
 their bows and others their slings. An. m. 3, 7. ra 
 IX ev TL fjLaxojJieT^oL ra Se avairavo^ievoi now fighting 
 a little and now resting. An. iv. i, 14. 
 
 b. In 6 Se, 7) Se, TO Se hut (or and) he (she, this), 
 beginning a sentence, when the subject changes : 
 
 Kvpo(; SlSojctl KXedp^co fivpiov; Sctpet/cov?- 6 Se Xa- 
 ^a)p TO xpvaiov aTpaTevfjua avveke^ev Cyrus gives 
 Klearchos ten thousand darics, and he talcing the 
 money collected an army. An. i. i, 9. 
 
 c. In TTpo Tov hefore this, earlier] also in koI t6v 
 (jyji', Tov<;) and top (rrjv, tov^) Se, when kol 6s e^y), rj 
 S' o9 (560), and the like are changed to the infinitive 
 in indirect quotation (577, 578) : 
 
 K a t TOV eiTTelv and that he said, tov he yeKdaai 
 and that he laughed. 
 
 650 Poets omit the article freely where prose requires it ; they 
 also use it more freely as a demonstrative, and sometimes (as 
 in Homer) as a relative pronoun. 
 
 651 The differences between Greek and English in the use 
 of the article must be learned in reading ; note espe- 
 cially the following : 
 
THE ARTICLE 219 
 
 a. Xames of persons often take the article : 
 
 AtaySaAAet rbv Kvpov he slander s Cyrus; but also o-vXA-a/x- 
 pdvec Kvpov he arrests Cyrus. Ax. i. 1, 3. 
 
 b. Abstract nouns generally have the article : 
 *H (To<j>La. or o-o</>td wisdom. 
 
 c. With a possessive pronoun or a possessive genitive the 
 noun has the article when a definite person or thing is meant : 
 
 *E/xo? <^tAos or </)tAos \kov a friend of mine .,\iVi\, 6 c/xos c^i'Aos 
 or 6 cfiiXos fxov my friend (a definite person). Ata, iv ov tw 
 lep<2 i(Tfji€v Zeus, in whose sacred precinct we are. T. m. 14. 
 TTOTafxo? ov TO cvpos a river tvhose width. 
 
 d. The article alone is often used where English requires a 
 possessive pronoun : 
 
 Ata^aXXet tov Kvpov Trpos tov aBcX<}>6v he h'ings Cyrus into 
 discredit ivith his brother. An. i. 1, 3. 
 
 e. Xames of countries, mostly adjectives by origin, com- 
 monly have the article : 
 
 •H'EXAas Greece. 
 
 f. Names of peoples often omit the article : 
 *A6r]vaLOL or ol ^AOtjvolol the Athenians. 
 
 g. Predicate nouns rarely have the article ; the subject 
 and a predicate noun are often thus distinguished (cp. 652) : 
 
 *Ex^pos av6p(xyn-o? (36 b) the man is an enemy. D. 4, 50. 
 h. For the article with demonstrative pronouns see 553, 
 654. 
 
 662 a. The place just after the article is called the attribu- 
 tive position. Most attributive words take that posi- 
 tion if the noun has an article : 
 
 Ot ayaOoi SyjixLovpyoi the good artisans, 
 b. Sometimes t he_articleand an attributjre stsmd jifter the 
 noun, as if added as an afterthought : 
 
 Kara tov^ vofxovsi tov<s Keifiivov^ according to the laivs, the 
 
 established [laivs). rrjv re ttoAiv Sii^pTraa-av koI to. ^ao-tActa to. iv 
 
 avrfj they plundered both the city and the palace in it. An. 
 I. 2, 26. 
 
220 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 c. If an adjective (or a participle, adverb, or other 
 expression used adjectively) stands before or after 
 both article and noun (the article being before the 
 noun, in the normal order), it is in the predicate posi- 
 tion^ and is a predicate, whether a verb is expressed 
 or not : 
 
 'Aya0ol ol SyjjjLLovpyoi the artisans are good. Kokw 
 TO dO\ov Kol rj cXtti? fjieydXrj the jprize is nohle and our 
 hope great, Ph. 114 c. 
 
 d. An adjective in the predicate position with a 
 noun in the genitive, dative, or accusative often 
 requires special care in translating (cp. 648) : 
 
 Mer' a K paL(j)vov<; T'fj<? fv/x/xa;)(td9 with the alli- 
 ance still intact. T. i. 19. 8ta <^tXtd? r^? x^P^"^ oLTrd^eL 
 he will unake the country friendly in leading us thi'ough. 
 An. I. 3, 14. Kv/D09 xfjik-qv e^wz^ rrji' Ke(j)a\r)v et? rrji' 
 fjioixv^ '<oiOi(TTaTo Cyrus went into the battle with his 
 head hare. An. i. 8, 6. ovk ifiov ipco rov \6yop, aXX' et? 
 d^Loxp^oiv vfjLLv Tov \eyovTa dvoiao) tlie statement I shall 
 onahe will not he mine^ hut the speaker to whom I shall 
 refer it loill he sufficient for you. Ap. 20 e. 
 
 553 But oSe, ovTo^^ and iKelvo^; regularly take the predi- 
 cate position, the noun reguiring the article; when 
 the article is omitted, the noun or the pronoun is a 
 predicate : 
 
 Efcetz^o? 6 TTat? or 6 Trat? i Ke2vo<; yonder hoy. 
 But T avTiqv el privrjv vrrokaiJi^dvei he understands 
 this to he peace, d. 9, 9. r w S e <^ t X o) ;)^pw/xat I treat 
 this man as a friend. 
 
THE ARTICLE 221 
 
 a. Proper names, however, may omit the article ; and if 
 another adjectival expression is used Avith the pronoun, the 
 latter 7nay stand in the attributive position : 
 
 "OSe (6) '^wKpaTTj? this Socrates, ra? CTTtcrroXi/xatous ravrds 
 
 Swa/xets these forces on paper (forces that figure in dispatches). 
 D. 4, 19. TttS i^aLcf)vr)<s ravrds o-Tparetds these sudclen expedi- 
 tions. D. 4, 17. But also Ik Trjs d/AcActd? ravTTjs r^s aydv OUt 
 
 of this too great carelessness. D. 4, 17. 
 
 554 Likewise €KacrTo<;, eKarepos, dfjL(j)0)y diJL(j)6T€po<; take tlie 
 predicate position, if the noun has the article. So 
 also a personal or a relative pronoun in the possessive 
 genitive (e/iov, fiov, rjjJLwVy crov, v/jlcov, avTov, avrwi', ov, 
 S)Vj etc.), with the same exception for the personal 
 pronouns as for oSe, etc. (553 a) : 
 
 To) TToihe d[i(f)OT e pcj hotll his SOUS. rj 770X19 
 rjfjLwv our state. 
 
 a. But the reflexives used possessively {liiavrov, kavrov, etc.) 
 take the attributive position, if the article is present : 
 
 'H kavTov x^P^ ^^'^^ ^^^ laJid. 
 
 555 a. An adverbial expression is made adjectival by 
 standing in the attributive position : 
 
 Ot irdXaL 'AOrjvoiOL the Athenians of old. rj 
 oLKaSe 686s the tvay ho7ne. twv olkol dvriaracrKx)' 
 TO)v his ojyponents at home. An. i. i, lo. rjTore pcojjLT] 
 T(op AaKeSaLfxovLcov, rj vvv vj^pLS tovtov the strength 
 of the Spartans then, the insolence of this man noio. 
 D. 4, 3. 
 
 b. An adjectival expression is made in effect a noun 
 by having an article before it and no noun after it : 
 
 Ot 77 a X a t the men of old. ol ttoXXo l the many, 
 the masses, ol d/K^l^Aj/uro^ Anytos and his fol- 
 
222 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 lowers (those about Anytos), 6 ^ovXojxevos any 
 one who wishes, ovk eo-nv 6 ToXfxT] acov there is no 
 one loho will dare. An. h. 3, 5. 
 
 c. Any quoted word, phrase, or clause is made a noun by 
 prefixing to : 
 
 To fjLTjSev aydv the saying^ '"' Nothing 1 00 far. "^^ 
 
 d. Some adverbial expressions are extended and made ad- 
 verbial accusatives (540) by prefixing r6 or ra : 
 
 Ta vvv now. TO KttT* €/>t€ tts Tegavcls me. to h\ ottws, 
 TovTo Aeye })ut the how^ tell us that. D. 3, 10. 
 
 656 Distinguisli 
 
 TToWd many things^ ra TroWd most things^ in most 
 cases ; 
 
 TTokv muchj TO TTokv the greater part ; 
 irXeicTTOL very many^ ol 7r\eicrroi most people, the 
 majority. 
 
 Also r) fxecrrj ttoXc? the city between (two others), 
 /xecTTy "T] TToXts or J] TToXt? /AecTT/ the midst of the 
 city ; 
 Tj icrxdrrj x^P^ the farthest land, 
 
 io-xdrr) rj X^P^ ^^ V X^P^ icrxdrr] the edge of 
 the land ; 
 6 [Lovo^ vto9 the only son, 
 fjLovos 6 utd? or 6 uto? fjLovo^; the son only. 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 557 The endings of the verb indicate the person (first, 
 second, or third) with sufficient clearness ; hence the 
 personal pronouns in the nominative, eyw, av, r}fji€L<;, 
 u/xet?, are used only when emphasized. So in the 
 third person ovto<;, oSe, or eKeivos as subjeqjb : 
 
PRONOUNS 223. 
 
 'Eyw oKvoLTjv OLT/ ifx/BaLveLv I should myself hesi- 
 tate to go aboard, An. i. 3, 17. aXX' elhev tovto Ka\a>s 
 eKelvo^ but HE saw this clearly, d. 4, 5. 
 
 658 For the three meanings of auros see 199. Note that when 
 standing alone in the nominative auros always means ipse^ 
 emphasizing some word understood : 
 
 AvTos ^wetSoj? (ji-qa-Lv; does lie say it of his oiun Icnoivledgef 
 S. OT. 704. rj^ei yap avrd things ivill come of themselves. S. ot. 
 341. avTos £<^r/ he himself (the master) said it, ipse dixit. 
 
 In other cases also the word emphasized by avro? may be 
 omitted : 
 
 nXevareW €t5 ravrd? avro t S iiJi/3a(TLv yOU must Sail, going 071 
 
 toard in person {vfiiv being understood). D. 4, 16. 
 
 a. Note also the idiomatic use of avros with an ordinal 
 numeral : 
 
 *Hip€^i; Trpea-jSevrrjs ScKaro? avT6<s he ivas chosen amhassor 
 dor with nine others {himself tenth). II. ii. 2, 17. 
 
 559 In phrases like -q/xerepa avroiv our own things the possessive 
 pronoun (adjective) and the possessive genitive are put side 
 by side, as equivalent constructions, instead of Ty/xwv avrcuv, etc. 
 
 560 "O? retains its earlier force, as a demonstrative, in a 
 few phrases : 
 
 '^H 8' 9 said he. koI 65 6(^17 and he said. So 
 Koi 77, /cat ot. Cp. 549. 
 
 a. For the use of os as a relative see 613, 614. 
 
 561 a. Ovro5 in the nominative is sometimes used in call- 
 ing to a person : 
 
 Ovro9, TL 7roLeL<? you there, what are you doing? 
 
 Ar. r. 198. 
 
 b. Note also o8e, ovrro^^, or e/ceti/09 in the predicate, 
 translated by here, there, etc. : 
 
•224 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 "O S' Ik SofjLojv Trepa here he comes from the house, 
 S. AN. 386. vrjeq eKelv ai iTmrXeovcn yonder are ships 
 sailing in. t. i. si. otSe TratSe? crTeixov(Ti here come 
 the hoys, e. m. 46. 
 
 INFINITIVES 
 
 562 The Infinitive is a verbal noun wliose range of use has 
 been much enlarged. Originally a to oy for dative, it 
 retains that force in some of the most common con- 
 structions (665, 566) ; the others are developed from 
 this, but the connection is not always clear. The 
 English infinitive with to is in many uses closely 
 parallel. 
 
 a. As a verb, the Infinitive has voice and tense, though it 
 does not distinguish person or number; it may take a subject 
 in the accusative, and an object (accusative, genitive, or 
 dative), like the rest of the verb to which it belongs ; it is 
 modified by adverbs and particles, including av. 
 
 As a noun it may in some uses take the article (neuter) 
 and so be marked as having a noun construction in any case 
 but the vocative. 
 
 563 The present, aorist, and perfect Tenses of the Infini- 
 tive distinguish kinds of action (as in the subjunc- 
 tive, optative, and imperative, 475, 483, 484), not dif- 
 ferences of time. The future puts the action in a 
 time later than that of the principal verb. 
 
 a. When the infinitive represents a finite verb, it retains 
 the tense and tense meaning of the form which it replaces 
 (577). 
 
 564 The negative with an infinitive is usually fxrj, except 
 when the infinitive represents an original finite verb 
 
INFINITIVES 225 
 
 which had ov ; and even then after some verbs there 
 is a tendency to change ov to fxij (579 a). 
 
 565 The Infinitive may be connected, as a to ov for dative, 
 with verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or with a 
 whole phrase : 
 
 Tr^v ^(i)pav iweTpexlfe S ca piT dcr ai rot? '^^Wrjcnv he 
 gave the land over to the Greeks to plunder {^forijhin- 
 dering). Ax. i, 2, 19. TroXXat dfia^ai rjcrav (j)epecr at 
 tliere were many tvagons to he carried off. Ax. n. i, 6. 
 ov^ a>pd Kad evSeiv ouS* afxekeiv rjfJL(t)P avrcov it is no 
 time for sleeping or for leing careless of ourselves. 
 
 Ax. I. 3, 11. 
 
 a. This Dative Infinitive has a wide range of mean- 
 ing, from simple purpose to cases where it merely 
 defines the application of a Avord or phrase. The 
 dative force can usually be seen, but in or some other 
 preposition may be necessary in translation : 
 
 EtXeo-^e dpx^i^v fjLov you cliose (tJiem) to rule over 
 me. Ap. 28 e. eTOLjjLos \eyeiv ready to speak (^for 
 speaking). Seuvo^ \iyeiv skilled in {with reference 
 to) speaking, ovx v^^a aKoveiv not pleasant to 
 ■hear. D. 4, 38. oXo^ det TTore /xeraySaXXecr^at 
 {such^ as to he alivays changing, h. n. 3, 45. . iKavoq 
 Td<; oLKpoTTokuq (jyvXcLTTeiv sufficient for guarding 
 the citadels. Ax. i. 2, l. Y^Xiap-yo^ cnvyvo% r^v o pdv 
 Klearchos was repulsive to see. Ax. n. 6, 9. ovroi 
 o-vvexO^Lv dXXd (Tvp.j)iXelv e^vv I am not one 
 {ivas not horn) to join in hatred, hut in love. s. ax. 
 523. ToaovTov hid) bp.oXoyelv SO far am I from 
 
 15 
 
226 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 agreeing {I lack so much with reference to agreeing). 
 D. 9, 17. v6(Tr)fjia jjuel^ov rj (j)€peLv a trouble too great 
 to bear (greater than for bearing^, s. ot. 1293. 
 
 b. Note the use with Ixw : 
 
 OvSei/ €tx€ <l>pd(raL he had nothing to tell. S. ot. 119. This 
 easily passes into the meaning he could tell nothing ; hence 
 €Xw becomes practically equal to Swa/^ai, taking an infinitive 
 (most often a word of saying) with or without an object : ovSk 
 Sivpo toi/T€s €K T^s x'^^po''^ ovSev €LxofJicv XafjL/3dv€iv even when coining 
 hither we could not taJce anything from the country. An. ii. 2, 11. 
 
 666 The Infinitive with w? or aio-re is used 
 
 a. With adjectives in the comparative, or imply- 
 ing comparison : 
 
 'OXtyot ws iyKpaTets elvai too few to Iiave power. 
 C. IV. 5, 15. ^paxvrepa rj w? i^LKvelaOai too short 
 to reach. An. m. 3, 7. eXarrw €\ovTa h-uvapLiv rj axTTe 
 Tov<; (J)lXov<; cjcjyeXelv having too little force to aid his 
 friends (less than as for aiding), h. iv. 8, 23. yepojv 
 eKeivo^ axTTe a a)(j)€\e2v he is old for aiding you. 
 
 E. AND. 80. 
 
 b. To denote result, especially an intended result ; 
 wcrre is the usual word in prose, often preceded by a 
 demonstrative ; the idea of intention gradually fades 
 out : 
 
 YXyov ra openava et? yrjv f^XeTrovra w? Z laKoir- 
 T€Lv they had the scytlies extending toivard the ground 
 (as) for cutting in tivo (whomever they came on). 
 An. I. 8, 10. vTreXctcrd? w? crvv avTrj a at riding u/p so 
 as to meet him. An. i. 8, 15. vvkt6% teVai, ws fjurj 
 
INFINITIVES 227 
 
 opaaOai to go hy night so as not to he seen. Ax. iv. 
 6, 13. -^povcp TTOT i^eiTpd^av W9 Sovpau hiKTjv at 
 length they have lorought it out so as to pay the pen- 
 alty, S. AN. 303. 
 
 MT^^az^al TToXXat elaiv coctt e S La(f) evy eiv Odva- 
 Tov many devices there are for escaping death. Ap. 39 a. 
 TTOLPTas ovTO) StttTt^ei? ojcTTe avTco (f)L\ov^ eXvau SO 
 disposing all {jnitting all into such disp)osition) as to 
 he friendly to him. Ax. i. i, 5. e)^oj r/jtTypet? wcrre 
 ikelv TO iKetpcov it\oiov I have triremes so as to catch 
 their hoat. Ax. i. 4, 8. 8etV iiriqTreiXei, wcrr' ovre vvk- 
 TOf; VTTVov ovT i^ r)iJiepd<; e/xe ar ey d^eLv he made 
 dreadful threats^ so that neither hy night nor day did 
 sleep cover me. s. e. 780 f. The last example comes 
 very close to tlie use of ware witli an indicative, de- 
 noting an actual result (639 a). 
 
 c. Sometimes oio-Tc. with the infinitive states a condition or 
 proviso (cp. 567) : 
 
 Twv XolttCjv apx^LV 'EAXt/j/wv, ware aurov? vTraKoveiv /Jao-tAet 
 
 to rule the rest of the Greeks, provided they ivoiild (so as to) 
 themselves ohey the Iciyig. D. 6, 11. 
 
 567 The Infinitive after ec^' w or ec^' wre states a condi- 
 tion or proviso : 
 
 I o ecpacrav aTTOococreLv ecp co firj Kaeiv rag otKta? 
 and they said they would give hach (the dead), on con- 
 dition of their not hurning the houses. Ax. iv. 3, 19. 
 d(f)L€fjL€v cr€j eVt rovrcp fxevroL, i(f)* <5t€ fjL7]K€TL (^tXo- 
 o-o(j)€2v we let you off^ on this condition hotvever, that 
 you no longer seek tvisdom. Ap. 29 c. 
 
228 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 668 The Infinitive is used with TrptV before : 
 
 ALe^r)crav tt p iv rov^ aXXov<; oltt o k ptv acr au 
 they crossed before tlie others answered. An. i. 4, i6. 
 Kareiyii irpiv fxoi fJLoipav e^rJKeiv ^iov I go down 
 before 7ny allotted term of life is over. s. an. 896. 
 
 For irpiv with finite modes see 644. 
 
 a. Earely Trporepov rj with the infinitive has the same mean- 
 ing. 
 
 669 The Infinitive is used in some idiomatic phrases, partly off- 
 shoots of the dative infinitive (666 a and b), partly standing 
 nearer to the adverbial accusative (540). Among the most 
 frequent are : 
 
 *Os €t7ret]/ or ws eTTos eiTTcti/ SO to speah^ softening an expres- 
 sion that might seem too strong, (ws) o-wcAoVrt dirdv in a word 
 (for one to say^ taking it together)., w? dKaa-ai to make a guess^ 
 i/xoL 8oK€Lv, in my vietv, as it seems to me, oXtyov Setv almost (to 
 lack little), iKibv cTvat willingly, to vvv elvai for the present, to 
 Kara tovtov ehat as regards him. 
 
 570 The Infinitive is used as object with many verbs : 
 
 a. As the only object : 
 
 liiOelv Tirana? ovk rjSvvijOrjv J coidd not per- 
 suade the Titans, a. pb. 220. e/xeXXe /caraXuetj/ he 
 loas intending to halt. An. i. 8, 1. et? IllcrtSd? fiovXo- 
 /xei^o? err parevecrO au Wishing to make an expedi- 
 tion against the Pisidians, An. i. 1, 11. ^o^oiprqv 
 av eVecr^at I should be afraid to follow. An. i. 3, 17. 
 
 b. With /xeAXo) intend, am about, the future infinitive is 
 often used (also the present, sometimes the aorist) : 
 
 MeAAo) v/^ias 8 1 S a ^ e t V I am ahout to explain to you. Ap. 21 b. 
 
 e/xeXXev avrui KaXw re KayaOoi Troi-^acLv he was likely to make 
 
 them what they should he. Ap. 20 a. efxeXXc KaraXvetv he 
 
INFINITIVES 229 
 
 was alout to halt. An. i. 8, 1. /xeAAw -n-aOelv I am aloiit to 
 suffer. A. pb. 652. 
 
 In all other uses the future infinitive may be regarded as 
 representing an indicative (577, 578). 
 
 c. With another object : 
 
 Tou9 67r\tTd<; eKeXevaev avrov ^elvai he hade the 
 hoplites remain there. An. i. 5, 13. iiroLrjae ^vevvecriv 
 fjLrj hvvacrOai /caret yrjv ivavriovcrOaL ^vpco (the Spar- 
 tan naval commander) made 8yennesis unable to op- 
 pose Gyrus hy land. h. m. l, l. at y^hovaX ireiOovcTi 
 T7)v ^vxy]v jjirj cr CO (f) pov el V pleasures urge the soul 
 not to use self-control, m. i. 2, 23. 
 
 d. From such uses as the last the accusative came 
 to be regarded * as the subject of the infinitive : 
 
 'E^ouXero ro) TratSe afX(j)OT€p(o irapelvaL he 
 wished both his sons to he near. an. i. i, i. ScoKpdrrj^; 
 TjyeLTo 9eovs iravTa elhivai Sohrates believed that 
 the gods Iciioio everything, m. i. i, lo. 
 
 Thus arose the infinitive clause with subject accusative, 
 which received a wide extension, as in Latin. 
 
 571 The subject of an infinitive is omitted when it is the 
 same as that of the leading verb ; a modifier of the 
 subject, whether predicative or attributive, then 
 agrees with the subject of the leading verb : 
 
 *0 S' VTT eerier o avhpX e/cacrrw hoxj eiv Trivre dpyv- 
 
 ^ A similar growth can be traced in English, in such a sequence as : 
 
 (1) It is good for us to he here, (2) For us to be here is good, (3) For us 
 to be here is a proof of our friendship. In (1) for us modifies good ; in 
 
 (2) the same construction is possible, but one is inclined to take for us to 
 be here as a clause, the subject of is good ; in (3) the last construction is 
 the only one possible. 
 
230 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 pLov fjLvoL'; and he promised that he woidd give five 
 minae in money to each man (cp. 677 a). An. i. 4, 13. 
 Heparjs e^i? elvai he said he tvas a Persian, An. 
 
 IV. 4, 17. 
 
 a. A predicate noun or adjective remains in the nomi- 
 native when the infinitive, with subject omitted, has the 
 article, or depends on a preposition : 
 
 'Opeyo/xevot ToO Trpwros lKa<jro^ y lyv ^a-Oai stfiving each 
 
 to get ahead of the other {to 'become first). T. n. 65, 10. ovk iirl 
 Tw SovXoL elvai cKTrc/xTroj/rat uttolkol not 071 the iasis of being 
 subjects are colo7iists sent out. T. i. 34, 1. 
 
 b. If the subject is omitted because indefinite or general, 
 a predicate or attributive modifier of it is in the accusative : 
 
 AtKtttov €v TrpaTTovra /xe jxvrjo-O ai Oeov it is jUSt to re- 
 
 7nember God when one is prospering. Men. 
 
 c. When the omitted subject is the same as the 
 object of the leading verb, that object being in the 
 genitive or dative, a modifier of the subject may be 
 either in the same case or in the accusative : 
 
 Kvpo^ irapayyeWei KXeap^co \a ^ovr i r^Kuv ocrov 
 Tjv avTcp (TTparevfJiaj Kai Hei^ia r)K€iv TrapayyiWei Xa- 
 ^6vT a Tov<; d\Xov<; Cyrus ordered Klearchos to come, 
 hringing all the force he had ; and he ordered Xenias 
 to come, hringing the others. An. i. 2, 1. YJvpov iSeovro 
 ct)9 TT p oOvfxoT dr ov yev4(T0 ai they ashed Cyrus to 
 shotv himself as zealous as possible, h. i. 5, 2. 
 
 572 With verbs meaning forhid, prevent, deny, escape, 
 or aim in any way at a negative effect/ the infini- 
 
 ^ Cp. " You may as well forbid the mountain pines 
 
 To wag their high tops, and to make no noise, 
 When they are fretten with the gusts of heaven." 
 
 Mer. of Ven., iv, 1. 
 
INFINITIVES 231 
 
 tive often has /lat;, tliougli Englisli omits the nega- 
 tive : 
 
 'Aj/reXeyd^ rti^e? firj livai Traz^ra? S077ie opposed^ 
 urging that all should not go, An. n. 5, 29. rov avhp 
 OLTravSco fJLyjr^ ev^e^ea 9 ai jxiJTe 7rpo(j(j)(ove'LV 
 riva this man I forhid any one to receive or address, 
 S. OT. 238. eyo) fjiovo^; rjvavTLcoOrji' jitT^Sei/ Trouelv irapa 
 Tov^ pojjLov^; I alone opposed doing anything contrary 
 to the latvs. Ap. 32 b. filKpop i^e(j)vy€ firj Karaire- 
 T pcoOrjvcLL he barely escaped being stoned to death. 
 An. I. 3, 2. Karapvel fxrj heh p aKevau raSe ; do you 
 deny that you have done this ? s. ax. 442. 
 
 a. M^ with an infinitive becomes /a^ ov if the leading verb 
 has a negative, or is in a question implying a negative : 
 
 OvScv eSwaro dvT€;(etv /x^ ov \a. p it, f.(T B ai lie COuld fiot liold 
 
 out at all against granting the favor. C. i. 4, 2. rt 8^Ta /xeAAeis 
 IXT] ov ycyiov LOT K€Lv TO TTOLv ; tvliy then do you delay (i. e., do 
 not delay) to tell the whole? A. pb. 654. rt c/xttoSojv /xr) ov^t 
 airoOavelv; ivhat is to hinder (i.e., ovScv i/jLTToSwv) our heing 
 put to death 9 An. hi. 1, 13. 
 
 b. Most of these verbs admit also the simple infinitive 
 without ^rf or /a^ ov : 
 
 Tl KO}Xv€L Kol TO. oLKpa -qfuv KiXcveLV Kvpov TTpoKaToXafx^dviiv ', 
 
 ivhat hinders our bidding Cyrus occupy the hights also for us? 
 An. I. 3, 16. 
 
 c. With verbs of hindering and the like the infinitive may 
 also have the article tov^ as a from genitive (509) : 
 
 K.(i)Xv(r€Lev av rov kolclv eTTtovra? he tvould prevent them 
 from this attaclcing and btirning. An. i. 6, 2. 
 
 673 Some of the above infinitives, even those plainly dative in ori- 
 gin, occasionally have t6, especially in poetry : 
 
 OvTOL €ia-LV jJLOVOL CTL TJfUV ifXTToSoiV TO fXT] rj^YJ cTvaL €vOa TTttAai 
 
 o-n-evSofiev these alonc are still in the way of our toeing at once 
 
232 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 ivliere tue have so long leen eager to he. An. iv. 8, 14. to pCa 
 ttoXItwv Spav £<^i}v d/xijxavo? act in defiance of the state I can 
 not. S. AN. 79 f. KapStds 8* e^io-Ttt/xat to 8pav yet from my hearfs 
 purpose I ivithclraiu to do it. S. an. 1106. <^6^o<i av$' vttvov -napa- 
 a-Tarei, to /jirj jSXecfiapa a-vjxpaXelv fear instead of sleep stands 
 near, that I close not my eyes. A. a. 15. 
 
 The TO seems to bring these infinitives into connection 
 with the specifying accusative (537), whicli is in effect much 
 like a looser for dative, such as we translate by with reference 
 to (523 a). 
 
 574 Tlie Infinitive without or with to is used as the sub- 
 ject of many verbs — also as a predicate noun or an 
 appositive : 
 
 TpdfjijjLaTa fxaO elv Set koX fxaOoPTa vovp e ^ eiv 
 one must learn letters^ and after learning them have 
 Sefise, Men. iSoKei [jlol ravrrj ir ei pacrO ai croiOrjvai 
 it seemed to me best to try to save myself in this way. 
 L. 13, 15. dyaOoi<; vplv TrpocnJKeL elv ai it hefits you to 
 he hrave. An. m. 2, ll. tovto vficov SeojJLaij fjujre av- 
 IJidt^eiv fX7]Te 6 opv ^elv this I ash of yoUj neither 
 to he surprised nor to make a disturhance. Ap. it c 
 
 a. Instead of an impersonal verb with the infinitive as sub- 
 ject, a personal construction is often used with the infinitive 
 depending on the verb or adjective : 
 
 Kat yap ov^\ rroppio SoKov/xev /jlol avTov KaOrjcrOaL (instead of 
 
 ov SoK€L KaOrjorOai) for in fact we seem to he encamped not far 
 from him. An. i. 3, 12. Stxato? ei/^t dTroAoy^o-ao-^at (instead 
 of StKaioi/ co-Ttv d.) it is right that I m alee my defense. Ap. 18 a. 
 
 575 The Infinitive with rov or rco may be used in any 
 genitive or dative construction that is suitable to its 
 meaning : 
 
INFINITIVES 233 
 
 Nebt? TO alyav KpelrTov ecrrt r ov XaXelv for 
 young people silence is better than talking. Men. ap- 
 faj^re? r ov hia^aiveLv heing first in crossing. An. 
 1.4,15. Ikto^ el Tov fxeWeLv oltt oO vrjcr k€lv av- 
 piov you are free from the prospect of dying to-morrow, 
 Cr. 46 e. TO 8e TTf iTTLfJieXeLa Trepieivai tcov (fyCXcov kol 
 T (p 7rpo6vfJie2a9ai yapit^eadai, TavTa ifJiOLye jxaX- 
 Xop SoKei ayacTTa elvai hut tlie excelling his friends in 
 attentiveness and in Ms eagerness to do favors, this 
 ratlier to my mind appears admirable, an. i. 9, 24. ov 
 Trpo? T (o TToXet? avTj pTj Kev ai TiOrjcn tol HvOua ; be- 
 sides having destroyed states, does he not conduct the 
 Pythian festival ? D. 9, 32. eVt r &> awoicreiv Tama 
 ireirela-O ai Xeyeuv alpovp.ai I choose to spealc because 
 of my conviction that these measures will be for your 
 interest, d. 4, 5i. Kiv^wevaaiT av tco top 'EWtJo-- 
 TTovTov aXXoT pLcodrjp at you would be endangered 
 by the fact that the Hellespont has become another'^ s, 
 
 D. 9, 18. 
 
 576 An Infinitive with tov is sometimes used tQ express purpose : 
 
 MtVo)5 TO XxjCTTLKov KaOrjpiL TOV TttS TTpoaoSovs fxaXXov l i V a L 
 
 avTio Mmos put doivn piracy, that his 7'evenues might cofne to 
 him better. T. i. 4. 
 
 This may be regarded as a genitive of cause ; v-n-ep or eve/ca 
 is sometimes put with it. 
 
 577 An Infinitive clause, with or without the article, often 
 represents a sentence with a finite verb ; the original 
 sentence is thus changed to a noun and made part of 
 another sentence, in one of the constructions above 
 described. Most often such an infinitive is the sub- 
 
234: SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 ject or object of a verb of saying or tlmiking — that 
 is, a verb meaning say, tell, Jiear, learn, or thinh, be- 
 lieve, hnow, and the like. In such infinitive clauses 
 
 a. The original tense and tense-meaning are re- 
 tained, the time (if the original verb was an indica- 
 tive) being relative to that of the principal verb. The 
 future infinitive is found chiefly in this use. 
 
 An imperfect or pluperfect indicative, as these 
 tenses are not made in the infinitive, is represented 
 by the present or perfect — the infinitive of the same 
 tense-system. 
 
 b. If the original sentence had ov, that is usually 
 retained, but is sometimes changed to /xt; (579 a). 
 
 c. If an original indicative or optative had av, 
 that is retained. Thus av with an infinitive shows 
 that the infinitive represents an indicative or optative 
 with av (579). 
 
 578 The Infinitive representing a finite verb often stands 
 as object with certain verbs of saying or tMnhing : 
 
 'Eyw ^7)1X1 ravra <l>kvdpid<; elvai (representing 
 ravra <^\vdpiai etcrt) I say tJiat this is nonsense. An. 
 I. 3, 17. avT i\ey eiv (f)rj^ Tol<i /BovXojxevoL^; rjixd^ dno- 
 Xiaai you say you spohe against (avreXeyov, 577 a) 
 those who wished to destroy us, l. 12, 26. ovk e(j)r} 
 6 fjielcrO at he said he would not taJce an oath (ovk 
 ofjLOVfxaL). n. I. 3, 11. 6ix6aavTe<; opKov^ rj jjltjv jxr) 
 fjivrjo-LKaKt] creLv taking oaths that they would verily 
 maintain amnesty for the j^ast {ov fivrjo-LKaKijao), ov 
 being here changed to fjnj because of the idea of will 
 implied in an oath), n. n. 4, 43. 
 
INFINITIVES 235 
 
 No/itX<^ v/xa? ifjiol elvai koi irarpiha koL (J)l\ovs I 
 think you are (yixels iare) to me both country and 
 friends, An. i. 3, 6. 'oloixepou ra Trdvra vIkolv koX 
 Kvpov 1,7] V tJmiking they loere completely mctorious 
 and Gyrus was alive (viKWfjiev, ^tJ). Ax. n. i, i. ^^a? 
 iycoye olkovo) tov<; Aa/ceSai/xoz^tov? cac TraiScov KkeTrreiv 
 fieXerav I hear that you Spartans practise stealing 
 from childhood (/AeXerare). An. iv. 6, 14. Treicreo-d ai 
 TTpoaSoKcov expecting that he will suffer (Tretcrojitat). 
 D. 6, 18. apa it po ah o kolv avrov<; roiavTa TreiOeaO ai 
 oieaOe do you suppose they expected (irpoaeSoKcov) to 
 he suffering like this f d. 6, 20. 
 
 a. So also as the subject (with Xeyerat and the like, 574), 
 as appositive, and in the personal construction (574 a) : 
 
 'EAcyero Ku/aw Sovvat ^-qy.a.Ta TroXXd she ICaS Said to liave 
 
 giveyi Cyrus a large su7n. An. i. 2, 12. Tov<i dyaOovs ek TroXe/jiov 
 wfjioXoyrjTo 8ta<^€/3ovTw? rlfjidv lie was acTc7iowledged to lionor ex- 
 ceptio7ially those who ivere good for war. An. i. 9, 14. koX ydp 
 
 ovSk TToppo) SoKov/xev /xoi avrov KaOrjcrOat for We seeM tO me to ie 
 
 encamped hy no means far from him. An. i. 3, 12. 
 
 b. Future infinitives with ui(n(. fall under this head, 
 scarcely differing at all from ^(tt^ with a future indicative 
 (639 a) : 
 
 Mwpia TYjXiKavTrjv riyela-Oai ttoXlv olk€iv to fieyeOo'; wcrre jxr] 8ct- 
 
 vov 7reto-€o-^at it is folly to thinh the state we live in is so 
 great that tve shall suffer nothing serious. D. 9, 67. 
 
 579 An Infinitive with dv represents an indicative or 
 optative witli dv (461, 467, 479, 480), the context alone 
 determining which : 
 
 'Akovco KaKehaip.oviov<; rore ipi^akovra^ a v koX Ka- 
 K(0(TavTa<; ttjv ya)pav dv a^o) p elv in olkov irdXiv I 
 hear that the Spartans in those times^ after invading 
 
236 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 and TO/vaging the land, woidd then tvithdraw toward 
 home again (avexf^pow av, 461 a), d. 9, 48. KOpo? 
 apiCTTO^ a V So/cet ap^o)v yeve&O ai it seems likely 
 that Cyrus loould have been an unusually good ruler 
 (^dpiaTos av kyivero^ 467 c). 0. 4, 18. apa avTov^ Xe- 
 yovTo<; av nvos ttictt ever ai otecrOe ; do you think 
 they ivould have believed any one if he said it? 
 (\eyovTO<; av Tivo<; irficTTevaav ;) D. 6, 20. 
 
 Sw vixiv p,ev av oXfiai elvai TtfXLo<; ^vith you J think 
 I should be in honor (jtixio^ av eirjv, 479). An. i. 3, 6. 
 iirLCTTeve fjL7)S€v av irapa ra? airovha^^ TraOelv he was 
 confident that he would stiff er nothing contrary to the 
 agreement {ovSev av 7ra^ot/xi). An. i. 9, s. 
 
 a. Some of the above examples illustrate the tendency to 
 change original ov to /xtJ with the infinitive after words mean- 
 ing stvear, promise, Jiope, and the like ; the notion of tvill in 
 the verb seems to affect the negative. 
 
 For exclamatory and imperative infinitives see 492. 
 
 For farther treatment of indirect discourse see 667-664. 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 580 The Participle is a verbal adjective, essentially like 
 the English participle in use ; but its full declension 
 enabled the range of the Greek participle to be ex- 
 tended much farther in some directions. 
 
 a. As a verb the participle has voice and tense, and may 
 take an object (accusative, genitive, or dative) or an adverbial 
 modifier. 
 
 As an adjective it is declined, and agrees with a noun or 
 pronoun, (1) attributively, with or without the article, (2) as 
 a predicate, belonging to either subject or object. 
 
PARTICIPLES 237 
 
 681 The present, aorist, and perfect tenses of the participle denote 
 the kind of action rather than time ; the present denotes con- 
 tinuance or repetition, the aorist denotes simple occurrence 
 or attainment, the perfect denotes a completed act or a con- 
 tinued state (cp. 475, 563). 
 
 a. But when a participle represents an indicative clause, 
 the tenses retain the tense-meaning of the indicative, and de- 
 note time present, past, or future relatively to that of the lead- 
 ing verb. The future participle is always so used ; for the 
 other tenses the context alone determines whether the time- 
 value is intended or not (cp. 677). 
 
 Note examples in the following sections. 
 
 682 The Attributive Participle agrees directly witli a noun, 
 witli or without an article : 
 
 To, KaO eaTT] KOT a irpdyfjiaTa the existing situa- 
 tion (c(ffairs^ government). K:e/caXXte7ri7/xeVot>9 
 Xoyov9 finely worded speeches. Ap. it b. 
 
 a. The Attributive Participle is often used without a noun, 
 thus becoming itself a noun (555 b). Such a phrase, if brief, 
 may sometimes be rendered by an English noun ; if longer, 
 its nearest equivalent is a relative clause : 
 
 Ot AeyovTcs the speakers, ol aKovovTcs tlie hearers, ol 
 
 evoiKovvres the inhabitants, rf re/covcra the mother, €LKrj 
 
 Xeyofiiva things stated carelessly, ra avrots /3e^tw/xeVa their 
 lives {things lived hy tliein), to. So^^avra t^ o-r/aarta the opin- 
 ion {decision) of the army. An. i. 3, 20. 
 
 Ot ravrriv r-qv (fitjfjirjv Kara(TK€8dcravT€<S those ivho have 
 
 spread this report', tov? raura t,r]TovvTa^ those who investi- 
 gate these matters. Ap. 18 c w KaTaif/rjcfua-d/jLevoL fxov you 
 who voted agai7ist me. A p. 39 b. 
 
 b. Common phrases are 6 fiovX6fjievo<s any one who wishes, 
 6 Tv^wv any chance comer. Note also KaAov/^evo? and Acyo/xevos 
 in phrases like Kprjvrj rj MtSov KaXovfjiiv-q the spring called 
 
238 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 Midas'' s^ the so-called spri7ig of Midas \ tov Uphv KaXov^x^vov 
 TToXefiov the war called Sacred^ the so-called Sacred war. 
 
 c. With ov such a participial phrase refers to a particular 
 person, thing, or class ; with fLrj (486) the phrase is more gen- 
 eral, a merely supposed case : 
 
 Tots fxr] TTct^o/xevots fxereixeXe any ivho did iiot talce his 
 advice repented. M. i. 1, 4. (rot's ov Tret^o/^evots would have 
 meant those people, a definite class, tvho in fact did not take 
 his advice.) 
 
 683 A Participle often agrees attributively with a noun or 
 pronoun, without the article, adding some circum- 
 stance of the main action. {Circumstantial Parti- 
 ciple?) 
 
 English uses the same construction, hut less freely ; a 
 better rendering is often a relative clause, or an adverbial 
 phrase or clause (of time, manner, cause, means, concession, 
 condition), or even another verb parallel to the leading verb. 
 The circumstantial participle without av represents an indica- 
 tive ; the tense therefore generally denotes time (581 a). 
 
 *H fJiTJrrjp vnrjp^e Kvpco (fyiXovcr a avrov fxaWov his 
 mother sufpjported Cyrus., loving him more, An. i. i, 4. 
 d Kova dcr L to2<s (TTpaTrjyoi^ ravra eSof e to cTTpdrevyia 
 avvayayeiv on hearing this the generals decided to call 
 together the army, Axx. iv. 4, lo. 6 Se eXirtSa? Xeycov 
 SiTJye but he Icept putting tliem off by talking hope- 
 fully. An. I. 2, 11. TTpcoTov fjL€v iSaKpve ttoXw ^povov 
 iaTa><; first he stood and wept for some time. An. i. 
 3, 2. ravra yap fcaXoi? iyco € t 8 w 9 StwXecra this, though 
 I hriew it well^ I had let slip, s. ot. 318. 
 
 a. Certain participles occur often in idiomatic use, as ap- 
 Xofx^^vo's (beginning) at first, reXevTwv (ending) finally , tx'^v (hold- 
 ing on) constantly, Oappwv boldly, XaOwv secretly, dvv<rds quickly 
 
PARTICIPLES 239 
 
 Xat/owv without punisliment^ ^AatW ivith sorrow. Also exoiv, 
 dy(Dv, Aa/3wv, cf^ipwv, xpto/xevos may often be translated tvith : 
 
 TeAcvrojv ovv eVt tov<s x^'-porexvas ya SO finally I We7lt to tllG 
 artisans. Ap. 22 c. ov n ^^^atpwv 8ts ye 7rrjfxova<s epct? ?zof «^i77i- 
 OM^ sorroio slialt tliou twice spealc luords so dire. S. ot. 363. 
 npo|€vo9 -rrapTjv l^wv oTrXtrd? Proxenos came with hoplifes. 
 An. I. 2, 3. 
 
 b. The future participle in this use often expresses inten- 
 tion or purpose : 
 
 AvLCTTavTO ol fjikv CK Tov avTOfxaTov Xi^ovTCS a lyiyviocrKov 
 some rose of their oivn accord to say ivhat they thought. An. i. 
 
 3, 13. TrefJuf/aL kol tt poKar aX-qxp o [xiv ov<5 to, aKpa to send 71ien 
 
 to seize the hights in advance. An. i. 3, 14. 
 
 684 Predicate Participles are used like predicate adjec- 
 tives (545-548), witli extensions into certain special 
 idioms. The compound tenses, consisting of €t/xt and 
 a participle agreeing with the subject, are the simplest 
 type. 
 
 685 A Predicate Participle agreeing with the siihject is 
 often used 
 
 a. With verbs that express existence in some par- 
 ticular IV ay., as 
 
 Tvyxdvo) am hy chance^ happen to he, 
 \av6dvoj am secretly or ivithotit the hnowledge of, 
 (j)6dpco am first, get the start in, 
 Sidyco, SiareXo), SiayLyvofiai am coritinuously, Tceep on, 
 (f)aLvofjLaL (also 817X09 or (f)av€p6<; elfxi) am plainly \ 
 Hap COP krvyyave he happened to he there. An. i. 1, 2. 
 Irvyyavov \eyo)v I was just saying. An. hi. 2, 10. 
 ^ovXoLfjLTjv av \a0eiv avTOv dir e\0 div I should lihe to 
 get away without his hiowing it (to he-hidden-from him 
 
240 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 going away), an. i. 3, 17. ^Odvovcnv eVl rw aKpco 
 yevojjLevoL tov<; TroXe/^tov? they anticipate the enemy 
 in getting v/pon the hight. An. m. 4, 49. hieTi\ovv 
 ^pco jjuevoi To1<; tcdv TroXefiLcov To^evfJiacrL they kept 
 using the enemies' arrows. An. m. 4, 17. ov ^0 ovciiv 
 TOL<; <^avepo)<; TrXovTovcnp i(j)aLpeTo he was plainly not 
 envious of the openly tvealthy (it was plain that he did 
 not envy). An. i. 9, 19. 
 
 b. With verbs meaning hegin^ cease^ endure^ grow 
 weary ^ and tlie like : 
 
 OvTTore iiravofjuQv r}fxa<; olKripajv I never ceased 
 pitying ourselves. An. m. 1, 19. d7TeLpr]Ka rjSr] crvcr- 
 K€v ai^o [Jiev OS kol t p e^ co v koI tol oVXa (f)€ p o)v I 
 am tired now of packing up and running and carry- 
 ing my arms. An. v. 1, 2. 
 
 c. With otxo/xat am gone a predicate participle may 
 specify the manner of going, and so contain the main 
 thought : 
 
 Et9 TO irpoaOev oi)(ovTaL Slcj kovt e<; they have 
 gone forward in pursuit. An. i. 10, 5. ^x'^ro direXav- 
 voiv he loent riding aivay, or simply, he rode away. 
 
 An. II. 4, 24. 
 
 With YjKw and some others the idioms differ but little from 
 'English usage. 
 
 d. A Participle agreeing with the subject is so used with 
 some verbs that one can not say certainly whether it is a cir- 
 cumstantial or a predicate participle : 
 
 l^ovrov ovx rjTTrja-ojxcOa ev ttoioOvtcs we shall not he heliind 
 Mm in well-doing. An. m. 2, 23. dStKct tov^; viovi 8ta<^^ctpwv 
 he is guilty of corrupting the young. M. i. 1, l. So with a 
 number of verbs meaning endure, am pleased, content, indig- 
 nant, ashamed, etc. 
 
PARTICIPLES 241 
 
 586 A Predicate Participle agreeing with the object is 
 often used 
 
 a. With some verbs meaning perceive (with the 
 senses or w^ith the mind), rememhei\ hnoiv^ and the 
 like: 
 
 ElSe KXdap^ov SueXavvovra he saw Klearclios 
 riding through. Ax. i. 5, 12. ovk ffSeaav avrov TeOvrj- 
 KOTa tJtey did not hnow that he was dead. Ax. i. lo, 16. 
 75817 hi TLVdiv rjaOofJLiqv Kal Slol ravra a^9 o ix iv cjjv /xoi 
 and now I have observed that some felt unpleasantly 
 toward me for this reason too, l. 16, 20. rjKovad -rrore 
 avTov nepl (^i\<jjv S iaXey o fievov I once heard him 
 talking about friends. M. n. 4, 1. yaipovdiv i^era- 
 t^o fxiv oi<^ rot? olofxevoLf; fxev elvai (TO(J)ol^ ovctl 8' ov 
 they delight in the examination of those tvho think tliey 
 are loise but are not. ap. 33 c. 
 
 b. With verbs meaning show^ make known^ and the 
 like: 
 
 Kvpov eTTiarpaTevovTa irpoiTo^ rjyyeika I ivas 
 the first to report that Gyrus tvas marching against 
 him. Ax. II. 3, 19. e/xe toivvv ovSetg av anoBeL^eiev 
 airevexO ivTa no one, now, could show that my 
 name was handed in. l. 16, 7. 
 
 587 With some verbs a predicate participle may agree with either 
 subject or object, according to the meaning (cp. 586) : 
 
 "la-Oi /xevTOL dv6r]To<; wv be sure^ however^ that you are foolish. 
 
 Ax. II. 1, 13. rjixeis ahvvaroL opw/xcv ovre? TrepLyev ecrOaL we See 
 
 that tee are unable to get the upper hand. T. i. 32. ya-Oer rfSc- 
 Krjfievrj she perceived that she had beeri u^ronged. E. m. 26. 
 cyw ov ^woiSa i/xavrw cro(fi6s wv I am not co7iscious of being wise, 
 16 
 
242 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 Ap. 21 b. Cp. ifxavTi^ ^vvySr} ovSkv iir LcrTa/xevo) I ivas con- 
 scious that I k?ietu 7iotliing (Ap. 22 d), with no essential differ- 
 ence of meaning, because subject and object are the same 
 person. 
 
 688 a. Most of the above verbs admit also as object a on clause 
 (622). 
 
 b. 'Akoi^w, alo-OdvofjiaL, TrvvOdvofjiai admit three constructions, 
 usually distinct in meaning : 
 
 d/cov(o Ttvos w. ptc. / hear^ with my own ears, something 
 going on ; 
 
 oLKovo) ri (or TLvd) w. ptc. / hear, am told, that ; 
 
 aKovm w. ace. and inf. / hear, as report, or tradition, 
 that . 
 
 c. In like manner several verbs admit either a predicate 
 participle or an infinitive, with different meaning : 
 
 WITH PARTICIPLE 
 
 ffyaLvofiat I plainly am. 
 
 WITH INFINITIVE 
 
 it appears {but may not 
 true) that I ; 
 
 to do 
 something. 
 
 apxofULL am at the heginning of, 
 aiSovfxat i am ashamed of, \ 
 al(Txvvofxai \ do with shame, ) 
 ytyvtoo-KO) rccognize 
 iTTLo-Tafxai understand that 
 oT8a know I some- 
 
 fiavOdvoi learn ' thing 
 
 iTTtXavOdvof/xiL forget is, 
 
 fxefjivrjfjLaL remember 
 
 589 A Participle may agree with a genitive which is not 
 dependent on any other word ; the two are then in 
 the Ge7iitive Absolute : 
 
 ^Av€/3r) eVl TOL oprj ovSevo<; kcoXvovt o<; he went 
 vp on the mountains, no one hindering. An. i. 2, 22. 
 
 a. 'Ekwi/ willing and aKwv tinwilling are treated as par- 
 ticiples : 
 
 undertake, set about ; 
 
 am ashamed to, refrain for 
 
 shame ; 
 decide 
 
 understand how 
 knoiv hoiv 
 learn {lioiv) 
 forget {how) 
 remember 
 
PARTICIPLES 243 
 
 "A/covTo? oLTTLiov Kvpov gotug aiuay ivitliout Cyruses con- 
 sent {Cyrus imwilUng). Ax. i. 3, 17. 
 
 590 In effect the Genitive Absolute is an abbreviated ad- 
 verbial clause, of time, cause, condition, concession, or 
 merely of attendant circumstance. These relations 
 are not stated, but only implied in the context ; often 
 one can not say which of two or more relations is 
 more prominent : 
 
 T ovTcop \e^0 4vr cov avicrrrjo-av til is sauI, they 
 rose. Ax. III. 3, 1. ovhev tojp SeoPTOJV ir oiovvT (t)V 
 v^ctjv KaKcj^ TOL irpdyixara ej^et affairs are in a had 
 way ivliile (because ?) you are doing notJiing of ivliat 
 you shoidd. D. 4, 2. koX ixeTaTrefnTOfiepov avrov 
 ovK ideko) i\ddv even though he is sending for me^ I 
 am univilling to go. Ax. i. 3, lo. 
 
 a. The Participle may stand alone in the genitive absolute 
 when the noun or pronoun is readily supplied from the con- 
 text : 
 
 'EvreC^ev it polo v Tin v i<fiaiv€TO txvr] Linriov aS they loeilt 071 
 
 from there^ tracks of horses appeared. Ax. i. 6, 1. 
 
 591 A Participle may be in the Accusative Absolute instead of the 
 genitive, when it is impersonal, or has an infinitive as subject : 
 
 'E^ov cJpyjv-qv ex^LV atpetrat TroAe/xctv whe?l it is pOSSlMe to 
 
 have peace., he chooses tear. Ax. ii. 6, 6. oTo-^a, p.i\ov yi o-ol 
 you k7i02v, since it is of interest to you. Ap. 24 d. So TrpocrrJKov 
 since (or though) it is fitting, 8o|av it having heen agreed to., 
 ah-qXov 6v it leing uncertain, rv^pv ly chance., and others. 
 
 a. Even personal expressions are sometimes in the accusa- 
 tive absolute, especially with ws or wo-7rep (593 c, d) : 
 
 '^o)Kpdrr]<; tjvx'^to Trpos tov<s Oeovs (XTrAw? TdyaOa StSovat, ws rov^ 
 
 Oeovs KoXXia-Ta etSoras Sokrates used to pray to the gods 
 simply to give what teas good, feeling that the gods knew best 
 {tvhat is good). M. i. 3, 2. 
 
244: SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 592 A few adverbs, though belonging grammatically to the verb, 
 often stand with and seem to modify a circumstantial par- 
 ticiple ; such are a/xo, /xcra^v, €vOv<s, avTLKa, o/xcas : 
 
 "A /A a TavT ctTTwv dv€(TT7j iinmediately as he said this he 
 
 rose. An. hi. 1, 47. TroXKa-^ov fxe eTrecr^^e Aeyovra ficra^v if 
 
 often checked me in the midst of my words {checked me mid- 
 way, while Speaki7ig). Ap. 40 b. cvOvs TratSe? ovre? fxavOd- 
 
 vova-Lv apx^i-v t€ kol apx^cOai immediately, tuhile hoys, they learn 
 hoth to rule and to he ruled. An. i. 9, 4. iprjo-ofiaL Bk koI Ka/cws 
 Trao-xovo-' o/xws / will ash, though wronged, none the less. 
 E. M. 280. 
 
 693 Certain particles make raore distinct the relation of 
 thouglit between the circumstantial participle and 
 the rest of the sentence. 
 
 a. "Are (less often olov^ oTa) shows that the par- 
 ticiple is causal : 
 
 'EttI ttoXv rjv TOL VTTO^vyiaj are Slol crT€prj<; Trj<; oSov 
 TTopevo iJi€pa the baggage animals extended a long 
 way., because the road they were following was narrow. 
 
 An. IV. 2, 13. 
 
 b. KaLTrep (also /cat, though less distinctly) shows 
 that the participle is concessive : 
 
 Ou9 iyo) jxaWov (jyo^ovjJiaL r) tov<; d/^(^t Avvtov, 
 Kaiirep ovt a<; kol tovtov<; Seuvovs whom I fear 
 more than Anytos and his friends., although these also 
 are formidable. Ap. 18 b. 
 
 c. 'n? with a participle is often rendered by as ; 
 but the idiom has been extended far beyond what is 
 possible in English. In many cases w? implies that 
 the statement of the participle is the thought of some 
 
PARTICIPLES 245 
 
 one mentioned in the context ; the translation must 
 vary with the situation : 
 
 Trjv -^copdv iTTeTpexjje hiapTracrai tol<s '^EkXrjcni' o) 9 
 TToXefjLLdv ovcrap he turned the land over to the GreeJcs 
 to plu7idei% as heing hostile. An. i. 2, 19. crvWapi^dvei 
 Kvpov w? OLTTo KTevwv he arrested Cyrns^ as intend- 
 ing to hill him. an. i. 1, 3. 
 
 ^EXeye dappeip ws KaraaTTjaopLivoiv rovroiv 
 et9 TO hiov he told him to have no fear^ assuring him 
 that this woidd settle itself properly. An. i. 3, 8. -^X- 
 Oov iiTL Tiva rcov Sokovvtcjv cro(f)(x)v elvau, o) 9 ivravOa 
 i\iy^(x)v TO pLavreiov I went to one of the men ivho 
 seemed to he luise, thinking that there 1 should test the 
 oracle. Ap. 21 c. iKTTt7rT0vr€<; Trap* 'AOr)paLov<; w 9 ySe- 
 ^aiov 6 V dvexcopovv when exiled they withdrew to the 
 Athenians^ with the idea that it was safe there, t. i. 2. 
 
 d. "Qo-Trep just as, even as (cp. 216) is a strengthened w?, 
 but it often requires a different translation : 
 
 ''AAAoS dv€(TTr] cTTtSetKi/vs rrjv evT^Oeiav tov tol TrXola alrelv KeXevov- 
 
 T09, wcTTrep TrdXiv tov cttoXov J^vpov ttolov jx€vov another arose, 
 jjointing out the sim'plicity of the man who suggested ashing for 
 boats, just as if Cyrus were making the expedition lack again. 
 An. I. 3, 16. KaraKetfjieOa wa-irep i^ov rjcrvxtdv dyctv we are lying 
 here just as if it icere possible to remain quiet. An. in. 1, 14. 
 
 594 With some verbs of knowing, thinking, saying, w? is used with 
 a predicate participle ; in some cases a circumstantial parti- 
 ciple with ws is used where we might expect a predicate par- 
 ticiple : 
 
 fi 9 /xev (TTpaTrjyi^a-ovTa ifxk TavT7]v rrjv (npaT-qytdv /xiySei? 
 
 v/Acuv AcyeVo) let no one of you speak icitli the idea that I ivill 
 retain command in this campaign (591 a). An. i. 3, 15. St^Aois 
 8' ws TL a-rjfjiavCiv viov you shoiv that you have something neiu 
 
246 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 to reveal (you slioiv as one ahout to reveal). S. an. 242. ws Tro- 
 Ae/Aov oi/Tos Trap' vfxoiv airayyekw shall I report from you that 
 there is ivar 9 [shall I report with the understanding that there 
 is ivar f). An. ii. 1, 21. 
 
 595 A Participle with av represents an optative or indica- 
 tive with av, the context alone determining which 
 (cp. 579) : 
 
 Alrei f eVov?, w? ovto) tt e p ly evo jxev o<; av rcov 
 avTLG-Ta(Tio)TO)v he asks for mercenaries, saying that 
 thus he should get the hetter of his opponents (repre- 
 senting TrepLyevoifjirjv av). An. i. 1, 10. %a>KpdTrj<; pa- 
 Slco<; av a (f> e 9 el (; viro rcov SiKacTTcov TrpoeiXero drro- 
 Oavdv Sohrates, who would easily have heen acquitted 
 hy the judges, chose to die, m. iv. 4, 4. 
 
 VERBAL ADJECTIVES IN -TE02 
 
 596 The Verbal in -Teo<; (cp. 352, 354) is generally passive 
 in meaning; it may be used in the personal or the 
 impersonal construction ; the agent in either construc- 
 tion is expressed by a dative (524 b). 
 
 a. The personal construction gives more promi- 
 nence to the subject, with which the verbal agrees, 
 as attributive or as predicate ; the copula is often 
 omitted : 
 
 'EjLtot Tovro ov TTOLrjT eov this must not be done 
 hy me, An. i. 3, is. ov Toaavra opr) opdre {jfjulv ovra 
 TTopevrea ; do you not see so many mountains that 
 must he traversed hy you ? An. h. 5, 18. 
 
 b. The impersonal construction gives more promi- 
 nence to the action ; the verbal is in the neuter sin- 
 
PREPOSITIONS 247 
 
 gular (sometimes in the plural), and may take an 
 object ; the copula is often omitted : 
 
 'Hfilv y virep Trj<; iXevOeptds ay oiv lar 4ov W€ at 
 least must 'make a struggle for freedom, d. 9, 70. Iriov 
 ovv iirl a7ravra<; tov<; tl So/cou^^ra? etSeVat T had to go 
 therefore (the context shows that '^v is understood) to 
 all those who appeared to have some hnovjledge. Ap. 21 e. 
 Tov<; (J)lXov<; ev € py errjT eov , rwv ^oaKrjixdrcov iiri- 
 jjL€\r]T€ov one must benefit Ms friends, one must ca/re 
 for his flocks. M. n. 1, 28. 
 
 c. Some verbals in -rio^ have the meaning of the middle 
 
 voice : Treta-Teov 0716 must obey^ ^v\a.Krkov we must he on our 
 
 guard. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 597 All Prepositions were once adverbs ; Homer uses them as such 
 freely, the Attic poets occasionally ; in Attic prose tt/oos alone 
 is so used (cp. 437 a). But their special office, along with 
 their use in composition (437, 440 a), is to connect nouns or 
 pronouns with other words, making the relation plainer than 
 the case ending would alone. 
 
 a. The details of the use and meaning of prepositions are 
 best learned from reading, and from vocabularies and the dic- 
 tionary ; some of the chief distinctions only are given here. 
 
 598 *Aj/a, et9 or e? (and w?) take the Accusative ; 
 
 'Ei^ and avv take the Dative only ; 
 
 'Ai^rt, aTTo, ef, and upo take the Genitive only ; 
 
 Ata, /caret, /xera, virip take the Accusative and 
 Genitive ; 
 
 'AjLt(^t, eVt, TTapdj irepi^ Trpo^;, viro take the Accusa- 
 tive, Genitive, and Dative. 
 
 a. A preposition joined to a verb may affect the case of a 
 noun or pronoun precisely as if it were not in composition. 
 
248 COMPOUND SENTENCES 
 
 b. The meaning of the noun or pronoun, or of the verb, 
 often determines the meaning of the preposition ; a relation 
 that is natural in one situation may be impossible in another. 
 This principle has a wide application. Thus : ek rov TrorafjLov 
 into the river, els dvSpa<s eyypdt^uv to enroll among men, ei? 8wa- 
 liiv to the extent of one's power, ck TpidKovra to the number of 
 thirty ; virh yijs under ground, v<j) rjfxiov Tl/iw/Aevos honored hy us ; 
 
 Trapa tov Trora/xov oloiigside of the river, irapa paaikea to the 
 
 king's side. 
 
 599 Besides the prepositions proper (i. e., those which may be 
 compounded with verbs), a number of adverbs are often 
 used with the genitive, and hence are called improper preposi- 
 tions. Such are avev without, dxpi and /x-exp^ as far as, p-era^v 
 between, ttXi^v except, hcKa (etvcKa, eVeKev) 071 account of, cyyvs 
 and TrXyjcrtov 7iear, etc. (cp. 618 b, c). 
 
 11. COMPOUND SENTENCES 
 
 600 Successive independent sentences in Greek are usu- 
 ally joined together in one of four ways : 
 
 (1) By a coordinating conjunction; 
 
 (2) By a demonstrative pronoun or adverb; this 
 may be in the earlier sentence, pointing forward, or 
 in the latter, pointing backward ; 
 
 (3) By a relative pronoun or adverb, at the begin- 
 nincr of the second sentence ; 
 
 (4) By a particle standing early in the second 
 sentence, and referring to the preceding sentence. 
 
 a. Absence of such a connective [da-vvherov not bound 
 together, asyndeton), though so common in English, is gener- 
 ally in Greek a mark of emotion. Thus the following passage 
 (L. 12, 100) shows far more feeling than the English version : 
 
 aKryKoarc, ewpa/care, TrcTToV^aTC, c^cre • StKa^ere yoU have heard, seen, 
 
 suffered, you have him-, give judgment. 
 
COMPOUND SENTENCES 249 
 
 b. Eepetition of some significant word {ava<f>opd anapliora)^ 
 with asyndeton, is an emotional way of connecting sentences : 
 
 Tt' ovv l(TTL TovTo ; aTTLcrr la. ravTrjv cf>v\dTT€T€, ravTrj^ avrir 
 
 X^a-Oe what, then, is this? Distrust. Guard this, cling to 
 this. D. 6, 24. 
 
 601 When successive sentences, independent in construc- 
 tion, are joined by a coordinating conjunction, and 
 are so united in speaking as to make one, the whole 
 is called a Compound Sentence. 
 
 602 The principal coordinating conjunctions are the following ; 
 details of their use and meaning are to be learned in reading ; 
 nearly all have other uses too (cp. 665-673). 
 
 a. Copulative Conjunctions : Kat, re (enclitic) aiid ; ovSe, 
 fJir)S€, ovT€, jx-qre and UOt, nor. Kat . . . Kat, T€ . . . Kat both . . . 
 and, ovT€ . . . ovT€, fn]T€ . . . jxrjTe neither . . . nor, are fre- 
 quent combinations. 
 
 b. Adversative Conjunctions : aXka hut, 8c (postpositive) 
 lut, and, ardp hut, however, fiivTot (postpositive) however, yet, 
 KairoL and yet. 
 
 c. Disjunctive Conjunction : rj or. rj ... t] either .. . or, 
 is a frequent combination. 
 
 d. Inferential Conjunctions : dpa then, accordi^igly, as it 
 seems; ovv therefore, then; vw or vvv (enclitic and poetic), tol- 
 vvv unemphatic 7iow, then (cp. 673). 
 
 e. Causal Conjunction : yap for (cp. 672). 
 
 603 Instead of a full compound sentence, a sentence with a com- 
 pound subject or a compound predicate may be used {Abbre- 
 viated Compoimd Sentence) : 
 
 'O Se Tret^erat Kat (rvA.Xa/x/3av€t Kvpov he believed it 
 and arrested Cyrus. An. i. 1, H, cTra^tws yap ^ol(3o<;, d^tw? 8c 
 (TV Trpo Tov OavovTO^ rrjvS' eOecrO* i7rLcrTpo(f>T^v for right tUOrthily 
 
 hath Phoibos, and ivorthily hast thou, bestowed this care for 
 him that is dead. S. ot. 133 f. 
 
250 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 PARATAXIS AND HYPOTAXIS 
 
 604 When two sentences, independent in form, are so united in 
 speaking that one is subordinate to the other in thought, they 
 are called Par atactic'^ {TrapaTaa-a-oi arrange beside). In form, 
 as written, they are simply coordinate sentences not joined 
 together by a conjunction : 
 
 'E-TriVrao-^e kol v/xct?, olfxai you hnow it yourselvBS^ I thinh. 
 
 An. III. 2, 8. r]hi(TT av (XKovo-ai/xt to ovofxa, tl<s ovto)<s icrrl 8etvos 
 
 Xeyeiv; I sJiould like Very much to hear the name, tuho is so 
 skilled iyi talking 9 An. n. 5, 15. ev fxivTot lam, iraa-av vfuv rrjv 
 
 aX-qOetav epoi he assured, hoiuever, I shall tell you the ivhole truth. 
 
 Ap. 20 d. LKvovfjiai [xy] 7rpoSov<5 rjixas yevy do not aia7ldon US, I 
 
 entreat. S. ai. 588. 
 
 605 Out of such paratactic sentences have grown all types of Sub- 
 ordination, or Hypotaxis (vTroTaa-a-oi arrange under). A sen- 
 tence is 8uhordi7iate when it is made part of another, with the 
 value of a noun, adjective, or adverb. 
 
 III. COMPLEX SE^^TEXCES 
 
 606 A Complex Sentence consists of a principal sentence 
 and one or more subordinate sentences, which are 
 then called clauses. 
 
 a. The Principal or Leading clause may be of any 
 type of simple sentence (451-489). 
 
 b. A Subordinate clause is marked 
 
 (1) Always by an introductory subordinating 
 word ; 
 
 (2) Often by a change of mode ; 
 
 (3) Sometimes by a change of person, in verb 
 and pronoun ; 
 
 1 Such sentences are even more common in English of familiar style 
 than in Greek literature as we have it. 
 
MVj CLAUSES 251 
 
 (4) Sometimes by a change of tense ; but only in 
 the indicative, from present to imperfect or from per- 
 fect to pluperfect.' 
 
 c. A direct quotation, or an indirect question that retains 
 the direct form, though clearly subordinate, can hardly be 
 separated from cases of parataxis (604). 
 
 607 The tenses in subordinate clauses have the same force 
 as in simple sentences ; but when they denote time, 
 their time is often merely relative to that of the lead- 
 ing clause. 
 
 608 Since the introductory subordinating word is what 
 always and most clearly marks the subordinate clause, 
 that is made the basis for classifying and describing 
 such clauses. 
 
 609 Three functions, in the following order of development, may 
 belong to a subordinating word : 
 
 (1) It has its own construction in the subordinate clause, 
 as adverb, pronoun, or adjective. 
 
 (2) It connects the subordinate clause with some word, 
 expressed or implied, in the leading clause. 
 
 (3) Both these functions fall into the background, and 
 ' one or both may disappear, as the subordinating word comes 
 
 more distinctly to denote the relation of clause to clause, 
 rather than of word to word. 
 
 Mti clauses 
 
 610 Mr; (cp. 486) is often a subordinating conjunction 
 (lest, that, that not) after expressions of fear or caution, 
 
 * In English, change of order is often the only sign of subordination ; 
 so sometimes change of tense. 
 
252 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 and sometimes after expressions of preventive action 
 implying caution. (Negative ov. Cp. also 474.) 
 
 611 In Mif clauses 
 
 a. An indicative (present, perfect, imperfect, ao- 
 rist) denotes a present or past fact : 
 
 AeSoLKa fjLTj Tr\rjyo)v 8eei Tin afraid you need 
 a whipping, Ar. n. 493. c[)0^ovfJieda /x 17 afji(f)OT€pa)V 
 
 rj fxapTT] KafjL€p we fear that we have failed of both. 
 
 T. III. 53. 
 
 b. A subjunctive (rarely the future indicative) de- 
 notes something still future, or treated as unsettled : 
 
 Okvol7)v av €19 TOL TrXota ifx^aiveLVy jjirj rjjxa^ Kara- 
 hvcrrj I should hesitate to go aboard the boats^ lest 
 he sink us, An. i. 3, 17. SeStw? fxr) \a^d)v fxe hiKr)v 
 iiriOrj fearing that he will take and punish me. An. 
 I. 3, 10. opa fjLT} ajjia rco KaKco koX alcT^pa fj beware 
 lest it be (see that it be not) shameful too as well as 
 evil, Cr. 46 a. TravaaLy p. 7) iff) ev p €0 fj <; avov<; stop, 
 that you be not found foolish, s. an. 281. 
 
 Note that lest and that not are often equivalent. In the 
 last example we might say lest you le found ; fxr] ov l<j>€.vpSrj<i 
 would be lest you le not found — the negative of ^r] i(fievpeOyj<s. 
 
 c. An optative denotes something future or treated 
 as unsettled at the time of the principal verb, and 
 also presents it as more remote from the speaker or 
 writer — e. g., as the thought of another person, or as 
 belonging to a past or an improbable situation. 
 
 The optative is therefore common after a past tense 
 and after another optative, but is otherwise rare : 
 
"Os AND "Oo-ris CLAUSES 253 
 
 ^ESetcraz/ ol "EXXi^t'e? fXTj tt p ocr dyoiev Trpo? to 
 K€pa^ the Greeks feared they would advance on their 
 jiank. An. i. lO, 9. eSo/cet airiivai inl to aTpaToireSop 
 fjLT) eVt^ecrtg yivoiTo it seemed best to go hack to the 
 camp, lest an attach should he made. An. iv. 4, 22. virai 
 Tt? dp/3vXd<; \voLy /x ij rt? TrpoacoOev o/A/xaro? /3dXoL 
 ^dovo^ let one undo my shoes, lest from afar an envious 
 look should smite me. a. a. 938. 
 
 "Os AND "Oo-TLS CLAUSES 
 
 612 The Relative Pronoun og (213) connects its clause with 
 some noun or pronoun, and lias its own construction 
 in the subordinate clause. (So of its compounds 
 ocnrepy oaTL<;, etc.) 
 
 a. The connecting force of 09 may be no stronger than 
 that of a demonstrative. The os clause is then really inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 When clearly subordinate, the os clause often precedes 
 the leading clause, or may be included within it. 
 
 613 a. The Eelative Pronouns take their gender, number, 
 and person from the antecedent ; but sense may pre- 
 vail over form, and when the relative is the subject 
 a predicate noun sometimes prevails over the ante- 
 cedent. 
 
 b. The Relative is often attracted from its proper 
 case to the case of the antecedent, especially /rom the 
 accusative to the genitive or dative : 
 
 ^Ai^8p€9 d^LOi Trj<; iXevO e p Ld<; 179 KeKTrjcrOe men 
 ivorthy of the freedom which you possess. Ax. i. 7, 3. 
 (l)oj3oLiJLrjv avT(^r)y€fx6vL w 80117 iireadai I should 
 
254 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 fear to folloiv the guide whom he may give, An. i. 
 
 3, 17. 
 
 c. Rarely the antecedent is attracted to the case of the 
 relative, the two standing side by side : 
 
 *Ai/€tA€v avTw 6 'AttoAAwi/ 6 eol^s ol<s eSei Ovciv Apollo in re- 
 sponse told him tlie gods to ivliom lie should sacrifice. An. 
 III. 1, 6. 
 
 d. The antecedent may be taken up into the subordinate 
 clause, OS agreeing with it adjectively : 
 
 TouTovs apxovras liroUi rj<S KaT€crTpecf>CTo ;>(wpds these he made 
 
 rulers of the territory which {of what territory) he suldued. 
 An. I. 9, 14. 
 
 The antecedent may be omitted ; it is often indefinite and 
 therefore not expressed ; it may none the less attract the rela- 
 tive from the accusative to the genitive or dative (613 b) : 
 
 Nvi/ hraLVoi ere icfi' ols Aeyets re kol Trparrets now I praise you 
 for lohat you hoth say and do. An. hi. 1, 45. a /x^ oTSa ovSe 
 oto/xat elSevai what I do not Jcnow, I also do not think I hnoiv. 
 
 Ap. 21 d. e/xyaei/OjUei/ oX'i oiixoXoyrjcrafxev 8tKat06S ovg-lv rj ov; do We 
 
 abide hy luhat we agreed was just, or not ? Cr. 50 a. 
 
 a. From the customary omission of the antecedent have 
 arisen some common idiomatic expressions : 
 
 ela-lv oi, more often ) some, literally the7'e are who, 
 
 e(TTLV OL {wv, 6i<i, ovs, o) ) ctc. 
 
 ea-Tiv oa-TLs; (interrogative) is there any 07ie ivho? 
 
 iviore (from evt ore) sometimes, 
 
 €(TTLv ov somewhere, 
 
 ea-TLv fi in some way, 
 
 ovK €(TTLv oTTws thcre is no way how. 
 
 b. AVith these may be put ovSds o(ttl<s ov there is no one 
 ivho . . . not ; through omission of the verb and the attrac- 
 tion of the antecedent to the case of the relative (613 c), the 
 phrase is treated as a single pronoun meaning every one, and 
 is then declined : 
 
"Os AND "Oo-rts CLAUSES 255 
 
 OvSeva ovTLV* ov KareKAao-e he l)7'olce cloWfl evevy 0716. 
 Ph. 117 a. 
 
 615 A "05 Clause may take any form that is used in simple sen- 
 tences (461-489). It may suggest cause, purpose, concession, 
 and other relations. The negative is ov or /^rj according to 
 the meaning : 
 
 TotovTOVS eTTCTre/x-TTovo-t' /xot, ots tfjieL<s ovk av SiKaCwS ttlo"- 
 
 T€voLT€ they send against 7ne such people^ whom you would 
 not justly believe. L. 7, 40. o /x.^ yevotro which heaven forMd 
 
 {tnay ivhich not happen I). eSo$e rw Srjfjuo TpiaKovra avSpas iXi- 
 (tOul, o t tovs Trarpi'ovs vofiov^ avyy pd\j/ov(T l^ Koh^ ovs tvoWt^v- 
 
 (T over I the people voted to choose thirty men to codify the ances- 
 tral laws^ in accordance icith which they should conduct the 
 govermnent. H. n. 3, 2. TroTa/xov, ov fxr) Trepda-rj's a river ^ 
 
 which do not thou pass. A. PB. 744. TrXdvrjv cfipda-w, yv iyypd- 
 
 cf>ov (TV p.vr)pLocnv Se'Arot? ^pcvoiv I tcill tell thy wandering^ which 
 do thou lorite in the tablets of thy me^nory. A. pb. 815. 
 
 a. Instead of repeating a relative in a different case in the 
 same sentence, Greek usually changes to a demonstrative or 
 relative pronoun, or leaves the relative to be supplied : 
 
 'B,€VO<f>ii)V, OS ovre a-Tparrjyos ovre o-rpaTidiT'qS u>v crvvf] koXov- 
 $€1, dXXa Hpo^evos avrov fjieTeTrefJuj/aTo JietlOphon, who ivas 
 
 icith them neitlier as genercd 7ior as soldier., but Proxe7ios had 
 sent for him. Ax. iii. 1, 4. 
 
 616 In "09 Clauses that differ in form from simple sen- 
 tences, 
 
 a. A subjunctive (with av^ which is sometimes 
 omitted in poetry, rarely in prose) describes a sup- 
 posed or assumed case, which may or may not be real. 
 The time is future, or present in the generalized sense 
 (i. e., applying to present, past, and future alike). 
 The subjunctive is especially common when the ante- 
 cedent is indefinite : 
 
256 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 'O avrjp TToWov dfto? <^iXos w av <^tXo9 fj the man is 
 a valuable friend to any one to whom he is a friend 
 (generalized present). An. i. 3, 12. rw av^pi ov kv 
 eXrjcrOe ireiao p.ai I will obey the man lohom you 
 choose (in tlie future). An. i. 8, 15. w fxaKoipLOL Brjra 
 ot av vfjLMv iir l8 (OCT L tyjv TracTCDv rj^Lanqp yjixepav O 
 blessedj therefore, whoever among you shall behold that 
 sweetest day of all ! n. n. 4, 17. 
 
 TtJoi/ TrrjfiovCjv fxaXicTTa Xvttovct at (fiavCxr avOaiperoL tllOSe 
 
 griefs give most pain that are seen to he self-clioseyi. S. ot. 1231. 
 SeSoLKa jxr} ovk e)((o LKavovs ots 8w^ I fear I sJiall not have enough 
 people to ivhom to give. An. i. 7, 7. 
 
 b. An optative (without av) describes an assumed 
 case, but as more remote in thought from the speaker ; 
 e. g., as the thought of another person, or as part of a 
 past or imaginary or improbable situation. The time 
 is future, or present in the generalized sense, with ref- 
 erence to the time of the main verb. The optative is 
 es23ecially common after a past tense, and when the 
 antecedent is indefinite, or the assumed situation is 
 thought of as having occurred repeatedly : 
 
 ^KirriyyeWov 01 Trpecr^et? ec^' of 9 ot AaAceSat/xoi^tot 
 TToiolvTo rrjv elprjvrjv the envoys reported on what 
 terms the Spartans offered to make the peace, h. n. 2, 22. 
 TrpoTepov OVK e^cov 7Tp6(j)acnv i(j) 7) 9 rov f^iov \6yov 
 SoLTjv, vvv\ eiLXrj(f)a whereas before I had no pretext 
 
 ^ others explain this differently. But cp. Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, 
 588-540. Both in relative clauses and in et clauses with the subjunctive iiv 
 is omitted regularly in Homer, often in Attic poets, and certainly sometimes 
 in Attic prose.' In this example tv would have been natural; the omis- 
 sion does not change the meaning. Cp. also 621 a. 
 
"Os AND "OcTTis CLAUSES 257 
 
 on which to give an account of my life, now I have 
 got one, l. 24, i. 
 
 'OKvoLr)p av et? ra TrXota i^^aiveiv a rjfuv Ki)po9 
 8 17^ I should hesitate to go aboard any boats given 
 by Cyrus (supposing him to give any). An. i. 3, 17. 
 dXX' ov TToXt? cTTT] (reue^ rovSe )(pr) Kkveiv but ivhom- 
 soever the state appoints, him we should obey. s. an. 666. 
 
 'Aei 77/009 M eiT) €pyo), tovto eirpaTTev always, at 
 whatsoever task he was, that he strictly pursued, h. iv. 
 
 8, 22. 
 
 617 In place of a subjunctive or optative in o? clauses one could 
 in any instance use the indicative. This merely left unex- 
 pressed (except by the context, which is usually enough, as in 
 English) the suggestion conveyed by the other modes : 
 
 ''A /at) otSa, ouSc oioynat etSeVat ivliat I do 710 f kfioto, neither 
 do I think I know, Ap. 21 d. (Here fjcrj shows that the ex- 
 pression is general — ivhatevei\ at any time, I do not knoiv.) 
 
 OvK hi cfipovTcSo-s €7x°^ ^ ''■'^ dAe^erat nov is there any 
 iveapon of thought ivhereivith to defend {ivherewith one shall 
 defend). S. ot. 170. 
 
 Hapov fioL firj Oaveiv virep ai$€v, aX\* avSpa a-)(€Lv ©ecro-aXoov ov 
 
 rjOeXov though it was i7i my poicer not to die for you, hut to 
 get as hushand lohom I would of the Thessalians. E. al. 285. 
 (Alkestis had no one man in mind ; the expression is general.) 
 
 618 "Ocrrt? Clauses take all the forms of "O? Clauses (615, 
 616), and the modes have the same force. But though 
 the antecedent is usually indefinite, the indicative (617) 
 is more frequent than in "O? Clauses : 
 
 a. Subjunctive: aTrd? 8e rpd^v^ ocrrt? ap viov 
 K parrj and every one is harsh thafs nexo in power. 
 A. PB. 35. (Tvv viiiv 6 T L av Ser) 7r€tcro/xat with you I 
 will suffer whatever we must, An. i. 3, 5. 
 
 17 
 
258 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 Without av : KoKov rot yAwo-cr* oria Trtcrr^ '^^PV H is a fin e 
 
 tiling^ whoever has a trusty tongue. E. it. 1064. 
 
 b. Optative: ovcniv ql% -^peir) ap^eiv Traprjy- 
 ■ yeWov they gave orders what men should hold office. 
 
 L. 12, 44. ala^pov vixlv KoX Tjvrivovv [81^171^] aTroknreiv 
 TjvT IV a Tt9 /3 ovXoLTO TTapoL TovTcov Xajx^dveiv it is 
 shameful for you that any (^penalty^ ivhatever should 
 he lacking which any one might rvish to exact from these 
 men. l. 12, 84. (Here the optative hightens to the 
 utmost the inclusiveness of the expression — the most 
 unlikely wish could not go too far.) 
 
 c. Indicative where subjunctive or optative would have 
 been appropriate : 
 
 "Oo-Tts tpjv iTTLOvjxeL^ TTCipddOoi vIkolv wlioever is eager to 
 live, let him try to conquer. An. hi. 2, 39. -jrapia-xov ifiavrov 6 
 TL povXea-Oe ^rjo-Oai I offered myself for you to treat in 
 whatever way you ivill. L. 7, 40. 
 
 619 "Oo-rt? with an indicative often suggests cause, purpose, or 
 result, by treating a definite antecedent as indefinite in order 
 to characterize it (generally of persons) : 
 
 Tt TOV 6€o2<S t^KTTOV OV (TTUyetS OeOV, O (T T t S TO (TOV OrjVTOLCTL 
 
 7rpov8(jDK€v yepas why dost thou not hate this god, to gods most 
 hateful, one who betrayed thy prize to men? A. pb. 38. 
 
 UpecrlSeLdv Trifnreiv ^ris ravT ipel to send an efuMssy to 
 
 say this. D. l, 2. 
 
 Tl<s ovTOi jxacveTai oo-rts ov ^ovXerat (tol (ftlXos cTvai who IS 
 
 so mad as not to icish to le your friend? An. ii. 5, 12. 
 OTHER RELATIVE CLAUSES 
 
 620 Like "O? and "Ocrri? Clauses, in construction and in 
 the use of modes, are Clauses introduced by the other 
 Relative Pronouns, o, o(jo<i.^ 0X0% y]KiKo% orrocrosj oirolos, 
 
OTHER RELATIVE CLAUSES 259 
 
 oTTT^XtKo?, oTTorepo^ (227), or by the Kelative Adverbs 
 ovj oOev, ol, f), oTTou, OTToOevj oTTOLy oTTTj, OY hj €p6a, evOev^ 
 wlien these are relative (236) : 
 
 AeOpd ixoL (^(x)vei ^Xeircov ocr av a i p ojt cj look 
 this tvay and answer wJiatever I ash you. s. ot. 1122. 
 avv vfjuv fxev av ot/xat eivai rt/xto? ottov av o) tvitll 
 you I thinh I sJiould he in honor wherever I am. 
 
 An. I. 3, 6. 
 
 'O a o)v \p av o L fji i Travroiv rcovS* ael p.erei^eTiqv all 
 that I touched^ this they ahoays both shared, s. ot. i4G4. 
 OTTOV fxev aTpaTTjyo^ crajg etT/, rov (TTparriyov irape- 
 KokovVy OTToOev he oi^oiro, rov virocTTpdnqyov 
 ivlierever a general was safe, they invited the general, 
 and from tvhatever division he was gone, the second in 
 command. An. m. 1, 32. 
 
 'Ev T-fl Kvpov o-p-^rj cyeVero dSctos iropevecrOai OTry rii iqSeX^v 
 
 in Cyrus's iwovince it Iccame possible to travel fearlessly wher- 
 ever one ivislied. An. i. 9, 13. Kpvi{/(D t6S^ ^yx°'* ^y^o. jxt^ rt? 
 oif/eraL I ivill hide this sivord ivhere none shall see it. S. ai. 659. 
 
 a. "Oo-o? and olo^ are often exclamatory, with no antecedent 
 expressed ; the clause then has the form of a simple sentence. 
 rjXiKos and other relatives are sometimes so used : 
 
 "Oo-os Trap' vfuv 6 <f>06vo9 ^vXaaa-^rai hoiv great the envy 
 
 that is stored tvith you I S. ot. 382. olov p! aKova-avr dpruos 
 
 €^€L \f/v^<s irXavrjiia what icandeving of soul, at hearing this 
 just noiv, possesses me ! S. ot. 726. 
 
 621 The general relatives, oo-rts, ottoo-os, etc. (227), and ottov, o-rroOev, 
 etc. (236), are also indirect interrogatives, used in quoted 
 questions. The direct interrogatives (227, 236) are also used 
 in indirect questions. 
 
 Such clauses have the form of a simple sentence ; but 
 when they depend on a historical tense (246), an indicative or 
 
260 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 subjunctive of the direct form may be changed to the opta- 
 tive. 
 
 "O Tt vynets TrcTTov^are ovk oTSa Jiotv you have heen affected 
 {ivliat you have experienced) I do not knoiv. Ap. 17 a. otto tots 
 Aoyots €7reto-e JLvpov aXXrj yiypaiTTai hy ichat arguments he con- 
 vinced Cyrus has heen written elsewhere. An. ii. 6, 4. ovk l^^ 
 (T6<f>L(r/jL OTO) (XTraAXaycu I have no device whereby I shall escape. 
 
 A. PB. 487. (Direct : rtVt a-Oi^tV/Aart aTraAAayoj; 471.) 
 
 "O/xoLOL rj(rav Oavfid^ova-LV ottol ttotc t p eif/ov rat ol "EAAt/vcs 
 
 KOL T t €v vw ex o t e v they ivere like people who wondered tchither 
 the Greeks would turn and what they had in mind. An. 
 III. 5, 13. 
 
 a. By omission of the antecedent, o? and the other simple 
 relatives become sometimes in effect indirect interrogatives : 
 
 Ei^€ iLTjirore yoLrj<s os et mayst thou never learn who thou 
 art. S. OT. 1068. 
 
 Perhaps SeSoLKa fxrj OVK e^w t/cavou? ots 8co (An. i. 7, 7) also 
 belongs here, because fxy ovk e^w o tl 8co, a quoted dubitative 
 subjunctive (471), stands just before, in the same sentence. 
 Cp. 615 a, foot-note. 
 
 "On, AiOTi, AND Ow6Ka CLAUSES 
 
 622 "Ort, the neuter of octtls, becomes a subordinating 
 conjunction (that) after many words of thinking, 
 saying, and the like ; it introduces quoted Avords or 
 thoughts, those of another or of the speaker, as an 
 object, subject, or appositive clause : 
 
 ^^vvoiqaoLTO) on TravTa^ov ravra y lyv et ai let liinn 
 reflect that this happens everywhere, ii. n. 8, 24. tovto 
 ytyvaxTKCDV, on 77 8' ecrrlv rj crcot^ovcTa recognizing 
 thiSj that it is she (the state) that saves us. s. an. iss. 
 eXeyov on Kvpo? reOvr) Kev they said that Cyrus 
 was dead. An. h. 1, 3. 
 
On, AioVi, AXD OiJv€Ka CLAUSES 261 
 
 a. "Otl also introduces subject and appositive clauses of 
 the same kind after S^Xov ia-n it is plain, etKos eo-rt it is 
 probable, and the like ; these clauses are treated as quoted 
 thoughts : 
 
 ArjXov OTt Trava-ofxai 6 ye aKOJV ttolQ) it is plain that I shall 
 
 stop doing what I do unintentiotially. Ap. 26 a. aAXw? yvwa-- 
 Tov OTt dXrjOrj Acyw on other grounds it may he perceived that 
 I tell the truth. H. ii. 3, 44. 
 
 b. "Otl has also the force of in that and because ; in these 
 senses it may introduce any form of the indicative sentence 
 or of the hypothetical optative (479) : 
 
 To, iilv oAAa 6pOC)<s ^Kov(ra<s- or l Bk koL i/xk o t € t eiTrttv tovto, 
 
 7rapriKov(ra<s the rest you heard rightly ; but in that you suppose 
 I too said this, you heard ivrongly. Pr. 330 e. ala-xvvofxevo'i 
 OTL (TvvoiSa e/xavTw iij/€vaix€vo<s avTov ashamed bccause I am 
 conscious of having deceived him. An. i. 3, 10. fjurj Oavfjid^ere 
 OTL xaAcTTw? (fiipu) do not be surprised that I feel badly. An. i. 
 
 3, 3. TL TTOT ovv Tii)v ijjiOL TTeTTpdy/xiviov ov)(i /xe/AVT/rat ; otl tcov 
 
 dSLK-tjixoLTOiv av i/jLefiv-qTo rcov avTov ivhy, pray, has he 7iot men- 
 tioned my acts? Because he ivould have mentioned his own 
 wrong-doings. D. 18, 79. 
 
 c. A OTt clause often precedes its leading clause : 
 
 "OTt dStKcto-^at vop^L^eL vc{>' rj/xwv oTSa that he thinks him- 
 self wronged by us I am sure. An. i. 3, 10. 
 
 623 A quotation introduced by oTt may retain its original form, as 
 a simple, compound, or complex sentence (direct quotation) ; 
 OTt is then merely a mark of quotation, not to be translated : 
 
 'O? d7ro(f>avC)V tw )(py](rfJi<Z otl " ovTOcri ifJiov aocfxjjTcpo^ Icttl, av 
 
 8' Ipx e<j>Y)(TOa" thinking that I should shotv to the oracle, " This 
 man here is wiser than I, but you said 1 2uas.^' Ap. 21 c. 
 
 624 a. An Indirect Quotation with otl usually retains tlie 
 tense and mode of the direct form : 
 
 ^avepo)<; elirev otl tj fiep 7t6\l<; cr(f)cov reret^^icr- 
 rat Tjhr] he said openly that their city was already 
 
262 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 walled. T. I. 91. TOVTO Ka\a)<; r^TTiaravTO, on aXXw? 
 ixev ovx ^^^^ ^^ eaovTai TTepiyeveaOai tJiey Tcnew this 
 well^ that otherwise tliey would he unable to get the 
 iippe7' hand, l. 12, 45. 
 
 b. But after a historical tense an optative may 
 stand in tlie indirect form for an indicative or sub- 
 junctive of tlie direct form : 
 
 Ki}po9 e\eyev on rj 6809 ecroiro 7rpo9 ^aaikea 
 Cyrus said that their marcJi would he (direct, earai) 
 against the Icing. An. i. 4, 11. eXeyov on Kupo? ^xev 
 r eOvr) Kev 'Aptato? §e 7re(j)€vya)<; eliq koI \eyoi on 
 TavTTjv fiev Trjv rjixepdv it € p l fxev o'iev avTOv<;^ rfj 8e 
 dWr) oLTTiivai c^atT^ they said that Cyrus was dead 
 (direct, ridv^K^^ and that Ariaios had fled (Trec^evyw? 
 eVrt, 7re(^€vye), and said (Xeyei or eXeye) that during 
 this day he would wait for them (the messenger said 
 TrepLfjLeveLj Ariaios said irepip^evco), and that he decla/red 
 {€(j)r)) that on the next day he ivoidd depart. An. h. 1, 3. 
 
 Note that a pres. opt. may represent the imperfect indie. ; 
 but the change to the optative is never made when it could 
 cause ambiguity. 
 
 c. Sometimes a present or perfect indicative of the direct 
 form is changed to an imperfect or pluperfect in the indirect, 
 as is usual in English : 
 
 'El/ TToXXrl aTTopta -^(rav ol "EAXryve?, ivvoovjxevoi fxkv or l Ittl rats 
 jSacrtAcws 6vpaL<s y crav , TrpovScSwKetrav 8e avrovs koI ol ^dp/Sa- 
 
 poi the Greehs ivere in great difficulty^ refiecting that they were 
 at the hinges gates (direct, IttI rah OvpaL<; eo-yaeV), and that the 
 barbarians also had abandoned them {r]ixa<s Tr/ooSeSw/cao-i). An. 
 III. 1, 3. 
 
 625 By the omission of verbs arise expressions like SrjXov Stl evi- 
 dently, oTS' oTt / am sure, surely, ovx ^'^^ i^^^ ^^'^ ^P^ ^'^0 ^^^ 
 
CLAUSES WITH "Ore, 'EircC, ETC. 263 
 
 merely^ jxr] on (for fxrj et7ro>, €L7rr}S, V7roXdl3rj'S ort) TlOt to Say^ TlOt 
 
 only. 
 
 626 AioTt (for 8ta ort) wherefore^ because^ that., is used like on, often 
 in the sense of because., sometimes in the sense of that. ovv€Ka 
 (for ov eveKtt) tvherefore, that, is used like on in poetic style : 
 
 *ETvy;(ave €<^* dixd^rjq Tropcvo/xcvos Stori ir ir pioro it hap- 
 pened that he tvas riding in a wagon^ because he was ivounded. 
 An. II. 2, 14. 
 
 OvTos 8c fxoL <j>iXo<i ovv€K 'ArpctSd? (TTvyel this man is my 
 friend because he hates the Atreidai. S. ph. 586. la-di tovto 
 irpoiTov ovv€Ka "EAAt^vc? ia-fxev Jcnow this first, that we are 
 Greeks. S. ph. 232. 
 
 CLAUSES WITH "Ot€, 'Ottotc, 'Eirei, 'HviKa, 'OiniviKa 
 
 627 ''Ore wMlej when, and 'Oirore wlienever (236), intro- 
 duce temporal clauses, the time of which is commonly 
 the same as that of the leading verb. When av with 
 the subjunctive follows, av is joined to the conjunc- 
 tion ; oT^ av becomes orav, oirore av becomes birorav. 
 
 "Ore and 'OTrore, like iclien, since, while^ often take 
 a causal meaning ; rarely they take a concessive mean- 
 ing, altliougli. 
 
 "Ore and ^Oirore Clauses are like "O? and "Ocrrt? 
 Clauses. With the subjunctive they are always tem- 
 poral : 
 
 ''Ore TavTa tjv, (j\ehov fiecrau -qaav vvKje^ it was 
 about midniglit ivhen this was tahing place. An. m. i, 34. 
 ivTavOa 'Bep^r]^;^ ore eK T7J<; 'EXXaSo? aTre^wpei, 
 Xeyerai OLKO^ofJirjcraL Tavra ra ySacrtXeia there Xevxes 
 
 1 Lat. cum has like changes of meaning ; but the Greek use of modes 
 must not be confused with the Latin. 
 
264 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 is said to have huilt tliis palace when he was returning 
 fronn Greece. An. i. 2, 9. (Here the inf. oiKohojjirjo-aL, 
 representing an aor. indie, is tlie leading verb for the 
 ore clause which fixes its time.) ot^ ovv irapaivova 
 ovSev €9 7T\iov TTOLCOy 77/309 CTC LKeTi^ dcfilyfJiaL since 
 then I accomplish nanght hy advising (liim), to thee 
 I have come, a suppliant. S. ox. 918. ^aXcTra ra irap- 
 ovTa, OTTO re avhpcov (TTpaTrjycjv tolovtwv aTepo- 
 [led a the present situation is hard, since tve are hereft 
 of such commanders. Ax\. m. 2, 2. 
 
 'Orav <T7T€v8r] rt? aurdg, x^ ^^^^ avvaTTTeTai 
 whenever one shows zeal himself j God also aids. a. p. 
 744. orav hrj (xr) crOivoj TreTravaofiai I will stop 
 when in truth I have no more strength, s. an. 91. 
 
 ''Ore e^co rov heivov y iv oivt o^ iroWol avTov airi- 
 XeiTTov whenever they got out of danger, many would 
 leave him. An. n. 6, 12. a Ik^vo^ iOrjpevev oltto Ittttov 
 OTTore yvfJivdcrai /3 ovXolt o eavrov re Kai tovs tV- 
 TTov^ tvhich he used to hunt on horsehach, whenever he 
 wished to exercise both himself and his horses. An. i. 2, 7. 
 
 628 Evre and cvt av in poetry have the same meaning and use as 
 ore and orav : 
 
 Etire y e^ aiXTrriav AtaS fieTeyv m(t6 t] Ovfiov nOlV that AiaS, 
 
 beyond our hope, has repented of his tvrath. S. ai. 715. evrc 
 TTOVTOS iv ixc(Tr]ixj3pLva2<s KOLTai^ oLKvixiov vr)vefJiOL<s evSoL Trecrwv 
 
 * The opt. in subordinate clauses of repeated past action, the use of 
 the impf. and aor. indie, with &v in principal clauses for occasional past 
 action (361 a, 367 a), and our similar use of would, as in translating the 
 above sentence, all seem to proceed from the same mental tendency. 
 Instead of making the statement in the form of a fact, it is made in the 
 form of a supposed case; the context shows that the case assumed is 
 understood as a typical one, such as occurred repeatedly. 
 
CLAUSES WITH "Ore, 'Eircf, ETC. 265 
 
 whenever the sea fell waveless in its calm 7nidday couch and 
 slept. A. A. 570. 
 
 629 'ETTct when^ after tliat^ after ^ introduces temporal clauses, 
 the time of whicli is earlier than that of the leading 
 clause. When av with the subjunctive follows, av 
 unites with eVet and forms iiTrjv or eTrdv. 
 
 'Ettci also takes a causal, rarely a concessive, mean- 
 ing — since^ whiles whereas, rarely although. 
 
 *E7r€t Clauses are like "O? and ''Ore Clauses. With 
 the subjunctive they are always temporal. 
 
 'ETTctST^ (with av, eVetSai^) is a strengthened form 
 of eVet. eVetSaz/ is more frequent than iirriv or 
 
 'Ettci er€XeuTT7cre Act/aeto?, Ticr(Ta(j)€pj/r]<; Sta- 
 ^dXXei Kvpop after Dareios died, lissaphernes slan- 
 dered Cyrus. An. I. 1, 3. cTret u/xeZ? e^ot ovk iOi- 
 Xere TreiOeaO ai, iyco avv vfjilv expofxai since you are 
 imivilling to obey me, I ^oill folloio you. An. i. 3, 6. 
 € 77 e 1 8 17 Ki}y909 i KaXety Xa^cov vfjid<; iTropevofJLrjv when 
 Cyrus called, I tooh you and went. An. i. 3, 4. lirel 
 Tovro iyivero koX tov^ veKpoiJ<; vttoctttop^ov^ dire- 
 8 lB oa av, TTpocriovTe'^ dXXyjXov^; ttoXXoI SieXeyovro 
 after this was over and they loere giving hach the dead 
 under a truce, many approached and talked ivith each 
 other, n. n. 4, 19. 
 
 'O 8' viricr^eTo dvhpX eKdara) Sco(T€lv Trivre dypvpiov 
 ixvd<; iwrjv el<; ^a^vXoiva rJKOjai and he promised 
 that he would give each man five minae in money 
 after they should get to Babylon (the mode of the 
 direct form, lirriv y^Kcofiev, retained), an. 1.4, 13. eirei- 
 
266 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 Sap oLTravTCL dKovo-rjre Kptvare after you have lieard 
 all, then judge, d. 4, 14. 
 
 aav Koi TToXiv err el tt^tj a idt^oiev ol lttttol, ravTov 
 iiTOLovv the asses, whenever any one pursued them, 
 would run forward and then stand still ; and again 
 they would do the same whenever the horses dreiv near. 
 An. I. 5, 2. iireiSy] dv oiy^d (.it), elafjiJiev irapd rov 
 ^ (OK parr) as soon as it (the prison) was opened, ive 
 used to go in where Sohmtes was. Ph. so d. 
 
 a. 'E-TTct clauses may, like os clauses (612 a), be so loosely 
 
 joined to the preceding sentence as to be in fact independent : 
 
 *E7r€t /cat TovTO ye //-ot SoKet KaXov etvat altJlOUgll this toO 
 
 seems to me to he a fine thing. A p. 19 e. 
 
 630 'Hi/tKa ivhen and 'OTrrjvLKa whenever are like ore and ottotc in 
 meaning and use, but they generally define the time more 
 precisely— ;/t^5^ tvhen, at the very time luhen ; they are much 
 less frequent than ore and ottoVc : 
 
 *Hi/tKa SuXt] iy tyv €t o, icfjdvr) KovLoprbs wcnrep v€<l>iXrj XevKrj 
 
 just as evening was coming on^ there apj^eared a rising of dust ^ 
 
 like a luhiie cloud. Ax. i, 8, 8. i-mx^Lpei yvLKa av rjjxd^ jxr] 
 
 SwaifjieOa Ikcl(T€. dc^tKeV^at he mahcs attempts just ivhen ive 
 should he unahle to get there. D. 4, 31. 
 
 'E^ap^w ph/ ovv iyoi rjv lk av KaLpb<s rj Tratava I tvill mgself, 
 
 then.) lead in a paean when the right moment comes. II. ii. 4, 17. 
 
 EtpTTC 8' aXkoT aXkaya. tot av etAvo/zevo?, av lk* i^avecrj BaKc- 
 
 6vp,o<; ard then he would drag himself this wag and that (after 
 food), whenever the devouring anguish ahated. S. pn. 705. 
 
 CLAUSES WITH "E(OS, "EcTTC, Me'xpl, "Axpl 
 
 631 "Ew? ivhile, so long as, until, likewise "Ecr-re, Mex/at ov, 
 lAiyjpi,"" K^pi {pv), until, so long as, introduce Relative 
 Clauses of time. The indicative states a fact, present 
 
CLAUSES WITH "Ews, "Eo-re, M^xpi, "Axpi 267 
 
 or past ; tlie subjunctive (with avj sometimes with- 
 out) and the optative (without av) have the same 
 force as in os clauses (615 a, b). 
 
 In the sense of loliile^ so long as, they naturally 
 take one of the tenses of continuance (present, imper- 
 fect, perfect) ; in the sense of U7itil they generally 
 take the aorist : 
 
 'Eoj? fxiv o fxev avrov, (jKeTrriov [xol So/ccl onco^;, ktX, 
 ivliile we remain here^ it seems to me we must consider 
 llOW^ etc. Ax. I. 3, 11. € w 9 y^v irl fJLOLTO, ttlcttov eav- 
 Tov irapei^ev SO long as he was honored^ he shoioed 
 himself faitlif id. L. 12, G6. 
 
 Upoo'iJLeLvavTe<; € w 9 tov<; v€Kpov<s dv e lXopt o ol 
 7rpoo-if]KopTe<; waiting vntil their hinsmen had tahen iip 
 the dead. H. h. 4, 7. raGra iiToiovv pii^pi aK6T0<; 
 iyivero this they hept doing till darhiess came on. 
 
 An. IV. 2, 4. 
 
 ''Ea)9 8' av ovv i k fjid9r)<;, e^ iXniSa but keep 
 hope at any rate until you learn the whole, s. ot. 835. 
 6 w 9 dv cr (p (^rjT aL to o'/<:a(^o9, rore ^pir) Kau vavriqv 
 KoX Kv^epvTjTiqv Trpo6vp.ov^ elvai while the hoat is safe^ 
 then ought both sailor and pilot to he zealous. D. 9, 69. 
 pi 4^ pi dv 7] KO)y al aTTovSal p^evovroiv let the truce con- 
 tinue till I return. Ax. n. 3, 24. eVtcrx€9 e9 r' dv koI 
 rd XoLird it pocr pdO r)<? wait till thou hast also learned 
 the rest. a. pb. 723. 
 
 ^ESof ei^ ovv irpoiivai eco 9 Ki^pw av p, pei^ eiav 
 they decided to go o?i, until they should join Cyrus. 
 An. II. 1, 2. TTepiepeve pixp^ eXOoi he tvaited for 
 him to come {till lie should come). H. i. 3, 11. 
 
268 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 a. A ews clause has the indicative also when the action is 
 known to be impossible, because dependent on a clause that 
 implies unreality : 
 
 vavTOy rj(rxvx^o.v av Tjyov I sJiould Tiave icaited^ until most of 
 the several speakers had set forth their view, and should have 
 kept still D. 4, 1. 
 
 b. Some of the above clauses with cw?, etc., and the sub- 
 junctive or optative imply both purpose and condition, while 
 at the same time they are primarily temporal. 
 
 *i2s CLAUSES 
 
 632 'Os as, ho2V, and ws thus, so, are adverbs of manner from os 
 (339) ; they differ only in accent, ws corresponding to the 
 older demonstrative form of o<s, and w? to the relative form ; 
 sometimes ws itself is accented (18, 21 c). 
 
 The uses of ws as a subordinating conjunction fall under 
 two classes : 
 
 A. Corresponding to those of o? and other relative pro- 
 nouns, 
 
 B. Showing farther developments in special directions. 
 
 633 A. 'n? as, hoiu, i7i luhich way, corresponds closely to o? in 
 meaning, and introduces clauses like os clauses ; most of them 
 are like simple sentences (615), but some have the subjunc- 
 tive and optative in the manner described in 616 a and b. 
 
 a. As purely relative, in comparisons, often in the strength- 
 ened form wo-TTcp. Though a conjunction, w? retains the force 
 of an adverb in its own clause : 
 
 'EKcXevcre rov<5 "EXXryva?, w s vofio^i avrot? et? fxaxw^ ovto) raxOrj- 
 
 vdL KOL arTrjvat he directed the Greeks, as was their custom for 
 hattle, so to arrange themselves and take position. An. i. 2, 15. 
 OaTTov rj 0)9 av t^ero more quickly than {as) one would have 
 thought. An. i. 5, 8. ws o raSc irop^v oXolto as may he that 
 wrought this perish. S. e. 126. 
 
•fis CLAUSES 269 
 
 Often the antecedent is a sentence or phrase : w s />t€v rots 
 ttXclo-tols iSoKovv, <f)L\oTiixr}04vT€9, OTL kt\. beinff jealoiis, as they 
 appeared to the majority^ because^ etc. An. i. 4, 7. So w? cAe- 
 7€To «s ?^a5 said, ws d/covw a^ / hear, and many like expres- 
 sions. 
 
 b. As indirect interrogative : 
 
 'E^TJyyetAe ttjv Kpiariv 'OpoVrd, ws iyevero he reported the 
 
 trial of Orontes, how it ivas conducted. Ax. i. 6, 5. a/covo-ov 
 ws €/3(u /^ear how I shall tell it. S. ot. 547. olcrG' a>s ttoltjo-ov; 
 
 do you know how you should do ? (literally, do you knoiv how 
 do?) S. OT. 543. 
 
 In this use also ws retains its force as adverb. 
 
 c. Temporal : 
 
 *0 8' ws aTTrjXOe fSovXevcrai hut he, as he ivent away, con- 
 sidered. An I. 1, 4. (I)S et8e KAeapxoi/ SteAavVovra, t?y(rt t^ 
 d^tVry ivhen he saw Klearchos riding through, he threio his ax 
 at him. An. i. 5, 12. 
 
 d. Causal : 
 
 A€o/u,ttt (Tov 7rapafji€LvaL rffuv, w? eyw ov8' av evos ^8Zov ukov- 
 
 o-at/At / ^e^ ^0?^ ^0 ^^rt/y with us, as there is not one ichom I 
 would more gladly hear. Pr. 335 d. 
 
 e. Such clauses, like those introduced by os and eVet (629 a), 
 are often so loosely connected with the main verb as to be 
 really independent sentences. 
 
 f. Some common phrases have arisen from the omission of 
 a verb. Thus clauses like w 5 fidXio-Ta iSvvaro as he ivas most 
 able (An. i. 1, 6), and cb? av hvvoifxat hi eAa^to-Tcov in as brief 
 terms as I can (L. 12. 3), are abbreviated to ws /xdXta-ra and ws 
 Si iXaxt(TT(j)v. In this Avay (1)9 becomes merely a means of 
 strengthening a superlative : w? /3iXTL(rTo<; as good as possible. 
 
 634 B. Two special uses of w? have been developed from the rela- 
 tive meaning (633 a). These are (1) the declarative, (2) the 
 final, denoting purpose. 
 
270 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 635 Clauses witli 'H? declarative^ meaning liow^ that, are 
 like Clauses with "On meaning that (622) : 
 
 OvTTore ipel ov8el<; o) 9 iyo) ttjv tcjv jSapjBdpcov (j)L\Ldp 
 el\6 fjLTjv no one shall ever say that I chose the friend- 
 ship of the harharians. An. i. 3, 5. o) s §e tovto ovtoj<; 
 €X € t, ireipdcroixaL koX vpuv eTTiSetf at and that this is so, 
 I will try to show you also, Ap. 24 c. 
 
 636 Clauses with '^.s final, denoting purpose, meaning that, 
 in order that, are frequent in poetry, but rare in prose, 
 except in Xenophon. With w? in this sense 
 
 a. A subjunctive (often with dv) denotes a pur- 
 . pose still to be accomplished : 
 
 Act ^€019 hovvai hiKrjv, a)9 av S ihax^jj he must 
 pay the penalty to the gods, that he may he taught (in a 
 way in which he may), a. pb. lo. aj^S'avfjidOrj^; 
 on ovS* av ifxeis St/catco? e/xot aTncrTOLrjTe, avrdKovcrov 
 hut that you may learn thai you also would not justly 
 distrust me, hear in turn. An. h. 5, 16. 
 
 b. An optative (without dv) denotes a purpose of 
 the same kind, but more remote from the speaker — 
 e. g., as that of another person, or of a past situation, 
 or as less likely to be accomplished. The optative is 
 common after a past tense : 
 
 'iKopirjv TO Tlv0LKov fxavreiov, w? (judO o t fx* otco 
 
 TpoTTO) TTaTpl St/cctg dpoifjLiQv I came to the Pythian 
 
 oracle, that I might learn in what ivay I should gain 
 
 justice for my father, s. e. 33. irpoa-Kakwv tov<; ^lKovs 
 
 icnrovSaLoXoyeLTo w? 87)\o Crj ovs rl/xa he used to call 
 
"Ottws clauses 271 
 
 Ms friends and talk seriously with ihem^ so as to sJioiv 
 whom he honored, an. i. 9, 28. 
 
 c. A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist, 
 pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part 
 of an imaginary, unreal situation expressed or implied 
 in the leading clause : 
 
 Et yap [L V7T0 yrjv jJKev, &> ? /Ai^Ve ^eo? iirjre rt? dWos 
 TO tcrS' iireyTjOeL oh that he had sent me under the 
 earthy that neither god nor any other creature might he 
 rejoicing at this. a. pb. 165. ri fx ov Xa/Bcbv eKreuva^;, 
 ojs eSet^a fiijiTOTe ifxavTOP avO pciyiroiaiv lohy did 
 you not take and day me, that I might never have 
 shown myself to men. s. ot. 1392. 
 
 d. For 0)9 with a participle see 693 c. 
 For 0)9 with an infinitive see 566. 
 
 637 "Qa-n-ep is a strengthened o)9, used only in a relative and com- 
 parative sense — even as, just as. "Qa-n-ep clauses are therefore 
 like simple sentences : 
 
 "fl or TT e p r7r7ro9 €iyev^9 ev tolctl 8€tvot9 Ovfjiov ovk dTrwAecrcv, 
 
 o)o-a^jTO)9 Sk (TV rjfias oTpvvus even as a horse of nolle dlood does 
 not lose heart (465) in danger, so thou dost spur us on. S. e. 25. 
 
 "Oir(OS CLAUSES 
 
 638 "^Ottw? is the general relative and indirect interroga- 
 tive to 0)9 and 770)9. ''0770)9 Clauses are like '119 Clauses, 
 but some types are more frequent (and others less fre- 
 quent) with O770)9. The following are common. 
 
 a. With a future indicative, after expressions of 
 planning or effort, to denote the aim : 
 
 ^KeTTTeov fjioi So/cei elvau o 77 o) 9 dcr<^aXecrraTa fi € - 
 vov iJL€v it seems to me we must consider how we shall 
 
272 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 remain most safely. An. i. 3, il. ^ovkeverai o tt w 9 
 fiijirore eri ecrrac eVt rw dSeXc^w he considered how 
 he should never again he dependent on his brother. 
 An. I. 1, 4. OTTO)? /cat vy^^% ifxe iiraivecreTe e/xol 
 fxeXTJcreL it shall he m.y care that you too shall praise 
 me. An. I. 4, 16. aWo n rj rrepl ttoWov Troiet oircos w? 
 ^eXTLaroL ol vearrepoi eaovrai; donH you think it 
 very important that the young shall he as good as pos- 
 sible ? Ap. 24 d. 
 
 b. Out of the preceding, by omission of the main verb, has 
 grown the use of oVw? and ottws /xtJ with a future indicative to 
 express a command or prohibition. A leading verb is no 
 longer thought of, and the ottws clause becomes a form of sim- 
 ple sentence : 
 
 Ottws ovv ecrea-Oe avSpes ol^lol rrj'S iXevOepcds pTOVe yOUV- 
 
 selves men ivorthy of your freedom. An. i. 7, 3. ottws /x^ 
 7roti}(reT€ o TroAAa/ct? v/xas ef3kai(/e see that you doTiH do wliat 
 has injured you often. D. 4, 20. 
 
 c. With a subjunctive, often with av., or an opta- 
 tive without av, expressing purpose ; in legal and 
 official style oVw? aV with a subjunctive is frequent : 
 
 ^Icr^t TTOLv TO Spcofjiepov, OTTO)^ av et8w9 tjiAv ay- 
 yeiXr)^ cracfirj learn all that is going on, that you 
 may with knowledge bring a clear report to us, s. e. 40. 
 Set TreipacrOai o tt w 5 /caXw? vlKCJvre^ cr co^coixe9 a we 
 must try horo we may save ourselves by conquering 
 nobly. Ax. III. 2, 3. 
 
 ATreKpti/aTO on avrco pieXoi 7ra>? KaXa)<; €)(ol he 
 replied that he was taking care that it should be well. 
 An. I. 8, 13. \kclvo% pkv ^povTiC^eiv r^v ottcos ^X^^ V 
 
"fioTc CLAUSES 273 
 
 arparia avrco tol iiTLTTJ^eLa lie tvas comjpetent to provide 
 liow Ms army should have supplies. Ax. n. 6, 8. 
 
 d. After expressions of caution or fear a clause Avitli ottws 
 firj sometimes takes the place of a /xtJ clause (610, 611) : 
 
 AeSoiKtt OTTO) 9 i^r] rjfxlv dvdyKr] yevjyo-erat I fear that neces- 
 sity win come U2)0n us. D. 9, 75. <fivXdTTov ottws /z^ ets rovvav- 
 TLov e\6y^ take care that you do not run into the very opposite. 
 M. in. 6, 16. Slightly different is t^v Oehv 8' ottcos XdOu) SeSotKa 
 but I fear I shall not escape the goddess (literally, / fear the 
 goddess, hoiv I shall escape her). E. it. 905. 
 
 e. The common phrase ovk ta-nv ottws there is not hoiv is 
 translated variously according to the context : 
 
 Ovk tcTTiv ottw? ovk eTnO-^o-eraL rjijuv it is impossible that 
 he will not attack us. An. ii. 4, 3. ovk la-riv o-n-ws a-v ravra 
 ov^i aTTOTreLpcjfJicvo'S rjfxwv iypdif/u) ttjv ypa<fir]v TavTrjv tt Ca7l not he 
 
 hut that you brought this indictmeut by way of making trial 
 
 of us. Ap. 27 e. OVK €cr^' ottoos oi//^et cri; SeO/a' eXBovTa /xe you 
 
 surely luill never see me come here. S. an. 329. 
 
 "12crT€ CLAUSES 
 
 639 "^(TT^ (ws or 0)5 and re) has three meanings and uses : . 
 
 a. And so, so that, with any finite mode. The mode has 
 the same force as in simple sentences ; in fact the wa-re clause 
 is often independent : 
 
 "i^a-Tc ySaortXevs rrjv fxev Trpo? iavTov iTrtjSovXrjv ovk rfcrO dv €To 
 so tliat the king did not perceive the plot against himself. An. i. 
 1, 8. ioa-TC /xrjSlv Sl dXXo fxe r/yeto-^e ravryv Troietcr^at r^v diro- 
 
 Xoytdv SO do not suppose that I make this defense for any other 
 reason. L. 16, 8. 
 
 b. As, like w^ and wa-irep in comparisons, mostly without a 
 verh expressed : 
 
 Tlavre?, wctc To^orat o-kottov, to^€V£T dvSpb^ roOSe yOU all 
 
 shoot at me, as archers at a mark. S. an. 1033. 
 
 c. So as to, so that, with an infinitive, see 566. 
 
 18 
 
274 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 "Iva CLAUSES 
 
 640 "Iz/a has two meaDings and uses : 
 
 (1) Relative, ivliere ; in poetry this older meaning 
 is still the prevailing one ; 
 
 (2) Final, denoting purpose, in order that, that ; in 
 prose this is the most frequent final conjunction. 
 
 641 Clauses with "l^'a relative are like "O? Clauses (615) ; 
 the verb is generally in the indicative ; Iva sometimes 
 becomes an indirect interrogative : 
 
 'E^* ayopaj Iva vfjuojv ttoWoI d kt] k6 dcr l in the 
 7narlcet-place, where many of you have heard me, Ap. 
 17 c. TwS' diravOpMiTCO Trdyco, Iv^ ovre (j)a)vrjv ovre tov 
 fjiop(j)r}p jSpcyrojv oi//ei to this lone hight^ where neither 
 voice nor form of any mortal shalt thou behold, a. tb. 21. 
 o/oa? Iv rJKeis; dost see where thou art come f s. ot. 
 
 687. 
 
 642 In Clauses with "ivafifial (cp. 636) : 
 
 a. A subjunctive (without dv) denotes a purpose 
 still to be accomplished : 
 
 iw avopi ov av eArjcrue TreLcrofxaL, uva €LOrjT€ otl 
 Kol dp^eaOai eTTicrra/xat I will ohey the man whom you 
 elect, that you may Icnow that I understand also how to 
 he ruled. An. i. 3, 15. a 'A^poKo/Jids KarcKavaev, Iva 
 ixrj Kvpo<; Sia^rj which (hoats^ AbroJcomas huriied, 
 that Cyrus might not cross. An. i. 4, I8. 
 
 b. An optative (without dv) denotes a purpose of 
 the same kind, but more remote from the speaker — 
 e. g., that of another person, or of a past situation, or 
 
"Iva CLAUSES 275 
 
 a purpose less likely to be realized. The optative is 
 common after a past tense, and when subordinate to 
 another optative : 
 
 Aa/3cbv L)/xa9 iiropevo^iqvj Iva oi(^e\oiriv avrov 
 dv6' S)v ev eiraOov vn Ik^lvov I took you and came, that 
 I might aid hhn in return for the kindness I had 
 received from him. An. i. 3, 4. MevcDv S17X09 rjv iiriOv- 
 ix(x)v TLfJiacrOai Iva TrXeico Kephaiv 01 Menon was 
 plainly eager to he honored^ that he might make greater 
 gains. An. h. 6, 21. dvixbv yivoiTO X^^P^ irXrjpoJcraL 7T0T€j 
 Iv^ at MvKrji>aL yvolev 77} ay it some time he mine to 
 satisfy with deeds my longing, that Mykenai might 
 learn, etc. s. ph. 325. 
 
 c. A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist, 
 pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part 
 of an imaginary, unreal situation, expressed or implied 
 in the leading clause : 
 
 Ou yap ^XPV^ ap^ovra^ oIk€lov^ elvaL, iv^ rfv q}^ 
 a\r)6cos T179 TToXeo)? rj Suz^a/xt? ; ought there not to have 
 heen commanders of your own, that the forces might 
 really helong to the state ? d. 4, 27. ovk av layoix-^v, 
 Iv rj TV(^\6<; re /cat kKvmv /xT^SeV I should not have 
 refrained, that I might he hoth hlind and deaf 
 
 S. OT. 1389. 
 
 d. Kote that any clause of purpose, if its leading clause 
 implies that the case is already impossible, takes a past tense 
 of the indicative. 
 
 This is a form of attraction, the mode of the leading clause 
 determining the mode of the subordinate clause. In the same 
 way, any clause dependent on an optative is generally attracted 
 to the optative. 
 
276 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 IIpiV CLAUSES 
 
 643 The comparative adverb Trptv earlier, before, is used often with 
 the infinitive (see 668). It also becomes a subordinating con- 
 junction ; it may then often be best rendered until. 
 
 644 In Clauses with IlptV 
 
 a. An indicative denotes a past fact : 
 
 OvK levai YjOeXej irpiv 7) yvvrj avrov eireicre Kat 
 Trtcrrei? eXa/B e lie was not willing to go^ until his ivife 
 persuaded him and he had received pledges. An. i. 2, 26. 
 S/xd^eWa? yap dptcTTT], tt p\v avrov elXe Alo^oXov 
 irXrJKTpov TTvpos Kepavviov for he was ivont to raise the 
 dead^ until the Zeus-hurled holt of thunderous fire de- 
 stroyed him. E. AL. 128. 
 
 b. A subjunctive (usually witli av) describes not a 
 real but a supposed or anticipated case ; the time is 
 future, or present in the generalized sense : 
 
 Aetrat avrov (xr) npocrdev KaraXvaai irpiv av avrco 
 orvpL^ov\€.v(Trirai he ashs him not to come to terms 
 before consulting with him. An. i. i, lo. pJri areva^e 
 rrplv fjiddrj^; no more lament., hefore thou learnest. 
 S. p. 917. alcrxpov rjyovfxai irporepov TravaaaOai, rrplv 
 av iffxei^ irepX avrojv o n av /SovXrjcrde xjjrj (j) uarj <t 6 e 
 I think it a shame to stop hefore you shall have voted 
 ivhat you loill about them. l. 22, 4. 
 
 c. An optative (without dv^ describes a supposed 
 case, but more remote in thought from the speaker — 
 as the thought of another, or as part of a past or 
 an imaginary situation ; the optative is not frequent : 
 
El CLAUSES 277 
 
 'TTTOcr^d/xej^o? aurot? (jlt] irpoaOev iravcraaOaL tt p\v 
 avTov^; KaraydyoL oiKahe prmnising therti that lie 
 would not stop till he should restore them to their 
 homes. An. I. 2, 2. ovTTOT eycxiy av, it plv tSot/x' op- 
 dov €7ro(;y iJLefji(j)oiJi€v(x)v av KaTa^airjv never woidd I^ 
 before I see the word made good^ say yea when they do 
 hlame him. s. ot. 505. 
 
 d. An indicative irptv clause generally lias a negative lead- 
 ing clause ; subjunctive and optative irpiv clauses nearly always 
 do. When the leading clause is affirmative, TrptV generally 
 takes the infinitive ; in the meaning 'before^ when until can 
 not be substituted, it takes the infinitive even after a negative. 
 
 El CLAUSES 
 
 What is stated not as a fact but as a supposition, assumed in 
 order to base upon it another statement, is called a condition ; 
 any word or form of words that so states something is a condi- 
 tional expression. Common conditional expressions in English 
 are such as begin with t/, unless^ suppose^ in case^ 07i the chance 
 that, 2uhoever^ ivhenever^ etc. ; inversion of subject and predi- 
 cate may have the same meaning, as Were I Brutus, or Should 
 you ask 7ne} Several forms of conditional expression in Greek, 
 used for stating a supposed case, have been already noted (481, 
 616, 618, 620, 627, 629-631) ; but the fullest and most dis- 
 tinct form is the d clause. A conditional sentence consists 
 of a conditional clause or condition {protasis) and a principal 
 clause, the conclusion (apodosis). 
 
 ^ Other frequent forms of condition are illustrated in 
 What matter, so I help him back to life. — Tennyson, Lane, and El. 
 Not without she wills it. — Tennyson, Lane, and El. 
 Man gets no other light, 
 
 Search he a thousand years, — M. Arnold, Emped. 
 Imperative and interrogative sentences, in both English and Greek, 
 sometimes have the same office. ..j:g^ ": -rr==^ 
 
 \ B n A nf )^ 
 
 OF THE 
 
 [ UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
278 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 643 Et if introduces conditional clauses, stating a sup- 
 posed or assumed case. (For other meanings of the 
 €t clause see 654, 655.) 
 
 Et clauses may have the verb in (A) the indicative, (B) the 
 subjunctive, (C) the optative. The negative is /xtJ. The con- 
 clusion may be any form of simple sentence; but certain 
 forms of conclusion and condition are naturally more apt to 
 go together. 
 
 A. Et uritli the Indicative 
 
 647 El with the present indicative, also with the perfect, 
 imperfect, and aorist, presents the supposition simply, 
 without implying anything as to its reality or proba- 
 bility ; the tenses have the same force as in simple 
 sentences {Simple or Logical Condition, present or 
 past) : 
 
 EiTrep ye AdpeLOv icrrl Trat?, ovk a/xa^et ravr 
 iyo) \rj\\fo^ai if he is indeed a son of Dareios, I shall 
 not take this without a battle. An. i. 7, 9. Oav^idt^oiii 
 av el olcrOa I should he surprised if you Icnoiv. 
 Pr. 312 c. (j)y]crov<TL St] [xe cro^ov elvai, e I /cat fjiij el fxi 
 they will say of course that I am wise, although {if in 
 fact) I am not. The Kai hints, without quite assert- 
 ing, that the case is not merely assumed, but real. 
 
 Ap. 38 c. 
 
 Ov davfJiacrTOP S* el Tore ra? fiopLa^ i^ e kottt ov 
 it is not surpynsing if at that time they cut out the 
 sacred olive-trees, l. 7, 7. et Kepiaiveiv i/3ovXov, 
 TOT av irXelcTTov e\a^e<; if you loished to make money, 
 you would in tluit case have got most. The et clause 
 here is a simple condition ; TOTe is a conditional ex- 
 
El CLAUSES 2Y9 
 
 pression that resumes an earlier clause and stands for 
 an unreal condition (649). L. 7, 20. e i ravr alado- 
 />te^'09 iyoj S LeKcoXvcT a^ ravr'' icrrl TTpohoriqv elvaL tojv 
 <^i\o)v ; if I^ perceiving this, preve7ited it, is that being 
 a betrayer of one'' s friends ? h. n. 3, 46. 
 
 648 The future indicative in an Et Clause 
 
 a. Is in form a simple future condition ; sometimes 
 it is equivalent to /xeXXw with an infinitive, denoting 
 present intention or expectation : 
 
 E I TovTov KaT axjjT] (l)Le'La6 €j SrjXoL icreaOe w? 6p- 
 yii^ofxevoL tol^; TreirpdyfjLevoL^ if you vote against this 
 man, it will be plain that you are angry at their deeds. 
 L. 12, 90. aavvera vvv ipovixev, e l cri y evcj) p avcj 
 we will talk nonsense now, if I shall {thereby^ please 
 you. E. lA. 654. el ovv 01 hoKovvTe<; hia^epeiv tolovtol 
 ea ovT ai, alcrxpov av etr) if tlien those loho are thought 
 superior are to be like that, it would be a shame. 
 
 Ap. 35 a. 
 
 b. It often suggests threat, warning, or earnest 
 appeal {Emotional Future Condition) : 
 
 Et V (f)r] (T 6 fJLeO a kol cttI ^aaiXei y evrj a 6 fxeO a, 
 TL olofjieOa TTeLcrea-B ai ; if loe yield and come into the 
 hing'^s power, what treatment do we expect ? Ax. m. 1, 17. 
 el TliJL(i)pT](reL<; UarpoKXco tov (^ovov koX ^KTOpa 
 OLTT o KTeve2<;, avro? oLTroOavel if you shall avenge the 
 slaying of PatroMos and hill Hektor, you will your- 
 self die. A p. 28 c. 
 
 In such cases tlie indicative presents the supposition more 
 distinctly as a possible future fact ; if the consequences will 
 
280 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 be serious, it gives a " minatory or monitory " tone to force one 
 to look at them in that way. 
 
 649 Et with tlie indicative imperfect and aorist, rarely tlie 
 pluperfect, is used to imply that the supposition is 
 past realization, opposed to a known fact ( Unreal 
 Past Condition). 
 
 The imperfect is used when the reality would be 
 expressed by the present or imperfect, the aorist 
 when the reality would be expressed by the aorist, 
 the pluperfect w^hen the reality would be expressed 
 by the perfect : 
 
 <I>w9 et 1X7) el^o fxevj o/iotot toi<; tv(J)\ol<; av rjixev 
 if we did not have light (as we do) ive should he like 
 the hlind. M. iv. 3, 3. ovk av vrjcratv e/cparet, e I fxij tl 
 Kal vavTLKov €.l^e he would not have ruled over is- 
 lands j if he had not had some naval force (therefore 
 he had, elxe vavriKov), T. i. 9. 
 
 E 6 /xt) D/x€ts rj\0 ere iiropevoyieOa av inl ySacrtXed 
 if you had not come (but you did, T^X^ere), we should 
 now he marching against the Mng. An. n. i, 4. e t rt? 
 cr€ rj per o^ tl av aireKptvcx) ; if some one had asked you 
 (nobody did), what should you have answered? Pr. 
 311 b. € t ere Tv^Tj ir p ovtt e fjLxjj e Kal rj\LKid<; eirij^rj- 
 (T€Vy eXTTtSt y TjaOa /xeya9 if fortune had guided thee 
 on and hrought thee to manhood^ in hope at least tlwu 
 wast great, cia. 22G3. 
 
 El € Ke KTT) fjLTjv ovcTLaVy €77* dcTpd^r]^ av OJ^OVfXiqV 
 
 if I possessed property^ I should ride on a saddle, 
 
 L. 24, 11. 
 
El CLAUSES 281 
 
 B. 'Eav ivith the Suhjunctive 
 
 650 The subjunctive takes av (rarely omitted), wMcIl is 
 joined with et, forming idv (often contracted to r]v 
 or av). 
 
 The subjunctive puts the supposition simply, re- 
 ferring it either to future time, or to any or all time 
 (the generalizing present), whichever the context, 
 especially the leading clause, may indicate (^Simple 
 Future Condition, or General Condition). 
 
 *Hz/ ikkv fjL€va) fxevj cnrovSaC if we remain, a truce. 
 An. II. 1, 23. y^v TOVTO X ayS o) /x e ^', ou SvpTJcrovrai fxe- 
 veiv if we take tliis^ tliey will not he able to remain. 
 An. III. 4, 41. eai^ 8' aTTT^ to yaip^iv^ raW^ iyo) Kair- 
 vov (T/cta? ovK av TTpiai^iqv hut if joy he (jone^ tlie rest 
 I ivould not for a vapor'^s sJiadoiv huy. s. an. iito. 
 
 El Tt vv^ ^^^7 rovT in r^jiap ep^eTai if night 
 leaves aught ^ this the day assails, s. ot. 198. 
 
 a. For lav meaning on the chance that, see 662. 
 
 b. Greek also uses the present indicative (with d) in gen- 
 eral conditions, as English does (cp. 617). 
 
 c. Greek and Latin uses of the subjunctive in conditions 
 must not be confused. Idv with the subjunctive corresponds 
 to si with the future or future perfect indicative ; si with the 
 subjunctive corresponds to d with the optative (651) : lav 
 TOVTO TTOL-qa-Tjs si hoc fades or fecer is. 
 
 C. El 2vith the Optative 
 
 651 Et with the optative (without av) presents the sup- 
 position as more remote in thought (616 b) — 
 
 (1) As a mere possibility, generally future, some- 
 times present or general {Possible Condition), 
 
.282 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 (2) As part of a past situation wliicli occurred 
 repeatedly {Past Repeated Condition), 
 
 (3) As the thought of another person or an ear- 
 lier time (^i^6>^^(i Condition) ; the future optative in 
 such a condition always represents a future indicative 
 of the original form : 
 
 OvK av Oavfjidl^oLfjiL el ol iroke^xioi rjfjuv iiraKo- 
 \ov0 olev I sJiould not he siirpi'ised if the enemy 
 
 should folloiD us. An. hi. 2, 35. XvTTOVfievoLS 6;5(X')7pd9, 
 
 € I fjioXoL, ^eVo? a guest annoys the sorrowing^ if he 
 come. E. AL. 540. KoX tovto ye /xot Sofcet Kokov elvai^ 
 e I Tt9 ofo9 T e Ir) iraiheveiv avOpoyirov^ this too seems 
 to me a fine thing^ if one he really ahle to educate 
 people. Ap. 19 e. 
 
 Et St; TTore tto pevoLT o koL TrXeicrTot (xeWoiev 
 oxjjecrOaLj irpocrKaXoiv tov<; c^iXou? icnrovSaLoXoyelTo if 
 ever he was on the march and many woidd see it^ he 
 would call his friends and talk seriously with them.. 
 An. I. 9, 28. roiv ttoWojv etri? alcr o lt o, icriyd if 
 any of the popular party perceived it^ he said nothing. 
 
 D. 9, 61. 
 
 ^YAl3ov\y]0r)craif 'EXevcrtz^a eftStwcracr^at, ojare elvai 
 (T(I)LG-L KaTa(f)vyrjv el Seijcreie they wished to make 
 Eleusis their own^ so as to have it as a refvge in case 
 
 of need. H. n. 4, 8. yvov<; 6 Kptrtd? OTi el eiT lt p exjjoi 
 TTJ ^ovXrj ?na\\fy)^it^ecr6aL irepl avrov Stac^eufotro Krit- 
 ias^ recognizing that, if he should allow the council to 
 decide ahout him hy a vote, he would escape (direct, 
 
 Ct eTTLTpexpO)). n. II. 3, 50. 
 
El CLAUSES 283 
 
 a. Earely d with the optative expresses an unreal condi- 
 tion, as in Homer. 
 
 652 'Eav with the subjunctive, and after a past tense el with the 
 optative, are sometimes to be translated on the chance that, in 
 the hope that, if perchance ; the future supposition of the la.v 
 or d clause is a motive for the action of the leading clause : 
 
 OvKow arpefji I^€t9, r]v tl koI •^ophrj<i XajSy^ WOn't yOU keep 
 quiet then, on the chance of getting some sausage too ? Ar. r. 330. 
 Tre/xi/^avre? Trpicr/Seis, €t ttws tt etcr etav firj cr^wv Trept vewrept^eLv 
 
 firjSiv sending envoys, in hopes they might {if haply they might) 
 induce them to make no innovations in regard to them. T. i. 58. 
 
 653 Etre . . . ctre and lav re . . . lav t€ luhether . . . or, introduce 
 alternative conditions, with indicative, subjunctive, or optative : 
 
 IlavTco? Stjttov, lav re av Kal "Avvtos ov cfyrjre lav T€ <f)rjT€ 
 
 it certainly is so, ichether you and Anytos say 7io or say yes. 
 Ap. 25 b. 
 
 654 After expressions of wonder, indignation, and some 
 other emotions, €t witli the indicative is used to de- 
 scribe, in the milder form of a supposition, the fact 
 that causes the emotion. In such clauses d may 
 sometimes be translated if, but oftener that : 
 
 ©av/xa^oj 8' eycoye el /xT^Set? vfjiwi/ jjltJt iv Oi) fxel- 
 rat iirjT 6 pyC^erai but I am for ray xjart sur- 
 prised that no one of you hears it in mind or is angry, 
 
 D. 4, 43. 
 
 Other Uses of Et 
 
 655 After expressions of doubt or inquiry, et with the 
 indicative (rarely lav with the subjunctive) becomes 
 an indirect question. In such clauses d (or idv) may 
 sometimes be translated if but more often whether : 
 
 Et \jAv Stj St/cata ironjcroj ovk olSa tvhether T shall 
 he doing right I do not hiow. Ax. i. 3, 5. et ^v {jltto- 
 
284 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 vTj (T ei<; kclI ^vv e py dcTTj aKoirei see whether thou 
 wilt worh with me and share the deed. s. an. 41. 
 
 656 By omission of the verb some common phrases have arisen : 
 
 a. Et /jtr; except^ d jxtj 8id except for : 
 
 'ATToXeVat Trap€(TK€va^ovTO rrjv ttoAiv, et firj 8l avSpa<; ayaOov^ 
 
 they 2vere preparing to destroy the state^ except for {had it not 
 been for) some good men. L. 12, 60. 
 
 b. "fio-Tre/a av d as, Uhe \ the av suggests a hypothetical in- 
 dicative or optative as a conclusion to an d clause : 
 
 Eu^vS rjcnrd^ero avrov axTTrep av el rrdXai cjiiXwv daTrd^oLTo he 
 
 greeted him at once, just as if one should greet an old frie^id. 
 C. I. 3, 2. (do-Tra^otTo might have been omitted.) 
 
 c. El Se ijnq otherivise also introduces a supposition contrary 
 to something that precedes — often where fxri seems unneces- 
 sary, sometimes where we should expect Idv instead of ct : 
 
 'A7rT7T€t rd xPVf^oLTa' ct Sc fit], TroXe/Jii^a-eLV t<j>r) avTOL<; he de- 
 manded the return of the property ; otherivise he said he would 
 make rear on them. H. i. 3, 3. /x^ TroLrja-ys Tama, el Sk jjl yj, 
 
 aiTLav c^cts do not do this, else you tuill he blamed. An. vn. 1, 8. 
 
 INDIRECT DISCOURSE 
 
 657 Words or thoughts so quoted as to be made grammatically 
 subordinate in form to a verb or other expression meaning 
 say, thinh, hear, or the like, are indirect quotations ; a direct 
 quotation retains the original form. 
 
 The forms used in indirect discourse have been already 
 given in their proper places ; for convenience they are here 
 briefly summed up together. 
 
 658 Simple sentences and principal clauses (not interrogative) in 
 indirect quotation are put in the infinitive after certain verbs 
 (577-579) — after <^?7/xt, oto/xai, and. vo/xt^w regularly in prose, 
 seldom after Aeyw and dirov, except in the sense of hid. 
 
INDIRECT DISCOURSE 285 
 
 659 After most other verbs such clauses are introduced by on or 
 ws (624, 635) ; the original tense is retained, the original 
 mode is retained always after primary tenses and often after 
 historical tenses. (But see 624 c.) 
 
 a. But after historical tenses an indicative or subjunctive 
 may be changed to an optative, unless that would cause am- 
 biguity ; an indicative with av (461, 467, 469) is retained un- 
 changed, to avoid confusion with a hypothetical optative. 
 
 b. After one or more on or ws clauses, when the introduc- 
 tory verb of saying is no longer near, a succeeding principal 
 clause may be in the infinitive — as if the introductory verb 
 had been one that requires the infinitive. 
 
 660 After verbs of thinking, hearing, and the like, that take a 
 predicate participle agreeing with the object (586), the lead- 
 ing verb of a brief quotation may be changed to a predicate 
 participle. (See examples under 586.) 
 
 661 Direct questions, when made indirect, retain the original mode 
 and tense ; but after historical tenses they may change an 
 indicative or subjunctive to the optative, like on clauses 
 (659 a). 
 
 Xote especially that no indirect question has the subjunc- 
 tive unless the direct form has it (dubitative subjunctive, 471) ; 
 and that the optative is never required, even after a past 
 tense. 
 
 662 Subordinate clauses of indirect discourse retain the mode and 
 tense of the direct form always after a primary tense, often 
 after a historical tense. But after a historical tense they may 
 change an indicative or subjunctive to an optative, unless 
 that would cause ambiguity ; a past tense of the indicative in 
 an unreal condition (649), or in a clause that expresses a pur- 
 pose past attainment (636 c, 642 c), is retained unchanged, to 
 avoid confusion with other forms of conditional or final 
 clauses. 
 
286 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 663 A long quotation carried through strictly in the indirect 
 form, as is so often done in Latin, would have seemed in 
 Greek monotonous and dull. The Greek preferred to vary it 
 by repeating ecfir), by inserting ecfirj xprjvai or iKeXeva-e before an 
 expression of will, and by shifting from indirect to direct 
 forms. English resembles Greek rather than Latin in this 
 respect. 
 
 664 Examples of Indirect Discourse. 
 
 'AyaTrycreLV fxe t<j>a<TK€v el to o-w/xa crwcrdi lie said I lUOUld 
 
 he satisfied if I should save my life (direct, ayairrja-u^ d o-wo-eis). 
 L. 12, 11. 
 
 '^Hkci/ ayyeXos X.iyo)v on XeXonrihs elrj %vivv€.(TL<i ra uKpa, €7ret 
 ycrOiTO TO Mevoivos aTpaTevfJia otl ■^St) iv KlXiklo, rjv there Came a 
 
 messenger saying that Syennesis had left the hights after he 
 perceived that Merlon's force was already in Kilihia (direct, 
 
 XkXovKt, iireL rjaSeTO otl rjv. For rjv see 624 c). An. i. 2, 21. 
 
 'O Se aircKpivaTO otl olkovol A ^ o k6 fidv, ixOpbv avSpa, iirl 
 T(p YiVcfipaTrj TTora/Aw etvat, a7re)(0VTa SwSeKa crTaO/JLOvs' Trpos tovtov 
 ovv ecfir) ^ovXecOaL iXOelv kolv /xkv fj iKel, ttjv Slktjv e(fi7) XPV~ 
 ^€lv CTTt^etvat avrw, -^v Sk cfievyrj, y^fxel^ e/cet irpos Taxrra ^ovXeva-ojxeOa 
 
 he ansivered that lie had heard (d/couoo) that Abrohomas^ an ene- 
 my of his, was near the river Euphrates, twelve days' march 
 distant (this fact would have been reported to Cyrus in the 
 form *AI3poK6fjid<: 1(ttl) ; against him therefore he said he wished 
 (direct, ^ovAo/xat) to go ; and if he proved to he there (direct 
 form retained), he said he wished to punish him (direct, XPV^^) J 
 hut if he retreats, lue will there concert measures in regard to 
 this (direct quotation). An. i. 3, 20. 
 
 In An. I. 3, 14, kXia-OaL depends on ciTre in the sense of hade, 
 urged, representing a hortative subjunctive cAw/xe^a or an im- 
 perative IXecrOc. Similarly ayopdlea-OaL, (TV(TKevat,ecr6aL, atretv, 
 o-wTttTTco-^ai, TTifxij/aL. Meantime el jSovXcTaL remains in the 
 direct form ; ri Se ayopa rjv is a remark of Xenophon, not of the 
 soldier ; w? dTroTrXeotei/ represents ws airoTrXioifxev of the direct ; 
 iav StSo) and ctTrd^et are unchanged, as are (jiOdo-uio-L and ex^ficv. 
 
PARTICLES 287 
 
 PARTICLES 
 
 665 A class of words called Particles^ some of them conjunctions, 
 some adverbs, some both at once, are used freely in Greek to 
 make clearer certain relations between ideas. Most of the 
 ordinary conjunctions have practical equivalents in English, 
 and hence make no difficulty. (See, e. g., 602.) But for som.e 
 of the commonest particles, adverbial in character, or partly 
 adverbial and partly conjunctional, English has no precise 
 equivalents in separate words ; we express only by stress, by 
 pauses, and by tones or changes of pitch (speech-tune) what 
 in Greek is fully expressed, by these particles and by word- 
 order, on the printed page. The force of such particles can 
 be really learned only by observation in reading, especially 
 while reading aloud and while listening to such reading. The 
 following sections (666-673) describe briefly the more distinct 
 meanings of the particles that most require attention, although 
 such a description can not be very exact. 
 
 Particles which can not begin a clause are postpositive, 
 and are marked in the following list by an asterisk, as * av. 
 
 666 ^"kv marks the action of a verb as more or less uncertain, 
 either (1) as contingent on circumstances not yet realized, or 
 (2) as itself merely supposed. The first use is seen in the 
 hypothetical indicative and optative (461, 467, 479) ; in the 
 second use av stands (or may stand) with most classes of sub- 
 ordinate subjunctives (616 a, 618 a, 620, 627-632, 636 a, 638 c, 
 644, 650). av is not used with subordinate /u-tj clauses nor with 
 quoted dubitative subjunctives, because it was not used with 
 the simple subjunctive sentences from which these subordi- 
 nate clauses arose ; it nearly dropt out of purpose clauses, 
 though oTTws and w? clauses often retain it. 
 
 a. Earely av stands with a future indicative to mark it as 
 contingent, or with a future participle representing such an 
 indicative. 
 
 667 The negative adverbs ov and /xtJ have been described (486) ; 
 their compounds differ in meaning as do simple ov and yu,?}. 
 
288 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 Ov8e (fJt'rjSe) is the negative of 8e and /cat, (1) as conjunction, 
 but not, and not^ nor^ especially in continuing a negative ; 
 (2) as adverb, emphasizing the following word or phrase, nor 
 yet^ also not, not . . . either, not eve?i. 
 
 668 *A/oa and rj mark a sentence as interrogative, implying nothing 
 as to the answer expected. 
 
 For fjt.ri and /awi/ in questions see 488 a, c. ov in a question 
 is like English not, implying that the answer yes is expected ; 
 so also ovKovv, but less strongly, apa before ixrj or ov merely 
 makes the interrogative force more distinct. 
 
 IloTcpov (TTorepa) . . . rj introduce the members of an alter- 
 native question, utriim . . . an. ( Whether . . . or was for- 
 merly used in the same sense, but tuhether is not so used in 
 modern prose in a direct question.) 
 
 669 a. ^MeV, a weaker form of /atJv (671 a), implies that the word 
 • before it, or the phrase in which it stands, is thought of as 
 
 contrasted with something that is to follow ; the second con- 
 trasted member is usually marked by * 8e, sometimes by aXka 
 or some other adversative conjunction, but is sometimes left 
 unexpressed. /xeV and 8e are very frequent, marking a great 
 variety of contrasted ideas, often where English or Latin 
 would use for the former member a concessive clause, intro- 
 duced by although and the like. 
 
 Note that Sc is always a conjunction ; hence fteV . . . hi 
 can be used only when the second member requires a lut 
 or and. 
 
 b. * MeVrot (/xeV and rot, 671 e) generally marks a contrast 
 or a transition to a different topic, hoivever, yet. 
 
 But sometimes the older force of /xeV (=/>i7/v) is more 
 prominent — certainly, surely. So sometimes in other combi- 
 nations, as Travv fxev ovv assuredly, certainly. 
 
 670 a. Kat (besides its use as a conjunction, and) is an adverb, also, 
 evpn, emphasizing the following word or phrase. 
 
 , Kat €t is even if, el Kai if in fact, although, koI 8r/ Kat and of 
 course also, and in particular. 
 
PARTICLES 289 
 
 b. KatTot is slightly adversative, and yet. 
 
 c. KatVep aWiough stands only with participles (593 b). 
 
 671 Several particles are intensive, denoting emphasis or stress, of 
 slightly varying degree and kind. 
 
 a. M^v in truth is the strongest, often giving prominence 
 to the whole statement rather than to a single word ; 5 M^ 
 verily introduces the formula of an oath ; Kat /t-^v and surely^ 
 and see, in tragedy often calls attention to a newcomer. 
 
 The weakened form /xeV sometimes retains a similar force 
 (cp. 669). 
 
 b. The enclitic *y€ emphasizes the preceding word by 
 restriction. At least has a like force, but is usually too 
 strong ; a slight stress of voice is sometimes the only transla- 
 tion possible. * yovv (ye and ovv, 673 a) is a stronger at least, 
 at any rate. 
 
 c. The most untranslatable and elusive is *8//. 
 
 (1) Its force falls on a single preceding word (though 
 another particle may intervene), marking the idea as obvious, 
 definite, positive; 8^Aa hrj quite plain, iroXXol h-q a great many, 
 KdXXL(TTo<i Sri the very finest, clearly the finest, ovrtos 8?} in just 
 this icay, irov h-q; ichere, pray? d Srj if indeed, opare 8rj you 
 see, of course, t6t€ Srj then indeed. Sometimes it gives an 
 ironical tone, forsooth, as he claims. 
 
 (2) Its force extends to a whole clause, near the beginning 
 of which it stands ; it then marks the statement as obvious, 
 to be expected under the circumstances ; it may thus become 
 inferential, of course, you see, clearly, accordingly. 
 
 d. The form * Brjra surely is a stronger, S-^ttov {8y and irov) 
 a weaker 8?;. Srjirov is often ironical, douMless, I suppose. 
 BrjOev is almost always ironical, forsooth. 
 
 e. The enclitic *Tot is by origin a for dative of crv (older 
 Tv) ; thus it calls the listener's attention to the statement, as 
 one that concerns him. The translation is various ; doubtless, 
 you know, he assured, have a similar tone, but are usually too 
 
 19 
 
290 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 strong. Frequent compounds are fjiivroL (669 b), ovtol surely 
 not. For rotVw, etc., see 673 b. 
 
 672 From ye apa (673 a) is formed * ydp, which has several distinct 
 uses, with some that are transitional between these. 
 
 a. Adverbially, yap makes the preceding word prominent, 
 somewhat as ye does, while suggesting, like apa, that the pre- 
 ceding sentence has something to do with this prominence. 
 Especially in questions yap denotes surprise, or some kindred 
 emotion: ris yap av i^TjO-q; tvliy, tclio loould have thought! 
 
 D. 9, 68. yivoLTo yap av tl Kaivorepov ; COuld there possiMy be 
 
 anything newer! D. 4, 10. Also in answers, or other state- 
 ments positively made, with some reference to a preceding 
 
 statement: rj yap avdyKrj (An. I. 6, 8) or dvdyKrj yap I must 
 
 indeed ! 
 
 With these belongs the use of yap in wishes (470 a, 477). 
 yap in this group of uses may be called yap emotional. 
 
 b. Often a narrative or explanation that has just been 
 promised is introduced by yap explanatory. The nearest Eng- 
 lish equivalent is namely; sometimes we may translate hj for 
 example, that is ; but more often English in such cases has no 
 
 introductory word : v/xas etSws SiSd^m. to pikv yap TrXrjOo? TToXv 
 
 ktX. I icill explain to you. Their number is large, etc. 
 An. I. 7, 4. Whether this yap is an adverb or a conjunction it 
 is difficult to say. 
 
 c. As a conjunction, ydp causal introduces a reason ; the 
 sentence with ydp generally follows that for which it gives the 
 cause. Sometimes the ydp clause precedes or is inserted par- 
 enthetically within the other sentence ; ydp may then usually 
 be rendered since. 
 
 d. Ka6 ydp is sometimes for even, for also, /cat being adverb- 
 ial and emphasizing the next following word ; but more often 
 Kai is a conjunction and yap adverbial, and in fact ; sometimes 
 it is impossible to determine w^hich was the conjunction, k<u 
 ydp having become a standing formula : 
 
WORD-ORDER 291 
 
 TovTo iiroUi £K Tov ;(aAc7ros ilvaf Kal yap bpav CTvyio'S rjv kol 
 
 ttJ <f)U)vfi Tpdxv<; this he did by heivg severe; his very appear- 
 ance was disagreeable and his voice harsh. An. ii. 6, 9. In 
 dAAa yap the yap is almost always adverbial, dni i7i fact, hut 
 really, 
 
 673 a. The particles * apa, * ovv, and (in poetry) enclitic * vw or 
 * vvv are inferential, translated therefore, accordingly, so, as it 
 ajjpears, unaccented noiv or then. St} sometimes approaches 
 these in meaning (671 c). 
 
 b. The syllable rot- (not the same as * tol, 671 e), probably 
 another form of the demonstrative tw, as a with or hy dative, 
 appears in ^ tol-vw accordingly, well then, farther; also in rot- 
 ydp, TOL-ydp-TOL, Toi-yap-ovv, more strongly inferential, therefore, 
 and so, for just that reason, ydp is here adverbial, the final 
 -Tot of roL-ydp-TOL is the enclitic (671 e). 
 
 WORD-ORDER 
 
 674 Each language has its own ways of arranging words within 
 the sentence, ways natural to the native speaker, but more or 
 less strange at first to others. English, Greek, Latin, French, 
 German, all differ considerably from one another in word- 
 order. The following sections describe the more striking 
 differences between Greek word-order and English. 
 
 675 The order of words in Greek is much freer than in 
 English, because Greek has fuller inflections. 
 
 Thus the boy saiv a man means one thing, a man saic the 
 boy means another, saiv a man the boy means nothing ; but 
 
 the Greek could say 6 Trats etScv dvSpa, dvSpa cTScv 6 Trat?, ctSci/ 
 
 dvSpa 6 TTttt?, or avSpa 6 Trats cTScv, all with equal clearness, with 
 no change in syntax or essential meaning, but merely with 
 different emphasis. In English the word-order is the most 
 important means of indicating syntax ; in Greek it serves this 
 purpose to a far less extent, but is the chief means, along 
 with particles, of indicating what we call rhetorical effects. 
 
292 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 676 Certain requirements of position for certain words and mean- 
 ings have been described above — the attributive and predicate 
 positions (552, 555, 556), the special rule for oSe, ovtos, eKetvo?, 
 etc. (553, 554 and a), the meanings of avros according to its 
 position (199), the fact that many words are postpositive (665- 
 673), and that some particles throw their force on the preced- 
 ing word (as /xeV, Si, ye, yovv, 8rJ) while others throw their force 
 on what follows (as Kat, ovSe, fii^v). Also, as in English, a 
 preposition usually precedes its noun, a conjunction begins 
 its clause, any word that looks back to a preceding clause is 
 likely to stand near the beginning, any word that looks for- 
 ward to the next clause is likely to stand near the end. These 
 general requirements, and the necessity for clearness of syn- 
 tax, take precedence of all other principles. 
 
 677 The above requirements being met, and other things 
 being equal, the more important precedes, the less 
 important follows ; the degree of importance dimin- 
 ishes from the beginning of the clause to the end, the 
 final place is that of least prominence. 
 
 a. As regards the final place, this is the opposite of the 
 rule in English, which makes the final place the most promi- 
 nent. In reading English aloud — or Greek that one does not 
 understand — the tendency is to put most stress on the last 
 word ; this must be reversed in reading Greek. In trans- 
 lating, the relative prominence is sometimes best preserved in 
 English by reversing the Greek order. 
 
 b. A longer grammatical unit (sentence or clause) may be 
 divided into smaller rhetorical units, each consisting of sev- 
 eral words ; the above rule then applies to each rhetorical 
 member as well as to the whole clause. Thus the first word 
 after a pause in Greek receives the prominence of a last word 
 before a pause in English. 
 
 678 The importance that determines order may be logical or emo- 
 tional ; the two kinds are in most sentences more or less com- 
 
WORD-ORDER 293 
 
 bined, and are not always clearly separable in thought. Logi- 
 cal importance is relative prominence in a complex thought, 
 viewed wholly without emotion, as a simple fact or a scientific 
 statement ; the relative logical importance of the same ele- 
 ments of a thought may vary with varying circumstances 
 (679). But most things are looked upon with more or less of 
 feeling, which may give them, to the speaker or listener, a 
 relative importance very different from that of logic or of 
 abstract thought ; this is their emotional importance (680). 
 The term emphasis denotes generally emotional importance, 
 but is used also of marked logical importance. 
 
 Order determined mainly by logical importance. 
 
 a. "EoTtv ovv T/3aya)8td fu/JirjcrL^ 7rpd^€(ii<s (nrovSo.Ld'i kol TeA.€t'aS, 
 fiiyedo'S i)(ov(Tr)<5, rjSvo-fxevio Aoyo), X'^P'-'* ^i«^<J'tov twv ctScov iv rot? 
 
 lxopLOL% SpwvToiv Koi ov Bl aTTayycAtds. This is Aristotle's defini- 
 tion of tragedy (Poet. 6). The preceding discussion (to which 
 ovv refers us) has included tragedy, and has reached the point 
 where the question is now, not so much what tragedy is, but 
 rather what tragedy is^ in view of the preceding argument ; 
 hence ta-nv stands first. The central fact in the essence of 
 tragedy is fxiix-qo-L'i imitative presentation ; then follow the 
 various restrictions, that gradually narrow the general state- 
 ment down to a definition, proceeding always from the general 
 to the particular. In its essence, then, tragedy is the repre- 
 sentation of an action that has dignity, completeness, and mag- 
 nitude, in artistic language, ivith each kind of verse kept sepa- 
 rate in the parts, presented hy people acting instead of through 
 narrative. 
 
 b. General rules, applying this principle in detail, in the 
 simple unemotional sentence, are : 
 
 (1) An arrangement without emphasis is subject, its modi- 
 fiers, predicate, modifiers of the predicate. This often agrees 
 closely with the English order. 
 
 (2) An adjective, or adnominal genitive, or appositive, 
 unless for some reason emphatic, is apt to follow its noun. 
 
294: COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 But if the noun has the article, any attributive expression 
 takes the attributive position (552). 
 
 (3) Modifiers of a verb (except the negatives) are apt to 
 follow the verb. 
 
 (4) But circumstances may give special importance to a 
 modifier, and therefore place it earlier. 
 
 c. An example of simple narrative is : 
 
 'Ei/Te9^ei/ i^eXavvei crTaOfJLov<s Bvo TrapacrayyaS 8eKa ets neAra?, 
 ttoXlv OLKovfxivqv. evravO^ efxetvev i^/xe/ads rpets • iv als Hcvtds 6 'Ap- 
 KttS TO. A.vKaLa eOvcre kol dywva WrjKe- rd Se aOXa ^(rav o-rAeyytSe? XP^~ 
 crat* iO€o)pu Se tov dywva kol K£)po9. An. i. 2, 10. Here the de- 
 monstratives ivrevOev and ivravOa, and the relative iv ah, point 
 back to the preceding sentence and form the connection ; 
 i$€Xavv€L and €fj.eLvev contain the central idea of these clauses ; 
 the numeral follows its noun. Xenias is a new person intro- 
 duced, who interrupts the monotony by a festival ; the name 
 of the festival, rd AuVata, is more important than eOva-c, which 
 was the regular verb denoting such a celebration ; so with 
 dywva and eOrjKc. The prizes were strigils is our natural order 
 also, but the relative importance of the pair a-TXeyyiSes ^va-al 
 is represented in English by the opposite order, golden strigils. 
 In the last clause the important item was that the prince him- 
 self was a spectator ; e^ewpet is duly marked by its position, 
 Kvpos is made prominent by Kai (cp. 681 b). 
 
 In such simple narrative note that chronological order may 
 often determine the order of presentation, when lucidity is a 
 prime object. 
 
 680 Order influenced by emotional prominence. 
 
 '12? fxkv (TTpaTTjyycrovTa e/xe Tavrrjv Tr]V CTTpaTyytdv f.t7)Sel<S vfxwv 
 
 AeyeVo) let fio One of you speak tvith the idea that I am going to 
 act as general in this plan of campaign. An. i. 3, 15. a-rpcnr]- 
 yqa-ovTa e/xe contains the central idea which the speaker wishes 
 to remove from their minds ; /acV looks forward to a following 
 clause, to be contrasted with this. 
 
WORD-ORDER 295 
 
 In An. I. 4, 3, eTTTaxocrtov? e^tov oTrXtrd? and rcrpaKoa-LOL OTrXirat, 
 the stress laid on the numbers, which are somewhat contrasted 
 with each other, places them before the nouns. In Ax. i, 3, 17, 
 
 /3ovXoLfxr)v S' av dKovTo'S dTriwv Kvpov Aa^ctv avrbv aTreXOwv I sliould 
 
 wisli^ if I am going aicay icitliout Cyrus'^s consent^ to get away 
 witliout Ms hnoidedge, aKovTo<s and XaOclv are contrasted and 
 emphasized. In Ap. 40 d, Oavfxda-iov K€pSo<s av clrj 6 Odvaros a 
 wonderful gain ivould death le^ Oav/Mda-cov is the most em- 
 phasized word and K€pBo<i next, while the subject, 6 Odvaros, 
 is here the least important, and might almost have been 
 omitted. 
 
 Sometimes, of two or more coordinate expressions, which 
 in English would be so arranged that the most important 
 would come last, the first is in Greek plainly the most empha- 
 sized : fJirj icf)€vpeOrj<S dvovs re kol yepoiv d/jui lest tllOU he found hoth 
 old and foolish too. S. ax. 281. 
 
 a. When the clause is apparently complete, a new element 
 — noun, pronoun, verb, but especially an adverb — may be 
 added after a slight pause, as if an afterthought. The added 
 word is then the first after a pause and is thereby made promi- 
 nent, though it may be also the last in the clause ; it virtually 
 makes a clause by itself. 
 
 b. Sometimes a form of the periodic style, so common in 
 Latin, is followed in Greek also, when a more even stress and 
 an air of calm dignity is suitable : tt^v Toiv vreAas avrol i7r€X06vT€<; 
 
 ov ;j(aA€7ra)S iv t^ dAAorptia tov<s irepl twv olkccwv dfivvo/Jievov^ H-^X^ 
 
 fievoL TOi TrAct'w Kparovp^cv when we ourselves invade otir neigh- 
 bors^ territory^ without difficulty^ on alien soil, though against 
 men who are acting in defeyise of their oicn, we more often 
 prevail. T. ir. 39. This is the style of one who is conscious 
 that every word is laden with meaning, and will be weighed. 
 
 Since there are many ways of indicating the importance of 
 words besides order, it often happens that an emphasized 
 word stands where the order alone would leave it in the back- 
 ground. Other means of emphasis are : 
 
296 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 a. The personal pronouns eyw, o-v, y/xels, etc., also avros 
 standing alone in the nominative, or in any case in the predi- 
 cate position, also oSe, ovtos, or iKuvo's used as a personal pro- 
 noun in the nominative, are emphatic in any position. Thus 
 in D. 1, 9, r)v$T^cra/jL€v, w avSpe? 'A^T^j/atot, ^tAtTTTTov rjfJLcls tve OUr- 
 
 selves, men of Athens^ have given Philip his present poiver, 
 7]v$rj(TafX€v is emphasized strongly by position, i^/xets by being 
 expressed at all ; the place at the end does not affect rj/xels one 
 way or the other — unless indeed a slight pause was made be- 
 fore it (680 a). 
 
 b. Adverbs and particles like Kac, ovSi, fxriv, Brj, all indicate 
 prominence. 
 
 c. Simple repetition, or the use of two synonyms for one 
 idea, delays attention longer and so makes an idea prominent. 
 
 d. Any form of parallelism in expression, whether of repe- 
 tition or of contrast, calls attention to both members. Thus 
 fjL€v and 8e, similarity of ending {h^oiorikcvrov rime), and the 
 use of the same word in different cases side by side (682 b), 
 always give emphasis. In this way an important word may 
 stand last without danger of being slighted. 
 
 682 Certain combinations were so frequent that we may call them 
 fashions of word-order. Especially noticeable are 
 
 a. Chiasmus (" criss-cross " order, from the shape of the 
 letter X) reverses in the second of two parallel phrases the 
 order of the first ; this gives equal prominence to each mem- 
 ber in both phrases : koXov to aOXov koI tj cXttis ficydXr] noble is 
 the prize and our hope great. Ph. 114 c. 
 
 KaXbv TO aOXov 
 7) eATTt? /xeydXr] 
 
 b. Two words of like sound or derivation but of contrasted 
 meaning, or two forms of the same word in different construc- 
 tions, are apt to be put near each other : ra twv Oewv tvTlfx drl- 
 fjidcrda !;(€ what the gods honor, in dishonor hold. S. an. 77. 
 
WORD-ORDER 297 
 
 c. When the same word is repeated in two contrasted mem- 
 bers which contain fxiv and Si, the repeated word stands first, 
 followed by fiev and Sc. This usage doubtless began with 
 clauses in which the repeated word was emphatic ; but it 
 became the rule, as early as Homer, even when the repeated 
 
 word was unimportant : Trao-a /xei/ 686<S cvTropos ttSs 8e Trora/xos 8ia- 
 
 /Jaros every road is easy, and every river can he crossed. An. ii. 
 5, 9. Here the contrast is not between uao-a and ttSs, but 
 between the remainder of the clauses, although every is an 
 important idea. In Ax. i. 2, 3, TpLdKoatov^ /xcv oxA-trd? TpLdKocrLov<s 
 8c TTcArao-ra? cxwv TrapeyeVcro, the importance of the number 
 would not of itself have placed it first. 
 
 d. At the end of a clause an adjective and its noun are 
 often separated by a verb-form. This usually is the order 
 that gives the natural emphasis ; but it came to be sometimes 
 little more than a rhetorical fashion : et tolwv 6 <J>t'A67r7ros t6t€ 
 
 ravTTjv io-^e rrjv yvuifx-qv, ovk av rocravTrjv ^KTYjaaro SvvajjiLV if til en 
 
 Pliilip at tliat time liad adopted this opinion, lie would not have 
 acquired so great poioer. D. 4, 5. 
 
 683 Finally, considerations of euphony, especially of rhythm, often 
 affected word-order, as in English ; but this influence is diffi- 
 cult for us to trace in prose, because Greek prose rhythm (like 
 that of verse) was determined by the quantity of the syllables, 
 which we feel less strongly than the Greeks did. 
 
ABBEEVIATIONS 
 
 In citing examples 
 A. = Aischylos (WecJcletn), 
 
 A., Agamemnon, 
 
 c, Choephoroi, 
 
 E., Eumenides, 
 
 p., Persians, 
 
 PB., Prometheus Bound, 
 
 s., Seven against Thebes. 
 Ar. = Aristophanes {Bergk), 
 
 N., Nubes (Clouds), 
 
 R., Ranae (Frogs), 
 
 v., Vespae (Wasps). 
 CIA. = Corpus Inscriptionum Atti- 
 carum. 
 
 D. = Demosthenes. 
 
 E. = Euripides {Nauck), 
 
 AL., Alkestis, 
 
 AND., Andromache, 
 
 B., Bacchae, 
 
 HIPP., Hippolytos, 
 
 lA., Iphigenia at Aulis, 
 
 IT., Iphigenia among the Tau- 
 
 rians, 
 M., Medea. 
 Epich. = Epicharmos. 
 
 L. = Lysias. 
 Men. = Menander. 
 Plato is cited thus : 
 
 Ap. = Apology, 
 
 Cr. = Crito, 
 
 GoR. = Gorgias, 
 
 Ph. = Phaedo, 
 
 Pr. = Protagoras, 
 
 Rep. = Republic. 
 Plut. Caes. = Plutarch's Caesar. 
 S. = Sophokles (Jebb), 
 
 AL, Aias, 
 
 AN., Antigone, 
 
 E., Elektra, 
 
 OT., Oedipus Tyrannus, 
 
 OK., Oedipus at Kolonos, 
 
 p., Philoktetes. 
 T. = Thukydides. 
 Xenophon is cited thus : 
 
 An. = Anabasis, 
 
 C. = Cyropaedia, 
 
 H. = Hellenica, 
 
 M. = Memorabilia, 
 
 0. = Oeconomicus. 
 
 Most of the other abbreviations need no explanation ; but cp. = com- 
 pare, irapf. = imperfect, impv. = imperative, kt\. = Koi ra Xoiird = and so 
 forth. 
 
 298 
 
VERB-LIST 
 
 Note. — This list is intended to contain all verbs of classical Attic 
 Greek whose forms can cause diiRculty to the student. But rare forms 
 are sometimes omitted, especially such as occur only in lyric parts of the 
 drama, or in works not likely to be read until the student is beyond 
 dependence on an elementary grammar. In many doubtful cases it 
 seemed better to err on the side of inclusion rather than of omission. 
 The forms that belonged to prose or to spoken Attic are in full-faced 
 type ; those in ordinary type belonged to poetry. Yet in some cases a 
 simple verb that appears only in composition in prose is recorded as a 
 prose form ; also verbs in -ffffo), -rrta, are recorded with <ra; though the 
 regular prose form had tt. The class of the present system is given 
 after the verb-stem, unless the present belongs to the formative-vowel 
 class or to the root-class. 
 
 "A-yafJiai (a-ya-, 365 and a) admire, i\ya<rdr\v. 
 
 ayyiSXci (ayytK-, i cl.) announce, ayyikta, V\yyi\Xa., iiYY^^i^o-j i^YY^^H'*'-* "^YY^XO-qv. 
 
 aydpia (aY^p-, i cl.) gather, ^y^ipa. 
 
 &.yvv^\. (oLY-, ttY", nas. cl.) break. &|«, ?a|a, ^aYa, layvy. 
 
 &y<a (oLY-) lead, &|a), i^YO-Yov (350, 10), Tjxa, ^yF^^^^j ^X^^' 
 
 aeipca (aep-, i cl.) lift, older form of atpw, which see. 
 
 aSft) (tt8-, for aetS-) sing, a(ro|Jiai, fjcra, T](r9iiv. 
 
 al8^o|jLat (ai86-) and a^Bo,uai (alB-) respect, ai5^<ro|iai, •n.Seo-jiai, f|8l(r0T]v. 
 
 alv^w (alv€:Ti-) praise, alveo-w, r^vi<ra, fvcKa, f,vii[iai, r\vidy\v. 
 
 aXpita (aip€:Ti-, IX-) seize, aiprjo-cu, cIXov (350. 9), f.pT]Ka, rpii|ji,at, f,p^8Tiv. 
 
 atpo) (ap-, I cl.) lift, ap», ^pa, ^pKa, ^pu-ai, <^p9T]V. 
 
 al(r9dvo[iai (al<r9-, al(r9ii-, nas. cl.) perceive. al(r9irj(rofiai, f(r9d|iiiv, ■no-9'qjJLai. 
 
 ata-eu) {olCk-, i cl.) and atro-o) rush, dt|« and d^^w, ^i|o and f^a. 
 
 oX<jyyv(a {aXu\vv-f i cl., 421) shame, al<rxvvw, y\fr\vva., f|<rxvv9'qv. 
 
 aKovci) (cLKOu-) hear. aKov(ro|xai, fJKoucra, aKil]Koa (291 c), i?|Kovi<r9iiv. 
 
 d\€{<j>« (d\i<|)-, d\€i<J>-) anoint, dX:i\|/«, i^\€i\|fa, d\^\i4>a (291 c), dXi^Xt|Ji|iai, 
 
 399 
 
300 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 dAe^o) (ctAe^-, ccAe/c-) ivard off, aki^ofxai, r]\€^oi/jLr]v. 
 
 aXCo-Konai (aX-, aXo:w-, incep. cl.) am captured, aXwo-ofiai, laXwv or fjXtov (267, 
 
 369 c), cdXcoKa or 'fjXwKa. 
 dXXdcra-o) (aXXav, t cl.) change, dXXd|a), ijXXa^a, ijXXaxa, ^^XXaYjxat (345), 
 
 ■f|XXdx9iiv and if|XXd7T]v. 
 &XXo|xai (dX-, I cl.) leap, dXov)j.ai (324) i\\a\i.r\v. 
 
 aKvcTKU) (for aKvK-ffKU), clKvk-, cp. 8i8d(rKci), incep. cl.) avoid, oAu|a>, ^Xv^a. 
 dfiaprdvia (djiapr-, duaprif]-, nas. cl.) err, d|xapTif]aro)JLai, -fjfjLapTov, i]\i.apT't\Ka, 
 
 ^p.dpTT]|Xai, TJfJLapTIQSTJV. 
 
 d/iTr-e'xw and afxiT-i<Tx<» (d|jL<|)C + ^X**! ^^OC**) ^''«/> about, put on, afitpe^w, ijjJL'iri- 
 
 (Txov. M id. d|X7r€xo[iai, dfiirio-xofJLai, afiTriax'^^o/xai have on, d|JL<J>e|o(j,ai, •i\\L'ic- 
 
 lo-xop-iiv and '^p.Tr-c<rx6p.Tiv (cp. 268 d). 
 aixirKaKiffKu (d/x7rAa/c-, a/xTrAcucr;-, incep. cl.) miss, ^jXTtXaKov, TifiirKaKrifxai. 
 d|xvva) (djJLW-, i cl.) ward off, d{xvv(o, i^(i.vva. 
 dp,(j}i--Yvo€a> doubt, impf. •f||x<j)-€7voouv (268 d), 'f|}jL<J)-€YV0T]<ra. 
 dva-pi.w(rKO|xai : see Pidto. 
 av-aXCa-KM (-aX-, -dXo:w-, incep. cl.) and dv-aXoo) spend, dv-dXwo-o), a,v-r\K<a<ra, 
 
 dv-TJXcoKa, dv-irjXa)(JLai, dv-tiXtoO-qv. 
 dv-oC-yviJixi, av-oCyca (see o\!yvu(j.i) ope7i, impf. dv€u»Yov (267 a), dv-o£|«, dv-e(u|a 
 
 (267 a), dv-^u»xa (291 a), dv-^tt»7(xai, av-i(u\Qy\v (snbjv. dv-oix6w, etc.). 
 dvvo) (dvu-) sometimes dvuo), also olvvto) accomplish, dvvo-o), i^vvtra, i^vvKa, 
 
 ijvvcrp.ai. 
 i£;/tw7a (dj/wy-) command, root perf. (370), with pres. meaning, ^.vaya^, ^vui-yc, 
 
 impv. &vux^h ^vwxOe. 
 dTr-€x9dvo|jtai (-€X^"> '^^s. cl.) become odious, dir-cxO^o-ojJLai, a.ir-rwQ6iLT\v, dir- 
 
 ■flXeTijxttt. 
 diTTdi (d<))-, T cl.) fasten, kindle, dv(;a), t]\|/a, t]jx|iai, •fj<J>9T]v. 
 apapiffKd) {ap-, incep. cl.) fit, ^pcra, ^papov, &pdpa. 
 dpdcro-o) (dpa^-, i cl.) bang, slam, dpd^ci), ^pa^a, ir|pdxOTjv. 
 dp^o-KO) (dpe-, incep. cl.) please, api<r<a, i^peo-a, nipecrd-qv. 
 dpK^co (dpK€-) assist, suffice, dpK^o-o), i^pK€o-a. 
 
 apix6Ca}, dpp,0TT« (dp|j.OT-, i cl.) fit, dp|xdo-», -flpixocra, fjpfioo-p.ai, TJp(id(r9T]v. 
 dpuvfiai (ap-, nas. cl.) win, apovfiai, iipSfxrjv. 
 dpdo) (dpo-) ploiv, ijpoo-a, ■i\p6Q'r\v. 
 dpTrd^o) (dpiraY", dpira8-, i cl.) seize, -dpird(rofi.ai and -dpirdo-w, {jpirao-a, fjp- 
 
 iraKa, -flpTrao-fxai, iqpTrdo-O-riv. 
 apvo) (apv-) and dptiro) draw water, -i^pvo-a, t|pv9t]v. 
 dpXw (dpx") am first, begin, rule, dpi<«), ^p|a, ^pYjiai, ijpxO'nv. 
 avaiuco, avaCvo) (avav-, t cl.) drg, atiavd), i^viiiva, i^vdvOiiv. 
 av^dvo) (av|-, avlt]-, nas. cl.) and ail^w increase, aii^irjcra), Tii)|T]o-a, T]{»|TiKa, 
 
 "qiJlTlfjiai, iiv|tj9t]v. 
 dx0op.at (dx9-, dx9€(r-) am vext, dx96o-o(iai, irjx9^(r9i]v. 
 
VERB-LIST 301 
 
 BaCvft) (pa-.T]-, Pav-, i cl.) go, pii(ro|xai ()8T]cra> causative), l^r^ (369 a), ejSTjo-a 
 
 (causa live), p6pT]Ka, -p4pa{iai, -epdS-qv. 
 pdWw (paX-, pXr]-, I cl.) ^Arot^, paX«, ^paXov (350, 4), p^pXT]Ka, pcpX-qnai, 
 
 €pXTJ0TlV. 
 
 pdiTTw (Pa<j)-, T Q\.)dip, pd\|/«, ?pai|/a, p^pan^ai, €pd4)Tiv, ifidcpdrju. 
 
 PaaTaCu) (^aa-raS-, i cl.) carry, jSatrTcio-co, i^daTaaa. 
 
 pipdto) (pipaS-, I cl.) maAre ^fo (causative of paivw), pipdcrw and pipw (346 b), 
 
 -epfpao-a. 
 ^i^puxTKU} {0po:u}-, incep. cl.) eaY, fiefipcoKa, fiefipu/xai. 
 ^i6u> ()8io:a)-) ZiVe. piwo-o|iai, ePtW (369 c), PepCwKa, Pepitofxai. dva-Piwo-KOfxai 
 
 revive, dveP^oxra, av-i^loiv. 
 pXdirro) (pXap-, t cl.) injure, pXdx|/a), ?pXa\I/a, p4pXa4)a, pepXa|X(iai, €pXd<j)9Tiv, 
 
 €pXdpTiv. 
 pXaoTdvw (pXatTT-, pXao-rt]-, nas. cl.) sjyrout, fiAaarriau}, ^pXacTov, (PiepXdo-- 
 
 Ti\Ka. 
 pXe'irw (pXcTT-) lool-j pX€»|/o|iai, ^pX€\|/a. 
 
 PoiiXojJiai (povX-, PovX-q-) ivish, PovXi^crofiai, PtPovX-qnai, €pouXirj0T]v (266). 
 Pp^X" (PP^X-) u'ef, ^Ppega, p€pp€7(iai, eppexQ-qv. 
 fiptew ifipW') am heavy, fipitru^ efiplcra, fiifipWa. 
 Ppuxdo|xat (Ppvx-> Pp^XO-'I") bellow, fiefipvxa, fipvx'^Qf^is. 
 Pvve'w (Pv:v-, nas. cl.) stop up, ptio-o), 'i^va-a, pe'Pvo-fiai. 
 
 rajx^w (7a|JL-, Yaiie:!]-) marry (act. of a man, mid. of a woman), ya^a, tyry^o.j 
 
 ■YtYdjJLTiKa, -y67d)Ji't]fJLai. 
 y^fojva, pf. with pres. meaning, (70;!'-) shout, also '^^'yaivita (7€ya>j/€:7j-) and 
 
 ycywviaKU} (7€7ct)»'-, incep. cl.), 7 €70)1/7] (r&>, iyeywi/'ncra. 
 -yeXdb) ("ycXa-) laugh, -yeXdcroixai (322), e^^Xao-a, eYeXdcrO-qv. 
 77j0ea) (77J0-, yr]Qe:T]-) rejoice, yndriau), iyrjdr)(Ta, ^CYiiOa. 
 "yqpdo-Kaj ("yqpd-, incep. cl.), also yr]pdci} {ynpa-) grow old, 'Y'np&(r(i>, €7if|pd(ra, 
 
 ■yc^TipaKa. 
 ■y£-yvo|iai (y€v-, 70V-, 7€vt|-, 257 a) become, Yev^<ro(j.ai, lYcvdji-qv, 7€Yova, 767^- 
 
 vqjjLat. For ycyus see 370, (3). 
 •yiYVwo-Koi (yvo.'o)-, incep. cl.) come ^ hnoiv, recognize, Yv«<ro(jiai, i-^v<av (366. 
 
 367), ^YVwKa, ^Tvoxriiai, l7v«<r0T]v. 
 •ypd4>a> (7pa<J)-) mark, write, Ypdx{/w, ^Ypa.}/a, 7€7pa,(j)a, "y6Ypa|Xjxai, €7pd(j)T)v. 
 
 (See 341, 345.) 
 
 AdKvo) (SttK-, 8t]k-, nas. cl.) hite, S^^ofxai, 28aKov, 848t]Ynai, eSVjxQtlv. 
 
 ^apQdvo} {Sap6-, SapOrj-, nas. cl.) sleep, ^Sapdov, SeSdpdtjKa. 
 
 8€8oiKa, SeSia, 370, (5). 
 
 8eCKVv|jii (8€iK-, nas. cl) point at, 358-360. 
 
 SepKo/xai {5epK-, SopK-, dpoK-) see, (SpaKov, 545opKa (456 c). 
 
302 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 84po) (Sep-, Sop-) skin, flay, Sepw, ^Seipa, ScSapp-ai, I8dpt|v. 
 
 8^X^H'<^>' (S^X") receive, S^^ofxai, IScldjiiiv, Se'ScYfiai, cSexQ^lv. 
 
 8^0) (8€:t|-) bind, 8irjj-a), ?8T]o-a, 848eKa, SeScfxai, €840t]v. 
 
 860) (8c-, 8CTJ-) lack, Seifjo-w, eS^-qo-a, ScSeriKa. Impers. Set ^Aere ^s neetZ, 8cirj(rci, 
 
 ISe'-qc-e. Dep. 8^o{iai ask, request, 8€ifj<ro|xai, SeS^Tjjxai, cSeirjGTjv. 
 8iaiTd<«) (8iai,Ta:Tj-) diet^ arbitrate, 8taiT'^<ra), e8ifiTiio-a, 8€8ifjTT|Ka, 8€8ifiTt]|iat, 
 
 eSiTiTi^O-qv. 
 8t8d(rKw (8i8ax-, incep. cl., 260 l) teach, 8i8d|«, €8t8a|a, 8e8£8axa, ScS^SaYp-ai, 
 
 e8i8dx8iiv. 
 -8i8pd(rKa> (8pa:a-, incep. cl.) run aivay, -8pd<ro|ji,ai, -^Spav (369 a), -Se'SpaKO. 
 8i'8«iii, 372, 375. 
 
 Zi^6.o} (5ti|/o:rj, 320) thirst, Sixp-fjcru), i5i\pr](ra. 
 
 SiuKO) (81WK-) pursue, 8i(o§op,ai, cSfco^a, ScSfuxa, 8i£8{a>Y[iaL, €8iwx9t]v. 
 8oK6a) (80K-, 8oK6:i^-) thiiik, seem, 8d|b), ^8o^a, 8e8oY[xai, eSdxQ'qv. Also So/c^a"«, 
 
 idSKTjcra, SeSJ/cTjKo, SeSei/CTj^ot, iSoKrjdriv. 
 8pap.ov}j.ai : see rp^x*** 
 
 Spd(T(roiJ.ai {Spay-, i cl.) grasp, iSpa^dfiriPj SeSpay/xat. 
 8pd(tf (8pa:d-) do, 8pdo-a), ^Spdcra, 8^8pdKa, 8e8pdp,ai, kBpta-Qtiv. 
 Svvafiai, (SvvatT]-, 266, 365 a) can, 8vvi^(ro)i.ai, 8€8iivT]p.ai, €8wtj0t]v. 
 8va) (8i>:v-) e7iter, Zv<r<a (causative), ^8u<ra (causative), ^8w (366, 367), Se'SvKa, 
 
 8^8i;Ka, 8€8«}JLai, eSuO-qv. 
 
 *Eda) (€a:a-, 267) let, permit, Ido-co, d^do-a, ctdKa (291 a), etdjiai, €ld9Tiv. 
 €-y€Cpw (l^cp-, €7op-, €7p-, I cl.) rouse, waken, €7€p«, iJYcipa, T|7pd|it)v, eypi^Yopa 
 
 (291 c, 332) am awake, €Yi^Y€pp.ai (291 c), i\^ip^-t\v. 
 ^8op,ai, l8ir)8oKa : see €o-9£b). 
 
 'i^o^iai (eS- for (reS-, i cl.) SiY, chiefly in comp. with Kara. See KaOe^oixat. 
 iQikci and 0l\o) (I0€\-, eOeXt]-) am willing, e8€Xiri<ra), OcXtjo-o), f|9^XT]o-a, ^OeXTjKa. 
 c9it« (€0t8-, I cl, 267), accustom, I9k3 (346 a), eWto-a, €t0iKa (291 a), ciOio-jiai, 
 
 €l0t<r0T]V. 
 
 cISov : see opdco. 
 
 €l8«s (172), €l8€vai : see oI8a. 
 
 clKd^cD (elKa8-, i cl.) make like, conjecture, elKdo-u, e\!Ka<ra or '^Kao-a, dKoa^iai 
 
 or ^Kao-piai, €lKd(r6T]v. 
 cIkws : see ^oiKa. 
 €1(11 am, 384 ; clfxi go, 385. 
 
 clirov (€lir-, aor.) said, 350, 8, and 351 ; for other tenses see (pyj^ii. 
 €lfpYvv(j.t (€tpY-, nas. cl.), also cl'pYO) shut in, €ifp|o), clp^a, clp7p.ai, etpxQilv. 
 etpYw (elpY") shut out, €\Ip|<«), etc., like the preceding, except in the breathing. 
 €'i(i>0a am accustomed, plup. elw0€iv, 456 c. 
 €Xaxivti> (IXtt-, nas. cl.) drive, k\St (322 c), ^jXao-a, cXVjXaKa (291 c), cXTJXa}iai, 
 
 "jjXdOtiv. 
 
VERB-LIST 303 
 
 ikiyxoi (eX.€YX-) ^^^^^ cX^y^w, i^Xc^fa, IX^XcYjJtai (344 t), iiXiyxQtiv. 
 
 tXeiv, elXov : see aip^co. 
 
 i\€V(rofxai, eXifjXvGa : see ^pxojxai. 
 
 4X961V, ^XOov : see ?pxop.at. 
 
 eXfo-o-ft) (IXiK-, I cl., 267) and €iXC<ro-« M>tnc?, tXtlo and €lXC|ci), ctXi^a, ctXiYH-o-i, 
 
 '^Xkw (IXk-, IXku-, 267), ^|«, €l'XKV(ra, etXKUKa (291 a), el'XKuo-jjiai, cIXkvo-Otiv. 
 
 Later, eXKixo, kKKvcTw. 
 IXirCtu (^XttiS-, I cl.) expect, hope, {jXirKra, '#|X'irC<r0t]v. 
 €jjLeft) (Iji-, €(!€-) vomit, €|xov(j,at, ■l^p,€<rtt. 
 
 eiiiroXdft) (efiiroXa:!]-) get hy trade, trade m, -fnxTrdXiiKa, ^iroXTJQ'qv. 
 cvavTioofjLai, 268 b. 
 
 6V€YK€iv, ^ve^Ko., -J^vcYKov, Ivi^voxa, evi^vcYH'Q'i' : see ^ip(a. 
 ivtTTW (eV + (Teir-, ctt-, 0"7r-), also iuvcirco (for iv-ffiiru)), tviffirov {ivi-cnrw, iyi-airoifiif 
 
 ivi-a-Kis like cx^s and iirl-ffx^s, ivi-cir^^v). 
 ev8vp,4o)j.ai (€v + 0v(w:t]-) hear in mind, lv9vp.i^(ro|xai, €VTedtj|XT])ji,ai, IvedCp.^- 
 
 0tiv. 
 (Vfvixi (e-, older feo--, Lat. ves-tio, nas. cl.) clothe, partic. €'//i€j/os. In prose 
 
 d|X([>i^vvv|ii, dp.<{>i(o (for aixcpicao}, like reAew, 322 c), d|x<}>i^(ro{iai, f||x4>£c(ra 
 
 (268 c), -f|p.({>Ceo-|jLai. 
 cvoxXc'w (cv + oxXet-q-, 268 d) annoy, f|v«xXTi<ra, irivtoxXilKa, fivcoxX-qjiai. 
 ^oiKtt (Ik-, €iK-, oIk") am like, 370, (6). 
 eoprdto) (lopraS-, i cl.) heep festival, impf. ec&pratov. 
 itzdyia (cTTCi-y-) jaress forward, circC^oiiai, ^ireCx^'HV. 
 €iri|i€X^o(j.ai, lirip.eXo)iai ; see (jieXcD. 
 
 cirtorrajiat (eTrwrrarT]-, 365 and a) understand, lirto-T^crofiai, •fjTri(rT^9't]v. 
 '^■iro|xat {kit- for o-ctt-, ott-, 267) follow, ^\|/o(iai, £(nrdp.T]v (<nrM[Jiai, (nroCp,Tiv, 
 
 (TiroVf <nr^<r9ai, <nrd(J.6Vos). 
 Ipdo) and epafiai (€pa-) /ore, irjpd(r0t]v. 
 
 €p7d5ojjiat(€pYa8-, i cl., 267) work, cpYd(ro|xai, €lpYa<rd{iT]v, €\!pYa(r(jiai, clpYao-OTjv. 
 cpSft) (ep5-, epy-) doj also epSw and ^e^w (pey-, i cl.), ep|co and pe|a>, ep^a and 
 
 epe^a. 
 €p£i8ci> (cpeiS-) pi^op, kpda-b), {jpeio-a, {)p€iKa, lpifjpcio-|xai (291 c), •i\pii<rQ'r\v. 
 ipeiiru) {epiir-, fpeiir-) throiV down, ipfiypu, i]pnrov, ip-fjpiira (291 c), ip-f^pififiaiy 
 
 ipei(pdr]v. 
 kpil<a (€pi8-, I cl.) contend, ijpio-a. 
 
 '^pir« (cpir-, 267) go, creep, '^pxj/o). Also kpirvCa, cl'pirvo-a, 
 ippa {epp-, ippf)-) go, begone, IppVjo-o), ¥ippt\a-a. 
 epvKCi) (epvK-) hold hack, ^pv|a. 
 ^pXop,ai (€px-» e'Aew^-, €Xv9-, IX9-) ^0, iKeva-o/xai, ^X9ov (1X9^, 349 a), and ijAvOoi', 
 
 IX^Xv9a (291 c). 
 cp»; e'iCpt|Ka, cppirj9'qv : see <{>t])i,i. 
 
304: GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 Ipcordci) (ep«Ta:i]-) ash, Ipwr^o-w, fipwr-qo-a, 'f|p(Grt]Ka. But the common fut. 
 
 and aor. are (from cp-, Ipr]-) epi/jo-ofjiai, T|p6p.nv, of which the pres. tpojxai 
 
 is rare. 
 ia-Uia (lo-9i-, €8-, 18c-, €8o-, ^ixr^-) eat, ^8o(jiat (without fut. suflQx), '^4>a7ov, khi\- 
 
 8oKa, €8iQ8e(r(xai, fj84o-9'qv. 
 €o-iro|iT]v : see ^irofxau 
 
 6<rTida> (€<rTia:a-, 267), €icrTia(ra, €i<rT(aKa (291 a), €to-T(d|xat, €i<rTtcL9i]v. 
 eu'Soj (eiiS-, cwSrj-) sleep, €u8rj(r«, -euSTjca. Commonly Ka9cv8o>, which see. 
 €vp^<rKw (€vp-, €vp€:t]-, incep. cl.) find, cvpiqcro), i]vpov, Tivp-qKa, Tivpii|iaw, TivplOtjv. 
 ev(j>paCv(i) (eu<})pav-) cheer, ev4>pavco, -qilijjpdva, 'r,v<}>pdv9T]v. 
 cilXoP'*'' ('^X") P^^(^y> ti{|o(xai, Tjv|dp,Tiv, iilYjiai. 
 ixdalpw (ixdap-) hate, ix(^apov/xai, iJx^VP°- 
 '(i\(a (<r€x-, €x-, €X-> o^-> <nC«:'n-) ^«^'e, ^?w and o-x^o-w, ^<rxov (350, 6), ^xxriKa, 
 
 ^(Txilixai, icrx^O^v- Also pres. tcrx« for o-jorexco, 257 a. 
 ^\|/« (c\j/-, k^y\-) boil, €\|/ifio-(«), fjiffrio-a. 
 
 Zdo), 320. 
 
 li-Cyvv\i.\. {Ivy-, livy-, nas. cl.) Join, yoke, Uvi<a, ^t^v^a, ^t^uYH-ciij ^U^xP'^v, 
 
 lX,()yr\v. 
 tew (tc-) boil, intr., teVw, ^t€0"a- 
 twvvup (t«>-, nas. cl.) ^iVc?, ?5«ora, '(il<aiM\. and iltw<r|jittt. 
 
 ''H8o|xai (1^8-) am pleased, ^a-Qr\v. 
 TJixai, 388, 389. 
 ^il^L, ^v, ^, 383. 
 
 ©dXXo) (9aX-, 9t]\-, i cl.) bloom, floiirish, r^QriKa with present meaning 
 
 (456 b). 
 9dTrTft) (9a'n--, Ttt<j)-, 47 d, t cl.) bury, 9dv|/a), ^9at)/a, T69a|j.p,ai, lTd<j>iiv. 
 9ai»p.dtw (9au(xa8-, i cl.) wonder, 9avp.do-o|iai, €9avp.a<ra, T€9ttv(jiaKa, 69aj- 
 
 p.d(r9T]v. 
 9iXu> : see €9€\(«). 
 9ia) (9€u-, 9€-) n^n, 9€iio-op.ai. 
 0t77ova> {Oiy-, nas. cl.) touch, Bi^oinai, ediyov. 
 
 eXtpo) (9Xxp-, 9\tp-) squeeze, Q\i]f(a, ?9\X\|/a, T^9\T|x|xai, €9\t<j)9Tiv, €9X£piiv. 
 QvriffKO), for Qvfi-KTKti) (Oav; Qvq-, incep. cl.) die, Qavovfiai, tQavov, Ti^vr\KO. (370, 
 
 4), T€9vir||(o (364). In prose regularly d'!ro9vfio-Kw. 
 9p^|o(ji.ai, ^9pc|a : see rp^x*** 
 9p4\j/a), ^9p6i|/a : see Tp^(j>a>. 
 
 9piiTrT0) (9puTr-, t cl.) iveaken, 9pv\j/w, ^9pv\|fa, Tl9pu(ip.ai. 
 dpc^a-Kco {6op-, Opci}-, incep, cl.) leap, dopovfxai, eOopop. 
 0WW (9u:v-) sacrifice, 9uo-w, ^9v<ra, T49uKa, T€9u(xai, €tu9iiv (47 c). 
 
VERB-LIST 305 
 
 'I8€iv, €t8ov: see opdo). 
 
 il<a (It-, tti-), chiefly in com p. with Kara : see KaQCi<a. 
 
 i'T]|i.i (er-q-) setid, i\tr<a, rjKa (378), cka, €l|iai, dQtiv, 374, 375. 
 
 iKv^onat (iK-, nas. cl.) coirie, t^ojiai, iKdjXTjv, lY|xai. In prose usually d<|>- 
 
 iKv^o|j.ai. 
 iXd(rKop,ai (iXa-, incep. cl.) propitiate, iXd<ro|JLai, i'Xa(rdp.T]v, iXdaO-qv. 
 to-jjiev, to-do-i, 386. 
 i<rTr]\Li (<rTa:r\-) set, station, o-rifjo-o), 'dcrr^tra, ?<rTT]v, '^(rrqKtt (plup. sometimes 
 
 da-T-fiKT]), eo-Tde-qv. 362-364, 366, 367. 
 i<r\<a : see ^X"* 
 
 KaQaCpto (Ka9ap-, i cl.) cleanse, KaOapw, tKdOriptt and CKdfldpa, K€Kd0ap|xai, 
 
 fiKaddpO-qv. 
 Ka9^Jo|xav (Kara + eS-, i cl.) sit, impf. €Ka0€td|niv (268 c) and Kaee(6iJLr}v, Ktt9€- 
 
 8ov|Jiiai (for KadeSecro/xai). Cp, KadC^O). 
 KaOevSb) (Kara + €v8-, 6v8t]-) sleep (inipf., sec 268 c). Ka9€v8^(r(i). 
 Kd9i}[iai, 389. 
 KaQClot (Kard + VC,-, itt]-) seat, sit, Ka9i« (cp. 346 a), Ka9itTi<ro|iai, €Kd9i(ra 
 
 (268 c) and KaQla-a, Cp. Ka9c?op.ai. 
 Kaiuco {Kav-f t cl.) Jcill, Kavw, iKavov. Only in the compound KaraKaCvw in 
 
 prose. 
 KaCft), Kdw (Kay-, Kd-, i cl., 259 e) hum, Kaviirw, ^Kavo-a, K^KavKa, K^Kavp.ai, 
 
 €Kav9'qv. 
 KoXi<a (KttXc-, kXi]-) ca/Z, KaXw (322 c), cKaXeo-a, K^KX-qKa, K€KXT](Jiai, €kXt)9t|v. 
 KaXviTTw (KaXvP", t cl.) cove?; KaXv\|/(i), €KdXv\{/a, K€KdXv(jip.ai, cKaXv<t>9T^v. 
 Kd|j.v(i) (Kap.-, K|iT]-, nas. cl.) lahor, am tired, KapoOpai, ^Kapov, K€KpT]Ka. 
 Kdp-n-TO) (Kapir-, t cl.) &e/ic?, Kdp\(/a), ^Kap\)/a, K^Kappai, eKdp<j>9T]v. 
 K€ipai, 387. 
 
 Kcfpo) (Kcp-, Kap-, I cl.) shear, Kcpw, ^Kcipa, KCKappai. 
 
 KeXevo) (kcXcu-) hid, KeXcvcrco, CKcXevo-a, KCK^XevKa, KCK^Xcvo-pai, lKeXcv(r9T]V. 
 KeAAw (/ceA.-, i cl.) SriH^ ^0 s/<0?'e, K^Kau, iKeXcra. Cp. okcWcd. 
 Kcpdwvpi (Kcpa-, Kpd-) mio:, CKcpao-a, K^Kpdpai, iKpdQi\v and eKepdo-9T]V. 
 K€p8aCva) (K€p8av-, t cl.) gain, K€p8av«, €K4p8dva (327 a). 
 Kcvdoo (Kevd-) hide, Kevcro), eK€v(ra, KCKevda (456 b). 
 KT|8opai (kt]8-, K'q8c-) sorroiv, care for, eK'r]8e(rdp't]v. 
 KT]pv(ro-(i) (KTipvK-, t cl.) proclaim, K'qpij^a), iKirjpvIa, KCK^jpuxa, KCKifjpvYpai, Ikt]- 
 
 ptJx9Tiv. 
 Ki7Xaj'a> (k^X"5 f*X^'» ^^^S. cl.) reach, Kix'ticofiai, ^kixov. 
 kCxP'HH''' (XpO'-'H") ^ewc?, mid. borrow, )(jp-f\<r<a, '4xpt\<ra, k^xPT^^j k^XP'HK-"-"" 
 K\d((o {K\a-)y-, I cl., 259 d) resound, KKay^u, ^KXay^a, KfKhayya. 
 KKaiu}, KXdo) (xXav-, KXd-, i cl.) weep, KXavo-opai, ^KXavca, K^KXavpai. 
 icXdo) (KXa-) hreak, ^KXao-a, KCKXao-pat, lKXd(r9'qv. 
 30 
 
306 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 kkiirra (kXctt-, KXair-, kXott-, t cl.) steal, icX4\|/(i), ^KXcij/a, KeKXo4>a, K^KXeiijjiat, 
 
 eKXttTTIlV. 
 
 kXtJcd and kXc^co (kXt|-, kXci-) shut, kXtJo-o), ?KXT)<ra, K^KXrjKa, K^KXufiai, 6KX'ji<r0TjVt 
 
 Also icXeforo), ^KXcio-a, etc. 
 KXjfvw (kXiv-, kXi-, I cl.) lean, kXivw, ^KXiva, K^KXifiai, €kXi9t]v, €kXCvt]v. 
 KvaCbt (Kvai-) scratch, Kvalffw, ?Kvat<ra, KCKvaiKa, KCKvawrjxai, €Kva£<r9T]v. 
 Kvdh) (KvaiT]-, 320) scrape, ^Kvii<ra, CKV^crO-qv. 
 Ko^iX,<ji (KOfiiS-, I cl.) carry, Kop.iw (346 a), eKd{jLi(ra, KeKO|jiiKa, KCKo}jLi(r[j.ai, cko- 
 
 |jiC(r9T]v. 
 
 KOTTTW (kOTT-, T cl.) CUt, KOt|/0), ^KO^/a, K^KO(}>a, K€KOfX}Jiai, iKOTT-qV. 
 
 Kopevuvfxi late (Kope-, nas. cl.) sa^e, KCKopeo-fiai, iKopea-drjv. 
 
 Kpdtw (Kpa^-, Kpay-, i cl.) cr^/ o?^^, ^KpaYov, KCKpd-ya. 
 
 Kpalvco {npav-, i cl.) accomplish, Kpavw, eKpava, iKpduOrjp. 
 
 Kp^)jia|xai (Kpcfxa:-!]-) hang, intr., Kpc|xi^o-o)JLai.. 
 
 Kp£|Jidvvvp.i (KpcfAtt-, nas. cl.) hang, trans., Kpcp,co, iKp^fxao-a, iKpcfido-Ot^v. 
 
 Kpi'vo) (Kpiv-, Kpi-, I q\.) judge, Kpivto, ^KpXva, KCKpiKa, K^Kpifxai, eKp(dr]v. 
 
 Kpovo) (Kpov-) 6ea^, Kpovorco, ^Kpovo-a, KCKpovKa, KeKpov(a)p.ai, eKpovo-B-qv. 
 
 KpUTTTW (KpV<}>-, T Cl.) ^ic?e, Kpv\)/(0, ^Kpvv{/a, KCKpUfJlfJiai, eKpU(}>6T]V, €KpV(j)r)V. 
 
 KTdo|j.ak (KTati]-) acquire, KT^o-ojjLai, cK-nio-dnTiv, KCKT-qjiai (rarely ^KTTjfxai) 
 possess (456 b). 
 
 KTCCVO) (kT€V-, KTaV-, KTOV-, I cl.) kill, KT6VW, J;KT€lVa, iKTaVOV, dir-CKTOVa, t/CTCtJ/, 
 
 (KTatct-, 369 a). Also dTro-KrCvvvji-i (/crt-). 
 kt/^oj (/cTtS-, t c\.) found, Krlaa, iKTiaa, ^KTia-fiai, iKriadriv. 
 Kv\i<a (kvXT-) and kvXCvSo) (kuXivS-) roll, iKvKlaa, K€Kv\i<TfjLai, iKvKiaQrjv. 
 Kvvlfa) (ku-, nas. cl.) kiss, tKvaa. irpoa-Kwifa (-kuvcit]-) do homage, regular. 
 
 KlJlTTW (kV(|)-, T cl.) stoop, KV\)/Ci), ^Kl}\]/a, K€KV(j>a. 
 
 Kvp€(o {Kvp-, Kvp€-) happen, Kvpau) and Kvpiiaa, tnvpffa and eKvprjaa. 
 
 Aa.y\av<a (XaX", XtiX", nas. cl.) get hy lot, XTJlop-ai, ^axov, ctXtixa- (291 b), 
 
 ctXT^-yiiai, €Xtjx9t]v. 
 Xttp.pdvw (XaP", Xrip-, nas. cl.) take, XTJ\|;o[ji.ai, ?Xapov (350, 1), 6tX'ti4>a (291 b), 
 
 etX'qjxiiai, i\i\^^'r\v. 
 Xd}JLirco (Xa|JLTr-) shine, Kdjx^w, ^ap,i|/a, AeA.ou7ra. 
 Xav9dva) (Xa9-, Xti9-, nas. cl.) lie hid, escape the notice of, X^o-o), {!Xa9ov, 
 
 X^XTi9a, XeXiqa-fjiat. Also \i]B(c. 
 Xda-Kw (for KoK-ffKu, KaK-, Ad/c-, KaK-q-, incep. cl.) speak, XaK-fia-ofiai, iXaK-riffa and 
 
 (tXaKOV, \4\a.Ka. 
 •\iy<a (Xe-y-) gather, -\4^<a, -(Kf^a, -ciXoxa (291 b), -etX€7p.ai, rarely -X^Xe7|xai, 
 
 -l\iyT\Vf -IX6x9rjV. Attic in compounds only. 
 \iyoi (XcY") speak, X^|a>, ^Xe^a (ctp-qKa : see cj)!!}!.^, X^Xcyp-ai (but 8i-€CX€YK>oii, 
 
 291 b), iki\9r\v. 
 XcCiTft) (XiTT-, XcMT-, Xotir-) leave, Xd^a, ^iirov (348), X^Xonra, X^Xcip.|xai, IX€C4>9'r]v. 
 
VERB-LIST 307 
 
 \r]ea} : see XavGdvw. 
 
 Xovft) (Xov-) u'cisk, veg. Also \6o} (ao-), contracting in the present system, 
 
 as ^Xov, IXo{)|xev, Xovo-9ai, Xov|i€vos. 
 Xvo) (Xv:v-) loose, Xt;<r(D, ^vcra, Xe'XuKa, Xe'Xvjjiai, €Xii0T]v. 
 
 MaCvb) (fiav-, i cl.) madden, ^ji-qva, iiliA-qva a77i mad (456 b) ; |iaCvop.ai am 
 mad, l\iavic\v, 
 
 |xav9dv(>> (|ui9-, nas. cl.) learn, (iaOil^o-opxii, l|ia6ov, |i6{id9T]Ka. 
 
 fxapTTTOi) {ixapTT-, T cl.) seize, ^idpy^Kt)., ffiap^pa. 
 
 (jLapTCpojiat (jxapTvp-, i cl. ; see 423), call to witness, cp.apriJpdfi.'qv. 
 
 [ido-o-o) (jia-y-, i el.) knead, p.d^«, ^|xa|a, }ilp.a\a, [ie'jJiaYnai, €p.dx9'qv. 
 
 |jtdxo|JLai (jiaX", ^o.\i:r\-) fight, jiaxovftai (322 c), €[jLax€<rdp,iiv, ixeiidx-nixai. 
 
 |ji€i7vi)|JLi (fii-Y-, |A€t7-> nas. cl.) mix, ixci^ca, ?|i€i|a, fi^(X€iYp.ai, k^d\<^^v, tp-^Y-qv. 
 
 (ieXXo) (|i€XX-, [ieXX-q-, 266) intend, (ji,€XXt|o-u), lneXXrio-a. 
 
 lAcXo) (jJLcX-, jicXt]-) care /or, ptcX^o-a), Ifi^X-qo-a, )xe)i€XT]Ka, ficii^Xi^iiai, €|ji,€Xtj9t]v. 
 Impers. p.4X€i, etc. ; otherwise, in Attic prose, only in dep. compounds, 
 eiri|Ji€Xo[j.ai or eirifxcXeofjiai, cirincXi^o-ofjLai, etc., and }iCTa{ieXo}jiai.. 
 
 H^jiJJx'H-ai (|Ji.€H.<}>-) blame, ji€|A\j/o[iai, €|i€[jL\|/d|XTiv. 
 
 ^ivia (|i€v-, |Jtevii-) remain, ncvw, ^{leiva, |i€|x€VT]Ka. 
 
 Ix-qSo/iai (/H7j5-) devise, ixr^a-ofxai, ifxriadix-qv. 
 
 \uyvv\Li, late spelling for (icC-yvi/jit. 
 
 jxi/xv^a-Ko} and ixifj.vr](TK(i} {/xya-.r]-, incep. cl.) remind, ijiu-fjcrco, tfimiffa, |ilfiVT]{i,ai 
 (456 b; subjv. ^6p,vcj|ie9a, opt. (i€|ivf|o, (icuvfiTO, (i€|xvf|fi€9a, also |X€}ji,vwo, 
 |jL€|iviuTo, n€|jLV(w}JL€9a, are found), c^J.v1^<^91]v. In prose dvap.i}ivn<rKw and 
 {iiro(i. 
 
 fxifivu = /xeVftj. 
 
 jxiffyw = fieiyvvixi. 
 
 ifioX-) come, fut. ftoAoDuot, aor. iixoXov. 
 
 Ne'ixo) (veii-, vc|iTi-) distribute, vh>m, ^V6i}ia, v€V6|x'qKa, v€v^|iti[iat, €V€jJiirj9T]v. 
 v€» (vv-, V6V-, 257 b; su'im, viva-ov\i.a.i (326), ^vevo-a, ve'vcvKa. 
 n'^a; (»'*7-, Vi/S-, t cl.) ivash, vlipo), ti/trpa, v^vifx^iai. 
 
 vop,it« (vojiiS-, t cl.) thinJc, believe, vofxiw (346 a), evd|Ai<rtt, vcvo|jLiKa, v€vdni<r- 
 |iai, lvo{XkG-9T]v. 
 
 S'Hpa^vco (l-qpav-, i cl.) £?rj/, ^tipavw, l|T|pava, €^ifjpa<rp,ai, kir\pdvQif\v. 
 
 "O^w (68-, otT]-, I cl.) smell, 6X,r\<r<a, w^i](ra. 
 
 oXyvvfxi {oiy-, nas. cl.), also ol^ctf oj9e7i ; mostly in compounds ; see ayoiyyv^u 
 
 olSa, 386. 
 
 olSe'w (o18c:t]-), also olhauw, swell, ^iST^o-a, ^SiiKa. 
 
 oiKTtpo) (o'lKTtp-, I cl.) pity, wKTipa (late olKreipa), ^KT(ipoi). 
 
308 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 ol^ofiai., oljjLai (ol-, oIt)-) think (irapf. commonly ^^ur/i'), olTJo-o|xai, ^i\^r\v, 
 
 oCo-o) : see ^ip<a. 
 
 otxo|Jiai (olx", olxtl") am gonCi olxi^o-o|jiai, ^xrj/ca. 
 
 oKcXXo) (oKcX-, I el.) hring to shore, wKciXa, prose form of KeWw. 
 
 6Xicr9dv&> and 6Xio-9aCv« (6Xi(r0-, nas. cl.) slip, «Xi<r0ov. 
 
 oWvui, for oXvvjxi (6X-, oXc-, nas. cl.) lose, destroy, d\w (cp. 322 c), &\e(ra, 
 
 u}\6firiv was lost, ruined, oAc^Aewra, oAcoAa (291 c) am lost, ruified. In prose 
 
 dir-oXXiJui, etc. 
 5fjLviJ|xi (ofJi-, 6(1.0-, nas. cl.) swear, 6)j.ov|j.ai, wfjiocra, 6)JL(6|ji,oKa (291 c), 6}Ji(o|xo(r- 
 
 liai, u>pid9T]v and a>|Jido-6T]V. 
 ofxSpyvvnt {ofiopy-y nas. cl.) w^tpe, 6fi6p^o/xai, &>fiop^a. Only compounds in 
 
 prose. 
 6v£vT]p.t (ovaiT]-, redupl. in pres., 365) henefit, ovqcrw, t5vT](ra, «v%tiv (369 a), 
 
 u)vi]Q'r\V' 
 o^uuco {d^vv; I cl.) sharpen, -o^wu, H^vva, -ic^vfi/xai, w^vvdrjp. Only compounds 
 
 in prose. 
 ijirwira, 6^o\iXLi : see opdo). 
 opdw (6pa:d-, ott-, 18-, 267 a) see, 6iJ/o(jLai, cISov (350, 7), edp&Ka, IwpdKa (291 a), 
 
 oTTooira (291 c), ((opdfiai and wp-fxai, cS((>9t]v. 
 dpiYh) (6p€Y-) reach, opc^co, wpe^a. 
 opj/y/it (op-, nas. cl.) raise, rouse, mid. 7'ise, rush, opau, S>p(Ta, opwpa (291 c) am 
 
 aroiised (456 b). 
 opvo-o-o) (opuY-, I cl.) dig, 6pv|(tf, wpu|a, opwpvxa (291 c), 6p(opvY)jLai, wpvx^'HV. 
 6(r<{>pa{vo}:.ai (6<r^pav-, 6(r<j>p-, 6(r4)p'q-) smell, 6(r4>p'^(rop.ai, te>(r()>pd[jLi]v, w(T<pp6.v- 
 
 6^ii\<a (6(j)€X-, 64>€iXti-) owe, d<})€iX^<r«, w<}>€Xov, a><})€£X'r](ra, a)<j)c(X'riKa, a)<J)€i- 
 
 X^9'nv. 
 6{|)Xi(rKdv« (d(J)Xi<rK-', 64>X-, 64)X'q-, nas. cl.) lose a suit, am convicted of, or 
 
 condemned to, 6(j>XTi(ro), a)({>Xov, ca({;X'r]Ka, (i)4>X'T])iai. 
 
 TlaUa (irai-, TraiTj-) strike, ira{(rcD and iranfjo-o}, iTrawra, Tr^iraiKa, £iraCo-9T]v. 
 
 TTCtAAw (iraA-, t cl.) shake, CTrrjAa, TreVaA/xat. 
 
 (TTCt-) acquire, iracrofiai, iirdad/xriu, ireirdfiai. 
 
 irdcra-aj (irar-, i cl.) sprinkle, ird<rft), ^irao-a, 6'irdor9T]v. 
 
 irdcrxft) (ira9-, '7r€v9-, 7rov9-, incep. cl., 260 b) suffer, ircCo-ojiai (for irev0-o-O|Uai, 
 
 53), ?'7ra9ov, '7r^irov9a. 
 7rc£9a) (^19-, Tr€t9-, -77019-) persuade, ircfcrw, ^Treio-a, 6Tri9djj.i]v, ir^irciKa, 7r^7roi.9a 
 
 believe, trust (456 b), Tr^ireio-jxai, lTr€£<r9T|v. 
 ircivdo) (irciva-) hunger, 320. 
 7rcCo-o|xai : see Trdo^w. 
 -ir^XdCo) (TreAaS-, TreAo-, irAct-, t cl.), also ireXdOw, irXddco approach, TreAw (like 
 
 ^Aa>, 322 c), iirihaffa, itrehda-driv and iir\dQi)v. 
 
VERB-LIST 309 
 
 ir^fiirw (ir€{jnr-, irojiir-) escort, send, irejixl/w, ^ircjjuj/a, ir^iro(t(f>a, ir^ircjiiiai (344 a), 
 
 €'rr€|i4>0'qv. 
 TTtpaCvcD (TTtpav-, I cl.) ^ro through, finish, irepavw, CTrcpdva, Treirepao-iiai, lirc- 
 
 pdv6t]v. 
 7rep0co (7rep0-) c^ac/i:, irepaco, iTrepaa. (The pi'OSe word is iropGcw.) 
 TT^a-o-w ("jrcK-, TTCir-, i cl.) cook, ir^if/ca, ^ir€\]/a, ir€irep.|iai, C'ir^<|>9Tiv. 
 ir€Tdvvu(ii (ir€Ta-, irra-, nas. cl.) spread, ircT« (like eAcD, 322 c), €ir^Tacra, Trc'ir- 
 
 rafxai, iTrcrdirdrjv. 
 ireTojjtai (ircr-, ttt-, irTaiT]-, ttctt]-) ^^, irTTjo-ojiai and ircnqo-oiiat, 6irTdjxi]v and 
 
 cTTTTjj/ (369 a). 
 ■Kivdofxai = irvvddvo|iai. 
 
 •jr'f\yvv[Li (TTiry-, iray-, nas. cl.)^a:, ir-nlo), ^iriila, iriTn\ya (456 b), liraYTiv. 
 •irCiJnrXiiiJLt (irXaiTj-, pres. reduplication with inserted /u) fill, irXiqcro), ^irX-qo-a, 
 
 •jrlirXTiKa, ir^TrXTKiai and ir^irXTjoriiai, eirX-^o-Oiiv. In prose only in compo- 
 sition : €|X'7r£(|A)irXT]p,i, etc. 
 irCp.irpiiiJLi (irpaiT]-, with inserted p, as in irCpirXTHii) burn, irpTJo-a), ^irpiia-tt, 
 
 •n-€irpTip.ai, l'irp-f\(rdr\v. In prose €pTrC(p)irpTipi, etc. 
 irtvo) (tti:!-, iroiw-, nas. cl.) drink, tzio^ax and 7r<o/xat (without fut. suffix), 
 
 hriov, TT^irtoKa, ir^iropai, lirdO-qv. 
 irnrpdo-Kw (irpd-, incej). cl.) sell, ireirpaKa, 7r^irpd[iai, eirpdO-qv. iruX^o) is the 
 
 common pres. 
 irtiTTw (ttct-, irco--, irTw-, 257 a) fcill^ 7re(rovpai (326), ^irco-ov, ir^irTCDKa. 
 •nlrvw = iriTTTW. 
 
 irXdo-oroj (irXttT-, \. c\.) form, ^irXao-a, ir^irXao-p-ai, CTrXdo-O-qv. 
 irX^Kft) (ttXck-, irXttK-) plait, tivist, ^irXela, iriirke^^o.i, lirXdK-qv, IttXc'xOiiv. 
 TrXeo) (irXv-, irXev-, 257 b) sail, irXciio-op.ai and TrXcvo-ovpiai (like Treaovfj-ai, 326), 
 
 ^irXtvo-a, ircTrXevKa, ireirXcuo-p.ai. 
 TrXiri<ro-<i> (irXiiY-, i cl.) strike, irXifj^co, ^TrX-q^a, iriirXtiya, Tritrkriyiiai, lirXifiY'qv. 
 irXvvft) (irXvv-, irXu-, i cl.) ivash, 'Tr\vy&, ^irXiiva, Tr^irXvp-ai, iTr\v9r\v. 
 trvib) (ttvv-, irv€u-, 257 b) breathe, hloiv, irv€vo-opai and irvcvo-ovpai (like ireo-oG- 
 
 fiai, 326), ^irvevo-a, Tr^irvcuKa. 
 irvtYO) (irviY-, irvtY-) choke, irvtlco, ^irvXia, irlirviYpai, Ittv^yiiv. 
 {irop-, irpoo-) give, allot, eiropov, ireirpwTai it is fated. 
 irpdo-oro) (irpdY-, i cl.) do, arpd^co, 2irpd^a, ir^irpdYa and TrcTrpdxa, ir^TrpdYp-ai, 
 
 lirpdxQtiv. 
 irpCao-6ai, eirpidpiiv : see a>v€0|ji,ai. 
 Trpiu) (irpT-) saiv, ^irpio-a, ir^irpTo-p.ai, lirpio-Oiiv. 
 TrTdpvup.ai (irrap-, nas. cl.) sneeze, ^irTapov. 
 ■n-TTJa-o-o) (ttttik-, i cl.) cronch, cower, hrrr^ifl., hTr'r\yja.. 
 
 TTTlio-O-ft) (iTTUX-, I cl.) fold, trTXi^Vti ^TTTV^a, ^TTTU-yP'Cl'') CTTTyxOlv. 
 
 TTTVft) (7rTu:0-) spiY, eTTTvaa. 
 TTTdxTcot = irr'hffiToa, 
 
810 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 irvvddvojxai. (irv0-, ir€v0-, nas. cl.) inquire, hear, ireto-ofiai, eirvOofJi'qv, ir€in«r- 
 |i.ai. 
 
 'Pafvw (pav-, I cl.) sprinkle, pavw, ^ppdva, Ippdv9i]v. 
 
 pdirro) (pa<|)-, t cl.) sew, stitch, pdxj/o), ^ppa\|/a, ^ppa|X}jLai, €ppd4>i]v. 
 
 ^eX*" ' see ep5«. 
 
 p^cD (pu-, p€u-, pvT]-, 257 b) ^oz^, peii(ro|xai and pviqo-ofxai, €ppvT]Ka, Ippui^v. 
 
 p^-yvviii (pilY", p«7-> paV", nas. cl.) hreak, pr'ilw, '^pp-q^a, ^ppw^a, eppd-yTjv. 
 
 piTTTco (pt4>-> p«'<j>-> T cl.), also pIiTT^w (pIiTTc-) tkrow, pi^b), ^ppi\j/a, '^ppl:{:a, 
 
 ?ppiji}iat, €ppif<|>9T]v and cpp£<j)T]v. 
 puojxai {pi)-) preserve, pvcrofxai, ippvcrdfirju. 
 pdouvv/xi late (pw-, nas. cl.) strengthen, -^ppwo-a, ?pp«[x.ai, Ippctfo-Otiv. 
 
 SaCvw (<rav-, i cl.) /az^w- i^pow, ^crriva. 
 
 aaipo) {(Tap-, ffrjp-, i cl.) sweep, earipa, o-4(rr]ptt ^?•^7^. 
 
 o-aXir^tw (<raXTrtYY-> ^ cl.) i/oz^; trumpet, I(rd\irt7|a. 
 
 o-dTTO) (oraY", I cl.) pack, a-i<r(x.y^ox. 
 
 o-p^vvujJii (o-pc:-!!-, nas. cl.) quench, o-p^o-w, -o-prjo-ojiai, ^o-pco-a, eo-jSTji/ (369 b), 
 
 -?o-pT]Ka (456 b), l(rp€<r9Tiv. 
 Q-dui (o-ei-) shake, o-eio-w, iff^icray (r€<r€iKa, <r4o-€io-|jiai, la-eCo-Biriv. 
 <ni|AaCvo> (o~qjxav-, i cl.) show, cn]|iavw, €<rTJ|jLiiva, <r€<rTi|xa(r|i,ai, €on](idv0T]v. 
 (T^irw ((rqir-, <rttir-) maA:e ro^, (r^\//eo, o-4<rr]ira (456 b), IcrdTTTjv. 
 o-KdiTTO) (o-Katj)-, T cl.) fZi^^, o-Kd^o), ^(rKa\{ra, ^(rKa({)a, ^o-KafjifJiai, eo-Kd(j>t]V. 
 <rK€8dwi>|Jii ((TKcSa-, nas. cl.) scatter, o-kcSw (like iKu, 322 c), €o-K48a<ra, lo-ic^- 
 
 8ao-^ai, lo-KcSdo-Stiv. Also pres. (tkISptj/jli. 
 o-K^TTTojiat (a-Kitr-, t cl.) view, more often (TKoiriu in pres. syst., o-K^xJ/o[iai, 
 
 e(rK€\{/d}Jk'qv, ^crK€p.|iai. 
 <rKir]TrTo> (<rKT]Tr-, t cl.) prop, (rK^\|/(o, ^o-KTivlfa, 2<rKT][A|xat, l<rK^(J)0T]v. 
 o-Koireo), in pres. syst. for <rK€TrTO|iai. 
 
 o-KwirTo) (o-Kwir-, t q\.) jeer, (rK(tf\{/o|jLai, ?<rKft)x}/a, Io-k«<J)0t]V. 
 {nrdw (o-ira-) draw, (nrdo-cj, ?<nrao-a, '^<nraKtt, ^<nra<r|j.ai, €oird(r0i]v. 
 (nreCpcD (oirep-, crirap-, i cl.) sow, o-rrcpd), ^onreipa, ^onrapjjiai, l(nra.pt\v. 
 o-irevSw (o-TrevS-) j90itr a libation, <nrcCcro> (53), ^(nrewra (53), ^o-ircKrjxai. 
 o-ireilSci) (o-TTCuS-) hasten, <nr€V(ro), ^<nr€u<rtt. 
 o-To^o) (o-ray-, t cl.) cZroj9, cffra^a. 
 CTcifiu} {(TT^i^-, (TTifirj-) tread, ^a-retrpa, icrTlfi'r}fiai. 
 oreXXo) ((rreX-, o-raX-, i cl.) equip, send, otcXw, ^(rrciXa (331), ^oToXKa, 
 
 ^cTaXjiat, lo-rdX-qv. 
 aTivdt,<a (cTTCvaY", i cl.) groan, arreud^cc, lo-r^va^a. 
 OT^PYw ((TTepY", CTTopY") love, a-rip^u, ^o-repla, caTopya. 
 (TTipibi (oPTcpc-), oTTcp^aKCi) (<rT6p-, incep. cl.) deprive, <rTipi\<r<a, etc. (rT^pop.ai 
 
 (o-T€p-) am in ivant. 
 
VERB-LIST 311 
 
 a-rtlb) (o-TiY", I cl.) pricJc, (rri^<a, ^crriYjjiai. 
 
 OTdpvv|ii (o-Top-, nas. cl.) spread, a-Topai (like reXw, 322 c), lorTop€<rtt. 
 
 o-Tpecjxi) (o^petj)-, o-Tpo<J)-, <rTpa<j)-) ^<<r/i, arrpiy^otf 'itrr pe]fa., ia-rpo^a, ^(rTpa)i)xai, 
 
 €(rTpd<J>T]V. 
 <rTpwvvi;(JLi ((rrpw-, nas. cl.) spread, ffTpdixTu)^ ^(rrpoxra, ^o-Tpa>|iai, iarpdod-nv, 
 (rtpdCo and (r^a.TT<a {<r^a.y-, i cl.) slay, (r<|>d^a), ^(r<j>a|a, *^o-<{>a'Y}j,ai, i(T(pdyT}v. 
 (r<t>dXX(d (o-<}>a\-, i cl.) /r^}j, o-4>aXw, ^(r<j>'q\a, ^<r4>aX|iat, €<r4)dXT]v. 
 o-wtto (for (roo'iCw, o-«i8-, o-«-, i cl.) save, o-cio-o), ^o-oxra, o-^o-coKa, a-ia-iaiiOLi and 
 
 cri(r(o(r[JLai, l<ra)9T]V. 
 
 Tapdcro-« (ropax-) i- cl.) disturb, T(tpd|cc, Irdpa^a, Tcrdpa-yiiai, CTapd^STlv. 
 rdo-o-o) (raY", i cl.) arra^ige, ra^oi, 'dra^a, riTa\a., rirayiiai, Ird^Oilv. 
 Ta4>i]vai, €Td<j)'qv : see Gdirrw. 
 T6iva> (t€v-, Ttt-, I cl.) stretch, revw, ^'rciva, Tc'raKa, Wrajiai, IrdOTjv. 
 
 T€K€lV, ^T€KOV : SBC TlKTCi). 
 
 T€Kixaip(o rare, T€K|iaipo(iai (rcKjiap-, i cl.) fix by a marJc, infer, T€K|xapovp.ai, 
 
 6T€KfJ,T|pd|l'r]V. 
 
 TcXcw {Tiki-) finish, tcXw (322 c), crcXeo-a, rcr^XcKa, TCT^Xeo-jxai (322, a, b), trc- 
 
 Xeo-S-qv. 
 TeAAw (reA.-, i cl.) cawse to rise, rise, ir^iKa, -TeToA^uat. More frequent in 
 
 composition : dvareXXo), lvT^XXo|iai. 
 T^{xv6) (t6|jl-, Tap.-, Tfi-q-, nas. cl.) cut, n^St, 'iny-ov and ^rajiov, WruTiKa, t€T|jlt]- 
 
 |iai, 6T|xt]9t]v. 
 TipTTO) (repir-) delight, rfprpo), eTepi|/a, iTipcpOrju. 
 T6ux<w (t^X"? TfwX") ^G^^'6, T6j;|c«j, eTeu|a, TfTvy /jiai. 
 ri\K<a (TttK-, TT]K-) 7;?e?^, ttjIw, ^r-qla, TerqKa (456 b), lTdKt]V. 
 t£0ti|jli : see 375, 372. 
 
 tCkto) (t€k-, TOK-, 257 a) bear, ?4^o(iai, ^reKov, reroKa. 
 T^vft) (ti:I-, T€i-) pay, T€£<r«, ?T€tcra, T^rciKa, T€T€i(r|xai, iTcCo-fl'qv. Later, and 
 
 often in ovir editions, tio-o), ^Tto-a, etc. 
 TiTpwcTKo) (rpw-, incep. cl.) ivound, rpwo-o), ^-^pwo-a, Tirpjojiai, €Tpw9T]V. 
 (tAo:tj-) endure, rX^fta-ofxai, irX-qv (369 a), TfT\7]Ka. 
 rpiira (rpeir-, Tpoir-, Tpair-) ^?<rw, Tp4ij/w, ^Tp€\|/a, T4Tpo<j>a, T€Tpap,nai, Irpd- 
 
 irqv, eTp€(j)9t]V. 
 rpi^b) (Tp6<j)- for 0pe(^-, 47 d, Tpo<|>-, rpaij)-) nourish, Qpi]f(a, ^9p€^a, T€Tpo4,a, 
 
 T€9pa|x|iai, €Tpd<|)T]v. 
 Tpe'xo) (rpcx- for 0p6x-, 47 d. Spafi-, 8pa|xTi-) r?/w. Spajiovjiai, ?8pa|iov, 8cSpd- 
 
 |XT]Ka, 8€8pd|iT|fjiat. Also rarely -9p^^op,ai, cOp'^^a. 
 rpiia (Tp6-) tremble, 'irpecra. 
 
 rpi^o) (rpXP", TptP") r?<i, Tpt]/&), ^Tpi^/a, TlTpi{|)a, rlrpTunai, lTpt:|>9Tiv, irpi^r\v. 
 TpioY« (rpcoY-, Tpa^-) gnaw. Tpw|onai, ^rpayov, TCTp(i)'yH''°''" 
 Tvyxdvw (tuX"> t€ux-> '""^X'^'j ^^^S- <^^) happen, rcj^ojiai, ^t^xov, T€Tux'nKa. 
 
312 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 rvirra (rxm-, tvittt]-, t cl.) strike, tuttti^o-w, Irviniv. 
 Tv<|>(i) (tv<J)-, tu<|>-, for Ovp-, 47 d) smoke, T€0iiji.}i,ai, €tu<J)T]v. 
 
 ' Yirwrxv^ofiai (inro + l<rx-, <rx-} o^^-j nas. cl.) promise, {»'jro(rxif](ro(i.ai, virc- 
 
 i (TXonTiv, vircirx-qfiat. Cp. ^X"* 
 
 i^aiv<a {it^av-f i cl.) weave, v^avu, v^y\va, i^aa-^ai, v^avQr\v. 
 
 </« (iJ-) ram, i»o-a), i<ra, vo-}iai, vadriv. 
 
 4>aY€tv, ^(paYov ; see lo-OCo), 
 
 <j)a£v« (<j)av-, <|>iiv-, i cl.) show, 4>avc0, ^<|>iiva, '7r€<j>a7Ka, tzi^r^vo. (332), ir^<j>a(r(Jiai 
 
 (339), €<j)dvTiv, 6<|)dv0Tiv (337). 
 <{>dpYvv)j,i = (}>pd'yvv[j,(,. 
 
 <|>e£8o}iai (<{>ei8-) spare, <j>e£(ro|xai, l(j)€i(rdftT]v. 
 4)^p« (<j>€p-, ol-, €V€7K-, €V€K-, €voK-) Jcar, oto-w, i^veYKov and ^jvcyKa, Iv^voxa 
 
 (291 c), lvifjv6Y|iai, -^v^xOilv. 
 <|)€V70) (<j)VY-| <|>€V7-) flee, <}>€v^ofjLai and 4>€viov|xai (326), 'i^vyov, tri^fvya.. 
 <j)T]Hi (<j)a:'q-, 382) say, <|)^<ra), ^<j>Ti<ra. Also (Ip-, pcii]-) Ipw, c1ipT]Ka (291 b), 
 
 €\!p'r])iai, cppTJOtiv. See also elirov. 
 <j>0dva) (<|)0a:T]-, nas. cl.), anticipate, <{>9ir](ro)jiai and <{)6d(rci), '^<})9aora, 'i^^r\v 
 
 (369 a). 
 <{)9cCpfa> (<i>9€p-, <{>9ap-, ({>9op-) corrupt, 4>9€pw, ^4>9€ipa, '^4>9apKa, i(pQopa, ^<j>9ap- 
 
 }j.ai, l<}>9dp'qv. 
 <|)9tv« (4>9i-, <j>9iv-) ivaste, perish, (fyeia-u, itpOicra, i(p6ifiai. 
 <j>pd7vv(Jii (4)paY-, nas. cl.), also (j>pdo-(ro> (t cl.) enclose, ^^^pctia, ir^^jpaYiiai, 
 
 €({)pdx9T]v. 
 ^pdt«> (<|>pa8-, I cl.) tell, ({>pdo-(i>, ^<|>pa(ra, 7rl<{>paKa, ire<j}pa(r)JLai, icppdcrdrjv. 
 <j>pi(r(ro> (<j)pXK-, I cl.) bristle, shudder, ^<J>pi|a, ir^<j>plKa. 
 4>pvY(» (<}>pvY") '''oast, <j>pv^<i), ^<|>pv|a, '7r4<|)pi>Y}iai. 
 ipvyydvoi {(pvy-, nas. cl.) = ({>€VY^* 
 <f>v\d(r(ra> (<}>vXaK-, i cl.) guard, <}>vXd^o), e<j)uXa|a, 7r€<j)i>Xttxa, ir€<j)iiXaYfxai, 
 
 €<j)vXdx9'riv. 
 «j)vpo) (<j>vp-, <t>vp-) m^a;, 'ir^<}>vpfiai. 
 <j>v(i) (<|)v:v-) produce, <})tJo-«, ^<^iJ(ra, ^<j)vv (369 d), ir44)iJKa (456 b). 
 
 Xaipo) (xap-, xa'P«:'n-> X^fl-* «• cl.) rejoice, xo-ipV"* Kcxdpr^Ka, Kexdpvfiai, 
 
 Ixdp-nv. 
 XaXdo) (xaXtt-) loosen, IxdXao-a, Ix^^a-o'S'nv. 
 
 Xdo-Kw (xa-, xo-v-, X'H^-, ineep. cl.) ^ape, xo-voCjiai, ^xo-^ov, k^xIvo-* 
 X^« (x^-j X*^'> 257 b) pour, \i<a (without fut. sviffix), ^x^^-j Kc'xvKa, Kexup-ai, 
 
 Ixv9tjv. 
 \6<a {\o:<a-) heap, x^Kra, ^\<aa-af kIx^i^o-j Klxw<r|iai, lx«cr9Tiv. 
 Xpdo|jiai (xpO'J'n-j 320) use, xp^o-opiai (317 a), expTjordixTiv, K4xpilK<ai, 6XP^°"®1^' 
 
VERB-LIST 313 
 
 Xpdo) (xpa^'H-) 320) give an oracle, xp^o-w> ^XP'HO"*) Ixp^o"0t]v. 
 Xpi^, 390. dirdxpil it suffices, inf. diroxp^v, impf. dTre'xpT]. 
 Xpto) (xp"i-) anoint, sting, xpto-w, ?XP^°"*> K^xpli^ai and Kixpla-^a)., i\pifr^t\v. 
 Xpwt«, xpo't'C'^ (XPf S-> XPo"*5"s •• cl.), xp^^^^^H-^ (XP'^'j ii^s. cl.) co^or, K€xp«<r|jLtti, 
 €XP«<r0Tiv. 
 
 ^€v8o> (^I'cvS-) deceive, ^€v<r<a, i^ivcra, ^\)/€V(r(i.ai, c^|/6v(r6i]v. 
 
 ^vx" (xj/vx", ^v\-) cool, \|/i>|«, ^xj/u^a, ^\j/v7|iai, &^^\9r\v and i^'^X'HV* 
 
 *Q.Qi<a («9-, wQc-, 267) j9?<sA, woro), ^wo-a, ^wo-fiai (291 a), IwcrOtiv. 
 
 «v^o|xtti ((oveiT]-, Trpia-, 267) buy, «vifj<ro}j.ai, lirptdjxiiv (369 a), €»VT]|iai (291 a), 
 
GREEK INDEX 
 
 Note. — The Indexes are intended to supplement the Table of Con- 
 tents and the Verb-List ; for verb forms look first in the latter. Refer- 
 ences are to sections ; but a few references in the English Index are to 
 pp. 1-3 of the Introduction. 
 
 A, quantity 4 ; initial a in era- 
 sis 36 b ; interchanges with 
 €, o 25 ; aor. in 351 ; d- neg. 
 444 ; d- copulative 444 a. 
 
 d, retained in poetry 69 a, b ; 
 after c, t, p 77 a, 317 ; inter- 
 changes with 7), (0 26. 
 
 -d, suffix 404. 
 
 dya^o?, compared 182, 1. 
 
 dyvws 145. 
 
 ayo), meaning of mid. 500 b. 
 
 dywv 99. 
 
 ayo)v 583 a. 
 
 -dSf}?, -d?, suffix 433. 
 
 -d^w, f ut. of verbs in 346 b. 
 
 'AOdvd, 'AOyva 85, 86. 
 
 'AOrjvdle, ^AOrjvrjOev, ^AOriviqcn 
 
 228. 
 at, diphthong 5 and a ; final, 
 
 effect on accent 14. 
 dt, a, diphthong 5 and b. 
 m, pronoun 18 a. 
 at8(us 129. 
 al^ 109. 
 
 atp€(o, meaning of mid. 500 b. 
 
 alarOdvofJLaL^ w. gen. 511 a ; w. 
 ace. and gen. 530 c ; three 
 constructions 588 b. 
 
 ato-xpo5, compared 181. 
 
 ala-xvvoixai^ w. acc. 530 a. 
 
 atrio?, w. gen. 516 a. 
 
 -d/ct9, adv. ending 232. 
 
 oLKovui, w. gen. 511 a ; w. acc. 
 and gen. 530 c ; three con- 
 structions 588 b. 
 
 dxpodo/xat 317 a. 
 
 aKO)v 167 ; as partic. 589 a. 
 dAXdo-o-o) 341, 345. 
 dWrjXoiV 202. 
 dXXoOev, dAAo^t 228. 
 dAAos 201. 
 dAAoo-c 228. 
 
 dAs 40 a ; declined 99, 100. 
 d/xa, w. partic. 592. 
 d/xeAoj, w. gen. 511 c. 
 dfjio'; (d/xds) 204. 
 
 d/Ac^t, w. acc, gen., and dat. 
 598. 
 
 d/X^tOt€V, dfJL(f>LOLT€ 377. 
 
 dfx(f>6Tepo<;, w. art. 554. 
 315 
 
316 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 oLfjicfiOTepoiiOev, w. gen. 518 b. 
 
 a/x<^w, w, art. 554. 
 
 dixvvofiai, w. acc. 530 a. 
 
 a(v)-, neg. 441, 444, 447 a. 
 
 -ai/, for wv 69 b. 
 
 dv, w. impf . indie. 461, 468 ; w. 
 plup. indie. 469 ; w. aor. in- 
 die. 467, 468; w. opt. 479, 
 480 ; w. infin. 579 ; w. partie. 
 595 ; w. oT€, oxoTc 627 ; w. 
 cTTCi, cTTctSij 629 ; general uses 
 666 and a. 
 
 dm, w. aee. 598. 
 
 dva^ 111 C. 
 
 dvd^tos, w. gen. 516 a. 
 
 ava<jiopd 600 b. 
 avSpes 36 b. 
 
 dv€v^ w. gen. 518 c, 599. 
 di/i}p, declined 106, 107 ; avrjp^ 
 36 b. 
 
 dvOpayjros 62. 
 -avo, suffix 412. 
 -avo:e-, suffix 261 b, c. 
 dvrexo/xat, W. gen. 510 b. 
 
 dvTt, w. gen. 598. 
 
 dvvcra? 583 a. 
 
 d^to9, compared 177; w. gen. 
 516 a. 
 
 aTTtttS 145. 
 
 dTTtt^ 232. 
 
 ttTrAoo?, d7rAov9, declined 87-90 ; 
 
 compared 179 a. 
 ttTTo, w. gen. 598. 
 oLTToOvricrKo), as pass. 499. 
 'AttoXXcov 104. 
 dTrTOfiaL, w. gen. 510 b. 
 
 aTTTw, meaning of mid. 500 a. 
 d/aa, inferential particle 673 a. 
 dpa, interrog. 668; apa fx-j 
 
 488 a. 
 "Apaij/ 112. 
 "ApT^s 128 c. 
 
 -dpio-v^ dim. suffix 431 c. 
 dpx", dpxe-, d/oxt-, prefix 442 a. 
 dp)(6iJi€vos 583 a. 
 dpxw 341 ; meaning of mid. 
 
 500 b. 
 
 dpira^ 145. 
 
 -d9, names in 72 e. 
 
 -d?, in nouns of number 192. 
 
 doTTV 130. 
 
 dcrvvherov 600 a. 
 
 -arat, for -vrat, 344 C. 
 
 arc, w. partic. 593 a. 
 
 drepo'S 36 C. 
 
 -aro, for -vro 270 a, 344 c. 
 
 drra 217 a. 
 
 av, diphthong 5 and a. 
 avTLKa, w. partic. 592. 
 avToOev 228 a. 
 
 auTos 197, 198 ; meaning 199 ; 
 w. ordinal 558 a. 
 
 ayro? 36 b. 
 avToa-e 228 a. 
 
 avTov, adv. 228 a, 515. 
 
 avTov, for eavTOv 203 a. 
 dcf>€L8y';, w. gen. 516 a. 
 d<^ct8w, w. gen. 511 c. 
 
 dcfiLcrTrjiXL 363 a. 
 axo-pt-'S 147. 
 
 dxpt 33 b ; w. gen. 518 c, 599 ; 
 dxpi clauses 631. 
 
GREEK INDEX 
 
 317 
 
 -aw, verbs in, contracting to ry 
 instead of d 320. 
 
 B 38 a, b, and c, 39, 44 a ; after 
 
 ,^,49. 
 ^eygao-t, ^efSwa-L, ^e/Jw?, root perf. 
 
 370 (2). 
 
 /Se^rjKa 456 b. 
 
 yScArtwv, declined 149, 150 ; 
 compared 182, 1. 
 
 PovXevw, meaning of mid. 
 
 500 b. 
 PovXofjiaL, augment 266. 
 jSovs 136. 
 
 r 38 a, b, c, and d, 39, 44 b ; 
 nasal 3. 
 
 ya, yaia 86. 
 ydp 672. 
 yaa-Trfp 108 a. 
 
 ye 19 e, 671 b. 
 
 yeyws, root perf. 370 (3). 
 
 yeAaw 322. 
 yeXwS 112. 
 yci/os 124. 
 
 ycpatos, compared 178. 
 
 y^85. 
 
 ytyds 121, 122 a. 
 
 ytyvojaat 257 a. 
 
 ytyvwo-Kw 289 d ; redupl. 260 b. 
 
 yAv/cv? 177. 
 
 yovv 120. 
 
 yovv 671 b. 
 
 ypac/xo 341, 345. 
 
 yvjxvdt^oi 341. 
 
 yvixvrj<s 145. 
 yvvrj 142, 1. 
 
 A 38 a, b, and c, 39, 44 c ; after 
 v49. 
 
 -Bd, -i8d, -8, -(8, patronym. suf- 
 fix 433. 
 
 BaLjJiiov 102. 
 
 SaKpvov, SaKpv 143, 1. 
 
 8e, conj. 669. 
 
 -8e 19 e. 
 
 SeSifiev, root perf. 370 (5). 
 
 SiSoiKa, 8c8ta, as pres. 456 c. 
 
 huKVVIXl 360. 
 
 8eiKi/vs 170 a. 
 8€tva 225. 
 BeX<^U 103 b. 
 
 8evT€po9 188. 
 
 Seo) 321 a. 
 
 8>; 671 c, 673 a. 
 
 SryXowv, SrjXwv 168 b. 
 AyjfirJTrjp 108 b. 
 Srjjxoa-La 526 b. 
 
 -877V, adv. ending 231. 
 
 8>i7roi; 671 d. 
 
 8^Ta 671 d. 
 
 8ta, w. acc. and gen. 598. 
 
 8tay(o 585 a. 
 
 8(aK€t/>tai, as pass. 499. 
 
 8ia;(eipt^(o 448 a. 
 
 8i8ao-/c(o, redupl. 260 b ; mean- 
 ing of mid. 500 a. 
 
 8tya/>t/xa 27. 
 
 8tKato9, declined 76 ; compared 
 
 177. 
 
 AtoyeVr/s 154. 
 
318 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 SioTL clauses 626. 
 Sltttixv^ 159 b. 
 SlttXovs, declined 90. 
 8t? 232. 
 
 StcfyOoyyoL 5. 
 
 8tX«j ^f-XV^ ^dv. of number 233. 
 
 Sfwos 101 a. 
 
 -86v, adv. ending 231. 
 
 Bopo^ 143, 2. 
 
 86pv 120. 
 
 SovXoo) 315. 
 
 SvvafiaL 266, 365 and a, 395. 
 
 Svo 187 a, 188. 
 
 Svo--, prefix 441, 444. 
 
 Swpov 62. 
 
 E, quantity 4 ; pronun. 7 ; be- 
 comes ct 51 ; formative vowel 
 263 a ; changes to o 403. 
 
 €- augment 265 a. 
 
 €, enclitic 19 a. 
 
 cav re . . . cav T€ 653. 
 
 cavToO 203. 
 
 cyyvs, w. gen. 599. 
 
 cyKoAw, w. dat. 520 a. 
 
 cyK/oarrjs, w. gen. 516 a. 
 
 eyv(DV 367. 
 
 cyw 194. 
 
 eycoyc, t/Aoiyc 195 C. 
 
 18a 460. 
 
 c-8i5v 367. 
 
 I^ei/ 196. 
 
 €1, diphthong 5 ; and digraph 
 
 27 a. 
 el, proclitic 17 c; ct clauses 
 
 477, 645-656. 
 
 ei-, as redupl. 291 b. 
 
 c?, name of letter 1 b. 
 
 -€t, adv. ending 231. 
 
 ct yap, in wishes 470, 477. 
 
 cl 8e /X7^ 656 c. 
 
 ctSws 172. 
 
 ct^c 21 d ; in wishes 470, 477. 
 
 CIKOS -^v 460. 
 
 ct />t77, ct p.r] 8ta 656 a. 
 
 ctKcVat, cIkw^^ root perf. 370 (6). 
 
 eifjLL, enclitic 19 d ; con jug. 384 ; 
 
 in compound perfs. 456 d. 
 el/XL 385 and a. 
 ei^'do-t, root perf. 370 (6). 
 -cto adj. suff. 424 a ; place suff. 
 
 432 and a. 
 ctTTc 349 a. 
 ctTTov, w. infin. 658. 
 cts(e?), proclit. 17 b; w. ace. 
 
 598. 
 CIS declined 187. 
 ciTc . . . ctrc 653*. 
 ctco^a 456 C. 
 
 iKi see c^. 
 
 cKaoTos, w. art. 554. 
 
 cKct and iKeWev 236. 
 
 cKcti/os 208 , correl. pron. 227 ; 
 
 pred. position 553 ; in pred. 
 
 561b. 
 
 CKCtVcDS 236. 
 
 cKelcre 236. 
 
 iKeXeva-c, in indir. disc. 663. 
 
 iKTriTTTd), as pass. 499. 
 
 iKTToSwv 448 a. 
 
 iKTos, w. gen. 518 b. 
 
 e/cwv, as partic. 589 a. 
 
GREEK INDEX 
 
 319 
 
 iXcvOepos, w. gen. 516 a. 
 'EAeucrti/a^e, 'EAevo-tvt, 'EAevcrtvo- 
 
 eev 228. 
 iXei 349 a. 
 -eAo, suff. 412. 
 
 ^TTtS 114. 
 
 i\Q> 322 c. 
 
 ifxavTov 203. 
 
 e^d? 204. 
 
 c/x7ro8t'^(o, c/u,7rd8t09, Ifxirohuiv 448 a. 
 
 t^TTpoa-Oev, w. gen. 518 b. 
 cv, proclit. 17 b ; w. dat. 598. 
 IrSo^ev, €vSo6l, ei^Sov 228. 
 ci/e/ca, w. gen. 518 c, 599. 
 Iv^a, €v^€v 236, 238 ; e^Oa clauses 
 
 620. 
 ivOdBe 236. 
 ej/^cv, w. gen. 518 b; li/^ev 
 
 clauses 620. 
 IvOivSe 236. . 
 ivOvixeoixai, augment 268 b. 
 ivLOT€ 614 a. 
 
 ivavTLoofxaL, augment 268 b. 
 -€VT, adj. suff. 427. 
 
 ivravOa, ivravOoL 236. 
 ivT€v6€V 236. 
 
 €vrd9, w. gen. 518 b. 
 
 ivrpeTTOfxaL^ W. gen. 511 0. 
 
 c^(eK), proclitic 17 b; w. gen. 
 
 598. 
 -€o, adj. suff. 426. 
 -€o:€-, fut. suff. 324. 
 €OLyfjLev, root perf. 370 (6). 
 cotKa, redupl. 291 a; pres. in 
 
 meaning 456 c. 
 
 iireL, iTrciBrj clauses 629. 
 
 ctttJkoo?, w. gen. 516 a. 
 eVt 598. 
 
 iTnOoLfxcOa, cTrt^wvrat 377. 
 iirLfjLeXrjS, w. gen. 516 a. 
 imopKeo) 268 b. 
 
 iTnTLfjLWj w. dat. or ace. 520 a. 
 
 ipya^ofiai 291. 
 
 Ipyo), dat. 526 b. 
 
 'Epfxrj^ 85. 
 
 -epo, suff. 412. 
 
 ipp(Dfx€vo^, compared 179 b. 
 
 cptu, w. gen. 511 c. 
 
 €5, proclitic 17 b; w. ace. 
 
 598. 
 -€0- following vowel in adj., 
 
 resulting contraction, 152 b. 
 -69, suff. 407, 413 b. 
 -e-o-at, becomes -rj or -et 263 b. 
 -€-(To, becomes -ov 263 b. 
 eoTripds, gen. 515. 
 ea-rafxev etc., root perf. 370 (1). 
 ea-re clauses 631. 
 -cc-Tcpos, comp. ending 179. 
 
 tcTT-qv 367. 
 
 eoTrjKo, as pres. 456 b. 
 
 lo-Tt 20 e ; 384 b ; eo-rt, cto-t, 
 
 omitted 493 b. 
 etTTtv OL (ov, ^) 614 a ; Io-tlv 
 
 oo-Tt9, interrog. 614 a. 
 
 kcTTUi'S 173. 
 e(T)(aTO'S 184. 
 
 co-o), w. gen. 518 b. 
 
 £rcpo9, in crasis 36 c; correl. 
 
 pron. 227 ; w. gen. 516 a. 
 cTcpco^t, crcpw^ev, kripoicrf. 228. 
 cv, diphthong 5. 
 
320 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 ev 231; prefix 441, 444; w. 
 
 gen. 518 b ; w. ttolw 530 a. 
 -€v, suff. 405, 430 and a, 434 
 
 and a. 
 -cr-, verb-stems in 257 b. 
 evSatfjLOiv 146 ; declined 147 ; 
 
 compared 179. 
 
 eveX-n-LS 146. 
 
 evrjOrjs 146 ; declined 151. 
 
 €vOv<s, w. partic. 592. 
 
 cwAery?, Compared 177. 
 
 cwov?, declined 82 ; compared 
 
 179 a. 
 ev Trao-xo), as pass. 499. 
 €vp€ 349 a. 
 -CVS : see -ev. 
 €VT€ clauses 628. 
 €vu>xovixaL, w. gen. 510 e. 
 e<{>r}, e(f>7) xPW^h i^i indir. dis. 
 
 663. 
 i<j> w or e<^' (St€, w. infin. 567. 
 cx^po's 181. 
 ixpw 390, 460. 
 
 €xo) 565 b ; mean, of mid. 500 a. 
 €xwv 583 a. 
 koipoiv 267 a. 
 €ws, declined 94. 
 €0)9 clauses 631. 
 
 Z 38 a and e, 39. 
 -^€, place ending 228. 
 
 H, quantity 4. 
 
 ^, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. 
 
 5, interrog. 668. 
 
 lyt, iy, diphthong 5. 
 
 17, correl. adv. 236 ; clauses 620. 
 
 ^8et 41. 
 
 riv K eyw, ^ 8' os 383. 
 
 178^?, compared 181. 
 
 17/cw, as perf. 454 f . 
 
 tjXlko's 215 ; correl. pron. 227 ; 
 
 clauses 620. 
 Yjiiai 388 a. 
 T7/xcpa, declined 66 ; gen. 515. 
 
 rjfJi^Tepo^ 204 ; W. avTOiv 559. 
 rjiiL, rjv, 5 383. 
 
 T7/xt-, insep. prefix 444. 
 
 rjpiLV 196. 
 y/xL(rv<s 159 b. 
 
 -^fjLKfieyvoovv, double augm. 268 d. 
 rjvcLxojj^rfv, double augm. 268 d. 
 rjvLKa, correl. adv. 236; clauses 
 630. 
 
 rJTrap 120. 
 
 -rjpes, neuter forms in 153 a. 
 
 -rjpo, suff. 428. 
 
 yp(o<i 141. 
 
 -r;s see -eo". 
 
 rj(T(TMv, compared 182, 2. 
 
 rj(TT€ impf. 384 c. 
 
 rjcrvxp'S 74. 
 
 rJTTov, 7]KL(TTa, comparcd 180. 
 77V, diphthong 5. 
 
 ©, pronun. and sound changes 
 7, 38 a, b, c, 39, 42, 44 c ; 
 added to verb-stem 400 b. 
 
 Oakaa-aa 70. 
 Oappuiv 583 a. 
 Oarepov 36 d. 
 
 -^e, becomes re- 47 c 
 
GREEK INDEX 
 
 321 
 
 -Oev, place ending 228. 
 
 ^eos, vocative 62 b. 
 
 -6ri:€, passive suS. 302. 
 
 0^\v? 159 b. 
 
 -^i, becomes -n 47 b ; place 
 
 ending 228. 
 Otyydvo), w. gen. 510 b. 
 Ovrja-KO), fut. perf. of 364. 
 OoifidTLOV 36 d. 
 epL$ 111 b. 
 -Opo, -Opov, suff. 408. 
 6v-, becomes tv- 47 c. 
 6v-^ verb stem 312. 
 
 Ovydrrjp 106. 
 
 OvpdOev, Ovpd^e, Bvpdcn 228. 
 
 I, quantity 4 ; adscript and 
 subscript 5 b ; disappearing 
 27 ; final, in crasis 36 a ; 
 changes produced by 56. 
 
 -t, place ending 228. 
 
 -t, demons, ending 210. 
 
 -t-, -te-, -177", mode suff. 270, 306, 
 319. 
 
 -id, suff. 406 and a, 429 and b. 
 
 -taSryS, suff. 433. 
 
 -i8, suff. 434 and a. 
 iSe 349 a. 
 iSta, dat. 526 b. 
 -t^to, verbs in 346. 
 jy^ixi 371, 374, 375. 
 -iKo, suff. 413 d, 425. 
 t"A.ea)9, declined 92. 
 -t/xo, suff. 413 f, 428. 
 Xva clauses 640-642. 
 -tvo, -tvo9, suff. 426. 
 21 
 
 -10, suff. 424, 431 a, 432 and a. 
 
 -to:e-, tense suff. 259. 
 
 iTTTrev?, declined 136. 
 
 -L(TKo, suff. 431 b. 
 
 -L(TKo\€-^ tense suff. 260. 
 
 terra?, declined 162 b. 
 
 IcTT-qixL 362, 363 ; fut. perf. 364 ; 
 
 root-aor. 367, 368 ; meaning 
 
 of mid. 500 a. 
 lo-xw, redupl. 257 a. 
 -tb-w, forms in 346 a. 
 -tTtS, ending 432 c. 
 IxOis, declined 132. 
 
 -\uiVy -LG'TO'S 181. 
 
 K 38 a, b, c, 39, 44 b. 
 Ktt-aorist 378. 
 -/ca-, tense sulf. 288, 378. 
 KaOi^ofxai, augment 268 c. 
 Ktt^evSw, augment 268 c. 
 
 KaOrjfjLaL 389. 
 
 KaOc^w, augment 268 c. 
 
 KadiorTrjixi 363 a. 
 
 Kttt', in crasis 36 b ; in numerals, 
 
 190 ; w. par tic. 593 b ; adv. 
 
 670 a ; kol ydp 672 d ; /cat t6v 
 
 and infin. 549 c. 
 KatVep, w. partic. 593 b. 670 c. 
 Kairoi 670 b. 
 
 KttKo?, compared 181, 182, 2. 
 KaK(09, w. TToiw 530 a. 
 
 Kafcws 7racr;)(<i), as pasS. 499. 
 
 KoAew, fut. 322 c. 
 AcaXAi-, insep. prefix 444. 
 KaXo9, compared 181. 
 KttF (Kttt ev) 36 b. 
 
322 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 KaTaytyvtocTKO), W. gen. 514 a. 
 KaTa\}/r]cf>Lt,ofxaL, w. gen. 514 a. 
 KaTTjyopd), w. gen. 514 a. 
 
 Kapd 143, 3. 
 
 Kas {kol €s) 36 b. 
 
 Kara, w. acc. and gen. 598. 
 
 Kci 36 b. 
 
 KeKTrj/xaL 456 b. 
 
 Kct/xat 387. 
 
 K€LVO<S 208. 
 
 -K€-vat, inf. suff. 296. 
 
 /cepa?, declined 126. 
 
 KepSatVo) 327 a. 
 
 Kews, acc. of 94. 
 
 -KT)-, -KiL-, -Kc-, tense suff. 293. 
 
 KTjpv^ 111 a. 
 
 KXato) 259 e ; KXatW 583 a. 
 
 kAwi/^ 112. 
 
 -Ko^ siilf. 425. 
 
 -Kot-, suff. 295. 
 
 KOLvrj, dat. 526 b. 
 
 Kpa(n<s 35. 
 
 Kpea?, declined 124. 
 
 Kpetcrcroiv 182, 1. 
 
 -KT, dropt 119. 
 
 KTaofxai^ perf. redupl. of 289 d. 
 
 Kuwv 142, 3. 
 
 -K<o:7;-, suff. 294. 
 
 -K0)9, -KVLd-, -K09, -KOT-, Suff. 297. 
 
 A 38 a, 39. 
 
 Aajge 349 a. 
 
 Aa^wi/ 583 a. 
 
 Xav^avw, w. acc. 530 a ; w. 
 
 partic. 585 a. 
 Xeyo), w. infin. 658. 
 
 AeW, declined 121. 
 
 \LfX7Jv 102. 
 
 -Ao, suff. 412. 
 Aoyo), dat. 526 b. 
 Ai3-, verb-stem 312. 
 
 XwWV, AwCTTOS 182, 1. 
 
 M 38 a, d, 39. 
 -/xa : see -fxar. 
 
 fxa, in oaths w. acc. 532. 
 -fjid, suff. 406. 
 
 /XOLKap 145. 
 
 /xaAAov, fidXtcrTa, to form comp. 
 
 and sup. 180. 
 Mapa^wvt, loc. dat. 527 a. 
 fidpTvs 142, 4. 
 
 -jaar, Suff. 407. 
 Ixa^ovjxaL 322 C. 
 
 /x€, enclit. 19 a. 
 
 fx€ya<: declined 175; compared 
 182, 3. 
 
 flCLiDV 182, 4. 
 
 />teAds, declined 156, 157 a, b ; 
 compared 177. 
 
 MeXiTy, loc. dat. 527 a. 
 
 /xcAAw, augment of 266 ; w. in- 
 fin. 570 b. 
 
 pjfivrjixai, as pres. 456 b. 
 
 /x,e/x<^o/>tat, w. acc. or dat. 520 a, 
 530 c. 
 
 jjiiv (fj-T^v) 669 a. 
 
 -lx€VO<s {-fievrj, -fievov), partic. 
 end. 300 d. 
 
 fjiivTOL 669 b. 
 
 -/xeo-^a, for -fieOa 263 C. 
 
 fierd, w. acc. and gen, 598. 
 
GREEK INDEX 
 
 323 
 
 /xera/xeAet, W. gen. 511 C. 
 
 fji€Ta$v, w. gen. 518 b, 599 ; w. 
 
 partic. 592. 
 fiixP'- 33 b ; w. gen. 518 c, 599 ; 
 
 clauses 631. 
 ^^ 486-489 ; w. infin. 564, 572 ; 
 
 becomes /xr) ov 572 a; w. 
 
 partic. phrase 582 c ; clauses 
 
 610, 611. . 
 -fjirj, suff. 406. 
 
 firj^e 667 ; fJ^rjSe ct?, />i7;8ets, 189. 
 fxrjhinpo'i 224. 
 
 /xtJv, declined 99. 
 /xtJv, particle 671 a. 
 fMTfJTfjp, declined 106. 
 fjLTjTLs, poet. 224 a. 
 fuKpos, compared 177. 
 
 fJLLIJLVT](rKOi 289 d. 
 
 fjiiv 19 f. 
 
 MtV(o9, ace. of 94. 
 
 /xvTJ/xcoi/, w. gen. 516 a. 
 
 -/xo, suff. 406. 
 
 fjioi, enclitic 19 a. 
 
 fjLolpa^ declined 66. 
 
 -fjLov, suff. 413. 
 
 fxova^rj 233. 
 
 -/A09, see -fto. 
 /xou, enclitic 19 a. 
 
 fJLVpLOL [iXVpioi) 193. 
 
 /Awv 488 a. 
 
 N 38 a, d, 39 ; movable 31, 41 ; 
 
 changes of 50; before o- 51. 
 -V, stems in 103 a ; neut. end. 
 
 62 c. 
 -vai, inf. in 296, 308. 
 
 vat-^^L 21 d. 
 
 vav9, declined 136, 137. 
 
 vS, before o- 53. 
 
 vedvtas, declined 71. 
 
 -veo:€-^ pres. suff. 261 e. 
 
 v€os, compared 177. 
 
 veto?, declined 92. 
 
 VTJ, in oath w. ace. 532. 
 
 v^, before o- 53. 
 
 vtKry, declined 70. 
 
 vIkw, as perf. 454 f. 
 
 viv 19 f, 196. 
 
 -vo, suff. 412, 428. 
 
 -i/o:€-, pres. suff. 261 a. 
 
 v6o^^ declined 80. 
 
 vT, before o- 53. 
 
 -vrat, -i/To, after consonants 
 
 339 a. 
 -vv/At, verbs in 358. 
 vvv 19 f; or vw 673 a. 
 vw 236. 
 vu^ 111 c ; gen. 515. 
 
 H 38 a, e, 39. 
 
 I^et, name of letter 1 b. 
 
 O, quantity 4 ; becomes ov 51. 
 6, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. 
 -o, suffix 403, 410. 
 6, rj, TO, declined 61 ; as rel. 
 
 pron. 205 a ; syntax 549- 
 
 556. 
 o8€, ^8e, T6h€, declined 206, 209 ; 
 
 demons. 227 ; takes pred. 
 
 position 553 ; in pred. 561 b. 
 68t, ovToa-f, etc., 210. 
 
324 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 68os, declined 62. 
 
 680VS, declined 121, 122 a. 
 
 -o:c-, formative vowel 257. 
 
 oOev 236 ; clauses 620. 
 
 ot, diphthong 5 ; effect on ac- 
 cent 14. 
 
 ot, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 
 18 a. 
 
 ot, ot, reflex, pron, 19 a, 194, 
 195 a. 
 
 oT, adv. 236 ; clauses 620. 
 
 otSa 386. 
 
 OLKaSe 228. 
 
 oiKot, accent 14 a ; adv. 228. 
 
 oio/Attt, w. infin. 658. 
 
 oTov, Ota, w. partic. 593 a. 
 
 oTo^ 215, 227 ; clauses 620 a. 
 
 oh 138. 
 
 -otort, dat. pi. 64. 
 
 otxo/xat, w. partic. 585 c. 
 
 oAtyaKtS 232. 
 
 oAtyo?, compared 182, 4. 
 oXtyw/3(o, w. gen. 511 c. 
 oAwAa 456 b. 
 oixvvfjLL, w. ace. 530 a. 
 
 ofjLoioreXevTov 681 d. 
 
 o/Aws, w. partic. 592. 
 
 ovap 142, 5. 
 
 ovctStto), w. dat. or ace. 520 a. 
 
 ovetpos 142, 5. 
 
 ovLvrjjxij w. gen. 510 e. 
 
 OTTrj, oTrrjVLKa, oiroOev, ottol 236 ; 
 
 clauses 620, 621. 
 birrjXLKo^ 222 ; clauses 620. 
 oTTto-^ei/, w. gen. 518 b. 
 oTToTos 222, 227 ; clauses 620. 
 
 oTToVos, 222, 227; clauses 620, 
 
 621. 
 oTTore 236 ; clauses 627. 
 oTTorepos 222, 227 ; clauses 620. 
 oTTov 236 ; clauses 620, 621. 
 oTTws 236 ; clauses 638. 
 6pd(x), double redupl. 291 a. 
 opiyofxai, w. gen. 510 d. 
 o/ovls, declined 114 ; 143, 4. 
 6p<fiav6s, w. gen. 516 a. 
 -09 : see -eo-. 
 -05, -ov : see suffix -o. 
 OS, poss. pron. 204. 
 o(TaKi<i 232. 
 OS, ^, 2, declined 213, 214 ; 227 ; 
 
 as demons. 560 ; indir. inter- 
 
 rog. 621 a; os clauses 612- 
 
 617. 
 ocros 215, 227 ; clauses 620, 621. 
 oa-riov^ declined 80. 
 oo-Tts 218, 220, 227 ; clauses 612- 
 
 619 ; as indir. interrog. 621. 
 
 0(TTLa-OVV 221 C. 
 
 6(Tcj>paivojxaL, w. gen. 510 e. 
 
 6t€ 236 ; clauses 627. 
 
 oTt 33 b ; clauses 588 a, 622- 
 
 625, 659 and b. 
 ov, diph. and digraph 5, 27 a. 
 ov (ouAc, o^x), enclitic 17 e ; neg. 
 
 adv. 486, 487, 667 ; w. infin. 
 
 564; w. partic. 582 c; in 
 
 questions 668; changed to 
 
 /xri 577 b, 579 a. 
 ov, name of letter 1 b. 
 ov, ov, reflex, pron. 19 a, 194, 
 
 195 a, 197. 
 
GREEK INDEX 
 
 325 
 
 ov, adv. 236, 515 ; oS clauses 
 620. 
 
 ovSc, neg. of 8e 667 ; ovSe ets, 
 ovSets 189. 
 
 ovSeU 6crTL<s ov 614 b. 
 
 ovSerepo? 224. 
 
 ovK £o-Ttv oTTws 614 a, 638 e. 
 
 ovKovv, interrog. 668. 
 
 ov firj 489. 
 
 o^v 673 a. 
 
 ovv€Ka clauses 626. 
 
 oSs 101 a, 120. 
 
 oi;ti?, poet. 224 a. 
 
 o^Ito?, declined 207, 209, 227 ; 
 pred. position 553 ; in ex- 
 clam. 561 a ; in pred. 561 b. 
 
 6<^€tX(o 259 a. 
 
 n 38, 39, 44 a. 
 
 7rat9, accent 101 a; declined 
 
 116. 
 TToAato?, compared 178. 
 TTttj/, prefix 441. 
 TravTa)(rj 233. 
 Travra^ov, iravTa^^oOev, TravTa)(6(Te 
 
 228 a. 
 
 TrdvToOev, TravToae 228. 
 
 Trapd, w. acc, gcn., and dat. 598. 
 
 Tra? 160-162. 
 
 Trao-xw, redupl. 260 b. 
 TraTrjp, declined 106. 
 Travo-as, declined 162 b. 
 Tret, name of letter 1 b. 
 Tretvw, w. gen. 511 c. 
 Trei/iys 145. 
 TreVot^a, perf. 456 b. 
 
 7r6/D, enclitic 19 e. 
 
 -Trep 216. 
 
 7r€/3d(v), w. gen. 518 b. 
 
 TTcpt, not elided 33 b ; w. acc, 
 gen., and dat. 598. 
 
 UepLKkris, declined 127; origi- 
 nally adj. 154. 
 
 7re<fiVKa, perf. 456 b. 
 
 TTT} enclitic 19 c, 236. 
 
 Trfj 236. 
 
 TTT^AtKo? 222, 227. 
 
 TT-qvLKa 236. 
 
 7r^X^^5 declined 130. 
 7nKp6<s 1?7. 
 
 TTtTrro), redupl. 257 a ; perf. 
 redupl. 289 d. 
 
 -TrAacrtos 192. 
 
 TrActo-TOi, ol TrAettrrot 556. 
 
 TrAeova/cts 232. 
 
 TrAeo), w. acc. 530 a. 
 
 ttAccus 95. 
 
 ■n-Xrjv, TV. gen. 518 c, 599. 
 
 irX-qa-iov, w. gen. 518 b, 599. 
 
 -ttAous 191. 
 
 Hvv^ 142, 6. 
 
 TTo^ei/, enclitic 19 c, 236. 
 
 TToOev 236. 
 
 TTo^t, TTot, enclitic 19 c. 
 
 TTOt 236. 
 
 TTotryrr/?, declined 71. 
 TToros 222, 227. 
 
 TTotw, meaning of mid. 500 b. 
 TToAt?, declined 130. 
 7roAtT?75, declined 71. 
 
 TToAAo, TO, TToAAa 556. 
 7roAAa/ct9 232. 
 
326 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 iroXXaxrj 233. 
 
 TToXv, TO TToXv 556. 
 
 TToXvs, declined 175 ; compared 
 
 182, 5. 
 TTovTjpo^, compared 177. 
 
 TTop^vpeos, TTop^vpov'i 87, 88. 
 
 TToo-os 222, 227. 
 
 TTOTc, enclitic 19 c, 236, 240 a 
 
 and b. 
 TTore 236. 
 
 TTOTCpOl/ . . . ri 668. 
 
 TToVepos 222, 227. 
 
 TTov, enclitic 19 c, 236. 
 
 TTov 236, 481, 515. 
 
 TTOVS 117. 
 
 Trpaos 176. 
 
 7rpeo-y8v9, Trpca-jBevri^^ declined 
 
 142, 7; compared 177. 
 irpLv w. infin. 568, 643 ; tt/oiV 
 
 clauses 644. 
 TTpo, w. gen. 598. 
 
 TrporjraL, Trpooivro, Trpootvro, tt/oo- 
 
 oZto 377. 
 
 TrpoOeort? 437. 
 
 TT/aotKa, adv. acc. 539. 
 
 7r/)09, w. acc. 521 ; w. acc, gen., 
 
 and dat. 598. 
 TTpoo-yJKc, impf. 460. 
 
 TrpoarOrjTat 377. 
 Trpoa-Oev, w. gen. 518 b. 
 Trporepov -?, w. infin. 568 a. 
 irpoTcpo^^ lacks positive 183. 
 
 Trpo Tou 549 C. 
 
 7r/)WT09 183, 184. 
 
 7rvv6dvop.ai, constructions 588 b. 
 
 TrOp, declined 142, 8. 
 
 TTw, enclitic 19 c. 
 TTws, enclitic 19 c, 236. 
 TTw? 236 ; interrog. 481 ; w. gen. 
 518 b. 
 
 P 38 a, 39 ; doubled 48 ; initial 
 
 265. 
 paStos, compared 182, 6. 
 prJTiDp, declined 102. 
 -po, suff. 412, 428. 
 
 5 38 a, 39 ; initial 54 ; disap- 
 pears 55 a, b, c ; from t 46 ; 
 lost except before p. and t, 
 322 a ; added to verb-stem 
 400 b. 
 
 -o-a:€-, aorist suS. 280. 
 
 -a-ai, inf. suff. 285. 
 
 -crai-a-o, becomes -a-aio 283. 
 
 ^aXafxU 103 b. 
 
 cravTOv, for creavrov 203 a. 
 
 (racf)7J<s, declined 151, 152 ; com- 
 pared 177. 
 
 o-e, enclitic 19 a. 
 
 -o-e, place ending 228. 
 
 creavTov 203. 
 
 a-iOev 196. 
 
 .o-€o:€-, fut. suil. 326. 
 
 -o-^a, for -5 263 c. 
 
 -o-^at, inf. ending 300 d. 
 
 -o-t, place ending 228 ; suff. 406. 
 
 -o-ta, suff. 406. 
 
 a-lyrj, dat. 526 b. 
 
 -o-tJ, suff. 406. 
 
 o-tT09, o-tra 144. 
 
 o-Kta, declined 6Q. 
 
GREEK INDEX 
 
 327 
 
 -a-Ko-.e-, tense suff. 260. 
 -a-o'.e- int. suff. 278, 310. 
 trot, enclitic 19 a. 
 
 -(Tov, -crat 284. 
 
 cro?, poss. pron. 204. 
 
 (TOV, enclitic 19 a. 
 
 a-o(fi6?^ declined 76; compared 
 
 177. 
 a-TTovSr}, dat. 526 b. 
 a-a- = TT 46. 
 o-tolSlov 144. 
 
 oTtts, declined 162 b. 
 -o-Tt, adv. ending 231. 
 a-TOXa^ofxaL, w. gen. 510 d. 
 (TV, pers. pron. 194. 
 a-vfjL^ovXevu), meaning of mid. 
 
 500 b. 
 o-w, in comp. 52 ; w. dat. 598. 
 -a-vvd, suff. 429 and c. 
 
 (TVvOoLTO, CrvvOoLTO 377. 
 
 o-C?, declined 132. 
 
 o-(^e, enclitic 19 f ; poet. 196. 
 
 crcf>eTepo<s 204 and a. 
 
 (r(f)i, enclitic 19 f. 
 
 (T(f)iv, 196. 
 
 crcfiLa-L, enclitic 19 f. cr<^tVt 197. 
 
 (r(j><i)v^ for iavTwv 203. 
 
 o-xoXato?, compared 178. 
 iSwKparry?, declined 127 ; accent 
 128 a, 153 a ; orig. adj. 154. 
 o-w/xa, declined 118. 
 0-W09, o-w?, declined 96. 
 o-(o<^pa)v, compared 179. 
 
 T 38 a-c, 39, 44 c ; before t 46 ; 
 changed to a- 46. 
 
 -T, dropt 119. 
 
 -Td, suff. 405, 430 and b ; 434 
 and b. 
 
 rav 36 b. 
 
 TdvSp6<s 36 b. 
 
 -raro?, superl. ending 177. 
 
 TOLXOi, rax €0)9 231. 
 
 rax^?, declined 158; compared 
 
 181. 
 re, enclitic 19 e. 
 reOvafxev etc., root pcrf. 370 (4). 
 
 re^j/ew? 173. 
 riOvrjKa, as pres. 456 b. 
 -Tctpd, suff. 405. 
 T€KixypLov, ace. 539. 
 
 reXevTuii/ 583 a. 
 
 -T€o^, verb. adjs. in 411. 
 repas 119 
 repryv 157 b. 
 
 -repos comp. ending 177. 
 repTTO/xat, w. gen. 510 c. 
 TcWap€5 187, 188. 
 
 T>J, TT^Se, ravrr) 236. 
 T^ aXrjOeia, dat. 526 b. 
 T-qkUos, poet. 211 a, 227. 
 T7/AtKocr8e, 211, 227. 
 TryXtKOvro?, 212, 227. 
 TrjVLKdSe, TrjVLKavra 236. 
 
 -T>7p, suff. 405. 
 
 -rrypto, place suff. 432 b. 
 
 -Ty]<:^ suff. 405. 
 
 -T>7T, suff. 429 a. 
 
 -TL, pers. end. for -6l 307. 
 
 -Tt, suff. 406. 
 
 -TiS, suff. 430 and b ; 434 and b. 
 
 TiOcLS 165. 
 
328 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 TiOyfTai, tlOolto, tlOolto 377. 
 
 -TLKo, suff. 413 e. 
 
 Tt/Aao) 313 ; TLfLaoiv, tI/xix)v 168 a. 
 
 rlfirj, declined 70. 
 
 tI/aw, w. gen. 514 a. 
 
 rl/JLiJipw, w. dat. 520 a. 
 
 Ttpws, 40 a. 
 
 Tt5, enclitic 19 b; indef. 217, 
 
 219. 
 Tt9, accent 15 a ; interrog. 217, 
 
 481 ; declined 219 ; 227. 
 -Ti5, suff. 406. 
 -To:e-, tense suff. 258. 
 Tot, enclitic 19 e ; in crasis 36 b ; 
 
 particle 671 e, 673 b. 
 Totos, TOLoa-Se 211 and a, 227. 
 TOiovros 212, 227. 
 Toto-tSe, Tttto-iSc 209 a. 
 
 TO Xcyofxevov., appos. 539. 
 TO fteyto-Tov, appos. 539. 
 Tov Se and infin. 549 c. 
 -Top, suff. 405. 
 'TO-?, verb. adj. 411. 
 ToVos 211 a, 227. 
 Too-oVSe 211, 227. 
 Tocrow-09 212, 227. 
 Tore 236, 481. 
 Tore 240 d. 
 -rpa, suff. 408 a. 
 Tpels 187, 188. 
 
 -rpid, suff. 405. 
 
 -TpuS, -TiS, suff. 405. 
 
 TpLYipiq<s 154. 
 
 Tpts 232. 
 
 -rpt?, -Ti9, suf[. 405. 
 
 Tptros 188. 
 
 -rpo, -rpov, suff. 408. 
 Tpws 101 a. 
 
 Tfyxai'<*>> w. part. 585 a. 
 -Tw/a, suff. 405. 
 
 Y, quantity 4; pronun., etc. 27 ; 
 not elided 33 b. 
 
 V, name of letter 1 b. 
 -•u, suff. 413 a. 
 
 vSwp 120. 
 
 VI, diphthong 5. 
 vto5 declined 142, 9. 
 vixiv, poet. 196. 
 -vvo's-, pres. suff. 261 d. 
 vVaros 184. 
 
 viripTepo? 183. 
 
 vTT-jJKoos, w. gen. 516 a. 
 vTTto-^^ov/Aat, w. dat. 520 a. 
 I'TTo, w. ace, gen., and dat. 
 
 598. 
 vTTOTTTevo), augm. 268 b. 
 -vs, -€ta, -V, siiif. 413 a. 
 
 va-Tepos 183. 
 
 <!> 7, 38, 39, 42, 44 a. 
 
 (fiaLVOfJiaL 585 a. 
 
 cfiaLvo), meaning of mid. 500 a. 
 
 <lid\ayi, declined 109. 
 
 <f)€i, name of letter 1 b. 
 
 <^€iSo/xat, w. gen. 511 c. 
 
 (fjipoiv 583 a. 
 
 <^r;yu.t, enclitic 19 d ; inflection 
 
 382 ; w. infin. 658. 
 c^^avo), w. acc. 530 a ; w. partic. 
 
 585 a. 
 
GREEK INDEX 
 
 329 
 
 (fiOovio, w. dat. 520 a. 
 
 ^iXiiiiVi <f>L\a)v 168 b. 
 
 «^tAo9, compared 178. 
 
 (f>oivL^ 111 a. 
 
 (f>vyds 145. 
 
 <^vXaTro/xat, meaning of mid. 
 
 500 b ; w. ace. 530 a. 
 <f)vXa^ declined 109. 
 <^a>9 120 and a. 
 
 X 7, 38, 39, 42, 44 b. 
 ^acpiov 583 a. 
 
 ^afxai, ^afiaOev, ;(a/xa^€ 228. 
 
 xapici?, declined 163, 164 a; 
 
 179 b. 
 Xaptv, acc. 539. 
 Xapi?, declined 114. 
 xa, name of letter 1 b. 
 Xctp, declined 142, 10. 
 Xetpcov, compared 182, 2. 
 xy 36 d. 
 Xot 36 d. 
 
 xpo-oiiai 317 a, 320. 
 XP'^i 390. 
 XP^v, impf. 460. 
 xpovos, gen. 515. 
 Xpw?, xpoo'i 143, 5. 
 Xpva-eo's, xp^^ovs, declined 87, 
 
 90. 
 )^o)fji,€vo<s 583 a. 
 
 ^I' 38 a, e, 39. 
 
 ij/avo), w. gen. 510 b, d. 
 
 i/^et, name of letter 1 b. 
 
 O, quantity 4. 
 -o), adv. ending 231, 235. 
 w, name of letter 1 b. 
 w, interjection 61 a. 
 
 wSc, OVTCUS 236. 
 
 -wSes, neuter forms in 153 a. 
 
 -wSt/s, from -oetSv;? 447. 
 
 -wiiy-, mode suff. 269, 305. 
 
 (ot, o), diphthong 5. 
 
 -cov, place suli. 432 c. 
 
 -(OS, adverbs in 229. 
 
 ws, proclitic 17 d ; w. infin. 
 
 566 a and b ; w. acc. absol. 
 
 591 a ; w. partic. 593 c, 594 ; 
 
 o)? clauses 632-636, 659 and b. 
 (Ss, ws 236, 239. 
 wo-TTc/), w. acc. absol. 591 a ; 
 
 just as, even as 593 d ; 
 
 strengthened ws 633 a, 637 ; 
 
 oicnrcp av el 656 b. 
 
 Si(TT€, w. infin. 566 ; w. fut. 
 
 infin. 578 b ; Sia-re clauses 
 
 639. 
 -(0T->7?, suff. 434 b. 
 wv, diphthong 5. 
 (S</)eXoi/ 470 b. 
 
ENGLISH INDEX 
 
 Accent, general rules 9-16 ; in 
 contraction 30 ; in crasis 37 ; 
 in elision 34; of nouns 63, 
 68, 81, 84, 93 b and c, 131 a, 
 133 a ; of monosyll. cons, 
 stems 101 ; recessive in cer- 
 tain vocatives 72 d, 104, 105, 
 128 a, 153 a ; of adjs., fern, 
 plu. 77 b ; of contract adjs. 
 89 b ; recessive in certain 
 adjs. 148, 150, 153 a ; of verbs 
 268 a, 296, 300 d, 349 and 
 a, 362 (3), 379 (4), 384 d; 
 of verbal nouns 402 a; of 
 compounds 439 a. 
 
 Accusative neuter as adv. 230, 
 234. 
 
 Action, suffixes denoting 
 406. 
 
 Adscript t 5 b. 
 
 Agent, suffixes denoting 405 ; 
 expressed by gen. 509 d ; by 
 dat. 524 b, 596. 
 
 Aiolic dialect p. 2. 
 
 Aischylos p. 2. 
 
 Aorist 247 ; system (sigmatic) 
 
 279 ; passive 303 ; liquid 323, 
 
 327 ; form, vowel or thematic 
 
 347,348; in -a 351; root 366, 
 
 330 
 
 379 ; in -Ka 371 ; indicative 
 462, 468 ; in a wish 470 a ; 
 passive 501. See Tenses. 
 
 Apostrophe 32. 
 
 Appositive 502 ; to a sentence 
 504. 
 
 xiristophanes p. 2. 
 
 Aristotle p. 2. 
 
 Article 61. 
 
 Asyndeton 600 a. 
 
 Attic dialect p. 2 ; Attic redu- 
 plication 291 c. 
 
 Attraction, of rel. pron. 613 b ; 
 of antecedent 613 c ; of mode 
 642 d. 
 
 Attributive position 552 a. 
 
 Augment 264, 265-268 ; of 
 plupf. 293. 
 
 Breathings 6. 
 
 Byzantine, empire and dialect 
 p. 3. 
 
 Cases 59. 
 Chiasmus 682 a. 
 Christian Fathers p. 3. 
 Circumstantial participle 583. 
 Common dialect p. 3. 
 Composition 397. 
 
ENGLISH INDEX 
 
 331 
 
 Compounds, analysis of 435 ; 
 
 syllabication of 8. 
 Conditional expressions 645. 
 Conjunctions, coordinating 
 
 602; subordinating, see Ta- 
 ble of Contents. 
 Consonants, classified 38, 39 ; 
 
 sound changes of 38-56 ; 
 
 final 40. 
 Contraction, general rules 29 ; 
 
 accent in 30; in adjectives 
 
 89 a. 
 Correlative pronouns, table 
 
 227 ; adverbs, table 236. 
 Crasis 31, 35, 36 ; accent in 37. 
 
 Defective verbs, supplement- 
 ing one another 391. 
 
 Demosthenes p. 2. 
 
 Denominatives 399. 
 
 Dependent compounds 446 a. 
 
 Deponent verbs 394, 501 ; perf. 
 of 396. 
 
 Derivation 397. 
 
 Descent, nouns denoting 433. 
 
 Descriptive compounds 446 b. 
 
 Determinative compounds 445 
 a, 446. 
 
 Dialects of Greek p. 2. 
 
 Digraph and diphthong u and 
 ov 27 a. 
 
 Diminutives 431. 
 
 Diphthongs 5. 
 
 Direct middle 500 a. 
 
 Disappearance of close vowels 
 27. 
 
 Doric dialect p. 2. 
 
 Doric forms retaining d 69 b, 
 
 72 e. 
 Double augment 267 a, 268 d. 
 Double negatives 487. 
 Dubitative subjv. 471. 
 
 Eastern Roman Empire p. 3. 
 Elision 31-33 ; accent in 34. 
 Empire of Alexander p. 3. 
 Enclitics 16, 19-21. 
 Euripides p. 2. 
 Exclamations 491 b, 509 c. 
 
 Formative-vowel aorist 347, 
 348. 
 
 Future, of vowel verbs 277, 
 278 ; liquid 323, 324 ; Doric 
 326 ; in -w 346 a ; mid. with 
 act. meaning 392 ; mid. with 
 pass, meaning 393 ; passive 
 310. See Tenses. 
 
 Genders 58 ; diff. in sing, and 
 
 plu. 144. 
 Genitive absolute 589, 590. 
 Gentile nouns 434. 
 Gnomic aorist 465. 
 Greek language, dialects and 
 
 periods pp. 1-3. 
 
 Headings and titles 491 c. 
 Hellenistic dialect p. 3. 
 Herodotos p. 2. 
 Hiatus 31. 
 Historical tenses 246. 
 
332 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 Homer p. 2. 
 Hopeless wish 470 a. 
 Hortative subjunctive 472. 
 Hypothetical indie. 461 c, 467 
 c, 468 b ; optative 479-482. 
 
 Imperative mode 245 ; endings 
 271 ; uses of 484, 485 ; tenses 
 of 484. 
 
 Imperfect 264, 459-461, 470 a. 
 
 Impersonal verbs 493 a, 520 b. 
 
 Inceptive aorist 464. 
 
 Inceptive class 260. 
 
 Indicative mode 245, 281 ; pers. 
 endings 263 ; in simple sen- 
 tences 452-470, 488, 489 b ; 
 in subordinate clauses 617, 
 618, 620, 622, 624, 627-635, 
 636 c, 638 a, b, d, e, 639,641, 
 642 c, 644 a, 647-649, 655. 
 
 Indirect middle 500 b and d. 
 
 Indirect quotation 624 a, 657- 
 664. 
 
 Infinitive, endings 273 ; uses 
 245, 492, 562-579, 658. 
 
 Ingressive aorist 464. 
 
 Interchange of open vowels 
 25, 26 ; of long and short 
 vowels 28. 
 
 Interjections 491 a. 
 
 Ionic dialect p. 2. 
 
 Liquids, sound changes in 48- 
 
 53. 
 Liquid verbs 248. 
 Lucian p. 3. 
 
 Middle, direct 500 a ; indirect 
 
 500 b and d; participles, 
 
 declined 276. 
 Modern Greek p. 3. 
 Modes 242. 
 Mode-suffix, of subjv. 269 ; of 
 
 opt. 270. 
 Movable consonant 31. 
 Mutes, sound changes in 42- 
 
 47. 
 
 Nasal class 261, 356. 
 Nasals, pronunciation 38 d. 
 Negatives, double 487. 
 New Testament p. 3. 
 Nom. for voc. 62 b, 103 c. 
 Number, adverbs of 232 ; 
 nouns of 192. 
 
 Optative mode 245, 476-483, 
 485 ; in subord. clauses, 611 
 c, 616 b, 618 b, 620, 624 b, 
 627, 629-631, 636 b, 638 c, 
 642 b, 644 c, 651, 659 a. 
 
 Participle 245 ; declension of 
 162 b, 164 b, 166, 168-173, 
 276; compared 180; end- 
 ings 275 ; syntax 580-595. 
 
 Passive voice 244; fut. perf. 
 pass. 301 ; ^77-pass. 302-310 ; 
 17-pass. 334-337 ; pass, depo- 
 nents 394, 395 ; use 499, 501. 
 
 Patronymics 433. 
 
 Perfect, Ka-perf. 287-297, 342 ; 
 a-perf . 332, 333, 342 b ; root 
 
ENGLISH INDEX 
 
 333 
 
 perf. 370 ; mid. 298-301, 338, 
 339 ; of some deponents 
 396; rendered by pres. 456 
 b and c. 
 
 Periods of Greek language p. 
 2f. 
 
 Personal endings, indie. 263 ; 
 impv. 271. 
 
 Pindar p. 2. 
 
 Place, endings denoting 228. 
 
 Plato p. 2. 
 
 Pluperfect 469, 649. 
 
 Plutarch p. 3. 
 
 Polybios p. 3. 
 
 Possessive compounds 445 b, 
 447. 
 
 Possessive pronouns 204. 
 
 Predicate nouns 502. 
 
 Predicate position 552 c. 
 
 Prepositional - phrase com- 
 pounds 445 c, 448. 
 
 Prepositions 437, 440 a, 447 
 b. 
 
 Present system, classes in 256- 
 262, 356, 357. See Tenses. 
 
 Primary tenses 246. 
 
 Principal parts of verb 311. 
 
 Proclitics 16-18. 
 
 Prohibition 485. 
 
 Prohibitive subjunctive 473. 
 
 Pronunciation 1-7, 38. 
 
 Punctuation 22. 
 
 Purpose, expressions of 565 
 a, 576, 615, 619, 631 b, 
 634, 636, 638 a, c, d, 640, 
 642. 
 
 Quality, nouns of 429. 
 Quantity of vowels 4. 
 Questions 488. 
 
 Reciprocal pronoun 202. 
 Reduplication, pres. 257 a ; 
 
 perf. 289-291. 
 Reflexive pronouns 197, 200, 
 
 203. 
 Relative words as indir. in- 
 
 terrog. 223, 621. 
 Result, suffixes denoting 407. 
 Roman Empire p. 3. 
 
 Sappho p. 2. 
 
 Secondary tenses 246. 
 
 Sociative 525. 
 
 Sophokles p. 2. 
 
 Speech-tune 9 a. 
 
 Stem of noun or adj. 60. 
 
 Subjective middle 500 c and d. 
 
 Subjunctive 245, 269 ; tenses 
 of 475 ; w. ov fxrj 489 a ; in 
 simple sent. 471-475 ; in 
 subord. clauses 611 b, 616 a, 
 618 a, 620, 627-631, 636 a, 
 638 c, 642 a, 644 b, 650, 
 652. 
 
 Suffix in derivation, meaning 
 402. 
 
 Syllables 8. 
 
 Tenses 242, 247 ; of Xcrr-qiii 363 ; 
 of indie. 453-470 ; of subjv. 
 475 ; of opt. 483 ; of impv. 
 484 ; of infin. 563 ; of par- 
 
334 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR 
 
 tic. 581 ; in subord. clauses 
 
 607. 
 Theokritos p. 2. 
 Thukydides p. 2. 
 Titles and headings 491 c. 
 Tmesis 437 a. 
 
 Verbal nouns and adjs. 399, 
 402-414. 
 
 Verbals in -tos and -reos 352- 
 354, 411, 596. 
 
 Verbs, accent, see Accent ; de- 
 fective supplementing one 
 
 another 391 ; impers. 493 a ; 
 
 semi-inipers. 520 b ; omitted 
 
 493 b ; depon. 394, 396, 501, 
 Verb-stems 248, in compounds 
 
 442 ; from nouns 415. 
 Voices 242, 244, 499, 501. 
 Vowels, open or close 24; 
 
 lengthening of 28 b. 
 
 Wish, expressions of 470 a, 
 
 476-478. 
 
 Xenophon p. 2. 
 
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 To facilitate this culture with the highest degree of attractiveness, 
 flexibility, and systematic order has been the aim of this absolutely 
 unique book. It furnishes precisely the equipment that teachers of all 
 the higher grades have sought for years. 
 
 Life in Ancient Greece. 
 
 By Charles Burton Gulick, Ph. D., Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of Greek, Harvard University. With many Illus- 
 trations. i2mo. Cloth. 
 
 This book presents a readable account of the daily life of the 
 Greeks, especially the Athenians. It is a useful adjunct to the mate- 
 rials of instruction in schools, as it furnishes needed information that 
 illustrates graphically the authors read in preparation for college. A 
 new feature is the use of the " Anabasis " as an authority in matters of 
 domestic life. A list of larger works for further study is prefixed to 
 each chapter. It will be found a most convenient manual of ancient 
 Greek life, supplying just the helps that enable the student to realize 
 vividly the civilization portrayed in the Greek authors. 
 
 APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 
 
 U 
 
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