THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS WRITING ^ILLUMINATING & LETTERING University of California Berkeley Purchased from THE NORMAN H. STROUSE FUND for the Art & History of the Book ^^^ THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY WRITING & ILLUMINATING, AND LETTERING iHP -lfe Frontispiece. A SCRIPTORIUM This drawing (about tivo-Jifths of the linear size of the original^ is made from a photograph of a miniature painted in an old MS. (written in 1456 at the Hague by Jean Mielot, Secretary to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy}, now in the Paris National Library (MS. Fonds frangais 9,198). // depicts Jean Mielot himself, 'writing his col- lection of Miracles of Our Lady in French. His parchment appears to be held steady by a 'weight and also by (? the knife or Jiller in) his left hand com- pare fig. 4 1 in this book. Above there is a sort of reading desk, holding MSS. for copying or reference. WRITING & ILLUMIN- ATING,& LETTERING BY EDWARD JOHNSTON. WITH DIAGRAMS & ILLUSTRATIONS BYTHEAUTHOR&NOELROOKE 8 pp. EXAMPLES IN RED & BLACK AND 24pp. OF COLLOTYPES THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK JOHN HOGG LONDON EDITOR'S PREFACE IN issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks Editor's on the Artistic Crafts, it will be well to state what Preface are our general aims. In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of workshop practice, from the points of view of experts who have critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting aside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to treat design itself as an essential part of good work- manship. During the last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an academic kind, were little considered, and there was a tendency to look on " design " as a mere matter of appearance. Such " ornamentation " as there was was usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a draw- ing provided by an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in production. With the critical attention given to the crafts by vii Editor's Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seen that it was Preface impossible to detach design from craft in this way, and that, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable element of good quality, involving as it does the selection of good and suitable material, contrivance for special purpose, expert workman- ship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere ornament, and indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought that is, from design inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into affectation. Proper ornamention may be defined as a language addressed to the eye ; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool. In the third place, we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of academic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a very few per cent, can fairly hope to suc- ceed as painters and sculptors ; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of success. In the blending of handwork and thought in viii such arts as we propose to deal with, happy careers Editor's may be found as far removed from the dreary Preface routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncer- tainty of academic art. It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts : there are more than enough of us " in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship. Of all the Arts, writing, perhaps, shows most clearly the formative force of the instruments used. In the analysis which Mr. Johnston gives us in this volume, nearly all seems to be explained by the two factors, utility and masterly use of tools. No one has ever invented a form of script, and herein lies the wonderful interest of the subject ; the forms used have always formed themselves by a continuous process of development. The curious assemblages of wedge-shaped in- dentations which make up Assyrian writing are a direct outcome of the clay cake, and the stylus used to imprint little marks on it. The forms of Chinese characters, it is evident, were made by quickly representing with a brush earlier pictorial signs. The Roman characters, which are our letters to-day, although their earlier forms have only come down to us cut in stone, must have been formed by incessant practice with a flat, stiff ix Editor's brush, or some such tool. The disposition of the Preface thicks and thins, and the exact shape of the curves, must have been settled by an instrument used rapidly ; I suppose, indeed, that most of the great monumental inscriptions were designed in situ by a master writer, and only cut in by the mason, the cutting being merely a fixing, as it were, of the writing, and the cut inscriptions must always have been intended to be completed by painting. The " Rustic letters " found in stone inscriptions of the fourth century are still more obviously cursive, and in the Catacombs some painted inscriptions of this kind remain which perfectly show that they were rapidly written. The ordi- nary " lower case " type with which this page is printed is, in its turn, a simplified cursive form of the Capital letters. The Italic is a still more swiftly written hand, and comes near to the standard for ordinary handwriting. All fine monumental inscriptions and types are but forms of writing modified according to the materials to which they are applied. The Italian type-founders of the fifteenth century sought out fine examples of old writing as models, and for their capitals studied the monumental Roman inscriptions. Roman letters were first introduced into English inscriptions by Italian artists. Torrigiano, on the tombs he made for x Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey and for Dr. Young at the Rolls Chapel, designed probably the most beautiful inscriptions of this kind to be found in England. This volume is remarkable for the way in which its subject seems to be developed inevitably. There is here no collection of all sorts of lettering, some sensible and many eccentric, for us to choose from, but we are shown the essentials of form and spacing, and the way is opened out to all who will devote practice to it to form an individual style by imperceptible variations from a fine standard. Writing is for us the most universal of the Arts, and most craftsmen have to deal with lettering of a more formal kind. It is a commonplace of his- torical criticism to point out how much the Italian artists owed to the general practice amongst them of goldsmith's work, a craft which required accuracy and delicacy of hand. We cannot go back to that, but we do need a basis of training in a demon- strably useful art, and I doubt if any is so generally fitted for the purpose of educating the hand, the eye, and the mind as this one of WRITING. W. R. LETHABY. October 1906. XI " We must set up the strong present tense against all the rumours of wrath, past or to come. So many things are unsettled which it is of the first importance to settle, and, pending their settlement, ive will do as we do. . . . Expe- diency of literature, reason of literature, lawfulness of 'writing down a thought, is questioned; much is to say on both sides, and, 'while the fight 'waxes hot, thou, dearest scholar, stick to thy foolish task, add a line every hour, and between whiles add a line. Right to hold land, right of property is disputed, and the conventions convene, and before the vote is taken, dig away in your garden, and spend your earnings as a waif or god- send to all serene and beautiful purposes. Life itself is a bubble and a scepticism, and a sleep within a sleep. Grant it, and as much more as they will, but thou, God's darling/ heed thy private dream : thou wilt not be missed in the scorning and scepticism: there are enough of them: stay there in thy closet, and toil, until the rest are agreed 'what to do about it. Thy sickness, they say, and thy puny habit, require that thou do this or avoid that, but know that thy life is a flitting state, a tent for a night, and do thou, sick or well, finish that stint. Thou art sick, but shalt not be worse, and the universe, which holds thee dear, shall be the better." EMERSON. " / began to think that if I should discover how to make enamels, I could make earthen vessels and other things very prettily, because God had gifted me 'with some know/edge of drawing. And thereafter, regardless of the fact that I had no knowledge of drugs, I began to seek for the enamels as a man gropes in the dark." PALISSY. " . . . in that communion only, beholding beauty with the eye of the mind, he will be enabled to bring forth, not images of beauty, but realities (for he has hold not of an image but of a reality}, and bringing forth and nourishing true virtue to become the friend of God and be immortal, if mortal man may" PLATO. xii AUTHOR'S PREFACE THE arts of WRITING, ILLUMINATING, & LETTERING offer a wide field for the ingenious and careful craftsman and open the way to a number of delightful occupations. Be- yond their many uses some of which are referred to below they have a very great educational value. This has long been recognized in the teaching of elementary design, and the practice of designing Alphabets and Inscriptions is now common in most Schools of Art. Much would be gained by substituting, generally, WRITING for designing, because writing being the medium by which nearly all our letters have been evolved from the Roman Capital (see p. 35), the use of the pen essentially a letter-making tool gives a practical insight into the construction of letters attainable in no other way. The most important use of letters is in the making of books, and the founda- tions of typography and book decoration may be mastered as they were laid by the planning, writing, and illuminating of MSS. in book form. Of this a modern printer (see also p. 368) says : " In the making of the Written Book, the adjustment of letter to letter, of word to word, of picture to text and of text to picture, and of the whole to the subject matter and to the page, admits of great nicety and perfection. The type is fluid, and the letters and words, picture, text, and page are conceived of as one and are all executed by one hand, or by several hands all working together without intermediation on one identical page and xiii Author's Preface WRITING Author's with a view to one identical effect. In the Printed Book Preface tn ^ 8 adjustment is more difficult Yet in the making of the printed book, as in the making of the written book, this adjustment is essential, and should be specially borne in mind, and Calligraphy and im- mediate decoration by hand and the unity which should be inseparably associated therewith would serve as an admirable discipline to that end." And though calligraphy is a means to many ends, a fine MS. has a beauty of its own that if two arts may be compared surpasses that of the finest printing. This in itself would justify the transcrib- ing and preservation of much good literature in this beautiful form (besides the preparation of " Illumi- nated Addresses," Service Books, Heraldic and other MSS.) and make the practice of formal writing desirable. And furthermore as the old-fashioned notion that a legible hand is a mark of bad breeding dies out, it may be that our current handwriting will take legibility and beauty from such practice. And even the strict utilitarian could not fail to value the benefits that might some day come to men, if children learnt to appreciate beauty of form in their letters and in their writing the beauty of carefulness. ILLUMI- Of the practice of ILLUMINATING properly NATING associated with writing it may be observed that, among various ways of acquiring a knowledge of the elements of design & decoration it is one of the most simple and complete. Moreover, a fine illumination or miniature has a beauty of its own that may surpass the finest printed book-decoration. And pictures in books may be as desirable as pic- tures on the wall even though like the beautiful household gods of the Japanese they are kept in safe hiding and displayed only now and then, xiv Magnificent as are the dreams of a fine Decora- tion based on lettering, the innumerable practical applications of LETTERING itself (see Chap. XVI.) make the study of Letter-Craft not only desirable but imperative. And perhaps I may here be per- mitted to quote from The Athenaum of Feb. 3, 1906, which says of "the new school of scribes and designers of inscriptions " " These have attacked the problem of applied de- sign in one of its simplest and most universal applications, and they have already done a great deal to establish a standard by which we shall be bound to revise all printed and written lettering. If once the principles they have established could gain currency, what a load of ugliness would be lifted from modern civilization ! If once the names of streets and houses, and, let us hope, even the announcements of advertisers, were executed in beautifully designed and well-spaced letters, the eye would become so accustomed to good proportion in these simple and obvious things that it would insist on a similar gratifica- tion in more complex and difficult matters." Yet Ordinary Writing and even scribbling has had, and still might have, a good influence on the art of the Letter maker, and at least the common use of pen, ink, & paper makes it a simple matter for any one to essay a formal or ' book ' hand. A broad nib cut to give clean thick and thin strokes (without appreciable variation of pressure) will teach any one who cares to learn, very clearly and certainly. And though much practice goes to the making of a perfect MS., it is easier than people suppose to make really beautiful things by taking a little pains. As " copy book " hands simple, primi- tive pen-forms such as the Uncial & Half-Uncial (pp. 38, 70) afford the best training and permit xv Author's Preface LETTER- ING Author's the cultivation of the freedom which is essential Preface in writing : they prepare the way for the mastery of the most practical characters the ROMAN CAPITAL, roman small-letter, & Italic and the ultimate development of a lively and personal penmanship. MODERN Developing, or rather redeveloping, an art in- DEVELOP- volves the tracing in one's own experience of a process ME NT OF resembling its past development. And it is by such WRITING a course that we, who wish to revive Writing & & Illuminating, may renew them, evolving new ILLUMI- methods and traditions for ourselves, till at length NATING we attain a modern and beautiful technique. And if we would be more than amateurs, we must study and practise the making of beautiful THINGS and thereby gain experience of Tools, Materials, and Methods. For it is certain that we must teach ourselves how to make beautiful things, and must have some notion of the aim and bent of our work, of what we seek and what we do. Early illuminated MSS. and printed books with woodcuts (or good facsimiles) may be studied with advantage by the would-be Illuminator, and he should if possible learn to draw from hedgerows and from country gardens. In his practice he should begin as a scribe making MS. books and then decorating them with simple pen & colour work. We may pass most naturally from writing to the decoration of writing, by the making and placing of initial letters. For in seeking first a fine effectiveness we may put readableness before " looks " and, generally, make a text to read smoothly, broken only by its natural division into paragraphs, chap- ters, and the like. But these divisions, suggesting that a pause in reading is desirable, suggest also that xvi a mark is required as in music indicating the Author's " rest " : this a large capital does most effectively. Preface A technical division of illumination into Colour- work^ Pen - worky and Draughtsmanship is con- venient (see Chap. XL). Though these are properly combined in practice, it is suggested that, at first, it will be helpful to think of their effects as distinct so that we may attain quite definitely some mastery of pure, bright, colours & simple colour effects, of pen flourishing and ornament, and of drawing whether plain or coloured, that will go decoratively with writing or printing. This distinction makes it easier to devise definite schemes of illumination that will be within our power to carry out at any stage of our development. And while the penman inevitably gains some power of pen decoration it is well for him as an illuminator to practise in bright colours and gold ; for illumination may be as brilliant and splendid in its own way as stained glass, enamels, and jewellery are in theirs. 1 At first, at any rate, hues that have the least suspicion of being dull or weak are to be avoided as though they were plainly " muddy " or " washed-out." The more definite we make our work the more definitely will our materials instruct us ; and such service must precede mastery. Referring again to good LETTERING : the MODERN second part of this book deals with some of its DEVELOP- Qua/ities, Forms the Roman Capitals & their im- MENT OF portant pen-derivatives and Uses. It is written LETTERING 1 See Chap. XVI. Of Colour " in " Stained Glass Work " by C. W. Whall, in this Series, and the illuminator might profit by the suggestion (ibid., p. 232) of playing with a home- made kaleidoscope. xvii B Author's largely from the penman's point of view, 1 but a Preface chapter on inscriptions in stone has been added and various types and modes of letter making are dis- cussed. The essential qualities of Lettering are legibility, beauty, and character, and these are to be found in numberless inscriptions and writings of the last two thousand years. But since the tradi- tions of the early scribes and printers and carvers have decayed, we have become so used to inferior forms and arrangements that we hardly realize how poor the bulk of modern lettering really is. In the recent " revival " of printing and book decoration, many attempts have been made to design fine alphabets and beautiful books in a number of cases with notable success. But the study of Palaeography and Typography has hitherto been confined to a few specialists, and these at- tempts to make " decorative " books often shew a vagueness of intention, which weakens their in- terest and an ignorance of Letter-craft which makes the poorest, ordinary printing seem pleasant by comparison. The development of Letters was a purely natural process in the course of which dis- tinct and characteristic types were evolved and some knowledge of how these came into being will help us in understanding their anatomy and dis- tinguishing good and bad forms. A comparatively little study of old manuscripts and inscriptions will make clear much of the beauty and method of the early work. And we may accustom ourselves to good lettering by carefully studying such examples as we can find, and acquire a practical knowledge 1 Dealing with the practical and theoretical knowledge of letter-making and arrangement which may be gained most effectually by the use of the pen. xviii of it by copying from them with a pen or chisel or Author's other letter-making tool. A conscientious endea- Preface vour to make our lettering readable, and models 1 and methods chosen to that end, will keep our work straight : and after all the problem before us is fairly simple To make good letters and to arrange them well. To make good letters is not necessarily to " design " them they have been designed long ago but it is to take the best letters we can find, and to acquire them and make them our own. To arrange letters well requires no great art, but it requires a practical knowledge of letter-forms and of the rational methods of grouping these forms to suit every circumstance. Generally this book has been planned as a sort of THE SCOPE " guide " to models and methods for Letter-crafts- OF THIS men and Students more particularly for those who HANDBOOK cannot see the actual processes of Writing, Illumi- nating, &c. carried out, and who may not have access to collections of MSS. Much of, if not all, the explanation is of the most obvious, but that, I hope, gives it more nearly the value of a practical demonstration. In describing methods and pro- cesses I have generally used the present tense saying that they " are " : this is to be taken as meaning that they are so in early MSS. and in- scriptions, and in the practice of the modern school of scribes who found their work on them. Regarding the copying of early work (see pp. 195, 323, &c.) it is contended that to revive an art 1 In making choice of a model we seek an essentially legible character, remembering that our personal view of legibility is apt to favour custom and use unduly, for a quite bad, familiar writing may seem to us more readable than one that is far clearer in itself but unfamiliar. xix Author's one must begin at the beginning, and that, in an Preface honest attempt to achieve a simple end, one may lawfully follow a method 1 without imitating a style. We have an excellent precedent in the Italian scribes who went back 300 years for a model and gave us the Roman small-letter as a result (see p. 47). The beginners attitude is largely, and neces- sarily, imitative, and at this time we should have much to hope from a school of Artist-Beginners who would make good construction the only novelty in their work. We have almost as much or as little to be afraid of in Originality as in imitation, and our best attitude towards this pro- blem is that of the Irishman with a difficulty " to look it boldly in the face and pass on " making an honest attempt to achieve a simple end. Perhaps we trouble too much about what we " ought to do " & " do " : it is of greater moment to know what we are doing & trying to do. In so far as tradition fails to bound or guide us we must think for ourselves and in practice make methods and rules for our- selves : endeavouring that our work should be effec- tive rather than have "a fine effect " or he, rather than appear, good and following our craft rather than making it follow us. For all things mate- rials, tools, methods are waiting to serve us and 1 Much remains to be found out and done in the matter of improving tools & materials & processes, and it would be preferable that the rediscovery of simple, old methods should precede new & complex inventions. We still find the Quill for its substance & for shaping it and keeping it sharp is a better tool than a modern gold or metal pen (see p. 60). The old parchment, paper, ink, gilding-size & colours are all much better than those now obtainable (see pp. 51, 167, 173, 178- 179). I should greatly appreciate any advice from illuminators and letter-craftsmen as to materials and methods, and should endeavour to make such information available to others. . J. XX we have only to find the " spell " that will set the Author's whole universe a-making for us. Preface Endeavouring to attain this freedom we may make Rules and Methods serve us (see p. 22 1), knowing that Rules are only Guides and that Methods are suggested by the work itself: from first to last our necessary equipment consists in good models, good tools, & a good will. Within the limits of our craft we cannot have too much freedom ; for too much fitting & planning makes the work lifeless, and it is conceivable that in the finest work the Rules are concealed, and that, for example, a MS. might be most beautiful without ruled lines and methodical arrangement (see p. 343). But the more clearly we realize our limita- tions the more practical our work. And it is rather as a stimulus to definite thought not as an embodiment of hard and fast rules that various methodical plans & tables of comparison & analysis are given in this book. It is well to recognize at once, the fact that mere taking to pieces, or analys- ing, followed by " putting together," is only a means of becoming acquainted with the mechan- ism of construction, and will not reproduce the original beauty of a thing : it is an education for work, but all work which is honest and straight- forward has a beauty and freshness of its own. The commercial prospects of the student of Writing & Illuminating or, indeed, of any Art or Craft are somewhat problematical, depending largely on his efficiency & opportunities. There is a fairly steady demand for Illuminated Addresses ; but the independent craftsman would have to establish himself by useful practice, and by seizing opportuni- ties, and by doing his work well. Only an attempt xxi Author'g to do practical work will raise practical problems, Preface and therefore useful practice is the making of real or definite things. In the special conditions attaching to work which the craftsman is commissioned to do for another person, there is a great advantage. And the beginner by setting himself specific tasks (for example : making a MS. book for a specific pur- pose see p. 100) should give reality to his work. As a craftsman in Lettering he might get work in some of the directions mentioned in pp. 337-341. Although the demand for good work is at present limited, the production of good work will inevit- ably create a demand ; and, finally, the value of Quality is always recognized sooner or later, but inevitably and whatever "practical" reasons we may hear urged in favour of Quantity, the value of Quality is gaining recognition every day in com- merce and even in art, and there or here, sooner or later we shall know that we can afford the best. EDWARD JOHNSTON. October 1906. My thanks are due to Mr. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, to Mr. Emery Walker, and to Mr. George Allen for quotations : to Mr. Graily Hewitt, to Mr. Douglas Cockerell, to Mr. A. E. R. Gill, to Mr. C. M. Firth, and to Mr. G. Loumyer, for special contributions on gilding, binding, and inscription-cutting : to Mr. S. C. Cockerell for several of the plates : to Mr. W. H. Cowlishaw, to the Rev. Dr. T. K. Abbott, to Dr. F. S. Kenyon of the New Palajographical Society, to the Vicar of Holy Trinity Church, Hastings, to the Secretary of the Board of Education, S. Kensington, to Mr. H. Yates-Thompson, to Mr. G. H. Powell, and to others, for permission to reproduce photographs, &c. : and to Mr. Noel Rooke and G. J. H. for assistance with the illustrations and many other matters : I should like, moreover, to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. W. R. Lethaby and Mr. S. C. Cockerell for encouragement and advice in years past. E. J. xxii ADDENDA & CORRIGENDA P. 51. Beginners practising large writing may Addenda & more easily use a thin, or diluted, ink ; in Corrigenda small writing this does not show up the faults with sufficient clearness. P. 59. Quills often have a sort of skin (which tends to make a ragged nib), this should be scraped off the back. P. 63. Until the simple pen-stroke forms are mastered, the pen should be used with- out appreciable pressure. With practice one gains sleight of hand (pp. 85, 311), and slightly changing pressures & quick movements on to the corners, or points, of the nib are used. The forms in the best MSS. shew such variations ; e.g. the Uncials in fig. 5 appear to have been made with varying pressure (perhaps with a soft reed) & their fine finishing- strokes with the nib-point (comp. forms in fig. 146). Versah likewise shew vary- ing, and sometimes uncertain, structures that suggest a form consisting of strokes other than definite pen strokes. xxiii I 1 IGS. a to , illustrating Addenda & Corrigenda. P. 64. A nib may be sharpened several times, before Addenda & it is re-cut, by paring it underneath (fig. a). Corrigenda Pp. 73 & 8 1. The thin finishing-strokes of j, & >. F, G, J, N, are made with the point of the nib see note p. 63 above. P. 99. The plan of a paper scale is shewn in fig. b. P. 109. The dots for lines were often pricked through the edges of the book-sheets which were cut off after ruling (fig. c). P. 1 1 8. The spread or wedge-shaped thin stroke, sometimes very strongly marked, is common in early forms (fig. d). P. 144. "ff & 1$ : better (pen) forms of these are shewn in fig. e. P. 208. Ornamental Letter forms may consist of flourishes, patterns, leaves, flowers, &c. (see fig./). Pp. 215-217. Diapering generally means the variegation, figuring, or flowering, of a plain or patterned surface, with a finer pattern (see fig. 191^). Some diagrams of simple patterns (g-g 2 from modern cantagalli ware) are shewn in fig. g. Note : the more solid penwork line- fillings in figs. 87, 126, make effective framing borders (see fig. h). Pp. 219-220. Note : the principle of breaking straight or long lines, mentioned in regard to background edges (p. 190), and illustrated in the line-finishings (fig. 126) and flourishes (fig. 79), is related to branching out and is re-creative, whereas the prolonged line is tiresome (see figs. , k\ & comp. P). P. 249. The B & D should be round-shouldered see note p. 280 below. XXV Addenda & P. 260. It is sometimes better to make narrow forms Corrigenda thantocombinewideones examplefig./. I The large types " Old Face" (founded on Caslon Type) and "Old French" (modern) respectively are used in these pages as refer- ence or index letters (not as models). P. 280. Generally round-shouldered letters have finer and more stable forms than square- shouldered, and generally emphasis should be laid on the strong^ thick stroke running obliquely down from left to right (\), while the weak, thin stroke (/) is rather to be avoided (see fig. m). The writing used in the diagrams in this book, considered as a formal hand, shews a little too much of the thin stroke (see p. 485). P. 324. Commonly letters are made more slender in proportion as they are made larger, and it is generally not desirable (or possible) in practical work to have exactly similar proportions in large and small lettering. P. 325. g from fig. 173 inaccurate comp. fig. 173 & see fig. n. P. 331. Ornamental letters see note p. 208 above. P. 481. A small writing is often the most practical in the matter of speed in reading and less bulk in the MS., besides speed in the writing of it but it is more difficult for the beginner to write it well and it is apt to lose some of the virtues of formal penmanship (see Fine-pen writing PP- 59> 86 > 3 IJ > 324> 482). P. 485. Oblique thin stroke see note p. 280 above. xxvi CONTENTS PAGE Contents EDITOR'S PREFACE . ; vii AUTHOR'S PREFACE . ^ . xiii ADDENDA & CORRIGENDA .%.. xxiii PART I WRITING & ILLUMINATING CHAPTER I THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING . . . 35 CHAPTER II ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (l) TOOLS Acquiring a Formal Hand : Tools, &c. The Desk Paper & InkPens: The Reed: The Quill Of Quills generally Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c. . . 48 xxvii Contents CHAPTER III ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : (2) METHODS 'AGK Position of the Desk The Writing Level Use of the Pen Holding the Pen Filling the Pen, &c. . . 61 CHAPTER IV ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : (3) MODELS Models Notes on Construction : Script I. Coupling the Letters Spacing : Letters, Words, & Lines Uncial Capitals: Script II. Numerals & Punctua- tion Marks Of Copying MSS. Generally ... 70 CHAPTER V ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE Practice Scripts I. & II. Arranging & Ruling a Single Sheet Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) Spacing & Planning Manuscript 85 CHAPTER VI MANUSCRIPT BOOKS MS. Books : Tools & Materials Methods & Propor- tions The Size & Shape of the Book The Widths of the Margins The Size of the Writing, &c. Ruling MS. Books : General Remarks . . 98 xxviii CHAPTER VII Contents VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS PAGE Development of Versals General Analysis of Versals Notes on Construction of Versals Spacing & Ar- rangement of Versals 112 CHAPTER VIII BLACK & RED Rubricating Initial Pages or Title Pages Prefaces & Notes in Colour Pages with Coloured Headings Page or Column Heading & Initial Versals in Column or Marginal Bands Stanzas or Verses marked by Versals Music with Red Staves Tail-Pieces, Colophons, &c. Rubricating : General Remarks 127 CHAPTER IX LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD Tools & Materials Laying the Ground Laying the Gold-Leaf Burnishing the Gold Remedying Faults in Gilding Gold Writing Other Methods & Re- cipes for Gilding Appendix on Gilding (by Graily Hewitt) 145 CHAPTER X THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL LETTERS & SIMPLE ILLUMINATION Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination Parchment, "Vellum," & Pounce Colours Simple Colour Effects Matt Gold Burnished Gold Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines Background Capitals Applying the Background Ornament of Back- grounds 172 xxix Contents CHAPTER XI A THEORY OF ILLUMINATION- PAGE Illumination " Barbaric, or Colour-Work, Illumination" " Filigree, or Pen- Work, Illumination " "Natural, or Limner's, Illumination" . . . 193 CHAPTER XII THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION The Development of Illumination Line-Finishings Initial Letters Borders & Backgrounds . . . 204 CHAPTER XIII "DESIGN" IN ILLUMINATION " Design " Elementary Patterns in Decoration Scale & Scope of Decoration Of "Designing" Manu- scripts, Generally . . . .... 214 PART II LETTERING CHAPTER XIV GOOD LETTERING SOME METHODS OF CON- STRUCTION & ARRANGEMENT Good Models The Qualities of Good Lettering Sim- plicity Distinctiveness Proportion Beauty of Form Beauty of Uniformity Right Arrangement Set- ting Out & Fitting In " Massed Writing" & " Fine Writing "Even Spacing Theory & Practice . . 237 xxx CHAPTER XV Contents THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES PAGE The Roman Alphabet Proportions of Letters : Widths Upper & Lower Parts Essential or Structural Forms Characterisation of Forms Built-Up Forms Simple- Written Capitals Uncials Capitals & Small- Letters Early, Round, Upright, Formal Hands Slanted-Pen Small-Letters Roman Small-Letters Italics Semi-Formal Hands Of Formal Writing Generally Decorative Contrasts Ornamental Letters .... , 268 APPENDIX A CHAPTER XVI SPECIAL SUBJECTS Divers Uses of Lettering MS. Books, &c. Binding MSS (with Note by Doiiglas Cockerel!) Broadsides, Wall Inscriptions, &c. Illuminated Addresses, &c. Monograms & Devices Title Pages Lettering for Reproduction Printing Inscriptions on Metal, Stone, Wood, &c. Of Inscriptions Generally Bibliography, &c 337 xxxi Contents APPENDIX B CHAPTER XVII INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE (By A. E. R. Gill) PAGE Treatment & Arrangement The Three Alphabets Size & Spacing The Material Setting Out Tools A Right Use of the Chisel Incised Letters & Letters in Relief The Sections of Letters Work- ing in situ 389 NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES . . . 407 THE COLLOTYPE PLATES 431 INDEX 489 xxxu PART I WRITING & ILLUMINATING *s ROMAN CAPITALS III ROMAN CAPITALS ;<> I -^ -pen (& &ru$A)| tM-d* JIK ft I r * 'L -m Ar yen rn ctlp rr unaoils | Small aothtc l^romans srnaU'italicf Ornamental V 34 FIG. i. PART I WRITING & ILLUMINATING CHAPTER I THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING NEARLY every type of letter with which we are familiar is derived from the Roman Capitals, and has come to us through the medium, or been modified by the influence, of the pen. And, therefore, in trying to revive good Lettering, we cannot do better than make a practical study of the best pen-forms, and learn at the same time to appreciate the forms of their magnificent arche- types as preserved in the monumental Roman inscriptions. The development and the relations of the prin- cipal types of letters are briefly set out in the accompanying "family tree" fig. I. When the student has learnt to cut and handle a pen, he can trace this development practically by trying to copy a few words from each example given below. 35 The Develop- ment of Writing The THE ROMAN ALPHABET. The Alpha- Develop- bet, as we know it, begins with the ROMAN ment of CAPITALS 1 (see fig. 2). Their fine monumental Writing forms were evolved by the use of the chisel FIG. 2. probably under the influence of writing and had reached full development about 2000 years ago (see Plates I., II., and Chapter XV.). FORMAL WRITING the "book-hand" or professional writing of the scribes comes of the careful writing of the Roman Capitals (see also footnote, p. 38, on the beginnings of fine penman- ship). It was the "literary hand, used in the production of exactly written MSS., and therefore a hand of comparatively limited use. By its side, and of course of far more extensive and general use, was the cursive hand of the time" 2 1 "The alphabet which we use at the present day has been traced back, in all its essential forms, to the ancient hieratic writing of Egypt of about the twenty-fifth century before Christ. It is directly derived from the Roman alphabet ; the Roman, from a local form of the Greek ; the Greek, from the Phoenician ; the Phanician, from the Egyptian hieratic. . . . We may without exaggeration . . . carry back the invention of Egyptian writing to six or seven thousand years before Christ." Sir Ed-ward Maunde Thompson, " Greek and Latin Palxo- graphy," pp. 1-2. * Ibid., p. 196. 36 In early cursive writing the running-hand or ordinary writing of the people " The Letters are nothing more than the old Roman letters written with speed, and thus undergoing certain modifications in their forms, which eventually developed into the minuscule hand" l (See fig. 3.) R? Caps. Cumve Writirur I. to V CtKt? MinuJ'- cu/< * A E H f X / 9555 H- h h h h aaa a e FIG. 3. Here it is sufficient to trace the history of the formal Latin " hands," but the continual, modifying influence exerted on them by the ordinary cursive writing should be borne in mind. Notable results of this influence are seen in Half- Uncials and Italics. SQUARE CAPITALS were formal, pen-made Roman Capitals, of the monumental type : they were used (perhaps from the second] till about the i "G. & L. Palaeography," p. 204. (Minuscules = "small letters." Half-Uncials are sometimes distinguished as "round minus- cules" p. 302.) 37 The Develop- ment of Writing The end of the fifth century for important books (see Develop- Plate III.). ment of RUSTIC CAPITALS were probably a variety Writing o f the " Square Capitals," and were in use till about the end of the fifth century (fig. 4 ; see also p. 297). 5CA1AUAUJIOV150. DLJCVUVNIAUIAD AiNLUAVAGNAdV FIG. 4. ^Eneid, on vellum, third or fourth century. ROMAN UNCIALS were fully developed by the fourth century, and were used from the fifth till the eighth century for the finest books (fig. 5). Uncials are true pen-forms 1 more quickly written than the "Square," and clearer than the " Rustic " Capitals having the characteristic, simple strokes and beautiful, rounded shapes which flow from the rightly handled reed or quill. The i It is possible that their forms were influenced by the use of the brush in painting up public notices and the like. The introduction of the use of vellum a perfect writing material in the making of books, led to such a great advance in the formality and finish of the book-hands (especially of the Uncial character) that, practically, it may be said to mark the be- ginning of penmanship as a " fine " art. This change may be assigned to any time between the first and the third centuries (palaeographical dates before the fifth century must generally be regarded as approximate). 38 The Develop- ment of Writing JUSTJTt JUSTVFJCA CUSTO FIG. 5. Psalter, fifth century. 39 The typical Uncial letters are the round D, E, H, M, U Develop- (or V), and A and Q (see p. 300). ment of ' ROMAN HALF-UNCIALS or Semi-Uncials Writing (fig. 6) were mixed Uncial and Cursive forms adopted by the scribes for ease and quickness in writing. Their evolution marks the formal change from Capitals to " Small-Letters" quir UIP i cnxb eiM^i etc u Lifrrt p ofu eiMJ i-rcr. M o M i FIG. 6. S. Augustine : probably French sixth century. They were first used as a book-hand for the less important books about the beginning of the sixth century. IRISH HALF-UNQIALS were founded on the Roman Half-Uncials (probably brought to Ire- land by Roman missionaries in the sixth century). As a beautiful writing, they attained in the seventh century a degree of perfection since unrivalled (see Plate VI.). They developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a " pointed " writing, which became the Irish national hand. ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS (fig. 7) were modelled on the Irish Half -Uncials in the seventh 40 century. They also developed in the eighth and The ninth centuries into a " pointed " writing. Develop- ment of lUdOSCOUOTOD Writing FIG. 7. Durham Book " : Lindisfarne, about A.D. 700. (See also Plate VII.) CAROLINE (or CARL07INGIAN) WRIT- ING. While English and Irish writing thus came from Roman Half-Uncial, the Continental hands were much influenced by the rougher Roman Cursive, and were, till near the end of the eighth century, comparatively poor. " The period of Charlemagne is an epoch in the history of the handwritings of Western Europe. With the revival of learning naturally came a reform of the writing in which the works of literature were to be made known. A decree of the year 789 called for the revision of church books; and this work naturally brought with it a great activity in the writing schools of the chief monastic centres of France. And in none was there greater activity than at Tours, where, under the rule of Alcuin of York, who was abbot of St. Martin's from 796 to 804, was specially developed the exact hand which has received the name of the Caroline Minuscule." 1 " Greek and Latin Palseography," p. 233. 41 The Derclop- mcnt of Writing ** J p d IG. 8. British Museum : Harl. MS. 2790. Caroline MS. first halfofgtti century. (See also fig. 171 & p. 305.) The influence of the Caroline hands (see fig. 8) presently spread throughout Europe. The letters in our modern copy-books may be regarded as their direct, though degenerate, descendants. SLANTED-PEN or TILTED WRITING. The forms of the letters in early writing indicate an easily held pen slanted away from the right shoulder. The slanted pen naturally produced oblique thick strokes and thin strokes, and the letters were " tilted " (see fig. 9). In the highly finished hands used from the sixth to the eighth centuries such as the later Uncials and the Roman, Irish, and English Half- Uncials, the pen was manipulated or cut so that the thin strokes were approximately horizontal, and the thick strokes vertical (fig. 10). The earlier and easier practice came into fashion again in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the round Irish and English hands became "pointed" as a result of slanting the pen. The alteration in widths and directions of pen strokes, due to the use of the " slanted pen," had these effects on the half-uncial forms (see fig. n) : 1. The thin strokes taking an oblique (upward) direction (a) (giving a sharp angle with the ver- ticals (d, a)) led to angularity and narrower forms (a 1 ), and a marked contrast between thick and thin strokes due to the abrupt change from one to the other (# 2 ). 2. The thick strokes becoming oblique (b) caused a thickening of the curves below on the left (b l ), and above on the right (b z ), which gave heavy shoulders and feet. 3. The horizontal strokes becoming thicker (c) gave stronger and less elegant forms. 43 The Develop- ment of Writing The Develop- ment of Writing HVST1C UMOAl en planted otno- o strokes Stilted" O Utters. FIG. 9. romaM pen civifNT" Jiorirontal thin Stroked, vertical thicks FIG. 10. upright Utter5. 44 4- The vertical strokes becoming thinner (d) (with The oblique or pointed ends not square ended) in- Develop- creased the tendency to narrow letters. ment of Writing a narrow forms. L AX ^^/ Sudden cKano! thuk -fe *HTii : rtcavy i feet (b.) thick qtiaiam FIG. ii. It is to be noted that the Caroline letters though written with a "slanted pen" kept the open, round appearance of the earlier forms. 45 The TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH Develop- CENTURT WRITING. The easy use of the ment of slanted pen, and the lateral compression of the Writing letters which naturally followed, resulted in a valu- able economy of time and space in the making of books. This lateral compression is strongly marked in the tenth century (see fig. 12), and in the rcdno^Komfuin drio .' FIG. 12. Psalter: English tenth century. (See also Plate VIII.) eleventh and twelfth centuries it caused curves to give place to angles, and writing to become " Gothic " in character (see Plate XL). THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND FIFTEENTH CENTURT WRITING. The tendency to compression continued, and a further economy of space was effected in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the general use of much smaller writing (see fig. 13). In the fifteenth century writing grew larger and taller again, but the letters had steadily become nar- 46 rower, more angular, and stiffer, till the written The page consisted of rows of perpendicular thick strokes Develop- with heads and feet connected by oblique hair-lines ment of which often look as if they had been dashed in Writing after with a fine pen all made with an almost mechanical precision (see Plate XVII.). qucmuoamir Haomfcs tt-bflrttfm mnt cautd t6 ufyotfftbttn MtUKMttttDtttSttL FIG. ^.Colophon of English MS., dated 1254. ITALIAN WRITING. In Italy alone the roundness of the earlier hands was preserved, and though in course of time the letters were affected by the "Gothic" tendency, they never lost the curved forms or acquired the extreme angularity which is seen in the writings of Northern Europe (compare Plates X. and XL). At the time of the Renaissance the Italian scribes remodelled their " hands " on the beautiful Italian writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (see Plates X. and XVIIL, XIX., XX.). The early Italian printers followed after the scribes and modelled their types on these round clear letters. And thus the fifteenth century Italian formal writing became the foundation of the " Roman " small letters, which have superseded all others for the printing of books. 47 The ITALICS. The Roman Letters, together with Develop- the cursive hand of the time, gave rise to " Italic " ment of letters (see fig. i, & pp. 311, 316, 483). Writing ORNAMENTAL LETTERS originated in the simple written forms, which were developed for special purposes, and were made larger or written in colour (see VERSALS, &c., figs, i, 189). Their first object was to mark important words, or the beginnings of verses, chapters, or books. As Initial Letters they were much modified and embellished, and so gave rise to the art of Illumina- tion (see pp. 113, 114). CHAPTER II ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (i) TOOLS Acquiring a Formal Hand : Tools, &c. The Desk Paper & Ink Pens : The Reed: The Quill Of Quills generally Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c. ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : TOOLS, &C. Acquiring THE simplest way of learning how to make a Formal letters is to acquire a fine formal hand. To this Hand : end a legible and beautiful writing (see p. 70) (i) Tools should be chosen, and be carefully copied with a properly cut pen. For learning to write, the following tools and materials are required : Desk. Writing-paper. Ink and^//oard raised: >en depressed Acquiring of the desk is about 50 or 60. It gives complete a Formal control of the ink in Hand : ^. .^-ssss*""" the Den, which (2) Methods noniiAi (.*) pen, wnicn can be made to run faster or slower by slightly elevating or depress- ing the shaft (fig. 45). The writing- board may be slightly lowered or raised with the object of elevating or depressing the pen shaft (fig. 46 & p. 1 1 8). The pen makes a con- siderable angle with the writing surface, so that the ink, which is held in the hollow of the nib, comes in contact with the paper at the very extremity of the nib, making very fine strokes (a, fig. 47). The spring is ad- justed carefully, the tip being approximately -fa inch from the tip of the nib. The nearer the spring is to the end of the nib, the faster the ink flows. The loop must be kept flattish in order to hold the ink well (see fig. 35). FIG. 46. FIG. 47. 68 FILLING THE PEN, &C. Acquiring It is convenient to stand the ink, &c., beside the Hand desk on the left, and for this purpose a little cup- / 2 \ Methods shaped bracket or clip may be attached to the edge of the writing-board. The filling-brush stands in the ink-bottle (p. 51) or pot of colour (p. 176), and is taken up in the left hand ; the pen, retained in the right hand, being brought over to the left to be filled. The back of the nib is kept dry (a, fig. 48). A Ink } 35) : Letters round or angular : upright or sloping : coupled or separate :: 2. THIN STROKES: horizontal or ob- lique (see figs. 10, 9): 3. THICK STROKES: heary, medium, or light (see fig. 183): 4. "HEADS" & "FEET": character (see fig. 145): 5. STEMS (ascending short, medium, or fcJ* descending): l n g (see fig. 183): 6. SPACING (Letters, close or wide (see Words, fig. 154): Lines) : 7. ARRANGEMENT: in mass (of equal lines), or in column (of un- equal lines) (see fi g. '54): 8. MEASUREMENTS width of thick (\3 proportions see stroke (see p. 83): pp. 324, 327) : height of o and d (see pp. 82, 84) : writing lines, dis- tance apart (see p. 8i): 9. COMPONENT number and forms PARTS: (see pp. 75, 81, 84): 72 EXAMPLE: Analysis of Script I. (as in fig. 50). Modernised Half- Uncial. Double lines (tee fg>< 59. 65). round. upright. coupled. horizontal. medium. solid, triangular, Is'c. medium. fairly close (see figs. 54, 55)- in mass o equal lines (see Jig. 66). I = about s" -wide. d= ;; {\"Mgh\ Lines l" apart. a has 3 strok s. b i, 3 f M 2 ,. and so on (see Jig. 51). NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION SCRIPT I. The pen generally is held so as to give approxi- mately horizontal thin strokes (see p. 66), but in making v (w, y) and x, parts of z, &c., it is "slanted." In figs. 51 and 57 these forms are marked with a small diagonal cross X (see also p. 25). Most of the strokes begin as down-strokes, but at the end of a down-stroke, when the ink is flowing freely, the stroke may be continued in an upward direction (as in coupling-strokes , &c., the feet of letters, the thin stroke of x, and, if preferred, in making the last stroke of g", s, and y). While the ink is still wet in a down-stroke, the nib may be replaced on it and be pushed w^ward and outward to form the round arch in b, h, m, n, p, and r. This stroke, reversed, is also used for the top of t. The making of these UP-strokes is shown diagrammatically in fig. 51. NOTE. The forms -foinx in fig. 51 contain all the principal strokes in this alphabet, and are therefore useful for early practice. Acquiring a Formal Hand: (3) Models COUPLING THE LETTERS The letters are joined together by means of their coupling-strokes, which for this purpose may be slightly drawn out, and forward, from the naturally round forms of the letters (see c, e, &c., fig. 52 & fig. 59). The coupling-strokes are finishing strokes and as such are akin to serifs (p. 244) growing out of or added to such stems as need "finishing." Coupling enables one to write faster and with 73 Acquiring a Formal Hand: (3) Models hjuklrriri oporstn VUJXLJZ& FIG. 50. 74 minx ortnal po5iricm(S* fa l#"' p 6 ^ m.& n. + normal CLce.ni UP FIG. 51. 75 liring more freedom, the concluding or " coupling " stroke a Formal Hand: (3) Models T rvrrl **Ki 1*1 rv^^-n ft.ati) Iff. E * ......... J oul fr* front. mnprvwxy anwtiiur- thus& , ri#ht.rt. * i specol SF rr COUPLING OF LETTERS forreftxnce TTl^V 4 ^f QlW^^MA %;:f!^Ut /^ ^ ^* v^ Acquiring a Formal Hand: (3) Models Grouping : Uncials have no coupling-strokes ; when several are used together, they are not joined, but evenly grouped, allowing as before for curves and straight strokes (see p. 77). Spacing : (a) When used with Script /., Uncials are written on the same lines, and have to follow the same spacing (in spite of their longer stems), (b) When Uncials are used by themselves, their spacing maybe wider (p. 297). NOTE. The height of Uncial o is about equal to the height of the Half- Uncial d. NUMERALS & PUNCTUATION MARKS (See fig. 57.) These are best made with a " slanted " pen (fig. 9). When writing " Arabic numerals," I and may be made on the tine, 2468 ascending, and 3579 de- scending. OF COPYING MSS. GENERALLY When copying a MS. it is best to choose a complete page or part of a page to be copied in facsimile. Two or three lines are copied to begin with ; then the composition of the individual letters and words is studied by means of a large pen ; a'nd finally the whole page is copied in facsimile. (Of practising, see pp. 85, 86). Make a general examination and analysis as suggested at p. 71. Accurate measurements will be found helpful. Take the heights of the o and the d, and the distance apart of the writing-lines with dividers 82 The width of the thick stroke is best found by making experimental thick strokes the fu// width of the pen nib on a scrap of paper : cut the paper in half across the thick strokes, and place the cut edge on the thickest strokes in the original MS., you will then find whether the pen nib should be cut wider or narrower. The direction of the thickest strokes is approxi- mately at right angles to the direction of the thin strokes ; which commonly approaches the horizontal in early round hands, and is oblique in other hands (see figs. 9 and 10). The positions both of these strokes in the model, and of your pen, determine the angle of the nib. Therefore, cut the nib across at such an angle to the shaft of the pen that, when you hold the pen naturally, the direction of the thin strokes which it makes on the writing paper will coincide with the direc- tion of the thin strokes in the model ; but (a) The way in which the shaft is held, (b) The angle at which the nib is cut, (c) The position of the writing paper, may all be slightly varied, so that the direction of the thin strokes can be followed exactly (see p. 66). The writing paper is cut and ruled exactly in accordance with the model ; and the heights of the letters and the widths of the thick strokes in the copy agree as nearly as possible with those in the original. It is therefore a good test for accuracy when a few lines of writing have been copied to measure and compare their lengths. If they corre- spond with their originals, it goes far to prove the copy a good one. Before copying more of the page, the construc- tion of the letters should be carefully studied. The number and the forms of pen-strokes in each letter 83 Acquiring a Formal Hand: (3) Models Acquiring a Formal Hand : (3) Models are found by examination with a magnifying glass if necessary and by the experimental putting to- gether of strokes, to form a similar letter. For this a large pen, such as a reed, is useful, and it is a good plan to write individual letters and words exactly two, three, or four times their height in the model : both the pen nib and the individual letters are made correspondingly two, three, or four times as wide as in the original. It is particularly important, in copying, to pre- serve accurately the proportion of the thick stroke to the height and width of a letter (see p. 324). These are conveniently measured by the pen nib itself, or by the estimated width of the thick stroke ; thus, in the writing shown in fig. 50, the width of the o is approximately five y and the height approximately four, times the width of the thick stroke. Not only must the copier ascertain what the forms are like and what are their proportions, but he must try to find out how they were made. This is of the greatest importance, for the manner of making a letter, or even a single stroke, affects its form and character with a definite tendency (see p. 416 & fig. 172). And this becomes more marked the faster the writing. An apparently right form may yet be wrongly if slowly made ; but in rapid writing, a wrong manner of handling the pen will inevitably produce wrong forms. As the real virtue of penmanship is attained only when we can write quickly, it is well worth training the hand from the beginning in the proper manner. Patient and careful examination should be made of the changing pen-strokes, and of the mode in which they join to form letters and begin and end to form " heads " and " feet." This, accompanied by practical experiments in cutting and handling the pen, will bring out details of the utmost technical value. A certain amount of legitimate " faking " (p. 246), play of the pen, and sleight of hand (p. 311), may be found, but, in the main, the regular, natural, thick and thin strokes of the pen, and the orderly arrangement of the writing, give to a manuscript its beauty and character. Then having cut the nib rightly, you may, in a sense, let the pen do the writing^ while you merely follow the strokes of the model, and you will, in course of time, have the pleasure of seeing the same beautiful writing in the very manner of the ancient scribes growing under your own hand. Acquiring a Formal Hand: (3) Models CHAPTER V ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE Practice Scripts I. & II. Arranging & Ruling a Single Sheet Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) Spacing & Planning Manuscript. PRACTICE IN acquiring a formal writing the penman should Acquiring have two paper books constantly in hand : one for a Formal the study of the forms of letters, the other for both Hand : the letters and their arrangement. The first should (4) Practice contain large and very carefully made writing with perhaps only one word to the line ; the second 85 Acquiring should have smaller and quicker writing, neatly a Formal arranged on the pages, with four or five words to Hand : the line. (See MS. Books, Chap. VI.) (4) Practice A broad nib is used in preference to a narrow one, so that the characteristics of true pen-work are brought out and the faults made clear. A fine, light handwriting is often very pretty, but it is certain to mislead the novice in penmanship (see P- 324); Having acquired a formal hand the penman may modify and alter it, taking care that the changes are compatible, and that they do not impair its legibility or beauty. Such letters as are obsolete he replaces by legible forms akin to them in feeling, and, the style of the selected type becoming very naturally and almost unconsciously modified by personal use, he at length attains an appropriate and modern Formal-Handwriting. The process of " forming " a hand requires time and practice : it resembles the passage of " Copy-book " into " Run- ning " hand, familiar to us all (see p. 323). SCRIPTS I. & II. ^L^p %^ M Having cut ^^^ the nib of FIG. 58. reed or large quill to the exact width required for the thick stroke, copy the component strokes of the letter (X (Script I.), and 86 immediately make the complete letter : go through Acquiring a Formal A P"P>\ Hand : f I \ (4) Practice z I CT the whole alphabet in this way several times (fig. 58). Next join the letters together (see p. 73) Acquiring to form words writing always between ruled lines a Formal (fig. 59 & p. 414). Hand : Script II. is similarly practised : the letters are (4) Practice g rou ped (p. 82) to form words (fig. 60). Next make a neat page of large writing, and, if possible, write such a page every day. The more definite and methodical practice is, the better. "Practising" anyhow^ on scraps of paper, does more harm than good. TO the ratkmoL anijrnaL the same art Is axxrnrding' to nature andL ac to reason FIG. 61. ARRANGING & RULING A SINGLE SHEET The size of an inscription is commonly settled before the arrangement of the text is planned out, being determined by considerations of its future position and office, or by custom and use (see pp. 100-103 & 351). 88 The proportions of the writing, spacing, and Acquiring margins will likewise properly settle themselves (see a Formal pp. 265, 103, 107), but where the size of the sheet Hand: only is fixed, we have, broadly speaking, to decide (4) Practice between " large " writing with " small " margins (fig. 61), and "small" writing with "large" margins (fig. 62). TO tke rational onirnxiL the same act (0 ajxording to nature ancL according-"" to reasoiv-M. AntEmiruis. FIG. 62. Generally a compromise is arrived at and the proportions are more evenly balanced (fig. 63). Ruling (see also pp. 258, 99). The mode of ruling marginal lines and writing lines is shown in fig. 65. The ruling should be light, but firm and accurate. A fine pen, or hard pencil, or a blunt point may be used. Where the writing lines are double (as for round hands, p. 304), it is best to have a double ruling point (see fig. 77). Two hard pencils firmly Acquiring lashed together make a convenient tool for large a Formal work : the distance between the [points is easily Hand: adjusted by means of aismall wedge. (4) Practice TO tKeTrcti0naL animal the same act is according-^ tx> nature and cue- coixliruh to reason. FIG. 63. PROBLEM I. (A SHEET OF PROSE) To write out the Pater noster (50 words) in a formal round-hand (arranged in " mass " of equal lines) on a sheet of "foolscap" (i.e. 17 inches high and 13 J inches wide). If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, a few words are written out in a script chosen to suit the subject, the space, &c., and these are measured to find the area which the whole text so written would occupy (fig. 64). The size of the script is then modified, if necessary, to suit the available area. 90 Acquiring a Formal Hand: (4) Practice These f. *s high & 131 inches wufe.(&p) uied wim thirteen ^double) lines -J"" cUstxmce between 92 FIG. 65. Pater noster, quL es in_Ja rf tv H : scarictijicetiir narn; rajnumj I Acquiring Formal Practice o r-. i . hint vo in-coelo et in. tenxL . r panem. nostnirn ouotLdi-j iaiuinrL da nobis hodjue-^J jGt dimilte nobis debitn, 1 iTiostrcL.sicut etTiosdinulj 1 * timuus ddbilzmbiiB nostrlq ne nos iiudiucas intEnLi . SecL liLera HD9; amalD. A CD 6 N FIG. 66. 93 Acquiring Frequently it is desirable first to determine the a Formal sizes of the margins. These depend on various Hand : considerations of the position and office of the MS., (4) Practice but more particularly on the size of the sheet and the character of its future environment l (see p. 35 1). The top and side margins may be of equal width or the top may be a little less (see #, fig. 70). Ample space should be allowed for the foot margin, which is generally about twice the width of the top, but may vary in different cases, according as the text falls short of or encroaches upon it (see pp. 352, 342). For a plain foolscap sheet : sides (each) 2j inches, top (approx.) 2 inches, and foot (approx.) 4 inches, may be taken as suitable margins (fig. 65). The width of the sheet (13^ inches) less the two side margins (2j inches each) gives the length of the writing lines (13^ 5 = 8-^ inches). One or two such lines are written experimentally in a suitable script (say, T 5 -g- inch), and the average number of words per line (four) is found. The number of words in the complete text (fifty) will determine the number of lines : an extra line or so may be allowed for safety (^=12^, say, thirteen). The spacing of these is calculated -^ in. writing requires about in. (close) spacing (p. 79) : Thirteen lines at in. gives nf in. =depth of text : I if in. from 17 in. leaves 5f in. 2 for head and foot margins and if the space is not sufficient, the writing is made a little smaller. If, on the other hand, the 1 For example, a framed sheet does not require such wide margins as a similar sheet w/zframed. 2 Really about 6 inches, because the top line of writing will not occupy its full |- inch, the unused part of which adds to the top margin (see fig. 65). 94 marginal depth left over were excessive, the writing Acquiring might be made a little larger in order to fill up the a Formal space. Hand : (4) Practice PROBLEM II. (A SHEET OF POETRY) To write out " He that is down, needs fear no fall" in a formal round-hand on a sheet of foolscap (i.e. I y inches high X 13 J inches wide). Here there are three verses of four lines each : these with two space lines, left between the verses, give a total of fourteen lines (fig. 67). A poem has a given number of lines of various lengths, and only very strong reason or necessity can justify our altering its proper form (e.g. by breaking up the lines) in order to make a mass of equal lines. Such theoretical margins as are pos- sible in the treatment of prose can therefore seldom be observed in writing out a poem, and, unless the height or the width of the sheet can be altered, there is apt to be an excess of margin in one or the other direction. When such excess margin is obviously unavoidable, no objection can be made to its appear- ance. Poetry may conveniently be treated as "fine writing" (see p. 263). If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, several of the longer lines (e.g. the first and the eleventh in the poem given) are written on a piece of paper in the size of writing preferred (say, J inch). By laying this paper on the given sheet, it is seen whether such lines would allow of sufficient side margins. (If they would not, the writing may be made smaller.) The height of the writing (J inch) must allow of the full number of lines (fourteen) being properly 95 Acquiring J-J e (j^Qj^ \Q douun, needs fear no He that is louu, no prixle : He that is humble, ever shalL Have Cjod tr> be his quide . lam canten^uiitK-Ujhcitl have, jLitde be it or rnujdi. : I crave "1 LarcL^ cantEntrnent stilL I Becaiise thoa savest suich.. to suudv cuburdLan ie , That ^o art pilijrinuige : re little, andL hereafter bliss , beet ifom axie to axje *j 96 FlG - 6 7- spaced on the sheet (17 inches) with sufficient head Acquiring and foot margins. This is calculated a Formal Hand: in. writing requires approximately f in. spacing (p. 79) : / \ p ract i ce Fourteen lines at in. gives 10^ in. = depth of text : lo in. from 17 in. leaves 6 in. for head and foot margins and if the space were not sufficient, the lines might be made a little closer, or the writing a little smaller (or, if necessary, the blank lines might be left out between the verses ; p. 123). The Sizes of the Margins. It will be seen that the above method is primarily for settling a length of line which will allow of sufficient side margins. The process can be reversed ; if necessary, the side margins are made of a given width, thus deter- mining the exact length of the line, the size of writing which this line allows being found experi- mentally. NOTE. The extra long lines may slightly en- croach on the right-hand margin : the effect of this is balanced by the falling short of other lines. SPACING & PLANNING MANUSCRIPT In penmanship great nicety of spacing and arrangement is possible. The ascending and de- scending strokes may be shortened or drawn out, the spaces between letters and words may be slightly increased or decreased, the lines may be written near or far apart, and the letters may be written with a broader or narrower nib. Elaborate spacing and planning, however, should not be attempted at first, and straightforward, undesigned work is often the best. The student is apt to waste time writing out an elaborate draft G 97 Acquiring in order to ascertain how to space the matter, a Formal This is a mistake, because if written well, it is a Hand : waste of good writing on a mere draft ; if written (4) Practice i\\ 9 it is bad practice. The briefer experiments and calculations are, the better, though the simplest problem always requires for its solution a calcula- tion or process of guess and trial (such as suggested in the preceding pages). Practice will make people very good guessers, and the best work of all is done when the worker guesses rightly, and follows his guesses with the actual work, itself the trial and proof of accuracy. CHAPTER VI MANUSCRIPT BOOKS 1 MS. Books: Tools & Materials Methods & Propor- tionsThe Size & Shape of the Book The Widths of the Margins The Size of the Writing, &c. Ruling MS. Books: General Remarks. MS. BOOKS : TOOLS & MATERIALS Manuscript The making of manuscript books, based on a study Books of the early MSS., offers the best training to the scribe and illuminator in writing, lettering, rubricat- ing, gilding, illuminating initials and borders, and miniature painting, and is the best means of mas- tering the foundations of Book Typography and Decoration. Materials, &c. for MS. Books ; Paper (see pp. 51, 103, ill, 317); Vellum and Parchment and Pounce 1 MS. Books are further considered in Chap. XVI. (see pp. no, 167, 173-5). Cut a small sheet the Manuscript size of a page of the book, and clip the long edge Books between two flat pieces of wood (holding it as it would be if bound). If the page will bend over and stay down by its own weight, it is thin enough (R) fig. 68) ; if it stands up (W), it is too stiff. R. FIG. 68. Cutting Sheets. A frame or template (the size of the sheet desired) is used by parchment makers. It is useful for cutting out the sheets for a common size of parchment book. They are cut on the end- grain of wood, or on card or glass. Folding. A Folder , as used by bookbinders (or a bone paper-knife), is useful, and also a Set or T-Square for testing right angles, &c. The fold and the top edge of each book-sheet are commonly squared by proper folding. Ruling, &c. (see p. 343). For marking distances of lines, a carefully prepared paper * scale or pattern (p. 25) and an awl (p. 109), or a "star-wheel" 1 The direct use of a thick wood or metal scale may lead to inaccuracy. 99 Manuscript having regular intervals between the spikes may Books be used. Or the ruling of the writing lines may be simplified by using a stout card frame (internally the size of the text-column) with strips glued across it : for a common size of book this might be made in stout tin or other metal. The lines are commonly ruled with a ruling stylus (see figs. 72, 77), or a sort of "rake" may be made to rule six lines at once. Meriting, Colouring^ Gilding, Binding (Chaps. II., X., IX., XVI.). METHODS & PROPORTIONS Having to make a manuscript book for a specific purpose, the scribe formulates in his mind a general plan of the work, and decides approximately the respective sizes of page and of writing which seem most suitable. He endeavours to fashion the book in accord with its use, and therefore allows the (most suitable) material, the subject-matter and the office of the book, and the way in which it will be read and handled, to determine as far as is possible the pro- . portions of its parts, and its treatment as a whole. Its material may be vellum, parchment, or paper, on which a variety of pens, brushes, and other tools, with inks, colours, and metal foils, may be employed. Its office may be " useful " or " ornamental " ; its contents may be long or short, weighty or light, and of greater or less worth ; it may be for public or for private use ; and the book may be intended to be placed on a lectern, to be held in the hand, or to be carried in a coat pocket. In following out such natural indications, the 100 practised craftsman relies greatly on his working Manuscript methods, preferring a direct mode of treatment to Books one which is too ingenious or subtle. In deciding a doubtful point, a common-sense of proportion is a sufficient guide, and one may generally assume that great works are best "writ large," and that large letters look best on an ample page, and vice versa. The main proportions which have to be con- sidered are interdependent, and follow one another in their natural order (see p. 256), thus 1 . The size and shape of the book. 2. The widths of the margins. 3. The size of the writing^ &c. And the methodical scribe makes his books of certain definite and regular sizes, each size having corresponding and regular proportions of margins and writing. Though these may greatly depend on individual taste and experience, it is suggested that like all good designs they should be allowed as far as possible to settle and arrange themselves. THE SIZE & SHAPE OF THE BOOK A book is thought of by the scribe chiefly as an open book, and the width and height of its pages are chosen with a view to its convenient shape and pleasant appearance when open. The most economical sizes into which a suitable sheet of paper can be folded (or a skin of parchment can be cut) may commonly be allowed to decide these proportions. When a printer is about to print a book he chooses a sheet of paper which will fold into a suitable shape and size. If the sheet be folded 101 Manuscript once to form two leaves, the book is called a folio Books (fig. 69) ; folded again to form a " section " of four folio folding Quarto folding Octavo a folio (section). Quarto section. Octavo setfum*. jvtio "vvaiuy' "ovtnno' FIG. 69. leaves a quarto (4*0) ; or folded a third time to form a section of eight leaves an octavo (Svo). 1 1 The two, four, eight (or more) pages are printed on both sides of the sheet before it is folded. Two or more sheets are generally folded and put together to form a folio "section," IQ2 The book is made up of a number of sections Manuscript sewn on to strings or tapes (see p. 347). Books The penman will find that, besides saving time and labour, it conduces to good work if he keep to certain regular sizes for "large," "medium," and " small " books ; and, if the ordinary sheets of paper which he uses will fold in convenient folio, quarto, and octavo sizes, it is well that he make these his standards for paper books. Paper being made in sheets of various dimen- sions, by folding a large or a small sheet, a "large " or " small " folio 4to, 8vo can be obtained. It may be noted that the length and the width of sheets of paper 1 are very commonly about as 9 is to 7. And therefore, when the sheet is folded for folio or octavo, the proportions are roughly about 7 : 4j, which are very good proportions for a page of a book. It is obvious that a narrow (" upright ") book is easier to handle and more pleasant in appear- ance (when open) than an album or "oblong" shape of book (b and c, fig. 70). THE WIDTHS OF THE MARGINS Margins are necessary in order to isolate and frame a text : thus they contribute to its legibility and beauty. It is better that they be wide rather than narrow (see p. 106, & NOTE, p. 265) ; but excessively wide margins are often neither convenient nor pleasing (see p. 222). The "page" or column of text should be in such proportion to the page of the book, and be placed on it in such a way as to leave adequate Such as Foolscap (I7"xi3i"), Crown (20" XI 5"), Demy " * 20"), &c. 103 Manuscript margins on every side. A narrow column of text Books is generally best, for short lines are easiest to write and to read, and do not tire the hand, or the eye, in passing from one line to the next. For this reason the text is often divided into two or more columns Sirt^fe Shtft (a) "UprMt'shaptof'Book (j>.) Inter prowrtum* of WIDE MARGINS fcc. Shop&f Book (c.> umn5:Sce also &?.2d2 O FIG. 70. when the page is wide, or the writing is very small in comparison. The exact proportion of margin to text in a given page depends on circumstances, and is largely a matter of taste (ex. fig. 7 1 & note 2, , p. 256). But just as it is advantageous generally to keep to certain 104 Inner margin inch. Top margin approximately inch (measured to the top of the -writing on the frst line see also Jig. 65). FIG. 71. Diagram showing the ruling of a (Recto') page 4} inches X 7$ inches as for a manuscript book (allowing five or six words to the Writing-line). There are fifteen Writing- lines, the Line-space being ^ inch. The proportions of large CAPITALS, shown above, are set by the Line-space (footnote, p. 221). The Foot margin is \\ inch. 105 Manuscript sizes of pages, it is well to keep to certain corre- Books spending sizes of margins for regular use. The proportions of the margins to each other follow a sort of tradition (see fig. 70), the foot margin (4) usually being twice as wide as that at the top (2), the side margins generally greater than the top and less than the foot. The two pages of an opening may be viewed as one sheet having two columns of text ; and the two inner margins, which combine to form an interspace, are therefore made narrow (about ij each), so that together they are about equal to one side margin (fig. 70). These propor- tions (\\ : 2 : 3 14) approximate to the proportions common in early MSS. Sufficient and proportional margins add greatly to the usefulness and beauty of a book. That the writers and illuminators used them when books were read and valued in a way we can scarcely realise now, shows that such things are not, as some might suppose, a matter of affectation. Be- sides the natural fitness of the common proportions commends them : a deep foot margin is a founda- tion to the whole, and gives a spare piece for the reader to hold, 1 and wide side margins rest the eyes and keep the text from " running off the page " at the end of each line ; and (the two) narrow inner margins combine to separate the pages sufficiently, but not too far, so that they form two " columns " together, framed by the outer margins of the open book. When books are meant to be bound, from T V inch to -J- inch extra margin should be allowed all round the page for the cutting down and binding. The 1 In Oriental books, which are sometimes held by their top margins, the top is deepest. 106 binding is apt to encroach on the inner margins, Manuscript especially in vellum books, which do not open Books fully; in order, therefore, that the inner margins may keep their proper width, an extra width of to | inch (according to the stiffness of the material) is allowed. THE SIZE OF THE WRITING, &C. The shape, size, and margins of the page (already settled) together determine the length of the writing- line (see fig. 71) ; and the size of the writing should be such as will allow a reasonable number of words to that line. 1 Eight or nine words to the line is a common proportion in ordinary printed books, and may be taken by the scribe as his ordinary maximum. Lines having very many words are difficult to read. On the other hand, lines of only two or three words each are generally tiresome, though they may be allowed in special cases of fine writing (see p. 262), where it is less necessary to economise space or time, and the effect of an even mass is not desired. But in any case where there is an attempt to make the right-hand edge of the text approxi- mately even, at least four or five words to the line are necessary ; the scribe may therefore take four words per line as his ordinary minimum. We may say generally, then, that an ordinary manuscript book should contain between four and eight words (or between 25 and 50 letter-spaces) to the line. 1 If the average number of words be previously fixed as in a poem (see p. 95) that will practically determine the size of the writing. I0 7 Manuscript The exact size of the writing allowed in a given Books case may be found by a process of guess and trial, but this is seldom necessary for the practical scribe who uses regular sizes for regular occasions. The line spacing. The size of the letter deter- mines approximately the distance apart of the writing-lines (see pp. 79, 327). Much depends on whether the ascending and descending letters are long or short (see fig. 154). The number of writing-lines to the page equals the number of times that the line-space is contained in the text-column (i.e. the height of the page less the top and foot margins) allowing for the top line not requiring a full space (see fig. 71). Any frac- tional space left over may be added to the foot margin, or, if nearly equal to one line-space, a little may be taken from the margins to complete it. The Large Capitals are commonly one, two, or more of the line-spaces in height (fig. 71, & p. 128). RULING Having folded and cut the large sheet of paper into small (book) sheets of the size determined on, take one of these as a pattern and rule it through- out as if it were to be used in the book. The ruling stylus has a blunt point, which in- dents the paper, but does not scratch it. A stout pin bent to a claw shape and held in a piece of FIG. 72. wood does very well (fig. 72). 108 Under the writing paper there should be a " pad " of ordinary paper (or blotting paper). The marginal lines are ruled from head to foot of each leaf (a, fig. 73). Besides being a guide for the writing, they give an appearance of straightness and strength to the written page. 1 Manuscript Books FIG. 73. The writing lines are ruled across, between the marginal lines, their places having been indicated by equidistant dots (b, fig. 73). A dozen or more of the small sheets of the book are piled together on a board with their top edges exactly coinciding, and the pattern sheet is accurately placed on the top of the pile. The pile of sheets may be fixed by a narrow piece of wood placed across and screwed down (fig. 74). (See Addenda, p. 25.) The writing line dots are FIG. 74- 1 They are often ruled double (see p. 343), and sometimes the top and foot lines are ruled from edge to edge of the sheet. Manuscript pricked through all the sheets by means of a fine Books FIG. 75. FIG. 76. awl or needle set in a wooden handle (fig. 75). The writing lines are ruled as in fig. 76 (sometimes across the narrow inner margins). For double writing lines a double-ruling stylus may be made of two pins fixed in a wooden handle at the exact width of the writing gauge (% 77). FIG. 77. MS. BOOKS GENERAL REMARKS Sections (p. 102). A section, or "gathering" com- monly consists of four book-sheets, folded in half into eight leaves (i.e. sixteen pages), but three or even two sheets are sufficient when they are extra thick, and five or six may be used when extra thin. Parchment sheets should have their smooth sides so placed together that each "opening" of the book has both its pages rough or both smooth and the pages are pounced after they are ruled (see p. 1 74). Before the writing is begun the pages of the section are numbered on the inner marginal line, no about | inch or so below the footline. This will Manuscript prevent mistakes. Books Fly-leaves. One or more leaves of the first and last sections in a book are left blank (besides the extra sheet or section (p. 346) which is used in the binding attached to the cover). A book of any size or importance ought to have at least three fly-leaves at the beginning, and three or four at the end. These extra leaves protect the manuscript, and, in a sense, constitute mar- gins for the whole body of the text. They may also be used to make thin books thicker, for the sake of the binding. At the end of Service books, or other books likely to be of per- manent interest, additional fly-leaves should be pro- vided for notes and annotations (see pp. 344, 346). Rough or Smooth Edges. The rough "Deckle" edges of hand-made paper are inconvenient in a book of any thickness, and should be trimmed off after folding, though they may be left in the case of very thin books. The deckle edge should not occur at the top of the page, as it would there be a trap for dust, and because it is important that the tops of pages should all be level. The top edge or head of a book is often cut and gilt in order to keep out the dust this is called "Library gilt." It is more suitable, however, that all the edges be gilt. The Top Margins throughout the book are kept quite level. Any irregularity at the top of a page catches the eye at once, while slight differences at the side, or considerable differences at the foot, may occur without spoiling the appearance of the margins. All measurements for marginal and writing lines, &c., are therefore made from the in Manuscript fold of the book-sheet and from the top edge, Books which is cut at right angles to the fold. Regular Writing. In writing one page it is a good plan to have its fellow page, or a similarly written one, fixed on the desk beside it as a pattern. This will save the beginner from a very common error writing larger or smaller (which of course spoils the look of the pages). Initial Page. The text of a book commonly begins on a recto, or right hand, page (see p. 365). CHAPTER VII VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS Development of Versals General Analysis of Versals Notes on Construction of Versals Spacing & Ar- rangement of Versals. DEVELOPMENT OF VERSALS Versal THE earliest books consisted of a number of lines Letters & of continuous writing in capital letters. There Coloured we re seldom any divisions of the text into para- Capitals graphs, chapters, or the like or even of one word from another ; nor were important words distin- guished by larger initials. The first division of paragraphs was made by a slight break in the text and a mark ; later, the first letter of the first com- plete line of the new paragraph was placed in the margin and written larger. When " small-letters " were evolved, capitals ceased to be used for the body of the text, and became distinguishing letters for headings and important words. 112 The capitals written at the beginnings of books, chapters, and paragraphs grew larger and more ornamental, and at length were made in colour and decorated with pen flourishes. Such letters, used to mark the beginnings of verses, paragraphs, &c., were called "Versals." 1 In modern printing and ordinary writing the first line of a paragraph is generally indented (a y fig. 78), Versal Letters & Coloured Capitals c* FIG. 78. but the earlier method of employing a special mark or letter (b or c) is more effective, and it might very well be used, even in modern printed books, for fine editions. Affording a legitimate opening for illumination and book-ornament, it was (and is) the natural method for the penman, who, starting with these useful capitals, by flourishing them in their 1 Though Versals may generally be regarded as paragraph marking letters, it is convenient to apply the term to the Versal type of letter e.g. "a heading in Versal letters " (see fig. 91). H 113 Versal Letters & Coloured Capitals tnanumielncgatu almfcdb initiator ctmtumcffe.rmw nitf amps nnuf < tnnttaCparetfingp tzmctnn.fiuo ouj^n own colour, or by dotting, outlining, or ornamenting them, with a contrasting colour (see fig. 79, from an old MS.), evolved the Illumi- nated Initial. Types of J^ersal Letters (examples : Plates IX., X., XI., XII., and figs. I, 78 to 94, 150, 161, 165, 1 66, 189). The earlier Versals had very simple and beautiful pen shapes, and are the best modelsforthemodern penman to follow. After the fourteenth century they were often fattened and vulgarised and over- done with ornament. In this way they not only lost their typical forms ; but their " essential forms " as letters derived from the Roman Alphabet became much dis- guised and confound- ed (see fig. 128). GENERAL ANALYSIS OF VERSALS i. THE LETTERS: Versal Letters & Coloured (Pen - made), Built - up, Orna- mental (coloured), "Gothic" ^r] Capitals (Round and Square Capitals forms). i. HORIZONTALS STRAIGHT: CURBED: Medium commonly the width of the nib. Thin the thin stroke of the pen. 3. PERPENDICULARS: Built-up, slightly curved in on either side. 4. SERIFS: Long, thin, slightly curved. 5. LONG STEMS: Various (see p. 1 19, & figs. 84, 90). 6. SPACING Letters & Words: Lines : 7. ARRANGEMENT: Various (see figs. 89, 92, 166). Usually one or more of the line spaces apart (see pp. 126, 128). Singly: set in text or margin, or part in both (fig. 86). Grouped: after large initials (fig. 92). In Lines : wide or close, often one word to the line (fig. 89). Stem width : commonly two or three widths-of-nib across thin- nest part (fig. 165). O height: commonly one, two, or more of the line-spaces. 9. COMPONENT PARTS : A has approx.io strokes & filling. BO 99 99 C 7 and so on (see fig. 81). 8. MEASUREMENTS: Versal Letters & Coloured Capitals MMNOPD ' ^> preferably coloured, may be used instead of (or even with) Versals (comp. fig. 95) ; (b) by one word or line (or several words or lines) of simple-written (or built-up) capitals in black or colour (see fig. 93) ; (c) by some suitable ornament (see fig. 87) ; (d) in many cases it is well to have spaces between the paragraphs or verses (see p. 138). Line - Finishings at the ends of Verses, &c. (pp. 205, 425), may be made with the Versal pens and colours. Versal Letters & Coloured Capitals I2 3 jVcrsal set in vcrsals are buxje :! say three Line = Spaces of more in height set pardy in toed bl are convcnei Versale in nutmn'. 'ftea used uhcn, me vocals are 9mall: uitxble for corn-: iruunercois capitals! c. 124 FIG. 86. tkeendofoneparairraph. THE NEXT PARACTAPH may be marked by a line of vvrtttcn capitate in black or colour(on or Or a band of suitibler-' (usually pen-nude) orn& merit ma be FIG. 87. TKs ddnta $icut ct nos dimif - nostris. 6t ne np5 i ducas in teatation- cm. SolUberano^a tt\3ilo. \ CO 6 FIG. 90. 131 Black PAGES WITH COLOURED HEADINGS Fig. 91 represents the first page of a chapter (or a book) with a Heading in red capitals. It is convenient in practice clearly to distinguish between the two modes of beginning (a) with an illuminated Initial-Prf^ (see fig. 89), or, (h) with an illuminated Heading (see fig. 91). The former may be treated as though it were a decoration to the whole book. The latter is in- tended more particularly to decorate its own page. The Heading should therefore be proportionate to the body of the text below it. About one-third Heading and two-thirds text make a good pro- portion. A " Heading " occupying half, or more than half, of the page is apt to look disproportionate, and it would be preferable to this to have a com- plete, or nearly complete, 1 Page of coloured capitals. NOTE (i). The full effect of black and red is obtained by an arrangement of the two colours in marked contrast. (2) The lines are used as a scale for the Head- ing, the red capitals and interspaces each being one line high. If a Heading so spaced appear too close to the first line of black writing, another line space may be left. (3) The round Es are used to fill out the second line, and the square, narrow E to relieve the crowded third line. (4) Other Colour Schemes. The entire heading, or the letters W, H, B, O, R, in burnished gold ; or the whole variegated (see p. 180). 1 An illuminated Page will allow of a few lines of black text at the foot (an arrangement very common in the elaborate Initial Pages of the fifteenth century), but these should be quite subordinate to the " Illumination." 132 WHO HATH OUR REPORT and to whom HxtK die arm of die Lord been revealed ? porKe qrew up before 1urrt as a tender aix>ot out of a clry itnnrt nor- comeliness; <3C wKcn we see Kim, tkerc is no beau^ ttat im. He was despise^ d op rricn; a inan of scrr- TOWS, & as one from wKommen Hide, tkcir face He was despised, \ve esteemed Kim rurtr: FIG. 91. Black &Red 133 Black PAGE OR COLUMN HEADING & INITIAL & Red Fig. 92 represents the first page of a book or chapter in two columns, beginning with a rather ornate Heading, in which the Initial is made the principal feature, and having coloured Versals and line-finishings throughout the text. It is more difficult to get a good effect in this way than by means of a marked colour contrast (see p. 144), or variegated colour, and gold (see Note 7). NOTE (i). The lines bounding the text would naturally be indented, or pale (not black as in the block), and ruled from head to foot of the page (see Note (2) on the next figure). (2) The red ornamental line-finishings (see p. 205) would be more effective if variegated. (3) The Versals in the text are made about a line high, but are dropped below the line (p. 122). (4) The Versals in the Heading are made one line high, with one-line spacing between O and D increased to two lines (partly filled by a flourish from the D), in order to fit the U, O, and D in evenly beside the Initial. (5) The Initial Q should project slightly up and out beyond the bounding lines to mark the top, left corner more strongly (see. footnote, p. 211). (6) All the rubricating on this page is done with the same pen (see pp. 205, 218). (7) Other Colour Schemes. QUOD FUIT AB INITIO," the filigree ornament and the V V in burnished gold (or the Q and VV in gold), the rest of the Versals and line-finishings in Red and Blue, or Red and Green, or Red, Blue, and Green (see pp. 181, 185). 134 O! AB fNTITlO, - + * '* * | OD AUDIVICDUS UOD VIDIMUS LlS J40STR1S HOSTKA6 COI" ct apparuit >UOD vulimuG crj JCtvunus, annuncix mus vobis, ur ct vos I Societitem hibeatis no cum^ ct socictxs ru>5 tni sit cum patre / et- ' cumpiUo CJU6J65U Thaxc nt ^oulcuxs, et| vcatnun sit XNMUMCIAT1O ovum aaxcUvvmus ib aruvancxraus Vtfci :,ct jtanutr ct ajiruuixurrui vttun aeternam; cr Sunt ulbie 1 duccrurius -miae Socctaitcm cunx co ct in. mcntimur^ ct y crvOt cm rum Black &Red FIG. 92. 135 Black VERSALS IN COLUMN OR MARGINAL BANDS Fig. 93 represents two columns of black text, consisting of short verses, &c., which are marked by coloured capitals forming bands of colour in the margins. NOTE (i). The coloured capitals in the figure are made rather larger than usual, to enforce the effect of the two lines of red and mark their con- trast with the columns of black text. In practice, however, they would be better and more distinct if rather smaller. (2) The lines bounding the text would natur- ally be faint, or grooved (p. 343) ; but, ruled from head to foot of the page, they would be suffi- ciently apparent to add materially to the general effect of orderly arrangement. (Lines are printed here to show clearly the way the two columns are ruled and to suggest this effect, though the process block necessarily gives a false impression in making them appear too short and too heavy). (3) Extra width between the columns (and also in the margin) may be allowed for the coloured capitals (compare fig. 92). (4) Words in simple written capitals are used to mark slight divisions, or changes of sense, in the text. (5) A stiff Versal of a rather " Roman " type is used, partly because of the number of the capitals (see p. 126). (6) Other Colour Schemes. The larger capitals might be in burnished gold, the rest in red (or in red, blue, and green) ; or all might be in red, blue, and green. 136 SURELY THER IS A MINE S I L V E PU And a place fcrgpli which they refine! Iron is taCen outr of the earth, And brass Is nvol t ten out of the stone Til' an settedian end And seardketh out to the furthest-" bound S pORTUEARTl- outof it cometh bread: nd underneath if; is turned up as it were by five . fhe stones thereof ' are the place of-' sapphires^ And tt hath dustr" of gold. THAT PATH WO BIRD OP PREY KNOWETH, Black &Red The Stones of thu:k"XJeither hath the H;rknA<; and of I * ^1 falcons eye seen It: H the Shadow of dath. J T"he proud beasts j E BREAKETH | Kave not trodden it a shaft away '^J 01 * luth the fierce m wKere men L ^ lion passed thi E PUTTETH H Kls Uand upon [ the Sojourn; *TT hey are fSrg>tten I of die foot oassethby; Tlxey hanj afar from 1 tKe mountains men, tlvey Swincr to and fro th n>ots. E'CUTTETHovrt: FIG. 93- Black STANZAS OR VERSES MARKED BY VERSALS & Red ,.,. rig. 94 represents a poem in two verses which are distinguished by interspaces and by coloured capitals a brief introductory line also being in colour. (It is supposed that the poem occurs in a book mainly in prose written in Roman small-letters.) It is generally best to distinguish the verses of poems by one-line interspaces. When this is done, coloured initials are not so necessary, and their value become chiefly decorative (see 123). NOTE (i). The writing is founded on "Italic" (see Plate XXL), and (it is supposed that) it would be used here wherever the songs occurred ; firstly, to distinguish them from the rest of the text, and secondly, to keep the lines of the poem entire Italics occupying less room than ordinary, round Small- Letters (see p. 315). (2) The story opens with the first line, which may in this case be regarded either as a Title or as a prefatory note in red. (3) The two red capitals are made of a rather " Roman " type to match the Italic (and the small Roman text of the book). The difference in height made between the W and the S is intended to balance the difference in width, and to give them an appearance of equal weight. This may be permitted where there are only a few capitals ; where there are many, their heights are generally kept more uniform. (4) Another Colour Scheme. W and S would look better in burnished gold. 138 'Tis of Aucassin and TvlicoUtt VV/HO would list to thtoood laf W C ladnts&ofthc catrtiveerey ? T is how two Voun J c h*uca$$vn and IN Of the pains the A nd tht Sorrows he outwore, for the qvodness and theornctj Of his Lve,Sojrurof(ace. SWEE Ttht sonbet() autcrn gmutt FIG. 95- 141 Black TAIL-PIECES, COLOPHONS, &C. & Red .,. , j -r- -1 r ig. 90 represents a coloured 1 ail - piece or decorative finish at the end of a book (or chapter). The Colophon (see p. 128 & figs. 13, 191), generally distinguished from the text by a smaller or different hand, and especially in early printed books by colour or other decorative treatment, occurs at the end of a book, where it is the traditional right of the penman and the printer to add a statement or a symbolical device. The Name (of craftsman and assistants), Time, and Place are commonly stated preferably quite simply e.g. " This book, written out by me, A.B., in LONDON, was finished on the T^ist day of DECEMBER 1900." Any reasonable matter of interest concerning the text, the materials, methods, lettering, or ornament, and an account of the number of leaves and their size, &c., may be added. But the craftsman, properly and modestly keeping his name off the title-page, is at liberty to exercise his right, marking the end of, and signing his work in any way he chooses even in a speech or a sentiment provided the form of the colophon be unobtrusive and its language natural. Printer's devices or book-marks, consisting of symbols, mono- grams, &c. (p. 362), were likewise used. The opportunity generally provided by the final margin, and the natural wish to close the book with a fitting ornament, also led to the use of colour or capitals in the concluding lines ; and sometimes the " tail " of the text was given a triangular form, the lines becoming shorter and shorter till they ended in a single word, or even one letter. 142 But I have not finished the five acts^ but only' three of them" - Thou, safest well, but in lifer the three acts ire ther whole dramx; lor whit shall be a complete- dra- mx is dettrrruncb by Kim -who was once the cause of its composition, and now of its dissolution: but thou, art the cause of neither ' Depart then sattstua, for he also who rc^ leases thee is satisfteo. FIG. 96. us Black RUBRICATING : GENERAL REMARKS Contrast of Red and Black. The most effective arrangement of red lettering with black text involves a sharp contrast, and, as a rule, the con- centration of the red in a line or mass (see figs. 91, 93, and 96, where the red lettering is massed at the head, side, and foot of the black). Too many red capitals scattered through a page lose their effect, and appear as though they were brown-red rather than bright red (see pp. 134, 185). Printed title-pages, &c., may be seen with promiscuous lines of black and red, in which the fine effects obtainable by the use of bright colour is dispersed and lost ; while the same, or even a less, amount of red, massed in one or two places in the page, would show to great advantage. Notes in Red in Margins. Red lettering, and particularly small red writing, may be used freely in the margins ; being much lighter than black, it appears there as a marginal decoration, not inter- fering with the regular look of the page. Indeed, red may be used more freely, and I think its decora- tive effect is greater, in the form of rubrics, than in any other simple form of ornament (see Red in Church Service Books (pp. 140, 345) and Red sub- stituted for Italics (p. 315)). Paragraph and other Marks. Various symbols, numerals, and marks (such as |^" If C * t J *J ^ 1$ Addenda, p. 25) may be made in red. Red Lines. Lines made to divide, or outline, pages (" rules " or " rule borders ") should be spar- ingly used, and then rather in black than in red (see p. 364). If in red, particularly between lines of writing, these should be "ruled feint" with diluted colour. 144 Red for Ornaments. Red may be used pretty Black freely with other colours (blue, green, and gold), & Red but by itself more sparingly. OTHER COLOURS. The foregoing remarks refer mainly to contrasts of black and red, but apply, to a certain extent, to black with any bright colour (or gold) (see " Other Co/our Schemes " given above, and p. 180). CHAPTER IX LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD Tools & Materials Laying the Ground Laying the Gold-Leaf Burnishing the Gold Remedying Faults in Gilding Gold Writing Other Methods & Recipes for Gilding Appendix on Gilding (by Graily ffewitt). TOOLS & MATERIALS THESE should be kept together in a convenient box, Laying & as it is important that the process should not be Burnishing interrupted by a search for a missing tool. Gold Tools and Jbfaterials. Summary of Procitt, HARD LEAD PENCIL. For drawing forms if necessary. POUNCE. For preparing surface: " pouncing." SIZE " OR RAISING PRE- For raising and backing leaf. PARATION. SMALL SAUCER. For mixing size in. NEEDLE SET IN HANDLE. For bursting bubbles, &c. QUILL PEN. For " laying " the size. KNIFE. For trimming size, &c. GOLD-LEAF. For gilding. K 145 Laving & Tools and Materials. Summary of Process. Burnishing SCISSORS. For cutting gold-leaf. Q O J ( J BURNISHING-SLAB. For backing the parchment or paper while under pressure. BREATHING-TUBE. For damping size. RUBBING-PAPER. For pressing leaf on to size. CHALK OR SOFT LEAD For marking form on rubbing- PENCIL. paper. BURNISHER, TOOTH For (i) pressing down, and (2) SHAPE. burnishing gold-leaf. FEATHER (BRUSH, &c.). For dusting off the pounce. BRUSH. For brushing off waste leaf. (HARD INDIARUBBER. ) (For removing gold from parch- ment.) (POWDER GOLD & FINE (For "mending" in certain BRUSH.) cases.) LAYING THE GROUND Drawing the Form. Elaborate letters or orna- ments may be drawn with a hard pencil, which will leave slight indentations in the surface of the page when the marks of the lead have been removed with indiarubber. In the case of free lettering or gold writing, however, the forms should be made directly with the pen (see pp. 148, 164). Preparing the Surface : Pouncing. The surface is thoroughly cleaned and prepared with powdered pumice stone, or other suitable " pounce " (see pp. 167, 174). This being rubbed well into the actual part which is to take the size absorbs grease and slightly roughens 1 the surface. The surrounding parts are also pounced to prevent the gold-leaf from sticking to them later. Composition of the Ground or Size. The chief 1 The surface of horny or greasy parchment may be slightly roughened with a pen-knife till little hairs are raised which will hold the size, care being taken that this roughening does not extend beyond the actual parts which are to be covered with size. (Oxgall: see footnote, p. 175.) 146 substance in a " size " or raising preparation is Laying & generally some kind of earthy matter, to give it Burnishing body. Other substances, having toughness and Gold stickiness, are used to bind the earthy matter and prevent its breaking when the page is turned over or bent, and also to make the size adhere to the page and the gold-leaf stick to the size. Yellow or red colouring matter is often added. A preser- vative, such as oil of cloves in a minute quantity may be present : this will permit of the size being kept in a semi-liquid condition, in a closed jar. The following recipe was given to me by Mr. G. Loumyer : " Chalk (Whiting). Oxide of Iron \ grain. Glue (Carpenter's) 4 grains. Gum Arabic 2 grains. Water 50 grains. Melt the gum and the glue together in the water, then add the oxide of iron, and lastly put in enough chalk to make the whole a rather liquid paste. Apply to the parchment^ which you have previously well rubbed with whiting, and, when dry, apply the gold- leaf with alcohol" Mixing the Size with Water. A little of the size, taken from the jar (see above), is put in the saucer with a few drops of water to soak for an hour or two. It is then rubbed down with a finger-tip, care being taken to mix it very thor- oughly and to avoid making bubbles. The right consistency is judged by experience it should be thick rather than thin. It is essential that all the ingredients be present in their right proportions, and the mixture should be stirred every now and then. Otherwise the earthy 147 Laying & matter settles down, and the sticky parts, remaining Burnishing in solution above, are liable to be used up. What Gold is left in the saucer after use is apt to be deficient in its sticky parts, and it is best thrown away. Take out of the jar only what is required at the time, and mix a fresh lot the next time. Bubbles, formed in the mixture, may be burst by a needle, or by adding a minute drop of oil of cloves. Methods of Laying the Size. The parchment or paper is laid flat on a table ; if on a slope, the size would run down and lie unevenly. A quill pen with a finely cut nib and an extra long slit (about | inch) is used for laying the size. It is filled pretty full by means of a quill or a brush ; if by the latter, special care must be taken to avoid bubbles. Experiments should be made in various methods. I. Perhaps the best way of laying the size, so that it may set properly and that the burnish may retain its brilliance, is to put on a thin coat with a pen in the direct manner in which coloured Versals are made (q.v.} and afterwards add two or three thin coats, allowing each coat to dry thoroughly. This requires considerable patience and skill, as it takes a long time, and there is a danger, in adding several coats, of spoiling the form by going over the edges. II. The simplest method for ordinary gold letters is to make them with one extra thick coat 1 of size, exactly like coloured Versals first a natural pen outline, and then the filling in (see fig. 81). This requires some practice to do well, as the thicker size is more difficult to manage than the 1 As this is usually allowed to dry for twenty-four hours, make sure, before laying the size, that you will be able to lay the gold-leaf on it at or near the same time on the next day. 148 colour. 1 Very narrow parts such as the thin strokes are apt to be deficient in size, and there- fore, while they are still wet, the pen held nearly vertical with the nib in contact with the surface of the size is moved slowly along it until the stroke has received sufficient size and is properly filled out. III. A method that may be found more con- venient for heavy forms, is to hold the pen across the form to be gilded (which has previously been marked on the parchment) with its nib resting on the further outline (a, fig. 97). The nib being Laying & Burnishing Gold FIG. 97. moved along that line, by contact with the parch- ment restrains the size from passing beyond it, while allowing it to flow out freely behind and below (#, 2). The opposite side is similarly treated, and, if the form be narrow, the size as it flows out blends with that already laid (b}. The ends of the form are finished in like manner (c). i Should a drop fall on the page it can be removed quickly with the knife, but it is safer to allow it to dry and then to pick it off carefully. Size which has flowed beyond the bounds of the form may be trimmed away when it has set. I 49 Laying & The angle of the pen with the parchment is less Burnishing for a wider form (, fig. 98). Gold 4 FIG. 98. As a general rule the size should stand pretty high when wet ; it shrinks in drying, and, if it forms too thin a coat, it will neither hold the gold-leaf fast nor burnish well. While the size is still wet it is easy to raise it to any height desired by running more size into the form in the manner described above. It is well, however, not to raise the size too high, as burnished gold too much raised looks out of place on a page and has a heavy and vulgar appearance (p. 1 84). Very high raising also does not dry so well, and when dry it is more liable to chip. The work of laying the size should be carried out as quickly as possible. If one part of the form is left any appreciable time before the remaining parts are sized, the first part will begin to settle and dry, and the different layings will not blend or lie evenly. Though the size is thick and awkward to use at first, a little skill will coax it quickly and evenly out of the pen, and it will all blend and dry with an even surface. When it is sized, put the work away to dry in a 150 drawer or safe place where it cannot be smudged Laying & or get dusty. Burnishing Drying the Size. The average time allowed is Gold twenty-four hours, but it varies with the weather and the temperature ; damp weather may make a longer time necessary, and dry weather or heat will shorten the time. The thickness of the raising affects the time very much ; a very thin coat will dry in an hour or two, while an extra thick coat may take several days. Size not dry enough is too sticky to burnish ; if too dry, it is so absorbent that it sucks up all the moisture which is breathed on it. To ensure the gold-leaf's sticking thoroughly, it is safer on the whole to gild the size while it is still slightly damp, and delay the burnishing till it is drier. The time to allow and the right condition of the size for gilding can only be accurately judged by experience. LAYING THE GOLD-LEAF NOTE. In illuminated MSS., In order to avoid risk of injury to the gold it may be laid last of all (see pp. 1701). The inexperienced illuminator^ how- ever , may find it better to follow the easier method of finishing the gold before applying the colours. The process of gold-laying must be carried out steadily and quickly ; all the necessary tools, &c., should be ready to hand (see p. 145). The Gold-Leaf. This is sold in books of twenty- five leaves. The ordinary leaf, about 3^ inches square, consisting of gold and alloy, is said to be beaten out to less than !^ inch in thickness. As gold sticks readily to gold, especially when very thin and liable to wrinkle and fold over, or to paper, red Laying & bole or ochre is scattered between the leaves of Burnishing the ordinary book. This powder will come off on Gold the work and give it an ugly colour, when burnish- ing, unless it is dusted off very carefully. It is better to get gold "double" (or "quadruple") the ordinary thickness, specially prepared for fine work such as illuminating, quite pure, and put up in white books (without bole). Cutting the Leaf. With the scissors, which must be quite clean and sharp (or else the gold will stick to them and tear), cut a whole or half leaf of gold, together with the paper leaf on which it lies, out of the book. The gold is cut on one paper (fig. 99) (not FIG. 99. between papers, for then it would stick and tear), and the cut edges of the paper and the gold stick together slightly. If the edge of the gold is any- where loose and apt to flap about, it and the corre- sponding paper edge can be nicked together with the scissors (fig. 100). The gold-leaf being lightly held to the paper in this way is easily handled. A piece of gold, about inch larger all round than the form to be gilded, is cut from the leaf in the manner described above (a, b, fig. 100). Except in the case of a very large form, it is not worth trying 152 to save gold by cutting it out in the same shape. Square, oblong, and triangular shaped pieces are suitable for ordinary use ; these are laid in a convenient place the edge of a book cover will do very well (fig. 101) ready to be picked up at the right moment. The burnishing slab (a flat piece of vul- canite, celluloid, or metal) is placed under the page to give it a hard, firm back, which will make the pushing and rubbing of the FIG. 100. burnisher effective. Preparing the Size. If the size has dried rough, it may be lightly scraped with the pen-knife Laying & Burnishing Gold FIG. 101. removing as little as possible of the surface, in which the essential stickiness frequently seems to be concentrated. 153 Laying & Ordinarily a form should not require trimming, Burnishing though if its edges have accidental roughnesses, Gold these may be trimmed a little with the pen-knife. Damping the Size. The breathing tube is about \ inch (or less) in diameter, and 6 inches or more in length ; it may be made of paper or cane. One end of the tube being lightly held between the lips, the other is moved about over the size, which is gently breathed upon (fig. 102). The breath con- placed on r th size immedi- ately after breathing FIG. 102. densing on the surface of the size, moistens it and renders it sticky. The amount of moistening re- quired depends on the condition of the size. Care has to be taken that the breath does not condense in the tube and drcp on to the work. Laying the Gold-Leaf. Immediately that the size has been sufficiently breathed upon, the piece of paper with gold-leaf adhering (held ready in the right 154 hand) is placed upon it, gold-leaf downwards, care being taken to place it steadily down, and not drag it across the size (fig. 103). Laying & Burnishing Gold FIG. 103. The Rubbing Paper a convenient piece of thin but tough paper (held ready in the left hand) is immediately laid above the gold-leaf paper, and is then rubbed over firmly with the finger-tip, in order at once to attach the leaf to the size (fig. 104). It is then quickly rubbed with the soft pencil ^ * he burnisher is yi^wn ^ ftcre -held in the ndtt hand- ready far die next apem&cm. , See Fi4s.io6.& 107. op FIG. 104. 155 Laying & or chalk till the raised form underneath is indicated Burnishing on the surface of the paper (fig. 105). Gold These two operations may be combined by having a little blue chalk either on the finger-tip or on the upper surface of the rubbing paper. Round the outline of this form the point of the burnisher * is worked, pressing the gold-leaf firmly through both the papers against the size, in the angle formed by the size and the surface of the parchment (fig. 106). The fore part of the burnisher is then passed rapidly all over the rub- bing paper with a firm pressure (fig. 107). The rubbing paper and the other paper are picked off, and an experienced eye can usually tell if the gold is sticking properly by a peculiar, smooth appear- ance which it then has. FIG. 105. Several Letters or Forms which are close together may be gilded simultaneously with one piece of gold-leaf as if they were one complex form. This saves time, but if too many forms are gilded to- gether, some of them are liable to be less thoroughly and effectually treated. Small Scattered Forms (dots, &c.). For these the gold-leaf may be cut into a sufficient number of little pieces, which are allowed to fall (gold side downwards) on a sheet placed to receive them. 156 1 A finer metal or ivory point may also be used. They are picked up separately by means of a needle stuck into their backing-paper. Additional Coats of Gold-Leaf. A second leaf of gold may be laid on immediately on the top of the first ; this will ensure richness and facilitate bur- nishing. Additional leaves may be laid after bur- nishing, but, unless the first gilding is absolutely clean, there is a risk of the second leaf peeling off when re-burnished. Laying & Burnishing Gold * jpressirur the ovLi leaf tn& arufle (vrm&L fy the size & parchment. dia^rcurraf above FIG. 106. 157 Laying & Burnishing Gold N too absorbent nat- enough I ure or condition of, ) size. Not sufficient rubbing and pressing on of gold. Size not sticky enough. Not enough size, particularly in thin lines and edges. The gold may refuse to stick in spots with no apparent reason, but probably from one or other of the above causes. Or the size may have been touched accidentally and have become greasy or dirty. Laying & Burnishing Gold Probable Causes of 'Gold-leaf "' 's not burnishing properly. Due to a. Damp weather. b. Insufficient time allowed for dry- ing. c. Too much sticky matter in size. Size too sticky. Size rough surfaced. Burnisher becoming dirty. I6 3 Laying & Both paper and parchment when much wet with Burnishing size are apt to cockle. Generally it is not possible, Gold or desirable (see p. 174), to guard against this by first stretching the material, but the size may be used with less water, so that it will dry sooner. In cases where there is a gold background it may often be divided into small parts (to be sized at different times) by the pattern (see p. 191). For large un- broken patches of gold several thin coats may be put on, one after the other. Some sizes have a tendency to crack : this is difficult to guard against. But, if the cracks are very minute such as may be seen in many in- stances in the best early MSS. they do not constitute a serious blemish. Burnished gold is often damaged by careless handling or insufficient protection. GOLD WRITING The page (having been ruled as for ordinary writing) is thoroughly pounced all over. The pen has an extra long slit, and the size is made a little more fluid than usual to allow of its flowing freely and making true pen-strokes (p. 6 3 ). The desk is lowered (fig. 46, />), or flat, so that the size may flow freely. The nib sometimes makes only a wet down- stroke on the parchment, but, by lightly pushing the pen up again, the stroke will be filled by the size which flows out from under the nib. Simple pen-strokes in small writing hold but little, and so ought to be filled as full of size as possible (pp. 1 50, 184). They will be found to dry much more 164 quickly than larger forms, and may be gilded Laying & within a few hours of writing. Half-a-dozen or Burnishing more letters are gilded together (see p. 156). Gold OTHER METHODS & RECIPES FOR GILDING Gold-leaf may be cut with a " gilder 's knife" on a "gilder's cushion" and picked up with a "gilder's tip:' Water, white of egg, or alcohol may be used to make the gold-leaf adhere to the size. " Transfer gold-leaf" is convenient, but the greasiness of the transfer paper is apt to dim the gilding. Gold-leaf is made in many shades, from " red " (gold -|- copper) to "green" (gold -f silver) ; though these may be used very effectively, they are liable to tarnish, and it is best to begin with pure gold (see pp. 152, 169). Silver-leaf oxidises and turns black ; platinum (a good substitute) costs about 2s. 6d., and aluminium (not so good) about 6d. per book. " Gold Ink" has been made with powdered gold: its effect is inferior to raised and burnished writing. The following is from " The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini " (written about the beginning of the fifteenth Century) : Translated by Christiana J. Herringham, 1899 : "Chap. 157* How you must do miniature-painting and put gold on parchment. ** First, if you would paint miniatures you must draw with a leaden style figures, foliage, letters, or whatever you please, on parchment, that is to say, in books : then with a pen you must make the delicate permanent 165 Laying & outline of what you have designed. Then you must have Burnishing a paint that is a sort of gesso, called asiso, and it is made Gold in this rnanner ; namely, a little gesso sottile [see chap. 1 1 6, below]], and a little biacca [whiteleadj, never more of this than equals a third part of the gesso ; then take a little candy, less than the biacca ; grind these ingredients very finely with clear water, collect them together, and let them dry without sun. When you wish to use some to put on gold, cut off a piece as large as you have need of, and temper it with the white of an egg, well beaten, as I have taught you. [The froth is allowed to stand for one night to clear itself ,] Temper this mixture with it ; let it dry ; then take your gold, and either breathing on it or not, as you please, you can put it on ; and the gold being laid on, take the tooth or burnishing-stone and burnish it, but hold under the parchment a firm tablet of good wood, very smooth. And you must know that you may write letters with a pen and this asiso, or lay a ground of it, or whatever you please it is most excellent. But before you lay the gold on it, see whether it is needful to scrape or level it with the point of a knife, or clean it in any way, for your brush sometimes puts more on in one place than in another. Always beware of this." "Chap. 1 1 6. Honv to prepare gesso sottile {slaked plaster of Paris} for grounding panels. " You must now prepare a plaster for fine grounds, called gesso sottile. This is made from the same plaster [plaster of Paris ] as the last, but it must be well purified (pur- gata), and kept moist in a large tub for at least a month ; renew the water every day until it almost rots, and is completely slaked, and all fiery heat goes out of it, and it becomes as soft as silk. Throw away the water, make it into cakes, and let it dry ; and this gesso is sold by the druggists to our painters. It is used for grounding, for gilding, for working in relief, and other fine works." 1 66 APPENDIX: ON GILDING (By Graify Hewitt) Success with raised gilding can only be expected when Laying & practice has rendered attention to the details of the process Burnishing automatic and there is no need to pause and think. Even Gold then the results must be somewhat uncertain and experi- mental. For our own preparations of size are usually unsatisfactory, and the ingredients of the best we can buy are unknown to us. And our vellum is certainly not of the quality we find in the old books. Some one is badly wanted to investigate the chemistry of the one and an ap- propriate preparation of the other. But we can take as much care as our time allows, passing nothing as " good enough " which we have not well examined, and bringing to the business all the patience and deftness available. Vellum is too stiff, or too dry, or too greasy. When stiff, it is too thick for books ; when dry, too apt to crack or cockle ; when too greasy, exasperating. And yet the soft and rather greasy sort can be rendered more agreeable than the rest with labour. It should be rubbed by the flat of the hand with powdered pumice (or even fine sand- paper on the rough side) and French chalk, especially on its split (or rougher) side, until it is serviceable. A few trials will teach how long to give to this. Five minutes for one side of a lamb's skin would not be too much. It can then be beaten with a silk handkerchief, but not rubbed with this until the size has been laid. It may be rubbed cleaner between the laying of the size and the gilding. Especially must those parts of pages be thoroughly rubbed clean which in the book, when made up, will lie upon and be pressed against gold letters on the page opposite ; or the pumice left behind will scratch them. On the other hand, if the vellum has not been thoroughly pumiced on both pages, the greasiness in 167 Laying & ** w ^ dim the gold in time, both from above and below ; Burnishing or even make the size flake off altogether. The size Gold ls often blamed for faults of the vellum and its want of preparation. Again size, or " raising preparation," is too sticky or too dry. If the former, the gold will not burnish well ; if the latter, it will burnish, but will not stick at the edges, and will crack sooner or later. And though the essential quality of gilding is brightness, one may be content to fail of this rather than hare letters ragged in outline or broken on the surface. The size in use should be just liquid enough to flow evenly from the pen. More water makes it dry too brittle, and tends to cockle the vellum also ; less tends to blobbi- ness and unevenness. Even when it is put on fairly an uncomfortable groove is apt to form as it dries down the centre of letters ; but this can be either filled up as soon as the first layer is dryish, or the sides of the groove can be scraped (when the letter is quite dry) down to the level of the groove itself with a sharp knife. The knife must be sharp. As this scraping does not affect the ex- treme edges the power of the size there to hold the leaf is not impaired by it ; and certainly a well-scraped surface is extremely even and pleasant to gild. If the surface, however, be burnished and not scraped before laying the leaf, it will not hold the size well, and remains lumpy also where lumps were there originally ; while scraping gets rid of these. During use the size should be kept thoroughly mixed ; and a small sable brush serves well for this purpose, as soon as it can be used so carefully as not to cause bubbles. To know the exact time to allow between laying and gilding one had need to be a meteorologist, so much " depends on the weather." Very dry and very wet weather are equally unkind. Generally an interval of about twenty-four hours is right ; but it is better to gild too soon than too late, provided one can be content, on testing the naked surface of the gilded letter with a 1 68 burnisher, and noting that the glitter is reluctant to come, Laying & to leave the burnishing for a while, and only lay the leaf, Burnishing pressing it well home to the outline of the letters. The Gold burnishing can then be done in a few more hours. But if the size be too dry, the difficulty will be to make the leaf stick to it at all. In this case the leaf adhering can be scraped off, the size scraped down further, and another thin coat added and gilded after a shorter interval. If the letter be so fouled that such repairs are difficult, it should be entirely scraped away and the size relaid alto- gether. In doing this care is needed that the vellum be not injured round the letter. The best gold-leaf for ordinary work costs about 38. for twenty- five pages. More expensive leaf, being thicker, does not stick so well to the edges ; cheaper is too thin to burnish well. Two kinds may be used together with good results, the finer leaf being put on next the size, and the thicker at once on to the top of that. The letter is then pressed and outlined as usual through paper, and the thin leaf will be found of con- siderable assistance towards the making of a clean cut edge. Generally, however, the piling on of several leaves is inadvisable, as bits are liable to flake away as the letter goes on drying, leaving dim specks where they have been. Yet if, after the outlining through the paper, the leaf is seen to be very dull or speckled with the colour of the size, this means that the size has been partly pressed through the leaf; and another laid im- mediately will have enough to stick to, and will burnish well. The best result comes of one moderately thick leaf laid and burnished at the right time as quickly as possible. Thicker leaves need only be used for large surfaces, where the edge can be scraped even and clean, or where a black outline is to be added. As soon a* the leaf is laid, and from that point onward, the breath must be kept from the letter with a shield (of cardboard or tin) held in the left hand or otherwise. Inattention to this is responsible for many failures. Not 169 Laying & only should the actual letters under operation be so pro- Burnishing tected, but where a quantity are sized ready for gilding Gold on the page these should be protected also, as well as any parts already finished ; for breath not only moistens but warms, and on warm size moisture condenses less easily. If the work to be done presently is so warmed, it will be found more difficult to deal with when its time comes. The first work done in the day is often the best, and for this reason, that the size for it is cool ; but in gilding this portion one almost necessarily warms that to be done later. Two pages, where possible, should there- fore be gilded alternately, one cooling while a portion of the other is gilded. Or thin plates of metal, or even cardboard, may be placed about as shields to protect all surfaces not under actual operation. Superfluous gold is best removed by dusting lightly with an old and very clean and dry silk handkerchief. Indiarubber will certainly remove gold from the vellum, but it will as certainly dim any part of the gilding it touches. If the vellum was properly pounced to start \iith the silk will easily remove all the leaf unstuck, except little odds and ends, and these are safeliest taken away with the point of a knife. As the pressure of burnishing helps the leaf to stick, it is best to wait till the letter has been burnished before this dusting. Such spots as are visible ungilded may be afterwards treated with a slight breath and transfer gold- leaf, or gold dust, may be painted on them. In the latter case the spots must be most carefully burnished, if burnished at all, or their surroundings will be scratched. When a gold letter is to be set on a coloured back- ground, or in the neighbourhood of colour, it is best put on after the colour ; as may be observed was the method occasionally with the old books. If the gold is put on first, it will certainly be dimmed by warmth and breath during the colouring. On the other hand, if it is put on last, great care must be taken that the gold-leaf shall not stick to the coloured portions. Where possible, a stencil I 7 pattern of the parts to be gilded should be cut out of Laying & paper. This is easily made from a pencil rubbing taken Burnishing after the size is laid, the raised pattern being of course Gold cut out carefully a trifle larger than the outline so obtained. The paper is then laid over all the work, and the sized portions showing through the cuttings can be gilded without injury to the colour. All gilded work should be retained, if possible, for a week or more, and then re-burnished. And in burnishing generally the burnisher should not be used, even when the size is hard, with any great force or pressure at first. For the size in drying sets as if moulded, and this mould cannot be squeezed about or actually crushed without being loosened or cracked. Throughout the whole pro- cess a gentle and vigilant alacrity is required. Success will come easily if it means to come. It cannot be forced to come. The binder of a book with gilding in it should be warned to press the sheets as little as possible, and to use all his care in handling it, so as to keep moisture, warmth, and fingering from the gold. The folding of the sheets, when left to him, should also be done rather differently from usual, for all gilded pages need to be kept as flat as possible. None of the sizes in use seem capable of resisting bending of their surfaces without crimping or cracking. Where there is much gilding, the book will be the better for being sewn with a zigzag 1 through the sections, as this helps to " guard " the gilded work. 1 Fide D. Cockerell, " Bookbinding and the Care of Books,' p. 81. 171 CHAPTER X The Use of Gold& Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL LETTERS & SIMPLE ILLUMINATION Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination Parchment, " Vellum," & Pounce Colours Simple Colour Effects Matt Gold Burnished Gold Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines Background Capitals Applying the Background Ornament of Back- grounds. TOOLS & MATERIALS FOR SIMPLE ILLUMINATION TOOLS, &c. 9 FOR GILDING. See Chapter IX. (pp. 145-6). WORT TRACING POINT. This is useful for various purposes, and for indenting patterns in burnished gold (see p. 191). BRUSHES. Red Sables are very good. A separate brush should be kept for each colour or at least one brush each for Reds, Blues, Greens, White, and gold "paint " and it is convenient to have a medium and a fine brush for each. PENS FOR COLO UR. Quill pens are used: " Turkey " or " Goose," The latter is softer, and is sometimes preferred for colour work. For very fine work (real) Crow Quills may be tried. A separate pen should be used for each colour. COLOURED INKS. Brown ink (tempered with black if desired) may be used for fine out- lines : if the outlined forms are to be coloured afterwards, it is convenient if the ink be waterproof. 172 Coloured inks seldom have as good a colour as the best paint colours (see Colours for Penwork, p. 176). COLOURS. (p. 175). MATT GOLD (see p. 183). PAINT-BOX. The little chests of drawers, sold by stationers for as. 6d., make very convenient " paint-boxes " : pens, &c., may be kept in one drawer ; gilding, tools, &c., in another ; and colours and brushes in another. PAPER (see pp. 51, 98, 103). PARCHMENT, FELLUM, 13* POUNCE (see below). PARCHMENT, " VELLUM," & POUNCE (See also Appendix on Gilding^ p. 167 and pp. 98, 356) The name "Vellum" (strictly applicable only to calf-skin) is generally given to any moderately good skin prepared for writing or printing on. All the modern skins are apt to be too stiff and horny : chemical action (substituted for patient handling), followed by liberal sizing and " dressing," is perhaps responsible. The old skins have much more life and character, and are commonly much softer. Their surface is generally very smooth not neces- sarily glazed often with a delicate velvety nap y which forms a perfect writing surface. Parchment (sheep - skin), as supplied by law- stationers, though rather hard, still retains the character of a skin, and is in every way preferable to the Vellum J which is specially prepared for illu- minators. A piece of parchment about 26 inches by 22 inches costs about 2s. 6d. Lambskin is still better. " Roman Vellum " is a fine quality of sheep or 1 The very costly, specially prepared calf-skin is too highly 14 finished," and has much the appearance of superior cardboard. It is stiff and shiny, and its surface is objectionable to work on. 173 The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination The Use of " lamb " skin, made in imitation of the Vellum used Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple in the Vatican. The surface of a modern skin may be greatly improved by "pouncing" but there seems to be a danger of its becoming rough or porous. Pounce. Fine powdered pumice (as supplied by Illumination drysalters) is very good. It is rubbed on with the hand (p. 167), or with a pad or a piece of rag. Law-stationers use a pounce in which the main constituents are chalk (or " whiting ") and powdered resin. The latter, when used before gilding, is apt to make the gold-leaf stick to the surrounding parchment. (Before Writing^ see Note 7, p. 359.) Chalk, Whiting? " French Chalk? and Powdered Cuttlefish Bone might be used as substitutes for pumice, or as ingredients in preparing a pounce. Sandarach (a resin) rubbed on an erasure appears to prevent ink spreading when the surface is written over. A skin of parchment has a smooth (whiter) side the original flesh side and a rougher, yellower side the original hair side. The penman will find the smooth side preferable for writing on (though, of course, both sides must be used in a book : see p. no). This side is more easily damaged, and erasures have to be very carefully made with a sharp knife, or by gentle rubbing with indiarubber. On the rough side, erasures cause little or no damage to the surface. A piece of rubber or a paper stump dipped in pounce may be used. It is better as it is more straightforward to avoid erasures if possible, and to correct mistakes frankly, as in ordinary writing (see p. 344). For ordinary purposes parchment should be cut to the size desired, and be held on the desk by the '74 Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination tape, guard, &c. (see p. 50). It is generally a The Use of mistake to pin it down, or to damp and stretch it Gold & on the drawing-board (see p. 356). Parchment is stained a fine purple with " Brazil- wood " : this may be obtained from a " store chemist." Three teacups full of Brazil-wood are stewed in about two pints of water, with two teaspoonsful of alum (which acts as a mordant). The colour of this liquid is brownish-red, and to make it purple, carbonate of potash is added (very carefully, or it will become too blue). The liquid is poured into a tray, and the parchment skin is placed in it for half a day or a couple of days. The colour dries lighter, so it should be prepared rather dark, and diluted if necessary : strips of parchment should be used to test it ; they are taken out and dried at the fire. The parchment skin is stretched on a frame, the edges being caught up over little buttons or pegs, and tied at these points with string. It is allowed to dry slowly. COLOURS POWDER. COLOURS are the purest: they may be mixed with gum arabic and water. Yolk of egg and water is sometimes used as a medium (or white of egg) (see pp. 166, 179). It is more con- venient for the beginner to use prepared colours, which are ready and dependable. CAKE COLOURS rank next to powder colours for purity : they seem to need tempering with a little gum or honey or glycerine (or egg see above) for use on ordinary parchment. 1 Used 1 OXGALL may be used for a greasy surface ; painted on it, or mixed with the colour. 175 The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination plain dry. with water, they are apt to flake off when PAN COLOURS are very safe for ordinary use. TUBE COLOURS sometimes seem to have too much glycerine ; they are, however, very con- venient for preparing mixed colours in any quan- tity, because of their semi-fluid condition, and because the amount of each colour in the mixture may be judged with considerable accuracy by the length which is squeezed out of the tube (p. 178). COLOURS FOR PEN WORK, fcfc For simple letters or decoration it is well to use a pure RED neither crimson nor orange tinged : BLUE neither greenish nor purplish : GREEN neither bluish nor " mossy." A little " body colour " is generally used with blues and greens to keep them "flat" (p. 118). These colours should be mixed as required, and be diluted to the right consistency with water IK* poiif t per? (see p. 1 1 8). Colour which has ' been mixed and in use for some time especially if it has been allowed to dry is best thrown away (see mixing size, p. 148). If there is much rubricating to be done, a quantity of each colour sufficient to last several days may be mixed, and kept in a covered pot. A little pomatum pot is convenient the smaller the better, as it keeps the colour together, and does not allow it to dry so quickly. The filling- brush ( a rough brush kept for filling the pen) may rest in the pot (see fig. 112), being given a stir round every time it is 176 or saucer. may Uxnrer vessel .A. Small tu^Moth tHe scorn openek ami tke bottom melted offta a. ga5 flame, will FIG. 112. used to prevent the settling of the heavy parts of the colour. A drop of water is added occasionally as the liquid evaporates and becomes too thick. 1 TINTS FEW AND CONSTANT. Red, Blue, and Green (and perhaps purple] with Gold, White, and Black, are sufficient for everything but the most advanced type of Illumination. And it is in every way desirable that, until he has become a Master Limner, the Writer and Illuminator should strictly limit the number of his colours (see p. 215). It is one of the " secrets " of good " design " to use a limited number of elements forms or colours or materials and to produce variety by skilful and charming manipulation of these. It is well to follow the early Illuminators in this also : that these few colours be kept constant. When you have chosen a Red, a Blue, and a Green as pure and bright as you can make them keep those particular tints as fixed colours to be used for ordinary purposes. For special purposes (pp. 182, 202) paler tints may be made by adding white, and varied tints may be mixed, but even when your work has advanced so that you require a more complex " palette," you should stick to the principle of constant tints and modes of treatment for regular occasions : this is the secret of method. RED. Vermilion is prepared in three forms : "Vermilion," "Scarlet Vermilion," and "Orange Vermilion" For ordinary use " Scarlet Vermilion " is the best (it may be tempered with a minute quantity of white). " Vermilion " is not quite so bright, and tends more to crimson, but, mixed with 1 And the nib is cleaned out now and then (with the filling brush), or wiped, to prevent the colour clogging it (see p. 70). M 177 The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination " Orange Vermilion" it gives the " scarlet " form. The pan colour is generally most convenient. Where scarlet is in juxtaposition with gold, their effect may be harmonised by having a large propor- tion of blue in the neighbourhood : sometimes a more crimson colour than vermilion may be used. Chinese Vermilion is a fine colour, but difficult to obtain ; it is even said that the genuine pigment is reserved exclusively for the Chinese Emperor (whose edicts are written with "The Vermilion Pencil"). GREEN. Verdigris is a very fine colour, closely resembling, and possibly the same pigment as, the green in early MSS., but I believe that it has not been rendered permanent in modern use. Green Oxide of Chromium (transparent) (or " Veri- dian ") is a very good permanent green. It is rather a thin colour, and requires body, which may be given with lemon yellow, or with white and yellow ochre ; being a rather bluish green, it is the better for a little yellow. This (mixed) green is most conveniently prepared from tube colours. BLUE. Ultramarine Ash (whole tube about 48.) is a very beautiful colour. It is rather pale and transparent (and a little " slimy " to work) when used alone. A mixture (preferably made with tube colours) consisting of Ultramarine Ash and Chinese White and (a very little) Prussian Blue makes an extremely fine, pure blue. A similar mixture with cobalt as a base makes a very good blue. Ultramarine or Powdered Lapis Lazuli (unfortu- nately known as " Genuine Ultramarine " l ) is a fine colour ; it may have a slightly purplish tint and need 1 "French Ultramarine" is an artificial compound, and a poor colour. .78 tempering with green to make a pure blue (whole cake about i8s.). The Blue in common use in early MSS. (before Ultramarine came into use) has a fine, pure colour, and considerable body : it is more raised than any other colour ; it is often seen to be full of little sparkles, as though there were powdered glass in it. It is supposed to have been prepared from a copper ore. The following note on this blue has been given to me by Mr. C. M. Firth : "The blue is Native Carbonate of Copper finely powdered and tempered with white of egg (Vermilion is tempered with the Yolk)." " The ore is of two kinds, a crystalline of a medium hardness found in France at Chessy, and hence called Chessylite, and a soft earthy kind which is obtained in Hungary, and largely now from Australia. The latter is from its ease of manipulation the best for paint making. It should be ground dry till it is no longer gritty and is of a sky blue (pale) colour." " The Blue in MSS. was liable to wash off, but the oil in the Yolk prevented a similar result with the Ver- milion. The Blue is identical with the Azzuro della magna (for d'allemaigne) of the Middle Ages. The frequently advanced hypothesis that the blue was due to a glass is based on the accounts of (I.) The Vestorian blue copper * frit ' for enamels probably ; (II.) on the accounts in sixteenth century of the Manufacture of Smalt, which owes its colour to a glass tinted with Cobalt. This Azzuro is the oldest known Western blue, and was probably employed on Egyptian walls, where it has gone green, as also in Italian Frescoes." "The Green tint of the chemical change in the Copper is seen in initials in books too much exposed to the damp. These exhibit a bright green tint in places where the colour was thinly applied." I 79 The Use of Gold& Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination It appears that Yolk, besides being unsuited in colour for tempering this blue, changes it to a greenish colour (the effect of the oil, which forms about 30 per cent, of Yolk of Egg). WHITE. The tube Chinese White 1 is the most convenient to use when tempering colours. "White Line or Hair Finishing" (see p. 183). Various tools have been recommended for this. A sable pencil with the outer hairs cut away, "the smallest brush " made, and even a fine steel pen. I am inclined to believe that some of the early Illuminators used a fine quill such as a crow quill, or a goose quill scraped thin and sharply pointed. PURPLE is seldom used in simple pen-work, lettering, &c., but largely and with very fine effect in complex illumination. A reddish-purple is to be preferred. A good colour can be made from the purple stain described on p. 175, or from Ruby madder and a little Rose madder, with a very little Ultramarine. SIMPLE COLOUR EFFECTS Simple " Rubrication " (see p. 127). Red letters were most commonly contrasted with blue (the " warmest " and " coldest " colours), 2 in some MSS. with green alone, but more commonly the three 1 For white lining, &c. if in constant use the Chinese White in bottle is said to be the best ; a little Spirits of Wine should be poured into it, to keep it moist and make it work better. It should be stirred well, and a sufficient quantity for immediate use is taken out and mixed in a small saucer. The bottle is kept tightly corked. 2 And single forms were often parti-coloured, as III., IV., Blue, with red serifs, or vice versa (see also pp. 208, 216). 1 80 generally Red cap. * RED B/M cap. in columns of BLUE Red cap. Versal letters RED Green cap. (see fig. 93). GREEN &c. &c. colours were used together, the alterations being The Use of Gold& Colours in Initial Letters & Simple in lines of Illumination Caps. (see fig. 89). Repetition and Limitation of Simple Colours (and Forms). The uniform treatment of a MS. neces- sitates that no colour (or form) in it should be quite singular, or even isolated if it can possibly be re- peated. If, for example, there be a Red capital on the "Verso " page, the "opening" is improved by some Red a capital, a rubric, or even a line- finishing on the " Recto " page. Very often the one piece of colour is very small, and, as it were, an echo of the other (compare Line-finishings and Initials, pp. 205, 193). While it is not always possible or desirable so to treat both pages of an opening, yet, in the book taken as a whole, every colour used should be repeated as often as there is a reasonable opportunity. And, therefore, where the opportunities for colour in a book are few and far between, it is well to limit the " colours " used to two, or even one. This necessity for repetition applies to simple rather than to complex " Illuminated " Forms e.g. a book need not have more than one Illuminated Initial but within such complex forms themselves 181 The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination repetition is recognised as one of the first principles of " decorative design" (see p. 215). Proportions of Colours. In Harmonious Illumina- tion, Blue very commonly is the predominating colour ; but no exact proportions can be laid down, for the combined colour effect depends so much on the arrangement of the colours. Effects of Neighbouring Colours. 1 When blue and red are in juxtaposition, the blue appears bluer and greener ; the red appears brighter and more scarlet. With Red and Green, the Red appears more crim- son, and the green, greener and blue"r. A greenish blue will appear plain blue beside a pure green ; a blue with a purplish tinge will appear more purple. Experiments might profitably be made with simple arrangements of Red, Blue, Green, Black, White, and Gold in combinations of two or more. Tempering Colours with White. Forms such as flower petals, &c., may be painted in Blue or Red, paled with White, and then be shaded with the pure colour ; this gives considerable richness, and the effect may be heightened by very careful white line work (q-v.}. Green leaves, &c., may be made very pale and then touched with Yellow this gives a brilliant effect. Black Outlines. The effect of these is to make a bright colour appear brighter and richer, to define, and, to a certain extent, harmonise, neighbouring colours and shapes, and to keep the design flat (see 1 In " white light " three rays (known as the " Primary Colour-Sensations ") have been distinguished Red, Green, and Blue ; any two of these are complementary to the remaining colour, and appear to be induced optically in its neighbourhood. (Yellow light is combined of Red and Green rays, and this may partly explain the particular fitness of Blue and Gold Illumination.) l8 2 Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination p. 1 86). For one or more of these reasons, all The Use of coloured forms patterns, charges, &c. in a com- Gold & pound colour scheme have an outline strong or delicate, according to the strength or delicacy of the work (see pp. 188, 187, 202, 221, 165). White Lining. A black outline is often separated from the colour by a fine white line (see fig. 129). White lines also are used to harmonise colours, one or more commonly being painted (or " penned ") upon the colours. This tends to make the colours appear paler and lighter brightening them if they are dark. Care must be taken not to overdo the white lining, or it will make the colours chalky and cold. White is also used in groups of dots, and in fine patterns on backgrounds (see pp. 213, 430). Gold is even more effective than white or black for harmonising colours. It is commonly Bur- nished in bars or frames (see p. 481), and in spots (pp. 481, 187), or in large masses (p. 191). Matt Gold (see below). MATT GOLD Matt gold, or gold "paint" the pure gold powder with white of egg is best is generally painted upon colour. It was much used in old miniatures for "hatching" and lighting landscapes, houses, costumes, &c. ; and stars, rays of light, and outlines of clouds were painted in delicate gold lines upon the blue of the skies. Such gold lining has a very mellowing and pleasant effect upon colour, but it can easily be overdone. Matt gold may be used besides, for letters, ornament, and patterns painted upon colour. Such forms have either no outline, or a very faint one : their effect depends upon their lightness, and they are not made to appear solid. '83 The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination A very pretty effect may be obtained in a small and not very formal manuscript by painting into the spaces left for the capitals little squares of red and blue, and painting upon these the letters and ornament all in gold powder very freely and quickly. The kind of treat- ment is rather crudely suggested by fig. 113. The pleasant ap- pearance of the pages as though they were scattered over with tiny squares of cloth of gold and red and blue is produced with comparative ease, while the use of leaf gold might entail an ex- penditure of more time and pains than the book was worth. In the finest class of manuscripts, however, these matt gold letters would be some- what informal and out of place. FIG. 113. BURNISHED GOLD Gold is always raised and burnished as bright as possible, unless there is a special reason for using matt gold. The height to which it is raised varies, according to the effect desired, from a considerable thickness to the thinnest possible coat of " size." Extremely thin and extremely thick raising are both objection- able (see p. 150) : roughly speaking, a suitable height for any ordinary purpose is between T J-g- and -^ of an inch. The surface, in the case of large forms, is gene- rally made as smooth and perfect as possible, so that, as Cennino Cennini says, the burnished gold " will appear almost dark from its own brightness" ; and its brightness is only seen when the light falls on it at a particular angle. The gilding of a manuscript, however, is slightly flexible, and a large gilded surface is likely to be bent, so that some part of it is sure to catch the light. Small surfaces highly burnished very often do not show the effect of, or " tell " as, gold, unless they catch the light by accident. It is well, there- fore, where the forms are small to have several on the page, so that one or another will always shine out and explain the rest. And while the proper craftsman tries always to get the best finish which he reasonably can, the natural, slight unevennesses or varying planes of small gilded forms may be of advantage to the whole effect. The pleasant effect of such natural variations may be seen in thirteenth- century Initials, where numbers of little gold pieces are fitted into the backgrounds, and their changing surfaces cause the whole to be lit up with little sparkles of light. A parallel to this may be found in the hand-tooling of a book-cover, which sparkles with gold, because the binder could not press in each piece of gold-leaf absolutely level. On the other hand, the " deadness " of a machine-stamped cover is largely due to the dead level of its gilding. Black and Gold. One of the finest effects in calligraphy can be obtained by the simple contrast of gold capitals with black writing (see p. 299). While, as in the case of black and ra/, the strongest effects are obtained by a marked contrast, gold may yet be very effectively used for small capitals throughout the black text. It does not lose or blend its brilliance with the black of the writing as colour is apt to do, but lights up and illuminates the page. For this reason gold will 185 The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination The Use of " help out " and make agreeable a black and colour Gold & effect which, by itself, would have been a failure Colours in (see p. 174). T 1 " * JT/ Initial Letters & Simple BURNISHED GOLD FORMS & OUTLINES Illumination pi a ' ln gff /j letters, symbols, and other detached forms, not having backgrounds, are usually not outlined. An outline cheapens their effect, making them darker and heavier, and, if the line be at all thick, conceal- ing the true form of the letter, and giving it a clumsy appearance. It is an instructive experiment to make a gold (or plain white) letter with a thick outline (a, fig. 114), and then paint a background round it. The effect is quite altered, and greatly im- proved (b, fig. 114). The outline no longer tells FIG. 114. as the outer line of the form, but partakes more of the nature of the background, in which it cuts out, as one might say, a little niche for the letter to rest in. Gold-leaf forms on coloured backgrounds are out- 186 lined generally in black in order that letter and background may together form a flat design, stable and at rest in the page. The distinction between the use of gold "paint" and the treatment of a leaf gold form should be carefully observed : the matt gold powder lies upon colour, and may appear to blend with it (p. 183) ; the bright gold- leaf constitutes a distinct form, which either lies upon the surface of a page, or is, as it were, set in a background. Gold (leaf) Floral Ornament, &c. If the stalk and leaves are both gold : they are commonly not out- lined, unless on a background. If there be a thin stalk in black or colour with gold leaves : the leaves are outlined with the stalk- colour (they were commonly furred : <:, fig. 115). If there be a thick coloured stalk with gold leaves : both stalk and leaves commonly have a black outline, the "leaves" often being treated as spots of gold (below). Gold Spots or Dots are usually outlined and furred with black (fig. 115). The effect produced is of a bright gold form on a grey back- ground. A simple "leaf" or de- tached spot of gold has a formless look, much as a small blot of colour or ink would have. The black outline and the grey back- ground - effect seem in this case to give form and interest to the spot ; at least they give it a place to rest in a nest to hold the small golden egg. c. FIG. 115. The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination The Use of Gold & Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination Even a stalk and tendril (d y fig. 115) has the same effect of giving intention and meaning to what might otherwise be a mere blot. When several spots of gold (or colour) are ar- ranged in a simple design, together they constitute a simple form which does not require a background. Thus the line-finishing .*. (#, fig. 126) has a formal and intentional arrangement in itself, and therefore need not be outlined. BACKGROUND CAPITALS Background Capitals or Initials frequently employ burnished gold, either for the letters or the ground. All the parts (including " solid " patterns) are generally outlined in black, or dark colour. The commonest colours for grounds are Reds and Blues. The grounds are frequently countercharged, or made one colour inside and another outside the initial (p. 190). Sometimes little or no gold is used, and many fine white lines are employed to separate and harmonise the colours of the Initial and the ground. It is well, however, for the beginner to keep the letter and the ground distinct, by observing the Herald's maxim, and using " Metal on colour, or colour on metal." The forms of the letters vary from those of ordinary capitals in being thicker in proportion to their height, and frequently in having no serifs. A very thin line or serif is apt to be lost in the background. A very good form of background initial may be 188 made out of the ROMAN CAPITAL (*, fig. 1 16) The Use of Gold & A A vA r-r^v Colours in A XV Yfv\ Initial A\ /M )) Letters& / \\ J/ Simple /4r^\ V-l "^\ Illumination ' (a.) II I Tiff Roman. (*1 FIG. 1 1 6. by thickening all its parts ; in place of the serifs, curving out and shaping the ends of the stems (/>, d) to a sort of ' u blunderbuss" pattern (g). APPLYING THE BACKGROUND It is well first to make the letter, 1 and then to apply the background to it (as though it were a sort of mosaic). The background is packed tightly round the letter, and the letter occupies the background, 1 In the case of a burnished gold letter, the gilding may be deferred until the adjacent coloured parts are finished (see p. 170). 189 The Use of so that they appear to be in the same plane Gold& Colours in Initial Letters & Simple Illumination fig. 117). TKomm of ( Plates XL, XIIL, XIV., XVII.) This is a type of illumination which can safely be attempted by one who, having learnt to write, is desirous of illuminating his writing ; for it is the direct outcome of penmanship (see p. 204), and consists mainly of pen flourishes, or semi- formal lines and shapes which can be made with a pen, suitably applied to the part to be decorated. Its effect may be very charming and restful : no colour standing out as in a positive colour scheme, no individual form catching the eye ; but the whole having a richness of simple detail and smooth colour- ing more or less intricate and agreeably bewildering. It may be compared to the tooling of a book- cover, both in the method of producing it, and in its effect. A book-binder has a number of stamps which bear the simplest forms and symbols, such as 197 A Theory of little circles and " leaves " and stars and curved Illumination lines, and with these simple elements he builds up a pleasant " design," which he tools, usually in gold- leaf, upon the cover. The scribe can vary the forms which his pen produces, and the colours which he gives them, with a freedom that the set form and the method of using the binder's tools do not allow. But the skilled penman will find that his pen (or, at any rate, his penmanship) largely determines the forms of his freest flourishes and strokes, and that the semi-formal nature of such ornament demands a certain simplicity and repetition of form and colour, which do not unduly tax his skill as a craftsman. Suppose, for example, that the scribe wishes to illuminate the border of a page of writing. He may choose a limited number of simple, pen-made forms for the elements of his design ; say, a circle, a " leaf," and a " tendril," and a few curved flourishes FIG. 121. and strokes (fig. 121), and with these cover the allotted space evenly and agreeably. 198 The ornament [ being treated as though it were a sort of floral growth, requires a starting point or " root." i The initial letter is I the natural origin of the border ornament, i the stalk of which ' generally springs from the side or from one of the extremities of the letter. The main stem and branches are first made with a very free pen, forming a skeleton pattern (fig. 122). i, NOTE. The numbers in , the diagram indicate the order in which the strokes I were made. The main stem (in) sweeps over and occu- pies most of the ground ; the ' secondary stem (222) Occupies j the remainder ; the main branches (333, &c. ) make the occupation secure. I I I I I A Theory of Illumination FIG. 122. I 99 A Theory of Illumination I Next the minor branches are added to cover the space evenly, and then the flowers, fruity and buds made up of com- binations of the " leaves," circles, &c. are more or less evenly disposed in the spaces formed by the large, round curves at the ends of the branches (fig. 123). FIG. 123. 200 The "leaves" are placed all over, wher- ever there is con- venient room for them (just as the leaves of a real plant are). Then the stalks of the leaves are added, and, lastly, the interspaces are filled with "tendrils," which greatly con- tribute to the pleasant intricacy of the design (fig. 124). , A Theory of 1 Illumination FIG. 124. 201 A Theory of Colour Schemes. The safest treatment of such a " design " is Illumination in black and old ( 8ee p> l8 ?)' The leav es, which are kept 1 rather flat, may be outlined after gilding. The flowers, &c., may be made up in red and blue (tempered with white : see p. 181). This is the colour treatment of the example, Plate XVII. If the leaves are green, the stem and outline may be more delicately drawn in pale or grey-brown ink, and the green may be a delicate pale olive or grey-green. (A strong, black stem with bright green leaves is apt to look crude and hard. ) In such a delicate green plant border, delicate blue and red flowers, and one or two rather flat gold " berries " (single, or in threes) may be placed. A very effective colour decoration of a much simpler type may be made in red and green (or blue) pen-work using the pen and the colours with which the Versal letters and line- finishings are made. A red flourished stem with red leaves or tendrils, and green berries (or leaves), or a green stem with green leaves and red berries. A floral pattern may also be made in plain burnished gold both stem and leaves not outlined (p. 187 & Plate XXII.). A more complex decoration resembling the " floral filigree " has a " solid " stern in light or dark colour on a dark or light ground (or on a gold ground), as suggested in the rough diagram, fig. 120. The examples of Italian fifteenth-century work in Plates XVIII. and XIX. show a related type of illumination, known as the " white vine pattern." Very carefully and beautifully drawn, it strongly suggests natural form. "NATURAL, OR LIMNER'S,* ILLUMINATION" (See also pp. 213, 2IQ-2I, 227, 423-24, 426-28, 486 ; figs. 131^-141 ; Plates XV., XVI., XXIII.) This, the finest type of illumination, has very great possibilities ; and it is to be hoped that some craftsmen, who have the necessary skill, will find an opening for their work in this direction. * NOTE. Limning strictly means Illuminating, but has come to imply drawing and painting, especially of portraits and miniatures. Here, all its senses are intended. 202 Plate XV. is a thirteenth-century example of the A Theory of transition from the " barbaric " to the " natural." Illumination The dragon-tailed initial with its wonderful scroll- work and "ivy-leaf" being the perfection of bar- baric form, carrying brilliant colour and serving to support and frame the delicate and beautiful draw- ing which it contains. 1 But in the drawing itself the skill of a fine illuminator combines with the fancy of a cunning draughtsman to satisfy an aesthetic taste and appeal to the imagination. Plate XVI. shows a rare, and singularly beautiful, treatment of an Italian fourteenth-century MS. decorated with plant and insect forms (p. 427). Plate XXIII. (modern) show a border of wild roses and climbing plants : the colour treatment in the original is very brilliant (see p. 486). The " natural " type depends very much on the beauty and interest of its form ; and a draughtsman before he had become an illuminator, might be con- tent to decorate MSS. and printed books with pen drawings only faintly coloured or tinted ; but when he had mastered the limitations which the craft would impose on his drawing for pure and bright colour, there is no degree of brilliance, even unto " barbaric splendour," which he might not lay upon his trained and delicate forms. 1 The modern illuminator, having no tradition for making such scroll-work, would find that natural or organic forms as of trees or plants (see p. zzi) would serve the same end and have more " sweet reasonableness" in modern eyes. Excellent scroll-work, moreover, might be formed out of ornamental Capitals if sufficient excuse could be found for introducing them : a large flourished L, for example, could be made exactly on the same lines as the pendant and scroll in Plate XV. Narrow gold rods also may be used in a border to support a floral growth, or as frames if necessary (compare rules, p. 364). 20 3 CHAPTER XII THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION l The Development of Illumination Line-Finishings Initial Letters Borders & Backgrounds. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION The De- AN art or craft is so largely dependent on the tools velopment of and materials which are used by the craftsman, that Illumination we may reasonably say that it begins with the tools and materials, through which it has been produced. Now, "illumination" can be traced back step by step to simple penmanship. And its true develop- ment is most graphically sketched by Ruskin (" Lec- tures on Art," No. V.) when he says " The pen . . . is not only the great Instrument for the Jinest sketching, but its right use is the foundation of the art of illumination. . . . Perfect illumination is only 'writing made lovely , . . . But to make writing itself beautiful to make the snueep of the pen lovely is the true art of illumina- tion ; " And also that those who have acquired " a habit of deliberate, legible and lovely penmanship in their daily use of the pen, . . . may next discipline their hands into the control of lines of any length, and, finally, add the beauty of colour and form to the flowing of these perfect lines." 1 The fteft in the development sketched very briefly in this chapter, refer both to the past history of the art of illumination and to its possible revival (see Author's preface, p. 16). 204 LINE-FINISHINGS The De- Line-finishings are used to preserve the evenness velopment of of the text when lines of writing fall short. When the space left is small, or occurs in the middle of a sen- tence^ a quick stroke of the pen often a continua- tion of the last letter, or springing from it is sufficient (fig. 125) ; but where there are many and long gaps (as, for example, in a psalter at the ends of the verses), they may be filled in with dots (see Plate VIII.) or flourishes (a, , c, fig. 126) either made in black with the script pen, or with another pen, in colour or gold. Line-finishings commonly echo the treatment of the initials (see p. 181). In twelfth-century MSS. long delicate flourishes are commonly found, in red, blue, or green matching the colours of the Versals, and probably made with the same pen. The latter being rather finer than the text pen keeps these flourishes from appearing too prominent (see e, f y fig. 126). Such work should be simple and characteristic pen-work, showing the thicks and thins and crisp curves, the result of the position of the pen, which is usually "slanted" (see p. 43). Bands of pen-made "geometrical" patterns used with rather close writing may be very simple and direct, though appearing pleasantly elaborate (see figs. 87 and (g) 126, Plate XIV., and pp. 215 & 25). INITIAL LETTERS (See also pp. 16, 48, 112-14, 124, 134, 181, 188- 193, 193-99, 211-15, and the Collotype Plates) The development of Illumination proper was and still is bound up with the growth and decora- tion of the Initial Letter. 205 The De- velopment of Illumination ftne-fuiisHi pt ot-lcrminal e'- W" V" m spread Some- 206 FIG. 125. 1 tnc-fihishin dots and flourish** thus ** A A ** The De- velopment of Illumination with, 5tnaUerpen : ^ iTiuMt*iYrrrttr4^" WACk #S<*S&X#^^ FIG. 126. 20 7 The De- The first step in this development is the mastery velopment of of the pen-made Versal letter, and the right treat- Illumination ment of simple coloured capitals (see chapters VII., VIIL, and X.). The next step is their elaboration. The simplest ornamental treatment is found in the flourishing of a terminal of the initial letter (fig. 150), or the arrangement of the remaining letters of the word inside or beside it. Pen flourishes may consist of the simplest curved and zigzag strokes (sometimes springing from the actual letter : see p. 251), ending with a " twirl " of the pen in a loop or a " bud " (figs. 1 50, 79) ; or they may strike out a sort of formal floral pattern, filling or surrounding the initial (fig. 92), and such a pattern in its turn may spring from the letter into the margin, and grow into a complete "illuminated border" (see p. 199). Hollow Letters. A large capital is often made hollow, primarily with a view to lightening its ap- pearance, which might be rather heavy if the letter were made solid (p. 119). The hollow which is commonly left plain (i.e. the colour of the paper or parchment) may be a mere line, straight or curved or zigzag (fig. 189), or a pattern, or lettering (fig. 89). Sometimes it is made large and filled in with a contrasting colour, leaving a white line, however, between the two colours. And sometimes half the letter is made in one colour, and the other half (on the opposite side of the hollow centre) is made in a contrasting colour. A " hollow " letter (especially if very large) may be strengthened and improved by a filling of colour or ornament. (Addenda, p. 25.) " Woven " Forms.-^-A simple form of ornament (related to " Basket work ") which effectually strengthens the construction of a hollow letter without impairing its lightness consists in a cross- 208 ing and " weaving " or knotting of its actual parts The De- (fig. 127). velopment of Illumination Woven? . uuwvm ornament; oil in burnished gold mtJi tb cmfiisum be- "forms oPdiis ^pc^&ol5c> oca a 5cvcre^*r- Kj>c in \vHicH tKctetttryarc m^rt : their cnaractmstics bcuurrnorc marlccb FIG. 128. almost too slender and delicate, than that it should be at all heavy or clumsy. BORDERS & BACKGROUNDS The illuminated border was originally an extension or branching out of the initial decoration. It commonly occupied the greater part of the left-hand margin, and from thence it extended into the head 1 or foot margin (or into both), or completely sur- rounded the text, and even the eight margins of a 1 Where it is possible it is desirable to mark the top left- hand corner of the " page" (and also the lower corner) by a branch, flourish, bud, or flower (see Plates XIX., XXII.). A top left-hand corner appearing vacant or rounded off is apt to weaken the whole effect (see p. 134). 211 The De- velopment of Illumination NOTE. This diagram suggests a simple treatment of an initial word in colours and gold. The graphic method employed by heralds for indicating these by lines and dots is here discarded for the stronger con- trasts of black, white, and " g re y" The letters contained inside the initial P are kept distinct (i) crimson ("grey" in diagram) being used solely for the patches of ground adjoining the (gold) letters, and for filling the hollow part of the (gold} P, the whole word stands out in crimson and gold; (2) the floral pattern is also in gold, but it does not cover or hide any part of the word. The remaining ground is green inside and blue outside the P. The dots *.* are in red on the green ground, in cream with a red centre dot on the blue. The gold throughout is outlined black, and the blue ground has a black outline, separated from it by a -white line 212 FIG. 129. complete opening are sometimes covered with illumi- The De- nation. In late and modem usage the border is velopment of frequently separated from the initial, constituting a Illumination " framing border." l In some MSS. there are two side-borders on a page, one springing from the Initials on the left, the other sending branches into the gaps on the right (see Plates XVII., XVI.). In some cases the two pages of an opening are balanced by a side- border in each of the wide side margins (p. 428). Backgrounds of Initials (see pp. 188-193, 421-23) and borders are treated very similarly. It may be noted that, where a sotid-stem pattern cuts up the ground into small pieces, these are often painted in different colours commonly red, and green, and blue (see pp. 209, 430). And the groups of dots (fig. 129) in white or other colours may fill the interstices of a background, putting the finishing touch to the even covering and pleasant intricacy of the decora- tion (comp. p. 201). Or little flowers and leaves may be used instead growing from a thin (white) stem which appears to twine throughout the main pattern just as the smaller plants in a hedge creep and twine among the larger stems. There is no better model in nature for the illuminator than a country hedgerow. 1 Framing borders, or borders which surround the text, may be allowed nearly to fill the entire marginal space. 2I 3 CHAPTER XIII IN ILLUMINATION ** Design " Elementary Patterns in Decoration Scale & Scope of Decoration Of " Designing " Manu- scripts, Generally. "DESIGN" "Design "in PERHAPS the nearest right definition of "design" Illumination is " contrivance " applied to the actual doing of the work, rather than to the work when done : " de- coration^ (when that is the sense intended) is a safer word, 1 because it implies " of something" And generally that " something " lies at the root of the matter. For example : "illuminated initials" and " illluminated borders," so called, are really illumi- nzting : they are properly a decoration of manuscript or print. To consider a " piece-of-decoration " as a thing existing apart from that which it decorates, as something drawn or copied, and, so to speak, stuck on to the finished work, is as wwnatural as it would be to contemplate the flame-of-a-candle as a thing apart from the candle. 1 "Design" has been associated so much with bad cleverness in the artist, or clever badness in the natural man, that if we use the word in a good sense it is apt to be misunderstood. Decoration is derived from decut, decor =. comeliness or grace. 214 The finest decoration is really part of the work " Design" in itself, and may be described as the finishing touches Illumination given directly to the work by the tools which are pro- perly employed on it. The illuminator has, as a rule, to decorate a given manuscript with pen or brush work it may be with the simplest pen flourishes, or with the most elaborate figure "design." How to make that illumination part of the work, he can learn only by patient practice and by careful handling of his tools. ELEMENTARY PATTERNS IN DECORATION Nearly all simple Decoration consists of a com- paratively limited number of elements simple forms and pure colours which are built up into more complex forms to occupy an allotted space. A primitive type of such built-up decoration is seen in the dotted patterns, which are found in every age in the remains of the most ancient art, and in the shell decorations which children make on the sands at the present day. Examples of dotted " backgrounds " in the " Durham Book " are shown in fig. 130 (a and b). Chequers and Diapers in which two or more elements are employed are re- lated patterns. 1 (See also Addenda, p. 25 & fig. 1910.) A simple way of filling a band (or long narrow 1 Chequers in colours and gold were largely used in the four- teenth-century MSS. for backgrounds in miniatures. There is an example of very beautiful heraldic diapering (in enamel) on the shield of William de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, in West- minster Abbey (A.D. 1296). On p. 336 of this book there is a diagram of a very fine shield bearing a diapered chequer. 215 " Design "in space) is to run a zigzag line along it (r). This Illumination may be treated either as a line or wavy stem, which may send out buds, leaves, or flowers into the spaces (^), or as two series of triangles which may be "countercharged (f). 1 A second zigzag, cutting the first, would produce two series of triangles and a central row of lozenges (d). And it is not a very great step from this to the " twist " where the two lines pass over and under, the lines being made " solid " in white or gold on a coloured background (e y fig. 130). The main difference appears to be that while the one is of the nature of an abstract form, the other suggests a concrete form, such as might be made with twisted cords or rods. These primitive patterns never become anti- quated ; they are still the root forms of " design," and the pleasant even covering of a given space by simple elements which is their metier accounts for much of the unconscious pleasure which we take in good bricklaying or sewing or writing, and in a thousand things, where " many littles make a mickle." For their decorative possibilities in Illumination we can experiment in the most delightful way framing our writing with bands of countercharged triangles in burnished gold, and blue and white, or with golden zigzags on a blue ground, or chequer- ing backgrounds with scarlet and blue, and trying a hundred and one other ways (p. 197). Such patterns have been made the most of in Heraldry, 1 If the triangles were countercharged in colour and colour e.g. red and blue the zigzag would be made ivhite, black, or ld, to separate and harmonise the colours (see pp. 182-83). 216 S2- IfV X 1 :!* (<0 'S'.K'X'i ii: l HVA'^ ?k ii Durham t Book J> ^i (routfi Simple modes of filling a bdt or tend witti Vine ornament & (c.) (4-) C^-) (m.) (n.> ^ ELEMENTARY^ 7A7TtJVWS &S USD W SIMP1E T5ICORVT10M "Design" in Illumination FIG. 130. " Design " in an art which in itself would form a foundation for Illumination a splendid and complete scheme of Illumination. SCALE & SCOPE OF DECORATION Penmanship. Many of the most beautiful MSS. were made in pen-work throughout. 1 And it is well that the penman should stick to his pen as much as is possible. Not only does it train his hand to make pen ornaments, the forms of which are in keeping with the writing, but it helps to keep the decoration proportionate in every way. It is an excellent plan for the beginner to use the writing- pen for plain black capitals or flourishes, and to make all other decoration with similar or slightly finer pens than the one used for the writing. Again, the direct use of the pen will prevent much mischievous " sketching." Sketching is right in its proper place, and, where you know exactly what you wish to do, it is useful to sketch in lightly the main parts of a complex " design " so that each part may receive a fair portion of the available space. But do not spoil your MS. by experimental pencilling in trying to find out what you want to do. Experiments are best made roughly with a pen or brush on a piece of paper laid on the avail- able space in the MS., or by colouring a piece of paper and cutting it out to the pattern desired and laying it on. Such means are also used to settle small doubts which may arise in the actual illumi- 1 A most beautiful twelfth-century MS., known as the " Golden Psalter," has many gold (decorated) Initials, Red, Blue, and Green (plain) Versals and Line-Finishings, every part being pen-made throughout the book. 2l8 nating as to whether and where some form or " Design " in some colour should be placed on the page. Illumination Filigree, Floral, & other Decoration. The ac- quired skill of the penman leads very naturally to a pen flourishing and decoration of his work, and this again to many different types of filigree decora- tion more or less resembling floral growths (see figs. 125, 126; pp. 197-202; Plates XL, XVIL). Now all right decoration in a sense arranges itself, and we may compare the right action of the " designer's " mind to that necessary vibration or " directive " motion which permeates the universe and, being communicated to the elements, enables the various particles to fall into their right places : as when iron filings are shaken near a magnet they arrange themselves in the natural curves of the magnetic field, or as a cello bow, drawn over the edge of a sand-sprinkled plate, gathers the sand into beautiful " musical patterns." And to most natural growths, whether of plants or ornament, this principle of self-arrangement seems common, that they spread out evenly and occupy to the greatest extent possible their allotted space. Branches and leaves most naturally grow away from * the stem and from each other, and oppose elbows and points in every direction. In this way the growth fits its place, looking secure and at rest while in disconnected parallels, or branches following their stem, there is often insecurity and unrest. 1 (See also Addenda, p. 25.) For example : a circular space is filled more 1 In a spiral the stem, following itself, may be tied by an inter- lacing spiral, or the turns of the spiral may be held at rest by the interlocking of the leaves (see G, Plate XXII.). 2I 9 " Design" in decoratively by a cross (a y fig. 131) than by a Illumination contained circle ; a square is better filled by a " lozenge " or a circle (b and c) than by a smaller FIG. 131. square set square and parallel (compare the diaper- ing of the chequers in fig. 191 a). A circular or square space might be filled on this principle with a filigree arrangement such as is suggested by (d y fig. 131). Note. In the case of two curves in the ornament touching (either internally or externally) they may be linked at this point by a (gold) band or circle or lozenge (e y fig. 131, see also Plate XVII.). Miniatures and Drawing. In drawing and paint- ing, the difficulty which is apt to beset the illumi- nator is how to strike a balance between " Natural- ism " and " Conventionalism," so called. While the only criterion is good taste, we may be guided by certain general principles. To limit the number of elements in a " design " whether of form or colour is nearly always an 220 advantage (pp. 177, 1 8 1, 198). And the miniaturist, "Design" in while depicting the nature of a plant, usually Illumination limits the number of its branches and leaves and shades of colour. Every part of a " design " should be drawn clearly and distinctly, and in proportion to the whole. The miniaturist, therefore, usually draws in careful outline every branch and leaf, making the whole proportional with the MS. which it decorates. In fact, the qualities of good illumination are the same as the qualities of good writing Simplicity ', DistinctivenesSy Proportion, &>c. (see p. 239). And the " convention " (here literally a coming together) required is only such as will make the drawing and colouring of the illumination and the form and colour of the writing go well together. NOTE. Figs. 135 to 141 (woodcuts with part of the text from a Herbal printed at Venice in 1571 [p. 369]) and figs. 132, 133, and 1340 (wood engravings by T. Bewick, printed 1791) are suggested as examples of drawing of plants and animals suitable for book-decoration (see also figs. 134^, f all the Antelope kind, the leaft of all cloven-footed juadrupeds, and, we may add, the moft beautiful, ltd ore legs, at the fmalleft part, are not much thicker than i tobacco-pipe ; it is not more than feven inches in leight, and about twelve from the. point of the nofe to he infertion of the tail ; its ears are broad ; and its lorns, which are flraight, and fcarcely two inches long, ire black and mining as jet ; the colour of the hair is a eddifh-brown - 9 in fome a beautiful yellow, very fliort nd glofiy. Thefe elegant little creatures are .rlativcs of Senegal nd the hottefl parts of Africa * they are likewife found n India, and in many of the iflands adjoining to thai .aft continent. FIG. 133. 224 Design" in Illumination "Design" in Illumination 226 FIG. 134 b. " The intricacies of a natural scene (fig. 134 a after Bewick) may be simplified when rendered in such a simple medium as the pen drawings of a MS. (comp. fig. 134 b). Figs. 134 c & dare old examples of strong, simple drawing. Students should prac- tise themselves by translating figs. 132, 133 into fine, Quill- pen drawings." (N. R.) " Design " in Illumination FIG. I34r.] Hifpanis, Caw.] GaJlis, A R V N D O . 228 FIG, 135. THE REED. ASPARAGVS SVLVESTRIS. "Design" in Illumination ,nec valetiprcs vires habent. C^terum Cor- FIG. 136. ASPARAGUS. 229 "Design" in j.] Hifpanis, Lcnteyas.] Illumination LENS 230 FIG. 137. THE LENTIL. VITII vinifera, Graccis, A t unxor otv9$<>po<.] Itali$i bibus, ./farm Kafm> feu Karm.] Gecmanis, Vueln VJTIS VINIPERA. "Design" in Illumination FIG. 138. THE VINE. 2 3 I " Design " in Illumination CARYOPHILLT FLORES DOMESTICl . Jf,aut auuraci decode poti. AfTeruantur faecharo, perinr* ac rp- FIG. 139. THE CARNATION. 232 P^ONIA FOEMfNA. " Design "in Illumination m, & renum, & vcficq dolorcs decora in vino aluum fiflic . ^mcnlcs firtuncdcccm^utduodecimpotae^ vinoauflcro t FIG. 140. THE PEONY. 233 "Design" in Illumination A . P E R 5 I CA C repcriuntur rnr.n rubcnt, aJgcnt, alifvi- lu.aha fangui- .aliaduracina more lint pul- ndiducamur. ia nunpcrfua, um ficu-tn re- ttur. Suntetii hygdalam dul- % Amygdala ap A . ft fohts Amyg lilibus,quem- >US V quamuis tirpurafccntcs oatcnes fragi- tillcs, necalte ^ fit.quod hare cat , fie cadat . S . % in Italia,fed cuaprouenit. T ES . reccm habcnt 1. Alioqtu fa- in cdicamen- ocms,nempe fuum, huini- r icmpcric-' 5. cohibent, ftd *)>fluxioncs i\ unu& qujc fa- iFlorcs re- a folumaluii uonc ]uoq; onun aquam f^uc r;rotantium incommodo . Lacnr>'ma arborjs datur ex plantaginis , ad fan^utms raeftjoneJ . rufliemibus \t rb , & anhelciis ex Tufllagin*$ jicnro JHifit quoty; ad raucrdinnn, ^c artcna' impedimenta. Datnr calcu- P-*H Auilimoixuiii,duacuxu drachmarum ponderer .;-. f~n* JJii- . Recrntia folia illi- FIG. 141. THE PEACH. 234 PART II LETTERING PART II LETTERING CHAPTER XIV GOOD LETTERING SOME METHODS OF CON- STRUCTION & ARRANGEMENT Good Models The Qualities of Good Lettering Sim- plicity Distinctiveness Proportion Beauty of Form Beauty of Uniformity Right Arrangement Setting Out & Fitting In "Massed Writing" & "Fine Writing" Even Spacing Theory & Practice. GOOD MODELS IF lettering is to be rightly constructed and arranged, the study of good models is essential. Some of the writing and lettering in the old MSS., and the letters used on various old tombstones and brasses, weeded of archaisms, will be found almost perfect models. Yet to select one of these from the many which are " more or less " good, requires much discrimination. It is suggested below that the essential virtues of good lettering are readableness^ beauty, and char- acter. If, then, we can discover some of the under- lying qualities which make for these, our choice will at least be better considered, and instead of 237 Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment forming our " style " on the first type of letter that pleases, we shall found our work on a good model, full of possibilities of development. The Roman Capital (Chap. XV.). The ancestor of all our letters is in undisputed possession of the first place : but it is open to comparatively few to make a practical study of its monumental forms by means of cutting inscriptions in stone with a chisel. The Pen-formed letters are more easily practised, and the mastery of the pen acquired in the practice of a root form such as the half-uncial is the key to the majority of alphabets (which are pen de- veloped) and to those principles underlying the right construction and arrangement of lettering, which it is our business to discover. Doubtless a " school " of lettering might be founded on any fine type, and a beautiful alphabet or fine hand might be founded on any fine inscrip- tion : but the practical student of penmanship may be sure of acquiring a knowledge of lettering which would be useful to any craftsman concerned with letters, be he printer, book-illustrator, engraver, or even inscription carver. THE QUALITIES OF GOOD LETTERING The first general virtue of lettering is readable- nessy the second, fitness for a given Use. And the rational basis of the following summary is the assumption that such fitness is comprised in beauty and character^ and that a given piece of lettering having readableness y beauty^ and character has the essential virtues of good lettering. The qualities on which these virtues seem chiefly to depend, and their special significations in the case of plain writing, may be set forth as follows : 238 THE QUALITIES OF GOOD WRITING READABLENESS I. Simplicity: 2. Distinctiveness . 3. Proportion, 4. Beauty of Form : 5. Beauty of Uni- formity : 6. Beauty of Arrangement : 7. Essential qualities of (Hand and Pen) -work : S. Freedom : 9. Pirtonality : As having no unnecessary parts (and as being simply arranged : see 6). As having the distinguishing char- acteristics of each letter strongly marked (and the words distinctly arranged : see 6). As having no part of a letter wrongly exaggerated or dwarfed (and as the lettering being proportionally arranged : see 6). BEAUTY As having beautiful shapes and con- structions, so that each letter is an individual and living whole (not a mere collection of parts) fitted for the position, office, and material of the object bearing the inscrip- tion. As the assimilation of the cor- responding parts " bodies," "limbs," "heads" and as the " family likeness " of the different letters, so that they go well to- gether. As having a general fitness in the placing, connecting, and spacing of letters, words, and lines, in the disposal of the lettering in the given space, and in the propor- tioning of every part of the lettering and its margins. CHARACTER As being genuine calligraphy, the direct outcome of a rightly made and rightly handled pen, (Sttp.^B.) As having skilled and unaffected boldness. (Set pp. 122, 327, 323, 369.) As having the characteristics which distinguish one person's hand from another's. (Set also pp. 278,323.) 239 Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment Good This summary, while not presuming to define Lettering the Virtue^ or achieve Beauty by a formula, does Some indicate some guiding principles for the letter- Methods of maker, and does suggest a definite meaning which Construction may be given to the terms " Right Form," " Right & Arrange- Arrangement," and Ri^ht Expression " in a ment particular craft. It is true that Readableness " and " Character " are comprised in Beauty^ in the widest sense ; but it is useful here to distinguish them : Readableness as the only sound basis for a practical theory of lettering, and Character as the product of a par- ticular hand & tool at work in a particular craft. The above table, therefore, may be used as a test of the qualities of any piece of lettering whether Manuscript, Printing, or Engraving provided that the significations of those qualities on which " Character " depends be modified and adapted to each particular instance. It is however a test for general qualities only such as may help us in choosing a model : for as to its particular virtue each work stands alone judged by its merits in spite of all rules. SIMPLICITY (As having no unnecessary parts) Essential Forms and their Characterisation. The " Essential Forms " may be defined briefly as the necessary parts (see p. 275). They constitute the skeleton or structural plan of an alphabet ; and One of the finest things the letter-craftsman can do y is to make the Essential Forms of letters beautiful in them- selves^ giving them the character and finish which come naturally from a rightly handled too/. 240 If we take the " Roman " types the letters Good with which we are most familiar and draw them Lettering in single pencil strokes (as a child does when it Some " learns its letters "), we get a rough representa- Methods of tion of their Essential Forms (see diagram, fig. Construction 142). & Arrange- Such letters might be scratched with a point in wax or clay, and if so used in practice would give rise to fresh and characteristic developments, 1 but if we take a " square cut " pen which will give a thin horizontal stroke and a thick vertical stroke (figs. 10 and 40), it will give us the "straight-pen" or simple written, essential forms of these letters (% 143)- These essential forms of straight-pen letters when compared with the plain line forms show a remarkable degree of interest, brought about by the introduction of the thin and thick strokes and gradated curves, characteristic of pen work. Certain letters (A, K, M, N, V, W, X, Y, and k, v, w, x, y) in fig. 143 being composed chiefly of oblique strokes, appear rather heavy. They are lightened by using a naturally " slanted " pen which produces thin as well as thick oblique strokes. And the verticals in M and N are made thin by further slanting the pen (fig. 144). To our eyes, accustomed to a traditional finish, all these forms in figs. 143 and 144, but par- ticularly the slanted pen forms look incomplete and unfinished ; and it is obvious that the thin strokes, at least, require marked terminals or serifs. 1 In fact, our " small-letters" are the formalised result of the rapidly scratched Square Capitals of the Roman era (p. 37 & fig- 3)- S 241 Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment ABCDEFGHIK LMNOPQRST VXYZ'JUWfcS Square Capitals. be boo Capitals. aabcdefhiklm nopcrrst u vxy ; Small Lettay. (3 *^ --. j>^ 4 / Ji nnurh Uiajmun or the stiutfwnl en- ESSENTIAL FORMS' of the three main types tf Letters FIG. 142. 242 ABCDEFGHI KLMNOPqRS TVXYZ*JUW S letters, but tending to Curves ) be informal. (b) Straight (or Curved] \ . , THICK Strokes] Formal and strong. ( Formal and suitable for (c) Triangular Heads < small-letters, and free ( capitals (see fig. 168). The alphabets (fig. 148), produced from the skeleton forms (fig. 142) by the slanted pen, while not having such a conscious air of finish as the straight- pen letters, are much easier to write, and have in a greater degree the virtues of strong, 1 legible, natural penmanship. They are eminently suitable for general MS. work (see p. 305) when the beginner has mastered an early form of round-hand (see pp. 70, 304). DISTINCTIVENESS (As having the distinguishing characteristics of each letter strongly marked) The "Characteristic Parts" are those parts which most particularly serve to distinguish one letter from 1 Their greater strength may not at first be apparent in fig. 148, as the nib used therefor is narrower, in proportion to the height of letter, than that used for fig. 147 (see also fig. 151). 247 Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment ABCDEFG H1JKLMN OPQRST& UVWXYZ abcdeftjiij klmnopqrs tuvwxyz;?: Ponrud types < \jtttas J . \ 9 f * 1 vduayUue ^Jtimht-TEtt ^ "f FIG. 147. 248 ABCDEFG HIJKLMN Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction St Arrange- ment UVWXYZ abcdefgkij klmnopcjTS tuvwxyziT. 'Slanted-Pat " diamcteaat FIG. 148. 249 Good another (fig. 149). We should therefore, when Lettering constructing letters, give special attention to their Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment SOME ofihtmon * "CHARACT ERISTIC FAKT5: Such of distinguish .. stem -letters. ^nbrtMft special treat- (See also F 150.) FIG. 149. preservation, and sometimes they may even be accentuated with advantage always with an eye to the life-history, or evolution, of the letter in question, and allowing for the influence of the special tool with which it is to be made (see Pro- portion^ below). 250 PROPORTION Good (As having no part of a letter wrongly exaggerated Lettering * ^/^-see pp. 274, 277-78) J| a of The right proportioning of letters entails the Construction & Arrange- ment cn. FIG. 150. preservation of their Essential Forms and their Characteristic Parts, and, provided these are not 251 Good Lettering- Some Methods ot Construction & Arrange- ment seriously interfered with, a certain amount of ex- aggeration (and dwarfing) 1 is allowable in special cases ; particularly in ornamental writings, and Pen-flourished capitals or terminal letters (see figs. 79 and 125). Rational exaggeration usually amounts to the drawing out or flourishing of tails or free stems, or branches very often to the magnifying of a char- acteristic part (see fig. 150, & pp. 250, 331). It is a special form of decoration, and very effective if used discriminately. BEAUTY OF FORM (As having beautiful shapes and constructions, so that each letter is an individual and living whole (not a mere collection of parts) fitted for the position, office, and material of the object bearing the in- scription) To choose or construct beautiful forms requires good taste, and that in its turn requires cultivation, which comes from the observation of beautiful forms. Those who are not accustomed to seeing beautiful things are, in consequence, often uncer- tain whether they think a thing beautiful or not. Some perhaps all of us have an intuition for what is beautiful ; but most of us have to achieve beauty by taking pains. At the least we are apt to be misled if we label abstract forms as essentially beautiful or essentially ugly as by a mistaken recipe for beauty. For us as craftsmen " achieving beauty by taking pains," means acquiring skill in a special craft and 1 The exaggeration of one part may be said relatively to dwarf the other parts of a letter ; but it is seldom advantageous, and often not permissible, to dwarf part of a letter absolutely. 252 ment adapting that skill to a special piece of work. Good And perhaps the surest way to learn, is to let Lettering our tools and materials teach us and, as it were, Some make beautiful shapes for us. Methods of " Inside Shapes." The beauty of a letter depends Construction very much on its inside shape i.e. the shape of the & Arrange- space enclosed by the letter form. As this is often overlooked, it may be briefly referred to. Fre- quently when it seems difficult to say what is wrong with a piece of bad lettering, a glance at the inside shapes will reveal the fault. In simple writing^ if the pen be properly cut and properly held, these shapes will generally take care of them- oon? laside. shape?: mufc IS.tzndto FIG. 151. selves, and internal angles or asymmetrical lines which occur are characteristic of that particular form of penmanship, and not accidental (, fig. 151). 253 Good In making Built-up letters which have both Lettering outer and inner strokes the inner strokes should Some generally be made first (see p. 121). Methods of Plain and Ornamental Forms. Not only for the Construction sake o f readableness, but to promote a beautiful & Arrange- anc | dignified effect, the forms of letters are kept simple when the text is long. And, generally, the less frequent the type, the more ornamental may be its form (see pp. 126, 210, 298, 330). BEAUTY OF UNIFORMITY (As the assimilation of the corresponding parts "bodies" " limbs" " heads " and as the "family likeness" of the different letters, so that they go well together) Right uniformity makes for readableness and beauty, and is the result of good craftsmanship. Readableness. Where the text letters are uni- form, the reader is free to give his attention to the sense of the words, whereas the variations in an irregular or changing text are distracting. 1 Beauty. The abstract beauty-of-uniformity may be said to lie in this, that the different letters, or individual elements, "go well together" The beautiful effect of uniform lettering is thus caused by the united forces, as it were, of all the letters. Good Craftsmanship. A pen, or other letter- making tool, being handled freely and regularly, the uniform movements of the tool in similar cases will produce uniform strokes, &c. (On the other hand, the interruption and loss of freedom to the 1 As when the construction of a part of some letter is peculiar (all the y or g tails, for example, catching the eye, and standing out on the page), or, as when promiscuous types are used, giving the impression of a confused crowd of letters. 254 writer who is irregular, or who forces an unnatural variety, 1 results in inferior work.) RIGHT ARRANGEMENT (As having a general fitness in the placing, connecting, and spacing of BE A UTT OF letters, words, and lines, in the dis- ARRANGE- < posal of the lettering in the given MENT space, and in the proportioning of every part of the lettering and its margins) The particular fitness of a given inscription depends upon considerations of its particular office, position, material, &c. (see pp. 100, 351). For general use, however, the craftsman has certain regular modes of disposing and spacing the lettering, and proportioning the whole. And, as in constructing individual letters, so in treating lettering as a whole, he endeavours to give his work the qualities that make for readableness : viz. simplicity, distinctiveness, and proportion. Simplicity in the Disposal of the Lettering. For convenience of construction, reading, or handling, the simple, traditional arrangement of lettering is generally followed in dealing with flat surfaces (paper, vellum, &c.) : 2 THE TEXT FORMING A RECTANGLE, CON- SISTING OF A NUM- BER OF EQUAL LINES 1 Variety. There is a variety both readable and beautiful (see pp. 210, 369), but it is founded on uniformity (and sincerity). a "JBanJs" and symmetrical or asymmetrical groups of letter- ing adapted to the available space are used usually as ornament upon friezes, furniture, chests, book covers, flagons, dishes, and the like (see fig. 156 & p. 336). The special treatment of such things is a matter for the craftsman who makes them. 255 Good Lettering Some Methods of ment Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment Distinctiveness in the Spacing of the Lettering necessi- tates sufficient interspaces : the following common spacing of Letters, Words, Lines, &c., may be modified to suit special circumstances. Letters, as a rule, are not equidistant, but their interspaces are approximately equal (a, fig. 151). Words, commonly one letter-space apart (b and <:). Lines of Capitals, frequently half (d) or whole (e) letter-height apart. Lines of Small-Letters, commonly ascenders and descenders just clearing (/"). Divisions of Text a clear line apart, or marked by a difference in colour or size (see figs. 94, 96, 186, &c.). Proportion In the Treatment of the Whole Inscription. The spacing-proportions referred to above apply to lettering generally, but the proportions of an inscription as a whole involve the consideration of a special case. Example : The Proportions to be Considered in the Case of a MANUSCRIPT BOOK (see pp. 100-108, 341, &c. ). (i) Size and shape of the Book (Set by custom, use of Book, and its page (proportion of width to height) (see p. 103). 0) Width of Margins- Proportions (a) to each other. (b) to size of page. (c) to the lettering. (3) Size of Writing Proportion of height of letter to length of line. (4) Number of lines Proportion of text to page. (5) Size of Initials, & Large Capitals, (6) Size of Decorative Divisions of the Text (marked by different treatment, colour, ornament, &c.). 256 size of material, &c.) (see figs. 69, 70, and pp. 101, &c.). (a) (Commonly about i : 1:3:4) (see fig. 70, and pp. 103-7). (b) (Frequently about, or more than, half the area of the page). (Set by page, and margin, and number of words in the line ; usually more thany*or words to the line) (see pp. 107-8). (Set by page, margin, and height-of-letter,and modified by treatment of spacing) (see pp. 108, z6z). (Set by Small-Letter ; common- ly one, two, three, or more of the writing - line - spaces high) (see footnote, p. an). (Set by page, &c. ; usually such Division is relatively small or large as a definite "head- ing," or a whole page) (see p. 132). equaL (white) Interspaces WORTCSPAGE spaccadbctwcdrwon r M s LINES OFM CAPITALS i^, LINES OFlgf CAPlTALSJl distance apart V| Uiiies ^oFSmall "18? Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment 257 Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment SETTING OUT, & FITTING IN Ruling. The approximate sizes of margins and letters, and the number of lines of text, having been estimated, guiding lines are ruled on the surface (see p. 343) a right and a left vertical marginal line, with the necessary number of horizontals between them. (In the case of a manuscript, these lines are ruled faintly (or grooved), and are left to form a feature of the page ; for inscriptions on other materials than paper, parchment, &c., they are generally removed after setting-out.) Setting-out. An inscription of any size, or one requiring complex or very nice arrangement, is set- out in faint, sketchy outline of lead pencil or chalk. Simple writing is not set-out, but such slight calcu- lation or planning as is necessary is carried out mentally, or on a scrap of paper. By practice the scribe, like the compositor, can fit his lettering to the given space with ease and accuracy. For writ- ing and (to a large extent) printing, both combine set- ting-out and the act of "fettering" in one operation. And this shows how practice gives foreknowledge of the " mechanical " part of the work, leaving the mind free to take pleasure in its performance ; and also how slight if necessary at all is the experimental setting-out of simple forms required by the practised workman. Dividing Monosyllables. In simple writing the beauty of which depends on freedom rather than on precision I think that even such an awkward word as " through " should not be broken. If the space at the end of a line is insufficient, it should be left blank, or be filled in with a dash of the pen. But in the case of words in LARGE CAPITALS, especially in title-pages and the like, where spacing 258 is more difficult, and smooth reading less essential, Good any word may be divided at any point if the neces- Lettering sity is sufficiently obvious. But (even when the Some division is syllabic) breaking words, as interfering Methods of Construction & Arrange- AVO1 DIN. breaking ment MONOGRAlvMATICi TREATMENT: IF TlE SPACE DEJvNNDS IT IKSIT FIG. 153. with the ease of reading, may often be avoided with advantage, and divisions which give accidental words, especially when they are objectionable, as 259 Good Lettering Some Methods of Construction & Arrange- ment " TH-ROUGH," or " NEIGH-BOUR," should not be allowed. Among other ways of dealing with small spaces, without breaking words, are the following : Ending with Smaller Letters. The scribe is always at liberty to compress his writing slightly, provided he does not spoil its readableness or beauty. Occa- sionally, without harming either of these, a marked difference in size of letter may be allowed ; one or more words, or a part of one, or a single letter, being made smaller (a, />, fig. 153 ; see also Plate V.). Monogrammatic Forms, &c. In any kind of letter- ing, but more particularly in the case of capitals, where the given space is insufficient for the given capitals, monogrammatic forms resembling the ordi- nary diphthong IE may be used ; or the stem of one letter may be drawn out, above or below, and formed into another (c, fig. 153). Linking. Letters which are large enough may be linked or looped together, or one letter may be set inside another, or free-stem letters may be drawn up above the line (d, fig. 153, but see p. 26). Tying up. One or more words at the end of a line of writing particularly in poetry (see p. 95) may be " tied up," i.e. be written above or below the line, with a pen stroke to connect them to it (fig. 67). Care must be taken that none of these methods lead to confusion in the reading. Their " Quaint- ness " as it is sometimes called is only pleasing when their contrivance is obviously made necessary. "MASSED WRITING" & "FINE WRITING" We may distinguish two characteristic modes of treating an inscription, in which the treatment of the letter is bound up with the treatment of the spacing (fig. 154). 260 And if I bestow all Ttiy roods to feed the poor; and if I cnvernybocU^tlutl nuv crtory, but have not love, it profits cth me notmrur-ir 1 rr i Ljflove surreiwi Lan), and wide interspacing 2 would allow insufficient margins (c) either ar- rangement suggesting inconsistency (but see p. 352). NOTE. A given margin looks larger the heavier the mass of the text? and smaller the lighter the mass of the text. And, therefore, if lettering be spread out, as in " Fine Writing," the margins should be extra wide to have their true comparative value. The space available for a given inscription may in this way largely determine the arrangement of the lettering, comparatively small and large spaces suggesting respectively "Massed Writing" and "Fine Writing" (see p. 262). In certain decorative inscriptions, where letters are merely treated as decorative forms readableness 1 In () fig. 155, the letters have been unintentionally nar- rowed. The natural tendency to do this forms another objec- tion to such undue crowding. 8 In (c) the letters have been unintentionally widened. 3 Experiment. Cut out a piece of dark brown paper the exact size of the body of the text in an entire page of this Handbook, viz. 5^ inches by 3 inches, and lay it on the text: the tone of the brown paper being much darker than that of the print makes the margins appear wider. 265 Good Lettering Some Methods of CONSIDER Conduction EACH TllNG & Arrange- ment IS COME &OF WHAT IT CONSISTS (V INTO WHAT IT CHANGES* CONSIDER WHENCE EACH TOfG IS COME &OF WHAT 1TCONS1STS&WTO WHATITCHANGES. lONSlDER WHENCE EACH TUNG .5 COME & OF WHAT T CONSISTS^, INTO VH AT IT CHANGES FIG. 155- 266 being a matter of little or no moment the treat- Good ment of the spacing is adapted to a particular sur- Lettering face ; and, for example : Some Methods of Construction THE LETTERS MAY BE KEPT VERY & Arrange- ment CLOSE, FORMING ORNAMENTAL BANDS, THO' THE LINES MAY BE WIDELY SPACED. OR THE LETTERS MAY 6 E FAR APART & THE LINES CLOSE. FIG. 156. THEORY & PRACTICE The above discussion of theories and " rules " for the construction and arrangement of good lettering is intended to suggest some useful methods not to provoke excessive fitting or planning, but rather to avoid it. Straightforwardness is perhaps the greatest virtue in a craft, and whatever " rules " it may break through, it is refreshing and charm- ing. An excellent example for the scribe or inscrip- tion maker is the method of an early printer, who had only four or five sorts of type say, " Small- Letters " and " Capitals " (Roman and Italic) and " Large Capitals," and who, without any elaborate "design," simply put his types into their proper 267 Good Lettering Some Methods of ment places, and then pulled off his pleasant sheets of " commonplace " printing. The scribe should choose the best and simplest forms and arrangements, and master them before Construction going further ; he should have a few definite types & Arrange- at his finger tips," and, for everyday use, a matter- of-course way of putting them down on paper. Ambiguity is one of the greatest faults in a craft. It comes often from vague ambitions. One may be inspired by good ambitions, but the immediate concern of the craftsman is to know what he is capable of doing at the present, and to do it. Let the meaning of your work be obvious unless it is designed purely for your own amusement. A good craftsman seeks out the commonplace and tries to master it, knowing that " originality " comes of necessity, and not of searching. CHAPTER XV THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES The Roman Alphabet Proportions of Letters : Widths Upper & Lower Parts Essential or Structural Forms Characterisation of Forms Built-Up Forms Simple - Written Capitals Uncials Capitals & Small- Letters Early, Round, Upright, Formal Hands Slanted - Pen Small- Letters Roman Small - Letters Italics Semi-Formal Hands Of Formal Writing Generally Decora- tive Contrasts Ornamental Letters. The Roman THE ROMAN ALPHABET Alphabet THE R oman Alphabet is the foundation of all TV . lts . our alphabets (see Chapter I.). And since the full Derivatives , & its Derivatives development of their monumental forms about 2OOO The Roman years ago, the Roman Capitals have held the sup- Alphabet reme place among letters for readableness and beauty. They are the best forms for the grandest and most important inscriptions, and, in regard to lettering generally, a very good rule to follow is : When in doubt, use Roman Capitals. The penman may with advantage devote some study to a fine monumental type of Roman Capital (such as that of the Trajan Column Inscription : Plates I. and II.), and endeavour to embody its virtues in a built-up pen form for use in MSS. (p. 294). PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS I WIDTHS The marked distinction between the " Square " and the " Round " forms, and the varying widths of the letters as seen in the early inscriptions, 1 are characteristic of the Roman Alphabet. We may broadly distinguish Wide and Narrow letters thus OQCGD WIDE M W H (U) A N V T (Z) B E F R S Y (X) NARROW I I J KLP Round. n Square" 1 Such inscriptions contrast favourably with that Nineteenth Century style in which it was customary to make every letter occupy the same space and look as much like its neighbour as possible. 269 The Roman Alphabet & its The "Round" Wide Letters 0, >, C, G, D. Omay be regarded as the Key letter of an alphabet. Given an O and an I of any Derivatives alphabet, we can make a very good guess at the forms of the other letters. In fine Inscriptions the external line of O is commonly an almost perfect circle (see Plate II.) i.e. its height and width are equal. This may be regarded as the ideal shape, though a slight widen- ing or narrowing of the letter (fig. 157) is quite permissible. 1 ooo circular, ruunnver. wider. FIG. 157. Q, C, G, and D follow the proportions of O 1 NOTE. There is less danger of spoiling letters by narrowing them than by widening, because the limits to the possible narrow- ing of a letter are more obvious than the limits to its possible widening. Further, when letters are widened there is a ten- dency to thicken their parts and make them heavy and vulgar. 270 very nearly, and, though C, G, D are a little narrower, The Roman they have the same effect of roundness and width. Alphabet The Square " Wide Letters M, W> and H, & its ( 7), A, N, V, T, (Z)- Derivatives Their mean width is properly about equal to their height. H Width equal to, or a little less than, height (fig. 158), but if made too narrow it would look heavy, being double-stemmed. (see pp. 287, 284) resembles H. Ma TXT" VV 1 "I A > T T are double-stemmed, and have V internal angles, moreover, which would become too sharp and tend to close danxgrs of too sharp aiuges. FIG. 158. 271 The Roman up if they were made too narrow (fig. 158). Alphabet & its Derivatives Alphabet A-pv The cross-bar the characteristic part of T & its J[ projects a fair way on either side of the stem. 158). '"7 Either wide or (moderately) narrow (fig. The Narrow Letters, B y , F, R, 5, Y (X] (see fi g- I 59> BERS X narrow FIG. 159. There is a point of division in these letters about the middle of the stem or a little above (see p. 273), and we may argue that each being composed, as it were, of two little letters which are half-height, they are proportionately half-width : and this will be found approximately correct. l- may be said to consist of one little D on the top of another, averaging respectively half the height and width of a full-sized D. ETT> T} follow the proportions of B j I 1 J & IV (see also E, 4, p. 282). 272 Smay be made of one little tilted O on the top The Roman of another joined together and having the Alphabet superfluous parts removed. & its Derivatives is like a little V upon a little I. Either narrow or wide (fig. 159). The Narrow letters, AT, Z,, and P These forms are related to the B, E forms, but it is permissible to make them a little wider to give clearance to the angles of the 1^ and force to the single arm and loop the characteristic parts (see % 149) f ]^ and UPPER & LOWER PARTS In the letters B, E, H, K, X (A), F, R, P (S), Y there is generally a tendency to enlarge the lower part, the cross-bar or division being set above mid-height. This tendency may reasonably be accounted for as follows : The natural division of l-< H I I 1^" & Y^ regarded as abstract forms, would be symmetrical i.e. at the centre of the stem. 1 In order that its apparent position may be central, however, it is necessary, for optical reasons, to make * The primitive forms of these letters were vertically symmet- rical, I believe. s 273 & its Derivatives A The Roman its actual position above the centre. 1 And further, Alphabet by a reasonable enlargement of -the lower part, these letters acquire a greater appearance of stability. It would be well, I think, for the letter-craftsman to begin by making such divisions at the apparent centre (i.e. very slightly above mid-height ; see E, F, X, Plate II.), so keeping most nearly to the essential forms (see p. 275). Later he might con- sider the question of stability (see B, Plate II.). The exaggerated raising (or lowering) of the division associated with "Art Lettering" is illeg- ible and ridiculous. The lower part is essentially bigger, and the cross-bar is not raised, as that would make the top part disproportionately small. F usually follows E, but being asymmetrical and open below it may, if desired, be made with the bar at or even slightly below the actual centre. In early forms the bow was frequently rather large (see Plate II.), but it is safer to make the tail the characteristic part more pronounced (see Plates III., XXIV.). PThe characteristic part of P is the bow, which may therefore be a little larger than the bow of R (see Plate III.). Sin the best types of this letter the upper and lower parts are approximately equal ; there is a tendency slightly to enlarge the lower 1 It is interesting to note in this connection that the eye seems to prefer looking upon the tofi of things, and in reading, is accustomed to run along the tops of the letters not down one stroke and up the next. This may suggest a further reason for smaller upper parts, viz. the concentration of as much of the letter as possible in the upper half. 274 R part. (In Uncial and early round-hands the top part was larger : see Plates IV. to VII.) Y varies : the upper part may be less than that of X, or somewhat larger. The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives ESSENTIAL OR STRUCTURAL FORMS The essential or structural forms (see p. 240) are the simplest forms which preserve the characteristic structure^ distinctivenesS) and proportions of each individual letter. The letter-craftsman must have a clear idea of the skeletons of his letters. While in every case the precise form which commends itself to him is matter for his individual choice, it is suggested in the following discussion of a typical form the Roman B that the rationale of his selection (whether conscious or unconscious) is in brief to determine what is ABSOLUTELY essential to a form y and then how far this may be amplified in the direction of the PRACTI- CALLY essential. The letter B reduced to its simplest (curved-bo-w) form i.e. 3 the bare necessity of its distinctive structure comprises a erfendlcular item spanned by t-wo equal, circular bo-ws (a, fig. 160). In amplifying such a form for practical or aesthetic reasons, is well as a rule not to exceed one's object in this case to *ermine a reasonable (though arbitrary) standard essential n of B, having a distinctive and proportionate (f) structure. may increase the arcs of the bows till their width is nearly 1 to their height (b), make their outer ends meet the ends e stem (e), and their inner ends coincide (d). Raising .vision till its apparent position is at or about the middle of ,tem entails a proportionate increase of width in the lower :, and a corresponding decrease in the upper part (e). The very idea of an essential form excludes the wwnecessary, and its further amplification is apt to take from its distinctiveness and legibility. Where no limits are set, modification is apt to become 275 The Roman exaggeration. And, though special forms and Alphabet & its Derivatives e. method o *orm"of Capital B FIG. 1 60. ornamental letters may be produced by " reasonable exaggeration" (/, /, #z, fig. 161), if the tool be kept 276 ARB1TRA Having a j " ana, I.) c.J --X ^ 'tend- /ency to _ - of- any featiirer- disproportion and indistin 'Note : is permissible in Orn The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives FIG. 161. 2 77 The Roman under proper control, yet, generally, such structural Alphabet changes do not improve the appearance of the plain letter forms. & its Derivatives We may test our " Standard " (a, fig. 161) by considering the effects of further amplification. (1) Raising the division 1 slightly is permissible (b, fig 161) too much makes the top part disproportionately small (c). (2) Widening both botvs, or separating their junction from the stem, tends to dissociate the bows from the stem, making the letter less distinctive (g and /, fig. 161). Widening and narrowing are both allowable and occasionally desirable, but assuming that a standard or ideal width can be approximately determined, it is well to keep to it for common and ordinary use. CHARACTERISATION OF FORMS (See also Built- Up Forms^pp. 291-6, and pp. 240, 253) That the tool 2 gives character and finish to the Essential Forms of letters, can easily be proved by a little practical experience of the natural action of a properly cut pen (see figs. 142 to 148, and 162). And the penman or indeed any other letter-maker is advised to allow the pen to train his hand to l The extremely beautiful and finished B in the "Trajan Alphabet" (Plate II.) has the division a little higher, and a marked enlargement of the lower part ; until the letter-crafts- man can approach the perfection of its execution he will find a simpler form more suitable for his " standard." A curious form, in which the top lobe has nearly or quite disappeared (comp. c, fig. 161), is found in early Roman inscriptions. This form (which may have helped to give us the useful small b) is not suitable for a modern Capital, and would lack the distinctive- ness of B. 3 Chisel-made Roman Capitals (possibly influenced by brush, &c., pp. 292, 391), Plates I., II.: (modern), XXIV. Pen-made, Plates III., XVIII.: (modern), figs. 147, 148, 167, 168, &c. 278 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives EIUZATJONOF THE LfTTERB. BY" MEANS OF PEW STROKES FIG. 162. 279 The Roman make the proper strokes automatically : then he Alphabet may begin to master and control the pen, making & its it conform to his hand and so produce Letters Derivatives which have every possible virtue of penmanship and are as much his own as his common hand- writing. Most of the letters in a good alphabet have specially interesting or characteristic parts (p. 250), or they exhibit some general principles in letter making, which are worth noting, with a view to making good letters, and in order to understand better the manner in which the tool whether pen, chisel, or brush should be used. The characterisation of the Roman Capital Form. NOTE. The large types below are indices not models. A I . A pointed form of A, M, and N (see Plate II.) may be suitable for inscriptions in stone, &c., but in pen work the top is preferably hooked (fig. 167), beaked (fig. 147), or broken (fig. 158), or specially marked in some way, as this part (both in Capital A and small a) has generally been (fig. 189). 2. The oblique strokes in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, Y, whether thick or thin, are naturally finished with a short point inside the letter and a long, sharp point, or beak^ outside (see serifs of oblique strokes, p. 289). 3. The thin stem may be drawn out below for an occasional form (see F, 3). 1 . B, D, R, and P are generally best made round-shouldered (fig. 162 & Addenda^ p. 26). 2. B, D, E, F, P, R (and T) have gene- rally an angle between the stem and the top horizontal, while B 280 3. below in B, D, E (and L) the stem curves or The Roman blends with the horizontal. Alphabet 4. See O, 2. & its Derivatives Ci. C, G, and S ; the top horizontals or * arms ' may be straighter than the lower arms, or vice versa (see figs. 167 and 206). 2. C, G, and S; the inside curve is best continuous from the ' bow ' to the ends of the * arms ' not being broken by the serifs, and 3. it is best to preserve an unbroken inside curve at the termination of all free arms and stems in built-up Roman Capitals, In C, G, S, E, F, L, T, and Z the upper and lower arms are curved on the inside, and squared or slightly pointed outside (the vertical stems curve on either side) (fig. 163). 4. * Arms ' are best shaped and curved rather gradually out to the terminal or serif, which then is an actual part of the letter, not an added lump (p. 289). 5. See O, 2. Di. See B, i. 2. See B, 2 and 3. 3. The curve may be considered as springing from the foot of the stem, and may therefore for an occasional form be separated from the stem at the top (*Z), fig. 177). 4. See O, 2. E 1. See B, 2 and 3. 2. See C, 3 and 4. 3. The lower limb in E, L (and Z) is often drawn out : these, however, are pro- perly to be regarded as occasional or special 281 The Roman forms: the lower serif of this type commonly points Alphabet out (see figs. 2C>6, 1 88). & it8 4. E's three arms (& F's two) are approximately Derivatires equai ; / ength in the best early forms 1. See B, 2. 2. See C, 3 and 4 (and E, 4 above). 3. One or more (the development of the letter and tradition may decide which) of the free stems of A, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, P, R, T, V, W, X, Y may be drawn out for occasional forms (see fig. 188). 4. The elongated stems of F, I, J, P, T, Y may hang below the line, or they may (occasionally) stand on the line and overtop the other letters. Gi. See C, i, 2, 3, and 4. 2. The stem may be drawn out below the line (F, 3). 3. The stem sometimes forms an angle with the lower 'arm' (this is safest: see fig. 148), sometimes they blend (fig. 147). 4. The point of the lower 'arm' may project a very little beyond the stem to mark the outer angle. 5. The wholly curved "gothic" {ey (and also the other round letters : see p. 119) may be intro- duced occasionally among Roman Capitals. 6. See O, 2. H 282 1. The left-hand stem is occasionally drawn out above (F, 3 & comp. fig. 3), and 2. this form is sometimes associated with an ornamental cross-bar (fig. 189). 3. H and N mayslightly widen out above. I 1. The stem may below (F, 3 and 4). 2. See J, 2. be drawn out above or The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives Ji. The stem or tail may be drawn out (F, 3 and 4). 2. NOTE. With regard to the use of I for J (and V for U) : this is associated so much with the Latin usage, that it is perhaps per- missible still in Latin. 1 But for modern English, in which these letters are strongly differentiated, the tailed J and the round U are to be preferred. Be- sides the suspicion of affectation attaching to the other mode, its strangeness gives an appearance of awkwardness almost amounting to illegibility to common words, such as A QVAINT IVG " or " IAM IAR." And, at the least, very careful 1 J. C. Egbert in an "Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions" says, " J -was not specialised at a letter until the l$th Century." It would seem that in early inscriptions a tall I was frequently used for J bet-ween vowels, and for I at the begin- nings of words : later, while the medial I remained straight, the initial form was curved to the left and used for both I and J; this curved initial form, I , at length became identified with the letter J. Similarly, it appears that V was used for an initial, and U for a medial ; and later, the V form became identified with the consonant. In the words 3ln tofgi, nattu > * the initial I is curved like a J, while the medial i's are straight ; the initial V has a v form, while the medial V in nativ(itatis) has a u form. 283 The Roman discrimination is desirable : " IVBILATE " may Alphabet pass, but " I VIVBE " is not really readable. & its 3. The tail of the J may be slight, provided it Derivatives be distinct, and the second stem of the U may match the first (fig. 158) ; the ugly J and in common use need not be copied. 4. See also Tails, pp. 289-291. K 1. The stem is sometimes drawn out above (F, 3). 2. Both arms are occasionally lengthened, and the width of the letter increased, by joining the thin arm to the stem lower down 5 the thick arm, or tail, then springs from the side of the thin arm (compare I? ). This tends away from the essential, and is therefore a less safe form. 3. The tail may be curved or drawn out occa- sionly (see Tails, pp. 289-291). 4. Serifs on arms. See A, 2. L M 1. See B, 3. 2. See C, 3 and 4. 3. See E, 3. 4. See F, 3. I. The stems are commonly slightly spread out to give greater clearance for the inner angles. An occasional form is much spread out AA 2. NOTE. There are inscriptional forms of M 284 and N without the top serif (Plate II.). But the pen forms and others have top serifs, and these commonly extend outward tending to beaks (see A, i and 2) rather than in. (V, W, X, Y (and N) show a similar tendency see p. 289.) 3. The thin stem of M is occasionally drawn out (F, 3). Ni. See C, 3 and 4. 2. See H, 3. 3. See M, 2, and A, i and 2. 4. The first stem is drawn out below the line for an occasional form (most suit- able for an Initial Letter) : the right-hand stem is very occasionally raised (when a final letter) (F, 3). 5. NOTE. The stems of N (the only vertical thins not counting M's in the Roman Capitals) tend sometimes to be thicker : see Plate II. 01. O is the key letter of the curved forms and, in a sense, of the whole alphabet (p. 270). The upright form \ may be regarded as the ideal simple letter. 2. Very commonly, however, O is tilted (see fig. 163), and when this is the case, all the curved letters B, C, D, G, P, Q, R, S, U are correspondingly tilted (see Plate II.). The tilted form is more easily made, but both are good forms. p 1. See B, i and 2. 2. See O, 2. 3. (P with stem below line (see Plate IV.) must not be allowed to confuse with D) (see F, 3 and 4). 285 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives The Roman 4. The bow of P appears to be attached (to the Alphabet stem) above : in certain forms it is slightly separated & its from the stem below : see Plate II. Derivatives >^->^ I. Q resembles O with a tail: see O. f \ 2. There are many characteristic var- 1 I ieties of the tail : see Tails (pp. 289-291). ^^^^r 3. NOTE. Q being always followed ^^ by U, it is convenient often to deal with the two letters together. (See Plate II.) Ri. See B, i and 2. 2. See O, 2. 3. In the form nearest the essential, the junction of the Bow and the Tail touches the stem. If the tail springs from the curve of the bow (Plate II.) greater care in construction is necessary (compare K). The treatment of the tail is very important. It may end in a serif (see A, 2), or it may be curved and pointed (see Tails, pp. 289-291). It may be drawn out (see fig. 50). 4. See F, 3 (& comp. fig. 169). s 1. See C, i, 2, 3, and 4. 2. See O, 2 (and p. 273). 3. S very often leans slightly forward. Ti. See B, 2. 2. See C, 3 and 4. 3. Drawing out of stem : see F, 3 and 4. 4. NOTE. The right arm is occasionally extended to fill a line when T is a ter- minal letter (in this case it is generally made lighter, and the left arm heavier somewhat as in the Uncial T, figs. 56 & 1 88). 286 Ui. NOTE. The curve if it be modelled The Roman on the common tilted O (see O, 2) is Alphabet thin where it meets the second stem. & its 2 (V for U). See J, 2, 3, and footnote. Derivatives 3. The foot of the second stem projects on the right only, and gives clearance to the angle of the curve on the left. Sometimes the second stem ends in a hook or beak, which (very occasionally) is drawn out below. v 1. See M, 2, and A, 2. 2. The thick stem may be drawn up (F, 3), in which case the thin commonly curves over for strength (see figs. 89, 95). 3. (See note on V for U, under J.) 1. See M, 2, and A, 2. 2. The best form is of two V's crossed, 3. The first or both the thick stems may be drawn up and the thins curved over (see V, 2). XI. See M, 2, and A, 2. 2. There is sometimes a slight curving in of the stems, especially the thin stem (see fig. 80). 3. The thin stem is sometimes drawn out below (F, 3), and commonly curved. Y 1. See M, 2, and A, 2. 2. See F, 3 and 4. (Y with stem below line (see Plate V.) must not be allowed to confuse with V.) 3. An occasional rather interesting form 287 The Roman of Y has the arms curving out and ending in points Alphabet (see fig. 167). & its Derivatives f W l ' See C > 3 and 4- 2. The lower arm of Z is sometimes drawn out (see E, 3) : it may be curved and pointed (or flourished). z Genera/ Remarks on the characterisation of the Roman Capitals and related forms (see fig. I63). 1 VERTICAL STEMS. (a, fig. 163) Thick (ex- cepting in the thin stemmed N (and M)). (b) Slightly curved in on either side (see fig. 1 1 6), or appearing so because of the outward curve of the serifs (see figs. 204, 206). (c) A fine effect is obtained when the stem is made wider above than below (see p. 119). (d) Free stems occasionally are drawn out (see above, F, 3 and 4, and pp. 251, 260, 332). OBLIQUE STROKES or STEMS. Thick, to the left \, thin, to the right / (see A, K, &c.)> otherwise like vertical stems (above) (see also SERIFS (e) below). HORIZONTALS, ARMS, BRANCHES, or BARS. Thin : free ends sometimes drawn out and flourished (see figs. 125, 188). BOWS and CURVES. Gradated, and follow- ing the O (see pp. 44, 121, 270, 285). SERIFS or FINISHING STROKES. (a) NOTE. Serifs of some sort are practically essential to the proper characterisation of an alphabet (see figs. 147, 148, 162), and should generally have a certain uniformity (p. 324). 1 The more ornamental treatment of Stems, Boius, Serifs, Tails, &c. , is referred to at p. 331, and in figs. 188, 189. 288 Alphabet & its Derivatives (b) The serifs, &c., of simple-written forms are The Roman treated at p. 244 (see fig. 145). (c) In Veriah and certain other forms the mode of making requires the serif to be a distinct addition to the letter (see figs. 116, 166). (d, fig. 163) In the finest built-up A B Cs serifs are treated as the actual finishing and shaping of the ends of the stems and branches^ rather than as added parts (see C, 3 & 4, p. 281 and p. 240). This particularly affects the construction of the thin strokes (see figs. 165, 167). (e) The serifs of the oblique strokes in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, Y are commonly not placed centrally, but projecting in the direction of the stroke (i.e. away from the letter, thus : J^ ), branching out from the parent stem (see tails y below), and avoid- ing an acute angle (as "^ ). This has tended to produce hooks and beaks (see fig. 163), which are often used for the oblique strokes, particularly of A and N (see figs. 189, 158), and the tails of K and R (see below). (/) There is a similar natural tendency to hook or flourish the terminals of vertical stems on the left, particularly of B, D, I, J, K, L, P, R ; less often of E, F, H. A very interesting and beautiful effect may be obtained by delicately curving down the upper serifs on the left (like thin beaks'). Such serifs are sometimes very slightly turned up on the right, and it may be noted that this tendency of the " horizontals " to curve up and forward - is natural and characteristic of freely made, vigorous lettering (see Uncial T, pen dashes, &c., figs. 169, 125, &c.). TAILS. (a) The tails of K, Q, R (and J) T 289 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives REE dmwn cniT Siorms lODf IOD3 . SERIFS FIG. 163. 290 and the strokes in A, F, G, I, M, N, P, Y, &c., The Roman which may be drawn out tail-wise play an impor- Alphabet tant part in the right construction, and the occa- & its sional decoration, of plain lettering. They may Derivatives end either in serifs or in curves (see SERIFS (e) y above, and fig. 188). (b) NOTE. It is a characteristic of vigorous forms that branches, c>f., stand out well from their stems (pp. 219, (e) 289, (N) 271), and a good tail should stand out well from the letter (K, Q, fig. 167). (c) An excellent form of tail for ordinary use, combining strength and grace, consists of a (strong) straight stroke ending more or less abruptly in a (graceful) finishing curve.. (d) An extraordinarily long tail requires a slight double curve to take off its stiffness. (e) A good tail may be made by the addition of a double curved stroke on the under side of a straight tail (or of a single curve above). (f) In treating the tail of J, or the drawn-out stems of A, F, G, I, M, N, P, Y, it is important to preserve the essential straightness of the stems. Therefore, if a finishing curve be used, its size is related to the length of the straight stroke, and, unless this be extraordinarily long, the curve is usually made rather small and abrupt. A curve which is too large is apt to weaken the form and " pull it out of the straight" (^, fig. 163). BUILT-UP FORMS Built-up Letters are composed of compound strokes (<:, d, fig. 1 64) ; Simple-written Letters of simple strokes (#, ). The Pen being an instrument which produces 291 & its Derivatives The Roman definite thick and thin strokes on a smooth surface, is Alphabet perfectly adapted to the construction of either simple or compound forms ; other tools, such as the stylus, needle, graver, &c., produce various scratches, stitches, or cuts, generally of the nature of rather vary- ing thin strokes, and to produce thick strokes a building-up process is required. In making built-up forms the control exerted by the tool is less obvious, and more depends upon the craftsman, who must therefore use greater care and judgment. Not only is it possible, but, occa- sionally, it may be desirable to depart from the more obvious tool-forms ; though generally the more simply and naturally tool-made a form is, the better it is. The fine early inscriptions are supposed to have been first drawn or painted (in outline) and then cut into the stone. The chisel forms were doubt- less affected in this way by brush (and indirectly by pen) forms, but these were of the simplest no- thing was sketched in that was unfitted for the chisel to make into a natural and true chisel-form. The action of the brush or " pencil " to a certain extent resembles that of the pen, but their effects are really distinct. In contrasting pen-made and brush-made letters, we may observe that a pen form tends to abrupt changes from thin to thick : a brush form to gradation (fig. 164). The pen particularly affects curved strokes (comp. a & b), generally making them more quick and abrupt (or even broken, see * * c). than brush curves. The brush will give more grace- ful and finished but less uniform letters (see p. 376). The character of a pen-letter depends greatly on the nib-width (p. 324), and narrow, medium, or broad nibs are used according to the type of letter required. 292 +OX.O Simple-written PEN curves FIG. 164. A narrow nib may be used for special (built-up) Initials and Capitals, which are drawn rather than written (a, fig. 165). The horizontal arms (made by the pen held horizontally) are markedly affected, and if a very fine nib were used, the necessity of strengthening and thickening them would tend further to reduce the pen character. A broad nib gives strong, uniform pen-letters (b}. For ordinary use letters are perhaps best made with a "medium" nib (<:). The width of the ordinary writing-pen, or rather narrower, gives a good proportion for initials, &c. (see pp. 118, 218). In MS. books the early built-up Capitals were 293 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives The Roman commonly of a rather severe type approaching Alphabet the Roman Capital, but having the sharp contrast & its Derivatives Proportion of width of notarize of letter? Nornnv: ediuni: FIG. 165. between the thicks and the thins characteristic of pen-letters (fig. 166). They make very simple and effective " Versals." A more highly finished type of pen-made Roman Capital may be made by blending the serifs and stems (d y p. 289) : it is nearer to the inscriptional form, but it exhibits a more curved and supple 294 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives in 295 The Roman outline, which comes of natural pen-strokes (fig. Alphabet 167). & its Derivatives /^"^ ** ^ '^ 'W' ~W~ AFGIJ KLTVP o ut/r-u^'pen Capitals (see also . 15S, .Ncte tik& O. FIG. 167. The remarks in Chapter VII. on the treatment of the more elastic " Gothic " Versal (a free variety 296 of the Roman) may be taken as applying generally The Roman to (Coloured) Built-up Capitals due allowance Alphabet being made for the characteristic differences of the & lts various types. Derivatives SIMPLE-WRITTEN CAPITALS "Rustic Capitals" (fig. 4) may be referred to here as typical, simple-written capitals. Though not a very practical form, 1 they are full of sugges- tions for a semi-ornamental lettering in which the pronounced treatment of the heads and feet might be a feature (comp. fig. 203). They were used as ornamental letters for titles and the like (see Plates VIII., IX., &c.) for centuries after they had gone out of ordinary use. Simple - written Roman Capitals. (Examples : Plates III., XVIIL, XIX., XXL, figs. 147, 148, 168, 175, 179. See also pp. 247, 429.) Uncials. (Examples : see p. 300.) Simple - written Capitals ordinarily conform to the writing line as set by the small text (p. 82). This applies even where several words in capitals have to be inserted in the small text, though in special cases where these might look too crowded such capitals might be written on alternate lines. Used for Initial Words, headings, whole pages, or books, in black or colour, they are written with greater freedom and accorded more special treat- ment (see pp. 298, 299). Simple-written Capitals are best composed of sharp, clean, pen-strokes : they may be quite plain 1 Their thin stems and heavy branches may tend to weakness and illegibility*^, such letters as E, F, I, L, and T (see fig. 4) are not always easily distinguishable. 297 The Roman or more or less decorative (fig. 168), subject to the Alphabet general rule that the fewer the number of letters or the & its more ornamental their office, the more elaborate and Derivatives fanciful may be the forms employed (see p. 294). ABCDEg NOPQVR RSTVV. ital* : rvwrh Caital* : rvwrhl FIG. 1 68. A freely used pen naturally produces occasional varieties for special or ornamental purposes : these tend to elegance and drawn out flourished strokes (p. 331); they vary chiefly in being extra large. 1 - : - 1 Increasing the tixe of letter affects the form as though the nib were narrowed (see p. 324). 298 & its Derivatives Several of these may be used with fine effect in The Roman a page of plain Capitals, their " weight " (and Alphabet generally their colour) being the same as that of the text (see Plate V., and p. 328). Whole Books or Pages written in Capitals. A very grand effect may be produced by these at the expense of a little more time and material than a Small-letter MS. entails. The lines of writing are commonly made one-letter-height apart : this requires ordinary simple ruling the capitals being written between every alternate pair of lines (see p. 412). Such writing may conveniently be treated as "Fine Writing" (p. 262). It justifies the use of wider margins. It is generally more difficult (and less necessary) to keep the right-hand edge as straight as a small text permits. The irregularities of this edge may be balanced by setting out in the left margin the first letters of sentences, verses, and the like (see p. 264). Such initials may be written larger or more ornamentally as suggested above ; or, if built-up Letters are required, plain, rather slender Roman Capitals are the most suitable : these look best in burnished gold. Perhaps the finest and most beautiful work which the penman can produce, is a book written entirely in gold 1 capitals'* on purple vellum (see pp. 164, 175). This is only possible in special cases, but a book rightly so made being illuminated from within, has an incomparable simplicity and grandeur., surpass- ing that of the finest post-decorated and illuminated manuscripts. 1 Some may be in " silver" (p. 165). 2 In a very short book these might even be built-up capitals. 2 99 The Roman UNCIALS Alphabet _ & its Examples : Plates IV., V. ; figs. 5, 169 (enlarged) ; Derivatives (modified, fig. 56). Uncials are typical pen-capitals. 1 Though not of such practical use as the simple-written Roman Capitals, their great possibilities and their beauty make them worth practising. (See Round, Upright, Forma/ Hands, p. 304.) Their use is limited by two considerations First: that while the round ^b. C, b. CO, U are essentially legible (p. 239), people generally are not accustomed to them, and may find them hard to read ; and Secondly: that *b, p- !- ^,) . k,L, p, q^ have ascending and descending strokes which are apt to become too pronounced and give an un- pleasant appearance of "tailiness" to a page of Uncial Writing (in English, sec footnote, p. 326). The first difficulty may be met by keeping Uncials for special MSS. for private use and introducing them sparingly or not at all in Service Books, Placards, &c., where ease and quickness of reading are essential. The appearance of " tailiness " (not so obvious in Latin) may be avoided by making the tails shorter and keeping the lines of writing well apart. Or freely made Roman Capitals without tails (see D, tail-less, fig. 57) may be substituted for one or more of the chief offenders. 1 Palaeographers call them " majuscules " ( = " large letters "), but distinguish them from "Capitals." For the purposes of the modern penman, however, they may be regarded as Round Capitals. (For their treatment, see pp. 297-299, and 304.) 300 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives The Roman Uncials may be " round " (see Plate IV., fig. 5, Alphabet and p. 304), or "pointed" (see fig. 169, and p. & its 413). Derivatives CAPITALS & SMALL-LETTERS During the development of Small-Letters from Capitals but little distinction was made in their use, and such capital forms as N and R were freely and promiscuously used in the round minuscule writings, together with the small-letters n and r (see Plates VI., VII.). On the other hand, Small-Letter forms were frequently written larger and used as initials. In Irish and Anglo-Irish MSS. these were filled inside with green, yellow, or red, and surrounded outside with red dots, or otherwise decorated with colour (see fig. 7, and Plate VI.). In early MSS., therefore, one does not find an alphabet of Simple - Written Capitals, which is peculiar to a given small text. But we may employ a kindred capital such as the round Uncial for the round Half-Uncial. And a fitting alphabet may always be constructed, from the " Roman " or " Uncial " types of Capitals (footnote, p. 300), by taking the same pen with which the small-letters have been made and using it in a similar manner : " straight " for " straight-pen " writing, and " slanted " for " slanted-pen " writing (see figs. 147, 148). When in doubt as to the type of Capital for any purpose use Roman Capitals. EARLY, ROUND, UPRIGHT, FORMAL HANDS Examples : Half- Uncials fig. 6 (Roman) ; Plate VI. (Irish), Plate VII. (English) fig. 170 later; see also pp. 40, 44, 413-415. Uncials (Plate IV. and p. 38). 302 clnot>ea The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives FIG. 170. Part of an English eight-century MS. (British Museum, Case C, No. 68), enlarged three times linear. 303 The Roman The main types are the "round** Uncial and Alphabet Half-Uncial, commonly written with an approxi- & its mately " straight pen." l They are generally treated Derivatives as fine writing (p. 262), and written between ruled lines : this has a marked effect in preserving their roundness (see p. 414). They are very useful as copy-book hands (see p. 70), for though the smooth gradation of their curves, their thin strokes, and their general elegance unfit them for many practical purposes, yet their essential roundness, uprightness, and formality afford the finest training to the penman, and prevent him from falling into an angular, slanting, or lax hand. Their very great beauty, moreover, makes them well worth practising, and even justifies their use (in a modernised form) for special MSS., for the more romantic books such as poetry and " fairy tales" and generally where speed in writing or reading is not essential With an eye trained and a hand disciplined by the practice of an Irish or English Half-Uncial, or a modified type, such as is given in fig. 5O> the penman may easily acquire some of the more practical later " slanted- pen " types. " SLANTED-PEN SMALL-LETTERS (Typical Examples : Carlovingian ninth - century MS. Fig. 8 (en- larged, fig. 171): 1 The writing in fig. 170 shows a slightly slanted pen. To make quite horizontal thins is difficult, and was probably never done, but it is worth attempting them nearly horizontal for the sake of training the hand. 34 English tenth - century MS. Plate Fill, (en- The Roman larged,fig. 172): English eleventh - century MS. Plate IX. (en- larged,fig. 173): Italian twelfth-century MS. Plate X. (enlarged, fig- 174)- The use of the " slanted pen " generally pro- duced stronger, narrower, and stiffer letters. Its effects are detailed in pp. 43-47, and fig. n, and may best be studied in the tenth-century example (fig. 172 the letter forms are described on p. 416). In the Carlovingian MS. which does not show these effects in any marked degree we may note the wide letter forms, the wide spacing, the long stems (thickened above by additional strokes), the slight slope of the letters, and the general effect of gracefulness and freedom (see fig. 171). Carlo- vingian MSS. may be said to represent a sort of mediaeval copy-books, and their far-reaching influence on writing makes them of great interest to the modern penman, who would, moreover, find one of these hands an excellent model for a free "formal hand." For practical purposes the " slanted-pen " letter is generally superior to the " straight-pen " letter. The " slanted-pen " letters have greater strength and legibility, due mainly to the presence of the thick horizontals often equal in width to the verti- cals. Their use saves both space and time, as they are narrower, and more easily and freely written * than the straight-pen forms. The real importance to us of these early types 1 NOTE. Single-line ruling is commonly used the writing being on, or a little above or be/oiv, the line: this allows of greater freedom than the double line (see p. 304). u 305 Alphabet & its Derivatives The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives J I lol O 3 ft .s c 3 306 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives 307 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives 3 I 308 The Roman < Alphabet & its DerivatiTes tnconui irgtnfax pttret-'O FlG. 174. Part of Plate X., enlarged three times linear (see pp. 417-419). 39 The Roman lies, I think, in their relation to the Roman Small- Alphabet Letter (pp. 418-19 & 429-83), and their great & its possibilities of development into modern formal Derivatives hands approaching the " Roman " type. ROMAN SMALL-LETTERS Ex.: (Italian) Plates XIX., XX. (i5th century) ; figs. 175, 176 (l6th century) : figs. 147, 148 (modern MS.). The Roman Small-Letter is the universally recog- nised type in which the majority of books and papers are printed. Its form has been in use for over 400 years (without essential alteration) and as far as we are concerned it may be regarded as permanent. And it is the object of the scribe or letter-maker gradually to attain a fine, personal formal hand, assimilating to the Roman Small-Letter ; a hand against the familiar and present form of which no allegations of unreadableness can be raised, and a hand having a beauty and character now absent or wwfamiliar. The related Italic will be mastered for formal MS. work (p. 315), and the ordinary hand- writing improved (p. 323). These three hands point the advance of the practical, modern scribe. The Roman Small-Letter is essentially a pen form (and preferably a " slanted-pen " form ; p. 305), and we would do well to follow its natural de- velopment from the Roman Capital through Round Letters and Slanted-Pen forms so that we may arrive at a truly developed and characteristic type, suit- able for any formal manuscript work and full of sug- gestions for printers and letter-craftsmen generally. A finished form, such as that in Plate XX. or even that of fig. 175 would present many diffi- 310 & its Derivatiyes culties to the unpractised scribe, and one who so The Roman began would be apt to remain a mere copyist, more Alphabet or less unconscious of the vitality and character of the letter. An earlier type of letter such as that in Plate VIII. enables the scribe to combine speed with accuracy, and fits him at length to deal with the letters that represent the latest and most formal development of penmanship. And in this connection, beware of practising with a fine nib, which tends to inaccuracy and the substitution of prettiness for character. Stick to definite pen strokes, and preserve the definite shapes and the uniformity of the serifs (p. 324) : if these be made clumsily, they become clumsy lumps. It may be impossible always to ascertain the exact forms especially of terminals and finishing strokes for the practised scribe has attained a great uni- formity and some sleight of hand which cannot be deliberately copied. But whatever the exact forms we may be sure that in the best hands they are produced by uniform and proper pen strokes. ITALICS Ex.: Plate XXL, and figs. 94, 177, 178 (en- larged). Italics 1 closely resemble the Roman Small-Letters, but are slightly narrowed, slightly sloped to the 1 It is convenient to use the term "Italics" for both the cursive formal writing and the printing resembling it. Italic type was first used in a " Virgil" printed by Aldus Manutius of Venice in 1500. The type was then called " Venetian " or "Aldine." It was counterfeited almost immediately (in Ger- many and Holland it was called "cursive"); Wynkin de Worde used it in 1524. It seems to have been originally in- tended for printing entire Classics, but was afterwards used to distinguish portions of the text (see also p. 373). 3 11 & its Derivatives Omnes fch apfi et euangeli Omnes{Hh ddcipli dm Omnesfifhlnocctcs. orate SancfeStepIiane. era. San^lelaurenti. era. Sanctovmc&nti. ot-a. ora ora. Satic^eblaft. era. S adH loa. et pau le orate. Sadi Cofma et damu. orate. FIG. 175. Italian Prayer Book; i6th century (see opp. /. 6/. 345) 3 I2 a 8 a 3 s The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives 313 & its Derivatives The Roman right, and very freely written (commonly with a Alphabet " slanted pen "). The serifs generally consist of slight natural terminal hooks, &c. though in p and q a finishing stroke is sometimes added. Ascending and descending strokes (in />, d y f y h y k, /, g, j y p y q y y) are commonly rather long, and often end in curves, sometimes in flourishes (fig. 177). bdhilmiuw -serif and ftowisheJ FIG. 177. The lines of writing are generally widely spaced allowing for the long stems : the bodies of the letters being narrow are generally rather closely packed, and frequently the lines of writing appear 3*4 as almost continuous light but compact writing, The Roman while the ascenders and descenders and parts of the Alphabet Capitals may be flourished freely in the spaces be- & its tween the lines sometimes filling them with orna- Derivatives mental pen work, which contrasts strongly with the extreme plainness and regularity of the bodies. Italic Capitals are a variety of the Roman Capitals, slightly sloped (frequently less sloped than the accompanying small-letters), and sometimes much flourished (fig. 177). The types modelled on the latter were called by printers in the seventeenth century, " Swash Letters." Use of Italics. In printing they served at first to mark such portions of the text as Introductions^ f Quotations , Prefaces, I and subsequently I *>l> ha " i 'S> , . _ y / >- j r X words not part of the 1 ext Indexes, f were used for 1 ^^ ^ in the Not "> ^ Bible, &c.). In MSS. when it is not desirable to alter the character, Red Writing (see p. 130) may be sub- stituted for italics. Italics either in black or red go best with " Roman " characters. Like the Roman Small-Letter, the Italic is a generally recognised and accepted form : this and other considerations, such as the peculiar elegance and charm of the letters, their formal relation to modern handwriting, their compactness and economy of space in the line, and the fact that they may be written easily and with extreme regularity being indeed the most rapid of formal hands are practical reasons for a careful study of the type, and justify the writing of certain MS. books entirely in Italics. 315 5 ti U-, SEMI-FORMAL WRITING Figs. 179, 1 80, and 181 are taken from a six- teenth-century Italian MS. 1 written in a semi- formal cursive hand in dark brown and red-brown inks (probably originally nearer black and red), on 150 leaves of fine paper. The proportions of the Book? together with the good writing, have a very agreeable effect, and are interesting as being used by a writer over 300 years ago. The extra width of the side margins may have been allowed for annotations some notes were written in by the scribe himself. Page = Il inches high, 8 inches wide. (Inner ( inch + \ inch allowed for Small Capitals) = \\ inch (approximate). Top if inch (constant). Side 2f inch (approximate). Foot =. 3 inch (approximate). Writing-Line Space nearly ^inch high: length (varies), average 4 inches. Text Column nearly 6 inches high, consisting of 22 lines of MS. Character of the Writing. The good shapes of the letters, their great uniformity, and their easy yet formal arrangement, mark this MS. as the work of a skilful penman. But, while pen character of a sort is very evident, the writing approaches the stylographic (apparently a rather narrow blunt nib was used), and the absence of definite thicks and thins distinguishes it from all the formal hands hitherto discussed : it may conveniently be termed Semi-formal. 1 The Book is a catalogue of early Roman inscriptions : apparently a written copy of a printed book. 2 With a sheet of paper 11^ inches by 16 inches the student might reconstruct these. 3 1 ? The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives The Roman Alphabet M4 ^ &its < * Derivatives >- n.V ' C . W f . > 9** *""i ^ > "* X c* C > ^ ^ "* il iZ c^X s2^^<<- s ^r:^R^^^ . *O ^ -S Q rt ^ o w ^ W M O Z to j s ? ^ M . w * ^ ? ^ w 318 u * N - *>' ^* I r^ i ~ J Li -I r. The Roman Alphabet and its Derivatives til'hM j - i-^Ll i J >7* J * 14^ 3^9 The Roman Alphabet & its Deriratives W< III c * h* * P. -J w 5 5 5 S S * c w \A c < 5 H 2 CD O >* K -^ 2; 320 Construction. The rapidity and uniformity of The Roman this writing are largely due to an extremely easy Alphabet zigzag movement of the pen, such as is natural & its in writing m y , and u the final upstroke usually Derivatives running on into the next letter. Note particularly that the round letters c, d^ *, g, 0, q generally begin with a nearly straight down stroke like the first part of u to which tops are added (see fig. 182). winu T constructon of stems 3. N Smi-firmA 6 FIG. 182. In the case of a, the first stroke curves forward to meet the second. x 321 The Roman In the straight-stemmed capitals B, D, E, F, H, Alphabet I, L, M, N, P, R, and T, the first stroke is made & its -\ Derivatives rather like an I (showing the tendency to a zigzag) the foot of which is generally crossed horizontally by a second stroke making a form resembling J on this as a base, the rest of the letter is formed (see fig. 1 82). This tends to preserve the uniformity of the letters : and gives a fine constructive effect, as, for example, in the letter ^\ . General Remarks. The semi-formal nature of such a MS. would seem to permit of a good quill not necessarily sharp being used with the utmost freedom and all reasonable personal sleight of hand ; of soft tinted inks such as browns and brown- reds ; of an ww-ruled page (a pattern page ruled dark, being laid under the writing paper, will, by showing through, keep the writing sufficiently straight), and of a minimum of precision in the arrangement of the text. And in this freedom and informality lie the reasons for and against the use of such a hand. There is a danger of its becoming more informal and degenerating because it lacks the effect of the true pen in preserving form. 1 But, on the other hand, it combines great rapidity and freedom with beauty and legibility : few printed books could , compete in charm with this old " catalogue," which took the scribe but little longer to write than we might take in scribbling it. Many uses for such a hand will suggest them- selves. Semi-formal documents which require to 1 Practising a more formal hand as a corrective would prevent this. 322 be neatly written out, and Books and Records of The Roman which only one or two copies are required, and Alphabet even Books which are worthy to be but never & its are printed, might, at a comparatively low cost, Derivatives be preserved in this legible and beautiful form. It suggests possibilities for an improvement in the ordinary present-day handwriting a thing much to be desired, and one of the most practical benefits of the study of calligraphy. The practical scribe, at any rate, will prove the advantages of being a good all-round penman. OF FORMAL WRITING GENERALLY On Copying a Hand. Our intentions being right (viz. to make our work essentially readable) and our actions being expedient (viz. to select and copy the simple forms which have remained essentially the same, leaving the complex forms which have passed out of use see pp. 195-6), we need not vex ourselves with the question of " lawfulness." l Where beautiful character is the natural product of a tool, any person may at any time give such character to a useful form, and as at this time a properly cut and handled pen will produce letters resembling those of the early MSS., we may take as models such early, simple pen-forms as have re- mained essentially the same? and copy them as closely as we can while keeping them exact and formal. Finally, personal quality is essential to perfect workmanship, but that is the natural and gradual 1 The Law fulfils itself : that which we must not copy is that which we cannot copy. 2 E.g. the letters in the tenth-century English hand Plate VIII. : excepting the archaic long f and round & (b, fig. 183). 323 The Roman sometimes scarcely visible departure from a model, Alphabet that comes of practice and time. & its Forms of Letters : component pen-strokes. In a good Derivatives hand the chief component strokes stems, bows, and serifs are repeated again and again (see pp. 244, 254) this is essential to the uniform character and the quickness of the writing. When sub- stituting a new for an old letter a naturally used pen will produce such common pen-strokes, giving the desired " family likeness " to the new letter l ft fig- 183). Proportion 2 of Thick Strokes. The broader the thick stroke is in proportion to the height of a letter, the more the form of the letter is controlled and affected by the pen (c, fig. 183). For training and practice, therefore, the wide nib is the most useful. A narrower nib (d or e) allows of more freedom and variety, and there is a great charm in slender lettering this the trained scribe may essay (see Plate XX., and p. 482). Proportion 2 of Stem Height. The character of a writing depends very much on whether the stems are short, medium, or long. The stems of b and p may be as short as half the height of the bodies (/> % J ^3) j a medium stem for ordinary use might be two-thirds of, or equal to, the height of the body (g). Stems may be drawn out to almost any 1 The propriety of the actual form of the new letter will largely depend on the scribe's knowledge of the development of that particular letter and its component parts (comp. the in- teresting development of g, sketched in figs. 3 & 183, but note correction of Ex. 173 in Addenda, p. z6). 2 The proportions of the thick strokes, stem heights, &c., in a given hand need not be exactly followed, but it should be recognised that any alteration in these will inevitably alter the forms and the character of the letters (fig. 183, and pp. 84 & 26). 3 2 4 /-r^ '/""/ r* * I ^e R man \Dcvelopmmt of g: from G . see ^3-1 A1 P habet 169. 170. 171 ijr2 73. <;4- Derivatives FIG. 183. 325 The Roman length, and may constitute a decorative feature of Alphabet the writing, as in the Anglo-Saxon l MS., Plate & its IX. (See p. 331, and fig. 188.) Derivatives Distinct Lines of Writing. The line especially Uudacr X. itiitllit XV. catorum xvi. FIG. 184. in MS. books is really a more important unit than 1 In English so many ascent/ing and descending letters are used, that it might be the best and most natural treatment of these to make them a marked feature of the writing (see also " Fine Writing," pp. 261-63). Note, in this connection, that our a b C has been developed as a Latin alphabet, and that the evenness of Latin MS. is largely due to the infrequence of tailed letters. 326 & its Derivatives the page ; and the whole question of the arrange- The Roman ment of Lettering hinges on the right treatment of Alphabet the lines. One is particularly struck by the dis- tinctness of the lines of writing in the old MSS., due mainly to (a) The binding together of the letters in the line commonly by strong serifs or heavy " shoulders " and "feet" (see figs, n, 184, and p. 414). (b) Packing the letters well together (see pp. 7 7, 262). (c) Spacing the lines sufficiently apart (see pp. 262-265). It is a good rule (especially when practising) to space the lines fairly widely. Really fine writing shows generally to greater advantage if not too much crowded, and there is more danger of making reading hard by crowding the lines, than by crowd- ing the words (see fig. 156). Whatever mode of treatment be followed, each line should be written with as much freedom as possible, the simplest straightforward writing being preferable to that which is over-arranged. DECORATIVE CONTRASTS The decorative treatment of lettering generally involves contrasts of size, weighty colour, or form that is, of large and small, heavy and light, variously coloured, or variously shaped letters. As a general rule, marked contrasts are best ; a slight contrast may fail of its effect and yet be sufficiently notice- able to give an unpleasant appearance of irregu- larity. Contrasts of Colour (see pp. 1 44, 1 80). Note that, while it is convenient to distinguish "colour" as redy blue, green, &c. weight strictly involves 327 The Roman colour : built-up or heavy letters in black show Alphabet extra black beside lighter writing, while the latter & its appears grey in comparison (see figs. 197, 186); in Derivatives re( l writing the heavy letters appear red, the lighter letters, pink (see fig. 90). Contrast of Size. The simplest decorative con- trast is that of LARGE 1 letters with SMALLER letters (fig. 185) ; the strokes being of equal, or CONTRXST \ OF SIZE.-HARMONY OFFDRMAVEIGHT FIG. 185. nearly equal, weight, there is an harmonious even- ness of tone throughout. Where the large letters are very much larger, their parts are made somewhat heavier to keep their apparent " weight " approxi- mately equal (see p. 486). This is one of the most effective treatments for inscriptions generally (see p. 299, and Plates V. and XXIV.). Contrasts of" weight " and size. In simple writing these are obtained by using two sizes of pen the small, light letters being used for the bulk of the 1 Where there is only a slight difference in size, the effect is improved by using a different/on* or colour (see pp. 130, 345). 328 text, the larger heavier letters being used for occa- The Roman sional words or lines (or vice versa). This is a very Alphabet effective simple treatment for MSS. (fig. 186). & its Derivative* aftwlinescf muchlamer Writi 1 / simple, contrast: of size # colour. TlieUmcrvmtuvris convenient- ly written bc&vem every other"-' pair o writing-lines. It may t>c more dconativefy treated FIG. 1 86. (6" also Jig. 191.) The occasional letters may be more decoratively treated (see Responses and Rubrics, p. 345) by intro- ducing the further contrasts of colour (p. 144) or form (p. 336). 329 The Roman Contrasts of form, " weight," and size. These Alphabet are generally obtained by the use of large built-up & its X^^N Derivatives | a P ita ' s > together with a simple- written (or ordinarily printed) text (fig. 187). bNTRAST OF FORM, W1GHT AND SIZE; ^(USUALLY) COLOUR FIG. 187. A marked contrast usually being desirable, the built-up capitals (especially if black) are kept quite distinct from the rest of the text (see fig. 197) : if they are scattered among the other letters they are apt to show like blots and give an appearance of irregularity to the whole. As a rule, the efFect is improved by the use of red or another colour (see figs- 9 J > 93)- Contrast of form for decorative purposes is usually combined with contrast of weight (e.g. " Gothic," heavier, p. 336) or size (e.g. Capitals, larger, p. 371). ORNAMENTAL LETTERS (See Chaps. VII., VIII., X., XII., & pp. 34, 251, 26) To give ornament its true value we must dis- tinguish between ordinary occasions when simplicity and directness are required, and special occasions when elabo- ration is desirable or necessary. The best way to make ornamental letters is to 330 & its Derivatires develop them from the simpler forms. Any plain The Roman type may be decoratively treated for special purposes Alphabet some part or parts of the letters usually being ration- ally " exaggerated" (p. 252). Free stems, " branches" tails, &c., may be drawn out, and terminals or serifs may be decorated or flourished (fig. 203). Built-Up Forms. Even greater license (see fig. 161) is allowed in Built-Up Letters as they are less under the control of the tool (p. 292) and their natural decorative development tends to pro- duce a subordinate simple line decoration beside or upon their thicker parts (fig. 189 & p. 26). In MSS. the typical built-up, ornamental form is the " Versal" (see Chap. VII.), which developed or degenerated into the "Lombardic" (fig. i). Here again it is preferable to keep to the simpler form and to develop a natural decorative treatment of it for ourselves. "Black Letter" or "Gothic," still in use as an ornamental letter (fig. 190), is descended from the fifteenth-century writing of Northern Europe (Plate XVIL). A better model may be found in the earlier and more lively forms of twelfth and thirteenth century writing (fig. 191). Rightly made, and used, it is one of the most picturesque forms of lettering and therefore of ornament and besides its ornamental value, there is still in the popular fancy a halo of romance about " black letter," which may fairly be taken into account. Its comparative illegibility, however, due mainly to the substitution of straight for curved strokes debars it from ordinary use. 1 Though its 1 Compare monotone and monotone. For general pur- poses, therefore, and particularly for forming a good hand, the earlier tcripts are to be preferred (or the late Italian): even twelfth-century "Gothic" writing is hardly readable enough for " practical " purposes. 331 The Rt>man Alphabet & its Derivatives I TTtescri/Toit usit- tnxnr sterna* te top line of wnttna- ntay ascencknr ftourusKcd'tnto top wKik in die fixrtrmatxjin die ctcscoSecr tke fcot-Une 332 FIG. 1 88. (See also figs. 125 a 79 0^84, and p. 420.) 333 The Roman Alphabet & its Derivatives FIG. 190. Ordinary Modern "B/ack Letter" Type (see p. 331). 334 The Roman .5 Alphabet & its Derivatives 335 The Roman distinction in form and colour (p. 327) from ordinary Alphabet small lettering, make it useful in arresting atten- & its tion ; as in a legal document, where the clauses are Derivatives marked by &c. Its most effective use, however, is as pure orna- ment when it does not matter whether the words are easily read or not. For mottoes, &c., painted or carved on walls or furniture, and for ornamental borders round tapestry hangings, tombs, book- covers, bowls, flagons, plates, &c., bands of such ornamental lettering are extremely decorative (see footnote (2), p. 255, & also p. 364). FIG. 191 a. Shield of Arms of Earl de Warrenne, Castle Acre Priory, Norfolk (Gold and blue chequers, diapered see p. 215) : reproduced, by permission, from Bou! ell's " English Heraldry," No. 68. 33 6 APPENDIX A CHAPTER XVI SPECIAL SUBJECTS Divers Uses of Lettering MS. Books, &c. Binding MSS. (with Note by Douglas Cockerel!) Broad- sides, Wall Inscriptions, &c. Illuminated Ad- dresses, &c. Monograms & Devices Title Pages Lettering for Reproduction Printing Inscrip- tions on Metal, Stone, Wood, &c. Of Inscriptions Generally Bibliography, &c. DIVERS USES OF LETTERING The following list of some of the uses of hand- Special made lettering, though necessarily very brief, will Subjects perhaps suggest possibilities both to the student and the craftsman : MS. BOOKS, &C. : (see pp. 98, 341, & Author's Preface). (i) Preferably "the best." ) That which is worthy of calli- graphy. (3) That which is the " favour- Fine Literature ite " of the owner of the book. Poetry is differently treated from prose (see pp. 95, 263, 371, 138), and should have extra wide side margins when possible (p. 483). Y 337 Special Subjects Single Poems, Tracts or Treatises : Church Services : Gospels & Psalters : Almanacks : {Poems, cards, hymns, &c. (see pp. 137-139, & Poetry, above), prefer- ably in the form of small books. {Copies might be preserved (p. 313) in good writing (instead of Type- writing), fPrayers, Communion, Marriage, | &c. (pp. 140, 144, 345). NOTE. The Psalms, &c., may be treated as poetry (as in the " Revised Version ") or as prose (as in the "Authorised Ver- sion "), see Fine Literature above. 'These may be very varied ; contain- ing vacations, terms, sessions ; public, church, or family festi- vals, personal memoranda or topical quotations. They offer great opportunities for heraldic or symbolic ornament (such as coats - of - arms, astronomical signs, &c.). Dedications , &c. t in Books : (Lettering on Archi- tects' Plans : see MAPS & PLANS, P- 339) " Copy- Books " .- BROADSIDES : Notices : Quotations : Church Texts, Family Trees grees : 338 Pedi-\ These may be on a parchment leaf inserted and securely glued into the beginning (preferably bound up with book), or be written on a fly-leaf. Annotations, extracts, &c., may be written in colour in printed books (p. 144). (see below). f Sheets printed (or written) on one \ side : see p. 350. (Posters, Placards, Hand-bills, &c.). (Texts, Mottoes, &c.) (see p. 336). (The Creed, Commandments, &c.). These may be very decorative in ment. They might also be made I in book form. WALL INSCRIP-\Carved or painted: see pp. 350, Special TIONS: I 375-385, & Chapter XVII. Subjects Public Notices : \ Note : on walls, plastered, or un- Lettering in Churches, suited for carving, sgraffito might t. be used with fine effect. ^ . * . {Letters may also be painted upon Lettering in Iff upon\ ti i eSj whic h (after baking) are public buildings : J cemented into the wall (p. 377). mechanical reproduction). LETTERING FOR] See also RE PRO DUG- TION: above - RE PRO DUG- Msec P . 365). J BROADSIDES, ( . J Printer's types and} (in woodcut and metal: pp. 365, Ornamental letters : / 3 6 ?)' Title Pages : (see p. 363). Paper and other Book} (Magazines, Newspaper-Headings, covers : Music, Catalogues, &c.). n/r c_j rr fS 00 ^, clear lettering may be used Maps fy Plans : | in these w i t h fine effect. I (preferably simple, with Arms, Book Plates : < Crest, or Symbol, and suitable \ lettering). Letter-paper Head- |( pre f er ably in copper-plate " Ro- ings 9 Cards, &c. : J man " and "Italic "). Bill Heads, Receipt\ (preferably in copper-plate or type : Forms, &c. : ) see p. 365). Certificates : j (Testimonials, &c.) The plainer { these are made, the better. Programmes, Menus, ~\ ,~. . . . g . C J ' V (Christmas cards, &c.). Cards, &c. : ) Almanacks : (see above). 339 Special MS. Books and "copy- (* ** { ^ m |S ht ^ reproduced by o t_- j ,, * ! copper-plate if written well Subjects booh": \ enough (p. 367). /Better lettering in these would not ... - . J only mitigate many eyesores, but Advertisements, &c. :\ would probably attract b y its v novelty (see p. 351). ENGRAVING, \sfc. : (see PP . 364, 365, 375). D c- f (" Brasses," Name-plates, Door- Brasses, &c. : | l plates , ' &Ci) . Punches : (for naming, numbering, &c.). Utensils : (Bowls, flagons, plates, &c.). Ornaments : (Jewellery, &c.). f (for coins, medals, &c., and for em- Die Sinking : \ bossed letter-paper headings, I &c.). INSCRIPTIONS IN\ STONE e-T WOOD .-/< see pp - 375-385. & Chap. XVII.). On Monuments 5*\Also on mile-stones, boundary Buildings : ) stones, bridges, &c. Tombstones : Foundation Stones : Memorial Tablets : "SIGN WRITING" : (see PP . 350, 376). Signs : (for stations, inns, shops, &c.). Shop Fascia*) &c. : Names ) &c. : (on doors & on carts, coaches, &c.). Notice Boards : Ticket Writing ": EMBROIDERY, see remarks on built-up forms, p. 292: and Chapter XII. [on Letter- c . -^ ing, &c.j of " Embroidery and .] of "Eml Tapestry Weaving," by Mrs. A. H. Christie, in this Series. Decoration for hangings, (p. 3 36 ) : Marking clothes, 340 All the arts employ lettering directly or indirectly, Special in fine decoration or for simple service. Subjects The following list of ancient uses is interest- ing : ! "I. TITULI I Dedicatory and Votive Inscriptions (Tituli Sacri). ^ Sepulchral Inscriptions (Tituli Sepulchrales). 3 Honorary Inscriptions (Tituli Honorarit). 4 Inscriptions on Public Works (Tituli Operum Publicorum). 5 Inscriptions on Movable Objects (Inttrvmentum). II. INSTRUMENTA I. Laws (Leges et Plebi Scita). z. Decrees of the Senate (Senatut Consulta). 3. Imperial Documents (Inttrumenta Imperttorum). 4. Decrees of Magistrates (Decreta Afag'utratuum). 5. Sacred and Public Documents (Acta Sacra et Publica). 6. Private Documents (Acta Privata). 7. Wall Inscriptions (Inscriptiones Parietariae). 8. Consular Diptychs (Diptycha Consularia)." MS. BOOKS, &C. Books in the making as compared with ordinary inscriptions are capable of great compression or expansion, and may be said to have a quality of elasticity. Nearly all other ordinary inscriptions are set inscriptions (p. 350), requiring a given number of words to be set out in a given space. But in books, while it is convenient that the treatment of the text should conform generally to a chosen size of page (p. 103), the contents of the page may vary according to the letter-form and the spacing (pp. 107, 262), and the number of the pages is not definitely limited, so that another page, or a l p. 214, J. C. Egbert's " Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions," 1896. 341 Special number of additional pages, may always be taken Subjects to complete the text. The size of page, margin, and writing having been settled (see Chap. VI.) and the pages ruled the penman writes out the text with the utmost freedom, not stopping to make fine calculations, but leaving such spaces and lines, for Initials, Headings, &c., as his fancy and common-sense dictate, and letting the text or its divisions smoothly flow on from page to page till a natural termination is reached. And if the terminal page has only one or two lines on it, it is not necessary to attempt a balance with the previous page the book or chapter l ends just there, for the good reason that there is no more of it. Colophons, Tail-pieces, &c. (see p. 142), make a pleasant finish, and may complete the page or not as convenient. Planning : Sections and Pages. Calculations of the amount of text, of the number of sections or pages required, and so on, are useful, and planning the pages may be convenient for example, one or more of the verses of a poem, or a given number of words, may be allotted to the page provided always that the scribe preserves his freedom, and treats each case on its merits. If he think it most suitable to devote a complete page to each para- graph, he may do so in spite of its resulting in the pages all being of different lengths. The one general limitation which it is proper to 1 If there is sufficient room left on the terminal page for a clearly marked beginning (such as a decorative initial), the next chapter may begin there, and so fill the page but generally there is no objection to leaving blank what the text has failed to fill. 342 observe is that of the Writing-line its length * and Special spacing and to this may be added the desirability Subjects of beginning the text of every page on the first or head line. 2 For most of us it is not practically possible to do without the aid of the writing-lines which really lead, through uniformity, to greater freedom though a book written without them 3 might be as beautiful as any ruled manuscript. Marginal Lines. These, the terminals of the writing-lines, are frequently made double, with about \ inch between (see Plates XX. and XV.). On the left this space is utilised for marginal capitals, or is left blank; on the right the first line acts as a warning mark and the normal termination of the text, the second as a barrier beyond which the writing should not go. The double lines, in being more obvious than single lines, are also more effective in "straightening" the page (p. 109) : presumably for this reason the two upper and two lower writing-lines were often ruled from edge to edge of the page (see Plate XL). Ruling. Marginal and writing-lines, once ruled, are to be left intact, and may be regarded as actual component parts of the finished pages. They are best made with a hard blunt point (p. 1 08) -the furrows so made give an interesting character, almost a " texture," to the smooth surface of the page. But they may be ruled with a fine lead pencil, or with a fine pen and faint black or 1 The line need not always be Jilted by the writing (p. 425). 2 It would not be necessary for the first page of a chapter to have the ordinary dropped head and blank upper space if a fine initial or decorative heading were used to mark it. 8 Some of the books engraved by William Blake suggest pos- sibilities of such ^-conventional treatment, both of writing and " illumination " (see also p. 21). 343 Special coloured inks. Inked or coloured lines, however, Subjects are not generally written upon (see footnote, p. 305), but between (see Plates XIII., XVIL, XX., &c.). Correcting Mistakes. A neatly made rather small letter above and a " carat " below (as in ordinary writing) may be used for an omission (fig. 192). makfdrur FIG. 192. A superfluous letter may be neatly struck out. Erasures are usually unsatisfactory, and a simple, unostentatious correction, besides disarming criti- cism, is in accordance with the proper freedom of the craft (see p. 174). Annotations, &c., preferably in smaller coloured writing, are very decorative in the broader margins (pp. 144, 315). Special Books. A MS. book is necessarily unique, and some special or personal interest either of the craftsman (see p. 142) or his "client" inevitably attaches to it. This may affect its size and form, the treatment of the text, and the decoration and construction generally (see p. 100). Every legiti- mate opportunity of adding to its individual character should be taken by the scribe and illuminator. 344 Fig. 175 and Plate XX. are both taken from Special private prayer books or psalters ; in each the name Subjects of the owner (e.g. " Euanzelista famulo tuo" Plate XX.) is frequently inserted. Plates XV. and XXII. are also taken from specially commissioned MSS., and many evidences of their ownership, such as portraits or coats-of-arms, form part of the decoration of such books. Church Services, &c. (For a special church or person.) Church uses arc so varied, that it is most important to ascertain the custom, use, or taste of the persons concerned especially as to the order of, and the introduction or omission of, certain words, paragraphs, or parts, the colours used in the text, the notation of the music and the manner in which the book will be used. A service book for the use of a priest gives prominence to the parts in which he is concerned the responses 1 may be smaller, and different in form or colour. The rubrics in red (see pp. 140, 144) are kept quite distinct, and may form a very decorative feature. For a private person the other parts such as are said by the congregation might be specially marked. In either case a certain amount of planning e.g. completing prayers, &c., in an opening, to avoid turning over may be justified by its convenience to the reader. Should very careful planning ever be required, a pattern- book may be made, having the contents of each page roughly indicated in it. Wedding Service Books, &c. The interest and 1 The distinction in the Prayer Book between "Amen " and "Amen" used as a response is best marked by the sign R (for Responsum) in red, placed before the latter, as : R Amen (see pp. 144, 15). 345 Special value is enhanced if the book is specially prepared Subjects containing the proper names and dates, and only the special psalms, hymns, prayers, homilies, &c., which will be used. Dated pages may be provided at the end of the book for the signatures of the " friends and neighbours " of the principals. BINDING MSS. MSS. should be bound without delay in order to complete and protect them. To bind books in stiff boards, in leather, requires considerable practice and skill, but a very effective limp vellum cover can be made by the scribe himself, who, in binding his own books, will learn to think of the binding as a part of the book, and to allow for it in the writing and planning (see p. 106). The following note * on covering books in limp vellum is specially contributed by Mr. Douglas Cockerell : " How to cover a look in a limp vellum cover without using special appliances. " Cut four strips of stiff vellum f inch wide and about four inches long. On these slips you will sew the sections of your book. " Add to your book a plain section at either end ; 2 vellum for a vellum book, paper lor a paper book. Knock up the backs of the sections squarely, keeping the heads level, and across the back mark with a soft pencil guided by a square, lines to show the position of the slips. The positions of the four slips should leave the space between the slips the same as that between the 1 Figs. 195 and 196 are from Mr. Cockerell's "Bookbinding and the Care of Books," in this Series. * These form the fly-leaves (p. in). 340 top slip and the head of the book ; the space between the bottom slip and the tail should be a little longer than the spaces between the slips. At about -^ inch from either end make an additional line across the back for the " kettle " or catch stitch. These lines will show as dots on the back of single sections. Each individual section should now have at the back a dot at either end for the kettle stitches, and four pairs of dots | inch apart to show the position of the slips, ten dots in all. " To sew the book, fold the vellum slips about i^ inch from one end and bend to a right angle. Place your front end-paper outside downwards, with the back even with the edge of a table or board, and place your folded slips with their shorter ends under it. Then insert your needle from the outside, at the head " kettle stitch " mark, into the centre of the section and bring it out at the Hrst band mark ; put the slip in position and reinsert your needle at the mark on the other side of the slip, and so on to the end of the section, coming out at the tail kettle stitch. This should leave your section with a thread, 1 passing alternately along the centre fold inside and across the slips outside, with a loose end hanging from the kettle stitch mark where you began, and a thread with the needle hanging from the other kettle stitch mark (fig. 193). 1 Thread should be unbleached. Silk of the best quality is better than thread. Krtrfe Stttfft Special Subjects 'Toil iKrttlf Special " Lay on your next section and sew it in the same way Subjects but in the reverse direction, tying up with the first loose end when you come to it. Sew the whole book in the same way, tying on a new needleful of thread as each is exhausted, making practically a continuous thread going backwards and forwards inside the sections and across the slips from end to end of the book. Each succeeding kettle stitch should be caught up by a loop (fig. 194), FIG. 194. and it is well to catch together the loose threads crossing the slips. " When the book is sewn, the back may be covered with thin glue and lined with a piece of leather, but as this is a little difficult to manage neatly, and as the book will hold together without it, for a temporary binding the sections may be left without glue. ** For the cover cut a piece of covering vellum 1 (vellum with a surface) large enough to cover the book and to leave a margin of i J inches all round. Mark this with a folder on' the underside, as shown at A, fig. 195. Spaces (i) and (2) are the size of the sides of the book with the surrounding " squares," 2 space (3) is the width of the back, and space (4) the width for the overlaps on the foredge. 8 Cut the corners as shown at (5), and fold the edges over as at B, and then fold over the overlaps 1 Forrel may be used as a cheap substitute for vellum. 2 " Squares " = " the portion of the boards projicting beyond the edges of the book." * " Forcdgt "= " (fore edge) the front edge of the leaves," 348 \ 5 3 2 V ! A \ \ 1 3 2 B Special Subjects FIG. 195. and back as at C. Be sure to make all folds sharp and true. " To avoid mistakes it is well to make a cover of stiff 349 Special paper first, and then, when that fits exactly, to mark up Subjects the vellum from it. " On the inside of the vellum cover, mark faint lines about | inch from, and parallel to, the creases of the back, and further lines about J inch from these. Place your book in the cover and mark the places where the slips cross these lines. Make slits in the cover there, and lace the slips through them (fig. 196), first putting a piece of FIG. 196. loose, toned paper inside the cover to prevent any marks on the book from showing through the vellum. Then lace pieces of silk ribbon of good quality l through the cover and end-papers, leaving the ends long enough to tie." BROADSIDES, WALL INSCRIPTIONS, &C. Set Inscriptions. Ordinary inscriptions generally consist of a given number of words to be set out in 1 A good, rather dark green ribbon looks well such as that known as " Church lace," used for the " tyers " in some of the Kelmscott books. Very good ribbons may be obtained from a bookbinder, at 6d. to is. 6d. a yard. 350 a given space. Careful planning may sometimes Special be required to fit in the words suitably, or Subject* to adapt the lettering to the space. But setting- out (p. 258) becomes much simpler after a little practice, and the good craftsman avoids over- planning. The Place of the Inscription. The actual space for a wall inscription is commonly suggested by an architectural feature a stone, a panel, or a niche of the wall ; but in choosing a suitable space for a given inscription, or suitable lettering for a given space, we must take into account 1. The office of the inscription. 2. How it is to be read (a) " At a glance" or (b) by close inspection. 3. The distance from the reader. 4. The lighting of the space. 5. The character of the surroundings. 6. Any special features. The Size of the Letters. The all-important ques- tion of readableness may be settled thus : the inscrip- tion having been planned suitably to fill the space, one or two words are written or painted (the exact size) on paper smoked or otherwise col- oured if necessary to resemble the background. This is stuck upon the chosen part of the wall, aud then viewed from the ordinary position of a reader. When the inscription is high up, the thin parts especially the horizontals of the letters must be made extra thick to be seen properly from below. Margins. Wide margins are only required for comparatively small lettering which demands the close 351 Special attention of the reader* and generally a set inscrip- Subjects tion looks best if the lettering be comparatively large covering most of the given surface, and leaving comparatively narrow margins. The frame or moulding, or the natural edge or environment of the circumscribed space, is very often sufficient "margin" (see Plate XXIV.). The margins vary, however, according to cir- cumstances ; especially the foot margin, which may be very narrow if all the space is required for the lettering (see fig. 211), or very large 2 if there is plenty of space (see fig. 210). And, as in special pages or terminal pages of books, so in single sheets, panels, &c., the " foot margin " may show as it really is as the space which did not require to be filled, and was therefore "/eft over." Number of Different Types. While in a book of many pages considerable diversity is allowed, it is essential to the strength and dignity of a single sheet or set inscription to limit the number of types employed in it. Three or four ordinary types will generally give sufficient variety, and if it be necessary as in notices and placards that IMPORTANT WORDS be put in special types to catch the eye, let two or at most three special types suffice, and let the remainder of the text be as quiet and reserved as possible. "Display Types" commonly defeat their object by being overdone. A simple contrast is the most effective 1 E.g. all ordinary written and printed matter intended to be read at a short distance (see pp. 103-106). 3 As much as two-thirds, or more, of the whole (pace. 352 CAPITALS in the head-line, large and spaced wide, are contrasted with a mass of smaller lettering below (see p. 330). NOTE. Generally a finer though less striking effect is obtained by keeping large capitals rather slender con- trasting size rather than 'weight (p. 328). FIG. 197. ILLUMINATED ADDRESSES, &C. Forms of Addresses, &c. The writer should be prepared to advise his " clients " on the form which the address may take, on special features in its writ- ing and illuminating, and on its general treatment. Ordinarily an Illuminated Address is prepared either as a Framed Parchment (p. 356), a Parchment Scroll, or sheet (p. 356), or a small bound MS. (Le. in book form : p. 35 y). 1 The wording commonly consists of three parts : the HEADING (usually the name of the addressee), the TEXT (usually divided into paragraphs), the SIGNATURES (or a list of names) of the subscribers. An address is commonly in the ist or 3rd person, and in case of any confusion of these, any slip of the pen, or other oversight in the draft, the penman 1 The addressee's taste and convenience ought to be con- sidered : e.g. to one the framed inscription might be an embarrass- , while " Special Subjects ment, while by another it might be preferred. Z 353 Special should, if possible, call attention to it before the Subjects document is put into permanent form. A very convenient and agreeable style of "ad- dress" is a formal letter, beginning "Dear Mr. A B ," and ending in the ordinary way. This is a form which may be drawn up more simply, and which reads more naturally, than the ordinary ist or 3rd personal statement. An " address " is sometimes in the form of a resolution passed by a public or private body or committee. For municipal or other important corporations, such an extract from their minutes, neatly and " clerkly " written out on parchment, and duly attested by the signatures of their " head " and their secretary, and without ornament save their seal on a dependent ribbon or their coat- of-arms, or badge, would not only be the most natural, but possibly the most dignified and effective shape which might be given to the formal presenta- tion of their compliments. An "address" accompanying a present is fre- quently little more than a list of names with a brief complimentary or explanatory statement. If pos- sible such an inscription should be written or engraved on the article itself, or be specially designed to accompany it. In some cases this is very simple : when a volume, or set of volumes, is given, the inscription may be written in the first volume or on a parchment which may be inserted or it may be prepared in book form, in a binding to match. A silver or other ornament sometimes has a little drawer provided to hold a narrow scroll of names. A portrait may have an inscription on the frame or even in a corner of the picture or be accompanied by a simple, framed parchment. 354 Signatures. A neatly written out list of sub- Special scribers especially when their number is large Subjects is very convenient : it does not require individual personal appointments, nor involve risks of damage to the address. The actual signatures of sub- scribers, however, are of greater interest and sen- timental value, and on such grounds are preferable to a mere list of names. To avoid risks (or with a view to incorporating the signatures in the decorative scheme) the decora- tion, gilding, &c., may sometimes be deferred until after the signing of the address. When the exact number and the names of the subscribers are known beforehand, lines may be provided for their signatures, marked with letters in alphabetical order (the proper number of lines under each). This method solves any difficulty in regard to precedence in signing. NOTE. Ordinary signatures require about -J inch by 3 inches space each. If there are many they may be conveniently arranged in two or more columns, according to the space available. Directions for Signing l Edges of parchment not to project beyond desk or table, lest they be creased. Paper to be provided to cover the address, with FLAPS to raise when signing. When lines for signatures are grooved (p. 108), signatories to face the light (this makes the lines more evident). Ink of one colour to be used if possible. Clean, ORDINARY pens to be provided, and pieces of paper for trying them on. 1 To be given to the person in charge of the address. 355 Special Framed Parchments. The parchment may have Subjects beyond the top and foot margins spare pieces which (after the writing and illuminating is finished) are bent over the ends, and glued to the back, of a stout, white card, or millboard covered with white or light coloured paper. Or extra margin being allowed all round the edges of the parchment are cut into tags or "scallops," and folded over an ordinary canvas stretcher, and well tacked at the back with small brads. The wedges are carefully adjusted till the parchment lies flat. A parchment glued to the surface of a millboard is more convenient for framing, but has a less natural surface, and is not so easily managed by the penman as the plain, flexible parchment. Frames should be gold, black, or white ; very plain, and generally without mounts. The parch- ment, however, must be framed so that there is no danger of any part of it coming into contact with the glass (as that, being damp, would lead to cockling). Parchment Scroll. The foot edge of the parch- ment may be folded over twice, 1 a strong, silk ribbon (see footnote, p. 350) is laced along through slits in the folded part (a y fig. 198), so that the two ends come out again at the centre where they may be knotted together and are ready to tie round the scroll when it is rolled up (b}. A rather narrow, "upright" parchment is most convenient (c). An "oblong" parchment may be very effec- tively arranged in long lines of writing (^). If a special casket or case is not provided, a neat 1 The original intention of this fold, in deeds, was to provide for the attachment of the seal, and, perhaps, to prevent any addi- tion being made. If the folded part be fairly wide, say, to i inch, little or no foot margin need be allowed. 356 Or the nhkon ma be laced Special Subjects (<*.) micht \x rolled up fas 'indicated*)) *nd fain a cylvu&al cafe . 1H FIG. 198. japanned tin case may be obtained for a few shillings. A small Bound MS. is certainly the most easily handled form in which an address may be prepared its convenience to the penman, the signatories, the reader, and the addressee, is strongly in its favour. A lengthy address, or a very large number of names, may be contained in a comparatively small book. Method of Planning out Addresses, &c. If in the 357 Special book form , the address is treated much as an ordinary Subjects book (see Chap. VI., and Binding, p. 346). The framed or scroll address is planned similarly to a single sheet (p. 90). The following notes of a working method were made during the planning out of an address : (i) Decide approximately the general/bra, shape, and decora- tive treatment of address. (2) Count words in TEXT (leaving out HEADING and SIGNATURES) . Count paragraphs .... (Decide whether first or last paragraph is to be in a different form or colour.) Decide approximate width Decide approximate side margins (i\ inches each) ..... Hence length of ivriting-line . Allow ^ inch lines, and approximately eight words to the line. (3) 130 words TEXT, approx. . 16 lines Allow extra (on account para- graphs) . . . .1 line (Roughly sketch out HEAD- ING on lines each inch by 7 inches.) Allow for HEADING . . .6 lines Allow for two SIGNATURES, &c. . . . . .3 lines = 13 - 5 = 12 inches. = 5 = 7 tt = 8 in. deep. = I. '*' Total depth of Writing, &t. . 26 lines = 13 inches. Allow for Top margin . . . * ,, Allow for Foot margin . . . 3 ,, (NoTE. This tvas a " scroi/," and the foot margin ivas folded up to "within an inch of the SIGNATURES. A plain sheet would have required about 4 inches foot margin.) Length of Parchment . .18 inches. (4) Cut a paper pattern, 12 inches by 18 inches. Rule (in pencil) Side margins (2^ inches and 2^ inches), and Top margin (2 inches), and 26 ( inch) lines. On this write out the address in ordinary handwriting, using ordinary 358 black and red (or coloured) inks : make approximately Special eight words to the line, and -write as fast as possible; this Subjects helps to keep the spacing uniform. This written pattern should not take more than twenty minutes for its entire preparation : it is intended to be used as a check on the previous calculation (not as an exact p/an), and as a copy, it being easier to copy from your own, than from another's, handwriting. If the original draft is typewritten, it is hardly necessary to make such a pattern. (5) Check this copy very carefully with the original to see that the words, &c., are correct. (6) Cut, rule, and pounce the parchment (pp. 343, 174). (7) On some scraps of parchment, ruled with a few similar lines, and pounced, try one or two lines of writing, both in vermilion and black, to see that all goes well. This enables you to get the pens and inks into working order, and will very likely save the carefully prepared parchment from being spoilt. (8) Write out the address, leaving suitable gaps for gold or special letters. (9) Put in special letters, decorative capitals, and any other decoration. (10) Check the finished address very carefully with the original draft (see (5) above) and look it over for mistakes, dotting i's, and putting in commas, &c., if left out. It is important that such a formal document should be accurate. General Remarks. The above simple mode of planning out can be further simplified in custom and practice. By the penman keeping to regular shapes, proportions, 1 and modes of treatment for regular 1 E.g. to keep to ^ inch writing-line spaces (except for extra small addresses, or small books). This being approximately the right space for ordinary SIGNATURES, results in further simplification of ruling and arrangement. 359 Special occasions, the addresses, &c., will practically " plan Subjects themselves" (p. 101), and better workmanship is the natural result. Generally the simpler the form and the treatment of an Illuminated Address, the better the effect. The most effective decoration is the plain coloured or gold capital, and the finest ornament is a coat- of-arms (see " Heraldry" below ; and for general, uwram /% ftiHiejr the truT^i Got ofJrms 360 FIG. 199. simple Illumination, see Chapters VII. to XIII.). A Special symbolical mark, such as a crest, badge, monogram, Subjects cypher, or other device (p. 362), boldly and decora- tively treated, may be used in place of a coat-of-arms. There is too much " Illumination " in the con- ventional "Address," which looks like a " piece of decoration " with a little writing. A really reason- able and effective Illuminated Address is a piece of writing suitably decorated. Heraldry. 'A reliable handbook must be con- sulted, for accurate " blazoning " is essential. Early examples should be studied (see p. 387). The diagram, fig. 199, is given as an example of how a charge was evenly arranged on the shield (see balanced background, p. 419). Another example showing a diapered chequer is given on p. 336. Shields in Illuminated borders may be coloured before the border, lest the brilliant mass of colour of the shield clash with the border. The shield, if large, may with advantage set the tone of the whole colour scheme. MONOGRAMS & DEVICES A Monogram consists of two or more letters combined in one form, as the diphthong ^E, and the amperzand 1 \*J for oT': its legibility may be helped by compound colouring. A Cypher consists of linked or interlaced letters, as i In the common form Ot, the letters \^ C (see Plate VI.) are now barely traceable. 3 6l Special and may be repeated and reversed if desired (see Subjects fig. 200). 3C C. and. reversed. ice used by Charles t/ie (Jneaf: KAROLVS- iirur this Sort of Cyrtiars, ietters may te vm#en cm a piece o-f paper, which is -foldad,$o that tn tetter? m>er& ty^tyhite the uU< is still FIG. 200. Monograms and cyphers may be very decora- tively employed as ornaments, and may be used to mark a man's goods, or as a signature on his work : something easily recognised either very legible or characteristic is therefore desirable. The two modes may be combined, and there is no limit to 362 the effective devices and ornaments which may be Special composed of letters. Simple and straightforward Subjects devices, however, are generally preferable to very ornate or intricate designs. Chronograms. A chronogram consists of a word or words in which the numerical letters indicate a date. The following is from a very fine memorial inscription at Rye (see fig. 207) : loannes Threel^e MfDlo L/ setatls fl^ore obllt. It expresses the date I+L+M+D+I+L+I+L+I+I (or 1 + 50+1000+500+1 + 50+1 + 50+1+!) = 1655. As every letter having a numerical value (i.e. C, D, I, (J), L, M, (U), V, (W), X) may be counted, a proper chronogram is not easily composed. The letter-craftsman will discover many ways of " playing " with letters, and of expressing or concealing names and numbers in other words, and he may take every liberty he chooses in his private pleasure, provided it does not clash with public convenience. TITLE PAGES If large capitals be used, the Name of the Book, the Author, &c,, above ; the Name of the Publisher, the Date, tumns of Commentary narrow (Text cols, equal) FIG. 202. text is printed in large type, the commentary, in smaller type, surrounds it ; such portion of the text being printed on each page as will allow suffi- cient surrounding space for the accompanying com- 37 mentary on that portion. The proportions and Special treatment of every page are uniform (note, Subjects particularly, the uniformity of the upper parts of the pages, five lines of commentary being allowed to enclose the text, or bound it above, on every page) with the exception that the height of the text-column varies one page having as few as three lines of text to the column, another having fifty-nine lines. This free treatment of the text gives a charming variety to the pages. Poetry. A broader and freer treatment is desir- able in the printing of poetry. The original lines and the arrangement of the verses should be more generally preserved. And though the opening lines of a poem may sometimes be magnified by printing them in capitals which necessitate their division to sacrifice the naturally varying line to the " even page " is questionable, and to destroy the form of a poem in order to compress it is a " typographical impertinence " (see p. 95). DECORATION OF PRINT * MUCH MAY BE DONE BY ARRANGING IMPORTANT TEXT IN "ITS OWN" CAPITALS ; OR BY THE OCCASIONAL USE OF EXTRA LARGE CAPITALS. For special letters or ornaments, woodcuts are best (see p. 364). The early printers generally had little, simple blocks of ornamental devices which might be used separately, or be built up into a frame border for a whole page a simple method and effective, if used reasonably. 37 1 Special The judicious use of colour, especially of red Subjects (see pp. 127, 144), is very effective. The extra printings required for additional colours may make it worth while (in the case of limited editions) to put in simple initials, paragraph marks, notes, &c., by hand (see pp. 194, 113). The earliest printed books, being modelled on the MS. books, employed such rubrication freely, in spaces specially left in the text or in the margins. There are still great possi- bilities in the hand decoration of printed books. The following note on printing, reproduced here by the permission of Mr. Emery Walker, appeared in the Introductory Notes of the Catalogue of the first exhibition of The Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, in 1888. "PRINTING " Printing, in the only sense with which we are at present concerned, differs from most if not from all the arts and crafts represented in the Exhibition in being comparatively modern. For although the Chinese took impressions from wood blocks engraved in relief for cen- turies before the wood- cutters of the Netherlands, by a similar process, produced the block books, which were the immediate predecessors of the true printed book, the invention of movable metal letters in the middle of the fifteenth century may justly be considered as the inven- tion of the art of printing. And it is worth mention in passing that, as an example of fine typography, the earliest dated [ l ] book, the Gutenberg Bible of 1455, has never 1 [// ivas dated 1456 by a rubricator, not by the Printer. E.W.~\ 372 been surpassed. Printing, then, for our purpose, may be Special considered as the art of making books by means of movable Subjects types. Now, as all books not primarily intended as picture-books consist principally of types composed to form letterpress, it is of the first importance that the letter used should be fine in form ; especially, as no more time is occupied, or cost incurred, in casting, setting, or print- ing beautiful letters, than in the same operations with ugly ones. So we find the fifteenth and early sixteenth century printers, who were generally their own type- founders, gave great attention to the forms of their types. The designers of the letters used in the earliest books were probably the scribes whose manuscripts the fifteenth-cen- tury printed books so much resemble. Aldus of Venice employed Francesco Francia of Bologna, goldsmith and painter, to cut the punches for his celebrated italic letter. Froben, the great Basle printer, got Holbein to design ornaments for his press, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the painter 'may have drawn the models for the noble Roman types we find in Froben's books. With the decadence in handwriting which became marked in the sixteenth century, a corresponding change took place in the types; the designers, no longer having beautiful writing as a model and reference, introduced variations arbitrarily. The types of the Elzevirs are regular and neat, and in this respect modern, but they altogether lack the spirit and originality that distinguish the early Roman founts of Italy and Germany : Gothic characteristics inherited from their mediaeval predecessors. In the seventeenth century type-founding began to be carried on as a craft apart from that of the printer, and although in this and the succeeding century many attempts were made to improve the " face " (as the printing surface of type is called), such examples as a rule reflect only too clearly the growing debasement of the crafts of design. Notable among these attempts were the founts cut by William Caslon, who started in business in London as a letter-founder in 1720, taking for his models the Elzevir 373 Special types. From this time until the end of the century he Subjects and his successors turned out many founts relatively admirable. But at the end of the eighteenth century a revolution was made, and the founders entirely abandoned the traditional forms of their pre- decessors, and evolved the tasteless letters with which nearly all the books published during the first sixty years of the present century are printed, and which are still almost universally used for newspapers and for Government publications. Par- ticularly objectionable forms are in everyday use in all continental countries requiring Roman letter. (The last two sentences are set in a type of this character. ) "In 1844 the Chiswick Press printed for Messrs. Longmans ' The Diary of Lady Willoughby,' and re- vived for this purpose one of Caslon's founts. This was an important step in the right direction, and its success induced Messrs. Miller & Richard of Edinburgh to en- grave a series of * old style J founts, with one of which this catalogue is printed. Most other type-founders now cast similar type, and without doubt if their customers, the printers, demanded it, they would expend some of the energy and talent which now goes in cutting Japanese- American and sham seventeenth -century monstrosities in endeavouring to produce once more the restrained and beautiful forms of the early printers, until the day when the current handwriting may be elegant enough to be again used as a model for the type-punch engraver. " Next in importance to the type are the ornaments, initial letters, and other decorations which can be printed along with it. These, it is obvious, should always be designed and engraved so as to harmonise with the printed page regarded as a whole. Hence, illustrations drawn only with reference to purely pictorial effects are entirely out of place in a book, that is, if we desire seriously to make it beautiful. EMERY WALKER." 374 INSCRIPTIONS ON METAL, STONE, WOOD, &C. Special Subjects As the material naturally modifies the shapes of the letters cut or formed on its surface, and as the object bearing the inscription affects their arrange- ment, it is essential that the inscription cutter make himself familiar with various stones, metals, woods, &c., with the various chisels and gravers which are properly employed on them, and with fine inscrip- tions or examples of good pieces of lettering (see pp. 388, 237). A knowledge of penmanship will be found useful, and the pen may be appealed to to decide questions of abstract form in regard to letters which have come from pen forms (e.g. Roman Small-Letters, Italics, &c.). And in this connec- tion it may be noted again that the " slanted-pen forms" (pp. 305, 43) are generally the most practical. Engraving on Metal. Letters incised in metal may most nearly approach pen forms, as the fine grain of the metal and the comparatively small scale of the work allow of fine " thin strokes." The engraver, however, while following generally the "thicks" and "thins" of the penman, allows the metal and the tool and, to a large extent, his own hand, to decide and characterise the precise forms and their proportions. Inscriptions in Stone (see Chap. XVII., Plates I., II., and XXIV., and pp. 292, 36). The grain of stone does not generally allow of very fine thin strokes, and the " thicks " and " thins " therefore tend to differ much less than in pen-work. Their origin, moreover, is much less easily traced to the tool i.e. the chisel and the difference was less in the 375 Special early inscriptions (see Plate II.) than we are now Subjects accustomed to (see Plate XXIV.) : perhaps it may be explained as a fashion set by penmanship (see p. 241). Inscriptions on Wood are frequently in relief (see raised letters, p. 377), matching the carved orna- ment. Incised letters may be painted or gilded to make them show more clearly. Sign-Meriting and Brush-Work. Inscriptions, such as shop signs, notices, &c., painted on wood or stone, require besides a practical knowledge of materials a considerable facility with the brush or " pencil." Directness and freedom of work- manship are most desirable. 1 A suitable brush will make letters closely re- sembling pen letters. But the pen automatically makes letters with a uniform precision, which it is neither desirable nor possible for the brush to imitate : and greater skill is required to control the brush, which in the hand of a good " Writer " will be permitted to give its own distinct character to the lettering (see also p. 292, and fig. 164). The brush is properly used for temporary in- scriptions, especially on the surface of painted wood or stone, but, for more important work, incising or carving (painted if desired) are to be preferred as 1 This is recognised in the Sign-writing profession, where, I understand, an applicant for work is sometimes given a black- board or a piece of American cloth, on which he writes out a short inscription in " sharp white." It is not necessary to watch the writer ; good, direct workmanship shows itself, and also every hesitating stroke or fault, every patch or <( touching- up " or " going over," is made evident. 376 being more permanent l and preserving the original Special form 2 of the lettering. Subjects OF INSCRIPTIONS GENERALLY (See a ho Chapter XIV. and pp. 350-353) Alphabets. For practical purposes the best letters are the Roman Capitals^ Roman Small-Letters y and Italics. These are susceptible of very decorative treatment without loss of legibility. And there are many varieties of the pure Roman Capital (see figs. 203 - 207), besides the " Gothicised " Roman and the simple " Gothic " Capitals, which are all essentially readable. Different Sizes of Capitals in inscriptions in wood, stone, metal, &c., are generally kept approximately equal in " weight " (see p. 328). NOTE. A down- ward decrease in height of the letters is common in early inscriptions (p. 410). Incising is generally the most simple, and there- fore the most natural, method for making an ordinary inscription. The letters should be large rather than small, and be deeply cut. Note, how- ever, an incised stamp or die produces an impression in relief on clay, &c. This may be seen in the lettering on Roman pottery. Raised Letters. From the earliest times letters in relief (or litter a; prominentes] have been used for special purposes. They are generally rather more legible than the incised letters, and the difference between " thicks " and " thins " tends to disappear. 1 Brush lettering may be used very effectively on Tiles and China, &c. (see p. 339), when it is of course rendered per- manent by baking. 2 The original form of a painted inscription (not carved) is inevitably spoilt by re-painting. 377 t^l o 3 ^ p4 *-i e=s u a o Q VM ei-4 v^ ^ t=-j i ^ o o Vn-4 45 ^5 ^ O 2 o 1 LX-'^ ~" < ^ p^ U^ g S5^:| { . S ^ >Xi , I ? u & 379 3 8 382 o w 383 Special It is quite possible to make a beautiful and char- Subjects acteristic alphabet of equal-stroke letters, on the lines of the so-called " Block Letter " but properly proportioned and finished (such letters may be Raised^ or Incised or Painted : see incised form, p. 391). Raised letters, if exposed to wear or damage, may be protected by being on a sunk panel or having a raised frame or ornament. The background also may be left in raised strips flush with the letters, between the lines of the inscription. Punctuation. In early inscriptions the words were separated by points ; in the more ancient they are square shaped H, I > > ni the more elaborate, triangular ^ J^ 4, some- times with curved-in sides W (Plate I.). These developed later into the ivy leaf V Vx or " hederce distinguentes." Such points may be used occasionally in modern work with fine effect, but should seldom be used between every word, unless the words are necessarily so close that distinguishing marks are required. Phrasing and Arrangement. An inscription may be arranged in sentences or phrases, and occasionally, by the use of larger letters, greater prominence is given to a word or phrase (see figs. 197, 204, 21 1). This method is particularly adapted to the nature of a set inscription (p. 264), and may help both its readableness and its appearance, but it must be borne in mind that to lay stress on any one state- ment or word may pervert its meaning or attract too much attention to it. Any confusion of sense, or accidental word (p. 259) or phrase, appearing in the setting-out is 384 ' avoided, if possible, by a slight rearrangement of Special the part, or, if necessary, of the whole inscription. Subjects Great care is taken that the spelling is accurate : a pocket dictionary should be carried. Reading is further facilitated by avoiding, where possible, the dividing of words at the ends of lines. It may be observed that in the more ancient in- scriptions words were generally kept entire. Exercises in letter form and arrangement, more profitable than mere paper " designing," might be devised by the craftsman. Inscriptions might be cut on a small scale in gesso or chalk, or in- scriptions might be variously spaced and arranged on a properly coloured surface such as a drawing- board covered with light or dark cloth in letters cut out of sheet-lead or card. BIBLIOGRAPHY, &C. The few books and pamphlets given below are generally, of recent date, practical, and inexpensive. The prices quoted are, I believe, those at which the books are generally sold (not necessarily their published prices). They are all illustrated, except Nos. *9, 10, n, and 19. WRITING, &c. (See also Nos. 8, 12, 14, 19, 28, 29, and 31.) 1. The Story of the Alphabet : Edward Clodd, 1900. 9d. 2. Greek and Latin Palaeography : Edward Maunde Thompson. 35. 9d. (The ex- tracts in these pp. 36, 41, 416, &c., are from the 2nd edition, 1894.) 3. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2726, Feb. 17, 1905 ; Papers on Calli- 2B 385 Special graphy and Illumination : Edward Johnston Subjects and Graily Hewitt. 6d. 4. Fac-similes de Manuscrits Grecs, Latins et Francais du V e au XIV e Siecle exposes dans la Galerie Mazarine : Bibliotheque Nationale Departement des Manuscrits. 5s. 5. " A Guide to the Manuscripts" in the British Museum, 1906 (30 plates). 6d. 6. Bible Illustrations: Oxford University Press^ 1896. About 2s. ILLUMINATION, &c. (See also Nos. 3, 4, 5, 12, 14, 29, and 31.) 7. Illuminated Letters and Borders : John W. Bradley, 1901 (19 plates). (Price at South Kensington Museum) is. 8d. 8. English Illuminated Manuscripts : Sir E. M. Thompson, 1895. (Now out of print.) *(). The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2368, April 8, 1898 ; a Paper on English Art in Illuminated Manuscripts : Sir E. M. Thompson. 6d. *io. The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini (a contemporary practical treatise on 14th- century Italian painting) : Translated by Christiana J. Herringham, 1899. 6s. *n. Some Hints on Pattern Designing: (lecture, 1881), William Morris, 1899. 2s. 6d. (11^7. "Books for the Bairns. No. 50," contains 55 reproductions of Bewick" 1 * Birds, id.) BOOKS MANUSCRIPT & PRINTING. (See also Nos. 2 to 9, and 29 and 31.) 12. Books in Manuscript: Falconer Madan, 1893. 6s. ( Frontispiece draivnfrom this by permission. ) 13. The Story of Books: Gertrude Burford Rawlings, 1901. gd. 14- The Old Service - Books of the English Special Church : Christopher Wordsworth and Subjects Henry Littlehales, 1904. 75. 6d. 15. Early Illustrated Books: Alfred W. Pollard, 1893. 6s. 1 6. Facsimiles [in colour] from Early Printed Books in the British Museum, 1 897. 75. 6d. 17. A Guide to the Exhibition in the King's Library (illustrating the History of Print- ing, Music Printing, and Bookbinding) : British Museum, 1901 (36 illustrations). 6d. 1 8. "Arts and Crafts Essays by Members of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society" Printing : William Morris and Emery Walker (ist pub. 1893), l %99- 2S - od - *I9- "Ecce Mundus," containing The Book Beauti- ful : T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, 1 902. 2s. 6d. 20. Printing (a technological handbook) : Charles Thomas Jacobi, 1898. 35. 9d. 21. Bookbinding and the Care of Books (The Artistic Crafts Series of Technical Hand- books}^ 1901 : Douglas Cockerell. 55. 22. A Note on Bookbinding : Douglas Cockerell, 1904. id. HERALDRY, SYMBOLISM, 6v. (See also Nos. i, 12, 15, 29, and 31.) 23. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2309, Feb. 19, 1897 ; A Paper on The Artistic Treatment of Heraldry : by W. H. St. John Hope. 6d. 24. English Heraldry: Charles Boutell, 1867. 6th ed. 1899, about 35. 9d. 25. The Stall Plates of the Knights of the Garter, 1348-1485 : W. H. St. John Ho (90 coloured plates, Imp. 8vo). About 387 Special 26. Didron's Christian Iconography (or the Subjects History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages) : 2 vols. 35. gd. (each). LETTERING, &c. (See also Nos. i to 8, and 12 to 20.) 27. Lettering in Ornament : Lewis F. Day, 1902. 5s. 28. Alphabets : Edward F. Strange (ist ed. 1895). 4th ed., 35. 9d. 29. The Pa Ideographical Society's Publications (out of print), containing hundreds of fac- similes (chiefly of MSS.), are of great interest. They may of course be seen in the British Museum Library. The New Pa Ideographical Society publishes a selection of facsimiles annually. 30. Hiibner's Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae Latinae a Caesaris dictators morte ad aetatem Justiniani (Berlin, 1885, price 465.) contains many fine outline drawings of ancient Roman inscriptions (see figs. 203-5). It is kept with the books of reference in the Reading Room at the British Museum. 31. Photographs of fine pieces of lettering may be obtained at the Book Stall in South Kensington Museum (see footnote, p. 409). Original MSS. or Inscriptions from which we can learn much more than from photographs or drawings may be found in most parts of the country, and in London especially in the British Museum, South Kensington Museum (see p. 391), the Record Office (Rolls Chapel, see p. n), and Westminster Abbey (MSS. in the Chapter-House). 388 APPENDIX B CHAPTER XVII INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE (By A. E. R. Gill) Treatment & Arrangement The Three Alphabets Size & Spacing The Material Setting Out Tools A Right Use of the Chisel Incised Letters & Letters in Relief The Sections of Letters Working in situ. TREATMENT & ARRANGEMENT Treatment. Inscriptions are carved in stone for Inscriptions many uses : for Foundation Stones and Public In- in Stone scriptions, for Tombstones and Memorial Inscrip- tions, for Mottos and Texts, for Names and Advertise- ments, and each subject suggests its own treatment. Names and Advertisements should be easily read, and usually entirely unornamental. The Treat- ment of Texts, Memorial Inscriptions, Foundation Stones, &c., may, according to the needs of the case or the opportunities of the carver, be either simple or elaborate. Colour and Gold may be used both for the beauty of them and, in places where there is little light, to increase legibility. Arrangement. There are two methods of arrang- ing Inscriptions: the "Massed" and the " Sym- 389 Inscriptions metrical" In the former the lines are very close in Stone together, and approximately equal in length, and form a mass. Absolute equality is quite unneces- sary. Where the lines are very long it is easy to make them equal ; but with lines of few words it is very difficult, besides being derogatory to the appearance of the Inscription. In the " Symmetri- cal" Inscription the length of the lines may vary considerably, and each line (often comprising a distinct phrase or statement) is placed in the centre of the Inscription space. Short Inscriptions, such as those usually on Tomb- stones or Foundation Stones, may well be arranged in the "Symmetrical" way, but long Inscriptions are better arranged in the "Massed" way, though, sometimes, the two methods may be combined in the same Inscription. THE THREE ALPHABETS The Roman Alphabet, the alphabet chiefly in use to-day, reached its highest development in Inscrip- tions incised in stone (see Plate I.), and it became absolutely suited to the material. Besides ROMAN CAPITALS, it is necessary that the letter-cutter should know how to carve Roman small-letters l (or " Lower case ") and Italics, either of which may be more suitable than Capitals for some Inscriptions. Where great magnificence combined with great legibility 2 is required, use large Roman Capitals, 1 With which we may include Arabic numerals. 2 It should be clearly understood that legibility by no means excludes either beauty or ornament. The ugly form of " Block " letter so much in use is no more legible than the beautiful Roman lettering on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.). 390 Incised or in Relief, with plenty of space between Inscriptions the letters and the lines. in Stone Where great legibility but less magnificence is required, use " Roman Small-Letters " or " Italics," or Roman Capitals, either small, or close together, or both. All three Alphabets may be used together, as, for instance, on a Tombstone, one might carve the Name in Capitals and the rest of the Inscription in Small-Letters, using Italics for difference. Beauty of Form may safely be left to a right use of the chisel, combined with a well-advised study of the best examples of Inscriptions : such as that on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.) and other Roman Inscriptions in the South Kensington and British Museums, for Roman CAPITALS ; and sixteenth and seventeenth century tombstones, for Roman small-letters and Italics. 1 If the simple A with FIG. 209. 1 Roman small-letters and Italics, being originally pen letters, are still better understood if the carver knows how to use a pen, or, at least, has studied good examples of manuscripts in which those letters are used. 39 1 Inscriptions elementary form of the letter be cut firmly and in Stone directly, it will be found that the chisel will suggest how that form may be made beautiful. This may be shown, for example, by an attempt to carve a quite simple Incised letter with no Serifs and with all the strokes equally thick. In making the ends of the strokes nice and clean it will be found that there is a tendency to spread them into Serifs, and the letter is at once, in some sort, beautified (see fig. 209). SIZE & SPACING Drawing out. Take paper and pencil, or what you will, and write out the words of the Inscription in Capitals, or small-letters (or both), without any regard to scale or the shape of the space the Inscrip- tion is to go in. The carver will then see easily of what letters and words his Inscription is com- posed. Next draw the shape of the Inscription space (say to i inch or ij inch scale), and in that space set out the Inscription, either "Massed" or " Symmetrical" as has been decided. The drawing should be neither scribbled nor elaborated. A good plan is to cut the lead of the pencil to a chisel shape. The natural thicks and thins of the letters (see p. 44) may then be produced easily and quickly. The carver will thus be able, after a little experience, to calculate quite easily what size he will be able to carve his letters, what space he will be able to leave between the lines, and what margins he can afford. 1 1 Some advice from the letter-cutter might be useful to the client as to the number of "words and the space they -will occupy in cases where it is possible to adapt the one to the other. 392 The Size of Lettering depends on where it is to go (i.e. outdoors or indoors, far away or near), the material to be used, and the space at the carver's disposal. Out of Doors letters should not, as a rule, be less than i J inch high, more if possible. 1 Indoors smaller lettering may be carved, but even then i inch is quite small enough, and that only in marble, slate, or the finest stones. In such stones as Ancaster or Ham-Hill it is not possible to carve good letters less than 3 inches high. More than one size of letter may be used in the same Inscription to give emphasis to certain words, thus : on a Foundation Stone the Date (see fig. 210), THISSTONE WAS LAID ON THE 4-th OF JULY Inscriptions in Stone FIG. 210. 1 Small lettering is less convenient to read out of doors, and is apt to get filled with dirt or moss. 393 Inscriptions and on a Tombstone the Name (see fig. 211), may in Stone be made larger than the rest. To the dor memor of aughter of John & dSeth Smith of~^ this porish.Shedied August i4* ipoi, Agedid FIG. 211. Spacing. Proper spacing is essential to a good Inscription. As a general rule, Roman letters should not be crowded together. Space should be left between each, varying according to the letters a narrower space between two O's, for example, and, generally, a wider space between two straight letters. The lines may be about the height of the lettering apart (see Plate I.) or pretty close together (see Plate XXIV.). Margins. If the Inscription is to be carved in a panel, the surrounding mouldings take the place of margins, and the lettering may fill the panel (see fig. 21 1). If any space be left, let it come, as it 394 naturally will, at the bottom. If the lettering is not to be in a panel, the margins depend primarily on what the carver can afford, and where the In- scription is to go. Every case must be treated on its own merits, but as a general rule one may say that the bottom margin should be the widest and the top margin the narrowest. Inscriptions in Stone THE MATERIAL The best quality a stone can have, from a letter- cutter's point of view, is fineness or closeness of texture, combined with freedom from holes and flints or occasional shells, and the letter - cutter will do well to choose the stone himself, if possible, having regard to this quality. The following is a list of a few of the best stones for outdoor and indoor use : Outdoors or Indoors. Portland. Especially good for lettering on account of its fineness and its excellent weathering qualities, for it not only hardens on the surface, but also becomes quite white if exposed to windand rain, thus showing very clearly any differences of light and shade. Fine and hard : good weather- Hoptonwood ing qualities. Slate Great delicacy may be attain- ed in these. g='}^."""' Indoors only. ( Very fine and deli- \ cate work ma 7 be / done in these. Bath. A cheap stone, and easily carved ; but unsuit- able for small lettering. Marbles and Alabasters. Ex- cellent for Inscriptions in- doors, but much colour or veining tends to confuse lettering. 395 Inscriptions SETTING OUT in Stone r^,, , . , r , 1 he stone being ready for the setting out, i.e. smoothed and cleaned, lines are ruled on it for the lines of lettering and margins with a pencil or point. If the Inscription is to be arranged " Symmetrically" a centre line is ruled from top to bottom. The carver should rule and set out one line and carve that before ruling another, as pencil marks are liable to be rubbed off by the hand in carving. 1 In "Setting Out" the spacing of the letters is thought of rather than their forms. And though the beginner may find careful drawing helpful, the forms which may best be produced with the chisel are found only by practice and experience (p. 399). TOOLS The chisels needed for simple work are flat chisels of the following sizes : T Y inch, J inch, f inch, \ inch, i inch. The shanks should be about 7 inches long. It will he found useful to keep a few " Bull- nosed" chisels (see 7, fig. 212) for use in cutting curves, and a few "skewed" chisels (8, fig. 212) for use in cutting the background of Raised letters, as a chisel of that shape is more easily used in a corner. The chisels are either Hammer-headed or Mallet-headed^ or they may have wooden handles 1 Whenever it is possible the carver should not be bound to follow a drawing strictly, but should do his work in the straightforward manner described above. Unfortunately he is often obliged to set out the whole Inscription exactly before carving it, and in such a case it is usual to carve the bottom line of letters first and to work upwards, cutting the first line last. 396 (see fig. 212, and pp. 401-2). The Hammer-headed Inscriptions are the most used, and a good number should be in Stone t 2, Section of No. I 3 Straight Hammer- headed 4 Enlarged section 5 SecoMi of Hammer- head enlarged to 7 Bull-nosed' 8* Skewed' FIG. 212. procured. The best are made with cupped ends, to prevent them from slipping on the hammer (see 5, fig. 212). 397 Inscriptions Temper and Sharpness. Above all things the in Stone chisels must be of the right temper, and sharp. 1 Dunrmy Hammer FIG. 213. They may be tempered by a smith or tool-maker if the craftsman can do it for himself, so much the 1 Really sharp, i.e. sharp enough to cut a piece of paper without tearing it. 398 better. They are sharpened on a piece of Grit-stone Inscriptions (hard York stone, for instance) with water. The in Stone Temper of a chisel may be seen by the colour (blue shows a soft or low-temper, straw colour a hard or high temper), and felt by the way it rubs on the Grit- stone (a hard tool will slide easily over the stone, while a soft one will seem to stick or cling). 1 Mallets. A wooden mallet or Me II, a Zinc mallet or Dummy, and an iron or steel hammer are required (fig. 213). The Mell is made wholly of wood, and should, for letter cutting, be about 5j inches in diameter. The Dummy has a head of zinc and a wooden handle. It should be about 2-J inches in diameter. The hammer should be about the same size and weight as the Dummy. A RIGHT USE OF THE CHISEL The workman must find out, for himself, how best to use his tools. In the ordinary way, it is best to hold the chisel at an angle of about 45 with the surface of the stone in the manner shown in fig. 214 in cutting both straight stems and curves. The chisel is held firmly (usually in the left hand, with the little finger about an inch from the cutting end of the chisel) and tapped rather than banged, and lightly rather than heavily. The best way to cut a letter is to start at the extreme left-hand point of the bottom Serif, and, working upwards, to cut the left side of the stroke first. Then start similarly at the extreme right- hand point of the bottom Serif, and cut the right side of the stroke. Then finish the Serifs. 1 The harder the stone to be carved, the more highly tempered will the chisels need to be. 399 Inscriptions When cutting a curve, cut the inside first (fig. in Stone FIG. 214. 214), and start as near the narrowest part of the curve as possible. In Incised letters unnecessary junctions of the parts may be avoided (see fig. 215). Where they are necessary, as in a capital E, or in a small y, cut 400 away from the junction or down on to it, rather Inscriptions than towards it. in Stone Ncte points A showing h,q,|V, S , u, however, might be used, and a very beautiful ornamental hand (p. 304) might be founded on this writing. 414 PLATE VII. Half -Uncial (English), circa 700 A.D. Notes on the "Durham Book" (Latin Gospels). Brit. Mus., Collotype Cotton MSS. Nero D. IV. Plates THE VOLUME contains 258 leaves (13^ inches by 9| inches). THE WRITING is an English or rather Anglo- Irish Half-Uncial, written at Lindisfarne (Holy I.) under Irish influence (p. 40). ARRANGEMENT two columns of 24 lines long and short to the page (note how eis is got into the fifth line) : wide spacing. The writing bears a strong resemblance to that of the " Book of Kells," but is generally much plainer ; it is also less graceful, being heavier and 'wider in proportion. The Book of Kells " O is a circle, while the Durham Book " O is considerably wider than its height, and all the other letters are correspondingly wide. The RULING in both books consists of double lines, ruled with a hard point on both sides of each leaf. THE ILLUMINATION also resembles that of the " Book of Kells " (see opposite), but a small amount of gold is employed in it. (See also Palaeographical Society's 1st Series, Vol. II., PI. 3-6, 22.) NOTE. The " Gloss," or interlinear translation, is in the Northumbrian dialect, and was put in in the tenth century, more than 200 years after the book was written. A hand founded to some extent on the "Durham Book " hand is given in Chap. IV. as an easy copy : see figs. 49, 50. PLATE VI II. English Tenth-century Writing. (Psalter). Brit. Mus., HarL MS. 2904. (See enlargement, Jig. 172). (Shown B. M. Grenville Lib. Case 2, No. 9.) THE VOLUME contains 214 leaves (13^ inches by 10 inches), 18 lines to the page; probably written at Winchester in late tenth century. (PI. reduced scale ^ths.) WRITING. An extremely good, formal, " slanted- pen " writing, having great freedom (note the very slight 415 Notes on the slope forward) and simplicity. This type of letter may Collotype be regarded as a link between the Half-Uncial and the Plates Roman Small-Letter (see p. 310). THE RULING: single lines (see footnote, p. 305). THE LETTERS show very strongly the effects of the "slanted pen" (see pp. 43, 305). Note the heavy shoulders and feet in n, b, &c., and the thick horizontals in r*C- The curved tops or arches are flatfish and strong : the thick strokes end in points and are hooked below, thin strokes scarcely appear except as the finishing strokes of a, C, 6,1, "C , while d, (h), i, m, n, U end in small heavy hooks. Note generally the tendency to internal angles and external roundness (examples, f and o) Note particularly the junctions and accidental crossings of the strokes (seen best in the enlargement, fig. 172) as bear- ing on the mode of construction of the letters (see p. 84). Note the fine shape of the ampersand (& : 3rd line). THE ILLUMINATION (see Characteristics of Winchester Illumination, or " Opus Anglicum," pp. 82, 83, Bradley : " Illuminated Letters and Borders "). All the CAPITALS beginning the verses are in raised, burnished gold, in the margin. The titles are in red in fancy " Rustic Capitals" (p. 297). The Line-Fillings consist of groups of red dots, in threes (.-. .. ..). This extremely legible MS. would form an almost perfect model for a modern formal hand (s being substi- tuted for long f, and the straight t for the curved "^ (see fig. 183): the removal of the e flourish would also help readableness). And though it is somewhat large and heavy for ordinary use, it is good for practising, and might be developed into a form resembling any of the more difficult later forms (Plates IX., X., XX.). PLATE IX. English Writing, dated 1018. Two portions of a Charter of C NUT. Brit. Museum. (See also enlargement, Jig. 173.) [PI. reduced scale ths.] (Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case V., No. 3.) THE WRITING resembles that in Plate VIII. 416 (see above), but is more slender and rounder the pen Notes on the being a little less slanted, and the arches more curved, Collotype and showing more of the thin stroke. The ascenders Plates and descenders are longer, the heads are more marked, and there is a general elegance and distinction, due per- haps to the MS. being a charter. Charter-hands are generally more showy and less legible than Book-hands, but in this hand there is great legibility, and a very few changes (similar to those suggested above) would make it quite suitable for modern use. Its relation to the Roman Small- Letter is obvious. NOTES. The (black) ^ V and U were probably built- up with the writing pen. The forms of a, e, g 1 , (h), r, may be noted as differing considerably from the tenth- century hand. The combined ra (in the 4th line) is curious ; and the r in Anglorum this r (which represents the Bow and Tail of R) commonly follows the round letters b, O, p, in " Gothic " writing : there is another curious form in the linked rt in cartula (last line). The word CNUT and several other names are in ornamental "Rustic" Capitals (see p. 297). The two lines of English from another part of the charter have very long stems and ornamental serifs, giving a very decorative effect (see footnote, p. 326). PLATE X. Italian (first half of] Twelfth -century Writing. (Homilies and Lessons}. Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 7183. (See also enlargement, Jig. 174.) (Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case C [lower part], No. 101.) THE VOLUME. Homilies and Lessons for Sun- days and Festivals from Advent to Easter Eve contains 317 leaves (approximately 21 J inches by 15 inches); two columns, each of 50 lines, to the page. The MARGINS are, approximately, Inner ij inch, Head 2D 417 Notes on the i^ inch, Side 3^ inches, Foot 4^ inches (between Collotype columns \\ inch : see Plate). The portion of a page, Plates shown in Plate X., consists of the last eleven lines, second column, of folio 78. WRITING. This has all the qualities of good writing (p. 239) in a marked degree, and I consider it, taken all round, the most perfect and satisfactory penmanship which I have seen. Its simplicity and distinctiveness are very marked, so also are its character and freedom. There is an almost entire absence of artificial finish the terminals are natural hooks, beaks and " feet " made with a fine sleight of hand (p. 311 ) and its very great beauty of form is the natural outcome of good traditions and eminently satisfactory craftsmanship. NOTES. The letters are very wide, and the inside shapes differ considerably from those of the tenth-century MS. (above) with which, however, there is a consider- able affinity (see p. 416). The f is longer than the f, the g has a very fine form with a closed loop, the r is sharpened, the t straight. Small (Uncial) CAPITALS um follow the Versal ; the serifs on the S and E are made with dexterous move- ments of the nib (p. 246), and resemble those on the Versal C. Vand U are both used for the consonant (V). There are very few VERSAL S in this book : the C shown is in red (which has been smudged). The large "ILLUMINATED INITIALS" in the book are in yellow, blue, and red, and appear to me to be comparatively poor, at least, to fall short of the perfection of the MS. Of this writing, Sir Edward Maunde Thompson ("Greek and Latin Palaeography," pp. 271-2) says: " The sense of grace of form which we perceive in the Lom- bardic writing of Italy is maintained in that country in the later writing of the new minuscule type, which assumes under the pens of the most expert Italian scribes a very beautiful and round even style. This style, though peculiarly Italian, extended 418 its influence abroad, especially to the south of France, and Notes on the became the model of Spanish writing at a later time. We Collotype select a specimen from a very handsome MS. of Homilies of the p, first half of the I2th century (Pal. Soc. ii. pi. 55), written in bold letters of the best type, to which we shall find the scribes of the fifteenth century reverting in order to obtain a model for their MSS. of the Renaissance. The exactness with which the writing is here executed is truly marvellous, and was only rivalled, not surpassed, by the finished handiwork of its later imitators. " It will of course be understood that this was not the only style of hand that prevailed in Italy. Others of a much rougher cast were also employed. But as a typical book-hand, which was the parent of the hands in which the greater proportion of carefully written MSS. of succeeding periods were written in Italy, it is to be specially noticed." (P. 284) " we give a specimen of a hand of the Italian Re- naissance, a revival of the style of the eleventh or twelfth century, and a very successful imitation of a MS. of that period. It was this practice, followed by the scribes of the Renaissance, of reverting to that fine period of Italian writing (see p. 272) to find models for the exquisitely finished MSS. which they were compelled to produce in order to satisfy the refined taste of their day, that influenced the early printers of Italy in the choice of their form of type."* (P. 285) " in the comparatively small number of extant literary MSS. of a later date than the close of the [fifteenth] century it is noticeable that a large proportion of them are written in the style of the book-hand of the Italian Renaissance the style which eventually superseded all others in the print- ing press. The scribes of these late examples only followed the taste of the day in preferring those clear and simple characters to the rough letters of the native hands." * The specimen hand given is of date 1466. Plate XVIII. may here be taken as an example of the Renaissance revival ; Plate XX. and fig. 175 as examples of later MSS. PLATE XL English (late) Twelfth-century Writing, with flourished Capitals. (Breviary). Brit. Mus., Royal MS. 2.A.X. (Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case D, No. in.) THE VOLUME sometimes called the St. Albans or Albanus Psalter contains 200 leaves (6J inches by 419 Notes on the 4 inches) ; twenty-seven lines to the page, some pages Collotype have two columns. MARGINS, approximately, Inner Plates | inch, Head under J inch (see Plate), Side i J inch (part occupied by Versals), Foot i^ inch. THE WRITING is fairly legible, but approaches Black Letter (p. 331) too nearly to be of use to us for ordinary purposes. Note the ornamental Semi- Rustic Capitals in text. Note the RULING of the two head lines and of the foot line is carried into the margin. THE VERSALS. The main interest lies in the varied forms of the Versals, which are most beautifully made in red and green alternately. There is one elaborate gold initial in the book, and several Versals in blue and white (hollow : see p. 208). The five O >s anc ^ t ^ e -^ * n ^ ne * ex t n this page (folio 85b) by no means exhaust the varieties of D alone, and there are very many varieties of the forms of the other letters. On some pages each line begins with a small Versal, while the more important Initials are much larger, varying in size and ornament. THE CONSTRUCTION of the Versals is un- usually slender, curved, and gradated. A rather fine pen seems to have been used (p. 292), and though the letters are upright, the natural tendency to slant the pen can be detected in the thickening of the thin parts above, on the right, and below, on the left giving the suspicion of a tilt to the O. The O-part of each Q was made first, and the tail \ added. This is very obvious in the D in the text, where a stem | was added to O to make D. Note the dots inside the Versals, one above and one below. Originally these may have been intended to effect or hide the junction of the thin strokes, by a twirl of the pen at the end of the first stroke and the beginning of the second, thus (, *). Their use is very common in Versal forms (see fig. 189), and besides being decorative in the ordinary sense, they may be said to 420 strengthen the thin parts (much as the weakest part of Notes on the the loop in an old key was thickened for strength). Collotype Note the right-hand Bows of the O 's are made thinner, as though the Rubricator had been afraid of running into the text in making their last curves such an expert, however, may well have had a better reason for it. PLATE XII. Illuminated Initial in a Flemish MS. A.D. 1148. (Latin Bible). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 14790. (Shown in Brit. Museum, Department of MSS., Case C, No. 91.) THE VOLUME the third, and most interesting, of this MS. Bible (Numbered 14788-89-90) contains 223 leaves (17 inches by ii-J inches). MARGINS, approximately, Inner i^ inch, Head (cut) I inch, Side 2^ inches, Foot 3-^ inches. (Between columns ^f inch.) THE WRITING is a not very legible "Gothic." The zigzag tendency exhibited, especially by the word niniuen (Niniveh), second line, is unsuited for such formal writing (see p. 484). The rapid placing of the Heads of the letters is such that they appear broken and partly de- tached from the stems. The VERS ALS are of a good type. THE INITIAL is a monogrammatic ET. The arms of the round 6 terminate in leaves folded back, its form is holloiv and inwoven (p. 208), and gives rise to foliage, which fills the interior passing over the fish and behind Jonah. Note also how the jaws of the fish are interlaced, and how compactly all the parts are put together. The close application of the background to the curves adds to the general compactness, and together with its spacing from the straight front balances the masses (p. 424) : it may be compared to the even spacing of curved and straight strokes (see fig. 53). There is an extension of the background to hold the fish's tail. 421 Notes on the THE COLOURS Collotype Initial, Foliage, Fish : red : Plates Jonah : Bands on Initial, Hollows in Initial, Backs of folded leaves Outer background : Dots on outer ground : Inner background : outlined ( Parchment black: /& lined ( left plain. gold, outlined red. paled green, red. paled blue. We may not, I think, attempt to imitate the complex 12th-century decoration of this initial (see p. 196), but the treatment of the elements of form and colour is very suggestive, and the whole piece of lettering is characteristic of the grand style in which a book was at that time begun. The ARRANGEMENT of the letters themselves is very simple, and might be made good use of (fig. 220). INCIPIT-JONASiPPHAf (fropheta) A C T U M. E S T. verbum d( ATE XF. English Writing and Illumination, circa 1284 A.D. (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 24686. THE WRITING is a fine, freely formed, Gothic " 331). Note, the i's are " dotted." Note the double ARGINAL LINES (p. 343). THE SMALL INITIALSare of theLombardic" type (p. 210), in which the Serifs are much thickened and ornamented. Note the tails of the Q's are turned to the left to clear the writing. The LINE-FILLINGS match the small initials (p. 193). THE LARGE INITIAL, &c. The plate shows the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth Psalm ( O omine quitf Ijabitabit). Note "Arabic" numerals (15) in margin. The tail of the Initial fo is formed of a dragon, the head of which rests on the O-part : its wings project into the inner margin (and these in the plate, which shows a fragment of a verso page, run into the fold between the pages) : the tail (together with the background) descends till a convenient point is reached from which the lower scroll-work springs. The tail, wing, and claws above, belong to a magpie which is perched on the initial. THE DRAWING : see reference to this at p. 203, and below. Sir Edward Maunde Thompson (p. 39, " English Illuminated MSS.") says of this " the Additional MS. 24686 in the British Museum, known as the Tenison Psalter, from its having once formed part of the library of Archbishop Tenison. This psalter is one of the most beautiful illuminated English manuscripts of its time, but un- fortunately only in part, for it was not finished in the perfect 426 style in which it was begun ... in the first quire of the text Notes on the the ornamentation is of peculiar beauty. . . ." x Collotype " the progress of the art [since the earlier part of the pi thirteenth century] . . . is . . . manifest. There is more freedom in the drawing, the stiffness of the earlier examples is in great measure overcome ; and the pendant has thrown out a branch which has already put forth leaves. A great variety of colours, blue, rose, vermilion, lake, green, brown, as well as burnished gold, is employed in the composition of the large initial and its accompanying pendant and border, and the small initials are of gold laid on a ground of blue or lake, and filled with lake or blue ; while the ribbons which fill up the spaces at the ends of the verses are alternately of the same colours and are decorated with patterns in silver on the blue and in gold on the lake." "The group of the dismounted knight despatching 2 a gryphon, which has proved too much for the horse, upon whose dying body the expectant raven has already perched, is tinted in lighter colours. It is an instance of the use to which marginal space was put, particularly by English artists, for the introduction of little scenes, such as episodes in romances or stories, games, grotesque combats, social scenes, &c., often drawn with a light free hand and most artistic touch. Without these little sketches, much of the manners and customs, dress, and daily life of our ancestors would have remained for ever unknown to us." 1 It is supposed that the book was at first intended as a marriage gift for Alphonso, son of Edward I. 2 The characteristic over and under arrangement of the gryphon's upper and lower bill, makes this doubtful. PLATE XVI. Italian Fourteenth-century MS., Brit. Mus., Addl. MS. 28841. THE VOLUME : one of two (the other numbered 27695), a Latin treatise on the Virtues and Vices (The miniatures, drawings, &c., probably by "the Monk of Hyeres," Genoa). The vellum leaves have been sepa- rated, and are now preserved in paper books. The leaf illustrated shows a margin of vellum of less than T 3 ^- inch all round (the plate). The decorative borders are much more naturalistic in 427 Notes on the form and colouring than any other old illumination that I Collotype have seen (see reference to Plate XVI., p. 203). Plates The foliage is a delicate green, the berries are dark purple, the single fruits plain and pale orange-red ; the two beetles in crimson and brown are made darker and too prominent in the photograph. The bands of small " Lombardic " Capitals are in burnished gold. Note how skilfully and naturally the upper corners of the border are managed, and also the beautiful way in which the branches run into and among the text (see p. 213). PLATE XVII. French Fifteenth-century Writing, 'with Illuminated Borders. Ex libris E. Johnston. THE PAGE 9j inches by 6i inches : MARGINS, approx. : Inner \\ inch, Head i| inch, Side 2f inches, Foot 2| inches (the edges have been slightly cut down). The marginal lines (from head to foot of the page) and the writing lines are RULED in faint red. THE WRITING is a late formal "Gothic" the thin strokes have evidently been added (p. 47). The written Capitals are blotted with yellow (see p. 140). The ILLUMINATED INITIAL Q is in blue, white lined, on a gold ground, contains a blue flower and five ornaments in "lake." The LINE-FILLINGS are in blue and "lake," separated by a gold circle, triangle, or lozenge. THE FILIGREE ILLUMINATION springs from the initial in the narrow margin, and from a centre ornament (see " knot," fig. 127) in the wide side margin. The side margins are treated similarly on either page (see p. 213); the inner margins are generally plain. This repetition gives to the pages a certain sameness which is a characteristic rather than a fault of the treatment. The border on the recto of the vellum leaf shows through on the verso or back of the leaf. The main lines of the first border, however, are freely traced and 428 followed on the verso (and so nearly hidden) by the Notes on the second border. This is also suggestive of the more Collotype rapid methods of book production in the 1 5th century. Plates COLOURS- Stems, tendrils, &c. : black. T J ivy- shaped (burnished gold, out- I plain. ' 8 | lanceolate : \ lined black (p. 187). \furred. Flowers, buds, centre f^ "^",? r ^T S7~A ornaments, &c. : J pered with white, and shaded /c x ) with pure colour ; white mark- (oee p. 1 02. i i i r ! j V mgs ; the forms not outlined. This type of illumination is discussed in pp. 197-202. Its chief points are its simplicity and rapidity. A penman or a novice in illuminating can, by taking a little pains, beautify his MSS. easily and quickly ; and he may per- haps pass on from this to " higher " types of illumination. PLATE XV I I L Italian Fifteenth-century Writing and Illumination. (Perotti's translation of Polybius}. Ex libris H. Tates-Thompson. THE VOLUME consists of 174 leaves (13^ inches by 9 inches) ; 35 lines to the page. The plate shows a portion of the upper part of the Initial (recto} page. THE WRITING. The Capitals are simple- written, slanted-pen " Roman " slightly ornamental forms. They are freely copied on a large scale in fig. 168 : see p. 297. The Small-letters match the Capitals they are " Roman " forms with a slight " Gothic " tendency. Both these and the Capitals would make very good models for free Roman hands. THE INITIAL is a "Roman" A in burnished gold. Note the exceedingly graceful shaping of the limbs, the ornamental, V-shaped cross-bar, and the absence of serifs (see fig. 116). 429 Notes on the The " White Fine Pattern" (see p. 202), most deli- Collotype cately and beautifully drawn, interlaces with the letter Plates and itself, and covers the BACKGROUND very evenly. The interstices of the background are painted in blue, red, and green, and its edge is adapted to the slightly projecting flowers and leaves. There are groups (.'. and . . . ) of white dots on the blue parts of the background. THE BORDER (of which a small part is shown) is approximately \ inch wide in the narrow margin at the side of the text it is separate from the Initial. It extends above and below the text, where its depth is greater, matching the greater depth of the margins. Its treatment is similar to, though perhaps a little simpler than, that of the Initial decoration. PLATE XIX. Italian MS., dated 1481. Ex libris S. C. Coderell "Part of a [verso] page from a book containing the Psalter of St. Jerome and various Prayers, written and decorated by Joachinus de Gigantibus of Rotenberg in 1481 for Pope Sixtus IV. Joachinus was employed at Naples by Ferdinand I., and there are other fine examples of his work at the British Museum and the Bibliothque Nationale, Paris. In each of these, as well as in the present book, he states that he was both scribe and illuminator." [S. C. C.] THE VOLUME contains 31 leaves (6J inches by 4^ inches) : MARGINS, approx. : Inner J inch, Head | inch, Side ij inch, Foot I J inch. (The head margin, together with the edge of the book-cover, is shown in the plate. ) THE WRITING. Very clear, slightly slanted-pen " Roman." Note the blending of b and p with e and o (see fig. 76, & p. 77). The CAPITALS are quite simple and plain, made (in (A)NIMA CHRISTI and in text) in black with the text pen. Note the long, waved serifs [Continued on p. 48 1 . THE COLLOTYPE PLATES StNATV Ik A V*\ f ^ A T-* ' M r C Ax ^ 1 V 1 1 ^~;J \ L~, I f\ w All \ Tl ~\ T~ S ^ A ^ DL) r *L ^ H A >w ^ j-v / j\, - V^ ^ ; <^--y \ Plate I. Portion of Inscription .on base of Trajan Column, Rome, circa 114 A.D. Scale approx. Jth linear. (See also Plate II.) 7 foot. 2 feet. 433 Plate II. Alphabet from Trajan Inscription Circa 114 A.D.) Scale approx. \ linear. (See also Plate i). Note.L and O are shown sideways in the 2nd line. 435 5 3 i 1 *i 'r 1 X cr >". < ULJ - - OH &^^.G Cfl **)'ft Plate III. Written Roman Capitals, Fourth or Fifth Century. (Virgil's "jEneid"). 437 ecce p i cxi s cxi i . tn x: is i J ?VRT o Ot ice ixi r IV>O>I'I I l^^ ICIOJ, XCJCRI r o xi ci re Re O R Xj^l I Id T I S oi ocieNieM ICIOB -^ leticYisi XJBI i IS r i Plate IV. Uncial Writing, probably Italian Sixth or Seventh Century. (Latin Gospels). Brit. Museum, Harl. MS. 1775. H Z to 1 III f? v Z - = v K^8$Sl a> en X, - Plat o Y'rV nc X al r^ ritin ' Probably Continental Seventh Century b. John). Ex Libns Stonyhurst College. (See also enlargement, (Gospel of fig. 169.) ..,JI US iUicm< cesil i eacba niutros Plate VI. Half Uncial (Irish), Seventh Century, "Book of KeHs' (Latin Gospels). Ex Libris Trinity College, Dublin. ST \ . _t s-i i^l x l 5-U 1 r if ^ -- fc \ 6^6 <^. >-H Plate VIII. English Tenth-century Writing. (Psalter). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 2904. (See enlargement fig. 172.) Plate IX. English Writing:, dated 1018. Two portions of a Charter of CNUT. Brit. Museum. (See also enlargement, fig. 173.) 449 ***.- c-'-iii. 1 i* . .- . Plate X. Italian (first half of) Twelfth-century Writing. (Homilies and Lessons). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 7183. (See also enlargement, fig. 174). :xltgni efftoamur ad opuotuf tujp omforao . ?drim . Yiotu lofiis bapnftpX onfps ds . ur famtUaniap uiainfi Uraf mctdao.c^ bean lo^is^prccurffeis^ .addi quon pttdpic emaT'. Aritn nrm qui prpfcm die bonmaftilcm obif tn bcaa io6is naaurcaccftafti.cla, poptfe tutf fpuaUu giam^audioi): . ce omniu U k s qut nx>bif bcaroy: \iolu aptto^ruo^ Pern o^ PauU tiacaliaagti ^ fa pttnt conccdtf .mbut cjs rhm uoffcmp cf V bgicftaif ptjacnm jc^ oaanonibuf adiuuan. | |squibodicrnidicmaptby.uiQy:lHftti ^ ^ p n (t pauli margmo confeocdh.da, ^c&f uif co# m omnit?; lequt prcctptii .pquo ~ f -~ mf fumpfrcpCQMliu .?. Comemo^ Eivli ^squimutanidmc^nraubcan PauU ^ ^ 'ape pttdicaaontdoaiifh.danobif qsr" >%o uc oiiurnaratiaacoUnuircf apudtr pamoq Vtuafaraamuf.?. Oa sci lofiisj)lqu^fai / |scumfdtperabeam PoruntOcf JLpJtb; ^^ambiUanitmftjuctife ncmcrgtttr osbt. c^ coapn ouf Paula xtrao najufra^amcdcp ftindo pctagi libdxiutr.^iaudt nofppiouf & concede ur amboi^ Plate XI. English (late) Twelfth-century Writing, with flourished Capitals. (Breviary). Brit. Mus., Royal MS. 2. A.X. 453 trwtgn4m.< pttdta tti Plate XII. Illuminated Initial in a Flemish MS. A.D. 1148 (Latin Bible). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 14790. 455 ubu ?k Ttcfttmoniamttfttt Plate XIII. English (2nd half) Thirteenth-century Writing and Illumination (Latin Bible). Ex. Libris S. C. Cockerell. 458 dte tongt^atwrntf me'qu Plate X IV. Thirteenth-century Line-finishings: Penwork. (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Royal MS. i, D.X. 460 Plate XV. English Writing and Illumination, circa 1284 A.D. (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 24686. 462 "-> IS iL & W? V%< -AW-.VS.. s ^^S^ilBS itCitnKNt|^M(t4^o 'fi Plate XVI. Italian Fourteenth-century MS , Brit. Mus., Addl. MS. 28*41. 464 9BMT *^~: *~^. ^"^ , BMP ^^ , F " C w a 4* wS * Plate XVII. French Fifteenth-century Writing-, with Illuminated Borders. Ex. Libris E. Johnston. 465 Plate XVIII. Italian Fifteenth-century Writing and Illumination (Perotti's translation of Polybius). Ex libris H. Yates-Thompson, 467 IMJ^ CHRIST! cbn/ti^ lalua cbrtftx m e; briamcr/ Ac^ua laterts cbrt{)i lauame;. Sudorutiltxxs xpt defende; me/. Ta/Tto ckrtfb TvLors ctrtAt. Utctatncr- Sapienna, cbnfk doce me;- Oboner tefu dttncf-ltv j Plate XIX -Italian MS. dated 1481. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell. 469 Content hoc pfjlterLurrt: et ranumctcrny- ! {cipe-diorLerisdoii Oro> miner cteus ommpotcns iftos t>iLmos coniecnitos c[s eoo tiid.ipnLL5 d.ecAii-cai-e^ca - o ~Z p to i IT n o nore/n o nun is tut clomme':' Ciio rum_ p ro m erm j.icrmio fta, famulo too : et p Plate XX. One page of an Italian (late) Fifteenth-century MS. Ex. libris S. C. Cockerell. 47 P mope in uifla oltra lusato offoa ; Tal, cba noia ct rouo/h a chink in Hie bower, a in the sVy ; and he daw one there the re$t t and he beo;an to da>? : ^ if d ttlc etar r %8$i eee thee plain t 3ti e woon drawd to her tra colette 16 vmth thee there , love. of" the orolden hair. Plate XXIII. The story of Aucassin and Nicolette, written and illuminated by W. H. Cowlishaw, 1898 A.D. 478 Plate XXIV. Inscription cut in Stone by A. E. R. Gill, 1903 A.D. Reduced ( T s ff scale). Note. To view these incised letters have the light on the left of the plate (or cover with thin tissue paper). 480 (see p. 289). The last two lines of the preceding Notes on the prayer are made in burnished gold with a larger pen. Collotype THE INITIAL A, its frame, the frame of the Plates border, and the "furred" berries (.*.) are all in bur- nished gold, outlined black. The "white vine pattern" is rather simpler, and has a rather thicker stalk (in pro- portion) than that in the previous plate (see above). Its treatment is very similar, but it may be noted that the border is in this case attached to the Initial, and the pattern has almost an appearance of springing from the Initial. The pattern save one escaped leaf is straitly confined, by gold bars, throughout the length of the text, but at the ends it is branched out and beautifully flourished in the free margins above and below. These terminals of the pattern having a broad blue outline (dotted white) may be said to carry their background with them. The (recto) page opposite that shown in the plate has an initial D and a border similarly treated, and each one of the Psalms and Prayers throughout the book is begun in like manner. PLATE XX. One page of an Italian (late] Fifteenth- century MS. Ex libris S. C. CockerelL " From a book containing the Penitential Psalms in Italian, the Psalter of St. Jerome, and various prayers. Written with great delicacy by Mark of Vicenza for someone named Evangelista [see nth line] in the last quarter of the fifteenth century. Other works of this accomplished scribe are known." [S. C. C.] THE VOLUME of which a complete (recto) page is shown contains 60 leaves (5! inches by 3f inches) : MARGINS, approx. : Inner \ inch, Head f inch, Side I T 3 ^ inch, Foot iij inch. This very fine WRITING is typical of the practical style and beautiful workmanship which should be the aim of a modern scribe (see pp. 47, 310). It is written with a very narrow nib, hence the pen- 2 H 481 Notes on the forms are not so obvious as in some early formal hands ; Collotype and for this reason alone it would be better to practise Plates such a hand as the tenth-century MS. (Plate VIII.) before seriously attempting to model a hand on the above (see^pp. 416, 311, 324). The use of a fine pen is apt to flatter the unskilled penman, and he finds it hard to distinguish between delicate pen-work which has much character, and that which has little or none. And he will find, after some knowledge of penmanship gained in practice with a broad nib, that the copying of this fine Italian writing while in reality made much more feasible may even appear more difficult than before. CONSTRUCTION. The pen has a moderate slant see thin stroke in e The letters are very square, the tops flat (especially in m, n> and r)> and the lower parts flat (as in u)- This shows the same tendency that there is in the tenth century and other hands to avoid thin or high arches in the letters. The feet in some of the letters (in i, for example) are in the nature of stroke-serifs, but the pen probably made these with an almost continuous movement from the stem, Note the fine form of the a ; that b and 1 have an angle where the stem joins the lower part ; that f was made something like t> and the upper part was added : this was a common mode see fig. 1 80 (the f shown in plate is un- fortunately not a good specimen) ; that g a very graceful letter lacks the coup- ling serif; that i, p, u have triangular heads, and m, n, r hooks ; that the ascenders have triangular heads, and the descenders p and q, stroke-serifs ; that the ascending and descending stems are longer than the bodies, and the writing is in consequence fairly widely spaced. 482 Like most of the finest writings, this bears evidences Notes on the of considerable speed (see pp. 84, 311). Besides the Collotype great uniformity of the letters, the coupling strokes are Plates occasionally carried over the succeeding stroke, the arches of b, h, m, n, p, r (and the heads of the ascenders) fre- quently are separated from the stems, and the o and b occasionally fail to join below. These broken forms are the results of speed, and are not to be imitated except as to that which is both a cause and a result their uniformity (p. 254). The RULING is in faint* ink: there are two verti- cal marginal lines on the left and one on the right of every page. The DECORATION of the MS. is very simple. The Initial (here shown) is in green and powder-gold, on a lake ground, with white pattern : there is a very fine brownish outline, probably drawn first. The two upper lines of writing and ||ofO are in red. PLATE XXL Italian (early) Sixteenth - century "cursive" or "Italic" MS. Ex libris S. C. Cocker ell. (See enlargement, Jig. 178.) " From the Poems of Cardinal Bembo, a fine example of the cursive writing perfected in Italy in the first half of the sixteenth century. The book measures 8J by 5^ inches, and contains 79 leaves." [S. C. C.J THE MARGINS of the page from which the plate is taken are approximately : Inner f inch, Head ^ inch, Side 2 inches, Foot ij inch. Note. The lines of writing begin as usual at the left margin, but do not extend to the (true) margin on the right, hence the latter (the side margin on the recto, and the inner margin on the verso) would appear unnaturally wide, but the effect is carried off by the (true) side margins being already exceptionally wide (and by the writing on the backs of the leaves showing through the semi-transparent vellum and so marking the true margins). 483 Notes on the This mode is very suitable for a book of poems, in Collotype which the lengths of the lines of writing may vary con- Plates siderably, because the writing-line being longer than the ordinary line of writing allows room for extraordinarily long lines, and any appearance of irregularity is carried off by the extra wide side margins. THE WRITING is very beautiful, clear, and rapid made with a " slanted pen " (see " Italics," p. 311, and fig. 178). Note the slightness of the slope of the letters (especially of the Capitals), and the length of the stems and the wide spacing. Note, also, the flatness of the curves in a c d e g o q and the horizontal top stroke in a d g q, oblique in e c (giving angular tops). The branching away from the stem of the first part of the arch in b h m n pr (seen also reversed in a d g q #), and the pointed, almost angular, quality of the arch. This, which is apt to become a fault in a more formal upright hand (see note on Plate XXII.) is helpful in a more rapid running hand, and gives clearance to the junctions of the strokes (r j,) see fig. 182. The heads, simple or built-up, hooks tending to become triangular. The letters in this MS. are rarely coupled. The very graceful g has a large pear-shaped lower loop touching the upper part. PLATE XXII. " Communion Service " written and illuminated by E. Johnston, 1902 A.D. (" Office Book" Holy Trinity Church, Hastings). Reduced (nearly f scale). The MS. on 160 leaves (i 5 inches by 10 inches) of fine parchment ("Roman Vellum," see p. 173), contains the Communion Service and many collects, epistles, and gospels for special festivals, &c. MARGINS : Inner i\ inch, Head ij inch, Side ^\ inches, Foot 3J inches. 484 THE WRITING after tenth century model (see Notes on the Plate VIII.) has the fault (referred to at p. 421) of Collotype showing too much thin line (running up obliquely), the Plates upper and lower parts of the letters are not flat enough. The tail of the g is inadequate, and the lines of writing are too near together. The writing is readable, however, and fairly regular. The CAPITALS are Uncials (after Plate V.) and occasional " Romans." The RUBRIC (" U Then shall be said or sung ") is in red, fitted in beside the round initial and marking the top left-hand corner of the page (see footnote, p. 211). The word "GLORY" (and decoration) and also the F and T, showing in recto page are in raised bur- nished gold, which, it will be seen, has cracked consider- ably in the G (see p. 164). The STAVES are in red (p. 140), the notes above GLORY in raised gold, those in the lower stave, black. The BOOK was of a special nature (see pp. 344-5), being intended for use in a certain church and on certain special festivals : hence a considerable degree of orna- ment and a generally decorative treatment was permitted (p. 330). The Prayer of Consecration, together with a miniature, occupied a complete opening, the eight margins of which were filled with solid, framing borders (p. 213) in red, blue, green, and gold. Coats-of-arms and other special symbols and devices were introduced on the Title page and in other places. PLATE XX I I I. The Story of Aucassin and Nicolette, written and illuminated by W. H. Coiulishaiv, 1898 A.D. THE VOLUME consists of 50 + leaves of" Roman Vellum " (7 J inches by 5! inches). MARGINS, approx. : . Inner } inch, Head if inch, Side i|^ inch, Foot 2 inches. THE WRITING, very legible, rather "Gothic- Roman." 485 Notes on the THE CAPITALS are illuminated throughout the Collotype text in gold on blue and red grounds. The backgrounds Plates are square, with edges pointed or indented, outlined blacky and lined inside 'white. The INITIAL II is in gold on blue : the moon and stars are in white and gold and white. THE LINE-FINISHINGS, mostly in black pen- work, consist of little groups (sometimes of sprays) of flowers, &c. Sprays from the border separate the " Song " from the " Tale." THE MUSIC. Staves black; Clefs, gold; Notes, red. THE BORDERS (in the opening from which the plate is taken) frame the text on both pages nearly filling the margins (see p. 213) : the side and foot edges of the (verso) page are shown in the plate. The main pattern is a wild rose, flowers and all, outlined with a rather broad blue line : the stalks and leaves (lined white) are apple-green, the flowers are painted white with raised gold hearts, the thorns are red. Through the wild rose is twined honeysuckle and woody nightshade : stalks (h) red, (wn] black; and flowers (h} red with yellow spots, (w) purplish red with gold centres. The whole effect is very brilliant and charming. The freedom and naturalness of the "design " remind one of a country hedgerow (p. 213), and show that vital beauty which is the essence of true illumination. PLATE XXIV. Inscription cut in Stone by A. E. R. Gill, 1903 A.D. Reduced (j\ scale). NOTE. To view these incised letters have light on the left of plate (or cover with thin tissue-paper}. The STONE a slab of " Hopton Wood" (p. 395), 30 inches by 18 inches by 2 inches, is intended to go over a lintel. It has a simple moulding. Note how the INSCRIPTION occupies the space (pp. 352, 394): the LETTERS have approximately the same apparent 'weight (p. 328) the large stems are more than twice the height of the small ; they are only ^ wider. 486 Note the strongly marked and elegantly curved serifs ; Notes on the the straight-tailed R ; the I drawn out (marking the word Collotype IN) ; the beaked A, M, and N ; the Capital form of U. Plates The letters DEO would be rather wide for ordinary use (p. 270), but as special letters, occupying a wide space, 1 are permissible. Even in the collotype, I think this inscription shows to what a high level modern inscription cutting might be raised by the use of good models and right and simple methods. 1 Letters in early inscriptions separated as these are indicated each 'a. word (contracted), as S. P. Q. R. (Senatus PopulusQue Romanus}. 487 INDEX INDEX Index A, 189, 271, 274, 280, 410-11 A, Ancient & Modern, 195- 196 Abbott, Rev. Dr. T. K., 413 Accidental words, 259, 384 Acquiring a Formal Hand : (1) Tools, 48 (2) Methods, 61 (3) Models, 70 (4) Practice, 85 Addenda & Corrigenda, 23 Addresses, Illuminated, 353 Advertisements, &c., 340, 352, 389 Alabaster & Marbles, 395 Alcuin of York, 41 Aldus, 311, 373 Alphabet, derivation of the, 36 Alphabets, useful kinds of, 267^ 377 > 390 Aluminium leaf, 165 Amperzand (&), 361, 416 (Amperzand ; Examples. Figs. 50, 79, 148, 172, 173, 208 & Plates) Analysis of Versals, 115 Analysis of Writing, 72 Ancaster (stone), 393, 395 Angles in Writing, 43, 46, 118, 253, 416 ^ Anglo-Saxon writing, 326 Annotations, &c., 144, 315, 3 '7> 344 49 "Arabic Numerals," 82, 426 Arms or branches, I2O (v. Letters") Arrangement of Lettering, 88, 122, 239, 255-268, 389 " Ascenders " and Ascending strokes, 79,97, 119, 300, 314 As iso (gesso), 1 66 Azzuro delta magna, 179 B, 189, 272, 273, 275-279, 280, 410-11 Backgrounds, 184, 186, 188- 193, 211-213 Bands of lettering, 123, 136, 267 " Barbaric " illumination, 194 " Basket work," 208, 209 Bath (stone), 395 Beauty, 237-240, (12) Beauty of Arrangement, 255 ,, ,, Form, 252 ,, ,, Uniformity, 254 Bibliography, &c. , 385 Binding books, 346, 103, 106, no, in, 171, 185, 197 Black and Gold, 185, 202 Black and Red, 127, 328 " Black letter," 118, 141, 263, 1$I,S64 Black outlines, 182, 88, 212 Blake, William, (footnote) 343 Block letter," 384, 390 Blue, 176-180, 181, 182 Book-hands, 36 Book Marks, 142 Books, binding, 346, 103, 106, no, in, 171, 185, 197 Books, Manuscript, 98, 341, &c. Books, size and shape of, 100- 101 Books, size of writing in, 101, 107 Book typography, founda- tions of, 13, 98 Borders, Illuminated, 98, 198 203, 211,214, 4*7-43 Borders, penwork, 25 Bows & Curves, 121 Brasses, 137, 340, 375 Brazil-Wood, 175 British Museum, MSS. in, 386, 409, &c. Broadsides, 338, 350 Brushes, 172 Brush-made (painted) letters, 376, 280, (118), 292, 384 Bubbles, in size, 148 " Built-up " letters, 291, 118- 119, 254, 289, 331 Burnished gold, 160, 184 (see also Gold} Burnisher, the, 158, 166, 171 Burnishing slab, 146, 153 C, 270, 281, 410-11 Cake colours, 175 Calligraphy, 14, 368 Cane, or Reed pens, 52 Capitals (see also Letters) Capitals, arrangement of, 256, 258 ; (in Lines, Headings & Pages) 125-126, 128-136, 299, 422 Capitals, coloured, 113, 118, 122, 123, 134, 185 Capitals & Small letters, 40, H2, 122, 302 Capitals, severe type of, 294 Capitals, simple -written, 113, 297, 302 Capitals, sizes of, 108, 119, 122 Carbonate of Copper (blue), 179 Caroline (or Carlovingian) Writing, 41-43, 45, 305 Caslon, William, 373, (26) Cennino Cennini, 165, 184, 386 Chalk, 395, 402 Chapters, beginnings of, 125, (footnote l) 342, (2) 343 Character, 237-240, 323 " Characteristic Parts," 247, 252, 280 Characterization of letters, 278 Charlemagne, 41 Charter hands, 417 Chequers, 191, 197, 215-217 Chinese printing, 372 Chinese Vermilion, 178 Chinese White, 180 Chisel-made letters, 36, 196, 278, 280, 292, 375, 391, 396, 410 Chisel-shape of nib, 57, 63 Chiswick Press, the, 374 Chronograms, 363 Church Services, &c., 140, 345, 3 8 7; 484 Close spacing, 262267 CNUT, charter of, 416 Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., (13), 368, 387 Cockerell, Douglas, 171, (on limp vellum bindings) 346, 387 Cockerell, S. C.,423, 430-483 Collotype plates, the, 407, 431 Colophons, 142, 342 Coloured " Inks," 172, 322 ,, Letters (see Capitals, & Contrasts) Colour, cake & powder, 175 ,, pan & tube, 176 491 Index Index Colour, preparations, 175-180 ,, for Penwork, 176 ,, proportions of, 182 ,, Repetition & Limita- tion of, 181 Colours, Tints few & constant, 177 ,, Use of, 195, 202, 203, 216, 422,424, (389) Colour- work Illumination, 17, 194 Columns, double, 104, 134, J3 6 37 Commonplace, the, 268 Complex and simple forms, '95 Construction of writings, 73, 83-85, 118, 292, 311 (see also the Notes on the Collotypes) Continental Writing, 41, 413 Contrasts, Decorative, 327, 363 ,, of Colour, 327, 336 ,, of Form, 330, 336, ,, ,, of Red & Black, 144 "Conventionalism," 220 " Copy book " hands, 304, 305 Copyingahand,7i,82, 311,323 Copying early work, 83, 114, !95> 3*3> 4H-4 I 7, 4 22 ~4M, 482 ^ Correcting mistakes, 174, 344 Countercharging, 188,216,424 Coupling-strokes, joining let- ters, 73 Cowlishaw, W. H., 485 Cursive Writing, 37, 317, 483 Cutting sheets, 99 Cutting-slab, 61 Cutting the Pen, 52-60 " Cyphers" & Monograms, 361 D, 270, 281, 410-11 ' ' Deckle " edge, 1 1 1 Decoration of Print, 194, 364, 37 1 , 374 492 Decorative Contrasts, 327, 363 Decorative use of Red, 144 " Descenders," and Descending strokes, 79, 97, 300, 314 "Design," Decorative, 177, (183), 201, 210, 214-222 "Design" in illumination, 214 Designing in type, 365, 371 Desk, the, 49 ,, Position of, 61 ,, Writing level on, 62 Different slopes of, 68 ,, Slopeybr colour, 118 Development of g, 325 Development of illumination, 1 6, 127, 204, 409 Development of illuminated initial, 48, 114, 205, 423 Development of Versals, 112 Development of Writing, the, 35, 409, & Author's Preface Devices in Letters, 362 Diaper patterns, 192, 215-217 " Display types," 352 Distinct lines of writing, 326 Distinctiveness, 221, 247, 256 Divisions of the text, 123, 138, 256 Dividing Words, 258, 385 Dots, groups of, 188, 213 Drawing, 165, 203, 220, 227 Drawing letters, 118, 1*6, 146, 292, 293 "Durham Book," 41, 71, 215, E, 272, 273, 281, 410-11 Edges of Books, rough, or smooth and gilt, in Egg, white of, 163, 165, 166, '75, 79 l8 3 Egg, yolk of, 175, 179, 180 Egypt, Hieratic writing of, 36 Eleventh Century Writing, 46, 47> 35> 4i6 Elzevirs, the, 373 English Half-Uncials, 40 English, Writing, 40, 46, 47, 33> 35, (335)> 4 I 5-4'7> 419, 423, 426 English, modern, writing in, 300, 326, 484, 485 Engraving, Metal, 365, 375 " Essential Forms," 240, 275 Even Spacing, 265, 219 "Expression," 240 F, 272, 274, 282, 410-11 " Face," of type, 373, (26) Fifteenth Century Writing, 46,47. (3* 6 )> 33 J > " Filigree" Illumination, 197, 428 Filling the Pen, 51, 69 " Fine Writing" and "Mas- sed Writing," 260, 265, 299 Fine Pen Writing, 59, 86, 311,324,482, 26 Firth, C. M., 179 Flemish MS., 421 Floral Ornaments & Decora- tion, 182, 187, 191, 192, 198-203, 219 Fly-leaves, in, 346 "Folder," 64, 99,348 Folding sheets for books, 99, 101-103, 1IX Folio, IOZ Foot margin, 106, 352, &c. Formal Hand, acquiring a (1) Tools, 48 (2) Methods, 61 (3) Models, 70 (4; Practice, 85 Formal Writing, 36, 317, 323 Formal Writing, Modern, 71, 86, 114, 310, 315, 323, 414-417, 481 Foundation Stones, 393 Fourteenth Century Writing, 46, (114), 423, (427) Framed parchments, 356 Framing borders, 25, 213, 371 Freedom, 122, 126, 239, 258, 264, 324, 327, 342, 369, 21 " French chalk," 167, 174 French Writing, 41, 305, 428 Froben, (footnote) 365, 373 G, 270, 282, 410-11 g, Development of, 325 " Geometrical " patterns, 205 Gesso Sottile, 1 66 Gilding (see Gold) Gill, A. E. R., 383, 486, (on Inscriptions in Stone) 389 Gilt edges, in Gold-leaf, 151, 165, 169 Gold-leaf, Laying & Burnish- ing. HS- 1 ? 1 . l8 4 Gold Ink," 165 Gold letters, 148, 166, 168, 186, 188, 299, 416, (405) Gold powder, "paint," or matt gold, 163, 183, 187 Gold, spots, bars, frames, 183 Gold, use of, 183-193 (see also Other Colour Schemes, 127-145) Gold Writing, 164, 299 " Golden Psalter," the, 218 " Gothic lettering," 46, 118, 282, 33*. 33 6 , 373 Greek Writing, 36, 320 Green, 176-178,181, i82,(2O2) Gum arabic, 147, 175 Gutenberg, 372 H 2 7 J > z .73 28 *, 4" Half-Uncials, 37, 40, 71, 238, 302, 413-415 Ham-Hill (stone), 393, 395 Hand-made paper, in, 51 Handwriting, ordinary, 14, 15, 77, 280, 315, 323, 374 Headings in Capitals and Colour, 125, 132, 134, 297, (footnote 2) 343, 353 Heads, feet, serifs, 84, 244, 311, 414, 416, 418, 482 493 Index Index Heraldry, 216, 360, 361, 336 Herbal, A, 221, 369 Herringham, Christiana J., 165, 386 Hewitt, Graily, 386, (Appen- dix : On Gilding) 167 Historiated Initial, 423 Holding the Pen, 64-68 ,, ,, ,, Horizontal shaft, 6 1, 67 Hollow letters, 119, 208 Holy Trinity Church, Hast- ings, Office Book, 484 Hooks, or beats, 244, 280, 289 Hoptonwood (Stone), 395, 486 Horizontal thin strokes, 65, 66, 72, 73, (footnote] 304 Hiibner's Exempla, 378380, 388 I, 189, 283 I for J., use of, 283 Illuminated Addresses, 353 Illuminated borders, 199, 211, 214 Illuminated Initials, 214 (see Initial, also Collotype Notes) Illumination, 14, 486, 98 Illumination, a definition of, 193. *94 Illumination, a theory of, 193 Illumination, heavy, 263 Illumination, origin & de- velopment of, 48, 127, 204, 409, 16 Illumination, tools for, 172 Illustrations in MS. books, 13, 14, 221, (374) Incised Letters, 377-384, 403- 45> 39* Indented (set in) lines, 113, 264 Initial, illuminated, develop- ment of, 48, 114, (134), 205, 33. 333> 423 Initials, round or square, 210 Initial Pages, &c., 1 12, 128, 365 Initial word (IN), 128 494 Inks, 51, 70 (see also Coloured " inks " and Gold) Inner margin, 106 Inscription, modern, 487 Inscriptions, size & arrange- ment of, 88, 265, 351, 392 Inscriptions in stone, 389 Inscriptions on metal, stone, wood, &c., 375, 377, 264 "Inside Shapes," 253, 281 (C) Irish Half-Uncials, 40 Irish Writing, 34, 40, 302, Italian Writing, 47, 305, 312, 317, 412, 417-419, 429- 484 Italics, 311, 48, 130, 263 Italic Capitals, 315 "Italic" Writing, 138, 483 J, 283,411 Joachinus de Gigantibus, 430 Jonah & fish, 195, 421 K, 273, 284, 401, 411 Ketton (stone), 395 Kells, Book of, 413, 40 Kelmscott Press, the, 364 Knife for pen cutting, 60 L, 273, 284, 410-11 Lamb's skin, 167, 173-74 Lapis Lazuli, 178 Learning to Write, 48 Legibility, 86, 390 (see Read- ableness) Lettering, arrangement of, 88, 122, 239, 255-268, 389 Lettering, construction & ar- rangement of, 237, 17-19 Lettering, contrasts of size, weight, &c., 327-328, 353 Lettering, divers uses of, 337 Lettering for Reproduction, 365 Letters in Bands, 123, 136, 267 Proportions and Methods, 100, 221, 256, 267, 358 Letters, Brush-made, (118), 292, 376 Letters, " Built-up, "291, 254, 289, 331, 118-119 Letters, Characterization of, * 7 8 ,, ,, " Arms & Branches," 281 (C), 288, 331 ,, ,, Stems, 288 (drawn out), 282, 324, 331 ,, Bows & Curves, 288 ,, Serifs, 288 ,, ,, Tails, 289, 251, 331 Letters, drawn,292~93, 146,118 Letters, gold (see Gold} Letters, "Hollow," 119, 208, Letters, incised & raised, 377- 3 8 4> 43 Letters in inscriptions, size of, 35'393 Letters, " Lombardic," 119 Letters, monogrammatic, 260 Letters in outline, (294), 378- 380 Letters, round (see Round or Square types) Letters, Upper & Lower Parts, 2 73 Letters, Varied types of, 114, 119, 209, 377; (on one Page) 352 Letters, Wide & narrow, 270, 278 ' * Library gilt" III Lighting, 62 Limitation in decoration, 177, 181, 198, 215, 220, 352 " Limner's " Illumination, 202 Line- Finishings, 205, 123, 134, 193. 263, 425, 486 Lines of Writing, 262. 326, 343 Lines, red, 144 Line-spaces in text, 123, 138, 256 Linked letters, 260, 361 " Lombardic " Capitals, 119, 210 Loumyer, G., 147 M, 271, 284, 410-11 Magnifying glass, use of, 57, 61,84 Majuscules, (footnote} 300 Marbles & Alabasters, 395 Marginal lines, 109, in, 136, 343 Margin, the Foot, 352, (106) Margins, proportions of, 256, 8 994,95,97, 103,265,394 Margins, wide, 89, 103, 213, 222,265,299,317, 351,483 " Massed writing," 79, 260 Matt gold, 183, 187 Methods and Proportions, 100, 221, 256, 267 Middle Ages, the, 196 Miniatures, 98, 127, 165, 203, 220 Minuscule, 37, 302 Models of lettering, 70, 114, Modern Handwriting, 315- 323 (see also Formal Writing 15* Hand-writing, Ordinary) Monograms & Devices, 361, 260 Morris, William, 368, 386-7 MS. Books, 98, 256, 341 Music with red staves, 140, 345 N, 271, 285, 410-11 Narrow letters, 269-273, 278 " Natural" illumination, 202 Nib (see Pen) Notes in red, &c. , 130, 144 Numbering pages, no, 142, 144, 34* Numerals, "Arabic," 82 O, 270, 285,411 " Oblong" shaped book, 103 495 Index Index Obsolete letters, &c., 86, 323 Octavo, I O2 Openings, IOI, Io6, 213, 365 " Originality," 268, 20 Ornament of backgrounds, 191 ,, use of, 123, 222, 254. 33 Ornament, "woven," 208 Ornaments (see also Design & Decoration) Ornamental Letters, 330, 48, 114, 208, 276, 298, 364, 25 Outlines, 186, &c. ,, in black, 182 Oxgall, 175 P, 273-274, 285, 411 Page, proportions of a, 317 Pages in Capitals, 125, 128, 132, 299, 363-365 Pages, thickness of, 99 Painted (brush-made) letters, 376, 280, (118), 292, 384 PaLeographical Society's Pub- lications, The, 388,412,413 Pan colours, 176 Paper, hand-made, 51, in Paper Sheets, sizes of, 103 Paragraphs & Paragraph marks, 112, 113, 123, 141, 144 Parchment & " Vellum," 173, 38, 107, no, 167 Parchment, framing of, 356 Patterns, elementary, 215, 205 Patterns, indented in gold, 191 Pens, for colour, 172, 180 ,, metal, 60 (footnote, 20) Quill, 52, 54, 59, 172, 20 2 3 ,, Reed or Cane, 51, 52, 63, 84 Pen, cutting the, 52-60 Pen, holding the, 64-68 Pen, Nibs shape of, 56, 118 ,, width of, 84, 1 1 8, 292, 324 Pen, Pressure on, 63, 23 496 Pen-knife, 60 Pen-wiper, 61 Pen-work illumination, 197 Penmanship (or use of the pen), 35-38,84-85,118,197, 198, 204, 218, 238, 239, 241-247, 254,262, 278, 291, 311,317, 375, 414, 418, & Author's Preface Personality, 239, 323 Phrasing, 384 " Plain song," 140 Planning MS., Spacing, &c., 97, 100, 358 (see also Scribes 1 Methods} Planning sections& pages, 342 Plaster of Paris, 166 Platinum leaf, 165 Poetry, long lines in, 95, 97, 138.484 Poetry, general treatment of, 95, 123, 138, 263, 337, 338, 37 1 " Pointed " Writing, 40, 41 Pounce, 145, 146, 167, 174 Portland Stone, 395 Powder Colours, 175 Powder gold or " gold paint," 146, 163, 170, (see Matt Gold, 183, 187) Practice (in Lettering], 21-22, 385 Practice, acquiring a formal hand, 85, 327 Practice & theory, 267 Prayer Book, 345 Prefaces in colour, &c., 130, 3 J 5 " Primary Colour Sensations," 182 Printed books, Decoration of, i94> 3 6 9-372, 374 Printers' marks, 142 Printers' methods, 101, 113, 258, 264, 267, 363-374 Printing, 367 Proportion, 221, 251 Proportions and Methods, 100, 221, 256, 267, 358 Pumice, powdered, 146 Punctuation marks, 82, 384 Purple, 175, 177, 180 Purple Vellum, 299 e, 270, 286,4x1 ualities of good Writing, 239 Quarto, 102 Quill pens, 52, 54, 59, 172, 20 23 R, 272, 274, 286,401, 411 Raised Letters in stone, &c., 377, 384, 403 Raising preparation (or "Size"), 145, 146, 166, 168 Readableness, 237-240, 254, 259, 260, 264, 265 Recto (right-hand page), 105, 112, 181, 365 Red (paint), 176-78, 181, 182 Red & Black, 127, 328, 364, 372 Red lines, 144 Red writing, 130, 144, 194, S'5, 3 28 345 Reed or Cane pens, 51, 52, 63,84 Renaissance, the, and writing, 47,419 Repetition in decoration, 181, 215, 185, & see Limitation 11 Rivers," (footnote) 262 Roman Alphabet, the, 36, 114, 268, 390 Roman Capitals, 189, 210, 238, 294, 297, 299, 302, 377, 39-39' 409-41* Roman Capitals, Written, 297, 302 "Roman" characters, 118, 241, 263, 278 Roman Small Letters, 310, 47 Roman Uncials, 38 '' Roman Vellum " 173 Roman Writing, 36-40, 297, 412 Rooke, Noel, 227, 5 " Round " and " Square " let- ters, 269 Round or Square types of D, E, H, M, U, &c., 40, 119, 132,210,282, 300 Round, Upright, Formal Hands, 65, 302 Roundness in Writing, 38, 44, 45.47> 34, 4H Rubricating, 127, 98, 130, 144, 1 80, 194, 344, 345, 372 "Rules," 144, 364 Ruling, double, 88, 304, 414 Ruling pages, &c., 89, 99, 108, 258, 299, 343 Ruling stylus, 89, 100, 108, ", 343 Rustic Capitali, 38, 297 Rustic Capital in Stone, 378 Rye, Slate at, 363, 382 S, 273, 274, 286,411 " St. Albans Psalter," the, 419 Sandarach (resin), 174 Scale for ruling, 99, 25 Scalpel for pen-knife, 60 Scribes', methods, 65, 88, 101, 103, 113, 128, 130,221, 258, 268 Scriptorium, 4, 368 Scroll work, 203 " Section," " Gathering" (or " Quire"), 102, HO, 346 Sections of Letters in stone, 405, 403 Semi-formal Writing, 317 Semi-Uncials, see Half-Uncials Serifs, 73, 84, 120, 241, 244- 247,288, 311, 314, 392 Service Books, 140, 345, 387, 484 Set Inscriptions, 350 Setting out &spacing, 126,128, 221, 258,351, 384-S396 * 497 Index Index Sgraffito, lettering in, 339 Sharpening stones, 61. 399 Sheets, cutting, folding & ruling, 99 Sign Writing & Brush-Work, 37 6 Silver leaf, 165, 299 Simple and complex forms, !95, 3 2 3 Simple Written Capitals, 123, 297, 302 Simple-Written Letters, 291 Simplicity, 240, 255 " Size " or Raising prepara- tion, 145, 146, 166, 168 Size & arrangement of inscrip- tions, 88, 265, 351, 392 Size & Shape of book, 100-101 Sizes of Capitals, 119, 122,256 Sizes of paper sheets, 103 Skeleton forms, 240, 247, 275 "Sketching," 126, 218, 258, 292 "Slanted-Pen " or Tilted Writing, 43,73,241,247,304,310,415 Slate, 382, 395 Sleight of hand, 23,85,31 1, 322 Small-letters and Capitals, 40, 112, 122, 302 Small or Fine-pen Writing, 59, 86, 311, 324, 482, 26 Spacing close, 26267 Spacing evenly, 265, 219 Spacing letters, words & lines, 77, 128, 256, 394: seealso Spacing & planning MS., 89, 97 Spacing & setting out, 126, 128, 221-22, 258, 351, 385, 396 Spacing wide, 262-67, 3 T 4, 3 2 7 Special Books, 300, 304, 344- 346,412,485, 299 Special words and letters, 123, 352 Speed in writing, 84, 305, 3 IX 3*5, 322, 324> 483 Spots, in "design," 187-88 49 8 "Spring" for pens, 54, 59 "Square Capitals" 37, 412 "Square and Round" letters, 269 Square or round types of D, E, H, M, U, &c.,4o, 119, 132, 210, 282, 300 Stanzas or Verses, 123, 138 (see also Poetry) Stones, best kinds of, for in- scriptions, 395 Stones, Foundation, 393 Stonyhurst College, Gospel of S. John, in Uncials, 413 Straightforwardness, 97, 101, 221-22, 258, 264, 267, 327, 34 2 ? 344, 35 1 39 6 " Straight pen," 44, 241, 34 Stylographic writing, 317 " Swash Letters" 315 Symbolical devices, 142 " Symmetrical " arrangement, 264, 389 T, 272, 286, 411 Tail-pieces, 142, 342 "Tai/iness," 300 Tenison Psalter, the, 426 Tenth Century Writing, 46, 130, 295, 305, 325, (326), 415,482,485 Theory & practice, 267 Thicks & Thins, 43, 63, 83-85, 118, 292, 317, 375,377,39^ Thin strokes, horizontal, 65, 66, 72, 304 Thirteenth Century Illumina- tion, 185, 114, 195, 203? 210, 423-4 2 7 Thirteenth Century Writing, 46, 114, (116), 331, 423, 425, 426 Thompson, H. Yates-, 227, 429 Thompson, Sir E. M., 385 (quotations from), 36, 37, 41, 127, 418, 426 "Tilted" letters (O, &c.), 285, 44, 290 Title pages, 128, 142, 258, 363 Tombstones, 237, 394 Tool-forms, 278, 292, 323, 39 2 Tools and Materials for ac- quiring a formal hand, 48 Tools & Materials for illu- mination, 172, 20 Tools & Materials for laying & burnishing gold, 145 Tools for inscriptions in stone Chisels, 396-403 Mallets, &c., 399-402 Top margin (or Head), 106, iii, 343 Trajan Column, Inscription on, 409411 Turkey's Quill, a, 54 Twelfth Century Illumina- tion, 195, 205, 218, 420- 422 Twelfth Century Writing, 46, 47, (116), 305,331,417-422 "Tying up," 260 Typography, book, founda- tions of, 13, 98 U, 271, 287, 411 Ultramarine Ash, 178 Uncials (Examples, &c.), 300 ,, Roman, 38 Script II., 79 Uniformity, 244, 254, 311, 324, 181 Upright Round-hand, 44, 65, 70, 302-304, 412, 413- 415 " Upright" shaped book, 103 V, 271,287, 411 V for U, use of, 283 Variety, 177, 255, 352 Variety in initials, 209 Varied types of .letters, 114, 119, 209, 377; (on one page) 352 " Vellum " & Parchment, 173, 38, 107, IIO, 167: framing Vellum for bindings, 348 Verdigris, 178 Vermilion, 177 Versal Letters, 34, 112-126, 205, 208, 218, 294, 296, 331, 420, 423 (see also Chapter VIII.) ' Versal Letters, Examples of, 114 (and Plates) Verses, see Versals, Paragraphs, Stanzas, &c. Vicenza, Mark of, 481 W, 287, 411 Walker, Emery, 372, 387 Wall Inscriptions, 350, 406 Waterproof Ink, 51, 172 "Weight" of lettering, 327- 3*8, 353, 377 Whall, C. W., 17 White, Chinese, 180 White, use of, 180, 182, 183, 212 "Whiting," 147, 174 Whitelead (biacca), 166 White-of-egg, 163, 165, 166, 175, 179, 183 "White vine pattern," 202, 430, 481 Wide Margins, 89, 103, 213, 222,265, 2 99>3 I 7 35^483 Wide spacing, 262-67, 314, 3 2 7 Wood Engraving, 364, 365, 371, (221) Words in Capitals, 126, 136, 297 (see also Headings & Spacing) Words to the line, number of, 85, 107 Working in situ, 405 499 Index Index Writing, ist to 5th century, 36-39, 412 6th to gth century, 4~45> 33 3Si (326), 412-415 ,, loth century, 46, '3, (*95) 3S, 325, (3 l6 ) 4155 482, 485 ,, nth century, 46, 47, 35, 416 ,, 1 2th century, 46, 47, (116), 305, 331, 417-422 ,, i3th century, 46, 114, (116), 331, 423, 425, 426 ,, I4th century, 46, ("4), 43> (4*7) 1 5th century, 46, 483 ,, i6th century, 310 323, (326), 483 Writing, Analysis of, 72, (115) Writing, Anglo-Saxon, 326 Writing, Fine & Massed, 260, 299 Writing, ordinary Hand, 14, 15, 77, 280, 315, 323, 374 Writing, size of, &c., xox, 107 Writing, the Development of, 35, 409, & Author's Preface Writings, construction of, 73, 83-85, 1 1 8, 292, 311 (see also Collotype Notts) Writing-Level, the, 62 Writing-line, length of, 105, 107, 109, 262, 343 " Writing-Pad" 50, (fur or cloth for) 51 X, 273, 287, 411 Y, 273, 275, 287, 411 Yolk of egg, 175, 179, 180 I Z, 272, 288, 411 I Zincotype process, the, 367 THE END Printed by B ALLAN TYNE, HANSON <5r* Co. Edinburgh &* London HOPTON-WOOD STONE Is the most reliable of all ENGLISH MARBLES It is hard and of such fine and compact tex- ture that the most intricate designs can be worked with sharpness and reliability, and it will take and retain a fine polish equal to any other Marble on the Market. It is a good weathering stone, and has never been known to deteriorate. Write for Descriptive Illustrated Brochure to THE HOPTON-WOOD STONE FIRMS, LTD., WlRKSWORTH, DERBYSHIRE. London Agency 134 CHEAPSIDE, E.G. 501 VELLUMS A SPECIALITY ARTISTS' VELLUM for Illuminated Ad- dresses, &c. KELMSCOTT VELLUM (not so heavy as Artists'), specially prepared for printing (as used by the late William Morris in his great work Chaucer "). ROMAN VELLUM, a lighter substance, and generally used by craftsmen and students, both for writing and illuminating as well as for printing. OXFORD CLASSIC AND DARK COVERING VELLUMS. Apply to H. BAND & Co., KELMSCOTT HOUSE, SOMERSET ROAD, BRENTFORD. GDKBINDTNG DxueKcul encetru- mcwwjscrtpls, y^pctrc: u3ToKe/voJ f Tjrices fronv . , I I 502 GOVERNMENT CONTRACTORS W. M. WHEATLEY (ESTABLISHED A CENTURY) GOLD AND SILVER BEATERS AND BRONZE POWDER MANUFACTURERS 38 DEVONSHIRE STREET QUEEN SQUARE LONDON, W.C. SONS Gold Leaf in all Shades. Specialty for Bookbinders. REGISTERED TRADE MARK EST.] [I8 4 A. COPLEY, 90 AND 92 OAKLEY STREET, LONDON, S.E. Best and Largest Stock of Stone and Marble Working Tools in London. MAKERS TO THE L.C.C. Catalogues Free. 503 GOLD LEAF Specially prepared for Illuminators (guaranteed free from alloy) in DOUBLE, TREBLE, and QUADRUPLE qualities. Gold Powder, Platinum, &c., &c. G. M. WHILEY, 58 WHITFIELD ST., TOTTENHAM COURT ROAD, LONDON, W. O.W. PAPERS-LINEN RAG GUARANTEED PURE. BY R. W. S. ROYAL SOCIETY Of PAINTERS IN WATER COLOURS. Recognised as suitable for the finest work of every description. HAND-MADE AND MACHINE-MADE. Address O.W. P. & A. Co., LTD., 100 GT. RUSSELL ST., LONDON, W.C. THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES SCHOOL COPIES AND EXAMPLES. Selected by W. R. LETHABY and A. H. CHRISTIE. Twelve Drawing - copies (one in colours), 15! xi 2, with Descriptive Letter-press, in a Portfolio. Price 55. net. " Should be a marked success as a medium of artistic education." The Bookseller. PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG 13 PATERNOSTER Row, LONDON, E.G. 504 THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OFTECHNICAL HANDBOOKS EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY Extract from Editor's Preface. ** We would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for those who would gain a livelihood. ... In the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art. It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts : there are more than enough of us " in the City," and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship." * # * Projected as a Standard Series of Handbooks on the Artistic Crafts, suitable for Schools, Workshops, Libraries, and all interested in the Arts. Each Craft will be dealt with by an Expert, qualified to speak with authority on Design as well as on Workmanship. See following pages. PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG 13 PATERNOSTER Row, LONDON, E.G. 505 ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. A TEXT- BOOK FOR BOOKBINDERS AND LIBRARIANS. BY DOUGLAS COCKERELL. With 122 Diagrams and Illustrations by Noel Rooke, and 8 Pages of Collotype Repro- ductions of Bindings. 352 Pages. Price 55. net PRESS NOTICES "An excellent book opens 'The Artistic Crafts Series of Technical Handbooks. ' " Times. "It would be hard to find any technical book of this kind which gives more importance to considerations of good taste than this. ... It leaves no part of its subject unaccounted for, and is in its own printing, binding, and illustration, a favourable example of good craftsmanship. Valuable in itself, it promises well for the series which it opens." Scotsman. "A special word of praise must be bestowed upon the illustrations." Atkenteum. " The first of a new series of technical handbooks, and an admirable work it is." Pall Mall Gazette. " In a manner lucid and practical tha whole process of bookbinding is set forth, the matter being enhanced in usefulness by the drawings for which Mr. Noel Rooke is responsible. Altogether the volume gives the greatest promise for the success of the series." Newcastle Daily J our Hal. "Workers of all degrees will find the book well worth acquisition alike from its valuable material and as inciting to a high standard of workman- ship." The British Printer. " Bookbinders and librarians will find much to interest them in this lucid, well-illustrated, and valuable little treatise." The Studio. " Contains so much information useful to every book-owner that it will be found a very good investment even by the unprofessional." Tke Pilot. PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG 13 PATERNOSTER Row, LONDON, E.G. 506 ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY. A TEXT-BOOK FOR STUDENTS AND WORKERS IN METAL. BY H. WILSON. With 182 Diagrams by the Author, and 16 Pages of Collotype Repro- ductions. 348 Pages. Price 55. net PRESS NOTICES " A lucid text-book for students and workers, well illustrated, being the second volume in the series which made a successful opening with Mr. D. Cockerell's ' Bookbinding.'" The Times. " It teaches not only processes and workshop practice, but also good taste in the making of objects in which in these days vulgarity is none too seldom seen. Admirably illustrated, well written, and practically serviceable, the book should prove welcome alike to craftsmen and to amateurs." The Scotsman. "... The book will have a fascination for all craftsmen, and may be read with advantage by every one who wishes to understand the underlying principles of the art crafts." The Morning Post. " Not only to apprentices and learners, but also to experienced craftsmen, the book can be most cordially commended. Its value is enhanced by a full glossary and an index." Gtasgoiv Herald. " This volume, which belongs to the admirable Artistic Crafts Series of Technical Handbooks, gives practical instruction in one of the most beautiful of man's handicrafts." The Newcastle Chronicle. " We cannot imagine a better aid and supplement to practical experience in the workshop than this handbook. All necessary processes, from the simplest to the most complex, are explained in a methodical and logical order, with the aid of illustrations, in which each touch is eloquent and fresh from the master's hand." The Athenaeum. PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG 13 PATERNOSTER Row, LONDON, E.G. 507 ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. BY GEORGE JACK. With 78 Drawings by the Author, and 16 Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 320 Pages. Price $s. net PRESS NOTICES " The study of some form of handicraft has become an important matter in the training of an art student, and those who practise wood-carving will find in this admirably written and illustrated book a comprehensive treatise on the subject." Morning Post. " In this notable addition to the Handbooks on the Artistic Crafts, Mr. Jack deals thoroughly not only with the craftsmanship of wood-carving, but also with the theory of design, and the sul>ject-matter which the artist should select to carve." Newcastle Daily Journal. "The illustrations complete in a very appreciable way the value of one of the soundest text-books within the reach of the student of wood-carving." Glasgow Herald. " Quite up to the level of its predecessors." Studio. " His illustrations from both ancient examples and from his own work are excellently chosen and reproduced, and show that he has made himself the master and the pupil of the best traditions of his craft." Pall Mall Gazette. " Clear instruction, profusely illustrated, and admirably presented by the publisher." Sheffield Daily Telegraph. " Mr. Jack's love of his art is evidenced by every one of his chapters. ... To read his book is a pleasure, and we can very heartily commend it. It is fully illustrated, and contains a number of fine collotype plates and a good index. It is exceedingly cheap at the published price of 55." Furniture Record. "In its affirmative aspect the book is entirely admirable, . . . and its value is immensely enhanced by the numerous and excellent illustrations. Its literary quality is greatly superior to that of the average text-book." Builder. PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG 13 PATERNOSTER Row, LONDON, E.G. 508 THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OFTECHNICAL HANDBOOKS EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY STAINED GLASS WORK. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in Glass. By C. W. WHALL. With 73 Diagrams by two of his Ap- prentices, and 1 6 pages of Collotype Reproductions. Now ready. 392 pages. Price 55. net. " No art student or art teacher could fail to derive benefit from a study of the book ; and no connoisseur, whatever his special bent, could read it without profit as well as pleasure." The Aberdeen Daily Journal. "The highest praise possible for this handbook would be to say that it is worthy of the remarkable series to which it belongs, and this, without reserve, we can affirm to be the case." Arts and Crafts. "The book is thoroughly practical, describing in detail the whole pro- cess of stained-glass manufacture, with illustrations and a large number of diagrams." The Newcastle Daily Journal. "Apart from the craftsman, also, this book should prove of great service to those interested in painted glass, whether as custodians of buildings con- taining fine old windows or as architects or clients intent on securing good modern work." The Glasgow Herald. " Students will appreciate the excellent material found in this book and the beautiful plates that accompany it. " The Educational Review. EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY WEAVING : A Practical Text-Book of Design and Workmanship. By Mrs. A. H. CHRISTIE. With 187 Illustrations and Diagrams by the Author, and 1 6 pp. of Collotype Plates. 416 pp. Price 6s. net. WRITING fc? ILLUMINATING, AND LETTERING. By E. JOHNSTON. With 227 Illustrations and Diagrams by the Author and Noel Rooke. 8 pp. of Examples in Red and Black, and 24 pp. of Collotypes. 512 pp. Price 6s, 6d. net. To be followed by others in due course. PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG 13 PATERNOSTER Row, LONDON, E.G. 509 BY SPECIAL \W&*3 fr* APPOINTMENT NEWMAN Manufacturing Artists' Colourman ESTABLISHED OVER 100 YEARS. Materials of every description for Illuminat- ing, Missal Painting, &c. Luminous Body Colours in Tubes and Screw-Capped Bottles. Sable and other Brushes. Prepared Vellum and Hand - Made Papers. Pure Gold, in Bottles, Cake, Shells, &c. Agate Burnishers, Reed Pens, Crow Quills, Steel Nibs, &c. Pocket Magnifying Glasses. CATALOGUES POST FREE. 24 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. Telephone 8199 "GERRARD." 510