■:y:j:'k':-- Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN J /Z/e^a )i c/e>- cd^cu^'- a/, c^. ,y4 . THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES i/ ETYMOLOGICAL RESEARCHES WHEREIN NUMEROUS LANGUAGES APPARENTLY DISCORDANT HAVE THEIR AFFINITY TRACED, AND THEIR RESEMBLANCE SO MANIFESTED AS TO LEAD TO THE CONCLUSION THAT ALL LANGUAGES ARE RADICALLY ONE. THOSE CHIEFLY CONSIDERED AND COMPARED ARE ENGLISH, WELCH, GALIC, MANX, GOTHIC, DANISH, SWEDISH, M^SO-GOTHIC, PERSIAN, SLAVONIAN, LATIN, GREEK, HEBREW, CHALDEE, ARABIC, LAPONIC, ETHIOPIC, COPTIC, TURKISH, PERSIAN, SANSCRIT, AND THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. BY JOSEPH TOWNSEND, M.A., RECTOR OF PErrSEY, jriLTS; LATE OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE. AUTHOR OF "A JOURNEY THROUGH SPAIN," 2 VOLS.; AND "GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL RESEARCHES, DURING A PERIOD OF WORE THAN FIFTY YEARS IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND. IRELAND, S\V1TZERLAND, HOLLAND. FRANCE, FLANDERS AND SPAIN." bath: PRINTED BY GYE AND SON, MARKET PLACE; AND SOLD BY SAMUEL BAGSTER, No. 15, PATERNOSTER RO\V, LONDON. MDCCCXXIV. 3clf THE WORKS or THE REV. JOSEPH TOWNSEND. M. A., ARE I. TRAVELS THROUGH SPAIN, 2 Volumes, Quarto. Price £ 2 : 2 : boards. II. GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL RESEARCHES, during a jieriod of more than fifty years in England, Scotland, Ireland, Switzerland, Holland, France, Flanders, and Spain. One Volume, Quarto. Price £ 1:1:0, boards. III. ETYMOLOGICAL RESEARCHES; wherein numerous Languages apparently discordant, have their affinity traced, and their resemblance so manifested, as to lead to the conclusion that all Languages are radically one. Those chiefly considered and com- pared are, English, Welch, Galic, Manx, Gothic, Persian, Slavonian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, Laponic, Ethiopic, Coptic, Turkish, Persian, Sanscrit, and the Languages of India. One Volume, Quarto, £1:1:0, boards. *,• The two preceding Articles were published in 1613, under the title " The Character of Moses established for Veracity as an Historir.u, recording Events subsequeut to the Deluge." IV. SERMONS, on the Being of God, &c. One Volume, Octavo. 8s. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Language i Abbreviations • 25 Transpositions 29 Orthography • • 30 Investigation of Radicals 39 First Inhabitans of Britain 59 English Language 70 English and Greek SI Welch Language 153, 24S Galic ditto 172 Manx ditto 252 Gothic Languages- ■ • 238 Runic Characters 247 Bardic ditto 248 Pelasgian ditto 248 Danish Language •• 247, 353 Swedish ditto 26 1 Danish and Greek 266 Swedish and Greek 279 Maeso Gothic Language 26i Persian ditto. >-» 301 fAQS., Sanscrit Language ♦ 308 Russian ditto 331 Slavonian ditto 351 Latin ditto 363 Greek ditto 372 Greek and Hebrew, their Affinity 395 Laponic and Hebrew 401 Hebrew Language 407 Chaldee ditto 411 Arabic ditto ■' 415 Syriac ditto 417 Ethiopic ditto 420 Coptic ditto 422 Turkish ditto 423 Tower of Babel and Confusion of Tongues 424 Dispersion of Mankind 428 The Call of Abraham 431 Pastoral State 433 Population >> 435 The Deliverance of Israel from Egypt • • • • 435 THE CHARACTER OF MOSES, &c. ON LANGUAGES. JtJ-OSES informs us, that after the deluge and before the dispersion of mankind, the whole earth was of one language. This fact it will not be difficult, independently of revelation, to render probable. That men united in community should have one language, is perfectly agreeable to common observation. It might be sufficient therefore to demonstrate, that all mankind are descended from the same progeni- tors, and at a given period constituted one family. This, 1 trust, has been accomplished in a former volume, and, if so, from this it will follow, that they had one language. I shall here, however, take a different course, and by examining to a considerable extent the appa- rently discordant languages, which have prevailed in the world, shall trace their resemblance, and, should I be able to demonstrate, or even to make it probable, that all the languages, with which we are acquainted, VOL. II. B and consequently, by a well founded analogy, that all languages have an affinity and are radically one; the arguments adduced to prove, that the human race descended from the same progenitors, and at a distant period constituted one family, will be abundantly confirmed. In proceeding to this arduous undertaking the most skilful etymolo- gist must tremble; when he calls to mind the number of languages, which have been, or now continue to be spoken in the four quarters of the globe, and considers how little resemblance they retain to each other in meaning, orthography, and ^ound. Yet if we remark the influence of climate on the organs of speech, on the productions of the earth, both in the animal and regetable kingdoms, on the nature and number of our wants, with the means of supplying them; if we consider our occupations and pursuits, which differ, not only in the savage, but in the civilized stages of society, according as men subsist either by the fruits of the earth spontaneously produced, by hunting, by fishing, by flocks and herbs, by the plough, by arts and manufactures, or by all these united and combined with commerce ; if we make allowance for the effects of government and political economy on the thoughts and discussions of mankind, according as they either live without property and laws, or establish property and submit to laws; if we reflect on the difference in the vocabulary of those, who have religion compared with such nations as have none; if we pay attention to the variety of terms required to express ideas connected with these various conditions of mankind, and the accidents, which influence the choice of terms; we shall readily conceive, that a language, originally one, may have split into a multitude of forms, which preserve little re- semblance to each other, or even to the parent language, from which they all proceed. When a nation passes from civilized to savage life; the vocabulary gra- dually becomes contracted. But, when it emerges from this state; a necessity instantly arises of inventing a multiplicity of new expressions, suited to it's increasing wants, to it's progress in the arts and sciences, to it's customs, occupations and pursuits, to its religion, government and laws. But should a colony go forth, and, being separated either by alpine mountains, by wide and rapid rivers, or by the ocean, lose all connexion, all intercourse and communication with the parent state; and should this colony have been composed of fishermen, of hunters, of noniade hordes, or of the illiterate vulgar, who have few ideas beyond objects of the first necessity, and consequently few expressions; the change of language might be rapid, and, when, at a distant period, this little colony should have risen up into a nation ; it might be difficult to trace the affinity be- tween their language and that of the country, from which they originally came. Colonies again proceeding in like manner from this colony, might scarcely retain a vestige of resemblance in their expressions, either to their remote progenitors, or even to each other. Mr. Planta, in his interesting history of the Helvetic confederacy (vol. I. p. 13) shews clearly, what the want of communication effects in changing languages. For, speaking of Switzerland, he says, " In a country, like this, where every valley is the whole world to its inhabi- tants, the nearest neighbours are frequently such strangers to each other B 2 4 as to differ widely in many of their customs, and sensibly so in their dialects. Among the mountains of the Grisons, the Romance is spoken, but there are as many dialects of this as there are vallies and villages." The same has been noticed by all travellers in similar situations, throughout the globe, and wc universally observe, that the language of little and detached communities is less permanent, than that of a great nation, because among them capricious changes are quickly com- municated and readily adopted eiiher in pronunciation or in the intro- duction of new terms. Professor Pallas tells us, that Caucasus exhibits more than twenty-two dialects of eight or nine distinct and several lan- guages, and that Kamtschatka, whose population, when first discovered by the Russians, seemed to he but just commenced, contained nine dialects of three discordant lanouawes, more distinct and better charac- terized, with much less affinity, either among themselves, or when com- pared to the languages of Europe, than these have to the ancient Celtic. The same observation nearly is made by Charlevoix, respecting the Indians of New France, among whom he traces three mother tongues, and observes, that the dialects of each are as numerous as their villages. From what has been said, it will appear, that should three fami- lies, diverging from one point, spread themselves with their flocks over new settlements, in opposite directions, to such a distance as to have no subsequent communication either with the parent stock, or with each other; the language of their descendants would, in a few genera- tions, differ nmch from that of their progenitors. And in similar cir- cumstances, such divergencies from given points being frequently re- peated during a succession of some thousand years; should we attempt to investigate the affinity of these ancient languages; we should, from every point of divergency, have new analogies to trace, the discordancies would multiply, and before we could arrive at the first language, scarce a vestige of resemblance might remain. When detached communities, or wandering hordes are surrounded by other hordes, with whom they are incessantly engaged in war, and are cither subduing or subdued ; it cannot be expected that they should, for any length of time, preserve their language pure. In such circum- stances they must inevitably blend a multitude of languages together. In new colonies, such as I have above described, poverty of language leads to change ; because one single expression is obliged to represent many distinct ideas, which, in numerous instances, have but a remote analogy. A vivid imagination seizes the most faint resemblance, and compels the same term to serve for various purposes. A word thus used, if happily applied, gives dignity to language, rivets the attention, fixes itself in the memory, and, if universally approved, passes current as a classical expression. Poverty of language gave birth to metaphois, but their beauty recommends them to our use. Like our garments, they niay have originated either in regard to decency, or in weakness and in want: but they are now resorted to for ornament, and give grace to our discourse. These are the hieroglyphics of all nations, the elements of Symbolic writing, even among nations who have adopted the use of alphabetic characters. Thus in various languages heart is used for benevolent affections, a rocTc for security, a sword for war, a staff for support, light ^or pros- perity, darkness for adversity, a shadow for protection, a horn for strength, glory, courage, and sleep for death. All nature supplies the orator with metaphors. Thus the public speaker, the poet, and the clown, all equally contribute to change a language. With a view to grace, or to supply the deficiency of suitable expres- sions, other tropes are admitted in discourse. Thus a part is substituted for the whole, as in German Jlinte, in English fusil and firelock, are used for musket. The genus frequently becomes the species, and specific distinctions being overlooked, the term appropriate to one species is applied to others. Thus in Danish riste means to broil, and stege to roast. In Welch Ffordd means a road in general, whilst road is confined specially to the passage of a river. In England these expressions are reversed. Derw in W^elsh, like the corresponding term in Greek, means oak, but drewo and drebo in the Slavonian dialects mean tree in general, like pre7i in Welsh, which is allied to 't^p^vo; a term exclusively confined to oak. Our word tail claims affinity to Tskog extremity: but tal in Welch is now confined to the forehead, although formerly it was ex- tended indifferently to head and tail. From inattention to distinctions the male expression becomes female, and the female is taken for the male, as in the word hen derived from hane, which in Gothic signifies the male bird, as hcina does the female. In Finland kana is confined to the female, and kucku to the male, answer- ing to coq in French, and to cock in English. Connected with kucku we have kuklein of German, kuckling of the Swedes, and chicken in English, all indifferently applied to the male and female offspring of the hen: but in either Canarese or Sanserit and in Spanish chico is a little one. In like manner the distinctions of age, sex, and condition, marked in our words cow, bull, ox, steer, heifer, arc confounded in bos of the Greek and Latin. In Galic agh comprehends every one of these, with doe and hind, whilst bois and bo are restricted to the cow. In Welch, ych, like our word ox, and the Russian bole, is confined wholly to the castrated bull. Gaw in Sanscrit and Persian, means both cow and bull. The terms Sheep, Ewe, Ram, Wether, with numerous others, are sub- ject to the same caprice. Such confusion arises from the transmission of terms without specific and precise ideas. Ignorance of the language, either in new settlers, or in occasional visitors, is a very frequent cause of error. In no instance has this been rendered more evident than in the names of rivers. We meet with at least five Avons in Ireland, and more than six in England. We have four rivers which bear the name of Team, Tama, Tame and Tamar, be- sides the Tavy and Taw of Devonshire, the Tafy, Tivy, and Towy in Wales, theTay, Teviod, and Tweed, in Scotland, and theTove in North- amptonshire; yet neither Avon, Tame, Taw, Tay, Tove nor Tafy were originally proper names; but meant river in general, the former being essentially the same word with the Galic Amhuin, pronounced Aven, or the Latin Amnis: and the latter with TOTaif^oj, as we shall prove in the progress of our work. The rivers Wey, Wye, and Medway are the Galic Obha, pronounced Owa, nearly resembling the French word Ean. 8 The rivers Asc, Esk, Isc, Usk, Isis, Oise and Ouse, with Ax, Ex and Ux, which give their names to their several market towns, were merely, like Obha, water, a stream, a river. So Rhine, the name of one river, is no other than Rine, the Saxon appellation for stream, Gunga, is both a generic and a specific term, meaning both river and the Ganges. In like manner the Frith of Forth is literally the Sea of Sea, because neither Frith nor Forth were originally proper names, but the latter was the same word with mp^i^-eov, and the former with Fretum. Loch Linnhe, Loch Lomond, and Lacus Lemanus, as used by Caesar in his Commentaries, are repetitions, because Lemanus, or, in Tartarian, Liman, like Llynn in Welch and Galic, and Xif^wi in Greek, means a lake, or an extensive sheet of water. It is possible that Lynn in Norfolk may have derived its name from hence. Lincoln anciently looked down upon a lake, the termination Coin is Colonia. In Pinkerton's Geography, we meet with Lake Loch Nor, that is Lake Lake Lake, for neither of these words is a proper name, but Loch in Celtic, and Nor, both in Tartarian and in Hebrew, mean lake in general. By accommodation and general consent, the instrument and cause are frequently substituted for the effect, or thing, produced. Or a quality may be used to represent the animal or thing, in which that quality is eminently found, as Avhen Homer uses the term 'tttuB. for a hare, an animal distinguished for timidity, and for its endeavour to con- ceal itself. The time is put for whatever is connected with it. Thus middag in Sweden means dinner, and joiirnee in France, may be indif- ferently day, day's work, journey, battle, pay. In like manner the containing may stand for the contained, as cup 9 for drink, the pitcher in Spain for the heel, iiiuUon, bacon, &c. stewed in it; and in every country, the tal)lc for the food which is placed upon it. Camp means a phiin, or an army \\iUi its tents and equipage; but in German it is used for a battle. The matter, of which a thing is made, is taken for the thing itself, as, for instance haunt which in German means a tree, is a beanKJn English. Cuirasse, that is coreacea leather becomes a coat of mail. The sign may supply the place of the thing signified, as uiien either throne or sceptre is used for regal power. A word, once diverted from its original signification, finds no rest, but passes on in slow succession, and is made to represent, from time to time, some new idea, as caprice may dictate, or necessity require. A learned Abbe, who, flying from the tyranny of Robespierre, found refuge in this island, was so obliging as to shew me a Chinese word, which in its primary signification means to suck. This he traced through its various ramifications, in a connected series till he found it terminate in near a thousand difl^erent and distinct ideas. Frequently the metaphorical acceptation of a word remains, when the original meaning has been long since forgotten. 'J'hus it is in capricious, which refers to the wild and sportive gambols of the kid, as sincere does to honey, when it is free from wax: yet these expressions never suggest an image to the mind, either of a goat, of honey, or of wax. In like manner, pugno gives us the notion of a battle, whatever be the imple- ment of war; but excites in us no image of the first, although pugno is derived from pugnus. The same observation will apply to affront, insult, backbite, counsel, conspire, &c. Sec. VOL. II. c 10 When new terms, whether invented or imported, have been received into a language, it frequently happens, that the correspondent ex- pressions are laid aside, or acquire new significations. This we observe in rival, knave, villain, rascal, churl, for these formerly conveyed the several notions of neighbour, boy and man-servant, villager, lean beast and rustic, precisely as the terms queen and quean, one of which is a title of the highest dignity, Ihe other of reproach, are no other than quena, which at first meant simply woman, then a wife, and in Sanscrit a daughter. So among the Romans, hostis, an enemy originally, signi- fied a stranger; and fronj these independent meanings may be derived our word host, used for one who receives strangers, and for a multitude of armed men. Thus ail in Hebrew is a ram, in Arabic a stag: caper a goat in Latin, a boar in Greek. Bos in Galic means the hand, and bas the palm of the hand. Bys, bez and bes, the correspondent words in Welch, Cornish and Armoric, mean a finger; but besoa, in the language of Biscay, is the arm. These have a striking resemblance to pes or '^ovg, which con- veys the notion of a foot, but occasionally of the whole leg, and which may have originated in bus (d13) to trample under foot. Should it be granted, that the Celtic tribes derived their bos, bys, bez, and bes from either TTouV or Din; such licentious use of terms could not be considered as more extraordinary than, that pare should signify the hand in Sanscrit and in Welch, the foot in Russian and in Persian, the hoof in Armoric, and indifferently either hand or foot in English, whilst in Greek it means only the action of the hand or of the paw in grasping. Putain French, and puta Spanish, mean a prostitute, but in Sanscrit a wife. a Buwch is in yVelch an ox, in Russian a hull, in French and German a he-goat; but /3wvi is a she-goat. Ungula in Latin is the nail, but in Sanscrit the finger. Wife in Enghsh is a married woman, in German a woman, though unmarried. Bi'ithil in Welch is a trout, but in Cornish a mackerel. Cescr in Welch is hail; in Armoric casaire is a shower; Lis in Welch a palace, in Galic a house. Mam, Welch, is mother, in Galic a nurse. Dafad, Welch, a sheep; damh, pronounced daf, is in Galic, ox. Gobhar in Galic is a goat, in Irish a horse. Dant, a tooth in Welch, is in Galic a morsel. Cjnnog, Welch, a pail, is a churn in Galic. Llug in Welch, and Xuxvj in Greek, mean light, but look in English, is either the action of the eye directed towards an object, or the appearance of any thing wlien viewed. A remarkable change of meaning has taken place in our words right, just and true, of which the latter now contains the notion of verit}^ as the two former do of equity, although originally right signified merely that, which was directed, just that, which was commanded, and truth had no reference but to fidelity, and to that confidence, which tried fidelity inspires. True, truth, troth and truce, or in old English trew, troweth, treoth and trewse, are certainly allied to trow; yet trow was not originally equivalent to cogito, concipio, imagino, but to confido, not to uKvi^eiz, but to ^appft). In this acceptation it agrees with treowan, treowa and treothe Saxon, vertrouwen, Belgic, treu and trauen German, trua Ice- landic, tro Swedish, tree Danish, trauan and trauaida Gothic, and with true, as used by Shakespeare, all which imply fidelity, confidence and trust. c 2 12 In these languages, the expression for thought, imagination, belief and verity have not even the most remote resemblance, not tlie most distant affinity to our words true, trow, troth, truth and truer, to the Saxon treowian, or to any of its derivatives. Verity is related to the German wahr and Latin verus, the Frencli vrai, and to the Spanish vero. To convey this notion we have in tiie Slavonic line istinna, stability; as, in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac, Ameth (J^D^^) implies that, which is durable, whilst in Russian vieriu and viera mean fido, and fides, vieryu, credo, and derznost is used for confidence. The Greek expression fl:A;i&f/a: means that which is not concealed. It were now therefore absurd for any one to say, that a curve becomes a right line, Avhen directed to be made; that, justice has no specific meaning of its own independently of a command, or that iniquity in judges may be perfectly consistent with rectitude. This change in the meaning of words is palpable in the well known adage summum jus summa injuria, which, though rightly understood, is agreeable to verity, yet, etymologically taken, is a contradiction in terms. A skilful rhetorician, fond of parodox and conscious of superior talents, to amuse himself and others in some idle hour, may play with terms; but even at the festive board, when surrounded by his friends, he will not maintain, that trow and truth have not changed their meaning, or that in the modern acceptation of the term, truth universally prevails, that all villagers are villians, that every servant is a knave, that rustics are churls, that every woman is a quean, and that verity has no existence beyond the wild conceits and opinions of mankind: (see Home Tooke's, Ep. pt:) this propensity in nations to change their vocabuhiry is ucil described by Horace. As, when llie forest, willi (he bending year, First shods (he leaves, which earliest appear; So an old nice of words maturely dies, And some, new-born, in youth and vigour r>se: Many shall rise, that now forgotten lie, Others, in present credit, soon shall die; If custom will, whose arbitrary s\v:iy. Words and the forms of language must obey. But rhongh in one hingu:tge, or dialect a word may become ob- solete and perish, or have its meaning changed, yet in the kindred languages, it may be retained as classical in its original acceptation. Numerous instances of this might be adduced from the several dialects of Celtic, from the Welch, Cornish, Armoric, Irish, and Galic, compared with the Gothic languages. Many of these have been noticed by Lluyd, and not a few of them will occur to us in the progress of our investigation. Some nations may have lost the primitive expression, whilst its compounds exist. Thus for in- stance, the Galic teine and the Welch tan, mean fire, but these words were laid aside in Latin and in French, in which, however we find txiinguo and eteindre. In old English we have tine and tind to kindle, which have given birth to tinder. 14 OF COMPOUND WORDS. The natural progress of languages, after names had been invented for the various objects of sense and articles of first necessity, seems to have been, by some modifications of these names, to express such quali- ties or actions, as were most readily suggested to the mind on the contemplation of those objects. Certain it is, however, that in the introduction of appropriate terms, whether for things, for persons, for places, for actions, or for qualities, all nations have avoided the multiplied use of arbitrary sounds, and, availing themselves of such as were uncommonly understood, have been satisfied with indicating by them, as nearly as possible, the properties by which the object in question is characterized and to be distinguished from all others. This propensity gave rise to compound expressions, which, when well chosen, become perfectly descriptive of the thing intended to be known. As for instance, when the Irish for a flint say dragart, or when the Germans call it by the name of feuerstein, they indicate that species of stone, which gives fire by collision v/ith steel. For a fin the latter use flossfeder, floating feather, and for a telescope fcrin'o/ire, that is the reed or tube by means of which tliey discern distant bodies. Some of the German compounds seem to be ill connected, as for in- stance, when they call a roe hirshkuhe, and a fawn Urachkalh, the former meaning literally the cow, and the latter the calf or the hart. Other compounds excite a smile in foreigners, as for instance, hand-shoe when used for gloves, and finger-hat which means a thimble. 15 Such is the difficulty of inventing expressions for new objects, that the element in which any thing is produced, the country from which it comes, or even the mode of conveyance often serves to mark the specific difference, and then the most remote analogy, the least dis- cernible resemblance is taken for the generic term. In Galic CMmm, a little dog, in English becomes a rabbit. Meerkatze, that is a sea cat, is in Danish and Dutch a monkey. Blodigel, that is blood eel, in Denmark a leech. The rein deer is distinctly renn thier, the running animal. When the Koroeki first saw an ox, they caUed \i t-uski olehn, that is Ki'.ssian rein doer. Tlie people of Otaheitc called horses mio-hty hogs. A lion when first beheld at Rome, was a Numidian bear. In Galic a wolf is iiiadradiialla, wild dog, and a bear is mathghabhuin a wild calf. In Wclcli a badger is daearfochyn, an earth pig. The Celtic tribes, whether Galic, Welch, or Cornish, describe the otter as a water dog. In Sanscrit this animal is uch-a closely allied to vBup of the Greek. The Persians call a mole, deaf mouse. When the Romans saw the elephants of Pyrrhus, they considered these animals as Lucanian oxen. Elephus itself may have been derived from aleph an ox in Hebrew. Similar expedients for the invention of new terms have been uni- versally resorted to. Thus we have sea horse, sea cow, sea hog, sea calf, which last is in Welch, morlo in armoric lue m6r. Even the most distant resemblance will suffice for both the gene- ric and specific term, as in our word pineapple, which is neither an apple, nor fruit of the pine tree. The Greek language is remarkably fond of compounds. Thus for instance we see Kciirvpov for embers, in which the fire may seem to 16 be extinguished, but is yet alive, and needs only to be moved for the admission of fresh air, an action well expressed by txvce^i>i'7:vp7iv. Of their compounds, some are to be admired for elegance; some are remarkably comprehensive, and others excel in the force and energy of their expression. Sach are Xvx.xvy'eg the dawn, y-cckXiyvvcu-t, alxindant in beauteous women, SopvE,evog a brother in arms. Some compounds are so much contracted, as to conceal to a certain degree their component parts. Thus it is with Sxwi; compounded of Sx and y.vxic, which united, mean precisely I gnaw, in Galic cnaoighim, that is I t.ear in pieces Avith my teeth; for y.yxu implies sinij)iy lo divide, whether by cutting, rending, or t(aring, without reference to llie teeth. This additional notion of the instrument, by which the divi- sion is effected, seems therefore to have been conveyed by Sx, and if so, this particle may have been contracted from the orienial dant, which is in Galic a morsel, but in Hindostani, Sanscrit, and Welch, a tooth, as dendan is in Persian, agreeing thus with dens dentis of the Latin, or oBovg oJovtoj of the Greek. In every country the expedient resorted to in giving names to persons and to places, has been to combine expressions and form new compounds, descriptive of a person, or the place in question. Among the fJebrews it ai)pears, that wlien tiie new-born infant was to be distinguished by a name, they had rccouise, not to arbi- trary sounds, but to such woi"ds, as being commonly in use, de- scribed the circumstances attendant on the l)irti). "I'hus it was in the names of Cain, Abel, Seth, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Isianael, &c. all explained in sacred writ. So in the German names, Alaric 17 is universal king; Ariovistus, much honoured ; Aliobrogos, the moun- taineers; jVfarsi, the marslilandcrs. A similar practice prevails among savage tribes, as may be particularly noticed in America. The names of places have been taken from either local circum- stances, or some remarkable event to be thus recorded, as at Beer- sheba, Bethel, Gilead, Eshcol, Bochim, all particularly mentioned and explained in Scripture. In every country, local names, lead to the knowledge of the ancient languages, because they are descrip- tive of the situation, whether mountainous or level; in a valley or a glen; wet or dry; woodland or pasture, open or inclosed; cultivated or wild ; whether it has a rock, a castle, a well, a river, a bridge, a ford, a mill, a church, a lake, &c. In Germany there is not a village, but what is indebted for its name to something general and special in its situation. The general terms are bach a stream, brvick abridge, busch a thicket: dorp a village; fels a rock; berg an eminence ; burg a castle; feld a field; hausen, from haus a house; hofF a court; holttz or holz a forest; kirch a church; mulen, from muhle a mill ; munster a convent ; stein a stone ; thai a valley ; vbrde a ford ; wald a forest. In Wales every gentleman's seat carries an accurate description in its name. The natural progress of language, after having invented names for things, one would imagine, should be to fix upon terms descriptive of qualities or indicating action. Hence the origin of verbs and adjectives may besought for in the correspondent substantives; but by observation it is found, that in all languages the verbs, however formed, with their inflexions, give birth to innumerable nouns, as may be particularly VOL, II. ]» 18 noticed in the Saxon, Greek, and Hebrew. All the other parts of speech flow from these, claiming kindred to the nouns and verbs, of which they are abbreviations. This has been demonstrated by Lennep, in his Greek Etymology, and, as far as relates to English, by the most able critic of our age ; and Noldius in his Concordance has transmitted to posterity, a work written by Christian Koerber, which proves the same thing respect- ing the Hebrew particles. But though all nations start from the same point, and acknowledge the same principles; they yet take different routs, and in the evolution of ages find themselves exceedingly remote in their expressions both from their common ancestors and from each other. Hence the vast variety observed in their adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. But as these are all derived from nouns and verbs ; so from them proceed formative particles, whether prefixed or suffixed to other nouns and verbs. Here then we have an abundant source for diversity of speech, where the languages are acknowledged to be radically one. This will be dis- tinctly seen, if we pay attention even to a few of the prepositive parti- cles introduced into the principal languages of Europe. In Greek, wc have 1st. Tiie intensitive a apparently derived from ocyxv as in af&Xog, uy'kccog, aTtag, izoXXteg. 2nd. Tiic privative a derived from aVtu as in aopxTog ajipcrog, (xXv\^six alSvfg, atSwg, uKyi'iog, cckccog, ccvxvSpog, avopxTog, avO(T[i.og, 3r(l. The associating a derived from ^ju-a, as in ccKoXou^og and eiZe\(p'og. It must be here remarked, that whem ^f* occurs before a labial; it may be used for either avx. or xvev as in Kit.ittht.ov and af*/3/30T0?. 19 Tims in oiiu language the same prefix, derived indeed from differ- ent particles, varies the form of words, and diverts them from their primitive meaning, yet ever with a strict attention to the roots, from which they are derived. In Greek we have eighteen prepositions, each of which may be combined with every verb, either single or in pairs, nay even in trii)le ranks, as may be observed in Homer. From one verb, for example iic»KXco, we count more than fifty verbs of dis- tinct meanings, and from Xeya, in it's several acceptations, we have nearly eight hundred compounds. The English needlessly doubles the preposition in concomitant de- rived from con and eo. Among the eighteen Greek prepositions I must request, that the reader will pay particular attention to £^i, 0^1:0, m and H, because these in one shape, or other, run through all the languages, both of Europe and of northern Asia. The Latin, intimately connected with the Greek, has nearly the same particles with it, as the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English, conform to Latin. The import however of these particles is not strictly the same in all these languages, and therefore in Italy, a Frenchman must not be surprised to find, that digiunare means to fast. In Slavonic, the particles prefixed, are bez, voz, vz, vos, vni; za, z, s, k, ko, na, ni, &c. which I may possibly explain, when I shall proceed to treat of the Slavonian lansjuage. The Germans have two kinds of compound verbs. The first are those that have particles inseparable from them, such as, after be, D 2 emp, ent, er, ge, hinter, miss, um, ur, ver, verab, verun, voll, wider, and zer, of these the two most frequently used are be, and ge. The second are those that have particles separable from them, such as, ab, anf, aus, bey, dar, durch, ein, fort, fur, heim, hin, &c. which instead of being prefixed, may be carried forward, and stand alone at the end of a long sentence. In Angle Saxon, the prepositions used in composition are numerous. Among those we find, a, ab, be, emb, fore, ge, g; na, ne, n, on over, uppe, with, &c. The prepositive particles in Belgic, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Maeso-Gothic resemble these, as these resemble the correspondent particles in Greek. In Welch we have a, ad, am, an ar, as; cyd, cym, cyn ; dad, de, di, dir, dy, dys; ed, er, es; g, go, gor; y, ys, most of which correspond with the preceding. They are somewhat different in Galic; but evidently claim kindred with the Greek. These are a, ag, ad, aith, am, an, ar; coimh; ea, eac, eag, ean, ein, en; g, re, s, tar. It may be readily conceived, that such a multiplicity and variety of particles must create confusion, equal to ihat of Babel, when, in the kindred dialects, the same root remains either single, but disguised, or disguised and connected with different prepositions, according to the genius of the several languages, in which the radical term has been pre- served. Thus for instance, preserve in English and conserve in French, answer to servo in Latin; but serve in English has a different import. -Mendum in Latin is a defect; but to mend, in English, meaws to re- 21 move defects, ^xispog becomes obscure and rXayiog oblique. Wild in English is gwyllt in Welch. Lenncr Armoric, and darllenwr Welch are radically one, and mean a reader. Gogledd in Welch is the north ; but in Galic we find simply Cledd, that is the left hand and therefore the north to him, who turns his face towards the east. Llugeid the eyes in Welch, is daulagad in Armoric. Cymnial in Welch is a joint, but in Greek the root appears in fj^ekog. In French blesser answers to the German verletzen, and both are found in loedere, lossus, tAv'ttw crX^ia-o-w. Conspoid in Galic and dispute in English are radically one, for both originate in puto. Thus in different countries, according to caprice or accident, innu- merable terms become variously combined, and retain only their equivalency in import, with scarcely a vestige of similitude in form. Among the difficulties which stand in the way of etymology, one, and that not the least, arises from the propensity of all nations to indicate positive qualities by negation. From this practice, the more direct and p/oper terms expressive of qualities, have been neglected, and not unfrequently have been wholly lost. Of the languages with which I am acquainted, the Galic is most remarkable for this pro- pensity, having no fewer than nine particles used in composition for negation. We ourselves are fond of this practice, and the Germans are so partial to it, that for many notions they have none but nega- tive expressions. In Greek, two negatives strengthen the negation; but with us and with the Germans, two negatives make an affir- mative. In English, we have mortal and immortal, but JMilton has doubled his negatives, and has left us unimmortaU ^2 From these practices, languages which are radically one, must of necessity appear in a vast variety of forms. But their dissimilarity is again exceedingly increased by diversity of terminations. These are too numerous to be here particularly noticed. Suffice it then to say, that, numerous as they are in every language, they were originally either verbs, nouns, or pronouns, not, as at present, absorbed in the compound, but distinct and separate from the root. As this will be rendered evident in the progress of my work, I shall content myself with giving two instances froin the Greek. In the auxiliary verb afj^i, am, the last syllable designates the person precisely as in Hebrew. So likewise is it in all the verbs, which termi- nate in fitt as for example /3vif*i, I go, for the simple root is jix or in the Hebrew boa and (j-t is the pronoun. That my conclusion is well founded will appear, when I shall pro- ceed to trace the correspondent verb through all the languages of Europe and of Asia, in all of which, without exception, the root is decidedly the same. In the termination of their verbs, all lan- guages, except Hebrew and its kindred dialects, arc apt to perplex the novice by the creation of new themes derived from the several tenses, the infinitives, or the participles of other verbs, which may however, be still retained in the same, dr in son)e other tongue. Thus in Greek we find Xe'yw Xe<yeiv, to collect, to number, to speak, allied to which we have lego, legere, to collect, to gather, to road, as in Icjiitis flores of Virgil. From legere the English, Dutch and Germans have, by abbreviation, formed lere, lore, Iceren and lehren, to learn, and these, by a reduplication of the infinitive termination, produce 23 lernen German, and leornian Saxon, of the same import. Our verb to burn is evidently rcvpoetv. But other Gothic languages, as if this were not the infinitive, have doubled the termination to form bernan and brennen Saxon and German. So likewise in churn, from yvpoe^v the infinitive is distinctly marked, and yet the Saxon doubles the termina- tion and makes cernan. Sometimes the past participle becomes a new theme, as in gird from yvpoaiv, and then the Gothic infinitives will be in Saxon gyrdan, in German giirten. Or this participle, formed from the infinitive, may assume its proper termination and become a new verb, as in branden of the Dutch, and blindan of the Saxon, for in the latter we trace blinnan, blinned, blind, (closed,) in the former bran, branned, brand, burnt. In like manner binden of the German, bindan of the Saxon, benden of the Persian, and bandna of the Sanscrits and Hindostani, may be traced to the Latin vieo a verb connected with hex a withy. Many of our verbs seem to be formed from the participle present of other verbs, as for instance, gang from go, and bring from bear. These repeat the infinitive termination in gangan and bringan of the Gothic dialects. By the same process we may derive fengan Saxon, or fangen German from fahan Gothic, which is allied to -rafji/ as tongs to Taw. In like manner Staae of the Danish, connected with k(r'r\^\j.i and e(TTcevxi of the Greek, and with istaden of the Persian, seem to have produced staend, stand, from which we must derive standan Saxon and Gothic. Even hangian of the Saxon appears thus to have originated in hahan of the Gothic, to raise, to elevate, to lift on high. 24 These practices are common. In Greek we have numerous instances of infinitives converted into new themes, which consequently double their usual termination. Thus (p^'w, (pafiv, gave birth to Cp^mD, <^xLveiv and Tepa-w, Tiptreiv produced reptrizivai, lepaxiveiv. In like manner we have gopeu, gopevwu ; ^lyu, biyyaivw; cpa, opiuu ; (panSpocc, (pcciSpwa ; oXu^eco, oXia'bxwm ; ^xp^eca ^pa(T\juo}AXi ; xpa.(a, ^paii/w; yipxScca, npxBxiua ; %a;Xaw, %a;Xaiva>, x, t, A. Indeed there is scarcely any part of theGreekverb which hasnotgiven birth to some new theme. It arises from this practice, that from xecXdui we have %«Xa^&', from ^xppsu, ^txptreca, from o(ptiK(>i, o(^eiXv,aa. o(pXi(7Aa), KpXicry.xvu, o<p\bi, h(pXxua. Attention to these remarks will enable the young student readily to detect the radical parts of words, however complicated they may be, and to remove the incumbrances by which they are concealed from the unpractised eye. To such attention Mr. Tookc was indebted for the reputation, he acquired, as the most distinguished critic of the age. I may yet venture to add, that a knowledge of these practices will pro- vide us with a key to most of the European and Asiatic languages. In all of them we meet with nouns derived from verbs and verbs from nouns. And sometimes a noun, derived from a verb, gives birth to a new verb, which produces another noun, from which a new verb is formed, as, in the Greek, will be evident to any one, who consults Scapula's Lexicon. In all such changes the termination varies, as will be distinctly' seen, when I shall proceed to the examination of particular languages more especially of the English and the Greek. All nations, for the sake of euphony, insert some letter, not essen- tially necessary, in the middle of such words as would otiierwise sound 25 harsh, or difficult of pronunciation. This practice is so general, that it is needless here to produce particular examples. Such however will occur to us in the progress of our work. From what has been said, it will appear, that languages, which seem to be discordant, may have elementary parts, which, however disguised by composition, are the same in all. If then I shall be able to demon- strate, that such elementary parts exist and are essentially the same in all the languages, with which we are acquainted, will it not be clear, that all these languages are derived from one parent stock. This pre- cisely is the task J have imposed on myself, and I trust it will be per- formed to the satisfaction of my readers. OF ABBREVIATIONS. That which contributes more than all that has been stated, to mul- tiply languages and to conceal their origin, is the practice universally observed of contracting two or more syllables into one. This no where appears more conspicuously than among the Chinese, who express each word by one simple sound, as we contract, but on a less extensive scale, ayoc^cfi-xi into gaze, (iXxa(pi^i^eiv into blame, tXtv^fj-ofuvv^ to alms, 'upeiTfivrepog to priest, nvpiov otnog to kirk and church, sigillum to seal, flagellum to flail, judice to judge, calamus to halm, and nutrice to nurse. Sir W. Jones informs us, that the people of Tibet speak a dialect, which, like its parent the Sanscrit, was formerly polysyllabic, but at present consists like the Chinese, of monosyllables, to form which, with VOL. n. E. 26 gome regard to grammatical derivation, it has been necessary to sup- press, in common discourse, many letters, which we see in their books; and thus we trace in their writings many Sanscrit words, which in their spoken dialect are quite undistinguishable. This practice is strikingly evident in Irish. A writer, of great learning and more than common sagacity, has judiciously observed, that abbreviations are the wheels of language, the wings of Mercury, for as the first intention is to communicate our thoughts, so the second is and ever will be to do it with despatch. But it has so happened, that in abbreviating, few nations have adopted the same process. It is acknowledged, that the French, Italian, Spanish and Portu- guese are branches of the romance language, and derived from the Latin, and that the other European languages borrow both from it and from the Greek. Let us then beoin our investigation with a few derivatives from Greek and Latin, which appear in most of them, after which we may take the abbreviated terms, promiscuously, as they occur to our recollection. From noXcc^xTw and colaphus the Italian has derived colpo, the Spanish golpe, and the English clap. From the same source the French has taken coup, and the English cuff. From constare we find conter and cost, from audire, ouir and hear. From wE. wnTog or nox noctis, the Italian has derived notte, the Spanish noche, the French nuit, the Welch nos, the English night. Masculus has yielded to both France and England male. TccXxhto; has given birth to lacte, latte, leite and leche of the Latin, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish, to Llaeth of the Welch, to laith, laclid and blochd of the Galic, and to lait of the French. \^ ,. S7 , From tcmpus, temporis we trace tempo Italian, tiempo Spatiisli, temps French, and time English. In like manner tectum becomes toit and pondus poids in French. It frequently happens, that a word in its progress of abbreviation drops, from time to time, one or more of its elements, either in the beginning, middle or end, as caprice directs, till scarcely a vestige or no part of the primitive remains. This we have frequently occasion to observe in Hebrew, and this it is, which most perplexes the young student, because its verbs, consisting of three radical letters, are extremely dis- posed to drop the first and third, as in tet (nn) give thou, the imperative of Nathan (]nj} he gave. Indeed we may venture to affirm with Pro- fessor Robinson, that such abbreviated terms constitute almost one- half the language. (Robertson's Gram. p. 197-) Thus in the French word ne, which is natus in its most abbreviated form, N is all that remains of the original term yfivo(*aJ, from which the Latin is derived, as appears by the ancient mode of writing gnascor for nascor. In appris and compris no radical remains. In concomitant, I is the only radical part of the word derived from eo, ivi itum. Our English cur, unconnected with other languages, exhibits no description of the dog intended by this word. But in Welch we find corgi of the same import, compounded of corr a dwarf, and ci a dog, which by abbreviation has produced cur. In like manner the com- pound expressions begehren to ask, and entwehnen, to change a custom in German, become in English beg and wean. The latter is the more remarkable because wohnen, from which we derive wont, means to inhabit, and wean now signifies to break a habit. Adjuvare became E 2 28 first aider, and then aid, retaining only the preposition without a vestige of juvo which is the root. Catena, connected with cadwyn of the Welch, gave kette to German, kedia to Swedish, kiaede to Danish, keten to Dutch, cadea to Portu- guese, chaine to French, and chain to English. From Collum the French seem to have derived cou, and the Germans hals. The Swedes have halsa, and we have hill both allied to collis. In our language we have acquired both rod and raft from pa^Sog. From no'KTO} the Danes may have taken kappe, which is in the French couper, in the Hindostani catna, in the Persian khudan, but in the English cut. The Swedes have both badda and basa, from TaTairo-a!, which with us are contracted into beat and baste; corresponding to battre French, bete Russian, bet Slavonian, peetna Hindostani, and baeddu Welch. In like manner leifa of the Swedes, and levne of the Danes, derived from XeiTfjv, are contracted into leave. Their kianna and niosa, yivoiay.ai, be- come with us ken and know, their mykest and masta from [j.^icttov and iA-iyuTov have yielded meist to the German and most to us. In Anglo-Saxon, nabban is noti habere, nah is non habit, and nis non est. In Welch we find Cael lo have, but unless caffael, of which it is an abbreviation, had still subsisted in the language, we never could have discerned a radical affinity between habeo, and cael, nor could we so readily have traced them, as we trace capio to the Hebrew caph the hand. 29 For crusta, the Welch has both cris and crust agreeing with both crust of the English and croute of the French. Geber {l2i) of the Hebrew seems to have given birth to gwr of the Welch, ger of the Persian, fear of the Galic and vir of Latin. In Sanscrit we have nrp, a king which as I shall hereafter demon- strate may be uvSpiav TaTvip, father of his people, in its most abbre- viated form. In this language pt, is the radical of power both regal and paternal, which were originally one. OF TRANSPOSITIONS. Transpositions help to disguise a language and to conceal its affi- nities. Yet all nations, either for the sake of euphony, or from caprice, have had recourse to this expedient. The Hebrews, in the conjugation of their verbs, removed their prepositive T, and placed it after the first radical, whenever this happened to be a sibilant; nay, they even changed their n into D as in hitstadek (pIDVn) for hithtsadek (pivnn) he justified hirtiself. It has been conjectured, and with some degree of probability, that the Helvetii of Caesar were Haefeldan, that is mountaineers. Certain it is, that our ancestors gave into this practice, for with them, to ask sup- plied the place of acsan, as used by the Anglo-Saxons; and by both asce and acse, the askis of Chaucer, they intended ashes. In our old English we have ficsas and fiscas for fish, ricsa and risca for rush. In Scotland they use garse for grass and thretty for thirty. Borstel, Belgic, is bristle, and brennen, German, is to burn. so The same propensity is manifest in the Celtic dialects. Anail, the Galic expression for breath, is alan in Armoric, whence haleine in French: — Balan in Armoric, balai in French, is banal in Welch, a broom. Grange in Welch, is cancar in Cornish, and cancer in Latin. In Greek we have axp'Tog and naprep'os for ^pxTog, and npxTsp'og, ypaSiv\ for xxpSU, npiMg for ntpnog; SpL(pog for 5i<ppQg, jixpSiqog for (ipxSiqog, and ^tppz\^og for 7rpi«f*.oj or the reverse. The Romans converted [^op<p\^ into forma, a-KlTTTOf^at into specio and specto, xpivw into cerno, andxplito? into circus. From granarium we derive garner, purpose, from propositus, and garnet from oranatus. In like manner, perhaps, the Celtic ros has become our horse, and stagnum etang or tank. The Spaniards say guardaldo for guardadlo, hazelo for hazedlo, salildo for salidlo, daldo for dadlo, &c. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. Mispronunciation and inattention to orthography tend exceedingly to increase the perplexity of the Tyro in languages, when he is endeavouring to trace their descent and to point out their connexion. In these respects we have only to recollect the practice of the Romans, as appears in the best of their historians. What contusion have they not made, out of the precincts of Italy, in the names of places, of per- sons" and of things! Or wo may cast our eyes over the vocabularies transmitted to us by voyagers and travellers of different nations. 31 But, without wandering far from home, I shall subjoin a few words from Lye's Saxon Dictionary, by which it will appear, that our Saxon ancestors, although good soldiers, were certainly bad scholars, and never paid attention to orthography. With them to fetch was spelt indiffer- ently feccan, feccean, fetian, foetian, fetigean, fetigian. Hail might in their opinion with equal propriety be written liaegL hagal, hagel, hagol and hagul. Light was leht, leoht, liht, lioht. Day was dag, daig, deg, doeg, dah, dsei, dogor. High was hea, heah, hih, heh, heag, heg, hig, hear. Much or great was micel, micyl, mickle, mucel, muccle, micl, micla, micle, miccla. No was indifferently na, ne, ni, no. New was neow, nio, niow, niw, niwa, niwe, nyw. The orthography of the Franco-Teutones was so irregular, that in the same author, words appear in seven or eight different forms, as for in- stance, buach, buoch, buah, buoh, puach, puoch, puah, puoh. Such was the ignorance, which prevailed in Europe, that several char- ters remain, to which kings and persons of the greatest eminence affixed the sign of ihe cross with their own hand, for this assigned reason, be- cause they were ignorant of letters. In the ninth century, the supreme judge of the empire could not subscribe his name. And even in the fourteenth century, Du Gueselin constable of France, one of the greatest men of his age, could neither write nor read. Nay, many dig- nified ecclesiastics could not subscribe the canons of those councils, in which they sat as members. 52 As there were few, who could write ; so was the number few of those, who could procure any thing to read. For before the invention of printing, A. D. 1449, manuscripts were extremely scarce, and even monasteries of considerable note had but one missal. (Robertson's Charles V. note 10.) But to point out the difficulties which must ever occur to those, who undertake to make us acquainted with foreign languages, I will here subjoin a specimen from the vocabulary of a Ger- man, who taught English. Ahdsch, age; tihm, aim; anker, anger; badsch, badge; badhs, bath; bof, bough; dscli'dns, chance; JscAoA, chew; ehdsch, each; dsehuck, jug; dschordsch, George; tchdsch, teach; dschths, cheese. In what manner his German pupils were by this vocabulary to learn English, an Englishman may be at a loss to comprehend. What can be more discordant than the sound and the orthography in the subsequent expressions. High, nigh, sigh; light, fight, night; dough, though, trough, bough, plough, and slough, when it means a quagmire; laugh, cough, rough, tough, and slough when applied to ulcers ! Sir William .Tones, in his Asiatic researches, has given us an example of vicious orthography, such as, in his opinion, all foreigners are liable to. Law more awe day recgyewrs awe nool otruh parellyuh, Sec. To the English ear tlie sound is in some degree preserved ; but who would imagine, that in this sentence we have the first line of a beauti- ful French Ode. La raort a des rigucurs a nulle autre pareilles. S3 This demonstrates the propriety of adhering strictly to orthography, as the French have done more than other nations, in deriving from the Latin. For they have preserved the radical letters, even such as have no influence on the sound. Thus, for example, we find asne from asinus. Thus also tant from tantus, and temps from tempus, both sounded like the last syllable in their word etang, and altogether inex- pressible by any letters of the alphabet to an English ear. Yet the most strict attention to orthography will never preserve the sound of vowels. These arc incessantly changing, nor can this be pre- vented whilst the same letter in every language represents a variety of sounds. Thus in English we give four different sounds to a, in have, had, halm, hall. E may be mute, or it may retain two sounds in be and bell. I differs in time, tin, bird; O in bone, bog, move and dove, U in mute, full, burst and busy. Inability to pronounce certain consonants, is a common source of false orthography. 'J'lie Ephraeniites for shiboloth, at the hazard of their lives, said siboleth , nor could they pronounce it otherwise. The Greeks themselves at the fords of Jordan, must inevitably have shared the fate of the Ephraeujites, for they likewise would have said siboleth. 'I'he Sep- luagint translators were exceedingly perplexed by this narration, because the Greek language wants the aspirated sibilant. In the place, there- fore, of shiboleth, which means an ear of corn, they substituted qcex^s of the same import: but this leaves the narrative imperfect. They add that an Ephraemite could not shape his lips to pronounce q^xv?, which was not the case. Yet, from the nature of their alphabet, they could VOL. II. F 34 not convey to the Greeks a true notion of the difficulty, under which they labored. Frenchmen and Germans are equally embarrassed with our th, and should they attempt to say this or that thing, their efforts would be vain. Indeed most foreigners find it difficult to catch the pronunciation in these few words, nor can they readily distinguish the difference in the articulation of th in thin and thine. The Delaware Indians have neither F, V, nor R. The Chinese are strangers to B, D, R, X and Z, and therefore substitute M for B, T for D, and L for R. The Mexican alphabet has neither B. D. F. G. R. nor S. In Green- land no word begins with either B. D. F. G. L. R. or Z. In the Sandwich and Society Islands the inhabitants having neither C. G. K. Q. X. S. nor V. could not be taught to say Captain Cook, but called him Taptain Toot. The inability to pronounce certain consonants naturally leads men to substitute others in the place of those, which they have never learnt to articulate. But, even where no such inability has existed, the practice of substitution has universally prevailed. In our Greek grammar we read mutantur inter se ■3^/3$ ; nyx ; '^^^- To the fust series should have been added (* as must be evident to every one, who is conversant with the inflexion of the verbs. This practice, established in Greek, Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee, was not peculiar to these languages, for all nations in kindred letters, that is in letters of the same organ, whether labials, dentals, palatines or gutturals, have been apt, either from inattention, or from affectation. S5 to substitute one for another, as in the interchange of B. V. F, V. W, M. of D. T. Th. ; equally so of C. Ch. G. Gh, H. and not uniVequcntly of D. and J. of all which numerous examples will be produced. It is curious to observe the aptitude with which the aspirate of the Greek either sinks througli the Spanish J. and X. into the deep and harsh sounding guttural of the Welch and Germans, rises up through the Eno;lish Y. J, and G. into the hard C. and K. glides along the roof in Ch. is converted into the sibilant, becomes a labial, or is altogether lost. Again the progress may be inverted, or the passage from one to the other may be made per saltum, and thus G. Gh. K. C. Ch. J. and II. may each supply the other's place, as will be demonstrated, by mul- tiplied examples in the progress of my work. The same liberty is claimed by the liquids L. R. ; M. N. ; respec- tively, as in our subsequent investigations we shall frequently have occasion to display. Between S. and T. which, in all the languages of Europe, slide into each other's place, there is a natural connexion. They readily unite, and when they part, it seems to be a matter of indifference, which of them shall be retained. Every one, who is conversant with Greek, must frequently have made the same remark. Lucian, in one of his dialogues, introduces a judicial process instituted at the suit of the letter S. against her wicked neighbour T. S. complains that T. not satisfied with incroaching on the privileges of D. Th. and Z. letters of the same family, had even usurped a place in numerous words, which of right belonged to her. She particularly laments her fate, that she should be expelled from Thessaly and should F 2 36 be called by the ignominious appellation of a Thettalian, that she should be excluded from the sea (SaiXao-tra:) and that, robbed and plundered by an atrocious villain, she should not be permitted to retain one peg. (^rx(T(TxXov.) Nay she expressed her fears, that in process of time even TVKx would assume the place of o-ux«. What has been hitherto advanced, frequently supported by some approximation to organic affinity, seems to account for many other changes observable in all languages, more especially for the conversion of D. into G. C. and K. or J, G. C. and K. into D. and this not only in some of the Greek dialects, but in English, Danish, Swedish, German, Galic, French, and in all the dialects, both Gothic and Slavonian, diffused over the northern regions both of Europe and of Asia. But how shall we account for what must appear a most unnatural practice, that of converting B. and P. into C. K. and G. or the reverse, since these families have no organic affinity ? Certain it is, that the lonians, Baeotians, iEolians, and the inhabitants of Attica, did this, for Herodotus commonly used kuj^^ for 'Ttug ; the Bfeotians ^xvy,y.£g for yvvxineg; the iEolians y.o"ov for Trofo!/ ; the Athenians •y'k£<Pxpx for ftKe(pxpx and /3Xvi%wi/ for 7Xvi%aiv and all the Greeks r:vx\uog for wx\uo;, from which we have 'jvxvov a^ bean. From the same propensity the Romans said fel for pco^vi, gall, appello for onaKXiD I arrive at. The Ethiopians say Kctrus and Kaulus for Petrus" and Paul us. In Welch B. answers to C. and K. of the Teutonic dialects and to such an extent did the Galic tribes adopt the practice of converting P. into C. that the old vocabularies omit the letter P. 37 / and in its place substitute C. or K. The Welch has P. in many words, which in Galic begin with C. but no radical word in Welch begins with the correspondent letter F. unless in composition, when it is used, for M. B. It is possible, that this practice may have arisen from the resemblance in form between these discordant letters in some of the more ancient alphabets. In various parts of Europe, more especially in Germany, we observe G. and gc, as prepositive particles, answering to ga, of the Gothic, as that, in numerous instances, does to ey. of the Greek. In the same lan- guages be and bi correspond in composition to f-Tri of the Greek. These prcepositions are considered by Hicks as commutable. Certain it is that the Galic has blochd for yxXx •yxKocn'Tog milk. T!:e Germans say gedcncken and glaubcn, we say bethink, believe. Thus also we have blithe and glad delivered down to us by our Sa.\on ancestors, both derived from Icetiis one with J^. the other with G. prefixed. In Greek, among other examples, we find both jiKxnav and 'ykxnccv whence the Romans may have derived pulegium. When two or more consonants meet in the middle of a compound word, the weaker is apt to be absorbed and lost in the stronger, or at least is converted into one, which has organic affinity with it, as colligo, commuto, aufj^Ttx^etx, tstvij.[j.xi, for conligo, conmuto, &c. But in Welch compounds D and G are dropt, as in aneiryd for an, and deiryd annilys for andilys, anny for an and genni. The changes above described are governed by general rules: but every nation assumes some licences peculiar to itself. Of all the languages with which I am acquainted, none is so licentious as the Spanish. This 38 will be particularly noticed, when 1 shall proceed to treat of the off- spring of the Latin. The changes we observe in the Spanish consonants, although conformable to certain laws, now well understood and univer- sally received, seem to have originated wholly in caprice. To a limited extent the same licentiousness prevails in the Italian, and I have no doubt, that an accurate acquaintance with the derivation and affinities of other languages would enable us to trace the same licentiousness and arbitrary changes in most of them or, perhaps in all. GENERAL CONCLUSION. The operation of any one of these numerous causes of mutation would be sufficient in the revolution of ages to disguise a language and to ren- der its origin obscure. But when all these concur to puzzle and perplex, and when there is no standard of purity, to which every word may be referred, no traditionary poems; no written records; no acknowledged classics; no sacred books; no lexicons to ascertain and fix the meaning of expressions ; the language will be more rapid in its changes, and the difficulties to be encountered by the etymologist will be abundantly in- creased. These considerations have a tendency to produce despair of being ever able to demonstrate, or even to make it probable, that all languages are radically one. How shall wc trace the genealogy of words compounded and contracted, distorted and disfigured as they are, and which have lost their original import, and that, perhaps, not merely by some little variation, but by a total reverse of meaning and intention ? "Who, 39 amidst this confusion, can distinguish order ? Or what linguist will be able to collect from such discordant dialects, the elements of a primaeval language? When its members have been torn asunder and dispersed by Typhon ; what Isis, wandering through the earth, will recognize and again unite them ? The task is painful; but patience and perseverance, with a little sagacity, an extensive knowledge of languages, and strict attention to analogy, may accomplish that, which, at first sight, appears im- practicable. OF THE INVESTIGATION OF RADICALS. I. To investigate a root, we must begin with decomposition: we must get rid of all the prepositive particles and idiomatic terminations, with such epenthetical syllables or letters, as may have been introduced into the radical expression. In a word, we must reduce the term in question to its most simple and elementary form. For this purpose, it is necessary, that we should know whether it be native or foreign, and have a perfect acquaintance with the language, to which it belongs. In these words, for instance, decomposition and j9?-e- positive, the slightest acquaintance with Latin will be sufficient to point out their derivation, to get rid of all incumbrances, and to leave pono as the root. These, therefore, are of Italian growth, and with them must be ranked imposition, apposition, supposition, transposition, and all other compounds which claim the same descent. 40 In the word termination, the Celtic scholar will distinguish two roots, combined and agreeing with terfyn, a boundary, of the' Welch, derived from tir maen, a landstone. Should we fix on the word transuhstantiation ; we may readily get rid of the two prepositions and of the termination. This operation leads us to stans, stantis, sto, steti, statuui. Here then we find the root in sto, I stand, which divested of o, its pronoun, leaves st, found equally in stay, in iq^^^, and in numerous verbs of the same import, dispersed amono; the nations over the whole surface of the olobe. In the Welch annysgymmod, discord, we find three prepositions, which being rejected leave bod, here converted into mod an habitation. In discord the root is cor the heart. In our word mistake, we have one single prefix to remove; but in mis- apprehend we have three, mis, ad, and pre, which Ijeing rt jccted, leave lieiul, allied to hand, to have, and, under various forms, to corres- pondent terms, in all the languages of Europe and of Asia. In the verb splendeo, L is the only radical which remains of XevAog, AaV^f'", ^«'^- ' The learned Rudbeck, in his Atlantica, has left us canons, by which we may determine the countries, to which words belong. According to him, that is the genuine language of a naticjn, which is commonly spoken by the vulgar, and a word may be considered as the genuine offspring of that language, if, in its primary sense, it is of extensive use, and if its kindred derivatives have remote and accidental significations, which naturally flow from the first notion. Again, a word may be considered as native to a country, if monu- ments and authentic records, referring to remote ^uitiquity, prove it to 41 have been always familiarly used and understood by the inhabitants; but not so, if, being imported, it has been regarded as foreign and before unknown. Thus, for instance, Venus, a word unknown in Rome before the expulsion .of the Tarquins, is neither of Greek, Latin, nor of Egyp- tian origin, but, in the Scandinavian Gothic, wena means to love; wenskap, friendship; wenlig, familiar; wan, graceful ; wen, a wife, and wenadis the goddess Venus. The same may be said of Minerva, whose etymon must be sought for in the Celtic, in which her characttristic attribute is expressed by Erva, Arms, precisely as Mavors and Mais, in Sanscrit, mean great warrior. Tliis agrees with his most important canon, " That word must be con- sidered as the genuine offspring of the language, in which it expresses the nature and properties of the thing in question." Thus, for instance, caterm is cad a battle, and tarf a troop, and the word bisJiop is in Welch esgob, in Galic easbog, eascob and eascop; in TEthiopic, yskuph; in Arabic, uskuf and askub; in Spanish, obispo; in Italian, vescovo; in French evesque; in Saxon, bisceop; in Belgic, bischop ; in German, bischoff; in Danish, biscop and bisp; in Polish, biskup; in Slavonian, epkop; in Hungarian, prospok ;• in Latin, episcopus, in Greek, fx/a-KOTro^, which last expression, derived from fxi and o-KfTTTOfxan, denotes the watch- ful guardian of the church. Here then we have the origin of all the preceding appellations. Thus judge must be the legitimate offspring of judice, qui jus dicif, and is not therefore to be sought for in any other language but in Latin. JVing is, in Sanscrit, a bird, and is so named because it moves in air. Liquorice is, in German, lackritz ; Italian, ligurizia and regolizia ; VOL. II. G 42 French, reglise; in Spanish regahza; PoHsh, lackricya; Hungarian, liguiriczia, and in Latin, glycyrrhiza. All these appear as arbitrary names, the impositions of caprice, to be transmitted from one generation to another. But, when we arrive at the Greek, in which yXvvivpi^x means sweet root, we know, that the plant in question has been indebted to Greece alone for this appellation. The same may be said of alms, in Welch elysen ; Italian, limosina; Spanish, limosna; Portuguese, esmola; French, aumone; Saxon, aelmes; German, allmosen ; Swedish, almosor ; Gothic, armajon ; Polish, talmuzna; Hungarian, alumisna; in the lan- guage of Chaucer, almose and almesse ; in Latin, eleemosyna; for the moment we arrive at eKeyi[i.O(Tuv^, we discern the root of all these ex- pressions in the Greek aXsog, mercy, pity, compassion. The origin of bastard and batard appears in basdardd, bas and tarddu, i. e. base issue, of the Welch. When we examine blasphemare in Latin, biasimare in Italian, blas- femar, Spanish, brasfemar Portugueze, blasmier and blamer, French, and blame, English, we must be convinced, that all these are connected. But no where can we find a definition of the act, till we arrive at /3Xa:a-(pvi|xfjv, to blast the fame, in which all these originate, and which in /BXaTTfjv TVi'j (^■^[j.viv gives us distinctly the notion we are seeking. Indeed the word fame itself, although immediately derived from fama, or from cpvu^vi, as this may be from cpvif*.;, claims affinity to phi (HD-) in Hebrew, and to plium (D12)) in Chaldee, the mouth. For auspice, whether the word appear in French, English, Italian, or Spanish, we need not look beyond the Latin, in which it originated, and in which it denotes the inspection of birds for the purpose of divi- nation. 43 Decern may be traced, though variously disguised, through all the languages of Europe and of Asia, and may be thought to terminate in Senx. But even here it claims no natural connexion with the preceding numbers, nor from the Greek can we assign a reason for this term. In its kindred language, theGalic, we have da cuig, that is twice five, which it readily contracts into deich, the natural parent of BiKo:, and of a nu- merous offspring. In like manner our word marvel, in French merveille, and in Spanish maravilla may claim affinity to meur-bheil, the finger of God, which in Galic is the term for miracle. Our word asp seems to have origi- nated in xa-Ttccipnv to tremble. Chess in English appears as an arbitrary name. Tracing this word through various countries and languages, we find shah a king, and schach, skak, echecs, scacchi, and shah mat, check mate, that is the king is dead. Shetrenjor shatranj, chatrang, and katuranga, mean the four angas, or divisions of an army, infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants, and explain the name first given to the game of chess by its original inventors, (v. Asiatic Researches.) Neither ffiloges in Welch, nor pellex in Latin can be regarded as descriptive of a concubine. But when we meet with the parent of these words in philegesh. (^ilr>) of the Hebrew, we instantly gain a clear and distinct notion of the thing intended, and see the attention of a husband divided between two females, who have discordant claims to his affection. In German we find the word felleisen, for which Adelung gives no satisfactory account, because this vehicle has no connexion with eisen, g2 44 that is with iron. Wallet, our conrespondent term, stands unconnected in the Enghsh and contains in itself no description of the thing, any more than felleisen of the German, Valigia of the Itahan. or valise of the French. But in the old French fellouse we see all these expressions terminate in pellis. Our word nasty conveys the notion of filth; but contains within itself no reason for this application. In Russian we have the origin of this expression clearly pointed out. For in this language we find nechistui of the same import, compounded of ne not and chistui pure. Indeed we may venture to establish it, as a general rule, that com- pound words are definitions and originate in that language, in wiiich they may claim this character. It must ever be remembered, that migrating hordes carry their lan- guage with them; but that when a warlike chief, with his chosen bands, subdues a feeble nation and settles in the country, the victors most frequently adopt the language of the vanquished. Rudbeck has one canon, to which I cannot readily assent. He states, that a language, which has numerous monosyllabic expressions is a parent language. The English has more than three thousand seven hundred monosyllabic expressions, and the Chinese has none but such; yet neither of these are, for that reason, to be considered as parent languages. Certain it is, that all languages by abbreviations have a tendency to become monosyllabic and therefore a language, which abounds in monosyllables, is ancient, and these commonly are the most anli(iuated parts of every language. New compounds are in- cessantly created. These are abbreviated and in process of time become 45 monosyllabic. In deriving, therefore, a word in one language from its correspondent expression in some other language, we must ever bear in mind, that, unless in tlie formation of new compounds, the least ab- breviated is coininoiily thti parent and the most abbreviated its off- spring. This observation perfectly agrees with another canon of this celebrated Linguist. Nations do not commonly change a word, which is expediti- ously pronounced into another, which is either longer or more difficult of pronunciation, but the reverse. Would it be possible for any one to persuade us, that colaphus was derived from cuff, or blaspheme from blame? There are, however, exceptions to this rule. For many of the Creek dialects introduce not only vowels, but almost every consonant of the alphabet into the middle of their words. In Latin we observe the introduction of D. for the sake of euphony, in numerous verbs such as redeo, redigo, redimo, redarguo, &c. Anions the derivatives from Greek, if such they may be strictly called, many assume N. as for instance x^^^, scindo; Xsix<^, lingo; Sizjug, densus; pxyclj, frango; tKX7ov, centum, &c. The Romans likewise occasionally inserted N. in words, in which it did not commonly appear, as in conjunx for conjux. Indeed jungo is evidently derived from jugum, as in Greek ^ivr/ou produces ^euyvevco. This introduction of N. in Greek, verbs and Greek derivatives has been already noticed as arisino- from the conversion of infinitives into new themes. Our Gothic ancestors frequently inserted N before the last syllable to form both tjie passive and substantives derived from it, as fauratanja portents from teihan to predict, whose passive is teihnan. The Eno-lish' 46 and French adopt the same practice in words, which have no claim to the acquisition, as in render and rendre from reddere, and lantern from laterna. Both nations take a superfluous D. in tendre and tender from tener. Tliis j)ractice is extremely prevalent before G. as in lodge from loser and edse from effsje, which in Greek is o-kI;. In our word allege, the D. has not yet established itself, although it is distinctly sounded. Both allege and lodge ma}"^ be traced up to Xeyeiv. In Galic compounds, D. is introduced, as in Latin, for the sake of euphony. Thusboacovv, and og young, become bodoga a heifer. Such practice has been common: but this does not leave the ety- mologist at liberty to suppose consonants, whenever his imagination may suggest the necessity for their introduction. This would be a dangerous privilege, a ridiculous expedient; because conjectures are of little value, where demonstration is required. But if the arbitrary introduction of vowels, consonants and syllables in the middle of a word, would lead to endless conjectures, so undoubtedly would trans- positions, unless supported by analogy. This practice, therefore, when we can appeal to strict analogy, and have demonstrated the affinity of any given language, may serve for illustration, may point out the derivation and account for the change in particular words ; but will never tend to prove, that any two languages are radically one. II. In the investigation of a root we are perfectly at liberty to consider letters of the same organ as commutable, labials with labials, and 47 gutturals with gutturals ; dentals with dentals, and palatines with pala- tines; because all nations have assumed this privilege. But in the more unnatural changes, much discretion is required, and an appeal to the particular practice of the nation, province, or tribe, in which the word under examination may happen to appear. III. To obtain the genuine root, kindred languages must be compared together, and the genius of each must be accurately known; because witliout such knowledge and such comparison, one link or more may be wanting to our chain, and we may be left with vague conjecture, instead of conclusive evidence. We know that French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese are kindred languages derived from Latin. Yet who, unless intimately acquainted with the genius of these languages, would think of deriving the French, or from ad horam ; aune from ulna ; aube from albus ; chaud from calidus, coup from colaphus, pons from pulsus, outre from alter and from ultra, paume from palma, sauf from salvus, sauvage from sylva, taupe from talpa, fleau from flagellum, aumone from eleemosuna, faux from falsus, doux from dulcis, mieux from melius, peaux from pelles, vaux from valles, brebis from vervex, combler from cumulare, boulanger from polentarius, couver from cubare, devoir from debere, ouvrir from aperire, seve from sapa, jai from ego habeo, il a from ille habet. In Italian the same degree of knowledge is required to connect fo with facio, here with bibere, noja with noxa. In this language we have 48 1 c/uaro, clarus; cJiiave, clavis; c///oM, clavus; chiudere, daudere ; fore, flos; Jiime, flumen; ghiado, gladius; ghiaccio, glacies; ghianda, glans; ghieva, gleba; pietio, plenus ; piega, plica; pianta, planta ; pieve, plebs; schiavo, slavus ; sc/»mso, exclusus; schiamazzarv, exclamare ; sc/«M7wcr, spuma; sc/«e»fl, spina; se^/'e, septem ; s«e<<a, sagitta; trave, trabs; /c^/o, tectum; vegghia, vigillia ; vi, ibi. Tn Spa7nsh the mutations have been still more violent; for, not satisfied with considering letters of the same organ as commutable, the Spaniards substitute for each other such letters as have not the least pretence to oro-anic affinity. This appears by the subsequent examples. Auseiicia, absentia; bnho, bubo; haba, faba; haccr, facere; haia, fagus; harina, farina; heder, faetere; hender, findcre; hierro, ferrum; hiel, fel; honda, funda; horma, forma; huir, fugere; hurto, furtum: hilo, filum; liigo, ficus; hinojo, f^niculum; hijo, filius; hoUcjo, foUiculus; ojo, oculus; hoja, folium; /io??go, fungus; //orco, f urea ; homo, fornax; oreja, auricula; viejo, vetulus; mucho, multus; 7>iuger, niulier; mojar, moliire; j/iazo, malleus; mejor, melior; lenteja, lenticulus. 'I'his change of L into J, which is in Spain a guttural, is violent in the extreme. But, however familiar with this language, who would think of con- necting hembra and femina, unless he should recollect that hombre is ra- dically one with homo, as hombro is with humerus, liambre with fames, legumbre, with legumen, licbre with lepus, and nombre with nomen. The Portuguese is evidently a corruption of the Spanish; 3-61 this dialect has preserved some features of resemblance, which to the dis- cerning eye, mark its descent from Latin. This will ap|)ear by the subsequent examples. Abri aperire, agiisa acjuila, bcijo basio, bexiga 49 vesica, bom bonus, boi/ bos, ceo coelum, chave clavis, c/iovc pluit, cor color, dedo digitus, dereito directus, dhse dixit, doutor doctor, an in, erva herba, /"ezVo factus, ^'z feci, /o/hc fames, /Wo frigid us, hojc hodie, hum unus, may mater, meya media, minha mea, vwlher mulier, muyio multus, ntvoa nebula, olio octo, ohrigado obligatus, ouvir audire, pay pater, peixe piscis, per'igo periculum, por ponere, rcza recitare, rota rupta, saude salus, scde sitis, telha tegula, trigo triticum, vcr viderc, vir venire, vou vado, unha ungula. When in French we meet with appris, how can we trace this expression to its source without the assistance of the Latin, to which wc are directed by its infinitive, apprendre. And when from apprehendo we have go rid of the prepositions ud and pre, and have retained hendo witii thv'. notion of handling; where can we discover this acceptation in a simple verb, unless it be in jc^cv^izvw of the Greek? Without the intermediate links, would not the most cautious etymo- logist be thought rash in the extreme, who should pretend to detect a connexion between prudence and e^Secc? But no sooner do we recollect the subsequent expressions, prudentia, providentia, ^^potiSca and eiBtco than Ave become satisfied, that the most strict affinity may subsist between the first of these expressions and the last. And thus also we discover identity of notion between our word prudence and vorsichtigkeit, that is foresight, of our German ancestors. Who, without the aid of French, German, Anglo-Saxon, and Belgic, could think of connecting high with altus, of which it does not contain a single element, either real or potential? But when we meet with hault in the old French, and haut in the modern ; hoheit and hohe in VOL, II. H 50 German; hooh in Belgic; hauh in Gothic; heah and hieli in Saxon; we are disposed to think that all these may have originated in altus. To account for the h, we should observe, that the modern inhabitants of Gaul have been in the habit of introducing this letter in the beginning of words derived from Latin, as for instance, huile, huit, huitre, hors and hormis, charbon, charite. Who again, without the intermediate languages, would imagine, that liead is essentially the same word with caput? But when we observe haupt in German; haubith in Gothic; hufwud in Swedish and heafod in Saxon, — from which we confessedly derive our head; we immediately distinguish the connexion of all these with caput, because we knoAv, that the change between C and H is not unfrequent in the language of our northern ancestors. Thus, in the Gothic we have hairto, cor; haurn, cornu; in the Swedish, hud, cutis; hus, casa; halm, calamus; hoi, coliis; haela, celare; hop, copia; in the German, hanff, canabis, in Spanish, helar, gelare; hermano, germanus; hieso, gypsum, and by the same process, haupt may connect itself with caput. What affinity can the novice in languages discover between jioimeiv and to feed, which have not one element, unless potentially, in common. But when he sees /Soa-xcu, pasco, pascere, paitre French, batan Saxon, beta and fixla Swedish, weiden German, all kindred languages, and all denoting the same action ; even the novice may discern a regular pro-^ gress from ^os-yu till it terminates in feed. In connecting food to /Soto^, he has no need of a connecting medium. The correspondent expres- sions in the Celtic dialects seem to originate, not in ^oanu, but m 51 ^tog and liioTog. These are biadh and buadh in Calir, buis in Cornish, bwyd in Welch, and boat in the Arnioric. In the derivation of ?nuch from iJ-eyxln, one link is snflicient, and that we find in the Old English mickle, mochel, muchcl, as used by Spencer in his Fairy Queen. Fi7'e is certainly allied to Tup, but this would be in some measure doubtful, had we not furs, in the ancient Irish of the same import, and fursannadh in the modern to kindle. In German we have feuer, in Belgic vuer, in Saxon and Swedish fyr, in Latin uro and eomburo, in Welch pori, in Slavonian pogoraiu. These convey the same notion with our word to burn, a word derived immediately from ^upoeiv. This in Galic is bran, in Belgic branden, whence comes our brand AVith these agree brinnan of the Gothic, brenna Swedish, and brenne Ice- landic. In the Slavonian branch, from pogoraiu we have goriu Russian, and Horim Bohemian. These kindred dialects thus compared together throw light upon each other, and direct us to -iy:3 the genuine root from which they all proceed. Without the assistance of Latin, Italian, and French it would be impossible to connect savage with 'uXv^, But every scholar knows, that sylva is allied to'uAti, selvage to sylva, sauvage to selvage, and savage to sauvage. From 'v'Kuhvti we stand in need of no assistance to arrive at wild. Wild then and savage are both derived from 'u'Xvi. The novice in languages would consider the attempt to connect •^^{^ the Hebrew word for light, with marble, as wild in the extreme. But when we observe marmol in Spanish, marbre in French, and marmor in Latin, we readily conceive that marble is allied to these. From marmor H 2 52 the progress is easy, through [it-api^atpa) and f^aipw to 11K0» l^i^n and 111* of the same import, and every one knows that to receive a pohsh and to shine are the essential properties of marble. To connect dusk with shade even the novice may recollect, that shade is anidSiov in its most abbreviated form, that dusk is derived from Sxa-Kiog, which is compounded of Sx valde and a-mSeig umbrosus and that both (thixSiov and a-moeig are the offspring of o-xj«. It was the want of a diffusive knowledge of languages, which be- trayed Bullet into the gross error of deriving Norihampton from nor the mouth of a river, tarn a river, and ton a habitation. AVith equal ignorance he derived Uxbridge, from uc a river, and brig, division, (v. Pinkerton.) I might here multiply examples of extravagant derivations suggested by rash or unlearned men, and of difficulties solved in etymology by comparing kindred languages together : but sufficient has been already said to caution the Tyro against precipitancy, and much more will of necessity appear in the progress of this work, when the several languages of Europe and of Asia shall pass in review before us. IV. In tracing the origin of words and the affinity of languages, we must be careful to examine correspondent terms. Every language has multiplied expressions for the same notion. Vo- cabularies, therefore, such as are given us by voyagers and travellers, even those collected at the expense of the imperial Catharine, and by 53 the indefatigable industry of Pallas, are of little value to the etymologist. They only perplex, discourage and mislead him. It is said, that the Arabs have five hundred expressions for a lion. By periphrasis they may have five thousand. Yet, without circumlocution, they have three, asad, lebu and leis. In Hebrew likewise we find three, ari, labi and laish (iwh, i^'^n'?. "*"1i<) The two last in each of these corresponding series may be compared, and evince analogy. But should the traveller com- pare only the two remaining terms; no resemblance would appear be- tween them. Such is the luxuriancy of language; such, in every nation, the minute distinctions, which, marking a difference to the natives, yet escape the observation and discernment of a stranger, thar even a dictionary with- out a competent knowledge of the language, will frequently mislead. We have, for instance, two difterent processes for preserving fruits, the one by vinegar, the other by sugar, or a man may be preserved by the protecting arm of a superior power. A young Russian, who was not acquainted with these distinctions, in taking leave of a lady, from whom he had received civilities, having searched his dictionary for suitable expressions, turned to her with a look of ineffable gratitude, and said " May God Almighty pickle you/' Had his compliment been paid in French, he would have avoided this mistake. No language is more abundant in periphrasis than Sanscrit, as will appear, when I shall display its rich variety of elegant expressions* The Irish have more than fifty expressions for a hill; and the Welch have eight. These are cefn, garth, rhyn, bre and brynn, galit, moel, 54 and truin. From the Irish I select seven, ard, ardan, rinn, bri, maol, meall, droman. Now garth, ard and ardan may possibly have a correspondent term in Latin, and may be connected with arduus; rhyn, brynn and rinn may be either the parent or the offspring of /jjv, the nose; cefn, a ridge of mountains, which is the exact description of the Cevennes in France, seems to be the only term, which claims direct affinity to the Hebrew; for giben is deviated, as in harim gabnunnim, high hills, of Psal. Ixviii. 16. or gebin of the Chaldee, with which the Syriac perfectly agrees. Of eight expressions therefore, for hill, in Welch, one only can admit of a comparison with Hebrew, one with Greek, one with Latin, and seven with Irish. Some languages are redundant in expressions; others are exceedingly deficient. In the latter, one word has numerous acceptations, and these, perhaps, discordant, or, if not altogether dis- cordant, nor wholly unconnected either in kind or genera, yet perfectly distinct, as species or varieties. Thus damh means in Galic ox, cow, bull, ^gh means ox, cow, bull, battle, fear, a doe. Bla conveys the seiveral notions, well, safe, healthy, piety, a village, a green field, the sea, yellow, renown, praise, a shout, a cry. In this diversity of acceptations we must compare only such as cor- respond. Thus for instance, agh. when it signifies a castrated bull, may be compared with ycA in Welch; ox in English; ux, Icelandic; auhs, Gothic; oz, Belgic; and the affinity will be readily discenied: but it must not be compared with cow, bull, battle, fear, or doe, in English, nor with the correspondent terms in Belgic, Gothic, or Icelandic. In S5 Welch, however, some small similitude to agh, a cow, may be distin- guished in buwch, which means the same. What is here remarked will equally apply to similar expressions in our own language, such as arch, asp, bait, bale, bark, baste, bay, bear, bill, &c. in their numerous and discordant acceptations, for even in the most copious languages the same word, if derived from diiFerent sources, is made to convey a variety of independent meanings. V. In tracing the etymology of words, we must remember, that as verbs are derived from nouns, so innumerable nouns originate in verbs, and that the most ancient parts of every language are the words ex- pressive of visible objects, parts of the body, material elements, natural relations, affections of the mind, things of the first necessity, and such as are common to the whole race of man. We must, likewise, in every language understand, from what parts of the verb its nouns are commonly derived. In English, as Mr. Tooke has demonstrated, our substantives are formed frequently by the third person singular of the indicative, some ?evf from the par- ticiple present, and many from the participle past. Besides these we have numerous verbs whose indicative mood present tense is the in- finitive of other verbs. In Greek although the most ancient nouns are derived from the present, the future, and the perfect tenses, which are the most ancient parts of verbs ; yet innumerable substantives are participles. 56 VI. In the investigations of etymology it may be established as a fun- damental principle, that the genuine root can have but one original meaning, one primary notion, and that every other sense must be se- condary, metaphorical, allusive. If then the several acceptations are discordant and cannot be tro- pically derived from one primary idea; we may be certain, that each independent notion has its proper radix, which must be sought for, and may be fc^nd in some other, and that probably a kindred lan- guage. Thus, for instance, in our word mean, we have 1° low in worth, 2o intermediate, 3° to wish for, intend, 4° to hint, covertly, to signify. All these acceptations, distinguished by Dr. Johnson, are independent of each other, and seem to originate the first in (*£tov ; the second in [t.e<Tov; the third in \^tvoi\^xw, and the fourth in ij.>ivv^. In the first acceptation it has affinity with main and man of the Welch; mion and min Galic ; minuo Latin; moin French; and maene of the Saxon. In the second it is allied to mcadhon and maoin Galic; medium Latin; mian Persian; and both moj-en and mesne French. In the third to meinen of the German; to maani Arabic; and to miann of the Galic. In the fourth it connects itself with minich Galic; mentior Latin; and minneach of Iceland. Dr. Johnson has attempted to mark, in words of extensive use, the progress of their meaning, and to shew, by what gradations of inter- mediate sense, they have passed from their primitive to their remote and accidental signification, in order that every foregoing explanation 57 miflit tend to that which follows, and that the series might be regu- larly concatenated from the first notion to the last. In the execution of this purpose he had occasion to observe, that kindred senses being interwoven, the perplexity could not be disentangled, nor any reason be assigned, why one should be ranged before the other, for, says he, when the radical idea branches out into parallel ramifications; how can a consecutive series be formed of senses in their own nature col- lateral. This remark is judicious, and his purpose laudable; but he loo often failed in his attempts. Tt is here supposed, that every word in English has one primary import, from which all others are derived. But in no language is this the case, because all nations have bor- rowed expressions from their neighbours, and by the process of ab- breviation, have in numerous instances reduced these, however dissimilar in structure, however independent, or even discordant in their orio-inal import, to one and the same word. This will be abundantly exempli- fied in the progress, of my work. By multiplied and reiterated investigations, we may be able to connect languages together, which appear at first sight not to have the least affinity, and, for this purpose we may venture to assume the subsequent as axioms: 1. Nations, which agree in the terms expressive of those objects, which are of tlie first necessity to mere animal existence, and of those actions, which are most common in savage life, however distant they may now be, were originally one. 2. When, with this agreement, their languages differ exceedingly in substance, and essentially in structure, though they were once united, VOL. II. I . 58 they have for ages formed distinct nations, without poUtical connexion, or social intercourse. 3. But should they agree in technical terms; the separation must have taken place, after their common ancestors had made a progress in the arts and sciences. The application of these axioms will immediately connect all the languages of Europe, and ultimately those also of Asia, and of Africa, and of America, in which the same elementary words are found, although variously corrupted and disguised by adventitious ornaments and dress. For, on examination, it will appear, that the original language has ex- isted, and does still substantially exist, diffused throughout the various languages, which ever have been, or now continue to be spoken in any quarter of the globe. OF THE FIRST INHAIBBTANTS OF BRITAIN", xV-LL historians are agreed, that Britain was peopled from the con- tinent ; and the condition, in which the Romans found the inhabitants, makes it evident, that hunting and pastoral adventurers, landing at dif- ferent times upon her shores, had penetrated far into the country, to sup- ply themselves with game, and to find provision for their flocks. Cffisar, in his Commentaries, informs us, that the interior of the island was occupied by those, who were considered as natives of the soil. These may have been descendants of the colonists, who, as the Saxon Chronicle informs us, came from Armenia, and settled in the south. Tiiis information is said to be confirmed by Indian and by Irish history, from which it is collected, that Indo-Scythian adventurers came first to Spain, and thence to the south of Britain. We learn again from Caesar, that the maritime parts of our island were peopled by Belgae, who originally came to it for plunder. He tells us, that the Cantii, perhaps so called from kante, a sea coast, were the most civilized, and had tillage, precisely as the Gauls, whilst, in the interior I 2 60 of the countr}^ the chief dependence of the Aborigines for food and raiment was on their flocks and herds; but that many painted their bodies and went naked. Possibly, like the Gentoo casts of India, they painted the forehead. It is now well known that they lived in huts or mud-wall cottages, not resembling those occupied by the poorest of our people, but round hovels, frequently sunk in the earth, covered with poles united in a focal poinf, and then thatched with straw, reeds and rushes. An assemblage of such miserable dwellinss constituted their only towns, placed commonly in the midst of forests, or on the sides and summits of their mountains. Here they sought shelter for them- selves and for their cattle. Such are the huts composing many villages in the neighbourhood of Mcttore, Nattan and Tourancourchi in the East Indies. Mungo Park informs us, that the African nations, and particularly the Mundingoes, content themselves with such small and incommo- dious hovels. He says " A circular mudwall, about four feet high, upon which is placed a conical roof, composed of bamboo cane, and thatched with grass, forms alike the palace of the king and the hovel of the slave." (Travels in Africa, p. 22.) The situations of many such British towns and villages have been discovered by Mr. Cunnington, of Heytcsbury. He had two men constantly employed in searching for them, and the result of his pursuit has been the fullest evidence, that our British ancestors were strangers to the use of iron. They had none but stone axes and hammers, and their arrow heads were formed of flint like those of the American Indians. Their pottery was fashioned by hand, not turned upon a wheel, and was baked 61 on the hearth in their cuhnary fires, not in a furnace. He informed me that he had opened more than one hundred and twenty tumuli, in which he never could discover one implement of either iron, brass, or any other metal. My esteemed and much-lamented friend, Mr. Edward King, in one of his inestimable volumes, has traced the resemblance between these rude inhabitants of Britain in all their structures, whether domestic or designed for sacred rites, and the nomade hordes scattered over the face of Europe, Asia, Africa and America. On this subject he judiciously remarks, " It deserves to be well noticed, what a striking conformity is to be found in the manners of all those called abori- ginal people, in every part of the earth as to some usages, which therefore shew their original connexion with the few patriarchal fami- lies, who first peopled the globe. (Munimenta Antiq. vol. i. p. 154.) In our island we observe four races of men, differing in personal appearance and in language. These are the Highlanders and Lowlan- ders of North Ihitaiii, the Welch, and the mass of inhabitants on this side the Tweed. Tacitus was aware of these distinctions, for, in his Life of Agricola, he remarks, that the yellow hair and large limbs of the Caledonians prove them to have been Germans. From the hair, the form, and the complexion of the Welch, he imagined, that they came from Spain. And by similar observations he rendered it pro- bable, that the coast opposite to Gaul received inhabitants from thence. Respecting these he adds, what I shall demonstrate, that their languages agreed. The most ancient of the Greek Historians in his Melpomene, dis- 62 covers to our view, a rolling tide proceeding from the east. Wave follows wave : they break upon the western shores of the Caspian : they spread themselves over countries, where they find least resistance, and even the Caucasian mountains form but a feeble barrier, to arrest their progress. He represents the nomade Scythians of Asia, retiring ■with their flocks from this invading force, and deserting the inheritance of their fathers, anxious only to avoid the arrows of the Massageetae, a ferocious nation, who came from the eastern borders of the Caspian, driven out by the more ferocious Arimaspi. In their retreat they fall back on the Cimmerians, a less warlike nation, who had for ages fed their flocks on the banks of the Danube, and in the fertile plains adjacent to the sea. l"he venerable historian of Samos, in Cimmeria, now Crimea, was re- minded by every thing of its pristine possessors. About 450 years before the Christian era, at the period in which he composed his interesting work, the Celtic hordes occupied vast tracts of country, and were scattered over the regions in which the Danube flows. Beyond them, in the utmost extremities of Europe, towards the setting sun, the Cynetae, {Kvv^rxi) either fed their flocks, or, more pro- bably, were to be numbered among the hunting tribes. The Chinese historians assist us to trace the progress of the Eastern swarms towards the west, during a period subsequent to that, which is mentioned by Herodotus. For, about l6'2 years before the Christian era, the Huns, or Western Tartars, wandering over their mountains north of China, drove before them the Yue-Chi, Ye-tan, Jeta or Getes, 63 a people who inhabited on the Irtish, near the Altai Mountains. Some of these found refuge among the frozen mountains of Tibet; but the main body, proceeding to the west, expelled in succession weaker hordes, till they appeared to the north of Indostan, where they became known to the Greeks by the name of Indo-Scythians. (De Guignes Hist, des Huns, torn. ii. p. 41.) The Celts, called also Galatians, according to Polybius, occupied for a time the whole of Gaul, from Narbonne to the ocean, with a part of Italy adjoining to the Alps. But Ceesar, in his Commentaries, represents the same tumultuous waves as still continuing to roll on towards the setting sun, and warlike tribes, either expelling or themselves expelled, all pressing forwards in succession towards Gaul, a country rich in pasturage, productive of corn, and well suited for the introduction of the vine. During the consulate of Messala and Piso, the Belgae and Helvetii were engaged in opposing the inroads of their neighbours, who inhabited bej^ond the Rhine. But the principal nobility among the latter were themselves inclined to leave their mountains, and to seize upon the more fertile plains, abundantly watered by the Rhone. The object of their ambition was to subjugate the whole of Gaul. For this purpose, they, two years successively, sowed all their lands, they made peace with their nearest and most formidable neighbours, they purchased horses and cars to the utmost extent of their ability, and chose a leader equally distinguished for his wealth and for his high descent. This was Orgetorix; but he died before the time appointed for their departure. Not discouraged by their loss, they proceeded to burn all their habi- tations, including twelve towns, with four hundred villages, and nu- 64 merous scattered houses, and they destroyed the corn, which thej were unable to transport, after they had commanded every one to provide himself with flour for three months supply. All this being accomplished they turned their backs upon their native laud to the number of two hundred and sixty-three thousand armed meii, assisted by their allies, who amounted to one hundred and five thousand. Such Avas the population of one little state, and such the nature of their j)reparaLions for quitting their possessions, in search of new settlements to be acquired by arms. The issue was fatal to themselves, for Cffisar being informed of their intentions, hastened to Geneva, collected forces, opposed their progress, harrasscd them incessantly, defeated them in battle, and, when they had lost two hundred and fifty eight thousand men, compelled them to return and to rebuild the towns they had destroyed. Having obeyed his commands, they held a general council, at the breaking up of which they represented to hirn, that Ariovistus, king of the Germans, had seized a third p-art of the rich country belonging to the Sequani, and had commanded them to, evacuate another third in favor of his allies. They assured him, that all the Gauls, unless pro- tected by the Romans, would be compelled to do, what the Ilelvetii had in vain attempted, to ([uit their country, and seek new settlements far distant from the Germans. Gffisar apprehensive lest, if he suflcred the Germans thus frequently to pass the Rhine, they niight get possession of Gaul, as the Cimbri and Teutoncs had done, and from thence invade Italy, he without loss of time, led his victorious legions against Ariovistus and put his whole army to the rout. 65 We have seen the Cimmerians expelled from their ancient settle- ments by the nomade Scythians: we have traced their footsteps driving the Gauls before them, and we hear of them at last as taking refuge on the Cottian Alps, in Britany, in Cornwall, and in Wales. When one swarm from this hive passed the Alps, and ventured to attack the Romans on the Athesis, now the Adige ; when, on the banks of the Po, they offered terms to Marius; it was with this single stipulation on their part, that the Romans should assign to them and to their allies, the Teutones, lands in Italy. Thus two nations unite to invade a third, not to avenge an insult, not for plunder, but to obtain more extensive pastures for their flocks, and a more fertile country for the labors of the plough. Authors have tormented themselves and perplexed their readers, by endeavouring to fix the abode, in given periods, of all the nomade nations. They miglit as well attempt to fix the locality of waves, and to form a chronological chart of the foamins; billows in the ocean. The weaker hordes have constantly given way to the more powerful, and these have for a time occupied more fertile lands than those, which they quitted, and from which, perhaps, they were themselves expelled. Thus, retreatino- nations, under various denominations, whether Scy- thians, Sacffi, Massageta?, Getae or Goti, continuing to direct their steps towards the setting sun, spread themselves successively over Germany and Gaul, every where compelling the Cimmerians to fly before them. Some of these took refuge in the mountains of Armorica, whilst otherj passed over into Britain, from which they drove the Galic tribes, and obliged them to seek a resting place in Ireland. Here the fugitives were VOL. II. K 66 again disturbed by the Menapii and the Cauci, who are supposed to have been the Scythians of Diodorus Sicukis. These rovers took pos- session of the south, and compelled the greatest part of Ireland to bend in subjection to their yoke. They built numerous castles, assumed the royalty, and gave birth to the Scytise or Scotish race of sovereigns, who exercised dominion in that island. From this time the Scoti were considered as the reguli and nobiles, whilst the great mass of the inhabitants were called Hibernigenae, or natives of the country. In this state of the community, the foreigners, being comparativel}' few in number, soon lost their language in the Galic of their subjects. But although the many submitted patiently to these new lords; yet numerous bands, principally in the north of Ireland preferring liberty to every comfort, which could be expected in their native land, crossed over to the north of Britain, and took possession of the Highlands, where they are distinguished, not only by identity of lan- guage with their progenitors, but by their diminutive stature, their brown complexion, dark eyes and black curled hair. Whereas the Lowlanders are tall and large, with red hair, blue eyes and fair com- plexion, strangers to the Galic language, and accustomed only to the Gothic. From the ninth to the sixteenth century, these Highlanders are said to have been subject, not to the Scotish crown, but to Norwegian Lords. TheCimbri, who had driven out the Gauls from Britain, were in their turn molested by numerous swarms from the northern hive. For the 67 Picts of Scandinavia, the Scythians of Jornandes and of Bedc, who had driven the Cimmerians from the Baltic, now pursued tliem, and, invading those parts of the island which were most accessible to then), took possession of the country as far south as to the Forth and Clyde, which became for ages the boundary between the Cimbric tribes and them. Our venerable historian, Bede, who wrote about A. D. 731, speakui^ of these Cimmerians, whom he calls Britons, informs us, that, as they were spread over the south, the Picts were for a time obliged to be con- tented with the north. Indeed, Tacitus, Eumenius, Ammianus Marcellinus, Gildas, Nennius, the Saxon Chronicle, Giraldus Cambrensis, and Geofroy of Monmouth, concur with him, and prove, what Buchanan, Lluyd, Verstegan, Usher, Stillingfleet, Sibbald, and Sberingham agree in, that the Picts came from Scandinavia; and their testimony is confirmed both by the lan- guage of the country, which is distinctly Gothic, not Cumraig, nor Galic, and by the persons and manners of the inhabitants, which are perfectly German. * The Picts are distinguished by Bede into northern and southern, separated b}^ the Grampian Hills. The former are by him called Dicaledojice, that is, in modern language, Caledonians and Vecturiones, a word supposed to be equivalent to mariners, because in the Tslandic, vik is a haven, vig a ship, and vikingur a pirate. These Scandinavian adventurers, at their first arrival, passing by the Orkneys occupied the Hebud Islands, now the Hebrides, of whose wretched inhabitants K 2 68 Solinus, about the year 240, says, " They know nothing of grain, but subsist altogether on milk and fish." Not satisfied with such an acquisition, the Picts directed their course for Britain, made good their landing, and, having established them- selves in the north, they soon extended their dominion to the south. About A. D. 430, they drove the Cimmerians to the western shores of the island, and took possession of Cumberland and Northumberland, with all the country between the H umber and the Forth. From hence as opportunity offered, they made excursions, pushed forward their conquests, ravaged the country and conducted their victorious bands even into Kent. Their dominion, however, was not of long dura- tion, for A. D. 460, the Saxons drove them back to their former territories beyond the H umber. Here they remained as lords till A. D. 547, and as occupiers of the soil till A. D. 685. The arrival of Hengist with his Jutes, that is Goths, Avas A. D. 447. Soon after his establishment in Britain, he assumed the diadem, in Kent, where he fixed the seat of his dominion. By his invitation other Saxons came, A. D. 447, and took possession of the districts, which from them were denominated Sussex, Essex, and Middlesex, that is to say. South Saxons, East Saxons, and Middle Saxons. Arthur who had effectually restrained their progress, died A. D. 542. After his death the Angli arrived and gave their name to South Britain. These came principally from Anglen, a small territory of Sleswick in Holstein, of which Lunden was the capital. They were conducted by Ida, a descendant of Woden, in sixty ships, and landed at Flam- borough in Yorkshire. This was the prince who founded the kingdom CD of the Anglo-Saxons, in Nortliumberland, from whence he expelled the Picts. A. D. 584. The Saxon Heptarchy was established. From all that has been said, we may collect, that the Irish and the Highlanders of North Britain are to be distinguished from the Welch and Cornish: that the Lowlanders of North Britain are of Gothic extract, and that the English are principally a Belgic race, with a considerable admixture of Angles, Jutes, and Saxons. Accordingly we collect from Bede, that in his day four languages prevailed in Britain, the Irish, the British or Cumraig, the Pikish or Scandinavian, and the English or Anglo-Saxon. All these are distantly related, and in the ascending line ultimately terminate in one. The learned and most judicious Sheringham, in his treatise De Origine Gentis Anglorum, has delivered his opinion, that the hives of the north, who came from the borders of the Baltic, were originally descended from the Chaldean or Assyrian stock, whose lan- guage is a dialect of the Hebrew. After all the researches I have been able to make in a lono- life, devoted to these subjects, my opinion nearly coincides with his, and in the progress of my work, I shall trace successively the affinity between the English, Elemish, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Gothic of Ulphilas, Persian, Sanscrit, Greek, Chaldee, Arabic and Hebrew. 70 OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. The English has no pretension to originality. It is evidently a com- pound language, Avhich has freely adopted words from every nation, at any time connected with our island, in the way of con(|uest, or of com- merce, and with singular address. Dissociata locis concordi pace ligavit. It has been much indebted to the Romans for its harmony. They have supplied the ornaments of grace and beauty: but its nervous strength and energy are principal!}' derived from the Goths. The basis of our language is certainly of Gothic origin; 3'et nu- merous expressions still remain to remind us of the Cimbri and of the Gauls, the first inhabitants of Britain. With these many derivatives are seen of Greek, and some of Hebrew, whose correspondent terms are wanting in the kindred languages of Europe. In this enumeration, I do not comprehend our modern acquisitions, such as serve to shew our progress and improvements in the various sciences of law, of chemistry, of medicine, of mineralogy, and of war. These are adopted, with little variation, from the writings of the Nor- mans, Arabs, Greeks, Germans, French. Our prepositions are nearly the same as are used in Greek, in Latin, and in all the languages of Europe. These, in monosyllabic expressions^ have yielded obedience, like the radical part with which they are con- nected, to those laws of abbreviation and mutation, which I have already noticed as prevalent in all the languages, with which wc are acquainted. n Hence it is, that, without particular attention, they escape observation, or at least are regarded either as a radical part of the word, in which they appear, or as accidental and arbitrary accretions, for which no account is to be required. The most common prefixes allied to Greek, are B. P. F, which claim affinity to eTti, and C. G. S, which are of the same family with tn and e^, to which, in the former part of this work, I directed the particular attention of my readers. Compounded with B. P. and F, that is with s'ji, we find the subse- quent expressions. Bleach, Ksvuog. Blaze, Xevaaw. Blithelaetus. Flock, yoxog. Friend, ipxstv. Prate and (ppx^(^, derived from pe(a. Compounded with C and G, that is with en, we have. Clink, Click, Xiyfu. Crag, pxx'^ct^ Creep, repo. Glass, gloss, Afuja-w. Glimpse, Kd[j.-4^xi. Grave, and ypadf^u, px(p1g. Glad, Isetus. E^ is a compound of K and S, Of these letters, the former is liable to be dropt in composition, and then eE. becomes ys in Welch, or simply s, in other languages allied to it. In this way, as I conceive, we may connect the subsequent expressions. Scratch, x^P^^^'^co. Screen, xptvco. Smear, f^up/^o. Scar, f%«p« and xs^pu. Spear, veipxa}. Scald, calidus. Slime, limus. Spleen, StXi^v and splen, seem to have assumed both f^ and e^ti, be- cause we have the same notion conveyed by lien. I have taken these examples from among such, as occurred to my recollection. A minute investigation might have increased their number. Our terminations appear to have been formed, not by arbitrary sounds and syllables subjoined, as accident or caprice directed, but by words 72 of determinate import, which in process of time have submitted to those laws of abbreviation, whose influence and authority have been universally acknowledged and obeyed. Thus, when the person acting is denoted by the syllable er added to a substantive or verb, as in lawyer, soldier, gardener, baker, this particle is probably no other than wcr of tiie Anglo-Saxon, wair of the Maso- Gothic, hai' of the Francs, air of the Armenians, aior of the Scythians, ur and guv of the Icelandic, ger of the Persian, and fear or fir of the Galic, which, according to the genius of this language, may either precede the principal word, or be subjoined to it, precisely as in English we say indifferently manly, or like a man. Indeed many of our words retain man without disguise, as coachman, ploughman, herdsman, husbandman. But instead of er we frequently meet with or, as in our words de- rived from Greek and Latin, debtor, cultivator. Here the «/• may be gwr of the Welch abbreviated, as in ardalwr a prince, cawr a giant, brawdwr a judge. The Galic fear and fir are unquestionably the same with vir; and gwr, like ger in Persian and gur of the Icelandic, is related to them both. In fact all these arc probably geher ("13^) in disguise, with this difference, that the latter retain the guttural, which the other hinguages reject. These terminations were evidently personal at first and denoted the liuman agent ; but by degrees their use was extended to express agency in general, as in banner, streamer, fodder, and in Welsh cadwr, a shield derived from cadw to save. The participle present, in English, is now formed by ivg, l)ut its ancient termination was end, as bindend bicrnend, now binding and burnino'. In Anglo-Saxon this was ende, as lufingendi loving. In Gothic it was U7ids, andei, and, according to the gender, as sokjands, sokjandei, sokjand, seeking, in correspondence with the Latin whose participle of the first conjugation in the oblique cases, terminates in antis, anti, ante. The change of d and g for each other, but more especially ofd for g has been already noticed. Our Saxon ancestors had, beside the termination end for nouns substantive derived from participles in ende, four others, ange, inge, onge, unge, which seem to have been originally connected with the perfect tense of some (Ireek verbs, such, for instance, as have con- verted their infinitives into new themes, in the manner particularly noticed under the article of compound words. The practice of converting participles into substantives accounts for numerous expressions in our language, which claim this descent. Mr. Tooke has very judiciously handled this part of his subject, has dis- played his usual sagacity, and has thereby thrown more light upon the English Language than all the writers, who ever went before him. Wachterus, a learned German, had made similar observations, as far as relates to the past participle, giving birth to numerous substantives. He says, " D. est litera participialis & nota originis ex participio. Solent enim Prisci ex participiis formare substantiva & terminationem participialem derivatis relinquere, tanquam custodem originig.. - Haec VOL. II. L 3 74 una litera nos quasi manu ducit ad permulta vocabulorum secreta intelli- genda. Sic etiam de T & Te. It is here worthy of remark, that, as participles, whether past or pre- sent, are apt to be assumed for substantives; so these substantives are apt to become new themes for verbs. Thus it has happened to rift and sift, which arc rived and sieved, and to lift, which is clearly elevatus. Thus also swaying gives birth to swing, wrying to wring, and going to gang, all new verbs, whose participles consequently become swinging, wringing, ganging. The termination th in substantives points them out as derivatives from verbs. Thus girth is that which girdeth. Filth that which de- fileth, and warmth that which warmeth. (v. Home Tooke.) Among our terminations we should more particularly notice N, be- cause it marks the infinitive in Saxon, German, Gothic, Persian, Greek, and enables us to detect the radical part of numerous verbs, which have converted their infinitives into new themes, as may be exemplified in learn and churn, of which the latter is evidently fyvposiv. Of this letter, I may say, what Wachterns has said of D, in the passage I have quoted from his interesting work on German. Plaec ima litera nos quasi manu ducit ad permulta vocabulorum secreta intelligenda. I have, in my general observations on compound words, already noticed the perplexity occasioned by the creation of new themes from the infinitives of ancient verbs, and I have here called the attention of the reader to this practice in the Anglo-Saxon and the English, because it throws much light on the origin of numerous expressions in our lan- guage, whose radical part might otherwise be hid from us. 75 Jsh suffixed to nouns denotes character, as in childish, selfish, whitish, and the like. This we may have derived either from the Hindoo and Persian asa, or from the Greek tVxw, which marks resemblance, as do our ly and lyke, derived from aXimog. Abstract substantives are conceived to have been formed from con- crete adjectives by adding the termination ness, as in whiteness, hardness, and our most distinguished linguist. Hicks, was of opinion, that the Anglo-Saxon nesse originated in the feminine termination of the Gothic ns, which is equivalent to nes, as in galaubeins, faith; garaihteins, justice. This may be, and probably is so: but I must own f have some doubt upon the subject. The ei/js of the Gothic seems to have an affinity with e7is of the Romans, and as, in the Anglo-Saxon, the abstract substantive may with common abbreviation be formed from the injinitive, which terminates in N, by the addition of esse, which like ens, denotes being in general, or the very essence of a thing; it is possible that esse, J1T2/"' of Hebrew, was the genuine termination of abstract substantives among the Anglo-Saxons. It certainly takes the place of itas xmn''X of Chaldee, as in thrinesse for trinitas, both meaning the triune essence. The terminations less and full, as in doubtless and doubtful, speak for themselves, and sufficiently testify, that, independently of their connexion, they have a determinate import of their own. These appear to be no other than e/aVo-wv and /SuXXo?, of which the latter may be nearly related to ■yto'kvg and crXeoj. Bom indicates dominion, as in kingdom, dukedom, earldom: but by accommodation it signifies condition, as in whoredom, wisdom. Kick derived from rego, implies government. Head and hood as termi- L 2 76 nations, are the Anglo-Saxon had, which means order, quality, and sex. Ship, as in worship, answering to weorthscype of the Anglo-Saxon, means dignity and office. Shire in English appears only in the names of counties ; but in Saxon the correspondent termination is in frequent use, as in tunscyre a stewardship ; geferscyre, partnership. It may be the Greek KupjoTv;., prefecture, office, occupation, as sire and sir mean y.vpu. Or possibly our shire may be allied to nupco. We have other terminations transmitted to us by our Saxon ances- tors, of whose original import I can give no account. • As for ale, ete, ite, ote, utc, ation, etion, ition, otion, ution, ent, ment, &c. these belong to expressions derived from Latin, either im- mediately, or through the medium of the French, and, although now abbreviated, were themselves, like the preceding, originally words of distinct and specific meaning. In English the noun is no longer subject to inflexions but the oblique cases are denoted, as in Hebrew, by prepositions. These are of, to, with, from, by. Our ancestors, however, had inflexions, and varied their declensions like the Greeks and Romans. Our possessive pronouns mine, my, thine, thy, his, her, our, your, are taken from the genitive cases of the Saxon personals, and are not subject to inflex- ion, but are declined, like our nouns, by prepositions. When we shall proceed to examine the Anglo-Saxon; it will appear, that we conform in a great measure to the grammatical rules established by our ancestors in the conjugation of their verbs, although in the infinitive mood wo commonly omit the final N. This, however, is 77 retained in burn, turn, earn, yearn, learn, harden, fasten, slaeken, cheapen, with numerous others of tlic same form, and serves to de- monstrate the affinity between our language and the Greek. In deriving from Latin our modern English makes fewer changes, than either the French, Italian, or Spanish. This will appear, when I shall review those languages. In the mean time a few exam[)les may suffice to shew, with what scrupulous attention we conform to the original, as for example, abbreviate, abhor, abject, abrupt, abstract, abound, accept, active, acrimony, acute, adapt, adhere, admire, admit, administer, adversity, &c. These, it is evident, are not of remote an- tiquit3\ They appear almost perfect and entire, and therefore want that venerable aspect, which strikes the eye in the most contracted forms. Yet even these sufficiently evince a disposition to drop their superabundant plumage in their flight. The English, in its derivatives, avails itself of an universal privilege, and not only disregards all distinction in the vowels, but, like other languages, it considers those consonants, which have organic affinity, as equivalent, and therefore to be substituted without scruple in each others place. Thus it has happened to the labials B, F. P. V. W, as in probare, prove; habere, have; pila, ball; verres, boar; forare, bore; vannus, fan; pinna, fin; pullus, foal; salvus, safe; spuma, foam; vadare, wade; vinum, wine; vermis, worm; vespa, wasp; vallum, wall; via, wa3\ The same may be observed of the dentals, T. D. Th, as will appear by the subsequent examples, ad, at; ede, eat; nutus, nod; habitum, haved, had; territus. dread; tritus, tread; tectam, deck; fretum, frith; auctor, author; tu, thou; Tpl^og, third. 78 The gutturals C, G, K, Ch, and Q, to which must be added the aspirate and sibilant H and S, are subject to the same laAv, as may be seen in crates, grate; coquus, cook; gehdus, cold; catena, chain; heedus, kid; caseus, cheese; cista, chest; cornu, horn; caput, head; gallina, hen; colhs, hill; clausus, sluice; vulgus, folk. Our Ch is said to have been introduced by the Normans, and I am inclined to acquiesce in this opinion, because, subsequent to the Norman Conquest, Ceaster became Chester, boc was converted into beech, biro into birch, and wic, as a termination, into wich. However, the Normans themselves most probably derived this double consonant from their Scan- dinavian ancestors, and from Norway transported it to Normandy. Cer- tain it is that the Swedes pronounce K before a vowel as Ch, and the Italians do the same by C before E and f, which the Germans sound as ts, approaching to our Ch. The conversion of C, K, and Q into II, is Teutonic, and pervades all its dialects. Like the Italian, Spanish, French and German, our language takes the ablative case of Latin nouns, but confines this practice in a great measure to such as increase in the genitive, as for instance, fierce, de- rived, not immediately from ferox, but from feroce. Thus in the sub- sequent ablative, voce produces voice, pace peace, margine margin, fraude fraud, flore flower, hospite host, gigante giant, quiete quiet. Yet here it may be observed, that probably in more ancient times the nominative cases of Latin nouns were conformable to the ablatives. Could this be demonstrated; it would remove the date of all such de- livatives to very distant periods, or prove perhaps, that they did not ori- 79 ginatc in Latin, but in some more ancient language, wliicli was tlic common parent of the Greek, of the Latin, apd of all the various tlia- lects now prevalent in Europe. Yet possibly all the latter may be the offspring of the Romance. I have stated, that languages have a tendency to become monosyl- labic. This observation, as far as relates to English, may be readily confirmed by calling to mind a few of our derivatives from Latin. In addition, therefore, to those we have already noticed, I may refer to the subsequent examples, which might have been abundantly increased; adjumentum, aid; armus, arm; cantharus, can; caulis, cole; corona, crown; crimine, crime; debitum, debt; decanus, dean; dubitatio, doubt expeditio, speed; exterritus, start, extraneus, strange; flagellum, flail fragilis, frail ; labium, lip; movere, move; placere, please; proeda, prey positus, put; radice, root; rancidus, rank; rivulus, rill; rotundus, round spiculi, spikes; stringere, string; tegula, tile; tentorium, tent; tinnitus, din ; trahere, draw. These for the present may suffice. Others will occur to us in our ex- amination of the several languages of Europe. A considerable proportion of the English language is radically Greek, and this independently of the vast addition made to il of late by the rage for Greek expressions. When I say, that a portion of our language is radically Greek, I do not mean to assert, that our ancestors, after their departure, from the continent, borrowed terms for common use from Greece. Nay, I am persuaded, whatever may have been the iutercourse between Greece and Britain, that the words in question were not imported by men of science, by merchants, nor yet by 80 transient adventurers in arms, but by the Gauls, the ^Cimbri, the Belgae, and the Saxons, when they came in swarms to settle in this Island. Nor yet is it my intention to insinuate, that these nations in their native seats were indebted for expressions to the peninsula of Greece; and much less that the Greeks borrowed these resembling terms from them. No; such occasional loans would not account for the most evident affinity, and for the strictly radical identity discernible in these languages, and in all the languages both of Europe and of Southern Asia, which is the fact I shall endeavour to elucidate in the progress of my work. Of many hundred words, either nearly related to, or remotely derived from Greek, I here select a few. Ache, ail, all, alms, am, as, asp, aye, babe, bake, balm, bathe, bear, beat, better, best, blab, blade, blow, bloom, blot, boat, bouse, box, boy, bran, bread, break, brew, bribe, brook, broth, browze, bruise, burn, burst, call, catch, chair, chaff, chase, cheer, chick, chide, chief, chink, chop, clack, clash, clay, clean, clew, cliff, climb, clink, clothe, clown, cloy, club, coal, coat, cock, coil, comb, come, coop, cope, copse, cord, core, cot, court, crab, crack, crag, creek, crib, crick, croak, crow, cruise, crust, cup, cut, dare, dark, dart, deaf, deal, deep, deer, desk, deuce, dew, dig, dike, dine, dip, dish, dive, dock, dog, dole, doom, dome, door, dowr, down, downs, drag, draw, drain, drawl, lK:c. Sec. I have placed these words together without the intervention of the Greek, that the eye may run quickly over them, and judge of their 81 venerable aspect. 'I'liey are not such expressions as arc conunonlj im- ported, but words of daily use, which are essential to the language, and appear in their most abbreviated forms. Now let us view their affinity with Greek: Ache a%o?, ail xiXsmg, all oKog, alms £X£vif*ojuvvi, am etfi^i, as &•>-, asp meaning the aspin tree iaircupo:, aye ail. Babe ^m^x^a, bake fienMc, balm (ixXaci\t.ov, bathe /3u^/?a), bear (Jepw, beat and pat 'KctTuucrDi, better ^eXTepog, best fieXTicog, blab (iXccxTu, blade ^Kxqxvu, blow /SXuw, bloom /3f/SXufA£voj, blot jSXaTTTw, boat y-i^icrog, bouse Two-w, box in its three several acceptations ^ru^, tu^oj, 'nv^ig, boy ^auf, bran t<tu/)o;/, bread fip^flog, break fTi and piiyvuf**, ,£'7rt£ppv)%«, brew ^pvTog, bribe jipajieiov, brook [ipox^^, broth and bruice /3/jyTov, bruise /Bpi^^tf, /Spta-w, brouze /Spwo-Kw, burn -Trupociv, burst fTrt and pww. Call xaXfiv, catch >taTf%eif, catch, a vessel, *Ka;Toj, chair nx^eSpa, chaff x8(p5f, chase ^^a^'civ, cheer xaiput chick muKog, chide kvSx^w,, chief x£(p«Xvi, chink in Anglo-Saxon cinan %«iv£<v, chop koxtw, clash and clack xXa^w, KfKXviyfl:, fKXayov; clay yXia:, clean nxXov, clew xuXfw, cliff x.Xt';7uj; climb, nXnt^ut, clink nXayyv], clothe j<Xw&ftv, clown %Xowvif, cloy %Xiw, club uXocjix, coal KVjXfOf, coat nuBiov, cock y.oy.y.vl,oi, coil KUKXiO, comb xoM, come epxoiJ'Xi, coop x*7rvi, copc, KCTro,;, coppice noTtTcc, \^w cord %op5vi, core axpSix, cot xojtvi, court xopTog, crab nxpxfio;, crag, pii:%t«, creek xpufv and Kp£>t£;v, crib Kpa;/3/3a:TOr, crick npexvi, croak KpwyfiOj-, crow y.opciiSv^, cruise upwa-crOi, crust xpi>Oy, cup, xVTrekXov, cut xOttto;. Dare Sxppsiv, dark ai^fpxvif, dart 3op«Tioi/, deaf Tv<pXor, suidas deal BiaXsiv, deep Swlu, deer Bop^Xf, desk, disk, dish ^ia^xo?, deuce ^i^a'f, dew Bsvu, dig 5ix£XX«, dike T£i%i3r, dine Beivveiv, dip, dive ^uttw, dock 5o>c£<5v, VOL. II. M 82 (log 5a;>cOf, dole BuKeiv, doom ^^i^x, dome -^^f^v^, door ^vpc, dowr Supov, down 5uvw, downs hotvoi, drag, draw SpxyS, dr<\\n Ivipxivw, drawl TpauXj^tiv, droos 'Tpv^, drive Tpifioi, dusk ^afl-mor, dwell ^lauXi^fiv. I am much inclined to think, that most if not all our verbs which terminate in K, and more especially in nk, with many verbs in ng, originate in Greek preterites. Of such derivations I shall here adduce a few. Clack, click, clang, clock, cluck are apparently allied to ^ceXea, jtXa^w and JtXw^w, whose preterites are xixXvix*, xexXay^a, jcfxXwxa. Plunge is probably derived from vXwca, whose regular preterite should have been vsTrXvyna, but instead of this we find ■trenXvKce, as if it were de- rived from tXuw, which is svlXhu in its abbreviated form. Stick is evidently derived from ^t?^ ^*^s f<r'%a. Take is rerccax. Drink, drank, drunk, if allied to dry, drought and drain may be the offspring of Ivipdivco, e^ypxyxx of the same import. The connecting links may be found in drig and driggan Saxon, droog and droogen Belgic, trocken and trocknen, dorren and duerr German, which mean dry, drinean, Saxon, drinken Belgic, trincken and trunck German, dreck and drick Icelandic, drikk Danish, dricka Sweedish, driggkan Maeso-Gothic, to drink, for both in the Gothic dialects and in Greek the double g and gk are pronounced as ng and nk. No one, unless aware of the mutations, to which words are subject, would suspect that bring could be derived from (p^pu, sting from qiK^^ or that cling is related either to KoXXaa; or to lyXta. fang to -rrxca, gang to x/w and to tw, spring wrong and wring to yvpou pang, that is paining, to TrOVOr to ttOjvvi, or tO TfvSof. Drag, already noticed, is the second future of hp»(j<ju. 83 Numerous verbs are either derived from Greek infinitives, or at least conform to them, as may be observed in burn and churn, whicii are dis- tinctly 'Ttvpoeiv and yvpotiv. Some of our verbs, which terminate in ow, are derived from the first person singular of the present tense, as for instance, blow and flow from /SXuw, or from the second aorist of the subjunctive, as know from yvS. Of the verbs, which terminate in M, some at least may claim kindred to inflexions of Greek verbs in f**, i^xi, i^v^v, f*£voj, either as immediately derived from them, or conformed to their example. Such may have been bloom, cram, warm, swarm, storm, &c. although we are not able to trace their descent. In the progress of my work I shall have occasion to suggest, that our Gothic ancestors, as it should seem, derived, not only simple, but likewise compound verbs from Greek. In the mean time should the reader recol- lect, that Be or B, answering to f??* of the Greek, is a common preposition in English, he will readily conceive that £ppii%« and eppeuHa may have be- come break, /?po%ii and brook. In like manner fTexa:, the regular pre- terite of fTTfctj, £ira;, by assuming the usual prefix S, which answers to e^, may have become our verb to speak. This short sentence, I am would alone be sufficient to demonstrate, that our language is not original; but a derivative either from Greek, or from the parent of Greek, because in this expression the pronoun occurs twice, for beyond a question, it is included in e^^i., from which am is taken. I'his, however, shall be demonstrated in the progress of my work, and in its proper place. We find in the English language numerous words, whose etymology M 2 84 has perished, and whose affinities it is impossible to trace. They appear insulated, both literally and nietaphoricallj^ speaking, and seem to have neither ancestor, nor kindred upon earth. In vain we search for them in the Galic, AVelch, Teutonic, Slavonic, Latin, Greek or Sanscrit. Other expressions have perhaps one solitary' relation on the Continent, and some few retain a slight resemblance to words of like import in Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac or Chaldee, such at least as may lead us to suspect, that, once in general use, they have survived in England, after having been for ages lost in all the rest of Europe. Among these J am inclined to reckon hash, because hush in Hebrew means to blush, and had, when it means ill health, because it is allied to ahad of the four oriental dialects, which means to perish. Cream is com- monly derived from cremor, with which it has no connexion, whilst it evidently agrees with chserem (C3"lp) a skin. Dauh in one of its ac- ceptations may be contracted from dealbare; but, when it conveys the notion of defilement, it seems rather to be derived from dab of the Hebrew, as in dabyonim stercus columbinum. 2 Kings, c. vi. v. 25. Daw may be related to n ST of Leviticus xi. v. 14, and Deut. xiv. v. 13. Harm seems allied to harem (a in) injury, defect, loss. To be in a hohble is a common expression for embarrassment. This word in Hebrew (^1T\) means a snare. Job xviii. v. 10. Eccl. xii. v. 6; a crowd, 1 Sam. 10, v. 5; excessive grief and perplexity. Tormina quae hominem quasi fune arclissime constringunt. Jesa, xiii. v. 8. Idle accords with hiddel ("^Tn) and ill with hille. {ThT\.) Lad seems to be jaled (^'?^) Hebrew and Syriac of the same import. 85 Mite and jnote may be megat {^i!p.) very small. Nick and knock agree Avith naka (HDJ) he struck. Odd may come from jahd (in''.) one. Rage may spring from ragaz (iJl.) of the Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac, which means to be exceedingly moved in mind or body. Rein, in French resnes, may proceed from resen (lD"l) of the Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic of the same import. Rogue may be allied to rag (;;■).) evil. To rush may come from ragash (Wi!l) he was moved with violence. Sad agrees with saved (l>i1D.) he moved slowly. Suad and suid in Arabic mean melancholy. Till and tillage may be deduced from telem (CD*?]!.) a furrow. Tire is distinctly (mtO) tirah fatigue. Track appears to be the same word with derak ("^"11.) of the Hebrew and Chaldee, or tariq of the Arabic, a foot path, a way, a journey. In this same acceptation the Polish has adopted droga. Walk perfectly agrees with halek {"^bil.) Wish may have been derived from biqesh (^*p.?) he sought with earnestness. To these might be added many similar to them. But I forbear, be- cause the affinity of such words to Hebrew, not being demonstrated by a comparative view of many kindred languages, must remain as a doubtful conjecture, which can give little satisfaction to the mind. It is not sufficient, that there should be some coincidence in sound and sense, for this may be merely accidental, but, where the local distance is great, and the examples of similitude between any given languages 86 are few; we should have a regular clviin, and the more closely the links unite together, the more firm is our confidence, that our induction is agreeable to truth. Thus, for example, in our words high and head, deduced above in regular gradation, the one from alius, the other from caput, the links are so numerous and well connected as to leave little room for doubt. In our word she, the Slavonic ese and the Irish isi point out the origin dis- tinctly and lead us to isha ('"'t^^j of the Hebrew. But should any one deduce each from ish of the Hebrew, merely be- cause these words agree perfectly in sense, and nearly so in sound; he would, in my apprehensions, be too precipitate in his conjecture, because the proper links are wanting to the chain. I have pointed out the affinity between Greek and English. Let us now compare the latter with the modern languages of Europe. It has been stated by Ca;sar that the Belgae, landing in the South of Britain, took possession of the country adjacent to the sea, and we know that kindred hordes from Scandanavia, and the north of Europe, whether Angles, Jutes, or Saxons, followed in succeeding generations, and established their language in our island. A resem- blance, therefore, should be found between the English and the Belfjic. But ill the space of two thousand years since the Belgae, and of twelve hundred since the Saxons established themselves in Britain, considerable changes nmst have taken place on both sides of the water, and a sensible difference should now be found betweeen the modern Belgic and the English. This precisely is what we discover in these languages, a resemblance and a difference. 87 In Belgic the article continues to be declined and to be dislingnislicd by its gender, as in the Anglo-Saxon. The nouns have retained only one declension, and the principal variations in the oblique cases are made by the article In the conjugation of their verbs, the inhabitants of Belgium, like the English adhere to the practice of the Saxons, in having only two tenses inflected in their termination, the others being formed by auxiliary verbs, as ik leer, I learn ; ik leerde, I learned ; ik heb geleerd, I have learned; ik had geleerd, I had learned; ik zal lecrcn, I shall learn ; ik zou, zoud or zgude, leeren I should learn ; leer, loarn thou ; leeren, to learn. In this verb, as in many others, both languages agree to form their infinitive like the Greek by N: but although in most of its verbs the English has dropped the final N, the Belgic pertinaci- ously retains it. Thus much for the resemblance, in respect to their inflexions still subsisting between the Dutch, or Belgic, and the English. Now let us examine a few words taken at random from these languages, that we may be more competent to judge of their affinity. Bake, bakken; ball, bal; band, band; bank, bank; bar, baar ; bare, bar; bath, fead; hathe, baaden ; hean, boon ; a bear, bcev; bear, (pario) baaren; beard, baard; beast, beest; bed, bedde; bee, bi/e ; beer, bier; belief, geloof; believe, gelooven ; bench, bank; better, beter ; best, de beste ; bid, gebieden; bier, baar; bill, byl; bind, hinden; birth, geboorte; bit, gebit; bladder, blaas; bite, bytcn ; blab, uitlabben; blain, hloedvin; blanch, bleeken ; bleach, bleeken; bleat, bleeien; bleak, bleek ; bleat, blaet.en; bleed, bloeden; blind, blind; blith, blyd; blue, blaauw ; 88 block, bloh ; bloom, bloessem ; blow, hlaazen ; blush, bloozen ; boat, boot ; board, berdt; bone, been; book, boek; boom, boom; boor, boer; born, gebooren; both, beijde; bound, gebonden ; ho\f , boog ; a box, bits; box, boxboom ; brave, braaf; brain, hrein; brand, brand; breach, break; bread, brood; break, breeken; breast, borst ; breed, broeden; brew, broiiuen; bride, hruid; bridge, brug; brine, breyn; bring, brengen; broad, breed; brood, hroedsel; brood, \\ braeden ; brown, bruin; buch, bock; bulb, bol; bull, bul; burn, branden; bush, bosch; by, by. Cake, A-oeA:; calf, kalf; cdi\m,kalm; can, A:a« ; cap, kap; cape, Araop chaff, Arq/'; chain, keten; chance, kans; chap, gacupen; chaste, kuisch cheap, goedkoop; cheer, cier; cheese, kaas; chew, kaauwcn ; chick, kuiken chill, killen; chin, kin; chop, kappen, choose, kiezen, clad, gekleed clap, klappen; claw, klaauwen; clay, Hei; clear, klaar; cleft, kloofde; clew, kluven; clinch, omklinken ; clink, klank; clown, kloen; cluck, klokken; cloth, kleedt; a cock, een Aaan; cold, kout; coal, Aoo^; coast, Atms^; comb, kam; come, komen; cool, A;oe/; coop, kuipen; cork, ArwrAr, &c. &c. &c. Day, dag; dead, dood; death, de dood; deaf, doof; dean, deken; dear, dierbaar; do, rfoe/t; deep, rfie/j; to die, sterven; a dish, schotd, dry, droog; duck, didken; &c. Earth, aarde; fat, ue^; fen, wen; fish, mcA; five, t)j//; flarae, v/aw; flax, vlas; flea, t;/oo; to flie, vliegen; a fly, t^/ieg; floor, vloer; forth, wor^, four, vier; fraud, bedrog; free, wj/; fresh, verscl^; frost, wrs/; full, vol. Sec. (jaiii, winste; gape, gapen; guess, gissen; give, geven; glad, fe/yrfe and vrobjk; gold, ^ozif; good, ^^oe</; goose, gons; great, groo^; gripe, gri/pai, guttur, goo/, &c. 89 The Dutch or Belgic has vader, moeder, suster, brooder, &c. &c. These examples are sufficient to shew the affinity between the two languages, and the nature of the changes, which have taken place in them, since their separation; but the more minutely any one compares them together, the more clearly will he see, that they are radically one. Considering this affinity, and a similar affinity between the Dutch or Belgic, and the German, two kindred dialects of the Teutonic, which was the ancient language of those fierce invaders, who are represented by Caesar as uniting their forces with the Cimbri, to break in upon the Roman empire; we may naturally expect to find some similitude between the English and the German, yet as they branched off during a remote period from the common stock, it is not to be expected, that the like- ness will be perfect. For as in persons, who are distantly related, a fa- mily resemblance strikes the eye, yet in each individual some distinguish- ing feature Avill appear; so precisely is it with these languages. To trace the analogy, we must call to mind, what has been delivered respecting the substitution of one letter for another in those of the same organ, as happens to B. P. F. V. W. M. which in the practice of all nations have been esteemed equivalent. We have seen that this privi- lege extends to T. D. Th. and equally so to C. G. K. Ch. J. Q. In like manner, H. S. T. and Z, though they have no organic affinity, yet readily lake each other's place. Ge, as an affix forms nouns, and verbs, and the participle past. This may be contracted into G. With this clue, let us attempt to trace the affinity between the German and the English, confining our researches chiefly to monosyllabic ex- VOL. II. N 90 pressions, as having the highest claim to antiquity, and leaving a com- parative view of the inflexions, till the German language shall pass more immediately in review before us. Bake, backen; ball, ball; band, band; bank, banck; bare, bar; as in barfuss, barefooted: bath, bad; bay, bai/e; beam, baum a tree; bean, bohne; bear, (ursa) bar; bear (pario) geb'dhren; beard, hart; bed, bette ; bee, biene; beer, bier; belief, glaube; believe, glauben; bench, banck; better, besser; best, beste; bid, gebieten; bill, beil; bind, binden; birch, bircke; birth, geburth; bit, bissen; bite, beissen; bladder, blase; bleach, bhichen; h\eat, blecken ; h\eed, blui en ; blind, WintZ; block, block; blood, blut; bloom, blume; blow, (flare) blasen; blue, blau ; boat, boot; board, brett ; bond, binde; bone, beiti; book, bitch; boor, bauer ; bore, bohren; born, gebohren; both, beyde ; bound, gebunden ; bow, (flectere curvare) beiigen; bow, (arcus) bogen; box (pyxis) buchse, box (buxus) buchs-baum; brand, brand; breach, bruch; bread, brot ; breast, brust ; breed, bruten; brew, brauen ; bride, braut ; bridegroom; brautigam.; bridge, briickc; brief, brief : hnng, bringen: hro'dd, breit : brood, bruten : broth, briihe: brother, bruder; father, vater; mother, mutter; sister, sclmester; brown, braiin; buck, bock; build, bilden: burn, brennen: burst, bcrsten: by, bey: chaff", kaf: calf, kalb: kettle, kessel : scratch, kraizen : cow, ktdi. Dam, Da)nm ; dance, tanz ; daughter, tochter ; deaf, taub ; death, iod ; deep, tief; dip, t a iijf en , d\sh, tisch ; dove, taube ; duch, taucken ; dveam, irautn; diive, treiben; drip, triefen; drill, trillen; drink, //7/JcA"e»; (Irf)p, Iropf; (h'oss, truscn; drunk, tnmck; dry, ti'ocken: dumb, stumm; dung, dtingtn: dale, ilial: dare, durj'en: deal, theilen : dear, tlieuer: deed, 91 that: deer, thier: dew, thau: do, thun: done, getliim: dun, our pro- vincial term for clay in mines, tlioii: door, thnrc and tliov. . Folk, volck: fowl, vogel: full, I'o//: foot, /"//«: bead, haupt, hate, /ms.v. Let, lasseii: love, Uehen: lot, foo.ss: midday, mittag: night, nacht: nettle, nessel: nut, 7i?<ss: ox, oc/ia': rain, regen: saw and say, sagen: saddle, sattel: scuttle, schussel: seven, sicben: shade, schatte : shave, xchaben : shear, scheeren: sheath, scheid: shed, scheiden: sheep, schaaf: shine, scheinen: shoe, schuh: shove, shieben: sieve, sicb: sleep, schlaf: sloe, schleen : soap, seife: sore, schxsar: speak, sprachen: stand, stehen: suck, saiigen : swallow, schwalbe. Tale, zahl: tame, zahmen: teat, dutte: ten, zcJm: than, dcnn: thank, dancken: that, dass: thatch, dach: then, dann: i\\eve'\w, darinnen, dren, and dahin : thereupon, draben and daran : thereover, druber : there- under, drunter : thereby, dabey : therefore, dafur: thief, c?ie6: thievery, dieberey. thick, dick: thickness, dicke: thin, dun: thine, dein: thing, dmg: think, dencken: thirst, durst: thirsty, durstig: this, dieser: this «ide, disseit : thistle, distel; thither, dorther : thorn, dorn: thou, du: thought, ge dancke: tongue, zunge; threaten, drohen and drauen: three, drey: thresh, dreschen: through, durch : throng, drangeji : thrash, drossel : thumb, daumen: thunder, donner: turn, drehen. Two, zwey; twelve, zw'dlf; twenty, zwanzig; twig, zweig; twinge, zwirigen to swink, to strain, to constrain; twixt, zwischen, and twilight zwischen light, that is betwixt the two lights. Verily, warlick; weapon, wafen; weigh, wdgen; waWow, zpalzen; what, was; water, wasser; way, weg; world, welt; whiten, weissen ; widow, wittwe; week, woche. N 2 92 In this selection, under the letter b, I take, as in the Belgic, every analogous expression, confining myself, however, principally to our monos3']lables, because these shew their remote connexion. In the other parts I call the attention to such only, as either in German or English, have changed one or more of their consonants. Had I not thus limited my choice, my vocabulary must have exceedingly increased, and in the monosyllabic alone, Avould have exceeded twelve hundred. In the age of Chaucer, the dissimilarity to our modern language is equally strik- ing, as will appear by some few of his words, whose orthography has been changed the most: Askis, ashes: bath, both: bole, bull: bone, boon: boon, bone: bothum, bud: cale, cold: ceisse, seize: cesse, cease: chese, choose: chiver, shiver: dawe, day: ecke, each: egg, edge: eighe, eye: fee7', five: fore, far: fra, from: freten, to eat: heed, head: heere, hare: heire, hair: hegge, a hedge: ich, I: Horn, lost: iyeve, given: kele, to cool: kist, cdst: kitt, cut: knave, a servant boy: Icgge, to allege, to lay: fer, leer, empty : Icre, to learn. In short, whether we examine the Dutch, the German, or the ancient language of Charlemaigne, and even of the more remcfte ages, to which the Gothic of Ulphilas has been referred, and compare these with the English, either in the days of Chaucer, or in more modern times; we shall be equally convinced that, however they may differ in their acci- dental forms, their elementary parts are perfectly the same. I might here institute the same comparison between the English and Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Russian, Polish, and other Slavonian dia- lects, spoken in the vast extent of country stretching eastward, between the Baltic and the Northern Pacific Ocean, to which I might add the 9^ Persian and the Sanscrit; but the affinity between these languages will be more properly displayed, when I proceed to treat of them particularly in the progress of my work. I shall now examine what advantage may accrue to us from an ex- tensive acquaintance with kindred languages; if we are solicitous to gain a critical knowledge of our own. Dr. Johnson commonly referred to the Anglo-Saxon, and where this failed him, which seldom iiappened, he sought his derivations from the French, the Dutch, the Latin, or the Welch. But, not being an adept in languages, he could proceed no further. A reference to the Anglo-Saxon is a reference merely from our modern diction to the ancient, and marks the change, where a change has taken place, but is of little value to the etymologist, unless it should assist him in detecting the affinity with other languages, and in tracing words to the fountain, whence they originally came. The most perfect ac- quaintance with the languages, to which he refers, if our researches are confined to them, will never lead us to a critical knowledge of the English. To attain this, it is needful, that we should possess all the lan- guages of Europe, ancient as well as modern, and be able to distinguish their connexion, both with each other, and with the oriental languages, to which, as to a common centre, they ultimately tend. For want of this information, in vain did Dr. Johnson, attempt to mark the progress of meaning, and to shew by what gradation of inter- mediate senses, words have passed from their primitive to their remote and accidental signification. This will appear by selecting a few ex- pressions out of many, which might be produced, were I disposed to 94 multipJy examples. With these I shall intersperse some of our particles, as best adapted to show the origin and affinities of the English language.. In this selection I confine myself to monosyllables. An means, according to Johnson, one, or any, but it is likewise used ibr if in the Lowland dialect of Scotland. In Shakespear it frequently occurs. " An I may hide my face, let me play Thisby too." In more vulgar language it signifies as if, " I will roar you a?i 'twere any night- ino-ale." [n the first acceptation it claims affinity to £v, and runs throuc^h all the languages of Europe. In the second it is tav of the Greek, an of the Latin, den of the Swedish, wann of the German, cen and in (]n. ] k) of Chaldee, and perfectly agreeing with ini (Di<) of the Hebrew, which may be the genuine parent of our word if. And; in Belgic endc ; in German und; Teutonic unte; in French et; Italian e; Spanish y and e; in Polish iets; Hungarian es; Slavonic da audi; in Latin etiam, atque ; in Greek ii^f ; in Sanscrit ato. Our word is certainly connected with, and may probably be derived from amid-; Saxon, to add. But both and and annd may possibly be allied to hi, and to od {Ip) of the Hebrew: and the N may be in- serted as in render from reddere. As, appears to be the same word with w?, of the Greek, ez of the Armenian; and asa of the Persian; and may possibly be related to Caasher (it^'i^D) of the Hebrew. At. Tliis word does not extend beyond the bounds of the Roman Empire, and therefore directs our attention towards ad and apud, that is ad pedes. In Hebrew we have atzel (7^^) imad 0?V.) and (n^) but without immediate links Ave cannot connect these to add. 95 Aye, has three meanings. 1. Intimating assent and consent, hke yea, it agrees with our French, gea Saxon, and ja German. This may be accordingly either aio, as in plautus, vel ai vel nega ; or it may be, as suggested by Mr. Tooke, ayez and not improbably avi. 2. Conveying the notion of infinite duration it is allied to «£?. 3. Asa lamentation; ay me, or wo is me, may be oV"*, Hei mihi. (in) bo. Heb. Baste means, 1. To beat with a stick. 2. To pour dripping on meat whilst roasting. 3. To fasten needle-work with long stitches. These are independent of each other. The first is by Dr. Johnson derived, and very properly, from bastonner, and baston a staff, which may originate either in (ixqz^o) or in TajTatra-c'. The second looks towards baisteach, in Irish, a shower, and may be connected with -rao-o-fiv to sprinkle. The third is the Persian bastan, to bind, to connect, to join, to fasten. Hence bastagi a ligature. From this verb, bestch which is the participle of benden seems to be derived. Bat, means, 1. a stick with which we strike a ball. 2. A bird. 3. A sumpter horse. The first agrees with balaeidh, Galic, and batte, French, a staff or club. Connected with this we have to beat, 'TrxTxira-siv. The second may be allied to the first, because they smite with their wings. The third, imported from France, is connected with bat and bast, a pack-saddle, derived from (ixqxi^ci; see baste. Boi/, referring, 1. either to colour, or, the tree, may be (pcciog. 96 2. To an opening in the land it is /^ioj. 3. To the barking of a dog, it is distinctly (ixvl^a. Bear-, 1. Carry, as a burthen, 2. produce young, 3. a wild beast. In the first acceptation it is allied to ferre and (pepetv; in the second to pario; in the third, it is probably ferus, that is the genus for the species. Bill, 1. a beak. In this acceptation, it may be derived from vello; but the presumption is, that we have here the instrument for the action performed by it; because in Galic, bil and beul signify mouth, whether of beasts or birds. 2. A hatchet, or in common speech, bill hook, in Welch, bilwg, in Greek ■xtXcxus, may be the offspring of the Galic beul. 3. A tradesman'?! account, and the proposal for a law presented to parliament, is certainly libellous. Box, has various significations, all according with the Greek; 1. A tree, buxus in Latin, bouis in French, bosso Italian, buxo Por- tuguese, buysa in Galic, bocysbren in "Welch, boxtreow Saxon, bux-boom in Dutch, buchsbaum German, bukspan Polish, buszpan Hungarian. 2. A case or chest, '^vlog. Pyxis in Latin, boccys in Welch and bocsa in Galic, boete in French, bus in Dutch, is 'rtvE.ig. 3. A blow on the head with the hand, and to fight with the fist. ]n these acceptations it is derived from tu$, and to box is distinctly ^vKTsve^. or Uvbi^axs^^u^, as used by Ilesiod. From the same root probably we derive our words fst and Jight. Bjj perfectly agrees with t-x] in all the rich variety of meanings, attributed to it by Dr. Johnson, as any one may instantly perceive if he will compare them. Indeed b>/ is hi m one of its abbreviated forms. 97 No nation invents new particles for itself. They pass by inheritance from fathers to their sons, and thongh liable to be disfigured and abused, their descent may be traced if we compare kindred languages together. They are well denominated by Horn Tooke tTftx TCTepoBvrcc, winged words, and as such in a distant flight they are apt to drop some feathers by the way, but the substance still remains. Ey, has the same affinity to the prepositions 3 and T\2 of the oriental nations, as it has to eV, for these likewise are radically one. I. Does b^ denote the agent, instrument, or cause; so do 2.1''2 and fxi. Man shall not live by bread alone, but %, &c. ow tz xpTu iJ.ovca.!^\^TeTzi mv^pwKOg aWWi.. x. t. X. Mat. iv. 4. Sotirj Tkf (TV{ ryviasi is by thy knowledge, 1 Cor. viii. 11. Thus we have, the just shall live by (n) his faith, Hab. ii. 4. and with or by them (ona) he taught the men of Succoth, Judges viii. 16. So ntt'D TiQ is very properly translated " As he spake by Moses," Ex. ix. 35. II. Is 63/ equivalent to at or in, noting place? So are eV* and a. Thus Inil E,evvis eivxt is to be in a strange country. D^Dtt'a ia heaven, ^'ni^a in the earth. III. By means according to, and after, noting conformity; so do t^i and 3. eV* ouoi^xTi ts Trcnpoi. Lu. i. 59. after the name of his father. C3^D\-! -)aDD3 after the number of the days, Nu. xiv. 34. IV. By, means, not later than, noting time. In Greek we have jTTt t" eu eVi t" (*fTOiK£,ria,', and thus we translate tV: (^vjvaj Tptig, by the space of three months; and in Hebrew we havelp^l^,^ day break, and DVa D1^ day by day. YOL. II. Q 98 V. By means neov, beside, at hand, in presence, answering to Int and 3 as in e^-t TroT^fio; and sTt t'/)v ^ccKxa-axv, Rev. xv. 2. ")3D injl Ezek. X. 15, by the river of Chebar. VI. By himself, denoting absence of all others, corresponds exactly with £(p' exvjov. VII. By, as the solemn form of swearing, is found distinctly in the Hebrew D^n'?X3 Gen. xxi. 23. mn^a Gen. xxiv. 3. and ^3 Gen. xxii. 16. by myself have I sworn. In the kindred languages, bi Saxon, Swedish and Gothic, by Belgic, bey German, ba Persian, and po Slavonian, are used in all the various acceptations, either attributed by Dr. Johnson to our word, or to be found in i-n-l of the Greek. It is acknowledged, that the Gothic, if not the parent, is at least of the same lineage, and closely allied to the English. In that language we find the subsequent, in addition to the acceptations of bi already noticed. I. Bi for, answering to tVi and 2, as used in fVi fj.i<T^afor hire, svccycc^w for good. ^DD3 2 Sam. xxiv. 24, for silver, \^^ Deut. xix. 21. /or tooth, and b m 3 Gen. xxix. 18. for Rachael. II. Bi on, over, tVi twv nrvoiu y.ot.%\^ivoi, sitting on horses, and Vjnon Gen. xxxvii. 34, on his loins. JTI. Bi after, noting time, as in eni TBTOig after these things. IV. Bi against t^ v^t-xg ■irxpcca-KVix^eTai prepared against you, and "^31 mn''3 Nu. xxi. 7- against the Lord and against thee. From what has been adduced, is it not probable that our word by, and bi of the Gothic dialects, originate in tV*, and have a close affinity with 2 the most abbreviated form of this preposition in the liebrcw. No one can hold the talents of Mr. Tooke in higher estimation than myself: yet I can never be persuaded, ihat our Saxon ancestors were under a necessity of inventing particles, or wantonly rejected those which came to them by tradition from their fathers. They might var}' these, like all oth(;r nations, but they neither abandoned the old particles, nor, without tlie least occasion for such an effort, invented new ones. Cheer, as meaning gaiety and courage, is allied both to xalpai and to y.iccp. Cleave means, 1. to adhere, 2. to divide. These are discordant accep- tations, and must therefore be derived from different fountains. 1. To adhere, in Belgic kleven, in Saxon cleofan, in Welch glynu, in Swedish klibba, in Danish klebc, in German kleben, in Slavonic klein, when compared with clay and glue in the same languages, all look towards yXix. 2. To divide, to split; in Belgic klieven, in Saxon cleofan, in Swedish klyfwa, in Danish klove, in Russian kulupatee and ras-kaluivaiu, in Sla- vonic kliniu; all these, with zakliwiani, in Polish a wedge, claim affinity to nXxu, Cry. Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, has enumerated ten several meanings, all supposed to have been derived from the French crier to call out, to scream and to proclaim. 1. In this acceptation, cry well agrees with gridare Italian, grede Old English, cfi6 Welch, schreyen German, skrige Danish, skria Swedish, krziez and krziik Polish, y-piien of Hesych, and may claim affinity to nftt(^o}. upccvyvf and y-yipv^. O 2 100 2. Cry, to shed tears is certainly allied to, and may be derived from Sxyipveiv. In the Gothic we have tagrida, he shed tears and gr^itan to weep, which perfectly agree with grata Swedish, graata Icelandic, greet in Scotland, kriiten Dutch, greinen German, kiria or girieh Persian. Deep, dip and dive, run through all the northern languages of Europe, and seem, as stated above, to originate in Sitttw. But deep, when ap- plied to tones, is Bov^rog. Down, means 1. soft feathers, 2. descent, 3. elevated land. 1. For this word in the first of these acceptations we are indebted to the Danes, Swedes, and Icelanders, among whom it is written dun and duun. 2. Down (deorsum) has for its indirect affinities, dwfn Welch, dona Armoric, and duffen Saxon, all meaning deep. Of precisely the same import, we have adunes and dune Saxon, deene Russian, ndene Epi- rotic, dnu and dno Slavonic, Polish, Bohemian and Dalmatian. All these claim the most strict affinity with ivvia. 3. Down, for elevated land, is dun and dune Saxon, duyne Belgic, dunes French and Armoric. These may originate in Aavog CEol. for Bavog. Bar signifies, 1. to plough, 2. the organ of hearing, 3. a spike of corn. These several meanings have no relation to each other* 1. Ear, when it indicates the act of ploughing, is radically the same with harrow. It agrees with arar Spanish, aeren Dutch, aeria Swedish, er Icelandic, oriu Slavonic, orze Polish, ar^idh Galic, and aredig Welch, aro Latin, apou' Greek, (tynn) harash Hebrew, and harath 101 Arabic. In English we say "give the land one earth," that is plough it once. 2. Ear, as the organ of hearing, agrees with oreja Spanish, ohr Ger- man, eare Saxon, oor Dutch, ora Swedish, ore 13anish, eyra fcelandic, auris Latin, auso Gothic, ousen, oucho, uscze, and assi Slavonic, Boh. and Pol. ghus, or gosh Persian, ovxg Greek, and in its ^olic dia- lect uap. 3. Ear of corn is a^yp. Fair. 1. annual market, foire French, feria Latin. These originate in lepcci v^ii,£pai. 2. Clear complexion, may be connected with (pKxpog Greek, and hair (TiKiI) Hebrew, shining. S. Beautiful, foeger Saxon, fager Swedish, in the Icelandic fallagur, in Latin pulcher. 4. Honest. In this acceptation it accords with fior of the Galic, which is of the same import with verus. Fast. 1. as denoting abstinence from food, improbable as it ap- pears, may be awaqoi because similar abbreviations are not uncommon. 2. As firm and strong, it agrees with pasati Slavonic, and bastan Persian, to gird, fasten, connect besteh bound, and peiwesteh con- nected, but should (tT2) phazaz really mean, as explained by Bux- torf, to consolidate, to strengjthen; we should be warranted in fixing on this as the genuine root. 3. As denoting speed it agrees with ffest of the Welch, and festino of the Latin. In this sense it may originate in nEB.euia or in pes, pedis, as these do in aroua- voSog, which latter may probably give birth to amuS-^ and (TzrevBeiv, expedire to speed. I am inclined to think it may be related to pliazaz, which means in Arabic nimble, and in Hebrew, as appears by 2 Sam. ch. 6. v. 16, dancing with agility and strength. Fat. 1. a vessel, agrees with fat Saxon and Swedish, vat Dutch, fass German, fade Danish, fata Icelandic, vatain Slavonic, fasa Polish, pa- tina Latin, ■^a^Tav^^. G. Well-fed, agrees perfectly with fett German, vet Belgic, foet Saxon, and is of kin to <pxTv^, And to phatam of the Arabic and Chaldee. FcU. 1. as a verb active, to knock down, or to cut down, and as the preterite of fall, agrees with adfeilo Welch, feallan Saxon, vallen Belgic, valenie Slavonic, fall Icelandic, field English, feld Saxon and German, felt Danish, fiall Swedish, poille and pule Slavonic, polye Dalmatian, polie Polish, pole Bohemian and Russian, feuld Hungarian: All these agree exactly with Phalah (n'?^) he cut down. 2. The skin. In this sense it is pellis and (peXKog. , , ■ 3. As cruel, it is of uncertain origin, but may possibly be allied to D""7 2? (nephilim^ Genesis vi. 4. Fine. 1. as a conclusion, is finis. .2. As a mulct, is Troivvj. 3. As opposed to coarse, agrees with fion, mion, and min, Galic; main Welch, mean Armoric, menu French, minutus Latin, and fj^eiuv. 4. As splendidly beautiful, is (paeivog. ,j,j Flake. 1. floccus, flocke, German, flog Danish. 2. As a wattle or large hurdle, it agrees with, plaque French, vlack 103 Dutch, flake and bleck, Swedish, blick Danish, bliacka Russian, blaclia Polish, plech Bohemian, irKx^.yiog and TrXemoo, plecto, pHco. For has a strict affinity with or, air, and gur, Galic, er Welch, pour and parceque, French, por Spanish, per Italian, for Saxon, voer Dutch, fiir German, perze Polish, car French, erse Hungarian, barai and bahar, or behri, Persian ; and these are allied to pro, vwep, woipx, and yajp ; as faura in the Gothic is likewise, when it governs an ablative case. Indeed pro, proe, per, irctpx, vnrep, zrpo, and yxp, are evidently connected with, and may have (mn;;3) bagabur for their progenitor. This preposition in Hebrew indicates the cause. It marks in whose favor and for whose sake a thing is done, or for what price a commodity is sold. In like manner we find v'nep vi\j.uv x-n-i^xve, he died for us, ^ap hx a-^^puTrou, for one man, ^po vxiSuv nxi yuvxmuv [j.xxzcr^xi, i.e. pro aris and focis. Thus in Hebrew i^OV ^'7^'^ '^\^1]3'2. (2 Sam. xii. 21.) Thou didst fast for the child. Because they sell the poor man for {'^\^2V'2) a pair of shoes, Amos ii. 6. Thus likewise we read Minas viginti pro ambobus dcdi. Terence. This preposition is of extensive use, and, according to Dr. Johnson, admits of foi'ty distinctions. Variously applied it indicates resemblance and character, as Seneca says pro ignoto me aspernaris; and we sa}', you- take me ybr a Stranger. It marks exchange, reference, respect, re- gard, intention, tendency, expectation, direction, condition, duration. In composition it implies opposition, or negation, as in the words forbid, forget, forsake. In this intention it agrees with its kindred languages prohibeo, profanus, vxpaSo^og Trxpx(pvjiv Trxpxnovu. 104 Connected with for in the sanie intention is our ancient preposition fore, as used by Shakespear in the word forefended, that is forbidden. Fore, as a preposition signifying priority in time, place, or quahty, has nearly the same affinities with for. Thus we have in Galic for, in Saxon foran and fore, in Dutch veur and voor, in German vor and feur, in Teutonic, vore, in Danish for, and in the CJothic faur and faura, which last, when it agrees with ■rrxf.x near, or wpo before, governs either the ac- cusative or ablative; but, when it means in the presence of, it requires the g^enitive. Tro, which corresponds to for^ and 'pro., which means before, have such an affinity, that they readily usurp each other's place. Thus Cicero writes, " Proe lacrymis non possum reliqua scribere," or, as we should say, " For tears I can write no more," and again pro cede sedens, sitting before the house. In Greek, -rrpo may answer to either pro or prce, as vpo o(J)^«Xf*«v ^^« upxi and tTcaivsiv 'Ttpo Smxioa-vvvjg aimizv. That is before, in place, time, ex- cellence, or estimation. Nay, such is the agreement between these pre- positions, that even rsapa, which answers commonly to per, as in 'jfxp oXoy t" ^lov, per totam vitam, for the whole course of his life, and in like manner to propter, as rtapa tj, propter quod, may correspond to pro, as 'jccp cvSev Ciyna^xi, pro nihilo ducere, or, as we should say, to tell for nothing. Considering the affinity between the Gothic and the Greek, I am in- clined to think, that fairina, which Mr. Tooke assumes as the parent of our word for, is itself a compound of Ttcepx and ivet as the French and Spanish combine pro and (juia or pro quo in their pourquoi and por 105 que, for this cause. Particles arc indeed liable to the same mutations as other parts of speech, but they pass by tradition from parents to their children, and in all nations seem to have been retained with more pertinacity than either nouns or verbs. Trom, in Old English fra and fraj, answers to fra and fram Saxon, fram and faura Gothic, fra Danish and Icelandic, fran and ifian Swedish, and to Trarpa, w lien it governs the genitive, as in Thucidides aa:pi (ixj-iXeuic, from the king. In the Gothic of Ulphilas, this affinity is clearly marked, for we read thluiliand faura imma, they will flee from him. The Goths had likewise of, a preposition of the same import, evidently related to the Greek u'xo, of which the Swedes retain both af and pa. Ylapa. in this acceptation, may be allied to farain of the Hebrew, ■which, like its associates yrtrar/, yflra.9, 2lx\6. farats, contains the notion of separation, and consequently of distance. Fy! This interjection, in French fi, is not expressive of lamentation, but of detestation and abhorrence. It is not therefore (p'tv, as stated by Minsheu, Johnson, Skinner, and Boyer; but probably may be an ab- breviation of fiend. In Saxon we have find, in Danish fiend, in German feind, Teutonic fiant and viant, Gothic fiand, an enemy. Again, in Saxon we have figan to hate; in Gothic faith, hateth. Hence we may possi' ly have derived defiance. Hide means, 1. the skin of animals. In this acceptation it agrees with hyd Saxon, huid, haude and houde Dutch, haut German, hud Danish and Swedish, cutis and a-wjor. VOL. II. p 106 2. To conceal is liydan Saxon, huten German, viev^en/ Greek, and cahad Hebrew. 3. A measure of land. In Galic we find jod, which means both a cast, as of a dart, and a certain measure of land. Should the latter be de- rived from the former, our search after the origin of this word may ter- minate in (ni"') jadah of the Hebrew, he cast. Host is 1. hospes, 2. hostis, 3. hostia; see Guest. If, in Saxon gif, in German ob, in Gothic jabai and gabai. In Gothic we have likewise ibai. This word seems, as suggested by Skin- ner and by Mr. Tooke, to be derived from gifan, Saxon. In the Old English we find yeve, yave, yeoven, yeftes, give, gave, given and gifts, in Hebrew jahab (nn ">) he gave. That if is equivalent to give, and etymologically connected with it, is rendered probable not only by the affinity between an, if, and anan, to give, in Saxon, but by the same correspondence between amam of the Arabic, to place, propose, or state, and im of the Hebrew a position, preposition, and the conditional conjunction if. {v. Koerberi Lex apud Noldium.) Yet after all that has Been said, considering the close affinity between our northern languages and Greek, I cannot help suspecting that if may have sprung from eivep or iWw?, as the Gothic ei, if, is indubitably h, which seems to have the same connexion with ei^, be it, as si has with sit. Should this be granted, it will follow, that if originates in jehi, be it, of the Hebrew. In the Icelandic, which is one of the most venerable languages of 107 Europe, ef indicates doubt. Tlieir word tnncf and our old expression an if, seem to unite the two conditional conjunctions la-v and tn^ep of the Greek. J«, 1. When used to designate time and place, is common to the Latin, Italian, Belgic, German, Swedish, Gothic, and is evidently the same with en French and Spanish, and fv Greek. The Galic has ann, the Welch yn, the Swedish o/?, the Arminian een, and the Gothic and., answering to fvTor. The Lowland Scotch say hen, and the Hungarians ban, hen and bcnne^ which may be considered as compounds. 2. When used as a negative, it is evidently iv of the Greek, as appears by civccf^vtix impurity, avxiSaia impudence, xuxiTioi innocent, avenXeiitTws unceasing, perfectly corresponding to ain of Hebrew and of the oriental nations. Just. Home Tooke has taken much pains to confound the meaning of this and of many other words : but the well-intentioned philologist should be ever mindful to preserve them from confusion, by accurately marking, not merely the original meaning, but the changes, which, in process of time, have taken place in the use of terms. Under this impression we must observe that just, when it means 1. Regular and lawful, is certainly derived from jubeo and justura : but by accommodation its meaning has been extended to equitable, upright, virtuous, exact in retribution. Injury, the negative term, has been frequently confounded with damage by those, who do not consider, that there may be damnum sine injuria. p2 108 ■ 2. Nearly, is juxta, jouste, old French, jusque, modern. Lap has three distinct notions. 1. To lick up, or feed by quick reciprocations of the tongue. In this sense it agrees with lappian Saxon, lappen and slabben Dutch, liippem German, lappia Swedish, la'per French, and all these may terminate in XaTrTttv. 2. To lap over. 'I'his agrees with flap. In Saxon we find laeppe, in German lappe, in Swedish lapp, in Icelandic laf. In Greek Xo^Ij; a scale and Xai^og a tattered garment. The lap of the ear, which is in Danish ore lap, and in German ohr lapplein, appears to be Xo/3o; in the Greek. Lopin of the French has been referred to Xo^oi, but as it means a fragment of flesh, or bread, seized in haste and privately conveyed away, it rather seems to be alHed to kXott'', precisely as hhftus of the Gothic is y-XivTVi;. Connected with this we have lift, as used by Dryden for robbing or plundering, and shoplifter, the common appel- lation for one who pilfers, whilst he pretends to purchase. 3. The mother's lap, in Swedish lapp, may refer to noXTrog. Left from the verb leave, in Swedish leifa and lefwa, is XfiTrw, but the left-hand is lajvus and terminates in Xccior. Let. 1. To permit, accords with luidhasam Galic, laisser French, Jcclnn Saxon, and Icxiten Dutch, Iciden and lassen German- lata Swedish, lade Danish, Ictan Gothic, lasciare Italian, laxarc Latin. \Vc have also lehct in meglehet Hungarian, I am able. 2. 'i'o hinder, to impede, agrees with lluddia and llestair Welch, belctten and Ictten Dutch, and may be connected with late, as lluddia is with ludded in AVclch. 109 Lie, conveys three notions, for which similar expressions are exten- sively diffused in Europe. 1. An aqueous solution of any salt: in Latin lix, licis vvnich an- ciently meant water, whence we have lixare and elixare to seeth. In French lessive, Italian liscia, Spanish lexia, lixivium, AVelch lleisw, Saxon leah, Dutch loog, German lauge, Danish lud, Polioh, Hunga- rian, and Slavonian lug, Bohemian lauh, and Dalmatian luugh. In Greek we have Xovw, with its derivatives allied to the preceding, 2. To utter a falsehood. This agrees with leogan Saxon, leugen Dutch, liegen German, liigen Galic, liuga Swedish, lygan Icelandic, ]gu and lugati Slavonian, legati Dalmatian and Bohemian. These have no correspondent term in Greek, unless it be Xoyot fables. In Sanscrit, luj means concealment. 3. To be decumbent, is began Saxon, liggen Dutch, liegen German, laidhim Galic, ligger Danish, ligg Icelandic, liggia Swedish, ligan Gothic, leju Slavonian, lech Russian, lieze Polish, lig Old English. These must all be referred to the same family with ke<yo[j.ai, as must also lectus Latin, Hetty Welch, loje Slavonian, loze Polish, lit French, letto Italian, lecho Spanish, lodge English, and Xtynpov Greek, a bed. Light, 1. When used in opposition to darkness, it is allied to lecht Saxon, to ligt and licht Dutch, leuchte German, licht and lius Danish and Swedish, lioos Icelandic, liuhath Gothic, lois Arminian, kitch and lutchina Slavonian, Hug and llycheden Welch, lochran, lasam, lasrach, leos, luisne, glus and glinn Galic, luz Spanish and Portuguese, lux lucis Latin, XevKvi, with Xu%voj Greek, and perhaps lehat of the Chaldee. no 2. In opposition to heavy, it agrees with leoht Saxon, ligt and licht, Dutch, ieicht German, liettur Icelandic, lagak and laliki Shivonian, lagahar Duhnatian, lehko Bolieniian, legoke Russian, leger French, levis and levitas Latin, which may possibly be alhed to XeTtTo?. 3. To descend on, or from, as for example, We will light on him as the dew: Naamau lighted down from his chariot: Her hap was to light on a part of Loa^: field. In this acceptation, light has no connexion with the preceding nouns, but, like its kindred, alihtan Saxon, and af-lichten Dutch, it claims affinity to letayu and Jeteti of the Slavonian, answering to the Latin volere, advolare, avolare, and volatus, from which we may derive our vault. To alight, when applied to a bird, certainly means to descend from his flight. Thus we find in Russia and Bohemia letati, in Slavonia leteti, in Dal- matia letiti, in Poland litac and litatam, which in Lusatia becomes latazi, all meanins: to flee. Indeed letati, flee, fly, flight, volo, volueris and volatus may be all related, and ultimately derived from phalat, which in Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic means to fly from, to escape. In these several dialects of one language, we see distinctly the Hebrew phalit, one who has escaped, and phelita, flight. Like implies, 1. Similitude, in which sense it stands in connexion with gelie Saxon, gelyk and ghelych Dutch, gleich German, sliker Icelandic, salik, slik and tolckin Swedish, lig Danish, galeiks and samaleika Gothic, samhluich Galic, opleko Russian, oblicze Polish, oblizhe Slavonian, similis Latin, semblablc French, somigliante Italian, semejanlc Spanish, scmelhante Ill Portuguese, and alike English, allied to which we have aXiyuor and Ti^/.tnor, which last gave birth to talis. ^ 2. Choice and approbation. In this sense it agrees precisely with gelican Saxon, liika Swedish, leika Gothic, and yXtxof^^n, which may be allied to the Hebrew laquah, take, choose. Mace, may be either raacis, or massa. Meal, signifies, 1. The edible part of grain. It then agrees with mealewe Saxon, mael Dutch, mehl German, meel Danish, melo Teutonic, miol Icelandic, micleny Polish and Bohemian, mlanie Slavonian and Dalmatian. If we regard the instrument and operation, we shall not hesitate in referring these expressions to malu Welch, molare and (xuX-^ a mill ; but should we look for a description of the thing itself, we might find it in the Galic, in which min-gheal conveys the notion of something fine, smooth, soft and white. 2. Portion, part, repast. It is then moele Saxon, and has close affinity irith mael Dutch and mahl German; but mcele Icelandic is to metCj and when meal and mael, as in piece meal, signify a minute portion, they agree with malo Russian, maly Polish, Lusatian and Bohemian, maal Dal- matian, and malin Slavonian, and give birth to small. As a repast, our word may originate in macal of the Hebrew. 3. To mix. In this notion, meal, it must be acknowledged, corres- ponds with the Hebrew mahal, as in Isaiah i. 22. thy wine is mixt with water. But since we find mezelar Spanish, mesler and meler French, misceo and miscellus Latin, with (^ta-yoi^ answering to mesek Hebrew and Chaldee, all of one family, we must consider meal as strictly connected 112 with them. Spencer, in his Fairy Queen, uses not only mell for minolc, Init nieiit ior niingleci, whichvnay be related to f^iyi/jf^i, as mix and mixt are to ,u/^a,' and (j^jxts;. Mean, in its various acceptations has been already noticed. ]\Iere, conveys three distinct and independent notions ditFerino- ac- cording to their derivation. 1. Pure, unmixed, is indubitably from merus and m^re Latin. 2. A boundary. This agrees with ma^ra Saxon, nicer Dutch, mar Swedish, mera Russian and Slavonian, mira Dalmatian and Bohemian, niiara Polish, mara Lusatian, and marz Persian. These connect themselves with i^npco, I part, divide, distribute. 3. A lake. This word is extensively diffused as meaning the sea. Thus we find mor AYelch, moir Galic, morfheirge and muir Irish, mere Saxon, meer Cierman, mar Swedish, marei Gothic, more Slavonian, Bohemian, Croatian and Lusatian, moral Russian, morze Polish, meri Finland, all connected with mare Latin, and perhaps with f^upw fluo. Certain it is that the Romans did not confine the term mare to the sea, for Virgil applied it to a river. The French word means a pool. In this family we have marsh, morass and mire. Moor. 1. An extensive waste infested with humidity. This word seems to originate in mare. In Welch it is morfa, in Saxon merse, in Belgic maerasch, in Icelandic moor^ in Gothic marisaiv, in Danish moratz, in French niarais and marecage, in English morass and marsh. Vi e have in Saxon, mor a mountanous heath and barren, or uncultivated tract of land, and moor humidity. 113 2. To moor a ship, corresponding to amarrcr in Frencli, may be derived from mare. 3. Moor as a native of Mauritania speaks for itself. Nail, has three acceptations independent on each other. 1. The horny substance at the ends of the fingers and toes. In Saxon nagl; Belgic naeghel, Swedish and German nagel, Danish negel, Russian nogti, Slavonian nogot, answering to ongle French, onghia Itahan, una Spanish, unlui Portuguese, evvin AVeleh, unguis and ungula Latin. AH these expressions, so various in their forms, are strictly connected with if not derived from, owE.. 2. A spike of metal by which things are fastened together, [n Danish negel, Icelandic nayle, Swedish nagel, Finlandic naula. These may originate in nagal, he closed, of the Hebrew. In the same connection we find ^iXog, clavus; hoel Welch, clavo Spanish, clou French, chiova Italian. 3. A measure of two inches and a half. Nai/, and no, in Old English nae and na, agree with na and ni in Welch and Galic, na, ne, ni, no, Saxon, nei Swedish, Danish and Ice- landic, ne and ni Slavonian and Russian, nei Polish and Bohemian, ne ni, nih and nui Gothic, na, nah, and ni Persian, no and ny Iberian, naand nu Hindu, no and nah Sanscrit, w^ Greek, ne, ni, and non Latin, na Chinese. Connected with the negatives above recited, we have, none, neither, naught, not, and in Old English nogt, which correspond with nach, nada and nadh Galic, nad, neb, and nid Welch, niet Dutch, naht Saxon, nicht German, nivaiht, nithan, negte Danish, nem Hungarian, niet and VOL. II. Q 114 nechto Russian, neen Dutch, nein German, nubeen Hindu, nanka and nafu Sanscrit. Hcie it is evident that N forms the negation, as it docs in our pre- positions in and un, and is in fact the radical part of all these particles. This therefore naturally turns our attention towards ain of the Galic, in of the Romans, an of the Vt'elch, un of the Gothic, as used for the purpose of negation. Consequently, if my observations are well founded, all our negatives are radically the same with ^v, a-^a, avtv, and with ain of the Hebrew, which last, according to Kbrber, is derived from its verb aven, he was deficient, whether in justice, comfort, wealth, or strength. If, with Horn Tooke, we could suppose the Danish nodig to imply negation ; to derive no from nodig, Avould be surely deriving the simple from its own compound, and the parent from its offspring. But nodig, like the German nothig, does not imply negation; it means distressed, constrained. Nod, its primitive, constantly conveys the notion of need, force, necessity, dilTiculty, distress and danger. The negative terms in Danish, as we have seen, are nei and negte. -» The greatest admirers of Mr. Tooke must here confess, that he discovered ignorance and self-conceit, when he so hastily derived our no ivom the Danish compound nodig. Tlie inhabitants of the north had no occasion to " wait for a word expressive of dissent till the establishment of the Romans in Italy or of the Jews in Palestine." No: they received their language from their ancestors, and being all the children of one family, tliey preserved those words, which were least likely to give way, and to be changed, among which rse, may fairly reckon our most simple negative, though 115 not its compounds, sitcli as none, nren, ncin, nauglit, ncclito, nouirht, nogt, not, nad, nid, nict, nalit, niclit, nivaiht, and neither, which, wich the negative particle, have combined one, aught. Sec. Of. Answering to, of Saxon; af Swedish and Dutch; aba and /if ' Goth, is closely allied to «^o, but varying the accent we have <2t5 which is a7ro&£v afar off. Off, therefore, is evidently aVo, denoting like it, not merely separation, but distance. Pain. 1. As a sensation of uneasiness, with pangs English, and pianta Galic, is in the singular, pun Dutch, pian Galic, pin Saxon, trapiene Polish, pein German, peine French. These may be allied to jrev^og and T^i^og as (iev^o; is to jicn^og. 2. runishment is poen Welch, pena Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, peine French, pin Saxon, pina Swedish, bwntetes Hungarian, posna, punitio Latin, and 'noiv^ Greek. 3. Labor, industry. Peine French, is allied to 'J^ovog and possibly to TLsveqvjg, Avhicli is usually derived from 'jrtvoiJ.cn. Fale, when it means, 1. wan, is evidently allied to pallidus Latin ; pale French, bled Slavonian, bliadi Polish, iiaXwoo nc-xU and ttsXiSv^ Greek, which mean lividity. 2. A narrow piece of wood used for inclosures; in this sense it agrees with pal Saxon, pael Dutch, pawl Welch, palitza Slavonian, pal Polish, pel of the old French connected with palus and Uxcr^xXog, whence em- paler, to empale, may be derived. Fail for miik, balja Swedish, is JJtXKci and LlfXAlj. Pat. 1. When it means j(it, may be ^tttw. Q 2 116 2. To heat geiitl}', is allied to batardh Calic, baeddu Welch, beatan Saxon, badda Swedish, bitchuiu Slavonian, bete Russian, Dalmatian, and Bohemian, biti and bat Polish, apatot and botalom Hungarian, Paj/. 1. To discharge a debt. In this acceptation we have payer French, pagare Italian, pagar Spanish and Portuguese, paha and pay Persian and SacTravi^. 2. To beat, pwyo Welch, biiu Slavonian, bye Polish, are distinctly Pile has numerous acceptations. 1. A sharp pointed beam or pole is pael and piile Dutch, pilotis and pieu French, pal Polish, pfahl German, pila and palus Latin. With these agree pale and pole. 2. The head of an arrow, is pilum Latin. 5. Hair, poil French, pilus Latin. 4. Heap, piile Dutch, pile French. These are allied to pila, Tirxog and iiO^osiv, of the same import. o. The funeral pile seems to be connected with palenie Russian, Polish, Slavonian and Hungarian, polati Bohemian, baal Icelandic, boel Saxon, from which the French have poile, a stove. 6. One side of a coin. 7- Hemorrhoids, not improbably derived from TrvXaiog. Pill, may be 1. peler, 2. piller, 3. pillule French. Race, 1. contest in running agrees with rasa Swedish. 2. Race, or a raze, is allied to gwraidd Welch, racine French, rayz Spanish, raet Dutch, roed Danish, rot Swedish, root Icelandic, radix and radicc Latin, and pii^ce Greek. 117 3. Breed, kind or family, like race Frencli, agrees with the pre- ceding. Rase, or raze is raser French, and agrees perfectly with ^xicj, pa'juw and «pi%(7(rw. Razor, rasoir French, and rasor with rado Latin, have the same connection as the preceding. Rack, 1. any instrument, by which the operation of stretching is per- formed, agrees with astrcccan Saxon, astrecken Dutch, auss-strecken German, strecker and vostrecker Danish. In this acceptation, rack seems to be connected with extractus Latin. 2. Distaff is, in Hungarian rokkaszar. In Polish we find rocac and wracac to twist. JlocA; means, L distaff, agreeing with- rack. 2. An extensive mass of stone. In this sense it agrees with pco^, as crag and craig Welch and Galic do with ?«:%/«:. In Hebrew we find ragam (DJI.) he stoned. 3. To shake, move in the cradle, rocqder French, rucken German, which may be allied to avopyd^u, Hesych: and probably is so to ragaz (rj"l) of the Hebrew. Indeed opycx^sLv, opyi^eiv and cpytx^eiv, seem originally to have contained the notion of rapid movement. Route means, 1. Road, roid Galic, roin Irish, route French, braut Icelandic. These sefem allied to rota, rheda and ride, and these again to the Chaldee and Syrian rida to travel, and ridvan or ridan, a chariot, which in Sanscrit is rath. 2. Rabble, tumultuous multitude, a company, a troop. In this ac- ceptation it may agree with ruith and ruta Galic, rhawd Welch, rot lis Dutch, rotte German, roode Danish, rota Slavonian and Hungarian, po^og. 3. Defeat, confusion, and flight of an army. In this sense we meet with route and deroute French, and rotta Italian, which are probably ruptio; as in Latin we may derive clades, slaughter, defeat, from y.Kxjig a rupture. Sap means, 1. The vital juice of plants. This, with subli Galic, seve French, sifipe Saxon, sap Dutch, safft German, sapa Latin, are unquestionably on-'og. In Welch we have not this word; but we find ?jorfJ sap, which is allied to votij. 2. To mine or undermine, in French sapper, and in Italian zappare, is probably allied to a-KXT^^ai. Scale, 1. the dish of a balance; sceale Saxon, schael Dutch, sik-tal Hungarian, scutella a little dish. In Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, we have shacal to weigh. 2. The squamous skin of a fish. Ecaille French, scaglia Italian, skal- ler Danish, hal Hungarian. These seem to be allied to shale, shell and scutella. 3, A ladder. Echelle French, scala Italian and Latin. The military term to scale, and a scale in harmonics, depend on scala. Seam, 1. a juncture of cloth, of planks, or of flesh, appears to be sumentum. 2. A measure, eight bushels, may be jxyi^-x. 3. Suet, tallow, grease, is sebum. 119 Set may signify, 1. to place simply, and may be derived from sedes Uog or the Hebrew shulh, and agrees with suid-heog, Galic, settan Saxon, sctzcn German, sietta Swedish, set Icelandic, satjau Gothic, sidati Slavonian, Dahnatian and Russian. 2. To plant. This may agree with satus and shathnl Chaldee, Syrian and Hebrew of the same import. In this sense we have suidhuicam Galic, setau Saxon, sattia Swedish, satidedum Gothic, saditi Slavonian, sadzic Polish, szaditi Dalmatian. 3. A number of things suited to each other. In Persian we have saziden, to be suitable This will perfectly accord with the Hebrew, seder, order, series; and the Chaldee sadar, to set iu order. Shaft, 1. A missive weapon ; sceaft Saxon, schaft German; these are probably o-KV]7rTpov. In Dutch it signifies a pole. 2. A deep pit; seems to be derived from (tuxtttcii. 3. Any thing strait is scapus. Shed, 1. to effuse, or scatter, scheiden German, skaidan Gothic, skudda and skiuta Swedish, is probably o-ksSxcc. 2. A slight covering, may be connected with shade, and be derived from (TuiaSiov. In Wilts, for a shed, we find skilling, and in Sweden skiul, perhaps from a-mx. Since, 1. from the time that, seems to be contracted from sithence. In Saxon we have sith-than, in Swedish sedah, in German seit dem, in Greek ttTo:, after that. In Saxon, sithian means to come, to go, sithe time, and sith a progress. Thence is allied to iV&ff. 2. Because, may be contracted from seen as. 120 Stick, 1. a walking staff, sficca Saxon, stecco Italian, which agree with stia;a Swedish, and qtix^iv. 2. To adhere. Stican Saxon, stecken German, agree with q^y.oi. 3. To pierce. Steken Dutch, stechen German, stician Swedish Siitychac Polish, agree with stacan Galic a thorn, and qi^a. c^i^a. Tear. 1. The water which passion forces from the eyes is daigr Welch, deor Galic, tear Saxon, traan Dutch, :z'ahre German, tar Swedish, taare Danish, tagr Gothic, lachryma Latin, dachryma okl Latin, lagrima Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, larme French, 5iKpy,u,a:, Bxupvo; and Bxyi;)\j. The change of D into L, is not uncommon in the Sanscrit. 2. To lacerate agrees with torri Welch, toeran Saxon, zerzerren Ger- man, gatairan Gothic, torgayu, terzayu and deru Slavonian, torgati Russian, tergati Bohemian, targam Polish, torom Hungarian, daridan Persian Teipu iaraf Hebrew. In this acceptation tear and its participle torn, seem allied to thorn, draen Welch, draigean Galic, thorn Saxon, doren and doom Dutch, dorn German, torn Danish and Sweden, thaurnjus Gothic, terne Russian, ternie and tern Slavonian and Bohemian, cziernie Polish. In Hebrew we have darban and in the plural darhonoth, thorns. That. 1. when it means not this but the other, looks to ^xTepx as in tTTi^xTspx in diversum, in alteram partem. This agrees with det of Sweden. 2. Denoting fact, assertion, maxim, conclusion, purpose, it agrees with ata Galic, thatte and that Saxon, dat Dutch, dass German, thataci Gothic, at Swedish, uti Latin and hi. Tliata in Gothic corresponds to ToauTo, thto and txvtx. 121 Till IS 1. the money box. In this sense it looks towards Ttko;, tolle, tribute, expense, and TeKe^v to spend. In Saxon we have til, abundant, rich. 2. A termination. In this use we find til and tillo Saxon, til Danish, and tils Swedish, all which refer to TtKor the end or conclusion of a progress. 3. To cultivate. In Welch we observe diwyllio, in Saxon ilian, tin Dutch or Belgic tuylen. Connected with these may be reckoned cVAcr toil. Telemin Hebrew being distinctly tillage; all these expressions may be radically one with it. Tire means 1. to dress, furnish. Attourer, and vetir French, zieren German, and tire English, may originate in vestire. 2. To vex, harass, weary. In this sense we have tirian Saxon and toirseach Galic, which seem to originate in Ttipco, and agree with terah of the Chaldee. TVare maybe 1. merchandise, answering to waar in Dutch. 2. To watch, answering to fairam of the Galic. In this sense ware may take warn and ward for its infinitive and participle. Wind is 1. a blast of air. This agrees with gwynt of the Welch and ventus of Latin. 2. To turn. In Spanish we have guindar, in Italian guindolare, in Saxon windan, in Dutch and in German winden, in Gothic vindan, and in Danish vende. JVith, 1. answering to i*£t^. This word is extensively diffused, and ap- pears to have been variously corrupted. We find with and mid Saxon, mit Old English and German, mith Gothic, med, met, and ved Danish VOL. II. R - 122 and Swedish, met Armenian, ith Iberian, niitha (pronounced mit-ha) Sanscrit. AH these may be radically connected, because M. V. and W. as we have seen, readily assume each others place. It has been suggested by Horn Tooke, that with, in this sense of the word, is derived from withe. This may have been its origin, and indeed could we suppose, that our Saxon ancestors either sprang spontaneously from the earth, and consequently had to invent a language for them- selves, or that they forgot the prepositions received by tradition from their fathers, it would be natural to conclude, that withe, a willow twig used for uniting things together, might become first a symbol of connection, and then a conjunctive preposition. But as our Gothic ancestors, w^ho used withan, to join, were in possession of mith, probably derived either from mitha of Sancrit, or from [t.e'i: and [t-eTx-, there seems to have been no necessity for their having recourse to a metaphorical expression. In- deed it does not appear, that they had with as a preposition, for in the Gothic Gospels we find only mith. 2. Answering to ccvti, contra, against. It is curious, that the same word should thus have inconsistent meanings, as appear in these sen- tences, stand with him, and withstand him. But it seems to me, that witJi in the latter acceptation is an abbreviation of the Anglo-Saxon witherian, to contend, whence are derived, witherling an adversary, withersacan to contradict, and witherstandan to resist. Supposing then with to be allied to f^fTar, the compound ^i^sju^Hv may Jsave given birth to witherian and to with, as denoting opposition. In German, wider means against, and widerstehen to withst^md. We observe a remarkable affinity between our ay^YA and by; and the 123 Saxons, in their compound prepositions, used indiifcrently cither witii or be, as withforan and beforan, withinnan and hcinnan, withutan and beutan, &c. This affinity may possibly have originated in the Hebrew idiom, in which (m) hejad not only denotes the instrument, but like- wise concomitance. By (hejad) tliy servants hast thou reproached the Lord, (Isaiah xxxvii. 24.) Hazael took a present with him (bejado) forty camels burthen, (2 Kings viii. 9.) Even [^eix may be this Hebrew preposition in disguise, as ^dv and cum originate in (d;;) "im of the Hebrew. Within, answering to intra of the Latin may possibly be (nrT^a) hejtha of the Hebrews. Intra itself may be ev'^v^ix as wdomu Polish is allied to domi, or as hazaban Hungarian, ban the hoose Scotch in the house English, and en casa Spanish, are to in casd of the Romans. Yard, 1. inclosed ground adjoining to a house, answers to garadh Galic, gardd Welch, geard Saxon. The examination of this word will be resumed. 2. A measure of three feet, agrees with gerd Saxon, gerte German. Yet, 1. over and above answers to etto Welch, jets and itez Polish gessto Bohemian, es Hungarian, etj Greek, gO(/e Hebrew ("liy) 2. At this time is gata {TyT\V) Hebrew. 3. Nevertheless Tna. By attention to the various, independent, and frequently discordant import of words, as derived from various and independent sources we acquire clear and distinct ideas, we avoid ambiguity, and wc R 2 124 learn to express our meaning with precision. In this beauty and utility unite. My principal aim, however, in the selection [ have made of sy- nonymes, is to convince my readers, that all the languages, with which we are acquainted, however dissimilar in form, are radically one. Is it possible for any one to cast his eye, however transiently, over the vocabulary here presented to his view, and not to discern this interesting truth. The words I have chosen are, indeed, variously com- pounded and abbreviated; they are distorted and disguised by vicious orthography and capricious changes; yet, when stripped of their ad- ventitious ornaments ; when they are made to approach their primitive and uncorrupted condition ; when nothing but that, which is essential to each word, remains; their strict resemblance or perfect identity is distinctly seen. AVhat I have here produced, might be considered sufficient for my purpose, but as the truth which I have undertaken to support, appears to me in its consequences to be of infinite importance to the happiness of mankind; I shall produce numerous other instances in its confir- mation. I have assumed it as an axiom, that nations, who agree in terms expressive of the most common actions and relations of savage life and of those objects, Avhich occur in every climate to supply the wants of mere animal existence, however dissimilar they may now he, were originally one. Let us then examine by this axiom, what agreement we can dis- cover between the English and other nations, with whose language 125 we have an adequate acquaintance. For this purpose the expressions I shall fix upon are chiefly monosyllabic, as being our most ancient words. Am, are, ass, bake, be, bear, beat, bind, boat, booth, box, break, brother, buss, call, can, cap, cart, cat, choose, cock, cook, cot, cow, crib, crow, cup, dad, day, daughter, door, eat, egg, eight, else, eye, father, fight, fire, five, fiaot, four, gird, give, gout, goose, guest, have, he, head, heart, hem, hen, house, hut, I, is, king, kiss, lick, me, might, mine, milk, mill, mix, mother, murder, name, night, nine, nose, one, ox, raven, rob, rook, sea, seat, seven, she, six, sow, take, ten, this, thou, three, through, time, tine, tree, two, water, Avithe, wool, write, yard, yea, yet, yoke, young. Am, is distinctly fif^^i in its most abbreviated fiarm, and is compounded, as I shall demonstrate, of the verb f, together with its pronoun (xt. As such it agrees with sum and sim Latin, com Saxon, em Icelandic, im Gothic and Turkish, jestem Polish, em Armenian and Persian, iam Eepirotic. This verb may originate in the Hebrew (r\'''n) Our ErigHsh verb is extremely irregular, and this irregularity points out the various sources, from which it has derived its discordant moods, tenses and persons. The pronoun p-t is still preserved in the Marhatta ml and is found in the Welch mi and my, as in ?««' a viim I was, and ?«_?/ a I will go. Me runs all over Europe and Asia; but in the Slavonian dialects it is mya, and in the Hindostani it is main. All the most ancient verbs in Greek have this pronoun in the first person singular of the present tense, not only in the active, but also in the passive and the middle 126 voices, as I shall have occasion to observe in the progress of my tvork. It likewise appears in the subjunctives of Latin verbs. Are, may be traced in eram and ero, in ccr Swedish, and serf Cornish, I am. But I shall not now enlarge, as the subject will be resumed when I shall treat of the substantive verb m Greek. Ass, asne French, asno Spanish and Portuguese, asino Italian, asal Galic, asen Welch, azen Armoric, astoa Cantabrian, assa Saxon, ezel and esel Dutch and German, asne Icelandic, asen Danish, aszna Swedish, asilus Gothic, osel Ptussian and Slavonian, osiel Polish, oszal Dalmatian, wefel Bohemian and Lusatian, essek Turkish, ez Armenian, asinus Latin, Qvo;. All these are related, and their common parent may be athon of Hebrew, of the same import. Bake. I have not been able to trace this word in any of the Celtic dialects. It seems to have been confined to the Gothic and Slavonic tribes. In our Saxon we have baecan and bacian ; in German backen, answering to bager Danish, baka Swedish, pekete Russian, pecy Bohe- mian, peku and pezhi Slavonian, and pickel Polish. Pochten, in Persian, means to boil; in Sanscrit pakarai and papakto mean, like TreTTTw, to cook in general. In Polish we find pick, an oven. From one of these we may derive our pye. The Latin coqiio has the same relation to -Tf^lw as quinque has to the JEoYic 'Ki[t.'Ki for TfvTf, which in the Doric dialect is xfvxe. In Greek we find /Sf/Swxa;, pavi, and the Plirygians had /3fKKoc for bread. The Welch have pohi. In Arabic we have the nearest approach to our word in tabakha, an- swering to n^ca tahah, a cook. 127 Be is in Saxon beon, in Danish boe, in Russian buivau, in Sanscrit bhu, in Galicand Hebrew bith. In Latin we have fui, fuero, fuissc and fore, of the same import. So much for the present. When I shall treat of the Creek substantive verb, I shall enlarge on our own verb. Bear and Burthen. These words agree with fero, porto, (pfpw and (popTiov; Avith beirim and bearadh Galic, porthi Welch, porter and fardeau French, beran, bearan and byrthen Saxon, brengen Dutch, her and bjrth Icelandic, boerer Danish, fora and boera Swedish, bairan Gothic, bera and pora Slavonian, bierac Polish, berel and barnal Armenian, burdan Persian and bhri Sanscrit. In Hebrew we find heriah (n''")^) a lever. Bear, to bring forth, seems to originate in pario and para (ma) of the same meaning. Bear, as a particular animal, has been traced to ferus, '^y,p and ^vjp; but in Hesychius we find ^apov, and in Hebrew hagar ("li/n) which are not improbably related to ferus. Beat, beotan Saxon, bCittre French, badda Sweden, biti Russian, baeddu Welch, and pita Sanscrit, agree with TIxtccjitcc. Bind, as a verb is unknown to the Celtic dialects, althouQ;h in AVelch we have bancaro a band. To bind, is bindan Saxon and Gothic, binden Dutch and German, bind Icelandic and Danish, binda Swedish, benden Persian, bandha Sanscrit, and bun Chinese. The nearest approach to this in Hebrew is abnef, a belt: but bind may be a participle, and if so, it may be related to vieo, vietum, hex and withy. Boat, is bad and bata Galic, bate Welch, bateau French, baleira 128 Portuguese, bat Saxon, boot Dutch and German, baatur Icelandic, bat Swedish, bote Russian, peta and pota Sanscrit. It may be aUied to yu(icc7og. Booth, is bothag Galic, bwih Welch, bod Armoric, boede Saxon and Dutch, beit Teutonic, boot and buth Icelandic, bod Danish and Swedish, obit Bohemian, buda Polish and Lusatian, beit Turkish, abad Persian, beti Epirotic. In Hebrew we have bcth, in Arabic beit, in Chaldee and Syriac, both. From the Persian abad we seem to have derived abide. Box, has been already noticed in its various acceptations. Break, ipp^X^ fiegi, fractum ; is bracaim Galic, brcg Welch, breche French, breccia Italian, brecken Dutch, breccan Saxon, brecken Ger- man, breke Danish, broeka Swedish, brikan Gothic, breg Slavonian, obroke Russian, fcn-aq Hebrew, Chaldean, Syriac, and Arabic. With these agree farad, farat, faram, farats, faras, of Hebrew, Chaldean, Syriac and Arabic of like import. Bring the participle of bear is brengen Dutch. Brother is barathair Galic, brawd, plural of brodyn, Welch, breur Armoric, frater Latin, frere French, brother Saxon, breeder Dutch, bruder German, brodur Icelandic, broder Danish and Swedish, brothar Gothic, brate Slavonian and Russian, brat Polish and Dalmatian, bratr Bohemian, bradt Lusatian, boradar Persian, bhai and bhala Hindostani, and bhratara Sanscrit. Bull and Buffalo, will be noticed under ox. Burn has been already noticed. Buss. For buss sec kiss. 120 Call is galw Welch, scallen German, kalla Swedish, kialtok Hunga- rian, cal Sanscrit, kala Syrian, k^auv Greek and kol (^1p) Hebrew. Can a drinking vessel y.xv'^xpog, cantharus is cuincog Galic, canne Saxon, kan Dutch, kanne German, kanna Icelandic, kandc Danish, tchuan Slavonian, kanna Hungarian. Cap yefpxXs Greek, caput Latin, copchaile Galic, cappan Welch, caeppe Saxon, kappe Dutch and German, kappa Swedish, kape B.->he- mian, kaponya Hungarian, the skull. Cart, carpentuni Latin, certwyn Welch, croet Saxon, karra Swedish, kareta Slavonian, kar Armenian, szeker Hungarian. Cat, cas Galic, cath Welch, chat French, gatto Italian, gato Spanish and Portugese, kat katte Dutch, katz German, katt] Swedish, kisa Icelandic, kot Slavonian, kotte Russian, kotzka Bohemian, kotka Polish, katto Lusatian, keti Turkish, katussa Walachian, catti Finland, kata Iberian, gato Lapland, kotschasch Tartaric. CocJcy noaxKov is coileach and caolach Galic, ceiliog Welch, kilioof Armoric, coq French, kock Danish, kokos Polish, kokos Hungarian, cuc61a Singaleze, cubku Finlandic, gallus Latin. Cook see bake. Cot KotTvt cotta in Galic is a cottage, and coittair a cottager. We have cwtt Welch, cote Saxon, kot and hut Dutch, hutte German, kot Icelandic, kota and koite Swedish, kota Finland, kaata Lapland, keda Persian, kodda Epirolic, kuta Sanscrit, and cotta Malay in the same acceptation. Cow, geo Galic, according to Vallancey. The modern Galic ha? changed this to bo, answering to buwch and bu of the Welch. In other VOL. II. s 130 languages we have cu Saxon, koe Dutch, kuhe German, koe Danish, ko Swedish, coiwas Finland, kusa Lapland, korowa and koua Russian, krava Slavonian, Bohemian, and lllyrian, krowa Polish, keuve Armenian, gau Persian, gai Hindostan and Sanscrit. In Latin we find mugeo, in Greek i^vaxoi, in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac gagha (up}) the lowing of a cow. Crib, in Swedish krubba, Germain, krippe is y.poc^^aTcg. Crow, in Saxon crawe, Dutch kraai and kraye, German krahe, Danish krage, Swedish kraka agree with corneille and corbeau French, corneja Spanish, cornacchia Italian, corvus and cornix Latin, y.op«i and xc/;a)vv| Greek. The Russian has voron and vorona a raven, a rook. In Polish we have kruk a raven, and Avrona a rook. In Slavonian we find krakain, korkaiu and grakaiu to crow, in Latin crocito, in Greek x^wC'" but nfiZ,a and upavyz^u mean to cry out. In Hebrew we have Sip, Compare with these raven and rook. Cup, cupan Galic, cwppan and cib Welch, cuppe Saxon, kop Dutch, kopp Danish, Swedish and Icelandic, kuppa, Slavonian, Hungarian and Dalmatian, kubek Polish, kofHick Bohemian, koup Armenian, kop Tartarian, cupa and capis Latin, with xl/tvj, nvneXXov, xv/S/3«, m-^x Greek, and (i'"'3J) gebiag Hebrew are all related. Dad agrees with tad Welch and Armoric, taz Cornish, taata Findland, did Slavonian, dede Russian, ded Bohemian, dada Turkish, which in the Hindostani means grandfather. In Epirotic wc have lati, «t7« Greek, tfttx Thessalian, and issa Finland. J)m/. Dia and do Galic, dydd Welch, Cornish and Armoric, daeg Saxon, dag and dagh Dutch, tag Germain, tak Teutonic, dagur Ice= 131 landic, dag Danish and Swedish, dags Cothic, den Slavonian, Russian and Bohemian, dzien PoMsh, daan Dalmatian, le Armenian, deghes Iberian, devus Hindostan and Sansciit, dies L;itin, with ^zog and Axlg are of one family. Daughter is a word unknown at present to the Celtic. In Saxon and Teutonic we have dohter, in Dutch dogter and dochtcr, in Ger- man tochter, in Icelandic dooter, in Danish daater, in Swedish doter, in Gothic dauhtar, in Slavonian dtscher and dotch, in Bohemian dey, in Russian dotch and doke, in Persian dochtar and docht, in Sanscrit dahitar, in Armenian dauster, in Finlandic tytter, in Greek ^vyccrvip, in Syriac dachtira. Dine is evidently SeiTrvsiu connected with which we find daps Latin diner French. Door, thorruke Old EngUsh, is dorous and fodhoras Galic, drws and dor Welch, dor Armenian, dora and thure Saxon, deure Dutch, thur German, dyr Icelandic, door and dor Danish and Swedish, daur Gothic, deuro Slavonian and Russian, duira Lusatian, duri Carinth., dwer Bo- hemian, drzwi Polish, dore Armenian, dar Persian and Turkish, dera Epirotic, toori Javan, dwar Sanscrit and Hindostan, derwarje Bengal derived from derwaza Persian, ^upa Greek, thara (i<")r>) Syrian, tharagh (i^ir^) Chaldean and ("lya') shagar Hebrew. Each has been already noticed. In Sanscrit eka means one, in Persian her yec is every one. In Hebrew ish means a man, and each person or thing. Ish el regehu (injt/") 1'^ S^"'!!^) everyone to his neighbour. Egg, ugh Galic, occo Italian, oeg Saxon, egg Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, aieka Russian, iaica Polish, iaiza Slavonian, chai Persian, s 2 132 wegtze and iaie Bohemian, aiza Carinth, yaye Dalmatian, tai Polish, wy Welch, ooov Greek, ovum Latin. Eight, is ochd Galic, wyth Welch, eiz Armoric, huit French, ocho Spanish, otto Italian, oito Portuguese, eahta Saxon, agt Dutch, acht German, aatta Icelandic, atta Swedish, otte Danish, ahtau Gothic, ot Armenian, osm Polish and Slavonian, wossim Russian, hesht Persian, ashta Sanscrit, ath Bengal and oxTft), octo. Else, elles Saxon, aljes Swedish, alias Latin, akXccg. Ewe, othisg Galic, dafad Welch, davas Cornish, eowe Saxon, ouwe and oye Dutch, ouzhia Slavonian, ouxa Russian, oucza Dalmatian, owca Polish, owcza Bohemian, wouza Lusatian, iuh and ih Hungarian, awa.. Sanscrit, ovis Latin, 'oig Greek. E^c, plural eyne, golwg Welch, oeil French, occhio Italian, ojo Spanish, olho Portuguese, eag Saxon, ooghe Dutch, aug German, ougon Teutonic, auga Icelandic, oje Danish, oga Swedish,, augo Gothic, oko Slavonian, Dalmatian, Bohemian, Polish, Illyrian, ocha Russian, ocho Croatian, woko Lusatian, oeghene pi. Tartaric, nayana Sanscrit. In Hebrew we have a/« (]">;;) in Latin oculus, in Greek I'aac^ the eye and y.vXx the cavities of the eyes. Father, athair Galic, padre Italian and Spanish,, pay Portuguese, pare French, pater Latin, fselher Saxon, vader Dutch, vatter German, fater>, Teutonic, fader Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, fadrein Gothic, padar Persian, pit4 Bengal, pitr and pita Sanscrit. UzTyip. Fire has already been examined. Five, cuig and coig Galic, pump Welch, pemp Armoric and Cornish, 'cinquc Italian, cinq French, cinco. Spanish and Portugue&e, fif Saxon, 133 viif Dutch, fiinfF German, finf Teutonic, fim Icelandic, fern Swedish and Danish, fimf Gothic, fiynf, precop pyat Slavonian, pat Russian, piecz PoUsh, pesch Dalmatian, bisch Tartaric, p^nch Bengal and Hin- dostan, penj Persian, pengkan Sanscrit. TLevre, in yEolic IlffxTrf, in Doric KevKs; whence the Romans took their quinque. This practice of changing H into K, or P into C and K, I have already noticed to have been common among the Athenians, Cohans, Baeotians, lonians, the Galic tribes, as will immediately appear, and our Teutonic ancestors. Foot, cas and cos Galic, fot and vot Saxon, poot and voet Dutch, fuss German, footur Icelandic, fbde and foed Danish, fot Swedish, fotus Gothic, bos Slavonian, wut and uetn Armenian, pa Persian, padati and pud Sanscrit, pMn Hindostan, piede Italian, pied French, pie Spanish, pe Portuguese, pes pedis Latin, JJovg, 'j:oBog. In Hebrew we observe bus to trample under foot. The Welch has pedol, a horse-shoe. From foot, the Persian has piadah a footman, and we derive fetters, in Russian powtei, in Bohemian pauty, in Polish peta, in Persian paw, and in Latin compedes; in Italian ceppi, in French ceps. Four, cheathra, ceathair and ceithair Galic, pedwar Welch, padzhar Cornish, pewar Armoric, quatre French, quattro Italian, quatro Spanish and Portuguese, feower Saxon, vier Dutch and German, fioore Icelandic, five Danish, fyra Swedish, fidwer Gothic, chetwerti Slavonian, chetuire Russian, czterni Polish, chuerk Armenian, pahar and chah^r Persian, tchethro Zend, fydor Precop. ch^ir Hindostan and Bengal, chatur San= scrit, quatuor Latin, HfTopa. iEoUan» 134 Gird, girdle, girt, garter, garden, agree with gyrdan Saxon, gorden Dutch, guerten German, giord Icelandic, gyrter Danish, garda and gierda Swedish, gairda Gothic, sagraditi Slavonian, ogorodsate Russian, ograditi Dalmatian and Hungarian, ogradzac Polish, and zaraditi Bohe- mian. In Persian we have a rich variety of derivatives from girdiden, to go round and to turn, answering to yvpoeiv. Gort in Galic means the ivy. Give, in Old English yeve, yave, yeoven; gifan Saxon, geeven Dutch, geben German, gabun Teutonic, gef Icelandic, gisve Danish, gifwa Swedish, gihan Gothic, ja/iab (m^) Chaldce and Syrian, vahab Arabic. Goat and Kid, gitten and gidi Welch, gaite, gaet and gat Saxon, gheyten, gheyte and gheete Dutch, geiss German, geit Icelandic, geed Danish, giet and get Swedish, gaitein Gothic, koza Slavonian, Russian, Polish, Dalmatian, and Bohemian, ketzke Hungarian, getfi Tartaric, haedus Latin. In Hebrew we haxe gedi {-^1}) a kid, geedz (t;f) a she- goat, and gathudim (Clin;/] he-goats. In these all the preceding terms may have originated. In Galic this line of connexion is cut oft', and we have gobhar a goat, though formerly it meant a iiorse. In Welch gafr, in French chevre, in Spanish cabra, in Italian and Latin capra, look to nccTiqog, but this means a boar. Goose, gos Saxon, goose and goes Dutch, gas Laplandic, gaas Ice- landic and Danish, gas Swedish, guse Russian, guss Slavonian, Iberian and Bohemian, geoz Polish, hus Bohemian and Polish, kas Turkish and Tartaric, gsocis Kamptschatkan, gaz Armenian, all agree. Gander agrees with ganradh and gandal Galic, ganso Spanish, ganza Italian, bans Hindostan, gandra Saxon, gans Dutch, and X^v of the Greek. 135 Guest, gwestai and gwestwr Welch, gest Saxon, gast Dutch, German and Gothic, giestur Icelandic, giest Danish, gast Swedish, gust and gost Slavonian, gost Russian, gospodarz and gosc Polish, host Bohemian, goozt Dalmatian, gazda Hungarian. Hospes, hospitis means both the entertainer and the entertained. This gives birth to host, which is in Galic osdair, in Armoric ostis, and in French hote. Have, caffael Welch, avoir French, happer Old French, habban and hafan Saxon, hebben Dutch, haben German, haae Danish, hafa Ice- landic, hafwa Swedish and Finlandic, ap Sanscrit, xjisiv. The Persian yaften means to find. These agree with gaba and caph of the Hebrew. He, E Galic and Armoric, e and efe Welch, hy Dutch, sa Gothic, Swedish and Finlandic, ei Slavonian, o, ez and az Hungarian, u Persian, agree with yeh Hindostan, this man, i' Greek, hu Hebrew, Chaldean, Syrian and Arabic. Head, ceap, cudh and cuth Galic, iad Welch, heafod, heofod and hoefde Saxon, hoofd Dutch, haupt and kopf German, kop Dutch, haubit Old German, liofFud leelandic, hoffuit Danish, huvud Swedish, hauhith Gothic, caponya Hungarian, kop-pa-lah Chinese. These agree with caput and Ke(pxXvi, but gabah in Hebrew means high, elevated, and gibeah baldhead. Mr. Tooke, following Leibnits, derives head from heave. T am ready to alfew, that these words may be related, and it is remarkable, that in Hebrew gab means eminence, and gaphim in the plural has the same acceptation. The verb in Hebrew is gebah, he excelled in height. Heart, criodh and croidh Galic, coeur French, cuore Italian, corafon Spanish, cora9ao Poituguese, heort Saxon, hert Dutch and Teutonic, 136 hertz German, hiarta Icelandic, hierte Danish, hierta Swedish, hairto Gothic, serdts Slavonian, serxe Russian, serce Polish, serdce Bohemian, szarcze Dalmatian, sirt Armenian, szivu and szw Hungarian, bihotza Cant, hard Sanscrit. Cor cordis, Ke^i^p, y^exTog. KxpSix. Hemp, canab Galic and Armoric, hennep and kennep Dutch, hanfF German, hampa Swedish, konople Slavonian and Russian, komope Bohemian, konop, Polish, can nab Persian, azvuzjiig. Hen, henne Saxon, hinne, hoen and hen Dutch, huhn German, haena Icelandic, henne Danish, hanna Swedish, hana Gothic, kana Finlandic. House, hus Saxon, huis Dutch, hauss German, huus Danish and Swedish, hus Icelandic, Gothic, and Prccop. hisha Slavonian, kushya Dalmatian, haz and az Polish, kuzha Croat, keushen Carinth. houze Armenian, haz Hungarian, hu Chinese, casa Latin. In Hebrew casa means he covered. Hut hutte Saxon and German, hute French, hytte Danish, huta Polish, huti Bohemian. In the Gothic we find liethjo cubiculum. Kuta Sanscrit. In some ©f the oriental dialects Jmt (tDin) means a thread to sew together, to inclose, whence comes hait a wall. But as hut and cot are evidently the same word, they may be equally allied to Ko*t*i. J, mi Galic, Welch, and Marhatta. I its oblique case Welch; me Armoric, men Persian, main Hindostani, je French, io Italian, yo Spanish, eu Portuguese, ie Saxon, ich Old English and German, ick Dutch, eg Icelandic, ieg Danish, lag and ga Swedish, ik Gothic, iaze, ia and ena Russian, ia Polish, Bohemian, and Lusatian, es Armenian, 157 en Hungarian, ben Tartaiian, ego Iw'ya;. In Ilcbrew we fiave anoki, ani and I. Is, is Galic, sy ^Velch, est French, es Spanisii and Portuguese, is Saxon and Dutch, ist German and Gothic, est Slavonian, Russian and Persian, iest Polish, e Armenia, as, ast Sanscrit. Es, est Latin, eqi. Greek. Is or jesh Hebrew. See Am. King. In Galic we have ceann, the head, pronounced kemi ceannas, the office of chieftain, and cinbeirt a ruler. In Welch cda and cu- uiad signify a lord. Among the Gothic tribes our word is more distinct. Cyning, cynig and cyng Saxon, koning Dutch, konig German, kuning Teutonic, konning and konge Danish, Kongur Icelandic, cunningus Lapland and FinKand, cakunge Greeeland, konung Swedish. In German kuhn means brave valiant. The Slavonian tribes have knyaz a prince a general; the Huns had their cheuni, the Turks and Tartars have their chans. In Persia we find khan, but it is not Persian; in Malay kyan, in China kan, chong, cham and king, in Tonquin can, in Japan cunix. From these expressions, remove the termination, and that which remains will be equivalent to colun (1^^) of the oriental nations, a royal priest. Kiss, cus and cusanu Welch, cyssan Saxon, kussen Dutch, kuessen German, koss Icelandic, kyse Danish, kyssa Swedish, kukjan Gothic, as if derived from nenvnu; kushniti Slavonian, kush Dalmatian, koshiti Lusatian, kusati Croatian. In Greek we have nOw nvaw and nvtcrKu, and in Homer we find Kuo-a-f. In the Slavonian we have kus the mouth, kusain to bite, kusok a morsel, with kuss a kiss, answering to os and osculum of the Romans, and lobzayu, allied to lip and labium. VOL. II. T 138 Kuss may be etymologicaliy allied to buss, by the change of B and K, of which we have seen numerous examples, and it is probable, that they are so related, because they have precisely the same meaning, the former in Slavonian, the latter in Galic. In Welch bus means the lip and cus a kiss. These words have an extensive range and a close connexion. In Latin we find basium, in Italian basciare, in French baiser, in Spanish besar, in Portuguese beijar, answering to pogam Galic, boesen and bousen Dutch, poca and pocalowanie Polish, bos, boseh and bosiden Persian, pussune Epirotic. In Galic we have puisin, a lip, which is in Epirotic bushe. In French, bouche, the mouth, answers to bocca Italian and boca Spanish and Portuguese. Bucca in Latin, is the cheek. Lick, ligham and imligham Galic, llyfu and llyu Welch, lecher French, leccare Italian, lamer Spanish, lamber Portuguese, lambo and lingo Latin, liccian Saxon, lacken Dutch, lecken German, Sleikia Icelandic, lickcr and slicker Danish, slika and sleka Swedish, laigvan Gothic, lizati, lisati liju and lokaiu Slavonian, lizati Dalmatian and Bohemian, lizak,lize and lokac Polish, lakiel Armenian, lih and lihmi Sanscrit. In Greek wc have >.ft%w, XaTCTu, and Xx'ttx^w, in Hebrew lahac and lakak (pp7, pn7, "^n?.) Mam, see Mother. Me, mi Welch, me Galic, Armoric, French, Italian, Spanish, Portu- guese and Latin, mier Saxon, my Dutch, mich German, mig Swedish, inik Gothic, mya Slavonian, menya Russian, me Iberian, me and nai Sanscrit, ff^f and [j-s. Might, mocht (Jalic, gallu Welch, mcaht, maegeth Saxon, magt Danish, Swedish, mogu Slavonian, pomogaiu Russian, mahata Sanscrit, i^ty:tXvj, i^-fyas, i^tyi^og, magnus (nbiJl^) megala Hebrew, eminence. 1:>9 Mine, my mo (jalic, mau Wclcli, maliini Armoric, mien mon French, min Saxon, miin Dutch, inein German, myn Icelandic, inin Swedish, meins Gothic, moy or inoi Slavonian, Dalmatian, Pohsh and Lusatian, mene and mena Russian. In Persian, men means I, and em mine, an- swering to mam Sanscrit, i>ov Greek. See I. Milk, laith, bhochd and meilg Gahc, llaeth and bhth Welch, leath Cornish, leas and laeth Armoric, lait French, latte Italian, leche Spanish, leite Portuguese, lac laclis Latin, meoluc, meoloc, and meolc Saxon, melck Dutch, milch German, mioolk Icelandic, melk Danish, miolk Swedish, melkc Laplandic, maito Finlandic, mleko and mliko Slavonian, Lusatian, Dalmatian, Croatian, Polish and Carinth., moloka Russian, lapte Walachian. In Greek we have yxKcc, yxKan'rog, aj^tAyw and [j^tXnx as used by Galen. Mill, muilionu and meilam Galic, melin and malu Welch, belin Armoric and Cornish, moulin French, mohno Italian and Spanish, milha and moynho Portuguese, mola Latin, mylen Saxon, molen Dutch, muhle German, mil Icelandic, mollen Danish, mala Swedish, malan Gothic, melnitsa and mliin and melnitsa Slavonian, mielnitsa, melneka and melne Russian, mlin Polish and Bohemian, malom Hungarian, maliden Persian, mylly Finlandic, ^uXvi. Mix and mingle, measgam and cumasgam Galic, mysgy Welch, mesler French, mescolare and mischiare Italian, mesclar and mesturar Spanish, misturar Portuguese, miscere Latin, gemengan Saxon, mingelen Dutch, mischen and mengen German, mauk Icelandic, maenger Danish, meno-a Swedish, meshayu Slavonian, mieszam Polish, miser Sanscrit, ixtyvuf* and i^i7yu, (^072 and jr.D) mezeg and mesek. T 2 o 140 Mother, mathair Galic, mam Welch, mere French, madre Spanish and Italian, may Portuguese, mother, meder and medder Saxon, moeder Dutch, mutter German, mooder Icelandic, moder Danish and Swedish, ama Finlandic, aema Laplandic, materi and mati Slavonian, Dal- matian, Bohemian, Kroat., and lllyrian, matt and mate Russian, mash and matka Polish, maike Walacian, mame Epirotic, mair Armenian, madar Persian, ma Malay, madua Sandwich Islands and New Zealand, me Tonquin, memme Kamptschatka, ana and eme Tartarian, me and mu China and Siam, ma Java, matar Sanscrit, man with the nasal ter- mination Hindostan, mama Chili, iman Samoid, maar Gilan, mata Tamul., h^7^p, H-aVf*« and iJ.aiJ.xix, aem Hebrew, hnmcc Syrian and ijnma Chaldean. Murder, mort and mudhlaim Galic, murdwrn Welch. Murn in Welch is a secret murder, and miorun Irish, means a private grudge. These agree with meurtre French, muro Portuguese, matar Spanish, morth Saxon, moord Dutch, mord German, mord Icelandic, morder Danish, morda Swedish, maurth Gothic, smert Slavonian, Polish, Bohemian, mordcrx Polish, mardasbane Armenian, murden to die and medar a corpse Persian, martum and marty Sanscrit, mors mortis, [j.opoc, iJ.opeu. Name. Ainm Galic, ennim Manx, henw, enw and enwi Welch, hano Cornish and Armenian, noni French, nombre Spanish, nome Italian and Portuguese, nomen Latin, naam Dutch, nama Saxon, name German, natii Icelandic, naff'n Danish, namn Svvedisli, name Gothic, imya Sla- vonian, Russian and Lusatian, imie Polish, gmcne and imeno Bohemian^ iime Daliuiitian, neve Hungarian, nimmi and cmene Epirotic, nam i'crsian, nanian Sanscrit, nam Laplandic, nimes Finlandic, n4ma Malays 141 namam Tamulic, nim Chinese, ovof^a:. Naam and naum in Hebrew, is lie said. Night. Oiche Galic but ann nochd, this night. Nos Welch, nos Armoiic and Cornish, nuiet and nuit French, notte Italian, noche Spanish, noyte Portuguese, niht Saxon, nacht, nagt Dutch, German, and Teutonic, noot Icelandic, nat Danish, natt Swedish, nahts Gothic, nostch or noshtsh Slavonian, noche Russian, noc Polish and IJohcmian, nooch Dalmatian, notz Lusatian, noaptc Walacian, nisa Sanscrit, nox noctis Ni)^, vvKTog. Nine, Naonar and naoi Galic, naw Welch, Armoric, and Cornish, neuf French, nueve, Spanish, nove Italian and Portuguese, novem Latin, nigen, nigan and nigon Saxon, negen Dutch, neun German, nyu Ice- landic, ni Danish, nio Swedish, niun Gothic, nine Precop. inn Arme- nian, noh, nine and nohom ninth Persian, navan Sanscrit e-^i^tx. N.OS? and Nostrils, nez French, naso Italian, nariz Spanish and Por- tuguese, nasus and nares Latin, nosa Saxon, neus, neuze and neis Dutch, nase German, nos Icelandic, noes Swedish, nos Slavonian, Russian, Polish and Bohemian, noose Dalmatian, nasa Sanscrit. Oath. Ath Saxon, eid German, eed Dutch and Danisli, oede Ice- landic, aith Gothic, eed and eeduth Hebrew testimony ("T^i/i"') he testified. One. Aon Galic, im Welch, uynyn Cornish, unan Armoric, un French, uno Italian and Spanish, hum i'ortuguese, unus Latin, an aene Saxon, een Dutch, ein German, eyn Icelandic, en Danish, han Swedish, ains Gothic, edin Slavonian, iedna, odin and on Russian, iedan Dalmatian, geden Bohemian, jeden Polish, van Chinese, "iv luhg hena Chaldean. Should the Slavonian line be here considered as the parent of the 142 rest; the first progenitor may be sought for in ahad and jehad of the Chaldee, Hebrew and Arabic, which in the Syriac becomes hada. 0.2, bull, bullock and buffalo. Agh, scgh and bo Calic, ych Welch, eg Armoric, bocuf French, buey Spanish, bue Italian, bos bovis Latin, oxa Saxon, oz Dutch, ochse German, uxc Icelandic, oxe Danish and Swedish, auhs Gothic, buik Russian and Slavonian, wol Polish, ochse rmheniian, okoz Turkish, eker, okor, ok and eukner Hungarian, ugir Tartaric, bo Tonquin, usa Sanscrit. In Greek we have Bovc, in Latin bos. But Bovg means a cow, and bos extends to the whole species, whether cow, bull, ox or heifer. So does the Galic ash. In Welch, ych is confined to ox, and buwch to cow ; but bu is either ox or cow, and bwla is a bull. In Galic bo is cither a bull, ox, cow, or fawn. So bubulus in Latin means that which is derived from an ox, bull, or cow, and bubulcus like BanoKog is Armentarius. So bakar in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac denotes a herd of cattle, whether cows, bulls or oxen. In Arabic bakar is generic and bakarat means a heifer. Buffalo and Bugle, is in Latin bubulus in Greek (iov^xko(7 and ^oxj^xXig, in Welch bual, buibol in Slavonian, in Polish bawol, in Hungarian bial. In all these the generic part of the term is evident, and classes this animal with cows, oxen, bulls, but the specific difference is no where so distinctly seen as in Galic, in which bo allaidh is a wild bull or buffalo, for allaidh is Avild, Avhich leads us to ci'k<Jog and saltus. From these terms, as I apprehend, may be derived the Slavonian vol, the Celtic bwla and our bull. 143 Tn what manner boallaidh is related to the Arabic phahal, 1 cannot pretend to say. See cow and yoke. Faw is lapadh Galic, paw Welch, poot Dutch, fa Icelandic and Swedish, fahan Gothic, p^ Persian, pdun Hindostan. May we consider all these as related to 7r«w. In Danish patte means to seize. Pot, is pot French, puta aud bhad Sanscrit. Raven, bran Galic, cig-fran, i. e. a flesh crow, AVelch, corbeaii French, corbo Italian, cuervo Spanish, corvo Portugese, corvus Latin, hra;m and hraefen Old English, hraefn and remn Saxon, rave Dutch, rabe German, hrafn Icelandic, raffn Danish, ranm Swedish, kavran and vrdn Slavonian, voron Russian, kruk Polish, hawran, Bohemian, gravran Dalmatian, chafran Croatian. In Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic we have gorab, which is distinctly corvus. In Welch rhaib is a ravening. Voro Latin and voron of Russia may be allied, as may be rapio and rabe. See rook and crow. Rook. Rocus and bran Galic, yd-fran i. e. corn crow AVelch, rocco Italian, krook Old Flnglish, hroc Saxon, rocck and koore-kraye, that is corn, crow Dutch, corneille French cornix. In Greek we have apcoy^j^og a croaking, in Latin crocito, which is in Polish krakam, in Flungarian korrogok, whence we derive both crow and rook. See raven and crow. To rook, that is to deceive and cheat, seems rather to be allied to roka* Hungarian a fox, than to the bird, because, although voracious, the rook has never yet been charged Avith fraud. Boh. Robam Galic, derober French, robar Spanish, rubare Italian, beryppan, ryppan and reafianl Saxon, rooven Dutch, rauben and raflcn German, rifa Icelandic, roffver Danish, riifwa and gripa Swedish, bi=- 144 raubodan Gothic, obriipati Slavonian, grabite Russian, rabowac Polish, lobiii Dalmatian, rubnowati Lusatian, ragadom Hungarian, rubuden Persian. In Latin we have in rapio in Greek ap-^dco. In Hebrew, Clialdee, Sjriac and Arabic, harab, conveys the notion of war, plunder and deceit. Yet rob, rapine, ravish, rover, ruffian, and bereave, may, like raven, originate in gorab of the Hebrew. 6Va, sail and sailin Galic, swi Armoric, sae Saxon, zee Dutch, see German, sioor Icelandic, sio Swedish, saihva Gothic, soo Finlandic, zea Iberian, sue and xoi Armenian, sou Tonquin, and xu Japan. Su Chinese and Tartaric, means water, river; saihva Gothic is confined to lake. A sail is segl Saxon, seyl Dutch. Are these allied to sea? or have they any connexion with velum? Seat, saide and suidhe Galic, eisteddle and gorsedd Welch, seotole and setl Saxon, sate, sedele and sele Dutch, sidel German, sette Teu- tonic, saete Icelandic, sede Danish, sate and saessa Swedish, sedalishtshe Slavonian, siedzenie Polish, sezek Hungarian, sedes, sedile; tho; Greek, seth or sheth (n t^) Hebrew, v. sit. Sit^ suidham and seisim Galic, gorseddu Welch, sittan, sitzan Saxon, sltten Dutch, sitzen German, sessa Icelandic, sidder Danish, sitia Swedish, sitan Gothic, sedlayu, sideti and sieju Slavonian, sedete Rus- sian, sicdze Polish, sediti Bohemian, szyditi Dalmatian, nishesten Per- sian, asitum and sidivasa Sanscrit. Sedeo. f?0M-ai. {pnm. T\r\^ and T\W-) Satha Hebrew and Chaldee, he placed. (VnJi') Setal Chaldee, means to set, to plant. From sit we may derive saddle. Sadhall Galic, sadell Welch, selle French, silla Spanish, sella Italian, Portuguese and Latin, 145 sadl Saxoti, sadel Dutch, sattel German, sadul Icelandic, sadel Danish and Swedish, sedlo Slavonian and Bohemian, siedio Russian, siodlo Polish. Seven, seachd and morsheisar Galic, saith Welch, Armoric and Cornish, sept French, sette Italian, siete Spanish, sete Portuguese, septem Latin, seofon Saxon, zevcn Dutch, sieben German, sio Icelandic, siuf Danish, siu Swedish, sibun Gothic, siwSamoide, sedm Slavonian and Bohemian, sem and situ Russian, siedm Polish, szedam Dalmatian, schedim Lusa- tian, yedi Turkish, het Hungarian, heft Persian, sAth Sanscrit, septem, Ittt*, aehag Hebrew and Chaldee, seha Arabic. She, isa, ise Galic, hi Welch and Armoric, ea Latin, seo, heo and hio Saxon, sii Dutch, sie German, si Gothic, ese Russian, sa Sanscrit^ In Latin we have is he, in Hebrew ish he, isha she. Six, seisir, se and sia Galic, chw6ch Welch, huech Armoric, six French, sei Italian, seis Spanish, seys Portuguese, syx Saxon, zes, sesse and ses Dutch, sechs German, sex and siax Icelandic, sex Danish and Swedish, saihs Gothic, seis Precop., shest Slavonian and Russian, szescz Polish, ssest Bohemian, hat Hungarian, shesh Persian, zuest Armenian, sau Tartarian, si Chinese, choe Bengal, shesh Sanscrit, sex Latin, £$ Greek, ses or shesh and seth Hebrew and Chaldee, sittet and sitt Arabic. Son, zoon and sine Dutch, sone Saxon, suna German, sohn Icelandic, sonus Danish and SAvedish, son Gothic, sunus Slavonian, Bohemian, Polish, syn Russian, sun Dalmatian, viov Greek. Sow, hog, swine, muc Galic, hwch Welch, houch Armoric, sugu and swin Saxon, soegh, seugh, hogh, souwe and swiin Dutch, saw and schwein German, saa and suin Icelandic, suin Danish, sugga and swin Swedish, VOL. II. u 146 sveina Gothic, siea Finlandic, zopa and swiniya Slavonian, sweneina and swenee Russian, swin Lusatian, swinia Polish, Dalmatian and Carniolan, swine Bohemian, khog Persian, uc Chinese, sus Latin. In Greek we hnve'vg, (rug aveiog, avinog and (xvivog. Stand, i.e. siaend, sta Galic, slaan Dutch, standan Saxon, staae Danish, stoiu Russian, istaden Persian, stan and statum Sanscrit. Sto, sta, stans, stantis, stante, statum. Hqi^^i sqxuzi. Take, togam Galic, tacken Dutch, tek Icelandic, tager Danish, taga Swedish, takniti Slavonian, taknuti Dalmatian, teknauti Bohemian, tykac Polish, t«w, Ta^co, tetcchoc, tTayov, yiTXO{/.xi. Ten, deich and da cuig, that is twice five, Galic, deg Welch, Armoric and Cornish, dix French, dieci Italian, diez Spanish, decern Latin, tyn, tin, tien Saxon, tien, thien Dutch, zehen German, tyu Icelandic, ti Danish, tiijo Swedish, taihun Gothic, thyne Precop., desiati and deset Slavonian, Dalmatian and Bohemian, disset Russian, dzesziec Polish, tiz Hungarian, tasn Armenian, deh or dah Persian, des Hindostan, desen Sanscrit, Atyia. This, so Galic, this Saxon, deze Dutch, diese German, sa Gothic, Swedish and Finlandic, these Icelandic, tesai Russian, taya and sie Sla- vonian, thavis and thaithan Iberian, delta and denna Swedish, ten Polish, is Latin, ze Hebrew. This, in Gothic, is the genitive singular, and thize the genitive plural of sa and thata, which answer to this and that of the English, or to h and TO of the Greek. Thou, tu and thu Galic, ti tydi Welch, te Armoric, ta Cornish, tu French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Latin, thu Saxon, du Dutch 147 and German, tliii Icelandic and Gothic, du Danish and Swedish, fzo Precop., ty Slavonian, Dahiialian and Polish, tci and tui Ilussian, sen Turc, and Iberian, ty Hungarian, tu Persian, tzo Tartaric, de Bengal, twa Sanscrit, St), Dorice Tu, in Hebrew ata, in Arabic entn. Three, tri Galic, Welch, Armoric and Cornish, trois French, tres Spanish, Portuguese and Latin, thrie and threo Saxon, drie and trey Dutch, drey German, thrys Icelandic, tre Swedish, thrins Gothic, tri Slavonian and Russian, trzy Bohemian, trzi Polish, tria Tartaric, try Sanscrit. T^as. Thrice, iris and tres vices Latin, trois fois French, tris Sanscrit. Through is ire, trid and dar Galic, trwy and drwy Welch, thurk, thruh and thor Saxon, door Dutch, durch German and thairh Gothic. In the Gothic we have thairs, and in French trou, foramen. All these, beyond a question, for their symbol have a door, and ori- ginate in this notion, as beautifully illustrated by Mr. Tooke. We find thorruke. Old English, tharagh Chaldee, thara Syriac, and ^vpx Greek a door. Hence it appears that our Old Enghsh thorruke and through are from the Chaldee, and not from the Greek. Time, am Galic, temps French, tiempo Spanish, tempo Itahan, and Portuguese, tempus Latin, tima Saxon, time Danish, tima Swedish, dem Persian, a breathing, a moment. Zemen Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac, zeman Arabic. Tine, tind, and tinder, teinne Galic, tan Welch, Armoric and Cornish fire. Tendan and tynan Saxon, zunden German and Teutonic, tende Danish, t'anda Swedish, tandjan Gothic, tendra Icelandic, to kindle. In Persian we have taw and taf, heat and tawiden to heat, to shine. V 2 148 Indh Sanscrit kindling. Szen Hungarian, tanat Epirotic, ten Japan, tien Chinese, fire. Tun Persian, a furnace in Hebrew is tanor (lljn) tan, tartarian is a spark, and tinh to shine. In Latin we have extinguo, in French eteindre and etinceler, in Galic tentean, the hearth, tin teach, lightning, tintighe and teintidh fiery; tinm understanding, and tinteannas great haste, in Welch tanbaid and tanrhe fiery, tanwdd fuel, tawnr one who provides il, and tywynnu to shine, in Chinese toung the East, in Finish tunne to know. Tooth, dend Galic, dant Welch and Armorc, danz Cornish, dent French, diente Spanish, dente Italian and Portuguese, dens, dentis Latin, toth Saxon, tand and tandt Dutch, zahn German, tenn Icelandic, tand Swedish, tunthu Gothic, atamn Armemian, dendan Persian, dant Hindostani and Sanscrit. In Persian dendiden is to gnaw, olovg oBovrog and Tiv^co Greek. Shen Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac. Sinn Arabic. Tine English and tinne Icelandic mean the teeth, of forks, and of liarrows. Tree, dair and dairbhre in Galic mean the oak, so does derw in Welch and Armoric. We have treo, treow and tryw Saxon, dre Teu- tonic, triu and trie Icelandic, tree Danish, tra Swedish, triu Gothic, drewo Slavonian, Russian and Lusatian, drzwo Polish, strom Bohemian, dreuno Lusatian, dzarr Armenian, druu Epirotic, deracht Persian, dru and tra Sanscrit. Two, da and do Galic, dau and dwy Welch, deux French, due Italiaa, dos Spanish, dons Portuguese, duo Latin, tu, tua, twa, twe and twy Saxon, twee twii Dutch, zwey and zwo German, tueir Icelandic, twa 149 Swedish, tu and toe Danisli, tuai Gothic, dwa Slavonian, Russian, Dal- matian, PoHsh and Lusatian, du Persian d6 Hindostani, dua Malay, dwau Sancrit, Sva Greek, sheni Hebrew, thani Arabic means second. fVa7', In Galic we have greis, greit and griasda a warrior, grim war and griom challaire, a herald, or the man who declares Avar. In Welch we find arfwr and arwr, a warrior, a hero, in French guerre, in Italian and Spanish guerra. These agree with waer Saxon, weere Dutch, werre German, baratta Icelandic, orlog Swedish, boriu Slavonian, voina Russian, Slavonian, Polish and Lusatian, bhaarat Hindostani and Sanscrit, in which beero means a hero, heros Latin, vjpwj Greek, to which may be related «p^g, fV'? and megarca (nm;;^) of the Hebrew, in which lan- guage garac ("?|-|y) means to set the army in array. Should we be disposed to connect war like virtus courage with vir; we must then look to gwr of the Welch, and geher of the Hebrew. If with arms, we shall find its allies in karah Persian, arm Galic, arf Welch, ar, arf, or, yr, urf and hiorf Swedish, arms, arrow and sword, which last is sweord Saxon, sweerd Dutch, schwerdt German, hior Icelandc, sverd Danish, sward, hiorf and orf Swedish, hairus Gothic, kard Hungarian, saur Armenian, and aop Greek, These agree with zur ("11^) Hebrew, which means war, a rock, a fortress, an enem)', and the edge of the sword. Warm, garam and goram Galic, gwr^s and gwresogi Welch, wearmian Saxon, waermen Dutch, warmen German, varm Icelandic and Gothic, warma Swedish, wram Polish, germ Persian, gurum Hindostani, goria Cuntabrian, pogoraiu Slavonian, pori Welch, itvpoeiv Greek and hagar Hebrew to hum. All these are related. But here the 150 Galic may be the parent of the Gothic, because that language as- sumes M to form the first person singular of the present tense. Water, dobhar and dur, baister and baiter Galic, dwr Welch, dowr Cornish, eau French, waster Saxon, v/aeter putch, wasser German, uazzar Teutonic, ytturia Cantabrian udr Icelandic, vatn Swedish, van Danish, vatin Gothic, voda Slavonian and Dalmatian, woda Russian, Bohemian, Polish and Illyrian, wessi and uie Epirotic and Esthonian wiis and viz Hungarian and Croatian, dschur and dsour Armenian, sii Turc. udac and var Sanscrit, wesi Finlandic, tiatse Lapland, ao Tonquin, doo Japan, yoe Birman, avye and awa Otaheite, u5wp and It^ Greek, In Hebrew, Chaldean and Arabic we have matar (■ID;^) rain and oed ("T^) vapor. Will, ail and toil Galic, gwyll Welch, vouloir French, velle and volo Latin, willa Saxon, will Dutch and German, vuill Teutonic, wilia vilja Gothic, voliu Slavonian, woleia Russian, wule Bohemian, wole Polish, volya Dalmatian. All these agree Avith aXSof^ai, ^eXw, (*eXXa;, ^aXkoo, (iovKoy-cci, and 7"'5:^in Hoil. Withe and Withy, withig Saxon, wede Dutch, weide German, widia Swedish, vidde, Icelandic, weez Dalmatian, wiazek and wiazko Polish, wist Armenian, Irtsi and £tv)j Greek. To swathe is wathan withan Gothic, vcsatia Slavonian, vezati Dalmatian, vazati Bohemian, wiazac Polish, wisatzi Lusatian, vieo Latin. Gwydd is in Welch a weaver, a loom and gwyddi a quickset hedge. It must be remembered that in Welch dd is pronounced th. Wool, olann Galic, gwlan Welch, Armoric and Cornish, laine French, lana Italian Spanish and Latin, wuUe Saxon, wolle Dutch and 151 German, ull Icelandic and Swedish, willa Finlandic, uld Danish, ullo Lapland, volna Slavonian, wlna Bohemian, welna Polish, vulna Dalmatian, wil Epirotic. In Latin we have vellus, villus pilus, in Greek hvKog, [^xWog, and [^.vi'kov^ in Welch gwallog hairy. Write, sgriobam Galic, ysgrifennu Welch, scrivaff Armoric, ecrire French, escribir Spanish, escrever Portuguese, scrivere Italian, scribere Latin, writan Saxon, schreiben, schriiven Dutch, kreiden Cierman, scri- bere cum creta. Kit Icelandic, skrifwa Swedish, ypaCpw Greek. Allied to these we have grave, scrape, scratch, scrub, and rub. Sgrio- bam Galic, crafu Welch, grater French, grattare Italian, kratsen Dutch, kratzen German, kratzer Danish, kratta Swedish, drapie, skrobie and ^iskrobuie Polish, vakarodhatnam Hungarian, %«pa3-(rw, xtxpccrlco, Greek, rado Latin, (a^in and nln) charas, charat, Hebrew, to engrave, to write, and cheret (o")n) a pen. From charat may have been derived tharta. Yard, orchard and garden, all agree, and are nearly allied to gird. In Galic we have garadh and gort, the latter of which terms means a field, a garden, in Welch gardd, in French and Spanish jardin, in Por- tuguese jardim. Corresponding with these we have ortgeard Saxon, gaerde Dutch, garten German, karto and gardon Teutonic, gaard Danish, gard and ortegard Swedish, aurtijards Gothic, vert, varta and vertgorod Slavonian, ogorode Russian, ogrod Polish, zahrade Bohemian, kert Hungarian, hortus Latin, XopToj, according to Hesychius, is an inclosure. In Swedish garda means a hedge to inclose. Yea, eadh Galic, ie Welch and Armoric, oui French, ia Saxon, Dutch 152 and German, iai Gothic, ia Swedish, vgy Hungarian, ayi Sanscrit je/ii (iiT^) Heb. Yoke, cuing Galic, iau Welch, joug French, giogo Italian, yugo Spanish, iugo Portuguese, jugum Latin, joe and geok Saxon, jock Dutch, joch German, ok Icelandic and Swedish, aag Danish, juka Gothic, juco Finlandic, igo Slavonian and Russian, gho Bohemian, iga Hungarian, jugh or yugh Persian, yug Sanscrit, ^vyov Greek, whence comes ^evyvucu, jungo, joindre French, giungere Italian, juntar Spanish, aiuntar Portu- guese, and join. See ox. Young and youth, oganach Galic, jeuangc and jufange Welch, jouvance and jeune French, giovane Italian, joven Spanish, juvenis Latin, yeong, jong and geong Saxon, jong and jonck Dutch, jung German, ungur Icelandic, ung Swedish, junost, junota and junosha Slavonian, junoshei Russian, juroan or jawan, pronounced joowone, Persian, yauvana and yuvan Sanscrit, pronounced joowaun Hindostan, jo7iek Hebrew, and ja7nk Chaldee, mean a suckling. In addition to these examples, I must call to the recollection of the reader the several words I have, in the preceding sheets traced through Europe and Asia to their proper radical expressions. And I must here repeat, that the strict affinity prevailing in these few words would be sufficient to prove, that the nations, by which they are now, or have been used, originated in one. But this will be made still more evident, when I shall proceed to the examination of their several languages, beginning with the AVelch. ON THE WELCH LANGUAGE. L HE Welch have never pretended to be indigenous, either as natives of the soil, or as the immediate offspring of some local divinity; but, on the contrary, have been ever ready to acknowledge themselves colo- nists, who wandered with their flocks in search of quiet habitations. They call themselves Cymru, and boast of CJomer as their progenitor. This descent they claim on the credit of the name they bear. But their critics say, that, agreeably to the genius of their language, Cymry cannot be derived from Gomer. If then it should be granted, that Cymru is not derivable from Gomer; we must seek elsewhere for the origin of this appellation, and may expect to find it in some term expressive either of their mode of life, their warlike implements, their dress, their manners, or the nature of the country in which they fixed their habitations. But here a previous question will occur, from what language must we derive this appellation? Must we apply to their neighbours or to themselves .■* VOL. II. X 154 In Herodotus we find mention made of Kif^fiulpioj, of the Bo^mpog Kt(*[j.f/)iog, and of a country called Ki[*fiepi'vi, now the Crimea. But the reason for this name is not assigned. The Romans speak of the Bosphorus Cimmerius, which unites the Palus Mreotis to the Euxine, and Pliny mentions both Cimmerium, a city of Pontus, in more ancient times called Cerberion and Cimmeris, a city of Troas. Two several people likewise have been noticed by the name of Cimmerii, the one near the Bosphorus, the other in a vale of Italy between Baiae and Cumoe. Besides these people, we read in Juvenal of Terribiles Cimbri, who dwelt in Jutland, and I can readily believe, with Sheringham, that their name may have been derived from their ferocity in war, because in German kampfFer means a warrior, kampfFen to fight and kampfF a battle. Supposing this derivation to be well founded, the name ia question may have been both assumed by themselves and attributed, to them by those, whose territory they were accustomed to invade. When this appellation ceased, it was succeeded by that of German, a word of precisely the same import. Should we be disposed to consider the Cimbri and Cimmerii as one and the same people, and seek the origin of their name from any lan- guage connected with the Persian, we might conceive them to have been distinguished as a shepherd nation, because kumra in Persian, both ancient and modern, means a shccpfold. Or should we be inclined to look towards the Galic; in that lansuaije we should find cumar a vallev, and cumaraic a people living in vales shut in by lofty mountains. Thus the 0' Briens of Cumarach, in the county of Waterl'ord, were called 155 Cumaraic, as inhabiting the valleys between Dungarvan and the Shure. From the same circumstance, the ancient Britons of Cumberland may have obtained their name of Cumbri. In Welch, cwmm means a narrow valley between high mountains; but, according to Cleland, who appears to have been a good Welch scholar, apn is one of the most ancient Celtic words for mountain, and we know that cime in French has the same acceptation. We find the word in Arabic, Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac, every where conveying the notion of altitude. It is therefore possible that by the appellation of Cymru may have been meant mountaineers. There remain yet other sources, from which the Cimmerii may have derived their name. For in Welch Cymmer, pi. Cymmerau, means the confluence of two seas or rivers, a circumstance common to the Thracian Bosphorus, to the northern Chersonesus, and to the Straits of Sicily, of all which the inhabitants were styled Cimmerii. Of the Greek term BotrTropog, we have no certain explanation. But could we in the Celtic find either a word similar to bis in sound and meaning, or examples of the conversion of D into B, as in the ^olic dialect of Greek, I should be inclined, with Cleland, to consider Bos- phorus as a corruption of Bismor, that is, two seas, and therefore equi- valent to Cymmerau, in which case Boa-Topog KiiJ.i^.epiog would exhibit such a repetition as we found in lacus lemanus of the Romans and loch linny of Scotland, or such as we may observe in llychlyn of the Welch, and in numerous other instances already noticed. After all, should we conceive, that Cassar intended b}' indigence, to translate the Welch term brodorion, of the same import, this, with the X 2 156 preposition cyn, will readily exhibit cymro and cymru, and consequently may have given birth to Cimbri and Cimmerii. The Welch language is very valuable, and more particularly so, on account of its ancient manuscripts, of which Mr. Owen has examined thirteen thousand, all poetical. Some of these were written in the ninth and others in the eleventh century. This gentleman has augmented the vocabulary from fifteen thousand to about one hundred thousand words, and in his inestimable dictionary, he has brought forward twelve thousand quotations to illustrate their meaning. It has been remarked, that there is no difference between the language of the laws of Howel in the tenth century, or of Geoffrey of Monmouth in the twelfth, and that now spoken. Such permanence of language may be attributed in part to the multiplicity of writers in unremitted suc- cession, but the principal cause of immutability must be sought for in the nature of their poetry. Other nations, in their poetical productions have been satisfied with metre and the jingle of rhymes. But in addition to these, the Welch require alhteration at certain intervals in their verses, and a perfect cor-, respondence in this respect between verse and verse. This they have carried to such an extent as must cramp the genius of their poets, but at the same time and in the same degree preserve the orthography and purity of their language. In the sixth century the bards were numerous, and Llywarc Hen, who was a bardic warrior attendant upon Arthur, is said to have been living in the middle of ihe seventh century. It is well known, that the bards held their annual assemblies, and that in the beginning of the fifteenth 157 century they met to collect tlie bardic traditions. In the year 1570, W. Herbert Earl of Pembroke presided in their assembly, as did Sir Edward Lewis in 1580. Even so late as 1681, a complete revisal of all former collections took place at Bewpyr, in a gorsedd, or national bardic assembly, of which Sir Richard Basset was the president. The Welch alphabet is said to have had originally sixteen letters, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, i, 1, mj n, o, p, r, s, t. But to me they seem to have been no more than fifteen, because the character for f is merely a modi- fication of that for p, and is precisel)' the iEolic digamma, both in form and power, whereas in Greek this digamma is in form a modification of the gamma, but in power is the aspirated p. These sixteen letters are considered as radicals. The remaining twenty- four letters of the alphabet are derivatives from them, and preserve the fundamental characteristics of their originals, modified by additional signs to denote the various mutations of sound, with respect either to length, or to aspiration, from the primary. This alphabet shews mucli thought, deep reflexion and a perfect knowledge of organic affinity in letters. The radical characters have a striking resemblance to the Etruscan or Pelasgia, to the Ionic, as taken from the most ancient coins of Sicily, Baeotia and Attica, and to the Phenician. They are analogous to the Runic, from which they seem to have been derived: but the modern Runic admits of curves in some of its characters, which in the more ancient were inadmissible. In the Welch alphabet all the strokes are straight lines, without one curve, a form best suited to the pristine mode of writing, which was by cutting letters on either triangular, or square 158 sticks, as may be seen in Fry's Pantographia; consequently a single stick contained either three or four lines, answering to our stave, a word still retained in our churches. These were called coelbren y beirdd, that is lots of the bards. ■ Tn German a letter of the alphabet is called buch stab, that is beech staf, a book is buch, and a beech tree is buche. In the Russian language buk is a beech, and bukva is a letter. In AVelch gwydd is trees, and egwyddor tlie alphabet. In Irish feadh is wood, and fead to relate. In Greek the original notion of 7pa<|)w was I grave, a notion which has been preserved in all the languages of Europe. All the ancient alphabets appear to have a radical affinity. It has been suggested, that the Welch characters are anterior to the Greek. They are certainly more simple, and require nothing more than a stick, and such a chisel as we discover near the old British towns, where no implement of iron appears. It is remarkable that in German kieselstein means a flint, and a common flint would be fully suffici- ent for the purpose of engraving or chisseling the Welch letters on a beechen staf. With regard to their pronunciation, we may remark that 11 is sounded like I in limb, w like oo in foot. Y may be i, o, u, in third, honey, mud. C and g are pronounced hard, r is aspirated. The double letters dd, ff and 11 are modern inventions to indicate that d, f and 1 are to be aspirated. Yet 11, in derivatives from Greek supplies the place ©f ^X, xX, ttX and <px, as in Uifo /SXuoj, lladd nXxaig, lliaws •xXvi&og, tXeoj, ■jXeTog, llippau enXei'Xbj, llydan TtXxTVvic, llosgi (pXc^t'^o;, &c, &C. 159 The Welch has a practice peculiar to itself in its nine mutable initial letters, called literae umbratiles, because they change and vanish like a shadow. These are b, c, d, g, 11, m, p, r, t, which change according to words immediately preceding them. li B gives place to fandm. For instance bara is bread; ei fara his bread; fy mara my bread. 2. M becomes f, mam mother; ei fam his mother. 3. P becomes B. Mh, and ph as pen a head; ei ben his head; fy mhen my head; ei phen her head. 4. C becomes ch, g, and ngh, as car a relation; ei char her relation; ei gar his relation; fynghar my relation. 5. G either becomes iig or is dropt. Thus gwas a servant ; fy ngwas my servant ; ei w^s his servant. 6. T becomes th, d, and nh, as tM father; ei thdd her father; ei d4d his father; fynhad my father, 7. D is changed to dd and n, as duw God; ei dduw his God; fy nuw my God. 8. LI becomes 1, as Haw a hand; ei law his hand. 9. Rh is converted into r, as rhv/yd a net; ei rwyd his net. These changes are founded on the general principles, that letters of the same organ are commutable. The peculiarity of the Welch language is, that they are not governed by caprice, but by fixed and determinate laws. In many of its mutations the Welch discovers a remarkable resemblance to the tEoHc dialect, in which we find jivpiJ-xt. and jleXKu for f*.upfxv)^ and i^-eXXw, o-ifzaicc and aa^cus-a: for of*fx«T« and [A«&ou(r«, . /3«/;(*tT05 for ^cepjinog, [t.a^u for 'kutcc, and Tfp£(i.iv&05 for Ttps^iv'^oj. . 160 Tlius in Welch we observe hjfaeth, hyfed and hyfedr for hymaetb, hymedi and hymedr. It is here not unworthy of remark, that in Athens Diana was in- differently called Bendidia and Mendidia, which appellation they seem to have derived from the Tliracians, with whom bendi was the sun, and no less worthy of our notice is it, that the Iroquois, who are sup- posed by Father Lafitau, to have descended from the same stock, call the sun ovendi and that with them ov is equivalent to B to M and to every other labial of the Thracians. Nor was the practice in question confined to these nations, as may appear by the subsequent derivatives |*op(fv) forma, fj-xXXog vellus, [j-opo; fors, (iu;(*viKa: formica, 'zpojioG-iug promuscis. Marmor marbre. Manbeg of India is ^x[s.^-oxvi, pambu in Tibet is mambu, and with us raomba is converted into Bombay, In numerous instances it is difficult to determine, which expres- sion is original and which derivative, but in some words there can be no doubt, for surely the original name given to the capital of Italy was not Rhufain but Roma, and the brother of Romulus was not Rhwyf but Remus. The Welch nouns, like those of the Hebrew, having but one ter- mination for the singular and one for the plural, distinguish their cases either by prepositions, or by construction, at the same time varying their initial letters, if mutable, agreeably to rule. The pronouns are mi, ti, efe, hi, ni,chwi, hwynt: I, thou, he, she, we, they. Of these pronouns the most worthy of our notice is Jncynt, which by abbreviation, and, as a termination to the third person plural of verbs, becomes ijnt, anl, cut, oat, answering to the Latin, init^ ant, cut. I6i The substantive and auxiliary verb runs thus: wyf, wyt, j\v, ym, ych, ynt, I am, thou art, he is, we, ye, they are. Bum, buost, bu, buoiu, buoch, buont, I, thou, he, we, ye, they have been, byddaf, byddi, bydd, byddwn, buddwch, byddant. I, thou, he, we, ye, they shall be. Formerly bi was used for it shall be. Bydd be thou. Bod to be. Yn bod, being. Oeddem we were, ydys, he, or it is. Oes there is. Regular Verb. Dysgu wyf, I learn. Dysgu wyt, thou learnest, &c. Dysgais, I have learned. Dysgaist, thou, and Dysgodd, he, »Scc. Dysgasom, we, &c. Dysgasoch, ye, &c. Dysgasant, they, &c. Dysgaf, I will learn. Dysgi, thou, &c. Dysg, he will learn. Dysga, learn thou. Dysged, let him learn. Dysgu, to learn. The Welch is certainly a very ancient language, but it is idle to imagine, that all its terms, simple, as well as compound, were invented by the primitive inhabitants of Wales. Should then any one, however distinguished for a knowledge of his native tongue, derive henoeth, this night, from hen old, or should he for heddy w, this day, refer us to hedion chaff, io hedi/dd a ]aTk, or to hediad a thing that flieth; or should he again derive hediad from %, apt, bold, with its terminating particle edd, we must be permitted to smile at his simplicity, because in henoeth we are reminded of hacnocte and in heddi/w we look to hodie, answering to heute of the Germans, idag of the Swedes, oggi of Italy, hoy of Spain, and huy of France. TOL. H. I Y' 162 OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN WELCH, SWEDISH, DANISH AND ICELANDIC. IT is impossible for any one acquainted, even in the least degree, with these languages, not to discern that they claim the same descent. The numerous expressions common to them all are not such, as are usually transported from one nation to another, either by conquest, or by com- merce, and their resemblance is so perfect, that their radical identity cannot be doubted. It is not my intention to have it conceived, that the composition and grammatical construction is the same in all these lan- guages, because in this respect they diflfer exceedingly, as all kindred languages are apt to do after a lapse of one or two thousand years. The affinity between the Welch and the languages, with which we shall now compare it, will be evident by the subsequent examples. English. Babe Balk Ball Band Bean Bear Beast Beat Bench H'elch. Maban Bale B^l Bancaw Flaen Perthi Bwystfil Baeddu Maingc StDedish, Danish, Icelan. Babe, S. Bielka, S. D. Ball, S. Band, I. D. S. Baun, I. Bcr, I. Bccst, D. I)acl(la, S. Bank,S. D. English. Board Boat Booth Bow Boy Bread Break Bride Bright ITtlch. Swedish, Danish, Icelaa, Bwrdd Bord, D. S. Bad Baatur, I. Bwth Boot, I. Bow Boga, I. S. Bachgen Poiike, S. Bara Brand, I. Br6g Brcek, D. Priodfab Brud, I. S. D. Berth Biatur, I. 163 English, mich. Swedish, Danish, Icctaii- EngUsh. mith. Sieedi.ih, Danifli, Uetan Brisk Brys Frisk, D. S. Clock ClAcJi Klokke, D. Brother Brotljr Brodur, I. Cod Cwd Kodde, I. Brow Bron Briin, I. Cook Cegin Kok, D. Buck Bwch Buk, D. Cole Cawl Kai,S. Kaa!,D. Call Galo Kali, I. Cost Cost Koste, D. Can Dichon Kunne, D. Crab Grange Krabbe, D. Cap Cap Kappe, D. Crane Garan Krane, D. Cat Cath KatD.KattaS. Crave Crefu Kref, I. Chain Cadwyn Kedia, S. Creep Croppian Kriupa, I. Cheese Caws Kes, S. Crop Croppa Krafwa, S. Chest Cist Kista, I. S. Craw Croppa Kroe, D. Chin Gen Kinn, S. Crook Crwcca Krok, S. Clear ( Olaer Klaar, I. D. S. Cry Deigrynnu Graata, I. Cleave ( jlynu Klebe, D. " Cup ( Jroppan Kopp, I. D. S. The few words I have here brought forwards are all monosyllabic in the English. These [ have compared with some of the purest dialects of the Gothic line. Had I chosen to extend my list to the other letters of the alphabet, had I embraced the compounds and polysyllabic terms and had I compared these with the Gothic of Ulphilas, or with the Dutch and German branches of the Gothic, my vocabulary had been abundantly increased. Leibnitz has selected six hundred words from the dictionary of Doctor Davies, compared with the German, to de- Y 2 164 monstrate, what Liv\^ before him had asserted, that the ancient language of the Gauls and Britons was half German. That the Celtic and Gothic languages were originally one, might still more clearly be evinced by the names of persons, and of places, of mountains, of rivers, and of cities. This part of my subject has been so copiously treated of by others, that I shall content myself with referring my reader to their works. OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN WELCH AND GREEK. WHAT I have advanced with respect to the radical affinity and the original identity of the Welch and Gothic languages, may be with equal truth applied to the Welch and Greek. The Welch, like the Greek, has an aspirate, where other languages either dropt it, or in its place assumed the sibilant. That the Welch has retained the aspirate will appear by the subsequent examples. Halen salt, aXo$; hawyn a bridle, viv/ov; haul the sun and heulo to bask in the sun. ^Xtoj; heb, he spake, ^^>\; heddychu to make peace, and heddvvch quiet, viuvxia; hel to hunt, to drive, IXxoi; helyg, salix, jA/kvi; hen old, hog; henw name, oyo\j.a; h^n sleep, vTivog; heppian to slumber, 'vnvtrv, hercuyd to reach, Ipeyu; hobel a dart, o/SeX^s; hoel a nail, viAoj; holl all, eAoc; liwyd, a duck, vxlog; hwch a hog, vg; hy strong, apt easy, tv, as in hybwyll prudent, tv^ovKog; hyglod famous tv and y.\iog: hygno, easy to be gnawed; tv and xvaw; hygryn apt to shake e'u and x^aS^xivw; hygar, amiable, tv and %«'fis; hylosg combustible tv and (pAo^/'^w; hylaw 165 dexterous, iv and Xxi^lixva ; hylyn tenacious, ^v and yXfa; hydyn tracta- ble, f'u and THvu; hyddal easy to be taken, eu and BtXco; hyddal muni- ficent, en Sdvog. Like Greek, the Welch language aspirates the initial R, as in rhanne to part, pviyvufitt, rhwyg a rent, pnyvi, rhygnu to cut, score, p^ywii-t. The articles, prepositions and affixes are in numerous instances similar in Greek and Welch. A is an augmentative answering to uyav. Ad, denotes iteration or continuity, as does fT*. Am, round about, a[j.(pi. An denotes privation, like ocv and xvev. Er is intensive, answering to epi. Es and ys, answering to e^ and ex, as in esgus, estj'n, &c. The numerals are nearly the same in both languages. The formation of the singular number in Welch nouns, by affixing en or yn, marks the affinity to Greek, Thus ser means stars, but seren with the numeral subjoined is one star; ais ribs, asen a rib, with its ter- mination answering to ev. We say an ass, that is one ass. Some of the plural terminations shew the same affinity, as for instance, brynn a hill, bryniau hills, tad a father, tadau fathers, cMst the ear, clustau ears, men a wain, meni wains. The agreement will appear more perfect, if we recollect that u is pronounced i. in Welch. The verbs agree with the Greek in some of their inflexions, but they have a greater resemblance to the Latin, which is the MoVic dialect of Greek. In fact, Latin and Greek are radically one, and agree to a remarkable extent in their inflexions.. 166 As to tlie affinity observable between Welch and Latin, it might be imagined, that such terms were borrowed from the Romans after the reduction of our island to their yoke. New words however are easily detected, and differ much from those, which bear the stamp of earlier times. It has been well observed, that many words are found to be allied, which in Latin were obsolete before the days of Csesar, such as miriones, gluvia, ruma, meddix, dalivus, clueo, &c. used by Ennius, Plautus, and the more ancient writers. The words here noticed are in Welch muriones, glwth, rumen, meddu, delff, clyw. All the ancient names of Romans, such as Clodius, Celius, Cinna, Drusus, Marcus, Sylla, Silanus, are significant in Welch, but not in Latin. What has been already said upon this subject, may be considered a^ sufficient to demonstrate an affinity between Welch and Greek: but to see their radical identity we must examine the corresponding terms of these kindred languages. For this purpose I have subjoined in the Appendix a copious vocabulary, to which I must refer the reader. OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN WELCH AND HEBREW. I have said, that the radical letters in AVelch are sixteen. Such is staled to have been the number originally used in Greece, and it is agreed that the oldest Hebrew letters were not more numerous* Indeed sixteen were all that these languages required, before the introduction of refinements. A very striking resemblance between the Welch and Hebrew appears 167 in their verbs, because the third person singular is the root in both, with this difference, however, that in Welch it is the third person of the future, and in Hebrew the same person of the preterite. Thus we have in Welch c4r, he will love, and in Hebrew jacaj- (ip"*) he highly valued. Both languages are strangers to the present tense. Indeed such was the simplicity of ancient times, that in Homer and Hesiod the same part of the verb served for the present and the future. In con- formity to this practice we find tioi in Greek and amem in Latin, used for both these tenses. In Hebrew the verb has a present, future, impe- rative, infinitive and participles. The Welch verb has the same, but to the perfect it has added an imperfect and a pluperfect. The pronouns in Hebrew have a remarkable agreement with corres- ponding pronouns in Welch. In Hebrew the first person singular is ani and in composition I. In Welch it is mi and I in the oblique case, as in. this sentence, Christ km prynodd I. Christ redeemed me. The second person is in Hebrew ata, in Welch ti. The third is in Hebrew hu and hi, in Welch hi. The first person plural is in Hebrew nu, in Welch ni. In Welch, as in the preterites of the Hebrew, the pronoun is sufiixed to the verb. This appears most evident in the passive voice. The substantive verb in Welch has some affinity to the same verb in Hebrew, for oes, there is, and ys, now used foi- truly, agree ex- actly with {^'}.). This agreement will be rendered evident, when I shall proceed to the examination of the connecting link, the substan- tive verb in Greek. 168 In some Welch nouns I is used for the termination of the plurals, and in others we find au, which is pronounced I. Thus llestr, a vessel, has llestri in the plural, enw, a name, has enwau, and genhedlaeth has genhedlaethau. But, again, other plurals terminate in oedd, as llys a palace, liysoedd. In Hebrew the plural terminates in im, but in con- struction the m is dropt. The Chaldee in this respect perfectly ac- cords with the Hebrew. In both the famine plurals terminate in oth, which is the sound of oedd. But a more striking feature of resemblance is, that, like the Hebrew the Welch has no oblique cases, and that the deficiency is supplied by prepositions, excepting when words are placed in reglmine, as for instance yspryd Duw, the spirit of God, llys y brenin palace of the king. So in Hebrew D\i'7i* n.M and in Chaldee V'^'p^: mi the spirit of the gods. The preposition used for the dative case in Welch is I, as in i'rdinas, to the city, and in Hebrew, 'j, L, as in (l*?'?^]r>) ten Imelek, give to the kino', (^^.'^^'^) amar li, he said tome. In the genetive we have v^ skel as in ^k'^ sheli my, that which is to me, a preposition compounded of h and ^. The Welch is one branch of the Celtic, of which we have valuable renmants preserved by historians, and such as mark affinity between this ancient language and Hebrew, an affinity which may be traced in the na^mes ot the gods, of men and of sacred officers, and in the terms of war. The supreme divinity was called Hazizus, and was considered as the god of war. In this name we have distinctly f^^I^ of Psalm xxiv. 8, Who is this King of Glory? The Lord strong and mighty, the Lord mighUf in battlo 169 Brennus appears to have derived his name from Brenhin a king, an- swering to D3")D of the Syriac. Paterae were the priests of Apollo, and interpreters of his oracles. These may have been so called from "in 2, as we find the word used in Genesis, ch. xl. v. 8. Caenjfi. These were nine priestesses, presiding over the oracle of a Galic divinity. In Flebrew this appellation is found in cohena a pmestess. Tlie bards, prydyddion, whose office was to sing the praises of de- parted warriors, may have derived their name from the phoretim of Amos vi. 5. who chanted to the sound of the viol, and invented to themselves instruments of music. Alauda was a legion, and in Syriac >^ri2'7i<, answering to 2^^ in Hebrew of the same import, means a thousand men. Gacsum, yctKiog, a dart appears to be connected with galas of the Chaldee, an army, and gissaa. dart. It is said of Joab (2 Sam. xviii. 14.) that he took three darts in his hand. These in Hebrew are called shebetim, but the Targum renders the word TPP^?- In the same connexion we find gasntce, hired soldiers, called by Plutarch 'ye(rtrxrxi, and by Polybius 'ycet^xrat, in perfect agreement with the Syriac and Arabic. Thyreos, long shields, we may safely connect with tharis of the Arabic and Chaldee. Carnon, a trumpet, is IT of Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic. Benna, a wain, is probably allied to ophe7i of the Hebrew. Carrus, a car, is distinctly caron (!"'"' P) of the Chaldee. Essedura, a war chariot, a waggon. We find the same word in the Chaldee paraphrase on Gen. xlv. 19 27. roL. II. z 170 Gaunacum means a thick shag. Such a shag in Hebrew is called macabar, 2 Kings viii. 15, but in Chaldce it is i*231J. Sagum is a shag; but whether allied to pj^ Hebrew, and i^'p'^ Chaldee sackcloth, or to 11^ Ji' Hebrew and'^i'C' Chaldee, hairy, it is difficult to say. Braccae, brogues, may be derived from barac of the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac and Arabic. Maniacum, a golden bracelet, is distinctly J* 3''JDn of the Chaldee. Baraccacae, skins of goats, may be allied to the Syriac HI 3 a he-goat. Tarian, a shield, appears distinctly in the Chaldee. Marc, a horse, may be remec of Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic. Supposing Sorbiodunum to have been the Celtic name of Old Sarum, we may remark that sharab in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac means dry, answering to the local circumstance of its wanting water. Thus William of Malmsbury says of it, " Castellum erat et aquae penuria. laborans adeo ut mirabili commercio aqua ibi vendatur." Camden says, " Est ibi defectus aquae." Our English antiquarians therefore with propriety ex- plains the name Dryhill. I might extend my observations on these subjects, but I choose rather to refer the curious in antiquities to Boxhorn, who, in his Originum Gallicarum, has displayed a fund of literature most worthy of the age, in which he lived. The affinity between Welch and Hebrew will be rendered apparent to the reader, if he will refer to the comparative vocabulary, which he will find in the Appendix. It consists of such expressions as have occurred to myself in the course of my investigations. 171 Having thus demonstrated the affinity between the Welch and other languages of Europe and of Asia, it would be superfluous to examine its more immediate rehitives the Cornish, the Armoric, the Waldensic, the Wendish, or any other dialect still subsisting in Galacia, where St. Jerom (A.D. 360) recognised the language of Treves. Suffice it then to say, that scattered and dispersed as are these dialects, they are acknowledged to be one language, which, wherever it appears, carries with it indelible tokens of its oriental origin. I may, therefore, with confidence adopt the words of the learned Dr. Davis. Ausim affirmare linguan Britanicam [tum vocibus, tum phrasibus & orationis contextu, tum literarum pronunciatione, manifestam cum ori- entalibus habere congruentiam & affinitatem. z2 OF THE IRISH AND SCOTS DIALECTS THE GAjLIC LAMGUAGE. X HE Irish have never had the presumption to imagine that their primogenitors were natives of the soil ; but have been always ready to acknowledge, that they came from foreign countries, and the only dis- pute has been, whether they crossed the sea from the adjacent parts of Britain, or came directly from some more distant region. Their most approved historians are agreed, that Ireland received its first inhabitanis from Britain. But General Vallancey was of opinion that the original inhabitants of Ireland came from Iran, that is from the tract of country, which extends between the Indus and the Persian Gulpli. From thence, according to his statement, they proceeded to the West, and sailing from Tyre, they successively colonized Egypt, Crete, Malta, Sicily and Spain. From Gallicia he brings them to the Western Isles, and to Gaul. His obser- 173 vations, with the facts he has brought forwards, are highly interesting, and he has clearly demonstrated a conformity in language, customs, man- ners, mythology, sacred festivals and religious rites between the Pagan Irish and the oriental nations, from whom he supposes them to be descended. It is worthy of observation, that Bowles, an Irishman of strong un- derstanding and of extensive information, who for many years resided in Spain, was struck with the marks of resemblance between the customs of the Biscayners and of his countrymen, and delivered it as his opinion, that they were one people. As he had no bias on his mind, no favorite system to support, and no prejudice to warp his judgment, his opinion must have considerable weight with us. This colony of Indo-Scythians is reported by the ancient poets to have arrived, under the conduct of Milesius, five hundred years before the birth of Christ. Certain it is, that he gave a race of kings to the Irish, then known by the name of Gadelians, Scuits and Scots, After a lapse of ages, another tribe, called Hermini, flying from TuJius Caesar, left Lusitania, and took refuge in Ireland, where they became a powerful clan, distinguished by the name of Eremon. All these inhabitants were, in the opinion of Vallancev, flic genuine offspring of Magog, not of Gomer. It is not needful, that I should here discuss tiie question as to the colony which first arrived in Ireland. If tiie Belgoe. were in possession of the country before the arrival of the Milesians, they must iiave been ksv in number, because the ancient language is not Belgic, but Phcenician. Yet in process of time this was corrupted by invading tribes from Wales- 174 and Belgium, but chiefly by the Danes and Norwegians, who subdued and governed Ireland for ages. We learn from Richard of Cirencester, that about three hundred and fifty years before Christ, the Britons, that is the Welch, who were driven out of their country by Belgic Invaders, took refuge in Ireland. Here they established themselves, and maintained possession of the southern coast for about five hundred years, till the Menapii and the Cauci, two Belgic tribes, broke in upon them, and subdued the greatest part of Ireland. This circumstance accounts for the appellation of Dun Bolg, given to many of the most ancient fortresses, and suggests a reason for the term bolg being applied to signify nobility. Subsequent to this invasion, as it is stated, the Picts took posses- sion of the north: but it was not before A. D. 795, that these Scandi- navians came. After them, about A. D. 853, the Ostmanni, under the conduct of three chieftains, established themselves in Dublin, Waterford and Limeric. These, according to Archbishop Usher, were Livonians, and some of them came probably from Semigallia, because, prior to their arrival, no people were distinguished by the name of Gaill, and subsequent to this period even the Saxon invaders have always been denominated Gaill, as well as Saso7iic, by authors. Even to the present day the English are called Clanna Gall by the common people, and the Lowland Scots are named Galldachd na Halbuin. The facility, with which all these invading hordes got possession of settlements in Ireland proves, that the country was thinly inhabited. We have no authentic documents, no written records, before the intro- duction of Christianity, (A. D. 432.) and have nothing to guide us but 175 the sono-s of their most ancient bards, transmitted by tradition froni parents to their children. Even the poems Ossian, composed probably in the fourth century, describe a nation of hunters, without the most distant allusion to agriculture, arts, manufactures, and commerce, or even to pastoral life. All the images are taken from uncultivated nature, and all the incidents relate to hunting, war, and love. When the Irish, under the conduct of a Milesian leader, crossed over into Scotland, (A. D. 150) they either introduced their language, or found it already there, as the language of the Highlands ; and to this day they preserve it pure. This has not been difficult for them to do, because they have never been driven from their mountains by new colonies, and from their first establishment have had their poems, as classical productions, to which they might constantly refer. With these they are familiar, and Ossian, in the present day, is understood by the Highlander, as perfectly as any modern poet. That the language thus preserved by them on the mountains of North Britain, was not the primitive language of the country, from which they came, is evident, because it perfectly agrees with the 'modern Irish, and because, in the tenth century, Cormac, Archbishop of Cashel, la- mented the inattention of his countrymen to their ancient language. From that time, in consequence of his remonstrances, schools were established, manuscripts were collected, and glossaries were formed to preserve from total oblivion, the venerable language of their proge- nitors. Some of these valuable relicts are in existence, and by them General 176 Vallancey was enabled to discover, what the language was before it was corrupted by numerous invaders. The difference between the ancient and the modern lansuage is so o-reat, that none but the most learned and laborius students are able to understand the former, which to the present day, is called Bearla na Pheine, that is the Phoenician Dialect. With this I claim no ac- quaintance, and therefore depend on the authority of General Vallancey, whose extensive knowledge, accurate investigation, and strict fidelity, deserve the highest commendation. The elementary letters of the (Jalic language are sixteen. Tliis de- monstrates, that they were imported during the infancy of science, and before this number was increased by the Phoenicians, by ihe Greeks, by the Romans, and by all the nations on the Continent. Their alphabet had five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, supported by eleven consonants. These were b, f, ni, c, g, d, t, s, 1, n, r. It will immediately occur to the recollection of the student, that the Galic letters, nearly coincide with those introduced by Cadmus, into Greece, and it will not escape his notice, that P is here omitted, whilst F, as the digamma-of the Cohans, takes its place. The letter P in Galic is called peith-bhog, but probably it was beith-bhog, that is, soft B. This was never used until after the introduction of Christianity. In the old parchments, P and B are indifferently used, as in prutach for brutach, a rustic, and peist for beist. When the Irish, after their con-, version to Christianity, wrote the Latin Gospel in their own characters, of which Dr. Parsons saw many copies, they were obliged to adopt foreign letters for words which l)y their letters they were not able to 177 express; but it is remarkable, that in all the luanuscripls ©f their own language not one additional letter can be found. According to Bayer, the original Hebrew had the same sixteen letters with the Galic, and, like the ancient Ethiopic, had no W And it is re- markable, that the Phoenician alphabets, as given by the Abbe Har- thelemy, by the Rev. S. Henly, and by Pocock, all omit the P. But it is still more remarkable, that both the Ionic and Etiuscan or Pela;sgic alphabets, essentially agree with the Phoenician and Samaritan, as ap- pears by the Pantographia of Fry. Even in the modern Irish, all the radical words begin with one of these elementary letters, subject how- ever, to such mutations as will be particularly noticed. With regard to the form of their written characters, it has been sup- posed, that they were the same with the Greek. Casar certainly says of the Druids, " Graecis utuntur Uteris," and this probably was in some measure true. But the subject will be resumed, when I shall proceed to the Danish language and its alphabetic characters. It may then per- haps appear that the Greek character was derived either from the Runic or the Welch. General Vallancey was of opinion that the ancient Irish used the Chaldaic or Phoenician letters. He proves indeed, that they occasionally introduced a few of them : but this seems to demonstrate that they were merely resorted to from idle fancy, or on some particular occasion. We must however agree with him, that the Samaritan, Phoenician, and Irish characters, have a striking resemblance in A, B, G, D, E, L, O, and R, as may be distinctly seen in his grammar of the Irish language. The Oghams, or sacred and mysterious alphabetic characters of the VOL. II. A a 178 Irish, are numerous. These discover too much of art to have been the iovention of savages, and too little of simplicity to have been adopted for ordinary communication by a polished nation. They answer their name being much better suited to secrecy, than to despatch, and are peculiarly adapted for inscriptions on monuments of stone. Each cha- racter has a perpendicular line, with one or more scratches extending from it to the right and left, like those discovered in Egypt by Mr. Hammer, who was the secretary and confidential friend of Sir Sydney Smith, and those described by Du Halde, as used by the Manchoou Tartars, (v. Archaeolog. vol. 7, p. 276.) They seem to have been taken from the Quipoz, a method of communication, and means of recording events, familiar to the Peruvians, and originally used by the Chinese, who, even to the present day, write from top to bottom. In the Ogham, as given by Vallancey, the lateral scratches to the right and left, are never more than five on each side, answering to the fingers, and the perpendicular may be supposed to represent the body. Certain it is that the first numeration was derived from this source, (v. Vallancey's Prospectus and Fry's Pantographia.) Modern Irish is printed in Saxon characters. The present names of letters are derived from trees. These are ailm and olof the fir, beith the birch, gort the ivy, duir the oak, eadha the aspin, huath the white thorn, idho the yew, (Sec. In the Galic and the Hebrew names, six coincide. 1 Aleph and ailm or olof, heth and beith, heth and huath, jod and idho or jodha, nun and nion or nuin, rc.sA and ruis. Such coincidence can scarcely be supposed to have been merely accidental. It is true, that supposing 179 trees to have been originally symbols of ideas, they might readily be- come symbols of sounds, and then terminate in being letters. But this does not appear to have been the progress with the Irish. They seem to have approached as near as possible to the Hebrew or Chaldcc, confining themselves however to the names of trees, with which they were familiar, although by so doing they departed from the oriental name, as happens remarkably in the instances of lamed and kaph, for which they have substituted luis, a quicken tree, and coll the hazel. The ancient grammarians called the alphabet faodh, thijt is the voice, or vocal sounds. But the moderns have corrupted this word into feadh, a wood; and from this notion, perhaps, it may have arisen, that they have denominated most of their letters from trees, as the Chal- deans named their five vowels from the patriarchs, prophets, and dis- tinguished persons of antiquity. The power of the Galic letters, when they appear either single, or in combination, requires particular at- tention. To express the sound of e the Irish take ao, and for ee of the English they use aoi. A, O, and U, in ancient manuscripts were used indifferently. Their consonants are distinguished into immutable and mutable. The former are 1, n, r. The latter are b, c, d, f, g, m, s, t. These in regimine take an aspirate, and then either change their pronunciation, or become quiescent and altogether mute. The aspirate was formerly expressed by a dot over the letter to be as- pirated; but in Bishop Bedel's Irish Bible and New Testament, H con- stantly supplies its place, and from his time has been universally adopted. Bh and Mh sound like V or W. Thus bhean a woman is pronounced A a 2 180 wean and ven, agreeing thus with Venus, venustas, Sec. Cabh or D-ab]]ar becomes gawer, a goat, and amhuin becomes Avon, a river. Fli is perfect!}' quiescent, as in fhuil, which is pronounced nil. Dh and Gh are either quiescent, or sound Hke y in 3'ou, and thus dhean becomes i/an; ghabh is sounded yabh, gheall is yeal, and (Una is pronounced ?/«/?, as I shall hereafter more particularly notice. See p. 182. In terminations, dh and gh are either quiescent, or become 00, as dheanadh is yanoo, and laogh is loo. Adh and agh sound like i. The English reader may be surprised at this custom; but en recol- lection he will observe, that g, when followed by an aspirate, is fre- quently quiescent in his native language. This appears in high, nigk, sigh, thigh, blight, flight, light, plight, sight, tight, bough, plough, slough as referring to mire, but not as the soft substance which separates from a foul ulcer. Sh drops the consonant, but retains the aspirate, and thus scan, seabhoc, silog, siol, salen, seith, when aspirated, become hean, heavok, hilog, hi), halen, and heith, and thus saladh to defile produces do haluidh, thou hast defiled. Th is an hiatus, like as in Persian, and thus pothar, a son, becomes pour; but thoge, he took up, is pronounced hoge. An Irish mountaineer is altogether as unable to sound the th, as either a Frenchman or a Persian. Hence bheith and baith, an ox, are pronounced bo. Righe and reith, an arm, give the sound of ri. Bli, mh, ch, gh and th have frequently the same sound; but, what is more remarkable is, that hy, y, i, ibh, nay even eamha, eogha and eochadh, are pronounced like o, so that coghan becomes owen, and eamhania becomes onia. 181 D after N doubles it, and therefore find is read finn. G and C are both hard. These are commutable, as are B and F, T and D, M. and N. Hence nemethae is pronounced momie. Ch, dh and gh at the end of words readily change for each other. The English language is still more capricious, for gh is pronounced as f, in laugh, enough, &c. but slough becomes either slow or sluf, accord- ing to its various acceptation. This operation of the aspirate naturally accounts for the licentious changes, we observe in words, and the substitution of one consonant for another, with which it has no organic affinity. Thus when B, P, F, V, and M, are converted into C or G, attended by an aspirate; the sound in Galic is not in the least affected by this change: as for example, sub- ham and sugham, I suck, fobhar and foghar, a voice, graidh and gragh, a flock, gradh and graighim, agreeable, gorghaigh and gorthugah, hurt, magh and madh, a mead, a plain, mogh and modh, the manner, aoidheach, aoidhidhe, oidhe and oighidh, a guest. Here it is evident, that sugham became suam, which any one is at liberty to write subham without the least alteration in the sound. In the modern pronunciation, indeed, the sound is not afiected by these changes, because the consonant is dropt, and the slightest aspirate supplies its place. But in detivatives the most important alterations are produced, and such as in many instances must effectually conceal their origin. A sufficient acquaintance with this licentious practice will enable us to trace the affinity of words, which apparently have no connexion. For instance, between Ojmo^' and CEdes we c^n see no resemblance, nor shall i82 we be able to discover their descent from one common ancestor, unless we view them both as related to the Galic. Here in the family of OiMg we find oighthiarna and oighre an heir, and oi<Thidh a guest. On the other hand aoidheach, aoidhidhe, oidhre and oidhe, a guest, with aoidheachd and oidheacht, lodging, are alhed to aedes. But from what I have stated it is clear, that in pronunciation not the least difference exists between oighidh and aoidhidhe, which evi- dently refer the former to oLnog and the latter to aedes. I have already noticed the change of D into G, as common in the Doric, in which dialect we observe Svo(pog for yvo(pog, y-pviyvov for xvjpx^Svov, S« for yx and S>|fJ.^T\^p for yvi^uviTvip. Availing themselves of the same privilege, the Irish say indifferently deal or gual, a coal, and dioscan or gioscan, gnashing of teeth. For as they have no single letter to express the power of Y, answering to jod of the Hebrew and jlim of the Arabic; they supply the place either by dh or by gh. This observation I wish to impress upon the mind of my at- tentive readers. See p. 180. Between D and the hard G there is certainly no organic affinity, be- cause the one is a guttural the other a dental. But G soft and D make a near approach to each other, as appears by CJeorge and giant, when compared with gate, get, gird and give. It is for this reason, that d has been permitted to usurp a place before G in words to which it does not belong, as in allege, which is universally pronounced alledge. Thus the Anglo Saxon ecge, in Icelandic, Danish and Swedish egg, answering to acies and aKvj, has become edge, and from gelogian of our Saxon ances- tors, which is in French loger, we have arrived at lodge. 183 It is not my intention to write a grammar of the Galic Language: but I think it expedient here to notice some of the laws by which its inflexions vary. Nouns. In the Gahc we have two declensions; and each of these may be distinguished into indefinite, and definite. The first declension inde- finite, for the genitive, either takes an i, or changes a vowel v. g. Fuaran a fountain, fuarain of a fountain, dia a day, dea of a day. In the same case ciali knowledge makes ceil; meall a hill makes mill; alt, a high place, makes uilt; ord, an order, becomes uird, ball, be- comes buill, and col, a hazel tree, is cuil. But nouns in ta, de and ca have the genitive like the nominative. The dative takes do and the aspirate, as mathair a mother, do mhathair to a mother. These were the only cases ancientJy made use of. The vocative has the aspirate with the vowel of the genitive, as fhuarain, o fountain. Shleabh o mountain. The ablative takes le as le fuaran, with a fountain. These two cases have been adopted by the moderns. The first declension definite takes the article an, an sliabh the moun- tain, and, in the genitive case, conforms to the vocative of the inde- finite, an shleabh of the mountain. But before nouns beginning with b, f, m, this article is by attraction converted into am. Should the noun begin with a vowel it only takes the euphonic t, v, g, ord a hammer antord the hammer. 184 In rcgimine all the mutable consonants take an aspirate, and for the sake of euphon}' n is introduced between two words, when the latter begins with a vowel, as jar the west, a niar from the west, athair father, arnathair our father. Thus we find go nor, agm go nargid for go or agus goargid with gold and with silver. Galic Fronouns. Mi, tu, e, sinn, sibh, iad, I, thou, he, we, ye, they, si, she.— Mo mine, do thine, ar our, bhur your; sa his, her, their. Mi is thus declined. Nom. mi, gen. mo, dat. dhamh, ac. me, abl. learn. — Orm on me.— Ort on thee. — Liom with me, leat with thee.— Agam unto me, agad unto thee. Galic Verbs. Is mi I am, is tu thou art, ise he is, is siiin we are, is sibh ye are, isiad they are. Bhami i was, biihidhmi and beidh me I shall be ; bith thu and bi be thou, bithadhe and biodh se let him be; bhith, Galic of Scotland, but in Irish do bheith to be. The Galic has likewise sam, som, taim and tame, I am. The Irish has fuilim I am. Bim I am, means properly I live, bitu thou art, &c. The infinitives must have H after the first letter, if it be a consonant, and dh before the first letter, if it be a vowel, v. g. Chruinuchadh to as- semble, dhabachadh to ripen; but the compound dh is quiescent. Cruinn is round, and crunnan a group. Hence cruinucham I assem- ble, tha mi air cruinuchadh I have assembled. Cruinuchidh mi I will 185 assemble, crulnic assemble thou, cruinic mi I may or can assemble, bha mi cruinichtc I was assembled, chruinichar mi I shall be assembled. The proper root is considered to be, as in Hebrew, the third person singular of the preterite: but perhaps it should be the imperative in its most simple form, without its pronoun, as in bi of the Irish, be thou. Like other languages, the Galic has its irregular, or more properly its defective verbs; for, when a part of any verb becomes obsolete, a cor- responding part of some other verb supplies its place. Thus we find deanam 1 do, rinn mi I have done, ni mi I shall do, dean do thou, tha mi deant I am finished, nitar mi I shall be done, made or finished. Deiram I say, thuairt mi, I have said, their ar, shall be said. In the imperative we have only abeir say thou. This verb is extremely interest- ing, because it helps to display the strict affinity between the Irish, the Hebrew, the Greek, and its jEolic dialect the Latin. The present tense may be either berim, deirim, or abraim. Berim is precisely fero in two of its acceptations, I say, and I bring forth. For in the first of these acceptations both berim and fero connect themselves with epeca andli^^. In the second they look towards HIS and <pepw. Deirim I say, and deir tu, thou sayest, &c, with the preterite dubhras and dubhairt me, I said, may be derived from the Hebrew dahar, he said, although O'Brian, in his Dictionary, and Vallancej^ in his Gram- mar, derive deirim, by abbreviation, from ad bheirim, and the preterite adubhairt me, I did say, from ad bhearam, T say. Abraim I say, and abair speak thou, may be allied to the Hebrew amar. But these are considered as abbreviated from ad bhraim, ur cor- YOL. II. B b 186 rupted from ad bheirim. In the ancient MS. ad is prefixed to the perfect of the indicative and to the present of the potential mood. The future is deara me, I shall say; but the supine is labhartha, spoken; the participle agradh, saying, both derived from other verbs, and not from either deirim or abraim. Toir mi I give, bha mi toirt, I was giving, thug mi, I gave, thoir give, thoirt to give, air a thoirt given. In the future we have only bheir mi I shall give, derived from beiram I give. But although now defective, these verbs still exist entire in ancient manuscripts. Numerals. One aon, two da, three tri, four ceithair, five coig and cuig, six she and seisear, seven seachd and secht, eight ochd and ocht, nine naoi, ten deich and deug, eleven aon deug, twenty fichad and fichid. ^articles. These must be divided into such as are prefixed and such as are sufl^xed. The prefixed particles may be subdivided into such as imply negation and such as merely modify the meaning. The negative particles are, 1. A, am, im, aim, amh and aimh. Thus we have amadan not learned, a fool, from adhm knowledge; imad many, from ad one; anihlabhair dumb, from labhairt speech; aimhgheur blunt, from geur sharp. 187 2. Ain, an and ana ; aineolas ignorance, from colas knowledge, aincidh a doubt, from cidh ceeing, certain; aniochd cruelty, from iochd cle- mency; anachintach uncertain, doubtful, from cinteacht confidence. 3. Bai and be; baitibh and betibh intestate; baighal friendly; gal is war, battle, 4. De, dea, di, dio, do, and d; dpagallam I recal, gallam I call; dithinge dumb, ting and teangu a tongue; dibeoilh dumb, beul the mouth ; dineart imbecility, neart, strength; diomoladh dispraise, moladh praise; dobais immortal, bas death; domharb immortal, marbh death; doeas hope, cas fear; doilleir dark, leir sight; daidhbhir poor, saidhbhir rich; dligam I unbind, I separate; dluimh a cloud, hiding light. 5. Ead, eas, eag, eac, each and ei; eaban dirt, ban white; eacon mad, con sense; eaccosmuil unlike, cosmuil like; eadtrom light, trom heavy; easonoir dishonour, easordugh disorder; eagceart unjust, ceart just; eidimhin uncertain, diuihin certain. 6. In, ing and iong; indearbh uncertain, dearbh certain; inlcighais incurable, leigheas a remedy; ingglan and jongglan unclean, glan clean; iongabhras doubtless, without a question; abra speech. 7. La; laban dirt, ban Avhite. 8. Ma, mio, mi and mith; madath unlawful, dathalaw; miochreidas discredit, miochairdeas unfriendly; miogheur blunt, geur sharp; micheill mad, ceill reason; mithfir weak, firsi force; mithfir ignorant, firin verity. 9. Neam, neim and neimh, pronounced neo; neamhglic foolish, glic wise; neimhtheith cool, teas heat; neimseadh contempt, seadham I esteem ; neotheach cold, teas heat. "We may here remark that in Galic, positive qualities are most fre- Bb 2 188 quently expressed by the help of negative particles, as when we say not bad for good, and not good for bad. The modifying particles are 1. Adh and agh lawful, adhslath lawful sovereign, slat rod, sceptre. 2. Aith and ath, reiterative; aithlionadh recruiting, aithris to re- hearse; athalhad re-union, athchagnaHh to chew the cud; athghlanani I refine, I cleanse. 3. An and ain very and fit for, anteas, very hot; anmhor very great,, ambhochd very poor; anfhoth very watchful, anglonn very strong; ang- radh doating, anmhaoin great wealth; aindear a young woman, com- pounded of an and fear, fit for a husband ; aineach skilful in horsemanship,, ain fit each a horse. 4. Ard, high, ar over, upon; ardshagart high priest; ardorus a lintel. 5. As, more, fada long, as faide longer. 6. Coim, comh, com, cum, con, cun, co, cu, denote association, equa- lity; coimhbeiram I contribute; coinbhliocht a conflict; comasgtomix; comart to kill ; conspoidam I dispute, cosmhuil and samhuil like; cumhais a seam, a selvage, cumaiscam I mix. 7. Deagh dagh good ; deagbghuth euphony; deaghuair opportunity, uairhour; deaghthoil good-will, toil will, daghmhuintir good people, muinter men. 8. Droch evil, droicham I wrong; drochmhuinte insolent. 9. Fo few, little, rare; fodhuine a little man, a servant; fodhorus,. a wicket; fola a little M'hile, that is a short day, from la, a day. 10. Foir, for, fur, before, beyond, extreme; fordhorus a porch, foir- ncart violence; foiriongantach prodigious; iongantach wonderful, fur- choimheadani I am provident, I heed, I care; ead, jealousy, zeal. 189 11. Gle perfection (See il, of which it may be a compound); gleghlan, immaculate; glegheal exceeding white; geal white; gleal, id. a'Jain, white. 12.. II and I perfection, great, well, plenty; ildealbhach well-featured; ilghnitheach of all sorts; ile a great number of people. 13. Im about, round; imcheimnigham I walk round; imlioc bordering on a lake. 14. In, V. ion. 15. lol variety ; iolphasadh poligamy ; iolam I change, iolar variety, iolarda various. 16. lom association, amplitude; iomlan complete; iomorach a border; iomchomhneart powerful, neart strength. 17. Ion and in fit, proper; iondeanta feasible, fit to be done; ionduile desirable ; ionchoimhead conversable ; head is care, heed ; ionchon- spoidlieac proper for disputation; inbheirt a perfect birth; infhir mar- riageable; indioluighe solvent, diolam I pay. 18. Lan full ; lanchrodha courageous, full of heart; lantoileach satis- faction, toil the will, 19 Mor many, great; morshluagh a great multitude; morliiach valuable: luach value, hire, price. 20. Nios move ; niosgile more white. 21. Oirgoo;! ; oirbheart good actions; oirbhidineach venerable, 2*2. Friom chief, best, jsmne; priomhadhbhar chief cause; primhchial excellent understanding. 23. Ro and lloi very, most; roghear very sharp, robheag very small; rofhonn a keen desire, fonn desire; roigLeul very while, most white; roilbhe mountains, iibhe Alps. (See U.) 190 24. Roinilie riom and reamh before ; roimheolas and reamhaithne fore- knowledge; eolas and aitbne knowledge ; roinihraidhte aforesaid. 25. So, soi, good, apt, able, easy ; sobholadh fragrance, boluigh scented; sobhrisde fragil, briseadh a breach ; sochla renown, cluais to hear ; sos- beolta navigable, seoladh sailing; soicead a socket, i.e. fitting the head; soichreidsin credible. 26. Sior constant, sioruisg constant rain, uisg water. 27. Tar, tair, answering to trans, through ; tarbheiram I transfer; tair- bhealach a ferry, bealach a highway. 28. Uim about, v. im. uinisheolam I circumnavigate. 29- Ur and uirvery, uriosal very humble, ios low. In addition to these particles of determinate meaning, we must notice certain letters frequently prefixed to words, which in the Galic, as in other languages, are either redundant or euphonic, or merely assist in the for- mation of nouns. These are — B. Annach clean, banag white; ail and beal the mouth; aran and bar bread ; arn and barn a judge; ris a king; breas a prince. C. Leac and clach a stone. D. Ligheac and dhgeac lawful; aonfuil and daonfhuil akin. r. Athach and fathach a giant; uinneog and fuinneog a window ; uirneis and fuirneis a furnace; ed and fedoil cattle; eantog and feantog a nettle. G. Aire and gearr a fishing weir; lear, claer and gleair clear ; leos and glus light ; rug and grug a wrinkle ; rugach and grugach wrinkled. M. Ac kindred, mac a son; ed to handle; mad the hand ; oide as- sembly ; moide a convention. 191 N. Eile and nail another ; athair and nathcr a father ; ail and nail a sting ; nallod for allod old. S. Eisean and soisean he ; coti and scoti, toirm and stoirm, aois and saigeas age; gib, gibbog and sguab a sheaf; greath and sgread a cry. T. All and talla a hall ; saile and tsaile the sea : hence cinn the head and tsaile become Cinn-tsaile in Irish, Kinsale in English. B, F, M, C, G, and S seem to be used with the same licence in Galic as in other European languages. Thus we find fion and mion small ; boid and moid a vow; bladh and nioladh praise; clab and shop a lip, and bili the lips ; breig and grug a lie ; bearr and gairid short ; bearg, fearg, and gearg wrath. The particles suffixed are numerous. I shall take notice of such as most frequently occur, and their use will appear by the subsequent examples. 1. A. Fol cover, fola a garment ; feab good, feabha honesty. 2. Ac, ach, achd, achadh and each; deabham I contend, deabhac contentious; fior true, fireunam T verify, firineach faithful; firineachd truth, breag a lie, breagach false; aon one, aonachd unity; foraidheach fierce, foraidheachd fierceness; fineag a mite, fineagachadh growing full of mites; toirbhrim I yield, I give, toirrtheach fertile. 3. Adas; dorc dark, dorcadas darkness; 4. Ad, adh, aidh, eadh, idh and uideh ; claonani I incline, claonad inclination; saor free, saoraidh a saviour; snamhaim I swim, snamhuide a swimmer; lomar a fleece, lomradh a shorn sheep. 5. Aighe; fiadh food, game, fiadhaighe a huntsman. 6. Ail and al, abbreviated from amhail and samhail, similis; glan clean, glanal abstergent; claidheamh a sword, claidhamhal swordJike. 192 7. Ain; anfas dread, anfhocain danger. 8. Air, oir and coir, from fear, a man; fool flesh, feoladoir a butcher; carb a chariot, carbadoir a charioteer; sealgaire a hunter, clairseoir a harper. 9. Amhail and amhuil, hke. Fear, a man; fearamhail manly; dearg red, deargamhail reddish; sioda silk, siodamhuil like silk. 10. Amhuil excessive, compounded of am for iom and uile all; geann love, geanamhuil most lovely; sgeil skill, sgeilamhuil skilful; uisg water, uisgamhuil full of water. 11. An, in, ain small, diminutive; beann a mountain, beannan a little hill; fear a man, firin a little man; bad a boat, baidin a little boat; gort a garden, field, standing corn, goirtain a little corn field. 12. Ar, art; glan clear, clannan shining; Iom bare, lomar a fleece, lomart a shearing. 13. As; carid a friend, caridas friendship; math good, mathas goodness. 14. Mhor, mhar, mhuire, excessive; anios up, anmhor very great; fial liberal, fialmhar bountiful; fionmhor abundant in wine; gaoth wind, gaothmhor windy. 15 Nach and neac, see ach and ac; dighe gratitude, digheneac grateful. 16. Oo-, diminutive; realt a star, realtog a little star; fideog a small pipe, a little worm; garadhog a little garden; guile the stomach, golog a budget; leine a shirt, lentog a little shirt; bo a cow, bodog a heifer. 17. Sa; saor free, saorsa freedom; earadh fear; ancarbam I distrust, anearbsa distrust; feacham I see; feabhsa science. 15. Sc; soil, light; soilse resplendent. 19. Sal and sail ; toic money, toicsail a treasury. 193 20. Ta; fioram I verify, fireanta true; lionam I fill, lionta full; aitheantam I know, neanihaitheanta unknown ; cineal kindred, cinealta kind. OF THE HARMONY OF THE GALIC LANGUAGE. EVEN a slight acquaintance with the Galic is sufficient to discover, that it is rich and most harmonious in its structure. For a ship it has forty terms, and as many for a house. Fire, water, cow, cup, hand, foot, life, death, great, good and evil, with all the common actions and objects, such as occur to nomade nations, have each from ten to twenty words, by which a clear and distinct notion is con- veyed. Miss Brooke, a young lady of distinguished talents, very judi- ciously remarks, " It is astonishing of what various and comprehensive powers this neglected language is possessed. In its compounds it is abundant, like the German and the Greek, and one single word some- times requires two whole lines to convey its meaning." Her testimony coincides with the declared opinion of Archbishop Usher, who says, " Est quidem lingua Hibernica et elegans cum primis et opulenta;" and he laments that it should be so much neglected. The harmony of the Galic arises partly from the liberty it has assumed, like other languages, of changing each for the other such consonants as have organic affinity; but principally by its absolute controul over the vowels. Thus a speaker is at liberty to use indifferently aodach, eadach and eudach, cloth; eile and oile, other; ard and airde, high; Deal, bil and beul, the mouth; alaim, ailam and oilara, I nurse; bear, bior and VOL. ir. c c 194 bir a spit; breag, breig and breug, a lie; craig, crcag, creig and creug, a rock; dear, deor, and deur, a tear; elc and olc, evil; raod, read, rod and rud, a thing. In all their words A, O and U are commutable, as are the short vowels E and I. This choice of words, and these arbitrary changes in the vowels, evi- dently prove, that the Galic tribes paid great attention to harmony of diction. The facility with which the Galic language forms its compounds, to con- vey clear and distinct notions of the things intended, will appear from the subsequent examples, taken indifferently from either O'Brian, Lhuyd, Vallancey, Bullet, or Shaw. Ailm an elm, is aill maide high, timber, achbeg almost, is ach except and beg, a little; adhailg desire, is adf fit, ail pleasure, and geastal want; ailec a stallion, ail a stone, each a horse; aitigham I dwell, aite a place and tigh a house; ardhamh an ox broke in to the plough, is ar plough, damh ox; ardriogh imperial majesty, is ard high, riogh king; arteine a flint, is art a stone and teine fire. Bcacarna a prostitute, bean woman, carna flesh; bealdruidam I am dumb, beal mouth, druidam I shut; bealtaine a compact, i. e. the fire of Baal; beandia a goddess, bean female, dia God; bocar and buacher cow dung, bo a cow, gairgin dung; bronnsgaole a flux, bronn the belly and sgaolte looseness; bunaithigham I establish, bun bottom, aite place, and tigh house; busiall a muzzle, bus mouth, iall a thong. Cuiliosal, 1. vile, 2. wicked; cuileog, 1. a fly, 2. a gnat, and iosal likeness; culgair recal, cul the back, gairam I call; culithe backbiting, cul the back and itham I cat. 195 Daonflmil a relative, aon one, full blood; didil great love, i,e. the love of God; dineart almighty, i.c, the power of God; diuluni I suck, did the teat, and ullani I procure; dobharchu the otter, i.e. water dog, dob- har, pronounced dour, and cu. Earbog a roe, may refer to eardh timidity, or to carbull a tail and og small. Ealadh a swan is e, a bird, and aladh wild; eondraoitham I divine by the flight of birds, is eon or eun a bird and draoitheachad magic; draoi is a Druid. Eunadair a fowler, is eun a bird, adbath slaughter and air man; eunchriodhach timid, i. e. having the heart of a bird. Fongort a vineyard, fion wine, gort garden; fodhuine a dwarf, i.e.fo little and duinc man; fola a liltle while, i.e. a short day; fursanam I kindle, fur fire and sanam I release. Gruagbhreige a wig, grug hair and bhreige false. Ifurin hell, i. e. cold region, literally an island in a cold climate; ioboirt sacrifice, i. e. the cake offering, derived from iob a raw cake and thoirt offering, whence tort became the expression for cake; ithir corn field, ith corn, tir land; ithfen, a car for corn, without wheels, ith and benn; ithros corn rose. Lamhanart a towel, lamh hand, anart linen; luan a greyhound, lua a foot, an swift. Odhall deaf, o, the ear, and dall dull ; ogbho heifer, og young, bo cow; ogmhois June, i. c. the virgin's month. Raidhearc eye sight, raighe a ray of light, and dearc the eye; reul a star, i. e. ruith iul director of the rout. Smuigeadach handkerchief, smug snot; soadh a bed, from socras ease, c G 2 t96 rest, and adh fit; sroiniall-srein a muzzle, from sron the nose, iall a thong and srein a rein. Trosgadh a fast from trosg a cod fish. In the instances above produced we observe the compound expressions melted into single words; but whenever new objects presented themselves and new terms were to be invented, the Galic tribes avoided arbitrary sounds, and, resorting to such as were commonly received, they gave a concise description of the thing intended. Thus, aite comhnuidh is a mansion, caithir rioghal a throne, crann araidh a plough, fion abhal grapes, fear an tigh osda a host, fear deasachad leathair a tanner, gealadoir eadaich a fuller, grianchloch a dial, i.e. a sun clock, maide milis liquorice, i.e. sweet wood, miol mof a whale, i.e. sea animal, mathghabhuin a bear, i.e. a wild calf, fear- nuadhposda a bridegroom. ABBREVIATIONS IN GALIC. AVE have remarked, that abbreviations are the wheels of language, the wings of Mercury. And I may here observe, that of all the languages, with which I am conversant, I know of none that indulges to such a de- gree in abbreviations as the Galic. Of this I have already given numerous examples, and I may here observe, that its tendency to become monosyl- labic has been incessant. Hence the same abbreviated word represents a multitude of notions. These discordant terms must evidently have origi- nated in polysyllabic expressions of the same discordant import. This will appear from the subsequent examples. 197 A has 13 difFerept significations, distinguished by grammarians. Agh means fear, ox, cow, bull, conflict, good. Ai — Region, inheritance, sheep, cow, herd, swan, cause, learned. Ail — Stone, sting, arms, rebuke, month, time, will, whilst, request, blot, noble, modest, beautiful. ^i//— Place, steep, bank, turn, journey, course, praise, bridle. Aire — Judge, noble, servant, attention, weir. Ais — Hill, strong hold, covert, dependance, loan, cart, back, shingles, bashful. Al — Stone, rock, food, fear, horse, brood. All — Bridle, hall, rock, cliff, generation, foreign, another. Alt — High, nursing, exaltation, leap, joint, part, time, soon, brook, vale, action, state, order. Am — ^Time, moist, soft, tender. In composition, as we have seen, it forms negation. Atnh — Even, also, raw, naughty, fool, ocean. An — Interrogative, evil, in, still, quiet, vessel, true, false, pleasant, noble, pure, swift, water, one. In composition, like am, it forms ne- gation. Ana — Truly, fair weather, silver cup continuance, riches. Aoi — Guest, stranger, island, hill, trade, possession, compact, swan, knowledge, instruction, honour, respect. Ar — Our, plough, slaughter, guidance, bond. Arc — Arc, chest, dwarf, body, pig, adder, bee, wasp, lizard, cork tree, tribute. Bta — Be it enacted, village, piety, the sea, green field, cry, shout, fruit of the womb, praise, fame, yellow, safe, healthy. 198 Car — Care, friend, crooked, deceitful, terrible, brittle, part, fish, movement, trick, stone. Coir — True, false, just, right, guilt, business, solitary, Gtis — A far as, until, desire, anger, death, a deed, weight, force, strength, sharp, value. I — Island, low, shallow, an art, science, she. Mai — King, prince, soldier, poet, rent, tax, wealth, slow. Mam — Mother, hand, fist, gap, vile, base, hill, mountain, strength, power. Meas — Measure, mess, mast, fruit, rod, weapon, edge, point, shears, salmon, opinion, respect, advice, foster child, tax, a grave. Ogh — ^The ear, whole, full, pure, sincere, virgin, young woman, circle. Oil — To nurse, to drink, a rock, infamy, reproach. Ong — Clean, trespass, healing, sorrow, groan, fire, hearth. Ti — God, He, Him, house, unto, until, design. Tin — Tender, to melt, soft, fat, gross, thick, a beginning. To — ^Tongue, silent, mute, dumb. ' Tur — Tower, journey, research, request, dry, bare, alone, weariness, heaviness, to tally. Ur — Fire, earth, mould, the grave, heath, valley, moist, place, brink, border, beginning, new, fresh, very, hence, evil, slaughter, hurt, mis- chief, generous, noble, gentle. The nature of such compounds, subject to abbreviation, will appear both from those already noticed and from the subsequent examples. Comhairlc a council, composed of the preposition comh and bearla speech; comharba joint-tenant, derived from comh and forba land; cosmhuil like, is comh and samhuil like; comdhuigham I build, is comh W9 and fhod a clod'; daidlibliin poor, is do not and saidlibhir rich; fiicann male, fir man, and ghein genus. Tlius, by abbreviation, dobliar water, becomes dob a river, and dur water; and thus tochdaim I am silent, is contracted into tosd, toc/td, and to, silence. But the genius of this language, and the nature of its abbreviations, will be more distinctly seen, when we shall proceed to trace its affinities; prior to which we must briefly notice some of its radical expressions. These are comparatively few ; for the most considerable portion of the Galic, as now spoken, seems to have been received from foreigners, who during various periods established settlements in Ireland. These newly- adopted words appear detached, without connexions, and wholly destitute of both root and branches in their insulated state; not so the aenuine language, the language of primitive expressions, such as occur in the most ancient manuscripts. I shall produce a few of these, arranged in the manner practised by Scapula in the Greek. Aodhand Adudfire; adhna, heat, adnadh to kindle, aodhar fiery deso- lation, adhan a cauldron, adhanta warm, adhbhadh a house, aoidhidhe a guest, aoidheachdam I lodge, I entertain, aodhnair an owner, aoi pos- session, guest, stranger, maide wood, adhmad timber. Aon, can, ein, and en one; aona the first, aonar alone, aonarachd sin- gularity, aonaran a solitary person, aonda particular, aonachd unity, aonracan a widower, aonta celibacy, aontingham I consent, aontigheas cohabitation. Aram I plough; ar ploughing, husbandry, ardhamh an ox trained to the plough, arach a ploughshare. Aran and bar bread, aranailt a bread-basket, 200 ancha a pantry, aranoir a baker, arbhar grain, arbharach fertile, arbh- raisneach famine. Ard h'l^h; ar upon, arad a ladder, ardan eminence, pride, ardanach high, proud, ardaigham I extol, ardaghadli honour, ardarc a coat of arms, ardorus a lintel, ardinmhe eminence, ardchomas sovereignty, ard- chathair metropolis, ardshagart high priest, arigh chiefs, ardchnocfaire a great baron. Bior, a fountain; biorar water cresses, biorbhogha a rainbow, bior- bhuafan a water serpent, biordhac watery, biorgon a floodgate, biorphota an urn, bioror the brink of water, biorra a king's fisher, biorrach a boat, biorrac a marsh, biorros a water lily, literally a fountain rose, biorrsnaobh the old bed of a river, birfheadan a water pipe, birmhein moisture, bir water, tobar and sapar a well, birra abounding in wells, birrac standing water. Bolg, a bag, belly, bellows, pimple; bolgam I blow, swell, blister, sip, gulp; bolgach a boil, bolgan a budget, a quiver, bolla a bowl, blad- der, bollog a shell, a skull, boilg a bubble, husks, boill a knob, a boss, boilgain and bolg saighaid a quiver, beille a kettle, cauldron, boillsgeanam I bulge, boillsgeanaibh hills, builgain a bubble, pimple, builm a loaf, builinach a baker, builg bellows, bollsgaire a bawler, boaster, bollsair a herald. Breo, fire, flame; breochoire a warming pan, breochual a funeral pile, breochloch a flint, breogam I bake, brosna a faggot, brotlach a boiling pit, bruth red hot, bruithaim I boil, bruithne a refiner, bruithneach sultry, brun and bran a fire brand, bruin a cauldron, bri and bara anger. 201 Caram, I love, car love lliou; cara, carad and caraida a friend, cara- dam I befriend, caradacli befriended, caradas friendship, carac friendly, carantac kind, caraidd a defence, twain, caraidheachd a dispute, caraidhain I wrestle, carachdidli wrestling, carachdach athletic, accarachd gentleness. Craig, creag, creig, creug and cruad, a rock; creigach rocky, creagan a rocky place, rag stiff, rigid, cruidheata and crughaldch hard, difficult, cruadh hard, firm, steel, difficult; cruadail danger, courage, avarice; cruadhalach hard, stingy, poor; cruadheuing rigour, slavery; cruad- hmhuinalachd and ragmhuinalac stiff necked, obstinate; cruaidhchriodach hard hearted; cruadhagach strict, cruadheigc distress, cruaghadh a strengthening, cruaidheadh a hardening, cruaidhaicharn I harden, cruaid- hcheanglam I tye fast. Dubam, I dip, I duck; dubhshnamliani I dive; dubadh, dubhagh and dubhogh, a pond, a lake; dubhash a tub, dabhan a pitcher, a fish hook; dubhaigein and dubhogh the ocean, the deep, dobhar, domhar and dur water, dob and dothar a river, dobharshoidheac a bucket, dobharchu an otter, domhain, domhuin and doinihann deep, doimhnaicham I deepen. Ed, handle, take, receive, gain; edim I catch, eddreimim, I catch at, edean a receptacle, cdal treasure, edalach rich, eid and ed cattle, ed defence, protection, edire hostages, eide tribute, eadail prey, iod a cast or throw, iodhnach warlike; mad and mana the hand, madham a battle, madhmann a skirmish, madhmadh a sally, madhmam I vanquish, man- radh destruction, madhm a handful ; mam, a hand, fist, might, power. Sec. Fail', watch thou, sun rise, sun setting; faire behold, fairara I watch, I guard, forfairam I watch, forfhaireach a watchman, faireac watchful, VOL. II. u d 202 fairfoiiadh warninr, forfair, forf and foraire a watch, a guard, fairgseoir a spy, fairigham I watch, perceive, fairche a diocese, fairigh a parish, fairughadh perception, faireog and fairadh a watching hill, fairseong wide, open, spacious; farraidam I enquire, faruin an opening, farruineog a lattice, furachar watchful, fuairam I find. Fiodh a wood, a wilderness; fiadh a deer, food, a weed; fiiadha wild, savage, a fawn, a territorial lord; fiadhach venison, fiadhaighe a hunts- man, fiadhath a hunting spear, fiadhfhal a park, fiadh and fal inclosure. Gahh, take thou; gabham I take, gabhal a fork, gabhlach forked, gabhlan and gabhlog a pitchfork, forked timber, gabhalran and gabh- altan compasses, gobha and gabha a smith; gabhalfhir the groin, gabh- altach capable, gabhaltuidhe a farmer, gabhadan a storehouse, gabhann a prison, gabhail spoil, booty, conquest, taking prisoners, gabhal fold- ing sheep. Gearrom I cut, bite, gnaw, shorten; gearradh a cut, a rent, bearra a cut, shred, bearram I clip, shear, bearradan scissars, snuffers, bearrasgian a razor. Gearb the itch, gearbam I hurt, wound, grieve; bearrthoir and bearradair a barber, bearra short hair; beare, gearr and gor short; geirrsgiath a short sword, gearghlais a gloss, a short note, gearghath a short javelin. Gortuigham I cut, wound; gortughadh hurt; geur edged, sharp, geurad and geire, sharpness; geuraighara and gearuigham I sharpen grind. Geiram I whet, I grease; geir grease; gearchuise and geurchuise sub- tilty; geurainachd wit, gcarait wise, gcirintleachd sagacity, gort hunger, geur, gortach goirt and gearblasda sour; geuraigham, I make sour, gor- teog a crab-tree, gortreabhadh misery, gearg and bearg fierce, cruel. 203 cearb a cutting, carving, slaughtering, cearbhal a massacre, cearram I kill, ceartaigliam I cut, I prune, cearail a quarrel. Grian and grioth the sun; gris fire, griosach hot, grisgin a griskin, groideal ; a griddle, gradanta hot, greadam I burn, groadan parched corn, griosughani I kindle, griosaidh embers, griun a hedghog. Ith and ioth corn; ithir corn field; ithfen a car for corn, ithdhias, an ear of corn, itham and iosam I eat; iothlann a granary, iothros corn rose, cockle, itheadh and iosadh eating and to eat, ithiomraidhtcach backbiting; ioslann a pantry, a larder, iosdas entertainment, iosda a house, iosdan a cottage. Lamh the hand , lamhadh handling, lamhach handy; lamhcharam I handle, lamhrachan a handle, lamhagan groaping, lamhainn a glove, lamhainneoir a glover, lamhanart a towel, lamhiiaigh a surgeon, lamragan fingering, lamhcheardamhuil mechanic, lamhrod a foot-path, lamhdeanas restraint, lamchoille acubit ; glamham I seize, glammam I devour, glam- sair a glutton, glamhin a spendthrift ; sglamham I snatch, sglamhoide a glutton ; lapadh a paw. Lasarn I burn, I light, I kindle; las kindle thou, lasadh kindling, to kindle, to burn; lasach fiery, lasair flame, lasarach burning, laom a blaze, la, lae, laoi, and lo the day; lassag faggots, lasan anger; leas, leos, leus, and les the light ; leosam, I shine, T give light, leusach having light, Icos- ghath a ray of light, leoschnuinih a glow-worm; leis apparently; leirsin, seeing, lear, clear; leir sight, perception, wise, prudent; leirsmuine con- sideration ; leirg and leas a reason, motive, cause; leur seeing, leurgus sight ; loisgam I burn, losgadh burning, to burn ; loise and loisi a flame, loisceanta fiery ; loirgaim and loirgaram I look for; loinear a flash of light, D d 2 204 loinearda bright; loinneir a flashing, loinreach bright; loinnream I shine, a trleam; loinn joy, loinneach glad, luinne mirth; luchair brightness; hiiohe a proof, a cauldron ; luisne a flash.- a flauie, a blush ; luithe, luath, luathas, and luas swiftness; luatham I hasten, luathmhor swift, liiathmharc arace-horse, Inathmharcach a messenger, luatharana sea lark, luath ashes, luatlio-hairam I rejoice, lusca blind, bios manifest, open, blosaiu I make manifest, glus light, brightness; gluaise a gloss, cleanness, neat- ness; gluair, glear and glor, clear, pure; gloir glory. Laith milk ; luim, leim, lean, bleachd and bliochd milk, leachd, kine, bliochdmhaire full of milk, bliocht profit of a milch cow ; bleaghanam, bleagham and bledham, I milk; bladhach and blathach butter milk; blath white, clean; bleasghanach emulgent, blaitham I smooth, I polish, bleachdair a soother, bleid a coaxing, blanag fat, tallow, bladairam 1 flatter, blath praise, blathliag a pumice stone. Malcam, I bear, carry ; malcair a porter, malaid and mala a mail, a bag; malair a merchant, malairt barter, malcaireas sale, malcaire- achda belonging to the market, malairtach reciprocal, malratoir airgaid a banker, maltriallach slow travelling, mall slow. Nas a band; nasgam I bind, nase a chain, collar, ring; nasgadan oblio-ation, nascar fortification, nasgaire a surety, nasgidh a treasure. Ris, a king; breas a prince, breasam I reign, breaschathoir a throne, breaschathair a royal residence, breascholbh a sceptre, breaslann a palace, breasrod the king's highway, breasnion a royal mandate, brea- saontaidh royal assent, breathamh a judge, breitheamnas judgment, breitheantach judicious. Stam, I stand; sta stand thou, stadam I stay, stop, cease; staid a 205 state, condition, staidal stately, stadtlmch apt to stop, stailc a stop, staonaim I decline, I abstain; statamhuil stately, stadh the stays of a ship, stabul a stable. Teas, heat, the south; teasuidhe, tegh, teth, teith and to hot; teasgal a scorching wind, teagh a vapor, time heat, timeac hot, teinne fire, tinntigh fiery, tinani I melt, tinteach lightning, tintean the hearth, tioram 1 dry, tiotan and tethin, the sun. Ur, fire; for, illumination; forsanam I shine, forreilam Ishine out, fordharc the light, forasna illustrated, foran anger, wrath ; foranta angry; foream and foirceadalam I teach ; goor light, goram I warm, gorn a fire brand. These few examples may suffice to mark the distinction, I have noticed between the primitive language and its more recent acquisitions. They are found in the most ancient manuscripts and records. In their primary sense they are of extensive use. Their derivatives have renjote and accidental significations, each of which naturally flows from the first notion, and the common bond or radix denotes some action o^: something. OF THE INVESTIGATION OF RADICALS IN GALIC. TO analyse a word we must get rid of all prepositive and terrain nating particles, that, having completed this operation, we may, in ail its combinations, perceive the root, either entire, or in its abbreviated form, or in some of its mutations. 206 In Latin, Greek and Hebrew, neither prefixes nor suffixes create embarrassment. They occasion no difficulty, because we are perfectly acquainted with them, and in the most complicated expressions can readily distinguish them. We are equally familiar with the inflexions of the verbs in their most diffusive branches, and however varied or contracted these may be, can trace them rapidly to the root from which they spring. Thus, for instance, should even the young Grecian meet with xrroSsSsiyiJ^evoc, or with 'TrpoxTroSsix^evTav, he would, without hesitation, dis- miss its appendages and fix on Seinwi*.!., BirS.Qv, or hifixi^ as the most simple form in Avhich this verb appears. Should he proceed to analyse such compounds as ccKOKxixqcujiq or avlcticoho'^vjjiTcti, he could not fail in his research, but would instantly put his finger on tftif*t and ^tSwfi./, or on i^ico and ^001, roots which have become obsolete in Greek, but are still found in the Latin sto, sta, do and da. Or should the young Hebraeist see teth, give thou, he would immedi- ately discover T, as the only radical remaining from nalhan, he gave. So in Latin, should either i, go thou, or transitures about to go occur, these would be instantly referred to eo, I go. But with the Galic few scholars can boast of such an accurate ac- quaintance, and without this knowledge the roots must be frequently concealed. The difficulties which prevent their detection, are increased by the accumulation of its prepositions. Li Greek it is not unusual to see two. Such combinations suit the' genius of that language. In Latin we some- times find the preposition wantonly doubled, as in concomitant; but in 207 Galic we often meet with three. Thus, for instance, ionchonspoidheac, proper for disputation, when divested of its three prepositions and of its idiomatic termination, retains only poid, precisely as disputation, thus analysed, leaves put, both allied to puto, I think. This sufficiently evinces the importance of an intimate acquaintance Avith all the particles, whether prefixed or suffixed to radicals in Galic. Without this knowledge, even two prepositions must perplex, whilst, to him who possesses it, the greatest difficulty of detecting radicals is gone. Should he, for instance, meet with iomchomhnart strong, or iomchomharc a present, he has only to remove the two prepositions ioni and comh, and he instantly beholds nart or neart, strength, and arc tribute, so called from arc the chest, in which the tribute was collected and preserved. By a similar process, athchomghear short, will be readily reduced to gear of the same import. Even when cleared of such appendages, what remains may be a com- pound; for two or more substantives may be imited, or a substantive may appear either in combination with its adjective, or attendant on a verb. Many sucli instances were produced, when I was treating of the harmony and luxuriancy of the Galic language. To detect the genuine root of words in Jrish, we must be aware of a practice which, although not peculiar to this language, is most prevalent in it, I mean epenthesis. For as two or more vowels occurring together in the same word cannot form more than one syllable, the bards, when- (Bver they wished to increase the number of their syllables, threw i nbe- tween two vowels an adventitious consonant, such as D or G, rendered quiescent by an aspirate. Having done so, if the vowel preceding this 208 consonant happened to be a, o, or u, and the subsequent to be either e or i; the former was changed into one of the latter^ or at least one of these was associated with it. This custom has been extremely injurious to tlie purity of the Irish language, and has contributed to disguise its radical expressions. It is thus, that gain, the plural of gall, became gaedhill, and that Galic was converted into gaedhilic. Thus also, as it seems, belain and bliain, that is, circle of the sun, became bliadhain, and even bliaghain, a year. A knowledge of, and attention to this licentious introduction of con- sonants and consequent changes in the vowels, are absolutely needful to the philologist. In these investigations we must remember not only, that, in Galic, letters, which have organic affinity, are commutable, like as in all other languages, but that B, P, F, V, M, D, and T, with C, and G, when aspirated and consequently quiescent, are equally so, that S may be- come T, and M may supply the place of N, or the reverse. We must likewise call to mind, the indifference with which the vowels are used for each other, more especially A, O, and U as long vowels, and E and I as short ones. To be expert in the investigation of Galic radicals, a competent knowledge of the language in general, and of its abbreviations in par- ticular, must be previously obtained. This will be evident to every one who considers what I have stated on this subject. In this opera- tion, difficulties frequently occur, such as no attention, no recollections, no minute investigations are able to surmount. In all languages we meet with compounds abbreviated and fresh 209 compounds formed by these abbreviated terms, which are liable to be again contracted, till scarce a vestige of the original root can be discovered. In such cases nothing remains, but to examine, what assistance can be derived from kindred languages. I. AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE WELCH. THESE languages have been considered as unconnected, and, on a transient view, they must appear so. But to the more attentive and dis- cerning eye, it will be evident, that, however dissimilar at present, they were originally one. In their syntax and the inflexion of their verbs, they differ as much from each other, as the Anglo-Saxon, German and Gothic do from modern English. Yet on examination it will appear, that they are radically one language, variously modified, corrupted and disguised. To demonstrate their identity, I must refer to my vocabulary of the Galic and the Welch, which, being copious, 1 have placed in the Ap- pendix. But it will be necessary in its examination to remember, that letters of the same organ are commutable, and that in the most ancient manuscripts the gutturals C G and also the dentals T D were used in- differently for each other. VOL. It. EC 210 II. AFFINITY BET^yEEN THE ENGLISH, DANISH, SWEDIS'lf, ICELANDIC, GOTHIC AND GALIC. Engltsh. Ail Danish, Ifc. Eel, D. Galic. Easlan English. iBelt 1 Dani.tA, ^e. BeUe, D. Galic, Bait Ail- Aer, D. Aidheir 'Birth Bord, S. Beirthe All 01 Ahl, D. I. Uile Blast Bloest, D. Blagair Am An Em, I. Im, G. Ains, G. [smi Aon Blow Blaasa, I. ^Blagair ( Bolgam Art Idrott, S. Ceard Board Baurds, G. Bord As Och, S. Ag Boat Baatur, I. Bad Ask ^Eska, S. Aiscam Bolt Bold, D. Boltadh Ass Asilns, G. A sal Booth Both, L Both Awe Ah, D. Uamhas Both Batho, G. Beit Babe Babe, S. Baban Bow Boga, S. Bogha Bake Baka, S. Bacalta Bowl Bolle, D. Bolla Bar Bar, D. Barra Box tree Buxbonitrae,D. Bugsa Bark Bark, D. Bare A box Byssa, S. Boigsin Bath Bad, D. S. I. Baidhte Boy Pog, D. Buachail Bawl Bola, S. Bolsgairam Brew Bruggare, I. Bruitham Beans Bonne, D. Ponair Bride Brud, D.S.I. Brideac Bear Bcera, S. Beirim 15 row Brun, I. Bra Beast Becst, D. Beathacl Buck Brock S. Buic Boo Bee Bii, S. Beathog Bull Bol, D. ^Bola, cow 2 Bologjheifer 211 English. Danish, l(e. Galic. English, toaillsh, tfc. Galic. Burn Brinnan, G. Bran Coal Kol, J. Guail, fire Burst Briste, D. Bris Cole Kaal, D. Colis Buss Puss, S. CBus, the C mouth Cost Cot Kosta, S. Kot, I. Cosdas Colta Cake Kaka, S. Caca Cow Ko, D. S. Bo Cale Ka^l, I. Cal Crab, fish Krabbe, D. Cm ban Call Can, S. Kalla, S. Kande, D. A gal la Cuineog Creep ^Kriupa, T. f Krybe, D. Crubam Cap Kappa, S. Copchaille Crook Krok, S. Cruca Cart Karra, S. Coirt Cup Koppa, D. S. Cuibh Carve Karfwa, S. Cearb Dale Dalur, I. Dal Cat Katt, S. Cat Day Dagur, I. Dia Cave Kofwa, S. Cuas Dear Dyr, D. S. I. Daor Chalk Kalk, D. S. I. Cailc Death Dauthur, G. Teidhm Cheese Kes, S. Caise Deem Daeme, I. Dimhnighm Chest Kiste, D. Cisde Desk Disk, S. Daisgin Chick Kuckling, S. ^Coicht ^Children Dike Dim Dige, D. Dimmur, I. Dig leimheal Chin Kinn, G. Smigein Dip Daupjan, G. Dnbani Clay Glina Cladatch Dirt Diyt, I. Doiit Clear Klaar, I. Gleair Do raukjan,. G. Deunam Cleave Klyfwa, S. < Cliobani ' Door Oyr.T. Daur,G. Dorus Clod Klod, D. Clod Dough Deyg, D. I'aos Clothe Kloeda, S. Cleitham Drag Draga, I. S. Oragam Club Kolt; S. Colbh E Dray e2 Drog, S. • Drabh, Scc. 212 It has been judiciously observed by Pinkerton, that the Welch and Irisli arc languages so full of Gothic words in disguise, that it is impos- sible to say, if any particular word be originally Gothic or Celtic. In fact these nations had the same remote progenitors, whose language they preserved, though much disfigured and disguised. Wachterus, a learned German, assures us, that the more ancient and obsolete are the expressions in Galic, Welch and German, the more striking is their resemblance, and that he could demonstrate this by six hundred examples. (Quo antiquior est sermo noster et ab usu hodierno alienior, eo major est ejus cum Gallico et Britannico convenientia. Possem hoc sex centis exemplis demonstrare. Praefat ad Gloss. Germ.) III. AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE RUSSIAN. IT cannot be imagined, that the Galic is either the parent, or the offsjiring, of the Russian; yet they are related. They are certainly descended from one common ancestor. Should we, however, attempt historically to trace the degree of affinity between them; we should be obliged to call for the records of remote antiquity. But unfortunately no such records are to be found, nor can they have existed, because wan- dering hordes, whatever transactions may have been for a time preserved in the memory of their progenitors, and delivered by tradition from paients to their children, have no written records. The only resource therefore is in their languages. These indeed have been liable to change; 213 yet by a careful investigation we may be able to trace an affinity where, at the first glance, it may not meet the eye. In this investigation, we must call to mind, what has been delivered respecting prepositions and terminations to be removed, before we can detect the radical part of any word; and we must consider the aptitude, which letters of the same organ have to assume each other's place, before we can determine the resemblance of such roots, when found. We have already noticed the substantive verb ismi in Galic, and have seen the radical Is preserved in all the persons of the present tense. No\r let us examine it in Russian. Here we have esm, esi, est; esmui, este, sut; I am, thou art, he is; we are, ye are, they are. The numerals, as far as four, discover affinity, but, excepting six and ten, the remaining numbers of the decad have not visibly the least re- semblance. In Russian they stand thus: one, odin; two, dua; three, tre; four, chetuire; five, pat; six, shest; seven, sem, which is in Slavonian sedm; eight, vosem; nine, debat; ten, desat. In Galic: one, aon; two, da; three, tri; four, ceathair; five, coig; six, seisir; seven, morsheisar; eight, ochd ; nine, naoi ; ten, deich. Each of these series exhibits the numeration of a rude people, who, be- fore their separation, had little occasion for and no knowledge of arith- metic. The Russian verb iem, iesh, iest; iedim, iedite, idat, I, thou, he, we, ye, they, eat, is allied to ithim in Galic, and their affinity is rendered siill more evident by the resemblance of both to the same verb in Greek and Latin. Apparently connected with this verb we observe the Slavonian jito, which, like ith, already noticed in the Galic, means wheat. 214 Both these hiiiguages are intimately connected with the Greek, as the Italian, French and Spanish are with the Latin. This proves their affinity; wliilst their want of resemblance to each other clearly shews that their progenitors must have separated at a very early date. [ have, in my observations on the English language and its affinities, noticed its intimate C(jnnexion with Galic, Russian and other Slavonian dialects, from which it follows that Galic and the Slavonian dialects are intimately connected. As we advance, it will be clear, that these languages, though at pre- sent exceedingly dissimilar, are radically one. IV. AFFINITY BETWEEN THE MUNGALIC OR KALMUC AND THE GALIC. STRAHLENBERG has enriched philology with a vocabulary of the Culmuco-Mungalian language, in a work, of which one edition appeared in I73O. I have read it with pleasure, and derived much information from it. ■ From this vocabulary General Vallancey made a considerable selection, in order to point out the affinity between the Kahnuc and the Irish. This nomade natimi wanders over the elevated regions, which extend to the north of 'J'ibet, from ISIount Imaus, that is from the sources of the Indus and of the Ganges, to the Eastern Ocean. I shall here subjoui a few expressions, in which the resemblance has been best preserved, at the same time requesting the reader to recollect 215 the length of time, which has elapsed since the separation of these dis- tant nations, their ignorance and want of records, their wandering habits, and the rules I have suggested for the detection of the most recondite roots, founded on the changes to which all languages are subject. Kalmiic. Abdara, a bed — — Ara, a bolster — — Are and Ere, a man — Aeme or Eme, a woman — Ama, the mouth — — Ara, jaw teeth — — Allaga, the hand — — Assun, hair — — — Artzul, kerchief — — Arul, a spindle — — Alasko, a hammer — • — Alun, a halter • — — Acha, a brother^ Aice, a relative \ Aroeku, to sweep away Abo, hunting — — Aleraamodo, an apple tree Ascun, evening — — . Achtol, to cleanse - — . — Trish. Abdairt and Adairt, a bolster Arel, a bed Ar, air, ear, and fear Im, Em, Fern Amac, ravenous ^Carr, the jaw f Carbal, the palate Glac Cassan Ciarsul Oirle Lasca, to strike All, a bridle Aice, of the same tribe Ruasaire, to drive away Abus, a wild beast Amhalmaide Schun Eacta 2l6 Kalmiic. Asoc, to ask — Ainae, I fear — Alun, a pannel of a saddle Anni, I know — Ala, I kill — Agutschi, good — Argul, to bore — ^rigi, I seek — Ailshi, I go there — Aorkyl, I leave behind iEmnae, I cry out — Abirae, I vex — iElgi, I earn — • Ba, I commit a crime Baienae, I have been Baiehu, I live long Billran, I work in timber Bolun, horned cattle Bugu, a buck — Bula, burial — Bulack, morass — By, I — — Choy, ewe — Choraga, lamb — Iriah. Ascadh Ahinne . Ulan, a pack saddle Aithne Ala, a wound Aghas and Adhas Aragail, a needle larraigh Aillso Ar cul, behind Eirae Buairea Ailgeas, wages Bai Binn Baoth, long life Bile timber, Rinne made Bolan, a bullock Boc, a he goat Beala, death Balac Bim, I am Choi Caorog, &c. 2i7 The vocabulary is copious, and the agreement striking; but, for want of well constructed dictionaries in both these languages, in numerous instances, their radical identity cannot be demonstrated. In Bell's travels through the same country, we have certain expressions, the origin of which is apparent in the Galic. Thus for instance, kontai/sha, chief, agrees with ceann taoisi. Tush-da-chan and ayuka-clian, a prince, are tuis-do-cheann and aice-cheann. Lama, a priest, and delay-lama, priest of the chief tribe, agree with the Irish lamais a poet and dala a tribe. But that, which is most remarkable is, that isky, the Galic term for water, terminates the name of every place in the vicinity of the Kalmuc rivers. Did the Kalmucs and other wandering hordes in Tibet and Tartary possess ancient poems, transmitted by tradition from their remote proge- .nitors, like the Irish and the Welch, we might be able, not merely to conjecture, but to demonstrate the identity of all these venerable languages. V. AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE SANSCRIT. SANSCRIT, although not the parent language of the East, is yet acknowledged to be the elder sister of a very extensive family. It stands allied in close affinity to the Persian, to the Mahrattan, and to all the langirages of Indostan. Henry Coiebrook, a distinguished scholar in this VOL. II. F f 218 branch of literature, views it as a most polished tongue, gradually refined, and fixt in classic writings of the best poets, who flourislied before the Christian era. It is cultivated by the learned Hindus all over India, as the lanoruase of science. In his opinion, it is evidently derived from a primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various climates, and became Sanscrit in India, Pahhivi in Persia, and Greek on the shores of the Mediterranean. It excels in euphony, and avoids incompatible and discordant sounds in compound terms by a deviation from orthography. In these observations, the opinion of Mr. Colebrook perfectly coincides with that of Sir W. Jones, who informs us, that hundreds of the Parsi nouns are pure Sanscrit, that many imperatives are the roots of Sanscrit verbs, and that even the moods and tenses of the Persian verb substan- tive, which is the model of all the rest, are deducible from the Sanscrit by an easy and clear analogy. He delivers it as his opinion, that the Sanscrit is more perfect than Greek, more copions than Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either; yet bearing to each of them a stronger affinity, boih in the roots of verbs and in the fox:: , of grammar, than could possibly liave been produced by accident, so -trong indeed, that no philologer can examine them without believing tivcm to have sprung from some common source. When I shall proceed to treat of the Sanscrit, it wiM, I trust, be evi- dent, that Greek and Sanscrit are twin sisters; and wiien we shall have examined the aflfinity between Galic and Greek, it will be equally clear, that these stand nearly in the same relation, the consequence of which discoveries will be, that we shall acquiesce in the opinion of General 'Vallancey, and, independently of any direct comparison, be perfectly ?19 satisfied, that Galic and Sanscrit are radically one. Yet, as some im- mediate comparison may be satisfactory to the reader, and serve to elu- cidate the affinity l)etween these far distant and most interestinjrlantruaffcs, I shall subjoin a few expressions, such as have occurred to me in the course of my investigations. English. Galie. Sanscrit. English. Add Agadh Aghi Day Am Asmi, Ismi Asmi Deal Bake Bacalta Paka Death Bath Baidhte Bad a Dim Be Bheith Bhavitum Door Bhami, I was Bhavami, I am Doubt Bear Be i rim Bhri Each Beast Beathach Pasu Eat Beat Bata a stick Pita Badh Ewe Bench Binse Pankaya Fire Bit Bida Bhid Bid Bhitta Float Boy Brow Bala Brai Ballachan Bhru Flood Brother Brathair Bhratara Fold Coal Gual Gala black Foot Cot Cotta Cuti Give Cow Ceo, milk Gavou Crook Cruca Vacragtee Grieve Cry Sgread Crad Hall F f 2 Galic. Sanscrit, Dia Diva Dailim Dal Todhas Fadi Dei m he Timira Dorus Dwar Dubhatai Dwon Ceach Ecauca Ithim Attum Aoi Ava Aghna Agni cPlodanstand-i f ing water : Fal Fuidh Daighead Grame, O a Gearbam ) Talla Plutu Palayati Pa dee Datum Grima Sal a 220 English. Ualic. Sarucrit, English. Galic. Sanscrit Heart Criodh Hrid Much el, \Ieall Mahaa Hoi, warm Garam G harm a Nail Ail Nal Midst Meadhon Madhya Name Ainm Naman Might Mocht Mahata Nay Ni Na Mind Mien Manas Navv Naoi Nau Mix Measeaini Miserani Sew Nuadh Nava Mode Modh Moto Nigh Nach Nicata Moon Mios Masa Night Nochd Nakta More Moide Mahattara Nine Naoi Navan Mother Mathair Matra No Ni Naha These few examples will sufficiently prepare u^ to receive the testimony of Sir \V. Jones, that a well marked affinity exists between the Sanscrit and the Irish. I shall therefore close my observations on this branch of affinity, and* immediately proceed to the examination of the strict con- nexion, which may be traced between the Galic and the Greek. VI. AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE GREEK. IN the preceding section we have seen the opinion of Mr. Colebrook, that the same language, which became Sanscrit in the east, gave birth to Greek on the shores of the Mediterranean, and we have traced an affinity between the former of these languages and Galic. But independently of 221 this mode of deduction, a well conducted compaiison between them will sufficiently evince their agreement. It has appeared that, like the ancient Greek, the Galic alphabet uas confined originally to sixteen letters. In both these languages B frequently supplies the place of P, as in Latin V and F are substituted for B Thus we find ^inpog for 'Jixf.og vita for /3ioTH, and frcnio for (ipsiJ^co. C answers to kap]>:i. But, as in the ancient Greek, gamma had the power of both G and C, so in Galic these letters are indifferently used. D and T, both in Galic and in Greek, seem to have been taken without distinction. Thus we find both carad and carat, oudl and ovre. In like manner the Latin has both hand and haut. We have had occasion to notice, that in Galic mh and bh are equi- valent, as in amhan and abhan, amnis, uamhan and uabhan, answering to (pofiov. A similar licence as to M, B and P, appears to liavc been assumed in Greece, for the iEolians, instead of i^eKKeiv wrote /SgAXeiv, for zx^ovaa they used it-x^ovjx, and for i^mavXog they said 'Trr/.-AvKog. A striking feature of the Galic is the conversion of P into C, as in cos for •^ouj, casga for 'T^dtr^x, and ca for vrou. In this practice it coiir'orms to the Ionic, Beeotian and /Eolian dialects of Greek, in which we find Kitig for Tra'j, Horov for 'p^ofoi/, kot£ for Tore and lixyy,y.eg for lyvvxTxag. Like the Greek, Galic abounds with aspirates. This breathing was formerly expressed by a point over the letter tq be aspirated. At present they adopt the H. Yet the aspirate of Greek wordsis either omitted in the Galic, or converted into a sibilant, as for instance evoiJ.cc ainm, «*;/>) ain, ov/. eac, «KXog eile, lif.zX'og samhai), aXg and aXog, salann and salar. 222 It is impossible for any one to cast' even the most transient glance over the auxiliary verb ismi, I am, without seeing the strict affinity between the Galic and the Greek; for certainly Ts must be the root in both, as appears by s^g, eq\ s^^^ev, eVe, f*Tt, a^joix-ai, eiej^xi Ejoi^evog, wliich indubi- tably connect themselves, not with e»f*t, but with ir[t,i, and p^j must be the jironoun, as I shall render evident, when I shall proceed to the ex- amination of the structure of the verbs in Greek. From what I have already said, it is apparent, that the substantive verb in Galic is more perfect, than it is in (ireek, in which i^-f^t is wanting. The numerals likewise shew that Galic and Greek are kindred languages. Even where the expressions seem to differ most, they are radically one, as will be evident, when we call to mind, what has recently been stated of the commutability of '^ and k. I may here be permitted to remark, that the Galic enables us to trace the origin of Asy.a, and to point out da cuig, as the parent of deich and Sanx. Counting appears to have been originally conducted by the fingers; and this custom gave limits to the first numerals, which were five. Hence ■Trff^Ta^w, derived from 'Kefi-ve of the tEoIIc for ae'/Tf, signifies I count. In this sense it is used by Homer, when he introduces Proteus numbering his sea calves. (Od. iv. 412.) The intimate connexion between Galic and Greek will clearly be seen by a comparative vocabulary. The few words I here subjoin, are such as occurred to me in the course of my reading. It must be confessed, that the importance of the subject calls for a more minute investigation; but what I here produce will be sufficient to satisfy the attentive mind, that Galic and Greek have a radical affinity. 223 I must premise, that my selection is made without distinction, equally from the Erse and from the Irish. The Calic in Scotland, in Ireland, and in the Isle of Man, is one language, and the dialects have a minute resemblance. In the Galic verbs, I here consider the first person singular of the indicative mood present tense as the theme. This I have done in con- formity to the practice of lexicographers. But, in fact, we have thus a compound, including the radical expression connected with the substan- tive verb, which, as I have stated, subjoins its pronoun. It must be remembered that C is pronounced as K. Galic. Abhra Ac Aedh Aer Agalla Agliaim Agh Agh Aibheis Ain Aingeal Ainm Airde Aireamk English. Eyelid Not Eye Skv Tell Aghast Good Battle Sea Praise Messegner Name Beight I number Greefi. Oalic. Englith. Greek. o<ppOg Airigh Prince xpx'^'^ OVU Airgim I drive away tipyci) eiSu Airghean Rein Hpyco. apKiiti Airgiod Silver xpyog xyyiXKu Ais Bashful Xi:TX^^'< xyxa Aisg Reproof xij-^vvu x'ya.'^og Aithcbim [ ask, beg xntu x'yav Aith Kiln Xi^Oi x^viTdOg All Other xXKog All All oXog xyysKog All Wild xXjog 0VO\i.X Alga Noble aipia Ama Hame X[t.[KX Kpi%\t.iu Amhar Vessel x[t.<popevg 224 Gala. Engli.ih. Greek. A nam Soul, Life ccvE[i.og Anear Man 5 \ auvip Anios Up ctva Anoidche By night svvvxog Aon, Ein, En One ev Aondeiig Eleven svSaKx Ar For IT a. pa. Ar Upon xipcii Ar Slaughter xp^S Ar Ploughing xpovpx Aram r plough ocpoco Aran Bread XpTOg Arg White ipyoi Arg Champion xpxav Art A bear XpHTO? Ascath Warrior XtTHViT^i; Ath Again art Athach Request Atliach Blast 1 / Atharaif'ham I alter STepocsi Atliair Father TVOcli/ip. xt'tx Athais Reproach ZITLX Atlilath Young warrior x^kvj^Vig Auacli Xeck xvx^v Galie, Baichim Bach Bachal Baile Basal Fearg Gearg English, I strike Aviolentattack Staff City Judgement Pride Summit of hill Wrath ! Ixaiirh ' R reim Step Living Life Food Milk I manifest Cow Buffalo Cow herd V drop A 1 m Noise Greek. 'Tts'xaiy.x HEItxluX jixHTpOV jixcnXevf opyv) /3;0T0f yxKxnTOt \aV(T(T03 ^ov^xXct If r tTTi^pxivca (ipx%io)v 225 Galie. English. Greek. Galic. English. Greek. Breithir Word B'TTl SC p^'TOg Ceir Wax Wpog • CA box 7ruB,1g Ceist Hoard y/iqv\ Bugsa f Box tree 7CvE,og Cenel Children <y£Vi5>.ti Cacaim y-iX^y-u Ceo And yxi Cal Colcwort nxvXog Cial Jaw XeiKo; Cala Hard ^aXcTOj Cidham I see eiSoi Calloid Outcry yixKeiv Cine Kin yivog Cam Crooked HX\i.'Ttloii Cior At hand %£IP Canaib Hemp •/.xvi/x^tg Cisde Treasure ■/m;vi Caolain Capall Intestines Horse nx^xXKog Citag and^ Cota 3 A coat %iTWt^ Cara Friend Xtxpig Cladach Clay yXix Caraim [ love Xxpi^Q\j.ai Claonard Steep nXivw Caran f Crown of ( head KXpViVOV Clas Claoi Lock Lament kXxiu Carraig Rock pw$ Cliath Hurdle •/iXeico Cartam I cleanse yu^Xlpb) Clith A close nXeiot) Cathair Chair, city nx^sSpx Cluin Park xXbicj Ce The earth 7H Cliobam I tear aXxca Ceach Each snaqog Cluas The ear -k Ceachtar Either exxrspog Clunim I hear K y.Xvcii Cead Hundred enxTOv Cluisim I hear ) Ceard Ceart Trade A rag KipSog neipo) Cloisdean The hcar-^ ing S yXvu VOL. II. G g 226 Oatie. English. Clos A repoit ■ Clotha Meard C'.othac Famous Clu and cloth lame Cluain Adulation Cluainire A flatterer Cluainireacht Flattery Cluig and Clog A beJl Clo2;aim I sound Clogarnach Tinkling Cloigin ^ A little j bell ; r Noble Cloth H Generous ^ Brave All these are connected with Cluas, the Ear, and con- sequently with - - - Cluain ^A green / c meadow S Cnaoidham & ") Cnaoighim 3 I gnaw Cnaoi Cnagh 2 Maggots . A Con- sumption Cncadh A wound Greek. •/iXv7og nKvcc nvacoi Gatie. English. Greek. Coirnheadaim I heed Coimheud A ward A keeper •yiViS0[i.«f Coimheudaighe Coinne Woman yuvvi Colaini I hinder Colac Prohibited H0),V6> Col Prohibition Coll Destruction oXXv(j.i Corcuir Purple TcopCpvpx Cos Foot 1 Cois Near Coisidhe A footman ! ■xovg Coisin A foot stalk j Ca Where TOU Casga Passover '7rflr(3-%* Cuig Five yteyKe Cruim Thunder lipu(j.ot, Cri Heart KSXp Croch Saffron HpOHOf Croich Skin Xpwi Croidh Heart HpxSlVi Cron Time Xpovo( Cruban Crab napcc^Oi Cu Cuib Dog ; Greyhound 3 avccv 23t Galic. EngUth. Greek. Galic. English, Greek. Cuala Hear XH'Sd) Cuib Cup nvTrsKKov Cimn Sea lay.exvot Cuacli Cuckow >iOKHV^ CAar Curve yvjjoco Cuinneog A can y.xvv\^ Cubam I stoop nv-nTW Cuirm Ale y.ovpy.1 This vocabulary I exhibit merely as a specimen of what might be pro- duced, were the remaining letters of the alphabet to pass in review before us. By means of this venerable language we are able to explain some ex- pressions in Greek and in its NjoYic dialect, the Latin, whose origin and genuine import has been lost. A few of these I have already noticed, and to them I shall venture to subjoin the following: Aia^oXog is, in Galic, Di abheil, the terrible God. Aatfjowv is De amh, evil Deity. In the Roman history are many names which, when rightly understood, appear to be descriptive of either offices or habitations. Vercingetoriv exhibits Fear, Cean and Tor, that is, man, chief and sovereign, to which the Romans added Rex. It is said of Liscus, that he was Vergobretus of the ^'Edui, an officer chosen annually, with power of life and death. In this appellation we discover Breith and Fear, the designation of a judge. The Allobrogi were mountaineers, inhabitants of Savoy. In this name we have All, a rock, precipice or cliff, and Brog, a habitation. In short, every name used by Cassar in his Galic war, whose initial syllable is Vcr, whether it appertain to one person, or to many collec- G g2 228 lively, points to its origin, and gives us distinctly Fear, that is man or men. Should the first syllable be Can, it implies a cape or headland, answer- ing to Cean of the same import in Galic, precisely as it does in Cantire, a headland in Scotland, which stretches into the Irish Sea. In modern orthography Cean becomes Kin, as in Kinross, Kinsale, &c. Magus, when it terminates a name, is Magh, a plain, and implies a level country; but Dim conveys the notion of a fortress usually established on the summit of a hill. The very name of Celt^ given by historians to the Galic tribes, may be referred to Coillte and Geilt, woods and woodlanders. General Vallancey informs us, that the most ancient inhabitants of Ireland called themselves Royal Shepherds. They had flocks and herds, and therefore sought for shelter and protection, not in the elevated fortress, but in the extensive forests of uncultivated countries. VII. AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE HEBRREW. THE affinity between the Galic and the Hebrew, with its dialects, the Childee, Syriac and Arabic, is, in some respects, more striking than between the Galic and the Greek. It appears to me, that the two latter stand related to each other as descendants from one conmion ancestor; but that the Galic is the elder branch. With the modern Irish I am sufficiently acquainted; but of the ancient dialect, the Bearla na feine, 229 I am perfectly ignorant, and can only therefore refer my readers to General Vallancey. from him we learn, that the ancient language, as it exists in manu- scripts, IS purely Chaldee, and that the verbs are conjugated in kal, pihil, hiphil, hophal and hithpael, as reguhvrly as in Chaldee and Hebrew. Like these lansruaires, it has two moods, the indicative and the impera- tive, and in the oldest manuscripts the same word is used for the pre- terite and the future. These certainly, are striking resemblances, and carry back the Irish language to the most remote antiquity. In one circumstance, the Galic, whilst it agrees with the Hebrew, difiers from the Gothic languages, for the verb subjoins its pronouns. L is a preposition, as in Hebrew, signilying with, to and for, and M is a very general servile letter, prefixed, as in Hebrew, Arabic and Chal- dee. In these languages L and R are apt to be changed for each other. The Rev. Mr. A. Stewart, in his Galic Grammar, delivers it, as his opinion, that the Galic bears a much closer affinity to the Asiatic s-tock, than any other living European language, and General Vallancey assures us that nine words in ten of the ancient Irish are pure Chaldaic and Arabic. I here select a few as examples of the rest. Aide, Aid and Acl, one. This agrees with Ahad of the Hebrew. Coimh is in. Hebrew giin (Di') with; and ach an idiomatic termination, which forms adjectives and participles. These combined compose coimheadach coupling, and from the same root with imi, answering in like manner to CJ/ and adhag, we have imiadhag, a coupling oc joining together. But 230 from ahad combined with ath, whicli answers to stj and to Tiy, we have ath-ahad re-uniou. lomad man}', may be "THi^ Di? because 0^ in given circumstances implies negation. Ailes, Olas and Solas, joy, are probably allied to '^^jV. f 7^ and 07-^ ioyful exultation. AUod, ancient, old, may be allied to hcled of the Hebrew ("^.70) time, a'l-e. Or it may be a compound of ^IV hidden, and "^V. which signifies endless duration. Hence our Saxon ancestors may have derived allodial. In Arabic ola, in Latin olim, in Irish ad and aoid, are all applied to time. Aos, fire, sun, God, is {^^) esh of the Hebrew and Chaldee. This seems to be the parent of Eeshoor and Eswara in the East Indies, of acher of Persia, of osiris in Egypt, of the Etruscan aesar, and of the Gahc aosar, of whom mention is made in ancient manuscripts. Ceannam, T buy or sell, cean the price, ceannach a purchasing, ceannaighe the place of exchange, and ceannaidhe a merchant, agree with 1.^5? of the same import, and explain the name of Canaanites, as given to the merchantile people of Phoenicia. Ed and id, the hand, edim I handle, catch, feel, possess, eidir a captive, eidirlen captivity, eidean ivy, a five-fingered leaf, iod a cast of a dart and a measure of land, and cdel the lifting up of the hands in prayer, all refer us to "^1 the hand, and Hl^ he cast a dart. Raigh, riog and rig, a king, seem to have been derived from n;;-i he tiourishcd, and nj^l a shepherd, and metaphorically a king. It is said of David, in the seventy-eighth Psalm, " So he fed them (DI'"T') with a faithful and true heart, and ruled them prudently with all his power." 231 The Almighty, speaking of Cyrus, says " He is my shepherd" ('Ji^'i''). This image is familiar to the sacred writers, and to the most venerable of the Grecian poets; and the word, by which their supreme ruler is designated in France, Spain, Portugal and [ndostan, must be referred to it. I may be here permitted to observe^ that king, koning, ktming, and konge, in the Gothic line, look toward cecum of the Galic, and not im- probably towards cohe?i of the Hebrew and Arabic, which means, not merely priest, but prince; and indeed prior to the Mosaic institution, we find the two characters united. In the Manx dialect ccann, the head, becomes kione, whose genetive singular is y-diing, and whose nominative plural is ny-king. Agreeably to this notion and derivation we may readily conceive the Irish m, a king, to be derived from (t^'^^l) rcsh, the head, the most excellent, the chief, and rishon, the first, that is, the first in dignity and power. All the dialects of Galic, although they have been subjected to the mutations, which time inevitably brings, still retain sufficient vestiges of their oriental descent, and exhibit a striking affinity to Hebrew. This will be evident to the student, if he consults the vocabulary, short as it is, which will appear in the Appendix. OF THE MANX JLAIN'GIJAGE, XHE Manx appears to be ibe connecting link between the Irish and the Welch. It is not my intention to compose a grammar of this language, a a work which has been already accomplished by Dr. Kelly, to whom we are indebted for most interesting information. Yet a transient view of its structure will throw much light on both the Irish and the Welch. The original alphabet had nearly the same distinction of letters, founded on organic affinity, as the Greek ; but in the Manx, as in the Welch, their mutations are governed by peculiar laws. The modern al- phabet has adopted ch, j, k, and q; but these are not properly Manx letters. Ch takes the place of t. J is substituted for dh of the Irish, k for c, and q for cw. A, o and u are used indifferently one for the other. R, when radical, is aspirated as in Greek. L, n, r, are con- sidered as immutable, b, p, ph , f, and m ; c, ch, cw, and g; d and j ; t and s are mutable and demand particular attention. In the beginning of a word b may become v or m. 253 Bea life; c vea his life ; nyn mea, our life. M may become v; moir a mother, dan voir to the mother. Pii and f may be dropt, or may become v. Phaal a fold for sheep; e aal his fold. Foays advanrage; nyn voays our advantage; e oays his advantage. C may become ch or g. Carrey friend; e charrey his friend; nyn- garrey our friend. Ch may become h or j. Chiarn Lord; e hiarn his Lord; nyn jiarn our Lord. C\v or (| may become g and wh. Quing a yoke, nyn guing our yoive, e whing his yoke. G may become gh; goo report, e ghoo his report. D Miay become gh; dooinney man, e ghooinney his man. J may become y ; jee God, e yee his God. T may become dh and h; taggloo discourse, nyn dhaggloo our dis- course, e haggloo his discourse. S may become h and t; sooill eye, e hooill his eye, y tooill the eye. In these mutations Manx conforms nearly to those of the Welch, and in some measure it resembles Sanscrit. The numerals are un, daa, three, kiare, queig, chea, stragsht, haght, nou, jeih. The Pronouns — mee, oo, eh; shin, shiu, ad; I, thou, he, we, he they. The Verb Substantive — ta mee, I am; va mee, I was; ta mee erve I have been; beem, I shall be; bee, be thou; dy ve, to be. VOL. II. H h 334 The Verb Active — cliluin mee, I heard; cluinym, I shall hear; clasht, hear; cluinit, heard; dy clilashtjn to hear. Dooyrt mee, I said; jir-yni, ' 1 shall say, abl^yr, speak. Dinsh mee, I told; inshym, I shall tell; dy insh, to tell. Diu mee, I drank; iu-ym, I shall drink; dy iu, to drink. Faik, see thou; fakin, seeing; dy akin, to see. Hie mee, I went; gow, go; dy gholl, to go. Jean, do thou; dy yannoo, to do; jannoj, doing; jeant, done. The present tense, as in Welch, is formed by a noun substantive with the substantive verb. Ta fys aym, there is knowledge with me, I know; ta graih aym, there is love with me, I love. Manx has no passive voice. Adverbs — nish, now; jiu, today; noght, tonight; daghlaa, daily; cuin, when; quoi, who; my, if; lane, fully; mona, solely; foddee, per- haps; dy feer, in truth; cha, not; nj', not; nar, nor. Prepositions — co, with; myn, little; a and an, not; mee, not; neu, not. The Manx language is not more distantly related to Galic, than the Portuguese to Spanish. In orthography the difference is great ; but ia sound they approximate; as must be evident to every one, who considers, that in the Galic an aspirate usually renders the antecedent consonant quiescent. The more readily to discern this affinity, we must advert to the mutations, which I have above described, as, not merely admissible, but absolutely required in the Manx. I here subjoin a short vocabulary, such as I collected in reading a few chapters of St. John in Gcihc and in Manx. 235 Galici English, Manx, Galic, English. Manx, Agam I have Ta ajmie Math air Mother Moir Againne Our Ain Maith Good Mie Athair Father Ayr Mharbhadh Kil] Varroo Bean Woman Ven MhuiHonn Mill Wyllin Beatha Life Vea Naoi Nine Nou Bha Was Va Neamh Heaven Niau Biodh Be Bee Oidche Ni<rht Oie Brathair Brother Braar Posad h Wedding Poosey Dean Do Jean Jaibh Was Row Deich Ten Jeih Righ King Ree Dia God Jee Rireadh Truly Jarroo Dias Two Jeeg Sgriobh Wrote Scrieu Domhain Deep Dowin Suidhe Sit Hoie Dubhairt Said Dooyrt Shabh Hill Clicau, Slieau Eirich Rise Irree leas Heat Ciiias Firinn Truth Irriney Toirt Gives Coj^rt Fuair Find Hooar Fearapull Temple Chiamble Ghabh Take Ghow Thig Come Hig, Jig Gradh Love Graih Tharruing Draw Hayrn Gheibh Take Yiow Thir Land Cheer, Heer Ith Eat Ee Thuig Knew i'heig, Hoig Judhac Jew Hew Thug Gave Hug, Dug Labliair Spake Loayr Tigh Mouse Thie, Hie Lamh Hand Laue lu H h 2 Thou Oo 236 In tliese examples, it is clear, that the Galic and the Manx differ in orthography, although thev agree perfectly in sound. In the Isle of Man they write as they pronounce ; but in Ireland and in the Highlands of North Britain, attention is paid to orthography, by which stai)ility is best preserved, and the affinity of kindred languages more readily discerned. Were either French or English written as pro- nounced, how soon would they be corrupted, how difficult would it be to understand them, and how impossible to discover their connexion and descent I This I demonstrated, when trealing'of orthography. But although the Galic in various instances discovers its origin and affinities much better than the Manx; 3'et the latter, in many words, evinces more clearly than the former, their connexion with kindred lansnases, both ancient and modern. From this transient view of the Manx, it is clear, that, like the Irish, it is related to the Greek, to its iEolic dialect the Latin, and to the Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee. Among the few words which either occur in this vocabulary, or present themselves to my recollection, are some whose affinity to Greek is most evident. These are aal, auXvj ; agam, f%w ; an, «/f u ; baillym, jiovXo^x-i ; clieau, y.Xi'itvg; cluinym, kXuw ; cha, ovx^ ; hie race, afxe ; hooill, the eye, viXto,', the sun; mec, t^n ; mona, f^-ovog; myn, i^eicov ; noght, wkto^^ ; n^r, ue; ta Jijs aijm, Iriifj-i ; irree, a.i^uj. In its affinity to Hebrew, I shall notice two expressions, which require particular attention. First then, jcc and yee, which in Manx mean the Deity, are in the Irish written f/^a. because, like Greek and Hebrew, this language is a stranger to I, consonant, a character which, although in- 237 troduced into Latin, did not originally belong to it; for Priscian informs us, that the ancients used peiius for pejus, and eiius for ejus. The Irish therefore, not having the letter J, have no means of supplying its place, but by dh, yet they retain its power, and therefore o dhia is pronounced o yia. From this circumstance, and from the natural connexion between D and J, I am inclined to think that the parent of jee, yee, yia and dia, is to be sought for in the Flebrew Jah and Jehova, the self-existent, the eternal. The affinity between D and J is strongly marked by the practice of the Germans, who, to express the power of J, or of the palatine G, combine D with S, C, and II, or with S and J, and thus write dschellid for gelid, dsjelli for gelly, dsjost for just, and dsjuus for juice. The conversion therefore of I into J, and of J into D, or the reverse, as when diurnus becomes jxiurnee, must not excite our wonder. The second expression,^ to, which I invite particular attention, is baillym ox.saillym, of which in Irish we find the root in ail, the will. Of this the original seems to exist in 7"'^in he willed. Here it is remarkable, that in baillym the aspirate is converted into a labial, and that in saillym it is supplanted by a sibilant. When we shall proceed to treat of tlie Greek language, we shall have occasio) to notice some curious circumstances respecting the aspirate and its various substitutes in other kiMguages. In Irish we have toil the will, in which the T, may be derived from i^»^ leaving oil for the root, which makes a near approach to hod of the. Hipbiew, ON THE GOTHIC ILAWGUAGESo J.T is not my intention to perplex either my reader, or myself, in mazes more intricate than the labyrinth of Crete. This task I abandon to those bold adventurers, who are in possession of Ariadne's thread. In my researches, therefore, after the origin of the Danish nation, I shall not think it incumbent upon me to trace the steps of Odin, nor to ascertain the time of his departure from the East. Suffice it then to say, that traditional reports confirm the suspicions of the linguist, and tend to prove that the hordes, whose descendants now, as Norwegians, Danes and Swedes, command the entrance of the Baltic, came originally from the borders of the Euxine, directed in their course, and confined in their migrations, between two great rivers, the Volga and the Nicper or Borysthenes, till they met with the Riphsean mountains, which, ex- tending north and south for nearly fifteen hundred miles, marked their utmost limits to the cast. 239 Their most ancient records arc in the Edtia, first compiled and com- mitted to writing in Iceland, by Sigfuson, who was born about the year 1057- These however, before the introduction of alphabetic characters, had been imposed as a task upon the memory, and transmitted by tra- dition, like the Poems of Valmeeki, of Homer, and of Ossian, from one generation to another. In them we may observe history and mytholog}^ truth and fiction, intimately blended. Yet from these records wc may venture to assume, that a distinguished leader, named Odin, Codcn, Woden, or Otho, came from Turkey, where his capital was called Asgard by the Goths, but Asburg by the Greeks. When, however, it is said that he came from Turkei/, it is evident, that by Turkey is pot intended either Turkestan, situated to the east of Imaus, and of the Aral Sea, orTurkomania, which extends through the mountainous district, whence flow the Nieper, theWolga, and the Don. Indeed, it is particularly stated, that he came from the Magotic Lake, and from the country watered by the Don, that is probably from Taurica. Here his Scythian Archers occupied vast forests, and gained their livelihood bv huntinor. From hence, as it is stated, he extended his con- tjuests to the north, drove back the first inhabitants, whether Finns, Laplanders, or other hordes unknown, and, after having established his sons in separate kingdoms, he himself took possession of Reidgotoland, now called Jutland and Gotland, where he erected his throne, and gave the name of Asgard, i. e. Fortress^ of the Gods, to the seat of his dominions. 240 It is particularly noticed, that he governed his realm b}? the assistance of a senate, composed of tAveive peers, whom he appointed as judges in the land; and from this institution, we may possibly have derived our juries. This account of Odin is confirmed by Snorro Sturleson, a distinguished poet and historian, born A. D. 1179, of an illustrious family, and himself the supreme judge in Iceland. From him we learn, that Suecia was considered as a new Sci/thia, an appellation, which did not escape the attention of Jornandes and of Bede. Odin could have found little resistance from the rude inhabitants, the hunters, swineherds, and nomade tribes of Scandinavia, whether Finns or Laplanders; for so thinly peopled was this country, that even in the eleventh century the sea coast alone was occupied, whilst the interior was one extensive forest, abandoned to wild beasts. Even the portion oc- cupied by wandering hordes remained uncultivated. This agrees with the description of Strabo and of Caesar. It appears, that Odin was not the original appellation of this dis- tinguished hero. His true name was Sigge. But either at his departure from the east, or after his extensive conquests, and the establishment of his throne in peace, he assumed the sacred name of that God, before whose altars, as high priest, he had been accustomed to offer sacrifice, and to whose protection, as Lord of hosts, he had attributed his vic- tories; for in the country, from which he came, it is probable, that the Deity was known, as m Palaslinc, under the appellation oi Adon, the Lord of the whole earth. 241 , In the religious system of these our Gothic ancestors, wo may catch aglympsc of pure theology, clouded by mythology, and the bhisphemous pretensions of a successful warrior. Indeed I am much inclined to think, that some knowledge of the true God remained, and that the total cor- ruption of religion did not take place till after the death of Odin. Human sacrifices had bled by his hand before the aUars of Jehovah, the Lord of Hosts: but it was not till after his decease, that superstition dif- fused its midniglit darkness over the northern hemisphere. It was then, that he was considered as the God of war, and that all the prisoners, taken in battle, were reserved for his altars. Under the notion of his divinity, one day in the week was consecrated to him, and called by his name. Such is the origin of our Wednesday, Wonsday of Iceland, Odm's day of Sweden, Wodensday of the Anglo Saxons. In like manner the fifth day of the week, being devoted to his wife Frigga, who became the Venus of the north, was called Freytao-. The' day preceding this, called Dies Jovis by the Romans, became Thorsdag, because Thor, the Taranis of Lucan, was the most valiant of the sons of Odin, These became the three superior deities of our Gothic ancestors, and to them were consecrated three annual festivals, of which the first, at the winter solstice, was called Juul. It is by no means improbable, that, as, like the Persians, these Asiatic tribes had their sacred fire, and were addicted to the worship of the sun, Juul is allied to y,Xiog. Certain it is, that the festival was sacred to Thor as the bright orb of day. This festival gave occasion to much riot, and was celebrated with nocturnal orgies. VOL. II. I i 242 From this institution undoubtedl}' arose the custom in, our northera counties of calling the great block of wocid, which burns on the hearth, all the twelve days of Christmas, the Yule log. Among the inferior gods, are to be nxkoned MarOy from whom we de^ rive night mare, and Neccus, called Nocca by the Danes, and known to- us by the appellation of Old Nick. His office appears to have been to drown men in the waters of the ocean. Another deity was called Flynt, Him they represented by a human skeleton, with a lighted torch, and sitting ona flint. It appears that every ninlli year, the king, attended by the senate, offered in the great temple nine captives to Odin. And it is recorded, that in a time of famine the first king of Vermiand was himself offered up as a burnt sacrifice to the same divinity. Having estahli-hed the worship of this sanguinary god, they conceived, that no victim could be too precious for his altars. Under this persuasion, Hacon, king of Norway, to secure his protection, and to obtain the victory over Harold, devoted his own son to Odin. The structure of his most ancient altars deserves particular attention. They consist of one large, flat, but unhewn stone, reposing on three others, and placed on the summit of a high tumulus, which is seldom solitary. In general the tumuli are three, disposed near together, and the central one is largest. The monumental tumuli stand single. In the rubbish under the large flat stone, flints are found, and the sacred area is surrounded by a square, inclosed by lesser stones. In one of the inclosures near the Royal Road in Zeeland, which leads to Bircke, th« columns are of a stupendous magnitude. 243 These altars, being all of unhewn stones, constructed in the open air, carry back the imagination to remote antiquity, and help to confirm tlie traditional reports respecting Odin and his family. It is probable, that the royal priesthood was continued in succession from the days of Odin, till the introduction of Christianity, an event which took place about the year 948. Attendant on the royalty, we find a race of bards, precisely as among the Celtic nations; but, in Scandi- navia, denominated skalds, that is probably men of skill in poetry, whose office it was to celebrate the heroic actions of their ancestors. The great temple of Odin was at Upsala, in the same inclosure with the palace, on a considerable eminence, surrounded by the extensiv-e plain of Waksala, which is on the margin of a lake, and well watered by abundant springs. Here was established the habitation of the sacred virgms, and the supreme tribunal of the realm. This temple is described by an ecclesiastic, who lived at the time of the introduction of Christi- anity into Sweden, and before the Pagan worship was abolished, as resplendent in every part with gold. Here the images of Odin, Thor and Frigga reclined on couches. But of these deities, Thor, as being most mighty, was most elevated, with seven stars in his left hand and a sceptre in his right. Frigga had her sword and bow. Succeeding writers confirm this account. Some time after Christianity had diffused its light over the daik regions of the north, the adherents of the ancient superstition made strong efforts to restore idolatry in Sweden. In consequence of this, the first Christian kings transferred the seat of empire from Upsala, and about the year 1024, Olof Skbt, th« I i 2 244< koniing, that is the king, gave orders to destroy the Pagan temple, with its idols ; but as these injunctions were not implicitly obeyed, Ingenuuid, in 1085, spoiled the temple of its ornaments, buriit the idols, and cut down the groves. Succeeding monarchs tollowc i is extH,iple, and about the year lloO, a cathedral dedicated to St. Lawrence was built on the foundati n of the Pagan edifice. All our records are agreed in bringing Odin from the East; and Wil- liam of Malmsbury traces the descent of Hengist from this Asiatic hero. N.iy, such, according to our best accounts, is the correspondence, such the conformity of customs and manners, between the A^^ic'iic Scydiians and the Goths, that we scarcely stand in need of historic evidence. In both countries the women not only attended their husbands to the field, but assisted them in battle. For this purpose they were provided with horses and oftensive weapons by theii husbands on the wedding day. In both countries the female infants were deprived of their right breast, and in both, the warriors drank out of the skulls of their enemies. In both, their covenants were confirmed by blood. This we learn, as far as relates to the Scythians, from Lucian ; and SaxoGrammaticus informs us, that the same practice prevailed in Denmark. But the clearest evidence of the close affinity between the Gothic nations and the Scythians of Eastern Europe and of Asia, may be de- rived from the languages of Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, Eng- land, Germany, Greece, Persia and Indostan, which all essentially agree, as dialects of one common tongue. To Odin has been commonly attributed the introduction of the Runic characters, which he is said by the northern poets and historians to have 245 brought with him from Asia. That letters were imported at an early period, is probable, because, hke those of the (J reek, Galic and Welch, they were sixteen in number, as wore those of the Hebrew, at a period particularly noticed by Bayer. 'J'liese were A, B, D, F, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, R, S, T, U, Y. Here we must particularly notice thai P, V and W, C, G and Q, are wanting, as are the double consonants X and Z, but that in the Danish we find P as a modification of K. In the more ancient inscri|)tions of Iceland, Norwdv, and Denmark, as preserved by Ohms Wormius and by Peringskiold, Y does not appear; consequently the characters may be reckoned fifteen. In this enumeration T do not include E, because it is a modification of A; and I must here remark, that O is expressed by a reduplication of the A, so that originally t^e Goths appear to have been contented with three vowel characters, A, I and U. According to Pliny, the letters introduced by Cadmus into Europe were A, B, C, D, E, G, I, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, V, which nearly coincide with those of Denmark. Whether, or not, the aborigines of Italy had P, in the alphabet, which they received from Evander the- Arcadian, lam not competent to say; but 1 suspect that either B has been a comparatively modern refinement upon P, or that P is a refinement upon B; to which it is confessedly allied. Mr. Baxter remarks, that the Brigantes, whom he regards as the most ancient inhabitants of Britain, had not P, till it was introduced by the Bilgae. The Noiwcgians, Danes, and Swedes, as I am inclined to think, were strangcis to ihe letter B, or had but one character for B and P. 246 Indeed fewer characters thar\ those, which occur in the most ancient inscriptions of Scandinavia, would have been sufficient for the purposes of speech. The original Pelasgic letters, which, in form, approach to the Runic, more particularly in I, F, and T, were twelve, A, E, I, U, L, R, M, N, S, T, P, K, and of these, P and T potentially contain B, F and D. As for U, it might perhaps, as in Hebrew, serve for 0. Even so late as 150 years before the reign of Augustus, the Romans had but one character for the power of K, C, and G, like the northern Goths, and therefore wrote not legiones, magistratos, eifugiunt; but leciones, macistratos, exficiont. This circumstance has been very properly noticed by Walton, in the Prolegomina to his Polyglot. There is a remarkable conformity between the Runic and the Welch characters, compared with those of the Mancheou Tartars, as described by Du Halde. Among these the Runic appear most simple, the Welch most refined. Both have a striking resemblance to the Greek, and both were evidently contrived for the use of people who possessed no imple- ments for writing beyond a square stick and the fragment of a flint, or some kind of cutting instrument. To make this visible, I here subjoin the Runic and the Bardic characters, as they appear in the Pantographia of Mr. Edmund Fry, with the radical Pelasgian alphabet of Father Gori, which Astle conceives to be the most correct. 247 RUNIC CHARACTERS, a b c d e f 2; h i B Y 4i> i Y Y % i k 1 m n o n q I r i^ Y K € B F r s t V X y z B M- 't h.¥ ^hh Such is the Runic alphabet, consisting of twenty-five characters, as given by Mr. Fry, and published in the year 1799. On this it is needful to make some observations. In the first place I must remark, that we have here a mixture of ancient and modern cha- racters. All the pristine characters, sixteen in number, are, as I have stated, composed of straight lines, but in Fry's alphabet we have curves, which are certainly modern. We have here likewise both B and P. One of these is superfluous, and of modern date. The ancient form, found in Norway, is a modification of K. G and K had originally one character, which is that of K in the modern alphabet. But here, fo« G, one stroke of K is curved, as are the two lateral strokes in M. Here also V and Z have the same character, which surely they never could have had. The same observation will apply to S and Y. Q is modern, as are X, Y and Z. Here also E differs from the more ancient form, as found in Norway and Denmark, which is a cross. The remain- ing characters, A, I, O, V, L, N, S, T and U, consisting of straight strokes, perfectly agree in both the ancient and the modern alphabets. 248 I have stated, that in Wales the Bardic alphabet was composed entirely of straight stiokes. To demonstrate this, I here produce it. BARDIC. a aa e ee i o oo u A A Nl ^ 1 O O y u w W y b V m m Y V V Y 1/ t^ > W V p ph mh f k ch ngh u h N ^ f:^ < K < g ng t th nh d z n n 11 1 rh r s h hw This Welch alphabet seems to have been a refinement on the ancient Runic, and in a few of their characters they make a near approach. These are A, I, F, V and T. Others have a more remote resemblance. Most of the radical Pelasgian letters are composed of straight lines, and a few of these resemble either the Runic or the Bardic, particularly I, P, F, M, N, K, T. PELASGIAN CHARACTERS OF CORT. m I k k k i e a AA vj >l )1 :) I a fl f f f t s r p n 8:iV + 2<11M 849 In tills alphabet we observe some characters with straight strokes and others with curves, the former evidently more ancient than the latter. It contains three characters for V, which in (he more ancient Pclasgian in- scriptions, found A.D. 1456, at Eugnbium, are used for F. At this we need not wonder, because F and V being letters of the same organ, are extremely apt to assume each other's place. We have three characters for K, and as this alphabet, like Hebrew and Chaldee proceeds from right to lelt, we may oi)serve a strd<ing resemblance in form between the Pelasgian and the Bardic K. I is precisely the same in both. M and F are in Oi e of these alpliabels. turned upside down. Both F and P are reversed. N and T in both alphabets resemble, but in the Pelasgian they appear distorted. It is remarkable, that the Danes and Germans call a letter by the name of bugstav and buch stab, or beech staff, and that this species of wood is most abundant in Denmark. Even book is derived from beech, and four verses in our Psalms are called a stave. A poet, who wrote about five hundred years bt-fore the introduction of Christianity in our northern regions, has left iiicse lines: " Barbara fraxineis pinguntur Runa tabellis, " Quodque papyrus agif, virgula plana valet." The Welch inscriptions seem to have been confined wholly to such rods; but in Scandia they were committed to the rock. Of these, the most ancient, as far as my observation goes, appears to have been A.D. 270, and even later than this period, the characters consisted of straight lines. But in process of time, when B and D were introduced, these, with M an I R, began to exhibit curves. This change became natural, VOL. II. K k 250 whsi) they were to inscribe their characters in stone; not with a knife, but with a mallet and a chisel, or with a graving tool; and still more natural, when succeeding generations wrote on skins, or in the place of skins had substituted paper. The operation having been performed originally by incision, and in subsequent periods by engraving furrows on the rock, gave birth to a metaphorical expression, when Tully said, " Haec cum essem in senatu exaravi." Indeed the Gothic term rj'nner, from whence runes and Runic have been derived, means grooves, trenches, furrows. It is said, that Abraham and Abimelech made a covenant, but in the Hebrew the verb is carath, and in Chaldee gazar, both which convey the notion of engraving, whether in wood, in metal, or in stone. See also Job xix. 24. Jer. xvii. Ezek. xxxvii. l6. Of the Runic inscriptions, some are disposed from top to bottom, after the manner of the Chinese writing, and the quipoz of Peru; some from right to left, or the reverse and others, alternating like the Greek /Sou^po(p>j5ov, gave birth to the expression verse. In Sweden some monumental inscriptions surround a shield. Of such Peringskiold has preserved examples. One of these, discovered in the Royal Domain, called Konungsgiird, about one hundred yards from the Temple of old Upsal deserves particular attention. The monument was raised by Elof and Sigwed in remembrance of their father Wilfast, as appears by the epitaph engraved on the body of a serpent, which sur- rounds the scutcheon. For the crest we observe a wolf looking back- wards, and tlic patronymick name is IVolf. On this monument Pering- fikioid remarks as follows: " It is certain, that the ancestors of this 251 family liave been famous for military talents, during a period of more ihan two thousand years, and continued to produce distinguished generals till the fifteenth century, when the male branch became extinct." As they frequently commanded on foreign expeditions, he thought it probable, that Romulus and Remus were of this family. In America ^^e find one tribe distinguished by the name of JVolf. A monument, similar to this in all respects, has been discovered in the parish of Danmark, near Upsal, erected by the two sons of Lafia for their father. The Skalds were, as I have stated, the constant attendants upon royalty, and seemed to have exercised the same functions as the re- corders both in China and Judea, and to have composed in verse their chronicles, their creed, their sacred hymns, and their moral essays. Such probably was their original institution. But, as all rude nations are subject to superstitious fears, the Skalds soon learnt to abuse the poetic art and Runic characters for the purposes of magic. Hence arose their incantations, by which they were to call the moon and stars from heaven, to stop the course of rapid rivers, to quench the devouring flame, to burst asunder the gates of death, and to call departed spirits from the deep. These magic arts were, by the Skalds, universally attri- buted to Odin, who was surnamed Runhofdi, that is chief of the Runic art. Such in fact was the intimate connexion between the Runic cha- racters and magic, that in the Cimbric Language run means magic; and run, Saxon, like runa, Gothic, means mystery. In Saxon runcrajftigen is enchantment, and runstaf is both a magic character and incantation. The Runic havnig been abused for the purposes of the most execrable superstition, Ulphilas, Bishop of Mcesia, about A. D. 380, endeavoured, K k2 252 as it is said, to introduce new characters. Such, however, was the force of prejudice, such tiie power of inveterate habits, such the universal pro- pensity to magic, that Christianity itself was unable to produce a re- formation, and the iS mic continued to prevail in all the Gothic coun- tries till they were prosciibed, first in Sweden by the Pope, A. D. 1050 then in Spain by Alphonzo, A. D. 1086, and finally by the Council of Toledo, A. D. UK). Even the characters invented by Ulphilas, seem to have been considered as approaching too nearly to the Runic, and were forbidden in this council. In the Cimbrip Chersonesus, we find at present three people, who resemble each other in essential character and language, tlic >forwegians, Danes and Swedes. These appear to have been formerly one people dispersed and scattered over the North, but separated from each other by seas, by mountains, or by the accidental circumstance of various governments and distant scats of empire. The origin of the name Dane has not been ascertained. Amonof their sea port towns we observe Tonningen and Tunder. In Lower Saxony is Danneberg. At the mouth of the Vistula is Dantzick, anciently called Gedanum. We likewise see Tonsburs: and Sinus Codanus in the district of Jutland, wiiose inhabitants were called fyeTwog, by the Greeks. All these names resemble and seem to be connected. They direct our at- tention to one nation and lead us to conclude with Sheringham, that the apparently discordant names of Danes and Goths originate in one. As to the inhabitants themselves they are evidently Goths. OF THE ©AWISH JLAWGUAGE, OlAUS Wormius, a learned Dane, considered the English and the Danish as one language ; and, that they are so, will I apprehend, be evident to every one, who takes the trouble to compare them. He coincides in opinion with Lyscander, that Danish is a compound of Teutonic and of Hebrew corrupted, since the dynasty was changed, A. D. 1523, by the importation of Teutonic words. These, however, appear as aliens and intruders usurping the place of ancient words, which, though neglected, have been yet preserved. Certain it is that the Laponic is a dialect of Hebrew, as I shall hereafter take occasion to demonstrate. I The strict affinity between English and Danish will be evinced, as we proceed in the examination of the latter. It may be here observed that aa is pronounced as o. 254 The Pronouns. leg, I; du, thou; ban, he; bun, she; det, it; vi, we; I, you; de, they; os, us; dem, tbera; min, mine; din, thine; eders, yours; deres, theirs. The Auxiliary Verbs. leg er, I am; vi ere, we are; iegvar, 1 was; vaere, to be; vaerende, being; vaeret, been; ieg bar, I have; du har, thou hast; ban bar, he has; vi have, we have, I have, ye have; de have, they have; ieg havde, I bad; ieg havde bavt, I bad had. At have, to have; havende, having; bavt, bad. leg skall, I shall; ieg skulde, I should; at skulle, to be obliged. leg kan, lean; ieg kunde, I could; ieg skal kunne, I shall be able; at kunne, to be able; ieg vil, I will; ieg vilde, I would; at ville, to be willing. leg maa, I may; ieg maatte, I might, I must; at maatte, to be allowed, to be forced. The Irregular Verbs. leg taenker, I think, i. e. I am thinking. leg taler, I am talking, I am telling. leg aeder, I am eating; ieg aad, I ate, aedt, eaten. Baere, bar, baaren ; bear, bore, born. Briste, brast, brustet; burst. Drage, drog, dragen; draw, drew, drawn. Drive, drev, dreven; drive, drove, driven. Falde, faldt, falden; fall, fell, fallen. Finde, fandt, funden; find, found. Flye, flyede, flyedet; fly, flew, fled. Fryse, fros, frossen; freeze, froze, frozen, Give, gav, given; give, gave given. Glide, gleed, gleden; slide, slid, slidden. Gnave, gnov, gnaven ; gnaw, gnawed. Hugge, huggede, buggen ; hew, hewed, hew>i. Kiende, kiendte, kiendt; know, kne\\, known, or ken, ken'd. Klaede, klaedte, klaedt; clothe, 255 clad, clothed. Laane, laante, laant; lend, lent. Raekke, rakte, rakt; reach, reached. Soelgc, solgte, solgt; sell, sold. SidJe, sat, siddet; sit, sat, sitten. Skinne, skinncde, skinnet; shine, shone, shined. Synke, sank, sinnket; sink, sank, sunk. Traede, traadte, traadt ; tread, trod, trodden. Trive, trivedes, trivets ; thrive, throve, thriven. Det regner, it is raining. Det hagler, it is hailing. The Comparisons. Aaben, aabnere, aabnest ; open, opener, openest. Faa, faerre, faerrest ; kw, fewer, fewest. God, bedre, bedst; good, better, best. Hoe, hoiere, hoiest; high, higher, highest. Lang, laengere, laengst; long, longer, longest. Naer, naermere, naermest; near, nearer, nearest. Ung, ungere, ungst ; young, younger, youngest. The Numerals. Een, to, tre, fire, fem, sex, syv, otte, ni, ti. Phrases. Lukke doren i, shut the door. Lukke doren op, open the door. To shut may be also tillukke or tilslutte. To open may be aabne or oplukke. Hvem er det der banker ? Who knocks? Giver ham eders bog, give him your book. By these examples, it is evident that Danish and EnHish are kindred languages. Their near affinity will be rendered more distinctly visible, when we shall have removed the veil, which, in numerous instances, tends to conceal resemblance from the unpractised eye: that is, when 236 I shall have called lo tlie recollection of my readers those cor- ruptions, to which all languages are subject, and which have happened both to the Danish and our own by the practice, universally adopted, of considering letters of the same organ as commutable. These maj be divided into classes. In the first class of commutable consonants, b, p, f, v, u, w, m, we have the subsequent examples. Danish. English. Danish. English. Danish, Englis h. Aabne Open Halv Half Stav Staff Dyb Deep Kalv Calf Stiv Stiff Gab Gap Due Dove Fern Five Gabe Gape Lov Law Navn Name Gribe Gripe Frisk Brisk Stevn Stem Haabe Hope Faeste Beast Emmer Embers Hob Heap KlafF Clap Kammer Chamber klcbe Cleave Klippe Cliff V^aad Wet Ober Over TafTel Table Vgekke Wake Plot Blot Fiaele Veil Varm Warm Saebe Soap Liv Life Vrang Wrong Straebe Strive Rive Rub Vriste Wrest Dov, Doev Deaf Rove Rob Vraenge Wring In like manner English words in w, have in Danish v. Viid, wide; ville, will; viin, wine; uld, wool. 257 The second class of conimutablc consonants. c, ch, g, gh, h, k, i, y and w, has the subsequent examples. Danish, English. Danish. Entflish. Danish. English. Flage Flake Kaal Cole Skave Shave Hage Hook Krolle Curl Skede Sheath Hog Hawk Saek Sack Ski aire Shear Kage Cake \rag Wreck Skirerpe Sharpen Mage Make kig Rich Skield Schold Mog Muck Raskke Reach Skine Shine Rage Rake ^"^.yg Sick Skib Ship Lige Like Sigt Sight Skiold Shield Stage Snog Stake Snake Skrige c Shriek ^Screech ■ikiorte Skoe Shirt Shoe Soge Seek Laege Leech ikoet Shod Svag Weak Magt Might Skorte Short Stryge Stfuke Trug Trough Skovl Shovel Tage Take Kule Hole Skud Shot, Shoot Tiixng Rank Kam in Chimney Skytte Shooter Kam Comb Kirke Church Vogte Watch Karde Card Klar Clear Sukkc Sigh Kaste Cast Klaske Clash Disk Dish Kat Cat Klokke Clock Fisk Fish Koe Cow Klukke Cluck Kort Short Kok Cook Skaeg Shag Mask Mash Kop Cup Skarp Sharp Rcidfisk Roach roL. II. l1 2o8 Danish. English. Danish. English. Danish. English, Rask [{ash Rug Rye Drage Draw Skal Shall, Shell Sige Say Drukne Drown Skam Shame Slaegte Slay Dusrsr Dew Skosse Chaise Stag Stays Egen Own Skaevc ChafF Frugt Fruit Foelge Follow Skaft Haft Lagt Laid Fugl Fowl Vaske NVash Nagle Nail Hugge Hew, How Gaarde Yard Regne Rain Svaelge Swallow Laegge Lay Snegl Snail Talg Tallow. Fcerge Ferry Tegl Tile Mange Many Vogn Wain The thirc i class of cora mutable consonants, d, t, th, has these examples Danish. English. Danish. English. Danish. English, De The Geed Goat Smuds Smut Disse These Had Hate Sod Soot Doed Death Hytte Heed Sod Sweet Du Ihou lord Farth Sprude Spurt Dig Thee Ivlaede Cloth Stad State D under Thunder Langde Length Svede Sweat CThrostle or .Vord North Tand Tooth Drossel cThrush Vrcd Wrath Taenke Think Feed Fat Vride Wreath I'anke Thought Flad Flat Mud Sleet Torn Thorn Iledc Heat, Heath: Sraed Smith Tong Thong '2dD Danish, Eiv.'Ush. Diinuh. F.ng^iah. Danish. EnglHh Toe Thaw Pre ['hrce Tyk Thick Torst riiiist Trives Thrive lyiicl rhin Traad Threat TroiDine Drum Vy V i hief. Trcenge Tiirong iVoHc riirone From this comparative view, I trust it wii! be evident, that Danish and Lnglish were originally one. In fact they continued one, till William the Conqneror introduced Norman words. -Since that time, althouo-li rustic expressions remain unchanged; such as are found in cities and about a court, are derived from Normandy, Sheep, goat, cow, calf swine, ox, bull, remain; subject only to such changes as time universally produces. But the meat, which these animals aftord, takes the Norman appellation. Hence we no longer retain the expressions lammekiod, oxekiod, kalvekiod and swlnekiijd, but in their stead universally adopt the Norman names mutton, beef, veal, and pork. The affinity between the Danish and the Greek, will be particularly noticed, and it will then be evident, that whatever relation subsists between Enrrlisli and the oriental languages, is to be found equally in Danish. In the former part of this work we have traced the connexion between English and Greek, and we have now demonstrated the close affinity be- tween the Danish and the English. Hence the relation, which subsists between Danish and Greek, is manifest. It follows as a consequence. I shall, however, compare these languages together; I will brino' them into contact, and then it will immediately appear that they originate in one. When two languages pass in review before us, we readily imagine, that the one, which can by authentic documents be traced backward to tlie most remote antiquity, must be the most ancient of the two, and that l12 260 this, when they happen to accord, must be the parent of the other. It may, however, be frequently observed, that the venerated language is indebted for words to languages, which afford no other evidence of their antiquity except these words. Thus, for example, we are disposed to think, that Greek and Latin may be the parents, but cannot be the offspring, either of Danish, or of any other language, from which it is imniediaiely derived. The impropriety of this conclusion will, I trust, immediately be seen. In English we observe male, in old French masle, both evidently derived from masculus. But whence comes inas? This appears to have been derived, by the usual process of abbreviation, either from the Danish mnnds, a male, or from the Sanscrit manushya, human ; but certainly neither mands, nor manushya, was derived from mas. Between Danish and Greek words it may be sometimes difficult to say, which is the parent, which the offsoring. I am disposed to think, as in the conclusion it ma}' appear to others, that they are not related as parent and offspring, but that they are separate dialects of one language, and indebted for their existence to that, which was spoken either immediately, r,Y remotely by the common ancestors of both nations. fn Danish the substantive verb differs in its form from Greek. But then it must be observed in the first place, thai em, I am, is still pre- served in the Icelandic, a:id, in the next place, it must be remembered th-at ftui is a comj>ound, W'^m which, if wc remove the pronoun (xi, only i.i remains io be compar;\l with e in the modern Dcinish of cr, am, which seems likewise to be a compound. In order \n trace llie allinity between these languages, I shall examine ■ /irst some few bimplc words and then compounds. oir THE SWEDISH LANGUAGE. X HE Swedish language is essentially the same with Danish and with English. All these are confessedly dialects of Gothic. That they are equally connected with the Greek, will be evident to every one, who takes the trouble to compare them ; and it will appear, that the resem- blance has been best preserved in the most obsolete expressions. To make this evident, I have selected numerous examples from Pering- skiold, who considers them as belonging to the most ancient Gothic or Scando-Scythian tongue, which prevailed in Europe, and extended itself into Asia. These will be found interspersed among the more modern terms, and will be readily distinguished by the adept in Swedish literature. In the examination of this vocabulary, the reader must recollect, what I have said on ihe investigation of radicals, and more parliculavly, what I have had frequently occasion to explain respecting the three principal classes of commutable consonants; because, by the application of this key to languages, he will gain access to their most recondite treasures, through the whole extent of Europe and of Asia. OF THE ICELAWBIC ILAMGUAGE, It is acknowledged, that the first inhabitants of Iceland were emigrants from Scandinavia, who, A. D. 874, fled from the tyranny of Harold, surnamed Harfagre. In this sequestered spot they cultivated science, and their language is the purest Scandinavian, uncorrupted by admixture with the German. Having already said so much on the Danish, I shall here content myself with the most transient view of the Icelandic. The Pro7iouns. Eg, thu, hann ; vier, thier, thaug; I, thou, he; Ave, ye, they. In the oblique cases we find myn, thyn, hanns; oss, vorra, ydur, and theirra, which give birth to the possessives. The Verbs. Eo- cr and Eg em, I am ; Eg var, I was ; ad vera, to be; verande, being. Eo- hef, I have; Eg haffde, I had; ad afa, to have. Eg skal, I shall; 263 Eg aa, I owe; Eg aaatte, I did owe; Eg man, I may; Eg meige, I might. Eg vil, I will; Eg inun, I must. Eg gef, 1 give; Eg gaf, 1 gave; ad gefa, to give; gefande, giving; giefenn, given. Eg tem, I tame; Eg tamde, I have tamed; ad temia, to tame; temianda, tamino-. Eg finn, I find; Eg iann, I have found; finnande, finding. The Comparison of Adjectives. Dyr, dyrare, dyraste; dear, dearer, dearest. Laus, lausare, lausaste; loose, looser, loosest. Mikell, meire, meste; much, more, most. Litil, minne, minst ; little, less, least. Goode, betre, beste; good, better, best. Ill, verre, vest; bad, worse, worst. Laung, leingre, leingst; long, longer, longest. Fagur, fregre, fegurstur; fair, fairer, fairest. This confessedly is the purest of the northern dialects, and, agreeing essentially with the Danish and the Swedish, its affinities are the same with their's. OF THE MiESO-GOTHIC. JL HE fragment, whicli remains to us of the Gospels translated into Gothic by Ulphilas, who was bishop of Maesia, A. D. S60, is a valuable treasure; because it enables us to trace back our language towards its parent stem, and helps us to ascertain a fact, that English, Anglo-Saxon, German, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Ma3SO-Gothic and Greek, to which we must add the Persian and the Sanscrit, are nearly related, and ori- ginate in one branch of the primeval language. As a fragment, we cannot expect its vocabulary to be copious, yet the comparatively few words contained in it are evidently connected with the other languages of this branch, as will be clearly seen by the subsequent examples. The Pronotim. Ic, tliu, is; weis, izwis, eis; 1, thou, he, we, ye, they. In tlic oblique cases we observe, meina, theina, is; unsara, izwara, ize; answering to mine, thine, his; our, your, their. 265 The Verbs. Im, IS, ist; svum, syuth, sincl ; T am, thou art, Sec. Was, wast, was; wesiun, wesuth, wesun; I was, &c. Du wisan, to be; wisands, being. Wairtha, I become; warth T became. Ilaba, habais, habaith; haljam, habaith, baband ; 1 have, thou hast, &c. Skal, I shall, will and must; skulda, should. Magan, to be able; mahta, might. Sokja, sokjais, sokeith; sokjam, sokeith, sokjand, I seek, thou seekest, &c. Sokida. I sought; sokjei thu, seek thou; stikjands, seeking. Aigan, to have, aihida, had. Andbindan, to unbind; andband, unbound. Biiidan, to bid; band, bade or bad. Biskeinan, to shine; biskain, shone. Briggan, to bring; brahta, brought. Bugjan, to buy; bauhta, bought. Driggkari, to drink; dragk, drank. Duginnan, to begin; dugan, began. Gabri- kan, to break; gabrak, broke. Galisan, to lease; galas, leased. Gawi- than, to join; gawath, joined. Gaggon, to gang; iddja, went. Gasitan, to sit; gasat, sat. Giban, to give; gaf, gave. Greipan, to seize; graip, seized. Hafjan, to heave; hof, heaved. Hlahjan, to laugh; hloh, laughed. ISiman, to take, to nim; nam, took. Quiman, to come; quam, came. Quithan, to say; quath, quoth. Slahan, to slay; sloh, slew. Standan, to stand; stoth, stood. Steigan, to go; staig, went. Swaran, to swear; swor, swore. Thagkjnn, to {l>ink; thahla, thought. Thwahan, to wash; thwoh, washed. Ussingan, to read; ussang, read. Urreisan, to rise; urrais, arose. Waurkjan, to woik; waurhta, wrought. The Gothic, like the Greek, is apt to form its preterite by redupli- VOL. II. M m 266 cation, as in aukan, to eke, to increase; aiauk, he increased; fahan, to take, faifah, he took; tekan, to touch; taitok, he touched. Like the Greek, it has the double g in the place of ng, as in gaggan, to go, to gang. Tuggo, the tongue ; lagga, long ; briggan, to bring ; huggrjan, to hunger; drigghan, to drink; thaggkian, to think ; aggilus, angel ; Aggun, Augustus. Like Greek, it has the dual number in its verbs, and like Greek, it delights in compound expressions. It has some resemblance to the Hebrew in its hiphil conjugation, as in kunnan, to know; gakunjan, to make known. Its numerals are similar to those of its kindred languages in Europe and in Asia. A in, twa, thrins, fidwor, fimf, saihs, sibun, ahtau, niun, taihun. AFFINITY BETWEEN DANISH AND GREEK. I must here premise that aa is pronounced as o, that b, answering to iTTt, is apt to be prefixed to the root, that letters of the same organ ha\e been substituted for each other without scruple by the Danes, and that the part of the verb adduced is commonly the infinitive. 26r Danish. Eihjlish, Greek. Danish. Enylifh. Greek. Aabe Open OTTV] Blusse lilazc Ktujjio A age Yoke Xvycv Bog Beech 'py,ycg Mde Eat eSeiv Boe Live ^lOiC Aal Eal tyxtXog Bonne Bean 'TtVCC^/OV Ande Breathe Borg Castle 7rup<yog Aare Oar tpeatrco Bore Bore xeipw CEg Egg xryfyog Bosse A box Tcv^ig Af con hy, ; C from S X'KO Braege Braekke Bark Break I'ipvxxof^cei. pviyv'jui Al All okog Broende Burn Ttvpoeiv Alen Ell (cXiVi^ Braemme Brim 7[epiuiJ.[t.oi Albue Elbow dXevvifiiog Brist Burst pvi<r(Tcc Almisse Alms eXeyi[j,oiTwyj Bring Bring (pspsiw An <|Thepre-p c position S ocvx Brum me Bryst Roar Breast Arm Destitute e^v,[>,og Bue Bow 3iOs Be, Bi, ^The pre-'i C position ) evi Bux Daatter Box Dauofhter ^vyccTvp Baere Carry (pspeiv Daekke Cover rf7£iv Bedre Better SeKrspog Dele Deal 5i£X£iV Bedst Best SekTigog Die Suck m^'/l Blad Blade i iXxgxvcti, Dige Dike reixog Blege Bleach KevKog Dobbelt Double i hirXcvg Blomstre Bloom J 3Xuw Dogge Dog ijc'/LOg 268 Danish. i3okke Doinme Dor Drage Drive Du D "gg Dyb Dyppe Dykke Dyr Ebbe Eg Eje Een Faa Faae Fad Falde 1 aiige Faic Fatte English. Dock ( Deem I Doom Door Drag Drive Thou Dew Deep Dip Dive Beast Ebb Edge fiave One Few Obtain Pan Fell, Foul Covet Seize Go Catch I Greek. 8eSpz<y[j.xt rpijicii \ TV VTiTOI SvTTTCC ev TTxvpog TTOCCO TTXTOCUVI rreXup. (pxvXog ekSofj-xi opevofj^xi n-xco Danish. Feed Fegte Feile Finte Filt Flaae Flase Flere Fleest Flette Flod Flyde Fod Fode Fore Foge Fole Fold Folk For Forest Fra [Fragte Engliih. Greek. Fat (pocTVoj. TreTTxlxi Fight TTUHTf-veiv Fail cr^xWstv Feint (fiivai Felt (paXXog Flay (pKoi^ui Flake TiKsy.M. TrXxAog: More ■n-X^peg Most TrXeiqog Plait vXeaco.rie'jXaTxi Flood ; Flow 5 (pXySuu Foot nohog Food (iOTO^ ( Carry ; (Guide S (pepca Fix TTViyw Foal TTOiXog Fold (pvXo^ Folk oxXo'; For, Fore rrxpx. Trpo First TrpCOTiqOi Prom TtXpx Freight fiopTi^ca 209 Danhh, Engtixh. Greek. Danish. Frisk Brisk ^(ppiyxu Hele Frygt Fright (ppi.77U ficle Fuld Fyre Full Fire ii:jXXo( TrVp Hen Gaae Go AUO. lot Henncp Galdc Gall %oXvi Herre Gall Gabe Crow Gape KocXeu Hie Gierde Hurdle ryvposiv Hielpe Giest Guest eqiscco Hierte Giog Cuckoo MKKvE, Hiul Glose Word yXci>(T(TX Hob God Good xyci^Oi; Hone Godhed Goodness aya&oTvif Hore Gnave Gnaw avxic Hov Graa Gray ypaix Hud Gravere Grave ypxCpeiv Huede Grotte Grot upvirTU Hul Hade Hate KOTOg Hull Ilaenge Hang xyxa Humll Hage Hook oymvos Hyle Hale Hale eXyoD Hyrde Halm Halm nxXx[j.^ Hyre Hagel Hail XxXxi^x Hytte V ii.. II. N n P.ngliiS. All Heal (The pre-<^ Cposition 5 Hemp Lord ^A den, / c A hauntS Help Heart Wheel Heap Hen Whore Hoof Hide Wheat Hole Cave Hops Howl Herd Hire Heed Gree^i oXog, xX^tu xvx ■<xva(ii.( 'iVpiOf o^kXXo) H£Xp nvXia xiTtog y\)w. nSpvi OTrXv\ THVTO( TITO! noiXo? xoiXot JJfxCTfXOf vXxcii xyappw ASpSOf 270 Daniah. Jkke lid ludcn Kalde Kalk Katiiin K a miner Kande Kappc Kiende Kiercst Kierne Kierne Kind Kicibe Kioii Kirke Kiste Klaede Klaff Klage Klantr Klinge English. Not Fire Within Call Cup Chimney Chamber Cann Cut Know ^Best be-( C loved ' Kernel Churn Jaw Buy Kin Church Chest Clothe Cuff Complaint Clang Clink Greek. OVK tVTCf axXetv KUAi$ ■ACCV^xpOf Z^p'ieqxTOi neap yvpoiiv ytvui yei/og y.iqv\ y.oxz(pOi; ly.Xx<y£ y.xot'y'yyi y-xxiyyv) Danish. A. line Klebe Klint i'llippe Klokke Klynke Knae Knaele Knage Knekke Knibe Knytte Komme Kone Koppe Kort Krabbe Kradse Kraft Krane Krebs Englinh. Glue ^Cleave ) (Clue ^ \ '3 row of^ } a hill S Lop Bell Lament Knee Kneel Crash Snap Nip Knit Come Woman Wife Cup Short Crab Scratch Strength Crane Crab Green. yxix noxxaw xenXaxx yovv xxvoixyj y.xvux^ hVXttTU ipXO[i-cci nvirewov xeipoj xxpx^Of XXpXTTU yepcevOf 271 Danish. Kiigle Kule Kule Kukiik Kunne Kysse Labbe La be Laegge Laead Laekke Lagt Larape Lantse Lee Levne Lige Ligge Line Loft Lofte Log Engtish. > Globe ^ Bowl lole Storm Cuckoo Know Kiss Paw Lap Lay Loin Leak Laid Lamp Lance Laugh Leave Alike Lie down Line Roof Lift ^ On ion Leek ! Greek. y.vxXor xotXcr aaXXx kovvsiv Xa(ivj Kxjiiiv XxTna Xeyca Xxycov Xxyapof Xsyo^i-xi XafATTW Xoyx,^ ysXecca Xei'Tteiv xXlAlO; Xtyoj Xiuov eiXi^(px Xa.%xvov Daniih. Logn Logte Lok Lose Lue Lukke Lye Lyd Lykke Lyse Maade Msegte Ma3no;e M age Med Meel Meen Meest Meget Alelk Meie Mene A lie Lantern Lock Loosen iiame Lock Listen T/Oud Luck Light Mete Might Mingle Make ^The pre-^ ' position Meal Oefect Most ^Great cMnch Milk GreeA, Xcjoi Xvxvog TrXOY.Cg XiVUJbl y^exXetKx aXvw HXVTO^ Xxxog X£V(T(j-c<; ,\^'^Xx:/xo\j.ai \i.ETX \hvX<^ f*£AKa: Galen Mow. Chink real UU.XOO lj.£vog 2? 1 Danish. English. Greek. Danish, English. Gredt. xMikil Much [j-ifyxw^ Op Up uTtep Mild Mild cc\i.ct>.og Ophielpe Help K^ewu' Min My Ore F.ar ovzg Minde Mind i^evo; Otte I'vight OxTO) Moder Mother UV5TV1/) Oxe Ax .2:^iv^ Moe Maiden 5fj.a;iV rUpon, -N IVIOJC Trouble u-oX^og Paa <at, in, > 6Xt Mole Mill fjuUAV) 'after ^ IMudder Mud uvSxca Pandt Pawn ttKU Muus Mouse Page Page vxig Mjre Ant l^vp^viE, Pande Pan n-XTXVVj Nat Night Vl/lCTOJ Pael Pale, Pole TTXJS-iXXOg Navn Name ovofj^a Pillc To pill ^^iXOw Nei Nay VII Pine Pain Ttev^o? Net Neat Vi'JTO) Plads Place TXXTSIX Net Net vvi^ca Plage Plague eirxxyov Ni Nine twtx Planke Plank 'Ttxxi, Nu Now vvv Pligtig Bound TTACxW Ny New- veog Priis Price 'vpy^aig Ober Over UTTf/J Purre Irritate jwepx^tv Oge F.ke CCuE,(i3 Puste Puff TTTUOV/ Oje Olie Eye Oil o^Kog Raa Raft Yard ^ Rafter i pxjiSog Om Round cnj.(pi Rage Shave xpxjau. B,u) ♦)7.'' 73 Danish. EnglUh. Greek. Regne Rain paivui Raise Voyage tpea-iTca Rense Rinse fixiv<a, pxvig Ringe Circle yupotiv Rive Snatch ctpTaci) Rod Root fi^a Rove Ravish kp'Kon Ryg Ridge gxxig Saare Sore (p^opx Seede Seat eSog Saette Set e^to Sseve Sap OTcog Sak Sack tranaog Sal Hall auAV) Salt Salt xXg Salve Salve xXei<pii} Sex Six \l Sidde Sit i'^etv Skierm Shelter (7Ki« SkufFe Shovel aXflfTTTW Skye Cloud avuu. Skygge Shade e(7nixiix Skyde Shoot jneSxca Skyts Votection (7Ki«?ft) VOL. II. Danish. English. Greek. Skole jcliool -%oXv) Skam Shame ^-^X^ii^ovsiv Skib Ship THx(pVI Soel Sun \^Xiog Soe Sow vg a-vg Sove To sleep UTvactf Sovn Sleep v'xvog Span Span (rs7i&afji,vj Spinde Spin (TTHl^eiV Spise Eat eo-Siw Stamme Stem «re(/.[*fl: Stade Station qxiTig Staae Stand qxu Stand State eqSi/xi Stem me Stop k^h^ Stemme Voice qo[>.x Stem pie Stamp q-£fji./3fiV Steen Stone qiov Sted Place qa^[j.og Stierne Star xq^p Stige Step up qoixia Stikke Stick, sting k^xf^ Stilk Stalk qtkexog Stiv Stiff qijiapog o o 274 Danisli. English. Greet. Danish, English. Gree*. Stivelse Starch qil^oifiog Tre Three TptTg Stof Stuff qv(p(a Troe Trust Sappty Stonne Groan qava^M Trone Throne ^powog Strid ^Strife } C Battle 3 qpccTevikCt I ug jn ^ Hertug 3 Duke Txyog Str<5e Strevr qp(i)W[s.i Tunge Tongue (p^oyyog Sye Sew ^X(77Vb3 Tusk Ink Sa(Tniog Synde Sin (TIVU Vaev Weave v(pi£iv Sjg Sick tnH^os Vasde Wet vsTog ^iou Taale Suffer TxKiia Ved With fjoETa Taare Tear i5axpu(*« Vikke Vetch /3ixia Tsekke Cover (^eiyo) Vide Know eiSetv Taemme Tame Bx\t.oi(a Vidie Withy Itex Tage Take iTayov Veed Wood ■jXciSvfg Tand Tooth T£V&« Viin Wine oivog Tappe Tap ' TUTTO; Vild Wild vXuSvit Ti Ten 5fxa Virke Work epyd^eiv Tiur Bull Tccvpog Vise Shew l(7-i/l\i.L To Two Sva Voxe Grow ■>f z xvt,eiv Torre Dry ivipog Vrag Wreck pviyi** Traette Strife qpccTtvixx ) Trffikke Drag, draw SaBpctx'^ 275 V/e have here taken a survey of more tliaii tbioc hundred and fi-w inonosylhvbic expressions, in which the affinity between the Danish an I the Greek is "vident. Now let us examine such compounds, as tend still further to illuscrate this affinity. Of these, most of the prMiiitivcs will be found in tlie preceding vocabulary, and the compounds themselves are reduced to classes, according to their prepuiritions. I. Primitives combined with aTro, af and op. Afocde eat off, qfbkle bite off, afbrmnde burn up, ofdcle divide, afdrage detract, afdrive drive off, afhage unhook, afflae flay, offdre evacuate, asgaae go off, afgnave gnaw off, qfkalde reclaim, afkappe chop oft', ajkiobe purchase, afklcede undress, afknappe nip off, afko'te shorten, afkradse scratch off, afloegge cast off, ajl'ose loosen, afmeie mow, afmcegtig weak, af nappe pluck oflF, afpille pille, afrage shave, af reuse rinse, ofrive tear off, afstaae desist, afstand stand off, afstige descend, afstikke en'fravc, aftrcekke draw off, opfare ascend, opfore bring up, opgaae rise, oplosc unbrace, oplijse enlighten, opstaae rise, opstige ascend, optage take up. II. Primitives combined with livx, an and hen. Anhrmide kindle, anfore guide, anhage hook, anklage arraign, antagc and hentage take, accept, henbcere transport, hen/are depart, henrive ravish. III. Primitives combined with £7r< be. Bedakkt cover, bek/age lament, belee laugh at, berove rob, beskierme ^sheJter, beskygge sha^ . beskgtte hide, bestaae consist, bestride combat, hetr^t trust, bide gnaw, bistaae aid. 276 JV. Primitives coinbined with vTtep over. Overdrive exaggerate, overfdre transport, overgaae surpass, overklade clothe over, overmagt superiority. V. Primitives combined with utto, seemingly for 't-^'t, paa, pro- nounced po. Paadrive drive on, paakalde call on, paakhige accuse, paaklade dress, paakomme happen, paalcegge lay on, paaligge lie on, paam/ anew, panstaae insist on, paatage handle, paatrcekke put on, paavirke work on. VI. Primitives combined with «(>.(pi oiti. Omhmre bear round, omdeele distribute, omfang circuit, omfare travel round, omfatle embrace, omguae go round, omski/gge shade round, omringe surround. VII. Primitives combined with [^e^x med. Meddele share, medbare carry with, meddrive drive with, medfare go with, medfdre carry with, mcdmaade with moderation. VIII. Primitives combined with eviog ind. Tnddrive drive in, indfare go in, indfire introduce, indkalde call iri, indkomme enter, indlcegge lay in, indlukke lock in. TX. Primitives combined with 'Trapa fra and frem. Fradragc deduct, frnfare depart, frafdre carry away, frakalde recall, frastaae desist, frembcere produce, fremknlde call forth, fremfdre produce, J'remdrage draw out. 277 X. Primitives combined with irpo for and fore. Forehringt offer, forckele disperse, fordrive turn out, forekomme come before, fortmette propose, foretage undertake. XT. Primitives combined with tx k and s. Klap aXxTTx, knytfe vvt'^aiv, krybe ep^eiv, kule atKhu, glas glass, Xevirffu glippe fail, tyiKei^.-aiv, gabe gape, crnv^. XII. Primitives combined with eE. s. Skim'e neiptiv, skov a copse, mo^tw, skrige cry, y-pi'^tiv, skrive ypaipeiv, smdre anoint, \j.\ipi^si.v, snee snow, viCpnv, spior spear, 'Ttsipxu, stinke Txyyi^eiv, storm opi^vi, stro/n stream pevfj-x. XIII. Primitives combined with ou and ovSh u and uden. Vbrmidt unburnt; lifwio- discordant, wyi^i/^flr infallible, ukaldet uncalled, ukyndig ignorant, idig unlike, ulykke unlucky, utaalmodig intolerable, utcemmet untamed, ustadig unsteady, uslridig incontestible, udenmaade immeasurable, udenmoje not difficult. XIV. Primitives combined with either x'tco and ei, xvx and £t<, or eisi. and t^ af, s, an, be. Jfskcere cut off, afstorse dry, afskrive copy, afsiage take off, anbetrse trust, anskrive write down, beskare cut round. XV. Primitives combined with £«■*, or e^ and tTi, or ct* and i-^t, or si and £T», or vpo and £7ri. VOL. II. P p 278 Bespise feed, hesprmige sprinkle, bevidne witness, spmkke crack, for- hiqnae pass, forbifare pass, forbireise pass, furblive remain. XV r. Primitives combined with cv, ovxi. and tm, e^ aito, avx, Trpo and ai'-tpi, Sec. Ubkget unbleached, iibrakket unhvrok'en, ubestridet conceded, nfoveenlig i) reconcilable, cu, ^po, sv, aUy.iog; ugiaihaldelig irrevocable, ovxi xvx, y.xXeiv xXmiog; vgieiibringeHg irreducible, itgicnki^beUg irredeemable, M07>7/nf;«6/'?/Jc//^' impenetrable, ovxi, xvx, x\j.(pi, wnptiv, a'kiy.io<;; unfvidende secretly, tianseelig uncomely, uantagelig unacceptable, ubehoet unin- habited, vbeskreven undescribed, ubevidst unknown, itbestandig incon- stant, iihrcekket unbroke. The propensity to multiply prepositions evinces the resemblance of these languages, and the identity of boih primitives and prepositions demonstrates their affinity. The double G and double K, which occur in Danish, give this language a striking resemblance to the Greek, which is the more remark- able, because we cannot but observe, in given circumstances, the equi- valence between k, y, %, K and G convertible into N. Thus Xcf^xavu produces lykke luck, and (pSoyyoc tongue. Thus qpa'^^^ and (Tpayyfua inay have given birth to streng and strikke, both which in Danish signify a string; and the Danish stikke may be the immediate parent of both stick and sting. Thus also ktinge, to clink, click, and klynke, to cry, lament, bemoan, connect themselves with KXayyfw, xXay^w, KXayiyvj, clangor, and so does hange with ay^". 279 This conversion of N into gamma, or of gamma into N, is extremely interesting. It remains for some good philologist to aceountfor a [practice by which Gronovir.s was exceedingly perplexed, and on which no li dit has hitherto been thrown. I am disposed to suspect that N before G and C, or n, y, % became a nasal, as in the French word etang, and that for want of an appropriate character, by which it could be distinguished, it was expressed by gamma, and denominated agma, for this was the name, by the ancient grammarians, given to gamma, when it preceded either m, 7, or %, (v. Gronovii Dissertationes.) In this display of the affinity between our parental language and the Greek, the reader cannot fail to observe, that although the lineaments are changed by time, the family likeness between Greek, Danish, and English still remains. AFFINITY BETWEEN SWEDISH AND GREEK. Sicedish. English. Grtek. Swedish, English. Greek. A and Ai Always ie: iEIja But iX}J Ach Ade Ah! Disposition «i and a.7 iEljes ; Aljes S Otherwise aXAffif Adel Nobility i^Kov iElta To desire iXSoiAXl iEga To have eXtiv iEmbar A vessel <xiJ.(popsCi ^gff Edge Mn If 1 \ iXV Aela A storm xiWx iEnda To end eCl/VTTM 280 Swedish English, Greek. Swedish, Engtith. Greek. Aga Astonish Z7H Aga A btroke To lead, -n XIV.IX Aga j drive } z<ya Agi A leader ^ Agoetr Good ^zya^Of ^gg Ach «%Cf Agn Stra\v,chafr'='%!^« Akta To think v,<)'io\t.at Ala To kindle aKex Ala \ To nourish To fatten yakBaw Alfbarg The Alps ccKTreig All All oKos Aln Ell aiKev^ And Against avTi Ande Spirit 5/ V Ane King xvx H Ankar Anchor xyKvpa Ankel Ankle aynuXv) Ar Beginning ipx^i Ar Dawn vip ver Ar Oar (vipvif in 281 Swedish. Arg Art! & lard Arf Argi Aria Arm Arpe Art Ask Aska Askio; Asp Ast and i Venast S Awi Axel Backe Back Badda Baegga Bagge Baggo VOL. II. Enylish. Lazy, Idle Earth Field Ire ^To plough rio drink Poor Filthy Disposition CA vessel,^ (Ship Ashes Worth A spin Vesta Woe Axis Hill A fountain To beat A sheep ) A ram J A boy Greek. Swedinh. Engtiih. Greek. xpyoe Balja A pail xtXXa if^Ot Ban A path (ixivcc e^a Bane Destruction (povog Opr/Vi Barbar Barbarian ^xpjlxpog ap8V Barn Infant ^xp Hesych (xpvcc Bars A barge (ixpig Hesych ep\^lf.og Baera To bear (ptpEllt pUTTOW Bassolyds King ^xcnKav; apu. upeToti Bffist Best jieX'Tiqo; Ba^ttrc Better (itX^epog xjaog Ball Ball '7rx).Xx Hesych xc,co Beck Pitch xitIx xawccipoj Becken ? Begare 5 A beaker jliyiOg fiiyiiSio:/ Beraetta Bessa To relate To fall pvidtg ■KEdeiV 1 \ OVXI. Betala To pay STiiraXeiv a^ccv Beta To bait /3iOT£U£;v liiyog Bi By, u pon 6774 7rytyv\ Biart Pure ^ixpog t:xtx(TJCO Bleck ^A plate- } n-XxE, /Sv'kvi Hesijch Bleck c lanien S Slothful iX^^ vctig bleck Pale XevyJog Q q 282 Saedith. English. Greek. Saedish. English. Bleka & I Breka 3 To rain /3p£%a> Dike Disk A ditch A dish Blia To look at fTTi Xoiio Djup Deep Blia To flow om (3Xuw Djur Deer Blomma A flower /SXuo; Docka A dock Bloss Flame (pXoE Dofta To dip, dive BHnd Blind ^Xcivog Hes. Dona To sound Bol A city TToXig Doppa To dip, dive Brinna To burn TrVpOStV Dor Door Braka ^ To make ^ (. a noise 3 (ipzxco Doter Drom Daughter Dream Bromma To roar |3^£fji.W Dron Drone Brod Food (ipcaTog HeSi Dros Tumult Brussa To boil ^pxa-jci} Draga To draw Byssa A box nvbg Drifwa To drive Bytta Bottle jicti'Tiov Hes. Drog A dray Dacke Purse &V)KV) Dry pa To scourge Dagga To gnaw Szavw Dubbel Double Dagg Dew Dunt A stroke Dam A dam 5£f*W Dura To dure Danat Death ^ccvxTog Efter x-lfter Dickta To form TfU%W Eg and lag r Dika Dikcl Vo excavate A spade UrnfAXa Egg Elandig Egg Merciful Greek, T£l%OJ Si(rMg O0%£K}V (SuttTW Spa[j.x ^pdvzE, Hes^, SiTrX^g Svigog XUTX§ tyca xyyog i\eeivog 28$ Swedfab^ Elg Em En Eriur Erfida Fader Falla Fana Fara Fara Fara Fasta Fat Fa Fauai Fee Fa Far Feckta Fel Fela Fein EnglitU. Help I am One Strife Labour Father To cast Cloth To depart To plough To attempt To fast A horse load Pack saddle Few A flock To take A sheep To fight A fault. Error To veil Five Greek. xKnOi eu . Spig spyz^eiv 'Tsai^p (iaXKeiv Tiyivog ntepoiv (pxpav Hes. ■n-eipa^siv cnraqix ■f^aqxt(>: TrXVpOl irXiO TTXiO (ixpx Hesych ItVUTiVeiV Sacdiith. Fetna Finna Fierta Firn Fisa Flake Fla Flasa Flaska Flasta Flat Flatur Flax Fleck Fleister Flicka Flik Flock Fnysa Fole Folk Fon English, Greek. Fat (paT!/vi To find Xir0^xivi<i wnphtiv Before ■n-piv To inflate (pvaxu A flake vKxy.x To flay (pXoia To be hot ^ (pXx^c,' \.7rx(pXx^C0 A flask (pXairy.eioy Sincl Many TrXsLqoi. Flat ttX^TUj Flat TrXoCTVq Flame (pXot. A blot IXxyii; lies. More TrXsiqOq A girl irxXXxi, A prostitute - ivxXXxV.'A A fold TTXey.i: A flock \0%<ic To breathe n-vai!) A foal Ttaxoi Folk 3%AC?. CoA-y&r Fire 284 Swedish. English. Greek. Swedish. English. Greek Fot Foot TT'S; TrO^Oe Gina To yawn XXIV03 For Fore Trpo jGjuta To pour out 'X,iv(jai Fraede Wisdom (PpixSvj Glad Glad ccyXaia Froekn Fragil ^pviyv) jEoI. Glantz Splendor xiyXxvTx Frffisa To fret, furne (ppvujcro: Glas Shining xrf Kao? Fresta To try TZBr^xqvii Glata To destroy ■/.Xx^u Fri Free jipiysg Hes. Gliis LauHiter y'^xcc; Fro Fro Early Joyful 'Zpbll, Cilo ^Attentive cLook i Kacc. Afef Frucht Frio lit (ppty.Tog Gnaga J'o gnaw %fi3:J&; Frysa To be cold (ppirs-uj Gnida To rub wvj'ba Ful (Foul, ^ U^olluted S (poXvvct) lies. Gorr Goa Gore To bark ^xcop. ]%ccf yeyuu; Hes> Full Full ^vX'AOi Gok Cuckow y.6y.y.vE, Fjra Four TTSTOpX MoJ. Gbl Mire fACf Geedas Joy yci.ho[i.cn Gradiff Voracious ypau) G a fuel Gable <f(p^X'/| Grafwa To grave ypxCpoi Gall 1 barren yaXXOf Grobos A ditch ypatx Hes, Galla •;aii XoXv, Gras CI rass ypaqii Gamman Joy yccvwiJ^ai Gra Greyheaded yyi^xca'. y^xta Gaiitas Gat hod Sports Delight yxi'ii.-iJ.x Grena ^To skrecr 'Separate ( y.^iva Gaelning Libidinous yx).Xtxc-) lies. Grift A cave Gast A spectre iyccqo? Gripa I'o gri{)C 7fi'3-<^w 285 Saediih. Bngliiih. Greek. Swedith, Ungli. fit. Greek. Oris A pig j y^iixSv Hes. Hat Haller Hate Rather Grop < A pil, cave A gruff otj Mendip 1 ry^x(p(0 \ y^V7!T0} Heil Hei HJelm Whole Hay Helmet £10: Gum man Marriage yafj-eiv Hlena To lean KXiueiv G before E and I is Y. Hliftus Hof A thief Hoof nKt-zlvig Hafvva To have x^eiv Hes. Hoga To think Vi<yio[t.a.i Hatjel Hail y_u\ac^c6 Hoi Hollow KOtXog Hala To let down %fl:Aav Hoik A hulk oXnaf Hall Hall auAVI Hon Reproach wetSog Hamali An assembly of*u<'a Hult A holt iIAv) vKciSwig Halm ^A quill ^ cA reed * x:!:A«(x.vi Hand Hoppa A hound A mare I'TtTTOg Halt Lame KUAXCf %aA05 Hwal Whale (paKccivu Hampa Hemp aavvcc^n Hycklare A flatterer aiyix)<0( Hand Hand XeivSavu Idia Prudence eiSeiv Hara Rock,monnt O^Oi Idrott Skill, art iSpix ( Very ; ^ < Hard in [ ' Wilts 3 Hare 11 A storm hXkx Hard HX^TX In In ev Hare aufoy Suidas Inni j To inn, to rest at noon tvSiov ivSidca Harf PI arrow K^irui, Infoda Genero ei^(pvTevu VOL. II. R r S86 Swedish. English. Ingifwa ^To en- ? r gage for 3 lord Earth Ister Fat lul Yule lufwer Udder Kakla Cackle Kam Comb Kammar Chamber Kaaip A plain Kappa To cut Kappsaeck A knapsack Kara To rejoice Karing Old woman Kas Far off Kaster Tin Katt A cat Kajlke A dray Kaenna To ken Kffipp A staff Kafta Coif Kate A cottage Kinda To kindle I (Shfeek: SflCC ceosp uiap ov(pxp ;g(*vi x^fxTos ties. XS-lpui yapxia v/.xg y.X(7a-iTspog K«TV)? Suidas eXkw Kovmv Hes. KX'J'joilix Hes nctvSxpcg Jles Smdtsh. Enrjlish. Kinnen Chin Kista Chest Klang A clang Klappa I'oclap Klaga Weeping Kleede Cloth Klibba I'o cleave Klint Oescent Klippa Cliff Klister (jlue Kljfwa Vo cleave Knaka Fo resound Knee Knee KuEepp A sound Knaepp riie nape Knia To pluck Koia A habitation Kol Fire Kollops Kollops Kon Kin Konaand^ Kuna 3 Quean Kordel Cord Kosa A cup Greek. i^Xxiyyvi ■KOkxTilj} kKxiu y.Kw'^a yhix AXiTOg KXi.Tvg nXirrvg yxix nKxca kxvxxi^u yow AOvx(ii^a ■■^XttH y.vt^ca Oixix y.vixeog oxojiog jsv9g yvvv\ XopS^ X00( 287 *Dn/^*«f. En^fiiJft GreeD. StoedUli. Engim. Gruk. Kost Gust ysuqc; Lagg Extremity Krabba Cral; •/.ctpx^o? I leave off Kraft Kram A den Money Lacjga ^l cause to") r lie down ' Xsyco Kranck Sick xupxyyvi? Hex Lakrits [.ifjuorice y/.vzuf,i^x Kras I'ragments pv\(T(7ia [.alia To talk XxXta Krasir Eatables ■y^pBlX; Lanj Lame XAXlJ^ft'o^ Kratta To scratch Xapx'Tlai Lamm Lamb x\i.v'bg Kroka To creek xpsnco Lauipa A torch Kx[j.7:xi Kropp Summit ytopv(pi^ Lants Lance Xciyxvi Kross Border y.poj(Tog La pp A lappet Kxt.(pix Hes, Krubba A crib ypx^jiuTOg La^])pia To lap KXTTTU Krug A cruise xpwcrcrof : ast A burthen XsLcov Sllid. Krut An herb %0pT0f Lack Lack, a leak X-x^lg Krupa To creep fp'XCO Laka I'o heal xyito\i.xi Kula A den yaiXeec Lana To lean Kkivaiv Kunna To ken KOi/i/fiv Hes. Le To laugh yex«w x^evx Kwinna Kuckling A woman Chicken Lefwa } Leifa 3 To leave XeiTw c hvttxi. Hes. J^ast Turpitude Xxia-^Vj Kyffe Hovels J XI eE, vKvii nut Lefwer Liver ViTrXp ( XopTH oixv^fxaig Lejon Lion \auv Kjssa ''o kiss xV(TXlr Lemna To leave XlfxvXVU Lag Juavf Xoyog Lid Side *A170( 288 Swedish. Englith. Greek. Swedish. Bngluh, [Grteh. Lid The people (ion. 'kviiiog Magle ") Magt ) Might flj.eye^og Lin Linen "Kivov Maizn Greater ^ti^WU Linna To cease eKivuOa Maists Greatest fx£y»<705 Lipa To afflict Xwzect) Mala To grind f*uAV) Litcn Little ekixTlau Male Meal xi^-vMu Lillast Least £\ce>iiqo; Mamma Mother (*aVl**1 Li us Light >^Vx^l Mat & Med With {j^BTX Leuclit ? Liecht 3 Whiteness xevKOTi^i Mat Markir Meat A sword fj.xa-xoiJ.xi \j.xxxipx Litast To see Xsvixa-u Mar A meer ft.£ipu Locka To entice KxKiK'o lies. Mala To mete fi£T/)£tV Lofft Loft X6<pot Man a Moon MVV) Lbk Lcipa Grass ^To bark ^ ' a tree j Xettw Meen Men ^ Necklace^ ' a chain 3 But truly (j.ev. \i.ViV Lbsa To loose Xutrai Men Diminution (j.ivu5« Loya I'o wash y^ovia Mena To tiiink \j.ivog Lunga To sob Kvyyccvia Mena To signity [j.ViVViil Lucka Luck ^xxoi ^ctyx<xvc!) Mjall Soft [J.X?J}Q Ly Tepid Mxpo; Meth With \j.k7X Ljsna To see \evj(Tiiu Minst Little \j.i'jvo; Maan Bracelet ^ctvvo'; Mig&Mey To me u.q\ Mage A maw qo[i.xxoi Miga To piss l[i.lX^M 289 Saedish, Mikel Mild Minne Mizdo Minga Miska Mjolk Mjolka Mod Moda Moder Moka Mblla Moo Mord Mork & ^ Maurk S Mosa Mun and) Mon S Multen \'0L. II. English, Great Mild Memory Reward To mix Milk To soothe Weary Vo care for .VlothtT Muck Vo grind CA maid i ( servant . Death Dark Mucus A moment Putrid Greek. [u£i.xixog lj.vccoij.cii, ^ ij.tXy.x Galen ij-ySog lJ.)^TVip [j.\J(T!jOi1 c(\j.ctvpoia \J.V^X \j.ovxg (AeX5« Hes. Sweiith. Mus Mykest Mamn N^arr Naas N^eessla Nseste Naett Ned Nesa Nicka Nio & Nie Niosa & Nosa Nocka Nun & Nu Oiidel Of Ok OIja Op Ore Ort Orn s ! English. A mouse Greatest Name A fool Island Nettle Nest Neat Nether Reproach To nod Nine To know A fleece Now Ever clear Very much A yoke Oil A whooping A rock Borders A bird Greek. ij.vg lj.eyiqOg ovoij-a v«pv) Hes. uyiijog VcOa-jix viTrJco VFAO^l viveunx ivvEx evo-^Tx VXMi vvv xEiSaXog l(pi Hesi/ck ^vyov iXxiov OTTii Hesyck opvt OpOf opvii 290 Suiedish. English. Greek. Swedish. English. Greek. Os Odor h^ai Raiiila To ramble ptfj-jiuJ Ostra Oyster oqp£iOu Rapp To rap Ofwer Over Rapper Rapier pxij.(py] Hes. Oga Eye cixxof Hes. Kaska To destroy t / pajdci} Ora Eagle opvi? iiaedas Dread o/puheco Osa and ^ To draw ") Raede Speech pnng A fosa 3 Ouden & ^ Ode - S Packa water j No one To pack a^uxtrw 3 ouBev Raeka Roof (To be ; niealtl.y S ^ff.t(pca.opo(pog Land 'pvi7:at 'fjxl'of, Pat & Pfad Path TTx^og ''rgna 'I'o rain t / puivco Pate Rumor (ptXTli Uenna To run ^esiv Pil A dart liiXog Rep A rope ' ^ 1 Pina Punishment TOiVVJ Rppa To reap <5p£T« Piatt Wide ■TiXxrvf Reta 1 o nrilate l/t'^la Plffitt A stroke -KX^nIcO Rock A rag p a.y.og Puse A purse livpjx Has A rose poSov Potta A cup -rrOT^piov Rot Root pi^x Pol A lake ttViAo? Rod Red epv^pO( Plata To speak (pp«'?a, Roina 'I'o try epevvxii) Putten Pvackla The bottom To enict Iptvyeiv Rost Bold \p avuvfui CpQic:iy.o^[Ies. Rtida \n oration i\oste Roof, roost opo(poi Ragata A racket li^xryo^ Rufwa To brood £pC<pa> 291 SiBedish. English, Greek. Suiedifh, English , Chreek. Rugg The back pxx^i Sex Six e^ Rjkta yro take 'care of iwpXHLXV cEustath Sikel Siuk Sickle Sick riyixog Rjnkia Wrinkles p iXl/Of Simla Flour Tefj.iSxKii Rysa To tremble (Ppia-Tiii Sind [Jurt nvo\/.xi Sam ^As a ter-^ 'mi nation ^ 0[t.OlOQ Sinna (To un- -^ 'derstand 3 TVVUVXt, Sam As a prefix Sire Skackt Sir A well avpis T'^X-TtTlji San & Sin Saker Thy Secure ffOV Skaffa I^To shape^ c prepare S Ty.evx^iO. Saerk Sate {A silk ; 'garment 3 Seat Skaft Skaft A haft A spear ' <7Ka:7r7oi/ Doric Saetta To sit i(^eii/ Skallig Dry cn<eX}.cti Saar The itch ■^'CC^X Skare A scar hyj^x Saga Sail ^To saw cTo cut A sieve jxyxqii ixXsvn Skarp Skappa Dry A hollow } vessel J tryx^O; ) and a-yJ^i^ 3 Se Se To see To sit T£XO\j.XI, Skara o cut hies. Sed A custom e^og Skal A scale ryoiUg Hes. Sedan After V nix Skeel ['ortuose nKo/uog Sela Bridle ■^^iXKlOV 292 Sk befo re E and I is Sch. Swedish. English. Greek. Swedish. Englinh. Greek. Sno Snow vi.(pa Skeppa To cover rUfzo) Sniire A rope vevpou Skid Cleft wood r^r^a; Snoter A wicC man (j-vve Tog Skinn Skin / o.vK%oc Hes. Skirta To run 'yy.xipcio u-'/iLpjza Socka Socks Skbfvve A covering (T'/^e-TTca , Skcir Filth (rH.wp Some A seam (7CC'y{j.oc Skora To fracture o-yiipog So pa To sweep a-ojiica Skria To scream 'Api^aiv Sompn Sleep UTTVO? Skrifwa To write ypx^eiv Sot Sweet VJ^Of Skudda / & Skeda S To scatter KsSact} Spada Span a A spade To drag Slicka To lick Kel%a Sparka To vibrate a-^xipw Slem Slime 'kv\i.x Sparka To urge a-TStpx^ Slif Sleave \cu(poq Spisa To expand a-TSi^ai Sluta Shut nXeio) Split Split a-TSxXv(T(TO[^xi Smaelta To melt fji-fcASo! Spott To spit TTTUEtV Smaerta To smart [j-ipho: Ilea. Sta A town xi;v Sma Small lj.£lOCi3 Stadig Firm qxSlOg Smeka To stroke <j\J~kM Staf A stump qVirOi Smila Vo smile [ui'ikiy^oi; Siafvva To gird qe<^M Sinorja I'o smear lj.VpHV Stall A stable qxKvi Hesi/ch S my oka j To cleanse to adorn Stalla Stiilla I'o state To adorn TiKcg qnKKu 29S Svoidiih. Stampa Stiimma Stain ma Slanka To groan Stania To groan Stanna To stand Stapel A heap Starr Rigid Sta To stand Sticka To stick Stjelk A stalk Stiga To o;0 Stinga To sting Stinn Robust Stock A beam Stodel A pillar Stol ^An expe- c dition Stoppa ^To stop, ? stuff Storm Storm VOL. II. Greek. q£i(lcii ■tfjLf*a: Iqxixsvog qtvca iqoi-^xi ceppog qacco Inusif. qeXtxoi qi^ca qvkog. qy^Xvi qoKog qsijicc Sutedish. Strong Stroa Strom Stubbe Stum Stympa Stufwa Stum Stupa Styf Styfr Stugg Styre Swalg Suaelja Sy Tak Tack a T'ticke Taga Tffinja Tffira Thius t EnglMt. ^Strin Strong h Vo strew A torrent Stem, stump A residue To mutilate To amputate Dumb To scourge Stiff Finn, iigid Odious Barren The throat^ To swallow J To sew The roof To roof Hcpository To touch To extend To tear God Greek. qpa'Y'yevo! qoptci}. qpuwvca qi^o^^og jqvTTyi lies. qvzOf Apol. I xqo[j.cg qvKxX^iVj Hcs. S-EipX cr(pxpx'YOg &HXV1 TTfJVftV ^£og 294 Swedish. English , Oreeh. Swedish. English. Greek. Tekna Tiga To shew To be silent Twinga j To restraint To pinch 3 <7(piyyu Tijo [ am silent (TLyXCO Tycka To think Soasiv Tisse A teat TiT^V] mi Wool LOvXog Tolciiin To'ras Such To dare Wada Togo (.'KXTU lag far I dare S^ppo; Wagel A staff ^xhKq'^ Trampa Tra To trample ^A tree, ") c the oak 3 Wagn Ward a ^ A waggon^ 'a chariot 5 To be made x<yxwx Hes. e'p^eiv Tridie The third TpiTH Wigra To restrain eipyca Trifwas Thrive TpfCpW Wilja To will ^ovXoij.xi Throsha To thresh ^pxvu Waxa To increase xv^eiv xa^tiv Tr^cka To vex Tf,V%ilV War Spring ■>/ exq Truma A hole TpvTia, Tpvy-oi Wat Wet vSaq veTOi Tull Toll TtKeiv We Woe OVXl Tuchta To bring forth TiKTO) Wei A wile (pvjAfCt; Tulla To involve evruXiTlci} Weta To wit eiSaiv iunn Thin Tvvuof Hes. Wika Like i'lueiv 1 urna To turn TOpVOCO Win Wine oii/og Tutir Daughter '^VJXTViP Winkel Crooked ayy.vKoi Twa & Toa Two Bvco. Suo NVira To whirl yv^^v Twina & ^ Tymi ^ To dwindle (p^tvw vVisa VVrak A song A fissure XOU. XSCO 295 Swedish, Yfer Yfrit Yppe EnglSth. Over Intensitive particle Open Greek, H(pi O'TTyi Swedish, Entjlinh. Greek. Yrka To work t^yxi^ea-^cci Yxa An ax xiivvi Yttersta Extreme GfCfa N.B. 670 words. AFFINITY BETWEEN MiESO-GOTHIC AND GREEK. Gothic. English. Greek, Gothic, English, Greek. Abu and A\ from XTIO Bairan To bear Cpff£iV Aftnja Aflifnan Po devour I'o remain Bairgan Baurg To guard ") A fortress 3 XUif/05 Ahma Breath iZVJJj.^ Bairht Bright (i^t^mrxv Hes Ahtau !^.ight OXT« Bidian To ask Tfj&fiv Aigan To liave f%ftv Bi By, against Sir I Alja But aKXct Bistagun Ascended rfi%c<.' All & Alia i Vll okoi Bloma Bloom /3Auw Allis Vltogether oXwg Brinnan To burn TTuqosi:/ Aleva )il IXXLX Briggan To bring (pff£ii/ Allcina Ams Ulna Slioulder WfvoOf Daddna Daddjandei A teat ) A nurse J T1T&V1 Augo Eye ctv>y^ Hes, Dags .\ day hxoi Auso Kar ovg Dailj >n To deal hliXt'Cv ' Aukan To eke xv^eiv Daulitar A daughter ^f^iXTVip 296 Gothic. English. Greek. Gothic. Engiish. Greek. Daurstan Ei To dare [f SI Gathrask ^Threshing/ L floor 5 i^avci) Etan To eat aBsiv Galisan To collect Keyeiv Ke^ Fad rein Fathers TlXT^ip Gains He ansivog Fagr Fair (piapo; C;ods Good xyx^oi; Fahan To take -TTaco Graban To di^ 'ypx(pcij Fairra Far TlOppU Gras Grass ypxqiQ Fairzna Fa ran I'lie heel To go crCpvpov Tropevoij-zi Gredags Wlungry ? c Greedy S j^xa Fauai Faurhtan Few To fear (ppLTlco Gahailjan Hails To heal J Hail S ovXo; Fidvor Four 'KBTOpCC. Ha us j an To hear OUf Fimf Five 'Tl£[>.ira Hlahjan To laugh yeKsLu Fodan To feed /3oT£iv Hes. Hlaine A hill V.O\u!VVi Fon Fire (pai/cj Hliftus A thief xAgT^^f Fotus Foot -Tio^og HIiumans The ears jtAupti Frodein Fret an Prudence To eat Tipoeideiv Hnaivjan ^To bow } ( down S ■navw Gadaursta Durst ^xppia Hramjan To suspend upsiiXiiv Gadailjan Gadiupida l^o divide Dig deep Hrugga \ A shepherd's crook rKxpvKio-y Ganatida Watered VOTLX VOTig Hiiikida Crowing xpaL'7 v] Gahrainjan To rinse puiv(a Hrains Pure pxivu Gathiutiijan i'o bless v£Or Huaian To meditate V]<ycvij.xi 297 Golhic. EnglUh. Greek. Gothic. Englith. Gretk. Hundos Flounds avveg Menoth Month Mvoi Ik I eyoi Mikil Much, great Ij.eytx).'/! Im I am Maists Greater u.£y^qo{ In In SV Maistaim The great h^ytqoi Innatgaggan To enter evTOg msiv Minnista Least f^ivvog Inuh Without UViV Milith Money iJLtXiTOg Juka Yoke ^vycv Mis To me Kald Cold xtfXXv) Mith & Mid With jueT^ Kaupoth To buy & sell nccvi^kevai Mizdo Meed l^ij^og Kausjan To taste ysvej^ai Nahts Night ^u^. uvuTOt Kukjan Vo kiss nvo. asyivnx Namo Name h)/0(j.x Kunnao To know yivoijau) Ne, ni No Kuenais Of the wife yvvccmog Niujo N^ew veO( Laggan ^To send, ^ c place 5 ktytiv Niun Nu Nine Now evuaa Leigvan To lick Ktixeiv Quairn A quern yupoeiv Lifnan Vo leave Xainiiv Qiiein A woman yvvv\ Ligan Fo lie down \eyny Rakjan To stretch opeyeiv Lukarn A lantern \uy.>^ Rathizo Easily pxSiOi Malan To grind fxuAvi flazda A speech f)tCt). p\^7l>i Matjaith Eat ye thi.Ti. ■^ai See / Mats Meat tSaiv Saihva I see S ^iao\i.at Mfiins Meus Sakk A sack Txunog Mena Moon M- 11 VII Saihs Six li VOL. II. U u 298 Gothic. Safjan Sitan Skadau Skaidan Slahan Sokja Spureidans Staig Steigan Stibna Stika Stiur Stravan Tagr Taikn Talziand Bnglith. I To set To sit A shade, / Shadow 5 To separate To smite To seek Basket He went * Togo ^ The voice A moment A point A steer To strew A tear A token A tutor ^ Preceptor Greek. Gothic. Englith. Grttk. iSog. iV i'anjan fo do 7i\J%tiV c(OiJ.Xl Pan h an To towe Joa^fjv Tundu Tooth TfV&« jyiiaStov Tvai Two 3uw Thairs Thairh A foreman"^ Through * 3y/i« (xwvpig Thaursjan Thaursus To thirst ) Dry > &fpe« Thrins Three Tpitg qeiXa Tekan To touch Siytiv qo\^x Valjan VVfll (SsXof^art i Ubu & Uf Under u-xo rT'Vl** Ufar Over r V VTttp Tccvpog Vigan To fight 7rWKT£U£»V qpuvvvu Uil The sun fjXiOf (5axpi;[*a Vitan To wit iiSti hainvv\j.i Vrakja pwXM? Wahsjan To increase XV^iLV ivTeXKeiv Thci double G, which marks affinity between Danish and Greek, is equally found in the Gospels of Ulphilas. Thus we have briggan, bring; driggkan, drink; gaggan, gang; kuggrian, hunger; lagga, long; thaggkian^ think; tuggo, tongue. 299 Had Lord Monboddo paid attention to the Gothic of Ulphilas; he would not have been misled by " his learned friend, who, in all the four gospels could not find one word derived from either Greek or Latin." {v. Monboddo, Vol. 4. p. l72 ) How much is it to be lamented, that a person of such superior talents, extensive knowledge, and commanding influence, should, without ex- amination, have reported this opinion of his friend ! His lordship had to prove, that Creek is perfectly an original tongue, not derived from a preceding language. In confirmation of this doctrine, he brought forward a declaration of his friend, respecting the Gothic of Ulphilas as not de- rived from Greek. By the vocabulary, here produced, it is rendered clear, that they are nearly related. But if neither is derived from the other; if they do not stand in the relation of parent and offspring; they must be descended from some common ancestor, and Greek cannot be, what his lordship affirms it to be, an original language invented by Sages, inhabitants in Greece. No good linguist will call in question, either the close affinity between Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Greek, or the radical identity of all these northern languages and the Gothic of Ulphilas. Consequently whatever affinity is proved to exist between the former and the Greek, must be allowed equally to exist between the latter and the Greek. In the progress of my work I shall demonstrate, that no Sages ever prevailed upon the inhabitants of Greece, or of any other country to dis- use the language, which from their youth they had been taught, and to learn a new language invented for them by philosophers. u u 2 THE FEESIAW JLANGUAGE, i ERSIA, including Media, and Chorasan, situated in the intermediatt space between India, Arabia, and Tartary, has for its limits, the rivers Jihon, and Euphrates, the Caspian and the Persian Gulf or Indian Ocean. "What languages prevailed through this extent of country in the days of Chedorlaomer, or in succeeding generations prior to the Sassanian dynasty, which subsisted from the commencement of the third century to the middle of the seventh, does not appear. But it is agreed, that during this period the Persian had no fewer than seven dialects, of which four have become obsolete. Of these, numerous expressions have been preserved in the fragments of Sadi, a celebrated poet, who wrote in the thirteenth century. Three dialects survive, and with them the learned are acquainted. Of these the most ancient is the Pelavi, or, as the natives pronounce this word, P^hellavi. It has been preserved pure upon the mountains, and in the most revered of their religious books; and it is commonly 301 spoken at Ry, Ispahan and Dinoor. Hyde, in the 35th chapter of his in- estimable work, informs us, that in the fifth century, tiie Pelavi dialect was proscribed by Behrdm Ghfir, who in its place established the pure dialect of Media, as the language of his court; and this, by Sir W. Jones, has been considered as related to the Chaldee. In the progress of my work, it will be my endeavour to demonstrate, that his opinion is well founded. The Parsi, which was the idiom of Istakhar and of Farsistan, or Persia proper, is divided into the Zebani Deri, or language of the court, as refined by Behrdm Gh<lr, and the Zebani Farsi, or general language of the country. These, since the battle of Cadessia, A. D. 656, have been exceedingly corrupted by Arabic. The Deri is chiefly spoken by the people of Meroo, Shahijan, Buckhara, and Badakhsham, and according to Hyde, by the inhabitants of Elymais, Media, Parthia, and Chorasan. My valuable acquaintance. Dr. James Ross, has been so obliging as to indulge me with extracts from the intro- duction to the best, as well as the most ancient dictionary now subsisting of the pure Persian language, a work undertaken A. D. 1608, by Jemal-ud-deen Husain Anjoo, at the command of the great Mogul Em- peror Acbar, and the produce of more than thirty years close application. It was collected from forty-four dictionaries, then well known, and nine others, wliose authors were unknown, beside histories, commentaries, the book of the Zjend, Pazjend, and many other ancient works. This la- borious philologist, when he had finished his dictionary, dedicated it to the son of Acbar, in the year 1C3.9. This inestimable work, iJoctor Ross is now translating for the press. 302 The pure language has been well preserved by Ferdusi, the epic poet, who is called the Homer of Persia ; but Sadi, who wrote in the thirteenth century, admitted without scruple, numerous expressions from the Arabic. THE ALPHABET. THE present alphabet is adopted from the Arabic. It has been con- sidered as composed of thirty-two letters, all consonants; but eight of these are never found in words purely Persian. Of the twenty-four genuine letters, eight are modifications of others; consequently the original characters were sixteen. Of these, alif, wa, ya, are called long vowels; but to produce a sound, each requires a vowel point, and each, like our vowels, may have a de- terminate variety of sounds. Thus for instance, alif has given to it the sound of a in ale, of a in fall, of ee in eel, of i in begin, of i in idle, of in open, of oo in poor, of ow in cow, and of u in under. JVa, commonly sounded like o in stole, has eight distinct sounds. Ya, most frequently pronounced as i in sin, as ie in liege, ea in ease, ei in conceive, or ee in feed, has seven distinct sounds. All these however are not abandoned to caprice, but determined by fixed rules. The short vowels have an obscure sound of i, o, or u in bird, mother, sun; as foi^' instance, bd is pronounced bud. Of the short vowels, two appear above the consonant and one below it, the latter being a small stroke straight and inclined. Of the two others, one is similar to this, the other re- sembles wa. All the vowels may be considered as interchangeable. ' 303 Change of Cojisonants. THE Persian, like other languages, readily assumes one letter for another of the same organ. Thus it changes In the first Series. B into M: ghurb, ghurm, the west. — B into W: buzung, wozurg, great. P into F: parsi, farsi, Persians. FintoV: fam, voam, aspect. VintoF: yavah, yafah, jests. — V into B: novishtah, nobishtah, written. In the second series. K into KH: shamakchah, shamakhchah, pitch. — K into Gh: kuloolah, ghuloolah, clew, KH into H: khecher, hecher, voracious. — KH into GH: sateekh, sateegh, spear. GH intoG: legham, legatn, riddle. H into J : maah, maj, moon. — H into KH ; hyiz, khyiz, hermaphrodite. I into K : akhshii, akhsheek. In the Third Series. T into D: dustas, dusdas, a mill. D into T : guftund, guftunt, they said. — D into Z : audur, auzur, uncle. Z into J : poozesh, poojeesh, apology. — Z into GH: gereez, gereegh, height. J into Z : rejah, rezah, series. — J into Z H : kej, kezh, curved.— J into T: taraj, tarat, plunder. 304 Iti the Fourth Series. R into L: soor, sool, rampart. — L into R: zuloo, zuroo, leech. N. B. One character ancientlj? served for both these letters. Li the Fifth Series. S into SH: mayoos, mayoosh, hopeless. — S into CH: kheroos, kherooch, dunghill cock. — S into H: amas, amaah, tumour. SH into S: sharek, sarek, niglitingale. — CH into SH : kach, kash, would to God. In the Sixth Series. N into M : ban, bam, cieling. The Numerals. Yec, du, seh, chehar, penge, shesh, heft, hesht, nu, deh : yazdeh, duaz deh, &c. The Nouns. Nouns substantive are said to have but one variation of case. Thus puser, a child, in the dative and accusative has pusera. But they have a genetive case of peculiar structure, as puscri an, his son, 'J'he plural is formed by adding an or ha to the singular. Thus gurk, a wolf, makes gurkan, wolves; bal, awing; balha, wings. The noun adjective admits of no variation. Degrees of comparison are marked by ter and terin ; as khnh fair, khubter fairer, khubterin fairest. The English Man, after a comparative, is expressed by az. 305 The Pronouns. Mun, to, ; ma, shuma, ishan — I, thou, he ; wc, ye, they. Mora me, tiira thou, ora him, mara us. The pronoun adjuncts are six, sh, t, m ; nd, id, iin. These are sub- joined to nouns and verbs to indicate the person either acting, or in- terested. Sh added to the end of nouns means his, her, it's. Jameiash, liis robe ; dilhesii, his heart; muish, his hair. T subjoined indicates the second person singular, thou, thy, to thee. Jameiat, thy robe; dilet, thy heart; muii, thy hair. M indicates the first person, T, my, to me. Jameiam, my robe; dilem, ray heart ; niuim, my hair. When the pronoun precedes the verb, the agent is changed, and it implies the dative case, as for instance, zeram dad, gold to me he gave. In the plural number, nd indicates the third person, id the second person, and im the first. Here it is to be observed, that although M may have been abbreviated from mun or ma, and T from to, all the other adjuncts are fragments of more ancient pronouns, now obsolete. The Verbs. These are chiefly derived from nouns, which Jemal-ud-deen Husain Anjou considered as their roots. They have but one conjugation and three changes of tense. I have stated that the persons are indicated by adjunct pronouns, which form the terminations. In this all Persian philologists agree, and VOL. ir. XX 306 affirm that to prefix a pronoun is a superfluity. The substantive verb booden, to be, may serve as a model for the variations of the persons in all tenses. Booden, or boodun, to be. The present tense is wanting in this verb, and is therefore supplied by two other verbs, of which only the present tense remains. Tliese are um and hasteem, which run thus, — um, ee, ust; eem, eed, und, ; and hestum, hestee, hest ; hesteem, hesteed, hestund: lam, thou art, &c. The preterites are. — boodum, boodee, bood ; boodeem, boodeed, boodund ; I was, &c. — boodeh um, boodehee, boodeh ust, Sec. I have been. — Boodeh shudum, boodeh shudee, boodeh shud. Sec. I had been, &c. The future is — khahurabood, khaheebood. Sec. I shall be, &c. Then follow, booum, booee, booud; booeem, booeed, boound, I be, thou beest, he be, &c. — Bushum, bushee, bushud; bushecm, busheed, bushund, I be, &c. — Boodraee, ^c. I would be, &c. — Boodeh bushum, &c. I shall have been. Sec. — Boo, &;c. be thou, &c. — Bash, being; boodeh, been. Shudun and shoodun, to be, is thus conjugated: Mee shooum, mee shooee, niee shooud; mee shooeem, mee shooeed, mee shoound, I am, &c. — Shudum, shudee, shud, &c. 1 was. — Shudeh um, shudhee, shudeh ust, &c. I have been. — Shudeh boodum, &c. I had been, &c.— Khahum, shud, Sec. I shall be.— Shooum, I be, &c. — Shoo, be thou and being. — Khahum bude, to be willing. — Khahum, khahee, khahed; khahcem, khahced, khahund, I will, &c. The other tenses are formed like those of the regular verbs. 307 Daden ordadun, to give: Present tense: Meedehum, meedchee, mecdehud ; mccdahceni, mee- daliced, meedahund, I give, &c. Preterite: Dadum, dadhee, dad; dadeem, dadeed, dadiind. Imperfect: Meedaduni, meedadhee, meedad, Sec. I was giving, &c. Pluperfect: Dadeh boodum, I had given, &c. First future: Bedahum, Sec. I shall give. Second future: Khaumdad, khaueedad, I will give, &c. Subjunctive or Aorist: Dheum, &c. I may give. Sec. Potential: Dadmee, I might give, Sec. Compound future: Dedeh bashum, &c. I shall have given. Imperative: Deh, give thou; dahud, let him give. Infinitive: Dadun, to give; dadeh booden, to have given. The passive voice has the present, preterite, &c. formed by the aux- iliary verbs shuden, booden, and khustum. Among the prepositions we find abe7\ upon; and among the con- junctions u or V, and. Prom this transient view of the grammar, we may see clearly, that the same language, which in the peninsula of India produced Sanscrit, and became Greek, with its iEolic dialect, the Latin, on the European shores of the Mediterranean Sea, gave birth to Persian in the country intermediate between the Caspian and the Indian Ocean. All these languages agree in multiplying their compounds; by which practice they form a striking contrast to the Hebrew, Arabic, and Chal- dee. Yet, notwithstanding this discordance, they have a discernible affinity. X X 2 ON THE ILAMGUAGES OF INBIAc X HE natural boundaries of Indostan seem to be Caucasus, theTibetian Mountains, the Indus, and the Ocean. But, when we examine the languages of India, other limits present themselves to view, and we are disposed to consider as one the whole extent, in which the various languages allied to Sanscrit and the Nagari character prevail. With these letters and languages we see combined certain religious practices and opinions, which serve to connect Indostan, Tibet, Cashmire, Napaul, Buian, Asam, Siam and Ava, presenting them to our view as collateral branches of one stem. The Sanscrit has been regarded as the parent of a numerous progeny; but it is acknowledged that both parent and progeny maj' be the com- mon offspring of some remote progenitor. 'All, who have paid attention to this subject, agree with the Brahmins, that Sanscrit literature resend)les an extensive forest, abounding with a rich variety of beautiful and luxuriant ibiiagc, splendid blossoms and 309 delicious fruits, but surrounded by a strong and thorny fence, which prevents those, who are desirous of plucking its fruits and flowers, from entering. Yet such has been the ardour of our countrymen in pursuit of know- ledge, that no difficulties have been sufficient to restrain their efforts. Mr. Halhead was the first who ventured to break through this thorny fence, that lie might catch a glimpse of the inestimable treasure, which jealous superstition h:id concealed. In the year 17/6 he began to pene- trate the forest, and having tasted its delicious fruits, he invited others to partake with him. Tiiese were his words of invitation: " The grand source of Indian literature, the parent of almost every dialect from the Persian Gulf to the China Seas, is Sanscrit; a language of the most venerable antiquity, at present shut up in the libraries of Brahmins. This appears to have been current over most of the oriental world, and its traces may yet be discovered in almost every district of Asia. It agrees with Persian, iVrabic, Latin and Greek in the most common ex- pressions, more especially such as are monosyllabic. The coins of Asam, Napaul, Cashmeer, Butan, Tibet, and many other kingdoms, are stampt with Sanscrit letters. The same arrangement of the letters appears in the greatest part of the East from the Indus to Pegu, and the same affinity in the names of persons, places, titles and dignities, to the fur- thest limits of Asia, is Sanscrit." Such was the representation of this distinguished orientalist. Sir W. Jones, the most elegant scholar of his day, perfect master of Greek, and deeply imbued in oriental literature, no sooner arrived in the peninsula of India, than, availing himself of the influence derived 310 from his office, he obtained Bhratninical assistance, and turned his ener- getic mind to the sacred language of that country. In the year 1787, he allotted one hour a day to these pursuits, and was soon able to trace the features of resemblance between Sanscrit and the languages of Europe. He admired " its wonderful structure, more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exqui- sitely refined than either, yet bearing to each of them a stronger affinity both in the roots of verbs and in the form of grammar, than could pos- sibly have been produced by accident." Henry Colebrooke, not inferior in mental powers and exertions to Sir Vi, . Jones, and every way qualified to estimate the comparative im- portance of oriental literature, considers the Sanscrit as a most polished tongue, fixed in classical writings of the best poets, most of whom flourished in the century before Christ. In his opinion it is evidently derived from a primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various climates, and became Sanscrit in India, Pahlavi in Persia, and Greek on the shores of the Mediterranean. Such are the testimonies of these learned men as to the structure and excellence of Sanscrit. Had Mr. Halhead, in his enumeration, omitted the Arabic as a language " with which the Sanscrit agrees in the most common ex- pressions," his description would have been more conformable to truth. With Mr. Colebrook, T am persuaded, that Sanscrit is derived from a primeval tongue, and I discover affinity between it and Hebrew. Yet I am satisfied, that neither Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, Sanscrit, nor Persian, has any claim superior to the rest, or can be considered as their 311 parental language. They are co-relatives, and have originated in one common ancestor now no more. The Arabic lias been preserved in the Koran, the Persian in Ferdosi, the Sanscrit in Valmeeki, the Chaldee in Daniel, Ezra and Nehemia, the C J reek in Homer, and the Hebrew in the Pentateuch. Beyond these limits we have no documents, from which we can derive a knowledge of the language, which prevailed in Arabia, Persia, Indostan, Chaldaea, Greece, or Palestine. It is not my intention to write an extensive treatise on the Sanscrit language, and much less to teach its elements to those, who wish to learn them. Indeed, were I equal to this undertaking, the task would be loo laborious, because the Grammar alone, as published by Carey, occapies more than a thousand quarto pages, and even this may be con- sidered as an epitome, when compared with H. Colebrook's most labo- rious work. The alphabet is the most philosophical of any, with which I am acquainted. The letters are classed according to the organ of speech employed in their articulation, whether guttural, palatine, dental or labial, with their respective aspirates and nasals. Beside these, they have the sibilant with its aspirate, the semi-vowels, and a character for the separate breathing occasionally used. It must be here particularly noticed that the aspirate is distinctly articulated, and does not change the consonant to which it belongs, as with us in th and ph, converting the latter into f, and the former into a letter of a peculiar sound, per- fectly distinct from T and H. Nor does it make its attendant consonant quiescent, like the Galic, and like the English in high, nigh, &c. 312 Letters of the same organ are liable to change; but in Sanscrit these changes are governed by estabhsheii laws. The roots in Sanscrit are said to be 1 J 56, and these are neither nouns nor verbs; but may become either, according to tlic suffix. Tlicy are biliteral, as I suspect the Hebrew to have originally been, and are com- posed of consonants; but then each consonant includes within itself the short vowel, v,hich is required for its enunciatiiin, and which seems to be an equivalent for scheva of the Hebrew. The sotmd of this short vowel, as I apprehend, cannot be expressed by any one of our alpha- betic characters, because different writers, equally attentive to ortho- graphy, differ in their choice. Like Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, and Creek, it has the dual number both in its nouns and verbs. The nouns have seven cases, the nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, possessive, and locative, all distmguished by appro- priate suffixes. The tenses of Sanscrit verbs are ten, and the several persons have each its pronoun suffixed, as in most otiier languages. Li perfect conformity to the Persian, Greek, Danish, and German, it delio'hts in compounds; for, not satisfied with arbitrary sounds and un- meaning names, they construct such as are descriptive, and mark the peculiar quality of the animal or thing intended, which is tlierefore suf- ficiently characterized, and strikingly represented to the mind. Thus, for instance, a frog is the leaper, an elephant the handy one, a bee the flower drinker, a bird is the frequenter of the sk), a serpent the mover on his breast; rice is tuft-growing, a cloud water giver, and the sun is 313 maker of day and lord of light. So acarin is a crime, that wliicli should not be done, from carttum to do. No language is better adapted for composition, because tjjc words coalesce with ease, and the compound readily submits to the laws of abbreviation^ The pronouns are — asmad and aham, T; mahyam and me, to nie; yushmad, bhavat, bhavan and twam, tliou; tubhyam and te, to thee; vayani, we; asmabhyam and nas, to us; yuyam, ye; yushmabhyam and vas, to you; me and mam, my; te and tava, thy; etasya, his; nasa and asmacama, our; usmacama, your; eshama and etcshania, their. The substantive verb runs thus, the initial A being pronounced as I in Sir, — asmi, asi, asti ; smah, stha, sanli, I am, &c. Dr. Wilkins writes this, usnii, usi, usli ; usma, usa, sunti, Asani, let me be; asama, let us be. Syam, syah, syat; syama, syata, syuh, may I be, kc. Bhavami, bhavasi, bhavati ; bhavamh, (olim, bhavamas,) bhavalha, bhavanti, I am, thou art, he is; we are, (Sec. In bhavamah, the final H is substituted by the Brahmins for S. Bhavani, let me be; bhavam, let us be; bhu, be thou. Abiiuvam, I have been; bhavdshyami, I shall be; bubhushati, may he be; varttitum, to be ; avarttishi, I have been ; varttita, he shall be, he will be. Vivrat- sati, may he be. I shall here exhil)it select parts of various verbs, in order to shew the genius of this language. Admi, atsi, atti; admas, attha, adanti, I, thou, he, we, ye, they eat; adani, let me eat; adama, let us eat; attasmi, I will eat; attasi, thou wilt eat; atta, he will eat; attum, to eat. VOL. II. Yy 3U Dadatc, lie gives ; dadanto, tlicy give ; adat and adadishla, he gave ; data and diidila, Ik; will give ; dadatu, let him give ; dadiluni, to give; dadamana, giving; dadadana, having given; dadish_yainana, about to give. Pivati, li(^ drinks ; pivanti, tliey drink; apat, lie drank; pata, he will drink; paturn, l.o drink. y\snati, he eateth ; asot, he ate ; ashta, he will eat. Vasnii, vakslii, vashli, 1 wish, iSccr. vasani, let lue wish ; iidhi, wish thou; vasiitu, let him wish; avasisham, J have wished. Lasliali, he de- sires ; alashot, lie hath (U;sir(;d ; lashitiim, to desire. Vamati, Ik; vomits ; avamot, ho hath vomilt;d. Dayate, he nourishes ; adasta, ho hath nonrishcd ; data, he; will nourish; datum, to nourish. I'adyatc, Ik; nK)ves ; apadi, ho nu)V((i ; patla, he will move. Dasati, he biles; adagnkshoti, he; bit; danshta, he will bite; danshtum, to bite; (laiila a tooth. \'a(i, Ik; nH)ves ; ayasot, he hath moved. Amayati, he goes; amimat, Ik; w(;nt ; ami, I eause to go. Mali, he metes ; amasot, he hath mclcd ; mata, he will nKlc Lubhyati, he eovets ; alubhat, he hath eovcled ; lobhita, he will covet; lolihilum, to eovet. ])oyata, he decays; didoye and adasi, Ik; hath dreaycd ; data, he will deeay. .layale, Ik; [trodiices ; njani, he lialli produced ; janita, he; will produce; janitum, lo pr()thi(;e. Mriyatc, Ik; dies; amrala and mamara, he died; maiKa aiKl marisliyali, h<; will die. Kaionii, karosjii, karoli; I do, thou iloest, he does ; karavami, let me do; karolu, let him do; aearsliam or akarsham, I hav(wloiK; ; chakar, I did; karlla, he will <lo ; earltum, to do, to make, to create; karaymi, I eause to d) : payayati, Ik- causes to driidv. Chekroveluni, lotloolUn. Dedoyate, he gives often. Pepoyate, he drinks often. Janjanyatc, he produces often. vSosliupyatc, lie sleeps often. Vavasyate, he desires often. Papaclioti, he cooks often. Daii- danshti and dandasyate, he bites often. Varivrati, he turns often. Panopat, fall often, and panphul, produce often or niucli. Ilere the reader will please to notice, that the reiterative is produced by reduplication in its peculiar form. Similar reduplications may be observed in volitives. Thus \n is drink, and pipasati he wants drink. Chikorashti, he wants to make. Didarishti, he wants to tear. Bibha- rishti, he wishes to bear. Susupsati, he wants to sleep. From Pad we have Pitsate, he wants to step; and Labh produces Lipsali, he wishes to obtain. Ab, have, gives Ipsati, ho wishes to have; and other forms, expressing both cause and volition, being connected with a verb, indi- cate a desire to cause some one to act; as, for instance, to eat, to drink, to walk, to run, to take, to give. This language, with peculiar aptitude, converts nouns into verbs. Putroyati, he loves his son ; matroyati, he loves his mother, or she be- haves like a mother. Putrakamyati, he desires a son. Prasadoyati, he behaves as if he were in a palace. Kutoyali prasade raja, the king con- ducts himself in his palace as in a cottage. I might here call the attention of the Greek scholar to the close affinity between the preceding verbs, and verbs of the same import in Greek ; but this will be left to his own discernment for the present. I proceed to the comparative degrees, in which it will be difficult to say, whether the affinity is most striking in the Greek or in the Latin. Vidwasa, wise; vidwattara, wiser; vidwattania, wisest. \'idusho, wise; vidushitara, vidushitama. Vahoo, many; vahootara, vahootama. Ty 2 316 Vahoola, much; vahoolatara, vahoolatama. Alpa, few; alpatara, al- patania. Dadat, generous ; dadattara, dadattama. Yuvan, young ; juvatara, yuvatama. The numerals are — eka, one; dwau, two; tri, tliree ; chatur, four; panchan, five; shash, six; septam, seven; ashtan, eight; navan, nine; dashan, ten ; ekadasan, eleven ; visati, twenty. The numerical figures resemble those of Europe. We have already had occasion, by numerous examples, to observe the affinity between Sanscrit and all the languages of Europe and of Asia. But here it may be useful to take a more particular survey of its re- lation to English, Latin, Greek and Hebrew, in order to confirm my position, that all these languages are radically one. For this purpose, we must always bear in mind, what has been delivered respecting abbre- viation, the change between letters of the same organ, the presence or absence of prepositions, the conversion of the aspirate into either the guttural, sibilant, or labial, and the licentious change of D into L, which however has not been universally adopted. I begin Avith the English, confining myself principally to such terms as are most ancient, that is the monosyllabic, and those expression* which occur most frequently in common life. When these in Sanscrit have turn for their termination, they are not roots, but are here taken in the infinitive, as in daraitum, to tame; of which the root is dam. In numerous instances, I confine myself to the roots, in others I take either the noun substantive, or any part of the verb. 317 English. Sameril, English. Sanscrit, English. San'cril. Add Adi more Boat Pota Cock Cuckuta Am Asmi Bold Bal Coming Agaman And Anoint Anantarum Anjana Booty ^ Bhata, a ' soldier Coo Cot Ku Kuti Ape Kapi Bray Braha, speak Count Ginte Arrayed Parihita Brother Bhratara Cow Gau Arrow Axe Sara Cathaca Brow Buck Bhru Bukra Create ^Carttum, 'Crata,done Bake Pachtum Budge Baj Crib Cripana Band Bandh Bunter Banita Crime Acarm Bask QBhascara Burden Bhara Cud Cud, Eat 'The sun Came Agama Cur Cuccara Bath Bawd Bad ^Badhu, a c wife Carp, see) Crib ) Carve Cripana Charve, eat Cut Dale ^Ch'hada 'Cat'haca Dal, separate Be Bhu Caw Cavati Damp Tima Beg Pakja Cede Shad Dare Dhrish Bear Bhritum Central Antaral Dark Andhacara Beauty Beat Budracha Vyadh Champ ) Cham, Gham and Jam Daughter Day Duhitri Divas Beloved Bullubh Chant Gana Dawn ^Dodhatum Better Bhadratara Chick Chica, small ' to shine Bid Vidhi Churn Chur& Churn Dead rudi Bide Bad Coal Cala, black Deal Dal, separate S18 Sanscrit. Gaurava ram a 319 EttgiisU. Sanaerit. English. Sanscrit. English. Sanscrit. Horse IJras Love Lubh More Mahatteran Hunt Huntuin Luck Lacshmee Mother Matri Hurt Hut Hartuni Cut Lust Mad Lashyati Unmatta Mouch, > to stealS Mush In Ni Male, evil Mala, dirty Mouse Mushica Is Asmi Man Manushya Murder Mrityu It Etad & Tad Me Mam Nail Nal Join Yung Mead Madhu, honey Naked Nagna Joke Jacsh Meal, mix Mil Name Namen Keep Kiss Gup Cus, embrace Mean, * Medium 3 Madhya Neat New Nieta Nava Knack Knee Anuka Janu Mean, ) Mind ) Manas Nigh Night Nicata Nakta Knit, Knot Lazy Nah Alasya Mean, } diminutive J Manaca Nme No Nava No Less Lis Mete Mat urn Nor Nir Lick Lih Midst Madhya Nose Nasica Light, not^ heavy 5 Laghu Might Mightier Mahata Mahatara 0! Oar 0! Arittra List, desire Leshita Mind Manas OfF Av T/Oplr "i Lagna, Alak Mine Muma Oh Haha .i—i\j\y^ J and Sloch Mixt Misrana One Jani Look Lop Lochitum Lup Month, } Moon ^ Masa Ooze Other Ghas I tar, A that 320 English. Sanscrit. I 1 English. Sanscrit, English. Sanscrit, Otter Udra Reign Ranjana Six Shash Over Upari Right Rit Sixth Shasta Owl Ulaca Rite Riti Sister Swasri Ox- Ucsha Root Rad Sit ^Situm, to Pad Pad Rude Raud ' lie down Pannier Avapani Ruminate llumantbayate Skill Cusala Pass Pis Sake Sakhi, friend Sod Sata Pat Pit Same Sama Son Santana Path Bat & Palha Scatter Kirtum Soon Sondra Paw Pani Scratch Grit Sound Swan a Piece Piss Psa, Eat Payas, water Seam, a ? border 3 Siman Stall Stand, Stay Sthal Shtha Pluns^e Plu Serve Sri Star Tara Prayer Prarthana Serpent Sarpa Stun Stan, thunder Prime Para ma Seventh Saptama Sum Sama Proud Praudh Sew Shiv Sweat Shwid Quean, ^ Queen 3 Cunya She Shear Esha and Sa Cshur Sweet Swoon Swadu Swap Quern Quoth Ghurna Cathayati Shroud ^Sraddha, 'Obsequies Tame Tear Damitum Dri, Daran Rage Rave Rajra Rav Sign Sink Sanjna Sanna Teat ^Dayati, he ^ sucks Read Rat Site Sthita Ten Dashan Red llitjati, Iludhira Sit Asitum Tepid Tapta 321 Engliili. Sanscrit* Euijliah. SitllHl-ll. E.ijU^h. SaaiCTil. That Tad Vast Valuisa What Yad Then Fan a Valet Bala, Boy Wheel Gola They re Valiant Balavan White Sweta Thin Tana Vanish Vinash Wliose Yasya Third rrita3'a Vest Vastra Widow Vidhava Thirst Frish Village Palli Wind Vayajana This Ades Voice Vac ( Vihanga, Thou Twain Vomit Vamati Wing 'Air-going Thy Tava Vomited Vamita Wise Vidwas Thrice Tisra /-Udhasa Wish Ish Tie Tah Udder ^ Udara, Wit Viditum Time Smina ^ the belly Witch V^idasha Toss Tas, Das Upper Upari Woman Vamini Tother Tatara Wain Vahan Wrath Crodh Tree Tara & Diu Warm Gharma Ye Yuyam Tripod Tripad rWaran, Yea Ji Trow, -s a boat > Tro Warn < Prevention ' Varana Year and^ Yore 1 Jara Trough ^ Truly Dhruvam Was CWabhuvas [wasa Yoke SYuja ( Yugam Two Dwau We Vayam Young Yuvan rVayana Weave Ve Vane < Vayajana, Wed Vadhu, Wife ^ the wind Well Vilakshan VOL. II. 2 ' z 322 Such is the comparative vocabulary, I have been able to collect in the course of my reading. A more extensive acquaintance with Sanscrit literature will, I am persuaded, add greatly to my treasure. These few words, however, will sufficiently evince the connexion between our lan- guage and the Sanscrit. I shall now call the attention of my readers to the affinity between Sanscrit and Latin, and shall avail myself, in my observations on this subject, of the very interesting remarks made by the Edinburgh Reviewers, in their critique on Dr. Wilkins' Grammar, a work, which can never be too highly valued by the student, who is solicitous to gain a critical knowledge of this venerable language. But here also I must premise, not merely that letters of the same organ may supply each other's place, but that, in conformity to the practice of other nations, the labials B and P are commutable with the sibilant, and with the gutturals C, G, K, Q; as are M with N, and L with R. In- stances of such changes will immediately appear, because Latin con- forms to the iEolic dialect of Greek, in which we have y.ag for ^wg and y.ofov for Tifov. Latin. Sanscrit. Latin. Samcrit. Latin, Sanscrit. Ab Ac Ad Adeptus lEs Annona Anser Ava Cha Ad Ap Ayas Anna flansa Antrum Aqua Arena Bell urn Bibit Bove Cado Antara A pa Aranya Vala Pivati Gava Shada & Pit Caeremonia Caesaries Canis Cano Carmen Carus Coclum Carman Kesa Shvana Gano Carman Shra Capias S93 Latin, Clam Coquo Coctum Concha Cor Creo Da Datum Das Dat Dedit Dator Donum Dens Decern Deus Dexter Dies Disco Dixit Doceo Domitum Duo Durus SaMtytt, Chukimp Pach Pachtum Sanclia Hridaja Cri Da Datum Dadasi Dadati Dadat Datri Danam Danta Dasama Deve Dekshan Divas Upadoshaca Disat Upadoshaca Damitum Dwau Dura Lnfini Eat Edo Ed ere Esse Eget Et Evanesco Feinina Ferre Flu ere Fluvius Folium Frater Genetrix Genitus Gentes Genu Genus Gigno Gravis Gustavi Hodie Humus Hyems Santtyrit, LaUn. SatucrHi Jjata Id Etid Ad Idem Idem Attum Ignis Agni A stum Immolo Mulya Ichchhati Inquit Cathayati Ath Intra Antara Vinash Is Esha Vamini Ita Ifi, Yalha Bhritum Itum Etum, Yatum Plotum ^Yugum & Plav Jugum ?Yaja Phali Jussit Japayamas Bhratara Jungo Yung Janoni Genita Juno, } Genetrix 3 Janoni Janata Jusculum Yusha Janu Juvenis Yuvana Gana Labi Labi Jajanmi Labium Lapamya Gaurava Laedo Ladi Aghasam Lretari Hladitum Adya Levitas Laghava Bhumi Libido SLubdha, Hima ' a greedy man z z 2 324 latin. Sanscrit. Latin. Samcrit. Latin, Saii»cr«. liOCUS ^Loca, the Neco Nighna Pergo V^aja I world Nepos Naptara Pingere Pinjitura Lubet Lubhyati Neque Nacha Piacere Pritum Major Mahatara Neve Nava Piuo Plu Malus Mala Nidus Nidhi Polleo Bal Mare Nara Noceoe Nasayitum Post Poschat Mas Manusbya Novem Nava Potis Poti, Lord Mater Matri Novus Navya Potum Patum Mayors Mahavarsaya Nomen Namna Prandet Pranipsati Medium Madhya Nos Nah, Olira, Nas Praelium Pralaya Meio Mi ha Noctem Nactam Precor Prachh Me urn Mama Nox Nisa Primus Prathama Meminit Mamana Nubes Nabhas, air Prodigiuni Prabhavaja Menda Manda Nubo Niva Prope Prapta Mens Metiri Manas Ma turn Nurus Octo Snusara Ashta Pullulat ^ Pull us S PhuUati Micturiet Mekshyali Oculus Acs hi Quatuor Chatur Misceo Misra Odit Atvat Que Cha Modus Afata Os Asthi Qui, Quern Ki, Kim Mors Mrityu Ovis Ava Quid Yad Moritur Mrayati Pastum Psatum Quinque Pancha Mus Mushica Pater Pitri Quo Cwo Musca Maksha Patera Pattra Quot Cwoti Navis Nau Pes, pedis Pad a Rectus Rit 325 Latin, Santcril. Latin. Sanscrit. Latin. Santcrit. Rego Raj Sopire Swoptum Uncus Ancusli Res Rai Specie Pasya Unus Jana Rem Rayama Statio Sthan Ustus Ushatu Reverti Paravertatuin Statum Sthatum Uterus Udar Rex R;ija Suavis Suadu Uter Yatara Rhcda Ratha Supremus Su para ma Valeo Bal Ritus Riti Super Upari V'ates Vadi Rota Ratha Suum Swayarn Ve Va Ruber Rudhira Taceo Tushna Vegeto Voja Rugit Rau, Ravati Tactus Twac Veho Vaha Sanus Susthana Taeda Daha Venor Vana, Vanyah Saturn Syata Tepescere Taptum Ventus Vayajan Seipsum '^ Tenuis Tanu Verres Vara ha & Suus3 Swa Terra Dhara Vertere Vartitum Septem CSapta and 'Saptem Tibi ^Tubhya cTubyama Vestire Victitare Vastum Bhaetum Serpens Servire Sarpa Sretum Tonitru "| Tono i Stanit Victus Videre Bhacsha Veditum Sex Shash Trans Tri Vidua Vidhava Siccus Sush Tres Tri Villa Palli Silex Sila Tredecem Triyadashan Vieo Yu Socer Swasur Tuum Twam Vir Vara Somniuni Svvapua Ungo Anja Vires Vir Sonus Swan a Ungula An gal ay a Viridis Harit 326 muiii Sanseril. Latin. Sanscrit. Vis Basa Nonest ISTasti Vita Vida Est niihi Asti mama Vivere Jevitum Quid mihitecum Kim maya tava Vos Vas Tibi id Tavid Vox Vak Node dieque Nactum divapi Vox ita Vaka yatha - If the affinity between Sanscrit and Latin is apparent, the close con- nexion between Sanscrit and Greek is more so. This must have been observed particularly in the substantive verb, in the numerals, and in the few instances of regular verbs I have already noticed. But the sub- sequent examples will more abundantly demonstrate their affinity. Greek. avxreSsiv ave[j.og etve'j XTTO Sanscrit. At'ha Esheta Aja (Limpami C & Lip Ama Anapadan Ana An Nar Yache Vi Creek. Sanscrit. Greek. Sanscrit. apt Ura Sei^eiv Dis a?v\g Ari SepXCfji-xi Drakshmi xcr^eveta, Asusthana Seva D'he xv^eiv Aksha Six D'hi T'evvxcn) Atma Jajanmi hxiTx (Dayitum ( Dayate yi/jpau Jarami SiSxanoj Upadesaca ypxca Gras 5j5a!fj.j Dadami lyvpoct! Ghurn i5i£Xfi'y Dal ^aia Dahami 'Eye /pa; Gorami Sxfj^xa Dam eSw Ad mi 527 Greek. Sanscrit. Greek. Sanscrit. Greek. Sanscrit, eiBu Vadi I^vif^i Tishtami kvxvog Loka tl,'i^i. sum Asmi Yomi MiZ^VlTVIS Mith eTfj-i. eo Enii Ka;<y%«^£iv Kakhc ^j-xuTig Mantre SJ£J^Xl Astuni y.xi Cha [/.XpXlPCii Maranya ia-^iei Asnati nxXeca Kala \».i<yx [j.syxv Mahan enccqog enatepoi Ekaike Ekatara hxXv7:tci: ) HxXv^^t-X J Chulump Ma Manayasa t'k«(T<T!>lV Lisyate naKave^v Kil, Kal f^HTVip Matri iXctX^qog Lagishtha y.£(pxK)/\ Kapala jxicxyo) Misra {•Avpx Antara M[t.UV Hima li.ev£Xivw Manyamana iWiX Navana yiioj Chay \i.vxoy.ai. Mnanii iTraivw Panami nKxsiv Kale N«u\ Nava £pt Uru nXetg j) Kol veog NTavya epig Ari noKKx ) veu Nahye ta-^co siT^ei Asnati & Asot nfiXTog & ) Karttara, ) v£(pakyi Nabh e^epoi Itara nxpTOg J ruler ) ''Oy.ou Om £%£iV Gini Kpl^CC Krad O^J-QIOCO Masyanii £01 Emi KVIDV San OVOfJ.X Namna "Upcog Sura A«jX/3iXl/W ) Laniij La oqtov Asthi vidvxloi Asoca X«/3aJ ) Labh, gain o(ppvg Bhru k^l-^O^i.XI, Lipsati YIxixv Pan &xppa Suia,Susthira kxca Loch TociSsvu Upadesaka Svi^oi Tija Xeixw Lehmi 'KUO\t.Xt Pami ^vpx Dwara Aa)/3vi Lubi 'KxpxdoTog Pradatna 328 Greek. vxpx'joBx vXTOtO'lTCO 'K XT tea 'Axeiv TTiipxqVif 'xeTreipxnx TTiTTTO) TTcpl TrspSeiv ttOK'J trohog 'jpxog TrpOlVilJ-l Samcrit. Prapti Pit, kill Pad, Pat'iie Pa Paclami Parakshita Pane,Patum Patanii Pri Paid Vahoola Pad a Prasam Prasana Prevami Greeli. TtpOTOi TTupyot TTcoXog Pi/)(yi/U(iJ pyiTOi ^^Toop YixXevai TSl^X qepeoi Txxvi TiHTCCl^ TeXeicc Sanscrit. Prat'iiama Varga Sanscrit. Dhayati Tada Traimi Tripada Yushainana A pa Vami Sphaja Bibhaya Ghini, Ghuni jCarttum & Cn, make, do Carya, a thing to be done; Carma and Criya, an action; Carta, an agent. From Cri we have many derivatives. Sucara, easy; dashcara, difHcuIt; curbate, produce; crishacan, a labourer; nishcarmmaneh, idle, not active; apacrishta and acarma, wicked, that which ought not to be done; cro, get, purchase. C or K as a termination signifies a maker. 339 Crash, as a root, implies to make, seize, draw, cultivate; yll allied to %fi/j; as maybe crashtum, to make furrows, xxpxTrnv. %a:;a(TTa' seems to be allied to crintati, he cuts; acarttot, lie liatli cut; cnrtlita, lie will cut. Whilst tracing the affinity between Sanscrit and (J reck, it will be worthy our attention to compare their numerals and ordinals, &c. 1, eka, "ig. 2, dwau, Svu. 3, frb/a, Tplx. 4, chat in; '^tTTzpes and teiTcc^si. 5, pencha, 'Trtv^e and TtVTrg. 6, shesh, tt 7, septa, tv-i. 8, ashta, oktw. Q, iiava and navan, Iwicc. 10, des, Sena. Here I must observe, that, although we can trace no direct corres- pondence between eka and ev, yet there is a strict affinity between jena, one person, and ev, and no less between eka and eaxcot, each one. It is evident that ch in chatur and pencha takes tiie place of T in TfTTflifEf and TefTe, and equally evident, that in shesh the first sh supplies the place of the aspirate in l^. The second sh contains the sibilant part of ^. The ordinals are Prat'hama or Protoma, Dwitya, Tritya, Chetoorta, Penchema, Sheshta, Septlma, Ashtima, Novuma, Decima, Yekadesha, &c. Here I would call to the recollection of my reader the affinity and radical identity between Greek and Latin, and I would at the same time observe, that no one ever thought of deriving either tt/jotoj from primus, or primus from nrpQioc but both these may safely by abbreviation be derived from protama, the m being rejected by the Greek and the t by the Latin. So monami, I remind, I admonish, connects itself equally with f^vacoy.ui and moneo. In Greek we have t/jjtoj and tpk, in Sanscrit tritya and trisa. VOL. ir. 3 a 330 What I have here exhibited will be sufficient to exemplify the nature of that affinity which subsists between Sanscrit and Greek. I might now proceed to examine and to trace the affinity between Sanscrit and Hebrew, which are certainly related, although not as sisters, nor as parent and offspring; but for the present I forbear. I shall however shortly take occasion to demonstrate that Greek and Hebrew are radically one, as I have here adduced sufficient evidence to prove, that a similar identity subsists between Sanscrit and Greek. It will then, I trust, be clear to every one, that Sanscrit and Hehrezo have a radical affinity, and may claim descent from the same progenitor, existing at a given time, when the whole earth was of one language. This conclusion is perfectly agreeable to the axiom, that if two things are equal to a third they are equal to each other. The argument will then stand thus, Sanscrit and Greek are radically one, Greek and Hebrew are radically one, therefore Sanscrit and Hebrew are radically one, q. e, cL Ii ' -ji ! j-jtjj.j»mu-,jj. ' i ;t- ' .)—^ VW.i. l u^i — L- ON THE HFSSIAM LANGUAGE. "RIOR to the time when Peter, siirnamecl The Great, conceived the benevolent intention of civiHzing his savages, they were Httle noticed by more polished nations, and, for want of early records, they them-, selves know nothing certain of their origin. The whole nation was plunged in the grossest ignorance, like the wandering hordes of the present day, who inhabit independent Tartary. It is said of Svatoslaf, the son of Igor, who died in 973, that on his march he had no baggage, that his food was the flesh of horses and of other animals, warmed over the fire; that he carried with him no tent, and that his housings served him for a bed, and his saddle for a pillow. What a description this, of uncivilized wanderers ! Respecting the ancestors, therefore, of such unlettered hordes, we must be contented with conjectures. These can have no other foun- dation, than what is derived from the examination of their language, 3 A 2 332 which must of necessity be exceedingly defective, because they have never paid that attention to orthography, which we observe in other nations, in the Welch, the Irish, the English, and the French. Con- sequently the etymology of their language cannot easily be traced. It is indeed stated by Mr. Coxe, that they are descended from the Slavonians of the Danube, and came from the country now called Hungary and Bulgaria, in the middle of the ninth century, at which time Rurik laid the foundation of his empire. We learn, however, from Levesque, that the term Slavon was unknown in Europe till the fourteenth century. He states, that, according to Aboulgasi Baiadour, a Tartar prince and historian, and to the authors quoted by d'Herbelot, in his Oriental Dictionary, the Slavi are the descendants of Seklab, as the Russians are of Rouss, who were both the offspring of Japhet. In his opinion, these Slavonian nations came from Tartary by way of the Caspian and the Euxine Seas, into Thrace, from whence they divided. Certain it is, that the Polish, Bohemian, Moravian, Croatian, Carin- thian, Carniolan, Bosnian, Servian, Albanian, Dalmatian, Hungarian, Bulgarian and Russian, are dialects of the Slavonian, and all these, in the opinion of Mr. Coxe, have a greater resemblance to the Greek than to each other. It is likewise from an attentive examination of the Russian Grammar, and of the incomparable Dictionary written by Cellarius, clear, that Latin, Greek, and Russian are allied. 333 RUSSIAN ALPHABET OF THE NINTH CENTURY. B B r 4 E }K 3 Ti; I H K b • V g d e J z ts i i k AMHonpcmyox 1 m noprstuph ch, kh HmmLLlb^K)£ed;3 ch sch slich ui e in ya tli o e A is pronounced as in far; E as in fate when preceded hy a con- sonant; but in the beginning it is ie. I, as e in me; O, as in no; U, as in bull; J as s in pleasure or as j in jour. Of the two forms which have no vocal sound, the first hardens, the other softens the preceding con- sonant. G in the beginning of a word is often, and sometimes at the end, pro- nounced as an aspirate, and thus gospod becomes hospod. G forms the genitive in V. The nouns have seven cases; nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, and prepositive; of which the five first conform to other languages. In the instrumental they agree with the ablative of Greek and Latin ; but the prepositive is peculiar to this language. It is marked by the preposition O, meaning of, from, concerning. They have four declensions for substantives and one for adjectives, in all which the vocative conforms to the nominative. 334 Fh'sf Declension of Suhstantive&. N. rukA, G. ruki, D. ruke, A. ruku, /. rukoiu, P. o ruke; the hand: — P/. N. A. rdki, G. ruk, i). rukdm, J. rukami, P. o rukakh. Second Declension. N. bardn, G. A. barana, D. baranu, T. baranom, P. o barane; a sheep: PL N.A. barani, G. baranov, D. baranam, I. baianami, P. o baranakh. Third Declension. N. A. siemya, G. D. siemeni, I. siemenem, P. o siemeni; seed: Fl. N.A. siemena, G. siemen, D. siemenam, I. siemenami, P. o siem- enakh. Fourth Declension. N. A. mat, G. D. materi, I. materiu, P. o materi; mother: PL N. materi, G. A. materei, D. materyam, I. materyami, P. o mater- yakh, mothers. Adjectives. Masc. N. chistoi; Fern, chistaya; Neut. chistoe; pure, clean, chaste. Degrees of Comparison. D6rog, doroje, predorog; dear, dearer, dearest. Nw7ierals. Odin, dwa, Iri, chetare, pyat, shest, sedm, sem, osm, devyat, desyat, 1, 2, 3, &c. Ordinals. Pervoi, vtoroi, tretoi, chetvertai, pyatai, shestoi, sedmoi, vosmoi, devyatoi, desyatoi. 335 Pronouns. Ya, ty, on, ona, ono; my, vu, ony, oroiii; I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, they. N. ya, G. A. menya, D. mne, I. mnoiu, V. o mne. Fl. N. my, G. A. nas, D. I. nam, P. o nas; I, of me, &c. N. ty, G. A. teba, D. tebe, &c. Thou, of thee, &c. PL N. vu, G. J, vas, D. vam, &c. N. on, G. J. jego, D, yemu, /. yim, P. o nem; he, of him, &c. PI. N. ony, G. y^. yikh, X). yim, 7. imi, P. o nikh. Possessives. N. moy, G. A. moyego, D. moyemu, I. uioyim, P. o moyem; my, of my, &c. N. nash, G. A. nashego, &c. our. Twoy, thy; svoy, his; vash, your; yikh, their. Substantive Verb, Esm, esi, est; esmui, este, sut; am, art, is, are. Buil, was; buili, were. Budu, budesh, budet; budem, budete, budut, shall be. Bud, be; buit, to be. To these the pronoun is to be prefixed. The verbs are exceedingly irregular. By some of these, here sub- milted to the inspection of the reader, he will clearly discern the genius and the affinities of this lansuage. Daiu, daesh, daet, daem, daete, daiut; I, thou, he, &c. give. Ya daval, tui daval, on daval, mui davali, I gave, «Scc. Dam, dash, dast; dadim, dadite, dadut; will give. Dai, give; davat, to give. 336 lem, iesh, iest; iedim, iedite, iedjat; I, &c. eat. Ya iel, tui iel, on iel; mui ieli, &c. I, &c. ate; iedal, I had eaten. Budu iest, will eat; iesh, eat; iest, to eat. Verchu, vertish, vertit; vertim, vertite, vertyat, I, &c. turn. Ya vertiel, &c. I turned; ya budu vertiet, &c. I will turn, &;c. Verti, turn; vertiet, to turn; menya vertiet, I am turned. Poiu, poesh, poet; poem, poete, point, 1, ^c. sing. Stoiu, stoish, stoit; stoim, stoite, stoyat; I, Sec. stand. Present. Preterite. Future. Imperative. Tntiyiilioe. Bleiu Bleyal Zableiu Blei Bleyat, bleat Bielieiu Bieliel Pobielieiu Bieliei Bieliet, pale Voruiu Voroval Svoruin Vorui Vorovat, rob Viedaiu Viedal Sviedaiu Viedai Viedat, know Glotaiu dotal Glonu Glotai Glotat, swallow Dergaiu Dernul Dernu Derni Dergat, draw Derzaiu Derzal Derznu Derzai Derzat, dare Deru Oral Fzderu Deri Drat, tear Dremliu Dremal Vzdremliii Dremli Dremat, dream Dumaiu Dumal Vzdumaiu Dumai Dumat, deem lgu Jeg Ojgu Igi Jech, burn Jeltieiu Jeltiel Pojeltieiu Jeltiei Jeltiet, yellow Jivu Jil Pojivu Jivi Jit, live Idu Shol Poidu Podi Itti, go Kolieiu Koliel Okolieiii Koli Kolof, cool Lgu Lgal Solgu Lgi Lgat, lie 337 Present. Prtterilt. Vulure. Imperalioe, /nftniHoa, Liju Lizal Liznu Liji Lizat, lick Maraiu Maral Zamaraiu Marai Marat, defile Materieiu Materiel Zamaterieiu Materiel Materet, mature Mogu Mog Vozmogu Mogl Motschi, able Mochu Morhil Moknu Mochl Mochit, wet Oriu Oral Vzoriu Orl Orat, plough Pluivu Pluil Budupluit Pluivi Pluit, float Poiu Piel Poiu Pol Plet, sing Susu Sosal Budu sosat Sosl Sosat, suck Sieiu Sieyal Posieiu Siei Sieyat, sow Temnieiu Tern ni el Poteninieiu Tenmiei Temniet, dim Tonieiu Toniel Otoniu Ton! Tonit, thin Khochu Khotiel Zakhochu Khotl Khotiet, choose Veliii Veliel Poveliu Veil VeHet, command Verchu Vertiel Vernu Vernl Vertiet, turn Viju Vidiel Uviju Vld Vidlet, see Goriu G oriel Sgoriu Gori Gorlet, burn Dwoiu Dwoil Ydwoiu Dwoi Dvvolt, double Krichu Krichal Zakrichu Krlchi Krlchat, screach Leju Lejal Poleju Lejl Lcjat, lie down Lochu Lokal Loknu Lochl Lokat, lap, lick Liubliu Liubil Poliubliu Liubl Liubit, love Moriu Moril Ymoriu Mori Morlt, kill Siju Sidiel Syadu Sjad Sid let, sit Troiu Troll Ytroiu Troi Troit, triple Mru Mer Budu meret Meri Meret, die VOL. II. 3 F 338 The above selection is sufficient to mark affinity between the Russian and the English. But to render this more evident, I subjoin a vocabu- lary, in which the corresponding terms, however dissimilar in form, essentially agree. To be satisfied of this, we must remember, what has. been demonstrated, respecting abbreviation and the change of conso« nants, as practised by all nations. A VOCABULARY, ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN. English, Am Anchor Angle Apple Bake Balk Bawd Bath Be Beard Beech Beggar Billows Bind Blaze Russian. Esm Yakor Ugol Yabloko Peku, roast Pech, Furnace Palka Svod, Fornix Banya, Balneum Buivaiu Boroda, Brada Buk Ubogii ^Volna Flouctus 'irobiluiu affluo ^Vuinimaiu cObvivaiu, Vyaju Bletschu English. Boar Book Bore Bow, V. Box Brook Brother Buck Cabbage Calash Can Cart Cat Chaste Chastity Cheek Chew Bussian. Borov, Verres Bukva, Litera Burav, Terebra. Perevoju Buk, Buxus Rieka, Flumen Brat Buik, Bos Kapusta Kolaska, Rheda Stakan, Poculum Kareta Kot Chistuii, clean, pure Chistota Tscheka Juiu 339 Eicgtislt. Russian. English. Russian. Choose Khochu Dear Dorogii, Carus Clay Glina Deem Dumaiu,Reor,Opinor Clock Kolokolchik Desk Doska, Tabula Coal L^gol Dew Dojd, Pluvia Coat Koja, Pel lis Dim Duim, Fumus Cock Kucha, Strues Dome Dom Cold Cool Kholod Kolieiu Door ^Dwer, Foris cDoroga, Via Cork Korka, Cortex Dough Toje, naduvaiujtumeo Corn Zerno Dray Drovni, Traha Cow Korova Dream Dremliu, Dormito Creek Krik, Clamor Dross Drojdi Crib Krovat, Torus Dry Tru, Terges Crook Krug, Circulus Ear, V. Oriu, Aro Cry Krichu, Clamo Ewe Ovtsa Curve } Curl S Krivuii, Krivliu, Curvo Fan Field Vieyanie Pole, Ager Dad Died File Pila Dale Dolina, v. Hollow Fill NTapolniaiu Dance Tantsuiu, Salto Flame Plama Dare Derzaiu, Audeo Folk Polk, Caterva Daughter Day Dotch and Dtscher Den Foot CPod, Nadpodlie adpedes ^Podlie & Po, Juxta Deal ^Dielaiu, Ago cDielenie, Partior Full Furnace Polnuii, NapolnyaiUj Impleo Gorn 3 B 2 340 Bttgihh. Russian, English: Russian. Furrow Borozda Grim Ygriumuii, Torvus Gall Jelch, V. Yellow Grub, a. Grubuii, Rudis Garden Ogorod Grumble Gremliu, 1 ono Gargle Gorlo, Guttur Guild Gildiya, Tnbus Glass Glaz, Lumen Guest CJost, Hospes Glide Gladkii, Laevis Heart Serdtse Glisten ^Losk, Nitor cBlistaiu, Niteo Herald Hill Ceroid Kholm, Collis Globe Golova Hollow Jolobovatuii Glue Klei, Kleiu Host Gost, Hospite Glut Glotaiu, Glutio Hurry Skoro, Promtu Go Khoju, Eo, descend I Ya Voskhoju, Scando Judge Suju, Judico Ukhoju, Fugio Ivy Iva, Salix Vskhoju, Inscendo Knee Kolieno, Genu Otkhoju, Exeo Knit Nit, Filum Perekhojujtranscendo Know Znaiu Goat Kozel Knoot Knut, Flagellum Gold Zolato,t;. Jelch,yellow Lad Molodoi Goose Gus Lady Molodaya Grapple Grabliu, Praedon Laud Slavliu Grave Graze (Pogrebaiu, Humo (Pogrebenie, Sepultura Gruizu, mordeo, rodo Lay Leaa Polagaiu, Pono ^Kloniucya, Verge (v. Thin 341 English. Russian. English. Russian. Leek Luk, Cepa Loaf Khlieb, Panis Left Lievuii, Sinister Lodge Leju, Jaceo, Cubo Letter Bukva Polojenie, Situs Lewd Biudnitsa, Scortutn Love Liubovc, Liubliu Lick Liju, Lingo, Lambo Lucid Blistaiucya, Mico Lie (Leju, Cubo Lungs Legkoe CLoj & Lgu, Mentior Lump Lomaiu, Rumpo Linen Len Mallet Molot, Malleus Lion Lev Mama Mam, Mater Light Letaiu, Volo Mamka, Nutrix Priletaiu, Advolo Many Mnogii, Plerique Yletaiu } VAvolo Otietaiu 3 Margin Bereg, in Wilts called Barge, Margo Sletaiu, Convolo Mash Miesaiu, Misceo Obletaiu, Circumvolo May Mogu, Possum, Quco Pereletaiu, Transvolo Mead Med, Mel Naletaiu, Involo Mean Mniu, Reor Light Legkii, Levis Meat Myaso, Caro Oblegchaiu, Allevo Meek Myakhkii, Mollis Lights Legkoe, Pulmo Midst Mejdu, Inter Like Voloku, Traho /-Motsch, Potentia Privlekaiu, Attraho Might < Pomogaiu, Adjuvo List ^List, FoUum cSluishu, Audio Milk vMochnuii, Potens Moloko, Lac 342 Ennlish. Rua.tian. English. Russian. Mill, V. Mel ill Nest Gnezdo, Nidus Mill, s. Melintsa, Melnitsa Net Nebod, Rete Mire Muravei, Formica / Novuii, Novus < Novina, Novitas Mix Meshaiu New Moist Moiu, Lavo ^Obnovlyaiu, Renovo Muite, Lavatio Nigh Nad Molt Molchu, Sileo Night Notch, Nox Month Mesyats, Mensis No Ni Moor Morose More, Mare Moroz, Rigor None 'i Nought 3 Nikto, Nemo rMertvuii Nose Nosada, Nos, Nasus Mortal <Smert, Mors Nostrils Nosdrya, Nares v-Umiraiu, Morior Oats Oves, Avena Mouse Muish, Mus One On, Ille jVIuck Mokr, Moknu, Madeo Edin and Odin, Unus Moknu, Humesco Ooze, Ozier Ozero, Stagnum Mokrui, Udus Out Ot, Extra .^lurder Ymertschvlyaiu Pale Bieliel, Pallidus Mute Niemui, Mutus Palace Palatka, Tabernacum My Moi, Meus Pay Biu, Ico Naked Nagii, Nudus Peace Pokoi, Pax Name Imya, Nomcn Pit Petschera, Caverna Nasty Nechistuii, Sordidus Pierce Proverchivaiu Need Nujda, Necessitas Pleat Pletu, Piccto Nadobno, Nccessuni Plough Plukh, Aratrum 343 English. Russian. English. Russian. Poet Poet, Cantat Rob Grabliu, Prffidor Pole Palka, Fustis Grabej, Spolium Pork Porosenok Borovstvo, Furtuni Pot Pile, Potus Roof Krovlva Port Vorota Rose Roza ■ Roe Rojdaiu, Gigno Pray Prosliu Rumble Gremhu, Tone Probity Pravda, Veritas Salt Sol Spravedliwost, Id. Scrape Skrebu, Rado, Scabo Rage Vrjda, Ira Scrub Skoblio, ditto Rave Revu, Boo Screech Krichu, Clamo Raven ^Voron, Corvus c Vorona, Cornix Ruichu, Rugio Skrejetschu Strideo Raze (Gruizu, Rodo vRazzoryaiu, Destruo Secret See Skruitno Siyaiu, Luceo Reach Ruka, Manus Seven Sedm, Septem Red Rein Ruijii, Rufus Remen, Lorum Sew ^Shiu cSvyazuivaiu, Jungo Rib Rebro, Costa Shoe Skoba Rive Rvu, Ruivaiu, Rupi Shop Pokupaiu, Caupona Otruivaiu, Runipo Siege Osada Pereruvaiu, Perseco Sister Sestra Podruvaiu, Subseco Sit Siju, Sedeo Rope Berovka Seat Sidienie 344 English. Russian. English. Russian, Six Shest Step Stupaiu,Scando,Cedo Sleep Spliu, Dormio Otstupaiu, Abscedo Sliepota, Caecitas Pristupaiu, Accedo Usuiplyain, Consopio Ystupaiu, Concedo Snow Sneg Zastupaiu, Intercedo Sock Sokha, Aratrum Nastupat, Succedere Sodder Soshnika, Vomer Soedinyaiu, Jungo Stool (Stul, Sedes (Stol, Mensa Son Suin Stone Postoyannuii, Stabilis Sore Sor, Sordes Story Stroiu, Struo Sound Voniu, Sono Stubble '^tebel, Stipula Vieniu, Tinnio Style Stul, Sedes Sow Seiu, Sero Suck Sosu, Sugo Seed Seinya, Semen Succour Skoruii, Skoro, Speed Speshu Festinanter Spine Spina, Dorsum Su e Proshu, Peto Spur Shpor Sun Solntse, Sol Spy fspuituivaiu Swine Swinya Stand Stoiu Swoon Son, Somnus Station Stan Tall Dolgii, Longus Stall Stoilo, Stabula Teach Uchu Postavleinaya, Tentorium Tear Terzaiu, Lacero Stavil Stavlyaiu Deru, rumpo Steel Stal Razdiraiu, Scindo sm English. Teat Thin Thorn Thrush To Tree Trumpet Twins Verge Vow Vo^'age War "Ware Water Well Wheat Busixtin, ritka I'onkii, Tenuis Fernie Drosd Do Derevo Truba Dwoini Bereg Bojusya, Juro Otvoju Voina Tovar> Merx Voda V^olna, Fluctus Pshenitsa, Jits, Far Engliitk Wheel When Whole VVidow Will Wind Wolf Wool Wrath Vellow Yet Koleso; Kogda Tsieluii Vdova Jelaiu, Volo, Avea Volya, Voluntas Vulno, Licet Volnuii, Liber Povelievaiu, Mando Vieyanie, Flatus Vieiu, Flo Volk Volna Vrjda Jelcb, V. Bile, Gali Etsche A VOCABULARY, GREEK AND RUSSIAN. Greek, Russian. Greek. Russian, ^Amvi Ukho, Auris TxXet, «KTOS Moloko, Lac ^Apoia ApXJJCO Oriu, Arc Razzoryaiu Zenaiu Bojyio} Pasu, Pasco rxuCw ■) Glotaiu ^ov\o[j.ai Jelaiu, Velle rXWTT* 3 Poglotschaio VOL. II. < i c ^ 346 Grak. AiMfiiin. Greek. AutMaii. T\ix f Klein, Glutino ' Glina, Argilla KXa<yw Plachu "^ Oplakivaiu ^ ^"^° KXaw Kliu, Cuneus ^leXeiv Razdielenie KXeiia Kleiu Aoxifji,a;^w Dokazuivaiu KXfK Kliuch, Clavis Daiu Odievaiu Khvaliu, Laudo ' Ehu) Jedal, Comedi KXifw Sklonnuii 'EiVea Viedaiii K.'kvoo-aiii Sluisliu Ev On 'K.oiXog Jolobovatuii 'Eoj Svoi, Suns 'K.OvTbJ Kopaiu El'^lBlV Jest KpccjixTOg Krovat Epf^w Krovlya, Tectum Kp/xcj Kriig Et, Etsciie KpUTTTW Kroiu, Tego, Lateo ©ixppw Derzaiu Skruivaiu, Occulto Qvpx Over Pokruivaiu ^Tego KaTpcf Vepre Nakruivaiu SOperio Kfa^ Serdtse Otkruituii, i\pertus Kv;tv| Kit KuAfO) Koleso, Rota K/o) Clioju, Eo, Ambulo, Hum Ax€e. KxIj-^xvcc Ylovljaiu, Lovlenie ifkhoju, Fugio Asujjai Blistaiu and Blesk r'rokhoju, Penetro Meye^og Pomogaiu 1 ^rikhojii, Accedo, adeo Mio-iyw Vlieshaiu ( )tklioju,abcedo,abeo Mu>.n VIelnitsa 347 Greek. Ruiiiati. Greek. ituSM'MI, NfOf Novuii, Novus OoXt;? Bolshe, Plus Tlaita. Bt« Biu, Caedo, Verbero ITsf. TTOiSof Pod, Infra Ubivaiu, Occido Podlie, Juxta Otbivaiu, Reverbero T/IO Pred, Prae Jliipw ^Burav and Napare, TTLI^O? Buk f Terebra Otvoryaiu, Aperio Pio.'. eppevnx ^ 'Pu'«$ S Rieka, Rivus Otversto, Aperte "E/Txcii. qu Stoiu Zapiraiu, Operio Perestaiu, Cesso, absisio neTO(*«i Ptitsa, Avis ^Stoyanie and Stan, Pticlika, Avicula } Statio iii'vw. n/o! Piu, Bibo, Poto PredstoiiJ, Adsto Pite, Pot us, Potio Postoyanstvo, Con- Pet, Potor stantia Ili'VW Pitiii, Potulentus Otstoiu, Disto TiW Vuipivaiu, Epoto Ostaiusya, Resto Vuipit, Ebibere St£X£%OJ Stol, Mcnsa ITurTa) Padaiu STfV«C^ Stenu rioTj'^« Napoitsya, Imbibere ST^WWUfi!.* Stroiu, Construo IlAla; Plavaiu, Navigo, Fluito ToT£ Togda, Tunc Plavanie, Navigatio cDXo$ Losk Vuipluivaiu, Enavigo Oom Zvoniu, Sono nxfM Polnuii, Plenus ^tfaTvip Brat Napolnyaiu, Impleo XoAvi Jelch 3 c 2 348 EXTRACT FROM A VOCABULARY, LATIN AND Rl SJ!IAN. Latin. Russian. Latin. Russian. Latin. Russian. Agnus Agnets Jugum [go Prope ■) Podlie A per Vepr Jus Sud Ad pedes ) Angulus Ugol Latro, V. Laiu Pulvis Puil Asellus Oslik Lingo Liju Rugio Ruikaiu Baculus Barba Palka Boroda Linum Malleus Len Molot Rapio ) Abripio 5 Otruivaiu Brachium Ruka Mare More Ros Rosa Cast us Chistui Margo Bereg Rupi Rvu Cudo Kuiu Medium Mejdu Abrumpo Otruivaiu Culmen Kholnij Jiigum Mens Mnienie Ructo Ruigaiu Domus Dom Molo Meliu, Sal Sol Duo ■ Dvajdui Morior Mru Scutum Pschit Flamma Planien Mors Smert Seco Seku Furor V^oruiu Mugio Muichu Sedeo Siju Fur Vor Nescio Meznaiu Sosedaiu SimuljSedeo Gluten Glina Ovis Ovtsa Sedile Sidiel Glutio filotaiu Plango Plachu Semen Semya Ignis Ogon Plecto Pletu Septem Sedm Inclioo Nachinaiu Porta Vorola Siccus Sukhii Induo NTadievaiu Post Poslie Siliqua Shelukha Itum rtti Precor Proshu Sol Solntse Judico "^iiju Pridie Pcred Somus Son Judex Sudya Probus Pravednui Sono Zvoniu 349 tatin. Uussian. Lafin. nussiun. Latin. /i usiiatt. Sordes Sor Valde Velikii V'ico Vyaju Stipula Stebel Veho V^czu Obvivaiu Succus Sok Ventus Vietr Vivo Jivu Suo;o Sos Ventilo Vieiu Vita Jivot Tenuis Tonkii Video Viju Voluntas Volya Tepor Tero Teplota ^Tru cRastiraiu Verto ; Torqueo 3 Verchu Volo Jelaiu We have here taken a very transient view of the Russian language; yet from this we may venture to affirm, not merely, that a considerable part of it has an affinity to English, German, Spanish, Galic, Sanscrit, Latin, Greek and Hebrew; but that these languages are radically one. It is clear, that the Russians have been fond of forming new com- pounds and of abbreviating old ones. It is equally clear, that thej have not only substituted for each other consonants, which have organic affinity, but have adopted many arbitrary changes peculiar to themselves, and, like other nations, have, by dint of their mutations and contrac- tions, made one word represent various notions, with which originally it had no connexion. In the analysis of Russian expressions we have more than common difficulties. Had we a succession of writers, from remote antiquity, as in Greek, to which we might refer, we should then be able to trace the successive changes, which have happened to this language. But whilst the Slavonian hordes wandered with their flocks over extensive plains, or 350 hid themselves in the dark recesses of their forests, they had not the use of letters. We must not therefore wonder, that in the Russian language there should be numerous expressions, which cannot be analysed. These are evidently compounds; but so contracted, that the root can no longer be discovered. In those words, which have been selected for my vocabularies, the novice in languages may be at a loss to trace affinity between Russian, Greek and Latin; but, to remove his difficulties, he must ever bear in mind, that abbreviations are the wheels of language, the wings of Mercury. These, therefore, to the adept, will not create embarrassment, and much less will the mutation of consonants, such as all nations have adopted. By other mutations the novice may be exceedingly perplexed, when change of vowels, change of consonants, and change of meaning, in any given word, unite to conceal the radical expression and the original notion from which he is to trace its deviation. Of these, numerous instances have occurred to us in the progress of our investigations. SJLAYONIAW, VV HAT has been said of the Russian, will apply to the Slavonian; but it must be observed, that the former is a dialect of the latter, which embraces Lusatian, Polish, Bohemian, Moravian, Croatian, Carinthian, Carniolan, Bosnian, Servian, Albanian, Dalmatian, Hungarian, Bul- garian, &c. Their letters resemble, but are not all precisely the same in figure. Both conform nearly to the Greek. This language, so extensively diffused, is exceedingly corrupt. It is evidently derived from some dialect of the Greek, chiefly from the iEolic, and has some connection with the Sanscrit. This will appear, when we examine the vocabulary, to which I immediately proceed. I might have given this in the Appendix, but I am of opinion, it will be more profitable to the student to place it here. It is not to be expected, that the affinity should be self-evident in every word ; but the practised eye will readily discern features of resemblance. 352 « It must be observed, thai A is pronounced as in far; E, in the begin« iiing of a word, like yea, and in the middle like A in fate; J like S in pleasure; I, like E in me; Y, as U in bull; shtch, as in parish-church i lU, as U in cure; UI, as Y, or rather as UI in liquid. But A, if followed by two consonants, becomes O, and the consonants are separated by O; thus glaka becomes goloka. SLAVONIAN VOCABULARY. Siattmian, Slavonian. Slavonian. Aggl Agnets Agnus, af^vOi, Bitcli, V. Bitie B,letchanie Flail Lightning Boroda, ^Barba, a ' beard Aer Bleyu /3Xv]%ft;(ji.i3ri Borov Boar j\lector aXey-TCiip Blcyaniya Balatus Boroniu A furrow Aris kp^,i Blistanie Splendour Botiu ■niaivai Banya Bdiu Balneum Video, Vigilo Bloud Bled A blot Pallidus Botelyi ^ Fat, butter Bditel Vigil Bledneyu Pallesco Bruda Beard Bdyenie Vio-ilia Blyadibyi Blatero Brat Frater Bercza A birch Bodou A bodkin P.rov Brow, fiCppuj Beru (pe.fic Bojva A vow Brod Ford Bilo Fl age 11 urn Boi War Bouk A beech Biba A batUe Bolma Full, %Xio./ Bouivol Bubalus Bitie A beating Boloto Bl()t,Lutni). Bouravok A borer Bitch A flail Bolschii Mil) or, Plu.- Bourav Bore Biyou Bix^w Ttxlca Borenic Worry Bouraviu I bore 353 Slavonian. \ .Buk Bjvayu • Byvanie Byvait Beg Bejdenie Bclia Bejdou Vaga Vajdenie Valenie Yalyaia Vas Vat Vdova Velii Vedro Velenie Veliu Vepr A'crtlo Vert ; Vertograd 5 VOL. ir. A. beech Be Being Fit Fuga Bia Pale WeJcrh c Accusatio Fall V'oivo Vestruni Vat Vidua vhpLX A. com man d I will command A per Terebra [Tortus SliKOnian. Vcrch Vesna Vetchost Vetchii Vetschaiu Vctschou Vetscbanit Vetscher Vjigaiu Vzemaiii Vidiniyi Vid V^igdou Virscha Vitie Vino pi tie Viiu Vienie j Vkaus Vklonyaiu Viagaiu Vlas Vlekou Vmiecheiiie Vertex Vernus Vetustas Vetus V^eterasco Invetero fnveteratio Vespera y.xio) Assume Visibiles Video Verse Tie Slavonian, Vmeryaiu Voda Vodoupiiu ^ Vodopitie S Vojdu Vozdvoyaiu Vozdaiu Vozlagaiu Vozlojenie ^ Vozlejou 3 Vozmezdie ") leo gustus, yev^u Impoiio, lay on Villus, pilus tXnciJ 3d V^ozmezdyaiu Vozmnjno Vostanie Vostorgaiu Voina Vol Volokou Volenie Volopas Volna { Water V'eho, duoo Reduplico Reddo Lay Lodge, lay Retribuo 3 Might, may qxcri; Tear War Bull i'Xxo; Volitio Bubulcus Lana, "svool Veil us Wool, V. 354 'Slavonian, Volk, XvHog Voliu Vop Vopiiu Vor Vordiu Vosk Voskormlyaiu Vostanie Vostaiu Vostorgaiu Vpadaiu Yrana, vorona Vrata Vratar Vryvaiu Vreiu Vscliuveziiji Vtjkaiu Vehod Vtschera Vschivaiu Lupus, wolf Vulpes Volo, will Vociferatio /3oft;. vocifero Fur Furo Cera, wax Nutrio xvxquJic Tear 'TTiTT/iJ Porta Porter Infodio, furrow Brew ^Omnibus c Amicus Stick, Infigo Go Ilcri Insuo Slavonian. Vypivaiu Vedaiu Veiu Vetr, Vietr Vyajou Gai Gat Gladkii Glaber Glava Glagol Glagoliu Glas Glina Glotka Gnezdo Golouve ^ Golub S Golot Gora Gorve Gorka Gorschc Ebibo oihcc. eiSoi Ventiio Ventus Vincio, vico (Comix, a ^ jay Strata via in paludibus K£(p«Xvi. globe Kcyog Vox, y\cc(r(rx yMx. Argilla Gutlur, y^OTTa; Columbus Glacies opog Curvus 7l opog Worse Slavonian. Gorenie Goriu Gospod Gost Gradeg Grad G orod Grad Gramota Grau Gratsch Grakaiu Grov Grount Gryzou Greiu Goriu Gryaz Go us Davaiu Davatel Datcl zupoa, "li^S KUCJOc llOSt H OS pes (Host, guest A hedfje A city, -1^;; Grando <ypu\i-[j.x opioy. limes nopci'^, corvus y.pay.i^a. croak Grave (The base ( ground Graze [ warm Mud, dirt Goose Si$ct}ii.i. do Dator 355 Slavonian: Davanie Davno Daleko Daliu Dan Darovatel Daroni Darouiu Dva Dvadesyat Dvajdy Dver Dvernick Dvoiu Dennji Den Dennitsa Derzaiu Derou Desyat Dnes Do Dodaiu Diu Far off Dally Tributum Gratis, donuiu Sctipsacv Svoj. two \^is;inii Duo, bis Door Janitor Divido, duo Diurnus Dies Lucifer Dare Tear Decern Hodie To, at, in Addo Slavonian. Slavonian. Dolina A dale Jena ywv) Doma Dom Domi Domus Jivou, Jvu ((ipdu}. vivo, C chew Doska Desk Jivot Vita Dostoit Decet Jija Jusculum, juice Dotsch Daughter Za Six Drasrii Dear Zaviduiu [nvideo Dragost Caritas Zagryzaiu Graze Drevo Tree Zakalaiu Jugulo Drova Dremliu Ligna Dormito Zaklej'aiu f Agglutino ^Glue Drojdie Dross Zakrivljaiu Incurvo Drosd Thrush Zakryvaiu yipUTTTu Dymno Fumosus,dim Zalagaiu Lay down Delenie Deal Zgaraiu Comburo Delia Deal Zerno Graiium,corn Ed in Unus Zima Hyems Ediniu Unio Zigaiu Hio Epkop Esm ETTiO-KOTrOf Sum, Ei[ji.{ Zlato rCold, sec cyellow Jovaiii Chew Znaemyi Notus Jgou HXiU Znak Sign urn Jelt Yellow Znanienaii5 2 rv)[j^lKJVW Jeltsch Fel, bile, gall 1 Znanie •: /VUO'lj 3 D 2 556 Slavonian. Slavonian. Slavonian. Znaiu Know Kareta Carpentum Legkost Levitas Igla Acus Karman Crumena Legtschou Levo Igo Jugum, yoke Kaya ■rrOlx Lokaiu ) XSI%C-J Idu Eg Kii Quis, qui Ligu ) Lick Idi rto Kliniu •aXuu Luk Leek Iz ^Exjincom- Kliutsch Clavis Litra AiTpiZ c position Klei y.oxxcc, tyXiz Liubliu I love ( Excorio, 1 Koja Coat Liubliu Lascivio Izdiraiu Kw^ohipoi Kozel Caper, goat Loje Lectus, lodging; Izytie Evito Koleso Calash Malakiya [j.aXz'Aix Iskonpdio Redimo, caupo Kopiu fleap Marnier Marmor Izlagaiu Educo Korkaiu Crocito Mater Mater lito (UTog K,ost Ossis Mejdou Mediuni- Izpivaiu Ebibo Kot Cat us, cat Mladyi Lad Iztiraiu Extero Krakaiu Crocito Mleko Milk 11 Uligo Kratiu Curto Mne Mihi Im Him Krebat Crib Mnee Minus Iskanie Ispolnenie Scan Full, fill Krest Krokos Crux Crocus Mogoutuyi (Mighty Clxsye^og Istina x'kv.^eiz. iq/,ij.i Koub Cup Mogou May, can Istiayaiu Take out Koubscliin Lagena Mojno Possible Ischod i^ohog Koupouiu Caupo Moknou Muck, madco Kabak Caupona Legu Lie Mo k rot a Humiditas, muck Kapousta Cabbage Legkic Light Mokryi Hutnidus, muck 35r S7flroJii"a«. Slavonian, Slavonian. f Monach i^fOj Napadaiu f I fall into Oralo i A.ratrum Monaschkii 1*0 VOf (ttittIo; Oranie A ratio t More Mare Nasch Noster Oratch \rator Mor. j.xpxiVCil. plagae Ne Ne, non Organ Jrganura Moch Muscus Nebidnyi Obscure ^)riu Aro Motschiusya Madeo Nemog Nequeo Osel Asellus Motscheu ]\Irou ^Esm valco, ' I am mighty Morior Neznaiu Neposstoya- istbouiu Fgnoro ^Instabilis Otels Otsko Paba Pater, aTTa Ocellus Pavo Moucha Musca Neprochodno Go Padaiu TTiTTW My We Nige Nee Pakidaiu Red do Mya Me Ni Non Pakipoiu Recanto Myaso Mess, meat Nibo Nove Pastbinnyi Pascuus Nadaiu Appono Nozdri Nares Pastyr Pastor Nagii I Nudus, ( Naked Nos- Notsch Nasus- Nox Pachotnik Pekou Agricola Coquo Najou Nudo Oba Ambo Periu Prius Nadlagaiu Lay, appono Obitaiu Habito Pika Pike Nadstoiu [nslo Obtscha Ovis Platsclilibyi Plango Nakrybaiu ■/.pvT^Tca Obes Oats Platschou Ploro Nalaganie Lay, impositio Ogn [o-nis Pletou Plico, pleat Nalagaiu Lay,impono Ognitschc Rogus Plabaiu Fluito Nalojnitsa r Lodging, (Concubine Oko On Oculus One, he Planta Plamen Plank Flamrna. 358 Slavonian, Slavonian. Slavonian. Pobar Coquus, ^eTrl 111 Predbedatel A prophet Repa Rapum Poberyaiu Probo Predanie Proditio Sakos Saccus Pogrebaiu ^ Grave, cl bury Predlog Predpomogaiu Prepositio Auxilio Sam Saraoliubie Same love, self love Pod Pede, under Presbyter Presbyter Sberdel Bore, terebra Podabaiu Trado Pribiraiu I collect Sbiniya Swine Podarok Donum Pridanie Additio Se Ecct; Podatel Dator Prisedaiu Assideo Sedm Septem Poddanyi Subject Probijvou Praevideo Serdtsc Cor Podpadaiu TTiTTTW Prodaiu V'endo Slouga Servus, sluggard Pokou Pax Protibo, lejou Coiitrajaceo, lay Slepyi Caecum, sleep Polagaiu Lay, pono Profibobozdaiu Reddo Slepiu Cascum facio Polk Folk, agmen Prcjtibo- 2 Contranavigo Smert Mors Pole Field plabaiu S ttAuVW Sneg Nix Polnos ■n-oXvg Prochojdenie Peregrinatio, go Sol Sal Pomogaiu Might, aJjiivo Ptitsa ttSTSIVOV Soliu Salio Posled Postea Pout oSog Solitsche Sol Posva2;aiu Spouse, uubo Pyat TrBUTS Son Sopor, somnus Potir ^OTi^piOV Razstoiu Disto, «7V5|j^i Sosets mamma, suck Poia Cano, TOivjfiiz flasterzanie Ruptio, tear Sosedaiu Sedeo, simul X^rabda Probus Remeu Rein Sopletaiu Connecto, TrXf%a Prabo Probus Rosa Ros Sopostat Rebellis, sto Prabji Probus Rouka Reach, hand Spliu I sleep I'iMbosoudcls Justus, piobus Rytchou Rugio Spanie Sopor 359 Slavonian, Slavonian. Slavonian. SpogrebctJu ^Gravc, Csimul sepelio Styajou Styajanie Possldeo Possessio Tcmno Tern ni 11 Dim [ dim Spech rFestinatio Stynjatel Soudiya Possessor ludex Tcper Teplota Fcpid Tepor Speschou ^Festino (g-^evSa Soujdou Souchoya Judico A rid a Tcpleiu Terzaiu Caleo, tepeo Tear Sosou Sugo, libera Soucho S'lcch Ternie Thorn Statiya Status Soutschou Sicco Tertie Tritura Stabliii Stabilis Sedalitsche Sedilc Tertyi Trims Steniu qBvct^a. qsuco Sejou Sedeo Titki Teat Stol Mensa, stool Seden Sessio Tigr Tigress Stenananie qevxyij.oi Sekou Seco I'kanie Textura Stomacli Stomachus Semya Semen Togda Tunc, TOTS Stamna qaij.vo; Seiu Semi no Togdaje Eodem tempore Stopa Pedale, spatium Seyanie Seminatio Tt)rgaiii Lacero, tear Stopanogi The sole of a foot Seyatel Sator Trapeza Tpzva^iz Stopanojnaya Vestidium Siudy Semino Trepetshou Trepid Stoiu Sto, maneo Taler Talerus Tretii Tertius Stoiuokrest ^Quiesco, 'Circumsto Talant Teboe Talentum Tuuni Tret Tretschou Tertia Strido Stoilo Stabulum Tboi, Tvoi Tuus Tri Tpix. Tpeit Stoianie Static Tebe Tui, Tibi Troe Tpif Stoyatschii Stabilis Tekou Curro Ty, Tui '7:v. <n> Stoud Pudor Teiiinost Dimness Tya Te 360 Slavonian, Slavonian, Slavoniatii Ouddoyaiu Ougl Duplico, Svu Angrulus Ouskoryaiu Oupadaiu Festino Chotenie CVolutio (.Choice Oug Ano-uis Oucho A uris Chod Iter Ouj Oulagaiu Anguis Struo, lay Ouje Chleb Loaf Chotschou (Aveo <- Choose Oupadaiu Oupibaiu Cado, TTiTrTw Ebibo,, TT/i/w Cham'ina (Domus cChiQiney Chojdou Schiiu Go Suo Oumiraiu Morior Choi Ml CoUis, culraus Younost Juventas In its grammar the Slavonian is exceedingly confused. It was not to be expected, that uncivilized hordes, wandering with their flocks among mountains, or over boundless plains, without historians, without poets, and without letters, should be good gram- marians. They had the use of speech; but, at a distance, they had no means to communicate their thoughts ; nor could they transmit these to ^ucceedino; generations. Their pronouns are — ya, ti, on; mi, wi, oni; I, thou, Sec. The substantive verb runs thus — esm, ese, est; esra, est, soit; I am, iScc. -Boodu, I shall be; bood, be thou. Boodon, let him be; bit, to be. Tlie form of the verbs in some measure agrees with the Russian. Daju or daiu, I give; dal!, I gave; dam, 1 will give; day, give; dat. to give. Its radicals are comparatively few; but, like the Greek, it is fond of compounds. It has more than three hundred with the preposition pro, ^.nd more than twelve hundred witli pre and pri, answering to prcc 361 Professor Michaells regards the Bohemian, PoHsh and Vanda?ia« diahxts of the Slavonian, as poor in the extreme, when compared with the Russian, which on philosophic subjects has borrowed freely from the Greek. As spoken in Lusatia, formerly a province of Bohemia, it is the poorest of all languages; being here confined to rustics. In Poland it is corrupted to the last degree; but it is still Slavonian. Yet in the midst of all its corruptions, we may discern a remarkable affinity bet\yeen it and Galic. To this I have already called the attention of the reader, but I must again remind him, that in the numerals, in the substantive verb, and in numerous verbs, both of universal and of daily use, there is a clear, distinct and well decided affinity. This affinity it is extremely difficult to trace in Polish, because it has duplicates of C, of W, of L, of N, and of Z, which are most abundant, and seem to be needlessly introduced. The first C has the sound of either ts or tsh, as in cukier, sugar, pro-, nounced tsookier, and pec, to drink, pronounced pitsh. The second C is articulated as tsie, as in yesc, to eat, sounded like yestsie. W in the beginning of a syllable is V, in the end it is F. Z has three distinct sounds. Thus noz is pronounced noosh, czar is char, koszula is koshoola, wieczor is vietchore, and wacpan is vatspan, I here subjoin a few examples of Polish, to exhibit tlje genius of this language. VOL. II. 3 £ 362 Able, mozney i acid, octet; add, przidawam ; all, csall : am, Jestem ; apple, Jab loji ; arm, ramie; ash,jesion; ass, osiel. Baker, piekar ; beat, hiti; both, ohadwa ; bread, cldkh ; breast, /jzem; brother, hrat; burn, goram; buy, kupiiie; by, podlie. Cabbage, kapusta; cat, kotka ; c\\o'\CQ, chezizsosct; choose, c/zce; clay, glhia; clean, czisti; coach and cart, kotczi; cook, kucharz ; cross, krziz ;: crow, kruk cind wrona ; cry, wolain ; cup, kiijlik and kubek ; craft, kunst. Day, dzicn; deal, dzielie ; death, smiercz ; dig, grzebe ; door, drzzn^j ;. double, dwoie ; drink, j^ye. Ear, 2<c^o ; eat, ?ew ; eating, iedzenie ; egg, jV/«e ; eye, oko. One, jeden; two, rfa'c; three, ^ra; four, czterzi; five, p?cc,~; sis» 32:esc2:; seven, siedm; eight, 05??« ; nine, dziewiec; ten, dzesziec. Give, f/aie; given, dany ; giver, dawca; gift, f/ar. Ojr THB JLATIM LANGUAGE. E learn from the best historians, that Latlum and Gra3cia-magna were peopled from Elis and Arcadia, whose first inhabitants derived their origin from the Avestern coast of Asia Minor, being principally Cohans and lonians, who were Pelasgic colonists. Of this origin we shall have no doubt, when we shall have examined the languages of Greece and Rome; for Latin is little more than the ^olic dialect of Greek. Such was distinctly the opinion of Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, and of Quintilian. With the utmost propriety therefore, Lennep, after minute investi- gation, concluded " Lingua Latina, si excipiamus panca verba Sabina et externa vocabula, nihil aliud est quam iEolico-Graeca. (Vol. iii, p. 45.) From ancient inscriptions, collected by Fabretti, we learn, that the Roman alphabet had eighteen letters, A, B, C, D, F, F, H, I, K, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, R, S, T. The characters were Grecian, and therefore 3 E 3 564 probably the first inhabitants brought with them the Pelasgic alphabet, to which in subsequent periods they made additions. The radical Pelasgic alphabet of Father Gori, which Astle conceives to be the most correct, contains only twelve characters. These are A, E, V, I, K, L, M, N, P, E, S, T; but, in addition to these, ancient inscriptions, which were found at Eugubiura, a city of Umbria, have H. The letter G was not in use till after the first Punic War, when it was introduced by Spurius Carvillus. Before that time, C supplied the place of k and 7. Thus, in the Columna rostrata of Duillius, we read, " Macestratos, Leciones, Cartacinenses, Pucnando," &c. In tracing the affinity between Latin and Greek, it will be seen, that, whilst some words, and these even radical, remain perfectly the same in both languages, others not only change their voyels, but admit of trans- position, addition, and subtraction, with considerable substitution of one consonant for another, not merely of the same, but of different Organs. Thus we observe, not only that the several classes of homo- geneous consonants, B, P, F, M and V — C, G, K and Q — D and T, glide respectively into each other's place, but that M and N, with L and II — H and S, readily submit to the same law, and are used one for the olher. These permutations are common to all languages; but the Roman people seem to have assumed the privilege of converting G into D and N, L into D and G, D into B, G, L, R and S, K into P and F, P into C, K, G and L, R into S, and T into F. Tiicy seem likewise to have inserted L, as in filius, from eviog or Fuiot ; fulica, from (paii^; halo, from Aft>; palatum, from Uocw; salus and salvus, from Xaoj; and trochlea. from Tpoxoi. In conformity to this practice, we liave converted fuga into flight, and IleSiov into field. One of the most striking features of resemblance between Latin and the iEolic dialect of Greek, is to be observed in the use of the digamma, as a substitute for the aspirate. The arbitrary, ^^anton and violent changes, ivhich have taken place in the original language of Latium, since the time of the first arrival of colonies from Greece, have rendered it extremely difficult to trace the affinity between the Latin and other languages distantly allied to it. Thus lingua and tongue discover no connexion ; but when we observe, that the ancient word was dingua, we immediately trace the features of resemblance between this word and tongue. The strict analogy between the Greek and Latin Grammars, as far as relates to the inflexions of nouns and verbs, cannot escape the attention of the learned. Of the nouns, Lennep forms two principal divisions; the first parisyllabic, the second imparisyllabic ; and these he subdivides into five declensions. I. Parisyllabic. 1. Nouns of the first declension terminate in a, e, as, es, answering to 2. Those of the second end in us, um, answering to og, ov. II. Imparisyllabic, 1. These may terminate in a, e, o, c, 1, n, r, st, or x, in Latin; «, i, •j **» fi <r» «r ^> ia Greek, and are impurely declined, as Aexc^i^, hkpvof. S6i 2. They may terminate in us, purely declined, as i^oTpvg, fioTfivo^^ manus, manuis, which the Romans contracted into manus. 3. They may terminate in m? or £^. Av)[A(33-&£i/ii?-foj-£r. Dies, diei, in the dative. x\Ithough Lenncp has considered the declensions as being five, it may be observed, that originally they were no more than three; because the fourth and fifth were anciently included in the third, and were not con- tracted as in succeeding ages. The Greek Adjectives terminate in ce;, a, uv, o?, ii, ou, or eg, c(, ov, t'.g. '5?^?, '^rx^x, 'zxv, nxXoi;, y.xXvi, nxXov, xyio?, ccyix, xyLOv. The Latin terminations are us, a, um; bonus, bona, bonum. The Fronouns in the singular number have preserved similitude. Eyw, e-u, and anciently of, answering to ego, tu, is. In the accusative these become Ef/.£, o-£, I; me, te, eura. The possessives have a similar resem- blance, £/jto?, vwiTfpof, £0?, meus, noster, ejusi. In the Numerals we distinctly trace analogy. Ev, Zvx, Tfeig, T£<7a-«p£r and T£7T«p£r, 'ZaVTt, l^, e-!rrrre^ OKTOJ, evV£X, SsKa, VjliY.X, 5«5«J<,X, K. T. X. Unus, duo, tres, quatuor, quinque, sex, septem, octo, novem, decem, undecem, duodecem, &c. Betvyeen either Tfa-jix^ss or T^TTizgfj and quatuor, ther? obviously ajp- pears no connexion. But instead of Tecra-xpa and TBTTxpe;, we meet with -!ritrvp£i and TtiiTu-xpeg, and we know thjit in thq.4ioil;iiC dialeqt '^ is converted into ", as in xwj- for ni^g, and y-oiov for 'joiov. It might be difficult to conceive in what manner quinque could have been derived from ■rrevie, did we not know, thi^t th?; iEolic dj^lejCt, is liHe- tvise in the habit of converting t intoT, and, tha,t, by iliQs? fluitatioos,. iri)/r£ may have been cdnvevted into quinque. In i^ and tTrTa (he aspirater ■gives place to the sibilant. The Prepositions and other particles display the same affinityj parti- cularly <5;'ro, ab ; ^'^ti, ante; £k and £s, ex; fv, in; vf., ne; t^o, prte; cw, Gum; uB-tp, super; uTo^sub; ti, si; eti, ct; x^i, ac; ouk, ncc; o'l, hei ; o&£v, unde ; -^ov, ubi. The Feris in their structure and inflexions mark a radical identity, and prove that Greek and Latin have a near relation to each other. Mr. Jones, in his valuable Grammar of the Greek tongue, judiciously re- marks, that verbs consist of a pronoun expressing the agent, together with a noun, which is expressive of the object; and in his opinion, the terminations w, ek ei, o^j^ev, ers, cvti, were originally personal pronounsj subject, however, to changes, like all other parts of speech. He derives the terminations w from fyw, and (^.i from ey-e; and in like manner ei, from £. Now as the pronouns in Latin are evidently allied to those of Greek, so are many terminations of its verbs. Of this we can have no doubt in the first and second persons singular, both of the indicative and thef subjunctive moods. In the first and third persons plural it is not so- evident, till we recollect in what manner the venerable Doric formed its first person plural. For as eyu becomes e^-e, so, by analogy of the third declension, £f*£ becomes ffx-fs, and in this dialect we find TvwTO[j.es and ETuv^afx-e.;, we beat, which in subsequent ages became TinrTOiJ.ei^, and £'7u^4/«f*£^'. Hence the Latin forms its first person plural, not in n, but in s,. 368 The third persons plural seem to be equally discordant in these Ian-, guages ; for we can trace no analogy between dant and AiSun, but t between dant, AiSovtxi, eSovro, and Soivto the analogy is clear. In like manner, amanto, ysvoivro and tioiv^o mark the affinity, as dialects of one language, between Greek and Latin. In Welch, hwynt means theg, and from it both these languages derive the nt. Both the Greek and Latin, in the formation of their moods and tenses, have recourse to the auxiliary verb £<(>-«, sum. In the last syllable of amen we have distinctly e/f^t, which, although less distinctly, appears in amabam. In amafi, f^t is converted into vi. In amavissem, we have amavi and essem. As we proceed, it will be rendered evident, that both in Greek and Latin the substantive verb is composed of fragments de- rived from verbs, which in Sanscrit exist perfect and intire. From what has been here stated, it is sufficiently clear, that Greek imd Latin are radically one. But should the student retain doubts upon this subject; these will be speedily removed by a reference to the voca- bulary, which he will find in the Appendix. 369 ON THE MOUC DIGAMMA. rr luis been imagined, that Homer as a poet availed himself of his privilege, and occasionally adopted tlio several dialects of Greece, but chiefly the .-Eolic and Ionic. This however cannot be |)roved. It is even probable, that the most ancient poet of Greece wrote in the language of his day, which in pro- cess of time gave birth to dialects, namely, the TEolic and Ionic. We know that Latin branched oif at a very early period, and is tEoHc. Hence the yEolic digamma is found in such words as are aspirated in Greek, and have not either the sibilant or a gutteral. Ancient manu- scripts explain this mystery. The Greek, like the Irish and the Welch is extremely fond of aspirates. These being at various periods differently formed, we sometimes find C, sometimes F or V. Pindar used V, as in ccvxto-m for aFatan, a.\ji\j%Qi for «Fia%o^. 'EXta; is by Herodotus called TsX^i. The lonians therefore had the digamma. The ^Eolians wrote FotxtaK for "oiVAxv and F^uto for auTo, In the Sigaean marbles, 500 j'ears, A. J. C, V is used in place of F. In the Heraclean Table, C is frecpient, as in Ct^, and Qilw, and Mazzocchi thinks it corresponds to V of the Latin. Salmasius informs us, tliat the /Eolians insert S between the vowels, and says Mohs, qui nuruiuam aspirabaut, partim l>^v\j.(px luvv dicchant partim Nu(>.(pa;7«v. Like them the Romans converted the aspirate into the sibilant, and therefore wrote sex for Vi and musa for muha. In Leuconia they said VOL. II. 3 r 370 TIxx Mwa for Trao-a: fAous-a, and for F they used B and P, as in Bp^^up for TviTwp, 'B:tSu for aSv, that is for y,5v. It is understood that the aspirates, the double letters, and the long vowels were invented in times subsequent to Cadmus. For the aspirated letters $ and % the ancients used -s- and k, as for instance, ccij-tco for «fj^(pw, SiOTTOfji.'Trof for 0fO7ro(j(,wO5, Siw for &£co, e'TtTiiccvTO for fK(pi5;vT0, £T£i;KHO(ii.£voj for The Museum of Nani, in Venice, has an inscription, which is attri- buted to the age before the Trojan war, and in which are seen ey.rr^^xvToi for fK(pavTW, fl:fji,£{ji,7rvif5 for x[i.e[t,(p£(, f7rfUKV]0(ji-fvof for freu^offc^i/or, and Tpoirviov for qpo<pov. The Sigean inscription, in a town built on the ruins of Troy, has Hfp(>.oxp«Toy for Tou Epij.0 npxTOV;, y.Soiixfj.veij,ot for eSurnz [i.vvi[kx, uauovot for 'Ato-WTTOJ, and uaSeKCpot for aSeX(poi. From Athens we have HaSa evioi ■!tj'ks\t.oi for oiha av tco TroXsjxw. In these H is the aspirate, and it must be remembered that uTiZ answers precisely to heth of the Hebrew, and was originally the aspirate in Greek. In the Lamina Borgiana we find Fomixv for hnixv. Felia and Helia in Pliny are the same word. The ancient Greeks prefixed F to most words which begin with a vowel. For this the Romans substituted H, as for instance, hordeum for for- deum. For ItxXo( they wrote vitulus. The Eolians said fipi^Top for Pvnwp. S and N took place of the aspirate. In Festus we have Necritu for iEtrritudo. Priscianus called the digamma gravior aspiratio. It must always be remembered that their orthagraphy was unstable. Erunt was written 371 erihont, crafont, and eriront. In the most ancient Latin inscriptions we find lases for lares, triumpe for triuniphe. The letter in question is called digamma from its figure, not from its power. It is in fact a double gamma, but its power is that of F, and I have no doubt that it was originally an aspirate. It is remarkable, that the Greek aspirate should become a labial in Latin, and equally remarkable that in Spanish, derived from Latin, this labial should again become an aspirate, as in hoja folium, hijo filius, haba faba, hacer facere, haz facies, hablar fabulari, hado fatum, halcon falco, hcbilla fibula, herir ferire, bender findere, heno foenuin, hermoso formosus, hilo filum, hiel fel, hondo funda, hongo fungus, horca furca, horma fornm, &c. In ancient Latin we observe fuvo, fuvi, fuvimus and fluvo for fluo, whence we derive fluvius. These observations will assist us in accounting for the labial which is introduced into the middle of words derived from Greek. 3 f2 ON THE GREEK JLAMGFAGE. J-N our schools we learn first Latin, then Greek: and here, as far as relates to languages, our education ends. To the latter, attracted by its superior beauty, we turn our principal attention; we admire its com- position and consider it as a model of perfection. In this language are displayed such tokens of deliberate contrivance, that some learned men have been led to form a rash conclusion, and have imagined, that the whole, from its first elements, originated in Greece, and was the work of art, the production of consummate skill. That it has been highly polished and refined by art, is evident: but the substance remains the same as when imported by the pristine hordes, which, migrating from the East, and spreading themselves ti^wards the West, arrived in Asia-minor, and from thence crossed over into Greece. As long as hunters and nomade fiimilies either built hovels in the woods, or wandered in tents over extensive plains, seeking pasture for their flocks; this language must have continued rude. But when cities 373 arose; when civil polity became established; when agriculture, manu- factures and commerce iiourished ; whcij lice governments were intro- duced; when, for deliberation, the citii^ens met frequently in each republic; when the orator, in these assemblies acquired celebrity and power; when historians wrote; and when bards exerted all their skill to gain renown; when taste improved; and when the ear was progressively attuned to harmony of diction; then the rude elements assumed a grace- ful form, and the language of a polished people attained that degree of perfection, which we now admire. It is indeed worthy of the praise it has universally received. Yet we must be careful lest, dazzled by its lustre, we should too readily acquiesce in the claims, which have been urged in ils behalf. To correct our misapprehensions, we must not confine our attention to one languao-e; we must look around us, and examine others to the East and to the West, to the North and to the South, that we may dis- cern the common elements, of which they all consist. For this purpose I shall begin my investigation Avith the substantive verb. Substantive Verbs, being constantly and indispensibly needful to dis- course, must have been retained by the successive generations of man- kind in every climate, must have attended them to the most distant countries, and must have been transmitted to their children less changed in the progress of society, than other terms descriptive of those objects, which either occasionally occurred to them in their migrations, or which new wants obliged them to invent. Yet, upon a transient view, to the unpractised eye, these verbs appear to be peculiar to each nation, and to have no correspondence with terms of the same import in any Ian- 374 guage, which may have been received as tiic first language of the human race. If we consider our own substantive verb, in its several moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, we must be struci< with its irregularity. It has no bond of union, nothing in common between its discordant parts. Each portion is detached ; it stands alone, independent of every other, and cannot possibly be traced to one original expression. I am; he is; we are; they were; be thou; I was; I have been; I shall be; 1 should be; I will be; I would be. Of these expressions, which can be considered as the one from which all the rest proceed? Or by wliat rule can we trace the various branches to one common stem? By none ; for it is impossible, that such inco- herent members, collected at different times, and which have met by accident, can be considered as one body. The fact is, and this I shall immediately demonstrate, they are scattered fragments of different verbs, which have survived the general wreck, and have been transmitted to us from our remote progenitors. And I may add, we shall be soon con- vinced, that the substantive verb in Greek and I^atin also is composed of fragments. Am readil}' connects itself with eom, Saxon; im, Gothic; em, of Iceland; am, em, icn, om, um, of Persia, of Armenia, and of Turkey, with iiiJ-l of Greece, and even with sum of Latin, all of the same import. That sum and sim are allied to 'ti\j.1 is evident, because here the sibilant corresponds to the aspirate, as it does in 'a'kg sal, kX\o\j.ai salio, aXo-oj sallus, ti, sex, I; si, tTrTu septem, thog scdes, ofiog sors, v.y.iog sol, virsp super, \jg sus. 375 Supposing then that f>-t in tt(i.t sliouki 1)0 tlic pronoun, as will imme- diately appear, h will remain for the radical part of this expression. That (aj is the pronoun of the first person singular, can be demon- strated by kindred languages. The Galic of Scotland, the Irish, the AVelcli, the Armoric, liie Ilin- dostanee, and the venerable Sanscrit, use mi for this pronoun, and the Russian has me, in this acceptation, as we shall soon have occasion to observe, in the termination of its verbs. For this pronoun, the Romans and the Greeks, in the nominative case use ego ; but then in Latin we have mi, mei, mihi, nie and mens, cor- responding to fj^B, fj^of, f/,£, £pi.£ and eij.o;, which certainly are not derived from Eyw. We are not prepared to say, when mi in the nominative first gave place to ego. But, as in Greek and Latin, the vocative conforms to the nominative, and is derived from it; the probability is, that mi once existed in the nominative; for, what correspondence can we discern between the vocative mi and eeo.'' Among the Greeks the pronoun in question differed much. For, not to mention the TEolians, who had lyuv, as the Dorians had eydv^i and iiyuyryx; the Boeotians had, idvyx and Iwyx. The Coptic has anok, the Chinese say ngo, and the Hindostanee has hoong. In the subsequent expressions of the Sanscrit, isani and hevani, let me be; vashani, let me wish; dedani, let me give, we have distinctly anl for the pronoun. Be- tween all these and the Hebrew anoki, anki, ani and anu, which may have given birth to vu, there is such conformity as leads me to con- clude, that they are of the same family, and are radically one. 576 In the priiiitive Greek, the long vowels were unknown, and O was equivalent to A. The progress therefore from anki and tw;/7« to liiiyx and ijui is obvious, even hy the mere process of abbreviation. But it is worthy of remark, tliat in Welch, a kindred languague to the Greek, G is commutable with Ng, as in ()Was, a servant, U ngwas, my servant: and C is liable to become ngh, as in car, a relation, fy nghar, my relation. It is indeed possible, that ii^jx may be a compound, and mean I myself, because I is the abbreviated form of this pronoun in Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee. Mi seems to have originated in ani or eni. Tlic commutability of N and M is firmly established by the practice of all nations. It subsisted between the Hebrew and Chaldee, as may be observed in the masculine plurals of their nouns; between the Greek and Latin, as appears in the terminations nm and ov ; and it is not unfrequent in the Sanscrit. Tn this language M is considered, not as a labial, but as a nasal. The same word, which is written Sanscrit by some of our countrymen from India, is Samskrit with others, and with Carey it is Sungskrit: yet in pronunciation they all agree. This practice is not altogether foreign to the French, as appears in the articulation of these words, temps, tant, ctang, which agrees in all of them. In the Portuguese it is well established: for 1\I at the end of a word, when preceded by E, has a nasal sound, like that of N in the French words vin and p^in: but if preceded by A, 0, or 1, this nasal sound is so difficult of pronunciation, that no one can obtain it but by the 377 fiKsistaiu-c of ;i inasier. Jii liiis laiiguagp, N after any vo^vd is di-iinrtly a nasal: as a final letter it is converted into AJ, and is usually placed over the word, as in be for bene, thai is for bene of the Latin. In plurals the N is restored to nouns, as in homein, a man ; honicns, men. That N and AI in the Creek verl) are equivalent, seems evident, be- cause both these terminations are used for the pronoun of the first per- son singular, which appears in af^i-i I am, vi\ I was, £ivii/ may I be, (I^^ja I go, tji^v I went; like as in Sanscrit, ismi or asmi, 1 am; isani, let nie be. Ilcnce it is probable that both i^i and eyco originate in the Hebrew pronoun of the same import. Having seen that i^i in f^i is the pro- noun, surely no one can doubt of £t being the root, when he considers its inflections elva:i, eiv\v, uvj, fivi[*fi/, ^, vjv, m^e^, vi'if, n, i, X. In Swedish the same root has been preserved in one of its forms, ia fe, du e, han h; wi e, ni ^, di e; I am, thou art, he is, we are, ye are, they are. The Persian has im, ee, est; eem, eed, end; I am, thou art, he is; we are, ye are, they are. From these remove the pronouns, and the verbal part remaining will resolve itself into E, I. These look to haia [i^''!^) the substantive verb of the Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee. In the Hindostanee we find hai in the singular, and haing in the plural; or, according to Gilchrist, hy and hyin. From what has been here advanced, does it not appear, that in eo-em of Iceland, and in our own I am, there is a redupHcation of the pro- noun? Such superfluities are common in all languages, more especially VOL. II. 3 G 378 when the original structure and import of words has been forgotten, or when new modes of phraseology have been introduced. Is, it) English, supplies the third person singular of the indicative mood present tense of the verb to be, and in no other person, mood or tense, does it appear. It stands alone, and cannot be derived from either am or be. The Galic and the Irish have ismi, I am; is tu, thou art; is e, he is: is sinn, we are; is sibh, ye are; is iad, they are. In the fVelch, oes and ys remain in the third person singular. The Russian and Slavonian have esm, esi, est; esmui, este, sute; I am, thou art, he is, &c. Esm is pronounced iesm. In Persian the modern verb looks like a corruption of the Latin; for it runs thus, hestem, hestee, hest; hesteem, hesteed, hestend. Sanscrit approaches nearer to the Galic, the Irish and the Russian ; for here we have asmi, ismi, or usmi, as variously written, I am; asi, thou art; asti, he is; sma, we are; stha, ye are; santi, they are. That i<r[*t once existed in the Greek, appears from hence, that it is found in all the kindred languages, and is not confined to India; but extends, as we have seen, to all the Slavonian nations, Ireland, ;)nd the Hiirhlands of North Britain. From this circumstance alone, we might be warranted in our conclusion; but in addition to this, we must observe, that most of the inflections of this veib contain U and eg. Indeed we may venture to assume for granted, that af^t never produced the subse- quent inflections, eql, e<ri*.'tv, tc(, la^'i, iqu, i<TO\^xi, heTai, e<rej^e, eo-fo-^at. 379 Now if from the supposed obsolete verb Io-im we remove the pronoun f*t, Ig will then remain for the radical part in Greek, ns it does in the other languages here particularly noticed, which are nearly related to the Greek. This perfectly coincides with is ov jcnh (^*!'.) in Hebrew. We have thus detected in ij^i and af/^i the two fragments which com- pose the suljstantive verb in Greek. Are in English forms the plural of the indicative mood present tense. In Danish the verb runs thus, jcg er, 1 am; du er, thou art; ban er, he is: vi ere, we are; i ere, ye are; de ere, they are; ieg var, I was; du var, thou wast; ban var, he was; vi vare, we were; I vare, ye were; de vare, they were; ieg shall vaere, I shall be; vaer, be thou; at vaere, to be; vaerende, being; vaeret, been. The Germans say ich war, I was, &c. In Latifi we find fragments of this verb; for, as such, we must regard eram, ero, fore, and the termination of its infinitives: but in Greek and Hebrew it is not distinctly to be found. The Turkish language is no stranger to this verb, for not only does var indicate existence, as in varede, there was; but ar and er form the in- flexions of verbs when the imperative terminates in a consonant. Thus at, cast thou, has atarem, I cast; at ar, he casts; and thus e^, make thou, has in the indicative ederim, I make. In Irish we seem to have a small fragment of this verb in romi, I have been; ro thu, thou hast been, &c. The Welch use er and ir in the imperative and future of their passive voice, as for instance, dysger di, be thou taught; dysgir ti, doctus eris tu. 3 G 2 380 Were forms the plural in the praeter-imperfect of the indicative mood, and is used in the subjunctive, but in no other mood or tense. It con- nects itself not merely, as already stated, with waere of the Danish, but with werden of German and wertetum of Sanscrit, to be. These in Sanscrit are regularly conjugated, and appear in their several moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, like other verbs. I suspect, that we have here a compound, and not a primitive, and, when we shall have examined the subsequent portions of our verb, more particularly was, my suspicion may be confirmed. fVas supplies the first and third persons, and zipast the second person of the praeter-imperfect of our verb to be. The Irish has bhios and bhadhas, pronounced vas. In JFelch the plu- perfect of bod, to be, is buaswn, buasit, buasai; buascm, buasecli, buascnt, I had been, &c. The Germans say gewesen. In the Anglo-Saxon we have ic waes, and in the Gothic ik was. The Persian verb exhibits nearly the same form as the Welch in its im- perative and subjunctive moods; bash, be thou; bashad, let liim be; bashim, let us be; bashend, let them be. In Sanscrit the preterperfect is ahavishi; and vastiim means to dwell. Hence it is not improbable that was may be a compound, and that, as B, V and W are commutable, it may be composed of be and is. Should this be granted; we must next inquire in what manner was and were, is and are can be allied. We know that Latin is a very ancient dialect of Greek, and it has been proved, that f<(*j, tn and eqi correspond to sum, cs, est, as ea-eo-^ai 381 does to essel It is therefore not ini probable, that tjiic and £(70f*ai may have given birth to ero. Such was the conjecture of Professor Scheidius, and, in support of Ids opinion, we may remark, that S gives place to P in app^v fi-xpTvp, ^xlpeoj iWop, x>iMp, for apuBv, {j-apTVi, ^xpceoi, ^r.-noi, ao-xoc. This practice leads to a conjecture, that P in (p^eipw, yepaioa, Lf^eipca and tXexipu may have been a substitute for S, and that these new themes, derived from 'p^ao, <yepxioo, i\,.xu), eXeeu, may have originated in their futures, agreeably to a common practice in the Greek. .Should K'ffs be considered as compounded of be and is, and should etrw be acknowledged as the parent of ero, we shall then see how ero, erim and esse became component parts of the same verb, and shall be disposed to grant that zms and were have been properly connected with be and is. Be in English, used for the infinitive, imperative and subjunctive moods, may be traced through a vast extent of country and to remote antiquity. The Galic has bumi and bhami, I was; bithidhmi, pronounced vimi or bimi, I shall be; bith thu, be thou; bhith, to be. The Irish has bim and fuilim, I au); bi tu, thou art; bi se, he is, &c. bha me, I was; beidh me, pronounced bimi, I shall be; bi, be thou. The Manx has bee boethou and beem, I shall be. In ff'elcft there is some little variation; for bum, buost, bu; buom, buoch, buont, answering to fui, fuisti, fuit; fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt, are the perfect, and wyf the present, I am; ym, we are. Buddwn is the imperfect; buddaf, the future; buad, the imperative, and bod the in- finitive. Here it may be proper to remark that in Welch del is pro- 382 nounced th, and consequently that bidd pcrlectly agrees with the Galic and the Irish, and that the final F is regularly the substitute for M. The German avails itself of no part of this verb excepting ich bin, du bist, 1 am, thou art. The Russian has ya buill, I was; budi, be thou, and buiti, to be; but in this language the final i is mute, like the final e in French. The Persian has enriched itself beyoiul most other languages by what it has preserved from the fragments of this verb. We find it in the indi- cative, subjunctive, imperative, infinitive and participles. In the pre- terite it has budem, budee, bud; budeem, budeed, budtnd, I was, &c. bu, be thou; bad, let him be; budmi, I would be. But it is to the ancient storehouse of the Sanscrit we must resort for the regular conjugation of this verb. Here we discover it, not as a fragment, not as a defective verb, but in perfection, with a rich variety of inflections to express the time, the person, the mode, the purpose of the action, whether performed for the benefit of the agent, or of another, both in the active and in the passive voice. In this language we find bhu as the genuine root, from which are formed bhavami, bhavasi, bhavati; bhavamah, bhavatha, bhavanti; lam, thou art, he is; we are, ye are, they are. Bhavani, let me be; abhavam, I have been; bha- vashyami, I shall be; bhavitum, to be. Is it possible to view these examples, even transiently, and not discern the affinity between Sanscrit, Greek and Latin. In Latin, fui is not derived from either sum or esse; but fu is the root and I the pronoun. As to /weram, fuer'im and fucro, they are evidently con) pounds. Fuisse is fu and esse. 383 This verb may possibly, perhaps probably, have been derived from Hu and Ilavah ('"'"''"') of Chaldee and Hebrew, because in the oriental dialects, U, V and W are commutable, and the letter, which in one province of India has the power of U or V, in others may become dis- tinctly B. Examples of siicli chani^es, particularly of U into V, are not wanting in the Hebrew, in which we have oth and evatii, zoth and ziveth (nix and J^-V^, J">^* and ri]?). Anciently, both in Latin and in English, U was both a vowel and a consonant. So among the modern Creeks ttvTxp is pronounced aftar, and ^uTOf^aTov aftomaton. The conversion of V into B is not peculiar to the oriental dialects; it has extended to the West, and particularly prevails in Spain. V is equally commutable with F. Thus, for instance, vadden of Hol- land becomes fade, vallen full, varen fare, vasten fast, vat fat, veldt field, vuer fire. In German, volk is folk, voll is full and vader is father. The Welch and the Spanish convert F into V and V into F. In short, all languages consider B, F and V as equivalent. In support of my conjecture, that our verb and the correspondent verbs of other languages originate in Hin, I shall venture to observe, that in the mountains of Britany, where the ancient Celtic, in its Armoric dialect, subsists, otia, in the expression me a oiia, I was, still continues the regular imperfect of beza, to be. Shall has narrow limits in our language; but in German and in Danish it is more extensively used, and is regularly conjugated. The former of these, in the subjunctive, converts ich soil into ich soUte, the latter, ieg skal into ieg skulde, I should. In Danish we have at skulk, to be obliged, and skyldig, guilty, that is bound by the law and subject to its 384 penalties. Saillym, in Manx, means I am willing; shal or sal, in Sanscrit, indicates intention, and is the root of a verb, which is regu- larly conjugated. Will and would connect themselves with baillym, Manx, vil and vilde of Denmark, wollen and wollte of Germany, volo and velje of Italy, ^ovXo\i.cci of Greece, ail of Irish, and may terminate in (Vn^^^) hoil of the Hebrew. It is therefore evident, tiiat in most languages the substantive verb is composed of fragments, some few in number, others more abundant. In the Galic appear six of these, ismi, ammi, thami, bheil mi, I am; bumi and romi, I was; all distinct and independent of each other, as if they had met by chance. The Turkish has three fragments, variously compounded ; em, I am; esam, if I be; ol, I shall be; and olayem, may I be. The Latin has preserved the remnants of four verbs, in sum, fui, ero, esse, of which, as I have proved, the Greek has retained two in tif*;' and i.(je(j^ci.i, answering to the Hebrew and Chaldee HTH and ^'H. Having ascertained the structure of the substantive verb in Greek, and proved that, like the Galic, Irish, Welch, Russian, Turkish, Persian, Sanscrit, Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee, it suffixes the pronouns; we may now proceed in our examination of the Greek verb in general. It was the opinion of Lennep, that the form of the Greek verbs in ui is more ancient than that of verbs in w, and the arguments adduced by him must carry conviction to the mind of a grammarian. In favor of its antiquity he states, that the first persons of the passive and middle voices in Greek and the subjunctives in Latin are formed, not from 385 verbs in w, out from verbs in m-j. We must not forget, that tlie optatives confirm his observation, for these are, from tutto), t^tttciui, TfTiy$)oifxi, ru-^xifj-t, Tuv^oifAi and TUTToifjbj, in the singular, TvirToiiA-ev, 'iF.Tv(poiiJ.ev, ruNl^flfifAfv, Tv^oi[t.ev, '7U'7[o7iJ.£v in the plurals. Agreeably therefore to this analogy, T-wTrTOfAtv in the plural should have had TVTtToofj.i in the singular. Certain it is that many verbs have both terminations, and that f^t existed in verbs where it is no longer seen; for surely ^rr^t is derived, not from tivm, but from .iff/.j, and yvai^i from yi/^fit. Whether the termination be ^t or u. if. must be the prononn of the first person singular. It is therefore a matter of indifference to my ar- gument, respecting the structure of the Greek verb, which form is most ancient, that of f^-t or «. Yet, in confirmation of Lennep's opinion, we may appeal to the Sanscrit, which, if not the parent, is at least closely nllied to both Greek and Latin. In this language the roots are neither riouns nor verbs, but may be either according to the affix, and none of its verbs terminate in O; but the first person singular of the indicative mood present tense has usually 77ri, the perfect ain. Thus we have vushami, I wish; avusham, I wished. 'J'hat the Sanscrit exhibits the genuine radicals of both Greek and Latin, may be in some degree rendered probable by one example taken from the third conjugation of the Sanscrit verbs. Of this the root is da, the verb datum, to give, and the indicative mood present tense runs thus; dadami, I give; dadasi, thou givest; dadati, he giveth; dadmas, we give; dattha, ye give; dadati, they give. In the potential mood we have dadyat, he may give; in the imperative, dadani, let me give; dehi, give thou; dadato, let him give; dadama, let us give; datta, give ye; dadato, let them give. VOL. II. 3 H 386 In the subsequent part of my work I shall enlarge upon this subject. Suffice it at present to observe, that men of letters consider Greek and Latin as dialects of one language. Some indeed conceive Latin to have been derived from Greek; but all agree, that they are intimately con- nected. Now, when in the latter we find TrpoTos and primus in the former; how can we connect these together ? It were easy to say that T is converted into M. But of such a change we have not one example. When however we observe pfatama in Sanscrit, and consider, that ab- breviations are the wheels of language, the wings of Mercury; we are prepared to trace both the words in question to pratcmm, of which the Greek retains the T, and the Latin has preserved the ]\L In addition to what I have said, I may be permitted to remark, that the Sanscrit ra is the root of both xpirao and rapio, iiina of \j.vxo[uxi. and moneo, and lip of limus and a:A£i(pw. From Up we obtain Ibnpami, I smear, and from mna we have monami, I mind, I remind, I admonish. Now as between Greek and Sanscrit the affinity is evinced b}' the termi- nation of its verbs, so, in like manner, between these languages and Latin, the relationship appears, not merely in the subjunctives, but in one indicative at least; for we have inquam, that is inquami, answering to the Doric tv<px[t.1 as hcpoLTi does to inquit. It is true, the majority of dialects in Greek have fw for the termi- nation of their verbs; but then both w and £w, in the opinion of Scheidius and Valckenar, may be considered as the abbreviated forms of its usual pronoun '£70). {v. Valckenaerii Observ. & Scheidii Animad- versiones, p. '159-) Nothing is more common in languages, than* for the guttural to vanish altogether, or to have its place supplied by the slightest aspiration. Or 387 we may invert this order, and then the aspirate will be supplanted by a guttural. In the southern dialects of India, they pronounce the H hard, like as in North Britain, and thus for maha they say maga, and for vahaii they say Dagan. (Asiatic Researches, VI. p. 493.) Maha in Sanscrit implies reverence. This radical, with the pronoun suffixed, forms the several persons of the verb, and thus niahati mean? he is majestic, and mahami I am mighty. In Slavonian, mogoutuyi is mighty; mogou, I may; mojno, possible. For this term our Saxon ancestors used meahf: the Greek has i^eje^og: we retain the guttural, but pronounce it as an aspirate, I miglit. Vah, the Sanscrit root of valian, contains the notion of passing, and seems to have given birth to veho, perhaps to vado. Certain it is, how- ever, that our wain and waggon are allied to vahan and vagan of In- dostan, with which are connected, fen of the Galic, benn and menu of Wales, benna of France, banasta of Spain, wagen, vagn and vogn of Gothic, and xyxwx of the Greek. It is worthy of our notice, that the rough breathing of Greece has, in different periods, been represented by, or at least has given birth to, H, B, V, F, P, U, W, G, C, and S, when used as prefixes, or intro- duced before a vowel in the middle of a word. These appear in ancient inscriptions, and have been particular!}' noticed by Heyne, in his edition of Homer, torn. 7, p. 708, and by Lanzi, in his Treatice di lingua Etrusca. In Homer we frequently observe an hiatus, where either the spiritus asper or the digamma was originally found. Such hiatus may have existed in eco for sym, or, should this suggestion be considered as ill founded, we may certainly refer the absence of the consonant to the usual process of abbreviation. 3 h2 388 J. Should it be conceded, that Sanscrit is tbe parent of Greek; the form of verbs in (*< will be readily acknowledjred as more ancient, tlian tliat of verbs in co. But independently of this argument, the example of Homer, supported by the practice of the iEolians, should suffice, for he has more verbs in fiut than any author who succeeded him. lie is the most ancient bard, and iEoiic one of the most ancient dialects. It is allowed, that the iEolians made fewer changes in their language^ than the Athenians, and that the former retained the same verbs in fj-i, which the latter terminate in a. It cannot be doubted, that both in the East and in the West, the most usual termination conforms to Sanscrit. Thus the Pe/'s/a/i has por- sidem, I asked; porsem, I may ask; por.sidum, I Lave asked: buporsem, I shall ask. The Turks say, ver, give thou; -ccririm, i give; yy, eat thou; yerim, I eat. The Galic has feud mi, I am able; dean mi, I do. So, in the Welch, we have dysgu, to teach, and dysgu uyf, T teach or am teaching, which Is perfectly equivalent to ^iWxty ?t[/,j, because the [>. is regularly con- verted into F. Here the verbal roots appear, each with its proper suffix, which is either simply the pronoun, or the substantive verb with its proper pronoun. We have thus examined the first persons; but wiien we shall proceed to the second and third persons, both singular and plural, we shall find the pronoun subjoined to each. Let us then begin our investigation with the language, which, from remote antiquity, has been preserved in the most northern mountains of our island. 3S9 lu Galic \vc find the subsccjucnt expressions: fctui mi, I am aijlc; teiul ■tliu, tliou art able; feud e, he is able; feud siun, \vc arc able; ieud stbh, ye arc able; feud iad, they are aide. The pers(jual prouaims arc mi, tu, e, sinn, sibh, iad. The imperfect prefixes D, which the English takes for its termination, and runs thus, dfheud mi, J. was able; dfhcud thu, thou wast able, Sec. The Irish conforms nearly to the Galic; but omits the aspirate, and has dfeud mc, I was able; dfeud thu, thou wast able; dfeud se, he was able; dfeud sinn, we were able; dfeud sibh, yiD were able; dfeud sead, they were able, answering to potcns of the Latin, and to poti, a lord, in Sanscrit. The pronouns are me, tu, se, sinn, sibh, siad. The pronouns in ff'clch arc mi, ti, e and ef; ni, chwi, hwynt, and they are thus a[)plied in the imperative, dj^sger fi, dysger di, dysger ef, dysger ni, dysger chwi, dysger hwynt; le me be taught, &c. To the latter I would call particular attention, as being the parent of sunt, and t)f the terminations ant, ent, int, unt. We find in Russian, iemi, ieshi, iesti, iedim, iedite, iedat; I, thou, he, we, ye, they eat. Dedan, to give, of the Tersian, is thus conjugated, dadani, dadi, dad; dadim, dadid, dadunt, I gave, &c. In the Hi?idostanee, this verb is more complex; for to the participle data it subjoins its own substantive verb, which has already passed in review before us. In Sanscrit we have seen both da and dad, of the same import, with the pronouns suffixed to form the persons. This verb in Latin exhibits do, das, dat, &c. dedi, dedermn, dederim, 390 dedero, dedm^, in which we readily discover the root combined, either simply with the pronoun, or with the substantive verb, which, as we have seen, subjoins the pronoun. The Greek displays this with clearness in Si§ojy.i, SiSwg, SiBmi, SiSofj.ev, anciently StSoi^eg, S^SoTa, SiSovji ; SiSoiy,v, SiSoiyg, SiSon^j 8iSoi\^iJ.iv, StSoivi'Ta, SiSoiya-av. In the imperfect, the most ancient form was not ov, but oa-xv and ejuv. In Persian the pronoun is acsaji, they. The learned Professor Schultens has judiciously remarked, that syl- lables cut off from ancient pronouns formed the persons of Greek verbs. This observation may be equally applied to all other languages. It will not be difficult to demonstrate, that many of the personal pro- nouns resorted to for terminations, are preserved in Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee, and may have been derived from thence. The pronoun of the first person singular has been already noticed, and it has appeared, that the English, to which the Russian approaches very near, is identically the same with Hebrew; that Eyo; of the Greek, with ich German, iag Swedish, icg Danish, and eg Icelandic, may be the abbreviated form of artki, and finally, that mi may be derived from aid of the Hebrew. We have seen that the second person singular in Galic and Irish, is tu, in AVelch ti, in Russian tui, in Icelandic thu, in Swedish, Danish and German du, in Persian, Sanscrit and Latin tu, in Greek SJ, but in Doric Tu, and in Hebrew atha or ate (iTlN). The third person singular in Galic, Irish and Welch is e, in Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, han; in Russian one, in Turkish and Persian, o and au; in Hindostanec ooee; in Greek ovTog,_ kvn-^, tovto; in Hebrew //// or Jioe, ze and otho. 39 1 The first person plural is in Welch iii, in Russian mui, in Danish vi, in Swedish wi, in Sanscrit vaym, in Latin nos, answering to vwt, the dual in Greek. In Hebrew wc have aim and nu. In Greek the first person plural is V^*?. The remaining persons in the plural have not the least agreement with each other, even in those languages, which arc most evidently derived from one parental stock. Is it possible for us to take the view, we have already taken, of the substantive verb in Greek, and not to be convinced, that it did not ori- ginate in Greece? As we proceed, every doubt, if doubts are still en- tertained, will vanish, and this truth will appear, as in meridian lustre, that all languages originate in one. Had Lord Monboddo been a general linguist, he never could have assumed the first person singular of the indicative mood present tense in Greek verbs for his radical expression in preference to any other mood, tense, or person, nor would he have persuaded himself and others, that *' the Greek has all its words of its own growth;" and much less would he have imagined, that all Greek verbs originate in ««, eu, tw, ou, vcc, which now appear to be the pronoun of the first person singular suffixed to verbs, and not the radix. In fact that part of the verb must be con- sidered as the root, which is found equally in every number and person of each voice, mood and tense. This great man, like Lennep and Valckenaer, has formed a beautiful hypothesis; and could we suppose, that, when Cadmus scattered the dragon's teeth upon the new ploughed earth ; the Greeks arose in perfect manhood, profound in wisdom, and a nation of philosophers; we might 392 then conceive, that " from five vocal sounds they composed a perfect language, flowing with an easy descent and a most copious stream." Such a description would not, however, perfectly accord with ther savage state, in which this nation is stated to have wandered, like brute beasts in their native forests, till the Pelasgi taught them the use of speech, and till Cecrops arrived to polish the rude language, in which their first preceptor had instructed them. Were Lord JSIonboddo living, and disposed to reject this tale of Cadmus as a fiction, the creature of poetic fancy, he must conceive a given epoch, when some great philologist arose to invent and teach a perfectly philosophic language, and when the whole nation was per- suaded to reject that mode of speech, in which from infancy they had been instructed by their parents, and to adopt new elements from this wise reformer. It appears, however, that Lord Monboddo is incon- sistent with himself, because he distinctly delivers it as his opinion, that " the Greek is an original language, and not derivative," and yet he is persuaded, that *' it is derived from the Hebrew, or from some other Egyptian, or oriental language," and he acknowledges, that " the Pelasgic, the immediate parent of the Greek, was very near of kin to Hebrew." He even charges the Greeks with vanity, for having " made their language, as well as themselves, the growth of their own country." He seems to have been exceedingly perplexed in difiiculties, from which he was unable to extricate himself. But had he been acquainted with Sanscrit, he would have found a clue, by means of which he might have directed his steps with well-grounded confidence of a successful issue, and would have at last discovered, that the languages of Eiirojic and of Asia arc radicallv one. 395 From the knowledge we possess of Sanscrit and of Greek, the first apprehension of the mind is, that they stand in tlic relation of progenitor and offspring, and that Sanscrit is the language, from which Greek proceeds. Numerous expressions lead to this conclusion. But the more we advance in the knowledge of these languages, the more dis- posed are we to acquiesce in the opinion of Henry Colcbrook, that both are derived from a primeval tongue. Yet, even though Sanscrit should not ultimately be acknowledged as the parent of Greek; it must be considered as a kindred dialect of great antiquity, whose roots exhibit clearly the first elements of Greek. It is curious to observe, with what facility and to what an extent, the Greek has created new themes from verbs in common use. These were frequently derived from the preterperfect and the future tenses, but commonly from the infinitive mood. This must be obvious to the Greek scholar, and appears in the clearest light to every one, who is conversant with Scapula's Lexicon. All these themes were subject to abbreviation^ and most of them have been abbreviated in various languages. Of this, numerous ex- amples have been adduced; and I may here repeat a remark already made, that, when the same word conveys various and discordant meanings, it is an abbreviated term derived from various and discordant primitives. Thus the verb aw, according to its various accents, may convey the notion of eo, induo, sum, sim, sino, miserim, aurora, and suo, which last is evidently derived from fos suus ; cH^io is arefacio, but i'Co; is veneror; uyo^ is dux, but uyos- is scelus; c^mg is laus, hut zivos is VOL. II. 3 I 394 horribilis; av« is per, but aW Rex; ^^xoj- is opinio, but Soko? is trabs ; xaXoi/ is lignum, but xaXov is bonum; >i^^ is cor, but xv'o is mors. It is by the assistance of accents, and by these alone, that the Chinese are able to ascertain the various and discordant meaning of their monosyllabic expressions, and this use of accent is not altogether foreign to the English language. In demonstrating the affinity between Latin, Greek and Hebrew, I shall bring forward part of a numerous vocabulary from Avenarius; but I shall say nothing of the grammatical structure of these languages, because in no country has this been permanent. English is evidently the offspring of Saxon, Danish, German, and other Gothic and Slavonic languages, which are all radically one: yet in no two of these can we find the grammatical stmcture perfectly " alike. The same observation will apply to Latin, Erench, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. It is however worthy of our notice, that in one particular, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin are agreed, for anciently in all these languages, the present, the preterite, and the future, either adopted the same form, or were used indifferently for each other. In the more ancient Greek the future Avas the same in form as the present tense, but when a newer form was introduced, which termi- nates in <rw; the ancient became the second future, its penultima was short, and the last letter was circumflexed as in (paivw, (pxv2 ; Tf(*v&>, TEfxw; vc>w, vei^oS; and the preterites converted the terminating Omega into Alpha, as in 7«w, yeyax of Homer. It has been well observed by Valckaenar that Sigma, in what is 395 now called the first future, supplies the place of an aspirate as in xMVTOj instead of axouFw, for which Digamma of the iEolians, the Romans used its kindred letter B, saying amabo for amaso or amaFo. In his opinion, audiani and legam, are properly the present tense used for the future in Hebrew. AFFINITY BETWEEN LATIN, GREEK, AND HEBREW. MANY learned men have been satisfied, that there is affinity between Greek, with its kindred dialect the Latin, and Hebrew; but few, per- haps, have seen this in its full extent. To trace the features of resemblance requires a knowledge of those general laws, to which all languages are subject, and of the special laws by which every language in particular is governed in its mutations. It has been my endeavour to bring these laws to light. With regard to those to which Greek has confornied in its derivatives from Hebrew, I cannot do better than give them in the words of Avenarius, the greatest philologist of the age in which he lived, who published his work in the year 1589, and who has firmly established sixteen canons. With these, he that runs may read, and the most transient glance will be sufficient to convince him, that a family likeness is still to be dis- cerned between these languages. But should the student wish for further information, let him consult Ernesti de vestigiis linguae Hebraicae in lingua Graeca. The rules laid down by Avenarius are the subsequent: 396 I. Radicalium literarum imprimis habenda est ratio; quae si sint con- nexiles, connectuntur in aliis Unguis, ut: pt^ (ry.i^vow. ^p^ ano'Tteu, &c. II. Gutturalibus et quiescentibus literis aliae lingute non habent cor- respondentes; earn ob rem pro eis aut ponunt vocales, aut dipthongos, aut prorsus eas omittunt, ut: Din apxauia. D70i? Sufiuatvw. III. Si duae ex literis "'THi^ quiescentibus gutturalibus fuerint, ambae omittuntur aut mutantur in vocales. i'T' fiSfo; li^*^ aoca HID nxia mi pta njX vxw, n^l odoratus est in Germ, riechen. IV. Non raro literae ejusdem instrumenti symbolico transitu inter se commutantur, quemadmodum Grffici, in formandis temporibus, mutant, quando tenuem in mediam et aspiratam 21 ^ y.sp[^x grumus ossis 7QJ y.Oi[i.\^'kog 11^3 Tupow H/^ 'jxXxiObi 7i'3 (pAfw 1^12 ^xaiXivu. V. Saepe Graeci assumunt afformationes in praesenti, quas tamen in reliquis temporibus abjiciunt, cum non pertineant ad substantiam radicis. TID aiJ-xpTxvu. p112 fj^o^yvuw ^ti'J* ao(pi,'C,o:. sapiens. VI. Abjicitur prima radicalis 3, ut apud Ebrasos. Wll eyyt^co. CH] oif^^ew. 3p3 cavo. VII. Quae apud Ebraeos sunt duplicatahabentque secundam et tertiam radicalem easdem literas, in derivandis aliarum linguarum vocabulis abjiciunt alteram. 11i^ xpxoi*.xi. 77^ nvXtco, T*J ^fw, li^ (jvXxai, IIH epog. VIII. Ssepe radicibus desinentibus in '?r, 2, Grtcci Euphoniae causa addunt literam t. HS/D clava, xoAaTTTw. ^^T) tvvtu. HDX ovtku. ^2D IX. In Graecis tbematibus profertur ^ per rrl vel (7(7 mn ^xpxTla. Mn2 vXJaU vel nXTlcO, nm TXTTCa. X. Metathesis aliquando admittitur. /^U:} xjiXyxivu. iJlj; tpuTxa). vliJ 3i< Pater etTt'Tcix Dor. Sc Mo\. Abba Syr. ^^II^i puber, maturus, vi/3«c<j. £(pii/3o?. indc yil^xrm. pubesco. 13 S< periit, $?(5ow. perdo. n3»S voluit, aveo, inde, 3n»^, ni^\ DS*n ">i3i^ O vse, ai/3(3i. /3(5arw. f^ow, ^'VIJ? egenus, vri-yvif. n3t5 & nii< calefecit, splenduit, ^(pauw «Sc «ua'. D3X saginavit, (iojyM. pasco, obesus. p2^ pugnavit, "^2^, ?^^, P^^, ttO^. ctl"-/;*h. 'jrv^Tf^a-, "13^^ remigravit, cropeu^. Ti^i^ iibertus, ojipiiJLOi. vvtp. niJi* fasciculus, cex^oi. fascis, onus. DJ^^ stagnum, ly.y.cig. eni/^cciva. ay.[t.cc,Xoo. 't^^^ scirpus, iiiundavit, y-uit-xTi^a TJS< &, \^'^ pelvis, crater,' ayyog, JlJX agmen, ^V-if*** '^J^^ congregavit, ayelpc-j. agger, uyeX--^. grex. "I^? vapor, fliTfy-if. id. nns< & 3»S-r contabuit. 17^ basis, fulcrum, iifi? sustentator, Swxqvii. Suvxqeix. aedes. 1i^ illustris, aSpog. 3nX amavit, ayccTrxco. D. i13i5 vnii fixit tentorium, xvkvi. xvKiov. kvXxi.k. aula, aulaeum. VOL. II. 3 K 398 '7''TK stultus, viX(iivofd.cti. ^Xi^icc^a. yiK properavit, atjua. TTi^ lucebat, ^ip. apx. upxi^oy^xi. wpxi'o;, ovpxvo?. f/-fl;jp«. aurora, oriens, hora, sera, Sax. early Eng. ^71^^ celeiiter recessit sic 7P, 7?3, 7l?3, 7?t, crxXxu. cxXivu. aeXXa., Jii^ auscultavit, sicj^^ our. wto?. wiz?. wizV/.o;. TtX cinxit, sic"IDKj iriD, aepi'^a. 7£pU. aeipx. ^eipcc. x^eipoi, Tnx unitus est, Ut.cv. iSix^co. '|TCDi^ Txivia. o^ovvi. o^oviov. 1^^ ohturavii, see "1^33. thp^w. tuerL "•i^ insula, xix. ovxi. vae. 7^!i^ cervus tXu(pog. nS^i< Ubi, ■TTOL/. PX non, xuev. ai.voiJ.xi. vs. vvi. ne. ns^i^ ubi, oTtov. 9rou. TTOi'. quo. 5:/\S nti^K vir, emina, (V%uw. ((r%u?. vir, vis, vires, eig. ititx ut in Xxpieg. xxpLsaax. "^^ etiam, imo, ac, axi. b'D^ edit, xmXov. xiXog. xXox. r\72SD, \i.x%xipx. culter. IDi^ agricola, arator, x<ypog. ager, xypiog. nSi^ ilex, JAvi. 4X«ifl:. oliva, li*?^ ilex, quercus alnus, fixXxvog. /"'^^idem; CTl7i< Deus, £X£ii[ji.wv. eXeXev. 7 wi^ nihiliim, oAXuf*;. ^vH docuit, duxit, (xX(pdw, dX(p«^w. ht(p«i. 399 V^ si, an, non, m. ti. Di* mamma, mater, amo. ^12)^ infirmavit, iit.x'ko;. uvxXoi. afx/SXuj. mollis. DD5<D^^ nCk?, (Aa:w. i/.xi.c£. afj-jxa:. ij^xij^Ij^t^ . fj.xij.ij.aix \^i^ sustentavit, fidelis, verax, o\j.vvw. x]j.v\io\j.xi. \j.iv. munio, ^DK valde consolidatus, f^fi^wi/. HiX natavit, vxoi. j/xvai. vevca. ""^^ navis, T\l'A cremuit, xvlx. aviacc. avixipog. 1D3i< ego, eya. tyw'jyx. Dor, tf^vyx. 13n2 vw. wf. nos, noi, Ital. ich, Ger. D3i5 opprimere, onus, ^3i< spiravit naribus, HSiJ, ''S, 1i< nasus, facies, wx^/. 7rp53-a;7rov, «v£[*of. p3i< ingemuit, exclamavit, P^3, pn2, n:X id. oyKa'ot^at. eV^oj. Asinus. Ji'DK aegrotavit, Ji'ii voa-of. voj\\\j.x. vir, mortalis, ai^vip. av^paiiiog. r\n2ii Chald. nn^ Heb. Tu. Tu. au. ScVoeLTuve. "•DDi^ horreum, T^(x;£ji5:. Dtl''* op.-o(rf. si/m^Z posuit, sammen, Ger> f\Di^ collegit, traxit, ID"', HDD, o-Triw. aar-Tri?. ")D« ligavit, "1^"^, "ID^ ^apa. IJIDX a^vjp. astrum. ^^^ apte ligavit, ^ttw. o-uv^TrTw. apto, I adapt. (ID J? coxit panem in furna, OTtixoo. T.iitTa, Trf^a-a;. i'^4'W. Vsi? caliginosiis, fs^fAn. nebula, (pwXEo;. (pwXaj. velo, velamen, a veil. J2i^ rota, uTTv^^^fi. rheda, ^^^^ circumrotavit, af*(pi. i/Di< sibilus viperae, n;/a sibilavit, n;/2ii vipera, o(pf?. o(pi«5vif. $««. TS^ cinis, TSJ^ pulvis, Ti(ppx, Te(ppo(a. TeC^pi^a. (pvpeca, - T^i* thesauravit, Sv^o-aupoj. crcopavu. crop'og. acervo, 3"!^ insidiatus est, fcpudi^oj. 21iJ ipi(po}. 400 31^* texuit, apa^i-H. aranea, upxx^iov. fpya^sjv. TCirkcn, Ger. m^i abstulit sicut Leo, kiptcj. '^"li* Leo. "^■)^ elongavit, opt>yo[i.cii. porrigo, arceo. yi^^ 'terra, ipx. a^oco. apovpa. epysi'^. 11^ execratus est, «pa. apao\j.ai. y.ara^w^ai. "I»^ rivLis, i\mos, viii. 8. li^"" &11^*' id. '^1^ desponsavit, puTiov. pvcii^o\j.ai. do pignora sponsalia. ^'^ ignis, tela, 'IK^p.iqog. "ccir^c^. k^oi. iaxa^a. e%a^i^. asSO, Vesta. Htt'J^ oblatio ignita comp. ex, ^1^ h'^'^. ^'^'^ sol comp. :i'i^ & 5i'. X^^ ao(pog. X^DtiNS* Chald. Dan. i. 20, ii. 27, iv. 4, HS^'S* pharetra. '7^^ quercus, quercetum, sjlva, uIto;. x7v)m'. asylum, v. Dionys. Hal. /. 3, cap. 15, Aa-vkov. i^ecoohv. Svoiv. B§viJ.av. N'i^X Chald. rrnj* Heb. ^scc. Wo^. ^ox^cj. H^6cj. itum. inx fortiter stetit, ]Tr\K oyo?. asinus. :K:in.S Chald. v.^'i^ iEtna, v. Bocharti Chan. I i. c. 28, et Yegilii iEn. iii. 571— -582. I have liere confined myself to the first letter of the alphabet: were it needful, we might have taken a more extensive survey, and by multi- plied examples have more clearly demonstrated the close affinity, which subsists between Greek and Hebrew. This however is sufficiently evinced by Avenarius, to whose inestimable labors I have been indebted for this vocabulary. Prom him I have adopted it, and might have easily col- lected more than one thousand roots in addition to those which have already appeared in the progress of my work. 401 AFFINITY BETWEEN LAPONIC AND HEBREW. THE country north of the Gulf of Bothnia and of the White Sea, including Finmark, is known by tlie naine of Laphmd. The Finns and Laplanders seem to have been driven in remote periods from countries situated between the Danube and the Volga, to this high, latitude, by more powerful hordes, who, seeking only pasture for their flocks, had no inducement to penetrate the frozen regions, in which snow remains nine months in the year, regions suited only to the rein deer, who on these mountains find a sufficiency of lichen, their usual food, beneath the snow. Some of these granitic peaks rise many thousand feet above the level of the sea. Sneehatten in particular is 8115 feet high. In these elevated regions the Laplanders wander with their herds, some of which contain 1500 or 2000 head of deer, and here, finding rest, they remained from generation to generation, without a wish to quit their dreary haunts. They had no intercourse with other nations, who could have no inducement to invade their mountains; no commercial transaction, excepting only by barter to some small extent, and no occasion to pass through a country, which was surrounded by the Frozen Ocean. Here they remained distinct and separate, like the natives of Arabia. Their language therefore is uncorrupted by foreign words, either im- ported by commerce or introduced by conquest. In consequence of this it has retained its original purity to a greater degree than the Arabic in Arabia, which probably is not so pure as the language spoken by Ishmael. VOL. II. 3 jL 402 The Hungarian dialect of this language has not had these advantages, and may therefore be considered as a most corrupted Finnish. In the Lapland language are numerous expressions which connect themselves with Greek and Latin. These languages, however, as we have seen, have near affinity to Hebrew. When I say Hebrew, I do not mean strictly one particular dialect of that Oriental tongue, which in- cludes Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and ^thiopic; but any one, or all these kindred lano;uaoes. Olaus Rudbeckius, a Swede, and the most eminent linguist of his age, assures us that out of 2000 or 3000 words, not more than 200 or 300 in the space of 3000 years, have been either changed or lost. The rest are either Hebrew, Chaldee, Sj/7-iac, or Arabic. He has not given us his Canons; but we may safely conclude that his must essentially agree with those of Avenarius. I shall here subjoin a few examples, which may be sufficient to shew the close affinity, which has subsisted between two kindred languages after a separation of some thousand years. Laponic, Achaedi Aedhame Aelo Aema Afo Al Alah Latin, Honoravit Terra, humus Non Mulier Adlnic Super Altus Hebrew. nin hi; nhi: Laponie. Latin. Ali Ascendit Aim Juvenis Almevoth inventus A lop Multitudo Asi Fecit Asie Opus Asso Fundanientum Hebrew. rbii Dbi; 403 Laponic. 1.0(11!. Heirtw. Laponic. Latin. He' Tit. Atzah Fulgur «i;s Hathi & Adhi Dormivit n?n Atzi Arsit Jim Hialo Fortis, potens '7^n Allui Egit hbM! Hished Benignus Ton Autzi Robustus u;i:;M^nr} liniz Culter, liasta n^iT} Auzi Roboravit njyx B'^i't^ Eloki Percussit T]2ry Avohi Eke Desideravit Etsi Huolgi'&) NYuolgi ) Abiit i^r^ Epe Nihil, non Esai. ili. 24. Jarodi DeciJit Tl^ Eseli Elevavit, laudavit -T^D Jaur Lacus -IS^ Fauro Decora vit -)SD Jed Manus n> Galmai Abscond it ubi; Jen (ien) Non l^K Gaska Corrosus T]^\2;y [se Vir m^^ Gaski Rosit mm Joh vel hio Fuit n\"! GiecU Scivit, novit J/T Jukand ke Qui •«D Had Had as Dignus, ccstimatus Nov US Tin mm Juoks (Laqueus, ) Carcus, fraus) t^'P^ Hadsie vel Hadshe /Luna cnn fze Kah Ipse Sicut n3 Haeg Sinus, abdomen p^n Kali Comedit '7DK ( Noxa, cahi- ) Kaliti Saturavit b^DKii Haeivi < mitas, ahyjx \ Isa. xlvii. 2. Kalli Kapi Per fee it Texit il2 dial. 5^2n Ha rami Destruxit D-in Kalze Iratus est r^p Harezi Celer fuit 3 ] Katzi o Fastidivit pp 404 Lapenic. Latin. 1 Hebrew. Laponie. Laliit. Hebreu. Kay Mugivit, claraavit ^I/J Nisum Mulier, uxor ■D^^2 Kazi Evigilavit r? Nuogi Quievit m: Kez Finis Hi')? Nuor Juvenis -i;/3 Kioetzi Vidit nm Nuoravoth Pueritia mi;;: Kied vel iec Man us T Outho Signum ms* Kiesi Operuit nD3 Outhoi Miratus est ann Kietzi Sprevit Jrab. ^rn Pali Separavit iib^ Kieeze iEstas pp Paiiii 1 Vertit n:i5 Kole Vox h^p Pakadi Punivit "TpD Kuoim Cum d;/ Pako Verbum Si/r. T^ Lahi Lassus, segnisfiii* .ni^b Palih Fodit nVs Lait Maledixit Ch. Syr. ^-h Palteooth Terror mi'VD Lauki [vit f^^ Palthi Tremuit r^= Lulue Nisi ab^b Paluk Tjaculus 1^2 Made Alultus IHD Pasclii Dividit, percussil ■^DD nt^D Marad Rebel !is fuit llf2 Pateri Fugit -ira 112 Maravot Rebellis nn-iD Peisdi Perdidit 102 Marsfe Sponsa Cha. XDn.SZ2 Pelki Lis, divisio }b-^ Mi and ma Quis HD Pethi Persuasit n;iD Min Cum, ex, in \D Pikde testis 122 Miide V^cstis ID Posgi rransgressus est V'^-i Muossi Fxploravit IL'^'D Pothi ' i^enit K3 Na : Nasi 1 !*func ?ugit ii2 Pudi ( JExemit, ) Kedemit 3 iTTD 405 iMpanic. Puodkc Puodki Puore Puozeli Purki Ragi Rahki Raki Rakie Rassi Raudi Raudni Razi Renni Rugui Ruoki Latin. Fissura ^In rimas ) C fissus est J Purus, clarus fPcdibus, "\ \ contractus^ ^2 Sam. ix. 13 J (In visit, ) CMaledixit ) ^Cumulavit ^ Ccongregatiis ' Abiit, abfuit Dilexit Extensio Pluit, stillavit Fluxit Fluvius Fregit, Perforavit Clamavit Festinavit cPavit, yComedit Hebrew, pin 12 Heb. dial. At. Syr pm Chal.Si/r. JJ-| DD") nil Ch. Syr. ^i^lTl V)il T\V1 Lapunic PillOSO Saedke Saek Safothi Sagi Sagih Salahi Sara Saru Sialki Siegi Sielki Sieki Sjokki Siuki and, fuki ' Siurho So Sobet Soiki Latin. em or. ^^onitru Jus Saccus Quievit Crevit Auxit Spoliavit 'Dux, (Princeps Bos, taurus Emisit /Depressus \ Immersus ^Fuit Albuit Delevit Divisit Bibit Horde um Ille Virga Sedit Hebrew. Wi pT-f n2iu 1^ l^m Arab, "^j^ti' ni)}^ 22^ 406 Laponie, Stago Sudi Sudi Sudon Suopudi Tevi Tevoaikne Thivoi Latin. Jugum Ferbuit, coxit Peccavit Peccatum ^Percussit f cPIanxit 5 Impletus fuit VFl'jvius, ') CAbundans ) -^dificavit Hebrew. Ara. Syr. Ch. Jl^ "nr -nr inr TDD Arab. ^2^^ Laptnic, Thoumiz Thulue Thuoki Vala Uali Vazi Zaigi Zayethi Zoulii Ztorri Latin. Didymus Aquaeductus Pressit, fixit Sed, nisi Juravit Exivit Inclinavit Erravit Luxit Anxit HArew. HEBIREW. vJF Hebrew I shall say litlle. It is a language well understood, and much admired by all who understand it. It carries marks of the most venerable antiquity. The alphabet has been supposed to contain vowels independently of the points, like the modern languages of Europe. But I am disposed to agree with those who consider Aleph to be the most gentle breathing, as it is in Persian, Sanscrit, and Arabic, and with my ancient tutor Professor Robertson, of Edin- burgh, who always taught his pupils to regard aleph as very soft, he as not so soft, heth as hard, and ajin as a most rough breathing. Certain it is, that, according to the Septuagint, the attendant vowel- sound may be that of either a, aa, e, o, ou, or it may be g. The pronouns are, ':)3^^ I, nn.S thou, ^<in he, 12»^ we, DnK ye, HZ^rr they. From these the verbs have taken their terminations to indi- cate their persons — Thus, "Tpi3 he visited, has mpD thou visitedst, "ripD I visited, TTpii they visited, ompD ye visited, T3Tp2 we visited. But here I must observe, that although we cannot in Hebrew as- sume any part of ""S^X, excepting "• for the first person singular of 408 of the preterite, yet the Ethiopic, which is closely allied to Hebrew, has ''2"Ip2 I visited, which was probably, at a remote period, the genuine preterite in both languages. The tenses are three, past, present, and future ; its moods, the indicative, imperative, and infinitive. Here we have such simplicity, that the conjugation of its verbs is attained with facility; whilst m other languages they are perplexing to the last degree. Properly speaking, Hebrew has but one conjugation, to which all its verbs es- sentially conform. They have indeed eighteen modifications formed chiefly by the points, which create no embarrassment to the learner, whilst in the comprehensiveness of their expression they surpass all the languages of Europe. Eor instance in 1 Kings, ch. xx. v. 27, we find nj^ariC they were obliged to be reviewed. Here we have the consummate art and contrivance of a most polished nation. In Latin we observe some resemblance to this contrivance, as in facit factus est; factavit factatus est; facere fecit; facere factus est; factitavit. So in surgo, erigo; sto, sisto; fugio, fugo; doceo, disco; cado, coedo; jaceo, jacio; jacto, jactor. The Greek has ttotoj and ttoti^w although it wants ttotc:,', which is re- tained in Latin. It has (pujy.u and (pwr/^w, (pws- ^CpwToc (pxu and (pcclvu. The English has raise, rise; sit, set; fall, fell; quick, quicken, &c. In Hebrew we find some modes of expression, with which other languages arc not conversant. I. It expresses the genitive case of nouns by juxta-position, as for instance, "'Tl '^im ''D'', that is literally, days, years, my life, meaning the days of the years of my life. The Arabic and the Galic in this con- form to Hebrew. 409 11. It is fond of ellipsis, and fiequently omits the auxilinry verb. Thus in Joel, ^'7 «^3'7 nM!hnD\ HnN' '•yd; vy^, literally, His teeth lion and cheek teeth lion to him. 'I'hat is, his teelh are the teeth of a lion and the cheek teeth of a li(;n are his. J'loni the [)reva- lence of this figure, other words, which arc introduced in the begin- ning of a sentence, are freciuently to he understood, though not expressed in the latter part, as in Psalm 1. v. 7, Hear O my people and I will speak — Israel, and I will testify against thee: so Psalm ix. V. 18, would literally run thus, For the needy shall Jiot always be forgotten; the expectation of the poor shall perish for ever, which is properly translated shall 7iot perish for ever. And again in Psal. Ixxv. 5, Lift not up your horn on high — speak with a stiff neck, that is, speak 7iot with a stiff neck. In Psal. xci. v. 5, 6, the negation is three times understood, though not expressed. III. In Hebrew we frequently find the future tense used for the present and for the preterite, but most often the preterite for the future. In the most ancient writers both of Greece and Rome, the present tense and the future had the same form. Thus in Homer we observe (*£vw, manebo, Sfw recurram, oT^vveco hortabor, f<fxi ibo. So, in Plautus, ibo domum atque ad parentes reduco Silenium. IV. When vau is prefixed to the future tense, this becomes a pre- terite. 'lDi<'>% '^h''^ p|J/p"'l and Naaman ffi'as wrath and a'e/jf away and said. So in Genesis, ch. xxii. v. 3, we have six futures, each preceded by vau, and consequently all are translated properly as preterites. VOL. II. S M 410 V. Vau prefixed converts perfect tenses into futures. In Isaiah, ch. viii. V. 15, no fewer than five verbs appear, each with vau prefixed, which are thus converted from preterites into futures. VI. The regular mode of expression for preterites is to place them before the nominative: otherwise placed, it is commonly the present tense. VII. The roots are commonly regarded as triliteral, but some learned men consider them as originally biliteral. In numerous instances the third letter seems to modify the sense. Thus for instance i^vD, ^•72), n'jD, n'^D, '7'7D, p"?-!, all mean to f/it;iJe, and ^"^ D, DID, DnCJ, DID j;"lD, pD, p"lD, n"lD with ti'lSi convey the same radical notion. Of Of these expressions therefore /D and T^ appear to be the essential portion, and of these, 7 and "1 are commutable. In "1"IJ dissecuit, 21 J scabies, 11 J abrasit, scalpsit, ill J ruminavit, HJ abscidit, n"lJ sauciavit, DIJ fregit, I'U diminuit, the original root seems to have been U from which perhaps the Greeks derived their x£;/)w. Certain it is, that J and h are letters of the same organ, and it is worthy of our notice that 112, 1X2, and HTD, mean scidit, fodit, 212 secavit, yip scidit, divisit, i'12 rupit, laceravit. CHALDEE. XHE Chaldee, such as we find it, is comparatively modern, for we are not able to trace it back beyond the captivity of Israel in Babylon. In the writings of Daniel and of Ezra we possess it in its purity, as spoken at court in the capital of a mighty empire. Since that period, it has degenerated, and in the lapse of time, lost much of its elegance. This appears in the Targums of Jonathan and of Onkelos. i\fter the birth of Christ, we find the language of the Jews still more remote from that of their progenitors. Yet during a period of about J, 500 years, from the mission of Moses to the birth of the Messiah, the changes have not been such as to conceal the orifinal identity of Hebrew and Chaldee. It is impossible for any one with even a moderate knowledge of these languages not to see clearly, that they are very nearly related. Yet they differ in many particulars. The reader must not expect, that in a work like this I should enter minutely into each language, which passes in review before us. What I shall therefore say respecting the Chaldee will be merely to point out some of the changes which have taken place, between it and Hebrew, since the time of their separation. 3 M 2 412 I. Beth in Hebrew may answer to mem and phe in Chaidee, as in J^3Dandi^»£3; 'jnn and "^nQ. II. The Hebrew nouns and verbs, which terminate in Ae, change this for aleph in Chaidee, as in HDa and ^^QI1; nJ2 and i<33; nb'^b and III. He in Hiphil is aleph in Chaidee, as in I^TTn and IHTS; p3'7n and pVi*; IV. The emphatic he prefixed to nouns in Hebrew, answers to aleph suffixed in Chaidee, asinHD^n and ^^^DD. V. The terminating mem of Hebrew becomes either aleph or 7nin in Chaidee; thusQ^Qti' becomes ^^Q^^' ; D^D, X^Q; D^:3, ]^J3; D^pT, ^pr. ThusC and 1^ most perfectly agree, ^* answering to"' and ] to D. The dual number, which in Hebrew terminates in mem, has men in Chaidee, as in ^'^^ and V^^. VI. Aleph of Hebrew may correspond to ajin of Chaklee, as in ^H? and i^i!^; i^f^^ andi'QJ. We find ^^ IT, m? and ;?")? to ventilate, to scatter seed. VII. Between Hebrew and Chaidee daleth and zojiii are commutable, as in ni'^D and nm^, 23T and ^^1 ; 12* and "l^T VIII. Likewise between teth and f^a^^e, as in "^V;/ and V^;'; V^?^ and CO;;^; '?'?•»' and '7'7£2. n'?^'^^'? of the Hebrew answers to i^bt^/^nb of the Chaidee. IX. Zajin and /z«f/e take each the other's place, as in HIH and NVH; -ti;V and i<1^;^». X. So do shin and teth, as Iti'p and IJ^p. XI. Shin in Hebrew very frequently becomes than in Chaidee, as in "liSi' and "liri, whence T«y^of; IVl^ and J'lJ^, Supa, 413 XII. Tzade and ajin correspond, as appears in f1*? and V'^'^ or n;;n « ; ] xy and ] «i^ ; n i; -i and n;;n. XIII. Ill the same word we find ajin answering to aleph and tzade to ajin. p and J^«. XIV^ Schin and samceh take one the otlier's place, as in "^l^^ Ileb. and 10D Chald. These' few examples may suffice to show the mutations which have taken place in one or both these languages. Dissimilar as they now appear, yet to the attentive and discerning eye it will be evident, that they are radically one. Considering the length of time which intervened between their separation, when Abraham (juitted Chaldaea, and the Babylonish captivity, we may well expect, that the signification of numerous words must have been greatly changed. This precisely is what the most superficial glance will be sufficient to discern. In Hebrew, he made, is Hi^J/, but to express this action in Chaldee, the word is "T^^, which in Hebrew means he served. A feast, in Hebrew, is mishte, in Chaldee lehem^ the latter referring to bread, the former to drink. The expression for wine is, in Hebrew V^ jaji?}, but in Chaldee hamar, "IDH so called, perhaps, from its red colour,^ perhaps from its being a fermented liquor. Our term Jirst is in Hebrew iitt'X"! the notion being taken from the head; but in Chaldee it is commonly ^QTp, from Dip prior fait tempore, loco veldignitate, whence CTpis the East, both in Hebrew and Chaldee, and V^^^ in Hebrew is trans- lated ^ an p in Chaldee. That there should be a near affinity between Hebrew and Chaldee, is not to be wondered at, because Abraham was a native of Chaldaea. 414 Even between hi3 leaving his country, his kindred and his father's house, to the departure of Israel from Egypt, being more than four hundred years, considerable changes must have taken place in both these lano-uages. But between the time when Hebrew first appeared as a written language in the Pentateuch, and that in which Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah wrote in Chaldee, was more than double that long period. In more recent times the Talmudic writers formed some of their infinitives in aleph, some in he and others in either jod or van. Now it is remarkable, that in Swedish the termination is a, in Danish «, and both in Slavonic and in Welch u, but this ii is pronounced as i. It is likewise worthy of our notice, that both the Hebrew and Chaldee make use of vowel points. The pronouns are i«JX, nx, «in; l]t«, ]^rMi, \Mn ego, tu, ille vel ipse, &c. "^ mens, 1 tuus, H ejus, •, noster, V^ vesler, PH eorum. A M A B I C» >SUCH is the affinity between Hebrew and Arabic, that without the assistance of the latter, we should not, in numerous instances, be able to ascertain the radical meaning of the former. Indeed no oriental scholar ever doubted respecting their original identity. We are informed that Ishmael, the son of Abraham by Hagar, being banished to the Wilderness of Paran, took to wife an Egyptian, and became the father of twelve princes. It does not appear, that he was the founder of all the Arab nations ; but it is acknowledged, that the principal hordes of the wandering Arabs descended in part from him, and in part from Joktan, the son of Eber. No wonder then, that Hebrew and Arabic should agree like dialects of one language. The Arabs from the beginning have been insulated; and, although their sword has been against every man, and every man's sword against them, they have never been subdued. As their country is divided into petty sovereignties, we must not wonder, that they should abound with dialects, and that in process of time these should differ to such a degree as Niebuhr assures us they now do. Troni him we learn, that even at 416 Mecca tlie Arabic of the Koran is taught in colleges, precisely as Latiu is at Rome. Yet though the difference between the ancient lancuase and the modern is so great, they agree as dialects, like Latin and Italian, which are radically one. Tliese dialects now indeed differ widely from each other; but in the days of Mahomet they must have approx- imated, and the Koran remains as the standard, by which we are to determine what was the language of his day. This language and Hebrew essentially agree, not merely in words, but in grammar, which is more than we can say of English and its legitimate parents, the Anglo-Saxon, German and Danish. In Arabic, the nouns are declined and the verbs are conjugated, precisely as in Hebrew. The grammatical construction is the same, and they make the same use of vowel points. The pronouns agree with those of the Hebrew, and are ''Ji^, fi3S, STU; Tin 3, Dr\K, on I, thou, he, Sec. but the Arabic characters are com- paratively modern. In their verbs they perfectly agree. These usually consist of three radical letters. They have but one conjugation. The various persons are distinguished by suffixing to each the last syllable of its pronoun. They have the same number of moods, the indicative, the imperative, and the infinitive. Their tenses are the pra5terite, the future, and the participles. They require only to be compared, in order to manifest their radical identity. S Y R I A C. X HE Syriac differs little from the Chaldee. They have both the same alphabet with Hebrew, and in all these languages, like as in Arabic, aleph is the most gentle breathing. This letter in the beginning of words either forms the first person singular of the future tense, as in 3r(DX scribam, or nouns substantive, as in i^3i\^ digitus. The Syriac, Chaldee and Arabic, all agree in substituting aleph for the servile he in the beginning of hi phil and of hithpael, as for instance, 7T3K for 7"'T2n and '^Tnnbi for "jf^nn of the Hebrew. Aleph is likewise substituted for the emphatic lie, and is placed, both by the Chaldee and Syriac, not at the beginning, but at the end of words. Thus "l^DH of Hebrew becomes iO/D of Chaldee, Syriac and Arabic. So likewise for the feminine gender n2 7Q regina in these kindred languages becomes i<37D. This conformity alone would be sufficient to demonstrate the close affinity, which subsists between Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Syriac. The pronouns in Syriac are ^3i^, ^3J<, IH; pn, pr\:»^, p:«, ego, tu, ipse, &c. Vh^i^ iin. VOL. II. 3 N 418 Syriac forms its adjectives in aleph for the feminine, as 3D bonus, J^2£3 bona, ^i!^'2'\ quartus, H^H^^l quarta. I shall here subjoin a few words, which will still more clearly evince the affinity subsisting between Syriac, Chaldee, Hebrew and Arabic. 3K pater, S. C. H. A. 12ii periit, ditto hia doluit, S. C. H. P»* H. C. iJ1« Syr. 1JJ«pactusest,S.C.H.A. r^^ habitatio, S. C. n::'K femina, H. i^rii^ C. ^n:^ A. i^n:^ S. C. i^ni^ signum, S. n.S C. m.s H. I« tunc, H. n« C. A. p-r^TSyr. ■JTX abiit, S. C. H. A. D^3t« aures, H. P3"r«S. C. A. "inK unus, H. x"Tn s. C. A. n« fratcr, H. C. x^^i A. pni^ cognatus, S. C. »S'nx consuit, C. fni< cepit, H. fnx C. potitus est 1'ns* S. potens "tHK tardavit, H. A. Iinx poster!, C. nnnt* posteritas, H. nTli^ ultimus, A. i^TTin posteritas, S. i:0S* carduus, H. C. to:D« s. n3\S odium, H. N*3S* S. ^''X quomodo, S.C.H. '7Dii comedit, S.C.H.A. 1Di5 agricola, S. H. D'^")3S agricolae, IT. p:3i« S. C. mxD.s A. n"?*^ ululavit J«'7«, S. C. D^'^'7^« Deus, H. l^•^'?^^, C. S. nnha a. mnX7J< divinitas, A. n"in'7x s. ;^'7N* costa, S. i^"?;^, C. <y'7V H. {V^ studuit, docuit,i r s. c. H. ^ ^l'?^ du.x, H. SC»^ cubitus, C.S. (i^^ stabilis, verax, I H. C. S. I ID.^ dixit, H.C.A. -)7J5<ns* dictus fuit, S. ^JKego, J«2N* C. S. A. n3t5 gemuit, H. mnii C. mnns* s. Ctl'iX doluit, [I.liomo,j C C. s. i dx:n* a. "IDK pulvinar, S. C. HDK sanavit, S. C. H. 419 "lDi< ligavit, S. C. H. A. (121K, rota, H. ]2«'7^ C circa, S. ) ;;3VNdigitus,S.C. H.A. rHpK caprea, C. H.) ( NT\^ S. ) 1"!^^ longus fuit, S. C. H. ni^&^ni'obviavi^C.S. '^'i^ ignis, II. i^^'« C. am'i^ febris, S. "^^ii cffudit, S. C. If. r^nii ivit, H. i<nK s. C. ■ins* locus, C. S. Tt must be here remarked that I have confined my vocabulary to the letter aleph, which alone is amply sufficient for the illustration of my subject. But I must likewise add, that numerous expressions are found in some of these languages, which have not been preserved in others. Did we possess a greater number of authors, we might be able more fully to demonstrate the perfect agreement, which subsists between them. Sufficient, however, has been here produced to prove, that Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Syriae, are merely dialects of one language. 5 N § ETHIOFIC. J- HE treasure, which the philologist possesses in the Hebrew and Chaldee Scriptures, is inestimable; yet great as it may be, he laments that it is not equal to his wants and to his wishes. In his lexicon he seeks in vain for the roots of numerous words, of whose specific meaning he is obliged to guess. Some few of these he finds in Syriac, and more in Arabic, but the greatest number are said to be con- tained in the Ethiopic. With this language I have no acquaintance, but I give full credit to Ludolf and to Bruce, wheu they assure us, that it has a close affinity to Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, and that the roots of many Hebrew words are only to be found it. Sir William Jones delivered his opinion to the same effect, and considered all these languages as dialects of one primeval language. Hence he deduced, that each of these must throw light upon the rest. Ludolf m his Ethiopic history has illustrated this affinity by two examples. 4;i In Hebrew we have tlD"TI^ (Adamah) the earth, Admah the name of a city in that beautiful valley, resembling Paradise, " the warden of the Lord," which Lot chose for his residence, when with his flocks and with his herds he separated himself from Abraham his venerable uncle; and Adam was the name given by the Almighty to our first parents, when created in his image. These names have commonly been referred to a root in Hebrew, which means red, but this epithet docs not seem so appropriate to a Being of superior excellence as beautiful, Avhich corresponds to the same root in Ethiopic. It is worthy of remark, that y.o(T[uog, the Greek expression answering to Adamah is derived from y.ou\t.i(a^ I adorn, and in Latin mundus, like munditia, means, not merely cleanliness, but ornament and elegance. The second example is T)^i)^ (Alja) which is translated rump, but in Ethiopia means the tail of a particular breed of sheep, pe- culiar to Africa and the East, which is loaded to such a degree with fat as to require a little cart for its support, whilst 3 3? (zenab) is the term applied to the tail of other sheep. COPTIC, A O Mr. W. Drummond of Edinburgh we are indebted for an account of Coptic and the ancient language of Egypt. The alphabet appears to be nearly similar to the Greek both in form and power. Mr. Drummond delivers it as his opinion, that Coptic is radically allied to Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Ethiopic, and that it has been corrupted by the Persians, Greeks and Romans. This inge- nious writer refers us to Woide's Lexicon, a work which I have never yet had the happiness of seeing. Mr. Drummond has produced seventy examples of Ethiopic which have strict affinity with Hebrew, and express either articles of the first necessity or the most common actions of savage life; and he assures us, that the names of the Egyptian deities can be better explained in Hebrew than by the modern Coptic. T U M K I B H» I HAVE not paid the same attention to Turkish as I have done to other languages; but I have examined it sufficiently to see, that it is exceedingly corrupt ; and they who are best informed, assure us, that it contains ten Arabic or Persian words for one originally Scythian. Indeed it was not to be expected that wandering hordes, without an alphabet, or written records, should have preserved the language of their ancestors. The same want of written records has been noticed by Sir William Jones in all the Tartar nations. Of the Chinese I shall not speak at present; but should my life be spared, I shall hope to pubhsh such an History of China, as will point out the origin and peculiar nature of their language. In the mean time, the Rev. Mr. Carey, and the laborious missionaries who are connected with him, will, I doubt not, give us a satisfactory account of the written language of this wonderful people. By the view I have taken of the languages of Europe, Asia and Africa, I trust it is rendered probable, that in the period subsequent to the deluge, and prior to the dispersion of mankind, the whole earth was of one language. This precisely is the declaration of Moses, and in this assertion, his veracity as an historian sta'nds unimpeached. TOWER OF BABEL AND CONFUSION OF TONGUES. (Subsequent to the deluge, and prior to the dispersion of mankind, the first event recorded by Moses, which calls for particular attention, is the building of a Tower in the Plain of Shinar. As to the use for which this magnificent structure was designed, divines are not agreed, and in the record there is scarcely a word, which has not been a subject of discussion and discordance of opinion, both among the Christians and the Jews. The existence of this towei* is sufficiently established by ancient authors, by Eusebius, by Josephus, and by Herodotus. The latter gives the dimensions of the temple, and a particular description of it's towers. These were eight in number, diminishing in size, and rising one above the other. In the eighth, that is on the summit, was the temple sacred to ]3elus or Baal, as the sovereign of the universe. Diodorus says, that this temple having fallen to decay, he could give no (terrain information respecting it, but that it was of great all^tude. The account which we have in the book of Genesis has occasioned much perplexity to tiie most learned. 425 It is stated in the record, that the ark rested upon Mount Ararat, that the whole earth was of one language and of one speech, and that as they journied iTom the east, or, as it is in the margin, to the east, they found a plai?i, perhaps more properly a vallei/, (for i^p3 means dissecuitj, in which they built their Tower. On this expression Dip fl^, it may be observed, that if they went first from Ararat into Assyria, they might have arrived at Babylon from the east; but if they came from Canaan, they journied towards the east. The Arabic very frequently uses the preposition ^ and l^S for in, into. Here then is the first ambiguity. But DTpJ2 may with equal propriety be translated, from the beginning. This appears by Hab. ch. i. v. 12. Should it be so translated, we must understand it thus. This migration was the most ancient. Again, it has been suggested that 0"Tp may be a proper name. Certain it is that Kedemah is mentioned by Mcses as one of the sons of Ishmael; but it does not follow from hence that, in the passage before us, dp was the name either of a district or of a city. It has been conceived, but without sufficient evidence, that the languages now spoken, that is French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Latin, Welch, Galic, English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Slavonian, Persian, Sanscrit, Greek, &c. &c. originated at one time, and were produced by God himself, for the purpose of dis- comfiting the impious projects of a degenerate race, and preventing the construction of a tower whose top might reach to Heaven. That the common opinion is erroneous, may be inferred from hence, that they began their edifice in a valley, and not upon the mountain top. VOL. II. 3 o 426 Had they chosen Ararat, and not the plain of Shinar, as the site of their nefarious building, such an opinion might have had some little semblance of truth; but we cannot readily believe, that any of the human race were so destitute of understanding as to imagine, that ihey could ascend to the throne of the Most High. When the giants of fable were said to have heaped Petion upon Ossa in their rebellion against the gods, such fictions were well suited to the inflamed imagination of the poet, but would be unworthy the pen of an historian. It is therefore difficult to conceive what notion we should affix to the term (D^'C::') shamaim, the heavens. For were nothing more intended than to construct an elevated beacon, which might be discovered at a distance from their habitations; they surely would not have built their tower in a valley. In our translation we read " let us build a tower whose top may reach to heaven." But in the original it is simply said, " whose top to the heavens," leaving us equally at liberty to say, " whose top may be sacred to the heavens." We know that idolatry commenced with the worship of the heavenly host, the" sun, the moon, the stars, and it is probable that the first altars of the idolaters were pyramids, like this tower, as described by Herodotus. As to the declared purpose of this structure " let us make to ourselves a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth," the learned are at a loss to understand it. Had it been written " let us make to ourselves a beacon, lest we be dispersed," we could have understood their purpose: but how making to themselves a name, could prevent their dispersion, we cannot%fipnceive. All that is clear is, that the Almighty " confounded their language, that 427 they might not understand one another's speech." But in whitt manner, to what extent, and for what duration this confusion lasted, we are not informed. Some divines, equally distinguished for learning and for piety, have conjectured, that the confusion produced at the tower of Babel, was' a confusion with respect to worship, creating such disputes as terminated in the dispersion of the builders. That the common opinion respecting the confusion of tongues, and the innumerable languages, now spoken upon the surface of the earth, as all originating in Babel, is erroneous, must be evident to every one, who is able to trace French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian, however now discordant, back to Latin; the Celtic, German and Gothic languages to Greek, and all these back to Arabic, Chaldee and Hebrew. I have stated the difficulties, which occur to the learned, in their interpretations of the record, and their various opinions as to its meaning and extent; but in these I do not feel myself immediately interested. All I have undertaken to demonstrate is, that subsequent to the deluge the whole earth was of one language, and that a radical affinity may be traced in all the languages, with which we are acquainted. This, I trust, has been performed to the satisfaction of the learned; and, if so, they will readily agree, that the veracity of Moses in this instance is established, and rests upon a firm foundation. So2 428 DISPERSION OF MANKIND. MOSES having related the destruction of the antediluvian world, and the preservation of the human race in the person and family of Noah, next proceeds to trace their progeny in their dispersion and their distant settlements. From all that we have seen we may safely venture to con- clude, that their dispersion was the cause, and not the consequence of that diversity of languages, which have prevailed in the world. The misunderstanding, discord and confusion, with which the builders were visited at Babel, was the cause of their abandoning their impious enter- prize; but the most effectual cause of the dispersion of mankind over the surface of the earth has invariably been, and ever will be, want of food. Such was the cause of separation between Abraham and Lot, when " the land was not able to bear them, that they might dwell together. For Abraham said unto Lot, let there be no strife I pray thee, between me and thee, and between my herdsmen and thy herdsmen. Is not the whole land before thee? separate thyself, I pray thee from me." From the most remote antiquity, historians have recorded the migra- tion of nations in search of food for themselves and of pasture for their flocks; and it has been constantly observed, that in proportion to the difficulty of communication with the parent stock, their languages have varied. Moses informs us, that all the nations of the wOrld, however scattered and dispersed, are the progeny of the patriarch, and of his sons, who 4:9 survived the flood and peopled the renovated earth. He has given us the names of their descendants, names which have been preserved in profane histor}', and by the colonies, which they estabhshed both in Europe and in Asia. These have been traced distinctly by Bochart, who in fixing their primitive abode, confirms the veracity of Moses. From SiiEM our sacred Iiistorian derives Elam, the father of the Elamites, that is of the Persians, the same nation, which in its infancy had Chedorlaomer for its kins;. From the same patriarch, according to the Mosaic account, descended Ashur, the acknowledged father of the Assyrians, Eber, the Father of the Hebrews, and Aram of the Syrians, who, by Hesiod and Homer, are called apiit^i. From Ham he derived the Cushites, who settled in Arabia, and Nimrod, who, it is agreed, remained in Shinar, where he made Babel the seat of his dominion. Miu;raim, the second son of Ham, was the father of the Ethiopians, now called Abyssinians, and of the Egyptians, whose country is peculiarly styled the land of Ham. From Canaan, the fourth son of Ham, Moses distinctly traced elevea families, of which one was Sidon, the father of the Sidonians. Japhet is stated to have been the father of Gomer, Magog, Madai and Javan. Gomer settled north west of Media; Magog and his descendants occupied Russia, Moscow, and the extensive deserts, over which the Scythians wandered with their tents, with their flocks and with their herds. From Madai the Medes derive their origin. Javan, wko may^g^th equal propriety be called Jon, was the progenitor of the lonians, of Elisha, from whom we derive Elis, Hellas or ^olia, of 430 Tarshish or Tarsus, and of Kittim, the founder of th(! Macedonian empire. From a careful investisjation of tiie dispersed families, it is evident, that they originally confined themseiv-es within contracted limits; but that succeeding generations, in proportion to their increasing families and flocks, passed beyond those limits, invaded the territory of sur- rounding nations, and by new conquests extended the bounds of their dominion. This view of the progressive increase of empires, is sufficient to satisfy every candid mind, that Moses, as an historian, is throughout the whole of his narrative perfectly consistent^ with himself, and with the descriptions of the best profane historians. In the infancy of states, we see five kings occupying one little territory, each inhabiting his own metropolis; these are Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Bela, and Zeboiim. We see these petty sovereigns, for twelve years, subject to Chedorlaomer, the king of Elam; then rebelling against him. We see this king, with the assistance of his allies, making war upon the five kings, and putting them to flight. What was the number of the confederate and victorious army, we are not informed ; but we behold it smitten and pursued by three hundred and eighteen armed servants of the patriarch Abraham. About four hundred and thirty years after this event, we see one branch of Abraham's family leaving Egypt, to the number of more than six hundred thousand fighting men, and making conquests throughout the whole extent of Canaan. How perfectly consistent is the narrative of these events to the slate and condition of mankind ! 431 THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. WHEN the nations of tlie earth apostatizing from tlie Avorship of Jehovaii, became idolaters, worshipped the host of heaven, and offered sacrifice to devils; it pleased the Almighty, as we are informed by Moses, to separate for himself one famii}', which, by restoring and pre- serving pure religion, might stem the torrent of corruption, and become a blessing to all succeeding generations. With this merciful intention, God entered into special covenant with Abraham, commanded him to break off all intercourse with idolaters, and, for tliis purpose, to depart from his country, his kindred, ari*d his father's house. On his part, the Almighty most graciously promised, " I will make of thee a great nation, I will bless thee; I will make thy name great, and thou shalt be a blessing. I will bless them that bless thee, and curse him that curseth thee: and in thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed." Having made this covenant, it was ratified by a seal, and it became a law, that every male proceeding from the loins of Abraham should be circumcised. That this rite was typical, and representative is clear, because "^ the law had the shadow of good things to come, and not the- substance." It betokened an engagement on the part of Abraham, that he and his offspring should be distinguished from all other nations as servants of the living God; and a promise on the part of the Lord his God, " I will circumcise thine heart, and the heart of thy seed, to love the Lord thy God with all thine heart and with all thy soul; that thou 432 mayest live." Circumcision to the Jews was a sacramental seal, an out- ward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace, ordained by God himself, given to his people, as a means whereby they might receive the same, and a pledge to assure them thereof. If stiff-necked and rebellious, they would demonstrate, that they were uncircumcised in heart, because " he is not a Jew which is one outwardly, neither is that circumcision which is outward in the flesh; but he is a Jew, which is one inwardly, and circumcision is that of the heart." We Jinow that some other nations, not descended from Abrttham, practised circumcision; but this must have been by imitation, for it was never dictated by nature, and could have no other origin, but that which Moses has assigned to it, because we may safely venture to affirm, that there never was a time, when either the nation of the Jews, or the scattered tribes of Israel, could have been prevailed upon to adopt a perfectly novel practice, as derived by uninterrupted tradition from their ancestors, and whose institution is, described in the sacred Code and earliest records of their ancestors. Every thing we meet with in prophane historians tends to confirm the representation given by Moses of the darkness which covered the earth before the call of Abraham, and which subsequently prevailed in all the nations, which surrounded Judsea, whilst the Israelites had light in their tents. Compared with the offspring of Abraham, how low in the estimate of reason, do all the most admired nations of the earth appear! Look at the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, abandoned to cruel superstition, enslaved by the most execrable vices, and devoted to the most contempt- 433 ible idolatry; whilst pure religion, with the rational service of the true God, is maintained by one little nation, descended from the patriarch; for " truly in Jewrey is God known, his name is great in Israel." Here then we have a further confirmation of the veracity of our his- torian. PASTORAL STATE. THE pastoral state, patriarchal government, and primitive simplicity of manners, described by Moses, as existing subsequent to the deluge and the call of Abraham, perfectly agree with the beautiful pictures of the poets and descriptions of the best historians. The wealth of Abraham and of Lot consisted in their flocks and in their herds, which wandered freely, wherever pasture was to be found. The venerable patriarch performed at once the double office of priest and king; he offered sacrifice, and he led his servants forth to battle. We behold this monarch exercising hospitality towards strangers, who pass near to his habitation. He runs from his tent door to meet them, bows himself towards the earth, invites them to enter, runs to the herd, fetches a calf, and delivers it to a young man, who hastens to dress it, whilst Sarah makes cakes upon the hearth. What beautiful simplicity! How well does this accord with a narrative to be met with in Herodotus. He informs us, that a fisherman, having caught a fish of an extraordinary size, presented it to Polycrates, who VOL. II. 3 p 434 said to the fisherman, " Come thou and sup with me." This invitation was accepted, and the fisherman partook of the fish with his ro}'al host. By this narrative it appears, that in the primitive ages described by Moses, the subjects approached their sovereign as a father, and that he^ on his part, received them as his chihlren. Not so, when the Roman fisherman presented a turbot of eiif)rnious size to the Roman emperor; for he, far from receiving it as a free-will offering, regarded it as a tribute due to his supreme authority, and at midnight assembled the trembling senate, to consult what could be done to procure a vessel large enougii to contain this extraordinary fish. What a contrast of manners liave we here! How little does this resemble primitive simplicity! Such is the information to be derived from the descriptions of our best historians; and not inferior to their's, is that to be obtained in the works of our most venerable poets. Homer has recorded an example of primitive simplicity, in a princess going with her maidens to the river, to superintend the washing of her clothes; an operation performed in a manner precisely as now practised in the rivers of North Britain. In all respects, the Jewish historian conforms to truth, and gives a faithful description of men, of manners, and of events. It is related by him, that the Ishmaelite merchants, who carried on trade with Egypt, occasionally dealt in slaves. This account agrees with the practice of modern times, as we learn from Bruce, and from other travellers. 43o rOPULATlON. ANOTHER event recorded by Moses, is flic vast increase of the Israelites in E^^ypt. In modern Europe no snch increase c.'in take place. To double their numbers, some nations have required centuries, I>ut, accordinfT to JVloses, the Israelites in the land of Egypt doubled their numbers every fifteen years. Without the assistance of political arith- metic, this increase would appear to be miraculous; but it is not stated to have been so. With this assistance, considering the extreme fertility of Egypt, and more especially of Goshen, it should not be deemed im- probable. For it is now well understood, that in a healthy climate, with a sufficiency of food, the tendency of the human race is to double its numbers in the same periods in which the children of Israel doubled theirs. Such has been the increase in the back settlements of North America. THE DELIVERANCE OF ISRAEL FROM EGYPT. THE most important event recorded by Moses remains yet to be particularly noticed, which is the deliverance of the Israelites from the galling yoke of Pharaoh, king of Egypt. Of this, irrefragable evidence appears in the institution of the Passover. During a time of famine, Jacob Avent down into Egypt with his family. Here, under the protection of Joseph, his posterity increased and multiplied: but after the death of Joseph there arose a king, 436 who was unmindful of the benefits, he had conferred upon the na- tion by his wisdom and fidelity. This monarch became jealous of the Israelites, and his fears pro- duced a destructive persecution. But when the appointed time was come for the deliverance of Israel, Moses was sent to shew signs in Egypt and wonders in the land of Ham. The greatest of these was the destruction in one night of all the first-born of the Egyptians, both of man and beast. To keep up a perpetual remembrance of this marvellous event, which immediately preceded the departure of Israel from Egypt and their passage through the Red Sea, the Passover was instituted, Of this event we want no other proof, than the institution itself, which took place at the time of that deliverance, together with the constant celebration of this solemn festival from its first institution to the present time, attended by the record which has been constantly preserved in all the countries through which the several tribes have either wandered, or been scattered by their enemies. For had not the festivalbeen insti- tuted at the recorded time, there never was a time when an impostor could on its introduction have persuaded the Jews in every part of the world, that they and their fathers had constantly observed this festival in commemoration of the deliverance of their ancestors from Egyptian bondage. The character of Moses, therefore, as an historian, stands firm and unimpeached. 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IPIL ATE XVIII, :-^ S £ ' Mt7/ -JoiJ '^(fl/t^trnK/' 'A/f?l . ■>^<t^'''jM:<m'iti^ara/^. JicfiJvn Pt'Mi-Theda-sthcActdurcts JfU-I,i?j^Scr TJte Rer'f yTosc'iJt Ton7iJifjt<i Petvjev- r JL ATE ynn.. /. '2/^i/-.' yoa ■• /vn'$ij4^tttl fif/i,pi c:^tmt "sHc-tvuiAt ^cti/ft Zofti/ftfi I't/hlf-ihed asche Act dtrtiM Jtrlyl. Iki^fbr TTtfJtevf^sefih Tawn.-seikAJ^\tey. F J. A T ]E XX .-# \^>x:x A X x \ X -/ "^ ■-"m::^— li V -Wy / ^ «? -^' .-^^ ^>. ^ rv,. » N ' ('% ^-^Cet' ^u^e^ij . t^owfunt^eC ae^yft '^/ifmA" - yCc^'/.K^ .,-a^^. y>'nj/,)n./''d^j-.(/u-da.ye/i^Ac£t{/'n^rfsJt-(vJM'/^jo/fAr^^j-^Jfl^^^ F IL A T E XXI 6.-1 6B 9B 9C *(iiilku,(J|Jli^!iM)Lm» '■ . yod . ' ' H'iffM^fl// CU^on ' yc/fr/rd'^' /tm'U^^'^^UL J.nntlciu Pvhtufh'ed'a^r Ac- .\cc dux-ctj-'tuLy l.iSiZ /or ThARfif^ Joseph TcwnsHtJ^.Pcwscy. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. lllSB? 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