INTRODUCTION TO WOOD BURN 5/- MO RAN INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY BY JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN Professor of American History and Politics in Indiana University AND THOMAS FRANCIS MORAN Professor of History and Economics in Purdue University LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. FOURTH AVENUE & SOra STREET, NEW YORK PRAIRIE AVENUE & 25-rn STREET, CHICAGO 007 COPYRIGHT, 1916 BY LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. First Edition, June, 1916 Reprinted, August, 1916. November, 1916 April, 1917. January, 1919 September, 1919. December, 1919 PREFACE IT is not possible for a pupil to take up the study of American history intelligently without knowing something of the European background. Events and conditions in Europe throw light upon the early history of the United States. This little book is intended to furnish that Euro- pean background. By making use of it the pupil will be able to take up, in a more satisfactory way than would otherwise be possible, the formal study of American history in the seventh grade. It may seem somewhat strange at first thought that an introduction to American history should extend so far back into the history of Europe, but the fact is that the roots of our history strike far back into European soil. The book fulfills the requirements of the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association and, in ad- dition, presents an introductory chapter on " The Dawn of History." If it is desired to adhere strictly to the recom- mendations of the Committee the first chapter of the book should be omitted. We believe, however, that a study of this chapter will add very greatly to the effectiveness of the course. The authors have been aided in the preparation of the " Questions and Suggestions to the Pupil " by Miss Mary Kerr of Bloomington, Indiana, an experienced director of history teaching in the lower grades. Miss Kerr read the entire text and made helpful suggestions to promote the practical use of the book in teaching. She supplied a large 442776 iv PREFACE part of the "Questions and Suggestions " at the chapter endings from her practical experiences. Acknowledgments are due for the following pictures in the book: to The Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, for " Model of a Phoenician Vessel " ; to the Encyclopaedia Bri- tannica Corporation, New York, for " Xerxes Watching the Battle of Salamis " and " Phidias Building the Parthenon " ; to the Mentor Association, New York, for " Coronado on the March," "Magellan Landing at the Philippines" and "Cartier at Montreal"; and to Mr. G. A. Reid, Toronto, for " The Coming of the White Man." JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN THOMAS FRANCIS MORAN CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 1 II. THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 18 III. THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 30 IV. THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 44 V. GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 50 VI. THE SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 58 VII. THE ROMANS AS THE SUCCESSORS OF THE GREEKS 67 VIII. THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 79 IX. ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 88 X. CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 96 XI. THE GERMANS, THE SUCCESSORS AND HEIRS OF THE ROMANS 102 XII. THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 112 XIII. ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 122 XIV. THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 133 XV. KING JOHN AND THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH LIBERTY 143 XVI. ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 149 XVII. PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 158 XVIII. THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 176 XIX. COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 188 XX. THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 220 XXI. THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 233 XXII. ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 246 XXIII. FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 257 v vi CONTENTS XXIV. THE DUTCH FIGHT AGAINST THEIR RULER, THE KING OF SPAIN 266 XXV. ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN THE FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN . 270 XXVI. THE EARLY ATTEMPTS OF THE ENGLISH TO FOUND COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA 282 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 295 INDEX . 305 LIST OF MAPS PAGE The Early Oriental World (Colored) facing 4 The Persian Empire 15 Greece in Ancient Times 19 Colonies of Greece (Colored) facing 58 Alexander's Empire 65 Rome and Carthage 73 The Roman Empire at the Height of Its Power (Colored) . . between 88, 89 Europe in the Early Centuries of the Christian Era 103 England in the Middle Ages 113 Normandy and Southeast England in 1066 136 The Routes of the Crusades (Colored) facing 162 Trade Routes to the East 177 The Known World at the Time of Columbus 191 The Voyages of Columbus 214 The Discoveries of Columbus 215 Early Voyages of Discovery and the Pope's Line of Division .... 221 Magellan's Expedition, 1519-1522 227 Early French Settlements 232 The Scene of the Conquest by Cortez 237 The Route of De Soto's Expedition 241 Drake's Voyage around the Globe 255 The Flight of the Spanish Armada 280 French, Spanish, and English Explorations in America up to 1600 . . 283 Early Settlements of the English, French, and Spanish in the New World 291 LIST OF COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS Richard "The Lion-Hearted" Approaching Jerusalem . . . facing Title St. Augustine Preaching before King Ethelbert facing 116 A Danish Raid in Britain . ' facing 126 Harold's Last Stand at Senlac . facing 137 King John Seals the Great Charter facing 144 Sir Francis Drake Capturing Don Pedro's Ship facing 278 vii INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER I THE DAWN OF HISTORY America "The New Part." In thinking about the United States of America we should always bear in mind that our country is a part of the "New World." Before Columbus made his famous voyage of discovery in 1492, the great American continents, stretching almost from pole to pole, were unknown. No one had dreamed of the ex- istence of this great body of land. Parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa had been known for centuries and these three parts are now called the "Old World." The naming of this "New Part" took place in 1507. It came about in this way. Martin Waldseemuller, a German college professor, in writing the introduction to a geography, suggested that the newly discovered continent be named America in honor of Americus Vespucius, to whom he gave the credit of discovering it. He spoke of the continent as the "new" or "fourth part" of the globe; Europe, Asia and Africa being the other three. Now in thinking about this "new" or "fourth part" of the world, we should remember that the history of the New World is based upon that of the Old. The men who built homes and founded colonies in the New World came from various parts of the Old, more particularly from Europe. And they brought with them their tools and 2 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY machines, as well as their knowledge of art and agriculture, of, government and religion, of science and invention. The history of the Old World was thus carried over and continued in the New. The American colonist in his new home did not begin all over again. His history in the New World begins where it left off in the Old. This same thing would occur at the present time if a group of your neigh- RAMESES AND His LIONS Rameses, the great Egyptian king and conqueror, lived about 1350 B.C. He is represented here in a great triumphal procession with his lions at his side. bors and friends should emigrate and make homes in some new land. They would carry with them certain parts of their civilization and we are going to learn that the Ameri- can Colonists did likewise. The Roots of American History. Since the roots of American history extend back into the soil of the Old World, we should know something of the history of this Old World if we would understand the history of our own THE DAWN OF HISTORY 4, , rr ( INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY country. We should know in a general way what men did and learned and thought, before America was discovered in 1492. The Cradle of Our Civilization. The history of the world begins with the people of the far East or the Orient, as it is called. The cradle of the world's civilization was in the valleys of the Nile and Euphrates Rivers, two of the most wonderful and interesting river valleys in the world. Here history begins with the Egyptians and Chaldeans. Let us glance for a moment at the early achievements of these eastern nations. The Egyptians. There was a very good reason why an early civilization should spring up on the banks of the Nile River. The climate was mild and the soil fertile and it was very easy to obtain food and clothing there. One could get a living almost without working at all. Each year when the heavy rains came in the mountains, near the sources of the river, the Nile overflowed its banks ai 1 left a layer of fertile mud over all the surrounding country. Grain was scattered broadcast in this rich loam and one of the ancient writers tells us that it was trampled into the ground by cattle, goats and sheep. The result was a bountiful harvest, almost without labor on the part of the farmer. Egypt was called "The Granary of the Medi- terranean World" and often furnished food to other peoples besides her own. You will recall the story of Joseph and the other sons of Jacob who went into Egypt to purchase corn when famine had stricken their own land. Grain, however, was not the only crop raised by the early Egyptian. In his garden he had peas, beans, radishes, lettuce, cucumbers, and onions. In his vine- THE DAWN OF HISTORY 5 yard he raised an abundance of grapes from which he made his own wine. He also raised clover for his cattle and flax for his clothing. If you could take a peep into his barnyard, you would see sheep, cows, goats, pigs, ducks, geese, and pigeons, as well as antelopes, gazelles, and storks. Chickens were not known to him and he did not domesticate the horse until a later time. Some of these animals, however, were not much like those to be found now on an American farm. The pig, for example, was very thin and scrawny, more like the wild hogs or " razor-backs" which ranged at one time through our forests. Since the water for the farmer's fields came all at once, it was necessary for him to store up a part of it for future use, so the Egyptian built reservoirs and canals and irrigated his land in much the same way that some of our Western farmers are doing at the present time. One of these reservoirs was known as Lake Moeris. It was many miles in diameter and was found to be in perfect condition when examined by a Roman engineer, two thousand years after it was built. These old Egyptians made things in a very substantial way. As it was so easy to make a living, the Egyptian found it possible to turn his attention to other things. He was especially skillful in architecture. His buildings were, as a rule, massive and very durable. The best example of this kind of architecture is the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, which is still standing, although built about five thousand years ago. This huge structure, the largest in the world, covers thirteen acres of land and is four hundred and eighty-one feet high. It contains more than two million blocks of 6 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY stone, some of them weighing more than fifty tons. Its faces were beautifully polished and its joints so nicely fitted together that they could scarcely be seen with the naked eye. Thirty years of the hardest kind of labor BUILDING THE PYRAMIDS were required to build this pyramid. The blocks of stone were quarried in the mountains, dragged down to the Nile, and then conveyed on rafts to the site of the pyramid. All this was done by hand. The horse was not in use among the Egyptians and hoisting machinery was apparently not known. These pyramids were the tombs of the kings. THE DAWN OF HISTORY Upon his private dwelling, however, the Egyptian did not spend very much time or labor. He lived in a rude house, consisting of a wooden frame covered with clay, dried in the sun. These houses were very perishable. But the Temple of Karnak, one fourth of a mile long, still exists as a splendid and impressive ruin after en- during the storms of thou- sands of years. In science, for a beginner the Egyptian did wonder- ful things. The flood washed away his boundary lines each year; hence he had need of geometry and surveying in order to fix the line fences. The clear climate and the level plains were favorable to a study c ,- i i i THE "HALL OF COLUMNS," TEMPLE of the heavens; hence, he OF KARNAK made advances in astron- Only the ruins remain now of this wonderful structure. The picture omy. He Calculated the shows how it must have looked in length of the year to be Th^se^gantL nearly three hundred sixty- five and one fourth days must have taken the labor of thou- ,,..,,.. . sands of men for many years. and divided it into months, thus making the calendar which, with a few minor correc- tions, we use to-day. He foretold eclipses, knew the points of the compass, used the decimal system, invented a good system of weights and measures, and measured time by 8 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY means of the sun-dial and the water-clock. In arithmetic he used figures as high as millions, and in constructing his buildings, he used the principles of the arch, the lever, and the inclined plane. When we review the civilization of ancient Egypt we are almost tempted to say that there is " nothing new under the sun." Egypt certainly made a good beginning and we should remember that the Nile River was at the foundation of her prosperity. An old Greek writer called Egypt, "the gift of the Nile," and certainly the Nile River largely made Egypt what she was. The Chaldeans. The little tongue of land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers was occupied in very ancient times by another important people, the Chaldeans, or the Babylonians, as they are sometimes called. This is one of the most famous little strips of land in the world. It has been called, "the graveyard of empires and nations," because so many different peoples lived and died on the little peninsula. The civilization of Chaldea was much like that of Egypt. The life of the people in old Chaldea was based upon her two great rivers in much the same way that the life of the Egyptians was based upon the Nile. Agriculture was the principal occupation and the land was made exceptionally fertile by irrigation from the rivers. In fact, the crops were so marvelously large that the old Greek historian, Herodotus, who traveled in Chaldea, said that he was afraid to tell the whole truth about them for fear people would not believe him; and Herodotus, as you may find out sometime, did not hesitate to tell some pretty big stories about what he saw. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 9 Brick-making, next to agriculture, was the most impor- tant industry. The Chaldeans, unlike the Egyptians, did not have stone for their buildings and used brick almost entirely. These bricks were made from clay which was very easy to get in this country. Some of the bricks were dried in the sun, and others baked in kilns. On the whole, they made rather poor building material, and yet the Chaldeans built some notable buildings from them. The Tower Temple, for example, rose in the shape of a pyramid, story after story, above the plain and was used as a temple for religious worship and for observing the stars, as well. From these rude bricks were also made the famous elevated gardens, in imitation of mountain scenery. The most noted of these were the " Hanging Gardens/' built by the King Nebuchadnezzar for the pleasure of his queen, who formerly lived in the Median mountains and hungered for mountain scenery. These famous gardens were considered, as you know, one of the " Seven wonders of the world." In science, the Chaldeans were as far advanced as the Egyptians and in some respects, more so. They were also exceedingly practical in making use of their scientific knowledge. They invented the potter's wheel and used the arch in the construction of aqueducts. They knew the use of the lever and pulley and devised a good system of weights and measures. They divided time into years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes and seconds and measured it by the sun-dial in the day time and by the water-clock at night. They predicted eclipses, made maps of the heavens, and marked out the course of the sun. This was not a simple thing to do. Would you think it an easy task to go out into the night and study the stars as 10 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY the Chaldeans did without teachers, books, or instruments, except those of the simplest and rudest kind? Of course, some of this was a very crude kind of astronomy, and had to do with fortune-telling by means of the stars, but we should remember that even the English people attempted THE HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON to tell fortunes by the stars as late as the time of Queen Elizabeth, in the sixteenth century. Egypt and Chaldea, then, as the "twin sources of the world's culture" made many notable contributions to THE DAWN OF HISTORY 11 civilization which we in America are making use of at the present time. When we get our first glimpse of these people away back in ancient times we discover that they were not barbarians by any means. The Phoenicians. These two nations, however, are not the only ones that were prominent in the dawn of history. The Phoenicians were also important. They lived on the narrow strip of ter- ritory, one hundred and fifty miles long and ten to fifteen miles wide, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea (see map facing p. 4). Here with their backs to the Leb- anon mountains and their faces to- MODEL OF A PHOENICIAN SHIP These swift and trim little boats were the first carriers of commerce on the Mediterranean Sea. They were propelled by sails and oars and weathered many fierce gales. wards the sea, they came, naturally enough, at a very early time to be sea- faring men. They were the sailors, traders, and colonizers of the ancient oriental world. As early as 1500 B.C., the Medi- terranean was dotted with their ships small open boats propelled by oars and sails. They almost had a monopoly of the sea. The north star was called the " Phoenicians' Star/ 7 because it guided the course of the Phoenicians' boats. At that time the mariner's compass which is used on all ships now-a-days was not known. In these frail 12 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY vessels the Phoenicians traversed every part of the Medi- terranean Sea and even ventured out at times into the Atlantic Ocean. In their trading journeys by land and sea they brought amber from the Baltic, tin from Britain, and ostrich feathers from Ethiopia. Some of the products of Phoenicia were famous the world over. The cedars of Lebanon, for example, fur- nished excellent ship timber and made the tallest and the straightest masts; the glass of Sidon, beautifully colored, cut and polished, was eagerly sought every- where; and the purple dye, made from a snail or shell- fish found near Tyre, was used to color the robes of kings and queens. The Phoenicians also took large contracts from neighbor- ing peoples. They built ships and rented or sold them; they made a voyage around Africa for the Egyptians; they built the bridges across the Hellespont over which an army of a million Persians invaded Greece; and they furnished some of the material and did a large part of the finer work on Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. The greatest importance of the Phoenicians, however, does not lie in what they made or in what they found out for themselves. The most important thing they did was to take the inventions and ideas of other peoples and spread them far and wide. For this reason they have been called "the missionaries of civilization." For ex- ample, they obtained the alphabet, probably from the Egyptians, and, having made some improvements upon it, gave it to the Greeks; the Greeks gave it to the Romans and the Romans handed it down to the Germans and other peoples of modern Europe. Thus, the Phoenician THE DAWN OF HISTORY 13 alphabet with its twenty-two characters is the basis of the alphabet which we are using to-day. The Hebrews. The Hebrews were also an interesting BUILDING SOLOMON'S TEMPLE The Temple at Jerusalem was one of the most famous buildings in the world. It was built by King Solomon with the assistance of skilled workmen from Phoenicia. The Phoenicians also furnished some of the building material. and important people in this early time. They were mostly shepherds and therefore different from the three peoples already described. While the civilization of Egypt and Chaldea was based on their great rivers and 14 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY that of Phoenicia upon the sea, the foundation of Hebrew civilization was religion. The Hebrews did very little to advance the material civilization of the world. They were not "mighty builders/' like the Egyptians, or great traders like the Phoenicians; they were not famous in science or art, or invention, but they have the proud distinction of being the great moral and religious teachers of the world. Nations before them had religions of various kinds but the Hebrews were the first to worship one supreme God. This constituted a purer and more elevating form of religion than any other. After a time the religion of the Hebrews developed into Christianity and thus became the religion of a large part of the people of the world. The Hebrews also gave us the Ten Commandments, "the noblest brief collection of the laws of right living that has come down from the ancient world." When we consider the writings of the Hebrews and their religious influence upon the civilized world, we must give to this nation a high place among the historic peoples of ancient times. The country which the Hebrews occupied was known as Palestine and lay south of Phoenicia (see map facing p. 4). It was a small country, only one hundred and fifty miles long and one hundred miles wide a mere dot on the face of the globe and yet within these narrow bounds great things were done by such Hebrew kings as Saul, "the mighty man of valor," David, "the sweet singer of Israel," and Solomon, proverbial for his wisdom. And still greater things were done by the Hebrew prophets and teachers. Interesting stories of these great men are to be found in the Old Testament. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 15 The Persians. And now a word about another eastern people the Persians. These were also quite different from the other peoples already mentioned. They did not seem to care much for art or literature. Their architecture was rather poor and they did not do much in science. They were, however, noted in another direction. They . Royal Road THE PERSIAN EMPIRE were famous as soldiers and governors. They were the empire builders of their day. Persia was at first a small dis- trict of country lying near the Persian Gulf (see map facing p. 4). But under its famous kings, Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius, it expanded into a great empire, extending from the Indus River on the east to the Aegean Sea on the west a distance of more than three thousand miles. . 16 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY It was from five hundred to fifteen hundred miles in width and had a population of seventy-five million three fourths as many people as there are in the United States to-day. If it could be moved to the westward, the Persian Empire would cover more than one half of the map of Europe. It embraced all of the known world except India and China on the east and Greece and Carthage on the west. The Persians, then, were the conquerors, rulers, and governors the Romans of their day. We are not inclined in these days to praise a conqueror who takes possession of the country of a weaker nation, but it should be said in favor of these Persians that they united the East under a much better form of government than it had ever known before. The tribes which had been warring with each other for centuries were compelled to live together in peace and harmony under Persian rule for two hundred years. With this period of peace came prosperity and advancement in civilization. The Persians also did many things to bind together their vast empire. They made good roads better than were ever built before. The most famous of these was the Royal Road, extending from Susa to Sardis, a distance of fifteen hundred miles. Along this famous highway there traveled great crowds of people, representing scores of surrounding tribes. Some of these people rode on tire- less Bokhara ponies, or horses, while others trudged along with donkeys or camels, laden with goods for some distant market. Government messengers, mounted on swift Ara- bian horses, often made the fifteen hundred miles, which is nearly half way across the United States, in six days. Ordinarily it took about three months to make the journey. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 17 An old Greek traveler marveled at the speed with which the royal messengers, changing horses and men at short intervals, could carry the mail. He thought it very remarkable that they never stopped for wind, rain, or the darkness of night. What would he say if he could see a present-day mail train like "The Twentieth Century Limited," flying from New York to Chicago, a thousand miles, in twenty hours? This train does not stop for rain or darkness, either. In this brief account of these Eastern peoples among whom was the " cradle of our civilization" we can see how far back in the history of the world are the roots of the American life of to-day. Although these five empires and nations declined and fell centuries ago, many of their achievements are still in existence. The architecture of the Egyptian, the agriculture and industries of the Chal- deans, the commercial genius of the Phoenicians, the religion of the Hebrews and the military and governing skill of the Persians, all have lent aid to us in the United States. They "lit the torch" of civilization and passed it on to the nations farther west. Europe now becomes the scene of action. After these eastern nations had passed away, Greece became the center of the world's civilization to the study of which we shall now turn. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. What we know of the history of Egypt goes back four thousand years before Christ. It has been nearly two thousand years since Christ lived, making about six thousand years of recorded history. Represent on the blackboard these six thousand years by a line, allowing one inch to each century. 2. Mark off the tune since the birth of Christ. Call that part of the line to the left B.C. (Before Christ), the part to the right A.D. (Anno Domini, or in the Year of our Lord, meaning since Christ was born). 18 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 3. Mark off on the line the part covered since the " New World " was known as such. 4. The United States as a nation is less than one hundred and fifty years old. Mark off on the line the part covered by United States history. Now study your line carefully to see what it shows. 5. Tell at least one thing for which we are indebted to each of the five early nations mentioned in this chapter. Show the connection, if you can, between their daily life and ours. Think carefully. 6. What is meant by " The Cradle of Civilization " and " The Missionaries of Civilization"? PRONOUNCING LIST Aegean. e-je' 9s ; ? > T## GREEKS AS BUILDERS AJV'P 4* 47 PHIDIAS AT WORK ON THE PARTHENON 48 ^INTRODUCTtoN TO AMERICAN HISTORY planned the ornamentation of the Parthenon and did a part of the work with his own hands. The most noted piece of statuary in or about the building was the statue of Athena, placed on the inside. This statue was thirty-four feet in height; its core was made of wood, the visible parts of the body were made of ivory, the hair and draperies of gold, and the eyes of precious stones. It was paid for out of the booty taken by the Athenians at the battle of Salamis. Many of the pieces of statuary taken from the Parthenon after its destruction are now in the British Museum hi London. The masterpiece of Phidias, however, was the colossal statue of the god Zeus, at Olympia. This was of tremendous size and was considered one of the "Seven The Greeks considered it a calamity "See Zeus and die" was a common STATUE OF THE GODDESS ATHENA In her right hand she holds a statue of the Winged Vic- tory, six feet high, and her left rests on a shield. wonders of the world." to die without seeing it. saying among them. Statues of Athletes. Greek sculptors were fond of carv- ing statues of athletes and of representing scenes from great athletic contests, like the Olympic games. The Greeks were a well developed race, renowned for grace and manly beauty, and the sculptors liked to reproduce these THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS traits in marble. One of the best statues of this kind is the Discobolus, or Disc-thrower of Myron. The athlete is represented in the act of summoning all his strength to give the discus a tremendous hurl. The muscles are tense, the body beautifully poised, and one almost expects to see the discus sail through space for a distance of one hundred and fifty feet. We almost wonder why he does not throw. Painting. In painting, ; the Greeks were not so famous STATUE OF ZEUS Zeus was the chief of the Greek gods. as they were in sculpture, and not many samples of their work have come down to us. Some of the Greek painters, however, had repu- tations for doing wonderful things. It was said that Zeuxis painted a bunch of grapes which the birds tried to eat, and that Apelles painted a horse which looked so lifelike that real horses saluted it with a neigh. ANCIENT GREEK STATUE OF VICTORY 50 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare the largest building you know with the Parthenon. 2. Do you know any modern building that resembles the Parthenon? Describe it. 3. Do you know any buildings with Ionic, Doric, or Corinthian columns? 4. Write a letter to an art company asking for illustrated catalogs. You will probably find therein pictures of the Frieze of the Parthenon. The Frieze is an ornamental band on the halls or under the eaves. What is the subject matter of the Frieze? 6. Why did the Greek sculptors so often choose athletes and athletic games as subjects? Keep this question in mind as you read the next chapter. PRONOUNCING LIST Apelles. d-pSl'ez Myron, mi'rtfn Athena, d-the'nd Olympia. 6 llm'pl-d Corinthian. k6-rm'th*-an Parthenon. par'th-n6n Discobolus. dfe-kSb'6-lws Phidias. fld'lWts Doric. dSr'ttc Zeus, zus Ionic. i-6n'Ik Zeuxis. zuk'sls CHAPTER V GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER In order to appreciate still more fully what the Greeks did for us, it will be necessary to see how Greek boys and men were educated and what then- ideals of life were. Unfortunately, the position of woman among the ancient Greeks was not high. This fact is a blot upon an other- wise beautiful civilization. The boys were very carefully educated, but almost no attention was paid to the girls. The Spartan boy was educated for the army. His body was well trained, but his mind was not. The Athenians GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 51 had a better kind of education. They gave their boys a good physical and athletic training, but they trained their minds as well. The Athenian boy studied reading, writ- ing, arithmetic, geometry, drawing, and music. The writ- ings of the poet Homer and of the lawyer, Solon, were studied, but foreign languages were looked upon with dis- dain. The boy was also taught to play upon the harp and flute, and to sing and to recite poems. The Greeks thought that music had a good moral effect upon the nature of the boy, and they were probably right. The school hours were very much longer than ours. The schools opened at sunrise and closed at sunset. The teachers did not seem to believe in spoiling the child by sparing the rod, as corporal punishment was inflicted for very slight offenses. The teachers also had their troubles, you may be sure. Plato speaks of some of his. pupils as sharp, witty, insubordinate, and unmanageable little animals. While there are many examples of treachery and dis- honesty in Greek life, as there are in the life of every nation, as a rule Greek ideals were high. The Greek loved a good manly contest, had a taste for the beautiful, and was inclined to be temperate and moderate in all things. He avoided extremes and exercised a splendid self-control. Let us glance for a moment at a few of the finest types of manhood produced by the life and education of Greece. Aristides is a "man whose character is a shining light in the ancient world." During the Persian Wars, he was banished from Athens through no fault of his own. Some of his fellow citizens voted against him because they were tired of hearing him called "Aristides the just." He was 52 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY of a forgiving disposition, however, and when his country needed him in time of war, he returned and insisted upon fighting for Greek liberty. He fought nobly against the Persians, both at Salamis and Plataea. Socrates is one of the finest characters of ancient Greece. "True wisdom," said Socrates, "is to know what is good and to do what is right." He was a searcher after the READING FROM HOMER In the days of ancient Greece reading from the poems of Homer was a favorite and useful form of entertainment. When a good reader was reading aloud from the writings of "The Poet," as Homer was called, he always had an interested circle of listeners about him. The people gathered around as eagerly as children do now-a-days to listen to Indian stories or fairy tales. truth and thought more deeply into the affairs of life than other men. He had a very high idea of God and refused to worship the gods which the Greeks had made of stone and bronze. As a result, he was tried on a charge of intro- * ducing strange gods and of corrupting the youth of Athens. He was convicted and sentenced to drink the fatal cup of hemlock, which he did with the utmost composure, while GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 53 discoursing upon the immortality of the soul. The Athe- nians of the time were not wise enough to understand his message. Pericles. Pericles was a man of action. He was what we would call, in these days, a man of initiative. He could do things and get results without being told exactly how they should be done. He was somewhat like Lieu- THE MENTAL EDUCATION OF THE GREEK YOUTH The young Athenian received instruction from some of the greatest men in Greece, such as Plato and Aristotle. tenant Rowan, of the United States army, who carried the message from President McKinley to General Garcia, with- out being told where Garcia was. He did not know at the time, but he found out. Pericles was " first in war and first in peace." He ruled Athens during her most brilliant period, but he ruled her because, by his eloquence and common sense, he was able to persuade the Athenian assembly to adopt his plans. He adorned Athens and the 54 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Acropolis by erecting beautiful public buildings and creat- ing fine works of art. He also built fortifications and other defenses for the city. As an orator, Pericles was spoken of AGE OF PERICLES A Greek orator is standing on the rostrum and attempting to persuade the people to adopt his views. At this tune the Greeks were not governed by a king but by a public assembly. as the Zeus of Athens, " rolling fateful thunders from his tongue." He died of the plague in Athens in 429 B.C., while defending his native city against the attacks of Sparta, the rival city in Greece. GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER PERICLES Pericles was for a time the first citizen of Athens. He beautified the city with public buildings, encouraged its artists and literary men and provided for its defense. < }< ' c <-,>> (. $o INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Solon was a famous lawyer. While ruler of Athens, he drew up a splendid constitution and body of laws and suc- ceeded in getting them adopted. He was the greatest lawyer among the Greeks. He made his laws binding for a hundred years and compelled all citizens to take an oath to obey them. But, like many modern officials, he was pestered so much by those who wished to have the laws changed, that he went away on a visit of ten years to Egypt, in order to escape his tor- mentors. When he returned, he saw his mistake. His laws were not be- ing enforced, as there was no one in Athens to enforce them, and the government had fallen into confusion almost into anarchy. We, in the United States, sometimes enact good laws and apparently expect them to enforce themselves as much a mistake now as in Solon's time. We have read the stories of several Greeks who became great. And we have learned that the Greeks had the right to think for themselves and to act as they thought right. Each of these men was great because he lived up to a noble ideal. Aristides had a strong sense of justice and fairness; Socrates and Aristotle had visions of higher truth which DIOGENES IN His TUB GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 57 other men did not have; Pericles had a lofty and prac- tical patriotism; Phidias had a great religious purpose in his work; Solon had a strong sense of right and wrong, and Demosthenes prized the liberty of Athens. The latter was very bold in speaking his sentiments. It was his prac- tice "to hew to the line and let the chips fall where they would." Now, while there were black sheep in the Greek flock, there were very many of the other kind as white as the marble of their own Pentelicus. An old cynic phi- losopher, named Diogenes, lived in a tub and was in the habit of going about the streets of Athens at noonday with a lantern in his hand, looking for an honest man. Do you think there was anything wrong with his lantern or with his eyes? QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Are the ideals for which these fine old Greeks stood, worth holding out as ideals to the boys and girls of our day? 2. Pericles was an advocate of the " City beautiful." How could the city or town in which you live be made more beautiful? Would it be nec- essary to build Parthenons and to pay thousands of dollars to bring this about? 3. Which one of these old Greeks do you admire most? Why? 4. Name four famous Greeks and write a one-word picture of each. PRONOUNCING LIST Aristides. ar'Is-tl'dez Socrates. s6k'rd-tez Diogenes. di-6j'6-nez Solon. So'ltfn Garcia, gar-se'a 58 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER VI SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION ''With Alexander, the stage of Greek influence spreads across the world" MAHAFFY. We should now fix it firmly in our minds that Greek civilization and Greek learning were not confined to that small country now called Greece. In the course of time Greek culture spread over the entire ancient world. Like thistledown its seeds were wafted everywhere. Greek Colonies. The spread of Greek civilization was brought about, in part, by the founding of colonies. There were three reasons why the Greeks founded colonies. In the first place, the population of the country had increased and an overflow took place. There was a "land hunger " among the Greeks and also a spirit of adventure. Greece was a small country, with a rugged and broken surface and a soil which was not very fertile. In the second place, some of the Greeks were not happy under the oppression of the home government and, like the Pilgrim Fathers, they sought freedom in other lands. Again, many of the col- onies were due to the growth of commerce. After the decline of the Phoenicians, the Greeks became the leading commercial nation of the world. Colonies and commerce usually go hand in hand. These colonies were free cities, not under the control of the mother country. They were bound to the mother city only by ties of sentiment and by a common religion and SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 59 language. When colonists were about to set out to make homes in a new land, they asked the approval of the Delphic Oracle, and also took with them the sacred fire from the altar of the mother city. From this sacred spark a fire was kindled upon the hearth of the new city. If you will look at the map, you will see that the Greeks founded colonies over a very wide area from the eastern shores of the Black Sea on the east to Spain on the west, and from Russia on the north to the Sahara Desert on the south. In addition to this, Alexander the Great, the famous conqueror, founded Greek cities in the East all over the old Persian Empire and even beyond its bound- aries. Many of these colonies later became great cities, but the important fact about the whole matter is this, wherever a Greek colony was established, it became a center of Greek civilization. "It bore the blossoms and fruit of Greek culture." The people spoke the Greek language, sang the Greek songs, worshiped the Greek gods, and lived the Greek life of freedom. Alexander the Great did more than any other one man to spread the civilization of Greece. He is an interesting and in most ways an attractive figure in history. He was the son of that Philip, king of Macedon, against whom Demosthenes hurled his powerful "Philippics." His mother was a semi-barbaric princess from a wild tribe. Alexander was a peculiar combination. He had the strong will and the military ability of his father, coupled with the warm sympathy and the fiery temper of his mother. From his ceacher, the famous Aristotle, he got his love of Greek culture, and from Homer, his favorite author, he obtained 60 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY his love of heroic warfare. He knew the " Iliad" by heart and looked upon Achilles as his ideal warrior. At the age of twelve, he conquered and tamed the fiery steed, Bucephalus; at eighteen, he led his father's troops in battle; and at twenty, he succeeded his father on the throne. At this time, he was a strong, vigorous, hand- some, and well-educated young man. He was also a very likable person. During his father's campaigns, it is said that Alexander frequently murmured because he feared there would be no worlds for him to conquer. Now at his father's death (336 B.C.) his great opportunity came and he determined to punish the East for the injuries and insults of the Persian Wars. Before starting out, it was necessary to set things in order in Greece, where certain cities had re- volted against his rule. Thebes was one of these, and to show that he meant business and would not be trifled with, he destroyed every house in the city, except that of the poet Pindar, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. He then started out upon his eastern conquest one of the most remarkable expeditions in the world's history. He halted at the plains of Troy to do homage at the grave of Achilles, his ideal warrior. He then passed on to Gordium, where he cut the "Gordian Knot." Passing through Tarsus, which centuries later was the home of the Apostle Paul, he came to Tyre, the famous city of Phoe- nicia, and demanded its surrender. The Tyrians refused his demand and for seven months held out nobly. Tyre was situated on an island about a half-mile from the main- land, and Alexander proceeded to build a wall or causeway, two hundred feet wide, from the mainland out to the island. SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION ^l*} ?>? ; 61 ALEXANDER THE GREAT The young and handsome conqueror of the East is recognized as one of the world's greatest military geniuses. While not an admirable man in every respect he did much to spread Greek civilization. 62 'INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY He proceeded vigorously. He drove piles and dumped in stones, dirt, logs, and trees to fill up the space. While DEFEAT OP DARIUS BY ALEXANDER It was Alexander's ambition to conquer the world and as the Persian Empire was still the chief power in Asia, it was this empire that he set out to conquer. A third Darius was now ruling in Persia. Although Darius had twenty times as many men as Alexander had, Alexander defeated him in three great battles. After the third battle Darius was killed by some of his own men as he was trying to escape. doing this, the Tyrians harassed the Greeks in every pos- sible way. They hurled missiles of various kinds at them and pulled the trees and logs out of their places in the SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 63 wall. The Greeks then hung up hides of animals to pro- tect their workers from the attacks of the enemy. They also built towers for their sharpshooters, but these the Tyrians burned in a rather ingenious way. They filled old ships with pitch and other combustible material and, setting them on fire, pushed them out against the towers and burned them down. Tyrian divers also fastened ropes to the trees and logs in the wall and pulled them from their places. Alexander, however, finally suc- ceeded in building the wall out to the island. Here he had an- other fierce fight. A wall had been built all around the edge of the island. This Alexander pro- A SOLDIER^JLLEXANDER'S Ceeded to demolish by means of The Macedonian phalanx battering rams. But he had no easy task. The defenders lowered They were armed with spears. This body moved in a mass blocks of Stone to Ward off the and nothing could withstand , , . T rrn it on level ground. It plowed blows Of the rams. The ropes through armies like a great from which the blocks were sus- machme - pended were cut by scythes, and then iron cables were used. Bags of sea-weed were also lowered to deaden the blows of the rams, and red-hot metal and white-hot sand were hurled against the Greeks as they attempted to scale the wall. Finally, Alexander succeeded in battering down the wall, but right here he met another surprise. He found that while he was breaking the outer wall, the 64 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Tyrians were building an inner one to take its place. This one he battered down also, and so, after a long siege, entered the city. The Tyrians retreated to the roofs of their buildings and threw rocks upon the heads of the Greek invaders. But they were finally compelled to submit and their city, which they had defended so well, was wiped off the map, and the flat- topped rock was used only as a drying place for the nets of fishermen. Alexandria. From Tyre, Alexander pushed down into Egypt. The most notable thing that he did there was to found Alexandria, which came to be the niost important commercial and educational city of the world. Before this time, the site was a hiding place for pirates. At a later time, it became a city of five hundred thousand inhabi- tants and the center of the world's culture. Here was the famous Museum, an institution something like a modern college or university, with its lecture rooms, art galleries, botanical gardens, and famous library, with its seven hun- dred thousand priceless manuscripts. It became the haunt for the famous scholars of the world. Eratosthenes calcu- lated the circumference of the earth to be twenty-eight thousand miles. Another scientist showed that the sun is the center of the solar system and that the earth rotates on its axis. Euclid wrote his geometry; another mathe- matician used calculus, and one of the scientists almost proved the circulation of the blood. It was many hun- dreds of years before the world again saw such remarkable progress in science and learning as that which received its inspiration from Alexandria. It is not too much to say that the geographers and scientific men of Alexandria SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION , ,65 66 .; ; INTRODUCTION- TO AMERICAN HISTORY aided greatly in the discovery of America. They made the great work of Columbus possible. In every sense, Alexandria was a wonderful city. It " seemed fragrant with all the riches of Greek thought and song." Here, Alexander was buried at the early age of thirty-two. His career, though short, was wonderful. He never refused to fight and he never lost a battle. Yet his great work was not in fighting battles, but in spreading Greek civilization. There are some who think that he did more for the world's civilization than any other human being. One writer says, "No single personality, excepting the carpenter's Son of Nazareth, has done so much to make the world we live in what it is as Alexander of Macedon." QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare the methods employed by Alexander in the siege and capture of Tyre with the methods used in the recent European war. 2. How did the geographers and scientific men of Alexandria aid in the discovery of America? 3. Was Alexander justified in attacking Thebes and Tyre? 4. Draw from memory a map of the Greek colonies. 6. Draw from memory a map of Alexander's March. 6. Why did people like Alexander? 7. What were some of the civilizing influences that Alexander extended throughout the world? PRONOUNCING LIST Bucephalus. bu-s6f'd-ls Gordium. g6r'dl-#m Delphic, del'flk Oracle. Sr'd-k'l Eratosthenes. er'd-tSs'the-nez Tarsus, tar'sws Euclid, u'klld Tyre, tir ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 67 CHAPTER VII THE ROMANS AS THE SUCCESSORS OF THE GREEKS Rome conquered Greece but Greece in turn conquered Rome. " The conquered led captive the conqueror." ROMAN POET. Greek civilization "was borne into Asia on the chariot of a con- queror, while it was brought into Italy in the chains of a captive. 11 The Romans, Empire Builders. You will remember that the Greeks planted colonies on all sides of the Me- diterranean Sea. The Greeks, however, never took pos- session of these countries. They simply built their city-colonies but made no attempt at conquest. Even the colonists themselves were not under the control of the mother country. The Greeks, aside from Alexander, seemed to have no desire for empire or for conquest. The colonies were as free as the mother country. Now, however, there arose in the west another people of a very different kind. They were empire builders, somewhat like the Persians, and delighted in taking land by conquest. These men were famous soldiers and governors, and in the course of a few centuries, they took possession of all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. These people were called Romans, and one writer has called the Mediterranean Sea a " Roman lake." Let us see how this nation began and how the Romans built up their great empire. The Founding of Rome. Do you recall the story of Romulus and Remus and the founding of the city of Rome? 68 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Romulus and Remus were twin boys who were thrown into the Tiber River by a wicked king. They drifted ashore and were rescued and reared by a kind-hearted shepherd. When they became men, the story says, they founded the city of Rome (753 B.C.), near the spot where their rescue took place. They soon quarreled, Remus was killed and Romulus became the first king of Rome. " The Seven Hills of Rome." According to tradition, the first settlement was on the Palatine Hill. Soon, how- ever, with an increase in population, the city spread to the other hills, six in number, and Rome became "the mistress of the seven hills." At first, the Romans could not occupy the valleys between the hills because they were wet and swampy, but later they were drained and made habitable by means of immense stone sewers. The new city was easily defended from its enemies and was favorably situated for the purpose of trade. It was near the Tiber River and, being eighteen miles from the sea, was not in easy reach of pirates. Rome, because of her position, soon grew strong enough to extend her con- quering sway over Italy and, later, over the entire Mediterranean world. Rome's Brave Defenders. . The spirit of Rome's war- riors was more important than her position on the hill- tops. Do you recall the story of Horatius at the bridge? Lars Porsena, an Etruscan king, was bearing down from the north upon Rome with a mighty army. The city seemed doomed, but did not despair. Horatius Codes, with two companions, met the enemy at a narrow wooden bridge, over which the Etruscans attempted to pass into the city. Horatius, deserted by his two men, held the ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 69 bridge until the Romans tore down the part back of him, and thus cut off the Etruscans from the city. The enemy then called upon him to surrender, but instead he threw himself into the Tiber, with his heavy armor on, and swam in safety to the fields on the other shore. He was received HORATIUS AT THE BRIDGE with great shouts of joy, and later a statue, representing hun holding the entire Etruscan army at bay, was erected in his honor. Cincinnatus at the Plow. To the north and east of the Romans there lived a people called the Aequians. With these also the Romans waged a war, and, according to the story, were getting the worst of it. The Roman army was entrapped in a valley and about to be destroyed, when the 70 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY country turned to a simple farmer for deliverance. Cin- cinnatus was a distinguished soldier who had retired to a small farm a few miles from Rome. The Senate now made him Dictator and a messenger was sent to urge him to come to Rome at once and raise an army for the defense of the city. When the messenger arrived, he found Cin- cinnatus plowing in the field. Upon receiving his mes- sage, the old soldier left his oxen standing in the furrow, went directly to Rome, raised an army, captured the entire force of the Aequians, and sent it " under the yoke.' 7 The yoke consisted of a spear, supported on two other spears, thrust into the ground. Passing under the yoke was the greatest humiliation that could befall a spirited soldier. He had to bow low hi token of subjection. Cincinnatus was given a great triumph when he returned to Rome. A procession moved along the principal streets and escorted the triumphal car, in which the great general rode, clad in splendid robes. When this was over, he laid aside his purple garments, resigned his commission as Dictator, and went back to the simple life of his four- acre farm. The great strength of Rome lay in such citizens as Cin- cinnatus. At the time of our Civil War, tens of thou- sands of American citizens left their plows standing in the furrows and fought for the preservation of the Union. After the war was over, they, like Cincinnatus, quietly returned to then* former duties. Such men as these make a nation great. The Romans knew no such word as "fail" and by 275 B.C., or about fifty years after Alexander's death, they had possession of all of Italy from the Rubicon to Sicily. ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 71 The Wars with Carthage. Could the Romans remain contented in Italy? By no means. While Rome was growing strong in Italy, another great power was spring- ing up on the coast of Africa, opposite Sicily. By the time that Rome had obtained possession of the Italian penin- ROMAN SOLDIERS These men conquered the world for Rome. sula, Carthage had secured two thousand miles of sea- coast in north Africa. The Mediterranean world was too small for both of them and Cato, a Roman leader of this time, concluded every one of his speeches with the words, "Carthage must be destroyed." Carthage was finally de- stroyed by Rome, but not without a mighty struggle. 72 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Hannibal. The Romans waged three wars with the Carthaginians and the greatest hero of these wars on the Carthaginian side was Hannibal. Hannibal came from a fighting family and one that hated the very name of Rome. When but a boy of nine, his father took him THE BOY HANNIBAL SWEARING ENMITY TO ROME before the altar of one of their gods and asked him to take an oath of everlasting hostility to the Romans. This he did and how well he lived up to his oath we shall soon see. Hannibal was a truly wonderful man and one of the most skillful military leaders of all time. He combined courage with prudence. His body apparently never be- came tired and his mind was always alert. He could ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 73 74 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY endure extremes of hunger and cold when necessary. He ate and drank in moderation and often worked both day and night, sleeping only when there was nothing else to be done. He would wrap himself up in his cloak and lie down on the ground, wherever he happened to be, and sleep in the midst of the sentinels of the army. He dressed as a plain officer, but carried splendid weapons and always rode the best of horses. Hannibal Crosses the Alps. Hannibal conceived a bold idea. He resolved to beard the Roman lion in his den, or, in other words, to carry the war to the very gates of Rome. So he took his army, went into Spain, crossed the Pyrenees Mountains and the Rhone River, and began to climb the Alps. This was a very difficult task. The way was steep, narrow, and icy and beset with all sorts of obstacles. The natives watched his prog- ress and rolled huge bowlders down the mountain sides upon his train of pack animals. In this way he lost a large part of his provisions. His elephants, too, were not on their good behavior, and caused him a great deal of trouble. But he finally came to the summit and looked down upon Italy. He probably had his oath in mind when he said to his men, "Yonder in the distance lies Rome." He reached the top of the mountains, but he had paid the penalty. He started with sixty thousand men. He now had less than one half of that number, and these were hungry and worn out and their horses were tired and lame. Hannibal's strong heart, however, never faltered. There was no Roman commander who was anything like a match for him and he out-generaled the enemy on every hand. ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 75 At Lake Trasimenus, near Rome, he set a trap for the enemy. He took an unusual route across the marshes, wading for four days and three nights through mud and mire. He then threw himself upon the surprised HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS Romans, killed the commander, and destroyed their entire army. After the battle, his men talked of dining in the city of Rome within a few days. The Battle of Cannae (216 B.C.). He then pushed on to Cannae in southeast Italy where he fought his greatest 76 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY battle. The Romans, now thoroughly frightened, had raised an army of eighty-six thousand men the largest Roman army ever put into the field up to this time. Now Hannibal had only fifty thousand men, but as one writer remarks, " Hannibal's brains were worth forty thousand Roman soldiers." It seemed so. Hannibal planned the battle, and the Romans seemed to fall right in with his plans. He not only defeated the Roman army, but he crushed it utterly. It is said that seventy thousand Romans were slain at Cannae and that every house in Rome was in mourning. Hannibal sent to Carthage a peck of gold rings, taken from the fingers of Roman knights who fell in the slaughter. The Roman Spirit. The Carthaginians won other vic- tories under the splendid leadership of Hannibal, but were the Romans defeated? By no means. They hung on and triumphed in the end. The Roman generals were not so able as the Carthaginian, but the Roman citizens were reliable and steadfast. They endured to the end and finally triumphed. The Destruction of Carthage (146 B.C.). The Cartha- ginians were finally worn out and Hannibal went back to Carthage, after maintaining an army in a foreign country for sixteen years. The Romans pressed after him and " carried the war into Africa." They finally took Carthage in 146 B.C. They massacred the inhabitants, pillaged and burned the city, and cursed the very land upon which it stood. This was the sad ending of a proud city. Greece Made a Roman Province. The wars with Carthage furnish a good example of the way in which the Romans conquered the Mediterranean lands. Greece be- ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 77 came a Roman province in the same year in which Car- thage was destroyed. The fall of Corinth in Greece was the final event of that war. When the city was captured the Roman Consul caused most of the men to be put to death. The rest of the people became slaves. After pil- laging the city, the Consul burned it. He then sent several ship-loads of statues and paintings to Rome. Many of these works of art were made by the great sculp- tors and painters of Greece. When the ships were setting out for Rome, Mummius, the Roman commander, warned the sailors that if they destroyed or injured any of the works of art on the voyage, "they must replace them with others of equal value." Would it be an easy task to replace a statue by Phidias, or a painting by Apelles? And so the Roman army stalked along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Nothing could stop the Roman soldier. He might be defeated at times, but he hung on with bull-dog grip and usually triumphed in the end. The Building of a Fleet. The great energy and re- sourcefulness of the Romans are well illustrated by an event in the wars with Carthage. In the early part of the war, the Romans had no fleet worthy of the name and they saw at once that they must have war-ships, if they expected to make any headway against "the sons of the Phoenicians." So they took as a model a Carthaginian ship which had been wrecked upon the Italian shore, and in sixty days they made one hundred just like it. Fur- thermore, they fitted out their ships with drawbridges which could be thrown over the decks of the enemies' 78 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY vessels and spiked down, thus lashing the two vessels together. They believed that, in a hand-to-hand fight, they could defeat any other soldiers in the world. They proved themselves equal to the task. It is now easy to see that Rome was made great not by her seven hills or by the Tiber River, not by the vast extent of territory over which she held sway, nor the many tribes and nations which she ruled, but by the splendid valor and the patriotic spirit of her citizens. She conquered many tribes, absorbing their strength; she gathered military skill from contact with the Carthagin- A ROMAN SHIP ian; she grew rich Vessels like this carried the commerce and the from the granaries soldiers of Rome to all parts of the known world. f A - . , of Africa; she ab- sorbed the freedom, grace, and scholarship of the Greeks, and welded all of these into a splendid valor and a patriotic citizenship. It meant something to be a Roman citizen. "To be a Roman was greater than to be a king." QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. You have already seen how Greek civilization " was brought into Asia on the chariot of a conqueror." Watch carefully in this and suc- ceeding chapters to see how it "was brought into Italy in the chains of a captive." THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 79 2. Compare Hannibal's attack on Rome with Alexander's siege of Tyre. Which expedition do you think was more difficult? 3. What is patriotism? Can we love our country without hating others? 4. Did you notice anything about the rise of the Greeks that was like the rise of the Romans? 6. What are the important names and places in this chapter and why? PRONOUNCING LIST Aequians. e-kwl'ans Mummius. mum'I-ws Cannae, kan'e Palatine. pal'd-tin Carthage, kar'thaj Punic, pu'nlk Cato. ka'to Pyrenees, pfr'g-nez Cincinnatus. sln'sl-na'tws Remus. re'm#s Corinth. kSr'Inth Rhone, ron Etruscan. &-trtis'kan Romulus. r8m'u-lws Hannibal. han'I-bal Sicily. sfe'I-li Horatius Codes. h6-ra'shl-#s ko'klez Tiber, tl'ber Lars Porsena. lars por's6-na Trasimenus. tra'se-me'n#s CHAPTER VIII THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST Let us now turn our attention to the Romans in the West. After conquering the eastern Mediterranean coun- tries, the Romans turned their arms against the Gauls, in what is now France, against the Germans beyond the Danube, and against the Britons in England. From our standpoint, the spread of the Romans in the West is important because these western peoples had most to do with the discovery and colonization of the American continent. Caesar in Gaul. Roman rule and Roman civilization were carried into western Europe by Julius Caesar, the 80 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY greatest man of the Roman world. Caesar was a member of one of the oldest and proudest of the aristocratic fam- ilies of Rome. But he believed in giving the common people their rights, and so became a great popular leader. He increased his popularity, year after year, by giving entertainments to the masses of the people. He amused them from time to time by giving sham battles on the Tiber and gladiatorial fights in the arena. The people liked him and he was elected to one office after another until finally he became Consul, the highest official in the land. In the year 58 B.C. he led an army into Gaul and pro- ceeded to make a conquest of that country. Here he and bis men fought bravely, and, in the course of a few years, he had conquered all the land now known as France, Belgium, and Holland. In doing this, however, he met men worthy of his steel. Vercingetorix, Chief of the Gauls. The greatest of these was Vercingetorix, a noble young Gaul. He was a spirited patriot and was unwilling to submit to Roman rule. He, therefore, raised a revolt against the power of Caesar and attempted to drive the Romans out of his native land. He tried to starve out the Roman army by burning sup- plies and destroying towns. No less than a score of cities were ablaze on a single day and the Romans were in the midst of a sea of flame. One city was spared and here the Gauls took refuge and defended themselves for about a month. Finally, Caesar dashed against it in the midst of a driving rain and captured the town. The in- habitants, men, women, and children, were massacred. Vercingetorix was making some headway, however. He THE ROMANS CONQUER THE W$&T -- , -, $1- , JULIUS CAESAR Julius Caesar was a great Roman general, statesman, orator, and writer. -82 '7 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY met and defeated Caesar the only time that Caesar was ever defeated in an open battle. In another battle, Caesar was captured but later he was rescued by his men. Caesar now redoubled his efforts and Vercingetorix was compelled to take refuge in the hill-top city of Alesia in eastern Gaul. Caesar laid siege to this place, but found fche task a very difficult one. But, finally, the organized VERCINGETORIX AND HIS SOLDIERS strength and skill of the Romans began to prevail over the great numbers and savage bravery of the Gauls. Ver- cingetorix, seeing that the day was lost, went to the camp of Caesar and gave himself up as a prisoner, in order to save his followers from slaughter. Caesar took his noble captive to Rome, where he graced the triumphal proces- sion and was later put to death in a dungeon. He was the THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 83 best fighter the Romans had met in a hundred and fifty years and deserved a better fate. A monument was erected to his memory on the site of his heroic stand. The Germans. While in Gaul, Caesar also came into contact with the dreaded Germans. The Romans had THE MEETING OF CAESAR AND ARIOVISTUS Ariovistus proposed to share the territory of Gaul with the Romans. Caesar rejected this proposition and war followed. The Roman soldiers were so frightened by the warlike appearance of the Germans that they hesitated about entering the battle. It was here that Caesar remarked that if all other soldiers failed him he would face the foe with the Tenth Legion alone. The battle was fought, the Germans were defeated, and Ariovistus escaped across the Rhine River in a small boat. heard alarming stories about the great size and terrible appearance of these people and were not at all anxious to meet them in battle. So when Ariovistus, a German king, crossed the Rhine River into Gaul to seek homes for his people, the Roman soldiers were greatly alarmed. But 84 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Caesar was equal to the occasion. He said, "If no others will follow me against the Germans, I shall go forward with the tenth legion alone." The flattered tenth legion said that it was ready to march, and others went also. The result was that Ariovistus was beaten in battle and was driven back to his home in Germany. Caesar in Britain. We must follow Caesar into still another country. While he was campaigning in Gaul, some of the Britons living in the country now known as England, aided the Gauls against the Romans. The Gauls and Britons belonged to the same race, and the Britons probably came to the conclusion that if the Romans conquered the Gauls, their turn would come next. Caesar also had heard numerous stories about the wealth and beauty of the island and probably had some curiosity to see the country for himself and possibly to add it to the domain of Rome. Therefore, one day in August, 55 B.C., a crowd of half- naked barbarians with painted faces saw Caesar's ships put into port near the modern English town of Deal. The Britons tried to prevent them from landing, but to no avail. After defeating the natives in several skir- mishes and losing some of his ships in a great storm off the British coast, Caesar prepared to go back to Gaul. He robbed the harvest fields of the Britons to get food for his army, and then sailed away. In the following summer he returned to Britain with a larger force of men. This time he landed twenty-two thousand soldiers without opposition on the part of the natives. When he began his march inland, however, the Britons fell upon him. Nevertheless, he pushed as far THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 85 north as the Thames River, chastising the Britons, and burning their huts as he went. The Britons, no doubt, breathed a sigh of relief when, a few weeks later, they saw his boats vanish in the distance. They were content THE LANDING OF THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN to allow the Gauls to fight their own battles after that. Caesar wrote an account of his experiences and observa- tions in Britain and with this account the written history of Britain begins. The Real Conquest of Britain. It cannot be said, how- 86 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ever, that Caesar made a conquest of Britain, or that he added it to the Roman Empire, for he did neither. He found the island and told the Romans enough about its resources and people to arouse then- curiosity and to make them wish to have it as a part of the empire. And yet for a hundred years they took no steps in this direction. Finally, in 43 A.D., they began a systematic conquest of the island which extended over many years. After a long period of fierce fighting, the Romans got possession of all of that part of the island known as England and built great walls near the Scottish border for defense against the war- like peoples of the north. Roman Civilization in Britain. When the Romans came into Britain, they brought other things with them besides their swords. They lived there for three hundred fifty years and brought Roman civilization with them. They built towns over all the island and in these towns were temples, theaters, and fine buildings better ones than the Britons had ever dreamed of. They also drained the marshes, cleared away the forests, .and built roads which have lasted even to this day. Four great Roman roads spread out from London and led to important parts of the island. The Romans also built great walls for defense and some parts of these still exist. They taught the Britons to cultivate their land in a better way, to make better clothes, and in every way to live better. A Roman villa, with its baths, works of art, and general refinement, was an object lesson in civilization to the rude Britons. In religion, there were marked changes. The Britons, with their Druid form of worship, offered up human beings as sacrifices in their dark groves. The THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 87 Romans brought with them their gods and temples, and later Christianity appeared in different parts of the island. The man who had most to do with the spread of Roman power in the West was Julius Caesar, the greatest man ever produced by Rome and one of the greatest in all history. It should be remembered that wherever the Romans went they brought Roman life, industry, art, religion, law, and literature with them. They also taught a plan of organized government which has made possible safe living in great cities. Rome gave to the world and to us an idea of the importance of citizenship. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. You have seen in this chapter how the Roman Empire is spreading. Have you also noticed that Caesar, the Great Roman Empire builder, did his great work in the century preceding the birth of Christ, and the begin- ning of the Christian religion? Keep this hi mind hi the next few chapters. 2. Which do you think had the better ideas about empire building, the Persians or the Romans? 3. Which would you rather be, a citizen of the Roman Empire or of the British Empire of to-day? Why? 4. What was Rome's greatest contribution to the world? 5. Compare Caesar with Hannibal and note the differences. Why was Caesar greater than Hannibal? PRONOUNCING LIST Alesia. ci-le'sl-d Gaul, gol Ariovistus. a-rf'o-vls'tus Julius Caesar. jool'I-^s se'zar Danube, dan'ub Rhine, rm Druid. droo'Id Vercingetorix. vur'sln-jet'6-rlks 88 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER IX ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE Crossing the Rubicon. At this point we are just a little ahead of our story and must retrace our steps for a few moments. While Caesar was winning land and laurels in Gaul, some other leaders of the Roman State were becoming exceedingly jealous of him. His enemies induced the Senate to order that he should give up his whole army upon a certain day or be declared a public enemy. Instead of giving up his army, he marched with it upon Rome to chastise his enemies. This was a very serious thing to do and Caesar was well aware of it. It was against the Roman law for any one to enter Italy without laying down his arms at the boundary. And when Caesar came to the Rubicon River, which separated his province of Gaul from Italy, he hesitated. But finally exclaiming, "The die is cast," he crossed the river, and with a loud blast of his trumpet, called upon his troops to fol- low. This they did and marched with Caesar against the city of Rome. Here Caesar quickly scattered his enemies and was soon the master of the city. He next defeated his enemies in Egypt and in other parts of the East. After one of his battles, he sent his famous message to Rome, "Veni, vidi, vici" (meaning, "I came, I saw, I conquered"), which indicates the rapidity with which he acted. He was now master of the Roman world, and became, in reality, the first Emperor of the THE ROMAN EMPIRE HEIGHT OF ITS POWER It is evident from this map why the Medi- terranean Sea was called "A Roman take" Note how the empire was bound together by the Roman roads. L i"itude West Longitude 5 V.wt 10 from 15 Greenwich 2(i 35 40 ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 89 Roman Empire. He did not live long, however, to enjoy his power, as he was cruelly murdered in the Senate Cham- ber at Rome (44 B.C.), in the fifty-sixth year of his age. His former friends, jealous of his great success, fell upon CAESAR CROSSING THE RUBICON him with their daggers, and he dropped, pierced by twenty- three wounds. A Roman historian tells us that the people looked upon him as a god and that a comet which blazed in the sky for seven days was thought to be the soul of Caesar as it entered the kingdom of heaven. 90 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY And so, slowly but surely, the Roman army took pos- session of the countries from England to Egypt and from the Danube to the great African desert. The Romans were defeated at tunes, but they fought with that grim determination which finally crowned them with success. The City of Rome. Julius Caesar was succeeded in power by his grand-nephew, Octavius, or Augustus, as he is better known. This young man of nineteen was a youth of remarkable abil- ity, and during his reign Rome enjoyed Age" of her Augustus was Emperor for some years both before and after the birth' 'of Christ, and during that time Rome reached the pinnacle of her greatness. The "Age of Augustus" in Rome corresponds to the "Age of Pericles" in Greece. At the close of his reign, Augustus boasted that he found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. Some of the wonders of this city of marble are worthy of our attention. The Forum. The Forum was the architectural center of the city. It was a large, open space and corresponded in some respects to the Acropolis at Athens. It was the scene of the old market place of the early days, but later "the Golden prosperity. AUGUSTUS CAESAR ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIR& ?J II 83 E-B- r - 2.S Bg. 11 O i 92 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY became the center of a mass of beautiful and inspiring buildings, including palaces, theaters, circuses, baths, tombs, triumphal arches, columns, and other monuments. These were enlarged copies of the buildings which the Romans found in Greece. Some of these were in the Forum, others THE PANTHEON The above picture was taken from a photograph of a small model, showing how the Pantheon looked in the "Golden Age." near it, and still others scattered about in different parts of the city. The Pantheon. One of the most beautiful buildings of Rome was the Pantheon, or the " Temple of all the gods." It was built by Augustus and may be said to be the Roman Parthenon (see page 45). The Coliseum. The Romans were very fond of fights and contests of all kinds, but were not always fair sports- ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 93 men. They loved the sensational and brutal form of con- test. One of the Emperors built the famous Coliseum, which was the scene of gladiatorial contests and fights between wild beasts and men. The most savage animals that could be found were procured for this purpose from A GLADIATORIAL COMBAT When one of the fighters had his opponent at his mercy he looked up to the spectators to see whether or not they wished to have his life taken. Holding the thumbs up was the signal for sparing the life of the vanquished man while holding the thumbs down indicated that he should be put to death. distant forests and deserts. The effects of these shows were degrading and brutalizing, and yet the crowds went wild over them. The prize fight and the bull fight of the present day are about all that remain of this low form of recreation. The Circus Maximus, or Great Circus, was built for sports and contests of various kinds, chief among them 94 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY being the chariot Braces. The Circus was two thousand feet long and six hundred feet wide, and would seat four hundred thousand people. The chariot races were a most thrilling spectacle. Daring and reckless drivers drove the fastest horses that could be procured. Usually they drove seven times around the course, a distance of four miles. The turns were short for such terrific speed and very fre- quently horses, chariots, and drivers fell into a tangled A CHARIOT RACE heap. In fact, the drivers, instead of attempting to win the race on its merits, often tried to " spill their opponents. " The Public Baths were among the finest of the Roman buildings. They were beautiful and spacious structures with granite and marble columns and floors of fine mosaic. Much of the marble used was brought over from Greece. In addition to the baths and swimming pools, there were gymnasiums, lounging rooms, art galleries and reading rooms, and halls for conversation. These baths were club houses for rich and poor alike and became the social cen- ters of Rome. ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 95 In addition to these public buildings, the Romans built fine roads, aqueducts, and private dwellings. The founda- tions of some of these roads are still solid after a lapse of two thousand years. The aqueducts brought water from the surrounding hills to the city for use. The aqueduct was made of stone and was built with a slight incline towards the city and never with ups and downs as we now lay our water pipes. Mountains were leveled and valleys were bridged over for the passage of the waterway. Education. In education, as in many other things, the Romans imitated the Greeks. In fact, Greek teachers were found in Roman schools and in Roman private fam- ilies. The Romans, however, made one very great im- provement upon the education of the Greeks they educated their girls to some extent, at least, as well as the boys. The schools were private, not public as with us, and a small fee was paid by the pupil. The boy entered school at the age of six or seven, and was taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. At a later time he was taught Greek, rhetoric, oratory, and philosophy. It was considered very important that the boy be able to speak in public and he was given frequent exercises to this end. The school work began before sunrise and the discipline, like that of the Roman army, was exceedingly severe. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. What effect had the binding together of the Mediterranean world into one great empire upon the spreading of Christianity? 2. If there is some one in your community who has visited Rome, ask your teacher to invite him to come and talk to your class. Get him to tell you about the Forum, the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the Baths of Caracalla, the great Aqueducts, etc. Be ready to ask him questions. 96 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 3. How did the education of the Roman boy differ from that of the Greek boy? 4. Have you ever visited the capital of your state or nation? Rome was a beautiful city, but Washington is beautiful also. PRONOUNCING LIST Caracalla. kar'd-kal'd Forum. fo'r#m Circus Maximus. sur'kws mak'sl- Octavius. 6c-ta'vi-ws mws Pantheon. pan-the'Sn Coliseum. kSl'I-se'ftm Rubicon, roo'bl-ko'n CHAPTER X CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE Just at the time when the Roman empire was at the height of its power under the Emperor Augustus, the founder of Christianity was born in Bethlehem, a little village in Judea. There he went about teaching the doc- trines of his new religion, and after his death his followers carried on the work. Paul and other apostles went to Athens and other important cities of the Roman Empire to spread the new faith. Persecution of the Christians. There were many reli- gions in the Empire and Rome tolerated them all as we do in our country. The Roman emperors, at first, took no notice of the Christians. The believers in the new religion were drawn, for the most part, from the lower classes of society, and almost no attention was paid to them by the governing classes. They did not seem to be worthy of notice. Soon, however, the Christians came to be looked upon as an objectionable body of people and CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN -EMPIRE 97 were called " haters of mankind." They refused to wor- ship the gods of the Romans. To them that was idol- worship and a sin. The Christians held secret meetings and this fact also aroused suspicion against them. The pagans accused them of many crimes, including canni- balism, and many believed that famine, pestilence, and other calamities were sent upon the Romans by their THE LAST PRAYER The Christians in Rome, under some of the Emperors, were compelled to undergo cruel tortures. Here we see a group of them about to be sacrificed to wild beasts before a vast crowd in the Coliseum. gods because of the offenses of the Christians. Soon the Christians came to be despised and feared by some of the Emperors. Wicked emperors, like Nero, persecuted them almost for the fun of it, and good men, like Marcus Aurelius, did so as a pious duty. The Persecutions of Nero. The young Nero was only seventeen years of age when he became Emperor and he INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY was more interested in dancing and other forms of amuse- ment than he was in anything else. He, therefore, turned over the government to others for a time. It would have been better for the Christians and for all concerned if he had kept his hands off altogether. But he did not. A large part of the city of Rome was burned during Nero's reign, and the Emperor, because of his peculiar antics, was accused of setting it on fire. He seemed to enjoy the burning very much and an old story tells us that he played his harp while the city burned. In order to ward off suspicion from him- self, he accused the Christians of setting the fire and pro- NERO WATCHING THE BURNING OF ROME ceeded to punjsh them for it. They were tortured very cruelly. A Roman historian tells us that "in their deaths they were made the subjects of sport; for they were covered with skins of wild beasts, worried to death by dogs, and being covered with pitch were burned to serve for torches in the night. Nero offered his garden for this spectacle." The Roman people showed signs of pity for the sufferers, but the cruel Emperor did not relent. This outburst against the Chris- tians was not entirely on religious grounds and did not extend beyond the city of Rome. CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 99 Christianity grew, however, in spite of persecution. It may have grown more rapidly because of it. The Chris- tians were very aggressive. They believed that it was their holy duty to convert all men to their faith. The new religion also had something to offer which the old pagan religion did not have. It was the first religion to teach universal brotherhood, that the soul of the slave was as good as the soul of an Emperor, and it recognized no caste or class distinction. It also taught par- don for sins and the immortality of the soul, or the life after the life on earth. Many poor and op- pressed souls found comfort and solace in the teachings of the Christians. Christianity grew steadily and Christian teachers appeared all over the Empire. Constantine and the Flaming Cross. Finally Constan- tine became Emperor in the early part of the fourth cen- tury. He was a masterful man with splendid insight into the problems of government. He saw the growing power of the Christians and probably wished to have their assist- ance in his wars. He was also friendly to the doctrines of Christianity, and it is said that while on a military cam- CONSTANTINE SEES THE FLAMING CROSS IN THE SKY 100 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY paign, he saw in the heavens a flaming sign of the Cross, with the words upon it, "By this sign you shall conquer. " It is said that he made a vow to accept the God of the Christians in case of success. He won his battle and was immediately baptized into the Christian faith. This story may or may not be true, but it is certain that Constan- tine became a Christian and made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire. Now that Christianity had the official endorsement of the Emperor, it spread rapidly in all parts of the Empire. Many thrilling stories could be told of the work of devoted missionaries of the Christian Church, if our space per- mitted. Perhaps you will recall some of these stories and possibly you may have time to read some in other books. Summary. Let us now sum up briefly what has been said in the last few chapters. Greece inherited the civili- zation of Egypt, Phoenicia, and other oriental countries. She adopted the best of this civilization, improved upon it, and handed it on to her successors, the Romans. As the Romans conquered country after country in their trium- phal swing around the Mediterranean, they found every- where the seeds of Greek culture, planted by Greek col- onists. They also captured Greek cities, such as Corinth, and carried away their art treasures to Rome. They studied the writings of the great Greek authors and employed Greek teachers in their schools. In this way, the Romans adopted and absorbed the civilization of the Greeks and carried it into every nook and corner of the Mediterranean world. The Romans were very different from the Greeks. The Greeks were men of thought, while the Romans were CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 101 men of action. The Greeks delighted and excelled in poetry, history, oratory, philosophy, sculpture, painting, and architecture, while the Romans were at their best in conquering and in governing. They excelled in the so- called practical things, while they imitated Greek art and literature. They built roads and aqueducts, sewers and temples, which are in existence at the present day. Their greatest original contribution to civilization, however, was in law and government. The government and patriotism of the Greeks were narrow. They were limited to a single city. The Romans made them world- wide. It was a very fortunate thing that Greek and Roman civilization came into contact. They worked well together. The Romans added what was lacking in the Greeks and between them they gave much to later civilization. They are among the " makers of America." Many of our government buildings in Washington are patterned after Greek models. Greek and Latin are taught in our schools. Greek art abounds in our art galleries. Our engineers have studied the roads, sewers, and aqueducts of Rome. Roman law is taught in our universities. The alphabet used on this page and the numerals at the heads of the chapters are Roman; and last, and by no means least, it was the Romans who brought the Christian religion to those nations who discovered and colonized the United States of America. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. How do you account for the marvelous spread of the Christian re- ligion in spite of the bitter persecution? 2. The catacombs of St. Calixtus on the famous Appian Way, a short distance out from Rome, may be visited to-day. Here you will see the underground rooms in which the early Christians worshiped when it meant death to admit being a Christian. 1Q3 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 3. Why was Constantino's conversion of so great importance? 4. Why was it fortunate that Greek and Roman civilization came into contact? Name as many Greek gifts to the world as you can. 5. Do not forget the names of some of the famous old Greeks and Romans. Go back to previous chapters and make a list of at least six of each nation, adding to their names what it was that they did that made them so notable. PRONOUNCING LIST Appian. ap'I-an Judea. joo-de'd Calixtus. ka-llks'toos Marcus Aurelius. mar'kws 6-re'lI-ws Constantino. k6n'stan-tm Nero, ne'ro CHAPTER XI THE GERMANS, THE SUCCESSORS AND HEIRS OF THE ROMANS We now bid good-bye to the Romans and seek an intro- duction to their successors and heirs, the Germans. After the Roman had conquered the world, he seemed to have nothing else to do. So he gave himself up to ease, idle- ness, and luxury. He became indolent and sluggish, both in body and in mind. He seemed to lose his old-time vigor and patriotism and to care more for gambling, chariot races, gladiatorial shows, and the tricks of politics. There was fighting enough to be done, of course, but he preferred to hire some one to do it for him. A nation made up of such men cannot last long, so we will now see how the Romans were compelled to step aside and give way to the vigorous and hardy Germans. THE GERMANS 103 The Germans. While the Romans were building up a great empire about the Mediterranean Sea, another and a very different people had their homes east of the Rhine EUROPE IN THE EARLY CENTURIES OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA and north of the Danube River. These people were called Germans. In one sense these Germans were not worthy successors of the Romans, but in another sense they were. They were not so highly civilized as the Romans in fact, the Germans at this time were rude barbarians 104 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY but they had the vigor and the industry which made them prominent in Europe at a later time. The country of the Germans at this time was not invit- ing. It was rough and rugged and covered, for the most part, with dark forests and unhealthful swamps. The climate was severe and living was hard. The people lived A GERMAN HOMESTEAD The early German lived an independent life in the forests and among the mountains. He was a good fighter and a bold hunter. in rude huts, huddled together in little clusters, somewhat like the wigwams of an Indian village. They made a living by hunting, fishing, caring for their flocks, and by a very primitive kind of agriculture. The Germans were fair, tall, and strong and when not fighting were idle, for all work was done by women and THE GERMANS 105 slaves. They were great drinkers and gamblers, and often in their games a man would stake his freedom upon the result. If he lost he became the slave of the winner. The Germans worshiped heathen gods, prominent among which were Woden, the god of the sky, and Thor, the god of thunder and lightning, from whom we derive the names of our days, Wednesday and Thursday. The German Invasion. It was natural enough that these restless barbarians should cast longing eyes at the wealth and civilization of the Roman Empire. The beautiful fields, the fine homes, and the mild climate attracted them and soon they began to make forays and inroads into various parts of the Roman world. Now, while the Romans conquered other peoples, they never made much headway against the Germans. Julius Caesar, it is true, drove Ariovistus, the Germanic chieftain, back into his forests and punished his followers, but gen- erals like Caesar were very scarce in Rome in the later days. Even Augustus tried to make a conquest of the Germans but was compelled to give it up. In the year 9 A.D., he sent his general, Varus, at the head of an army against the Germans. Hermann, the great Germanic ch 3ftain, however, rallied his people and destroyed the Roman army in the Teutoberg Forest. Augustus was sorely grieved and cried out in despair, " Oh, Varus, Varus, give me back my legions." Varus could not do so, how- ever, as the bodies of his soldiers were scattered widely over the country and their bones had been left to whiten "in the German forests. The Battle of Adrianople (378 A.D.). After the Romans stopped sending armies against the Germans, the Germans 106 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY began to send armies against the Romans. The tables were turned and the Romans were now fighting on the defensive. The first great German invasion of Roman territory came about in this way. The Goths, a German tribe, were living at peace north of the Danube River. Sud- THE VICTORIOUS GERMANS RETURNING FROM TEUTOBERG FOREST denly the terrible Huns appeared from Asia, fell upon them, and drove them from their homes. These Huns were a fiendish set of stunted, blood-thirsty men. They were almost dwarfs in size, but their small bodies were filled with a terrible vigor. Small beady eyes glistened in their yellow, weazened faces. Their faces were also beardless and scarred. It was their custom to burn the faces of their boys with hot irons in order to make them fierce in appearance. When these hideous dwarfs appeared upon the Danube THE GERMANS 107 the Goths were thrown into confusion. About %o hun- dred thousand of them huddled on the north bank of the river and implored the Roman Emperor to permit them to cross over. Permission was granted and a huge German colony was formed within the limits of the Roman Empire. The Romans began at once to plunder and oppress the fugitives, and the Goths immediately took up arms and defeated them in the famous I . battle of Adrianople. The em- peror was killed and a large part of his army destroyed. This victory encouraged the Goths and made them feel as much at home in the empire as if they had a right to be there. Meanwhile the Huns were not idle, as we shall now see. Attila and the Huns. After their victory over the Goths, the Huns settled down in what is now Hungary and be- came a strong power. Their king, Attila, built a log cabin for a capitol and was looked upon as the leader of his race, both in Europe and in Asia. Attila was a terrible man, and he set out upon a campaign of death and de- struction in Gaul. An army of these fierce little fiends, riding on their fleet ponies like a cyclone, slaughtered men, women, and children, destroyed crops and applied the torch to cities as they went. It looked as though this storm- cloud of destruction might sweep over all western Europe, but fortunately the Romans and the Germans united to check the course of the Huns, a common enemy. The Battle of Chalons (451 A.D.). They met Attila a 108 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY short distance from Chalons and there fought one of the fiercest and most decisive battles known to the history of the world. It was war to the knife, with no quarter given or asked. The battle made a vivid impression upon the people of the time, and we are told that "the blood from the thousands of wounds swelled to a torrent the brook which flowed through the field of battle." It is impossible to tell what would have happened to the world ATTILA, "THE SCOURGE OF GOD" if the Huns had won the battle of Chalons, but it seems certain that the march of civilization would have been stopped for a time, if not forever; and this is why this battle is so important. Attila was defeated and driven out of Gaul, but he appeared in Italy during the following year. People flew from his presence as they would from a prairie fire. Some of those who escaped with their lives sought refuge among the islands of the Adriatic Sea. This miserable settlement afterwards became the great and picturesque city of Venice. Attila then pressed on and threatened Rome, but the good THE GERMANS 109 bishop, Leo, induced him to spare the city. He finally left Italy and died soon after, and the great empire of the Huns fell to pieces. With the Huns out of the way, the Germans found it a much easier task to get possession of the Roman Empire. The Germans in Britain. While the Germans were taking possession of the Roman Empire, even remote Britain was not overlooked. Just about the time the Germans and Romans were combining to crush the Huns at Chalons, little bands of Germans, known as Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, began to emigrate to Britain from the northern part of Germany. You will remember that about a hundred years after the visits of Julius Caesar to Britain, the Romans added to the empire the country which we now call England. The Romans remained in control of England until 410 A.D., at which time the Germans under Alaric, a talented young noble who had been elected chieftain, were attacking Rome. This made it necessary to recall the Roman sol- diers from Britain in order to defend the capital city, and so the island of Britain was turned back again to the con- trol of the native inhabitants. These inhabitants had, however, been protected so long by the Roman army that they did not know how to protect themselves. They were, therefore, an easy prey for the savage tribes around them. The Picts from Scotland and the Scots from Ire- land plundered and killed the weak and defenseless Britons. They hardly knew what to do, and, in their despair, they asked the Romans to send back their soldiers to protect them. This Rome could not do, as she had more serious business on hand. Just at this time, so the story goes, a 110 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY band of Jutes under their leaders, Hengist and Horsa, landed in the southeastern part of Britain in what is now the county of Kent. These Jutes were reckless rovers and pirates, ever ready to plunder or to fight. To them the Britons turned for assistance. They asked them to join in the war against their fierce neighbors. The Jutes agreed, turned in, and lent a hand. The result was that the combined Britons and Jutes were successful. Just at this point, however, a very unexpected turn took place. The Britons thought that since the fighting was over the Jutes would go their way rejoicing. But the Jutes could not see it in that way. They said that they liked the country and the climate much better than they did their own frozen north and that they had decided to stay and to make themselves at home in Britain. And so they stayed. Not only this, but their relatives and friends came trooping after them and continued to come for one hundred and fifty years. By that time, the new- comers had possession of all the land now known as England, and the movement, known in history as the Anglo-Saxon conquest, was complete. It should be re- membered, however, that the Germanic people never ob- tained possession of what we now call Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. The inhabitants of these latter countries were called Celts, of whom we shall learn more later on. The Roman Empire becomes a German Empire. And so the Germans were grabbing territory in all parts of the Roman Empire, and finally they brushed aside the Em- peror Augustulus and put their own chieftain, Odoacer, in his place. The Germans fought many other battles on Roman soil, but the one great and important thing to be re- THE GERMANS 111 membered is, that, little by little, the Germans overran the whole Roman Empire and that in 476 they put one of their own number upon the throne at Rome. At this date the empire ceased to be Roman and became German. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Suppose the Huns instead of the Germans had been successful in overturning the Roman Empire, what difference would it have made? 2. The Romans, Germans, and others seemed obliged to do a great deal of fighting. Civilized nations are still fighting. Do you think the time will ever come when nations will settle their difficulties without warfare? 3. Why were the Huns feared so much? 4. What can you say about Attila, Adrianople, Chalons, Picts, Scots, Jutes, Angles, Saxons, Goths? 6. What was the Anglo-Saxon Conquest? PRONOUNCING LIST Adrianople. ad'rf-an-o'p'l Picts. plkts Alaric. al'd-rlk Teutoberg. toi't6-btirg Attila. at'I-ld Thor. thor Augustulus. 6-gGs'tti-lws Varus. va'rws Chalons. sha'16n' Venice. venTs Goths. g6ths Woden wo'dgn Odoacer. o'do-a'ser 112 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XII THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY " The torch of knowledge which antiquity had kindled had fallen from the hands that held it, and burned but feebly on the ground" The Dark Ages. Now let us ask, what effect did these German invasions have upon the civilization of the Roman Empire? It received a marked setback, as we might ex- pect, in more ways than one. The Germans were, for the most part, barbarians and only a very small fraction of them had been converted to the Christian religion. They were not interested in books or works of art and they scoffed at the refining influences of life. It seemed for a time as if the lights of learning had been snuffed out by the hands of these rude, barbaric Germans. The masses of the people were not being educated and the writing of books had almost ceased. This state of things lasted for several centuries and this period is commonly known in history as " The Dark Ages." We shall see later, how- ever, that these ages were not really so " dark " as they appeared to be. Thus the German was a destroyer and spread devasta- tion over a large part of the map of Europe. It took the various countries many long centuries to recover from this setback at the hands of the barbarians. In this recovery the Germans had their part. Many hundred years passed THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY' 113 ENGLAND 1066-1485. Battlefields shown thus:-*- X Walker&Cociteroll sc. ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES This map shows the scene of the battle between William, the Duke of Normandy and Harold, the King of England. It also shows the location of Canterbury, the home of the famous Canterbury Cathedral. A little to the east and north of Canterbury is the landing place of St. Augustine and his forty monks and also of the Jutes under Hengist and Horsa. To the west of Canterbury is Runnymede, where King John signed the great charter. il&IA> ,^l]> 2.03 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ever, with golden palaces and marble bridges, they found villages of naked savages, in the midst of humble patches of corn, potatoes, and tobacco. It is here too that Europeans first saw men smoking. The leaves of the plant were rolled up in the form of a tube, somewhat resembling the modern cigar, and lighted at one end. These tubes were called tobaccos. The use of tobacco was introduced into Europe not long after. The First Colony. Columbus next went to the island which we now call Haiti, but which he called the " Spanish Isle." Columbus was charmed by the beauty of the place. The trees were so tall that they seemed to touch the sky and the notes of the nightingale and other birds echoed through the otherwise silent forests. The Indians told him that the island contained " large mines of fine gold" at any rate, he thought they told him this. He never could be quite certain of what the Indians said because they conversed by means of signs and mutterings. Being delighted with the island, Columbus determined to establish a colony there. The lumber for the fort and storehouse was furnished in a most unexpected way. On Christmas morning, before daybreak, the Santa Maria went onto a sand bank and was dashed to pieces on the beach. Her boards and timbers were used in the con- struction of a rude building. Fortunately the cargo and provisions were saved, thanks to the prompt assistance of the Indians. About forty men, including artisans, a tailor, and a physician, were left behind in the new col- ony with provisions and seeds enough for a year. This colony was the first white colony in the new world, if we except the Norse settlement in Vinland. A few years COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 207 later (1498), Bartholomew Columbus founded Santo Domingo on the island of Haiti in honor of his father. This is "the oldest European settlement in the New World which still exists" the first colony of Columbus having vanished within a year. There was another reason for the founding of the colony, aside from the wreck of the Santa Maria and the general desire to occupy the land for Spain. The commander of the Pinta, who was unfriendly to Columbus, suddenly dis- appeared with his ship and no trace could be found of him. It is thought that he wanted to get back to Spain before Columbus did and thus get the lion's share of the glory for finding the route to the Indies. After the wreck of the Santa Maria and the departure of the Pinta, Columbus had left only the Nina, the baby ship of the fleet, and this tiny vessel would not be able to carry the entire party back to Spain. The Journey Home. On the fourth of January, 1493, the Nina set out for Spain. Two days later, she met the Pinta off the northern coast of Haiti. The commander of the latter boat hastened to explain that a storm had driven him out to sea and that he really had no thought of deserting his comrades. Columbus never quite believed him, yet the two vessels now set out for Spain together. The homeward passage was not an easy one. The trade winds compelled the ships to take a more northerly course and, just before reaching the Azores, they were caught in a storm which raged furiously for four days. No one thought that the frail vessels could weather such terrific gales and Columbus feared that he might go to the bottom of the sea without being able to give Ferdinand 208 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY and Isabella an account of his great voyage. He there- fore wrote upon parchment two reports of his expedition and directed them to the king and queen. Each of these he wrapped in cloth and wax and encased in a barrel. One of them, he threw into the sea and the other, he kept on shipboard. Finally, the land appeared an island of the Azores and Columbus sent some of his men ashore to give thanks for their safety from the storm by saying their prayers in a small chapel. They were promptly arrested and held for several days. Columbus finally succeeded in getting the governor of the island to release them. A little later, another terrible storm broke over the Nina and she was driven to the coast of Portugal and found safety by running into the mouth of the Tagus River, on the fourth of March. The news soon spread that Columbus and the Spaniards had returned from the Indies and there was excitement in the air. Great crowds overran the vessel and swarmed about the docks, craning their necks to get a glimpse of the Indians which Colum- bus had on board. It is said also that the surrounding water could not be seen "so full was it of the boats and skiffs of the Portuguese." Some of the Portuguese, feeling that the Spaniards had beaten them in the race for the Indies, were exceedingly surly and wanted to have Colum- bus put to death. Fortunately, better counsel prevailed and no attempt was made upon the life of the great mariner. Four days after his arrival, the king of Portugal sent a very polite note asking Columbus to visit him at the royal court. The invitation was accepted. About nine years COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 209 before, Columbus had visited this same royal court and had asked assistance from this same king and his plans had been rejected by the learned men of the court as " empty talk" and "mere prattle." Things had changed since that time. Now Columbus with becoming dignity reminded King John that he was too late that he had let the golden opportunity slip by. Some of the men about the court thought it would be a good idea to pick a quarrel with Columbus and then run him through with a sword. But King John would not listen to the sug- gestion. After remaining in Portugal for nine days, the Nina put out to sea again and dropped anchor in the harbor of Palos, two days later, the fifteenth of March, 1493. The news of Columbus' s return ran like wild-fire about the town. The relatives of the sailors rushed to greet them. People forgot all about their business and gathered in eager groups to listen to the tales of the sailors. The whole town turned out. Bells were rung and chants of praise were sung to the Lord for deliverance from the terrors of the Sea of Darkness. The Surprise. About nightfall, when the bells were ringing and the people were surging up and down the streets, with lighted torches in their hands, another familiar looking vessel dropped anchor in the harbor. Men peered at her through the gathering darkness. She was no other than the Pinta. The two ships had been separated in the storm off the Azores and each thought that the other had been lost. The meeting was a happy one and March 15th thus became a notable day in the history of Palos. 210 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Columbus at the King's Court. The weeks following Columbus's return were the happiest time in his whole life. He was summoned to the royal court at Barcelona and his journey there was like a triumphal procession. Crowds of people stood by the roadside to get a glimpse of the great navigator as he passed with his stuffed birds, COLUMBUS AT BARCELONA live parrots, and wild Indians which he had brought back from the Indies. At the royal court, he was received with the highest honor. The king and queen awaited his com- ing "on a richly decorated seat, under a canopy of cloth and gold." They rose when he appeared and made him take a seat at their side. This was the highest honor which they could confer upon him. The Pope's Line (1493). Ferdinand and Isabella at once informed the Pope of the voyage of Columbus and COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 211 told him that the inhabitants of the land which he had found off the coast of Asia were well fitted to receive the Christian religion. They also asked him to define the rights of Spain in the new territory so that there would be no quarrel with Portugal. This the Pope did by his famous Line of May 4, 1493 (see map, page 221). He said that the Spaniards should have all the heathen lands which they might discover west of a meridian drawn one hundred leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands and that the Portu- guese should have similar rights on the east side of this line. In the following year, the two nations agreed by treaty to place the "line fence" three hundred and seventy leagues west of the islands. It was still supposed to be in mid- ocean, but really was not, and the blunder unexpectedly gave Brazil to Portugal. The Second Voyage (1493). Columbus, however, did not spend much time in the ease and luxury of the royal court. He began preparations at once for his second voyage and sailed this time from the port of Cadiz on the twenty-fifth of September, 1493. This expedition was not much like the little terror- stricken one which had sailed from Palos the year before. This time there were seventeen ships, carrying fifteen hun- dred men, together with horses, sheep, cattle, vegetables, grain, grapevines, fruit trees, and almost everything else that might be needed in a new colony. The ships stopped at the Canaries and added calves, goats, pigs, chickens, as well as orange, lemon, melon, and sugar-cane seeds to their cargo. No women accompanied the expedition. Every one on board thought that he was to sail directly to the Indies the land of jewels and spices. Some 212 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY thought was also given to the welfare of the souls of the poor benighted heathen. A priest was appointed " Vicar of the Indies" and he was probably the first to say mass on the western shores. It was also planned that the good Vicar was to have the assistance of native mission- aries. Six of the savages, brought over by Columbus were still living and these had been baptized in Barce- lona with Ferdinand and Isabella as godfather and god- mother. These men were to aid in the conversion of their people. One of them, however, died soon after his bap- tism and was said by the Spaniards to be the first Indian to enter the portals of heaven. It was not very difficult to get men for this voyage. Columbus wanted only twelve hundred, but fifteen hun- dred insisted on going and the ships were overcrowded. Many nobles and other distinguished men were in the company. Land was sighted early in November and Columbus proceeded to cruise about among the islands of the Carib- bean Sea. Here he met repulsive cannibals who killed a few of his men with poisoned arrows. He touched Porto Rico and then went to the site of the colony founded on the island of Haiti, the year before. He entered the harbor late at night and fired a salute from the ship's cannon. They listened. There was no sound, save the echo of the gun. The place was deserted. About mid- night, some Indians in a canoe came out to Columbus's ship and got on board. The redmen explained that some of the colonists had died of disease and that others had married Indian wives and moved away. At daybreak, Columbus went ashore and saw enough to convince him COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 213 that his colonists had been massacred by the Indians. Not a man of them ever appeared and no one to this day knows exactly what became of the forty men left on the island. "This was the gloomy welcome to the land of promise." Columbus selected a new site for his colony a little farther to the east and on the north coast of Haiti. Here he planned a town which he called "Isabella" in honor of his queen. Quite a town was laid out, and public buildings were made of stone and private ones of wood and straw. But the work was hard for those not used to it and many became ill and some were terribly homesick also. To make matters worse, Columbus fell sick and the out- look for Isabella was not a rosy one. The strain upon Columbus had been intense for many years and his illness was very serious. He was sick for five months and was unconscious for a part of the time. One day when he regained consciousness he was surprised to find his brother Bartholomew standing at his bedside. He had not seen him since the day he had started to seek aid from the king of England, six years before. It was a joyous meeting. The two brothers were exceedingly fond of each other and now Bartholomew would be of untold assistance to Christopher in starting the new colony. The Return to Spain (March, 1496). After remaining in the New World for nearly three years, Columbus went back to Spain in the spring of 1496, leaving his brother Bartholomew in command of the colony. He had two boats with about two hundred homesick Spaniards and thirty Indians, including a captive Indian prince, with a gold chain weighing six pounds hanging about his neck. 214 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Columbus's reception in Spain this time was not very cordial not much like the reception after his first voyage. The Third Western Voyage (May 30, 1498). Columbus had not brought back gold, silver, jewels, silks, and spices in any very large quantities and so his voyages were com- ing to be looked upon as failures; however, another expe- dition was fitted out and in the spring of 1498 Columbus THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS set sail with six ships and two hundred men. This time he bore off to the south and sailed within a few degrees of the equator. Here in the "belt of calms" he encoun- tered heat that was almost unbearable. Washington Irving in his "Life of Columbus" describes his experiences as follows: "The wind suddenly fell, and a dead sultry calm commenced, which lasted for eight days. The air was like a furnace; the tar melted, the seams of the ship yawned; the salt meat became putrid; the wheat was COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 215 SCALE OF MILES parched as with fire; the hoops shrank from the wine and water casks, some of which leaked and others burst, while the heat in the holds of the vessels was so suffocating that no one could remain below a sufficient time to pre- vent the damage that was taking place. The mariners lost all strength and spirits, and sank under the oppressive heat. It seemed as if the old fable of the torrid zone was about to be realized; and that they were ap- proaching a fiery re- gion where it would be impossible to exist." Columbus sailed be- tween the Island of Trinidad and the main- land of South America and narrowly escaped being swamped by the rush of waters from the Orinoco River. THE DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS The lands touched by Columbus on his vari- ous voyages are shown in black. He was greatly interested and wanted to explore farther west, but his strength failed him and his eyes, strained with constant watching, could not be used to make ob- servations; so he sailed directly from Haiti and arrived at the town of Santo Domingo (founded by his brother Bartholomew in 1498) just after the departure of his brother for Spain. Things had not been going well in the Spanish colony. The men were discontented and rebellious and it was necessary for Columbus and his brother to rule them with an iron hand. Complaints were sent across the sea to 216 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Spain, and in the spring of 1499 Ferdinand and Isabella appointed a Spanish general, named Bobadilla, to rule in place of Columbus. When Bobadilla reached Santo Domingo, the first sight that met his eyes was the swing- ing bodies of seven Spaniards whom Columbus had hanged for rebelling against him. Five more of the ringleaders were in prison to be hanged on the morrow. Bobadilla was prejudiced against Columbus and these things led him to believe that the rule of the navigator had been cruel and inhuman. He, therefore, cast Columbus and his brother into prison and soon after sent them to Spain in chains. The captain of the ship was shocked at this treatment of Columbus and offered to take off his fetters, but the great admiral would not consent to it. He said that his chains should never come off except by the order of his gracious sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella ; and so with his fetters clanking, Columbus walked through the streets of Cadiz. As soon as the king and queen heard of his sad plight, they ordered him to be released and invited him to visit them at the royal court. Money was also sent to pay his expenses. When he arrived, the queen received him with tear-dimmed eyes and the broken old man threw himself at her feet and sobbed like a child. The monarchs treated Columbus in a very kindly way and assured him that Bobadilla had gone beyond his instructions. They gave back some of his rights and privileges, but they never fully restored him to power. The Portuguese Find a Route to the East. Columbus was now stunned by another piece of important news. The Portuguese had reached the goal. They had won the COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 217 race to the Indies. While he was groping around among islands inhabited by wretched savages, the Portuguese had found the real Indies, with all their wealth and splendor, thousands of miles away. The discovery was made in this way. In the summer of 1497 while Columbus was in Spain making arrange- ments for his third voyage Vasco Da Gama, "a young man of unwavering courage and iron resolution/ 7 following up the work of Diaz, sailed from Lisbon and reached In- dia in May of the following year. His voyage was a most remarkable one. Instead of hugging the African coast, as Diaz had done, he sailed off into the ocean from the Cape Verde Islands and was out of sight of land for ninety-three days "the longest, unbroken sea voyage up to this time." He returned to Lisbon two years after his departure, laden with the spices, jewels, silks, and fine fabrics of the East. He had seen the great cities and had talked with the powerful rulers and there was absolutely no doubt about his success. The Portuguese had solved the great problem and while Da Gama was making a triumphal entry into Lisbon (1499), Columbus was being ridiculed as "the admiral of Mosquito Land, the man who had discovered a land of vanity and deceit, the grave of Spanish gentlemen." Lisbon and not Cadiz grew rich from the eastern trade. VASCO DA GAMA 218 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY The Fourth Voyage (1502). We may be sure that the success of Da Gama put Columbus on his mettle for another voyage. Although the expeditions had not been profitable, Ferdinand and Isabella were ready to try it again. Colum- bus hoped to find a strait which would bring him into the Indian Ocean and to the same shores of India (Hindustan) which Da Gama had reached by sailing eastward. With four small ships and one hundred and fifty men, he set out in May, 1502. The faithful Bartholomew was again at his side. By the irony of fate, he was forbidden to visit on the outward trip the colony which he had founded in Haiti, but might do so on his return. One of the ships having become disabled, he asked permission to enter the port to make arrangements for another. His request was denied. He then encountered the most terrible storms that he had ever met. For eighty-eight days, his ships were tempest-tossed and during that time, he saw neither sun nor stars. He explored the coast of Central America and was then shipwrecked upon the coast of Jamaica, where he remained for a year. The governor of the Spanish colony refused him assistance, although one of his men went all the way in a canoe to ask for it. This was a terrible year. Rebellion sprang up, but was quelled by the strong right arm of Bartholomew. Finally, the governor of the Spanish colony was compelled to send aid to Columbus, and early in November, 1504, he was back again in Spain. "One woe treads on another woe's heels." His staunch friend, Queen Isabella, was on her death-bed and passed away about two weeks after the landing of Columbus. It was thirty years since he had written his famous let- COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 219 ter to Toscanelli and the weight of these troubled years had borne upon him with crushing effect. He was now an old man, broken in body and in spirit. He lived on for a year and a half in poverty, sickness, and obscurity and died on the twentieth of May, 1506. The annals of the city in which he died made no mention of his passing. The event was not considered important. He failed to find a route to the Indies. The Portuguese had won the race; but the failure of Columbus turned out to be more important than the success of Vasco Da Gama. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Read Joaquin Miller's poem entitled " Columbus." 2. Imagine yourself to be Columbus presenting your case and asking for aid at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. Make such a speech as he might have made. 3. Columbia is the poetical personification of the United States. We sing " O Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean," thus paying tribute to Columbus. Numerous cities and towns are named for the great discoverer. Look over a map of the United States and find some of them. 4. How long did it take Columbus to make his first voyage? In what time can it be made to-day? 5. Why did Columbus make so many voyages? 6. What noble traits were there hi his character? 7. Tell what you can about the following: Haiti, Santo Domingo, the three ships of the first voyage, "the line fence," Toscanelli, Palos, Porto Santo, Ferdinand and Isabella. 8. What was the greatest service of Columbus? 9. Why was Columbus's work more valuable to the world than Vascc Da Gama's? PRONOUNCING LIST Azores, d-zorz' Felipa. fa-le'pd Bahama, bd-ha'md Granada, grd-na'dd Barcelona. bar'sS-lo'nd Haiti, ha'tl Bobadilla. bo'ba-del'la Jamaica, jd-ma'kd Cadiz, ka'dlz Nina, nen'yd Cordova. kor'd6-va Orinoco, o'rf-no'ko Diego. dS-a'go Palos. pa'los 220 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Pinta. pen'td Porto Santo, por'too san'too Ptolemy. t6l'--mJ San Salvador, san sal'va-dor' Santa Maria, san'ta md-re'd Santo Domingo, san'to d6-mlr)'gd Seville, Tagus. ta'gGs Toscanelli. tSs'ka-ngl'le Trinidad. trln'I-dad' Vasco da Gama. vas'ko da ga'ma Verde, vtlrd CHAPTER XX t THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS John Cabot on the Atlantic Coast (1497-1498). The King of England (Henry VII) was also interested in the project of a western passage to India. You will recall that Bartholomew Columbus had talked with him about the matter when he was seek- ing aid for his brother Chris- topher, and he now probably had come to the conclusion that he made a mistake in not accepting the services of Columbus. So in 1497, a short time before Da Gama set out on his famous voyage, King Henry sent John Cabot with one small ship and eighteen men to try to find a northwest passage to the East. Cabot sailed from Bristol and on the twenty-fourth of June he saw land, probably in the neighborhood of what is now Labrador. John Cabot was thus the first European, since the Northmen, JOHN CABOT THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS !> I 221 All newly discovered lands on this side claimed by Spain All newly discovered lands an this side claimed by Portugal EARLY VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY AND THE POPE'S LINE OP DIVISION 222 (JHTRODUCTMN TO AMERICAN HISTORY to set eyes upon the continent of North America. King Henry was so greatly pleased at the success of the voyage that he graciously gave Cabot ten pounds (about fifty dol- lars) for finding what he called the "New Isle." It was thought, of course, that Cabot had merely discovered an island off the coast of Asia. In the following spring, Cabot again crossed the ocean and this time he explored the coast, probably as far south as South Carolina. There is no record that the gallant sail- ors ever returned to Europe from this voyage. He was probably "lost in the gloom of the western ocean." His voyages are important because on account of them England laid claim to the entire conti- nent of North America. Americus Vespucius Explores South America (1501). The Portuguese having reached AMERICUS VESPUCIUS T ,. , .,. ., , India by sailing south and east, now began to send out expeditions to the southwest. In 1501, Americus Vespucius accompanied one of these expeditions which explored the coast of South America from Cape San Roque to La Plata River in search of a southwestern route to India. Vespucius passed through such beautiful scenery that he, like Columbus, on the Pearl Coast of South America, thought that he could not be far from the Garden of Eden. From the mouth of La Plata River, the expedition turned to the southeast THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 223 it was already on the Spanish side of the Pope's line and went as far as the island of South Georgia, twelve hundred miles east of Cape Horn. The storms were fierce and the rough sea threatened to engulf the tiny ves- sels at any moment. At South Georgia, they found no people only the cold gray of icebergs and glaciers. The expedition had gone farther south than any previous one and now turned about and started back home through thousands of miles of trackless ocean. This must be looked upon as one of the greatest voyages ever made. Vespucius made several other voyages and then wrote a brilliant account of his experiences on the sea a part of which was probably not true. The people were astonished at the wonderful story and began to realize the vast ex- tent of sea-coast over which he had traveled. Vespucius had explored such long stretches of coast that the people gradually came to the conclusion that the new land was a continent and not an island. It was about this time that Martin Waldseemuller, a German professor, published a geography in which he suggested, as we have already seen, that the "new" or " fourth" part of the earth be called " America," in honor of its discoverer, Americus Vespucius. This was done. It would have been more appropriate to name the New World " Columbia," in honor of its real discoverer, Chris- topher Columbus, but people did not know at that time that there was any connection between the work of Colum- bus and that of Vespucius. It was thought that Ves- pucius had discovered a new southern continent, while Columbus had reached the islands off the coast of India. Some have said that Vespucius resorted to trickery in 224 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY order to have the New World named in his honor, but this is not true. Balboa and the Western Route (1513). The problem of a water route to the Indies was still in men's minds. True, the Portugese had found such a route by sailing around Africa, but it was a very long one and sailors still hoped to find a shorter western passage. Land had blocked the paths of Columbus, Cabot, and Vespucius, but it was hoped that a strait might be found which would lead to the rich East. Balboa, a venturesome and courageous Spaniard, was a planter on one of the Bahama Islands. He was restless and became eager for discovery and exploration, but was so heavily in debt that his creditors would not let him leave the island. So he had himself nailed up in a barrel and carted on shipboard with packages of provisions and thus reached the Isthmus of Panama. When he arrived, the Indians told him of another sea " where they sail with ships as big as his." He wanted to find this new ocean and so he pushed across the Isthmus, forty-five miles in eighteen days, where " thickets, tangled swamps, slippery cliffs, enormous trees, and interlacing vines, blocked the way at every turn." He finally reached the peak of Darien and, climbing alone to the top, he looked down upon the ocean which we now call the Pacific. Profoundly impressed at the sight of this great body of water, he threw himself prostrate upon the ground and then raised himself upon his knees and gave thanks to God for per- mitting him to see this wonderful sight. A little later, he rushed into the billows of the rising tide and with drawn sword took possession of the sea in the name of the King THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 225 of Spain. He had passed the obstruction of the new land, but he was still far from the islands where the spices grew. Magellan Sails Around the Globe (1519-1522). In spite of all the obstacles which they encountered, the brave sailors were not ready to give up the idea of a BALBOA DISCOVERING THE PACIFIC western route to India. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, when a boy, had witnessed the triumphal re- turn of Da Gama from India. Inspired by this, he pro- posed to the king of Portugal that another western voyage be made, but the king would not listen to him. " Magellan was not the man to sit quiet with a great idea in his head/' and so, like Columbus, he went to the king of Spain and offered his services. The offer was accepted. 226 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Early in the fall of 1519, Magellan in command of five Spanish ships, small and poor, sailed away to the south- west, hoping to find the strait through the new continent which would lead him to India. He coasted along the east shore of South America, making many observations as he went, and finally reached the straits which now MAGELLAN LANDING IN THE PHILIPPINES bear his name. Here one of his five ships deserted and went back to Spain. Passing through the dangerous straits, Magellan sailed out into the ocean, which Balboa had discovered at a different point, a few years before. This he named the " Pacific," because it seemed so peace- ful, after leaving the storms of the Atlantic. With great suffering, the men crossed the broad Pacific and finally landed in the Philippine Islands. Magellan THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 227 and his men knew very little of the climate and the seasons in the southern hemisphere and were surprised when they were compelled to go into winter quarters at Easter and when they found the summer beginning in September. What Magellan and his men suffered on this voyage can never be told. They fought against hunger, cold, heat, wind, wave, and disease. For a time they had nothing to MAGELLAN'S EXPEDITION, 1519-1522 eat but stale crumbs. The water which they drank was yellow, thick, and foul. Bits of oxhide were taken from the rigging of the ships and after being soaked in the sea and broiled, were eagerly eaten. While in the Straits of Magellan, many of his men wanted to turn back, but the " Prince of Navigators/ ' with his " heart of triple bronze" set his massive jaw and said "No." He said that he would keep on even if he had to eat the leather of the ship's yards which he was later compelled to do. Magellan's own troubles came to an end in the Philip- pines. He was killed by the savages there about a year and a half after his departure from Spain. Misfortunes never seem to come singly. Accidents also befell his ships. 228 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Two of them were wrecked and one of them was set on fire and abandoned when she became leaky. Only one remained the little Victoria and she sailed back by way of the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope, after an absence of three years. She had eighteen half- starved survivors on board. Two hundred thirty-nine men had embarked in the five vessels three years before. The men who had been around the world were greatly honored. The king invited them to his court and listened with great interest to the story of the voyage the great- est one ever made. To the captain of the Victoria, the king gave a sum of money, also a coat of arms, upon which was a globe, with this inscription, written in Latin, "Thou first encompassed me/' The importance of this voyage can hardly be estimated. It proved clearly that the earth is a sphere. It also disclosed the immense width of the Pacific Ocean. It showed also that there is much more water than land upon the globe, and finally that America is a New World and not simply a part of Asia as Colum- bus had thought. The voyage also called attention to some strange geo- graphical facts. The captain of the Victoria reached the Cape Verde Islands, as he thought, on the ninth of July. He found, however, that it was really the tenth. What had become of the lost day? The sailors were puzzled and greatly worried. They were afraid, among other things, that the fasts and saints' days which they had observed had been observed on wrong dates. Finally, an Italian scientist gave them the correct explanation, which, by the way, an old Arabian geographer knew all about more than two hundred years before. THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 229 The desire for eastern trade was also whetted by this voyage, as it was shown that the profits were amazingly large. The Victoria's cargo, composed for the most part of twenty-six tons of cloves, was sold for enough to pay the entire expense of the expedition. The Voyages of the French. And now France began to wake up and take an interest in eastern trade. Francis I, the king of France, wanted to share the prizes and so he sent John Verrazzano, an Italian sea-rover and gentleman pirate, in search of the new route to India. He did not find the route, but he did explore the Atlantic coast from the Cape Fear River to Newfound- land and then, owing to a lack of provisions, he sailed away to France (1524), where he was received with great honor. Verrazzano had plans for the founding of colonies and the doing of missionary work among the Indians, but his career was brought to a close when he was hanged as a pirate, three years after his return from America. Cartier in the St. Lawrence (1534). Visions of the wealth of the Indies and of a new France on the other side of the Atlantic continued to fill the minds of French- men. French exploration was carried on by Jacques Cartier. This experienced navigator and fisherman set out with two ships in 1534, hoping to find a strait to the northwest which would lead him to the land of Marco Polo. He reached the broad mouth of the St. Lawrence River and there in the presence of a band of Indians set up a wooden cross, thirty feet in height. He sailed a short distance up the river, now absolutely sure that he was on the high road to China. When the colder weather 230 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY and the autumn storms came on, however, he kidnapped a few Indians and sailed back to France. In the following spring, Cartier and his sailors gathered in the Cathedral of St. Malo, went to confession, listened to the mass, and received the blessings of the Bishop. They then set out for the New World. This time Cartier CARTIER AT MONTREAL sailed up the St. Lawrence to the present site of Montreal (meaning Royal Mountain) and gave to the place the name which it now bears. A few miles farther on, his course was checked by the rapids, since called Lachine (meaning China) because Cartier and his men thought that they were well on their way to China. The Indians had never seen such men before and mar- veled at them. They could hardly believe that they were THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 231 men. They seemed to be gods or visitors from some far- off planet. The redmen crowded about the strangers crying in delight, caressing their beards, feeling of their clothing and rubbing their rough faces, and looking with awe at their armor and firearms. The sick and the maimed also came to Cartier and asked him to cure them by his miraculous power. He read prayers over them and then the Indian women spread a great feast, consisting of fish, corn, beans, and other things. The Frenchmen did not eat, however, as the food was not particularly clean. Cartier and his men spent the winter on board their ships and suffered terribly from the cold. They had never experienced anything like it before. They said that the ice was " above two fathoms (twelve feet) thick" and "snow above four feet high and more." Twenty-five men died of scurvy and were buried in the snow, as graves could not be dug for them in the frozen ground. At one time, a hundred out of a hundred and ten were on the sick list. They reported upon their return to France that they were quickly cured of the disease by drinking the juice of the leaves of a certain tree which had been pointed out to them by the Indians. The Indians called this won- derful tree the "Ameda" but just what it was, we do not know. Some have thought it the spruce, others the arbor vitae, and still others the sassafras. In the spring, when the ice melted, the survivors were glad enough to go back to their homes in France. Cartier, however, was not the kind of man to give up easily; so, a few years later (1541), we find him again preparing to visit the New World. He crossed the At- lantic, pierced the fog banks of Newfoundland, and sailing 232 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY past "the island rocks, crowded with screaming sea-fowl, and the forests breathing piny odors from the shore, cast anchor again beneath the cliffs of Quebec. " This time he brought cattle, goats, and hogs with him and expected to found a colony. He built a rude fort on the beautiful spot where Quebec now stands, but he remained there l.l.POATES CO., K.Y EARLY FRENCH SETTLEMENTS only a few months. When he went back to France, he took with him some shiny rock crystals, which he thought were diamonds. These quartz crystals may still be found at some places on the St. Lawrence. Cartier, too, failed to find the strait leading to Asia, but his voyage gave the French a claim to the St. Lawrence region. Along the great river the French hoped, at some future time, to establish the kingdom of New France in America. THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 233 The Strait Leading to India. And now what about the long-sought-for strait leading to India? Men kept on seeking for it, but no one found it, simply because there was no strait to be found. To solve the problem, the United States made a waterway the Panama Canal near the route which Balboa traversed just four hundred years before. The problem of a western strait was solved by the shovel. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. What is the explanation of the "lost day"? 2. Do you not wonder at the fact that the work of these explorers was so little appreciated while they lived? 3. Notice as you go along what permanent mark these early voyagers have left on the map of the world Americus Vespucius, America; Magellan, Straits of Magellan; Cartier, Lachine Rapids, etc. 4. What great good came of the attempts to find the strait leading to Asia? 5. What do you think of our government's solution of this problem? 6. Notice the changing conception of the " known world" since Greek and Roman days. Summarize the steps that changed man's notion of the size and shape of the earth. PRONOUNCING LIST Balboa, bal-bo'a La Plata, la pla'td Cabot, kab'tft Malo. mS/lo Darien. da'rf-en' Philippines, fil'1-plnz Jacques Cartier. zhak kar'tya San Roque. san ro'ka Lachine. Id-shen' Verrazzano. ver'rat-sa'no CHAPTER XXI THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST The men of Europe began to see, after a time, that the New World might be more important than the Indies. So some of them gave up the rainbow chase for a strait 234 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY leading to India and began the exploration and conquest of America. In this work, the Spaniards took the lead. Cortez Conquers Mexico (1519-1521). The Spaniards started out from Haiti and took possession of Porto Rico and Cuba. From Cuba a bold adventurer, named Her- nando Cortez, set out at about the same time that Magellan was beginning his famous voyage, to conquer and plunder the rich Indian tribes of what we now call Mexico. Cortez was the son of a poor country gentleman in Spain and a man of courage^ shrewdness, and audacity. He was secretary to the governor of Cuba, who appointed him to command the expedition which was to make a conquest of Mexico. On the tenth of February, 1519, Cortez set out with eleven vessels, carrying five hundred fifty Spaniards, about two hundred or three hundred Indians, one negro, and sixteen horses. He landed near San Juan and soon made his way inland to the city of Mexico, the capital of the kingdom. Good fortune seemed to attend him from the very outset. Just when defeat seemed certain, Cortez would somehow come out victor by a brilliant stroke of some kind. The Aztec kingdom which Cortez was fighting was a sort of league or confederacy of Indian tribes under an emperor or king called Montezuma. The Aztecs were good fighters, although they apparently knew nothing of the use of iron. They were skillful archers and used their club-like swords with terrible effect. These swords were double edged, the cutting parts being made of a sharp glassy stone called obsidian. The Spaniards were, of course, better armed. They carried the rude firearms of their day and their bodies THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 235 were protected by heavy armor. Their horses also were exceedingly useful in the fight. The Indians had never seen such strange and terrible monsters before and took to their heels at the first sight of them. When they stopped running, they usually got behind a tree or a wall and peeped timidly out to see what the strange animals were going to do. The Aztecs largely out-numbered the invaders, but as the Spanish soldier was "a bulldog for strength and courage,' 7 he came out triumphant in the end. Cortez believed that when a man set out to do a thing, he should never give up; so be- fore starting inland, he had all of his ships scuttled and sunk so that his men might have no thought of returning to Cuba. Cortez did not tell his men at first what his purpose was in destroying the ships and as they disappeared one at a time, the men became suspicious and began to upbraid their commander. Finally when there was only one ship left, Cortez called his men together and told them that their vessels had been destroyed because there was no further use for them. " Brave men/' he said, do "not care for a means of retreat. I have, however," he continued, "saved one ship to carry the cowards back to their homes and all who wish to go on board will please step forward." No one stepped forward, of course, and Cortez proceeded MONTEZUMA 236 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY to overthrow the Aztec kingdom with his handful of men. This was a strange march to the capital city of Mexico. The land was rich in precious metals and there was evi- dence on every hand of a high degree of civilization much higher than the Europeans had found elsewhere in America. The Spaniards saw works of art, fine palaces, and beautiful temples and they rubbed their eyes and asked each other if they were dreaming. It seemed very much like a fairy land. But they also saw many disgusting spectacles. They saw evidences of cannibalism and of human sacrifice. The altars of the temples were still wet with the blood of the victims and others were waiting to be offered up. These repulsive sights stirred the wrath of Cortez and more than once he smashed the idols, cleansed the temples of their reeking filth, liberated the intended victims, and had mass said after the whole place had been sprinkled with holy water. Several things aided Cortez in his enterprise. In the first place, there were many Aztecs who did not like Montezuma no ruler can please every one and these were only too glad to join the Spaniards. In the second place, a beautiful young Indian girl, named Marina, joined the expedition and proved to be of great assistance to Cortez. She was exceedingly keen and bright. She knew two Indian languages and picked up the Spanish very readily. She also aided Cortez with her knowledge of the country and of the people and became so useful to him that Montezuma and others called him, "the Lord of Marina." THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 237 There was also a tradition among the Aztecs to the effect that one of their gods "a fair-haired god of the sky" had been banished into the sea and that he would return to them in more prosperous times. When the Aztecs saw the strange Spanish ships nearing then- shores, they were sure that their "fair god" was coming back to them. Even after they saw Cortez and his men, face to face, they believed that they were more than human and possessed of god-like power. The white faces, the thick beards, the shining c E A N THE SCENE OF THE CONQUEST BY CORTEZ arms, the roaring cannon, and the neighing steeds all tended to increase the awe of the na- tives and to make them shrink from an attack. Why fight against "children of the sun" who can read your very thoughts and whose bodies your weapons cannot harm? Cortez knew exactly how the natives felt and was shrewd enough to make use of this knowledge. Cortez Reaches the City of Mexico. Finally the capital city of Mexico appeared in view. The Spaniards opened their eyes in wonder and amazement. Such a city they had not seen in the New World. It stood in the midst of a lake and was reached by four causeways or roads of solid stone from twenty to thirty feet in width. Near the city were drawbridges, across which the roads con- tinued to the temple, which stood hi the middle of the great square. The people walked about on the cement 238 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY walks or paddled their canoes from place to place as they saw fit. Immense houses of red stone lined the walks. There were flower gardens on the roofs and floating gar- dens on the lake in which maize, beans, tomatoes, and other vegetables grew. In the market-place, criminals were tried and sentenced and Aztec barbers shaved the scanty beards of the natives with razors of obsidian. The place where human beings were offered up as sacrifices to the idols was really too hideous and horrible for description. The city of Mexico had about sixty thousand inhabi- tants when Cortez and his men came into it as unwelcome guests early in the November of 1519. Montezuma gave the Spaniards a large house near the temple which they used for their lodgings. This one house was large enough to accommodate the four hundred and fifty Spaniards and about one thousand Indians who had joined the army of Cortez. Montezuma was made a prisoner, although he was treated with the greatest of kindness and considera- tion by the Spaniards. Cortez was carrying things with a high hand in the city of Mexico when the news came to him in the spring (1520) that an army of twelve hundred soldiers had landed in Mexico, having been sent by the governor of Cuba for the purpose of arresting the conqueror. With his usual decision and promptness of action, Cortez marched with three hundred men to the coast and captured the invading army, almost before its commander knew what was going on. And then at the head of the combined Spanish forces he set out again for the city of Mexico. On the twenty-fourth of June, he entered the city for a second time, without opposition. He was surprised, how- THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 239 ever, wlien he found the streets silent and deserted, save for a few Azetcs who shot hostile glances at him from their doorways. It was a suspicious reception and a little later, CORTEZ FIGHTING THE AZTECS "a hoarse sound arose, like the murmur of distant waters, and soon the imprisoned Spaniards from their tower saw pyramids, streets, and house-tops black with raging war- riors." The Spaniards had been led into a trap. The slaughter was terrible. The Spanish cannon cut wide swaths into the Aztec ranks and the canals of the city were 240 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY said to have run red with blood. The Indians," utterly reckless as to their own safety, fought like hornets and stung the Spaniards with their burning arrows. Cortez ordered Montezuma to go out upon the roof of a building and try to pacify his people. He did so, but a shower of stones and darts struck him down and he died a few days later. Cortez then, fearing that his army might be shut up within the city and starved, made up his mind to abandon the city in the night. Again the Spaniards met with no resistance for a time. The streets were deserted and all seemed to be going well, when suddenly the Aztecs fell upon the luckless Spaniards with terrible fury. Cortez lost seven hundred and fifty men in addition to four thousand allies and sixty horses. His cannon were at the botton of the lake and forty Spaniards were waiting to be offered up as sacrifices to the god of war. "Then Cortez sat down upon the rock and buried his face in his hands and wept." This awful time has since been called " the' Sad Night." Not for a moment, however, did Cortez think of giving up the fight. He gathered up the remnants of his army, sent for more men and horses, rallied Indians to his ban- ner, and began his famous siege of the city of Mexico on the twenty-eighth of April, 1521 the day of the death of Magellan in the Philippines. The Spaniards took the city, after one hundred and seven days of the fiercest fighting. Canals and sidewalks were clogged with dead bodies and the whole city was a scene of desolation. The power of the Aztec confederacy, however, was broken and Mexico passed into the control of Spain. A great change THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 241 NORTH CAROLINA took place in the capital city. The temple, reeking with the blood of its innocent victims, was demolished and a Christian church was erected upon the spot. Pious monks followed in the wake of Cortez and continued the work of casting down the idols, but in a different way. De Soto Discovers the Mississippi River (1541). Cortez, however, was not the only Spaniard to explore and con- quer lands for his country. Twenty years after Cortez left Cuba for his con- quest of Mexico, Her- nando de Soto began his famous expedition. De Soto was a bril- liant young Spaniard who started life "with nothing but his sword and shield," . but achieved both fame and fortune. He took a prominent part in the THE Spanish conquest of Peru and returned to Spain with a large fortune. In addition to this, the king of Spain, being very grateful to him for his services, made him governor of Cuba and gave him a commission to make a conquest of the whole southern part of what is now the United States. De Soto sailed from Havana in May, 1539, with nine ships, carrying six hundred and twenty men, two hundred and twenty-three horses, and a large drove of hogs. He intended to colonize as well as to conquer. He landed at Tampa Bay, Florida, and began his laborious march into M E X I (Outlines and names of states did not exist at this period, but are #^$ given for convenience of student tut $ in tracing De Sato's course.) Q op DE SoTQ , s ExpEDmoN 242 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY the interior. After floundering about in the swamps and jungles of the Gulf region for two years, he discovered the Mississippi River in the spring of 1541. One of the mem- bers of De Soto's party described the great river when they first saw it as follows: "The river was almost half a league broad. If a man stood on the other side it could not be discerned whether he were a man or no. The river was of great depth, and of a strong current; the water was always muddy; there came down the river continually many trees and timber." Early in June, De Soto crossed the river a short dis- tance south of the place where the city of Memphis now stands. It was no easy task to cross the broad, swift stream and it took De Soto and his men a whole month to build barges for that purpose. After crossing the river, they again pushed westward through swamp, thicket, and tangle. The weather was so cold and the snow .so deep that they were compelled to stay in rude* houses most of the winter. De Soto came out of his winter quarters much worn by the hardships of the expedition and soon was a very sick man. His end was drawing near and he knew that he would never again return to Cuba. Brave unto the end, however, he called his men together, bade them farewell, and named another to succeed him in the command. On the following day, the twenty-first of May, 1542, he died of swamp fever and his body was taken out in a canoe and sunk in the middle of the great river which he had dis- covered. His men did not want the Indians to know that he had died. With the death of De Soto the soul of the expedition was gone. Numerous misfortunes befell the luckless band. THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 243 The Indians were hostile and provisions ran short. All of the pigs and about twenty-two of their horses had been killed for food. The men had about reached the giving-up point and their great leader was no longer present to give them new courage. They then built rafts and rude boats and floated down the river in the midst of danger from the current and also from the Indians along the bank, as they had no fire-arms of any kind. They reached the sea in sixteen days and then made their way along the Gulf coast and finally reached the Spanish settlements in Mexico. "Thus ended the most remarkable exploring expedition in the history of North America." It took De Soto's men four years, three months, and eleven days to make the journey from Tampa Bay to Mexico. Six hundred and twenty men started out on the expedition and only .three hundred and eleven returned. The Spaniards were looking for gold and land and the redmen did not receive them very cordially. Cruelties were practiced on both sides. Many a poor Indian was torn to pieces by the fierce dogs of the Spanish explorers and De Soto's men suffered grievously from the stealthy night attacks of the savages. On one occasion, the Span- iards went into winter quarters in an Indian village in the northern part of what is now the state of Mississippi. Without warning the Indians fell upon the village at mid- night with fire and slaughter. Some of the Spaniards were killed and most of those who escaped lost their clothing and provisions in the fire. Several hundred hogs and about fifty horses were burned. Before the march could be resumed, clothing had to be made for the men from the skins of wild animals. 244 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY The Spaniards were not on the march, of course, during the entire four years. They stopped now and then, some- times for long periods, to rest the men and to fatten the horses. Sometimes they had plenty of good food and again then: rations were short. They lived on wild turkeys and partridges which they shot and the pigs which they brought with them. They also got corn and beans from the Indians and found grapes, plums, and mulber- ries growing wild. In the course of time, many other conquests on the American continent were made by the Spaniards. To-day their descendants are scattered all the way from Texas to Cape Horn and have done CARMEL MISSION NEAR MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA The Spaniards established their missions wherever they made permanent settlements. These missions were the centers of religion and education. The buildings, many of which are still standing, are interesting and quaint. much to improve the civilization of this vast area. The Spanish Missions. The Spaniards kept steadily in view their idea of converting the Indians to the Chris- tian religion and as soon as the explorer had blazed the way through the forest with sword and axe, the priest and monk followed with the crucifix. The fort was scarcely finished before the chapel and school appeared at its side. In Mexico and California, religion and educa- tion followed conquest. The priests and monks were tire- THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 245 less in preaching, baptizing, and teaching the Indians the ways of civilization. In a short time, the temples of the idols, their sides reeking with the blood of innocent victims, began to give way to Christian chapels with their lessons of peace and love. The monks were so much in earnest about their work that sometimes when they were not able to induce the Indians to attend their schools, they compelled them to do so by kidnapping. This was probably the beginning of compulsory education in America. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Notice that Spain made it possible for Columbus to make his voyages. Spain also took the lead in the exploration and settlement of the new world. 2. The remains of many of the old Spanish Missions are still to be seen hi Southwestern United States and hi Mexico. 3. Why were the Spaniards so eager to conquer Mexico? 4. It was a Spanish priest, Las Casas, who persuaded Charles V hi 1542 to put an end to Indian slavery. In order to save the Indians he advised the planters to obtain negroes. This he afterward regretted. Through his efforts, however, the Indians on the mainland were saved from extermination. PRONOUNCING LIST Aztec. az'tSk Marina. ma-re'n# Hernando Cortez. Har-nan'do Montezuma. m6n' te-zoo'md k6r't6z obsidian. Sb-sId'I-an Hernando de Soto. de so'to San Juan, san hwan Las Casas. las ka'sas 246 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XXII ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN "There has been no greater period in English history than the reign of Elizabeth." CHEYNEY. If we had time, we might tell other stories of Spanish exploration and conquest just as interesting and heroic as those which have been told. We might tell of the exploits of Ponce de Leon, who explored what is now Florida (1513), searching for a suitable site for a colony and also for the mythical " Fountain of Youth" whose waters, it was said, would prevent one from growing old. We might also follow Coronado in his search for the famous " Seven Cities." He had been told that somewhere in the interior of the continent there were seven large and wealthy cities, whose inhabitants lived in palatial stone houses and used kitchen utensils made of gold and silver. These tales lured Coronado and his men into the dark interior. For three years they tramped about in the south- western wilderness. Some of them went into what is now Kansas and some of them gazed with awe upon the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. They found the " Seven Cities," but they did not find marble palaces adorned with gold and silver nothing but rude Indian houses. They finally saw that they were the victims of idle tales. Now Balboa, Cortez, De Soto, Ponce de Leon, and Coronado were all Spaniards. The Spaniards had ex- plored very extensively in North, South, and Central America. In fact, practically all of the exploring that had ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 247 been done in the New World, except what the French had done in the St. Lawrence region, was carried on by the Spaniards. The New World had been discovered by the Spaniards and the Pope's Line (see map, page 221) had given them all of the American continents with the ex- ception of Brazil. It would seem from this that Spain was CORONADO ON THE MARCH in a fair way to get possession of nearly all of the New World. She did not do so, however, and we must now seek the reasons why. In the first place the Pope's Line was no longer respected as it once was. Conditions had changed. The Pope was no longer the head of all the Christians in Europe. Many people had become dissatisfied with the Roman Church. They protested against certain practices of the church and were called Protestants. The greatest leader of the Prot- 248 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY estants and one of the founders of the Protestant Church, was Martin Luther of Germany. Twenty-four years after the Pope's Line was drawn (1517), Luther de- clared that certain practices of the Roman Church were not hi harmony with the true doctrines of the Christian Church. This declaration was made in writing and was posted on the door of a church in Germany. The posting of this document marks the beginning of that movement known in history as the Protestant Reformation. The Protestants made considerable headway in Europe, espe- cially in the northern part, and, naturally enough, those peoples who had broken away from the Roman Church no longer felt bound by the Pope's Line. England, for example, had become largely Protestant by the time of Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603) and felt quite independent of the Pope. In the second place we should remember that the na- tions of Europe in the sixteenth century were not very particular about the right and wrong of things. If they really wanted to have a certain piece of territory, they could easily find an excuse for taking it provided they were strong enough. It was a case of " might makes right" and the weaker nations suffered. A hundred years had passed since the discovery of America before the nations of Europe really took up the colonization of America in earnest. During that hundred years, important changes had taken place. France and England had increased very greatly in strength but Spain had not. In some respects, she had become weaker. The Spaniards had done more than any other people in the discovery and exploration of the New World,, and had ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 249 strong claims to large parts of North, South, and Central America. But when the work of colonization really began in earnest, England, France, and Holland were strong enough to ignore these claims and to colonize some of the choicest parts of America. At the start, Spain had a great advantage over her rivals, but when the scramble for territory came, she was no match for them in strength. The Spaniard blazed the trail and Europeans of other nations followed in his wake. England in the Days of Elizabeth. One of the strongest and most successful of these rivals was England. The English were a hardy, vigorous, and enterprising race of men and in the course of time made their country one of the strongest on the globe. Henry VII was the king of England when Columbus discovered the New World. He was the same king that sent John Cabot on his famous expedition to the coast of North America. It was in Henry's time, also, that the Revival of Learning reached England. This made a great change. England became more wide-awake and enterprising than she had ever been before, and by the time of Elizabeth (the granddaughter of Henry) she was sending her bold sea-rovers to the remotest parts of the globe. Queen Elizabeth was one of the ablest monarchs that ever occupied the English throne and came into power just at the time when the colonization of the New World was being talked of everywhere. And now wide-awake England, under her equally wide-awake queen, was ready to contest the possession of America with Spain and the other nations. She enjoyed such contests and was eager for the fray. 250 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Queen Elizabeth was a vigorous and intelligent young woman of twenty-five when she came to the throne of England. She was well educated and could speak and write Latin, French, and Italian. She had studied Greek and spoke and wrote strong, vigorous English. She was bold and self-reliant and re- markably well posted upon problems of government. On the other hand, she was vain and conceited and not particularly refined. She was very fond of fine clothes and loved to display them in public. But Elizabeth loved England and governed in the interest of the whole people and not of any one class. She was of queenly bearing, had an intelligent but not beautiful QUEEN ELIZABETH faC6j ft lofty gpir ^ and gtrong character. She was also "a bold horsewoman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled musician, and an accom- plished scholar." She liked to have her own way and sometimes allowed her temper to flame out in bursts of anger. On one occasion, she soundly boxed the ears of her adviser when he did something to displease her. But, on the whole, Elizabeth was a good and strong ruler and her reign was the greatest period in English history up to that time. Sir Walter Raleigh. One of the men who helped to make the reign of Elizabeth illustrious was Sir Walter ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 251 Raleigh. England now has a colonial empire which girdles the globe. The sun never sets on English colonies. The beginning of this great empire she owes to Raleigh. Raleigh was a famous sea-rover, soldier, colonizer, and adventurer. He was born in England near the sea and THE BOY RALEIGH LISTENING TO TALES OF ADVENTURE spent a large part of his boyhood days in listening to the sailors recounting their voyages of adventure. He also read all of the books which he could get relating to great sea voyages. He was a student at Oxford University and later aided the Dutch in their fight for liberty against Spain. He spent a great deal of time at the queen's court and became a great favorite with her. He was tall 252 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY and striking in appearance, with wavy hair and bright blue eyes. His wit was exceedingly nimble, his manner gracious and attractive. In a word, he was a natural born gentleman as brave as he was generous. There is a story told of him which may or may not be true, but it is quite in keeping with the character of the man. The queen was walking one day with one of the ladies of the court, when, it is said, she came to a mud puddle. She did not wish, of course, to put her daintily slippered feet into the mire, and so she hesitated for a moment. Quick as a flash, Raleigh, who saw the queen's hesitation, snatched a beautiful plush coat from his shoul- ders and spread it out for the foot of the queen to tread upon. Elizabeth walked across on the luxurious carpet which Raleigh had provided for her and later gave him rich rewards in offices and estates. There is another story told of Sir Walter Raleigh which is of an entirely different character. It is said that he was the first man in England to smoke tobacco and that, as he was enjoying a quiet smoke one day, one of his ser- vants entered the room carrying a pot of ale. The servant was horrified at seeing the smoke coming out of the mouth of his master and, thinking that he must be burning on the inside, he instantly dashed the contents of the pot upon his head, hoping to put out the fire. Raleigh, however, was too much of a man to be content with fine clothes, polite manners, and the favor of the queen. He wanted to do something and he had visions of a great English empire beyond the seas. We shall see later how he put his ideas into practice and became a pioneer in the English colonization of North America. ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 253 The English Seamen of the Sixteenth Century. Raleigh was only one of a group of brilliant English seamen who plowed the ocean in the sixteenth century. They were adventurers and explorers and, if the truth must be told, pirates. They sailed out to challenge the supremacy of Spain on the ocean and liked nothing better than to chase, overhaul, and plunder a rich Spanish treasure ship. Of course, this was piracy, as the two nations were not at war. But the English of the sixteenth century did not frown very seriously upon the practice. In addition to love of the chase and gold, there was another reason, as we have already seen, why the English sea-rovers loved to smite the Spaniards. The English were Protestants and the Spaniards Roman Catholics and there was a bitter religious hatred between the two. The Protestants believed that in fighting the Spaniards they were striking down the enemies of God; the Spaniards, on the other hand, looked upon the Protestants in England very much as they might look upon the infidel Turk. And so whenever English and Spanish crews met upon the high seas, there was war to the knife and no quarter given or asked. English seamen also sold African slaves to Spanish colonists against the wishes of Spain. In 1562, John Hawkins, of Plymouth, England, captured three hundred negroes on the coast of Africa and sold them to the Spaniards at Santo Domingo. The king of Spain pro- tested against this, but to no avail. A short tune later, Hawkins again appeared in the West Indies with a dusky cargo and disposed of his slaves in spite of the opposition of the governors. 254 INTRODUCTION TO AMER CAN HISTORY A few years later (1572) Francis Drake, one of the greatest of the sea-rovers and a relative of Hawkins, started out deliberately to plunder the Spaniards. He appeared suddenly in the harbors of the West Indies, captured and plundered vessels lying at anchor in the ports, set fire to the towns, and put to the sword all those who dared to resist him. He met a train of mules bringing rich loads of gold and silver from the mines of Peru and promptly relieved them of their treas- ures. On his way back to England, he pounced upon and looted a Spanish treasure ship. All of this was piracy and highway robbery, of course, but the English people, includ- ing the queen, applauded his exploits and laughed at the protests of Spain. Evidently the time was coming when the two great nations "would have it out." Drake Sails Around the World (1577-1580). Drake, however, had an ambition to do greater things than plun- der Spanish ships. In 1577, he sailed west with five ships and about one hundred fifty men. Not one of the com- pany, with the exception of Drake himself, knew where the expedition was going. They went to the West Indies and then sailed down the coast of South America to the Straits of Magellan. After passing through these straits in the wake of the great Magellan, Drake met frightful SIR FRANCIS DRAKE ENGLAND AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 255 storms on the Pacific. One of his vessels turned back and three others were lost. The remaining men also wanted to beat a retreat, but Drake would not listen to them. He landed on a barren shore long enough to hang one of the leaders of the mutiny and then sailed up the west coast of South America. With one small vessel, the Pelican, and less than one hundred men, he passed along the coast of Chili and Peru, plundering as he went. He would dart Drake's voyage ofMagella DRAKE'S VOYAGE AROUND THE GLOBE suddenly into a port, plunder the ships lying at anchor, go on shore and seize the stores of gold, silver, and precious stones, and then quickly sail away, leaving his victims dumbfounded and with their pockets turned inside out. Finally, he came opposite the present site of San Francisco, seeking now for a passage through the con- tinent by which he might return to England. Finding none, he sailed westward across the Pacific, through the East Indies, and back to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope. 256 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY This was the second voyage around the globe. The Pelican had followed in the wake of Magellan's ship, the. Victoria. She "was loaded with bars of gold, boxes of precious stones, and tons of silver, amounting in value to some four million dollars." This rich booty was divided among the promoters of the expedition and the queen and Drake himself had large shares in the Spanish wealth. It might be interesting for a moment to take a glance at the boyhood of Sir Francis Drake. The hulk of an old ship, moored off an English dockyard, was the boyhood home of Sir Francis. Here he heard the sailors sing their songs and listened with rapt attention to tales of adven- ture on the sea. He grew up to be a sturdy and self- reliant lad and found employment on a ship sailing from France to Holland. While in Holland he saw the cruel way in which the king of Spain oppressed his Dutch sub- jects and came to hate him very cordially for it. At a later time, Drake and Hawkins, his relative, were com- pelled to seek the shelter of a Spanish port in the Gulf of Mexico. Here the Spaniards attacked them and destroyed one half of their ships, although they had promised not to harm them. From that tune on, Hawkins and Drake took great delight in goading the Spaniards wherever they found them. We shall meet Sir Francis Drake later when he sets out to " singe the beard of the King of Spain." QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare Magellan and Drake as to route, purpose, and results of expeditions. 2. Read in any good history of England an account of Elizabeth's reign. Was she a "good and strong ruler"? Would she be so considered to- day? FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 257 3. Is there any geographical exploration going on at the present time? See, if you can, a copy of the "National Geographic Magazine." It is in all libraries. 4. Do you think Spain had just cause for complaint against Drake and Hawkins? 6. Why did Spain seem to be the rightful possessor of most of the New World? 6. Why was Raleigh the favorite with Queen Elizabeth? What is the most important work that he did? PRONOUNCING LIST Chili, chin Ponce de Leon, pon'tha da la-on' Coronado. ko'ro-na'do Raleigh. ro'U Peru, pe-roo' CHAPTER XXIII FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN Poor Spain was beset by enemies on every side. Not only England, but France as well, wished to share in the profits and glories of the New World. Spain was like a dog with a juicy bone. She soon found other nations snarling about her and ready to grab her prize. Wars between France and Spain in Europe. At the time of which we are speaking, Charles I was king of Spain and Francis I king of France. These two mon- archs looked at each other with jealous and hostile eyes and their subjects were almost equally unfriendly. Both Charles and Francis wished to be elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was chosen and Francis, greatly disappointed, nursed his grievance. He made an attack upon Charles whenever he had an oppor- tunity and for twenty-three years kept up a running fight against the emperor. A large part of the fighting was 258 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY done in Italy and it was in these wars that Chevalier Bayard became known to the whole civilized world. Chevalier Bayard. Bayard was a member of a noble French family who entered the service of the Duke of Savoy as a page. While in the service of the duke, he obtained an excellent training in the duties of the soldier and also became skillful in the use of weapons. He was so skillful in war, and so brave in personal combat that he became known as the " Invincible." In one great battle, in which the king had command in person, Bayard fought bravely and contributed largely to the victory which saved France. After the close of the contest, the king requested that he himself be made a knight and that the knighthood be conferred upon him by the brave Chevalier. " Bayard, my friend," said the king, "I wish to-day to be made knight by your hands, because you have fought on foot and on horseback in many battles and are reputed to be, above all others, the most worthy." Bayard hesitated to comply with this request because he did not feel himself worthy to bestow knighthood upon his king; and so he replied: "Sire, he who is king of so noble a realm is a knight above all other knights." To this the king simply answered, "Come, Bayard; make haste." Whereupon Bayard drew his sword, conferred the order of knighthood upon Francis and then said, "Assuredly you are the greatest prince who ever was made knight. God grant that in the war you shall never take flight." He then flourished his sword in the air and said as he put it into the scabbard that he would always cherish it as a "sacred relic, honored above all others," because it had been used in knighting his king. FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 259 While fighting for his king and country in northern Italy (1524), he was mortally wounded while conducting an almost hopeless retreat. His men by whom he was so greatly beloved were about to carry him from the field, DEATH OF BAYARD when he said, "No, let me die in peace. It is all over with me." He died there propped up against a tree and amid the whistling of the bullets. "It was said of Bayard by military men of his time, that he assaulted like a grayhound, defended himself like 260 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY a lion, and retreated like a wolf, which always retires from its pursuers with its face towards them. ... In an age which combined strangely coarseness with refinement, Chevalier Bayard was admitted by friend and foe, by priest and soldier, to be a perfect model . of Christian knighthood." Is it to be wondered at then that Bayard has ever since been called the " knight without fear and without reproach?" The French and Spaniards Cross Swords in America. The French and Spaniards, however, did not do all of their fighting in Italy. They also crossed swords in the forests of North America. Francis knew very well that North America had been granted to Spain by the Pope's Line of 1493, but he said that he saw no good reason why the Spaniards should own the whole earth. So in 1524, the very year of Bayard's death, he sent out John Ver- razzano, an Italian navigator of whom we have heard, in an attempt to find an all-water route to the East. He failed in this, but he sailed along the Atlantic shore of North America from Newfoundland to the Cape Fear River. Cartier (1534). Ten years later, Cartier, a Frenchman, came, as we have already seen, on a similar errand. He, too, was searching for a route to the Indies. Entering the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, he sailed up that stream "until," as he said, "land could be seen on either side." He soon returned to France, but came back in the fol- lowing year (1535) and sailed up the river to the present site of Montreal. Coligny and the Huguenots (1562). The first really serious attempt on the part of the French to found a FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 261 colony in the New World was made by Admiral Coligny. Coligny was the able leader of a band of French Prot- estants, called Huguenots. These Huguenots were being persecuted in their native land on account of their re- ligion and Coligny determined to find a haven of rest for them in America. So, in 1562, he sent out a company of his people under the command of Jean Ribaut. These colonists' avoided the frozen north, where Cartier and his men had had such unpleas- ant experiences, and turned their prows towards the milder south. On May Day, Ribaut entered the mouth of the St. John's River in Florida and named it "the River of May." "Never had they known," says Francis Parkman, "a fairer May Day. . . . The tranquil air, the warm sun, woods fresh with young verdure, meadows bright with flowers; the palm, the cypress, the pine, the magnolia; the grazing deer; herons, curlews, bitterns, wood-cock, and unknown water-fowl, that waded in the ripple of the beach; cedars bearded from crown to root with long, gray moss; huge oaks smothering in the folds of enormous grapevines; such were the objects that greeted them in their roamings, till then* new-discovered land seemed the ' fairest, fruitfulest and pleasantest of all the world.' ' Ribaut established a colony on Port Royal Island and named the whole country "Carolina," in honor of Charles, ADMIRAL COLIGNY 262 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY the King of France. The colony was a failure and was abandoned within a year. The handful of people remain- ing alive at the end of that time were only too glad to get back to France. Fort Caroline in Florida. Not discouraged by this failure, the French made another attempt two years later (1564). At first they tried to find some trace of Ribaut's colony but were unable to do so, as the- remnant of it had sailed for home a short tune before in a rude vessel built by their own hands. Leaving the ill-fated site of the Port Royal colony, they pushed on to the River of May in Florida. On the bank of that stream, they built a rude fort which they named Caroline in honor of King Charles. This colony was another weakling. The men were not made of the proper stuff. They were shift- less and dissolute and could not bear up against disease, hunger, and Indian attacks. The Destruction of Fort Caroline. In the meantime, the Spaniards, who felt that they owned this whole country, were looking upon the struggling French colony with hos- tile eyes. They regarded the French as intruders in their domain and resolved to wipe them out. The Spaniards, who were Roman Catholics, were especially bitter towards the Huguenots, who were Protestants. In 1565, a Spaniard named Menendez came to America and founded St. Augustine in Florida and announced his intention to " gibbet and behead all the Protestants in these regions. " He set about his bloody work at once and completely exterminated the French colony on the River of May. He attacked the fort just before day- break in the midst of a driving rain while the French were FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 263 in a sound sleep. It was soon over. One hundred and thirty dead men lay scattered about the scene of the bloody combat. By order of Menendez the women were spared. So also were the children under fifteen years of age. About fifty other persons also escaped with their lives by swimming across the river or by embarking in small boats. It is interesting to note something more of this Spanish soldier. Menendez was one of the ablest and most famous officers in the Spanish navy. He had been a wild and un- governable youth. He ran away from home at the age of eight, but was caught and brought back. He ran away again and this time got on board a fleet which was set- ting out against the Barbary Corsairs. Menendez delighted in battle and slaughter and while fighting against the Barbary States, it is quite probable that his " appetite for blood and blows" was fully satisfied. Menendez came to Florida (which had much larger dimensions than the present State) with twenty-six hun- dred and forty-six persons in thirty-four ships. His flag- ship was described as "one of the finest ships afloat." Menendez held a parley with the French on their boats off the mouth of the River of May. He asked them who they were. They replied that they were Frenchmen. PEDRO MENENDEZ 264 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY "Are you Catholics or Lutherans?" he then asked. " Lu- therans of the new religion," cried many voices. "But," said the French, "who are you and where do you come from?" The answer came: "I am Pedro Menendez, general of the fleet of the King of Spain, Don Philip the Second, who have come to this country to hang and be- head all Lutherans whom I shall find by land or sea. . . . I have power to pardon none. ... At 1 daybreak, I shall board your ships." To which the French shouted back in derision: "If you are a brave man, don't wait till day. Come on now and see what you will get." The Attack. When the Spaniards approached the set- tlement there was not a sentinel on the ramparts. A lone trumpeter, peering through the sheets of rain, saw the advancing hosts and blew a loud blast. The half- naked soldiers rushed from their quarters, only to be struck down by the wolfish Spaniards. One hundred and forty-two lay dead in and around the fort. The prisoners Menendez hanged on trees and placed over them this inscription, "I do this, not as to Frenchmen but as to Lutherans." This was the sad ending of Fort Caroline. "Thus did France and Spain dispute the possession of North America long before England became a party to the strife." The Avenger, Dominic de Gourgues. Presently there came a man to take vengeance upon the Spaniards for the blood of the French. Dominic de Gourgues was a French soldier of high birth and great renown. "He hated the Spaniards with a mortal hate," and when he heard of the bloody fate of his countrymen in Florida, it is said that "his hot blood boiled with fury." He gathered to- gether a small party of men and on August 22, 1567, FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 265 sailed away to strike the Spaniard in the New World. "The moon rode high above the lonely sea, and, silvered in its light, the ships of the avenger held their course. . . . They glided slowly by the somber shores in the shimmering moonlight, to the sound of the murmuring surf and the moaning pine trees." At noonday they approached the Spanish fort and made ready to strike the enemy. The Spaniards had just finished their dinner and, according to an old writer, "were still picking their teeth" when the war cry rang out. The French attacked the fort with terrible fury, and skulking Indians cut off the fugitives in their attempt to escape. One account says that not a single Spaniard got away with his life; another, that a few of them escaped to the hills; "and thus," says Francis Parkman, "did the Spaniards make bloody atonement for the butchery of Fort Caroline." Near the foot of the fort, the trees were pointed out to De Gourgues upon which Menendez had hanged his pris- oners. To these trees De Gourgues ordered the Spanish captives to be led. After suspending them from the same limbs upon which the French captives had been hung three years before, he placed over them a pine board, bearing this inscription burned into it with a red-hot iron: "Not as to Spaniards, but as to Traitors, Robbers, and Murderers." QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Of the three rivals Spain, England, and France which seems to you to have had the best right to the "New World"? 2. Take the side of any one of these nations and present its claims to your class. 3. You should realize how Spain was handicapped in this struggle by having two such powerful enemies as England and France. 266 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 4. Tell what you know about the following: Chevalier Bayard, Cartier, Coligny, Fort Caroline, Menendez, Jean Ribaut, Huguenots, De Gourgues. 6. Rule off three columns on a piece of paper. Mark the heads of these columns respectively, Spanish, French, English. Then under each head write down as many places as you can think of that were discovered in the New World by these peoples. Make your own map showing these places and put alongside of each one the name of the explorer who discovered it. PRONOUNCING LIST Chevalier Bayard. sheVd-ler' bi'erd Huguenot. hu'ge-n6t Coligny. k6'len'ye' Jean Ribaut. zhan re'bo' Dominic de Gourgues. dSm'I-nlk Menendez. ma-nen'dath de gdorg' Savoy, sci-voi' CHAPTER XXIV THE DUTCH FIGHT AGAINST THEIR RULER, THE KING OF SPAIN Poor Spain was in much trouble. The swords of the Dutch were also drawn against her, just when she needed all of her strength for the occupation of the New World. The Dutch. The Dutch were the inhabitants of Hol- land a small but very important country of western Europe. Holland was a part of the Netherlands, which at this time was under the control of Spain. The word " Netherlands " means " lowlands" and was so called because a large part of the land was below the level of the sea. Before its sturdy and industrious in- habitants had built their dykes to keep back the ocean and their embankments to confine the rivers, the country was very often an unbroken sheet of water as far as the eye could reach. This morass was not a very promising place hi which to build homes, but the Dutch were a THE DUTCH FIGHT AGAINST THEIR RULER 267 strong and determined race and accomplished wonders. They built great strong dykes to protect them from the ocean and high embankments to keep the rivers within bounds. They then turned their swamps and marshes into the most beautiful orchards, gardens, and flower beds. Great cities grew up and a large part of the commerce of northern Europe was carried in Dutch boats. "I was sad when I saw Antwerp," said a Venetian traveler, "for I saw Venice sur- passed." The Quarrel with the King of Spain. King Charles of Spain was the ruler of the Netherlands when the Protestant Ref- ormation broke out under Martin Luther. Many of THE WINDMILLS OF HOLLAND Varl These clums structures were used all Had ese cumsy srucures were use a over Holland for pumping water. They the teachings of Luther saved a vast deal of hand labor and were picturesque figures on the landscape. and had become staunch Protestants. This among other things made Charles very angry and he was determined to stamp out the new religion in his dominions. In his attempt to do so he sent many persons to the stake or to the scaffold. However, he made very little headway and finally left the throne and spent the remainder of his life in a monastery. His successor was his son, Philip II. Philip tried even harder than his father had done to stamp out the Prot- estant religion in the Netherlands. Philip and his father 268 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY were both sincere men and thought it their pious duty before God to put an end to the Protestant religion. The "Beggars." The Dutch, sorely persecuted, arose hi revolt* One of the Spanish leaders in a moment of disgust called them the " Beggars" and said that he was not afraid of anything they could do. The Dutch imme- diately adopted the name and the cry went up, "Long live the Beggars." The fury of the people knew no bounds. They gathered in mobs, smashed images in the churches, burned libraries, sacked monasteries, and destroyed many beautiful works of art. The Duke of Alva (1567). Just at the time when De Gourgues was taking his terrible vengeance upon the Spaniards in Florida, Philip, King of Spain, sent the no- torious Duke of Alva to put down the revolt in the Netherlands. Alva was able, but merciless. He perse- cuted most cruelly on every hand and also levied op- pressive taxes. One of these was called "the Tenth Penny" or a tax of ten per cent on the sale of all goods. Business was ruined and the people were almost in a panic of despair. Catholics also who opposed the oppres- sive designs of Alva were made to suffer side by side with their Protestant neighbors. William of Orange. When a brave people are deter- mined to strike for their liberty, a leader usually appears to lead them out of bondage. The leader in this case was William the Silent, Prince of Orange, who was later called "the Founder of Dutch liberties." William of Orange is the George Washington of Holland. He was a Roman Catholic up to this time, but he now became a Protestant. Both as a Protestant and as a THE DUTCH FIGHT AGAINST THEIR RULER 269 Catholic, however, he set his face firmly against religious persecution. He believed that a man had a right to worship God in his own way. In this view he was in advance of his time. WILLIAM OF ORANGE PLEDGING His JEWELS He sold or pawned his estates and his other property, even his furniture, his plate, and his jewelry, and borrowed and collected money wherever he could in order to raise an army with which to deliver the Netherlands from their cruel oppressors. For more than forty years the valiant Dutch struggled on, never despairing of then* final success. They took part in many notable battles and sieges under William, their great leader, and finally (July 26, 1581), they made their famous Declaration of Independence and set up the Dutch Republic. 270 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Three years later, William met his death at the hands of a hired assassin. Philip, failing to conquer his formidable foe in battle, had announced that he would give a title of nobility and a large sum of money to anyone who would deliver William into his hands "dead or alive." In 1584, William was struck down. "As long as he lived," says our American historian, Motley, "he was the guiding star of a whole nation; and when he died, the little children cried in the streets." QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Write a short essay on William of Orange. 2. In what respects does life in Holland differ from life in the United States? 3. Do you think that we have any lessons to learn from the Dutch? 4. How was William of Orange the George Washington of Holland? PRONOUNCING LIST Alva. al'va Antwerp. Sut'werp CHAPTER XXV ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN THE FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN Even after the death of "Father William/' the Dutch fought valiantly against their Spanish oppressors. Twenty- five years of fighting elapsed before the Spaniards could be induced to acknowledge the independence of the Nether- lands, and even then they did it in a roundabout way. During a part of this time, the Spaniards were compelled to fight the English as well as the Dutch. Elizabeth was the queen of England at this time and, as a powerful advocate of the Protestant religion, she was cordially dis- ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 271 liked by King Philip of Spain and his men. They looked upon her as a usurper a person having no right what- ever to the throne and plotted to place Mary Queen of Scots, the cousin of Elizabeth, upon the English throne in her stead. It was said that the men who had planned the murder of the Prince of Orange were planning to put Elizabeth out of the way in the same manner. Knowledge of this alleged plot spread over England and it was soon seen that the sturdy Englishmen, Catholic as well as Protestant, were ready to rally to the side of their queen and defend her from all harm. So a few months after the the death of " Father William," a number of Englishmen formed an association without regard to religious beliefs and took a vow to defend their queen, in so far as they were able, against all harm. In case she were assassinated secretly, they said that they would send Mary Queen of Scots "to the grave instead of to the throne." In the meantime, the feeling between the English and the Spaniards was becoming more intense. The English sympathized greatly with the struggling Dutch and were sending aid to them in their fight for independence. The Dutch appreciated this sympathy and assistance and in- vited Elizabeth to be then: queen. This honor she de- clined, but she did send an army over to the Netherlands to fight against the Spaniards. In addition to this army, hordes of venturesome young Englishmen, attracted by the heroic struggle which the Dutch were making, crossed over to the Netherlands and enlisted as volunteers in the army of that country. Many of these were whole-souled, hard-fisted, rough-and-ready men who enjoyed a good knock-down fight and stood 272 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ever ready to lend a hand to the "under-dog" hi any contest. Sir Philip Sidney. The most famous of these soldiers of fortune was Sir Philip Sidney. Sidney was the Chevalier Bayard of England. He was a man of good family, hand- some, educated, refined, and in every sense a gentleman. He was received at the court of Queen Elizabeth with marked favor, and William of Orange pronounced him "one of the ripest statesmen in Europe." Sidney was also brave and venturesome and, like many Englishmen of his day, dearly loved a good fight with the hated Spaniard. In 1585, he was eager to embark with Sir Francis Drake upon an expedition against the Span- iards in the West Indies, but was prevented by Queen Eliza- SIB PHILIP SIDNEY , ., /. -, . , beth from doing so because she reared, as one writer puts it, that she might "lose the brightest jewel of her times." She did lose him, how- ever, in the following year, 1586, when he fell in the battle of Zutphen, while fighting against the Spaniards for the liberty of the Dutch. His deeds in this battle were heroic in the extreme. When the fighting was fiercest, "there glittered the gilded armor of our gallant Sidney as he spurred his white charger through the storm of bullets, now to encounter a fiery foe, anon to save a friend imperiled by unequal numbers. Two horses ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 273 were shot beneath him, and he quickly mounted a third." While dashing over the prostrate bodies of the slain to rescue a friend from death, he was struck by a bullet and fell mortally wounded. As he was being carried from the field, he asked for a drink of water which was obtained with difficulty because the supply was short. As he held the decanter to his lips, his eye caught the appealing glance of a dying soldier. Without tasting the water, he handed it over to the suffering man and said, "Thy necessity is greater than mine." Sixteen days later, this most perfect specimen of a cultured and chivalrous gentleman passed away. It was said of him that "he treated rich and poor, his own servants, and the noblemen who were his guests alike and alike courteously, con- . , , , , & , . MARY STUART siderately, cheerfully, anection- ately so leaving a blessing wherever he went." His body was taken back to London and buried in the famous St. Paul's Cathedral. The Death of Mary Stuart. In the early part of the year following the death of the noble Sidney (1587), Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, was beheaded in Fotheringay Castle, on the order of Queen Elizabeth. The queen felt that Mary was plotting against her and came to the conclusion that she would be safer with Mary out of the way. 274 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Upon the death of Mary, Philip, King of Spain, claimed the English crown for himself or for his daughter, upon the ground that he was descended from a member of the English royal house. In order to enforce his claim, he gathered together an immense fleet in the harbors of Spain and Portugal and made ready to invade England. There was every reason why he should hurl his force against the British Isles. In the first place, he wished to dethrone Elizabeth and thus take vengeance upon her for the death of Mary Stuart. He also wished to put down the Protestant religion, to suppress English piracy in America, and to shut off the assistance which was being given by the English to the followers of William of Orange. Before he was ready to sail, however, Sir Francis Drake, the British sea-rover, dashed into Spanish harbors and set fire to a number of ships, as they lay at anchor. He sailed boldly into the Spanish harbor of Cadiz and, after driving to cover the warships which stood guard, coolly loaded his own vessels with as much of the Spanish supplies as he dared attempt to carry away and then set fire to the rest, after cutting their cables and setting them adrift. More than one hundred ships, loaded with valuable sup- plies for the invasion of England, were thus left a mass of blazing wrecks. The " Dragon," as the Spaniards called Drake, went on his way in high glee. When he returned to England, he reported that he had "singed the beard of the King of Spain." This singeing delayed Philip's invasion of England for a year. Drake did more destruction, however, before getting back to his native country. For days, he hovered about the Spanish coasts, plundering and sinking the vessels ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 275 that came his way. He then dashed into the harbor at Coruna and repeated his daring exploit of Cadiz. Again he slipped away and, near the Azores, captured a great Span- ish ship on its way from America, laden with treasure. The very audacity of this bold sea-dog took away the breath of Europe and struck terror into Spanish hearts. One day, King Philip invited a lady of his court to ride with him in his barge on one of the small Spanish lakes, but she declined because, as she said, she was afraid that Sir Francis Drake might appear and capture them. As a result of this set-back, the invasion of England had to be put off to the following year and, in the meantime, the shipyards of England resounded with axes, hammers, and saws. When the Spanish fleet finally appeared, the English navy was ready for battle. " The Invincible Armada." Finally, after years of prep- aration, everything was ready and the " In vincible Ar- mada," as Philip boastingly called it, set out for England. But the English were not to be caught napping. Keen- eyed watchers patrolled the coast and scanned the water of the English Channel, as they were expecting the Spanish fleet to come in sight at any moment. While they were waiting, the officers of the English fleet and army amused themselves by bowling on the green and playing other games. On a pleasant afternoon in July, 1588, a famous group of English commanders were bowling near Plymouth in the southern part of England. Sir Francis Drake, the man who " held the candle to King Philip's beard," was there. Sir John Hawkins, slave-dealer and pirate, and Sir Martin Frobisher, the hero of the Arctic seas, formed part of the company. Lord Howard, the high admiral 276 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY of England and a patriotic Roman Catholic, was also a member of this distinguished group. While the bowling match was in progress, a small, swift ship, under full sail, appeared in the Plymouth harbor. Her commander hurriedly sought out the English captains THE BOWLING MATCH and informed them that on that morning he had seen the Spanish Armada off the coast of Cornwall. This was interesting and important news and part of the company dashed hastily for the shore. Drake, with his accustomed coolness, however, stopped them and insisted that they should finish the match. " There is time to finish the game first," he explained, "and beat the Spaniards after- wards." Drake did not have a very high respect for Spanish skill and valor. ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 277 The Fleet Appears. It was not a false alarm. One hundred and thirty great black hulks appeared in the English Channel, carrying thirty thousand men and three thousand cannon. They also carried racks and thumb- screws and nearly one hundred executioners. The English ships, following the advice of Drake, permitted the Span- ish squadron to sail up the Channel unmolested. The British boats then closed in upon the rear and the fight was soon on. The Contrast. The two fleets differed greatly. The Spanish boats were larger and stood up higher out of the water, so that their gunners might command the decks of the enemy's ships. These large, clumsy boats carried more soldiers than sailors and but very few cannon. The British boats, on the contrary, were somewhat smaller, much more speedy, and carried more sailors than soldiers. They also had more and better guns. In many instances, the nimble English ship, with its skillful sailors and longer range guns, was able to shoot a Spanish ship to splinters and then withdraw unharmed. The Slaughter off Calais. Finally the Spanish fleet halted and dropped anchor off the city of Calais, on the north coast of France, with the English only two miles away. The ready wits of the British were devising a plan to dislodge them. The plan was put into effect shortly after midnight on the following day, which hap- pened to be Sunday. Out of the inky darkness, eight English ships, filled with combustible material and coated with pitch, were rowed silently into the midst of the Spanish fleet, lying peacefully at anchor. At a given signal, the torch was applied and the fierce flames from the 278 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY burning ships lit up the sky. Before the panic-stricken Spaniards could make out what was going on, the blazing ships, propelled by wind and tide, were bumping against the sides of their vessels. A panic ensued. Cables were cut and SIR FRANCIS DRAKE RECEIVING DON PEDRO'S SWORD The Spanish Admiral with forty of his officers and all his treasure was brought a prisoner on board the " Revenge." Drake treated him with courtesy, and he was afterwards ransomed for three thousand pounds. the Spanish fleet went out to sea, drifting in confusion before the wind. Early in the morning, Drake and his companions closed in on the Spaniards. Three large galleons were sunk and three others foundered helplessly ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 279 on the shore, and the splendid ship of Admiral Don Pedro de Valdes fell into the hands of Drake. The Spaniard still had ships enough left, but his spirit was gone. As the historian Green puts it, " huddled together by the wind and the deadly English fire, their sails torn, their masts shot away, the crowded galleons had become mere slaughter-houses. Four thousand men had fallen, and bravely as the seamen fought they were cowed by the terrible butchery." The commander, in despair, called a council of war and it was determined to make an attempt to get back to Spain by rounding the northern coasts of Scotland and Ireland. This delighted the British. " Never anything pleased me better," Drake wrote, "than seeing the enemy fly with a southerly wind to the northward." And he was probably right when he said that the commander of the Spanish fleet, the Duke of Sidonia, would soon be wishing for his quiet home among the orange-trees in Spain. The Pursuit. The fate of the Armada was practically sealed when the English fleet closed in and cut off its retreat. The Spaniards soon found that they were bot- tled up in the German Ocean with the English vessels pur- suing them in front of a strong wind. The Spanish fleet had planned to stop at the Netherlands and transport the Spanish army over to England. You can imagine the dismay and disappointment of the Spanish soldiers as they stood on the shore and saw the terror-stricken Armada flee- ing madly towards the north. The English hung doggedly on the rear, sinking and burning the Spanish ships and pick- ing off the Spanish seamen. " The feathers of the Spaniards," said an English seaman, " were plucked one by one." 280 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY The Work of Destruction. For two days, Drake and Howard and the other English commanders gave chase to the flying squadron. Then with ammunition and supplies exhausted, they turned back in disappointment. The Spaniard, however, was not yet safe. He immediately encountered a foe far more dangerous than the English sea- dogs. While off the Orkney Islands, a terrific northern storm broke over the fleet. Some of the ships were dashed to pieces against the cliffs of the Irish coast. Eight thousand Spaniards were strewn along the beach near the Giant's Causeway. An English sea captain counted eleven hundred bodies cast up by the sea on the Sligo coast. The poor unfortu- nates who succeeded in get- ting ashore fared even worse than their companions, as many of them were robbed and slain while others were shipped to England with halters about their necks. Queen Elizabeth did not wish to put these men to death, neither would she permit them to remain in England; so she packed them off to Spain, "to recount the worthy achieve- ments of their Invincible Armada." One hundred and twenty ships had set sail against England and of these only fifty returned to Spain, "bear- THE FLIGHT OF THE SPANISH AKMADA ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 281 ing ten thousand men, stricken with pestilence and death." Twenty thousand soldiers, including the flower of the Spanish nobility, had perished while England lost scarcely one hundred men. In order to commemorate the victory, Queen Elizabeth caused a medal to be struck with this inscription: "God blew with his wind and they were scattered." It is true that "the winds had done their part, but the victory was mainly due to the seamanship of the English mariners and the skill of English shipwrights." The Importance of the Defeat of Spain. It may seem like a waste of time to tell the story of the defeat of the Spanish Armada in an introduction to American history; but, as a matter of fact, this great sea-fight had a very important bearing on American colonization. Before suc- cessful English colonies could be planted in America, it was necessary that England should control the ocean routes. As John Fiske, an eminent historian, says, it was necessary "to destroy the naval power of Spain before England could occupy the soil of North America. The defeat of the Invincible Armada was the opening event in the history of the United States. It was the event that made all the rest possible. Without it, the attempts at Jamestown and Plymouth could hardly have been more successful than the attempt at Roanoke Island." Just why the attempt at Roanoke failed, we shall see in the following chapter. For the present, it is only necessary for us to remember that the defeat of Spain opened the way for Eng- lish colonization and that henceforth the English colonies would be free from the danger of such a Spanish attack as that which ruined Coligny's ill-fated colony in Florida. 282 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Do you think Elizabeth had any other reason for helping the Dutch than her sympathy on account of religion? 2. Locate on your map the place where the Spanish Armada met defeat. 3. What advantages had the British in this battle? 4. Why was " the defeat of the Invincible Armada the opening event in the history of the United States " ? PRONOUNCING LIST Calais, kal'a Sidonia. se-don'I-d Coruna. k6-roon'ya Zutphen. ztit'fen CHAPTER XXVI THE EARLY ATTEMPTS OF THE ENGLISH TO FOUND COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA The first permanent English settlement in North Amer- ica was made at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. This was one hundred and ten years after John Cabot had made his famous voyage to the New World. Although England is usually very energetic and enterprising in planting colonies and securing new territory, in this instance she was very slow in following up the advantage of the Cabot voyages. For some strange reason, the English really took very little interest in the voyages of John Cabot. They looked upon his expeditions as failures. They knew that Cabot had sailed away in search of the gold and spices of the East and had returned empty-handed. They also knew that Vasco da Gama had returned to Lisbon a year or two later, laden with rich eastern treasures. Consequently they seemed to forget the bleak and inhospitable shores visited EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 283 by John Cabot and turned their thoughts in other di- rections. It is also true that the Pope's Line of 1493 had given America to Spain. This too had some influence in delay- ing English colonization. Another and very important FRENCH, SPANISH, AND ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA UP TO 1600 reason for England's delay was the fact that she was not strong enough upon the sea before the defeat of the In- vincible Armada to defy the power of Spain. Now, how- ever, things had changed. The Protestant Reformation had taken place and England had become a Protestant country. The Pope's decrees were no longer considered binding. It should also be noted that since the defeat 284 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY of the Armada, England was no longer afraid of the Spaniards upon the sea. The Seamen. The English people of this time were more active and enterprising than they had ever been before and their action and enterprise were best reflected in the daring deeds of their brilliant seamen. It was during this reign, as we have seen, that Sir Francis Drake, the man who " singed the beard of the King of Spain," made his famous voyage around the globe. Martin Frobisher and John Davis had carried the English flag to the extreme northwest in searching for the passage to India and Captain John Hawkins, the founder of the Eng- lish slave trade, had befriended the woe-begone Huguenot colony on St. John's River in Florida. These daring sea- men, however, were intent upon exploration, gold hunting, and the plundering of Spanish ships, and apparently gave little or no thought to colonization. Gilbert and Raleigh. But while the Drakes and the Hawkinses looked upon the planting of colonies in the American wilderness as a rather prosy business and would have none of it, there were other men of the time who saw great possibilities in the colonization of the New World. The pioneers in the English colonization of North America the fathers of the English colonial idea were Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert and his step-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh. These men saw that there was more wealth, in all proba- bility, in the fertility of the soil than there was in the mines of the new world. Gilbert, a bright English lad, was born near Dartmouth, about twenty years before Elizabeth became queen. He went to college at Oxford and then entered the army, EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 285 where he was brilliantly successful. The New World attracted his attention, and he wrote a book about the discovery of a passage to China and India. At a later time (1578), he asked the queen to give him permission to establish a colony in North America. The queen com- plied with his request and gave him the first colonial charter ever granted by an English monarch. This char- ter gave him permission to take possession of any lands in North America, then unsettled, and in return for this privilege he promised to give the queen one fifth of all the gold and silver which he might obtain. He was to rule absolutely over his colony, subject only to the wishes of the queen. The most important clause in this docu- ment yet remains to be men- tioned. The charter guaranteed to Gilbert and his followers all of the rights and privileges of Englishmen. In other words, the members of the new colony were to have the same rights and privileges which the people of England possessed at that time. It was for these same rights and privileges that our forefathers fought two centuries later in the American Revolution. It is not too much to say that the charter granted to Gilbert con- tained the germ of the war for American independence. The First Voyage. With this precious document in his possession, Gilbert set out for Newfoundland in 1579 with SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT 286 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY a small fleet of vessels. He was accompanied by his step- brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, a handsome, brilliant, and attractive young man of twenty-six, who had just returned from fighting as a volunteer in the Netherlands. Both Gilbert and Raleigh had visions of the future greatness of America. They also believed, as did Sir Francis Drake, that the best way to dispose of the Span- iard was to whip him upon the sea. They also thought that England should have colonies in America for pur- poses of trade and to serve as outposts against Spain in time of war. It will be remembered that the Spanish Armada had not yet been defeated, but these two far- seeing men were able to look into the future and foresee the deadly contest which was certain to take place between England and Spain. They wanted to be ready for that contest when it came. Gilbert, apparently, did not care to follow the frozen trail of Frobisher in the northern latitudes but set out for Newfoundland, attracted, no doubt, by the rich fisheries of that locality. Nothing came of this voyage. The ships were buffeted about by severe storms, one of them was destroyed in a fight with a Spanish warship, and the rest were compelled to return to England. Another Voyage (1583). Not daunted by this rough experience, Gilbert set out upon another voyage to New- foundland as soon as he could procure the necessary men, money, and ships. In 1583, he sailed from Plymouth harbor with a small squadron. Raleigh and other friends furnished the capital for the expedition, and the queen sent him a gold anchor as a token of good-will and esteem. EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 287 In August, Gilbert sailed into the harbor of St. John, where Cartier had been nearly fifty years before. He found about four hundred ships in the vicinity, most of them owned by the Spaniards and the Portuguese and all of them engaged in fishing. Calling the fishermen to- gether, he went ashore and set up in their presence a column with the armor of England upon it and then proceeded to take possession of the island in the name of his queen and country. Again the storms came on and shattered his fleet, but after some repairs he proceeded to explore the southern coast of the island in search of a suitable site for a colony. Near Cape Breton, another tempest tossed him about and his largest vessel was smashed against a sunken rock. Nearly one hundred men were lost. Gilbert, however, found safety in a tiny vessel. He now had only one ship, in addition to the little skiff in which he himself sailed, and this was loaded with worthless rock, which was sup- posed to contain silver ore. The two ships started home- ward and again a September gale tossed them about. The commander of the companion ship, being greatly alarmed, shouted across the waves to Gilbert that they were all likely to be lost. But the cool and fearless navigator, sitting quietly with a book in his hand, shouted cheerily back to his panic-stricken mate: ''The way to Heaven is as near by sea as by land." Longfellow tells the story in this way: "Beside the helm he sat: The book was in his hand. 'Fear not/ he cried, 'heaven is as near By water as by land.'" 288 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY The storm increased, night fell, and the darkness was intense. Each ship was nervously watching the other. At midnight, the captain, who had shouted the warning, saw the lights on Gilbert's ship suddenly go out. The vessel had sunk and all were lost. The brave Gilbert went to his death, but the ship, bearing the worthless rock, came into port in safety. The Exploits of Raleigh. Sir Walter Raleigh continued to send expeditions to America, after the death of his brave brother. Raleigh, the famous soldier, sea-rover, colonizer, and author, was born in Devon- shire, England, in 1552. He was a student at Oxford Uni- versity and, when a boy of seventeen, had gone as a soldier to France to fight for the Huguenots. After that, he fought against Spain in the Netherlands and then went into partnership with Gilbert in an attempt to found colonies in North America. Fortunately, he was not with Gilbert on his fatal voyage and he was not daunted by the death of his brave partner. He still had faith in America and spent a large fortune in his colonizing ventures. He made up his mind, however, to abandon Newfound- land, and to go to the milder climate of the south; so in 1584, he sent out two ships under the command of Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlow. On the fourth of SIE WALTER RALEIGH EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 289 July, Amadas and Barlow reached the coast of what is now known as North Carolina, where they penetrated Pamlico Sound and visited Roanoke Island. Waving the flag of England over this beautiful place, they took possession of it in the name of then* queen. Says Fiske, "They admired the noble pine trees and red cedars, mar- veled at the abundance of game, and found the native barbarians polite and friendly. " They explored the shore for a considerable distance and named the country "Virginia" in honor of Elizabeth, the maiden queen. They made no attempt at settlement at this time, but they did try to converse with the Indians and to get information from them in regard to the country. They were not very successful in carrying on conversation with the natives, but they reported when they got back home that they had found the Indians to be "people most gentle, loving, and faithful." Later colonists had a very different story to tell. The Roanoke Colony (1585). The glowing accounts of these explorers encouraged Raleigh to attempt to plant a colony in southern latitudes. In the spring of 1585, he sent out a fleet of eight vessels, bearing one hundred and eight men bound for the New World. Ralph Lane was to have charge of the colony and Sir Richard Grenville, Raleigh's cousin, commanded the fleet. Grenville scoured the seas and plundered the rich ships of the Spaniards for a tune and after narrowly escaping shipwreck on a point of land, which the company named "Cape Fear," landed his little company on Roanoke Island. As soon as they touched the shore, trouble with the natives began. One of the Indians stole a silver cup and Grenville in retaliation 290 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY set fire to their standing corn. The fight between the redmen and the pale-face colonist was now on. After starting this conflict, Grenville turned over the colony to Lane and sailed away. Lane, a man of energy and good sense, explored the country in search of a suitable site for his settlement. He went some distance into the interior and even tried to find a strait leading to India. The colonists were a shiftless and worthless lot and things did not go well. They could play the pirate or hunt for gold, but tilling the soil was real work and they did not care for it. They were suffering from a lack of food and were beginning to pine for the folks at home when the "Dragon" Drake suddenly appeared with a fine fleet of twenty-three ships. Lane and his starving and homesick companions were only too glad to be taken back to England. They started on their way rejoicing, but had scarcely gotten out of sight when Grenville sailed into port with supplies. Much to his astonishment, he found that the place had been abandoned. No living creature appeared in view, although he searched the surrounding country carefully. Leaving fifteen of his men to the rather lonesome task of holding the site of the colony, Grenville departed. " The Lost Colony." Planting colonies in the New World seemed to be up-hill business, and yet Raleigh was apparently not discouraged. In 1587 he sent out another band of colonists to the Carolina coast this time under the control of John White, an artist. The company included seventeen women and about one hun- dred and thirty men. They intended to stop at Roanoke Island and take on board the fifteen men left by Gren- EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 291 ville and then proceed to the shore of Chesapeake Bay. They touched at Roanoke, but could find no trace of the fifteen men left on the lonesome vigil. The fort was in ruins and deer were quietly grazing on the spot where the colony once stood. The little guard had probably been massacred by the Indians. Instead of going on to the Chesapeake coun- try, White left a company of eighty-nine men, women, and children at Roanoke and went back to England in the same year. Soon after White's return home, the " Invincible Arm- ada" appeared in the Eng- lish Channel. There was now no time to think of anything but the Spanish foe. Sir Walter did not forget his struggling colony, however, and on two dif- ferent occasions he fitted out relief ships to be sent to Roanoke. The ships, however, were either impressed into the service of the government or driven back to port by the Spaniards, and for three years the colony was left to shift for itself. When White did finally succeed in getting to America he was too late. The place was deserted, grass was growing in the fort, and the whole scene was one of desolation. The colonists had gone nobody has EARLY SETTLEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND SPANISH IN THE NEW WORLD 292 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ever known where, but a great many guesses have been made. They may have been killed by the Indians, or they may have gone to live with friendly natives. They are spoken of to this day as " Raleigh's Lost Colony." THE LANDING AT JAMESTOWN Here in 1607 was founded the first permanent English colony on the North American continent. Raleigh had now spent his own large fortune and also all of the money he could get from the Queen and other friends and had not succeeded in planting a successful colony on American soil. It was soon seen that the found- ing of colonies was too large and too costly an enterprise for private individuals to undertake. And so companies EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 293 were organized to do the work which Gilbert and Raleigh had failed to accomplish. A body of men known as the London Company was organized for this purpose and these men succeeded in establishing the first permanent English colony on our shores. It was located at Jamestown, Virginia, and the date of its founding is 1607. At this point the history of the English colonies in America begins and our present story comes to an end. In this " Introduction to American History" we have tried to show that Europe is the Mother of America. The beginnings of American History are to be found in the Old World. The roots of our history and institutions may be traced to European soil. American history is the continuation and the outgrowth of the history of Europe. American civilization, on the whole, is based on the civiliza- tion of Europe, although it has developed along independ- ent lines and is now very different in some respects from the civilization of the mother country. We cannot, there- fore, understand the history of our own country without knowing something of the history of Europe. We trust that a study of this little book will enable you to under- stand better and to appreciate more fully the wonderful story of your country's history from the founding of Jamestown to the present day. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE PUPIL 1. Neither Gilbert nor Raleigh succeeded in establishing a permanent settlement in America. Why? Was the work they did of no avail? 2. Imagine yourself a member of " Raleigh's Lost Colony." Make a diary showing what really became of yourself and companions. 294 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 3. To-day in this New World Spain's mark is indelibly imprinted on Mexico, and Central and South America. The French influence is felt in Canada. The territory occupied by the United States is the sphere of English influence so, naturally, we have been more interested in following the progress of England. As a result of the Spanish-American War (1898), several million people who were subjects of Spam and who speak the Spanish language, have been taken under our flag. Do >ou not think it well for the United States to begin to give more attention to Spanish life, customs, and language, in order to do our best for these people? Remember, too, the great advantage it would give the United States commercially in Central and South America, if we understood the Spanish better. PRONOUNCING LIST Breton. breVftn Frobisher. fr6b'Ish-er SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 295 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS This text-book for the sixth grade is an attempt to follow out the recommendations of the Committee of Eight of the Ameri- can Historical Association. The first seventeen chapters show how far back the roots of our history extend and what have been the contributions of the Ancient World to the "New World." The last nine chapters cover the period of discovery and explora- tion down to the settlement of Jamestown. These points have been emphasized: 1. The steady westward movement, from the five early na- tions dealt with in the first chapter, on to Greece, to Rome, and through the expansion of the Roman Empire to England; the overthrow of the Romans by the Germans; the beginning of modern European States; the revival of learning following the Dark Ages; the discovery of America; and the struggle for su- premacy in the New World. 2. The growth of knowledge of the earth and its people; the changing conception of the shape and size of the earth; the contributions of early peoples to the discovery of America, and the consequent broadening of man's conception of his relation to the world. 3. The contributions of each of these great Nations and peoples to the stream of world civilization. An effort has been made to show clearly how much we at this day are indebted to all the ages that have gone before that we, here in the United States, are truly "the heirs of all the ages." This text takes it for granted that the seventh and eighth years will be given chiefly to a serious study of United States history. The treatment has been in the main chronological, without any attempt, however, to give a connected history of any na- tion. The principal aim has been to adapt the material of his- tory to the sixth-grade child in such a way that he may acquire the historical sense and perspective, so that he may feel some- thing of the spirit of history and may have an interest in human progress and development. 296 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Howsoever excellent any text-book may be it will not teach itself. It is only the tool in the hands of the pupil by means of which the teacher may guide him into the realization of the aims stated above. So it is thought well in this connection to make some specific suggestions to teachers of history suggestions most of which are the outcome of actual experience in classroom work. These suggestions are based upon the following beliefs: 1. That the material aspects of the past must furnish the foundation. Vivid images of concrete things in the past may best be created by pictures, models, casts, and the like. 2. That the particular acts of the children or of their elders must furnish the basis for comprehension of historic acts. These should be supplemented by word-pictures and stories concretely told. 3. That children must be led to think and feel about certain men and acts as these men themselves felt, by: a. Dramatization of historic scenes. b. Writing imaginary letters. c. Imagining themselves present at certain scenes, and re- lating what happened. d. Keeping imaginary diaries. e. Expressing written opinions on certain acts, either de- defending or opposing. /. Learning and reciting parts of famous speeches or poems. 4. Collective facts can only be securely fixed through the massing of particular instances. SUGGESTIONS I. USE OF THE RECITATION PERIOD 1. One of the standards of judging classroom teaching in any subject is the extent to which it provides for the individuality of the child. There is danger in history teaching that it will become merely a "cramming process" and that the child will have no opportunity to react to the mass of historical information with which he comes in contact. The child's natural curiosity and desire to know more about things should always be en- couraged. So the recitation period, instead of being a time when SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 297 children "recite" facts read from the text, should rather be a time for asking questions and for clearing away misconceptions. Let the recitation period be given over at times merely to finding some live problem which is a felt need on the part of the children, and subsequent periods may be given to having children offer their contributions to its solution. The absence of many fact questions at the ends of the chapters is to be noted. Questions arising from within the children themselves will set the first and most fundamental requirement for sys- tematic study. 2. This period should be used at times to show the children how to use a text. Certain chapters should be read through slowly and critically with frequent reference to maps, diction- aries, pronouncing list, and other supplementary material. 3. Other chapters, as for instance Chapter XIX on " Colum- bus," should be read straight through as a reading lesson. 4. This period is the best time for the massing of single details into collective facts, in other words, for the organization of material and the making of summaries. 5. The recitation is also the proper place for fixing the few important dates which pupils need to know. These should be thoroughly memorized. II. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL Maps 1. The maps inserted throughout will be found very helpful. 2. The use of the double-size desk outline maps such as are published at trivial cost by the McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia, is strongly recommended. 3. A map of the world is absolutely necessary. 4. A blackboard outline map for tracing discoveries and explorations. A. Flanagan Co., Chicago, publish such maps. Pictures 1. Perry Picture Co., Maiden, Mass., have sets of pictures excellent for all periods of history. These cost one cent each. 298 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 2. Encourage children to bring pictures to school, illustrating points in the lessons. A recognition of many of the world's famous men, buildings, works of art, etc., should be one of the products of history study. Books In the suggestions for teachers on each chapter, certain books are recommended. These are books that should be in the library of every teacher of history. Many of the children will come from homes well supplied with good books. Encourage them to read from them, to bring them to the class, and to make oral reports on parts read. The Community In almost every community there will be one individual who has visited some of the famous historical shrines. Have the class invite him to talk to them about such places. III. A HISTORY GAME Let each pupil personify some character with whom all members of the class are familiar, for instance, Christopher Columbus. He should have read from other sources so that when he personifies before the class the individual chosen, he will introduce as much new material as possible. He will not tell the things commonly known about Columbus. The other members of the class listen for the purpose of identifying him, but no pupil must announce who he thinks it is. He must make the pupil on the floor disclose his identity, by asking him some question such as, "Are you the man who sailed from Palos in 1492 to find a western passage to the Indies?" To which the pupil on the floor who is personifying Columbus will reply, "Yes, I am Christopher Columbus." If a question be asked which shows that the one asking it does not know the individual personified, as for instance, "Are you the man who singed the beard of the King of Spain?" then the one on the floor must say, "No, I am not Sir Francis Drake." The questions may also be such as will bring out further information about the individual so as to help the ques- SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 299 tioner to know who it is. As for instance, "Did you live in the fourteenth century?" The pupil on the floor should answer only by "yes" or "no," without saying when he lived. No pupil should be allowed to ask a question until he has at least a tenta- tive opinion as to who is personified. The same game may be played for historic buildings and places. The following recommendations on the different chapters are not intended to be exhaustive, but are such as may be carried out by any teacher, and such as do not require extensive or expensive equipment. They are in most cases intended to be merely suggestive, and may be adapted by any teacher to his particular environment and equipment. CHAPTER I 1. Maps. The use of a desk outline map by the pupil to locate each of the nations as taken up in the text will be found very helpful. On this map he can print the name of the nation, its principal products and industries. He may also locate the important rivers, the "Royal Road," the trade routes of the Phoenicians, etc. Then as a summing up of the chapter, on a line drawn from the site of each nation and extending toward the west, place what this nation has contributed to the world's civilization. The teacher may use a larger outline map to guide and direct the work of the children. 2. Old Testament as a source-book. Use as supplementary wherever it will help, as for instance: a. Story of Joseph and his brothers richness of land of Egypt. 6. Building of Temple at Jerusalem, c. The Ten Commandments. 3. Pictures. Perry Picture Co., of Maiden, Mass., make excel- lent pictures. Have a collection of these and ask the children to look out for pictures bearing on the text. 300 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER II 1. Preparatory to understanding Greek civilization, have the children use their geographies to work out the islands of Greece, the long and irregular coast-line, the high mountains, and se- questered valleys, and lead them to see the effect of these physical features on the industries and character of the people. 2. Locate on the outline map used with Chapter I: Athens, Sparta, Salamis, Aegean Sea, Marathon, Thermopylae, etc. CHAPTER III 1. If possible get a copy of "A Reading from Homer" by Alma-Tadema. Let the children imagine themselves the auditors. The scene may be in some measure made real by the teacher reading from Bryant's Translation of the Odyssey. 2. Books. a. Hawthorne's version of some famous old Greek stories Tanglewood Tales; Riverside Literature Series, Hough- ton, Mifflin Co., Boston. b. Harding, S. B. Greek Gods, Heroes and Men. CHAPTER IV 1. The Acropolis, and the Parthenon should become so familiar that pupils will always recognize them. Pictures of Ionic, Doric, and Corinthian columns should be used and the distinc- tive characteristics of each pointed out. 2. The children should also become thoroughly familiar with a few of the Greek masterpieces of sculpture, as the Hermes by Praxiteles, the Discobolus by Myron, Zeus by Phidias, etc. Perry Picture Co. furnish pictures of Greek Art and Architecture. 3. TarbeU's " History of Greek Art." CHAPTER VI On the outline map used with Chapters I and II, have the children mark the location of Greek colonies and trace the cam- paigns 'of Alexander. TO TBACtttiRS 301 CHAPTER VII 1. Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome" furnishes splendid material for supplementing this chapter. Read some of these stirring lays to the children. 2. Have children trace on the map Hannibal's route and the spread of the Roman Empire. CHAPTER VIII Use the map every day in developing the lesson. Be sure that the children know what is meant by the Roman Empire. CHAPTER IX 1. Read from Lamb's Tales the story of Shakespeare's " Julius Caesar." 2. Get a copy of "Ben Hur," by Lew Wallace, and read to the children the description of the chariot race. CHAPTER x Have children bring new testaments to class and with maps ' follow Paul on one of his great missionary journeys. Estimate the number of miles he traveled. See Acts of the Apostles, XV-XXXI. Call attention to hardships he had to endure, to the value of his Roman citizenship, to the speech to the men of Athens, Acts XVII, etc. CHAPTER XI The Nibelungenlied sometimes called the German Iliad gives a clear conception of German ideals. Read from some one of the numerous translations the adventures of Siegfried, the hero. CHAPTER XII Eva March Tappan's " European Hero Stories " and Harding's "Story of the Middle Ages" are excellent supplementary books and can be read by the children. These may be used with Chapter XII and following chapters. 302 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XIII Books. Sidney Lanier's "The Boy's King Arthur" or any other of the several good King Arthur Stories; Jennie Hall's "Viking Tales." CHAPTER XIV Some of the more important dates in English history should be kept before the pupils from now on: a. The coming of the Romans. 6. The Anglo-Saxon Invasion. c. The Danish Invasion. d. The Norman Conquest. CHAPTER XV 1. Robinson's "Readings in European History," Vol. I, "How the English won the Magna Charta." 2. Eva March Tappan's "European Hero Stories," "Winning of the Magna Charta." CHAPTER XVI 1. Read from Harding's "Story of the Middle Ages," chap- ters describing the life in castle and in village. 2. Make a drawing on the blackboard showing plan of castle and the surroundings. CHAPTER XVII 1. See Eva March Tappan's "European Hero Stories," on the Crusades. 2. From the Old South Publishing Co., Boston, you may get for five cents, a reprint of Marco Polo's description of Japan and Java. It is in the Old South Leaflets series. CHAPTER XVIII 1. A blackboard outline map of the world, on which may be traced the voyages and explorations of the next chapters is almost indispensable. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHE&S 303 2. Suppose you put the problem of " Finding a New Trade Route to the East," to the children before they read this chapter. They must have a clear conception of the problem, of the equipment at hand to solve it, its difficulties, etc. It will be necessary for you to read this chapter first so that you may be prepared to show the difficulties as they suggest different solutions. Let them work on it until they are satisfied with their answer. Then let them read this chapter. CHAPTER XIX 1. Washington Irving's "Columbus," Book 3, describes his first voyage. Extracts from this read to the children will help to make vivid and real the courage required to make a success of his first voyage. 2. Old South Leaflets Nos. 29 and 31, on Columbus. CHAPTER XX 1. Use the blackboard outline map to trace the routes of these explorers. Different colored crayons may be used for the different nations. 2. Old South Leaflets Nos. 37 and 115, " Voyages of the Cabots." CHAPTER XXI 1. You need now a good outline map of North America. The children should be supplied with desk-size maps. Let them trace the explorations of the Spanish in one color and place the date and name on the line. The same map may be used in succeeding chapters, using different colors for different nations. 2. Old South Leaflets, No. 35, "Cortez' account of City of Mexico"; No. 36, "Death of De Soto." CHAPTER XXII Continue the map begun in preceding chapters, writing name and date of the explorer on the line showing his route. Old South Leaflet No. 116, "Sir Francis Drake on Coast of California." 304 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XXIII Old South Leaflet No. 89, "Founding of St. Augustine." CHAPTER XXIV Let the children consult their geographies on Holland, its location,, use of dikes, occupation of people, etc. CHAPTER XXVI Old South Leaflets, No. 118, " Gilbert's Expedition"; No. 119, " Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke." INDEX Acropolis, the, 44 Adrianople, battle of, 105, 106 Alaric, 109 Alexander the Great, 59-66; empire of, 64, 65 Alexandrians, 64, 66 Alfred, King, 122-130 Alva, Duke of, 268 Amadas and Barlow, 288, 289 America, discovery of, 198-204 Americus Vespucius, 222, 223 Anglo-Saxons, 124 Architecture, Egyptian, 3, 5-7; Greek, 45-50 Ariovistus, 83, 104 Aristides, 51, 57 Aristotle, 42, 43, 53, 57 Armada, Invincible, 275-281, 283, 291 Athena, 48 Athenians, 21, 25, 38, 52, 53 Athos, Mount, 24 Attila, 106-108, 162 Augustus, 90, 96 Aztecs, 234, 241 Balboa, 224, 225, 233, 246 Bayard, Chevalier, 258-260 "Beggars," 268 Black death, 38 Britons, 84-87, 109, 110 Byron, Lord, 27 Cabot, John, 220-223, 249, 282, 283 Caesar, 79-89, 104, 109 Cambyses, 15 Cannae, battle of, 75, 76 Canterbury, 113; pilgrims to, 161; Tales, 161 Canute, King, 129-131 Carthage, 71-78 Cartier, 229-232, 260 Castles, 153-155 Cathedrals, 116 Chaldeans, 8-10 Chalons, battle of, 107-108 Charlemagne, 119-123, 128 Chaucer, 161 Chivalry, 154 Christianity, in Roman Empire, 96, 97; spread of, 112-122 Cincinnatus, 69, 70 Circus Maximus, 93 Civilization, "cradle of," 4, 17; "missionaries of," 12 Coligny, 260, 281 Coliseum, 92, 93 Cologne, Cathedral of, 117 Colonies, English attempts, 282- 293 Columbus, Christopher, 1, 188-219 Commons, House of, 146 Constantine, 99 Constantinople, 165, 171, 177-179 Coronado, 246, 247 306 INDEX Cortez, 234-240, 246 Crusades, 141, 161-172 Cyclops, 32, 33 Cyrus, 15 Da Gama, 217, 225, 242 Danes, 124-127, 131 Darius, 15, 24, 63 " Dark Ages/' 112 De Gourgues, 264, 265 Delphi, Oracle of, 26 Demosthenes, 39, 40, 57 De Soto, 241-243, 246 Diaz, 186, 187, 217 Diogenes, 56, 57 Dionysus, theater of, 36, Discovery, beginnings of, 176-187 Drake, Sir Francis, 254, 256, 272- 280, 284 Dutch, 266-270 Education, in Middle Ages, 117-119 Edward the Confessor, 134-136 Egypt, 4, 5 Egyptians, 4^9, 26 Elizabeth, Queen, 248-254, 272, 273, 281 England, rival of Spain, 246-257, 270-281; efforts to found col- onies, 282-293 English life, 149-157 Ethelbert, 115 Explorers, 158-170 Ferdinand and Isabella, 195, 198, 210, 218 Feudalism, 153 Florida, 261-265 Fort Caroline, 262, 265 Forum, Roman, 91, 92 France, rival of Spain, 257-265 French explorers, 229-232 Frobisher, Sir Martin, 275, 284 Gaul, 79-84 Genoa, 174, 190, 195 Germans, 83; successors of Ro- mans, 102-111 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 284-287 Gilds, 151, 152 Gladiators, 93 Good Hope, Cape, 186, 187 "GordianKnot," 62 Greece, 19-30, 76 Greeks, 18-30; as writers, 30-43; as builders and artists, 44-50; as athletes, 48, 49; life and character, 50-57; civilization, 58; colonies, 58, 59, 100, 111 Gregory the Great, 114 Grenada, 196, 198 Grenville, Sir Richard, 289, 290 Gunpowder, 166 " Hanging Gardens," 9, 10 Hannibal, 72-77 Harold, King, 135, 136 Hawkins, Sir John, 253, 256, 275, 284 Hebrews, 13, 14 Helen of Troy, 30 Hellespont, 12, 24 Hengist and Horsa, 110, 113, 115, 124 Henry, Patrick, 40 Henry the Navigator, 183-186, 190 Henry II, 140, 150, 159 Henry VII, of England, 249 INDEX 307 Henry III, 146, 147 Hermann, 105 HoUand, 266-270 Holy Land, 162-170 Homer, 31-35, 51 Huguenots, 260-262 Huns, 106-108, 162 Iliad, 32-35 Indians, 205, 206, 230 Jamestown, 282, 292 Jerusalem, 166, 169 John, King, 143-146 Jutes, 110, 113, 115, 124, 131 Karnak, Temple of, 7 Knights, 156, 157 Lane, Ralph, 289 Lebanon Mountains, 11 Leonidas, 25 "Lost Colony," 290-293 Luther, Martin, 267 MageUan, 225-228, 254 Magna Charta, 144, 146 Mandeville, Sir John, 175 Marathon, battle of, 22, 23 Marco Polo, 172-176 Mariner's Compass, 11 Mary, Queen of Scots, 273, 274 Mediterranean Sea, 11 Menelaus, 30 Menendez, 262-265 Mexico, conquest of, 234-241 Middle Ages, 149-157 Monasteries, 117 Montezuma, 235, 236, 240 Montreal, 230 Moors, 196, 198 Nebuchadnezzar, 9 Nero, 97, 98 " New World," 1,2 Nile River, 4, 8 Norman Conquest, 135 Normans, 138-142 Northmen, 131-133, 176 Odoacer, 110, 119 Odyssey, 32-35 " Old World," 1,2 Otis, James, 40 Oxford, 113, 150 Palestine, 14 Panama, 224 Pantheon, the, 92 Parliament, 148 Parthenon, the, 45, 46, 48 Paul, the Apostle, 96 Peloponnesian War, 38 Pentelicus, 45 Pericles, 35, 53-55, 90 Persian Wars, 21-28, 37, 51, 62 Persians, 12, 15-17, 22-26 Peter the Hermit, 163-165 Phidias, 46-48, 57 Philip the Second, of Spain, 267- 274 Philip of Macedon, 40, 41 Philippines, 226 Phoenicians, 11, 12, 19, 26 Picts, 109 Miltiades, 22 Mississippi River, discovery of, 241 Pilgrims, 158-170 Moeris, lake, 5 Plataea, 28, 52 308 INDEX Plato, 53 Spaniards, 187, 234-245, 246, 253, Polyphemus, 32, 33 260, 274-281 Ponce de Leon, 246 Spanish Missions, 244 Pope's Line, the, 210, 211, 247, Sparta, see Spartans 248, 260, 283 Spartans, 21, 25, 26, 38 Port Royal, 261, 262 Susa, 16 Portuguese, 181-186, 216, 217, 219 Pyramids, 5, 6 Thermopylae, battle of, 24, 25 Thucydides, 38 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 250-252, 284- Toscanelli, 192, 193, 197, 219 290 Tournament, the, 155 Rameses, 1, 2 Troy, 30, 32 Revival of learning, 179, 180 Turks, 162-170 Ribot, 261, 262 Tyrians, 60-64 Richard the Lion-hearted, 140- 142, 167 Ulysses, 32 Roanoke Colony, 289-291 Universities, 150 Romans, 67-87 Rubicon, 88 Venice, 172-175 Runnymede, 113 Vercingetorix, 80, 82 Verrazzano, 229 St. Augustine, 113, 114-117, 262, Vikings, 131, 132 264 Village, the, 152 St. Lawrence River, 229 Virginia, 282, 293 St. Thomas of Canterbury, 159, 160 Waldseemuller, Martin, 1, 223 Salamis, battle of, 26-28, 52 Walter the Penniless, 165 Sardis, 16 Wedmore, battle of, 126 Scots, 109 White, John, 290, 292 "Sea of Darkness," 181, 182 William of Orange, 268-270 Senlac, battle of, 137 William the Conqueror, 135-139 "Seven Cities," 246 William II, of England, 139, 140 Sidney, Sir Philip, 272, 273 Witan, 131 Simon de Montfort, 147, 148 Socrates, 52 Xerxes, 24, 25, 26, 28 Solomon's Temple, 12, 13 Solon, 56, 57 Zeus, 49 Sophocles, 35 Zutphen, battle of, 272 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Elementary American History and Government For Seventh and Eighth Years By JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN, Professor of American History and Politics in Indiana University, and THOMAS FRANCIS MORAN, Professor of History and Economics in Purdue University. 568 pp. $1.20. State Supplements: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin, each 20 cents. Others in preparation. NEW ANGLE OF VISION While the facts of history remain unchanged, the angle of vision has been altered and the emphasis shifted by recent developments. The American Revolution and the War of 1812 are now looked upon in new light. The Monroe Doctrine, the Farewell Address, and the Proclamation of Neutrality have new significance. International affairs have a vital and practical interest for us. The ideals of our De- mocracy mean more than ever before. This book tells the story of our national development from the new point of view. CITIZENSHIP Instruction in the fundamental principles of American citizenship is given. The book contains all the general civics necessary for grammar grades. SOCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND LITERARY ' HISTORY Particular emphasis is placed upon the history of our social and industrial progress. The opening and develop- ment of the West is interestingly told. There are several chapters dealing with American Literature. TEACHING HELPS Questions at the end of each chapter emphasize im- portant points and stimulate thought on the part of the pupil. References are short, to books which young pupils can comprehend and find interest in. Pronouncing lists are supplied after each chapter. There is a topical outline and a useful appendix of documents and statistics. LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., PUBLISHERS FOURTH AVENTJE AND SOra STREET, NEW YORK FEATUKES OF THE HOKACE MANN READERS The Horace Mann Readers are highly organized words being developed into independent yet mutually related parts; different stories being related to other stories; the vocabulary of one lesson being related to the vocabulary of the lessons preceding and the lessons following; a system of phonics complete in itself and yet organically related to the reading matter. The principle of self-activity is carefully developed. The action rhymes given impress the children and give variety to the reading lesson. But since reading isn't all poetry, all other phases of sound methods of teaching are employed. Especial attention is called to the system of phonics developed. It is rational and wonderfully effective. The Theory of Multiple Sense Appeal is carefully applied. Every avenue of approach has been taken the eye, the hand, the ear all are used to make the appeal broader and more interesting. No sound psychological precept has been omitted. The Horace Mann Readers have successfully combined all the approved methods of teaching reading. The material is new and varied. The books contain clear and vivid images, whole situations and self activity, which appeals to the child. They also afford the teacher every possible suggestion and convenience in respect to method. Daily Lesson Plans, the teacher's manual for the first and second years' work, gives minute directions for each day's lesson. LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO., PUBLISHERS FOURTH AVENUE AND THIRTIETH ST., NEW YORK GATE TO ENGLISH By WILL D. HOWE PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, INDIANA UNIVERSITY ZELLA O'HAIR INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH, SHORTRIDGE HIGH SCHOOL, INDIANAPOLIS AND MYRON T. PRITCHARD MASTER, EVERETT SCHOOL, BOSTON Book I (4th, 5th, and 6th Years.) Illustrated. 56 cents. Book II (6th, 7th, and 8th Years.) Illustrated. 76 cents. A working knowledge of what is good and what is bad in English plus the habit of discriminating: that is what pupils may be ex pected to get from their study of Gate to English. The course is planned to train them in the essentials of the language and to in- terest them vitally in their use of it in speaking and in writing. NOTABLE FEATURES Every lesson is related to the life of the child. Each important subject is emphasized in treatment by being presented from different angles, as the need arises. The work in letter-writing, dramatization, and book-making affords practice in forms of composition much enjoyed by pupils, because these forms are especially adapted to self-expression. Valuable training is given in the making of outlines for com- positions. Variety in composition is given by introducing appropriate stories, poems, pictures, letter-writing, story-telling, and dramati- zation. Facsimiles of pupils' themes, with the teacher's corrections in red ink, provide an excellent medium by which pupil and teacher come to understand more readily what each wishes. There is not much that is new about English grammar, but there is something decidedly new about the presentation of the subject in Gate to English. OPINIONS " The basic principle of the authors, Habit in speech, first, last, and always, commends itself fully to all who deal with instruction." Mr. W. S. Montgomery, Supervising Principal, Washington, D. C. "They are full of action and should appeal to all progressive teachers of grammar and composition." Mr. G. A. Schmidt, Prin- cipal, Department of Rural Education, State Normal School, White- water, Wis. " They embody many of the advanced theories for teaching Eng- lish and yet are conservative enough to suit people who want tech- nical grammar taught in the lower grades." Miss Ella M. Wilson, Training Teacher, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO., PUBLISHERS ALEXANDER'S NEW SPELLING BOOK BY GEORGIA ALEXANDER Supervising Principal of Public Schools, Indianapolis The former edition, which was used with unvarying success, has been entirely rebuilt to meet the most modern and approved ideas of vocabulary and methods of teaching. It is now published as follows: GRADES 3, 4: . . 28 cents GRADES 5, 6: 30 cents GRADES 3, 4, and 5: 34 cents GRADES 7, 8, and Advanced: 40 cents GRADES 6, 7, and 8: 36 cents GRADES 3-8 44 cents This speller teaches spelling through interest. There is constant variety in the presentation of new words and in drill, and to further insure inter- est, the lessons have been purposely made short and the words and lessons very carefully graded. The deadening effect of approaching the spelling lesson each day in the same way is avoided by sometimes introducing the words to be learned in connection with the quotations from standard authors and model letters from celebrated men and women; sometimes in connection with elliptical exercises from classic fables and proverbs and not infrequently through the study of a picture. VOCABULARY AND ARRANGEMENT The common words of everyday usage alone are taught. These are purposely distributed so that^ each word invites to fresh attack and is therefore remembered as an individual. They are not arranged in the sin, win, gin, ace, mace, lace fashion. Homonyms are brought together in review lists, or after they have been learned separately. Column words are so arranged that the words brought together present an associated meaning or relation which readily lends itself to the formation of easy original sentences. Daily incentive is also given the child to increase his own vocabulary by exercises in the use of the dictionary, word study, word building, word analysis, and etymology. CONTENT BEFORE FORM There is a thought basis for each lesson, so that the meaning of a word is developed before the child is required to learn the letters. After inter- est in a word has been aroused, the child's mind is concentrated upon the peculiarity of its spelling and appealed to through all possible avenues the eye, the ear, and the hand. The image formed is thus so strong that it becomes individual, even personal. As a final test, the child is required to use his spelling words in original work. MEASURING SCALE IN SPELLING In the edition containing Grades 3-8 is a Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres of the Russell Sage Foundation. This consists of lists of words with the per cent of correct spellings to be expected among the children of different grades. The teacher can thus locate a child's spelling ability in terms of grades. LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., PUBLISHERS FOURTH AVENUE AND 30TH STREET, NEW YORK SOm-7,'29 YB 25058 442776 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY