I LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class '^l\'b GENtRI^^ M TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS CLASSICAL SECTION EDITED BY JOHN HENRY WRIGHT, Harvard University BERNADOTTE PERRIN, Yale University ANDREW FLEMING WEST, Princeton University TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS A SCHOOL GRAMMAR OF ATTIC GREEK BY THOMAS DWIGHT GOODELL PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN YALE UNIVERSITY NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY I 902 Copyright, 1902 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY GENERAL PubUsJicd August, 1902 TO MY FORMER PUPILS IX THE HARTFORD PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL AND IX YALE COLLEGE 1881-1902 WHOSE DIFFICULTIES IX LEARXIXG GREEK HAVE BEEX COXSTAXTLY BEFORE ME IX THIS EXDEAYOR TO LIGHTEX THE TASK OF THEIR SUCCESSORS 101923 PEEFACE The invitation to prepare a new Greek Grammar would not have been accepted had I not believed that the time has come for considerable changes in the presentation of the sub- ject to young pupils. Greek studies are still holding their own in this country, because of their intrinsic value in a liberal education. But in order to preserve for them their due place, great improvement must be made in teaching the language, so that a reasonable amount of effort will advance a serious student farther than it ordinarily does at present. And such improvement is possible. Though nothing can make Greek really easy, it need not be so difficult as it has been made. This volume is a sincere endeavor — how far successful only the test of use will show — to aid in meeting the legitimate demand for better results from the time and labor expended. As the first change required, I have sought to simplify grammatical statements to the utmost. Some technical terms consecrated by long tradition have been thrown overboard ; so far as possible terms have been used that are really descriptive and will appear so to beginners. J^early all changes in terminology are of this sort ; only one or two seemed necessary in the other direction. Thus the potential optative disappears, because experience has shown that the term misleads nearly all pupils and some teachers ; the hypo- thetical optative and indicative are made to support each Vm GREEK GRAMMAR other, and students who have begun geometry should find the terms hypothetical and hypothesis mutually explanatory. The phrase formative vowel, for variable vowel, is more dis- tinctly descriptive than the old, and the symbol oie, which is often employed in scientific works, is both more legible and more readily extended to analogous cases than the symbol introduced to our schools by the Hadley-Allen Grammar. Secondly, I have sought to simplify by omission, so far sm that could be done safely with due regard to later progress. It is assumed that those who begin Greek have had at least a year of Latin ; accordingly, whatever is so much like Latin or English as to cause no diflSculty is omitted or barely men- tioned. Only Attic Greek is included ; some confusion is avoided by keeping Epic or other non- Attic forms out of sight until they are needed — that is, until one begins to read Homer, Herodotos, and the lyric poets. And of Attic Greek only those forms are included that are found in the works commonly read in American schools and colleges up to the end of sophomore year, or are quite regular. Rarer forms, and in syntax rarer constructions, such as are naturally explained in lexicon or notes, are also generally omitted. Meantime, some things that other grammars pass over lightly are here given more prominence, because they are things that freshmen need to know and commonly do not know. Yet by this twofold process of simplification the body of the grammar is brought within three hundred pages, in spite of large type and open printing and the greater space given to examples. But it seemed to me a change equally needed was a shift in the point of view as regards syntax. In learning the inflection and vocabulary of any language we first learn the foreign forms and their general meaning; afterward — as soon as may be, but as the second step, not the first — by turning English expressions into the foreign idiom we study PREFACE IX from another standpoint the functions of the forms. (We are not considering the mental process of young children learning the language of people around them, but that of those who already think in one language and are learning another.) The second step is far more difficult than the first. The facts of a language may look very different seen from these two sides. But in learning Greek syntax our pupils have been too often required to take both steps at once. That is, syntactical phenomena are classified by function, and then our grammatical statements try to combine both points of view. This is less true as regards the syntax of cases. There it has been usual to start with form and describe the function ; and though rules mix the two points of view some- what — as when we teach that cause, manner, and means are expressed by the dative — still no great harm is done. Nearly the same may be said of modes and tenses in simple sen- tences ; but with subordinate clauses, the most difficult chap- ter of all syntax, the matter becomes serious. The current formulas are based on a classification by function, as clauses of purpose, condition, and so on, and throw into one func- tional category several distinct forms, while the student finds before him on the Greek page one syntactical form at a time, which he has to interpret. The endeavor to interpret the clauses before him by such rules compels him to shift constantly from one point of view to the other. The natural result is a confusion of mind that greatly hinders progress in understanding Greek. In this grammar I have sought to carry through consistently the principle of classifying by form. This has caused a complete recasting of the syntax of subordinate clauses. Some may at first find the changes here made somewhat disconcerting ; no one recognizes more fully than I the difficulty of the task attempted. But being con- vinced that the reform was imperatively required, I could do nothing less than attack the problem. After my solu- X GREEK GRAMMAR tion was worked out it was submitted to several experienced teachers, who warmly approved it. Subordinate clauses are classified first by the introductory word, next by the mode and tense of the verb ; the description of each form is meant to enable the student to interpret the Greek before him ; directions for translating English into Greek are left to the book on composition and to the teacher. The new system is not only better scientifically, it is more concrete and intel- ligible to beginners. But the system is really not new, since it is the one which lexicons follow as a matter of course, and this agreement between grammar and lexicon is a farther advantage. In the spelling of Greek names the stricter form of trans- literation is followed, except with names like Cyrus, which are also English baptismal names, or those like Athens, which have long ago received an English termination. Two reasons led me to continue here my practice of twenty-five years. First, though many leading Hellenists in England and Amer- ica prefer the Latin spelling as being the traditional one, I think the other is likely to prevail in the end. No tendency of classical studies throughout the last century was more marked than the growing desire to approach Hellenic life and thought directly, and remove every distorting medium both in study and in the presentation of results. Archaeology has been one powerful influence in that direction. Accordingly all our leading museums employ the direct method of trans- literation ; and museums are perhaps the greatest populariz- ing agency for Greek studies. It is not pedantry, but good sense, to help on this tendency and shorten the period of transition. Secondly, the stricter transliteration is simpler ; to expect pupils to Latinize the names adds an unnecessary difiiculty. But the introductory book in preparation to accom- pany the grammar will give both forms and explain both methods of transliteration. PREFACE XI In writing the volume it was impossible to escape, had I wished to, the influence of Hadley's Grammar, which has been familiar to me from boyhood in the original form and since 1884 as revised by the late F. D. Allen. Nearly the same may be said of Professor Goodwin's Grammar and of his Greek Moods and Tenses, in their successive editions. My obliga- tions to these works are very great, and not least in those chapters where I have departed most widely from them. He would be an ungrateful pupil who should forget his debt to his masters, merely because he has by their aid finally learned to look with independent judgment on some portion of their doctrine. Also, like all American Hellenists, I have learned much, and am still learning, from Professor Gilder- sleeve, though I suspect he will think I ought to have learned more. To such a thought on his part my first plea in defense would be the elementary character of this grammar. For young students a simple, clear, and brief statement is essen- tial. (As an instance where the need of brevity has forced a form of wording which is not true literally though true in spirit, section 562 may be referred to. Some infinitives are by origin locatives in form ; but in meaning no locative sense can be traced, so that for the purposes of syntax the assertion that all are originally for datives is not misleading.) Several German grammars have also been of much service, especially those of Kaegi and of Koch, and the two volumes of Kiihner- Blass. Many friends have aided me directly at various stages of my task, whom I wish to thank especially. Professor Wright, of Harvard University, has read critically all the proofs ; Mr. Morrison, of the Hartford High School, has freely placed at my service his unusual skill in teaching ; and my colleagues, Professors Morris, Perrin, and Oertel, have been very kind and helpful, saving me from many errors and furnishing many valuable suggestions. Frequent discussion of the prin- XU GREEK GRAMMAR ciples of syntax with Professor Morris has greatly influenced the development of my views, and I am sure has much im- proved the exposition in this volume ; without the constant aid of Professor Oertel I might often have gone astray in places where even the simplest statements need to be made in the light of a wide knowledge of morphology and of lin- guistic science. Others too numerous to name separately have aided me with criticisms and suggestions at many points, and my wife has in several ways contributed so much that the fact calls for public acknowledgment. Finally, it is probable that some infelicities, and perhaps worse, will be revealed by class-room experience. I shall be grateful for all corrections and suggestions for improvement; and if the book is found useful enough to come to a second edition, I shall hope to make it fill its place better. T. D. G. June, 1902. CONTENTS PAGE Iktroduction 1 L Sounds AND Writing : Alphabet 5 Accent 8 Sound Changes U Vowels 11 Consonants 15 IL Words: A. Nouns and Adjectives 20 L O-Declension : Nouns . 21 IL A-Declension : Nouns . . . . Feminines : First Group . Feminines : Second Group Masculines 23 23 24 25 III. Adjectives of the Vowel Declension 26 IV. Contracted Vowel Stems n-Declension .... 27 30 V. Consonant Declension : Nouns Liquid Stems in -\, -v, -p . Stems in -ep .... Guttural Stems in -k, -y Labial and Dental Stems in -tt, -/3, -t Dental Stems in -t, -5, -d . Neuter Stems in -t . . . Masculine Stems in -vt . Stems in -co-, -oo- .... Stems in -t and -u . . . Stems in -v, -v . Stems in -ev, -av, -ov . Stems in -« and -o . . . Irregular Nouns .... 31 31 33 34 35 35 36 37 37 39 40 . 41 . 43 . 43 XIV GREEK GRAMMAR PAGE VI. Consonant Declension : Adjectives .... 44 Adjectives of Two Endings 45 Comparatives in -wj/ 45 Stems in -€(r 46 Adjectives of Three Endings : Stems in -av . . 47 Stems in -1/ 48 Stems in -avr 48 Adjective Stems in -evr 49 Participial Stems in -evr 50 Stems in -opt 51 Participial Stems in -or (Perfects) .... 53 VII. Comparison of Adjectives ...... 54 VIII. Numeral Adjectives 57 B. Pronouns 60 Personal Pronouns 60 Demonstrative Pronouns 63 Relative Pronouns 64 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns . . . . 65 Correlative Pronouns 68 C. Adverbs 69 Correlative Adverbs 72 D. Verbs 73 A. Verbs of the n-Conjugation 75 I. Vowel Verbs, not contracting .... 76 The Present System 83 The Aorist System 90 The Perfect Active System .... 91 Perfect Middle System 94 The Passive System : ©7j-Passive ... 94 II. Vowel Verbs, Contracting in the Present . . 103 III. Liquid Verbs . 104 IV. Mute Verbs .110 B. Verbs of the Mi-Conjugation 115 I. Verbs in -vvfii 116 II. Verbs in -rjjui, with Stems in -arrj- . . . .118 III. AiSufMi, Tie-nfjLi, "1-nfii 125 IV. Irregular and Defective Mt- Verbs .... 134 Middle and Passive Forms with Peculiar Meaning 139 CONTENTS XV PAGE E. Word-Formation .... .... 141 I. Derivation 141 Verbals 143 Verbal Nouns 142 Verbal Adjectives . . . . . . . 145 Denominatives 148 Denominative Verbs 148 Denominative Adjectives 152 Denominative Nouns 154 II. Composition 158 Compound Verbs 159 Compound Nouns and Adjectives 160 III. Syntax : I. Simple Sentences 168 Indicative Sentences 168 Subjunctive Sentences 177 Optative Sentences 180 Imperative Sentences 183 Negative Sentences 184 Undeveloped and Incomplete Sentences . . . 186 Verbs : Agreement and Voice 188 Nouns : The Cases 191 The Nominative 192 The Genitive 192 The Dative 202 The Accusative 209 Adjectives 215 Special Idioms of Predication 216 The Article 218 Pronouns 222 Infinitives 224 Participles 236 Verbal Adjectives in -TE02 246 Prepositions 247 II. Compound Sentences 248 Parataxis and Hypotaxis 250 III. Complex Sentences 250 M^ Clauses 251 "Os and "Octtis Clauses 253 Other Relative Clauses 258 XVI GREEK GRAMMAR PAGB "Oti, Ai6ri and O'^veKa Clauses 260 Clauses with "Ore, 'OTrt^re, 'ETrei, 'Hj/i/ca, 'OTrr]vlKa , . 263 Clauses with "Eus, "Ecrre, Me'xpt, "Axpi .... 266 'as Clauses 268 "Ottws Clauses 271 no-re Clauses 273 "Im Clauses 274 np^j/ Clauses 276 Et Clauses 277 El with the Indicative 278 'Edu with the Subjunctive 281 El with the Optative 281 Other Uses of Et' 283 Indirect Discourse 284 Particles 287 Word-Order 291 Abbreviations 298 Verb-List 299 Greek Index 315 English Index 330 GREEK GRAMMAR INTEODUCTION Greek is tlie language of tlie ancient peoj^le who called themselves Hellenes, and of their successors to the present day. Their center of abode was, and still is, the country we call Greece (Latin Graecia) and the neighboring islands ; but from a very early period many Greeks were spread over parts of western Asia Minor, and were settled in colonies around other shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the waters that unite them. The sea has always been their main highway. In this language is preserved a large literature of various dates, including the earliest in Europe, and perhaps the greatest of the world. Greek is one of the Indo-European family of languages, of which other members are Sanskrit, Old Persian, Keltic (in- cluding Welsh, Gaelic, Irish), Latin with its descendants (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Kumanian), the Teu- tonic branch (as German, Scandinavian, English), and the Slavic branch (as Russian, Lithuanian, Polish). All these are descended from one parent speech. Though really one when compared with other tongues, 1 1 2 GREEK GRAMMAR Greek was spoken and written differently by different branches of the people. Like all languages, too, it changed with time, and its history has been very long. So we have to distinguish different dialects or forms of Greek and differ- ent periods. In the ancient period the many spoken dialects are mostly included under three general groups, not always easy to keep apart — the Aiolic, Doric, and Ionic, corresponding to divisions of the race. Important seats of the Aiolians were in north- western Asia Minor, Lesbos, Thessaly, and Boiotia (northern group) ; important seats of the Dorians were in Peloponnese, Crete, southern Asia Minor, Sicily, and southern Italy (south- ern group) ; of the lonians, in western Asia Minor and Attica and certain islands between them (middle group). In the literature the dialects were somewhat mingled ; but Sappho (600 B. c.) -rei^resents fairly the Aiolic; Pindar (470 b. c.) and Theokritos (270 b. c.) the Doric; Homer (before 800 B. c.) and Ilerodotos (440 b. c.) the Ionic. The Attic was a branch of Ionic. But the literature of Athens between 500 b. c. and 325 b. c. was so large, so varied, and so great, that its language is better kno^vn than any other dialect, and has especial importance for us. In it are written the tragedies of Aischylos, Sophokles, and Euripi- des, the comedies of Aristophanes, the histories of Thukydi- des and Xenophon, the speeches of Demosthenes and the other Attic orators, the philosophical works of Plato and Aristotle. The superiority of Athens was so marked, in art and gov- INTRODUCTION 3 ernment as well as in letters, that its' dialect became the com^ mon language of tlie educated over all the Mediterranean world. The empire of Alexcmder and his successors, and later that of Rome, aided the spread of this languao-e, and established new literary centers in Alexandria, Antioch, Per- gamon, Rhodes. Thus widely extended, largely among peo- ple not of Greek blood, and more or less changed by time and the use of foreigners, the Attic lost its national character in the cosmopolitan, and became the Common dialect (say from 325 B. c. to 325 a. d,). Polybios, Plutarch, Lucian, and the early Christian Fathers wrote in it ; the New Testament is in a variety of it known as the Hellenistic. Under the Byzantine ox Eastern Roman Empire (325 to 1453 A. D.) this Conmion dialect, always changing slowly, is called Byzantine, with its center at the capital, Constanti- nople. By degrees it developed into the forms now in use by the Greeks, in Greece and the Greek islands, in Asia Minor, Constantinople, and other parts of Turkey-in- Europe. These forms are together known as Modern Greek, w^hich has a large and interesting literature, especially in popular poetry. Unless one lives where Modern Greek is spoken, the study of the language is best begun with Attic Greek, for two rea- sons. Not only is it the best known of the old dialects and the least difficult ; but farther, ancient Athens, by her litera- ture, her art, and her thought, has had a more profound and lasting influence on the world than all the rest of the Greek race together — more, indeed, than any other people ; and the 4 GREEK GRAMMAR . prime object of learning Greek is to gain a first-hand ac- quaintance with a great force in civihzation. This book is intended to contain what one must know of grammar to read with intelhgence the best Athenian litera- ture. One who can do that needs no other grammar for reading the Common, Hellenistic, and Byzantine Greek. PRONUNCIATION 7 b. Much later tlie t in di, rji, col ceased to be pro- nounced, and is not now usually pronounced. Hence it is commonly written under the long vowel, and called L suhscri^jt : a, 77, co. But with a capital this i is still written on the line (adscript) : HI AH I = '1218176 = w8|5? ai^d AIAHS = "AiSt;? = aSi]? Hades. 6 A breathing, not counted as a letter, is written with every initial vowel or diphthong ; the rough breath- ing ( ' ) represents the sound of h preceding the vowel, the smooth breathing ( ' ) merely denotes the ab- sence of the h sound. The breathing is now writ- ten before a capital, but over a small letter. With a diphthong it is written over the second vowel : 'OS09 or oho^ (Jiodos) road; 'Ef or ef (ex) out of; Autos or auTo? (autos) self But if the second vowel of the diphthong is l sub- script or adscript the breathing is put with the first : 'HiSt; or cohrj song. Also, initial p always takes the rough breathing : prjTOip vlietor^ orator. Double p within a word is by some written pp : pivppa myrrh. a. In Attic initial v always has the rough breath- ing : vTTvo<; sleep. 7 The pronunciation above described (1-6) is recommended as the nearest approach practicable, for our schools, to that of Athens about 400 B. c. To c, ^, <^, x are given the sounds now current in Greece, because the ancient sounds for these letters (27 a, 38 b) would increase the difficulties of pupils too much. Otherwise (except for t subscript) the sounds described are nearly those of the Athenians at the time named. 8 SOUNDS AND WRITING 8 Each vowel or diphthong, alone or with one or more consonants, makes a separate syllable. It is customary in writing to join a single consonant, or any group of consonants that may begin a Greek word, with the following vowel, if there be one ; other combinations of con- sonants between vowels are divided : {'-yt-et-a, KT^-/xa, Ke-Kro^-zxat, yt-yi/w-o-Ko), aX-Aos, o-xpo-jxai. But compound words are divided between the members : Trpoa--d-7rTw. ACCENT 9 The accented syllable is marked with one of three signs, called accents. These are The acute accent ( ' ) : 6S6/, c, and « ; between d and ov are w and o. These rela- tions are suggested in the following table : Open V (0 € €L O Close (tongue) L I V V ov Close (lips) 25 The short open vowels, a, c, o, often interchange, in root, stem, suffix, and endings. To indicate this variable sound, chang- ing from one to another in various forms, we use the symbols o:€, a:€, and a:e:o. 26 In like manner the long open vowels, d, ?;, w, often inter- change. The pair d:r) is especially frequent in declension, the pair r;:a) in conjugation. a. Less often one of the short open vowels interchanges with one of the long open vowels. Instances are noted as they occur. 27 Originally v represented the sound that was afterward written ov. The two close vowels, t and original v, when followed by a vowel, became consonantal, like our consonants y and to re- spectively ; the same change occurred in Latin, and often oc- curs in English. The earliest Greek had these two conso- nants; the latter survived in some dialects in the classical period, and was represented by f, called vau, or (from its shape) Si-yafifia cUgamma. But in Attic both had disappeared before 500 B. c. Thus arises the rule : The close vowels i and v often disappear between two vowels. See 135. VOWELS 13 a. In observing sound changes the original diphthong ct (from € -|- t) must be distinguished from the digraph et, which represents the simple sound € (anciently = French e) length- ened. So also the original diphthong ov (from o + original v) must be distinguished from the digraph ov, which represents the simple long sound of original v. The rule in 27 applies to the true diphthongs, before they coalesced in pronunciation with the simple et and ov. 28 a. Long and short vowels are sometimes interchanged. The corresponding forms are commonly Short a, €, I, o, V, Long 7} or d, 77, r, w, v. Tragic poets in lyric parts often use Doric d where prose uses 7). b. But when vowel-lengthening results from the loss of one or more following consonants (and sometimes in other cases), a, e, o become 29 Contraction. — Two syllables of the same word, not separated by a consonant (especially if the first ends in a short open vowel), are often united into one. The general rules observed in con- traction are : a. Two like vowels unite into their long, ee becoming ct and 00 becoming ov (that is, the simple digraphs; cp. 27 a). b. A short vowel disappears in a following diphthong that begins with the same vowel or with the corresponding long. c. An o-sound (o, w, ov, ot) prevails over an a- or e-sound (a, d, e, r;, a), o€ and eo becoming ov. d. Of a- and e-sounds the one that precedes prevails. e. An open vowel and a close vowel make a diphthong. 30 a. The accent is unchanged by contraction, unless one of the syllables contracted was accented. b. If the accent was on the first of these, the contract syl- lable has the circumflex ; if on the second, the acute. 14 SOUNDS AND WRITING 31 Hiatus is the pronunciation of an initial vowel immediately after a final vowel. This was avoided, especially in poetry, by care in choosing and arranging words and by v movable (41), and was evaded or softened by elision and crasis. 32 Elision is dropping or slighting a final short vowel before an initial vowel. The slighted vowel is replaced in writing by an apostrophe ( ' ) : dAA' eyw for dAXa eyw. But between the parts of a compound word no apostrophe is written. For consonant changes see 42. a. Verse inscriptions show that the ancients did not much care whether they wrote or omitted the elided vowel. 33 a. Elision is most common in prepositions, conjunctions, and particles, as 8e, dAXd, ye, tc, IttL b. Never elided are a and o in monosyllables, i in Trept, d^^t, /Aex/ot, TL^ TL, and oTL ; also v. "Or must therefore be for ore. 34 An accent on the elided vowel a. Is lost in prepositions and conjunctions : fier avTov, a\X* iy(x) cfjrjiJiL. b. On other words goes back to the penult : Oavixda-r lAe^as (Oavfiaa-To.) a wo7idrous tale I 35 Crasis (/cpdo-is mingling) is like contraction (29) except that it occurs between separate words, which are then written as one. If the first syllable had the rough breathing, that is re- tained over the mingled syllable ; otherwise the smooth breath- ing is written : iywfJLat for eyw oT/xat, av for d di/, wyaOe for w dya^€, TdfJid for tol ifxai. 36 a. Final t of a diphthong disappears in crasis : ovv for ot iv or 6 €1/ : b. Initial a absorbs the vowel or diphthong of a preceding article and of tol ; most vowels and diphthongs absorb the at of Kttt: di/77/3, rdi/Spds, avSpes, avros, rdv, k€l^ for 6 dvrjp^ Tov dvSpos, ol dvSpeSj 6 avros, tol av, kul et. ELISION AND CRASIS 15 But note Kas, Kara, kov, for KCLL 69, Kttt etTO, Kttt Iv. c. "Ercpos is treated as are/aos, probably the older form : drcpo^ for 6 erepos. d. Xote also applications of 42 : Oarepov, xVi X®^» Ool^ariov, for TO IrepoVy kol rj, Koi oi, to i/xdriov. 37 The accent of the first word is lost in crasis, that of the sec- ond retained ; see examples in 35 and 36. CONSONANTS 38 Consonants are classified according as the different organs of speech are active in pronouncing them. a. Those are sonant (voiced) in which the vocal cords are active, as in the vowels. (The vibration may be felt by placing the finger on the throat at the " Adam's apple.") These are A, p, fx, V, y nasal ; f3, S, y (middle mutes) ; and ^ Those are surd (voiceless) in which the vocal cords are at rest. These are o- (sibilant, spirant) ; tt, t, k (smooth mutes) ; (f), 0, X (rough mutes) ; and \j/ and ^. b. Mutes (stopped sounds), as the ancients pronounced them, require complete closure of the mouth passage, by lips or tongue, a brief pressure of the breath behind the bar- rier (the nasal passage being also closed by the soft palate) and then a quick opening of the barrier. Thus the breath finds an explosive exit ; the sound can be but slightly pro- longed, and is not easily pronounced alone. These are TT /3 labial (or 7r-mutes) ; closure by the lips ; T 8 6 dental (or T-mutes) ; closure by the tongue just back of the front upper teeth ; K y X guttural (or /c-mutes) ; closure by the back of the tongue against the soft palate. c. Of these, tt, t, k are smooth mutes, in contrast with <^, 6, X- The latter are rough mutes or aspirates ; in them the opening is more explosive, a tt-, t-, or K-sound followed by 16 SOUNDS AND WRITING a distinct A-sound, as in top-heavy^ liot-liead^ pacTc-Jiorse. In the sonants p, 8, y the breath is checked by the vibrating vocal cords, so that less breath gathers for explosive exit than in the aspirates. The Greeks called these middle mutes, mid- way between the smooth mutes and the aspirates in the force of the final element. d. In the nasals, /x, v, y nasal, the nasal passage is open, the soft palate being lowered ; thus the breath, after passing between the vibrating vocal cords, finds exit through the nose ; the oral passage is closed, in /x, by the lips, in v by the flattened tongue against the front teeth (the lips being open), in 7 nasal by the back of the tongue against the soft palate (the lips being open). e. i/a for TTO", ^ for So- (o- being probably made sonant), and ^ for K tt i/^ Dentals X p v ^ 8 6 to- Gutturals y nasal 7 X '^ ^ 40 At the end of a word no consonant could stand but -i/, -p^ or -9, and no consonantal group but -i/^, -^, or -y$. Any other single consonant at the end was dropt ; any other group at the end caused some change. a. Final -Xs occurs in -aX (ov, Trats 0* ^8e, ;;(ot, ov;^. a. This change is merely another way of writing the same sounds (38 c). It is better in such cases (unless perhaps in compounds), and also easier, to keep the ancient sound of , otherwise -rj. 68 The rules of accent in 63 a-c apply to all declen- sions. But a. The genitive plural in the a-declension always has the ultima circumflexed, because -cov is contracted from -a-oji^ (29 c and 30 b). 69 a. Poets retain the older a in some words where short a appears in prose. b. The dramatists in lyric parts use freely the Doric forms that retain the older d in place of Attic rj; so, too, in the 70 Feminines: Second Group Stem .... TX|ia- vlKa- SaXatrca- Meaning . . . honor victory sea Sing. N. TtR VLKT] edXao-ffa G. TlflTlS VlKTlS 6a\do-(nis D. TL(J.T) VlKT) OaXdcrcrT) A. TL(i11-V VlKTl-V GdXacro-a-v V. TtR VlKTl edXacTcra Plur. N.y. TLJJLai VLKai OdXacro-ai G. TLJJLCOV VLKcav eaXao-o-cov D. TL[JLaLS VlKaLS GaXdo-o-ais A. Tlfias VlKdS edXao-o-ai Du. KA. Tifia VLKd 6aXdcrcrd G. D. Tl|JLaLV VLKaiV GaXdcrcraiv A-DECLEXSION : NOUNS 25 71 genitive plural, -av for -wv ; likewise in the article and in ad- jectives and pronouns of this declension. c. In the dative plural the poets use freely the older ending -ato-t ; so, too, in the article and in adjectives and pronouns (cp. 64). Masculines Stem ..... vtdvia- iroXlTd- TroiTiToL- Meaning . . . young man ciiizen maker, poet Sing. IS". V€dvid-s iro\iTT|-s TTOLllTTi-S G. vedviou TToXlTOU TTOvtyrov D. vedvia TToXlTT] -rroLtiTTJ A. V€dvid-v TroXiT-q-v TTOLTITTJ-V y. vedvid iroXiTa TTOLTlTd Plur. KY. V€dviaL TToXiTai TTOlTITai G. v€dvLa)v ttoXltcov TTOLTITWV D. veaviaLS iroXixaLS TTOlTlTaiS A. vedvids TToXlTdS irOLT|TdS Du. N. A. vcdvid iroXiTd TTOLTlTa G.D. v€dviaLV TToXlTaLV TTOlTITaiV 72 Masculine stems in -a are like feminines, except in the singu- lar, as follows : a. They change -a to -■>; except after c, t, or p. b. The nominative ends in -9. c. The genitive ending -ov is borrowed from the o-de- clension. d. In the vocative nouns in -rr;? have -ra. Also national names in -rys have -a : Ilcpo-rys, Ilcpo-a. The vocative of Sco-- TTori^s master has recessive accent : Sia-TroTa. e. Some proper names in -as (Doric or foreign) make the genitive in -d, and retain a throughout, contrary to 67 c. 26 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES III. Adjectives of the Vowel Declej^sion 73 Many adjectives follow the o-declension, the mas- culine and feminine being alike, as with nouns. Here belong nearly all compound stems in -o. 74 Stem Meaning . . . ^o-vxo- quiet Sing. K. G. D. A. Y. M. F. N. TJoruXOS Ticruxov fjo-uxo^ yvx^ -qo-vxov Plur. N. G. D. A. Y. M. F. N. TIO-VXOL TlO-VXCl f](n3x'ns o-oc|)0'u SLKaioi) 8LKaids StKaiov D. (TOct)^ o-oOL (to^qS. o'od G. oro(|)(OV 0'0())COV o-ocbcav SiKaicDV SiKaiwv SiKaicov D. cocIjols o-0(l>ais o-ocbots SLKaioLS SiKaiaLS SiKaiois A. (roas o-o<|)d SiKaiovs 5iKaids SiKaia Du. N.A. o-oa cro(|)(o SiKaio) SLKaid StKaio) G.D. cro<|)oiv OrOct)aLV 0'0<|)OLV SiKaioiv SiKaiaiv SiKaioiv NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 27 77 a. The feminine singular lias -d after e, t, or p, other- wise -7/. b. In the nominative and genitive plural the femi- nine is accented like the masculine, not as it would be in a noun : StVatat and SiKaiajv. 78 Some adjectives are declined now with, now with- out, a separate feminine. Especially in poetry the forms vary. IV. Contracted Vowel Stems 79 Stems in -eo and -oo are contracted (29 a, b, and c. But -ea becomes -d.) 80 Stem . V00-, vou- doTCO-, OCTTOU- Meaning . . mind ho7ie Sing. ^\ 6 (voos) voiis TO (OO-TCOV) OO-TOVV G. (voou) vov (oo-Teoi)) ocToii D. (voc?) v(3 (6o-T€C0) OO-TCO A. (vdov) voOv (6o-T€OV) OO-TOVV Plur. N. (vool) VOL (oo-Tca) oo-Td G. (v6vpeov dark red] ■)(pv(Teo<;, ^pvaidj ^pvcreov golden ; aTrXoos, airXor), airXoop single. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 29 88 Stem .... vp6o-, 'irop\)pds 'Tropi)po{iv Pliir. N. 'irop (-eco), and are declined as fol- lows (w-declension) : 92 Stem vao-, veo>- 1 '\ao-, f\€a - Meaning . . . temple gracious M. F. N. Sing. JSr.Y. V€(OS l\€(OS tXeojv G. V€(0 lX€(0 D. V€CO tXeco A. V€(OV l\€(OV iXecov Plur. N.Y. V€(0 IXcco cXea G. V€COV iXcwv D. V€(OS lXccos A. V€a)S iXecos cX€a Du. N.A. V€CO iXeo) G. D. vecov t'Xecov 93 a. The w appears in all cases except the neuter plural nominative and accusative ; ot of the usual form be- comes ft). b. The long ultima does not exclude the acute ac- cent from the antepenult — an exception to 12. c. The accent of the nominative singular is retained throughout. (An accented ultima in the genitive and dative is circumjiexed by some editors.) 94 The stem co>-, nominative (17) Iw? dawn^ has in the accusa- tive €0) (not kixiv). So sometimes other nouns and adjectives: TOV MtV, -o, Some irregular nouns. 99 Liquid Stems in -X, -v Stem Me AXING . . . (6) UK- salt (6) |iT|V- month (6) dY«v- contest Sing. KY. G. D. A. dX-s dX-ds dX-i aX-a dYcov d-ycav-os d-ycov-L d^cav-a Pliir. K.Y. a. D. A. dX-€S dX-(ov dX-ai dX-as [JLflV-€S fiT|V-(OV |ill-0-L |iTlv-as d-ycbv-es d'ycov-cov d-yco-o-i d^cov-as Du. KA. G. D. dX-€ dX-OLV |xflV-€ (iTjV-OLV d^cov-c d^WV-OLV 32 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 100 In aAs (see 40 a) both stem and case-endings are unchanged throughout. 101 Monosyllabic stems of this declension accent the ending in the genitive and dative ; -wz^ and -oIp take the circumflex. a. Xot so, however, the genitive plural (and dual) of o, Tj, Trat?, 7rat8-os cMlcl, 6 Tpcus, T/oco-os Troja7i, TO ovs, (ir-os ear, 6 8/xco?, 8/xa>-os s/«z;e (poetic). Thus TratS-i', 7rai-(rt, but TratS-wv, iraih-oiv. 102 Liquid Stems {continued) in -v, -p Stem ..... (6) Xt|X6V- (6) 8ai(iov- (6) pT]TOp- Meaning . . . harbor divinity sjieaker Sing. N. \l\L'i\V 6ai|xcov pTJTcap G. \HJL€V-03 8ai[iov-os pTlTOp-OS D. Xl[JL€V-L 8ai|i.ov-L pTJTOp-l A. XilJicv-a Saijiov-a pTJTOp-a y. XLfJLTjV 8aL}JL0v pflTOp Plur.N.y. XlJJl€V-€S 8ai[xov-€s pTJTop-es G. Xl|JI€V-COV 8aL[jL6v-(ov pTlTOp-COV D. XifJie-o-L SaiJJLO-CTL pT|TOp-0-L A. XifjLcv-as 8ai[iov-as pT|TOp-aS Du. KA. Xl|JL€V-€ 8aifJiov-€ pl^TOp-C G. D. Xl}JL€V-OLV 8ai[jL6v-OLV pTlTOp-OLV L03 Stems in -v and -p a. Omit the case-ending -? and lengthen a short ultima (40) : SaLjxwv for 8at/x,o^'-9, prfTiap for prjrop-S. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 33 b. But note 6 BeX(t>La\a77- hatih-UnG Sing.N.Y. G. D. A. <|)'u\a| (|)ij\aK-03 (|)\i\a!<-L d\a77-os d\a'Y'Y-L (j^dXa-y^-a Plur. KY. G. D. A. <|)1j\aK-€S <|)u\dK-(OV <|)\iXa|L <|)i3\aK-as al|i at-y-as dXa'Y'Y-as Dii. KY. G. D. 1 (t)ij\aK-€ (j)D\dK OLV ai'Y-€ ai7-0Lv <|)d\a77-€ (^aXd-y^-OLV 110 For -^ and -^i see 45 a. 111 a. In 6 K^pv^, KypvK-ooLvlK-ov Xdpi-o-i XdpiT-as OpVL6-€S 6pvL6-cov opVL-ai opvlS-as Du. KY. G. D. cXttiS-^ eXiriS-oiv XdpLT-€ XapiT-OLV opvlG-c 6pVL6-oiv 115 Stems in -r, -8, -^ after unaccented t or v lose the mute and take -v in the accusative singular, as if 36 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES they were stems in -t or -v (130) : rj Kopv^ K6pv6-o<; helmet ace. Kopvv. 116 The vocative of Trat?, 7ratS-os child is ttoI. The stem was origi- nally 7rat8- ; hence the irregular accent : irat?, TratSwi', irathoiv (101 and a). 117 The nominative singular is irregular in 6 ttoi;?, ttoS-os foot. 118 Neuter Stems in -t Stem Meaning (rh) C)s, wT-6^ light (sing. only). a. ^cos is contracted (hence the accent, 30 b) from older <^aos, which is the common form in verse. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 37 121 Masculine Stems in -vt Stem Meaning .... (6) 7t7avT- giant (6) 68ovT- tooth (6) XeovT- lion Sing. N. V. G. D. A. 7i7ds -yL-yavT-os -yL-yavT-L -yi-yavT-a OSOTJS 666vT-os 656 VT- 1 666vT-a XCCDV XeovT-os Xc'oVT-L Plur. N. V. G. D. A. -yi-yavT-es "yL-ydvT-cov •yi-yd-o-L -yi-yavT-as -yi-yavT-c •yL-ydvT-oiv 666vT-€s 686vT-o)v 68o{>-o-L 686vT-as X€0VT-€S X€6in'-(ov Xcou-o-i X€ovT-as Du. N. y. G. D. 686vT-€ 686vT-0LV XeovT-c X€6VT-01V 122 a. For ytyds (from yiyai/r-s) and 68ovs (from oSorr-s) see 53 and 28 b ; so in the dative plural. b. But many stems in -ovt form the nominative singular as in AeW, omitting -s, dropping t, and lengthening o to w. 123 All noun stems in -vt are masculine. 124 Stems in -fo-, -ao- Stem ...... Meaning ... (to) •y£V€o-- race (Ti») Kpcaor- meat Sing. N. A.y. G. D. •ycvos (•y€V€-os) -yevoDS (■ye've-i) -ycvci Kpcas (Kp€a-os) (Kp€a-i) Kp€COS Kpcai Plur. N. A.y. G. D. (■yevc-a) y^v^ 'Y€ve-(ov "ycvwv "ycve-aL ('y€V€-€) 'yevei (■y€V€-0Lv) -yevoLV (Kp€a-€) (Kp€d-0)V) Kp€a-o-i Kpcd Kpe(ov Du. N. A. G. D. (Kp€a-€) (Kped-OLv) Kpcd Kpecov 38 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 125 a. In neuter stems -ea becomes -09 in the nomina- tive, accusative, and vocative singular (25) ; else- where (T is lost (55 a and c), and concurrent vowels are contracted (29). But the genitive plural -eojv is often left uncontracted. The dual is rare. b. Stems in -ao- likewise lose o- and contract. 126 TO Kepas Jiorn, wmg (of an army), has the inflection of two stems, K€paT- and Kcpaa--. Singular Plural K A.y. G. D. Kcpas KepdT-OS K€pO)S KCpdT-l K€paL K€pdT-a Kcpd K€paT-a)V K€pcov Kcpd-cri 127 Proper names with stems in -ecr are nearly like the masculine of adjectives with stems in -ea- (151-154). (6) 2«KpaT6or- (6) ncpiKXc£(r- Sokrates Perikles Sing. N. ScDKpdTllS (ncplKXcTls) ncplKXllS G. 2a)KpdTous IlepiKXeous D. 2a)KpdT6L (nepiKXeei) IlepLKXeL A. ScaKpdTTi or -'x\v IlepLKXed (IIcpiKXTi) Y. I](OKpaT€S HcpLKXcLS 128 a. Accusatives like rSw/cpar-^v are formed on the model of a- declension masculines (71). For the accent of SwK/aarcs see 153 a. b. The forms in parenthesis appear in poetry. c. Here belongs also 6 "Aprys Ares^ G. "Apcos and "A/aew?, D. "Apei, A. "Apr] and "AprjVy V. "Apes. CONSONANT DECLENSION: NOUNS 39 129 The one stem in -otr, atSoo-- respect^ shame^ is declined in the sing, only : tj atSw?, atSov?, aiSoi, atSw. 130 Stems in -l and -v Stem (iq) TToXt- (6) ircwv- forcarm, ciihit (rb) doTU- city Meaning ... Sing. N. tt6\l-s iriixv-S do-Tu G. Tt6X€-(03 iTT|xe-ws do-TC-os D. TTOXCL -iriixeL do-TCL A. ttoXl-v TTTIXD-V dcTTD Y. iroXi inix^ dCTTU Plur. KY. TToXeLS TTiixeLS (d(7T€-a) do-T-q G. TToXe-cov TTTixe-cov dcrxe-ov D. irdXe-0-L TTiixc-crL do-T€-0-L A. TToXeis inixas (d(rT€-a) do-T-q Du. X. A. Tr6Xe-€ TTTix^-C do-TC-e G. D. TToXe-OLV TTTIXe-OLV do-re-OLV 131 a. Feminines in -i are a large class, many of tliem nouns of action in -crtg or -rt? (406). Tlie genitive and dative (and the rare dual) have e for l ; and the nominative plural, which is used also as the accusa- tive, has €t. The ending -09 becomes -w? (28 a) ; -w? and -oiv do not exclude the accent from the ante- penult. b. Stems in unaccented -v closely resemble t-stems. The forms in parenthesis in the plural of neuters occur in poetry. 40 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 132 Stems in -v, -v Stem Meaning. . . . (6, i\) a-o-f a-i- swine (6) IxOu-, IxOv- Sing. N". G. D. A. Y. (TV-% (TU-OS CV-l 0-v-v (TV IxOiJ-s IxQv-os ixei3-i IxOij-v ixei$ Plur. KY. G. p. A. (TU-COV (Tv-cri (TOi-S Lx6lJ-€S IxQiJ-cov lxOtj-o-l ixevs Du. KA. G. D. (n5-€ (TU-OLV ixei3-€ IxBiJ-oLV 133 a. Accented -v at tlie end of tlie stem is made long in the nominative, accusative, and vocative singular, whicli in monosyllables are circumilexed. b. In the accusative plural -9? probably results from drop- ping V of the old ending -vi (cp. 62 a and 51 b). 134 Stems in -ev, -av, and -ou (l36) lose v before a vowel (27 ; cp. Lat. ncivis and hos^ hovis). 135 a. Stems in -ev originally had -rjv ; traces of the rj remain (1) in the lengthening of the endings -os, -a, -a? to -ws -d, -as; (2) in the older nominative plural ending -7]/3ocov, 'Evf3o€d<; or Ev/3oa<;. 140 Stems in -w and -o (l4l) are few, the latter mostly names of w^omen. 42 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 141 Stems in -o> and -o Stem .... Meaning . . (o) ^p«- (t|) ir€ieo- persuasio7i G. D. A. Y. Sing. Plur. TJpcD-s Tjpw-es TlpCO-OS T]pCO-COV TJpco-i Tipw-cri TJpco-a Tip(o-as TlpW-S Tip(0-€S Tr€L0(O 'ir€L0o'Os Tr€L0OL 716106 ttclOol Dii. N.A. TJpo)-€ G.D. f|p(o-oLv Irregular Nouns 142 Some nouns in frequent use are quite irregular. The com- monest are : 1. rj ywrj woman, wife, otherwise from the stem ywaiK- (which loses -k in the voc. sing.), with irregular accent : S. yvvYj, ywatK-os, yvvaiK-L, yvvaiK-a, ywai, PI. ywaiK-e?, yvvaiK-wv, yvvai^L, yvv(UK-a -^* Xpo-i and xp^' 44 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 144 In some nouns the plural may be of different gender from the singular : 6 o-tros grain, food, pi. ra a-lra ; to o-raStov stade^ race-course, pi. a-rdhoi or a-ToZia. VI. Consonant Declension : Adjectives 145 Some nouns of classes already described were origi- nally adjectives and continued to be used as such, masculine and feminine alike (neuter, too, when there is one) of one ending : ^vyd<;, (^vyctS-o? exiled (like cXtti?, 114), yvyivriq, yvyivrjT-o^ light-armed , TreVry?, 7r€pr)T-o<; poor. With these belong some other adjectives, as fxaKap, fJLOLKap-o^ hlessed (cp. 102), dpTra$, dpiray-o^ rapacious (cp. 109), dyvm, dyva>T-oT|S (ract)es €\iTie'ns €'u'q0€s G. (JQl^OV% €1ITJ0OUS D. aarj from o-a^ea, (rai(DV. In the accusative plural cra<^ets is borrowed from the nominative. (Cp. 150.) b. But if -eo- follows a vowel, -ea usually contracts to -a instead of -rj : iv8erj<5 needy ^ (ivSeia) ivSea, and cukAciJs famous, (cvKXeea) evKXca. 153 a. The accent, if it is not on the ultima, is recessive, even in contract forms. b. But not in the neuter forms in -wSes and -^pcs : cvuiScs fragrant, 6rjpLu>Seceya? and ttoXv?, have a shorter stem and irregular form in the nominative and accusative singular masculine and neuter only, but are otherwise regular in the vowel declension. Thus: 175 [uya-, [LiyaXo-f (icyaXd- tall, great iroXv-, TToXXo-, -iroXXa- much, plur. many M. F. N. Sing. ]Sr. lic-ya-s [le-ydXTi H.€7a G. lJL€"YdXoi) ixe-YdXiis [Ac-ydXcu D. jie-yaXw H-^VclXt) jJLC^dXco A. (ie-ya-v jic-ydXiiv \Liya Y. \i.iya \LcyaXr\ \Liya Plural regular Sing. N. TToX-us ttoXXti TTOKv G. TToXXoO TToXXfjS TToXXo-O D. TTOXXCO TToXXfj TToXXcp A. TToXxi-v ttoXXtiv TTOXV Y. TToXlJ TToXXll TToXv Plural regular 54 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 176 7r/oao9, TT/adeta, Trpaov mild follows the o-declension in masculine and neuter, but makes the entire feminine, and sometimes other forms, from a stem in -v, like ra^v? (158). VII. Comparison of Adjectives 177 Most adjectives form the comparative by adding -Te/)09 {-T€pdy -repov), tlie superlative by adding -raro? (-raTT7, -7arov)j to tbe masculine stem. Stems in -o with a short penult lengthen o to w : rOSITTVE COMPARATTA'E SUPERLATIVE SiVato? (St/cato-) justy St/caid-repo?, St/cato-raro?, IJLlKp6<; (^yLiKpo-) small, p.lKp6-T€po<;j p.lKpO-TaTO'sj TTLKpof; (iTiKpo-^ hittei% TTLKpo-repo^j TTLKpO-TaTO^;, TTovrjpo^; (iTovrjpo-^ had, TTovrjpo-Tepof;, 7^o^'^7/^o-raT09, (ra(f)TJ<; (crac^ecr-) plain, crac^eV-repo?, (Ta(f)€cr-TaTO<;, €vK\ey]<; (^evKkeecr-) famous, evK\eea-Tepo<;, evKXeecr-rarof;, /xeXct? (/xeXa^'-) hlack, p.e\dp-Tepo^y fxeXdv-TaTo^, y\vKv<; (yXvfCv-) sweet, yXvKv-repo^, yXvKv-Taro^, (^irpecrfivf;) (7r/3€cr/3u-) old, TrpecT^v-Tepo^, Trpeo-ySu-raro?. But o-stems with a short penult : afto9 (afto-) tvorthy, d^Lco^epo*;, d^L(t>-TaTo<;, v€o<; (^'€0-) new, young, peai-Tepo<;, vecjrrato'^, ao(j)6<^ (^ao(j)o-^ wise, (TO<^(xy-Tepo<;, (TO(f)a>-TaTO?(i, ancient, 7ra\aL-T€po<;, 7raXat-TaT09, cr;(oXaro-9 leisurely, a\o\ai-T€pof;, a^okai-Taro'^, <^lXo-9 6/6o'LT/, for the genitive and dative. 58 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Cardinal Ordinal 1 a Js, p.£a, ^v owe TTpwTos first 2 r 8vo 8evT6pos 3 y Tpeis, Tpt'tt TpfTOS 4 b' T^ 6-y8oos 9 9' Ivve'a '^VttTOS 10 i' 84Ka 8€KaT05 11 itt' ^v8€Ka €Vb€KaT05 12 ^P' SiGScKa 8«8^KaTos 13 Tp€is Kttl 8^,ca TpCros Kal 8€KaTos 14 iS' reo-o-apcs Kal 84kca TCTopTos Kal 8eKaTos 15 u irevTeKa£8€Ka irevTCKaiS^Karos 16 ir' lKKai8€Ka cKKai8€KaTos 17 if €TrTaKai8€Ka €irTaKat8^KaTos 18 it{ OKTOiKdCBiKO. OKTWKaiScKaTOS 19 a €vv6aKai8€Ka evv€aKat84KaTos 20 K cliKocrt fxKoarTos 30 K rpidKOvra TptdKocrrds 40 K-' Tco-o-apctKovTa TCo-o-opaKoo-Tos 50 V irevTi^KovTtt TTCVTI^KOOrTds 60 V C^lilKOVTa €|iriKOO-rds 70 ipSojxirJKOVTa €p8ojJLi]KO' TTCVTaKOO-lOl ircvTaKoo-ioorrds 600 X claKoo-ioi 4|aKO(rio 8i(3v) 195 a. The enclitic forms (19 a) are used when the pronoun is without emphasis ; the corresponding accented forms are em- phatic. b. But the accented forms are regularly used with prepo- sitions, though we find xpos fxe, 7rp6L(ri. The dual forms are confined to poetry. 197 The personal pronoun of the third person is rare in Attic prose ; ol and o-cov a-uTcov or eavTcov of themselves, etc. a(|)icriv a-uTOLS, -rats or cavTois, -rats crds avTovs, -Tas or cavTO-us, -xds, -tcl a. Instead of creaurov, etc., and eaurov, etc., the contracted forms ctoajtov and avTov, etc., are also used. 204 Possessive pronouns, formed from the personal pro- €/Lto9, -7}, -ov my, mine, 7]fji€Tepo<;, -d, -ov our, (TO*;, (TTj, (Tov, thy, thine, vfierepos, -a, -op, your, your, yours. Also in poetry OS, 7], 6v his, its, her (TiTepo?, -d, -ov their, theirs, dfjios (or oifios), -rj, -6v our (sometimes my). a. 9 are made from many adjec- tives and some participles and pronouns ; they are like the genitive plural masculine, with -9 in place of -v: (T0(j)6^ wise, gen. pi. (rocj)^^, (ro(j)a)<; wisely, SLKaLO<; just, hiKai(i)v, hiKaioj^ justly, aXr)9y]^ time, dXrjOcjv, dXr]9o)<; truly, 7)hv<; pleasant, rjSeojv, 7jSea)<; pleasantly, elKcj-verb and /xi-verb are used to denote the conjugation to which the present and imperfect belong. 249 The accent of verbs is recessive. For exceptions see 285, 296 a, 297, 300 d, (165), 349 and a. 250 Verb forms will be described in the following order : A. VeEBS of the O - Cois'JUGATIOli I. Vowel verbs, not contracting. II. Vowel verbs contracting in the present system. III. Liquid verbs. IV. Mute verbs. B. Verbs of the Mt- Conjugation^ I. Verbs in -vi5/x6. II. Verbs in -r;/xt, with stem in -a-.r}-. III. At8a)/xt, TiOrjfJLL, irjfiL. IV. Irregular and defective fti-verbs. 251 Verb-forms, while by meaning they fall into voices, modes, tenses, etc., also group themselves by forma- tion in tense-systems, each system having one tense- stem throughout. These tense-systems, and with them all the formative elements of regular verbs, are described in the following sections. Travco is an ex- ample of regular vowel verbs, with verb-stem ending in a long vowel or diphthong (252-254). 7e 12 -VERBS 252 Active Paradigm : Indicative Subjunctive Primary Tenses Secondary Tenses |Si. 1 irav-tii €-irai)-o-v irav-co 2 irav-eis c-irav-c-s irav-xis 3 iraoj-CL €-Tra\)-€ iraij-T) ;fi. 1 ira'u-o-p.cv €-'ira\i-o-|X€V ira-u-co-iiev ^ ■< 2 irav-e-TC e-TTav-e-Tc TTa-U-TI-TC 3 ira-u-ouo-i €-TTai)-0-V TTa-U-OXTL |Du 2 ira-u-c-Tov c-Tra\)-€-Tov Tra\>-T|-Tov 3 iraij-c-Tov c-iraD-c-TTiv irav-Ti-Tov Si. 1 ira-u-cro) H 2 ira-u-o-CLS H ■ 3 irav-crci etc. as in the pres. • Si. 1 €-irai)-(ra ira-u-crco 2 €-Tra\)-o-a-s irav-o'Tis O 3 c-irau-o-e ira-u-o-T) 1 €-'rra\;-(ra-}i€V Tra\>-o-(o-|X€V 2 €-'Tra'u-o-a-T€ Trail -cni-Ts 3 c-irav-cra-v iraxi-ccocrL Du. 2 l-iraii-o-a-Tov Trav-cTi-Tov 3 €-Trau-o-a-TT|v Trav-o"T]-Tov fa as 1 TT^-irau-Ka c-ire-TraiJ-KTi, -€iv TTC-ira'u-Ko) 2 TTC-Trav-Kas C-TTC-iraxl-KTl-S, -€LS ire-TraiJ-KTis s |Pi- 3 Tr€-'ira\j-K€ e-ire-TraiJ-Kei etc. 1 TTC-Tra-u-Ka-jJicv c-irc-iraij-Kci-ixev as in pres. H 2 3 ire-iraii-Ka-Te TTC-TTaV-KdO-l e-ire-TTa-u-KCL-TC c-ire-iraxi-KC-o-av or TreiravKws (o, §Du. 2 ire-Tra-u-Ka-TOV €-ir€-ira\)-K€i-Tov US, If Ph 3 ire-irav-Ka-TOv e-ire-irav-Kci-TTiv etc. VOWEL VERBS T7 iravo) (irav-) stop Active Optative Imperative Infinitive and Participle TTa-U-OL-IJLL Inf. irav-eiv irav-OL-s iraO-c irav-oi irav-e-To) ira-u-OL-fJiev Ptc. ira-u-cov Traxi-OL-Te irav-e-TC irav-ODcra Trai3-0L€-v Trau-o-VTcov * irav-ov ira-u-OL-Tov Trai3-€-Tov (See 166) ira\j-OL-TT|v Tra\)-€-Tcov Trai3-jji€v s 3 irt-iTav-in-aL e-ire-TTav-VTO a)cri S Du 2 ir€-Tra\)-(r0ov c-irc-irav-aeov 'ir€'ira\)|Ji€V(o t|tov ^ 3 irc-TTau-creov €-'ir€-'ira'U-o-eT]V TITOV VOWEL VERBS 79 -iravb) (irav-) stop Middle Optative Imperative Infinitive and Participle TTav-oi-[Lr\v Inf. irav-c-crGai ira-u-oi-o irav-ou iraxi-oi-TO irav-c-aGco Ptc. irav-o-fJLcvos TTaD-OL-fJL€ea irav-o-ixevTi ira-u-OL-crSe TTOiv-c-dQe irau-d-iievov ira-u-OL-VTO TraD-€-o-0(ov (See 76) iraxi-OL-o-Gov Tra\)-€-aeov ira})-oi-(TQT\v Trai)-€-o-6o)V irau-croi-ii'tiv Inf. iral3--, 28 a). b. Several presents take a reduplication (257 a), as yt-yvw- a-Kixi recognize (yvo:o)-). -n-aa-x^ {iraO-, pres. stem iraa-xoie-) stiff er is irregular for TraO-crKia, 8t8ao-Ko> (StSa^-) teach is for StSax-o-Kw. 261 (5) Nasal Class. — A suffix containing v is added. a. The suffix -vo\e- is added : VERB-STEM PRES. STEM PRES. IND. r€/x- cut, refjLvo'.e-, refjivco, b. The suffix -avoie- is added : dfjLapT- err, dfxapTapo'.e-, dixapTavco. c. The suffix -avo'.e- is added, witli an inserted nasal in the verb-stem : VOWEL VERBS 85 VERB-STEM PRES. STEM Xaix/Savo'.e-j fjLavOavo'.e-j \a^- take^ fjiad- learn, Xa^- ff^i % lot, Xay)(^avo:e-, d. The suffix -vvoie- is added : eXa- drive, iXavvo'.e-, e. The suffix -veo:e- is added : LK- come, PRES. IXD. fiavOdvco, \ay^dv(xi. i\ avi/o). LKV€o:e LKveojJLai. 262 Sometimes a verb-stem is in the present tense-system (or in some other) longer by an added crj or o-m. Thus : Pres. SoKco) (8o/c€-) seem, fut. S6^(d (Sok-) sJuiU seem, Pres. aXLo-KOfmL (oA-) fl!m taketi, fut. dAwo-o/xat (dAw-) ^A^Z/ Z'e Pres. ixavOdvoi {fjLa6-) learn perf. fjicfjidOrjKa (fMaOrj-) have learned. 263 The personal endings of the indicative are partially different in the primary and secondary tenses ; they also distinguish the active and middle (passive) voices. Active Middle and Passive Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Si. 1. -flL -V -/xac -firju 2. -? -5 -crai -(TO 3. -CTL -Tai -TO PL 1. -fjLev -^€V -fieOa -fjLeOa 2. -re -re -dOe -aSe 8. -(^)o-L, -aai -V, -aav -vTai -VTO Du. 2. -TOP -TOV -crOov -aOov 3. -TOV -TTJV -crOov -a6y]v 86 fi- VERBS a. The formative vowel is o before ft or v of the ending, elsewhere e. But in combination with the primary active endings we have -o) instead of -o-fxi, -€tS " " -C-S, -a " " -€-tn, 'OVa-L " " -o{v)(TL (51 C). The endings -do-t and -o-av never go with the formative vowel (see 355). b. In the middle (passive) -c-o-at becomes -y (55 a and 29 d), later -et, -€-(ro becomes -ov (56 a and 29 c). c. Poets often use the ending -fiea-Oa for -fieOa. For -arai and -aro in place of -vrat and -vto see 270 a, 345 c. For -s a few verbs have -a-Oa (381, 384, 385, 386). 264 The imperfect (also tlie other secondary tenses in the indicative) takes the augment, the sign of past time. a. In poetry the augment is sometimes omitted. 265 The augment has two forms : a. The syllabic augment is e-, prefixed to a stem beginning with a consonant. Initial p is doubled (48) : piirToi iliroWj impf. eppliTTov. b. The temporal augment is the lengthening of an initial vowel : a-, d-, and e- become t;-, ov- is un- changed ; in later Greek ev- and et- are unchanged : ayoi lead, impf. rjyovj ikTTL^O) hope, rjkTTL^^OV, eLKoii^o) make like^ rjKat,ov, eiKat^ov, OTrXLt^o) arm, wTrXt^or, OLOfjLai think J cpofjiTjv, VOWEL VERBS 87 i/cerevoi entreaty iKerevovj alcrOdvoixai percewe, i^crOavofJuriVj aSco sing, Ti^ov, eVpLCTKOJ findj rjVpLCTKOV, evpicTKov. 266 PovXo/uLi ivisli^ Svvafxat can, fiiWoi iiitend take either e- or rj- as augment : rj/SovXojxrjv, i^Swa/xryv, ^/xeAAov, or i^ovXofjL-qv, etc. 267 Some verbs that have lost an initial consonant still take the syllabic augment ; cc- then becomes a-. Among the most fre- quent are cxcu Jiave (ex- for o-cx-, 54), impf. cTxov, eTTOfiai foUoiV (cTT- for creTr-), eiTrojxrjv, cpTTO) creep {ep-n-- for a-epir-, Lat. serpo), elp-n-ov, ido) let, permit, etwv, lOi^in accustom, €l6l^ov, opdoi see, koipiiiv, oiOioi p)Usll, i(l)6ovv. a. €u)po)v and some others have a double augment, syllabic and temporal. 268 A verb compounded with a preposition augments the simple form ; a preposition ending in a consonant then recovers its original form : ava-/3aLP0) go up, impf. av-i^aivov, elcr-dyo) lead in, elcr-rjyov, (TvX-Xeyoj collect, (Tvv-eXeyov, av-o-Kevdi^o) pach up, avv-eaKevai^ov, ifjL-pdX\(o throw in, iv-e/SaXXov, iy-ypd(l)0) write in, iv-eypacjyov, eK-^dXXo) throw out, i^-e/SaXXov. For elision see 32, 33. 88 fl- VERBS a. The accent never stands before the augment syllable : ela^yov (not cto-Tyyov). b. Verbs derived from words that begin with a preposition generally take the augment as if the verb itself were a com- pound ; but there are exceptions : viroTTTtvoi suspect {yTT-OTTTO'i suspicious), VTr-uyiTTevov, i-TTLopKia) perjure oneself {iTriopKos perjured), eTn-wpKow, ivOvfieoixau lay to heart {ivOvpaos taken to heart), iv-cOvp.ovpii]v. But ivavTioopLat Oppose (ivavTLO€yv6ovv from dp,iyvo€(x), and r]V€LxopL7)v from dv-€\op,ai. (So in the aorist yvecrxop-fji'') 269 The subjunctive takes tlie primary endings ; -oie- be- comes 0) before fx or v, elsewhere rj. Thus -(o'.rj- is the mode-suffix, appearing throughout the subjunc- tive, vs^hich is otherwise like the indicative. 270 The optative takes the secondary endings, but with 'fiL instead of -v. The formative vowel is o, which makes a diphthong with the mode-suffix -i- (or -te- in the third plural active). In the middle -^ro loses o- (55 a). a. Poets not infrequently use the ending -aro for -vto in the present and aorist optative (cp. 344 c). VOWEL VERBS 89 271 The imperative endings are ACTIVE MIDDLE, PASSIVE Si. 2^ -e,, -s -(TO 3. -TCO -crSo) PI. 2. -re -(T0e 3. -VTOJV (^-Tcocrav) -aOo) (^-(rOcjcrav) Du. 2. 'TOV -dOov 3. -TOiV -crdcDv 272 Tlie formative vowel is o before -vtojvj elsewhere c. '6l and -9 are omitted in w-presents ; -rcoaav and -aOoicrav are rare or late. In the middle -^-cro loses o- and contracts. 273 The infinitive endings are ACTIVE MIDDLE, PASSIVE 274 In &)-presents the formative vowel and endings com- bined are -e-ep^ contracted to -etj^, and -e-adai. 275 The participial endings are Active, -VT-, Middle and Passive, -fxepo-, before which the formative vowel is o. 276 Active participles are declined like aKcov (I66, 167) ; middle participles are regular in the vowel declension (76). The Future System 277 This includes an indicative, optative, infinitive, and participle, active and middle. (For the future pas- sive see 310.) 90 ft -VERBS 278 The future stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the suffix -o-o'.e- {sigmatic future). The inflection is like that of the present system. The Aorist System 279 This includes an indicative, subjunctive, optative, im- perative, with infinitive and participle, active and middle. (For the passive see 302-309.) 280 The aorist stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the suf- fix -(ra:€-, which becomes -a-oi-.-q- in the subjunctive {sigmatic or a-a-aorist). 281 The indicative takes the augment (264, 265) and the second- ary endings (263) ; in the third singular active the tense- suffix is -0-C-. In the middle -o-a-o-o becomes -o-w (55 a and 29 c). 282 The subjunctive has the combined tense- and mode-suffix -a-oi'.r)-, and is inflected like the subjunctive present. 283 The optative contracts the tense-suffix -o-a- with the mode- suffix -I- (-te- in the third plural active). But in the active the forms with -o-e- and -ta- (2d sing, and 3d plu.) or -tc- (3d sing.) are more common. In the middle -o-at-o-o becomes -o-aio. 284 The imperative takes the tense-suffix -o-a-; but -crov in the active second singular and -o-at in the middle second singular stand irregularly for the combined tense-suffix and ending. 285 The infinitive takes -o-at in the active (irregularly) for com- bined tense-suffix and ending, and always accents the penult (contrary to 249) : TratSeOo-at from TratSevw educate. 286 The participles take the tense-suffix -ora- ; the active participle is declined like aTrds (162), the middle is regular in the vowel declension. VOWEL VERBS 91 The Perfect Active System 287 This includes a perfect and pluperfect indicative and a perfect subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and par- ticiple, in the active. 288 The perfect stem (active) takes a reduplication (289) and adds the tense-suffix -Ka-, which becomes -/cry-, -Ket-, or -kc- in the pluperfect, -Kia-.r]- in the subjunctive, -ko- in the optative, -Kc- in the infinitive, -kot-^ -kws, -kvlo. in the participle, (xa- perfect.) 289 The perfect reduplication is formed as follows : a. If the verb-stem begins with a single consonant (except /)), that consonant with e is prefixt, a rough mute changing to the smooth (47 a) : KeKevo) (^KeXev-) bid^ /ce-KeXeu-zca, KcoXvo) (fcojXu-) hinderj Ke-KcoXv-Ka, ^opevcx) (j(opev^ dance, Ke-^opev-Ka, ^vrevo) (a, eL-Xr}pfiaL, Xayxdvd) get by lot, €L-\y)xa, root pe:r}- speak, €L-pr]Ka, €L-pr)fJLai, root ficp; flap- divide, iL-fjcaprai it is fated, Sta-XiyofiaL converse, St-ei-Acy/xai, crv\-\iy(ii gather, o-w-ctXoxa, (Tvv-ei-XeyfJtAxi. Similarly the defective etioOa a7n wont. VOWEL VERBS 93 c. Some verbs beginning with a, e, o reduplicate by pre- fixing the vowel and the following consonant, lengthening the vowel of the second syllable {Attic redujjHcatiofi) : OLKOvo) heaVy pf. aK-rjKoa^ iXavvio dr^ive, i\-rj\aKa, eAeyxw test, eA-T^Acy/xat, opvTTOi dig, op-wpvxa.. Also cyetpoj tvake, iyp-rjyopa (332). The pluperfect of these verbs augments only initial a and o. d. The verbs described in 268 b take the reduplication in the same place as the augment. 292 The perfect active indicative takes the primary endings ; but in the sing, -pa and -o-t are omitted, the tense-suffix becom- ing -K€- in the third person ; -Ka-(v)trt becomes -Kdo-t (51 c). 293 The pluperfect augments the reduplicated stem ; if the re- duplication is like the augment of the imperfect (289 c), no change is made. The tense-suffix is -ktj-, -/cei-, or -/ce- as in the paradigm ; in the plural and dual both -k€- and -Kct- are found. The secondary endings are used, with -o-av in the third plural ; the older form in -kyj omits -v in the first person singular. 294 The subjunctive adds the combined suffix -Kwirj- to the re- duplicated stem, and is inflected like the present active subjv. In place of these forms are used also compound forms, the perfect active participle wdth the subjunctive of ct/xt am (384). 295 The optative adds to the reduplicated stem the combined suf- fix -Kot-, and is inflected like the present active optative. Compound forms, the perfect active participle with the present optative of ci/xt am, are also used. 296 The infinitive adds -Ke-vat to the reduplicated stem. a. All infinitives in -vat accent the penult. 297 The participle adds to the reduplicated stem the combined suffix -Ka)9, -KVLd, -K09, -KOT; aud Is decHncd like etSws (172). 94 n- VERBS Perfect Middle System 298 This includes an indicative perfect and pluperfect, a subjunctive, optative, infinitive, and participle ; also a future perfect passive indicative, optative, infinitive, and participle. 299 The tense-stem is the reduplicated verb-stem, with no tense- suffix. 300 a. The indicative takes the primary endings in the perfect, the secondary endings in the pluperfect. b. The subjunctive and optative are compound forms — the perfect middle participle with the present subjunctive and optative of et/xt a7n (384). c. The imperative takes the regular imperative endings. d. The infinitive takes the ending -o-^at, the participle the ending -/xeVos (-fjiivrj, -/xeVov) ; both always accent the penult. 301 The future perfect passive adds to the reduplicated stem the future suffix (278) with the middle endings. Thus : Ind. 7re-7rau-o-o-/Aat, etc., I sliall licive been stopt. Opt. Tre-Trav-a-OL-fxrjv, Ctc. Inf. Tre-Tvav-cre-arOaL. Ptc. 7r€-Trav-(r6-fjL€Vos, etc. The Passive System : &7} - Passive 302 This includes an aorist and a future. The passive stem is formed by adding to the verb-stem the passive suffix, which is -9r)- before a single consonant, -0e- before two consonants or a vowel. {®r}-passive.^ 303 The aorist passive takes the active endings throughout. 304 The indicative takes the augment (265) and the secondary endings, with -o-av in the third plural. VOWEL VERBS 95 305 The subjunctive adds to the passive-stem the mode-suffix -o):r)-; -Oioi-.-q- contracts to -6oi- or -^?}-, and the inflection, except for accent, is like any active subjunctive. 306 Tlie optative adds to the passive stem the mode-suffix -i-q-, in the plural and dual -t- or -lyj- (-te- in the third plural) ; -6e-L- contracts to -^et-, and hence the accent can not pre- cede -^et-. 307 The imperative adds to the passive-stem the imperative end- ings, with -Tt for -Ol (47 and b). 308 The infinitive adds -vat to the passive-stem, and accents the penult (296 a). 309 The participle adds -vt- to the passive stem, and is declined as in 165. 310 The future passive adds to the passive stem the future suffix -a-o:^- with the middle endings, in the indicative, optative, in- finitive, and participle. 311 The principal parts of a verb are the first form of every system used in it ; thus they indicate the entire conjugation : TTav- stop, TTavo) Travcro) Verb-stem, Present system, Future system, Aorist system, Perfect act. syst.. Perfect mid. syst.. Passive system. enavcTa TrenavKa TreTTavjJLaL iTravOrjv Koikv- ]dnde)\ KCoXvO) KcoXvcro) iKcoXvcra KEKCoXvKa 312 Two common verb-stems, 6v- sacrifice and A.i;- loose^ have v in the present, future, and o-a-aorist, elsewhere v : Ovoi, Ovo-m, Wvaa, re^VKa, TeOvfxaL, IrvQ-qv (47 c). A few others are irregular or variable. (See, in the Verb- list, dvi^O), SvCO, TtOJ.) 96 fi- VERBS Tljjtdw (Ti(j[.a:Ti-) honor Active Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect S. 1 TLfJL(d(0)c0 €TlJJL(aOV)(0-V TL|i(dco)(0 2 TL[JL(d€is)as €Ti}i(a€s)d-s TL|x(dT|s)as 3 TL|JL(d€L)a €Tl}JL(a€)d Tiji(dT|)a P. 1 Tril(do)(0-fl.€V €TL|JL(do)(0-|X€V TLJJL(d<0)(0-|JL€V 2 Tlfi(d€)d-T€ €Tl}JL(d€)d-T€ TL|JL(dT|)d-T€ 3 Tl|l(d0\))(0(Jl €TX[JL(aOV)(0-V TLJJL(d(0)(0 TL[jL(a€)a-o-0co TL|i(d€)d-cr0€ TL|i(a€)a-o-0(ov TL|JL(d€)d-O-0OV TL|JL(a€)a-O-0(OV Infinitive TL|JL(d€)d-(r0ai Participle Trji(a6)(o-|JL€vos Parts Perfect Active Perfect Middle Aorist Passive TCTllJLtlKa T€Tl|JLTlJJLai CTLJJLTJ0'qV 98 fi- VERBS 314 TTOiib) (iroi€:T]-) make, do Active Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect S. 1 Troi(€(o)co €'Troi(€ov)ou-v 'TrOL(€Ci))(0 2 'TrOL(€€lS)€lS €'TrOl(€€S)€L-S 'irOL(€Tls)Tis 3 'irOL(€€L)€L €TrOL(€€)€l 'n-OL(€T|)Ti P. 1 'TrOL(€0)o{i-|JL€V eTroL(€o)oa)-|X€V 'noi(€co)a)-[JL€V 2 TTOl(€e)€L-T€ €'irOL(€€)€L-T€ ir0l(€'n)Tl-T6 3 'TrOL(€Ol))o{)0'L €1T0l(€0V)0\)-V 'iroL(€o>)(0(rL D. 2 TrOl(€€)€L-TOV €'TrOl(€€)6L-TOV 'irOL(€T|)f]-TOV 3 TrOl(€6)eL-TOV €'irOL(€e)€l-TT|V TrOl(€Tl)fl-TOV Middle S. 1 7roL(€o)oa)-|JLaL €'irOL(€6)0'U-|lT|V Troi(€(o)-) enslave Active Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect S. 1 2 3 P. 1 2 3 D. 2 3 8o\)\(da>)co 8o\j\(6€Ls)ois 8o\jX(6€l)ol 8o\)\(6o)oi}-|JL€V 80U\(6€)0{)-T€ 8ov\(6ov)o{;crL 80l)X(6€)0V-T0V 8o\)X(6€)o{i-Tov €8oij\(oov)o\)-v €80'U\(0€S)01)-S €80'U\(0€)0\) €80\)X(60)0l)-|X€V €80l)\(6€)0a)-T€ e8o'u\(oov)o\)-v €8o\)\(6€)oi)-TOV €8o\)\(oe)o'u-T'riv 8o\)\(6co)(o 8oi)X(6t|s)ois 8o\)\(6t|)oi 8o\)X(6(o)co-|X€v 8o\)\(6t|)(o-t€ 8oi)\(6o))(oo-i 8o\)\(6ti)co-Tov 8o\)\(6ti)(o-tov Middle S. 1 2 3 P. 1 2 3 D. 2 3 8o\)\(6o)o{l-|iai 80l)\(6€L)0t 6ou\(6€)oa}-Tai 8oD\(od)oi3-}JL60a 8oi)\(6€)oi)-o-0€ 8ou\(6o)oi)-vTai 8oD\(6€)o{)-a0ov 8oD\(6€)o{i-(r0ov €8ov\(o6)o'u-|JL'qv €8o\)\(6o\j)o{) €8o\)X(6€)oi)-TO €8o\)X(o6)o'u-fJi€0a €8oD\(6€)O'O-(r0€ €8oi)X(6o)oa;-VTO €8o\)\(66)o{)-o-0ov €8o\j\(oe)o'u-or0Tiv 8o\)\(6cD)a)-|jLai 8oi}\(6T|)ot 8oi)X(6'ri)cpoao/xat Uste7i are irregular : XpdojxaL^ Xpi^ao/xaL, ixpr)(rdijir)v, K(.)(p'q^aL^ d/cpoao/xat, aKpoctcro/xai, r)Kpod(rd]JL7]v, yKpod/JLai. 318 In the paradigms (313-315) the uncontracted vowels are in parenthesis, the contract syllable follows next ; for the uncon- tracted form read the parenthesis and omit the contract sylla- ble, for the contract form omit the parenthesis. 319 In the present optative active the mode suffix -ltj- is more common in the singular, but rare elsewhere. 320 Seven verbs in -dw contract to rj instead of d. The most fre- quent are ^dw live, ■xpdop.ai use, SuiJ/do) thirst, Treivdw hunger : CONTRACT VERBS 103 321 Monosyllabic stems in -e contract only in the forms that give €t. Thus irXc- (see 257 b) sail makes ttAci?, TrAet, €7rXct9, hrXci, ttXuv^ but TrXeo), TrXiofxev, irXirj^, TrAcoi/xt, etc. a. 8ew Mud sometimes contracts throughout, but Sew lack and Seo/xat ask follow the rule. 322 A few verb-stems in -a and -e, with still fewer in -o, do not lengthen that vowel in any system ; some of these assume a in the perfect middle or in the passive system or both : Verb-stems yeXa- laugJij cnra- draw, reXe-Jinish, Present Future Aorist Perf. Act. Perf. Mid. Aor. Pass. yeXao) yeXacro) iyeXaaa iyeXdcrOrjv cnraoj cnrdcrco icnraaa ecnraKa ^(TTTacTjiai icr7rda6r]v reXeo) TeXecro) ireXecra rereXe/ca rereXecTfJiaL ireXeaOrjp The stem alpe- ajpp'ove neither lengthens e in Attic nor takes cr ; two compounds, eV-ati/ew praise and TTttp-ati^ecj advise, are frequent. (But rjvrjjjiai is found.) a. In some verbs (as reXc-, cp. to t€Xo- PI. 1 (TTcX-OV-liCV 2 CrT€\-€l-T€ 3 O-TCX-OVO-L w Du. 2 O-TCX-CL-TOV PS H 3 0'T€X-€L-TOV Si. 1 (rT€X-oi)-|jiai 2 CTTcX-fj 3 CrT€X-€L-TaL h3 PI. 1 o-T€X-oi3-jJi€0a 2 0'TeX-€L-0'6€ ^ 3 cxeX-oii-VTaL Du. 2 3 (rT€X-€l-(760V o-T€X-eL-o-0ov Si. 1 e-o-TCLXa cttclXco 2 c-(rT€iXa-s o-t€iXt|s 3 €-(rT€LX€ CrT€lXT| F PL 1 €-0-T€lXa-JJL€V 0-T€lX(0-[JL€V 2 €-CrT€LXa-T€ 0-T€iXt1-T€ 3 €-0-T€LXa-V crxeiXaxTL Du. 2 €-(rT€LXa-TOV o-TeiX-q-Tov C <1 3 k-(n^i\6i-Tr\v o-t€lXt|-tov Si. 1 i-(yT^i\a-\Lr\v O-T€lX(0-|iaL 2 €-(rT€lXo> (yTd\r\ H 3 e-cTciXa-To o-TeiX-q-TaL iJ 9 PL 1 €-O-TCLXd-|i€0a o-T€LX6-p-€ea 1^ 2 €-(rT€iXa-or9€ o-t€iXt|-o-6€ f^ 3 €-aT€iXa-i^ro o-TeiXto-VTai Du. 2 e-o-TeiXa-crSov o-TeiXri-o-Bov Q €-0-T€LXd-0-eTlV crT€LXT|-o-9ov LIQUID VERBS (TTcXXft) (o-TcX-, o-raX-) send 107 Optative Imperative Infinitive and Participle (rTcX-OL-|JlL, -01T|-V Infinitive (j-TeX-ot-s, -oiT|-s (rx€X-€iv o-xeX-oL, -oi-q 0-T€X-OL-}i€V Participle 0-TeX-OL-T€ (TXcX-tOV 0-T€X-OL€-V cxeX-ovaa o-xeX-OL-Tov cxeX-oxlv aX€X-OL-XTlV (TT^\-oi-[Lr\V Infinitive axeX-OL-o o-xeX-et-crGaL axeX-OL-xo ax€X-oi-|i€9a Participle ax€X-OL-cr0€ (j-xeX-ov-ficvos (j-xeX-OL-vxo (TxeX-oL-crOov o"xeX-oi-crGT|y ax€iXai-fiL Infinitive cxeiXaL-s, -€La-s cxclXov (rreXXai (TXeiXaL, -€L€ (TxeiXd-xca (TxeiXaL-fJiev Participle (TxeiXaL-xe (TxeiXa-xe (TxeiXds (TxeiXaLe-v, -cta-v (rx€LXd-vx(ov o-xeiXdaa orxetXai-xov cxeiXa-xov crxeiXav (rxcLXai-xTiv 0-X€LXd-X(OV o-xeiXai-fJiTiv Infinitive crx€iXaL-o (TxetXai o-x€iXa-o-Gai crx€iXaL-xo crx€iXd-cr6(o o-x€LXaL-[ie9a Participle o-xeiXai-cGe o-xeiXa-o-Ge CrX€LXd-fJL€VOS crx€iXaL-vxo crxeiXd-o-Gcov orxeLXai-o-Gov cxeiXa-o-Gov o-xeiXaL-o-GTiv o-xeiXd-o-Gcov 108 fl- VERBS 332 A - Perfect. — Some liquid and mute verbs make a per- fect active system without k, with the tense-suftix -a- (indicative), generally with a change of vowel or consonant in the stem, often with intransitive or present meaning. Thus (/)aiVw (<^az^-) show, besides the Aca-perfect ire-^ay-Ka have shown^ makes ire-cfirjv-a have appeared', KTeiPco (kt€v-, ktov-) hill makes -4-KTov-a have hilled (in prose always d-n-eKTova) ; iyeipo) (iyep-^ waken, makes iyp-yjyop-a am awake (Attic reduplication, 291 c) ; so also olkovco (olkov-) hear, aK-yJKo-a (for aK-rjKof-a, 27) have heard, 333 The inflection is like that of the /ca-perfect (synopsis, 336). 334 H- Passive. — Some liquid and mute verbs take -rj-.e- instead of -Orjie- as passive suffix ; an e in the verb- stem usually becomes a : as crreXXw (crreX-, o-raX-) send, i-ardX-rjv. 335 The inflection is like that of the ^77-passive, except that the imperative ending -Ol is not changed (synopsis, 336). 336 Synopsis of (f)aipco (<^aj/-) sJiow, in Liquid Aorist a -Perfect H- Passive Indie. ir€<|)tiva ^T\va kTr^<^r\vr\ lct)dvTiv Subjv. ^r\V(i) iTe^r\voi Tivds 'ir€<|>T|va)S <|>avcis a. The future passive is formed regularly (310) : <}>av'^ao^aL, LIQUID VERBS 109 b. H-passives are also formed from some mute verbs ; see in the Verb-list ySAaTrroj, ypa^w, pcTrrco, crrpit^oi. 337 Most verbs have only one of these passives ; if both are made, some difference of meaning may appear ; as from (f)aLvoj {(^av-) show, icjidvOrji' was shown (pas- sive), icfxiv-qv ajypeared (intransitive). 338 In the perfect middle system the final consonant in the stem caused certain changes (paradigms, 339). 339 Perfect Middle System, Liquid Verbs Indic. Perfect Pluperfect Imperative Si. 1 2 'Tr€c|)ao--|iaL ('ireacr|jLevoi elai Tr€av-0ov €ir€<|)dv-0T|V 'Tre<|)dv-0(ov Subjunctive Optative Infinitive ir€v €(rTaX-0ov 3 €(rTa\-eov €(rTdX-0T]v €O-TdX-0(OV Subjunctive Optative Infinitive 6(rTaX|JL€Vos CO €o-TaXfJL€Vos el'-qv €(rTdX-0ai 110 12 -VERBS a. The endings -vrat, -vto after a consonant being almost unpronounceable, compound forms are used. b. In the subjunctive and optative compound forms are used. c. Forms in -vo-at and -vo-o do not occur ; compound forms may have been used. d. See also 50 d and 65 b : 7re-<5f)ao--/xat for 7r€-^av-/xat, i-o-rdX- 6ai for i-crraX-crOaL. IV. Mute Verbs 340 The present system of mute verbs may be of the formative - vowel class (257), the r-class (258), the t-class (259), the inceptive class (260), or the nasal class (26l). In other systems many sound-changes occur where consonants come together. 341 The formation of the various tense-stems is illustrated in the following: : Present Future Aorist Pf . Act. Pf. Mid. Aor. Pass. Present Future Aorist Pf. Act. Pf. Mid. Aor. Pass. (ypacj)-) iDvite ypdfjyo) (257) ypdxjjo) (45 a) eypaxfja (45 a) yeypa-, pi4>-) throw piiTToj (258) epplxfja (48) €ppl(f)a epplfJifiaL ippL(l>Or)v and ippL(f)rjv (Tre/xTT-) send TTEfJiTrCO TrepA^foi €7TefjLxjja 7T€7TOfji(j)a (342 b) TTeTTefifjiai (344 a) inefjicj^Orjv MUTE VERBS 111 {tt^lO-) persuade (yu/xj^aS-) exercise Present ireiOo} yvfjivd^o) (269 d, 56 d) Future Treido) (45 b) yvfivdcroj (45 b) Aorist eTretcra iyvfjivaaa Pf. Act. TreWet/ca (342 a) TrenoiOa (332) yeyvfjivaKa (342 a) Pf. Mid. TreVetcr/xat (44 c) yeyvpLvacrpiai (44 c) Aor. Pass. i-n-eLO-Orjv (43 b) iyvpivdcrOiqv (43 b) (dpx-) he first, begin, rule (aXXay-) clicinge Present dpXco dXXdcrcroj (259 c, 56 c) Future dp^co (45 a) dXXd^o) Aorist y^a rjXXa^a Pf. Act. VPX^ TjXXaxa (342 b) Pf. Mid. ^pyixai (44 b) rjXXayfjLai Aor. Pass. ripxOr]v rjXXdxOrjv rjXXayr^v 342 a. In the ko t-perfect a r-mute disappears before k. b. In the a-perfect most stems ending in a tt- or K-mute aspirate the mute, often changing the stem vowel also. 343 The sound-changes in the perfect middle system are shown in the paradigms (345). 344 a. In the perfect middle of 7re/x7rw {-n-efXTr-) send, 7rc7r6/x-/i.ai is written, since /x/x/a can hardly be pronounced otherwise than as /A/x. So 7re7re)u,-/xe^a, TreTrefi-fJievo'b. b. e'Aeyxw (iXeyx-) test makes iX-qXcy-fiaL, i\r]\ey-fjL€VO-0€ 3 Du. 2 3 •ye-ypajJifxevoL clo-l 'Ye'Ypa(j)-6ov "Ye'Ypacj)-0ov -ye-ypajJiixevoL Tjcrav €"Ye'Ypa(j)-0ov €'Y€'Ypdc[)-eTiv •Y€'ypd(j)-0cov 'Y€'Ypacj)-Gov "y€'ypdc^-0cov Subjunctive Optative Infinitive •yc-YpaixjJLevos co -yeYpafJUJievos €lt|v "Y€'ypdct>-0aL Si. 1 2 3 PL 1 2 3 Du. 2 3 TJXXaY-jJLai TJ\\a|aL TJWaK-xai f|\\d7-|JL€9a Tj\\ax-e€ T|\Xa7}Jl€V0L €10-1 TJXXax-Qov TJXXax-eov f|XXd7-|XTiv TJXXa|o TlXXaK-TO f|XXd7-fJL€6a -nXXax-Gc f|XXa7|JLevoL -qcav TJXXax-Qov f|XXdx-9T|v TJXXa|o f|XXdx-0<«) TJXXax-Oe f|XXdx-0cov TJXXax-0ov f|XXdx-0o>v Subjunctive Optative Infinitive T|XXa7fJi€Vos w fiXXa^pievos cltiv T|XXdx-0ai MUTE VERBS 113 346 a. Futures in -co. — Verbs in -i^oj (verb-stems in -tS-) commoDly make tlie future in -tw, dropping S and taking the suffix -eoie-, which then contracts as in the liquid future (324) : /co/xt^cu (/co/xt8-) carry ^ /co/xtw. In later Greek the forms in -icro) occur. b. A few verbs in -a^o> (stems in -aS-) drop o- in the future and contract, like presents in -aw (316) : pipd^o) (/8ty8a8-) make go, pL/Sda-o), contracted to /St/Sw, ^t/3a5, etc. 347 Formative- Vowel or Thematic Aorist. — Many mute verbs and some liquid verbs make the aorist active and middle by adding the suffix -o:e- to the verb- stem, in the weak form if it has one. The inflection is like that of a present system ; in meaning this aorist does not differ from the aa- aorist : XetVw (Xenr-, Xltt-) leave^ IXnrov (348). 348 Formative-Vowel Aorist Active Middle Ind. e-Xiir-o-v c-Xiir-d-iiTiv c-Xltt-c-s e-XiTT-ot) €-Xnr-€ €-XlTr-€-TO etc. etc. Snbjv. XlTT-CO Xiir-o)-|JLai Opt. XiTr-oi-jii Xnr-oi-[jLTiv Impv. XiTr€ Xiir-oi) Inf. Xnr-€LV Xiir-e-crOai Ptc. Xltt-cov XLir-6-jJi€vos 349 The accent of the infinitive and participle and of the im- perative middle second singular is on the formative vowel. This gives -etv (for -e-ev), 'i-a-Oai, -wv, and -ov (for -c-(cr)o). 8 114 fi- VERBS a. Five verbs also accent the formative vowel in the impv. second sing, active : elire say, ikOe come, evpi find, iSi see, XaySe take. But in compounds their accent is recessive. 360 Verbs that make a formative- vowel aorist are very fre- quent, and are often irregular. Among the commonest ^ ^ • Present Aorist 1. Xaji/Bdvo) (Xa/B-j Xtj/S-) eXa^ov, Xd/3a), Xd^oLfjiL, Xa/Be take, (349 a), Xafielv, Xa^cov. 2. (j)evyo) {<^evy-j (f)vy-j e(l)vyoi', (f)vya), (j>vyoLiJii, (j^vye, flee, ^vyeiVj (j)vy(6p. 3. Trdo'xoj (jraO-y 260 b) iiTaOov, TrdOco, TrdOoLfjn, rrdOe, suffer, TTaOelv, TTa6a)v. 4. pdXXo) (^aX-j /3Xrj-^ e^aXov, ^dXco, /BdXoiixL^/BdXe, throw J * /SaXeuv, /BaXcov. 5. ytyvofxaL {y^v-, yov-, iyepofjirjv, yei^ojixau, yevoi- yevrj-) become, fjLTjv, yevov^ yeveaOat, ye- 6. exoi (o-ex; e'x-, ct^-, eVxoz^, ax^y o-xoLrjv, crxe? (txt) ^Ci'^e, hold, (271), crxetJ^, ax^^v. (In compounds the subjunctive and imperative have reces- sive accent : Tra/oao-xw, Trapao-xe?.) 7. opdoi {opa-, 18- ; 391) elSoi^ (^67), tSoj, Ihoiixi, tSe see, (349 a), Ihelv, IScot/. 8. (j)r]iJiL (^(j)a'.7]-, f^TT-, eiTTOv, eiTro), eiiroiiJiL, elne 391) say, (349 a), elTrelv, enTd)v. 9. alpeo) (alpe.r]-, eX-) elXov, iXco, iXoLfJn, eXe, iXeli; seize, kXojv. 10. dyo} (ay-^ lead, drive, rjyayov (with reduplica- tion), dydyo), dydyoLfJH, ay aye, dyayelv, dyayoiv. MI -VERBS 115 351 Besides the formative-vowel aorists etTrov said (<^r7/xt) and ^vcyKoi/ hore (<^€p(o) are found forms of an aorist in a : ciTra, ctTTtt?, etc., and •^veyKa, •^veyKtt?, etc. 352 Verbal Adjectives are formed by adding -t6<; {-nj, -^ov) and -Teo<; (-d, -ov) to the verb-stem as it appears in the aorist passive (observing the rule in 43) ; some- times an extra a- appears before the r. 353 Most verbals in -to<; either (1) denote the capability or possibility of the action of the verb (cp. Latin -MUsy English -able)y or (2) have the force of a per- fect passive participle (Latin -tus) : i,r]\o)T6<^ enviaUe or envied from {T^Xdw, por]-T6<^ tliinlcable from z^oeo), TTOLTj-Tos made from iroiio}. a. Some verbals in -tos have an active meaning : pv-ro^ flowing from pew. b. Compound verbals in -to^ in the first meaning accent the ultima and have three endings ; in the second meaning they have recessive accent and two endings : 8ta/?aTos (->/, -oV) fordable from 8ta/?atVw, ay pain-os (-ov) unicritten from ypa<^w. 354 The verbal in -Tio<; has the general force (but not all the uses) of the Latin gerundive or jDarticiple in -ndus\ 7rpdK-Teo<; requiring to he donej faciendus. B. Verbs of the Mt-CoxjuGATio^^" 355 The distinction between the w-conjugation and the /xi-conjugation applies only to the present system. In the /Ltt-conjugation the present stem does not end in -o:€-, and the fuller endings -/xt, -9, -cjt, -acri, -crav (263) are used. There are two classes : 356 (1) Nasal Class (cp. 281). — The suffix -w.v-, after a vowel 'vvv'.v-, is added to the verb-stem : 116 MI -VERBS VERB-STEM PRES, STEM PRES. IND. 8et/c- point at, heiKvv'.v-, SeLKvvfjn, K€pa- mix, Kepavvv'.v-, Kepavvvfjn, 357 (2) Root Class. — The present stem is tlie verb-stem, always a root, sometimes reduplicated : VERB-STEM PRES. INDIC, (j)a:r}- say, ^iq^jn (19 d), aralrj- set up, lo-TrjfjLi (257 a, 64). I. Verbs in -pvijii 358 Verbs in -vvixi show the simplest form of /^t-present (paradigm, 360). (1) The final stem-vowel is long in the singular of the active indicative present and imperfect, and in the second singular of the active imj)erative ; else- where it is short. (2) The endings are unchanged : -dcrt and -aai/ are used in the active third plural ; -Ol is omitted. (3) The infinitive active takes -vau and accents the penult (296 a). (4) The active participle accents the final vowel of the present stem (l70). (5) The subjunctive and optative follow the co-con- jugation. Sometimes the indicative also follows the orconjugation. 359 The other verbs of this class are the following, which see in the Verb-list : (a) Vowel verbs : Kcpavvvfjn mix, KpefjLdvvvfjLt hang, Treravvv/jLi spread, a-KiSdwvfiL scatter, a-piwvixi quench, poivvvixi strengthen, o-TpwvvvjxL spread. MI -VERBS 117 360 (b) Liquid verbs : oXXvfxi lose, destroy, ojxvv^i swear. (c) Mute verbs, in -y : ^evyvvfjn join, /xetyvv/xt mix, Tn/jyvvfiL fix, pT^yvvfjLL break. Ae^KvvjjLi (SeiK-) point at Active Middle (Passive) Indie. Si. 1 8€lK-Vi)-JiL 8eiK-v\)-}JLai Pres. 2 8€LK-Vl)-S 8€iK-v\)-(raL 3 8€IK-Vi)-0"L 8€lK-VD-TaL PL 1 8€iK-VD-|iev 8€LK-Vxi-lJL€9a 2 8€IK-VU-T€ 8€iK-v\)-cre€ 3 8€LK-V\i-dO'L 8€lK-V\J-VTai Du. 2 8€IK-VU-T0V 8€IK-V\)-O-0OV 3 8€IK-V\)-T0V 86lK-VU-0-eOV Iniperf. Si. 1 €-8€LK-V\3-V €-8eiK-v'u-|niv 2 €-8eiK-vi)-s €-8€iK-v\;-o-o 3 k-haK-vv €-8€lK-VU-T0 PI. 1 k-hdK-vv-\iev €-8€LK-V'U-|JLe0a 2 €-8€lK-Vl)-T€ €-8eiK-vi)-o-6€ 3 €-8€iK-vu-(rav €-8ciK-VU-VT0 Du. 2 €-8€lK-VU-T0V €-8€LK-VU-(jG0V 3 €-8€lK-V'U-TT|V €-8€lK-V'U-0-eT|V Subjv. Si. 1 8€LK-v'u-o), etc. 8cLK-v'u-co-|iai, ete. Opt. Si. 1 8€LK-vij-0L-jjLi, ete. 8€LK-vi)-oi-|iTiv, ete. Impv. Si. 2 hdK-VV 8CLK-VU-0-0 3 8€LK-V'U-T0) 8€iK-vij-(r0o) PI. 2 8ciK-VV-T€ 8€lK-V\)-O-0€ 3 8€LK-V\I-VT(0V 8€LK-vxi-cr0cov Du. 2 8€lK-Vl)-T0V 8€iK-v\)-cr0ov 3 8€IK-V'U-T<0V 8€LK-V1J-(r0(OV Inf. 8€lK-VlJ-VaL 8€iK-v\j-o-0ai Partic. 8€LK-viJS, -va)o-a, -vvv 8€IK-V'U-|X€V0S Principal parts : 8€iKvi3jJLi, 8€i|(o, e8€L|a, 868€ixa, 8€8€L'YfJLai, e8eix0'nv. 118 MI -VERBS II. Verbs in -r)fJiLy with Stem in -alrj- 361 Verbs of the root class (357) with present stem in -aiT^- follow laTTjixL (362). They are like heLKvvfjLL except as follows : (1) d-dcTL contracts to -ao-t. Present System of Active Indicative Subjunctive Present Imperfect Si. 1 i-(mi]-\Li 't-(TTT\-V l-CTCO 2 L-CTTTI-S l-(TTT]-S l-O-TTJS 3 L-0'TT|-0'L l-O-TTl l-O-TTJ PI. 1 I'-dTa-fJiev l-crTa-fJL€V l-cTco-fJiev 2 i-crTa-T€ l-0-Ta-T€ l-(rTfi-T€ 3 l-o-TCLcri i-o-Ta-o-av {-(ttSxti Dii. 2 L-0-Ta-TOV l-CTa-TOV l-CTTTl-TOV 3 l-0-Ta-TOV t-CTTd-TllV l-0-TTl-TOV Middle Si. 1 L-o-Ta-jxai i-o-Td-ix-qv l-0-TO)-|JiaL 2 i-o-Ta-o-ai i-cTa-co l-aTTJ 3 i-o-Ta-Tai i-crxa-TO l-O-TTl-TaL PI. 1 l-(rTd-|JL€6a c-o-Td-jJLeSa l-o-Tw-iJLeGa 2 L-cTTa-o-Gc i-o-Ta-cGe l-O'TTl-O'0€ 3 i-o-Ta-VTai l-CTTa-VTO l-O-T(0-VTai Dn. 2 i-cTTa-o-Gov L-o-Ta-o-0ov 1-O-TT1-O-0OV 3 L-cTa-o-Oov i-crTd-(r0T|v l-crTTi-o-0ov MI -VERBS 119 (2) The subjunctive contracts -doj- and -drj- to -w- and -17-. (3) The optative mode-suffix is -irj-, or in the plu- ral and dual more often -i- (-le- in the third plural), added directly to the stem. The accent never stands before the mode-suffix. (Cp. the passive aor. opt.) to-Tiiixi ( CTTaiTl-V 2 ecTTi-s O-TfjS (TTair]-s 3 €-crTii O-TT] (TTair\ PL 1 €-(rTT|-|Jl€V CrT(0-|l€V (TTaL-fiCV, CTaiTI-fJlCV 2 €-0-TTl-T€ 0-TT]-T€ 0'TaL-T€, crTaiT|-T€ 3 €-crTTi-orav (TTCOCri 0-TaL€-V, o-Tai-q-crav Du. 2 vT^fJiy]v, 6vaLfX7)v (365 a), ovrjcro, ovaaOai, ovyfxevo^. TrerofiaL (ttct-, TTTairj-) fiy : CTTTTyv, TTTat-qv^ TTTrjvai, TTTttS (act. poetic), mid. cTTTtt/xT^v, irracr^at, tttci/acvoS. Eoot (TXairj-) endure : erXr]v, tXw, rAairyv, tX^Ol, rXrjvaL, tAos. Eoot (Trpia-) buy (present wveofiai) : cTrpta/xryv, Trptto/iat (365 a), 7rptat//,7yi/, 7rptao"^at, Trpidfxevo'S. 6dvoi {(f>Oa:r]-) get ahead of I €6aLr]v, tfiOyjvai, (f>6d^. (b) a-pivvvixL (a-peiT]-) que7ich : €0-^>yv went out, (T/3r]vaL, {c) aXio-Ko/jiaL (oA-, dAo:o)-) 05m captured: edX(DV or T^Awv, dAw, dAotiyi/, dAwi/at, oAoijS. ^100) (Plo'.io-) live : (tZ) <^vo) (<3!)v:i5-) produce : €vv was born, am, v(o, <]>vvai, . 2 8i-8o>-s €-8l-8o\)s 8l-8w-s 3 8i-8o)-o-L €-81-801) 8i-8(o H PL 1 2 81-80- |X€V €-8l-8o-(X€V 8l-8o-T€ €-8l-8o-T€ 8L-8co-fJLev 8l-8(o-t€ Ifl 3 8L-86-do'L €-8L-8o-o'av 8l-8(o-o-i Du. 2 8l-8o-tov €-8l-8o-tov 8l-8co-tov P^_ 3 8l-8o-tov €-8l-86-ttiv 8l-8(o-tov ^ Si. 1 2 8i-8o-iJLaL €-8l-86-[jltiv 8L-8o-o'aL c-8i-8o-o'o 8L-8(o-fJLai 8l-8w a 3 8L-8o-TaL €-8l-8o-to 8L-8co-TaL PI. 1 2 8L-86-}JL€6a €-8L-86-|X€9a 8L-8o-o-e€ ^-8L-8o-o-e€ 8L-8(o-fJi€0a 8L-8(o-o-e€ CO 3 8i-8o-VTaL €-8l-8o-vto 8L-8a)-VTaL Oh Dn. 2 8l-8o-o-6ov €-8L-8o-o-eov 8L-8(o-o-eov Ph 3 8l-8o-o'6ov e-8L-86-o-9T|v 8i-8(o-o-Gov Si. 1 (€-8 2 Tl-e-ri-S €-Tl-6€LS TL-0fi-S < 3 TL-0tl-O-L €-TL-6€l Tt-0Ti H PI. 1 Tl-e€-|Jl€V €-Tl-e6-|X€V TL-0(O-|i€V 2 Tl-0€-T€ €-Tl-0€-T€ TI-0T1-T6 C/J 3 TL-Gc-do-L €-Ti-e€-o-av Tl-0(O-Cri 33 Dii. 2 Tl-Gc-TOV €-Tl-e€-TOV TI-0T1-TOV flH 3 Tl-0€-TOV €-Tl-6€-TTlV Tl-0fi-TOV H Si. 1 Tl-6€-|JLaL €-TL-e6-JJLT]V Tl-0(D-fJiai 1-3 Q 2 TL-ee-aai e-Ti-Ge-ao Tl-0Ti 3 3 Tl-Gc-Tai €-Tl-6€-T0 TL-0T1-Tai H PI. 1 TL-e€-|X€ea €-TL-ee-|X€ea Tl-0(O-fJl€0a OJ >* 2 TL-9€-0-6€ €-Tl-e€-Or0€ TI-0T1-O-06 (/} 3 Tl-0€-VTai 6-TL-06-VTO TL-0(b-VTaL C4 Dii. 2 TI-06-O-0OV €-TL-0€-Cr0OV TL-0Tl-(r0OV P4 3 Tl-0€-Cr0OV €-TL-0€-Or011V Tl-0f]-O-0OV W Si. 1 (€-011-Ka) 06> 2 (€-0Tl-Ka-S) efi-s 3 (€-0Tl-K6) efi H PI. 1 €-0€-HL€V 0(O-|JL€V So 2 €-0€-T€ 0fi-T€ c/} 3 €-0€-o-av 0(o-(rL o Du. 2 €-0€-TOV 0T1-TOV 3 6-0C-T11V 0T]-TOV fH Si. 1 €-0€-ii'qv 0(O-(JLaL p 2 €-0O\) efi Q 3 €-0€-TO 0Tl-TaL f^ PI. 1 €-0e-|X€0a 0(O-}JL€0a W3 2 €-0€-(r0€ 0il-o-0€ c/i 3 €-0€-VTO 06)-VTaL C3 o Du. 2 €-0€-(r0OV 0f|-o-0ov < 3 €-0e-o-0iiv 0T1-O-0OV MI -VERBS 129 Tf0Tini {Qe.r\-) put Optative Imperative Infixitive, Participle TL-0€lT|-V TL-e€LT|-S Tl-061 Infinitive Tl-GCITI Tl-0e-T(O TL-0€-Vai Tl-0€L-|i€V TL-eeitl-liCV Participle TL-06L-T6 TL-6€LT|-Te Tl-0€-T€ TI-0CLS Tl-0€l€-V TL-e€LT|-0-aV Tt-0e-VTCOV TL-0€LO-a TL-0eL-TOV TL-0€IT|-TOV Tl-0€-TOV Tl-0€V Tl-0€L-TT|V TL-0eiTJ-TT|V TL-0€-T 2 C-Tl-S, l-€LS L-€l-S v¥ 3 l-r\-(J\.y C-€l l-€L H H PI. 1 l-€-fI€V l-€-(JL€V l-(0-|JL€V 2 t-C-TC l-€-T€ t-fl-T€ 3 t-dcri L-€-o-av i-co-o-i 1 Du. 2 L-6-T0V l-€-T0V \.-r\-Tov P-i 3 l-€-TOV i-i-Tr\v C-Tl-TOV Si. 1 2 L-€-|iaL t-€'-|jniv l-€-0-0 L-(0-|JLai 3 3 i-€-Tai L-€-T0 i-fj-Tat H PI. 1 2 t'-€-O-0€ t-€'-|i€6a l-€-0-G€ L-O>-fI€0a t-Tl-0-G€ 3 t-€-VTaL L-€-VT0 i-(o-VTai P4 Du. 2 t-€-o-Gov i-€-o-Gov i-f]-aGov ?U 3 L-e-o-Gov i-e'-o-Gtiv i-t)-o-Gov Si. 1 (V^a) (0 PL 2 3 1 (^-K€) fis S-Hl€V tZ3 2 3 €T-T€ €L-crav CO-Ori O <1 Du. 2 3 61-TOV tJ-tov T]-TOV Q Q '5- Si. 1 2 3 €L-|XT1V €1-0-0 el-TO £-fJLai -n-Tai f=5 PI. 1 2 3 €L-|J.€ea €1-0-06 €L-VT0 o)-|Ji€Ga 5-o-G€ S-vrai O Du. .2 €i-o-eov T]-o-Gov ^ 3 €l-o-6tiv TJ-o-Gov MI -VERBS 131 CTiiJii (l:ov, KardOov. The infinitives 800-^at, Oia-Oai, laOai in composition retain the accent : Trpoa-Oea-OaL, Trpoea-Oai. 380 The various ways of forming the tenses of verbs have now been shown, and are here grouped together. 1. Present System : A. 12 -Conjugation — Formative-vowel class, sufiix -o:e- (257), Tau class, sufiix -ro-.e- (258), Iota class, suffix -to:e- (259), Inceptive class, suffix -o-ko-.c-, -lo-ko-.c- (260), Nasal class, suffix -vote-, -avo-.e- (with or without inserted nasal), -woic-, -v€o:c- (261) ; B. Mt- Conjugation — Nasal class, -w.v-, -vw-.v- (356), Eoot class, no suffix (357). 2. Future System : Common or sigmatic future, suffix -a-o-.e- (278), Liquid future, suffix -eo:e- (324; cp. 346), "Doric future," suffix -(r€o:e- (326). 3. Aorist System : Sa-aorist, suffix -o-a:c- (280), Liquid aorist, suffix -a.e- with vowel-lengthening (327), Thematic or formative-vowel aorist, suffix -o:e- (347), Root-aorist, no suffix (366). 4. Perfect Active System : Ka-perfect, suffix -Ka:e- with reduplication (288), A-perfect, suffix -a-.e- with reduplication (332), Root perfect, no suffix, with reduplication (370). 134 MI -VERBS 5. Perfect Middle System : Ko suffix, with reduplication (299). 6. Passive System : 0i;-passive, suffix -Oeirj- (302), H-passive, suffix -eirj- (334). IV. Irregular and Defective Ml -Verbs 381 A few verbs are quite common and more or less irregular in tlie present system, but in other systems are less common or never found. Some have a future system which is nearly or quite regular (382-389). 382 tt:ti-) say Ind. Pres. Impf. SUBJV. Opt. Impv. (|)Tl-fiL €-(0 ^ai^-v 4>fi-s c-<|>T|-o'0a Tis aLT|-s (t>d-eL (t)T|-crL Hn Ti ai-|JL€V <|)a-T€ C-(t)a-T€ <|)T1-T€ ^aiT\-T€ <|)d-T€ <|)dO'L €-d-T(OV Inf. (j)d-vaL Put. as) ao-Kwv, etc., occur in prose. Except in the participle, the forms of ^ao-Kw imply repetition : keep sayi7ig^ assert. MI- VERBS 135 e. ov (fyrj/jLL means nego : deny, refuse, say no. f. Poets have a few middle forms, with no translatable difference of meaning. 383 With (f>r]iJiL belong the three forms -^fxi (enclitic), yv, 5 (Lat. aio), equivalent to ^-7/xt, ^cf>r)v, £(f>7]. The formulas ^v 8' cyw said I, y 8* os said he, are much used in reporting conver- sations. 384 €l|xt (co--) Slim, am, etc. IxD. Pres. Impf. SUBJV. Opt. Impv, CL|JLL €t k(T-Tl €(r-|JL€V la--T€ €10-1 €(r-TOV Icr-Tov r T1T€ T\(TaV -^cr-Tov T]5Se/xev, rjSiTc, rja-av, and (in later writers) ySecv, ySeis, rySct/nev, ^Setre, yScLaav. b. The root of oTSa (18-) is the same as that of elSov I saio and Lat. video ; but the above forms never mean see. c. The future eto-o/xat often means shall learn. d. The ptc. etSws has the form of a perfect, though present in meaning. Also oT8a, ola-Oa^ oTSe are somewhat like an a-perfect, but are always present in meaning; to-//ev, etc., the plural and dual, are present in form as well. The imperfect is also in part like a pluperfect in inflection ; but compare the imperfect of cTfugo (385). K€i(jLai (k€i-) lie, am laid Ind. Present Imperfect Subjunctive K€l-|JLai €-K€L-|JLllV K€-0)-|JLaL K€L-(raL €-K€L-(rO etc. K6L-TaL €-K€L-TO Optative K€L-|Jl€9a €-K€L-|X€6a K€-OL-fIT|V K€l-0-9€ €-K€L-0-e€ etc. K€L-VTaL €-K€L-in-0 Imperative Ket-o-eov €-K€L-O-0OV KCL-O-O KeL-crGov €-K6L-cr0T|V K€i-(r0(ov, etc. Inf. KCL-o-eaL Ptc. K€L-JI€VOS Fut. K€lO-0|iaL a. The infinitive Keia-Oat keeps its accent in composition : KaraKelaOai. b. Of the subjv. and opt. only K€r}TaL, Kerja-Oe, KcWrat, KeoLTO, kIolvto are found. c. Kct/Attt is often used as a perfect passive for TtO-qixi put : i/o/xovs tlOtjo-l he lays down laws ; vo/xot KeivraL laws are estab- lished. So in compounds also. 138 MI -VERBS 388 ■fjliai (vjor) sit Ind. Pres. Impf. Tl-K-ai r[-\n]v Siibjv. wanting T\-tat praise, Tpix,'^, Spap.ovp.ai run, Kdpjvoi, Kap.ovp.aL am iveary, rvyxdvw, T€v^op.aL happen, Xayxdvoi, X^^o/xat get hy lot or fate, €vyoi, o/jiai hlame, ipyd^ofxat ivorJc, jju/xeo/xai imitate, aTTOKpivofjiaL answer, ^erairiixTrofxaL send for, XoyL^ofiai rechon, IvriXXofiaL enjoin upon. 395 Most passive dej)onents have in the future the middle forms : jSorXo/Atti luish, ^ovXrjcro [xai, i/SovXyOrjV, Seo/xat want, ash, Sc^o-o/iat, i^erjOrjv, SvvafJLai can, SvvT^crofjLaL, iSvvrjdyjv, OLOfJLat thinh, olrjo-opLai, wrjOrjv. a. But some passive deponents have in the future both middle and passive forms : atSeo/xat respect, atSecro/xai, and alSea-Orja-o/JiaL, SiaXiyofJiaL converse, SiaXe^ojJiai, and BtaXexOi^a-oixaL. b. The following have only passive forms in both aorist and future : €pafjLai love, rjpd(r$r)v, ipacOya-o/JiaL, rjSofxai am pleased, yja-Orjv, rja-Orjcroixai, rfTTaofxaL am WOrstcd, rjTTT^Orjv, TfTTrja-OycroixaL. 396 The perfect of some deponents has both active and passive meanings : WORD-FORMATION 141 cipyao-Tttt he has worked or it has heen worked, i(ovr}fiat I have bought or have dee?i bought. E. WORD-FORMATION 397 Words are formed from other words in two ways : (1) By adding a suffix to an existing stem, or by slightly changing an ending so as to make a new one (derivation ; the new word is derived from the old). (2) By putting two words or stems together into one (composition ; the new word is a compound of the two). a. Declension and conjugation are special forms of deriva- tion, so clearly marked in character that they properly receive separate names. The formation of adverbs has been treated in connection with declension (228-237), but might have been treated here. So with the numeral adjectives, adverbs, and nouns described in 191, 192. 398 Many Greek stems took their existing form so early that they can not now be analyzed into their parts. For us these are root words, of the original stock of the language. Often their likeness to other Greek words, or to words in kindred languages, throws light on their earlier history ; but the study of such relations belongs to comparative philology. In the following sections are treated only the most common types of word-formation ; but these alone are enough to show how the bulk of the copious Greek vocabulary has been made, and to assist greatly in learning that vocabulary. I. DERIVATION 399 Words formed directly from a verb-stem are called verbals ; those formed from a noun or adjective stem are called denominatives. 142 word-formatio:n" 400 a. The shifting of vowels described in 26 and 26 is frequent in derivation, as in declension and conjugation. b. As in conjugation (cp. 322 and a) a o-, of uncertain origin, is sometimes added to a verb-stem before a suffix. So also 6 in o-ra-O-fjios station from o-ra- stand, and in pv-O-fxos rhythm from pew {pv-) fioiv. c. A final stem-vowel and the vowel of a suffix often con- tract. d. A final vowel of a stem is sometimes dropt before a vowel. e. The consonant changes described in 45-65 are made, as in conjugation (341, 346). f. A final consonant is sometimes dropt before the ending. VERBALS 401 A few verbals, nouns and adjectives, are made from verb- stems without a suffix, by simply adding the case-endings of the consonant declension : 7] 6iJ/ (oTT-) voice, from etTretv (cTT-) speaTc, y] TTTV^ (tTTVX-) fold, 7rTV(T(T0i {tTTVX-) fold, 6 kXmij/ (kAodtt-) thief, KXiirroi (kXctt-) steal, 7} k6$ (ep(o (ep-) bring, bear, dpx-6's ruler, "^PX^ ("PX") ^^^^^5 Tpo'q-Tr]-€vs writer. €L-p7]-Ka {pe-.r]-) have spohen, oTSa (18-, oi8-) hnoiv, TTotew (Troic.y]-) maTce, avXew (avXcrj-) play thefliite, 7rp6-(l>r)ixL [7rpo-(fia:r)-) spealcfor, ypdcfxji (ypacf>-) tvrite. 406 The action is denoted by the following suffixes, but in many cases the meaning has become concrete : -Tl, -o-t, -(TLOL, nom. -Tt5, TTtcr-Tts faith, KpL-(TLs decision, 7rpa$L-) Opine, VERBALS 145 a. From verb-stems in -ev (417 a) are formed many nouns in -Ld. By loss of v (27) -ev-cd becomes -etd. SovXeid slavery, SovXevo) (SovXcv-) am a slave, /Sao-tXeta reign, kingdom, paa-tXevoi (/Jao-tXev-) am king. 407 The result of an action is denoted by the following suffixes ; but many nouns formed with them have other meanings : -/x-ar, nom. -/xa (neut.), -^o-, nom. -os (neut.). Trpay-fia deed, thing, Trpda-aw {irpdy-) do, TTOLTj-fjia thing made, poem, ttoUw (ttoict]-) make, ofi-fia (poetic) ege, oKJ/o/jLai (ott-) shall see, yeV-os race, ytyvo/>tai (yev-) am iom, if/evS-o^ falsehood, if/evSofiaL {KJ/evS-) speaTc falsely, aOiv-o^ strength, crOivo) {a-Ocv-) am strong. 408 The means or instrument — and also other relations— are de- noted by -rpo or -6po, nom. -rpov or -Opov. (TKYJir-Tpov staff, a-KrjirTOi (crKr/7r-) prop, Xov-Tpov Tjatli, Aovo) (Aov-) halite, KXeZ-Opov fastening, kAcioo- {kX^i-) close, dp-Opov joint, apaptaKw (ap-) ft, pd-Opov basis, jSacvo} (pa-) step, stand firm. a. A related suffix is -Tpd : TraXai-a--Tpd icrestUng- place, TratXatw (TraXat-) icrestU, 6pxri-/y-os leading, ■€po} (<^e/3-) bear, oLKovo) (aKov-) hear. ^wa-Tos aNe [sict.), possible (pass.), irXavrj'Tos ivandering, tXtj-to^ enduring or endurable, 7rt(r-Tos trustivorthy, faithful, Kporrj-Tos pounded or rattling, v7r-o7r-To-€k6s compact, a-rvKJiu} {(TTv-) draiu together, ix0-p6? hateful, hating, Ix^w (e'x^-) hate, Aa/xTT-pd? splendid, Xd/xTro) [Xa/jLir-) shine, lx€X.€T7]-p6av-ep6? plain, cfxuvw {(f>av-) shoiv, a-Tvy-epo'S hateful, hated (cp. o-rvyvds). a. Some nouns formed with like suffixes are closely related to these, and may have been originally adjectives : o-T€<^ai/d5 wreath, crown, (TT€ui {(mcj>-) put around, hperr-avov SCythe, hpeiria [8p€7r-) pluck, Cull, a-rq-k-q column, monument, Iottjixl {a-ra-.-q-) set up, tf>v-\ov, v-Xrj trihe, cla?i, va) mal'e groic, 8(x)-pov gift, 8tSto/xt (8o:(o-) give. 413 Other suffixes that form verbal adjectives are a. -V, nom. -vs, eta, -v. r]^vxo and -(TLfjio, nom. -(o-)i/>io9, -rj, -ov : rp6({>-Lixo? nourishing, nourished, rpicjxo (t/3€<^-) rear, TrAw-iftos navigable, irXiai (ttXv-) sail, pdx-ipo's fit to fight, pdxopat {pax-) fight, Xpy]-a-ipos useful, xp^^l^^'- ixp"-'!') "^^^j Kav-cripos combustible, Kcto) [Kav-) bum. 414 Tlie various participles are special classes of verbal adjectives. DENOMINATIVES Denominative Verbs 415 Verb-stems are made from nouns (1) By merely adding the endings of conjugation, the stem being unchanged, except by the usual pro- cesses of conjugation ; (2) By changing the final stem-vowel ; (3) By adding a new element ; the final stem- vowel may be changed at the same time. All under DENOMINATIVE VERBS 149 this head belong in the present system to the -l class (259) ; originally the presents of the other types be- longed to the same class, although in Attic Greek the L no longer appears. Thus arose, with some crossing of types, several models, on which denominative A^erbs were made pretty freely ; the classes are clearly separated in form, much less clearly in meaning. 416 a. Stems in -o:o), pres. ind. in -o'w, regularly transitive, often causative : SovXo-oi (SovXoioy-) enslave^ ^ovXo'i slave^ ct^to-w (d^to:w-) deem ivorthy or ft, a^io? worthy. On the same model, from other stems, with a change of vowel : t,7]iJLi6-w [^rjixLoioi-) ptmish, ^rj/xLo. dfwiage, pi^6-(j) (pt^o:w-) cause to root, pL^a root. From consonant stems, with added -o : /xacrrtyo-o) (/xao-rtyo:a)-) tuhip, fxacTTL^ (jxaaTly-) wllip. b. Stems in -a:d or -a-.-q, pres. in -aw : Tt/xa-co {Tlfxa-.T)-) 7l07l0r, rlfxy JwJlOr, viKa-oi (vlKa:r]-) am victorious, vIky] victory, rfTa-oixai (jjTTa'.y]-) ain worsted, rJTTa defeat. From stems in -o, with change of vowel : dpLo-Ta-o) [dpca-Tair]-) hrcalcfast, dpta-Tov irealcfast, yod-OfJiaL [yoa:rj-) ZVail, y6oiXe-pove-o) [(r(j)(f>pov€:7j-) am discreet, o-w^pwi/ of sound mind, io-Topi-o) (IcrTope'.rj-) investigate, Lo-riop one tvJio hnoivs (405). 417 a. Stems in -ev, pres. indie, in -cvw : ^aa-tXev-u) (ySao-tXcv-) reign, /3a(rtX€vpaivoi (€V(f>pav-) gladden, €Vp(DV [evcfipov-) glad, crrjixaLVii) (crrjixav-) signify, (rrj/xa {crr]piaT-) sig7l, XaXeTratvo) (xoAeTrav-) am angry, x'^AcTTo? (;^aA€7ro-) hard, angry, KepSaLVii) [KcpSav-) gain, KepSo<; (/cepSco--) gain. 421 stems in -w, pres. in -vvw (i-class, 259 b). These are largely from adjective-stems in -v, but also from other stems, which are changed or extended to conform to the model : Papvvoi {/Bapvv-) make heavy, ySapvs heavy, Taxvvoi (raxw-) hasten, Taxys swift) 152 WORD-FORMATION Xa/jLTTpvyo) (XafMirpw-) brighten, al(rxvvo) (aiV^w-) make ashamed, IxrjKvvu) [jxyjKvv-) lengthe7i, Aa/xTTpos shining, ato-xos shame, lJLrJKo(-€/>-) long for, olKTipU) (otKTip-) pity, Trat^o) (TratS-) play, [ ayyeXos messenger, TeKfiap sign, Ka6ap6pove(i) am discreet. oLKiCio settle (a town), oLTlixd^u) dishonor, /xapTvpo/xaL call to WltflCSS, KaOaipoi cleanse, SovXooi enslave, TToXe/jLoo) make hostile, (ro}povL^oi make discreet, chastise. Denominative A djectives 424 The suffix -to, fem. -ta, nom. -to?, (-td,) -tov, is most widely used to form adjectives from noun-stems. A final stem-vowel contracts with i, or it may be changed or dropt. The mean- ing of the suffix is vague, pertaining to the noun, in some way which the noun or the context makes clear : StKtttos just, right, SUrj (SiKd-) justice, right, dpxoLos ancient, dpxy (dpxo^-) hegi^ming, dyopaioJo-to9 (46) Milesian, alSolos revered, TeAa/xwj/ Telamon, o-wrrip savior, oTko-s Jioiise, property, dypo-? field, 7roAe/xo-9 ivar, KopLvOo's Corinth, MiXrp-ovcrL-K6s 9iatiiral, physical, v(rL? nature. Many of these, by omission of rixvi art, become nouns : fjLova-LKT^ 7nusic, ypajxiJiaTLKy grammar. 426 The suffixes -eo, nom. -ovo}vrj-eip6v-iixo6ovc-p6LX-id friendship, diroLK-Ld colony, €vSaLfjiov-Ld happiness, cvvoia good-ivill, dXyOeLa (for dXrjOccr-ia) truth, LXo-<; friend, ttTTotKo-s away from home, evSaLjjicov happy, ivvoo-po-p(DV (o-W<^p01/-) Self- co7itrolled. 430 IN'ouns denoting a person who has to do icith something are made with the suffixes -cv, -rd, -nS (cp. 405). a. Suffix -cv, nom. -cv?, masc, some forming a feminine in -eta. A final stem-vowel is lost before the suffix : vKiT-tm horseman, hnro-^ horse, Up-evs priest, Up-eta jjriestess, Up6-7S, fem. oiK6-Tt?, house-servant, oTko-s house, Sea-fKo-rrjs, fem. Secr/xco-Tts, prisoner, Scarfws dond. 156 WORD-FORMATION 431 Several suffixes form nouns, many of which (but not all) have a dimimitive meaning, or a caressing or a conte7nptuous tone ; the end of the stem often suffers a change. a. Suffix -to, nom. -tov, neut. : TraiS-LO-v little cJdld, Trats (TratS-) cJlild^ aKovT-io-v javelin^ aKOiv (aKovT-) spear, ^iPX-Lo-v hooh^ ySiySAo-s pa2)yrus^ book^ Xpvo-Lo-v gold piece, xp^^^~'^ gold, TTiS-Lo-v plain, TreSo-v ground, Xiop-Lo-v fortress, )(C)po-7? Atvea? (Atvetds). Nouns of this type caused -dSr]79, Kpwo-s, Aava-t8r)LX-dvOp(i>7ro^ loving man. The last two perhaps belong rather under 449. a. The syllables dpx-, apx^-? <^PX'"? came to be a mere prefix meaning leader, first, Eng. arch-, archi-. 443 A noun or adjective as the first member appears as a bare stem, and this may suffer various changes. 11 XctVo) ( XiTT- ) leave, ra^ts ranh, Xi(i) loose, riXo^ charge, TretOofxat obey, apX'? ^^^^^j pla-i-oi hate, 877/A09 people, cfaXeix) love, dvOpioTTos man. 162 WOED-FORMATION a. The final vowel, or even more, may be lost or changed : 6pos baggage carrying, st. o-kcvco-- baggage. fjir]Tp-6-7ro\Ls mother-city, st. fx,r]T{e)p- mother. c. Contractions may occur ; KaKovpyo^ (Epio Ka/co [f ] cpyos) evil-doer. irav-ovpyos doing anythi?ig and everything, scoundrel — per- haps made on the analogy of KaKovpyo^. Tlpniip6o6poto9, Spo/jios are used, but not in the sense in which they form many compounds. d. Determinatives of the o-declension, if the second part is active, accent the penult if that is short, otherwise the ulti- ma : A.t^o-/3oAo? stone-thr Giving^ vai;-/>ta;(os, Xoyo-^otos. (But not compounds in -apxoto-Tpa7re^os having the same table, table-companion, 6/xo-Aoyos having common speech or ratio, agreeing, homologous. ofjio- appears only in composition ; but cp. the adv. o/xoC, adj. o/xoto?. ^eo-ctSr)? having a god's appearance, godlike (cTSo?). From -€tS>7?, contracting with a preceding vow^el, was formed the derivative ending -w8r)-i^fjL€po^ lasting for a day, c^' VI^^P9-^ liTL-x'^Lpov something on the hand, wages, lirl x^^Ph 7rpo-d(TTLopovovvT€rj(T(D avTov 1 shall not let him go at once. Ap. 29 e. b. In the second person, with ov, a question in the future may become a lively request or command : OvKovv ip€l<; TTore; speah out ! {icouH you ever speah?) S. AN. 244. For ov p.'f] with the f ut. see 489 b. 456 Perfect Indicative. a. *A7roXcXot7rao-tv ^/iS? they have left us. An. i. 4, 8. aK-^Koaxf., ewpaKare, TreTrdv^are yOU have heard, have seen, have suffered. L. 12, 100. 170 SIMPLE SENTENCES b. A completed act may result in a continued state, and some perfects are best rendered by an English present : €yvwKa yap yes^ I Jcnow Mm {have recognized^ Lat. novi). S. OT. 1117. Among the most frequent of these perfects are €(TT7]Ka {have lecome set), stand (363), reOvrjKa {have died), am dead, f^e/SrjKa {have placed my feet firmly) , stand firm, TrecjiVKa {have grown, heen born), am, K€KT7jfjLaL {havc acquivcd), posscss, fiifjivrjiiai {have become fnindful), remember, oAwXa {have gone to ruin), am ruined, iraroLOa {have believed), trust. c. With the above belong some perfects that show little or no trace of a perfect meaning. Such are toLKa am like, toiKc it is Ulcely, €L(j}6a am accustomed, SeSotKtt, SeSta fear, and in poetry many others, SiSopKa see {SipKOfiat) being especially common : ^v KOL SeSopKa's kov /JXeVeis thou hast sight and seest not. S. OT. 413. d. In compound perfects (as in English) the form of ei/tt (or €xo) in the sense of et/xt) expresses a continued state, the participle a completed act ; but in use there is often no clear distinction between these compound forms and simple forms. 457 The Pluperfect transfers the present force of the perfect to past time : Oivo-Y) ircTeLxi-cTTo Oinoe was {already) fortified. T. ii. 18. ela-TrJKyj I 2vas standing, rore 8' a(f>€La-T'JK€(rav but at that time they had revolted. An. i. 1, 6. Trpona-T-qK^i rov ^cvlkov he was in command of the mercenary force. An. i. 2, 1. a. For the pluperfect with av see 469. 458 The Future Perfect denotes an act to be completed in the future, or (often) a future state ; INDICATIVE SENTENCES 171 Ev^vs 'Aptato? d(f3€crTy ^€L^ wcttc ^tXo? r]/xiv ovSeis XeXeiij/e- Tttt Ariaios luill at once %vithdraiL\ so that not a friend ivill he left us. An. II. 4, 5. 8t/cata ttcttov^ws eyw ecro/xat v^' v/x-oii/ / s7i«Z/ have received justice at your hands. Ap. 41 e. 459 The Imperfect generally presents the action either as continuing or as repeated in the past : SrpaTevfjLa crvveXeyero an army ivas being col- lected. An. I. 1, 9. TToXXag 7rpo<^acret9 tjv pia Kev lie hept finding many pretexts. An. n. 3, 21. ravrct toI<^ <^tXot? 8teSt8ou these lie used to distribute to Ids friends. An. i. 9, 22. ravra 7rpd^d<; eKepSaivov fiep ovSev, ifiavTov 8' et? klvSvvov Ka6icrTrjv i7i doing that (assuming that I did it) / was gaining nothing and was bringing myself into danger, l. 7, 32. a. To be continually or repeatedly engaged in an action may imply endeavor, without success (cp. 454 c) : KAeap;(o? tov5 (rrpaTtwrds cySta^cro tei/at, ot 8' avTov cySaA,- Xov Klearchos tried to force the soldiers to go ; hut they threiu stones at him (as often as he tried). An. i. 3, 1. 460 The Imperfects XPI^ ^^ ^XPV^y ^^^^? TTpocrrJKe^ et/co? ^Vj and the like, state an obligation or propriety in past time. Often the context implies that the obligation was not met — that something was not or is not as it should be. OvBe Oaixil^ei^ rjplv Kara/BaLvcov et? tov UeLpaia' XPV^ P'^vToi you donH come down to us in Piraeus at all often ; yet you ought to (i. e., it ivas your duty to come often, and you havenH been doing it), p. r. 328 c. Ticrlya^', ovk ixpv^ alyav why silent? thou shouldst not be silent (i. ^., propriety required that you 1Y2 SIMPLE SENTENCES speak out, and you have not spohen), e. hipp. 297. dXX' ixPV^ Tt hpav you ouglit to have done something, Ar. r. 568. eSet yap to koX to iroLrjcrai koI to jjlt) TTOLrjaai why, yes, we should have done this and this, and not have done that, d. 9, 68. TovaSe yap fir) Irjv e S € i for these ought not to le alive, s. p. 418. elKo^ rjv vfiaq TTpoopaaOai avToi the fitting thing was that you should foresee it (hut you did not). T. vi. 78. ^xiveiv yap i^rjp for it was i7i his power to stand his ground (lie might have stood his ground), d. 3, 17. a. In these cases the obligation or propriety is thought of as existing in the past, perhaps before the act, and as real ; the action or state resulting from failure to meet the obliga- tion may be present, or may continue to the present, though beginning in the past. In some few cases where the Greek took this point of view, it seems to us as if av were needed (461 c). 461 The Imperfect witli av (666) presents the action a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on occasion : AvaXafjL^dvojv avTcov Ta TroLyjfxaTa Sltj p cjt cjv av avTovq taking up their poems, I loould question them (different poets, at one time and another). Ap. 22 b. •^y avaKT ovv av I used to he indignant (whenever people spoke hardly of me), l. 7, 12. b. As something that was to be expected or was probably true : Tt a z^ (f)av€po<; yev6p.evo<; v<^^ vfxcov cwacrxov ; what treatment was I likely to get from you in case of detection f L. 7, 12. tt/jos ttoZov av e tt X e i ; to what INDICATIVE SENTENCES 173 man was lie prohahly sailing ? (can Tie have heen sail- ing f ) S. p. 572. TOTe oxpe rjv koX ra? ^etpag ov k av KaOecjpojv hy that time it was late, and they ivould not he likely to see the hands (raised in voting). H. I. 7, 7. c. As sometliing that would have been in tlie past, or would be now, in an imaginary case, known to be unreal {Hij])othetical Indicative ; cp. 467 c, 468, 469) : Tore S' auTo to it pay ^a av i k piv er o icf)* avTov hut in that case the matter would have heen decided hy itself, D. 18, 224. Kkveiv a v ov^ aira^ i ^ovXo jjltjv I should not wish to hear it even once, s. p. 1239. These three uses are closely related ; the third is by far the most frequent ; the second and third can not always be distinguished. Only the context shows which meaning is in- tended, and whether (under c) past or present time is meant. d. 'EpovXofxrjv av I sJiould ivisli, with the infinitive, is the regular way of saying / wish something were different. Greek puts the suggestion of unreality with the leading verb, Eng- lish puts it with the subordinate clause. Yi jBovXo ix-qv av avrovs aXrjOrj Ae'yeiv /xct^v yap av /cat €/xot rovrov rayaOov fiipo? I ivish they iveve telling the truth ; I too should have a share in that blessing. L. 12, 22. 462 The Aorist Indicative presents an action simply as past ; it corresponds most often to the English simple past (or to the Latin historical perfect) : 'Ei/rav^' Efxeivev there he remained, rrj o-rparia direScoKe pLicrOov he paid the army wages. An. i. 2, 12. yj\6ovj elhov^ ivLKyjcra veni, vidi, vici, I came, saw, con- quered, Plut. Caes., 50. 174 SIMPLE SENTENCES 463 Greek often prefers the aorist, stating something merely as a past occurrence, where English uses the pluperfect or the perfect : Kat (TTparrjyov Sk avTov aTreSet^e 7ie (had) appointed Mm general also. An. i. 1, 2. TroAActKcs iOav/xaa-a I have often iuo7idered. M. i. 1, 1. 464 In verbs whose present denotes a continued state, the aorist often denotes the beginning of that state, or entrance into it (Inceptive or Ingressive Aorist) : d(T0eva) am ill, y^adivqaai fell sick, SaKpvo) weep, IhoLKpvaa hurst into tears, /Sao-iXe-uo) am Jcing, i/BaaiXevo-a became Mng, alycj am silent, iaiyrjcra became silent. Especially common is iaxop got, acquired, from e)((w have: ovk eax^ ^v^ y^^^p-w ^^^ did not adopt the view. D. 18, 201. Tore 8e TT/DoSeSw/ceVat noivTas a v ecrx^^ cdriav in that case (^Athens) woidd have got the blame of betraying all. d. 18, 200. 'iTTTrtd? ecrxe Ty]v o.p-)(f)v Hippias received the rule. t. vi. 54. a. This ingressive force extends to all the modes and to the participles. 465 General truths, commonly expressed by the universal present (454 e) are sometimes stated in the aorist {Gnomic Aorist^ yvw/jLTj a proverb) : Tvxrj rexvrjv wp6(j)(T€v, ov rixvr] tvxw ^Tis fortu7ie gives success to art^ not art to fortune. Men. 466 The distinctions between the simple aorist and the imperfect are sometimes subtle and elusive. Also any action may be looked upon as merely occurring or as continuing ; the choice of tense depends on the point of view. Hence both tenses occur together freely in the same narrative, often where Eng- INDICATIVE SENTENCES 1Y5 lish can not make the distinction without clumsiness. The beginner should watch the tenses carefully, and so gradually learn the distinction. 467 The Aorist with av (666 ; cp. 461) presents the action a. As occurring from time to time in the past, on occasion : 'E/cXeyo^ei/o? tov iTTLTijSeLov eTTatcrev av jpicking out the right man^ he would strike him (i. e., he did this on various occasions). An. h. 3, ii. b. As something that was to be expected, or was probably true : 'O 6ed(TdfjLei'o<; Tret? av ri? dvrjp rjpdcrOri Sato? elvai every man who saw it would get hot to he a war- rior. Ar. r. 1022. 770)9 av 6 jXTj irapcbv iyco tl (T r^hi- K7](T a how was I J one wlio ivasri't there, to do you any harm? D. 37, 57. iirep pcocrdr] S' av Tt9 iKeivo IScov any one on seeing that loould have been strengthened. II. III. 4, 18. TOVTOV TL<; a V (TOL TOLvSpO^; Spdv djJLeiVCJV rjvpeOr] ; who coidd have been found better in action than this man ? (i. e., no one was likely to be found). S. Ai. 119 f. c. As something that would have occurred in an imaginary case, known to be unreal (^Hypothetical Indicative) : 'ETroL7]cr av fxev ovSev av KaKov, firj iraOeiv 8* ifjL€(r9a my children, let us rise, S. OT. 147. Sevpo e^av acrr (X) jxev et? rr^v avXrjv kol 7repu6pTe<; avrov Siar pixp o) fxev, elra icofxev let US rise, go out here into the court, and pass the time walk- ing ahout there (until daylight) ; then let us go, Pr. 311 a. ^ip eV ojvrriv lo) let me go to her! (I want to go to her !) Ar. r. 291. ^e/)e 817 koI ras fiapTv SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 1T9 ptd? avayvo) come^ 710 w^ let me also read the testi- mony {I will noiD read?), d. is, 267. Once in the second person, S. p. 300. The first person sing, is often introduced by <^ip^. 473 The Subjunctive with /xt; presents the action as not desired, as unadvisable, or as forbidden. {Proliihi- tive.) a. In the first person (not to be separated from the hortative subjunctive, 472) : M17 avajxev (ti^ev aX\ov<; let ifS not tvait for others. An. m. 1, 24. ^ 7) hrjj dSiKTjd a> let me not he wronged (in entreaty ; cp. b). s. ok. 174. b. In the second person (aorist only) : Mt7 Xltttj^ [jl ovto)<; ^ovov leave me not thus alone. S. p. 470. c. In the third person (aorist only) : MT78et9 eiTTrj let no one say. D. 9, I6. ^y^hevl rovro Trapaa-Trj let this occur to no one. L. 12, 62. 474 The Subjunctive with /x-q sometimes expresses what one fears and desires to avert ; with fj^rj ov, what one fears will not be. This is a variety of the preceding (473), the starting-point of more common uses (see 609, 610) : M-^ (Tov<; 8iacfiOeip7j ydfxovi may slw not spoil thy mar- riage (i. e., I fear she ivill). E. al. 315. /at) ov ireLcrys o-o<^oi;s yo^i ivill not convince the wise, I fear. E. tro. 982. a. This is also softened to a cautious assertion, or made a question : M^ ay poLKorepov y to aXrjOh etTretv I fear ifs rather riicle to speak the truth. Gor. 462 e. dAA.a jjlt] ov tovt rj x'^^^'^ov but I suspect that is 7iot difficult. Ap. 39 a. 180 SIMPLE SENTENCES 475 The Tenses of the subjunctive do not refer to differ- ences of time. The present denotes continuance or repetition; the aorist, simple occurrence or attain- ment ; the perfect (infrequent), denotes a completed act or a continued state. The distinction often dis- appears in translating, but is not to be overlooked. a. The time of independent subjunctives is regu- larly future ; see examples in 471-474. In Homer the subjunctive is often very like the future indicative in meaning, often also the same in form. OPTATIVE SENTENCES 476 The Optative (without av) expresses a wish that something may be, in the future. (Negative /x?f.) This use has given the name to the mode. ES ^vvelev elcrael Oeoi the gods forever graciously abide ivitli you ! S. ot. 275. ovto) vlKiqa-aLixL r iyco Kol voiiit^oiynqv (T0(f)6<; SO may J win the victoi^y and he (eve?') deemed wise. Ar. n. 520. 6X0L0 may you die! (a curse on you!), iiiqhel^ tcwt vfxcov im- vevcreiev may none of you consent to this. D. I8, 324. 477 Such a sentence may be introduced by dOe or d yap, in poetry by el alone (cp. 470) : E r ^ e fXTJTTOTe yvoLrj<; 6? el mayst thou never learn who thou art. s. ot. 1068. el yap iv tovtm eir) may it only depend on that ! Pr. 310 d. 478 Earely the poets use the optative without av as a hypotheti- cal optative (479, 482). OPTATIVE SENTENCES 181 479 The Optative witli av (666) expresses what would be in a supposed case, or in any case likely to occur. {Hypothetical Optative] cp. the hypothetical indica- tive, 461, 467.) The time is not defined, except by the context, but is commonly future, often present, rarely past. Often the statement or question is universal as regards time, applying to past, present, and future alike : 'Eya> 6 KV0L7JV av eU tol irXoia ifx^aiveLV I should hesitate myself to go aboard the boats. An. i. 3, 17. ev9a TToWrjv (TOJ(f)po(TVPr]v KarafJidOoL dv rt? there one would learn (at any time) rmich self-control. An. l 9, 3. TTpo? ^iojv 8' ovK dv Xa/3ot9 a?id by force you ivould never talce him. S. p. 103. ouSe ^xh yap ovhev d v /3\d^eLev ov8e yap dv hvv aiT o for he would not injure me a particle ; he woxdd not even be able to (in any circumstances). Ap. 30 c. 480 What is not really doubted may, from caution or from courtesy, be treated as not yet cei-tain ; hence a wide range of meaning. Mighty could, m.ay, and even m,ust, are often convenient in translating, but the Greek expression is not properly potential (cp. the last ex- ample in 479). OvKovv TTO poL^ dv TifjvSe Scopedv ifiOL ; would you then grant me this gift ? a. pb. 643. {Modest request.) 'tv fiev Ko iiit^oi<; dv aeavTov you may talce your- self off. s. AN. 444. {Softened command.) OvK dv yieO eiyirjv tov Opovov I would not yield the chair (in any case). Ar. r. 830. {Determined re- fusal.) 182 SIMPLE SENTENCES Uax; av oXoLfxav ; liow sliould I find death ? that I might die! e. al. 864. (^Passionate wish.) Uov St]t av elev ol ^ivoi ; where may the strang- ers he ? s. EL. 1450. {Polite question^ of a present fact.) OvToi Se Tct^' av fieLlo) tlvol ao(j)Ldv cro^oi elev hilt these men looidd he {are j^erhaps) wise in some greater wisdom, Ap. 20 d. {Assumed uncertainty^ of a present fact.) BovXoLfjLTjv av I should lihe is a frequent formula, a softened expression of wish. 481 The circumstances to which the statement (or ques- tion) of the optative applies may not need mention, or may be suggested by an expression of time, place, manner, or may be more fully expressed by a par- ticiple, infinitive, or subordinate clause. Relative clauses and d clauses (614 ff., 645 ff.) are often used for this purpose. This applies also to the hypotheti- cal indicative (461, 467). Thus in tv6a ttoXXtjv o-oicfipoa-vvyv KaTajjidOoL av tloet pXv ov 8e TTotet, thus in a sense canceling the second ov. 1 In older English a similar doubling of the negative was common, and is still common among the uneducated, though not in good usage. Thus, from Shakspere, "I can not go no further." — As You Like It, II, 4. NEGATIVE SENTENCES 185 488 Mt^ with the Indicative is used a. Often in questions, intimating a hope of a nega- tive answer ; so also apa jjnj and fxojv (for jjirj ovv). Ml] TL veaxrepov ayyiWei^ ; no serious newSj IliO])ef Pr. 310 b. pjf^ avTOP otet (j^povTLcraL Oavdrov ; you donH suppose lie was anxious about death, do you ? a p. 28 d. /Awi/ Tt ere dSt/cet; he hasnt injured you, has he? Pr. 310 d. b. Sometimes in cautious statement of a present or past fact (cp. 474 and a), intimating a hope (perhaps ironical) that it is not true : 'AAA.' apa fJLT] ov Totavr-qv viroXaii^avWi crov Tr]v jxadrjo-LV €(r€crOai hut perha2Js you mean that your learning will be not lil^e that. Pr. 312 a. c. In both these uses firj has essentially the same force as with finite modes in other simple sentences (486 a). This is plainest in the former, but still traceable in the latter ; a deprecatory statement is made, most often in the interrogative tone (a), but sometimes without it (b). The firj is an expres- sion of desire on the part of the speaker to negative the state- ment; but this desire may be merely assumed, or may be nothing more than surprise that the statement should be true. 489 Idioms (of uncertain explanation). a. Ov ixTj with the Subjunctive is a strong denial referring to the future : Ov Tt /xt) \rj(f)6a) SoXw I shall not he caught hy a trick, a. s. 38. ov jxt) TTid7)Tai he will never yield. S. p. 103. ouSel? fjLrjKeTi fxeiprj tojv ttoXc- [XLOJv not one of the enemy ivill stay any longer. Ax. iv. 8, 13. ov K€T L fjirj SvpTjT at ^acriXev^ r}jjia<^ KaraXa- j^eiv the hing will no longer he ahle to catch us. An. II. 2, 12. 186 SIMPLE SENTENCES b. Ov ixrj with the future indicative is sometimes a strong denial ; in the second person it may be a prohibition : Ov (TOL fxr] /xe^€i/^o/Aat ttotc / will never follow thee. S. e. 1052. oi) fjLT] AaAiyo-cts do7iH keep chattering. An. n. 505. UNDEVELOPED AND INCOMPLETE SENTENCES 490 Some expressions are not fully developed sentences, with a subject and predicate. Language begins with simpler forms, sometimes not even distinguishing parts of speech, as is clearly seen in children beginning to talk.^ Such primitive forms remain in use, in all languages, especially in lively conver- sation and in poetry.' They are less formal, more natural for expressing emotion and simple thought. They are found in all stages of development, from the simple interjection to phrases of some length, with verbal forms, and even a subject. 491 Such are a. Interjections : "^O, a, alat, ^ev, lov, ico oh, ah, alas, ha, ho, etc. b. Exclamations without a verb : Aevpo this 10 ay ! here ! firjSkv aydv nothing too far ! tw ixoi fioL Sv(TTYjvoie TraOclv raSc, <^ev / tO Sllff'er this! Ha! A. E. 840. w Svo-ToAatvo, TOidS' avSpa xp^o-t/xov €Lv Kvva to keep a dog like that ! Ar. y. 835. 493 Sentences are often incomplete ; any part that is clearly im- plied may be left unexpressed. a. In many sentences the subject is not expressed, because easily understood, or indefinite, or contained in the verb : $ao-6 they say. koL elx'^v ovtw? and so it teas. An. hi. 1, 31. /taxr?? Set there^s need of a fight. An. ii. 3, 5. Here belong impersonal verbs : Set there is need, xpi opor- tet, 7rpo(TrJK€L it behooves, /xcAct it is a care, etc. 188 SIMPLE SENTENCES b. The verb is often omitted, especially t'o-rt, elat and other common verbs that are suggested by the context : ^TTOvSat /JL€V jxevovcriv, a7riov(TL Be rj Trpo'iovcn TroXe/xo? a truce if we stay^ if we leave or advance, war. An. ii. 1, 23. fxrj fioL fiv- piov7TOL<; eOeaav the unwritten laws not men establislied of themselves, hut gods for men, (See M. lY. 4, 19.) d. The Indirect and the Subjectiye middle can not always be distinguished ; both are sometimes causative : IJi€Ta7r€fX'7rofx,aL TLva seucl for, littve One sent to me, StSao-Ko/Attt Tov TTolSa have the boy taught, SiKa^ofxaL get judgment rendered, iri7ig suit, ypd(f>ofjLaL TLva get a?i indictment {ypa<^rj) U'ritte7i agaiyist one, indict. 601 Deponent verbs are properly middle, in the indirect or sub- jective sense, and the active was not thought necessary. The aorist passive was originally not passive, but merely intransitive, and in some verbs this intransitive sense con- tinued in common use : IhoKct /jlol Tavrrj ireipaa-Oai (roiOrjvai it seemed to 7ne lest to try to attain safety in this way. L. 12, 15. So always ix^pw rejoiced, from x"-^P^- NOUNS : THE CASES 502 A noun (or pronoun) in the same case with another, and denoting the same person or thing, is an apposi- tive if added directly, Sip)redicate if added by means 192 SIMPLE SENTENCES of a verb. Botli appositive and predicate noun may be in any case, according to tbe construction of the primary noun : AvSw/iai Se tt a T 9 'A^tXXews, NeoTrrdXe/xos I am called the son of AcJtilles^ Neoptolemos. s. p. 240 f. (Here Neoptolemos is an appositive to Trat?, which is a predicate noun, agreeing with the understood sub- ject of avScjfjLaL. For special idioms of predication in Greek see 645-548.) For the cases with prepositions, alone or in composition, see 597-599. The Nominative 503 The Nominative case of nouns (or pronouns) is used (1) As the subject of a finite verb, (2) In address, for the vocative : Z € u ? ^aaikevei Zeus is Mrig. a) ^ t X o g eliri O friend, speaJc, a. pb. 562. 504 A Nominative may stand as appositive to a sentence : Nt/Acws w8' ippvOi(rixai, Ztjvl Svo'KXirj's 6ed tJius piUUssly a7n I chastised, a sight of evil fa^ne for Zeus. A. pb. 257. The Genitive 505 The Genitive is a blend of two cases, once distinct. These are (1) The Genitive proper (like the Latin geni- tive), (2) The old Ablative, or From case. In great part the two sets of uses are fairly dis- tinct ; but some uses are puzzling, and must be learned mainly through reading. THE GENITIVE 193 (In Latin the genitive remained pure, and the ablative was blended with the instrumental and the locative. See 528.) 506 The Genitive proper may depend on a noun or pro- noun directly {Adnominal Genitive), The relation intended is gathered only from the nature of the words and from the context ; some combinations oc- cur so often that they are named, but a host of others are too various and elusive to name : ' a. 'H /3acrtXew9 Swa/xt? the hinges poiver {Pos- sessive Genitive^ rj Ic^oSo? tov ar parev fxaro^ the approach of the army {Subjective Genitive), ^nqhe- jjLLd o-coTT] pLd<^ eA.7ri9 710 hope of safety {Objective Genitive), rpicov rj fiepiov 6S6v a three day ^ journey {Genitive of Measure), tmv pivpicDv i\Triho}v fxid one hope in ten thousand {Genitive of the Whole). b. IlXrj9o<; av6 poiTT o)v a nndtitude of men. crlyrj (J)lXojv with silence toward your friends, e. m. 587. eV ftecrw rj fjuwi' kol y8 a o" t X e a> 9 between US and the Icing. An. ii. 2, 3. ^ € w 1/ TToXefios war from the gods. An. II. 5, 7. Tj Tcov K p eicr (T 6v (ov SovXeud servitude to the stronger. T. i. 8. oifxa^aL irer pcov wagon-loads of stones. An. iv. 7, 10. ypa(f)r) aae^eidq indictment for impiety. ahLKruxdrcov opyrj anger at wrong- doing. L. 12, 20. Si alcr^vvTqv Koi olXXtjXo)!^ kol ' Compare, from Shakspere, nighfs predominance, ruin's entrance, tn Ms kingdom's defense, in his country's wreck, an hour's delay, my heart's core, the Norway's king, a summer's cloud, heaven's breath, this night's business, each day's life, life's feast, my scepter's awe ; from J. R. Lowell, Lethe's ooze, battle-odes whose lines, the letters sheath, at life's dear peril. 13 194 SIMPLE SENTENCES Kvpov for shame both lefore one another and hefore Cyrus, An. III. 1, 10. 507 The word on which the adnominal genitive depends a. May be omitted : Ets StSao-KaAov to a teacliefs {Jiouse)^ to school, h "A 1 8 o v in Hades' (abode, realm), in the other ivorld. iv Alovvo-ov in (the precinct) of Dionysos. t^s y^s h-^ixov they ravaged {some) of the land. T. i. 30. See also 510 a. b. May be represented by the article only : El? Ty\v €avT2^0e fJLO)pLdikTaT avhpuiv dearest of men. S. e. 23. /xdXia-Ta roiv 'EXX^viov most among the Greeks. An. i. 6, 5. d<^ei8eo-Tara -n-av- Twv most unsparingly of all. An. i. 9, 13. THE GENITIVE 195 508 A Genitive may be part of tlie predicate, brought into dependence on a noun or pronoun by means of the verb {Predicate Genitive) : '^YLv ovTo<^ T(x)v dfji(f)l MiXrjToi' (jt p ar evo ^liv (ov this man was one of those in military service about MiletOS. Ax. I. 2, 3. TOLOVTOJV icTT € 77 p O J 6 V (x) V of such ancestors are you. An. m. 2, 13. rjv ircjv w? TpiaKovTa he was about thirty years old. Ax. n. 6, 20. ov T (x)v vlK(x)VTa)v icrTL TO, OTrXa TrapaSuSovaL giv- ing up their arms is not the victors^ jpart. Ax. n. 1, 9. a. In the above the verb connects the genitive with the subject ; other verbs may connect a genitive with the object : N o /x t ^ e t KoX vfjLa^ iavr ov elvau he thinks you too are his (captives). Ax. n. 1, 11. r 17 9 ly/xere/ad? d /x, e X e t d 9 av tl<; e ltj Stfcatw? 07ie would justly put it doion to our neglect, d. 1, 10. Trotd? ttolt pd^ av tj yevovs u/xct? nore rvxpiii av eln cov ; pray, of what land or lineage should I rightly call you ? s. p. 222. 509 The From Genitive {AblativaV) is used with verbs to denote a. Separation, source, and the like ; the verb often contains a preposition that would by itself take a from genitive, as aTrd, ef, Trap a, irpo : 'EvTavOa Suecrxov aXXyjXcov there they drew apart from each other. Ax. i. 10, 4. ixjjlXovTo 6 \6- €.p e their appearance was not a whit different from amber ^ 196 SIMPLE SENTENCES An. II. 3, 15. aiTiqWay fxiv 1 tovtcov tcjv TTOVOiV having got rid of these labors. An. iv. 3, 2. rev^ecrOe Kvpov you will obtain it from Cyrus. An. i. 4, is. Setrat avrov ixr) Karakvaai he asJcs of him not to come to terms. An. i. i, lo. T^So/^ai olkovcov aov (f)povLvov<; Xoyovs I ain delighted at hearing from you words of sense. An. h. 5, 16. OLfSet? rjjJidpTavei' Tov dvS p6<; no one missed (went wide of^ his man. An. m. 4, 15. a fXTrXoLKco rov aov jjuo p ov ; am I to fail of thy fate? S. an. 554. dporov yyj<; dv- liv ai to send up fruitage from the earth, s. ot. 270. fidOpojv LCTTacrOe rise from the steps, s. ot. 142. b. That to which something is superior or inferior, with verbs implying comparison (Genitive of Com- parison ; cp. 517) : To Trepielvai t cov (f) lXojv the surpassing his friends. An. i. 9, 24. tt epiyev ea 9 ai rrj^; ^acrtXew? SvvdiJL€o)<; to get the better of the Mng's force, an. II. 1, 13. T ovT ov ov^ TfTTTia 6 (xed a we shall not be outdone by him. An. h. 3, 23. tovto^v iTrXeoveKrelTe you had more than they. An. m. 1, 37. So with 7rpoi)(0), Trpoeo'TrjKa, vTrepi^^co, XeiVo/xat, vtKw/xat, etc. c. Cause, with some verbs of emotion (cp. also 611 c) : T 7] <; i\ev6 € p LOL^ vjjidq evSaLfioj/L^o) I con- gratulate you on your freedom. An. i. 7, 3. pj^ avrov oieu cj) povT LO- ai avdrov ; do you suppose lie was anxious about death f a p. 28 d. So too in exclamations, without a verb, and with adjectives : THE GENITIVE 197 Oljjlol Ta\aLvr]<; ClJl^ unliappy ! S. an. 82. ^ev Trj<; avoids alas for thy folly ! s. e. 920. Oav^daiaL tov KaXkov<; KoX fjL€y€Oov<; wonderful for heauty and size. An. II. 3, 15. d. The agent (source of the action), in poetry, with some passive participles and verbals : KctV->7? hihaKTo. taught iy lier. S. E. 344. <^a)Tos rjiraT-qixevr] deceived ly a liushand. S. at. 807. 510 The Genitive is used as object with many verbs not easy to classify : a. Verbs of sliaring : *AyaOov />tev ov8€v6<: /jlct ea-x^v aXXwv Sk ttoAAcuv Jie tooJc part in no good tiling^ hut in many of another sort. L. 12, 48. So^rys fierdSos impart your thought. E. it. 1030. So with Koiviiivui, />t€T€;(U/jL€vo€v8ovr]T(x)v to reach the slingers. An. hi. 3, 7. tZ/x^s Tvyxa-viiv to obtain honor. An. i. 9, 29. So with (TTOXOi^oiJiai, opiyofiaL, ij/av(o. e. Verbs meaning taste, smell, enjoy : BovAerat Kal crc tovto)v yeva-ao-Oai he ivishes yOU also to taste these. An. i. 9, 26. ri yap aXA' av OLTroXava-aLfxi tov /jbaOrjfiaro^; tvhy, what other good of learning should I enjoy? Ar. n. 1231. So with 6(T(f)paLV0fJLaL, ovLvrjfiL, ripTro/xai, €v*s^e ER OF 200 SIMPLE SENTENCES Tlius /cXotttJs atrtw/xat accuse ((j)evyo) am accused) of theft J aael^da^ Slcoko) prosecute (ypdcj^ofxaL indict, elcrdyco hring to trial, aTroiri^vya. am acquitted) for impiety, a. But with KaTr]yopu> accuse, KarayiyvMa-Kw adjudge against, KaTaxprj^^i^ofxaL vote against, and some others, the genitive of the person is governed by the Kara. Tlfiu) estimate a penalty takes the genitive of value ; the active is used of the court, the middle (in a causative sense, get it estimated) of the accuser or accused. AXAa St] vy7]'S Tt/X7^(r(o/x,at; tcrcos yap av fxoi t ovtov rlfxi^- o- a t T c but shall I then put {the penalty) at exile f For perhaps you (the jury) would put it at that amount. Ap. 37 e. 515 The Genitive may denote the thne or space within which something occurs, or to which it belongs : Ov [LojyfxTCLi SeKa rj fjie pwv he will not fight with- in ten days. An. i. 7, 18. dii t ov KaOij kovto<; Xpovov yiyveaOaL occur always within the appro- priate time. D. 4, 35. iiTT aKaiSeKa ar aO fxoyv to)v iyyvrdroi e/c tt}? x^P^^ ovSei/ eixofJiev Xafi^dveLv with- in the sixteen nearest stages we could get nothing from the country. An. h. 3, ii. In prose only a few words of time, and still fewer of place, are freely so used, especially xP^vov, -^fiipd^ by day, wktos by night, co-TTcpa? in the evening, xct/xwvos in winter, Oepov? in summer. Here also belong some adverbs and adverbial phrases of place in the genitive, as avrov on the spot, -n-ov where? ov where (rel.) : ovk ecfiaa-av Uvai Tov TTpoa-o) they refused to go forward. An. i. 3, 1. 516 The Genitive is used with many adjectives. a. Adjectives of like meaning with the above verbs (509- 514); THE GENITIVE 201 Such are trepos different^ 6p<^avos lereft^ iXevOepos free, and in poetry various compounds of a(v)- negative, taking a from genitive ; Also lirrjKoo^ listening^ virrjKoo^ obedient^ /AvrJ/xwv mindful^ €7nfjL€Xrjei8ris unsparing, atnos causing, iyKpaTrj^s hav- ing control, a^tos worthy, dva^tos unworthy (therefore d^tw think Ivor thy). b. Adjectives of various meanings, best learned from read- ing : 'ETTto-TTJ/Acuv Twv d/A^i Ta^^ets shilled in tactics. An. ii. 1, 7. Upo^ Tri9 T179 TToXew? in a manner worthy of the state, b. Adverbs of place, time, separation, state : XIo/opw Tov I3lov Oavdrov Sk eyyv? far on in life and 7iear death. Ap. 38 c. €^0) TOV ScLvov out of danger. An. ii. 6, 12. 6i(/e r^s 202 SIMPLE SENTENCES y/x€pd? late in the day. x^P^^ ''"^^ aAXwi/ apart from the rest. \dOpd Twv (rTpaTLWTQ>v Without the knowledge of the soldiers. An. I. 3, 8. So with, ecrco, ivTo^j eKTos, fxera^v, irX-qarLov^ Trpoo-^ev, efXTrpoa-Oev, OTTLO-Oev, a/x^oTipayOev, evdev, 7repd(v), ttojs, ev, and others. Cp. also 507 d. c. ''Avev, ttXtJv, ^XPh I^^Ph ^Ve/ca — adverbs that have become virtually prejDositions (cp. 599). For the Genitive Absolute see 589, 590. The Dative 519 Three cases, once distinct, are blended in the Greek Dative. These are (1) The true Dative, the To or i^^r case, (2) The Instrumental (or Sociative), the With or £y case, (3) The Locative, the At or In case. The English prepositions to and for, ivith and hy, at and in, cover fairly the three sets of uses ; but there are many differences of idiom. The dative is used mostly with verbs and adjectives, but also with nouns, adverbs, and prepositions. 520 The To Dative is used with verbs to denote the indi- rect object : Tavra aTrayyeXw /3a(T iXel this J will report to the hing. An. h. 3, 24. ravra r ol*^ c^tXot? SteSi- hov these he used to distribute to his friends. An. i. 9, 22. dXXa (t)L\oo-6(j)0) eoifcas why, you seem like a philosopher, an. n. i, 13. a. Many Greek verbs take the dative though the THE DATIVE , 203 corresponding English verb takes a direct object, or requires some other preposition than to : 'E7rto-T€uoj/ avTw iJiey trusted liim. Ax. i. 2, 2. 77 e t - cr o fjLai fjLakXov rw ^ew r) vfilv I shall obey the god rather than you, Ap. 29 d. Kupw jreiSapx'^lv to he obedient to Cyrus. An. i. 9, 17. l^ol opyit^ovrai they get angry at me. Ap. 23 c. rw Oeco fiorjOojv aiding the god. Ap. 23 b. rot? ^A6r]vaL0L<; TraprjveL he used to ad- vise the Athenians. T. i. 93. errecrOe tco rjyovixivo) follow your leader. An. h. 2, 4. So with iTTLTljxii), fJLeix(f>oiJLaL, iyKaXu) ilame, Jo-€t it shall he my care. An. i. 4, 16. fjieTafxeXrja-ei auTw he icill repent {it tvill repent him). L. 16, 2. cSokci i^Srj TTopevea-Oat avrw avoi it noio seemed test to him to march up (from the coast). Ax. i. 2, 1. T-rj r/XiKLd cTrpcTre it 2cas S2iitahle to his age. Ax. i. 9, 6. So also l^eo-rt it is possible, Bel fjiot Ttvo9 / need something, /xeTeaTL (jloC rtvos I have a share in something, etc. 621 The To Dative may denote the person to whom (rarely the place to which) with verbs of motion : TouToj^ (TO I iirefjixpe this (^wine) he sent to you. Ax. I. 9, 2o. tafjiLOL<; rj\Oe he went to tlie Samians. T. I. 13. 'iXto) lidpiq -qydyer '^\ivav Paris brought Helen to Ilion. e. axd. 103. ttovo^ ttovco ttovov e- p € I toil to toil brings toil. s. ai. 866. Much oftener these verbs take Trpo? with the accusative in this sense. 204 SIMPLE SENTENCES 622 The To Dative is used also with some adjectives, ad- verbs, and nouns, more or less like the above verbs in meaning : ToL? TToXe/xtotg IvavTiov^ opposed to the enemy. An. III. 2, 10. TCL Kped Tjv IT a p airXij (T La t ol<; eXac^ei- o L 9 the meat ivas like venison, An. i. 5, 2. OdvaTov TTOLCTL KOLvov elvai Kai dv ay Kalov dv 6 p cjtt oi<; that death is common to all and inevitable for man. An. in. 1, 43. dWd /xoi hrj\6v ecrrt rovro hut this is clear to me. Ap. 41 d. r^ ep.r] rw e^ vttt) pea id my service to the god. A p. 30 a. cr(l)i(Tiv aurots pLovov eTTiTT^Setoj? advantageously to themselves only. T. I. 19, 3. 7Tvpo<; /3poTol^ Sorijp^ o/aa? thou seest the giver of fire to mortals, a. pb. 639. So with vjvov^ friendly^ ixOpo? unfriendly, TroXe/vtio? hostile^ oIs 6 filXcjv /cavro? iK- ^TJo-Tj (70(^09 hy heing with wise m£n you will yourself become wise. Men. ovk dvTLTroLOV fJueO a /Bao-iXel T179 dpxv'^ '^^ do ^^^ dispute with the hing for the sovereignty. An. n. 3, 23. olvco Kepdads avrrjv mix- ing it (the spring) with wine. An. i. 2, 13. a/xa ttj rjfiepd at daylight (with the day). An. n. 1, 2. e/c 8ia- Sox^9 dk\T]XoL /cat dXXcov dpxj) they gained superior strength hoth hy access of wealth and hy ride over others, t. i. is. tov- TOL<; TJaOrj Kvpos with these Cyriis was pleased. An. 1.9,26. (^iXtoL ixev koX evvota eirofxevovs ov^iirore d^x^v he never had men who follotved him hy reason of affection and good-will. An. h. 6, 13. ^aXcTrw? ^dpcx) Tols TTapovcTL TT p d y fji a a i I am trouhled at the pres- ent situation. An. i. 3, 3. b. Manner : KpavyT} rroWfj iTTidcnv they ivill come on ivith much shouting. An. i. 7, 4. iroWd r% 'EXXctSo? rw TTaXatw T poTTcp vefxeTaL much of Greece is occupied in the ancient manner, t. i. 5. 7rdvTe<; jiia opfjufj TTpocreKvvrjo-av rov Oeov all with one impulse wor- shiped the god. an. m. 2, 9. Here belong ttJ aX-qOda in truths Aoyw in luord^ Ipyw in deed, anrovSr) earnestly, a-lyfj silently ; also some common ad- verbs, as KOLvrj in common, IStd privately, Brj/xoa-Ld publicly, Tavry this way. 208 SIMPLE SENTENCES c. The Measure of Difference, with a comparative, superlative, or any word implying comparison : 'OXtyo) TrXeLO) a little more, ov ttoXXoi? erecriv varepov not many years later, T. i. 18. KaKucrTa St) fjLaKpcp KCLTeLfxi most wretcliedly hy far do I go down. S. AN. 895. re-^vrj S' dpdyKr)<; daOevearipa [xaKpco A.rt is far weaker than Necessity, a. pb. 530. 527 The At OY In Dative {Locative) denotes a. The Place where (in nouns of place), mostly poetic : Ad/xoi9 Sexier 0aL to receive in their dwellings, S. OT. 818. ert fjieyas ov pav m Zeu? Zeus is still great in heaven, S. e. 174. TrepieppeiTo vtto tov Meter accI kv- kXm it was flowed around in a circle (was completely surrounded) hy the Maskas, An. i. 5, 4. In prose a few proper names are so used (cp. 228), especially names of demes : MapaOcovi at Marathon, MeXtTy in Melite. But generally a preposition precedes : eV ttj oiKta in the house. Also figuratively, of State or Condition : Ovx V7TVC0 y €v8ovTa not slumbering in sleep, S. OT. 65. (jypovTiSo^ TT\dvoi<; in the wanderings of anxious thought. S. ot. 67. rat? i/ivxctt? ippojfjLeve- arepoL stronger in their souls. An. m. i, 42. Examples like the last shade naturally into the following. b. The Particular, or the special sense, in which something is meant (Specifying Dative \ sometimes possibly instrumental, but we more often use in) : Botwrtct^wi^ T 77 4^o)vfi like a Jjoiotian in pronun- ciation. An. III. 1, 26. ot hoKovvTe<^ iia^ipeiv etre cro- THE ACCUSATIVE 209 (ffid euT avh p eia etr aXX?^ rivTiviovv dperrj tJlOSe who are tliourjlit ^wperior whether in wisdom or in hravery or in any other virtue whatever, Ap. 35 a. c. The Time when, in nouns of time with a speci- fying word, and in names of festivals : T^ varepaid on the next day. /xta vvkti in one night. Se/carw e r e t ^vve/Brjaav they came to terms in the tenth year. t. i. 103. UavaOrjvaLOL^; at the Pan- athenaia. 528 The following table shows the relations between the Greek and Latin cases and the older case-system. The nominative, accusative, and vocative remained distinct in both languages. GREEK OLD CASES LATIN r. .,• ( Genitive Genitive Genitive 1 a-, i -• , n \ ( Ablative {from) ^ r Instrumental (ivitJi, dy) V Ablative Dative \ Locative {at^ in) J L Dative (to, for) Dative The Accusative 529 The Accusative is used mostly with verbs, but also with some adjectives and nouns and with certain prepositions. The Outer Object 530 The Accusative is used as the Direct {Outer^ object of a transitive verb : VvoiOi aeavTop hioto thyself. 2L. Many Greek verbs are transitive whose English equivalents require a preposition : '"ApKTov TTore i.TTi<\)epop.iv'r]v ovk erpecrev a bear that once attached him he did not shrink from. An. l 14 210 SIMPLE SENTENCES 9, 6. ovSe A t a ^iviov rjSeo-drj lie felt no sliame even hefore Zeus^ protector of the stranger. An. m. 2, 4. alyav r u x '^ ^ ^^ ^^^P silent about my fortune, A. PB. 106. So, among many others, ala-xvvofiai feel sliame before^ ofivvfii stvear by, XavOdvoi escape the notice of (Lat. lateo), ev or /ca^ws TTotw do good or harm to, v\dTTOfjLaL guard against, dfjivvofjiaL defend myself against, TrAew r-^v OdXaTTov sail over the sea, (fiOdvoi get the start of b. Some intransitive verbs become transitive when com- pounded with certain prepositions, as Sta^atVw cross, dTroSt- Spda-KO) run away from. c. Many verbs vary, and are used now as transitive, now as intransitive. Thus olkovo) hear and ala-OdvofiaL perceive take the accusative and genitive ; />teiu.<^o/xat blame takes the accusa- tive or the dative. Especially in poetry some verbs take the accusative that do not in prose. 531 A few verbal adjectives and nouns admit a direct object (as participles and infinitives of transitive verbs do regularly) : 'ETTto-TTy/Aoves rot. KaOyKovra Jcnowing their duty. C. m. 3, 9. o-€ (jiv^LfjLos able to escape thee. S. an. 787. to. /xercwpa pov- TLo-Trj's one who studies things on high. Ap. 18 b. a. A phrase may be equivalent to a transitive verb, and so take an accusative : TeOvaa-L tw Seet rov^ toiovtovs aTroa-ToXovs they die of fear of (are frightened to death at) such expeditions. D. 4, 45. 532 The Accusative is used after the particles of swear- ing, vTJ and fxd, as with ofjLvvfjn (530 a), vy affirms ; fxd denies, unless vau yes precedes : N17 Ata or vol fid Ata yes, hy Zeus; fid Ata or ov fxd Ata no, hy Zeus, THE ACCUSATIVE 211 533 In poetry the accusative may denote the limit of motion : "H^ct? 'Y^pL(TTTjv TTOTafxbv ov \f/€v8(!)vvfiov thou wilt come to the Brawling stream^ not falsely named. A. pb. 715. o-e toT IXtj- XvOe TTav Kpa.To's to thee all this power has come. S. p. 141. rk 7roT€ dyXaas l^as ®r]^ds what art thou that hast come to glo- rious Thebes? S. ot. 153. 534 Two Accusatives denoting the same person or thing, the direct (outer) object and a predicate accusative, may stand with some verbs : Kv pov cr ar p oLTrr] V iiroiiqae koX err paTiqyov he avTov airihei^e lie made Gyrus satrap, and appointed him general also. An. i. i, 2. tov% lxOv<; ol tvpot 0eov<; ivofjLi^ov the Syrians regarded the fishes as gods. An. I. 4, 9. a. These predicate accusatives shade off gradually into simple appositives ; some cases may be taken in either way : "ESwKtt Swpcav ra XvTpa I gave the ransom as a gift. D. 19, 170. b. In the passive the direct object is made subject ; the other accusative remains a predicate noun, agreeing with the subject : Kvpos KaT€iriiL^Orj craT pairrj'S, err parrjyo^ 8k (XTreSctx^r; Cyrus teas sent dotcn as satrap., and was appointed ge^ieral. An. I. 9, 7. 535 Two Accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing (double outer object), are found with some verbs, especially those meaning as\ demand, teach, remind, hide, deprive : ^Lvpov alreip nXola to ash Gyrus for hoats. An. I. 3, 14. avafJLVijcraj u/xa? Kai rov<; rcov irpoyovoiv Kivhvvov^ I will also remind you of the dangers of 212 SIMPLE SENTENCES your forefathers. An. m. 3, ii. ra 17 /x e r e p' 17 /x a ? dTToo-Tepeu he is dejpriving us of our property. D. 4, so. The Inner Object 536 An Accusative of the Inner object (^Cognate Accusa- tive) is found with many verbs. It repeats the mean- ing of the verb in the form of a noun or pronoun. a. A noun, with a modifying word or clause (rarely omitted) : SrpaTiqyelv ravrrjv ttjv err parrjy lolv to act as general in this campaign. An. i. 3, 15. aWrjv jjih ap- Xr)j^ ovSejjLLav TrwTTore '^p^a I never held any other magistracy. Ap. 32 b. kiv^vv^vo^ tov ^(lyjxTov klvSv- vov I am in the utmost danger. Ap. 34 c. ^wi^vye T7)v ^vy7)v TavTTjv he shared the late exile, a p. 21 a. So hiKoX^eiv hiKr\v TLvd decide a suit, (j)evy€Lv Slktjv TLvd he defendant in a suit^ ypd^^o-dai y po.^r\v nva bring an indictment^ Oveiv rd AvKaia celebrate hy sacrifice the Lyhaiaj etc. b. An adjective or pronoun in the neuter : ''^TTadov TL TOLovTov I had sonic such experience as this. Ap. 22 a. MeXT^Tft) TovTOiv ovre fxeya ovre fjLLK pov TTcoTTOTe ipu4\.7)(Tev Mclctos uevcr cared either much or little about these matters. Ap. 26 b. So r i Xpyjcr^rai tovtco ; what use will he malce of this ? fxiya ^poveiv be proud {think large)^ irdyra rrd- OeaOai render all obedience^ etc. c. Some verbs take both a direct object and a cog- nate accusative : THE ACCUSATIVE 213 'H/Act? TO. aucrx'-o'T a alKicrd^evof; hy inflicting on us iJie most shameful outranges. Ax. m. i, is. e/ca- ar ov evepyereiv rrjv ixeyLcrrrjv eve pyea idv to confer on each the greatest benefaction. Ap. 36 c. erepoi he TToXXa Kay ad a 6/xa? elcnv elpyaafxevoL and others have done many good things to yon. l. i6, 19. The inner object may stand also with the passive : Tt a^LKTjOa.'i VTT ifxov vvv iTTL^ovXevei^ fxoi; tvJiat IVTOng did you receive from me, that you are now scheming against me 9 An. I. 6, 8. d. A few adjectives also take a cognate accusative : ^ocfibLdVi d/jiaOr]6La. or o-otd wisdom. c. With a possessive pronoun or a possessive genitive the noun has the article when a definite person or thing is meant : *E/xo? <^tAos or 6v he h'ings Cyrus into discredit ivith his brother. An. i. 1, 3. e. Xames of countries, mostly adjectives by origin, com- monly have the article : •H'EXAas Greece. f. Names of peoples often omit the article : *A6r]vaLOL or ol ^AOtjvolol the Athenians. g. Predicate nouns rarely have the article ; the subject and a predicate noun are often thus distinguished (cp. 652) : *Ex^pos av6p(xyn-o? (36 b) the man is an enemy. D. 4, 50. h. For the article with demonstrative pronouns see 553, 654. 662 a. The place just after the article is called the attribu- tive position. Most attributive words take that posi- tion if the noun has an article : Ot ayaOoi SyjixLovpyoi the good artisans, b. Sometimes t he_articleand an attributjre stsmd jifter the noun, as if added as an afterthought : Kara tov^ vofxovsi tovt€ tts Tegavcls me. to h\ ottws, TovTo Aeye })ut the how^ tell us that. D. 3, 10. 656 Distinguisli TToWd many things^ ra TroWd most things^ in most cases ; TTokv muchj TO TTokv the greater part ; irXeicTTOL very many^ ol 7r\eicrroi most people, the majority. Also r) fxecrrj ttoXc? the city between (two others), /xecTTy "T] TToXts or J] TToXt? /AecTT/ the midst of the city ; Tj icrxdrrj x^P^ the farthest land, io-xdrr) rj X^P^ ^^ V X^P^ icrxdrr] the edge of the land ; 6 [Lovo^ vto9 the only son, fjLovos 6 utd? or 6 uto? fjLovo^; the son only. PRONOUNS 557 The endings of the verb indicate the person (first, second, or third) with sufficient clearness ; hence the personal pronouns in the nominative, eyw, av, r}fji€L<;, u/xet?, are used only when emphasized. So in the third person ovto<;, oSe, or eKeivos as subjeqjb : PRONOUNS 223. 'Eyw oKvoLTjv OLT/ ifx/BaLveLv I should myself hesi- tate to go aboard, An. i. 3, 17. aXX' elhev tovto Ka\a>s eKelvo^ but HE saw this clearly, d. 4, 5. 658 For the three meanings of auros see 199. Note that when standing alone in the nominative auros always means ipse^ emphasizing some word understood : AvTos ^wetSoj? (ji-qa-Lv; does lie say it of his oiun Icnoivledgef S. OT. 704. rj^ei yap avrd things ivill come of themselves. S. ot. 341. avTos £<^r/ he himself (the master) said it, ipse dixit. In other cases also the word emphasized by avro? may be omitted : nXevareW €t5 ravrd? avro t S iiJi/3a(TLv yOU must Sail, going 071 toard in person {vfiiv being understood). D. 4, 16. a. Note also the idiomatic use of avros with an ordinal numeral : *Hip€^i; Trpea-jSevrrjs ScKaro? avT6pd Kad evSeiv ouS* afxekeiv rjfJL(t)P avrcov it is no time for sleeping or for leing careless of ourselves. Ax. I. 3, 11. a. This Dative Infinitive has a wide range of mean- ing, from simple purpose to cases where it merely defines the application of a Avord or phrase. The dative force can usually be seen, but in or some other preposition may be necessary in translation : EtXeo-^e dpx^i^v fjLov you cliose (tJiem) to rule over me. Ap. 28 e. eTOLjjLos \eyeiv ready to speak (^for speaking). Seuvo^ \iyeiv skilled in {with reference to) speaking, ovx v^^a aKoveiv not pleasant to ■hear. D. 4, 38. oXo^ det TTore /xeraySaXXecr^at {such^ as to he alivays changing, h. n. 3, 45. . iKavoq Td<; oLKpoTTokuq (jyvXcLTTeiv sufficient for guarding the citadels. Ax. i. 2, l. Y^Xiap-yo^ cnvyvo% r^v o pdv Klearchos was repulsive to see. Ax. n. 6, 9. ovroi o-vvexO^Lv dXXd (Tvp.j)iXelv e^vv I am not one {ivas not horn) to join in hatred, hut in love. s. ax. 523. ToaovTov hid) bp.oXoyelv SO far am I from 15 226 SIMPLE SENTENCES agreeing {I lack so much with reference to agreeing). D. 9, 17. v6(Tr)fjia jjuel^ov rj (j)€peLv a trouble too great to bear (greater than for bearing^, s. ot. 1293. b. Note the use with Ixw : OvSei/ €tx€ pd(raL he had nothing to tell. S. ot. 119. This easily passes into the meaning he could tell nothing ; hence €Xw becomes practically equal to Swa/^ai, taking an infinitive (most often a word of saying) with or without an object : ovSk Sivpo toi/T€s €K T^s x'^^po''^ ovSev €LxofJicv XafjL/3dv€iv even when coining hither we could not taJce anything from the country. An. ii. 2, 11. 666 The Infinitive with w? or aio-re is used a. With adjectives in the comparative, or imply- ing comparison : 'OXtyot ws iyKpaTets elvai too few to Iiave power. C. IV. 5, 15. ^paxvrepa rj w? i^LKvelaOai too short to reach. An. m. 3, 7. eXarrw €\ovTa h-uvapLiv rj axTTe Tov<; (J)lXov<; cjcjyeXelv having too little force to aid his friends (less than as for aiding), h. iv. 8, 23. yepojv eKeivo^ axTTe a a)(j)€\e2v he is old for aiding you. E. AND. 80. b. To denote result, especially an intended result ; wcrre is the usual word in prose, often preceded by a demonstrative ; the idea of intention gradually fades out : YXyov ra openava et? yrjv f^XeTrovra w? Z laKoir- T€Lv they had the scytlies extending toivard the ground (as) for cutting in tivo (whomever they came on). An. I. 8, 10. vTreXctcrd? w? crvv avTrj a at riding u/p so as to meet him. An. i. 8, 15. vvkt6% teVai, ws fjurj INFINITIVES 227 opaaOai to go hy night so as not to he seen. Ax. iv. 6, 13. -^povcp TTOT i^eiTpd^av W9 Sovpau hiKTjv at length they have lorought it out so as to pay the pen- alty, S. AN. 303. MT^^az^al TToXXat elaiv coctt e S La(f) evy eiv Odva- Tov many devices there are for escaping death. Ap. 39 a. TTOLPTas ovTO) StttTt^ei? ojcTTe avTco (f)L\ov^ eXvau SO disposing all {jnitting all into such disp)osition) as to he friendly to him. Ax. i. i, 5. e)^oj r/jtTypet? wcrre ikelv TO iKetpcov it\oiov I have triremes so as to catch their hoat. Ax. i. 4, 8. 8etV iiriqTreiXei, wcrr' ovre vvk- TOf; VTTVov ovT i^ r)iJiepd<; e/xe ar ey d^eLv he made dreadful threats^ so that neither hy night nor day did sleep cover me. s. e. 780 f. The last example comes very close to tlie use of ware witli an indicative, de- noting an actual result (639 a). c. Sometimes oio-Tc. with the infinitive states a condition or proviso (cp. 567) : Twv XolttCjv apx^LV 'EAXt/j/wv, ware aurov? vTraKoveiv /Jao-tAet to rule the rest of the Greeks, provided they ivoiild (so as to) themselves ohey the Iciyig. D. 6, 11. 567 The Infinitive after ec^' w or ec^' wre states a condi- tion or proviso : I o ecpacrav aTTOococreLv ecp co firj Kaeiv rag otKta? and they said they would give hach (the dead), on con- dition of their not hurning the houses. Ax. iv. 3, 19. d(f)L€fjL€v cr€j eVt rovrcp fxevroL, i(f)* <5t€ fjL7]K€TL (^tXo- o-o(j)€2v we let you off^ on this condition hotvever, that you no longer seek tvisdom. Ap. 29 c. 228 SIMPLE SENTENCES 668 The Infinitive is used with TrptV before : ALe^r)crav tt p iv rov^ aXXov<; oltt o k ptv acr au they crossed before tlie others answered. An. i. 4, i6. Kareiyii irpiv fxoi fJLoipav e^rJKeiv ^iov I go down before 7ny allotted term of life is over. s. an. 896. For irpiv with finite modes see 644. a. Earely Trporepov rj with the infinitive has the same mean- ing. 669 The Infinitive is used in some idiomatic phrases, partly off- shoots of the dative infinitive (666 a and b), partly standing nearer to the adverbial accusative (540). Among the most frequent are : *Os €t7ret]/ or ws eTTos eiTTcti/ SO to speah^ softening an expres- sion that might seem too strong, (ws) o-wcAoVrt dirdv in a word (for one to say^ taking it together)., w? dKaa-ai to make a guess^ i/xoL 8oK€Lv, in my vietv, as it seems to me, oXtyov Setv almost (to lack little), iKibv cTvat willingly, to vvv elvai for the present, to Kara tovtov ehat as regards him. 570 The Infinitive is used as object with many verbs : a. As the only object : liiOelv Tirana? ovk rjSvvijOrjv J coidd not per- suade the Titans, a. pb. 220. e/xeXXe /caraXuetj/ he loas intending to halt. An. i. 8, 1. et? IllcrtSd? fiovXo- /xei^o? err parevecrO au Wishing to make an expedi- tion against the Pisidians, An. i. 1, 11. ^o^oiprqv av eVecr^at I should be afraid to follow. An. i. 3, 17. b. With /xeAXo) intend, am about, the future infinitive is often used (also the present, sometimes the aorist) : MeAAo) v/^ias 8 1 S a ^ e t V I am ahout to explain to you. Ap. 21 b. e/xeXXev avrui KaXw re KayaOoi Troi-^acLv he was likely to make them what they should he. Ap. 20 a. efxeXXc KaraXvetv he INFINITIVES 229 was alout to halt. An. i. 8, 1. /xeAAw -n-aOelv I am aloiit to suffer. A. pb. 652. In all other uses the future infinitive may be regarded as representing an indicative (577, 578). c. With another object : Tou9 67r\tTd<; eKeXevaev avrov ^elvai he hade the hoplites remain there. An. i. 5, 13. iiroLrjae ^vevvecriv fjLrj hvvacrOai /caret yrjv ivavriovcrOaL ^vpco (the Spar- tan naval commander) made 8yennesis unable to op- pose Gyrus hy land. h. m. l, l. at y^hovaX ireiOovcTi T7)v ^vxy]v jjirj cr CO (f) pov el V pleasures urge the soul not to use self-control, m. i. 2, 23. d. From such uses as the last the accusative came to be regarded * as the subject of the infinitive : 'E^ouXero ro) TratSe afX(j)OT€p(o irapelvaL he wished both his sons to he near. an. i. i, i. ScoKpdrrj^; TjyeLTo 9eovs iravTa elhivai Sohrates believed that the gods Iciioio everything, m. i. i, lo. Thus arose the infinitive clause with subject accusative, which received a wide extension, as in Latin. 571 The subject of an infinitive is omitted when it is the same as that of the leading verb ; a modifier of the subject, whether predicative or attributive, then agrees with the subject of the leading verb : *0 S' VTT eerier o avhpX e/cacrrw hoxj eiv Trivre dpyv- ^ A similar growth can be traced in English, in such a sequence as : (1) It is good for us to he here, (2) For us to be here is good, (3) For us to be here is a proof of our friendship. In (1) for us modifies good ; in (2) the same construction is possible, but one is inclined to take for us to be here as a clause, the subject of is good ; in (3) the last construction is the only one possible. 230 SIMPLE SENTENCES pLov fjLvoL'; and he promised that he woidd give five minae in money to each man (cp. 677 a). An. i. 4, 13. Heparjs e^i? elvai he said he tvas a Persian, An. IV. 4, 17. a. A predicate noun or adjective remains in the nomi- native when the infinitive, with subject omitted, has the article, or depends on a preposition : 'Opeyo/xevot ToO Trpwros lKa awoicreiv Tama ireirela-O ai Xeyeuv alpovp.ai I choose to spealc because of my conviction that these measures will be for your interest, d. 4, 5i. Kiv^wevaaiT av tco top 'EWtJo-- TTovTov aXXoT pLcodrjp at you would be endangered by the fact that the Hellespont has become another'^ s, D. 9, 18. 576 An Infinitive with tov is sometimes used tQ express purpose : MtVo)5 TO XxjCTTLKov KaOrjpiL TOV TttS TTpoaoSovs fxaXXov l i V a L avTio Mmos put doivn piracy, that his 7'evenues might cofne to him better. T. i. 4. This may be regarded as a genitive of cause ; v-n-ep or eve/ca is sometimes put with it. 577 An Infinitive clause, with or without the article, often represents a sentence with a finite verb ; the original sentence is thus changed to a noun and made part of another sentence, in one of the constructions above described. Most often such an infinitive is the sub- 234: SIMPLE SENTENCES ject or object of a verb of saying or tlmiking — that is, a verb meaning say, tell, Jiear, learn, or thinh, be- lieve, hnow, and the like. In such infinitive clauses a. The original tense and tense-meaning are re- tained, the time (if the original verb was an indica- tive) being relative to that of the principal verb. The future infinitive is found chiefly in this use. An imperfect or pluperfect indicative, as these tenses are not made in the infinitive, is represented by the present or perfect — the infinitive of the same tense-system. b. If the original sentence had ov, that is usually retained, but is sometimes changed to /xt; (579 a). c. If an original indicative or optative had av, that is retained. Thus av with an infinitive shows that the infinitive represents an indicative or optative with av (579). 578 The Infinitive representing a finite verb often stands as object with certain verbs of saying or tMnhing : 'Eyw ^7)1X1 ravra kvdpid<; elvai (representing ravra <^\vdpiai etcrt) I say tJiat this is nonsense. An. I. 3, 17. avT i\ey eiv (f)rj^ Tol9 Xoyov9 finely worded speeches. Ap. it b. a. The Attributive Participle is often used without a noun, thus becoming itself a noun (555 b). Such a phrase, if brief, may sometimes be rendered by an English noun ; if longer, its nearest equivalent is a relative clause : Ot AeyovTcs the speakers, ol aKovovTcs tlie hearers, ol evoiKovvres the inhabitants, rf re/covcra the mother, €LKrj Xeyofiiva things stated carelessly, ra avrots /3e^tw/xeVa their lives {things lived hy tliein), to. So^^avra t^ o-r/aarta the opin- ion {decision) of the army. An. i. 3, 20. Ot ravrriv r-qv (fitjfjirjv Kara(TK€8dcravT€<; first he stood and wept for some time. An. i. 3, 2. ravra yap fcaXoi? iyco € t 8 w 9 StwXecra this, though I hriew it well^ I had let slip, s. ot. 318. a. Certain participles occur often in idiomatic use, as ap- Xofx^^vo's (beginning) at first, reXevTwv (ending) finally , tx'^v (hold- ing on) constantly, Oappwv boldly, XaOwv secretly, dvvKpdTrj<; pa- Slco<; av a (f> e 9 el (; viro rcov SiKacTTcov TrpoeiXero drro- Oavdv Sohrates, who would easily have heen acquitted hy the judges, chose to die, m. iv. 4, 4. VERBAL ADJECTIVES IN -TE02 596 The Verbal in -Teo<; (cp. 352, 354) is generally passive in meaning; it may be used in the personal or the impersonal construction ; the agent in either construc- tion is expressed by a dative (524 b). a. The personal construction gives more promi- nence to the subject, with which the verbal agrees, as attributive or as predicate ; the copula is often omitted : 'EjLtot Tovro ov TTOLrjT eov this must not be done hy me, An. i. 3, is. ov Toaavra opr) opdre {jfjulv ovra TTopevrea ; do you not see so many mountains that must he traversed hy you ? An. h. 5, 18. b. The impersonal construction gives more promi- nence to the action ; the verbal is in the neuter sin- PREPOSITIONS 247 gular (sometimes in the plural), and may take an object ; the copula is often omitted : 'Hfilv y virep Trj<; iXevOeptds ay oiv lar 4ov W€ at least must 'make a struggle for freedom, d. 9, 70. Iriov ovv iirl a7ravra<; tov<; tl So/cou^^ra? etSeVat T had to go therefore (the context shows that '^v is understood) to all those who appeared to have some hnovjledge. Ap. 21 e. Tov<; (J)lXov<; ev € py errjT eov , rwv ^oaKrjixdrcov iiri- jjL€\r]T€ov one must benefit Ms friends, one must ca/re for his flocks. M. n. 1, 28. c. Some verbals in -rio^ have the meaning of the middle voice : Treta-Teov 0716 must obey^ ^v\a.Krkov we must he on our guard. PREPOSITIONS 597 All Prepositions were once adverbs ; Homer uses them as such freely, the Attic poets occasionally ; in Attic prose tt/oos alone is so used (cp. 437 a). But their special office, along with their use in composition (437, 440 a), is to connect nouns or pronouns with other words, making the relation plainer than the case ending would alone. a. The details of the use and meaning of prepositions are best learned from reading, and from vocabularies and the dic- tionary ; some of the chief distinctions only are given here. 598 *Aj/a, et9 or e? (and w?) take the Accusative ; 'Ei^ and avv take the Dative only ; 'Ai^rt, aTTo, ef, and upo take the Genitive only ; Ata, /caret, /xera, virip take the Accusative and Genitive ; 'AjLt(^t, eVt, TTapdj irepi^ Trpo^;, viro take the Accusa- tive, Genitive, and Dative. a. A preposition joined to a verb may affect the case of a noun or pronoun precisely as if it were not in composition. 248 COMPOUND SENTENCES b. The meaning of the noun or pronoun, or of the verb, often determines the meaning of the preposition ; a relation that is natural in one situation may be impossible in another. This principle has a wide application. Thus : ek rov TrorafjLov into the river, els dvSpaopd anapliora)^ with asyndeton, is an emotional way of connecting sentences : Tt' ovv l(TTL TovTo ; aTTLcrr la. ravTrjv cf>v\dTT€T€, ravTrj^ avrir X^a-Oe what, then, is this? Distrust. Guard this, cling to this. D. 6, 24. 601 When successive sentences, independent in construc- tion, are joined by a coordinating conjunction, and are so united in speaking as to make one, the whole is called a Compound Sentence. 602 The principal coordinating conjunctions are the following ; details of their use and meaning are to be learned in reading ; nearly all have other uses too (cp. 665-673). a. Copulative Conjunctions : Kat, re (enclitic) aiid ; ovSe, fJir)S€, ovT€, jx-qre and UOt, nor. Kat . . . Kat, T€ . . . Kat both . . . and, ovT€ . . . ovT€, fn]T€ . . . jxrjTe neither . . . nor, are fre- quent combinations. b. Adversative Conjunctions : aXka hut, 8c (postpositive) lut, and, ardp hut, however, fiivTot (postpositive) however, yet, KairoL and yet. c. Disjunctive Conjunction : rj or. rj ... t] either .. . or, is a frequent combination. d. Inferential Conjunctions : dpa then, accordi^igly, as it seems; ovv therefore, then; vw or vvv (enclitic and poetic), tol- vvv unemphatic 7iow, then (cp. 673). e. Causal Conjunction : yap for (cp. 672). 603 Instead of a full compound sentence, a sentence with a com- pound subject or a compound predicate may be used {Abbre- viated Compoimd Sentence) : 'O Se Tret^erat Kat (rvA.Xa/x/3av€t Kvpov he believed it and arrested Cyrus. An. i. 1, H, cTra^tws yap ^ol(3o<;, d^tw? 8c (TV Trpo Tov OavovTO^ rrjvS' eOecrO* i7rLcrTpo(f>T^v for right tUOrthily hath Phoibos, and ivorthily hast thou, bestowed this care for him that is dead. S. ot. 133 f. 250 COMPLEX SENTENCES PARATAXIS AND HYPOTAXIS 604 When two sentences, independent in form, are so united in speaking that one is subordinate to the other in thought, they are called Par atactic'^ {TrapaTaa-a-oi arrange beside). In form, as written, they are simply coordinate sentences not joined together by a conjunction : 'E-TriVrao-^e kol v/xct?, olfxai you hnow it yourselvBS^ I thinh. An. III. 2, 8. r]hi(TT av (XKovo-ai/xt to ovofxa, tl€.vpSrjCTo ;>(wpds these he made rulers of the territory which {of what territory) he suldued. An. I. 9, 14. The antecedent may be omitted ; it is often indefinite and therefore not expressed ; it may none the less attract the rela- tive from the accusative to the genitive or dative (613 b) : Nvi/ hraLVoi ere icfi' ols Aeyets re kol Trparrets now I praise you for lohat you hoth say and do. An. hi. 1, 45. a /x^ oTSa ovSe oto/xat elSevai what I do not Jcnow, I also do not think I hnoiv. Ap. 21 d. e/xyaei/OjUei/ oX'i oiixoXoyrjcrafxev 8tKat06S ovg-lv rj ov; do We abide hy luhat we agreed was just, or not ? Cr. 50 a. a. From the customary omission of the antecedent have arisen some common idiomatic expressions : ela-lv oi, more often ) some, literally the7'e are who, e(TTLV OL {wv, 6iov (TV p.vr)pLocnv Se'Arot? ^pcvoiv I tcill tell thy wandering^ which do thou lorite in the tablets of thy me^nory. A. pb. 815. a. Instead of repeating a relative in a different case in the same sentence, Greek usually changes to a demonstrative or relative pronoun, or leaves the relative to be supplied : 'B,€VOii)V, OS ovre a-Tparrjyos ovre o-rpaTidiT'qS u>v crvvf] koXov- $€1, dXXa Hpo^evos avrov fjieTeTrefJuj/aTo JietlOphon, who ivas icith them neitlier as genercd 7ior as soldier., but Proxe7ios had sent for him. Ax. iii. 1, 4. 616 In "09 Clauses that differ in form from simple sen- tences, a. A subjunctive (with av^ which is sometimes omitted in poetry, rarely in prose) describes a sup- posed or assumed case, which may or may not be real. The time is future, or present in the generalized sense (i. e., applying to present, past, and future alike). The subjunctive is especially common when the ante- cedent is indefinite : 256 COMPLEX SENTENCES 'O avrjp TToWov dfto? <^iXos w av <^tXo9 fj the man is a valuable friend to any one to whom he is a friend (generalized present). An. i. 3, 12. rw av^pi ov kv eXrjcrOe ireiao p.ai I will obey the man lohom you choose (in tlie future). An. i. 8, 15. w fxaKoipLOL Brjra ot av vfjLMv iir l8 (OCT L tyjv TracTCDv rj^Lanqp yjixepav O blessedj therefore, whoever among you shall behold that sweetest day of all ! n. n. 4, 17. TtJoi/ TrrjfiovCjv fxaXicTTa Xvttovct at (fiavCxr avOaiperoL tllOSe griefs give most pain that are seen to he self-clioseyi. S. ot. 1231. SeSoLKa jxr} ovk e)((o LKavovs ots 8w^ I fear I sJiall not have enough people to ivhom to give. An. i. 7, 7. b. An optative (without av) describes an assumed case, but as more remote in thought from the speaker ; e. g., as the thought of another person, or as part of a past or imaginary or improbable situation. The time is future, or present in the generalized sense, with ref- erence to the time of the main verb. The optative is es23ecially common after a past tense, and when the antecedent is indefinite, or the assumed situation is thought of as having occurred repeatedly : ^KirriyyeWov 01 Trpecr^et? ec^' of 9 ot AaAceSat/xoi^tot TToiolvTo rrjv elprjvrjv the envoys reported on what terms the Spartans offered to make the peace, h. n. 2, 22. TrpoTepov OVK e^cov 7Tp6(j)acnv i(j) 7) 9 rov f^iov \6yov SoLTjv, vvv\ eiLXrj(f)a whereas before I had no pretext ^ others explain this differently. But cp. Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, 588-540. Both in relative clauses and in et clauses with the subjunctive iiv is omitted regularly in Homer, often in Attic poets, and certainly sometimes in Attic prose.' In this example tv would have been natural; the omis- sion does not change the meaning. Cp. also 621 a. "Os AND "OcTTis CLAUSES 257 on which to give an account of my life, now I have got one, l. 24, i. 'OKvoLr)p av et? ra TrXota i^^aiveiv a rjfuv Ki)po9 8 17^ I should hesitate to go aboard any boats given by Cyrus (supposing him to give any). An. i. 3, 17. dXX' ov TToXt? cTTT] (reue^ rovSe )(pr) Kkveiv but ivhom- soever the state appoints, him we should obey. s. an. 666. 'Aei 77/009 M eiT) €pyo), tovto eirpaTTev always, at whatsoever task he was, that he strictly pursued, h. iv. 8, 22. 617 In place of a subjunctive or optative in o? clauses one could in any instance use the indicative. This merely left unex- pressed (except by the context, which is usually enough, as in English) the suggestion conveyed by the other modes : ''A /at) otSa, ouSc oioynat etSeVat ivliat I do 710 f kfioto, neither do I think I know, Ap. 21 d. (Here fjcrj shows that the ex- pression is general — ivhatevei\ at any time, I do not knoiv.) OvK hi cfipovTcSo-s €7x°^ ^ ''■'^ dAe^erat nov is there any iveapon of thought ivhereivith to defend {ivherewith one shall defend). S. ot. 170. Hapov fioL firj Oaveiv virep ai$€v, aX\* avSpa a-)(€Lv ©ecro-aXoov ov rjOeXov though it was i7i my poicer not to die for you, hut to get as hushand lohom I would of the Thessalians. E. al. 285. (Alkestis had no one man in mind ; the expression is general.) 618 "Ocrrt? Clauses take all the forms of "O? Clauses (615, 616), and the modes have the same force. But though the antecedent is usually indefinite, the indicative (617) is more frequent than in "O? Clauses : a. Subjunctive: aTrd? 8e rpd^v^ ocrrt? ap viov K parrj and every one is harsh thafs nexo in power. A. PB. 35. (Tvv viiiv 6 T L av Ser) 7r€tcro/xat with you I will suffer whatever we must, An. i. 3, 5. 17 258 COMPLEX SENTENCES Without av : KoKov rot yAwo-cr* oria Trtcrr^ '^^PV H is a fin e tiling^ whoever has a trusty tongue. E. it. 1064. b. Optative: ovcniv ql% -^peir) ap^eiv Traprjy- ■ yeWov they gave orders what men should hold office. L. 12, 44. ala^pov vixlv KoX Tjvrivovv [81^171^] aTroknreiv TjvT IV a Tt9 /3 ovXoLTO TTapoL TovTcov Xajx^dveiv it is shameful for you that any (^penalty^ ivhatever should he lacking which any one might rvish to exact from these men. l. 12, 84. (Here the optative hightens to the utmost the inclusiveness of the expression — the most unlikely wish could not go too far.) c. Indicative where subjunctive or optative would have been appropriate : "Oo-Tts tpjv iTTLOvjxeL^ TTCipddOoi vIkolv wlioever is eager to live, let him try to conquer. An. hi. 2, 39. -jrapia-xov ifiavrov 6 TL povXea-Oe ^rjo-Oai I offered myself for you to treat in whatever way you ivill. L. 7, 40. 619 "Oo-rt? with an indicative often suggests cause, purpose, or result, by treating a definite antecedent as indefinite in order to characterize it (generally of persons) : Tt TOV 6€o206vo9 ^vXaaa-^rai hoiv great the envy that is stored tvith you I S. ot. 382. olov p! aKova-avr dpruos €^€L \f/v^L(r/jL OTO) (XTraAXaycu I have no device whereby I shall escape. A. PB. 487. (Direct : rtVt a-Oi^tV/Aart aTraAAayoj; 471.) "O/xoLOL rj(rav Oavfid^ova-LV ottol ttotc t p eif/ov rat ol "EAAt/vcs KOL T t €v vw ex o t e v they ivere like people who wondered tchither the Greeks would turn and what they had in mind. An. III. 5, 13. a. By omission of the antecedent, o? and the other simple relatives become sometimes in effect indirect interrogatives : Ei^€ iLTjirore yoLrj' rj/xwv oTSa that he thinks him- self wronged by us I am sure. An. i. 3, 10. 623 A quotation introduced by oTt may retain its original form, as a simple, compound, or complex sentence (direct quotation) ; OTt is then merely a mark of quotation, not to be translated : 'O? d7ro(f>avC)V tw )(py](rfJiY)(TOa" thinking that I should shotv to the oracle, " This man here is wiser than I, but you said 1 2uas.^' Ap. 21 c. 624 a. An Indirect Quotation with otl usually retains tlie tense and mode of the direct form : ^avepo)<; elirev otl tj fiep 7t6\l<; cr(f)cov reret^^icr- rat Tjhr] he said openly that their city was already 262 COMPLEX SENTENCES walled. T. I. 91. TOVTO Ka\a)<; r^TTiaravTO, on aXXw? ixev ovx ^^^^ ^^ eaovTai TTepiyeveaOai tJiey Tcnew this well^ that otherwise tliey would he unable to get the iippe7' hand, l. 12, 45. b. But after a historical tense an optative may stand in tlie indirect form for an indicative or sub- junctive of tlie direct form : Ki}po9 e\eyev on rj 6809 ecroiro 7rpo9 ^aaikea Cyrus said that their marcJi would he (direct, earai) against the Icing. An. i. 4, 11. eXeyov on Kupo? ^xev r eOvr) Kev 'Aptato? §e 7re(j)€vya)<; eliq koI \eyoi on TavTTjv fiev Trjv rjixepdv it € p l fxev o'iev avTOv<;^ rfj 8e dWr) oLTTiivai c^atT^ they said that Cyrus was dead (direct, ridv^K^^ and that Ariaios had fled (Trec^evyw? eVrt, 7re(^€vye), and said (Xeyei or eXeye) that during this day he would wait for them (the messenger said TrepLfjLeveLj Ariaios said irepip^evco), and that he decla/red {€(j)r)) that on the next day he ivoidd depart. An. h. 1, 3. Note that a pres. opt. may represent the imperfect indie. ; but the change to the optative is never made when it could cause ambiguity. c. Sometimes a present or perfect indicative of the direct form is changed to an imperfect or pluperfect in the indirect, as is usual in English : 'El/ TToXXrl aTTopta -^(rav ol "EAXryve?, ivvoovjxevoi fxkv or l Ittl rats jSacrtAcws 6vpaL, €L7rr}S, V7roXdl3rj'S ort) TlOt to Say^ TlOt only. 626 AioTt (for 8ta ort) wherefore^ because^ that., is used like on, often in the sense of because., sometimes in the sense of that. ovv€Ka (for ov eveKtt) tvherefore, that, is used like on in poetic style : *ETvy;(ave €<^* dixd^rjq Tropcvo/xcvos Stori ir ir pioro it hap- pened that he tvas riding in a wagon^ because he was ivounded. An. II. 2, 14. OvTos 8c fxoL iXoiXrj XevKrj just as evening was coming on^ there apj^eared a rising of dust ^ like a luhiie cloud. Ax. i, 8, 8. i-mx^Lpei yvLKa av rjjxd^ jxr] SwaifjieOa Ikcl(T€. dc^tKeV^at he mahcs attempts just ivhen ive should he unahle to get there. D. 4, 31. 'E^ap^w ph/ ovv iyoi rjv lk av KaLpbt€v rots ttXclo-tols iSoKovv, s ttoltjo-ov; do you know how you should do ? (literally, do you knoiv how do?) S. OT. 543. In this use also ws retains its force as adverb. c. Temporal : *0 8' ws aTTrjXOe fSovXevcrai hut he, as he ivent away, con- sidered. An I. 1, 4. (I)S et8e KAeapxoi/ SteAavVovra, t?y(rt t^ d^tVry ivhen he saw Klearchos riding through, he threio his ax at him. An. i. 5, 12. d. Causal : A€o/u,ttt (Tov 7rapafji€LvaL rffuv, w? eyw ov8' av evos ^8Zov ukov- o-at/At / ^e^ ^0?^ ^0 ^^rt/y with us, as there is not one ichom I would more gladly hear. Pr. 335 d. e. Such clauses, like those introduced by os and eVet (629 a), are often so loosely connected with the main verb as to be really independent sentences. f. Some common phrases have arisen from the omission of a verb. Thus clauses like w 5 fidXio-Ta iSvvaro as he ivas most able (An. i. 1, 6), and cb? av hvvoifxat hi eAa^to-Tcov in as brief terms as I can (L. 12. 3), are abbreviated to ws /xdXta-ra and ws Si iXaxt(TT(j)v. In this Avay (1)9 becomes merely a means of strengthening a superlative : w? /3iXTL(rTo<; as good as possible. 634 B. Two special uses of w? have been developed from the rela- tive meaning (633 a). These are (1) the declarative, (2) the final, denoting purpose. 270 COMPLEX SENTENCES 635 Clauses witli 'H? declarative^ meaning liow^ that, are like Clauses with "On meaning that (622) : OvTTore ipel ov8el<; o) 9 iyo) ttjv tcjv jSapjBdpcov (j)L\Ldp el\6 fjLTjv no one shall ever say that I chose the friend- ship of the harharians. An. i. 3, 5. o) s §e tovto ovtoj<; €X € t, ireipdcroixaL koX vpuv eTTiSetf at and that this is so, I will try to show you also, Ap. 24 c. 636 Clauses with '^.s final, denoting purpose, meaning that, in order that, are frequent in poetry, but rare in prose, except in Xenophon. With w? in this sense a. A subjunctive (often with dv) denotes a pur- . pose still to be accomplished : Act ^€019 hovvai hiKrjv, a)9 av S ihax^jj he must pay the penalty to the gods, that he may he taught (in a way in which he may), a. pb. lo. aj^S'avfjidOrj^; on ovS* av ifxeis St/catco? e/xot aTncrTOLrjTe, avrdKovcrov hut that you may learn thai you also would not justly distrust me, hear in turn. An. h. 5, 16. b. An optative (without dv) denotes a purpose of the same kind, but more remote from the speaker — e. g., as that of another person, or of a past situation, or as less likely to be accomplished. The optative is common after a past tense : 'iKopirjv TO Tlv0LKov fxavreiov, w? (judO o t fx* otco TpoTTO) TTaTpl St/cctg dpoifjLiQv I came to the Pythian oracle, that I might learn in what ivay I should gain justice for my father, s. e. 33. irpoa-Kakwv tov<; ^lKovs icnrovSaLoXoyeLTo w? 87)\o Crj ovs rl/xa he used to call "Ottws clauses 271 Ms friends and talk seriously with ihem^ so as to sJioiv whom he honored, an. i. 9, 28. c. A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part of an imaginary, unreal situation expressed or implied in the leading clause : Et yap [L V7T0 yrjv jJKev, &> ? /Ai^Ve ^eo? iirjre rt? dWos TO tcrS' iireyTjOeL oh that he had sent me under the earthy that neither god nor any other creature might he rejoicing at this. a. pb. 165. ri fx ov Xa/Bcbv eKreuva^;, ojs eSet^a fiijiTOTe ifxavTOP avO pciyiroiaiv lohy did you not take and day me, that I might never have shown myself to men. s. ot. 1392. d. For 0)9 with a participle see 693 c. For 0)9 with an infinitive see 566. 637 "Qa-n-ep is a strengthened o)9, used only in a relative and com- parative sense — even as, just as. "Qa-n-ep clauses are therefore like simple sentences : "fl or TT e p r7r7ro9 €iyev^9 ev tolctl 8€tvot9 Ovfjiov ovk dTrwAecrcv, o)o-a^jTO)9 Sk (TV rjfias oTpvvus even as a horse of nolle dlood does not lose heart (465) in danger, so thou dost spur us on. S. e. 25. "Oir(OS CLAUSES 638 "^Ottw? is the general relative and indirect interroga- tive to 0)9 and 770)9. ''0770)9 Clauses are like '119 Clauses, but some types are more frequent (and others less fre- quent) with O770)9. The following are common. a. With a future indicative, after expressions of planning or effort, to denote the aim : ^KeTTTeov fjioi So/cei elvau o 77 o) 9 dcr<^aXecrraTa fi € - vov iJL€v it seems to me we must consider how we shall 272 COMPLEX SENTENCES remain most safely. An. i. 3, il. ^ovkeverai o tt w 9 fiijirore eri ecrrac eVt rw dSeXc^w he considered how he should never again he dependent on his brother. An. I. 1, 4. OTTO)? /cat vy^^% ifxe iiraivecreTe e/xol fxeXTJcreL it shall he m.y care that you too shall praise me. An. I. 4, 16. aWo n rj rrepl ttoWov Troiet oircos w? ^eXTLaroL ol vearrepoi eaovrai; donH you think it very important that the young shall he as good as pos- sible ? Ap. 24 d. b. Out of the preceding, by omission of the main verb, has grown the use of oVw? and ottws /xtJ with a future indicative to express a command or prohibition. A leading verb is no longer thought of, and the ottws clause becomes a form of sim- ple sentence : Ottws ovv ecrea-Oe avSpes ol^lol rrj'S iXevOepcds pTOVe yOUV- selves men ivorthy of your freedom. An. i. 7, 3. ottws /x^ 7roti}(reT€ o TroAAa/ct? v/xas ef3kai(/e see that you doTiH do wliat has injured you often. D. 4, 20. c. With a subjunctive, often with av., or an opta- tive without av, expressing purpose ; in legal and official style oVw? aV with a subjunctive is frequent : ^Icr^t TTOLv TO Spcofjiepov, OTTO)^ av et8w9 tjiAv ay- yeiXr)^ cracfirj learn all that is going on, that you may with knowledge bring a clear report to us, s. e. 40. Set TreipacrOai o tt w 5 /caXw? vlKCJvre^ cr co^coixe9 a we must try horo we may save ourselves by conquering nobly. Ax. III. 2, 3. ATreKpti/aTO on avrco pieXoi 7ra>? KaXa)<; €)(ol he replied that he was taking care that it should be well. An. I. 8, 13. \kclvo% pkv ^povTiC^eiv r^v ottcos ^X^^ V "fioTc CLAUSES 273 arparia avrco tol iiTLTTJ^eLa lie tvas comjpetent to provide liow Ms army should have supplies. Ax. n. 6, 8. d. After expressions of caution or fear a clause Avitli ottws firj sometimes takes the place of a /xtJ clause (610, 611) : AeSoiKtt OTTO) 9 i^r] rjfxlv dvdyKr] yevjyo-erat I fear that neces- sity win come U2)0n us. D. 9, 75. aL yvolev 77} ay it some time he mine to satisfy with deeds my longing, that Mykenai might learn, etc. s. ph. 325. c. A past tense of the indicative (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect) marks the purpose as unattainable, part of an imaginary, unreal situation, expressed or implied in the leading clause : Ou yap ^XPV^ ap^ovra^ oIk€lov^ elvaL, iv^ rfv q}^ a\r)6cos T179 TToXeo)? rj Suz^a/xt? ; ought there not to have heen commanders of your own, that the forces might really helong to the state ? d. 4, 27. ovk av layoix-^v, Iv rj TV(^\6<; re /cat kKvmv /xT^SeV I should not have refrained, that I might he hoth hlind and deaf S. OT. 1389. d. Kote that any clause of purpose, if its leading clause implies that the case is already impossible, takes a past tense of the indicative. This is a form of attraction, the mode of the leading clause determining the mode of the subordinate clause. In the same way, any clause dependent on an optative is generally attracted to the optative. 276 COMPLEX SENTENCES IIpiV CLAUSES 643 The comparative adverb Trptv earlier, before, is used often with the infinitive (see 668). It also becomes a subordinating con- junction ; it may then often be best rendered until. 644 In Clauses with IlptV a. An indicative denotes a past fact : OvK levai YjOeXej irpiv 7) yvvrj avrov eireicre Kat Trtcrrei? eXa/B e lie was not willing to go^ until his ivife persuaded him and he had received pledges. An. i. 2, 26. S/xd^eWa? yap dptcTTT], tt p\v avrov elXe Alo^oXov irXrJKTpov TTvpos Kepavviov for he was ivont to raise the dead^ until the Zeus-hurled holt of thunderous fire de- stroyed him. E. AL. 128. b. A subjunctive (usually witli av) describes not a real but a supposed or anticipated case ; the time is future, or present in the generalized sense : Aetrat avrov (xr) npocrdev KaraXvaai irpiv av avrco orvpL^ov\€.v(Trirai he ashs him not to come to terms before consulting with him. An. i. i, lo. pJri areva^e rrplv fjiddrj^; no more lament., hefore thou learnest. S. p. 917. alcrxpov rjyovfxai irporepov TravaaaOai, rrplv av iffxei^ irepX avrojv o n av /SovXrjcrde xjjrj (j) uarj te^'09 iyoj S LeKcoXvcT a^ ravr'' icrrl TTpohoriqv elvaL tojv <^i\o)v ; if I^ perceiving this, preve7ited it, is that being a betrayer of one'' s friends ? h. n. 3, 46. 648 The future indicative in an Et Clause a. Is in form a simple future condition ; sometimes it is equivalent to /xeXXw with an infinitive, denoting present intention or expectation : E I TovTov KaT axjjT] (l)Le'La6 €j SrjXoL icreaOe w? 6p- yii^ofxevoL tol^; TreirpdyfjLevoL^ if you vote against this man, it will be plain that you are angry at their deeds. L. 12, 90. aavvera vvv ipovixev, e l cri y evcj) p avcj we will talk nonsense now, if I shall {thereby^ please you. E. lA. 654. el ovv 01 hoKovvTe<; hia^epeiv tolovtol ea ovT ai, alcrxpov av etr) if tlien those loho are thought superior are to be like that, it would be a shame. Ap. 35 a. b. It often suggests threat, warning, or earnest appeal {Emotional Future Condition) : Et V (f)r] (T 6 fJLeO a kol cttI ^aaiXei y evrj a 6 fxeO a, TL olofjieOa TTeLcrea-B ai ; if loe yield and come into the hing'^s power, what treatment do we expect ? Ax. m. 1, 17. el TliJL(i)pT](reL<; UarpoKXco tov (^ovov koX ^KTOpa OLTT o KTeve2<;, avro? oLTroOavel if you shall avenge the slaying of PatroMos and hill Hektor, you will your- self die. A p. 28 c. In such cases tlie indicative presents the supposition more distinctly as a possible future fact ; if the consequences will 280 COMPLEX SENTENCES be serious, it gives a " minatory or monitory " tone to force one to look at them in that way. 649 Et with tlie indicative imperfect and aorist, rarely tlie pluperfect, is used to imply that the supposition is past realization, opposed to a known fact ( Unreal Past Condition). The imperfect is used when the reality would be expressed by the present or imperfect, the aorist when the reality would be expressed by the aorist, the pluperfect w^hen the reality would be expressed by the perfect : w9 et 1X7) el^o fxevj o/iotot toi<; tv(J)\ol<; av rjixev if we did not have light (as we do) ive should he like the hlind. M. iv. 3, 3. ovk av vrjcratv e/cparet, e I fxij tl Kal vavTLKov €.l^e he would not have ruled over is- lands j if he had not had some naval force (therefore he had, elxe vavriKov), T. i. 9. E 6 /xt) D/x€ts rj\0 ere iiropevoyieOa av inl ySacrtXed if you had not come (but you did, T^X^ere), we should now he marching against the Mng. An. n. i, 4. e t rt? cr€ rj per o^ tl av aireKptvcx) ; if some one had asked you (nobody did), what should you have answered? Pr. 311 b. € t ere Tv^Tj ir p ovtt e fjLxjj e Kal rj\LKid<; eirij^rj- (T€Vy eXTTtSt y TjaOa /xeya9 if fortune had guided thee on and hrought thee to manhood^ in hope at least tlwu wast great, cia. 22G3. El € Ke KTT) fjLTjv ovcTLaVy €77* dcTpd^r]^ av OJ^OVfXiqV if I possessed property^ I should ride on a saddle, L. 24, 11. El CLAUSES 281 B. 'Eav ivith the Suhjunctive 650 The subjunctive takes av (rarely omitted), wMcIl is joined with et, forming idv (often contracted to r]v or av). The subjunctive puts the supposition simply, re- ferring it either to future time, or to any or all time (the generalizing present), whichever the context, especially the leading clause, may indicate (^Simple Future Condition, or General Condition). *Hz/ ikkv fjL€va) fxevj cnrovSaC if we remain, a truce. An. II. 1, 23. y^v TOVTO X ayS o) /x e ^', ou SvpTJcrovrai fxe- veiv if we take tliis^ tliey will not he able to remain. An. III. 4, 41. eai^ 8' aTTT^ to yaip^iv^ raW^ iyo) Kair- vov (T/cta? ovK av TTpiai^iqv hut if joy he (jone^ tlie rest I ivould not for a vapor'^s sJiadoiv huy. s. an. iito. El Tt vv^ ^^^7 rovT in r^jiap ep^eTai if night leaves aught ^ this the day assails, s. ot. 198. a. For lav meaning on the chance that, see 662. b. Greek also uses the present indicative (with d) in gen- eral conditions, as English does (cp. 617). c. Greek and Latin uses of the subjunctive in conditions must not be confused. Idv with the subjunctive corresponds to si with the future or future perfect indicative ; si with the subjunctive corresponds to d with the optative (651) : lav TOVTO TTOL-qa-Tjs si hoc fades or fecer is. C. El 2vith the Optative 651 Et with the optative (without av) presents the sup- position as more remote in thought (616 b) — (1) As a mere possibility, generally future, some- times present or general {Possible Condition), .282 COMPLEX SENTENCES (2) As part of a past situation wliicli occurred repeatedly {Past Repeated Condition), (3) As the thought of another person or an ear- lier time (^i^6>^^(i Condition) ; the future optative in such a condition always represents a future indicative of the original form : OvK av Oavfjidl^oLfjiL el ol iroke^xioi rjfjuv iiraKo- \ov0 olev I sJiould not he siirpi'ised if the enemy should folloiD us. An. hi. 2, 35. XvTTOVfievoLS 6;5(X')7pd9, € I fjioXoL, ^eVo? a guest annoys the sorrowing^ if he come. E. AL. 540. KoX tovto ye /xot Sofcet Kokov elvai^ e I Tt9 ofo9 T e Ir) iraiheveiv avOpoyirov^ this too seems to me a fine thing^ if one he really ahle to educate people. Ap. 19 e. Et St; TTore tto pevoLT o koL TrXeicrTot (xeWoiev oxjjecrOaLj irpocrKaXoiv tov<; c^iXou? icnrovSaLoXoyelTo if ever he was on the march and many woidd see it^ he would call his friends and talk seriously with them.. An. I. 9, 28. roiv ttoWojv etri? alcr o lt o, icriyd if any of the popular party perceived it^ he said nothing. D. 9, 61. ^YAl3ov\y]0r)craif 'EXevcrtz^a eftStwcracr^at, ojare elvai (T(I)LG-L KaTa(f)vyrjv el Seijcreie they wished to make Eleusis their own^ so as to have it as a refvge in case of need. H. n. 4, 8. yvov<; 6 Kptrtd? OTi el eiT lt p exjjoi TTJ ^ovXrj ?na\\fy)^it^ecr6aL irepl avrov Stac^eufotro Krit- ias^ recognizing that, if he should allow the council to decide ahout him hy a vote, he would escape (direct, Ct eTTLTpexpO)). n. II. 3, 50. El CLAUSES 283 a. Earely d with the optative expresses an unreal condi- tion, as in Homer. 652 'Eav with the subjunctive, and after a past tense el with the optative, are sometimes to be translated on the chance that, in the hope that, if perchance ; the future supposition of the la.v or d clause is a motive for the action of the leading clause : OvKow arpefji I^€t9, r]v tl koI •^ophrjr) avTOL<; he de- manded the return of the property ; otherivise he said he would make rear on them. H. i. 3, 3. /x^ TroLrja-ys Tama, el Sk jjl yj, aiTLav c^cts do not do this, else you tuill he blamed. An. vn. 1, 8. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 657 Words or thoughts so quoted as to be made grammatically subordinate in form to a verb or other expression meaning say, thinh, hear, or the like, are indirect quotations ; a direct quotation retains the original form. The forms used in indirect discourse have been already given in their proper places ; for convenience they are here briefly summed up together. 658 Simple sentences and principal clauses (not interrogative) in indirect quotation are put in the infinitive after certain verbs (577-579) — after <^?7/xt, oto/xai, and. vo/xt^w regularly in prose, seldom after Aeyw and dirov, except in the sense of hid. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 285 659 After most other verbs such clauses are introduced by on or ws (624, 635) ; the original tense is retained, the original mode is retained always after primary tenses and often after historical tenses. (But see 624 c.) a. But after historical tenses an indicative or subjunctive may be changed to an optative, unless that would cause am- biguity ; an indicative with av (461, 467, 469) is retained un- changed, to avoid confusion with a hypothetical optative. b. After one or more on or ws clauses, when the introduc- tory verb of saying is no longer near, a succeeding principal clause may be in the infinitive — as if the introductory verb had been one that requires the infinitive. 660 After verbs of thinking, hearing, and the like, that take a predicate participle agreeing with the object (586), the lead- ing verb of a brief quotation may be changed to a predicate participle. (See examples under 586.) 661 Direct questions, when made indirect, retain the original mode and tense ; but after historical tenses they may change an indicative or subjunctive to the optative, like on clauses (659 a). Xote especially that no indirect question has the subjunc- tive unless the direct form has it (dubitative subjunctive, 471) ; and that the optative is never required, even after a past tense. 662 Subordinate clauses of indirect discourse retain the mode and tense of the direct form always after a primary tense, often after a historical tense. But after a historical tense they may change an indicative or subjunctive to an optative, unless that would cause ambiguity ; a past tense of the indicative in an unreal condition (649), or in a clause that expresses a pur- pose past attainment (636 c, 642 c), is retained unchanged, to avoid confusion with other forms of conditional or final clauses. 286 COMPLEX SENTENCES 663 A long quotation carried through strictly in the indirect form, as is so often done in Latin, would have seemed in Greek monotonous and dull. The Greek preferred to vary it by repeating ecfir), by inserting ecfirj xprjvai or iKeXeva-e before an expression of will, and by shifting from indirect to direct forms. English resembles Greek rather than Latin in this respect. 664 Examples of Indirect Discourse. 'AyaTrycreLV fxe tai7/v) is more prominent — certainly, surely. So sometimes in other combi- nations, as Travv fxev ovv assuredly, certainly. 670 a. Kat (besides its use as a conjunction, and) is an adverb, also, evpn, emphasizing the following word or phrase. , Kat €t is even if, el Kai if in fact, although, koI 8r/ Kat and of course also, and in particular. PARTICLES 289 b. KatTot is slightly adversative, and yet. c. KatVep aWiough stands only with participles (593 b). 671 Several particles are intensive, denoting emphasis or stress, of slightly varying degree and kind. a. M^v in truth is the strongest, often giving prominence to the whole statement rather than to a single word ; 5 M^ verily introduces the formula of an oath ; Kat /t-^v and surely^ and see, in tragedy often calls attention to a newcomer. The weakened form /xeV sometimes retains a similar force (cp. 669). b. The enclitic *y€ emphasizes the preceding word by restriction. At least has a like force, but is usually too strong ; a slight stress of voice is sometimes the only transla- tion possible. * yovv (ye and ovv, 673 a) is a stronger at least, at any rate. c. The most untranslatable and elusive is *8//. (1) Its force falls on a single preceding word (though another particle may intervene), marking the idea as obvious, definite, positive; 8^Aa hrj quite plain, iroXXol h-q a great many, KdXXL(TTot'A67r7ros t6t€ ravTTjv io-^e rrjv yvuifx-qv, ovk av rocravTrjv ^KTYjaaro SvvajjiLV if til en Pliilip at tliat time liad adopted this opinion, lie would not have acquired so great poioer. D. 4, 5. 683 Finally, considerations of euphony, especially of rhythm, often affected word-order, as in English ; but this influence is diffi- cult for us to trace in prose, because Greek prose rhythm (like that of verse) was determined by the quantity of the syllables, which we feel less strongly than the Greeks did. ABBEEVIATIONS In citing examples A. = Aischylos (WecJcletn), A., Agamemnon, c, Choephoroi, E., Eumenides, p., Persians, PB., Prometheus Bound, s., Seven against Thebes. Ar. = Aristophanes {Bergk), N., Nubes (Clouds), R., Ranae (Frogs), v., Vespae (Wasps). CIA. = Corpus Inscriptionum Atti- carum. D. = Demosthenes. E. = Euripides {Nauck), AL., Alkestis, AND., Andromache, B., Bacchae, HIPP., Hippolytos, lA., Iphigenia at Aulis, IT., Iphigenia among the Tau- rians, M., Medea. Epich. = Epicharmos. L. = Lysias. Men. = Menander. Plato is cited thus : Ap. = Apology, Cr. = Crito, GoR. = Gorgias, Ph. = Phaedo, Pr. = Protagoras, Rep. = Republic. Plut. Caes. = Plutarch's Caesar. S. = Sophokles (Jebb), AL, Aias, AN., Antigone, E., Elektra, OT., Oedipus Tyrannus, OK., Oedipus at Kolonos, p., Philoktetes. T. = Thukydides. Xenophon is cited thus : An. = Anabasis, C. = Cyropaedia, H. = Hellenica, M. = Memorabilia, 0. = Oeconomicus. Most of the other abbreviations need no explanation ; but cp. = com- pare, irapf. = imperfect, impv. = imperative, kt\. = Koi ra Xoiird = and so forth. 298 VERB-LIST Note. — This list is intended to contain all verbs of classical Attic Greek whose forms can cause diiRculty to the student. But rare forms are sometimes omitted, especially such as occur only in lyric parts of the drama, or in works not likely to be read until the student is beyond dependence on an elementary grammar. In many doubtful cases it seemed better to err on the side of inclusion rather than of omission. The forms that belonged to prose or to spoken Attic are in full-faced type ; those in ordinary type belonged to poetry. Yet in some cases a simple verb that appears only in composition in prose is recorded as a prose form ; also verbs in -ffffo), -rrta, are recorded with « (d\i<|)-, d\€i-) anoint, dX:i\|/«, i^\€i\|fa, d\^\i4>a (291 c), dXi^Xt|Ji|iai, 399 300 GREEK GRAMMAR dAe^o) (ctAe^-, ccAe/c-) ivard off, aki^ofxai, r]\€^oi/jLr]v. aXCo-Konai (aX-, aXo:w-, incep. cl.) am captured, aXwo-ofiai, laXwv or fjXtov (267, 369 c), cdXcoKa or 'fjXwKa. dXXdcra-o) (aXXav, t cl.) change, dXXd|a), ijXXa^a, ijXXaxa, ^^XXaYjxat (345), ■f|XXdx9iiv and if|XXd7T]v. &XXo|xai (dX-, I cl.) leap, dXov)j.ai (324) i\\a\i.r\v. aKvcTKU) (for aKvK-ffKU), clKvk-, cp. 8i8d(rKci), incep. cl.) avoid, oAu|a>, ^Xv^a. dfiaprdvia (djiapr-, duaprif]-, nas. cl.) err, d|xapTif]aro)JLai, -fjfjLapTov, i]\i.apT't\Ka, ^p.dpTT]|Xai, TJfJLapTIQSTJV. d/iTr-e'xw and afxiT-i about, put on, afitpe^w, ijjJL'iri- (Txov. M id. d|X7r€xo[iai, dfiirio-xofJLai, afiTriax'^^o/xai have on, d|JLe|o(j,ai, •i\\L'ic- lo-xop-iiv and '^p.Tr-c doubt, impf. •f||x '^^s. cl.) become odious, dir-cxO^o-ojJLai, a.ir-rwQ6iLT\v, dir- ■flXeTijxttt. diTTdi (d<))-, T cl.) fasten, kindle, dv(;a), t]\|/a, t]jx|iai, •fj9T]v. apapiffKd) {ap-, incep. cl.) fit, ^pcra, ^papov, &pdpa. dpdcro-o) (dpa^-, i cl.) bang, slam, dpd^ci), ^pa^a, ir|pdxOTjv. dp^o-KO) (dpe-, incep. cl.) please, api causative), l^r^ (369 a), ejSTjo-a (causa live), p6pT]Ka, -p4pa{iai, -epdS-qv. pdWw (paX-, pXr]-, I cl.) ^Arot^, paX«, ^paXov (350, 4), p^pXT]Ka, pcpX-qnai, €pXTJ0TlV. pdiTTw (Pa ()8io:a)-) ZiVe. piwo-o|iai, ePtW (369 c), PepCwKa, Pepitofxai. dva-Piwo-KOfxai revive, dveP^oxra, av-i^loiv. pXdirro) (pXap-, t cl.) injure, pXdx|/a), ?pXa\I/a, p4pXa4)a, pepXa|X(iai, €pXd Pp^XO-'I") bellow, fiefipvxa, fipvx'^Qf^is. Pvve'w (Pv:v-, nas. cl.) stop up, ptio-o), 'i^va-a, pe'Pvo-fiai. rajx^w (7a|JL-, Yaiie:!]-) marry (act. of a man, mid. of a woman), ya^a, tyry^o.j ■YtYdjJLTiKa, -y67d)Ji't]fJLai. y^fojva, pf. with pres. meaning, (70;!'-) shout, also '^^'yaivita (7€ya>j/€:7j-) and ycywviaKU} (7€7ct)»'-, incep. cl.), 7 €70)1/7] (r&>, iyeywi/'ncra. -yeXdb) ("ycXa-) laugh, -yeXdcroixai (322), e^^Xao-a, eYeXdcrO-qv. 77j0ea) (77J0-, yr]Qe:T]-) rejoice, yndriau), iyrjdr)(Ta, ^CYiiOa. "yqpdo-Kaj ("yqpd-, incep. cl.), also yr]pdci} {ynpa-) grow old, 'Y'np&(r(i>, €7if|pd(ra, ■yc^TipaKa. ■y£-yvo|iai (y€v-, 70V-, 7€vt|-, 257 a) become, Yev^a> (7pa' (S^X") receive, S^^ofxai, IScldjiiiv, Se'ScYfiai, cSexQ^lv. 8^0) (8€:t|-) bind, 8irjj-a), ?8T]o-a, 848eKa, SeScfxai, €840t]v. 860) (8c-, 8CTJ-) lack, Seifjo-w, eS^-qo-a, ScSeriKa. Impers. Set ^Aere ^s neetZ, 8cirj(rci, ISe'-qc-e. Dep. 8^o{iai ask, request, 8€ifj (8pa:a-, incep. cl.) run aivay, -8pdY[iaL, €8iwx9t]v. 8oK6a) (80K-, 8oK6:i^-) thiiik, seem, 8d|b), ^8o^a, 8e8oY[xai, eSdxQ'qv. Also So/c^a"«, idSKTjcra, SeSJ/cTjKo, SeSei/CTj^ot, iSoKrjdriv. 8pap.ov}j.ai : see rp^x*** Spd(T(roiJ.ai {Spay-, i cl.) grasp, iSpa^dfiriPj SeSpay/xat. 8pd(tf (8pa:d-) do, 8pdo-a), ^Spdcra, 8^8pdKa, 8e8pdp,ai, kBpta-Qtiv. Svvafiai, (SvvatT]-, 266, 365 a) can, 8vvi^(ro)i.ai, 8€8iivT]p.ai, €8wtj0t]v. 8va) (8i>:v-) e7iter, Zv0a am accustomed, plup. elw0€iv, 456 c. €Xaxivti> (IXtt-, nas. cl.) drive, k\St (322 c), ^jXao-a, cXVjXaKa (291 c), cXTJXa}iai, "jjXdOtiv. VERB-LIST 303 ikiyxoi (eX.€YX-) ^^^^^ cX^y^w, i^Xc^fa, IX^XcYjJtai (344 t), iiXiyxQtiv. tXeiv, elXov : see aip^co. i\€V(rofxai, eXifjXvGa : see ^pxojxai. 4X961V, ^XOov : see ?pxop.at. eXfo-o-ft) (IXiK-, I cl., 267) and €iXCtnc?, tXtlo and €lXC|ci), ctXi^a, ctXiYH-o-i, '^Xkw (IXk-, IXku-, 267), ^|«, €l'XKV(ra, etXKUKa (291 a), el'XKuo-jjiai, cIXkvo-Otiv. Later, eXKixo, kKKvcTw. IXirCtu (^XttiS-, I cl.) expect, hope, {jXirKra, '#|X'irCi^vvv|ii, dp.<{>i(o (for aixcpicao}, like reAew, 322 c), d|x<}>i^(ro{iai, f||x4>£c(ra (268 c), -f|p.({>Ceo-|jLai. cvoxXc'w (cv + oxXet-q-, 268 d) annoy, f|v«xXTi, ep^a and epe^a. €p£i8ci> (cpeiS-) pi^op, kpda-b), {jpeio-a, {)p€iKa, lpifjpcio-|xai (291 c), •i\piit])i,i. 304: GREEK GRAMMAR Ipcordci) (ep«Ta:i]-) ash, Ipwr^o-w, fipwr-qo-a, 'f|p(Grt]Ka. But the common fut. and aor. are (from cp-, Ipr]-) epi/jo-ofjiai, T|p6p.nv, of which the pres. tpojxai is rare. ia-Uia (lo-9i-, €8-, 18c-, €8o-, ^ixr^-) eat, ^8o(jiat (without fut. suflQx), '^4>a7ov, khi\- 8oKa, €8iQ8e(r(xai, fj84o-9'qv. €o-iro|iT]v : see ^irofxau 6 (€, which see. €vp^paCv(i) (eu<})pav-) cheer, ev4>pavco, -qilijjpdva, 'r,v<}>pdv9T]v. cilXoP'*'' ('^X") P^^(^y> ti{|o(xai, Tjv|dp,Tiv, iilYjiai. ixdalpw (ixdap-) hate, ix(^apov/xai, iJx^VP°- '(i\(a ( o^-> -, nas. cl.) ^iVc?, ?5«ora, '(iliiv. 9ai»p.dtw (9au(xa8-, i cl.) wonder, 9avp.do-o|iai, €9avp.a : see €9€\(«). 9ia) (9€u-, 9€-) n^n, 9€iio-op.ai. 0t77ova> {Oiy-, nas. cl.) touch, Bi^oinai, ediyov. eXtpo) (9Xxp-, 9\tp-) squeeze, Q\i]f(a, ?9\X\|/a, T^9\T|x|xai, €9\ta>. 9piiTrT0) (9puTr-, t cl.) iveaken, 9pv\j/w, ^9pv\|fa, Tl9pu(ip.ai. dpc^a-Kco {6op-, Opci}-, incep, cl.) leap, dopovfxai, eOopop. 0WW (9u:v-) sacrifice, 9uo-w, ^9v- iKv^o|j.ai. iXd(rKop,ai (iXa-, incep. cl.) propitiate, iXd9T^v. Kd|j.v(i) (Kap.-, K|iT]-, nas. cl.) lahor, am tired, KapoOpai, ^Kapov, K€KpT]Ka. Kdp-n-TO) (Kapir-, t cl.) &e/ic?, Kdp\(/a), ^Kap\)/a, K^Kappai, eKdp9T]v. K€ipai, 387. Kcfpo) (Kcp-, Kap-, I cl.) shear, Kcpw, ^Kcipa, KCKappai. KeXevo) (kcXcu-) hid, KeXcvcrco, CKcXevo-a, KCK^XevKa, KCK^Xcvo-pai, lKeXcv(r9T]V. KeAAw (/ceA.-, i cl.) SriH^ ^0 s/<0?'e, K^Kau, iKeXcra. Cp. okcWcd. Kcpdwvpi (Kcpa-, Kpd-) mio:, CKcpao-a, K^Kpdpai, iKpdQi\v and eKepdo-9T]V. K€p8aCva) (K€p8av-, t cl.) gain, K€p8av«, €K4p8dva (327 a). Kcvdoo (Kevd-) hide, Kevcro), eK€v(ra, KCKevda (456 b). KT|8opai (kt]8-, K'q8c-) sorroiv, care for, eK'r]8e(rdp't]v. KT]pv(ro-(i) (KTipvK-, t cl.) proclaim, K'qpij^a), iKirjpvIa, KCK^jpuxa, KCKifjpvYpai, Ikt]- ptJx9Tiv. Ki7Xaj'a> (k^X"5 f*X^'» ^^^S. cl.) reach, Kix'ticofiai, ^kixov. kCxP'HH''' (XpO'-'H") ^ewc?, mid. borrow, )(jp-f\a, K^KXeiijjiat, eKXttTTIlV. kXtJcd and kXc^co (kXt|-, kXci-) shut, kXtJo-o), ?KXT)a, K€KOfX}Jiai, iKOTT-qV. Kopevuvfxi late (Kope-, nas. cl.) sa^e, KCKopeo-fiai, iKopea-drjv. Kpdtw (Kpa^-, Kpay-, i cl.) cr^/ o?^^, ^KpaYov, KCKpd-ya. Kpalvco {npav-, i cl.) accomplish, Kpavw, eKpava, iKpduOrjp. Kp^)jia|xai (Kpcfxa:-!]-) hang, intr., Kpc|xi^o-o)JLai.. Kp£|Jidvvvp.i (KpcfAtt-, nas. cl.) hang, trans., Kpcp,co, iKp^fxao-a, iKpcfido-Ot^v. Kpi'vo) (Kpiv-, Kpi-, I q\.) judge, Kpivto, ^KpXva, KCKpiKa, K^Kpifxai, eKp(dr]v. Kpovo) (Kpov-) 6ea^, Kpovorco, ^Kpovo-a, KCKpovKa, KeKpov(a)p.ai, eKpovo-B-qv. KpUTTTW (KpV<}>-, T Cl.) ^ic?e, Kpv\)/(0, ^Kpvv{/a, KCKpUfJlfJiai, eKpU(}>6T]V, €KpV(j)r)V. KTdo|j.ak (KTati]-) acquire, KT^o-ojjLai, cK-nio-dnTiv, KCKT-qjiai (rarely ^KTTjfxai) possess (456 b). KTCCVO) (kT€V-, KTaV-, KTOV-, I cl.) kill, KT6VW, J;KT€lVa, iKTaVOV, dir-CKTOVa, t/CTCtJ/, (KTatct-, 369 a). Also dTro-KrCvvvji-i (/crt-). kt/^oj (/cTtS-, t c\.) found, Krlaa, iKTiaa, ^KTia-fiai, iKriadriv. Kv\ia. Kvp€(o {Kvp-, Kvp€-) happen, Kvpau) and Kvpiiaa, tnvpffa and eKvprjaa. Aa.y\ava (291 b), etX'qjxiiai, i\i\^^'r\v. Xd}JLirco (Xa|JLTr-) shine, Kdjx^w, ^ap,i|/a, AeA.ou7ra. Xav9dva) (Xa9-, Xti9-, nas. cl.) lie hid, escape the notice of, X^o-o), {!Xa9ov, X^XTi9a, XeXiqa-fjiat. Also \i]B(c. Xda-Kw (for KoK-ffKu, KaK-, Ad/c-, KaK-q-, incep. cl.) speak, XaK-fia-ofiai, iXaK-riffa and (tXaKOV, \4\a.Ka. •\iy, ^Xe^a (ctp-qKa : see cj)!!}!.^, X^Xcyp-ai (but 8i-€CX€YK>oii, 291 b), iki\9r\v. XcCiTft) (XiTT-, XcMT-, Xotir-) leave, Xd^a, ^iirov (348), X^Xonra, X^Xcip.|xai, IX€C4>9'r]v. VERB-LIST 307 \r]ea} : see XavGdvw. Xovft) (Xov-) u'cisk, veg. Also \6o} (ao-), contracting in the present system, as ^Xov, IXo{)|xev, Xovo-9ai, Xov|i€vos. Xvo) (Xv:v-) loose, Xt;> (|ui9-, nas. cl.) learn, (iaOil^o-opxii, l|ia6ov, |i6{id9T]Ka. fxapTTTOi) {ixapTT-, T cl.) seize, ^idpy^Kt)., ffiap^pa. (jLapTCpojiat (jxapTvp-, i cl. ; see 423), call to witness, cp.apriJpdfi.'qv. [ido-o-o) (jia-y-, i el.) knead, p.d^«, ^|xa|a, }ilp.a\a, [ie'jJiaYnai, €p.dx9'qv. |jtdxo|JLai (jiaX", ^o.\i:r\-) fight, jiaxovftai (322 c), €[jLax€ nas. cl.) mix, ixci^ca, ?|i€i|a, fi^(X€iYp.ai, k^d\<^^v, tp-^Y-qv. (ieXXo) (|i€XX-, [ieXX-q-, 266) intend, (ji,€XXt|o-u), lneXXrio-a. lAcXo) (jJLcX-, jicXt]-) care /or, ptcX^o-a), Ifi^X-qo-a, )xe)i€XT]Ka, ficii^Xi^iiai, €|ji,€Xtj9t]v. Impers. p.4X€i, etc. ; otherwise, in Attic prose, only in dep. compounds, eiri|Ji€Xo[j.ai or eirifxcXeofjiai, cirincXi^o-ofjLai, etc., and }iCTa{ieXo}jiai.. H^jiJJx'H-ai (|Ji.€H.<}>-) blame, ji€|A\j/o[iai, €|i€[jL\|/d|XTiv. ^ivia (|i€v-, |Jtevii-) remain, ncvw, ^{leiva, |i€|x€VT]Ka. Ix-qSo/iai (/H7j5-) devise, ixr^a-ofxai, ifxriadix-qv. \uyvv\Li, late spelling for (icC-yvi/jit. jxi/xv^a-Ko} and ixifj.vr](TK(i} {/xya-.r]-, incep. cl.) remind, ijiu-fjcrco, tfimiffa, |ilfiVT]{i,ai (456 b; subjv. ^6p,vcj|ie9a, opt. (i€|ivf|o, (icuvfiTO, (i€|xvf|fi€9a, also |X€}ji,vwo, |jL€|iviuTo, n€|jLV(w}JL€9a, are found), c^J.v1^<^91]v. In prose dvap.i}ivnm, ^V6i}ia, v€V6|x'qKa, v€v^|iti[iat, €V€jJiirj9T]v. v€» (vv-, V6V-, 257 b; su'im, viva-ov\i.a.i (326), ^vevo-a, ve'vcvKa. n'^a; (»'*7-, Vi/S-, t cl.) ivash, vlipo), ti/trpa, v^vifx^iai. vop,it« (vojiiS-, t cl.) thinJc, believe, vofxiw (346 a), evd|Ai and 6Xio-9aCv« (6Xi(r0-, nas. cl.) slip, «Xipid9T]v and a>|Jido-6T]V. ofxSpyvvnt {ofiopy-y nas. cl.) w^tpe, 6fi6p^o/xai, &>fiop^a. Only compounds in prose. 6v£vT]p.t (ovaiT]-, redupl. in pres., 365) henefit, ovqcrw, t5vT](ra, «v%tiv (369 a), u)vi]Q'r\V' o^uuco {d^vv; I cl.) sharpen, -o^wu, H^vva, -ic^vfi/xai, w^vvdrjp. Only compounds in prose. ijirwira, 6^o\iXLi : see opdo). opdw (6pa:d-, ott-, 18-, 267 a) see, 6iJ/o(jLai, cISov (350, 7), edp&Ka, IwpdKa (291 a), oTTooira (291 c), ((opdfiai and wp-fxai, cS((>9t]v. dpiYh) (6p€Y-) reach, opc^co, wpe^a. opj/y/it (op-, nas. cl.) raise, rouse, mid. 7'ise, rush, opau, S>p(Ta, opwpa (291 c) am aroiised (456 b). opvo-o-o) (opuY-, I cl.) dig, 6pv|(tf, wpu|a, opwpvxa (291 c), 6p(opvY)jLai, wpvx^'HV. 6(r<{>pa{vo}:.ai (6p-, 6(r4)p'q-) smell, 6(r4>p'^(rop.ai, te>(r()>pd[jLi]v, w(T€iXti-) owe, d<})€iX^€Xov, a><})€£X'r](ra, a)X-, 64)X'q-, nas. cl.) lose a suit, am convicted of, or condemned to, 6(j>XTi(ro), a)({>Xov, ca({;X'r]Ka, (i)4>X'T])iai. TlaUa (irai-, TraiTj-) strike, ira{(rcD and iranfjo-o}, iTrawra, Tr^iraiKa, £iraCo-9T]v. TTCtAAw (iraA-, t cl.) shake, CTrrjAa, TreVaA/xat. (TTCt-) acquire, iracrofiai, iirdad/xriu, ireirdfiai. irdcra-aj (irar-, i cl.) sprinkle, ird, 322 c), iirihaffa, itrehda-driv and iir\dQi)v. VERB-LIST 309 ir^fiirw (ir€{jnr-, irojiir-) escort, send, irejixl/w, ^ircjjuj/a, ir^iro(t(f>a, ir^ircjiiiai (344 a), €'rr€|i4>0'qv. TTtpaCvcD (TTtpav-, I cl.) ^ro through, finish, irepavw, CTrcpdva, Treirepao-iiai, lirc- pdv6t]v. 7rep0co (7rep0-) c^ac/i:, irepaco, iTrepaa. (The pi'OSe word is iropGcw.) TT^a-o-w ("jrcK-, TTCir-, i cl.) cook, ir^if/ca, ^ir€\]/a, ir€irep.|iai, C'ir^<|>9Tiv. ir€Tdvvu(ii (ir€Ta-, irra-, nas. cl.) spread, ircT« (like eAcD, 322 c), €ir^Tacra, Trc'ir- rafxai, iTrcrdirdrjv. ireTojjtai (ircr-, ttt-, irTaiT]-, ttctt]-) ^^, irTTjo-ojiai and ircnqo-oiiat, 6irTdjxi]v and cTTTTjj/ (369 a). ■Kivdofxai = irvvddvo|iai. •jr'f\yvv[Li (TTiry-, iray-, nas. cl.)^a:, ir-nlo), ^iriila, iriTn\ya (456 b), liraYTiv. •irCiJnrXiiiJLt (irXaiTj-, pres. reduplication with inserted /u) fill, irXiqcro), ^irX-qo-a, •jrlirXTiKa, ir^TrXTKiai and ir^irXTjoriiai, eirX-^o-Oiiv. In prose only in compo- sition : €|X'7r£(|A)irXT]p,i, etc. irCp.irpiiiJLi (irpaiT]-, with inserted p, as in irCpirXTHii) burn, irpTJo-a), ^irpiia-tt, •n-€irpTip.ai, l'irp-f\(rdr\v. In prose €pTrC(p)irpTipi, etc. irtvo) (tti:!-, iroiw-, nas. cl.) drink, tzio^ax and 7r (irXiiY-, i cl.) strike, irXifj^co, ^TrX-q^a, iriirXtiya, Tritrkriyiiai, lirXifiY'qv. irXvvft) (irXvv-, irXu-, i cl.) ivash, 'Tr\vy&, ^irXiiva, Tr^irXvp-ai, iTr\v9r\v. trvib) (ttvv-, irv€u-, 257 b) breathe, hloiv, irv€vo-opai and irvcvo-ovpai (like ireo-oG- fiai, 326), ^irvevo-a, Tr^irvcuKa. irvtYO) (irviY-, irvtY-) choke, irvtlco, ^irvXia, irlirviYpai, Ittv^yiiv. {irop-, irpoo-) give, allot, eiropov, ireirpwTai it is fated. irpdo-oro) (irpdY-, i cl.) do, arpd^co, 2irpd^a, ir^irpdYa and TrcTrpdxa, ir^TrpdYp-ai, lirpdxQtiv. irpCao-6ai, eirpidpiiv : see a>v€0|ji,ai. Trpiu) (irpT-) saiv, ^irpio-a, ir^irpTo-p.ai, lirpio-Oiiv. TrTdpvup.ai (irrap-, nas. cl.) sneeze, ^irTapov. ■n-TTJa-o-o) (ttttik-, i cl.) cronch, cower, hrrr^ifl., hTr'r\yja.. TTTlio-O-ft) (iTTUX-, I cl.) fold, trTXi^Vti ^TTTV^a, ^TTTU-yP'Cl'') CTTTyxOlv. TTTVft) (7rTu:0-) spiY, eTTTvaa. TTTdxTcot = irr'hffiToa, 810 GREEK GRAMMAR irvvddvojxai. (irv0-, ir€v0-, nas. cl.) inquire, hear, ireto-ofiai, eirvOofJi'qv, ir€in«r- |i.ai. 'Pafvw (pav-, I cl.) sprinkle, pavw, ^ppdva, Ippdv9i]v. pdirro) (pa<|)-, t cl.) sew, stitch, pdxj/o), ^ppa\|/a, ^ppa|X}jLai, €ppd4>i]v. ^eX*" ' see ep5«. p^cD (pu-, p€u-, pvT]-, 257 b) ^oz^, peii(ro|xai and pviqo-ofxai, €ppvT]Ka, Ippui^v. p^-yvviii (pilY", p«7-> paV", nas. cl.) hreak, pr'ilw, '^pp-q^a, ^ppw^a, eppd-yTjv. piTTTco (pt4>-> p«'-> T cl.), also pIiTT^w (pIiTTc-) tkrow, pi^b), ^ppi\j/a, '^ppl:{:a, ?ppiji}iat, €ppif<|>9T]v and cpp£ ^ cl.) i/oz^; trumpet, I(rd\irt7|a. o-dTTO) (oraY", I cl.) pack, a-i (o~qjxav-, i cl.) show, cn]|iavw, €t]V. |Jii ((TKcSa-, nas. cl.) scatter, o-kcSw (like iKu, 322 c), €o-K48a ( (53), ^(nrewra (53), ^o-ircKrjxai. o-ireilSci) (o-TTCuS-) hasten, T]V. |iai, iarpdod-nv, (rtpdCo and (r^a.TTd^a), ^(ra|a, *^o-<{>a'Y}j,ai, i(T(pdyT}v. (rdXX(d (o-<}>a\-, i cl.) /r^}j, o-4>aXw, ^(r'q\a, ^aX|iat, €i]vai, €Td (t€v-, Ttt-, I cl.) stretch, revw, ^'rciva, Tc'raKa, Wrajiai, IrdOTjv. T€K€lV, ^T€KOV : SBC TlKTCi). T€Kixaip(o rare, T€K|iaipo(iai (rcKjiap-, i cl.) fix by a marJc, infer, T€K|xapovp.ai, 6T€KfJ,T|pd|l'r]V. TcXcw {Tiki-) finish, tcXw (322 c), crcXeo-a, rcr^XcKa, TCT^Xeo-jxai (322, a, b), trc- Xeo-S-qv. TeAAw (reA.-, i cl.) cawse to rise, rise, ir^iKa, -TeToA^uat. More frequent in composition : dvareXXo), lvT^XXo|iai. T^{xv6) (t6|jl-, Tap.-, Tfi-q-, nas. cl.) cut, n^St, 'iny-ov and ^rajiov, WruTiKa, t€T|jlt]- |iai, 6T|xt]9t]v. TipTTO) (repir-) delight, rfprpo), eTepi|/a, iTipcpOrju. T6uxa, T€Tpap,nai, Irpd- irqv, eTp€(j)9t]V. rpi^b) (Tp6-, rpaij)-) nourish, Qpi]f(a, ^9p€^a, T€Tpo4,a, T€9pa|x|iai, €Tpd<|)T]v. Tpe'xo) (rpcx- for 0p6x-, 47 d. Spafi-, 8pa|xTi-) r?/w. Spajiovjiai, ?8pa|iov, 8cSpd- |XT]Ka, 8€8pd|iT|fjiat. Also rarely -9p^^op,ai, cOp'^^a. rpiia (Tp6-) tremble, 'irpecra. rpi^o) (rpXP", TptP") r?9Tiv, irpi^r\v. TpioY« (rpcoY-, Tpa^-) gnaw. Tpw|onai, ^rpayov, TCTp(i)'yH''°''" Tvyxdvw (tuX"> t€ux-> '""^X'^'j ^^^S- <^^) happen, rcj^ojiai, ^t^xov, T€Tux'nKa. 312 GREEK GRAMMAR rvirra (rxm-, tvittt]-, t cl.) strike, tuttti^o-w, Irviniv. Tv<|>(i) (tv-, for Ovp-, 47 d) smoke, T€0iiji.}i,ai, €tuaY€tv, ^(paYov ; see lo-OCo), iiv-, i cl.) show, 4>avc0, ^<|>iiva, '7r€a7Ka, tzi^r^vo. (332), ir^a(r(Jiai (339), €dpYvv)j,i = (}>pd'yvv[j,(,. <|>e£8o}iai (<{>ei8-) spare, e£(ro|xai, l(j)€i(rdftT]v. 4)^p« (€p-, ol-, €V€7K-, €V€K-, €voK-) Jcar, oto-w, i^veYKov and ^jvcyKa, Iv^voxa (291 c), lvifjv6Y|iai, -^v^xOilv. <|)€V70) (€V7-) flee, <}>€v^ofjLai and 4>€viov|xai (326), 'i^vyov, tri^fvya.. Ti0dva) (<|)0a:T]-, nas. cl.), anticipate, <{>9ir](ro)jiai and <{)6d(rci), '^<})9aora, 'i^^r\v (369 a). <{)9cCpfa> (9€p-, <{>9ap-, ({>9op-) corrupt, 4>9€pw, ^4>9€ipa, '^4>9apKa, i(pQopa, ^9ap- }j.ai, l<}>9dp'qv. <|)9tv« (4>9i-, 9iv-) ivaste, perish, (fyeia-u, itpOicra, i(p6ifiai. pd7vv(Jii (4)paY-, nas. cl.), also (j>pdo-(ro> (t cl.) enclose, ^^^pctia, ir^^jpaYiiai, €({)pdx9T]v. ^pdt«> (<|>pa8-, I cl.) tell, ({>pdo-(i>, ^<|>pa(ra, 7rl<{>paKa, irepi(r(ro> (pi|a, ir^plKa. 4>pvY(» (<}>pvY") '''oast, pv^pv|a, '7r4<|)pi>Y}iai. ipvyydvoi {(pvy-, nas. cl.) = ({>€VY^* v\d(r(ra> (<}>vXaK-, i cl.) guard, <}>vXd^o), eXttxa, ir€vp-, vp-) m^a;, 'ir^<}>vpfiai. v(i) (<|)v:v-) produce, <})tJo-«, ^<^iJ(ra, ^ X^fl-* «• cl.) rejoice, xo-ipV"* Kcxdpr^Ka, Kexdpvfiai, Ixdp-nv. XaXdo) (xaXtt-) loosen, IxdXao-a, Ix^^a-o'S'nv. Xdo-Kw (xa-, xo-v-, X'H^-, ineep. cl.) ^ape, xo-voCjiai, ^xo-^ov, k^xIvo-* X^« (x^-j X*^'> 257 b) pour, \i ^XP'HO"*) Ixp^o"0t]v. Xpi^, 390. dirdxpil it suffices, inf. diroxp^v, impf. dTre'xpT]. Xpto) (xp"i-) anoint, sting, xpto-w, ?XP^°"*> K^xpli^ai and Kixpla-^a)., i\pifr^t\v. Xpwt«, xpo't'C'^ (XPf S-> XPo"*5"s •• cl.), xp^^^^^H-^ (XP'^'j ii^s. cl.) co^or, K€xp« (^I'cvS-) deceive, ^€v|«, ^xj/u^a, ^\j/v7|iai, &^^\9r\v and i^'^X'HV* *Q.QiLOLT€ 377. dfx(f>6Tepo<;, w. art. 554. 315 316 GREEK GRAMMAR oLfjicfiOTepoiiOev, w. gen. 518 b. a/x<^w, w, art. 554. dixvvofiai, w. acc. 530 a. a(v)-, neg. 441, 444, 447 a. -ai/, for wv 69 b. dv, w. impf . indie. 461, 468 ; w. plup. indie. 469 ; w. aor. in- die. 467, 468; w. opt. 479, 480 ; w. infin. 579 ; w. partie. 595 ; w. oT€, oxoTc 627 ; w. cTTCi, cTTctSij 629 ; general uses 666 and a. dm, w. aee. 598. dva^ 111 C. dvd^tos, w. gen. 516 a. ava€L8y';, w. gen. 516 a. d<^ct8w, w. gen. 511 c. dcfiLcrTrjiXL 363 a. axo-pt-'S 147. dxpt 33 b ; w. gen. 518 c, 599 ; dxpi clauses 631. GREEK INDEX 317 -aw, verbs in, contracting to ry instead of d 320. B 38 a, b, and c, 39, 44 a ; after ,^,49. ^eygao-t, ^efSwa-L, ^e/Jw?, root perf. 370 (2). /Se^rjKa 456 b. yScArtwv, declined 149, 150 ; compared 182, 1. PovXevw, meaning of mid. 500 b. PovXofjiaL, augment 266. jSovs 136. r 38 a, b, c, and d, 39, 44 b ; nasal 3. ya, yaia 86. ydp 672. yaa-Trfp 108 a. ye 19 e, 671 b. yeyws, root perf. 370 (3). yeAaw 322. yeXwS 112. yci/os 124. ycpatos, compared 178. y^85. ytyds 121, 122 a. ytyvojaat 257 a. ytyvwo-Kw 289 d ; redupl. 260 b. yAv/cv? 177. yovv 120. yovv 671 b. ypac/xo 341, 345. yvjxvdt^oi 341. yvixvrj; 671 c, 673 a. SryXowv, SrjXwv 168 b. AyjfirJTrjp 108 b. Srjjxoa-La 526 b. -877V, adv. ending 231. 8>i7roi; 671 d. 8^Ta 671 d. 8ta, w. acc. and gen. 598. 8tay(o 585 a. 8(aK€t/>tai, as pass. 499. 8ia;(eipt^(o 448 a. 8i8ao-/c(o, redupl. 260 b ; mean- ing of mid. 500 a. 8tya/>t/xa 27. 8tKato9, declined 76 ; compared 177. AtoyeVr/s 154. 318 GREEK GRAMMAR SioTL clauses 626. Sltttixv^ 159 b. SlttXovs, declined 90. 8t? 232. StcfyOoyyoL 5. 8tX«j ^f-XV^ ^dv. of number 233. Sfwos 101 a. -86v, adv. ending 231. Bopo^ 143, 2. 86pv 120. SovXoo) 315. SvvafiaL 266, 365 and a, 395. Svo 187 a, 188. Svo--, prefix 441, 444. Swpov 62. E, quantity 4 ; pronun. 7 ; be- comes ct 51 ; formative vowel 263 a ; changes to o 403. €- augment 265 a. €, enclitic 19 a. cav re . . . cav T€ 653. cavToO 203. cyyvs, w. gen. 599. cyKoAw, w. dat. 520 a. cyK/oarrjs, w. gen. 516 a. eyv(DV 367. cyw 194. eycoyc, t/Aoiyc 195 C. 18a 460. c-8i5v 367. I^ei/ 196. €1, diphthong 5 ; and digraph 27 a. el, proclitic 17 c; ct clauses 477, 645-656. ei-, as redupl. 291 b. c?, name of letter 1 b. -€t, adv. ending 231. ct yap, in wishes 470, 477. cl 8e /X7^ 656 c. ctSws 172. ct^c 21 d ; in wishes 470, 477. CIKOS -^v 460. ct />t77, ct p.r] 8ta 656 a. ctKcVat, cIkw^^ root perf. 370 (6). eifjLL, enclitic 19 d ; con jug. 384 ; in compound perfs. 456 d. el/XL 385 and a. ei^'do-t, root perf. 370 (6). -cto adj. suff. 424 a ; place suff. 432 and a. ctTTc 349 a. ctTTov, w. infin. 658. cts(e?), proclit. 17 b; w. ace. 598. CIS declined 187. ciTc . . . ctrc 653*. ctco^a 456 C. iKi see c^. cKaoTos, w. art. 554. cKct and iKeWev 236. cKcti/os 208 , correl. pron. 227 ; pred. position 553 ; in pred. 561b. CKCtVcDS 236. cKelcre 236. iKeXeva-c, in indir. disc. 663. iKTriTTTd), as pass. 499. iKTToSwv 448 a. iKTos, w. gen. 518 b. e/cwv, as partic. 589 a. GREEK INDEX 319 iXcvOepos, w. gen. 516 a. 'EAeucrti/a^e, 'EAevo-tvt, 'EAevcrtvo- eev 228. iXei 349 a. -eAo, suff. 412. ^TTtS 114. i\Q> 322 c. ifxavTov 203. e^d? 204. c/x7ro8t'^(o, c/u,7rd8t09, Ifxirohuiv 448 a. t^TTpoa-Oev, w. gen. 518 b. cv, proclit. 17 b ; w. dat. 598. IrSo^ev, €vSo6l, ei^Sov 228. ci/e/ca, w. gen. 518 c, 599. Iv^a, €v^€v 236, 238 ; e^Oa clauses 620. ivOdBe 236. ej/^cv, w. gen. 518 b; li/^ev clauses 620. IvOivSe 236. . ivOvixeoixai, augment 268 b. ivLOT€ 614 a. ivavTLoofxaL, augment 268 b. -€VT, adj. suff. 427. ivravOa, ivravOoL 236. ivT€v6€V 236. €vrd9, w. gen. 518 b. ivrpeTTOfxaL^ W. gen. 511 0. c^(eK), proclitic 17 b; w. gen. 598. -€o, adj. suff. 426. -€o:€-, fut. suff. 324. €OLyfjLev, root perf. 370 (6). cotKa, redupl. 291 a; pres. in meaning 456 c. iireL, iTrciBrj clauses 629. ctttJkoo?, w. gen. 516 a. eVt 598. iTnOoLfxcOa, cTrt^wvrat 377. iirLfjLeXrjS, w. gen. 516 a. imopKeo) 268 b. iTnTLfjLWj w. dat. or ace. 520 a. ipya^ofiai 291. Ipyo), dat. 526 b. 'Epfxrj^ 85. -epo, suff. 412. ipp(Dfx€vo^, compared 179 b. cptu, w. gen. 511 c. €5, proclitic 17 b; w. ace. 598. -€0- following vowel in adj., resulting contraction, 152 b. -69, suff. 407, 413 b. -e-o-at, becomes -rj or -et 263 b. -€-(To, becomes -ov 263 b. eoTripds, gen. 515. ea-rafxev etc., root perf. 370 (1). ea-re clauses 631. -cc-Tcpos, comp. ending 179. tcTT-qv 367. eoTrjKo, as pres. 456 b. lo-Tt 20 e ; 384 b ; eo-rt, cto-t, omitted 493 b. etTTtv OL (ov, ^) 614 a ; Io-tlv oo-Tt9, interrog. 614 a. kcTTUi'S 173. e(T)(aTO'S 184. co-o), w. gen. 518 b. £rcpo9, in crasis 36 c; correl. pron. 227 ; w. gen. 516 a. cTcpco^t, crcpw^ev, kripoicrf. 228. cv, diphthong 5. 320 GREEK GRAMMAR ev 231; prefix 441, 444; w. gen. 518 b ; w. ttolw 530 a. -€v, suff. 405, 430 and a, 434 and a. -cr-, verb-stems in 257 b. evSatfjLOiv 146 ; declined 147 ; compared 179. eveX-n-LS 146. evrjOrjs 146 ; declined 151. €vOvxovixaL, w. gen. 510 e. e<{>r}, e(f>7) xPW^h i^i indir. dis. 663. i w or e<^' (St€, w. infin. 567. cx^po's 181. ixpw 390, 460. €xo) 565 b ; mean, of mid. 500 a. €xwv 583 a. koipoiv 267 a. €ws, declined 94. €0)9 clauses 631. Z 38 a and e, 39. -^€, place ending 228. H, quantity 4. ^, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. 5, interrog. 668. lyt, iy, diphthong 5. 17, correl. adv. 236 ; clauses 620. ^8et 41. riv K eyw, ^ 8' os 383. 178^?, compared 181. 17/cw, as perf. 454 f . tjXlko's 215 ; correl. pron. 227 ; clauses 620. Yjiiai 388 a. T7/xcpa, declined 66 ; gen. 515. rjfJi^Tepo^ 204 ; W. avTOiv 559. rjiiL, rjv, 5 383. T7/xt-, insep. prefix 444. rjpiLV 196. y/xL(rvLt,ofxaL, w. gen. 514 a. KaTTjyopd), w. gen. 514 a. Kapd 143, 3. Kas {kol €s) 36 b. Kara, w. acc. and gen. 598. Kci 36 b. KeKTrj/xaL 456 b. Kct/xat 387. K€LVOteAds, declined 156, 157 a, b ; compared 177. MeXiTy, loc. dat. 527 a. /xcAAw, augment of 266 ; w. in- fin. 570 b. pjfivrjixai, as pres. 456 b. /x,e/x<^o/>tat, w. acc. or dat. 520 a, 530 c. jjiiv (fj-T^v) 669 a. -lx€VOi7;8ets, 189. fxrjhinpo'i 224. /xtJv, declined 99. /xtJv, particle 671 a. fMTfJTfjp, declined 106. fjLTjTLs, poet. 224 a. fuKpos, compared 177. fJLLIJLVT](rKOi 289 d. fjiiv 19 f. MtV(o9, ace. of 94. /xvTJ/xcoi/, w. gen. 516 a. -/xo, suff. 406. fjioi, enclitic 19 a. fjLolpa^ declined 66. -fjLov, suff. 413. fxova^rj 233. -/A09, see -fto. /xou, enclitic 19 a. fJLVpLOL [iXVpioi) 193. /Awv 488 a. N 38 a, d, 39 ; movable 31, 41 ; changes of 50; before o- 51. -V, stems in 103 a ; neut. end. 62 c. -vai, inf. in 296, 308. vat-^^L 21 d. vav9, declined 136, 137. vS, before o- 53. vedvtas, declined 71. -veo:€-^ pres. suff. 261 e. v€os, compared 177. veto?, declined 92. VTJ, in oath w. ace. 532. v^, before o- 53. vtKry, declined 70. vIkw, as perf. 454 f. viv 19 f, 196. -vo, suff. 412, 428. -i/o:€-, pres. suff. 261 a. v6o^^ declined 80. vT, before o- 53. -vrat, -i/To, after consonants 339 a. -vv/At, verbs in 358. vvv 19 f; or vw 673 a. vw 236. vu^ 111 c ; gen. 515. H 38 a, e, 39. I^et, name of letter 1 b. O, quantity 4 ; becomes ov 51. 6, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. -o, suffix 403, 410. 6, rj, TO, declined 61 ; as rel. pron. 205 a ; syntax 549- 556. o8€, ^8e, T6h€, declined 206, 209 ; demons. 227 ; takes pred. position 553 ; in pred. 561 b. 68t, ovToa-f, etc., 210. 324 GREEK GRAMMAR 68os, declined 62. 680VS, declined 121, 122 a. -o:c-, formative vowel 257. oOev 236 ; clauses 620. ot, diphthong 5 ; effect on ac- cent 14. ot, proclitic 17 a ; as pron. 18 a. ot, ot, reflex, pron, 19 a, 194, 195 a. oT, adv. 236 ; clauses 620. otSa 386. OLKaSe 228. oiKot, accent 14 a ; adv. 228. oio/Attt, w. infin. 658. oTov, Ota, w. partic. 593 a. oTo^ 215, 227 ; clauses 620 a. oh 138. -otort, dat. pi. 64. otxo/xat, w. partic. 585 c. oAtyaKtS 232. oAtyo?, compared 182, 4. oXtyw/3(o, w. gen. 511 c. oAwAa 456 b. oixvvfjLL, w. ace. 530 a. ofjLoioreXevTov 681 d. o/Aws, w. partic. 592. ovap 142, 5. ovctStto), w. dat. or ace. 520 a. ovetpos 142, 5. ovLvrjjxij w. gen. 510 e. OTTrj, oTrrjVLKa, oiroOev, ottol 236 ; clauses 620, 621. birrjXLKo^ 222 ; clauses 620. oTTto-^ei/, w. gen. 518 b. oTToTos 222, 227 ; clauses 620. oTToVos, 222, 227; clauses 620, 621. oTTore 236 ; clauses 627. oTTorepos 222, 227 ; clauses 620. oTTov 236 ; clauses 620, 621. oTTws 236 ; clauses 638. 6pd(x), double redupl. 291 a. opiyofxai, w. gen. 510 d. o/ovls, declined 114 ; 143, 4. 6ppaivojxaL, w. gen. 510 e. 6t€ 236 ; clauses 627. oTt 33 b ; clauses 588 a, 622- 625, 659 and b. ov, diph. and digraph 5, 27 a. ov (ouAc, o^x), enclitic 17 e ; neg. adv. 486, 487, 667 ; w. infin. 564; w. partic. 582 c; in questions 668; changed to /xri 577 b, 579 a. ov, name of letter 1 b. ov, ov, reflex, pron. 19 a, 194, 195 a, 197. GREEK INDEX 325 ov, adv. 236, 515 ; oS clauses 620. ovSc, neg. of 8e 667 ; ovSe ets, ovSets 189. ovSeU 6crTLeTepoJ, TT^Se, ravrr) 236. T^ aXrjOeia, dat. 526 b. T-qkUos, poet. 211 a, 227. T7/AtKocr8e, 211, 227. TryXtKOvro?, 212, 227. TrjVLKdSe, TrjVLKavra 236. -T>7p, suff. 405. -rrypto, place suff. 432 b. -Ty]<:^ suff. 405. -T>7T, suff. 429 a. -TL, pers. end. for -6l 307. -Tt, suff. 406. -TiS, suff. 430 and b ; 434 and b. TiOcLS 165. 328 GREEK GRAMMAR TiOyfTai, tlOolto, tlOolto 377. -TLKo, suff. 413 e. Tt/Aao) 313 ; TLfLaoiv, tI/xix)v 168 a. rlfirj, declined 70. tI/aw, w. gen. 514 a. rl/JLiJipw, w. dat. 520 a. Ttpws, 40 a. Tt5, enclitic 19 b; indef. 217, 219. Tt9, accent 15 a ; interrog. 217, 481 ; declined 219 ; 227. -Ti5, suff. 406. -To:e-, tense suff. 258. Tot, enclitic 19 e ; in crasis 36 b ; particle 671 e, 673 b. Totos, TOLoa-Se 211 and a, 227. TOiovros 212, 227. Toto-tSe, Tttto-iSc 209 a. TO Xcyofxevov., appos. 539. TO fteyto-Tov, appos. 539. Tov Se and infin. 549 c. -Top, suff. 405. 'TO-?, verb. adj. 411. ToVos 211 a, 227. Too-oVSe 211, 227. Tocrow-09 212, 227. Tore 236, 481. Tore 240 d. -rpa, suff. 408 a. Tpels 187, 188. -rpid, suff. 405. -TpuS, -TiS, suff. 405. TpLYipiq> w. part. 585 a. -Tw/a, suff. 405. Y, quantity 4; pronun., etc. 27 ; not elided 33 b. V, name of letter 1 b. -•u, suff. 413 a. vSwp 120. VI, diphthong 5. vto5 declined 142, 9. vixiv, poet. 196. -vvo's-, pres. suff. 261 d. vVaros 184. viripTepo? 183. vTT-jJKoos, w. gen. 516 a. vTTto-^^ov/Aat, w. dat. 520 a. I'TTo, w. ace, gen., and dat. 598. vTTOTTTevo), augm. 268 b. -vs, -€ta, -V, siiif. 413 a. va-Tepos 183. 7, 38, 39, 42, 44 a. (fiaLVOfJiaL 585 a. cfiaLvo), meaning of mid. 500 a. L\a)v 168 b. «^tAo9, compared 178. (f>oivL^ 111 a. (f>vyds 145. <^vXaTro/xat, meaning of mid. 500 b ; w. ace. 530 a. 9 120 and a. X 7, 38, 39, 42, 44 b. ^acpiov 583 a. ^afxai, ^afiaOev, ;(a/xa^€ 228. xapici?, declined 163, 164 a; 179 b. Xaptv, acc. 539. Xapi?, declined 114. xa, name of letter 1 b. Xctp, declined 142, 10. Xetpcov, compared 182, 2. xy 36 d. Xot 36 d. xpo-oiiai 317 a, 320. XP'^i 390. XP^v, impf. 460. xpovos, gen. 515. Xpw?, xpoo'i 143, 5. Xpva-eo's, xp^^ovs, declined 87, 90. )^o)fji,€vo7?, suff. 434 b. wv, diphthong 5. (S