w m SONNENSCHEIN'S CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION SONNBNSCHEIJN 'b CYCLOPAEDIA OF EDUCATION A HANDBOOK OF EEFEEENCE ON ALL SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH EDUCATION (ITS HISTORY, THEORY, AND PRACTICE), COMPRISING ARTICLES BY EMINENT EDUCATIONAL SPECIALISTS EDITED BY ALFRED EWEN FLETCHER THIRD EDITION LONDON SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. PATEKNOSTER SQUARE 1892 UB/S y y ^, LU PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. THE OBJECT kept in view by the writers of this work has been to make it useful to all who take an interest in educational questions, and espe- cially to those engaged in the work of teaching, whether in Elementary, Secondary, or the Higher Schools. Within the limits of a small Cyclopaedia an exhaustive treatment of the great variety of subjects dealt with is not to be expected. It has therefore been the aim of the Contributors to give a telescopic rather than a microscopic view of the educational facts and questions discussed, and to bring their purely pedagogic features into clear outline. References to authorities have been given at the conclusion of the more important articles only, as a carefully compiled Bibliography of Pedagogy is given as an Appendix to the book. The biographical section of the work does not, for obvious reasons, include notices of living persons. A. E. F. PBEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE FAVOURABLE RECEPTION which the first edition of this work has met with both in the United Kingdom and in the United States, has neces- sitated, within twelve months, the preparation of the present edition, which embodies the results of a careful revision. Profiting by the sugges- tions thrown out by the Rev. R. H. QUICK and other educational authorities who have done me the honour to criticise the .book, I have made many alterations and additions, which I trust will be regarded as improvements. My thanks are specially due to the Rev. E. F. M. MACCARTHY, M.A., Miss SUSAN WOOD, B.Sc., the Rev. Dr. MOULTON, and Mr. A. H. GRANT, M.A., for valuable hints which have been of great help to me in revising the work. A. E. FLETCHER. LIST OF PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS. J. MAITLAND ANDERSON, Chief Librarian, St. Andrews University. Miss A. M. C. BAYLEY, Secivtary to the Froebel Society. Miss BEALE, Principal of the Ladies' College, Cheltenham. Mrs. ANNIE BESANX, M.L.S.B. Rev. CANON BLORE, D.D., formerly Head Master of the Kino's School, Canterbury. H. COTJRTHOPE BOWEN, M.A. OSCAR BROWNING, M.A., King's College, Cambridge. W. FREELAND CARD, Greenwich Hospital School. J. SPENCER CURWEN, President of the Tonic Sol-fa College. JOSEPH DARE, B.A. JAMES DONALDSON, M.A., LL.D., Senior Principal of St. Andrews University. R. T. ELLIOTT, B.A. Mrs. HENRY FAWCETT. RICHARD GOWING. ALEXANDER H'. GRANT, M.A. J. F. HEYES, M.A., Magdalen College, Oxford. J. HOWARD HINTON, M.A., formerly Mathematical Master, Uppingham School. Rev. J. DENIS HERD, M.A. Rev. J. W. HORSELET, M.A. WALTER Low, M.A., Mercers' School, Col- lege Hill. Rev. E. F. M. MACCARTHY, M.A., Head- master, King Edward's School. ~Pine Ways, Bir- mingham, and Vice-chairman of the Birming- ham School Board. Sir PHILIP MAGNUS, Principal of the Cen- tral Technical Institution, South Kensington. P. E. MATHESON, M.A., Fellow of New College, Oxford, and Oxford Secretary to the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board. ALFRED MILNES, M.A., Assistant Secretary, London University. H. KEATLEY MOORE, Mus. Bac. Rev. H. KINGSMILL MOORE, M.A., Prin- cipal of the Church of Ireland Training Col- lege, Dublin. Professor A. F. MURISON, M.A.., University College, London. Dr. NEWSHOLME, Medical Officer of Health for Brighton, author of ' School Hygiene/ J. L. PATON, M.A., Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, Rev. H. D. RAWNSLEY, M.A. DAVID SALMON, Head-master of Beheden Place Board School, Borough Road, London. ARTHUR SIDGWICK, M.A., Corpus Christ* College, Oxford. Rev. A. J. SMITH, M.A., Head-master of King Edivard's School, Camp Hill, Birmingham. Professor E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, M.A., Mason College, Birmingham. FRANCIS STORR, M.A., Merchant Taylors' School. Professor JAMKS SULLY, M.A., formerly- Examiner in Psychology in the University oj London. WILLIAM WHITELEY, M.A., Head-master Gloucester Road Board School, Camberwell. ROBERT WILSON, author of i The Life and Times of Queen Victoria.' Miss SUSAN WOOD, B.Sc., Training College, Cambridge. RICHARD WORMELL, M.A., D.Sc., Head- master. Citv Corporation Schools. CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. Abacus (afiag, a board or slab), origi- nally any table of rectangular form. The term was also applied to a board or table on which mathematicians drew diagrams. The abacus, as at present used to instruct children in the use of numbers, consists of a number of parallel wires on which beads are strung, the upper wire denoting units, the next tens, &c. Abbey or Monastic Schools. There were two kinds of schools under the direc- tion of the monasteries : (1) schools almost exclusively devoted to the higher educa- tion of novices and those who, having completed their probation, had taken the vow ; (2) schools distinct from these, in which instruction, either gratuitous or on payment, was given to children of all classes of society living in the neighbour- hood of the monastery. The former were the prototypes of the collegiate schools, or colleges, which developed into the colleges at Oxford, Cambridge, and, later on, those at Winchester and Eton. From the latter sprang many of the endowed grammar schools (q.v.), which, at the dissolution of the monasteries, were placed in the hands of lay trustees by charter or letters patent of the Tudor sovereigns. Cathedral schools were similar to this latter kind of mon- astic school. Abbreviated Longhand. Schoolmas- ters do not generally encourage the prac- tice of abbreviated longhand by their pupils, but for their own purposes teachers could save much time by adopting the abbreviations now in general use by telegraphists, journalists, and authors. Amongst the commoner of these abbrevia- tions are I, the ; 0, of ; w, with ; c^, could ; A, have ; , had ; bn, been ; /, for ; /ra, from , nt, not ; t, that ; wh, who, which, or what ; g, ing ; ", tion or tian : mt, ment ; sh, shall ; abt, about ; circs, cir- cumstances ; B'm. Birmingham : L'pool^ Liverpool, and so on. The general rule for abbreviating longhand is to omit the ! vowels, except initial vowels and such as ! it is obviously necessary to retain to pre- I vent confusion. See SHORTHAND. Abbreviations. The abbreviations in scholastic use are chiefly those employed to denote academic attainments, as B.A., Bachelor of Arts, M.A., Master of Arts, &c., or to facilitate the working of papers, &c., in mathematics and other studies. i In university examinations candidates are i generally permitted to abbreviate exten- sively in working geometrical papers by using signs and figures, though many teachers object to the adoption of this practice by young pupils. ABC Method, by which children learn all the letters of the alphabet from an ABC book, from the blackboard, from I cards, &c. The pupil is instructed to point to the letters singly in turn, and thus associate the form with the name. This system has now generally been super- seded by the Word Method. ABC Shooters (German ABC Schiitzen). Jocular name for German chil- dren learning the ABC. ' Schiitzen ' in the Middle Ages were the younger wan- dering scholars, who, like fags, were com- pelled to find food for the elder boys by begging or ' shooting,' i.e. purloining, stray fowls, &c. In German students' slang schiessen (shoot) still has this sense. Abelard, Peter, b. at Palais, near Nantes, 1079, d. 1142. He is one of the most famous of the early Scholastics, and, as the founder of conceptualism, exer- cised a powerful influence over mediaeval thought. He was the pupil of Roscel- linus and William of Champeaux. His attainments and his eloquence combined to give him an important place as an edu- cationist. His father was wealthy, and spared no expense in his son's educa- 2 ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE fcion. Having learnt Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, Abelard went to the University of Paris, which enjoyed at that time a wide- spread fame. There he became the pupil of Guillaume de Champeaux, the most skil- ful dialectician of the age. Abelard soon surpassed his master, and often challenged him to public disputations. Abelard re- tired to Melun and lectured there, whither gome of the Parisian students followed him. But his health gave way, although not yet twenty-two, owing to his severe studies ; and for some time he sought rest. After many changes we find him again in Paris, as professor of divinity, surrounded by the most eminent scholars of his age. Here it was that he received Heloise, niece of the rich canon Fulbert, as a pupil. Her philosophic studies, how- ever, ended in a romantic attachment that has become as celebrated in literature as that of Swift and Stella. This disturbed the rest of Abelard's life, and caused him much trouble and many enemies. In Abelard's time there were two courses of scholastic instruction : the ' trivium,' containing grammar, rhetoric, and dia- lectics or philosophy ; the ' quadrivium,' comprising arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy. Abelard's contemporaries agree in regarding him as an accom- plished master in all these. This must be understood, of course, with regard to the age in which he lived, for it is certain that no Greek text of the writings of Aristotle existed at that time in France. Some MS. copies of his works remain, and they may be seen in the British Museum. In them and in his printed works all the quotations from Aristotle are in Latin. Aberdeen University. See UNIVER- SITIES. Absenteeism. See ATTENDANCE. Absent-mindedness, This term indi- cates that variety of inattention which arises from mental preoccupation. This may be due to the action of some external stimulus, as when a child fails to listen to what is said to him because he is watching the movements of a fly on the window. In a special manner the term refers to the withdrawal of attention from the external surroundings as a whole, as when a child is wholly inattentive to what it sees and hears because its thoughts are absorbed in the anticipation of some treat. A bent to dreamy imagination and reverie is a common cause of absent-mindedness in children. As a source of inattention it must be carefully distinguished by the teacher from mental sluggishness, as com- monly illustrated in idle wandering of the thoughts, or what Locke calls ' saunter- ing.' As the history of more than one distinguished man tells us, absent-minded- ness in relation to school lessons may be a sign of intense mental activity other wise absorbed ; and the same fact is still more strikingly illustrated in the habitual ab- straction of the student from his sur- roundings. Absent-mindedness finds its proper remedy in the habitual awakening of the child's interest in his surroundings, in the careful training of the observing faculty and the practical aptitudes, and in the investing of subjects of instruction with all possible attractiveness. See AT- TENTION. Abstract and Concrete. These refer to a fundamental distinction in our know- ledge. We may have a knowledge of some particular thing in its completeness, as, for example, of water as something at once fluid, transparent, &c. This is knowledge of things in the concrete. On the other hand, we may think about the property fluidity apart from water and all other particular substances. This knowledge of qualities, as distinct from concrete things as wholes, is said to be knowledge of the abstract. In Logic all names of things, whether general or singular, are called concrete terms, all names of qualities ab- stract terms. It is evident from this defi- nition that the region of abstract knowledge is that with which science is specially con- cerned ; for all science deals with the com- mon qualities or properties of things, such as form, chemical qualities, &c., and the general laws which govern these. It is a fundamental maxim of modern education that concrete knowledge must precede abstract. Before a child can gain any abstract ideas, as those of number } force, I moral courage, some knowledge of con- I crete examples is indispensable. Hence I it follows that subjects which deal largely | with the concrete, as descriptive geography, j narrative history, &c., should form the ! first part of the curriculum. A concrete I presentation of the more striking facts of { physical science by means of object les- sons, supplemented by description, is the natural introduction to the more abstract consideration of its laws. (On the transi- tion from concrete to abstract see Herbert ABSTRACTION ACADEMY Spencer, Education, chap. ii. ; Bain, Edu- cation as Science, chap, vii.) Abstraction. In its widest scope this term means the withdrawal of the inind from one object or feature of an object in order to fix it on another. It is in this sense the necessary accompaniment of all concentration. In a more special sense it refers to the turning away of the thoughts from the differences among indi- vidual things so as to fix them on the points of similarity. It is thus the opera- tion which immediately leads to a know- ledge of the common qualities of things, i.e. to abstract knowledge. Thus, in order to gain a clear idea of roundness, the child has to compare a number of round things, as a ball, a marble, an orange, &c., and abstract from the other and distinguishing features of each, as the colour of the orange. Abstraction of a greater or less degree of difficulty is always involved in classification or generalisation, i.e. the pro- cess by which the mind forms the notion of a general class, as animal, toy, &c. It also enters as the main ingredient into induction, i.e. the operation by which the mind passes from a consideration of par- ticular facts to that of the general law which they obey. Since in all cases abs- traction is a casting aside or putting out of sight of much that is present to the mind, it calls for an effort of will. Hence the difficulty attending the study of all gene- ralities and abstract subjects in the case of young children. The more numerous and striking the points of diversity, and the more subtle and obscure the points of similarity, the greater the effort of abstrac- tion required. The faculty of abstraction, though appearing in a crude form in young children, is the last to reach its full deve- lopment. The higher abstractions, as those of mathematics, physical science, gram- mar, &c., should only be introduced in the later stages of education. The natural repugnance of the child to abstraction must be met by a careful process of pre- paration. This includes the accumulation of a sufficient quantity of concrete know- ledge, a judicious selection of examples under each head, and a gradual transition from exercises of an easy character per- formed on sensible qualities, as weight, figure, carry out the operations of imagination and thought. This so-called intellectual activity is immediately dependent on an. exertion of will, and hence may be said to> contain a moral ingredient. At the same- time it is customary to distinguish from this intellectual a moral activity, which shows itself in an effort of will to do what is right. Such exertion is the proper means by which the will is strengthened and character formed (see CHARACTER). Thus we see that the child's physical, intel- lectual, and moral development alike de- pend on its self -activity. (See K. A. Schmid's Encyclopadie, article 'Thatig- keitstrieb.') Adam, Alexander, a celebrated Scot- tish teacher, born in Moray shire in 1741. In 1769 he succeeded to the rectorship of the High School of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself by introducing the study of classical geography and history,, and by teaching his pupils the dead lan- guages by aid of their native tongue, a. method which he probably borrowed from the Port- Royalists (q. v.). Adam pub- lished the first Latin grammar written in English. , Previous to him the whole of the text of grammars was written m ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY AESTHETIC CULTURE Latin. His innovation was condemned by many, but soon became popular, and i edition after edition of his grammar ap- peared with great rapidity. He was also i the founder of the first organisation of Scot- ' tish tutors for mutual benefit. He died 1809. Adelaide University. See UNIVERSI- TIES. Administration. See EDUCATION DE- PARTMENT. Adult Education. The promoters of | the various systems of adult education con- tend, in the first place, that the instruction j received in the day school ought to be con- I tinued, or that much of the advantage will | be lost; in the second place, that some provision should be made for adults to spend their leisure time in a manner at once enjoyable and profitable. The in- j terests of commerce have led to the esta- blishment of technical scnools, the main object of which is to make the workman j more intelligent and skilful. In this gene- ral activity higher education has not been forgotten, and adults of industry and ability have abundant opportunities at different I colleges and schools of studying a univer- sity course. The most important institu- | tions founded for the promotion of adult education are: 1. Mechanics' Institutes, initiated by Dr. Birkbeck (q. i?.), who de- I livered a course of free lectures to artisans at Glasgow in 1800. The first institute was established in London in 1823, and since that time they have spread through- ; out the length and breadth of the country. The premises usually include a reading- \ room, circulating library, lecture-room, j and class-rooms. Although originally in- j tended to be- self-supporting, the subscrip- tions of the members are generally supple- mented by contributions. 2. Kit/lit Schools, '. in connection with the different elementary schools of the country, are found in nearly every town. They are taught by certifi- cated teachers, and supported by the fees of pupils, and by grants upon examination by the Education Department. The sub- jects of instruction include the 'three Rs,' geography, grammar, French, ifec., as spe- cified by the Code. 3. Evening Classes. In London, at University College, King's College, the City of London College, Birkbeck Institutes, Polytechnic (Regent '. Street), South Kensington Museum, Fins- bury Technical College, &c., evening classes are held. In the provincial colleges (q.v.) evening classes constitute an important part of the curriculum. A great impetus was given to adult education by the re- vival of the non- collegiate system at Ox- ford and Cambridge, and the establishment of London University, for the purpose of examining and conferring degrees. Dur- ham and Dublin also examine candidates without residence, and so stimulate pri- vate study. 4. Recreative Evening Classe i. The most recent scheme for promoting adult education has been the establish- ment of recreative evening classes. Among the founders are eminent educationists, and many representative working men. They allege that previous efforts have been unsatisfactory because the programmes have not been sufficiently entertaining. Their aim is to provide wholesome amuse- ment and technical instruction for young men and boys who have left school. The distinguishing features are modelling in clay, wood-carving, calisthenic exercises with dumb bells or wands to a musical accompaniment, and instruction in instru- mental as well as vocal music. JEgrotat, When a candidate for honours in any school at Oxford, or tripos at Cambridge, is prevented by illness from taking his examination or any part of it, the examiners may grant him what is called an aegrotat degree. (Lat. ceger, &ick.) ^Esthetic Culture. This concerns it- self with the strengthening and develop- ing of the aesthetic feelings and judgment, which together constitute what is known as taste This faculty includes the capa- bility of recognising and enjoying all manifestations of the beautiful, both in nature and in art. It stands on the one side in close relation to the two higher senses, hearing and sight. The most rudi- mentary form of taste shows itself as a refined sensibility to the impressions of colour and tone. A fondness for bright colours and the combinations of these is observable, not only among young children and backward races, but even among some of the lower animals. In its fuller deve- lopment taste involves the activity of the higher intellectual faculties, and more par- ticularly the imagination (q.v.). This applies even to the appreciation of the sights and sounds of nature, which, as Alison has shown, owe much of their beauty and charm to suggestion. In the case of certain arts, as painting and, pre- eminently, literature, the exercise of the 8 AFFECTATION AFFECTION imagination is the chief source of the aes- thetic delight. The education of taste aims at expanding and refining the aes- thetic feelings, and guiding the judgment by providing a fixed standard. It is thus at once a development of emotional sen- sibility and of intellectual power. In order to develop a child's taste it is neces- sary to awaken a genuine feeling for what is pretty, graceful, pathetic, sublime, &c. Hence the educator must be on his guard against the mere affectation (q*v.) of others' aesthetic sentiments and a mechani- cal reproduction of their maxims. This evil may be most effectually prevented by carefully attending to the way in which taste naturally develops, by not forcing a mature standard on the unformed childish mind, and by allowing, and even encou- raging, a certain degree of individuality in taste. The education of taste includes first of all the exercise of the faculty in distinguishing and appreciating the beauties of our natural surroundings. This branch connects itself with the training of the observing faculties, and the fostering of a love of nature. An- other branch concerns itself with the per- ception of what is graceful, noble, and so forth, in human action. And here the cultivation of taste becomes in a measure ancillary to moral education. Finally, it embraces special technical training in the fine arts, more particularly music, draw- ing and painting, and literary composi- tion. Here the object of the educator must be both to form the taste by the pre- sentation of good models, and also to exer- cise the child in the necessary processes of interpretative rendering, as in singing and recitation, imitative reproduction, as in drawing, and original invention. The value of a wide aesthetic culture depends on the fact that it necessarily involves an harmonious development of the feelings as a whole, and so a preparation of the child for the most varied and refined en- joyments, and also a considerable growth of the intellectual faculties. Indeed, the aesthetic feelings form one important source of interest in most, if not all, branches of study. Thus the scientific observation of nature is sustained by a feeling for its picturesque and sublime aspects, and the pursuit of history is com- monly inspired by an exceptional suscep- tibility to the dramatic side of human life. The connection between aesthetic and in- tellectual education becomes especially ap- parent in the study of literature, which is at once as a record of thought in words, an appeal to the logical faculty, and as a variety of art embodying worthy and noble ideas in a fitting harmonious form, a stimulus to the aesthetic feelings and the critical judgment. The connection be- tween aesthetic culture and moral training is a question that has been much discussed both in ancient and in modern writings. (See Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap, xviii., and the references there appended ; also Schmid's Encyclopadie, article 'Aesthe- tische Bildung.') Affectation. This refers to the as- sumption of the external marks of a worthy feeling as the result of a volun- tary effort, and not as the spontaneous manifestation of the feeling itself. It by no means necessarily involves a deliberate in- tention to deceive another, as hypocrisy always does, and commonly falls short of deception as an ' awkward and forced imitation of what should be genuine and easy ' (Locke). It generally implies an in- tensified form of self-consciousness. As a form of insincerity, and having one of its chief roots in vanity, it calls for careful watching on the part of the educator. At the same time it must be remembered that it often arises half-consciously from the wish to please and the desire to be in sym- pathy with others. According to Locke affectation is not the product of untaught nature, but grows up in connection with management and instruction. It is thus a failing which a careless mode of educa- tion is exceedingly likely to encourage, as where a teacher looks for and even exacts the responsive manifestation of feelings which belong to a later stage of develop- ment, such as the more refined forms of aesthetic and moral feeling. (See Locke, Thoughts concerning Education, 66, and Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, chap. x.). Affection. This term, once used for all permanent and constant, as distin- guished from transitory and variable, states of feeling, has come to be narrowed down to one specific variety of these, viz. a feeling of attachment to others. It in- cludes two elements which it is important to distinguish : a pleasurable feeling of tenderness showing itself in a liking for some particular person, and an element of sympathy or kindly sentiment. A true AGE IN EDUCATION flection is a gradual attainment involv- ing fixed relations of a happy kind, an accumulation of memories, and a final process of reflection. Hence it has been said that grateful affection for a parent or a teacher is one of the latest of attain- ments. The fact that a feeling of affec- tion prompts the subject of it to seek to please and further the happiness of the there is, however, much preparatory work to be done which will greatly facilitate future progress. The child must be brought under training and taught obe- dience by being induced to rely upon the teacher, a.nd so to submit to his guid- ance. Advantage should be taken, too, of the great interest which is natural to children in the objects of everyday life, beloved object gives it a peculiar educa- ! especially animals. Simple descriptions tional value. It is now commonly held | of the food we eat and of domestic animals that the most effectual way to influence a child is to attach it by bonds of affec- tion. This work, which varies in difficulty according to the natural disposition of the child, is always much easier in the case of a parent than of a school teacher, for the latter, as the representative of a govern- ment which is wont to appear unnatural and excessive, is apt to arouse hostile feel- ings. These difficulties can only be got over by an habitual manifestation of kind- ness, consideration, and sympathy on the part of the teacher. See SYMPATHY. Age in Education. The connection between age and education has been the subject of much controversy, but, speaking of the period up to manhood, it has been generally agreed that there are three dis- tinct stages in the development of the mind corresponding to three clearly marked periods in the development of the body. The three epochs extend each over seven years, and are strikingly distinguished by physiological differences in the constitu- afford infinite pleasure to the young, stimu- late observation, furnish the mind with useful facts, and strengthen the memory. The power of imitation is strong at this age, and drawing or writing may be a source of both pleasure and profit. Read- ing and arithmetic are usually regard&J as tasks, and only the very rudiments should be attempted. A remarkable transformation has taken place in the in- fants' schools of this country by the al- most universal adoption of the Kinder- garten method (q.v.) of teaching, founded by Froebel. Its general aim is to amuse the child in such a way as to exercise its faculties so that it may be educated with- out being conscious of pressure. The gratifying results which are obtained by this system prove the excellence of the methods employed. Childhood extends from the seventh to the fourteenth year, or the attainment of puberty, and coincides nearly with the second dentition. Throughout this period the desire for more vigorous physical exer- tion, some of which are external and ob- vious. These periods are infancy, child- hood, and youth. Infancy, which covers the first seven j power and tastes by independent thought years of life, is the time of active physical ' and action, which point to a future career. cise is manifested. The child begins to feel his strength, and gives evidence of his development and of rapid growth. Its close is indicated by the shedding of the Natural propensities are now quickly developed, impressions are received and temporary teeth and the appearance of character formed. The desires and aspi- the earliest permanent teeth. Even dur- ing the last two or three years of this stage a child is capable of little original effort, and there are few manifestations of mental activity beyond observation and memory. Instruction during this period should hold, therefore, only a se- condary place, and the education should be rather that of the body than that of the mind. The voice of nature should rule, and it demands considerable freedom from restraint, exercise for the body, and for the intellect entertainment and amusement which are not too exciting. Tn the application of this principle rations should be carefully observed by the teacher so as to approve and en- courage what is good, or to restrain and check the evil. Youth embraces the period from four- teen to. twenty one years of age, during which the development of the body is completed, and virility is attained. This is essentially the time of special prepara tion for the battle of life. Except in the case of the wealthy and those intending to adopt a profession, the opportunity of giving undivided energy to study has ended with boyhood. The faculties of the mind are now active and vigorous, the imagi- AGENTS AGRICOLA, RODOLPH nation is quickened, and a youth should enter upon the study of his favourite sub- ject full of hope and zeal. To ensure sound progress and to prepare for respon- sibility which is near at hand, the teacher, while he still carefully guides, should pro- vide less assistance and require greater independent exertion and original effort on the part of the pupil. Legislation in reference to age and education varies in different countries, and even in different parts of the same country. In England, school boards and school attendance committees may com - pel attendance at school under the Ele- mentary Education Act from five to four- teen years of age. Between these limits the years of school attendance required by the bye-laws of different school boards and committees vary considerably. As a rule the period of attendance is shorter in agricultural districts than in towns, numbers of children in rural parishes being allowed to leave school at ten years of age, provided they have passed the fourth standard. The School Board for London compels attendance from five years of age until either (1) the sixth standard is passed ; or (2) the child is thirteen years of age and has passed the fourth standard ; or (3) the child is fourteen years of age. In the United States the legal school age is from five to fifteen ; in France from seven to twelve ; in Germany from six to fourteen. In Switzerland each canton legislates for itself. In Lucerne attendance at day school is compulsory from seven to fourteen years, followed by two years at an evening school. In Zurich the age is from six to twelve at day school, and three years at an evening school. Agents Scholastic, Medical, and Clerical. There are numerous agencies in London and also in the provinces for bringing together parties who^e educa- tional wants are complementary. Some restrict themselves to one particular branch of educational business - for ex- ample, there are * governess agencies,' which bring into communication gover- nesses and persons that wish to engage governesses ; ' medical agencies, 5 which limit themselves to the satisfaction of the needs of medical gentlemen that wish to find situations, and medical gentlemen that wish to be provided with assistants, partners, or new fields of work, and so forth. Other agents extend their con- nections to all branches. After due in- quiry they place on their books the names of ladies and gentlemen who wish to find situations as assistants in schools, or as visiting tutors to private families, or as travelling tutors; who wish as principals to engage assistants, who wish to enter into partnership or to receive a partner, who wish to sell or to purchase a school. They also recommend to parents and guardians satisfactory schools in which to place their children, according to the individual re- quirements, both at home and abroad. The commission charged is very reason- able at all respectable agencies gene- rally 5 per cent, on engagements at home, and 10 per cent, on engagements abroad, and for partnerships and transfers 5 per cent, on the money (or money value) that passes. In spite of the abuse of their position by some agents, and the delibe- rate swindling of impostors describing themselves as agents, the system is un- doubtedly of great assistance to both par- ties to each transaction, particularly when the agent has a good connection and is competent to judge of the qualifications and needs of the applicants. It is strange that so few agents seem to have had per- sonal experience in teaching, or to be of such academical standing as to justify re- liance on their judgment in the cases that come before them. The fact that one- London agency is personally conducted by two graduates of high academical as well as educational standing is sufficiently noteworthy ; it is especially creditable to the system, and affords exceptional assur- ance of intelligent guidance. A^ricoia, iiodolph, b. near Groningen, in Friesland, in 1443. His first master is said to have been Thomas a Kempis. He distinguished himself at school, and then proceeded to Louvain, where he graduated. He subsequently studied Greek under Theodore Gaza at Ferrara. Here he also lectured on the Roman language and lite- rature. He returned to Holland, and was- professor for a short time in Groningen. In 1482 he removed to Heidelberg, upon the invitation of the Bishop of Worms, and there he was appointed professor. He studied Hebrew with great success, and gave lectures on ancient history ; but a sudden illness put an end to his career at the early age of forty-two. Agricola's- classical attainments were of the highest AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 11 order, and he has been greatly praised by the elder Scaliger and Erasmus. His chief work is De Inventione Dialectics. I This was ordered by Henry VIII., in 1535, to be taught in the University of Cambridge together with the genuine Logic of Aristotle ; and there is the same recommendation in the statutes of Trinity College, Oxford. Agricola attacked Scholasticism with great energy, and this alone would entitle him to a position amongst the pioneers of modern education. He was probably the first man who sought a means of educating the deaf and dumb. He was also the first to introduce the Greek language into Germany. Agricultural Education, Agricul- ture, with its various subdivisions and allied pursuits, including the tillage of the fields, horticulture, floriculture, forestry, and pastoral, dairy, and poultry farming, i is the most useful and universal of all i branches of human industry. It is the j main source of all products employed as food for men and domestic animals, or as ! the raw materials for clothing and many | branches of manufacturing industry. Being a practical art, involving a multitude of applications of the principles of most of the physical sciences (such as geology and che- mistry, illustrating the qualities of soils and manures, meteorology, mechanics as applied to agricultural machinery, veteri- nary medicine and surgery as applied to I domestic animals, zoology and botany, etc.), j agriculture cannot be pursued with advan- tage in the present day without a sound theoretical as well as practical training. The recognition of this truth, which has been brought home to the dullest comprehension by the vast progress made in agricultural chemistry through the labours of Liebig, Lawes, and others, has led to the esta- blishment in all the civilised countries of the world of numerous special institutions for the training of young men intending to take up farming or any of its allied pur- suits as the business of their lives. Before the rise of chemistry the pre- cepts of agriculture were necessarily em- pirical ; but in this pre-scientitic period the English farmer, proceeding by the ' rule of thumb ' and ancestral traditions, succeeded in bringing practical farming to a wonder- fully high state of perfection. The varie- ties of cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses bred in England surpassed anything of the kind produced elsewhere throughout the world. To this practical success is probably to be attributed the fact that when agricultural theory was revolutionised by the progress of chemistry the necessity of a theoretical training was less quickly recognised in England than in some foreign countries. One of the first attempts in the way of a scientific school of agriculture was made in 1795 by Thaer, at Celle, in the kingdom of Hanover, then part of the dominions of the English Crown. The success attained by this gentleman was such that he was invited by Frederick William III. of Prussia to establish a higher agricultural college in that kingdom, and the institu- tion he founded in 1806, at Moglin, in the province of Brandenburg, in combination with a model farm, has been the pioneer of a host of similar establishments in all parts of Germany. The agricultural academies at Hohenheim in Wiirtemberg, Proskau in Silesia, Weihenstephan in Bavaria, Waldau in East Prussia, and others, were all mo- delled on that of Moglin. At Jena Sturm founded an institute whose pupils attended the university classes in the winter, and a course of practical training on well-man- aged farms in the summer. At Poppels- dorf and at Eldena there were special agricultural academies connected with the Universities of Bonn and Greifswald re- spectively, while other academies were as- sociated with the Polytechnic High Schools of Brunswick, Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, and Munich in Germany, and Zurich in Swit- zerland. Nearly all the Prussian univer- sities now have agricultural institutes con- nected with them, special attention being paid to agricultural chemistry. In addi- tion to this highest collegiate class there exist in Germany two other grades of in- stitutions the middle agricultural schools and the elementary or lower grade schools. Of the last mentioned there were fifty- three in Prussia alone in the year 1878, comprising twenty-six agricultural schools open winter and summer, fourteen winter schools, three schools of pastoral farming, and ten schools of horticulture and fruit culture. The Prussian Government grants to these establishments nearly 50,000. annually. In several other parts of Ger- many agricultural educational institutions are, if anything, relatively more numerous than even in Prussia. In Wiirtemberg, besides the higher establishments, there are 783 agricultural continuation schools,, attended by upwardsof seventeen thousand AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AHN, JOHN FRANK scholars. In Russia, in France, and in Belgium, as well as in most other Conti- nental countries, agricultural instruction has also received great attention. Austria possessed in 1879, in addition to the Agri- cultural College at Vienna (with nearly five hundred students), as many as sixty- eight institutions devoted to agriculture. In France agricultural education is being promoted with energy, and in addition to agricultural , schools and colleges, the French Government have appointed itine- rant lecturers on agriculture. In Great Britain there are no Govern- ment institutions of this class, the field being still left to private enterprise. Chairs of agriculture, however, have been founded in some of the British universities. The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester was founded in 1845. The students, who go through a course of two years' instruc- tion, are partly resident, partly non-resi- dent, the fees amounting to from 40/. a year for the latter to SQL for the former. The curriculum embraces a thorough scientific and practical training in the college classes and laboratories and on the extensive farm attached to the college. The Downton College of Agriculture was founded in 1880 for the technical training of land cultivators, agents, and surveyors. The Albert Memorial College at Frani- lingham devotes a part of its curriculum to agriculture, and classes for instruction in the science are also held at the School of Mines. Scotland possesses an agricul- tural college at Glasgow. The authorities of several provincial colleges of the United Kingdom have in- troduced the principles of agriculture into the course of training, and instruction in the subject is encouraged and aided with grants in the elementary schools. Under the Code, the principles of agriculture may be taken up (1) by the scholars in ele- mentary schools, as a branch of elementary science, which is recognised as a class sub- ject; (2) by the older scholars, in the three highest Standards, as a specific subject ; (3) by pupil-teachers and assistant-teach- ers, as an optional subject, during the course of their engagement : if they do take it up and pass successfully at one of the (May) examinations held by the Sci- ence and Art Department, grants are made on their behalf by that Department, while their success is registered and marks al- lowed for it in any examination they subsequently attend as candidates either for admission to a training college or for a certificate of merit ; (4) by students in training, as a special science subject, dur- ing either or both of the two years of their residence in a training college. (For full information relating to the examina- tions in the principles of agriculture, in- stituted by the Committee of Council on Education, see the Directory for Esta- blishing and Conducting Science and Art Schools, annually issued by the Education Department : Eyre & Spottiswoode.) In Ireland the Commissioners of Na- tional Education have paid much atten- tion to this department of education, and twenty years ago there were 166 farm- schools in active operation, all with land attached ranging from two to a hundred and twenty acres. Of these nearly half (seventy-six) were workhouse agricultural schools, while forty-eight were ordinary agricultural schools. The instruction given in these, however, is only of the most elementary description, training ordinary school children in the common operations of gardening and the field. Of higher pretensions than these are the thirty-seven model agricultural schools in various parts of the island. Besides these there is one superior establishment, the Model Train- ing Farm at Glasnevin, founded in 1838, where a hundred young men selected from the minor schools receive a more complete course of instruction. A considerable number of the students here receive board, lodging, and two years' education gratui- tously, with a view to becoming farm ma- nagers or stewards ; while another section consists of school-teachers, who in their later career have to conduct the lower classes of agricultural schools. At Temple- moyle, in Derry, there is another agricul- tural seminary, which has turned out a thousand well-trained agriculturists in the first thirty years of its existence. The total number of pupils in all the agricul- tu schools and academies in Ireland is upwards of three thousand, and the ex- penditure involved is upwards of ten thousand a year. (See FORESTRY.) Ahn, John Frank (b. 1796,6?. 1865). In 1834 he published, in German, his Practical Method for the Rapid and Easy Study of French. The work was an im- mense success, and was translated into many languages. His principle was to apply to the learning of foreign languages ALCUIX ALLEYX, EDWARD the same method which a child follows in acquiring its mother-tongue. There was to be no grammar to begin with, and the whole was arranged in a plan of three courses. His method, no doubt, gave an impulse to the study of modern languages. Alcuin(735(?)-S04), an eminent ecclesi- astic and reviver of learning in the latter part of the eighth century, was born in Yorkshire. He was invited by Charlemagne to assist him in his educational schemes, and was placed at the head of the Palace School attached to the Court, where he instructed Charlemagne and his family, amongst others, in rhetoric, logic, mathe- matics, and divinity. Under Alcuin's di- rections a scheme of education was drawn up, which became the model for the other great schools established at Tours, Fonte- nelle, Lyons, Osiiaburg, Metz, &c. insti- tutions which ably sustained the tradition of education on the Continent till super- seded by the new methods and new learn- ing of the commencement of the university era. In 801 Alcuin obtained leave to re- tire from court to the abbey of St. Martin at Tours, of which he had been appointed the head. Here he remained and taught till his death in 804. A life of Alcuin by Lorenz was published in 1829, and was translated into English by Slee in 1837. Algebra, to use Xewton's expression, is * universal arithmetic.' Whereas arith- metic deals with particular numbers, al- gebra deals with numbers in general ; and whereas the former treats of numbers in connection with concrete things, the latter treats of number in the abstract. These are only two of the most marked distinc- tions, stated broadly. There is another, which is even more fundamental. The operations of arithmetic are capable of direct interpretation perse; those of algebra are often only to be interpreted in relation to the assumptions on which they are based. For example, in arithmetic proper the operations denoted by indices are very limited ; but within those limits the inter- pretation is perfectly definite they refer to certain areas, certain cubes, &c. and it is clear that these indices must be whole numbers, with regard to which the ideas of positive and negative are inapplicable. In algebra we go beyond this, and work with indices which are fractional, and to which we do apply the ideas of positive and negative ; and the operations performed can be and are interpreted ; but only in rela- j tion to the assumption on which the whole j theory of indices is based, viz. that the mul- tiplication of a m by a n shall always give a'"+" as a result, whatever a, and ra and n may denote. It is true that it is very common in schools to divorce the arithmetic from i concrete reality, and to work with the symbols merely as symbols. But even then | the operations employed are only the ' writing in symbols of certain particular i definite operations, which might be under- stood all along, and which can be at once- | interpreted by themselves. In algebra, on ! the other hand, we look upon our opera- tions mainly as the manipulation of symbols, pure and simple; and when we have arrived at results we seek interpretations of them, by comparing them with our assumptions.. | The treatise written by Diophantus in | the middle of the fourth century may be- taken as the foundation of Greek algebra ;. i and from him and other Greeks the Ara- | bians probably gained much of their know- ledge. But it is to the Arabians themselves, that Europe directly owes its knowledge of 1 algebra, as the name implies [al = the, and I jabr= consolidating]. Their methods were- introduced into Europe by Leonardo, a ! merchant of Pisa, in 1202 A.D. The first i printed Algebra was by Lucas de Burgo, a Minorite friar, in 1494 A.D. The first English treatise on Algebra was by Robert Recorde, teacher of mathematics and prac- titioner in physic at Cambridge. It was called the * Whetstone of Wit,' and was published in 1557. As regards the method of teaching algebra important develop- i ments have taken place, and new depar- tures have been adopted recently. On the subject of the new algebra the reader may consult Professor Chrystal's and Mr. W. Steadman Aldis's excellent text- books. Alleyn, Edward. A celebrated actor, who devoted his wealth to the foundation | of Dulwich College, in 1619. The college I was reconstituted by Act of Parliament in 1858. It consists of an educational and eleemosynary branch, a chapel, library, and a fine picture-gallery, the last be- queathed, in 1810, by Sir P. F. Bourgeois. i The educational branch comprises the up- per school and the lower school. In the : upper school there are eight exhibitions of I 50?. a year each, tenable for four years at i the universities, or by any student of a I learned or scientific profession or of the fine arts ; also thirty-six scholarships of 20?. a year each, awarded to boys between. H ALMA MATER ANALOGY twelve and fourteen years of age. In the lower school gratuities of 201. and 10 are granted, at the annual examination, to the most deserving boys then leaving the school. Alma Mater (Latin, almns, cherishing, dear), the name applied in England to the particular university which a student has attended. Alphabet is the term applied to a col- lection of symbols used to express the sounds that occur in a language. The term is derived from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, Alpha Beta, which took the Latin form Alpkabetum, but that word does not occur in any prose writer before Tertullian. All alphabets may be traced back to five forms the Egyptian, cuneiform, Chinese, Mexican or Aztec, Yacutan, and Central American. The Egyptians seem first to have invented the .alphabetical system, and their earliest form -was the hieroglyphics. These hierogly- phics were pictorial, and indicated words. They are sometimes spoken of as * the .sacred letters'; and there seem to be some cases where the hieroglyphs were used to represent articulate sounds. Derived from the hieroglyphics by a process of degrada- tion is another set of characters, called the Enchorial (i.e. of the people). These Enchorials seem first to have been phonetic powers, perhaps syllables, then mere letters. The Phoenicians are said to have derived their symbols from the Egyptians. Our .alphabet is derived from the Phoenician ; and the same is true of Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, and German. But the names given by Phoenicians to letters did not represent the sounds. The Ro- mans seem first to have named their letters from sounds, and probably the order of the letters is based on a classification of .sounds, though it is now difficult to trace its development. Alumnat (alere, to nourish, med. Lat. alumnatum), the appellation of institu- tions in Germany where, in addition to education, board and lodging are provided for students. In the Middle Ages such institutions were connected with monas- teries, and the pupils, in return for their gratuitous instruction and board, per- formed various services for the church and -school. Maurice of Saxony founded some -of the more celebrated of these schools in -the sixteenth century. Alumnus is really a Latin adjective, de- rived from alo, to feed, to bring up ; but it is chiefly used as a substantive : (1) lite- rally = a nursling, in this sense chiefly by Latin poets; (2) trop. = a pupil. Cicero appears first to have used it in this way in reference to the disciples of Plato. It passed from that source into our own lan- guage when Latin was so commonly used, and it still remains, wLeoher applied to a student of his college or to a pupil of a professor or tutor. America, Education in. See LAW (EDUCATIONAL). American Universities. See UNIVER- SITIES. Amoross, Don Francisco (6. in Spain 1770, d. at Paris 1848), spent his early years in the army, and saw active service. In 1803 he superintended the direction of a military institute at Madrid for the re- formation of public education in Spain. He adopted the method of Pestalozzi. He was taken prisoner in 1808, at the close of the revolution, but soon released. Later he fled to France, and offered his services to Napoleon. He was made a member of the * Society for Elementary Education ' in Paris, and published a work on the method of Pestalozzi. Soon he was able to com- mence a course of teaching in the capital. He had many pupils, and received govern- ment support. In 1819 a military college was founded, and he was appointed di- rector. His method consisted in graduated exercises for full physical development, and was especially noted for the fact that this physical development was made to contribute to the unfolding of Uie moral faculties. Analogy. Reasoning by analogy com- monly means inference from one case to another on the ground of resemblance. It differs from the stricter forms of logical reasoning, inasmuch as we are not certain that the points of resemblance observed are necessarily connected with the matter inferred. In many cases, too, of argument from analogy the resemblance is only slight and superficial, and chis makes the reasoning still more precarious. This applies to all reasoning from facts and laws of the physical world to analogical processes in the mental and moral world, as when we illustrate the operation of acquiring knowledge by analogies with the physiological processes, digestion, assi- milation, &c. Children's reasonings, before they become capable of the more exact ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES logical forms, are grounded on the percep- tion of resemblance, and so may be de- scribed as analogical. In illustrating new subjects to children, the teacher frequently finds it necessary to resort to analogy. Great care should here be taken to choose suitable analogies, and not to strain them, so as to make them prove more than they are capable of proving. Since analogy is j a defective form of reasoning, only useful j where the more perfect forms are inapplic- ! able, it should be resorted to less and less j as the child's reasoning faculty develops. (On the logical use of analogy, see J. S. Mill, Logic, bk. iii. chap. xx. The use j of analogy in illustrating subjects of in- struction is dealt with by Isaac Taylor, Home Education, chap, xi.) Analysis and Synthesis. By Analysis is meant the resolving of a complex whole into its parts or elements ; and by Syn j thesis, the reverse process of combining j parts or elements into a whole. Physical analysis and synthesis are best illustrated ; in the chemical processes. As applied to \ intellectual operations the terms are some- ; what ambiguous. One clear instance of analysis is supplied by abstraction, in which the mind breaks up the concrete whole given in perception into a number of constituent properties. (See ABSTRAC- TION.) As supplementary to this we have a process of synthetic construction, as when the mind through the medium of verbal ; description forms an idea of an unknown j chemical substance by a new combination j of known qualities. In a somewhat loose manner, Analysis is used to denote induc- tion, Synthesis deduction. A stricter ; employment of the term ' analysis ' in con- nection with reasoning confines it to the resolution of complex effects into their separate parts, and the reference of these : to their proper causes. The terms have come to be employed in education to denote a contrast of method. Thus it is customary to distinguish between an analytical and a synthetical way of teaching a language, and the meaning of the phrase 'gram- | matical analysis ' has become well defined. In geometry, again, which is largely an ! illustration of the synthetic building up of complex ideas out of simple ones, analysis also occupies a subordinate place. While the antithesis has thus a certain signifi- cance and utility, its vague and fluctuating meaning seems to render it unfit to serve as a fundamental distinction in educational method. (See Jevons, El. Lessons in Logic, xxiv. ; Bain, Ed. as Science, chap, iv., and Compayre, Cours de Pedagogie, pt. ii. lecon i.) Analysis of Sentences. Two different processes are often comprised under this term : (1) 'grammatical' analysis (pars- ing) ; (2) * logical ' analysis. The difference between them is essentially one of the degree of detail to which the analysis of the sentence is carried. Logical analysis deals with groups of words and assigns the part played by each in the structure of the sentence ; parsing directs attention to the part played by each separate word and the various characters which may be ascribed to it. It follows that analysis ought to precede parsing ; the broad outlines of the sentence should be marked out before the question of the function of each word is raised. Thus it is difficult to define a noun except in relation* to the ideas of subject (or object) ; adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions cannot be truly distin- guished except by consideration of their function in the sentence. Experience seems to show that children deal more naturally with groups of words ('thought- units') than with individual words, and find their way without serious difficulty through the outlines of the analysis of simple and compound (complex) sentences. A noun clause is to them a many- worded noun. To be able to recognise ' when I come' as an adverb clause is certainly easier than to assign its precise func- tion and character to 'when.' This is especially applicable to the teaching of English. Owing to the loss of inflections in modern English, words do not any longer bear their character stamped upon them or tell their own tale. A large number of words may serve as various parts of speech, as Dr. Abbott has shown. The treatment of words in groups is thus imposed by the genius of the modern language, and to this fact the wide-spread adoption of analysis in English-speaking countries bears witness. Parsing may easily become an exercise worse than use- less in English teaching, if it degenerates into a tedious enumeration of all the cha- racters which may be assigned to any single word ; still more if it leads to the discovery of characters in words which they do not really possess (e.g. gender in nouns) : and the protest which has arisen OH many sides is thoroughly justified. But 10 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES parsing when not thus vitiated by false methods is a necessary and useful adjunct \ of analysis. A word of caution : Much time would be saved if teachers, instead of asking the pupil to ' parse ' every word about which any question arises, would direct his attention to the particular point at issue e.g. by asking, ' What is the tense of this verb ? ' ' What is the case of this pronoun ? ' * What is the perfect par- ticiple of this verb 1 ' The method of so-called ' logical ' ana- lysis is of comparatively recent date. It was originated in Germany by K. F. Becker (Deutsche Sprachlehre, 1827). In opposition to the empirical methods then in vogue, he based his grammar upon thought relations and logical distinctions. Becker's system exercised a great influence not only upon the teaching of German, but also upon that of Latin and Greek ; it was introduced into England by Dr. Morell, and various improvements in de- tail were made by Mr. C. P. Mason. It has been much criticised from various points of view, but not superseded. Pro- bably its defects have arisen from a mis- taken view of the relation of grammar to logic, from which Becker himself was not free. Grammar and logic are not coin- cident, though they have their points of contact. Thus logic is justified from its own point of view in casting every judg- ment into the mould of subject, copula, and predicate. But logic neglects many finer shades of meaning which are gram- matically of the highest interest (' Birds fly ' is not=' Birds are flying ') ; and in many other ways grammar may be vitiated by the intrusion of logic. For logic con- cerns itself only with the import of pro- positions ; grammar with their import as expressed in a certain form of language. Hence an analysis which contents itself with stretching every sentence upon the Procrustean bed of the logical judgment may easily do violence to language. A warning is needed against analysing in the way in whi:h ' a butcher analyses sheep' (Mr. H. Bradley, Academy, January 1886). The process of sentence analysis must be conducted on true grammatical lines; so conducted it forms a sound basis of rational grammar teaching, not merely in English, but in foreign languages too. The grammatical division of the sen- t^nce is into two parts, corresponding to the two elements in every ' complete thought ' : SUBJECT. PREDICATE. The man is a traitor. Birds fly, Whether every sentence can be thrown into this form is a matter of opinion. The question is admirably discussed in Paul's Principien der Sprachgeschicfae (translated by Professor Strong), in connection with the views of Miklosich as to ' subjectless sentences ' (e.g. speak, phdt) and the diffi- culties involved in defining the term ' sen- tence.' The terms ' subject ' and 'predi- cate ' are incapable of definition except by reference to one another. The ' subject ' is the word or group of words denoting that of which the action denoted by the predi- cate is declared ; the 'predicate' is the word or the group of words denoting that which is declared of the thing denoted by the ' subject.' Any more confined definition of these terms must be imperfect ; if we say, as is very commonly said, ' The sub- ject is the word or group of words denot- ing that of which something is declared/ or ' The subject is the word or group of words denoting that which is spoken about,' the definition may practically answer the purpose ; for experience will show the pupils what is really meant. But, strictly speaking, ' something ' is declared of other parts of the sentence besides the ' subject.' For instance, in such sentences as ' This ambition I do not share,' ' At lovers' per- juries Jove laughs,' 'something' is said of ' this ambition ' (i.e. that I do not share it), and of ' lovers' perjuries ' (i.e. that Jove laughs at them) ; and these notions being in fact the emphatic parts of the sentence naturally present themselves to the mind when the question is asked, 'About what is something said in this sentence ? ' Children before they have ac- quired grammatical experience are apt to assign the same word as subject of the fol- lowing sentences, 'Wellington conquered the French at Waterloo,' and ' The French were conquered by Wellington at Water- loo/ To sum up : the subject cannot be defined except by reference to the full predicate. Whether the clumsy definition which results is of any use for teaching purposes opens up a question too wide for discussion in this place. See DEFINITION. Grammarians are not agreed as to the best way of using the terms ' subject ' and 'predicate.' The general method is to dis- ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES tinguish logical (or full) and grammati- cal subject, and logical (or full) and grammatical predicate, and to use the terms subject and predicate in parsing as equivalent to grammatical subject and grammatical predicate. Thus in the sen- tence ' The fair breeze fanned my cheek softly,' breeze would be the (grammatical) j subject and fanned the (grammatical) pre- dicate. This method has the advantage of providing convenient terms for the cardinal u-orcls of the sentence ; the objec- tion to it is that it sacrifices the words subject and predicate as names for the two parts into which the sentence primarily falls (compare, too, what is said below about qualifying parts of the sentence), i It is open to those who think that subject I and predicate should be kept for this sense j to distinguish breeze as the * subject- word ' | and to call fanned simply ' verb ' ; though j it would doubtless be desirable, if possible, i to find for the verb some term which was not a term of parsing. With regard to the proper use of certain other terms of analysis, divergencies of opinion exist It is one of the chief merits of Mr. Mason to have given a definite and useful meaning to the term ' complement/ which has been so vaguely used in France (complement direct ; complement indirect} ; this term is now generally understood to denote the part of the sentence which completes the meaning of a verb of * incomplete predica- tion ' (i.e. a verb which does not make complete sense by itself). As the infinitive (used after another class of ' incomplete ' verbs) plays a very different r61e in the sentence from the ad- jectives and nouns, called complements, some grammarians have thought it desir- able to mark this use of the infinitive by a special name ' prolative infinitive ' (i e. infinitive which extends the meaning of the finite verb) is the term employed in the Public School Latin Primer; when first introduced in that book it met with a storm of opposition, but is now widely used. The term ' supplementary infinitive ' j has also been suggested. But whatever : term is employed there would seem to be obvious advantages in recognising by a separate term this characteristic feature of ' the Aryan languages ; in such a sentence | as ' He seems to be rich/ the complement is rich (compl. of the infinitive to be), not to be rich. The term ' indirect object J is used very variously, and the question arises whether indirect object should be analysed as coming under the * object column ' or the ' adverbial adjunct column.' The question is complicated by the obliteration in mo- dern English of the distinction between dative and accusative. It is undoubtedly true that in modern English we may say not only ' I told him the story/ but also ' He was told the story ' i.e. the indirect object may become the subject of a pas- sive verb. But in languages which pre- serve the distinctive case inflections, this is impossible ; and it is urged with force that the indirect object is as adverbial in character as any prepositional phrase (He sent it to the post). The classification of noun (substanti- val) clauses presents considerable difficulty in regard to details. But the main classes generally accepted are : (1) indirect state- ments ; (2) indirect petitions (commands) ; (3) indirect requests. There is a diffi- culty in regard to such a sentence as ' It is strange that such things should be '; this differs from ' It is strange that such things are,' as containing not a statement of fact, but rather an expression of contingency. Such a clause is called by Mr. F. Ritchie (English Grammar and Analysis, 1886) an ' indirect thought. 5 The qualifying parts of the sentence (attributes, adverbial adjuncts) are very commonly treated as enlargements, by which the naked sentence is clothed. This is open to serious objections, such as those urged by Dr. F. Kern (Deutsche Satz- lehre, 1883) and by Mr. J. Spence (Jour- nal of Education, 1884). In such a sen- tence as ' Birds that are web-footed swim in water/ it is certainly misleading to speak of the clause that are web-footed as an ' enlargement ' ; the statement is made not about birds, but about birds that are web-footed. These objections do not apply to the method of breaking up sentences into parts, if it be recognised that the process is an abstract one, and that at every stage of analysis we get farther and farther away from the actual sentence be- fore us ; they apply only to the synthetic reconstruction of the sentence out of the elements which result from the process of analysis. The most common form in which sen tences are analysed is a ruled table con- taining headings for subject, predicate, ifec. Dr. Bain (Teaching of English, 1887) 18 ANSWE: -ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS objects to the derangement of the order of words in the sentence which results and this is certainly felt as a difficulty, especi- ally in analysing French and German. In some schools the sentence to be analysed is written out vertically and the descrip- tion of the parts (subject, object, &c.) are written opposite. This is the method adopted by Mr. Fitch (Lectures on Teach- ing, p. 268). There are two points of im- portance to be kept in view : (1) the best method of indicating the relation of the words in each group ; (2) the best method of indicating the relation of each group to the others. For the latter purpose the generally employed form of a tree is useful. Answer. See QUESTION AND ANSWER. Antiquity, Schools of. See SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY. Aporti, Ferante, the celebrated founder of infants' schools in Italy, was born in 1791, in San Martino, in the province of Mantua. From childhood he was destined for the priesthood. Yet, whilst pursuing the usual studies eagerly, he never ceased to interest himself in the progress of his nation, especially in the education of the children, for by this means only did he think it possible to save Italy. He was professor of history in Cremona, and was also appointed inspector of schools there. He soon discovered that the great defect in the national education was the absence of any early culture. Italy had at that time many little schools, which were con- ducted by ignorant old women, very much like our dames' schools of forty or fifty years ago. Aporti felt that education should commence from the cradle, and devised a plan of education to precede that of the ordinary school. In 1827 he made his first attempt, and opened a small school in Cremona for the children of the rich. His method has been described as * development of the body by means of a sound regime, frequent recreation, short hours of work, and gymnastic exercises suitable to the age of the children ; for- mation of the heart by good examples and wise precepts ; culture of the spirit by teaching of a kind fitted to their intellec- tual capacities, so that it resembled play rather than a task.' Brilliant success crowned his effort, and the government of Milan approved his method by public de- cree. Numerous places followed the ex- ample of Cremona, and in 1833 Aporti published a manual to serve as a guide to the promoters of these infants' schools. Not satisfied with this, he spent any time that could be snatched from his many duties to go and visit these schools. He was accused of introducing a spirit of ir- religion and revolt by this method, but he pursued his course without relaxation till thousands of schools bore witness to the success of the system he had inaugurated. By special invitation he opened a school at Turin, in the heart of the university, and thus effected a complete reformation in Italian teaching. Distinctions were showered upon him. The French Govern- ment bestowed on him the title of ' Knight of the Legion of Honour.' Though he fled to Piedmont as a refugee, Victor Em- manuel raised him to the rank of a sena- tor in 1848. In 1855 he was elected with every mark of dignity to be President of the University of Turin. There he died in 1858, but he still lives in the memory and speech of his countrymen as 'the Father of Childhood.' Apparatus. Catalogues containing price lists of apparatus, instruments, dia- grams, &c., to illustrate the following sciences, and obtainable from various manufacturers, have been prepared, and can be had on application : 1. Practical Geometry, Machine and Building Con- struction, Mechanics, and Steam. 2. Ex- perimental Physics. 3. Chemistry and Metallurgy. 4. Geology and Mineralogy, Natural History (Physiology, Zoology, and Botany), Physiography, and Agricul- ture. A skilful teacher will be able to save much expense, and to make his subject increasingly attractive to his pupils, by constructing his own apparatus where pos- sible. The greatest discoverers in science have worked with rough apparatus of their own invention and construction. Aquinas, Thomas. See SCHOLASTICISM and MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE). Architecture of Schools. Conspicuous among the questions which the universally awakened interest in education has brought up for discussion is that of the architec- ture and planning of school buildings. When the curriculum of secondary schools was confined to Latin and Greek grammar and translation, and of primary schools to reading, writing, and ciphering, the struc- ture of the school in which these com- paratively simple operations were only too mechanically performed was only too mechanically simple. However imposing ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS 19 might be the external appearance and some of these old schools very creditably reflected the ecclesiastical origin of their foundation the interior could boast of j very little accommodation for school pur- poses beyond one large schoolroom. In ! this all the scholars were taught all the ! subjects, the masters' desks being dotted about the floor, with a clear space round each desk, in which the class stood for j * lesson/ and then was relegated for ' pre- paration ' or * writing ' to desks placed either against the walls, or face to face, or in other ways determined by no higher consideration than that of convenience or close packing. But the day of these things has gone by ; the extensions of the curri- culum to include subjects requiring more space, greater quiet, or special arrange ments for their adequate treatment ; the improvements in methods of instruction, coupled with the introduction of a greater variety of methods ; and, beyond this, a far higher conception of the parts which I good order, decency, and considerations I of health should play in the education of youth, have completely altered the aspect of the architectural question. From being , a very simple one it has now become one ' of the most complex. The adaptation of school buildings to their diverse purposes j has made infinite attention to details su- premely important. These details, their effect upon the discipline, comfort, and ; efficiency of a school, it has become part of a schoolmaster's professional duty to study and to master. In designing school buildings his services, as the only possible expert in these matters, are indispensable j side by side with those of the professional architect. A school, like every building, ought to have a character of its own, and to bear upon its exterior the marks of the purpose for which it was erected. Being neither a church, nor a town-hall, nor a post-office, j nor an asylum, nor a workhouse, it should j not suggest any of these to the eye. By I its approaches, its fagade, its ornament, j it should reflect the quiet dignity as well as the practical utility of the work carried on within its walls. The site should, whenever possible, be ! a large open piece of ground, not hemmed j in by houses, but free to the four winds and the direct action of the sun. Its area, including playgrounds, should be at least five square yards per scholar ; or more, if the whole school has its recreation at the same time. Its boundaries should be no higher than is absolutely necessary. In the country or quiet suburbs of a town, low walls, surmounted by iron palisading about six feet high, make the best boun- daries. In the middle of a town the necessity of avoiding distractions from the streets demands higher walls, but they need not exceed six feet. The buildings. The whole of the sur- face soil should be removed from the site to be occupied by the buildings, and the ground under the floors should be covered with a uniform layer of concrete. A space of at least a foot should be left between the top of the concrete and the under-side of the floor joists, and this space should be thoroughly ventilated. The ideal school contains no staircases, so that the building should consist of only one storey, where the site is large enough for the purpose ; and should never, under any circumstances, exceed two storeys. The main building should have at least two entrances from the public thoroughfares. It should con- sist of an assembly hall, and a number of class-rooms sufficient to accommodate the whole school without using the assembly hall. This leaves the hall free, as it should be, for examinations, when the accommo- dation of the class-rooms would obviously be insufficient, for collective lessons, reci- tations, singing, rn Processes and Methods of Teach- ing. The teacher of arithmetic has con- stantly to bear in mind the double purpose for which it has to be taught, viz., as an intellectual discipline, and as a series of processes required in the business of life. The two purposes are in no way conflicting, and both may be secured in every detail at the same time. Let us ask, What are the principles enforced by the consideration of arithmetic as an intellectual discipline ? I. Firstly, the reasons for rules and processes, and the relations of different rules and processes, should be clearly laid out. It has come to be an axiom in the school- room applicable to all parts of arithmetic that it is never necessary to teach rules of * thumb,' or to give any rule for use with- out the explanations of the principles on which it is based. For example, in the reduction of a circulating decimal to a vulgar fraction, there is great temptation to be content with the simple rule, but the temptation has to be resisted. We must, of course, learn how to write the required result at sight, but we should also learn how to prove the rule. When the repeating series commences imme- diately after the decimal point, for instance, the Ride runs as follows : Make the re- curring figures the numerator of a fraction, and place underneath it as many nines as there are digits in this numerator. When the repeating series does not commence immediately after the decimal point the Rule usually runs as follows : Set down all the figures from the decimal point to the end of the repeating series, and sub- tract the figures which do not repeat. Make the difference the numerator of a fraction, and for the denominator place as many nines as there are figures in the repeating part, and as many ciphers as there are figures in the part which does not recur. Now, the right method of teaching is to evolve the rules first from given examples. Three forms of illustra- tive examples will be required. EXAMPLE I. -6 Let V be the vulgar fraction required. Then V = -6666 &c. As there is one repeating figure, multiply by 10. Thus 10V = 6-6666 &c. But V = -6666 &c. Subtract yV = 6 and V EXAMPLE II. 54. Let V be the vulgar fraction required. Then V = -545454 &c. As there are two repeating figures, multiply by 100. Thus 100V = 54-5454 &c. But V = -5454 &c. 99V and 54 = __ 99 11" EXAMPLE III. -236. Let V be the vulgar fraction required. Then V = -2363636 &c. As there is one decimal before the first recurring period, multiply by 10. Then 10V = 2-363636 &c. As there are two repeating figures, mu t ply by 100. Thus 1000V = 236-3636 &c. and 10V = 2-3636 &c. 990V = 234 Hence V = 234 990 26 310 II. Secondly, where there is a choice of processes the needs of the science of arithmetic will lead to those being selected which will tend to connect rules together, and which have most applications in the advanced parts ; for example, it may seem at first sight a matter of very small im- port whether in simple multiplication we begin with the figure on the right-hand side or the figure on the left ; but the importance is vastly increased when other rules of arithmetic and of algebra are con- sidered. We shall give a few of the ad- vantages to be gained by beginning with the figure on the left-hand in preference to that on the right, (i.) It is the natural order of thought and language. We say 300 and 50 and 5, not 5 and 50 and 300. (ii.) The reason for the rule is more easily explained. Thus, taking the case of the following example 3758604 multiplicand 425 multiplier 15034416 400 times 7517208 20 18793020 5 1597406700 425 the multiplier 425 is made up by taking 4, then multiplying this by 10, and adding 2, thus making 42, and then multiplying this by 10 and adding 5, making 425. If we remember that to remove all the figures one space to the left is to multiply the whole number by 10, we may describe the method as follows : Multiply by the left-hand figure, then multiply by 10 and ARITHMETIC add the product of the next figure, multi- ply again by 10 and add the product of the next figure ; and so on. (iii.) The same method may be applied in compound multiplication of either money, weights or measures, and the reasons for the steps are there made more apparent ; suppose, for in- stance, that '21. 11s. 9 Id. is to be multiplied by 425, we multiply first by 4, then by 10 and add in twice the top line, then again by 10 and add in 5 times the top line, (iv.) The process is identical with that of building up such an expression as ax n + bx n ~^ + etc., which is the foundation of all methods of approximation to the roots of equations, (v.) In the multiplication of decimals to a given degree of approxima- tion there is a very decided advantage in proceeding with the figures of the multi- plier from left to right, and if we adopt this order from the beginning, no change is afterwards needed and much explana- tion is therefore saved. Precisely similar reasons to those here given for the order of multiplication occur again and again throughout arithmetic. For instance, the old rules for square and cube root, which depend on the form of the expansions of (a + 6) 2 and (a-f-6) 3 , should give way to Horner's method, not only because this method is so simple and so much more easily remembered by beginners, but chiefly because the rules of square and cube root are thus presented as only two forms of the same general process which is applicable to the extrac- tion of any root. l 1 As this method is not generally known, it may not be out of place here to give an example of it. Let it be required to find the cube root of 277,167,808. Divide the number into periods of three figures in the usual way. Make three columns, and letter them from left to right I., II., III. Place the given num- ber under I. and under II. and III., putting 1 in a column by itself in front. The column on the left (III.) is the column of three operations, the next that of two operations, that on the right of one operation. The operations consist in multiplying the amount in the preceding column by the figure in the quotient, and adding in the cases of all columns but I. subtracting under I. : III. II. 1. 10 277,167,808(652 6 36 216 "6 36 (51 j> 72 12 108 _6 18 III. Thirdly, both the purposes for which arithmetic is taught dictate the de- sirability of looking upon all sides of a question, and not restricting the number of ways in which it may be solved. For example, the use of the Rule of Three by the unitary method does not exclude the need of the Rule of Proportion, or make the Chain Rule unnecessary. IY. The second of the purposes for which arithmetic is taught, viz., for its use in mercantile affairs, adds some lessons of its own. Speed of working must be ob- tained, and as the mind can reckon quicker than the hand can write, this considera- tion forbids the writing of unnecessary figures. Thus, in long division the method is shortened, and also the wording, by By trial we find the first figure 6. Place 6- times 1 under III. and add, 6 times 6 under II. and add, 6 times 36 under I. and subtract. Kepeat under III. and II., and again under III. Add to .18 under III., 00 to 108 under II., and bring down the next period under I. Pro- ceed for the next figure in the same way. To find what the next figure will be, treat the number under I. as dividend, and that under II. as a trial divisor. This gives 5 : III. 180 5 1S5 5 190 5 195 II. 10,800 925 11,725 950 12,675 I. 61,167 58,625 "2^542 Make addition of 0, 00, and next period, and proceed as before. The trial of 1,267,500 into. 2,542,808 suggests 2 as next figure : 1 1,950 1,267,500 2,542,808 2 3,904 2,542,808 1,952 1,271,404 We need not complete III. and II., for evi- dently By avoiding unnecessaiy figures, the process appears thus : III. 6 180 185 190 1950 1952 II. 36 10800 11725 12K7500 1271404 I. 277,167,808(652 61,167 2,542,808 In square root there are columns of II. and I. operations only ; in extracting the 5th root there would be five columns ; hut in all other respects the operations are the same. ARITHMETIC 2 r leaving out from the working the various products, writing down merely the suc- cessive differences. In order to affect this subtraction should, from the first, be re- garded as the inverse operation to addition; that is, the difference should be obtained by thinking what number must be added to the less to make the greater. Also in finding the G.C.M. of two numbers the process is really a series of divisions made for the sake of obtaining a series of re- mainders. It is usual to avoid re-writing one of the two numbers by arranging the operations in a snake-like form; but the saving may be carried much further than this, for we get a more compact form if we place the quotients alternately on the right-hand and on the left according as the divisor is on the left or on the right of the dividend. Thus, to find the G.C.M. of 3330 and 8415. If to this we apply the contracted method of division referred to above, we write only the essential numbers, namely, divi- sors, dividends, and remainders. This gives the contracted form as follows : 3330 8415 1755 1755 T575 1575 1440 180 135 135 135 45 3330 1575 135 8415 1755 180 45 V. Xearly all measurements are ap- proximations only, and the degree of ap- proximation required in mercantile trans- actions must be borne in mind, and no more figures should be introduced into the process than are needed to produce the necessary degree of accuracy. The want of attention to this rule in schools is the cause of the contempt which business men often express for school arithmetic. For example, a boy is asked a question, ' How much stock at 92 can be purchased for 1,500J. ?' The answer is given by the school-boy, 1,628Z. 4s. &ff|dL ; and nine- teuths of the figures of his working are required for the finding of the impracti- cable fraction only. In purely mercantile questions it should be remembered that it is useless to calculate sums to be paid or received to a greater degree of accuracy than the nearest farthing ; that no more figures should be used than are necessary to give the required answer to that degree of accuracy ; that reduction upwards to decimals of a pound rather than reduc- tion downwards to pence is to be preferred; and generally that it is a disadvantage to- increase the number of figures represent- ing a given quantity. Thus 21. is more- easily dealt with than 480 pence ; 2 miles is a more convenient measure than 3,520 yards. Hence change pence to pounds rather than pounds to pence, and generally take it as a rule that there is an advantage in changing units of a lower name for equivalent units of a higher name as soon as possible, while, on the other hand, there is a disadvantage in changing the higher units for the lower before it is absolutely necessary to do so. This consideration shows the value of decimal arithmetic with contractions and approximations. A little practice enables- a person to write a given sum of money" at once either decimally or in ordinary coinage without any process of reduction,. and this facility may frequently be used to turn to decimals quantities expressed in the usual weights and measures. For instance, if it be required to turn tons r cwts., qrs., Ibs., to the decimal of a ton approximately : since 1 cwt. is the same part of 1 ton as one shilling is of U., and one quarter the same part as 3o?., we may write the decimal by taking 2 cwt. as 1 florin, or -1 ; 1 cwt. as \ florin, or '05; 1 qr. as 3d., or -01 25; 2J Ibs. as 1 farthing, or 1 mill., or -001. Therefore, to find the value of 4 tons 11 cwt, 3 quarters, at 2 14*. M. per ton : 4 tons 11 cwt. 3 qrs. like 4 11*. $d. 4-5875; 2 Us. 9d. is 2-7375: 4-5875 _ 2-7375 9175 3211 138 32 _ _ 2 12-558 Ansicer: 12 11*. Id. Mental arithmetic is an art of such wide utility, that it has long formed an important branch of arithmetical ARMY SCHOOLS ARNOLD, THOMAS teaching in elementary and secondary schools. To sound progress in mental arithmetic a thorough grounding in the first and simplest elements of the science is indis- pensable. The teacher, for instance, who follows the course recommended by Pro- fessor de Morgan in training scholars quickly to count backwards and forwards 'will carry his pupils forward with far greater ease than one who fails to pursue this method. De Morgan, in fact, strongly advises every student of arithmetic to pursue the practice of counting arithme- tical series. Mental arithmetic, in the narrower sense of the term, is a practical art. It consists of a body of rules for the rapid working (without the aid of writing) of problems involving chiefly the ordinary weights and measures and divisions of -money. As these are all purely conven- tional, there is no problem involving them 'that can be worked mentally, except by pupils who have thoroughly committed the tables to memory. Where, as in France, such tables are throughout oil the decimal system, the figures give the pupil no trouble to learn. He knows them as soon as he has learnt the common multiplication table lip to 10 times 10, and there is nothing further whatever of a numerical nature to learn in decimal weights and measures ^except mere names. Among the Conti- nental nations, therefore, mental arith- metic is incomparably easier than with -Englishmen. Our tables of weights and measures are an anachronism. Compared with the decimal tables,the English weights and measures are as clumsy, unphiloso- phical, and unscientific as is the Roman system of notation compared with the Arabic. They necessitate an enormous amount of otherwise absolutely unnecessary labour, and multiply the difficulties of mental and ordinary arithmetic a hundred- fold. Under the decimal system there are no compound rules of arithmetic. The rules of mental arithmetic in English schools are consequently enormously more complicated than in most Continental schools. Army Schools. See EDUCATION FOR THE ARMY. Anianld, Antoine, See JANSENISTS and HEFORMATION. Arnold, Matthew. See PEDAGOGY, INSPECTORS, and ROYAL COMMISSIONS. Arnold, Thomas, D.D., made a great reputation as a teacher by the success with which for the last fourteen years of his life he discharged the duties of head- master of the great public school of Rugby. Arnold was the son of a collector of cus- toms at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, where he was born on June 13, 1795. Losing his father while still a child, he received a careful preparatory education from his mother and aunt, and after spending four years (1803 to 1807) at Warminster School, Wiltshire, entered the public school of Winchester, where he remained from 1807 to 1811, under the successive head-masters Dr. Goddard and Dr. Gabell, of whom he speaks with gratitude as excellent teachers. In 1811 he became a student in Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was elected Fellow of Oriel in 1815, and won the Chancellor's prize for a Latin and an English essay in 1815 and 1817. At this period Thucydides whose history of the Pelopomiesian War he at a later period edited with valuable notes and commentary Aristotle, and Herodotus were his favourite authors; but his studies embraced not only classics and history, but an earnest investigation of the Christian Scriptures, and the great principles of religion and philosophy in their application to daily life. Entering on these problems, somewhat unsettled in his opinions, Arnold, who was constantly discussing them with his contemporaries at college, including men like Keble, Whately, Copleston, Davison, and Hamp- den, ended by becoming thoroughly im- bued with the Christian spirit, convinced that the noblest life was to be found in the Christian ideal in the endeavour to live in the spirit of Christ. It was to the fact that he was himself profoundly pene- trated with the religious spirit that his success as a teacher was due. Having taken deacon's orders in 1818, he settled in 1819 at Laleham, near Staines, where he was for some time chiefly engaged in preparing young men for the university. He was elected to the head-mastership of Rugby School in 1828. In one of the testimonials given to Arnold on be- coming a candidate for this position, the writer used the prophetic words : ' if Mr. Arnold is elected he will change the face of education through all the public schools of England ' a prediction quite justified by the issue. Arnold's distinc- ART EDUCATION ASCHAM, ROGER as a teacher was not that lie invented any new form of discipline. His success was wholly due to his own earnest endea- vour to apply the principles of Christianity to life in the school as well as out of it. The mere fact of his own genuine devotion to Christian principle had an irresistible influence with the boys under his care; the amiability of his heart, the justice of all his dealings with them, the transparent honesty of his own character, made him at once loved and feared. His method may be illustrated by the way in which he trained boys to truthfulness. In the higher forms of the school, if a boy, in replying to a question on some point of conduct, was not satisfied simply to give his reply, but attempted to support it by other statements, Arnold at once stopped him with the words, ' If you say so, that is quite enough. Of course I believe your word/ The feeling at once grew up in the school that it was disgraceful to tell the head-master a lie, and thus truthful- ness became habitual. In this and other ways Arnold gained a complete mastery in directing the public opinion of the school and there is no more powerful aid to discipline, no more effective instrument for controlling a company of boys as well as the society of men at large, than public opinion, or the general standard of moral conduct. Arnold could act with severity where he found it necessary. Once he made an example of several boys by ex- pelling them from the school for gross breaches of truthfulness and order, and, in doing so, he said, ' It is not necessary that this should be a school of three hun- dred, of one hundred, or even of fifty boys. It is necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlemen.' In June 1842 Arnold was suddenly cut short by an attack of angina pectoris at the early age of 47. Besides his labours in the school Arnold was a prolific writer. In addition to his edition of Thucydides, he wrote a History of Home,' in three volumes, a work based on the then popular sceptical theories of Niebuhr. He also published five volumes of sermons, and contributed numerous articles to the encyclopaedias, reviews, and periodicals of the day. In 1841 he was appointed by Lord Mel- bourne to the Professorship of Modern History in the University of Oxford. He only lived to deliver one short course of j lectures, which were attended by numer- i ous audiences, and were published after Arnold's death. See Stanley's Life and Letters of Thomas Arnold. Art Education. See ^ESTHETIC CUL- TURE and SCIENCE AND ART DEPART- MENT. Arts (Liberal). Art is derived from, the same root as aro, to plough, because ploughing was the first art (Max Miiller); or more commonly from a root cir, mean- ing to fit things together. In itself it is. a wide term often used to denote every- thing not a direct product of nature, and in this sense we speak of nature and art. In a more restricted sense it is opposed to, science on the one hand, and to manufac- tures on the other. Its meaning is made fairly clear in the old definition that ' Science is to know that I may know ; Art: is to know that I may teach.' There is a more limited sense still, including a group, of arts, whose end is not use but pleasure. These are called the fine, the liberal, or the polite arts ' liberal ' here meaning only such as the leisured classes (freemen as opposed to slaves) could follow. These are sometimes spoken of as art, as if they only were the arts. By common consent the five principal fine arts are architec- ture, sculpture, painting, music, poetry (See ^ESTHETIC CULTURE.) Ascham, Roger, b. 1515. One of the earliest of English educational reformers,, whose claim to that distinction is estab- lished by the new method of teaching he unfolded in his celebrated Scholemaster- published in 1570, two years after his. death. This work, in the opinion of Dr. Johnson, ' contains perhaps the best advice- that was ever given for the study of lan- guages.' Ascham advocates the adoption of the natural in preference to all artificial methods, and maintains that the dead languages must, like mother tongue, ' be- gotten, and gotten only by imitation. For as ye used to hear, so ye used to speak.' He expresses his willingness to venture a. good wager that an apt scholar who will translate some little book in Tully on the frequent repetition method, will in a very short time learn more Latin ' than the most part do that spend from five to six years, in tossing all the rules of grammar in common schools.' Like Locke, Ascham. spoke from successful experience as a pri- vate tutor, and he tells us that his illus- trious pupil Queen Elizabeth, ' who never took yet Greek nor Latin grammar in her- ASSIMILATION ASTRONOMY hand after the first declining of a noun and a verb, but only by this double trans- lating of Demosthenes and Isocrates daily, without missing, every forenoon, and like- wise some part of Tully every afternoon, (for the space of a year or two, hath attained to such a perfect understanding in both the tongues,' as to be a more remarkable ^example of the acquisition of great learning .and utterances than even Dion Prussseus, whom Ascham instances as having accom- plished this feat with the assistance of only two books, the Phcedo of Plato and the de Falsa Legatione of Demosthenes. E,oger Ascham was a native product of the new learning of the sixteenth century which .marked the decline of monkish Latin and the rise of a more liberal scholarship with the introduction of Greek into the school curriculum. Ascham publicly read Greek at Cambridge in 1536, published Toxo- philus, the Schole of Shootinge, 1545, and was Latin secretary to Edward VI., Mary, .and Elizabeth. For ten years previous to the accession of Elizabeth he was her preceptor. Assimilation. See DISCRIMINATION. Association of Ideas. This expression .refers to the well-known laws which govern the succession of our thoughts. Whenever one thing reminds us of another, this pro- cess of suggestion is due to a law of asso- ciation. The first and principal one, known .as Contiguity, tells us that ideas recur to the mind in the order in which the original objects and impressions presented them- selves. In this way we associate events that occur together or in immediate suc- cession, as the movement and sound of a bell, objects and events with places, one place with another, and so forth. All ac- .quisition of knowledge, whether by direct observation or through the medium of instruction, involves the building up of a group of such associations. Thus, a child's knowledge of a particular animal includes .associations between the several charac- teristic features, between the animal as a whole, and its proper surroundings, its habits of life, &c. In studying geography and history, complex associations of place .-and time have to be built up. Since, more- over, all verbal acquisition implies the working of this law, both in the coupling -of names with things and in the connec- tion of words in a given order, it is evident that the whole process of learning is con- cerned to a large extent with the fixing of associations in the mind. In addition to the law of Contiguity, it is customary to specify two other principles governing the succession of our ideas, viz. Similarity and Contrast. It is a matter of common observation that natural objects, persons, words, &c., often recall similar ones to the mind. Here, however, it is evident that the connection is not due to the fact that the things were originally presented in this order, but rather to the action of the mind in bringing together what is similar. This law has an important bearing on the pro- cess of acquisition (q.v.). By discovering points of resemblance between new facts and facts already known, we are able greatly to shorten the task of learning, as is seen in the rapidity with which an accomplished linguist masters a new lan- guage. All assimilation of new knowledge evidently involves the working of this principle, since it proceeds by joining 011 the new acquisition to old ones which are seen to have some analogy or affinity to the first. The law of Contrast, which says that one idea tends to call up its opposite, as good, bad, seems to be by no means universal in its action, and is not a prin- ciple co-ordinate in independence and dig- nity with the other two. So far as it is valid, it represents a tendency of thought which springs out of the essential condi- tions of our knowledge of things. We begin to know common objects by distin- guishing one thing from another, and the broader differences or contrasts among things are among the first to impress the childish mind. In this way a child learns to think of opposites together, as sweet sour, good naughty. The well-known ef- fect of contrast on the feelings renders it a valuable instrument for giving greater vividness to impressions, and so stamping them more deeply on the mind. The con- trasts of climate, scenery, social condition, and so forth, are a great aid in the more descriptive and pictorial treatment of geo- graphy and history. (For a fuller expo- sition of the laws of association see Bain, Mental and Moral Science, bk. ii. chap, i.-iii. ; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap, ix. ; and Spencer's Principles of Psycho \ logy, i. 228. | Assyria (Schools of). See SCHOOLS OP ANTIQUITY. Astronomy (ao-rpov, a star, and voyuos, a law) is the science of the heavenly bodies. It does not form an adequate part of tho ATHEN^STTM ATHENIAN EDUCATION oourse of general instruction in this coun- try, though some of the elementary parts are included in the higher standards of the Educational Code. Yet it is a subject that can be made highly interesting to children, and requires little expenditure in the way of apparatus. Every child can be brought to observe that the heavenly bodies appear to move from east to west around the earth, and can thence be led to conclude that the earth rotates from west to east. Then they can be easily interested in noticing that most of the heavenly bodies keep their relative posi- tions with respect to each other, but that some do not, viz. the sun, moon, and planets. How pleased are children when they can point out any of the constella- tions, as Orion or the Great Bear, or any remarkable star, as the Pole Star. By drawing their attention to Venus now rising before the sun as the morning star, now setting after it as the evening star, gradually moving until a short distance from it, then standing still, then drawing nearer they can be shown that Yenus must most probably be moving around the sun at a less distance from it than we are. Again, from the apparent motion of the sun amongst the stars the real motion of the earth around the sun can be made known. This will lead to a general de- scription of the solar system. Then the earth can be more particularly dealt with its globular shape demonstrated, its me- ridian and other lines explained, the me- thod of denoting the positions of places by latitude and longitude made known as well as the way to determine its di- mensions by measuring a small part of a meridian. Afterwards the phenomena of day and night and of the seasons can easily be explained with the help of a small globe. Most interesting is the explanation of the phases of the moon. Eclipses of the sun and moon should not be allowed to pass without the attention of the children being drawn to them and their causes being shown. These phenomena may also be made of use to show that all the heavenly bodies are not at the same distance from us, and also that the earth and moon are spherical. As far as this only the naked eye, protected at times by a piece of co- ; loured glass, is required for observation ; ! but if a telescope were among the school ; apparatus what further subjects for thought would be opened out to the pupils ! 1 Jupiter's moons, Saturn's rings, the sur face of the moon, the spots on the sun, the j different clusters of stars. All this can be made to draw out a child's powers of observation and to lead him to right con elusions. Nautical Astronomy is taught to mer- chant-seamen at schools and training-ships at most of the principal ports, and to the Royal Navy at the Greenwich School, on board the ' Britannia,' and at the Royal Naval College. It also forms one of the subjects of examination by the Science and Art Department. The pupils are taught to measure with the sextant the altitudes of the heavenly bodies, noting the times by the chronometer, and from the data thus obtained to work out the latitude and longitude of the place of ob- servation. In England lectures on Ma- thematical Astronomy are delivered at the universities, and there are observato- ries where the students may learn to use the different instruments ; but the nurn- \ bers making use of these opportunities are 1 very few. In the universities, colleges, and high schools of the United States, however, this advanced study is very I general. Athenaeum. The name given to a temple at Athens dedicated to Athena. In it poets and scholars were accustomed to meet and read their productions. Used \ in the present day to designate a scientific association, or the building where such an association meets. A school of higher grade in Holland and Belgium is called an Athenseum. Athenian Education. From times be- yond the records of history, the first im- pressions of Athenian children must have been derived from the tales and sayings of their mothers, nurses, and other attend- ! ants. ' Know you not,' says Socrates in the ! Republic of Plato, ' that first of all we teach children fables 1 ' In particular, the basis of their moral and religious feelings must have been strongly laid by the narra- j tion of legends regarding the marvellous actions of gods and demigods ; and these were handed on from generation to gene- ration, not least effectively in the shape of I ballads. Plato, in the organisation of his j model Republic, was much concerned that there should be a safe selection of such j educational instruments in the plastic days of early youth. First of all then, as it seems, we must exercise control over the .32 ATHENIAN EDUCATION fable-makers ; and whatever beautiful fa- ble they may invent we should select, and what is not so we should reject ; and we are to prevail on nurses and mothers to repeat to the children such fables as are selected, and fashion their minds by the fables much more than their bodies by their hands. But the greater number of the fables they now tell them must be cast aside.' Homer and Hesiod, and the other poets, would therefore require to be se- verely expurgated. Plutarch, also, was in favour of restraining nurses from telling children fables indiscriminately, on ac- count of the ruinous moral effects. Aris- totle would place these matters under the supervision of the Psedonomi, or magis- trates who exercised a certain superinten- dence over the education of youth. The fables of .^sop appear to have stood highest in popular esteem. JEsop was a contemporary of Solon, and lived about 570 B.C. By the opening of the fourth century before the Christian era a date rendered ever memorable by the death of Socrates there seems to have been widely diffused over the Grecian world a certain amount of elementary education. At what age children commenced going to school we are not definitely informed ; Plato and Aristotle agree that there was no good in attempting formal mental instruction before the age of five. At the end of the sixth year, boys and girls were separated. The children were conducted to school, to the gymnasium, and indeed everywhere out of doors, by a private tutor, or pedagogue (TraiSaytoyos, child-leader) a slave usually, who did not necessarily possess much knowledge or polish, and who generally carried the boys' books, musical instru- ments, and other school necessaries, and governed their conduct by the conven- tional rules of propriety. At the gym- nasium, the pedagogue attended his pupil all the time he remained there ; but it is hardly probable that he stayed in like man- ner at school during school hours. In- deed, about the middle of the fourth cen- tury B.C. there was a law forbidding persons over school age (except the son, or daugh- ter, or son-in-law of the schoolmaster) to enter the school during school hours, on pain of death ; but this law appears to have been abrogated soon afterwards. When a youth entered on his seventeenth year, the occupation of his pedagogue was gone. The literary education of youth was in 110 way controlled by the State, but depended on the opinion and discri- mination of the parents. ' Did not the laws enacted on this point,' asks So- crates in the Crito, ' enjoin rightly, in re- quiring your father to instruct you in. music and gymnastic exercises ? ' But these laws seem to have been practically in abeyance. Public institutions, main- tained at the expense of the State, do not appear to have been founded till a late pe- riod ; and although Plato talks of appoint- ing teachers, to be paid at the public cost, this was only his own speculation, to which there was no corresponding actuality for long afterwards. Still, the idea of edu- cation strongly commended itself to the public mind. The total neglect of the edu- cation of one's children was exceptional, and disapproved ; Plutarch relates how the people of Trcezen not only supported Athenian fugitives, women and children, at the time of the Persian invasion, but also paid teachers for the children ; and ./Elian tells us that the Mityleiiseans thought they inflicted the severest pos- sible penalty on their revolted allies when they prohibited the education of their children. But there was no real State intervention to secure a good quality of education. The teachers followed the pro- fession, not because they were specially qualified, but because it offered a fairly ready means of livelihood ; and the P*do- nomi limited their superintendence to the administration of certain laws respecting morality. The profession of elementary schoolmaster, indeed, was not in high re- pute. School opened early in the morning. Solon enacted that the schools should not open before sunrise, and should close before sunset. There was certainly an afternoon meeting. The great branches of instruc- tion were grammata (ypajuyxara), mou- sike (/Aovcri/oj), gymnastike (yv/xvao-ri/o;) ; Aristotle gives a fourth, graphike (ypa0i/c?/, drawing or painting). Tpa/x/xara may be taken as including reading, writing, and arithmetic. In reading, the pupils were first exercised on syllables, then 011 the component parts of the sentence, after which they commenced reading, properly so called. In writing, copies were set by the teachers. In arithmetic, the fingers were freely employed, or apples or coun- ters were used for concrete presentation. i When the pupils were able to read with facility and intelligence, they were intro- ATHLETICS. duced to the works of the poets, and committed to memory selected passages and even whole poems. The poems of Homer, in particular, were read and trea- sured in memory, as containing worthy sentiments and great examples, and as calculated to rouse the energies of youth and determine them to noble purposes. This study of Homer was long continued into later times. Music was commenced later, about the thirteenth year. It was not a compulsory portion of the instruction of youth (there was no such thing as com- pulsory instruction of any sort), nor was it even regarded as essential, but it was considered to be a noble and liberal occu- pation for leisure moments. So says Ari- stotle. Grote, in describing the training of Epameinondas (Hist, of Greece, ch. Ixvii.), says : ' He also learned music, vocal and instrumental, and dancing ; by which in those days was meant, not simply the power of striking the lyre or blowing the flute, but all that belonged to the grace- ful, expressive, and emphatic management either of the voice or of the body ; rhyth- mical pronunciation exercised by repeti- tion of the poets and disciplined move- ments, for taking part in a choric festival with becoming consonance amidst a crowd of citizen performers. Of such gymnastic and musical training, the combination of which constituted an accomplished Grecian citizen, the former predominated at Thebes, the latter at Athens. Moreover, at Thebes, the musical training was based more upon the flute ; at Athens, more upon the lyre, which admitted of vocal accompani- ment by the player. 7 The lyre and cithara there can have been but little difference between them were indeed the only in- struments thought proper for a free citizen of Athens. The flute, although at one time a great favourite, was at length given up at Athens, partly because it distorted the features, partly because it precluded the player's own vocal accompaniment. The exercises of the Gymnasium (q.v.) for the development and strengthening of the body were regularly entered upon at the age of sixteen, and continued till eighteen. Ad- vanced instruction, beginning at eighteen or twenty, was given by the Rhetors and ( Sophists, for pay, mostly to the sons of the i wealthier citizens ; Socrates alone taught in the streets and the market-place with all who cared to discuss with him, and ivithout \ reward. The special object of the Sophists ! was to prepare their pupils for success in public affairs, particularly by exercises on the more usual commonplaces of practical life, and by sharpening the oratorical and dialectic skill of the young men ; some of them also taught mathematics and astro- nomy, as well as philosophy and morals. There has been hot controversy over the character and conduct of the Sophists Grote's view may be accepted as most in accordance with the evidence. The odious part of the connotation of the term ' So- phist ' was stamped upon it by Plato, who, like Socrates, had a vehement repugnance against receiving pay for teaching. There is really no proof that any of the reputable Sophists were 'peculiarly greedy, exorbi- tant, and truckling,' or that, as Plato has been misinterpreted to convey, they ' poi- soned and demoralised, by corrupt teach- ing, the Athenian moral character. 3 The difference of attitude of Plato and the Sophists must be carefully observed : Plato was a great and systematic theo- rist j the Sophists were men of wide knowledge, great intellectual force, and imposing personality, who directed their professional energies to the practical end of qualifying young men ' to think, speak, and act,' with effect. There were no girls 1 schools at Athens. The education and culture of the female sex was not provided for by law ; it was left to custom and to the personal notions of the household and the family. Girls picked up whatever in- struction they received from their mother* and from the women-servants. The sub- jects were, for the most part, of purely feminine concern spinning, weaving, sew- ing, and the like ; in the better households also reading and writing. The duties of religion, with the popular beliefs respect- ing the gods, and the general rules of proper and becoming behaviour would be incul- cated as opportunity offered. About fifteen the Athenian girl usually got married, and might obtain further instruction, in an incidental way, from her husband, or she might not. He would take her to see tragedy at the theatre ; he would, almost certainly, not permit her to see a comedy acted. Athletics. This term is one of a group of allied terms which have come into the vocabulary of modern physical education ready-made, so to speak, from that of the physical culture of the ancient Greeks. Gymnastics and calisthenics are others. D ATHLETICS And while the last-named still retains its old limitation to those lighter forms of gymnastics tending to develop symmetry of limb and grace of movement (see CALIS- THENICS, infra], the two other terms athletics and gymnastics have lost such technical differences of meaning as they had in connection with the elaborate training of the young Greek athlete for the national contests at Olympia, and have acquired modern meanings with shades of difference purely arbitrary and by no means permanently distinctive. It will therefore facilitate the exposi- tion of this subject, now become of the first importance educationally, if the two are treated of under one heading. And, further, it will be desirable to include the other forms of bodily exercise, such as play and games, where, though the amount of organisation or system is slight, yet a very definite educative value exists from the point of view of physical development. In this way, under the term athletics there will be compre- hended, (a) unorganised athletics or play; (6) partially organised athletics, which would include all outdoor games and sports, and which may be called social athletics ; and (c) fully organised athletics, which, in their lighter form, aim princi- pally at the individual bodily develop- ment of girls and women, and are desig- nated calisthenics, and in their more masculine form are called gymnastics. Athletics have not assumed this fully organised form in England till in quite recent years. The explanation of this phenomenon, is not far to seek, when we remember that the dislike of elaborate system and drill, and the admiration for spontaneity and individualism, are pecu- liarly English characteristics. In fact, the very prevalence of athletics in the unorganised form of games, and the almost scientific elaboration of their rules, has naturally acted against the introduction of the more artificial and less spontaneous forms of organised gym- nastics. But a slight sketch of the development of the athletic idea in this country will not be out of place here, and will serve to explain how materially we differ in our attitude towards schemes of physical training for the young from almost every other nation which has adopted them. In the great military age of English life, which, for our purposes, may be said to have closed with the reign of Henry VIII., the manly exercises by which the English gentleman was trained were riding, hunting, and shooting ; these, with the home exercises of wrestling, tilting, and tourneying, insured skill in the fight and endurance in the field. The necessities of domestic or national de- fence at first, and, afterwards, of that great aggressive movement which for more than one hundred years had the fair provinces of France as its goal and object, made the English yeoman and villain also, who followed his liege lord to battle, or who took service as a professional soldier, an accomplished athlete by mak- him a sturdy campaigner and an accurate marksman with the long bow. The enactment of Henry VIII., which required that 'every man not lame, de- crepit, or maimed do use and exercise shooting in long bows and also do have a bow and arrows ready in his house, and do learn the men children in his house and bring them up in shooting,' tended to bring athletic physical training down to the lower ranks of English society. But the decay of feudalism, and the change of the military system to one resting less on the individual marksman's skill, and more on the sheer weight of the fighting masses pressing forward pike in hand, produced a change in the sentiment of what pursuits became an Englishman, which was further intensified, in the wealthier classes, by the introduction of the new learning. So it came to pass that the English gentleman devoted less and less time to ' sports ' and more and more to ' letters.' Cardinal Pole ex- hibited the presence of this unathletic spirit of the new era exaggerated, per- haps, because drawn from a monastic or ecclesiastical standpoint when he said (1556), 'First and most principal of all ill customs is that which toucheth the education of the nobility, whom we see customably brought up in hunting and hawking, &c.' The large schools for the education of the young nobility, which were all founded or placed on a per- manent footing about this time Win- chester, Eton, Harrow, Westminster, and Rugby endeavoured to set the minds of young England in this new anti-athletic direction. These schools were presided over by ecclesiastics who, as regards their ATHLETICS 35 attitude towards bodily, as opposed to mental, training, reflected the spirit of Pole, and set up ideals of education which totally disregarded the body, and sought the vigorous repression of the animalism of youth, instead of its rational regulation. But the youth took the matter into their own hands. Inheriting the tradi- tions of a bygone time, and the apti- tudes of athletic ancestors, they developed organised play in their own ways, which were sometimes tolerated by their masters, and often kept in narrow bounds by rigid school statute, such as that for Shrews- bury School in 1578, which laid down that boys should play * only on Thurs- days.' Thus athletics in the public schools have remained in the hands of the boys, more or less, down to our own day. School games have been tolerated and encouraged as a useful vent for the animal spirits, a tamer of boyish wild- nesses less irksome to the schoolmaster and more self-acting than repressive dis- cipline, a queller of surging passions by working the full-blooded and high-mettled ' up to the point of fatigue.' This policy on the part of the autho- rities has given a status to school games in the great public schools which is out of all proportion to their value, and which is maintained at the expense of the in- tellectual studies. The good servant has become a bad master ; and the outcry has gained force and volume, as to more than one of our great public schools, that athletics are more eagerly pursued than the classics, and that * place and power ' at school and college are assigned more for proficiency and power at cricket, row- ing, or football, than for distinction in the time-honoured intellectual pursuits of the place. But within the last two or three de- cades the scientific spirit of the age, sur- veying the whole field of education with a fuller knowledge of the physiology of the human frame, has brought into prominence the absolute dependence of the healthy mind upon the healthy body. Physical training has, therefore, become, equally with mental training, the concern of the teacher who seeks to carry out the modern educational ideal. The lead in this matter was given by the Germans. So early as the latter part of the last century | Basedow (q.v.), instigated thereto by Rousseau's jfimile, established his cele- brated school, the Philanthropinon, at Dessau (1771), where the educational curriculum included (1) lessons on the structure and functions of the human body, (2) manual instruction by means of carpentry and wood-carving, and (3) regu- lar exercises in walking, running, riding, dancing, and wrestling. But the remark- able progress of gymnastics in Germany, as a part of school education, is due to the ! energy and organising ability of Jahn (q.v.) and his disciples. Under the stimu- lus of his reforming spirit and the grand ideal he set before his countrymen of a united nation, intellectually, morally, and physically strong, gymnastics, under the name of Turnen, became (1842) a recog- nised part of national education from the ! primary schools to the universities. In I Switzerland, Fellenberg (q.v.) and his successors, taking up and carrying on the educational ideals of Pestalozzi (q.v.), succeeded in founding and maintaining at Hofwyl, near Berne, a group of schools organised * for the harmonious develop- i rnent of every human faculty.' Regular gymnastic exercises were insisted upon for | each pupil ; every encouragement was ; given to voluntary exercise in the form of games, bathing, carpentry, and gardening, and music was considered to be a branch of physical education, having powerful moral influences ; while the succession of hours of study, exercise, musical instruc- tion, play, and sleep were carefully regu- lated and adapted to the age and strength of the pupil. Lastly, systematic training ' in gymnastics was popularised in Sweden by Ling (q.v.). Ling's system of bodily training has found considerable favour in England also, especially in girls' schools, on the ground that it is less severe than j the German system, and pays more re- | gard to physical training in its medical ! aspect. Less apparatus, too, is required under this system than under any other. Compared with the dates of the in- troduction of organic gymnastics into the ! above-named countries, the recognition of them as part of the school course in Eng- land is quite recent, and is still extremely partial in character. Gymnasia are to l>e found at both the universities of Oxford i and Cambridge, fully equipped with the i most approved apparatus and appliances. \ Most of the large public schools also o2 36 ATHLETICS possess gymnasia. But neither at the universities nor public schools are courses of physical instruction scientifically laid out to suit the physical condition of the individual student, though such is the case at Harvard and other universities in the United States. Two of the larger grammar schools, however, King Edward's School, Birming- ham, and the High School, Manchester, have not only been supplied with gym- nasia, but systematic training, under a physical instructor on the staff of these schools, is given to every pupil and in the former instance to girls as well as boys as part of the regular school course. Some of the larger School Boards, too, notably those of Birmingham and Man- chester, have taken the lead in recog- nising the importance of physical training for the children of the working classes, by providing spacious playgrounds and simple apparatus, appointing a super- intendent of physical instruction, and setting apart a portion of each day's school-time for physical exercises. The School Boards for London, Nottingham, and other towns, are following the lead thus given, and there is every sign that the movement will spread rapidly in the large centres of population under the stimulus of a more enlightened public opinion. The essentials of a sound athletic training for the young have nowhere been more clearly enunciated than by Mr. John Holm at the ' Conference on Education under Healthy Conditions,' held in Man- chester in 1885 : (a) All gymnastic exercises should be devised with a due regard to the structure and functions of the body, and should be formed on an accurate knowledge of ana- tomy and physiology, (b) Every exercise should have a definite aim, and be local- ised, so that its action is understood, (c) Every part of the body should be exercised in turn, and, having due regard to the physiological function, not any one part in excess of another, (d) Har- mony of function, including suppleness, should be regarded as of equal importance with the development of muscular power. (e) All exercises, while directed to the development of strength, should be kept well within the vital capacity of the in- dividual, so that his powers are strength- ened instead of being exhausted. A word may not be inappropriate here on the developments which have taken place in the scientific basis of the athletic sports of the English people. Cri< k *t in England and, latterly, baseball in Ame- rica, looked upon as developments of bat and ball games, have reached a point of scientific elaboration which makes success in the ' art ' a matter of years of practice following upon natural aptitude. The greatest development of recent years has been witnessed in the direction of football, which may now fairly rank as high, if not higher, in popularity as its older compeer, cricket, and which, from its comparative inexpensiveness, bids fair to become, if it has not already become, the national athletic game. The scien- tific forms of this game have assumed, with other minor varieties (such as the Eton game, and the ' Wall-game '), two permanent shapes under the names of 1 Association Football ' and ' Rugby Foot- ball.' These are in reality two distinct games. The former derives its authority and scientific form from the decrees of the Football Association, which was started in 1863, and the latter from the Rugby Union, which was formed at about the same time to adopt the game so long identified with the school close at Rugby to the wider arena of the great towns and to adult players. These games are so essentially differ- ent that, practically, most football clubs are formed to play one or other of them, and very few clubs send teams into the field for both games. The ' Association * game is the more popular for adults, the 1 Rugby ' game holds its own principally among school boys and those who have | played the public schools. This latter | game is considered more dangerous for ; full-grown adults than for the growing | boy. Among the adverse criticisms which | have been passed upon athletics, it may j be useful to mention one or two. They l have been charged with seriously arrest- ing the development of the mind : the evidence in this direction bears only upon an excessive addiction to athleticism. As regards football, the intensity of rivalry between school and school, and between club and club, is made respon- sible for a subordination of the interest of the game itself to the desire for victory si \ possis recte, si non, quocumque modo ; with ATHLETICS ATTENDANCE the result that unseemly quarrels, unfair- ness in play, even intentional ill-usage of an adversary, and at most a too profes- sional spirit, have partially destroyed the good moral effects which follow from the ellbrt to win by co-operation, and loyalty, and self-control. There is doubtless, too, frequently a basis of truth in these charges. It is said that betting is an accompaniment of the modern athletic sports, and in so far that that is the case, n vigorous repression of this evil should be set on foot by all well-wishers to the youth of England. Again, those who charge athletics with an undue expendi- ture of nervous energy, which is so much loss to intellectual work, also object on the ground of its encroachment upon the body's requirements in the way of rest. But, in answer to this, it may be pointed out that the need of rest other than that of sleep in the case of youths is very doubtful. Herbert Spencer, in the thoughtful chapter on Physical Educa- tion in his Education, justly claims for that sportive activity which is character- istic of the young of all animals, if in- iulged in in obedience to bodily sensa- tions, a real rest and recreation. It remains, however, to be said that the same writer has furnished one of the severest criticisms against athletics, on the ground of its artificiality. Gym- nastics he calls ' a system of factitious exercises/ which, though better than nothing, are to him an inadequate sub- stitute for the naturalness of play ; in- ferior both in quantity of muscular exer- tion and in quality ; and, moreover, wanting in that element of spontaneous happiness which is the most powerful of tonics. That our greatest living educa- tional philosopher should take a strong view of the intrinsic superiority of play to gymnastics, on many grounds, is a call to the believers in the new athleticism to give a reason for the faith that is in them ; and, at the same time, by putting them on the defensive, ensures that developments of this side of the education of the youth of the country shall not transgress the limits which can be justi- "fied by experience, and which cannot be exceeded without imprudence. The best treatises on gymnastics in the English language are those written by the late Mr. McLaren of Oxford. His Military System of Gymnastic Exer- cises for the use of Instructors, Training in Theory and Practice, and Physical Education, together form a complete library of physical training and hygiene. His system is considered to be much more thorough and practical than the German, and is based upon the sound principle that the first requisite for the development of physical power is a simple and gradually progressive course of exercises, adapted to the definite physical conditions of the person to be trained. Atlases. See MAPS. Attendance. Without regularity of attendance satisfactory progress is impos- sible. The thorough mastery of one lesson generally depends upon the preceding lesson having been learned ; consequently the child who misses the first is likely to be incapable of benefiting by the second. Nor is the evil confined to the individual, for the whole class has to wait while the teacher is helping the pupils who have been absent to overtake the rest. The mischief does not end even with loss of lessons or waste of time. Education is concerned with the formation of good habits as well as with the acquisition of knowledge, and it is impossible for a child who is often kept away from school to form a habit of regularity a habit not only valuable in itself, but the foun- dation of many others that are valuable also. Good attendance may be promoted : (1) By making school pleasant physically. The rooms should be clean, light, well ventilated, and (in winter) well warmed. The walls should be bright with pictures and the windows with flowers. (2) By making school pleasant morally. The whole tone should be kindly and cheerful. The teachers should never shout, or speak I harshly ; the discipline, though necessarily firm, should be mild ; and work, though necessarily hard, should be agreeable. (3) By cultivating friendly relations with the parents and interesting them in the progress of their children. ' Speech days/ breaking-up parties, prize distributions, and ' public examinations ' have been found very useful in this respect. (4) By send- ing notes to, or requiring notes from, the 1 parents in all cases of absence. This is a very effective method of preventing tru- ancy, for it renders immediate detection certain. (5) By giving rewards for good ATTENTION BASHFULNESS attendance. (See REWARDS AND PUNISH- MENTS). (6) By a steady, consistent, and discreet use of the power of compulsion. (See SCHOOL BOARDS.) Attention. The full development of the power of voluntary attention is seen in what is known as concentration i.e. the resolute keeping of the mind fixed on one subject and what is relevant to this, and the turning away from all distracting objects and suggestions. All prolonged attention implies the presence of a feeling, which feeling is the source of what we call interest (q.v.) In educating the atten- tion the teacher must aim at enlarging the sources of interest, and at gradually strengthening the power of voluntarily concentrating the thoughts. The obstacles | to attention differ according to the nature of the child. Some are indisposed to at- tend from mental dulness and indolence. It is obvious, too, that any falling off in vigour of brain through ill-health or fatigue must induce a lethargic condition which is unfavourable to the exercise of attention. Many children, moreover, who are by no means dull and inactive, prove bad subjects for that sustained attention required by the school-teacher. Thus there is the familiar butterfly type of mind that flits unwearyingly from subject to subject, yet finds any prolonged effort of attention irksome. Then, too, there is the dreamy imaginative mind which tends to be absorbed in its own inner world, and to grow dull and seemingly stupid in relation to external impressions (see AB- SENT-MINDEDNESS). In building up the habit of attention, care must be taken at the outset to remove as far as possible all sources of distraction and mental pre- occupation, and not to exact too long and fatiguing an effort at one time. Variety of occupation and a certain measure of relaxation should thus be introduced into school life. Any form of occupation which has become thoroughly familiar and easy by repetition may serve as a relief to the attention. (See Sully 's Hand- book, chap, vi., and the references there added.) Australia (Education in). See LAW (EDUCATIONAL). Australian Universities. See UNI- VERSITIES. Austrian Universities. See UNIVER- SITIES. Authority. See DISCIPLINE. B Babylonia, Schools of. See SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY. Bacon, Francis. See COMENIUS. Baird Lectures. See PRELECTIONS. Bampton Lectures. See PRELECTIONS. Barlow Lectures. See PRELECTIONS. Basedow, Johann Bernhard. See HEFORMAIION. Bashfulness, or shyness, is a well- marked characteristic of childhood. Its proper exciting cause is the presence of a stranger. This appears to evoke a distinct form of inherited fear. Bashfulness shows itself later, and presupposes a certain de- velopment of self-consciousness. It may be defined as a feeling of timidity arising from distrust in one's own powers when under the observation of another. The feeling is thus nourished by the general timidity of childhood, and in a special way by the child's sensibility to others' opinion and the desire to please. In its intenser degrees it constitutes an acute form of suffering, and in the case of more than one distinguished child has been a source of real misery in early years. It tends to produce awkwardness of manner, inability to converse with others, &c. In the case of children who are specially eager to please, though the victims of self -distrust, it often engenders an unnatural and affected man- ner. In extreme instances it may even lead to a morbid shrinking from society. It is a quality which calls for the special consideration of the educator. A certain measure of shyness is proper to childhood, and the anxiety of which it is an expres- sion has its moral value, since it favours a nice care in behaviour. At the same time it must clearly be kept within due bounds. The educator should remember in dealing with bashful children that the feeling is deepened and fixed by every form of re- pression and discouragement. Its proper corrective is the gradual accustoming of the child to the society and conversation of others, and the encouragement of it in the natural exercise of its powers under BATHING BELL, ANDREW these circumstances. School education, ! with its greater publicity, commonly acts as a corrective to the shyness due to the j exclusion of the home. Yet, just because ! of this publicity, and the severe demand which it makes on the child's self-confi- dence, the school-teacher has a specially j difficult task in the treatment of shyness. (On the nature of the feeling, see Bain, Menial and floral Science, bk. iii. chap, iv. iv. On its educational aspects, see Locke, Education, 70 ; article ' Blo'dig- keit,' in Schmidt's Encyclopddie.) Bathing. The addition of a swimming- bath to every large school would be a most potent factor in leading to increased j healthiness of school children. Failing this, the managers of each school should get admission for the scholars to public baths in the neighbourhood, or in country . schools a neighbouring stream or pond (not i too deep) should be chosen for the purpose. ; It should always be remembered that run- ning water has a more benumbing effect than stagnant water, owing to the fact that in the former case different layers of water are constantly coming in contact with the body, rapidly abstracting heat, and increasing the danger of cramp or fainting. Wherever the bath, scholars should only be allowed to frequent it under strict supervision, and the following rules should be carefully followed : 1. The bath should not be taken within two hours of the last meal. 2. Children should not be allowed to loiter in undressing. A sharp walk before entering the bath is ad- visible, in order that the skin may be warm and glowing at the time the bath is taken. 3. Children should not be allowed to remain in the bath too long, nor in any case until chattering of teeth or blueness of the lips or nails is produced. The person in charge of the swimming-bath should understand how to use the proper restoratives in case of accidental immersion, and these measures should be vigorously and steadily employed. (See SCHOOL SUR- GERY.) Xo boy should be allowed to row until he has learnt to swim. The temper- ature of the water in the swimming-bath should be from 65 to 70 Fahr., when it is intended that children should remain in it beyond a few minutes. Where this tem- perature is artificially kept up, the hot water must be introduced at the lowest level of the bath, for, being specifically lighter than cold water, it tends to rise to the surface. In addition to its effect on cleanliness, and in improving the general tone of the system, bathing combines, in the form of swimming, both exercise and bathing. Swimming tends to expand the chest and enlarge the lungs, at the same time strengthening the muscles of the trunk and limbs. Bede. See MIDDLE AGES. Belgian Universities. See UNIVER- SITIES. Bell, Andrew, the inventor of the ' Madras system ' of monitorial instruc- tion, was born at St. Andrews on March 27, 1753. Having completed with credit the course of education given at the uni- versity of his native city, he determined to seek his fortune where Scotchmen of good education were rarer than in Scot- land. In 1774 accordingly he set sail for America, where he found employment as tutor. In 1781, the colony being in the throes of the War of Independence, Bell , returned to Scotland. He acted for a time I as ' coach ' at the university, but seeing little prospect of advancement he wrote to America to know if there was ' any encouragement in the line of the Church/ In 1784 he took orders, but finding little ' encouragement,' resolved to try his for- tune in India. He reached Madras in 1787, and there brought his merits before the authorities with such pertinacity that in less than three years he was holding seven appointments in the army as chaplain or deputy chaplain ; he was likewise undertaker at Fort St. George, and superintendent of the Military Male Orphan Asylum. The latter was opened in 17 9. It was housed at Egmore, in an abandoned redoubt, which at first pro- vided a home for about a hundred children, but this number was gradually raised to two hundred. When Bell became super- intendent he found one master and two ushers employed in instructing less than a score of boys. The teachers were men who had never been trained to tuition, and he found it difficult to bring them into his own views. Discipline was weak and progress slow. Bell proposed various alterations to strengthen the one and quicken the other ; but the master and ushers considered each alteration as a re- flection on their capacity or diligence, and resented interference. Things were in this state when Bell, as narrated in the article on the monitorial system (q.v.) t . 40 BELL, ANDREW BENEKE, PKTEDBICH EDWARD saw the children in a Malabar school writ- ing in sand, and thus hit upon the germ of his system. In 1796 he returned to England, and in the following year pub- lished a forty-eight page pamphlet en- titled, An Experiment in Education sug- gesting a /System by which a School or Family may Teach itself under the Super- intendence of the Master or Parent. It attracted no attention, and the Madras system, though adopted in 1798 at St. Botolph's, Aldgate, and in 1799 at Kendal, remained practically unknown till 1805. Meanwhile Joseph Lancaster (q.v.)had been conducting a large school on the monitorial plan. He maintained that for the method which he followed he was in no way indebted to Dr. Bell, having hit upon it before he saw a copy of the Ex- periment. He admitted, however, that he got several useful hints from the pamphlet, and on the '21st of the llth month, 1804,' he wrote to the author for information on some points of detail. Bell answered in the most friendly spirit, inviting Lancaster to Swanage, where he had a living, and asking his help in pre- paring a second edition of the Experi- ment. Thus far Bell regarded Lancaster as ' doing his work for him,' but a bitter war broke out, involving all the leading magazines and newspapers. Bell brought his system under the notice of persons interested in maintain- ing the supremacy of the Church, and soon obtained considerable support. In 1806 the plan was introduced into a day- school at Swanage and into one at White- chapel. Next year Bell spent some months in London organising two schools one a school which, for example's sake, the Archbishop of Canterbury had esta- blished in Lambeth, and the other the Royal Military School, Chelsea, Early in 1 808 a school which had been built and endowed by an enthusiastic admirer was opened in Gower's Walk, Whitechapel. In the same year the system was intro- duced into a new school in Marylebone, and Bell paid a visit to Durham for the purpose of organising the schools of the country. This visit brought him under the notice of the Bishop, who appointed him master of Sherburn Hospital. The year 1808 was an epoch in the history of Bell's rival, for then was esta- blished the Royal Lancasterian Institu- tion for the Education of the Poor, con- verted in 1813 into the British and Foreign School Society (q.v.). The success of the unsectarian association seriously alarmed the dignitaries of the Church, who, in 1811, established the National Society (q.v.) The principal work of Dr. Bell's life was now accomplished, and his remaining years may be passed over rapidly. In 1812 his old university gave him the de- gree of D.D. In 1814 he visited Ireland, in 1816 he made a tour on the Continent, and in 1818 he was appointed prebendary of Hereford Cathedral, whence he was transferred to Westminster. Bell accu- mulated enormous wealth, which became a sorrow to him. Finally he bequeathed most of it for the promotion of his system. Beneke, Friedrich Edward (b. 1798, d. 1854). A German philosopher who ren- dered considerable service in establishing the true principles of the art of teaching. He was professor of philosophy at Got- tingen and Berlin from 1822. He was the author of a large number of philoso- phical treatises, and, in opposition to the popular idealist or a priori school of his day, whose chief representative was Hegel (q.v.}> Beneke adhered to a form of the Experience Philosophy very similar to that of Locke, Hume, J. S. Mill, and the prin- cipal English philosophers of the same em- pirical school. That part of his system to which Beneke attached most import- ance was his psychology, which bears a considerable resemblance to the doctrines of Herbart (q.v.\ and the results of which he applied to education. The chief works in which he developed his ideas in this department are : (1) his Doctrine of Edu- cation and Instruction (Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, 3rd edit, by Dressier, 1864) ; (2) his Logic as the Doctrine of the Art of Thinking (Logik als Kunstlehre des Denkens, 1842) ; and (3) his Pragmatic Philosophy, or Psychology in its Applica- tion to Life (Pragmatische Philosophic oder Seelenlehre in der Anwendung auj das Leben, 1850). The development of intellectual consciousness, according to Beneke, depends entirely on the fact that the human mind is endowed with the ca- pacity of receiving impressions from ex- ternal material phenomena. His theory, which had been anticipated by the Eng- lish philosophers like Locke and James Mill, is capable of very fruitful applica- tion in education, and attracted great at- tention amongst German pedagogues. (See BENTHAJI, JEREMY - BIOLOGY Schmidt's * Biography of Beneke ' in Dies- \ tosh, James Mill, terweg** Padagogisches Jahrbuch, 1856, and Dressler's monograph on Beneke and his Writings, or in the 3rd edit, of the Lehrbuch der Pyschologie, 1861.) Bentham, Jeremy (1748-1832), at- tempted to carry into the domain of edu- cation those principles of utility which he applied in other departments of thought and action. His views were set forth in a book published in 1816 under the title ' Chrestomatliia : being a collection of 41 \r Wakefield, Franci Place (the Radical tailor of Charm g Cross), William Allen (the first treasurer), Joseph Fox (the first secretary of the British and Foreign School Society), and others as- sisted in the formation of the society. Bentham offered part of his garden at the back of the Recruit House in Birdcage Walk as a site for the school ; rooms were built on paper ; meetings were held and plans were discussed, but all came to naught. The scheme was abandoned in papers explanatory of the design of an j 1820 ; Bentham's book is its monument. institution proposed to be set on foot under the name of the Chrestomathic Day Schools or Chrestomathic School for the extension of the new monitorial system of instruction to the higher branches of learning for the use of the middling and higher ranks of life.' Bentham maintained that the * educa- tion proper for civil and active life ' had been neglected, and that nothing had been done to enable those who were ' to conduct the affairs of the world, to carry them on in a manner worthy of the age and country ' in which they lived, by ' communicating to them the knowledge and the spirit of their age and country.' The reformed curriculum proposed to in- clude (for boys and girls of seven to four- teen) reading, writing, arithmetic, English, Greek, Latin, French, German, drawing, feometry, book-keeping, nearly every nown science and a few unknown ones, such as hygiastics, prophylactics, zohy- giastics and phthisozoics. Greek and Latin were deposed from their place of pride, and the prominence hitherto assigned to them was given to physical studies. It will thus be seen that Bentham held the views advocated in our day with great force and clearness by Herbert Spencer. On the chrestomathic scheme education * is to consist in the administration of infinitesimal closes of knowledge, a little drop of this, a pinch of that, an atom of the third article, and so on the names and technicalities of a great range of subjects and mastery and power over none. ... It condemns itself as a method of teaching superficiality and socialism on system.' (Joseph Payne.) Only one attempt was made to put Bentham's views into practice. In Feb- ruary 1814 an association was formed to establish a chrestomathic school in West- minster. Brougham, Romilly, Mackin- Bible (Gr. ra pip\ta). The books or scriptures containing the Old and New Testaments. Whether regarded as the inspired Word of God, and consequently the ultimate standard of morals, or merely as a time-honoured collection of historical, poetical, and ethical literature, a know- ledge of the Bible is indispensable to edu- cation, especially to the education of Eng- lishmen, upon whose history it has exerted so powerful an influence, England having been at the most eventful period in its annals k the land of one book,' namely, the Bible. Much controversy, however, has arisen upon the question whether it is the function of the schoolmaster to impart this knowledge. By the majority of the reli- gious sects, who hold that the Bible con- tains the sole rule of faith and practice, it is contended that not merely a literary knowledge of it, but a doctrinal knowledge of it is essential to the development of the moral character, and accordingly, in most of the sectarian schools in this country, instruction in the Bible is prescribed as a provision of the first importance. Other religious sects, however, holding equally a belief in the Divine origin of the Scrip- tures, and equally desirous that children should be instructed in them, contend that the instruction should be given, not by the schoolmaster, but by ministers and parents. Bible teaching in schools under the School Boards is left to the decision of those bodies, and as a rule a compromise is arrived at by the adoption of the regulation that the Bible shall be read without com- ment. Bifurcation. See CLASSIFICATION. Biology. This subject, although, as its name implies, the science of life, is not to be confounded with the sciences which treat of the two great classes of living beings, namely, Botany and Zoology. The complete and exhaustive study of 42 BIRKBECK. GEORGE. M.D. BOTANY plants and animals in their endless variety of form, structure, relation, habits, and distribution, contemplated by these two branches of Natural Science, gives place in biology to the study of the fhenomena of life in a generalised way. t is therefore placed by modern scientists among the fundamental or pure sciences, among which mathematics stands first as the most abstract as well as the most general, then in order, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology. In plac- ing it fourth on the list, an indication is given of the sciences that are presupposed and must precede it if it is to be successfully studied. We provide for this by including a certain amount of mathematics in the school course, together with the begin- nings of physics and chemistry, on our * modern sides ' at any rate, leaving biology for the college lecture-room and laboratory after specialisation has com- menced. This does not preclude the introduc- tion of botany and zoology (q.v.) into schools, for though the objects dealt with may be the same as in biology, they are treated in these sciences from an altogether different standpoint, the order in which facts about these objects are presented to children being necessarily different from that suitable for the university student. In pursuing the subject of biology, leading types are selected for exhaustive study, in order that the conditions and phenomena of life at all its stages may be fully grasped. The lowest forms of both plants and animals are studied first, as presenting the simplest structure, and the gradual differentiation of the primitive life-material is followed out. The physio- logical processes taking place in the most complex forms are thus seen to resemble in principle those which go on in the most simple. Each student must work practically dissecting instruments and microscope, and record his observations both in words arid by means of drawings of what is seen. The function of the teacher consists in directing and guiding the work ; and this is done at the universities both by lec- tures and by individual help in the labor- atory. Several useful text-books have been published, such as Huxley and Mar- tin's Practical Bioloyy, but the reading of these would be useless without the prac- tical work indicated. Birkbeck, Gearge, M,D. (b. at Settle 1776, d. 1841). At the Andersonian In- stitution, Glasgow, in 1799, he commenced his lectures on natural and experimental philosophy. For these lectures he had no- good instruments, and had to employ or- dinary workmen. Whilst watching the men construct a centrifugal pump, of the use of which they were ignorant, it first occurred to him to give them a course of scientific instruction. In March 1800 he communicated his wishes to the trustees of the Andersonian Institution. They re- garded him as a dreamer, and nothing came of his proposal that session ; but later he lectured to the mechanics of Glasgow with the greatest success. He removed to London, and in 1820 lectured there. In the Mechanics' Magazine, October 11, 1823, appeared his ' Proposals for a Lon- don Mechanics' Institute.' After various preliminary meetings, on December 15, 1823, the officers of the * London Mechanics' Institution ' were appointed, and Dr. Birk- beck was elected president, which office he held till his death. The movement for promoting adult education (q.v.) which he thus inaugurated rapidly spread, and me- chanics' institutes were founded in almost every centre of industry throughout the country. The Birkbeck Institution in Chancery Lane, London, which, without the assistance of wealthy endowments, carries on the work of a great university and technical school combined, is a noble- monument to Dr. Birkbeck's memory. Blackboard. See FURNITURE, and ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS, sect. Class- rooms. Blind (Education of). See EDUCATION: OF THE BLIND. Board School. See SCHOOL BOARDS. Borsippa. See SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY,, sect. Assyria. Botany. The suitability of this subject to form a branch of school instruction is now recognised by all who plead the cause- | of science as a necessary factor in a well- I balanced education. Many reasons may j be adduced to show that the sciences of observation and classification should pre- I cede the experimental and mathematical. There are many advantages in begin- ning with zoology (q.v.) ; but though | animals may be more interesting than plants to quite young children, there is no> lack of interest in the colours, forms,, modes of growth and development of the BOTAXY plant when attention is directed to them by a good teacher. And it may be urged in favour of botany that specimens of plants are more readily procured ; their greater simplicity of structure, as compared with animals, enables the pupils to examine more thoroughly, andtostudythe minuter and obscurer parts more completely. Botany will, therefore, be found of greater value educationally for classes above the lowest. The first lessons should take the form of object-lessons. The pupils must each be furnished with specimens, and the teacher's work will consist in directing observation to the number, shape, posi- tion, and other characteristics of their parts. By suitable questions he will guide the children to express these facts in their own words, and by degrees supply them with suitable technical terms. But the good teacher will not be in haste to supply such terms, knowing that children only too readily retain wjrds and reproduce them without attaching definite ideas to ihem. For hints on this point Mrs. Kitchener's little work, A Tear's Botany, will be found very helpful. In order to register the facts, and even to ensure that all see what they profess to see, it is a good plan to require the pupils, from the very first, to draw in outline the points observed. The object of the drawing is to bring into prominence leading features. Thus, if leaves are being studied, a picture of a leaf need not be attempted, but simple outlines drawn in order to contrast shapes, small portions of the margins in order to contrast their indentations, etc., etc. In the case of the flower, single parts, such as a petal or a stamen, will present little difficulty, when it might be found too difficult to represent the flower as a whole. The position of the floral whorls must be indicated in a diagrammatic way ; but these must not be presented to the pupil, as in books on botany, in their complete form ; he must be led to construct them by degrees from the facts observed on the individual specimens. It is needless to say that the black- board will be indispensable to the teacher; the outline or diagram growing before the eyes of the class will be far more effective than finished drawings. A work like Professor Henslow's Floral Dissections will help to show what should be drawn. Another valuable aid in teaching is the schedule or ruled form, in which the pupil registers his observations in words. This need not be invariable in arrange- ment, but adapted to the stage of the learner, as shown by Miss Yournans in her First Book of Botany, and it can be- filled up without using technical terms. The study of plant life must not, however, be confined to dead and dis- membered specimens. A few pots covered with hand-glasses in the school-room windows will enable the pupils to watch from day to day the gradual unfolding of the perfect plant from the seed ; and they should be encouraged to make careful notes of their observations. But oppor- tunities must also be made for observing growing plants in their self-chosen habitat in field and hedge and wood. The modes of folding of leaf-buds, the time of open- ing of flowers, and many other points can be noted only in this manner. Open-air work has also indirect advantages which will be apparent to every thoughtful teacher. It supplies a motive for health- ful exercise ; it adds to the interest of country walks ; it carries the work of the school-room into the home-life in a way that no formal lessons can do. When a habit of careful and systematic observation has been acquired in this way, and a sufficient number of facts about individual plants have been collected, the pupils may be introduced to the idea of classification. This is generally brought forward too early, and children get the no- tion that if they can only ' label' a flower they have done all that is required. It is not even necessary for a long time to call plants by their botanical names. If we must have something by which to distin- guish them, trivial or local names are by far the best, until the learner fully com- prehends the grounds on which the plants are placed in the larger and smaller and ever narrower classes. When this part of the subject is begun, the pupils will be ready to vie with each other in making collections, especially during holiday ex- cursions. These may be taken with various objects, sometimes with a view to- the collection of rare species, sometimes merely to illustrate completely the flora of a particular district, sometimes to obtain specimens in which a special characteristic is well brought out. Whole plants should be dried where possible, and where this cannot be clone a drawing may be made of the whole, and 44 BOYS (EDUCATION OF) special parts dried. Long before this stage the pupils will have been encouraged to look for and to bring to class good specimens of points under observation. Sometimes these may be worth preserving i'or future lessons : this can often be done more effectually by immersing them in spirits of wine than by drying them. The physiology of plants is a branch of the subject rather difficult to introduce into school work, and though highly interesting is of less value educationally than the stages already discussed, because the pupils will be dependent on the teacher for the facts (with the exception of a very few). Something can no doubt be done with the aid of good diagrams, and if the school possesses a good microscope a few things oaii be shown; but the bearing of the facts will not be understood until some advance has been made m Chemistry and Physics. Boys (Education of). Milton defines the education of boys to be such education as 'fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.' Education as thus defined was much bet- ter suited for the ancients than for us. Indeed, Xenophon relates of the Persians that their youth were to be instructed in the cardinal points of justice and virtue, in such exercises as would assist them in peace and war, and generally in everything that tended to the public good, not omitting a simple diet. At Athens education was compulsory, and children were instructed in reading, writing, and music ; whilst at Rome the education was generally under the guidance of the father, although there were some notable exceptions such as Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, who personally instructed her own boys. Usually a teacher (ludi magister) was em- ployed to give instruction in the 'three RV and rhetoric, although again there were some notable exceptions, such as the elder Cato, who also personally instructed his own boys. The question of the education of boys has been much discussed in our day by Mr. Herbert Spencer, Professor Bain, and other able writers, and they, as was to be expected, do not approve of Milton's definition. A boy's education depends, in the main, upon two elements : the direct instruction given and re- ceived, and the indirect influences under which a child is placed while receiving it. The lessons a boy actually learns, the knowledge given him by his teachers or schoolfellows, the gradual development of his intellect, are parts of school life which are within the immediate circle of a school's purposes and management. They are re- ducible to rule and method, and the suc- cess or failure of the rules or methods is ascertainable by direct examination within fairly sufficient limits. But the constant influence of a master's justice, ability, and earnestness, or of his feebleness and care- lessness, the sense of order and purpose, or of disorder and helplessness, throughout the daily life, the conflict in temper and ability with schoolfellows, the whole tone and moral atmosphere of both school and home, are no less powerful causes in de- termining for good or for evil the present exertions and the future conduct of the boy. The primary object of a school, of course, is direct teaching and learning ; the indirect influences are the necessary concomitants. These influences are im- portant and vary much. They vary much in private schools (q.v.) compared with public schools (q.v.), in schools for board- ers compared with those for day scholars (q.v.). These differences have great weight on a parent determining the school for his boy. It is well that there are such differ- ences, for it is not at all desirable, even if it were possible, to have all schools moulded on one type. There should be no training for employments to the neglect of general cultivation. Such training dis- organises and breaks up the teaching ; it confers a transitory instead of a permanent benefit. A boy, e.g., taught a particular system of book-keeping at school, finds in the counting-house a ditferent system in practice, and has difficulty in acquiring it ; had he had a thorough mastery of arithmetic he could have learned any sys- tem in a very short time. The school should never be made a substitute for ap- prenticeship ; it should teach what might fairly be considered as likely to be useful to all its scholars whether as mental dis- cipline or as valuable information. The subjects of instruction, apart from the ' three R's/ may be classified under three heads language, mathematics (including arithmetic), and natural science ; but the command is imperative ensure a good elementary education before beginning any of those subjects. Latin may be, and usually is, the first branch begun. Edu- BRAILLE SYSTEM BRAIN nation, as distinct from direct preparation tor employment, may be classified as that which is to stop at about 14, that which is to stop at about 16, and that which is to continue till 18 or 19. The difference in the time assigned makes some difference in the very nature of the education itself If a boy cannot remain at school beyond the age of 14, it is useless to begin teaching him such subjects as require a longer time for their proper study ; if he can continue till 18 or 19, it may be expedient to post- pone some studies that would otherwise be commenced early. Outdoor sports and physical exercise should not be neglected. See PUBLIC SCHOOLS and ATHLETICS. Braille System, See EDUCATION OP THE BLIND. Brain. The brain is the organ chiefly exercised in school-work. It is of the highest importance, therefore, that teachers should understand the broad facts relating to its structure and functions. A true science of education can only be founded on the principles of physiology and psy- chology. Structure of brain. The nervous system consists essentially of fibres called nerves, which carry impressions, and cells which receive and appreciate them. The central organs containing nerve- cells are the brain and spinal cord, and from these pass nerves which go to every part of the body and put them in communication with the central organs. The larger part of the brain consists of the two hemispheres, and there is little doubt that these are the organs of the intellectual powers. Each hemisphere is subdivided into a number of convolutions, having a thin layer of grey matter (nerve-cells) covering them. The more complicated and numerous the con- volutions, the greater the intellectual force and activity. Man's brain is absolutely heavier than that of any other animal except the elephant and whale. In rela- tion to the body weight, the preponderance of the human brain is even more striking. Examining the detailed structure of the brain, it is found that in man's brain the cerebral convolutions, and not the lower ganglia (which are concerned with organic life), preponderate, unlike the case in lower animals. The average weight of the brain in the adult European is 49 to 50 ounces. In civilised races it is heavier than in the less civilised. The heaviest brain recorded is that of Cuvier, the naturalist, which was 64^j ounces. At birth the weight of 1 the brain averages 13'87 ounces. It ra- pidly increases in the earlier years, more slowly in later years, acquiring the greatest average weight at the age of 35 in the male, and of 30 in the female. Mere- | weight of brain is not the sole criterion of intellectual capacity. The quality of the cerebral structure must be taken into account. Exercise of the mental faculties ! tends to increase the number of cerebral convolutions, to multiply the points of com- ; munication between different nerve-cells, and thus to render the brain more efficient,, though it may remain stationary in weight.. I At the sixth month of foetal life the human i brain is smooth, and without convolutions, i but at birth the chief convolutions are i complete, secondary ones being developed during childhood and youth. We may^ roughly classify the parts of the central i nervous system as follows : 1. The cere- ! brum, consisting of (1) the cerebral con- i volutions, which are the central organs of j intelligence and volition, and (2) the basal j ganglia, which are connected with sensa- i tion and the automatic phenomena of life. | 2. The cerebellum, or little brain, the chief function of which appears to be the co- ordination of muscular movements and the maintenance of equilibrium. 3. The me- dulla oblongata, from which arise (among | others) the nerves controlling circulation i and respiration. 4. The spinal cord, which j serves to transmit nervous impulses be- j tween the brain and the periphery, and ! also acts as an independent centre for I reflex and automatic acts. Functions of brain. Two sets of nerve I fibres connect the central nerve organs. I with every part of the body. One set. I bring sensory impulses from the periphery, I which are perceived in the brain, and in- ] terpreted by it. Another set carry im- | pulses from the brain to the muscles of | the body, resulting in the production of movement. Excitation of a sensory nerve (as by tickling the foot) leads by reflex action to muscular movements, the object j of which is to withdraw the foot from the I irritation. This reflex action may be car- ried on when the brain is asleep. If the- I same movement is effected while the sub- | ject of the experiment is awake, the move- ! ment is a voluntary one. Or one may prevent the natural impulse to withdrawal- : of the tickled foot by a voluntary inhibi- tory influence. 46 BREAKING UP BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY The chief functions of the brain are : 1. To receive sensory impulses and inter- pret these. 2. To control the muscular movements of the body. 3. To serve as the organ of mind, i.e. of feeling, thought, and volition. The preceding view of the functions of the brain has important bear- ings on practical education. It must not be forgotten that education, using the word in the sense of brain- cultivation, is not -confined to schools, but begins at the first .moment of life, and continues throughout life without interruption except by sleep. During childhood the sensory and muscular parts of the brain are cultivated to an enormous extent, as also the powers of -observation ; but the reasoning powers re- main to a large extent undeveloped. For the first seven years of life the natural order of evolution of the mental functions should be imitated, the muscular and sen- sory and observing powers being chiefly cultivated. Kindergarten work is very valuable in this connection. Deficient muscular and sensory cultivation is certain to make all subsequent mental efforts hazy ;and unpractical. Each sense requires special cultivation, and becomes skilled in proportion to the education it receives. 'The imperfect cultivation of any sense implies a defective condition of the corre- sponding part of the brain, and it is also true that the imperfect performance of any one mental function reacts injuriously on others. The blindness of the fishes living in the dark caves of Kentucky is an in- stance of atrophy of a disused organ. The same lesson is taught by the chickens which were put on a carpet immediately they were hatched, and never showed any -tendency to scratch until sand was scat- tered on it. The lesson of disease also is, that if paralysis occurs in the young, the corresponding part of the brain wastes. Hence muscular and sensory exercise is important, not only because of its imme- diate utility, but because of its effect on the development of the brain and on the more purely mental functions. See also OVERPRESSURE and PHYSICAL EDUCATION. ^ Breaking up is the term usually ap- plied to the party or ceremony which takes place on the day previous to that on which a school closes for the term. Strictly speaking, however, 'breaking up' means the actual departure of the scholars. British and Foreign School Society (The) was the outcome of the labours of Joseph Lancaster, though he was in no sense its founder. He undertook so many responsibilities that in 1807 he found himself hopelessly in debt. His creditors were clamorous, and the life of every in- stitution in which he was concerned was threatened, when William Corston and Joseph Fox came to his rescue. At Cor- ston's house, No. 30 Ludgate Street, on January 23, 1808, these two resolved to form a society for the purpose of affording education to the children of the poor. They undertook to pay all Lancaster's debts and to take the whole management of his pecuniary atfairs into their own hands. At the end of July Corston and Fox were joined by John Jackson, M.P., Joseph Foster, and William Allen. Allen and Fox were the real leaders of the move- ment in favour of unsectarian religious education. One of the first acts of the enlarged committee was to ask the public for a loan to be applied in relieving Lan- caster's ' inconvenience,' 'fixing his (print- ing) establishment on a permanent foot- ing,' and ' enabling him to diffuse the good effects of his system more widely ' ; it was to bear interest at five per cent., and to be repaid as the gains of the print- ing business allowed. 4,000/. was raised almost immediately. In nearly every case the interest was given as an annual sub- scription, and ultimately the loan con- verted into a gift. Allen, Fox, and their colleagues used every endeavour to esta- blish schools. They sent Lancaster on lecturing expeditions throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland, and their efforts were rewarded during the first three years of the committee's existence by the opening of eighty-seven schools and the subscrib- ing of nearly 17,000/. to local funds or to the central institution. In December 1810 the management was greatly enlarged. The Duke of Bedford and Lord Somerville were chosen presidents, Fox secretary, and Allen treasurer, while there was in addi- tion a ' finance committee' of forty-seven members, including Lords Lansdowne, Moira, Carysfort, Brougham, Romilly, and Messrs. Whitbread, Fowell Buxton, Clark- son, James Mill, and Samuel Rogers. The association was called ' The Society for Promoting the Royal British or Lancas- terian System for the Education of the Poor.' The first public meeting of the subscribers was held in May 1811. Next year the last trace of the originally private BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY character of the movement disappeared. Lancaster proposed that, on condition of his making over to the committee his in- terest in the Borough Road premises and property, he should be exonerated from all his debts in connection therewith, and the proposition was accepted. The committee then determined upon a reconstitution of the association, and at a meeting held in Kensington Palace in August 1813, under the presidency of the Duke of Kent, the lines for the new organisation were agreed upon. The subscribers met on November 10, and adopted the new constitution. The fourth rule laid down the principle to which the society has always adhered : * All schools which shall be supplied with teachers at the expense of this institution shall be open to the children of parents of all religious denominations. . . . No catechisms or peculiar tenets shall be taught in the schools.' The king was named the patron of the society, the Duke of Bedford president, while the vice- presidents included ten peers and seven Members of Parliament among them, in addition to several mentioned before, Lords Byron, Darnley, and Fingall, and Messrs. Grattan and \Yilberforce. The duties to which the society addressed itself were : 1. To stimulate and direct local effort to- wards the establishment and maintenance of schools ; 2. To train teachers ; 3. To esta- blish kindred societies in foreign countries. After 1830 a fourth duty was recognised, that of promoting the efficiency of schools by friendly and skilled inspection. The success obtained at home and abroad was most encouraging. Schools were opened throughout England and Wales, while flourishing societies were established in Scotland and Ireland, in nearly every Euro- pean capital, and in India, Australia, and America. The building in Belvedere Place, Borough Road, erected by Lancaster in 1804, was soon found to be too small. A site on the other side of the road was there- fore leased from the Corporation of Lon- don, and the college and schools built thereon were opened in 1817. The year 1833 marks an epoch in the history of elementary education, for it was in that year that the first Government grants (q.v.) were paid. The sum voted by Parliament was 20,OOOZ. Every application for a share of it had to be recommended by the British and Foreign School Society, or the Na- tional Society (q.v.), and the money was to I be used only in supplementing local effort j for the erection of schoolhouses. In the ! first year the British and Foreign School Society forwarded memorials soliciting aid towards the building of 211 schools, for which the districts interested had already subscribed 29,383Z. The schools helped had to be open to inspection, and in 1838 the Lords of the Treasury offered the British and Foreign School Society 500. to inspect the schools which, on its recom- mendation, had obtained assistance. The committee replied that ' no inquiry could prove satisfactory which was not carried on by parties unconnected with the socie- ties whose schools they were to visit and report upon. 3 In 1839 Government in- spectors were appointed, the British and Foreign School Society being allowed a veto upon the choice of those to be en- trusted with the work of examining British schools. In 1 842 the college in the Borough Road was rebuilt at a cost of 20,000/. Towards this sum the Committee of Coun- cil contributed 5,000^., and it also contri- buted 7501. a year towards the expenses of the training institution. These grants accentuated a difference of opinion which had been slowly growing up among the members of the society. A section, small in point of numbers, but weighty from character and position, thought the British schools which accepted State aid must finally become either sectarian or secular. A meeting of the subscribers was held i on June 1, 1847, to discuss the question. The Rev. John Burnet moved a resolution to the effect that the true policy of the society would be to abstain ' from any de- claration of sentiment on the subject ' of Government grants, and at the same time to decline accepting such grants. Dr. Lushington, M.P., moved an amendment to the effect that it would be best for the interests of the institution to confide to the discretion of the committee the acceptance or rejection of any further State aid. This was carried by a large majority, and the leaders of the minority thereupon severed their connection with the society. The chief of the seceders was the late Mr. Samuel Morley, but when events proved his fears to be groundless he rejoined the society, and was for years one of its most honoured vice-presidents. On the issue of the Revised Code in 1861, the committee, j after considering Mr. Lowe's proposals, ; recognised * the soundness of the principle BROUGHAM, HENRY PETER of a t5it of the state of elementary in- struction in a school as one basis of the pecuniary aid rendered,' but condemned the making of this the ' only basis.' The committee also protested against classifi- cation by age, and against the changes affecting teachers. The year 1870 saw the principle which the society had always consistently maintained adopted as the foundation of a national system of educa- tion. Mr. Forster's measure, by making it compulsory on each locality to provide suf- ficient school accommodation, relieved the society of one part of its work the esta- blishment of schools but enormously in- creased another part, the provision of trained teachers. Increased efforts were at once put forth to meet the increased de- mand, and two new colleges were opened as soon as possible. The society has now six training colleges : Borough Road and Bangor for masters ; Stockwell, Swansea, Darlington, and Saffron Walden for mis- tresses. Bangor is under local manage- ment, and Saffron Walden prepares stu- dents specially for infants' schools. If any School Board adopts the system of the British and Foreign School Society there is no reason for maintaining a British school in the district, and many British schools have been transferred to School Boards. Brougham, Henry Peter, Baron Brougham and Yaux (1778-1868). Of Brougham's life and character, of his triumphs at the bar and in the senate, of his energy, versatility, and (superficial) omniscience, of his imaginative treatment of facts, of his vanity, recklessness, and eccentricity, this is not the place to speak ; here we are only to deal with him as a promoter of popular education. Brougham's voice was not quite the first to be raised in Parliament in favour of the instruction of the poor, but it was one of the first, and for some years it was the most powerful. In 1807, when Whit- bread introduced a Bill for the establish- ment of parochial schools, Brougham was not a member of the House of Commons, which he only entered in 1810. It was, however, well known that he was deeply interested in education, and his aid was eagerly sought by the promoters of it. Thus, when the committee of the British and Foreign School Society (q.v.) was en- larged in' 1810, it was felt that he had earned a place upon it. At the general election of 1812 Brougham failed to obtain a seat in Parlia- ment, and his exclusion lasted for nearly four years. He was returned again in 1816, and on May 21 he moved for a select committee to inquire into the state of education among the poor of the metro- polis. His conciliatory manner disarmed hostility, and the committee was granted without opposition. Brougham was chosen chairman, and under his zealous guidance a vast amount of valuable information was collected. Interpreting its instructions loosely, the committee inquired not only into the means of education for the poor, but also into the management of such schools as the Charterhouse, Westminster, and Christ's Hospital. In. 1817 the com- mittee was re-appointed, but Brougham's illness kept it from doing anything. In 1818 it was again appointed, with powers which took in the whole country. Brougham inquired concerning the endow- ments of Oxford, Cambridge, Eton, and Winchester ; some scandalous revelations were made, and the interests of education were forgotten in a fierce controversy about the policy and conduct of the committee. On June 23, 1819, when Brougham was barely recovered from a serious illness, Peel attacked him fiercely in the House of Commons, and he replied in a speech which he deemed worthy of a place among his published works. It may be added that as a consequence of the labours of the committee a law was passed for the appointment of charity commis- sioners to correct abuses in the administra- tion of educational trusts. The Bill re- ceived the royal sanction on June 10, 1818. It was very unfortunate that Brougham had allowed his zej,l to outrun his discre- tion, for there had been a general dispo- sition in the House of Commons to do something for the education of the poor, as proved in 1807 by the passing of Whit- bread's Bill, and in 1816 by the absence of all opposition to the committee of inquiry. Now the education of the poor came to be regarded by the timid as synonymous with the subversion of the most cherished institutions. In 1820 Brougham tried, when too late, to conciliate the Church, which he had deeply offended. In June he brought in a Bill to provide schools for the whole country. A local rate was to be raised, and the administration of it was to be in the hands of the magistrates BUCHANAN, JAMES BURSARY in Quarter Sessions. The schoolmaster was to be a member of the Church of England ; he was to be elected on the recommendation of a clergyman, and he was to qualify for office by taking the sacrament within a month of appointment. The attempt at conciliation came too late ; the heads of the Church refused to accept from Brougham proposals which they | might have welcomed from another timeo Danaos et dona ferentes. On the other hand the Dissenters opposed strenuously a plan which would make the education of the people a monopoly of the establish- ment and the Bill had to be abandoned. The next educational work in which we find Brougham engaged was in connec- tion with mechanics' institutes, in the es- tablishment of which he proved a valuable ally to Dr. Birkbeck (q.v.). In 1825 Brougham issued his Obser- vations on the Education of the People, which ran through twenty editions before the end of the year. He proposed a scheme for the publication of cheap and j instructive books, and the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge was formed in accordance with his views. The first pamphlet (which was written by Brougham himself) appeared on March 1, 1827. Another result of the ' Observations ' was the establishment in 1828 of the London University not, indeed, in its present form. In 1833 Brougham (a peer since 1830) took part in the debates which arose from the proposal of the Government to give building grants (see GRANTS), and on May 21, 1835, he moved a series of important resolutions on the subject of education. He proposed that there was a deficiency of school accommodation, that the instruc- tion given in the schools which did exist was insufficient, that infant schools should be fostered, that Parliament ought to give grants in aid, that training colleges for teachers ought to be established, and that a Board of Commissioners ought to be ap- pointed to superintend the education of the country and to apply to it the misap- propriated endowments. Nothing practi- cal came of the resolutions. Brougham out-lived his influence, but not his interest in all that concerned the welfare of the people. So late as 1857 we find him a warm supporter of the Social Science Association. The first lormal meeting of the committee was held in his house ; he was the first president, and he delivered the inaugural address on October 12, 1857. Though Brougham made many eloquent speeches, only one phrase of his has be- come historic, and that had to do with education. Speaking on January 29, 1828, he said : * Let the soldier be abroad if he will, he can do nothing in this age ; there is another personage, a personage less im- posing in the eyes of some, perhaps insig- nificant the schoolmaster is abroad, and I trust him armed with his primer against the soldier in full military array.' Buchanan, James. See YOUNG CHIL- DREN, EDUCATION OF. Budaeus. See REFORMATION. Bursar. 1. In English, the bursar of a college or monastery is the purse-keeper or treasurer (French bourse, a purse ; from Low Latin bursa, a purse, skin, leather). 2. In Scotland, a person who holds, or is entitled to receive, a bursary (q.v,). Bursary. 1. The treasury of a college or monastery. 2. In the Scottish univer- sities a bursary is a scholarship a sum of money awarded usually on entrance, and payable annually for a certain number of years, to a student for his maintenance at the university, derived from a perma- nent investment for the purpose, and sometimes awarded by competitive exam- ination, sometimes bestowed by presenta- tion. At Aberdeen University there are, in the Faculty of Arts, (1) about 150 bur- saries, of the aggregate annual value of about 2,500?., open to competition on en- trance to the Arts course : seven are of 35?., fifteen of 30?., and so on downwards ; (2) about eighty presentation bursaries (the bestowal of which is vested in private patrons), of the aggregate annual value of nearly 1,600?. : eight are of 40?., two of 33?.^ three of 30?., and so on down to 5?. a year ; (3) about thirty bursaries, under the pa- tronage of the magistrates and town council of Aberdeen, of the aggregate annual value- of over 400?. : these are usually submitted to open competition; (4) four bursaries, of 15?. to 30?. a year, under the patron- age of the incorporated trades of Aber- deen. These Arts bursaries are tenable in nearly every case for four years that is. for the full curriculum. In the Faculty of Divinity, there are (1) eighteen com- petition bursaries, of the annual aggregate- value of 233?., each tenable for three years ; and (2) twenty- three presentation bursa BUSBY, RICHARD ries, of the aggregate annual value of over 600?., each tenable for two, three, or four years : four of these are of the yearly value of 751. and tenable for four years, and seven are of 20?. In the Faculty of Medicine there are ten bursaries, of the aggregate annual value of about 1751. : there is one of 35?., one of 28?., and three of 201. In the Faculty of Law there are three bursaries of 20?. a year, and one of 35?., each tenable two years. At Edin- burgh University there are in the Faculty of Arts about 180 bursaries (including two of 90?. a year, one of 60?., two of 50?., two of 48?., two of 40?., (fee.), usually ten- able four years, and mostly burdened with special restrictions. In the Faculty of Divinity there are (1) eleven presentation bursaries, varying from 8?. to 25?. ; (2) twenty-two competition bursaries, includ- ing two of 52?. 10s., one of 40?., one of 35?., &c. ; and (3) three of 30?., tenable for four years, gained in the Faculty of Arts, and held at pleasure of the gainers in the Faculty of Divinity. In the Faculty of Medicine, twenty-five bursaries, tenable mostly for four years ; including two of 40?., one of 32?., five of 30?., four of 25?., c. In the Faculty of Law, thirteen bur- saries of 19?. to 30?.; five being of 30?., three of 26?. 13s. 4d, and four of 25?. At Glasgow University there are about seventy bursaries in Arts, including one of 80?., one of 50? , several of 40?., &c. ; thirty-five in Theology, two of them being of 42?., and six of 41?. ; fifteen in Medicine, one of them 45?., one 40?., and several 25?. ; and a considerable number of valu- able bursaries common to two or more faculties. At St. Andreivs University there are attached to the United College about one hundred bursaries, varying in value from about 5?. to 50?. a year ; nine- teen belonging to St. Mary's College, of 6?. to 30?. a year ; and twenty of the same value transferable from the United Col- lege when the bursars proceed to the study of Divinity. Busby, Richard (b. Lutton, in the Fens of Lincolnshire, 1606, d. 1695). He ob- tained a king's scholarship at Westminster, and was subsequently elected to a student- ship at Christ Church, Oxford. He was so poor that the parish of St. Margaret's, Westminster, granted him money to pay the fees upon taking his degree in 1628, ana he gratefully acknowledged this by making many bequests to the parish. For some time he was tutor at Christ Church. In 1639 he was admitted to the prebend and rectory of Cudworth. He was ap- pointed master of Westminster provision- ally when Osbolston was deprived of that office (1638), but the election was not con- firmed till 1640. In the Civil War he lost the profits of his rectory and prebend, but in spite of his staunch loyalty and Church- manship, which led Pym to declare that it would never be right with the nation till they shut up Westminster School, he managed to retain both his studentship and his mastership. One of his troubles during this period was of a local character. The second master, Edward Bagshaw the younger, tried to supplant him, but he was removed out of ' his place for his insolence ' in May 1658. Bagshaw published (1659) an account of the transaction from his own point of view. Busby subsequently suf- fered for his political principles by having his ears cropped in the presence of his pu- pils. Upon the Restoration Busby's ser- vices were recognised, and he was made prebendary of Westminster by the king, and subsequently canon residentiary at Wells. At the coronation of Charles II. Busby carried the ampulla. It was from this time that the story arose which tells us that Busby walked in the presence of the king with his hat on, ' lest the boys should suppose there was any man in the world greater than the master.' He was elected proctor of the chapter of Bath and Wells. Busby became proverbial for severity, and yet his rule seems to have been eminently successful, for he gained the veneration and love of his pupils. A remarkable proof of this may be seen in a letter from Vis- count Lanesborough, which is preserved in Westminster School, Past and Present, by Forshall (p. 183). The letter begins, ' Dearest Master,' and contains references to the remarkable care of the master. The volume contains other letters also that are scarcely less striking. John Dry den and other distinguished men of his era had been his pupils. The school became famous, and the highest families in the land sought to gain admission for their sons. Steele was of opinion ' that Busby's genius for education had as great an effect upon the age he lived in as that of any ancient philosopher. ... I have known great numbers of his scholars, and I am confident I could discover a stranger who had been such with a very little conversation; those of great parrs BUSS (MISS) CAMPE, J. H. who have passed through his instruction have such a peculiar readiness of fancy and delicacy of taste as is seldom found in men educated elsewhere, though of equal talent.' Atterbury says of Busby, 'he is a man to be reverenced very highly.' i Anthony Wood speaks of him as a 4 per- I son eminent and exemplary for piety and justice.' Much of his character is shown in Dr. JJasire's Correspondence. He lies buried in Westminster Abbey. Buss (Miss) See EDUCATION OF GIRLS. C Calisthenics (Gr. /caAW0ev?fc, adorned with strength /caAo's, beautiful, and o-tfeVos, strength) is the art or practice of taking exercise for health, strength, or grace of movement. It comprehends every kind of action which may tend to give a graceful figure and an easy deportment, from the finest exercises of the drill-in- structor to the 'calisthenic exercises of the unfortunate young women' whom Thackeray one day saw pulling the garden roller. It is usually, however, restricted to what is popularly known as drill and kindred exercises, and as such is commonly taught in our schools by some retired cor- poral. In taking up the first position of drill, in which position the pupil stands before or after being drilled, it is necessary that he should stand with his shoulders and body square to the front, heels in a line and closed, knees braced up, toes turned out at an angle of 45 degrees, and arms hanging loosely by the side, and straight like a veritable Corporal Trim. There should be no positive change in the upper parts of the body, although the lower limbs can be relaxed when not stand- ing in the ranks. The pupil should always keep his chest advanced and his shoulders pressed back, for if he resumes his original position no object whatever is gained. In the interval between the exercises the pupil may stand at ease by putting the palm of the right hand over the back of the left, and by drawing back the right foot and placing the hollow against the left heel, slightly bending at the same time the left knee. Marching is a very useful exercise, as by it the pupil learns to walk steadily and in regular time ; in the slow march the pupil is allowed 65 paces a minute, and in the quick march 116 paces a minute, each pace measuring about 30 inches. The arms should be kept steady, and the first position maintained. In turning, the pupil places the feet in order to turn in the direction indicated ; he cannot turn if the heels are square ; he must either draw back the foot or advance it the required distance ; nor should he be allowed to walk round, but should raise the toes, and turn on the heels. Another useful exercise in expanding the chest and strengthening the arms is the arm exer- cise, which is done in six different grades, after the manner of dumb-bell exercises. The dumb bell is a short bar of iron, with a knob at each end, to be held in the hand and swung to and fro for exercise. No pupil under eighteen should use dumb- bells above three pounds weight each. Other calisthenic exercises are leaning, lunging, and club exercises (see CURVA- TURE OF THE SPINE). A very handy book on this subject is Mr. T. A. McCarthy's Calisthenics (London, 1881). Cambridge. See UNIVERSITIES. Campe, J. H. (b. 1746 in the duchy of Brunswick, d. 1818). A celebrated Ger- man writer and pedagogue. After studying theology at Halle, and serving for awhile as chaplain to a regiment at Potsdam, he was in 1777 summoned by the Prince of Dessau to replace Basedow (q.v.) in the directorate of the Philanthropinum, which he raised to a high degree of prosperity. He also founded an educational establish- ment at Trittow, near Hamburg. He was in addition entrusted with the task of re- forming the system of education in the duchy of Brunswick. He devoted the latte- part of his life to educational literature, in which he was both a successful and a brilliant writer. His works include his Robinson Crusoe Junior, 106th edition, 1883, &c., German Dictionary, 5 vols., 1807-1812, Theophron, Collection of cele- brated Voyages for the YOUTVJ, 12 vols., General Revision of the School System, 1785-91, 16 vols. In his educational principles Campe followed closely those of Basedow. Canada (Education in). See LAV? (EDUCATIONAL) and UNIVERSITIES. CARPENTER, MARY CERTIFICATED TEACHERS Carpenter, Mary (b. Exeter, 1807, d. 1877), was the eldest child of Dr. Lant Car- penter, and sister of Dr. W. B. Carpenter. She was educated with her father's elder pupils. Her work in Sunday school early excited her interest in the poor. From 1829 to 1845 she was occupied with her mother and sisters in a school. After a struggle of some years, in 1854 Parliament passed a bill providing for the establish- ment of reformatory schools. Meanwhile Miss Carpenter had started one at Kings- wood. She was one of the chief promoters of the Industrial Schools Act, passed in 1857. In 1864 she advocated in Our Convicts the application of the reformatory system to adult criminals. In her sixtieth year she visited India to inquire into Indian education and prison discipline. She wrote an account of this in 1867, under the title of Six Months in India. She made three voyages to India after- wards, and laid the foundation of a system of female education for the country. In 1871 she established The National Indian Association ' (q.v.), and edited its journal. She died suddenly at Bristol, after a life of unselfish devotion to all that is best in education. A good sketch of her work was published in the Times, June 18, 1877. Casaubpn. See REFORMATION. Castiglione (Count Baldassare). See RENAISSANCE. Catechetical Method. Instruction by question and answer, the pupils being required to answer the questions of the teacher. By this means the explanations requisite for the complete comprehension of a subject are discovered and given. Sometimes the answers are committed tc memory from the text-book, and are re- cited to set questions. Several objections are advanced against this method, the prin- cipal being (1) that the pupil, being re- quired only to repeat what is enunciated in the language of others, loses the exer- cise of his own peculiar faculties ; (2) the logical relations of the facts are liable to be overlooked or imperfectly apprehended ; (3) that the answer to a question being merely learned, the full idea of the truth, of which sometimes the essential part is contained in a question, fails to be grasped. The catechetical was the method adopted by the early Christians to teach their con- verts, and especially before the New Tes- tament was written. Catechumen (Gr. Kan7xv/Ai/o a mark) means, when applied to a human being, the peculiar group of mental and moral qualities by which he is distinguished as an individual from others. In this sense it is equivalent to Individuality (which see). Its natural basis is also marked off as idiosyncrasy. In a restricted and ethical sense character means a good or virtuous condition of the mind, and espe- cially the emotional dispositions and the will. Moral character is the highest result of moral development, being the outcome of a persistent series of efforts in doing right. It corresponds with what Kant calls a good will. Character has its chief support in moral habit, which implies a tixity of purpose in certain definite di- rections, as the pursuit of truth and of justice. But it includes more than a sum of habits, viz. a conscious self -subjection to duty, and a readiness to take pains to reach the truest and highest conception of duty. This moral character, though conceived abstractedly as a common at- tainment for all, is in every case vitally connected with, and in a sense an out- growth from, individual character. In truth, if the highest duty is to make the moral best of ourselves, it is evident that individuality has its rightful claims within the limits of moral growth. The educator, as a former of character, has no doubt to insist on a certain uniformity of moral action and of motive. Nevertheless, hii ultimate aim should be to harmonise the claims of the moral law and of indivi- duality, by helping the child to develop to the utmost its own distinctive good qualities. (See Mrs. Bryant, Educational Ends, introd. and pt. i. ; A. Martin, L 'edu- cation du caractere ; Buisson's Diction- naire de Ped., article ' Caractere ' ; Schmidt's Encyclopadie, article * Charakter.') Charity Schools. Schools endowed for the purpose of giving an elementary edu- cation to the children of the poor. A large number of such schools were founded in the reign of Queen Anne, and are to be distinguished from the endowed grammar schools (q.v.) founded about the time of the Reformation. The grammar schools appear to have been designed generally for the purpose of affording means of higher education to all who might be willing to learn. For this object it was provided that the poor should be exempted from all payment, or, lest the poor should still be neglected, that no fees should be paid by any. The character of the teaching has, however, usually been of a kind not suited to the wants of the working classes. Cha rity schools, on the other hand, were in- tended mainly for the use of that class of the population which now attends public elementary schools, and for the purpose of affording them that sort of education which is now provided for all by compulsory laws. The Select Committee on the Endowed Schools Act, appointed in 1 886, recommend that when a new scheme is made for an endowed elementary school, it should aim to provide the children of the working classes with a practical instruction suit- able to their wants in the particular cir- cumstances of each locality. The purpose of such a revision, in the opinion of the committee, should not be the relief of the school rate, but the endowment should be used as a means of providing some educa- tional benefits which the poor would not enjoy if the endowment did not exist ; as, for instance, in rural districts, industrial agricultural instruction suitable to the la- bouring population. Charlemagne. See MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF). Charterhouse. See PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Cheerfulness. This term describes a more or less permanent condition or atti- tude of mind, which is at once calmly pleasurable and promotive of activity ,. mental and bodily. It contrasts, on the- one hand, with all unhappy states of mind,, as fretfulness, despondency, and what is known as low spirits ; and, on the other hand, with all states of pleasurable excite- ment, as boisterous mirth. It may be regarded as the product of three factors : 1. Of these the first is the influence of the whole bodily condition, corresponding to- what physiologists and psychologists are in the habit of describing as the vital j sense, or the feeling of well-being, and its I opposite. The profound influence of vary- ! ing bodily conditions, particularly those of the vital organs, in raising or depressing the mental tone, is strikingly illustrated in mental disease, and is clearly observa- j ble in children, whose whole mental life is so intimately connected with bodily states. CHEMISTRY What we mean by a happy natural dis- position or cheerful temperament probably has for its chief ingredient a well -organised and healthy physique. 2. The second main influence is that of the surroundings, physical and moral. A happy, cheerful condition of mind in early life presupposes a sufficiency of interesting objects and channels of activity. A bright, pretty environment, whether out of doors or in doors, exercises a marked influence on the child's spirits. Agreeable openings for activity, and the presence of bright com- panions and playmates, are a further con- dition of this desirable mental state. The working of unconscious imitation is strik- ingly exemplified in the infectious cha- racter of cheerfulness. 3. In its highest form as a permanent habit cheerfulness represents the result of a series of volun- tary efforts. By trying to rise above any- thing in our circumstances which is painful and depressing, and forming a habit of looking by preference on the bright side of things, we are all of us able to some extent to make good a deficiency in na- tural disposition. The educator is con- cerned with the promotion of cheerfulness in the young, in the interests both of intel- lectual and moral training. Since a gentle flow of pleasurable feeling is most favour- able to mental activity (see PLEASURE), the school-teacher should make it one of his main objects, by the choice of attractive surroundings, an agreeable manner, itc., to maintain a cheerful tone among his pupils ; and it is not one of the least merits of the Kindergarten (q.v.} that it so amply fulfils these conditions. Further, the moral educator should early begin to exercise the child in such a control of the feelings and the thoughts as will best conduce to a habit of cheerfulness, cf. article SYM- PATHY. (See Fitch, Lectures on Teaching, p. 16, and articles * Frohsinn,' 'Aufmun- terung,' in K. A. Schmidt's Encydopadie.} Chemistry. The science of Chemistry seems to have been first pursued in Egypt, whence it takes its name. According to Plutarch Egypt was anciently named Chemia, on account of the blackness of its soil. ' The same word,' say Roscoe and Schorlemmer, ' was used to designate the black of the eye, as the symbol of the dark and mysterious. It is therefore pretty certain that ' chemistry ' originally meant Egyptian or secret knowledge, as it was afterwards termed the secret or * black art ' (Treatise on Chemistry, vol. i. p. 4). Like other sciences, chemistry took its rise in fanciful and superstitious ideas : as astronomy had its rise in astrology, so chemistry grew out of alchemy ; and the ancestors of the Daltons, Boyles, and Joules of modern chemistry were the searchers for the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone in ancient times and in the Middle Ages. Of all the sciences that of chemistry demanded most of cour- age from its votaries, and the experiences of inquiring chemists who, greatly daring, put together and treated unknown sub- stances and awaited the results, form as I exciting reading as the adventures of | travellers in unknown lands. Thrice was Roger Bacon stretched on the floor of his i cell for dead by unexpected explosions ; many lost eyes and hands, and life itself, in the perilous experiments out of which [ has grown our modern knowledge of the i constitution of material things. Chemistry is often described as a branch of molecular physics, i.e. of the science which deals with the relations that exist, not between bodies, but between the molecules, or particles, of which bodies are composed. It has for its domain the in- I vestigation of the ultimate constituents I of all substances, living and non-living, of the laws of the combination and disas- sociation of these constituents. There is no science with wider bearings on human life ; since the time of Paracelsus (1493- 1541) it has been the foundation of medi- cine ', on it scientific agriculture is based ; manufacturing industries owe to it their great expansion \ sanitary science is one of ! its latest births ; by the synthesis of food- stuffs it is beginning to open up hitherto undreamed-of possibilities in the way of scientific alimentation. As an instrument in the education of the young it has been but too much neglected, for it cultivates keenness of observation, accuracy of re- I cordal, strength of memory, and patience | of investigation ; in its theories it culti- ; vates the reasoning faculties, while in its practice it trains the eye and the hand. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) may per- i haps be regarded as the father of modern chemistry. He first laid down the dis- tinction between elements and compounds, and discovered the relation existing be- tween the pressure on a gas and its volume ; the statement of the fact that the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure CHEMISTRY upon it, other circumstances remaining the same, is known as ' Boyle's law ' (some- times as Boyle and Mariotte's law). J oseph Priestley ( 1 7 33- 1 804), on August 1 , 1774, discovered oxygen by heating mer- curic oxide, a discovery said also to have been made independently in France by Lavoisier, and in Sweden by Scheele. Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), utilising the observation of Priestley that some water had been produced when electric sparks were passed through a mixture of hydrogen and air, succeeded in 1781 in the synthesis of water, thus determining its composition. To these discoveries Rutherford added that of nitrogen, and Scheele that of chlorine the latter also preparing a number of organic substances. Lavoisier (1743-1794), taking up the dis- coveries of his contemporaries and adding thereto his own, laid down the true theory of combustion, swept away the old notions of phlogiston (a kind of combustion-soul resident in all combustible bodies), and by a series of admirable monographs placed chemistry on a sound basis of fact, and established the indestructibility of matter. John Dalton (1766-1844) in 1803 issued, for the first time, a table of the * relative Aveights of the ultimate particles of gase- ous and other bodies,' and in 1807 his * atomic theory ' was made known to the world. This theory posits the ' atom,' or indivisible particle, as the fundamental unit of the chemical element ; each atom has its own weight in relation to other -atoms. Hydrogen being the lightest known element, the weight of an atom of hydrogen is taken as one, and the weight of every other atom is a multiple of that of hydrogen. Thus, oxygen being sixteen times as heavy as hydrogen, the itomic weight, or the ' weight number,' of oxygen is 16. As an atom is the smallest particle of an element that can enter into combination, this relative weight of oxy- gen is the least weight with which it can enter into combination. Atoms are fur- ther classified according to the number of other atoms with which they combine. The combining power of hydrogen is as one, and elements that combine with hy- drogen atom for atom are called monads. Elements one atom of which combines with two of hydrogen are dyads, those that combine with three of hydrogen triads, and so on. A line is sometimes used to denote this combining atomicity, and the term ' chemical bond ' is used to describe it ; then we obtain graphic formulae of compounds. Thus : H- Cl H H Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Hydrogen. Monads. Dyad. Hydrochloric acid. Water. H H H N H H C H Nitrogen. Triad. H C = Carbon. Tetrad. Ammonia. Methane. The letters used are the first letters of the names of the elements, and are called their symbols. When all the bonds of the elements in a compound are satisfied, i.e. joined to others, the compound is stable ; when any bond is unsatisfied, the com- pound is unstable. When to the atomic theory of Dalton was added, in 1808 by Gay Lussac, and in 1811 by Avogadro, the law of combination of gaseous bodies by volume, the foundations of chemistry may be said to have been completed. Chemistry was for a long time divided into two great branches, inorganic and organic. The first comprised all sub- stances which were not produced by liv- ing things ; the second all products of animal and vegetable activity. The first could be artificially produced, the second could only be produced by vital action. This distinction was broken down in 1828 by Wohler, who produced urea artificially. Alcohol was soon after made in the la- boratory, and since then hundreds of or- ganic substances have been manufactured by the chemist. In 1837 Wohler described organic chemistry as an 'endless and path- less thicket, in which a man may well dread to wander.' The thicket is now pierced by paths easy to travel. But it is no longer ' organic ' chemistry, for the old gulf is bridged. It is now ' t>ie chemistry of the carbon compounds,' for the pre- sence or absence of carbon, with its strange powers of self-association, is now the di- viding mark of the two great branches of chemistry. The chemistry of carbon compounds has again two main divisions that of the paraffin, olefine, and allied groups, and that of the aromatic hydrocarbons. In the first series the carbon atoms are linked in chains ; in the second they form a closed ring, called, from the name of its proposer, Kekule's ring. Thus we have as types of the one : CHEMISTRY CHILDHOOD (CHARACTERISTICS OF) 57 L C=H 2 C H II III C=H 2 C H C=H 3 Propane, Ethene. Acetylene. As type of the other : H J V H Benzene. In inorganic chemistry the progress has been great, though less striking. In 1837 fifty-three elements were known ; in 1887 the number had risen to seventy, and it is alleged that some twenty more have been discovered in rare Scandinavian metals by Kriiss and Nilson.' As yet, how- ever, ' inorganic ' chemistry has failed to yield generalisations similar to those of ' organic,' and it remains a mass of some- what disjointed facts. The question of the possibility of decomposing the bodies, now regarded as elementary, is engaging the attention of chemists. Crookes has suggested that all chemical atoms are but multiples of a primeval substance, ' pro- tyle,' but his theory still lacks experi- mental verification. In teaching chemistry it is important that the teacher should bear in mind Wil- liam Harvey's remark, that those who fail to obtain by means of their senses and obser- vation an exact knowledge of the objects with which they are concerned fill them- selves simply with ' inane fancies and empty imaginations/ As Professor Hux- ley says, commenting on this remark of Harvey's, ' You may tell a student that water is composed of oxygen and hydro- gen ; you may give him the formula written in pretty letters, and show him complicated signs with bonds between them, and all the rest of it ; and by so doing, if I mistake not, you will fill his mind with the inane formulas and empty imaginations of which Harvey speaks ; or you may take the com- plete substance a glass of water and without going one iota beyond common language and matter of observation you may get out of it the elementary bodies of which it is composed, show him the pro- cess, and thereby fix in his mind for ever a complete, real, physical conception, on which he can build/ (See Treatise on Che- mistry, by Professors Roscoe and Schor- lemmer, 3 vols. ; Chemistry of the Carbon Compounds, by Professor Schorlemmer ; atts's edition of Fownes* Organic and Chemistry, 2 vols. ; Organic byH. F.'Morley.) Childhood (Characteristics of ). Child- nature forms the special material on which the teacKj^r'nas to work, and, as such, the study of its characteristics is a matter of primeJ3JCHfK:ern. In attempting to define thesewe must be careful to select only common and essential traits of childhood. Children differ much less from one another than adults ; nevertheless, individual dif- j ferences begin to present themselves from the first. (See INDIVIDUALITY.) The child is to be regarded as a distinctly human being, in whom the higher attributes, in- I tellectual and moral, that mark off man I from the lower animals are nascent, and ' the educator has first of all to view the child in this light. At the same time he has to regard the child at its great distance : from adult man and as a link of connection I between the species and the animal world I and nature as a whole. In order to illus- trate this we must distinguish between the several modes of activity or functions of the human organism. These may be conveniently divided into (a) the vegetative functions, by which the physical frame- work is being built up and enlarged by exchange of materials with the environ- ment ; (b) animal functions, sensibility and motility, by which impressions are re- j ceived from without, and movements exe- i cuted in adjustment to these impressions ; and (c) the specially human functions, i which make up what we call consciousness or mental life in its higher developments of intelligence or thought, emotion and will. The child is broadly marked off from the adult by the preponderance of ! the lower functions over the higher. To this extent it may be said to belong more I to nature and the animal world than to humanity. At first its life is largely phy- sical. The varying states of satisfaction and dissatisfaction connected with fluctu- ations in the bodily life make up its plea- sure and its pain. The first activities of the organs of sense and movement are 58 CHILDHOOD (CHARACTERISTICS OF) CIVIL SERVICE directed towards the satisfaction of phy- sical wants. The first actions are prompted by instincts which it shares with the lower animals. At the same time the child is distinguished from the mere animal from the beginning. This is seen partly in the fact that instinct plays a very limited part. While the newly-hatched chicken can not only run about, but execute nice muscular adjustments in the act of pecking, the child has to learn the use of its eyes, its hands, and its feet by a slow and difficult process of trial, The very helplessness of infancy itself, contrasting in its degree and in its duration with the corresponding state of the lower animals, is a distinctively human feature. For, according to the evolutionist, the prolonged dependence of the human offspring on others' protection and aid is closely connected with the growth and deepening of the social feelings in the past history of the race. From the very first, too, the child displays the germ of a freer spiritual activity. Thus, the infant shews itself what the animal never shews itself, a perfectly dishiteres ted observer. It looks at and admires things which have nothing to do with its physical needs, and shows the first crude germs of a scientific curio- sity in examining the objects that are put into its hands. The whole field of chil- dren's play again is a striking illustration, both in its pure disinterestedness and its mimicry of adult action, of their supe- riority to the animal. A proper under- standing of the relation of the human to the sub-human in the child is essential to its proper management and education. Thus the parent has to watch the effect of bodily states on the temper of the infant. The teaching of Pestalozzi and Froebel as to the true method of infant- training is based on the recognition of the truth that the use of the organs of sense and of move- ment is the starting point in the develop- ment of mind. Turning to the more strictly mental characteristics of the child, we see that it contrasts with the adult in respect of each of the three phases, intel- ligence, feeling, and will. With respect to the first, sense knowledge, i.e. the observa- tion of outer objects, makes up the chief part of the intellectual life, the higher activities of imagination and reason ap- pearing only in very crude form and in close connection with sense- perception. The preoccupation of the child's mind with outer things is a serioua obstacle to t the growth of that reflection upon self which is necessary to moral development. At the same time the child's advancing knowledge is secured by an insatiable cu- riosity, which shews itself on the one hand in the direct examination of objects of sense, and on the other hand in ceaseless questionings of others. The teachableness of the child arises from this abundant in- quisitiveness, aided by a belief in others' superior knowledge, which is only the ex- pression in the intellectual sphere of its dependence on others. (See CURIOSITY.) The feelings of the child again are charac- terised by the preponderance of the sense- element, and the absence of those processes of imagination and thought which are in- volved in all the higher emotions, as the finer sort of sympathy, the love of truth, and the sense of justice. The violence of children's feelings is closely connected with the excessive force of sense-impressions, the absence of reflection, and the want of will-power in checking and controlling the outburst. With this turbulence we have a striking degree of volatility and capri- ciousness, which contrasts with the lasting affections and dispositions of later life. The dependence of childhood expresses itself in the region of the feelings, not only in the instinctive love of society, but in the natural desire for others' good opinion. (See EMOTIONS.) Lastly, we see that the child's power of voluntary action is nar- rowly circumscribed by its inability to represent the more remote consequences of its actions and to check or inhibit the solicitations of the immediate present. The dependence of childhood shows itself here as the instinct of obedience, by which the will, under favourable conditions, easily and without much painful friction subor- dinates itself to a superior will. (See WILL.) (For a detailed account of the character- istics of children, see the works on child- psychology by B. Perez, First Three Years of Childhood, &c., Prof. Preyer's Die Seele des Kindes, also Child and Child-Nature^ by the Baroness Marenholtz -Billow ; cf. article 'Enfance' in Buisson's Dictionnaire de Pedagofjfie.) Chrestomathic System. See BENTHAM, JEREMY. Church School Company. See EDU- CATION OF GIRLS. City and Guilds of London Institute. See TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Civil Service. See EXAMINATIONS. CLASSICAL STUDIES Classical Studies. Since the revival of learning the place of honour in the edu- cational systems of Europe has been occu- pied by the study of the classics. The word 'classics' (script-ores classici) means properly ' of or belonging to the^rs^ class,' or 'worthy of being classed'; cf. the Ox- ford distinction between * pass ' men and ' class' men. But the word has been nar- rowed down to denote the writers of Greece and Rome. During the period of scho- lasticism (until the end of the fifteenth century) interest in Greek and Latin lite- rature had been decaying; the impulse given by Charlemagne in founding schools for the study of Latin and also of Greek died out, and Latin was cultivated for prac- tical purposes only, and as a matter of necessity ; for Latin was the only universal medium of communication, and was the language of the Church and the law. The Renaissance that great reaction against medievalism resulted in the first place in a revived study of Greek and Latin ; the classics were studied in the spirit of Schiller's poem, Die G otter Griechenlands, as embodying the wisdom and beauty of R lost order of things, as a voice from a higher world. For the ' practical ' study of Latin was substituted the study of Greek and Latin literature. At the present day the classics may be said to be engaged in the struggle for existence. Both in Eng- land and abroad there is a strong party claiming as a right the abolition of the classics, or at any rate their relegation to a subordinate position. How this move- ment originated is a question which we need not discuss here. For the present we are concerned with (1) the arguments which may be advanced in defence of it ; and (2) the counter-arguments in defence of the classics. The main contention of the supporters of a 'modern' education is that so many other subjects of modern growth demand recognition in a scheme of education that time cannot be spared for the long disci- pline of Greek and Latin. The time de- voted to classics would be sufficient to embrace a complete cycle of the physical sciences. Modern languages are a disci- pline in language, and might, from that point of view, make good in part, if not entirely, the loss of the classics, while their practical utility cannot be left out of sight by a commercial nation like ourselves. The study of English literature would, it is maintained by Professor Huxley, be a far better school of literary taste and culture than that of the writers of Greece and Rome; 'the ascent of Parnassus is too steep to permit of our enjoying the view,' and few reach the top. What there is of good in the classics could be better studied, from the aesthetic point of view, in trans- lations. ' I should just as soon think of swimming across the Hudson in a coat of mail when I can take a penny steamer/ cries Emerson, ' as of studying the classics in the original when I can read them in the admirable translations of Mr. Bohn.' * The classics,' says Professor Huxley, ' are as little suited to be the staple of a liberal education as palaeontology.' The great aim of education, he holds, is to impart a know- ledge of the universe as governed by law. Nature he compares to a beneficent angel playing a game of chess with man, in which defeat means death. Science is a know- ledge of the laws of the game. Thus the demand is for what has been called an 'autochthonous' education an educa- tion rooted in modern life and modern needs. That such an education is a pos- sibility is proved by the example of Greece herself. From the point of view of train- ; ing, Mr. H. Spencer and Mr. Ruskin main- tain that ' the science which it is the highest i power to possess, it is also the best exer- | cise to acquire'; in fact, that there is a sort of pre-established harmony between utility and educative value. On the other hand, the classics are not without powerful champions. John Stuart Mill, not himself a blind worshipper of I * authority/ held most strongly that no- thing could replace Latin and Greek as educational instruments. He defended them mainly on the score of formal train- ing. * The distinctions between the va- rious parts of speech are distinctions in thought, not merely in words. The struc- ! ture of every sentence is a lesson in logic. I . . . The languages which teach the laws of universal grammar best are those which have the most definite rules, and which provide distinct forms for the greatest ; number of distinctions in thought. In i these qualities the classical languages have I an incomparable superiority over every modern language;' it might be added over Hebrew and Sanskrit. Again, in per- fection of literary form the ancients are pre-eminent ; the ' idea ' has thoroughly penetrated the form and created it. Every 60 CLASSICAL STUDIES word is in its right place every sentence a work of art. Modern literature lacks the simplicity and directness of the ancient classics. What they would have expressed in a single sentence, a modern writer will throw into three or four different forms, presenting it under different lights. In fact, Mill claims for classical literature what Hegel claimed for classical art, that the form and the matter are adequate one to the other. But even though the stage of literary enjoyment be not reached, there are many who hold that the training in- volved in a mastery of the elements of Latin (q.v.) is invaluable. Modern lan- guages are too like our own to give the degree of emancipation from the thraldom of words which comes from comparing classic with English modes of expression. To translate ' I should have spoken ' into dixissem is more of a lesson in thought than to translate it into Icli wiirde ge- sprochen haben. or J'aurais dit, because the form is more different. Still greater stress is laid upon the educational value of the higher kinds of composition. The recasting of the thought, the exercise of the vis divinior involved in clothing an idea in Greek or Latin, has been called the ' microcosm of a liberal education ' (A. Sidgwick). Perhaps the strongest testi- mony of modern times to the value of a classical education is the Berlin Memorial of 1880, addressed to the Prussian Min- ister of Education, on the question of ad- mission of Realschuler (q.v.) to the uni- versities. This memorial represents the unanimous views of the members of the faculty of philosophy (i.e. arts and sci- ences), and was signed by Hoffmann, Helmholtz, Peters, Zupitza, etc., as well as by the classical professors. The memo- rial insists upon the value of classical philology in cultivating ' the ideality of the scientific sense, the interest in science not dependent on nor limited by practical aims, but as ministering to the liberal education of the mind and the many- sided exercise of the thinking faculty. To hold the scales between Adews so strongly held and so ably maintained is a difficult task, but must be attempted here. In the first place, it may be well to dispose of certain fallacies which rest upon popular prejudice rather than upon any basis of reason or experience. 1. That the classics train only the memory, not thought or observation. It may fairly bs replied that though memory is involved, it is not ne cessarily involved more than in any other discipline. The learning of grammar by rote is falling out of favour ; the dictionary meanings of words are learnt not by a conscious exercise of the portative memory, but in the same way as the names of flowers or animals in studying natural history. The syntactical structure of I Latin and Greek is more * logical ' in its | character than anything in the discipline of physical sciences. Observation not, of course, sense -observation is constantly exercised in translation and composition. Nor is it practically found that classical scholars are less capable, as thinkers, than | physicists. 2. That classics foster a blind i adherence to authority. But no one now- adays holds that the classic writers are all equally worthy of admiration, or claims any special consideration for the opinions which they express. Grammar (q.v.) is not the arbitrary creation of schoolmasters, but the record of law discovered by patient observation, and liable to revision by any competent inquirer. Mill held precisely the opposite opinion as to the effects of classical study. 3. That there is some- thing grotesque and mediaeval in classical studies. It has been shown above that so far from being mediaeval, the classics have established their position in our schools and universities by a revolt against me- dievalism. 4. That the method of teach- ing the classics cannot be further improved. So far is this from being true, that the scientific problem of constituting the rules of grammar is still only in process of solu- tion, and the existence of the didactic problem of determining what and how much should be taught at each stage has only begun to be realised in its full import. On the other hand, the champions of physical science do not always have fair play. It is popularly supposed that ' sci- ence' consists in accumulation of informa- tion, such as that when a candle burns water and carbonic acid are produced, and that the good of physical science may be got by studying its results in books. This is to misunderstand and underrate the dis- cipline of the laboratory. The value of training in the physical sciences is not to be measured by the possession of so many I useful facts about gases, plants, and ani- j mals. If rightly pursued, it involves not j only a power of sense-observation, without , which a man must be considered as so far CLASSICAL Si'ODIES CLASSIFICATION maimed and defective, but also a habit of | mind and attitude towards the universe, which have a very direct bearing upon both the criticism and the conduct of life. The man or woman who has physiological knowledge will be so far in a better posi- tion to make a study of health and to bring up children wisely ; will be less likely to ignore the ' laws of the game/ to believe in the domination of chance, and to make rash experiments in amateur medicine. For to be scientific is to know one's limi- tation, and this is a power. The practical question is, to what extent can we afford to make education as com- | plete as possible ? and, supposing that ! something has to be sacrificed, what is it j best to sacrifice ? That the literary side of education cannot be even relatively complete without classics may be taken as demonstrated. Our study of Greek and Latin is net so much the study of a foreign culture as the study of our own past: so intimately is modern culture connected, through the Renaissance, with Greece and Home. We stand to the classics in a dif- ferent relation from that in which they | stood to anterior civilisations. Greek cul- ture was, generally speaking, aujtoclijtlio- nous; modern culture is not. And the man who has no Latin or Greek finds himself unable to prosecute his literary j studies far, or to be a master even in the j literature of his own country. Still the j question remains, can we afford to pur- | chase this completeness at the price which j it costs a less complete development in ! the direction of modern studies 1 The j answer to it must depend upon the aim j which pupils set before themselves in life upon utility in its broad sense and upon the length of the school course. For those whose tastes are literary or artistic, j classics maybe the most 'useful* of studies; \ for those who have to contemplate an early | entrance into practical pursuits, they may well be a luxury of too high a cost. At the present day the classics retain a firm ' hold of our higher English schools, and : Latin, at any rate, is becoming recognised ! as an important item in the education of girls. The class lists of the universities show no falling off if anything an increase in the number of those who devote them- ; selves to classics. At the same time there i are signs which some interpret as pre- ' saging a change. The recent circular letter ; of the head-masters of Winchester, Harrow, and Marlborough (August 1887) to prin- cipals of preparatory schools, urging that Greek should not be begun till the age o eleven, though intended not to discourage, but to further the study of Greek, is re- garded by some as the first step in the. direction of abandonment of the classical lines. An exclusively classical education has had its day, and the classics will doubt- less have to take their place among other subjects for the future. If it is true, a& marry competent teachers think, that Greek and Latin may be begun at a later age, without any loss of ultimate proficiency,, then those who support this change are, the true friends of classical education.. (See articles LATIN, GREEK, and SCIENCE TEACHING.) Classification, Two distinct ideas are conveyed by this term. The first is the classification (sometimes called grading,, though not in the sense in which that word is used in America) of a school, in relation to other schools, according to its aims and the range of ages between which it receives, scholars. In this sense schools would be- classified as (a) Elementary ; (b) Secondary., Elementary schools would be* further clas- sified into (1) infant; (2) boys and girls; (mixed or separate) ; (3) higher grade ;. (4) technical. Secondary schools into (!) the nine great public schools (peculiar ta England) specially reported upon by the- Royal Commission of which Lord Cla- rendon was the chairman; (2) endowed,, private, and proprietary schools reported upon by the Schools Inquiry Commission ;. 3. Advanced, technical, or trade schools. In its second meaning the term refers to> the classification of scholars (or grading,, in the American sense of the word), and covers such points as (1) the method of division of the scholars into classes ; (2). re-classification for particular subjects; (3) mode and kinds of promotion; (4) method of staffing, whether there is a separate teacher for each subject, or for- each class in all subjects ; (5) bifurcation into classical and modern 'sides, 7 or de- partments, in the same school. Classification of schools. (a) Ele- mentary. The term 'elementary school/ under the Elementary Education Act (England), 1870, means a school, or depart- ment of a school, at which elementary^ education is the principal part of the edu- cation there given, and does not includo any school, or department of a school, at. CLASSIFICATION which the ordinary payments in respect of instruction for each scholar exceed nine- pence a week. A ' public elementary school ' is defined by the same Act as an elemen- tary school which is conducted subject to & conscience clause, and in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school, in order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant. It must also be open at all times to the inspection of any of her Majesty's inspectors. Other elementary schools recognised by the Edu- cation Acts are included with public ele- mentary schools in the term 'certified efficient schools.' Such schools are : any workhouse school certified to be efficient by the Local Government Board, any public or State-aided elementary school in Scot- land, any national school in Ireland, a certified day industrial school, and any elementary school which is not conducted for private profit and is open at all reason- able times to the inspection of her Majesty's inspectors, and requires the like attend- ance from its scholars as is required in a public elementary school. The definition of a public elementary school, taken in con- junction with section 1 3 of the Code, which provides that no attendance is, as a rule, recognised in a day school for any scholar under three years old, or for any scholar who has passed in the three elementary subjects in the seventh standard, virtually fixes the ages of three and thirteen as the average inferior and superior limits of age in such a school. But children are fre- quently admitted while under three years of age, and as seven years is the earliest .age at which a scholar can be examined in the first standard, and many are older than that, it follows that children of four- teen, fifteen, and even sixteen years of age are to be found in public elementary schools who have not passed the seventh standard. On the other hand, the average age at which children leave school is lowered by the fact that the standard, the passing of which qualifies for total exemption from school attendance, is rarely higher than the fifth by the by-laws of the local autho- rity, and is frequently only the fourth. Infants' schools are usually limited to scholars under seven years of age, but young children who have not passed Standard I. are frequently retained in such schools until seven or eight years of age. Higher grade elementary schools. Various schemes have been put in opera- tion by the school boards in ihe more populous centres for 'higher grade' ele- mentary schools. The purport of these schemes has been either (1) to provide a school for children whose parents are able and willing to pay a higher fee than that ordinarily paid in the place, in return for which they are offered a somewhat en- larged curriculum by the introduction of more class or specific subjects. It is found possible to work such an extended course, owing to the greater regularity of the scholars, the greater attention given by the parents to the home-lessons, and the greater age up to which such parents consent to keep their children at school. These schools would contain classes corre- sponding to all the standards of the Code. Or (2) to collect into one central school the scholars in the highest standards (fre- quently very few in number in a single school) from a group of schools under a school board, and, with or without an in- creased fee, to give them the advantages of education under these more favourable conditions in the form of a wider course, or a special technical course (that is, work- shop instruction, drawing, machine con- struction, chemistry, &c.), suited to the probable careers of the scholars on leaving school for work or business. These schools would contain classes corresponding onlj to the higher standards, the fifth or sixth, and upwards. (b) Secondary schools. This term covers all schools which give an educa- tion between the elementary or primary schools on the one hand, and the uni- versities on the other. At the top of the list would come, for England, the nine great public schools of Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury. Then would come the schools, whether endowed, private, or proprietary, which the Schools Inquiry Commissioners divided into three grades, defined by the length of time during which parents are willing to keep their children under in- struction. * It is found,' say the commis- sioners (Report, vol. i. p. 15), ' that, viewed in this way, education, as distinct from direct preparation for employment, can at present be classified as (1) that which is to stop at about fourteen, (2) that which is to stop at about sixteen, and (3) that which is to continue until eighteen or nine- teen ; and for convenience we shall call CLASSIFICATION these the third, second, and the first grade cf education respectively. 3 Parents who desire first-grade education are of two kinds : (a) those of ample means, whose wish is to widen education, and on whose behoof, therefore, 'bifurcation' into mo- dern language and science sides has been adopted at some of the great schools ; and (b) those of good education, but confined means, whose wish is to cheapen education. Parents who desire second-grade education are also of two classes: (a) those whose children are to enter professions requiring early special training ; (b) those of strait- ened means, who are described as, in the main, rejecting or being indifferent to Latin, and desire for their children a thorough knowledge of subjects which can be turned to practical use in business, i.e. English, arithmetic, the elements of mathematics, some science, one or more modern languages. * The education of the first grade, which continues until eighteen or past, and that of the second grade, which stops at about sixteen, seem to meet the demands of all the wealthier part of the community, including not only the gentry and professional classes, but all the larger shopkeepers, rising men of business, and the larger tenant-farmers. The third grade of education, which stops at fourteen, would be sought by the smaller tenant- farmers, the small tradesmen, and superior artisans ' (Report, vol. i. p. 20). The need of this class is summed up as a minimum, ( very good reading, very good writing, very good arithmetic. 3 In the larger and more enterprising centres of population this class of persons is found more fre- quently to desire second-grade than third- grade education, and in fact either to rest contented with the elementary education given in the board schools, or, if they re- quire anything further, to seek it at once in a second-grade school. As an illustra- tion of this, it may be mentioned that the third-grade schools established by the com- missioners at Birmingham on the founda- tion of King Edward VI. were found to be unnecessary, and were abolished after a few years' trial, and have since been re- placed by additional second-grade schools. Secondary schools of the character of ad- vanced technical or trade schools, such as the Ecole Centrale at Lyons, or the Higher Trade Institute at Chemnitz, do not exist fit present in England ; but their esta- blishment has been strongly urged by the Royal Commissioners on Technical In- struction (2nd Report, vol. i. p. 528). Classification of scholars. When the scholars of a school are divided up into classes in such a way that each class is composed of scholars of nearly equal at- tainments, they are said to be classified, or, in the United States, graded. The evi-* dence of equality of attainments may be arrived at by taking one subject of in- struction, or several cognate subjects, or all the subjects of the school course, into consideration. Thus, there may be in a school only one classification, or, on the other hand, as many classifications as there are subjects of instruction. In English elementary schools, which are guided so largely by the ' standards 3 of examination laid down for her Majesty 3 s inspectors, it is usual to find only one classification for all subjects, viz. that by standards, and the scholars in a particular standard con- stitute a class which usually goes by the name of the standard the syllabus of which they are working during the year. In good secondary schools it is usual to have at least two classifications, one for general subjects, including divinity, English, Latin, French (and German), history, and geo- graphy, and another for arithmetic and mathematics. Further re-classifications may take place for science and for draw- ing. The limit to the number of re- classifications is largely determined by the nature of the staft', and by the facilities afforded by the school premises for rapid and quiet movements of the scholars. Pro- motions from class to class take place annually in public elementary schools im- mediately after the annual inspection, and, as no scholar who has passed in two out of the three elementarysubjects can, except under very special circumstances, be pre- sented for examination in the same stan- dard a second time, the whole class (or standard) is promoted bodily to the work of the next class (or standard). But in secondary schools promotions are usually at least half-yearly, and frequently ter- minal (i.e. three times a year). The standard of the work of a given class is maintained by promoting only those in the class or classes below it who have earned their promotion by having reached the average standard of that class. It is usual in good secondary boys' schools to have special masters for each of the subjects. French, German, science, and frequently 64 CLASS ROOMS- JLOSTNO SCHOOLS FOR EPIDEMIC DISEASES also mathematics, while all the other sub- jects are taught by the ' class ' master. In the girls' schools recently established under the Girls 5 Public Day School Company, and other proprietary bodies, the ' depart- mental ' system of staffing, in its fullest development, where every subject is taught by a specialist, has found great favour. This is largely due to the fact that in these girls' schools so many of the subjects of the curriculum are elective, and not com- pulsory. The mode of classification known as * bifurcation ' where at a given stage in his school career, say, on arriving at the fourth form, a boy has the choice of con- tinuing a purely classical course on the classical ' side,' or combining less classics with more modern languages or science or mathematics on the ' modern' or ' science' side finds favour principally in the great public schools, and in some other first- grade schools. This plan is open to the objection ' that it seems often difficult to prevent these modern departments from being a refuge for boys whose inferior ability has prevented their success in clas- sical studies, and a special department flooded with the idle and the dull cannot well be otherwise than a failure' (School Inquiry Commissioners' Report, vol. i. p. 17). But this danger has been obviated in many of the best schools which adopt bifurcation, by treating both ' sides ' as of equal dignity, distributing the rewards of the school impartially between the two, staffing the two ' sides ' with masters of equally high attainments, and strenuously demanding from both master and boys an equally high standard of meritorious work. Class Rooms, See ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS. Clerical Schoolmasters are of two classes. In many of the rural parishes, where the endowment of the school is small, the only way of obtaining a graduate master, where such is necessary by the original deed, is to appoint to the master- ship the incumbent or his curate. There are a few cases in which this course ap- pears, in the present disjointed state of secondary education, to have in some de gree raised the character of the school. Indeed, in some of the northern counties the combination of the offices of parish clergyman and schoolmaster is frequent and useful. The combination, however, has been objected to on the ground that a man with onlv half his heart in his work and only half his time given to it is not so useful to a school as one who, with r>o- minally inferior qualifications, has studied the art of teaching, is in sympathy with his pupils, and devotes his whole energies to his work. ' Some of the worst schools/ said Mr. Fitch in his Report to the School Inquiry Commission, 1867-68, ' which I ever saw in my life were conducted by clergymen.' The Court of Chancery has in various cases ordered that the master should be a clergyman when the founder of the school has not so ordered. Dean Colet, the founder of St. Paul's, ordered by his statutes that neither of the masters of that school, if in orders, nor the chaplain, shall have any benefice with cure or ser- vices which may hinder the business of the school. There is no rule of law which prevents a master of a school from holding an ecclesiastical preferment. If, of course, the holding of the two offices should cause him to neglect the duties of either, the remedy is the same as if he neglected either of his offices for any other cause. The second class of clerical schoolmasters consists of those who have taken holy orders with the view mainly of making teaching a profession. It is at times ad- vantageous for a schoolmaster to be in orders, because some parents are not satis- fied that the morals of their boys are well looked after unless the schoolmaster is a clergyman. His taking to schoolmaster- ing does not, however, militate against his chances of promotion in the Church ; in- deed in many cases it is favourable to such promotion. Many of our bishops and other of our dignified clerics have been school- masters. Closing Schools for Epidemic Diseases is but seldom required, though more often in boarding than day schools. In the former the necessity can usually be ob- viated by early isolation of suspected cases (all doubtful cases of illness should be treated as though it were certain that they were infectious), and by the esta- blishment of a properly organised school infirmary or sanatorium (q.v.). The closing of day schools under the following circum- stances may be advisable : (1) If the at- tendance at school is greatly reduced by a severe epidemic (as of Measles, for in- stance), preventing the continuance of a regular course of study. (2) In thinly populated rural districts, where children i seldom meet except in school, closing the COACH CODE 65 school may effectually check the spread of an epidemic ; but in towns and large villages it is of little use, as the children play together out of school hours. (3) If any local sanitary defects of the school are detected, the school should be closed during their repair. Children are apt to crowd round open drains, to watch the workmen, and in this way sore throat, or even diphtheria or typhoid fever, may be produced. It should be remembered that the local sanitary authority of the district, on the advice of their medical officer, have power to order the closing of any public elementary day school, and the managers of the school forfeit the grant from the Education Department on failing to carry out the wishes of the sanitary authority. This is subject to appeal to the Education Department. (1) If more careful attention were paid to the early symptoms of infectious diseases (q.v.), and all children suffering from suspicious symp- toms were sent home until uncertainty was removed, it would seldom be neces- sary to close schools on account of a pre- valent epidemic. Attention to the fol- lowing additional rules would also tend to obviate the same necessity : (2) No child should be allowed to return to school until a reasonable time has elapsed (see DURATION OF INFECTION) from the beginning of the disease, nor without a medical certificate of freedom from infection. (3) No other child from the infectious house should be allowed to attend school, although appa- rently well. (4) All parents should be obliged (under penalty of a fine) to report all cases of infectious disease to the sani- tary authority. (5) Where the last regu- lation is not in force, teachers or the school visitor should intimate to the inspector of the sanitary authority the absence of all children whose cases are suspicious. Teachers not infrequently send scholars to enquire about absentees, and thus they are brought in contact with infection. Coach. Name given to tutors who devote themselves to the preparation of students in special subjects. The services of a ' coach ' are especially in request, and are proportionately valued, by candidates for the various examinations for univer- sity honours and appointments under Go- vernment. The ' coach,' being a specialist in the subjects for which he prepares can- didates, is enabled to direct his pupil's attention to the technical and particular points which are likely to arise in any special examination. Cocker, Edward (b. 1631). An en- graver and teacher of writing and arith- metic, famous for a school-book with which his name has been familiarly associated in the phrase ' according to Cocker.' Cocker's Arithmetic, 1677, published after the au- thor's death, reached the 37th edition in 1720. He is also the reputed author of f o ur- teen books of exercises on penmanship, of which one is extant in the British Museum. Code. The term 'code,' in its strict sense, is the short title for the * Code of Regulations by the Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council on Education ' (q.v.), laid annually on the table of both Houses of Parliament, pursuant to the 9 7th section of the Elementary Education Act, 1870. When it has been upon the table for one month (during which it may be modified by Parliament), it becomes law a schedule, in fact, of the Elementary Education Acts of 1870, 1873, 1874, 1876, 1879, 1880, which together constitute the Elementary Education law in force for the time being. There are separate Committees of the Privy Council on Education for England and Wales and for Scotland, and separate ' codes.' These Codes contain the condi- tions required to be fulfilled by public elementary schools, and by training col- leges for teachers, in order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant in aid of maintenance. The Codes for the two- countries are (1888) very similar in the character and scope of their regulations, the three main points of difference being (1) that in the Scotch Code the defini- tion of the class of school which may receive Parliamentary grants is more elastic than that in the English Code, in the direction of allowing higher fees to be charged and greater latitude for the teaching of more advanced subjects ; (2) that in the former Code a training college- is defined as a * college for the instruction of candidates for the office of teacher,' and may therefore be either a ' resident ' or ' non-resident ' college ; while in the latter Code it is defined as an ' institution for boarding, lodging, and instructing ' such candidates, thereby excluding non-resident colleges, but the Code for 1889, if sanc- tioned by Parliament, will permit both kinds of training colleges to be recognised in England ; (3) graduates in arts or science of any ' university in the United 66 COPE Kingdom are recognised as teachers under certain conditions as to practical skill. Accordingly it will be sufficient in the present article to speak of the English Code only. The following is a brief analysis of the Code : 1. A public elementary school is a school at which elementary education is the principal part of the education there given, and at which the fees do not exceed 9d. a week per scholar. It must be conducted subject to a conscience clause (q.v.), giving the right of exemp- tion of any scholar from attendance at any religious worship, observance, or in- struction. Religious instruction, if given, must take place at either the beginning or end, or at the beginning and end, of each school meeting. 2. The annual grants are made, to the managers of this school, after a report from one of her Majesty's inspectors of schools upon the condition of the school as to general efficiency, and as to premises, apparatus, staff organisation, discipline, and the amount and quality of the instruction. No grant is made for any instruction in religious subjects. 3. Any persons are eligible as managers of an elementary school. School boards are the managers of all schools provided by them. Managers may not derive any emolument from their schools, and the school must not be con- ducted for private profit. The principal teacher must be certificated (see TRAINING OF TEACHERS). 4. The school must have met not less than 400 times (each attend- ance being for not less than two hours of secular instruction) during the school year. 5. The annual grant is made up of several grants : (a) In infants' schools (ages three to seven), & fixed grant of 9s. (or 7s.) for each unit in the average attendance for the year ; a merit grant of 2s., 4s., or 6s., if the inspector reports the school to be fair; good, or excellent ; a needlework grant of Is., and a singing grant of Is. (or 6c?.). (6) In boys' and girls' schools (ages seven and upwards) a fixed grant of 4s. 6d. : a merit grant of Is., 2s., or 3s. ; an examination grant in * elementary ; subjects, determined by the inspector's reports on the percentage of passes of individual scholars in the stan- dards, at the rate of Id. for each unit of percentage, but the Code for 1889 pro- poses to substitute for these three grants just named a 'general grant ' of 12s., or 15s. 6c?., arid this grant maybe reduced to 12s. or wholly withdrawn on the ground of inefficiency ; but this latter penalty will not be inflicted until after a year's warn- ing. The other grants are a needlework grant of Is. (girls) ; a singing grant of Is. (or 6c?.) ; an examination grant in * class ' subjects of Is. or 2s. for each of two subjects ; an examination grant in (at most) two ' specific ' subjects of 4s. per each scholar passing in each subject (con- fined to Standards V., VI., and VII.). The 'class' subjects are English, including repetition and grammar, geography, ele- mentary science, history, needlework (for girls). The ' specific ' subjects are algebra, Euclid and mensuration, mechanics, Latin, French, animal physiology, botany, prin- ciples of agriculture, chemistry, physics, domestic economy and cookery (girls). All except the last-named grant are calculated upon the ' average attendance ' for the year. The elementary subjects are reading, writing, and arithmetic. These, and needlework for girls, are obligatory (see COURSE OF INSTRUCTION and STANDARDS). 6. Grants are also made to evening schools under specified conditions as to attendance and efficiency, as tested by inspection. No scholar in any evening school may be presented for ex- amination in class or specific subjects alone who has not passed in the fifth standard in the elementary subjects. 7. The Code also contains schedules which lay down the seven standards of examina- tion in elementary subjects, and the course of instruction in class subjects, in needle- work, and in specific subjects ; also the qualifications and certificates required of pupil teachers (q.v.). 8. The teachers recognised by the Department in day schools are : (a) pupil teachers not less than fourteen years of age ; (b) women over eighteen years of age, approved by the inspector when employee! in mixed, girls,' or infants' schools, reckoned as equivalent to a pupil teacher ; (c) assis- tant teachers who have passed the exam- ination for admission to a training college ; (d) provisionally certificated teachers who have passed in the first or second class in the examination for admission to a train- ing college, and who, if specially recom- mended by the inspector on the ground of their practical skill as teachers, are recognised as eligible for head teachers in small schools, up to twenty-six year? 'jf CODE COLET, JOHN 6V age ; (e) certificated teachers. Lay per- sons only are recognised. The power of appointment and dismissal of teachers rests solely with the managers. The num- ber of pupil- teachers must not exceed three for the principal teacher and one for each certificated assistant teacher. 9. Teachers can obtain certificates only by examination and probation by actual ser- vice in school. There are two examina- tions, corresponding to the first and second years of residence in training colleges, and they are open to (a) students who have re- sided for at least one year in training col- leges under inspection ; (b) candidates who, being upwards of twenty years of age, have been employed for not less than two years as provisionally certificated teachers, or (c) have served as assistant teachers for at least twelve months in in- spected schools under certificated teachers. After passing these two examinations, candidates for certificates must, as teachers continuously engaged in the same schools, obtain two favourable re- ports from an inspector, with an interval of at least one year between them. Cer- tificated teachers will not henceforth (1889) be necessarily thereby qualified, as heretofore, to have the superintendence of pupil teachers ; but only if in the exami- nation for the second year they have been placed in the first or second division of the class list, and the right to super- intend pupil-teachers may be suspended or withdrawn if the Education Depart- ment, on the report of the inspector, consider that a teacher has neglected his duty in this respect. (See TRAINING OF TEACHERS.) 10. The certificates have hitherto been of three classes. A successful ex- amination in the subjects for second year's students (in training colleges) entitled to a second-class certificate ; in the subjects for first year's students to a third class certificate. A third-class certificate could be raised to a second-class by re- examina- tion, but a second-class could only be raised to a first-class by (ten years') good service only. Henceforth there is only to be one class of certificate. Teachers now holding certificates of the third-class, and candidates henceforth placed in the third division of the examination in the subjects for the second year, may acquire the right to superintend pupil-teachers by passing an examination in the papers for the second year, and obtaining a place in the first or second division. Teachers can be examined for this purpose only once in two years. A certificate may at any time be recalled or suspended, but not until the Department has informed the teacher of the charges against him, and given him an opportunity of explana- tion. Any person over eighteen years of age (not necessarily a layman) approved by the inspector may be recognised as a teacher in an evening school. 11. The Code also contains clauses for the limita- tion and reduction of the grant under cer- tain circumstances. The total annual grant, exclusive of some special grants, is limited by the Education Act of 1876 to the greater of the two sums named, viz., (a) a sum equal to 17s. 6d. for each unit of average attendance ; (b) the total income of the school from all sources whatever other than the grant, and from some special grants. The annual grant may be reduced upon the inspector's report, for various faults of organisation, discipline, instruction, or registration ; and for de- fective accommodation, apparatus, and in- sufficient teaching staff. Colet, John (1466-1519), Dean of St. Paul's, and founder in 1509 of the school now known as ' St. Paul's School,' was one of the most striking personages of a most interesting period that, namely, when the first stirrings of the movement which led to the Reformation in England began to make themselves felt. He was learned, clear-sighted, and outspoken with touches at times of an almost fiery in- dignation when confronted by any ignorant, self-seeking, or slothful impiety pure- hearted, noble-minded. The most notable thing about his school was its being the first in England in which Greek was taught; while Lilly, its first head-master (or rather * high master '), was the author of, amongst other things, the famous Propria quce maribus and As in prcesenti. An excel- lent short account of Colet' s Life and Work, by Mr. J. H. Lupton, has lately been pub- lished (G. Bell & Sons). As an example of Colet's clear-sightedness in matters of education, it may be mentioned that his statutes specially make provision for future changes and developments. In his Accidence, which he specially prepared for the boys of his school, he says, ' In the beginning men spake not Latin be- cause such rules were made, but contrari- F2 65 COLLEGE COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS wise, because men spake such Latin, upon that followed the rules. That is to say, Latin speech was before the rules, and not the rules before Latin speech.' College (Lat. collegium) originally de- noted a collection or society of persons, invested with certain rights and powers, and performing certain duties, or occupied in the same employment. In a particular sense * college ' signifies an assembly for a political or ecclesiastical purpose, as at Rome the collegium pontificum. In Great Britain and America some societies of physicians are called 'colleges,' as, for ex- ample, the Royal College of Physicians, incorporated by the State. The term im- plies institutions affiliated to a recognised university which are endowed with re- venues, their fellows, tutors, and students living together under a head in a particular building. The academic use of the word college began about the fifteenth century, the first being established at Paris. The word is now generally used to signify almost all educational institutions of re- cognised repute, and has in recent years been largely adopted by the proprietors of private schools From the title of Gray's ode, On a Distant Prospect of Eton College, it is evident that the term was long ago applied to that famous public school. (See UNIVERSITIES and PROVINCIAL COLLEGES.) Combe, Andrew, b. Edinburgh 1797, and took his M.D. at that university. Be- fore reaching his twentieth year he became an advocate of phrenology, and, in con- junction with his elder brother, George, established the Edinburgh Phrenological Journal. He visited Spurzheim, who strongly confirmed him in his phreno- logical views. George Combe was an ardent advocate of popular education and social progress, and Andrew seems to have imbibed from him that profound interest in the physical and mental well-being of his countrymen which so eminently cha- racterised him. However strongly we may question the phrenological views of the brothers, their claim to fame and gra- titude rests chiefly on other grounds. In 1834 Andrew Combe brought out the first edition of his Principles of Physiology, applied to the Preservation of Health and to the Development of Physical and Mental Education. This book still maintains its supremacy as a popular guide to physio- logy as applied to the preservation of health. It is a popular manual, interest- ing to all, without deviating from the sobriety and accuracy which should mark a manual on a scientific subject. Its popularity was at once great, and its sale has been enormous both in this country and in the United States. In the first edition Dr. Combe urged that physiology should form a part of general education. This was received with ridicule or doubt, or even with disgust. Since that time, however, the wisdom of the proposition has been almost universally acknowledged, though its practical adoption is still im- perfect and partial. The science of phy- siology is one of the optional subjects under the Elementary Education Code, and the introduction of hygiene (i.e. the laws of physiology as applied to health) as a new science in the list of the subjects of the Science and Art Department is another notable step. In 1838 Dr. Combe was ap- pointed one of the physicians extraordinary to the Queen in Scotland, and about the same time he published his popular Manual on Disorders of Digestion, which rapidly passed through nine editions. His last work, in 1840, was entitled A Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy, which is full of interesting and practically Important matter. He died ID 1847. Comenius, Johann Amos (b. Nivnitz, J | Moravia, 1591, d. 1671), one of the most illustrious educational reformers, was the son of a miller who was a member of the Moravian Brethren, of which religious body Comenius became a bishop. His parents died while he was a child, and he was left to the care of guardians. At school he learnt 'reading, writing, the catechism, and the smallest beginnings of arithmetic.' He was sixteen before he be- gan the study of Latin. His account of | schools is unfortunately still far too true [ where he says, ' they are the terror of I boys and the slaughterhouses of minds I places where a hatred of literature and books is contracted.' But he gave a life of untiring zeal to develop a system of I education that should at least have some ! resemblance to the meaning of the word. i He took up the work which had been commenced by Ratich (#.#.), and began j by simplifying the Latin grammar. He i was ordained to the pastorate in 1616, j and in 1618 was appointed to one of the ! largest churches of the Moravians at ! Fulnek. Here he had charge of a school COMENIUS, JOHANS AMOS 69 as well, and here too he married. But in 1621 Fulnek was taken by the Spaniards, and Comenius lost everything, including his library and manuscripts. In 1622 he lost his wife and only child, and for some years, owing to the destruction and persecution of the Thirty Years' War, he was a wanderer. It was whilst witness- ing much of the misery and distress of this calamitous period that he devised a plan for the renovation of schools as a means to restore religion. The Baconian philosophy was the educa- tional inspiration of Comenius, whose career is a lucid exposition of the proposition that all progress in science has its correspond- ing effects on education. When an in- novator has modified the laws for the dis- covery of truth, other innovators appear who modify, in their turn, the rules for instruction. A new dialectic almost necessarily brings about an analogue to itself in a new pedagogy. In 1605 the first publication took place of Lord Bacon's celebrated treatise Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, which was des- tined to place educational methods on a scientifi c foundation. This was followed in 1620 by the Novum Organum. For some time the thoughts of men had been turn- ing to the study of nature ; and Bacon, as the personification of this tendency, had the royal happiness of opening up unknown routes to learned investigation. For he gave to the movement the necessary impulse by his masterly survey of the domain of human knowledge, by his fre- quent suggestions, and his formulation of scientific method. It has been said that Bacon was not aware of his relations to the science and art of education, on the ground that he praises the Jesuit schools, not knowing or not regarding the circum- stance that he was, by his philosophy, subverting their very foundations. The sum of Bacon's doctrine was that we know inductively ; and the mechanism of deductive reasoning was to be re- placed by the slow and patient interpre- tation of facts and phenomena. It was necessary to open the eyes to the contem- plation of the universe, and by sense-in- tuition, by observation, by experiment, and by induction, to penetrate its secret and determine its laws. It was neces- sary to ascend step by step, from the knowledge of the simplest things to the discovery of the most general laws, and finally to demand of nature herself to reveal all that the human intelligence, in j its solitary meditations, is powerless to ! discover or to evoke. The reversal of the antecedent scientific method contained within itself a revolution of the science of education, to effect which all that was needed was to apply to the development of the intelligence and to the communica- tion of knowledge the rules proposed by Bacon for the investigation of truth. The laws of scientific induction might become the laws for the education of the soul ; and it was the conversion or the transla- tion of the maxims of the Baconian logic into the capital principles of education | that constituted the great mission of Comenius. Bacon, though not himself a realist in the modern and abused sense of j that term, was the father of realism. It was I this side of his teaching which was greedily \ seized upon, and even exaggerated. Edu- cational zeal now ran in this channel. The new enthusiasts, in their dream that they could make men to order, failed to see that the genius of the Reformation is the genius of freedom, and that man lefunes to be manufactured except on suicidal terms. He must first sacrifice that which is his distinctive title to man- hood his personality. The prophets of educational realism have always failed, as they fail now, to understand man and his education, because they break with the past, which is to them, as it was to the Baconian realists, merely a record of blunders. The modern humanist more wisely accepts the past as the storehouse and the register of the thought and the life of human reason. In the life of man each individual of the race finds his own true life. This is modern humanism the realism of thought. The ideas of Comenius were accepted by the most advanced thinkers of the age, notably by Milton, and by Oxenstiern, the Chancellor of Sweden. His school- books were circulated throughout Europe. He wrote a large number of works in Latin, in German, and in Czech. The three which are most noticeable in this connection, and in which he has set forth the general and characteristic prin- ciples of his method, with statements and illustrations of -their application, are the Didactica ^[agna, the Great Didactics, written in Czech about 1630, and re- written in Latin some ten years after- 70 COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS wards ; the Janua Linguarum Reserata, the Gate of Languages Unlocked, 1631, which was translated into twelve European and several Asiatic languages, notably into the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish ; and the Orbis Sensualium Pictus, the Illustrated World of Sensible Objects, 1658 ; the most popular of all the works of Comenius being, in fact, the Janua Lin- guarum, accompanied with pictures in lieu of real objects, representing to the child the things that he hears spoken of as fast as he learns their names. The Orbis Pictus, the first practical application of sense-realism, had an extraordinary success, and has served as a model for the innumerable illustrated books which for more than two centuries have ministered to the instruction of the schools. Comenius is a repertory of new and judicious ideas ; and several of the methods of instruction which we should be tempted to consider as of purely recent initiation had already been suggested to his imagination. But what is of more consequence with Comenius than a few happy discoveries in practical instruction, is the general inspiration of his work. He gives to education a psychological basis in demanding that the faculties shall be developed in their natural order : first, the senses, then, successively, the memory and the imagination, and finally the judgment and the reason. He is mindful of physical exercises and of technical and practical instruction, with- out forgetting that in the primary schools, which he calls ' studios of humanity,' there must be trained not only strong and skil- ful artisans, but virtuous and religious men, imbued with the principles of order and justice. He does not allow himself to be absorbed in the minute details of school management. He has higher views; he is working for the regeneration of hu- manity. The system sketched by Comenius * will be found, 5 to use the words of Mr. Oscar Browning, ' to foreshadow the edu- cation of the future.' He was repelled and disgusted by the long delays and pedantries of the schools. His ardent mind conceived that if teachers would but follow nature instead of forcing it against its bent, take full advantage of the innate desire for activity and growth, all men might be able to learn all things. Languages should be taught as the mother tongue is taught, by conversations ! on ordinary topics ; pictures, object-les- j sons, should be freely used ; teaching should go hand in hand with a cheerful, elegant, and happy life. Comenius in- ! eluded in his course the teaching of the \ mother tongue, singing, economy, and politics, the history of the world, physical geography, and a knowledge of arts and ! handicrafts. But the principle on which he most insisted, which forms the special point of his teaching, and in which he is I followed by Milton, is that the teaching of words and things must go together hand in hand. When we consider how much time is spent over new languages,, what waste of energy is lavished on mere preparation, how it takes so long to lay a. foundation that there is no time to rear a building upon it, we must conclude- that it is in the acceptance and develop- ment of this principle that the improve- ment of education will in the future con- sist. Any one who attempts to inculcate- this great reform will find that its first principles are contained in the writings, of Comenius. But this is not the whole- of his claim upon our gratitude. He was. one of the first advocates of the teaching. of science in schools. His kindness, gentleness, and sympathy make him the forerunner of Pestalozzi ; his general principles of education would not sound strange in the treatise of Herbert Spen- cer. But it is also to be recorded with all possible emphasis that, in the process of adapting his conception of universal education to the social conditions of his time, Comenius was led to the institution of a gradation of schools that underlies all modern systems of public instruction. Nothing could be more exact or mora clearly defined than the scholastic organi- sation which he elaborated ; and the dis- tribution which it involved, of schools into- the four several and successive grades of (1) the infant, or maternal, school ; (2) the primary or elementary public school,, otherwise called the common or vernacu- lar school, or, again, the people's school ; (3) the secondary or Latin school, the | gymnasium ; and (4) the higher school,. I the equivalent of the college, academy, or- | university. The experience of nearly three centuries has sanctioned and es- tablished the school classification of Comenius, whose intention it was that in. the intermediate schools the instruction. I should be so balanced and so symmetri- COMMERCIAL EDUCATION COMTE, ISIDORE cally administered that any pupil on leav- I ing them might carry away with him such | a general education as befitted his for- tunes or his future destination. ' We pursue,' says Comeiiius, 'a general educa- tion, the teaching to all men of all the subjects of human concern.' And again, * the purpose of the people's school shall be that all children of both sexes, from the tenth to the twelfth or the thirteenth year, may be instructed in that knowledge which i.s useful during the whole of life.' It was the ordinance of Comenius that * there should be a maternal school in each family, an elementary school in each dis- trict, a gymnasium in each city, an academy in each kingdom, or even in each considerable province.' (See also RE- FORMATION.) Commercial Education. See TECH- NICAL EDUCATION. Companionship. Locke says that company is a greater force to work upon the pupil than all that can be done by the educator. The educative value of com- panions is strikingly illustrated in the difficulties that present themselves to the parent in the early home training of a solitary child. The influence of com- panions is seen first in promoting intel- lectual development. A child's mind is stimulated to observe and to think by the movements of others' minds. Play, by its action of mind on mind and its association of a number of individuals in concerted orderly action, illustrates the stimulating effect of companionship on the intelligence and active powers On the moral side the benefits are still more manifest. The individual can only realise his moral nature by means of social re- lations, and these are first experienced by the child in intercourse with other chil- dren. Companionship works powerfully through the impulse of imitation. This is illustrated in the effect of a single com- panion in modifying the taste, inclination, and thoughts of a child ; and it is seen still more plainly in the influence of numbers in assimilating the opinions, sentiments, and rules of action of a boy to those of the set or community olr which he is a member. The influence of companions on this larger scale is a prominent feature of school life, serving to differentiate it from the life of the home, and requiring to be specially taken into ac- count in a comparison of the advantages of home and school training. The ' sympathy of numbers,' as it is called, is a force which the teacher has to reckon with in all class work. The learner is as much, at least, subject to the prevailing feeling of the class as he is to the personal influence of the teacher ; consequently, where the for- mer is hostile to the latter, discipline be- comes impossible. On the other hand, the presence in a class of a cheerful alertness, of a spirit of industry, and of a feeling of respect for authority, is the most valuable auxiliary which the preceptor can secure. The freer and more varied action of com- panionship is seen in the playground, where it may shew itself, as Tom Brown's School Days and other stories of school life well illustrate, as a moral influence of a singu- larly deep and lasting kind. Such being the importance of companionship, the edu- cator should make it one chief part of his business to select, more particularly in the early years before the child's character is formed, pure and right-minded compan- ions. And the thoughtful schoolmaster will seek in every way to enlist the influ- ence of numbers on his side by judiciously acting upon, instructing, and correcting the prevailing beliefs and sentiments of his community. (See article 'Umgang' in Schmidt's Encyclopadie.) Competitive Examinations. See Ex AM I NATION. Composition. See ESSAYS. Comte, Isidore Auguste Marie Fran- cois Xavier (b. 1798, d. 1857), the Positive philosopher, was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and at first embraced the socialist tenets of St. Simon. He subse- quently abandoned these for the philo- sophy now associated with his name. The scheme of education which he therein ex- pounded is as striking as it is original and peculiar. He was dissatisfied with the then prevailing systems. No education, he considered, would be satisfactory unless it inculcated a thorough knowledge of each science. Let us, he cried, have a new class of students, suitably prepared, whose busi- ness it should be to take the respectivp sciences as they are, determine the spirit cf each, ascertain their relations and mutual connection, and reduce their respective principles to the smallest number of general principles in accordance with the funda- mental rules of the Positive method (see his Philosophie Positive). At the same time let other students be prepared for 70 M CONCEPTION CONGREGATION their special pursuit by an education which recognises the whole scope of the Positive science, so as to profit by the labours of the students of generalities, and so as to correct reciprocally, under that guidance, the results obtained by each. Such a reform would strengthen the intellectual functions, regenerate education, advance the sciences by combining them, and re- organise society. Hence, Comte contended, the only logical, as welJ as the only his- torical, way of educating youth effectually was to teach them theuseiences according to the order promulgated in his hierarchy of the sciences mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology On such principles an education would have a powerful gymnastic effect upon the mind. A good education would include knowledge of the general principles at least of each of these ; and as each science trains to a special way of thinking, the perfectly trained mind was that which had been exercised in all these sciences. No student could know a science without a competent knowledge of the anterior sci- ences on which it depended. Physical philosophers could not understand physics without at least a general knowledge of astronomy ; nor chemists chemistry with- out physics and astronomy ; nor, above all, the student of social philosophy socio- logy without a general knowledge of all the anterior sciences. As such conditions were never at the present day fulfilled there could be no rational scientific edu- cation. Hence the imperfection of even the most important scientific education. If the fact was so in regard to scientific edu- cation, it was no less strikingly so in regard to general education. Our intellectual sys- tem could not be renovated until the sci- ences were studied in their proper order. Even the highest understandings were apt to associate their ideas according to the order in which their ideas had been re- ceived, and it was only an intellect here and there, in any age, which in its utmost vigour could, like Bacon, Descartes, and Leibnitz, make a clearance in the field of knowledge so as to reconstruct from the foundation their system of ideas. Conception. This term, as the ety- mology suggests (con and capio, to take together), describes the act by which we gather up in a single mental representa- tion a number of like objects which are thereby constituted into a class, as animal, metal. This is effected by comparing con- crete individuals one with another, and seizing the quality or qualities which they possess in common. The result of the act of conception, which is necessarily em- bodied in a general name, is known as a concept. The essential process in concep- tion is abstraction. This correct meaning of conception (viz. the symbolic repre- sentation of a general class) must be care- fully distinguished from another meaning often attached to the word in educational writings, viz. the mental realisation of some concrete object or incident, e.g. the Temple at Jerusalem, through the medium of verbal description. This last operation is best described as an act of construc- tive imagination. Conceptualism. See SCHOLASTICISM. Conduct See CHARACTER. Congregation (Oxford) has been greatly confused in its meaning by an Act of Parliament in 1 854. Before then the busi- ness of the University was transacted by two distinct assemblies, the Houses of Congregation and of Convocation. The ancient House of Congregation, which con- sists of all the persons who in ancient times were specially charged with the edu- cation and discipline of the University, has now nothing to do with legislation, and its business is confined almost exclu- sively to the granting of degrees. The Act of 1854 created the * Congregation of the University of Oxford. ' It consists of the Chancellor of the University and several other officials, together with 'all those mem- bers of Convocation who reside within one mile and a half of Carfax for twenty weeks during the year ending the 1st of Septem- ber.' The business of this new congrega- tion is chiefly legislative. When the Hebdo- madal Council has framed any new statute, it must first be promulgated, after due notice, here, and then, after three entire days, it is to be proposed here for accept- ance or rejection. A statute approved by Congregation is to be submitted to Con- vocation, after an interval of seven entire days, for final adoption or rejection. At Cambridge the meetings of the Senate in the Senate House are styled Congrega- tions. They are held for the purpose of legislation, examination, or the conferring of degrees. The members of the Senate are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, doctors of the various faculties, masters of arts, law, and surgery, and bachelors of di- CONSCIENCE CLAUSE 73 viiiity, whose names are on the University register. (See UNIVERSITIES.) Conscience Clause. The controversy associated with this term has arisen from the efforts which have been made from time to time by Parliament to reconcile Dissenters from the Established Church to state- aid for the schools of that Church out of the general taxation of the country, and to induce them to accept elementary education for their children in schools which, by the terms of their trust-deeds, were bound to give religious instruction in accordance with the doctrines and tenets of the Church of England. For the six years (1833-1839) after the first Parliamentary grant was made in aid of elementary education the Government in no way interfered with the constitution of the Church schools -aided by grants. But after the appoint- ment of the Committee of Council on Education in 1839, the Committee pub- lished specimens of 'management clauses' for insertion in the trust-deeds of Church schools aided by building grants. These clauses were at first only suggested for adoption ; but, in 1847, their insertion {in one or other of the ' specimen ' forms) was required of all schools which received building grants, whether founded under the auspices of the National Society, or any Church of England trust, or that of any other denomination. These management clauses tried to protect the local conscience in the matter of religious instruction by securing that the committee of management should con- sist in part of representatives of the lay subscribers to the school. But the first appearance of a clause explicitly provid- ing that the consciences of Nonconform- ists should be protected from enforced teaching of the catechism and attendance at church for their children, dates from 1843 four years earlier when Sir James Graham introduced into his Factory Bill of that year provisions for the compulsory education of children in factories by means of factory schools, to be maintained out of the poor-rate. This Bill recognised the liberty of parents to send their children to any Sunday school, and provided that in- struction in the catechism and Church doctrines should be given at a separate hour and in a separate room, and that religious instruction might also be given separately by Dissenting ministers when it was desired. This ill-fated Bill was, however, stren- uously opposed both by Churchmen and Dissenters, and never became law. The controversy thus temporarily lulled broke out afresh in the year 1862. The grievances of Nonconformists living in small parishes only capable of main- taining one school, which was, of course, a Church school, made themselves heard in unmistakeable language before the | Duke of Newcastle's Commission, 1858 I 1861. But the Commissioners themselves I in their report declined to recommend a ! compulsory conscience clause, which they thought would give a dangerous shock to I the existing system. The Committee of Council, however, in framing the minutes of 1862, were anxious that a conscience clause should be introduced into such schools, so as to relieve the children of Nonconformists from the obligation of learning the Church catechism, and of receiving instruction in the doctrines of the Church of England. The Committee, accordingly, proposed to the National Society (with which most of the Church of England schools are in connection) a new management clause, which provided that, in a parish where only one school could or ought to be maintained, the children of parents not in communion with the Church or denomination with which the school was connected, might be admitted to the secular instruction of the school without injury to the consciences i of their parents. The new clause was then to be inserted in every trust-deed j which the Committee of Council had to ! approve for a school about to be built by ! aid of the Parliamentary grant in districts where tJiere was no room for a second school. The exact wording of the clause is important, and stood as follows : The Management Committee of the schools accepting the clause ' shall be bound to make such orders as shall provide for admitting to the benefits of the schools the children of parents not in communion ; with the Church of England, but such ! orders shall be confined to the exemption j of such children, if their parents desire it, from attendance at public worship, and from instruction in the doctrines and formularies of the said Church, and shall not otherwise interfere with the religious teaching of the said scholars, and shall not authorise nny other religious instruc- tion to be given in the school.' 74 CONSCIENCE CLAUSE CONSEQUENCES (DISCIPLINE OF) The National Society, however, replied that they felt unable to accede to the request made to them by the Committee of Council. The dispute was destined to remain unsettled until the appearance of the Education Bill in 1870. This famous Bill defines a 'public elementary school/ which alone would henceforth be entitled to a share of the Parliamentary grant, as one wherein, inter alia, '(1) it shall not be required, as a condition of any child being admitted into or continuing in the school, that he shall attend or abstain from attending any Sunday school or any place of religious worship, or that he shall attend any religious observance, or any instruction in religious subjects, in his school or elsewhere, from which obser- vance or instruction he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he shall, if with- drawn by his parent, attend the school on any day exclusively set apart for re- ligious observance by the religious body to which his parent belongs ; (2) The time or times during which any religious observance is practised, or instruction in religious subjects is given at any meeting of the school, shall be either at the begin- ning or at the end, or at the beginning and the end of such meeting, and shall be inserted in a time-table to be approved by the Education Department, and to be kept permanently and conspicuously af- fixed in each schoolroom ; and any scholar may be withdrawn by his parent from such observance or instruction without forfeiting any of the other benefits of the school.'' This last sub-section of section 7 of the Educa- tion Act of 1870 is colloquially known as ' the time-table conscience clause.' Very little opposition was raised to this section of the Act from the old opponents of a conscience clause ; the strife was much fiercer around another part of the same question, as to what should be the nature of the protection afforded to the conscience in schools to be erected and maintained by School Boards out of funds derived from the rates. Mr. Forster proposed originally that School Boards should be left perfectly free to decide upon the kind of religious instruction which should be given in their schools. Eventually, how- ever, the Government adopted, and Par- liament accepted, a clause familiarly known as the Cowper-Temple clause, after the name of its promoter, which enacted (Act 1870, sec. 14) that every school pro- vided by a School Board, besides being a ' public elementary school ' within the mean- ing of the Act, and as such subject to the conscience clause provisions cited above (sec. 7 of the Act), should be one 'in which no religious catechism or religious formu- lary which is distinctive of any religious, denomination shall be taught.' It is a matter of contemporary conten- tion whether the conscience clause as it now stands offers an adequate protection to the religious liberty of nonconformist parents. It is said that there is an un- willingness on the part of poor parents, especially in rural parishes, to take ad- vantage of the provisions of the Act, for fear that, if they did, they would incur the displeasure of powerful people in their neighbourhood, upon whom they are more or less dependent ; and that the children themselves, with a perfectly natural sensi- tiveness, dislike to be pointed out as- singular or exceptional, and so shrink from claiming the protection accorded to- them by the law. Consequences (Discipline of). This phrase refers to the proposal of Rousseau, revived and developed by Mr. Herbert Spencer, that children's wrong-doing, in- stead of being visited by punishment (in its commonly understood sense), should be- left to be corrected by an experience of its natural consequences. These would in- clude not only the proper physical result of careless, imprudent actions e.g. play- ing with fire, leaving toys or books ia disorder but also the natural social con- sequences, such as the loss of friendship,, trust, &c. The full and consistent carry- ing out of this idea would clearly be im- possible. The child's ignorance of the- effects of its action renders a number of prohibitions necessary for its physical maintenance and well-being. Not only so, it may be reasonably maintained that these so-called natural penalties could never take- the place of punishment proper that is, inff ictions attached by an authority to dis- obedience to its commands as a means of moral development. It may, however, be- readily conceded that in many cases a child is best left to the discipline of consequences,, e.g. by being allowed to indulge within certain limits its greedy propensities. And where the educator has to impose prohibi- tions, the principle of natural consequences may be made use of by selecting such forms of punishment as will be seen by the- CONSTRUCTIVE FACULTY CONSUMPTION AND SCHOOL- WORK 75* culprit to be naturally connected with the wrong-doing. (See Rousseau's Smile, ing consumption. Thus, book ii. ; Herbert Spencer's Education, of the total mortality of chap. iii. ; Bain's Education as a Science, chap. iii. ; Buisson's Dictionnaire de Peda- art. ' Obeissaiice.') duced by similar causes to those induc- & per cent^ this country was ascribable to consumptive diseases. Of the total 69,408 deaths from consump- tive diseases, 12,746 occurred under the- Constructive Faculty. By this term age of twenty years, and it is evident, is meant the mind's power of combining the elements supplied by its experience in new forms. The process of construction is thus not, strictly speaking, one of mental origination, but merely of recasting and rearranging materials derived from the impressions of the past. It implies the retention and the reproduction of these impressions according to the Laws of Association. Beyond this it involves the action of the will in controlling the suc- cession of ideas due to the play of associa- tion, the due selection of what is fitted, and the rejection of what is unfitted to take a place in the desired product. The term refers in common discourse to all forms of practical contrivance and device, whether subserving the end of beauty or of utility. Thus, we speak of the con- structive power of an architect, a me- chanical inventor, and so forth. These practical operations, however, are only particular manifestations of a power which is exercised much more widely. Through- out the acquisition of knowledge by the processes of verbal instruction, as well as in the independent discovery of new facts and truths, the combining of old materials into new forms is illustrated. The child has to construct a new mental picture every time he realises a description of an unknown place, object, or event. The training of the constructive faculty thus therefore, that the question of the influ- ence of school life on the tendency to- consumption is one of great importance. Consumption is a very hereditary disease,, and where the hereditary taint is marked,, school work should be modified and the pupil's health guarded by generous diet and abundant outdoor exercise. A damp soil has been demonstrated to be a power- ful factor in causing consumption. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that when a neighbourhood is freely drained, thus robbing its subsoil of moisture, the mor- tality from consumption steadily decreases. In Salisbury the deaths from phthisis fell 49 per cent., in Ely 47 per cent., in Rugby 43 per cent., and in Banbury 41 per cent., after free drainage. It is evident, there- fore, that schools should be erected on a. dry soil, and all precautiors taken against damp floors and walls. Overcrowding has a very important influence in causing con- sumption. Dogs in ill- ventilated kennels, horses or monkeys under similar condi- tions, not uncommonly die from consump- tion, and the same rules apply to children. The influence of lack of fresh air as a cause of consumption is indicated by the fact that of 6,000 cases admitted into the Brompton Hospital for consumption two- thirds had indoor occupations, and a ma- jority of these were milliners, sempstresses,, and tailors. Formerly the death-rate from enters into all intellectual education, the consumption in the army was 11*9 per cultivation of the imagination by the Fine 1,000 soldiers ; now, with improved ven- Arts (see IMAGINATION), and, lastly, into all practical exercises, such as those of the tilation and drainage of barracks, it is only 2 '5 per 1,000. Children are especi- voice in learning to speak and to sing, of i ally susceptible to the dangers resultin the hands in kindergarten employments, drawing, writing, &c., gymnastic move- from impure air. And even if consump- tion is not directly produced in this way, ments, and so forth. (See Bain, Mental and \ it is favoured by the general debility and Moral Science, bk. i. chap, iv.) Consortium Magistrorum. TOR. Consumption and School-work. Consumption is one of the most fatal malaise caused by chronic exposure to foul See REG- ; air. It has been recently stated that con- sumption is due to a minute organism (the bacillus tuberculosis), and that con- diseases in this country. In 1884, in Eng- i sumption may be caught by breathing the land and Wales, out of a total of 530,828 | breath of consumptive patients, just as deaths, 49,325 were caused by consump- ! scarlet fever or measles may be caught tion, and 20,083 by other tubercular < under similar circumstances. If this be and scrofulous diseases, which are pro- | the case, then the dangers of school life 7u CONTRADICTORINESS COPYING in which children are congregated closely together in a vitiated air are indefinitely increased. But, without accepting this view in its entirety, the importance of fresh air in connection with school life cannot be exaggerated. The direct influence of school-work in . producing consumption has perhaps been j exaggerated. The collateral deficiency of food, exercise, and fresh air are probably the real causes of consumption rather than the mental work in school life. In 1872 the Massachusetts Board of Health in- quired by circular of a number of phy- sicians and teachers whether in their -experience consumption is ever brought on by over-study. Of 191 replies 146 were in the affirmative. There can be no -doubt that the strain involved in working for an examination sometimes leads to neglect of hygienic laws, and following on the examination a breakdown may occur ; bu: there is no reason to think that study in itself conduces to phthisis. It should be remembered that children with a tuber- cular tendency are often unusually bright in intellect, and require holding back rather than stimulating in their studies. Contradictoriness. By this term is meant a disposition to dispute and contra- dict others' assertions, not in the interests of .truth, but from a mere love of opposi- tion. It corresponds in the intellectual region with self-will and obstinacy in the moral region. It is not a vice proper to childhood, for children are disposed to accept the statements of those who are able to command their respect. The pre- sence of this fault is thus a pretty clear indication of a lack of authority on the part of the teacher, and of a defective mode of instruction. Clever children, who are invited and encouraged to give their opinion on various matters, and to discuss questions with their preceptors, are very apt to develop this unamiable quality. It is no easy matter to exercise the judgment of the child in independent reflection and decision, without at the same time en- couraging a love of dispute. The only true corrective to contradictoriness, love of wrangling, and what Locke calls opi- nionatry, is a genuine love of truth itself, which leaves no place for any form of self- consciousness, and so excludes all desire for self-assertion. (See Locke's Thoughts on Education, sect. 98.) Contrast. Two things are said to con- trast one with another when they show a marked and striking degree of unlikeness. Thus, we speak of a contrast between a loud and a soft note, a warm and a cold colour. Since all knowledge begins by discriminating objects or seeing differences, and since the child notes broad differ- ences before he detects the lesser degrees of unlikeness, early cognition is occupied to a large extent with the relation of con- trast. For this reason the teacher should make the amplest use of the principle of contrast. Thus, in exercising the senses and the observing faculty, contrasting colours, forms, c., should be set in juxta- position ; and in communicating any new idea to the child's mind, as that of pa- triotism, its meaning should be brought out by ccntrasting it with its opposite. Contrast has an important bearing not only upon the operations of the intellect, but on the feelings. The emotional effect of any thing pathetic, sublime, itc., is greatly enhanced by setting it in its proper con- trast. Hence the large part played by contrast in literature and the fine arts generally. Owing to this emotional effect of contrast, impressions are apt to attach themselves to and afterwards to recall contrasting impressions ; and this is par- ticularly the case with ideas that are rela- tive one to another, such as bright, dark, high, low, rich, poor, &c. So frequently does one impression or thought suggest a contrasting idea, that some psychologists both in ancient and modern times recog- nise contrast as one of the fundamental Laws of Association (q.v.). It has, how- ever, been clearly shown that this is not necessary. (See DISCRIMINATION.) Convocation. See UNIVERSITIES. Copying is a school offence too well known to need description. It is most often committed in arithmetic, but it may be committed in dictation, parsing, ana- i lysis of sentences, grammar exercises, or | in fact any work wherein correct answers are identical. The evil effects of copying are twofold. 1. The teacher is misled as to the attainments of his pupils, and thinks the proficiency of the brightest the pro- ficiency of the class. He therefore passes ! on to the next stage of a subject before the children who require most of his at- tention are really fit to follow him, and ! the further he proceeds the more hopeless ! becomes any attempt on their part to keep | up. 2. Thus they fail to acquire know- CORPORAL PUNISHMENT COWPER-TEMPLE CLAUSE ledge, and fail also to acquire a habit of self-reliance. Copying is a mark of low tone and bad discipline. It indicates that the children do not scruple to reap where they have not sown, and that the teacher either cannot see or cannot prevent dis- honest work. The remedy consists, pri- marily, in raising the tone and improving the discipline. Copiers should be made to j understand that they at once commit a I moral offence and retard their own pro- I gress ; but the teacher, while he does all that he can to cultivate his pupils' sense of honour (q.v.), should watch them vigi- i lantly. Then there are certain mechanical means of rendering copying difficult or impossible. Such are : 1. Seating the children so far apart that no one can see his neighbour's work. 2. Letting the class stand in a semicircle, each child with his back to one neighbour and his face to the : other. This arrangement is only possible when exercises are done on slates. 3. Giving different work to alternate pupils. 4. Giving different work to each pupil. This is best done by means of ' test cards.' ! Many such cards, dealing with nearly all subjects of instruction, are now in the market. Their use is especially calculated to teach self-reliance, and they give prac- ! tical form to the dictum of an experienced inspector (Mr. Fearon), who says that { the i only way to stop copying in a school is to make it impossible.' C Corporal Punishment is but seldom i required in well-managed schools. Few ! authorities, however, deny its occasional I advisability. It should, however, always I be executed after due deliberation and a considerable interval of time from the | moral delinquency for which it is deemed j necessary. "^Boxing the ears or blows on j the head of any description are inadvis- ; able, and even dangerous. So likewise are blows on the front of the chest or abdo- men. The best site for corporal punish- ment is the region of the seat, and a flexible cane should be used, not a hard, rigid rod. v It should always be quite clear to the delinquent that the punishment is not vindictive (an interval of an hour or two impresses this), and corporal punish- ment should be reserved for extreme moral s i ns > an d not used for breaches of discipline.j Skilled teachers, especially in higher class schools, are gradually learning to main- tain discipline without any recourse to j corporal punishment. 7 "! Where corporal punishment seems absolutely required, it is a good plan to hold over the infliction: of the chastisement during the continuance of good behaviour, having it understood that if the good behaviour continues for a given length of time, the sentence to cor- poral punishment will lapse. (See DIS- CIPLINE.) Courage has been recognised in ancient and modern times as one of the leading virtues. Aristotle, agreeably to his general ethical conception, regards courage as a mean between two extremes, excess and' deficiency of fear that is, cowardice v. foolhardiness. He also distinguishes true courage, which includes a sense of danger and a resolve to face it, from its spu- rious forms, as the coolness shown by one- whom experience has taught the ground- lessness of fear. To courage, which im plies a readiness to face danger, is closely allied endurance or fortitude in bearing what is painful. The moral value of courage depends very much on the quality of the motive that lies behind it. Thus, a boy who shows contempt for danger merely to earn plaudits of lookers-on illustrates a less admirable form of courage than one who risks peril to save another's life. The fostering of a spirit of bravery and en- durance in children, who are naturally dis- posed to be timid, is an important part of moral training. This begins with the cul- tivation of physical courage, i.e. a readi- ness to face and endure bodily pain. Next to this comes the higher task of develop- ing moral courage, or resolution in meet- ing other forms of suffering, particularly ridicule and contempt. Children should be carefully taught to discriminate genuine from spurious courage, and not to con- found a manly readiness to face danger where occasion requires with a foolish reck- lessness. (See Mrs. Bryant's Educational Ends.) Course of Instruction. See INSTRUC- TION (COURSE OF). Cowper-Temple Clause. The name given to sub-section (2) of section 14 of the Education Act of 1870, from Mr. Cowper-Temple, the member who pro- posed to the House of Commons the wording of the sub-section in the form which was ultimately accepted by Parlia- ment. The words are : * No religious catechism or religious formulary which is. distinctive of any particular denomina- tion shall be taught in a school ' provided. 78 CRAMMING CULTURE Board. (See CONSCIENCE the letters were printed commencing with A, a, b, c, &c., a, e, i, o, u, A, B, C, by a School CLAUSE.) Cramming. This term was introduced into the educational vocabulary about the time of the establishment of the system of open competition for appointments in the public service, when the demand naturally arose for tutors to undertake the prepara- tion of candidates for the various examina- tions which that system instituted. Owing -to a belief which became current that this preparation frequently consisted of rapidly crowding the mind with superficial or merely mnemonical knowledge of facts and principles, rather than training it to a thorough mastery and accurate generali- sation and analysis, tutors came to be 'Called crammers, and their process cram- ming. The term, however, is frequently misapplied to the close application or con- centration to the work of preparation, in which rapidity and thoroughness are com- bined. It should be confined to the over- loading of the memory with knowledge .acquired for an objective or materialistic purpose, and not for its own sake and -purposes of culture and mental develop- 'ment. Cramming would cease to exist under a proper system of examination, for a good examiner can always put questions to test whether the candidate's training has been conducted on the forcing princi- ple, or on that of natural healthy growth. Cramming is not confined to those engaged in preparation for public examinations ; it is common in schools where the practice of committing lessons to memory and stuffing the mind with ill- digested facts is still .followed. Creches. Institutions of French ori- gin, where infants from fifteen days old to three years are taken care of during the daytime while their mothers who are ob- liged to be at work are absent from home. The first creche was opened by Madame Marbeau of Paris (1844). Creches are now in use not only in France, but also in Italy, Belgium, Holland, and England. The children are entrusted to the care of properly trained nurses, who wash, nurse, feed, and amuse them, instructing them also, if they be old enough, on the kinder, garten system. Criss Cross Row, or Christ Cross Row. A designation formerly applied to the first line or row of the alphabet arranged in the old horn books or primers. These books consisted of only a single page, and &c. The first line commencing with a cross was called the Christ Cross Row, or, more shortly, the Cross Row. Cruelty to Animals. By this phrase we understand the appearance not only of | indifference to the feelings of animals, but of a positive pleasure in ill-using them, which is a common characteristic of chil- dren. How far the practices of pulling flies to pieces, tormenting cats, &c., involve a delight in inflicting pain is a matter of dispute. Dr. Bain regards this feeling as the essential element in all cruelty, and as a primary instinct of the human mind. It may be contended, however, that much of children's apparent cruelty is the out- come of a more general love of wanton destruction and of delight in exercising power. Locke thinks that children's seem- ing delight in inflicting pain is none other than a foreign and introduced disposition. Certain it is, that before custom blunts the edge of their feelings children are often keenly sensitive to forms of ill-treatment of animals which have the sanction of convention. Where a child is disposed to be cruel, care must be taken to cultivate kindlier feelings and to exercise the ima- gination in a vivid realisation of the suf- fering produced. Sympathy with the ani- mal world may be developed to some extent by encouraging children to tend and asso- ciate with the familiar pet animals, an idea that entered into Froebel's plan of a kin- dergarten. It must be remembered, how- ever, that a fondness for pet animals, which are as a rule attractive and likeable, is no guarantee for a wide disinterested kind- ness towards the animal creation. This last presupposes that the natural antipa- thies to what is ugly and repulsive in animals be brought under control (compare article SYMPATHY). (See Locke, Thoughts on Education, sect. 116 ; Bain, Education as Science, p. 72; Miss Edgeworth, Prac- tical Education, chap, x.) Culture. The word 'culture' in its most general sense denotes sometimes the process by which human forethought tem- pers and ameliorates the defects of the wild statf, sometimes the result of that process. Thus, the word may be applied to the tillage of the soil or the training of plants. In relation to man, culture denotes rather the result of the process of amelioration ; a school-boy or school- CULTURE 79 girl cannot properly be called ' cultured,' though he or she may be called ' well edu- cated': for culture connotes a certain ripe- ness of judgment and feeling, and a degree of development in each of the three di- rections of the intellect, the emotions, and the will. It manifests itself in a certain aptness of behaviour, a capacity for sym- pathy, a sense when to speak and when to be silent. Culture is concerned with an ideal of humanity, and no attributes that belong to the complete man can be ex- cluded from its scope. But this complete- ness cannot be attained early in life. Kant finely describes the birth of cha- racter as a spiritual revolution which rarely takes place before the age of thirty, and is not often complete before forty. The late Mark Pattison used to say that most men do not learn to live till they are forty. Education the discipline of the school-room, the play -ground, the home may be said to prepare the way for cul- ture ; the attainment of it is the joint work of school and life, though gifted persons may sometimes become cultured without much early discipline, by virtue of a natural endowment or hereditary in- stinct. The influences which most directly con- tribute to culture may be summed up under the words science and art. But by science is not meant merely the science of nature, nor by art merely fine art. Science is organised knowledge, and every body of methodical doctrine that proceeds by way of observation and classification, and issues in the discovery of law, is a science. Science embraces man as well as nature speech, history, political economy, and so on, as well as physics, chemistry, and botany. In England the word science, like the word culture, is often understood in a more limited sense, but without justifi- able grounds ; the misuse of the word may tend to confuse educational issues. In Germany no one would think of exclud- ing from Wissenschaft the science of an- tiquity Alterthumswissenschaft which Wolf and his successors have laboured so energetically to create during the present century. It is indeed quite unscientific to oppose one subject to another as scien- tific or unscientific ; the distinction is not between subjects, but between methods of treating them, and every subject admits of a scientific treatment. Art, on tho other hand, is generally recognised as including literary art the products of literature which aim at satisfying the- sense for beauty and style. Both the attitude of science and the attitude of art are constituents of culture. Until the desire to comprehend is born, the mind remains in a condition of minority. Intellectual manhood is not reached till the masses of knowledge gathered through the years of receptive study the period of apprenticeship take shape under the in- fluence of some central idea or dominant purpose. From that time onward the life of the student becomes scientific a life of discovery, in which conviction (knowledge, e-Tno-n^wy) takes the place of opinion (Sofa), and indiscriminate reading gives way to definite problems awaiting a de- finite answer. The birth of science has a close connection with the birth of cha- racter. But the scientific apprehension of things is not in itself sufficient for cul- ture. The method of science is essentially abstract. Science deals with aspects of 1 things, and consciously limits its view in order to give a more complete account of their several phases. It analyses and classifies, and so introduces order into our conceptions, arranging phenomena in the simplest way. But the mind does not find satisfaction if occupied exclusively in this process. The universe is not to be com- pletely apprehended by the method of dissection. What Schiller says of truth generally is especially true of literature : Dich zu fangen, ziehen sie aus mitXetzen und Stangen, Aber mit Geistestritt schreitest du mitten hindurch. (' To catch thee they take the field with nets and poles : But thou, like a spirit, passest through the midst of them.') A sense of beauty or of humour is one thing, and inquiry into the rationale of the beau- tiful or the humorous is quite another. A man may be an authority on the Homeric question without having known Homer ; he may have swept the field of phenomena to discover a law of chemistry or botany without apprehending Mature as Wordsworth or Turner apprehended her. To the scientific eye the heavens declare the glory of Kepler and Xewton ; but no amount of science will teach what it is to ' live by admiration,' as Words- worth thought we should live ; no amount of psychology will create or enable a man to understand a Hamlet. From this point of view it is possible to attempt some answer to the question 80 CUMULATIVE VOTING CURIOSITY as to the rival claims of general culture and specialism. There is something fas- cinating about the idea of ' all-round cul- ture.' ' Im engen Kreis verengert sich der Sinn ' (' In a narrow sphere the mind be- comes narrowed '), said Goethe. ' Culture means the compensation of bias, 5 said Emerson. Dr. Martineau tells us that when a young man he compelled himself to devote his best energies to subjects for which he had no aptitude, leaving those for which he had a gift to take care of themselves. But to attempt to develop oneself equally in all directions is to re- nounce the chance of being a master in any subject. And specialism has a claim upon the intellectual life too ; there is something in the concentration of one's best energies upon a limited field, whether of science or art, which gives force and originality to the mind. A bias is at least a prominent part of oneself ; nor does it seem that the true self is best developed by ascetically denying a special bent. Ad- dison compares education to the polishing of a block of marble, by which the inherent beauties of its veins are brought to view. It is an opposite doctrine which com- pares education to the grafting of a tree ; but Archbishop Whately, who uses this metaphor, insists on the presence of some affinity between the stock and the graft. The definition of education given by J. Paul Richter, as ' the process of emanci- pating the ideal manhood which is latent in every child,' still better recognises the claims of the natural endowment. And there is nothing inconsistent with this doctrine in maintaining that every man should cultivate the attitude of science and the attitude of art. He may find ex- ercise for both energies in a comparatively limited field even in a single author, Greek, Latin, or modern, or a single de- partment of nature ; he may be scientific and artistic without spreading himself impartially over the whole field of know- ledge. At the same time it is desirable to lay as wide a basis of positive know- ledge as is consistent with concentration and mental repose. And it is a main duty of the science of teaching to deter- mine what are the subjects best suited to prepare the way for culture. Mr. Matthew Arnold, whose definition of culture as * the knowledge of the best that has been thought and said in the world ' is so well known, is strong in his insistence on literature as the best school of * sweetness I and light.' The advocates of piiysical science lay emphasis on the importance of direct contact with nature the forma- tive power of the laboratory. Whatever be the subject-matter of study, it should be the aim of the teacher to encourage in- dependent effort. Culture does not result from the attempt merely to appropriate other men's thoughts as recorded in books, but rather from a gradual widening ex- perience of things an experience in which the personal activity of the student is a prime factor. Cumulative Voting. See LAW (EDU- CATIONAL). Curiosity is a name for the love of knowledge, showing itself in an active form as a desire to gain the same. It implies more or less distinctly a conscious- ness of ignorance about a subject, a feeling of discontent, and a belief in ascertainable knowledge. Curiosity is the natural and proper incentive to the act of attention, and the concentration of the thoughts on a subject. Hence it is the first business of the teacher to arouse curiosity with respect to the particular subject and points which he is about to set forth. Curiosity is commonly recognised as a leading cha- racteristic of the childish mind. The new- ness of its surroundings and the conscious- ness of ignorance naturally favour a desire for information. And in truth the child when unchecked is a pertinacious ques- tioner. It has been seriously maintained by Dr. Bain that much of this questioning is not the outcome of genuine curiosity at all, but is a display of egotism, a delight in giving trouble, &c. It is probable, how- ever, that injustice is here done to the childish mind, and that, as Locke and others maintain, the development of the childish intelligence is often retarded by discouraging the spirit of inquiry. At the same time it must be admitted that childish curiosity differs in some material respects from the more mature product which we call scientific curiosity. It is fitful and fugitive, and inadequate to sus- tain a prolonged effort of concentration, and it wants the definiteness of direction which characterises the inquisitiveness of a trained scientific mind. Curiosity must be distinguished from a blank feeling of wonder at what is new and strange, and which, though it may lead on to a desire for knowledge, is apt to become a sum- CURRICULUM DAME SCHOOLS 81 cient satisfaction in itself. Curiosity with respect to any subject is favoured by any form of interest in that subject. (See IN- TEREST.) Lastly, it may be observed that curiosity may be trained in certain definite lines, and so assume the form of a habit. Thus the progressive study of any subject, as natural science or history, serves by successive satisfactions of curiosity to ge- nerate further curiosity, and so it is true in a sense that the more we learn the more curious we become with respect to what is still unknown. (See Locke's Thoughts on Education, sect. 118 and following; Bain's Education as Science, p. 90; Sully's Teacher's Handbook, p. 400; and article 'Wissbegierde/in Schmidt's Encyclopadie.) Curriculum. See INSTRUCTION, COURSE OF. Curvature of Spine, especially that form known as ' lateral curvature,' or * growing out of the shoulder,' is not in- frequent during school life, more especially in girls about fifteen years old or upwards. In a slight degree inequality of the two shoulders is almost universal, owing to the right arm being more used than the left. In a more marked degree it requires special gymnastics to strengthen the weak muscles of the back and shoulders, and in extreme cases some spinal support may be necessary. Desks and seats improperly constructed or arranged are largely responsible in start- ing curvature of the spine. If the desk is too high, the left shoulder is unduly raised in order to support the arm on the desk, and thus a lateral twist of the spine is induced. If the desk is too low, the scholar has to bend too low over his work, and thus he becomes round-shouldered, while nearsighteclness is apt to be produced. (See EYESIGHT.) If the desk is flat, or too far in front of the seat, cramped positions are induced, tending to produce deformity. Seats improperly arranged have a similar tendency. If without a back-rest, or with an improperly adapted back-rest, the pupil leans forward on the desk, and thus his lungs are cramped and his shoulders rounded. Curwen, John. See TONIC SOL-FA. Cuvier, Georges (b. 1769, d. 1832), was the son of a half pay officer in a Swiss regiment in the French service. He re ceived his early education from his mother, who was a most accomplished woman. He studied at Tubingen and Stuttgart. There he began to devote his attention to natural history. At the age of twenty-one he was appointed tutor to the son of Count i d'Hericy in Normandy. The house was by the sea, and Cuvier studied marine ani- ! mals and fossils, and made researches into the anatomy of mollusca in particular. From this may date his comparative ana- tomy and the distinction he achieved in science. In 1800 he was appointed Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Col lege de France, and at the same time he lectured on comparative anatomy in the Jardin des Plantes. After receiving many honours from Napoleon, he was charged in 1809 with the organisation of the new academies. He organised those of Pied- j mont, Genoa, and Tuscany, and brought I to bear upon his work the experience he I had gained in former years when he was I appointed by Napoleon to establish the I public schools supported by the Govern- | ment. In 1811 he was sent to Holland on a similar errand, and he paid great attention to elementary instruction. His principle was that instruction would lead to civilisation, and civilisation to morality. He said, 'Give schools before political rights/ In 181 3 he went to Rome to or- J ganise the universities there, and by his i tolerance he won the highest praise. He ' gave a great impetus to the study of I science, and was rewarded with many j honours by the State. D Dactylology (Greek SaKrvXos, a fin- ger). The art of communicating ideas by signs made by the fingers which by an ingenious arrangement can be made to represent the various letters of the alpha- bet. This method is sometimes called the deaf and dumb alphabet, because used by those thus afflicted. The alphabet is termed single or double with reference to the employment of one or two hands. (See j EDUCATION OF DEAF MUTES.) Dame Schools. So called from the circumstance of their being conducted by women, usually in country places where i superior education w?.s not available, and ] confined to the humbler classes of chil- G DANCING DAY SCHOOLS dren, usually of tender years. Shenstone in his Schoolmistress has looked upon the Dame's School with a poet's eye and im- mortalised it. Dancing is the art of expressing inward feeling by movements of the body and limbs, and has been well denned as the ' poetry of motion.' Like music, its natu- ral accompaniment, it has been cultivated by all nations, in all ages. Amongst the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, as also amongst the early Christians, dancing was associated with religion, and was prac- tised at public worship as well as at public i festivities. The Greeks elevated dancing to a fine art, Aristotle ranked it with poe- try, and it was an essential subject in the ! educational code of the Spartans, all Lace- daemonians having been compelled to ex- ercise their children in dancing after they had attained the age of five. The Spartan youth were also trained in the public place to practise the Pyrrhic dance, a military exercise, illustrative of the onslaught upon an enemy. The love of dancing by fight- ing men of modern times, notably by British sailors, seems to be a survival of the ancient relationship between dance and war. Nel- son declared that all that it was necessary to teach a sailor was to dance and speak French, ' the rest,' he said, ' would come by instinct.' Locke attached great value to dancing, and strongly recommended it as necessary to the completeness of the education of a gentleman. 'Dancing,' he says, ' being that which gives graceful motions all the Life, and above all things Manliness, and a becoming Confidence to young Children, I think it cannot be learned too early, after they are once of an Age and Strength capable of it. But you must be sure to have a good Master, that knows, and can teach, what is graceful and becoming and what gives a Freedom .and Easiness to all the Motions of the Body. One that teaches not this is worse than none at all : Natural Unfashionableness being much better than apish, affected Postures ; and I think it much more pass- able, to put off the Hat and make a Leg like an honest Country Gentleman, than like an ill-fashioned Dancing Master. For as for the jigging Part, and the Figures of Dances, I count that little or nothing, farther than as it tends to perfect graceful Carriage.' Darlington Training College. See BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY. Darwinism. See EVOLUTION. Day Schools. These are schools esta- blished for the education of the young without severing them from the influence of the home. For boys under fourteen years of age and for girls generally it can- not well be doubted that they are better than boarding schools. Nothing can ade- quately take the place of the gentle and ennobling influences of a well-ordered and happy home ; and no one is so well fitted or so likely to exercise that constant sym- pathy and watchfulness, that patient per- sonal care, which are so important in the education of younger children, as a good mother. But in later school life at least in that of boys the balance of advantage is rather in favour of the boarding school. During this period the acquisition of know- ledge rapidly grows in importance, whereas before training was everything ; and it must be always extremely difficult in an ordinary home to make proper provision for an entirely satisfactory child life at this stage, and for the acquisition uf know- ledge being carried on in an orderly manner undisturbed by other influences. While if the children are kept entirely apart, the benefits of the home life are lost. Again, one of the most valuable parts of the training in the later school life is that which calls into play a feeling of oneness with one's fellows, of forming a part of a great whole ; a sense of having responsibilities and hopes and fears in com- mon with others, of working with others for a common good, of suffering with others for a common ill. Experience has shown that it is impossible to give this training effectively when the interests of the school life are divided with, and often overba- lanced by, those of the home. Lastly, the value of school games in teaching boys management, self-restraint, and manliness cannot be overlooked ; and it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to maintain these in continuous and healthy vigour when boys must regulate their movements by the requirements of home, and must perforce spend much of their spare time in going to and returning from school. The development of esprit de corps or a pride in working for and sharing in a cor- porate reputation and the exercise of school games are not at present considered essential parts of the sound education of girls (q.v.) ; while undoubtedly in their case a more intimate knowledge of do- DEAF MUTES DEGREES S3 mestic life is of the highest importance. Hence the above arguments- -except the first cannot be said to apply to them with any great force. Deaf Mutes. See EDUCATION OF DEAF MUTES. Dsgrading 1 . When an undergraduate is permitted to go down for a number of terms before he completes his period of residence, he is said to have degraded. Degrees are either honorary or are conferred after examination. As a general rule, they are confined to the Bachelor, the Master, or the Doctor's degree. These degrees are usually bestowed by univer- sities specially chartered for the purpose; but in some countries high official person- ages the Archbishop of Canterbury, for ; instance, in England have the power to j bestow them. The regular mode of ob- '. taining a degree is by spending a certain amount of time in a university, and by showing proficiency in the branch of know- ledge in which the candidate seeks to graduate. Nearly all universities possess four great faculties, namely, those of theo- i logy, medicine, law, and arts. In some e.g. the University of London the fa- culty of theology is omitted, and those of science and music are introduced. In the greater number of British universities the faculty of science has been adopted as an integral part of the university ; but the faculty of music remains as a survival of an older growth, when there were, as in Oxford, a large number of subsidiary fa- culties entitling those who qualified in them to a certificate of merit. Similar certificates are often conferred by colleges which do not form an integral portion of & university, but which are chartered to carry out some special object. There are, for instance, twenty medical corporations in the United Kingdom entitled to issue licences to practise. To a physician, how- ever, a university degree is practically in- dispensable, but to the surgeon the fellow- ship of his college is nearly as good a qualification as any mark of distinction a university could bestow. Of degrees, pro- perly so called, there are two great divi- sions : those which are conferred as the reward of personal study and examination, and those bestowed for other reasons. As regards the former, they may be divided into two classes, namely, pass and honour degrees. In Oxford and in Cambridge ithe student may either undergo a mere qualifying examination in arts or in medi- cineit is somewhat different as regards theology and law or he may enter "for honours. The actual degree conferred is the same in both cases, but the educational value of the two things is widely different. When the Bachelor's degree has once been obtained, the superior grades follow as a matter of course, subject to the payment of fees, and to the performance of certain exercises which are always moie or less formal. Thus a Cambridge B.A. may, by taking up two or three papers in the law tripos, become first of all a Master, and then a Doctor of Laws, or else he may elect to become a Master of Arts, in which case he will have nothing to do except to pay a certain amount of money and to present himself before the vice-chancellor. If he prefers to take up medicine or surgery, he is exempt from all preliminary exami- nations in general knowledge ; and should he decide upon seeking a degree in theo- logy, he has nothing further to do except to take his Master of Arts degree, and to perform one or two exercises before the theological professors. The Bachelor of Arts degree, which as a rule requires three years for its attain- ment, is the keystone of the entire system. The designation of a Bachelor was intro- duced by Pope Gregory IX. into the Uni- versity of Paris (thirteenth century), and denoted a student who had passed cer- tain preliminary examinations but was not yet qualified for admission to the rank of Master, Doctor, ' Ed ".Cation of the Deaf and Dumb. Gerando was a most enthusiastic and in- dustrious worker, and his works, collected and completed, are published in eight volumes. German Universities. See UNIVER- SITIES. Germany, Educational Law of. See LAW (EDUCATIONAL). GifFtrd Lecturas. See PRELECTIONS. Girard. Xext to Pestalozzi, Jean Gi- rard or, as he is more commonly called, *Le Pere Girard' is undoubtedly the most eminent sc' oolmaster and educational reformer whom modern Switzerland has produced. He was born at Fribourg in 1765. Most of his active and kindly life was spent in that town or at Lucerne, either in teaching in the schools and in reforming popular education, or in work connected with the Franciscan Order to which he belonged. He died at Fribourg in 1850. His best known works are L'Enseiynement regulier de la Langue Jfaternelle, published at Paris in 1844; and his Cours educatifde la Langue Mater- ni-Ue, the last volume of which appeared in 1840. These books have had a great and lasting influence both in Switzerland and in France. The method they so ably set forth is distinctly an inductive and practical one. Instead of beginning with the learning of grammar the generalities and abstractions of which Girard held to be beyond the comprehension of children, and therefore wholly uninteresting to them the first step is to ascertain what lan- guage the children habitually use to ex- press their own ideas, and to rectify and enlarge it as far as is then and there necessary for the children in question. Starting from this, the children are gra- dually familiarised with the way in which words are used in sentences to express ideas both by being helped to examine simple sentences already made, and by being induced to make statements of their own. In the former case they may be given all but a noun or a verb, &c., and required to supply a word which will make sense ; or they may add adjectives, adverbs, tie., to a simple sentence so as to make the meaning more clear or more full, and thus learn the value of each word in a sentence. From this they may gradually proceed to compound and complex sen- tences, and to phrases. In the lalter case, when the children make statements of their own, they are only required to speak and to write of what has actually come within their own experience. They should begin quite simply with such a statement as k a bird sings;' and then go on adding to the statement, as: 'a little bird sings,' 'a little bird sings in the garden,' 'a pretty little bird sings sweetly in the garden every morning;' and so on. Difficulties are to be introduced very gradually. Rules are to be arrived at by the children themselves not complete rules all at once, but rules which gradually grow more complete as experience widens. Even the conjugations of verbs are not to be introduced in com- plete elaborate paradigms ; but bit by bit as they are wanted. The object of the plan is to enable children to read with perfect intelligence, and to speak with perfect intelligence, clearness, and accu- racy. For this purpose, Girard maintains that what we want is not codified, ready- made rules, but copious, well-chosen ex- amples, and constant practice in making other statements like them. In the later stages, the grammar is used as a book of reference in which is to be found a careful, clear statement of the results of experience. For more details we must refer the reader to the books themselves they are well worth study. Girls (Education of). See EDUCATION OF GIRLS. Girls' Public Day Schools. See EDU- CATION OF GIRLS. Girton College. See EDUCATION OF GIRLS. Gleim, Betty (b. at Bremen, 1781, d. 1827), was a distant relative of the poet Gleim, and the daughter of a merchant at Bremen. She was interested in questions of education early in life, and in 1805 she established a school for young girls in her native town, which she conducted with great success for ten years. In 1815, in order to extend her knowledge of educa- tional subjects and methods, she left Bre- men and visited Holland, England, and 136 GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON some districts on the Rhine. Upon her re- turn, she reopened her school, and continued the mistress until her death. She wrote several works one of which, entitled The Education and Instruction of Woman, is regarded as a classic in Germany. The second volume treats of the method of Pestalozzi, which she adopted in her school. She has unfolded his method with remark- able lucidity. She also wrote a second work on education of women, entitled What has renewed Germany the Right to expect from its Women? 1814. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (b. at Frankfort- on-Main, 1749, d. 1832), has so far dominated German thought that any statement of his on education is of the highest interest. His father was a man in comfortable circumstances, though of no great position in society. Yet he had a great love for literature, and great taste in art, so that he exerted a powerful in- fluence on the desires and character of the young poet. Goethe is said in his early years to have had anxious thoughts about religion, and before he was eight to have devised a form of worship to the 'God of Nature.' He entered the university of Leipzig at the age of fifteen. Here his poetical turn first showed itself in a pro- nounced manner ; and though his father designed him for jurisprudence, instead of studying law he tried to find some satis- factory theory of poetry. German litera- ture was simply in its infancy, and he could find nothing to his taste. Here, however, he began one of the habits of his life, viz. to turn everything that pleased or pained him into verse. He also paid some attention to the history of the fine arts, and even took to etching ; but this impaired his health, and in 1768 he left Leipzig. To recover his health he was sent to the residence of a lady named Klettenberg, the 'fair saint' of 'Wilhelm Meister.' She was a mystic, and exerted a lifelong influence on the poet's character. When he left her, and went to Strasburg to finish his legal studies, he neglected them and pursued anatomy and chemistry. Here he met with Herder, who advised him to study the Italian poets. On his return home, he produced Gotz von Ber- lichingen, 1773, and a novel, Werther, 1774. This latter fairly took Germany by storm, and Goethe's fame was made. He was introduced to the Duke of Saxe- Weimar, where he went to live, and when the duke came into possession of govern- ment he bestowed every possible honour upon Goethe. There the poet lived for many years. He had complete control over the theatre, and produced the best works of Schiller on the stage. He was surrounded by the most refined and lite- rary society of his time. He was made a privy councillor, and afterwards travelled in Switzerland and Italy for a long time. Meanwhile, he was constantly producing those great works which, for their power and variety, have placed him at the head of German literature. His drama Hermann und Dorothea, and his novel Wilhelm Meister, show us his views on education, though his principles are only scattered here and there, and not worked out into a cut-and-dried method. To him, educa- tion was an evolution drawing forth from the individual that which was best 'the realisation, as completely as possible, of the general type of the species.' His great motto was 'In the beginning was action ': therefore, he ever urged 'Do, and by doing you will attain to your highest and best.' In the education of infants, as in the government of nations, he thought nothing more futile than repressive mea- sures. ' Man,' he says, ' is naturally active : open a way for action, and he will follow you.' He says much to this effect, and re- iterates that ' negative discipline is power- less.' We recognise in all this at a glance much that stamped itself in Carlyle, who found in Goethe a mine of riches. In Wilhelm Meister we have something like an educational Utopia, especially in book ii. Mr. Carlyle translated Wilhelm early in his career, and a most amusing review of the translation is found in De Quincey (Works, vol. xii.). De Quincey did not find (probably did not look for) the lofty principles of 'the mute system of education/ which Goethe then displayed, and which so delighted Carlyle. The first of these lofty principles upon which Goethe insists is ' Reverence honour done to those who are grander and better than you, without fear; distinct from fear.' This is all well put by Carlyle in his address to the stu- dents at Edinburgh, when he was installed as Lord Rector. Referring to the pas- sages in which Wilhelm's instructors come to the question of religion in education, Carlyle says: 'Goethe practically distin- guishes the kinds of religion that are in the world, and he makes out three reve- GOVERNESSES' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION GRAMMAR 137 rences. . . . The first and simplest is that of reverence for what is above us. It is the soul of all the pagan religions ; there is nothing better in man than that. Then there is reverence for what is around us or about us reverence for our equals, to which he attributes an immense power in the culture of man. The third is reverence for what is beneath us to learn to recog- nise in pain, sorrow, and contradiction, oven in those things, odious as they are to flesh and blood to learn that there lies in these a priceless blessing.' (See Lewes's Life of Goethe (Longmans); also Carlyle's Wilht&m Mcister, &c.) Governesses' Benevolent Institution, incorporated 1848. Office, 32 Sackville Street ; Home and Registration Office, 47 Harley Street; Asylum, Chislehurst. Affords temporary assistance to gover- nesses in distress, a provident fund, annui- ties to aged governesses, a home for gover- nesses between their engagements, and an Asylum for governesses above the age of fty. Invested funds, 16 1,61 21. Government Schools. This is a name popularly given to schools known officially as 'public elementary schools.' An 'elemen- tary school ' is defined by section 3 of the Act of 1870, as 'a school at which elemen- tary education is the principal part of the education there given, and does not include any school or department of a school at which the ordinary payments in respect of the instruction exceed ninepence a week. 5 By section 7 of the same Act a 'public elementary school ' is defined as an elemen- tary school conducted in accordance with the regulations there laid down. These are : (1) The admission of children must not depend upon their attending or ab- staining from attending any Sunday school or place of worship, or any religious observances or instruction in the school or elsewhere. (2) Religious observances or instruction must come at the beginning or at the end of a school session, and any child may be withdrawn therefrom. (3) The school must be open at all times to Her Majesty's Inspectors, who may not inquire into the religious instruction given or examine in religious knowledge. (4) The conditions laid down in the code (q.v.) must be observed. Public elementary schools are either BOARD or VOLUNTARY Grading. See CLASSIFICATION. Graduate (gradus, a step). This term ! is used to signify both the act of taking a university degree and the person who takes it, either by examination or honoris causa. In America the term is also applied to the , act of conferring degrees by universities. j The regulations for graduation differ widely ! in different universities, but it is usual for : candidates to graduate first as bachelors, and subsequently as masters or doctors. In i the Scottish universities, however, the ba- i chelor's degree in the faculty of arts (though | not in the other faculties) was abolished in 1861, and candidates can proceed to the full M.A. degree by passing an examina- tion in classics, mathematics, and philo- sophy, or can take the degree in three parts j by passing an examination in each of these ! departments separately. Matriculated stu- ! dents of universities previous to taking their degree are called undergraduates. (See DEGREES.) Grammar. Grammar is the science of correct speech, i.e. of certain select usages of speech. A grammar of any language is a systematic classification of the correct usages of that language. Thus, grammar stands to speech as logic to thought. It is true that the term * grammar ' is often used in a wider sense, to cover an ex- amination into the relations of different families of languages (comparative gram- mar), or even an inquiry into the origin of language. But these questions belong to the more general science of language. Etymology and word-formation are no part of grammar proper; they are correctly described as philology, in the narrower sense of that term. Prosody and metre are admitted into grammars only by cour- tesy. In a word grammar is only part of the greater science of speech. The laws of correct speech may be summed up under two headings : (1) Accidence, or the doctrine of correct forms (Fornienlehre) \ (2) Syntax, or the doctrine of correct sen- tences. These two departments are no doubt in reality merely two classifications of the same set of phenomena from dif- ferent points of view. A correct sentence cannot be constructed without correct forms ; correctness of form has no mean- ing except in relation to the function which forms exercise in sentences. But for convenience words may be considered both in isolation (accidence) and as con- nected in the sentence (syntax). The value of grammar has often been called into question during the present 138 GRAMMAR century. The great Jacob Grimm, in the preface to his German Grammar, declared the grammatical method to be pedantic in character and injurious in result. He maintained that grammar impeded the free development of the faculty of speech, which, if left to itself, would grow with the growth of the mind, and reach a far higher degree of perfection than when tutored and tortured by the rigid systems of the grammarians. This criticism was directed in the first instance against the abuses of grammar as taught by the em- pirical methods of the time. The only grammar that Grimm recognised was his- torical grammar an inquiry into the course of development through which lan- guage has passed and is still passing. But the censures of Grimm undoubtedly ex- press a large measure of truth as against any grammatical system. Grammar, being the expression of the usages of the literary language, no doubt does act as a retarding force 'freezing the current of natural speech,' to use Professor Max Miiller's metaphor. ' Dialectical regeneration ' has a less free field when brought under the influence of grammar ; even the linguistic development of the individual may some- times suffer from its constraint. But the advantages are not altogether on the side of natural speech. If it is desirable to maintain at any given time a standard of correctness to which individual taste must bow, if it is an advantage to a nation to possess a common medium of communica- tion for the educated, with certain well- defined usages corresponding to certain distinctions of thought, then the raison d'etre of grammar is established. It is the function of grammar to resist the intro- duction of such changes as depend, not upon a general consensus of feeling, but upon individual caprice or a mistaken idea of correctness. At the same time the gram- marian must be ware of attempting to exer- cise summary jurisdiction over speech. His function is to register the usage of the pre- sent, not to legislate for the future. When the current definitely sets in a particular direction, it may be strong enough to over- throw grammatical barriers ; and in such cases the grammarian must adapt his rules to reformed usage. In many cases, how- ever, grammar may exercise a salutary in- fluence in conserving a sense for the re- finements of speech, which are apt to be obliterated by popular usage. The day may come when English will have no sub-^ junctive mood, and we shall say, ' If I was you ' instead of * If I were you.' There is a tendency in some parts of Germany to- use the ' conditionals ' in the if-clauses of conditional sentences (' Wenn er es thuii wiirde,' for ' it is I ' (because what usually follows the verb is the object). The half-educated man who has been taught to say ' It is I,'' proceeds to infer that he ought also to say ' between you and I.' But we may go- much further. Even writers of eminence commit solecisms which they would be far- from attempting to justify if their atten- tion were called to them. Mistakes of substituting indicative for subjunctive and subjunctive for indicative in conditional sentences are to be met with even in leading writers. ' I should have liked to have seen him ' is often heard and read. Numer- ous other examples might be quoted from Professor Shadworth Hodgson's Errors in. the Use of English. To correct such errors- is one of the main functions of grammar^ It is maintained by Mr. Fitch (Lectures- on Teaching, 1881, p. 258) that 'the direct- operation and use of grammar rules in im- GRAMMAR 139 proving our speech and making it correct, can hardly be said to exist at all/ But this view appears to rest upon a mistaken doctrine as to what constitutes grammar. Mr. Fitch considers ' that of pure grammar there is very little in the English language/ grammar being in his view * the logic of language in so far, and in so far only, as it finds expression in the inflexions and forms of words ' (ibid. p. 261). Why ? Surelv there is no sufficient ground for excluding from the scope of grammar any means which a language may employ to express differences of thought. Inflexion is only one of those means ; a more im- portant means in English ; s the use of certain substitutes for inflexion. Are we to exclude the modes of expressing time relations from an English grammar because English has, properly speaking, only two tenses, i.e. inflected forms expressing time relations ? Are we to exclude the equi- valents which supplement the subjunctive mood where distinct forms are no longer extant ] If so, no doubt English syntax will have a very small scope, and its rules will be mostly valueless in correcting errors of speech. ' No warning is needed against such mistakes as "Give /the book;" "Lend the money to he " ' (ibid. p. 259). It was some such view as this which led Dr. Johnson in his English Grammar to treat the whole syntax in ten lines, ' because our language has so little inflection that its construction neither requires nor ad- mits of many rules/ The answer is, that to treat English in this way is to ignore the essential difference which separates it from languages of the classical type, and to some extent from other Teutonic lan- guages. To deny that English has a gram- mar is to deny it law and order, and to reduce it below the level of Chinese. The grammar of English is a very subtle gram- mar, and its usages, if difficult to register, demand all the more investigation and study. There is another use of grammar be- sides its practical use. As a science, gram- mar ' reveals the laws and principles which underlie, and account for, the speech which I am using every day ' (Mr. Fitch, ibid. p. 260). Here its character is theoretic, and it serves not only to disclose the laws which govern an important object of study, but a] so to strengthen the reasoning facul- ties. Ho\v far such conscious study of the .mother tongue is desirable in elementary schools is a question. Some eminent au- thorities hold that one may encourage the young mind too early to processes of ab- straction and reflexion, and that systematic grammar should not be introduced until the pupils have command over a large vocabulary, and have made considerable acquaintance with the concrete phenomena of language. This not only from a psycho- logical point of view, but also in the in- terests of grammar itself: for grammar cannot be profitably pursued in vacuo, especially the grammar of the mother tongue. But at some stage of the pupil's development it is well to make conscious the principles of the speech which he is using. The ear and memory, however well trained by habit, will not always serve as guides, and the mental discipline derived by conscious reflexion on the usages of speech is itself a power which emancipates from the thraldom of words. ' Words, as a Tartar's bow, shoot back upon the under- standing of the wisest, and mightily en- tangle and pervert the judgment' (Bacon). In regard to method, sound educational theory demands that the teaching of Eng- lish be based on analysis rather than syn- thesis. l Long before a child comes to the commencement of grammar he has learned to speak. . . . That which in teaching French is the ultimate goal of your ambi- tion, conversation and freedom in -using words, is the very point of departure in the case of your own vernacular speech . . / (Mr. Fitch, ibid. p. 261). This maxim is true of the mother tongue of every nation ; it is especially true of the teaching of Eng- lish to English children, for the logical character of the language its absence of inflection, its dependence on position for indicating function forces upon the teacher a logical treatment. By breaking up the sentence by effecting that separa- tion of its parts by which it ceases to be an organic whole the pupil is led to a classification of the parts of speech by way of their function in forming sen- tences. The dead members of the living whole may be then studied in isolation (accidence), and in their relation to other parts of the sentence (syntax). The im- portance of the latter study to pupils who are sufficiently developed to enter upon it, can hardly be over-estimated. Syntax in- volves a classification of sentences and sub-sentences (clauses), a nice discrimina- tion of the effects produced by mood and 140 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS mood equivalents in different kinds of sen- tences, an accurate use of tenses. All these things together will not make a great writer, but they will make a careful writer, and to some extent an accurate thinker, find they will encourage an attitude of re- spect for the great inheritance which is the birthright of English-speaking children. 2. The utility of grammar in learning other languages is still less contestable. No methods of teaching, except the purely empirical method of the bonne, really at- tempt to dispense with it. For in learn- ing foreign languages synthesis, i.e. the process of building up from simple ele- ments, must play a large part. The pupil's .mind is at first a blank ; the first step must be of a very simple and easy nature. It is true that very different opinions are held as to the extent to which it is advis- able to imitate the ' natural ' method by which a child learns its own language. And it may fairly be contended that a child whose ear is accustomed to French or German from early years will learn much by simple imitation. But it is found by experience that this process by itself is insufficient ; the impressions left are not strong enough to form a substitute for more methodical knowledge, though they may supplement that knowledge in a very valuable manner. It is impossible to re- produce the conditions under which a child learns its own language ; and some degree of synthesis soon makes itself felt by the practical teacher. Such synthesis must be based on a classification of language on grammar. Of course it does not at all follow that rules must be learnt by heart ; it may be often desirable to proceed per exempla, as Gomenius said, rather than per jjrcecepta ; but the examples will be classified and arranged on grammatical principles. The ' natural ' method pro- ceeds by way of unclassified examples. But on the other hand the teacher should be fully alive to the limitation under which grammar labours. As ' subtilitas naturse subtilitatem artis multis partibus superat ' (Bacon), so grammar is ultimately unable to render account of all the phenomena of speech. There is a point beyond which grammar loses itself in a bewildering maze; and though this point may be never reached by the pupil, the teacher, if he thinks to the purpose about grammar, will find it out, and should not be daunted by the fact. He must remember that without grammar no scientific classification of speech no methodical teaching would be possible. (See PARALLEL GRAMMARS.) Grammar Schools. Grammar schools, as their title implies, were founded for the teaching of grammar for the purpose of providing, not primary or elementary edu- cation for the nation at large, but secondary or higher education for scholars. They were intended, in fact, to prepare boys of more than average ability for the Univer- sities, or at least to give them such a learned education as would qualify them afterwards for useful service to the Church and the State. From the foundation of Winchester in 1373 or even from the date of Wantage, which claims King Alfred as its founder down to the pre- sent century, the staple school subject, sometimes the only one, was Latin ; and the way to learn Latin was to learn its grammar. Of grammar schools whose date is known, there are only eight before the foundation of Eton in 1441. The number of foundations, however, begins to be great even as early as the closing years of Henry VII. 's reign ; and the tide ad- vances steadily till the reign of James II., when it comes almost to a stand. In Henry VIII. 's reign (thirty- eight years) the number of schools founded is forty-nine ; in the six years of Edward VI. the number is forty-four ; in Elizabeth's reign (forty- five years) we have one hundred and fif- teen; and in James I.'s reign (twenty- two years) the number is forty-eight. The statutes of the grammar schools founded by the Crown or by private benefactors were all, or nearly all, on one model, com- bining Latin with religious instruction. Greek came in with the foundation of St. Paul's School by Colet in 1509. But in the statutes drafted by Wolsey for his school at Ipswich soon after there is no mention of Greek ; nor does Bishop Old- ham name the subject for Manchester Grammar School in 1525, though he wishes the young who 'have pregnant wits' to be given the opportunity of learning grammar, 'the ground and fountain of all the other arts and sciences.' In the statutes of Harrow (founded 1571) amongst the au- thors mentioned there is only one Greek poet Hesiod; but the boys are 'to be initiated in the elements of Latin versifi- cation very early.' The statutes of the later schools generally prescribe Greek and 'verses.' Archbishop Grindal, for GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 141 example, requires for St. Bees (1583) 'a ! meet and learned person that can make Greek and Latin verses, and interpret the Greek grammar arid other Greek authors.' The same applies to Hawkeshead school in Lancashire (1588), where 'the chiefest scholars shall make orations, epistles, and verses in Latin and Greek for their exer- cises/' and all the scholars * shall continually use the Latin tongue or the Greek tongue as they shall be able.' So again, Arch- bishop Harsnet wishes for Chigwell (1629) 'a man skilful in the Greek and Latin tongues, a good poet.' In a few cases, Hebrew is required of the head-master, as at Bristol, Southwark (1614), and Lewis- ham (1652). But in by far the larger number of schools, Greek and Latin alone are specified ; and in some it is especially ! said that 'Greek and Latin only,' or 'the classics only' are to be taught. Charter- house (1611) is an exception. In its sta- tutes (dated 1627) we find that scholars shall be taught ' to cypher and cast an ac- ; count, especially those that are less capable of learning, and fittest to be sent to trades.' ; In 1864 a royal commission was appointed i to inquire into the revenues management \ and education of certain endowed schools, and to suggest measures of improvement. There had been previously two commis- sions of inquiry: the first in 1858 to I report on the education of boys and girls of the labouring class : and the second in 1861 to report on the nine greater public schools Charterhouse, Eton, Harrow, Merchant Taylors', St. Paul's, Westmin- ster, Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Winchester. The scope of the commission of 1864 em- braced all schools which lay between those dealt with by the other commissions, that is, the great mass of 'grammar schools, : and issued its report in 1868. Upon this report was founded the Endowed Schools Act of 1869, which gave authority first to 'Endowed Schools Commissioners,' and afterwards to the ' Charity Commissioners,' i to frame new schemes for the better work- ing of these 'grammar schools'; and also for furthering the advancement of edu- cation by diverting for the schools other endowments not originally intended for educational purposes. Nearly all the j schools have since been remodelled. A Se- j lect Committee of the House of Commons was appointed in 1886 to inquire into the working of the Act, and in the follow- ing year issued their report, in which they state that the sum of the evidence brought before them was conclusive on two points : first, the principles laid down by the com- mission of 1864, and embodied in the Endowed Schools Act, while in some respects they must be modified by altered circumstances and increased experience, are on the whole sound and just; and secondly, that the Charity Commissioners have in their procedure faithfully attempted to carry those principles out. The com- plaints made against the working of the Act, the Committee add, are founded on a failure to appreciate the value of these principles and their bearing on national welfare. The subject is, however, they admit, difficult and complicated ; ' and till it is more widely and carefully studied, till greater publicity has been given to- the results of the schemes by inspection and parliamentary returns, till such adap- tation of schools to technical and commer- cial purposes has taken place as the- Committee suggest, and till the schools have been allowed time to develop their beneficial results, complaints will continue to be made.' The denominational diffi- culties which occupied so large a place in the inquiry of the Select Committee of 1873 appear in nearly all cases to have been accommodated by the lapse of time and a better understanding of the real questions involved. Disputes of class, in. some localities, have now replaced them, but may in their turn die away under a ju- dicious administration governed by an in- telligent popular opinion. The tendency to- attach excessive importance to theoretical excellence of educational machinery under a fixed system of graded schools, rather - than to adapt the schools to the practical needs of the locality, is now, the Committee state, corrected by experience. 'A more pressing need now seems to be that we should not forget, in the search for more immediate ad vantages of an obvious nature, the importance of preserving, even at some cost, a high ideal of secondary education, both on its own account, and in its con- nections either with the Universities, or with the excellent colleges which have been recently established in our large towns with the special object of education in relation to the needs of manufacturing and commercial communities.' The Com- mittee find that the work done by the Charity Commissioners under the Endowed Schools Acts, while it has not lost sight of" 142 GRAMMATICAL SOCIETY GRANTS (GOVERNMENT) this ideal, has done much to bring higher instruction, in popular and necessary forms, within the reach of classes which otherwise would have been shut out from it. Grammatical Society. See PARALLEL -GRAMMARS. Grammaticus. See ROMAN EDUCA- TION. Grants (Government). It was in 183^ that Parliament made the first grant in aid of elementary education. The sum -voted was 20,000?., and a similar sum was voted annually down to 1838. The grant was administered by the Treasury, subject to conditions laid down in a minute dated August. 30, 1833. These were, briefly, that the money was only to be used in .aiding local effort towards the building of .schools ; though the grant was in no case to exceed half the cost of the buildings ; the applications were to be endorsed by the National Society (q.v.), or the British and Foreign School Society (q.v.}' } and that pre- ference was to be given to applications 'from large cities and towns in which the necessity of assisting in the erection of schools' was 'most pressing.' In 1839 the grant was raised to 30,000?., and its administration was entrusted to a specially rcreated committee of the Privy Council the Committee of Council on Education, or the Education Department (q.v.). The first minute issued by the new body (that of June 3, 1839) recommended 'that the .sum of 10,000?., granted by Parliament in 1835 towards the erection of normal or model schools, be given in equal portions "to the National Society and the British and Foreign School Society (q.v.) for that purpose. The right of Government inspec- tion was to be a condition of all future aid, and the minute provided for the ap- pointment of inspectors. The bulk of the grant was to be applied, as before, in the erection of schools. The minute of No- vember 22, 1843, added the building of teachers' houses, and the purchase of appendages, to the objects for which money might be given. On August 25, 1846, a very important minute was issued, greatly -extending the scheme of State aid. Its terms were general, but it was followed, on December 21, by another minute con- verting them into definite regulations. These dealt, first of all, with pupil-teachers. In schools properly furnished, organised, and disciplined, and possessing a head- teacher competent to instruct and train pupil-teachers, one such pupil-teacher for every twenty-five scholars might be ap- prenticed to the head-teacher. The ap- prenticeship was to be for five years, at the end of each of which there was to be a Government examination. If the result was satisfactory, the pupil-teacher received from the Education Department a stipend beginning at 10?., and rising by annual in- crements of 21. 10cV. to 20?., while the head- teacher received ' the sum of 5?. for one, of 9?. for two, of 12?. for three pupil- teachers, and 3?. per annum more for every ad- ditional apprentice.' Pupil-teachers who had served their time might submit themselves to an examination conducted by one or more of Her Majesty's Inspec- tors, together with the principal of a nor- mal school or a training college 'under inspection.' Those who satisfied the ex- aminers became ' Queen's Scholars,' and received an exhibition of 20?. or 25?. ten- able at one of the colleges. The training there might be for one, two, or three years. At the end of each year there was an examination, and for every successful student of the first year the college received 20?., of the second year 25?., and of the third year 30?. When these trained stu- dents left, and entered upon school-work, they received, in augmentation of salary, Government grants varying from 15?. to 30?. according to the length of their train- ing. For teachers rendered incapable by age or infirmity the minute promised pensions. In 1847 a 'broad sheet' was issued containing the conditions on which Certificates (q.v.) were to be obtained by untrained as well as by trained teachers, and offering from 10?. to 20?. a year 'cer- tificate money ' according to class and division. These regulations exercised a very powerful influence upon education. By 1851 twenty-five training colleges had been established, six thousand pupil- teachers were at work, more than eleven hundred certificates had been issued, the grant had risen to 160,000?. a year, and nearly 3,800 schools had been built at a cost to the State of 400,000? and to the localities of about 600,000?. more. The next important step was taken in 1853. A minute (dated April 2 of that year) estab- lished capitation grants for the support of schools 'ir rural districts and small un- incorporated towns' ('small 'being defined as containing not more than five thousand inhabitants), the amount of grant per GREEK 143 "head varying with the number of scholars. If there were under fifty it was 6s. in boys' schools, and 5s. in girls' schools ; if above fifty and under one hundred, 5s. and 4s. respectively ; if above one hundred 4s. and 3s. The payment of the capitation depended upon the amount raised locally for the school, the fee charged, the salary of the head-teacher (who must be certifi- cated), and the results of the examination. By a minute of January 26, 1856, urban as well as rural schools became eligible for capitation grants. In 1860, when Mr. Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) was the guiding spirit of the Education Department, the many minutes which had been issued were combined into a code, generally known as the Original Code. In 1861, after the Duke of Newcastle's Commission had reported, the Revised Code was issued. It remodelled the whole system of aid. All grants to head-teachers and to pupil- teachers were abolished ; pupil-teachers were to be apprenticed, not to the head- teacher, but to the managers of the school, and the promise of pensions was withdrawn. The Revised Code intro- duced the principle of 'payment by re- sults ' (q.v.J. There was to be an absolute grant of 4s. a head on the average attend- ance, and each child who had attended at least two hundred times (half-days) during the year might earn an additional grant for the school. In the case of children under six it was 6s. 6e?., subject to the inspector's approval; in the case of children above six it was 8s., subject to the results of an individual examination. For each one who passed a specified 'standard' in reading, 2s. $d. was to be paid, for each 'pass' in writing 2s. Sd., and for each 'pass' in arithmetic 2s. 8d. Building grants were continued. In the normal schools the training was to be for two years, and the college was to receive 100?. for each master trained, and 70. for each mistress. On the passing of the Elementary Education Act of 1870 a new Code (q.v.) became necessary. The Act provided that after December 31, 1870, no application for a building grant could be entertained. The absolute grant was raised from 4s. to 6s., the number of attendances qualifying for examination from two hundred to two hundred and fifty, the conditional grant for infant schools from 6s. 60?. to 8s. or 10s., and for older scholars from 2s. Sd. to 4s. per 'pass.' In 1875 this 4s. was re- duced to 3s., but grants for * class subjects ' and for 'specific subjects' were introduced. ' Class subjects' were geography, grammar, and history; and a grant of 4s. on the average attendance was to be paid if the classes (not the individual pupils) passed satisfactorily in two of them. The 'spe- cific subjects' were more advanced, and a grant of 4s. per subject was to be paid for every child in the upper standards who passed in not more than two of them. When Mr. Mundella became Vice- Presi- dent of the Committee of Council, the regulations were once more recast. The transformed code was issued on March 6, 1882. It introduced a 'merit grant,' varying as the inspector pronounced a school to be 'fair,' 'good/ or 'excellent.' It abolished a minimum number of atten- dances as a qualification for examination, and required all children to be presented who had been on the rolls during the last twenty-two weeks of the school year. In infant schools there was to be 011 the average attendance a fixed grant of 7s. or 9s.; a merit grant of 2s., 4s., or 6s.; a needlework grant of Is.; and a grant of Is. for singing from notes. In schools or classes for older scholars the grants for needlework and singing were to be the same ; the fixed grant was to be 4s. 6d., and the merit grant Is., 2s., or 3s. There was also to be 'a grant on examination in the elementary subjects (reading, writing, and arithmetic) at the rate of one penny for every unit of percentage.' Thus, if one hundred children were examined the number of possible passes would be three hundred ; if the number actually obtained was two hundred and seventy the per- centage would be ninety, and the grant ninety pence on the average attendance. For 'class subjects' (extended to five, of which only two could be taken) the grant was Is. or 2s., according as the results were 'fair' or 'good.' The regulations respect- ing specific subjects underwent no mate- rial change. The Mundella Code remains, with very slight modifications, still (1889) in force. (See Craik's State and Educa- tion.) Greek. No one who has ever mastered Greek can have any doubt of the advan- tage of learning it. It is the vehicle in which Greek civilisation, a unique product of the human mind, expressed itself. It is the language employed by many of the men who occupy the highest places among 144 GREEK the thinkers, the poets, the philosophers of the world. The Greek mind gave rise to nearly all the forms of literature which are now prevalent. Many of its produc- tions are among the freshest, the most original, and the most beautiful that exist. And the Greek writers have been sin- gularly stimulative. It was the works of the Greeks that created the Renaissance. It was criticism of the Greeks that led to the outburst of German literature in the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. And what it does for nations it does for individuals. Schiller was determined in his career by the en- thusiasm with which Euripides inspired him. The value of Greek literature to the modern mind is inestimable, and no one who has ever enjoyed the Greek works in the language in which they were written could ever imagine that translations can convey an adequate idea of their beauties. Besides this supreme excellence from a literary point, a special interest belongs in the eyes of some to the Greek language, because we can trace in its words the first dawnings of science ; and in the eyes of others because the authoritative docu- ments of Christianity were written in it. Its place as an instrument of educa- tion has been a subject of keen discussion. It is necessary that in the training of a boy from eleven to eighteen years of age some one language and literature should form the central educative force, and the great majority of educationists have held that this language must be Latin (q.v.). But some of the greatest philosophers and educationists have assigned that place to Greek, and among them stands out pre- eminently Herbart. This philosopher main- tained that the literature ought to deter- mine the question of priority. Greek literature opens with Homer. Homer deals almost exclusively with the con- crete. There are no ideas in him beyond the reach of a boy of ten or eleven. And he is fascinating reading for a boy. There is no Latin book that can at all approach the Odyssey in its power to interest a young boy. The Iliad and the Odyssey are products of the early youth of the world, and they picture the ideas and pursuits of early youth, but it is an early youth noble and generous. What could be more useful for a boy than to permeate him- self with these heroic ideals 1 What more likely to lay the foundation of a noble and lofty character ? Then from Homer the boy can advance to the charming narra- tive of Herodotus, and at a further stage he could read Plato and Xenophon with enjoyment, for most of their ideas are within his grasp, and Plato especially surrounds them with every literary grace. The boy, then, having saturated himself with the best and most beautiful parts of Greek civilisation, could pass on to Roman, and from Roman to modern times. On such a system language forms a subordinate element of training. It is not necessary to drill the boy in all the minute details of grammar. He should learn only so much as is required for the comprehension of the author. And then, even in respect to language it is urged that the plan has its advantages. A knowledge of the Homeric dialect is essential to a true con- ception of the origin of the Attic. The boy can see how the forms of the one have grown to some extent out of the forms of the other. The idea that Greek ought to be taught before Latin was not first suggested by Herbart. A list of those who preceded him in this plan is given in Herbart's Pddagogische Schriften, vol. i. p. 77, and among them is mentioned the famous printer a^d scholar, Henricus Stephanus (Henri Etienne, 1528-1598). In recent times Ahrens prepared a Homeric gram- mar, adapted for beginners ; Dissen and Passow strongly approved of the plan, and some of Herbart's followers carried it into practice. Within the last few years Her- bartism has revived in great force in Ger- many amongst those who take an interest in secondary education, and the question of the priority of Greek will again come to the front. The same questions have been discussed as to the mode of teaching Greek which we have noticed in connection with Latin (q.v.), but not with the same intensity. After one language has been employed in training a boy, there is no need of the same elaborate process in teaching a second. The boy is advanced in age, and can learn a language much more rapidly; and he is advanced in logical power and strength of memory, and can dispense with many of the processes necessary during the learning of a first strange language. There- fore Greek is learned in its elements much more easily than Latin, after Latin has been mastered. It is for this reason that GRESHAM COLLEGE GROWTH OF CHILDREN 145 it is very injudicious to begin Greek at too early an age if it is to succeed Latin, and the whole tendency of the present day is to defer the learning of Greek until very considerable progress has been made in Latin. Then, again, there is no longer the same necessity for such frequent exercises in turning English into Greek. In recent times the application of comparative philology to Greek grammars has become prevalent. The laws of the combination of the root with the inflection have been carefully laid down at the com- mencement and carried out through all the paradigms. Mention should also be made of the suggestion that access should be made to ancient Greek through modern, which has retained or adopted many of the forms of the ancient. But generally the Attic dialect is regarded as the form of the language which must be mastered first. Some have a superstitious reverence for this form, and refuse to proceed further. But most proceed from the Attic and ex- plain the other dialects by means of it or in comparison with it. The works which treat of the value of Latin in education and the methods of teaching it generally discuss also the value of Greek and the methods of teaching it. To the works mentioned in the article on Latin we must add the Erlciuterungen of Curtius to his Greek Grammar, which treat exclusively of Greek. Gresham College, Basinghall. Street, London, was founded in 1501, by Sir Thomas Gresham, with a view to providing free scientific instruction to the people. He gave directions for the delivery of lectures by qualified professors. Lectures are still delivered by professors appointed by the Gresham Committee at three diffe- rent periods in the year, commencing respectively the first Monday in October, on the fifteenth Monday after that date, and on the twenty-sixth Monday after the first Monday in October, or on the nearest Monday to such twenty- sixth Monday which will allow of the condition that no lectures be given in Passion Week and Easter Week. The value of the original bequest of Sir Thomas Gresham has, it is believed, enormously increased, and great complaints are made that the accumu- lation has not been devoted to the pur- pose which the munificent founder of the lectureships intended. In his will Gresham prayed that the curse of God might rest on those who misappropriated his bequest. Gresham Lecture. See PRELECTIONS. Groote, Gerard. See RENAISSANCE. Growth of Children. A fair know- ledge of the physiological laws of health would prevent dangerous mistakes in the education of children. It should be re- membered that every organ of the body is rapidly growing, and that height and weight are being steadily increased. Children not only have to replenish waste tissues, but also to build up new tissues. Hence, it is necessary that they should be supplied with an abundance of food and fresh air, and that their rapidly growing organs should not be over-exerted. This is espe- cially true of the brain, which in the early years of life grows more rapidly than any other organ. A periodical record of the height and weight of children would be of great value in the preservation of health and detection of early disease. If a child ceases to grow or increase in weight, or if on the other hand he grows too rapidly, he requires a comparative cessation of school-work and careful home attention. One of the earliest symptoms of incipient consumption is a diminution in weight, and such loss of weight should at once receive medical attention. The following statements of the average height and weight of boys of the non-labouring classes are taken from Dr. Newsholme's School Hygiene, which may be consulted for other tables and charts on the same sub- ject. Age last birthday Average height in inches Average weight in pounds 7 46-10 50-16 8 47-66 56-40 9 50-30 61-96 10 52-65 67-22 11 53-93 73-31 12 55-90 7896 13 58-30 85-27 14 60-27 96-40 15 63-00 107-25 16 65-34 115-96 17 66-91 131 93 18 67-38 136-68 19 67-74 142-00 20 68-09 145-23 During the first twelve years of life- boys are from one to two inches taller than girls of the same age. At about 12 J years of age, girls begin to grow L 146 GUIZOT, F. P. \V. GYMNASIUM faster than boys, and during their four- teenth year are about one inch taller than boys of the same age At about 14^ years of age, boys again become the taller, girls at this age having nearly completed their growth, while boys continue to grow rapidly till nineteen years of age. Guizot, F. P. W. (b. at Nimes, 1787; d. at Yal Richer, 1874). This eminent French statesman and writer had an im- portant position in the history of education in France, on account of the reforms he instituted as Minister of Public Instruction. He passed measures which have been a lasting honour to his name. The right of education was freely and fully discussed, and Guizot undertook to establish, at least primary education. He recommended its being compulsory, and touched upon the question of free education, but thought that though the State should offer education to all, it could only give it to the children of those families who were unable to pay. Through Guizot's influence a decree was passed for training masters for elementary schools; and with a view to their pensions, savings banks were established, and in- surance societies founded. Grey, Maria. See EDUCATION OF GIRLS and TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 'Gutter to University.' See INSTRUC- TION (COURSE OF). Gymnasium (Greek, yu^i/aonov, from yu/xvos, naked) was originally among the Greeks a space measured out and covered with sand, for the exercise of athletic games. Afterwards, among the classical Greeks, the gymnasia became spacious buildings or schools for the mental as well as the corporeal instruction of youth. The first gymnasia were built by the Lacedae- monians, as Plato tells us (No/xot, lib. i.), and after them by the Athenians. Those in the immediate neighbourhood of Athens are well known : the Academia, where, attracted by the pleasant walks which surrounded it, and the concourse of people of all classes who daily resorted thither, Plato held conferences with his pupils; the Lyceum, to which Aristotle resorted ; and the Cynosarges. The gymnasia of the Homans were on a grander scale, and from the extensive baths attached to them were not uncommonly called ' thermae.' The numerous exercises of the gymnasium were conducted under the special direction of the State, and were superintended by several officers at Athens. The chief officer was called gymnasiarchus, who su- perintended the whole gymnasium and its exercises; the xystarchus superintended in particular the more athletic exercises; the gymnastes, being skilled in medicine, prescribed the kind and extent of ex- ercise of each; the paBdotribes assisted and instructed those exercising; while there were numerous servants set apart to each kind of exercise, to anoint, to keep the bath, c. In Germany, the Gymnasien are what we should call classical schools, the com- mercial schools being called REALSCHULEN (q.v.). The Gymnasien are like our best classical schools. There is the same pre- ponderance of classics, very nearly the same methods of teaching, and to a consi- derable extent the same results. It is supposed that a boy enters at nine, and remains till nineteen. The school is divided into six classes. Latin begins at the bot- tom, and occupies ten hours of the week out of twenty-eight till the head class, and then eight hours out of thirty. Greek begins two classes from the bottom, and oc- cupies six hours a week throughout; Ger- man, two hours ; arithmetic and mathema- tics, from three to four; French, three in the lower classes, two in the higher; geography and history, three in the higher and two in the lower ; natural science, two in. the head class and one below. All learn drawing in school hours ; singing and gymnastics out of school. This programme is fixed by the Government, but within the programme the masters are free. In gene- ral the gymnasium is steadily to regard the formation of the pupil's mind, and of his powers of knowledge, without prema- turely taking thought for the practical applicability of what he studies. It is expressly forbidden to give this practical or professional turn to the studies of a pupil in the highest forms of a gymnasium, even when he is destined for the army. In some places, where it is not possible to maintain a complete gymnasium, a pro- gymnasium is substituted. A progynma- sium is merely a gymnasium without the higher classes. Most progymnasia have four classes only, some three ; some again, five, that is, all but the head. All the gymnasia are supported by endowments and school fees. Very little indeed is spent upon them by the State, though, as in England, a few belong to the munici- palities. The school fees are exceedingly GYJ.1XASTICS HAMILTON, JAMES 147 low ; not only lower than in England, but lower than in France, the average being under 31. a year for instruction, even in the best schools. The masters do not receive the fees, but are paid fixed salaries out of the funds thus raised. The maxi- mum salary scarcely ever exceeds 300. a year and a house. There are 1 44 Gymna- \ sien, containing about 47,000 boys, and 28 Progymnasien, containing about 2,600 j boys. In England, the term gymnasium is applied strictly to a school for the improvement of bodily strength, grace, or agility, or for gymnastic exercises. Gymnastics. See ATHLETICS, CALIS- THENICS, and PHYSICAL EDUCATION. Gyp (Greek yvi^, a vulture). A term applied at Cambridge to the male atten- dants on University men in their rooms. It is equivalent to scout, the name by which the college attendants are designated at Oxford. H Habit is the name of the principle or law according to which every action be- comes easier by repetition. The result of such repetition or practice when the pro- cess is complete is called a habit. Habits are thus acquired possessions, and so dis- tinguished from original or instinctive en- dowments. The principle of habit operates throughout the whole of development, bodily as well as mental. Thus all mus- cular actions become perfected by re- petition and habit, requiring less and less co-operation of the conscious mind. We thus see that habit, like memory, to which indeed it is so closely allied, has its basis in certain properties of the physical or- ganism. In the region of mental activity we observe the effect of habit in the way in which thoughts become firmly associ- ated one with another in definite groups or series, as the consequence of repetition or custom, and also in the way in which the thinking processes gain in facility and exactness through practice. The emo- tional sensibilities again are under the influence of the same law, though in a less obvious manner. The operation of the principle here is seen in the building tip of firm attachments and permanent affections towards the objects and persons in the child's environment, with their cor- j relative sense of want and craving when these are absent. Finally, habit rules in the domain of voluntary action. All the higher exercises of will in checking impulse and controlling the thoughts and feelings become perfected by customary perform- ance, and in this way the so-called Moral Habits, as temperance, truth, time to learn the outlines of anything which is itself still unknown. At best the memory only is exercised, and that at considerable disadvantage. The study of epochs is apt to produce scrappy and dis- continuous knowledge, while attention is directed to matters of secondary import- 152 HOLLAND (UNIVERSITIES) HOME AND COL. SCHOOL SOC. ance within the epoch instead of to others of primary importance without it. It would seem best to combine the advantages of both plans by choosing a series of the most remarkable personages and events stretching from some point in the past down to the present ; to treat these more and more fully in successive stages, con- necting them in each stage by a brief narrative; and to fill in the interstices more and more in each successive stage with events and persons next in import- ance the continuity and oneness of the whole history being carefully kept up in every stage. Should the subject-matter be political or social ? Although university professors may decide upon the former for their adult students, school-teachers will answer, ' Both.' They will not enter much at first into treaties and constitution ; they will be moderate in the use of ' drums and trumpets,' and, while eschewing wide gene- ralisations and vague abstractions, they will attend most to what illustrates and reveals social character and life. The de- tails of politics and constitutional matters are interesting to children in the last stage only of school-life. The teacher will find the following division into stages useful : In the first stage what interest children most are: action, personal adventure, per- sonal characteristics. Let everything be striking, dramatic, single not compli- cated with argument or reflection; with not too great a variety of interests. In the second stage children will want to know something of why and wherefore, and will be capable of maintaining more than one interest at a time. We rnay begin to criticise actions and character, and to look for causes and consequences of events. Individuals will cluster into classes, as classes will hereafter cluster into the nation. We may begin to sketch the first ideas of a State; and to get first ideas of public duty; and a curiosity as to what other nations were doing and think- ing about at the time may be started. In the third stage all this will advance a step. We may now treat of the nations as a whole ; enlarge and continue the ideas of a State and of public duty ; touch upon the greater matters of constitutional history; inquire more into the doings of foreign nations ; and gain larger and clearer views of social growth and progress. Holland (Universities of). See UNI- VERSITIES. Holloway College. See EDUCATION OF GIRLS. Home and Colonial School Society. The founder of this society was Mr. John Stuckey Reynolds, a distinguished civil servant. After filling in succession many important offices in the Treasury, he re- tired in 1835, and thenceforth devoted his whole time to the religious and philan- thropic work which had till then been the occupation of his leisure. His interest in the establishment of infant schools brought him into contact with Dr. Mayo of Cheam (the chief apostle in England of the views of Pestalozzi) and with Miss Mayo. The result of their intercourse was a determination on the part of Mr. Reynolds to introduce the principles of the Swiss reformer into English schools. With the co-operation of other public- spirited men and women, in the beginning of 1836 he established the society. The committee was formed on February 23, and the institution opened on June 1. The object of the association was indicated by its original name 'The Home and Colonial Infant School Society.' The society was at first unsectarian. Its aim was stated in the original rule ii. to be the 'extension of the infant school system on Christian principles.' In 1841 a more definite meaning was given to the expres- sion by the addition, after 'Christian principles,' of the words: 'As such prin- ciples are set forth and embodied in the doctrinal articles of the Church of Eng- land.' The original rule iv. ran: 'That considering it the province of the local committees of infant schools to select their own teachers, the society will educate teachers of different religious denomina- tions if holding the fundamental prin- ciples of the Bible, and of decided piety/ Though the rules were recast in 1848, 110 change was made in the wording of the two quoted, arid no change has been made since. A change has, however, been made in the practice of the society. At first, most of the students trained were Dissenters; most of the applications for teachers, on the contrary, came from Church schools. The committee, therefore, sent a circular to the clergy asking them to use their influence in increasing the number of Conforming candidates, and also tried to attract such candidates by inserting ad vertisements in the newspapers. As a consequence, the committee was able to HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL SOCIETY 153 announce, in their Tenth Annual Report, that ' nearly three out of four now trained in the institution are members of the Establishment.' The next step was the introduction of the present plan of insist- ing upon candidates for admission and students in training taking the archbishops' examination in religious knowledge. This made the college practically a Church institution, though managed by a society nominally unsectarian. From the begin- ning the Home and Colonial differed in one important respect from the British and Foreign and the National Societies. The primary object of the older bodies was the establishment of schools, and they only opened colleges because they found trained teachers essential to the success of their schools; on the other hand, the pri- mary object of the younger body was the provision of teachers specially prepared to educate infants, and it left the establish- ment of schools to the enlightenment of managers. The society's students were originally male and female. Single men were not refused, and married couples were particularly invited. The number of single men trained was always insigni- ficant, and the eleventh report states that the supply of married couples was greatly diminished. Soon afterwards it ceased altogether, since when only mistresses have been trained. It was in 19 South- ampton Street, Holborn, that the society began its operations in 1836. Next year & house was taken in Gray's Inn Road, with a large stable at the back. The stable was converted into a school, and the house (the middle one of the nine now occupied by the institution) became the nucleus of a college. The society saw clearly that if training is good and neces- sary for the teachers of the poor, it is equally good and necessary for all other teachers. The First Report dwelt on the desirability of forming a class for the instruction of nursery governesses and teachers for infant schools of a superior social grade, and the Fourth announced that an adjoining house had been taken and a separate department established for this branch of the work. The two de- partments have gone on side by side ever since, and it will thus be seen that for nearly forty years the Home and Colonial School Society was the only institution which offered even the rudiments of pro- fessional training to secondary teachers. In 1839, when the Education Department was established, the society carefully con- sidered the question of State aid. 'Without entertaining any very strong feeling on the question of parliamentary interference with education,' the committee reported: ' The majority of the committee would certainly have wished that the Government should have confined its plan to the manufacturing districts until it had been ascertained what the public, interested as it is now, could have accomplished, and they are more inclined to this opinion from the doubt they entertain whether any government would be disposed to give to the people an education as decidedly religious as this committee would deem indispensable.' In 1843 the committee asked the Department ' to direct an exa- mination to be made into the system of education pursued' by the society, and Mr. Seymour Tremenheere accordingly visited the establishment. His report describes the state of the institution, and speaks (generally with approval) of the method of training, which, if not the best possible, was perhaps as good as could be expected under the circumstances. When the famous minutes of 1846 were issued the grants to colleges induced the com- mittee to apply for Government aid. The application was preceded by mature con- sideration on the part of the society, and followed by considerable correspondence with the Department; but the Twelfth Report announced that thirty ' Govern- ment students' would be trained for a year or more. The next Report stated that the plan was working well, and it was extended gradually till it embraced the whole of the ' Government department.' To the Revised Code of Mr. Lowe the society offered long and uncompromising resistance. Of the Act of Mr. Forster, the society, on the whole, approved. The 'Government de- partment ' of the college at present provides accommodation for a hundred and forty students. Connected with it are four schools a model infant school ; a model and practising school for boys and girls in Standards IV.-VII. ; ar> upper practising school for boys and girls in Standards II. IV.; and the Reynolds practising school for boys and girls in Standards I.-IV. The 'Non-Government department' offers accommodation for an indefinite number of students. Connected with this department is a middle-class school 154 HOME EDUCATION HOME-LESSONS Home Education. By this term we mean the instruction and training of the young in the house of their parents, by the parents themselves and by tutors and go- vernesses. The advantages of such a plan are : the greater individual attention (as to mental powers, temper, physical health, n these subjects, at a given age. Again, a boy of sixteen leaving a first-grade or second-grade school will, in either case, have spent so many hours of school life, at Latin, for instance; but, in the first case, his knowledge, though wide, will be in- complete, as the curriculum contemplates his staying at school until eighteen or nineteen; in the other case, it will be complete for its purpose, as the curriculum was laid down with a view of giving such a course of instruction in that language as, though narrower, would meet certain well- defined requirements, possible of attain- ment by the leaving age. Two things fol- low from what has been said : first, that one subject of instruction cannot be definitely called an ' elementary ' subject, and another a 'secondary' subject, for a subject may be common alike to the curricula of every grade of school: only its treatment and range will be different ; secondly, that it is absolutely necessary for the effectiveness of the educational ladder that the scholar who is to be passed up it should leave the elementary school some years probably two before he has reached the superior limit of age for such a school, and should be transferred to a second-grade school, if it is proposed to pass him on to a scientific or engineering course at sixteen or seven- teen, or to a first-grade school, if circum- stances are favourable, and he shows signs of such literary or other ability as would promise him a successful career at one of the older universities. It is similarly true that, if such a scholar as this should bo found at a second-grade school, he should have facilities given him for passing on to a first- grade school at thirteen or four- seen, rather than at sixteen years of age. The question of the retention of Latin (see LATIN ; CLASSICAL CULTURE) in other than first-grade schools in England has been mooted again and again, as in Germany ; in connection with the curricula of REAL- j SCHULEN (q.v.). Up to this time the I general feeling has been in favour of its I retention. If this language were excluded i it is certain that boys of exceptional talent would find a serious impediment to their rising to the highest education. Looking generally upon Education as the 'social bridge which unites all classes of society | in England,' some have averred that ' the cement is furnished directly or indirectly by the Latin language.' It is felt, too, that the divorce of the second-grade schools and ! grammar-schools in small towns (which are in reality second-grade) from the medical and legal professions both of which re- quire Latin in their preliminary examina- tions and from the universities would be a formidable price to pay for the abandon- ment of Latin. Up to the present time, then, Latin holds its own; and, subject to the common-sense maxim ' Either good Latin or none,' has justified its position. But whether it will do so always, in presence of the increasing cry for ad- vanced technical training, and for better and more colloquial knowledge of French and German to fit English pupils to com- pete successfully in commerce with youths of foreign nationality, is doubtful. It is certain that the curriculum of second- and third-grade schools does not admit of any great extension in either a technical or modern-language direction, without the dropping out of some other subject; and, as the cry for this gains in intensity, it looks as though Latin would be the subject that will have to drop out. But this would mean a great revolution in English modes of thought and methods of education ; and as, in general, English movements do not progress by revolution, the abolition of Latin, if it takes place at all, will probably | come about very gradually. (For the course of instruction in public elementary schools in England and elsewhere see under STANDARDS.) Intellectual Education is that branch of education which concerns itself with the intellectual faculties, and seeks to develop these harmoniously, and in the order of their development. This can only be effected by putting the child's mind into an attitude of inquiry in relation INTEREST JAIIN, FRIEDRICFT LUDWIG 1C3 to certain materials of knowledge which are presented to it, either in the shape of objects to be observed by the senses, or words to be interpreted and understood. That is to say, faculty is developed in and by the process of gaining knowledge. And to this extent the aims of instruction and education are identical. Interest (from inter-esse, to be of importance) describes the effect of feeling, and more particularly pleasurable feeling, in rousing and sustaining the attention. The feeling may be the immediate result of the action of an object on the mind, as when a child is attracted by a pretty pic- ture; or may be due to a process of asso- ciation and suggestion, as when a child is interested in watching the preparation of its food. Interest is closely connected with curiosity. A child desires to know what can be known about objects that are interesting to him, such as his pet animals, his toys, ttc. From this it is apparent that the intellectual educator has at the outset to seek to awaken in the child's mind a feeling of interest in the subject presented to it. This he will do partly by bringing out all that is striking, pretty, the two men whose influence far outweighed that of all others in the Port- Royalist Society, were both geometricians. Arnauld wrote a work on Elements of Geometry, on reading which in manuscript Pascal burnt his own essay , on the same subject. Lancelot was ap- pointed to teach mathematics (and Greek). So that we may reasonably conclude that geometry, at any rate, had its fair share of attention. Lancelot wrote books upon the me- thods of learning Italian and Spanish; and Racine, the most famous of Port- Royalist pupils, knew both languages within a short time of leaving school. For promising pupils, then, the range, if we except science, may well have been as wide as that of the most advanced of modern schools; that is, it probably in- cluded the classics, taught by methods on which, according to Bre'al (Quelques Mots sur V Instruction, p. 183), in France at least, no improvement has been made modern languages, mathematics, and care- ful instruction in the mother tongue. The 166 JAPAN JESUITS (THE) best authorities on the subject are the Port- Royalists' own books, e.g. the Logic, of which there is a good English edition by T. S. Baynes, the General Grammar, the Greek and Latin Grammars, many editions of the classics, and the books referred to in the course of this article : Ste. Beuve's Port-Royal, bk. iv. ; Com- payre"'s Histoire Critique des Doctrines de ^Education en France, bk. ii., chap. iii. ; Beard's Port-loyalists', and Verin's Etude 8^lr Lancelot. Japan. See SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY and UNIVERSITIES. Jesuits (The). The order of the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, was formally authorised and established in 1540. It was an attempt and a highly successful one to check the progress of the Reformation, and to bring back the wanderers to the fold of Rome. The means employed were preaching, confes- sion, and education. Despite of strong and often violent opposition, the order rapidly increased, and spread its schools and houses all over Europe. At the end of the seventeenth century it possessed 180 colleges, 90 seminaries, and 160 residences, its members numbering 21,000. Here we shall confine ourselves to speaking of that part of their educational work in which the Jesuits most excelled their secondary schools. Their universities were never very brilliant successes ; and though the teaching they provided was gratuitous, they never sought to make it primary or elementary. The school system of the Jesuits received its definite and permanent form under Acquaviva, the" fifth General of the order, who ruled between 1581 and 1615. In 1599 the Ratio Studiorum, or plan of studies, was produced ; and has continued, with very few additions, to be the plan down to the present day. The most important additions to the Latin, Greek, and religion of the earlier period have been a little history, some slight attention to the mother tongue, and some- thing in the way of modern languages. Latin and religion (a catechism and scrip- ture history) have, however, always been the most prominent subjects. As a rule, no one but a member of the society is allowed to be a teacher in the schools; and his watchwords must be kind- ness, thoroughness, repetition. It was an irable, but in those early days an almost revolutionary, innovation, that masters should be directed 'to unite the grave kindness and authority of a father with the tenderness of a mother,' and 'to become as little children amongst little children/ so that they might win the- young to study with pleasure. The thoroughness was best set forth in the advice to seek to teach a few things clearly and distinctly, rather than to give indistinct and confused im- pressions of many things; while the value of repetition was rated so highly that one whole day was devoted to it every week; and in the second half of the year the classes generally went over again the work of the earlier half. At the head of the school stood the rector, who did not him- self teach, but appointed the staff, and care- fully watched the progress of the pupils. He held his office for three years. Under him were the masters, who also were somewhat frequently moved about. Out- side boarding establishments were some- times connected with the schools, in which the children of the rich and noble were received at a moderate charge. Sometimes there were day-schools, which, under cer- tain restrictions, were open to Protestants. Otherwise, the children were 'interned 7 all the year round, and cut off as much as possible from their families and all other outside influences. This contempt for, and destruction of, the home life is probably the most fatal mistake of all in the Jesuit school system. Its evil effects are visible in every country where their schools have been numerous. The course of study may . be broadly described as follows. It occupies, six years, usually those between fourteen and twenty. The^'rs^ year is devoted to- the rudiments of Latin, viz. the forms and correct sounds of the letters, and how to- read; the second to grammar in its first elements; the third to syntax. These are called the grammatical classes. The fourth year is given to philology and verses ; and ihejifth and sixth to rhetoric. These last two are called the Humanity classes. The chief object is to produce a mastery over Latin, as over a modern language. The classics are read for their style, not for their ideas; and for this reason considerable portions of them are committed to memory,, so as to supply words and phrases. Greek is also studied, as a rule, in every class ;; but it occupies a very subordinate place. Of arithmetic, geography, history, at first we hear nothing ; and only of late years has attention been paid to them at all, and JUDEA- UDGMENT 167 that very grudgingly. The same may be said with regard to the mother tongue. Religious instruction that is, a catechism, and some facts of Bible history is, of course, a distinct feature throughout. The work has never been excessive; generally two and a half hours in the morn- ing, and the same amount in the afternoon, with an interval of about three hours. In the summer there is generally one whole holiday a week. The masters are directed to make the lessons as pleasant as possible, consistently with their being thorough. Amusements within the school walls are plentiful. The bodily health of the pupils is carefully attended to ; and on holidays excursions are made into the country. There is nothing ascetic in the regulations. The punishments, too, are always made as light as possible ; only the graver offences being visited with flogging. Where flog- ging does not have the required effect the offender is expelled. Emulation and ri- valry of every kind are employed to induce the boys to work. Sometimes individual boys are pitted against each other ; some- times one half of a class against the other; and prizes, praises, marks of distinction, (secondary) schools for girls have been provided in some towns, notably at Milan, but most of the girls' schools are boarding .schools. There are seventeen universities in Italy, eight of which are of the first .rank. Massachusetts (State of). The State educational authority is a Board of Edu- cation consisting of the governor and lieu- tenant-governor, and eight persons ap- pointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the State council, each hold- ing office for eight years, one retiring each year. All vacancies are filled the same way. The board holds all grants of lands or bequests in trust for educational pur- poses. The board prescribes forms of re- gisters for all schools, and can require statistics of officers of schools and others respecting the condition of the schools. It also has the general management of the State normal schools. It also arranges the holding of * teachers' institutes,' and de- frays to a certain extent the necessary expenses for procuring teachers and lec- tures for such institutes. The school fund of the commonwealth arising from sales of State lands is administered by the board; one half of the annual income arising from the fund is distributed among the towns complying with the State law for the support of public schools. Each town is required to keep its schools open for at least six months in each year under teachers of competent ability and good morals ; a sufficient number of schools for the instruction of all children who may legally attend school (five to fifteen years of age) in orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, drawing, the history of the United States, and good behaviour. Algebra, vocal music, agriculture, farming, physiology, and hy- giene are required to be taught where expedient. Every town of five hundred families must also maintain a high school which must be open for ten months, and in every town of four thousand inhabitants the high school curriculum must be widened by the introduction of the Greek and French languages, astronomy, logic, moral science, and political economy. Any town of one thousand inhabitants must provide free instruction in industrial and mechanical drawing to persons over fifteen years of age in either day or evening schools, The several towns must tax themselves in sup- port of their schools, on pain of forfeiture of twice the sum ever voted by the State from the State fund. Every town must annually elect a school committee, to have the general charge and superintendence of all the public schools of the town, one third to be elected annually, to hold office for three years. The appointment and dismissal of teachers, of the superintendents of schools, choice of books, course of studies, &c., rest with this committee. The Bible must be read daily in the public schools without note or comment. All public schools are open free, and when parents are unable to pay for books the books are supplied at the cost of the towns. Attendance at school LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 189 is compulsory between eight and fourteen years of age. Every person having control of such children is required to cause them to attend a public school for at least twenty weeks annually, on penalty for every neg- lect of such duty of a fine not exceeding twenty dollars ; but attendance at certain private schools is accepted under condi- tions. Truant officers and the school com- mittee are responsible for inquiring into all cases of violation of this law, prosecu- tion, &c. The school committee also de- termines the number and qualification of the scholars to be admitted into the high school. IS"o child under ten years of age can be employed in any manufacturing or other establishment in the State, under a penalty, exacted from parent or guardian permitting such employment, of from twenty to fifty dollars. No child under fourteen years of age can be so employed, unless during the preceding year he has attended for at least twenty weeks, under a penalty, exacted from the owner of such establishment and from the parent, of from twenty to fifty dollars. Towns may make provision for habitual truants by truant schools, and for the special education of neg- lected, destitute, and abandoned children. Ontario (Province of). Each province of the Dominion of Canada has exclusive jurisdiction over its ow.n school system. The administration of the educational system of Ontario is in the hands of a De- partment of Education, consisting of the Executive Council, or a committee thereof appointed by the lieutenant-governor ; and one of the executive council, nominated by the lieutenant-governor, holds the office of Minister of Education. The educational institutions in Ontario subject to the Edu- cation Department embrace both primary and secondary education, and are (a) ele- mentary schools; (b) model and normal schools and teachers' institutes ; (c) clas- sical or country high schools ; (d) technical schools ; (e) schools for deaf and dumb and blind ; (/) the University of Toronto. There are a few institutions, principally art schools, partly aided by Government ; and some universities, colleges, and schools (chiefly medical) not under Government control. The province of Ontario pos- sesses a system of municipal self-govern- ment which is uniform throughout the province. In each municipality or unit of local government, rural or urban, school trustees or school boards are elected by i the ratepayers, who are liable to support the public schools in their respective lo- calities, and are practically the owners of them. The trustees appoint the teachers, who must possess the qualifications re- j quired by the department. They arrange I and pay the salaries, purchase the school site, build the school-house, and estimate the rates for collection by the township council for all funds which are required for school purposes. They are bound to. provide adequate school accommodation, to employ the required number of qualified teachers, to permit the children of all resi- dents between the ages of five and twenty- one to attend school free of charge. They- are required to visit their schools, to see- that the law is carried out, and may appoint inspectors. A sum of money is annually- granted by the Legislature, and each muni- cipality is required to raise by rate at least an equal sum. These two sums constitute the school fund of the municipality. School grants are apportioned to each school by the inspectors according to the average at- tendance of the scholars, and may be with- held in certain cases. A central committee of examiners is appointed by the depart- ment to examine teachers for their certifi- cates. First- and second-class certificates, are valid throughout the province, and are - held during good behaviour, whilst third- class certificates are limited to a period of; three years, but are renewable by exami- nation. Every public and high school must , be opened with the Lord's Prayer, and closed with the reading of the Scriptures, subject to a conscience clause. The clergy - of any denomination or their authorised- ! representatives have the right to give reli- gious instruction to the pupils of their own church in each school-house at least once a week after afternoon school. Schools, called * separate schools ' constitute an ex- ception to the general public school system. The right to maintain a ' separate school ' i is chiefly conceded to the Roman Catholics, \ but Protestant families may combine to- support a separate school if they reside in a district where the teacher of the public school of the district is a Roman Catholic. Families of coloured people may also com- | bine to have a separate school The prin- ciple of these schools is that the Roman Catholic, Protestant, or coloured ratepayer may elect to support a separate school, and, upon giving the prescribed notice, he is. ! exempted from the public school rates ;. 190 LAW (EDUCATIONAL) lout as long as he subscribes to a separate ; school he is not allowed to vote at the election of any trustee for a public school in his district. The separate schools are subject to the visitation of the Minister of Education, the judges, members of the Legislature, the heads of the municipal bodies in their respective localities, and the inspectors of public schools, and to such inspection as the Minister of Educa- tion may direct. They are entitled to a share in the annual grant from the Legis- lature of the province, but not to a share in the local assessment. General courses 'of instruction are prescribed for all schools in the province, elementary and higher, to be followed by the teachers ' as far as the circumstances of their schools will permit.' Hygiene, drill, and calisthenics, moral in- .-struetaon, and, in rural schools, agriculture, are provided for in the general directions -for courses of study. The salaries of the teachers are determined by the school trustees, and are 'fixed.' Attendance at : school is not compulsory. Russia. Elementary education has only quite recently been organised in Russia. The social conditions of that country made common action for the edu- cation of the people difficult of accom- plishment, either as regards secondary or elementary education. The aristocracy, the clergy, the military and naval profes- sion, the trading community, live entirely apart, and each class has provided its own educational establishments, not only for what special training is required after general education is completed, but also for the general education itself of the children of that class. Even members of the theatrical profession have their own schools for both the general and special instruction of their children. The schools of theology are entirely managed by the 'ecclesiastical authorities of the Greek Church, but the army, navy, and theatri- cal schools are controlled by the several Government departments. The organisa- tion of all public instruction is in the hands of a Minister of Public Instruc- tion, who has under him an advising council, with a staff of inspectors. The public elementary schools were organised In 1874, to make elementary education accessible to both sexes of the working classes throughout Rtssia. They are supported by the combined subsidies of the State, the xemstvos (or territorial popular councils), and either the communes or private bodies. Attendance is practically compulsory. In- struction is given free of charge, and in many cases even books and appliances are provided gratis. Success at an examina- tion on leaving these schools entitles the boys to a partial reduction of the compul- sory term (six years) of military service. Infant schools are also found in the more important towns, taught on Froebel's me- thods. The machinery for secondary edu- cation comprises gymnasia for both sexes, arid Real schools. No important town in Russia is without a school of the latter kind, where the three obligatory languages are taught, viz. Russian, German, and French, besides mathematics, commercial geography, and drawing. Russia has nine universities, of which that of Moscow is the most ancient (founded 1755) and the most renowned. The education of the girls of the upper classes is provided for, and is carried on, to a much greater ex - tent than in almost any other European country. Courses of instruction for women similar to the university courses for men have been laid down since 1872, and are taught by the professors of the university, a movement which has its parallel in England in the recent facilities for the higher education of women by means of Girton and Newnham Colleges at Cam- bridge, and Somerville Hall at Oxford. Saxony. The remarkable impulse which has made Germany, as has been said, 'a land of schools,' arose from the influence of the Protestant reformer Lu- ther, as that of Scotland did from that of his fellow-evangelist, John Knox (q.v.). It was Luther who said : ' If I were not a minister of the Gospel, I should wish to be a schoolmaster.' Luther died in 1546, and the first outlines of the Saxon system of national education appeared in a law of January 1580. From these outlines the whole present system has been developed, following through the centuries the de- velopment of the social life of the people, and receiving fresh extensions as the sense of the vital importance of intellectual force, as a set-off against the physical force of the nations arrayed against them, was quickened by the defeats of the early years of the century. It was in 1805 that attendance at school was made compulsory in Saxony. Successive reorganisations of the school system have taken place in 1835, 1848, 1851, and finally in 1873. LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 191 The fundamental idea of the new law of 1873 was that the whole system of educa- tion of the country should be placed under the sole control of the State, and that the management of the schools should be taken out of the hands of the clergy, as clergy. But this action of the State did not imply that it was henceforth to be in antagonism with the Church on the subject of education. On the contrary, it is distinctly stated that the 'Yolksschule (Elementary School) has for its object the religious training as one part of universal human education.' The religion taught by a particular school is the religion of the majority of the parish, but the rights of the minority are preserved. It is in the power of the minority (as in Canada) to establish a school for itself, provided it can find the means to maintain it. When the minority cannot afford to do so, the children receive their secular education in the public school, and their religious education from their own deno- mination. Every child is required to attend the elementary school for at least eight consecutive years, from six to four- teen. This is the case all throughout Germany, but in Saxony, as in some other states, children who have not made satis- factory progress in the elementary school at the age of fourteen are obliged to at- tend a Fortbildungsschule, or continuation school, held in the evenings and on Sundays, for two years longer. Parents and guar- dians are required to see that their children attend regularly. In general, only ill- ness or infectious complaints are accepted as a reasonable excuse for absence. Pa- rents render themselves liable to a fine for the non-attendance of their children at any elementary school, and both parents and employers of labour incur a similar punishment in the case of non-attendance of a scholar at a Fortbildungsschule. The school parish (Schulgemeinde) is required to furnish the requisite funds for the erec- tion and maintenance of the schools of the parish. Those parishes which are not in a position to meet the whole expense receive a grant from the State. The payment of a school fee is demanded of all children attending school. It is levied by the ma- nagers, who are bound to adapt it to the means of the parents. It therefore varies considerably in amount, from 3s. or 4s. a year, in town schools, to 3. or 41. Children whose parents are very poor have their fees paid out of the local poor-chest. There are a few free schools in Saxony, but they | are foundation schools, or schools main- tained by charitable societies. Throughout Germany the secondary schools consist of higher elementary schools, and secondary schools proper. There are three kinds of se- condary schools : the Gymnasium or classi- cal school ; the Real Gymnasium, answering ; somewhat to the ' modern side ' of an Eng- * lish public school, in which Latin is taught but not Greek, additional time being given | to science and mathematics ; and the Ober | Real school,' in which neither Latin nor ! Greek is taught, but greater attention is | devoted to modern languages, science, and ! drawing. The complete course in any one | of these schools occupies ten years. Pupils from the gymnasium who have obtained I the leaving certificate are entitled to enter ' any of the faculties of the university, or the polytechnic school. The leaving certi- ficates of the Real Gymnasium and the Ober Real schools carry with them similar though not such extensive privileges. There are also Lower Real schools receiving boys j from the elementary schools at twelve, and carrying through a four-years course, in some parts of the country. The secondary as well as the elementary schools are under State supervision, and the course of instruc- tion is practically the same in all schools of the same grade in the same State. The elementary schools are supported entirely by the parish or municipality in which they are situated. With regard to the cost of secondary schools the practice varies, but most of them are supported by the locality. In some cases the local authority erects the buildings and the State defrays, | in whole or in part, the current expenses ; in others, a portion of the cost is borne by the province. Some few, however, are I wholly or partially supported by ancient ! endowments. The school fees in the se- I condary schools are extremely moderate, and thus secondary instruction is placed within reach of parents of limited means to an extent altogether unknown in Eng- land. South Australia (Province of). Previous to 1875 the control of elemen- | tary education, subject to the supreme authority of the Legislature of the pro- vince (i.e. the Governor, the Legislative Council, and the House of Assembly) was in the hands of a council of education. ; But by an Act of the Legislature passed i in that year the functions of the council 192 LAW (EDUCATIONAL) were placed in the hands of a member of the executive council of the province, who, under the title of the ' Minister controlling Education/ was constituted a body corporate for the exercise of all the powers in educational matters placed in his hands by legislative enactment. Un- der this Act of 1875 (as since amended) this minister has the power (1) to decide as to the efficiency of any school not being a public school ; (2) to take a census of the school population; (3) to appoint an in- spector-general and inspectors of schools, whose duties are to make themselves ac- quainted with the general condition of all schools in their districts, by two visits at least in each year, to advise the teachers as to the best way of making improve- ments, to examine the scholars, and to report the results of their inspections to the minister; (4) to establish and main- tain public schools; (5) to appoint teachers; (6) to define the course of instruction and character of the school books ; (7) to esta- blish scholarships open for competition among scholars at public and other schools; (8) to make regulations for the training, examination, appointment, and classifica- tion of teachers, and for fixing the salaries and fees to be paid to teachers, &c. The minister is also entrusted with the ex- penditure of all the sums of money appro- priated by the Legislature for elementary education. No money can be appropriated in aid of building school premises unless the site has been vested in the minister. At the commencement of each year a sum of money is placed to the credit of each school vested in the minister in proportion to the average attendance. This money is placed in the hands of the board of advice, and is available for the purpose of repair- ing and improving the school buildings. The province is divided into districts, and boards of advice are appointed in each district by the governor of the province, to exercise general supervision over edu- cational matters, and to report to the minister on any matters affecting the general welfare of the schools. A board of advice consists of not less than three persons, who hold office for three years. Children of not less than five years or of ' more than thirteen may attend school, but attendance is compulsory for not less than thirty-five days in each quarter upon all children between seven and thirteen years of age ; and a parent who neglects to send such child to school is liable to be sum- moned, at the instance of the board of ad- vice, before a justice, and on conviction to pay a sum not exceeding 5s. for a first offence, and 20s. for every succeeding of- fence. School fees are fixed at Qd. per week for children above eight years of age, and 4c?. per week for those under that age. They are paid to the treasury. In the case of parents unable to pay these fees the board of advice has power to re- duce the fee to 3d. per week, provided the reasons for the reduction are clearly stated to the minister, who shall have the right of veto. Children of the following classes are entitled to free education : (1) chil- dren whose parents are dead, children of widows without sufficient means, (2) chil- dren whose fathers are incapacitated, (3) children boarded out by the authorities having control of destitute or orphan children. But applications for free edu- cation must be signed by the chairman of the board of advice and forwarded to the inspector-general, and be subject to the veto of the minister. The mode of staff- ing the schools is similar to that adopted in England, and monitors and pupil- teachers are recognised. The head teacher of a public school must be certificated. The course of instruction, which is laid down by the minister, follows the lines of the English code, but is drawn up with a greater regard to the training of the in- telligence of the children ; the learning of definitions by heart is deprecated until the children have formed clear ideas of the meaning of the thing defined. The Holy Scriptures in the Authorised or Douay version may be read, but the attendance at such reading is not compulsory; and no sectarian or denominational religious teaching is allowed ; the teachers must strictly confine themselves to Bible read- ing. Moral lessons the outcome of the cir- cumstances of the school and the teachers' own thoughts to enforce the necessity of cleanliness, punctuality, industry, obedi- ence, truthfulness, honesty, and considera- tion for others, must be given ; but no text-book is specified. The scale of sala- ries of teachers is determined by the mini- ster, and fixed salaries are paid to them by the treasury. Zurich (Canton of). The school sys- tem of Switzerland, of which that in force in the canton and city of Zurich is taken as an example, bears a close resemblance in LAW RELATING TO SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLMASTERS 193 many respects to that of Germany. The elementary and higher elementary (called in Switzerland secondary) education is free, and attendance is compulsory upon all children between six and fourteen years of age. They must remain in the elemen- tary school until the age of twelve, and then they must either attend the secondary school, or, if they enter into practical life, they must attend a supplementary school (Erganzungsschule) for four years. This latter school is held on two half-days a week, and its chief aim is to act as a continuation school. Elementary instruc- tion in private schools is permitted, but a very small proportion of the population (barely 3 per cent.) make use of such schools. This plan of supplementary schooling is, however, found to work un- satisfactorily, and a law is about to be passed making attendance at the ordinary elementary school compulsory up to four- teen years of age. Even now no child can be employed in a factory until the com- pletion of the fourteenth year. The so- called secondary really higher elemen- tary school has a course extending over four years, and those entering such schools and remaining in them for two years (un- til fourteen years of age) are exempt from further school attendance. The higher schools consist of the gymnasium and classical school, and the Industrie- Schule or trade school, which prepares for the polytechnic or for direct entrance into trade. The gymnasium is entered at twelve years of age, after an examination, and consists of six classes, corresponding to one year each, so that the pupils would obtain the leaving- certificate at eighteen or nineteen, which qualifies them to enter the university or polytechnic. The In- dustrie-Schule is entered at fourteen, and consists of four classes, extending over been settled that the pupil cannot be re- moved without giving a full quarter's notice or paying a quarter's fees, unless, of course, there has been a special agree- ment to the contrary. If the pupil remains even only four days of the new term, and then is obliged to return home on account of illness, the parent is bound not only to pay for the incompleted quarter, but also for the subsequent one (Collins v. Price y 5 Bing. 132). Indeed, without notice, and in the absence of special agreement, the pupil can only be removed when there is a clear case of negligence on the part of the master (Clement v. May, 7 C. & P. 678). Even in the case of a parent's bankruptcy, the bankruptcy does not bar the master's claim for the accruing quar- ter's charges (Thomas v. Hopkins, 6 Jur. KS. 301 ). The prospectus constitutes the agreement between the parent and the master, in the absence of special agree- ment. The schoolmaster, however, can- not sue the parent or guardian for cloth- ing supplied or extras taught the pupil in the absence of agreement (Clement v. May, supra). Again, the master will be liable in damages if he knowingly permits a pupil to indulge in dangerous games, whereby the pupil receives an accident, and a fortiori, he cannot sue for the medi- cal expenses connected with the child's recovery which he may have discharged (King v. Fork, 1 Stark. 423). As to the services of tutors and governesses, in the absence of special agreement, tutors and governesses are entitled to a year's notice, the hiring being a yearly one (Todd v. Kenrick, 8 Ex. 151 ; Todd v. Kellage, 17 Jur. 119). As to engagements in schools, on the other hand, a quarter's notice is. necessary to be given prior to one of the four usual quarter-days. Thus notice will not take place as from the time at which three and a half years. The first class is it is given, if given any time during the preparatory. From the second class on- quarter, but three months after the ex- wards the school bifurcates into a techni- cal and a commercial section, the former again dividing in the third and fourth years into a mathematical and a natural science section. The commercial section ends with the third year. The educa- tional vote of the canton of Zurich ab- sorbs nearly one-third of the total ex- penses of the canton. Law relating to Schools and School- masters. As between parent or guardian and the school proprietor the law has long piratioii of the current quarter (Afenzies v. Jameson). But immediate dismissal may take place where the teacher uses profane or seditious language before the pupils, speaks disrespectfully of his em- ployer to his pupils, is guilty of drunken ness, or acts in disobedience to the rea- sonable orders of his employer. Engage - ments for a longer period than a year should be in writing, in accordance with the Statute of Frauds. Board schools are governed by the Elementary Education 194 LEARNING LIBRARIES Act; 1870. The law carefully protects pupils from being cmelly treated, but teachers may chastise them in a reason- able manner for disobedience to reason- able orders. Each case of alleged cruelty must be considered on its own merits, and teachers must ever use their own discre- tion. This, however, may be said, that the pupil must not be hit about the head or face, there must be no wounding or discoloration of any part of the body, and no such treatment as might tend to injuriously affect the health of the child. For any such maltreatment the teacher may be liable in fine, imprisonment, or damages. In the case Roberts v. Fal- mouth Urban Sanitary Authority , tried in the Queen's Bench Division February 6, 1888, it was decided that a head-master of a public elementary school cannot secure compensation for loss of school fees when the school is closed by order of the autho- rities during an epidemic. Learning. See ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE. Lesson. See NOTES OF LESSONS, OB- JECT LESSONS, and METHOD. Liberal Education. This term is fre- quently used synonymously with collegiate or university education, but there is no good reason for thus restricting its mean- ing. It signifies generally an education which embraces a fair knowledge of litera- ture, science, and art, acquired for its own sake rather than for an objective purpose. It is difficult, however, to define the term accurately. According to Lord Brougham , the liberally educated man is he who has learnt * something of everything and every- thing of something,' and according to Pro- fessor Huxley, he 'who has learnt to love all beauty and his neighbour as him- self/ _ Libraries. In giving a brief account of some of the largest educational and refer- ence libraries in England of the present day, it may be interesting to trace the ear- liest known approaches to such institutions in ancient days ; and to indicate correspond- ing collections of valuable manuscripts and books in the neighbouring cities of Europe. To Osymandyas of Memphis is ascribed the honour of being the earliest librarian on record, while Pisistratus first founded a library among the Greeks at Athens. Alexandria boasted of one of the most famous libraries of antiquity. Both Julius and Augustus Csesar founded libraries at Rome ; and no less than twenty-eight public libraries existed in that city prior to the inroads of the barbaric hordes. Charlemagne was the patron and founder of the public libraries in France ; and Pope Nicholas Y. of the priceless treasures of the Vatican library. The capitals of nearly all European countries boast of splendid public and private libraries, containing precious manuscripts and historical re- cords : those of Gottingen, Munich, Paris, Vienna, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Bologna, and Prague, having an average of 400,000 volumes. Our own country is not far behind, having the valuable collections of ancient manuscripts and books deposited both at the British Museum and Bodleian Library at Oxford, in addition to which are the splendid possessions of the Oxford and Cambridge Universities, bestowed on the various college libraries of either city. There are also immense educational refer- ence libraries attached to the universities of Edinburgh, Dublin, Glasgow, London, St. Andrews. There are the libraries of Lambeth, the House of Commons, Foreign Office, Guildhall, Inner Temple (founded 1540), Lincoln's Inn (1497), Patent Ofiice, London Library, Sion College, Thames Embankment, South Kensington (which includes education, science, Dyce L., and Forster L.), the University Library, and over forty others, containing over ten thousand volumes each. The libraries attached to the various hospitals, scientific institutions of London, and other large cities, constitute an important factor in the educational statistics of the day, while many places are rapidly adopting the Free Library Act, by means of which Birming- ham has already (1887) accumulated some 100,000 volumes, Birkenhead 60,000, Bris- tol 50,000, Dundee 35,000, Leicester 20,000, Manchester Free Public Library 150,000. The university libraries for the most part are accessible only to men students, though the books they contain are to some extent obtainable by resident women students. South Kensington libraries are open by students' tickets to eligible persons of either sex, as also the British Museum and Free Libraries. The College of Preceptors and the Teachers' Guild Library, both very small modern institutions, are especially adapted to the wants of school teachers, though they should perhaps find mention here as supplying a want long felt in the world of education. The immense re- LICENCE (TEACHER'S) LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPII 195 sources open to English, Scotch, and Irish students may be better appreciated when \ve consider the fact that a list of no less than 160 libraries, each containing over 10,000 volumes, is given in the Encyclop. Brit., eleventh edition, and most of which contain nearly 20,000, some as many as 50,000 and 90,000 volumes. A further list is given of 170 other libraries, containing under 10,000 volumes in each case. In Great Britain any attempt that has been made at the formation of elementary and secondary school libraries has been due chiefly to purely voluntary effort, no assist- ance being given by the State. In many of the States of Xorth America, as well as in some other countries, legislative pro- vision has been made for supplying schools and school districts with libraries. The first grant that was made for that pur- pose in America was in 1827. The value of such libraries depends wholly upon ad- ventitious circumstances ; but to be of real use they should be composed of in- structive books and those interesting to children. They should be informative, and should be such as would incite in the pupil a taste for reading. They will thus train the pupil's mind from a love of the * penny dreadful,' and assist the mental and moral training. Teachers can greatly help in popularising school libraries by illustrating the subject of instruction with reference to some work in the library. Licence (Teacher's). Such a licence is a legal qualification to give instruction. It is conferred after examination, and at- tested by a diploma or certificate. The holder becomes a certificated teacher. The object of the licence is to * protect "the interests of the community against the ovils arising from the employment of incompetent persons by those who might not be able to test the qualifications of ap- plicants, or who might, from favouritism or corrupt motives, be willing to employ j as teachers persons not possessing the | requisite qualifications.' The Elementary Education Act, 1870, provides for Eng- land that ' before any grant is made to a school the Education Department must be satisfied that the principal teacher is j certificated ; ' and that teachers, in order j to obtain certificates, must ' be examined j and must undergo probation by actual service in school.' The Act further pro- vides that 'after successfully passing their -examinations they must as teachers con- i tinuously c 'gage in the same schools, ob- tain two favourable reports from an in- spector within an interval of one year I between them, and if the first of these reports be not preceded by service of three months (at the least) since the examina- tion, a third report must be made at an interval of one year after the second re- port, and, if favourable, a certificate is issued.' * Teachers under probation satisfy the conditions which require that schools i be kept by certificated teachers.' The Scottish Education Act, 1872, provides that ' no person shall be appointed to the office of principal teacher who is not the holder of a certificate of competency/ which is obtained after examination. ! Two years' attendance at any one of the normal schools is a condition precedent to such examination. The Scottish uni- versities confer the degree of Literate j in Arts (L. A.), a teacher's degree, on those | who have been students in the faculty of I arts for two sessions, and have attended five classes in that faculty, so as to include four at least of the seven subjects for graduation in arts. The University of Edinburgh grants a schoolmaster's diploma to graduates in arts on passing examina- ; tion in education and kindred subjects, and the University of London grants cer- tificates to those who, being graduates of that university, have passed the examina- tion in the art, theory, and history of education. The College of Preceptors also grants diplomas, for which principals and teachers of private schools are eligible, i and the joint examination board of the Froebel Society and the Kindergarten Association of Manchester grant certifi- cates after examination to students and teachers of the Kindergarten system. Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph (b. 1742, d. 1799), a German man of letters, was the eighteenth child by the same marriage of the pastor of Ober-Ramstadt, near Darmstadt. From an early age Lichtenberg had been interested in the system of education prevailing in German schools and colleges. He had witnessed some changes introduced on account of the writings of Rousseau and his French followers, and of Basedow of Hamburg. Of some of these he approved, but to the greater part he applied the unsparing ridicule with which he always assailed the pedantic affectations of originality and the senseless love of change. Al- o2 196 LIGHTING OF SCHOOLROOMS LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN" though fully aware of the advantages of a regular education, he never forgot that the substantial improvement of the cha- racter depends upon artificial instruction to a very small extent. The most careful education, he perceived, cannot create a single new faculty ; and in a civilised age no neglect can prevent the develop- ment of the faculties that exist ; their growth may be retarded by unfavourable circumstances, but their vigour may be more radically injured by excessive cultiva- tion. Education should not be mechanical or coercive, and discipline should not be bookish. His dictum was that ' the object of all education is to form virtuous, intel- ligent, and strong-minded men.' Lighting of Schoolrooms. See ARCHI- TECTURE OF SCHOOLS. Ling, Peter Henrik (b. 1766, d. 1839), the Swedish gymnast, a native of Sma- land, and graduate of Upsala University, was, on account of his weakened consti- tution, led to direct his attention to fen- cing and gymnastics as a means of cure for rheumatism and partial paralysis, with which he was attacked in his right arm ; and his success was the first incentive to the exertions he afterwards made to establish a treatment of diseases by these means. He was at the University of Lund in 1805, where he lectured on Norse mythology, taught modern lan- guages and fencing, while he at the same time wrote poetry of no common merit. As he saw that the body and soul of men reacted upon each other, he aimed at ' the perfection of the organism by means of the combined and harmonious action of these two principles, restoring by his system the equilibrium which indolence, disease, or a too exclusive cultivation of the intellectual faculties may have dis- turbed.' Thus his system led him to in- quire into the laws of therapeutics, and by studying the motory action of the body he was led to devise a system of movements, varied both in their character and in the degree of strength. He con- tended that the mechanical agency of the body, equally with the chemical and men- tal actions of certain organs, should be considered in the treatment of disease, and he believed that to the neglect of this side of the question many of the ailments of the body were to be attributed. He was an ardent advocate of his system, and his Theory and Principles of Gymnastics (Stockholm, 1840) is considered a work of power. Literae Humaniores. See SCHOOLS. Literature. See ENGLISH. Literature for Children. It is neces- sary to distinguish between books about children and books for children. The for- mer are numerous, the latter comparatively few. Not many writers of children's books have the art of looking at the world with a child's eyes, feeling with a child's heart, speaking with a child's ideas and a child's words. More often than not, situ- ations, experiences, ideas, feelings, are in- troduced quite out of keeping with the little actors in the story, and quite beyond the mental reach and sympathy of young readers. False and unreal views of life are given, and what is in its essence wrong is unwittingly rendered amusing and attrac- tive. A thorough scapegrace is made a charming hero ; and the tales are strongly sensational, or full of morbid sentimentality or mere goodiness. The reverse of all this is what is wanted. Literature for children may be divided into fairy tales, jables y and tales with a 'moral purpose, domestic, tales, tales of adventure, tales of science and useful information, historical tales, travels, and biographies. Fairy tales are the poetry of the early world, and of childhood. They are admirable in their imaginativeness, simplicity, and manner of talking. But they require caution, for they are apt to be full of old prejudices, and to introduce- matters not proper for children. All elder brothers and sisters, and all stepmothers- are not selfish and wicked ; Jack takes too keen a delight in slaughtering, and Puss in Boots lies, and makes others lie, with too charming an ease. But many are wholly unobjectionable, and all are delightful ;. while the exercise they afford to the- imagination is of great value. Fables are frequently amusing if told withival humour as are some of -ZEsop's ; and if the moral be not too prominent, and the characters, fairly in keeping with those of the animals, &c., which are introduced. Tales with a moral purpose are usually dull and heavy. Hans Andersen's, however, are delightful exceptions ; and some of Miss Edge worth's can still be read with pleasure by children. Domestic tales for the young are apt to be morbid and sentimental ; nevertheless, many good examples exist in English. Of these the best of the more recent examples are by Mrs. Ewing and Mrs. Molesworth., LITERATOR LOCKE, JOHN 197 Both of these writers, however, have a strong tendency to write about, rather than for, children. Tales of adventure are pro- verbially delightful to children, who love action above all things ; but indulgence in them is dangerous. Many are of the * nightmare ' class ; nearly all abound with unjustifiable and even wicked doings hidden in a glare of romance ; and all are liable to be too exciting, and to render the simple doings and duties of every-day life stale and distasteful. Taken in moderation, however, the best of them compensate for the harm they do by the widening of in- terests, the manliness (not to be confused with mere fierceness and recklessness) and the fidelity which they tend to produce. Tales of science and useful information may often serve to create and to feed a very valu- able curiosity. Historical tales, when not wholly of blood and murder, will do this for the special department of history. The best are too well known to need mention. Travelssmd biographies, when the subjects are well chosen and worthy of attention, and when they are well told, have long charmed and will never cease to charm both young and old ; and it is difficult to imagine a better way of gaining a general knowledge of the earth and of man's doings on it than by reading the numberless fine examples of both which we possess in English. Literator. See ROMAN EDUCATION. Literature of Pedagogy. See BIBLIO- GRAPHY OF PEDAGOGY (appendix). 'Little Go.' See PREVIOUS EXAMINA- TION. Local Examinations were instituted by the University of Cambridge in 1858. For seven years the examinations were open to boys only, but in 1865 a Grace of the Senate, at the request of Mrs. Grey, Miss Shirreff, and others (see EDUCATION OF GIRLS), admitted girls also. In 1867 girls were put permanently on the same footing as boys at the examinations, ex- cept that the names of the successful candidates were not given in the class lists in the case of girls unless they de- sired it. Local examinations were subse- quently adopted by Oxford, and are now held also in connection with the Scottish universities, and Dublin and Durham. The examinations are conducted at various places throughout the country, by means of printed papers set by a central body of examiners, and worked by the candidates in presence of examiners sent down by the respective universities. Candidates for the Cambridge or Oxford local exami- nations are either juniors or seniors. The former are under sixteen, and the latter under eighteen years of age. Every can- didate pays to the Syndicate (q.v.) a fee of II. The local expenses of providing an examination-room, stationery, &c., are | borne by the local committee of manage- J ment at each centre of examination, and to meet these expenses an additional local fee, which is usually from 5s. to 10s., is charged to each candidate. Full details as to the conditions and subjects of ex- amination will be found in the calendars of the universities in connection with I which the examinations are held. (See also SYNDICATE and OXFORD AND CAM- | BRIDGE SCHOOLS EXAMINATION BOARD.) I Examinations of a kindred character are also held by the Society of Arts, Trinity College, London, and the College of Preceptors (q.v.). Certificates of having passed these examinations exempt candi- dates from certain preliminary examina- tions of the universities and other public bodies. Locke, John (1632-1704), the author of the Essay on the Human Understanding, \ and the founder of the English school of psychology, claims attention also as the writer of a short treatise on education. This work, entitled Some Thoughts con- cerning Education (pub. 1693), grew out of notes of letters which Locke, during his first stay in Holland, had written to his friend Edward Clarke, on the best way of bringing up his children. Locke had the rare advantage of speaking on education from the double platform of psychological theory and personal experience. As the first great English psychologist who syste- matically attempted to analyse mind into its elements, and who, rejecting the hypo- thesis of innate ideas as unnecessary, traced all intellectual products to experience (sen- sation and reflection), Locke naturally attached a new importance to education. To him the infant mind is a blank sheet (tabula rasa) on which experience has to write, and he is consequently disposed to ascribe the manifold differences of intelli- gence and character that we see among men much more to diversities of circum- stances and education than to any original differences of aptitude and disposition. He may, as Hallain maintains, greatly ! exaggerate the effect of external influences . 198 LOCKE, JOHN and, read in the light of the new evolution psychology, which accentuates the fact of individual variation and the part played by heredity, Locke's account of the pro- cess of mental growth seems almost nai've in its simplicity. At the same time his psychological standpoint compelled him to trace out in a much more careful and thorough way than is usually done the many less obvious effects of circumstances, example, and habits of life on the growing mind. While Locke was thus particularly well qualified to deal with education from the theoretic side, his own experience, both as pupil and teacher, supplied him with ample material for attacking its practical problems. Like other independent youths, he was wearied and disgusted by the barren pedantries of the scholastic system under which he was brought up (at Westminster and Oxford), and was first stimulated by these experiences to reflect on the right methods of education. To this there suc- ceeded a fair amount of experience as tutor, of which that in the Shaftesbury house was the most important. This per- sonal contact with the work of teaching, combined with the decidedly practical bent of mind which makes Locke so typical an English thinker, accounts for the thoroughly practical character of the Thoughts. The influence of previous writers on education seems to have been very slight, that of Montaigne being the only one which is distinctly traceable in the Thoughts. The little treatise is faulty enough in point of arrangement and style, a fact to be ac- counted for by the manner of its production. As its title suggests, it consists rather of stray reflections than of a carefully reasoned theory. At the same time, it deserves the place it now firmly holds among educational classics. It must be remembered that Locke is avowedly dealing with the cir- cumscribed, if highly complex, educational problem of fashioning a gentleman. Hence it is home-training by a tutor, such as Locke had himself carried out in Lord Shaftesbury's family, that is exclusively discussed. Physical education, including the furtherance of health and bodily vigour as well as the acquisition of physical ac- complishments, naturally receives a large share of attention, the more so as Locke had not only studied medicine, but held the double post of physician and tutor in the Shaftesbury home. Next to bodily health come as essential requirements of the gentleman, virtue, wisdom, breeding, | and learning. With respect to intellectual education Locke has been accused of carry- ing his utilitarianism too far, by insisting on estimating knowledge only by its bearing on the work of life. But this is to do scant justice to his teaching. No writer is more profoundly impressed with the value of intellectual training itself. This may be seen by the emphasis he lays on the general or varied culture of the facul- ties, both in the Thoughts and in the short essay Conduct of the Understanding, which should be read with the first. In truth, as a recent editor of Locke puts it, he understood by education 'rather the train- ing and disciplining of the mind into good habits, than the mere tradition of know- ledge.' With respect to moral education, Locke aimed at the production of a dis- passionate being in whom reason is supreme. Locke's ideal of physical and of moral training may alike be criticised as erring by excess of severity. His recommenda- tions for hardening the bodies of children, as well as his counsels against indulging children's wishes, were actually objected to by his friend Molyneux ; yet it is curious to- note that the greatest of German thinkers, Iramanuel Kant, follows Locke pretty- closely in both these particulars. The central principle of the Thoughts is that the end of the educator is to settle in the pupil, by steady unremitting practice, in- tellectual and moral habits] and, though the reader may now and again be disposed to resent the repetition of the dictum, he can hardly complain that its importance has been exaggerated. Although adopting private tuition as preferable to school, because of its more complete supervision, Locke fully recognised the influence of companions on the mind and character of the young : and he seeks to evade the difficulty of solitary education by exacting the maximum in the way of attention from the father and the tutor. The value of Locke's Thoughts resides partly in the force with which he illustrates the funda- mental principle of his theory already indicated, and partly in the good sense and impartiality with which he handles alii questions of detail. His remarks on the way to deal with children's weaknesses, on their timidity, on praise and blame, on pun- ishment, on satisfying curiosity, and many other pressing problems of every -day educa- tion, will always be worth a careful perusal LOG-BOOK LONG VACATION 199 by all who have to guide and control chil- dren, whether in the home or in the school. (See Some Thoughts concerning Education, with introduction and notes by the Rev. R. H. Quick, M.A.; also, Cor duct of the Understanding, edited by Prof. T. Fowler. The German reader may consult Dr. Schuster's introduction to the translation of the Thoughts in Karl Richter's Pcida- gogische Bibliothck.) Log-Book. The log-book is a diary or journal, the keeping of which is com- pulsory in all public elementary schools. It must be stoutly bound, and contain not less than 300 ruled pages. It is kept by the head teacher, who is required to record in it such events as the introduc- tion of new books, apparatus, or courses of instruction, the visits of the inspector or of managers, absence or failure of duty on the part of any member of the staff, or any incident or circumstance to which it may be useful or interesting to refer at some future time. Entries must be con fined to matters of fact ; ' reflections or opinions of a general character ' are ex- pressly forbidden. All reports made by the inspector, whether after a ' surprise visit ' or after the annual inspection, must be copied ' verbatim,' and signed by the correspondent of the managers. When the annual report has been received the school staff must also be entered, and all changes afterwards occurring in it must be recorded. Logic. Logic is commonly defined as the science of reasoning, or of the * laws of thought ' which underlie reason- ing. As employed about the reasoning process it is connected with, and indeed based on, Psychology (which see). It differs from psychology in that it seeks to deter- mine the necessary conditions of sound or correct reasoning. Logic, in short, is not only the science but the art of reason- ing. It is now commonly divided into two parts, (1) deductive or formal, and (2) inductive or material logic. Formal logic is concerned with the formal or- rectness of our thinking processes, and its rules guide us in seeing clearly all that is necessarily implied in our pi oppositions. It deals successively with terms, proposi- tions, and syllogisms, that is to say, the verbal forms in which the three growingly complex products of thought, concepts, judgments, and reasonings embody them- selves. The formulation of the true prin- ciples of inductive research is an exceed- ingly difficult matter ; and, in spite of the recent contributions of J. S. Mill, Stanley Jevons, and others, it is far from being finally settled. Hence the study of inductive logic ought to follow that of deductive. Very different opinions have been held as to the practical value of logic, but it is agreed by most writers that the study of the science, by supplying us with a simple method of analysing and testing our reasoning processes, enables us to carry these out with greater certainty and ease. To the teacher the study of de- ductive logic, connecting itself so closely as it does with the science of Grammar (q.v.)j may be said to be of the highest value. Familiarity with the logical dis- tinctions among terms, propositions, and arguments will serve not only to clear up his own thoughts, but to guide him in presenting facts and truths in the clearest way to the learner's mind. This applies with particular force to certain portions, such as the doctrine of logical division and definition, and of the obversion and conversion of propositions (immediate in- ferences). The doctrine of method, or the scientific arrangement of thoughts, which has been proposed by some writers as an additional division of the subject, has a very close bearing on the teacher's work (see METHOD). The study of the principles of inductive logic, by rendering the mind familiar with the methods of scientific investigation and the grounds of scientific certainty, will be found very useful to all who have to teach science. It is worth considering whether certain portions of logic might not with advant- age be introduced at the end of the school curriculum. (For an account of the nature and scope of logic see Jevons, El. Lessons, i. ; Bain, Deduct. Logic, Introd., p. 30, and following ; Encyclopedia Britann. (9th ed.), article ' Logic.') London University. See UNIVER- SITIES and PROVINCIAL COLLEGES. Long Sight. See EYESIGHT. Long" Vacation. At both Oxford and Cambridge the majority of the men are down before the end of June, and do not come up again until the second week in October. The interval is the ' long vaca- tion.' At Oxford the men who keep Trinity term remain up until the Satur day after the first Tuesday in July. At Cambridge, men reading for a tripos may 200 LOOK-AND-SAY METHOD LYCEUM obtain permission to be in residence dur- ing July and August. It is not counted as a term, but it is a most valuable op- portunity for coaching free from the dis- tractions of term time. Look -and -Say Method. This is a method of teaching reading without spell- ing ; children being taught to recognise at sight, and to pronounce, words as wholes. A child is given a general impression of the look of a word, and then this ' visual impress' is made vivid by analysis and lasting by repetition. An easy sentence is written on the black board or exhibited on a tablet. The teacher points to the words and pronounces them one after the other, the children several times repeat- ing the sounds simultaneously after the teacher. Then the teacher points to the words and requires the children to pro- nounce them without help forwards, backwards, and taken anyhow. Then single children are called on to pronounce the words pointed to in any order. Then comes the analysis. The teacher asks the children the number of letters in each word ; tells them the names and sounds of each letter ; calls on them to pick out the same letters on an alphabet card ; and sets them to print the words on their slates. The eye, like the ear, more readily takes in things as wholes, remembers a word as a whole, and associates its meaning with ' its form just as the ear associates its meaning with its sound. The method has, therefore, much to be said in its favour. No one can really be said to read until he takes in words at a glance. This method teaches him to do so from the very first. It likewise helps him considerably to learn liow to spell English words for in this the memory of the eye, the * look ' of the word, is generally our chief practical aid. Unless care be taken, however, the pro- nunciation which depends on the dis- tinct articulation of every separate sound is very likely to suffer. Luther, Martin (6. Eisleben 1483; d. 1546), was the son of a miner and metal worker. His parents gave him a good education. At the age of fourteen they sent him to study Latin at Magdeburg and at Eisenach. His father designed him for law, but his piety led him to join the order of St. Augustine. We have not here to deal with his long search after truth in the Bible, his fearless quarrel with the popish authorities, and his work as a reli- gious reformer, but merely with his views as a practical educationist. ' If I were not a minister of the Gospel,' he said, ' I should like to be a schoolmaster.' He boldly proclaimed the necessity of educa- tion for all, and exposed the absurd methods of ' darkening knowledge ' in vogue in schools previous to the Reformation. In 1520 he came out boldly on the question in his Letter to the German Aristocracy, and in 1524, in his Letter to the Governing Bodies of all the Towns of Germany. In the former he demanded the reorganisa- tion of the universities and schools, whilst in the latter he urged that it was the duty of the authorities to ameliorate the con- dition, intellectual and moral, of the people. In 1525 he even organised a school at his native Eisleben. Amazed at the ignorance of the people, he drew up in 1529 his Great and Small Catechisms, and introduced them into the schools for religious instruction. In 1530 he published a sermon. On the Necessity of sending Children to School. These were followed by various other sepa- rate works, besides the numerous passages which abound in his writings in favour of sound education. Whilst he maintained that parents ought to educate their chil- dren, he openly avowed that, where they failed to do so, it was the duty of the ma- gistrates to interfere, and take the matter into their own hands. He advocated that boys and girls should not be taught more than two hours a day, as the former ought to have time to learn a trade, and the latter to learn domestic duties. In his instruc- tions to inspectors he gave a detailed ac- count of the work to be done, and the authors to be read, c. The list is full of sound sense and sound religion. See LAW (EDUCATIONAL), sect. Saxony, and REFOR- MATION. Lyceum (Gr. AVKCIOS = the wolf -slayer). This term has assumed various meanings in different ages and countries. Among the Greeks it signified the gymnasium with covered walks in the eastern suburb of Athens, where Aristotle taught, so named from the neighbouring temple of Apollo Lyceus. Among the Romans it signified an educational establishment, such, for instance, as that in the Tuscula- num of Cicero, or in the villa of Adrian at Tibur. Nowadays it generally denotes a second-class training school, a school or literary seminary between a common school and a college. In France it is the highest LYDDA (SCHOOL OF) MANN, HORACE mdary school, containing eight ^..^.^o, ., ^*le in Italy it fills the place of the higher classes of the German gymna- sium. In English-speaking communities the term is applied to an association for 201 literary improvement by means of lectures on science and literature. Lydda (School of). See SCHOOLS OP ANTIQUITY, sec. Jicdea. M Madras System, See MONITORIAL SYSTEM. Maintenon, Marquise de (6. 1635 ; d. 1719). The family name of this re- markable woman was Francoise d'Aubigne. She was the granddaughter of a distin- guished French Protestant writer, Theo- dore A. d'Aubigne, and was born in a prison, where her father was incarcerated for his heretical opinions. After her father's death Francoise was converted to the Catholic faith, and at sixteen mar- ried the poet Scarron. On his death in 1669 she was reduced to poverty, and ulti- mately became governess to the two sons of Louis XIV. by Madame de Montespan. The devotion with which she discharged the duties of this position made the king her friend for life. He gave her a hundred thousand livres, with which she purchased the Maintenon estate, and created her a Marchioness. Her influence over the king gradually increased, and in. 1685 she was privately married to the Grand Monarque. Her ascendency, which remained undimi- nished down to the king's death in 1715, she employed, among other purposes, to found at St. Cyr an important school for poor girls, which she supported and super- intended with the greatest devotion from 1686 down to her death there in 1719. Her letters, edited by Lavallee, are among the most charming in the French language, and show the deep interest she took in her educational work. See (1) her Lettres sur V education des filles ; (2) Entretiens sur Veducation desfilles ; (3) Conseils aux de- moiselles : (4) Memoires des Dames de /St. Cyr, &c. Management. See SCHOOL MANAGE- MENT. Managers. Every voluntary school is under the direction of a body of managers, whose duty it is to make all necessary arrangements for its efficient working. School Boards are the managers of all schools provided by them, but they may delegate the charge of any particular school to managers appointed by them. Every body of managers must consist of at least three persons, and if the school be not pro- vided by a Board, a form signed by three managers must be sent to the Education Department, authorising one of the three to sign the receipts for grants. Managers are also required to appoint a correspon- dent with the Department. Managers are held responsible for the conduct of their schools, for their maintenance in efficiency, for the care of the health of individual scholars who may need to be withheld from examination or relieved from some part of the school work throughout the year, and for the provision of all needful fur- niture, books, and apparatus. Mann, Horace (1796-1859), a native of Massachusetts, was the most eminent and successful promoter of popular educa- tion in the United States during the nine- teenth century. After acting as classical teacher at Providence, he, in 1821, took up the study of law, and for a few years pursued the profession of advocate. In 1827 he was elected a member of the Le- gislative Assembly, and six years later of the senate of Massachusetts, becoming pre- sident of the latter body in 1836. His earliest public labours were in the cause of religious liberty, the suppression of lot- teries, the promotion of temperance, and in favour of the introduction of railways. As a lawyer, statesman, and philanthro- pist, he had achieved a great reputation among his fellow countrymen, and was already selected for the important work of codifying the statutes of his native State, when, in 1837, he abandoned all his other public and professional pursuits in order to accept the ill-remunerated post of secretary of the newly established Bureau of Education, and to devote himself thence- forward exclusively to the promotion of popular education. In this office, which he filled for twelve years with untiring i energy, working as a rule sixteen hours a day, he rendered to the cause of education 202 MANUAL INSTRUCTION services for which Americans will never cease to be grateful. In the performance of his task of spreading elementary educa- tion and improving the methods of teach- ing, Mann had recourse to three agencies : (1) he instituted a series of periodical conferences of teachers ; (2) he published a monthly periodical, The Common School Journal; and (3) he wrote Annual Reports to his committee of the progress made from year to year in the work of education. Of the nature of the subjects discussed in the periodical conferences, a volume which he published in 1840 presents a sample. The subjects of the seven conferences therein reported are: 1. 'Means and Object of Popular Schools.' 2. 'The Professional Preparation of Teachers.' 3. ' The Neces- sity of Education in a Republic.' 4. 'What God does, and what He leaves us to do in Education.' 5. ' Historical Survey of Edu- cation ; its Dignity and its Degradation.' 6. ' District School Libraries.' 7. ' School Punishments.' On the third of the pre- ceding subjects Mann delivered a stirring speech, in which he contended, with con- vincing eloquence, that the safety of society under a republic (and therefore under any form of government where the suffrage is practically universal) depends on the moral and mental education of the masses. In his Common School Journal, which he edited for ten years, he dealt with the school topics of the day, and urged his ideas in detail on teachers. His twelve Annual Reports to the Board of Education are a collection of real historical value. In 1843 Mann paid a visit to Europe for the pur- pose of making himself personally familiar with the condition of elementary educa- tion in the most advanced countries in this quarter of the globe. The results of this journey he embodied in his seventh Annual Report, which attracted unusual attention, not only in America, but also in England arid other parts of the world. The subjects dealt with by Mann in his Annual Reports embraced school architecture, school li- braries, the synthetic method of teaching reading, school hygiene, school singing, the uniformity of school text-books, the or- dinary faults of scholars, and school pun- ishments, &c. The professional training of teachers and the question of the ad- mission of women as teachers in boys' schools also largely engaged Mann's at- tention. He was, in fact, the real founder of the first Normal School in America i that which was opened at Lexington in 1839, and to which females were admitted. In the maintenance of discipline in schools, and in the formation of the personal cha- racters of the scholars, Mann attached very great value to the influence of reli- gion, in the sense of the spirit of unsec- tarian Christianity, and to this end he ad- vocates the reading of the Bible in schools. On the death of John Quincy Adams in 1848, Horace Mann was elected by a large majority to represent Massachusetts in the senate of the United States, whereupon he- resigned his position as secretary of the Massachusetts Educational Bureau. At Washington he advocated the creation of a National Educational Office for the whole of the United States, similar to the insti- tution which he had conducted with such salutary results in his native State ; but he was not destined to see the realisation of this idea, which was riot carried out until the year 1867. Towards the end of his life he accepted the rectorship of the unfortunate Antioch College in Ohio, where he died in 1859. His widow wrote a life of Mann, and edited his correspondence. In 1 865 a statue was erected to his memory, the expense being defrayed by a general subscription of all the teachers and pupils in the schools of Massachusetts. Manual Instruction is a vague phrase for the different schemes wherein pupils are to be taught : (1) to use their hands I as well as their heads, and (2) not to be ashamed of manual labour. In this sense writing, the mechanism of arithmetic, and drawing, form parts of all ordinary Eng- lish education, whilst Gymnastics, Model- ling, Turning, Slojd (q.v.), &c., are gradu- ally being introduced. Colonel Parker (School Journal, New York, December 10, 1887) defined manual training as. ' one of several modes of thought-expres- sion.' The mode of expression by means of language and symbol is most largely taught in schools. A second mode of ex- pression by forms which exhibit the idea or ideal to some extent is seen in drawing. The third mode would use actual models, specimens, and things as free as possible from conventions. It would use these for its own purposes only, lest we should have the reverse-action fault which caused a youth to define 'an atom' as 'round balls of wood invented by Dr. Dalton.' Such plans assume (1) that the present systems of primary education are too ' bookish * MANUAL INSTRUCTION 205 and unstimulating ; (2) that the education begun in the primary schools should be continued in some form, more or less op- tional, and supplied, either from local or national funds, after the youth has passed the standards or has gone to work, usually without any knowledge of the most ele- men tary facts and principles which under- lie his work. A useful article in The Spectator, January 21, 1888, states that manual instruction has been recommended from three standpoints : (1) The increase of skill on the part of the workman. (2) The necessity of 'practical teaching,' not 'book learning/ for the labouring classes. This is somewhat akin to the common answer of the Lancashire work- man to his apprentice, l Tha wants to know ta mich. Tha do exactly what a tell tha and tha'll do reet.' (3) The ne- cessity of teaching by means of things as well as by notions. This standpoint is of course part of the general platform for the teaching of science, with experiments when possible, and with the object of training the faculties of observation and manipulative skill at the same time as the mental faculties. In this respect good work has long been done at a few English public schools, and notably Clifton Col- lege. In practical chemistry and physics the little manuals by Messrs. Shenstone and AVorthington (Rivingtons) are in- stances of good pioneer work in our first- grade schools. The university colleges are making wonderful strides, and even at Oxford and Cambridge manual instruc- tion, not only in physics but in engineer- ing, may be obtained by the undergra- duates. Thring led the way by institut- ing a carpenter's 'shop' at Uppingham. But the general lack of provision for prac- tical work with mental discipline is patent in the majority of our schools. To head- masters it means trouble (especially until more teachers are trained), and to gover- nors expense. Hence misapprehension ex- ists. In the United States the cause of manual training is warmly taken up. The centre of activity is the Industrial Edu- cation Association, 9 University Place, New York ; resident and first head of the Training College (1887), Dr. Nicholas M. Butler. The importance of the move- ment is seen by the fact that in its third year of existence it could take the old Union Theological Seminary at a rent of 1,200?. a year. Its fundamental article of faith is, 'That the complete develop- ment of all the faculties can be reached only through u system of education which combines the training found in the usual course of study with the elements of manual training.' The Association claims- as a fact generally recognised, that the Kindergarten System (q.v.) produces the best results with young children, and it would combine a modified development of this system with ordinary book-learning. Industrial education comprises (1) techni- cal education, (2) manual training. The Association desires to remove the wrong impression that manual instruction means teaching trades. ' The argument is psycho- logical and educational. It is not econo- mic or utilitarian.' It takes no account of the social and economic benefits known to result from manual training. The schools are not established for the pur- pose of teaching pupils how to make a. living, but to teach them how to live. A wide-spread disinclination for manual labour is confessed ; hence this supple- mentary, or rather complementary, move- ment is expected, in the words of the Re- port from Springfield, Mass., ' to foster a, high er appreciation of the value and dignity of intellectual labour, and the worth and respectability of labouring men.' Chicago has not only a Manual Train- ing School, but a ' Women's Institute of Technical Design.' Generally speaking, where the manual feature has been intro- duced ' the kitchen and the sewing- room for the girls have held an equal place with the bench and the forge for the boys *" (Albany N.Y. Report, October 3, 1887), The Americans seem to have been par- ticularly impressed by the Imperial Tech- nical School at Moscow, the pioneer in 1868, and Government commissioners have reported in the wake of the English Tech- nical Commission. These reports, the scholastic journals, and the above Associa- tion, whose object is the creation of public interest and belief in the value of indus- trial education, should be referred to. The position of many thoughtful public men was thus given by the Governor of the State of New York in his last message to the Legislature (1877) : ' The present sys- tem is insufficient for the future needs of our American youth. I would therefore recommend making manual training, with- in certain limits, a part of the public school system, certainly in the cities and larger '204 MAPS towns of this State.' (See Bain, Science ' of Education, pp. 169, 235-36, 272-80 ; George Combe, Education: its Principles and Practice, p. 313 (Macmillan & Co., 1869) a posthumous edition by Mr. Jolly ; and R. Galloway's Education, Scientific and Technical (Triibner & Co., 1881). .Mr. Galloway gives many practical hints.) Maps. The rapidly increasing popula- rity of maps in newspapers, school text- books, &c., is intimately connected with 1:he development of geographical teaching. It is a general fault that text-books are used too much, and maps too rarely. Even in distinguished schools it is too commonly supposed that the use of an atlas is quite analogous to the use of a dictionary. Yet all teachers are aware that to teach pupils to read a map intelligently involves con- siderable training, great pains, and the use of appliances. A map (from mappa, Latin, napkin, cf. the old titles mappa mundi, &c.) is not so much a pictorial representation of a portion of the earth's surface viewed from above, as a record of the larger and more permanent features of parts of the earth's surface, which is the standpoint of geography. These features are primarily recorded on physical maps, and they should be first used. The conven- tional distinctions between charts, maps, .and plans should be noticed. It is not possible to classify the different sorts of maps here; the teacher must make the selection for his own purposes, basing subsequent meteorological, political, and historical investigations upon the physical and geological maps accessible. It is always unfortunate for pupils to have ordinary politically-coloured maps ('full- coloured' as publishers call them) placed before them in the first instance. This is a fault encouraged by limiting pupils to the use of one atlas ; it serves to keep up 1;he artificial barriers between 'political' and 'physical' geography, and produces bad effects in the study of history. Sepa- rate maps should be bought as they are .needed. Teachers and pupils should also prepare maps for their own purposes. It is often most advisable to make a graduated series of maps in the same scale of any important country. The statigrani maps, i.e. those marking statistics of a complex or political nature upon the ordinary phy- sical features, would then naturally follow the latter. The logical order is well illus- trated by Huxley's treatment of the Thames basin in his Physiography (Macmillan, 6s.). Detailed suggestions on the physical side of maps, &c., will be found in Geikie's book on The Teaching of Geography (Macmillan, 1887, 2s. Qd.). Maps are the characteristic instruments of the geographer, just as much as intra- molecular structure is the special field of the chemist. Maps are also measures of the progress of geographical science. They should not, therefore, be hastily thrust upon the beginner, any more than they should be overlooked at later stages. From the topography of the neighbourhood is to proceed in the most natural way from the known to the unknown. Simple plans based on (i.) familiar bearings, and (ii.) the cardinal points, should lead to further knowledge 'out of bounds.' Scale should be attended to at a very early stage. The maps of the Government Ordnance Survey (agents : Stanfords, Charing Cross, London, S.W., or local map publishers) should be used by the teacher, and introduced to the elder stu- dents. The usual English method of a scale of one inch to the mile is a re- duction of ~^. These representative fractions are conveniently given on Conti- nental maps in exact round numbers, e.g. 1 : 20,000,000 for a small map of Europe. The metric system should not be neglected, and a table of comparison scales kept for use. It is well worth remembering that thirteen square, or eight linear kilometres equal about five English statute miles. The distinction between statute miles and geographical miles or knots should be carefully taught, and the latter preferred. Localisation by means of meridians and parallels should come later, and the amount of geometry and astronomy to be taught is a matter of circumstances. The reading of maps as a selection of geographical matter is the first thing to be aimed at, and the constant reference of the geogra- pher's material to places and to maps involves a supply, variety, and selection of the latter in schools which is not yet (1888) recognised by the majority of them. The public have also to learn to discrimi- nate between good and bad maps. The publishers of good maps in Britain are few in number. Teachers should therefore encourage those who make cartography a speciality, and it will soon be found that British publishers are prepared to compete with the leading Continental ones. The MAP PROJECTIONS MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 205. education of teachers in this matter will soon react on the publishers' stocks. Mean- while the teacher should always make free i use of the blackboard, globes, pictures, and occasionally, at least, of the magic-lantern. Map-drawing is too much treated as a I drawing, not a geographical exercise. Time and common sense are both against elabo- rate home lesson maps drawn on blank paper. The insertion of meridians after the outline defeats one of the objects of the lesson. Outline maps for 'filling in/ either in or out of school, can be purchased. The 'blank projections ' sold are very useful I in testing knowledge, or for use in school ', lessons on contours. Much greater variety with more intelligent system is needed. The chief object here should be to get pupils to know the main outline of the world as they know the multiplication table. Advanced students with some knowledge of mathematics may usefully acquire some of the elements of surveying, checking their results by the ordnance maps. Provided that principles and me- thods are studied, the work has much educational value, and is much practised in military schools. The Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society contain papers by eminent travellers describing how their observations were made. Young men likely to visit comparatively unknown regions should learn the use of the chief i instruments before they go abroad. Faci- ! lities are provided by the Society (Address : | The Secretary, 1 SavileRow, London, E.G.). | Intending travellers can now, by arrange- i ment, be instructed in (1) surveying and mapping, (2) geology, (3) botany, (4) pho- tography ; fee, 2s. Qd. an hour. The mag- nificent collection of maps is open free to teachers from 10 to 5, on Saturdays from 10 to 2 p.m. The Teachers' Guild (17 Buckingham St., Strand, W.C.) has a use- ful circulating library of books, , 1644. It is described by the author as ; that voluntary idea which hath long in silence presented itself to me of a better education, in extent and compre- hension far more large, and yet ofttimes far shorter and of attainment far more certain than hath been yet in practice.' Of such a well-known book an analysis would be superfluous, and it has been re- cently edited for the Pitt Press by Mr. O. Browning. All we can here attempt is to define Milton's- historical position, and consider his claims to be numbered among educational reformers. In Milton's trac- tate we see the advance which even literary men nursed on the writings of Greece and Eome had made towards the study of nature. Unfortunately we have no Eng- lish word answering to the German Real- iitii-tus, so when we speak of 'real realism' and ' verbal realism,' we must explain our meaning. The scholars of the Renascence turned away from the material world to study first the style, then the thoughts, of the great writers of antiquity. But from Rabelais onwards there was a protest raised against this idolatry of the classics, and ' things, not words,' were proposed as the true subjects for teaching. But so ac- customed was every one to turn to books for instruction, that the first realists were what the Germans call ' verbal realists,' i.e. they would teach indeed about things, but for this teaching they would use not the things themselves, but books about them. Milton shows a great advance on the classicists of his day in declaring that the learning of languages was in itself use- less, and that the scholar might be inferior to the unlettered man who knew his mother tongue ; but he hardly went so far as Ra- belais in recommending the study of actual things, and he would use the ancient wri- tings to give information which would have proved totally out of date and worthless. Thus he would incite and enable his pupils hereafter to improve the tillage of their country by the study of the great authors of agriculture, Cato, Varro, and Columella.. For all that appears in the Tractate, the works of Bacon were to Milton a book with seven seals. And in the study of literature there is the same blind reverence for antiquity. Among the poets which will be read with care and pleasure are third-rate authors, such as Nicander, Op- pian. Dionysius; but Chaucer, Spenser,, and Shakespeare are ignored, and indeed the only modern authors recommended are those who write of the use of the globes. Judged from a modern point of view, the- Tractate has another and even more radical defect. Its chief aim is the communica- tion of knowledge, not the training of faculty. It inculcates omniscience, and there is not a hint of the desirability of specialisation, or the duty that is laid on every master to study and further the in- dividual bent and inclination of his pupils. Milton's ideal pupil is equally ready to be prime minister, command the Channel fleet r and occupy the chair of poetry, rhetoric, or philosophy. Milton takes his own powers- as the standard of human capacity, and would form men in his own image. With haughty self-reliance he formulates his owm scheme of education, and sneers at Modern Janua's and Didactics, the two monumental works of his great contemporary which were revolutionising the art of teaching. In spite of these radical defects we shall not with Mr. Pattison pronounce the Trac- tate valueless as a contribution to educa- tional theory, and of purely biographical interest. 1. Negatively, as a protest against the Public School Education of England, which still in a great measure survives, its influence has been great. It is the armoury whence our modern reformers Farrar, Huxley, Seeley, Quick have bor- rowed their keenest shafts. 2. Positively,, it sets before the teacher a noble, if some- what vague and shadowy ideal. Even Mr. Pattison allows that Milton's definition of education has never been improved upon : 1 1 call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly,, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.' 3. Although the intellectual curriculum- he proposes is absurdly ambitious on the .-220 MIND (SCIENCE OF) MNEMONICS -one hand, and pedantically narrow on the other, as deriving all knowledge from the medium of books, yet Milton was the first of the moderns to insist on the co-ordina- tion of physical, moral, mental, and aesthetic training. ' The best teachers of the present day may well have the same object at heart; and they need not be ashamed to learn from a man who may have made a thousand mis- takes, but who nevertheless had a wisdom and a righteousness of purpose in him which the best and truest living will most delight to honour and to possess.' (From notes of an unpublished lecture by F. D. Maurice, delivered before the Royal In- stitution.) Mind (Science of). See PSYCHOLOGY. Mischievousness. This term refers to the disposition to do harm rather from carelessness and wantonness than from any malicious motive. A large part of children's mischievousness springs out of their destructive propensities. That the love of destruction is a strong force in the .young and in the untamed adult, is a fact of everyday observation. When the brutal instinct is clearly present in a boy's mischie- vous act, as when he breaks a thing in a fit of passion, the action is a proper subject for -reprehension, and, if need be, for punish- ment. At the same time the moral edu- cator must be careful to distinguish savage destruction from the more venial mis- chievousness which springs from mere exuberance of activity and high spirits. It is to be remembered, too, that a good deal of children's mischief-making is the outcome of curiosity and the natural im- pulse to experiment with things. As a quality whose moral gravity cannot safely t>e estimated by the amount of incon- venience it causes others, mischievousness requires very careful handling. No doubt the child must be trained to see the con- sequences of his wanton acts ; but full allowance must be made for the absence of intention. Much the same line of remark applies too to that form of mischief which, though involving an intention to provoke, springs out of childish roguishness or a love of fun. A wise parent or teacher will often prefer to pass by such mischief altogether ^rather than run the risk of betraying personal annoyance by inflicting an exces- sive penalty. (See Locke, Thoughts on -Education, 116; also article ' Unart,' in Schmidt's Encydopddie^ Mixed Education. The education of students of both sexes together. (See PEOVINCIAL COLLEGES.) Mixed Schools. See CLASSIFICATION. Mnemonics (from Gr. pvr)w, memory) is the art of assisting the memory by defi- nite rules. Various devices have been proposed in ancient and modern times for facilitating the retention and reproduction of what is learnt. These refer to verbal re- tention, as in learning off a speech, a series of names, &c. The underlying principle of the classical mnemonic system svas the association of the consecutive heads of a verbal composition with the divisions of an extended surface or enclosed space, as the compartments of a building, so that when the eye or the imagination ran over these, the order of their arrangement in space would at once suggest the order in time of the words. It is now commonly recognised that these devices can have but a very limited value, and are likely to be a hindrance rather than a help in certain cases. In modern educational systems verse-form, rhyme, and alliteration, to- gether with the investing of disconnected matter, e.g. list of exceptions to a gram- matical rule, with the semblance of a con- nected meaning, have commonly been re- sorted to for the purpose of aiding the memory. The utility of presenting verbal material, such as the chief events of a reign, in a visible form by means of a dia- gram, is well known to every teacher. All such contrivances depend for their efficiency on the working of the Laws of Association, Contiguity, and Similarity, apart or in combination (see ASSOCIATION). It is in- disputable that we all instinctively tend to shorten the process of memorising by a number of such ingenious devices, and these may properly be made use of by the teacher. At the same time, great care must be taken lest, by an excessive use of these, the learner lapse into a mechanical way of learning. It is a far better exer- cise for the mind, and for the memory too, to associate things to be learnt by their natural ties, rather than by artificial ones. And a truly scientific management and control of memory will consist in forming a habit of concentrating the mind on the subject matterto belearnt, of judiciously se- lecting important points, and arranging the whole with reference to these, and finally of making the fullest use of the laws of association in linking part with part, and the whole with what is already known . (See MODERATIONS MODERN LANGUAGES 221. D. Stewart. Els. of the Phil of the Human Mind, chap. vi. 7 ; Sully, Teacher 's Hand- book, p. 203. ike. ; and Encycl rit., art. 'Mnemonics.') Moderations ('Mods'). The public ex- amination at Oxford before the masters of the schools, which has to be passed by successful candidates for the Bachelor's degree between responsions or 'smalls 7 (which corresponds to the Cambridge Pre- vious Examination, or 'Little Go') and the second public examination before the public examiners. Modern Languages. Modern or liv- ing languages are so named in opposition to ancient and dead languages, the most important of which from a scholastic point of view are the so-called classical languages of ancient Greece and Rome the Greek (q.v.) and Latin (q.v.) and the Hebrew, in which the Old Testament or religious literature of the ancient Israelites is written. The in- trinsic value of a living language and its educational importance may be deter- mined by the following tests : (1) whether it is the key to a great literature, (2) whether it is spoken by a numerous more or less civilised population, and is there- fore useful for the purposes of commerce and industry, or diplomacy. The modern tongues answering these tests are very few as compared with the total number of living languages. They are divisible into two great sections, (1) the Western or Occidental, and (2) the Eastern or Oriental languages. Of the latter sec- tion, including Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Chinese, Japanese, and the languages of Hindostan (Hindostani, Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, Burmese, itc.), nothing further requires to be said in this place, as their study is not comprised within the ordinary curriculum of ele- mentary or secondary English schools. The Occidental languages comprise the languages of the nations of modern Europe and their numerous colonies in North and South America, Africa, and Australia. Of these the most important are : I. The Teutonic Family (daughters of the Gothic) : (a) English. (b} German. (c) Danish and Norwegian. (c/) Swedish. (e) Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, &c. II. TheGrceco-Romanic Family (daugh-- ters of the Latin and Greek) : (a) French. 'b) Italian. 'c) Spanish. (d) Portuguese. (e) Roumanian. (/) Modem Greek. III. The Slavonic Family: (a) Russian. (b) Ruthenian or Little Russian, (c) Polish. (d) Czech. (e) Serbian. (/) Bulgarian, Slovenian, &c. In addition to the preceding, the- modern European tongues include : IV. The Celtic Family : (a) Welsh. (b) Gaelic. (c) Erse. (d) Manx. (e) Armorican. V. The Lithuanian and Lettish. VI. The Albanian, spoken by the- Arnauts in the centre of the Balkan, Peninsula. The foregoing six groups represent the modern European section of the great family of languages known as the Aryan, or Indo-European. Of non- Aryan tongues there are spoken, in Europe : the Finnish, Hungarian, and Esthonian, belonging to the Altai-Ugrian Family ; the Turkish ; the unclassitiable Basque, the ancient language spoken in Northern Spain and the neighbouring dis- tricts of South- Western France ; the lan- guage of the Laplanders, and some other dialects of minor importance. Of all the living languages of Europe there are only six that can on various grounds claim to be regarded as of un- questionably first-rate importance, to wit, . English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Russian. Five of them are politically important as the native tongues and State languages of the five great Powers. All are commercially important as the languages , spoken by races numbering from thirty to forty millions in the case of Italian and Spanish, about forty-five millions in the case of French, sixty millions in the case of German (including the Germans of ' Austria and Switzerland) and Russian, and one hundred millions in the case of ' English (including the United Kingdom, . the United States, and other Anglo-Saxon, MODERN LANGUAGES colonies). In these languages, too, almost all that is valuable in modern literature ds written, and each contains a special and valuable literature of its own. In the . conventional phraseology of the scholastic profession in England, however, the term ' modern languages ' is generally used in a still more restricted sense, and is under- . stood to mean, not the mother tongue, but only two, or at the most three, foreign living languages, namely, French, German, .and Italian. French, German, and Italian. Leav- ;ing, therefore, the English language, which is dealt with in a separate article (q.v.), we shall proceed to deal with the chief foreign living languages usually taught in English schools. The possession of a competent know- ledge of a foreign living language the ability, we mean, to speak, to read, to write it, and to translate it accurately, within the limits of ordinary non- technical discourse is an accomplishment of high and often in- dispensable value, whether for the purposes of commerce, of literary and artistic culture, of travel and international intercourse, or of diplomacy and other professional pur- suits. This fact is now so universally ac- knowledged that it would be unnecessary, even if our space permitted, to attempt to prove it in detail. The disadvantages of a total ignorance of foreign languages are keenly felt from the moment one steps on foreign soil to the moment one leaves it. The advantages of linguistic attainments, on the other hand, are every day illustrated by the increasing employment of foreigners, to the detriment of Englishmen, in all our great commercial centres, and in all posi- tions in which a knowledge of a foreign lan- guage (French, German, Spanish, or Rus- sian) is indispensable. The notion that foreigners have a talent for the acquisition of foreign tongues not possessed by Eng- lishmen is, we may parenthetically ob- serve, a pure hallucination. The class of foreigners who best succeed in the way above mentioned in England are Germans, and it is only because (1) the Germans in their own country devote to the gramma- tical and oral study of tongues not their own, years of dogged, persistent labour, and because (2) the methods of teaching in German schools are superior, that Ger- mans become more accomplished linguists than Englishmen. No doubt the want of success of young Englishmen in this branch of knowledge is in no small degree attri- butable to the repeated disappointments and false notions arising from the pro- mises of charlatan professors who under- take to teach a foreign language in ' twelve easy lessons of an hour each.' But how any rational English student, who, how- ever old he may be, is aware that he does not yet even know his own language per- fectly, can be deceived by such impostures it is difficult to understand. Not only in commerce are linguistic attainments of very material value, but in diplomacy, and some other professions connected with literature, science, and the arts, a knowledge of one or more foreign living language is the conditio sine qud non, the indispens- able qualification for admission to the most distinguished and lucrative positions. The value of the study of language as a mental discipline has been highly es- teemed in all ages, and indeed cannot be over-estimated, except when it is permitted to exclude all other subjects of study, or to prevent a due share of attention being devoted to the mathematical and physical sciences. Hitherto in England this train- ing has been sought almost exclusively in the study of the classical or dead lan- guages a choice justified by the fact that those tongues are the repository of the laws and literature, the history and the philosophy, of the two great peoples who laid the foundations of European civilisa- tion, and further by the fact that those tongues are the parents of all the Romance languages, and have supplied all the modern Western languages with almost all their vocabularies of art, science, politics, and philosophy. It is now generally admitted, however, that the attention devoted to Latin and Greek in the leading English public schools is excessive. The classics, in fact, have been allowed to monopolise an amount of time and labour out of all proportion, not only to their educational value, but to the period spent at school, to the ordinary length of human life, and even to the value of their literatures for the purposes of purely liberal culture. The educational value of linguistic study depends very largely 011 the correct- ness of the method of teaching, and in this point living languages have in England always had an advantage over those of antiquity. Modern languages are far more generally taught in a natural and rational manner than the dead tongues, and their MODERN LANGUAGES 223 utility, when properly taught, as a means of training pupils to think and to employ words with accuracy in the expression of thought is, in the opinion of some autho- rities, in no way inferior to Greek and Latin. French. By reason of its prevailing clearness in point of grammatical construc- tion and logical analysis, and of the trea- sures of its literature, the French language, when rationally taught, is capable of being made a very effective instrument for train- ing the mental faculties of the student. On somewhat different grounds this may also be affirmed of German and Italian. For English youth the study of French is not only an indispensable part of a really liberal education, but it has peculiar claims on at- tention, (1) because since the Norman Con- quest the histories of England and France are so intimately connected with each other; (2) because the French language has ex- ercised so profound an influence in modi- fying the English tongue, both in its grammatical, and especially in its lexico- logical elements ; and (3) because the two nations, owing to their proximity to one another, are brought into closer and more constant intercourse, and exercise a more potent influence on one another by the ex- change of ideas, as well as of commodities, than any other two independent nations in. Europe. The characteristic style and spirit of the French form a strong recom- mendation to its study. No other tongue, ever spoken or written, is clearer or more logical in construction, or presents such a perfection or finish in style ; nor is there any other language whose analytical and synthetical study is more beneficial as a training in the accurate expression of thought. In this respect French is much preferable to German, as writers in the latter language, though often more pro- found, are seldom so perspicuous as the French. The French is, moreover, the easiest foreign language for an English- man to learn. It has given to the English tongue so many of its words, and of its formative or word-building elements, that a large portion of French grammatical forms and vocables are already familiar to English beginners. It is true that France and the French owe their name to the German conquerors of old Gaul, the Franks ; but though the language contains a number of traces of the speech of this Teutonic tribe, yet it is marvellous how small is the proportion of words and forms thus de- rived. Of the old Celtic language of Gallia the proportion existing in modern French is still smaller, hardly more than of the old British in modern English. Both in its j vocabulary and in its grammatical forms French is a daughter of the Latin, with, however, a considerable addition of words, chiefly scientific and philosophical, coming from the Greek. As to the history of the French language, it arose out of the lingua, Romana rustica, the dialect of Latin spoken in Gaul, where in the tenth century it i finally prevailed over the language of the ! ruling Frankish race ; but chiefly by the ! modifications they introduced French be- came distinguished as the lingua francica or francisca, otherwise the langue d'o'il (oui), both from the Provencal, the langue \ d'oc, and from the Italian, the langue de si. The langue d'o'il, the dialect of Northern France, became the language of the law, of the court, and of literature, under Francis L, who reigned from A.D. 1494 to 1547. The Provencal, or langue d'oc, is still the spoken dialect of Southern France. On the decline of Latin, as the medium of intercourse between scholars of different nations, French began to take its place, and in the department of diplomacy, and for the purposes of travel and international | intercourse, French has for the past two centuries held undisputed pre-eminence. It has in fact been, and still is, employed as the quasi -universal language of the polite and educated classes of allEuropeaii nations. German. In spite of the fact that German and English are far more closely related to each other than either to French, I the first mentioned tongue is found less easy of acquisition than the last by Eng- lish students. This is partly due to the retention of the old ' Black Letter,' the so-called German characters. Almost all other civilised peoples have long abandoned that variety of type for the far more legible and elegant Roman alphabet. The greatest | German scholars, like the Brothers Grimm, long advocated in vain the entire aban- ; donment of the former in favour of the I latter. Fortunately this reform is gra- dually being introduced in modern scien- . tific works, but the movement generally I is making but slow progress, although all I German children are taught both alpha- ' bets at school. Another more serious difti- | culty the German presents to English I learners is the elaborate inflexional deve- 224 MODERN LANGUAGES lopment and the complicated grammatical structure of the language. In the matter of style ordinary German compares most unfavourably with French. The one fault which is not forgiven in a French writer is inelegance and want of clearness of ex- pression. The one virtue of a German writer is to be, or at least to appear, pro- found. A German who writes anything approaching to a clear and easy style is apt by his fellow-countrymen to be deemed a charlatan. The effect of these perverted notions is that in no other modern language is there so much slovenly writing. Ger- many has within the past century produced a larger number of profound scholars men of deeper research in every depart- ment of literature and science than any other country of the world ; but German scholars habitually neglect the study of style, and the consequence is that while the press of Germany year by year turns out double or treble as many publications as either England or France, there are relatively far fewer additions to permanent literature fewer works that will live produced by German than by contempo- rary French and English writers. German works are, accordingly, more generally valuable for their substance, French for their style, and hence it would be difficult to over-estimate the value of the study of French as a supplement and corrective to that of German. Methods of Teaching. The ease and rapidity with which a language may be ac- quired, and the value of the study as a discipline of the mental faculties, depend mainly if not exclusively on the correct- ness of the method of teaching. There is proverbially no royal road to learning, or in other words no sound progress can be made in any department of knowledge without steady application, without sus- tained concentration of attention, without resolute devotion in a word, without hard mental labour. But there is a right way as well as a wrong way in going about the work of learning a foreign tongue, and a given amount of mental effort under a correct method of teaching will produce incomparably superior results to many times the labour under a perverse method. In the teaching of languages the correct method is indicated by the nature of the subject. All speech is something essen- tially oral, and no language, living or dead, can be soundly or profitably taught, espe- cially to beginners, where this fundamenta) characteristic is ignored. At the outset a language should always be taught by word of mouth. The pupils should learn first to recognise simple names or short sen- tences by ear ; secondly, to repeat the same with their own tongue, and not till then should they be taught to write them down, to spell, and to read them. The correct mode of teaching languages is by what is called the inductive method. It proceeds from particular instances to general rules, and not till the student has gathered the rules for himself from concrete examples, should he proceed to apply them deduc- tively or synthetically in forming new ex- amples. The vice of the old style of teaching the dead languages arises from the fact that the first half of this process is either wholly or partially omitted, and the pupil is hurried on to the second half without the indispensable real knowledge that can- not be gathered otherwise than by going thoroughly through the former process. Oral teaching, familiarising the ear, the tongue, the eye, and the hand with each individual word, and every separate model in words and sentences, is the indispensable foundation of sound teaching in this de- partment of education. The rules of acci- dence as well as of syntax are to be ga- thered by the pupil one by one from the comparison of a sufficient selection of model words and sentences, and in each case he must be required to use the knowledge he- has thus gained by its deductive appli- cation in the formation of fresh examples, without further aid. Thus introduced to- the study, the pupil will find the work attractive, and he will make sound and rapid progress ; while under the vicious- system too frequently in vogue with Latin and Greek, the labour becomes repulsive,, and he wastes the best years of his youth without making a tithe of the progress he would have done under the natural and rational method of instruction above in- dicated. Wherever any progress, in fact, has been made in the psedagogic art, it will be found that as regards the teaching of languages, native or foreign, the improve- ment is in principle always reducible to- the introduction of the inductive method,, or its application in some improved form the system of rising from particular cases to general rules at once followed up with, the deductive employment of the rules in. oral and written exercises. MODERN SCHOOLS, OR SIDES MONITORIAL SYSTEM 225 With regard to the teachers who have . been successful in the department of foreign tongues, the names of Hamilton, Ollen- dorff, Ahn, and others may be mentioned as owing their success to the adoption, though but in a more or less incomplete form, of the inductive method. The manuals of Mr. Prendergast, the so-called Mastery Series, may also be mentioned as very effi- cient introductions to the several languages to which the system has been applied. The various German schoolbooks of Herr Karl J. Plotz, which are also mainly founded on the correct method, likewise deserve the attention of English teachers, as amongst the most successful of their class in Ger- many during the past generation. Dr. Otto's grammars, and the Toussaint-Lan- genscheidt series will also be found among the best recent manuals published in Ger- many. See articles PRENDERGAST, PA- RALLEL GRAMMARS, and Mr. Colbeck's Lec- tures on the Teaching of Modern Languages. Modern Schools, or Sides. Modern sides may practically be considered to have originated in Dr. Arnold's opening the doors of Rugby (somewhere about the year 1830) to the subjects of modern his- tory and geography, modern languages, and mathematics, which had long cla- moured for admission into the curricula of public schools. It is true that Dr. Ar- nold set no very great store by these sub- jects; but, nevertheless, under his rule they obtained a recognised footing on the list of studies. Since his time, the public demand for 'modern' subjects has con- tinually increased; and in the Endowed Schools Commission Report of 1868, re- ceived a still more authoritative sanction. In that report the Commissioners recom- mend that in schools of the First Grade (i.e. classical schools) opportunity should be given for the advanced study of modern languages, and mathematics, or science. The introduction of these ' modern ' subjects into most, if not all, of our public schools has rendered the organisation of modern sides or schools necessary. As a rule, the modern side is distinct from the classical side as far as regards school-work. The boys on the modern side do no Greek, and somewhat less Latin than those on the classical side. They also learn French, German, mathematics, and generally some physical science (usually chemistry), a little history (usually of Greece and Rome), sometimes a little geography, and occa- sionally a little English literature. Up till quite lately, no boy of any marked ability had much chance of being allowed to go on to the modern side, that side being reserved for the incapable and back- ward. But since the universities of Ox- ford and Cambridge have more distinctly recognised 'modern' subjects, it is not wholly improbable that the Public Schools (q.v.) will before long treat these subjects, with greater respect. The subjects taught on a 'modern side' are almost exactly those recommended by the Report of 1868 for second-grade schools (see Mid.-class Schools}. Occasionally second-grade schools organised on the lines of this report are termed 'modern schools.' 4 Mods.' See MODERATIONS. Monastic Schools. See MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE). Monitorial System. The rival preten- sions of Lancaster and Bell to the honour of discovering the monitorial system oc- cupied a very large share of public atten- tion, and provoked a controversy which was carried on with much bitterness. Had , however, Lancaster and Bell been students of the literature of pedagogy they would have known that the discovery on which they prided themselves was already more than a hundred and fifty years old. In a. work so well known as the Didactica Magna, Comenius distinctly advocates the division of a school into classes of ten (which he calls decuriae) and the putting of each class under one of the best boys (whom he calls a decurio). Still, though Dr. Bell (b. at St. Andrews, 1753) was not the first to discover a monitorial system, he undoubtedly did adopt such a system, during his superintendence of the Military Orphan Asylum at Madras. Hence his system is sometimes called the Madras system. In 1797 he published an account of it. It was the unwillingness of adult teachers to carry out his wishes that led Bell to employ boy teachers. Southey tells how the idea first occurred to him. ' Happening on one of his morning rides, to pass by a Malabar school he observed the children seated on the ground, and writing with their fingers in sand which had for the purpose been strewn before them. He hastened home repeating to- himself as he went EvprjKa, "I have dis- covered it," and gave immediate orders to the usher of the lowest class to teach the alphabet in the same manner, with this- Q 226 MONITORIAL SYSTEM difference only from the Malabar mode, that the sand was strewn upon a board. These orders were either disregarded, or so carelessly executed as if they were thought not worth regarding; and after frequent admonitions and repeated trials made with- out either expectation or wish of succeed- ing, the usher at last declared that it was impossible to teach the boys in that way. If he had acted on this occasion in good will, and with merely common ability, Dr. Bell might never have cried TZvprjKa a second time. But he was not a man to be turned from his purpose by the obstinacy of others, nor to be baffled in it by their incapacity ; baffled, however, he was now sensible that he must be if he depended for the execution of his plans on the will and ability of those over whose minds he had no command. He bethought himself of employing a boy on whose obedience, disposition, and cleverness he could rely, and giving him charge of the alphabet class. The lad's name was John Frisken ; he was then about eight years old. Dr. Bell laid the strongest injunction upon him to follow his instructions, saying he should look to him for the success of the simple and easy method which was to be pursued and hold him responsible for it. What the usher had pronounced to be impossible this lad succeeded in effecting without any difficulty. The alphabet was now as much better taught as till then it had been worse than any other part of the boys' studies, and Frisken, in consequence, was appointed permanent teacher of the class. Though Dr. Bell did not immediately per- ceive the whole importance of this suc- cessful experiment, he proceeded in the course into which he had been, as it were, compelled. . . .Accordingly, he appointed boys as assistant-teachers to some of the lower classes, giving, however, to Frisken the charge of superintending both the assistants and their classes. . . .The same improvement was now manifested in these classes as had taken place in teaching the alphabet. . . .Even in this stage he felt confident that nothing more was wanting to bring the school into such a state as he had always proposed to himself, than to carry through the whole of the plan upon which he was now proceeding. And this, accordingly, was done. The experiment which, from necessity, had been tried at first with one class was systematically extended to all the others in progression. . . As to any purposes of instruction the master and ushers were now virtually superseded.' (See Southey's Life of Bell^ i. 173.) Lancaster (b. Kent St., Southwark, 1778) began to make use of monitors about 1800, and in 1803 he published an account of his plan. He did not deny that Bell had anticipated him, but he claimed, nevertheless, the credit of being a discoverer, in that he had employed monitors before he had ever heard of Bell or of his work. Speaking of the doctor's pamphlet, he remarks : * From this tract I got several useful hints. I beg leave to recommend it to the attentive perusal of the friends of education and youth. I much regret that I was not acquainted with the beauty of his system till some- what advanced in my plan : if I had known it, it would have spared me much trouble and some retrograde movements.' Lancaster, in his first letter to Bell a letter asking for counsel and help says : * In puzzling myself what to do, I stumbled on a plan similar to thine,' and the doctor, in a perfectly friendly reply, did not dispute the claim. The distinguishingfeatures of Lancaster's plan are, to quote his own words : 1. 'That by his system of order and rewards, together with the division of the school into classes, and the assistance of monitors, one master is able to conduct a school of one thousand children.' 2. 'That by printing a spelling book or any other lessons for reading in a large type. . . .they may, when suspended with a nail against the wall, be read by a number of children, a method whereby one book will serve for a whole school. 3. The introduction of slates and dictation, 'a method whereby five hundred boys may spell and write the same word at the same instant of time.' 4. ' An entire new method of instruction in arithmetic, whereby any child who can read may teach arithmetic with the utmost certainty.' 5. 'Cheapness seven shillings a year for each child in a school of three hundred, and four shillings a child for a greater number.' The system, whether of Bell or of Lancaster, was built on the assumption that a child who knows nothing of the art of teaching, and next to nothing of the subject to be taught, can be an efficient instructor, and it was, be- sides, weak in a hundred details. Yet it was of real service to the cause of education, for it made schools very cheap. Urged MONTAIGNE, MICHEL EYQUEM DE MORAL EDUCATION 227 by the British and Foreign School Society and the National Society, benevolent per- sons all over the country established and maintained schools which it would have been impossible to establish or maintain at the present rate of expenditure. Further- more, when the State resolved to subsidise elementary education, these schools were ready to receive aid at once, and could thus be brought into a satisfactory condi- tion sooner than new schools. We should also remember that monitors developed easily into pupil-teachers, and that the pupil-teacher system has produced the most skilful body of instructors the country possesses. (See Brief Sketch of the Life of Joseph Lancaster, by William Corston, London, 1840; Improvements in Education, by Joseph Lancaster, London, 1803 ; Out- lines of a Plan for Educating Ten Thou- sand Poor Children, by Joseph Lancaster, London, 1806; A Comparative View of the Plans- of Dr. Bell and Mr. Lancaster, by Joseph Fox, London, 1808.) Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de (1533- 1592), the essayist, lived in what Milton calls 'the scholastic grossness of barbarous ages,' 'ragged notions and babblements,' and when the Humanistic movement among the leaders of thought in Europe began to tell upon the education of youth. His father, a gentleman of private estate in the province of Guienne (of English de- .scent), had notions of his own as to the education of youth, and Montaigne's own views on the education of the young are very \ much a reflex of his own experience and I -character. Put in the shortest form, Mon- taigne's idea of the end of education is, | that a man should be trained up to the J oise of his own reason. ' A man can never f be wise save by his oivn wisdom.' The end of education must ever be kept in view, ;and that end is to train to right reason and independent judgment, to moderation of mind, and to virtue. Montaigne's edu- cated man is the cultivated and capable man of affairs, capable of managing his own business well, and of discharging pub- lic duties wisely. 'The most difficult and most important of all human arts is edu- cation,' he says. Lessons of philosophy in their simple and practical form are to be inculcated from the very first. Ethical training, consisting of virtue and wisdom, is the main purpose of education. The ordinary subjects of reading, writing, and casting accounts are to be taught, of course. After this, whatever you teach, avoid words simply as words. ' The world is nothing but babble. . We are kept four or five years to learn nothing but words and to tack them together into clauses ; as many more to make exercises, and to divide a continued discourse into so many parts ; and other five years at least to learn suc- cinctly to mix and interweave them after a subtle and intricate manner. Let us leave this to the learned professors ! ' Ver- nacular and modern languages must be taught. Then ' the pupil may be admitted to the elements of geometry, rhetoric, logic, I and physics ; and then the exercises which his judgment most affects he will generally make his own.' History should not be neglected. Besides moral and intellectual instruction, there should also be physical instruction ; for, ' 'tis not a soul, 'tis not a body we are training only, but a man, and we ought not to divide him.' Effeminacy i in food and clothes, or habits, ought to be j eschewed. All instruction must be essen- tially ethical and humanistic. It should be added that, like Milton and Locke, Montaigne thinks only of the education of j the sons of gentlemen. The best editions ' of Montaigne's works are those of Coste (3 vols. 4to., London, Tonson, 1724) and of Le Clere (5 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1826-28). Moral Education. This forms one of the main divisions of mental culture (see EDUCATION, THEORY OF). It includes the proper development of the active powers and the will, together with the feelings so far as they are involved in volition, with the view of rendering the individual an efficient and good citizen. Such a result can only be obtained by the formation of ! independent moral habits, which again j involve fixed internal dispositions towards what is right, or what Kant calls a good will. This building up of good habits ' and a moral character necessarily begins with the exercise of authority and the enforcement of discipline. A habit of obedience is the first element of character. This discipline must, however, be followed by a training of the will to a free and in- telligent submission to the requirements of the moral law. Moral education is the crowning phase of all education (see article KANT). It includes at once the training of the intellect to clear discern- ment, the exercise of the feelings in worthy forms of manifestation, and the stimulating of the will to right action. Q 2 228 MORAL SENSE MULCASTER, RICHARD Of the agencies to be employed here, moral instruction through concrete exam- ples drawn from real life and from books counts as an important one. A large in- fluence must be assigned to the educator's own moral example, which works through the impulse of imitation. Finally the moral educator, whether parent or teacher, must recognise the powerful influence of com- panions in forming the moral character, and control these so far as possible with a view to the furtherance of moral educa- tion. Cf. articles DISCIPLINE and OBEDI- ENCE. (On the ends of moral education see Mrs. Bryant, Educational Ends, pt. i.; on the methods of moral instruction see Locke, Thoughts, 32 following; Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, chap, vi. xi. ; H. Spencer, Education, chap, iii.; Dr. Bain, Education as Science, chap, xii.; and Compayre, GOUTS de Pe'dagogie, lee. 2.) Moral Sense. This is the name com- monly given to the faculty which we exer- cise when we approve what is morally right, disapprove what is morally wrong. It in- volves at once a capacity of feeling pleased or pained, and of judging as to the quality of the action which pleases or pains. When occupied with the subject's own actions or dispositions the faculty is spoken of as conscience. Conscience is thus the moral sense turned inwards in the act of reflection. The question has been much discussed in modern ethics whether the moral sense is innate or a product of external circumstances and education. The truth probably embraces both of these opposing views. All nor- mally constituted children have by nature dispositions such as trustfulness, defer- ence, a love of approbation, and more generally what we call the social feelings, which favour the growth of the moral sentiment. It is possible, too, as the evolutionist maintains, that many genera- tions of moral culture have resulted in the formation of a more definite inherited bent to feel and think morally. At the same time it is incontestable that ex- ternal aids are necessary to develop this crude germ into the mature and compe- tent faculty. These external aids consist of appropriate social surroundings, the effect of moral example, and all that is comprised under moral education (which see). (On the different views of the moral sense, see Bain, Mental and Moral Science, Ethics ; Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics ; on the education of the Moral Faculty, see Sully, Teacher's Handbook, p. 424 and following ; Waitz, Allgemeine Pddagogik, 14 ; Pfisterer, Pddagog. Psychologie, 16). More, Sir Thomas (b. 1480, d. 1535), the celebrated Chancellor, relates in his Utopia (1518) that 'both men and women are taught to spend those hours in which they are not obliged to work in reading, and this they do through the whole pro- gress of life,' and in his instructions for the education of his children he advocated the theory that girls should be taught the same subjects, and be afforded the same educational facilities, as the boys. Mulcaster, Richard (1530 ?-1611),was the first head-master of Merchant Taylors' School, founded in 1561. He was born of a good county family of Cumberland, pro- bably at the old border town of Bracken- hill Castle, on the river Line. He was educated at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge, whence he migrated to Ox- ford, and was elected student of Christ Church in 1555. After distinguishing himself at Oxford by his knowledge of Hebrew and Eastern literature he be- came a schoolmaster in London in 1558. Three years later, as has been said, he was appointed head-master of Merchant Tay lors' School at Laurence Pountney Hill, between Cannon Street and the river. It may be mentioned here that Edmund Spenser was one of his pupils, and it is- said that amongst other pupils he num- bered nine of King James's translators of the Bible. In 1581 he published his Po- sitions for the Training up of Children, either for Skill in their Booke or Health in their Bodie, and in the next } ^,r his Ele- mentarie, or first steps in education. In the former he sketches a really excellent all-round education for body and mind, and anticipates many of the newest ideas of our own day. The ' natural abilities of children, whereby they become either fit or unfit to this or that kind of life,' are to be considered. He lays great stress for the first time in England on the mo- ther tongue and the ability to read, write,, and spell it in advance of, and, if neces- sary, to the exclusion of Latin. ' As co- sen germain to faire writing is the ability to draw with pen or pencil,' and this should be taught, ' while the finger is flexible '- another anticipation of the views of our day. ' It is good,' he stoutly asserts, { to MULTUM NON MULT A 229 have every part of the body and every power of the soul fined (or polished) to the best.' He would have every child taught music by voice and instrument, as he taught them at his own school. The younger the boy the more skilled his mas- ter should be : ' the first grounds should be laid by the cunningest workman.' He insists that ' young maidens are to be set to learning, which is proved by the custom of our country, by our duty towards them, [ by their natural ability, and by the worthy \ effects of such as have been well trained.' v he book is dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. He deplores ' the incurable infirmities which posting haste maketh in the whole course of study,' and points out ' how ne- cessary a thing sufficient time is for a scholar.' He ends up with a vigorous plea for the training of all schoolmasters. These are but a few of the most striking points of a book well worth study. It has lately been reprinted by Mr. Quick. The Ele- mentarie only the first part of which has ever been published is most notable for its splendidly eloquent plea in behalf of the study and use of English. We have only space for a very short quotation. * Is it not a marvellous bondage to become servants to one tongue, for learning's sake, the most part of our time, with loss of most time ; whereas we may have the very same treasure in our own tongue with gain of most time ? Our own bearing the joy- ful title of our liberty and freedom, and the Latin tongue remembering us of our thraldom and bondage ? I love Rome, but London better ; I favour Italy, but England more ; I honour the Latin, but I worship the English. . . . But why not all [our learning] in English, a tongue in itself both deep in conceit and frank in delivery ? I do not think that any lan- guage, be it whatsoever, is better able to utter all arguments either with more pith ! or greater plainness than our English j tongue is.' We need not wonder at such enthusiasm in one who was Spenser's head- master, and not improbably the friend of Shakespeare. Mul caster resigned the head-master- ship of Merchant Taylors' School in 1586. Ten years later he was high master of St. Paul's School. In 1598 the Queen made him rector of Stanford Rivers in Essex, but he does not seem to have taken up his residence there till 1608. He died in 1611. For further particulars see the Appendix to Quick's reprint of the Posi- tions ; Gentleman's Magazine;- vol.. Ixx. ; and Fuller's Worthies. Multum non Multa. It is somewhat difficult to state with certainty who was the first to give vent to this maxim. From the time of Socrates and Plato to our own days almost every writer on education has urged, in one form or another, that the true test of learning is that a man should know much rather than many things, while some go so far as to assert that it is practically of greater use to know much of one or two subjects than to be generally informed about many ; though Montaigne, by the way, makes an exactly opposite assertion, in which in the main he is followed by Locke. It is to be remembered, however, that neither Montaigne nor Locke wishes to produce learned men. Three writers have pushed things to a paradox : Rabelais desiring both many things and much ; Rousseau de- siring neither much nor many things ; and Jacotot asserting that we should learn one thing well and derive all other know- ledge from it, or, at any rate, connect all other knowledge with it. Bacon, and still more Comenius, dreamed of a know- ledge which, for the learned few, should include all things knowable ; but when they treat of education, Bacon recom- mends the narrow but thorough system of the Jesuits ; and Comenius applies this very maxim to every one of his chosen school subjects. Indeed there is an im- mense consensus of opinion that true learning for the normal human being consists in knowing one, or at most two, subjects thoroughly. The question still undecided, and on which a great variety of shades of opinion have existed and still exist, is whether the maxim, ' much not many things,' should be ap- plied to school work, and if so with what modifications and restrictions. If the question were really whether (as some put it) the aim of our schools should be to pro duce learned men or able men fitted (to use Herbert Spencer's phrase) for complete living,' the vast majority would vote with Montaigne, Locke, and Rousseau for the 1 able man,' leaving the specialists for a separate consideration. But it is not a question simply between the storing of knowledge and the training of faculty; for, as every teacher of experience knows, there is a clear limit to the variety of sub- 230 MUSEUMS MUSIC jects beyond which the faculties gain no valuable or efficient exercise, but are rather confused and baffled. It is pre- cisely in a case of this kind that psy- chology (or mental science) is of inestima- ble value. The answer it gives seems to be as follows : Provide fully for the adequate exercise of every faculty, using for means of exercise that knowledge in preference which the pupil will need in his after life, and remembering that for each faculty some variety of subject is of great value. Be thoroughly sound in everything ; but deal rather with those properties and laws of a subject which have the widest and most ready application, attending more to its larger features than to a multiplicity of minor points. Leave all specialisation to the later years of school life, or still better to the university period. As far as may be, render it possible for every pupil to specialise hereafter; not in one direction only, but in any direction which his life may come to need. Fit him to acquire new knowledge and to be able to use it. Museums. See SCIENCE AND ART MUSEUMS. Music among the Greeks held a most honoured post in the general educational system. This was due largely to Pytha- goras, who (larnblichos tells the tradition) came to the Greek cities of Italy from his native Samos, after having studied music and numbers in Babylon for twelve years. He, the most beautiful man in soul and body of his time, and with limit- less power over his disciples, preached to them the gospel of moral purification through the senses the exact antithesis to the later Christian code of moral puri- fication in spite of the senses. And thus, teaching about a century before Sokrates, and while Tarquin the Proud reigned as the last of the ancient kings of Rome (that is circa 525 B.C.), he laid it down to the men of Crotona, and it became a law for all Greek culture, that of all the senses the sense of hearing was the chief moral agent. For beautiful sounds, he said, are more subtle in their nature, more variable, more constantly at hand, in every musical in- strument, than are beautiful sights. Music he regarded as the finest source of beauty, and his object in training was to fill the soul with beauty. He disapproved of the flute as too sensuous, and chose the sterner lyre as his chief instrument. Melodies he composed, and caused to be composed, to cope with every mood, to assuage grief, to curb desire, to banish fear. Fine passages from the poets he set to music, so that noble ideas as well as noble emotional states should pass readily among the people. He relied strongly upon grave rhythms to steady character, and he always played somewhat on the lyre, on awaken- ing, to clear his brain; and before sleeping, to purge his mind of the distractions of the day, and clear the troubled waters of the soul. He even went so far as to con- demn his intimate disciples to a five years' probationary silence, not only to test their endurance by preventing them from speak- ing, but to ensure their receptivity for the beautiful sounds which he took care to pour into their ear. The order or brotherhood he thus founded lasted till the downfall of ancient republican Greece, and Epamei- nondas himself, last of the free heroes, was a member of it. This body, more power- ful over education and culture in its day than have been the Jesuits in ours, reposed, as we have seen, chiefly upon music as the basis of its teaching. From musical melody Pythagoras taught the power of order, since all sound is orderly vibration as against irregular noise, and order is shown in daily life as organised labour ; next came harmony, which in souls is seen as friendship or love ; thirdly rhythm, which in daily- studies appears in the sciences of number and in those bodily exercises which the Greeks held so essential to a finely edu- cated man ; in fact, music thus led up to grace and strength through its rhythm, as it led up to beauty through its melody, and to love through its harmony. Thus, the Pythagoreans, trained to strength, beauty, and love, formed a community whose renown even now fills our ears, and whose fame was co-extensive with Greek culture. On all hands they were admitted to- surpass their contemporaries in moral ex- cellence and in intellectual attainments. They were the flower of Greek culture. So great educational value has never been since drawn from music. Even in detail the Greeks (for we may regard what has been said of Pythagoras as applying prac- tically to all the Greeks, and even includ- ing stern Sparta herself) credited music with the power to train a man in tact and in savoir faire, by training his physical touch (tactus) and his power of harmonis- MUSIC 231 ing sounds, for these faculties would, they taught, give him social touch and social harmonising power. When we consider that musical scales and ratios, including the theory of the vibrations of stretched strings and of pipes, were discovered by these men, that the atomic theory, the revolution and rotation of the earth, were secrets known to them, that Aristaion, Xikomachos, Philolaos, and, above all, Einpedokles, were only some few of them, we are astounded at what was done by an avowedly musical education. Even Plato declares without reservation in his Re- public that to a perfect education there are but two absolute essentials, gymnastic for the body, music for the mind, and to a Greek, as we have already seen, gymnastic is a branch of music (mousike). In Plato's time, and for long before, the Greek boy of the noble classes spent nearly all his time in these two studies, as any one may verify by referring to the sketch of a Greek boy's clay in Lucian's Erotics. One must further remember that the Greek tragedies, flower of a superb litera- ture, were in musical recitative throughout the dialogue, and in formal melody (pos- sibly harmonised, but of this we are not sure) as regards the choruses; so firmly persuaded were the Greeks of the neces- sity of music if th^ mind had to be strongly aroused. With a chorus of fifty, Aischulos (JEschylus) produced such terror that ever afterwards fifteen only was the largest number the law allowed to a dramatist. The Romans stole their music, as they did all their other arts, from the Greeks, and, with the usual fate of exotics, music therefore proved meaningless to them. They made no use of it, never even tried to appreciate its worth. A trumpet-call was the sweetest sound to a man of the republic, lascivious flute-music lulled the voluptuaries of the empire. How great a contrast alike in the rugged coarseness and the effeminate debauchery to the elegance and completeness of the Greek ideal ! And, according to the universal testimony of the Greeks, their finely balanced character re- posed on the influence of music. At the downfall of Rome music di- vided sharply into two courses, the one half taking service with the church, the other half with lay folk. The influence of church music on education was of course | very small ; to learn the ecclesiastical chants was part of a priest's professional j work, and had its religious value, and no other, upon the people at large. With secular music it was otherwise The troubadours or knightly minstrels of Southern France and the trouveres of Northern France turned music, during the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, into an important element of courtly education. With his attendant jongleur or accom- panist (who no doubt often supplied the practical corrections which the work of the noble amateur even of the present day occasionally cries out for), the trouba- dour passed from court to court, diffusing almost the only real refinement known to that rough age. Under the power of poetry, enhanced by music, chivalrous thoughts sprang up, just as Plato would have prophesied, and manners became en- dued with a grace not known before. A | century later than the first of the trouba- dours came the noble Minnesingers of Germany, first rising to importance in Barbarossa's time (1152-1190), and dying out with Frauenlob in 1318, not, however, before they had done work for Germany | like unto that accomplished by the trouba- | dours for France and for the adjacent parts , of Spain and Italy. The Minnesingers i were succeeded by a very important class | of musicians and poets, the Meistersingers ; of the great towns. Here for the first time we find the common people rising to | their present place as rulers of the world (actually so, though not always in appear- ance), and it speaks volumes for the truth of the Greek reverence for the educational power of music that the rise of the strong German burgher-system should be accom- panied by a remarkable municipal move- ment in musical culture. (The Greek life, noble as it was, reposed on slavery as its basis, but it must always be remembered that true democracy was then altogether unknown.) The renowned Hans Sachs, musician, poet, and shoemaker, of Nurem- berg, lived from 1494 to 1576, and marks the culmination of the epoch. The Meister- singers formed a guild like that of any other civic art, with apprentices, rules, and officers, and at periodical contests the candidates sought for admission, the public being the judges whether their song was according to the well-known rules of the guild. Similar guilds sprang up in France and England, but the records are not per- fect, as are those of Germany. The next remarkable musical move- 232 MUSIC merit, also coinciding with a no less re- markable rise of a people, is the School of the Netherland Musicians, which has in fact founded our modern music, and which sprang into being in the middle of the fourteenth century, just as that civic life began to stir which was to blossom, later on, into the magnificent civic life of the great Flemish and Danish cities. These Netherlander passed into Italy, and there founded the Roman Church style ; into England, and there founded the great Madrigalian style. It is to these men that counterpoint is due, and also har- mony in our sense of the word. Again, music springs up as a great educational power in the rise of the Lutheran Refor- mation. The new musical form of the chorale or hymn tune coincides with the new religious life ; and in the South the motet and the oratorio show that in the Catholic Church, too, men's minds are awakening. The value Luther set on music is well known, and his own con- tributions to the art are noble and digni- fied, and above all characteristic. We have spoken of a great Madrigalian style in England, and let it be observed that the sudden rise to greatness under the Tudors, the large enthusiasms, the noble scorn of all that is common or mean, the boundless courage and enterprise, the truly artistic nature, which make especially Elizabeth's time stand out gloriously in our annals, coincide with the development of an in- tense popular love for music, especially among the upper classes. So completely was this the case that an ambassador notes the usual practice of handing round ' parts ' (not scores) amongst the company at a festival, that the pleasure of concerted music might be enjoyed. Each man took it as a matter of course that he should bear his part. The narrator confesses how, for want of training, he had awkwardly to decline. The great queen herself was a noteworthy performer. Observe how under the unmusical rule of the Stuarts the tem- per of the nation declines, then hardens into the fierce rebound of Puritanism. Later on, observe how when Charles II. sapped the noble life of England, the characteristic music was the * French violins,' that de- grading love of the froth of foreign nations and neglect of native art, and of the truer, if colder, regions of pure, noble, and ideal beauty, which has more or less continued down to our own day. Returning a moment to Elizabethan times, we observe the rise of opera, the next great musical form, to be directly due to the rise of the great Florentine republic and the Renaissance ; for it came out of a praiseworthy attempt by the father of the astronomer Galileo and some of his friends to resuscitate the rnelos of the ancient Greek tragedy. During the eventful reign of Queen Victoria we have seen the rise of another national movement, the assumption by the democracy of the power in the State. Political power once theirs, we have seen the people thirsting for education, for cul- ture. Now, it is indeed remarkable that with this again we have a fresh develop- ment of music. For, whereas Handel was put to straits, even in a cathedral town, for some one to sing a chorus part that he might judge of the effect ('Yes, I can sing at sight,' the man replied to the furious composer, 'but not at first sight!'), we, not much more than a century later, can sum- mon, if we like to get a room large enough for them, 4,000 or 5,000 amateur vocalists, in any part of England, at a week's notice, competent to perform most difficult music. Our educational code demands music as a necessary part of education ; we have a new musical method, that of the Tonic Sol-fa System, which enables thousands on thousands who have but limited time to gain a knowledge of all the simpler effects of vocal music. Our church choirs are full and overflowing. Musical festivals of colossal dimensions are held triennially in a dozen places in England, on a scale that no continental nation can dream of rivalling. We have three or four great musical schools : the Royal Academy, the Royal College, and the great school due to the munificence of the city of London, the Guildhall School ; and all these and others are crowded, and overcrowded, with scholars. Is it merely accidental, this contrast, which has just been made apparent, with the time of the Georges, and with other nations less free than ourselves 1 Or is it not true what Solon, Pythagoras, Plato, and the rest of the great Greeks said, that music is the grand educational agent for all who wish to elevate the soul, to co- ordinate the faculties, to humanise the passions, and to stir the intellect ? We believe that it is true ; that from Lord Chesterfield, who forbade his son to de- NATIONAL ART TRAINING SCHOOL 233 grade himself by learning the violin, to Prince Albert and Mr. Gladstone, who in our time (after the fashion of Pythagoras) have been accustomed to sweep the cob- webs from their brain with music, and with music to nerve themselves for fresh labours, there is a great gulf fixed. The one is ill- educated with all his learning ; he has put out an eye or cut off a limb of the mind ; he is self-blinded, one-sided. The other knows, with Plato, that ' every particle of human life has need of rhythm and har- mony.' It is sometimes convenient to draw up a short list of a few of the best books in any art, in case a student may not be able readily to consult a master in his studies. The following are useful books, published in recent years, on the theory of music : Har- mony -, Sir G. A. Macfarren ; Counterpoint, Sir G. A. Macfarren ; by far the best and most consistent musical works on the sub- ject, embodying in a practical form the ex- cellent theories of Day. With these, for students preferring the ordinary views on music, and aiming merely at gaining a body of good grammatical rules, may be men- tioned the Treatise on Harmony by Dr. Staiiier. Banister's Music is a compre- hensive little book, giving a glance over the whole field. Prout on Instrumentation, Higgs on Fugue, Stairier on Composition, and Stone on the Physical Basis of Music, are four of Novello's primers, of great value and merely nominal price. Six Lectures on Harmony, by Sir G. A. Macfarren, is a book richly repaying the student. Of histories, the recent English translation of Naumann is very good; and the slight little volume of Bonavia Hunt, a well-arranged compendium of dates, with remarks on them, is useful in its way. The two series of Lectures on Musical History, by John Hullah, are priceless. Fillmore's History of Pianoforte Music (Sonnenschein) is ex- tremely good. In acoustical theory Helm- holtz on Sensations of Tone (tr. Ellis) is un- rivalled, Tyndall's Sound is very valuable, Sedley Taylor's work is highly interesting. The Tonic Sol-fa works by Curwen are easily obtainable, and extremely easy to understand. A Sol-fa harmony and a counterpoint are also done, but students who mean earnest work would probably prefer the usual notation. An attempt to show how in teaching children the pianoforte a genuine know- ledge of the rudiments of music, of the power to write it down, and of its mean- ing to the mind, may be given by adopting the educational principles of the Kinder- garten System (q.v.), is due to H. Keatley Moore ; and a graduated series of six small works (under the title of The Musician) carrying on a similar view, suggesting courses of study, and analysing the pieces chosen, has been produced by Ridley Pren- tice. These works will probably be found of great use by teachers rather than by stu- dents, on account of the freshness of their view of the subject. For those who desire to penetrate the mysteries of the psychology of music, the secrets of its construction, there is really only one good book, iheffarmonik und Metrik of Hauptmann, of which the English translation, by Heathcote and Moore, appeared at the beginning of 1 .888. These last three works are published by Sonnenschein & Co. (See SINGING.) National Art Training School, This school is a development of the former School of Design and Central School of Art at Somerset House, and its special object is the training of art teachers of both sexes, of designers, and of art work- men, to whom facilities and assistance are afforded in the shape of scholarships, maintenance allowances, and complete or partial remission of fees. A school for the instruction in art of .general students is attached to, and serves as a practising school for, the training school. In 1853 the school was removed from Somerset House to Marlborough House, and opened under the designation of ' National Train- ing School of Art.' In 1856-57 the school was transferred to South Kensington. In 1863 a system of scholarships was estab- lished, open to candidates from local schools. In 1871, with a view to enable the school to fulfil more efficiently its primary object of training masters for art schools, it was found necessary to impose an examination test for all candidates for admission, and to make certain alterations in the regu- 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION LEAGUE (THE) lations of the schools, introducing pay- ments on results. The course of instruction is as follows, though it is understood that it is not pro- gressive in the order in which the stages are named : (1) linear drawing by aid of instruments, including linear geometry, mechanical and machine drawing, per- spective, details of architecture, and scio- graphy ; (2) freehand outline drawing of rigid forms from flat examples or copies ; (3) freehand outline drawing from the ' round ; ' (4) shading from flat examples or copies ; (5) shading from the ' round ' or solid forms and drapery ; (6) drawing the human figure and animal forms from copies ; (7) drawing flowers, foliage, and objects of natural history from copies ; (8) drawing the. human figure or animal forms from the ' round ' or nature ; (9) anatomical studies, drawn or modelled ; (10) drawing flowers, foliage, landscape details, and objects of natural history, from nature ; (11) painting ornament from flat examples ; (12) painting ornament from the cast, &c. ; (13) painting (general) from flat examples or copies, flowers, still- life, and landscapes ; (14) painting (gene- ral) direct from nature, flowers, or still- life, landscapes, and drapery ; (15) paint- ing from nature groups of still-life, flowers, Occ., as compositions of colour ; (16) paint- ing the human figure or animals in mono- chrome from casts; (17) painting the human figure or animals in colour ; (18) modelling ornament ; (19) modelling the human figure or animals and drapery ; (20) modelling fruits, flowers, foliage, etc., from nature ; \21) time sketches in clay of the human figure or animals from nature ; (22) elementary design, includ- ing studies treating natural objects orna- mentally, ornamental arrangements to fill given spaces in monochrome or modelled, ornamental arrangements to fill given spaces in colour, and studies of historic styles of ornament drawn or modelled ; (23) applied designs, technical or mis- cellaneous studies, including machine or mechanical drawing, plan drawing, mapping, and surveys done from measure- ment of actual machines, buildings, &c., architectural design, ornamental design, as applied to decorative or industrial art, and figure composition, and ornamental design with figures, as applied to decora- tive or industrial art, both flat and in relief. Certificates of competency to teach the subjects included in these twenty- three stages of instruction are given to candidates who pass the necessary exami- nations, and are called (a) the preliminary or Art Class Teacher's Certificate, and (b) Art Certificates of the Third Grade. National Education League (The) was. founded in Birmingham in the early part of 1869, its primary object being * to- secure the education of every child in England and Wales.' This it was pro- posed to effect by the following means : (1) local authorities to be compelled by law to see that sufficient school accommo- dation is provided for every child in their district ; (2) the cost of founding and maintaining such schools as might be re- quired to be provided out of the local rates, supplemented by Government grants ; (3) all schools aided by local rates to be under the management of the local authorities, and subject to Government inspection ; (4) all schools aided by local rates to be unsectarian ; (5) to all schools aided by local rates admission to be free ; (6) school accommodation being provided, the State- or local authorities to have power to com- pel the attendance of children of suitable age not otherwise receiving education. At the first annual meeting, which was held in Birmingham on October 12, 1869,. Mr. George Dixon, M.P., the originator of the movement, was unanimously elected president. The report, which was adopted, set forth that the League was formed in consequence of the alarming state of igno- rance revealed by the investigations of the Manchester and Birmingham Education Aid Societies. In Manchester and Sal- ford it was ascertained the number of chil- dren between three and twelve years of age, of all classes, was 100,000, and that of these only 55,000 were on the books of the elementary schools, while the average attendance was no more than 38,000. Irk Birmingham the case was still worse. The number of children in that town be- tween the ages of three and fifteen was 45,056, and of these 17,023 were at school,. 6,337 were at work, and 21,690 were neither at school nor at work. Nor did the case end here, for it was found that the education of those at school was most- unsatisfactory. From independent inves- tigations made in London it was estimated that there were between 150,000 and 200,000 children without the means of NATIONAL EDUCATION UNION (THE) NATIONAL SOCIETY 235' education. These facts, and many others which had been laboriously collected, led to the inference that the voluntary system had failed, and that justice and expe- diency alike demanded that a national system should be established. Hence the formation of the League. It was an- nounced at the meeting to which refer- ence has been made, that the League had been joined by 3,500 persons, including forty members of the House of Commons and between 300 and 400 ministers of religion. The League carried on an active propaganda for several years, branches being established in every town of im- portance in the kingdom. It took a lead- ing part in the popular opposition to the twenty-fifth clause of Mr. Forster's Edu- cation Act (the clause sanctioning the payment of Government grants to denomi- national schools), to which the Noncon- formists especially were averse. In March 1877, its main objects having been achieved, the League was formally dis- solved. The immediate consequence of the formation of the League was the esta- blishment of a rival organisation, The National Education Union, which had its headquarters at Manchester. The final congress of this body was held in that city 011 November 3, 1869, the late Earl of Harrowby presiding. Its avowed ob- ject was * to secure the primary education of every child by judiciously supplement- ing the present denominational system of education ; ' and in the report it was stated that the formation of the National League in support of secular education necessitated ' a union of all in favour of denominational teaching.' National Education Union (The). See NATIONAL EDUCATION LEAGUE. National Schools. Schools of the Na- tional Society (q.v.). See also CLASSIFICA- TION and CODE. National Society. The 'National So- ciety for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church throughout England and Wales' grew out of the labours of Dr. Bell. It was founded in 1811, and incorporated in 1817. The object is defined by its title. To carry out this object it strove to estab- lish schools, and to provide suitable teachers for them, and, since Board Schools, neces- sarily unsectarian, have become a large factor in popular education, it has empha- sised its declaration in favour of distinctive religious teaching. The connection of the Society with the Established Church placed at its disposal a powerful and far-reaching organisation, and its growth was, therefore, rapid. In 1812 there were fifty-two- schools, with 8,620 pupils, in union with it ; next year there were 230 schools with 40,484 scholars; and now more than half the elementary schools of the country are i connected with it. The training of teachers j began in a humble way at the Central ! Schools in Baldwin's Gardens, Gray's^ Inn i Lane, but with the increasing number of schools, and the consequent increasing demand for qualified masters and mis- tresses, the Society established, one after the other, five institutions, which up to 1887 have trained 8,296 students. Three of these institutions St. Mark's, Chelsea, and St. John's, Battersea, for masters, and Whit elands for mistresses still exist. The other church colleges are not under the direction of the Society, but it makes them a grant for each of their students who passes the archbishops' examination in Scripture. When the Committee of Coun- cil was appointed in 1839, it proposed to establish a State training college, but the Church opposed the proposal with a vigour which almost wrecked the Government of Lord Melbourne. The ground of opposi- tion was twofold : in the first place Dis- senting students were to be taught religion by their own ministers, and in the next the Church claimed under the canons of 1604 a monopoly of the functions of training and licensing teachers. For some- time the controversy raged in Parliament and the press. By drawing the attention, of Churchmen very forcibly to the claims of the National Society, it largely increased the funds of the institution. In 1838-39' the income from donations and subscrip- tions was 2,842Z. ; in 1839-40 it was- 17,339Z. The normal income is now about 12,000^. Before 1839 there was no uni- formity in the terms on which schools, were affiliated to the Society; in many cases the desire of the managers for affi- liation was considered sufficient guarantee for the nature of the instruction to be given. Since 1839, however, the Society has required the insertion in the trust deed of any school asking to be united to the Society, of a clause providing that the school shall be conducted 'according to the principles, and in furtherance of the ends and designs,' of the Society. In the. :236 NATIONAL UNION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS NATURE .statistics of the Education Department there is no distinction made between Church schools affiliated to the Society, and those not so affiliated. The Blue Book for 1887 gives the number of Church schools in England and Wales as 11,864, providing accommodation for 2,548,673 children, with 2,136,797 on the rolls, and 1,634,354 *in average attendance. Their income was 133,159*. from endowments, 586,950*. from voluntary contributions, 869,026?. from fees, 1,344,115*. from Go- vernment grants, and 33,732*. from other ^sources. The Society's charter of incorpora- tion provides that the Archbishop of Can- terbury shall be the president, and that ' the Archbishop of York and all the bishops, and ten other persons being either tempo- Tal peers or privy councillors,' shall be vice- presidents. TheRev. JamesDuncan,M.A., is the secretary, and the offices are in the JBroad Sanctuary, Westminster. National Union of Elementary Teachers (N.U.E.T.). Before 1870 each class of teachers British, Church, and Wesley an had an association of its own. These were, separately, too weak to in- fluence public opinion; indeed, they ap- peared to exist chiefly to discuss methods of teaching, and to provide opportunities for social intercourse. The passing of the Education Act, by enlarging the scope of education, quickened professional spirit, and made teachers think more of their common interests than of their denomina- tional differences. The leaders of the as- sociations consequently held several meet- ings at King's College, London, to discuss the basis for a National Union of Ele- mentary Teachers. From the first it was resolved that the union should be one of associations, and not of individual mem- bers, and that each association should con- sist of the teachers of a particular district, not of a particular sect. In 1870 there were 26 associations, with 400 members. By 1881 the Union had grown to 321 associations, with 13,178 members. Then there was an increase in the annual sub- scriptions, which led to a falling off in the numbers. In 1884 there was a further increase in the subscription, but as the additional sum was to forma Legal Defence Fund a very tangible benefit the loss of members was only temporary. At the end of 1886 there were 314 associations, with 12,431 members. Connected with the N.U.E.T. there area ' Teachers' Bene- volent Fund,' a 'Teachers' Orphanage and Orphan Fund,' and a 'Teachers' Provident Society.' The Benevolent Fund grants temporary relief in cases of distress, ill- ness, accident, or sudden emergency, gives loans for short periods, makes grants to widows, and pays annuities to incapaci- tated teachers. The Orphanage and Or- phan Fund maintains an orphan school for boys at Peck ham Rye, and another for girls at Sheffield, and pays 'home allow- ances ' when the orphans are living with friends. The Provident Society offers means whereby teachers can be, in sickness or old age, beyond the need of benevolence. The offices of the Union are at 30 Fleet Street, and the General Secretary is Mr. T. E. Heller. National Union for Improving the Education of Women. See EDUCATION OF GIRLS. Nations. See RECTOR. Natural Aptitude, Natural Talent. By these terms is meant a special degree of innate capacity for some particular mode of intellectual or practical activity. Thus we speak of a natural aptitude for scientific discovery, the study of languages, artistic design, or mechanical contrivance. ! Such original aptitude commonly involves not merely a superior degree of mental power of a special kind, but a high degree of perfection of one or more of the organs of sense and of the muscular organs. It also implies a predominant taste for and impulse towards the particular pursuit. Individuals differ widely in their particular | aptitudes, and these differences constitute ! much of what we mean by individuality on its intellectual side. As the history of great men tells us, natural aptitudes are frequently inherited. It behoves the educator to make a careful study and estimate of the natural aptitudes of chil- dren, so as to adapt the course of educa- tion to some extent to these. (See INDI- VIDUALITY and ORIGINALITY.) Natural Philosophy. See PHYSICS. Nature is the name of the sum total of the processes and laws of the material world in which we live. It is a sphere which contrasts with that of conscious and purposive human action. Hence nature is commonly opposed to art, which is ac- tion elaborated into a rational method. All that is instinctive in ourselves is re- ferred to nature as its source, and distin- guished from that which is designedly NAVY (EDUCATION FOR THE) NEEDLEWORK produced by the art of education, or, to use Mr. Galton's antithesis, by nurture. Nature is a term that has played a con- siderable part both in ethical and educa- tional writings. The precept 'Follow nature ' has been erected by ancient and by modern moralists into the ultimate moral principle. And modern pedagogic writ- ings are full of references to nature and her methods of teaching as our proper model. It is probable that the word is frequently used in this connection with a certain degree of vagueness. The work of the educator is, pace Rousseau, to make good the deficiencies of nature, i.e. the spontaneous tendencies of the child, and to a considerable extent to oppose and counteract its forces. In order to do this, however, he must carefully study the workings of nature, and adjust his pro- cedure to its unalterable laws. Thus it is a fixed principle in modern education that the order of instruction must follow that of the development of the child's faculties (see ORDER OF STUDIES). The teacher must, therefore, work with nature, that is, according to natural and unalter- able conditions, even though he aims at an ideal result far above the reach of nature's unaided powers. (See for a care- ful analysis of the term 'Nature' Mills's article ' Nature ' in his Essays on Reli- gion ; cf. Payne, Contributions to the Science of Education, chap. vii. ; and Com- payre, Cours de Pe'd., p. 21.) Navy (Education for the). See EDU- CATION FOR THE NAVY. Needlework. (1) In the scheme of public elementary education needlework is obligatory for girls in day-schools, and it is frequently taken up by boys as well. One of the conditions required to be ful- filled by a school in order to entitle it to an annual Parliamentary grant is, that the Department must be satisfied ' that the girls (in a day-school) are taught plain needlework and cutting-out as part of the ordinary course of instruction ' (New Code, Art. 96 (b) ). The grant for needlework is Is., and it is calculated on the average attendance of girls only, unless the boys are taught the subject (Art. 106 (c) ). In 1886 the grant of Is. under this article was earned in 11,484 schools and classes (97 '75 per cent.), and by an average at- tendance of 883,418 ; it was not earned in 264 schools and classes (2*25 per cent.). The infant bovs obtained a fair share of the grant ; out of an average attendance- of 528,592 boys the grant was earned by 422,258 (80-07 per cent.). In schools for older scholars also there may be obtained a similar grant of Is., calculated on the average attendance of girls only (Art. 109 (c)) ; and needlework is one of the recognised class subjects for which there- may be obtained ' a grant on examination amounting to Is. or 2s. for each subject,, if the inspector's report on the examina- tion is fair or good' (Art. 109 (/) ), but- this grant cannot be obtained along with the grant under Art. 109 (c). In 1886 the grant under Art. 109 (c) was recom- mended on account of the girls in 10,493- (58-74 per cent.) departments ; it was not. paid in 560 departments (3'14 per cent.),, with an average attendance of 21,326 (1-84 per cent.); the remainder of the- schools eligible for a grant for needlework 6,809 (38-12 per cent.), with an average attendance of 681,080 (58-89 per cent.),, made their claim for it as a class subject under Art. 109 (/) vi ' It is the smaller- schools that claim for needlework under Art. 109 (c), the average " number for pay- ment" per school under this article being 43 as against 100, the average for schools, claiming grant as a class subject' (Report for 1886-87, p. xxi.). The requirement* of tho Code are set forth in Schedule III.,. and the Department is of opinion that * the obligatory parts contain no more work than can be fairly mastered by any girls' school in which four hours weekly have been devoted to this subject ' (Report,. 1886-87, { Minutes and Instructions,' sect. 42, p. 169). In the first two standards, hemming, seaming, and felling are re- quired. Standard III. adds stitching, sewing-on straight, herring-bone stitch (only on canvas or flannel), and simple darning (on canvas). Standard IV in- troduces gathering, setting-in, button- holing, and sewing on buttons, with simple- marking (on canvas), plain darning (as for thin places) in stocking- web material, and herring-bone patch (at least 3 inches, square) on coarse flannel. Standard Y. requires the running of a tuck, plain darn- ing of a hole in stocking- web material, and patching in calico and flannel. Standards- VI. and VII. add whip-stitch and setting- on frill, with plain darning on coarse linen, and patching in print. Besides, garments must be shown in each standard, in the same condition as when completed by the- -238 NEEDLEWORK, THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF ART ; scholars: in Standard III., say a pinafore, shift, or apron; in Standards IV. and V., say a plain night- shirt, night-gown, or petticoat ; in Standards VI. and VII., say a baby's night-gown or child's frock. In Standard V. cutting-out is reached, the requirement being the cutting out of any garment, such as is required in Standard III. ; in Standards VI. and VII. the cutting out of any under-garment for mak- ing up in Standard IV. In the first three .standards each garment must be entirely made by its own Standard ; in Standard ZV. and upwards each girl must present a garment made by herself. Further, knit- ting is included, and runs through the grades of comforters, muffatees, socks, stockings, and the like. The pupil-teachers' (girls) requirements, which are also set forth in Schedule III., correspond largely with the four highest standards of the girls' and infants' departments, but are somewhat more advanced. My Lords specially urge that ' the material used should not be so fine as to strain the eye- sight of the children.' ' In many schools,' says Mr. Blakiston (Report, 1886-87, p. 274), ' the teacher's efforts are marred, and systematic teaching hindered, by mothers being allowed to send garments, not only of unsuitable material, but involving un- suitable stitches, to be made up in school. We do our utmost,' he continues, ' to in- duce managers to supply suitable ma- terials, and to recoup the cost by the sale 'Of garments sensibly planned and cut out and made up under the eye of the teacher. It is the latter's fault if any serious loss ensues, as is the case where she takes no pains to consult the taste of her customers.' This latter responsibility cast upon the mistress we consider to be most unfair, ^wholly extraneous to her proper duties, and calculated to keep her mind in cruel anxiety. The scheme of requirements and the mode of inspection are by no means generally accepted as satisfactory. One | . lady witness before the recent Royal Com- j mission on the working of the Elementary Education Acts, declared that ' the needle- work is all wrong throughout the country, every bit of it.' For example: * It is ridi- culous for a gentleman to examine needle- work ; he may do it to a certain degree j lie may see evenness, but he does not know | whether that evenness is in the right di- \ Tection or in the wrong direction ' (Second .Report, 1887, C. 5056, p. 176). Some of ! the inspectors, however, do know ; but there is undoubtedly not a little point in the criticism. (2) In the syllabus for female candidates for the Training Col- leges the requirements (1887) are as fol- lows First year : the cutting out, making, and repairing of any plain article of under- clothing ; the drawing of diagrams on sec- tional paper a woman's chemise, an in- fant's shirt, a pair of drawers for child of five; the answering, on paper, of questions on needlework. Second year : the higher branches of plain needlework, including tucking, whipping, and feather-stitching, the repairing of linen and print, and darn- ing in stock ing- web stitch ; the drawing of diagrams on sectional paper a wo- man's nightdress, a boy's shirt, a child's muslin pinafore; the cutting out and mak- ing of the above garments; the answering, on paper, of questions on needlework. (See Plain Needlework and Plain Cutting-out, both by the Examiner of Needlework to the School Board of London (Griffith, Farran, Okeden, & Welsh) ; and Plain Needlework and Knitting, by Brietzcke and Rooper (Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey, & Co.). Needlework, The Royal School of Art, in Exhibition Road, South Kensington, was founded in 1872, under the presidency of the Princess Christian, for the twofold purpose of supplying suitable employment for gentlewomen who wish to eke out an insufficient fortune, and restoring orna- mental needlework to the high place it once held among the decorative arts. It is not a Government institution. In 1878 it was placed on a permanent basis by incorporation of the original association. The ultimate profits, after payment of the debentures, are to be applied to such charitable or other purposes as the asso- ciation may from time to time determine, not being inconsistent with the provisions of the memorandum of association, which requires that the shareholders shall not take any personal profit out of the asso- ciation. There are classes for the instruc- tion of amateurs in every kind of stitch in crewel, silk, and gold, and the School holds itself prepared to supply all sorts of eccle- siastical embroidery. Applicants for ad mission as qualified workers must (1) be gentlewomen by birth and education, and (2) be able and willing when employed to devote seven hours a day to work at the School. Every applicant is required to go NEWNHAM COLLEGE NOTES OF LESSONS 239 through a course of instruction, consisting of nine lessons in Art Needlework of five hours each, for which the charge is 51. When the course, is completed, and the teacher has certified to the due attendance and sufficient skill of the applicant, her j name is registered in the list of the qualified | workers of the school. Such registration does not entitle the lady to any employ- ment from the school, but simply renders her qualified for employment whenever | the School may have need of her services. ' The School has agencies in the principal 1 towns of England, and in Canada and in the United States of America. Newnham College. See EDUCATION OF GIRLS and TRAINING OF TEACHERS. Newman, Cardinal. See RENAISSANCE and UNIVERSITIES. New Zealand University. See UNI- VERSITIES. Niemeyer, August Hermann (b. 1754, d. 1828), German educationist, became in 1779 professor of theology in the Univer- sity of Halle, and inspector of the Halle Theological Seminary, and in 1787 prin- cipal of the teachers' seminary in the Francke Institution. His Principles of Education and Instruction (1799) was the first attempt at systematising Ger- man pedagogy and at aiming at a history of education. This work has run through many editions, the first eight editions being edited by himself. Normal College and Academy for the Blind. See EDUCATION OF THE BLIND. Normal Schools. See TRAINING OP TEACHERS. Normal School of Science and Royal School of Mines, South Kensington and j Jermyn Street, is an institution to sup- ply systematic instruction in the various branches of physical science to students of all dasses. While the school is pri- marily intended for the instruction of teachers and of students of the industrial classes selected by competition in the | examinations of the Science and Art De- j partment, other students are admitted so far as there may be accommodation for them, on the payment of fees fixed at a scale sufficiently high to prevent undue ; competition with institutions which do ] not receive State aid. The Royal School of Mines is affiliated to the Normal School. Students enter- ing for the associateship of the School of Mines obtain their general scientific train- i ing in the Normal School. Instruction is given in the school in the following subjects : mechanics and mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and botany, geology and mineralogy, agriculture, me- tallurgy and assaying, mining, elements of astronomical physics, practical geo- metry, mechanical and freehand drawing. Occasional students may enter for any course of instruction, or for any number of courses, in such order as they please ; but students who desire to become asso- ciates of the Normal School of Science, or of the Royal School of Mines, must fo 1 low a prescribed order of study, which occupies from three to three and a half years. In the first two years the students must all go through the same instruction in mechanics and mathematics, physics, chemistry, elementary geology, astronomy, and mineralogy, with drawing ; afterwards they must elect to pass out in one or other of the eight divisions, to the subjects of which the third and fourth years' studies are entirely devoted, namely : (1) me- chanics, (2) physics, (3) chemistry, (4) biology, (5) geology, (6) agriculture, (7) metallurgy, (8) mining. A student who passes in all the sub- jects of the first two years, and in the final subjects of divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, becomes an associate of the Normal School of Science ; while, if he takes the final subjects of divisions 7 or 8, he be- comes an associate of the Royal School of Mines. The work of the school is arranged in such a manner as to permit the student to concentrate his attention upon one sub- ject at a time, and he is never occupied with the subjects of more than two divi- sions in the same term. There are twelve Royal Exhibitions to the Normal School of Science and Royal School of Mines, besides a number of free studentships and scholarships. Notes of Lessons. Dr. Arnold of Rugby, though unusually well acquainted with Roman history, used to prepare all his lessons on the subject as carefully as if it were new to him, and when some one ex- pressed surprise at this he replied, ' I want my boys to drink out of a running stream, rather than out of a stagnant pool/ No teacher can be successful who does not give thought beforehand to the matter and the method of his lessons. A general, even a minute, knowledge of the subject is not enough. We must consider what 240 OBEDIENCE AND DISCIPLINE OBJECT LESSONS are the facts to which we will draw atten- tion, which of these we must tell, and which we can elicit, what illustrations we can employ, and what exercises will best impress the whole upon the pupil's memory. The fulness of a teacher's notes of a lesson will depend largely upon whether they are meant for his own use only, or for the inspection of another. If for his own use only, they will, so long as he is dealing with a familiar subject, give the merest outline of the matter, and the briefest hints of the method and illustra- tions ; when the subject is unfamiliar the matter will be given more fully. Pupil- teachers in elementary schools, students in training-colleges, and all who submit to the examinations of the Education Depart- ment have very often to write notes, not for their own use, but to show an in- spector how they would give a set lesson. In these cases the notes must be self- explanatory, and indicate clearly not only what would be taught, but how it would be taught. O Obedience and Disobedience. By an act of obedience we understand an action performed in response to some command. The external form must here be distin- guished from the internal reality. A true act of obedience involves not merely the outward compliance with a command, but the inward attitude of submission to au- thority. Thus, a boy who refrains from a prohibited action merely to escape a dreaded form of punishment, whilst he hates the preceptor who imposes the pro- hibition, does not in the full sense obey. Obedience is of two kinds. Of these the first is that which is given without any recognition of the reasonableness of the command and solely in deference to a per- sonal authority. This is Kant's ' absolute obedience.' The second kind is the intel- ligent and free obedience to law which the subject cordially accepts as good. The educator of the young is directly concerned with securing the first kind of obedience. Here the influence of respect and affection for the personality of the governor counts as an important condition of securing true obedience. This respect is to be gained partly by the habitual display of impar- tiality or fairness in administering disci- pline, by a perfectly consistent example of good conduct, and by a judicious mixture of kindness and firmness. The principle of habit is strikingly illustrated in the practice of obedience. A child that has always been accustomed to obey does so at last without any sense of effort (see HABIT). Of all the moral habits obedi- ence most imperatively demands to be cultivated in the first years of life. An infant should be trained in the rudiments of obedience as soon as it understands a prohibitory word or sign. And when the utmost has been done by the parent to lay the foundations of the habit there need be little fear of disobedience after- wards to any properly enforced autho- rity. Disobedience has been divided into two kinds : that proceeding from a dull, sluggish will, as where a child fails to attend to a command ; and that which arises from energy of the individual will^ or self-will. Each of these requires its own mode of treatment. In dealing with the second kind the teacher should remem- ber that the energy of will which shows itself in the disobedient act is itself good, and requires directing rather than sup* pressing. He should be careful to avoid the appearance of a struggle of individual wills for mastery. In all cases alike, as Kant has shown, the preceptor should have as his goal the free self-imposed obedience to law of the good will, and should seek by all the agencies of moral education to train the young mind in a clear discern- ment of the grounds of the commands im- posed and in free acts of moral choice. (See M. Edgeworth's Practical Education, vii., articles ' Gehorsam ' and * Ungehor- sam,' in Schmidt's Encyclopcidie, cf . articles 'Discipline' and 'Moral Education.') Ober Real. See LAW (EDUCATIONAL), sec. Saxony. Object Lessons. Prof. Bain complains (Education as a Science, page 134) that 'object lessons' is a 'very ambiguous and misleading phrase.' Here it means lessons on sensible things, and on the phenomena of nature. The purpose of such lessons is : (i.) To form habits of observation. One OBJECT LESSONS 241 of the chief defects of school methods is that, to a large extent, telling takes the place of teaching, cramming of education. Facts which children are told are artificial flowers ; facts which they are made to find out are living plants, and it is the very essence of a good object lesson to make the pupil discover for himself everything which his senses can reveal, (ii.) To form habits of reasoning. A skilful teacher does not rest content with getting his scholars to observe for themselves (though that is a great point gained) ; he also tries to make them think for themselves. The first step is to note a fact, the next to seek the cause. Little ones, probably, cannot find that without aid, but by careful ques- tioning it can generally be elicited, (iii. ) To increase knowledge of l common things.' It is possible to inform without educating, but it is not possible to educate without informing, and as to the kind of informa- tion, it may be said that good teaching, like charity, begins at home. Object lessons ought to have the first place in infant schools, and not the last place in junior schools ; in senior schools they ought to be replaced by specific science lessons for which they prepare the way. Object lessons should be given in courses carefully planned and leading up to clearly defined ends. The scheme issued by the School Board for London, as a suggestion to its teachers, is so thoughtfully devised as to be worth quoting. It is, briefly, as follows: For infants. A few objects should be selected from each of the four following groups : (a) Domestic Group. The school-room itself, with door, chair, table, desk, fire-place, and clock. The child's coat, cloak, frock, cap, shawl, and boots. Pins, needles, knife, scissors, bell, | and kettle; to which may be added any ! other articles of school or house furniture, clothing, or common utensils, (b) Animal Group. First in importance comes the child itself, afterwards the cat, dog, horse, cow, sheep, cock and hen, sparrow, herring, , fly, beetle, to which may be added any other familiar animals, such as donkey, rabbit, mouse, goose, canary, lark, pigeon, shrimp, crab, lobster, sole, plaice, spider, butterfly, bee, periwinkle, oyster, earth- worm, tence, he retired from the active duties of his profession. None the less, however, did he continue to devote himself strenu- ously to the cause of educational progress; and his career offers a striking exception to that law of the decay of enthusiasms in virtue of which they generally retrograde as age advances. When, after between thirty and forty years of honourable labour in his vocation, he found himself free to spend his remaining days as he chose, he set to work with an ardour and energy and self-devotion rarely found even in young men to arouse teachers to a sense , of their deficiencies, and to be a pioneer in the needed science of education. It was, it is believed, mainly owing to his influence and to that of his friend, Mr. C. H. Lake, that the College of Preceptors instituted 256 PAYNE, JOSEPH an examination for teachers the first held in this country. In 1873 the College took another important step, and appointed the first English Professor of the Science and Art of Education, their choice falling unanimously upon Mr. Payne, than whom no man could have been found with higher qualifications. He had always been a hard student ; and, till but a few months before his death, he was wont to continue his work into the small hours of the morning. He had thus a wider culture than is usually found in schoolmasters, or, indeed, in any class of hard-worked men, and his habits of reading and writing gave him great advantages as the occupant of the newly -instituted chair, which he further illustrated by his profound belief in the present value and the future possi- bilities of the science of education. No work could have been more congenial to him than endeavouring to awaken in young teachers that spirit of enquiry into princi- ples which he had found the salt of his own life in the schoolroom. And, short as his tenure of the professorship unhappily proved, he succeeded in his endeavour; and left behind him students who have learnt from him to make their practice as teachers more beneficial to others, and infinitely more pleasurable to themselves, by investigating the theory which not only explains right practice, but also points out the way to it. The meaning of the word 'teacher/ as usually understood of one who communi- cates knowledge, was unsatisfactory to Jacotot and to his English disciple. What is knowledge but the abiding result of some action of the mind ? Whoever causes the minds of pupils to take the necessary I action teaches the pupils, and this is the only kind of teaching which Mr. Payne would hear of ; thus the paradox of Jacotot, that a teacher who understood his business ! could 'teach what he did not know/ was seen to point to a new conception of the teacher's function. The teacher is not one who 'tells/ but one who sets the learner's mind to work, directs it, and re- gulates its rate of advance. In order to 'tell/ one needs nothing beyond a form of words which the pupils may reproduce with or without comprehension. But to 'teach/ in Payne's sense of the word, a vast deal more was required: an insight into the working of the pupil's mind, a power of calling its activities into play and of directing them to the needful exer- cise, a perception of results, and a know- ledge how to render those results perma- nent. 'Such/ to quote the ipsissima verba of his friend, the Rev. R. H. Quick, 'was. Mr. Payne's notion of the teacher's office, and this notion lies at the root of all that he said and wrote about instruction. It would be useless to attempt to decide how far the conception was original with him. "Everything reasonable has been thought already," says Goethe. Mr. Payne, as we have seen, was always eager to declare his obligations to Jacotot. The same notion of the teacher is found in the utterances of other men, especially of Pestalozzi and Frobel. But when such a conception becomes part and parcel of a mind like Mr. Payne's, it forthwith becomes a fresh force, and its influence spreads to others.' Mr. Payne took a lively and active interest in several of the most important movements, the purposes of which were identical or kindred with his own ; such, for instance, as the Women's Education Union, and the Girls' Public School Com- pany, the improvement of women's educa- tion having long been one of his most cherished objects. He studied profoundly the methods and systems of all who have ob- tained celebrity as educators, and the Kin- dergarten system of Frobel was one in which he took a keen interest. He was especially interested in the history of the development of the English language, and the charac- teristics of the different dialects; and more particularly in the history of the Norman- French element. This led him to a rather extensive study of the dialects of French, and the history of the French language generally. A paper of great value by him on these subjects, entitled 'The Norman Element in the Spoken and Written Eng- lish of the 12th, 13th, and 14th Centuries, and in our Provincial Dialects/ appears in the Transactions of the Philological Society y 1868-9, of which he was a distinguished and an active member. As in the beginning of his career Mr. Payne was not deterred from his special vocation by the labour to which he was compelled, or by the privations from which he was not altogether free, so to- wards its close the same vocation was fulfilled with dignity, and with so much tenacity as could co-exist with the suffering or other disability he was called upon to endure. The death of his wife, which PEDAGOGUE PEDAGOGY 257 occurred in the autumn of 1 875, is believed to have aggravated the symptoms of a malady of some standing, which termi- nated on April 30, 1876, a life of singular purity and nobleness of aim, of strenuous and unintermitting industry, and of un- selfish devotion to high and worthy ends. By his will Mr. Payne bequeathed a sum of money to the Endowment Fund, and a valuable library of educational books, which he had been for some years collecting, to the College of Preceptors. Having regard to the assiduous and exacting labour demanded of Mr. Payne during so large a portion of his life, it may be said, on the whole, to have been one of not inconsiderable literary produc- tiveness. His works comprise, besides the exposition of Jacotot's system already mentioned, Epitome Histories Sacrce : a Latin Reading-book on Jacotot's System, 1830; Select Poetry for Children, 1839 (eighteenth edition, 1874); Studies in Eng- lish Poetry, 1845 (eighth edition, 1881); Studies in English Prose, 1868 (second edition, 1881); The Curriculum of Modern Education, 1866 ; TJiree Lectures on the Science and Art of Education, delivered at the College of Preceptors in 1871; 'Theories of Teaching, with their corresponding Prac- tice/ and 'On the Importance and Necessity of Improving our Ordinary Methods of School Instruction,' in the Proceedings of the Social Science Association, respectively for 1868-69 and 1871-72; The Impor- tance of the Training of the Teacher, 1873; The True Foundation of Science Teaching, 1873 ; The Science and Art of Education: an Introductory Lecture, 1874, and Pes- talozzi, 1875, both of them being lectures delivered at the College of Preceptors ; Frobel and the Kindergarten System, 1874 (third edition, 1876); and articles in the British Quarterly Review, respectively on * Eton/ 1867, ' Education in the United States/ 1868, and 'The Higher Education of the United States/ 1870. A Visit to German Schools in the Autumn of 1874 was published after the author's death in 1876; and a first volume of his Works was published, first and second edition, 1883, with the title of Lectures on the Science and Art of Education, with other Lectures and Essays. By the late Joseph Payne, the First Professor of the Science and Art of Education in the College of Preceptors, London. Edited by his son, Joseph Frank Payne, M.D., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. With an In- troduction by the Rev. R. H. Quick, M. A., Trin. Coll., Camb., Author of * Essays on Educational Reformers.' The lectures and pamphlets included in this volume relate chiefly to the theory and science of edu- cation, and form the greater part of Mr. Payne's papers on educational subjects. Pedagogue. See ROMAN EDUCATION. Pedagogy. This word has hardly taken root in our language. It has ex- isted there at least since the time of An- thony Wood in the seventeenth century. And yet even now it is looked upon as something of an intruding foreigner. The contemptuous use of 'pedagogue' has perhaps been unfavourable to its accept- ance; perhaps too the word meets with grudging recognition because the thing expressed by it is not held in much honour among us English. What then is the thing expressed 1 Let us say that it is a study whose end is to ascertain how the faculties of the young develop, and the best methods of harmonising educational arrangements with their development. Thus its interest is twofold, speculative and practical. This interest, however, is but little realised among us here in Eng- land, just because the two functions, the speculative and the practical, have been divorced from each other. The writers, such as Milton, Locke, and Herbert Spencer, have been too absolutely hostile to the existing order of things to gain a hearing from the teachers. The teachers have been too much of practical trainers, too little of thoughtful educators, to con- cern themselves with pedagogic theories. The books of celebrities, such as those just named, have been read because of the in- terest attaching to any thing that proceeded from their pens, and not because of the educational stimulus that might be derived from their doctrines. But books on peda- gogy, even when supported by names such as these, receive none too much attention, as may be learnt from the prefaces pre- fixed to Milton's and Locke's treatises in the Pitt Press editions. Herbert Spencer's work, it must be admitted, has been very widely read and discussed, yet in this case the separation between the educational theorist and the practical educator is only too forcibly illustrated. Spencer estimates the relative merits of the manifold subjects that claim a place in our educational course. And the suggestiveness of his estimate in 258 PEDAGOGY (BIBLIOGRAPHY OF) PEDANTRY the abstract cannot be overrated. But one most important consideration is alto- gether left out of sight. Instruction is in the main carried on in schools ; the most educative subjects under the class system that is inseparable from school life are those which best lend themselves to the catechetical (may we not dignify it by the name Socratic ?) method. But Spencer, re- garding the whole subject from a too purely philosophic and absolute point of view, has entirely omitted this factor from his account. The learner's aptitudes and his needs, and the intrinsic value of the sub- ject, have been treated in a most masterly manner ; but the conditions under which the learner is to study these subjects have hardly been regarded at all. Thus the 'defender of linguistic studies, as against ! those advocated by Spencer, has had left him by his mighty assailant one very strong fortress. He may plead that the question whether the instruction is to be imparted to learners individually, or to learners gathered together in large classes, is pre- liminary and fundamental. Readers of Milton and Locke will remember that the school system, whose claims, it is true, have very much increased in importance as the population has grown, is with them, too, either actually attacked or nearly dis- regarded. If, however, the educational theorist has been too little in touch with the practical educator, the latter has been far too little regardful of pedagogy of the teaching of the educational thinker. The evidence for this statement is not far to seek. Books dealing with the theory and practice of education, books on pedagogy, by no means meet with as much public favour inthiscountry as might be expected. One reason for this state of things is no doubt to be found in the fact that so many teachers in England have merely been drifted by force of circumstances into the occupation. Where men on the Continent choose teaching as a profession, we in Eng- land accept it as a convenient avocation that requires n o prelim inary outlay. Hence in France (to say nothing of Germany) a book like Compayre's Histoire Critique des Doctrines de V Education passes through many editions, while similar books in Eng- land, if they find the light of day at all, certainly meet with nothing like general appreciation. The teachers elsewhere form a profession, and treat the subjects con- nected with that profession as a serious study; the teachers here form a hetero geneous assemblage, with or without cre- dentials for the work in which they are engaged, frequently so guiltless of all edu- cational theories as to be ignorant that they are ignorant. No wonder, then, that pedagogy is with us at a discount. This is unquestionably a most grievous national loss. * Opinion is knowledge in the making. ' Without something like scientific discus- sion on educational subjects, without pe- dagogy, we shall never obtain a body of organised opinion on education. But true theory and sound practice are too nearly related ever to be separated with safety. Thus our practice ignores much of what has been laid down as fundamental by wri- ters on education. The difference between the child and the youth, so strongly em- phasised by writers like Rousseau and Pestalozzi, is ignored all through our edu- cational system, from the public elementary schools to the great public schools (see Quick's concluding remarks on Rousseau's J&mile). For want, again, of such organised opinion, it has been in vain that Matthew Arnold has year after year pleaded for systematising Middle Class Education, and correlating it with the public elementary school system. (See article on Schools in Humphry Ward's Reign of Queen Vic- toria.) How indeed can our institutions be conducted on broad and healthy prin- ciples as long as so little consideration is devoted to the doctrines and theories of which they are the practical embodiments 1 Pedagogy (Bibliography of). See Ap- pendix. Pedagogy (History of). See SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY ; MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OP) ; RENAISSANCE ; REFORMATION ; and the biographical articles. Pedantry. Pedantry is an ostentation of learning. It was a remark of Browne's, ' 'Tis a practice that savours much of pe- dantry, a reserve of puerility which we have not shaken off from school.' Swift was of opinion that pedantry is the overrating of any kind of knowledge we pretend to. For which reason Swift looked upon fiddlers, dancing masters, heralds, masters of ceremonies, &c., to be greater pedants than Lipsius or the elder Scaliger. Ac- cording ta Addison, a pedant is a man who has been brought up among books, and is able to talk of nothing else, and is a very indifferent companion; but he added that the title should be enlarged, for * in PENITENCE, REMORSE PERSEVERANCE 259 short, a mere courtier, a mere soldier, a mere scholar, a mere anything, is an in- sipid pedantic character, and equally ridi- culous.' Bishop Burnet (History of his own Times, bk. ii.) speaks likewise of the pedantry of which the preaching of the clergy of the orthodox school was overrun before the rise of that intellectual and genial body of men, the latitudinarian divines. Penitence, Remorse. The state of mind indicated by these terms forms the characteristic pain of conscience or the self -judging moral faculty (see MORAL SENSE), just as the sense of well-doing or merit constitutes its proper pleasure. Remorse springs out of an inner act of self-reflection. It is the condemnation by the present self of the past self, and is thus a sign of, and indeed an important element in, moral progress. As might be expected from its conditions, remorse does not show itself in the first years of life. Hence the fact, which is apt to seem so baffling to the parent or teacher, that one cannot produce the state of mind by mere , force of exhortation. Refusal to confess \ regret for a fault may arise from inability j to fix the thoughts on the wrong action so as to see its true quality, from the per- | sistence of the bad feeling which prompted ' it, or, lastly, from obstinacy. As repent- j ance is thus a state of feeling which cannot be externally induced, it is well not to try to force it by mere talking, but rather to put the child in such circumstances as are likely to foster reflection. The manifes- tation of pain and disappointment by a parent or teacher whom the child really loves will often effect more in this direc- tion than hours of admonition. Penmanship. See WRITING. Perception, Observation. By the act of perception is meant the work of the j mind in unifying the impressions received | through the senses into a knowledge of ob- i jects. Perception is the first stage in that ! intellectual elaboration of sense-materials ; which culminates in abstract thought. To j perceive, i.e. distinguish and recognise objects, implies normal and trained senses. AVhen sense-impressions are indistinct the knowledge of things will be inexact. But it implies more than this, viz. the inter- pretation of the impressions received at the moment by the aid of past experiences. Thus, a child that sees its ball as a real object is translating visual impressions into imagined tactile experiences (feeling, lifting, rolling the ball). Hence percep- tion is acquired. An infant does not see things as things, and cannot distinguish by the eye a flat drawing from a solid body. The ordinary circumstances and needs of life compel every child to con- nect and interpret its impressions up to a certain point. But such spontaneous acts of perception are apt to be rough and de- fective. The ends of exact knowledge require a more careful and systematic in- spection of objects. This is marked off as Observation, and the branch of intel- lectual discipline that aims at securing it is known as the training of the Observing Faculty. To observe any common object, as a flint or a tree trunk, so as to note all its peculiarities of form, colour, &c., im- plies a strong, wide interest in objects. This the child has in a measure, and when the observing faculty has been drawn out from the first, the pleasure springing from the use of the organs of sense and from the gaining of new knowledge may be counted on as a sufficient motive. A habit of ob- servation presupposes both presence and openness of mind ; in other words, free- dom from mental preoccupation and re- verie, and a willingness to see things just as they are, and not as we fancy them or would like them to be. The highest kmd of observation combines exactness or mi- nuteness, comprehensiveness, and rapidity. The close connection between exact obser- vation and scientific induction renders it important to exercise the observing faculty by object-lessons as a preparation for science-teaching. Observation forms, how- ever, the necessary preliminary to all studies, e.g. geography, mathematics, lan- guage (cf . article SENSES). See H. Spencer, Principles of Psychology, vol. ii. pt. vi. chap, ix., ifcc. ; Taine, on Intelligence, pt. ii. bk. ii. chap. ii. ; Sully, Teacher's Hand- book, chap. viii. ; Thring, Theory and Prac- tice of Teaching, pt. i. chap. vii. ; Beneke, Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre,\, and following; Compayre, Cours dePed., pt. i. Ie9- iv. ; and Buisson's Dictionnaire de Ped., art. Observation.' Peripatetic (Tre/HTrar^rt/co?, from TreptTrareca, to walk about). A follower of the method of Aristotle, who taught and discussed with his pupils as he walked about amongst them in the halls and promenades of the Lyceum. Perseverance. This is that quality of s 2 260 PERSIAN EDUCATION PESTALOZZI, JOHAN HEINRICH will by which an end is steadfastly pursued to the disregard of all extraneous solicita- tions. It is closely connected with mental concentration on a subject of thought (see ATTENTION) ; and it may be said indeed to be a firm concentration of the mind on an object of desire. The moral value of I this quality as one of the highest manifes- \ tations of will, and its great practical utility in life, render it incumbent on the i moral educator to develop it to the utmost. It is, moreover, a moral quality which the discipline of school is peculiarly well fitted to foster and strengthen. The learner should be led to see how success in study depends 011 perseverance, and how often, as the fable of the hare and the tortoise tells us, patient and unremitting effort defeats mere superiority of natural talent. Persian Education, according to Hero- dotus (book i. 136), consisted in teaching youth to ride, to shoot, and speak the truth. (See SCHOOLS OP ANTIQUITY.) Pestalozzi, Johan Heinrich (1746- 1827), the son of a doctor of Zurich, and born in that town, was (with the exception of Froebel) the greatest educa- tional reformer since the days of the Re- vival of Learning. His single influence has done more to humanise and render wise and sound the public elementary education, not only of Switzerland, but of all Europe, than that of any other man who has ever lived. Not that his reforms have ever been in any sense fully carried out ; but that by him men's minds have been drawn to and fastened on the need of education for the people, and have been considerably enlightened as to what that education should be. The modern enthu- siasm for what is called technical education is moreover, in a large measure, due to his teaching ; and as time goes on, his views, mingling with those of his great follower Froebel, are year by year more and more changing and moulding the" education of the earlier years of childhood. For a detailed account of his life we must refer our readers to the excellent Histoire de Pestalozzi, by Roger de Guimps. Here, after mentioning a few of the most marked events, we shall restrict ourselves to a statement of his principles and practice. Pestalozzi commences his agricultural experiment at Neuhof near Birr in 1768 which ends in utter failure in 1 780. Marries Anna Schultess in 1769. Experiment in educating pauper children at Neuhof, 1775-1780. Experiment in educating destitute children in the ruined Ursuline convent at Stanz during the first six months of 1799. Teaches in the schools of Burgdorf (Berthoud), July 1799 to June 1804. Goes to Munchenbuchsee, near Hofwyl, in June 1804, to work in conjunction with Fellenburg. Opens the Institute at Yverdun, at the southern end of Lake Neuchatel, October 1804. The Institute is closed 1825. Returns to Neuhof, and dies there in February 1827. Pestalozzi's most valuable works are as follows : First volume (the best) of Leonard and Gertrude, 1781 ; Letter to Gesner describing the experiment at Stanz, 1799 ; How Gertrude teaches her Children, 1801 ; Book for Mothers, 1803; My Swan- Sony, 1826; a complete (or almost complete) edition of Pestalozzi's works, in eighteen volumes, has been published by Seyffarth at Brandenburg, the last volume of which appeared in 1873. Taking as our guide the fifteen letters written to Gesner in 1801, and entitled How Gertrude teaches her Children, the following are Pestalozzi's leading principles: (1) Intuition, or know- ledge attained directly through the senses, is the groundwork of all knowledge. (2) Language ought to be closely united with intuition, and taught in connection with objects by means of exercises in expressing what has been intuitively learnt. (3) The time of learning details is not the time for reasoning and criticising. (4) In every branch of education we should commence with the simplest elements, and thence continue step by step following the deve- lopment of the child, i.e. by a psychologi- cally connected series of lessons. (5) We ought to dwell long enough on each step for the child to obtain complete mastery of it, so that he can deal with it at his will. (6) Teaching should follow the path of development, not that of dogmatic in-, struction. (7) The individuality of the child should be sacred in the eyes of the teacher. (8) The principal end of elemen- tary or primary instruction is not to make a child acquire information and accom- plishments, but to develop and increase the powers of his intellect. (9) To know- ledge must be added power ; to acquaint- ance with facts, the ability to make use of them. (10) The relation between master and pupil, especially in matters of discipline,, ought to be founded on and ruled by love. (11) Instruction ought to subserve the. PESTALOZZI, JOHAN HEINRICH 261 higher aim of education. Pestalozzi re- marks that for ages we have employed writing, reading, and arithmetic as the elements of education; they should be language, number, and form. A child should first be exercised in seeing clearly, and should then learn to thoroughly appre- ciate form by its simplest elements, the straight line in various positions, angles, a) was first used by the Greeks to indicate the love of knowledge of any kind. Later on, mainly by the labours of Aristotle, the most systematic thinker of antiquity, it acquired a special reference to a certain portion or kind of knowledge. It was marked off from the special sciences as the investigation of tli ultimate notions, such as cause, substance,, reality, which underlie the special sciences, but are not investigated by these. The work of philosophy is to co-ordinate the results obtained by the special sciences, as physics, chemistry, biology, &c., so as to- provide a general theory or explanation of the universe, so far as this is obtainable. This work of philosophy in using and sup- plementing the results of scientific teach- ing, by giving us a final account of the nature and origin of real things, is specially marked off as metaphysic. Closely con- nected with this is another and more recently recognised department of philo- sophic search, viz. theory of knowledge. This considers critically the question how the human mind can have certain know- ledge at all, and seeks to define the criteria or marks of true knowledge as distinguished from the false semblance of it. In addi- tion to metaphysic and theory of know- ledge, philosophy is commonly taken to in- clude psychology, or the science of mind; logic, or the science which deals with and seeks to regulate the processes of thought or reasoning ; ethics, which aims at defin- ing the ultimate ends of conduct ; and aesthetics, which investigates the nature and laws of beauty (see articles PSYCHO- PHRENOLOGY 267 LOGY, LOGIC, and ETHICS). From this short account of the scope of philosophy we may be able to determine its proper place as a subject of study. The educational im- portance of philosophy depends on the fact that it disciplines the mind in thinking about things in the most general way, tends to widen the intellectual horizon and preserve the specialist from narrow- ness of views, and favours a thoughtful and critical attitude of mind. To this it may be added that though the high pro- blems of philosophy seem remote from all practical interests, they answer to intel- lectual impulses and longings which are as old as man, and which display them- selves very distinctly in the history both of the race and of the individual. As a group of studies of a particularly abstract and difficult nature, philosophy belongs to the last or university period of scholarship. In the history of the university system on the Continent and in Great Britain philo- sophy has occupied a prominent and honoured place in that general course of studies which is now marked off from the more distinctly professional courses as the ' faculty of arts/ or by the Germans as the 'faculty of philosophy. 5 It now holds the firmest place perhaps in Germany and Scot- land. In Oxford it is studied too much merely as a branch of classical literature, and though the institution of the moral sciences tripos at Cambridge has distinctly raised its status at the other ancient university, there must be set off against this gain the more recent changes in the modern Uni- versity of London, by which philosophy has ceased to be a necessary element in the I arts curriculum. From this it is evident that owing to the multiplication of educa- tional subjects, and the growing demands for special and technical knowledge, philo- sophy will have to tight hard in order to maintain her ancient place of dignity. The estimation in which she is held can, however, only permanently fall when the estimate of a liberal education itself de- clines. It has a particular utility for the educator, partly because the study of it | will lift the specialist teacher above the narrow limits of his subject, and enable him to deal with it in a larger, more thoughtful, and more truly educational manner ; partly because in its special branches psychology, logic, and ethics it supplies the basis of a theory of educa- tion. Finally, it may be observed that ' though philosophy, as we have seen, finds its proper place in the university, as dis- | tinguished from the school curriculum, the ! question is being warmly discussed, espe- | cially in Germany, whether some portions i of philosophical study, more especially formal logic, and the elements of psycho- logy and of ethics, ought not to be taken, up in the secondary schools as a prepara- tion for university studies. (On the scope of philosophy see Sir W. : Hamilton, Lectures on Metaphysics, lect. i iii., and art. 'Philosophy ' in the Encydo- j pcedia Brit. 9th ed. ; on its place in edu- cation see Hamilton, Lectures on Met. i. and ii., and an article, 'Philosophy as a Subject of Study,' by Professor G. Croons Robertson, in the Fortnightly Review, voL x. (1868) ; and on its fitness to be a sub- ject of school-teaching, consult the art. ' Philosophische Propadeutik,' in Schmidt's- Encyclopddie.) Phrenology (Gr. Rev E. Thring Morality in Public Schools, by the Very Rev. Dr. Butler, late Head-Master of Harrow ; Letter to a Lad, Anon. Copies of these and a classified list of other books may be obtained from the C.E.P.S., 111 Palace Chambers, West- minster, S. W. The minimum subscription to the Central Society is 5s. Teachers should notice the small periodical The Vanguard, Is. 6d. a year post free. Handy papers on the subject have been published also by the White Cross Society (a list may be obtained from Hatchards', 187 I Piccadilly, or from the secretary, Mr. J. 300 QUADRIVIUM QUESTION AND ANSWER S. S. Vidal, Museum Close, Oxford) ; and by the Social Purity Alliance (secretary, Rev. R. A. Bullen, 33 Vincent Square, S.W.). This Alliance admits ladies as members and on the committee. Mini- mum subscription Is. A further attempt is being made by the C.E.P.S. to form a committee representing classes of schools other than those mentioned. In the diocese of Chichester the dio- cesan branch of the C.E.P.S. have adopted the plan of calling together from time to time meetings of masters of all classes of schools for papers and discussions on purity. In general it may be said that in many directions attention is being called to this question, and encouraging efforts are being made to promote purity in schools, and to combat and repress the opposite vice. In connection with help- ing old pupils, whether boys or girls, especially those leaving villages for em- ployment elsewhere, teachers will find it useful to communicate with the various centralising institutions, such as the Young Men's Friendly Society, Girls' F. S., Y. M. Christian Association (Exeter Hall, Strand, W.C.), Central Vigilance Associa- tion, and the National Vigilance Associa- tion (267 Strand, W.C.). Q Quadrivium. See MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF). Queen's Colleges and Royal Uni- versity, Ireland. See UNIVERSITIES. Queen's Scholarships. See CERTIFI- CATED TEACHERS. Question and Answer. As has al- ready been pointed out in the article on '* Oral Instruction ' one of the teacher's primary objects in putting questions to children is to enable him to ascertain what they know and the degree of development which their various intellectual faculties have reached. Until the teacher has learnt this he cannot properly proceed either to instruct or to train. At the same time and by the same means he will ascertain, and make evident to the child himself, what is almost as important, viz. what the child does not know, and what are his misconceptions and difficulties. This was | the general character of Socrates' question- ing. When these things have been done, the teacher has next to excite the child's curiosity and interest, and to set his facul- ties to work ; in other words, to induce him to make use of what he knows, to take an active part in the lesson, and to maintain that activity. Here the questions should ^be stimulative, and suggestive of lines and modes of thought and inquiry. They should also serve to keep the teacher in touch with the pupil, and make evident | whether the latter is following the lesson, j and if so, how far. There are dangers to be avoided in both these kinds of ques- tioning. By the former (the Socratic) the jpupil will learn that many things are not so simple as he had thought, and that much which he thought he knew he does not know. There is great danger that he may grow bewildered and disheartened in con- sequence. Care, therefore, must be taken to avoid this. It will be enough if he learns somewhat of the value of scrupu- i lous accuracy, and of the rashness of gene- I ralising without sufficient facts, and dog- matising without sufficient consideration. In the second case there is danger of creat- ing too great surprise and wonderment, of raising undue expectations, of running off on side issues, of over-stimulation and over- suggestion. We do not want the child to depend too much on external stimulus, nor should we interfere too far with its self- activity. Care again is manifestly needed here. It will be readily seen that ques- tions should be simply worded, perfectly clear and unambiguous in meaning, and as briefly expressed as possible, so that they may be quickly grasped and easily borne in mind. They should never sug- gest their own answers. It is rarely wise to ask questions which can be answered by a mere 'yes' or 'no ;' and to make an asser- tion and leave the pupil to fill up the last word, is a bad plan ; nor should the ques- tions be such, as a rule, as can be answered by a broken, incomplete sentence, or by a single disconnected word. Answers of this kind should not be accepted. Questions should not be too wide and comprehen- sive, as { What happened in the reign of Elizabeth ? ' but definite and directed to a point ; logically and naturally connected, both with the answer just given and with QUESTIONISTS RAGGED SCHOOLS 30? previous questions and those which are to follow; connected also with the general aim of the lesson. In general the ques- tion 'Why?' should be used with caution. It is liable in many cases to lead to answers very incomplete, or to mere guessing ; in fact, it frequently asks for more than a teacher can reasonably expect to have answered. Questions should be well dis- tributed throughout a class, and collective answering allowed as sparingly as possible. As a rule, when the questions refer to past work and to the general theme of the lesson they may be answered collectively ; but they should not be so answered when they are used to elucidate a particular point or to work out a particular argument. The teacher will find it a great help when fram- ing his questions to imagine the answers which may be fairly given to them to be written out consecutively. When so written they should form an intelligible, logically connected outline of the lesson. If a ques- tion fails to get an answer, put the inquiry in another way, or break up the question into a string of simpler questions leading up to the original inquiry. If the class remains obstinately dumb, or the answers are random and foolish, then the discipline is wrong somewhere, or the class has not been interested, or the matter in hand is- entirely beyond them. Often, however,, a pupil's bad answer is a teacher's oppor- tunity not for * scoring off' thedelinquent,, which is usually unwise but for proving his point by logically working out the- wrong answer and showing its untenable- ness. It is of course unnecessary to state- that a pujril's questions, as long as they are fairly to the point and fairly reason- able, should receive due attention ; indeed, if no questions are asked by the pupils we- may be sure that they are not interested. But if the questions are premature, or random, or foolish, it is better to leave the answering of them to the end of the lesson,, by which time they will have answered themselves, or have been seen to be use- less, or may be dealt with as disorderly.. From what has been said it will be mani- fest that books written in the form of ques- tion and answer are useless. Questionists. See TRIPOS. Quintilian. See ROMAN EDUCATION.. Ragged Schools, which in London owe their existence chiefly to the exertions of the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, when Lord Ashley (see Biographies, by E. Hod- der, 1886, Cassell & Co., 36s., or 7s. 6d.; G. H. Pike, 1884, Partridge & Co., Is. ; and John Kirton, 1886, Ward & Lock, 2s. 6d.), have for their object the educa- tion and benefit of the most indigent poor of all ages. The Ragged School Union, with which the London schools generally are affiliated, has its headquarters at Exeter Hall (Strand, W.C., John Kirk, sec.). From the beginning, in 1844, till his death, Lord Shaftesbury was president. The objects of the Union are (1) to assist individual schools by money grants ; (2) to collect and disseminate information such as teachers can utilise, and to enlist the co-operation of the public ; and (3) by means of special visitations, &c., to take notice of progress made, and to suggest improvements in the management of the schools and their mission branches. Re- ligious teaching has to be given in all the schools assisted, the Authorised Version of the Scriptures used, and the instruction, must be free. Ragged schools are generally supposed : to have had their origin in Scotland ; but i although not at first known as such, in- I stitutions exactly corresponding to those ! subsequently recognised as ragged schools. ! were founded in London by the quondam soldier, Thomas Cranfield (see Life, The Useful Christian, R. T. S., Is. 60?.), and in Germany by John Falk, of whom some account was published at Weimar in 1868,. I while references to the man and his work occur in the Life of the German publisher,. Frederick Perthes. These men were- merely pioneers, however. Even the work | commenced by Robert Raikes (see Bio- graphies, by Gregory, Hodder & Stough- ton, 1877, 2s. 6d. ; Paxton Hood, The- Day, the Book, and the Teacher, Sunday School Union, 1880, 2s. 6rf.) at Gloucester was very similar in character ; while the picture which Cowper gives of street - children at Olney shows that such classes . would have been essentially what has coim:- . to be known as of the ' ragged ' type. .-302 RAGGED SCHOOLS John Falk, 1768-1826, who has been called the original ' ragged-school master,' was both an exemplar in his calling and an enthusiast. At the close of the great European war, the naturally great num- bers of soldiers' orphans in a shocking con- dition attracted Falk's attention. Instead of allowing them to lapse into crime and to fill the prisons, Falk attempted to give them .a better kind of discipline, and with such .success that he could soon say: ' The chil- dren of robbers and murderers sing psalms ;and pray ; boys are making locks out of the insulting iron which was destined for their hands and feet ; and are building houses which they formerly delighted to break open. . . . Where chains and stocks, the lash and the prison, were powerless, Love comes off victorious.' This famous saying is the key to the ragged school method. Some years before, Cranfield had com- menced work in the slums of South London, and the Camberwell Ragged School Mission, Toulon Street, S.E., is a continuation of his labours. Later on came the operations at Aberdeen and Edinburgh, which interested the Queen and Prince Consort. Thomas Guthrie's Plea for Ragged Schools drew forth an encomium from Lord Jeffrey, and ap- peared in 1847. This was followed ten years later by The City : its Sins and its Sorrows ; and in 1860 by Seedtime and Harvest. A ragged school was opened in Rome soon after the political changes -of 1870. The pioneers of forty years ago devoted their energies chiefly to the establishment of day-schools ; but at present, conse- quent upon the development of the work of School Boards, set in motion by the Act of 1870, they are becoming more and more a necessary supplementary agency to the work undertaken by the State. In- creased attention is not only being given to religious teaching on the Sabbath, but, by means of a number of parental agen- cies which are maintained throughout the week, endeavours are made to educate the whole moral nature of the children. It is .also sought to maintain a hold on elder scholars who are above school age, in ad- dition to a large amount of adult work. There were in 1888 regularly gathered week by week at least 48,000 children in the 238 ragged Sunday schools of .London ; and this fact alone shows why they can never altogether be superseded by Board schools. The Universities Settle- ments (q.v.) are extensions of the idea (see articles PAUPER EDUCATION, WAIFS, &c.). Typical schools, in addition to those already mentioned, would be found at Sermon Lane, Liverpool Road, Islington ; Ogle Mews, Foley Street, Portland Place, W. ; George Yard, High Street, White- chapel ; King Edward Street, Spitalfields ; Christ Church, Watney Street, E. ; St. Thomas's, Waterloo Road ; Field Lane, Vine Street, Clerkenwell, &c., &c. The modern ragged school has deve- loped many varied agencies. Thus, the first Shoeblack Brigade was founded by Mr. J. Macgregor ('Rob Roy'), in 1851 ; and in London alone in 1888 there were between 300 and 400 lads who found em- ployment (Central Red Brigade, Saffron Hill, Holborn), whose earnings were about 11,000 a year. Mr. W. J. Ossnmn's work at Costers' Hall, High Street, Hox- ton, which has vastly helped the street- vendors ; Mr. George Hatton's striking service in the reclamation of thieves, Brooke Street, Holborn, and branches in St. Giles's ; Mr. Charrington's Hall (Mile End Road), for seating 6,000 persons, with coffee-palace, book -saloon, and recreation rooms attached ; and Dr. Barnardo's ex- tensive operations in the rescue of desti- tute children (Stepney Causeway and branches), not to mention many others (see article WAIFS AND STRAYS), are all developments of the many- sided ragged- school enterprise. Indeed, the branches which the original tree has put forth are very numerous, e.g. industrial classes, evening recreation rooms, school exhibi- tions, summer holidays at suitably ap- pointed country homes, clubs for the encouragement of thrift, libraries, penny banks, breakfasts and dinners for children in winter, Sunday morning breakfasts for the destitute, &c. The history of any school in London can be learned at Exeter Hall, Strand, where also a complete list of the schools can be had. Large towns, such as Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, &c., have unions of their own, and there are few of the larger provincial towns without one or more ragged schools. Ragged schools are still being rapidly adapted to the altered circum stances of the times. ' The Shaftesbury Fund ' is specially intended to promote the rebuild- ing or improvement of unsuitable school- RAIKES, ROBERT RATICH, WOLFGANG 303 houses. The buildings were exempted from rates about twenty years ago. The gene- ral results of ragged-school operations were summed up by the late Lord Shaftes- bury when he said that the Union had up to that time been instrumental in sav- ing 300,000 children from lapsing into courses of crime. While it will be impossible to give a complete bibliography of the subject, men- tion may be made of the annual volumes of the Ragged School Union Magazine (Kent & Co., 2s. 6d., 1849-75), in 'which articles on the social, political, and reli- gious aspect of ragged-school teaching may be found. The Quarterly Record (12 vols., 1876-87) is a continuation of the above ; and a new series, In His Name, was commenced in 1888 (J. F. Shaw ee also TJie Harvests of the City, by Pearl Fisher, 3s. Qd. (J.F. Shaw tfc Co.) ; Recollections of John Pounds {Williams & Norgate, 1884, 5s.). Raikes, Robert (1736 - 1811), the founder of Sunday Schools (q.v.), was a native of Bristol, and proprietor of the Gloucester Journal. Actuated by a desire to eradicate ignorance and vice, which he found rampant in the immediate vicinity of the local gaol of his native city, he de- termined to trace the moral malady to its primitive source. He discovered that in early life the education of those whom he found the inmates of gaols had been totally neglected ; that they had never received any mental or religious instruction ; and as a natural consequence he was led to infer that succeeding generations if trained in equal ignorance would probably prove equally vicious. Children at a tender age were sent to work on week days, and Sun- clays were devoted wholly to wickedness. He determined, if possible, to check this state of matters. In 1780 he made his first attempt at a Sunday school, and it soon awakened considerable attention. For nearly thirty years he continued to be .actively engaged in the promotion of the undertaking, and he lived to witness its extension throughout England. A statue was erected to his memory on the Thames Embankment on the occasion of the cele- bration of the Sunday Schools Centenary in 1880. Ramus, Peter. See REFORMATION. Rates (School Board). Board schools are supported partly by Government grants (q.v.), partly by school fees paid by the children, and partly by the local School Board rates. Mr. Forster, in introducing the Education Act of 1870, expressed the opinion that the administration of that measure would not impose upon the rate- payers a heavier burden than an average rate of 3d. in the pound. This estimate is frequently quoted by adverse critics of School Board finance. Mr. Forster, how- ever, after some experience of the working of the Act, admitted that when he formed his estimate of the 3d. rate he had at the same time greatly under-estimated the educational destitution of the country, of which he had formed no adequate idea until after the Act came into operation. The average School Board rate in England in 1885-86 was Id. ; in 1884-85 it was Q'6d. ; in 1883-84, 6'3d. so that in three years the increase was 'Id. At the same time, however, the average number of chil- dren attending Board schools increased by 1 30, 132. The total expenditure in 1 886-87 for School Board purposes in England amounted to 5,124,66R Of this total | 2,442, 347, or 47*7 per cent., was raised out of the local rates. Ratich, Wolfgang (from Ratichius, the latinised form of Ratke} (1571-1635), i is well known for his plan of teaching lan- guage, which created so much interest in Germany and elsewhere at the time of its publication. The following are some of the general principles or maxims on which Ratke based his practice. They are highly suggestive, but must be given here with- ! out comment : 1. Everything after the I order and course of nature. 2. Only one I thing at a time. 3. One thing should be ! often repeated. 4. Everything first in the 1 mother tongue. 5. Everything without j compulsion. 6. Nothing should be learnt by rote , if thoroughly understood and [ made familiar a thing will be remembered, i as far as it is necessary to remember it, without rote-learning. 7. Due time should be allowed for recreation, and there should be breaks between lessons. 8. Mutual conformity (of method) in everything, e.g. 304 RATIO STUDIORUM READING all grammars should be on the same plan, and universal grammar should be learnt in connection with the modern tongue. 9. First the thing itself, and afterwards what explains the thing e.g. first the material for a rule, and then the rule ; or again, first a circle exhibited, and then its properties and definitions. 10. Everything by experiment and analysis. It has been the way with some to laugh at Ratke and to call him a charlatan. But Ratke was no fool. On the contrary, he was full of insight and originality, and possessed some of the very highest qualities of a skilful teacher. (See Dr. Henry Barnard's Ger- man Teachers and Educators.) Ratio Studiorum. See JESUITS. Raumer, Karl Georg von (b. 1783, d. 1865). An eminent German writer on paedagogy, as well as on geology and geo- graphy. While studying in Paris in 1 808 he became acquainted with the writings of Pestalozzi, and was so much struck with the improved method that reformer was introducing in teaching that he aban- doned the mineralogical and other scien- tific studies he had up to that year been pursuing, and proceeded direct from the French capital to Iserten, where he acted as voluntary assistant in Pestalozzi's esta- blishment from October 1808 to April 1809. He then returned to Germany with his enthusiasm somewhat sobered, but ever afterwards devoted a large share of atten- tion to educational affairs. He was pro- fessor of geology, natural history, &c., successively at Breslau, Halle, and Erlan- gen, at which last place he died. The four years from 1823 to 1827 he spent as assis- tant to Dittmar at his educational esta- blishment at Nuremberg, where he also founded an institution for the rescue and education of orphan and deserted boys. He was the author of numerous writings on several departments of the natural sci- ences, especially geology, geography, and geognosy, but his most important work was his Geschichte der Pddagogik vom Wiederaufbluhen klassischer Studien bis auf unsere Zeit, originally published in three volumes between 1843 and 1851. In 1877 a fifth edition appeared in four volumes. This is one of the most valuable treatises ever published in the German language on the subject it deals with, and has been translated into English under the title of History of Pcedagogy from the Revival of Classical Studies down to our own Times. Although somewhat one- sided in dealing with theological matters, Yon Raumer's treatise in the main shows such sound judgment and contains such numerous quotations from original docu- ments and the older writers that it must long remain a standard work on peda- gogy. The section on Die Erziehung der Mddchen (education of girls) was pub- lished separately in 1859, reaching a third edition in 1 866. The chapters on Deutscher Unterricht (German instruction) were also edited and published as a separate work by the author's son, Rudolph von Raumer (b. 1815, d. 1875), professor of the German language and literature at Erlangen. The autobiography of Karl von Raumer (K. v. Raumer's Leben von ihm selbst erzdhlt) was also published after the author's death in 1866. Friedrich von Raumer, the cele- brated historian (b. 1781, d. 1873), was a brother of Karl von Raumer. Reader (University). A university reader is practically a professor at Oxford and Cambridge. Readerships are out- comes of the last Commission. The stipend is generally about 300/. a year, the common funds being supplied by a kind of college income tax. For names and details see UNIVERSITY CALENDARS. Reading. Reading 'is the art of pro- nouncing words at sight of their visible characters ' (Bain) : the process of ' learn- ing to recognise in written signs words which are already familiar to the learner in spoken language' (Currie). The eye and the ear of the pupil must be exercised together on the forms and sounds of letters and words ; and at an early stage the sense of the matter will come in aid of the sheer efforts of memory to retain the discrimina- tions of eye and ear. Certain general preliminary conditions are accepted by most theorists : (1) Before beginning to- read the child should have considerable practice and facility of distinct enuncia- tion of the vocabulary of early childhood ; (2) the first reading lessons ought to be formed from matter and words within the child's familiar knowledge and experience ; (3) they should be composed of complete sentences, precisely as the spoken language- which the child knows consists of complete sentences. But at this point the general agreement ceases, and there is a division of methods. I. The Alphabetic Method. This me- thod is so called 'because it associates READING 305 the sound of a word with its sign through the medium of the series of its letter- names, taken either collectively or sylla- bically.' The alphabet is first taken up. The first act is to distinguish the letters by the eye, and especially to discriminate such as are nearly alike a process which is effectively helped forward by writing or drawing. Concurrently with this proceed- ing the child connects with the printed characters or letters their names, or vocal representations. The practice of giving the child small tablets, each of which has a letter on one side and a figure (of a well- known animal or other object whose name commences with that letter) on the other, is of ancient origin. Quintilian ' recom- mends the use of letters in ivory, which children take pleasure in handling, seeing, and naming' (Compayre's History of Pce- dagogy, transl. by Professor W. H. Payne, p. 49). St. Jerome similarly writes : 'Put into the hands of Paula letters in wood or in ivory, and teach her the names of them. She will thus learn while play- ing. But it will not suffice to have her merely memorise the names of the letters, and call them in succession as they stand in the alphabet. You should often mix them, putting the last first, and the first in the middle. Induce her to construct words by offering her a prize, or by giving her, as a reward, what ordinarily pleases children of her age. Let her have com- panions, so that the commendation she may receive may excite in her the feeling of emulation ' (ibid. p. 67). Erasmus men- tions that ' the ancients moulded tooth- some dainties into the forms of the letters, and thus, as it were, made children swal- low the alphabet ' (ibid. p. 90), The same view is taken by Locke : * Give me leave here,' he says (Thoughts on Education), ' to inculcate again what is very apt to be forgotten viz. that great care is to be taken that it be never made as a business to him, nor he look on it as a task. I have j always had a fancy that learning might be made a play and recreation to children, 1 and that they might be brought to desire to be taught, if it were proposed to them as a thing of honour, credit, delight, and recreation, or as a reward for doing some- thing else. Children should not have anything like work, or serious, laid on them ; neither their minds nor their bodies will bear it. It injures their healths , and their being forced and tied down to their books, in an age at enmity with all such restraint, has, I doubt not, been the reason why a great many have hated books and learning all their lives after.' If possible, then, the judicious teacher will wile the child into learning to read, while it sup- poses it is simply playing. ' I know a person of great quality,' Locke goes on to say, ' who, by pasting on the six vowels (for in our language y is one) on the six sides of a die, and the remaining eighteen consonants on the sides of three other dice, has made this a play for his children, that he shall win who, at one cast, throws most words on these four dice ; whereby his eldest son, yet in coats, has played him- ! self into spelling with great eagerness, and I without once having been chid for it, or I forced to it. . . . When by these gentle ways he begins to be able to read, some easy, pleasant book, suited to his capacity, should be put into his hands, wherein the entertainment that he finds might draw him on, and reward his pains in reading. To this purpose I think ^sop's Fables the best, which, being stories apt to delight and entertain a child, may yet afford useful reflections to a grown man ; and if his memory retain them all his life after, ; he will not repent to find them there, amongst his manly thoughts and serious 1 business. If his ^3Esop has pictures in it it will entertain him much the better, and I encourage him to read, when it carries the i increase of knowledge with it ; for such i visible objects children hear talked of in vain, and without any satisfaction, whilst they have no ideas of them , those ideas being not to be had from sounds, but from ' the things themselves or their pictures. And, therefore, I think, as soon as he be- gins to spell, as many pictures of animals should be got him as can be found, with the printed names of them, which at the same time will invite him to read and ' afford him matter of inquiry and know- i ledge. And, if those about him will talk to him often about the stories he has read, and hear him tell them, it will, besides other advantages, add encouragement and delight to his reading when he finds there is some use and pleasure in it.' Locke does not seem to appreciate the difficulty that modern educationists have found in bridging the chasm between individual letters and letters as joined in syllables. He, no doubt, contemplates a much more deliberate study than is now permitted to 306 READING children in these days of steam-pressure and ' standards.' The combining opera- tion at once brings us face to face with the consideration that the conventional names of the individual letters, when re- peated in succession, hardly ever give any- thing even approaching to the conven- tional sound of the particular word or syllable : rat, as pronounced, is not recog- nisable in r, a, t (ar-a-tee), as spelled. Still, a certain association is very rapidly formed, and this association is certainly suggestive. But the plain fact is, that this method is not, and is not designed to be, a pure reading method ; it is 'a method for teach- ing reading and spelling simultaneously, and the reading through the spelling.' Dr. Currie points out clearly the real difficulty. * That these branches should be taught together/ he says (Common School Educa- tion, par. 278), ' is obvious, since the labour requisite for learning the one may all be made available for learning the other. The objection to this method is, not that it combines the two, but that, it does so in an unnatural and awkward manner ; so that, instead of helping, they interfere with each another. Spelling rests on a habit of the eye, which is best acquired as the result of reading ; this method, which inverts their proper relation, not only deprives the learner of the natural facilities which reading gives for spelling, but distracts his attention from the one thing with which he is supposed to be occupied, the reading.' The difficulty was recognised in the Port Royal method. * What makes reading more difficult,' says Arnauld (General Grammar, chap, vi.), ' is that, while each letter has its own proper name, it is given a different name when it is found associated with other letters. For example, if the pupil is made to read the syllable/?-?/, he is made to say ef-ar-y, which invariably confuses him. It is best, therefore, to teach children to know the letters only by the name of their real pro- nunciation, to name them only by their natural sounds.' He proposes, then, ' to have children pronounce only the vowels and the diphthongs, and not the conso- nants, which they need not pronounce except in the different combinations which they form with the same vowels or diph- thongs, in syllables or words.' This brings us to the second method. II. The Phonic Method. This method differs from the alphabetic in associating the sound of the word with the letter sounds composing it, instead of with the letter names. It claims two conditions, however, as necessary for its efficient work- ing : (1) 'It does not subject to phonic analysis those monosyllabic words which the child has occasion to learn first, be- cause they are for the most part anomalous in their sound;' and (2) 'when it does enter upon analysis it groups the words of the language according to the vowel or diphthong sounds which they embody, that the learner may have all the help which re- sults from classification' (Currie). Three objections have been offered to this method: (1) An exhaustive classification leads to a great complexity of rules, and, when all is done, no inconsiderable part of the lan- guage is left outside the rules. This objec- tion applies with much greater force to English, which is phonically very irregular, than to such a language as German, whose phonic structure is regular. (2) Even with- in the regularities of the alphabet the aggregate of the sounds of the letters in a word does not really suggest the sound of the word itself ; it makes just a little nearer approach to this result than is attained by the alphabetic method. * The pupil is ex- pected,' says Dr. Currie (par. 279), 'to arrive at the sound of the word bat, for example, through this analysis, be-a-te(ihe two consonants being uttered upon a sound here denoted by e, but which is in reality something like the sound of the e in French, or the u in but). This threefold sound may be a nearer approach to the single sound of bat than the threefold bee-a-tee of the alphabetic method, but it certainly does not constitute that sound. In fact it cannot.' (3) The third objection 'lies against its whole principle. It does not follow that, because the words of a lan- guage may have their sounds analysed and classified, the way to learn to read lies through this analysis and classification. Whether it does or not depends on the mental circumstances of the learner' (Currie, par. 279). III. The Phonetic Method. This method meets the irregularities of the alphabet by employing for a time a special alphabet provided with characters repre- senting all the sounds of the language, and each possessing a uniform power. After a course of discipline in this alphabet the child is transferred to the ordinary letters by being set to read from a book printed READING 307 in the ordinary letters the same lessons as he has already learned in the phonetic characters. Against this method has been urged the same objection to its principle as we have seen urged against the phonic method, as well as two special objections : (1) It does not overcome, but only delays, the difficulty of mastering the irregulari- ties ; and (2) if introduced at all it would require to be introduced universally. Cer- tain modifications have been proposed in obviationof these objections, such as special markings to differentiate the vowel sounds, and special modes of printing the difficult letters. But these would seem only to add to the young learner's confusion. IV. The 'Look-and-Say' Method, or, Heading without Spelling. This method directly associates the sound of the word with its form taken as a whole (see article LOOK-AXD-SAY). The learner sees the word as he hears it as a whole. Continuously, as his experience advances, he analyses the repeated association of sounds with signs, unconsciously perhaps at first, perhaps without much pointed ^attention at any time. ' This instinctive phonic induction he invariably makes for himself.' And the teacher may silently assist this operation of induction by grouping resemblances or directing special attention to such. ' This is phonic comparison, but it is a process very different from that contemplated in the " Phonic Method '" (Currie, 281). In the system of Professor Jacotot this method was carried to a harsh extreme of practice, and was required to produce other important educational results besides mere reading. Jacotot advocated the principle, * Learn something thoroughly, and refer everything else to it.' The pupil therefore is at once required to apply this principle, and is thus from the very outset compelled to observe likeness and unlikeness of words, j * to exercise his judgment, to analyse, to ' generalise, and, in short, to bring into play nearly the whole of his intellectual facul- ties.' Jacotot puts aside the usual appara- tus of alphabets, primer, spelling-book, first reader, and so forth, and engages his pupil at once on some standard classical work, Fenelon's Telemaque for French children. Take the opening sentence : ' The grief of <3alypso forthe departure of Ulysses would admit of no comfort.' The teacher points 1x> 'The,' ani pronounces it very distinctly, atnd the pupil repeats it after him. He then starts again and adds on the next word, 'The grief,' and the pupil repeats the two words after him. In like manner the third stage of trial includes the third word, and the fourth the fourth word, each stage having started from the beginning. The teacher now pauses, and exercises the pupil thoroughly in pointing out now this now that word, until he can infallibly dis- tinguish them. The book is then opened at random, and the teacher points to some particular sentence, and requires the pupil to state whether he can recognise any one of his four words there. Assuming that the four words are thoroughly known, the teacher proceeds with the remaining words in the same way, always starting from the first. ' The process of interrogation pur- sued at the end of the first four words is repeated with each word of the sentence until the child learns accurately to distin- guish those words which are different, to recognise the likeness between those which are similar, and to point out any word of this sentence in any page of the book that may be opened before him.' The teacher, having finished the sentence, now breaks up the words of more than one syllable into their component syllables, requiring the pupil to distinguish the syllables just as he distinguished the words ; and by- and-by the same plan is applied to the letters. After a little the teacher ceases to pronounce the words first, and requires the pupil to attack his sentence with tho training he has received, helping him only in cases where new words or syllables crop up. * Still, however, he must recommence with the first word learned, as it is by this means only that all his previous acquisi- tions are permanently retained. He soon begins to have the first three or four sentences thus so frequently repeated impressed on his memory, and is told to spell them, dividing them into their component syllables and letters from re- collection. After about sixty lines have thus been gone through, he cannot fail to be acquainted with nearly all, if not all, the letters of the alphabet, and with a vast variety of their combinations. It is in- deed considered that he is now taught to read. If any hesitation, indicative of im- perfect perception, is evident in the pupil the master must return to the same words, syllables, or letters, until they are thoroughly distinguished and compre- hended. By this means every new ac- quisition becomes permanent, and every 308 READING effort brings with it the proof of some progress. Hence there is no lost labour. If the pupil should learn only one word in an hour, yet is that word for ever learned and indelibly stamped on the memory by the incessant repetition of the first tiling required, which is the very life of the system. The pupil is never to be assisted except in what is introduced to his notice for the first time. . . . The ob- ject of the process described is simply to make the pupil acquainted with the forms of words, syllables, and letters. What may be called declamatory reading is re- served for a more advanced stage of his progress, and the general rule given for the attainment of it is Read as you would speak ' (J. Payne, Lectures on Education, pp. 349-351). V. The Phonic - Analytic Method. For all the warmth that is sometimes de- veloped for or against the foregoing me- thods, there is practically not much differ- ence between them. The great thing is to hold by the principle that 'the acquisition of both sound and sign should be based on a perception of the sense. 7 Perhaps the best of all methods is constructed from hints collected from all the preceding me- thods. This is the method of 'reading without spelling,' ' preceded by oral in- struction in the use of words and in the forms of the letters, and supplemented after a time by a certain kind of phonic com- parison.' It has been called the ' Phonic- Analytic ' method ; but Dr. Currie (who describes it admirably, par. 282) is content to call it simply * Reading without Spelling,' in order to avoid con- fusion with the * Phonic ' method. It is exemplified with most careful elaboration in Professor Murison's Globe headers (Macmillan). Passing beyond the mere mechanical exercise of reading, we proceed towards Elocution (q.v.). Reading, to be good, must be intelligent and expressive that is, it must bring out the sense of the matter, and do so with effect through skilful use of the tones of the voice. In- telligent reading is forwarded by every- thing that exercises and increases the power of the mind. Expressive reading has been analysed into the following chief elements : purity of utterance, distinct- ness of utterance, correctness of accent, deliberateness, correctness of pitch, modu- lation, fluency or facility. Instruction, imitation, and practice are all necessary conditions of success. Simultaneous reading rests on the principle 'that the inferior readers of a class are compelled for the time to con- form to the standard of the better readers.' It secures distinctness ; it improves the rate, slowing the quick reader and quick- ening the slow and it tends to remove asperities of tone and modulation (Currie, 291). With us the process is not profit- ably resorted to before the pupils have attained some mastery over the difficulties of reading. M. Renan states (Vie de Jesus) that Jesus doubtless learned to read and write according to the method of the East, which consists in putting into the hands of the child a book, which he re- peats in concert with his comrades till he knows it by heart (Compayre', transl. Payne, p. 10). The German methods of teaching read- ing sin more seriously than our own in mixing up with the strict reading exercise a number of other educational purposes, all good in themselves, but in this par- ticular case misplaced. The following passage from Mr. C. C. Perry's Reports on German Elementary Schools and Training Colleges (Rivingtons) is of much interest in this connection : ' The reading-book,' says Mr. Perry (p. 103), 'occupies a cen- tral position in the instruction of the language. An especially thorough treat- ment is given to the normal subject-matter contained in the reading-book, as well as to the extracts intended for repetition, in the selection of which form, contents, and authors are to be the main considera- tions. With respect to the form, the pieces selected must represent the most important species of style, as well as the chief kinds of poetry. Their contents must be calcu- lated to foster an ideal tendency in a boy's spirit, and to enlarge his range of thought, to render his mind active, and give a lasting impulse to his will. Amongst the authors, none of the more important na- tional writers who are represented in the reading-book must remain unnoticed. The treatment which should be given to the pieces selected principally consists in (1) good reading on the part of the teacher ; (2) explanation of difficult expressions, figurative modes of speech, &c. ; (3) re- peated reading, in which special attention is to be given to correct emphasis and ex- pressive delivery; (4) stating the main REALSCHULE 309 itents of a piece, and following out the different trains of thought ; (5) a free and independent rendering of the contents (either in a concise or compressed form, or adding what can be read between the lines, paraphrasing the passage, putting it in different order, using different expres- sions, &c.) ; (6) written and oral exercises set in connection with the subject (such as imitations of style, detailed explanations of different expressions, synonyms, com- parisons of two extracts, &c.). Requisite information is also to be given as to the form of the piece and its author. A number of the poems which have been discussed, especially those of a narrative form, are to be learned by heart. The re- maining contents of the reading-book form the general reading material. They include, especially, extracts on history, geography, natural science, which serve to illustrate the instruction in these subjects, and are, as far as possible, to be treated in connection with them. Pupils must always read with correct pronunciation, logical accuracy, a good accent, and in an agree- able tone.' (See ELOCUTION.) Realschule. The Realschule is essen- tially a product of the nineteenth century. The political condition of Germany during the last decade of the eighteenth and the first of the nineteenth century, the impulse given to education by Pestalozzi, the fall of Napoleon, and restoration of general peace and prosperity these were all fac- tors in the movement. A general need was felt for 'modern education,' which should meet the requirements of a society in which art, science, trade, and industries were making rapid strides. There were many attempts at solving the educational problem of the times. In some places the municipal authorities founded hohere Eilr- gerschulen. The Bavarian Government opened Realschulen (1808). In other places the experiment of grafting modern subjects on to the old classical school (Gymnasium) was tried, but without much success. It became clear that a new type of school was needed, and the result was that after the War of Liberation a large number of Realschulen sprang into exist- ence, for the most part without the assistance of the State. But the first be- ginnings of the Realschule must be sought in a much earlier time. The movement really began in the sixteenth century, under the influence of the new develop- ments of physical science. Its early history is closely associated with the name of Bacon, who may be fairly said to have inspired much of the educational doctrine of Comenius. The educational ideal of the latter, as well as that of his disciple Francke, bore a distinctly modern stamp. The Mathematical and Mechanical Real- schule of Semler, founded in 1706 in Halle, and reopened in 1738, was one of the earliest attempts at a technical school; the Economical and Mathematical Real- schule, founded by Hecker in 1747 in Berlin, was a school of great importance, ! directed to giving a technical education | in a number of special branches. These efforts, sporadic and transitory as they were, all contributed to the solution of the question of an education based on the practical needs of life. The writings of Rousseau and the philanthropists gave a farther impulse to the movement. But it was not till the year 1832 that the Real- schulen received State aid in Prussia. In that year the Government took a tentative step towards reorganising and organising them, by providing for a fixed curriculum, and opening certain branches of the public service to pupils who had completed a full school course at a Realschule. These privileges were, however, made conditional upon the attainment of a certain proficiency in Latin, in addition to modern subjects ; hence this language was generally intro- duced into Realschulen, at least as an optional subject. A still more important step was taken by the Government in 1859, when an improved scheme for the organisation of these schools was produced. A distinction was drawn between Real- schulen of the first and second rank and hohere Burgerschulen, according to the length of the school course, the character of the curriculum, and the equipment of the school in the matter of teachers and apparatus. The ideal at which these schools should aim was, according to the Prussian Government, a liberal education of a modern type. ' Their organisation should be based not upon the immediate needs of practical life, but on the aim of giving to their pupils that degree of intellectual capacity which is a necessary condition of a free and independent comprehension of their future work in life. They should not be technical schools, but should concern them- selves, like the Gymnasia, with general culture. Between Gymnasium and Real- 310 REASON, PROCESS OF REASONING schule there should be no difference of principle, but the two should be mutually complementary.' (Unterrichts- imd Pru- fungsordnung der Realschulen und der hoheren Biirgerschulen, 1859.) This ex- presses the attitude which the Prussian Government has consistently maintained in regard to Realschulen. It was the attitude of Frederick the Great, who held that a purely utilitarian curriculum de- prived a school of all title to rank as a High School. Thus reorganised, the Real- schulen enjoyed increased prosperity, and it became clear to men of insight that Realschulen of the first rank would soon knock at the doors of the universities and demand for their alumni equal privileges with the pupils of Gymnasia. This demand many of the universities met by conceding the right to attend lectures (Horfreiheit) a right already enjoyed by many stu- dents from foreign countries who had not passed the leaving examination (Abiturien- tenexamen) at any Gymnasium. In 1870 the Government took action by throwing open to students who had passed the leaving examination at a Realschule the right of matriculating in the Faculty of Philosophy, which corresponds to our fa- culties of Arts and Sciences: this was equivalent to admitting them to the full privileges of a course in this faculty, with the right of entering for the degree of Ph. D. at the close of it. The State examination pro facilitate docendi was also thrown open to Realschuler (pupils of aReal- schule). Against this innovation the Phi- losophical Faculty of Berlin entered a vigo- rous and unanimous protest in the year 1880, maintaining that ten years' experience had shown bad results (see article CLASSICAL CULTURE). But the Government made no change in their policy, and in the year 1882 a new scheme was produced which confirmed the privileges of Realschuler, and at the same time effected a new clas- sification of the schools' before comprised under the names Realschule and hohere Biirgerschule. By this arrangement, which is in force at the present time, two classes of these schools are recognised. 1. Those which include Latin in their curriculum (Realgymnasiuniy Realprogymnasiuni) ; 2. Those which do not teach Latin (Oberreal- schule, Realschule, hohere Burgerschule). The Realgymnasium and Oberrealschule have, like the classical Gymnasium, a course of nine years ; the Realprogymna- sium and Realschule a course of seven years; the hohere Biirgerschule a course of six years. At the same time the curri- culum of the classical Gymnasium was modified, the number of hours devoted to Greek and Latin was decreased, and Greek composition excluded from the leaving examination; time was thus found for more mathematics, French, and natural science. In the Realgymnasium more Latin is taught than in the old Realschule of the first rank, as organised in 1859, and less German, mathematics, natural science, and drawing. The Oberrealschule makes higher demands than the Realgymnasium in German, mathematics, natural science, drawing, French, and English ; physiology and some technical department is added. The Oberrealschule is State-supported, and its pupils enjoy many privileges. If they pass a leaving examination in Latin, they are put on the same footing as pupils of the Realgymnasium. Similarly, if the latter pass a leaving examination in Latin and Greek equal to that imposed upon pupils of the gymnasium, they are admitted to equal privileges. The tendency of re- cent legislation has been to make the classical schools more modern in character, and the modern schools more classical. The result is that the distinction between some of the different kinds of schools is not very clearly marked. Of the modern schools popular favour inclines more to the Oberrealschule than to the Realgym- nasium, which is in fact a kind of cross between a modern and a classical school. Whether the latter kind of schools will survive in the struggle for existence is an open question. In Alsace-Lorraine they have all been already abolished. But the future of Realschulen in the widest sense of the term is assured. (See L. Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen.) Reason, Processes of Reasoning. The faculty of reason is that by which we are able to infer from the known to the un- known, or to follow out the logical conse- quences of what we know. It is the higher part of man's cognitive or intellectual na- ture, and that which specially distinguishes him from the lower animals. Reason is sometimes (as by Kant) distinguished from the understanding, or faculty of judgment. In recent psychology, however, reason and judgment are brought together under Thought, or the thinking faculty, the ope- rations of which include conception, judg- RECITATION it, and reasoning. The first crude germ reasoning shows itself in children's rences from one fact of experience to bher which resembles it more or less closely. At this stage, however, reasoning is hardly distinguishable from animal in- ference. It is only as the child gains abstract ideas, and is able to understand general propositions, that the process of human reasoning becomes distinct or ex- plicit. Logic considers the reasoning pro- cess as falling into two main forms, deduction and induction. The education of the reasoning powers of the young in- cludes a graduated series of exercises in each of these forms (cf. articles LOGIC, DEDUCTION, and INDUCTION). Recitation. Education consists partly in the acquirement of knowledge, and partly in the training of faculty. Besides learning facts, we must learn how to make use of them; while, again, if we would make use of knowledge, we must learn how to express it. The expression of knowledge in language is speech ; or, when written, literature. Recitation, according to the common school use of the term, includes both the learning by hfeart of chosen pieces of prose and poetry, and the living utter- ance of them in speech. Besides leading to the mind's being stored with well- framed expressions of noble, wise, and beautiful thoughts, recitation is one of the means we employ for training the young to express what they know with right pronunciation, with clear significance, and with harmonious eloquence. The other means is oral reading. Now in order to express ourselves rightly and adequately in speech, we must not only know that about which we are to speak, but we must also feel it or, if we but repeat the language of another, we must at least appreciate his position and point of view, as well as understand the subject-matter of what he says or writes. We must know and, for the occasion at least, feel his meaning. To recite the language of an- other, therefore, with full effect, we must not only commit his words to memory, but we must also know his subject-matter, understand his point of view, and appre- ciate his feeling. This shows us not only the value of recitation as one of the means of education, but also how we are to employ it. We must master the subject- matter and words; we must understand the situation and point of view; and we -RECTOR 311 must appreciate the feeling of what we are to recite. Then we must learn how to give audible expression to these by means of the right tones, the right pauses, and the right accents. We must learn to use, in short, not only the instrument of speech -voice with skill, but we must also employ our intellect and feelings. Some teachers seem to regard mere verbal accu- racy in reproduction as everything. But accuracy in fact, though valuable in itself, counts for but very little in the total effect which good recitation ought to produce ; and to gabble, however accurately, through a passage, however well composed, is like hammering on a piano with a closed fist. It would be well if prose were more fre- ?uently used for purposes of recitation, t is a little harder to remember than verse, but has a more direct practical bearing on everyday speech and everyday writing. Collective recitation might also le more commonly practised. An excellent effect is produced when an animated pas- sage descriptive of action is recited by a whole class at once especially when por- tions here and there can be taken up by single voices. Recreation signifies such rest and change of occupation as will allow time for, and actually facilitate, the building up again of exhausted organs. Hence its great importance in relation to brain-work. An exciting game of chance or novel-read- ing may amuse, but will hardly produce that recreation which follows a vigorous walk or row, or a game at cricket or foot- ball. The importance of exercise has been discussed under PHYSICAL EDUCATION. The higher value of games over gymnastics is generally acknowledged. In the former the activity is spontaneous, and more con- ducive to general invigoration than the formal and less varied exercises in gym- nastics. The more purely recreative the exercise, the greater the relief from school-work ; running, leaping, rowing, swimming, cricket, rackets, tennis, and even football, under proper restrictions, have all their place and utility. Where playgrounds of insufficient size exist, gym- nastics come in useful, and in all cases they are desirable to supplement games. Recreative Evening Classes. See ADULT EDUCATION. Rector. I. A high dignitary in a uni- versity. Originally, the rector was the head of the nations' as nations. The 312 RECTOR nations were divisions of members of the university grouped according to the coun- tries or districts they came from aggrega-' tions chiefly for purposes of discipline, and for mutual protection and defence of privi- leges. In the University of Paris there were four nations (including masters as well as students), each of which was a perfectly independent body, electing its representative procurator from its own number, having its own patron, church, meeting-place, and seal (quite separate from the university seal), passing its own statutes and rules, and superintending the lodging-houses of the students. The rector was elected by the four procurators ; and rector and procurators, sitting as his as- sessors, together constituted the governing body The nations were in existence about the middle of the twelfth century, but their formal organisation as just outlined cannot be positively assigned to an earlier date than the first quarter of the thirteenth century. Meantime, the regulation of the studies was in the hands of the consortium vnagistrorum. By the year 1274 the rector had advanced to be, not merely head of the nations, but head of the faculty of Arts. "After 1266, he might be elected either by the procurators, or by four men chosen for this special duty ; and regulations made in 1281 evidently contemplated the possi- bility of the electors not being the acting procurators. In these regulations it is ordered that the electors shall be shut up in a room, and not allowed to commu- nicate with the external world until a wax candle of a prescribed length is burned to the socket. If they have not decided by that time, other electors are to be chosen. If two of these agree, the outgoing rector is to be called in to give his vote with them, and so make a majority' (Laurie, Rise and Constitutions of Universities, p. 186, note). The rector was eligible from the artistce (graduates in Arts) alone, in consequence of the superior antiquity of the Arts faculty ; and he held office for three months (later for a year), but was re-eligible. He presided at the general meetings of the university, took charge of the register and public money, and administered generally the government of the university. In 1341 he is head of the whole university : the form JVos rector et universitas magis- trorum et scholarium is found in use. The rector has ousted the original official head of the university, the chancellor of the primary theological school at Notre Dame, who retains but a fragment of his pristine authority, the conferment of de- grees, together with some vague powers over the theological school. Within the city the rector's precedence was unques- tioned ; not only did all other officers and members of the university give way to him, but even bishops, papal nuncios, and legates also. At Bologna there were for long two rectors ; it is not till 1514 that we find only one, and one seems to have been the rule before 1552. In the beginning of the thirteenth century (1200-1220) there were thirty- six nations (excluding the students belonging to the town of Bologna). The German nation was subject to two procu- rators of its own, and to them alone. The remaining thirty-five nations were grouped into two universities universitas ultra- montanorum, eighteen nations of students from beyond the Alps ; and universitas citramontanorum, seventeen nations of Italians ; and each of these corporations elected its own rector and other authorities. The rector was elected annually by the outgoing rector, the counsellors (consiliarii =procuratores) of the nations, and a cer- tain number of electors specially appointed by the general body of the students. He was selected from the different nations in a regular order of succession. He must be not under twenty- five years of age ; he must be a clericus, but not a member of any religious order ; and he should have studied law for at least five years at his own expense. With each rector sat the eighteen, or seventeen, counsellors as asses- sors. * The teaching doctors or professors, no less than the students, were subject to ih^ rectors. A professor could not leave Lis duties for a few days without obtaining formal permission from him, and if the term of absence exceeded eight days he had to get permission from the whole uni- versity ' (Laurie, 137). The rector's civil jurisdiction was clear as between two parties belonging to the university, or as between a scholar and a citizen who con- sented to sue the scholar before him ; but when a suit against a scholar was brought before a city magistrate, and the rector claimed jurisdiction, violent conflicts not unfrequently arose, till ultimately the pope confirmed the university privileges. His criminal jurisdiction was generally limited to matters of academical discipline, and in 1544 the pope confirmed it in all cases REFORMATION (THE) where both parties belonged to the univer- sity and the offence was not capital. The University of Prague presented a slight variation. * The members of the univer- sity were divided into four nations. The highest official was the rector, who was chosen half-yearly. Each of the nations chose an elector ; the four so chosen co- opted seven others, and the united body then selected five, by whom the rector was chosen. The office could not be filled by any one belonging to a religious order. The most important duty of the rector was urisdiction over all members of the uni- versity, not only in ordinary cases of disci- pline, but also in civil and in criminal processes. A court was held by him twice a week. His next most important duties were to see that the statutes of the uni- versity were observed, to take precedence in all functions of the university, and to administer its property * (Laurie, 258). In modern Germany the highest university official is the Rector Magnificus, who, when not a local magnate, is chosen yearly, or half-yearly, from among the ordinary pro- fessors who form the Senatus Academicus. Where custom has given the rectorship to the local prince or other magnate, then the acting official, elected from among the ordinary professors, is called pro-rector. The University of France is scarcely pa- rallel. It is composed of seventeen acade- mies, the heads of which bear the title of rector ; they are appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction, and assisted by a "Secretary and staff of inspectors. In Eng- land there is no university official with the title of rector, except the heads of Lincoln College and Exeter College, Ox- ford. The chancellor retains his ancient pre-eminence. In Scotland, also, the chan- cellor is the formal head of the university, but the rector comes in next, and his elec- tion is mainly on the lines of the earliest universities of Europe. After various vicissitudes the order of election was settled by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 83 (1858), and the ordinances of the Scottish Universities Commissioners made and issued thereupon (see paper C. 3174 of 1863). At Aberdeen University the rector is elected by the matri- culated students voting in four nations (Mar, Buchan, Moray, Angus), by four pro- . dthin twej 3,3 twenty-one he intimate his choice with days from the day of election ; and failing such intimation, the principal has the cast- ing vote (Report of the Scottish Universities Commission, Ordinance No. 6). At Glasgow University the rector is elected by the matriculated students voting in four nation s (Glottiana, Transforthana, Rothseiana, Loudoniana), the chancellor (or the princi- pal) having a casting vote (as above) in case of equality of nations (Ordinance No. 3). At Edinburgh and St. Andrews the rector is elected by a general poll of the matricu- lated students, and in case of equality the casting vote of the chancellor or the prin- cipal (at St. Andrews the senior principal) decides (as above) (Ordinances Nos. 1 and 4). The rector holds office for three years, and names an assessor who sits with him. He is always a man of distinction, political, scien- tific, or literary ; sometimes a popular local magnate. The Aberdeen and Glasgow stu- dents have recently done themselves honour by the election of ex-Professor Bain (bis) and ex-Professor Lushington. There is a strong feeling among the students that the rector should attend the meetings of the university court, of which he is presi- dent ; and frequently a pledge to this effect is asked from candidates who live at some distance, sinecurist rectors being looked on with disfavour. II. In Secondary Schools. The heads of the * higher class public schools ' and of most other schools of secondary instruction in Scotland bear the title of rector. On the continent also a similar practice prevails to a considerable extent. (See Laurie's work generally ; also Maiden's Origin of Universities, and the references to original authorities there given.) Reformation (The) in relation to Edu- cation. "Whilst Erasmus is to be regarded as the coryphseus of the Renaissance, the education of the Reformation is best re- presented by the names of Luther and Melanchthon. One of the logical conse- quences of the fundamental principles of the Reformation was the development of primary education. In attaching to each man the responsibility of his creed, and in placing the sources of faith in the Holy Scriptures, the Reformation contracted the obligation to put every person it had so curators, one procurator being chosen by ! splendidly and so perilously endowed in a and representing each nation ; and in case j condition to lay hold of the salvation to of equality of the votes of the procurators j be found in the reading and the intelli- the chancellor has a casting vote, provided . gence of the Bible. The necessity of ex- 314 REFORMATION (THE) plaining the Catechism and making com- ments upon it was for teachers an obliga- tion to acquire the art of exposition and analysis. The study of the German mother-tongue and of singing was asso- ciated with the reading of the Bible in Luther's translation, and with religious services. Luther brought the schoolmaster into the cottage, and laid the foundations of the system which is the chief honour and strength of modern Germany : a sys- tem by which the child of the humblest peasant, by slow but certain gradations, receives the best education the country can afford. The purification and widening of education went hand in hand with the purification of religion ; and the claims thus established by Luther to affectionate regard have been ever since indissolubly united in the minds of his countrymen. The Reformation contained, in fact, the germs of a complete revolution in educa- tion ; for it enlisted the interests of reli- gion in the service of instruction, and as- sociated knowledge with faith. It is in rirtue of this combination that for over three centuries the Protestant nations have led the van of human progress in the matter of primary instruction, the zeal for which, however, was by no means equally exhibited by all the leaders of Protestant reform. Melanchthon, for in- stance, who for his persevering labour in annotating classics and preparing editions of school-books, as well as for his prac- tical activity in the direct processes of instruction, earned the title of Prceceptor Germanice, worked more for high schools than for schools for the people. He was distinctly a humanist above everything else, a professor of belles-lettres ; and it was with chagrin that he saw his courses in the university of Wittenberg deserted by students when he lectured on the Olynthiacs of Demosthenes. He was so far in accord with Erasmus that, in 1522, he speaks of the signal folly of those * who at the present day think that piety con- sists only in the contempt of all good letters, of all ancient erudition.' In the same year, and subsequently, Melanchthon implores Spalatin to have an especial care of the university, complaining that the students are rather overwhelmed than in- structed by the mass of theological lec- tures. He accuses those who profess their dislike of profane letters as having 'no better opinion of theology, for this is only the excuse which they put forward for their laziness.' And in a declamation written by Melanchthon in 1557 he be- wails in the strongest terms the decline of science and letters. In face of this evi- dence, and much more of the same kind, we can readily believe Erasmus when he says that it was easier to find professors than students to attend their lectures ; that the booksellers declared that before Lutheranism came up they could sell three thousand volumes in less time than six hundred afterwards ; and that at Stras- burg and elsewhere there were those who- thought that the only thing a theologian needed to learn was Hebrew. ' No doubt the old humanist,' says Dr. Beard, ' grew bitter in his last days, as he watched the triumphant progress of the movement from which he had deliberately turned aside. But it is plain that, in spite of Melanchthon, there was a tendency to go- back to the spirit of a time at which it was considered a perilous thing for a. Christian to read heathen books. But the tide of reviving interest in classical cul- ture, which had been slowly gathering strength for a century and a half, was far too mighty to be even temporarily ar- rested by any defection of the Reformers. While they were occupied in internecine quarrels and the building up of rival sys- tems of dogmatic theology, the work of recovering the mind of antiquity went steadily on. It was a longer and a more laborious task than from our present standpoint of culture we are easily able to conceive ; and the men who accom- plished it are not to be measured by the worth of their visible contributions to- literature. When the convent libraries of East and West had been ransacked, and every fragment of ancient literature con- signed to the safe keeping of the printing- press, the work was only begun. Texts had to be emended, grammars to be slowly compiled, the materials of dictionaries col- lected with almost infinite toil. The whole mass of learned tradition, on the basis of which a scholar now begins his work, had to be painfully brought together. When,, by the labours of several generations, the philological part of the task was accom- plished with tolerable completeness when all educated men could read the classical authors in the original, and Greek and Latin were written by scholars with faci- lity and even elegance there remained REFORMATION (THE) 315- the work of reproducing the life of the ancients ; of understanding their law, their worship, their military systems, their amusements ; of re- writing their history, and reducing their chronology to order. And this was a toil which lasted through the eighteenth century, if indeed it can be said to be even yet at an end. Italy soon gave up her place in the van of classical culture. Her scholarship became mere phrase-mongering andCiceronianism. Not what a man had to say, but how he said it, was the all-important thing ; while platitude was no offence at all, solecism was a mortal sin.' There was a ' lack of moral fibre in the Italian scholars of the age of the despots : when Rome became serious under the influence of the counter- Reformation, humanists were warned off debatable ground, and bidden to employ their pens in her service, if at all. The study of Greek fell into disfavour ; and when Jesuit influence came to predominate in schools and colleges, those admirable educators had practical ends of their own, which they cared for more than the pro- gress of philology. So the literary hege- mony passed to France and to Holland. Budreus, Turnebus, Casaubon, Salmasius, are the glories of French scholarship. If the Scaligers boasted an Italian descent, the elder lived and wrote in France ; the younger and greater, who was Huguenot to the heart, taught in Leiden. It would be difficult to enumerate the many pro- found, scholars who toiled in the univer- sities of Holland to complete the long task the nature of which I have endeavoured to indicate. Their labours lie concealed in the grammars and dictionaries which to-day smooth the path of classical culture to our children ; in the annotations which elucidate every difficult passage and ex- plain every obscure allusion ; in that knowledge of ancient life which is part of the intellectual air we breathe. The re- sult was at once to restore that living connection with the mind of antiquity which Christian Europe deliberately aban- doned in the sixth century, and to accu- mulate the materials upon which the higher and more constructive criticism of a later age has worked.' Aristotle had been dethroned from his pre-eminence in the schools, and Melanch- thon attempted to supply his place. He appreciated the importance of Greek, the terror of the obscurantists, and is the author of a Greek grammar. He wrote- I elementary books on each department of the Trivium grammar, dialectic, and rhe- toric and made someway with the studies, of the Quadrivium. It is also noteworthy that he wrote Initia Doctrince Physicce, a primer of physical science. Horace was. his favourite classic ; and his pupils were- j taught to learn the whole of it by heart,. | ten lines at a time. 'He died in 1560, ; racked/ as Mr. Browning says, ' with* anxiety for the Church which he had helped to found. If he did not carry Protestantism into the heart of the pea- i sant, he at least made it acceptable to the- | intellect of the men of letters.' The work of extending and diffusing popular education in Germany under the- impulse of the Reformation and the per- i sonal influence of Martin Luther finds ant instructive analogy in the same work in Scotland at the hands of John Knox I (q.v.). The First Book of Discipline,. | drawn up by the great Scottish reformer, i and presented to the Estates of Scotland,. | and subscribed by the Secret Council in, j the year 1560, contains Knox's Plan of I Educational Organisation in Scotland,, i which provides for the equal distribution ' of the means and institutions of educa- tion among the whole population recog- ; nising a gradation of schools, and (1) a. primary school by every parish church, in which, in lack of a schoolmaster, the minister with his reader or clerk should ' take care over the children and youth of the parish to instruct them in their first- rudiments, and especially in the Cate- chism ; ' (2) in all large parishes there was- to be a good school, with a schoolmaster * able to teach at least grammar and the Latin tongue ; ' (3) in the several towns which were centres of the superintendent's districts, there were to be colleges, where the students should be * taught logic and rhetoric and the tongues;' and (4) univer- sities. All of these schools were to be subject to inspection the parochial and burgh schools by 'discreet, grave, and learned men, to wit, the ministers and elders, with the goodly learned men in every town, who shall every quarter make examination how the youth have profited.' They were charged ' to discover if there be a spirit of docility in any of the pupils/ and to direct such ' to further knowledge ' i in the colleges and universities ; and those ' who do not show signs of fitness for higher -316 REFORMATION (THE) learning are to be taught some handicraft, or set about some other occupation. It was ordained that no parent of whatever condition may ' use his children at his own phantasy/ especially in the days of their youth, but must bring them up in learning and virtue ; that the rich should be compelled to educate their sons at their own expense, but that the children of the poor should be supported at the charge of the Church, the sons of rich and poor alike, if they had aptness for learning, continu- ing at the schools until the commonwealth should have profit of them. It will be observed that this scheme separates the parish from the burgh or higher schools, and establishes grades of seminaries for conducting the scholar from the primary through the secondary schools to the uni- versities ; and that it provides also for the moral, intellectual, and technical training of the youth, places within the reach of the poorest child in the community, if he have 'vigour,' the blessings of a liberal education, and makes school attendance compulsory. If the Parliament had been liberal and patriotic enough to have seconded at that time the endeavours of the Church to plant, ' no country in the world,' as the late Principal Lee remarks in his History of the Church of Scotland, 'would have been so well supplied as Scotland with the means of extending the benefits of a liberal education to every man capable of intellectual improvement.' Educationists have called the outline of this system a perfect one a plan, indeed, so far in advance of the times of its pro- jectors, that we are now only attaining towards the high standard at which they aimed ; and Dr. MacCrie, the biographer of John Knox, is justified in his sagacious inference that, in 'obliging the nobility and gentry to educate their children, and providing- at the public expense for the education of the children of the poor who discovered talents for learning,' 'they seem to have had it in their eye to revive the system adopted in some of the ancient republics, in which the youth were con- sidered as the property of the public rather than of their parents.' The curriculum of the Scotch schools about the middle of the sixteenth century was in some respects broader than what is found in those of the nineteenth. At the Grammar School of Aberdeen, as appears from the statutes dated 1553, the boys were strictly forbidden to speak in the vulgar tongue ; but only in Latin, Greek, He- brew, French, and Gaelic. To show that the instruction was thorough and not con- fined to the embryo clergy, appeal may be made to a statement of Knox, who affirmed that, in a debate in Parliament in 1543, the lay members showed better acquaint- ance with Greek than the clergy. Classi- cal knowledge continued for centuries to be the chief subject of instruction ; but what are now called English and commer- cial subjects have little mention in the records of the larger grammar schools, although in the smaller ones reading and spelling were recognised from an early date. In Aberdeen, music appears to have been taught with more energy than in any other of the Scotch burghs. From an early date down to the end of the seventeenth century, music formed one of the regular branches of study, and was taught as a part of the ordinary curri- culum. As time passed on it was found necessary to add reading and other subjects as writing and arithmetic, which were somewhat late in attaining their proper place as branches of regular instruction to the work ; but as these became promi- nent the study of music receded, and the ' sang school,' which in pre- Reformation times was generally an appurtenance of the cathedral or the monastery, became a thing of the past. Religious instruction formed a prominent, if not an essential, part of the course of study pursued in the old burgh schools from the Reformation till the end of the last century. In 1567, Parliament declared that if God's Word be not rooted in the youth, their instruc- tion shall be ' tinsell baith to their bodyis andsaulis;' and in 1616 the Assembly ordained a catechism, to be made easy, short, and comprehensive, of which every family might have a copy for instructing the children and servants in the articles of religion. The municipal authorities were as willing as the ecclesiastics to en- force and to extend religious instruction ; and this custom has not unreasonably been appealed to as having in no small degree contributed towards making a poor and thinly-peopled country not only one of the freest, most enlightened, and inde- pendent, but also one of the most pro- sperous in the world. Thus it will be understood now it was that, partly in accordance with the na- REFORMATION (THE) 317 tional genius, and partly under the im- pulse of the Reformation and the direct or traditional authority of John Knox, the people of Scotland anticipated many of the political and educational cries of the present day. They recognised the necessity for education, and made it com- pulsory within certain limits. Fines and penalties were devised to counteract the negligence or indifference of parents. Sub- stantial means were provided to furnish the various towns with good secondary schools, and the education was excellent of its kind. The qualifications of teachers were tested, and wise laws were made to secure their continued efficiency. Good salaries, respectful treatment, and conside- ration in the days of old age or infirmity I were all adopted to encourage the teacher i and retain the services of thoroughly | qualified schoolmasters. The women i were trained in domestic duties, and in those arts that tend to make the home a place of comfort. All these things com- bined to pour blessings on Scotland, and i to achieve for her a reputation second to none for the excellence of her educational j work. Although until lately there has \ been a dearth, and although there is even ! now a relative scarcity, of English works on the subject, it is not difficult to trace | a picture of the education which the Re- ; formation offered to the middle classes of Europe ; for ample materials, even to such matters of detail as programmes and time-tables, are extant in German histories of education. In following the history of education in the sixteenth century, however, it is necessary, as in other investigations, care- fully to distinguish the theory from the practice. For theory, which is concerned with effort, and which stands for the ideal, the perfect, and consequently the unat- tainable, is not only generally in advance of the age in which it is conceived, but is always and necessarily in advance of prac- tice, which is measured by result and ap- proximation only, and which is kept back by the inharmonious working of variously impeded energies. The educational theory of the sixteenth century is to be found in the works of Erasmus, Rabelais, and Mon- taigne, of whom it may be said that before pretending to surpass them, even at this day, we should rather attempt to over- take them, and to equal them in most of the precepts of their ideal instruction. The practice of the time is to be found, first in the development of the study of the humanities, particularly in the early colleges of the Jesuits ; and, before the- Jesuits, in certain Protestant colleges, especially in the college at Strasburg, so- splendidly administered by the celebrated Sturm (1507-89). Then it is to be recog- nised in the revival of the higher instruc- tion, as emphatically denoted by the foun- dation of the College of France (1530),. and by the brilliant lectures of Peter- Ramus (Pierre la Ramee), who, having secured the reception and progress of his. system of logic in the German universities, and the filling of France, England, and particularly Scotland, with his disciples,, fell a victim to the massacre of St. Bartho- lomew's Day, 1572. Finally, it is the- progress, not to say the birth, of primary instruction, through the efforts already- referred to of the Protestant reformers,, and especially of Luther. The school of John Sturm (Latine Sturmius) stood pre-eminently before the rest amongst those movements which were- of vital influence in the development of the science of education. Situated in that, border city on the debatable land between France and Germany, the school of Stras burg, which was first organised as a. gymnasium in 1537, promoted in 1567 to the status of a college by the Emperor- Maximilian II., and finally invested by Ferdinand II. in 1621 with the rights* and privileges of a university, discovered how to combine and reconcile the pecu- liarities of French and German culture the profoundness of the latter with the- clearness and vivacity of the former. Sturm, who was one of the most variously- accomplished and most universally in- formed men of his time, and who achieved the honourable sobriquet of the Cicero of " Germany, was much consulted in the- drafting of school-codes and in the organ- isation of gymnasia , and his treatise, De* Literarum Ludis recte aperiendis (1538), and his Classicce Epistolce : sive Schohe Argentinensis restitutes (1565), addressed to the teachers of his own school, entitle him to a prominent place amongst the pioneers of the reformed education. He- corresponded with Erasmus, Melanchthon, Bucer, and others, who in divers spheres, and vocations were amongst the most dis- tinguished men of his age. He was, in. particular, the friend and corresponded, 318 REFORMATION (THE) of Roger Ascham, the celebrated author of The Schoolmaster (1570), which has been repeatedly said to contain the best advice that was ever given, if, indeed, it did not incorporate the only sound method, for the study of languages. Sturm was *ever keeping pace with those about him, .learning Hebrew, for instance, in his fifty- ninth year, and inspiring his teachers with Jiis own enthusiasm. He enjoyed the re- spect of the Emperors Charles V., Ferdi- jiand I., and Maximilian II., as well as of 'Queen Elizabeth of England, the pupil of his friend Ascham. His fame as a- teacher .and educator was European ; and the area from which he drew his scholars was co- extensive with his reputation. Whilst his pupils were among the men of mark throughout Germany, his halls were fre- quented by contingents from Portugal, Poland, and England. At one time there were two hundred noblemen, twenty-four counts and barons, and three princes under his instruction. In 1578 his school numbered several thousand students ; he -supplied at once the place of the cloister .and the castle. Sturm was the first great head-master, the progenitor of Busbys, if mot of Arnolds. What he most insisted upon was the teaching of Latin, not the -conversational lingua franca of Erasmus, but pure, elegant, Ciceronian Latinity. Nowhere, perhaps, had he more effect than in England. Our older public schools, on breaking with the ancient faith, looked to Sturm as their model of Protestant edu- cation. His name and example became familiar to us* by the exertions of his friend Ascham. Westminster, under the long reign of Busby, received a form which was generally accepted as the type of a gentleman's education. The Public .Schools Commission of 1862 found that the lines laid down by the great citizen of Strasburg, and copied by his admirers, had remained unchanged until within the memory of the present generation. It is impossible to define exactly the extent of the formative influence of his doctrine ; for besides directly organising many clas- .sical schools, his pupils rose to be head masters of many more, and his principles were embodied in the School Code of Wiirtemberg in 1559, and in that of ^Saxony in 1580, and in the educational .system of the Jesuits. In the first half of the seventeenth century, Wolfgang Ratke, Ratich, or Ratichius (1571-1635), a native of Wil- ster in Holstein, and Jan Ainos Komen- sky (Latine Joannes Amos Comenius) (1592-1671), a bishop of the Moravians, were, with very different degrees of merit, the heirs of the educational thought of Luther. (See article RATICH.) The glory of applying the new spirit to actual practice must be surrendered by Ratich in favour of Comenius (q.v.\ the son of a miller who belonged to the Mora- vian brethren. Comenius, who was born at the Moravian village of Comna, in 1592, and finally attained the dignity of being the senior bishop, or head of the church of the Moravian brethren, was for a long time unknown and unappreciated. Yet he is now recognised as the first who brought the mind of a philosopher to bear practically on the subject of education. Montaigne, Bacon, and Milton merely advanced principles, leaving others to see to their application. Michelet speaks of Comenius with enthusiasm as * that rare genius, that gentle, fertile, universal scholar; ' and he calls him the first evan- gelist of modern pedagogy Pestalozzi being the second. It is not difficult to justify this appreciation. The character of Comenius is worthy of his intelligence. Through a thousand obstacles he devoted his long life to the work of popular in- struction. With a generous ardour he consecrated himself to infancy. 'He wrote twenty works,' says Compayre, 'and taught in twenty cities. Moreover, he was the first to form a definite concep- tion of what the elementary studies should be. He determined, nearly three hundred years ago, with an exactness that leaves nothing to be desired, the division of the different grades of instruction. He exactly defined some of the essential laws of the art of teaching. He applied to pedagogy, with remarkable insight, the principles of modern logic. Finally, as Michelet has said, he was the Galileo, we would rather say the Bacon, of modern education ' (see article COMENIUS). It is in the first grade of instruction, the school of infancy, the school by the mother's knee, the school of the maternal bosom, materni gremii, that the genius of Comenius is the most characteristically and most profoundly illustrated. And it was in this that the Protestant doctrine of individuality found its ne plus ultra ; for it was this that was the final co-ordi- REFORMATION (THE) 319 nation of individual privilege and oppor- tunity with individual peril, duty, and responsibility. * The Reformers.' says Mr. S. S. Laurie, ' were educational philan- thropists in the truest sense, and hence the people's school is rightly called the child of the Reformation. ... To the same union of the theological with the philan- thropic spirit was due the noble schemes of popular education embodied in the Book of Polity of the Reformed Church of Scotland, written so early as 1560.' It is with Comenius, therefore, whose spirit is so faithfully reproduced, and the compass of whose design is so magnificently I enlarged, in the winged and sonorous words of the Tractate of Education addressed by ; John Milton (q.v.) to their common friend Samuel Hartlib, that the consideration of | the influence of the Reformation on edu- cation may be concluded not that the impulse or genius of the Reformation had spent its force, but rather because in the system and method of Comenius may be fotiiid the germ, suggestion, and potenti- ality of all the principles, and all the applications of them, which have since been evolved in the course and the history of the movement. Approaching the sub- ject quite independently, and looking at it from another and larger, although strictly analogous, point of view, the late Dr. Charles Beard ' regarded the English Re- formation as having come to its close in the.year 1662, when the Act of Uniformity at once settled the Church of England on a basis which has not since been disturbed, and necessitated the separate existence of Dissent.' It is observable that the year 1662 coincided with the seventieth year of Comenius, who died in 1671. It is not to be supposed, however, that all the influences of the Reformation, and still less all its motives, circumstances, and accidents of detail, were directly favour- able to education. Melanchthon's experi- ence at Wittenberg, and the scathing de- nunciations of Erasmus, as called forth by the fanaticism of certain adherents of the Reformation who were intolerant of all learning which was not directly available in the interests of human salvation, have shown that in Germany, as in other Re- formed or Reforming countries, a period of transition, or of scarcely completed achievement, is not the ideal foster period of intellectual or scholarly progress, or of full-orbed development. Naturally, it was ; the centres of the higher learning, and, within these centres, the most exquisite and most elegantly formative of the studies they affected, that chiefly suffered at the hands of persons whose prudence and spiritual anxieties led them to distrust and discredit, and proportionally to neg- lect, all erudition which was not negoti- able on the exchange of an eternal world. In its most acute and virulent manifesta- tion the jealousy which refused to detect the real divinity of any culture which was not formally or in terms theological did not hesitate to make bonfires of academical libraries, and to debase by uses more ignoble than destruction the literary treasures of antiquity. Even theology was not sacrefl, and in fact was occasionally the more obnoxious because it was the- ology ; and books of patristic and scho- lastic divinity, of doctrine and discipline, were consumed in market-places and in learned quadrangles on the same pyres with treatises on useless mathematics and impertinent astronomy. The formula de- lenda est, once current in pagan Rome as applied to a rival for the secular supremacy of the world, was now turned against Rome herself, whose spiritual domination was to be scattered to the winds with the ashes of the literature she had tolerated and con- served, and to a certain extent assimilated and taught. But there were other reasons why the Reformation was not immediately helpful, but rather detrimental, to the in- terests of education, especially of the higher education reasons which were not of the essence or the nature of the movement, and which, whether with or apart from the speciousness of pious pretence, are to be recognised in acts of diversion, spolia- tion, confiscation, and sacrilege. It has been alleged, indeed, that in Scotland, from divers causes,the Reformation extinguished learning ; but the expression has more verbal point than literal accuracy. The statement is at once more moderate and more correct that in the ecclesiastical and political agitation of the sixteenth century the Scottish universities were the sufferers, and, with the triumphs of the new, or Pro- testant, party over the old Church, old in- cumbents of chairs and old sources of in- come were cut off, and although the uni- versities obtained grants of Church lands, which were increased on the abolition of episcopacy in the next century, still the thorough reorganisation contemplated by 320 INFORMATION (THE) John Knox and James Buchanan in the First Book of Discipline was not effected. With regard to the English universities, it is remarkable that the late Professor Huber, successively of Rostock, Marburg, and Berlin, a German and a Protestant, avers, as ' one undeniable fact/ that up to the time of the Catholic reaction under Mary ' the Reformation had brought on the universities only injury, outward and inward. There are a thousand results of this great revolution which we must needs deplore and disown. Its benefits are not to be looked for from the side of the uni- versities at all, but in quite another quar- ter in the deepening of spiritual religion. In contrast to the older Church, which was troubled with Pelagian elements, it estab- lished a purer evangelical doctrine ; and this is its true glory. But in regard to the constitution and discipline of the Church, and the moral and scientific cultivation of the community, if it had any advantages over the old system, they are balanced by concomitant evils. The higher we esti- mate the spirituality of the Reformed doc- trine the more are we authorised, and in duty bound, not to conceal the price at which this jewel was bought ; the more also should we cling to the hope that the spirit of the truth so dearly purchased | may at length penetrate and fashion the ! material frame which has received it.' j What there was of reformation under Henry VIII. chiefly consisted in the spolia- tion of the monasteries, and the substitution of the royal for the papal supremacy. The former was so entirely a financial experi- ment as to be altogether unworthy of notice in any religious connection. What- ever may have been the sins and laxities of the monasteries, no one who looks at the character of the king, the agents whom he employed, and the uses to which the pro- ceeds were put, can believe that they were dissolved in the interests of morality. The complaints of the most trusted exponents of contemporary discontent at the state of the universities about the middle of the sixteenth century are concerned in the first place with their general condition, and in the second with the character of their studies. Under the former head they deplore especially the irregular exercise of patronage, and the gradual disappearance of the non-collegiate or unattached ele- ment from the student body ; and under the latter head they bewail the want of men who, by virtue of their recognised ability and mature experience, might sti- mulate and guide the younger students, and the injurious influence of theological polemics on genuine study. With refer- ence to the relative injury done to the well-being of the universities, a passage of rough pathos occurs in a sermon preached at St. Paul's Cross in 1 550 by Thomas Lever, who asserts that * one courtier,' viewed as a despoiler, 'was worse than fifty tun- bellied monks.' ' How was it possible/ asks Professor Huber, 'in the midst of universal and increasing insecurity ; when the violence and evil passions of the king broke out more and more immoderately ; when all free religious movement, all free enquiry into the basis of religious belief, dwindled more and more away ; when the | burning pile was lit for Papist, Protestant, and enthusiast ; when the University of Cambridge saw two of its chancellors, I Fisher and Cromwell, perish on the scaf- fold ; when, with the noble head of Sir Thomas More, virtue, religion, wisdom, and learning appeared all together to perish ; while the most contemptible and hateful passions not only had free play, but, by I help of most impudent hypocrisy, obtained j legal validity and form ; how was it possible, we ask, for any freedom, peace, and liberty of the spirit to prevail, without which there can be no successful, intellec tual activity at the universities ?' But so great a movement was not to- be arrested by an occasional or incidental unreadiness of adjustment ; and the minor impediments of progress were not to be treated as permanent or formidable obsta- cles to the inarch of a genius which was by hypothesis so variously resourceful as that of the Reformation. It was not long before the Protestant schools acquired the reputation of being the best in Europe. From this circumstance it results that the last phase in which the educational signi- ficance of the Reformation is to be con- sidered is that in which it is seen in the process of provoking an activity outside its own borders, a counter-energy to its own of alienage and antagonism. The Roman Catholic Church showed herself sensitively conscious of the scholastic changes which the spirit of the time had made inevitable ; and the challenge which had been thrown down by the champions of the Reformation was accepted with a smiling defiance by Ignatius Loyola and REFORMATION (THE) 321 his brethren of the Society, or rather his fellow-soldiers of the Company, of Jesus, who, in a time when defection and desertion were common and widespread, came for- ward to bind themselves by a vow of obe- dience to the Holy See, so absolute as to include their obligation to go into any country whither the pope might desire to send them, among Turks, heathen, or here- tics, instantly, without discussion, condi- tion, or reward. The new order was first authorised with some limitations, as, for instance, with regard to numbers in 1540 by Pope Paul III., who, three years after- wards, removed the original disabilities by a full and unreserved sanction. The special function of the Jesuits was the threefold one of preaching, confession, and education. In discharge of their first obligation they engaged amongst each other to preach mainly for the common people, and to strive rather after impressive and touch- ing discourse than after choice phrases. They affected the confessional on account of its intimate and immediate connection with the guidance and the government of consciences ; and with regard to education they had desired to bind themselves to this occupation by a special clause in theirvows. But, although they abandoned that design, they made the practice of the duty impera- tive by the most cogent rules. Their most ardent wish was to gain over the rising generation. The programme of studies, which dates from the latter part of the sixteenth century, and in which the most ap- proved portions of the methods pursued in the schools of their predecessors or contem- poraries in the art of teaching were incorpo- rated, is in use, with certain modifications, in English Jesuit schools of the present day. Their extension and their success were extraordinary. As late as the year 1551 they had no firm station in Germany; in 1566 their influence extended over Ba- varia and the Tyrol, Franconia and Suabia, a great part of the Rhineland and Austria, and they had penetrated into Hungary, Bohemia, and Moravia. About the middle of the sixteenth century the society had several colleges in France, particularly those of Billom, Mauriac, Rodez, Tournon, and Pamiers. In 1 561 it secured a footing in Paris, notwithstanding the resistance of the Parliament, of the university, and of the bishops themselves. A hundred years later it counted nearly fourteen thousand pupils in the province of Paris alone. The College of Clermont in 1651 enrolled more than two thousand young men, and in 1695 had three thousand students. The middle and higher classes assured to the colleges of the society an ever-increasing member- ship. At the end of the seventeenth cen- tury the Jesuits could inscribe on the roll of honour of their classes a hundred illus- trious names, including those of Condd and Luxembourg, Fle'chier and Bossuet, La- in oignon and Se'guier, Descartes, Corneille, and Moliere. In 1710 the order controlled 612 colleges, 157 normal schools, 59 novi- ciates, 340 residences, 200 missions, 29 pro- fessed homes, and 24 universities. In Catholic countries they were the real mas- ters of education, and they maintained their educational supremacy till the end of the eighteenth century. Various opinion's are extant with regard to the merits of the system of the Jesuits. Bacon speaks of them in more than one passage as the re- vivers of the art of education, declaring of them, inter alia, that as to whatever relates to the instruction of the young we must consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there can be nothing that is better done. * Ad Pcedagogicam quod attinet,' he says, * bre- vissimum foret dictu, Consule scholas Je- suitarum : nihil enim, quod in usum venit, his melius.' Descartes approved of their system, and Chateaubriand regarded their suppression as a calamity to civilisation and enlightenment. On the other hand, Leibnitz affirms that 'in the matter of education the Jesuits have remained below mediocrity ;' and Yoltaire declared that * the fathers taught him nothing but Latin and nonsense.' The Jesuits devoted themselves with great assiduity to the direction of their Latin schools ; and it was, indeed, one of the principal maxims of Lainez, the first general of the order after its founder, that the lower grammar schools should be pro- vided with good masters. With accurate discrimination he chose men who, when they had once undertaken this subordinate branch of teaching, were willing to devote their whole lives to it ; for it was only with time that so difficult a business could be learned, or the authority indispensable to a teacher be acquired. Here the Je- suits succeeded to admiration ; it wasfound that their scholars learned more in one year than those of other masters in two, and even Protestants recalled their chil- dren from distant gymnasia and committed 322 REFORMATION (THE) them to their care. Schools for the poor, modes of teaching suited to. children, and catechising followed ; and the whole course of instruction was given entirely in that enthusiastic and devout spirit which had characterised the Jesuits from their earliest institution. While the superiority of the Protestant schools lay in the greater free- dom of spirit which characterised them, and the greater regard paid to the sub- stance of literature, the great and distinc- tive excellence of the Jesuits consisted in the possession and the inculcation of a de- finite educational method. * It was the want of method,' says Professor Laurie, * that led to the decline of schools after the Reformation period ; it was the study of method which gave the Jesuits the superiority that in many parts of the con- tinent they still retain.' It is to their possession and exemplification of the same quality that the late Professor Ranke at- tributes their success a success which, viewed in combination with its causes, seems to him to present a case perhaps without parallel in the history of the world. ' Without any striking manifesta- tion of genius or originality,' he remarks, 1 neither their piety nor their learning moved in any undefined or untrodden paths. They had, however, a quality which distinguished them in a remarkable degree rigid method, in conformity with which everything was calculated, everything had its definite scope and object. Such a union of appropriate and sufficing learning with unwearied zeal, of study and persuasive- ness, of pomp and penance, of widespread influence and unity, of a directing principle and aim, never existed in the world, be- fore or since. They were industrious and visionary, worldly-wise and full of enthusiasm, well-bred men and agreeable companions, regardless of their personal interests, and eager for each other's ad- vancement. No wonder that they were successful.' The Jesuits were probably the first to bring the teacher into close connection with the taught ; but they are open to the accusation that the watchful care over their pupils, dictated to them by love, devotion, and self-sacrifice, degraded into surveillance, which lay- schools have borrowed from them, whilst their study of nature has led them to confession and di- rection. ' They have tracked out the soul to its recesses,' is the charge roundly brought against them by Mr. Oscar Brown- ing, 'that they might slay it there, and generate another in. its place ; they edu- cated each mind according to its powers, that it might be a more subservient tool to their own purposes. They taught the accomplishments which the world loves, but their chief object was to amuse the mind and stifle enquiry ; they encouraged Latin verses because they were a conve- nient plaything on which powers might be exercised which could have been better employed in understanding and discussing higher subjects ; they were the patrons of school plays, of public prizes, declamations, examinations, and other exhibitions, in which the parents were more considered than the boys ; they regarded the claims of education, not as a desire to be en- couraged, but as a demand to be played with and propitiated ; they gave the best education of their time in order to acquire confidence, but they became the chief ob- stacle to the improvement of education ; they did not care for enlightenment, but only for the influence which they could derive from a supposed regard for en- lightenment.' Another of the * teaching congrega- tions ' which subsequently arose to exer- cise its benevolent functions within ec clesiastical limits, which were nominally Roman, was that of the Jansenists of Port- Royal. They were named after a Belgian theologian named Cornelius Jansen (1585- 1638;, who, devoting himself to the study of the Fathers, and especially of St. Augus- tine, wrote a treatise, entitled Augustinus, 1640, against the doctrine of freewill, and other heresies of the Pelagians and Mas- silians. The publication of this work, which is generally taken as marking the foundation of Jansenism in France, took place in 1640, two years after the death of the author, and exactly one hundred years after the first papal consecration of the Society of Jesus. From their earliest organisation the Jansenists manifested an ardent and affectionate solicitude for the education of youth ; and in 1643 founded their Petites ficoles at Port-Royal des Champs, in the seclusion of the forests of Versailles. Here they commenced with only a small number of pupils, and de- veloped their method as they proceeded ; and * here we find, for the first time in the modern world, the highest gifts of the greatest men of a country applied to the business of education.' Rivals and anta- REFORMATION (THE) 323 gonists of the Jesuits, they differed from the latter at once in their statutes, their constitution, and their destinies ; and even j to a greater degree in the motive and the spirit by which they were animated. ' For the Jesuits/ to quote the pointed anti- thesis of Professor Compayre, * education is reduced to a superficial culture of the brilliant faculties of the intelligence ; whilst the Jansenists, on the contrary, aspire to develop the solid faculties, the judgment, and the reason. In the col- leges of the Jesuits, rhetoric is held in honour ; in the Petites Ecoles of Port- Royal it is rather logic and the exercise of thought. The shrewd disciples of Loyola adapt themselves to the age, and are full of allowance for human weakness ; the recluses of Port- Royal are as severe upon others as towards themselves. In their suppleness and cheerful optimism the Je- suits are almost the Epicureans of Chris- tianity ; with their austere and somewhat sombre doctrine, the Jansenists would rather be its Stoics. The Jesuits and the Jansenists, those great rivals of the seven- teenth century, yet face each other, and contend against each other, at the present j moment. 3 The success of the Jansenists has seldom been surpassed ; and, indeed, j it was too much for the jealousy of the Jesuits. Neither piety, nor wit, nor virtue could save them. Persecution did not long grant them the leisure to continue the work they had undertaken. By 1660, when they had completed only some seven- teen years of their career of instruction, the enemies of Port- Royal had triumphed, and the Jesuits obtained an order from the king closing the schools and dispersing the teachers. Pursued, imprisoned, exiled, the solitaries of Port-Royal were allowed to do little more than to consolidate in j imperishable works the principles of a pedagogy which might have given an en- tirely different direction to the education ; of France and of Europe. The roll of the great teachers whose i community was graced by the polemical renown of Blaise Pascal includes also the names of Pierre Nicole, the moralist and dialectician, one of the authors of the famous La Logique, ou VArt de Penser, and the writer of a treatise entitled IS Education d'un Prince, a series of re- flections on education, and applicable, as he himself says, to children of all classes ; of Claude Lancelot, the grammarian, the author of various Methodes for learning respectively the Greek, Latin, Italian, and Spanish languages ; and of Antoine Ar- nauld, called ' the Great, 5 the joint author of La Logique and of the Grammaire Ge'nerale, who also produced the Reglement des Etudes dans les Lettres humaines. Other names of less celebrated Jansenists are still worthy of mention, as, for instance, those of Lemaistre de Sacy, the author of various translations ; of Coustel, who pub- lished Regies de V Education des Enfans ; and of Varet, the author of L' Education Chretienne. Fenelon may be reckoned as belonging to the same school, but he was more fitted to mix find grapple with man- kind. With regard to the relative dura- bility and value of educational methods Professor Compayre judiciously observes that ' the merit of institutions should not always be measured by their apparent success. The colleges of the Jesuits, during three centuries, have had a countless num- ber of pupils ; the Petites Ecoles of Port- Royal did not live twenty years, and during their short existence they enrolled at most only some hundreds of pupils. And yet the methods of the Jansenists have survived the ruin of their colleges and the dispersion of the masters who applied them. Although the Jesuits have not ceased to rule in appearance, it is. the Jansenists who triumph in reality, and who have to-day the control of secondary education. 7 To the same purport is the estimate of the work of the Jansenists and its abiding character and influence recorded by the judicial pen of the late Leopold von Ranke. ' Whilst the Jesuits,' he writes, ' were hoarding up learning in huge folios, or were losing themselves in the revolting subtleties of an artificial system of morals and dogmas, the Jansenists addressed themselves to the nation. They began by translating the Holy Scriptures, the Fathers of the Church, and Latin prayer- books ; they happily avoided the old Frankish forms which had till now been so prejudicial to the popularity of all works of that kind, and expressed them- selves with an attractive clearness of style. The establishment of a seminary at Port-Royal led them to compose school- books of the ancient and modern lan- guages, logic and geometry, which, ema- nating from minds not trammelled by antiquated forms, contained new methods, Y2 324 REFORMATORY SCHOOLS the merits of which have been universally admitted. . . . Men of the lofty genius and profound science of Pascal, of the poetical originality and perfection of Racine, and of the wide range of knowledge of Tillemont were formed within their walls. Their labours extended, as we see, far beyond the circle of ascetic theology which Jansen and Du Yerger had traced. It would not be too much to assert that this union of men of high intellect and filled with noble objects, who, in their mutual intercourse and by their original and unassisted efforts, gave rise to a new tone of expression and a new method of communicating ideas, had a most remarkable influence on the whole form and character of the literature of France, and hence of Europe; and that the literary splendour of the age of Louis XIV. may be in part ascribed to the Society of Port- Royal.' For the space of some two hundred years the educational systems of the Refor- mation, as well as of the Catholic world, suffered arrest, if not retrogression. From the general stagnation and the general pedantry which was the result, the colleges of the Jesuits, owing to their effective tradition of method, suffered less than those of their rivals or their confederates in the art and practice of instruction. So early as the latter half of the sixteenth century complaints loud and long, and proceeding from men of the highest intel- ligence, were rife as to the waste of time, the severity of the discipline, and the bar- barism and intricacy of the grammar rules, which gave an evil tone to the schools of the period. There were, however, extenu- ating circumstances ; for it has to be remembered that all Europe had been embroiled in civil and ecclesiastical con- tentions, and that the seeds of popular education and of an improved secondary system could not possibly have developed themselves in an atmosphere so unge- nial. Indeed, until the remodelled school code of Saxony appeared in 1773, the dawn which had been so full of promise was overcast; the spirit that actuated the Reformers had died, and there had been a relapse into the old scholasticism. A couple of centuries were lost. Scotland alone, remote at least from continental imbrog- lios^ and one of the typical centres of the Reformation Scotland alone, as is claimed by one of her two Professors of the History, Theory, and Practice of Education, was during this period busily carrying out, in a truly national sense, the programme of the Reformation and the humanists ; but this, in accordance with the genius of Protestantism, mainly on the popular side. (Mr. Oscar Browning's article on * Edu- cation ' in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th edition ; American Journal of Educa- tion, passim ; Professor Y. A. Huber's Die Englischen Universitaten, 1839-40 ; Rev. R. H. Quick's Essays on Educational Reformers, 1868 ; Mr. James Grant's His- tory of the Burgh Schools of Scotland, 1876 ; Professor Gabriel Compayre's His- toire de la Pedagogic, 1881 ; Dr. Charles Beard's ' Hibbert Lecture ' on the Refor- mation of the Sixteenth Century, 1883 ; Professor S. S. Laurie's John Amos Co- menius, 2nd edition, 1884 ; Mr. James Bass Mullinger's University of Cambridge, from the Royal Injunctions of 1535 to the Accession of Charles /., 1884 ; and others.) Reformatory Schools are institutions for the reception and reformation of juve- nile offenders under sentence for criminal offences. They were the outcome of the efforts of the Philanthropic Society, of which Sir Stafford Northcote (afterwards Lord Iddesleigh) was one of the most active members, and the first general law relating to them was passed in 1854, 'for the better care and reformation of youthful offenders in Great Britain.' This was followed by the Irish Act of 1858. Any juvenile offender convicted of an offence punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment, who, in the opinion of the court, justices, or magistrates before whom he is charged, is under the age of sixteen years, and who is sentenced to imprisonment for not less than ten days in Great Britain, and not less than fourteen days in Ireland, may also be sentenced to be sent, at the expiration of his period of imprisonment, to a certified reformatory school, to be there detained for a period of not less than two years, and not more than five years. Juvenile offenders are only sent to such reformatory schools as are under the exclusive manage- ment of persons of their own religious persuasion. A capitation grant is made j by Parliament for the support of reforma- | tory schools, and the usual average is about 5s. lid. per head per week, the balance, about Is. Qd. per week, being taken out of the local rates. In Great I Britain there were in 1888 sixty-four re- formatory schools, and in Ireland ten. REGISTRATION REGISTRATION OF TEACHERS 325 These schools include the ' Cornwall ' ship off Purfleet, the ' Akbar ' hulk and the * Clarence ' ship, both at Liverpool. The number of offenders committed to these reformatory schools in Great Britain in the year ended September 29, 1886, was 1,269, of whom 1,082 were males and 187 females. 79 '7 per cent, of the total num- ber committed were committed for larce- nies or attempts to steal ; 4*9 per cent.for housebreaking, shopbreaking, or burglary; and 5 '6 per cent, for vagrancy. The re- maining 9 -8 per cent, were for various other offences. Of the numbers committed in each of the three years, 1883-84, 1884-85, 1885- 86, the percentage under the different degrees of instruction was as follows : 1885-86 1884-85 1883-84 03 I O * <* B d 5 "3 * & * * i Neither read nor write 19-3 24-1 22-2 18-0 22-3 36-2 Read or read and write imperfectly . Read and write well . 72-7 8-0 58-8 17-1 GG-6 11-0 61-9 20-1 66-3 11-3 47-5 1C-3 Of superior instruction 0-2 o-i The total amount payable by Her Majesty's Treasury on account of the re- formatory schools for the year 1885-86 was 66.660?. 10s. 10c?., being a decrease upon the amount for the year 1884-85 of 875?. 7s. 5o?. The amount recovered from parents in 1885-86 was 5,030?. 16s. 7c/., being an increase of 213?. 6s. Id. in com- parison with the sum recovered in the previous year. The importance of making reformatory schools a part of the public penal system was first practically recog- nised by Massachusetts in 1848. Registration. In private schools, and in public schools above the elementary class, custom and convenience determine Avhat registers shall be kept, but in public elementary schools registration is subject to definite and rigid rules. The books prescribed are an Admission Register, a Daily Attendance Register, and a Summary. (1) The Admission Register must be kept "by the head teacher. It must show dis- tinctly for each child admitted, its number, date of admission, full name, name and address of its parent or guardian, whether exemption from religious instruction is claimed, date of birth, the last school attended, highest standard in which it was there presented, the successive standards in which it is presented in the new school, and, lastly, the date of leaving. (2) The Attendance Register shows the daily and weekly attendances of each scholar through- out the school year. At the foot are en- tered, at each school meeting, the number present, and, weekly, the number on re- gister, the number present at all, and the total number of attendances for the week. (3) The Summary shows for the whole school, class by class, and week by week, the numbers entered at the foot of the attendance registers. In Board schools a Fee and Stock Book has to be kept, in addition to the three books already named. Registration of Teachers. In all countries where education is regulated by the State it follows, almost as a logical consequence, that the State should impose some test of aptitude on its teachers. Thus in France there is the brevet de capacity without which no primary teacher, whether public or private, can exercise his calling. There is likewise the brevet de capacite de Venseignement secondaire special, which is compulsory on the se- condary teacher who has not the degree of bachelor. In Germany the Zeugniss corresponds to the French teacher's brevet, and in nearly every Continental State some similar certificate is required. In England the certificate, or 'parchment,' of elementary teachers (see CERTIFICATED TEACHERS) is tantamount to registration, although only one-half of our elementary teachers have undergone any professional training (except as pupil-teachers), and no list of acting teachers is issued by the Edu- cation Department. On the other hand, for secondary teachers, whether in public or private schools, no credentials are de- manded by the State, and till within quite recent years no attempt has been made either to provide for them a professional training or to exclude impostors from the profession. The movement in favour of the registration of teachers began rather more than a quarter of a century ago with an association, consisting mainly of private teachers, formed for the object of influen- cing public opinion in this direction, and ultimately obtaining an Act of Parliament. It was not, however, till 1869 that the subject of registration was brought before the Legislature. In that year Mr. Forster introduced, together with his Endowed Schools Bill, a second Bill for the organisa- tion of higher education and the registra- 326 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION tion of teachers other than elementary, commonly known as Mr. Forster's Bill No. 2. This Bill met with little favour ; it was regarded by the general public with indifference, supported only by a section of the profession, and suspected even by the Liberal party in the House as an un- warrantable interference with the liberty of the subject. But though it did not reach a second reading, it is of historical interest as the first assertion of the prin- ciple that it is the business of the State to supervise all education, and as tracing the main lines on which subsequent Bills have been drawn. The backbone of the Bill was an Educational Council, to whom the examination and registration of teach ers were committed. In 1 879 a Bill, which was promoted by the College of Preceptors, was introduced by Dr. Lyon Play fair. This Bill, commonly known as the 'Ly on Play- fair Teachers' Registration Bill,' repro- duced Mr. Forster's Educational Council, with one important change in its consti- tution. One-fourth of the council were eventually to be elected by the general body of registered teachers. Thus the council, instead of being a State depart- ment, tempered by university syndics, became, to a certain extent, a democratic and representative body. The same Bill, with some important modifications, was undertaken in 1881 by Sir John Lub- bock. For the provisions of this Bill we must refer our readers to a pamphlet, The Registration of Teachers, by F. Storr (W. Rice, 1887), where the text is given as an appendix. Space will only permit us to call attention to some moot points raised by the Bill, and to indicate what are the present views and wishes of the profession. (1) Teachers are generally agreed that a Registration Act will be of little effect un- less it is compulsory. The Medical Act affords a precedent exactly to the point. The first clause of the Teachers' Bill must run : * No teacher, after a certain date to be fixed by the council, shall be able to recover tuition fees in a court of law un- less his name is upon the register.' (2) For admission to the register some professional test must eventually be imposed. Here, again, there is an exact analogy between the teaching and the medical profession. (3) That all teachers, including the ele- mentary, should be included in the register is greatly to be desired. There are prac- tical difficulties in the way, but these would i disappear if a Minister of Education were created. (4) The council to whom is com- mitted the administration of the Bill should be elected mainly by the teachers them- selves; but it is generally thought that delegates of the various educational bodies the Universities, the College of Precep- tors, the National Union of Elementary Teachers, &c. would be preferable to di- rect representation. We may add, Lord Salisbury's Government, in a debate in the House of Commons (April 27, 1888) r pledged itself to consider the Registration of Teachers in a forthcoming bill affecting secondary education. For further informa- tion see Proceedings of International Con- ference on Education, vol. iv. p. 136, and Journal of Education, Feb. 1888, contain- ing Report of Conference of Teachers' Guild. B elisions Education. All that this article is called on to deal with is the efforts made by the State, and the Churches, assisted by various benevolent societies, to arrange for or to further the suitable religious education of the classes who at- tend primary schools. Even were it possible it would scarcely be advisable to attempt an account of the innumerable methods devised both in school and pulpit to meet the require- ments of those who are in a position to choose for themselves the systems they consider best. I. The attitude of the State towards Religious Education. It has gradually come to be held as an axiom that the State has no direct concern with religious, education. Secular knowledge the State is bound to give. Religious knowledge it leaves to the different denominations. The Government grants in England, Scot- land, and Ireland are regulated on this principle. They are made (a) to denomi- national training colleges, (6) to primary schools. (a) To the denominational training; colleges the State contributes three- fourths of their annual expenditure, pro- vided that expenditure is confined within certain strictly defined limits. The re- maining fourth is contributed by the reli- gious bodies under whose management the colleges are. In this way the State pays for the secular training of the teacher, but allows the utmost liberty of action to the denomination in the matter of their religious teaching. Of these; RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 327 denominational training colleges there are in all fifty-three : forty-three in England, seven in Scotland, three in Ireland. (6) Government schools in England. The division of State-aided schools into School Board and Voluntary arises largely from the different regulations in force in each with regard to religious instruction. It dates from the passing of Mr. Forster's Act in 1870. The changes with regard to religious instruction introduced by the Act are comprehensively summed up by Dr. Rigg (National Education, chap, x.) as follows : ' The new Act retained existing in- spected schools, but it made a time-table Conscience Clause imperative in all schools in which religious instruction was given ; it also did away with all denominational classifications of schools, and with denomi- national inspection, treating all inspected schools as equally belonging to a national system of schools, and under national in- spection, the distinction as to inspectors and their province being henceforth purely geographical. But the new Act no longer required that public elementary schools, established by voluntary agency and under voluntary management, should have in them any religious character or ele- ment whatever, whether as belonging to a Christian Church or denomination, or as connected with a Christian philanthropic society, or as providing for the reading of the Scriptures in the school. It was left open to any party or any person to esta- blish purely voluntary schools if they thought fit. But furthermore, the Act made provision for an entirely new class of schools, to be established and (in part) supported out of local rates, to be governed by locally elected School Boards, and to have just such and so much reli- gious instruction given in them as the governing Boards might think proper, at times preceding or following the prescribed secular school hours, and under the pro- tection of a time-table Conscience Clause, as in the case of voluntary schools, with this restriction only, that in the schools no catechism or denominational religious formulary of any sort was to be taught' In the School Board schools so founded there is nothing derived from their con- stitution to prevent a considerable amount of religious instruction being given ; but the differences of opinion among the mem- bers of the Board are generally so marked, that it is not possible to agree upon any- thing further than the reading of the Bible without note or comment. (See SCHOOL BOARDS.) In Voluntary schools the only restric- tions as to the amount and nature of the i religious instruction are (1) that such in- | struction must be given either before or after the time required for secular sub- jects, and (2) 'any scholar may be with- drawn by his parent from such instruc- tion without forfeiting any of the other benefits of the school/ The full liberty thus allowed has bee/i found, when pro- perly employed, to permit of as thorough and systematic a religious education as could be given under any school system. It is on this account that the Voluntary | schools are so highly valued and so warmly supported by those who are principally in- terested in religious education. Government Schools in Scotland. In Scotland the system of School Boards pre- vails very widely, though not exclusively. j This is to be accounted for partly because- it falls in with the tradition of Scotch edu- cation, partly also because there is no re- striction in Scotland as to what religious instruction shall be given in the schools. A Conscience Clause similar to that in i England protects individual liberty of opinion, but with this exception denomi- national teaching may be freely given. The Presbyterians have, therefore, no in- ducement to maintain separate schools, as the Board schools fully meet their require- ments. The voluntary principle is, how- j ever, fully recognised. There is nothing to prevent the denominations retaining I their schools under the Privy Council, and it is probable that Episcopalian and Roman Catholic schools will be permanently so retained. In Ireland the provisions made by the National Board for Religious Education closely resemble those in force in the Vo- luntary schools in England. The schools are divided into two classes : (1) Those i whose ownership is vested in the Commis- | sionersof Education or trustees ; (2) those | not so vested, whose ownership is retained j by those who build them. The rule with ; reference to religious instruction is that, provided four hours are devoted each day to secular instruction, as much time as the manager wishes may be devoted to dis- tinctly denominational teaching, either before or after secular school business, and 328 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION at one, but only one, intermediate time between the commencement and close of the secular school business. In Vested schools accommodation must be provided so that such pastors or other persons as shall be approved of by the parents or guardians of the children shall have access to them in the schoolrooms for the purpose of giving religious instruction there at times convenient for that purpose. In Non- Vested schools no such obligation -exists. The teachers give whatever course of instruction the managers may approve ; but all children whose parents disapprove of the course must be dismissed till the time for religious instruction is over. In cases in which the managers do not permit religious instruction to be given in the schoolroom, the children whose parents or guardians so desire must be allowed to absent themselves from the school at rea- sonable times, for the purpose of receiving such instruction elsewhere. A special feature of the Irish system is that grants are made to monastery and convent schools, in which the teaching is done by the monks and nuns. There are upwards of 200 such schools, attended by upwards of 50,000 pupils. II. The Religious Education Work of the different Denominations. Leaving the passive attitude taken up by Govern- ment on the question of religious instruc- tion, and proceeding to consider the work done by the different denominations and the societies in connection with them, we iind great activity prevailing in all three countries. In England sectarian repug- nance to the School Board system, with its prohibition of denominational formu- laries, has roused the Churches to strenu- ous exertions in support of Voluntary schools. A desire to develop to the ut- most such religious teaching as the Board system does permit has led them to frame elaborate organisations for stimulating the earnest study of the Bible in Board schools. (1) Training Colleges, as the means whereby religious influence maybe brought to bear upon the schools, occupy a large share of attention. The Church of England possesses thirty. Of these one has been built and maintained by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge ; three by the Home and Colonial Society (q.v.) three are the especial charge of the Na- tional Society (q.v.). The rest may be classed generally as diocesan, but almost without exception they are largely aided by the National Society. With a view to securing a high standard of religious know- ledge, an inspector is appointed by the Arch- bishops of Canterbury and York to visit and report upon the colleges. There is also an Examining Board for Religious Know- ledge, to examine the candidates for en- trance to the colleges and the students in training. The Board consists of the arch- bishops' inspector, who is chairman, two representatives elected by the principals of the colleges for masters and mistresses respectively, of a member appointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, of one appointed by the National Society, and of the secre- tary of the National Society. The Board is assisted by a staff of eight experienced ex- aminers. All the expenses connected both with the inspector and the Board are de- frayed by the National Society. The So- ciety further pays a capitation grant to the colleges according as their students pass in first, second, or third class. This work is further assisted by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, which makes grants of 21. to all who pass in first-class and subsequently enter a re- cognised training college. Of the other religious bodies the Wes- leyans have two training colleges, the Congregatioiialists one, and the Roman Catholics three, the latter being largely supported by the Catholic Poor Schools Committee. In all these colleges special and earnest attention is paid to religious instruction. The Roman Catholic colleges have the advantage of a regular system of religious inspection provided by the Poor Schools Committee. (2) Schools. Great exertions are made by all denominations to maintain and de- velop the Voluntary School system. The following table taken from the Yearbook of the Church of England shows the large sums which are raised for the purpose : VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Day schools, year ended August 31 1885 1886 Church British, &c. . Wesleyan . Roman Catholic Board . x. d. 583,936 3 4 96,83? 6 3 15,934 7 11 59,233 8 10 891 11 11 s. d. 586,950 19 74,693 19 8 15,691 9 2 64,600 2 4 660 19 3 Total . 756,827 18 3 742,597 9 5 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 329 In connection with the Church of Eng- land, in addition to diocesan and parochial efforts, the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge and the National Society give large grants for building and enlarging schools. The work of testing the religious instruction in Church schools, which was discharged by the State until 1870, is now carried on by the Church it- self. A large body of experienced ex- aminers, acting in each case under instruc- tions from the bishop of the diocese, are engaged in the work. The maintenance of these inspectors involves an expenditure of not less than 15,0001. a year on the part of the Diocesan Boards. Large grants towards the salaries of inspectors are made by the National Society. Prizes' for pro- ficiency in diocesan examination are given in many cases by the S.P.C.K. The religiousinstruction given in Board schools is also the object of much atten- tion. Grants are made by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge to pro- mote the systematic religious instruction of Board school pupil-teachers in the dio- ceses of London and Rochester, and hand- some exhibitions are awarded. A large work with a similar object, but dealing with all the classes in Board schools, has been undertaken by the Re- ligious Tract Society. Liberal prizes are offered for proficiency in Biblical know- ledge, and immense numbers are induced to compete. As an illustration of the work, it may be mentioned that last year 228,021 children offered themselves for examina- tion in connection with the London School Board, and prizes to the value of 5001. were distributed. The Wesleyans, by means of the Com- mittee of Education, watch carefully over the interests of their Voluntary schools. The severe competition of the Board schools prevents any great advance in the number of these schools ; but the attendance at them has increased upwards of 25 per cent. There is a regular system of exami- nation of pupil- teachers in religious know- ledge in Wesleyan schools ; but no general system of examination for the scholars. The Roman Catholics, largely through the instrumentality of the Poor Schools Committee, have so successfully resisted the Board school system that not only has it made no inroad on their schools, but the number of their schools, the number of their teachers and the number of their pupils has been more than doubled since 1870. These circumstances are particu- larly creditable when it is remembered that the children of the Roman Catholic poor are among those least able to pay high school fees. The religious instruction in these schools is superintended and en- couraged by means of a thorough system of inspection, on the results of which liberal prizes are awarded to pupil- teachers and others. Sunday Schools. The work done in Sunday schools forms a very important part of the religions education given by the different denominations. Since the Act of 1870, and the consequent spread of Board schools, the importance attached to Sunday schools has increased, and there has been a corresponding increase in their numbers and efficiency. In connection with the Church of England, the Sunday School Institute (Serjeants' Inn, Fleet Street, London, E.G.), since its foundation in 1843, has done much to extend and im- prove Sunday school teaching. It has now under instruction in England and Wales some 6,000,000 scholars, taught by nearly 600,000 teachers. The chief branches of the Institute work are (1) providing suit- able lessons for the use of teachers. The books and papers issued with this object have attained a very wide circulation. (2) Instruction in the art of teaching. This instruction is given not merely in Lon- don, but by the deputation secretaries, who visit all parts of England and Wales, and some counties in Ireland, to lecture and give model lessons. Other important branches are the examination of Sunday school teachers at different centres, the founding and organising of branch associ- ations all over the country, of which there are 363, and the publication of literature of all kinds suitable for helping on Sunday school work. In connection with the various Dis- senting bodies the following agencies exist for furthering Sunday school work : ' The Connexional Sunday School Union; (2 Ludgate Circus Buildings, London, E.G.), for Wesleyan Sunday schools ; The Sunday School Association,' established 1833 (37 Norfolk Street, Strand, London, W.C.), and ' The Sunday School Union' (56 Old Bailey, London, E.G.), established 1803, not connected with any one denomination. The work done by the Sunday School Union is very extensive. 330 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION On its books it has nearly 150,000 teachers, and nearly 1,500,000 scholars. Its objects are (1) to stimulate and en- courage Sunday school teachers at home and abroad to greater exertions in the promotion of religious education; (2) by mutual communication, and by means of a valuable training class held all the year round in London, to improve the methods of instruction; (3) to ascertain where Sun- day schools are needed, and promote their establishment ; (4) to supply books and stationery suited for Sunday schools. In Scotland, the fact that distinct de- nominational teaching is permitted in the Board schools has made it possible to secure efficient religious teaching without such special effort as has been required in England. Training Colleges. The Church of Scotland and the Free Church manage between them six training colleges four for masters and mistresses, two for mis- tresses. These Churches examine the candidates for admission to training in religious knowledge, and prescribe a course of study to be followed. They also examine the students at the end of each year of their course, and the results are printed. The Episcopal Church manages one college for masters and mistresses. The students receive the same religious instruction as is given in the English Church colleges, and it is tested by the same examiners. Schools. Among Pres- byterians the Board school system is universal. ' Use and Wont ' secured be- fore 1872 in the vast majority of schools the teaching of the Bible and the shorter catechism. Under the Act of 1872 the matter is wholly in the hands of the School Boards. As the result of the elections during all the years which have elapsed since 1872, 'Use and Wont' has been maintained. In a few isolated cases the catechism is not taught, but Bible teaching holds its ground. Many of the Boards in Scotland appoint examiners in religious instruction, who report to them. In addition, an association (office, SA Pitt Street, Edinburgh) exists for the pur- pose of encouraging inspection in reli- gious instruction, and some of the Boards avail themselves of its inspectors. The Episcopal Church maintains in all some seventy-five schools. Religious instruc- tion is carefully given in them, and dio- cesan inspectors are employed to test the proficiency of the pupils in religious sub- jects. As the Poor Schools Committee represents in matters which concern, elementary education Scotland as well as. England, the account of its operations | given above may be taken as referring to- both countries. Ireland. (1) Training Colleges. It was only in 1883 that the system of de- nominational training colleges was ex- tended to Ireland. Up to this date the only place where teachers could be trained was at the College of the Commissioners, of Education in Marlborough Street. This college has always been managed in accordance with the fundamental prin- ciple of the National Board, combined literary and moral, and separate religious instruction. Clergymen of the different, denominations are permitted to visit and instruct the students separately at fixed times ; at all other times no distinction whatever is made on the score of religion. This system was always profoundly dis- tasteful to the Roman Catholics and a. large section of the Church of Ireland,, and the result was that most of the Irish teachers were untrained. When the offer of denominational training colleges was made by the Government in 1883, the Roman Catholics immediately founded one for masters and another for mistresses. In 1884 the Church of Ireland founded one for masters and mistresses. The reli- gious instruction in the Roman Catholic- colleges is managed by the college au- thorities. In the Church of Ireland Training College the candidates for en- trance are examined by the college. The students in training are examined by the Board of the General Synod, as explained below. The Presbyterians and Wesleyans- have as yet no training college. They ! get their teachers from Marlborough Street, and provide religious education j for them by sending their catechists at I such times as the Time-Table permits. (2) Schools. Since disestablishment in 1870, the Church of Ireland has done much towards maintaining schools and improving the religious instruction given, in them. The Church educational organ- isation consists of a Central Board ap- pointed by the General Synod, and of Dio- cesan Boards appointed by the different Diocesan Synods. Most of the schools- under Church management are in connec- tion with the National Board. Of the RENAISSANCE (THE) 331 rest some, through not accepting the sys- tem of the National Board, remain in con- nection with the Church Education So- ciety, a society originally formed to resist the advance of the National Board. Others, owing to the smallness of their numbers, can get no grants from the National Board, and have to depend upon grants from such sources as the Diocesan Board, the Eras- mus Smith Board, the Islands and Coasts Society, the Ladies' Hibernian Society, and private benevolence. The Board of the General Synod and (with one or two exceptions) the Diocesan Boards work alike for all classes of schools. The Synod's Board provides the catechists for the Marl- borough Street Training College, a work in which it is sometimes assisted by the English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. It also organises, and with the help of the Irish Association for the Pro- pagation of Christian Knowledge gives liberal prizes at, examinations in religious knowledge, held twice a year, for teachers in charge of schools, and also for the stu- dents of the Church of Ireland Training College. The Diocesan Boards, in addition to helping poor schools, have two important duties : (1) to provide diocesan inspectors to inspect national schools in religious knowledge, and other schools in both re- ligious and secular knowledge ; (2) to or- ganise and give prizes for the annual dio- cesan examinations of Sunday and day schools. It has not as yet been found possible to appoint diocesan inspectors for all the dioceses, but, with scarcely an ex- ception, the annual examinations have been everywhere organised with great success. Special examiners are appointed by the Boards, who make the tour of their diocese. The children come in large numbers to the different centres, and liberal prizes are awarded on the results of the examination. In connection with the Diocesan Boards a Church of Ireland Educational Association has been formed. By this association calendars of religious instruction, accom- panied by notes for Sunday school teachers, are compiled. The calendars and notes are expected to circulate through the whole of the Irish Church. The Sunday schools of the Church of j Ireland are for the most part organised so as to work for the annual examination held by the Diocesan Boards. In the diocese of Dublin a system of lectures and exami nations for Sunday school teachers is main- tained by the Diocesan Board. In the northern and southern diocese Sunday school teachers avail themselves of the ex- aminations of the English Sunday School Institute. The schools of the Presbyterians and Wesleyans are placed under the National Board whenever their numbers make it possible. Diocesan inspectors are not em- I ployed. In the Presbyterian Church the rule is that every minister shall be respon- sible for his own immediate charge, and the Presbytery supervise him. A Com- mittee of the General Assembly on Ele- mentary Education exercises a general superintendence. In the Methodist Churck the rule is : The schools shall be syste- matically visited by the ministers, and they are required to keep an account of such pastoral visits, to be handed to the chair- man of their district. In each of the ten. ; districts a minister is annually appointed to visit and inspect all the schools within his district. An Education Fund exists- for helping schools too small to receive aid from the National Board. The supervision- of the education work forms part of the du- [ ties of the General Committee of Manage- ment. Both among the Presbyterians and Wesleyans the Sunday school system is- vigorously worked, and in most schools yearly examinations are held. The Roman Catholics have from the first used the Na- tional system of schools, and as a result they have splendid national schools all over Ireland, not even the most remote ; parts being excepted. The religious in- ! struction given in these schools is closely watched and superintended. Besides the ordinary national schools the Roman Ca- | tholics have the convent and monastery schools referred to above. Their religious- education is also largely assisted by the- I religious orders. Chief among these are I the Christian Brothers. Their schools number nearly 100, and are attended by | about 30,000 pupils. These schools are, of course, unreservedly denominational in character. Renaissance (The) in its relation to Education. Renaissance is a term which in its French and more current ortho- graphy is identical with its less commonly employed English form of Renascence, both being derived from the Latin verb renascor, to be born again, and both also being equivalent in general meaning to new birth, regeneration, or renewal, and applicable- 332 RENAISSANCE (THE) in general to the revival of anything long extinct, lost, or decayed. It is more defi- nitely and particularly used, however, to ^designate the transitional movement in Europe from the Middle Ages to the ^modern world, and especially the time of the revival of letters and the arts in the ^fifteenth century. In order to appreciate the influence of the Renaissance on education, or, in other words, to understand the Renaissance as expressed in education, it is necessary to devote a few sentences to the methods of the latter before the advent of the day which, in the course of several antecedent ages, had been heralded at irregular in- tervals by auroras which were not of the morning. The education of the Middle Ages (q.v.), broadly stated, was alterna- tively that of the cloister or the castle. The two methods stood in sharp contrast to each other. The object of the one was to form and to furnish the young monk ; of the other, to fashion and equip the young knight. It would be ungrateful indeed to forget the services rendered to education by many illustrious monasteries, in which the torch of learning was kept alight throughout the dark ages as, for instance, those of Tours, Fulda, and Monte Ctassino, the monks of which, and espe- cially of the last, were distinguished, not only for their knowledge of the sciences, but for their attention to polite learning, and their acquaintance with the classics. They composed not only learned treatises on music, logic, astronomy, and the Vitru- vian architecture, but they likewise em- ployed a portion of their time in trans- cribing Tacitus and other mastfrs of the ancient literature ; and their example in these respects was followed, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with great spirit .and emulation by many English monas- teries. But the value, because the validity, of cloistered education was impaired by reason of the long hours which the pupils and the members of monasteries were required to abstract from their studies and to devote to elaborate and unfruitful ceremonies, to what Milton calls a ' tedious number of liturgical tautologies, 5 or rosarial iterations, or to other exercises which were often exacting, exhausting, and un- timely. The culture of the Scriptorium itself was to a great extent uncouth and me- chanical. The discipline was hard, and was made purposely and conscientiously repulsive. The rod was the sole, or at least the sufficient, symbol of an educa- tional regime, the guiding principle of which was that no training could be effec- tual which was not forbidding and dis- tasteful, and that no worthy subject of instruction could be approached except through the portals of suffering. This forcible imposition of asceticism upon the learners induced in them a spirit of revolt against the teachers, and a disgust of the learning which they misrepresented. The seven ' arts ' of monkish training signified the whole circle of subjects studied by those who desired and sought a liberal education. These extended to science as well as to art, and included grammar, logic, and rhetoric, which formed the Trivium and arithmetic, music, geo- metry, and astronomy, which formed the Quadrivium. These two, the Trivium and the Quadrivium, combined to make up the seven years' course, the divisions of which have profoundly affected our modern training ; and it is a survival of this classification, which was in vogue as early as the fifth century, that we still speak of the curriculum of arts at a university, and that students become graduates in * arts,' as bachelors or mas- ters. So gloomy a view is taken of the mon- astic training of youth that to some students of history it would seem that the joy of human life would have been in danger of being obliterated if it had not been for the warmth and colour of a young knight's boyhood. He was equally well broken into obedience and hardship with the youthful student of the cloister ; but the obedience was the willing service of a mistress whom he loved, and the hardship was the permission to share the dangers of a leader whom he emulated. Against the Trivium and Quadrivium which measured the achievements of re- luctant monkish study, were set the seven knightly accomplishments of riding, swim- ming, shooting with the bow, boxing, hawking, playing chess, and weaving the verses of romance or tenderness. Every feudal court and castle was in fact a school of chivalry, in which the sons of the sovereign and his vassals, together com- monly with those of some of their allies or friends, were reared in its principles and habituated to its customs and observances. RENAISSANCE (THE) 33$ And, although princes and great person- ages were rarely actually pages or squires, the moral and physical discipline through which they passed was not in any impor- tant particular different from that to which less exalted candidates for knight- hood were subjected. The page com- menced his service and instruction when he was between seven and eight years old, and the initial phase continued for seven or eight years longer. He acted as the constant personal attendant of both his master and mistress. He waited on them in their hall and accompanied them in the chase ; he served the lady in her bower, and followed the lord to the camp. From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he learned the rudiments of religion, of rectitude, and of love ; from his master and his squires he learned the elements of military exercise, to cast a spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured tread of a soldier ; and from his master and his huntsmen and falconers he acquired the mysteries of the woods and rivers, or, in other words, the rules and practices of hunting and hawking. When he was between fifteen and sixteen he became a squire ; but no sudden or great alteration was made in his mode of life. The details of his service, however, acquired more dignity according to the notions of the age ; and his military exercises and athletic sports occupied an always in- creasing portion of the day. He accus- tomed himself to ride the ' great horse,' to tilt at the quintain, to wield the sword and battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and to bear the weight and overcome the embarrassments of armour. He inured himself to the vicissitudes of heat and cold, and voluntarily suffered the pains or inconveniences of hunger and thirst, fatigue and sleeplessness. It was then, too, that he chose his ' lady-love,' whom he was expected to regard with an adoration at once earnest, respectful, and, if possible, concealed. When it was con- sidered that he had made sufficient ad- vancement in his military accomplish- ments, he took his sword to the priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to him. He was now eligible to become a ' squire of the body,' and truly an ' armiger ' or * scutifer,' for he bore the shield and armour of his leader to the field, and, what was a task of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and i secured him in his panoply of war before j assisting him to mount his courser or- charger. It was his function also to dis- play and guard in battle the banner of the baron, or banneret or the pennon of the knight he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to supply him with another if need be, his own if his horse were killed or disabled, to receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to- fight by his side if he were unequally matched, to rescue him if captured, to. bear him to a place of safety if wounded, and to bury him honourably when dead.. And after he had worthily and bravely borne himself for six or seven years as a. squire, the time came when it was fitting; that he should be made a knight. Perhaps in nothing is the difference be- tween the two forms of education, those of' monkery and chivalry, more clearly shown* than in the relations to women respectively of the youthful monk and the youthful can- didate for knighthood. The former was. brought up to regard a woman as the worst among the many temptations of St. An tony,, and his life, as of one surrounded and cared for by celibates, to be himself a celibate, knew nothing of domestic tenderness 01-: affection. A page, on the other hand,, was trained to recognise as his best re- ward the smile of the lady of the castle,. or her frown as his worst punishment ;. and as he grew to manhood, to cherish an absorbing passion as the strongest, stimulus to a worthy life, and the con- templation of female virtue in its most noble forms of illustration, whether these- occurred within his own observation and experience, or had to be sought as glorified and idealised in romance, as the truest, earnest of future immortality. Both these forms of education disappeared before the- Renaissance and the Reformation. But it is not to be supposed that no efforts were made to improve upon the narrowness of the schoolmen or the idleness of chivalry.. Certainly it cannot be said that the Church was indifferent to the cultivation and ex- tension of such learning as she approved ; and she claims to have shown from the- earliest times, through her councils and prelates, an earnest solicitude for the enlightenment of the people. In the ninth century alone, more than twelve councils, urged upon priests and people the esta- blishment of schools, monastic or paro- 334 RENAISSANCE (THE) , for the culture of sacred and secular learning, the study of divine and human sciences ; and from the beginning of the eleventh century the papal bulls and .briefs took notice of the most minute de- tails of management, even to the super- intendence of the schools, so far as the .age permitted. The Emperor Charle- magne (742-814) early turned his atten- tion to the establishment of episcopal seminaries, to which he added grammar and public schools, as preparatory both to the seminaries and to secular professions. Not that they were confined to grammar, for they recognised the Trivium and Quadri- vium ; but grammar, in the sense of lite- rature, seems to have been the principal subject of their teaching. These schools were established in connection with the cathedral or the cloister. Cardinal New- man regards it as probable that Charle- magne did not do much more than this ; for, 'after all, it was not in an emperor's ,power, though he were Charlemagne, to -carry into effect in any case, by the re- .-sources peculiar to himself, so great an :idea as a university.' It is his merit to have ' certainly introduced ideas and prin- ciples, of which the university was the result.' Whatever the necessary limitations of .his power and influence, however, it is in the period of Charlemagne, as he helped to make it, that the common consent of experts finds the era which forms the true boundary line between ancient and modern history. The influences transmitted by -the reforms and policy of Charlemagne were of greater permanence than the fabric of the empire itself, and in no respect have they had a more enduring effect than in connection with the history of mental culture in Europe. It is, indeed, not a little remarkable, that in this somewhat unduly neglected ninth century may be discerned, as in miniature, all those con tending principles the conservative, the progressive, and the speculative which, save in the darkest times, have rarely since ceased to be apparent in the great centres of our higher education. It is chiefly as the scholar and the founder of schools that the great emperor must live with posterity. He found men ignorant and unwilling to learn ; no schools or col- leges existed in all Germany or Gaul, and the intellect of Europe had sunk into un- wonted apathy. He filled his empire with I seats of learning, and left behind him a throng of accomplished scholars a gene- ration of poets, historians, and progressive priests. ' Alcuin,' the English ' Restorer of Letters in France,' it has been said in a rapture of estimating the educational and the political movements of the Carlo- vingian period by their relative powers of perpetuation and survival 'Alcuin was greater than Charlemagne, and Erigena than Coeur de Lion.' While the priests instructed the children of the commonalty, the bishops performed the same office for youths of rank or of exceptional ability. Wilfrid, Archbishop of York, who was driven out of his splendid benefice in 668, received the sons of many great men who were sent to him for education, whether they were designed for clerical or lay pur- suits. And Egbert, Archbishop of the same see, and a disciple of the Venerable Bede, 'loved to take under his care youths of good capacity, and, supporting them from his own purse, to guide them affec- tionately in the paths of learning.' Many other prelates zealously spent themselves and their substance in the instruction of youth. In addition to cathedral, monastic, and parochial schools, there existed in the me- diaeval era what were known as ' chaptral schools,' which seem to have been gene- rally under a mixed jurisdiction, and the authority over which was vested in vary- ing proportions, co-ordinately or with a correlative superiority and subordination, in lay or clerical individuals or corpora- tions. Still other schools existed in various parts of Europe, unconnected with any organisation, though generally directed by | monks or clergy. ' Such were the schools/ ! says Mr. Leicester Ambrose Buckingham, ' founded by the Counts of Raperschwil, in the neighbourhood of St. Gall, which, though independent of the abbey, were protected and encouraged by the monks ; such were the schools which flourished in I some parts of England in the reign of Henry III., of which FitzStephen makes mention of three established in London, and holding high repute for learning; such were probably the eight schools : which Lothaire I, founded in 823, in the ! principal towns of Italy ; such were the ! schools for the poor which were frequently i created by pious benefactors, as the Ecole j des Bons Enfants, which existed at Rheims ; from the thirteenth century, the esta- RENAISSANCE (THE) 335 "blishment bearing the same name at Brussels, which was endowed by Pierre Van Huffele, Chaplain of St. Gudule, in 1358, with all his property, and farther enriched in 1377 by Jean t' Serclaes, Archdeacon of Cambray, who provided it with the means necessary for the lodging and nourishment of twelve poor scholars between the ages of nine and eighteen years, and the many similar foundations which existed in other parts of Europe ; such also were the schools of the Hierony- mites, a pious confraternity bearing con- siderable resemblance to the Christian Brothers of modern days, and instituted by Gerard Groote in 1396, whose esta- blishments were numerously diffused throughout Central Europe.' 'Benefactors and patrons,' says Car- dinal Newman, in continuation of his remarks on the inability of Charlemagne to found a university, ' may supply the framework of a Studium Generate \ but there must be a popular interest and sympathy, a spontaneous co-operation of the many, the concurrence of genius, and a spreading thirst for knowledge, if it is to live. Centuries passed before these conditions were supplied, and then at length, about the year 1 200, a remarkable intellectual movement took place in Chris- tendom ; and to it must be ascribed the development of universities.' These in- stitutions are usually considered to have grown out of the schools which previous to the twelfth or thirteenth century were attached to most of the cathedrals and monasteries, providing the means of edu- cation both to churchmen and laymen, and bringing together the few learned and scientific men who were to be found in j Europe. On all hands it is admitted that the new intellectual impulse sprang up, not only on the domain and under the guidance of the Church, but out of the ecclesiastical schools ; to whose teaching of the Trivium and the Quadrivium, the seven liberal arts, the Scholse Majores added medicine, law, and theology 'From Rome as from a centre,' to quote the bold directness of Cardinal Newman, ' as the Apostles from Jerusalem, went forth the missionaries of knowledge, passing to and fro all over Europe ; and as metropolitan sees were the record of the presence of Apostles, so did Paris, Pa via, and Bologna, Padua and Ferrara, Pisa and Naples, Vienna, Louvain, and Oxford, rise into universities at the voice of the theologian or the philosopher.' In the latter portion of the medieval epoch the universities arose in considerable abundance ; so that not less than fifty-six were founded in Europe before the close of the fifteenth century. As all these institutions, like the schools from which they were deve- loped, were the daughters of the Church, so their teaching perpetuated and petri- fied, as jealousy and narrowness and in- tolerance, the spirit which in earlier times had appeared as self-preservation, and had led so largely to a cenobitic or eremitical seclusion, protected by the horrors, diffi- culties, or inaccessibilities of nature from 'the world ' of the period, which was at once vile, cruel, and persecuting, to con- front or to challenge which, by way of antagonism, was probably death to the body, and to come into accommodating contact with which was certainly corrup- tion, and probably death, to the soul. The very graces and refinements of such a society were to be withstood, even in their resurrection after centuries of abey- ance and purgation and in the midst of another 'world in which the Church marched at large with the pomp and dig- nity of a triumphal procession. Yet the power of the Church when brought face to face with the Renaissance fell short of omnipotence, and her influ- ence of universality. Some of the most pious of her educational agencies and or- ganisations were paralysed by the evolu- tion of a bigotry which was often in the direct ratio of their devotion and single- ness of heart and purpose. Thus the ex- emplary Brethren of the Common Life, the best known name among whom is that of Gerard Groote, and who devoted them- selves with all humility and self-sacrifice to the education of children, had not, with all their purity and sweetness, sufficient strength to preserve amongst the necessary developments of the age the supremacy they had enjoyed for a hundred years. They could not support the glare of the new Italian learning ; they obtained, and in a certain sense it may be feared that they deserved, the title of Obscurantists. The Epistolce Obscurorum Virorum, the wittiest squib, notwithstanding its breadth and exaggeration, of the Middle Ages, which was so true and so subtle in its satire that it was hailed as a blow struck in defence of the ancient learning, consists 336 RENAISSANCE (THE) in great part of the lamentations of the Brethren of Deventer over the new age, which they could neither comprehend nor withstand. Mr. Oscar Browning very reasonably affirms the education of the Renaissance to be best represented by the name of Erasmus, that of the Reformation by the names of Luther and Melanchthon. Erasmus has been called the ' Voltaire of the Renaissance/ a partial truth, obscuring a vast difference which cannot properly be forgotten. For although Erasmus in- veighed against the clergy as ' an obscu- rantist army arrayed against light,' he did not attack the Church, in which, were it not free from the polemical strife and the party excesses which his soul abhorred, he hoped to enjoy the delights of a revived literature in a new Augustan age. Con- currently with the great name of Erasmus it is proper in this connection to mention those of Yittorino de Feltre, who died in 1477, after having reached the highest point of excellence as a practical school- master of the Italian Renaissance, and of Count Balclassare Castiglione, the author of II Libra del Cortegiano, or Book of the Courtier, in which he portrays a cultivated nobleman in those most cultivated days. ' He shows,' says Mr. Browning, in a con- venient summary of his doctrine, ' by what precepts and practice the golden youth of Verona and Venice were formed, who live for us in the plays of Shakespeare as models of knightly excellence.' For our instruction it is better to have recourse to the pages of Erasmus. He has written the most minute account of his method of teach- ing. ' The child is to be formed into a good Latin and Greek scholar and a pious man. He fully grasps the truth that improvement must be natural and gradual. Letters are to be taught playing. The rules of gram- mar are to be few and short. Every means of arousing interest in the work is to be fully employed. Erasmus is no Cicero- nian. Latin is to be taught so as to be of use a living language adapted to modern wants. Children should learn an art painting, sculpture, or architecture. Idle- ness is above all things to be avoided. The education of girls is as necessary and important as that of boys. Much depends upon home influence ; obedience must be strict, but not too severe. We must take account of individual peculiarities, and not force children into cloisters against their will. We shall obtain the best result by following nature. It is easy to see what a contrast this scheme presented to the monkish training to the routine of use- less technicalities enforced amidst the shouts of teachers and the lamentations of the taught.' It is difficult for students of education to attach too much importance to this great revolution. For nearly three cen- turies the curriculum in the public schools of Europe remained what the Renaissance had made it, although the signs are scarcely ambiguous that we have again entered on an age of change. ' The Renaissance,' ob- serves the Rev. Mark Pattison, in his Isaac Casaubon, 15591614, 'had dealt with antiquity, not in the spirit of learned research, but in the spirit of free creative imitation. In the fifteenth century was revealed to a world, which had hitherto been trained to logical analysis, the beauty of literary form. The conception of style or finished expressions had died out with the pagan schools of rhetoric. It was not the despotic act of Justinian in closing the schools of Athens which had suppressed it. The sense of art in language decayed from the same general causes which had been fatal to all artistic perception. Banished from the Roman empire in the sixth century, or earlier, the classical con- ception of beauty of form re-entered the circle of ideas again in the fifteenth cen- tury, after nearly a thousand years of ob- livion and abeyance. Cicero and Virgil, Livius and Ovid, had been there all along ; but the idea of composite harmony, on which their works were constructed, was wanting. The restored conception, as if to recoup itself for its long suppression, took entire possession of the mind of edu- cated Europe. The first period of the Renaissance passed in adoration of the awakened beauty, and in efforts to copy and multiply it.' Under the reawakening of this sense of beauty it happened that the classics, however they might be prized for their matter, were valued above all things for their form and expression. In this spirit the scholars of the Renaissance did all they could to discourage translations. Thus it happens that in the period of change, when Europe was rearranging its insti- tutions, men who were most influential in education were entirely fascinated by beauty of expression as exemplified in two ancient languages. To such men the one RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF 337 thing needful for the young seemed to be an introduction to the study of the ancient writings. Education became in conse- quence a mere synonym for instruction in Latin and Greek, and the only ideal of culture was that of the classical scholar. From this it followed that acquirement was placed before achievement. The high- est distinction was awarded to the student of other men's words and other men's thoughts, so that doing and thinking came to be considered of far less importance in education than learning and remembering. Thus the scholars of the Renaissance, ' not- withstanding their admiration of the great nations of antiquity, set up an ideal which i those nations would heartily have despised. The schoolmaster very readily adopted [ this ideal ; and schools,' Mr. Quick com- j plains, * have been places of learning, not | training, ever since.' Such an ideal was, in the nature of things, generally impossible of attainment except to the rich and leisurely, who alone | possessed the opportunities necessary for j its effective contemplation. In practice the ; learned ideal has the further disadvantage j of offering no compensating benefit for rudimentary efforts, and it knows little or | nothing of proportional rewards for inter- mitted study, interrupted advance, or arrested approach. The first stage, the study of the ancient languages, is so totally j different from the study of the ancient j literatures to which it is the preliminary, that the student who never goes beyond this first stage either gets no benefit at all, or a benefit which is not of the kind in- tended. It is almost a corollary from the en- thusiasm for literature as an exclusive educational instrument, that literature, properly so called, is forbidden to the schoolroom, in which the subject of in- struction is not so much the classics as the classical languages. That which is to be effectively the literature of the young must have its form and expression in the ver- nacular. The ideal of the Renaissance, again, in its relation to education, * led the school- masters,' to quote further from the ob- jections of Mr. Quick, 'to attach little importance to the education of children. Directly their pupils were old enough for Latin grammar the schoolmasters were quite at home ; but till then the children's time seemed of small value, and they neither knew nor cared to know how to employ it. If the little ones could learn by heart forms of words which would after- wards ' come in useful/ the schoolmasters were ready to assist such learning by ready application of the rod; but no other learning seemed worthy even of a caning. Absorbed in the world of books they overlooked the world of nature. Galileo- complains that he could not induce them to look through his telescope, for they held that truth could be arrived at only by com- parison of manuscripts. No wonder, then, that they had so little sympathy with chil- dren, and did not know how to teach them. It is by slow degrees that we are breaking away from the bad tradition thus esta- blished, and getting to understand chil- dren, and, with such leaders as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, are investigating the best education for them. We no longer think of them as immature men and women, but see that each stage has its own completeness, and that there is a per- fection in childhood which must precede the perfection of manhood just as truly as the flower goes before the fruit.' (See ar tides on ' Education,' by Oscar Browning, and 'Knighthood,' by F. Drummond, in Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th edition ; Leicester A. Buckingham's Bible in the Middle Ages, 1853 ; Cardinal Newman's Historical Sketches : Rise and Progress of Universities, 1873 ; Rev. Mark Pattison's Isaac Casaubon, 1875 ; J. Bass Mullinger's. Schools of Charles the Great and the Resto- ration of Education in the Ninth Century, 1877 ; Rev. R. H. Quick's ' Renascence, and its Influence on Education ' in Edu- cation : an International Magazine, Sep- tember and November 1880.) Research, Endowment of. For some- thing like a quarter of a century the public- mind has been becoming more and more- familiarised with the idea of the endow- ment of scientific research, and at the same- time the idea of ' science ' has been ac- quiring a wider meaning. Indeed, the question has now almost assumed the form : Shall the prosecution of learning in all its- great branches be assisted more liberally and more systematically 1 The supreme- national importance of the question is. acknowledged by all, although with very wide discrepancy as to the value of par- ticular studies. Unless we gird up our loins we shall be outstripped by our con- tinental neighbours. The great difficulty 338 RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF is whence to find the indispensable money ; minor, yet not inconsiderable, difficulties are to find the right men to endow, and to work out a scheme for the regulation of the endowment. Considering the enormous masses of money available for the promo- tion of learning at the university seats, public men naturally resist any claims on the public treasury until the universities and colleges have turned their wealth into channels that accord with the modern spirit and with modern deeds, and yet can show a clear case for public consideration. Academic conservatism is naturally strong, and it is powerfully backed up by the last wishes of the pious founder. The recon- ciliation of the conflicting claims was well expressed by Lord Derby : * Respect the founder's object,' he said, * but use your own discretion as to the means. If you do not do the first, you will have no new endowments ; if you neglect the last, those which you have will be of no use.' How- ever firmly fixed the present system at our great universities may be, still, as a matter of fact, ' nothing could be more alien to the whole purport of the original statutes than that the period of study should be limited by the undergraduate course, and that fel- lowships should then be given as prizes for past exertions or as subsidies for ordinary teaching ' (Essays on the Endowment of Research, p. 58). 'With regard to the bulk of the college endowments,' says Mr. J. S. Cotton, ' the right mode of appropri- ation is perfectly clear. The intentions of the founders, the teaching of history, and the wants of the present day, all point in the same direction. The money should be devoted to study, and to study alone ; en- forced as a duty, and protected by ade- quate guarantees, but unencumbered by any obligation to impart common instruc- tion. By this one bold and necessary re- form the Universities of Oxford and Cam- bridge may once again pick up the torch of intellectual progress, which has for a while fallen from their hands ; and at the same time England, in fulfilling the designs of her great patrons of learning, may re- gain her place among the nations as the chosen home of literary erudition and sci- entific inquiry ' (p. 63). In other essays in the same volume the late Dr. C. E. Appleton inquires into the economical character of subsidies to education in all grades (pp. 64-85), and then examines the endowment of research as a productive form of expenditure. On the latter head he points out that 'the investigation of truth, considered as a vocation, is an instance of that class of industry whose economical condition seems to be one of inherent and permanent incapability to maintain itself,' and concludes that ' it is scarcely conceivable that any alteration, however radical, could be made in the arrangements of society which could render the labour of scientific discovery of any appreciable pecuniary value to the man engaged in it.' Consequently, in order to live, a 'researcher' must engage in some other occupation, which supports him and leaves him some- spare time and energy for his special research. The alliance of research with incumbency of a benefice, while rendering research possible, cannot be serviceable for the cure of souls ; neither can the research amount to what it might under conditions not hampered by the duties of the benefice. But the increased zeal of the Church is steadily driving other interests away from the incumbencies. A good school appointment, while less com- promised by research, cannot but cumber the efforts of the researcher. 'It is a melancholy fact,' says Dr. Appleton, 'that the connection of the profession of learning and science with that of the higher educa- tion in this country, owing in large measure to the great improvements which have been made in the latter, and the engrossing character of the duties which it imposes, has gone far to choke the spirit of original investigation altogether ' (p. 90). Again, however, there is the fact that scientific men get attached to commercial enterprise as advisers of large firms, or as themselves patentees. Still, ' with respect to the enor- mous proportion of scientifically trained persons who are directly or indirectly sup- ported by commerce, it should be remarked that this source of maintenance is not only the exclusive privilege of physical science, but almost the exclusive privilege of one only of the physical sciences. There is no commercial career open to a biologist, for instance ; and the existence of a com- mercial career, and frequently a very lu- crative one, for the chemist, has the effect of starving all the other sciences for the benefit of one of them. One of our fore- most teachers of biology complained to me not long ago that he was compelled to ad- vise his best pupils, who were desirous of devoting themselves to a life of research, to KESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF 339 give up their own study and enter upon that of chemistry, as there was no prospect of a career for them in any other science ' (p. 96). Besides this disturbance of the pro- portions of knowledge, another disadvan- tage, arising from being compelled to de- pend on commerce for support, is this, that the introduction of the utilitarian motive destroys the strictly scientific character of research. There remains the case in which the expenses of a life devoted to research are provided from the private fortune of the inquirer. This, says Dr. Ap- pleton with bitter keenness, 'is a way of paying for research which is very charac- teristic of this country.' Yet, 'judged by its results, it would seem to be more ad- vantageous to the cause of knowledge than any of the preceding expedients. Whilst in Germany the case of Humboldt is an exceptional one, it is a remarkable fact that some of the greatest scientific work, both as regards quality and quantity, has been carried out in England by men of property. The possessor of private fortune who engages in research is indeed more nearly in the position of the recipient of an endowment for research than any other, because he is entirely free from the dis- traction of extraneous duties. But the system of letting research be paid for in this way is not without grave disadvantages. In the first place, this kind of support is sporadic and fortuitous, and though favour- able to the development of particular studies, it resembles the dependence of science upon commerce in this respect, that it is quite inconsistent with the har- monious development of the body of human knowledge as an organised and interdepen- dent whole. Secondly, there is unfortunately no necessary connection between wisdom and the inheritance of riches, and conse- quently it is always within the bounds of possibility that a man of property may subsidise in his own person, not knowledge but error, a mischievous crotchet or a perfectly fruitless and impossible inquiry, and may employ the contents of a bottom- less purse in compelling the attention of the world to it. This possibility, thirdly, is analogous to another disadvantage at- tending this mode of support. There is no guarantee in the case of the private person, as there is to some extent in the case of all the preceding expedients, and as may be secured by the proper adminis- tration of public endowment, that the in- vestigator is sufficiently furnished with the preliminary knowledge or discipline to make his researches fruitful. In short, work supported by private means is very likely to be amateur work, or duplicate work. It may be added, finally, that from an economical point of view the employ- ment of private wealth upon research stands on the same footing as endowment. If the object is unproductive the community at large is in either case poorer by all that is consumed by the investigator while employed in researcV (pp. 97-99). The various artificial means by which scientific research has hitherto been supported being attended with grave disadvantages to sci- ence itself, the only means of maintaining knowledge which remains is that of public endowment. The endowment of scientific investigation out of the taxes and Dr. Ap- pleton rightly recognises that the commonly talked of opposition between the physical sciences and other branches of study is entirely without foundation has been re- commended on a variety of grounds : ' from considerations of the dignity of knowledge and the honour of a nation ; from the ex- amples of other nations who are under a paternal form of government; or as one of the functions and expenses of the sove- reign. Bentham justifies it as a work of superfluity, the expense of which is trifling as compared to the mass of necessary con- tributions. Let any one, he says, under- take to restore to each his quota of this superfluous expense, and it would be found to be imperceptible, so as "to excite no distinct sensation which can give rise to a distinct complaint." Others, again, have held that the endowment of science involves considerations which do not come within the view of political economy, and therefore, if not sanctioned, that such endowment is a little condemned by it. ' Dr. Appleton, however, faces the economical aspect of direct endowment and science, and con- cludes that 'the application of endowments to the maintenance of scientific research is economically sound, because, although knowledge is a kind of wealth, there are apparently insuperable difficulties in the w^ay of making it an exchangeable commo- dity, out of the sale of which the scientific observer can make a living.' There might also be urged ' the beneficial effect which purely abstract ideas such as, e.g., that of the universal brotherhood of mankind have exercised indirectly on the produc- z 2 340 RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF tion of wealth, by bringing about changes in the relations of men and nations to one another.' The case of Tycho Brahe is certainly a remarkable example of the princely fashion in which the sixteenth century thought fit to endow research, and might shame a less material age into some attempt at imitation. There can be no question that the exa- mination system is in direct antithesis to original research. 'Competitive examina- tions and original research,' says Professor Sayce (p. 139), 'are incompatible terms. The object of the one is to appear wise, the object of the other to be so. The one is mercenary, the other unselfish; and however advisable it may be to drive a boy through a mental treadmill, the process must degrade a man into a piece of ma- chinery.' No learning is reckoned of any account unless it will ' pay ' in examinations. 'Professor Max Miiller offered in vain, term after term, to read the Rig- Veda with any one of the 2,400 members of the Uni- versity of Oxford ; none would go to him, since a third-hand acquaintance with a few words and forms from that oldest specimen of Aryan literature is sufficient for the schools. The same professor, one of the most interesting and lucid of lecturers, when lecturing on the fascinating subject of comparative mythology, which he has made so peculiarly his own, could collect but a miserable fragment of an audience around him, and even of this the larger part consisted of college lecturers, who intended to retail to their own pupils some of the crumbs which had fallen into their note-books.' This is all very humiliat- ing. Mr. Sayce goes on to sum up the mischievous results of the examination system ' at these "ancient seats of learning," though now of cram, under the general charge of its destruction of intellectual morality, and alienation of science and research.' The testimony of Dr. Henry Clifton Sorby is very striking. 'Judging from my own experience,' he says (p. 151), 'I do not hesitate to say that for the successful prosecution of original inquiry, two of the most essential requisites are abundance of time for continuous and extended experi- ments, and freedom from all those disturb- ing cares and engagements which either interrupt the experiments at critical times, or so occupy the attention as to prevent the mind from properly digesting the re- sults, and deducing from them all the conclusions to which they should conduct the investigator.' The same reasoning applies to all other subjects of scientific investigation, as well as to physical science. The examples Dr. Sorby cites from his own studies are remarkable, and he concludes emphatically that, ' whatever the experience of others may lead them to think, mine has been amply sufficient to convince me that I never could have done what I have been able to do if it had been necessary for me to attend to any business or profession as a means of support' (p. 163). One excep- tion he makes and it may be said to prove the rule in the case of those who are employed to carry out what really are original inquiries in connection with some of our large manufactories. Such positions do indeed present great facilities for the advancement of certain branches of science indeed, they may almost be called an endowment for research ; but the care of a business and profession is a totally diffe- rent thing. Assuming that the money difficulty is overcome, there would still remain the further difficulty of obtaining the right young men as ' researchers,' and of regu- lating their appointment. Dr. Sorby has no doubt that such men could be found, ' and in fact I could name several noble examples of the very sort wanted.' Be- sides, 'looking at the question from a, national point of view, one cannot but feel that to enable such men to occupy their whole time over the valuable work which they are both able and willing to do, is. out of all proportion more important than rewarding a youth who has passed a suc- cessful examination in such a way that, the public gains little or nothing from the expenditure.' As to the regulation of such appointments, Dr. Sorby has some very pointed remarks. 'Much of what, has been urged against such endow- ments,' he argues, ' appears to me to have- force not so much against the general principle as against what I regard as a wrong application of it. Some have urged that it would lead to no good result, be- cause, when once such an appointment, has been obtained, a person who had worked hard as a candidate would become idle as soon as the need for work ceased to exist. Precaution should be taken to- avoid a conclusion so lame and impotent, as this. Everything should be so regu- RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF 341 lated that good and efficient men may not be driven back by the feeling of uncertain tenure, and at the same time that it may be impossible for a man, when once he lias obtained an appointment, to pocket the money and do no more work. Unless such a thing were rendered impossible, there would be little advantage in chang- ing the present system. The conclusion to which I have come is, that any one who has the will and ability for original work may very safely be appointed for a certain number of years, and after that reappointed every year, or every two years, as long as lie continues to discharge his duties in an efficient manner. I do not think there would generally and in practice be any difficulty in deciding whether he did so. Though a great amount of excellent scientific work may produce a very small show, yet almost any one who had had practical experience of original research could easily see whether adequate work had been done, or time passed in laborious idleness. In the case of residents in a university I can scarcely believe a mistake to be possible.' Further, ' in making re- gulations for the endowment of research, care should be taken to avoid dictation, and to allow as much room as possible for the intellectual expansion of the in- dividual.' As to the amount of annual income to be paid to a ' researcher ' that would be most conducive to the general advancement of science, Dr. Sorby natu- rally finds it difficult to pronounce any very confident opinion, on account of the whole system having been so far almost untried. ' The character of the occupation and social position must be taken into account, as well as mere money value. This latter, however, should be sufficient to attract and permanently attach to the work of research men of the highest in- tellectual capacity, and enable them to enjoy those material advantages which they could obtain if they devoted their time and talents to any business or pro- fession not necessarily involving a greater amount of personal discomfort.' Perhaps this estimate is highly liberal. The well- paid posts in universities at the present time do not encourage large stipends. The man of science should not be ex- pected to enter on contests of social dis- play ; on the contrary, it will be all the better for himself and for science that he rather err on the other side. Professor Max Miiller (Chips from a German Workshop, vol. iv. pp. 410) makes a strong argument for reform at Oxford and Cambridge, which may be usefully applied to other endowed institu- tions as well, and which supports power- fully the views indicated in the foregoing portion of this article. * Unless I am mistaken,' he says, * there was really no university in which more ample provision had been made by founders and bene- factors than at Oxford, for the support and encouragement of % class of students who should follow up new lines of study, devote their energies to work which, from its very nature, could not be lucrative or even self-supporting, and maintain the fame of English learning, English indus- try, and English genius in that great and time-honoured republic of learning which claims the allegiance of the whole of Europe nay, of the whole civilised world. That work at Oxford and Cambridge was meant to be done by the Fellows of col- leges.' Something has already been done, but ' something remains still to be done in order to restore these fellowships more fully and more efficiently to their original purpose, and thus to secure to the univer- sity not only a staff of zealous teachers, which it certainly possesses, but likewise a class of independent workers, of men who, by original research, by critical edi- tions of the classics, by an acquisition of scholarlike knowledge of other languages besides Greek and Latin, by an honest devotion to one or the other among the numerous branches of physical science, by fearless researches into the ancient history of mankind, by a careful revision of the materials for the history of politics, juris- prudence, medicine, literature, and arts, by a life-long occupation with the pro- blems of philosophy, and last, not least, by a real study of theology, or the science of religion, should perform again those duties which, in the stillness of the Middle Ages, were performed by learned friars within the walls of our colleges. . . If only twenty men in Oxford and Cambridge had the will, everything is ready for a reform that is, for a restoration of the ancient glory of Oxford. The funds which are now frittered away in so-called prize fellow- ships would enable the universities to- morrow to invite the best talent of England back to its legitimate home. . . Why should not a fellowship be made 342 RESPONSIONS REWARDS into a career for life, beginning witti little but rising, like the incomes of other professions ? Why should the grotesque condition of celibacy be imposed on a fellowship, instead of the really salutary condition of No work, no pay 1 Why should not some special literary or scion tific work be assigned to each Fellow, whether resident in Oxford or sent abroad on scientific missions 1 Why, instead of having fifty young men scattered about in England, should we not have ten of the best workers in every branch of human knowledge resident at Oxford, whether as teachers, or as guides, or as examples ? The very presence of such men would have a stimulating and eleva- ting effect ; it would show to the young men higher objects of human ambition than the baton of a field-marshal, the mitre of a bishop, the ermine of a judge, or the money-bags of a merchant ; it would create for the future a supply of new workers as soon as there was for them, if not an avenue to wealth and power, at least a fair opening for hard work and proper pay. All this might be done to-morrow without any injury to anybody, and with every chance of producing results of the greatest value to the universities, to the country, and to the world at large. . . . Much of the work, therefore, which in other universities falls to the lot of the professors ought in Oxford to be per- formed by a staff of student Fellows, whose labours should be properly organ- ised, as they are in the Institute of France or in the Academy of Berlin. With or without teaching, they could perform the work which no university can safely neglect, the work of constantly testing the soundness of our intellectual food, and of steadily expanding the realms of know- ledge. We want pioneers, explorers, con- querors, and we could have them in abun- dance if we cared to have them. What other universities do by founding new chairs for new sciences, the colleges of Oxford could do to-morrow by applying the funds which are not required for teaching purposes, and which are now spent on sinecure fellowships, for making either temporary or permanent provision for the endowment of original research.' It ought to be acknowledged that there arc a few prizes at the universities which may be regarded as so many en- dowments of research \ and certain others have been founded by London City Com- panies, notably the Grocers, Mercers, and Goldsmiths. (See Essays on the Endow- ment of Research by various Writers. H. S. King & Co.) Ke sponsions. See MODERATIONS. Results. See PAYMENT BY RESULTS. Rewards. The term reward in con- nection with education may be defined as something bestowed by one in authority in recognition of a good or virtuous act. The reward may have an intrinsic value, as in the case of school prizes, or may be coveted and prized merely as a mark or symbol of approval and commendation. Most rewards bestowed on the young owe a part of their value to the distinction and honour which they bring to the winner. From this definition it will be seen that it is the essence of a reward that it be given as a consequence and in acknowledg- ment of an effort of will. Hence a school- prize, position in honours' lists, and so> forth, is only a reward so far as the attain- ment of it depends on effort, and not OIL superior ability. Rewards are correlated with punishments, constituting together the great means of stimulating the will to- right action before the higher motives are sufficiently developed. A reward incites the will to effort by the prospect of a. pleasure, whereas punishment stimulates, it by the compulsory force of pain (cf. article PUNISHMENT). It is evident that in the apportioning of rewards regard must always be paid to the amount of effort involved. Hence it may often be desirable to reward backward children, the more so as they are shut out from the distinctions and prizes which depend 011 superior ability. Rewards, like punish- ments, may easily be given thoughtlessly and in excess, in which case they are likely to do harm rather than good. Giv- ing things to young children for doing what they ought to do without such in- ducements, a fault common among weak and indulgent parents, is detrimental to moral character. It is peculiarly foolish to reward children for acts of kindness or benevolence, the very essence of which is disinterestedness. It should be the aim of the educator to dispense with tangible rewards as far as possible, to lead the child to set a higher value on the approval which the reward represents than on the- object itself, and gradually to emancipate- it from the sway of such artificial stimuli REYNOLDS, JOHN RICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH 343 by exercising it in the pursuit of virtue for its own sake. (See Locke, Thoughts^ 52, 53 ; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, p. 480 and following ; and article 'Belohnung/ in Schmidt's Encyclopadie ; cf . references to Beneke and Waitz at end of article PUNISHMENT.) Reynolds, John. See HOME AND CO- LONIAL SCHOOL SOCIETY. Phetor. See ROMAN EDUCATION. Rhetoric (from Greek prjrup, an orator) meant in ancient times the principles which underlie the art of oratory. It is now used in a more extended sense to denote the theory of eloquence, or the effective employment of language, whether spoken or written. The end of speech is either to convince the understanding, gra- tify the feelings, or rouse the will. We are moved to act, however, only in so far as our judgments are convinced and our feelings excited ; hence there are but two main rhetorical ends, the intellectual or logical, and the emotional or aesthetic. The inquiry into the best means of attain- ing these, leads on the one hand to the consideration of the conditions of clear un- derstanding, such as clearness of language and logical correctness of argument, and on the other hand to the treatment of the elements that make up impressiveness and beauty of style. Rhetoric seeks further to classify the different kinds of composi- tion, and to consider the special rules which are applicable to each. These are commonly divided into three : 1. Descrip- tion, which has to do with the objects and scenes of still life; 2. Narration, which aims at presenting a series of actions in their proper connection and dependence ; and 3. Exposition, which seeks to set forth the general truths of science. From this brief sketch of the science of rhetoric the reader may see that it has a close bearing on the teacher's work. A study of the rhe- torical principles of clear statement forms in connection with logical study a neces- sary preparation for all intellectual educa- tion ; and the study of composition on its aesthetic or artistic side will be of service to the teacher in setting forth the beauties of our great writers, and in exercising the taste of the young in literary composition. It is evident, further, that the special prin- ciples of each of the three main varieties of com position have their value for the teacher. Thus the rules of good description, which is required in the teaching of all concrete subjects, as geography, history on its pic- turesque side, and descriptive science, are of special utility. The art of description means the most effective way of represent- ing an object, scene, or incident, so as to- help the hearer or reader to the utmost in the imaginative realisation of the same ; and the teacher who has studied the rhe- torical principles of the subject will be in a better position to describe clearly and vividly, so as to leave a lasting impression on the child's mind. Again, in history- teaching of the more advanced kind, a knowledge of the rules of clear orderly narration is necessary to the teacher's success. And, finally, in expounding scien- tific truths, a knowledge of the rhetorical principles bearing on the management of the proposition, the choice of examples and so forth, will be found to be of very great value. (See Bain, English Composition and Rhetoric, enlarged edition, 1887.) Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich (gene- rally known under the Gallicised form * Jean Paul/ which he adopted), b-. 1763, the year after the publication of Rous- seau's fimile, at Wonsiedel, a town in the Fichtelgebirge to the north-east of Ba- varia. Richter came of a race of peda- gogues, both his grandfather and his father having been schoolmasters. Of his early life and education we have a voluminous but by no means clear account in the fragmentary autobiography. The general impression left upon us is that from his regular pastors and masters Richter learnt but little. He was a dreamy child, living in a self -created world of fancy, and de- vouring from his earliest years every book he could lay his hands on. Among them ] e notes as epoch-making volumes the Dialogues of the Dead and Robinson. Crusoe. In 1781 he left the university of Leipzig, where he was studying theo- logy, in order to gain his own livelihood and support his mother, now a widow and in destitute circumstances. Having failed in his first literary ventures, he was driven to teaching as a last resource, and for two years acted as private tutor to the brother of a rich friend, but he found the work uncongenial and irksome. His next ex- perience as a teacher was a complete con- trast to the first. In 1789 he started for himself a school in the small town of Schwarzenbach. His pupils numbered only seven, most of them the sons of friends, and varying in age from seven to fifteen. 344 ROBES (ACADEMIC) ROMAN EDUCATION What to most men with his genius would have been a repulsive drudgery was to Richter an inspiring task. To use his own metaphor, he was the planet Saturn with his seven satellites. The planet must, we fancy, have often appeared to his class a comet or an ignis fatuus, leading them a wild dance through earth, air, fire, and water. Of formal instruction there was little, but all his pupils loved their master, and he had from the first firmly grasped the fundamental principle of education, not to instil knowledge but to evoke faculty, to teach not to preach. It was during these five years that the materials were gathered and the ideas matured which were given to the world some five years later in Levana, when the author had f graduated as a parent.' Jean Paul is the direct lineal descendant of Jean- Jacques, and the Levana is one of those winged seeds blown out of France which fell and ger- minated on German soil, though the differ- ences between the two men and their works are at least as striking as their resem- blances. Richter, like Rousseau, is a senti- mentalist, and approaches the problem of education from the emotional rather than from the intellectual side. Both regard the child as a tender plant to be reared and nurtured, not as a lump of clay to be moulded on the schoolmaster's wheel. Both sympathise with the joyous freedom of childhood and preach deliverance from the hide-bound traditions of the schoolroom. But here the resemblance ends. Rousseau starts with certain aphorisms the innate goodness of human nature, the corrupting influence of society and deduces there- from a complete system with the logical accuracy and neatness of a Frenchman. Richter is the most eccentric of writers and repudiates all attempts at systematic exposition. Levana is a mighty maze, and that without a plan, yet not without fixed ideas and principles. In fact, as the out- come f personal experience, it is a far safer guide to parents and masters than the doctrinaire theory of his master. At starting he joins ^ssue with the main prin- ciples on which Smile's education is based. Rousseau's is a system of elaborate checks and safeguards, a negative education which could be fully realised only in a coffin. To educate by illusions and carefully-prepared accidents is both immoral and futile, for sooner or later the boy will discover the trickery. To reward and punish by phy- sical consequences only (the doctrine that Herbert Spencer has revived) is to sacri- fice the growing man for the sake of the adult. Life is too short and the conse- quences too grave. Moreover, the theory is not really in accordance with nature. The will of a superior is as much a fact of nature as that fire burns or water drowns, and a child must be made to recognise one fact no less than the other. Lastly, Rous- seau's system treats the pupil as a solitary unit and would cut him off from all human intercourse except with his governor, who follows him like his shadow. Richter lays full stress on the cultivation of social sympathies, and has no belief, at least for boys, in a cloistered virtue. In conclusion, we may glance at a few of the salient features in Richter's own system. In his strictures on the * classical parrots ' and his vindication of the mother tongue as the chief subject-matter of instruction he is a true modern. In his insistence 011 religious teaching without forms or for- mulas, catechisms or church-going, he is the worthy follower of Lessing. In his philosophic analysis of play and the peda- gogic importance that lie attaches to games, music, and fairy stories, he is a forerunner of Froebel. Lastly, in the broad view that he takes of life as a whole, neither magni- fying nor belittling the functions of the teacher, he deserves among educators, even more than among writers, his epithet of ' unique.' Of the Levana a useful con- densation has been edited by Susan Wood, B.Sc. Among Richter's other writings bearing on education Quintus Fixlein and Maria Wuz (an exquisite idyl depicting the inner life of a village dominie) deserve mention. For his doctrines see G. Wirth's Richter als Padagog. Robes (Academic). See UNIVERSITY ROBES. Roman Education. From very early times Hellenic culture had exercised a powerful influence over Latium. This culture was twofold, and found expression in two systems of education, the charac- teristics of which were essentially dif- ferent. In the order of time, the military education of Sparta, which included the religious discipline of savage scourgings borne with a ferocious fortitude, was the first to be assimilated amongst a people whose founders were traditionally the sucklings of a she-wolf and the foster- children of a herdsman. The full hu- ROMAN EDUCATION 345 inanity of the Athenian system, which aimed at a happy harmony between the training of the body and the development of the mind, was a later incorporation. At first it is probable that the education of the young Roman was confined to in- struction in music and dancing, along with such elements of gymnastic training as fitted him, as occasion served or as patriotism demanded, for the practice of the craft of the soldier, the sportsman, and | the husbandman. The bodily exercises of ! the Latin youth, whilst solid and substan- tial, were altogether alien from the idea of the artistic physical perfection which was the aim of Hellenic gymnastics. The prizes of competition in the public games, which, amongst the Greeks, were the pre- rogative of an ascertained free Hellenic descent, were not long, after the institu- tion of like contests among the Romans, in being relegated to the hands of freed- men and foreigners, and even of persons who had no franchise at all except their painfully acquired skill as riders and boxers. Very early in the history of Rome,^however, there was a general diffu- sion of elementary accomplishments. Even among the lower classes and the slaves there was a considerable knowledge of reading, writing, and counting ; and slaves, who might be stewards and men of affairs, were profitably placed under \ instruction in several departments of ' scholarship. The first schools were not I opened at Rome until a comparatively j late period, not, indeed, according to Com- j pay re, before the end of the third century j B.C. ; although Dionysius of Halicarnassus represents the abduction of Virginia, | about 449 B.C., to have taken place as : she was on her way, attended by her ; nurse, to her school the schools, ciSacr- ' KoAeta, of the day being grouped or dis- : tributed around the forum ^rept rrjv ' dyopav. Until the institution of schools, the Romans had no teachers save their parents, and nature, and experience. Arid, indeed, there was never a stage in the history of Rome at which the tradi- tion of parental duties and privileges in this respect was not kept up amongst the foremost and most illustrious personages in the State. Mothers distinguished them selves for their devotion to their children by acting directly as nurses. Cato the | Censor personally taught his son to read, ' as well as to hurl the dart, to fence, to , ride, to box, and to swim across the swift and eddying currents of the Tiber. This last accomplishment was thought so neces- sary as to be ranked with letters them- selves as an item of education ; and it was the common phrase to describe a worthless and ill-educated person, that he had learned neither to read nor to swim, nee literas didicit nee natare, which is, in fact, only the Latin equivalent for an antecedent Greek proverb. Suetonius tells us that Augustus himself chiefly instructed his grandchildren in reading, writing, swimming, and other rudimen- tary matters ; and that he made a special point that they should imitate his hand- writing. And Marcus Aurelius records, amongst the obligations he thankfully professes to the members of his family, how from his grandfather Verns he had learned good morals and the government of his temper ; from the reputation and the remembrance of his father, Annius Verus, modesty and manliness of charac- ter ; from his mother, Domitia Cal villa, named also Lucilla, piety and beneficence and abstinence, not only from evil deeds, but even from evil thoughts, in addition to simplicity in his manner of living, so far removed from the luxurious habits of the rich. Further, from his governor the same accomplished emperor learned to avoid partisanship in the games of the circus and in the contests of the gladia- tors ; to endure labour with cheerfulness, to want little, to work with his own hands, to refrain from meddling with other people's affairs, and to be reluctant to listen to slander. The parental and domestic system of education enjoyed a continued survival and a concurrency of observance with the flourishing existence of the public schools, after the latter had become a recognised in- stitution in Rome. The conservatism and prudence of the Roman character were, however, prejudiced against them, especi- ally on the score of their presumed ten- dency to the corruption of virtue, and their suggestions and opportunities of im- morality. Marcus Aurelius was expressly grateful to his great-grandfather perhaps his mother's grandfather, Catilius Severus for having kept him from frequenting public schools, and for having supplied him with good teachers at home. Quin- tilian did not share the imperial distrust. In his judgment corruption was not a 346 ROMAN EDUCATION thing of place, and home might be as vicious as the school. It was the disposi- tion of the individual pupil, and the care taken of him, that made the whole differ- ence. Public schools encouraged various qualities which could not be fostered by private education, as, for instance, friend- ship and emulation ; and they offered incitements to effort, both to masters and pupils, which were otherwise unknown. The younger Pliny happily exemplifies his acquiescence in both methods of education. At the close of a letter recommending Julius Gruitor as a tutor for the son of his friend, Corellia Hispulla, he counsels that lady, under favour of the gods, to entrust the boy to a preceptor from whom he will learn morals first and afterwards eloquence, which, if morals are not taught with it, is learned to small advantage. In another letter he requests his correspon- dent, Cornelius Tacitus, to assist him in finding teachers of ability for what may be described as a proprietary school which he was generously engaged in founding at Como, for the benefit of the citizens who, in default of a school at their own doors, suffered the inconvenience of sending their sons to Milan for education. In the regal and the remoter republican times of Rome, the father of a family was a king in his own house, with the right of life and death over all belonging to him. This paternal authority was un- limited, unassailable, inalienable. The sons grew up in reverence of their father, from whose authority even marriage and the establishment of families of their own did not emancipate them. The daughters were released from it by marriage, but only to come under a like authority as vested in the head of the family of the husband. Thus the entire Roman house was controlled by a single will ; and the wife, children, and slaves, who together constituted the fainilia, were accustomed to unconditional obedience. Yet, withal, the position of the mother in the family, as compared with the slighter esteem in which women were held in Greece, was one of dignity and reverence. Rela- tively to the rest of the household the Roman wife enjoyed a derived authority almost co-ordinate with that of her hus- band, in whose frequent absences from home it devolved upon her to order and direct everything. The matron, whose very name still inspires respect, was the guardian of the family circle, and the educator of her children, to whom she frequently gave direct and personal instruction ; as did, for instance, the noble Cornelia, whose sons, the Gracchi, she cherished as the choicest of her jewels. Roman education was almost exclu- sively physical and moral, or, rather y military and religious. On the one hand, there were the gymnastic exercises in the Campus Martius, and, on the other, the learning of songs celebrating the heroic deeds of their ancestors, and the recita- tion of the Salian hymns a sort of rhythmical catechism containing the names of the gods and goddesses, and celebrating particularly the praise of Mars, Juno, Venus, and Minerva. Besides this there was the study of the Laws of the Twelve Tables, which the youthful citizen committed to memory ; and from his intimate acquaintance with which he was accustomed from infancy to consider the law as something natural, necessary, sacred, and inviolable. The Roman pur- pose in education was practical and util- itarian. Everything was calculated to enforce and to encourage a personal self- control, and self-denial, and self-forget- fulness, and self-sacrifice with regard to the commonweal. Men, the most robust, the most courageous, the best disciplined, and the most patriotic that ever lived, were the fruit of this natural education. Rome was the great school of the civic and military virtues. She was not specu- lative, and had little regard for ideals, she forebore to indulge in a disinterested pursuit of a perfect physical and intellec- tual development. Her purpose was the training oi soldiers and civilians in rigid obedience and to supreme devotion. She would have her sons practical, energetic, eloquent, tinged but not imbued with philosophy ; trained to spare neither themselves nor others ; reading and thinking only with an apology ; best engaged defending a political principle, in maintaining with gravity and solemnity the conservation of ancient freedom, in leading armies through unexplored deserts, establishing roads, fortresses, settlements, as the results of conquest, or in ordering and superintend- ing the slow, certain and utter annihila- tion of some enemy of her growth and greatness. She did not know man in the abstract ; she knew only the Roman ROMAN EDUCATION 347 citizen. The primitive state of manners, however, did not continue. In the course of the majestic march of the Republic, Rome became more and more amenable to Hellenic influence. As the horizon of culture widened, the subjects of study grew more numerous ; and it became necessary or expedient that the mother, as the educator of her children, should call in the aid of substitutes or assistants from without. When the boy of the newer period, dating from about the close of the third century, B.C., at which time a novel taste for letters and arts had already begun to transform the austerity and rudeness of the primitive era, had out- grown the nursery, he was placed in charge of an attendant, usually a slave, chosen for his good character and steadiness, who was often his tutor also, and who, in the latter capacity, was entrusted with the moral and intellectual education of his charge. As the knowledge of Greek pre- vailed among Romans of the upper classes, a Greek was usually selected for this office ; and, as being adopted from Greece, was called, as in Greece, a peda- gogue. Originally the Pcedagoyus was held in high honour, but the person and the office became degraded through the culpable indifference of the Roman fathers. * It is a course never enough to be ridi- culed/ says Plutarch, 'which most men nowadays take in this affair, who, if any of their servants be better than the rest, dispose some of them to follow husbandry, some to navigation, some to merchandise, some to be stewards in their houses, and some, lastly, to put out their money to use for them. But if they find any slave that is a drunkard or a glutton, and unfit for any other business, to him they assign the government of their children ; whereas a good pedagogue ought to be such a one in his disposition as Phoenix, tutor to Achilles, was.' The schools were commonly private establishments, the masters of which stood in no very high repute, and, characteristi- cally severe, were largely typified by the plagosus Orbilius of Horace ; who, as well as Martial and others, gives here and there vivid and realistic touches of school- boy life. At the age of seven the child was committed to the literator, who taught reading, by the syllabic method ; writing by allowing the pupil to follow the coarse of a copy inscribed on a waxen tablet ; and reckoning, which was taught by movements and combinations of the- fingers, with an alternative resort to the- abacus, or counting-frame. Arithmetic, indeed, on account of its usefulness, was- more esteemed by the Romans than by the Greeks ; although at no time did the- former distinguish themselves in the mathematical and mechanical sciences. ' This preliminary training/ says Mr. Oscar Browning, ' lasted from the seventh to the twelth year. The children were- then handed over to the grammaticus or literatus. The study of Greek was now added to that of Latin, etymology was taught, probably a very false one, and the- rules of Syntax and composition. The explanation of the poets was used for the- formation of moral principle Livius- Andronicus in Latin, the Odyssey of Homer in Greek. Yirgil, Cicero, and j^Esop were studied in those days as in our own. Orthography and grammar were carefully inculcated ; whole poems and orations were learnt by heart. Nor was history neglected. Atticus, the friend of Cicero, was so well acquainted with Roman history, that he knew the laws, the treaties, and the momentous events which -formed the fabric of his country's annals. The- storied past filled him with traditions of the inheritance of duty of each noble- stock. The first steps were made towards- the practice of eloquence. As the litera- tor had prepared the way for the gramma- ticuSj so the grammaticus smoothed the path for the rhetor. At the age of fifteen or sixteen the young Roman, assumed the dress of manhood. He was no longer treated as a child and kept in strict disci- pline with stripes. He now chose his pro- fession, either the life of a country gentle- man devoted to the patriotic duty of agriculture, or the army, or the senate, or the forum, or that complex of pursuits to- which the noble Roman was called by- virtue of his birth/ There were many persons of the better class, as has been already indicated, who * did not care to send their children to the public schools, where the morals/ as Falke roundly puts it, ' were far from good, the situation often unhealthy, and the build- ing ill-ventilated, though not unfrequently the instruction, such as it was, was given on the roof, or even in the public street. The masters, despised and poorly paid, freedmen or provincials, were morose and 348 ROMAN EDUCATION brutal, and all discipline was enforced by the rod. Thus many persons preferred to liave the teacher give his lessons at the house, while some, like JEmilius Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia, kept a Greek obutor in the family.' Augustus engaged for his grand- children, at a fixed salary, the best teacher that Rome had, Yerrius Flaccus ; who only accepted the position under the condition that he should be allowed to Tetain all his pupils, with whom the im- perial princes were taught in common. Indeed, the emperors generally were not negligent in this respect. Agrippina chose the celebrated Seneca as tutor for tthe young Nero ; Domitian, Quintilian for his sister's grandchildren ; and Anto- ninus Pius, the Stoic Apollonius for the young Marcus Aurelius. This haughty scholar, however, refused to enter the imperial palace ; the pupils must come to him : and so Marcus Aurelius, the suc- cessor to the throne, went daily, like any other boy, to his master's house. At a later day Fronto became Marcus's teacher -and friend. * Under these masters the "boy learned the proper use and pronun- ciation of his mother-tongue ; he learned Greek, read the classic authors of both languages, the poets especially, much of whose works he learned by heart ; and practised elocution, an art of prime ne- cessity for any one who proposed to enter the public service. Greek and Roman oratory was the only branch of learning for which the State ever provided in- structors ; and this was clone under the empire.' Forensic education held a posi- tion of gradually increasing importance, and at last absorbed into itself the whole of Roman instruction. Rhetoric was to Roman education what music was to Greek. The word rhetoric so used, how- ever, must be understood as intended to include almost every branch of intellectual .activity, and almost every development of anoral excellence. With Quintilian, Cicero, Seneca, and other apologists of oratory, it passed as a truism that ' the perfect orator cannot exist, unless as a good man ; and we require in him, therefore, not only consummate ability in speaking, but every excellence of mind.' It is thus in keeping with the utilitarian and imperious dispo- sition of the typical Roman, that all the gifts and graces, all the amenities, accom- plishments, subtleties, and faculties of the mind should converge and culminate in the exquisite creation of a science and an art, the practical use of which was to convince in order to command, to persuade so as to rule. The Republic had shown little concern for the men whose business it was to care for the mind and the body. On this point, as on so many others, the Empire inaugu- rated a new policy. By his decree in favour of physicians and the professors of the liberal arts, Caesar elevated their social position and paved their way to wealth. The honour is due to Vespasian of having created, at the expense of the State, higher literary teaching, by bestowing on some Greek and Latin rhetoricians a salary of 100,000 sesterces from the im- perial treasury, Quintilian was the first to profit by this payment ; and an ex- pression of his makes it probable that at the end of twenty years three public professors obtained a retiring pension. Hadrian and his two successors increased the number of chairs supported by the State ; and various cities throughout the empire followed their example. The Romans produced little in the way of systematic pedagogy. Cato, the Censor, prepared manuals, or, perhaps, a single manual in several parts, for the instruction of youth a sort of cyclopaedia, indeed, which was little more than an embodiment of the old Roman household knowledge. One thing, at least, as illus- trating Cato's principles and practice with regard to the moral training, deserves in this connection a formal statement of the admiration which in all subsequent ages it has abundantly received. Cato was as careful, says Plutarch, not to use an unbecoming expression before his son as if he were in the presence of a vestal virgin so respectable a precedent had Juvenal for the celebrated passage which occurs in his fourteenth Satire : Maxima debetur puero reverentia. Si quid Turpe paras, ne tu pueri contemseris annos : Sed peccaturo obstet tibi filius infans. The progress of Roman culture is dis- tinctly shown by a comparison of the curriculum of Cato with that of Marcus Terentius Varro, whom Quintilian calls the most learned of the Romans. For, whilst Cato thought that a ' proper man ' ought to study oratory, medicine, hus- bandry, war, and law, and was at liberty to look into Greek literature a little that ROSCELLINUS ROUSSEAU 349* he might cull from the mass of chaff and rubbish, as he affected to deem it, some serviceable maxims of practical experience, though he might not study it thoroughly, Yarro extended the limit of allowed and fitting studies to grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music, medicine, and architecture. As the ag- gregate result of the later Roman educa- tion as expounded, advocated, and ad- vanced by the life, labours, and literary works of Yarro and his sympathisers, Professor Monimsen aptly says that ' there sprang up the new idea of humanity, as it is called, which consisted partly of a more or less superficial appropriation of the aesthetic culture of the Hellenes, partly of a privileged Stoic culture as an imitation or mutilated copy of the Greek. This new humanity, as the very name in- dicates, renounced the specific peculiarities of Roman life, nay, even came forward in opposition to them, and combined in itself, just like our closely kindred general culture, a nationally cosmopolitan and socially ex- clusive character. Here, too, we trace the revolution which separated classes and levelled nations.' Roscellinus. See SCHOLASTICISM. Rousseau. Jean - Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was born at Geneva, his mother dying in giving him birth, thus making his birth, as he pathetically said, the first misfortune of his life. Of weak body and morbid mind, his destiny was for himself gloomy and filled with pain, but he stands out for ever in history as one of those brilliant spirits of the eighteenth century who made the French Revolution possible, and in the ' azure of the past ' he is one of that constellation in which the other stars of first magnitude are Voltaire and Diderot, d'Holbach and d'Alembert. His Contrat Social may be said to have been the very bible of the Revolutionists, with its passionate throb of liberty, its appeal to right and to justice. The ' gospel of Jean- Jacques Rousseau ' which rang over France, stirring the sleep- ing people as with a trumpet-blast and breathing into their hearts the longings which burst into the flame and the whirl- wind of the Revolution when he himself lay sleeping for ever in the peaceful shades of Ermenonville this gospel was, in a word, the cry that ' man is born free, but is in fetters everywhere.' 'To renounce liberty is to renounce manhood ; it is to renounce the rights of humanity ; yes, it. is to renounce its duties. ' Never book had mightier force than this Contrat Social^. and though to-day its truths have becomo truisms and its mistakes absurdities, it yet remains as a monument to the man who- grasped and held to a fundamental verity which had scarce been dreamed by his. contemporaries. In 1750 Rousseau made his debut in the world of letters with an essay, which, won a prize offered b^ the Academy of Dijon, on the question, 'Has the restora- tion of the sciences contributed to the puri- fication or to the corruption of manners ? ^ In this essay he endeavoured to prove the- thesis that riches gave birth to luxury and idleness, and that the arts sprang from luxury, the sciences from idleness. Hence- he argued that a return to simplicity of life would conduce to purity of morals. Out of this opinion grew his theory of' education, a theory fully expounded in his famous Bmile, published in 1762 : a, work which, he said in his preface, was. ' commenced to please a good mother who was capable of thought, 5 and which was: based on the idea that education should ' commence at birth,' and should be guided > by a comprehension of child -nature grow- ing out of a careful and sympathetic study thereof. In the very first sentence of his , book Rousseau strikes the key-note in which all his writing is set : ' All is good as it comes from the hand of the Creator ; . all degenerates in the hands of man.' The object of education, then, is to follow the indications given by nature, and since ' men are moulded by education as plants by culture, 5 it is of vital importance that this . education shall be sound. ' We are born feeble and have need of strength ; we are born stripped of everything and we need help ; we are born stupid and have need of judgment. Everything which we lack at birth, and which we require in our ma- turity, is given to us by education. This . education comes from nature, from men, or from circumstances. The internal de- velopment of our faculties and of our- organs is the education of nature ; the use which we are taught to make of this. development is the education of men ; and the acquisition of experience about the things which affect us is the education of ' circumstances.' Of these three kinds of education that only which is given by men . is really under our control. 350 ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION Primarily the pupil is to be trained to foe a man. ' How to live is the trade I would teach him. In passing from my hands he shall not be magistrate, or soldier, or priest \ he shall be first of all man.' To this end education must begin in the cradle; the mother must nurse her babe rthat she may stand first in his affections ; the father must be his first tutor ; if the jnother is too delicate to nurse, the father too busy to teach, the family has no real -existence. As soon as the child begins to observe, care must be exercised in the ob- jects he sees ; he must be accustomed to the sight of new things, of ugly animals, that he may feel fear of nothing. As children are easily frightened by masks, Emile is first to see a pleasant-looking mask, and then the mask is put on by somebody and everybody laughs, so that .the child laughs too ; gradually ugly ones ; are introduced until, 'if I have managed my gradation well,' he will laugh at a ] hideous one as at the first. Thus a, child j-may be made intrepid, and * when reason begins to frighten them let habit reassure them.' As Emile begins to speak and to walk no over- solicitude is to be shown. Jf he hurts himself, tranquillity on the part of the elder teaches self-control and cour- age ; and as a child, unless carelessly placed in danger, cannot hurt himself seriously, he should be left to face small injuries and :so learn endurance. Thus nature teaches, .and thus the child should be trained. He .should not obtain a thing because he asks for it, but because he needs it ; he should not act from obedience, but from necessity. Do not forbid him to do a thing, but pre- vent him from doing it ; let that which is granted be granted at his first request, and let a refusal be irrevocable. Thus he will become patient, equable, peaceable, for it is in man's nature to endure the necessity of things, but not the whims of other people. Let the child be free to follow his own fancies, putting out of his way valuable things that he might injure, and let him }>e left to grow without chastisement and without forcing. In similar fashion is his education to progress as he grows older ; -experience is to be allowed to teach him lessons, and control is to be minimised as much as possible. His body is to be trained, but no direct instruction is to be given to his mind until he passes out of actual -childhood. Then let him learn his first geography in the town he inhabits ; stimu- late his curiosity by expressing wonder as to the occurrence of natural phenomena ; answer when he asks, and thus lead him to knowledge. Gradually, carefully pre- pared experiments give rise to new curi- osity, again to be satisfied ; and so step by step his education progresses, always na- turally, and therefore always surely. Such is an outline of the famous edu- cational scheme of Rousseau, a work which may still well be studied by those who have in their hands the guidance of the young. Rousseau died on July 2, 1778, and was buried in the Isle of Poplars, Ermenon- ville ; his tomb bears the inscription : 4 Here lies the man of nature and of truth. Vitam impendere vero. 1 Royal Commissions on Education are appointed by the Queen in council. They consist of a certain number of persons, members of either or both Houses of Parlia- ment, with whom are associated individuals possessing a special knowledge of educa- tion, or in a special sense representing educational interests secular or sectarian. They are charged with the duty of reporting in terms of their ' order of reference.' They have ample power to examine witnesses, and to call for the production of all docu- ments which they deem necessary for their inquiry. The evidence which they collect, and the report which is founded on it, are published in a Blue-Book, which is pre- sented to members of both Houses of Par- liament, and may be bought by any one from the ' Queen's Printers ' (Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode, New - Street Square, E.G., or Messrs. Stanford, Charing Cross) for a small sum, charged to cover the cost of printing and publication. Reports, old and new, and odd volumes of reports can also be obtained from Messrs. P. King & Co., Canada Buildings, Westminster, S.W., Parliamentary publishers and book sellers. The report of a Royal Commission should be signed by all the members of the commission. If unanimity has not pre- vailed, it is signed by the majority, and appended to it is published the report of the dissentient minority or minorities. Reports on education have also been drawn up by Select Committees of the House of Commons, and both kinds of reports are usually made the bases of legislative and administrative reform. It will be found, for example, that before the first great exhaustive inquiry by a Royal Commission into the state of public instruction in Eng- ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 351 land was ordered in 1858. several Com- mittees of the House of Commons had in- vestigated and reported upon education, e.g. Brougham's Committees of 1816 and 1818, and the Select Committees of 1834 and 1838. The first important Royal Commission on education was, however, that appointed by Lord John Russell's Administration in 1850 to inquire into the state of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin. The report of this Commission led to the legislation of 1854, by which the old University system was revolutionised and brought into har- mony with modern requirements. (See article UNIVERSITY REFORM.) The famous 'Newcastle Commission' of 1858 was a Royal Commission, and consisted of the Duke of Newcastle, who was chairman, Sir John Duke Coleridge, now Lord Cole- ridge and Lord Chief Justice of England, the Rev. W. C. Lake, now Dean of Durham, Professor Goldwin Smith, Mr. Nassau Senior, Mr. Edward Miall, and the Rev. William Rogers. Mr. Fitzjames (now Mr. Justice) Stephen was the secretary. The Commission was helped by several assistant commissioners, who conducted special in- quiries into the state of education in re- presentative agricultural, manufacturing, mining, and fishing communities, not only in England, but in foreign countries. By its ' order of reference ' the Newcastle Commission was charged with the duty of inquiring into ' the state of popular edu- cation in England, and the measures re- quired for the extension of sound and cheap elementary instruction to all classes of the people.' Its chief recommendations were (1) that grants for elementary edu- cation should be expressly apportioned upon the examination of individual chil- dren ; (2) that means should be taken for reaching more rapidly the places not pre- viously aided with Parliamentary grants ; (3) that the administration of the grants in aid should be simplified not merely .as. regards the clerical work of officials, but also by ' withdrawing Her Majesty's Government from direct financial inter- ference between the managers and teach rs of schools.' Thus the Report ui the Newcastle Commission was the parent of <1) the ' Revised Code' ; (2) 'payment by results ' ; and (3) the great reforms which were ultimately embodied in Mr. Forster's Act of 1870, and in the subsequent Acts, into the working of which another Royal Commission was appointed to inquire in January 1886. On July 18, 1861, a celebrated Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the condition of ' certain public schools in England.' The schools were Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury. The members of the Commission were the Earl of Claren- don, the Earl of Devcm, Lord Lyttleton, Sir Stafford Northcote, the Hon. E. T. B. Twistleton, the Rev. W. H. Thompson, M.A., and Mr. Halford Vaughan, M.A. They were ordered to inquire into the ad- ministration of the school revenues, the condition of the foundations and endow- ments, the course of studies pursued, and the methods of teaching adopted. Professor Montague Bernard, B.C.L., was the secre- tary of the Commission . The Commissioners obtained at the outset written answers to questions addressed to the governing bodies and head-masters of the schools scheduled. Then they personally visited each school and inspected its arrangements. Finally they took evidence from a vast array of witnesses including even some junior boys who could presumably throw light on the subject. Though Marlborough, Cheltenham, Wellington College, and the City of London School were not included in the order of reference, the Commis- sioners, finding that these seminaries had attained a position entitling them to be ranked with the great public schools, also investigated their system of teaching from information voluntarily supplied, and re- ported on it. The Commissioners recom- mended that great modifications be made in the constitution of governing bodies of the great public schools chiefly with the object of giving them permanence and stability of character, and of protecting them from the domination of local and personal influences. They suggested the i appointment of some Crown nominees to j each governing body. They recommended | that governing bodies have power to amend their statutes, subject to the sanction of the Crown, to appoint and dismiss the head -master, who was to have the sole i right of selecting his assistants. The Commissioners reported in favour of adding at least one modern language, French or German, and one branch of natural science, to the classical curriculum then in vogue. Every boy, it was recom- 352 ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION mended, should be subjected to an entrance I examination, designed to test his know- ledge of classics and of French or German, and boys who failed to make reasonable progress were to be liable to dismissal. The Commissioners thought that charges and fees should be revised the charge for instruction being in all cases separated from the charge for boarding and for domestic superintendence. The working of the monitorial system, according to the Commissioners, needed immediate vigi- lance, as did the system of fagging. They recommended that fags should be released from all work that ought to be done by domestic servants, and that fagging must never be allowed to encroach on a boy's time for lessons or for needful recreation. Holidays too ought, in the opinion of the Commissioners, to be arranged so that they should occur at the same time in each school. As to the existing system, the Commissioners reported that the course of study lacked flexibility and breadth, that the schools were ' too in- dulgent to idleness,' or struggled ineffectu- ally with it, and as a result that they turned * out a large proportion of men of idle habits and empty and uncultivated minds.' At the same time it was admitted that the schools had been for many years progressing in the right direction. The manners of the boys had improved, and the masters had maintained classical studies as the staple of an English educa- tion, ' a service,' said the Commissioners, which far outweighed the error of having clung to these studies too exclusively. The report was dated February 13, 1864. Mr. Vaughan dissented from the recom- mendation that a modern language should be one of the subjects included in the entrance examinations. (See Parl. Papers, 1864 [3288], vol. xi. p. 1.) On December 28, 1864, a Royal Com- mission was appointed to inquire into the education given in schools not touched by the Newcastle Commission of 1858, or by the Public Schools Inquiry Commission, of which Lord Clarendon was chairman, in 1861. The scope of this inquiry included all schools which educate children ex- cluded from the operation of the Parlia- mentary grant, except the nine great public schools already reported on by the Public Schools Inquiry Commission of 1 86 1 . The Commissioners were Lord Taunton (chairman), Lord Stanley, Lord Lyttleton, Dr. Hook, Dean of Chichester, Dr. Temple, now Bishop of London, Rev. A. T. Thorold, M.A., Mr. T. Dyke Acland, Mr. Edward Baines, Mr. W. E. Forster, Mr. Peter Erie, Q.C., and Dr. John Storrar. The Commissioners divided the schools they examined into (1) Endowed, (2) Private, and (3) Proprietary. By En- dowed Schools they meant schools main- tained wholly or partly by means of a permanent charitable endowment. The term Private Schools they limited to such as were the property of the head-master or head-mistress. The remaining schools, which were either the property of indi- viduals or corporations, who in some cases appropriated the profits of them, and in others applied these to the reduction of the cost of their own children's education, the Commissioners described as Proprie- tary Schools. The investigations into the condition of the endowments of these schools and into the education of girls, a matter steadily kept in view by the Com- missioners, rendered the inquiry specially interesting. Assistant Commissioners made reports on selected districts. Mr. D. R. Fearon, H.M. Inspector of Schools, reported on the metropolitan area ; Mr. H. A. Giffard, M.A., on London outside the postal district ; Mr. C. H. Stanton on Devon and Somerset ; Mr. T. H. Green, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, on Staffordshire and Warwickshire ; Mr. J. Hammond on East Anglia ; Mr. Fitch, H.M. Inspector of Schools, on the West Riding of Yorkshire ; Mr. James Bryce, afterwards Under- Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, on Lancashire ; and Mr. H. M. Bompas, M.A., on Wales. Mr. Matthew Arnold reported on the system of education existing in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. The Rev. James Fraser, afterwards Bishop of Manchester,, reported on the schools of the United States and Canada. Baron Mackay, of the Hague, at one time an attache to the- Dutch Legation in London, reported on I the schools of Holland. At the instance of Dr. (now Sir) Lyon Playfair, who ad- dressed a strong letter on the subject to the- Commissioners, they also made inquiry into his assertion that the Industrial Ex- | hibition at Paris in 1860 furnished evi- | dence of a decline in the superiority of certain branches of English manufacture over those of other nations a decline that was due in Dr. Playfair's opinion to the- ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 35S absence of technical education in Eng- land. In fact, the whole modern move- ment in favour of technical education in Great Britain may be said to have origin- ated with Dr. Playf air's letter and the Report of Lord Taunton's Commission upon it. The Commissioners reported that reform must begin with the endowed schools, because unless they were com- pelled to do good work they did positive harm by standing in the way of better institutions. Whilst regard was to be paid to the wishes of those who had origin- ally bequeathed the endowments, the Com- missioners advised that this sentiment ought not to be carried too far, for many of the bad existing arrangements were themselves departures from the intentions of the ' pious founder.' Rules, said the Commissioners, should be remodelled to suit the purpose of each school. Special constitutions of governing bodies should be discarded where they did network well. The narrow curriculum of education should be enlarged. Gratuitous instruc- tion should not be given indiscriminately where it was found to be lowering the character of the school, and with its cha- racter the standard of its teaching. Gra- tuitous instruction given at haphazard, and not as a reward of merit, actually defeated the intentions of the founders. It did not supply opportunities for poor children of exceptional talent, and it gradually prevented the school from giving high education. Three grades of schools, according to the Commissioners, should be organised: (1) schools which taught boys up to the age of 18 or 19; (2) schools which stopped their teaching at the age of 16, (3) schools which stopped it at the age of 14. In the first grade Greek was admissible in the classical course. In the second it was recommended that Greek be left out, and attention paid to two, and in the third to one modern language, in addition to Latin. The schools should be reorganised on a harmonious plan, so that those in a district or county might be made I to supply each other's deficiencies. Limits j should be set to the fees, and trustees should ' not be chosen exclusively from members of the Church of England. The restriction of masterships to persons in holy orders, it was reported, should be abolished, and with it the rule which assumed that all religious teaching must be that of the An- glican Church. As for endowments, their application, the Commissioners said, must be regulated by Parliament. All clos^ foundations, whether in favour of the rich or the poor, were stigmatised by the Com- mission as evils. The fixed salaries and freehold tenure of masters the Commission thought should be done away with, the plan they favoured being payment by capi- tation fees, under a guarantee for a time that such payment would never fall under a certain annual sum.* Exhibitions, said the Commissioners, should not be confined to the universities, but holders of them ought to be allowed to proceed to technical schools. The same recommendations in the main were made for girls' schools, and it was recommended that they should, in every case where it was possible, be allowed a share of all redistributed or available endowments. The establishment of boarding-houses on the ' hostel ' or col- lege system rather than on that of sepa- rate houses was also recommended, the plan having worked well at Marlborough, Haileybury , Wellington, and Felstead . On the whole, the Commission did not approve of the establishment of a normal school to train the masters. Masters so trained in France they had discovered became mere teachers rather than educators. Strong powers were recommended to be given to head-masters over their subordi- nates, and it was pointed out that a. universal demand for a good system of official inspection existed. Small endow- ments, which just because they were small were wasted, the Commissioners suggested should be consolidated. Among the powers to be given to the governors were those of settling the programme of in- struction and of preparing reorganisation schemes to be laid before the Charity Com- missioners and Parliament for their sanc- tion. Three authorities, it was suggested,, should be constituted : governors for the local management of each school, a provin- cial authority to regulate the relations of schools in each district one to another, a central authority to exercise a general control over the working of the system. By enlarging the powers of the Charity Commission a central authority might be found. The Charity Commission, it was. said, should appoint for each provincial dis- trict an official Commissioner for secondary education, with whom six or eight un- paid Commissioners should be associated as the provincial authority. On the other 354 ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION hand, it was to be left to a district, if it chose, to form a representative board out of chairmen of boards of guardians and Crown nominees as a provincial authority. As for the governing bodies, it was pointed out that they were inefficient for many reasons, among others that they were chosen by co-optation. The new governing bodies, it was recommended, should consist of a small number of the existing trustees, to which were added trustees elected by the ratepayers and nominated by the provincial board. The schools, it was recommended, should be worked in close concert with the universities by means of a council of ex- aminations. As for private and proprietary schools, it was pointed out that if they were to be effective their fees must not put them out of the reach of the class for whom the corresponding public schools were needed, and they must be registered and subjected to the same conditions of examination and inspection as the public schools. The re- port is to be found in Parl. Papers, 1867- 1868 [3966], vol. xxviii. pt. i. 1. The Commissioners, whilst reporting generally that the answers of experts to their ques- tions as to technical education shewed that it would be desirable to promote the teach- ing of physical science in secondary schools, did not present any elaborate report on the question. (See Parl. Papers, 1867 [3898], vol. xxvi. 261.) In 1881, a Royal Commission, consisting of Mr. (now Sir) Bernhard Samuelson, F.R.S., Professor (now Sir) Henry Roscoe, F.R.S., Mr. (now Sir) Philip Magnus, Messrs. John Slagg, M.P., Swire Smith, and William Woodall,M.P., was appointed to inquire into the instruction of the in- dustrial classes of certain foreign countries in technical and other subjects, and gene- rally into the subject of technical educa- tion at home and abroad. Their first re- port is dated February 17, 1882, and deals with technical education in France. The Commissioners spoke with approval of the instruction in the use of tools, which had just been introduced into French elemen- tary schools, but seemed in doubt as to the value of the new apprenticeship schools for training ordinary workmen, such as those which had been established at La Yillette and Havre. Till this manual teaching was introduced into the French schools, the Commissioners reported that the French workmen got as little technical education as Englishmen. The gratuitous courses of lectures given in French towns on scientific and literary subjects the Com- missioners thought highly valuable. They spoke with approval of the excellence of the gratuitous Art teaching given at an early age to children, and continued in adult schools, as beneficial to the French workman. In this report they made no practical recommendation, except the in- troduction of manual work into elementary schools frequented by children of the in- dustrial class (Parl. Papers, 1882 [c. 3171], vol. xxvii. 40). The second and final re- port is dated April 4, 1884, and it stated that foreign industry, as tested by the Paris Exhibition of 1878, had revealed an unex- pected capacity for development. In the production of some kinds of machinery France, Switzerland, and Germany were abreast of England. In industries involving chemical processes Germany was ahead of her. This was also the case with respect to the construction of roofs and buildings where accurate mathematical knowledge had to be applied. The soft woollen fabrics of Rheims and Roubaix excelled those of Bradford, especially in dyeing. Verviers exported to Scotland woollen yarns carded and spun by English machines from South American wool, at one time bought in Liverpool and London, but now purchas- able in Antwerp. Great, however, as the progress of continental industry had been since 1850, the Commissioners reported that on the whole the English people still held their place at the head of the industrial world. They had not lost it : they were only losing it. The advantages gained by their continental rivals were due chiefly to the superiority of foreign manu- facturers, their managers and their fore- men, in technical skill, and in their sound knowledge of the sciences upon which their trades depended. The technical education given to the workmen also told on the competition between foreign and English industries. The Commissioners therefore recommended that action should be taken to promote technical education in the United Kingdom by the Legisla- ture and public authorities. They sug- gested that in every trade where a know- ledge of science or art is of advantage, it be made a condition of employment imposed on young persons by masters and trades unions that they shall take steps to get that knowledge either in schools attached to works or groups of works, or ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 355 in such classes as may be available, these classes to be partly maintained by the employers and trade organisations. Pro- moters of technical classes were urged to make the emoluments of the teachers suf- ficient to tempt them to continue the in- struction of their pupils beyond the rudi- mentary stage, and group the teaching of science subjects in accordance with the regulations of the Science and Art Depart- ment. It was recommended that techni- cal scholarships be founded in elementary schools, and that agricultural societies promote and encourage classes in second ary or county schools for teaching agri- culture. (Parl. Papers, 1884 [c. 3981], vol. xxix. p. 539.) The Commissioners further recommended the introduction of drawing as a necessary subject like the * three R's ' in elementary schools ; the encouragement by grants, as for a * specific subject,' of skill in using tools for work- ing wood or iron in elementary schools ; that object lessons in agriculture in all rural schools be given ; that the Scotch rule that children under the age of four- teen shall not be allowed to work full time till they pass the Fifth Standard be extended to England; that School Boards have power to organise technical classes under the Science and Art Department, which should be empowered to arrange that the scientific teaching shall be better adapted to the wants of the working classes than it is at present ; that it shall not be a requirement of the Department that fees be exacted from artisans under technical instruction; that in awards for industrial design more attention be paid by the Department than is the case at present, to the applicability of the design to the material it is to be wrought out in ; that training colleges for elementary teachers desirous of imparting technical education be established ; that local autho- rities be empowered to organise and main- tain higher technical schools and colleges ; that museums and libraries be opened on Sundays, and that the limit imposed by the Free Libraries Act on the expense which local authorities may incur for the esta- blishment of museums and galleries of art be abolished. They also recommended the abolition of the maximum of 500. as the grant which the Science and Art De- partment may make in aid of the erection of local schools of art and of museums in connection with them. (See Technical I Education, by F. C. Montague, M.A. ; I Cassell & Co. (1887).) In January 1886 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the working of the Elementary Education Acts of Eng- land and Wales. The Commissioners were j Lord Cross, chairman, Cardinal Manning, the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Harrowby, Lord Beauchamp, the Bishop of London, Lord Norton, Sir Francis Sandford, Mr. Lyulph Stanley, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Bernhard Samuelson, Rev. Dr. Rigg, Dr Dale, Canon Gregory, Canon Smith, Rev. T. D. C. Morse, Mr. C. H. Alderson, Dr. J. G. Talbot, Mr. Sidney Buxton, Mr. T. E. Heller, Mr. Rathbone, Mr. Henry Richard, and Mr. George Ship ton. Mr. Mundella and Mr. B. Molloy, M.P., were ! also members. Mr. Mundella retired on joining Mr. Gladstone's third Administra- I tion. Mr. Molloy resigned because Lord Salisbury's Government refused to grant a Select Committee to investigate charges of complicity with assassination brought against him and several Irish members by the Times, and which were reproduced in the House of Commons by Lord Harting- ton. The constitution of the Commission of 1886 differs from that of the Newcastle i Commission in one important point. The j Newcastle Commission was a body repre- j senting the general public interest in edu- cation. The Commission of 1886, on the other hand, represents special education interests, professional and sectarian. The points which the Commissioners were re- quested to inquire into were : 1. The existing law how it grew up: (a) the law previous to 1870 ; (b) the Acts from 1870 to 1880 ; (c) the codes and instructions after 1870. 2. The ex- isting state of facts as to* (a) buildings ; j (b) number of scholars ; (c) income and j expenditure ; (d) staff and salaries ; (e) j comparison of Voluntary and Board schools ; j (f) merit grants ; (g) small schools ; (h) i training colleges ; (k) average duration of school life. 3. The provision made (a) : for the supply of schools ; (b) for the management of schools ; (c) for inspec- tion ; (d) for supply of teachers ; (e) training colleges ; (/) for regular attend- ance of children. 4. The efficiency of machinery, both central and local : () for religious and moral training ; (b) secular instruction. 5. Board schools. 6. Spe- cial schools and their difficulties. 7. Re- lations of ordinary elementary schools to AA2 356 ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY SAXONY, EDUCATION IN other schools. 8. The burden of the cost : (a) On the central Government ; (b) on the rates ; (c) on voluntary subscribers ; (d) on the parents. 9. School libraries and museums. 10. School Boards. 11. Grievances. 12 Committee of Council on Education. The Commissioners had not concluded their deliberations when the present work went to the press. Koyal Military Academy. See EDU- CATION FOR THE ARMY. Royal Military College. See EDU- CATION FOR THE ARMY. Royal School of Mines. See NORMAL SCHOOL OF SCIENCE. Ruddiman, Thomas (1674-1757), the Scottish grammarian and classical critic, was a native of Banffshire, and was edu- cated at Aberdeen. After spending some time as schoolmaster in Kincardineshire, he repaired in 1699 to Edinburgh, and re- ceived an appointment in the Advocates' Library. In 1714 he brought out his well- known Rudiments of the Latin Tongue, which at once superseded other works of a similar kind in Scottish schools. In 1714 he started as a publisher and printer in conjunction with his brother Walter, and subsequently published for the University. He next became proprietor of the Cale- donian Mercury. He was chief librarian in the Advocates' Library from 1730 to 1752, in which latter year he was succeeded by David Hume. Ruddiman was regarded in his day as a very able classical critic, and his edition of Livy was long spoken of as immaculate. Russia, Education in. See LAW (EDU- CATIONAL). Russian Universities. See UNIVER- SITIES. Rustication. In ordinary usage a person who lives in town during 'the season ' is said to ' rusticate ' in the coun- try when he goes there. Hence an under- graduate who has been ' sent down ' by either his college or the university au- thorities (vice-chancellor and proctors) is said to have been ' rusticated.' This may be for one or more terms, or ' for good.' The distinction between * gone down ' and ' sent down ' is therefore important. At Oxford a man ' goes down ' in the ordinary course at end of term of eight weeks, or because he is ill or has 'leave to go down ' ; but he is ' sent down ' as a punishment, which obviously must often fall as an expense upon the parents rather than upon the man himself. At the beginning of term men * go up ' on the day of meeting. s Sanatorium. A school infirmary or sanatorium should be attached to every boarding-school. It should preferably be in a separate building from the rest of the school, but in small schools where this is unattainable the top storey should be ap- propriated. A perfect sanatorium should have nurses' rooms, a small kitchen, bath, and water-closets, complete in itself and isolated from the rest of the school. The medical responsibility should be un- divided, one medical man attending all the cases of sickness in a school, otherwise there may be clashing of instructions, and thus infection may spread. The provision for sickness is not complete, especially for scarlet fever, without arrangements for the quarantine of doubtful cases. There should be rooms for distinct cases of fever, and other rooms in which doubtful cases may be watched until their true character be- comes evident. The schoolmaster may with advantage learn the use of a clinical thermometer, and any patient showing a rise of temperature (above 99 Fahr.) should not be allowed to sleep in the com- mon dormitories till he has been examined by a doctor. Certificates should be de- manded from the guardians or parents of children on their return after vacations, stating that there has been no known ex- posure to infection for at least three weeks. When a boy returns to school without such a certificate he should be placed in quarantine; he should have a warm bath, strong carbolic soap being used, and his clothes and books should be disinfected. The best disinfecting apparatus is Wash- ington Lyon's disinfecting oven, in which superheated steam is employed, though this can only be afforded in large schools. Baking in an ordinary oven such clothes as cannot be washed is quite efficacious. Saxony, Education in (typical of that SCANDINAVIAN UNIVERSITIES SCHOLASTICISM 357 of North Germany). See LAW (EDUCA- TIONAL). Scandinavian Universities. See UNI- VERSITIES. Scholars. The term applied (1) to persons of high academical attainments ; (2) to boys and girls attending public ele- mentary or other schools ; (3) to the foun- dation members of endowed schools or colleges. Foundation scholars at Oxford and Cambridge have their commons free, their rooms rent free, and certain other allowances; sometimes they have fixed stipends. They are usually elected by Scholars, Classification of. See CLAS- SIFICATION. Scholarships are prizes of money (some- times given as remission of fees) to en- courage promising boys to become better scholars. A clever boy may by these means work his way from the lowest primary schools to university honours. This has been done, and the 'ladder system ' is now developing in many places. In some large towns, e.g. Liverpool, there is a 'Council of Education,' composed of leading citizens, who encourage primary education by pay- ing for scholarships. Some schools offer them on entrance by examination. Clever boys from expensive preparatory schools generally get these scholarships at the great public schools. There are often scholar- ships competed for within the school, de- pendent mainly on place and age. If a parent has certain schools in his mind, it is best to write direct to the secretary or head master for information as to the scholar- ships, and then see the school. The bare facts relating to them are often found in the local directory. Brief summaries of scholarships, their value, &c., are given in Cassell's annual Educational Year-Book (6s.), or in Bisson's Our Schools and Col- leges. Some old schools have either close or preference scholarships to certain colleges at Oxford, &c. Thus Eton and King's College, Cambridge, Winchester and New College, Merchant Taylors' and St. John's College, Oxford, are connected. Certain counties have sometimes a preference, and Welsh students have many such scholar- ships at Jesus College, Oxford. Scholar- ships are offered by the various university colleges. Private trust funds supply some scholarships (e.g. the Tancred Studentships, 100/. for seven years, in divinity, law, and medicine at Cambridge). Government gives many Queen's scholarships. in connec tion with training schools, Science and Art Department (see WHITWORTH SCHOLAR- SHIPS), the Indian Civil Service, foreign colleges, &c. There are also scholarships to the Royal Academies for Art and Music, to technical and other colleges. (See BUR- SARY ; UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIPS, and UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIPS FOR WOMEN.) Scholasticism is the iame applied to the system of mediaeval thought in the departments chiefly of logic, metaphysics, and theology. It originated in the schools founded by order of Charlemagne, and its main object was the reconciliation of the philosophy of Aristotle with orthodox theology. The Neoplatonist Erigena, in the ninth century, is regarded as its founder. Till the end of the twelfth century the main subject of discussion was the nature of universals. Plato had held that, besides the individual members of a class, there | had existed before them from all eternity a universal form (iSea), of which each of them was an embodiment ; so that, before any individual man existed, there was a universal type of man, which was the model on which each man was created (universalia ante rem). Aristotle, while denying that universal forms existed before or apart from the individual members of a class, yet affirmed that these forms existed in the individual members (universalia in re). Realism, in one of these forms, was generally accepted till the time of Roscel- linus (d. 1125), the founder of nominalism, | who held that the universal had no existence : either in things or in the mind, but was a j mere name used by us to group together individual things, which in themselves had no real relation to one another (universalia I post rem). On this theory he denied the ; unity of God, maintaining that the three persons of the Trinity formed three separate Gods, with no real relations to one another. This provoked a vigorous defence of realism i from Anselm (1033-1109), who, taking for his motto the words 'Credo ut intelligam, endeavoured to prove the harmony of faith and reason in regard to the Trinity and the Incarnation. A modified realism was i formulated by William of Champeaux : (1071-1121), who, admitting that only ' individuals had a substantial existence, regarded the universal as consisting of those similar qualities which were common to all the members of a class. This ' theory of indifference' was attacked bv Abelard 358 SCHOLASTICISM SCHOOL ATTENDANCE COMMITTEES (1079-1 140), the pupil successively of Ros- cellinus and of William, and the founder of conceptualism, a via media between nominalism and realism, which maintains that the universal exists as a concept in the mind, but not in things (universalia in mente). The application of Abelard's rationalistic principles to theology caused his condemnation for heresy. With the thirteenth century began a new period of scholasticism, marked by greatly wider interests. Abelard and the earlier schoolmen had access only to Plato's TimcKus, and two or three logical treatises of Aristotle ; but, during the twelfth century, the rest of Aristotle's surviving works on logic, ethics, psychology, &c., were trans- lated mainly from Arabic versions. The main subject of dispute now was the principle of individuation. The first results of the application of the new knowledge to theology were numerous heresies, but Thomas Aquinas (1227-74), the 'Angelical Doctor,' following mainly his master, Al- bertus Magnus (1193-1 280), the 'Universal Doctor,' reduced the whole Aristotelian philosophy to a system seemingly consistent with the doctrines of the Church. On the question of universals their attitude was that of Aristotelian realism ; but they maintained that universals existed also post rem, inasmuch as we can think of universals apart from their particular manifestations, and ante rem, as ideas in the mind of God. This view became generally adopted. The principle of individuation, that is, the thing which made the individual an indi- vidual, was, according to Aquinas, matter. Against this view his great opponent, Duns Scotus, the 'Subtle Master,' pointed out that if individuality depends on matter the individuality of each human soul must be destroyed at death. Scotus held that the species became the individual by the addition of the qualities which distinguished the individual from other members of the same species. The freedom of the will Aquinaa regarded' as consisting in the power to obey reason rather than instinct ; he held that even God's will was subject to reason, and that God commanded what was right simply because it was right. Scotus, on the other hand, maintained the most absolute freedom of the will to him free will wa the power to act in either of two ways without any motive. He held that what was right was right simply be- cause God had willed it, and that the exact opposite would have been right hr.d God willed it. The scholastic world wr.s long divided into Thomists and Scotists ; but Thomism, which was the creed of Dante, eventually became the official doc- trine of the Roman Church. In fact, as in Aquinas faith and reason seemed to have arrived at the same conclusions through different paths, the climax of scholasticism was reached. Still, even Aquinas abandoned the attempt, made by Anselm, to defend several doctrines, such as the Trinity, 011 rational grounds. Scotus added the omnipotence of God, the immor- tality of the soul, and other doctrines to the class of mysteries. Finally, the last great schoolman, William of Occam (d. 1347), an extreme Nominalist, denied that any theological doctrine was demonstrable by reason. The schoolmen, however, having proved a theological doctrine inconsistent with reason, called it a mystery, and con- tinued to believe it, inasmuch as they assumed to be as premisses, without exa- mination, the truth both of Aristotle's philosophy and the Church's doctrines. Their neglect of the premisses of an argu- ment was seen also in their numerous subtle discussions on such points as the jurisdiction of archangels, and the question whether devils can repent, which later philosophers have abandoned for lack of data. In fact, ignoring the example of their master, Aristotle, the schoolmen en- deavoured to prove everything by deduction, without examining the facts of nature. As the interest in nature increased, this defect was increasingly felt, and so at the- beginning of the fifteenth century scholas- ticism practically expired. The interest in science began to overshadow the interest in philosophy, and it was recognised that in both alike induction must take its place side by side with deduction. (For further details the histories of philosophy, especially those by Maurice,. Lewes, and Uberweg, should be consulted ; also Cousin's introduction to Onvrages ine'ditsd' Abelard, 1836 ; Haureau's Histoire de la philosophic scholastique, 1870; and Poole's Illustrations of the History of Me- diceval Thought, 1884.) School Attendance and Infection. See COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. School Attendance Committees. School attendance committees are ap- pointed under the Elementary Education Act of 1876 (known as 'Lord Saiidon's. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE COMMITTEES SCHOOL BOAKDS 359 Act'), to compel the attendance of children at school in districts in which there are no School Boards. The whole of England and Wales is divided under the Elementary Education Act of 1870 ('Mr. Forster's Act') into school districts. If a district has not enough school accommodation for all the children, it must have a School Board ; and it may have a School Board in any case if the ratepayers or their representatives in Town Council apply to the Education Department for an order to elect a School Board. In the absence of such a request there are no School Boards in districts with sufficient accommodation. Until 1876 such districts were wholly un- affected by the educational legislation of 1870. By 1876 there was a general de- sire for compulsory attendance at school throughout the country, but the Govern- ment of the day were not prepared to force a School Board upon every district. Hence in the Act of 1876 Lord Sandon provided that in every school district with- out a School Board an Attendance Com- mittee should be formed. The Attendance Committee in boroughs and town districts is appointed by the Town Council or Urban Sanitary Board ; in rural districts it is appointed by the Board of Guardians, the members of the Committee being mem- bers of the appointing body. The Com- mittee is reappointed every year. It has nothing to do with the schools, or with the provision of school accommodation. Its business consists almost exclusively in compelling children to attend the voluntary schools, for which purpose it can demand of the managers of the voluntary schools returns and particulars of the attendance of children. The powers of the Committee to compel attendance at school exactly correspond with those of the School Board (see SCHOOL BOARD). It appoints a chair- man and vice-chairman, a clerk, and at- tendance officers to look after the children, grants certificates of half-time and full- time, exemption, were copied over and over again by the pupils until they were thoroughly ac- quired ; and many rough copies bear on their surface the marks of the master's corrections. In like manner, tables of kings, short epitomes of history, lists of stars and of the principal gods of the Pantheon, were learned. Attached to all temples were schools corresponding to the Madrasah of the mosques of Islam, and presided over by the talmudai, or teachers. Most of these edifices were small shrines placed under the protection of Nebo, the Hermes of Chaldsea, who bore the epithet of the Teacher. These small schools were the elementary schools feeding the larger colleges attached to the great temples. In a land where literature held so high a position as in Babylonia, there naturally grew up certain centres of intellectual development. Thus in Borsippa medicine and astronomy were chiefly studied ; in Larrak, the Laranchae of Berosus, a city where the king held his court who sent Memnon to the siege of Troy, mathematics and mensuration were the ruling pursuits; Nipur, known at the present day as Nif- fer, and to be probably identified with the Calneh of Moses and the Calno of Isaiah, characteristically affected magic and divi- nation ; while Cuthah was celebrated for its devotion to the studies of eschatology and philology. The great centre of learn- ing, however, was certainly Borsippa, the site of the important temple of Merodach,. which was entirely rebuilt by Nebuchad- SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 373 iiezzar, and from which a part of our Baby- lonian educational tablets are derived. It is not only evident that the system of in- struction was of a most liberal kind, but it is moreover clear that it was prolonged to a mucli later period than was formerly imagined : for tablets are found dated as late as B.C. 215, which are copies of older works. The tablets were arranged accord- ing to a catalogue, portions of which have been found, and were to be asked for by definite titles and numbers. It is curious to note that this system of cataloguing is the same as that of arranging the Hebrew books by the first word or line, and may have given rise to that mode of arrange- ment ; as also to observe that great at- tention was paid to the study of prece- dents in the schools of law a system which we know to lie at the basis of Talmudic teaching. China. China has been civilised and educated from time immemorial, and at the present clay it is probable, on the testimony of enlightened and impartial foreigners, that primary education is more widely j spread among the male population of the i 'Middle Kingdom' than in any other \ country of the world. The society of I thousands of years ago is photographed in : the description of a German historian of i education, who affirms that in China there > is no village so miserable, no hamlet so unpretending, as not to be provided with a school of some kind. The importance of the diffusion of instruction amongst the | masses was recognised at a period long an- terior to that of Confucius (B.C. 551-479), and a certain system of elementary edu- cation prevailed for generations before other nations had awakened to a conscious- ness of its political and social advantages. Even in the early feudal times the way was open for talent and character to rise from the lower ranks in the social scale, and to be admitted to official employment. The system of competitive examinations was even then casting a shadow before, and principalities their universities. ' This, so far as can be ascertained, was altogether superior to what obtained among the Jews, Persians, and Syrians of the same period. Towards the sixth century B.C. two reformers appeared in China, Lao-tsze and Khung-tsze, or Confucius. According to the legends attaching tcfhis name, Lao-tsze, the founder of the sect of the Rationalists of China and other regions of the far East, and of the system of Taoism the system of the Path or Road, of Reason or Doctrine was born B.C. 604, more than half a century before the birth of Confucius. He was the representative of the spirit of emancipation, of progress, of the pursuit of the idea], and of protest against routine and the tyranny of custom. He was an ardent and enlightened advocate of popular education. ' Certain bad rulers/ he said, * would have us believe that the heart and the spirit of man should be left empty, but that instead his stomach should be filled ; that his bones should be strengthened rather than the power of his will ; that we should always desire to have the people remain in a state of ignorance, for then their demands would be few. It is difficult, they say, to govern a people that are too wise. These doctrines are directly opposed to what is due to humanity. Those in authority should come to the aid of the people by means of oral and written in- struction ; so far from oppressing them and treating them as slaves, they should do them good in every possible way.' In other words, it is by enlightening the people and by an honest devotion to their inte- rests, that a ruler becomes worthy to govern them. The career of Lao-tsze was com- paratively a failure, or a mere succes d'estime for his nominal adherents have long since, for the most part, degraded into the lowest idolatry, and the priests of his system into jugglers and necromancers, among whom scarcely a trace of the pure spirit of their master can be discovered. The fate of Confucius, the younger and although offices and rank were not } contemporary of Lao-tsze, the apostle of the idea of practical utilitarian morality, founded upon the authority of the State and that of the family, as well as upon the interest of the individual, to whom tradi- tion ascribes more than three thousand personal disciples, has been happier in the actual potency of his principles, and in the extent and perduration of their authority and acceptance. Confucius* indeed, ha. attainable in the same manner as they afterwards came to be, yet magistrates and noblemen considered it necessary to have a sound acquaintance with their ancient writings. It is said in the Li Ki, or Book of Rites (about B.C. 1200), ' that, for purposes of education amongst the ancients, villages had their schools, districts their academies, departments their colleges, 374 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY enjoyed a continued renown, an ever- repeated triumph, more extended than any other member of the human race. Through all the changes of Chinese dynasties, by whatever causes b'/ought about, his descen- dants have received peculiar honours. At this day they number more than eleven thousand males, and are said to constitute the only hereditary nobility in China. From his own time to the present the writings of Confucius have been the prin- cipal objects of study in all the schools of that vast empire. It has, however, been observed, not unjustly, that the aim and scope of the Confucian philosophy were limited to the present life, and none of his sayings indicate that he had any definite belief in a continued existence after death. His life and teachings tended to the pro- motion of the useful and practical only j and combined even after an admiring allowance is made for his beautiful con- ception of filial piety to form the expres- sion of an elevated and refined secularism. The formal institution of the competi- tive examinations which have been from age to age so nearly omnipotent in their influence on Chinese life and society, and a predetermination to which may be de- tected in the national institutions many centuries before, took place about A.D. 600, when Taitsung, of the Tang dynasty, es- tablished the still existing plan of preparing and selecting the servants of the State by means of study and degrees, founding his system on the facts that education had always been esteemed, and that the ancient writings were accepted by all as the best instructors of the manners and tastes of i the people. Centralisation and conserva- tism were the leading features in the teachings of Confucius which first recom- mended them to the rulers, and have de- cided the course of public examinations in selecting officers who would readily uphold these principles. The effect has been that the literary class in China has uniformly held the functions of both nobles and priests, a perpetual association, gens ceterna in qua nemo nascitur , holding in its hands public opinion and the legal power to main- tain it. The geographical isolation of the people, the nature of the language, which is regarded as the most difficult known to the speech of articulating men, and the absence of a landed aristocracy, combined to add efficiency to the system. Dr. Martin exhibits the safeguards of this competitive system, the incidental advantages of which may be comprehended under three heads. In the first place, it served the State as a safety-valve, pro- viding a career for those ambitious spirits who might otherwise foment disturbances or excite revolutions ; in the second place, it operates or operated, for in the history of a country like China, where traditions, once established, survive for ever, the past and present are nearly convertible as a counterpoise to the power of an absolute monarchy, as without it the great offices would be filled by hereditary nobles, and the minor offices would be farmed out by thousands to imperial favourites ; and thirdly, it gives the Government a hold on the educated gentry, and binds them to the support of existing institutions, whilst at the same time it renders the literary class eminently conservative. Education, as the only high road to place, honour, and emolument, has always been, in consequence, largely sought after by all who were desirous of following an official career ; while the universal respect for letters has encouraged all of every de- gree to gain at least a smattering of learn- ing except the women, upon whom no prospects of office, the reward of literary distinction, have ever smiled. Hitherto, therefore, very little trouble has been taken with regard to the education of girls, from whom little more was to be- required than that they should be good needlewomen and expert cooks, and that they should learn to act modestly, and to show due deference to their superiors. With the men the case was different indeed, for as no one could hold any State prefer- ment unless he had passed the first of the three great literary competitive examina- tions, the whole education of boys was. arranged with the object of enabling them to pass successively through these ordeals. Unfortunately for the real education of the aspirants to office, the only subject required of them was, as it still is, a know- ledge of the Nine Classics, concluding with the Shih King, or Book of Odes, and the- Li Kl, or Book of Rites the ultima Thuie of Chinese learning. The result is that from childhood upwards these works are the only text-books which are put into- the hands of Chinese schoolboys. These they are taught to regard as the supreme models of excellence, ar.d any deviation,, either from the opinions they contain or SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 37<> from the style in which they are written, would be looked upon as heretical. Year after year these form the subjects of the study of every aspiring scholar, until every character and every phrase is, or should be, indelibly engraved on the memory. This course of instruction has been exactly fol- lowed in every school in the empire for many centuries, and the result is that there are annually turned out a vast number of lads all cast in the same mould, all pos- sessed of a certain amount of ready-made knowledge, and with their memories unduly exercised at the expense of their thinking powers. The minds of the scholars are not symmetrically trained, and they are encouraged superciliously to disparage all requirements which are not of direct utility to their advancement as candidates and place-holders. China has produced gene- ration after generation of men who have learned to elevate mere memory above genius, and whose intellectual faculties have been damaged by servile imitation, and by the paltry literalism of the schools. It is a corollary from the veneration paid to learning in all the stages of Chinese history, that the person and the vocation of the teacher have been proportionately venerable. Boys commenced their studies at the age of seven with a teacher ; for, even if the father were a literary man, he seldom instructed his sons, arid very few mothers were able to teach their offspring to read. One of the most authoritative treatises for the guidance of teachers, when establishing the elements of education, advises fathers to choose from among their concubines those who are fit for nurses, seeking such as are mild, indulgent, affectionate, bene- volent, cheerful, kind, dignified, respectful, and reserved and careful in their conversa- tion, whom they will make governesses over their children. The treatise in ques- tion is the Nei-tsze, forming the tenth book of the Li Ki, and its title, which means the Pattern of the Family, is given to it, as Kang Hsiian says, because it records the rules for sons and daughters in serving their parents, and for sons and tl; .vives in serving their parents-in-law in the lamily home. Among the other treatises of the Li Ki it may thus be differenced as giving the rules for children. And because the observances of the harem are worthy of imitation, it is called the Pattern of the Interior. Ku Hsi says that l it is a book which was taught to the people in the an- cient schools, an ancient classic or sacred text.' After giving the directions about the selection of a likely nurse for an ex- pected infant, the Nei-tsze proceeds, in the form of a didactic narrative, to give other directions. ' When the child/ it says, * was able to take its own food it was taught to use the right hand. When it was able to speak, a boy was taught to- respond boldly and clearly ; a girl, submis- sively and low. The former was fitted with a girdle of leather, the latter with one of silk. At six years, they were taught the numbers and the names of the cardinal points ; at the age of seven, boys and girls did not occupy the same mat nor eat to- gether ; at eight, when going out or coming in at a gate or door, and going to their mats to eat and drink, they were required to follow their elders : the teaching of yielding to others was now begun ; at nine,, they were taught how to number the days. At ten, (the boy) went to a master outside, and stayed with him (even) over the night. He learned the (different classes of) cha- racters and calculation ; he did not wear his jacket or trousers of silk ; in his man- ners he followed his early lessons ; morning and evening he learned the behaviour of a youth ; he would ask to be exercised in (reading) the tablets, and in the forms of Dolite conversation. At thirteen, he learned music, and to repeat the odes, and to dance the Ko (of the duke of Kau). 1 When a full-grown lad, he danced the hsiang (of King Wu). He learned archery and chariot-driving. At twenty, he was capped, and first learned the (different classes of) ceremonies, and might wear furs and silk. He danced the ta hsia (of Yii), and attended sedulously to filial and fraternal duties. He might become very learned, but did not teach others ; (his object being still) to receive and not to give out. At thirty, he had a wife, and began to attend to the business proper to a man. He extended his learning, without confining it to par- ticular subjects. He was deferential to his friends, having regard to the aims (which they displayed). At forty, he was first appointed to office, and according to the business of it brought out his plans i It is difficult to describe exactly, amid the con- flict of different views, these several dances; Dances were of two kinds, the civil and military. The Ko was perhaps the first of the civil dances, ascribed to the duke of Kait ; and the hsiang, the first of the martial. The two are said to have been combined in the la, hsia. 376 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY and communicated his thoughts. If the ways (which he proposed) were suitable, he followed them out ; if they were not, he abandoned them. At fifty, he was ap- pointed a great officer, and laboured in the administration of his department. At seventy he retired from his duties. In all salutations of males, the upper place was given to the left hand. ' A girl at the age of ten ceased to go out (from the women's apartments). Her governess taught her (the arts of) pleasing speech and manners, to be docile and obe- dient, to handle the hempen fibres, to deal with the cocoons, to weave silks and form fillets, to learn (all) woman's work, how to furnish garments, to watch the sacrifices, to supply the liquors and sauces, to fill the various stands and dishes with pickle and brine, and to assist in setting forth the appurtenances for the ceremonies. At fifteen, she assumed the hair-pin ; at twenty, she was married, or, if there were occasion for the delay, at twenty-three. If there were the betrothal rites, she became a wife ; and if she went without these, a concubine. In all salutations of females the upper place was given to the right hand.' With reference to the numbering of the days, in which children were instructed at nine years of age, Dr. Legge observes that ' to number the days was, and is, a more complicated affair in China than in this country, requiring an acquaintance with all the terms of the cycle of sixty, as well as the more compendious method by decades for each month.' With reference to what is enjoined as to the education of girls, Dr. Legge remarks that 'there is nothing in what is said of the daughters to indicate that they received any literary training. They were taught simply the household duties that would devolve on ttem in their station in society; though among them, be it observed, were the forms and provision for sacrifice and wor- ship. It will be observed, also, at how early an age all close intercourse between them and their brothers came to< an end, and that at ten they ceased to go out from the women's apartments. ' That this with - holding of literary culture from the educa- tion of women was not felt by the sex universally as a hardship or an injustice, is shown on the authority of Pan-Hwui- pan, also known asPan-Chao, perhaps the most celebrated female writer of China, who nourished in the first century of the Christian era, and who devoted her life and talents to the elevation of the character and position of women, and to their ad- vancement in all the virtues. 'The virtue of a female,' says this accomplished lady, * does not consist altogether in extraordi- nary abilities or intelligence, but in being modestly grave and inviolably chaste, observing the requirements of virtuous widowhood, and in being tidy in her person and everything about her ; in whatever she does to be unassuming, and whenever she moves or sits to be decorous. This is female virtue.' On the whole it may be concluded, with the slight necessary reserve, with Professor Compayre, that at every period of her long history China ' has preserved her national peculiarities. For more than three thousand years an absolute unifor- mity has characterised this immobile peo- ple. Everything is regulated by tradi- tion. Education is mechanical and formal. The pre-occupation of teachers is to cause their pupils to acquire a mechanical ability, a regular and sure routine. They care more for appearances, for a decorous man- ner of conduct, than for a searching and profound morality. Life is but a ceremo- nial, minutely determined and punctually followed. There is no liberty, no glow of spontaneity. Their art is characterised by conventional refinement, and by a prettiness that seems mean ; there is nothing of the grand or imposing. By their formalism, the Chinese educators are the Jesuits of the East.' Egypt. It is one of the marvels of Egypt and its early civilisation, that it starts already full grown into life in the valley of the Nile, as a nation highly advanced in language, painting, and sculp- ture, and offers the enigma as to whence it attained so high a point of development. There is no monumental nation which can compare with it for antiquity, except perhaps Babylonia ; and evidence is yet required to determine which of the two empires is the older. The arts of Egypt exercised an all-powerful influence 011 the ancient world. The Phoenicians copied their types, and Greece adopted the early Oriental style of architecture, for the Doric style came from Egypt, the Ionic from Assyria, the later Corinthian again from Egypt. If Phoenicia conferred an alphabet on Greece, Egypt suggested the use of such characters to Phoenicia. Already in SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 377 the seventh century B.C., the hieroglyphs represented a -dead form of the Egyptian language, one which had ceased to be spoken ; and Egyptians introduced a con- ventional mode of writing simpler than the older forms, and better adapted for the purposes of vernacular idiom. Egyptian philosophy, the transmigration doctrine of Pythagoras, that of the imruortality of the soul of Plato, pervaded the Hel- lenic mind from the colleges of Thebes. The wisdom of the Egyptians was em- bodied in ethical works of proverbs and maxims as old as the Pyramids, and as venerable for their hoar antiquity as the days of the Exodus. The frail papyrus, the living rock, the temple, and the tomb, have all preserved an extent of literature found nowhere else. The motive was a religion which looked forward to an eter- nal duration, or the return of the past ; to the future. The national psalm of Pentaur is found on the walls of Thebes, and the papyrus of Sallier. The Book of the Dead was alike sculptured on the tombs and written on the roll ; it em- bodied much of the symbolic, though less of the esoteric, doctrine. The Elysian fields, the streams of Styx, burning Phle- gethon, the judges of the dead, are Egyp- tian conceptions ; the sun-worship is Egyptian ; medicine and astronomy, geo- metry, truthful history, and romantic fic- tions are found in the extensive literature. Many dogmas and practices of an Egyp- tian origin have descended to the present day, and exercise more influence than is generally supposed on modern religious thought. The schools of Egypt, like those of Judea, were ecclesiastical ; but whilst the Jews had but little effect on the progress of science, the obligations of the rest of the world to the priests of the Nile Valley were, as has just been indicated, more than considerable. Much of their learn- ing is obscure to us, and their methods of instruction, in spite of the fairly rewarded efforts of recent inquirers, and especially those of Professor Georg Ebers, who in his learned romances, and otherwise, has sought to realise and to reproduce the student life of the temple-schools of the country, are to a provoking extent still unascertained. Sufficient is known, how- ever, to justify the reasonable conclusion of scholars, as stated by Mr. Oscar Brown- ing, that ' there is no branch of science in which they did not progress at least so far .as observation and careful registration of facts could carry them. They were a source of enlightenment to surrounding nations. Not only the great lawgiver of the Jews, but those who were most active in stimulating the ^ascent energies of Hellas, were careful to train themselves in the wisdom of the Egyptians. Greece, in giving an undying name to the literature of Alexandria, was only repaying the debt which she had incurred centuries before/ In the dearth of details as to the actual methods of imparting instruction in a country the reputation of whose learning is as extended as it is perennial, every glimpse which can be gained is precious beyond what would otherwise be its pro- portionate value. Such a glimpse is af- forded in the Maxims of Ani, one of the several collections of precepts and maxims on the conduct of life which have descended to this generation from what is colourably the remotest antiquity which can be ap- proached within the limits of the literature or civilisation of mankind. Of these col- lections are the Maxims of Ptahhotep con- tained in the Prisse Papyrus, the Instruc- tions of Amenemhat, and the Maxims of Ani, just mentioned ; whilst fragments of other important works are preserved in the museums of Paris, Leyden, and St. Peters- burg. The most venerable of them is the work of Ptahhotep, which dates from the age of the Pyramids, and yet appeals to the authority of the ancients. It is almost certainly, as M. Chabas called it, in the title of the memorable essay in which its contents were first made known (Revue Archeologique, 1857), *le plus ancien livre du monde.' The manuscript at Paris which contains it was written centuries before the Hebrew lawgiver was born ; but the author of the work lived as far back as the reign of King Assa Tatkara of the fifth dynasty. The Maxims of Ani, in the matter of antiquity, may be said to rank with, but after the collection of Ptah- hotep ; and they comprise a section upon maternal love, which describes the self- sacrifice of an affectionate mother from the earliest moments of the child's exist- ence, and continues as follows : ' Thou wast put to school, and whilst thou wast being taught letters she came punctually to thy master, bringing thee the bread and the drink of her house. Thou art now come to man's estate ; thou art married i 378 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY and hast a house ; but never do thou forget the painful labour which thy mother en- dured, nor all the salutary care which she has taken of thee. Take heed lest she have cause to complain of thee, for fear that she should raise her hands to God, and He should listen to her prayer.' The social restrictions and disabilities, which less or more prevailed amongst the most cultured nations of antiquity, have been recently shown not to have attached in any purely prohibitive degree to the liberal and aspiring youth of Egypt. Un- til lately it was believed without reserve, and asserted without misgiving, that, while of all the Oriental nations Egypt is the one in which intellectual achievement seems to have reached its highest point, the attainment of scientific eminence, with the rewards of official distinction, autho- rity, and emolument which scientific emin- ence involved, was limited to persons only of a favoured class and of high hereditary function. The hierarchy was supposed not merely to have appropriated, but to have monopolised, the learning of the day, and to have jealously guarded from vulgar intrusion the stores of the mysterious knowledge which was communicated or communicable only to the sovereign and the nobility. The common people, who were by the same hypothesis inevitably destined from father to son to an identi- cal social status, learned scarcely more than was necessary in order to practise their ancestral trades or handicrafts, and to be initiated into the religious beliefs ; which became their station. More hap- pily conducted researches into the subject, however, have practically demonstrated the fact that the hereditary tendency, which, without doubt, powerfully existed, to the adoption by the son of the paternal calling, was so susceptible of modification or solution as to be frequently inoperative so frequently, indeed, as to invalidate the long-current accusation. Dr. Hem- rich Brugsch-Bey has some vivid and suggestive words with regard to the elas- ticity and generosity, in this respect, of ancient Egyptian institutions : * In the schools where the poor scribe's child sat on the same bench beside the offspring of the rich, to be trained in discipline and wise learning, the masters knew how by timely words to goad on the lagging dili- gence of the ambitious scholars, holding out to them the future reward which awaited youths skilled in knowledge and letters. Thus the slumbering spark of self-esteem was stirred to a flame in the youthful breast, and emulation was stimulated among the boys. Even the clever son of the poor man might hope by his knowledge to climb the ladder of the higher offices, for neither his birth nor position in life raised any barrier, if only the youth's mental power justified fair hopes for the future. In this sense the restraints of caste did not xist, and neither descent nor family hampered the rising career of the clever. Many a monu- ment consecrated to the memory of some I nobleman gone to his long home, who during life had held high rank at the court of Pharaoh, is decorated with the simple but laudatory inscription, " His- ancestors were unknown people." It is a satisfaction to avow that the training and ! instruction of the young interested the Egyptians in the highest degree. For they fully recognised in this the sole means of elevating their national life, and of ful- filling the high civilising mission which Providence seemed to have placed in their hands. But above all things they regarded justice, and virtue had the highest value in their eyes. The law which ordered them "to pray to the gods, to honour the dead, to give bread to the hungry,, water to the thirsty, clothing to the naked," reveals to us one of the finest qualities of the old Egyptian character, pity towards the unfortunate. The forty- two commandments of the Egyptian reli- gion which are contained in the 125th chapter of the Book of the Dead, are in no- way inferior to the precepts of Christianity; and, in reading the old Egyptian inscrip- tions concerning morality and the fear of God, we are tempted to believe that the Jewish lawgiver Moses modelled his teach- ings on the patterns given by the old Egyptian sages.' In another connection Brugsch-Bey carries his optimism with reference to the affairs of Egypt to the extent of posing as an apologist for the misrepresented Cambyses, whom he couples with Darius I. as being benevolently disposed towards, the interests of Egyptian education. In one of the inscriptions he records that 4 Cambyses appears in a totally different light from that in which school-learning- places him. He takes care for the gods and their temples, and has himself crowned SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY in Sai's after the old Egyptian manner. Darius I., whom the Egyptian Uza-hor- en-pi-ris had accompanied to Elam (Ely- mai's), took particular pleasure in rescuing the Egyptian temple-learning from its threatened extinction. He provided for the training of the energetic and gifted youth in the schools of the priests, to be the future maintainers and teachers of the lost wisdom of the Egyptians.' The question of the existence of caste varying, as it may do, from an iron and unbending tyranny to an expediency so unpretentious as scarcely to assert, or even to seek, a sanction external to itself is of such vital and characteristic importance in the working of any system of education that it is convenient in this connection to quote the judicial generalisation of one of our most trusted masters in Egyptology. 'As long,' says M. P. Le Page Renouf, 'as our information depended upon the classical Greek authors, the existence of castes among the Egyptians was admitted as certain. The error was detected as soon as the sense of the inscriptions could be made out. A very slight knowledge of the language was sufficient to demonstrate the truth to the late M. Ampere. Among ourselves many men may be found whose ancestors have for several generations fol- lowed the same calling, either the army or the Church, or some branch of industry or trade. The Egyptians were no doubt even more conservative than ourselves in this respect. But there was no impassable barrier between two professions. The son or the brother of a warrior might be a priest. It was perhaps more difficult to rise in the world than it is with us ; but a man of education, a scribe, was eligible to any office, civil, military, or sacerdotal, to which his talents or the chances of fortune might lead him, and nothing prevented his marriage with the daughter of a man of a different profession.' Not less interesting are the words of the Rev. Canon Rawlinson, in regard to the chances open to youth of talent ir- respective of their social position, words which lose nothing of their weight because they manifest some hesitation in accepting as proved the position "which Brugsch-Bey has so uncompromisingly assumed. Canon Rawlinson introduces the words to which wo now directly refer by a passage de- scriliinj; the respect with which the young, with whom was the future, treated the aged, with whom was the past The consideration shown to age in Egypt was remarkable, and, though perhaps a rem- nant of antique manners, must be regarded ' as a point in which their customs were more advanced than those of most ancient peoples. " Their young men, when they met their elders in the street," we are told (Herodotus, ii. 80), " made way for them and stepped aside ; and if an old man came in where young men were present, i the latter rose from their seats out of re- | spect for him." In arrangements with re- spect to education, the ancient Egyptians , seem also to have attained a point not ! often reached by the nations of antiquity.. If the schools wherein scribes obtained ; their instruction were really open to all (see Brugsch, Geschichte Aegyptens, p. 24) r i and the career of scribe might be pursued j by any one, whatever his birth, then it I must be said that Egypt, notwithstanding, ; the general rigidity of her institutions, j provided an open career for talent such. j as scarcely existed elsewhere in the old \ world, and such as few modern communi- ties can be said even yet to furnish. It- was always possible, under despotic go- I vernments, that the capricious favour of the sovereign should raise to a high, or j even to the highest, position the lowest per- i son in the kingdom. But in Egypt alone, I of all ancient States, does a system seem i to have been established whereby persons of all ranks, even the lowest, were invited to compete for the royal favour, and, by distinguishing themselves in the public : schools, to establish a claim for employ - 1 ment in the public service. That em- ployment once obtained, their future de- ; pended on themselves. Merit secured promotion ; and it would seem that the \ efficient scribe had only to show himself ! superior to his fellows in order to rise to the highest position but one in the empire.' Greece. See Athenian Education, and Lacredemonian Education. India. Hindu civilisation maybe said to have changed so little in the course of ages that if an ancestor of a thousand years ago could visit a descendant of the thirtieth degree, there would not be much to suggest to either a wider secular chasm than if one had followed the other in the way of direct and immediate succession. For as soon as we look below the surface, as soon as we pass from the large towns to the country, it is found that the cur- 380 -SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY rent of Hindu life and manners has been but slightly affected by Western influence. The upper crust of society may have altered, but the movement has scarcely penetrated to the great mass below. English law and English customs are, no doubt, gradually working a change, but generations will have to pass before the change will have penetrated* very deeply. Even railways have failed; to produce more than a superficial effect, and the majority of the most highly 'Europeanised ' of the natives still cling to the system of caste. This last alone is sufficient to ac- count for the still deathless perpetuation of customs in general, and of educational subjects and matters in particular, along- side of the aggressive vigour of foreign institutions which have been introduced into the Indian system on the principle of inoculation rather than that of incor- poration. The indigenous culture of India goes back to a period when the Greeks had not jret entered upon their heroic age ; and it is possible to trace its origin and growth, with the aid of contemporaneous litera- ture, almost from the fifteenth century before the Christian era. This, at least, is the probable date of that wonderful collection of hymns known as the Veda, or, more strictly, the Rig- Veda, which con- stitutes the oldest literary monument of -the great Aryan race. Some of the poems^ indeed, are later than others ; but the whole collection cannot well be regarded as less than three thousand years old. It is upon this ancient collection of poems "that Hindu civilisation rests ; it tforms 'the starting-point not only of Hindu theo- logy, but of Hindu philosophy, Hindu Jaw, and Hindu art and science as well. 'To understand the Rig- Veda is to under- stand the history of Hindu thought and civilisation. But the language, as well as the life and belief, of the Hindu has changed more than once since the times j when the hymns of the Rig- Veda were composed. They are written in an archaic form of Sanskrit, which differs very con- siderably from the classical Sanskrit of a later period both in vocabulary and in grammar. It brings us nearer to the common Aryan language spoken by the -ancestors of the Hindus and the Persians, of the Greeks and the Italians, of the ; Slavs and the Celts, before they set out on their long wanderings. It is true that a traditional interpretation of the hymns has been handed down along with the hymns themselves, and that, four or five centuries before the Christian era, the more obscure words and forms had been discussed in treatises which display the most profound acquaintance with the principles of phonology and grammar ; but it is also true that the tradition is not uniformly correct, and that the real force and meaning of much of the Vedic language can only be discovered by a minute examination of the text, and the assistance of comparative philology. One of the most important of the Hindu writings for purely linguistic purposes is the Prdtisdkhya of Saunaka, a treatise on Vedic phonology, which seems to be as old as the fifth century B.C. This par- ticular Prdtisdkhya is only one out of many which once existed, and were de- signed to preserve the pronunciation of the sacred hymns from being corrupted. The practical aim, however, is attained by means of a marvellously minute and accurate investigation of phonetic utter- ance; indeed, so thoroughly scientific is the analysis and classification of sounds as to have been made the basis of modern researches into phonology. Considering that the education of In- dia was effected in, by, and for the Vedas, and that its primary and ultimate aim was their safe transmission, a few words of more particular description of these sacred books may here be profitably supplied. The Veda, or knowledge, was invested with divine authority ; its mere words, apart from any meaning they might con- vey, were believed to have a religious efficacy, and the theory of inspiration invented to support their sacred charac- ter goes much beyond the most extreme theory of verbal inspiration ever held in the Christian or the Jewish Church. The Rig- Veda, or Veda of Praise, which con- tains prayers and hymns in verse, had to share its place of honour with three other collections, two of which, the Yajur- Veda and the Sama-Veda, contain little be- sides what is found in the Rig- Veda. They are, in fact, only prayer-books com- piled from the older collection of hymns, and were intended for the use of choristers and ministers of the priests at the sacri- fices, just as the Rig- Veda was assigned to the Hotri, or the priest proper. The fourth, or Atharva-Veda, is of later origin SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY than the rest, which were peculiarly termed the Trayi, or Triad, and consists of a number of poems mixed up with popular sayings, medical advice, magical formulae, and the like. In process of time, commentaries on the Vedas were called into existence, on which, under the title of Brahmanas, the sacredness of the Yedas came to be reflected : so that they also, in the long run, began to be regarded as authoritative, and to be superseded in their original ancillary position by the Sutras, the ' Strings' or manuals of the gramma- rians. It is to this, the Alexandrine age of the Hindu literature, that the Pratisa- khyas, already referred to, belong ; and the results of the labours of the period are truly astonishing. Not only were the very syllables of the Rig- Veda counted with absolute accuracy, and lists of obso- lete words and synonyms drawn up, but one of the most perfect systems of phon- ology and grammar ever known was ela- borated a system which has been taken as the foundation of the scientific gram- matical investigations of our own day. Grammar, or Vyakarana, however, was only one of the six Vedangas, or branches of Vedic doctrine, that were studied, and which comprised also Siksha (pronuncia- tion), Chhandas (metre), Nirukta (ex- planation of words), Jyotisha (astronomy), and Ivalpa (ceremonial). Indeed, all the other subjects of inquiry were but sub- sidiary to the last ; it was to prevent mistakes being made in the performance of divine worship, and to preserve the Key of Knowledge, sacred and profane, in the jealous keeping of a learned priestly caste that both Vedas and Brahmanas were so closely investigated. The ultimate aim, then, of Hindu education to repeat more emphatically what has already been incidentally men- tioned was to produce mnemonic custo- dians of the Vedas, and of other sacred books in the order of their production, who should ensure, by the power of mutual checks, the purity and integrity of the treasures committed to them, whether by oral or literary transmission. This exact and perfect memory of sacred words and sacred things was all the more necessary in the ages that preceded the art of writ- ing, of which there is no evidence that it was known in India much before the beginning of Buddhism, or the very end of the ancient Vedic literature. From the earliest times, as far back as we know anything of India, we find that the years which we spend at school and the uni- versity, were spent by the sons of the higher classes in acquiring, from the mouth: of a teacher, their sacred learning. This, was a solemn duty, the neglect of which* entailed social degradation, and the most minute rules were laid down as to the* mnemonic systems that had to be followed.. Before the invention of writing, there was, indeed, no other way of preserving- literature, whether sacred or profane; and, in consequence, every precaution was taken against accidents. 'Those Brahmans,'" says Professor Max Miiller, ' who even in, this Kali age, and during the ascendency of the Mlekkhas, uphold the sacred tra- ditions of the past, are not to be met with, in the drawing-rooms of Calcutta. They depend on the alms of the people, and live- in villages, either by themselves, or in. colleges. These men, and I know it as a. fact, know the whole Rig- Veda by heart, just as their ancestors did, three or four thousand years ago ; and though they- i have MSS., and though they have now I a printed text, they do not learn their j sacred lore from them. They learn it, as . their ancestors learnt it thousands of yearr- j ago, from the mouth of a teacher, so that the Vedic succession should never be- broken. The oral teaching and learning become, in the eyes of the Brahmans, one of the " Great Sacrifices," and though the- ! number of those who still keep it up is, I smaller than it used to be, their influence,. I their position, their sacred authority are j as great as ever.' To the same effect the- editor of the Indian Antiquary, writing in 1878, says that, 'there are thousands of Brahmans who know the Rig- Veda by- heart, and can repeat it in Sanhita, Pacla,, Jata, Ghana, and Krama, without making any mistakes ' the Sanhita and others, being five different methods of learning the Veda, by either reciting each word separately, or by repeating the words in, various complicated ways. The Rig- Veda,, it may be stated, consists of 1,017 or 1,028 hymns, each on an average of ten verses. The total number of words, if we may trust native scholars, amounts to 153,826. ' They,' says Professor Max Miiller, mean- ing the Vedic students of the present, time, which also includes all time, even ! to the remotest antiquity * they learn | a few lines every day, repeat them for- 383 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY hours, so that the whole house resounds with the noise, and they thus strengthen their memory to that degree that, when their apprenticeship is finished, you can open them like a book, and find any pas- .sage you like, any word, any accent.' Professor Max Miiller proceeds to picture .-a 'half- naked Hindu repeating under an Indian sky the sacred hymns which have been handed down for three or four thou- sand years by oral tradition. If writing Jbad never been invented, if India had never been occupied by England, that young Brahman, and thousands and thou- sands of his countrymen, would probably have been engaged just the same in learn- ing and saying by heart the simple prayers first uttered on the Sarasvati and the other rivers of the Penjab by Vasishtha, Visvainitra, Syavasva, and others.' The method of oral teaching followed in the schools of ancient India is care- fully described in the fifteenth chapter of the Pratisakhya of the Rig- Veda, that is, probably, in the fifth or sixth century B.C. It is constantly alluded to in the Brahmanas, but it must have existed even during the earlier period, for in one of the hymns of the Rig Veda, in which the re- turn of the rainy season, and the delight ,and croaking of frogs are described, we read: 'One repeats the speech of the other, as the pupil repeats the words of the teacher.' In the description of the method of oral teaching in the Pratisakhya in question, ' the teacher, we are told, must himself have passed through the recognised curriculum, and have fulfilled all the duties of a Brahmaiiical student (brah- makarin), before he is allowed to become a teacher, and he must teach such stu- dents only as submit to all the rules of studentship. He should settle down in a proper place. If he has only one pupil or two, they should sit on his right side ; if more, they must sit as there is room for them. At the beginning of each lec- ture the pupils embrace the feet of their teacher and say, " Read, Sir." The teacher answers, "Om, Yes," and then pronounces two words, or, if it is a compound, one. When the teacher has pronounced one word or two, the first pupil repeats the first word, but if there is anything that requires explanation, the pupil says "Sir; " . and after it has been explained to him .(the teacher says), " Om, Yes, Sir." ' In this manner they go on till they have finished a prasna (question), which consists of three verses, or, if they are verses of more than forty to forty- two syllables, of two verses. If they are pankti-verses of forty to forty-two sylla- bles each, a prasna may comprise either two or three ; and if a hymn consists of one verse only, that is supposed to form a prasna. After the prasna is finished, they have all to repeat it once more, and then to go on learning it by heart, pronouncing every syllable with the high accent. After the teacher has first told a prasna to his pupil on the right, the others go round him to the right, and this goes on till the whole adhyaya or lecture is finished : a lecture consisting generally of sixty prasnas. At the end of the last half -verse the teacher says, "Sir," and the pupil replies, " Om, Yes, Sir," repeating all the verses required at the end of a lecture. The pupils then embrace the feet of their teacher, and are dismissed.' These are the general fea- tures of a lesson, but the Pratisakhya contains some minute rules besides. For instance, in order to prevent small words from being neglected, the teacher is to repeat twice every word which has but one high accent, or consists of one vowel only. A number of small words are to be followed by the particle ' iti,' thus, others are to be followed by iti, and then to be repeated again, e.g. ka-iti ka. These lec- tures continued during about half the year, the term beginning generally with the rainy season. There were, however, many holidays on which no lectures were given ; and on these points also the most minute regulations are given both in the Grihya and Dharma- sutras. The syllable ' Om,' which occupies so prominent a position in the conversation which is prescribed between pupil and Guru, or teacher, as a preliminary and a concomitant of Vedic instruction, is defined as being ' the door of heaven. Therefore,' says Apastamba, representatively for him- self and other commentators on the Sacred Laws, ' he who is about to study the Veda shall begin (his lesson) by (pronouncing) it. If he has spoken anything else (than what refers to the lesson) he shall resume his reading by repeating the word " Om." Thus the Veda is separated from profane speech. And at sacrifices the orders (given to the priests) are headed by this word. And in common life, at the occasion of SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 383 ceremonies performed for the sake of wel- fare, the sentences shall be headed by this word, as, for instance, " (Om) an auspicious day," " (Om) welfare," " (Om) prosperity." Without a vow of obedience (a pupil) shall not study (nor a teacher teach) a difficult (new book) with the exception of (the texts called) Trihsravana and Trihsahava- kana.' There are several series of canons still extant which were formulated by various sages of old to regulate the status of stu- dentship. These, as exemplified in the Institutes of Vishnu, enjoin that students, after initiation a rite, ceremony, or sacra- ment, which, in the case of Brahmanas, should take place * in the eighth year after conception,' and must not be delayed be- yond the sixteenth year should dwell at the house of their Guru, or spiritual teacher. They must recite their morning and evening prayers, and each student * shall mutter the morning prayer standing, and the evening prayer sitting.' Twice a day he is to perform the religious acts of sprinkling the ground (round the altar) and of putting fuel on the fire. ' He must plunge into the waters like a stick,' and is to study when called upon to do so by his teacher, to whom he is to be serviceable in every respect. The institutes proceed to regulate the garments and the diet of the student ; to restrict and define his mendicancy, and to prescribe the acts of courtesy and reverence he is to render to his teacher, whom, whether in gait, manner, speech, or any other particular, he is for- bidden to mimic, and whose reputation is to be precious to him. In the practice of such exercises the student is to 'acquire by heart one Veda, or two Yedas, or (all) the Yedas. Thereupon, the Vedangas (that treating of phonetics and the rest). He who, not having studied the Veda, -applies himself to another study, will de- grade himself, and his progeny with him, to the state of a Siidra. From the mother is the first birth ; the second, from the gird- ing with the sacrificial string. In the latter the Savitri hymn is his mother, and the teacher his father. It is this which entitles members of the three higher castes to the designation of the " twice-born." Previous to his being girded with the sacrificial string a member of these castes is similar to a Sudra (and not allowed to study the Yeda). . . A Brahmana who passes without tiring (of the discharge of his duties) the time of his studentship will attain to the most exalted heavenly abode (that of Brahman) after his death, and will not be born again in this world.' A Guru must not admit to his teaching one whom he does not know ; neither may he initiate such a one. ' If by instructing a pupil neither religions merit nor wealth is acquired, and if 110 sufficient attention is to be obtained from him (for his teacher's words), in such soil divine knowledge must not be sown : it would perish like fine seed in barren soil. The deity of sacred knowledge approached a Brahmana (and said to him), " Preserve me, 1 am thy treasure, reveal me not to a scorner, nor to a wicked man, nor to one of uncontrolled passions : thus I shall be strong. Reveal me to him, as to a keeper of thy gem, O Brah- mana, whom thou shalt know to be pure, attentive, possessed of a good memory, and chaste, who will not grieve thee, nor re- vile thee." ' The Institutes go on to pre- scribe conditions, sometimes fantastic, under which the pupil may not study. ' Let him avoid studying at times when there ought to be an intermission of study, even though a question has been put to him (by his teacher) ; ' a regulation which is especially to be understood by remem- bering that every lesson consisted of ques- tions put by the teacher and the student's answer to them. The sanction of this solution of the habit and course of study is based on the circumstance that to study on forbidden days does not advantage any one in this or in the other world , and that, indeed, to study on such days destroys the life of both teacher and pupil. ' Therefore should a teacher, who wishes to obtain the world of Brahman, avoid improper days, and sow (on proper days) the seed of sacred knowledge on soil consisting of virtuous pupils.' It would be difficult to conceive of a more exalted estimate of the vocation of the Guru of which the injunctions for the student to embrace his feet on all suitable occasions, and to perform other acts of service and veneration, are ordinary ex- pressions than is contained in the follow- ing verses of the Institutes, which place the teacher, once for all, on the most ele- vated plane of dignity which it is possible for one human being to occupy in relation to another. * Let (a student) never grieve that man from whom he has obtained worldly knowledge (relating to poetry, 384 .SCHOOLS OP ANTIQUITY rhetoric, and the like subjects), sacred knowledge (relating to the Vedas and Vedangas), or knowledge of the Supreme Spirit. Of the natural progenitor and the teacher who imparts the Veda to him, the giver of the Veda is the more venerable father; for it is the new existence ac- quired by his initiation in the Veda which will last him both in this life and the next. Let him consider as a merely human exist- ence that which he owes to his father and mother uniting from carnal desire and to his being born from his mother's womb. That existence which his teacher, who knows all the Vedas, effects for him through the prescribed rites of initiation with (his divine mother) the Gayatri, is a true exist- i ence ; that existence is exempt from age j and death. He who fills his ears with holy truths, who frees him from all pain (in this world and the next), and confers immortality (or final liberation) upon him, that man let the student consider as his (true) father and mother : gratefully ac- knowledging the debt he owes him, he must never grieve him.' JFurther light is thrown on the method of the Vedic studies of antiquity, in an interesting account of the state of native learning which appears in the Indian An- tiquary for May 1874, to which it was contributed, with the title of The Veda in India, by Professor Ram Krishna Gopal Bhandarkar. This account is to the effect that every Brahmanic family is devoted to the study of a particular Veda, and a particular sdkhd, or recension of a Veda ; and the domestic rites of a family are per- formed according to the ritual prescribed in the sutra connected with that Veda. The study consists in getting by heart the books forming the particular Veda. In Northern India, where the predominant Veda is the White Yajush, and the sakM Madhyandina, this study has almost died out, except at Banaras, where Brahma- nic families from all parts of India are settled. 'It prevails to some extent in Gujarat, but to a much greater extent in the Ma- ratha country, and in Tailangana there is a large number of Brahmans who still devote their life to this study. Numbers of these go about to all parts of the country in search of dakshind (fee, alms), and all well-to-do natives patronise them according to their means, by getting them to repeat portions of their Veda, which is mostly the Black Yajush, with Apcutamba for their sutra. Hardly a week passes here in Bombay in which no Tailanga Brahman comes to me to ask for dakshind. On each occasion I get the men to repeat what they have learned, and compare it with the printed texts in my possession. With reference to their occupation, Brahrcans of each Veda are generally divided into two classes, Grihasthas and Bikshukas. The former devote themselves to a worldly avocation, while the latter spend their time in the study of their sacred books and the practice of their religious rites. Both these classes have to repeat (daily) : the Sandhyd- Vandana, or twilight prayers, ! the forms of which are somewhat different for the different Vedas. But the repetition of the Gayatri-mantra Tat Savitur varen- yam, &c., five, ten, twenty -eight, or a hundred and eight times, which forms the principal portion of the ceremony, is com- mon to all.' The Vedic learning of the Grihasthas is limited as compared with that of the Bhik- shukas, some of whom are what are called Yajnikas, who follow a priestly occupation and are skilled in the performance of the sacred rites ; whilst a more important class still are the Vaidikas, some of whom are Yajnikas as well. Learning the Vedas b^ heart, and repeating them in a manne! never to make a single mistake, even in the accents, is the occupation of their life. The best Rigvedi Vaidika knows by heart the Sanhitd, Pada, Krama, Jatd, and Ghana of the hymns or mantra portion of the Veda, and the Aitareya Brdhmana and Aranyaka, the Kalpa and Grihya Sutra of Asvalayana, the Nighantu, Nirukta^ Chhandas, Jyotish, and Sikshd, and Pani- ni's Ashtddhyayl o n Grammar. A Vaidik a is thus a living Vedic library. The San- hitd, Pada, Krama, Jatd, and Ghana, it may be repeated, are different names for peculiar arrangements of the text of the mantras, or hymns. The object of these different arrangements, with all their diffi- culties and intricacies, is simply the most accurate preservation of the sacred text ; and the triumph of a Vaidika consists in repeating his Veda fluently, in all the ways just indicated, without a single mis- take in the letters or accents. The Vaidikas support themselves gene- rally on the gifts or dakshinds of those of their countrymen who are charitably dis- posed. Often recital- meetings, known by SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 385 the name of mantra-jdrgaras, are held by rich Grihasthas in their houses, to which the principal Vaidikas in the town or vil- lage are invited. The Veda-reciters are also patronised by native princes ; the more munificent of whom have occasionally es- tablished regular boards of examiners, by whom every candidate coming up from any part of India was to be examined and recommended for dakshind according to his deserts. ' But with all these sources of income, the Vaidika is hardly in easy circumstances. Hence the class, ' according to Professor Bhandarkar, 'is gradually dying out, and the sons of the best Vaidikas in Puna or the Konkan now attend Govern- ment English schools a result not to be much deplored. Though the time and energy wasted in transmitting the Vedas in this manner, from the times of Katyayana and other ancient edit ore of the Vedas, has been immense, we should not forget that this class of Vaidikas has rendered one important service to philology. I think the purity of our Vedic texts is to be wholly attributed to this system of get- ting them up by heart, and to the great importance attached by the reciters to perfect accuracy, even to a syllable or an accent.' Thus the great practical result of the venerable system of mnemonic education in India is to be recognised in the precise and jealously preserved purity and integ- rity of its sacred books a result of which Professor Max Miiller is not inclined to underrate the importance. ' The texts of the Veda,' he says, when expatiating on the triumph of memory as instrumental to the preservation of an ancient literature, 'have been handed down to us with such accuracy that there is hardly a various reading, in the proper sense of the word, or even an uncertain accent, in the whole of the Rig- Veda. There are corruptions in the text, which can be discovered by critical investigation; but even these cor- ruptions must have formed part of the recognised text since it was finally settled. Some of them belong to different Sakhas, or recensions, and are discussed in their bearing by ancient authorities. The autho- rity of the Veda, in respect to all religious questions, is as great in India now as it has ever been. It never was uncontested any more than the authority of any other sacred book has been. But to the vast majority of orthodox believers the Veda forms still the highest and only infallible authority, quite as much as the Bible with us, or the Koran with the Mohammedans. Some comprehensive, suggestive, and practical words of Sir W. W. Hunter may aptly conclude these remarks upon the schools of India and their peculiar erudi- tion, the details of^ which are set forth very amply in chapters of the Institutes oj Vishnu, and other ancient treatises which have recently been made accessible to the English reader. ' Through all changes of government,' writes Sir W. W. Hunter, 'vernacular instruction in its simplest form has always been given, at least to the children of respectable classes, in every large village. On the one hand, the tols, or seminaries for teaching Sanskrit philo- sophy at Benares and Nadiya, recall the schools of Athens and Alexandria; on the other, the importance attached to instruc- tion in accounts reminds us of the picture which Horace has left of a Roman educa- tion. Even at the present day knowledge of reading and writing is, owing to the teaching of Buddhist monks, as widely diffused throughout Burma as it is in some countries of Europe. English efforts, to stimulate education have ever been most successful when based upon existing- indigenous institutions.' Still a last word,, in order to render to India the tribute of having successfully practised the method of mutual instruction from the remotest antiquity; for it was from India, in fact,, that Andrew Bell, at the close of the eighteenth century, borrowed the idea of this particular instrument of education. Japan. China and Corea were the source from which the Japanese derived their first supplies of learning. So early as A.D. 300, there are accounts of Corean and Chinese scholars being brought over to impart a knowledge of the Chinese al- phabet and Chinese books to the Japanese- Imperial Court. Subsequently, native- scholars who had been educated in China were able to take their places. Thus, there gradually grew up, in connection with the Imperial Government, a system of educa- tion which differed widely from its proto- type, but was so far fitted to the wants of the Japanese empire as to secure not only its stability through many centuries, but a high degree of culture and civilisation. The primary object of early Japanese education was not the universal or popu- lar diffusion of knowledge; its more re- c c 386 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY stricted aim was, by means of special training, to prepare men to enter the ser- vice of the Government. For this pur- pose an institution, which we may call a university, was established at the capital of the empire. It had branches also in the various principal provinces, which were tributary to the central institution. The subjects of instruction were, in the higher departments, chiefly the Chinese classical writings, which were read and studied by the pupils, and commented upon by learned professors. Special branches of learning which were required in the public service were established as departments of this university. The care of the calendar and the regulation of the lunar year, with its varying months, were confided to a special department, which was responsible for the preparation of the national almanack. Astrology, used for the divination of the future, and medicine treated in its various branches in accord- ance with the Chinese system, were each constituted into departments. This uni- versity was supported by the Imperial Government, by means of grants of land ana by assessments upon certain provinces. It passed through many periods of trial, and at last it perished; but, as the parent institution of the many which sprang up in different parts of the country, it had great influence upon the educational in- terests of Japan. The founder of the Tokngawa dynasty of Shoguns was a liberal patron of learning, and did much to encourage the organisation of schools and libraries. He established at his capi- tal, in Yedo, a college, which attained great celebrity, and was attended by more than three thousand pupils. It was dedicated to the honour of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. Other institutions of a like character were founded by several of the more powerful daimios in their provinces. The daimios of Mito, Satsuma, Owari, Hizen, Chosiu, Yechizen, and others vied with each other in maintaining, for the benefit of their subjects, institutions of the highest character. These institutions were, however, designed solely for the use of the samurai class ; that is, those who held feudal relations as military retainers to their masters, and who are sometimes considered to rank as an inferior order of nobility. The children of the common people were not provided for in Govern- ment schools. The education they re- ceived was at private schools, or from pri- vate teachers. And it speaks well for the intelligence and love of learning on the part of the merchants, farmers, and arti- sans, that, even under these unfavourable conditions, the vast proportion of them could read and write the simpler forms of the language, and could cast up their ac- counts on the counting-frame. The women also were not educated at the great national schools, but were taught in pri- vate schools, or by tutors employed specially for their instruction. The edu- cation of females was less expensive and thorough than that designed for boys. They learned to read books in the easier styles, but were not generally taught the Chinese classical authors. They could write, and play upon some musical instru- ment, and were taught the female accom- plishments of sewing, embroidery, and the like. There were, however, some notable exceptions to this limited female educa- tion. Female scholars of great celebrity appeared from time to time ; and not a few of the most famous names in Japanese literature are those of females. The learned were at this time devoted to the study of Chinese, and rarely com- posed in any other language, whilst the cultivation of the Japanese language was in a great measure abandoned to women. It is honourable to the women of Japan that they nobly discharged the task which devolved upon them, of maintaining the credit of their native literature. Pro- bably no parallel is to be found in the history of European letters to the remark- able fact that a very large proportion of the best writings of the best age of Japanese literature was the work of women. The Genji Monogatari, the ac- knowledged standard of the language for the period to which it belongs, and the parent of the Japanese novel, was written by a woman ; as were also the Ise Mono- gatarij the Makura Zoshi, and much of the poetry of the time. There is even reason to suppose that the traditions col- lected in the Kojiki, or Book of Ancient Matters or Traditions, the oldest extant composition of the Japanese, A.D. 711-712, containing their theogony and cosmogony, the events of the holy age or mythological period, and the history of the Mikados from the year 1, or 660 B.C., to the 628th year of the Christian era, and the 1288th J of the Japanese, was taken down from the SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY mouth of a woman. With the exception of the last-named work, which is the bible of the Shinto religion, and which was committed to writing before the in- vention of Jana, the Chinese character was very sparingly used in books written by women, and the use of Chinese voc- ables was also extremely limited. Refer- ring to the state of Japan in the latter half of the ninth century, when, owing to the impulse given by the works and ex- ample of Kose* no Kanaoka, one of the greatest painters to which the country has given birth, the tardy development of pictorial art had entered a new phase, Mr. Anderson pertinently remarks that it was not in art alone that marked pro- gress had been made. From the seventh century Japan has possessed fully orga- nised colleges, teaching music, astromony, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and other branches of learning which China and Corea had placed within reach of their insular neighbours. The people, already separated from the military class from the end of the eighth century may be supposed, in the absence of historical record, to have been prosper- ous and contented ; at any rate they do not appear to have found occasion to as- sert their existence in any manner dis- agreeable to their rulers. With the ascertainment of this separation of the military order from the masses devoted to commerce, agriculture, and various handicrafts, it is proper to follow the samurai boy, the typical representative of ancient and mediaeval Japanese education, into some of the details of his school-life, into which he was initiated on the sixth day of the sixth mouth of the sixth year of his age. His first task was to make, after a copy, in weary routine, the Japan- ese letters. He used first a brush as large as one's little finger, so that every defect of his execution should be plainly manifest. The master sat by him and directed his movements. Every one of the compli- cated letters was required to be made with the strokes in the same order, and with the same emphasis. As the cost of paper would be a serious burden, pupils were required to use the same sheet many times over. The letters of one day were smeared out at its close, and the papers dried in the sun for the next. Even at the present day, in passing along the streets of a Japanese town, the schoolboy's copy- book is still to be seen hung out to dry ; and the schoolboy himself can always be detected in his homeward march from school by his smouched fingers and face, which have received more than their share of the writer's ink. At the lowest esti- mate a schoolboy was required in six or eight years to learn*one thousand different characters. Quicker pupils under com- petent teachers mastered as many as three or four thousand characters ; whilst those who would pass for men of great learning were expected to be conversant | with several tens of thousands. These characters had each their distinct mean- ing, so that the learner had not merely to acquire the mechanical art of making it, but also its meaning and its proper place and use in a sentence. Many years of I the boy's life were mainly spent in this I task of learning to write and to employ the numerous letters of the alphabet. The earlier reading-books were the simpler Chinese classics, in which the t>oy was taught the sounds of the characters as well as their meaning. As he advanced, more difficult books were used ; and he was exercised not only in reading the passages, but also in explaining their meaning in the ordinary colloquial style. Books on manners and etiquette, and on morals, were also used for reading, and were made the text-books for instruction in these branches of education. Up to nine years of age the pupils read without much reference to meaning, and com- mitted to memory some of the standard specimens of poetry. At about nine years of age the boys who were to receive a higher education entered the Chinese classi- cal department. In this they were chiefiy occupied with the study of the various treatises on Chinese philosophy; and from the formidable list of text-books which might be cited, it is evident that the life of the Japanese college student was not intended to be one of ease or indolence. In some schools the course of study was not limited to a definite time, but con- tinued at the pleasure of the scholar. Hence men frequently continued their studies to mature years, like the fellows at an English University. The daily ex- ercises began at about seven or eight o'clock, and continued until about four in the afternoon. There was no vacation, except for fifteen days at each of the equinoxes, when the festivals in honour cc 2 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY of Confucius were celebrated, and on the prescribed local and national holidays. The daily routine of a Japanese clas- sical school such as described above would be nearly as follows. At the opening the students all met, say to the number of three or four hundred, in a large assem- bly room. Here a professor gave a lecture to the whole body of students on some passage selected from one of the Chinese classics. The lecture consisted of expla- nations and comments on the selected passages, and of exhortation to the young men to conduct their lives accord- ingly. Each student was required to have a copy of the book in his hand, and to follow the citations and the comments of the professor. After this general lecture the students retired to separate class- rooms, and there, under subordinate teachers, read over the works admitted to the list of text-books. They were re- quired to explain the meaning to their teacher, and to answer his questions. On certain days, also, they drew lots to de- liver discourses upon some passage which had been previously assigned. The pro- fessors and teachers were held in the greatest reverence, and it was deemed the greatest offence for the scholars to show their impatience or their lack of interest, by yawning, or lounging, or shifting their positions. Perhaps to this early severe training, carried on through many genera- tions, are due that wonderful impertur- bability of temper and that courtesy of manner which characterise the higher classes of Japanese society. Following these exercises were others for the teach- ing of composition, and for the affording of practice in the art of writing. Official correspondence was an object of special training, and was carried on through many years. In a country where rank and etiquette and the proper observance of official forms were deemed of the first importance, this branch of education was indispensable. The finer styles of literary composition were matters of ambition with those who desired the highest culture. They were taught to write poetry not only in the Japanese tongue, but also in pure Chinese. To this day it is a social amusement among men of culture to turn off impromptu verses, or to compose ele- gant maxims. It is a fair criticism on the ystem, that time was spent on the com- paratively useless accomplishment of ver- sification, which ought to have been em- ployed in increasing their knowledge and in improving their prose composition. The latter part of the day was spent in physical exercises. As the schools we have been considering were for the benefit of the military class, the students were trained in martial exercises, such as shoot- ing with the bow and arrow, throwing the lance, running, riding on horseback, and the sword exercise. By way of summary of the ancient system of Japanese educa- tion, Professor Rein observes that there was only one standard of learning, and he who had attained it and proved that he had done so in a formal examination was, to- gether with the teacher who had so suc- cessfully trained him, held in great esteem. ' Just as there are still in Europe many who cannot conceive a thorough education without Greece and Rome, so, though for far more adequate reasons, the knowledge of the Chinese language and philosophy was in the eyes of the Japanese the Alpha and Omega of all thorough education. But this philosophy, even in the more liberal shape in which it was taught by Mencius, sprang throughout from a narrow feudalism, and formed a useful instrument for its preservation and furtherance. Japanese education formed respectful sons, docile pupils, obedient subjects, skilled calligraphers, enthusiastic admirers of antiquity, narrow-minded worshippers of the philosophy of Confucius \ it did not arouse the intelligence, it left the indi- vidual conscience entirely under the con- trol of custom, it kindled no religious thought or feelings, bu. encouraged the narrowest spirit of caste and clannishness. It was an education which taught the young samurai to be an obedient and loyal subject to his feudal lord, but con- tributed little to develop a general sense of justice or to humble the feelings ; an education which allowed him, in utter disregard of universal human rights and duties, to try his sword on the first way- farer he encountered outside the limits of his clan, or in overbearing quarrelsome- ness to bar a rival's way. Accordingly, of all the innovations made during the Meiji period, the period of the present gene- ration, those are justly regarded as the most important which have emanated from the Department of Education.' Judea 1 1. It has been the fate of the peoDle of Israel to offer, even to the SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 389 present day, a startling demonstration of the power and tenacity of education. For more than eighteen hundred years of exile and dispersion, and without a ruler, the people of Israel, indeed, have never lost their national identity ; but have preserved and perpetuated the habits, the manners, and the faith of so long a series of ancestral generations. The extraordinary vitality and the natu- ral endowments of the race, ' its tenacity of temperament, and its wonderful ac- tivity of intelligence/ count for much as causes for the phenomenon which is every hour patent to the world, but 'it is just to attribute another part of it/ in the words of Professor Compayre, 'to the sound education, at once religious and national, which the ancient Hebrews have transmitted by tradition to their descen- dants.' It is claimed for the Jews that they have, in all ages and under all circum- stances, devoted themselves to the acquisi- tion and the transmission of knowledge, both religious and secular, as if this duty were in the very front of their most sacred obligations. To fortify this claim resort has been had to imagination and romance ; and Adam himself is placed at the head of a line of patriarchs, including Enoch and Noah, who directed schools which had been instituted for the en- lightenment of the world before the flood. Melchizedek, King of Salem, is said in like manner to have kept a school in the city of Kirgath-sepher, the city of the book, or of writing. Abraham, himself the pupil of Heber, taught in Chaldea and in Egypt, and Josephus (B. i. of Antiq., c. 8) affirms that he ' committed to the Egyptians arithmetic, and delivered to them the science of astronomy; for be- fore Abraham came into Egypt they were unacquainted with those parts of learn- ing ; for that science came from the Chal- deans into Egypt, and from them to the Greeks also.' Jacob succeeded Abraham in the office of teaching, and the descrip- tion which is given of Jacob in Genesis xxv. 27, as 'a plain man dwelling in tents/ has been paraphrased into the pro- position that ' he was a perfect man, and a minister of the house of doctrine.' But such speculations are lightly dismissed when a tolerant criticism affirms of them that they 'must needs be very precarious.' There is reasonable ground for the belief, if not, indeed, conclusive ground for the knowledge that Moses, Aaron, and the Elders of Israel instructed the people in the wilderness ; and that many pious Israelites diligently instructed their chil- dren in the fear of God. But although nothing is more carefully inculcated in the law than the duty of parents to teach their children its precepts and examples, there is little trace among the Hebrews, in earlier times, of education in any other subjects. All this falls very short of proving the existence of the fabled schools of the patriarchs ; and, indeed, the chief characteristic of the education of the Hebrews in the primitive period of their history, is that it was essentially domestic. During the whole of the biblical period there is no trace of the existence of public schools, at least for young children. Family life is the origin of the primitive society, where the idea of the state has scarcely dawned upon a theocratic people, of whom God was really and directly the King. The child was to become the faithful! servant of Jehovah. To this end it was not required that he should be widely and variously I learned ; it was necessary that he should I acquire, through oral teaching and the i instructive example of his parents, the \ moral precepts and religious beliefs of the j nation. With the Hebrews, the perfect man was the pious, virtuous character who approximated, in seeking to attain, to the ideal set forth by God himself, ' Ye shaU be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy.' (Leviticus xix. 2.) The wisdom, therefore, and instruction of which so much is said in the Book of Proverbs, is to be understood chiefly of moral and religious discipline, imparted, according to the directions of the law, by I the parental doctrine and the example of ! the parents. Implicit exceptions to this 1 statement may perhaps be found in the j instances of Moses himself, who was brought up to be ' learned in all the wis- dom of the Egyptians ; ' of the writer of the Book of Job, who was evidently well versed in natural history and in the astro- nomy of the time; of Daniel and his com- panions in captivity, who were chosen for office in the court of Nebuchadnezzar as being ' skilful in all wisdom, and cunning in knowledge, and understanding science/ and above all, in the intellectual gifts and acquirements of King Solomon, which 390 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY were even more renowned than his poli- tical greatness, and the memory of which has been so widely preserved, not without exaggeration, in oriental tradition. The statement already made, however, as to the limitation of ordinary Hebrew educa- tion, may, in all probability, be regarded as representing its chief aims, not only when the law was most strictly observed, but also when, after recurring periods of decline from the Mosaic standard, attempts were made by monarchs, as Jehoshaphat or Josiah, or by prophets, as Elijah or Isaiah, to inspire, or at least to inculcate, reform in the moral condition of the people on the basis of that standard. It is assumed, from the frequency with which corporal chastisement is inculcated in the Bible, and especially in the Book of Proverbs, that the domestic discipline of the ancient Hebrews was harsh and severe a severity of which , if it ever existed to the extent imputed, subsequent ages witnessed a remarkable relaxation. It is probable that boys only were taught to read and write ; but it would seem that much attention was paid to what was assumed to have been the most desirable accomplishments for girls. Even in later times the Rabbis did not pre- scribe an advanced Hebrew education for females ; yet they recommended, besides a thorough domestic training, a sound religious instruction and the acquirement of some foreign language Greek by pre- ference. Girls were never required to be brought up as great scholars or professors ; but were rather to be trained as skilful and accomplished housewives. They were taught to spin, to weave, to prepare food for the table, to superintend the work of the household, and also to sing and to dance. It was further expected of the woman that she should devote herself to the moral and religious training of her children, by which alone could she ap- prove herself a true mother in Israel. It is clear also that the prophetical schools included within their scope the instruc- tion of females, who were occasionally in- vested with authority, both of a judicial and a prophetical character. On the whole it is safe to conclude that intellectual culture was rather in- cidental than capital or essential to the primitive education of the Hebrews, in whose eyes the great thing was moral and religious instruction, and the evolution of an ardent, intense, and unprecedented patriotism. Fathers taught their children the history of the nation ; and the period- ical celebration of the series of divinely- wrought events that had marked the progress of the people of God, in the form of recurring fasts and festivals, in which the children participated, served to fill their hearts with gratitude to a Heaven which had stooped to their hills and held its hosts at their service, and with a patriotic love for their country. It is this love which, in its tenderness and its fierceness, has furnished to universal history the most consummate illustration of national unity of the absorption of the aggregate mass of the people into a single personality of undivided egotism. In the course of time the prophecies, and expositions of them, were added to- the earliest scriptures of the Law, as in- struments of education to the children of the Jews, who were also taught to say- by heart the genealogies, which were at once so dear to their pride and so necessary tc* justice in ascertaining and renewing, ac- cording to what may be fairly and cha- racteristically described as their Jubilee system, the rights of- personal freedom, and of family inheritance. Whatever the subjects of study might be, how- ever, it was necessary that the Jewish boy should combine with them the ac- quirement of some trade, handicraft, or profession; and the Jewish parent who neglected or evaded this obligation was said to be virtually teaching his son to steal. The sect of the Essenes, one of the three great sects into which the more cultivated of the Israelites were divided after the captivity, though themselves ab- juring marriage at least so far as the strictest order of them was concerned devoted themselves largely to the educa- tion of children, which, however, they limited chiefly to ethical training and to- instruction in the Divine Law. With regard to the prophetical schools, or schools of the prophets just referred to, Calmet observes : ' Under Joshua we see a kind of academy of the prophets, where the sons of the prophets, i.e. their dis- ciples, lived retired, in study, meditation, and reading the law of God. There were schools of the prophets at Naioth in Rama. David and Samuel withdrew thither (I. Sam. xix. 19, 20, c.). Saul sent SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 391 messengers thither to apprehend David, Ac. 1 We find others also under the pro- phets Elijah and Elisha at Bethel (II. Kings ii. 3) and in the plain of Jericho ; and a great number in the kingdom of Israel (II. Kings, ii. 5). Some have thought that Elijah had also a society of them on Mount Carmel (I. Kings, xviii. 4, 13 ; xix. 1 ; xx. 35, Ae.). These prophets were consulted on affairs of importance : people went to hear their lessons, as appears from the hostess of Elisha. Her husband asks her why she went to see the prophet, seeing that day was neither the Sabbath nor the new moon. (Lightfoot, Centur, p. 661 ; II. Kings, iv. 23.) These schools con- tinued down to the captivity of Babylon ; and it should seem, that the captives resorted to such establishments to hear the prophets, when there were any, in the places where they resided. Ezekiel re- lates sundry conversations with the elders of Israel, who came to see him and to consult him. The people also assembled about him, as if to hear him and to be instructed by him ; but they were not very careful to reduce his instructions to practice (Ezek. viii., xiv., xx.).' Previous to the captivity it was in these schools, colleges, or societies of the prophets that the chief seats and depositories of learn- ing were to be found ; and from the same institutions commonly proceeded that suc- cession of public teachers who, at various times, endeavoured to call back to the purity of their religious allegiance both the people and the rulers of a less or more alienated Israel. After the return from Babylon, an epoch from which the Jews began to incorporate the acquire- ment of foreign languages in their cur- riculum of education, the schools of the prophets were succeeded by synagogues of instruction and enlightenment. Learn- ing, which in its primitive limitation had always been highly esteemed, acquired with its growing variety and usefulness an ever increasing amount of respect; and educated persons, according to Rab- binical tradition, were called * sons of the noble,' and were allowed to take prece- dence at tables. In most cities there was at least one of these synagogues, which were either themselves used as schools, or had places attached to them for the pur- pose. It is even suggested O n the strength of a passage in the book of Esther, that there were synagogues at Shushan, or Susa, in the time of Esther and Mordecai. At any rate, they rapidly became numer- ous throughout Judea ; and in Jerusalem, where every trading company had its own, and the strangers and sojourners several,. ! their frequency was variously estimated in numbers that ranged from 394 to 460. It is recorded on the authority of St. Jerome that, a little before the birth of Jesus Christ, two famous Rabbins, | Shammai and Hillel, the heads of two- celebrated schools, formed two parties among the Jews ; and were the masters of the Scribes and Pharisees. Akiba succeeded them, and was master to the famous Aquila, the translator of the Scriptures of the Old Testament. Akiba had Meir for his successor, after whom appeared Johanan, son of Zachai, then Eliezer, afterwards Delphon, Joseph the Galilean, and lastly Joshua, who presided over this school at the taking of Jeru- ! salem. Thus the Jews made out the suc- j cession of their doctors in the time of ! Jerome (A.D. 342-420). After the destruction of Jerusalem, colleges inheriting and probably enlarg- ing the traditions of their predecessors, were maintained for a long time in several localities. One of the most celebrated of these was established at Jabneh, or Japhne, in Galilee ; the fame of whose learned doctors is often mentioned in the Talmud. The Great Sanhedrim was also I held at Japhne ; and it was in this holy city, according to Jewish tradition, that the great Gamaliel was buried. Lydda, or Diospolis, was for some time previous to the destruction of Jerusalem the seat of another very famous Jewish school, scarcely second to that of Japhne. About the time of the siege it was presided over by Rabbi Gamaliel, second of the name. But the most famous academy was that of Tiberias in Galilee, which bore a con- ! spicuous part in the wars between the Jews and Romans. The Great Sanhedrim subsequently to the fall of Jerusalem, and after a temporary sojourn successively at Japhne and Sephoris, fixed its seat at Tiberias about the middle of the second century. It was here that the Mishna, or code of the Jewish laws, was compiled by the great Rabbi Jehuda, surnamed I Hakkodesh, about A.D. 200 ; and th Massorah or body of traditions which 39* SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY transmitted the readings of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, and preserved by means of the vowel system the pro- nunciation of Hebrew, originated in a great measure at Tiberias. These schools, in process of time, were dispersed into other countries ; so that from about the middle of the third century the Jews are constrained to seek the succession of their doctors beyond the Euphrates, where they say schools subsisted in various places, now of doubtful identification, for eight centuries that is till about A.D. 1030, when they were destroyed by the Saracens. The method of teaching in the syna- gogues and in the schools is plainly observable in the Gospels and in the Acts of the Apostles. But it is to the Talmud that we turn for the most minute and precise particu- lars about the later and more liberal edu- cation of the Jewish youth ; who, accord- ing to the principles laid down in the Mishna, began at five years of age the study of the Scriptures, and at ten the Mishna, becoming subject to the whole .Law at thirteen, whilst, finally, at fifteen they proceeded to the study of the Gemara, the decisive commentaries which bear to the Mishna the relation of complement, or completion. The sages of the Talmud held the school and the process of instruction in the very highest estimation. To them the school was the very essence of life, the calling of a teacher the highest and holiest of all pursuits. The school was necessary to the life of the world which ' exists only by the breath of school-children ' ; and * a town which has no school and no school- children should be demolished.' Taken at their true worth, teachers and schools, therefore, are, rather than the magistrates and the civil and military defenders, to be regarded as the supporters and guardians of the city. The life of the teacher was .so intimately associated with that of the pupil, that the two were, in fact, under all conditions, inseparable. But independently of any other arrange- ment, it was always incumbent upon the father to be the instructor of his son. * He who teaches the Sacred Law to his children is as meritorious as if he had himself received it on Mount Horeb.' It was obligatory that in every town and village schools should be established ; and that children of five or six should be compelled to attend them. The plentiful- ness of schools is illustrated by a numeri- cal hyperbole of the Talmud, which states that * in the town of Betar there were four hundred schools for children.' In each of these schools there were four hundred teachers, each of whom had four hundred scholars under his charge. In the early Talmudic period the instruction under roofs was supplemented by lessons in the open air, so as to prevent over- crowding and the consequent offence against sanitation. This alfresco instruction seems to have continued to be the custom until the time of Rabbi Jehuda Hanassi, who was the first to determine that instruction should be imparted under cover. In the schools, the children were seated either on the ground, on stools, on cushions, or on benches or forms. 'The master,' says Maimonides, * sat at the uppermost place surrounded by his pupils, like a crown on the head, in order that every pupil might see and hear him. The master did not sit on a stool and the pupils on the ground, but all sat either on stools or on the ground. Formerly it was the custom for the master to sit, and the pupils to stand, but, shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem, it was arranged for both pupils and teachers to sit.' On moral grounds no unmarried man or woman was allowed to undertake the post of teacher. But even from those otherwise qualified, who sought to undertake that function, a certain selection was made. A system of thorough grounding was favoured as op- posed to breadth and superficiality; and sympathy and patience were required in the teacher, so that the exceptional dullness of pupils might be cheerfully met with the requisite amount of reiteration. The teacher should, further, be truthful and conscientious, pious and religious; and not only competently versed and fluent in the sacred books, but able and ready to supply a correct interpretation. The veneration due to the teacher was considered by the ancient Rabbis as co- ordinate with the fear of God. * The fear of thy instructor should be as the fear of heaven ' ; and upon the words, ' Thou shalt fear the Lord,' the Talmud remarks, ' This includes the learned teachers also/ The teacher was to be preferred in honour and acts of kindness and respect to the natural father, who was the originator of the physical life merely. This sentiment SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 393 is common to the Talmud and the insti- tutes of Vishnu, as well as one other direction to the effect that the master 'should not teach an unworthy pupil.' * Let the honour of the pupil,' says the Talmud, addressing the teacher, ' be as dear to thee as thine own.' From the time of the captivity, and, a fortiori, after their dispersion the Jews had become increasingly tolerant, not only I of various sciences, as, for instance, of ' astronomy, geometry, and botany, but also of the languages of the Gentiles. 4 Their great admiration for the Greek tongue did not, however, in the least di- minish their interest,' says Mr. Spiers, ' in other branches of education, and they studied the various languages, the arts and sciences of their times. The more Judaism had gathered strength in the course of suc- cessive ages, the more had it penetrated into the heart and mind of the people, *nd the more did they evince a desire for the knowledge of foreign tongues. As in Palestine during the Second Temple the Israelites were acquainted with the Syriac idiom, which was then the dialect of the neigh bouring people, and as in Alexandria they wrote and spoke Greek, so also we see them in Rome, about the time of the destruction of the Temple, rise up as Latin poets and critics. Without aversion and without prejudice they went to work, reiving upon the wise teachers of the Talmud. ' Every word that came from the mouth of God divided itself into seventy languages, that is to say, into all existing languages. They thereby showed that every dialect springs from the Divine Spirit and continues consecrated as long as it preserves and expresses that which is just and true.' Persia. The schools of the ancient Persians, who were a military rather than a theocratic nation, were schools in which the moral and intellectual virtues and faculties were built up chiefly through a course of bodily training, in which cha- racter was nobly formed by physical exer- cise, endurance, frugality, abstinence, self- denial, and self-control. Having regard to the instruments and the aims of their culture, it is scarcely surprising to find the Persians making considerable advances in the direction of a general education, and their State, of all the governments in the world, appearing amongst the first as a distinct agency in its .promotion. Their i religion a typical and exemplary expres- sion of that dualism the central idea of which may be strictly defined as the deifica- tion of two co-ordinate but antagonistic principles of good and evil, and the spirit of which asserts itself in every system that refuses to recognise a dynamic God only, of whom may bfe predicted ethically an absolute exclusion and neutrality, or an absolute comprehension and indifference their religion incited them to make it the duty of each man to contribute to the final victory of Ormuzd over Ahriman, of good over evil, by devoting himself to a life of virtue, to a continued and consistent endea- vour after physical and moral perfection. To certain Greek writers the education of the Persians, and the quality of the career and character which it formed or fostered, seemed to approach, if not to realise, the heroic ; and Xenophon in particular, in his scorn for the institutions and the corrupt administration of his native State, essayed, in his Cyropcedia, the composition of a tableau, the foremost figure of which as- sumed to be historical, and the others to be living in conditions that had a basis in existing institutions. Upon this work the author impressed so deeply the stamp of feasibility as to leave it debateable whether it was intended for a romance or a history. Of course, the purely romantic side of the argument has had its supporters, and Cicero, for one, says the Cyropcedia was written, not to suit historical fidelity, but to exhibit a representation (effigies) of an excellent government. In many important respects it fails of the truth of history ; chronology, for instance, is disregarded, and the sequence of events anticipated by a development not short of the miraculous. The political affinities of Xenophon, an Athenian of high rank, were with the more aristocratic economy of Sparta, and he has set the idealised institutions of this State to work themselves out in unison with those of Persia, and in the latter country as an arena. Whilst serving un- der the younger Cyrus he had enjoyed an opportunity of gaining an insight into the actual and the possible of the Persian regime, and had assumed, by making the elder Cyrus his hero, to add to that mon- arch's military glory the more subdued and mellowed hues of justice and modera- tion. In the first book of the Cyropcedia are laid down the institutions in and by which Cyrus was formed and educated 394 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY preparatory to his high career ; which career, it is to be remembered, is also worked out in the spirit of these institu- tions. The Persian laws seem to begin with a provident care for the common good, and by anticipation forestall the possible bad effects of imperfect training in any particular family by extending over all education a State control. Within a free agora not for traffic are arranged in their several courts the four classes of a representative city : the boys, the youths, the full-grown men, and the elders. To each of these classes belong its appropriate duties of routine and contingency, and each higher or older class has proportional privileges and immunities. The idea of the education generally is military ; the boys are overlooked by presidents taken from the elders ; the youths are superin- tended by the full-grown men ; and the presidents are themselves regulated by a superior presidency. No individual amongst the Persians is excluded by law from honours and magistracies, but all are at liberty to send their boys to the public schools. Here they pass through a course of practical justice, and learn to acquire self-control, temperance, obedience, and above all to detest the crime of ingrati- tude. This vice, as evidencing a profane carelessness with regard to the demands of religion and filial piety, and the calls of patriotism and friendship, is an offence obnoxious and punishable by law. The second class, of young men, pass their time by day and night in a round of duties, of which the armed guardianship of the State is typical. Having discharged all the duties of this class they pass into that of the full-grown men, upon whom devolves the burden of foreign military service, and who are eligible to honours and magistra- cies. After passing through this class unexceptionably, they are enrolled amongst the elders, an order which stands composed of approved and excellent men. These, freed from the claims of military service, dispense public and private justice ; with them rest the election of all magistrates, and the power of life and death. There is a nicely-graduated reverence of class to class, youth to age, subjects to rulers, and all to law. The Laconising attitude of Xenophon is discoverable in the military- like organisation of his States, and the gradual working up to honours by means of seniority. Conservatism was pretty well assured, and innovation discouraged, by an age-standard of admission to the Spartan Gerousia, and of eligibility to the ruling class or council of the Persians. Such is a description in brief of the educational code of the Persians according to the Cyropcedia, for which Xenophon alone is responsible. But with his version of the system he extols, it is pertinent to compare the account of the same which is arrived at by the incorporation with the picture by Xenophon of touches inciden- tally supplied by Herodotus, Plato, Strabo, and others. This incorporation is pre- sented in convenient epitome by Canon Rawlinson, who, in his account of Persian education, is careful to note that ' a small part only rests upon the unsupported autho- rity of the Athenian romancer.' Canon Rawlinson says : * All the best authorities are agreed that great pains were taken by the Persians or, at any rate, by those of the leading clans in the education of their sons. During the first five years of his life the boy remained wholly with the women, and was scarcely, if at all, seen by his father. After that time his training commenced. He was expected to rise before dawn, and to appear at a certain spot, where he was exercised with other boys of his age in running, slinging stones, shooting with the bow, and throwing the javelin. At seven he was taught to ride, and soon afterwards he was allowed to begin to hunt. The riding included, not only the ordinary management of the horse, but the power of jumping on and off his back when he was at speed, and of shooting with the bow and throwing the javelin with unerring aim while the horse was still at full gallop. The hunting was con- ducted by State officers, who aimed at form- ing by its means in the youths committed to their charge all the qualities needed in war. The boys were made to bear extremes of heat and cold, to perform long marches, to cross rivers without wetting their weapons, to sleep in the open air at night, to be content with a single meal in two days, and to support themselves occa- sionally on the wild products of the country, acorns, wild pears, and the fruit of the terebinth tree. On days when there was no hunting they passed their mornings in athletic exercises, and contests with the bow or the javelin, after which they dined simply on the plain food of the men in the early times, and then employed SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 395 themselves during the afternoon in occu- pations regarded as not illiberal for in- stance, in the pursuits of agriculture, planting, digging for roots, and the like, or in the construction of arms and hunting implements, such as nets and springes. Hardy and temperate habits being secured by this training, the point of morals on which their preceptors mainly insisted was the rigid observance of truth. Of intellec- tual education they had but little. It seems to have been no part of the regular training of a Persian youth that he should learn to read. He was given religious notions, and a certain amount of moral knowledge by means of legendary poems, in which the deeds of gods and heroes were set before him by his teachers, who recited or sung them in his presence, and afterwards required him to repeat what he had heard, or, at any rate, to give some account of it. This education continued for fifteen years, commencing when the boy was five, and terminating when he reached the age of twenty. ' The effect of this training was to ren- der the Persian an excellent soldier, and a most accomplished horseman. Accustomed from early boyhood to pass the greater part of every day in the saddle, he never felt so much at home as when mounted upon a prancing steed. On horseback he pursued the stag, the boar, the antelope, even occa- sionally the bear or the lion, and shot his arrows, or slung his stones, or hurled his javelin at them with deadly aim, never pausing for a moment in his career. Only when the brute turned on his pursuers, and stood at bay, or charged them in its furious despair, they would sometimes descend from their coursers, and receive the attack or deal the coup de grdce on foot, using for the purpose a short but strong hunting- spear. The chase was the principal delight of the upper class of Persians, so long as the ancient manners were kept up, and continued an occupation in which the bolder spirits loved to indulge long after decline had set in, and the advance of luxury had changed to a great extent the character of the nation. * At fifteen years of age the Persian was considered to have attained to man- hood, and was enrolled in the ranks of the army, continuing liable to military service from that time till he reached the age of fifty. Those of the highest rank became the body-guard of the king, and these formed the garrison of the capital. They were a force of not less than fourteen or fifteen thousand men. Others, though liable to military service, did not adopt arms as their profession, but> attached themselves to the court, and looked to civil employment as satraps, secretaries, atten- dants, ushers, judges, inspectors, messen- gers. A portion, no doubt, remained in the country districts, and there followed those agricultural pursuits which the Zo- roastrian religion regarded as in the highest degree honourable.' Persian education has found a modern admirer in the person of Canon Farrar, who has shaped his opi- nion in words of eulogy to the following effect : 'We boast of our educational ideal. Is it nearly as high in some essentials as that even of some ancient and heathen nations long centuries before Christ came 1 The ancient Persians were worshippers of fire and of the sun; most of their children would have been probably unable to pass the most elementary examination in phy- siology, but assuredly the Persian ideal might be worthy of our study. At the age of fourteen the age when we turn our children adrift from school, and do nothing more for them the Persians gave their young nobles the four best masters whom they could find to teach their boys, wisdom, justice, temperance, and courage wisdom including worship, justice including the duty of unswerving truthfulness through life, temperance including mastery over sensual temptations, courage including a free mind opposed to all things coupled with guilt.' Rome : see ROMAN EDUCATION. For Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldaea, consult Canon Rawlinson's Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, 2nd edit. 1871 ; Mr. George Smith's As- syria, from the Earliest Times to tJie Fall of Nineveh, 1875, in series of Ancient History from the Monuments, and History of Babylonia, edited by A. H. Sayce, 1877 ; Professor A. H. Sayce's Babylonian Lite- rature, 1877, and the same author's Hib- bert Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, 1887; Lec- tures (unpublished) delivered at the British Museum by Mr. Boscawen and Mr. Bertin in 1887 and 1888. For China : M. Edouard Biot's Essai sur I'Histoire de V Instruction publique en Chine, 1865 ; Professor Terrien de Lacouperie's Early 396 SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY- 5CHUOLS OF MUSIC History of Chinese Civilisation, 1880 ; Dr. j W. A. P. Martin's The Chinese: tlieir ' Education, Philosophy, and Letters, 1881; Professor Robert K. Douglas's China, 1882 ; Dr. S. Wells Wmiams's The Middle Jtingdom, revised edition, 1883; The Sa- wed Books of China, 1885, in the series of The Sacred Books of the East, in pro- gress , and others. For Egypt : Canon Rawlinson's Five Great Monarchies, 1871, and his History of Ancient Egypt, 1881; Professor GeorgEbers's Uarda: Roman aus dem alien Aegypten, 1877; Brugsch-Bey's GeschicJite Aegyptens unter den Pharaonen, 1877-8 ; M.' P. Le Page Renouf s Hib- bert Lectures, 1879, on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of Ancient Egypt, 1880 ; Mr. E. A. W. Budge's Dwellers on the Nile, in By-paths of Bible Knowledge, vol. viii. 1885; and others. For India : Professor Max Miiller's Preface to the Rig- Veda- Sanliita, The Sacred Hymns of the Brah- mans translated and explained, vol. i. 1869 ; Professor R. G. Bhandarkar's The Veda in India, in the Indian Antiquary for May, 1874 ; The Sacred Laws of the Ar- ty as, 1879, Institutes of Vishnu, 1880, and the Laws of Manu, 188&, in the Sacred Books of the East, in progress ; Sir W. W. Hunter's India, in the Encyclopaedia Bri- tannica, 9th edit., vol. xii. 1881 ; Professor Max Miiller's Hibbert Lectures for 1878, on the Origin and Growth of Religion as ilhistrated by the Religions of India, new edit. 1882. For Judea Josephus' An- tiquities of the Jews and Wars of the Jews ; Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible ; Rev. H. W. Phillott's article < Education ' in Dr. William Smith's Dictionary of the Bible ; Rev B. Spiers' School System of the Talmud, 5642-1882; Professor Corn- pay re's Histoire de la Pedagogic, 1883 : Cappelli's Pciroz's Storia Universale della Pedagogia, 1884 ; Rev. Dr. Edersheim's ^Sketches of Jeunsh /Social Life in tJie days of Christ, 1876 ; and the Life and Times of Jesus, the Messiah, 4th edition, 1887. See for Japan : Sir Rutherford Alcock's Capital of the Tycoon, 1863 ; Professor Leon de Rosny's Anthologie Japonaise, 1874, and La Civilisation Japonaise, Ib83; Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 1872-1882, passim- Mr. Basil Hall Cham- berlain's Classical Poetry of the Japanese, 1880 ; Isabella L. Bird's Unbeaten Tracts in Japan, 1880; Professor J. J. Rein's Japan nach Reisen und Studien, 1881; Mr. W. E. Griffis' The Mikado's Empire, 1883; Mr. William Anderson's Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of a Collection oj Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British Museum, 1886 ; and, especially, An Outline History of Japanese Education, Literature, and Arts ; prepared by the Mombusho (Department of Education"), Tokio, Japan, 1877. For Persia: He- rodotus ; Xenophon's Cyropcedia ; Canon Rawlinson's Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, 2nd edit. 1871; Professor Com pay re's Histoire de la Peda- gogic, 1883 ; and others. Schools of Music. No more direct evidence of the rapid growth during later years of music in the cities and towns of the United Kingdom could be furnished than the great increase of schools and aca- demies wholly devoted to the cultivation of the art. But a little more than a couple of decades back the Royal Aca- demy of Music in Tenterden Street, Han- over Square, was almost the only insti- tution of the kind to which metropolitan students could resort for practice and in- struction in the several branches of the science. The Academy no longer stands alone, out, thanks to a perception by the directorate and committee of management of modern desires and requirements, it fully maintains its influence and import- ance. Instituted in 1822 and incorporated by royal charter in 1830, the Academy has been identified with the life labours of many eminent composers, vocalists, and instrumentalists of the past as well as of the present time. The privileges apper- taining to King's scholars- and to Men- delssohn scholars have been enjoyed by Miss Agnes Zimmermann, Miss Maude Valerie White, Messrs. Henry Weist Hill (now the principal of the Guildhall School of Music), John Francis Barnett, William G. Cusins, Alexander Campbell Macken- zie (now principal of the Academy), Arthur Seymour Sullivan, and Eaton Faning, to enumerate only a few well- known names figuring in the list. The Potter exhibition, founded in 1860 as a testimonial to Cipriani Potter, who was principal of the Academy from 1832 to 1859 ; the Westmorland scholarship, es- tablished in 1861 in memory of John Fane, the eleventh Earl of Westmorland, founder of the Academy, who died in 1859; the Sterndale Bennett scholarship; the Sir John Goss scholarship, for candidates under SCHOOLS OF MUSIC SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 39? eighteen years of age, who have been mem- l>ers of church choirs and intend to make , organ-playing their chief subject of study; j the Thalberg scholarship, for pianists of both sexes ; the Henry Stuart scholar- ship; the Sainton- Dolby scholarship; the Balfe scholarship ; the Sir Michael Costa scholarships, bequeathed by the late fa- mous conductor ; and the Liszt scholar- ship, founded in honour of the visit to this country in 1880, a few months before his death, "of the distinguished composer and pianist, with many others, are worth the winning and are a great incentive to the development of youthful talent. The com- petition for the prizes and exhibitions is generally active, and invariably evokes the utmost interest. The Royal College of Music, in the establishment of which the Prince of Wales was particularly promi- nent, is located at South Kensington, and may be said to have been raised upon the foundation of another school, under the most influential patronage, which termi- nated its existence a few months previous. The College is of recent formation, but the service it has rendered to the cause of music is noticeable. It can boast of a large number of exhibitions, and is likely to gain in prosperity the more its benefits offered to students become known. The Guildhall School of Music has been re- markably successful under the direction of Mr. Weist Hill. Its promotion is due to the Corporation of the City of London, but not long did it require the assistance of such a powerful advocate. The students were soon so numerous as to put the re- sources of the original premises in Buck- lersbury to the severest test. Enlargement seemed of no avail, so it was determined to erect a building specially adapted to the school on vacant ground on the Thames Embankment, near Blackfriars Bridge. The corporation has behaved with charac- teristic liberality to the school in the matter of prizes, the catalogue of which has been considerably augmented by pri- vate donors. In its new quarters the Guildhall School is certain to prove an im- portant factor to musical progress among those sections of the community hitherto debarred from the particular advantages of study and tuition. There are several other schools of music in the metropolis, but as the majority are based upon the principles of the three great establishments already mentioned, it is scarcely necessary to describe them in detail. (See Music,. SINGING, SOL-FAING, and TONIC SOL-FA.^ Schools of the Middle Ages. See MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE). Schools of the Prophets. See SCHOOLS. OF ANTIQUITY, section JUDEA. Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education. In the year 1335 a Select Committee of ! the House of Commons was appointed on, the motion of Mr. William Ewart, M.P. ; for Liverpool, * to inquire into the best ! means of extending a knowledge of the- ; Arts and of the Principles of Design* among the people, especially the manufac- i turing population of the country.' The- inquiry was continued in the session of 1836, and the Committee recommended j the establishment of schools of design. | In accordance with this recommendation. i a proposal was made to the Treasury by I the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade that a sum of 1,500/1. should be taken in the Estimates for the- establishment of a normal school of de- | sign, with a museum and lectures. The- i Treasury having consented, the President | of the Board of Trade (Mr. Poulett Thomson) presided at a meeting held OIL, December 19, 1836, at the Board of Trade, of certain Royal Academicians and others . interested in art, which provisional body, early in 1837, was constituted the 'Council of the Government School of Design,' the- \ members being unpaid, and the vice-presi- dent of the Board of Trade being an ex- i officio member of the Council. Rooms in., ; Somerset House were granted, and the - School opened on June 1, 1837. In 1841 the Government decided to afford assist- ance towards the formation and mainten- ance of schools of design in the manufac- turing districts, giving an annual grant for the training and payment of teachers,, for the purchase of casts, and the prepa- ration of models for the use of those - schools. In 1842 the Board of Trade re- constituted the Council, and placed the School of Design under the management of a director, controlled by the Council,, which body was itself to be controlled by the Board of Trade. The Parliamentary vote for ' schools of design ' which was . administered by that Department had in- creased in 1851-2 to 15,055/. ; the branch schools in such centres of industry as Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds,, and Paisley were then seventeen in number, . 398 SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT the expenditure on them absorbing nearly one half of the vote. An inquiry into these schools by a Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1849 showed that ithey were not working satisfactorily. New principles of management were therefore adopted in 1852 by the President of the Board of Trade, Mr. Labouchere, and sub- sequently Mr. Henley. The Council was .abolished, and a * Department of Practical Art ' was constituted, with a general super- intendent (Mr. Cole) and an art adviser (Mr. Redgrave). The scope of this Department was enlarged in 1 853. In the Speech from ithe Throne at the opening of Parliament that year her Majesty stated that 'The advancement of the fine arts and of prac- tical science will be readily recognised by you as worthy the attention of a great and enlightened nation. I have directed that .a comprehensive scheme shall be laid be- fore you, having in view the promotion of these objects, towards which I invite your ; aid and co-operation.' A science division -was added, and the ' Department of Science vand Art ' was created. The Department -remained under the control of the Board of Trade until 1856, when the Education Department was constituted, to include 1 (a) The Education Establishment of the Privy Council Office; (6) the establish- ment for the encouragement of science .and art, now under the direction of the jBoard of Trade and called the Department .of Science and Art,' and these two depart- ments were placed under the Lord Presi- ,dent of the Council, who was to be assisted by a vice-president of the Committee of Council on Education. The Parliamen- tary vote for 1856-7 was 64,6752., while that for 1882-3 was 351,4002. Tlie Science Division of the Depart- ment. When the Department was en- ilarged in 1853, so as to embrace science as well as art, the Board of Trade submitted -to the Treasury a detailed scheme for carrying into effect the announcement in the Queen's Speech above quoted. The scheme provided for an extension of a sys- -tem of encouragement to local institu- tions for practical science similar to that already commenced for schools of practical ,-art, by the creation in ' the metropolis of a science school of the highest class cap- .able of affording the best instruction and the most perfect training,' and by aiding linthe establishment of local institutions for -science instruction. It also united in one Department, under the Board of Trade, the Government School of Mines and of Science applied to the Arts, the Museum of Prac- tical Geology, the Geological Survey, the Museum of Irish Industry, and the Royal Dublin Society; all these institutions being in the receipt of Parliamentary grants. Until the end of 1854 there was a sepa- rate secretary for science (Dr. Lyon Play- fair), who discharged also the functions of inspector of local schools. Though the principle of granting aid to Science Schools and classes was established in 1853, no general system, applicable to the whole country, for making grants was formulated until 1859. Experiments were made and schools were established by special minutes applicable to each case after negotiation with the locality. The general arrange- ments were that the teacher or teachers received an allowance in the nature of a certificate allowance ; and their incomes from fees, subscriptions, &c., were gua- ranteed by the Department for a certain number of years at amounts which varied in different cases. In this way classes were opened at various places, but after a time many of them fell through. In 1859 the first general science minute was passed. This enabled any place to esta- blish Science classes and to obtain State aid according to certain fixed rules. The teachers were required to have passed the examination of the Department, and ob- tained a certificate of competency to teach. The aid consisted of certificate allowances, earned by passing a certain number of pupils ; additional payments for pupils who obtained prizes ; grants towards the purchase of apparatus, books, &c.; and prizes and medals to the students. The first examination for teachers was held in November 1859, and a numbei' of new schools and classes were rapidly formed. The payments on results in 1872 amounted to 25,20U, and in 1882 to 49,9082., or at the rate respectively of 1 3s. 8d. and 1 3s. 3d. per student under instruction. Payments were made to committees on account of the instruction given by 1,857 teachers. In 1867 the special examination for teachers' certificates was abolished, and it was decided that any person who passed in the advanced stage, or in honours, at the ordinary general examination in May should be qualified to earn payments on results Sir Joseph Whitworth, in 1868, founded thirty scholarships of the total SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 399 value of 3,OOOZ. a year, and vested them in the Lord President or otherininister of public instruction for the time being, for the purpose of promoting the mechanical industry of this country by aiding young men in acquiring proficiency in engineer- ing. Scholarships and local exhibitions in aid of local efforts had been founded by the Department in the previous year with a view to assist students who showed an aptitude for scientific instruction. Build- ing grants were first extended to Science Schools in 1868. In 1870 the Department commenced the system of special grants towards laboratory instruction, with extra payments on account of the practical work of students. These are now given in Chemistry and Metallurgy. Under the present system of aid, payments are made on the results of instruction as tested by the May examinations of the Department. The papers of questions for this examina- tion are prepared by a staff of examiners, and the answers are examined by them with the aid of assistants, who are paid by piece-work on a scale approved by the Treasury. The examinations in each sub- ject are held simultaneously, and super- vised as far as possible by the local com- mittees. As the number of classes and examinations multiplied rapidly it was found that this was too great a strain on local voluntary effort in the large centres, and a system of paid special local secre- taries and assistants, nominated by the local committees, was commenced in 1870. This has been found to work well, the pay- ment being provided half by the locality and half by the Department. In 1878 it was considered desirable for various reasons to separate the examination of the students in Training Colleges from the ordinary May examinations. Special rules and payments were made for these, and the first December examination was held in 1878. (For the arrangements made for the training of Science teachers see NOR- MAL SCHOOL OF SCIENCE and ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES.) The rules under which grants are made to Science Schools, each of which must be under a properly consti- tuted and approved local committee, are contained in the Science Directory (Eyre their intensity and their quality, e.g. the particular strength or loudness and pitch SEX IN RELATION TO SCHOOL-LIFE SHAKSPERE 407 of a sound. This is the intellectual side of sensibility, and must be carefully dis- tinguished from the emotional side. In- tellectual sensibility, or discriminativeness, varies greatly among individuals, ranging from extreme incapacity, as illustrated in colour-blindness, up to the most delicate discriminativeness as seen in the artist's finely graduated colour- vocabulary. It is on the degree of discriminativeness pos- sessed by a sense that its intellectual value immediately depends ; and a child's whole range of knowledge is limited by the discriminativeness of its senses. On its emotional side sensibility means prima- rily the capability of being affected agree- ably or disagreeably by sense-stimuli, as pressure, sound, &c. In a secondary manner it refers to the mind's emotional susceptibility, or the capability of feeling sorrow and joy, fear, anger, &c. In this sense it forms the basis of the life of feeling or emotion. It is important to bear in mind that there is no uniform connection between the degrees of intellectual and of emotional sensibility. Thus a child may be very discriminative of sounds, but not necessarily susceptible to the disturbing effects of sounds in the same degree. The more acute degrees of sensibility on its emotional side are often marked off by the term Sensitiveness. A sensitive eye is one that is quickly affected by the pleasurable and painful aspects of light and colour. A sensitive child responds quickly to emo- tional excitements, is moved to fear dis- pleasure &c. by slight causes which others would not feel. (See Sully, Teacher's Hand- book, p. 122, &c.; Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty, p. 27, &c.) Sessions. See TERMS. Sex in Relation to School-Life. An important physical distinction between boys and girls is commonly lost sight of. It is that while the growth of boys con- tinues fairly steadily up to manhood, girls concentrate a large share of their growth in a few years, especially between the age of twelve and a half and fifteen years. For this and other reasons the age of puberty is a more critical time for girls than boys, and schooling requires to be carefully regulated at this period. Another fact bearing on the same question is that girls, as a rule, have fewer games and less muscular exercise of any kind than boys, and for this reason are much more apt to suffer in consequence of school-work. It is only fair to say that the ill effects ascribed to school-work are oftener due to the ex- citement of novels or other forms of dissi- pation, to late hours and impure atmo- sphere, or to defective exercise. Undue devotion to music seems to have a specially exciting influence* on some girls, acting on their emotional faculties. Similarly, emu- lation in connection with examinations is more likely to be injurious to girls than boys. With due care for the physical system, however, there can be no doubt that girls are quite as competent for the higher branches of study as boys, and may pass on to university life without any de- triment to their general health. Shakspere in Schools. Shakspere may be used in schools for reading aloud, in which case the plays may very well be abridged, so as to bring each of them within the scope of two, or at most three, lessons. The plays are chiefly used, how- ever, as the subject-matter of literature lessons at least of lessons which go by that name, though in fact they are anything but literary. There are certain things necessary for making the study of these plays as literature thoroughly effective. They should not be the first literature which school children study. They are not simple enough in subject, feeling, or expression. Quite young children may read them for their interesting stories, but they cannot study them as literature. Let children begin with something as simple as John Gilpin, and be led up gradually through two or three stages to the plays. Then, and not till then, will they get a full and valuable training and delight from the plays. Children should not have their study of the plays over- whelmed with dates, and grammar, and archaeology, and antiquarianism, and philo- logy. Just so much of these should be used as really enlighten the learners as to the text and its full meaning just so much and no more. The plays should be treated as plays, and as masterpieces of literature ; as works of art, that is, not as mere stalking-horses for pedants. The introductions should throw light upon the art of the plays, their human value, and beauty not merely upon dates of compo- sition and original sources. They should put the learner in the right position and give him the right point of view for tho- roughly understanding and appreciating what is before him. In studying the 408 SIIIRREFF (MISS) SHORTHAND plays the learners should be led to see and feel the value and force of speeches as indications and revelations of character ; and they should be enabled to appreciate the language for its skilful expression of thought and its beauty of sound ; and hence they must also understand the thought itself, and the mode in which it expresses itself, as well as the meanings of the words used. These are some of the chief points to be attended to. For the rest see the article on ENGLISH LITERATURE. Shirreff (Miss). See EDUCATION OP GIRLS. Shorthand. The first system of short- hand is attributed to Cicero, but from the decline of the Roman empire there is an interval of about a thousand years during which nothing is heard of that or of any otner system. The credit of reviving stenography belongs to an Englishman, Timothy Bright, who in 1588 published Characterie, the, Art of Short, Sivift, and Secret Writing by Character. Only one copy (that in the Bodleian Library) is known to exist. An examination of it shows that, compared with any recent system, Characterie was very cumbrous, difficult, and uncertain. Of the eighteen signs which formed its alphabet seventeen were compound, and hundreds of words were represented by signs purely arbi- trary. Since B right's day nearly two hundred English systems have appeared, but to describe or even name a twentieth of them would be foreign to the purpose of this article. It will be enough to men- tion those only which have found any con- siderable number of students. The Art of Stenography . . . invented by John Willis, Bachelor in Divinity, was published in 1602, and reached a tenth edition. In 1654 was issued Semigraphy, or Art's .Rarity, by Jeremiah Rich, but the real author was William Cartwright, who was Rich's uncle. After Rich's death appeared an exposition of his system by another hand. For many years this was the chief system. Pepys wrote his diary in it, and Locke commended it in his Treatise on Education. Rich's method, however, was not so good as Mason's, published in 1672, : and still written in a modified form, under the name of Gurney's (Thomas Gurney having adopted and improved the system early in the eighteenth century), by the official shorthand writer to the Houses of Parliament. About 1720 John Byrom completed a system which wn,s an improve- ment on anything that had yet been seen. Till the death of an elder brother made him a man of property he lived by teaching his method, which consequently was not made public till after his own death. In 1786 Taylor's system appeared. It was as brief as Byrom's, simpler, and more success- ful. Three years later appeared Dr. Ma- vor's, which, though not quite so successful as Taylor's, passed through many editions. In 1815 James Henry Lewis published his successful Ready Writer, or neplus ultra of Shorthand, being the most easy, exact, lineal, speedy, and legible method yet discovered. The author, speaking of it in his very use- ful Historical Account of Shorthand, says : 4 The unparalleled success which has at- tended the dissemination of the above system precludes the necessity of descant- ing on its peculiar advantages ; it is amply sufficient to observe that it has completely superseded all others,' tfec., tfcc. The last system which need be noticed is Pit- man's Phonography, which has found more writers than all other English systems combined. The first edition appeared in 1837. The characteristics of a good system are : (1) The alphabet is simple. The simplest elements are the straight line and the curve, and unless most letters consist of these the system must necessarily be long, and therefore useless for the pur- poses of the reporter. A straight line may be perpendicular, horizontal, oblique with a right slant, or oblique with a left slant. A curve may be written in the same four directions, and in each direction may face two ways. We have thus twelve characters consisting of a simple straight or curved stroke, but these are manifestly insufficient for an alphabet, and various devices have been adopted to increase them, such as writing them of two thick- nesses or of two lengths. (2) Allied sounds are represented by allied signs. In writing quickly the proper slope, or length, or thickness may not always be observed, but the possibility of a serious mistake in reading is greatly re- duced if the principle indicated be ob- served. Thus pail, bail, fail, and vail, each beginning with a labial, differ only in the initial, but if the characters of these initials be somewhat similar the most likely error is the transposition of two of them, and the context will suggest the SHORTHAND 409 right word, if, for instance, pail be written for bail. (3) The vowels are detached from the consonants. In following a speaker it is absolutely impossible to write every letter of every word he utters, and in all sys- tems most of the vowels are omitted. If, as in the older systems, the vowels are an integral part of the word, its appearance will be completely changed by their omis- sion, and in its brief form it will be hard to recognise. If, on the other hand, the is a matter of the eye, and so long as words vowels are detached, the ' outline ' of the have to be represented in one way it is For the learner, practice in reading is as important as practice in writing. The instruction books must be supplemented by a study of the best models for writing, and no system can furnish a twentieth part as many of fchese as Phonography. It has been suggested that Phono- graphy being, as the name implies, a pho- netic system, the practice of it tends to injure the writer's spelling ; but this ob- jection is groundless. Correct orthography word is the same whether they be written or omitted. Thus in Phonography com- munication is written in full and without the prefix and vowel signs , and an experienced writer recognises the second as rapidly as the first. (4) Pro-vision is made against the con- fusion which would be caused if all the words having the same consonants were written with the same outline. Pair, peer, appear, poor, pyre, pure, pray, prow, parry, and perry, for instance, are by no means all the words in which p and r are the only consonants. (5) There are few or no awkward joins between the letters. In some systems the joins are so awkward that words can only be written correctly by being written very slowly. (6) No word goes so far above or below its own line as to interfere with the words in the next. The confusion which would ensue were this rule disregarded is evident. Apart from its immense practical value shorthand has a high educative worth which should commend it to all good teachers. The first point which a prin- cipal, thinking of introducing shorthand into his school, has to decide is the system to be adopted, and no hesitation need be felt in recommending Pitman's Phono- graphy, because it is easy to write, easy to read, and easy to learn. Even those who deny that it is the best system admit that it is a good one. It is, moreover, the most popular system. This popularity is of advantage in several ways. The sym- pathy of numbers is in itself helpful. The learner is certain to find phonographers everywhere ; his chances of being able to use the system for correspondence are in- finitely greater than if he wrote any other, and there are hundreds of enthusiasts who dangerous to make the eye familiar with any other way. Thus if we habitually saw rong we might write the word so when wrong was required ; but although in pho- nography the w is omitted, what the stu- dent sees is not rong but /"" and this cannot affect his spelling. A principal who is about to introduce the study should be careful that the in- structor he employs is competent. Besides phonography, the following systems have at the present time (1888) adherents among professional shorthand writers practising in London : Gurney's, Taylor's, Lewis's, and Mavor's, already re- ferred to ; and Purton's, which is sup- posed to have originated with William Purton, known to have been a school- master in London in 1819. Nearly two hundred systems have been published since 1837. Most of these have disappeared. But the great position which phonography has gained is now (1888) challenged by several authors. An active propaganda is carried on by J. M. Sloan, an adapter to English of the popular French system of Duploye, in which vowels and consonants are joined in their natural order. J. D. Everett, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen's College, Belfast, is the author of a system in which there is great representation of vowels. What may be termed the school of Alexander Melville Bell (1854), in which the presence or absence of vowels is inferred from the writing of the consonants, is represented by ' Legible Shorthand,' the invention of E. Pocknell, a London shorthand writer, and * Audeography,' by F. Valpy. Of a cognate character is the system of A. M. Browne. A system by E. Guest repre- sents the c compendious ' school. A. Janes's ' Shorthand without Complications ' goes more upon the old lines, but it is notice- will correct his exercises free of charge, j able as the first system in which thick and 410 SIDES SINGING thin characters have been combined in the alphabet with the ' looped ' characters of Taylor. Script systems have been revived, and among authors who are working in this direction may be mentioned P. Kings- ford, who entitles his method ' The Ox- ford Shorthand.' The general character- istic of the new systems, with the excep- tion of Janes's, may be said to be the fuller representation, or indication, of vowels. Sides. See MODERN SCHOOLS. Singing" has been denned as the use of the voice in accordance with the laws of music. This definition, however, lands us where we started from. A more practical definition would be given by saying that singing depends first on the utterance by the voice of sustained sounds, and second on the ordered relationship of these sounds in the musical scale. Between speech and song there is merely this difference, that in speech the voice is perpetually chang- ing its pitch by minute and indefinite degrees, and in song the changes of pitch, however rapid, proceed by definite and measurable intervals. It is conjectured by Mr. Rowbotham, in his History of Music^ that song is a survival of that lan- guage of cries which preceded speech in the history of mankind. Quite apart from the definite emotions raised by the words in song, there is an undefinable yet all compelling emotion which the voice itself kindles in us. This fact has led an in- genious American writer to speculate on the future of vocal music, and to assert that the coming singer will merely warble vowel sounds without any words. Such an issue is, however, impossible so long as speech retains its power in the world. We are provided in the music of artificial in- struments with the vague and mystical aspect of music ; what the singer does over and above this is to draw out our sym- pathy by his personality, and to direct our thoughts in fixed and common directions by the words he utters. Physiologically, speaking and singing are the same act. The same nerve which, communicating with the brain, prompts the larynx when we speak, prompts it when we sing. It follows from this that every one who can speak can also sing, and in a general sense this is undoubtedly true. The statement, however, needs qualifica- tion. Just as the speaking voice in dif- ferent people is harsh or mellifluous,, so the singing voice varies from a rasping strain to smooth and easeful roundness. But in the power to command the various pitches required in song, to strike them accurately and sustain them on a perfect level, persons vary greatly. It is this power that is described as * having an ear for music.' The gift is, indeed, far more general than is supposed. If dormant, it can be cultivated ; it is trained in child- hood more easily than in adult age ; and the best authorities are of opinion that persons who are ' tone blind ' are not more numerous than those who are ' colour blind.' The value of singing in education arises from several causes. It is in the first place a healthy exercise. Dr. Affleck has said that if there were more singing there would be less coughing. Singing requires that deep respiration which in ordinary speech we seldom use. It causes a large quantity of air to be brought in contact with the lungs, and thus renews and purifies the blood. Deep breathing exercises are recommended by several American hygienists, and they are said to possess all the advantages which change of air brings. These exercises can be had, pleasantly and without formality, in the process of singing. The second function of singing in education is as a relief from severer studies. The localising of the brain functions enables us to understand how singing, appealing to another part of the mind, and to the whole nervous sys- tem through its rhythm and tone, performs the same function in school work which oil performs to a heated and labouring- machine. It soothes and refreshes, indeed repairs, brain fag, and enables the pupil to return to studies which occupy the memory and the reason with a new supply of vital force. A third purpose in sing- ing, especially with young children, is to store the memory pleasantly and without effort with a quantity of bracing and formative verse, calculated to strengthen the will and the principles of conduct, teaching patriotism, love to parents, kind- ness to the weak and suffering, to animals, and so on. The inculcation of religious principle through music is too obvious to need remark. The teaching of singing in schools is in the fourth place important because it is the beginning and foundation of all musical study. This is a point on which SINGING 411 the late John Hullah was never tired of insisting. If you wish to learn the piano- forte, the violin, &c., he would say, learn first to sing. The reason of this is as fol- lows. The difficulties of mastering an artificial musical instrument may be di- vided into two classes. First, we have to train the ear to recognise and imitate at will musical tones, to comprehend rhythm and measure, to feel and produce light and shade and phrasing, and to read musical notation. Second, we have to master the technicalities of the particular instrument, and to train the fingers quickly to obey the dictates of the eye and the mind. All the first class of subjects can be studied fully and most satisfactorily in the process of learning to sing. When this is done, and a pupil takes up an in- strument, he will find that a great deal of the work which he thought was before him is really behind him. Much of the discord and halting which beginners upon instruments inflict on themselves and others are caused by their own mental uncertainty as to the tone or the time re- quired. They are learning music and mechanism at the same time, instead of separating them. The pupil who begins an instrument having first learned to understand music and to read musical notation, makes far more rapid and satisfactory progress than one who is weighted with the double care we have described. The first caution necessary for all teachers of singing, whether their pupils are adults or children, is that the voice must be gently used, because of its deli- cacy as an instrument. There is danger both in strain and in fatigue ; in singing too loudly and in singing too long. We cannot say much, within the limits of the present article, on the physiology of the voice. The recent works by Lennox Browne and Behnke and by Sir Morell Mackenzie may be consulted by those who wish to master the subject. There is, no doubt, a tendency to overrate the import- ance of a knowledge of vocal physiology to the teacher of singing. The great end of the teacher is to produce pure and smooth tone, to develop the voice in power and control, to watch every sign of deterioration. As a rule, if the pupils sing naturally they will sing rightly. The registers of the voice are seldom misused except when the singing is too loud. Nasal and throaty tone, which arise from' a wrong employment of the mouth and nostrils, can generally be corrected by the teacher's own judgment. As the voice ascends in pitch the larynx (the voice- box which is in alUour throats) performs- its functions in a different way, and the- change of mechanism is called a change of register. The registers of girls' voices do not commonly trouble the teacher, but those of boys' need care. Boys speak in a stronger register than girls, and are prone to force that register upwards in singing beyond its proper limit. The- lower register should not be used by boys above A, at which point they should change into a softer and more fluty voice, which will be at once recog- nised by the teacher. At first this higher register is thin and weak, but practice strengthens it greatly. Boys' voices are naturally as high as girls, and if they find that an ordinary tune tires them it is in all probability because they are using the wrong register. The way to cure them of this is to pitch the tune in question a fourth or even a fifth higher, so that they are forced to employ and strengthen the higher register. In singing, the teeth must be fairly opened and the lips drawn open with them, but exaggeration should be avoided. The management of the breath is all impor- tant. It should be taken in by lowering the diaphragm and distending the ribs y not by raising the upper chest or collar- bone. Abdominal breathing is natural and powerful ; collar-bone breathing is- feeble and artificial. Standing is the true position for singing. This is proved by the spirometer, a little machine for testing the quantity of breath that can be drawn into, and consequently exhaled from, the lungs. The spirometer proves that the same person can inhale and retain most breath when standing, less when sitting, and still less when lying down. Let the pupils stand erectly, but not stiffly, when singing ; they should assume the posture of * stand at ease ' of the soldier. Stooping to look at the music and bending over a book shared by another pupil are both bad. The pupils should sing from me- mory or from a blackboard or chart.. 412 SINGING Palling these they must learn to hold their foooks without lowering their heads. Boys and girls should never be allowed to sing during the period of mutation. The few very few writers on the sub- ject who have given contrary advice have done so recklessly. There is a very power- ful consensus of opinion against the use of the voice during this period. Dr. Stainer attributes the loss of his singing voice to the fact ^at he sang solos as a boy at St. Paul's Cathedral after he was sixteen years of age. The change in the girl's voice is so much less marked than in the boy's that it is liable to be overlooked. But there is always a time when the girl's voice becomes husky and veiled. Singing -should then stop. The common faults of singing flat and singing sharp give great trouble to teachers. They are especially observable when the ringing is accompanied by an instrument. Both faults may be largely corrected by a study of the mental effects of the tones of the scale, which is part of the tonic sol-fa -system (q.v.} According to this theory, when a scale or tune is sounding in the ear each tone of it impresses the mind with an individuality of its own. The pitch may be high or low, but the place of the tone in relation to its surrounding tones enables us to fix and recall it. The singer who feels tones in this way will strike them with certainty. The ear or dictation exercises, which are another part of the tonic sol-fa system, provide a second means of rendering the ear sensitive to musical intonation. From the first, tonic -sol-fa pupils are taught not only to pro- duce sounds for given notes, but inversely to produce notes for given sounds. Singing sharp is a far less common fault than singing flat. It results from excess of energy and nervous excitement. The causes of flattening are various, and even the best singers and choirs are sub- ject to it at times. It may be described ;as generally due to relaxation of interest ^ancl fatigue. Fresh air, change of posture, may help to cure it. Sometimes, if the fault is bad, the singing should cease, and -some point of theory which does not in- volve singing be introduced. It is well to accustom the class to think about main- tenance of pitch, even in their unaccom- panied music, by sounding the key-note on a chromatic pitch-pipe or the pianoforte at the close as well as at the beginning of a piece. The wrong use of the registers, which we have already referred to, is also a fruitful cause of flattening, perhaps the most fruitful. Clear pronunciation is an element of singing which is both important and sadly neglected. As we speak, so we sing, and by common consent the Englishman is a most slovenly speaker. The Scotch and the Welsh articulate better than we do. ' Our speech/ says Mr. H. C. Deacon, ' is carried on in smudges of sound.' And, as water cannot rise above its level, so pupils are not likely to pronounce better than their teacher. The teacher of singing must bear in mind that half of singing is elo- cution (q.v.) Good reciters and readers must be studied as models ; there must be much self -searching for unconscious pro- vincialisms, and an unceasing effort to sustain a high standard of pure vowels and articulated consonants in the singing of the pupils. Properly speaking we only sustain sound upon vowels, while conso- i nants are ways of interrupting sound. But both being necessary for speech are asso- ciated with singing. While using the voice we must take breath according to the laws of elocution, and these sometimes contra- dict the laws of musical phrasing, which, in such cases, must invariably give way. Children need to take breath more often than adults, because of their smaller breath-capacity. It is, therefore, well to mark the breathing places in each verse of a song by the use of a pencil. The same faculty which helps the actor to de- claim with feeling, serves the singer, who, while bound by the laws of musical intona- tion and rhythm, can nevertheless ' take liberties ' with the length of notes and the expression, so as to throw into special em- phasis strong words and phrases. W T hen we sing in chorus these ' liberties ' are less possible, because the whole mass must move together. Yet here much may be done, and the intelligent and heart-earnest teacher infuses life and impressiveness into the simplest song by changes from loud to soft, quick to slow, and the emphatic treat- ment of special words. Songs accompanied by motions are much in favour in Kindergarten work. No one would wish to abolish these. They are greatly enjoyed by children, and teach them the expression of feelings and acts. But a word of caution must be given. The best position for the body while smsnnor is SITE OF SCHOOL SIZAR SLEEP SLOYD 413 that of rest, and any departure from that increases the difficulty of singing. Violent motions, or singing in a fixed and strained position, should be avoided. (See SOL-FA- IXG : TONIC SOL-FA ; and Music.) Site of School. See ARCHITECTURE. Sizar. Formerly a poor student in the University of Cambridge, who received commons free, and in return performed some menial service. Now the sizarships, like the scholarships, are awarded by com- petitive examination, and the sizars hold similar positions to those of scholars. A sizar must, however, always prove his need of pecuniary assistance before he can be elected. Sleep is necessary for the recuperation of the physical powers. The discharge of the functions of the body implies consump- tion of its structure. Hence a period of repose is required, during which this may be replaced. The only apparent exceptions are the heart and lungs, but these obey the universal law, only their rest is frequent and momentary, while that of other organs is at greater intervals and of longer dura- tion. Apart from sleep, rest of any organ may be partially obtained by change of occupation. The importance of varying school-work, thus alternately exercising and resting different parts of the brain, cannot be exaggerated. Sleep, however, is the only form of complete and general rest. During sleep there is a diminished flow of blood through the brain, and the functional activity of its higher centres is abrogated. If a child eats and sleeps well, his brain can scarcely be overworked. Prolonged sleep, however, does not obviate the effects of excessive mental work. The work must be diminished, and more time allowed for recreation. The average amount of sleep required at 4 years old is 12 hours, at 7 years old 11 hours, at 9 years old 10 \ hours, at 12 to 14 years old, 9 to 10 hours, at 14 to 21 years 9 hours. (See DORMITORIES.) Slojd, or Sloyd. This name has been given to the system of manual training in force at Herr Otto Salomon's seminary for hand-work at Naas, near Gothenburg, and from whence the system is spreading rapidly to many other countries than that of its birth. The etymology of the word slojd may perhaps be discovered in the Swedish word slug = sly, shrewd, sldg = handy, dexterous, whence slojd, mechanical art, and sleight of hand. This system is now applied to many kinds of handwork used in schools and colleges for purposes of education. A list of the different kinds of sloyd practised in the schools of Sweden,. Norway, and Denmark, is given in Miss Chapman's treatise tin sloyd handwork as. applied to the workmanship of metal, basket, cardboard, and fret- work, besides. I turning, wood-carving, painting, bookbind- I ing, and carpentry, or wood sloyd. She ; claims that in Sweden no less than one- thousand national schools practise the art of wood sloyd, and that it has also been introduced into higher and secondary grade- schools in that country, into France, Bel- gium, Germany, Austria, and the United. States. The difference between wood car- pentry of the mechanic and artisan and. that of the sloyd system lies not only in., the character of the objects produced, but : in the manner of work and tools used, and the special object of the system, which is. the acquirement of manual dexterity, exer- ; cise of judgment and technical skill, deve- lopment of the physique, gradual training of the pupil by a progressive series of" ' work from simple to skilled workmanship. Thus in the wood sloyd, the course of training begins with the production of ' some such simple article as a pointer, flower-stick, or penholder, no tool but the Swedish knife being permitted for this . purpose ; in the second stage the wood is prepared with a plane, and a square ruler - | or child's cubic toy brick is produced ; in : the third stage boring is introduced; in i the fifth a spoke-shave is used in addition. , to a knife and plane, a bow-saw is per- I haps added, and so on to a more advanced stage of workmanship in each case, till I the intricacies of the system culminate in I dovetailing, and advanced branches of ' the profession are thoroughly mastered. By these means the pupil is gradually led through a series of steps, in which hand, eye, brain, and judgment are equally exercised ; and a sense of accuracy and perseverance, application, assiduity, and observation engendered, which could not . i be attained in any other way. There is j no royal road to sloyd handwork, the steps are not climbed more hastily in this than in any other branch of handicraft, but the technical training thus commenced i in early youth or childhood serves a usef ulx ; purpose. The ready engagement by shop- | keepers and others of youths who have- 1 been through the sloyd course in Sweden, . 414 SMOKING SOCIETY OF ARTS SOL-FAING is claimed by Miss Chapman as ample evidence of the efficacy of the training afforded, and the thoroughness demanded by sloyd teachers from their pupils is traced in the care, earnestness, and honesty of purpose brought to bear in many other objects of study demanding dexterity and exactitude. As a preparation for technical training, the cultivation of the sloyd sys- tem in this country has been advocated by many, but it has not yet (1888) been ^adopted to any great extent in the primary .and secondary schools of Britain, although the advantages of the Kindergarten sys- ,tem have long since been recognised and .adopted. An institution for the instruc- tion of women teachers in the method has, .however, been opened at the Sloyd Insti- tute at Birmingham, in the Edgbaston Road ; and another course of training can be followed out at Miss Hughes' Training College for Women at Cambridge ; there, .examples of the work produced may be inspected. When the truths and advan- .tages of this handwork become better .known to the public through the instru- .mentality of skilled teachers, a strong impulse will doubtless be given to the ; adoption of the system. Information as to sloyd handwork may be obtained from Miss C. Chapman's Sloyd, or Handwork .as a Factor of Education (published by W. Rice), and from the January number of .the English Journal of Education for 1887. Smoking. Whatever differences of -opinion may exist as to the advisability of smoking in adults, it is universally agreed that before eighteen or twenty years of ,age it is injurious. The habit should be strictly interdicted in boys of about four- teen years of age, who are very apt to .acquire it. Tobacco has a powerful influ- ence on the nervous system, and tends in boys to excite the feelings. Its first effect on the heart is to hasten it, and afterwards to slow it ; the latter effect often ending ir novices in actual faintness. The ' smoker's heart' is a very irritable one, and tends to intermit in an unpleasant manner. The .symptoms produced by a first cigar show the powerful effects of the active principl of tobacco before the system has acquirec by habit some degree of tolerance of it There is a burning, bitter taste in th mouth, increased flow of saliva, nausea and vomiting, giddiness and faintness pallor of face, cold perspiration, and utte prostration of the whole muscular system The universal prevalence of the habit, lowever, seems to show that it has some Deneficial influence, and it is extolled -for ts tranquillising effects, especially when here is mental exhaustion and irritability, virile it is said to help digestion and mental activity. Even in adults, however, there s danger of an overdose, and serious ymptoms may be caused by it. The throat Becomes congested, and mucus is secreted a smoker's throat can generally be re- ognised by a skilled observer ; the heart >alpitates and occasionally intermits, and ihere is a general prostration. Special defects of vision are sometimes caused by smoking. The acuteness of vision is sen- sibly diminished; a sort of white haze seems to envelop every object, and yellow, red, and green are often confounded with each other. This condition is known as tobacco amblyopia, and is especially apt :o occur when excessive smoking is com- oined with alcoholic drinking. Society of Arts, or, in full, The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu- factures, and Commerce, offers prizes of money, medals, certificates, and scholar- ships to both teachers and pupils, and publishes weekly a useful journal. Apply to the Secretary, 1 1 John Street, London, W.C. The annual subscription for mem bers is 21. 2s. Socratic Method. See QUESTION AND ANSWER. Sol-faing. The Italian syllables em- ployed in singing, do re mi fa sol la si, are supposed to be derived from an ancient monkish chant to Latin words. The syllables are merely the first two or three letters of each line of the verse. Origin- ally, however, do, the first of the series, was named ut> and this is still its desig- nation in France. The syllables are of value as containing broad vowels which are congenial to song, and improve the voice. There is no meaning in them : any other set equally open in tone would do as well. The syllables are employed in several ways : 1. In Italy and in France they are attached to certain fixed pitches (or their octaves) as follows : do re mi fa sol la si do This is called the ' fixed do,' and will be SOL-FAING 415 familiar to all who have practised Italian solfeggi. For vocal purposes this use of the syllables is all right, but for educa- tional ends it is open to this grave objection, that when key C is departed from there is no longer a constant asso- ciation between names and intervals. The following examples illustrate this point : Key C. Key E flat. LO re mi Key A flat. If re ini sol fa Here the intervals vary in each case, while the names remain the same. It has been abundantly proved that during the beginning of their course, when the pupils practise in key C, strong mental associations are formed between names and intervals. Thus do-mi always sug- gests a major third, do-re a major second, and this relative association is much stronger than the sense of the absolute pitch of the sounds. The present writer, in examining the singing of the Paris Communal Schools, where this system is consistently carried out, found that nearly all the mistakes in sight-singing made by the children were in keys other than C, and were caused by their inability to escape this mental association. The fixed do system was popularly advocated in this country by the late John Hullah, an excellent musician and teacher, whose advocacy failed, however, to naturalise what is, educationally, a radically bad system. In his later years Dr. Hullah, sensible of the defects of the fixed do in giving but one name to the flat natural and sharp of each note, compiled a table of inflected syllables, thirty or forty in number, so that each sound should have a name. This plan has, however, been found practically unworkable. 2. The antithesis of the fixed do is the movable do, which is adopted in the Tonic Sol-fa system (q.v.), but is independent of it, and was taught in Britain in alliance with the staff notation long before tonic solfa was invented. By this system the radical error of the fixed do variable intervals is avoided. Do is the keynote of the major scale at whatever pitch it may be sung : E do re mi do re mi and it follows from this that the associa- tion of names and intervals is constant. Thus do-mi is always a major (never a minor) third ; si do is always a minor second ; re mi always a major second, and so on. This is found to give the singer great certainty in reading music at sight. 3. There is an old and now nearly extinct form of the movable do in which only five names are employed : fa sol la fa sol la mi fa sol la fa sol la mi fa This is sometimes called the Lancashire sol-fa, and was in use, as references in Shakespeare testify, in olden times. It died out thirty or forty years ago, owing to its not providing a complete nomen- clature for the scale, which is the basis of music generally. A family of seven would get into confusion if it contained two Johns, two Marys, and two Roberts, yet this is practically the condition of the family of tones known as the scale in Lancashire sol-fa. Sol-faing precedes singing to words, and is used as a stepping-stone during the process of learning a piece. In sol-faing by the movable do from the staff notation, the singer must possess sufficient skill to know where to change the do on passing into a new key. As a rule, when short entries into new keys occur, the do is not changed, but a set of chromatic sol-fa notes is employed, as follows : do di re ri rni fa fi sol si la li si* do * In Curwen's tonic sol-fa system the similarity of this note with the sharp of sol is avoided by calling it ti. 416 SOMERVILLE HALL (OXFORD) SPECIFIC SUBJECTS do si se la le sol fi fa mi me re ra do The chromatic notes used in the tonic sol-fa system differ slightly from these. The minor mode or key is sol-fa-ed by all movable-do-ists in the same way as its relative major. Thus : do re mi Relative minor : re do si do $:rir^-__ . _^^^~ do mi re Tonic minor : do re mi la do si si la si do Proposals have been made by theorists to call do the keynote of the minor mode, and use the inflected syllables for the third and sixth of the minor scale, but it has been found that the plan is impossible in practice. See SINGING and TONIC SOL-FA. Somerville Hall (Oxford). See EDU- CATION OF GIRLS. South Kensington. See SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT. Spain, Universities of. See UNIVER- SITIES. Spalatin. See REFORMATION. Spartan Education. See LACEDEMO- NIAN EDUCATION. Specific Subjects. This term is ap- plied to those optional subjects which are taught to children in the upper classes of public elementary schools. The specific subjects sanctioned by the Department are : algebra, Euclid and mensuration, mechanics, chemistry, physics, animal physiology, botany, principles of agricul- ture, Latin, French, domestic economy. Any subject other than those mentioned may, if sanctioned by the Department, be taken as a specific subject, provided that a graduated scheme of teaching it be submitted to, and approved by, the inspector. A grant amounting to 4s. for each scholar passing in any specific sub- ject is awarded, but no scholar may be presented for examination in more than two subjects, or in any specific subject for the teaching of which provision is not made in the time-table of the school. No scholars may be presented for examina- tion in specific subjects in any school in which, at the last preceding inspection, the percentage of passes in the elementary subjects was less than 70. Specific subjects cannot .be taken up before a scholar has passed the Fourth Standard ; and in their instructions to inspectors, the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education state that it is not desirable, as a general rule, that specific subjects should be attempted where the staff of the school is small, or the scholars in Standards V.-VII. do not form a class large enough to justify the withdrawal of the principal teacher from the teaching of the rest of the school : in this latter case they would derive more benefit by being grouped with the Fourth Standard for class subjects. In large schools, how- ever, and those which are in favourable circumstances, the scholars of Standard V. and upwards may be encouraged to at- tempt one or more specific subjects, which the managers may deem most ap- propriate to the industrial and other needs of the district. The course suited to an elementary school is practically de- termined by the limit of 14 years of age ; and may properly include whatever subjects can be effectively taught within that limit. It may be hoped that year by year a larger proportion of the chil- dren will remain in the elementary schools until the age of 14 ; and a scholar who has attended regularly and possesses fair ability may reasonably be expected to acquire in that time not only a good knowledge of reading, writing, and arith- i metic, of English and of geography, but | also enough of the rudiments of two higher subjects to furnish a stable foun- \ dation for further improvement either by ! his own exertion or in a secondary school. ! It is generally found that specific sub- 1 jects are most thoroughly taught when a, ; special teacher is engaged by a group of schools to give instruction in such sub- i jects once or twice a week, his teaching being supplemented in the intervals by i the teachers of the school. SPELLING 417 Spelling. To spell is to set forth in succession the letters composing words. In practice there is a twofold difficulty : (1) to form the correct series of letters representing a spoken word, and (2) in reading to associate with the written or spoken word the recognised pronunciation. The difficulty is generally considered to be serious, and great efforts have been made to reform our English spelling, so as to remove the irregularities, which are looked upon as a grievous hindrance to the educa- tion of children. A perfect spelling would provide a single distinct character to repre- sent each distinct sound, and would not permit any sound to be represented by more than one character. By this standard English spelling is extremely imperfect, the alphabet is both incomplete and redundant, and the application of it in practice intro- duces further confusions. The illustration from the consonants is simplest. We have no single characters for the sounds of ng (in sing), sh (in vrish), zh (in azure), th (in thin), dh (in thine) ; nor of ch in Scotch locA, and gh in Irish lough. Then we have three, if not four, superfluous consonants : c, which is pronounced either s (as in cell) or k (as in come) ; q, which is the same as k before u ; and x, .which stands either for ks (as in vex) or gz (as in exist) ; to which would be added j, if we had a single cha- racter for zh, for j is simply a convenient equivalent to dzh. But we do not bind ourselves to use these particular consonants forthecorrespondingsounds. For example, />h is often used instead of f (as in philo- sophy) ; while j is regularly used for dzh, ch is regularly used for tsh (as in church) ; ti, si are used for sh (in words ending in tion, sion) ; and so forth. The greatest confusion, however, arises from the scarcity of characters to represent the vowel sounds. For this extensive purpose we have only five letters a, e, i, o, u ; y, when used as a vowel, is a mere duplicate of i. Now we have (1) five long vowel sounds, as in lay, lee, lie, lo, loo; (2) five short vowel sounds, as in bat, bet, bit, bot, but; (3) at any rate three long vowels that are some- times pronounced with a certain shortening, so as to include in the accent a consonant that follows the vowel, as in been, pride, pull; (4) two, perhaps three, similar pro- longations of short vowel sounds, as in palm, saw (aught, sought, &c.), very (when specially emphasised); and (5) the foregoing vowel sounds when unaccented. A delicate analysis would give many more, which, for practical purposes, may be omitted from consideration here. The astounding inade- quacy of the vowel letters is thus apparent. Sometimes one of th^ vowels is brought in to the aid of another; compare mad and made, not and note, plain, mean, moan, fruit ; and sometimes a special combination is formed, as in awtumn, sought, law. The confusion thus becomes quite inextricable, and there is only one means of threading one's way through it ; that is, to classify the usages as far as they can be classified, and to learn the exceptions individually. Unless this be done, either consciously or unconsciously, the pupil can never spell with certainty. The knack of spelling is, indeed, largely a pictorial effect in many cases ; the pupil observes the word, or class of words, and remembers the form. As Mr. Spedding put it, * it is by reading we all learn to spell' (Nineteenth Century, June 1877). After all, when the matter is reduced to system, and the particulars exhaustively enumerated, the bugbear of spelling shrinks to insignificant dimensions. In all the longer words, which are mostly derived from classical sources, there is but little irregularity ; even such an irregularity as -tion, -sion, pronounced -shon (or -shun) y is a regular irregularity ; and the similar pronunciation of the endings in rhetorician, recognition, and the like, must be dealt with as special knowledge it is absurd to expect children to spell words that they do not know. The really troublesome irregularities occur in the words of one syllable for the most part ; and chiefly in the words that are more frequently used. And here again the irregularities are often regular, as whale, pronounced hwsle, and similar cases. It would seem, then, that the right way to master spelling would be to familiarise the pupil with the typical modes of representing the sounds in English successively, and then to proceed to the subordinate or exceptional modes in detail, taking the unique or very rare cases as may be found convenient. The syllabification of long words is, of course, usually helpful, but it ought not to be carried to violent minuteness; for instance, the third syllable in re-cog-ni-tion can hardly be isolated with advantage to- the young pupil. In the case of regular irregularities, some help may be derived from a short consideration of the historical causes, as wh, pronounced hw, or with the E 418 SPELLING STAGE CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) w dropped, or the vicissitudes of such curiosities as ouyh in though, enough, &c. It may be doubted whether any of the elaborate attempts at phonetic spelling reform is at all likely to be accepted wholesale; the only chance of the promoters of reform would seem to be to content themselves with a very gradual insinuation of changes in the direction they think the right one. For instance, the u is frequently dropped in favour, honour, &c. ; and no one would be alarmed at travel-ing, and the like alterations that creep in under Transatlantic influence. ' Rime ' has been widely used for 'rhyme.' And why should people stickle at tho (for 'though') now any more than they did last century ? Then something might be done by discouraging the exaggerated value that has hitherto been placed upon spelling as an educational accomplishment. Surely a child's time could be occupied to more advantage than in worrying over the 'correct' spelling of receive, believe, &c., or in meditating on the discrepancy between the endings of * enough ' and ' stuff.' The spelling, indeed, is the conservative element, and the inno- vations are due to persistent new departures in pronunciation. But neither spelling nor pronunciation will submit to violent and wholesale control into new forms, and the only hopeful thing to do is to encourage assimilating tendencies, and to discourage opposite tendencies Dr. J. H. Gladstone found (Spelling Reform from an Educa- tional Point of View, Macmillan & Co.) that 'an average English child, spending eight years in school, and making the not unusual amount of 400 attendances per annum, will have spent on an average 2,320 hours in spelling, reading, and dic- tation ; and such a scholar will have probably acquired sufficient knowledge of the subject to pass the moderate require- ments of the Government Inspector in " reading wibh fluency and expression," and "spelling familiar words without error."' The money cost of acquiring these necessary accomplishments in the elementary schools Dr. Gladstone estimated to exceed consi- derably 1,000,000/. per annum. The pro- portion of time occupied was '27*3 per cent, of the whole time of the children's education, religious and secular.' Yet the results of the examinations of Her Majesty's Inspectors and others show ' that the great majority of our children leave school unable to read with ease, or to spell with decent correctness ; ' while the Civil Service exa- minations cap these results by showing ' how lamentably imperfect is this acquire- ment even among those who have received a liberal education.' Inquiring how far this frightful expenditure of time and money could be 'justly attributed to the utter want of system in our orthography,' Dr. Gladstone concluded that, if English as written corresponded pretty accurately with English as pronounced, 720 hours in six years would probably be saved, and a large, but not easily estimated, reduction would be effected in the time devoted to reading ; and that ' if English orthography represented English pronunciation as closely as the Italian does, at least half the time and expense of teaching to read and to spell would be saved,' which ' may be taken as 1,200 hours in a lifetime, and as more than half a million of money per annum for England and Wales.' In addi- tion, thinks Dr. Gladstone, a reform would reduce the cost of printing, furnish a means of indicating the correct pronunciation, render impossible the long continuance of the English dialects, do a service to philo- logy, substitute a healthy for a vicious mental training, and lead to a wide exten- sion of the English language. The coun- terbalancing objections he reckons as few and untenable; namely, that the continuity of the written language would be severed, and much that is of value in regard to the history and origin of words would be lost ; that literary associations with the past would be destroyed ; that our libraries would be rendered useless, all our typo- graphical arrangements would be upset, and all our educational appliances would have to be remodelled. But, as we have said, nothing can be done in a hurry or wholesale. (See Primers I. and II., and Book I. of Professor Murison's Globe Readers (Mac- millan) ; Professor Bain's Higher English Grammar, The Alphabet ; and the writings of A. J. Ellis, Henry Sweet, and A. Mel- ville Bell, and the pamphlets of Mr. Pitman especially the collection of papers en- titled ' A Plea for Spelling Reform 'and Mr. Jones.) Spencer, Herbert. See PEDAGOGY. Stage Children (Education of). The labour of children has frequently in Eng- land been made the subject of legislative enactment. The general principle of the law, as embodied in the Factory and STAGE CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) 419 Workshops Acts and the Education Acts, is based on the right of the State entirely to prohibit the labour of children under a certain age (now fixed at 10 years), and to regulate the hours and conditions of their employment up to a certain further age (now varying in different industries from 14 up to 16). The Education Act aims at more than this ; for it not only prohibits the premature employment of children, but, as its title implies, it is based on the principle that it is the duty of the nation to secure at least the rudi- ments of education to every child in the country. It is fortunately now unnecessary to argue on behalf of the principles under- lying this legislation. It is universally acknowledged that the welfare of the State demands that children shall not be ruined by physical toil during infancy or by want of elementary education. We have abundant proof of the good results that have followed from the Factory Acts and from the spread of elementary education, in the lower death rate, espe- cially among the children of the poor, in the decrease of crime and drunkenness, in the lower percentage of pauperism to population throughout the country, and in the increase of thrift among the people. The wholesome principle that parents ought to support their children, not chil- dren their parents, has taken firm root among large sections of the population where, comparatively few years ago, child labour, withallits miserable consequences, was rife. In every class in which this principle has been frankly accepted and acted upon, a very great improvement, moral, physical, and educational, is visible in the general condition of the people. There is one out-of-the-way corner, as it were, of the industrial world, where the labour of very young children is still permitted, or at any rate not effectually prohibited by the law. The children who take part in the infantine dances and Pallets, which are so popular at many theatres, music-halls, and places of popu- lar entertainment, are very often appren- ticed to those who train them for their profession as early as four years of age, for a term of nine years. During this term the children are at the disposal of the person to whom they are apprenticed, who accepts engagements for them in "London or in the provinces, as often and ; as continuously as possible. Troupes of i little children, from four years old and upwards, are sent by the proprietors of | dancing academies to -any theatre in i London or in the provinces, or even abroad, if they can obtain a profitable engagement. It should be distinctly understood that ' so far as children employed in theatres are concerned, no charge of cruelty, course of instruction, begin at the first year of school-life five or six years of age most frequently and carry it through from beginning to end. Consequently, the first year's course (or standard) on the Continent or the United States, . the foundation first, and then commences to build up first one branch of the subject and then another, and he never leaves a,, subject until he is fully satisfied that the student thoroughly understands it. The analytic teacher never loses out of sight, the New Church truth, that good and truth ^ affection and thought, delight and know- ledge, must ever be combined, in order that a subject may remain permanently in their- memory. While directing the attention of his students to knowledge, he is, there- fore, ever anxious to interest them in their- I subject, that is, to arouse the affection and | delight of knowing in their mind at the- same time. This, however, he does by always adapting his instruction to the then, state of their mind ; his instruction must, be the continuation of something which they already know, and it must lie within the grasp of their understanding. The- teacher, therefore, is always sure of coin- 430 SWEDISH DRILL SYMPATHY manding the attention of his students, if he goes on building on the foundation of any subject that has been laid in their mind. But it is also a function of the educator, whether the parent or some other person, to watch over the formation of the morals of the young. It is necessary that the natural mind of children in which they live ; should be under the control of a rational jmind, until the development of a rational mind of their own. With respect to the young under their charge, educators are in the place of this rational mind, and .thus also in the place, provisionally, of a .conscience ; ' for conscience is built up in the rational mind. But when young people are old enough to have their own rational mind, and their own conscience built up within them, then it is injurious to them to be constantly tied to the leading-strings of their parents. The personal obedience then falls away, but the rational obedience to the principles taught by their parents .and teachers still continues. The effect of .a sound education, therefore, ought to be, in conclusion, to educate the young to the same level of freedom and rationality which is enjoyed by their educators ; and when ithey have reached that level, then they are Jn the charge of the Lord alone and His truth, and He continues the process of . education which is now called regeneration, until they are re-born and educated into angels of heaven ; and thus until they jhave reached the destiny for which the Lord has intended every human being at his birth, namely, to become an angel of heaven.' (EmanuelSwedenborg's True Christian Religion ; containing the Universal Theo- logy of the New Church, and other works ; Statement of the Doctrines of the New . Jerusalem, Church ; and the Rev. Dr. R. L. Tafel's Education, from which the foregoing quotations, when not otherwise .authenticated, are taken.) Swedish Drill. See LING. Swiney Lectures. See PRELECTIONS. Switzerland, Education in. See LAW (EDUCATIONAL) (section Zurich). Syllabaries. See SCHOOLS OF ANTI- QUITY. Sympathy. The etymology of the word ; sympathy (Greek uA.aK69 Trvpd', KCUOVTOOV, the old form of the imperative, was misunder- stood, and is wrongly divided by the manu- scripts into KCU. ovruiv ; finally ot v\a.Kt- u Modulator DOHi TE LAH SOH FAH ME RAY DOH d r m f 1 t d 1 When the notes are thus horizontally written it be- comes necessary to use a mark to distinguish the several oc- taves of the same note one from the other. For this purpose figures are used, thus : In order to express the chromatic notes the sol-fa syllables are modified, the sound * ee ' being added for sharps and ' aw ' for: flats. doh de rav re me fah fe soh se lah le te doh 1 doh 1 te ta lah la soh fe fah me ma ray ra doh To save space in printing, the f w ' is- omitted from the end of the names of the- flats. The only additional note used is the sharpened sixth of the minor mode, which is, ba called bay, spelt ba or b. In remote changes . of key certain other notes are needed for doubly flattened or sharpened notes, but they are rare, and need not here be given.. A complete nomenclature of the key-sounds, of modern music is thus provided, and the next point is rhythm or time. This will be best understood by comparison with, passages in the ordinary notation. KEY G. d :d I d,r,m,f : s .d r : .m,f | m The bar lines are the same in both old 1 and new notations, but in the Tonic Sol-fa the pulses or beats are also marked off. This is done by the use of the short bar- line and the colon (see example). A pulse or beat is divided into halves by a full stop, and into quarters by commas (see example)., A sound is continued through part of a, pulse, a whole pulse, or several pulses, by the use of a dash . When a pulse, or part of a pulse, is silent there is merely a vacant, space between the accent marks. It must be understood that in Tonic Sol-fa notation there is only one way of representing a. pulse or beat. In the following examples. 446 TONIC SOL-FA METHOD we have three ways of writing the same rpassage, difference of speed being the only . qualification. In Tonic Sol-fa all three \would be written G. .|d.: idlt,: :d|r:m:r|d:-i H and the rate of movement would be indi- cated by a metronome mark or an Italian word. Change of Key, one of the commonest .facts in music, is provided for in the Tonic .Sol-fa system by shifting the pitch of doh. '.Thus, in the following phrase -there is a change from F to C. This can either be expressed by the use of the chro- matic syllable fe, already explained : KEY F. : d I r : f j m : r m : f e I s ,or it can 'be more perfectly shown by changing the doh, giving a double name ,to the fifth note : KEY G. :d r:f C.t. m:'s 'The words ' C.t.' over the mutation note indicate the name of the new key and the new note v (t) which the change involves. This plan is applicable to the most distant -changes SEE^SZ* KEY G. s,d,f. .Bb.lah is G. The notes s, d, f, being placed on the ieft, indicate that the change is in that direction on the extended modulator, a diagram which contains several scales side /by side. * JLah is Gr ' reminds us that we are in the minor mode, of which G is the tonic. The marks of expression used in Tonic Sol-fa are the same as in the old notation. The words are printed under the letters just as they are under the staff, with slurs if necessary. Undoubtedly the reason why the Tonic Sol-fa is so easy to sing from is because it is more graphic than the oldnota- ion. The mind conceives music chiefly by its key relationship, not by its absolute pitch. Thus in these cases the immense majority, even of musically educated persons, hearing (not seeing) the notes, would say they were the same. The sense of relationship is infinitely more common and more vivid than that of ab- solute pitch. The Tonic Sol-fa notation puts to the front this relationship between notes, which is quite constant in all scales and keys. It confines attention to it. On the other hand, the staff notation gives directly the absolute pitch of a sound, and only indirectly its key relationship. To borrow the language of logicians, the staff notation denotes absolute pitch and con- notes relative pitch, while the Tonic Sol-fa notation denotes relative pitch and con- notes absolute pitch. This is the psycho- logical basis of the new notation. Mental Effects. The sense of relation- ship between the tones, their individuality as part of a family, is rendered still more vivid by impressing the mind with the fact that each of the seven tones of the scale leaves a peculiar and characteristic impression on the mind. This was one of the most valuable and original of Mr. Cur- wen's doctrines. The characters which he gave to the tones were : Doh, final, conclusive ; Ray, rousing ; Me, calm, peaceful ; Fah, awe-inspiring ; Soh, bold, rousing ; Lah, plaintive ; Te, piercing. These characteristics, however, are by no means to be taught dogmatically. The pupils are to be drawn to feel them by lis- tening to fragments of melody sung by the teacher in which striking examples of TONIC SOL-FA METHOD 447 the individuality of these tones occur. The process of impressing the mental ef- fects of the tones upon pupils is gradual. When complete its practical effect is this. When they want to sing a certain tone its character comes up in their mind, and their intonation is sure ; when they want to name a sound that they hear its character suggests its note. Ear Exercises, or musical dictation, is practised from the first in Tonic Sol-fa classes. From recognising by its sound a single note the exercises proceed to the highest grade, when full chords are written down by ear. Of course all these exercises are in relative pitch. The chord of the key is sounded, and then, the ear being tuned, the various notes are sounded. Pupils are, however, encouraged to me- morise the sound of C, in order to be able to pitch songs and tunes without the help of an instrument. Harmony, upon whatever system it is taught, whether through the old notation or the new, is a matter of key relation- ship. The compass and best region of whatever instrument is being written for has to be considered, but, this being borne in mind, all the rest is key relation- ship. Tonic Sol-fa notation, therefore, lends itself very readily to the teaching of har- mony. Mr. Curwen originated a set of symbols for chords and their inversions which may here be partially explained. -fe J \ I] J If i i -j-M-fl j i i i D 'Sd Db 'Sc D Sb D DC 'S D The simple rule is to call a chord by the initial letter of its root, which is printed in capitals. Thus D means the chord of doh (doh, me, soh). The first inversion of this is Db, the second inversion DC, and in dissonant combinations the letters d and e are required. Instruments. TheTonic Sol-fa notation has been applied with success to nearly all musical instruments. There are not, how- ever, many players from it, and some Tonic Sol-fa teachers discountenance its use in this way. It is probably too early as yet to express a proper opinion on the value of the notation for instruments. The full orchestral scores of several symphonies, &c., have been published in Tonic Sol-fa. Principles of Teaching. Mr. Curwen laid down in his Teachers' Manual seven principles of teaching, as follows : 1. Let the easy come before the diffi- cult. 2. Introduce the real and concrete be- fore the ideal and abstract. 3. Teach the elemental before the com- pound, and do one thing at a time. 4. Introduce, both for explanation and practice, the common before the uncom- mon. 5. Teach the thing before the sign, and when the thing is apprehended attach to it a distinct sign. 6. Let each step as far as possible rise out of that which goes before, and lead up to that which comes after. 7. Call in the understanding to assist the skill at every step. 8. Use an illustrative and suggestive style of teaching. These principles, which will command the universal assent of teachers, are con- stantly illustrated in the procedure of Mr. Curwen's books and exercises. They are applicable, of course, to teaching music from the staff notation, but the Tonic Sol-fa notation fits in with them, and enables them to be thoroughly applied. It is t<\ this minutely educational work that the success of Tonic Sol-fa teachers is so largely due. The Staff Notation. It is desirable to correct the common impression that learn- ing Tonic Sol-fa is no help to learning the old notation. The fact, as daily proved, is the opposite. Pupils trained by Tonic Sol-fa possess, as it were, a secret key, a mental habit, which makes them sure and certain interpreters of the old notation. This is true, not only of singing, but of play- ing. Tonic Sol-fa cultivates the musical intelligence, and makes the pupil see into the nature of music. The modulator be- comes so impressed upon the mind that the memory of it guides the eye when singing or playing from the staff. It is calculated that two-thirds of those who learn Tonic Sol-fa pass on to the old nota- tion and become competent readers of that notation. Examinations. The carefully graded presentation of tune and time in the Tonic Sol-fa method is rendered thorough by fre- quent testing and examining. Mr. Curwen 448 TONIC SOL-FA TOUCH, EDUCATION OF established a series of examinations consist- ing of practical tests, which, roughly speak- ing, may be taken during every six months of the learner's career. The lower examina- tions are, of course, easy, and are meant rather to sort the pupils, and re- classify them, than to give any public status to those who pass. The higher examinations are of the nature of diplomas. Tonic Sol-fa College. The authority which regulates all these examinations, and issues certificate cards and papers, is the Tonic Sol-fa College, Forest Gate, Lon- don. The secretary supplies details of the work of the correspondence classes, exami- nations, training classes, &c. Musical authorities were formerly di- vided in their opinion as to the merits of the Tonic Sol-fa system. The leading musicians are, however, now agreed in its favour. Among those who have endorsed it are Sir Robert Stewart, Drs. Stainer and Bridge, Messrs. Barnby, Henry Leslie, E. H. Turpin, Brinley Richards, E. Prout, A. R. Gaul. The acousticians are all in its favour, including Lord Rayleigh, Mr. Bosanquet, Professor Helmholtz, Mr. A. J. Ellis, Mr. Ledley Taylor, &c. Pro- fessor Helmholtz speaks of it as ' the na- tural way of learning music.' Sight Singing is rendered certain and easy by the Tonic Sol-fa notation. Tonic Sol-fa choirs have repeatedly read, all at first sight, in public compositions specially written for them by Sir G. A. Macfarren, Mr. Henry Leslie, &c. Tonic Sol-faists, also, according to the testimony of Mr. Stockley, choir-master of the Birmingham Musical Festival, and other authorities of equal weight, make better readers of the old notation than singers trained upon any other system. Government Returns relating to elemen- tary schools show that at the present time (1888) between 12,000 and 13,000 schools in the United Kingdom employ the Tonic Sol-fa system, while only about 2,000 em- ploy the staff notation exclusively. Nearly every choral work of importance is now issued in the Tonic Sol-fa notation. Music publishers usually issue a Sol-fa edition simultaneously with an old nota- tion one of all their principal cantatas, oratorios, anthems, and part-songs. The leading choral works of Handel, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Mozart, Gounod, Sullivan, Mackenzie, are issued in Tonic Sol-fa. Touch, Education of. By the sense of touch, or the tactile sense, we mean sensibility to impressions of contact. This is possessed in a measure by all portions of the skin, but is found in its higher degrees only in particular regions, as the hands, and more especially the finger-tips, the lips, and the tip of the tongue. It is by this tactile sensibility that we distin- guish degrees of pressure (when the hand is passive), also distinctness of points of pressure, as when we distinguish the two extremities of a pair of compasses brought close together and applied to the hands. With this passive sensibility of the skin, or tactile sense proper, is associated the so-called muscular sense. This term refers to the sensations we gain when we actively exercise our muscular organs, either by moving a limb, or by bringing pressure to bear on an object. This active function of the hand is of great importance to the child, not only as a means of doing things, and so realising his desires, but as a direct source of knowledge. The child comes to know the position, form, and size of objects by means of tactile discrimination of points supplemented by the muscular sensations which accompany the movements of tho hand. Again, it learns about the hardness, elasticity, and weight of bodies, partly by its tactile sensations of pressure, partly b^ the experiences of muscular effort which it has in pressing, striking, lifting, &c. The psychologist regards the sense of touch as the fundamental sense, and more particularly as the avenue by which the child gains the root ideas of material things and their qualities. Much of what the eye in later life appears to see immediately is known in the first instance by the sense of touch (see EYE, CULTURE OF). This being so, it is evident that the sense of touch on its passive and its active side makes special claims on the attention of the educator in the first years of life. Tho utility to the child in the nursery of a variety of objects to touch, examine, and experiment with, is due to the important intellectual function of touch at this period . Pestalozzi and Froebel were the first to assign to the sense of touch its proper place in a practical scheme of training. The delicacy of touch reached by the blind and those whose special occupations involve an exceptional exercise of the sense, sug- gests that this last might, by a suitable series of exercises, be much more highly TRADE GUILDS TRAINING OF TEACHERS 449 developed in the case of children generally. Such a higher education of the sense of touch would constitute one element in any improved system of hand and eye training which should serve as the basis of future technical skill. (See Bain, Mental Science, p. 43 and following ; H. Spencer, Educa- tion, p. 72 and following; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, pp. 108 and following, 128, 151 and following ; Pfisterer, Pad . Psychologic, p. 43 and following.) Trade Guilds : their relation to Medi- aeval Education. See MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF). Training of Teachers. It was stated in the article on Pupil-Teachers (q.v.) that one object of the institution of the pupil-teacher system, in 1846, was to en- sure a succession of well-trained teachers. By that system young men and women were attracted into the profession of ele- mentary teaching as a means of liveli- hood at thirteen or fourteen years of age, and served an apprenticeship to it until eighteen years of age. The object above named would only have been partially secured if these young people, or the most efficient of them, were allowed to drift back into other callings at the expiration of their apprenticeship. Accordingly, the Committee of Council offered a consider- able money inducement to ex-pupil- teachers to enter Training Colleges. This took the form of scholarships Queen's Scholarships, as they were called which consisted of payments of 201. to 251. a year for each pupil-teacher who passed a prescribed examination and entered a Training College. Substantial annual aid was also offered to the Training Colleges themselves which received these Queen's scholars. This system, in its essential features, still prevails. The Education Depart- ment has ceased to make any payments direct to the Queen's scholar, but makes a grant on his behalf on a liberal scale to the Training College which accepts him as a student (charging him a small fee, not exceeding 201. for a two years' course). This grant cannot exceed, on the whole, 75 per cent, of the expenditure of the college for all its students for the year, but may reach 50. a year for each male, and 35/. for each female Queen's scholar. The course of training usually extends over two years, but may be terminated at the end of one year. The first effort to found a Training College in England was made by the British and Foreign School Society (q.v.) as early as 1817, when they opened new buildings in the Borough Road for the purposes of both a normal college and normal schools. The college was rebuilt by aid of a grant from Govern- ment in 1843. The earliest Training College in connection with, the Church of England was that founded at Battersea, in 1839-40, by Dr. James Philipps Kay (afterwards Sir James Kay Shuttle worth) and Mr. Carleton Tufnell for the training of schoolmasters. In November 1843 the Committee of Council first afforded aid towards the erection of Training Colleges. But the ample grants in aid of maintenance of Training Colleges offered under the Minutes of 1846 gave a further impulse to the movement, and soon produced a rapid increase in their numbers. Dio- cesan Societies were formed for the pro- motion of colleges in connection with the Church of England ; and the Wesleyans. and other denominations followed this, example. Voluntary subscriptions were raised, and grants were made by the National Society (q.v.) and the British and Foreign School Society (q.v.) to- meet the grants from the Committee of Council. The result of this movement has been that in 1 887 there were in England forty-four (boarding) Training Colleges, eighteen for male and twenty-six for female students, of which thirty are in connection, with the Church of England, six with the British and Foreign School Society, two are Wesleyan, three Roman Catholic, and three undenominational, and they contain in all 3,272 students. In Scotland there were eleven Training Colleges, four for male and seven for female students, of which five are in connection with the Established Church of Scotland, five with the Free Church in Scotland, and are day or non- boarding colleges, and one in connection with the Episcopal Church in Scotland, which is a boarding college. These col- leges contain in all 8,525 students. The English colleges have been erected at a. cost of nearly 400,000^., of which 280,OOOZ. was derived from voluntary contributions, and 120,000^. from grants. The Scotch colleges, which only make provision for the teaching, and not for the boarding of the students, cost 48,000^., of which 29,000. was raised by subscription, and 19,OOOZ. was provided by grants. At the GO 450 TRAINING OF TEACHERS present time all but a small percentage of the students in the English colleges have passed this pupil-teachership before admission, and accordingly the organisa- tion and curriculum of the colleges are laid down on lines which assume the pre- ceding pupil-teachership of the students, and seek to carry on the instruction, per- sonal and professional, from the point where it stood at the completion of the apprenticeship. The Training Colleges are inspected and examined annually by H.M. inspectors, and syllabuses of examina- tion, both for male and for female students, are drawn up by the Committee of Council for each year, and form the outlines of the course of instruction for that year. These syllabuses, together with the Reports of H.M. inspectors on the Training Colleges, and various statistical tables relating to them, are published in the annual Blue Book of the Education Department. On the results of these examinations the teachers' certificates of various grades are granted. Attached to the colleges, both in England and Scotland, are day schools {recruited from the neighbourhood, and recognised as ' public elementary ' schools), which arc ased as practising and model schools for the instruction of the students in the art of teaching and school-keeping, a,nd each student is required to spend at least six weeks, or 150 hours, during his two years' residence in the practising school. But although all the students of Training Colleges, with few exceptions, have been pupil-teachers, it is far from being the case that all the pupil-teachers completing their apprenticeship in a given year pass on to Training Colleges. Those who do not enter Training Colleges are allowed to take posts in public elementary schools as assistants or ' acting teachers, and in due course to attend the same exa- minations as those which are laid down for students in Training Colleges, and to obtain their certificates on the same, or somewhat lower conditions. They can obtain their certificates on the examina- tion in the papers for the first year of training, but this certificate has not (since 1884) carried with it the right to have the superintendence of pupil-teachers. Their preparation for these examinations is made by private study or by private tutoring in the time at their disposal after each school- day or during the school holidays. Thus the adult staff in the public elementary schools of the country is composed of two classes of persons, the smaller (about one- third of the whole) and, as a rule, the better educated class, who at the end of their ap- prenticeship proceeded for two years to a Training College before taking service in the schools, and the larger (about t wo- th irds of the whole) and, as a rule, the less edu- cated class, who at the end of their ap- prenticeship took service in the schools directly as acting teachers. Of this latter or untrained class there are in round numbers, in England, 39,000 out of a total of 75,000 adult teachers, of whom 18,000 are certificated and 21,000 uncertificated. Now it is, not without reason, asserted that the education and training of the great majority of these are very inadequate to the requirements of the country, and are incapable of being brought up to those requirements under existing conditions. Thus a strong case is made out for addi- tional Training College accommodation as the only effective remedy for the existing low level of attainments and skill of a large proportion of the teaching staff in public elementary schools. It has been calculated that, to meet the demand for trained instead of the present untrained adult staff in the schools, additional Train- ing College accommodation is required for 2,200 students, in the proportion of about 700 males and 1,500 females. It has been suggested that these additional colleges should be day or non-resident colleges, and should be placed in large centres of population, on the model of the existing Scotch Training Colleges which are situated at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, and that the places selected should be towns where local colleges have been founded, in order that the more advanced students may obtain their purely literary and theo- retical or scientific training under the cultured influence of the local college professoriate, and get all those social and intellectual advantages which are now found to accrue to the students in Scotch Training Colleges by their affiliation with the Scotch Universities. This will pro- bably be very shortly conceded by Parlia- ment. An important question will arise in this connection, as to whether these new non-residential Training Colleges should presuppose in their students an antecedent apprenticeship for three or four years as pupil-teachers, or should look to recruiting its students largely from other TRAINING OF TEACHERS 451 sources, such as the upper classes of the secondary schools in the towns in which they are situated, contact being still re- tained with the public elementary schools by a generous system of scholarships to the former schools for promising boys and girls from the latter. The report of the majority of the Royal Commission on the Working of the Elementary Education Acts (published in 1888) supports the maintenance of the pupil-teacher system, and discourages the constitution of Day Training Colleges on any other basis than that of antecedent apprenticeship. On the other hand, the ' Minority ' of the Commission would have the regulations of the Education Department sufficiently elastic to enable a locality any large town with a local college to establish such a Training College under freer conditions as to the previous career of its students, subject only to the students passing all the govern- ment examinations during training, and that for the qualifying ' Government Cer- tificate' at the completion of training. As a result of the general desire that the ele- anentary school teachers should be brought into contact with the highest intellectual culture, it is not improbable that the authorities of one of the best reputed resi- dential colleges will transfer their students to new buildings at Oxford or Cambridge, and that, if the scheme is successful, some others will follow their example. Turning now from the training of the elementary teachers to that of teachers in secondary schools, it will be desirable to treat the subject of the training of school- masters distinct from that of the school- mistresses ; for the reason that while very little has been done to further the former, a good deal has been accomplished in the last decade for the latter object, and still larger developments are to be looked for. The subject of the training of the secondary schoolmasters has been dis- cussed at several conferences of head- masters of the chief public schools of the country ; but opinion has been very divided as to the practicability, even as to the need, of training institutions for the masters in those schools. Teaching in secondary schools is still looked upon by many men as an avocation rather than a profession. What little has been done to secure some instruction in the principles and practice of the art of teaching was done by the University of Cambridge in 1879. In that year, in compliance with numerous memorials from head-masters on the subject, the Senate of the Univer- sity of, Cambridge appointed a * Teachers' Training Syndicate,' and that body put forward a scheme of examination in the history, theory, and practice of education, for persons (of either sex) who had pre- viously shown intellectual qualifications, on passing one of several specified Uni- versity examinations. It also provided for a course of lectures by men eminent in educational and mental science, such as Mr. Quick, Mr. James Ward, and Mr. Fitch. This act of the University of Cambridge was looked upon as a signifi- cant fact in the history of education in England. It has, however, in no way satisfied, so far as men teachers are con- cerned, the desires of its promoters. The examination does not attract men because neither academic rewards nor scholastic preferments depend apparently in the least degree upon passing it, or obtaining dis- tinction on it. The work of the College of Preceptors (q.v.) in providing systematic courses of lectures for teachers by the most eminent educationists, deserves recognition in this connection ; as also its recent offer (1889) of scholarships for intending teachers (two for male and two for female) for two years' training at any Training College for teachers in secondary schools either at home or abroad, that may be approved by the Council. Before leaving thispartof the question mention ought to be made of an experi- ment tried by a few influential people to establish a Training College for masters of secondary schools at Finsbury, in associa- tion with the City of London Middle Class Schools in Cowper Street, which was used as a practising and model school by arrangement with the Corporation and the head-master. But this has since been given up for want of support, and at the present moment (1889) there is no Train- ing College for schoolmasters of secondary schools in existence in England. We can turn with much greater satisfaction to the movement for the professional training of women for teaching in secondary schools. This dates from 1877, in which year the Women's Education Union, instigated by Mrs. William Grey and Miss Shirreff, formed the Teachers' Training and Regis- tration Society, under whose auspices a Training College for such schoolmistresses G G 2 452 TRAINING OF TEACHERS TRIPOS was established, in 1878, in Bishopsgate, a situation selected from its proximity to the Middle Class Girls' School, which was placed at its disposal, by the Rev. William Rogers, as a practising school for the students. This college, now known as the Maria Grey Training College, has since removed to Fitzroy Street, in order to be nearer to the Maria Grey High School for Girls in Fitzroy Square, which is now (since 1881) the chief practising school. The proficiency of the students in their professional studies is tested by the ex- amination for the Cambridge Teaching Certificate, referred to above ; and their successes justify placing this college in the front rank for the excellence of its work. A course of training is also provided at this college in the theory and practice of kindergarten work. Another Training College for women is 'The Cambridge Training College/ which from such begin- nings has, under the efforts of its founder and principal, Miss Hughes, firmly estab- lished itself as a college where highly educated women who intend to become teachers can obtain a professional train- ing with the advantages of residential college life in a university town. The requirements for entrance are the same as those for admission to the Cambridge Teachers' Syndicate Examination (see above) ; under exceptional circumstances, others are admitted, but only then on proof of having received a good education. A large number of the students have pre- viously passed through Newnham College and other colleges for the university edu- cation of women. Besides the instruction given in the college, the students attend courses of university lectures on education. A special feature of this Training College is the number and variety of its practising schools. There are at the disposal of the college for practical work, the Rise High School for girls, two higher-grade girls' schools, a ladies' private school, and a Boys' National School, and the students are required to take their turn of work in each of these schools. The consequence is that they learn to apply the same prin- ciples of education under very varied con- ditions from the higher form in the High School and Standard I. in the Boys' School. This experience is most valuable in itself, besides enabling students to dis- cover in what particular branch of teach- ing they arc likely to excel. Neither of these two colleges named has any endow- ment whatever ; their aim is to be self- supporting, and they are nearly so now ; but the former institution is still some- what crippled in its resources, and hindered in its development by the smallness of its subscription list, and the fact that it is largely recruited by students whose re- sources are limited, and who, therefore, cannot be called upon for such fees as would nearly cover expenses of mainten- ance and teaching -staff. The following is a list of institutions which have grafted the professional train- ing of women as teachers in secondary schools upon their other work : The Home and Colonial School Society's Training College, for Elementary teachers, Gray's Inn Road, London. The Mary Datchelor's Endowed School, Camberwell. Milton Mount (Nonconformist) College, Gravesend. The Ladies' College, Chelten- ham. St. George's Training College, Edin- burgh. Tripos is the name given to the whole system of honours examinations at Cam- bridge by which the candidates for the honours degree in Arts are tested and classed. The name Tripos is applied both collectively to the system and singly to the Mathematical Tripos, Classical Tripos, c. The derivation of the word is interest* ing, dating back to a very remote period. Originally it denoted 'the three-legged stool ' (modelled presumably on the tripod of the Delphic Oracle), on which sat the bachelor who used to dispute with the candidates for honours in the schools on Ash- Wednesday, the Bachelors' Com- mencement. Each of these Questionists, as the candidates were called, had to pro- pound two questions to the bachelor, and to carry on an argument in Latin in pre- sence of the vice-chancellor, the proctors, and the doctors of the university. If he approved himself in the argument he was admitted duly to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. An account of these proceedings is preserved in the books of Mr. Slokys, an esquire, bedel, and registrar, who wrote about the middle of the sixteenth century. (See DEAN PEACOCK, On the Statutes, Ap- pendix A.) ' And when every man is placed, the- Senior Proctor shall, with some oration, shortly move the Father ' (i.e. the Fellow of the Foundation who goes as patron of the candidates of his college, who are called TRIPOS 453 his sons) ' to begyn, who, after his exhorta- tion unto his children, shall call forth his eldest sone, and animate hym to dispute with an ould bachilour, which shall sit upon a stoole before Mr. Proctours, unto whome the sone shall propound 2 Ques- tions, and in bothe them shall the sone dispute. . . .' The next glimpse we get of these pro- ceedings is from Beadle Buck's Book, 1665 A.D. In his account we find the ' ould bachilour ' propounding the thesis himself, and utilising the occasion to bring in allu- sions, of a satirical and even scurrilous nature, to the contemporary proceedings and dignitaries of the university in fact, he has become a licensed buffoon, one of the most important contributors to the waggery of the university. Possibly owing to the contempt for ceremonies which was rife in England in the Reformation period, possibly owing to the general licence of the Restoration and the example of its royal hero, the ceremony of Quadragesima had lost all its dignity. Hence we find the university authorities continually falling foul of the * ould bachilour,' or ' Mr. Tripos' (i.e. Mr. Three-legged Stool, a name not inappropriate for a clown) as he was now called, and taking severe measures for his correction (see Cooper's Annals, vol. iii. 586. Dr. Sniallwood suspended from his B.A. degree 'for his scurrilous and very offensive speech made in ye schools '). The old bachelor's speeches, which generally had a quasi-philosophic title, and were composed in Latin hexameters, were known as the Tripos Speeches, or Tripos Verses. They were printed on sheets of paper and distributed by the bedels to the vice- chancellor, the noblemen, doctors, and others whilst the disputation was going on. Specimens of Tripos verses are given in Chr. Wordsworth's Social Life at the English Universities in the Eighteenth Cen- tiiry, pp. 231 ff. The title of one runs 1 Mutua oscitationum propagatio solvi po- test mechanice ; ' it is followed by facetious allusions to the drowsy effects of the uni- versity sermons, consists usually of three divi- sions or brackets, the order in the division being alphabetical The examiners are 454 TRIPOS authorised to declare candidates who may not have deserved honours to have acquitted themselves so as to deserve an ordinary degree, or so as to deserve to be excused the general examination for the B.A. de- gree. The Tripos is usually taken at the end of the third year of residence, and, in order to equalise the competition, no can- didate is allowed to enter who has kept more than eight full terms, or, in the case of tha Mathematical Tripos, more than nine. The first part of the Classical and Natural Sciences may be taken at the end of the second year, i.e. in one's fifth or sixth term, but in that case it is ne- cessary to take either the second part of the same Tripos or some other Tripos in the following year, in order to gain an honours degree. Special arrangements are also made for candidates wishing to take more than one Tripos, e.g. a can- didate who has passed Part I. of the Mathematical Tripos may proceed to take Part II. of the Natural Sciences in the following year, &c. The Mathematical Tripos is divided into two parts. Part I. extends over two periods of three days, there being an in- terval of eleven days between the two periods. In the first three days the exa- mination is confined to the more elemen- tary parts of pure mathematics and natural philosophy, including the first three sec- tions of Newton's Principia, the subjects being treated without the use of differential calculus or the methods of analytical geometry. On the tenth day after this examination a list, in alphabetical order, is posted of those who have passed ; those appearing on this list proceed to the second half of the examination, and, though they do nothing in the later papers, are entitled to an honours degree. The second half consists of six papers, including trigono- metry, plane and spherical, analytical geometry, theory of equations, differential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations, dynamics of a particle and easier parts of rigid dynamics, optics, and spherical astronomy. Part II. is taken at the end of the fourth year, only those who have obtained honours in Part I being admitted. The candidate has a choice of eight divisions, in any two of which he is required to show proficiency in order to qualify for a first-class. The reading, of course, is more specialised and extensive than for Part I., and includes the latest French and German works on the subject. The Classical Tripos was instituted in 1824; up till 1850 only those who had taken honours in mathematics were allowed to take the examination. Hence the impression, still prevailing, that classics are on a lower footing at Cambridge than mathematics. As reorganised in 1881 r the Classical Tripos is divided into two- parts. Part I. consists of four composition papers, in which passages from English authors are set for translation into Greek and Latin prose and verse, no original composition being required ; two papers on Greek and Roman history, including literature and antiquities ; two papers on grammar and criticism, including elemen- tary philology; and five papers containing passages for translation from Greek and Latin authors into English. Part II., open only to candidates who have obtained honours in Part L, offers a choice of five sections : (a) language, (b) ancient philo- sophy, (c) ancient history and law, (d ) ar- chaeology, (e) philology. Each candidate must pass in (a), which is the same as Part I., except that there is no verse composition, and may offer one or two (not more than two) of the other four sections. Moral Sciences Tripos includes, first, general papers of a more elementary cha- racter in psychology, logic, and methodo- logy, metaphysics, moral and political philosophy, political economy; secondly, more advanced papers on the above sub- jects and on the history of opinions re- lating thereto, certain alternatives being allowed. Natural Sciences tripos consists of two parts. Part I. includes papers of a more elementary character on chemistry, phy- sics, mineralogy, geology, botany, zoology and comparative anatomy, human ana- tomy and physiology. For Part II. a thorough and complete knowledge of any two of the above sciences is required. la both parts the candidates' work is tested by a practical as well as a written exami- nation. The Theological Tripos is divided into- two parts. Part I. consists of two general papers on the Old and New Testament., two papers on the Hebrew of the Old Testament, with questions in Hebrew grammar and easy Hebrew composition, one paper on the Gospels (Greek), with special reference to some selected Gospel., TRIPOS TRUANT SCHOOLS 455 one paper on the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles, and Apocalypse, with special : reference to some selected portions, and two historical papers, one dealing with the history of the Church up to the death of Leo the Great, with special reference to such of the original authorities as are set, the other dealing with the history of Christian doctrine up to the close of the Council of Chalcedon. Part II. offers a choice of four sections : (1) Old Testament, (2) Xew Testament, (3) Church history and literature, (4) dogmatics and liturgiology. No candidate may take up more than two sections. The Law Tripos, according to the new regulations (which come into force in 1889), is divided into two parts. Parti, to include general jurisprudence, Roman law, Institutes of Gaius and Justinian, with a selected portion of the Digest, English constitutional law and history, public international law, essays and pro- blems. Part II. to consist of six papers on : (1) and (2) the English law of real and personal property ; (3) and (4) the English law of contract and tort with the equit- able principles applicable to these sub- jects ; (5) English criminal law and proce- dure, and evidence ; (6) essays. The Historical Tripos. Modern his- tory was included as a subject, first in the Moral Sciences Tripos, then in the Law Tripos, till in 1875 it was made the sub- ject of an independent examination. Ac- cording to the new regulations, which come into force in 1889, it includes papers on the j constitutional and economic history of ! England, political science, a special period as appointed by the Board, essays, political economy, general theory of law and gov- ernment, the principles of international law. In place of the last three subjects a candidate may take a second special period if he prefer. The Semitic Languages Tripos includes Arabic, Hebrew (Biblical and post-Bib- lical), the Koran, Syriac, and Biblical Chaldee. The Indian Languages Tripos includes the language and literature of Sanskrit, Persian, and Hindustani. The Jfediceval and Modern Languages Tripos. The candidate must pass in Sec- tion A, i.e. translation from modern French and German, and composition in the same, and also offer one set only of the following three sets : B, French, with ProvenQal and Italian ; C, German, with old Saxon and Gothic ; D, English, with Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic. Tripos Verses. See TRIPOS. Trivium. See MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE). Truant Schools. Under Section 12 of the Elementary Education Act, 1876, when an attendance order made in respect to any child has not been complied with, 'if the parent satisfies the court that he has used all reasonable efforts ' to enforce com- pliance (in other words, if the child is a confinned truant, beyond the control of his father), the court may * order the child to be sent to a certified day industrial school, or, if it appears to the court that there is no such school suitable for the child, then to a certified industrial school.' A * day industrial school ' must be situated near the homes of the children attending it, and therefore presupposes in one neigh- bourhood sufficient boys or girls to fill it ; but as the pupils must be children too bad for the ordinary day-school and not bad enough for the ordinary industrial school or reformatory, it is manifest that there cannot be many * day industrial schools.' Hence truants are generally sent to a ' certified industrial school.' In order that they may not become criminals by associating with children who have com- mitted graver offences than truancy, they are sent to institutions established for them alone by all the larger School Boards institutions popularly known as ' truant schools. ' By the Industrial Schools Act of 1866 the parents of the child com- mitted may, 'if of sufficient ability,' be required to 'contribute to his mainten- ance and training ... a sum not exceed- ing five shillings per week/ The period of detention is at the discretion of the justices or magistrate, but may not in any case extend beyond the time when the child will attain the age of sixteen years. By Section 14 of the Education Act al- ready quoted the managers of the truant school may * at any time after the expira- tion of one month ' of detention give the truant a licence to live out of the school. The licence ' is conditional upon the child attending as a day-scholar . . . some school willing to receive him.' By Section 27 of the Industrial Schools Act the licence can only run for three months, but it may be renewed as often as necessary. It may also be revoked, and in the case of a re- 456 TRUTHFULNESS TUITION BY CORRESPONDENCE lapse to truancy it is revoked and the offender sent back. Experience, however, has proved that detention for a month or six weeks generally works a perfect cure ; but it must be added that, except in the matter of attendance, the influence of a truant school is not invariably beneficial. Mixing with children all of whom are bad has, too often, a deteriorating effect upon the conduct. Truthfulness.Untruthfulness. Truth- fulness or veracity has been regarded by moralists generally as one of the cardinal virtues. A scrupulous truthfulness, in- cluding the abhorrence of a lie, is one of the highest results of moral education. Lying is a common vice among children, as it is among backward races of mankind. It is very doubtful, however, whether it is a natural propensity which tends to display itself in all cases independently of circumstances. Much of childish inaccuracy of statement is not, strictly speaking, un- truthfulness that is, conscious or inten- tional misstatement but is explained as the result of imperfect knowledge of words, and of a vivid imagination which momen- tarily confuses fiction and reality. A child properly brought up seems rather to show an instinctive shrinking from falsehood, and only lies as the result of an effort. The habit of untruthfulnessmay be induced not only by the bad example of untruthful companions, but by errors on the part of the parent or preceptor. Thus want of strict accuracy from a polite wish to please others may first suggest untruth to the child's mind Again, a child may be -wrongly and foolishly accused of lying, and so the idea of falsehood forced on its attention. For the' rest, the educator should be careful not to force and hurry a child into a lie when the temptation is great and likely to be overpowering, and especially not to terrify a child into un- truth, but to encourage it to be perfectly open, fcven when it has something wrong to confess. When a lie has been clearly detected, it is a proper subject for punish- ment, and care must be taken to make this adequate, so as to correct the weaken- ing effect of the first lie on a habit of truthfulness. Here, however, care is ne- cessary. Lies differ greatly in turpitude according to their motive, and the lie that springs from fear of punishment/ ought not to be visited as iieavily as one arising from a desire to gain an advantage over another, to involve another in trouble, and so forth. With respect to the best mode of punishment opinion differs. Corporal punishment is recommended by Beneke and others as most befitting liars. Again, Rousseau, Kant, and, more recently, H. Spencer, think that the natural consequence of a lie, viz. the withdrawal of trust, is the most appropriate form of punishment. Yet, as Jean Paul Richter points out, this is not always easy, for if we say we will believe nothing the child says, he will be apt to think that we ourselves are lying. Untruthfulness is emphatically a fault about which it may be said prevention is better than cure. The greatest care should be taken by the mother not only in her own use of words, but in the choice of servants and companions, so as to accustom the little one at the outset to the habit of truth, as something normal and admitting of no exception. ; and as the child grows, the influence of the home, the school, and of the playground should combine to develop a feeling of hatred and contempt for falsehood as something essentially mean and cowardly. (See Locke, Thoughts, 131, 132, cf. 37; Miss Eclgeworth, Prac- tical Education, chap. viii. ; Mme. Necker, L' Education, livre iii. chap. iv. ; and especially Beneke, Erziehungs- und Unter- richtslehre, 65; also article 'Wahrhaftig- keit' in Schmidt's Encyclopadie.} Tuition by Correspondence. The sys- tem of correspondence-tuition is a note- worthy feature of modern education. At the time when university lectures and pri- vileges were being thrown open to women it was thought advisable to devise some means by which unattached women stu- dents throughout the country could re- ceive instruction for the university local examinations, whose advantages were also being extended to female students. To this end a committee was formed in con- nection with Newnham College, Cam- bridge, which was empowered to appoint teachers and prepare a syllabus of work to be done in this direction- Pupils were not slow to appreciate such advantages as now offered, and very soon a large num- ber of women and girls availed themselves of these privileges. From Cambridge the system extended elsewhere, and compre- hended not only female but male students in its correspondence-classes. The or- ganisation and method were well adapted to the wants of this ever-increasing body TUITION BY CORRESPONDENCE TUTOR 457 of earnest workers. Tuition was afforded, : cither with a view to immediate passing of examinations, or for the simple ad- j vancement of private study, in some one or more branches of knowledge. A sylla- ! bus was issued, which not only gave a list of subjects included in its curriculum, but also directed intending students as to the ; best methods of obtaining the full ad- j vantage of the new system. Moreover, books which might not have come within their notice were specially dwelt upon, a students'library was established, and a loan ; office in connection with the women's col- 1 leges extended its benefits to members of correspondence-classes. And what was done at Cambridge is only a type of what lias since been done elsewhere. One single staff in the north now numbers some five or six hundred students in its correspond- ence-classes, to whose share not a few university distinctions and scholarships have already fallen. The instruction j afforded is generally at a much lower cost than that applied to aural students of the same standard. The method which has brought the system to its present state of perfection is simply this : When once the subjects of work are selected by the student a number of questions are j sent out bearing upon his present efficiency and future needs ; generally what is called a ' test-paper ' is sent to sound his educa- tional standard, and a number of direc- tions as to the precise line of work he is to follow. Thenceforward a series of ques- tions and answers covering the ground about to be worked are sent and received periodically by correspondence-tutor and j pupil, the answers being duly commented | upon, corrected, and returned, together I with very numerous hints and notes. The ! student is further advised as to the best books, as to special points of weakness in his work ; and he learns to condense his thoughts by continually writing out his answers, and this latter is the keystone of ( all correspondence-tuition work. Not un- frequently books are freely lent, and the , teacher being generally fully acquainted with the newest and best methods of educational work, is able to afford valu- able assistance to isolated students. Fur- ther, sympathy is afforded, which is such an incentive to the solitary worker, and a ready referee is always at hand to solve ' difficulties and give encouragement in those times of depression too well known to solitary students. In many correspon- dence-classes excellent lectures are from time to time circulated, also annotated books of reference, notes on syntax, gram- mar, and construction, quotations, pro- blems fully worked out, which serve as ex- amples; and students thus benefit by the research of men and women who have ac- cess to fuller sources of information than they themselves possess. A large number of correspondence- tutors are called upon to give informa- tion on many points outside their curri- culum ; and more than one staff habitually gives information, not only on educational matters, but on students' lodgings, regis- tries, associations, and facilities of all kinds. Another large London staff affords gratuitous assistance in correspondence- tuition to poor women and girls, thus pro- viding a long-felt want in the student world. The Women's Year-Book of Work gives an ever-increasing list of correspon- dence-classes specially intended for women ; while the list of honours obtained by both men and women through this medium swells year by year. Both amateur and professional art, music, and mechanical students make use of this system. Cor- respondence-tuition will probably be an important factor in future educational schemes when restriction as to residence will be more or less withdrawn, and uni- versity certificates, diplomas, and degrees even more sought after than they are at present. Of course such a project as that of correspondence-tuition has not been entirely without flaws, nor has it been per- fected at a single stroke ; it is also liable, as are all newly-organised things, to misuse or misconstruction; neither are all teachers on this system more perfect or immaculate than those in other branches of their pro- fession. The ever-increasing sphere of work attached to the post of correspon- dence-tutor is an earnest of the work to be done, and when the registration of teachers is made law in England as in other countries we shall hear less of attempted misuse of correspondence classes. Turnebus. See REFORMATION. Tutor. This word no longer signifies one who merely ' looks after, watches, takes care of,' as its derivation implies (Latin tueor), but is employed to designate those engaged in certain kinds of teaching, or, as it is frequently called, ' tutorial ' work, the change from ' guardian ' to 458 TUTOR TYPE OF BOOKS ' teacher ' being precisely analogous to the corresponding change of meaning in the vord 'pupil' from ' ward ' to 'taught/ both words being still used in Scotch law with their primitive meanings. College Tutors. At Cambridge the word has kept a good deal of its original force. Each college or hall has its tutor (or, in the case of the larger colleges, more than one), whose duties are (a) to maintain discipline, and organise the teaching ar- rangements of the college ; (b) to assist in the work of imparting knowledge. In theory he is supposed to stand in locoparen- tis to the undergraduates of the college, or, when there is, as at St. John's and Trinity, more than one college tutor, to those as- signed to his care. The tutor's advice and assistance in all matters connected with the undergraduate's studies or conduct is at the latter's service whenever he may need it in the course of his college career. The tutor's authority is large, and his duties onerous, but these are usually shared with others appointed to aid him, under the titles of assistant-tutors, lecturers, deans, &c. At Oxford the word is applied in a somewhat wider sense, not only to those entrusted with disciplinary functions, but also to others whose work is solely to im- part instruction. But at Oxford, as at Cambridge, each student on entering the university is assigned to a tutor, to whom he is supposed to come for instruction and advice when he requires it, and he cannot leave the university for a day, nor enter his* name for any college or university examination, without his tutor's permis- sion ; but the relation between tutor and student is considerably closer at Cam- bridge than at Oxford. At both universi- ties the tutors are, as a rule, also Fellows. At many of the American and Scotch universities, and at various other colleges of university rank, the name tutor (or lecturer) is applied to the professor's as- sistant ; as a rule, his functions are simi- lar to those of the professor, but he gene- rally takes work of a more elementary kind ; sometimes, however (as at several of the theological colleges), he has disci- plinary duties in addition. Tutors (Private, at the Universities). It is found, however, that the amount of teaching supplied by the college officials is not sufficient to meet the needs of stu- dents reading for honours in the various examinations, who, therefore, resort to private tutors, or, as they are generally known, * coaches.' These are, as a rule r men who themselves have taken high honours in the particular branch of study in which they * coach ' pupils ; they are frequently young men who find it to their advantage to take this irregular sort of work for a few years, before settling down to permanent engagements. There are, however, some who devote themselves en- tirely to coaching, especially among the numerous body at each university who- prepare men for pass-degrees ; but this latter is work of a disagreeable kind, a& the pupils are generally men of little ability. At London University there are neither professors nor tutors who have any official connection with the university, but there is a large body of private tutors who pre- pare men for the various examinations. Tutors (Army, Civil Service, &c.). The name tutor is also applied to ' cram- mers,' or 'coaches,' who prepare for the numerous public examinations. This class has sprung up within the last few years, and, in consequence of the increasing number of public appointments thrown open to competition, has assumed very large dimensions. In London the heads of these establishments are able to secure first-class men as lecturers, and conse- quently the fees charged by these tutors (notably the army ones) are very high ;. their pupils come mostly from the wealthier classes ; but there would seem to be no need of this class of tutors if the great public- schools, whence they draw most of their supplies, did their work more thoroughly. Tutors (Private, Visiting, Travelling, &c.) Visiting private tutors give instruc- tion to pupils, on whom they call at the pupil's residence; wealthier families fre- quently employ resident tutors to prepare their sons for school life, and many men of considerable attainments are not loth to accept travelling tutorships, where their functions are to accompany their charges and exercise the double duties of mental and moral training. Such tutorships are nowadays mostly confined to the longer vacations, but at the time when the grand tour was looked upon as an essential part of the education of every young man of con- sideration it was a common thing for poorer men who had distinguished themselves at college to spend one, two, or three years on. the Continent, engaged in this sort of work. Type of Books. See EYESIGHT, UNDERGRADUATE UNITS 459 u Undergraduate. See GRADUATE. United States, Education in. See LAW (EDUCATIONAL), section Massachu- setts ; and UNIVERSITIES, section American Universities. Units. The degree of accuracy with which a nation can define its units may be said to be a measure of its civilisation. As England has become more civilised, and science has been more eagerly pursued, her standard units have become more exact. Yet the treatment of this subject in nearly all the text-books in arithmetic is most unscientific. In many cases an untrue distinction is made between a grain troy and a grain avoirdupois, and it is taught that the standard pounds are falsely derived from these grains. Dis- tinction should be made between derived units and the fundamental units of length, mass, and time. As it is difficult to find exact definitions, it will be useful to quote the Act of Parliament (18 & 19 Yict. c. 72, July 30,1855). (1) Standard weight*, or rather masses. A certain lump of platinum, marked 'P.S., 1844, 1 lb.,' preserved by the Ex- chequer and now by the Board of Trade, ' shall be the legal and genuine standard measure of weight, and shall be and be denominated the imperial standard pound avoirdupois . . . the only standard measure of weight from which all other weights . . . shall be derived, computed, and as certained, and one equal seven-thousandth part of such lb. av. shall be a grain, and 5,760 such grains . . . & pound troy.' Troy is simply old London and Saxon weight. Avoirdupois is derived from the old Nor- man or southern standards (cf. the story of the old English and British churches). The French standard of mass is the platinum kilogramme des archives, found by Prof. W.H. Miller to equal 15432-34874 grains. The teacher must guard against the con- fusion in most text-books between mass and weight. In ordinary life mass is meant where the word ' weight ' is used. The mass or quantity of matter in the above standards is invariable. The it-eight of the standard mass is constant for a given spot, but varies slightly in different parts of the world, just as the measure of * gravity ' varies. At Greenwich the stan- dard pound mass weighs 32 '191 . . . poundal units of force. (2) The standard units of length are the yard and the metre. The above Act enacts that * the straight line or distance between the centres of the transverse lines in the two gold plugs in the bronze bar deposited in the office . . . shall be the genuine standard yard at 62 Fahr.' The metre is the distance between the ends of Borda's platinum rod at C., and was intended to be a universal measure based on geodetic measurements. The metre is 39*37043 British inches. All the multiples and submultiples of these standards and other details will be found in table-books. The metric system is legal in Britain, and, as it is much used in even elementary science, the young pupil should be made as familiar with centimetres as inches, litres as pints, grammes as grains. Cheap flat rulers, comparing the systems are sold for a penny. More exact ones cost Is. 6c?. and upwards. Exact weights for chemical balances are expensive. Calculations are shortened by use of the metric system. Scientific standards, e.g. electrical units, are defined in its terms. The con- venience for international comparison is obvious. (3) The unit of time is not defined by Act of Parliament, but one o'clock or some other hour in mean solar time is. daily telegraphed from Greenwich Obser- vatory. * Standard time ' in America is calculated for the meridians of 60, 75,. 90, 105 W. of Greenwich. The time of running trains is regulated by the time of the central meridian of each belt, as it were. Thus, ' Atlantic time,' or sixtieth meridian time, is used in New Brunswick ; ' Eastern time ' is kept between 67^ and 82^, governed by the seventy-fifth meri- dian. Further west there is ' central time,' c mountain time,' and ' western time/ It will be seen that noon eastern time is 9 A. M. western time. This difference of local time is, of course, determined by the fact of the earth's daily rotation through 360 in twenty-four hours, or ^^=4 minutes for every degree of longitude. This rule will enable the local time to be calculated on reference to a good atlas. Thus, when 460 UNITS UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE it is 10 P.M. on L. 35 W., what time is it on L. 63 EJ The difference is 98, the dif- ference of time is 98 x 4=39 2min.=6 h 32 m , which + 10 h = 16 h 32 m . This means that the time required is 16 h 32 P.M. or 6 h 32 A.M. The convenience of the astro- nomical system of twenty-four hours is obvious and is coming into greater use. The International Congress at Washington agreed to count the Greenwich meridian ^as zero, and the time from Greenwich at midnight. Thus 19 o'clock at Greenwich "would be, as it were, 17 P.M. all over the world (see MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY). The mean solar second is the ^l^th equal part of the average length of a solar day. It is the irr5~5iTTT^^th of a solar year, and "the -g- r? -g- 1 ig n th of a sidereal year. The pendulum which ticks seconds at Green- wich has a 'length 'of 39*139 inches, or '99*414 centimetres. The teacher should take great pains this difficult subject of units. Very many popular (Science text-books grossly offend in this matter, especially in ele- mentary mechanics. Legal, popular, and scientific units should be distinguished in some cases. International units are being arranged or corrected. An important book of reference, the result of ten years' work at the request of the International Meteoro- logical Congress, are the Tables edited by Profs. Mascart and Wild (Paris, Gauthier- "Villars, 400 pp. 4to, price 35 francs). See also Tables of the Physical Constants of Nature (Washington, Smithsonian Insti- tute). A useful little book on units, full of tables, is Lupton's Numerical Tables and Constants in Elementary Science {Macmillan, 1884, 2s. 6d.) See also Mr. Lupton's two papers in Nature, January 1888. Scientific units are dealt with in Prof. Everett's Units of Physical Measure- ment (Macmillan, 4s. Qd.) A larger book by an American is Jackson's Modern Me- trology (London, Crosby Lock wood & Co., 1882). Universal Language. Many at- tempts have been made at different times to invent a means of communication which might obviate the necessity of persons of different nations learning one another's tongue. Latin may fairly be said to have been the ' universal language ' of the let- tered portion of the community during the Middle Ages, but with the Renascence and the growth and spread of the Reformed religion and of printing nations have more and more adhered each to its own ver- nacular. One of the first attempts to supply a common medium was that of George Dal- garno, a native of Aberdeen and student of Oxford, whose Ars Signorum, sive Cha- racter Universalis appeared at London in 1661 and formed the basis of the better known work of Bishop Wilkins, An Essay towards a Philosophical Language, printed for the Royal Society in 1668. The bishop tells us (in his preface) that his main ob- ject is 'the distinct expression of all things and notions that fall under discourse . . .' and to attain that end he divides all words into integrals and transcendentals ; his integrals (which comprise all nouns, &c.) he then divides into forty genus's (the expression is his own), which he again sub- divides into species, tfec. &c. ; his transcen- dentals which are to embrace all such words as are non-integrals have to sub- mit to a more complicated classification, and finally the whole arrangement (which, be it noted, must comprehend every single word in the language) is to be committed to memory before the ' Philosophical Lan- guage ' can be used ! Under these cir- cumstances, it is perhaps not very sur- prising that Bishop Wilkins's scheme has never been put into practice : indeed it is doubtful whether anybody but the author of the system and his critics has ever had the patience to plod through the long dreary folio with its wearisome list of words 'philosophically' arranged, and its ingeniously cumbrous methods for the better concealment of thought. Perhaps one example of his system may be of inte- rest. He names one of his genera, Element : to this he affixes the symbol De then Deb signifies what he calls the^rs^ difference^ which (according to the tables) is fire ; Deba the first species, i.e. flame Det, the fifth difference (of that genus), viz. Ap- pearing meteor Deta, the first species thereof, i.e. Rainbow, and Deta the second, Halo, &c. To write this ' Philosophical Language ' he invented a ' Philosophical Character,' which is extremely difficult to learn, and ill-suited for either writing or printing. But Wilkins's attempt excited much interest, and was the cause of many other experiments in the same direction. J. G. Vater, in his Pasigraphie und Antipasi- graphie . . . uber die Schriftsprache fur alle Volker (Weiszenfels, 1799), gives a UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE 461 succinct account of several systems, with remark son those of Wolken, Kalrnar, and Leibnitz, together with one of his own. In this he endeavours to represent words by the Arabic numerals, as these are the common property of all civilised races. Like Wilkins, he endeavours to classify all tilings, and not with much better suc- cess, and his system is useless without a knowledge of the complete arrangement of his Squares (Rahmen), Columns, Divisions (Theile), Lines (Zeile), and Sections (Ab- schnitte) ; thus 1346ii denotes ' Ham- merschlag ' (' blow with a hammer '), because that word is to be found in Square (1), Column (3), Division (4), Line (6), Section (ii) ! This scarcely rises above the dignity of a clumsy crypto- gram, yet enormous pains must have been given to the preparation of the word- lists, which are drawn up with sufficient acuteness. But Leibnitz had an idea which though he did not live to work it out he has expressed with distinctness in a letter to a friend (quoted by Vater from Raspe's edition of Leibnitz, Op. Omn.) : * I might hope,' he writes, ' to produce a sort of universal calculus (allgemeine Rechnung) by means whereof truthful inference could be deduced in a certain manner from all rational statements. You would thus have a sort of universal language or code of writing, but very different from all those that have been proposed hitherto, for correct inferences would be produced by the combinations of the characters and word-symbols themselves, whilst errors, if they did not lie in the actual statement of facts, would be merely mistakes of cal- culation.' Of course, if any such scheme as this could be devised, it would have an educa- tional and intellectual value far beyond any that it might possess as a mere means of communication, but at present we are apparently as far from it as Leibnitz was, though Jevons has shown by his Logical Abacus the possibility of drawing correct inferences by merely mechanical processes, which was one of the objects Leibnitz seems to have had in view. Babbage also gave some thought to the possibilities of a language calculus, but without producing anything. Referring the reader curious in such matters to A. Charma's Sur V Etablissement d*une Langue UniverseUe ' (Paris, 1856), and to the same author's Essai sur le Lan- gage (Paris, 1846), where a list of some scores of names of inventors of * Pasigra- phies/'Pasilogies,' ' LanguesUniverselles/ ' Laiigues Philosophiques,' and the like,. will be found, we pass to the consideration of a system which has sprung up within the- last decade, and seems really likely to- become a code of communication in com- merce at any rate, seeing that it has^ already something like a quarter of a mil- lion adherents, while a dozen newspapers^ &c., are printed in it. The inventor is. Johann Martin Schleger, a Roman Catho- lic priest, who, having a wide knowleclge- of languages, has devoted himself to the- task of (a) selecting the roots he considered best adapted for the bulk of civilised people, and (/?) building up a simple and. regular system of grammar. The roots. are for the most part monosyllables chosen, or adapted from Aryan tongues, and may be roughly divided into three classes : (a), Teutonic, e.g. giv (gift), do (though), zug (draw), (/3) Romance, mod (mode), virt. (wine), cein (room). (y) Roots, apparently arbitrary (or so slightly connected existing ones as to be irrecognisable), e.g. fad (chance), fun (corpse), nam (hand). It , is claimed that more than forty per cent of these roots are connected with English,. but a large number of these belong to class (y). The pronunciation of the con- sonants is such as the inventor has thought . best suited for the world in general, thus b, d, f, h, k, I, m, n, p, s, t, v, x, have their English sounds; so has r, but it is used very sparingly ; g is always soft ( together with, in most cases, rooms rent free, and an allowance for dinner in hall. The tenure is for seven years. These fellowships are simply rewards for pro- ficiency in the various subjects studied in the university, and the holders are, as a. rule, under no obligation to reside, or to remain unmarried after election, or to- serve their colleges in any capacity. The official fellowships are mainly intended to- be held by members of the educational staff in the college, but they are also, in many cases, tenable by other college- officers. Their yearly value is generally 200?., besides free rooms and allowance for dinner in hall. The length of tenure varies from two to fifteen years. The following is a list of the twenty - one colleges in the University of Oxford,, with the reputed dates of their founda- tions and the number of their members in 1887. In addition to the colleges there are two academical halls, St. Mary, founded in 1333, with eighty-seven members ; and St. Edmund, founded in 1557, with 129 mem- bers. Their constitution differs from that of the colleges, inasmuch as they are not corporate bodies, and have neither fellows- nor scholars. Provision has recently been made for their dissolution on the occur- rence of the next vacancy in their respec- H H 466 UNIVERSITIES tive principalships. St. Mary Hall will be merged in Oriel College, and St. Ed- mund Hall will be partially united to Queen's College. College Date Members University 872 541 Balliol 1263 820 Merton 1'264 481 Exeter 1314 808 Oriel 1826 429 Queen's 1340 566 New 1379 684 Lincoln 1427 325 All S uls 1437 115 Magdalen Brasenose 1458 1509 604 524 Corpus Christ 1516 341 Christ Church 1546 1,303 Trinity . 1554 570 St. John's 1555 575 Jesus 1571 244 Wadham 1612 384 Pembroke 1624 323 Worcester 1714 450 Keble . 1870 532 Hertford 1874 329 There are, moreover, two private halls Charsley's, with sixty members, and Turrell's, with fourteen members founded under a statute passed in 1882, which enacted that any member of Convocation above the age of twenty- eight may, under certain conditions, obtain from the vice- chancellor, with the consent of the Heb- domadal Council, a licence to open a suitable building as a private hall for the reception of academical students, with the title of ' licensed master/ and make provision for the proper government of the students under his charge. They are subject to all other statutes of the uni- versity, and they partake in its privileges and are admissible to its degrees in the same way as other students. Previous to 1868 no one could become a member of the university who was not already a member of a college or hall. In that year an enactment was passed under which per- sons are permitted, under certain condi- tions, to become students and members of the university without being members of any college or hall. Such persons are known as ' non- collegiate students,' and keep their statutable residence in nouses or licensed lodgings situated within a pre- scribed area. They enjoy all the rights of collegiate students, including that of being admitted to degrees and to all the subsequent privileges. Such students are placed under the supervision of a censor, who is charged with the care of their conduct and studies. In 1887 the number of non-collegiate students was 385. The University of Cambridge is an incorporation of students in the liberal arts and sciences, incorporated by the name of the chancellor, masters, and scholars of the university. In this commonwealth are in- cluded seventeen colleges and two public hostels, each being a body corporate, bound by its own statutes, but likewise controlled by the paramount laws of the university. The legislative body of the university is called the Senate, and comprises the chan- cellor, the vice-chancellor, doctors of di- vinity, law, medicine, science, and letters, bachelors of divinity, and masters of arts, law, and surgery, whose names are upon the university register. There is a council of the Senate, which must first sanction everything before it can be sub- mitted to the Senate for confirmation. This council consists of the chancellor, the vice-chancellor, four heads of col- leges, four professors of the university, and eight other members of the Senate. The Executive branch of the university is committed to the chancellor, the high steward, the vice-chancellor, the com- missary, and a number of other officers. There is a general board of studies, and also special boards for the different de- partments of study, as well as a financial board for the care and management of the income of the university. The relations of the university to the colleges are prac- tically the same as at Oxford, and the general organisation of the whole institu- tion is somewhat similar. The two uni- versities are, however, by no means copies of each other. Each has its own aims and methods, and they present numerous points of contrast to the student of academical constitution and administration. The public hostels are (1) Cavendish College, founded in 1876, with 141 mem- bers ; and (2) Selwyn College, founded in 1882, with 156 members. There is also a private hostel named Ayerst Hall, founded in 1884, and having thirty-eight members on its books. Its object is to enable theological and other students to keep terms at Cambridge at the same cost as at the younger universities and at theological colleges. As at Oxford, non-collegiate students have been admitted to the uni- versity since 1869. In 1887 these students numbered 203, and the total number of UNIVERSITIES 467 matriculations in the same year was 1,012. The following is a list of the seventeen colleges at Cambridge, with the dates of their foundations and the number of mem- bers upon their boards in 1887: Colleg e Date Members St. Peter's 1257 327 Clare 1326 503 Pembroke 1347 481 Gonville and ( Daius 1348 742 Trinity Hall 1350 642 Corpus Christi 1352 477 King's . 1441 393 Queen's . 1448 295 St. Catharine' 1473 218 Jesus 1496 522 Christ's . 1505 657 St. John's 1511 1,750 Magdalene 1519 233 Trinity . 1546 3,523 Emmanuel 1584 553 Sidney Sussex 1594 211 Downing 1800 216 Although the University of London, as it now exists, dates only from 1836, it actually had its origin ten years earlier. An institution bearing that title was founded in 1826, the primary object of its founders being to create in London a centre of research where the sons of Dissen- ters, to whom the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge were at that time inacces- sible, might obtain a liberal education entirely dissociated from all connection with religious sects or parties. The ex- clusiveness of the two ancient universities was not the only argument brought forward in favour of the establishment of a new seat of learning. The great cost of resid- ing at Oxford and Cambridge made these universities prohibitive to many who were not Dissenters, and, besides, the natural sciences, and especially medicine, were not taught in these universities. The new university was founded by private munificence, and was opened on October 1, 1828. A draft charter for its incorpora- tion, and for enabling it to confer degrees, was approved in 1831 by the law officers of the Crown, but a change of Government prevented it from being granted. In 1836 the institution was eventually incorporated, not, however, as a university, but as a college of a university, under the title of University College, and a new body en- tirely distinct from it was empowered to assume the name of the University of London, and to grant degrees in the faculties of Arts, Law, and Medicine. At first it was necessary that candidates for these degrees should receive their education in colleges affiliated to the university, but in 1858 the examinations were thrown open to all candidates, without restriction as to place of education. In 867 a sup- plemental charter was obtained empower- ing the university to hold examinations for women. The University of London has exercised an important influence on higher education all over the country, and its examination- statistics have increased from decade to decade. During the first ten years of its existence the number of persons who matriculated was 763, and during the same period 522 obtained degrees of various kinds. During the last ten years the num- bers reached 8,469 matriculated, and 2, 375 graduated. During these fifty years the total number of candidates who presented themselves for examination was 58,962, and altogether 1 8,832 persons matriculated, and 6,489 obtained degrees. It will be noticed that while the matriculations have increased more than tenfold, the gradua- tions have only been quadrupled. This seems to point to the conclusion that the middle-class schools of England are more and more adopting the London matricula- tion as their leaving examination. But while the University of London has been on its own lines a recognised success, there- has of late been much discussion as to its future. A merely examining university does not commend itself to many educa- tionists, and an association has been formed for the promotion of a teaching university for the metropolis. This asso- ciation aims at the organisation of univer- sity teaching in and for London, in the form of a teaching university with the usual faculties, the conjunction of exami- nation with teaching, and the direction of both by the same authorities ; the conferring of a substantive voice in the government of the university upon those engaged in the work of tuition and examination ; the adoption of existing institutions as the basis or component parts of the university, to be either partially or completely incor- porated with the minimum of internal change, and an alliance between the uni- versity and such professional societies or corporations as the Royal College of Phy- sicians of London and the Royal College of Surgeons of England. This scheme has HH2 468 UNIVERSITIES been in the main approved by the Councils of King's College and of University Col- lege, and has otherwise met with consider- able support. The University of Durham was instituted in 1832, under an Act of Parliament which empowered the Dean and Chapter of Dur- ham to appropriate an estate for the esta- blishment and maintenance of a university for the advancement of learning in con- nection with the cathedral church. The educational system and arrangements of the university were assimilated to those of Oxford and Cambridge, provision being also made for the residence of students within certain colleges and halls. In 1 870, however, a regulation was passed providing for the admission of persons as members of the university who might be unattached to these colleges and halls, provided only they resided in lodgings approved by the warden and proctors. In course of time, the university extended its sphere of use- fulness by the incorporation and affiliation of colleges situated at a distance from the university seat. Consequent upon this change, the College of Medicine and the College of Physical Science at Newcastle- on-Tyne now form an integral part of the university, and Codrington College, Bar- bados, and Fourah Bay College, Sierra Leone, are affiliated to it. The university enjoys the power of conferring the custo- mary degrees in all the faculties. Victoria University was founded by Royal Charter, dated April 20, 1880, mainly on a petition of Owens College, Manchester (in which it was stated that in this country there exists a widespread and growing demand for the extension and benefits of university education, together with a conviction that, in respect of the opportunities of such an education, Eng- land, compared with several other coun- tries, remains deficient). The Yorkshire College of Science at Leeds concurred in this petition, and further sought to obtain the incorporation in the proposed univer- sity of other colleges than Owens. The constitution of the Victoria University, which resembles that of London in some respects, is essentially different in others. Colleges are not merely to be affiliated to it, but they are to be incorporated with it, so as to form part of the same organisation, and have a share in its general manage- ment, while retaining their own autonomy. At present (1888) the activity of the Vic- toria University is confined to Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds the colleges incor- porated with it being Owens College, Manchester, which was constituted a col- lege of the university by its charter ; University College, Liverpool, which was admitted a college of the university November 5, 1884 ; and the Yorkshire College, Leeds, admitted 1887. Degrees are granted by Victoria University in the faculties of Arts, Science, Law, and Medi- cine, and candidates are required on pre- senting themselves to furnish certificates of attendance upon approved courses of instruction. The first Scottish University was founded at St. Andrews in 1 41 1 . This was followed by the University of Glasgow in 1450, and the University of Aberdeen in 1494. The University of Edinburgh was not founded until 1582. St. Andrews followed closely the organisation of Paris and Ox- ford, where its founder had been educated, and, in spite of repeated legislation, still retains distinct traces of its mediaeval origin, The constitution and organisation of the four Scottish universities has been practically uniform since the passing of the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1858, and the ordinances of the Executive Com- mission following thereon. For the ordi- nary four years' arts course students enter the universities in many cases direct from the primary schools at a comparatively early age, and without previous examina- tion. For the three years' course, however, an entrance examination is compulsory. At the end of either course, and the passing- of satisfactory examinations in the so-called seven arts subjects, the degree of M.A. is obtained. In addition to the arts degree and the degrees in the professional faculties,, degrees in science were recently instituted at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews. The universities are the recognised training colleges for the ministry of the Scottish Churches, and for the legal, medical, and teaching professions. Great advances have recently been made in the department of medicine, and the University of Edinburgh has attained the position of one of the- leading medical schools of the world. Th& Scottish universities have always been essentially popular institutions, in the sense- of being accessible to rich and poor alike. This has been accomplished partly by the* bursary system (see BURSARIES), which is. more closely identified with Scotland than. UNIVERSITIES 469 with any other country, and partly by the moderate cost of living in the university towns, together with the lowness of the class fees. Women are not admitted to their class-rooms, but local examinations are conducted which are open to both sexes, and the University of St. Andrews has instituted a higher certificate for women, with the title of Literate in Arts. Although it may be claimed for the Scot- tish universities that they have hitherto fairly met the wants of the country, there has been during the past twelve years an urgent demand in various quarters for a comprehensive scheme of reform. Special stress has been laid upon the need there is of a more popular and representative element in the governing bodies of the universities, the necessity of an entrance examination, and a consequent elevation of the standard of teaching. The opening up of the M.A. curriculum has also been insisted on, so as to include a greater num- ber of subjects than at present. Also the specialisation of studies after a certain stage, somewhat after the manner known as the elective system in several of the leading American universities. Increased facilities are likewise required for the prosecution of special lines of study and original research by distinguished students after graduation. Still more liberal treat- ment on the part of the Imperial Treasury is also called for, so that the financial condition of the universities may be less strained, and the respective senates enabled to make better provision for more thorough practical teaching in science subjects, which is a new departure int he Scottish univer- sity system. Irish Universities. Trinity College, Dublin, was founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1591, and was the only university in Ireland until the middle of the present century. Although frequently assailed from various quarters, it has throughout its history been the recognised centre of learning in Ireland. In its general orga- nisation Trinity College closely resembles the older English universities, on which it was to a large extent modelled ; but in several particulars it differs from them, as well as from most other universities of long standing. One noticeable peculiarity is the system of non-resident students, which appears to have sprung up, in con- travention of the statutes, about the middle of last century. In this way students may keep terms in certain faculties by merely enrolling their names in the uni- versity books and coming up for the neces- sary examinations. This method of keep- ing terms has been as much as possible discouraged in recent years, but it is still in use, and has been taken advantage of by colleges outside Ireland as a means of enabling their students to acquire univer- sity degrees. In 1845 colleges were esta- blished by Government at Belfast, Cork, and Galway, and in 1850 the Queen's Uni- versity in Ireland was founded for the purpose of conferring upon the students of these colleges such degrees and distinc- tions as were usually conferred by other universities in Great Britain and Ireland. This university, however, was dissolved on February 3, 1882, and its place has been taken by the Royal University of Ireland (chartered on April 27, 1880), which is an examining body framed on a wider and more popular basis than the Queen's Uni- versity. With the exception of theology, it confers degrees in all the faculties, in- cluding music. Its degrees, scholarships, and other distinctions are open to students of either sex who have passed the matricu- lation examination, and its examinations are held not only in Dublin, which is the headquarters of the university, but in dif- ferent towns throughout Ireland. Although mainly an Irish university, its operations are not limited to that country, as its ex- aminations are open to students from the university colleges of England and Wales. The Universities of France. At the end of last century there were twenty-three provincial universities in France, founded at different epochs from a very early period. Of these Toulouse was the oldest, next to the central University of Paris, dating from 1233; Montpelier was founded in 1289, and Orleans in 1312. All these univer- sities were suppressed by a decree of the Convention on March 20, 1794 the sup- pression including even the University of Paris itself education at all its stages being turned over to private enterprise. Under the name of the Imperial Univer- sity of France, Napoleon I. instituted, by a law of May 10, 1806, a great lay corpo- ration, of which all the members were nominated by the Government, and which was exclusively charged with the conduct of public instruction throughout the French territory. In this vast organisation were comprised all the educational institutions 470 UNIVERSITIES of the country, from the primary school to the university the central point of the scheme being that the Imperial University alone possessed the right of teaching. Su- perior instruction was given by the Facul- ties, which took the place of the old pro- vincial universities. No establishment for instruction of any kind could be formed outside the University and without the authority of its chief. To open a school and teach publicly it was necessary to be a member and a graduate of the Univer- sity. This unique organisation has been greatly modified by repeated acts of legis- lation, but its general outline has not been essentially altered. In 1876, however, it became possible for the Roman Catholic Church to establish denominational uni- versities ; and by the decree of Decem- ber 28, 1885, concerning the organisation of the faculties and the schools for supe- rior instruction, the University of Paris has been again revived. It embraces the faculties of Protestant theology, law, me- dicine, science, and letters, together with the school of pharmacy, and claims to be the most numerously attended university in the world. The following are the statistics of attendance during its first session, 1885-86 : faculty of theology 35, law 3,786, medicine 3,696, sciences 467, letters 928, pharmacy 1,767 total 10,679. This total is not quite accurate, as a num- ber of students are enrolled in more than one faculty, but the exact number is be- lieved to be not less than 10,000. There were foreign students in all the faculties ; and in the faculties of medicine, law, sci- ences, and letters there were in all 167 women. German Universities. Nowhere have more thought and pains been taken for the development of a university system than in Germany. No people take more pride in their universities than the Ger- mans, and certainly no Government has been more liberal towards such institu- tions than the German. The German uni- versities have thus reached a high degree of perfection, and their methods have been closely followed in other countries. The educational system of Germany resembles a vast and highly-organised machine, every part of which tells on the other, and the popularity of the universities is so great and the cost of attending them so cheap that the increase of students has be- come such that it has been found neces- sary to make an effort to check it. The Prussian Government lately requested the heads of gymnasia and high schools to caution young men who were leaving them against entering a university, as the chances of obtaining employment in the civil service were extremely small. The faculty of law is especially overcrowded. From 1860 to 1875 every student of phi- lology was sure of an appointment on leaving the university, but now they have to wait as long as law students. In Germany the university is the recognised medium of admission to all the learned pro- fessions and all important offices of State. While largely engaged in purely theoreti- cal training, tending to the over-produc- tion of specialists in every department of knowledge, the German universities also give direct professional training, enabling men to become lawyers, judges, school- masters, physicians, and clergymen. The watchwords of the German system are ' freedom of teaching ' and * freedom of learning.' There is practically no curri- culum, and a student passes during his academic course from one university to- another in a way scarcely known in other countries. The number of universities, throughout the empire is 22. Of these- the largest in point of numbers is Berlin and the smallest Braunsberg. The follow- ing are some of the statistics of the winter- session, 1886-87: Berlin 296 teachers,, 6,880 students ; Leipzig 180 teachers^. 3,328- students ; Munich 165 teachers^ 3,209' students; Halle 110 teachers, 1,583 stu- dents ; Wiirtzburg 71 teachers^ 1,531 students ; Breslau 131 teachers, 1,448 students. The Universities of Switzerland and Austria closely resemble those of Germany. The largest of these is Vienna, which in the winter session of 1886-87 had 301 teachers and 6,157 students. The Hun- garian universities of Budapest and Klau- senberg have likewise a similar organisa- tion. The former was attended in 1 885-86 by 3,445 students during the first session and 3,255 during the second; the latter by about 500 students, there being a slight increase in session 1886-87. Belgian Universities. In Belgium there are State universities at Ghent and! Liege, and independent universities at Brussels and Louvain. The University of! Brussels was inaugurated on November 20,. 1834. Being a new departure in academic.- UNIVERSITIES 471 usage its career lias been watched with much interest, and it is generally admitted that the experiment has been eminently- successful. Its promoters designed that it should be a home of intellectual free- dom, where the search after truth might be absolutely unfettered. It was in fact a protest against the predominance of clerical influence in the educational sys- tem of the country. When at length the Roman Catholic Church obtained posses- sion of the ancient University of Louvain, the leaders of the liberal party felt that this action on the part of the State could not be disregarded. The erection of a new university was at once resolved upon, and the community of the capital responded so heartily that almost immediately the de- sign was accomplished. Its method of erection was a new factor in academic history. It owed nothing to the two powers the Church and the State which had hitherto been regarded as indispensable to the institution of such seats of learning. Its endowments were raised by subscrip- tions contributed between the years 1834 and 1843. The number of students has steadily increased from 96 in the first ses- sion to 1,686 in the fiftieth. It embraces the faculties of philosophy and letters, law, science, medicine, and a polytechnical school. In one respect the Free Univer- sity of Brussels has been brought closely into contact with England, inasmuch as its system of medical graduation has en- abled many English practitioners to obtain by examination the doctorate of their faculty a much coveted distinction not easily procured at home. Dutch Universities. In Holland there are now no less than five universities, viz. the three State Universities of Leyden, Utrecht, and Groningen, the Communal University of Amsterdam, and the Free University, also located in the capital. Until 1876 the State universities pre- sented no distinctive features worthy of special notice ; but in that year a new law was passed under which the theological faculties in these universities were abo- lished. The State thus cut itself free from the recognition of divinity as a branch of academic study ; but the Dutch Reformed Church was allowed to appoint two professors in each of the universities, who might furnish the necessary dogmatic instruction to candidates for the ministry. This change led to much dissatisfaction throughout the country, which reached its climax when it became known that nearly all the new theological professors belonged to the modern or rationalistic school. The orthodox party at once set a movement on foot, under the leadership of Dr. A. Kuyper, a divine and statesman of marked ability and influence, which culminated in the foundation of the Free University in 1 880. Although the university was mainly established for the teaching of divinity on ultra- Calvinistic principles, it also aims at ultimately providing instruction in all branches of secular knowledge. It has had a fair amount of success since its foundation; but its lectures are not as yet recognised as qualifying for direct admis- sion to the ministry of the National Church. The University of Amsterdam dates from 1877, and is an expansion of the Athenaeum, which flourished there for two and a half centuries. Scandinavian Universities. The first Scandinavian university was founded at Upsala in 1477. It was immediately fol- lowed by a similar institution in Denmark, theUniversity of Copenhagen being opened on June 1, 1479. Nearly two centuries afterwards (in 1668) a second Swedish university was founded at Lund, and, contemporaneously with the union of Sweden and Norway, a university was founded at Christiania in 1814. These universities follow, in the main, the Ger- man system, and are all flourish i ; and well- equipped institutions. The University of Copenhagen is under the control of the Minister of Public Instruction, but the di- rection of internal affairs and discipline is entrusted to an academic council, presided over by a rector. The university is richly endowed, and embraces the five faculties of theology, law and political science, medi- cine, philosophy, and the mathematical and natural sciences. In the faculty of theology the professors are not appointed to particular chairs, but divide the course of study among themselves. With a few ex- ceptions, the public courses of lectures are free, the professors receiving fixed salaries, which are regulated according to length of service. A matriculation examination must be passed before entering the uni- versity. There are no religious tests, and women are admitted to the classes and examinations for degrees on equal terms with men, but they are not allowed to proceed to degrees in divinity. Acade- 472 UNIVERSITIES inical degrees being of little practical value in Denmark, the number of gradu- ates is very small in proportion to the number of students. Admission to the professions and to public employment de- pends upon the passing of certain exami- nations, and not upon the possession of degrees. The academic year is divided into two sessions, the one extending from February 1 to June 9, and the other from September 1 to December 22. There are ^between forty and fifty teachers in the university, and over 1,200 students. The number of students at Christiania is even larger, there being as many as 1,510 in the second session of 1886. Of these the medical faculty had 31 3, the legal 340, the philological 130, and the theological 120. Russian Universities. The number of universities in Russia is seven, viz. Dor- pat, founded in 1632 by Gustavus Adol- phus of Sweden, and entirely remodelled in 1802 by Alexander I., after having ceased to exist for some years ; Moscow, the first Russian university properly so called, founded in 1755 ; Kazan and Khar- koff, both founded in 1804; St. Peters- burg, founded in 1819 on the basis of a pedagogical institute established in 1804; Kieff, formed in 1832 from a lyceum, in place of the University of Wilna, which was closed on account of political disturb- ances ; and Odessa, founded in 1865, also previously a lyceum. The course of Rus- sian academical legislation has in some im- portant respects been very peculiar. At one time the universities had the superinten- dence of the inferior schools, but this was withdrawn in 1835. In 1849 a decree of the Emperor Nicholas limited the number of students in each university to three hun- dred ; but this restriction was revoked in 1856. Inl863theuniversitieswerethesub- ject of comprehensive legislation, with the view of placing them on a uniform basis, and numerous changes have since been in- troduced. Severe measures were taken in 1885. Explicit regulations for the inter- pretation of science were laid down, and restrictions laid upon the teaching of phi- losophy and natural science generally. Comparative legislation was excluded from the programme, and teaching in Russian instead of in German was ordered at the University of Dorpat. At the same time the students were placed under rigorous regulations in regard to their life outside the universities. -These reppessive mea- sures, and the undercurrent of Nihilism which appears to prevail at most of the university seats, have frequently brought the students into collision with the autho- rities, and not a few of them have in conse- quence found their way to Siberia. The university statutes of 1885 are extremely unpopular, and were the occasion of serious disturbances at nearly all the Russian uni- versities during the winter of 1887-88. They have also had a depressing effect upon the attendance, as may be inferred from the following statistics of the Univer- sity of St. Petersburg. On January 1, 1886, the number of students in that university amounted to 2,880 ; on the same day in 188 7 they numbered 2, 6 27; and on the cor- responding day in 1888 they had fallen to 2,053. The Russian students, as a rule, are hard-working, and usually very intelligent. Mostly sons of the peasantry, they live in extreme poverty, and support themselves by tutorial and other work. The standard of teaching in the universities is high, and may be favourably compared with that of the German universities. In ad- dition to the universities in Russia proper, there is a university at Warsaw, founded in 1869, in place of a high school, and another at Helsingfors in the province of Finland. A university has also now been opened at Tomsk in Siberia, the first insti- tution of its kind in that part of the Russian Empire. Universities of Spain and Portugal. Education in general is in a very back- ward state in Spain. But it is a curious fact that while 75 per cent, of the popu- lation are unable to read and write, the proportion of university graduates to the whole population equals that of France and Germany. These graduates are absorbed almost wholly in the professional classes, journalism, Hurst, the leading American historian of Rationalism, one of the most polished and powerful of all forms of free thought, was, industriously propagated in Germany,, where the works of Lord Herbert, Hobbes, Shaftesbury, Tyndal, Woolston, and Wol- laston were widely circulated amongst the- people in their own vernacular. * In Hol- land,' says Dr. Hurst, * the philosophy of : Descartes and Spinoza was very powerful, and its influence was very decided east of' the Rhine, particularly in the universities; of Germany. The pantheism of Spinoza was very attractive to many minds, and was regarded as a welcome relief from the cold and heartless banishment of God: from His own creation. France, however,., was the chief foreign country which contri- buted to the rise and sway of German Ra- tionalism. The influence of Yoltaire and; the Encyclopaedists was very great, and Berlin became as much a home to these- men as Paris had ever been. The domestic causes were, first of all, the philosophy of' Leibnitz, popularised and simplified by Wolff at Halle University ; the destructive theology of Semler ; the influence of th<3 sceptical court of Frederick the Great,, with its French surroundings ; the Wol- fenbiittel Fragments, published by Lessing, and the Universal German Library, issued by Nicolai. Rationalism was in the as- cendant in Germany from 1750 to 1800,. but with the beginning of the new century it began to lose its hold upon the best, minds. Schleiermacher was the transi- tional theologian from the old rationalistic- to the new evangelical faith of Protestant . Germany. The Kantian philosophy did but bring forward into light, imparting to- it at the same time a scientific form and recognised position, a principle which had long unconsciously guided all treat- ment of religious topics both in Ger- many and in England. Rationalism was. not an anti- Christian sect outside the Church, making war against religion ; it was rather a habit of thought ruling all minds under the conditions of which all alike tried to make good the particular- opinions they might happen to cherish. If we are to put chronological limits I to this system of religious opinion in I England, we might, for the sake of a convenient landmark, say that it came in. 494 UTILITARIANISM 'with the Revolution of 1688, and began to decline in vigour with the reaction against the Reform movement about 1830. Locke's first publication of his Reasoruible- ness of Christianity , 1695, would >thus .approximately open, and the commence- ment of the issue of the Tracts for the Times, 1833, thus approximately mark -the fall of, the regime of Rationalism. ' Not that chronology,' as the Rev. Mark Pattison has pointed out, 'can ever be exactly applied to the mutations of opinion; for there were Rationalists before Locke, e.g. Hales of Eton, and other Arminians ; nor has the Church of England unani- mously adopted the principles of the Tracts jfor the Times.' It is when it is found as a dominating factor in theology that the profoundest ;and most momentous significance attaches to the action of the spirit of Rationalism ; ia significance which, for the purpose of this article, is intensified when Rational- ism determines the quality of the religious -truths and systems in which the young ;are to be instructed, and the methods by -which their education is to be ruled and accomplished. Contemporaneously with -the series and succession of literary in- fluences which were the soul of the power and prestige of Rationalism, and which may be said to have culminated with the constellation of genius that has illustrated for ever the otherwise humble archives of Weimar, there was a gradual trans- formation of the training and instruction of the youth of Germany, the saturation of whose minds with doubt seemed all ithat was needed to complete the sove- Teignty of scepticism. Two leaders in this movement are entitled to special attention, Basedow iand Nicolai, the former eminent as an innovator in the department of education, .-and the other in that of periodical and popular literature. The education of youth and the periodical popular press -are both agents on whose relation to the Church much is dependent ; and at the time in question ' the school/ in the words of Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, * stood under ^the sceptre of the Church, and periodical (literature under a censorship. But now began a change : education claimed to be -independent of the fostering care of the Church, and a broad current of literature ;spread over a domain of life which had .hitherto been familiar only with the Bible, | a few books of devotion, and some scanty and barren facts of science. The new educational system and the new popular philosophy played into each other's hands, and contested the right of the Church to be the only instructor of youth, the only guardian of the people. Not content with that, after they had gained an indepen- dent existence, they turned their united forces against the Church. The ancient edifice, with its Gothic towers and windows, with its gloomy aisles and monuments, seemed to be no longer a fitting place for the instruction of light-hearted childhood ; the church must become a cheerful school- room, the quaintly carved pulpit, with its stone staircase, must be transformed into the awkward desk. It would be hard to say whether this great change would more fitly call out the song of triumph of one, the elegy of another, or the satire of still a third. For my own part, I con- sider it a matter alike worthy of joy and of sorrow, and to treat it thus is the duty of the impartial historian.' It will not now be disputed that there were serious defects in the educational system of the time ; and that a great reform in education was needed. The Latin schools instituted by Melanchthon were still in existence, but they had be- come mere machines. Children were com- pelled to learn by heart particulars the least interesting. The most useless exer- cises were elevated into great importance ; and years were spent in the study of many branches that could be of no pos- sible benefit either for the handicrafts or the professions. The primary schools were equally defective. There was no such thing as the pleasant, developing influence of the mature over the youthful mind. The religious education of youth, to instance a general statement in one vital particular, had been narrowed down to the mere committal of the catechism to memory, and the crowding of the mind with Biblical and theological details which were admirably calculated to remain un- digested in their primary receptacle, and utterly without assimilation with the in- tellectual life into the overladen organ- isms of which they were intruded. There was little in the educational field of Ger- many from which good could be expected. Up to the time of the eighteenth century, there was no true science of education. What* hitherto, had been left to nature, UTILITARIANISM 495 to habit, and to traditional prejudices, hacf to be corrected and raised to the place and dignity of an art. Good ele- ments had to be reduced to laws, and evil elements had to be excluded. It was necessary to regard man as a whole, as truly man ; and his education was in- complete if it did not involve or attain a symmetrical development of body, mind, and soul. It was a noble task, but a diffi- cult one one to whose accomplishment the rapid years of a single century, what- ever its degree of enlightenment might be, was all unequal. Certainly such a process, as pointed out by Dr. Hagenbach, could not be effected * without deadly offence to every conservative influence of society ; and as the goal of every educational process is religious development, it is not to be wondered at that this new movement produced instant strife with the theolo- giansfor the ground principles of edu- cation are connected in the most intimate manner with the views which are taken of the nature of man. Whoever adopts the old doctrine of human depravity must insist on education as a process from without, inward. Its work must be to break the natural will, as if it were a hard and petrified thing, and to do it, if need be, by the sternest measures. The historical and doctrinal elements of Chris- tianity, according to this view, cannot be too early impressed upon the soul of the child, and it is of prime importance that they be held as an imperishable possession. Whoever, on the other hand, adopted the new ideas which began largely to prevail, re- garded human nature as a germinating seed in which a good and noble impulse dwells, and requiring only fostering care, the edu- cational process going on from within, out- ward. Religion was not only to be carried into the soul of the child, but was also to be drawn from that soul, and only so much was to be carried in as was adapted to its immature grasp, and to the necessity of adequate inward stimulus. Very speedy, however, was the transition from one ex- treme to the other, from the denial of human sensibility to goodness, to the de- nial of sin and a fallen nature ; from an overestimate of historical and positive Christianity, to an underestimate of the .same. Then came another change. The old educational system had borrowed much from the Church ; to promote the interests of the Church was its great end. A lar^*e proportion of all the studies of the gym- nasium and the university looked towards theology and the clerical profession hence the value laid on the ancient languages ; but the modernised educational scheme aimed at educating men for the world and for practical life. For what use, then, it was said, are the ancient languages and ancient history 1 Even men of the most rigid orthodoxy, like Frederick William I., expressed themselves against the study of Latin ; and further, even Thomasius had declared the uselessness of it for those who were not students by profession. Thus education was transferred from a narrow ecclesiastical field to broad cosmopolitan ground, from a positive Christian basis to a so-called philanthropic one. Rousseau had given a great impulse to this move- ment by the publication of his Emile. Basedow was his interpreter and advocate in Germany. To Basedow succeeded Saltz- mann and Campe ; to them the more noble and reliable Pestalozzi.' The great tendency of the Rationalistic movement was to refer everything to the standard of practical utility, under the influence of which the homiletics of the day exhibited a reaction against the stiff and formal presentation of mere doctrine, and in favour of the inculcation of simple ethical practices and principles. The pul- pit became moral, benevolent, beneficent, philanthropic, and, withal, characteristic- ally secular, the vehicle for the dissemi- nation of little more than that kind of instruction which tended to make people happy in this world, honourable and use- ful as citizens, dutiful as children, obe- dient as servants, dignified and paternal as heads of families. To the prophets and interpreters of utility, the interests of the heart and the emotional nature were the amiable disguise of a foolish and goalless fanaticism. All thought of the I supernatural and of the unseen world I was evaded, or crowded to one side, if, indeed, it were not alternatively confronted i as being antagonistic to popular elevation I and enlightenment. Sermons were every- where preached which were conversant about such subjects as the care of the health, the necessity of industry, the ad- vantages of scientific agriculture, the ex- pediency of acquiring a competence, the correlative duties of superiors and subor- dinates, the evil effects of litigation, and 496 UTILITARIANISM not least, the folly and imbecility of super- ! stitioii of fact or of opinion. The tradi- tion is still extant that the season of Christ- mas was turned to account to lead up from the pathetic story of the Child born ! in a manger to the most approved methods of feeding cattle ; and that the appearance of Jesus walking in the garden at day- break on Easter morning was used to en- force the benefits of early rising, and of taking a walk before breakfast. Pestalozzi, the 'schoolmaster of the human race,' is currently regarded as worthily occupying the first place on the roll of the educational reformers who flourished during the meridian strength of the Rationalistic movement ; in common with whose adherents he believed in man's natural goodness, and maintained that true education consists not so much in the in- fusion or incorporation of what is foreign to the nature or character of the child, as in evolving or educing what is native and inherent in the same. But he warmly advocated an early acquaintance with the Bible, and held the history of Christ to be an indispensable ingredient in the training of the youthful mind. But while Pesta- lozzi and a few others of a kindred spirit were contributing by their writings and their practical energies to the improvement of the youth of Germany, there sprang up a large class of writers whose morbid and multitudinous productions are described as having been as plentiful as autumn leaves. Some of these were sentimental, having imbibed their spirit from Siegtvart, La Nouvelle ffelo'ise, and similar works. Their influence worked in the direction of con- verting young men and women into mere dreamers, and children of every social condition were unwholesomely forced into becoming precocious and portentous specu- lators about love, romance, and suicide. ' Whoever couldwieldapen,'says Dr. Hurst, 'thought himself fit to write a book for children. There has never been a period in the whole current of history when the youthful mind was more thoroughly and suddenly revolutionised. ' The teachers in the common institu- tions of learning having now become im- bued with serious doubts concerning the divine authority of the Scriptures, their pupils suffered keenly from the same blight. In many schools and gymnasia miracles were treated with contempt. Epi- tomes of the Scriptures on a philosophical plan were introduced. Ammon, in one of his works, tells the young people that the books of the Old Testament have no divine worth or character for us, except so far as they agree with the spirit of the Gospel. As to the New Testament, much must be figuratively understood, since many things have no immediate relation to our times. Christ is a mere man. Dinter was a voluminous writer on theo- logical subjects, and in his books tells children of imperfect notions of former times as to God, angels, and miracles. He gives teachers directions how to con- duct themselves cleverly in such matters, and afterwards, in agreement with the principles he recommends, he lays down plans of catechising. For example, there are to be two ways of catechising about Jonah ; one before an audience not suffi- ciently enlightened, and where all remains in its old state ; another for places which have more light. In the prophecies con- cerning the Messiah, a double explanation is given for the same reason. One is the old orthodox way, the other a more prob- able neological plan. A clever teacher is, to choose for himself; a dull one may ask the parish clergyman how far he may go.' But educational Rationalism, or Ra- tionalism as expressed in systems or me- thods of education, besides its religious ancestry, has also a secular and philoso- phical succession. In this connection the formal origin of modern European Ra- tionalism has been regarded as approxi- mately coincident with the first publication of the Essais of Montaigne in 1580. It was Montaigne who raised the earliest articulate protest against the pedantry into which, as if by a necessity of their organisation, the schools of his time, whether those of the older Church or of the Reformation, had degenerated. Mon- taigne was the advocate of common sense in the direction of practice rather than theory, of wisdom as contradistinguished from learning; of a general or liberal, rather than a professional or technical type of education, with a tendency to the secular as a reaction against what had been almost exclusively ethical and reli- gious ; of informal instruction from natu- ral objects, and of first-hand observation and knowledge, as against the formal didactic instruction out of books, the | result of which was knowledge at second- ! hand only; of the conception of education UTILITARIANISM 497 as a process of growth rather than of manu- i facture ; of teaching whose purpose should be, not the aggregation of unordered facts, j but the formation and training of cha- ' racter ; and of a comparatively mild and humane discipline in substitution for a rule that was harsh and repellent, with the consequence, involved in the former, of the substitution of a finer code of con- j duct and civility for the antecedent rude- 1 ness and coarseness of manners and dis- j position. He conceived of the ideal tutor as one gifted to draw out the pupil's own i power and originality, to teach how to live well and to die well, to enforce a lesson by j practice and example, to put the mother I tongue before foreign languages, to teach all manly exercises in short, to educate the perfect man. He deprecated force and compulsion, and he denounced severity and the rod. ' Notwithstanding some grave defects,' Dr. Compayre concludes that ' the pedagogy of Montaigne is a pedagogy of good sense, certain parts of which will always deserve to be admired. The Jansenists, Locke, and Rousseau, in different degrees, drew their inspiration from Montaigne. In his own time, it is true, his ideas were accepted by scarcely any one save his disciple Charron, who, in his treatise, De la Sagesse, 1595, has done little or nothing more than distribute in methodical order the thoughts scattered throughout the Essais. But if he had no influence on his own age, Montaigne has at least remained, after three centuries, a cure guide in the matter of intellectual education.' More than a hundred years after Mon- taigne, John Locke, whose name may be cited in brilliant illustration of the facility of the transition from philosophy to edu- cation, made a still more powerful and systematic attack upon useless knowledge. His work, entitled Some Thoughts Con- cerning Education, 1693, has enjoyed a universal acceptance and success ; and the hearty and discriminating praise of Leib- nitz placed it above another and more celebrated treatise of the same author, published three years before, under the title of an Essay Concerning Human Under standing j 1690. Locke sets before himself the production of the man ; and the desiderated result of education as the ensuring of a sound mind in a sound body. ' He recommends home education,' in the words of Mr. Oscar Browning, ' without harshness or severity of discipline. Emu- lation is to be the chief spring of action , knowledge is far less valuable than a well- trained mind. He prizes that knowledge most which fits a man for the duties of the world, speaking languages, accounts, history, law, rhetoric, natural philosophy. He inculcates the importance of drawing, dancing, riding, fencing, and trades. The part of his advice which made most im- pression on his contemporaries was the teaching of reading and arithmetic by well-considered games, the discouragement of an undue compulsion and punishment, and the teaching of language without the drudgery of grammar. In these respects he has undoubtedly anticipated modern discoveries. He is a strong advocate for education under a private tutor, and his bitterness against public schools is as vehe- ment as that of Cowper.' The doctrines of Locke exercised an undoubted influence on the educational writings and theories of Rousseau, with their defiance of convention and their social aggression, and on the treatise of Claude Adrien Helvetius, entitled De VHomme ; de ses Facultes intellectuelles et de son Education, 1772. Helvetius pressed the characteristic formula of Locke into a systematic paradox, which claimed for education that it is omnipotent, the sole cause of the difference of one mind from another. The doctrine of Helvetius is the reductio ad absurdum of sensation- alism. The mind of the child is but an empty capacity, something indeterminate, without predisposition. The impressions of the senses are the only elements of intelligence; so that the acquisitions of the five senses are the only thing that is of moment. The senses are all there is of man. The name of Rousseau is one of the most prominent and suggestive in the en- tire hierarchy of Rationalism as applied to education ; and there is no book which has had more influence on the education of later times than his iZmile, ou de V Edu- cation, which was published in 1762, and presently produced an astounding effect throughout Europe. The burden of Rous- seau's message was nature such a nature as never did and never will exist, but still a name for an ideal worthy of human en- deavour. 'It is, perhaps, strange,' as Mr. Oscar Browning pertinently remarks, ' that a book in many respects so wild and K K 498 UTILITARIANISM fantastic should have produced so great a ! practical effect. In pursuance of its pre- i cepts children went about naked, were j not allowed to read, and when they grew j up wore the simplest clothes, and cared ! for little learning except the study of na- ' ture and Plutarch. The catastrophe of the French Revolution has made the influ- ; ence of JZmile less apparent to us. Much i of the heroism of that time is doubtless due to the exaltation produced by the sweeping away of abuses, and the approach of a brighter age. But we must not forget that the first generation of $mUe was just thirty years old in 1792 ; that many of the Girondins, the Marseillais, the sol- diers and generals of Carnot and Napoleon, had been bred in that hardy school. There is no more interesting chapter in the his- tory of education than the tracing back of epochs of special activity to the obscure source from which they arose. Thus the Whigs of the Reform Bill sprang from the wits of Edinburgh, the heroes of the Rebellion from the divines who translated the Bible, the martyrs of the Revolution from the philosophers of the Encyclopaedia.' The Emile of Rousseau was the point of departure for an awakened interest in educational theories which has continued to the present day. For thinkers of emi- nence during the last hundred years have failed to offer their contributions, either of set purpose and directly, or at least incidentally, on this subject. Poets like Richter, Herder, and Goethe ; philosophers such as Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schleier- macher, and Schopenhauer ; psychologists such as Herbart, Beneke, and Alexander Bain ; sociologists like Herbert Spencer, not to mention the more obvious names of professors of pedagogy, like Payne, Meiklejohn, and Laurie, have left or pro- mulgated directions for our guidance which are more or less permeated or influenced by that spirit of Rationalism which it is hard, if not impossible, to think away from any single moment of the unbounded future of education. The teaching of Rousseau found its practical expression in the Philanthropinon of Dessau, a school founded by Basedow, the friend of Goethe and Lavater, which received the praise of the philosopher Kant and of Oberlin the clergyman Basedow, the principles of whose instruction were very much those of Comenius, which centred in the combina- tion of words and things, may be regarded as the typical innovator in the direction of rationalistic education ; and, glaring as his faults may have been, he succeeded in effecting radical changes in the entire circle of youthful training. Professor Max Miiller, who made an interesting pub- lic reference to him at Manchester, in 1875, in which, with something more than con- tent and complacency, he claimed Basedow as his l own atavus, or, at all events, his great-grandfather,' claimed him also as * the first reformer of our national educa- tion, as the forerunner of Pestalozzi, as the first who, during the last century, stirred up the conscience of the people of Germany and of their rulers, and taught them at least this one lesson, that, next to the duty of self-preservation, there is no higher, no more sacred, duty which a nation has to fulfil than national educa- tion. . . . Basedow's was a chequered life, as the life of all true reformers is sure to be. Perhaps he attempted too much, and was too much in advance of his time. But, whatever his strong and whatever liis weak points, this one great principle he established, and it has remained firmly established in the German mind ever since, that national education is a national duty, that national education is a sacred duty, and that to leave national education to j chance, church, or charity, is a national I sin. That conviction remained ingrained in the German mind even in the days of our lowest political degradation ; and it is to that conviction, and to the nation acting up to that conviction, that Germany owes what she is, her very existence among the nations of Europe. Another principle which followed, in fact, as a matter of course, as soon as the first principle was granted, was this, that in national schools, in schools supported by the nation at large, you can only teach that on which we all agree , hence, when children belong to dif- ferent sects, you cannot teach theology/ The torches lighted at Basedow's flame, some of which have burned with a steadier and purer light than that of their original source of illumination, have been passed on from hand to hand and from generation to generation. At the present moment the typical expression of the rationalistic spirit, as against precedent in education, is to be found in the demand for at least the co-ordination generally, and, more definitively, in the sphere of academi- cal dignity and reward, of the study of UTILITARIANISM 499 science and modern languages with the cultivation of classical philology and lite- rature. Meanwhile the votaries and pro- phets of Rationalism, with an assurance of triumph, anticipate the victories of the future on every arena of human thought and action, including that of -education, in which an antagonist hardy enough to oppose it can be found. Thus one of the most powerful and popular exponents of Rationalism in this or of any other period affirms that as ' a system which would unite in one sublime synthesis all the past forms of human belief, which accepts with triumphant alacrity each new development of science, having no stereotyped standard to defend, and which represents the human mind as pursuing on the highest subjects a path of continued progress towards the fullest and most transcendent knowledge of the Deity, can never fail to exercise a powerful intellectual attraction. A sys- tem which makes the moral faculty of man the measure and arbiter of faith must always act powerfully on those in whom that faculty is most developed. This idea ! of continued and uninterrupted develop- ment is one that seems absolutely to over- ride our age. It is scarcely possible to open any really able book on any subject without encountering it in some form. It is stirring all science to its very depths; it is revolutionising all historical literature. Its prominence in theology is so great | that there is scarcely any school that is ' altogether exempt from its influence. We ; have seen in our own day the Church of Rome itself defended in An Essay on Development, and by a strange application of the laws of progress.' On the other hand, Lord Grimthorpe is found delivering a characteristic attack upon the Rationalism of the day, and es- pecially as it is exemplified in the person ! of a writer who poses as one of the most j prominent members of its existing hier- | r.rchy ; and who, in a work entitled Edu- cation^ Intellectual, Moral, and Physical, 1861, affirms that education will not be ' definitely systematised till the day when science shall be in possession of a rational I psychology. * Probably, 'says Lord Grim- | thorpe, in an article on Rationalism, con- I tributed to the late Dean Hook's Church Dictionary, fourteenth edition, 1887 | * Probably the most voluminous and, in ! a sense, successful rationalistic author of ! the present day is Mr. Herbert Spencer, whose works were said to have reached fifteen volumes in the Edinburgh review of his First Principles in January 1884. It is. hardly necessary to mention the names of the more genuine physical philo- sophers, such as Darwin, Huxley, and Tyndall, whose rationalistic or material- istic theories may be severed from their physical discoveries and philosophy, which would be equally good whether the prime cause of all things is a creator or nothing at all ; while Spencer's philosophy has discovered nothing and explained nothing, nor increased the stock of human know- ledge at all ; and with a greater pretence of founding a complete cosmogony than any since Lucretius's ingenious nonsense (as everybody now knows it to be), ends by pronouncing the origin of every sepa- rate force or law of nature, of which the number is infinite, "an unfathomable mystery," spontaneously generated out of what he is pleased to call Persistent Force, which made itself. Such ration- alism as that will soon have had its day, like its predecessors, in spite of any num- ber of volumes and admirers who profess to understand them and call Spencer a much greater philosopher than Newton.' After such a statement of extremes as is provided in these two several quota- tions, it is expedient to take leave of the subject in the judicial and moderating words of the late Dr. Beard, particularly as they have a direct reference, and not an inferential one merely, to the great subject of education and its instruments. They are words of wise candour and warning, and worthy of being laid to heart by all persons interested in the effort made by Rationalism to secure a due regard for utility in so momentous a matter as that of individual, academical, or national education. 'It must be re- collected that scientific culture is rapidly extending. The number of educated men, whose chief intellectual training and in- terest lie in the study of natural science, increases every day. Such men, having little to do with literature, except as a mental recreation, are apt to exhibit at once the strength and the weakness of the scientific intellect ; its love of accuracy, its demand for strict reasoning, its passion for definite results, and at the same time its disbelief in other methods of ascertain- ing truth than those which it has itself found effectual.' KK2 500 VACATION SCHOOLS VANITY (See Rev. Hugh J. Rose's State of Protestantism in Germany, 2nd ed. 1829 ; Tracts for the Times, No. 73, by Dr. New- man ; Rev. Mark Pattison's Tendencies of Religious Thought in England, 1688- 1750, in Essays and Reviews, 1860 ; Rev. Adam S. Farrar's Bampton Lectures for 1862, A Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to the Christian Religion, 1862 ; Professor K. R. Hagenbach's Ger- man Rationalism, 1865 ; W. E. H. Lecky's History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe, 2nd ed. 1865 ; Bishop John F. Hurst's History of Rationalism, 1865; Mr. Oscar Browning's Education in the Encyclopaedia Britan- nica, 9th ed., vol. vii., 1877 ; Rev. Dr. Charles Beard's Hibbert Lectures, 1883, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge, 1883 ; Professor Gabriel Com- payre's Histoire de la Pedagogic, 1883 ; Robert Kiibel's Rationalismus iind Super- naturalismus, in Herzog's Real-Encyclo- pddie, 1883 ; and others.) Untruthfulness. See TRUTHFULNESS. Vacation Schools. The new vacation schools involve attempts to solve some of the difficulties in connection with the chil- dren of the worst 'home' surroundings. Attendance is not compulsory, neither is ordinary discipline possible. The primary object of such schools is to substitute health- ful and stimulating occupations in place of the demoralising influences of idleness and vicious surroundings to which the poor children, especially in large cities, are peculiarly exposed. It is bad economy for the State to allow the good done at school to be undone at home. The present sys- tem of 'too much book and too often parrot' intensifies the evil. To give an instance of recent attempts to lessen it, we learn from the Industrial Education Association (9 University Place, New York) that ' in three schools held in the city in July and August 1886 over four hundred were instructed in drawing, mo- delling, construction, wood-carving, sew- ing, and cooking.' A lady enthusiast superintended the whole, and both boys and girls cheerfully submitted to the necessary restraints. (See MANUAL TRAINING.) Vacation Term. A name given to a voluntary and conditional period of resi- dence and courses of lectures at Cam- bridge for honours men in the Long Vaca- tion. There was none at Oxford in 1888. Selected parties of teachers have, however, recently resided by permission in colleges in Oxford and Cambridge, and received unofficial courses of lectures, &c., from heads of houses and tutors in sympathy with them. The movement is likely to expand, for the University Extension Lec- tures create a thirst for such visits to the university itself. Vanity, Pride, Self-esteem. These terms refer to varieties of feeling which have a common root in self-love and self- regard. The child instinctively attaches a value to all that concerns itself, and when a distinct consciousness of self is de- veloped this instinctive disposition passes into a feeling of self -liking or self -attach- ment, which is analogous to its love for others. This feeling is at once the source of the pleasures of self-complacency and of the pains of wounded amour propre, &c. At first, owing to the weakness of their judgment, children are disposed to esti- mate themselves and their actions by the opinion of others. Self-gratulation is at this period largely the reflection of others' complacency. The most general name for this dependence on others' approval is the love of approbation. It is at once the source of one of the most valuable mo- tives of childhood and of one of its greatest weaknesses. Kept within proper bounds, and rendered intelligent and discriminat- ing, this regard for others' opinion is one of the educator's principal aids. On the other hand, when unchecked and undis- criminating, it grows into a foolish and hurtful vanity, or love of admiration. Vanity means an excessive self -conscious- ness, an over-estimate of some personal quality, as good looks, and a too eager desire for others' admiration. This last fault is still more conspicuous in ambition and thirst for glory, though here another impulse, viz. emulation, co-operates. A child must be cured of vanity by with- drawing all inordinate praise ; by associat- VENTILATION OF SCHOOLROOMS 501 ing it with other children, so that it may learn its defects and points of inferiority ; by cultivating its affections and its in- telligence, and so developing a certain se- lectiveness in the enjoyment of praise, and a power of discriminating empty flattery from just recognition of worth; and, finally, "by exercising and strengthening it in self- judgment and self-esteem. As the child grows to the age of independence it must learn to rely less on others' good opinion and more on its own. This self-esteem is necessary to the higher developments of moral character. A good will, that chooses right independently of the value set on it by others, implies that the subject finds an adequate reward in the feeling of self- approval. A proper feeling of self-respect, or pride, which leads a boy to despise what is small, mean, and tricky as un- worthy of him, or beneath his dignity, is one of the most valuable of moral safe- guards. In encouraging this self-esteem and this sense of personal dignity the educator must be careful not to foster an excessive and cynical disregard for others' approval, which is a blemish in all cases, and in the car 3 of the young is particularly baneful. (Cf. articles HONOUR, PRAISE AND BLAME, SELF-LOVE. See Bain, Mental Science, bk. iii. chap. vi. ; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, p. 384 following ; Miss Edge- worth, Practical Education, chap. xi. ; Pereez, L' Education des le Berceau, chap, vi. ; Beneke, Erziehungs- und Unter- richtskhre, 61-63 ; Waitz, Allg. Pada- gogik, p. 1 TO following ; cf . art. f Eitelkeit ' in Schmidt's Encyclopadie.} Varro Marcus Terentius. See ROMAN EDUCATION. Ventilation of Schoolrooms. The limit of impurity of air has been fixed at 06 per cent, of carbonic acid, i.e. 6 parts in 10,000 of air. In order to maintain the carbonic acid at this level, 3,000 cubic feet of pure air are required per hour by every adult, and at least half as much should be supplied for children. With the 1 5 square feet of floor space (and 10 feet height of schoolroom) which we have fixed as our minimum standard, it is evident, therefore, that the air must be changed ten times in every hour, which, owing to draughts, can only be done, during the greater part of the year by combining some form of warm- ing apparatus with the ventilating arrange- ments. The temperature of the air varies at different seasons. In winter the in- coming air requires to be warmed, other- wise the teacher will shut it out as far as he can. The proper temperature of the schoolroom is from 60 to 65 Fahr. An over-heated room (when heating appara- tus is not properly regulated) causes the children to perspire, and makes them very prone to catch cold on the slightest expo- sure to draughts. Two plans of ventila- tion are described, natural and artificial ventilation. In the former the natural movements of the air through openings are utilised ; in the latter the natural movements are aided by warming appara- tus or mechanical appliances. The great problem of ventilation is to secure a suffi- cient interchange of air without causing draughts. Owing to the great difference in temperature between the air within and without a house this is impossible during the winter months, unless the in- coming air is warmed. Open windows are the best means of ventilation, and during the school recess all the windows should be thrown open, if possible opposite windows and doors, in order that the rooms may be thoroughly flushed with air. A down-draught from a window may be prevented by having its upper segment to work on a hinge, the current of air being directed upwards ; or by deepening the lower beading of the window or placing a block of wood under the lower sash, so that an upward current of air may be allowed between the two sashes. The wall may be utilised by inserting a grating near the floor, and connecting it on its inner aspect to a vertical tube (Tobin's tube), a vertical direction being thus given to the incoming air. Or the grating may be placed higher up in the wall, a movable valve, such as Sheringham's, on the inner side of the wall directing the current up- wards. The ventilation is much more likely to be successful if there are open- ings on opposite sides of the rooms, or if there is a chimney or other draught- compeller in- the schoolroom. Indeed, a chimney should always be allowed for each room, even when it is not contem- plated to have open fires. An up- current always exists in a chimney-flue, if there is free ingress of air by doors and windows. Boyle's or Arnott'a valves placed above the fireplace, and opening into the flue, are of some service in withdrawing the hot, impure air which tends to accumu- late near the ceiling, especially when coal' 502 VERSE-WRITING gas is burnt. The ceiling may be utilised for ventilating purposes by having it per- forated, and gratings in the external wall to correspond with the space between the ceiling and the floor of the room above. Where gas-burners are used they should be of a kind that carry off the products of combustion, and thus help in ventilating the room. (See WARMING APPARATUS and IMPURITIES OF AIR.) Verse-Writing. Few educational questions were in the early days of the attack on the classical system of education more warmly debated than the value of learning to write Latin verses. There is no doubt much to be said on both sides, though it does not necessarily follow that the practical conclusion is doubtful or nicely balanced. Unfortunately the at- tack often ignored some of the really bene- ficial results of verse-teaching, and took too low ground in the educational dispute, while the defence was too narrow in its scope, and not practical enough in its educational views. In a word, the attack was often ignorant of the facts, and mer- cantile in aims ; the defence was super- fine in its theories, and prejudiced. I shall briefly re-examine the pros and cons from the point of view of a practical teacher, trained on the old Cambridge classical tripos system, who has taught Latin verses for twenty-five years. In the first place we may concede at once that the accomplishment is useless. The people who are able and willing to read Latin poetry prefer the genuine Roman poets to the .modern imitation. The Latin poetry of the contemporary Englishman is like the wax flowers of our grandmothers, or the glowing landscapes drawn by beggars on the pavement in coloured chalk. They are curiosities, not works of art ; and the demand is very limited, if not extinct. An educated man may write them, as he may carve his pipe, build a snow-house, or compose acrostics ; but he does it for exercise, amusement, or the mere delight in inge- nuity. It is not, of course, the value of the completed product which is the serious plea for verses : it is the training. The differential calculus is also of no use to nine men out of ten who learn it ; but it may be a very good training at a certain point of education. Let us look a little closely into the facts, and see what this training amounts to in the case of verses. We may roughly divide the process into three stages. There is the elemen- tary stage, where a boy of eleven to fif- teen has to translate ' full-sense ' English into such words as he can put into a line which will scan and construe. There is the second stage, say, from fourteen to eighteen, where he has easy English poetry to do, and is gradually mastering- the resources of his metre, learning how to recast expression, and being initiated into the elements of taste, force, and melody of versification. There is the final stage, from seventeen to twenty-one, where he should be entering into the real spirit of poetry, and beginning to learn what style means, and how to convey feeling by words. It is obvious that these stages run into one another. We have intentionally made the ages overlap, as the difference of boys' capacities at the same age is too striking a feature to be hidden, as it would be, under strict averages. Even in broad statements it should be kept before the mind. The last two stages are the* hardest to discriminate satisfactorily in words ; but there are facts to which they correspond. There is a point at which a. young verse-writer can usefully try and fairly accomplish an easy narrative piece- in the style of Ovid's Heroides. There- is also a point at which he can fairly render a stanza of In Memoriam, which it would be futile to set before him earlier. Without attempting an im- possible definiteness, these examples will show my meaning in speaking of the two- later stages. In the first stage the boy is learning quantity not a useful thing in itself, but indispensable to any real appreciation of Latin poetry. It certainly is not neces- sary for the language, nor for learning to- read Latin ; and it might no doubt be learned later from Latin poetry itself, when a good many who now go through the course would have dropped out of the running. He is also practising the acci- dence; but that is far more effectively done by Latin prose. So far this is merely ac- quisition of knowledge, not faculty ; the only exercise of faculty at this stage is, what we may call the faculty of putting- together a puzzle namely, the fitting of words into the metre. Some boys like- this, some are indifferent, a few detest it. Educationally, perhaps, it is bad for the: VERSE-WRITING 503 latter, and neither much good nor much harm for the two former. It is not a bad exercise for them, and quickens their wits ; on the other hand a good deal of time is spent which might be given to more important things. And it must be owned that nearly anything else is more important. In the second stage the question is much more difficult, as there the good and the harm are both much greater, and much more judgment and care is required in the teacher to diagnose exactly what effect is being produced. Let us take the good first. Some boys will begin very quickly to show ease and faculty. The literary taste is inborn, and will infallibly show itself. Verse-writing will stimulate it, and train it, and feed it. The sort of general quickening and confidence which comes from feeling one's powers is such a powerful intellectual spur that it cannot but be good to use it. The only caution here necessary is that the verses should not be done too often, and that good English poetry should be given to turn. Weariness, empty facility, linguistic power apart fi'om thinking, a fluency of slightly adorned commonplace, are the dangers ; and they have been too often realised at classical schools. Some boys, again, of in- ferior power will work away, and achieve only moderate results. The advantage to these is, we think, real, and too often overlooked. In one word, they get a certain sense of form in expression. They cannot get this from prose, either read or composed, except later, more obscurely, and with m^re effort. They cannot get it from reading merely Latin poetry with anything like the same effect. It is a real thing ; we have seen it grow ; it trans- forms the boy slowly but deeply ; it means the culture of the barbarian. It does not amount to much that can be shown ; it puts forth no flowers ; but it insensibly changes the boy's attitude of mind, opens a new vista to him, and its effects are lasting. The real difficulties here are two : first, to know how long with this sort of boy to continue the experiment before pronouncing it a failure, for it undoubtedly may take time. The master should con- sider this carefully, for the pressure of other studies is sure to be clamorous ; and yet the loss to the boy if he miss what he might thus gain will be real, though it be materially imponderable, and though he may never know it. The other diffi- culty is that so much here turns on the teacher. We have known boys, quite hopeless under a series of form masters, finally caught hold of by the verse-teach- ing of one special man. We have known masters, even those otherwise faulty or inefficient, touch rank after rank of com- mon boys presented to them with this literary enlightenment, purely through their Latin verse-teaching. All first-rate teaching power is rare, but this is of the rarest. Besides these two kinds of boys there will be the residuum, who are getting almost no good at this stage, and to whom the verses are an affliction and a waste of time. If the verses are taught to all, these will be under the best teachers per- haps a quarter, under ordinary men from half to two-thirds. Looking to facts as they are to capacity of boys, power of teachers, pressure of studies, the vast range of learning, the material needs we say confidently that these boys ought to cease writing verses. We have spoken above of the boys of in- ferior power, who yet get at this stage their first initiation into a sense of form. The important question remains, whether they could not get this as well from reading (and writing) verses in their own tongue. Some of the best authorities believe that they could ; and that this, for the mass of boys, is the real solution of the verse question. Of course, it is true that the teachers are trained in one system and not in the other ; that for finish of form a fully- inflected tongue like Latin has special advantages ; that the very effort of working in the resisting medium of a strange language imparts power , and even that an equal standard of mediocrity would look worse, and so be more depress- ing, in English. But these are mainly practical difficulties of detail, not insuper able to effort, and all much overbalanced by the single advantage of the extra lever- age gained by working with the mother tongue. Indeed it is probable that not merely would the second class of boys get their culture more easily, more certainly, and more fully, but that many of the re- siduum might be reclaimed. The experi- ment has never, so far as we know, been systematically tried, so that experience is wanting. But it certainly deserves attention. We will only remark that for the purposes of replacing Latin verse it is 504 VERSE-WRITING VIVA VOCE. essential that verses should be written in English, and not merely that boys should read, as they now do in most schools, a good deal of English poetry. On the third stage there is no need to dwell at any length. It is approximately the stage of sixth-form life up to the end of the first two years at the university. It is tolerably plain by the beginning of this stage whether much good is to be gained by the patient continuing the treatment. The student's own taste is much more a factor in the decision ; he will have begun to take his bent and show his faculties more clearly. Exemption from verse- writing is now in most schools easy at this age ; scholarships and first- classes even in classics can be won without verses. The present writer's experience both of schools and university is that the exemp- tions should be more numerous still, from the educational point of view ; and that of all students in this last stage who do verses barely half really profit by it. Of course, a school or college adviser has to consider success in examination ; and he may often advise, and be right in advising, a fairly good verse-writer to continue the study, when from an educational point of view he had better drop it. The present state of things, however, is obviously tran- sitory. The natural issue as regards the universities will be something of this kind: that the prizes for verse- writing will be kept for the most gifted scholars, that verse papers will be offered in university scholarships, that for college scholarships and classical examinations they will be optional. In the schools they will be still taught (at the last stage) to the most pro- mising boys who like them and have a turn for them ; the rest, though they may have got something from the second-stage training, will at this stage turn to more congenial pursuits. Even if the experiment above mentioned of substituting English for Latin verse in the lower parts of a school be tried, the Latin verses of the best sixth-form boys need not be abandoned. A good scholar, trained in poetic study and such boys alone will try it would easily in a few efforts reach the stage now achieved by prolonged apprenticeship of the more undeveloped mind. In a word, the early training of taste will be done by English verse, a fit instrument for the mass of boys. The few scholars will get the last finish by mature attempts at writing poetry in the languages they have already fairly mastered. (See also articles LATIN and PUBLIC SCHOOLS.) Vested Schools. See LAW (EDUCA- TIONAL), section Ireland. Victoria University. See UNIVER- SITIES. Viva Voce. This is the name given to an examination by word of mouth, as distinguished from a written examination. The latter is mainly used with the object of ascertaining what knowledge each in- dividual possesses, and how far, without prompting or suggestion of any kind, he can make use of particular parts of it. It requires the examinee to express himself at some length, and to show how far he understands the connectedness of his knowledge. Th, former viva voce aims rather at testing the general brightness and mental activity of an individual or a class ; at ascertaining what degree of promptness and resource is possessed; what use can be made of knowledge freshly given or there and then recalled ; and, lastly, the general attitude of mind towards knowledge. To a certain extent it tests the class-teacher's manner of work as well as the boy's ability. As far as it seeks to find out what knowledge is possessed, it should follow the lines laid down for the earlier stages of oral in- struction (given under that title and under QUESTION AND ANSWER). It pos- sesses the advantage that the questions can be rapidly and readily changed, modi- fied, and varied ; but there is also the dis- advantage that the answers must neces- sarily be short and fragmentary, while the examinee unavoidably receives help and suggestion continually from the answers of others, and from expressions on their faces and on that of the examiner. Whatever of sequence and unity there is in the work is, moreover, due to the examiner for the most parb ; and so it is difficult by this means to make sure that the subject has been grasped as a whole difficult, but not impossible. The great thing is to set the examinees at their ease to start with, to give them confidence and to loosen their tongues, which may be done by a cheerful greeting, a little general conversation, and perhaps even a little fun. When once they are set talking, the examiner should proceed as if he were giving an oral lesson, except that the subject is an old, not a new one ; and that exposition should be WARMING APPARATUS FOR SCHOOLS 505 almost entirely omitted. In mathematics the examiner may sometimes discover all he wants to know by proceeding to give a new oral lesson on the stage immediately following the one arrived at by the class, particularly if this new stage is closely con- nected with those that go before. This, however, can only be done with those who have been set entirely at their ease. Unless the examinees are taken quite apart, and one by one, it is impossible to report in- dividually on them when only vivd voce is used. All that the examiner really gets otherwise is a general impression of the class as a whole. Voluntary Schools are elementary and denominational schools not under the management of a School Board, but re- ceiving Government grants. (See SCHOOL BOARDS and GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS.) Warming Apparatus for Schools. The best forms of warming apparatus are always combined with ventilating arrange- ments. The impure air of the room should not be warmed, but fresh cold air coming from without. Similarly, the warmed air which has been breathed and thus rendered impure should not be retained in the room, but carried off by exits as quickly as pos- sible. This implies expense ; the warm air is removed, and more warm air is re- quired to take its place. If, however, in order to save expense in the heating ap- paratus the- escape of warm impure air is stopped or diminished, the schoolroom be- comes foul and unhealthy. It cannot be too clearly understood that an efficient and sanitary heating apparatus is necessarily expensive. The open fireplace not only furnishes a cheerful warmth to the room, but is also a valuable purifier of its at- mosphere, as from 14,000 to 20,000 cubic feet of air pass up an ordinary chimney each hour. Its disadvantages are that the heat is unequally distributed in the room, and currents of cold air are produced along the floor in order to supply the place of the air which is rushing up the chimney. The latter can be prevented by having a free supply of warm air from some other source ; and the great loss of heat from an ordinary fireplace can be prevented by admitting external air through chambers behind the fireplace, in which it is warmed as it enters the room. By this means (as in Galton's stove) an abundant supply of warm pure air is admitted above the chimney breast, and thence diffuses itself throughout the room. In small rooms gas is sometimes used for fires instead of coal. No gas-stove should be tolerated which does not provide for carrying off the pro- ducts of combustion. A flue -pipe is even more necessary than for a coal fire, as, owing to the absence of smoke, the per- nicious condition of the air might be over- looked. George's calorigen stove is a good example of a combination of a gas-stove with ventilating arrangements. A spiral tube communicates near the floor with the external air, and opens at its upper end into the room. A gas flame is kept burn- ing under this tube, the products of com- bustion being carried outside by a separate tube ; and the heat thus produced warms the air which is passing along the spiral tube, and causes it to enter rapidly into the room. Closed stoves are chiefly useful in small schoolrooms. They do not burn so much fuel as an open fireplace, and the combustion can be more easily regulated. Their tendency is, however, to make the air of a room too dry and produce a close smell, probably from the charring of minute particles of organic matter. If the stove is red-hot, or there are cracks in it, car- bonic oxide gas, which is very poisonous, may find its way into the room. To avoid these evils firebrick should separate the fire from the ironwork, and the stove should never be allowed to become red- hot. There should be as few joints as possible, and these should be horizontal, not vertical. The products of combustion should never be prevented from, or de- layed in, escaping by dampers, or by ad- mitting air between the stove and the chimney. A bucket of water placed near the stove prevents the air becoming too dry. The only stoves permissible are those jacketed stoves which combine warming and ventilation. An outer casing around the stove communicates with the external air, and thus a large supply of pure warm air is introduced. For large schools a central system of heating is preferable. Hot air, steam, and hot water are the usual sources of heat employed. Hot-air 506 WARMING APPARATUS WELSH EDUCATION furnaces are usually unsatisfactory. Car- bonic oxide and sulphurous acid not infrequently escape through leaky joints in the furnace, and thus the hot air sup- plied is irritating and impure. It is also generally very dry, though this may be remedied by placing water at the points of entry of air into the room. The air also is generally too hot, often at 140 Fahr. To cool the room the register is shut off, and the children are then obliged to breathe the same atmosphere repeatedly, or to have the windows open with conse- quent uncomfortable draughts. Steam apparatus, if efficiently con- structed and under the management of a skilled attendant, is very satisfactory. In the United States it is very commonly used, but in this country only excep- tionally. Like other forms of heating apparatus it is only satisfactory from a sanitary standpoint when combined with the admission of pure air over the heating tubes. Each set of radiators should be arranged in several different sections, so that the flow of steam in any one of them can be cut off at will, and thus the amount of heating regulated according to the ex- ternal temperature ; or the air-flues may be so arranged that by movement of a valve the incoming air can be made to pass wholly in contact with the radiating surfaces, or separate from them in any proportion. Hot - water apparatus pos- sesses some advantages over steam ap- paratus in the facts that the air passing over hot-water pipes is usually not raised above 100 Fahr. when the pipes are at a temperature of from 160-180 J Fahr., and that hot water continues to circulate some time after the fire is extinguished. In the high-pressure system the water in the pipes is heated to 300-350 Fahr., in the low-pressure system not above 200 Fahr. Whichever of these systems is used, it should never consist simply of pipes placed in a room, from which heat radiates with- out any admission of fresh warmed air. This forms 'one of the most killing systems in existence.' By placing alongside the hot-water pipes flues for the entry of fresh air an efficient and thoroughly sanitary warming is obtained. The hot- water coils may also be arranged around the flues for carrying off foul air, thus increasing the rapidity of the exit current. If the rooms become too hot the remedy is not to close the points of entry for warm air, but to have valves by means of which the hot water can be cut off from any given por- tion of the hot-water pipes. Weight of Children. See GROWTH. Welsh Education. In Wales no effec- tive attempt was made to cope with popular ignorance till the Government began to pay grants in aid of local effort. The in- fluence of the British and Foreign and of the National School Societies was little felt, for it was always difficult to raise money enough to establish schools, and generally impossible to raise enough to- secure their efficiency. A record of the condition of affairs immediately after the issue of the famous Minutes of 1846 is found in the reports of the Commis- sioners appointed by the Committee of Council in that year. A motion had been passed by the House of Commons for an address praying the Queen ' to direct an inquiry to be made into the state of edu- cation in the principality of Wales, espe- I cially into the means afforded the labour- ing classes of acquiring a knowledge of the English language.' The Commissioners were entirely unacquainted with the speech of the people among whom their inves- tigations were to be made, and conse- quently many of their facts and (what was perhaps more important) many of their impressions were obtained at second-hand through interpreters. Had they under- stood the Welsh language they would have better understood the Welsh character, and their criticisms (doubtless quite honest and friendly in intention) would have been more sympathetic without being less true. ; The publication of their reports was fol- I lowed by an outburst of popular resent- ! ment ; nor need we be surprised at this when we find the First Commissioner speak- ing of the * widespread disregard of tem- | perance, ... of chastity, of veracity, and ; fair dealing ' in Wales ; the second speak- ing of the prevalence of ' drunkenness, j blasphemy, indecency, sexual vices, and | lawlessness ' ; and the third speaking of the ' social and moral depravity ' of a part of the population. Still the reports (not- I withstanding the objections which the patriots of the principality made to their tone) furnish a valuable record of the condition of education at the time. Bad as matters were in England they were still worse in Wales. Many large districts were totally devoid of schools of any kind. There were, for example, seventy-two WELSH EDUCATION 507 parishes in that state in the counties of Brecknock, Cardigan, and Radnor. Where schools did exist they were, in the majority of cases, of the sort known as ' private adventure.' Only about one-eighth of the schoolhouses were 'legally secured for educational purposes.' ' The teacher's dwelling-room, the kitchen of a farmhouse or part of an adjacent outbuilding, the loft over a chapel stables, churches and chapels themselves/ were frequently used for schools. A roof or floor without holes, a fireplace, a window that would admit sufficient light or any air were uncommon, and desks were a luxury to be desired rather than hoped for. The average in- come of the teachers was 221. a year Is. 3rf. a day and the most that could be said for them was that they were as good as could be expected for the money. A few of the best had received some kind of training ; most of the others had taken to teaching because they were unfit for any- thing else. A list of their previous occu- pations embraces nearly a hundred trades and professions, while a great many call- ings were followed along with teaching. Among other things some of the masters and mistresses were broom and clogmakers, cowkeepers, drovers, matron to a lying-in hospital, * porter, barber, and layer-out of the dead in a workhouse,' publicans, and sextons. A number were in receipt of parish relief. It need hardly be said that these teachers knew nothing of teaching, and that in many cases they were them- selves devoid of the rudiments of educa- tion. A great many of them could not spell, and not a few were so ignorant of the language in which they professed to carry on their schools, that the Commis- sioners had to communicate with them through interpreters. Registers were al- most unknown ; even in the * model school' at Newport, Pembrokeshire, none was kept. Accurate statistics of attend- ance were therefore impossible, but there was ample evidence to prove that it was very irregular, and that the school life of a child generally began late and finished early. In one county, for instance, 6 3 -5 per cent, of the children found in school had attended less than a year, and 21-9 more had attended less than two years. The poverty of the people accounted to a I large extent for the extreme backwardness ! of education in Wales. Good schools cost ! money, which some one must pay. The : parents of the children could not pay it all, and in most places there was no one- willing to help them. Hence the offer of State aid was the beginning of a brighter era, although the offer was not very readily accepted at first. Many of the Dissenters- looked with distrust upon it, considering it an indirect endowment of the Church,, or fearing ulterior motives on the part of the Government; but the judicious ad- ministration of the Education Department, gradually disarmed prejudice, and appli- cations for assistance then became fre- quent. At the date of the Revised Code- there were in the principality over six: hundred schools which had received build- ing grants, or were receiving annual grants, and H.M. inspector was able to report that the ' prospects of education ' were 'sufficiently hopeful and encouraging/ Still, till the passing of the Education Act of 1870 the number of schools fell far short of the needs of the people, but Mr. Forster's great measure led almost, immediately to extraordinary activity.. The provision of accommodation in an< efficient school for every child requiring it. now became compulsory ; but were there- no compulsion in the matter the effect- would have been much the same, because denominational schools are displeasing to- the majority of Welshmen, and Board schools must be undenominational. In^ 1887 the number of School Boards in Wales exceeded three hundred, and the- number of elementary schools (Board and Voluntary) was nearly fifteen hundred. The ample provision of schools for the- children of the poor served to emphasize- by contrast the deficiency of schools for the children of parents who could not be described as poor, and the still greater deficiency of the means of higher educa- tion. The leaders of opinion in the princi- pality, seeing no prospect of .supplying these deficiencies without some help from, the State, tried to interest the Government, in the matter, and so far succeeded as to- obtain in 1880 the appointment of a De- partmental Committee of Enquiry. The- committee consisted of Lord Aberdare (chairman), Viscount Emlyn, Prebendary Robinson, Mr. Henry Richard, Professor Rhys, and Mr. Lewis* Morris, and it cer- tainly would have been difficult to find half a dozen men better qualified for their duties. Meetings were held in London and' in the chief towns in Wales. A 508 WELSH EDUCATION- -WILL vast amount of interesting evidence was accumulated, the report and minutes occu- pying over a thousand foolscap pages. With respect to intermediate schools the committee recommended : (1) That exist- ing endowed schools should be made effi- cient and suitable. (2) That in the reor- ganisation of endowments (a) all schools nould be made unsectarian ; (b) the go- verning bodies should be, to a larger extent, properly chosen ; (c) schools should be adapted to local requirements. (3) Where there were no endowments available, schools should be provided from other funds. (There was some difference of opinion as to the source of these.) With regard to higher education the committee recommended : (1) That a uni- versity college for South Wales should be established in Glamorganshire. (2) That there should also be a university college for North Wales. For this purpose the college already existing at Aberystwith could be utilised where it was, or could be transferred to Carnarvon or Bangor. (3) A Government grant of 4,OOOZ. a year should be made to each college. (4) The committee discussed the desirability of creating a university for Wales, but made no definite recommendation on the sub- ject. The chief results of the labours of the committee were the retention of the university college at Aberystwith, the establishment of similar colleges at Bangor ,nd Cardiff, and the grant of 12,OOOJ. a .year between the three institutions. No provision for intermediate education has jet been made, though several Bills deal- ing with the subject have been presented to the House of Commons. The provision of a Welsh university to complete, co- ordinate, and crown the whole system of Welsh education is perhaps not at present within the range of practical politics. Though in many parts of Wales Welsh is the language of the home, the play- ground, the church, and the chapel, in- struction in the grammar or literature of it has, till lately, been almost unknown, and, what is equally strange, Welsh has not been used in teaching English. When an English boy comes across a word which he does not understand his master substi- tutes simpler words for it ; but to the Welsh boy no English words are simple at first, and an explanation in English would only increase the original difficulty. The obvious method is to explain in the child's own tongue, and this is the method advocated by the recently formed Society for Utilising the Welsh Language, With the sanction of the Education Department, and with the hearty co-operation of some of the inspectors, several schools have tried the plan of studying Welsh and English together, and the constant translation from one to the other has been found to develop intelligence and give a large grasp of linguistic principles. Wichern, John Henry, German phi- lanthropist, born at Hamburg in 1808, was educated at the Gymnasium of his native city, and afterwards at Gottingen and Ber- lin (1830). Wichern's name is associated with the foundation of houses of rescue for destitute children in Hamburg and elsewhere. His object was to establish institutions in which the influence of the 'family organisation,' 'Christian training,' and ' industrial occupations ' might be brought to bear upon the young. With this view Wichern took a small thatched cottage, called Rough House, a few miles from Hamburg, and commenced the under- taking with only three boys, whom he re- ceived into his own family. The number gradually increased, and Rough House be- came the parent of many similar institu- tions. Wichern's chief works are : Flying Leaves from Rough House and The Inner Mission of the German Evangelical Church (1849). Wiesse, Dr. L., in his Letters on Eng- lish Education (1854), contrasts the Ger- man system of instruction with the Eng- lish one. * The result of my observations/ he writes, * to state it briefly, is this : in knowledge our higher schools (i.e. the Ger- man higher schools) are far in advance of the English ; but their education is more effective because it imparts a better pre- paration for life.' ' In England the first object of education is the formation cf character.' * The tendency of German edu- cation is to become encyclopaedic.' Wilderspin, Samuel. See- YOUNG CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF). Will, -Self-Will. The term 'will' is used in psychology to mark off the active tendencies and impulses of the mind, as distinguished from the intellectual capaci- ties and the emotional sensibilities. The will exists in the child in a rudimentary form only. He has the instinctive dis- position to activity, but cannot yet choose his ends and so regulate his actions. He WILL WOMEN-TEACHERS shows this crudeness of will in his inability to realise and work for distant results, and the infirmity of purpose which follows from this ; in his inability to deliberate and choose; in his want of self-control, and generally in the subjection of his de- sires to the external circumstances and solicitations of the moment. The growth of a rational and free will out of this in- choate childish will presupposes the de- velopment of the intelligence and of the feelings. Like the intellectual faculties, the will grows by successive exercises. The first and most important of these con- sists in self submission to others, or obedi- ence. Such obedience has, however, only a temporary function in furthering the growth of the will. Its higher develop- ments presuppose liberty to reflect and choose for oneself. Hence the importance of restricting the area of authority in early life, and of gradually encouraging the child to think and act for himself. The instinc- tive bent to this free determination of action is seen in Self-will, or Wilf ulness, which is so well marked a character- istic of all children that have a strong natural character and energetic impulses. Such self-will is not harmful in itself, but rather the expression of a strong and healthy individuality. It becomes bad, however, when it hardens into rebellious- ness, refractoriness, or obstinacy that is, a fixed disposition to defy authority as such, and to refuse to be led by others' superior wisdom. While in the case of the wilful and obstinate the educator has to impose restraint, in the case of those wanting in desires and energy of purpose he needs rather to rouse the will to activity. Since will is the source of all effort, intel- lectual and moral alike, it is evident that education, which proceeds by exciting the mind to activity, is concerned to a very large extent with prompting and directing the young will. (Cf . articles ACTIVITY, OBEDI- ENCE, SELF-COMMAND. For a fuller account of Will, or Volition, see Bain, Mental Science, bk. iv. ; and Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chaps, xix. and xx. On the training of the Will and the management of Wilful- ness, see Locke, Thoughts, 78 following ; Mrs. Bryant, Educational Ends, p. 20 following ; Beneke, op. cit. 71, 72 ; Dittes, Grundriss, 69 and following ; Pfisterer, Pad. Psychologic, 33 ; and art. * Wille ' in Schmidt's Encyclopadie.) Women-Teachers. In all ages women ( ;ural have been recognised as the structors of children in the nursery, tho their function as educators in general has>. until recent times, been less clearly de- fined. We hear, indeed, in the fifth cen- tury, of Hypatia, the reigning star of the- Alexandrian school of the Neo-Platonists, lecturing to crowded audiences of men, and women, and becoming in this way the- spiritual father of the famous Proclus. But indeed Hypatia is at best 'but a, myth and a shade/ and in the middle ages the education of women as a class was so restricted that only a few women-teachers, were able to take up any prominent posi- tion. Bologna was the only university- which granted degrees and other privileges, to women. The learned and beautiful Novella d' Andrea, daughter of the cele- brated Canonist, frequently occupied her- father's chair in that university, and. amongst other women professors at Bologna, were Laura Bassi, who held the chair of mathematics and natural philosophy, the- Madonna Manzolina, who practised and lectured on surgery with distinction, and Clotilda Tainbroni, professor of Greek.. On the great stairway of Padua stands the statue of Elena Cornaro, professor of six languages in that once renowned uni- versity. But Elena Cornaro was not edu- cated by women, nor did she lecture to. women. In the seventeenth century we find an attempt in France to replace the conventual education of girls by a more- practical preparation for secular life. Louis XI Y. was not fond of the convents,, and, therefore, he liberally supported. Madame de Maintenon in her endeavour to place on a permanent basis the school she had founded for the daughters of the- impoverished noblesse. This was the origin in 1686 of the fa- mous school of Saint-Cyr, which for many years numbered its 250 pupils, and whose- scholars acted Racine's Andromaque so- well, that he wrote for them Athalie and Esther. But Madame de Maintenon was an ardent disciple of Fenelon, and she- came to the conclusion that his Education des Filles was not altogether in harmony with the kind of education that would produce such results, and she therefore, in 1689, soon entirely changed the character- of the instruction and the discipline of Saint-Cyr, henceforth causing her pupils to devote more time to sewing and to what we now call domestic economy than to- 510 WOMEN-TEACHERS more intellectual pursuits. But in spite of her restricted curriculum the pedagogy of Madame de Maintenon, her biographer Ore'ard assures us, was based on a sound psychology a psychology not perhaps formulated, but drawn from exact and -careful observation of child-life. Her organisation and discipline were as far in advance of those of other schools of her time as Montaigne's and Rousseau's theories (largely adopted by her) were in advance of theirs. 'The nature of the child may have been analysed more philo- sophically; I do not believe that any one has understood it better ' (Greard). Her successors at Saint- Cyr, unfortunately, are undeserving of mention, and the school disappears in the chaos of the Revolution. The acquirements of an English school- imistress of the same period can be gathered from the curious prospectus quoted by .Dr. Doraii in his Lady of the Last Cen- tury : 'A. school founded in 1693 by Mrs. Makin, near Tottenham, High Cross, where . . . gentlewomen may be instructed in the principles of religion, and ... in all things taught in other schools. As, work of all sorts, dancing, musick, singing, writing, keeping accompts ; half the time -to be spent in these things, the other half to be employed in gaining the Latin and French tongues ; and those that please may learn Greek and Hebrew, the Italian .and Spanish, in all which this gentlewoman hath a competent knowledge.' The curriculum was also to embrace, if time were allowed, the whole circle of the sciences, concluding with arithmetic and history. Whether Mrs. Makin was able to perform all or any part of what ; she here promises we have no means of c deciding \ certainly we have no reason to suppose that a 'competent knowledge ' of isuch subjects as Latin, Greek, &c., was .common among the women-teachers of the last or of the beginning of the present .century. The changes that have taken place in the status of the worn en- teachers of Eng- land during the last forty years are the outcome of corresponding changes in the education of girls. Until the establishment of public day- schools for girls of a higher grade than the elementary, the well-to-do classes sent their daughters to small private boarding- schools, or provided them with 'governesses ;at home,' who were expected to be ency- clopaedic in attainments. The boarding- schools were in many cases presided over by intelligent and devoted women, who had supplemented their own defective edu- cation by general reading ; but the very desultoriness of their own acquirements rendered any approach to method in their instruction exceptional. Their assistants for the elder pupils were usually 'masters,' partly owing to a lack of competent women- teachers, partly owing to a common pre- judice in favour of the former, a prejudice which in those times no doubt had its foundation in facts, but which is rapidly dying out under the influence of the sounder education of women, and of more enlightened views as to the functions of the teacher. The women-assistants in these schools were, as a rule, ill-educated and unfit to conduct the education of even the younger pupils, who were usually committed to their care. Besides these boarding-schools there existed in every town a large number of small day-schools, kept by a still inferior class of women, who seldom had any other idea of teaching than that of ' hearing lessons ' from a book. It has been well pointed out that the low attainments of a teacher and his or her standing in society are reciprocally cause and effect. Society cannot honoui the half-instructed governess, nor the incompetent schoolmistress ; nor, on the other hand, will energy, ability, and high character seek a career in which little profit, little honour, and no advancement are to be found. The intellectual result of this state of things is graphically described in the re- port of the Schools Enquiry Commission, 1867-68 (see EDUCATION OP GIRLS). The remedy was, among others, clearly indi- cated to the commissioners by Miss Wol- stenholme, herself the head of a small school, and, therefore, not to be suspected of interested motives. In a paper written about this time she says : ' In the case of small schools all the difficulties of home instruction are aggravated. The experi- ment of large schools for girls has been successfully tried, and the results are conclusive as to the superiority of the system (so far as concerns day-schools) from whatever point of view we regard it. Their superior economy is obvious. But this economy cannot be estimated in money. The school reacts upon the teac WOMEN-TEACHERS 511 hers, the teaching becomes more ener- getic, spirited, successful.' The movement in favour of large day- schools for girls on a public footing owes its origin, in fact, partly to the Report of the Commissioners, partly to the efforts of the public-spirited women who founded the 'National Union, 5 but chiefly to those who had already shown that the evils com- plained of were not irremediable. In 1850 Miss Buss started, as a private day-school, what has since developed into the North London Collegiate School for Girls. In 1870 she raised it to an endowed school by investing in trust for its benefit the savings of her twenty years' work there. The school was moved into more suitable premises, and a * Lower School,' now called the ' Camden School,' occupied the old house, with its own head-mistress, though under the superintendence of Miss Buss. These schools, in the new and suitable buildings provided for them later on, have steadily increased in numbers and effici- ency, and, still under their much-honoured principal, take the lead among London schools for girls. Another name deserves mention among the pioneers of reform. In 1854 a school had been started for girls at Cheltenham on the model of the college for boys in that town, and was, therefore, named the ' Cheltenham Ladies' College.' It opened with about one hundred pupils, "but by 1858 its fortunes had sunk to a low ebb, when Miss Dorothea Beale was made principal. In a few years the num- bers doubled, pupils flocked to it from all parts not only of Great Britain, but of the colonies ; it became a model for similar schools, and the untiring efforts of its principal, it is not too much to say, raised the standard of women's education all over the country. Since 1872, when the school was transferred into a building of its own, it has developed in every direction. (An interesting and full account of Miss Beale's experiences as a teacher will be found in the Nineteenth Century for April 1888.) From the first, both Miss Buss and Miss Beale insisted on thorough and me- thodical teaching, gradually training their own teachers ; they have always invited inspection and external examination, and they sent their pupils to compete in uni- versity examinations as soon as these were open to women and girls. In these and similar schools that have rapidly spread over the country, an alto- gether different class of women-teachers has sprung up, the demand in this as in other cases creating the supply. In the face of the large numbers and short hours of these day-schools, the old-fashioned methods of individual teach- ing were felt to be out of place ; a new generation of teachers arose who could govern and instruct a class, and bring to bear upon their teaching accurate and well- arranged knowledge. The ' visiting mas- ters ' in such schools have been superseded by women who have proved themselves equal to the new demands upon them. In proportion as the standard of women's education has been raised their efficiency as teachers has increased, and they are now almost exclusively employed in in- stitutions which formerly, like the Chel- tenham Ladies' College, employed men- teachers for certain special subjects. Thus at the present time the thirty-three high schools (fifteen in London and its suburbs and eighteen in the provinces) of the Girls' Public Day School Company have, besides the head-mistresses, 276 women- teachers on the regular staff, exclusive of over two hundred juniors, teachers on probation and of special subjects. Men are only employed in very exceptional cases. These schools contain, it is to be remembered, over six thousand pupils drawn from the professional and middle classes of the country. The 'Church Schools Company,' founded more recently, has established eighteen high schools for girls (besides others for boys), and employs a similar proportion of mistresses. Be- sides these there are many similar schools managed by local companies ; thus at Manchester there is a large and flourishing school, founded in the early days of the movement, its example being soon fol- lowed by Plymouth, Exeter, and other towns. In a few cases, as in Bedford, Leicester, Greenwich, and Newcastle- under-Lyne, y his great-grandson], 2 vols. 10 8 Philadelphia 77-79- Princeton College. ALEXANDER, A. D. [Am.] Princeton College during the Eighteenth Century; pp. 326 [sketches of individuals] New York 72 HAGEMAN, J. F. [Am.] History of Princeton and its Institutions, 2 vols. 6 8 Philadelphia 79- MACLEAN, J. [Am.] History of the College of New Jersey, 2 vols. $1 8 Philadelphia IT Princeton Book, The : history, organisation, and present condition of the College #18 4 Boston 80- South Carolina College. LABORDE, M. [Am.] History of the South Carolina College ; pp. 596 8 Cliarleston 74- Vassar College [for Women], LOSSING, B. J. [Am.] Vassar College and its Founder #4.75 i8 New York 75- RAYMOND, J. H. [Am.] Vassar College : a sketch of its foundation and aims New York 73- Virginia, University of. JEFFERSON (T.) + CUBELL (J. C.) [Ams.] Early History of the University of Virginia ; pp. 522 8 Richmond 56- Sketch of the History of the University of Virginia Richmond 85 Wisconsin University, Ac. CHAPIN, A. L. [Am.] Historical Sketches of the Colleges of Wisconsin ; pp. 120 Madison 76 Historical Sketch of the University of Wisconsin [1849-1876] Madison 76> Yale College. DEXTER, F. B. [Am.] Sketches of Graduates of Yale, with Annals of College History [1701-45] ; pp. 788 New York 85 Sketch of the History of Yale University 6*. 6d. 12 New York 87 DUCROW, W. E. [Am.] Yale and the City of Elms 82 Yale Book, The (c) STUDENT LIFE: SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY. Vide also II. (&) : Universities. General. BAIRD, W. R. [Am.] in his American College Fraternities ride supra BARNARD, H. [Am. ; ed.] True Student Life [selections from eminent writers] ; pp. 416 12*. 8 Hartford 7* OSGOOD, Sam. [Am.] Student Life : letters and recollections ; pp. 164 $\ 12 New York 61 Great Britain : Generally. PASCOE, 0. E. [ed.] Everyday Life in our Public Schools ; pp. 324 3*. 6d. c8 Griffith [81] 83- A. series of sketches by head scholars of the seven public schools, with Merchant Taylors' and Christ's Hospital added ; also glossary of school terms. WORDSWORTH, Bp. C. Social Life at the English Universities in 18th Cent. 15*. 8 Bell 74- Cambridge University. Student's Guide to the University of Cambridge 6*. Qd. f 8 Bell [2nd ed. 66] 82: 540 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : STUDENT LIFE EDUCATIONAL LAW Great Britain Generally cont. Christ's Hospital. BLANCH, W. H. Blue-coat Boys : school life in Christ's Hospital 1*. c8 E. W. Allen 77 Eight Years a Blue-coat Boy ; Dundalker's narrative of fact Is. f 8 Dean S., A. 0. Ups and Downs of a Blue-coat Boy 3s. 6d. c8 Houlston 76 .Edinburgh University. FORBES, E. Life of contains good picture of life at Edirib. Univ. Iton College. Etoniana, Ancient and Modern : notes on the history and traditions of the college ; pp. 238 5s. c8 Blackwood 65 ^Oxford University. *ANSTKY, Rev. H. [ed.] Monumenta Academica, 2 vols. 30s. r8 Rolls Series 68 Documents illustrating academic life and studies at Oxford. *BEDE, Cuthbert ' [ = Rev. E. Bradley]. Adventures of Mr. Verdant Green [at Oxford ; humorous novel] ; ill., 3s. p8 Griffith [56] 85 HUGHES, Thomas. Tom Brown at Oxford [in the form of fiction] ; ill., 6s. c8 Macmillan [61] 71 STEDMAN, A. M. M. Oxford : its social and intellectual life ; pp. 309, 7s. 6d. c8 Triibner 78 [ed.] Oxford : its life and schools Is. Gd. c8 Bell 87 A kind of guide-book, compiled by college and private tutors, to history of the university, expenses, rewards, account of the schools, whether pass or class, women's education at Oxon., &c. Student's Handbook to the Univ. of Oxford [by Dr. Edwin Hatch] 2s. 6d. f8 Clar. Press [73] 88 .Rugby School. GOULBURN, Dean E. M. The Book of Rugby School [history and life] ; pp. 252, o.p. c8 56 HUGHES, Thomas. Tom Brown's School Days [in form of fiction] ; Gd., 2s., 4s. 6d. ; ill., 6s. Macmillan [57] v.y. Rugby School Register [1675-1867] 7s. 8 Whittaker 68 Winchester College. School Life at Winchester College ; ill. 7s. 6d. c8 Chatto [66] 70 United States. Amherst College. Student Life at Amherst Amherst 71 .Harvard University. ATTWOOD, F. G. [Am.] Manners and Customs of ye Harvard Students ; $1.50 c8 Boston 78 TRIFP, G. H. [Am.] Student Life at Harvard ; pp. 518 $1.75 c8 Boston [76] 77 "Virginia, University ol. NASH [Am.] The Students of the University of Virginia 78 Tale College. BAGU, L. H. [Am.] Four Years at Yale [by a graduate of Yale] ; pp. 713 8 New Haven 71 PORTER, J. A. [Am.] Sketches of Yale Life Washington 86 Germany. *V.BAKNSTEIN,A.P. Beitriige zur Geschichte des deutschen Studententhums ; pp. 156 p8 Wilrzburff 82 Contains a systematic bibliography of the subject. DOLCH, 0. Geschichte des deu! schen Studententhums ; pp. 300 4s. 8 Leipzig 58 SiEFFENS, H. German University Life : Story of my Career as a Student and Professor [tr.] ; pp. 284 $1.25 12 Philadelphia M Jena. KEIL, R. + R. Geschichte des jenaischen Studentenlebens [1548-1858]: pp. 662 8s. 8 Leipzig 58 III. g&uccifionctl catt) : @o6cs, Qualifications of ^eacf)ers, &c. Generally. *SONNENSCHEIN, A. [ed.] Standards of Teaching of Foreign Codes; 3s. 6d. c8 Sonnenschcin [82] 89 Codes of Austria, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, S. Australia, &c.; trs., with notes. Ureat Britain. *CEAIK, H. The State in relation to Education [English Citizen Series] 3s. Gd. c8 Macmillan 84 EDUCATIONAL LAW SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY 541 Element. Educ. Acts. Reports of Royal Commission ; v. i.-iv., and suppl. f Eyre & Spottiswoode 87-8S GLEN, W. C. [ed.] The Elementary Education Acts, with notes [1870, 73, 74, 75, 80] 10*. 6d. 12 Shaw [71] 81 The Elementary Education Acts ; pp. GOO 15*. 8 Knight [71] 84 Manual of the Education Acts for Scotland 10s. Gd. 8 Blackwood [72] The Law of Building Churches, Parsonages, and Schools ; 9*. 8 Butterworth ULI o. xtM EN, H. [ed.] SELLAE, A. C. TROWER, C. F. France. BERT, Paul. CHARLES. GREARD, M. HIPPEAU, C. Germany. BACKHAUS.J.C.N. GIEBE. Rapport sur la Loi de I'enseignement primaire ; pp. 365 3f. s8 Paris [80] 80 Legislation des etablissements publ. d'instruction secondaire; pp. 468 6f. p8 Paris 72 Legislation de 1'instruction primaire en France depuis 1780 ; 3v. c8 Paris 74 L'Instruction publique pendant la Revolution [debates, &c.] ; pp. 380 3f . 50c. s8 Paris 83 Die Schulgesetzgebung der Gegenwart ; pp. 324 3s. 8 OsnabriicTt 69- Die Verordnungen betreffend d. gesammten Volksschulwesen in Preussen ; pp. 720 r8 Diisseldorf [ ] 82 GRATTENAUER, W. Das Schulrecht des preussischen Staates ; pp. 105 Is. 6d. r8 Berlin 75 Handbuch der Reichsgesetze und Ministerialverordnungen iib. Volksschulwesen; 2 vols. 8 Vienna 78-82 V. OBENTRAUT,A.R. Die osterreichischen Volksschulgesetze, 2 vols. 8 Vienna 78 Prussian Code, The, in its Present Form [tr.] 2s. 6d. c8 Paul 79- WIESE, Prof. L. Verordnungen undGesetze f. d. hoheren Schulen in Preussen ; 2 vols. 12s. 8 Berlin [67, 78] 75 i. Die Schule ; ii. Das Leliramt und die Lelire. Italy. Document! sulla Instruzione elementare nel regno d' Italia ; pp. 117 8 Nuovo Codice della Instruzione pubblica; pp. 819 Saluzzo 70 United States. BARDEEN, C.W. [ed. ; Am.] Common School Law for Common School Teachers [qualifications, &c.] ; pp. 95 75c. 16 Syracuse [75] 88: BARNARD, H. [ed. ; Am.] School Codes: State, municipal, institutional 12s. m8 Hartford 73. BURKE, F. [Am.] A Treatise on the Law of Public Schools ; pp. 154 $1 12 New York 80 KEYES, E. W. [ed. ; Am.] Laws of New York relating to Common Schools, with notes $4 Syracuse [79] 88 KIRK, J. E. [ed.; Am.] Code of Public Instruction of State of New York $4 8 Nem York 88- ARISTOTLE. CICERO. CORNIFICTUS [?]. ISOCRATES. !V. psfentctfic (a) ANCIENT (GREEK AND ROMAN). Nicomachsean Ethics ; Politics ; Rhetoric ; Economics passim De Oratore Rhetorica [ad Herennium] Oratio xiii. against the Sophists and their methods Oratio xv. on the Antidosis, or theory of practical culture Anacharsis vel de Gymnasiis LUCIAN. PHILOSTEATUS THE ELDER. Libellus de arte gymnastica PLATO. Dialogues the Republic ; the Laws passim GROTE, Geo. Plato and other Companions of Socrates, 4 vols., each 6s. c8 Murray [67] 85- KAPP. Platen's Erziehungslehre X ETTLESHIP, R. S. Theory of Educ. in Repub. of Plato in Abbott's Hel- lenica' 16s. 8 Rivington . 80 PACKARD [Am.] Studies in Greek Thought, pt. ii. [Plato's system of education] "WiESE. Die padagogischen Grundsatze in Plato's Republik WILKINS Prof A. S. National Educ. in Greece in IV Cent. [Plato and Aristotle] 5s. c8 Isbister 73: v. ZELLER, E. Socrates and the Socratic School [tr.] 10s. 6d. 8 Longmans [68] 77' PLUTARCH. Morals 542 SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: ANCIENT MODERN QUINTILIAN. Institutes of Oratory TACITUS. Dialogus de Oratoribus XENOPHON. Cyropsedia education and life of Cyrus (Economicus education of a wife for the Jututehold (&) MODERN, WITH RECENT CRITICISM THEREON. The dates of birth of living writers are not given. For Special Treatises vide VI. (&), especially Gymnasia. ARNOLD, Dr. Thomas [1795-1842] *STANLEY, Dean A. P. Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold, 2 vols. 12*. c8 Murray [47] 87 ASCHAM, Roger [1515-1568]. The Schoolmaster [1570], ed. Prof. J. E. B. Mayor ; 1*. 12 Bell 84 The same : text only [Cassell's National Lib.] 3d., bnd. 6d. 18 Cassell 88 QUICK, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (a) *BAIN, Prof. Alex. Education as a Science [Intern. Scient. Set.] 5*. c8 Kegan Paul [79] 85 Practical Essays 4s. Gd. c8 Longmans 84 Civil Service Examinations, the Classical controversy, Metaphys. and Debating Societies, University Ideal past and present, &c. jBASEDOW, J. [1723-1790]. Ausgewahlte Schriften, ed. H. Goring Langensalza 80 QUICK, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (a) IBELL, Dr. Andrew [1753-1832] MEIKLEJOHN, Prof. J. M. D. An Old Educational Reformer : [Dr. Bell] ; 3*. 6rf.c8 Blackwood 82 IBENEKE, F. E. [1798-1854]. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, 2 vols.; pp. 403, 482 12*. 8 Berlin [42] 76 MOLTKE. Beneke's Psychologisch-padagogische Abhandlungen und Aufsatze. 8 Leipzig 77 iBoCK, E. Der Volksschul-Unterricht ; pp. 688 [Prussian law ; a valuable book], 8 Breslau 79 BRAUN, Prof. Th. Cours Complet de Pedagogic et de Methodologie ; pp. 954 m8 Brussels 85 BRYANT, Dr. Sophie. Educational Ends: the ideal of personal development; Qs.8 Longmans 87 - CAMPE, J. H. [1746-1818]. Theophron, ed. K. Richter; pp. 296 [Padog. Bibl.] 2s. 6d. 8 Leipzig 75 COMBE, Geo. [1788-1858]. Education : its principles and practice, ed. W. Jolly; pp. 772 15*. 8 Macmillan 79 COMENIUS, J. A. [1591-1671]. Grosse Unterrichtslehre, ed. G. A. Lindner 8 3s. Vienna 76 Tr. of the Dickiciica Afugna, orig. pub. in Bohemian in 1628-32. Orbis Pictus, w. facs. reprod. of the original pictures $3 8 Syracuse [1658] 87 The first picture-book for children ever pub. The Latin text is from the ed. of 1658, the Engl. tr. fr. that of 1727. Padagogische Schriften, iibersetzt Th. Lion 3*. 8 Langensalza 76 Ausgewahlte Schriften, hrsg. J. Berger + F. Zoubek, 2v. Qs. 6d. 8 Leipzig 76 7 LAURIE, Prof. S. S. Comenius : his life and educational works ; pp. 240, 3*. 6d. c8 Camb. Press [81] 85 LEUTBECHER. Amos Comenius' Lehrkunst 1*. &d. 8 Leipzig 55 QUICK, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (#) -COMPAYRE, Prof. Gabriel. Lectures on Pedagogy [tr. ; theoretical and practical] c8 Sonnenschein, in prep. *DIESTERWEG, F. A. W. [1790-1866]. Wegweiser zur Bildung fur deutsche Lehrer, 3 vols. 8 Essen [34] 79 i. psychology, didactics, methods ; ii. religion, object-lessons, reading, arithmetic, writing, drawing, singing; iii. geography, history, science, geometry, French, English, deaf-mutes, blind, idiots, kindergarten, gymnastics. Ausgewahlte Schriften, hrsg. Langenberg, 4 vols. Frankfort 82 LANGENBERG, E. Adolf Diesterweg : sein Leben und seine Schriften ; 6s. 8 Fra-nkfart 68 DINTER, G. F. [1760-1831]. Leben [autobiography], hrsg. R. Niedergesass ; 2s. 8 Vienna [29] 79 *DiTTES, Dr. Friedrich. Schule der Padagogik ; pp. 1056 10*. 8 Leipzig [76] 80 Comprehensive ; psychology, logic, theory of education, methodics of public instruction, history of education. Each part is also sold separately. EVE (H. W.)+ SIDGWICK (A.) + ABBOTT (E. A.) Three Lectures on the Practice of Education [Pitt Press Ser.] 2s. p8 Camb. Press 83 On Marking Stimulus The Teaching of Latin verse composition. 3?ARRAR, F. W. [ed.] Essays on a Liberal Education ; pp. 384 10*. 6d. 8 Macmillan [67] 68 Contributions by C. S. Parker, H. Sidgwick. J. R. Seeley, E. E. Bowen, F. W. Farrar, J. M. Wilson, J. W. Hales, W. Johnson, L. Houghton. SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY : MODERN 543 FICHTE, J. G. [1762-1814]. Reden an die deutsche Nation [Universal Bibl. 2 pts.] 6d. 16 Leipzig . Aphorismen iiber Erziehung no separate ed. in print System der Sittenlehre no separate ed. in print On the Nature of the Scholar, in hit Popular Writings, tr. W. Smith, 2 vols. 21s. p8 Trubner [46-47] 88 *FiTCH, J. G. Lectures on Teaching [15, at Cambridge ; practical ; topical treatment] 5*. c8 Camb. Press [80] 85 Sums up the best current thought on teaching. FLATTICH, I. F. [1717-1797]. Padagogische Lebensweisheit, hrsg. E. Ehmann 2*. 8 Heidelbg.lQ SCHAFER, C. D. Flattich und sein padagogisches System ; pp. 121 Is. 6d. 8 Frankfort 71 FRANCKE, A. H. [1663-1727]. Schriften iiber Erziehung und Unterricht, hrsg. K. Richter, 2 vols. 6*. 8 Leipzig 74 KRAMER. Francke: ein Lebensbild, 2 vols.; pp. 304, 510 8 Halle 80-82 FRICKE, F. W. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre ; pp. 810 8 Mannheim 81-82 Objectivity of judgment and mediation of antitheses are sought by the author; original and comprehensive. FROEBEL, Friedr. [1782-1852] vide VI. (a) HEGEL, G. W. F. [1770-1831] THAULOW, G. Hegel's Ansichten iiber Erziehung und Unterricht, 3 vols. 18*. 8 Kiel 53-54 Selections from Hegel's writings, systematically arranged. HERBART, J. F. [1776-1841]. Padagogische Schriften, hrsg. Wilmann, 2 vols.; pp. 673, 692 [espec. Umriss pad. Vorlesungen] 8 Leipzig \y.y.~\ 80 HENNIG, G. A. J. F. Herbart nach seinem Leben und seiner padagogischen Bedeutung; pp. 130 Leipzig 77 WEISZNER, E. Herbart's Piidagogik in ihrer Entwickelung u. Anwendung 8 Berriburg 85 v. HERDER, J. G. [1744-1803] EEIN, W. Herder als Piidagog ; pp. 60 1*. 8 Vienna 76 HUXLEY, Prof. T. H. Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews 7*. 6rf. c8 Macmillan [70] 71 A liberal Education ; A Scient. Educ. ; Educ. Value of Natural Hist. ; the Study of Zoology ; .fee. Science and Culture, and other essays 10*. 6rf. 8 Macmillan 82 Universities, actual and ideal ; Technical Education ; Elementary Instruction in Physiology. JACOTOT, J. J. [1770-1840] Enseignement Universel : langue maternelle 6f. %Paris [23] 54 The same : droit et philosophic panecastiques 4f. 8 Paris [39] 40 The same : melanges posthumes 3f . 8 Paris 40 PAYNE, Prof. Jos. in his Lectures, nt infra PEREZ, Bernhard. Jacotot et sa methode d'emancipation intellectuelle ; pp. 210 2s.6d. sSParis 83 QUICK, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (a) JOHONNOT, J. [1823-88]. The Principles and Practice of Teaching [tr.] ; $1.50 8 New York 78 KANT, Immanuel [1774-1804]. Ueber Padagogik, hrsg. Theod. Vogt Langensalza 78 _ The same, tr. W. J. Cox c8 Boston, in prep. KEHR, C. Die Praxis der Volksschule [for normal pupils") ; pp. 490 4*. Gd. 8 Gotha [68] 80 KELLNER, L. Volksschulkunde : ein prakt. Wegweiser [Roman Cath.] 4*. 8 Essen [55] 74 KERN, H. Grundriss der Padagogik ; pp. 314 8 Berlin 81 KLOPPER, K. Grundriss der Padagogik [for women teachers and girls' schools] ; pp. 184 8 Rostock 78 IJAURIE, Prof. S. S. The Training of Teachers, and other papers ; pp. 369 7s. 6d. 8 Paul 82 Primary Instruction ; Montaigne ; Educat. Wants of Scotland ; Secondary and High Schools. _ Occasional Addresses on Educational Subjects 6*. c8 Camb. Press 88 *LOCKE, John [1632-1704]. Some Thoughts concerning Education [1693], ed. Rev. R. H. Quick 3*. 6d. c8 Camb. Press [80] 84 The same, ed. Canon Evan Daniel 4*. c8 National Soc. 80 Conduct of the Understanding [1 690], ed.T. Fowler; pp. 136 2s. 12 Clar. Press 81 Cf. Leitch and Quick in II. (a) LUBBOCK, Sir John. Addresses : political and educational 8*. 6d. 8 Macmillan 79 MANN, Horace [Am.] Lectures and Annual Reports [1839-42] on Education [collected] ; pp. 571 $3 c8 Boston 72 Lectures on Education ; pp. 348 $\ p8 Boston 55 MANN, Mrs. Horace [Am.] The Life of Horace Mann 12*. Qd 8 Boston [81] 88 Mann was Secretary to the Massachusetts Board of Education. MILTON, John [1608-1674]. A Treatise on Education [1673], ed. Oscar Brown- ing 2s. c8 Camb. Press 83 QUICK, Rev. R. H. in kis Essays on Educational Reformers, lit supra, II. (a) 544 SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN DE MONTAIGNE, Mich. [1533-92] Essays [1580], tr. Florio, ed. Prof. H. Morley ; 5*. c8 Routledge 85 On Education, tr. MacAlister [Am.] c8 Boston, in prep. MULCASTEB, B. [1530(?)-1611]. Positions [reprint of a bk. by a City School- master, first pub. 1581] 10s. 6d. 8 Barnard & Quick 88 V. NAGELSBACH, C. F. Gymnasial-Padagogik, hrsg. G. Autenrieth [standard] ; pp. 175 Erlangen 79- NIEDEEGESASS, K. [ed.] Handbuch der speciellen Methodik der elementaren Schulen [by several contributors] Vienna 85, in prog. NIEMEYER, A. H. Grundsatze der Erziehung und des Unterrichts, 3 vols. [stan- dard] ; pp. 572, 734, 666 18*. 8 Halle [1796] 34-39 PAGE, David P. [Am.] The Theory and Practice of Teaching $1.50 s8 New York [47] PALMEE, C. Evangelische Piidagogik; pp. 736 [pietistic]7s. Qd. 8 Stuttgart [53] 69 *PAYNE, Prof. Jos. [1808-1876] Lectures on the Science and Art of Education, &c., ed. Rev. R. H. Quick; pp. 386 14.?. 8 Longmans [83] 83 Payne was the first professor of the Science and Art of Education at the College of Preceptors. The chief contents of this volume are : Curriculum of Mod. Educ. [1st pub. 1863] ; Training of the Teacher [73] ; Theories of Teaching [68] ; the College of Preceptors [68] ; True Foundation of Science Teaching [73] ; Jacotot, his life and system [67] ; Visit to German Schools [76]. PAYNE, Prof. W. H. [Am.] Contributions to the Science of Education $1 08 Blackie 87 PBSTALOZZI, J. H. [1746-1827.] Sammtliche Werke, hrsg. L. W. Seyffarth, 16 vols. ea. 9d. 8 Brandenburg \y.y.~] 69-73- Leonard and Gertrude [1781], tr. and abgd. Eva Channing ; pp. 181 85c. 08 Boston 85- BAENAED, H. [ed.] Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism [life, principles, methods] 12*. mS Nero York 62 Miscellaneous collection of reprinted papers, with some trss. from his works. COCHIN, A. Pestalozzi : sa vie, ses oeuvres et ses methodes ; pp. 146 If. 25c. 08 Paris 80- *DE GUIMPS, R. Pestalozzi : his life and works, tr. Russell ; portrait 6s. c8 Sonnenschein 88 KRUSI, H. [Am.] Pestalozzi : his life, work, and influence ; pp. 248 $2.25 12 Cincinnati 75- LEITCH, J. Muir, in his Practical Educationists, ut supra, II. (a) QUICK, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (a) v. RAUMEE, K. The Life and System of Pestalozzi, tr. J. Tilleard o.p. 8 London 55 RUSSELL, J. The Student's Pestalozzi : a brief account of his life and work Is. Qd. c8 Sonnenschein 88- SCHNEIDEE, C. Rousseau und Pestalozzi ; pp. 86 Is. 8 Bromberg 67 VOGEL, A. [ed.] Die Padagogik Pestalozzi's [verbatim extracts from his writings] ; pp. 138 Bernbwg 82 RABELAIS, Frangois [1483-1553] AENSTADT, F. A. Rabelais und sein Traite d' Education ; pp. 295 65. 8 Leipzig 72 With special reference to Montaigne, Locke, and Eousseau, RAPPOLD, J. Gymnasialpadagogischer Wegweiser [with bibliog.] ; pp. 30 Is. 8 Vienna S3- RATICH, W. [1571-1635] KEAUSE, G. Ratichius, oder Ratke im Lichte seiner Briefe 3s. 8 Leipzig 72.' QUICK, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. O) SCHUMANN, I. C. G. Die chte Methode Ratke's ; pp. 64 Is. Gd. 8 Hanover 76. RICHTEE, Jean Paul [1763-1825]. Levana ; or, the Doctrine of Education [tr.] 3s. 6d. c8 Bonn's Lib. 76 Levana; for English readers, tr. and ed. Susan Wood; 3s. c8 Sonnenschein 87" Extracts, with running commentary and elucidatory links. WIETH, G. Richter als Padagog [with extracts from his writings] Is. &d. 8 Brandenburg 63. ROSENKEANZ, K. The Philosophy of Education, tr. Anna C. Brackett [Hegelian] ; pp. 148 $1.50 12 St. Louis [72] 86- ROSMINI, Ant. Serbati Method in Education, tr. [fr. Ital.] Mrs. Wm. Grey ; pp. 363 $1.75 c8 Boston 87" ROUSSEAU, J. J. [1712-1778]. Emile.or concerning Education, tr. [in extracts] w. notes Jules Steeg 85c. c8 Boston 85 GIEAEDIN, St. Marc. Rousseau : sa vie et ses ouvrages, 2 vols. 18 Paris 75- QUICK, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (a) SCHNEIDEE, C. Rousseau und Pestalozzi Is. 8 Bromberg 6Z' A comparison between French and German idealism, in two lectures. SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN 545 SCHLEIERMACHER, F. [1768-1834]. Padagogische Schriften, hrsg. C. Platz 5s. 8 Langensalza 76 DILTHEY, W. Leben Schleiermacher's, vol. i. 9*. 8 Berlin 70 EISENLOHR, Th. [ed.] Die Idee der Volksschule nach d. Schriften Schleier- macher's 1*. 8 Stuttgart 69 SCHUMANN, Dr. J. C. G. Lehrbuch der Padagogik, 2 vols. 83-84 SCHUTZE, F. W. Evangelische Schulkunde ; pp. 800 8*. 8 Leipzig [70] 76 SCHWARTZ, F. H. C. [1766-1837]. Allgemeine Erziehungslehre [standard] ; pp. 448 8 Leipzig [02-13] 80 Schul-Erziehungslehre ; pp. 740. 8 Leipzig [ ] 82 *SPENCER, Herbert. Education : intellectual, moral, and physical 2s. 6d. f8 Williams [61] 83 - - in his Essays: scientific, political, and speculative, ser. i-ii. 16*. ; ser. iii. 8s. c8 Williams [58, 74] 83, 80 LEITCH, J. Muir, in MX Practical Educationists, ut supra, II. (a) QUICK, Rev. H. R. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (a) SPURZHEIM, J. G. [1776-1832]. Education : its elements, princ. founded on nature of man, tr. w. appl. by S. R. Wells [Am.] ; pp. 334 #1.25. 12 Nero York 47 STOW, David. The Training System in Glasgow Model Schools ; pp. 569, o.p. \jrnb. 6*. Qd.~\ 8 Longman [36] 59 LEETCH, J. Muir, in his Practical Educationists, ut supra, II. (a) STURM, Job. LAAS, E. Die Padagogik des Johannes Sturm ; pp. 126 2s. 8 Berlin 72 THAULOW, G. Philosophic der Padagogik [Hegelian] ; pp. 212 4s. 8 Berlin 45 THRING, Rev. Edw. The Theory and Practice of Teaching ; pp. 256, 4*. Gd. c8 Camb. Press [83] 85 - Education and School 6*. c8 Macmillan [67] 67 VERNALEKEN, T. Anfan^e der Unterrichtslehre and Volksschulkunde [psycho- logical] ; pp. 192 2s. 6d. 8 Vienna 74 Vico, G. B. [1668-1744] [Life and Works of] by R. Flint [Philos. Classics f. Eng. Readers] 3*. Qd. f8 Blackwood 84 VIVES, J. L. Ausgewahlte padagogische Scbriften, hrsg. R. Heine; pp. 424 4#. 8 Leipzig- 81 WAITZ, Th. Allgemeine Padagogik ; pp. 552 7*. 8 Brunswick [83] 83 Herbartian ; by the eminent anthropologist. WILDERSPIN. System of Education [tr.] ; pp. 487 o.p. 8 London 70 Infant Education [tr.; poor children; to 7 years old] ; pp. 183 75 LEITCH, J. MUTR, in his Practical Educationists, ut supra, II. (a) WYSS, F. Padagogische Vortrage zur Fortbildung der Lehrer; pp. 175 8 Vienna 84 v. ZESCHWITZ, Gerh. Lehrbuch der Padagogik ; pp. 292 8 Leipzig 82 ZILLER, T. Grundlegung zur LehrevomemehendenUnterricht; pp. 557,10*. 8 Leipzig [65] 84r In 2 parts L on relation of instruction to government and discipline ; ii. on the aim of instruction. Herbartian. Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Padagogik ; pp. 443 os. 6d. 8 Leipzig 76- In 3 parts L School government ; ii. Instruction, laws, methods ; iii. Discipline, character, culture. V. Generally. COMPAYRE, Prof. G. Notions elementaires de Psychologic Paris 87 FROHLICH, G. Die wissenschaftliche Padagogik in ihren Grundlagen ; pp. 164 Vienna 83; HASS. Die Psychologic als Grundwissenschaft der Padagogik Leipzig 85- HERBART, J. F. Briefe iib. d. Anwendung d. Psych, auf d. Padag. 8 Leipzig [ ] n.d, HOFFMANN, U. J. The Scienceof Mind applied to Teaching; ill. ; pp.400 #1.50. c8 A'erv York 85- MAAS, B. Psychologic in ihrer Anwendung a. d. Schulpraxis ; pp. 84 Breslau 85 PPISTERER, G. F. Padagogische Psychologie ; pp. 340 6s. 8 Gutersloh 80- An application of the ' newer psychology ' [post-Herbartian] to pedagogy. STUMPELL, L. Psychologische Padagogik [Herbartian] ; pp. 368 8 Leipzig 80- *SULLY, James. Outlines of Psychology ; with special reference to education ; 12*. Qd. 8 Longmans [84] 85 * -- - Teacher's Handbook of Psychology [on basis of above] . Gs.Gd. c8 Longmans 86- * WABD, Prof. James, article Psychology [generally] in Encyclo. Britannica \Stheditiun~] Children generally vide also The Kindergarten *BULOW, Baroness Marenholtz. The Child and Child Nature, tr. by Alice M. Christie 3s. c8 Sonnenschein [79] 87 N N 546 SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN Children generally cont. DUPANLOUP, Fel. A. P. The Child, tr. by Kate Anderson [Am.] ; pp. 300 #1.50. c8 Boston, 75 A Eoman Catholic view of child-nature, by a well-known prelate. *EGGER, Emile Observations et Reflexions sur le deVeloppement de 1'intel- ligence et du langage chez lesenfants ; pp. 102 2f. 50c. 8 Paris 81 GENZMER, A. Untersuchungen iiber die Sinneswahrnehmungen des neu- geborenen Menschen Halle 73 HERZOG (H.) + SCHILLER (K.) Das Kind: Anleitungen zurrationellenphysischen Erziehungsweise und Winke zur Entfaltung des Seelen- lebens der Kinder; pp. 144 5s. 8 Pesth 68 JOHNSON, J. Rudimentary Society among Boys in Johns Hopkins Univ. Historical Studies [repr. fr. Overland Mail, Oct. 83] 8 *KUSSMAUL, A. Untersuchungen iiber das Seelenleben des neugeborenen Menschen ; pp. 40 Is. 8 Leipzig 59 *PEREZ, Bernhard. The First Three Years of Childhood, tr. by Alice M. Christie 4s. Qd. c8 Sonnenschein 85 The most valuable general book on Infant Psychology ; well translated. L'Education des le Berceau : essai de pedagogie experi- mentale; pp. 302 5f 8 Paris 80 PLOSS, H. Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte, 2 vols. ; pp. 394, 478 [anthropoloer.] 12s. 8 Berlin 82 Das kleine Kind, vom Tragbett zum ersten Schritt ; pp. 120 [anthropological] Is. Qd. 8 Berlin 81 PREYER, W. Die Seele des Kindes, 2 vols. 8 [82] 86 The Senses and the Will, tr. H. W. Brown [part of above] 7s. 6d. 8 Nero York 88 Observations by a physiologist, chiefly on his own children : pt. i. development of the senses ; ii. of the will (impulsive, reflex, instructive, imitative, expressive, &c.) ; iii. of the understanding (especially language). SCHULTZE. F. Die Sprache des Kindes ; pp. 46 Is. 8 Leipzig 80 WARNER, Dr. Francis. The Children : how to study them [lectures] Is. Qd. 8 Hodgson 88 .Esthetics vide also VI. (5), s.v. Art, Drawing MEYER, B. Aus der asthetischen Padagogik; pp. 256 5s. Gd. 8 Berlin 73 Six lectures on language, literature, music, art, art industry, and pedag. practice. Apperception. LANGE, K. Ueber Apperception : eine psychologisch padagogische Monographic ; pp. 112 Is. Qd. 8 Plauen 79 Attention. OEHLER, 0. Die Aufmerksamkeit der Kinder beim Unterricht ; pp. 30 Qd. Leipzig 76 Class Teaching and Private Study. KRIER. Das Studium und die Privat-Lectiire ; pp. 291 8 Luxeiribwrg 85 SCHERFIG, F. E. Der psychische Wert des Einzel- und Classenunterrichts [sug- gestive] ; pp. 56 Is. 8 Leipzig 82 Concentration of Study. RICHTER, A. Die Concentration des Unterrichts in der Volksschule ; pp. 92 Is. 8 Leipzig 65 SCHNELL, F. Grundriss der Concentration und Centralisation des Unter- richts [Zillerian] ; pp. 160 Is. 6d. 8 Langensalza 60 Habit. RADESTOCK, Dr. Paul. Habit and its Importance in Education, tr. F. Caspar! [empirical] 65c. 08 Boston, U.S. 82 Imagination. *KLAIBER, J. Das Marchen und die kindliche Phantasie ; pp. 44 Is. 8 Stuttgart 66 LOHR. Ueber Pflege der Phantasie in der Volksschule Danzig 85 MARKEL, G. Die Einbildungskraft und ihre Bedeutung fur Unterricht und Erziehung ; pp. 34 2s. 8 Dobeln 78 Intercourse. EARTH, E. Ueber den Umgang; pp. 110 Is. 6d. 8 Langensalza [70] 82 Interest. WALSEMANN. Das Interesse : sein Wesen und seine Bedeutung fur den Unterricht Hanover 85 Memory. COLERIDGE, S. T. Method of Mnemonics 5s. c8 Griffin [49] GRANVILLE, Dr. J. Mortimer. Training of the Memory [Health Series] Is. 16 W. H. Allen 81 SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN METHODS 547 GREEN, F. W. E. Memory : its logical relations and cultivation 6*. c8 Bailliere 88 KAY, David Memory, and how to improve it 6*. 08 Paul 88 Order of Studies. HILL, Dr. T. [Am.] The True Order of Studies #1.25. 12 New York 82 Scholar, The. FICHTE, J. G. On the Nature of the Scholar, and its manifestation in his Popular Writings, tr. W. Smith, 2 vols. 21*. p8 Trubner [46-49] 88 Sex. CLARKE, Dr. [Am.] Sex in Education $1.25. 12 Boston Stimulus. SIDGWICK, A, On Stimulus, in Three Lectures on Education 2*. 12 Camb. Press 83 Temperament. DITTMAR, H. Temperament und Erziehung ; pp. 58 Emden . 85 Will. WIESE, Prof. L. Die Bildung des Willens ; pp. 87 1*. &d. 8 Berlin [57] 79 VI. "fteff)oos of fnst ruction, according to Subjects. For General Works vide II. passim. By far the best comprehensive work is Kehr's ' Geschichte der Methodik,' but it is limited to German Methods of Elementary Education. O) HOME, KINDERGARTEN, AND PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION: GENERAL WORKS. Vide, also V. : Children. For Special Subjects vide the next passim. Home Education v. also Peabody and Shirreff, infra *ABBOTT, Dr. E. A. Hints on Home Teaching 3*. c8Seeley [83] 83 BRAUN, Prof. Th. Le Livre des Meres 8 Brussels 63 KENNEDY, J. [Am.] The School and the Family : ethics of school relations ; pp. 205 l. 16o N&m Tork 7g KLENCKE, H. Die Mutter als Erzieherin ihrer Tochter u. Sohne Leipzig [ ] 72 MANN (Mary) + PEABODY (Eliz. P.) [Ams.] The Moral Culture of Infancy ; $1.25. Nero Tork [69] 74 MARTINEAU, Harriet. Household Education ; pp. 366 2s. Qd. 12 Smith & Elder [49] 7P MASON, Charlotte M. Home Education [A course of lectures to ladies] 3*. Qd. c8 Paul 87 MEYER, Bertha. Aids to Family Government : from the cradle to the school [tr. ; Froebelian] ; pp. 108 50c. f 8 New Tork 79 RENAN, Ernest. La Part de la Famille et de 1'Etat dans 1'Education 50c. 12 Paris 69 ROSEN, K. Die Kindererziehung, mit Riicksicht auf d. Charakterbildung ; pp. 181 85 SCHULTZ, F. Die hausliche Erziehung in Zusammenhang mit der Schule 6d. Schneinfurth 76 TAYLOR, Isaac. Home Education 5s. c8 Bell [38] 67 Kindergarten. Bibliography. WALTER, L. Die Frobel-Literatnr; pp. 198 3*. 8 Dresden 81 List of KG. books since 1838, classified both chronologically and by standpoint of writers. Theoretical, &c. *BULOW, Baroness Marenholtz. The Child and Child Nature, tr. Alice M. Christie 3*. c8 Sonnenschein [79] 87 . Hand -work and Head-work : their relation to one another, tr. A. M. Christie 3*. c8 Sonnenschein 83 *FROEBEL, FT. Gesammelte padagogische Schriften, hrsg. W. Lange, 3 vols. 8 Berlin 74 sqq. i. Autobiographic ; ii. Menschenerziehung ; iii. Padagogik des Kindergartens. Autobiog. of, tr. H. Keatley Moore + Emilie Michaeiis 3s. c8 Sonnensch. [86] 88 The Education of Man, tr. W. N. Hailman $1.50. 12 New Tork 87 Letters of, W. H. Keatley Moore + Emilie Michaeiis 3s. c8 Sonnenschein 89 *BULOW, Baroness Marenholtz. Reminiscences of Froebel,tr. Mrs. Horace Mann $1.50. c8 Boston 77 HANSCHMANN, A. B. Fr. Froebel : die Entwickelung s. Erziehungsidee in s. Leben ; pp. 480 4*. 8 Eisenach [74] 75 x x 2 548 METHODS: KINDERGARTEN SPECIAL SUBJECTS Kindergarten Theoretical cont. SHIEEBFF, Emily A. Froebel : a Sketch of his Life ; with his letters to his wife [tr.] 2s. 08 Chapman [77] 87 FEOEBEL SOCIETY. Essays on the Kindergarten delivered before the Froebel Society 3s. c8 Sonnenschein [80] 87 By Emily Shirreff, Anna Buckland, Mrs. Hoggan, H. Keatley Moore, Eleanor Heerwart, &c. PEABODY, Eliz. P. [Am.] The Home, the Kindergarten, and the School, with introd. by Eliz. A. Manning ; pp. 200 3s. c8 Sonnenschein 87 PESTALOZZI, J. H. vide IV. ( J) DE POETUGALL, Mme. Synoptical Table of the Kindergarten, on rollers', 2s. Qd. f Sonnenschein 79 SHIBEEFF, Emily. The Kindergarten : principles of Froebel's system, Is. kd. c8 Sonnenschein [76] 87 Home Education and the Kindergarten Is. Qd. 12 Chapman 84 The Kindergarten at Home 3s. Qd. c8 Hughes 84 Practical. GOLDAMMEE, H. The Kindergarten: a guide to Froebel's ystem, tr. W. Wright; 120 pp. of ill. 10s. 6d. 8 Berlin 82 HAILMAN, W. N. [Am.] Kindergarten Culture in the Family and Kindergarten ; pp. 120 [chiefly for mothers] 75c. 12 Cincinnati 73 JACOBS, J. F. Manuel pratique des Jardins d'Enfants ; plates sq 8 Brussels 80 *KOHLEE, A. Die Praxis des Kindergartens, 3 vols., 60 pi. 8 Weimar [70] 78 The same, tr. Mary Gurney, pt. i. [First Gifts] ; ill., 2s. Qd. 12 Myers 77 KEAUS-BOELTE (Maria) -f KEAUS (John) [Ams.] Kindergarten Guide; ill.; vol. i. [The Gifts] #2. 8 Nero YorTt 77-80 Pt. i. 1st and 2nd Gifts, pp. 20, 35c.; ii. 3rd to 6th Gifts, pp. 118, 70c.; iii. 7th Gift. pp. 93, 50c.; iv. 8th to 13th Gifts, pp. 215, 70c. *LYSOHINSKA, Mary. Principles of the Kindergarten ; ill. 4s. Qd. s4 Isbister [80] 86 *WIEBE, Prof. E. The Paradise of Childhood : a manual of instruction and practical guide to Kindergartners ; 74 pi., 10*. Qd. 4 Sonnenschein [ ] 88- Songs and Games. *BEEEY (Ada) + MiCHAELis (Em.) Kindergarten Songs and Games Is. Qd. c8 Myers [ } FEOEBEL, Friedrich. Mothers' Songs and Games, tr. Frances E. Lord ; 7s. Qd. 8 Rice [85] 88 HAILMAN, E. L. [Am.] Songs, Games, and Khymes for Kindergarten 2s. 12 Springfield, 88- HEEEWAET, Eleanor. Music for the Kindergarten 2s. Qd. 4 Boosey 77 HUBBAED, Clara B. [Am.] Merry Songs and Games [for Kindergartens] $3. 8 St. Louis 81 *MULLEY ( Jane) + TABEAM (M. E.) Songs and Games for our Little Ones Is. c8 Sonnenschein [81] 84 SINGLETON, J. E. Occupations and Occupation Games 3s. c8 Jarrold 85 Primary : General Works. *FOESTEB, Oswald. Das erste Schuljahr; pp. 276 2s. Qd. 8 Leipzig 82 GILL, J. The Art of Teaching Young Minds to Observe and Think; 2s. 12 Longmans 72 *KLAUEN, A. Das erste Schuljabr Leipzig 78- Object-lessons, speaking, drawing, writing, reading, memory, singing, counting. LAUEIE, Prof. S. S. Primary Instruction in relation to Education ; pp. 233 2s. Qd. 08 Stewart [73] 74 _ Education and Primary Instruction 3s. Qd. c8 Thin, Edin. 84 MALLESON, Mrs. Frank. Notes on the Early Training of Children [sound and practical] Is. c8 Sonnenschein [84] 86- QUICK, Rev. K. H. Thoughts and Suggestions about Teaching Children in his Essays 5s. 08 Author, Redhill [68] 85 KEIN (W.)+PiCKEL (A.) + SCHELLEE (E.) Das erste Schuljahr: theoretisch- praktischer Lehrgang; pp. 178 8 Eisenach n.d- Continued for the first six school years ; each in one volume, ea. Is. SCHINDLEE, L. Theoretisch-praktisches Handbuch fur den ersten Schul- unterricht, 2 vols. ; pp. 320, 336 ea. 5s. 8 Leipzig 76-77 WEBER, A. Die vier ersten Schuljahre in Verbindung mit e. Kindergarten ; pp. 70 1*. Gotha n.d. (J) SPECIAL SUBJECTS in one alphabet. Agriculture. RENAED, P. L'Agriculture dans les Ecoles ; pp 180 [vine culture] Paris 8 WEIGHTSON, Prof. J. Principles of Agriculture as an instructional subject 5s. 08 Chapman 88 METHODS : ARITHMETIC DEAF-MUTES 549 Arithmetic fide Number, infra Army, Education for the vide Military, infra Art : Generally vide also Drawing, infra CHESXAU, E. The Education of an Artist [tr.] ; ill. ; pp. 327 5*. cS Cassell 86 COUGNY, G. L'Enseignement professional des beaux-arts dans les Scoles de Paris 5f. 8 Paris 88 DAVIDSON, Thos. [Am.] The Place of Art in Education ; pp. 44 24c. 12 Boston 87 HEXXIG, G. A. Die asthetische Bildung in der Volksschule ; pp. 72 Is. 8 Leipzig 74 MEXGE, R. Der Kunstunterricht im Gymnasium Langensalza 80 Biology vide Science, Natural, infra Blind, The. ANAGOS, M. [Am.] Education of the Blind [historical sketch] Botton 82 BLAXCHET, A. Les Ecoles speciales pour les Aveugles et les institutenrs primaires Paris 59 BLANCHET, A. Traite pratique de 1'Education des Aveugles CAMPBELL, Dr. J. F. article Blind in Encyclop. Brit., 9th edit., vol. iii. 30*. 4 Black 76 DUFAU, P. A. Des Aveugles : leur etat physique, moral et intellectuel 7f. 50c. SParis [36] 50 ENTLICHER, F. Das blindeKind; pp. 72 [psychological] Is. 6d. 8 Vienna72 Blinden-Anstalten Deutschlands n. der Schweiz ; pp. 61 [report] Vienna 76 GALL, J. The Education of the Blind [chiefly of hist, interest now] o.p. 8 Edinburgh 37 GAUDET, J. De la premiere Education des Enfants Aveugles Pari* 58 HEBOLD, E. Das Blinde im elterlichen Hause und in der Volksschule Berlin 82 LEVY, W. Blindness and the Blind Is. 6d. c8 Chapman 72 Moox, W. System of Eeading for the Blind 5*. c8 Longmans 73 Sight for the Blind ; pp. 180 c8 Longmans 79 PABLASEK, M. Die Fiirsorge fiir die Blinden von der Wiege bis z. Grabe 3*. Vienna 67 SCHERER, F. Die Zukunft der Blinden Berlin 63 VIXCE. Education and Management of Blind Children 1*. 6d. 12 Simpkin 76 Laura Bridgman (Blind, Deaf, and Dumb) HOWE, G. S. [Am.] Reports on Laura Bridgman. Washington, v.y. *LAMSOX, [Mrs.] Mary S. [Am.] Life and Education of Laura Dewey Bridg- man $1.50. 12 Boston[l%] 81 Elizabeth Gilbert. MARTIN, Frances. Elizabeth Gilbert and her Work for the Blind 6*. c8 Macmillan 87 Botany vide Science, Natural, infra Chemistry vide Science, Natural, infra Oivil Service. America. COMSTOCK, J. M. [Am.] The Civil Service in the United States [w. exam. papers] ; pp. 620 2. 12 New York 85 JEngland. CATTON, J. Morris [C. S.] A B C of the English Civil Service at Home and Abroad 2s. c8 Sonnenschein 87 *CRAWLEY, W. J. C. Handbook of Competitive Examinations 2s. 6d. c8 Longman [80] 85 EWALD, A. C. Gui le to the Civil Service 3.?. 6d. c8 Warne [6-] 69 JOHNSON, R. Guide to the Civil Service 3*. 6d. c8 Longmans [71] 78 Deaf-Mutes. ARXOLD, T. Method of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb ; pp. 156 15*. 4 Smith & Elder 81 Beitrage zur Geschichte und Statistik d. Taubstummen-Bildungswesen [in Prussia] ; pp. 276 Berlin BELL, A. M. Visible Speech: the Science of Universal Alphabetics; pp. 158 15s. 4 Simpkin 67 BARTMANX, A. The Education of Deaf-Mutes c8 Bailliere 88 HILL, M. Der gegenwartige Zustand d. Taubstummen-Bildungswesen in Deutschland ; pp. 326 8 Weimar 86 Die neueslen Vorschlage zur Forderung d. Taubstummen- Bildungswesen ; pp. 148 2s. 8 Weimar 71 Report on the International Congress on the Education of KINREY A. A. th Deaf 5*. 8 W. H. Allen 80 550 METHODS: DEAF-MUTES GEOGRAPHY Deaf-Mutes cont. LARGE, A. article Deaf and Dumb in Encyclop. Brit., vol. vii. 30*. 4 Black 78 OEHLWEIN, C. Die naturliche Zeichensprache der Taubstummen ; pp. 44 Is. Weimar 67 v. PRAAGH, W. Lessons for Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Children pt. i. 2s. 6d., ii. 1*. 6d. 12 Triibner 84 SCHOLTLE, U. K. Lehrbuch der Taubstummen-Bildung ; pp. 372 Esslingen 74 SCOTT, Dr. W. R. The Deaf and Dumb: their Education and Social Position :7s.6d. 8 Bell [ ] 70 SEISS, Dr. J. A. [Am.] Children of Silence [pop. ace. of deaf, w. methods of educ.] $1. 12 Philadelphia 88 Laura Bridgman v. Blind, supra Drawing vide also Art, supra CONZ, G. Der Zeichenunterricht an der hoheren Mildchenschule Is. 8 Stuttgart 77 DREESEN, G. Wegweiser fiir den Zeichenunterricht in der Volksschule 2s. Flensburg 77 FLINZER, F. Lehrbuch des Zeichenunterrichts ; pp. 211 [theoret. & pract.] 6s. Leipzig [76] 82 LE MANG, G. Das Volksschulzeichen im Dienste der Padagogik Is. 6d. 8 Leipzig 77 MOODY, F. W. Lectures and Lessons on Art [with diagrams] 3s. 6d. c8 Bell [173] 80 PERRY, W. S. [Am.] Teaching of Drawing in Public Schools ; ditto in Grammar Schools Boston REIN, W. Das Freibandzeichnen im Seminar [Padag. Studien] Is. 8 Vienna 78 SPARKES, J. C. L. Schools of Art : origin, history, work, influence ; pp. 152 [Health Exhib. Report] Is. 8 Clowes 84 V. STADEN, J. Der erste Unterricht im Zeichnen 4s. 8 Hanover [76] 80 STUHLMANN, Dr. A. Leitfaden f. d. Zeichenunter. in d. preuss. Volksschulen Berlin 88 i. 1*., Atlas 16*. ; ii. 1*. 6 PULLING, Prof. F. S. The Teaching of Geography and History 82 *RICHTER, J. W. 0. Ber geograph. Unterricht ; pp. 50 [esp. in higher schools] 1*. 8 Vienna 11 SONNENSCHEIN, A. [ed.] Regulations for Teaching Geography in the Prussian Cadet Corps in his Foreign Codes, v. III. TRAMPLER, R. Die constructive Methode des geograph. Unterrichts ; pp. 82 1*. &d. 8 Vienna 78 WENZ, G. Das Kartenzeichnen in der Schule [systematic] 2*. 8 Munich 78 German Language: Generally ride also Elocution, Essays, Reading ENGELIEN, A. Geschichte des deutsch-sprachlichen Unterrichtes, vol. iii. pp. 50-87 of Kehr's Methodik, supra *KEHR, C. Derdeutsche Sprachunterricht im ersteii Schuljahre ; pp. 211 3*. 8 Gotha [82} Historical and theoretical. KELLNER, L. Praktischer Lehrgang fur den deutschen Sprachunterricht, 2 pts. 4*. 6d. Altenburg [ ] 75 LAAS, E. Der deutsche Unterricht auf hoheren Lehranstalten 5*. 8 Berlin 72 RICHTER, Albert. Der Unterricht in der Muttersprache ; pp. 144 1*. 6d. 8 Leipzig 72 Gymnasia: German vide also Realschule BARNARD, H. [ed. ; Am.] Classical Gymnasia in his National Education in Europe 12*. m8 Hartford 70 FRICK (0.) + RICHTER (G.) Lehrproben u. Lehrgange d. Gymn. u. Realsch. ; 7 pts. 8 Halle 84-86 HIRZEL, C. Vorlesungen iiber Gymnasial-Padagogik 5s. 8 Tubingen 76 LORENZ, O. Ueber Gymnasialwesen, Padagogik tmd Fachbildung 2s. 8 Vienna 79 v. NAGELSBACH, C. F. Gymnasial-Padagogik, ed. G. Autenrieth 2s. Qd. 8 Erlangen [ ] 79 PIDERIT, A. Zur Gymnasial- Padagogik [47 lectures] ; pp. 438 5s. 8 Giitersloh 77 RAPPOLD, J. Unser Gymnasium: Erwagungen und Vorschlage 2*. 6d. 8 Vienna 81 ROTH, K. L. Gymnasial-Padagogik ; pp. 472 6s. 8 Stuttgart [65] 74 *SCHRADER, W. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fur Gymnasien und Realschulen ; pp. 590 10*. Qd. 8 Berlin [68] 82 The fullest and best general work. L Introduction ; fl. General Theory of Education ; iii. Special Branches. SCHWARTZ, W. Der Organismus der Gymnasien 4s. 8 Berlin 76 Gymnastics and Physical Education generally. ALEXANDER, A. Healthful Exercises for Girls ; ill. 2*. 6d. c8 Philip 85 ARNIM, Anna Leffler. Health Maps : prescribed exercises, 5 parts, ea. w. 12 full-length figures ea. 5s., or 21s. the set Sonnenschein 17 i. General Exercises ; II. For the Liver and Spleen ; iii. For Weak Lungs ; IT. For Imperfect Digestion ; v. For Bad Circulation. BRENDICKE, H. 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Press [66] 74 552 METHODS: GYMNASTICS LANGUAGES, ANCIENT Gymnastics and Physical Education generally cont. PURITZ. Code-Book of Gjonnastic Exercises London 83 EOTH, Dr. M. Gymnastic Exerc. without Apparatus ; ill. [Ling's syst.], 1*. 8 Myers [64] 87 On Neglect of Physical Education and Hygiene 2s. c8 Balliere 89 WALKER, Donald. Manly Exercises ; pp. 264 [rather antiquated] 5*. c8 Bohn's Lib. [34] 78 WATSON, J. M. [Am.] Handbook of Calisthenics and Gymnastics $2. c8 New York [6-] 79 History. ACTON, Lord. Article German Schools of History, in English Historical Review, part 1 5s. 8 Longmans 86 ADAMS, Prof. H. B. [Am.] Methods of Historical Study, in Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies, ser. ii. The Study of History in the United States [Govt. Report] Washington 87 Prof. C. K. [Am.] in Ms Manl. of Hist. Liter, are suggestions as to metJiods and courses $2.50. s8 New York 82 BLUMB, E. Geschichtsunterricht auf den Seminarien [Rein's Studien] DIESTERWEG, F. A. W. Instruction in History [tr. from his Wegweiser] JBoston 85 *DROYSEN, J. G. Grundriss der Historik 2s. 8 Leipzig [68] 75 EBERHARDT, K. Zur Methode u. Technik des Geschichtsunterricht Is. 8 Eisenach 74 FREDERICQ, Prof. P. Study of History in England and Scotland [tr.] Is. 6d. 8 Baltimore 88 FREEMAN, Prof. E. A. The Unity of History, appended to Ms Comparative Politics o.p. \pub. 14s.] 8 Macmillan 73 * Methods of Historical Study [Oxf. lects. 85-86] ; 10s. Qd. 8 Macmillan 86 Article On the Study of History in Fortnightly Review, May 81 2s. Qd. 8 Chapman 81 FROUDE, J. A. Arts. Science of Hist, and Scient. Meth. appl. to Hist., in Ms Short Studies, vols. i. ii. ea. 6s. c8 Longmans [67] 82 *HALL, Prof. G. S. [Am. ; ed.] Methods of Teaching and Studying Hist. $1.30. 12 Boston [83] 85 Articles by Dr. A. B. Hart (Amer. Hist.), Prof. E. Emerton (Higher Hist. Instruction), Dr. R. T. Ely (Pol. Econ.), Pres. A. D. White (Course of Hist, and Pol. Science), J. T. Clarke (Plea for Archseol. Instruction), Prof. H. B. Adams (Special Methods), Prof. G. S. Morris (Philos. of State and of History), Prof. J.R. Seeley (Teaching of History repr. fr. Journ. of Educ. Nov. 84), Prof. C. K. Adams, Prof. J. W. Burgess, T. W. Higginson, Prof. W. F. Allen. &c. KRIEGER, F. Der Geschichtsunterricht in Volks- u. Biirgerschulen, &c. 2s. Niirnberg 76 MORISON, J. Cotter. Article History in Encyclop. Britann., ninth ed. vol. xii. 30s. 4 Black 81 *SEELEY, Prof. J. R. Article Teaching of History in Journ. of Educ., ut supra, s.v. Hall advocating the scientific and sociological in lieu of the chronological and purely literary method SMITH, Prof. Goldwin. Lectures on the Study of Hist. [Oxon. lects., 59, 61] ; 3s. %d. s8 Parker [61] 65 Idiots, Feeble-minded, &c. BRADY, C. The Training of Idiotic and Feeble-minded Children, o.p. 8 Dublin 64 DUNCAN, E. M. The Method of Drill and Gymnastics used for Idiots, &c.,o.p. London 61 DUNCAN + MiLLARD Manual for Classification, Training, and Education of Idiots, &c. o.p. London n.d. RAUBER, A. Homo sapiens ferus : Zustiinde der Verwilderten [biological] Leipzig 85 SCOTT, W. R. Remarks, theoretical and practical, on the Education of Idiots, &c. o.p. c8 London 47 SEQUIN, E. [Am.] Idiocy, and its Treatment by the Physiological Method ; pp. 457 [standard] 21s. 8 New York 86 SENGELMANN, H. Idiotophilus : systematisches Lehrbuch der Idioten-Heilpflege Norden 85 Languages: Ancient. ADAMS, Prof. C. F. [Am.] A College Fetch [Greek ; an address] ; pp. 71 25c. 8 Boston [83] 84 BURSIAN, C. Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland FECHNER, H. Gelehrsamkeit oder Bildung ? pp. 80 Is. 6d. 8 Breslau 79 FREUND, W. Wie studirt man Philologie ? [for students] ; pp. 158 Is. 6d. 8 Leipzig [ ] 80 GREENWOOD, Pro. J. G. On Study of Langs, of Greece and Rome [Owens Coll. Lects.] o.p. 8 London 52 HALE, Prof. W. G. [Am.] Aims and Methods of Classical Study 12 Boston HOFMANN, A. W. [Am.] Question of a Division of the Philosophical Faculty ; PP* 77 25c. Boston [83] 83 A Report, incorporating the opinions of many German professors. MULLER, L. Geschichte der klass. Philologie in den Niederlanden ; pp. 250 5s. 8 Leipzig 69 SCHMEDING, F. Die klassische Bildung in der Gegenwart ; pp. 204 Berlin 85 METHODS : LANGUAGES MORAL EDUCATION 553 TAYLOR, S. H. [Am.] The Method of Classical Study $1.25. 12 Boston 61 Classical Study [value ill. by selns. fr. wrtgs. of Scholars] ; pp. 381 ; $2. l2Andorer7Q A reply to Youman's ' Culture demanded by Modern Life.' Latin. ABBOTT, E. A. Latin Verse in Three Lects. on Teaching, by Eve + Sidg- wick + Abbott 2s. c8 Camb. Press 82 HALE, W. G. [Am.] The Art of Reading Latin: how to teach it 25c. s8 Boston 87 MORRIS, Prof. E. P. [Am.] The Study of Latin in the Preparatory. Course ; 25c. c8 Boston 87 THOMPSON, Darcy W. Day Dreams of a Schoolmaster [very suggestive] 5*. c8 Douglas, Edin. [64] 65 languages and Literature, Modern : Generally vide also English, French, German BIERBAUM, J. Die Reform des fremdsprachlichen Unterrichts ; pp. 136 Cassel 86 BREYMANN, Prof. H. Bearing of Study of Modern Languages on Education, o.p. 8 Manchester 71 Sprachwissenschaft und neuere Sprachen [a lecture] Is. 8 Munich 76 COLBECK, C. On Teaching Modern Languages : in theory and practice; 2s. 12 Camb. Press 87 COMFORT, G. F. [Am.] Modern Languages in Education Syracme 86 Gouix, F. L'Art d'enseigner et d'etudier des Langues ; pp. 589 12 Paris 86 KORTING, G. Gedanken iiber das Studiumder neueren Sprachen; pp. 841s. 6d. Heilbronn 82 REINHARTSTOTTNER. Gedanken iiber das Studium der modernen Sprachen Munich 82 legal Education. BALL, W. W. Rouse. The Student's Guide to the Bar. 2s. 6d. c8 Macmillan [78] 88 MUNRO, J. E. C. The Study of Law in Greece, Rome, and England ; pp. 29 Manchester 82 NAPIER (T. B ) + STEVENSON (R. N.) A Practical Guide to the Bar 2s. 6d. c8 Cox 88 Libraries, School. vide Reading, infra Mathematics ride also Number, infra SAFFORD, Dr. T. H. [Am.] Mathematical Teaching and its Modern Methods; 25c. c8 Boston 87 WHEWELL, Dr. W. Thoughts on the Study of Mathematics as part of a Liberal Education [1835] in his Discussions on Philosophy \VITTSTEIN, J. Die Methode des mathematischen Unterrichts Hanover 79 Hedical Education. ULENKIXSOP, W.H. Student's Handbook of Medical Education ; pp. 800 8 Cambridge 81 HARDWICKE,H.J. Medical Education and Practice in all Parts of the World ; 10y. 8 Churchill 82 HELMHOLTZ, Prof. H. On Thoughts in Medicine in his Popular Scient. Lectures [tr.] Longmans 81 HUXLEY, Prof. T. H. Connection of Biological Sciences with Medicine in his Science and Culture 10*. 6d. 8 Macmillan 82 On Medical Education in his Critiques and Addresses 10*. 6d. 8 Macmillan 73 KEETLEY, C. B. Student's Guide to the Medical Profession 2s. 6d. c8 Macmillan 78 WOOTON, E. A Guide to the Medical Profession 2s. 6d. c8 Upcott Gill 83 Military Education. EARNARD, H. [ed. ; Am.] Military Schools and Courses of Instruction in France, Germany, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, &c. ; pp. 400 $3.75 8 Hartford 62 How we Educate our Officers 2*. 6d. c8 W. H. Allen 84 Heport of Director-General of Milit. Educ. on Army Schls. and Libraries [Blue-bk.] f Eyre & Sp. 77 Mineralogy vide Science, Natural, infra Moral Education v. also Home Education, supra ; and Self-Culture, infra ABBOTT, J. [Am.] The Teacher : moral influences employed, &c. ; pp. 293 $1.75 Nem York BRYANT, Dr. Sophie in her Educational Ends : ideal of personal development 6*. c8 Longmans 87 BUCHANAN, J. R. [Am.] Moral Education : its laws and methods; pp. 396, $1.50 12 New York [82] 83 *GRUBE, A. W. Sittliche Bildung der Jugend [first 10 years] ; pp. 344 Leipzig 85 LESSING, G. E. Education of the Human Race, tr. Rev. F. W. Robertson 2s. 6d. f 8 Paul [72] 83 Practical Notes on Moral Training [Roman Catholic] 2s. Gd. c8 Burns & Gates QUICK, Rev. R. H. Remarks about Moral and Religious Education in Essays 5s. c8 Author, Redhill [68] 85 STOW, David. Moral Training and the Training System in Glasgow ; pp. 408 o.p. * Longmans 41 554 METHODS : MUSIC HEADING Music and Singing. RANDT, M. G. W. Die erziehliche Bedeutung des Gesanges [a lecture} 6d. 8* llanover 75 CURWEN, John. Teacher's Manual of the Tonic Sol-fa Method ; pp. 392 5*. 4 Curwen [75] 87 DEATH, T. Der Gesanglehrer und seine Methode 2s. 8 Berlin [65] 75 HELM, J. Die Entwickelung des Gesangunterrichts, vol. ii., pp. 204 sqq. ; of. Kehr's Methodik HENNES, A. Die Musik und die musikalische Erziehung 1*. 8 Berlin 78 HULLAH, John. Time and Tune in the Elementary School ; pp. 188, 2g. 6d. 12 Longmans 74 NERRLICH, C. G. Die Gesangkunst [aesthetically and pedagogically] Leipzig 65 PRENTICE, Ridley. The Musician: a guide to pianoforte students; 6 Grades, each 2s. 16 Sonnenschein 83-86 *RIEMANN, H. Musikalische Logik [physiologically and psychologically] Leipzig 75 SERING, F. W. Die Kunst des Gesanges in der Elementarschule, &c. 3s. 8 Leipzig 79 Eationelle Behandlung des Gesangunterrichts Is. Gd. Leipzig 80 *STEINITZER, M. Ueber die psyehologischen Wirkungen der musikalischen Formen ; pp. 130 Munich WIDMANN, B. Die Methode des Schul- und Chorgesangunterrichts 2s. 8 Leipzig 78 Number vide also Mathematics, supra BOHME, A. Anleitung zum Unterricht in Rechnen ; pp. 387 [elaborate] 45. SBerlin [ ] 77 BUTTNER, A. Der Rechenunterricht in der Elementarschule 8 Stolp [ ~| 71 Anleitung zum Unterricht in der Volksschule Leipzig [ ] 78 DIESTERWEG + HEUSER. Handb. f. d. Gesammtunterricht in den Rechnen; 2 v. ea. 4s. Giitersloh ] 66 GOPFERT, E. *GRUBE, A. W. SEELEY, Levi SOLDAN, Lewis JANICKE, E. Der Rechenunterricht in den drei ersten Schuljahren Is. 8* Eisenach 77 Leitfaden fur das Rechnen in der Elementarschule; pp. 2s. 8 Berlin [ ] 82 $1. 12 New York 88 in 30c. 8 Chicago 78 Is. 8 Gotlia 80 138 [' heuristic ' method] [Am.] Grube's Method explained and illustrated [Am.] Grube's Method: 2 essays on elem. instr. mathem. ; pp. 44 Der Rechenunterricht in der Volksschule Geschichte des Rechenunterrichts, vol. i. pp. 780 sqq. o/Kehr's Methodik, supra SCHMIDT, W. Der Rechenunterricht in der Volksschule 4s. 6d. 8 Wittenberg [70] 76 SONNENSCHEIN, A. Number Pictures : 14 col. sheets, with pamphlet ; on rollers 7s. 6d., on boards 16s. f Sonnenschein [77] 87 *ViLLicus, F. Zur Geschichte der Rechenkunst; 25 ill. and 2 tables; pp.100 Vienna 83 Describing the number-signs and systems of the ancients, and the various kinds of apparatus used for teaching. Object Lessons. BARNARD, H. [ed. ; Am.] Object Teaching and Oral Lessons ; pp. 434 12s. m8 Hartford 80 CALKINS, Norman A. [Am.] Manual of Object Teaching, with illustr. lessons $1.25. 12 JVew York 82 DussiNG, G. Der Anschauungsunterricht von Comenius bis zur Gegen- wart ; pp. 152 [historical] Franlteriberg 85 FUHR ( J. H.) 4- ORTMANN(J. H.) Der Anschauungsunterricht in der Volksschule Ss.Dilletiburg [65] 76 HEINEMANN, L. Handb. f .d. Anschauungsunterricht u.d. Heimatskunde ; 4s. 6d. 8 Brunswick 75 MORRISON, T. Object Lessons and how to teach them Is. 6d. 12 Collins 87 RICHTER, K. Der Anschauungsunterricht in den Elementarclassen ; pp. 214 [prize essay] 3s. 8 Leipzig [ ] 75 RICKS, G. Object Lessons, and how to give them ; 2 series, each 3s. 6d. p8 Isbister [85] 87 Natural History Object Lessons : a manual for teachers, 4s. $d. 08 Isbister 88 ROOFER, W. + H. A Manual of Object Lessons ; ill. 3s. 6d. 08 Sonnenscheiu [83] 87 SCHMIDT, P. V. Die Geschichte des Anschauungsunterrichts, vol. ii. pp. 254-327 of Kehrs Methodik, supra TREUGE, J. Der Anschauungsunterricht [theoretical and practical] Is. Gd. 8 Miinster 79 WRAGE, C. Denzel's Entwurf des Anschauungsunterricht 6s. 8 Altona [ J 79-80 Physiology vide Science, Natural, infra Ragged School Education v. Reformatory, infra Reading : Primary. -for Spelling Reform v. infra. *B6HME, A. Anleitung zum Leseunterricht Is. 6d. 8 Berlin [72] 82 BUTTNER, A. Der erste Schreib- u. Leseunterricht in Elem. Schulen Is. 8 Berlin [6-] 76 *FECHNER, H. Die Methoden des ersten Leseunterrichts : pp. 304 6s. Gd. 8 Berlin [ ] 82 /Historical. Based on a study of originals, with facss. of old primer pages, pictures of reading-machines, &c. METHODS : READING REFORMATORY GOLTZSCH, E. T. Amveisnng z. Lese- u. Schreibnnterricht 1*. 8 Berlin [ ] 71 HALL, Prof. G. S. [Am.] How to Teach Beading and What to Read in Schools ; 25c. c8 Boston 8Z JACOBI, F. Der Lese-Unterricht [historical and systematic] Nurriberg 51 JUTTING, W. Kritische Geschichte des ersten Leseunterrichts Leipzig 72 *SCHAFER, F. Ueber die wichtigsten der heute herrschenden Leselehrmethoden. Is. Frank/. 7fr Heading: Higher. HER70G, D. G. Stoff zu stilistischen Uebungen in der Muttersprache 3*. 8 Brunswick [ ] 79- KEHB, C. Theoret.-prakt. Anweisung z. Behandlung deut. Lesestiicke. 4*. SGfotha [ ] 78- *LAAS, E. Der deutsche Unterricht auf hoheren Lehranstalten 5s. 8 Berlin 72 LANGE, O. Das deutsche Lesebuch als Mittepunkt der Lehrstoffe und Lehrkunst LEGOUVE, Ernest. L'Art de la Lecture 12 Paris MULLER, J. Die Auswahl des Lesebuchstoffes 6d. 8 Plauen 78- RUDOLPH, L. Prakt. Handb. fur d. Unterr. in deutschen Stilubungen.il*. 8 Berlin [59-61] 82 Choice of Books for Schools, and Use of Libraries ADAMS, H. B. [Am.] Seminary Libraries and University Extension 1*. 6d. 8 Baltimore 88 ; BOWEN, H. C. Historical Novels 1*. 6d. 8 Stanford 82: FISHEB, K. [Am.] The Proper Use of School Libraries ; pp. 12 Sacramento 81 GREEN, S. S. [Am.] Libraries and Schools ; pp. 126 50c. 16 New York 83- HALL, Prof. G. Stanley [Am.] School Reading : how and what ? 25c. 08 Boston 87 HEWINS, C. M. [Am.] Books for the Young : a guide for parents and children 25c. 32 Nero York 82' Journal of Education for 1886 contains a list of 100 best children's books ; 4 Rice 86- SOUTHWOBTH, Prof . G. C. S. [Am ] Six Lectures introductory to Study of English Literature Cambridge, U.S. 88- WINSOR (J.) + ROBINSON (0. H.) [Ams.] College Libraries as Aids to Instruction Realschule v. also Gymnasia, and Languages, Ancient, supra KRAMER. Historischer Blick auf den Realschulen Deutschlands Hamburg 70* KREISSIG. Realismus und Realschulwesen Berlin 72 KRIESS, G. F. Das Realschulwesen nach seiner Bedeutung und Entwickelung. Stuttgart 63- LAAS, E. Gymnasium und Realschule : alte Fragen . . . historisch beleuchtet ; pp. 96 [Zeit- u. Streitfragen] 1*. 8 Berlin 75- ROLLESTON, Prof. G. Relative Value of Classical and Scient. Training in his Scientific Papers, voL ii. pp. 716-22, 2 vols. 24*. 8 Clar. Press 84 STBACK, N. Das Schulwesen Italiens, besonders die Realschulen ; pp. 80. 2s. 8 Leipzig 78- WALSEB, E. Entwickelung des Realschulwesens 1*. 8 Vienna IT Reformatory and Bagged School Education, and Educational Work among the Poor. BABNABD, H. [Am. ; ed.] Reformatory Education [of Eur. and U.S. : miscel- laneous papers by various writers] ; pp. 361 Is. Qd. 8 Hartford 57" FRY, ELIZABETH PITMAN, [Mrs.] Emma R. Elizabeth Fry [Eminent Women Series] 3*. 6d. 8 Allen 84 CARPENTER, Mrxry. Reformatory Schools, o.p.; Juvenile Delinquents o.p. 8 Gilpin 51, 53- Reformatory Prison Discipline as devel. by Sir W. Crofton [Irish Prisons] ; pp. 143 2*. 6d. 12 Longmans 79- CABPENTER, Rev. J. E. The Life and Work of Mary Carpenter ; port., 6s. c8 .Macmillan [79] 82: * DOBA, Sister ' = Dorothy Wyndlow Pattison [sister of Rev. Mark Pattison] LONSDALE, Margaret. The Life of Sister Dora ; portrait 2s. Qd. c8 Paul [80] 8 & HILL, Florence. Children of the State [Engl. and Irish systems of training pauper children] 5*. 12 Macmillan 68 HILL, Octavia. Homes of the London Poor 3*. 6d. 12 Macmillan 75 JONES, Agnes Elizabeth HIGINBOTHAM, Josephine M. Una and her Paupers, with intro. by Flor. Nightingale 71 Memorials of Agnes Elizabeth Jones. By her Sister ; portrait 3*. 6d. s8 Nisbet [72] 81 PEIBCE, B. K. [Am.] A Half -Century with Juvenile Delinquents [N.Y. House of Refuge] Nen York 69 'PEARL FISHEB.' Harvest of the City and Workers of To-day 3s. 6d. c8 J. F. Shaw 84 PIKE, G. H. Pity the Perishing [Ragged School wk. at sever, centres] 3s. 6d. 8 Clarke 83- Saving to the Uttermost [wk. in St. Giles' and among thieves] 2s. 6d. c8 Hodder 85 556 METHODS : REFORMATORY MINERALOGY Reformatory and Bagged School Education and Educational Work among the Poor cont. FOUNDS, John. Recollections of. By H. Hawkes. 4s. 6d. c8 Williams 84 Reports on Reformatory and Industrial Schls. [Blue-bks.] f Eyre & Sp. 78, 83, 85 VAUX, R. [Am.] Short Talks on Crime- Cause and Convict Punishment Philadelphia 82 "WINES, E. C. [Am.] The State of Prisons and Child-saving Institutions in the Civilised World; pp. 720 25s. 8 Cambridge, U.S. 80 Religious Education vide also Moral, supra, and Sermons, infra ABUOTT, E. A. in Hints on Home Teaching is an admirable diopter ?>s. c8 Seeley [83] 83 ARNOLD, Matthew. The Great Prophecy of Israel's Restoration : Isaiah, chaps. xl.-lxvi. [for school use] ; pp. 65 5s. c8 Macmillan 75 DEHRENDS, A. J. F. [Am.] What Place, if any, is Religion entitled to in Public Education ? pp. 28 Boston 82 DIEKMANN, C. Der biblische Geschichtsunterricht in der Volksschule Is. 8 Leipzig 78 FROTHINGHAM, 0. B. [Am. Unit.] Child's Book of Religion [suggestive] ; $\. 16 Nem York [66] 76 XEHR. Die christliche Religionsunterricht in der Oberclasse, 2 vols., ea. 3s. 8 Got ha 70 KIRCHNER, F. Zur Reform des Religion s-Unterrichts [Zeit- und Streitfragen] Is. Berlin 77 MANITIUS, H. A. Ueber religiose Bildung im Vaterhause [with bibliography] Halle 70 MEHL, H. Gedanken fiber die sittlich-religiose Bildung Gd. 8 Vienna 79 SALZMANN. Die wirksamsten Mittel Kindern Religion beizubringen ; pp. 200 Is. 8 Berlin 70 WANGEMANN, L. Handreichung beim Unterrichte der Kleinen in der Gottes- erkenntniss ; pp. 336 8 Leipzig 82 WIEDEMANN, F. VVie ich meinen Kleinen die biblische Geschichte erziihlte ; Is. Gd. Dresden, 81 Sciences, Natural. Generally. ;DU Bois REYMOND, E. Culturgeschichte und Naturwissenschaft ; pp. 60 2s. 8 Leipzig 78 [78] HARRIS, W. T. [Am.] How to teach Natural Science in Public Schools 15c. 16 Syracuse [71] 87 HUXLEY, Prof. T. H. in his Science and Culture ; and his Lay Sermons v. IV. () LOEW, E. Stellung der Schule zur Naturwissenschaft ; pp. 58 Is. 8 Berlin 74 MUHLBERG-, F. Natural Science in Secondary Schools [Govt. pub.] Washington 82 .Report of the Committee on Science Teaching of Amer. Assoc. for Adv. of Sc. 80 Report of the Royal Commission on Scientilic Instruction. 1870 sqq. f Eyre and Spottiswoode WILSON, Rev. J. M. On Teaching Natural Science in Schools TOUMANS, Eliza L. -[Am.] Culture demanded by Modern Life : the claims of scientific education $2. 12 New Tnrh 67 Biology. JBURGJESS, E. S. [Am.] Syllabus of Courses in Botany and Zoology [at Washing- ton High School] Washington 84 HAECKEL, Prof. E. Freedom in Science and Teaching [his reply to Virchow, infra] 5s. 8 Paul 79 ROLLESTON, Prof. G. Biological Training and Studies in Ms Scientific Papers, vol. ii. pp. 846-879; 2 vols. 245. 8 Clar. Press 84 VIRCHOW, Prof. R. Freedom of Science in the Modern State 2s. f 8 Murray 78 A protest against the teaching of Evolution in lower-grade schools. Replied to by Haeckel, ut supra. Botany vide also Biology, supra, BEAL, W. J. [Am.] The New Botany : a lecture on teaching Lansing 82 HENFREY, Prof. A. The Study of Botany in Youmans' ' Culture demanded by Modern Life,' ut supra LOEW, E. Der botanische Unterricht an hoheren Lehranstalten, 3 pts. 5s. Bielefeld 75-76 LiiBEN, A. Methodischer Unterricht in der Pflanzenkunde 95. 8 Halle [ ] 79 * YOUMANS, Eliza [Am.] First Book of Botany, designed to cultivate the Observ- ing Powers in Children ; ill. 2*. Gd. c8 Paul [81] 82 Chemistry. ARENDT, R. Ueber den Unterricht in der Chemie Is. 8 Leipzig 68 CLARKE, F. W. [Am.] Report on the Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in U.S. [Govt. pub.] Washington 81 ERDMANN, 0. L. Ueber das Studium der Chemie Is. 8 Leipzig FRANKLAND, E. How to Teach Chemistry; ill. [6 lectures, 1872] 3s. Gd. c8 Churchill 75 REMSEN [Am.] Organic Chemistry [of value f. methods of teaching] 12 Philadelphia 85 Mineralogy. OROTH, Prof. P. Ueber das Studium der Mineralogie auf Hochschulen Is. 8 METHODS: PHYSIOLOGY SINGING 557 Physiology and Anatomy. DU Bois REYMOND, E. Der physio! ogische Unterricht sonst und jetzt; pp. 32 Is. 8 Berlin 78 HUXLEY, Prof. T. H. Elementary Instruction in Physiology in his Science and Culture " 10*. (id. 8 Macmillan 82 MANX, Horace [Am.] On the Study of Physiology in Schools ; pp. 152, 25c. 24 Syracuse [69] 72: PFLUGER, E. Wesen und Aufgaben der Physiologic ; pp. 36 6d. 8 Bonn 7& WALDEYER. Wie soil man Anatomie lehren und lernen ? pp. 41 Is. 8 Berlin 84 Physics. GRUGER, J. Die Physik in der Volksschule Leipzig 76: NETOLICZKA, E. Methodik des physikalischen Unterrichts; pp. 181 2s. 8 Vienna 79 TYXDALL, Prof. J. Importance of the Study of Physics [Roy. Inst. Lectures] 85- Zoology vide Biology, supra Self- Culture. BEARD, Rev. J. R. [Unit.] Self-Culture : what, how, and when to learn ; 3*. Gd. c8 Manes. [60] 75: *BLACKIE, Prof. J. S. On Self-Culture, intellectual, physical, and moral ; 2*. 6d. 12 Douglas, JEdin. [73] 86 *ORYANT, Dr. Sophie. Educational Ends: the ideal of personal development 6s. c8 Longmans 87" *CLARKE. Dr. J. Freeman [Am. Unit.] Self-Culture: physical, intellectual, and moral $1.50. 12 Boston [80] 86 FOSTER, John. Essay on the Improvement of Time 3*. 6d. c8 Bohn's Lib. [ ] 52 HAMERTON, P. G. The Intellectual Life 10s. Qd. c8 Macmillan 73. HIME, M. C. Self -Education : relation of the teacher and the taught c8 London 81 HOOD, Rev. E. Paxton [Cong.] Self -Formation 2s. 6d. 12 Clarke [5-] 83, LUBEN, A. Anweisung z. e. meth. Unterr. i. d. Thierkunde 4*. 6d. 8 Leipzig [ ] 79- SAMSON, Dr. G. W. [Am. Bapt.] A Guide to Self-Education 86. WATTS, Dr. Isaac. The Improvement of the Mind [still well worth reading] ; 3s. Qd. 12 Edinburgh, [1741] 63. Sermons for Schoolboys. ARNOLD, Dr. Thos. Sermons [preached at Rugby] ; 3 ser., ea. 3*. 6d. c8 Reeves & Turner [45 &c.] 77 ' BENSON, Abp. E. W. Sermons preached in Wellington College Chapel o.p. 8 London 5? Boy Life : its trials, its strength, its fulness [Wellington Coll. Sermons] 7* Gd. c8 Macmillan 74 BUTLER, Dn. H. M. Sermons preached at Harrow ; 2 vols., ea. 7s. 6d. c8 Macmillan 61-69 FARRAR, Archd. F. W. 'In the days of thy Youth ' [Marlbro' Sermons]; 9s. c8 Macmillan [76] 77" Harvard Vespers [addresses to students by preachers, 1886-88] 5s. 16 Boston 88 JAMES, H. A. School Ideal [Rossall School Sermons] 6s. c8 Macmillan 87 THRING, Rev. Edw. Sermons at Uppingham School ; 2 vols. 12s. c8 Bell 8G. VAUGHAN, Dn. C. J. Memorials of Harrow Sundays 10.*. Qd. c8 Macmillan [59] 85 WELLDON, Rev. J. E. C. Sermons preached to Harrow Boys [1885-86] 7s. 6d. c8 Rivington [87] 88 WICKHAM, Rev. E. C. Wellington College Sermons 6s. c8 Macmillan 87' Shorthand. Bibliography. ROCKWELL, J. E. [Am.] itt infra [limited to works in English ; pp. 122] *WESTBY-GIBSON, Dr. J. The Bibliography of Shorthand [of English language only] ; pp. 246 5s. 8 Pitman 87" History, &c. (Books on the various current systems are omitted here, as being too numerous) ANDERSON, Thos. History of Shorthand, with review of its present con- dition in Europe and America 12s. Gd. 8 W. H. Allen 82 [ed.] Shorthand Systems [a discussion by various experts] Is. c8 Upcott Gill n.d. (83) . LEVY, Matthias. The History of Shorthand Writing ; pp. 194 5s. 8 Triibner 62 PITMAN, Isaac. History of Shorthand [repr. fr. PJumetic Journal of 1884]. Pitman in prep. ROCKWELL, J. E. [Am.] Teaching, Practice, and Literature of Shorthand [Government pub.] 8 Washington [84] 85 On systems of shorthand in foreign countries, in U.S. ; bibliography of British and Amer. books, with chronolog. list of 483 writers and folding plate of 122 alphabets. UPHAM, W. P. [Am.] Brief History of the Art of Stenography $1. r8 Salem, Mass. 77' Singing vide Music, xupra ."558 METHODS: SPELLING REFORM TECHNICAL Spelling Reform. BELL, A. M. Faults of Speech : self -instructor and teacher's manual 2s. 6d. 18 Triibner 80 ELLIS, A. J. A Plea for Phonetic Spelling 8 1848 PITMAN, Isaac. A PJea for Spelling Keform [phonographic pt. of view] SWEET, Henry. Handbk. of Phonetics and Princ. of Spelling Reform 4s. Qd. f8 Clar. Press 77 Sunday School. History. BULLAED, Rev. Asa [Am.] Fifty Years with the Sabbath Schools [American] ; pp. 346 $1.75 12 Boston 76 CANDLER, Rev. W. A. [Am.] The History of Sunday Schools [American] ; pp. 150. 12 New York 80 DUNCAN, Rev. R. S. [Am. Bapt.] History of Sunday Schools [American] ; $1 12 Memphis 77 GRAY, Rev. Jas. C. The Sunday School World : encyclopaedia of facts and principles 4*. Qd. c8 Stock 71 BAIKES, Robert. A Biography, by Rev. E. Paxton Hood 8 80 VINCENT, Rev. J. H. [Am.] The American Sunday School 3*. Qd. c8 Sunday School Union 87 Principles and Practice. BEARD, Rev. F. [Am.] The Blackboard in the Sunday School: practical guide ; $1.50. 12 New York 77 CRAFTS, Rev. W. F. [Am.] Plain Uses of the Blackboard and Slate $1.25 12 New York 81 STEEL, Rev. Robert. The Christian Teacher in Sunday Schools ; pp. 247, Is. Gd. 12 Nelson 67 TRUMBULL, Rev. H. C. [Am.] Teaching and Teachers [Sunday School ; systematic] ; pp. 390 5*. c8 Hodder 86 The Sunday School [origin, mission, methods, &c.] 7s. 6d. 8 Philadelphia 88 TUCK, Rev. R. New Handbook of Sunday School Addresses ; pp. 276 83 VINCENT, Rev. J. H. [Am.] The Church School and its Officers 75c. 16 New York 72 Sunday School Institutes and Normal Classes ; 75c. 16 New York 72 Technical Education vide also Gymnasia, supra. For Architecture of Technical Schools v. VII. (c) BARNARD, H. [ed. ; Am.] Scientific Schools in France ; pp. 130 12s. m8 Hartford n. d. Scientific and Industrial Education in Europe [Government Report] ; pp. 784 1 2s. m8 Washington 70 JBARTLEY, G. C. T. Schools for the People ; plates ; pp. 582 [of no great value], 21s. m8 Bell 71 BRABAZON, Ld. [Earl of Meath]. Prosperity or Pauperism [ess. on phys. industr. andtechn. training] 5s. 08 Longmans 88 BULOW, Baroness Marenholtz. Hand-work and Head-work [chiefly in Kinder- garten ; tr.] 3s. c8 Sonnenschein 83 'CLARKE, J. E. 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