■:y:j:'k':--
 
 Ex Libris 
 C. K. OGDEN 
 
 J 
 
 /Z/e^a )i c/e>- cd^cu^'- a/, c^. ,y4 . 
 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 i/
 
 ETYMOLOGICAL RESEARCHES 
 
 
 WHEREIN 
 
 NUMEROUS LANGUAGES APPARENTLY DISCORDANT 
 
 HAVE THEIR 
 
 AFFINITY TRACED, 
 
 AND THEIR RESEMBLANCE SO MANIFESTED AS TO LEAD TO THE CONCLUSION 
 
 THAT 
 
 ALL LANGUAGES ARE RADICALLY ONE. 
 
 THOSE CHIEFLY CONSIDERED AND COMPARED 
 
 ARE 
 
 ENGLISH, WELCH, GALIC, MANX, GOTHIC, DANISH, SWEDISH, M^SO-GOTHIC, PERSIAN, SLAVONIAN, 
 
 LATIN, GREEK, HEBREW, CHALDEE, ARABIC, LAPONIC, ETHIOPIC, COPTIC, TURKISH, 
 
 PERSIAN, SANSCRIT, AND THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. 
 
 BY JOSEPH TOWNSEND, M.A., 
 
 RECTOR OF PErrSEY, jriLTS; LATE OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "A JOURNEY THROUGH SPAIN," 2 VOLS.; AND "GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL RESEARCHES, DURING A PERIOD OF WORE 
 THAN FIFTY YEARS IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND. IRELAND, S\V1TZERLAND, HOLLAND. FRANCE, FLANDERS AND SPAIN." 
 
 bath: 
 
 PRINTED BY GYE AND SON, MARKET PLACE; 
 
 AND SOLD BY SAMUEL BAGSTER, No. 15, PATERNOSTER RO\V, LONDON. 
 
 MDCCCXXIV.
 
 3clf 
 
 THE 
 
 WORKS or THE REV. JOSEPH TOWNSEND. M. A., 
 
 ARE 
 
 I. TRAVELS THROUGH SPAIN, 2 Volumes, Quarto. Price £ 2 : 2 : boards. 
 
 II. GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL RESEARCHES, during a jieriod of more than fifty years in England, Scotland, 
 Ireland, Switzerland, Holland, France, Flanders, and Spain. One Volume, Quarto. Price £ 1:1:0, boards. 
 
 III. ETYMOLOGICAL RESEARCHES; wherein numerous Languages apparently discordant, have their affinity traced, and 
 their resemblance so manifested, as to lead to the conclusion that all Languages are radically one. Those chiefly considered and com- 
 pared are, English, Welch, Galic, Manx, Gothic, Persian, Slavonian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, Laponic, Ethiopic, Coptic, 
 Turkish, Persian, Sanscrit, and the Languages of India. One Volume, Quarto, £1:1:0, boards. 
 
 *,• The two preceding Articles were published in 1613, under the title " The Character of Moses established for Veracity as an Historir.u, recording 
 Events subsequeut to the Deluge." 
 
 IV. SERMONS, on the Being of God, &c. One Volume, Octavo. 8s.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Language i 
 
 Abbreviations • 25 
 
 Transpositions 29 
 
 Orthography • • 30 
 
 Investigation of Radicals 39 
 
 First Inhabitans of Britain 59 
 
 English Language 70 
 
 English and Greek SI 
 
 Welch Language 153, 24S 
 
 Galic ditto 172 
 
 Manx ditto 252 
 
 Gothic Languages- ■ • 238 
 
 Runic Characters 247 
 
 Bardic ditto 248 
 
 Pelasgian ditto 248 
 
 Danish Language •• 247, 353 
 
 Swedish ditto 26 1 
 
 Danish and Greek 266 
 
 Swedish and Greek 279 
 
 Maeso Gothic Language 26i 
 
 Persian ditto. >-» 301 
 
 fAQS., 
 
 Sanscrit Language ♦ 308 
 
 Russian ditto 331 
 
 Slavonian ditto 351 
 
 Latin ditto 363 
 
 Greek ditto 372 
 
 Greek and Hebrew, their Affinity 395 
 
 Laponic and Hebrew 401 
 
 Hebrew Language 407 
 
 Chaldee ditto 411 
 
 Arabic ditto ■' 415 
 
 Syriac ditto 417 
 
 Ethiopic ditto 420 
 
 Coptic ditto 422 
 
 Turkish ditto 423 
 
 Tower of Babel and Confusion of Tongues 424 
 
 Dispersion of Mankind 428 
 
 The Call of Abraham 431 
 
 Pastoral State 433 
 
 Population >> 435 
 
 The Deliverance of Israel from Egypt • • • • 435
 
 THE 
 
 CHARACTER OF MOSES, &c. 
 
 ON LANGUAGES. 
 
 JtJ-OSES informs us, that after the deluge and before the dispersion 
 of mankind, the whole earth was of one language. This fact it will 
 not be difficult, independently of revelation, to render probable. 
 
 That men united in community should have one language, is perfectly 
 agreeable to common observation. It might be sufficient therefore to 
 demonstrate, that all mankind are descended from the same progeni- 
 tors, and at a given period constituted one family. This, 1 trust, has 
 been accomplished in a former volume, and, if so, from this it will 
 follow, that they had one language. I shall here, however, take a 
 different course, and by examining to a considerable extent the appa- 
 rently discordant languages, which have prevailed in the world, shall 
 trace their resemblance, and, should I be able to demonstrate, or even to 
 make it probable, that all the languages, with which we are acquainted, 
 
 VOL. II. B
 
 and consequently, by a well founded analogy, that all languages have 
 an affinity and are radically one; the arguments adduced to prove, that 
 the human race descended from the same progenitors, and at a distant 
 period constituted one family, will be abundantly confirmed. 
 
 In proceeding to this arduous undertaking the most skilful etymolo- 
 gist must tremble; when he calls to mind the number of languages, 
 which have been, or now continue to be spoken in the four quarters of 
 the globe, and considers how little resemblance they retain to each 
 other in meaning, orthography, and ^ound. 
 
 Yet if we remark the influence of climate on the organs of speech, on 
 the productions of the earth, both in the animal and regetable kingdoms, 
 on the nature and number of our wants, with the means of supplying 
 them; if we consider our occupations and pursuits, which differ, not 
 only in the savage, but in the civilized stages of society, according 
 as men subsist either by the fruits of the earth spontaneously produced, 
 by hunting, by fishing, by flocks and herbs, by the plough, by arts and 
 manufactures, or by all these united and combined with commerce ; if 
 we make allowance for the effects of government and political economy 
 on the thoughts and discussions of mankind, according as they either 
 live without property and laws, or establish property and submit to 
 laws; if we reflect on the difference in the vocabulary of those, who 
 have religion compared with such nations as have none; if we pay 
 attention to the variety of terms required to express ideas connected with 
 these various conditions of mankind, and the accidents, which influence 
 the choice of terms; we shall readily conceive, that a language, originally 
 one, may have split into a multitude of forms, which preserve little re-
 
 semblance to each other, or even to the parent language, from which 
 they all proceed. 
 
 When a nation passes from civilized to savage life; the vocabulary gra- 
 dually becomes contracted. But, when it emerges from this state; a 
 necessity instantly arises of inventing a multiplicity of new expressions, 
 suited to it's increasing wants, to it's progress in the arts and sciences, to 
 it's customs, occupations and pursuits, to its religion, government and 
 laws. 
 
 But should a colony go forth, and, being separated either by alpine 
 mountains, by wide and rapid rivers, or by the ocean, lose all connexion, 
 all intercourse and communication with the parent state; and should this 
 colony have been composed of fishermen, of hunters, of noniade hordes, 
 or of the illiterate vulgar, who have few ideas beyond objects of the first 
 necessity, and consequently few expressions; the change of language 
 might be rapid, and, when, at a distant period, this little colony should 
 have risen up into a nation ; it might be difficult to trace the affinity be- 
 tween their language and that of the country, from which they originally 
 came. 
 
 Colonies again proceeding in like manner from this colony, might 
 scarcely retain a vestige of resemblance in their expressions, either to 
 their remote progenitors, or even to each other. 
 
 Mr. Planta, in his interesting history of the Helvetic confederacy 
 (vol. I. p. 13) shews clearly, what the want of communication effects in 
 changing languages. For, speaking of Switzerland, he says, " In a 
 country, like this, where every valley is the whole world to its inhabi- 
 tants, the nearest neighbours are frequently such strangers to each other 
 
 B 2
 
 4 
 
 as to differ widely in many of their customs, and sensibly so in their 
 dialects. Among the mountains of the Grisons, the Romance is spoken, 
 but there are as many dialects of this as there are vallies and villages." 
 
 The same has been noticed by all travellers in similar situations, 
 throughout the globe, and wc universally observe, that the language 
 of little and detached communities is less permanent, than that of a 
 great nation, because among them capricious changes are quickly com- 
 municated and readily adopted eiiher in pronunciation or in the intro- 
 duction of new terms. Professor Pallas tells us, that Caucasus exhibits 
 more than twenty-two dialects of eight or nine distinct and several lan- 
 guages, and that Kamtschatka, whose population, when first discovered 
 by the Russians, seemed to he but just commenced, contained nine 
 dialects of three discordant lanouawes, more distinct and better charac- 
 terized, with much less affinity, either among themselves, or when com- 
 pared to the languages of Europe, than these have to the ancient Celtic. 
 
 The same observation nearly is made by Charlevoix, respecting the 
 Indians of New France, among whom he traces three mother tongues, 
 and observes, that the dialects of each are as numerous as their 
 villages. 
 
 From what has been said, it will appear, that should three fami- 
 lies, diverging from one point, spread themselves with their flocks over 
 new settlements, in opposite directions, to such a distance as to have 
 no subsequent communication either with the parent stock, or with 
 each other; the language of their descendants would, in a few genera- 
 tions, differ nmch from that of their progenitors. And in similar cir- 
 cumstances, such divergencies from given points being frequently re-
 
 peated during a succession of some thousand years; should we attempt 
 to investigate the affinity of these ancient languages; we should, from 
 every point of divergency, have new analogies to trace, the discordancies 
 would multiply, and before we could arrive at the first language, scarce 
 a vestige of resemblance might remain. 
 
 When detached communities, or wandering hordes are surrounded 
 by other hordes, with whom they are incessantly engaged in war, and 
 are cither subduing or subdued ; it cannot be expected that they should, 
 for any length of time, preserve their language pure. In such circum- 
 stances they must inevitably blend a multitude of languages together. 
 
 In new colonies, such as I have above described, poverty of language 
 leads to change ; because one single expression is obliged to represent 
 many distinct ideas, which, in numerous instances, have but a remote 
 analogy. A vivid imagination seizes the most faint resemblance, and 
 compels the same term to serve for various purposes. A word thus used, 
 if happily applied, gives dignity to language, rivets the attention, fixes 
 itself in the memory, and, if universally approved, passes current as 
 a classical expression. Poverty of language gave birth to metaphois, 
 but their beauty recommends them to our use. Like our garments, 
 they niay have originated either in regard to decency, or in weakness 
 and in want: but they are now resorted to for ornament, and give grace 
 to our discourse. These are the hieroglyphics of all nations, the elements 
 of Symbolic writing, even among nations who have adopted the use of 
 alphabetic characters. 
 
 Thus in various languages heart is used for benevolent affections, a 
 rocTc for security, a sword for war, a staff for support, light ^or pros-
 
 perity, darkness for adversity, a shadow for protection, a horn for strength, 
 glory, courage, and sleep for death. 
 
 All nature supplies the orator with metaphors. Thus the public 
 speaker, the poet, and the clown, all equally contribute to change a 
 language. 
 
 With a view to grace, or to supply the deficiency of suitable expres- 
 sions, other tropes are admitted in discourse. Thus a part is substituted 
 for the whole, as in German Jlinte, in English fusil and firelock, are 
 used for musket. The genus frequently becomes the species, and specific 
 distinctions being overlooked, the term appropriate to one species is 
 applied to others. Thus in Danish riste means to broil, and stege to 
 roast. In Welch Ffordd means a road in general, whilst road is confined 
 specially to the passage of a river. In England these expressions are 
 reversed. Derw in W^elsh, like the corresponding term in Greek, means 
 oak, but drewo and drebo in the Slavonian dialects mean tree in general, 
 like pre7i in Welsh, which is allied to 't^p^vo; a term exclusively confined 
 to oak. Our word tail claims affinity to Tskog extremity: but tal in 
 Welch is now confined to the forehead, although formerly it was ex- 
 tended indifferently to head and tail. 
 
 From inattention to distinctions the male expression becomes female, 
 and the female is taken for the male, as in the word hen derived from 
 hane, which in Gothic signifies the male bird, as hcina does the female. 
 In Finland kana is confined to the female, and kucku to the male, answer- 
 ing to coq in French, and to cock in English. Connected with kucku 
 we have kuklein of German, kuckling of the Swedes, and chicken in
 
 English, all indifferently applied to the male and female offspring of 
 the hen: but in either Canarese or Sanserit and in Spanish chico is a 
 little one. 
 
 In like manner the distinctions of age, sex, and condition, marked 
 in our words cow, bull, ox, steer, heifer, arc confounded in bos of the 
 Greek and Latin. In Galic agh comprehends every one of these, with 
 doe and hind, whilst bois and bo are restricted to the cow. In Welch, 
 ych, like our word ox, and the Russian bole, is confined wholly to the 
 castrated bull. Gaw in Sanscrit and Persian, means both cow and bull. 
 
 The terms Sheep, Ewe, Ram, Wether, with numerous others, are sub- 
 ject to the same caprice. 
 
 Such confusion arises from the transmission of terms without specific 
 and precise ideas. 
 
 Ignorance of the language, either in new settlers, or in occasional 
 visitors, is a very frequent cause of error. In no instance has this been 
 rendered more evident than in the names of rivers. We meet with at 
 least five Avons in Ireland, and more than six in England. We have 
 four rivers which bear the name of Team, Tama, Tame and Tamar, be- 
 sides the Tavy and Taw of Devonshire, the Tafy, Tivy, and Towy in 
 Wales, theTay, Teviod, and Tweed, in Scotland, and theTove in North- 
 amptonshire; yet neither Avon, Tame, Taw, Tay, Tove nor Tafy were 
 originally proper names; but meant river in general, the former being 
 essentially the same word with the Galic Amhuin, pronounced Aven, or 
 the Latin Amnis: and the latter with TOTaif^oj, as we shall prove in the 
 progress of our work. The rivers Wey, Wye, and Medway are the Galic 
 Obha, pronounced Owa, nearly resembling the French word Ean.
 
 8 
 
 The rivers Asc, Esk, Isc, Usk, Isis, Oise and Ouse, with Ax, Ex and 
 Ux, which give their names to their several market towns, were merely, 
 like Obha, water, a stream, a river. So Rhine, the name of one river, 
 is no other than Rine, the Saxon appellation for stream, Gunga, is both 
 a generic and a specific term, meaning both river and the Ganges. In 
 like manner the Frith of Forth is literally the Sea of Sea, because neither 
 Frith nor Forth were originally proper names, but the latter was the same 
 word with mp^i^-eov, and the former with Fretum. Loch Linnhe, Loch 
 Lomond, and Lacus Lemanus, as used by Caesar in his Commentaries, 
 are repetitions, because Lemanus, or, in Tartarian, Liman, like Llynn 
 in Welch and Galic, and Xif^wi in Greek, means a lake, or an extensive 
 sheet of water. It is possible that Lynn in Norfolk may have derived 
 its name from hence. Lincoln anciently looked down upon a lake, 
 the termination Coin is Colonia. In Pinkerton's Geography, we meet 
 with Lake Loch Nor, that is Lake Lake Lake, for neither of these 
 words is a proper name, but Loch in Celtic, and Nor, both in Tartarian 
 and in Hebrew, mean lake in general. 
 
 By accommodation and general consent, the instrument and cause 
 are frequently substituted for the effect, or thing, produced. Or a 
 quality may be used to represent the animal or thing, in which that 
 quality is eminently found, as Avhen Homer uses the term 'tttuB. for a 
 hare, an animal distinguished for timidity, and for its endeavour to con- 
 ceal itself. The time is put for whatever is connected with it. Thus 
 middag in Sweden means dinner, and joiirnee in France, may be indif- 
 ferently day, day's work, journey, battle, pay. 
 
 In like manner the containing may stand for the contained, as cup
 
 9 
 
 for drink, the pitcher in Spain for the heel, iiiuUon, bacon, &c. stewed 
 in it; and in every country, the tal)lc for the food which is placed 
 upon it. Camp means a phiin, or an army \\iUi its tents and equipage; 
 but in German it is used for a battle. The matter, of which a thing 
 is made, is taken for the thing itself, as, for instance haunt which in 
 German means a tree, is a beanKJn English. Cuirasse, that is coreacea 
 leather becomes a coat of mail. 
 
 The sign may supply the place of the thing signified, as uiien either 
 throne or sceptre is used for regal power. 
 
 A word, once diverted from its original signification, finds no rest, but 
 passes on in slow succession, and is made to represent, from time to time, 
 some new idea, as caprice may dictate, or necessity require. A learned 
 Abbe, who, flying from the tyranny of Robespierre, found refuge in 
 this island, was so obliging as to shew me a Chinese word, which in its 
 primary signification means to suck. This he traced through its various 
 ramifications, in a connected series till he found it terminate in near a 
 thousand difl^erent and distinct ideas. 
 
 Frequently the metaphorical acceptation of a word remains, when the 
 original meaning has been long since forgotten. 'J'hus it is in capricious, 
 which refers to the wild and sportive gambols of the kid, as sincere does 
 to honey, when it is free from wax: yet these expressions never suggest 
 an image to the mind, either of a goat, of honey, or of wax. In like 
 manner, pugno gives us the notion of a battle, whatever be the imple- 
 ment of war; but excites in us no image of the first, although pugno is 
 derived from pugnus. The same observation will apply to affront, insult, 
 backbite, counsel, conspire, &c. Sec. 
 
 VOL. II. c
 
 10 
 
 When new terms, whether invented or imported, have been received 
 into a language, it frequently happens, that the correspondent ex- 
 pressions are laid aside, or acquire new significations. This we observe 
 in rival, knave, villain, rascal, churl, for these formerly conveyed the 
 several notions of neighbour, boy and man-servant, villager, lean beast 
 and rustic, precisely as the terms queen and quean, one of which is a 
 title of the highest dignity, Ihe other of reproach, are no other than 
 quena, which at first meant simply woman, then a wife, and in Sanscrit 
 a daughter. So among the Romans, hostis, an enemy originally, signi- 
 fied a stranger; and fronj these independent meanings may be derived 
 our word host, used for one who receives strangers, and for a multitude 
 of armed men. 
 
 Thus ail in Hebrew is a ram, in Arabic a stag: caper a goat in Latin, 
 a boar in Greek. Bos in Galic means the hand, and bas the palm of 
 the hand. Bys, bez and bes, the correspondent words in Welch, Cornish 
 and Armoric, mean a finger; but besoa, in the language of Biscay, is 
 the arm. These have a striking resemblance to pes or '^ovg, which con- 
 veys the notion of a foot, but occasionally of the whole leg, and which 
 may have originated in bus (d13) to trample under foot. Should it be 
 granted, that the Celtic tribes derived their bos, bys, bez, and bes from 
 either TTouV or Din; such licentious use of terms could not be considered 
 as more extraordinary than, that pare should signify the hand in Sanscrit 
 and in Welch, the foot in Russian and in Persian, the hoof in Armoric, 
 and indifferently either hand or foot in English, whilst in Greek it means 
 only the action of the hand or of the paw in grasping. 
 
 Putain French, and puta Spanish, mean a prostitute, but in Sanscrit 
 a wife.
 
 a 
 
 Buwch is in yVelch an ox, in Russian a hull, in French and German a 
 he-goat; but /3wvi is a she-goat. Ungula in Latin is the nail, but in 
 Sanscrit the finger. Wife in Enghsh is a married woman, in German a 
 woman, though unmarried. 
 
 Bi'ithil in Welch is a trout, but in Cornish a mackerel. Cescr in Welch 
 is hail; in Armoric casaire is a shower; Lis in Welch a palace, in Galic 
 a house. Mam, Welch, is mother, in Galic a nurse. Dafad, Welch, 
 a sheep; damh, pronounced daf, is in Galic, ox. Gobhar in Galic is 
 a goat, in Irish a horse. Dant, a tooth in Welch, is in Galic a morsel. 
 Cjnnog, Welch, a pail, is a churn in Galic. Llug in Welch, and Xuxvj 
 in Greek, mean light, but look in English, is either the action of the 
 eye directed towards an object, or the appearance of any thing wlien 
 viewed. 
 
 A remarkable change of meaning has taken place in our words right, 
 just and true, of which the latter now contains the notion of verit}^ as 
 the two former do of equity, although originally right signified merely 
 that, which was directed, just that, which was commanded, and truth 
 had no reference but to fidelity, and to that confidence, which tried 
 fidelity inspires. 
 
 True, truth, troth and truce, or in old English trew, troweth, treoth 
 and trewse, are certainly allied to trow; yet trow was not originally 
 equivalent to cogito, concipio, imagino, but to confido, not to uKvi^eiz, 
 but to ^appft). In this acceptation it agrees with treowan, treowa and 
 treothe Saxon, vertrouwen, Belgic, treu and trauen German, trua Ice- 
 landic, tro Swedish, tree Danish, trauan and trauaida Gothic, and with 
 true, as used by Shakespeare, all which imply fidelity, confidence and 
 trust. c 2
 
 12 
 
 In these languages, the expression for thought, imagination, belief 
 and verity have not even the most remote resemblance, not tlie most 
 distant affinity to our words true, trow, troth, truth and truer, to the 
 Saxon treowian, or to any of its derivatives. 
 
 Verity is related to the German wahr and Latin verus, the Frencli vrai, 
 and to the Spanish vero. To convey this notion we have in tiie Slavonic 
 line istinna, stability; as, in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac, Ameth (J^D^^) 
 implies that, which is durable, whilst in Russian vieriu and viera mean 
 fido, and fides, vieryu, credo, and derznost is used for confidence. The 
 Greek expression fl:A;i&f/a: means that which is not concealed. 
 
 It were now therefore absurd for any one to say, that a curve becomes 
 a right line, Avhen directed to be made; that, justice has no specific 
 meaning of its own independently of a command, or that iniquity in 
 judges may be perfectly consistent with rectitude. 
 
 This change in the meaning of words is palpable in the well 
 known adage summum jus summa injuria, which, though rightly 
 understood, is agreeable to verity, yet, etymologically taken, is a 
 contradiction in terms. A skilful rhetorician, fond of parodox and 
 conscious of superior talents, to amuse himself and others in some 
 idle hour, may play with terms; but even at the festive board, when 
 surrounded by his friends, he will not maintain, that trow and truth 
 have not changed their meaning, or that in the modern acceptation 
 of the term, truth universally prevails, that all villagers are villians, 
 that every servant is a knave, that rustics are churls, that every 
 woman is a quean, and that verity has no existence beyond the wild 
 conceits and opinions of mankind: (see Home Tooke's, Ep. pt:) this
 
 
 propensity in nations to change their vocabuhiry is ucil described by 
 Horace. 
 
 As, when llie forest, willi (he bending year, 
 
 First shods (he leaves, which earliest appear; 
 
 So an old nice of words maturely dies, 
 
 And some, new-born, in youth and vigour r>se: 
 
 Many shall rise, that now forgotten lie, 
 
 Others, in present credit, soon shall die; 
 
 If custom will, whose arbitrary s\v:iy. 
 
 Words and the forms of language must obey. 
 
 But rhongh in one hingu:tge, or dialect a word may become ob- 
 solete and perish, or have its meaning changed, yet in the kindred 
 languages, it may be retained as classical in its original acceptation. 
 Numerous instances of this might be adduced from the several 
 dialects of Celtic, from the Welch, Cornish, Armoric, Irish, and 
 Galic, compared with the Gothic languages. Many of these have 
 been noticed by Lluyd, and not a few of them will occur to us 
 in the progress of our investigation. Some nations may have lost 
 the primitive expression, whilst its compounds exist. Thus for in- 
 stance, the Galic teine and the Welch tan, mean fire, but these words 
 were laid aside in Latin and in French, in which, however we find 
 txiinguo and eteindre. In old English we have tine and tind to 
 kindle, which have given birth to tinder.
 
 14 
 
 OF COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 The natural progress of languages, after names had been invented for 
 the various objects of sense and articles of first necessity, seems to 
 have been, by some modifications of these names, to express such quali- 
 ties or actions, as were most readily suggested to the mind on the 
 contemplation of those objects. Certain it is, however, that in the 
 introduction of appropriate terms, whether for things, for persons, for 
 places, for actions, or for qualities, all nations have avoided the 
 multiplied use of arbitrary sounds, and, availing themselves of such 
 as were uncommonly understood, have been satisfied with indicating 
 by them, as nearly as possible, the properties by which the object in 
 question is characterized and to be distinguished from all others. 
 
 This propensity gave rise to compound expressions, which, when 
 well chosen, become perfectly descriptive of the thing intended to be 
 known. As for instance, when the Irish for a flint say dragart, or 
 when the Germans call it by the name of feuerstein, they indicate that 
 species of stone, which gives fire by collision v/ith steel. For a fin 
 the latter use flossfeder, floating feather, and for a telescope fcrin'o/ire, 
 that is the reed or tube by means of which tliey discern distant bodies. 
 Some of the German compounds seem to be ill connected, as for in- 
 stance, when they call a roe hirshkuhe, and a fawn Urachkalh, the former 
 meaning literally the cow, and the latter the calf or the hart. Other 
 compounds excite a smile in foreigners, as for instance, hand-shoe when 
 used for gloves, and finger-hat which means a thimble.
 
 15 
 
 Such is the difficulty of inventing expressions for new objects, that 
 the element in which any thing is produced, the country from which 
 it comes, or even the mode of conveyance often serves to mark the 
 specific difference, and then the most remote analogy, the least dis- 
 cernible resemblance is taken for the generic term. In Galic CMmm, 
 a little dog, in English becomes a rabbit. Meerkatze, that is a sea 
 cat, is in Danish and Dutch a monkey. Blodigel, that is blood eel, 
 in Denmark a leech. The rein deer is distinctly renn thier, the running 
 animal. When the Koroeki first saw an ox, they caUed \i t-uski olehn, 
 that is Ki'.ssian rein doer. Tlie people of Otaheitc called horses mio-hty 
 hogs. A lion when first beheld at Rome, was a Numidian bear. In 
 Galic a wolf is iiiadradiialla, wild dog, and a bear is mathghabhuin a 
 wild calf. In Wclcli a badger is daearfochyn, an earth pig. The Celtic 
 tribes, whether Galic, Welch, or Cornish, describe the otter as a water 
 dog. In Sanscrit this animal is uch-a closely allied to vBup of the Greek. 
 The Persians call a mole, deaf mouse. When the Romans saw the 
 elephants of Pyrrhus, they considered these animals as Lucanian oxen. 
 Elephus itself may have been derived from aleph an ox in Hebrew. 
 
 Similar expedients for the invention of new terms have been uni- 
 versally resorted to. Thus we have sea horse, sea cow, sea hog, sea 
 calf, which last is in Welch, morlo in armoric lue m6r. 
 
 Even the most distant resemblance will suffice for both the gene- 
 ric and specific term, as in our word pineapple, which is neither 
 an apple, nor fruit of the pine tree. 
 
 The Greek language is remarkably fond of compounds. Thus for 
 instance we see Kciirvpov for embers, in which the fire may seem to
 
 16 
 
 be extinguished, but is yet alive, and needs only to be moved for 
 the admission of fresh air, an action well expressed by txvce^i>i'7:vp7iv. 
 Of their compounds, some are to be admired for elegance; some are 
 remarkably comprehensive, and others excel in the force and energy 
 of their expression. Sach are Xvx.xvy'eg the dawn, y-cckXiyvvcu-t, alxindant 
 in beauteous women, SopvE,evog a brother in arms. Some compounds 
 are so much contracted, as to conceal to a certain degree their 
 component parts. Thus it is with Sxwi; compounded of Sx and y.vxic, 
 which united, mean precisely I gnaw, in Galic cnaoighim, that is 
 I t.ear in pieces Avith my teeth; for y.yxu implies sinij)iy lo divide, 
 whether by cutting, rending, or t(aring, without reference to llie 
 teeth. This additional notion of the instrument, by which the divi- 
 sion is effected, seems therefore to have been conveyed by Sx, and 
 if so, this particle may have been contracted from the orienial dant, 
 which is in Galic a morsel, but in Hindostani, Sanscrit, and Welch, 
 a tooth, as dendan is in Persian, agreeing thus with dens dentis of 
 the Latin, or oBovg oJovtoj of the Greek. 
 
 In every country the expedient resorted to in giving names to persons 
 and to places, has been to combine expressions and form new compounds, 
 descriptive of a person, or the place in question. 
 
 Among the fJebrews it ai)pears, that wlien tiie new-born infant 
 was to be distinguished by a name, they had rccouise, not to arbi- 
 trary sounds, but to such woi"ds, as being commonly in use, de- 
 scribed the circumstances attendant on the l)irti). "I'hus it was in the 
 names of Cain, Abel, Seth, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Isianael, 
 &c. all explained in sacred writ. So in the German names, Alaric
 
 17 
 
 is universal king; Ariovistus, much honoured ; Aliobrogos, the moun- 
 taineers; jVfarsi, the marslilandcrs. A similar practice prevails among 
 savage tribes, as may be particularly noticed in America. 
 
 The names of places have been taken from either local circum- 
 stances, or some remarkable event to be thus recorded, as at Beer- 
 sheba, Bethel, Gilead, Eshcol, Bochim, all particularly mentioned 
 and explained in Scripture. In every country, local names, lead to 
 the knowledge of the ancient languages, because they are descrip- 
 tive of the situation, whether mountainous or level; in a valley or 
 a glen; wet or dry; woodland or pasture, open or inclosed; cultivated 
 or wild ; whether it has a rock, a castle, a well, a river, a bridge, a ford, 
 a mill, a church, a lake, &c. 
 
 In Germany there is not a village, but what is indebted for its name 
 to something general and special in its situation. The general terms are 
 bach a stream, brvick abridge, busch a thicket: dorp a village; fels a 
 rock; berg an eminence ; burg a castle; feld a field; hausen, from haus 
 a house; hofF a court; holttz or holz a forest; kirch a church; mulen, 
 from muhle a mill ; munster a convent ; stein a stone ; thai a valley ; 
 vbrde a ford ; wald a forest. In Wales every gentleman's seat carries an 
 accurate description in its name. 
 
 The natural progress of language, after having invented names for 
 things, one would imagine, should be to fix upon terms descriptive of 
 qualities or indicating action. Hence the origin of verbs and adjectives 
 may besought for in the correspondent substantives; but by observation 
 it is found, that in all languages the verbs, however formed, with their 
 inflexions, give birth to innumerable nouns, as may be particularly 
 
 VOL, II. ]»
 
 18 
 
 noticed in the Saxon, Greek, and Hebrew. All the other parts of speech 
 flow from these, claiming kindred to the nouns and verbs, of which they 
 are abbreviations. This has been demonstrated by Lennep, in his Greek 
 Etymology, and, as far as relates to English, by the most able critic of 
 our age ; and Noldius in his Concordance has transmitted to posterity, a 
 work written by Christian Koerber, which proves the same thing respect- 
 ing the Hebrew particles. 
 
 But though all nations start from the same point, and acknowledge the 
 same principles; they yet take different routs, and in the evolution of 
 ages find themselves exceedingly remote in their expressions both from 
 their common ancestors and from each other. Hence the vast variety 
 observed in their adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. But as these 
 are all derived from nouns and verbs ; so from them proceed formative 
 particles, whether prefixed or suffixed to other nouns and verbs. 
 
 Here then we have an abundant source for diversity of speech, where 
 the languages are acknowledged to be radically one. This will be dis- 
 tinctly seen, if we pay attention even to a few of the prepositive parti- 
 cles introduced into the principal languages of Europe. 
 
 In Greek, wc have 
 
 1st. Tiie intensitive a apparently derived from ocyxv as in af&Xog, 
 uy'kccog, aTtag, izoXXteg. 
 
 2nd. Tiic privative a derived from aVtu as in aopxTog ajipcrog, (xXv\^six 
 alSvfg, atSwg, uKyi'iog, cckccog, ccvxvSpog, avopxTog, avO(T[i.og, 
 
 3r(l. The associating a derived from ^ju-a, as in ccKoXou^og and eiZe\(p'og. 
 
 It must be here remarked, that whem ^f* occurs before a labial; 
 it may be used for either avx. or xvev as in Kit.ittht.ov and af*/3/30T0?.
 
 19 
 
 Tims in oiiu language the same prefix, derived indeed from differ- 
 ent particles, varies the form of words, and diverts them from their 
 primitive meaning, yet ever with a strict attention to the roots, from 
 which they are derived. In Greek we have eighteen prepositions, 
 each of which may be combined with every verb, either single or in 
 pairs, nay even in trii)le ranks, as may be observed in Homer. From 
 one verb, for example iic»KXco, we count more than fifty verbs of dis- 
 tinct meanings, and from Xeya, in it's several acceptations, we have 
 nearly eight hundred compounds. 
 
 The English needlessly doubles the preposition in concomitant de- 
 rived from con and eo. 
 
 Among the eighteen Greek prepositions I must request, that the 
 reader will pay particular attention to £^i, 0^1:0, m and H, because 
 these in one shape, or other, run through all the languages, both of 
 Europe and of northern Asia. 
 
 The Latin, intimately connected with the Greek, has nearly the 
 same particles with it, as the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and 
 English, conform to Latin. The import however of these particles 
 is not strictly the same in all these languages, and therefore in Italy, 
 a Frenchman must not be surprised to find, that digiunare means 
 to fast. 
 
 In Slavonic, the particles prefixed, are bez, voz, vz, vos, vni; za, z, 
 s, k, ko, na, ni, &c. which I may possibly explain, when I shall proceed 
 to treat of the Slavonian lansjuage. 
 
 The Germans have two kinds of compound verbs. The first are 
 those that have particles inseparable from them, such as, after be, 
 
 D 2
 
 emp, ent, er, ge, hinter, miss, um, ur, ver, verab, verun, voll, wider, 
 and zer, of these the two most frequently used are be, and ge. 
 
 The second are those that have particles separable from them, such 
 as, ab, anf, aus, bey, dar, durch, ein, fort, fur, heim, hin, &c. which 
 instead of being prefixed, may be carried forward, and stand alone 
 at the end of a long sentence. 
 
 In Angle Saxon, the prepositions used in composition are numerous. 
 Among those we find, a, ab, be, emb, fore, ge, g; na, ne, n, on over, 
 uppe, with, &c. 
 
 The prepositive particles in Belgic, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and 
 Maeso-Gothic resemble these, as these resemble the correspondent 
 particles in Greek. 
 
 In Welch we have a, ad, am, an ar, as; cyd, cym, cyn ; dad, de, di, 
 dir, dy, dys; ed, er, es; g, go, gor; y, ys, most of which correspond 
 with the preceding. 
 
 They are somewhat different in Galic; but evidently claim kindred 
 with the Greek. These are a, ag, ad, aith, am, an, ar; coimh; ea, eac, 
 eag, ean, ein, en; g, re, s, tar. 
 
 It may be readily conceived, that such a multiplicity and variety of 
 particles must create confusion, equal to ihat of Babel, when, in the 
 kindred dialects, the same root remains either single, but disguised, or 
 disguised and connected with different prepositions, according to the 
 genius of the several languages, in which the radical term has been pre- 
 served. Thus for instance, preserve in English and conserve in French, 
 answer to servo in Latin; but serve in English has a different import. 
 -Mendum in Latin is a defect; but to mend, in English, meaws to re-
 
 21 
 
 move defects, ^xispog becomes obscure and rXayiog oblique. Wild in 
 English is gwyllt in Welch. Lenncr Armoric, and darllenwr Welch are 
 radically one, and mean a reader. Gogledd in Welch is the north ; 
 but in Galic we find simply Cledd, that is the left hand and therefore the 
 north to him, who turns his face towards the east. Llugeid the eyes in 
 Welch, is daulagad in Armoric. Cymnial in Welch is a joint, but in 
 Greek the root appears in fj^ekog. In French blesser answers to the 
 German verletzen, and both are found in loedere, lossus, tAv'ttw crX^ia-o-w. 
 Conspoid in Galic and dispute in English are radically one, for both 
 originate in puto. 
 
 Thus in different countries, according to caprice or accident, innu- 
 merable terms become variously combined, and retain only their 
 equivalency in import, with scarcely a vestige of similitude in form. 
 
 Among the difficulties which stand in the way of etymology, one, 
 and that not the least, arises from the propensity of all nations to 
 indicate positive qualities by negation. From this practice, the more 
 direct and p/oper terms expressive of qualities, have been neglected, 
 and not unfrequently have been wholly lost. Of the languages with 
 which I am acquainted, the Galic is most remarkable for this pro- 
 pensity, having no fewer than nine particles used in composition for 
 negation. We ourselves are fond of this practice, and the Germans 
 are so partial to it, that for many notions they have none but nega- 
 tive expressions. In Greek, two negatives strengthen the negation; 
 but with us and with the Germans, two negatives make an affir- 
 mative. In English, we have mortal and immortal, but JMilton 
 has doubled his negatives, and has left us unimmortaU
 
 ^2 
 
 From these practices, languages which are radically one, must of 
 necessity appear in a vast variety of forms. But their dissimilarity 
 is again exceedingly increased by diversity of terminations. These are 
 too numerous to be here particularly noticed. Suffice it then to say, 
 that, numerous as they are in every language, they were originally 
 either verbs, nouns, or pronouns, not, as at present, absorbed in the 
 compound, but distinct and separate from the root. As this will be 
 rendered evident in the progress of my work, I shall content myself 
 with giving two instances froin the Greek. 
 
 In the auxiliary verb afj^i, am, the last syllable designates the person 
 precisely as in Hebrew. So likewise is it in all the verbs, which termi- 
 nate in fitt as for example /3vif*i, I go, for the simple root is jix or in 
 the Hebrew boa and (j-t is the pronoun. 
 
 That my conclusion is well founded will appear, when I shall pro- 
 ceed to trace the correspondent verb through all the languages of 
 Europe and of Asia, in all of which, without exception, the root is 
 decidedly the same. In the termination of their verbs, all lan- 
 guages, except Hebrew and its kindred dialects, arc apt to perplex 
 the novice by the creation of new themes derived from the several 
 tenses, the infinitives, or the participles of other verbs, which may 
 however, be still retained in the same, dr in son)e other tongue. Thus 
 in Greek we find Xe'yw Xe<yeiv, to collect, to number, to speak, allied 
 to which we have lego, legere, to collect, to gather, to road, as in 
 Icjiitis flores of Virgil. From legere the English, Dutch and Germans 
 have, by abbreviation, formed lere, lore, Iceren and lehren, to learn, 
 and these, by a reduplication of the infinitive termination, produce
 
 23 
 
 lernen German, and leornian Saxon, of the same import. Our verb to 
 burn is evidently rcvpoetv. But other Gothic languages, as if this were 
 not the infinitive, have doubled the termination to form bernan and 
 brennen Saxon and German. So likewise in churn, from yvpoe^v the 
 infinitive is distinctly marked, and yet the Saxon doubles the termina- 
 tion and makes cernan. 
 
 Sometimes the past participle becomes a new theme, as in gird from 
 yvpoaiv, and then the Gothic infinitives will be in Saxon gyrdan, in 
 German giirten. Or this participle, formed from the infinitive, may 
 assume its proper termination and become a new verb, as in branden 
 of the Dutch, and blindan of the Saxon, for in the latter we trace 
 blinnan, blinned, blind, (closed,) in the former bran, branned, brand, 
 burnt. In like manner binden of the German, bindan of the Saxon, 
 benden of the Persian, and bandna of the Sanscrits and Hindostani, 
 may be traced to the Latin vieo a verb connected with hex a 
 withy. 
 
 Many of our verbs seem to be formed from the participle present of 
 other verbs, as for instance, gang from go, and bring from bear. 
 These repeat the infinitive termination in gangan and bringan of the 
 Gothic dialects. By the same process we may derive fengan Saxon, or 
 fangen German from fahan Gothic, which is allied to -rafji/ as tongs to 
 Taw. In like manner Staae of the Danish, connected with k(r'r\^\j.i and 
 e(TTcevxi of the Greek, and with istaden of the Persian, seem to have 
 produced staend, stand, from which we must derive standan Saxon and 
 Gothic. Even hangian of the Saxon appears thus to have originated 
 in hahan of the Gothic, to raise, to elevate, to lift on high.
 
 24 
 
 These practices are common. In Greek we have numerous instances of 
 infinitives converted into new themes, which consequently double their 
 usual termination. Thus (p^'w, (pafiv, gave birth to Cp^mD, <^xLveiv and Tepa-w, 
 Tiptreiv produced reptrizivai, lepaxiveiv. In like manner we have gopeu, gopevwu ; 
 ^lyu, biyyaivw; cpa, opiuu ; (panSpocc, (pcciSpwa ; oXu^eco, oXia'bxwm ; ^xp^eca 
 ^pa(T\juo}AXi ; xpa.(a, ^paii/w; yipxScca, npxBxiua ; %a;Xaw, %a;Xaiva>, x, t, A. Indeed 
 there is scarcely any part of theGreekverb which hasnotgiven birth to some 
 new theme. It arises from this practice, that from xecXdui we have %«Xa^&', 
 from ^xppsu, ^txptreca, from o(ptiK(>i, o(^eiXv,aa. o(pXi(7Aa), KpXicry.xvu, o<p\bi, h(pXxua. 
 
 Attention to these remarks will enable the young student readily to 
 detect the radical parts of words, however complicated they may be, 
 and to remove the incumbrances by which they are concealed from the 
 unpractised eye. To such attention Mr. Tookc was indebted for the 
 reputation, he acquired, as the most distinguished critic of the age. 
 I may yet venture to add, that a knowledge of these practices will pro- 
 vide us with a key to most of the European and Asiatic languages. In 
 all of them we meet with nouns derived from verbs and verbs from nouns. 
 And sometimes a noun, derived from a verb, gives birth to a new verb, 
 which produces another noun, from which a new verb is formed, as, in 
 the Greek, will be evident to any one, who consults Scapula's Lexicon. 
 In all such changes the termination varies, as will be distinctly' seen, 
 when I shall proceed to the examination of particular languages more 
 especially of the English and the Greek. 
 
 All nations, for the sake of euphony, insert some letter, not essen- 
 tially necessary, in the middle of such words as would otiierwise sound
 
 25 
 
 harsh, or difficult of pronunciation. This practice is so general, that it 
 is needless here to produce particular examples. Such however will occur 
 to us in the progress of our work. 
 
 From what has been said, it will appear, that languages, which seem 
 to be discordant, may have elementary parts, which, however disguised 
 by composition, are the same in all. If then I shall be able to demon- 
 strate, that such elementary parts exist and are essentially the same in 
 all the languages, with which we are acquainted, will it not be clear, 
 that all these languages are derived from one parent stock. This pre- 
 cisely is the task J have imposed on myself, and I trust it will be per- 
 formed to the satisfaction of my readers. 
 
 OF ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 That which contributes more than all that has been stated, to mul- 
 tiply languages and to conceal their origin, is the practice universally 
 observed of contracting two or more syllables into one. This no where 
 appears more conspicuously than among the Chinese, who express each 
 word by one simple sound, as we contract, but on a less extensive 
 scale, ayoc^cfi-xi into gaze, (iXxa(pi^i^eiv into blame, tXtv^fj-ofuvv^ to alms, 
 'upeiTfivrepog to priest, nvpiov otnog to kirk and church, sigillum to seal, 
 flagellum to flail, judice to judge, calamus to halm, and nutrice to 
 nurse. 
 
 Sir W. Jones informs us, that the people of Tibet speak a dialect, 
 which, like its parent the Sanscrit, was formerly polysyllabic, but at 
 present consists like the Chinese, of monosyllables, to form which, with 
 
 VOL. n. E.
 
 26 
 
 gome regard to grammatical derivation, it has been necessary to sup- 
 press, in common discourse, many letters, which we see in their books; 
 and thus we trace in their writings many Sanscrit words, which in their 
 spoken dialect are quite undistinguishable. This practice is strikingly 
 evident in Irish. 
 
 A writer, of great learning and more than common sagacity, has 
 judiciously observed, that abbreviations are the wheels of language, 
 the wings of Mercury, for as the first intention is to communicate 
 our thoughts, so the second is and ever will be to do it with despatch. 
 
 But it has so happened, that in abbreviating, few nations have adopted 
 the same process. 
 
 It is acknowledged, that the French, Italian, Spanish and Portu- 
 guese are branches of the romance language, and derived from the Latin, 
 and that the other European languages borrow both from it and from 
 the Greek. Let us then beoin our investigation with a few derivatives 
 from Greek and Latin, which appear in most of them, after which we 
 may take the abbreviated terms, promiscuously, as they occur to our 
 recollection. 
 
 From noXcc^xTw and colaphus the Italian has derived colpo, the Spanish 
 golpe, and the English clap. From the same source the French has 
 taken coup, and the English cuff. From constare we find conter and 
 cost, from audire, ouir and hear. From wE. wnTog or nox noctis, the 
 Italian has derived notte, the Spanish noche, the French nuit, the Welch 
 nos, the English night. Masculus has yielded to both France and 
 England male. TccXxhto; has given birth to lacte, latte, leite and leche 
 of the Latin, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish, to Llaeth of the Welch, 
 to laith, laclid and blochd of the Galic, and to lait of the French. \^ ,.
 
 S7 , 
 
 From tcmpus, temporis we trace tempo Italian, tiempo Spatiisli, temps 
 French, and time English. In like manner tectum becomes toit and 
 pondus poids in French. 
 
 It frequently happens, that a word in its progress of abbreviation 
 drops, from time to time, one or more of its elements, either in the 
 beginning, middle or end, as caprice directs, till scarcely a vestige or no 
 part of the primitive remains. This we have frequently occasion to 
 observe in Hebrew, and this it is, which most perplexes the young student, 
 because its verbs, consisting of three radical letters, are extremely dis- 
 posed to drop the first and third, as in tet (nn) give thou, the imperative 
 of Nathan (]nj} he gave. Indeed we may venture to affirm with Pro- 
 fessor Robinson, that such abbreviated terms constitute almost one- 
 half the language. (Robertson's Gram. p. 197-) Thus in the French 
 word ne, which is natus in its most abbreviated form, N is all that 
 remains of the original term yfivo(*aJ, from which the Latin is derived, 
 as appears by the ancient mode of writing gnascor for nascor. In 
 appris and compris no radical remains. 
 
 In concomitant, I is the only radical part of the word derived from eo, 
 ivi itum. Our English cur, unconnected with other languages, exhibits no 
 description of the dog intended by this word. But in Welch we find 
 corgi of the same import, compounded of corr a dwarf, and ci a dog, 
 which by abbreviation has produced cur. In like manner the com- 
 pound expressions begehren to ask, and entwehnen, to change a custom 
 in German, become in English beg and wean. The latter is the more 
 remarkable because wohnen, from which we derive wont, means to 
 inhabit, and wean now signifies to break a habit. Adjuvare became 
 
 E 2
 
 28 
 
 first aider, and then aid, retaining only the preposition without a vestige 
 of juvo which is the root. 
 
 Catena, connected with cadwyn of the Welch, gave kette to German, 
 kedia to Swedish, kiaede to Danish, keten to Dutch, cadea to Portu- 
 guese, chaine to French, and chain to English. 
 
 From Collum the French seem to have derived cou, and the Germans 
 hals. The Swedes have halsa, and we have hill both allied to collis. 
 
 In our language we have acquired both rod and raft from pa^Sog. 
 From no'KTO} the Danes may have taken kappe, which is in the French 
 couper, in the Hindostani catna, in the Persian khudan, but in the 
 
 English cut. 
 
 The Swedes have both badda and basa, from TaTairo-a!, which with us are 
 contracted into beat and baste; corresponding to battre French, bete 
 Russian, bet Slavonian, peetna Hindostani, and baeddu Welch. In 
 like manner leifa of the Swedes, and levne of the Danes, derived from 
 XeiTfjv, are contracted into leave. Their kianna and niosa, yivoiay.ai, be- 
 come with us ken and know, their mykest and masta from [j.^icttov and 
 iA-iyuTov have yielded meist to the German and most to us. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon, nabban is noti habere, nah is non habit, and nis 
 non est. 
 
 In Welch we find Cael lo have, but unless caffael, of which it is an 
 abbreviation, had still subsisted in the language, we never could have 
 discerned a radical affinity between habeo, and cael, nor could we so 
 readily have traced them, as we trace capio to the Hebrew caph the 
 hand.
 
 29 
 
 For crusta, the Welch has both cris and crust agreeing with both 
 crust of the English and croute of the French. 
 
 Geber {l2i) of the Hebrew seems to have given birth to gwr of 
 the Welch, ger of the Persian, fear of the Galic and vir of Latin. 
 
 In Sanscrit we have nrp, a king which as I shall hereafter demon- 
 strate may be uvSpiav TaTvip, father of his people, in its most abbre- 
 viated form. In this language pt, is the radical of power both regal 
 and paternal, which were originally one. 
 
 OF TRANSPOSITIONS. 
 
 Transpositions help to disguise a language and to conceal its affi- 
 nities. Yet all nations, either for the sake of euphony, or from caprice, 
 have had recourse to this expedient. The Hebrews, in the conjugation 
 of their verbs, removed their prepositive T, and placed it after the first 
 radical, whenever this happened to be a sibilant; nay, they even 
 changed their n into D as in hitstadek (pIDVn) for hithtsadek (pivnn) 
 he justified hirtiself. 
 
 It has been conjectured, and with some degree of probability, that 
 the Helvetii of Caesar were Haefeldan, that is mountaineers. Certain it 
 is, that our ancestors gave into this practice, for with them, to ask sup- 
 plied the place of acsan, as used by the Anglo-Saxons; and by both 
 asce and acse, the askis of Chaucer, they intended ashes. In our old 
 English we have ficsas and fiscas for fish, ricsa and risca for rush. In 
 Scotland they use garse for grass and thretty for thirty. Borstel, Belgic, 
 is bristle, and brennen, German, is to burn.
 
 so 
 
 The same propensity is manifest in the Celtic dialects. Anail, the 
 Galic expression for breath, is alan in Armoric, whence haleine in 
 French: — Balan in Armoric, balai in French, is banal in Welch, a broom. 
 Grange in Welch, is cancar in Cornish, and cancer in Latin. 
 
 In Greek we have axp'Tog and naprep'os for ^pxTog, and npxTsp'og, ypaSiv\ for 
 xxpSU, npiMg for ntpnog; SpL(pog for 5i<ppQg, jixpSiqog for (ipxSiqog, and ^tppz\^og 
 for 7rpi«f*.oj or the reverse. 
 
 The Romans converted [^op<p\^ into forma, a-KlTTTOf^at into specio and 
 specto, xpivw into cerno, andxplito? into circus. 
 
 From granarium we derive garner, purpose, from propositus, and garnet 
 from oranatus. In like manner, perhaps, the Celtic ros has become our 
 horse, and stagnum etang or tank. 
 
 The Spaniards say guardaldo for guardadlo, hazelo for hazedlo, salildo 
 for salidlo, daldo for dadlo, &c. 
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Mispronunciation and inattention to orthography tend exceedingly to 
 increase the perplexity of the Tyro in languages, when he is endeavouring 
 to trace their descent and to point out their connexion. 
 
 In these respects we have only to recollect the practice of the Romans, 
 as appears in the best of their historians. What contusion have they 
 not made, out of the precincts of Italy, in the names of places, of per- 
 sons" and of things! Or wo may cast our eyes over the vocabularies 
 transmitted to us by voyagers and travellers of different nations.
 
 31 
 
 But, without wandering far from home, I shall subjoin a few words 
 from Lye's Saxon Dictionary, by which it will appear, that our Saxon 
 ancestors, although good soldiers, were certainly bad scholars, and never 
 paid attention to orthography. With them to fetch was spelt indiffer- 
 ently feccan, feccean, fetian, foetian, fetigean, fetigian. 
 
 Hail might in their opinion with equal propriety be written liaegL 
 hagal, hagel, hagol and hagul. 
 
 Light was leht, leoht, liht, lioht. 
 
 Day was dag, daig, deg, doeg, dah, dsei, dogor. 
 
 High was hea, heah, hih, heh, heag, heg, hig, hear. 
 
 Much or great was micel, micyl, mickle, mucel, muccle, micl, micla, 
 micle, miccla. 
 
 No was indifferently na, ne, ni, no. 
 
 New was neow, nio, niow, niw, niwa, niwe, nyw. 
 
 The orthography of the Franco-Teutones was so irregular, that in the 
 same author, words appear in seven or eight different forms, as for in- 
 stance, buach, buoch, buah, buoh, puach, puoch, puah, puoh. 
 
 Such was the ignorance, which prevailed in Europe, that several char- 
 ters remain, to which kings and persons of the greatest eminence affixed 
 the sign of ihe cross with their own hand, for this assigned reason, be- 
 cause they were ignorant of letters. In the ninth century, the supreme 
 judge of the empire could not subscribe his name. And even in the 
 fourteenth century, Du Gueselin constable of France, one of the 
 greatest men of his age, could neither write nor read. Nay, many dig- 
 nified ecclesiastics could not subscribe the canons of those councils, in 
 which they sat as members.
 
 52 
 
 As there were few, who could write ; so was the number few of those, 
 who could procure any thing to read. For before the invention of 
 printing, A. D. 1449, manuscripts were extremely scarce, and even 
 monasteries of considerable note had but one missal. (Robertson's 
 Charles V. note 10.) But to point out the difficulties which must ever 
 occur to those, who undertake to make us acquainted with foreign 
 languages, I will here subjoin a specimen from the vocabulary of a Ger- 
 man, who taught English. 
 
 Ahdsch, age; tihm, aim; anker, anger; badsch, badge; badhs, bath; 
 bof, bough; dscli'dns, chance; JscAoA, chew; ehdsch, each; dsehuck, jug; 
 dschordsch, George; tchdsch, teach; dschths, cheese. 
 
 In what manner his German pupils were by this vocabulary to learn 
 English, an Englishman may be at a loss to comprehend. 
 
 What can be more discordant than the sound and the orthography in 
 the subsequent expressions. High, nigh, sigh; light, fight, night; 
 dough, though, trough, bough, plough, and slough, when it means a 
 quagmire; laugh, cough, rough, tough, and slough when applied to 
 
 ulcers ! 
 
 Sir William .Tones, in his Asiatic researches, has given us an example 
 of vicious orthography, such as, in his opinion, all foreigners are 
 
 liable to. 
 
 Law more awe day recgyewrs awe nool otruh parellyuh, Sec. 
 
 To the English ear tlie sound is in some degree preserved ; but who 
 would imagine, that in this sentence we have the first line of a beauti- 
 ful French Ode. 
 
 La raort a des rigucurs a nulle autre pareilles.
 
 S3 
 
 This demonstrates the propriety of adhering strictly to orthography, 
 as the French have done more than other nations, in deriving from the 
 Latin. For they have preserved the radical letters, even such as have 
 no influence on the sound. Thus, for example, we find asne from 
 asinus. Thus also tant from tantus, and temps from tempus, both 
 sounded like the last syllable in their word etang, and altogether inex- 
 pressible by any letters of the alphabet to an English ear. 
 
 Yet the most strict attention to orthography will never preserve the 
 sound of vowels. These arc incessantly changing, nor can this be pre- 
 vented whilst the same letter in every language represents a variety of 
 sounds. Thus in English we give four different sounds to a, in have, 
 had, halm, hall. E may be mute, or it may retain two sounds in be and 
 bell. I differs in time, tin, bird; O in bone, bog, move and dove, U 
 in mute, full, burst and busy. 
 
 Inability to pronounce certain consonants, is a common source of false 
 orthography. 
 
 'J'lie Ephraeniites for shiboloth, at the hazard of their lives, said 
 siboleth , nor could they pronounce it otherwise. The Greeks themselves 
 at the fords of Jordan, must inevitably have shared the fate of the 
 Ephraeujites, for they likewise would have said siboleth. 'I'he Sep- 
 luagint translators were exceedingly perplexed by this narration, because 
 the Greek language wants the aspirated sibilant. In the place, there- 
 fore, of shiboleth, which means an ear of corn, they substituted qcex^s 
 of the same import: but this leaves the narrative imperfect. They add 
 that an Ephraemite could not shape his lips to pronounce q^xv?, which 
 was not the case. Yet, from the nature of their alphabet, they could 
 
 VOL. II. F
 
 34 
 
 not convey to the Greeks a true notion of the difficulty, under which 
 they labored. 
 
 Frenchmen and Germans are equally embarrassed with our th, and 
 should they attempt to say this or that thing, their efforts would be 
 vain. Indeed most foreigners find it difficult to catch the pronunciation 
 in these few words, nor can they readily distinguish the difference in the 
 articulation of th in thin and thine. 
 
 The Delaware Indians have neither F, V, nor R. The Chinese are 
 strangers to B, D, R, X and Z, and therefore substitute M for B, T for 
 D, and L for R. 
 
 The Mexican alphabet has neither B. D. F. G. R. nor S. In Green- 
 land no word begins with either B. D. F. G. L. R. or Z. 
 
 In the Sandwich and Society Islands the inhabitants having neither 
 C. G. K. Q. X. S. nor V. could not be taught to say Captain Cook, but 
 called him Taptain Toot. 
 
 The inability to pronounce certain consonants naturally leads men to 
 substitute others in the place of those, which they have never learnt to 
 articulate. But, even where no such inability has existed, the practice 
 of substitution has universally prevailed. 
 
 In our Greek grammar we read mutantur inter se ■3^/3$ ; nyx ; '^^^- To 
 the fust series should have been added (* as must be evident to every 
 one, who is conversant with the inflexion of the verbs. 
 
 This practice, established in Greek, Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee, 
 was not peculiar to these languages, for all nations in kindred letters, 
 that is in letters of the same organ, whether labials, dentals, palatines 
 or gutturals, have been apt, either from inattention, or from affectation.
 
 S5 
 
 to substitute one for another, as in the interchange of B. V. F, V. W, M. 
 of D. T. Th. ; equally so of C. Ch. G. Gh, H. and not uniVequcntly 
 of D. and J. of all which numerous examples will be produced. 
 
 It is curious to observe the aptitude with which the aspirate of the 
 Greek either sinks througli the Spanish J. and X. into the deep and harsh 
 sounding guttural of the Welch and Germans, rises up through the 
 Eno;lish Y. J, and G. into the hard C. and K. glides along the roof in 
 Ch. is converted into the sibilant, becomes a labial, or is altogether 
 lost. Again the progress may be inverted, or the passage from one to 
 the other may be made per saltum, and thus G. Gh. K. C. Ch. J. and 
 II. may each supply the other's place, as will be demonstrated, by mul- 
 tiplied examples in the progress of my work. 
 
 The same liberty is claimed by the liquids L. R. ; M. N. ; respec- 
 tively, as in our subsequent investigations we shall frequently have 
 occasion to display. 
 
 Between S. and T. which, in all the languages of Europe, slide into 
 each other's place, there is a natural connexion. They readily unite, 
 and when they part, it seems to be a matter of indifference, which of 
 them shall be retained. Every one, who is conversant with Greek, 
 must frequently have made the same remark. Lucian, in one of his 
 dialogues, introduces a judicial process instituted at the suit of the 
 letter S. against her wicked neighbour T. 
 
 S. complains that T. not satisfied with incroaching on the privileges 
 of D. Th. and Z. letters of the same family, had even usurped a place 
 in numerous words, which of right belonged to her. She particularly 
 laments her fate, that she should be expelled from Thessaly and should 
 
 F 2
 
 36 
 
 be called by the ignominious appellation of a Thettalian, that she should 
 be excluded from the sea (SaiXao-tra:) and that, robbed and plundered 
 by an atrocious villain, she should not be permitted to retain one peg. 
 (^rx(T(TxXov.) Nay she expressed her fears, that in process of time even 
 TVKx would assume the place of o-ux«. 
 
 What has been hitherto advanced, frequently supported by some 
 approximation to organic affinity, seems to account for many other 
 changes observable in all languages, more especially for the conversion 
 of D. into G. C. and K. or J, G. C. and K. into D. and this not 
 only in some of the Greek dialects, but in English, Danish, Swedish, 
 German, Galic, French, and in all the dialects, both Gothic and 
 Slavonian, diffused over the northern regions both of Europe and of 
 Asia. 
 
 But how shall we account for what must appear a most unnatural 
 practice, that of converting B. and P. into C. K. and G. or the reverse, 
 since these families have no organic affinity ? Certain it is, that the 
 lonians, Baeotians, iEolians, and the inhabitants of Attica, did this, 
 for Herodotus commonly used kuj^^ for 'Ttug ; the Bfeotians ^xvy,y.£g for 
 yvvxineg; the iEolians y.o"ov for Trofo!/ ; the Athenians •y'k£<Pxpx for ftKe(pxpx 
 and /3Xvi%wi/ for 7Xvi%aiv and all the Greeks r:vx\uog for wx\uo;, from which 
 we have 'jvxvov a^ bean. 
 
 From the same propensity the Romans said fel for pco^vi, gall, appello 
 for onaKXiD I arrive at. The Ethiopians say Kctrus and Kaulus for Petrus" 
 and Paul us. In Welch B. answers to C. and K. of the Teutonic 
 dialects and to such an extent did the Galic tribes adopt the practice 
 of converting P. into C. that the old vocabularies omit the letter P.
 
 37 
 
 / 
 
 and in its place substitute C. or K. The Welch has P. in many words, 
 which in Galic begin with C. but no radical word in Welch begins 
 with the correspondent letter F. unless in composition, when it is used, 
 for M. B. It is possible, that this practice may have arisen from the 
 resemblance in form between these discordant letters in some of the 
 more ancient alphabets. 
 
 In various parts of Europe, more especially in Germany, we observe 
 G. and gc, as prepositive particles, answering to ga, of the Gothic, as 
 that, in numerous instances, does to ey. of the Greek. In the same lan- 
 guages be and bi correspond in composition to f-Tri of the Greek. These 
 prcepositions are considered by Hicks as commutable. Certain it is 
 that the Galic has blochd for yxXx •yxKocn'Tog milk. T!:e Germans say 
 gedcncken and glaubcn, we say bethink, believe. Thus also we have 
 blithe and glad delivered down to us by our Sa.\on ancestors, both 
 derived from Icetiis one with J^. the other with G. prefixed. In Greek, 
 among other examples, we find both jiKxnav and 'ykxnccv whence the 
 Romans may have derived pulegium. 
 
 When two or more consonants meet in the middle of a compound 
 word, the weaker is apt to be absorbed and lost in the stronger, or at 
 least is converted into one, which has organic affinity with it, as colligo, 
 commuto, aufj^Ttx^etx, tstvij.[j.xi, for conligo, conmuto, &c. But in Welch 
 compounds D and G are dropt, as in aneiryd for an, and deiryd annilys 
 for andilys, anny for an and genni. 
 
 The changes above described are governed by general rules: but every 
 nation assumes some licences peculiar to itself. Of all the languages 
 with which I am acquainted, none is so licentious as the Spanish. This
 
 38 
 
 will be particularly noticed, when 1 shall proceed to treat of the off- 
 spring of the Latin. The changes we observe in the Spanish consonants, 
 although conformable to certain laws, now well understood and univer- 
 sally received, seem to have originated wholly in caprice. To a limited 
 extent the same licentiousness prevails in the Italian, and I have no 
 doubt, that an accurate acquaintance with the derivation and affinities 
 of other languages would enable us to trace the same licentiousness and 
 arbitrary changes in most of them or, perhaps in all. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSION. 
 
 The operation of any one of these numerous causes of mutation would 
 be sufficient in the revolution of ages to disguise a language and to ren- 
 der its origin obscure. But when all these concur to puzzle and perplex, 
 and when there is no standard of purity, to which every word may be 
 referred, no traditionary poems; no written records; no acknowledged 
 classics; no sacred books; no lexicons to ascertain and fix the meaning 
 of expressions ; the language will be more rapid in its changes, and the 
 difficulties to be encountered by the etymologist will be abundantly in- 
 creased. 
 
 These considerations have a tendency to produce despair of being ever 
 able to demonstrate, or even to make it probable, that all languages are 
 radically one. How shall wc trace the genealogy of words compounded 
 and contracted, distorted and disfigured as they are, and which have 
 lost their original import, and that, perhaps, not merely by some little 
 variation, but by a total reverse of meaning and intention ? "Who,
 
 39 
 
 amidst this confusion, can distinguish order ? Or what linguist will be 
 able to collect from such discordant dialects, the elements of a primaeval 
 language? When its members have been torn asunder and dispersed by 
 Typhon ; what Isis, wandering through the earth, will recognize and 
 again unite them ? 
 
 The task is painful; but patience and perseverance, with a little 
 sagacity, an extensive knowledge of languages, and strict attention to 
 analogy, may accomplish that, which, at first sight, appears im- 
 practicable. 
 
 OF THE INVESTIGATION OF RADICALS. 
 
 I. 
 
 To investigate a root, we must begin with decomposition: we must 
 get rid of all the prepositive particles and idiomatic terminations, with 
 such epenthetical syllables or letters, as may have been introduced into 
 the radical expression. In a word, we must reduce the term in question 
 to its most simple and elementary form. 
 
 For this purpose, it is necessary, that we should know whether it be 
 native or foreign, and have a perfect acquaintance with the language, to 
 which it belongs. In these words, for instance, decomposition and j9?-e- 
 positive, the slightest acquaintance with Latin will be sufficient to point 
 out their derivation, to get rid of all incumbrances, and to leave pono 
 as the root. These, therefore, are of Italian growth, and with them 
 must be ranked imposition, apposition, supposition, transposition, and 
 all other compounds which claim the same descent.
 
 40 
 
 In the word termination, the Celtic scholar will distinguish two roots, 
 combined and agreeing with terfyn, a boundary, of the' Welch, derived 
 from tir maen, a landstone. 
 
 Should we fix on the word transuhstantiation ; we may readily get rid 
 of the two prepositions and of the termination. This operation leads us 
 to stans, stantis, sto, steti, statuui. Here then we find the root in sto, 
 I stand, which divested of o, its pronoun, leaves st, found equally in 
 stay, in iq^^^, and in numerous verbs of the same import, dispersed 
 amono; the nations over the whole surface of the olobe. In the Welch 
 annysgymmod, discord, we find three prepositions, which being rejected 
 leave bod, here converted into mod an habitation. In discord the root 
 is cor the heart. 
 
 In our word mistake, we have one single prefix to remove; but in mis- 
 apprehend we have three, mis, ad, and pre, which Ijeing rt jccted, leave 
 lieiul, allied to hand, to have, and, under various forms, to corres- 
 pondent terms, in all the languages of Europe and of Asia. In the verb 
 splendeo, L is the only radical which remains of XevAog, AaV^f'", ^«'^- ' 
 
 The learned Rudbeck, in his Atlantica, has left us canons, by which 
 we may determine the countries, to which words belong. According to 
 him, that is the genuine language of a naticjn, which is commonly 
 spoken by the vulgar, and a word may be considered as the genuine 
 offspring of that language, if, in its primary sense, it is of extensive use, 
 and if its kindred derivatives have remote and accidental significations, 
 which naturally flow from the first notion. 
 
 Again, a word may be considered as native to a country, if monu- 
 ments and authentic records, referring to remote ^uitiquity, prove it to
 
 41 
 
 have been always familiarly used and understood by the inhabitants; but 
 not so, if, being imported, it has been regarded as foreign and before 
 unknown. Thus, for instance, Venus, a word unknown in Rome before 
 the expulsion .of the Tarquins, is neither of Greek, Latin, nor of Egyp- 
 tian origin, but, in the Scandinavian Gothic, wena means to love; 
 wenskap, friendship; wenlig, familiar; wan, graceful ; wen, a wife, and 
 wenadis the goddess Venus. 
 
 The same may be said of Minerva, whose etymon must be sought for 
 in the Celtic, in which her characttristic attribute is expressed by Erva, 
 Arms, precisely as Mavors and Mais, in Sanscrit, mean great warrior. 
 
 Tliis agrees with his most important canon, " That word must be con- 
 sidered as the genuine offspring of the language, in which it expresses 
 the nature and properties of the thing in question." Thus, for instance, 
 caterm is cad a battle, and tarf a troop, and the word bisJiop is in Welch 
 esgob, in Galic easbog, eascob and eascop; in TEthiopic, yskuph; in 
 Arabic, uskuf and askub; in Spanish, obispo; in Italian, vescovo; in 
 French evesque; in Saxon, bisceop; in Belgic, bischop ; in German, 
 bischoff; in Danish, biscop and bisp; in Polish, biskup; in Slavonian, 
 epkop; in Hungarian, prospok ;• in Latin, episcopus, in Greek, fx/a-KOTro^, 
 which last expression, derived from fxi and o-KfTTTOfxan, denotes the watch- 
 ful guardian of the church. Here then we have the origin of all the 
 preceding appellations. Thus judge must be the legitimate offspring of 
 judice, qui jus dicif, and is not therefore to be sought for in any other 
 language but in Latin. JVing is, in Sanscrit, a bird, and is so named 
 because it moves in air. 
 
 Liquorice is, in German, lackritz ; Italian, ligurizia and regolizia ; 
 
 VOL. II. G
 
 42 
 
 French, reglise; in Spanish regahza; PoHsh, lackricya; Hungarian, 
 liguiriczia, and in Latin, glycyrrhiza. All these appear as arbitrary 
 names, the impositions of caprice, to be transmitted from one generation 
 to another. But, when we arrive at the Greek, in which yXvvivpi^x means 
 sweet root, we know, that the plant in question has been indebted to 
 Greece alone for this appellation. The same may be said of alms, in 
 Welch elysen ; Italian, limosina; Spanish, limosna; Portuguese, esmola; 
 French, aumone; Saxon, aelmes; German, allmosen ; Swedish, almosor ; 
 Gothic, armajon ; Polish, talmuzna; Hungarian, alumisna; in the lan- 
 guage of Chaucer, almose and almesse ; in Latin, eleemosyna; for the 
 moment we arrive at eKeyi[i.O(Tuv^, we discern the root of all these ex- 
 pressions in the Greek aXsog, mercy, pity, compassion. 
 
 The origin of bastard and batard appears in basdardd, bas and tarddu, 
 i. e. base issue, of the Welch. 
 
 When we examine blasphemare in Latin, biasimare in Italian, blas- 
 femar, Spanish, brasfemar Portugueze, blasmier and blamer, French, 
 and blame, English, we must be convinced, that all these are connected. 
 But no where can we find a definition of the act, till we arrive at 
 /3Xa:a-(pvi|xfjv, to blast the fame, in which all these originate, and which in 
 /BXaTTfjv TVi'j (^■^[j.viv gives us distinctly the notion we are seeking. 
 
 Indeed the word fame itself, although immediately derived from fama, 
 or from cpvu^vi, as this may be from cpvif*.;, claims affinity to phi (HD-) in 
 Hebrew, and to plium (D12)) in Chaldee, the mouth. 
 
 For auspice, whether the word appear in French, English, Italian, 
 or Spanish, we need not look beyond the Latin, in which it originated, 
 and in which it denotes the inspection of birds for the purpose of divi- 
 nation.
 
 43 
 
 Decern may be traced, though variously disguised, through all the 
 languages of Europe and of Asia, and may be thought to terminate in 
 Senx. But even here it claims no natural connexion with the preceding 
 numbers, nor from the Greek can we assign a reason for this term. In 
 its kindred language, theGalic, we have da cuig, that is twice five, which 
 it readily contracts into deich, the natural parent of BiKo:, and of a nu- 
 merous offspring. 
 
 In like manner our word marvel, in French merveille, and in Spanish 
 maravilla may claim affinity to meur-bheil, the finger of God, which 
 in Galic is the term for miracle. Our word asp seems to have origi- 
 nated in xa-Ttccipnv to tremble. 
 
 Chess in English appears as an arbitrary name. Tracing this word 
 through various countries and languages, we find shah a king, and 
 schach, skak, echecs, scacchi, and shah mat, check mate, that is the 
 king is dead. Shetrenjor shatranj, chatrang, and katuranga, mean 
 the four angas, or divisions of an army, infantry, cavalry, chariots and 
 elephants, and explain the name first given to the game of chess by its 
 original inventors, (v. Asiatic Researches.) 
 
 Neither ffiloges in Welch, nor pellex in Latin can be regarded as 
 descriptive of a concubine. But when we meet with the parent of 
 these words in philegesh. (^ilr>) of the Hebrew, we instantly gain a 
 clear and distinct notion of the thing intended, and see the attention 
 of a husband divided between two females, who have discordant claims 
 to his affection. 
 
 In German we find the word felleisen, for which Adelung gives no 
 satisfactory account, because this vehicle has no connexion with eisen, 
 
 g2
 
 44 
 
 that is with iron. Wallet, our conrespondent term, stands unconnected 
 in the Enghsh and contains in itself no description of the thing, any more 
 than felleisen of the German, Valigia of the Itahan. or valise of the 
 French. But in the old French fellouse we see all these expressions 
 terminate in pellis. 
 
 Our word nasty conveys the notion of filth; but contains within 
 itself no reason for this application. In Russian we have the origin of 
 this expression clearly pointed out. For in this language we find nechistui 
 of the same import, compounded of ne not and chistui pure. 
 
 Indeed we may venture to establish it, as a general rule, that com- 
 pound words are definitions and originate in that language, in wiiich 
 they may claim this character. 
 
 It must ever be remembered, that migrating hordes carry their lan- 
 guage with them; but that when a warlike chief, with his chosen bands, 
 subdues a feeble nation and settles in the country, the victors most 
 frequently adopt the language of the vanquished. 
 
 Rudbeck has one canon, to which I cannot readily assent. He states, 
 that a language, which has numerous monosyllabic expressions is a 
 parent language. The English has more than three thousand seven 
 hundred monosyllabic expressions, and the Chinese has none but such; 
 yet neither of these are, for that reason, to be considered as parent 
 languages. Certain it is, that all languages by abbreviations have a 
 tendency to become monosyllabic and therefore a language, which 
 abounds in monosyllables, is ancient, and these commonly are the 
 most anli(iuated parts of every language. New compounds are in- 
 cessantly created. These are abbreviated and in process of time become
 
 45 
 
 monosyllabic. In deriving, therefore, a word in one language from its 
 correspondent expression in some other language, we must ever bear in 
 mind, that, unless in tlie formation of new compounds, the least ab- 
 breviated is coininoiily thti parent and the most abbreviated its off- 
 spring. 
 
 This observation perfectly agrees with another canon of this celebrated 
 Linguist. Nations do not commonly change a word, which is expediti- 
 ously pronounced into another, which is either longer or more difficult 
 of pronunciation, but the reverse. Would it be possible for any one to 
 persuade us, that colaphus was derived from cuff, or blaspheme from 
 blame? There are, however, exceptions to this rule. For many of the 
 Creek dialects introduce not only vowels, but almost every consonant 
 of the alphabet into the middle of their words. 
 
 In Latin we observe the introduction of D. for the sake of euphony, 
 in numerous verbs such as redeo, redigo, redimo, redarguo, &c. Anions 
 the derivatives from Greek, if such they may be strictly called, many 
 assume N. as for instance x^^^, scindo; Xsix<^, lingo; Sizjug, densus; 
 pxyclj, frango; tKX7ov, centum, &c. The Romans likewise occasionally 
 inserted N. in words, in which it did not commonly appear, as in 
 conjunx for conjux. Indeed jungo is evidently derived from jugum, 
 as in Greek ^ivr/ou produces ^euyvevco. This introduction of N. in Greek, 
 verbs and Greek derivatives has been already noticed as arisino- from 
 the conversion of infinitives into new themes. 
 
 Our Gothic ancestors frequently inserted N before the last syllable 
 to form both tjie passive and substantives derived from it, as fauratanja 
 portents from teihan to predict, whose passive is teihnan. The Eno-lish'
 
 46 
 
 and French adopt the same practice in words, which have no claim to 
 the acquisition, as in render and rendre from reddere, and lantern 
 from laterna. Both nations take a superfluous D. in tendre and tender 
 from tener. Tliis j)ractice is extremely prevalent before G. as in lodge 
 from loser and edse from effsje, which in Greek is o-kI;. In our word 
 allege, the D. has not yet established itself, although it is distinctly 
 sounded. Both allege and lodge ma}"^ be traced up to Xeyeiv. 
 
 In Galic compounds, D. is introduced, as in Latin, for the sake 
 of euphony. Thusboacovv, and og young, become bodoga a heifer. 
 
 Such practice has been common: but this does not leave the ety- 
 mologist at liberty to suppose consonants, whenever his imagination 
 may suggest the necessity for their introduction. This would be a 
 dangerous privilege, a ridiculous expedient; because conjectures are of 
 little value, where demonstration is required. But if the arbitrary 
 introduction of vowels, consonants and syllables in the middle of a 
 word, would lead to endless conjectures, so undoubtedly would trans- 
 positions, unless supported by analogy. This practice, therefore, when 
 we can appeal to strict analogy, and have demonstrated the affinity 
 of any given language, may serve for illustration, may point out the 
 derivation and account for the change in particular words ; but will 
 never tend to prove, that any two languages are radically one. 
 
 II. 
 
 In the investigation of a root we are perfectly at liberty to consider 
 letters of the same organ as commutable, labials with labials, and
 
 47 
 
 gutturals with gutturals ; dentals with dentals, and palatines with pala- 
 tines; because all nations have assumed this privilege. 
 
 But in the more unnatural changes, much discretion is required, and 
 an appeal to the particular practice of the nation, province, or tribe, in 
 which the word under examination may happen to appear. 
 
 III. 
 
 To obtain the genuine root, kindred languages must be compared 
 together, and the genius of each must be accurately known; because 
 witliout such knowledge and such comparison, one link or more may be 
 wanting to our chain, and we may be left with vague conjecture, instead 
 of conclusive evidence. 
 
 We know that French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese are kindred 
 languages derived from Latin. Yet who, unless intimately acquainted 
 with the genius of these languages, would think of deriving the French, 
 or from ad horam ; aune from ulna ; aube from albus ; chaud from 
 calidus, coup from colaphus, pons from pulsus, outre from alter and 
 from ultra, paume from palma, sauf from salvus, sauvage from sylva, 
 taupe from talpa, fleau from flagellum, aumone from eleemosuna, faux 
 from falsus, doux from dulcis, mieux from melius, peaux from pelles, 
 vaux from valles, brebis from vervex, combler from cumulare, boulanger 
 from polentarius, couver from cubare, devoir from debere, ouvrir from 
 aperire, seve from sapa, jai from ego habeo, il a from ille habet. 
 
 In Italian the same degree of knowledge is required to connect fo 
 with facio, here with bibere, noja with noxa. In this language we have
 
 48 1 
 
 c/uaro, clarus; cJiiave, clavis; c///oM, clavus; chiudere, daudere ; fore, 
 flos; Jiime, flumen; ghiado, gladius; ghiaccio, glacies; ghianda, glans; 
 ghieva, gleba; pietio, plenus ; piega, plica; pianta, planta ; pieve, plebs; 
 schiavo, slavus ; sc/»mso, exclusus; schiamazzarv, exclamare ; sc/«M7wcr, spuma; 
 sc/«e»fl, spina; se^/'e, septem ; s«e<<a, sagitta; trave, trabs; /c^/o, tectum; 
 vegghia, vigillia ; vi, ibi. 
 
 Tn Spa7nsh the mutations have been still more violent; for, not satisfied 
 with considering letters of the same organ as commutable, the Spaniards 
 substitute for each other such letters as have not the least pretence to 
 oro-anic affinity. This appears by the subsequent examples. Auseiicia, 
 absentia; bnho, bubo; haba, faba; haccr, facere; haia, fagus; harina, 
 farina; heder, faetere; hender, findcre; hierro, ferrum; hiel, fel; honda, 
 funda; horma, forma; huir, fugere; hurto, furtum: hilo, filum; liigo, 
 ficus; hinojo, f^niculum; hijo, filius; hoUcjo, foUiculus; ojo, oculus; 
 hoja, folium; /io??go, fungus; //orco, f urea ; homo, fornax; oreja, auricula; 
 viejo, vetulus; mucho, multus; 7>iuger, niulier; mojar, moliire; j/iazo, 
 malleus; mejor, melior; lenteja, lenticulus. 'I'his change of L into J, 
 which is in Spain a guttural, is violent in the extreme. 
 
 But, however familiar with this language, who would think of con- 
 necting hembra and femina, unless he should recollect that hombre is ra- 
 dically one with homo, as hombro is with humerus, liambre with fames, 
 legumbre, with legumen, licbre with lepus, and nombre with nomen. 
 
 The Portuguese is evidently a corruption of the Spanish; 3-61 this 
 dialect has preserved some features of resemblance, which to the dis- 
 cerning eye, mark its descent from Latin. This will ap|)ear by the 
 subsequent examples. Abri aperire, agiisa acjuila, bcijo basio, bexiga
 
 49 
 
 vesica, bom bonus, boi/ bos, ceo coelum, chave clavis, c/iovc pluit, cor 
 color, dedo digitus, dereito directus, dhse dixit, doutor doctor, an in, 
 erva herba, /"ezVo factus, ^'z feci, /o/hc fames, /Wo frigid us, hojc hodie, 
 hum unus, may mater, meya media, minha mea, vwlher mulier, muyio 
 multus, ntvoa nebula, olio octo, ohrigado obligatus, ouvir audire, pay 
 pater, peixe piscis, per'igo periculum, por ponere, rcza recitare, rota 
 rupta, saude salus, scde sitis, telha tegula, trigo triticum, vcr viderc, 
 vir venire, vou vado, unha ungula. 
 
 When in French we meet with appris, how can we trace this expression 
 to its source without the assistance of the Latin, to which wc are directed 
 by its infinitive, apprendre. And when from apprehendo we have go 
 rid of the prepositions ud and pre, and have retained hendo witii thv'. 
 notion of handling; where can we discover this acceptation in a simple 
 verb, unless it be in jc^cv^izvw of the Greek? 
 
 Without the intermediate links, would not the most cautious etymo- 
 logist be thought rash in the extreme, who should pretend to detect a 
 connexion between prudence and e^Secc? But no sooner do we recollect 
 the subsequent expressions, prudentia, providentia, ^^potiSca and eiBtco than 
 Ave become satisfied, that the most strict affinity may subsist between 
 the first of these expressions and the last. And thus also we discover 
 identity of notion between our word prudence and vorsichtigkeit, that is 
 foresight, of our German ancestors. 
 
 Who, without the aid of French, German, Anglo-Saxon, and Belgic, 
 could think of connecting high with altus, of which it does not contain 
 a single element, either real or potential? But when we meet with 
 hault in the old French, and haut in the modern ; hoheit and hohe in 
 
 VOL, II. H
 
 50 
 
 German; hooh in Belgic; hauh in Gothic; heah and hieli in Saxon; we 
 are disposed to think that all these may have originated in altus. To 
 account for the h, we should observe, that the modern inhabitants of 
 Gaul have been in the habit of introducing this letter in the beginning 
 of words derived from Latin, as for instance, huile, huit, huitre, hors 
 and hormis, charbon, charite. 
 
 Who again, without the intermediate languages, would imagine, that 
 liead is essentially the same word with caput? But when we observe haupt 
 in German; haubith in Gothic; hufwud in Swedish and heafod in 
 Saxon, — from which we confessedly derive our head; we immediately 
 distinguish the connexion of all these with caput, because we knoAv, 
 that the change between C and H is not unfrequent in the language of 
 our northern ancestors. Thus, in the Gothic we have hairto, cor; haurn, 
 cornu; in the Swedish, hud, cutis; hus, casa; halm, calamus; hoi, 
 coliis; haela, celare; hop, copia; in the German, hanff, canabis, in 
 Spanish, helar, gelare; hermano, germanus; hieso, gypsum, and by the 
 same process, haupt may connect itself with caput. 
 
 What affinity can the novice in languages discover between jioimeiv 
 and to feed, which have not one element, unless potentially, in common. 
 But when he sees /Soa-xcu, pasco, pascere, paitre French, batan Saxon, 
 beta and fixla Swedish, weiden German, all kindred languages, and all 
 denoting the same action ; even the novice may discern a regular pro-^ 
 gress from ^os-yu till it terminates in feed. In connecting food to /Soto^, 
 he has no need of a connecting medium. The correspondent expres- 
 sions in the Celtic dialects seem to originate, not in ^oanu, but m
 
 51 
 
 ^tog and liioTog. These are biadh and buadh in Calir, buis in Cornish, 
 bwyd in Welch, and boat in the Arnioric. 
 
 In the derivation of ?nuch from iJ-eyxln, one link is snflicient, and 
 that we find in the Old English mickle, mochel, muchcl, as used by 
 Spencer in his Fairy Queen. 
 
 Fi7'e is certainly allied to Tup, but this would be in some measure 
 doubtful, had we not furs, in the ancient Irish of the same import, 
 and fursannadh in the modern to kindle. In German we have feuer, 
 in Belgic vuer, in Saxon and Swedish fyr, in Latin uro and eomburo, 
 in Welch pori, in Slavonian pogoraiu. These convey the same notion 
 with our word to burn, a word derived immediately from ^upoeiv. This 
 in Galic is bran, in Belgic branden, whence comes our brand AVith 
 these agree brinnan of the Gothic, brenna Swedish, and brenne Ice- 
 landic. In the Slavonian branch, from pogoraiu we have goriu Russian, 
 and Horim Bohemian. These kindred dialects thus compared together 
 throw light upon each other, and direct us to -iy:3 the genuine root 
 from which they all proceed. Without the assistance of Latin, Italian, 
 and French it would be impossible to connect savage with 'uXv^, 
 But every scholar knows, that sylva is allied to'uAti, selvage to sylva, 
 sauvage to selvage, and savage to sauvage. 
 
 From 'v'Kuhvti we stand in need of no assistance to arrive at wild. 
 Wild then and savage are both derived from 'u'Xvi. 
 
 The novice in languages would consider the attempt to connect •^^{^ 
 the Hebrew word for light, with marble, as wild in the extreme. But 
 when we observe marmol in Spanish, marbre in French, and marmor in 
 Latin, we readily conceive that marble is allied to these. From marmor 
 
 H 2
 
 52 
 
 the progress is easy, through [it-api^atpa) and f^aipw to 11K0» l^i^n and 
 111* of the same import, and every one knows that to receive a 
 pohsh and to shine are the essential properties of marble. 
 
 To connect dusk with shade even the novice may recollect, that 
 shade is anidSiov in its most abbreviated form, that dusk is derived 
 from Sxa-Kiog, which is compounded of Sx valde and a-mSeig umbrosus 
 and that both (thixSiov and a-moeig are the offspring of o-xj«. 
 
 It was the want of a diffusive knowledge of languages, which be- 
 trayed Bullet into the gross error of deriving Norihampton from nor 
 the mouth of a river, tarn a river, and ton a habitation. AVith equal 
 ignorance he derived Uxbridge, from uc a river, and brig, division, 
 (v. Pinkerton.) 
 
 I might here multiply examples of extravagant derivations suggested 
 by rash or unlearned men, and of difficulties solved in etymology by 
 comparing kindred languages together : but sufficient has been already 
 said to caution the Tyro against precipitancy, and much more will of 
 necessity appear in the progress of this work, when the several languages 
 of Europe and of Asia shall pass in review before us. 
 
 IV. 
 
 In tracing the origin of words and the affinity of languages, we must 
 be careful to examine correspondent terms. 
 
 Every language has multiplied expressions for the same notion. Vo- 
 cabularies, therefore, such as are given us by voyagers and travellers, 
 even those collected at the expense of the imperial Catharine, and by
 
 53 
 
 the indefatigable industry of Pallas, are of little value to the etymologist. 
 They only perplex, discourage and mislead him. It is said, that the 
 Arabs have five hundred expressions for a lion. By periphrasis they 
 may have five thousand. Yet, without circumlocution, they have three, 
 asad, lebu and leis. In Hebrew likewise we find three, ari, labi and 
 laish (iwh, i^'^n'?. "*"1i<) The two last in each of these corresponding series 
 may be compared, and evince analogy. But should the traveller com- 
 pare only the two remaining terms; no resemblance would appear be- 
 tween them. 
 
 Such is the luxuriancy of language; such, in every nation, the minute 
 distinctions, which, marking a difference to the natives, yet escape the 
 observation and discernment of a stranger, thar even a dictionary with- 
 out a competent knowledge of the language, will frequently mislead. 
 We have, for instance, two difterent processes for preserving fruits, the 
 one by vinegar, the other by sugar, or a man may be preserved by the 
 protecting arm of a superior power. A young Russian, who was not 
 acquainted with these distinctions, in taking leave of a lady, from whom 
 he had received civilities, having searched his dictionary for suitable 
 expressions, turned to her with a look of ineffable gratitude, and said 
 " May God Almighty pickle you/' Had his compliment been paid in 
 French, he would have avoided this mistake. 
 
 No language is more abundant in periphrasis than Sanscrit, as will 
 appear, when I shall display its rich variety of elegant expressions* 
 
 The Irish have more than fifty expressions for a hill; and the Welch 
 have eight. These are cefn, garth, rhyn, bre and brynn, galit, moel,
 
 54 
 
 and truin. From the Irish I select seven, ard, ardan, rinn, bri, maol, 
 meall, droman. 
 
 Now garth, ard and ardan may possibly have a correspondent term in 
 Latin, and may be connected with arduus; rhyn, brynn and rinn may 
 be either the parent or the offspring of /jjv, the nose; cefn, a ridge of 
 mountains, which is the exact description of the Cevennes in France, 
 seems to be the only term, which claims direct affinity to the Hebrew; 
 for giben is deviated, as in harim gabnunnim, high hills, of Psal. 
 Ixviii. 16. or gebin of the Chaldee, with which the Syriac perfectly 
 agrees. Of eight expressions therefore, for hill, in Welch, one only can 
 admit of a comparison with Hebrew, one with Greek, one with Latin, 
 and seven with Irish. Some languages are redundant in expressions; 
 others are exceedingly deficient. In the latter, one word has numerous 
 acceptations, and these, perhaps, discordant, or, if not altogether dis- 
 cordant, nor wholly unconnected either in kind or genera, yet perfectly 
 distinct, as species or varieties. Thus damh means in Galic ox, cow, 
 bull, ^gh means ox, cow, bull, battle, fear, a doe. Bla conveys the 
 seiveral notions, well, safe, healthy, piety, a village, a green field, the 
 sea, yellow, renown, praise, a shout, a cry. 
 
 In this diversity of acceptations we must compare only such as cor- 
 respond. Thus for instance, agh. when it signifies a castrated bull, may 
 be compared with ycA in Welch; ox in English; ux, Icelandic; auhs, 
 Gothic; oz, Belgic; and the affinity will be readily discenied: but it 
 must not be compared with cow, bull, battle, fear, or doe, in English, 
 nor with the correspondent terms in Belgic, Gothic, or Icelandic. In
 
 S5 
 
 Welch, however, some small similitude to agh, a cow, may be distin- 
 guished in buwch, which means the same. 
 
 What is here remarked will equally apply to similar expressions 
 in our own language, such as arch, asp, bait, bale, bark, baste, bay, 
 bear, bill, &c. in their numerous and discordant acceptations, for even 
 in the most copious languages the same word, if derived from diiFerent 
 sources, is made to convey a variety of independent meanings. 
 
 V. 
 
 In tracing the etymology of words, we must remember, that as 
 verbs are derived from nouns, so innumerable nouns originate in verbs, 
 and that the most ancient parts of every language are the words ex- 
 pressive of visible objects, parts of the body, material elements, 
 natural relations, affections of the mind, things of the first necessity, 
 and such as are common to the whole race of man. 
 
 We must, likewise, in every language understand, from what parts 
 of the verb its nouns are commonly derived. In English, as Mr. 
 Tooke has demonstrated, our substantives are formed frequently by 
 the third person singular of the indicative, some ?evf from the par- 
 ticiple present, and many from the participle past. Besides these we 
 have numerous verbs whose indicative mood present tense is the in- 
 finitive of other verbs. In Greek although the most ancient nouns are 
 derived from the present, the future, and the perfect tenses, which 
 are the most ancient parts of verbs ; yet innumerable substantives are 
 participles.
 
 56 
 
 VI. 
 
 In the investigations of etymology it may be established as a fun- 
 damental principle, that the genuine root can have but one original 
 meaning, one primary notion, and that every other sense must be se- 
 condary, metaphorical, allusive. 
 
 If then the several acceptations are discordant and cannot be tro- 
 pically derived from one primary idea; we may be certain, that each 
 independent notion has its proper radix, which must be sought for, 
 and may be fc^nd in some other, and that probably a kindred lan- 
 guage. Thus, for instance, in our word mean, we have 1° low in 
 worth, 2o intermediate, 3° to wish for, intend, 4° to hint, covertly, to 
 signify. All these acceptations, distinguished by Dr. Johnson, are 
 independent of each other, and seem to originate the first in (*£tov ; 
 the second in [t.e<Tov; the third in \^tvoi\^xw, and the fourth in ij.>ivv^. 
 In the first acceptation it has affinity with main and man of the 
 Welch; mion and min Galic ; minuo Latin; moin French; and maene 
 of the Saxon. In the second it is allied to mcadhon and maoin Galic; 
 medium Latin; mian Persian; and both moj-en and mesne French. 
 In the third to meinen of the German; to maani Arabic; and to 
 miann of the Galic. In the fourth it connects itself with minich 
 Galic; mentior Latin; and minneach of Iceland. 
 
 Dr. Johnson has attempted to mark, in words of extensive use, the 
 progress of their meaning, and to shew, by what gradations of inter- 
 mediate sense, they have passed from their primitive to their remote 
 and accidental signification, in order that every foregoing explanation
 
 57 
 
 miflit tend to that which follows, and that the series might be regu- 
 larly concatenated from the first notion to the last. In the execution 
 of this purpose he had occasion to observe, that kindred senses being 
 interwoven, the perplexity could not be disentangled, nor any reason 
 be assigned, why one should be ranged before the other, for, says he, 
 when the radical idea branches out into parallel ramifications; how 
 can a consecutive series be formed of senses in their own nature col- 
 lateral. This remark is judicious, and his purpose laudable; but he 
 loo often failed in his attempts. Tt is here supposed, that every word 
 in English has one primary import, from which all others are derived. 
 But in no language is this the case, because all nations have bor- 
 rowed expressions from their neighbours, and by the process of ab- 
 breviation, have in numerous instances reduced these, however dissimilar 
 in structure, however independent, or even discordant in their orio-inal 
 import, to one and the same word. This will be abundantly exempli- 
 fied in the progress, of my work. 
 
 By multiplied and reiterated investigations, we may be able to connect 
 languages together, which appear at first sight not to have the least 
 affinity, and, for this purpose we may venture to assume the subsequent 
 as axioms: 
 
 1. Nations, which agree in the terms expressive of those objects, 
 which are of tlie first necessity to mere animal existence, and of those 
 actions, which are most common in savage life, however distant they 
 may now be, were originally one. 
 
 2. When, with this agreement, their languages differ exceedingly in 
 substance, and essentially in structure, though they were once united, 
 
 VOL. II. I .
 
 58 
 
 they have for ages formed distinct nations, without poUtical connexion, 
 or social intercourse. 
 
 3. But should they agree in technical terms; the separation must 
 have taken place, after their common ancestors had made a progress in 
 the arts and sciences. 
 
 The application of these axioms will immediately connect all the 
 languages of Europe, and ultimately those also of Asia, and of Africa, 
 and of America, in which the same elementary words are found, although 
 variously corrupted and disguised by adventitious ornaments and dress. 
 For, on examination, it will appear, that the original language has ex- 
 isted, and does still substantially exist, diffused throughout the various 
 languages, which ever have been, or now continue to be spoken in any 
 quarter of the globe.
 
 OF THE 
 
 FIRST INHAIBBTANTS OF BRITAIN", 
 
 xV-LL historians are agreed, that Britain was peopled from the con- 
 tinent ; and the condition, in which the Romans found the inhabitants, 
 makes it evident, that hunting and pastoral adventurers, landing at dif- 
 ferent times upon her shores, had penetrated far into the country, to sup- 
 ply themselves with game, and to find provision for their flocks. 
 
 Cffisar, in his Commentaries, informs us, that the interior of the island 
 was occupied by those, who were considered as natives of the soil. 
 These may have been descendants of the colonists, who, as the Saxon 
 Chronicle informs us, came from Armenia, and settled in the south. 
 Tiiis information is said to be confirmed by Indian and by Irish history, 
 from which it is collected, that Indo-Scythian adventurers came first to 
 Spain, and thence to the south of Britain. 
 
 We learn again from Caesar, that the maritime parts of our island were 
 peopled by Belgae, who originally came to it for plunder. He tells us, 
 that the Cantii, perhaps so called from kante, a sea coast, were the most 
 civilized, and had tillage, precisely as the Gauls, whilst, in the interior 
 
 I 2
 
 60 
 
 of the countr}^ the chief dependence of the Aborigines for food and 
 raiment was on their flocks and herds; but that many painted their 
 bodies and went naked. Possibly, like the Gentoo casts of India, they 
 painted the forehead. It is now well known that they lived in huts or 
 mud-wall cottages, not resembling those occupied by the poorest of our 
 people, but round hovels, frequently sunk in the earth, covered with 
 poles united in a focal poinf, and then thatched with straw, reeds and 
 rushes. An assemblage of such miserable dwellinss constituted their 
 only towns, placed commonly in the midst of forests, or on the sides 
 and summits of their mountains. Here they sought shelter for them- 
 selves and for their cattle. Such are the huts composing many villages 
 in the neighbourhood of Mcttore, Nattan and Tourancourchi in the 
 East Indies. 
 
 Mungo Park informs us, that the African nations, and particularly 
 the Mundingoes, content themselves with such small and incommo- 
 dious hovels. He says " A circular mudwall, about four feet high, 
 upon which is placed a conical roof, composed of bamboo cane, and 
 thatched with grass, forms alike the palace of the king and the hovel 
 of the slave." (Travels in Africa, p. 22.) The situations of many such 
 British towns and villages have been discovered by Mr. Cunnington, 
 of Heytcsbury. He had two men constantly employed in searching 
 for them, and the result of his pursuit has been the fullest evidence, 
 that our British ancestors were strangers to the use of iron. They 
 had none but stone axes and hammers, and their arrow heads were 
 formed of flint like those of the American Indians. Their pottery 
 was fashioned by hand, not turned upon a wheel, and was baked
 
 61 
 
 on the hearth in their cuhnary fires, not in a furnace. He informed 
 me that he had opened more than one hundred and twenty tumuli, 
 in which he never could discover one implement of either iron, brass, 
 or any other metal. 
 
 My esteemed and much-lamented friend, Mr. Edward King, in one 
 of his inestimable volumes, has traced the resemblance between these 
 rude inhabitants of Britain in all their structures, whether domestic 
 or designed for sacred rites, and the nomade hordes scattered over 
 the face of Europe, Asia, Africa and America. On this subject he 
 judiciously remarks, " It deserves to be well noticed, what a striking 
 conformity is to be found in the manners of all those called abori- 
 ginal people, in every part of the earth as to some usages, which 
 therefore shew their original connexion with the few patriarchal fami- 
 lies, who first peopled the globe. (Munimenta Antiq. vol. i. p. 154.) 
 
 In our island we observe four races of men, differing in personal 
 appearance and in language. These are the Highlanders and Lowlan- 
 ders of North Ihitaiii, the Welch, and the mass of inhabitants on this 
 side the Tweed. Tacitus was aware of these distinctions, for, in his 
 Life of Agricola, he remarks, that the yellow hair and large limbs of 
 the Caledonians prove them to have been Germans. From the hair, 
 the form, and the complexion of the Welch, he imagined, that they 
 came from Spain. And by similar observations he rendered it pro- 
 bable, that the coast opposite to Gaul received inhabitants from thence. 
 Respecting these he adds, what I shall demonstrate, that their languages 
 agreed. 
 
 The most ancient of the Greek Historians in his Melpomene, dis-
 
 62 
 
 covers to our view, a rolling tide proceeding from the east. Wave 
 follows wave : they break upon the western shores of the Caspian : 
 they spread themselves over countries, where they find least resistance, 
 and even the Caucasian mountains form but a feeble barrier, to arrest 
 their progress. He represents the nomade Scythians of Asia, retiring 
 ■with their flocks from this invading force, and deserting the inheritance 
 of their fathers, anxious only to avoid the arrows of the Massageetae, 
 a ferocious nation, who came from the eastern borders of the Caspian, 
 driven out by the more ferocious Arimaspi. 
 
 In their retreat they fall back on the Cimmerians, a less warlike 
 nation, who had for ages fed their flocks on the banks of the Danube, 
 and in the fertile plains adjacent to the sea. 
 
 l"he venerable historian of Samos, in Cimmeria, now Crimea, was re- 
 minded by every thing of its pristine possessors. 
 
 About 450 years before the Christian era, at the period in which he 
 composed his interesting work, the Celtic hordes occupied vast tracts 
 of country, and were scattered over the regions in which the Danube 
 flows. 
 
 Beyond them, in the utmost extremities of Europe, towards the 
 setting sun, the Cynetae, {Kvv^rxi) either fed their flocks, or, more pro- 
 bably, were to be numbered among the hunting tribes. 
 
 The Chinese historians assist us to trace the progress of the Eastern 
 swarms towards the west, during a period subsequent to that, which is 
 mentioned by Herodotus. For, about l6'2 years before the Christian 
 era, the Huns, or Western Tartars, wandering over their mountains 
 north of China, drove before them the Yue-Chi, Ye-tan, Jeta or Getes,
 
 63 
 
 a people who inhabited on the Irtish, near the Altai Mountains. 
 Some of these found refuge among the frozen mountains of Tibet; but 
 the main body, proceeding to the west, expelled in succession weaker 
 hordes, till they appeared to the north of Indostan, where they became 
 known to the Greeks by the name of Indo-Scythians. (De Guignes 
 Hist, des Huns, torn. ii. p. 41.) 
 
 The Celts, called also Galatians, according to Polybius, occupied for 
 a time the whole of Gaul, from Narbonne to the ocean, with a part of 
 Italy adjoining to the Alps. But Ceesar, in his Commentaries, represents 
 the same tumultuous waves as still continuing to roll on towards the 
 setting sun, and warlike tribes, either expelling or themselves expelled, 
 all pressing forwards in succession towards Gaul, a country rich in 
 pasturage, productive of corn, and well suited for the introduction of 
 the vine. During the consulate of Messala and Piso, the Belgae and 
 Helvetii were engaged in opposing the inroads of their neighbours, who 
 inhabited bej^ond the Rhine. But the principal nobility among the 
 latter were themselves inclined to leave their mountains, and to seize 
 upon the more fertile plains, abundantly watered by the Rhone. The 
 object of their ambition was to subjugate the whole of Gaul. For this 
 purpose, they, two years successively, sowed all their lands, they made 
 peace with their nearest and most formidable neighbours, they purchased 
 horses and cars to the utmost extent of their ability, and chose a leader 
 equally distinguished for his wealth and for his high descent. This was 
 Orgetorix; but he died before the time appointed for their departure. 
 Not discouraged by their loss, they proceeded to burn all their habi- 
 tations, including twelve towns, with four hundred villages, and nu-
 
 64 
 
 merous scattered houses, and they destroyed the corn, which thej 
 were unable to transport, after they had commanded every one to 
 provide himself with flour for three months supply. All this being 
 accomplished they turned their backs upon their native laud to the 
 number of two hundred and sixty-three thousand armed meii, assisted 
 by their allies, who amounted to one hundred and five thousand. Such 
 Avas the population of one little state, and such the nature of their 
 j)reparaLions for quitting their possessions, in search of new settlements 
 to be acquired by arms. 
 
 The issue was fatal to themselves, for Cffisar being informed of their 
 intentions, hastened to Geneva, collected forces, opposed their progress, 
 harrasscd them incessantly, defeated them in battle, and, when they 
 had lost two hundred and fifty eight thousand men, compelled them 
 to return and to rebuild the towns they had destroyed. 
 
 Having obeyed his commands, they held a general council, at the 
 breaking up of which they represented to hirn, that Ariovistus, king of 
 the Germans, had seized a third p-art of the rich country belonging to 
 the Sequani, and had commanded them to, evacuate another third in 
 favor of his allies. They assured him, that all the Gauls, unless pro- 
 tected by the Romans, would be compelled to do, what the Ilelvetii 
 had in vain attempted, to ([uit their country, and seek new settlements 
 far distant from the Germans. 
 
 Gffisar apprehensive lest, if he suflcred the Germans thus frequently 
 to pass the Rhine, they niight get possession of Gaul, as the Cimbri 
 and Teutoncs had done, and from thence invade Italy, he without loss 
 of time, led his victorious legions against Ariovistus and put his whole 
 army to the rout.
 
 65 
 
 We have seen the Cimmerians expelled from their ancient settle- 
 ments by the nomade Scythians: we have traced their footsteps driving 
 the Gauls before them, and we hear of them at last as taking refuge 
 on the Cottian Alps, in Britany, in Cornwall, and in Wales. When 
 one swarm from this hive passed the Alps, and ventured to attack 
 the Romans on the Athesis, now the Adige ; when, on the banks of the 
 Po, they offered terms to Marius; it was with this single stipulation on 
 their part, that the Romans should assign to them and to their allies, 
 the Teutones, lands in Italy. Thus two nations unite to invade a third, 
 not to avenge an insult, not for plunder, but to obtain more extensive 
 pastures for their flocks, and a more fertile country for the labors of 
 the plough. 
 
 Authors have tormented themselves and perplexed their readers, by 
 endeavouring to fix the abode, in given periods, of all the nomade 
 nations. They miglit as well attempt to fix the locality of waves, 
 and to form a chronological chart of the foamins; billows in the ocean. 
 The weaker hordes have constantly given way to the more powerful, and 
 these have for a time occupied more fertile lands than those, which they 
 quitted, and from which, perhaps, they were themselves expelled. 
 
 Thus, retreatino- nations, under various denominations, whether Scy- 
 thians, Sacffi, Massageta?, Getae or Goti, continuing to direct their steps 
 towards the setting sun, spread themselves successively over Germany 
 and Gaul, every where compelling the Cimmerians to fly before them. 
 Some of these took refuge in the mountains of Armorica, whilst otherj 
 passed over into Britain, from which they drove the Galic tribes, and 
 obliged them to seek a resting place in Ireland. Here the fugitives were 
 
 VOL. II. K
 
 66 
 
 again disturbed by the Menapii and the Cauci, who are supposed to 
 have been the Scythians of Diodorus Sicukis. These rovers took pos- 
 session of the south, and compelled the greatest part of Ireland to bend 
 in subjection to their yoke. They built numerous castles, assumed the 
 royalty, and gave birth to the Scytise or Scotish race of sovereigns, who 
 exercised dominion in that island. 
 
 From this time the Scoti were considered as the reguli and nobiles, 
 whilst the great mass of the inhabitants were called Hibernigenae, or 
 natives of the country. In this state of the community, the foreigners, 
 being comparativel}' few in number, soon lost their language in the Galic 
 of their subjects. 
 
 But although the many submitted patiently to these new lords; 
 yet numerous bands, principally in the north of Ireland preferring 
 liberty to every comfort, which could be expected in their native 
 land, crossed over to the north of Britain, and took possession of the 
 Highlands, where they are distinguished, not only by identity of lan- 
 guage with their progenitors, but by their diminutive stature, their 
 brown complexion, dark eyes and black curled hair. Whereas the 
 Lowlanders are tall and large, with red hair, blue eyes and fair com- 
 plexion, strangers to the Galic language, and accustomed only to 
 the Gothic. 
 
 From the ninth to the sixteenth century, these Highlanders are said 
 to have been subject, not to the Scotish crown, but to Norwegian 
 Lords. 
 
 TheCimbri, who had driven out the Gauls from Britain, were in their 
 turn molested by numerous swarms from the northern hive. For the
 
 67 
 
 Picts of Scandinavia, the Scythians of Jornandes and of Bedc, who 
 had driven the Cimmerians from the Baltic, now pursued tliem, and, 
 invading those parts of the island which were most accessible to then), 
 took possession of the country as far south as to the Forth and Clyde, 
 which became for ages the boundary between the Cimbric tribes and 
 them. 
 
 Our venerable historian, Bede, who wrote about A. D. 731, speakui^ 
 of these Cimmerians, whom he calls Britons, informs us, that, as they 
 were spread over the south, the Picts were for a time obliged to be con- 
 tented with the north. 
 
 Indeed, Tacitus, Eumenius, Ammianus Marcellinus, Gildas, Nennius, 
 the Saxon Chronicle, Giraldus Cambrensis, and Geofroy of Monmouth, 
 concur with him, and prove, what Buchanan, Lluyd, Verstegan, Usher, 
 Stillingfleet, Sibbald, and Sberingham agree in, that the Picts came 
 from Scandinavia; and their testimony is confirmed both by the lan- 
 guage of the country, which is distinctly Gothic, not Cumraig, nor 
 Galic, and by the persons and manners of the inhabitants, which are 
 perfectly German. * 
 
 The Picts are distinguished by Bede into northern and southern, 
 separated b}^ the Grampian Hills. The former are by him called 
 Dicaledojice, that is, in modern language, Caledonians and Vecturiones, 
 a word supposed to be equivalent to mariners, because in the Tslandic, 
 vik is a haven, vig a ship, and vikingur a pirate. These Scandinavian 
 adventurers, at their first arrival, passing by the Orkneys occupied the 
 Hebud Islands, now the Hebrides, of whose wretched inhabitants 
 
 K 2
 
 68 
 
 Solinus, about the year 240, says, " They know nothing of grain, but 
 subsist altogether on milk and fish." 
 
 Not satisfied with such an acquisition, the Picts directed their course 
 for Britain, made good their landing, and, having established them- 
 selves in the north, they soon extended their dominion to the south. 
 About A. D. 430, they drove the Cimmerians to the western shores 
 of the island, and took possession of Cumberland and Northumberland, 
 with all the country between the H umber and the Forth. From hence 
 as opportunity offered, they made excursions, pushed forward their 
 conquests, ravaged the country and conducted their victorious bands 
 even into Kent. Their dominion, however, was not of long dura- 
 tion, for A. D. 460, the Saxons drove them back to their former 
 territories beyond the H umber. Here they remained as lords till 
 A. D. 547, and as occupiers of the soil till A. D. 685. 
 
 The arrival of Hengist with his Jutes, that is Goths, Avas A. D. 447. 
 Soon after his establishment in Britain, he assumed the diadem, in 
 Kent, where he fixed the seat of his dominion. By his invitation 
 other Saxons came, A. D. 447, and took possession of the districts, 
 which from them were denominated Sussex, Essex, and Middlesex, that 
 is to say. South Saxons, East Saxons, and Middle Saxons. Arthur 
 who had effectually restrained their progress, died A. D. 542. After 
 his death the Angli arrived and gave their name to South Britain. 
 These came principally from Anglen, a small territory of Sleswick in 
 Holstein, of which Lunden was the capital. They were conducted 
 by Ida, a descendant of Woden, in sixty ships, and landed at Flam- 
 borough in Yorkshire. This was the prince who founded the kingdom
 
 CD 
 
 of the Anglo-Saxons, in Nortliumberland, from whence he expelled the 
 Picts. 
 
 A. D. 584. The Saxon Heptarchy was established. 
 
 From all that has been said, we may collect, that the Irish and the 
 Highlanders of North Britain are to be distinguished from the Welch and 
 Cornish: that the Lowlanders of North Britain are of Gothic extract, 
 and that the English are principally a Belgic race, with a considerable 
 admixture of Angles, Jutes, and Saxons. Accordingly we collect from 
 Bede, that in his day four languages prevailed in Britain, the Irish, 
 the British or Cumraig, the Pikish or Scandinavian, and the English 
 or Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 All these are distantly related, and in the ascending line ultimately 
 terminate in one. The learned and most judicious Sheringham, in his 
 treatise De Origine Gentis Anglorum, has delivered his opinion, that 
 the hives of the north, who came from the borders of the Baltic, were 
 originally descended from the Chaldean or Assyrian stock, whose lan- 
 guage is a dialect of the Hebrew. 
 
 After all the researches I have been able to make in a lono- 
 life, devoted to these subjects, my opinion nearly coincides with his, 
 and in the progress of my work, I shall trace successively the affinity 
 between the English, Elemish, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, 
 Gothic of Ulphilas, Persian, Sanscrit, Greek, Chaldee, Arabic and 
 Hebrew.
 
 70 
 
 OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 The English has no pretension to originality. It is evidently a com- 
 pound language, Avhich has freely adopted words from every nation, at 
 any time connected with our island, in the way of con(|uest, or of com- 
 merce, and with singular address. 
 
 Dissociata locis concordi pace ligavit. 
 
 It has been much indebted to the Romans for its harmony. They 
 have supplied the ornaments of grace and beauty: but its nervous 
 strength and energy are principal!}' derived from the Goths. 
 
 The basis of our language is certainly of Gothic origin; 3'et nu- 
 merous expressions still remain to remind us of the Cimbri and of the 
 Gauls, the first inhabitants of Britain. With these many derivatives 
 are seen of Greek, and some of Hebrew, whose correspondent terms 
 are wanting in the kindred languages of Europe. 
 
 In this enumeration, I do not comprehend our modern acquisitions, 
 such as serve to shew our progress and improvements in the various 
 sciences of law, of chemistry, of medicine, of mineralogy, and of war. 
 These are adopted, with little variation, from the writings of the Nor- 
 mans, Arabs, Greeks, Germans, French. 
 
 Our prepositions are nearly the same as are used in Greek, in Latin, 
 and in all the languages of Europe. These, in monosyllabic expressions^ 
 have yielded obedience, like the radical part with which they are con- 
 nected, to those laws of abbreviation and mutation, which I have already 
 noticed as prevalent in all the languages, with which wc are acquainted.
 
 n 
 
 Hence it is, that, without particular attention, they escape observation, 
 or at least are regarded either as a radical part of the word, in which 
 they appear, or as accidental and arbitrary accretions, for which no 
 account is to be required. The most common prefixes allied to Greek, 
 are B. P. F, which claim affinity to eTti, and C. G. S, which are of 
 the same family with tn and e^, to which, in the former part of this 
 work, I directed the particular attention of my readers. 
 
 Compounded with B. P. and F, that is with s'ji, we find the subse- 
 quent expressions. Bleach, Ksvuog. Blaze, Xevaaw. Blithelaetus. Flock, 
 yoxog. Friend, ipxstv. Prate and (ppx^(^, derived from pe(a. Compounded 
 with C and G, that is with en, we have. Clink, Click, Xiyfu. Crag, pxx'^ct^ 
 Creep, repo. Glass, gloss, Afuja-w. Glimpse, Kd[j.-4^xi. Grave, and ypadf^u, 
 px(p1g. Glad, Isetus. 
 
 E^ is a compound of K and S, Of these letters, the former is liable 
 to be dropt in composition, and then eE. becomes ys in Welch, or simply 
 s, in other languages allied to it. In this way, as I conceive, we may 
 connect the subsequent expressions. Scratch, x^P^^^'^co. Screen, xptvco. 
 Smear, f^up/^o. Scar, f%«p« and xs^pu. Spear, veipxa}. Scald, calidus. 
 Slime, limus. 
 
 Spleen, StXi^v and splen, seem to have assumed both f^ and e^ti, be- 
 cause we have the same notion conveyed by lien. 
 
 I have taken these examples from among such, as occurred to my 
 recollection. A minute investigation might have increased their 
 number. 
 
 Our terminations appear to have been formed, not by arbitrary sounds 
 and syllables subjoined, as accident or caprice directed, but by words
 
 72 
 
 of determinate import, which in process of time have submitted to 
 those laws of abbreviation, whose influence and authority have been 
 universally acknowledged and obeyed. 
 
 Thus, when the person acting is denoted by the syllable er added to a 
 substantive or verb, as in lawyer, soldier, gardener, baker, this particle 
 is probably no other than wcr of tiie Anglo-Saxon, wair of the Maso- 
 Gothic, hai' of the Francs, air of the Armenians, aior of the Scythians, 
 ur and guv of the Icelandic, ger of the Persian, and fear or fir of the 
 Galic, which, according to the genius of this language, may either 
 precede the principal word, or be subjoined to it, precisely as in English 
 we say indifferently manly, or like a man. Indeed many of our words 
 retain man without disguise, as coachman, ploughman, herdsman, 
 husbandman. 
 
 But instead of er we frequently meet with or, as in our words de- 
 rived from Greek and Latin, debtor, cultivator. Here the «/• may be 
 gwr of the Welch abbreviated, as in ardalwr a prince, cawr a giant, 
 brawdwr a judge. 
 
 The Galic fear and fir are unquestionably the same with vir; and 
 gwr, like ger in Persian and gur of the Icelandic, is related to them 
 both. In fact all these arc probably geher ("13^) in disguise, with 
 this difference, that the latter retain the guttural, which the other 
 hinguages reject. 
 
 These terminations were evidently personal at first and denoted the 
 liuman agent ; but by degrees their use was extended to express 
 agency in general, as in banner, streamer, fodder, and in Welsh cadwr, 
 a shield derived from cadw to save.
 
 The participle present, in English, is now formed by ivg, l)ut its 
 ancient termination was end, as bindend bicrnend, now binding and 
 burnino'. In Anglo-Saxon this was ende, as lufingendi loving. In 
 Gothic it was U7ids, andei, and, according to the gender, as sokjands, 
 sokjandei, sokjand, seeking, in correspondence with the Latin whose 
 participle of the first conjugation in the oblique cases, terminates in 
 antis, anti, ante. The change of d and g for each other, but more 
 especially ofd for g has been already noticed. 
 
 Our Saxon ancestors had, beside the termination end for nouns 
 substantive derived from participles in ende, four others, ange, inge, 
 onge, unge, which seem to have been originally connected with the 
 perfect tense of some (Ireek verbs, such, for instance, as have con- 
 verted their infinitives into new themes, in the manner particularly 
 noticed under the article of compound words. 
 
 The practice of converting participles into substantives accounts for 
 numerous expressions in our language, which claim this descent. Mr. 
 Tooke has very judiciously handled this part of his subject, has dis- 
 played his usual sagacity, and has thereby thrown more light upon 
 the English Language than all the writers, who ever went before 
 him. 
 
 Wachterus, a learned German, had made similar observations, as far 
 as relates to the past participle, giving birth to numerous substantives. 
 He says, " D. est litera participialis & nota originis ex participio. 
 Solent enim Prisci ex participiis formare substantiva & terminationem 
 participialem derivatis relinquere, tanquam custodem originig.. - Haec 
 
 VOL. II. L 3
 
 74 
 
 una litera nos quasi manu ducit ad permulta vocabulorum secreta intelli- 
 genda. Sic etiam de T & Te. 
 
 It is here worthy of remark, that, as participles, whether past or pre- 
 sent, are apt to be assumed for substantives; so these substantives are 
 apt to become new themes for verbs. Thus it has happened to rift and 
 sift, which arc rived and sieved, and to lift, which is clearly elevatus. 
 Thus also swaying gives birth to swing, wrying to wring, and going to 
 gang, all new verbs, whose participles consequently become swinging, 
 wringing, ganging. 
 
 The termination th in substantives points them out as derivatives 
 from verbs. Thus girth is that which girdeth. Filth that which de- 
 fileth, and warmth that which warmeth. (v. Home Tooke.) 
 
 Among our terminations we should more particularly notice N, be- 
 cause it marks the infinitive in Saxon, German, Gothic, Persian, Greek, 
 and enables us to detect the radical part of numerous verbs, which have 
 converted their infinitives into new themes, as may be exemplified in 
 learn and churn, of which the latter is evidently fyvposiv. Of this letter, 
 I may say, what Wachterns has said of D, in the passage I have quoted 
 from his interesting work on German. Plaec ima litera nos quasi manu 
 ducit ad permulta vocabulorum secreta intelligenda. 
 
 I have, in my general observations on compound words, already 
 noticed the perplexity occasioned by the creation of new themes from 
 the infinitives of ancient verbs, and I have here called the attention of 
 the reader to this practice in the Anglo-Saxon and the English, because 
 it throws much light on the origin of numerous expressions in our lan- 
 guage, whose radical part might otherwise be hid from us.
 
 75 
 
 Jsh suffixed to nouns denotes character, as in childish, selfish, whitish, 
 and the like. This we may have derived either from the Hindoo and 
 Persian asa, or from the Greek tVxw, which marks resemblance, as do 
 our ly and lyke, derived from aXimog. 
 
 Abstract substantives are conceived to have been formed from con- 
 crete adjectives by adding the termination ness, as in whiteness, hardness, 
 and our most distinguished linguist. Hicks, was of opinion, that the 
 Anglo-Saxon nesse originated in the feminine termination of the Gothic 
 ns, which is equivalent to nes, as in galaubeins, faith; garaihteins, 
 justice. This may be, and probably is so: but I must own f have some 
 doubt upon the subject. The ei/js of the Gothic seems to have an 
 affinity with e7is of the Romans, and as, in the Anglo-Saxon, the abstract 
 substantive may with common abbreviation be formed from the injinitive, 
 which terminates in N, by the addition of esse, which like ens, denotes 
 being in general, or the very essence of a thing; it is possible that esse, 
 J1T2/"' of Hebrew, was the genuine termination of abstract substantives 
 among the Anglo-Saxons. It certainly takes the place of itas xmn''X 
 of Chaldee, as in thrinesse for trinitas, both meaning the triune essence. 
 
 The terminations less and full, as in doubtless and doubtful, speak 
 for themselves, and sufficiently testify, that, independently of their 
 connexion, they have a determinate import of their own. These appear 
 to be no other than e/aVo-wv and /SuXXo?, of which the latter may be 
 nearly related to ■yto'kvg and crXeoj. 
 
 Bom indicates dominion, as in kingdom, dukedom, earldom: but 
 by accommodation it signifies condition, as in whoredom, wisdom. 
 
 Kick derived from rego, implies government. Head and hood as termi- 
 
 L 2
 
 76 
 
 nations, are the Anglo-Saxon had, which means order, quality, and sex. 
 
 Ship, as in worship, answering to weorthscype of the Anglo-Saxon, 
 means dignity and office. 
 
 Shire in English appears only in the names of counties ; but in 
 Saxon the correspondent termination is in frequent use, as in tunscyre 
 a stewardship ; geferscyre, partnership. It may be the Greek KupjoTv;., 
 prefecture, office, occupation, as sire and sir mean y.vpu. Or possibly 
 our shire may be allied to nupco. 
 
 We have other terminations transmitted to us by our Saxon ances- 
 tors, of whose original import I can give no account. • 
 
 As for ale, ete, ite, ote, utc, ation, etion, ition, otion, ution, ent, 
 ment, &c. these belong to expressions derived from Latin, either im- 
 mediately, or through the medium of the French, and, although now 
 abbreviated, were themselves, like the preceding, originally words of 
 distinct and specific meaning. 
 
 In English the noun is no longer subject to inflexions but the 
 oblique cases are denoted, as in Hebrew, by prepositions. These are 
 of, to, with, from, by. Our ancestors, however, had inflexions, and 
 varied their declensions like the Greeks and Romans. Our possessive 
 pronouns mine, my, thine, thy, his, her, our, your, are taken from the 
 genitive cases of the Saxon personals, and are not subject to inflex- 
 ion, but are declined, like our nouns, by prepositions. 
 
 When we shall proceed to examine the Anglo-Saxon; it will appear, 
 that we conform in a great measure to the grammatical rules established 
 by our ancestors in the conjugation of their verbs, although in the 
 infinitive mood wo commonly omit the final N. This, however, is
 
 77 
 
 retained in burn, turn, earn, yearn, learn, harden, fasten, slaeken, 
 cheapen, with numerous others of tlic same form, and serves to de- 
 monstrate the affinity between our language and the Greek. 
 
 In deriving from Latin our modern English makes fewer changes, 
 than either the French, Italian, or Spanish. This will appear, when I 
 shall review those languages. In the mean time a few exam[)les may 
 suffice to shew, with what scrupulous attention we conform to the 
 original, as for example, abbreviate, abhor, abject, abrupt, abstract, 
 abound, accept, active, acrimony, acute, adapt, adhere, admire, admit, 
 administer, adversity, &c. These, it is evident, are not of remote an- 
 tiquit3\ They appear almost perfect and entire, and therefore want 
 that venerable aspect, which strikes the eye in the most contracted 
 forms. Yet even these sufficiently evince a disposition to drop their 
 superabundant plumage in their flight. 
 
 The English, in its derivatives, avails itself of an universal privilege, and 
 not only disregards all distinction in the vowels, but, like other languages, 
 it considers those consonants, which have organic affinity, as equivalent, 
 and therefore to be substituted without scruple in each others place. 
 
 Thus it has happened to the labials B, F. P. V. W, as in probare, 
 prove; habere, have; pila, ball; verres, boar; forare, bore; vannus, 
 fan; pinna, fin; pullus, foal; salvus, safe; spuma, foam; vadare, wade; 
 vinum, wine; vermis, worm; vespa, wasp; vallum, wall; via, wa3\ 
 
 The same may be observed of the dentals, T. D. Th, as will appear 
 by the subsequent examples, ad, at; ede, eat; nutus, nod; habitum, 
 haved, had; territus. dread; tritus, tread; tectam, deck; fretum, frith; 
 auctor, author; tu, thou; Tpl^og, third.
 
 78 
 
 The gutturals C, G, K, Ch, and Q, to which must be added the 
 aspirate and sibilant H and S, are subject to the same laAv, as may be 
 seen in crates, grate; coquus, cook; gehdus, cold; catena, chain; 
 heedus, kid; caseus, cheese; cista, chest; cornu, horn; caput, head; 
 gallina, hen; colhs, hill; clausus, sluice; vulgus, folk. 
 
 Our Ch is said to have been introduced by the Normans, and I am 
 inclined to acquiesce in this opinion, because, subsequent to the Norman 
 Conquest, Ceaster became Chester, boc was converted into beech, biro 
 into birch, and wic, as a termination, into wich. However, the Normans 
 themselves most probably derived this double consonant from their Scan- 
 dinavian ancestors, and from Norway transported it to Normandy. Cer- 
 tain it is that the Swedes pronounce K before a vowel as Ch, and the 
 Italians do the same by C before E and f, which the Germans sound as 
 ts, approaching to our Ch. 
 
 The conversion of C, K, and Q into II, is Teutonic, and pervades 
 
 all its dialects. 
 
 Like the Italian, Spanish, French and German, our language takes 
 the ablative case of Latin nouns, but confines this practice in a great 
 measure to such as increase in the genitive, as for instance, fierce, de- 
 rived, not immediately from ferox, but from feroce. Thus in the sub- 
 sequent ablative, voce produces voice, pace peace, margine margin, 
 fraude fraud, flore flower, hospite host, gigante giant, quiete quiet. 
 Yet here it may be observed, that probably in more ancient times the 
 nominative cases of Latin nouns were conformable to the ablatives. 
 Could this be demonstrated; it would remove the date of all such de- 
 livatives to very distant periods, or prove perhaps, that they did not ori-
 
 79 
 
 ginatc in Latin, but in some more ancient language, wliicli was tlic 
 common parent of the Greek, of the Latin, apd of all the various tlia- 
 lects now prevalent in Europe. Yet possibly all the latter may be 
 the offspring of the Romance. 
 
 I have stated, that languages have a tendency to become monosyl- 
 labic. This observation, as far as relates to English, may be readily 
 confirmed by calling to mind a few of our derivatives from Latin. In 
 addition, therefore, to those we have already noticed, I may refer to 
 the subsequent examples, which might have been abundantly increased; 
 adjumentum, aid; armus, arm; cantharus, can; caulis, cole; corona, 
 crown; crimine, crime; debitum, debt; decanus, dean; dubitatio, doubt 
 expeditio, speed; exterritus, start, extraneus, strange; flagellum, flail 
 fragilis, frail ; labium, lip; movere, move; placere, please; proeda, prey 
 positus, put; radice, root; rancidus, rank; rivulus, rill; rotundus, round 
 spiculi, spikes; stringere, string; tegula, tile; tentorium, tent; tinnitus, 
 din ; trahere, draw. 
 
 These for the present may suffice. Others will occur to us in our ex- 
 amination of the several languages of Europe. 
 
 A considerable proportion of the English language is radically Greek, 
 and this independently of the vast addition made to il of late by the 
 rage for Greek expressions. When I say, that a portion of our language 
 is radically Greek, I do not mean to assert, that our ancestors, after 
 their departure, from the continent, borrowed terms for common use 
 from Greece. Nay, I am persuaded, whatever may have been the 
 iutercourse between Greece and Britain, that the words in question 
 were not imported by men of science, by merchants, nor yet by
 
 80 
 
 transient adventurers in arms, but by the Gauls, the ^Cimbri, the 
 Belgae, and the Saxons, when they came in swarms to settle in this 
 Island. Nor yet is it my intention to insinuate, that these nations 
 in their native seats were indebted for expressions to the peninsula of 
 Greece; and much less that the Greeks borrowed these resembling terms 
 from them. No; such occasional loans would not account for the most 
 evident affinity, and for the strictly radical identity discernible in these 
 languages, and in all the languages both of Europe and of Southern 
 Asia, which is the fact I shall endeavour to elucidate in the progress of 
 my work. 
 
 Of many hundred words, either nearly related to, or remotely derived 
 from Greek, I here select a few. 
 
 Ache, ail, all, alms, am, as, asp, aye, babe, bake, balm, bathe, bear, 
 beat, better, best, blab, blade, blow, bloom, blot, boat, bouse, box, 
 boy, bran, bread, break, brew, bribe, brook, broth, browze, bruise, 
 burn, burst, call, catch, chair, chaff, chase, cheer, chick, chide, chief, 
 chink, chop, clack, clash, clay, clean, clew, cliff, climb, clink, clothe, 
 clown, cloy, club, coal, coat, cock, coil, comb, come, coop, cope, 
 copse, cord, core, cot, court, crab, crack, crag, creek, crib, crick, 
 croak, crow, cruise, crust, cup, cut, dare, dark, dart, deaf, deal, deep, 
 deer, desk, deuce, dew, dig, dike, dine, dip, dish, dive, dock, dog, 
 dole, doom, dome, door, dowr, down, downs, drag, draw, drain, drawl, 
 lK:c. Sec. 
 
 I have placed these words together without the intervention of the 
 Greek, that the eye may run quickly over them, and judge of their
 
 81 
 
 venerable aspect. 'I'liey are not such expressions as arc conunonlj im- 
 ported, but words of daily use, which are essential to the language, and 
 appear in their most abbreviated forms. Now let us view their affinity 
 with Greek: 
 
 Ache a%o?, ail xiXsmg, all oKog, alms £X£vif*ojuvvi, am etfi^i, as &•>-, asp 
 meaning the aspin tree iaircupo:, aye ail. 
 
 Babe ^m^x^a, bake fienMc, balm (ixXaci\t.ov, bathe /3u^/?a), bear (Jepw, 
 beat and pat 'KctTuucrDi, better ^eXTepog, best fieXTicog, blab (iXccxTu, blade 
 ^Kxqxvu, blow /SXuw, bloom /3f/SXufA£voj, blot jSXaTTTw, boat y-i^icrog, bouse 
 Two-w, box in its three several acceptations ^ru^, tu^oj, 'nv^ig, boy ^auf, 
 bran t<tu/)o;/, bread fip^flog, break fTi and piiyvuf**, ,£'7rt£ppv)%«, brew ^pvTog, 
 bribe jipajieiov, brook [ipox^^, broth and bruice /3/jyTov, bruise /Bpi^^tf, /Spta-w, 
 brouze /Spwo-Kw, burn -Trupociv, burst fTrt and pww. 
 
 Call xaXfiv, catch >taTf%eif, catch, a vessel, *Ka;Toj, chair nx^eSpa, 
 chaff x8(p5f, chase ^^a^'civ, cheer xaiput chick muKog, chide kvSx^w,, chief 
 x£(p«Xvi, chink in Anglo-Saxon cinan %«iv£<v, chop koxtw, clash and clack 
 
 xXa^w, KfKXviyfl:, fKXayov; clay yXia:, clean nxXov, clew xuXfw, cliff x.Xt';7uj; 
 climb, nXnt^ut, clink nXayyv], clothe j<Xw&ftv, clown %Xowvif, cloy %Xiw, 
 club uXocjix, coal KVjXfOf, coat nuBiov, cock y.oy.y.vl,oi, coil KUKXiO, comb 
 xoM, come epxoiJ'Xi, coop x*7rvi, copc, KCTro,;, coppice noTtTcc, \^w cord 
 %op5vi, core axpSix, cot xojtvi, court xopTog, crab nxpxfio;, crag, pii:%t«, 
 creek xpufv and Kp£>t£;v, crib Kpa;/3/3a:TOr, crick npexvi, croak KpwyfiOj-, crow 
 y.opciiSv^, cruise upwa-crOi, crust xpi>Oy, cup, xVTrekXov, cut xOttto;. 
 
 Dare Sxppsiv, dark ai^fpxvif, dart 3op«Tioi/, deaf Tv<pXor, suidas deal 
 BiaXsiv, deep Swlu, deer Bop^Xf, desk, disk, dish ^ia^xo?, deuce ^i^a'f, dew 
 Bsvu, dig 5ix£XX«, dike T£i%i3r, dine Beivveiv, dip, dive ^uttw, dock 5o>c£<5v, 
 
 VOL. II. M
 
 82 
 
 (log 5a;>cOf, dole BuKeiv, doom ^^i^x, dome -^^f^v^, door ^vpc, dowr Supov, 
 down 5uvw, downs hotvoi, drag, draw SpxyS, dr<\\n Ivipxivw, drawl TpauXj^tiv, 
 droos 'Tpv^, drive Tpifioi, dusk ^afl-mor, dwell ^lauXi^fiv. 
 
 I am much inclined to think, that most if not all our verbs which 
 terminate in K, and more especially in nk, with many verbs in ng, 
 originate in Greek preterites. Of such derivations I shall here adduce 
 a few. 
 
 Clack, click, clang, clock, cluck are apparently allied to ^ceXea, 
 jtXa^w and JtXw^w, whose preterites are xixXvix*, xexXay^a, jcfxXwxa. Plunge 
 is probably derived from vXwca, whose regular preterite should have 
 been vsTrXvyna, but instead of this we find ■trenXvKce, as if it were de- 
 rived from tXuw, which is svlXhu in its abbreviated form. Stick is 
 evidently derived from ^t?^ ^*^s f<r'%a. Take is rerccax. Drink, drank, 
 drunk, if allied to dry, drought and drain may be the offspring of 
 Ivipdivco, e^ypxyxx of the same import. The connecting links may be 
 found in drig and driggan Saxon, droog and droogen Belgic, trocken 
 and trocknen, dorren and duerr German, which mean dry, drinean, 
 Saxon, drinken Belgic, trincken and trunck German, dreck and drick 
 Icelandic, drikk Danish, dricka Sweedish, driggkan Maeso-Gothic, to 
 drink, for both in the Gothic dialects and in Greek the double g and 
 gk are pronounced as ng and nk. 
 
 No one, unless aware of the mutations, to which words are subject, 
 would suspect that bring could be derived from (p^pu, sting from qiK^^ 
 or that cling is related either to KoXXaa; or to lyXta. fang to -rrxca, gang 
 to x/w and to tw, spring wrong and wring to yvpou pang, that is paining, 
 
 to TrOVOr to ttOjvvi, or tO TfvSof. 
 
 Drag, already noticed, is the second future of hp»(j<ju.
 
 83 
 
 Numerous verbs are either derived from Greek infinitives, or at least 
 conform to them, as may be observed in burn and churn, whicii are dis- 
 tinctly 'Ttvpoeiv and yvpotiv. 
 
 Some of our verbs, which terminate in ow, are derived from the first 
 person singular of the present tense, as for instance, blow and flow from 
 /SXuw, or from the second aorist of the subjunctive, as know from yvS. 
 
 Of the verbs, which terminate in M, some at least may claim kindred 
 to inflexions of Greek verbs in f**, i^xi, i^v^v, f*£voj, either as immediately 
 derived from them, or conformed to their example. Such may have 
 been bloom, cram, warm, swarm, storm, &c. although we are not able 
 to trace their descent. 
 
 In the progress of my work I shall have occasion to suggest, that our 
 Gothic ancestors, as it should seem, derived, not only simple, but likewise 
 compound verbs from Greek. In the mean time should the reader recol- 
 lect, that Be or B, answering to f??* of the Greek, is a common preposition 
 in English, he will readily conceive that £ppii%« and eppeuHa may have be- 
 come break, /?po%ii and brook. In like manner fTexa:, the regular pre- 
 terite of fTTfctj, £ira;, by assuming the usual prefix S, which answers to e^, 
 may have become our verb to speak. 
 
 This short sentence, I am would alone be sufficient to demonstrate, 
 that our language is not original; but a derivative either from Greek, 
 or from the parent of Greek, because in this expression the pronoun 
 occurs twice, for beyond a question, it is included in e^^i., from which 
 am is taken. I'his, however, shall be demonstrated in the progress of 
 my work, and in its proper place. 
 
 We find in the English language numerous words, whose etymology 
 
 M 2
 
 84 
 
 has perished, and whose affinities it is impossible to trace. They appear 
 insulated, both literally and nietaphoricallj^ speaking, and seem to have 
 neither ancestor, nor kindred upon earth. In vain we search for them 
 in the Galic, AVelch, Teutonic, Slavonic, Latin, Greek or Sanscrit. 
 
 Other expressions have perhaps one solitary' relation on the Continent, 
 and some few retain a slight resemblance to words of like import in 
 Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac or Chaldee, such at least as may lead us to 
 suspect, that, once in general use, they have survived in England, after 
 having been for ages lost in all the rest of Europe. 
 
 Among these J am inclined to reckon hash, because hush in Hebrew 
 means to blush, and had, when it means ill health, because it is allied to 
 ahad of the four oriental dialects, which means to perish. Cream is com- 
 monly derived from cremor, with which it has no connexion, whilst it 
 evidently agrees with chserem (C3"lp) a skin. Dauh in one of its ac- 
 ceptations may be contracted from dealbare; but, when it conveys the 
 notion of defilement, it seems rather to be derived from dab of the 
 Hebrew, as in dabyonim stercus columbinum. 2 Kings, c. vi. v. 25. 
 
 Daw may be related to n ST of Leviticus xi. v. 14, and Deut. xiv. 
 
 v. 13. 
 
 Harm seems allied to harem (a in) injury, defect, loss. 
 
 To be in a hohble is a common expression for embarrassment. This 
 word in Hebrew (^1T\) means a snare. Job xviii. v. 10. Eccl. xii. v. 6; 
 a crowd, 1 Sam. 10, v. 5; excessive grief and perplexity. Tormina quae 
 hominem quasi fune arclissime constringunt. Jesa, xiii. v. 8. 
 
 Idle accords with hiddel ("^Tn) and ill with hille. {ThT\.) 
 
 Lad seems to be jaled (^'?^) Hebrew and Syriac of the same import.
 
 85 
 
 Mite and jnote may be megat {^i!p.) very small. 
 
 Nick and knock agree Avith naka (HDJ) he struck. 
 
 Odd may come from jahd (in''.) one. 
 
 Rage may spring from ragaz (iJl.) of the Hebrew, Chaldee and 
 Syriac, which means to be exceedingly moved in mind or body. 
 
 Rein, in French resnes, may proceed from resen (lD"l) of the Hebrew, 
 Chaldee and Arabic of the same import. 
 
 Rogue may be allied to rag (;;■).) evil. 
 
 To rush may come from ragash (Wi!l) he was moved with violence. 
 
 Sad agrees with saved (l>i1D.) he moved slowly. Suad and suid in 
 Arabic mean melancholy. 
 
 Till and tillage may be deduced from telem (CD*?]!.) a furrow. 
 
 Tire is distinctly (mtO) tirah fatigue. 
 
 Track appears to be the same word with derak ("^"11.) of the Hebrew 
 and Chaldee, or tariq of the Arabic, a foot path, a way, a journey. In 
 this same acceptation the Polish has adopted droga. 
 
 Walk perfectly agrees with halek {"^bil.) 
 
 Wish may have been derived from biqesh (^*p.?) he sought with 
 earnestness. 
 
 To these might be added many similar to them. But I forbear, be- 
 cause the affinity of such words to Hebrew, not being demonstrated by 
 a comparative view of many kindred languages, must remain as a 
 doubtful conjecture, which can give little satisfaction to the mind. It 
 is not sufficient, that there should be some coincidence in sound and 
 sense, for this may be merely accidental, but, where the local distance 
 is great, and the examples of similitude between any given languages
 
 86 
 
 are few; we should have a regular clviin, and the more closely the links 
 unite together, the more firm is our confidence, that our induction is 
 agreeable to truth. 
 
 Thus, for example, in our words high and head, deduced above in 
 regular gradation, the one from alius, the other from caput, the links are 
 so numerous and well connected as to leave little room for doubt. In 
 our word she, the Slavonic ese and the Irish isi point out the origin dis- 
 tinctly and lead us to isha ('"'t^^j of the Hebrew. 
 
 But should any one deduce each from ish of the Hebrew, merely be- 
 cause these words agree perfectly in sense, and nearly so in sound; 
 he would, in my apprehensions, be too precipitate in his conjecture, 
 because the proper links are wanting to the chain. 
 
 I have pointed out the affinity between Greek and English. Let 
 us now compare the latter with the modern languages of Europe. 
 
 It has been stated by Ca;sar that the Belgae, landing in the South 
 of Britain, took possession of the country adjacent to the sea, and 
 we know that kindred hordes from Scandanavia, and the north of 
 Europe, whether Angles, Jutes, or Saxons, followed in succeeding 
 generations, and established their language in our island. A resem- 
 blance, therefore, should be found between the English and the 
 Belfjic. 
 
 But ill the space of two thousand years since the Belgae, and of 
 twelve hundred since the Saxons established themselves in Britain, 
 considerable changes nmst have taken place on both sides of the 
 water, and a sensible difference should now be found betweeen the 
 modern Belgic and the English. This precisely is what we discover 
 in these languages, a resemblance and a difference.
 
 87 
 
 In Belgic the article continues to be declined and to be dislingnislicd 
 by its gender, as in the Anglo-Saxon. The nouns have retained only 
 one declension, and the principal variations in the oblique cases are 
 made by the article 
 
 In the conjugation of their verbs, the inhabitants of Belgium, like 
 the English adhere to the practice of the Saxons, in having only two 
 tenses inflected in their termination, the others being formed by 
 auxiliary verbs, as ik leer, I learn ; ik leerde, I learned ; ik heb geleerd, 
 I have learned; ik had geleerd, I had learned; ik zal lecrcn, I shall 
 learn ; ik zou, zoud or zgude, leeren I should learn ; leer, loarn thou ; leeren, 
 to learn. In this verb, as in many others, both languages agree to 
 form their infinitive like the Greek by N: but although in most of 
 its verbs the English has dropped the final N, the Belgic pertinaci- 
 ously retains it. 
 
 Thus much for the resemblance, in respect to their inflexions still 
 subsisting between the Dutch, or Belgic, and the English. Now let 
 us examine a few words taken at random from these languages, that 
 we may be more competent to judge of their affinity. 
 
 Bake, bakken; ball, bal; band, band; bank, bank; bar, baar ; bare, 
 bar; bath, fead; hathe, baaden ; hean, boon ; a bear, bcev; bear, (pario) 
 baaren; beard, baard; beast, beest; bed, bedde; bee, bi/e ; beer, 
 bier; belief, geloof; believe, gelooven ; bench, bank; better, beter ; best, 
 de beste ; bid, gebieden; bier, baar; bill, byl; bind, hinden; birth, 
 geboorte; bit, gebit; bladder, blaas; bite, bytcn ; blab, uitlabben; blain, 
 hloedvin; blanch, bleeken ; bleach, bleeken; bleat, bleeien; bleak, bleek ; 
 bleat, blaet.en; bleed, bloeden; blind, blind; blith, blyd; blue, blaauw ;
 
 88 
 
 block, bloh ; bloom, bloessem ; blow, hlaazen ; blush, bloozen ; boat, boot ; 
 board, berdt; bone, been; book, boek; boom, boom; boor, boer; born, 
 gebooren; both, beijde; bound, gebonden ; ho\f , boog ; a box, bits; box, 
 boxboom ; brave, braaf; brain, hrein; brand, brand; breach, break; 
 bread, brood; break, breeken; breast, borst ; breed, broeden; brew, 
 broiiuen; bride, hruid; bridge, brug; brine, breyn; bring, brengen; 
 broad, breed; brood, hroedsel; brood, \\ braeden ; brown, bruin; buch, 
 bock; bulb, bol; bull, bul; burn, branden; bush, bosch; by, by. 
 
 Cake, A-oeA:; calf, kalf; cdi\m,kalm; can, A:a« ; cap, kap; cape, Araop 
 chaff, Arq/'; chain, keten; chance, kans; chap, gacupen; chaste, kuisch 
 cheap, goedkoop; cheer, cier; cheese, kaas; chew, kaauwcn ; chick, kuiken 
 chill, killen; chin, kin; chop, kappen, choose, kiezen, clad, gekleed 
 clap, klappen; claw, klaauwen; clay, Hei; clear, klaar; cleft, kloofde; 
 clew, kluven; clinch, omklinken ; clink, klank; clown, kloen; cluck, 
 klokken; cloth, kleedt; a cock, een Aaan; cold, kout; coal, Aoo^; coast, 
 Atms^; comb, kam; come, komen; cool, A;oe/; coop, kuipen; cork, 
 ArwrAr, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 Day, dag; dead, dood; death, de dood; deaf, doof; dean, deken; 
 dear, dierbaar; do, rfoe/t; deep, rfie/j; to die, sterven; a dish, schotd, 
 dry, droog; duck, didken; &c. 
 
 Earth, aarde; fat, ue^; fen, wen; fish, mcA; five, t)j//; flarae, v/aw; 
 flax, vlas; flea, t;/oo; to flie, vliegen; a fly, t^/ieg; floor, vloer; forth, 
 wor^, four, vier; fraud, bedrog; free, wj/; fresh, verscl^; frost, wrs/; 
 full, vol. Sec. 
 
 (jaiii, winste; gape, gapen; guess, gissen; give, geven; glad, fe/yrfe 
 and vrobjk; gold, ^ozif; good, ^^oe</; goose, gons; great, groo^; gripe, 
 gri/pai, guttur, goo/, &c.
 
 89 
 
 The Dutch or Belgic has vader, moeder, suster, brooder, &c. &c. 
 
 These examples are sufficient to shew the affinity between the two 
 languages, and the nature of the changes, which have taken place in 
 them, since their separation; but the more minutely any one compares 
 them together, the more clearly will he see, that they are radically one. 
 
 Considering this affinity, and a similar affinity between the Dutch or 
 Belgic, and the German, two kindred dialects of the Teutonic, which 
 was the ancient language of those fierce invaders, who are represented 
 by Caesar as uniting their forces with the Cimbri, to break in upon the 
 Roman empire; we may naturally expect to find some similitude between 
 the English and the German, yet as they branched off during a remote 
 period from the common stock, it is not to be expected, that the like- 
 ness will be perfect. For as in persons, who are distantly related, a fa- 
 mily resemblance strikes the eye, yet in each individual some distinguish- 
 ing feature Avill appear; so precisely is it with these languages. 
 
 To trace the analogy, we must call to mind, what has been delivered 
 respecting the substitution of one letter for another in those of the same 
 organ, as happens to B. P. F. V. W. M. which in the practice of all 
 nations have been esteemed equivalent. We have seen that this privi- 
 lege extends to T. D. Th. and equally so to C. G. K. Ch. J. Q. In like 
 manner, H. S. T. and Z, though they have no organic affinity, yet 
 readily lake each other's place. 
 
 Ge, as an affix forms nouns, and verbs, and the participle past. This 
 may be contracted into G. 
 
 With this clue, let us attempt to trace the affinity between the German 
 and the English, confining our researches chiefly to monosyllabic ex- 
 
 VOL. II. N
 
 90 
 
 pressions, as having the highest claim to antiquity, and leaving a com- 
 parative view of the inflexions, till the German language shall pass more 
 immediately in review before us. 
 
 Bake, backen; ball, ball; band, band; bank, banck; bare, bar; as in 
 barfuss, barefooted: bath, bad; bay, bai/e; beam, baum a tree; bean, 
 bohne; bear, (ursa) bar; bear (pario) geb'dhren; beard, hart; bed, 
 bette ; bee, biene; beer, bier; belief, glaube; believe, glauben; bench, 
 banck; better, besser; best, beste; bid, gebieten; bill, beil; bind, binden; 
 birch, bircke; birth, geburth; bit, bissen; bite, beissen; bladder, blase; 
 bleach, bhichen; h\eat, blecken ; h\eed, blui en ; blind, WintZ; block, block; 
 blood, blut; bloom, blume; blow, (flare) blasen; blue, blau ; boat, boot; 
 board, brett ; bond, binde; bone, beiti; book, bitch; boor, bauer ; bore, 
 bohren; born, gebohren; both, beyde ; bound, gebunden ; bow, (flectere 
 curvare) beiigen; bow, (arcus) bogen; box (pyxis) buchse, box (buxus) 
 buchs-baum; brand, brand; breach, bruch; bread, brot ; breast, brust ; 
 breed, bruten; brew, brauen ; bride, braut ; bridegroom; brautigam.; 
 bridge, briickc; brief, brief : hnng, bringen: hro'dd, breit : brood, bruten : 
 broth, briihe: brother, bruder; father, vater; mother, mutter; sister, 
 sclmester; brown, braiin; buck, bock; build, bilden: burn, brennen: 
 burst, bcrsten: by, bey: chaff", kaf: calf, kalb: kettle, kessel : scratch, 
 kraizen : cow, ktdi. 
 
 Dam, Da)nm ; dance, tanz ; daughter, tochter ; deaf, taub ; death, 
 iod ; deep, tief; dip, t a iijf en , d\sh, tisch ; dove, taube ; duch, taucken ; 
 dveam, irautn; diive, treiben; drip, triefen; drill, trillen; drink, //7/JcA"e»; 
 (Irf)p, Iropf; (h'oss, truscn; drunk, tnmck; dry, ti'ocken: dumb, stumm; 
 dung, dtingtn: dale, ilial: dare, durj'en: deal, theilen : dear, tlieuer: deed,
 
 91 
 
 that: deer, thier: dew, thau: do, thun: done, getliim: dun, our pro- 
 vincial term for clay in mines, tlioii: door, thnrc and tliov. . 
 
 Folk, volck: fowl, vogel: full, I'o//: foot, /"//«: bead, haupt, hate, /ms.v. 
 
 Let, lasseii: love, Uehen: lot, foo.ss: midday, mittag: night, nacht: 
 nettle, nessel: nut, 7i?<ss: ox, oc/ia': rain, regen: saw and say, sagen: 
 saddle, sattel: scuttle, schussel: seven, sicben: shade, schatte : shave, 
 xchaben : shear, scheeren: sheath, scheid: shed, scheiden: sheep, schaaf: 
 shine, scheinen: shoe, schuh: shove, shieben: sieve, sicb: sleep, schlaf: 
 sloe, schleen : soap, seife: sore, schxsar: speak, sprachen: stand, stehen: 
 suck, saiigen : swallow, schwalbe. 
 
 Tale, zahl: tame, zahmen: teat, dutte: ten, zcJm: than, dcnn: thank, 
 dancken: that, dass: thatch, dach: then, dann: i\\eve'\w, darinnen, dren, 
 and dahin : thereupon, draben and daran : thereover, druber : there- 
 under, drunter : thereby, dabey : therefore, dafur: thief, c?ie6: thievery, 
 dieberey. thick, dick: thickness, dicke: thin, dun: thine, dein: thing, 
 dmg: think, dencken: thirst, durst: thirsty, durstig: this, dieser: this 
 «ide, disseit : thistle, distel; thither, dorther : thorn, dorn: thou, du: 
 thought, ge dancke: tongue, zunge; threaten, drohen and drauen: three, 
 drey: thresh, dreschen: through, durch : throng, drangeji : thrash, drossel : 
 thumb, daumen: thunder, donner: turn, drehen. 
 
 Two, zwey; twelve, zw'dlf; twenty, zwanzig; twig, zweig; twinge, 
 zwirigen to swink, to strain, to constrain; twixt, zwischen, and twilight 
 zwischen light, that is betwixt the two lights. 
 
 Verily, warlick; weapon, wafen; weigh, wdgen; waWow, zpalzen; 
 what, was; water, wasser; way, weg; world, welt; whiten, weissen ; 
 widow, wittwe; week, woche. 
 
 N 2
 
 92 
 
 In this selection, under the letter b, I take, as in the Belgic, every 
 analogous expression, confining myself, however, principally to our 
 monos3']lables, because these shew their remote connexion. In the 
 other parts I call the attention to such only, as either in German or 
 English, have changed one or more of their consonants. Had I not thus 
 limited my choice, my vocabulary must have exceedingly increased, and 
 in the monosyllabic alone, Avould have exceeded twelve hundred. In the 
 age of Chaucer, the dissimilarity to our modern language is equally strik- 
 ing, as will appear by some few of his words, whose orthography has 
 been changed the most: Askis, ashes: bath, both: bole, bull: bone, boon: 
 boon, bone: bothum, bud: cale, cold: ceisse, seize: cesse, cease: chese, 
 choose: chiver, shiver: dawe, day: ecke, each: egg, edge: eighe, eye: 
 fee7', five: fore, far: fra, from: freten, to eat: heed, head: heere, hare: 
 heire, hair: hegge, a hedge: ich, I: Horn, lost: iyeve, given: kele, to cool: 
 kist, cdst: kitt, cut: knave, a servant boy: Icgge, to allege, to lay: fer, 
 leer, empty : Icre, to learn. 
 
 In short, whether we examine the Dutch, the German, or the ancient 
 language of Charlemaigne, and even of the more remcfte ages, to which 
 the Gothic of Ulphilas has been referred, and compare these with the 
 English, either in the days of Chaucer, or in more modern times; we 
 shall be equally convinced that, however they may differ in their acci- 
 dental forms, their elementary parts are perfectly the same. 
 
 I might here institute the same comparison between the English and 
 Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Russian, Polish, and other Slavonian dia- 
 lects, spoken in the vast extent of country stretching eastward, between 
 the Baltic and the Northern Pacific Ocean, to which I might add the
 
 9^ 
 
 Persian and the Sanscrit; but the affinity between these languages will 
 be more properly displayed, when I proceed to treat of them particularly 
 in the progress of my work. 
 
 I shall now examine what advantage may accrue to us from an ex- 
 tensive acquaintance with kindred languages; if we are solicitous to gain 
 a critical knowledge of our own. 
 
 Dr. Johnson commonly referred to the Anglo-Saxon, and where this 
 failed him, which seldom iiappened, he sought his derivations from the 
 French, the Dutch, the Latin, or the Welch. But, not being an adept 
 in languages, he could proceed no further. 
 
 A reference to the Anglo-Saxon is a reference merely from our modern 
 diction to the ancient, and marks the change, where a change has taken 
 place, but is of little value to the etymologist, unless it should assist 
 him in detecting the affinity with other languages, and in tracing words 
 to the fountain, whence they originally came. The most perfect ac- 
 quaintance with the languages, to which he refers, if our researches are 
 confined to them, will never lead us to a critical knowledge of the 
 English. To attain this, it is needful, that we should possess all the lan- 
 guages of Europe, ancient as well as modern, and be able to distinguish 
 their connexion, both with each other, and with the oriental languages, 
 to which, as to a common centre, they ultimately tend. 
 
 For want of this information, in vain did Dr. Johnson, attempt to 
 mark the progress of meaning, and to shew by what gradation of inter- 
 mediate senses, words have passed from their primitive to their remote 
 and accidental signification. This will appear by selecting a few ex- 
 pressions out of many, which might be produced, were I disposed to
 
 94 
 
 multipJy examples. With these I shall intersperse some of our particles, 
 as best adapted to show the origin and affinities of the English language.. 
 In this selection I confine myself to monosyllables. 
 
 An means, according to Johnson, one, or any, but it is likewise used 
 ibr if in the Lowland dialect of Scotland. In Shakespear it frequently 
 occurs. " An I may hide my face, let me play Thisby too." In more 
 vulgar language it signifies as if, " I will roar you a?i 'twere any night- 
 ino-ale." [n the first acceptation it claims affinity to £v, and runs 
 throuc^h all the languages of Europe. In the second it is tav of the 
 Greek, an of the Latin, den of the Swedish, wann of the German, cen 
 and in (]n. ] k) of Chaldee, and perfectly agreeing with ini (Di<) of 
 the Hebrew, which may be the genuine parent of our word if. 
 
 And; in Belgic endc ; in German und; Teutonic unte; in French 
 et; Italian e; Spanish y and e; in Polish iets; Hungarian es; Slavonic 
 da audi; in Latin etiam, atque ; in Greek ii^f ; in Sanscrit ato. 
 
 Our word is certainly connected with, and may probably be derived 
 from amid-; Saxon, to add. But both and and annd may possibly be 
 allied to hi, and to od {Ip) of the Hebrew: and the N may be in- 
 serted as in render from reddere. 
 
 As, appears to be the same word with w?, of the Greek, ez of the 
 Armenian; and asa of the Persian; and may possibly be related to 
 Caasher (it^'i^D) of the Hebrew. 
 
 At. Tliis word does not extend beyond the bounds of the Roman 
 Empire, and therefore directs our attention towards ad and apud, that 
 is ad pedes. In Hebrew we have atzel (7^^) imad 0?V.) and (n^) 
 but without immediate links Ave cannot connect these to add.
 
 95 
 
 Aye, has three meanings. 
 
 1. Intimating assent and consent, hke yea, it agrees with our 
 French, gea Saxon, and ja German. This may be accordingly either 
 aio, as in plautus, vel ai vel nega ; or it may be, as suggested by 
 Mr. Tooke, ayez and not improbably avi. 
 
 2. Conveying the notion of infinite duration it is allied to «£?. 
 
 3. Asa lamentation; ay me, or wo is me, may be oV"*, Hei mihi. 
 (in) bo. Heb. 
 
 Baste means, 
 
 1. To beat with a stick. 2. To pour dripping on meat whilst roasting. 
 
 3. To fasten needle-work with long stitches. 
 
 These are independent of each other. The first is by Dr. 
 Johnson derived, and very properly, from bastonner, and baston a staff, 
 which may originate either in (ixqz^o) or in TajTatra-c'. 
 
 The second looks towards baisteach, in Irish, a shower, and may be 
 connected with -rao-o-fiv to sprinkle. 
 
 The third is the Persian bastan, to bind, to connect, to join, to 
 fasten. Hence bastagi a ligature. From this verb, bestch which is 
 the participle of benden seems to be derived. 
 
 Bat, means, 1. a stick with which we strike a ball. 2. A bird. 3. A 
 sumpter horse. The first agrees with balaeidh, Galic, and batte, French, 
 a staff or club. Connected with this we have to beat, 'TrxTxira-siv. The 
 second may be allied to the first, because they smite with their wings. 
 The third, imported from France, is connected with bat and bast, a 
 pack-saddle, derived from (ixqxi^ci; see baste. 
 
 Boi/, referring, 1. either to colour, or, the tree, may be (pcciog.
 
 96 
 
 2. To an opening in the land it is /^ioj. 
 
 3. To the barking of a dog, it is distinctly (ixvl^a. 
 
 Bear-, 1. Carry, as a burthen, 2. produce young, 3. a wild beast. 
 
 In the first acceptation it is allied to ferre and (pepetv; in the second to 
 pario; in the third, it is probably ferus, that is the genus for the species. 
 
 Bill, 1. a beak. In this acceptation, it may be derived from vello; 
 but the presumption is, that we have here the instrument for the action 
 performed by it; because in Galic, bil and beul signify mouth, whether 
 of beasts or birds. 
 
 2. A hatchet, or in common speech, bill hook, in Welch, bilwg, in 
 Greek ■xtXcxus, may be the offspring of the Galic beul. 3. A tradesman'?! 
 account, and the proposal for a law presented to parliament, is certainly 
 libellous. 
 
 Box, has various significations, all according with the Greek; 
 1. A tree, buxus in Latin, bouis in French, bosso Italian, buxo Por- 
 tuguese, buysa in Galic, bocysbren in "Welch, boxtreow Saxon, bux-boom 
 in Dutch, buchsbaum German, bukspan Polish, buszpan Hungarian. 
 
 2. A case or chest, '^vlog. Pyxis in Latin, boccys in Welch and bocsa 
 in Galic, boete in French, bus in Dutch, is 'rtvE.ig. 
 
 3. A blow on the head with the hand, and to fight with the fist. 
 ]n these acceptations it is derived from tu$, and to box is distinctly 
 ^vKTsve^. or Uvbi^axs^^u^, as used by Ilesiod. From the same root 
 probably we derive our words fst and Jight. 
 
 Bjj perfectly agrees with t-x] in all the rich variety of meanings, 
 attributed to it by Dr. Johnson, as any one may instantly perceive 
 if he will compare them. Indeed b>/ is hi m one of its abbreviated 
 forms.
 
 97 
 
 No nation invents new particles for itself. They pass by inheritance 
 from fathers to their sons, and thongh liable to be disfigured and 
 abused, their descent may be traced if we compare kindred languages 
 together. They are well denominated by Horn Tooke tTftx TCTepoBvrcc, 
 winged words, and as such in a distant flight they are apt to drop 
 some feathers by the way, but the substance still remains. 
 
 Ey, has the same affinity to the prepositions 3 and T\2 of the oriental 
 nations, as it has to eV, for these likewise are radically one. 
 
 I. Does b^ denote the agent, instrument, or cause; so do 2.1''2 and 
 fxi. Man shall not live by bread alone, but %, &c. ow tz xpTu iJ.ovca.!^\^TeTzi 
 mv^pwKOg aWWi.. x. t. X. Mat. iv. 4. 
 
 Sotirj Tkf (TV{ ryviasi is by thy knowledge, 1 Cor. viii. 11. Thus we have, 
 the just shall live by (n) his faith, Hab. ii. 4. and with or by them (ona) 
 he taught the men of Succoth, Judges viii. 16. So ntt'D TiQ is very 
 properly translated " As he spake by Moses," Ex. ix. 35. 
 
 II. Is 63/ equivalent to at or in, noting place? So are eV* and a. 
 Thus Inil E,evvis eivxt is to be in a strange country. D^Dtt'a ia heaven, 
 ^'ni^a in the earth. 
 
 III. By means according to, and after, noting conformity; so do t^i 
 and 3. eV* ouoi^xTi ts Trcnpoi. Lu. i. 59. after the name of his father. 
 
 C3^D\-! -)aDD3 after the number of the days, Nu. xiv. 34. 
 
 IV. By, means, not later than, noting time. In Greek we have 
 jTTt t" eu eVi t" (*fTOiK£,ria,', and thus we translate tV: (^vjvaj Tptig, by the 
 space of three months; and in Hebrew we havelp^l^,^ day break, 
 and DVa D1^ day by day. 
 
 YOL. II. Q
 
 98 
 
 V. By means neov, beside, at hand, in presence, answering to Int 
 and 3 as in e^-t TroT^fio; and sTt t'/)v ^ccKxa-axv, Rev. xv. 2. ")3D injl Ezek. 
 X. 15, by the river of Chebar. 
 
 VI. By himself, denoting absence of all others, corresponds exactly 
 with £(p' exvjov. 
 
 VII. By, as the solemn form of swearing, is found distinctly in the 
 Hebrew D^n'?X3 Gen. xxi. 23. mn^a Gen. xxiv. 3. and ^3 Gen. 
 xxii. 16. by myself have I sworn. 
 
 In the kindred languages, bi Saxon, Swedish and Gothic, by Belgic, 
 bey German, ba Persian, and po Slavonian, are used in all the various 
 acceptations, either attributed by Dr. Johnson to our word, or to be 
 found in i-n-l of the Greek. 
 
 It is acknowledged, that the Gothic, if not the parent, is at least of 
 the same lineage, and closely allied to the English. In that language we 
 find the subsequent, in addition to the acceptations of bi already noticed. 
 
 I. Bi for, answering to tVi and 2, as used in fVi fj.i<T^afor hire, svccycc^w 
 for good. ^DD3 2 Sam. xxiv. 24, for silver, \^^ Deut. xix. 21. /or 
 tooth, and b m 3 Gen. xxix. 18. for Rachael. 
 
 II. Bi on, over, tVi twv nrvoiu y.ot.%\^ivoi, sitting on horses, and Vjnon 
 Gen. xxxvii. 34, on his loins. 
 
 JTI. Bi after, noting time, as in eni TBTOig after these things. 
 
 IV. Bi against t^ v^t-xg ■irxpcca-KVix^eTai prepared against you, and 
 "^31 mn''3 Nu. xxi. 7- against the Lord and against thee. 
 
 From what has been adduced, is it not probable that our word by, 
 and bi of the Gothic dialects, originate in tV*, and have a close affinity 
 with 2 the most abbreviated form of this preposition in the liebrcw.
 
 No one can hold the talents of Mr. Tooke in higher estimation than 
 myself: yet I can never be persuaded, ihat our Saxon ancestors were 
 under a necessity of inventing particles, or wantonly rejected those which 
 came to them by tradition from their fathers. They might var}' these, 
 like all oth(;r nations, but they neither abandoned the old particles, nor, 
 without tlie least occasion for such an effort, invented new ones. 
 
 Cheer, as meaning gaiety and courage, is allied both to xalpai and to 
 
 y.iccp. 
 
 Cleave means, 1. to adhere, 2. to divide. These are discordant accep- 
 tations, and must therefore be derived from different fountains. 
 
 1. To adhere, in Belgic kleven, in Saxon cleofan, in Welch glynu, in 
 Swedish klibba, in Danish klebc, in German kleben, in Slavonic klein, 
 when compared with clay and glue in the same languages, all look 
 towards yXix. 
 
 2. To divide, to split; in Belgic klieven, in Saxon cleofan, in Swedish 
 klyfwa, in Danish klove, in Russian kulupatee and ras-kaluivaiu, in Sla- 
 vonic kliniu; all these, with zakliwiani, in Polish a wedge, claim affinity 
 to nXxu, 
 
 Cry. Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, has enumerated ten several 
 meanings, all supposed to have been derived from the French crier to call 
 out, to scream and to proclaim. 
 
 1. In this acceptation, cry well agrees with gridare Italian, grede Old 
 English, cfi6 Welch, schreyen German, skrige Danish, skria Swedish, 
 krziez and krziik Polish, y-piien of Hesych, and may claim affinity to 
 nftt(^o}. upccvyvf and y-yipv^. 
 
 O 2
 
 100 
 
 2. Cry, to shed tears is certainly allied to, and may be derived from 
 
 Sxyipveiv. 
 
 In the Gothic we have tagrida, he shed tears and gr^itan to weep, 
 which perfectly agree with grata Swedish, graata Icelandic, greet in 
 Scotland, kriiten Dutch, greinen German, kiria or girieh Persian. 
 
 Deep, dip and dive, run through all the northern languages of Europe, 
 and seem, as stated above, to originate in Sitttw. But deep, when ap- 
 plied to tones, is Bov^rog. 
 
 Down, means 1. soft feathers, 2. descent, 3. elevated land. 
 
 1. For this word in the first of these acceptations we are indebted to 
 the Danes, Swedes, and Icelanders, among whom it is written dun and 
 duun. 
 
 2. Down (deorsum) has for its indirect affinities, dwfn Welch, dona 
 Armoric, and duffen Saxon, all meaning deep. Of precisely the same 
 import, we have adunes and dune Saxon, deene Russian, ndene Epi- 
 rotic, dnu and dno Slavonic, Polish, Bohemian and Dalmatian. All 
 these claim the most strict affinity with ivvia. 
 
 3. Down, for elevated land, is dun and dune Saxon, duyne Belgic, 
 dunes French and Armoric. These may originate in Aavog CEol. for Bavog. 
 
 Bar signifies, 1. to plough, 2. the organ of hearing, 3. a spike of 
 corn. These several meanings have no relation to each other* 
 
 1. Ear, when it indicates the act of ploughing, is radically the 
 same with harrow. It agrees with arar Spanish, aeren Dutch, aeria 
 Swedish, er Icelandic, oriu Slavonic, orze Polish, ar^idh Galic, and 
 aredig Welch, aro Latin, apou' Greek, (tynn) harash Hebrew, and harath
 
 101 
 
 Arabic. In English we say "give the land one earth," that is plough 
 it once. 
 
 2. Ear, as the organ of hearing, agrees with oreja Spanish, ohr Ger- 
 man, eare Saxon, oor Dutch, ora Swedish, ore 13anish, eyra fcelandic, 
 auris Latin, auso Gothic, ousen, oucho, uscze, and assi Slavonic, Boh. 
 and Pol. ghus, or gosh Persian, ovxg Greek, and in its ^olic dia- 
 lect uap. 
 
 3. Ear of corn is a^yp. 
 
 Fair. 1. annual market, foire French, feria Latin. These originate 
 in lepcci v^ii,£pai. 
 
 2. Clear complexion, may be connected with (pKxpog Greek, and hair 
 (TiKiI) Hebrew, shining. 
 
 S. Beautiful, foeger Saxon, fager Swedish, in the Icelandic fallagur, 
 in Latin pulcher. 
 
 4. Honest. In this acceptation it accords with fior of the Galic, 
 which is of the same import with verus. 
 
 Fast. 1. as denoting abstinence from food, improbable as it ap- 
 pears, may be awaqoi because similar abbreviations are not uncommon. 
 
 2. As firm and strong, it agrees with pasati Slavonic, and bastan 
 Persian, to gird, fasten, connect besteh bound, and peiwesteh con- 
 nected, but should (tT2) phazaz really mean, as explained by Bux- 
 torf, to consolidate, to strengjthen; we should be warranted in fixing 
 on this as the genuine root. 
 
 3. As denoting speed it agrees with ffest of the Welch, and festino 
 of the Latin. In this sense it may originate in nEB.euia or in pes, 
 pedis, as these do in aroua- voSog, which latter may probably give birth
 
 to amuS-^ and (TzrevBeiv, expedire to speed. I am inclined to think it 
 may be related to pliazaz, which means in Arabic nimble, and in 
 Hebrew, as appears by 2 Sam. ch. 6. v. 16, dancing with agility and 
 strength. 
 
 Fat. 1. a vessel, agrees with fat Saxon and Swedish, vat Dutch, fass 
 German, fade Danish, fata Icelandic, vatain Slavonic, fasa Polish, pa- 
 tina Latin, ■^a^Tav^^. 
 
 G. Well-fed, agrees perfectly with fett German, vet Belgic, foet Saxon, 
 and is of kin to <pxTv^, And to phatam of the Arabic and Chaldee. 
 
 FcU. 1. as a verb active, to knock down, or to cut down, and as the 
 preterite of fall, agrees with adfeilo Welch, feallan Saxon, vallen Belgic, 
 valenie Slavonic, fall Icelandic, field English, feld Saxon and German, 
 felt Danish, fiall Swedish, poille and pule Slavonic, polye Dalmatian, 
 polie Polish, pole Bohemian and Russian, feuld Hungarian: All these 
 agree exactly with Phalah (n'?^) he cut down. 
 
 2. The skin. In this sense it is pellis and (peXKog. , , ■ 
 
 3. As cruel, it is of uncertain origin, but may possibly be allied to 
 D""7 2? (nephilim^ Genesis vi. 4. 
 
 Fine. 1. as a conclusion, is finis. 
 .2. As a mulct, is Troivvj. 
 
 3. As opposed to coarse, agrees with fion, mion, and min, Galic; main 
 Welch, mean Armoric, menu French, minutus Latin, and fj^eiuv. 
 
 4. As splendidly beautiful, is (paeivog. ,j,j 
 Flake. 1. floccus, flocke, German, flog Danish. 
 
 2. As a wattle or large hurdle, it agrees with, plaque French, vlack
 
 103 
 
 Dutch, flake and bleck, Swedish, blick Danish, bliacka Russian, blaclia 
 Polish, plech Bohemian, irKx^.yiog and TrXemoo, plecto, pHco. 
 
 For has a strict affinity with or, air, and gur, Galic, er Welch, pour 
 and parceque, French, por Spanish, per Italian, for Saxon, voer Dutch, 
 fiir German, perze Polish, car French, erse Hungarian, barai and bahar, 
 or behri, Persian ; and these are allied to pro, vwep, woipx, and yajp ; as 
 faura in the Gothic is likewise, when it governs an ablative case. Indeed 
 pro, proe, per, irctpx, vnrep, zrpo, and yxp, are evidently connected with, 
 and may have (mn;;3) bagabur for their progenitor. This preposition in 
 Hebrew indicates the cause. It marks in whose favor and for whose sake 
 a thing is done, or for what price a commodity is sold. 
 
 In like manner we find v'nep vi\j.uv x-n-i^xve, he died for us, ^ap hx a-^^puTrou, 
 for one man, ^po vxiSuv nxi yuvxmuv [j.xxzcr^xi, i.e. pro aris and focis. Thus 
 in Hebrew i^OV ^'7^'^ '^\^1]3'2. (2 Sam. xii. 21.) Thou didst fast for the 
 child. 
 
 Because they sell the poor man for {'^\^2V'2) a pair of shoes, Amos 
 ii. 6. Thus likewise we read Minas viginti pro ambobus dcdi. Terence. 
 This preposition is of extensive use, and, according to Dr. Johnson, 
 admits of foi'ty distinctions. Variously applied it indicates resemblance 
 and character, as Seneca says pro ignoto me aspernaris; and we sa}', 
 you- take me ybr a Stranger. It marks exchange, reference, respect, re- 
 gard, intention, tendency, expectation, direction, condition, duration. 
 In composition it implies opposition, or negation, as in the words forbid, 
 forget, forsake. In this intention it agrees with its kindred languages 
 prohibeo, profanus, vxpaSo^og Trxpx(pvjiv Trxpxnovu.
 
 104 
 
 Connected with for in the sanie intention is our ancient preposition 
 fore, as used by Shakespear in the word forefended, that is forbidden. 
 
 Fore, as a preposition signifying priority in time, place, or quahty, 
 has nearly the same affinities with for. Thus we have in Galic for, in 
 Saxon foran and fore, in Dutch veur and voor, in German vor and feur, 
 in Teutonic, vore, in Danish for, and in the CJothic faur and faura, which 
 last, when it agrees with ■rrxf.x near, or wpo before, governs either the ac- 
 cusative or ablative; but, when it means in the presence of, it requires 
 the g^enitive. 
 
 Tro, which corresponds to for^ and 'pro., which means before, have 
 such an affinity, that they readily usurp each other's place. Thus Cicero 
 writes, " Proe lacrymis non possum reliqua scribere," or, as we should 
 say, " For tears I can write no more," and again pro cede sedens, sitting 
 before the house. 
 
 In Greek, -rrpo may answer to either pro or prce, as vpo o(J)^«Xf*«v ^^« 
 upxi and tTcaivsiv 'Ttpo Smxioa-vvvjg aimizv. That is before, in place, time, ex- 
 cellence, or estimation. Nay, such is the agreement between these pre- 
 positions, that even rsapa, which answers commonly to per, as in 'jfxp oXoy 
 t" ^lov, per totam vitam, for the whole course of his life, and in like 
 manner to propter, as rtapa tj, propter quod, may correspond to pro, as 
 'jccp cvSev Ciyna^xi, pro nihilo ducere, or, as we should say, to tell for 
 nothing. 
 
 Considering the affinity between the Gothic and the Greek, I am in- 
 clined to think, that fairina, which Mr. Tooke assumes as the parent of 
 our word for, is itself a compound of Ttcepx and ivet as the French and 
 Spanish combine pro and (juia or pro quo in their pourquoi and por
 
 105 
 
 que, for this cause. Particles arc indeed liable to the same mutations 
 as other parts of speech, but they pass by tradition from parents to 
 their children, and in all nations seem to have been retained with more 
 pertinacity than either nouns or verbs. 
 
 Trom, in Old English fra and fraj, answers to fra and fram Saxon, fram 
 and faura Gothic, fra Danish and Icelandic, fran and ifian Swedish, 
 and to Trarpa, w lien it governs the genitive, as in Thucidides aa:pi (ixj-iXeuic, 
 from the king. 
 
 In the Gothic of Ulphilas, this affinity is clearly marked, for we read 
 thluiliand faura imma, they will flee from him. 
 
 The Goths had likewise of, a preposition of the same import, evidently 
 related to the Greek u'xo, of which the Swedes retain both af and pa. 
 
 Ylapa. in this acceptation, may be allied to farain of the Hebrew, 
 ■which, like its associates yrtrar/, yflra.9, 2lx\6. farats, contains the notion of 
 separation, and consequently of distance. 
 
 Fy! This interjection, in French fi, is not expressive of lamentation, 
 but of detestation and abhorrence. It is not therefore (p'tv, as stated by 
 Minsheu, Johnson, Skinner, and Boyer; but probably may be an ab- 
 breviation of fiend. In Saxon we have find, in Danish fiend, in German 
 feind, Teutonic fiant and viant, Gothic fiand, an enemy. Again, in 
 Saxon we have figan to hate; in Gothic faith, hateth. Hence we may 
 possi' ly have derived defiance. 
 
 Hide means, 1. the skin of animals. In this acceptation it agrees with 
 hyd Saxon, huid, haude and houde Dutch, haut German, hud Danish 
 and Swedish, cutis and a-wjor. 
 
 VOL. II. p
 
 106 
 
 2. To conceal is liydan Saxon, huten German, viev^en/ Greek, and cahad 
 Hebrew. 
 
 3. A measure of land. In Galic we find jod, which means both a cast, 
 as of a dart, and a certain measure of land. Should the latter be de- 
 rived from the former, our search after the origin of this word may ter- 
 minate in (ni"') jadah of the Hebrew, he cast. 
 
 Host is 1. hospes, 2. hostis, 3. hostia; see Guest. 
 
 If, in Saxon gif, in German ob, in Gothic jabai and gabai. In 
 Gothic we have likewise ibai. This word seems, as suggested by Skin- 
 ner and by Mr. Tooke, to be derived from gifan, Saxon. In the Old 
 English we find yeve, yave, yeoven, yeftes, give, gave, given and gifts, 
 in Hebrew jahab (nn ">) he gave. 
 
 That if is equivalent to give, and etymologically connected with it, is 
 rendered probable not only by the affinity between an, if, and anan, to 
 give, in Saxon, but by the same correspondence between amam of the 
 Arabic, to place, propose, or state, and im of the Hebrew a position, 
 preposition, and the conditional conjunction if. {v. Koerberi Lex apud 
 Noldium.) 
 
 Yet after all that has Been said, considering the close affinity between 
 our northern languages and Greek, I cannot help suspecting that if may 
 have sprung from eivep or iWw?, as the Gothic ei, if, is indubitably h, 
 which seems to have the same connexion with ei^, be it, as si has with 
 sit. Should this be granted, it will follow, that if originates in jehi, be 
 it, of the Hebrew. 
 
 In the Icelandic, which is one of the most venerable languages of
 
 107 
 
 Europe, ef indicates doubt. Tlieir word tnncf and our old expression 
 an if, seem to unite the two conditional conjunctions la-v and tn^ep of 
 the Greek. 
 
 J«, 1. When used to designate time and place, is common to the Latin, 
 Italian, Belgic, German, Swedish, Gothic, and is evidently the same 
 with en French and Spanish, and fv Greek. 
 
 The Galic has ann, the Welch yn, the Swedish o/?, the Arminian een, 
 and the Gothic and., answering to fvTor. 
 
 The Lowland Scotch say hen, and the Hungarians ban, hen and bcnne^ 
 which may be considered as compounds. 
 
 2. When used as a negative, it is evidently iv of the Greek, as appears 
 by civccf^vtix impurity, avxiSaia impudence, xuxiTioi innocent, avenXeiitTws 
 unceasing, perfectly corresponding to ain of Hebrew and of the oriental 
 nations. 
 
 Just. Home Tooke has taken much pains to confound the meaning 
 of this and of many other words : but the well-intentioned philologist 
 should be ever mindful to preserve them from confusion, by accurately 
 marking, not merely the original meaning, but the changes, which, in 
 process of time, have taken place in the use of terms. Under this 
 impression we must observe that just, when it means 
 
 1. Regular and lawful, is certainly derived from jubeo and justura : 
 but by accommodation its meaning has been extended to equitable, 
 upright, virtuous, exact in retribution. Injury, the negative term, has 
 been frequently confounded with damage by those, who do not consider, 
 that there may be damnum sine injuria. 
 
 p2
 
 108 
 
 ■ 2. Nearly, is juxta, jouste, old French, jusque, modern. 
 Lap has three distinct notions. 1. To lick up, or feed by quick 
 reciprocations of the tongue. In this sense it agrees with lappian 
 Saxon, lappen and slabben Dutch, liippem German, lappia Swedish, 
 la'per French, and all these may terminate in XaTrTttv. 
 
 2. To lap over. 'I'his agrees with flap. In Saxon we find laeppe, 
 in German lappe, in Swedish lapp, in Icelandic laf. In Greek Xo^Ij; 
 a scale and Xai^og a tattered garment. The lap of the ear, which is 
 in Danish ore lap, and in German ohr lapplein, appears to be Xo/3o; 
 in the Greek. 
 
 Lopin of the French has been referred to Xo^oi, but as it means a 
 fragment of flesh, or bread, seized in haste and privately conveyed 
 away, it rather seems to be alHed to kXott'', precisely as hhftus of the 
 Gothic is y-XivTVi;. Connected with this we have lift, as used by 
 Dryden for robbing or plundering, and shoplifter, the common appel- 
 lation for one who pilfers, whilst he pretends to purchase. 
 
 3. The mother's lap, in Swedish lapp, may refer to noXTrog. 
 
 Left from the verb leave, in Swedish leifa and lefwa, is XfiTrw, but 
 the left-hand is lajvus and terminates in Xccior. 
 
 Let. 1. To permit, accords with luidhasam Galic, laisser French, 
 Jcclnn Saxon, and Icxiten Dutch, Iciden and lassen German- lata Swedish, 
 lade Danish, Ictan Gothic, lasciare Italian, laxarc Latin. 
 
 \Vc have also lehct in meglehet Hungarian, I am able. 
 
 2. 'i'o hinder, to impede, agrees with lluddia and llestair Welch, 
 belctten and Ictten Dutch, and may be connected with late, as lluddia 
 is with ludded in AVclch.
 
 109 
 
 Lie, conveys three notions, for which similar expressions are exten- 
 sively diffused in Europe. 
 
 1. An aqueous solution of any salt: in Latin lix, licis vvnich an- 
 ciently meant water, whence we have lixare and elixare to seeth. 
 In French lessive, Italian liscia, Spanish lexia, lixivium, AVelch lleisw, 
 Saxon leah, Dutch loog, German lauge, Danish lud, Polioh, Hunga- 
 rian, and Slavonian lug, Bohemian lauh, and Dalmatian luugh. In 
 Greek we have Xovw, with its derivatives allied to the preceding, 
 
 2. To utter a falsehood. This agrees with leogan Saxon, leugen 
 Dutch, liegen German, liigen Galic, liuga Swedish, lygan Icelandic, 
 ]gu and lugati Slavonian, legati Dalmatian and Bohemian. These have 
 no correspondent term in Greek, unless it be Xoyot fables. In Sanscrit, 
 luj means concealment. 
 
 3. To be decumbent, is began Saxon, liggen Dutch, liegen German, 
 laidhim Galic, ligger Danish, ligg Icelandic, liggia Swedish, ligan 
 Gothic, leju Slavonian, lech Russian, lieze Polish, lig Old English. 
 These must all be referred to the same family with ke<yo[j.ai, as must also 
 lectus Latin, Hetty Welch, loje Slavonian, loze Polish, lit French, letto 
 Italian, lecho Spanish, lodge English, and Xtynpov Greek, a bed. 
 
 Light, 1. When used in opposition to darkness, it is allied to lecht 
 Saxon, to ligt and licht Dutch, leuchte German, licht and lius Danish 
 and Swedish, lioos Icelandic, liuhath Gothic, lois Arminian, kitch and 
 lutchina Slavonian, Hug and llycheden Welch, lochran, lasam, lasrach, 
 leos, luisne, glus and glinn Galic, luz Spanish and Portuguese, lux lucis 
 Latin, XevKvi, with Xu%voj Greek, and perhaps lehat of the Chaldee.
 
 no 
 
 2. In opposition to heavy, it agrees with leoht Saxon, ligt and licht, 
 Dutch, ieicht German, liettur Icelandic, lagak and laliki Shivonian, 
 lagahar Duhnatian, lehko Bolieniian, legoke Russian, leger French, levis 
 and levitas Latin, which may possibly be alhed to XeTtTo?. 
 
 3. To descend on, or from, as for example, We will light on him as 
 the dew: Naamau lighted down from his chariot: Her hap was to light 
 on a part of Loa^: field. 
 
 In this acceptation, light has no connexion with the preceding nouns, 
 but, like its kindred, alihtan Saxon, and af-lichten Dutch, it claims 
 affinity to letayu and Jeteti of the Slavonian, answering to the Latin 
 volere, advolare, avolare, and volatus, from which we may derive our 
 vault. To alight, when applied to a bird, certainly means to descend 
 from his flight. 
 
 Thus we find in Russia and Bohemia letati, in Slavonia leteti, in Dal- 
 matia letiti, in Poland litac and litatam, which in Lusatia becomes latazi, 
 all meanins: to flee. Indeed letati, flee, fly, flight, volo, volueris and 
 volatus may be all related, and ultimately derived from phalat, which in 
 Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic means to fly from, to escape. In these 
 several dialects of one language, we see distinctly the Hebrew phalit, 
 one who has escaped, and phelita, flight. 
 
 Like implies, 
 
 1. Similitude, in which sense it stands in connexion with gelie Saxon, 
 gelyk and ghelych Dutch, gleich German, sliker Icelandic, salik, slik 
 and tolckin Swedish, lig Danish, galeiks and samaleika Gothic, samhluich 
 Galic, opleko Russian, oblicze Polish, oblizhe Slavonian, similis Latin, 
 semblablc French, somigliante Italian, semejanlc Spanish, scmelhante
 
 Ill 
 
 Portuguese, and alike English, allied to which we have aXiyuor and Ti^/.tnor, 
 which last gave birth to talis. ^ 
 
 2. Choice and approbation. In this sense it agrees precisely with 
 gelican Saxon, liika Swedish, leika Gothic, and yXtxof^^n, which may be 
 allied to the Hebrew laquah, take, choose. 
 
 Mace, may be either raacis, or massa. 
 
 Meal, signifies, 
 
 1. The edible part of grain. It then agrees with mealewe Saxon, 
 mael Dutch, mehl German, meel Danish, melo Teutonic, miol Icelandic, 
 micleny Polish and Bohemian, mlanie Slavonian and Dalmatian. 
 
 If we regard the instrument and operation, we shall not hesitate in 
 referring these expressions to malu Welch, molare and (xuX-^ a mill ; but 
 should we look for a description of the thing itself, we might find it in 
 the Galic, in which min-gheal conveys the notion of something fine, 
 smooth, soft and white. 
 
 2. Portion, part, repast. It is then moele Saxon, and has close affinity 
 irith mael Dutch and mahl German; but mcele Icelandic is to metCj 
 and when meal and mael, as in piece meal, signify a minute portion, they 
 agree with malo Russian, maly Polish, Lusatian and Bohemian, maal Dal- 
 matian, and malin Slavonian, and give birth to small. As a repast, our 
 word may originate in macal of the Hebrew. 
 
 3. To mix. In this notion, meal, it must be acknowledged, corres- 
 ponds with the Hebrew mahal, as in Isaiah i. 22. thy wine is mixt with 
 water. But since we find mezelar Spanish, mesler and meler French, 
 misceo and miscellus Latin, with (^ta-yoi^ answering to mesek Hebrew and 
 Chaldee, all of one family, we must consider meal as strictly connected
 
 112 
 
 with them. Spencer, in his Fairy Queen, uses not only mell for minolc, 
 Init nieiit ior niingleci, whichvnay be related to f^iyi/jf^i, as mix and mixt 
 are to ,u/^a,' and (j^jxts;. 
 
 Mean, in its various acceptations has been already noticed. 
 
 ]\Iere, conveys three distinct and independent notions ditFerino- ac- 
 cording to their derivation. 
 
 1. Pure, unmixed, is indubitably from merus and m^re Latin. 
 
 2. A boundary. This agrees with ma^ra Saxon, nicer Dutch, mar 
 Swedish, mera Russian and Slavonian, mira Dalmatian and Bohemian, 
 niiara Polish, mara Lusatian, and marz Persian. These connect 
 themselves with i^npco, I part, divide, distribute. 
 
 3. A lake. This word is extensively diffused as meaning the sea. 
 Thus we find mor AYelch, moir Galic, morfheirge and muir Irish, mere 
 Saxon, meer Cierman, mar Swedish, marei Gothic, more Slavonian, 
 Bohemian, Croatian and Lusatian, moral Russian, morze Polish, meri 
 Finland, all connected with mare Latin, and perhaps with f^upw fluo. 
 Certain it is that the Romans did not confine the term mare to the 
 sea, for Virgil applied it to a river. The French word means a pool. 
 In this family we have marsh, morass and mire. 
 
 Moor. 1. An extensive waste infested with humidity. This word 
 seems to originate in mare. In Welch it is morfa, in Saxon merse, 
 in Belgic maerasch, in Icelandic moor^ in Gothic marisaiv, in Danish 
 moratz, in French niarais and marecage, in English morass and marsh. 
 Vi e have in Saxon, mor a mountanous heath and barren, or uncultivated 
 tract of land, and moor humidity.
 
 113 
 
 2. To moor a ship, corresponding to amarrcr in Frencli, may be 
 derived from mare. 
 
 3. Moor as a native of Mauritania speaks for itself. 
 Nail, has three acceptations independent on each other. 
 
 1. The horny substance at the ends of the fingers and toes. In Saxon 
 nagl; Belgic naeghel, Swedish and German nagel, Danish negel, Russian 
 nogti, Slavonian nogot, answering to ongle French, onghia Itahan, una 
 Spanish, unlui Portuguese, evvin AVeleh, unguis and ungula Latin. AH 
 these expressions, so various in their forms, are strictly connected with 
 if not derived from, owE.. 
 
 2. A spike of metal by which things are fastened together, [n Danish 
 negel, Icelandic nayle, Swedish nagel, Finlandic naula. These may 
 originate in nagal, he closed, of the Hebrew. In the same connection 
 we find ^iXog, clavus; hoel Welch, clavo Spanish, clou French, chiova 
 Italian. 
 
 3. A measure of two inches and a half. 
 
 Nai/, and no, in Old English nae and na, agree with na and ni in 
 Welch and Galic, na, ne, ni, no, Saxon, nei Swedish, Danish and Ice- 
 landic, ne and ni Slavonian and Russian, nei Polish and Bohemian, ne 
 ni, nih and nui Gothic, na, nah, and ni Persian, no and ny Iberian, naand 
 nu Hindu, no and nah Sanscrit, w^ Greek, ne, ni, and non Latin, na 
 Chinese. 
 
 Connected with the negatives above recited, we have, none, neither, 
 naught, not, and in Old English nogt, which correspond with nach, nada 
 and nadh Galic, nad, neb, and nid Welch, niet Dutch, naht Saxon, nicht 
 German, nivaiht, nithan, negte Danish, nem Hungarian, niet and 
 
 VOL. II. Q
 
 114 
 
 nechto Russian, neen Dutch, nein German, nubeen Hindu, nanka and 
 nafu Sanscrit. 
 
 Hcie it is evident that N forms the negation, as it docs in our pre- 
 positions in and un, and is in fact the radical part of all these particles. 
 This therefore naturally turns our attention towards ain of the Galic, in of 
 the Romans, an of the Vt'elch, un of the Gothic, as used for the purpose 
 of negation. Consequently, if my observations are well founded, all our 
 negatives are radically the same with ^v, a-^a, avtv, and with ain of the 
 Hebrew, which last, according to Kbrber, is derived from its verb aven, 
 he was deficient, whether in justice, comfort, wealth, or strength. 
 
 If, with Horn Tooke, we could suppose the Danish nodig to imply 
 negation ; to derive no from nodig, Avould be surely deriving the simple 
 from its own compound, and the parent from its offspring. 
 
 But nodig, like the German nothig, does not imply negation; it means 
 distressed, constrained. Nod, its primitive, constantly conveys the 
 notion of need, force, necessity, dilTiculty, distress and danger. 
 
 The negative terms in Danish, as we have seen, are nei and negte. 
 
 -» 
 
 The greatest admirers of Mr. Tooke must here confess, that he discovered 
 ignorance and self-conceit, when he so hastily derived our no ivom the 
 Danish compound nodig. 
 
 Tlie inhabitants of the north had no occasion to " wait for a word 
 expressive of dissent till the establishment of the Romans in Italy or of 
 the Jews in Palestine." No: they received their language from their 
 ancestors, and being all the children of one family, tliey preserved 
 those words, which were least likely to give way, and to be changed, 
 among which rse, may fairly reckon our most simple negative, though
 
 115 
 
 not its compounds, sitcli as none, nren, ncin, nauglit, ncclito, nouirht, 
 nogt, not, nad, nid, nict, nalit, niclit, nivaiht, and neither, which, wich 
 the negative particle, have combined one, aught. Sec. 
 
 Of. Answering to, of Saxon; af Swedish and Dutch; aba and /if 
 ' Goth, is closely allied to «^o, but varying the accent we have <2t5 
 which is a7ro&£v afar off. 
 
 Off, therefore, is evidently aVo, denoting like it, not merely separation, 
 but distance. 
 
 Pain. 1. As a sensation of uneasiness, with pangs English, and 
 pianta Galic, is in the singular, pun Dutch, pian Galic, pin Saxon, 
 trapiene Polish, pein German, peine French. These may be allied to 
 jrev^og and T^i^og as (iev^o; is to jicn^og. 
 
 2. runishment is poen Welch, pena Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, 
 peine French, pin Saxon, pina Swedish, bwntetes Hungarian, posna, 
 punitio Latin, and 'noiv^ Greek. 
 
 3. Labor, industry. Peine French, is allied to 'J^ovog and possibly to 
 TLsveqvjg, Avhicli is usually derived from 'jrtvoiJ.cn. 
 
 Fale, when it means, 1. wan, is evidently allied to pallidus Latin ; 
 pale French, bled Slavonian, bliadi Polish, iiaXwoo nc-xU and ttsXiSv^ 
 Greek, which mean lividity. 
 
 2. A narrow piece of wood used for inclosures; in this sense it agrees 
 with pal Saxon, pael Dutch, pawl Welch, palitza Slavonian, pal Polish, 
 pel of the old French connected with palus and Uxcr^xXog, whence em- 
 paler, to empale, may be derived. 
 
 Fail for miik, balja Swedish, is JJtXKci and LlfXAlj. 
 
 Pat. 1. When it means j(it, may be ^tttw. 
 
 Q 2
 
 116 
 
 2. To heat geiitl}', is allied to batardh Calic, baeddu Welch, beatan 
 Saxon, badda Swedish, bitchuiu Slavonian, bete Russian, Dalmatian, 
 and Bohemian, biti and bat Polish, apatot and botalom Hungarian, 
 
 Paj/. 1. To discharge a debt. In this acceptation we have payer 
 French, pagare Italian, pagar Spanish and Portuguese, paha and pay 
 Persian and SacTravi^. 
 
 2. To beat, pwyo Welch, biiu Slavonian, bye Polish, are distinctly 
 
 Pile has numerous acceptations. 
 
 1. A sharp pointed beam or pole is pael and piile Dutch, pilotis and 
 pieu French, pal Polish, pfahl German, pila and palus Latin. With 
 these agree pale and pole. 
 
 2. The head of an arrow, is pilum Latin. 
 
 5. Hair, poil French, pilus Latin. 
 
 4. Heap, piile Dutch, pile French. These are allied to pila, Tirxog 
 and iiO^osiv, of the same import. 
 
 o. The funeral pile seems to be connected with palenie Russian, 
 Polish, Slavonian and Hungarian, polati Bohemian, baal Icelandic, boel 
 Saxon, from which the French have poile, a stove. 
 
 6. One side of a coin. 
 
 7- Hemorrhoids, not improbably derived from TrvXaiog. 
 
 Pill, may be 1. peler, 2. piller, 3. pillule French. 
 
 Race, 1. contest in running agrees with rasa Swedish. 
 
 2. Race, or a raze, is allied to gwraidd Welch, racine French, rayz 
 Spanish, raet Dutch, roed Danish, rot Swedish, root Icelandic, radix 
 and radicc Latin, and pii^ce Greek.
 
 117 
 
 3. Breed, kind or family, like race Frencli, agrees with the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 Rase, or raze is raser French, and agrees perfectly with ^xicj, pa'juw and 
 «pi%(7(rw. Razor, rasoir French, and rasor with rado Latin, have the same 
 connection as the preceding. 
 
 Rack, 1. any instrument, by which the operation of stretching is per- 
 formed, agrees with astrcccan Saxon, astrecken Dutch, auss-strecken 
 German, strecker and vostrecker Danish. In this acceptation, rack 
 seems to be connected with extractus Latin. 
 
 2. Distaff is, in Hungarian rokkaszar. In Polish we find rocac and 
 wracac to twist. 
 
 JlocA; means, L distaff, agreeing with- rack. 
 
 2. An extensive mass of stone. In this sense it agrees with pco^, as crag 
 and craig Welch and Galic do with ?«:%/«:. In Hebrew we find ragam 
 (DJI.) he stoned. 
 
 3. To shake, move in the cradle, rocqder French, rucken German, 
 which may be allied to avopyd^u, Hesych: and probably is so to ragaz (rj"l) 
 of the Hebrew. Indeed opycx^sLv, opyi^eiv and cpytx^eiv, seem originally to 
 have contained the notion of rapid movement. 
 
 Route means, 
 
 1. Road, roid Galic, roin Irish, route French, braut Icelandic. These 
 sefem allied to rota, rheda and ride, and these again to the Chaldee and 
 Syrian rida to travel, and ridvan or ridan, a chariot, which in Sanscrit 
 is rath. 
 
 2. Rabble, tumultuous multitude, a company, a troop. In this ac- 
 ceptation it may agree with ruith and ruta Galic, rhawd Welch, rot
 
 lis 
 
 Dutch, rotte German, roode Danish, rota Slavonian and Hungarian, 
 po^og. 
 
 3. Defeat, confusion, and flight of an army. In this sense we meet 
 with route and deroute French, and rotta Italian, which are probably 
 ruptio; as in Latin we may derive clades, slaughter, defeat, from y.Kxjig 
 a rupture. 
 
 Sap means, 
 
 1. The vital juice of plants. This, with subli Galic, seve French, 
 sifipe Saxon, sap Dutch, safft German, sapa Latin, are unquestionably 
 on-'og. In Welch we have not this word; but we find ?jorfJ sap, which is 
 allied to votij. 
 
 2. To mine or undermine, in French sapper, and in Italian zappare, is 
 probably allied to a-KXT^^ai. 
 
 Scale, 1. the dish of a balance; sceale Saxon, schael Dutch, sik-tal 
 Hungarian, scutella a little dish. In Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, 
 we have shacal to weigh. 
 
 2. The squamous skin of a fish. Ecaille French, scaglia Italian, skal- 
 ler Danish, hal Hungarian. These seem to be allied to shale, shell and 
 scutella. 
 
 3, A ladder. Echelle French, scala Italian and Latin. 
 
 The military term to scale, and a scale in harmonics, depend on scala. 
 Seam, 1. a juncture of cloth, of planks, or of flesh, appears to be 
 sumentum. 
 
 2. A measure, eight bushels, may be jxyi^-x. 
 
 3. Suet, tallow, grease, is sebum.
 
 119 
 
 Set may signify, 1. to place simply, and may be derived from sedes 
 Uog or the Hebrew shulh, and agrees with suid-heog, Galic, settan 
 Saxon, sctzcn German, sietta Swedish, set Icelandic, satjau Gothic, sidati 
 Slavonian, Dahnatian and Russian. 
 
 2. To plant. This may agree with satus and shathnl Chaldee, Syrian 
 and Hebrew of the same import. In this sense we have suidhuicam 
 Galic, setau Saxon, sattia Swedish, satidedum Gothic, saditi Slavonian, 
 sadzic Polish, szaditi Dalmatian. 
 
 3. A number of things suited to each other. In Persian we have 
 saziden, to be suitable This will perfectly accord with the Hebrew, seder, 
 order, series; and the Chaldee sadar, to set iu order. 
 
 Shaft, 1. A missive weapon ; sceaft Saxon, schaft German; these are 
 probably o-KV]7rTpov. In Dutch it signifies a pole. 
 
 2. A deep pit; seems to be derived from (tuxtttcii. 
 
 3. Any thing strait is scapus. 
 
 Shed, 1. to effuse, or scatter, scheiden German, skaidan Gothic, 
 skudda and skiuta Swedish, is probably o-ksSxcc. 
 
 2. A slight covering, may be connected with shade, and be derived 
 from (TuiaSiov. In Wilts, for a shed, we find skilling, and in Sweden skiul, 
 perhaps from a-mx. 
 
 Since, 1. from the time that, seems to be contracted from sithence. 
 In Saxon we have sith-than, in Swedish sedah, in German seit dem, in 
 Greek ttTo:, after that. In Saxon, sithian means to come, to go, sithe 
 time, and sith a progress. 
 
 Thence is allied to iV&ff. 
 
 2. Because, may be contracted from seen as.
 
 120 
 
 Stick, 1. a walking staff, sficca Saxon, stecco Italian, which agree 
 with stia;a Swedish, and qtix^iv. 
 
 2. To adhere. Stican Saxon, stecken German, agree with q^y.oi. 
 
 3. To pierce. Steken Dutch, stechen German, stician Swedish 
 Siitychac Polish, agree with stacan Galic a thorn, and qi^a. c^i^a. 
 
 Tear. 1. The water which passion forces from the eyes is daigr 
 Welch, deor Galic, tear Saxon, traan Dutch, :z'ahre German, tar Swedish, 
 taare Danish, tagr Gothic, lachryma Latin, dachryma okl Latin, lagrima 
 Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, larme French, 5iKpy,u,a:, Bxupvo; and Bxyi;)\j. 
 The change of D into L, is not uncommon in the Sanscrit. 
 
 2. To lacerate agrees with torri Welch, toeran Saxon, zerzerren Ger- 
 man, gatairan Gothic, torgayu, terzayu and deru Slavonian, torgati 
 Russian, tergati Bohemian, targam Polish, torom Hungarian, daridan 
 Persian Teipu iaraf Hebrew. 
 
 In this acceptation tear and its participle torn, seem allied to thorn, 
 draen Welch, draigean Galic, thorn Saxon, doren and doom Dutch, 
 dorn German, torn Danish and Sweden, thaurnjus Gothic, terne Russian, 
 ternie and tern Slavonian and Bohemian, cziernie Polish. In Hebrew 
 we have darban and in the plural darhonoth, thorns. 
 
 That. 1. when it means not this but the other, looks to ^xTepx as in 
 
 tTTi^xTspx in diversum, in alteram partem. This agrees with det of Sweden. 
 
 2. Denoting fact, assertion, maxim, conclusion, purpose, it agrees 
 
 with ata Galic, thatte and that Saxon, dat Dutch, dass German, 
 
 thataci Gothic, at Swedish, uti Latin and hi. 
 
 Tliata in Gothic corresponds to ToauTo, thto and txvtx.
 
 121 
 
 Till IS 1. the money box. In this sense it looks towards Ttko;, tolle, 
 tribute, expense, and TeKe^v to spend. In Saxon we have til, abundant, 
 rich. 
 
 2. A termination. In this use we find til and tillo Saxon, til Danish, 
 and tils Swedish, all which refer to TtKor the end or conclusion of a 
 progress. 
 
 3. To cultivate. In Welch we observe diwyllio, in Saxon ilian, tin 
 Dutch or Belgic tuylen. Connected with these may be reckoned cVAcr 
 toil. Telemin Hebrew being distinctly tillage; all these expressions may 
 be radically one with it. 
 
 Tire means 1. to dress, furnish. Attourer, and vetir French, zieren 
 German, and tire English, may originate in vestire. 
 
 2. To vex, harass, weary. In this sense we have tirian Saxon and 
 toirseach Galic, which seem to originate in Ttipco, and agree with terah of 
 the Chaldee. 
 
 TVare maybe 1. merchandise, answering to waar in Dutch. 2. To 
 watch, answering to fairam of the Galic. In this sense ware may take 
 warn and ward for its infinitive and participle. 
 
 Wind is 1. a blast of air. This agrees with gwynt of the Welch and 
 ventus of Latin. 
 
 2. To turn. In Spanish we have guindar, in Italian guindolare, in 
 Saxon windan, in Dutch and in German winden, in Gothic vindan, and 
 in Danish vende. 
 
 JVith, 1. answering to i*£t^. This word is extensively diffused, and ap- 
 pears to have been variously corrupted. We find with and mid Saxon, 
 mit Old English and German, mith Gothic, med, met, and ved Danish 
 
 VOL. II. R -
 
 122 
 
 and Swedish, met Armenian, ith Iberian, niitha (pronounced mit-ha) 
 Sanscrit. AH these may be radically connected, because M. V. and W. 
 as we have seen, readily assume each others place. 
 
 It has been suggested by Horn Tooke, that with, in this sense of the 
 word, is derived from withe. This may have been its origin, and indeed 
 could we suppose, that our Saxon ancestors either sprang spontaneously 
 from the earth, and consequently had to invent a language for them- 
 selves, or that they forgot the prepositions received by tradition from their 
 fathers, it would be natural to conclude, that withe, a willow twig used 
 for uniting things together, might become first a symbol of connection, 
 and then a conjunctive preposition. But as our Gothic ancestors, w^ho 
 used withan, to join, were in possession of mith, probably derived either 
 from mitha of Sancrit, or from [t.e'i: and [t-eTx-, there seems to have been 
 no necessity for their having recourse to a metaphorical expression. In- 
 deed it does not appear, that they had with as a preposition, for in the 
 Gothic Gospels we find only mith. 
 
 2. Answering to ccvti, contra, against. It is curious, that the same 
 word should thus have inconsistent meanings, as appear in these sen- 
 tences, stand with him, and withstand him. But it seems to me, that 
 witJi in the latter acceptation is an abbreviation of the Anglo-Saxon 
 witherian, to contend, whence are derived, witherling an adversary, 
 withersacan to contradict, and witherstandan to resist. 
 
 Supposing then with to be allied to f^fTar, the compound ^i^sju^Hv may 
 Jsave given birth to witherian and to with, as denoting opposition. In 
 German, wider means against, and widerstehen to withst^md. 
 
 We observe a remarkable affinity between our ay^YA and by; and the
 
 123 
 
 Saxons, in their compound prepositions, used indiifcrently cither witii or 
 be, as withforan and beforan, withinnan and hcinnan, withutan and 
 beutan, &c. This affinity may possibly have originated in the Hebrew 
 idiom, in which (m) hejad not only denotes the instrument, but like- 
 wise concomitance. By (hejad) tliy servants hast thou reproached the 
 Lord, (Isaiah xxxvii. 24.) Hazael took a present with him (bejado) 
 forty camels burthen, (2 Kings viii. 9.) Even [^eix may be this Hebrew 
 preposition in disguise, as ^dv and cum originate in (d;;) "im of the 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Within, answering to intra of the Latin may possibly be (nrT^a) 
 hejtha of the Hebrews. Intra itself may be ev'^v^ix as wdomu Polish 
 is allied to domi, or as hazaban Hungarian, ban the hoose Scotch 
 in the house English, and en casa Spanish, are to in casd of the 
 Romans. 
 
 Yard, 1. inclosed ground adjoining to a house, answers to garadh 
 Galic, gardd Welch, geard Saxon. The examination of this word will 
 be resumed. 
 
 2. A measure of three feet, agrees with gerd Saxon, gerte German. 
 
 Yet, 1. over and above answers to etto Welch, jets and itez Polish 
 gessto Bohemian, es Hungarian, etj Greek, gO(/e Hebrew ("liy) 
 
 2. At this time is gata {TyT\V) Hebrew. 
 
 3. Nevertheless Tna. 
 
 By attention to the various, independent, and frequently discordant 
 import of words, as derived from various and independent sources 
 we acquire clear and distinct ideas, we avoid ambiguity, and wc 
 
 R 2
 
 124 
 
 learn to express our meaning with precision. In this beauty and utility 
 
 unite. 
 
 My principal aim, however, in the selection [ have made of sy- 
 nonymes, is to convince my readers, that all the languages, with which 
 we are acquainted, however dissimilar in form, are radically one. 
 
 Is it possible for any one to cast his eye, however transiently, over 
 the vocabulary here presented to his view, and not to discern this 
 interesting truth. The words I have chosen are, indeed, variously com- 
 pounded and abbreviated; they are distorted and disguised by vicious 
 orthography and capricious changes; yet, when stripped of their ad- 
 ventitious ornaments ; when they are made to approach their primitive 
 and uncorrupted condition ; when nothing but that, which is essential 
 to each word, remains; their strict resemblance or perfect identity is 
 distinctly seen. 
 
 AVhat I have here produced, might be considered sufficient for my 
 purpose, but as the truth which I have undertaken to support, appears 
 to me in its consequences to be of infinite importance to the happiness 
 of mankind; I shall produce numerous other instances in its confir- 
 mation. 
 
 I have assumed it as an axiom, that nations, who agree in terms 
 expressive of the most common actions and relations of savage life 
 and of those objects, Avhich occur in every climate to supply the wants 
 of mere animal existence, however dissimilar they may now he, were 
 originally one. 
 
 Let us then examine by this axiom, what agreement we can dis- 
 cover between the English and other nations, with whose language
 
 125 
 
 we have an adequate acquaintance. For this purpose the expressions 
 I shall fix upon are chiefly monosyllabic, as being our most ancient 
 words. Am, are, ass, bake, be, bear, beat, bind, boat, booth, box, 
 break, brother, buss, call, can, cap, cart, cat, choose, cock, cook, cot, 
 cow, crib, crow, cup, dad, day, daughter, door, eat, egg, eight, else, 
 eye, father, fight, fire, five, fiaot, four, gird, give, gout, goose, guest, 
 have, he, head, heart, hem, hen, house, hut, I, is, king, kiss, lick, me, 
 might, mine, milk, mill, mix, mother, murder, name, night, nine, nose, 
 one, ox, raven, rob, rook, sea, seat, seven, she, six, sow, take, ten, 
 this, thou, three, through, time, tine, tree, two, water, Avithe, wool, 
 write, yard, yea, yet, yoke, young. 
 
 Am, is distinctly fif^^i in its most abbreviated fiarm, and is compounded, 
 as I shall demonstrate, of the verb f, together with its pronoun (xt. 
 As such it agrees with sum and sim Latin, com Saxon, em Icelandic, 
 im Gothic and Turkish, jestem Polish, em Armenian and Persian, iam 
 Eepirotic. This verb may originate in the Hebrew (r\'''n) Our ErigHsh 
 verb is extremely irregular, and this irregularity points out the various 
 sources, from which it has derived its discordant moods, tenses and 
 persons. 
 
 The pronoun p-t is still preserved in the Marhatta ml and is found 
 in the Welch mi and my, as in ?««' a viim I was, and ?«_?/ a I will go. 
 Me runs all over Europe and Asia; but in the Slavonian dialects it 
 is mya, and in the Hindostani it is main. All the most ancient verbs 
 in Greek have this pronoun in the first person singular of the present 
 tense, not only in the active, but also in the passive and the middle
 
 126 
 
 voices, as I shall have occasion to observe in the progress of my 
 tvork. It likewise appears in the subjunctives of Latin verbs. 
 
 Are, may be traced in eram and ero, in ccr Swedish, and serf Cornish, 
 I am. But I shall not now enlarge, as the subject will be resumed 
 when I shall treat of the substantive verb m Greek. 
 
 Ass, asne French, asno Spanish and Portuguese, asino Italian, asal 
 Galic, asen Welch, azen Armoric, astoa Cantabrian, assa Saxon, ezel 
 and esel Dutch and German, asne Icelandic, asen Danish, aszna Swedish, 
 asilus Gothic, osel Ptussian and Slavonian, osiel Polish, oszal Dalmatian, 
 wefel Bohemian and Lusatian, essek Turkish, ez Armenian, asinus Latin, 
 Qvo;. All these are related, and their common parent may be athon of 
 Hebrew, of the same import. 
 
 Bake. I have not been able to trace this word in any of the Celtic 
 dialects. It seems to have been confined to the Gothic and Slavonic 
 tribes. In our Saxon we have baecan and bacian ; in German backen, 
 answering to bager Danish, baka Swedish, pekete Russian, pecy Bohe- 
 mian, peku and pezhi Slavonian, and pickel Polish. Pochten, in Persian, 
 means to boil; in Sanscrit pakarai and papakto mean, like TreTTTw, to 
 cook in general. In Polish we find pick, an oven. From one of these 
 we may derive our pye. 
 
 The Latin coqiio has the same relation to -Tf^lw as quinque has to the 
 JEoYic 'Ki[t.'Ki for TfvTf, which in the Doric dialect is xfvxe. 
 
 In Greek we find /Sf/Swxa;, pavi, and the Plirygians had /3fKKoc for bread. 
 
 The Welch have pohi. 
 
 In Arabic we have the nearest approach to our word in tabakha, an- 
 swering to n^ca tahah, a cook.
 
 127 
 
 Be is in Saxon beon, in Danish boe, in Russian buivau, in Sanscrit 
 bhu, in Galicand Hebrew bith. In Latin we have fui, fuero, fuissc and 
 fore, of the same import. 
 
 So much for the present. When I shall treat of the Creek substantive 
 verb, I shall enlarge on our own verb. 
 
 Bear and Burthen. These words agree with fero, porto, (pfpw and 
 (popTiov; Avith beirim and bearadh Galic, porthi Welch, porter and fardeau 
 French, beran, bearan and byrthen Saxon, brengen Dutch, her and bjrth 
 Icelandic, boerer Danish, fora and boera Swedish, bairan Gothic, bera 
 and pora Slavonian, bierac Polish, berel and barnal Armenian, burdan 
 Persian and bhri Sanscrit. In Hebrew we find heriah (n''")^) a lever. 
 
 Bear, to bring forth, seems to originate in pario and para (ma) of the 
 same meaning. 
 
 Bear, as a particular animal, has been traced to ferus, '^y,p and ^vjp; but 
 in Hesychius we find ^apov, and in Hebrew hagar ("li/n) which are not 
 improbably related to ferus. 
 
 Beat, beotan Saxon, bCittre French, badda Sweden, biti Russian, 
 baeddu Welch, and pita Sanscrit, agree with TIxtccjitcc. 
 
 Bind, as a verb is unknown to the Celtic dialects, althouQ;h in AVelch 
 we have bancaro a band. To bind, is bindan Saxon and Gothic, 
 binden Dutch and German, bind Icelandic and Danish, binda Swedish, 
 benden Persian, bandha Sanscrit, and bun Chinese. 
 
 The nearest approach to this in Hebrew is abnef, a belt: but bind may 
 be a participle, and if so, it may be related to vieo, vietum, hex and 
 withy. 
 
 Boat, is bad and bata Galic, bate Welch, bateau French, baleira
 
 128 
 
 Portuguese, bat Saxon, boot Dutch and German, baatur Icelandic, 
 bat Swedish, bote Russian, peta and pota Sanscrit. It may be aUied 
 to yu(icc7og. 
 
 Booth, is bothag Galic, bwih Welch, bod Armoric, boede Saxon and 
 Dutch, beit Teutonic, boot and buth Icelandic, bod Danish and Swedish, 
 obit Bohemian, buda Polish and Lusatian, beit Turkish, abad Persian, 
 beti Epirotic. In Hebrew we have bcth, in Arabic beit, in Chaldee 
 and Syriac, both. From the Persian abad we seem to have derived 
 abide. 
 
 Box, has been already noticed in its various acceptations. 
 
 Break, ipp^X^ fiegi, fractum ; is bracaim Galic, brcg Welch, breche 
 French, breccia Italian, brecken Dutch, breccan Saxon, brecken Ger- 
 man, breke Danish, broeka Swedish, brikan Gothic, breg Slavonian, 
 obroke Russian, fcn-aq Hebrew, Chaldean, Syriac, and Arabic. With 
 these agree farad, farat, faram, farats, faras, of Hebrew, Chaldean, 
 Syriac and Arabic of like import. 
 
 Bring the participle of bear is brengen Dutch. 
 
 Brother is barathair Galic, brawd, plural of brodyn, Welch, breur 
 Armoric, frater Latin, frere French, brother Saxon, breeder Dutch, 
 bruder German, brodur Icelandic, broder Danish and Swedish, brothar 
 Gothic, brate Slavonian and Russian, brat Polish and Dalmatian, bratr 
 Bohemian, bradt Lusatian, boradar Persian, bhai and bhala Hindostani, 
 and bhratara Sanscrit. 
 
 Bull and Buffalo, will be noticed under ox. 
 
 Burn has been already noticed. 
 
 Buss. For buss sec kiss.
 
 120 
 
 Call is galw Welch, scallen German, kalla Swedish, kialtok Hunga- 
 rian, cal Sanscrit, kala Syrian, k^auv Greek and kol (^1p) Hebrew. 
 
 Can a drinking vessel y.xv'^xpog, cantharus is cuincog Galic, canne 
 Saxon, kan Dutch, kanne German, kanna Icelandic, kandc Danish, 
 tchuan Slavonian, kanna Hungarian. 
 
 Cap yefpxXs Greek, caput Latin, copchaile Galic, cappan Welch, 
 caeppe Saxon, kappe Dutch and German, kappa Swedish, kape B.->he- 
 mian, kaponya Hungarian, the skull. 
 
 Cart, carpentuni Latin, certwyn Welch, croet Saxon, karra Swedish, 
 kareta Slavonian, kar Armenian, szeker Hungarian. 
 
 Cat, cas Galic, cath Welch, chat French, gatto Italian, gato Spanish 
 and Portugese, kat katte Dutch, katz German, katt] Swedish, kisa 
 Icelandic, kot Slavonian, kotte Russian, kotzka Bohemian, kotka 
 Polish, katto Lusatian, keti Turkish, katussa Walachian, catti Finland, 
 kata Iberian, gato Lapland, kotschasch Tartaric. 
 
 CocJcy noaxKov is coileach and caolach Galic, ceiliog Welch, kilioof 
 Armoric, coq French, kock Danish, kokos Polish, kokos Hungarian, 
 cuc61a Singaleze, cubku Finlandic, gallus Latin. 
 Cook see bake. 
 
 Cot KotTvt cotta in Galic is a cottage, and coittair a cottager. We 
 have cwtt Welch, cote Saxon, kot and hut Dutch, hutte German, kot 
 Icelandic, kota and koite Swedish, kota Finland, kaata Lapland, keda 
 Persian, kodda Epirolic, kuta Sanscrit, and cotta Malay in the same 
 acceptation. 
 
 Cow, geo Galic, according to Vallancey. The modern Galic ha? 
 changed this to bo, answering to buwch and bu of the Welch. In other 
 
 VOL. II. s
 
 130 
 
 languages we have cu Saxon, koe Dutch, kuhe German, koe Danish, 
 ko Swedish, coiwas Finland, kusa Lapland, korowa and koua Russian, 
 krava Slavonian, Bohemian, and lllyrian, krowa Polish, keuve Armenian, 
 gau Persian, gai Hindostan and Sanscrit. 
 
 In Latin we find mugeo, in Greek i^vaxoi, in Hebrew, Chaldee and 
 Syriac gagha (up}) the lowing of a cow. 
 
 Crib, in Swedish krubba, Germain, krippe is y.poc^^aTcg. 
 
 Crow, in Saxon crawe, Dutch kraai and kraye, German krahe, Danish 
 krage, Swedish kraka agree with corneille and corbeau French, corneja 
 Spanish, cornacchia Italian, corvus and cornix Latin, y.op«i and xc/;a)vv| 
 Greek. The Russian has voron and vorona a raven, a rook. In Polish 
 we have kruk a raven, and Avrona a rook. In Slavonian we find 
 krakain, korkaiu and grakaiu to crow, in Latin crocito, in Greek x^wC'" 
 but nfiZ,a and upavyz^u mean to cry out. In Hebrew we have Sip, 
 Compare with these raven and rook. 
 
 Cup, cupan Galic, cwppan and cib Welch, cuppe Saxon, kop Dutch, 
 kopp Danish, Swedish and Icelandic, kuppa, Slavonian, Hungarian 
 and Dalmatian, kubek Polish, kofHick Bohemian, koup Armenian, kop 
 Tartarian, cupa and capis Latin, with xl/tvj, nvneXXov, xv/S/3«, m-^x 
 Greek, and (i'"'3J) gebiag Hebrew are all related. 
 
 Dad agrees with tad Welch and Armoric, taz Cornish, taata Findland, 
 did Slavonian, dede Russian, ded Bohemian, dada Turkish, which in 
 the Hindostani means grandfather. In Epirotic wc have lati, «t7« 
 Greek, tfttx Thessalian, and issa Finland. 
 
 J)m/. Dia and do Galic, dydd Welch, Cornish and Armoric, daeg 
 Saxon, dag and dagh Dutch, tag Germain, tak Teutonic, dagur Ice=
 
 131 
 
 landic, dag Danish and Swedish, dags Cothic, den Slavonian, Russian 
 and Bohemian, dzien PoMsh, daan Dalmatian, le Armenian, deghes 
 Iberian, devus Hindostan and Sansciit, dies L;itin, with ^zog and 
 Axlg are of one family. 
 
 Daughter is a word unknown at present to the Celtic. In Saxon 
 and Teutonic we have dohter, in Dutch dogter and dochtcr, in Ger- 
 man tochter, in Icelandic dooter, in Danish daater, in Swedish doter, 
 in Gothic dauhtar, in Slavonian dtscher and dotch, in Bohemian dey, 
 in Russian dotch and doke, in Persian dochtar and docht, in Sanscrit 
 dahitar, in Armenian dauster, in Finlandic tytter, in Greek ^vyccrvip, 
 in Syriac dachtira. 
 
 Dine is evidently SeiTrvsiu connected with which we find daps Latin 
 diner French. 
 
 Door, thorruke Old EngUsh, is dorous and fodhoras Galic, drws and 
 dor Welch, dor Armenian, dora and thure Saxon, deure Dutch, thur 
 German, dyr Icelandic, door and dor Danish and Swedish, daur Gothic, 
 deuro Slavonian and Russian, duira Lusatian, duri Carinth., dwer Bo- 
 hemian, drzwi Polish, dore Armenian, dar Persian and Turkish, dera 
 Epirotic, toori Javan, dwar Sanscrit and Hindostan, derwarje Bengal 
 derived from derwaza Persian, ^upa Greek, thara (i<")r>) Syrian, tharagh 
 (i^ir^) Chaldean and ("lya') shagar Hebrew. 
 
 Each has been already noticed. In Sanscrit eka means one, in Persian 
 her yec is every one. In Hebrew ish means a man, and each person or 
 thing. Ish el regehu (injt/") 1'^ S^"'!!^) everyone to his neighbour. 
 
 Egg, ugh Galic, occo Italian, oeg Saxon, egg Icelandic, Danish 
 and Swedish, aieka Russian, iaica Polish, iaiza Slavonian, chai Persian, 
 
 s 2
 
 132 
 
 wegtze and iaie Bohemian, aiza Carinth, yaye Dalmatian, tai Polish, wy 
 Welch, ooov Greek, ovum Latin. 
 
 Eight, is ochd Galic, wyth Welch, eiz Armoric, huit French, ocho 
 Spanish, otto Italian, oito Portuguese, eahta Saxon, agt Dutch, acht 
 German, aatta Icelandic, atta Swedish, otte Danish, ahtau Gothic, ot 
 Armenian, osm Polish and Slavonian, wossim Russian, hesht Persian, 
 ashta Sanscrit, ath Bengal and oxTft), octo. 
 
 Else, elles Saxon, aljes Swedish, alias Latin, akXccg. 
 
 Ewe, othisg Galic, dafad Welch, davas Cornish, eowe Saxon, ouwe 
 and oye Dutch, ouzhia Slavonian, ouxa Russian, oucza Dalmatian, owca 
 Polish, owcza Bohemian, wouza Lusatian, iuh and ih Hungarian, awa.. 
 Sanscrit, ovis Latin, 'oig Greek. 
 
 E^c, plural eyne, golwg Welch, oeil French, occhio Italian, ojo 
 Spanish, olho Portuguese, eag Saxon, ooghe Dutch, aug German, ougon 
 Teutonic, auga Icelandic, oje Danish, oga Swedish,, augo Gothic, oko 
 Slavonian, Dalmatian, Bohemian, Polish, Illyrian, ocha Russian, ocho 
 Croatian, woko Lusatian, oeghene pi. Tartaric, nayana Sanscrit. In 
 Hebrew we have a/« (]">;;) in Latin oculus, in Greek I'aac^ the eye and 
 y.vXx the cavities of the eyes. 
 
 Father, athair Galic, padre Italian and Spanish,, pay Portuguese, pare 
 French, pater Latin, fselher Saxon, vader Dutch, vatter German, fater>, 
 Teutonic, fader Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, fadrein Gothic, padar 
 Persian, pit4 Bengal, pitr and pita Sanscrit. UzTyip. 
 
 Fire has already been examined. 
 
 Five, cuig and coig Galic, pump Welch, pemp Armoric and Cornish, 
 'cinquc Italian, cinq French, cinco. Spanish and Portugue&e, fif Saxon,
 
 133 
 
 viif Dutch, fiinfF German, finf Teutonic, fim Icelandic, fern Swedish 
 and Danish, fimf Gothic, fiynf, precop pyat Slavonian, pat Russian, 
 piecz PoUsh, pesch Dalmatian, bisch Tartaric, p^nch Bengal and Hin- 
 dostan, penj Persian, pengkan Sanscrit. TLevre, in yEolic IlffxTrf, in 
 Doric KevKs; whence the Romans took their quinque. 
 
 This practice of changing H into K, or P into C and K, I have already 
 noticed to have been common among the Athenians, Cohans, Baeotians, 
 lonians, the Galic tribes, as will immediately appear, and our Teutonic 
 ancestors. 
 
 Foot, cas and cos Galic, fot and vot Saxon, poot and voet Dutch, fuss 
 German, footur Icelandic, fbde and foed Danish, fot Swedish, fotus 
 Gothic, bos Slavonian, wut and uetn Armenian, pa Persian, padati and 
 pud Sanscrit, pMn Hindostan, piede Italian, pied French, pie Spanish, 
 pe Portuguese, pes pedis Latin, JJovg, 'j:oBog. In Hebrew we observe bus 
 to trample under foot. 
 
 The Welch has pedol, a horse-shoe. 
 
 From foot, the Persian has piadah a footman, and we derive fetters, 
 in Russian powtei, in Bohemian pauty, in Polish peta, in Persian paw, 
 and in Latin compedes; in Italian ceppi, in French ceps. 
 
 Four, cheathra, ceathair and ceithair Galic, pedwar Welch, padzhar 
 Cornish, pewar Armoric, quatre French, quattro Italian, quatro Spanish 
 and Portuguese, feower Saxon, vier Dutch and German, fioore Icelandic, 
 five Danish, fyra Swedish, fidwer Gothic, chetwerti Slavonian, chetuire 
 Russian, czterni Polish, chuerk Armenian, pahar and chah^r Persian, 
 tchethro Zend, fydor Precop. ch^ir Hindostan and Bengal, chatur San= 
 scrit, quatuor Latin, HfTopa. iEoUan»
 
 134 
 
 Gird, girdle, girt, garter, garden, agree with gyrdan Saxon, gorden 
 Dutch, guerten German, giord Icelandic, gyrter Danish, garda and 
 gierda Swedish, gairda Gothic, sagraditi Slavonian, ogorodsate Russian, 
 ograditi Dalmatian and Hungarian, ogradzac Polish, and zaraditi Bohe- 
 mian. In Persian we have a rich variety of derivatives from girdiden, to 
 go round and to turn, answering to yvpoeiv. Gort in Galic means the ivy. 
 
 Give, in Old English yeve, yave, yeoven; gifan Saxon, geeven Dutch, 
 geben German, gabun Teutonic, gef Icelandic, gisve Danish, gifwa 
 Swedish, gihan Gothic, ja/iab (m^) Chaldce and Syrian, vahab Arabic. 
 
 Goat and Kid, gitten and gidi Welch, gaite, gaet and gat Saxon, 
 gheyten, gheyte and gheete Dutch, geiss German, geit Icelandic, geed 
 Danish, giet and get Swedish, gaitein Gothic, koza Slavonian, Russian, 
 Polish, Dalmatian, and Bohemian, ketzke Hungarian, getfi Tartaric, 
 haedus Latin. In Hebrew we haxe gedi {-^1}) a kid, geedz (t;f) a she- 
 goat, and gathudim (Clin;/] he-goats. In these all the preceding terms 
 may have originated. 
 
 In Galic this line of connexion is cut oft', and we have gobhar a goat, 
 though formerly it meant a iiorse. In Welch gafr, in French chevre, in 
 Spanish cabra, in Italian and Latin capra, look to nccTiqog, but this means 
 a boar. 
 
 Goose, gos Saxon, goose and goes Dutch, gas Laplandic, gaas Ice- 
 landic and Danish, gas Swedish, guse Russian, guss Slavonian, Iberian 
 and Bohemian, geoz Polish, hus Bohemian and Polish, kas Turkish and 
 Tartaric, gsocis Kamptschatkan, gaz Armenian, all agree. 
 
 Gander agrees with ganradh and gandal Galic, ganso Spanish, ganza 
 Italian, bans Hindostan, gandra Saxon, gans Dutch, and X^v of the 
 Greek.
 
 135 
 
 Guest, gwestai and gwestwr Welch, gest Saxon, gast Dutch, German 
 and Gothic, giestur Icelandic, giest Danish, gast Swedish, gust and gost 
 Slavonian, gost Russian, gospodarz and gosc Polish, host Bohemian, 
 goozt Dalmatian, gazda Hungarian. Hospes, hospitis means both the 
 entertainer and the entertained. This gives birth to host, which is in 
 Galic osdair, in Armoric ostis, and in French hote. 
 
 Have, caffael Welch, avoir French, happer Old French, habban and 
 hafan Saxon, hebben Dutch, haben German, haae Danish, hafa Ice- 
 landic, hafwa Swedish and Finlandic, ap Sanscrit, xjisiv. The Persian 
 yaften means to find. These agree with gaba and caph of the Hebrew. 
 
 He, E Galic and Armoric, e and efe Welch, hy Dutch, sa Gothic, 
 Swedish and Finlandic, ei Slavonian, o, ez and az Hungarian, u Persian, 
 agree with yeh Hindostan, this man, i' Greek, hu Hebrew, Chaldean, 
 Syrian and Arabic. 
 
 Head, ceap, cudh and cuth Galic, iad Welch, heafod, heofod and 
 hoefde Saxon, hoofd Dutch, haupt and kopf German, kop Dutch, 
 haubit Old German, liofFud leelandic, hoffuit Danish, huvud Swedish, 
 hauhith Gothic, caponya Hungarian, kop-pa-lah Chinese. These agree 
 with caput and Ke(pxXvi, but gabah in Hebrew means high, elevated, and 
 gibeah baldhead. 
 
 Mr. Tooke, following Leibnits, derives head from heave. T am ready 
 to alfew, that these words may be related, and it is remarkable, that in 
 Hebrew gab means eminence, and gaphim in the plural has the same 
 acceptation. The verb in Hebrew is gebah, he excelled in height. 
 
 Heart, criodh and croidh Galic, coeur French, cuore Italian, corafon 
 Spanish, cora9ao Poituguese, heort Saxon, hert Dutch and Teutonic,
 
 136 
 
 hertz German, hiarta Icelandic, hierte Danish, hierta Swedish, hairto 
 Gothic, serdts Slavonian, serxe Russian, serce Polish, serdce Bohemian, 
 szarcze Dalmatian, sirt Armenian, szivu and szw Hungarian, bihotza 
 Cant, hard Sanscrit. 
 
 Cor cordis, Ke^i^p, y^exTog. KxpSix. 
 
 Hemp, canab Galic and Armoric, hennep and kennep Dutch, hanfF 
 German, hampa Swedish, konople Slavonian and Russian, komope 
 Bohemian, konop, Polish, can nab Persian, azvuzjiig. 
 
 Hen, henne Saxon, hinne, hoen and hen Dutch, huhn German, 
 haena Icelandic, henne Danish, hanna Swedish, hana Gothic, kana 
 Finlandic. 
 
 House, hus Saxon, huis Dutch, hauss German, huus Danish and 
 Swedish, hus Icelandic, Gothic, and Prccop. hisha Slavonian, kushya 
 Dalmatian, haz and az Polish, kuzha Croat, keushen Carinth. houze 
 Armenian, haz Hungarian, hu Chinese, casa Latin. In Hebrew casa 
 means he covered. 
 
 Hut hutte Saxon and German, hute French, hytte Danish, huta 
 Polish, huti Bohemian. In the Gothic we find liethjo cubiculum. Kuta 
 Sanscrit. In some ©f the oriental dialects Jmt (tDin) means a thread 
 to sew together, to inclose, whence comes hait a wall. But as hut 
 and cot are evidently the same word, they may be equally allied to Ko*t*i. 
 
 J, mi Galic, Welch, and Marhatta. I its oblique case Welch; me 
 Armoric, men Persian, main Hindostani, je French, io Italian, yo 
 Spanish, eu Portuguese, ie Saxon, ich Old English and German, ick 
 Dutch, eg Icelandic, ieg Danish, lag and ga Swedish, ik Gothic, iaze, 
 ia and ena Russian, ia Polish, Bohemian, and Lusatian, es Armenian,
 
 157 
 
 en Hungarian, ben Tartaiian, ego Iw'ya;. In Ilcbrew we fiave anoki, 
 ani and I. 
 
 Is, is Galic, sy ^Velch, est French, es Spanisii and Portuguese, is 
 Saxon and Dutch, ist German and Gothic, est Slavonian, Russian and 
 Persian, iest Polish, e Armenia, as, ast Sanscrit. 
 
 Es, est Latin, eqi. Greek. Is or jesh Hebrew. See Am. 
 
 King. In Galic we have ceann, the head, pronounced kemi ceannas, 
 the office of chieftain, and cinbeirt a ruler. In Welch cda and cu- 
 uiad signify a lord. 
 
 Among the Gothic tribes our word is more distinct. Cyning, cynig 
 and cyng Saxon, koning Dutch, konig German, kuning Teutonic, 
 konning and konge Danish, Kongur Icelandic, cunningus Lapland 
 and FinKand, cakunge Greeeland, konung Swedish. In German kuhn 
 means brave valiant. The Slavonian tribes have knyaz a prince a 
 general; the Huns had their cheuni, the Turks and Tartars have their 
 chans. In Persia we find khan, but it is not Persian; in Malay kyan, 
 in China kan, chong, cham and king, in Tonquin can, in Japan cunix. 
 From these expressions, remove the termination, and that which remains 
 will be equivalent to colun (1^^) of the oriental nations, a royal priest. 
 
 Kiss, cus and cusanu Welch, cyssan Saxon, kussen Dutch, kuessen 
 German, koss Icelandic, kyse Danish, kyssa Swedish, kukjan Gothic, 
 as if derived from nenvnu; kushniti Slavonian, kush Dalmatian, koshiti 
 Lusatian, kusati Croatian. In Greek we have nOw nvaw and nvtcrKu, and 
 in Homer we find Kuo-a-f. In the Slavonian we have kus the mouth, 
 kusain to bite, kusok a morsel, with kuss a kiss, answering to os and 
 osculum of the Romans, and lobzayu, allied to lip and labium. 
 
 VOL. II. T
 
 138 
 
 Kuss may be etymologicaliy allied to buss, by the change of B and K, 
 of which we have seen numerous examples, and it is probable, that they 
 are so related, because they have precisely the same meaning, the former 
 in Slavonian, the latter in Galic. In Welch bus means the lip and cus 
 
 a kiss. 
 
 These words have an extensive range and a close connexion. In Latin 
 we find basium, in Italian basciare, in French baiser, in Spanish besar, 
 in Portuguese beijar, answering to pogam Galic, boesen and bousen 
 Dutch, poca and pocalowanie Polish, bos, boseh and bosiden Persian, 
 pussune Epirotic. In Galic we have puisin, a lip, which is in Epirotic 
 bushe. In French, bouche, the mouth, answers to bocca Italian and 
 boca Spanish and Portuguese. Bucca in Latin, is the cheek. 
 
 Lick, ligham and imligham Galic, llyfu and llyu Welch, lecher French, 
 leccare Italian, lamer Spanish, lamber Portuguese, lambo and lingo 
 Latin, liccian Saxon, lacken Dutch, lecken German, Sleikia Icelandic, 
 lickcr and slicker Danish, slika and sleka Swedish, laigvan Gothic, lizati, 
 lisati liju and lokaiu Slavonian, lizati Dalmatian and Bohemian, lizak,lize 
 and lokac Polish, lakiel Armenian, lih and lihmi Sanscrit. In Greek wc 
 have >.ft%w, XaTCTu, and Xx'ttx^w, in Hebrew lahac and lakak (pp7, pn7, "^n?.) 
 
 Mam, see Mother. 
 
 Me, mi Welch, me Galic, Armoric, French, Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
 guese and Latin, mier Saxon, my Dutch, mich German, mig Swedish, 
 inik Gothic, mya Slavonian, menya Russian, me Iberian, me and nai 
 Sanscrit, ff^f and [j-s. 
 
 Might, mocht (Jalic, gallu Welch, mcaht, maegeth Saxon, magt 
 Danish, Swedish, mogu Slavonian, pomogaiu Russian, mahata Sanscrit, 
 i^ty:tXvj, i^-fyas, i^tyi^og, magnus (nbiJl^) megala Hebrew, eminence.
 
 1:>9 
 
 Mine, my mo (jalic, mau Wclcli, maliini Armoric, mien mon French, 
 min Saxon, miin Dutch, inein German, myn Icelandic, inin Swedish, 
 meins Gothic, moy or inoi Slavonian, Dalmatian, Pohsh and Lusatian, 
 mene and mena Russian. In Persian, men means I, and em mine, an- 
 swering to mam Sanscrit, i>ov Greek. See I. 
 
 Milk, laith, bhochd and meilg Gahc, llaeth and bhth Welch, leath 
 Cornish, leas and laeth Armoric, lait French, latte Italian, leche Spanish, 
 leite Portuguese, lac laclis Latin, meoluc, meoloc, and meolc Saxon, 
 melck Dutch, milch German, mioolk Icelandic, melk Danish, miolk 
 Swedish, melkc Laplandic, maito Finlandic, mleko and mliko Slavonian, 
 Lusatian, Dalmatian, Croatian, Polish and Carinth., moloka Russian, 
 lapte Walachian. In Greek we have yxKcc, yxKan'rog, aj^tAyw and [j^tXnx 
 as used by Galen. 
 
 Mill, muilionu and meilam Galic, melin and malu Welch, belin 
 Armoric and Cornish, moulin French, mohno Italian and Spanish, milha 
 and moynho Portuguese, mola Latin, mylen Saxon, molen Dutch, muhle 
 German, mil Icelandic, mollen Danish, mala Swedish, malan Gothic, 
 melnitsa and mliin and melnitsa Slavonian, mielnitsa, melneka and 
 melne Russian, mlin Polish and Bohemian, malom Hungarian, maliden 
 Persian, mylly Finlandic, ^uXvi. 
 
 Mix and mingle, measgam and cumasgam Galic, mysgy Welch, mesler 
 French, mescolare and mischiare Italian, mesclar and mesturar Spanish, 
 misturar Portuguese, miscere Latin, gemengan Saxon, mingelen Dutch, 
 mischen and mengen German, mauk Icelandic, maenger Danish, meno-a 
 Swedish, meshayu Slavonian, mieszam Polish, miser Sanscrit, ixtyvuf* 
 and i^i7yu, (^072 and jr.D) mezeg and mesek. 
 
 T 2 
 
 o
 
 140 
 
 Mother, mathair Galic, mam Welch, mere French, madre Spanish 
 and Italian, may Portuguese, mother, meder and medder Saxon, moeder 
 Dutch, mutter German, mooder Icelandic, moder Danish and Swedish, 
 ama Finlandic, aema Laplandic, materi and mati Slavonian, Dal- 
 matian, Bohemian, Kroat., and lllyrian, matt and mate Russian, mash 
 and matka Polish, maike Walacian, mame Epirotic, mair Armenian, 
 madar Persian, ma Malay, madua Sandwich Islands and New Zealand, 
 me Tonquin, memme Kamptschatka, ana and eme Tartarian, me and 
 mu China and Siam, ma Java, matar Sanscrit, man with the nasal ter- 
 mination Hindostan, mama Chili, iman Samoid, maar Gilan, mata 
 Tamul., h^7^p, H-aVf*« and iJ.aiJ.xix, aem Hebrew, hnmcc Syrian and ijnma 
 Chaldean. 
 
 Murder, mort and mudhlaim Galic, murdwrn Welch. Murn in Welch 
 is a secret murder, and miorun Irish, means a private grudge. These 
 agree with meurtre French, muro Portuguese, matar Spanish, morth 
 Saxon, moord Dutch, mord German, mord Icelandic, morder Danish, 
 morda Swedish, maurth Gothic, smert Slavonian, Polish, Bohemian, 
 mordcrx Polish, mardasbane Armenian, murden to die and medar a 
 corpse Persian, martum and marty Sanscrit, mors mortis, [j.opoc, iJ.opeu. 
 
 Name. Ainm Galic, ennim Manx, henw, enw and enwi Welch, hano 
 Cornish and Armenian, noni French, nombre Spanish, nome Italian 
 and Portuguese, nomen Latin, naam Dutch, nama Saxon, name German, 
 natii Icelandic, naff'n Danish, namn Svvedisli, name Gothic, imya Sla- 
 vonian, Russian and Lusatian, imie Polish, gmcne and imeno Bohemian^ 
 iime Daliuiitian, neve Hungarian, nimmi and cmene Epirotic, nam 
 i'crsian, nanian Sanscrit, nam Laplandic, nimes Finlandic, n4ma Malays
 
 141 
 
 namam Tamulic, nim Chinese, ovof^a:. Naam and naum in Hebrew, is lie 
 
 said. 
 
 Night. Oiche Galic but ann nochd, this night. Nos Welch, nos 
 Armoiic and Cornish, nuiet and nuit French, notte Italian, noche 
 Spanish, noyte Portuguese, niht Saxon, nacht, nagt Dutch, German, 
 and Teutonic, noot Icelandic, nat Danish, natt Swedish, nahts Gothic, 
 nostch or noshtsh Slavonian, noche Russian, noc Polish and IJohcmian, 
 nooch Dalmatian, notz Lusatian, noaptc Walacian, nisa Sanscrit, nox 
 noctis Ni)^, vvKTog. 
 
 Nine, Naonar and naoi Galic, naw Welch, Armoric, and Cornish, 
 neuf French, nueve, Spanish, nove Italian and Portuguese, novem Latin, 
 nigen, nigan and nigon Saxon, negen Dutch, neun German, nyu Ice- 
 landic, ni Danish, nio Swedish, niun Gothic, nine Precop. inn Arme- 
 nian, noh, nine and nohom ninth Persian, navan Sanscrit e-^i^tx. 
 
 N.OS? and Nostrils, nez French, naso Italian, nariz Spanish and Por- 
 tuguese, nasus and nares Latin, nosa Saxon, neus, neuze and neis 
 Dutch, nase German, nos Icelandic, noes Swedish, nos Slavonian, Russian, 
 Polish and Bohemian, noose Dalmatian, nasa Sanscrit. 
 
 Oath. Ath Saxon, eid German, eed Dutch and Danisli, oede Ice- 
 landic, aith Gothic, eed and eeduth Hebrew testimony ("T^i/i"') he testified. 
 
 One. Aon Galic, im Welch, uynyn Cornish, unan Armoric, un French, 
 uno Italian and Spanish, hum i'ortuguese, unus Latin, an aene Saxon, 
 een Dutch, ein German, eyn Icelandic, en Danish, han Swedish, ains 
 Gothic, edin Slavonian, iedna, odin and on Russian, iedan Dalmatian, 
 geden Bohemian, jeden Polish, van Chinese, "iv luhg hena Chaldean. 
 
 Should the Slavonian line be here considered as the parent of the
 
 142 
 
 rest; the first progenitor may be sought for in ahad and jehad of the 
 Chaldee, Hebrew and Arabic, which in the Syriac becomes hada. 
 
 0.2, bull, bullock and buffalo. Agh, scgh and bo Calic, ych Welch, eg 
 Armoric, bocuf French, buey Spanish, bue Italian, bos bovis Latin, 
 oxa Saxon, oz Dutch, ochse German, uxc Icelandic, oxe Danish and 
 Swedish, auhs Gothic, buik Russian and Slavonian, wol Polish, ochse 
 rmheniian, okoz Turkish, eker, okor, ok and eukner Hungarian, ugir 
 Tartaric, bo Tonquin, usa Sanscrit. 
 
 In Greek we have Bovc, in Latin bos. But Bovg means a cow, and 
 bos extends to the whole species, whether cow, bull, ox or heifer. So 
 does the Galic ash. In Welch, ych is confined to ox, and buwch to 
 cow ; but bu is either ox or cow, and bwla is a bull. In Galic bo is 
 cither a bull, ox, cow, or fawn. So bubulus in Latin means that which 
 is derived from an ox, bull, or cow, and bubulcus like BanoKog is 
 Armentarius. So bakar in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac denotes a herd 
 of cattle, whether cows, bulls or oxen. In Arabic bakar is generic 
 and bakarat means a heifer. 
 
 Buffalo and Bugle, is in Latin bubulus in Greek (iov^xko(7 and ^oxj^xXig, 
 in Welch bual, buibol in Slavonian, in Polish bawol, in Hungarian 
 bial. In all these the generic part of the term is evident, and classes 
 this animal with cows, oxen, bulls, but the specific difference is no 
 where so distinctly seen as in Galic, in which bo allaidh is a wild bull 
 or buffalo, for allaidh is Avild, Avhich leads us to ci'k<Jog and saltus. 
 
 From these terms, as I apprehend, may be derived the Slavonian 
 vol, the Celtic bwla and our bull.
 
 143 
 
 Tn what manner boallaidh is related to the Arabic phahal, 1 cannot 
 pretend to say. See cow and yoke. 
 
 Faw is lapadh Galic, paw Welch, poot Dutch, fa Icelandic and 
 Swedish, fahan Gothic, p^ Persian, pdun Hindostan. May we consider 
 all these as related to 7r«w. In Danish patte means to seize. 
 
 Pot, is pot French, puta aud bhad Sanscrit. 
 
 Raven, bran Galic, cig-fran, i. e. a flesh crow, AVelch, corbeaii French, 
 corbo Italian, cuervo Spanish, corvo Portugese, corvus Latin, hra;m 
 and hraefen Old English, hraefn and remn Saxon, rave Dutch, rabe 
 German, hrafn Icelandic, raffn Danish, ranm Swedish, kavran and 
 vrdn Slavonian, voron Russian, kruk Polish, hawran, Bohemian, gravran 
 Dalmatian, chafran Croatian. In Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic we have 
 gorab, which is distinctly corvus. In Welch rhaib is a ravening. Voro 
 Latin and voron of Russia may be allied, as may be rapio and rabe. 
 See rook and crow. 
 
 Rook. Rocus and bran Galic, yd-fran i. e. corn crow AVelch, rocco 
 Italian, krook Old Flnglish, hroc Saxon, rocck and koore-kraye, that is 
 corn, crow Dutch, corneille French cornix. In Greek we have apcoy^j^og 
 a croaking, in Latin crocito, which is in Polish krakam, in Flungarian 
 korrogok, whence we derive both crow and rook. See raven and crow. 
 
 To rook, that is to deceive and cheat, seems rather to be allied to 
 roka* Hungarian a fox, than to the bird, because, although voracious, 
 the rook has never yet been charged Avith fraud. 
 
 Boh. Robam Galic, derober French, robar Spanish, rubare Italian, 
 beryppan, ryppan and reafianl Saxon, rooven Dutch, rauben and raflcn 
 German, rifa Icelandic, roffver Danish, riifwa and gripa Swedish, bi=-
 
 144 
 
 raubodan Gothic, obriipati Slavonian, grabite Russian, rabowac Polish, 
 lobiii Dalmatian, rubnowati Lusatian, ragadom Hungarian, rubuden 
 Persian. 
 
 In Latin we have in rapio in Greek ap-^dco. 
 
 In Hebrew, Clialdee, Sjriac and Arabic, harab, conveys the notion 
 of war, plunder and deceit. Yet rob, rapine, ravish, rover, ruffian, 
 and bereave, may, like raven, originate in gorab of the Hebrew. 
 
 6Va, sail and sailin Galic, swi Armoric, sae Saxon, zee Dutch, see 
 German, sioor Icelandic, sio Swedish, saihva Gothic, soo Finlandic, zea 
 Iberian, sue and xoi Armenian, sou Tonquin, and xu Japan. Su 
 Chinese and Tartaric, means water, river; saihva Gothic is confined to 
 lake. A sail is segl Saxon, seyl Dutch. Are these allied to sea? or 
 have they any connexion with velum? 
 
 Seat, saide and suidhe Galic, eisteddle and gorsedd Welch, seotole 
 and setl Saxon, sate, sedele and sele Dutch, sidel German, sette Teu- 
 tonic, saete Icelandic, sede Danish, sate and saessa Swedish, sedalishtshe 
 Slavonian, siedzenie Polish, sezek Hungarian, sedes, sedile; tho; Greek, 
 seth or sheth (n t^) Hebrew, v. sit. 
 
 Sit^ suidham and seisim Galic, gorseddu Welch, sittan, sitzan Saxon, 
 sltten Dutch, sitzen German, sessa Icelandic, sidder Danish, sitia 
 Swedish, sitan Gothic, sedlayu, sideti and sieju Slavonian, sedete Rus- 
 sian, sicdze Polish, sediti Bohemian, szyditi Dalmatian, nishesten Per- 
 sian, asitum and sidivasa Sanscrit. Sedeo. f?0M-ai. {pnm. T\r\^ and T\W-) 
 Satha Hebrew and Chaldee, he placed. (VnJi') Setal Chaldee, means to 
 set, to plant. From sit we may derive saddle. Sadhall Galic, sadell 
 Welch, selle French, silla Spanish, sella Italian, Portuguese and Latin,
 
 145 
 
 sadl Saxoti, sadel Dutch, sattel German, sadul Icelandic, sadel Danish 
 and Swedish, sedlo Slavonian and Bohemian, siedio Russian, siodlo 
 
 Polish. 
 
 Seven, seachd and morsheisar Galic, saith Welch, Armoric and Cornish, 
 sept French, sette Italian, siete Spanish, sete Portuguese, septem Latin, 
 seofon Saxon, zevcn Dutch, sieben German, sio Icelandic, siuf Danish, 
 siu Swedish, sibun Gothic, siwSamoide, sedm Slavonian and Bohemian, 
 sem and situ Russian, siedm Polish, szedam Dalmatian, schedim Lusa- 
 tian, yedi Turkish, het Hungarian, heft Persian, sAth Sanscrit, septem, 
 Ittt*, aehag Hebrew and Chaldee, seha Arabic. 
 
 She, isa, ise Galic, hi Welch and Armoric, ea Latin, seo, heo and 
 hio Saxon, sii Dutch, sie German, si Gothic, ese Russian, sa Sanscrit^ 
 In Latin we have is he, in Hebrew ish he, isha she. 
 
 Six, seisir, se and sia Galic, chw6ch Welch, huech Armoric, six 
 French, sei Italian, seis Spanish, seys Portuguese, syx Saxon, zes, sesse 
 and ses Dutch, sechs German, sex and siax Icelandic, sex Danish and 
 Swedish, saihs Gothic, seis Precop., shest Slavonian and Russian, szescz 
 Polish, ssest Bohemian, hat Hungarian, shesh Persian, zuest Armenian, 
 sau Tartarian, si Chinese, choe Bengal, shesh Sanscrit, sex Latin, £$ 
 Greek, ses or shesh and seth Hebrew and Chaldee, sittet and sitt Arabic. 
 
 Son, zoon and sine Dutch, sone Saxon, suna German, sohn Icelandic, 
 sonus Danish and SAvedish, son Gothic, sunus Slavonian, Bohemian, 
 Polish, syn Russian, sun Dalmatian, viov Greek. 
 
 Sow, hog, swine, muc Galic, hwch Welch, houch Armoric, sugu and 
 swin Saxon, soegh, seugh, hogh, souwe and swiin Dutch, saw and schwein 
 German, saa and suin Icelandic, suin Danish, sugga and swin Swedish, 
 
 VOL. II. u
 
 146 
 
 sveina Gothic, siea Finlandic, zopa and swiniya Slavonian, sweneina and 
 swenee Russian, swin Lusatian, swinia Polish, Dalmatian and Carniolan, 
 swine Bohemian, khog Persian, uc Chinese, sus Latin. 
 
 In Greek we hnve'vg, (rug aveiog, avinog and (xvivog. 
 
 Stand, i.e. siaend, sta Galic, slaan Dutch, standan Saxon, staae 
 Danish, stoiu Russian, istaden Persian, stan and statum Sanscrit. Sto, 
 sta, stans, stantis, stante, statum. Hqi^^i sqxuzi. 
 
 Take, togam Galic, tacken Dutch, tek Icelandic, tager Danish, taga 
 Swedish, takniti Slavonian, taknuti Dalmatian, teknauti Bohemian, 
 tykac Polish, t«w, Ta^co, tetcchoc, tTayov, yiTXO{/.xi. 
 
 Ten, deich and da cuig, that is twice five, Galic, deg Welch, Armoric 
 and Cornish, dix French, dieci Italian, diez Spanish, decern Latin, tyn, 
 tin, tien Saxon, tien, thien Dutch, zehen German, tyu Icelandic, ti 
 Danish, tiijo Swedish, taihun Gothic, thyne Precop., desiati and deset 
 Slavonian, Dalmatian and Bohemian, disset Russian, dzesziec Polish, 
 tiz Hungarian, tasn Armenian, deh or dah Persian, des Hindostan, desen 
 Sanscrit, Atyia. 
 
 This, so Galic, this Saxon, deze Dutch, diese German, sa Gothic, 
 Swedish and Finlandic, these Icelandic, tesai Russian, taya and sie Sla- 
 vonian, thavis and thaithan Iberian, delta and denna Swedish, ten Polish, 
 is Latin, ze Hebrew. 
 
 This, in Gothic, is the genitive singular, and thize the genitive plural 
 of sa and thata, which answer to this and that of the English, or to h 
 and TO of the Greek. 
 
 Thou, tu and thu Galic, ti tydi Welch, te Armoric, ta Cornish, tu 
 French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Latin, thu Saxon, du Dutch
 
 147 
 
 and German, tliii Icelandic and Gothic, du Danish and Swedish, fzo 
 Precop., ty Slavonian, Dahiialian and Polish, tci and tui Ilussian, sen 
 Turc, and Iberian, ty Hungarian, tu Persian, tzo Tartaric, de Bengal, 
 twa Sanscrit, St), Dorice Tu, in Hebrew ata, in Arabic entn. 
 
 Three, tri Galic, Welch, Armoric and Cornish, trois French, tres 
 Spanish, Portuguese and Latin, thrie and threo Saxon, drie and trey 
 Dutch, drey German, thrys Icelandic, tre Swedish, thrins Gothic, tri 
 Slavonian and Russian, trzy Bohemian, trzi Polish, tria Tartaric, try 
 Sanscrit. T^as. 
 
 Thrice, iris and tres vices Latin, trois fois French, tris Sanscrit. 
 
 Through is ire, trid and dar Galic, trwy and drwy Welch, thurk, thruh 
 and thor Saxon, door Dutch, durch German and thairh Gothic. In the 
 Gothic we have thairs, and in French trou, foramen. 
 
 All these, beyond a question, for their symbol have a door, and ori- 
 ginate in this notion, as beautifully illustrated by Mr. Tooke. We find 
 thorruke. Old English, tharagh Chaldee, thara Syriac, and ^vpx Greek a 
 door. Hence it appears that our Old Enghsh thorruke and through are 
 from the Chaldee, and not from the Greek. 
 
 Time, am Galic, temps French, tiempo Spanish, tempo Itahan, and 
 Portuguese, tempus Latin, tima Saxon, time Danish, tima Swedish, 
 dem Persian, a breathing, a moment. Zemen Hebrew, Chaldee and 
 Syriac, zeman Arabic. 
 
 Tine, tind, and tinder, teinne Galic, tan Welch, Armoric and Cornish 
 fire. Tendan and tynan Saxon, zunden German and Teutonic, tende 
 Danish, t'anda Swedish, tandjan Gothic, tendra Icelandic, to kindle. 
 In Persian we have taw and taf, heat and tawiden to heat, to shine. 
 
 V 2
 
 148 
 
 Indh Sanscrit kindling. Szen Hungarian, tanat Epirotic, ten Japan, 
 tien Chinese, fire. Tun Persian, a furnace in Hebrew is tanor (lljn) 
 tan, tartarian is a spark, and tinh to shine. 
 
 In Latin we have extinguo, in French eteindre and etinceler, in 
 Galic tentean, the hearth, tin teach, lightning, tintighe and teintidh 
 fiery; tinm understanding, and tinteannas great haste, in Welch tanbaid 
 and tanrhe fiery, tanwdd fuel, tawnr one who provides il, and tywynnu 
 to shine, in Chinese toung the East, in Finish tunne to know. 
 
 Tooth, dend Galic, dant Welch and Armorc, danz Cornish, dent 
 French, diente Spanish, dente Italian and Portuguese, dens, dentis 
 Latin, toth Saxon, tand and tandt Dutch, zahn German, tenn Icelandic, 
 tand Swedish, tunthu Gothic, atamn Armemian, dendan Persian, dant 
 Hindostani and Sanscrit. In Persian dendiden is to gnaw, olovg oBovrog 
 and Tiv^co Greek. 
 
 Shen Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac. Sinn Arabic. 
 
 Tine English and tinne Icelandic mean the teeth, of forks, and of 
 liarrows. 
 
 Tree, dair and dairbhre in Galic mean the oak, so does derw in 
 Welch and Armoric. We have treo, treow and tryw Saxon, dre Teu- 
 tonic, triu and trie Icelandic, tree Danish, tra Swedish, triu Gothic, 
 drewo Slavonian, Russian and Lusatian, drzwo Polish, strom Bohemian, 
 dreuno Lusatian, dzarr Armenian, druu Epirotic, deracht Persian, dru 
 and tra Sanscrit. 
 
 Two, da and do Galic, dau and dwy Welch, deux French, due Italiaa, 
 dos Spanish, dons Portuguese, duo Latin, tu, tua, twa, twe and twy 
 Saxon, twee twii Dutch, zwey and zwo German, tueir Icelandic, twa
 
 149 
 
 Swedish, tu and toe Danisli, tuai Gothic, dwa Slavonian, Russian, Dal- 
 matian, PoHsh and Lusatian, du Persian d6 Hindostani, dua Malay, 
 dwau Sancrit, Sva Greek, sheni Hebrew, thani Arabic means second. 
 
 fVa7', In Galic we have greis, greit and griasda a warrior, grim war 
 and griom challaire, a herald, or the man who declares Avar. In Welch 
 we find arfwr and arwr, a warrior, a hero, in French guerre, in Italian and 
 Spanish guerra. These agree with waer Saxon, weere Dutch, werre 
 German, baratta Icelandic, orlog Swedish, boriu Slavonian, voina Russian, 
 Slavonian, Polish and Lusatian, bhaarat Hindostani and Sanscrit, in 
 which beero means a hero, heros Latin, vjpwj Greek, to which may be 
 related «p^g, fV'? and megarca (nm;;^) of the Hebrew, in which lan- 
 guage garac ("?|-|y) means to set the army in array. Should we be 
 disposed to connect war like virtus courage with vir; we must then 
 look to gwr of the Welch, and geher of the Hebrew. If with arms, 
 we shall find its allies in karah Persian, arm Galic, arf Welch, ar, arf, 
 or, yr, urf and hiorf Swedish, arms, arrow and sword, which last is 
 sweord Saxon, sweerd Dutch, schwerdt German, hior Icelandc, sverd 
 Danish, sward, hiorf and orf Swedish, hairus Gothic, kard Hungarian, 
 saur Armenian, and aop Greek, These agree with zur ("11^) Hebrew, 
 which means war, a rock, a fortress, an enem)', and the edge of the 
 sword. 
 
 Warm, garam and goram Galic, gwr^s and gwresogi Welch, wearmian 
 Saxon, waermen Dutch, warmen German, varm Icelandic and Gothic, 
 warma Swedish, wram Polish, germ Persian, gurum Hindostani, 
 goria Cuntabrian, pogoraiu Slavonian, pori Welch, itvpoeiv Greek 
 and hagar Hebrew to hum. All these are related. But here the
 
 150 
 
 Galic may be the parent of the Gothic, because that language as- 
 sumes M to form the first person singular of the present tense. 
 
 Water, dobhar and dur, baister and baiter Galic, dwr Welch, dowr 
 Cornish, eau French, waster Saxon, v/aeter putch, wasser German, uazzar 
 Teutonic, ytturia Cantabrian udr Icelandic, vatn Swedish, van Danish, 
 vatin Gothic, voda Slavonian and Dalmatian, woda Russian, Bohemian, 
 Polish and Illyrian, wessi and uie Epirotic and Esthonian wiis and viz 
 Hungarian and Croatian, dschur and dsour Armenian, sii Turc. udac 
 and var Sanscrit, wesi Finlandic, tiatse Lapland, ao Tonquin, doo 
 Japan, yoe Birman, avye and awa Otaheite, u5wp and It^ Greek, 
 
 In Hebrew, Chaldean and Arabic we have matar (■ID;^) rain and 
 oed ("T^) vapor. 
 
 Will, ail and toil Galic, gwyll Welch, vouloir French, velle and volo 
 Latin, willa Saxon, will Dutch and German, vuill Teutonic, wilia 
 vilja Gothic, voliu Slavonian, woleia Russian, wule Bohemian, wole 
 Polish, volya Dalmatian. All these agree Avith aXSof^ai, ^eXw, (*eXXa;, 
 ^aXkoo, (iovKoy-cci, and 7"'5:^in Hoil. 
 
 Withe and Withy, withig Saxon, wede Dutch, weide German, widia 
 Swedish, vidde, Icelandic, weez Dalmatian, wiazek and wiazko Polish, 
 wist Armenian, Irtsi and £tv)j Greek. To swathe is wathan withan Gothic, 
 vcsatia Slavonian, vezati Dalmatian, vazati Bohemian, wiazac Polish, 
 wisatzi Lusatian, vieo Latin. Gwydd is in Welch a weaver, a loom 
 and gwyddi a quickset hedge. It must be remembered that in Welch 
 dd is pronounced th. 
 
 Wool, olann Galic, gwlan Welch, Armoric and Cornish, laine French, 
 lana Italian Spanish and Latin, wuUe Saxon, wolle Dutch and
 
 151 
 
 German, ull Icelandic and Swedish, willa Finlandic, uld Danish, 
 ullo Lapland, volna Slavonian, wlna Bohemian, welna Polish, vulna 
 Dalmatian, wil Epirotic. In Latin we have vellus, villus pilus, in 
 Greek hvKog, [^xWog, and [^.vi'kov^ in Welch gwallog hairy. 
 
 Write, sgriobam Galic, ysgrifennu Welch, scrivaff Armoric, ecrire 
 French, escribir Spanish, escrever Portuguese, scrivere Italian, scribere 
 Latin, writan Saxon, schreiben, schriiven Dutch, kreiden Cierman, scri- 
 bere cum creta. Kit Icelandic, skrifwa Swedish, ypaCpw Greek. 
 
 Allied to these we have grave, scrape, scratch, scrub, and rub. Sgrio- 
 bam Galic, crafu Welch, grater French, grattare Italian, kratsen Dutch, 
 kratzen German, kratzer Danish, kratta Swedish, drapie, skrobie and 
 ^iskrobuie Polish, vakarodhatnam Hungarian, %«pa3-(rw, xtxpccrlco, Greek, 
 rado Latin, (a^in and nln) charas, charat, Hebrew, to engrave, to 
 write, and cheret (o")n) a pen. From charat may have been derived 
 tharta. 
 
 Yard, orchard and garden, all agree, and are nearly allied to gird. 
 
 In Galic we have garadh and gort, the latter of which terms means a 
 field, a garden, in Welch gardd, in French and Spanish jardin, in Por- 
 tuguese jardim. Corresponding with these we have ortgeard Saxon, 
 gaerde Dutch, garten German, karto and gardon Teutonic, gaard Danish, 
 gard and ortegard Swedish, aurtijards Gothic, vert, varta and vertgorod 
 Slavonian, ogorode Russian, ogrod Polish, zahrade Bohemian, kert 
 Hungarian, hortus Latin, XopToj, according to Hesychius, is an inclosure. 
 In Swedish garda means a hedge to inclose. 
 
 Yea, eadh Galic, ie Welch and Armoric, oui French, ia Saxon, Dutch
 
 152 
 
 and German, iai Gothic, ia Swedish, vgy Hungarian, ayi Sanscrit je/ii 
 (iiT^) Heb. 
 
 Yoke, cuing Galic, iau Welch, joug French, giogo Italian, yugo 
 Spanish, iugo Portuguese, jugum Latin, joe and geok Saxon, jock Dutch, 
 joch German, ok Icelandic and Swedish, aag Danish, juka Gothic, juco 
 Finlandic, igo Slavonian and Russian, gho Bohemian, iga Hungarian, 
 jugh or yugh Persian, yug Sanscrit, ^vyov Greek, whence comes ^evyvucu, 
 jungo, joindre French, giungere Italian, juntar Spanish, aiuntar Portu- 
 guese, and join. See ox. 
 
 Young and youth, oganach Galic, jeuangc and jufange Welch, jouvance 
 and jeune French, giovane Italian, joven Spanish, juvenis Latin, yeong, 
 jong and geong Saxon, jong and jonck Dutch, jung German, ungur 
 Icelandic, ung Swedish, junost, junota and junosha Slavonian, junoshei 
 Russian, juroan or jawan, pronounced joowone, Persian, yauvana and 
 yuvan Sanscrit, pronounced joowaun Hindostan, jo7iek Hebrew, and 
 ja7nk Chaldee, mean a suckling. 
 
 In addition to these examples, I must call to the recollection of the 
 reader the several words I have, in the preceding sheets traced through 
 Europe and Asia to their proper radical expressions. 
 
 And I must here repeat, that the strict affinity prevailing in these 
 few words would be sufficient to prove, that the nations, by which 
 they are now, or have been used, originated in one. But this will 
 be made still more evident, when I shall proceed to the examination 
 of their several languages, beginning with the AVelch.
 
 ON THE 
 
 WELCH LANGUAGE. 
 
 L HE Welch have never pretended to be indigenous, either as natives 
 of the soil, or as the immediate offspring of some local divinity; but, 
 on the contrary, have been ever ready to acknowledge themselves colo- 
 nists, who wandered with their flocks in search of quiet habitations. 
 
 They call themselves Cymru, and boast of CJomer as their progenitor. 
 This descent they claim on the credit of the name they bear. But their 
 critics say, that, agreeably to the genius of their language, Cymry cannot 
 be derived from Gomer. If then it should be granted, that Cymru is 
 not derivable from Gomer; we must seek elsewhere for the origin of this 
 appellation, and may expect to find it in some term expressive either of 
 their mode of life, their warlike implements, their dress, their manners, 
 or the nature of the country in which they fixed their habitations. But 
 here a previous question will occur, from what language must we derive 
 this appellation? Must we apply to their neighbours or to themselves .■* 
 
 VOL. II. X
 
 154 
 
 In Herodotus we find mention made of Kif^fiulpioj, of the Bo^mpog 
 Kt(*[j.f/)iog, and of a country called Ki[*fiepi'vi, now the Crimea. But the 
 reason for this name is not assigned. 
 
 The Romans speak of the Bosphorus Cimmerius, which unites the 
 Palus Mreotis to the Euxine, and Pliny mentions both Cimmerium, a 
 city of Pontus, in more ancient times called Cerberion and Cimmeris, a 
 city of Troas. Two several people likewise have been noticed by the 
 name of Cimmerii, the one near the Bosphorus, the other in a vale of 
 Italy between Baiae and Cumoe. 
 
 Besides these people, we read in Juvenal of Terribiles Cimbri, who 
 dwelt in Jutland, and I can readily believe, with Sheringham, that their 
 name may have been derived from their ferocity in war, because in 
 German kampfFer means a warrior, kampfFen to fight and kampfF a 
 battle. Supposing this derivation to be well founded, the name ia 
 question may have been both assumed by themselves and attributed, to 
 them by those, whose territory they were accustomed to invade. 
 
 When this appellation ceased, it was succeeded by that of German, a 
 word of precisely the same import. 
 
 Should we be disposed to consider the Cimbri and Cimmerii as one 
 and the same people, and seek the origin of their name from any lan- 
 guage connected with the Persian, we might conceive them to have been 
 distinguished as a shepherd nation, because kumra in Persian, both 
 ancient and modern, means a shccpfold. Or should we be inclined to 
 look towards the Galic; in that lansuaije we should find cumar a vallev, 
 and cumaraic a people living in vales shut in by lofty mountains. Thus 
 the 0' Briens of Cumarach, in the county of Waterl'ord, were called
 
 155 
 
 Cumaraic, as inhabiting the valleys between Dungarvan and the Shure. 
 From the same circumstance, the ancient Britons of Cumberland may 
 have obtained their name of Cumbri. 
 
 In Welch, cwmm means a narrow valley between high mountains; but, 
 according to Cleland, who appears to have been a good Welch scholar, 
 apn is one of the most ancient Celtic words for mountain, and we know 
 that cime in French has the same acceptation. We find the word in 
 Arabic, Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac, every where conveying the notion 
 of altitude. It is therefore possible that by the appellation of Cymru 
 may have been meant mountaineers. 
 
 There remain yet other sources, from which the Cimmerii may have 
 derived their name. For in Welch Cymmer, pi. Cymmerau, means the 
 confluence of two seas or rivers, a circumstance common to the Thracian 
 Bosphorus, to the northern Chersonesus, and to the Straits of Sicily, of 
 all which the inhabitants were styled Cimmerii. 
 
 Of the Greek term BotrTropog, we have no certain explanation. But 
 could we in the Celtic find either a word similar to bis in sound and 
 meaning, or examples of the conversion of D into B, as in the ^olic 
 dialect of Greek, I should be inclined, with Cleland, to consider Bos- 
 phorus as a corruption of Bismor, that is, two seas, and therefore equi- 
 valent to Cymmerau, in which case Boa-Topog KiiJ.i^.epiog would exhibit such 
 a repetition as we found in lacus lemanus of the Romans and loch linny 
 of Scotland, or such as we may observe in llychlyn of the Welch, and in 
 numerous other instances already noticed. 
 
 After all, should we conceive, that Cassar intended b}' indigence, to 
 translate the Welch term brodorion, of the same import, this, with the 
 
 X 2
 
 156 
 
 preposition cyn, will readily exhibit cymro and cymru, and consequently 
 may have given birth to Cimbri and Cimmerii. 
 
 The Welch language is very valuable, and more particularly so, on 
 account of its ancient manuscripts, of which Mr. Owen has examined 
 thirteen thousand, all poetical. Some of these were written in the ninth 
 and others in the eleventh century. This gentleman has augmented the 
 vocabulary from fifteen thousand to about one hundred thousand words, 
 and in his inestimable dictionary, he has brought forward twelve thousand 
 quotations to illustrate their meaning. 
 
 It has been remarked, that there is no difference between the language 
 of the laws of Howel in the tenth century, or of Geoffrey of Monmouth 
 in the twelfth, and that now spoken. Such permanence of language may 
 be attributed in part to the multiplicity of writers in unremitted suc- 
 cession, but the principal cause of immutability must be sought for in 
 the nature of their poetry. 
 
 Other nations, in their poetical productions have been satisfied with 
 metre and the jingle of rhymes. But in addition to these, the Welch 
 require alhteration at certain intervals in their verses, and a perfect cor-, 
 respondence in this respect between verse and verse. This they have 
 carried to such an extent as must cramp the genius of their poets, but 
 at the same time and in the same degree preserve the orthography and 
 purity of their language. 
 
 In the sixth century the bards were numerous, and Llywarc Hen, who 
 was a bardic warrior attendant upon Arthur, is said to have been living 
 in the middle of ihe seventh century. It is well known, that the bards 
 held their annual assemblies, and that in the beginning of the fifteenth
 
 157 
 
 century they met to collect tlie bardic traditions. In the year 1570, 
 W. Herbert Earl of Pembroke presided in their assembly, as did Sir 
 Edward Lewis in 1580. Even so late as 1681, a complete revisal of all 
 former collections took place at Bewpyr, in a gorsedd, or national bardic 
 assembly, of which Sir Richard Basset was the president. 
 
 The Welch alphabet is said to have had originally sixteen letters, a, b, 
 c, d, e, f, g, i, 1, mj n, o, p, r, s, t. But to me they seem to have 
 been no more than fifteen, because the character for f is merely a modi- 
 fication of that for p, and is precisel)' the iEolic digamma, both in form 
 and power, whereas in Greek this digamma is in form a modification of 
 the gamma, but in power is the aspirated p. 
 
 These sixteen letters are considered as radicals. The remaining twenty- 
 four letters of the alphabet are derivatives from them, and preserve the 
 fundamental characteristics of their originals, modified by additional 
 signs to denote the various mutations of sound, with respect either to 
 length, or to aspiration, from the primary. This alphabet shews mucli 
 thought, deep reflexion and a perfect knowledge of organic affinity in 
 letters. 
 
 The radical characters have a striking resemblance to the Etruscan or 
 Pelasgia, to the Ionic, as taken from the most ancient coins of Sicily, 
 Baeotia and Attica, and to the Phenician. They are analogous to the 
 Runic, from which they seem to have been derived: but the modern 
 Runic admits of curves in some of its characters, which in the more 
 ancient were inadmissible. In the Welch alphabet all the strokes are 
 straight lines, without one curve, a form best suited to the pristine mode 
 of writing, which was by cutting letters on either triangular, or square
 
 158 
 
 sticks, as may be seen in Fry's Pantographia; consequently a single stick 
 contained either three or four lines, answering to our stave, a word still 
 retained in our churches. These were called coelbren y beirdd, that is 
 lots of the bards. ■ 
 
 Tn German a letter of the alphabet is called buch stab, that is beech 
 staf, a book is buch, and a beech tree is buche. 
 
 In the Russian language buk is a beech, and bukva is a letter. 
 In AVelch gwydd is trees, and egwyddor tlie alphabet. In Irish feadh 
 is wood, and fead to relate. In Greek the original notion of 7pa<|)w 
 was I grave, a notion which has been preserved in all the languages 
 of Europe. 
 
 All the ancient alphabets appear to have a radical affinity. It 
 has been suggested, that the Welch characters are anterior to the Greek. 
 They are certainly more simple, and require nothing more than a 
 stick, and such a chisel as we discover near the old British towns, 
 where no implement of iron appears. It is remarkable that in German 
 kieselstein means a flint, and a common flint would be fully suffici- 
 ent for the purpose of engraving or chisseling the Welch letters on 
 a beechen staf. 
 
 With regard to their pronunciation, we may remark that 11 is sounded 
 like I in limb, w like oo in foot. Y may be i, o, u, in third, honey, 
 mud. C and g are pronounced hard, r is aspirated. The double 
 letters dd, ff and 11 are modern inventions to indicate that d, f and 1 are 
 to be aspirated. Yet 11, in derivatives from Greek supplies the place 
 ©f ^X, xX, ttX and <px, as in Uifo /SXuoj, lladd nXxaig, lliaws •xXvi&og, tXeoj, 
 ■jXeTog, llippau enXei'Xbj, llydan TtXxTVvic, llosgi (pXc^t'^o;, &c, &C.
 
 159 
 
 The Welch has a practice peculiar to itself in its nine mutable initial 
 letters, called literae umbratiles, because they change and vanish like a 
 shadow. These are b, c, d, g, 11, m, p, r, t, which change according 
 to words immediately preceding them. 
 
 li B gives place to fandm. For instance bara is bread; ei fara 
 his bread; fy mara my bread. 
 
 2. M becomes f, mam mother; ei fam his mother. 
 
 3. P becomes B. Mh, and ph as pen a head; ei ben his head; 
 fy mhen my head; ei phen her head. 
 
 4. C becomes ch, g, and ngh, as car a relation; ei char her relation; 
 ei gar his relation; fynghar my relation. 
 
 5. G either becomes iig or is dropt. Thus gwas a servant ; fy ngwas 
 my servant ; ei w^s his servant. 
 
 6. T becomes th, d, and nh, as tM father; ei thdd her father; 
 ei d4d his father; fynhad my father, 
 
 7. D is changed to dd and n, as duw God; ei dduw his God; fy 
 nuw my God. 
 
 8. LI becomes 1, as Haw a hand; ei law his hand. 
 
 9. Rh is converted into r, as rhv/yd a net; ei rwyd his net. 
 These changes are founded on the general principles, that letters 
 
 of the same organ are commutable. The peculiarity of the Welch 
 language is, that they are not governed by caprice, but by fixed and 
 determinate laws. In many of its mutations the Welch discovers a 
 remarkable resemblance to the tEoHc dialect, in which we find jivpiJ-xt. 
 and jleXKu for f*.upfxv)^ and i^-eXXw, o-ifzaicc and aa^cus-a: for of*fx«T« and 
 [A«&ou(r«, . /3«/;(*tT05 for ^cepjinog, [t.a^u for 'kutcc, and Tfp£(i.iv&05 for Ttps^iv'^oj. .
 
 160 
 
 Tlius in Welch we observe hjfaeth, hyfed and hyfedr for hymaetb, 
 hymedi and hymedr. 
 
 It is here not unworthy of remark, that in Athens Diana was in- 
 differently called Bendidia and Mendidia, which appellation they seem 
 to have derived from the Tliracians, with whom bendi was the sun, 
 and no less worthy of our notice is it, that the Iroquois, who are sup- 
 posed by Father Lafitau, to have descended from the same stock, 
 call the sun ovendi and that with them ov is equivalent to B to M 
 and to every other labial of the Thracians. 
 
 Nor was the practice in question confined to these nations, as may 
 appear by the subsequent derivatives |*op(fv) forma, fj-xXXog vellus, [j-opo; 
 fors, (iu;(*viKa: formica, 'zpojioG-iug promuscis. Marmor marbre. Manbeg of 
 India is ^x[s.^-oxvi, pambu in Tibet is mambu, and with us raomba is 
 converted into Bombay, 
 
 In numerous instances it is difficult to determine, which expres- 
 sion is original and which derivative, but in some words there can be 
 no doubt, for surely the original name given to the capital of Italy 
 was not Rhufain but Roma, and the brother of Romulus was not 
 Rhwyf but Remus. 
 
 The Welch nouns, like those of the Hebrew, having but one ter- 
 mination for the singular and one for the plural, distinguish their cases 
 either by prepositions, or by construction, at the same time varying their 
 initial letters, if mutable, agreeably to rule. 
 
 The pronouns are mi, ti, efe, hi, ni,chwi, hwynt: I, thou, he, she, we, 
 they. Of these pronouns the most worthy of our notice is Jncynt, which 
 by abbreviation, and, as a termination to the third person plural of verbs, 
 becomes ijnt, anl, cut, oat, answering to the Latin, init^ ant, cut.
 
 I6i 
 
 The substantive and auxiliary verb runs thus: wyf, wyt, j\v, ym, 
 ych, ynt, I am, thou art, he is, we, ye, they are. Bum, buost, bu, buoiu, 
 buoch, buont, I, thou, he, we, ye, they have been, byddaf, byddi, 
 bydd, byddwn, buddwch, byddant. I, thou, he, we, ye, they shall be. 
 
 Formerly bi was used for it shall be. Bydd be thou. Bod to be. 
 Yn bod, being. 
 
 Oeddem we were, ydys, he, or it is. Oes there is. 
 
 Regular Verb. 
 
 Dysgu wyf, I learn. Dysgu wyt, thou learnest, &c. 
 
 Dysgais, I have learned. Dysgaist, thou, and Dysgodd, he, »Scc. 
 Dysgasom, we, &c. Dysgasoch, ye, &c. Dysgasant, they, &c. 
 
 Dysgaf, I will learn. Dysgi, thou, &c. Dysg, he will learn. 
 
 Dysga, learn thou. Dysged, let him learn. Dysgu, to learn. 
 
 The Welch is certainly a very ancient language, but it is idle to 
 imagine, that all its terms, simple, as well as compound, were invented 
 by the primitive inhabitants of Wales. Should then any one, however 
 distinguished for a knowledge of his native tongue, derive henoeth, this 
 night, from hen old, or should he for heddy w, this day, refer us to hedion 
 chaff, io hedi/dd a ]aTk, or to hediad a thing that flieth; or should he 
 again derive hediad from %, apt, bold, with its terminating particle edd, 
 we must be permitted to smile at his simplicity, because in henoeth we 
 are reminded of hacnocte and in heddi/w we look to hodie, answering to 
 heute of the Germans, idag of the Swedes, oggi of Italy, hoy of Spain, 
 and huy of France. 
 
 TOL. H. I Y'
 
 162 
 
 OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN 
 
 WELCH, SWEDISH, DANISH AND ICELANDIC. 
 
 IT is impossible for any one acquainted, even in the least degree, with 
 these languages, not to discern that they claim the same descent. The 
 numerous expressions common to them all are not such, as are usually 
 transported from one nation to another, either by conquest, or by com- 
 merce, and their resemblance is so perfect, that their radical identity 
 cannot be doubted. It is not my intention to have it conceived, that the 
 composition and grammatical construction is the same in all these lan- 
 guages, because in this respect they diflfer exceedingly, as all kindred 
 languages are apt to do after a lapse of one or two thousand years. 
 
 The affinity between the Welch and the languages, with which we shall 
 now compare it, will be evident by the subsequent examples. 
 
 English. 
 
 Babe 
 
 Balk 
 
 Ball 
 
 Band 
 
 Bean 
 
 Bear 
 
 Beast 
 
 Beat 
 
 Bench 
 
 H'elch. 
 
 Maban 
 
 Bale 
 
 B^l 
 
 Bancaw 
 
 Flaen 
 
 Perthi 
 
 Bwystfil 
 
 Baeddu 
 
 Maingc 
 
 StDedish, Danish, Icelan. 
 
 Babe, S. 
 Bielka, S. D. 
 Ball, S. 
 Band, I. D. S. 
 Baun, I. 
 Bcr, I. 
 Bccst, D. 
 I)acl(la, S. 
 Bank,S. D. 
 
 English. 
 
 Board 
 
 Boat 
 
 Booth 
 
 Bow 
 
 Boy 
 
 Bread 
 
 Break 
 
 Bride 
 
 Bright 
 
 ITtlch. 
 
 Swedish, Danish, Icelaa, 
 
 Bwrdd 
 
 Bord, D. S. 
 
 Bad 
 
 Baatur, I. 
 
 Bwth 
 
 Boot, I. 
 
 Bow 
 
 Boga, I. S. 
 
 Bachgen 
 
 Poiike, S. 
 
 Bara 
 
 Brand, I. 
 
 Br6g 
 
 Brcek, D. 
 
 Priodfab 
 
 Brud, I. S. D. 
 
 Berth 
 
 Biatur, I.
 
 163 
 
 English, 
 
 mich. 
 
 Swedish, Danish, Icctaii- 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 mith. 
 
 Sieedi.ih, Danifli, Uetan 
 
 Brisk 
 
 Brys 
 
 Frisk, D. S. 
 
 Clock 
 
 ClAcJi 
 
 Klokke, D. 
 
 Brother 
 
 Brotljr 
 
 Brodur, I. 
 
 Cod 
 
 Cwd 
 
 Kodde, I. 
 
 Brow 
 
 Bron 
 
 Briin, I. 
 
 Cook 
 
 Cegin 
 
 Kok, D. 
 
 Buck 
 
 Bwch 
 
 Buk, D. 
 
 Cole 
 
 Cawl 
 
 Kai,S. Kaa!,D. 
 
 Call 
 
 Galo 
 
 Kali, I. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Cost 
 
 Koste, D. 
 
 Can 
 
 Dichon 
 
 Kunne, D. 
 
 Crab 
 
 Grange 
 
 Krabbe, D. 
 
 Cap 
 
 Cap 
 
 Kappe, D. 
 
 Crane 
 
 Garan 
 
 Krane, D. 
 
 Cat 
 
 Cath 
 
 KatD.KattaS. 
 
 Crave 
 
 Crefu 
 
 Kref, I. 
 
 Chain 
 
 Cadwyn 
 
 Kedia, S. 
 
 Creep 
 
 Croppian 
 
 Kriupa, I. 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Caws 
 
 Kes, S. 
 
 Crop 
 
 Croppa 
 
 Krafwa, S. 
 
 Chest 
 
 Cist 
 
 Kista, I. S. 
 
 Craw 
 
 Croppa 
 
 Kroe, D. 
 
 Chin 
 
 Gen 
 
 Kinn, S. 
 
 Crook 
 
 Crwcca 
 
 Krok, S. 
 
 Clear ( 
 
 Olaer 
 
 Klaar, I. D. S. 
 
 Cry 
 
 Deigrynnu 
 
 Graata, I. 
 
 Cleave ( 
 
 jlynu 
 
 Klebe, D. " 
 
 Cup ( 
 
 Jroppan 
 
 Kopp, I. D. S. 
 
 The few words I have here brought forwards are all monosyllabic in 
 the English. These [ have compared with some of the purest dialects of 
 the Gothic line. Had I chosen to extend my list to the other letters of 
 the alphabet, had I embraced the compounds and polysyllabic terms 
 and had I compared these with the Gothic of Ulphilas, or with the 
 Dutch and German branches of the Gothic, my vocabulary had been 
 abundantly increased. Leibnitz has selected six hundred words from 
 the dictionary of Doctor Davies, compared with the German, to de- 
 
 Y 2
 
 164 
 
 monstrate, what Liv\^ before him had asserted, that the ancient language 
 of the Gauls and Britons was half German. 
 
 That the Celtic and Gothic languages were originally one, might still 
 more clearly be evinced by the names of persons, and of places, of 
 mountains, of rivers, and of cities. 
 
 This part of my subject has been so copiously treated of by others, 
 that I shall content myself with referring my reader to their works. 
 
 OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN WELCH AND GREEK. 
 
 WHAT I have advanced with respect to the radical affinity and the 
 original identity of the Welch and Gothic languages, may be with equal 
 truth applied to the Welch and Greek. 
 
 The Welch, like the Greek, has an aspirate, where other languages 
 either dropt it, or in its place assumed the sibilant. That the Welch has 
 retained the aspirate will appear by the subsequent examples. Halen 
 salt, aXo$; hawyn a bridle, viv/ov; haul the sun and heulo to bask in the 
 sun. ^Xtoj; heb, he spake, ^^>\; heddychu to make peace, and heddvvch 
 quiet, viuvxia; hel to hunt, to drive, IXxoi; helyg, salix, jA/kvi; hen old, 
 hog; henw name, oyo\j.a; h^n sleep, vTivog; heppian to slumber, 'vnvtrv, 
 hercuyd to reach, Ipeyu; hobel a dart, o/SeX^s; hoel a nail, viAoj; holl all, 
 eAoc; liwyd, a duck, vxlog; hwch a hog, vg; hy strong, apt easy, tv, as 
 in hybwyll prudent, tv^ovKog; hyglod famous tv and y.\iog: hygno, easy 
 to be gnawed; tv and xvaw; hygryn apt to shake e'u and x^aS^xivw; hygar, 
 amiable, tv and %«'fis; hylosg combustible tv and (pAo^/'^w; hylaw
 
 165 
 
 dexterous, iv and Xxi^lixva ; hylyn tenacious, ^v and yXfa; hydyn tracta- 
 ble, f'u and THvu; hyddal easy to be taken, eu and BtXco; hyddal muni- 
 ficent, en Sdvog. 
 
 Like Greek, the Welch language aspirates the initial R, as in rhanne 
 to part, pviyvufitt, rhwyg a rent, pnyvi, rhygnu to cut, score, p^ywii-t. 
 
 The articles, prepositions and affixes are in numerous instances similar 
 in Greek and Welch. 
 
 A is an augmentative answering to uyav. 
 
 Ad, denotes iteration or continuity, as does fT*. 
 
 Am, round about, a[j.(pi. 
 
 An denotes privation, like ocv and xvev. 
 
 Er is intensive, answering to epi. 
 
 Es and ys, answering to e^ and ex, as in esgus, estj'n, &c. 
 
 The numerals are nearly the same in both languages. 
 
 The formation of the singular number in Welch nouns, by affixing en 
 or yn, marks the affinity to Greek, Thus ser means stars, but seren 
 with the numeral subjoined is one star; ais ribs, asen a rib, with its ter- 
 mination answering to ev. We say an ass, that is one ass. 
 
 Some of the plural terminations shew the same affinity, as for instance, 
 brynn a hill, bryniau hills, tad a father, tadau fathers, cMst the ear, 
 clustau ears, men a wain, meni wains. The agreement will appear more 
 perfect, if we recollect that u is pronounced i. in Welch. 
 
 The verbs agree with the Greek in some of their inflexions, but they 
 have a greater resemblance to the Latin, which is the MoVic dialect of 
 Greek. In fact, Latin and Greek are radically one, and agree to a 
 remarkable extent in their inflexions..
 
 166 
 
 As to tlie affinity observable between Welch and Latin, it might be 
 imagined, that such terms were borrowed from the Romans after the 
 reduction of our island to their yoke. New words however are easily 
 detected, and differ much from those, which bear the stamp of earlier 
 times. It has been well observed, that many words are found to be 
 allied, which in Latin were obsolete before the days of Csesar, such as 
 miriones, gluvia, ruma, meddix, dalivus, clueo, &c. used by Ennius, 
 Plautus, and the more ancient writers. The words here noticed are in 
 Welch muriones, glwth, rumen, meddu, delff, clyw. All the ancient 
 names of Romans, such as Clodius, Celius, Cinna, Drusus, Marcus, Sylla, 
 Silanus, are significant in Welch, but not in Latin. 
 
 What has been already said upon this subject, may be considered a^ 
 sufficient to demonstrate an affinity between Welch and Greek: but to 
 see their radical identity we must examine the corresponding terms of 
 these kindred languages. For this purpose I have subjoined in the 
 Appendix a copious vocabulary, to which I must refer the reader. 
 
 OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN WELCH AND HEBREW. 
 
 I have said, that the radical letters in AVelch are sixteen. Such is 
 staled to have been the number originally used in Greece, and it is 
 agreed that the oldest Hebrew letters were not more numerous* Indeed 
 sixteen were all that these languages required, before the introduction 
 of refinements. 
 
 A very striking resemblance between the Welch and Hebrew appears
 
 167 
 
 in their verbs, because the third person singular is the root in both, 
 with this difference, however, that in Welch it is the third person of 
 the future, and in Hebrew the same person of the preterite. Thus we 
 have in Welch c4r, he will love, and in Hebrew jacaj- (ip"*) he highly 
 valued. Both languages are strangers to the present tense. Indeed 
 such was the simplicity of ancient times, that in Homer and Hesiod the 
 same part of the verb served for the present and the future. In con- 
 formity to this practice we find tioi in Greek and amem in Latin, used 
 for both these tenses. In Hebrew the verb has a present, future, impe- 
 rative, infinitive and participles. The Welch verb has the same, but to 
 the perfect it has added an imperfect and a pluperfect. 
 
 The pronouns in Hebrew have a remarkable agreement with corres- 
 ponding pronouns in Welch. 
 
 In Hebrew the first person singular is ani and in composition I. In 
 Welch it is mi and I in the oblique case, as in. this sentence, Christ 
 km prynodd I. Christ redeemed me. 
 
 The second person is in Hebrew ata, in Welch ti. 
 
 The third is in Hebrew hu and hi, in Welch hi. 
 
 The first person plural is in Hebrew nu, in Welch ni. 
 
 In Welch, as in the preterites of the Hebrew, the pronoun is sufiixed 
 to the verb. This appears most evident in the passive voice. 
 
 The substantive verb in Welch has some affinity to the same verb 
 in Hebrew, for oes, there is, and ys, now used foi- truly, agree ex- 
 actly with {^'}.). This agreement will be rendered evident, when I 
 shall proceed to the examination of the connecting link, the substan- 
 tive verb in Greek.
 
 168 
 
 In some Welch nouns I is used for the termination of the plurals, 
 and in others we find au, which is pronounced I. Thus llestr, a vessel, 
 has llestri in the plural, enw, a name, has enwau, and genhedlaeth has 
 genhedlaethau. But, again, other plurals terminate in oedd, as llys a 
 palace, liysoedd. In Hebrew the plural terminates in im, but in con- 
 struction the m is dropt. The Chaldee in this respect perfectly ac- 
 cords with the Hebrew. In both the famine plurals terminate in oth, 
 which is the sound of oedd. 
 
 But a more striking feature of resemblance is, that, like the Hebrew 
 the Welch has no oblique cases, and that the deficiency is supplied by 
 prepositions, excepting when words are placed in reglmine, as for instance 
 yspryd Duw, the spirit of God, llys y brenin palace of the king. So 
 in Hebrew D\i'7i* n.M and in Chaldee V'^'p^: mi the spirit of the gods. 
 The preposition used for the dative case in Welch is I, as in i'rdinas, to 
 the city, and in Hebrew, 'j, L, as in (l*?'?^]r>) ten Imelek, give to the 
 kino', (^^.'^^'^) amar li, he said tome. In the genetive we have v^ skel 
 as in ^k'^ sheli my, that which is to me, a preposition compounded of 
 h and ^. 
 
 The Welch is one branch of the Celtic, of which we have valuable 
 renmants preserved by historians, and such as mark affinity between this 
 ancient language and Hebrew, an affinity which may be traced in the 
 na^mes ot the gods, of men and of sacred officers, and in the terms 
 of war. 
 
 The supreme divinity was called Hazizus, and was considered as the 
 god of war. In this name we have distinctly f^^I^ of Psalm xxiv. 8, Who 
 is this King of Glory? The Lord strong and mighty, the Lord mighUf 
 in battlo
 
 169 
 
 Brennus appears to have derived his name from Brenhin a king, an- 
 swering to D3")D of the Syriac. 
 
 Paterae were the priests of Apollo, and interpreters of his oracles. 
 These may have been so called from "in 2, as we find the word used in 
 Genesis, ch. xl. v. 8. 
 
 Caenjfi. These were nine priestesses, presiding over the oracle of a 
 Galic divinity. In Flebrew this appellation is found in cohena a pmestess. 
 
 Tlie bards, prydyddion, whose office was to sing the praises of de- 
 parted warriors, may have derived their name from the phoretim of Amos 
 vi. 5. who chanted to the sound of the viol, and invented to themselves 
 instruments of music. 
 
 Alauda was a legion, and in Syriac >^ri2'7i<, answering to 2^^ in 
 Hebrew of the same import, means a thousand men. 
 
 Gacsum, yctKiog, a dart appears to be connected with galas of the 
 Chaldee, an army, and gissaa. dart. It is said of Joab (2 Sam. xviii. 14.) 
 that he took three darts in his hand. These in Hebrew are called shebetim, 
 but the Targum renders the word TPP^?- In the same connexion we 
 find gasntce, hired soldiers, called by Plutarch 'ye(rtrxrxi, and by Polybius 
 'ycet^xrat, in perfect agreement with the Syriac and Arabic. 
 
 Thyreos, long shields, we may safely connect with tharis of the Arabic 
 and Chaldee. 
 
 Carnon, a trumpet, is IT of Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic. 
 
 Benna, a wain, is probably allied to ophe7i of the Hebrew. 
 
 Carrus, a car, is distinctly caron (!"'"' P) of the Chaldee. 
 
 Essedura, a war chariot, a waggon. We find the same word in the 
 Chaldee paraphrase on Gen. xlv. 19 27. 
 
 roL. II. z
 
 170 
 
 Gaunacum means a thick shag. Such a shag in Hebrew is called 
 macabar, 2 Kings viii. 15, but in Chaldce it is i*231J. 
 
 Sagum is a shag; but whether allied to pj^ Hebrew, and i^'p'^ Chaldee 
 sackcloth, or to 11^ Ji' Hebrew and'^i'C' Chaldee, hairy, it is difficult to 
 say. 
 
 Braccae, brogues, may be derived from barac of the Hebrew, Chaldee, 
 Syriac and Arabic. 
 
 Maniacum, a golden bracelet, is distinctly J* 3''JDn of the Chaldee. 
 
 Baraccacae, skins of goats, may be allied to the Syriac HI 3 a he-goat. 
 
 Tarian, a shield, appears distinctly in the Chaldee. 
 
 Marc, a horse, may be remec of Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic. 
 
 Supposing Sorbiodunum to have been the Celtic name of Old Sarum, 
 we may remark that sharab in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac means dry, 
 answering to the local circumstance of its wanting water. Thus William 
 of Malmsbury says of it, " Castellum erat et aquae penuria. laborans 
 adeo ut mirabili commercio aqua ibi vendatur." Camden says, " Est ibi 
 defectus aquae." Our English antiquarians therefore with propriety ex- 
 plains the name Dryhill. 
 
 I might extend my observations on these subjects, but I choose rather 
 to refer the curious in antiquities to Boxhorn, who, in his Originum 
 Gallicarum, has displayed a fund of literature most worthy of the age, 
 in which he lived. 
 
 The affinity between Welch and Hebrew will be rendered apparent to 
 the reader, if he will refer to the comparative vocabulary, which he will 
 find in the Appendix. It consists of such expressions as have occurred 
 to myself in the course of my investigations.
 
 171 
 
 Having thus demonstrated the affinity between the Welch and other 
 languages of Europe and of Asia, it would be superfluous to examine its 
 more immediate rehitives the Cornish, the Armoric, the Waldensic, the 
 Wendish, or any other dialect still subsisting in Galacia, where St. Jerom 
 (A.D. 360) recognised the language of Treves. Suffice it then to say, that 
 scattered and dispersed as are these dialects, they are acknowledged 
 to be one language, which, wherever it appears, carries with it indelible 
 tokens of its oriental origin. 
 
 I may, therefore, with confidence adopt the words of the learned 
 Dr. Davis. 
 
 Ausim affirmare linguan Britanicam [tum vocibus, tum phrasibus & 
 orationis contextu, tum literarum pronunciatione, manifestam cum ori- 
 entalibus habere congruentiam & affinitatem. 
 
 z2
 
 OF THE IRISH AND SCOTS DIALECTS 
 
 THE GAjLIC LAMGUAGE. 
 
 X HE Irish have never had the presumption to imagine that their 
 primogenitors were natives of the soil ; but have been always ready to 
 acknowledge, that they came from foreign countries, and the only dis- 
 pute has been, whether they crossed the sea from the adjacent parts of 
 Britain, or came directly from some more distant region. Their most 
 approved historians are agreed, that Ireland received its first inhabitanis 
 from Britain. 
 
 But General Vallancey was of opinion that the original inhabitants of 
 Ireland came from Iran, that is from the tract of country, which extends 
 between the Indus and the Persian Gulpli. From thence, according to 
 his statement, they proceeded to the West, and sailing from Tyre, they 
 successively colonized Egypt, Crete, Malta, Sicily and Spain. From 
 Gallicia he brings them to the Western Isles, and to Gaul. His obser-
 
 173 
 
 vations, with the facts he has brought forwards, are highly interesting, 
 and he has clearly demonstrated a conformity in language, customs, man- 
 ners, mythology, sacred festivals and religious rites between the Pagan 
 Irish and the oriental nations, from whom he supposes them to be 
 descended. 
 
 It is worthy of observation, that Bowles, an Irishman of strong un- 
 derstanding and of extensive information, who for many years resided 
 in Spain, was struck with the marks of resemblance between the customs 
 of the Biscayners and of his countrymen, and delivered it as his opinion, 
 that they were one people. As he had no bias on his mind, no favorite 
 system to support, and no prejudice to warp his judgment, his opinion 
 must have considerable weight with us. 
 
 This colony of Indo-Scythians is reported by the ancient poets to 
 have arrived, under the conduct of Milesius, five hundred years before 
 the birth of Christ. Certain it is, that he gave a race of kings to the 
 Irish, then known by the name of Gadelians, Scuits and Scots, 
 
 After a lapse of ages, another tribe, called Hermini, flying from TuJius 
 Caesar, left Lusitania, and took refuge in Ireland, where they became a 
 powerful clan, distinguished by the name of Eremon. 
 
 All these inhabitants were, in the opinion of Vallancev, flic genuine 
 offspring of Magog, not of Gomer. 
 
 It is not needful, that I should here discuss tiie question as to the 
 colony which first arrived in Ireland. If tiie Belgoe. were in possession of 
 the country before the arrival of the Milesians, they must iiave been ksv 
 in number, because the ancient language is not Belgic, but Phcenician. 
 Yet in process of time this was corrupted by invading tribes from Wales-
 
 174 
 
 and Belgium, but chiefly by the Danes and Norwegians, who subdued 
 and governed Ireland for ages. 
 
 We learn from Richard of Cirencester, that about three hundred and 
 fifty years before Christ, the Britons, that is the Welch, who were driven 
 out of their country by Belgic Invaders, took refuge in Ireland. Here 
 they established themselves, and maintained possession of the southern 
 coast for about five hundred years, till the Menapii and the Cauci, two 
 Belgic tribes, broke in upon them, and subdued the greatest part of 
 Ireland. This circumstance accounts for the appellation of Dun Bolg, 
 given to many of the most ancient fortresses, and suggests a reason for 
 the term bolg being applied to signify nobility. 
 
 Subsequent to this invasion, as it is stated, the Picts took posses- 
 sion of the north: but it was not before A. D. 795, that these Scandi- 
 navians came. After them, about A. D. 853, the Ostmanni, under 
 the conduct of three chieftains, established themselves in Dublin, 
 Waterford and Limeric. These, according to Archbishop Usher, were 
 Livonians, and some of them came probably from Semigallia, because, 
 prior to their arrival, no people were distinguished by the name of Gaill, 
 and subsequent to this period even the Saxon invaders have always 
 been denominated Gaill, as well as Saso7iic, by authors. Even to the 
 present day the English are called Clanna Gall by the common people, 
 and the Lowland Scots are named Galldachd na Halbuin. 
 
 The facility, with which all these invading hordes got possession of 
 settlements in Ireland proves, that the country was thinly inhabited. 
 We have no authentic documents, no written records, before the intro- 
 duction of Christianity, (A. D. 432.) and have nothing to guide us but
 
 175 
 
 the sono-s of their most ancient bards, transmitted by tradition froni 
 parents to their children. Even the poems Ossian, composed probably 
 in the fourth century, describe a nation of hunters, without the most 
 distant allusion to agriculture, arts, manufactures, and commerce, or even 
 to pastoral life. All the images are taken from uncultivated nature, 
 and all the incidents relate to hunting, war, and love. 
 
 When the Irish, under the conduct of a Milesian leader, crossed 
 over into Scotland, (A. D. 150) they either introduced their language, or 
 found it already there, as the language of the Highlands ; and to this 
 day they preserve it pure. This has not been difficult for them to do, 
 because they have never been driven from their mountains by new 
 colonies, and from their first establishment have had their poems, as 
 classical productions, to which they might constantly refer. With these 
 they are familiar, and Ossian, in the present day, is understood by the 
 Highlander, as perfectly as any modern poet. 
 
 That the language thus preserved by them on the mountains of North 
 Britain, was not the primitive language of the country, from which 
 they came, is evident, because it perfectly agrees with the 'modern Irish, 
 and because, in the tenth century, Cormac, Archbishop of Cashel, la- 
 mented the inattention of his countrymen to their ancient language. 
 From that time, in consequence of his remonstrances, schools were 
 established, manuscripts were collected, and glossaries were formed to 
 preserve from total oblivion, the venerable language of their proge- 
 nitors. 
 
 Some of these valuable relicts are in existence, and by them General
 
 176 
 
 Vallancey was enabled to discover, what the language was before it was 
 corrupted by numerous invaders. 
 
 The difference between the ancient and the modern lansuage is so 
 o-reat, that none but the most learned and laborius students are able 
 to understand the former, which to the present day, is called Bearla 
 na Pheine, that is the Phoenician Dialect. With this I claim no ac- 
 quaintance, and therefore depend on the authority of General Vallancey, 
 whose extensive knowledge, accurate investigation, and strict fidelity, 
 deserve the highest commendation. 
 
 The elementary letters of the (Jalic language are sixteen. Tliis de- 
 monstrates, that they were imported during the infancy of science, and 
 before this number was increased by the Phoenicians, by ihe Greeks, 
 by the Romans, and by all the nations on the Continent. Their alphabet 
 had five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, supported by eleven consonants. These 
 were b, f, ni, c, g, d, t, s, 1, n, r. 
 
 It will immediately occur to the recollection of the student, that 
 the Galic letters, nearly coincide with those introduced by Cadmus, 
 into Greece, and it will not escape his notice, that P is here omitted, 
 whilst F, as the digamma-of the Cohans, takes its place. The letter P 
 in Galic is called peith-bhog, but probably it was beith-bhog, that is, 
 soft B. This was never used until after the introduction of Christianity. 
 In the old parchments, P and B are indifferently used, as in prutach for 
 brutach, a rustic, and peist for beist. When the Irish, after their con-, 
 version to Christianity, wrote the Latin Gospel in their own characters, 
 of which Dr. Parsons saw many copies, they were obliged to adopt 
 foreign letters for words which l)y their letters they were not able to
 
 177 
 
 express; but it is remarkable, that in all the luanuscripls ©f their own 
 language not one additional letter can be found. 
 
 According to Bayer, the original Hebrew had the same sixteen letters 
 with the Galic, and, like the ancient Ethiopic, had no W And it is re- 
 markable, that the Phoenician alphabets, as given by the Abbe Har- 
 thelemy, by the Rev. S. Henly, and by Pocock, all omit the P. But it 
 is still more remarkable, that both the Ionic and Etiuscan or Pela;sgic 
 alphabets, essentially agree with the Phoenician and Samaritan, as ap- 
 pears by the Pantographia of Fry. Even in the modern Irish, all the 
 radical words begin with one of these elementary letters, subject how- 
 ever, to such mutations as will be particularly noticed. 
 
 With regard to the form of their written characters, it has been sup- 
 posed, that they were the same with the Greek. Casar certainly says 
 of the Druids, " Graecis utuntur Uteris," and this probably was in some 
 measure true. But the subject will be resumed, when I shall proceed 
 to the Danish language and its alphabetic characters. It may then per- 
 haps appear that the Greek character was derived either from the Runic 
 or the Welch. 
 
 General Vallancey was of opinion that the ancient Irish used the 
 Chaldaic or Phoenician letters. He proves indeed, that they occasionally 
 introduced a few of them : but this seems to demonstrate that they were 
 merely resorted to from idle fancy, or on some particular occasion. We 
 must however agree with him, that the Samaritan, Phoenician, and Irish 
 characters, have a striking resemblance in A, B, G, D, E, L, O, and R, 
 as may be distinctly seen in his grammar of the Irish language. 
 
 The Oghams, or sacred and mysterious alphabetic characters of the 
 
 VOL. II. A a
 
 178 
 
 Irish, are numerous. These discover too much of art to have been the 
 iovention of savages, and too little of simplicity to have been adopted 
 for ordinary communication by a polished nation. They answer their 
 name being much better suited to secrecy, than to despatch, and are 
 peculiarly adapted for inscriptions on monuments of stone. Each cha- 
 racter has a perpendicular line, with one or more scratches extending 
 from it to the right and left, like those discovered in Egypt by Mr. 
 Hammer, who was the secretary and confidential friend of Sir Sydney 
 Smith, and those described by Du Halde, as used by the Manchoou 
 Tartars, (v. Archaeolog. vol. 7, p. 276.) They seem to have been taken 
 from the Quipoz, a method of communication, and means of recording 
 events, familiar to the Peruvians, and originally used by the Chinese, 
 who, even to the present day, write from top to bottom. 
 
 In the Ogham, as given by Vallancey, the lateral scratches to the 
 right and left, are never more than five on each side, answering to the 
 fingers, and the perpendicular may be supposed to represent the body. 
 Certain it is that the first numeration was derived from this source, (v. 
 Vallancey's Prospectus and Fry's Pantographia.) Modern Irish is 
 printed in Saxon characters. 
 
 The present names of letters are derived from trees. These are ailm 
 and olof the fir, beith the birch, gort the ivy, duir the oak, eadha the 
 aspin, huath the white thorn, idho the yew, (Sec. 
 
 In the Galic and the Hebrew names, six coincide. 1 Aleph and 
 ailm or olof, heth and beith, heth and huath, jod and idho or jodha, 
 nun and nion or nuin, rc.sA and ruis. Such coincidence can scarcely 
 be supposed to have been merely accidental. It is true, that supposing
 
 179 
 
 trees to have been originally symbols of ideas, they might readily be- 
 come symbols of sounds, and then terminate in being letters. But 
 this does not appear to have been the progress with the Irish. They 
 seem to have approached as near as possible to the Hebrew or Chaldcc, 
 confining themselves however to the names of trees, with which they 
 were familiar, although by so doing they departed from the oriental 
 name, as happens remarkably in the instances of lamed and kaph, for 
 which they have substituted luis, a quicken tree, and coll the hazel. 
 The ancient grammarians called the alphabet faodh, thijt is the voice, 
 or vocal sounds. But the moderns have corrupted this word into 
 feadh, a wood; and from this notion, perhaps, it may have arisen, that 
 they have denominated most of their letters from trees, as the Chal- 
 deans named their five vowels from the patriarchs, prophets, and dis- 
 tinguished persons of antiquity. The power of the Galic letters, when 
 they appear either single, or in combination, requires particular at- 
 tention. To express the sound of e the Irish take ao, and for ee of 
 the English they use aoi. A, O, and U, in ancient manuscripts were 
 used indifferently. 
 
 Their consonants are distinguished into immutable and mutable. The 
 former are 1, n, r. The latter are b, c, d, f, g, m, s, t. These in 
 regimine take an aspirate, and then either change their pronunciation, or 
 become quiescent and altogether mute. 
 
 The aspirate was formerly expressed by a dot over the letter to be as- 
 pirated; but in Bishop Bedel's Irish Bible and New Testament, H con- 
 stantly supplies its place, and from his time has been universally adopted. 
 
 Bh and Mh sound like V or W. Thus bhean a woman is pronounced 
 
 A a 2
 
 180 
 
 wean and ven, agreeing thus with Venus, venustas, Sec. Cabh or 
 D-ab]]ar becomes gawer, a goat, and amhuin becomes Avon, a river. 
 
 Fli is perfect!}' quiescent, as in fhuil, which is pronounced nil. 
 
 Dh and Gh are either quiescent, or sound Hke y in 3'ou, and thus 
 
 dhean becomes i/an; ghabh is sounded yabh, gheall is yeal, and (Una is 
 
 pronounced ?/«/?, as I shall hereafter more particularly notice. See p. 182. 
 
 In terminations, dh and gh are either quiescent, or become 00, as 
 
 dheanadh is yanoo, and laogh is loo. Adh and agh sound like i. 
 
 The English reader may be surprised at this custom; but en recol- 
 lection he will observe, that g, when followed by an aspirate, is fre- 
 quently quiescent in his native language. This appears in high, nigk, 
 sigh, thigh, blight, flight, light, plight, sight, tight, bough, plough, 
 slough as referring to mire, but not as the soft substance which separates 
 from a foul ulcer. 
 
 Sh drops the consonant, but retains the aspirate, and thus scan, 
 seabhoc, silog, siol, salen, seith, when aspirated, become hean, heavok, 
 hilog, hi), halen, and heith, and thus saladh to defile produces do haluidh, 
 thou hast defiled. 
 
 Th is an hiatus, like as in Persian, and thus pothar, a son, becomes 
 pour; but thoge, he took up, is pronounced hoge. An Irish mountaineer 
 is altogether as unable to sound the th, as either a Frenchman or a 
 Persian. Hence bheith and baith, an ox, are pronounced bo. Righe 
 and reith, an arm, give the sound of ri. 
 
 Bli, mh, ch, gh and th have frequently the same sound; but, what is 
 more remarkable is, that hy, y, i, ibh, nay even eamha, eogha and 
 eochadh, are pronounced like o, so that coghan becomes owen, and 
 eamhania becomes onia.
 
 181 
 
 D after N doubles it, and therefore find is read finn. 
 
 G and C are both hard. These are commutable, as are B and F, T 
 and D, M. and N. Hence nemethae is pronounced momie. Ch, dh and 
 gh at the end of words readily change for each other. 
 
 The English language is still more capricious, for gh is pronounced as 
 f, in laugh, enough, &c. but slough becomes either slow or sluf, accord- 
 ing to its various acceptation. 
 
 This operation of the aspirate naturally accounts for the licentious 
 changes, we observe in words, and the substitution of one consonant for 
 another, with which it has no organic affinity. Thus when B, P, F, V, 
 and M, are converted into C or G, attended by an aspirate; the sound 
 in Galic is not in the least affected by this change: as for example, sub- 
 ham and sugham, I suck, fobhar and foghar, a voice, graidh and gragh, 
 a flock, gradh and graighim, agreeable, gorghaigh and gorthugah, hurt, 
 magh and madh, a mead, a plain, mogh and modh, the manner, 
 aoidheach, aoidhidhe, oidhe and oighidh, a guest. Here it is evident, 
 that sugham became suam, which any one is at liberty to write subham 
 without the least alteration in the sound. 
 
 In the modern pronunciation, indeed, the sound is not afiected by 
 these changes, because the consonant is dropt, and the slightest aspirate 
 supplies its place. But in detivatives the most important alterations are 
 produced, and such as in many instances must effectually conceal their 
 origin. 
 
 A sufficient acquaintance with this licentious practice will enable us 
 to trace the affinity of words, which apparently have no connexion. For 
 instance, between Ojmo^' and CEdes we c^n see no resemblance, nor shall
 
 i82 
 
 we be able to discover their descent from one common ancestor, unless 
 we view them both as related to the Galic. 
 
 Here in the family of OiMg we find oighthiarna and oighre an heir, and 
 oi<Thidh a guest. On the other hand aoidheach, aoidhidhe, oidhre and 
 oidhe, a guest, with aoidheachd and oidheacht, lodging, are alhed to 
 aedes. But from what I have stated it is clear, that in pronunciation 
 not the least difference exists between oighidh and aoidhidhe, which evi- 
 dently refer the former to oLnog and the latter to aedes. 
 
 I have already noticed the change of D into G, as common in the 
 Doric, in which dialect we observe Svo(pog for yvo(pog, y-pviyvov for xvjpx^Svov, 
 S« for yx and S>|fJ.^T\^p for yvi^uviTvip. 
 
 Availing themselves of the same privilege, the Irish say indifferently 
 deal or gual, a coal, and dioscan or gioscan, gnashing of teeth. For as 
 they have no single letter to express the power of Y, answering to jod of 
 the Hebrew and jlim of the Arabic; they supply the place either by dh 
 or by gh. This observation I wish to impress upon the mind of my at- 
 tentive readers. See p. 180. 
 
 Between D and the hard G there is certainly no organic affinity, be- 
 cause the one is a guttural the other a dental. But G soft and D make 
 a near approach to each other, as appears by CJeorge and giant, when 
 compared with gate, get, gird and give. It is for this reason, that d has 
 been permitted to usurp a place before G in words to which it does not 
 belong, as in allege, which is universally pronounced alledge. Thus the 
 Anglo Saxon ecge, in Icelandic, Danish and Swedish egg, answering to 
 acies and aKvj, has become edge, and from gelogian of our Saxon ances- 
 tors, which is in French loger, we have arrived at lodge.
 
 183 
 
 It is not my intention to write a grammar of the Galic Language: 
 but I think it expedient here to notice some of the laws by which 
 its inflexions vary. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 In the Gahc we have two declensions; and each of these may be 
 distinguished into indefinite, and definite. The first declension inde- 
 finite, for the genitive, either takes an i, or changes a vowel v. g. 
 
 Fuaran a fountain, fuarain of a fountain, dia a day, dea of a day. 
 In the same case ciali knowledge makes ceil; meall a hill makes mill; 
 alt, a high place, makes uilt; ord, an order, becomes uird, ball, be- 
 comes buill, and col, a hazel tree, is cuil. But nouns in ta, de and 
 ca have the genitive like the nominative. 
 
 The dative takes do and the aspirate, as mathair a mother, do 
 mhathair to a mother. These were the only cases ancientJy made 
 use of. 
 
 The vocative has the aspirate with the vowel of the genitive, as 
 fhuarain, o fountain. Shleabh o mountain. 
 
 The ablative takes le as le fuaran, with a fountain. These two 
 cases have been adopted by the moderns. 
 
 The first declension definite takes the article an, an sliabh the moun- 
 tain, and, in the genitive case, conforms to the vocative of the inde- 
 finite, an shleabh of the mountain. But before nouns beginning with 
 b, f, m, this article is by attraction converted into am. Should the 
 noun begin with a vowel it only takes the euphonic t, v, g, ord a 
 hammer antord the hammer.
 
 184 
 
 In rcgimine all the mutable consonants take an aspirate, and for 
 the sake of euphon}' n is introduced between two words, when the latter 
 begins with a vowel, as jar the west, a niar from the west, athair 
 father, arnathair our father. Thus we find go nor, agm go nargid 
 for go or agus goargid with gold and with silver. 
 
 Galic Fronouns. 
 
 Mi, tu, e, sinn, sibh, iad, I, thou, he, we, ye, they, si, she.— Mo 
 mine, do thine, ar our, bhur your; sa his, her, their. 
 
 Mi is thus declined. Nom. mi, gen. mo, dat. dhamh, ac. me, abl. 
 learn. — Orm on me.— Ort on thee. — Liom with me, leat with thee.— 
 Agam unto me, agad unto thee. 
 
 Galic Verbs. 
 
 Is mi I am, is tu thou art, ise he is, is siiin we are, is sibh ye are, isiad 
 they are. Bhami i was, biihidhmi and beidh me I shall be ; bith thu and 
 bi be thou, bithadhe and biodh se let him be; bhith, Galic of Scotland, but 
 in Irish do bheith to be. 
 
 The Galic has likewise sam, som, taim and tame, I am. The Irish 
 has fuilim I am. Bim I am, means properly I live, bitu thou art, &c. 
 The infinitives must have H after the first letter, if it be a consonant, and 
 dh before the first letter, if it be a vowel, v. g. Chruinuchadh to as- 
 semble, dhabachadh to ripen; but the compound dh is quiescent. 
 
 Cruinn is round, and crunnan a group. Hence cruinucham I assem- 
 ble, tha mi air cruinuchadh I have assembled. Cruinuchidh mi I will
 
 185 
 
 assemble, crulnic assemble thou, cruinic mi I may or can assemble, bha 
 mi cruinichtc I was assembled, chruinichar mi I shall be assembled. 
 
 The proper root is considered to be, as in Hebrew, the third person 
 singular of the preterite: but perhaps it should be the imperative in its 
 most simple form, without its pronoun, as in bi of the Irish, be thou. 
 
 Like other languages, the Galic has its irregular, or more properly its 
 defective verbs; for, when a part of any verb becomes obsolete, a cor- 
 responding part of some other verb supplies its place. Thus we find 
 deanam 1 do, rinn mi I have done, ni mi I shall do, dean do thou, tha 
 mi deant I am finished, nitar mi I shall be done, made or finished. 
 
 Deiram I say, thuairt mi, I have said, their ar, shall be said. In the 
 imperative we have only abeir say thou. This verb is extremely interest- 
 ing, because it helps to display the strict affinity between the Irish, the 
 Hebrew, the Greek, and its jEolic dialect the Latin. 
 
 The present tense may be either berim, deirim, or abraim. 
 
 Berim is precisely fero in two of its acceptations, I say, and I bring 
 forth. For in the first of these acceptations both berim and fero connect 
 themselves with epeca andli^^. In the second they look towards HIS 
 and <pepw. 
 
 Deirim I say, and deir tu, thou sayest, &c, with the preterite dubhras 
 and dubhairt me, I said, may be derived from the Hebrew dahar, he 
 said, although O'Brian, in his Dictionary, and Vallancej^ in his Gram- 
 mar, derive deirim, by abbreviation, from ad bheirim, and the preterite 
 adubhairt me, I did say, from ad bhearam, T say. 
 
 Abraim I say, and abair speak thou, may be allied to the Hebrew 
 amar. But these are considered as abbreviated from ad bhraim, ur cor- 
 
 YOL. II. B b
 
 186 
 
 rupted from ad bheirim. In the ancient MS. ad is prefixed to the perfect 
 of the indicative and to the present of the potential mood. 
 
 The future is deara me, I shall say; but the supine is labhartha, 
 spoken; the participle agradh, saying, both derived from other verbs, and 
 not from either deirim or abraim. 
 
 Toir mi I give, bha mi toirt, I was giving, thug mi, I gave, thoir give, 
 thoirt to give, air a thoirt given. In the future we have only bheir mi I 
 shall give, derived from beiram I give. 
 
 But although now defective, these verbs still exist entire in ancient 
 manuscripts. 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 One aon, two da, three tri, four ceithair, five coig and cuig, six she 
 and seisear, seven seachd and secht, eight ochd and ocht, nine naoi, 
 ten deich and deug, eleven aon deug, twenty fichad and fichid. 
 
 ^articles. 
 
 These must be divided into such as are prefixed and such as are sufl^xed. 
 
 The prefixed particles may be subdivided into such as imply negation 
 and such as merely modify the meaning. 
 
 The negative particles are, 
 
 1. A, am, im, aim, amh and aimh. Thus we have amadan not 
 learned, a fool, from adhm knowledge; imad many, from ad one; 
 anihlabhair dumb, from labhairt speech; aimhgheur blunt, from geur 
 sharp.
 
 187 
 
 2. Ain, an and ana ; aineolas ignorance, from colas knowledge, aincidh 
 a doubt, from cidh ceeing, certain; aniochd cruelty, from iochd cle- 
 mency; anachintach uncertain, doubtful, from cinteacht confidence. 
 
 3. Bai and be; baitibh and betibh intestate; baighal friendly; gal is 
 war, battle, 
 
 4. De, dea, di, dio, do, and d; dpagallam I recal, gallam I call; 
 dithinge dumb, ting and teangu a tongue; dibeoilh dumb, beul the 
 mouth ; dineart imbecility, neart, strength; diomoladh dispraise, moladh 
 praise; dobais immortal, bas death; domharb immortal, marbh death; 
 doeas hope, cas fear; doilleir dark, leir sight; daidhbhir poor, saidhbhir 
 rich; dligam I unbind, I separate; dluimh a cloud, hiding light. 
 
 5. Ead, eas, eag, eac, each and ei; eaban dirt, ban white; eacon 
 mad, con sense; eaccosmuil unlike, cosmuil like; eadtrom light, trom 
 heavy; easonoir dishonour, easordugh disorder; eagceart unjust, ceart 
 just; eidimhin uncertain, diuihin certain. 
 
 6. In, ing and iong; indearbh uncertain, dearbh certain; inlcighais 
 incurable, leigheas a remedy; ingglan and jongglan unclean, glan clean; 
 iongabhras doubtless, without a question; abra speech. 
 
 7. La; laban dirt, ban Avhite. 
 
 8. Ma, mio, mi and mith; madath unlawful, dathalaw; miochreidas 
 discredit, miochairdeas unfriendly; miogheur blunt, geur sharp; micheill 
 mad, ceill reason; mithfir weak, firsi force; mithfir ignorant, firin verity. 
 
 9. Neam, neim and neimh, pronounced neo; neamhglic foolish, glic 
 wise; neimhtheith cool, teas heat; neimseadh contempt, seadham I 
 esteem ; neotheach cold, teas heat. 
 
 "We may here remark that in Galic, positive qualities are most fre- 
 
 Bb 2
 
 188 
 
 quently expressed by the help of negative particles, as when we say not 
 bad for good, and not good for bad. 
 The modifying particles are 
 
 1. Adh and agh lawful, adhslath lawful sovereign, slat rod, sceptre. 
 
 2. Aith and ath, reiterative; aithlionadh recruiting, aithris to re- 
 hearse; athalhad re-union, athchagnaHh to chew the cud; athghlanani I 
 refine, I cleanse. 
 
 3. An and ain very and fit for, anteas, very hot; anmhor very great,, 
 ambhochd very poor; anfhoth very watchful, anglonn very strong; ang- 
 radh doating, anmhaoin great wealth; aindear a young woman, com- 
 pounded of an and fear, fit for a husband ; aineach skilful in horsemanship,, 
 ain fit each a horse. 
 
 4. Ard, high, ar over, upon; ardshagart high priest; ardorus a lintel. 
 
 5. As, more, fada long, as faide longer. 
 
 6. Coim, comh, com, cum, con, cun, co, cu, denote association, equa- 
 lity; coimhbeiram I contribute; coinbhliocht a conflict; comasgtomix; 
 comart to kill ; conspoidam I dispute, cosmhuil and samhuil like; cumhais 
 a seam, a selvage, cumaiscam I mix. 
 
 7. Deagh dagh good ; deagbghuth euphony; deaghuair opportunity, 
 uairhour; deaghthoil good-will, toil will, daghmhuintir good people, 
 muinter men. 
 
 8. Droch evil, droicham I wrong; drochmhuinte insolent. 
 
 9. Fo few, little, rare; fodhuine a little man, a servant; fodhorus,. a 
 wicket; fola a little M'hile, that is a short day, from la, a day. 
 
 10. Foir, for, fur, before, beyond, extreme; fordhorus a porch, foir- 
 ncart violence; foiriongantach prodigious; iongantach wonderful, fur- 
 choimheadani I am provident, I heed, I care; ead, jealousy, zeal.
 
 189 
 
 11. Gle perfection (See il, of which it may be a compound); gleghlan, 
 immaculate; glegheal exceeding white; geal white; gleal, id. a'Jain, 
 white. 
 
 12.. II and I perfection, great, well, plenty; ildealbhach well-featured; 
 ilghnitheach of all sorts; ile a great number of people. 
 
 13. Im about, round; imcheimnigham I walk round; imlioc bordering 
 on a lake. 
 
 14. In, V. ion. 
 
 15. lol variety ; iolphasadh poligamy ; iolam I change, iolar variety, 
 iolarda various. 
 
 16. lom association, amplitude; iomlan complete; iomorach a border; 
 iomchomhneart powerful, neart strength. 
 
 17. Ion and in fit, proper; iondeanta feasible, fit to be done; ionduile 
 desirable ; ionchoimhead conversable ; head is care, heed ; ionchon- 
 spoidlieac proper for disputation; inbheirt a perfect birth; infhir mar- 
 riageable; indioluighe solvent, diolam I pay. 
 
 18. Lan full ; lanchrodha courageous, full of heart; lantoileach satis- 
 faction, toil the will, 
 
 19 Mor many, great; morshluagh a great multitude; morliiach valuable: 
 luach value, hire, price. 
 
 20. Nios move ; niosgile more white. 
 
 21. Oirgoo;! ; oirbheart good actions; oirbhidineach venerable, 
 
 2*2. Friom chief, best, jsmne; priomhadhbhar chief cause; primhchial 
 excellent understanding. 
 
 23. Ro and lloi very, most; roghear very sharp, robheag very small; 
 rofhonn a keen desire, fonn desire; roigLeul very while, most white; 
 roilbhe mountains, iibhe Alps. (See U.)
 
 190 
 
 24. Roinilie riom and reamh before ; roimheolas and reamhaithne fore- 
 knowledge; eolas and aitbne knowledge ; roinihraidhte aforesaid. 
 
 25. So, soi, good, apt, able, easy ; sobholadh fragrance, boluigh scented; 
 sobhrisde fragil, briseadh a breach ; sochla renown, cluais to hear ; sos- 
 beolta navigable, seoladh sailing; soicead a socket, i.e. fitting the head; 
 soichreidsin credible. 
 
 26. Sior constant, sioruisg constant rain, uisg water. 
 
 27. Tar, tair, answering to trans, through ; tarbheiram I transfer; tair- 
 bhealach a ferry, bealach a highway. 
 
 28. Uim about, v. im. uinisheolam I circumnavigate. 
 29- Ur and uirvery, uriosal very humble, ios low. 
 
 In addition to these particles of determinate meaning, we must notice 
 certain letters frequently prefixed to words, which in the Galic, as in other 
 languages, are either redundant or euphonic, or merely assist in the for- 
 mation of nouns. 
 
 These are — 
 
 B. Annach clean, banag white; ail and beal the mouth; aran and bar 
 bread ; arn and barn a judge; ris a king; breas a prince. 
 
 C. Leac and clach a stone. 
 
 D. Ligheac and dhgeac lawful; aonfuil and daonfhuil akin. 
 
 r. Athach and fathach a giant; uinneog and fuinneog a window ; 
 uirneis and fuirneis a furnace; ed and fedoil cattle; eantog and feantog a 
 nettle. 
 
 G. Aire and gearr a fishing weir; lear, claer and gleair clear ; leos 
 and glus light ; rug and grug a wrinkle ; rugach and grugach wrinkled. 
 
 M. Ac kindred, mac a son; ed to handle; mad the hand ; oide as- 
 sembly ; moide a convention.
 
 191 
 
 N. Eile and nail another ; athair and nathcr a father ; ail and nail a 
 sting ; nallod for allod old. 
 
 S. Eisean and soisean he ; coti and scoti, toirm and stoirm, aois and 
 saigeas age; gib, gibbog and sguab a sheaf; greath and sgread a cry. 
 
 T. All and talla a hall ; saile and tsaile the sea : hence cinn the head 
 and tsaile become Cinn-tsaile in Irish, Kinsale in English. 
 
 B, F, M, C, G, and S seem to be used with the same licence in Galic 
 as in other European languages. Thus we find fion and mion small ; boid 
 and moid a vow; bladh and nioladh praise; clab and shop a lip, and 
 bili the lips ; breig and grug a lie ; bearr and gairid short ; bearg, fearg, 
 and gearg wrath. 
 
 The particles suffixed are numerous. I shall take notice of such as 
 most frequently occur, and their use will appear by the subsequent 
 examples. 
 
 1. A. Fol cover, fola a garment ; feab good, feabha honesty. 
 
 2. Ac, ach, achd, achadh and each; deabham I contend, deabhac 
 contentious; fior true, fireunam T verify, firineach faithful; firineachd 
 truth, breag a lie, breagach false; aon one, aonachd unity; foraidheach 
 fierce, foraidheachd fierceness; fineag a mite, fineagachadh growing full 
 of mites; toirbhrim I yield, I give, toirrtheach fertile. 
 
 3. Adas; dorc dark, dorcadas darkness; 
 
 4. Ad, adh, aidh, eadh, idh and uideh ; claonani I incline, claonad 
 inclination; saor free, saoraidh a saviour; snamhaim I swim, snamhuide 
 a swimmer; lomar a fleece, lomradh a shorn sheep. 
 
 5. Aighe; fiadh food, game, fiadhaighe a huntsman. 
 
 6. Ail and al, abbreviated from amhail and samhail, similis; glan 
 clean, glanal abstergent; claidheamh a sword, claidhamhal swordJike.
 
 192 
 
 7. Ain; anfas dread, anfhocain danger. 
 
 8. Air, oir and coir, from fear, a man; fool flesh, feoladoir a butcher; 
 carb a chariot, carbadoir a charioteer; sealgaire a hunter, clairseoir a 
 harper. 
 
 9. Amhail and amhuil, hke. Fear, a man; fearamhail manly; dearg 
 red, deargamhail reddish; sioda silk, siodamhuil like silk. 
 
 10. Amhuil excessive, compounded of am for iom and uile all; 
 geann love, geanamhuil most lovely; sgeil skill, sgeilamhuil skilful; uisg 
 water, uisgamhuil full of water. 
 
 11. An, in, ain small, diminutive; beann a mountain, beannan a little 
 hill; fear a man, firin a little man; bad a boat, baidin a little boat; gort 
 a garden, field, standing corn, goirtain a little corn field. 
 
 12. Ar, art; glan clear, clannan shining; Iom bare, lomar a fleece, 
 lomart a shearing. 
 
 13. As; carid a friend, caridas friendship; math good, mathas goodness. 
 
 14. Mhor, mhar, mhuire, excessive; anios up, anmhor very great; fial 
 liberal, fialmhar bountiful; fionmhor abundant in wine; gaoth wind, 
 gaothmhor windy. 
 
 15 Nach and neac, see ach and ac; dighe gratitude, digheneac grateful. 
 
 16. Oo-, diminutive; realt a star, realtog a little star; fideog a small 
 pipe, a little worm; garadhog a little garden; guile the stomach, golog 
 a budget; leine a shirt, lentog a little shirt; bo a cow, bodog a heifer. 
 
 17. Sa; saor free, saorsa freedom; earadh fear; ancarbam I distrust, 
 anearbsa distrust; feacham I see; feabhsa science. 
 
 15. Sc; soil, light; soilse resplendent. 
 
 19. Sal and sail ; toic money, toicsail a treasury.
 
 193 
 
 20. Ta; fioram I verify, fireanta true; lionam I fill, lionta full; 
 aitheantam I know, neanihaitheanta unknown ; cineal kindred, cinealta 
 kind. 
 
 OF THE HARMONY OF THE GALIC LANGUAGE. 
 
 EVEN a slight acquaintance with the Galic is sufficient to discover, 
 that it is rich and most harmonious in its structure. 
 
 For a ship it has forty terms, and as many for a house. Fire, water, 
 cow, cup, hand, foot, life, death, great, good and evil, with all the 
 common actions and objects, such as occur to nomade nations, have each 
 from ten to twenty words, by which a clear and distinct notion is con- 
 veyed. Miss Brooke, a young lady of distinguished talents, very judi- 
 ciously remarks, " It is astonishing of what various and comprehensive 
 powers this neglected language is possessed. In its compounds it is 
 abundant, like the German and the Greek, and one single word some- 
 times requires two whole lines to convey its meaning." 
 
 Her testimony coincides with the declared opinion of Archbishop 
 Usher, who says, " Est quidem lingua Hibernica et elegans cum primis 
 et opulenta;" and he laments that it should be so much neglected. 
 
 The harmony of the Galic arises partly from the liberty it has assumed, 
 like other languages, of changing each for the other such consonants 
 as have organic affinity; but principally by its absolute controul over the 
 vowels. Thus a speaker is at liberty to use indifferently aodach, eadach 
 and eudach, cloth; eile and oile, other; ard and airde, high; Deal, bil 
 and beul, the mouth; alaim, ailam and oilara, I nurse; bear, bior and 
 
 VOL. ir. c c
 
 194 
 
 bir a spit; breag, breig and breug, a lie; craig, crcag, creig and creug, 
 a rock; dear, deor, and deur, a tear; elc and olc, evil; raod, read, rod 
 and rud, a thing. In all their words A, O and U are commutable, as 
 are the short vowels E and I. 
 
 This choice of words, and these arbitrary changes in the vowels, evi- 
 dently prove, that the Galic tribes paid great attention to harmony of 
 diction. 
 
 The facility with which the Galic language forms its compounds, to con- 
 vey clear and distinct notions of the things intended, will appear from 
 the subsequent examples, taken indifferently from either O'Brian, Lhuyd, 
 Vallancey, Bullet, or Shaw. 
 
 Ailm an elm, is aill maide high, timber, achbeg almost, is ach except 
 and beg, a little; adhailg desire, is adf fit, ail pleasure, and geastal 
 want; ailec a stallion, ail a stone, each a horse; aitigham I dwell, aite a 
 place and tigh a house; ardhamh an ox broke in to the plough, is ar 
 plough, damh ox; ardriogh imperial majesty, is ard high, riogh king; 
 arteine a flint, is art a stone and teine fire. 
 
 Bcacarna a prostitute, bean woman, carna flesh; bealdruidam I am 
 dumb, beal mouth, druidam I shut; bealtaine a compact, i. e. the fire of 
 Baal; beandia a goddess, bean female, dia God; bocar and buacher 
 cow dung, bo a cow, gairgin dung; bronnsgaole a flux, bronn the belly 
 and sgaolte looseness; bunaithigham I establish, bun bottom, aite place, 
 and tigh house; busiall a muzzle, bus mouth, iall a thong. 
 
 Cuiliosal, 1. vile, 2. wicked; cuileog, 1. a fly, 2. a gnat, and iosal 
 likeness; culgair recal, cul the back, gairam I call; culithe backbiting, 
 cul the back and itham I cat.
 
 195 
 
 Daonflmil a relative, aon one, full blood; didil great love, i,e. the love 
 of God; dineart almighty, i.c, the power of God; diuluni I suck, did 
 the teat, and ullani I procure; dobharchu the otter, i.e. water dog, dob- 
 har, pronounced dour, and cu. 
 
 Earbog a roe, may refer to eardh timidity, or to carbull a tail and og 
 small. Ealadh a swan is e, a bird, and aladh wild; eondraoitham I 
 divine by the flight of birds, is eon or eun a bird and draoitheachad 
 magic; draoi is a Druid. Eunadair a fowler, is eun a bird, adbath 
 slaughter and air man; eunchriodhach timid, i. e. having the heart of a 
 bird. 
 
 Fongort a vineyard, fion wine, gort garden; fodhuine a dwarf, i.e.fo 
 little and duinc man; fola a liltle while, i.e. a short day; fursanam I 
 kindle, fur fire and sanam I release. 
 
 Gruagbhreige a wig, grug hair and bhreige false. 
 
 Ifurin hell, i. e. cold region, literally an island in a cold climate; 
 ioboirt sacrifice, i. e. the cake offering, derived from iob a raw cake and 
 thoirt offering, whence tort became the expression for cake; ithir corn 
 field, ith corn, tir land; ithfen, a car for corn, without wheels, ith and 
 benn; ithros corn rose. 
 
 Lamhanart a towel, lamh hand, anart linen; luan a greyhound, lua a 
 foot, an swift. 
 
 Odhall deaf, o, the ear, and dall dull ; ogbho heifer, og young, bo cow; 
 ogmhois June, i. c. the virgin's month. 
 
 Raidhearc eye sight, raighe a ray of light, and dearc the eye; reul a 
 star, i. e. ruith iul director of the rout. 
 
 Smuigeadach handkerchief, smug snot; soadh a bed, from socras ease, 
 
 c G 2
 
 t96 
 
 rest, and adh fit; sroiniall-srein a muzzle, from sron the nose, iall a thong 
 and srein a rein. Trosgadh a fast from trosg a cod fish. 
 
 In the instances above produced we observe the compound expressions 
 melted into single words; but whenever new objects presented themselves 
 and new terms were to be invented, the Galic tribes avoided arbitrary 
 sounds, and, resorting to such as were commonly received, they gave a 
 concise description of the thing intended. 
 
 Thus, aite comhnuidh is a mansion, caithir rioghal a throne, crann 
 araidh a plough, fion abhal grapes, fear an tigh osda a host, fear 
 deasachad leathair a tanner, gealadoir eadaich a fuller, grianchloch a 
 dial, i.e. a sun clock, maide milis liquorice, i.e. sweet wood, miol mof 
 a whale, i.e. sea animal, mathghabhuin a bear, i.e. a wild calf, fear- 
 nuadhposda a bridegroom. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS IN GALIC. 
 
 AVE have remarked, that abbreviations are the wheels of language, the 
 wings of Mercury. And I may here observe, that of all the languages, 
 with which I am conversant, I know of none that indulges to such a de- 
 gree in abbreviations as the Galic. Of this I have already given numerous 
 examples, and I may here observe, that its tendency to become monosyl- 
 labic has been incessant. Hence the same abbreviated word represents a 
 multitude of notions. These discordant terms must evidently have origi- 
 nated in polysyllabic expressions of the same discordant import. This 
 will appear from the subsequent examples.
 
 197 
 
 A has 13 difFerept significations, distinguished by grammarians. 
 
 Agh means fear, ox, cow, bull, conflict, good. 
 
 Ai — Region, inheritance, sheep, cow, herd, swan, cause, learned. 
 
 Ail — Stone, sting, arms, rebuke, month, time, will, whilst, request, 
 blot, noble, modest, beautiful. 
 
 ^i//— Place, steep, bank, turn, journey, course, praise, bridle. 
 
 Aire — Judge, noble, servant, attention, weir. 
 
 Ais — Hill, strong hold, covert, dependance, loan, cart, back, shingles, 
 bashful. 
 
 Al — Stone, rock, food, fear, horse, brood. 
 
 All — Bridle, hall, rock, cliff, generation, foreign, another. 
 
 Alt — High, nursing, exaltation, leap, joint, part, time, soon, brook, 
 vale, action, state, order. 
 
 Am — ^Time, moist, soft, tender. In composition, as we have seen, it 
 forms negation. 
 
 Atnh — Even, also, raw, naughty, fool, ocean. 
 
 An — Interrogative, evil, in, still, quiet, vessel, true, false, pleasant, 
 noble, pure, swift, water, one. In composition, like am, it forms ne- 
 gation. 
 
 Ana — Truly, fair weather, silver cup continuance, riches. 
 
 Aoi — Guest, stranger, island, hill, trade, possession, compact, swan, 
 knowledge, instruction, honour, respect. 
 
 Ar — Our, plough, slaughter, guidance, bond. 
 
 Arc — Arc, chest, dwarf, body, pig, adder, bee, wasp, lizard, cork 
 tree, tribute. 
 
 Bta — Be it enacted, village, piety, the sea, green field, cry, shout, 
 fruit of the womb, praise, fame, yellow, safe, healthy.
 
 198 
 
 Car — Care, friend, crooked, deceitful, terrible, brittle, part, fish, 
 movement, trick, stone. 
 
 Coir — True, false, just, right, guilt, business, solitary, 
 
 Gtis — A far as, until, desire, anger, death, a deed, weight, force, 
 strength, sharp, value. 
 
 I — Island, low, shallow, an art, science, she. 
 
 Mai — King, prince, soldier, poet, rent, tax, wealth, slow. 
 
 Mam — Mother, hand, fist, gap, vile, base, hill, mountain, strength, 
 power. 
 
 Meas — Measure, mess, mast, fruit, rod, weapon, edge, point, shears, 
 salmon, opinion, respect, advice, foster child, tax, a grave. 
 
 Ogh — ^The ear, whole, full, pure, sincere, virgin, young woman, circle. 
 
 Oil — To nurse, to drink, a rock, infamy, reproach. 
 
 Ong — Clean, trespass, healing, sorrow, groan, fire, hearth. 
 
 Ti — God, He, Him, house, unto, until, design. 
 
 Tin — Tender, to melt, soft, fat, gross, thick, a beginning. 
 
 To — ^Tongue, silent, mute, dumb. ' 
 
 Tur — Tower, journey, research, request, dry, bare, alone, weariness, 
 heaviness, to tally. 
 
 Ur — Fire, earth, mould, the grave, heath, valley, moist, place, brink, 
 border, beginning, new, fresh, very, hence, evil, slaughter, hurt, mis- 
 chief, generous, noble, gentle. 
 
 The nature of such compounds, subject to abbreviation, will appear 
 both from those already noticed and from the subsequent examples. 
 
 Comhairlc a council, composed of the preposition comh and bearla 
 speech; comharba joint-tenant, derived from comh and forba land; 
 cosmhuil like, is comh and samhuil like; comdhuigham I build, is comh
 
 W9 
 
 and fhod a clod'; daidlibliin poor, is do not and saidlibhir rich; fiicann 
 
 male, fir man, and ghein genus. 
 
 Tlius, by abbreviation, dobliar water, becomes dob a river, and dur 
 
 water; and thus tochdaim I am silent, is contracted into tosd, toc/td, and 
 
 to, silence. 
 
 But the genius of this language, and the nature of its abbreviations, 
 
 will be more distinctly seen, when we shall proceed to trace its affinities; 
 prior to which we must briefly notice some of its radical expressions. 
 These are comparatively few ; for the most considerable portion of the 
 Galic, as now spoken, seems to have been received from foreigners, who 
 during various periods established settlements in Ireland. These newly- 
 adopted words appear detached, without connexions, and wholly destitute 
 of both root and branches in their insulated state; not so the aenuine 
 language, the language of primitive expressions, such as occur in the 
 most ancient manuscripts. I shall produce a few of these, arranged in the 
 manner practised by Scapula in the Greek. 
 
 Aodhand Adudfire; adhna, heat, adnadh to kindle, aodhar fiery deso- 
 lation, adhan a cauldron, adhanta warm, adhbhadh a house, aoidhidhe a 
 guest, aoidheachdam I lodge, I entertain, aodhnair an owner, aoi pos- 
 session, guest, stranger, maide wood, adhmad timber. 
 
 Aon, can, ein, and en one; aona the first, aonar alone, aonarachd sin- 
 gularity, aonaran a solitary person, aonda particular, aonachd unity, 
 aonracan a widower, aonta celibacy, aontingham I consent, aontigheas 
 cohabitation. 
 
 Aram I plough; ar ploughing, husbandry, ardhamh an ox trained to the 
 plough, arach a ploughshare. Aran and bar bread, aranailt a bread-basket,
 
 200 
 
 ancha a pantry, aranoir a baker, arbhar grain, arbharach fertile, arbh- 
 raisneach famine. 
 
 Ard h'l^h; ar upon, arad a ladder, ardan eminence, pride, ardanach 
 high, proud, ardaigham I extol, ardaghadli honour, ardarc a coat of 
 arms, ardorus a lintel, ardinmhe eminence, ardchomas sovereignty, ard- 
 chathair metropolis, ardshagart high priest, arigh chiefs, ardchnocfaire 
 a great baron. 
 
 Bior, a fountain; biorar water cresses, biorbhogha a rainbow, bior- 
 bhuafan a water serpent, biordhac watery, biorgon a floodgate, biorphota 
 an urn, bioror the brink of water, biorra a king's fisher, biorrach a boat, 
 biorrac a marsh, biorros a water lily, literally a fountain rose, biorrsnaobh 
 the old bed of a river, birfheadan a water pipe, birmhein moisture, bir 
 water, tobar and sapar a well, birra abounding in wells, birrac standing 
 water. 
 
 Bolg, a bag, belly, bellows, pimple; bolgam I blow, swell, blister, 
 sip, gulp; bolgach a boil, bolgan a budget, a quiver, bolla a bowl, blad- 
 der, bollog a shell, a skull, boilg a bubble, husks, boill a knob, a boss, 
 boilgain and bolg saighaid a quiver, beille a kettle, cauldron, boillsgeanam 
 I bulge, boillsgeanaibh hills, builgain a bubble, pimple, builm a loaf, 
 builinach a baker, builg bellows, bollsgaire a bawler, boaster, bollsair 
 a herald. 
 
 Breo, fire, flame; breochoire a warming pan, breochual a funeral pile, 
 breochloch a flint, breogam I bake, brosna a faggot, brotlach a boiling 
 pit, bruth red hot, bruithaim I boil, bruithne a refiner, bruithneach 
 sultry, brun and bran a fire brand, bruin a cauldron, bri and bara anger.
 
 201 
 
 Caram, I love, car love lliou; cara, carad and caraida a friend, cara- 
 dam I befriend, caradacli befriended, caradas friendship, carac friendly, 
 carantac kind, caraidd a defence, twain, caraidheachd a dispute, 
 caraidhain I wrestle, carachdidli wrestling, carachdach athletic, accarachd 
 gentleness. 
 
 Craig, creag, creig, creug and cruad, a rock; creigach rocky, creagan 
 a rocky place, rag stiff, rigid, cruidheata and crughaldch hard, difficult, 
 cruadh hard, firm, steel, difficult; cruadail danger, courage, avarice; 
 cruadhalach hard, stingy, poor; cruadheuing rigour, slavery; cruad- 
 hmhuinalachd and ragmhuinalac stiff necked, obstinate; cruaidhchriodach 
 hard hearted; cruadhagach strict, cruadheigc distress, cruaghadh a 
 strengthening, cruaidheadh a hardening, cruaidhaicharn I harden, cruaid- 
 hcheanglam I tye fast. 
 
 Dubam, I dip, I duck; dubhshnamliani I dive; dubadh, dubhagh and 
 dubhogh, a pond, a lake; dubhash a tub, dabhan a pitcher, a fish hook; 
 dubhaigein and dubhogh the ocean, the deep, dobhar, domhar and dur 
 water, dob and dothar a river, dobharshoidheac a bucket, dobharchu an 
 otter, domhain, domhuin and doinihann deep, doimhnaicham I deepen. 
 
 Ed, handle, take, receive, gain; edim I catch, eddreimim, I catch at, 
 edean a receptacle, cdal treasure, edalach rich, eid and ed cattle, ed 
 defence, protection, edire hostages, eide tribute, eadail prey, iod a cast 
 or throw, iodhnach warlike; mad and mana the hand, madham a battle, 
 madhmann a skirmish, madhmadh a sally, madhmam I vanquish, man- 
 radh destruction, madhm a handful ; mam, a hand, fist, might, power. Sec. 
 
 Fail', watch thou, sun rise, sun setting; faire behold, fairara I watch, 
 I guard, forfairam I watch, forfhaireach a watchman, faireac watchful, 
 
 VOL. II. u d
 
 202 
 
 fairfoiiadh warninr, forfair, forf and foraire a watch, a guard, fairgseoir 
 a spy, fairigham I watch, perceive, fairche a diocese, fairigh a parish, 
 fairughadh perception, faireog and fairadh a watching hill, fairseong wide, 
 open, spacious; farraidam I enquire, faruin an opening, farruineog a 
 lattice, furachar watchful, fuairam I find. 
 
 Fiodh a wood, a wilderness; fiadh a deer, food, a weed; fiiadha wild, 
 savage, a fawn, a territorial lord; fiadhach venison, fiadhaighe a hunts- 
 man, fiadhath a hunting spear, fiadhfhal a park, fiadh and fal inclosure. 
 
 Gahh, take thou; gabham I take, gabhal a fork, gabhlach forked, 
 gabhlan and gabhlog a pitchfork, forked timber, gabhalran and gabh- 
 altan compasses, gobha and gabha a smith; gabhalfhir the groin, gabh- 
 altach capable, gabhaltuidhe a farmer, gabhadan a storehouse, gabhann 
 a prison, gabhail spoil, booty, conquest, taking prisoners, gabhal fold- 
 ing sheep. 
 
 Gearrom I cut, bite, gnaw, shorten; gearradh a cut, a rent, bearra a 
 cut, shred, bearram I clip, shear, bearradan scissars, snuffers, bearrasgian 
 a razor. Gearb the itch, gearbam I hurt, wound, grieve; bearrthoir and 
 bearradair a barber, bearra short hair; beare, gearr and gor short; 
 geirrsgiath a short sword, gearghlais a gloss, a short note, gearghath a 
 short javelin. Gortuigham I cut, wound; gortughadh hurt; geur edged, 
 sharp, geurad and geire, sharpness; geuraighara and gearuigham I 
 
 sharpen grind. 
 
 Geiram I whet, I grease; geir grease; gearchuise and geurchuise sub- 
 tilty; geurainachd wit, gcarait wise, gcirintleachd sagacity, gort hunger, 
 geur, gortach goirt and gearblasda sour; geuraigham, I make sour, gor- 
 teog a crab-tree, gortreabhadh misery, gearg and bearg fierce, cruel.
 
 203 
 
 cearb a cutting, carving, slaughtering, cearbhal a massacre, cearram I 
 kill, ceartaigliam I cut, I prune, cearail a quarrel. 
 
 Grian and grioth the sun; gris fire, griosach hot, grisgin a griskin, 
 groideal ; a griddle, gradanta hot, greadam I burn, groadan parched corn, 
 griosughani I kindle, griosaidh embers, griun a hedghog. 
 
 Ith and ioth corn; ithir corn field; ithfen a car for corn, ithdhias, an 
 ear of corn, itham and iosam I eat; iothlann a granary, iothros corn 
 rose, cockle, itheadh and iosadh eating and to eat, ithiomraidhtcach 
 backbiting; ioslann a pantry, a larder, iosdas entertainment, iosda a 
 house, iosdan a cottage. 
 
 Lamh the hand , lamhadh handling, lamhach handy; lamhcharam I 
 handle, lamhrachan a handle, lamhagan groaping, lamhainn a glove, 
 lamhainneoir a glover, lamhanart a towel, lamhiiaigh a surgeon, lamragan 
 fingering, lamhcheardamhuil mechanic, lamhrod a foot-path, lamhdeanas 
 restraint, lamchoille acubit ; glamham I seize, glammam I devour, glam- 
 sair a glutton, glamhin a spendthrift ; sglamham I snatch, sglamhoide a 
 glutton ; lapadh a paw. 
 
 Lasarn I burn, I light, I kindle; las kindle thou, lasadh kindling, to 
 kindle, to burn; lasach fiery, lasair flame, lasarach burning, laom a blaze, 
 la, lae, laoi, and lo the day; lassag faggots, lasan anger; leas, leos, leus, 
 and les the light ; leosam, I shine, T give light, leusach having light, Icos- 
 ghath a ray of light, leoschnuinih a glow-worm; leis apparently; leirsin, 
 seeing, lear, clear; leir sight, perception, wise, prudent; leirsmuine con- 
 sideration ; leirg and leas a reason, motive, cause; leur seeing, leurgus 
 sight ; loisgam I burn, losgadh burning, to burn ; loise and loisi a flame, 
 loisceanta fiery ; loirgaim and loirgaram I look for; loinear a flash of light, 
 
 D d 2
 
 204 
 
 loinearda bright; loinneir a flashing, loinreach bright; loinnream I shine, 
 a trleam; loinn joy, loinneach glad, luinne mirth; luchair brightness; 
 hiiohe a proof, a cauldron ; luisne a flash.- a flauie, a blush ; luithe, luath, 
 luathas, and luas swiftness; luatham I hasten, luathmhor swift, liiathmharc 
 arace-horse, Inathmharcach a messenger, luatharana sea lark, luath ashes, 
 luatlio-hairam I rejoice, lusca blind, bios manifest, open, blosaiu I 
 make manifest, glus light, brightness; gluaise a gloss, cleanness, neat- 
 ness; gluair, glear and glor, clear, pure; gloir glory. 
 
 Laith milk ; luim, leim, lean, bleachd and bliochd milk, 
 leachd, kine, bliochdmhaire full of milk, bliocht profit of a milch 
 cow ; bleaghanam, bleagham and bledham, I milk; bladhach and blathach 
 butter milk; blath white, clean; bleasghanach emulgent, blaitham I 
 smooth, I polish, bleachdair a soother, bleid a coaxing, blanag fat, 
 tallow, bladairam 1 flatter, blath praise, blathliag a pumice stone. 
 
 Malcam, I bear, carry ; malcair a porter, malaid and mala a mail, 
 a bag; malair a merchant, malairt barter, malcaireas sale, malcaire- 
 achda belonging to the market, malairtach reciprocal, malratoir airgaid 
 a banker, maltriallach slow travelling, mall slow. 
 
 Nas a band; nasgam I bind, nase a chain, collar, ring; nasgadan 
 oblio-ation, nascar fortification, nasgaire a surety, nasgidh a treasure. 
 
 Ris, a king; breas a prince, breasam I reign, breaschathoir a throne, 
 breaschathair a royal residence, breascholbh a sceptre, breaslann a 
 palace, breasrod the king's highway, breasnion a royal mandate, brea- 
 saontaidh royal assent, breathamh a judge, breitheamnas judgment, 
 breitheantach judicious. 
 
 Stam, I stand; sta stand thou, stadam I stay, stop, cease; staid a
 
 205 
 
 state, condition, staidal stately, stadtlmch apt to stop, stailc a stop, 
 staonaim I decline, I abstain; statamhuil stately, stadh the stays of a 
 ship, stabul a stable. 
 
 Teas, heat, the south; teasuidhe, tegh, teth, teith and to hot; teasgal 
 a scorching wind, teagh a vapor, time heat, timeac hot, teinne fire, 
 tinntigh fiery, tinani I melt, tinteach lightning, tintean the hearth, tioram 
 1 dry, tiotan and tethin, the sun. 
 
 Ur, fire; for, illumination; forsanam I shine, forreilam Ishine out, 
 fordharc the light, forasna illustrated, foran anger, wrath ; foranta 
 angry; foream and foirceadalam I teach ; goor light, goram I warm, 
 gorn a fire brand. 
 
 These few examples may suffice to mark the distinction, I have 
 noticed between the primitive language and its more recent acquisitions. 
 They are found in the most ancient manuscripts and records. In their 
 primary sense they are of extensive use. Their derivatives have renjote 
 and accidental significations, each of which naturally flows from the 
 first notion, and the common bond or radix denotes some action o^: 
 something. 
 
 OF THE INVESTIGATION OF RADICALS IN GALIC. 
 
 TO analyse a word we must get rid of all prepositive and terrain 
 nating particles, that, having completed this operation, we may, in ail 
 its combinations, perceive the root, either entire, or in its abbreviated 
 form, or in some of its mutations.
 
 206 
 
 In Latin, Greek and Hebrew, neither prefixes nor suffixes create 
 embarrassment. They occasion no difficulty, because we are perfectly 
 acquainted with them, and in the most complicated expressions can 
 readily distinguish them. We are equally familiar with the inflexions 
 of the verbs in their most diffusive branches, and however varied or 
 contracted these may be, can trace them rapidly to the root from 
 which they spring. 
 
 Thus, for instance, should even the young Grecian meet with 
 xrroSsSsiyiJ^evoc, or with 'TrpoxTroSsix^evTav, he would, without hesitation, dis- 
 miss its appendages and fix on Seinwi*.!., BirS.Qv, or hifixi^ as the most 
 simple form in Avhich this verb appears. Should he proceed to analyse 
 such compounds as ccKOKxixqcujiq or avlcticoho'^vjjiTcti, he could not fail in 
 his research, but would instantly put his finger on tftif*t and ^tSwfi./, or on 
 i^ico and ^001, roots which have become obsolete in Greek, but are still 
 found in the Latin sto, sta, do and da. 
 
 Or should the young Hebraeist see teth, give thou, he would immedi- 
 ately discover T, as the only radical remaining from nalhan, he gave. 
 
 So in Latin, should either i, go thou, or transitures about to go occur, 
 these would be instantly referred to eo, I go. 
 
 But with the Galic few scholars can boast of such an accurate ac- 
 quaintance, and without this knowledge the roots must be frequently 
 concealed. 
 
 The difficulties which prevent their detection, are increased by the 
 accumulation of its prepositions. Li Greek it is not unusual to see two. 
 Such combinations suit the' genius of that language. In Latin we some- 
 times find the preposition wantonly doubled, as in concomitant; but in
 
 207 
 
 Galic we often meet with three. Thus, for instance, ionchonspoidheac, 
 proper for disputation, when divested of its three prepositions and of its 
 idiomatic termination, retains only poid, precisely as disputation, thus 
 analysed, leaves put, both allied to puto, I think. 
 
 This sufficiently evinces the importance of an intimate acquaintance 
 Avith all the particles, whether prefixed or suffixed to radicals in Galic. 
 Without this knowledge, even two prepositions must perplex, whilst, to 
 him who possesses it, the greatest difficulty of detecting radicals is gone. 
 Should he, for instance, meet with iomchomhnart strong, or iomchomharc 
 a present, he has only to remove the two prepositions ioni and comh, and 
 he instantly beholds nart or neart, strength, and arc tribute, so called 
 from arc the chest, in which the tribute was collected and preserved. 
 By a similar process, athchomghear short, will be readily reduced to gear 
 of the same import. 
 
 Even when cleared of such appendages, what remains may be a com- 
 pound; for two or more substantives may be imited, or a substantive 
 may appear either in combination with its adjective, or attendant on a 
 verb. Many sucli instances were produced, when I was treating of the 
 harmony and luxuriancy of the Galic language. 
 
 To detect the genuine root of words in Jrish, we must be aware of a 
 practice which, although not peculiar to this language, is most prevalent 
 in it, I mean epenthesis. For as two or more vowels occurring together 
 in the same word cannot form more than one syllable, the bards, when- 
 (Bver they wished to increase the number of their syllables, threw i nbe- 
 tween two vowels an adventitious consonant, such as D or G, rendered 
 quiescent by an aspirate. Having done so, if the vowel preceding this
 
 208 
 
 consonant happened to be a, o, or u, and the subsequent to be either e 
 or i; the former was changed into one of the latter^ or at least one of 
 these was associated with it. 
 
 This custom has been extremely injurious to tlie purity of the Irish 
 language, and has contributed to disguise its radical expressions. It is 
 thus, that gain, the plural of gall, became gaedhill, and that Galic was 
 converted into gaedhilic. Thus also, as it seems, belain and bliain, that 
 is, circle of the sun, became bliadhain, and even bliaghain, a year. 
 
 A knowledge of, and attention to this licentious introduction of con- 
 sonants and consequent changes in the vowels, are absolutely needful to 
 the philologist. 
 
 In these investigations we must remember not only, that, in Galic, 
 letters, which have organic affinity, are commutable, like as in all other 
 languages, but that B, P, F, V, M, D, and T, with C, and G, when 
 aspirated and consequently quiescent, are equally so, that S may be- 
 come T, and M may supply the place of N, or the reverse. We 
 must likewise call to mind, the indifference with which the vowels are 
 used for each other, more especially A, O, and U as long vowels, and 
 E and I as short ones. 
 
 To be expert in the investigation of Galic radicals, a competent 
 knowledge of the language in general, and of its abbreviations in par- 
 ticular, must be previously obtained. This will be evident to every 
 one who considers what I have stated on this subject. In this opera- 
 tion, difficulties frequently occur, such as no attention, no recollections, 
 no minute investigations are able to surmount. 
 
 In all languages we meet with compounds abbreviated and fresh
 
 209 
 
 compounds formed by these abbreviated terms, which are liable to be 
 again contracted, till scarce a vestige of the original root can be 
 discovered. 
 
 In such cases nothing remains, but to examine, what assistance can 
 be derived from kindred languages. 
 
 I. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE WELCH. 
 
 THESE languages have been considered as unconnected, and, on a 
 transient view, they must appear so. But to the more attentive and dis- 
 cerning eye, it will be evident, that, however dissimilar at present, they 
 were originally one. In their syntax and the inflexion of their verbs, they 
 differ as much from each other, as the Anglo-Saxon, German and Gothic 
 do from modern English. Yet on examination it will appear, that they 
 are radically one language, variously modified, corrupted and disguised. 
 
 To demonstrate their identity, I must refer to my vocabulary of the 
 Galic and the Welch, which, being copious, 1 have placed in the Ap- 
 pendix. But it will be necessary in its examination to remember, that 
 letters of the same organ are commutable, and that in the most ancient 
 manuscripts the gutturals C G and also the dentals T D were used in- 
 differently for each other. 
 
 VOL. It. EC
 
 210 
 
 II. 
 
 AFFINITY BET^yEEN THE ENGLISH, DANISH, SWEDIS'lf, 
 ICELANDIC, GOTHIC AND GALIC. 
 
 Engltsh. 
 
 Ail 
 
 Danish, Ifc. 
 
 Eel, D. 
 
 Galic. 
 
 Easlan 
 
 English. 
 
 iBelt 
 
 1 
 
 Dani.tA, ^e. 
 
 BeUe, D. 
 
 Galic, 
 
 Bait 
 
 Ail- 
 
 Aer, D. 
 
 Aidheir 
 
 'Birth 
 
 Bord, S. 
 
 Beirthe 
 
 All 
 
 01 Ahl, D. I. 
 
 Uile 
 
 Blast 
 
 Bloest, D. 
 
 Blagair 
 
 Am 
 An 
 
 Em, I. Im, G. 
 Ains, G. 
 
 [smi 
 Aon 
 
 Blow 
 
 Blaasa, I. 
 
 ^Blagair 
 ( Bolgam 
 
 Art 
 
 Idrott, S. 
 
 Ceard 
 
 Board 
 
 Baurds, G. 
 
 Bord 
 
 As 
 
 Och, S. 
 
 Ag 
 
 Boat 
 
 Baatur, I. 
 
 Bad 
 
 Ask 
 
 ^Eska, S. 
 
 Aiscam 
 
 Bolt 
 
 Bold, D. 
 
 Boltadh 
 
 Ass 
 
 Asilns, G. 
 
 A sal 
 
 Booth 
 
 Both, L 
 
 Both 
 
 Awe 
 
 Ah, D. 
 
 Uamhas 
 
 Both 
 
 Batho, G. 
 
 Beit 
 
 Babe 
 
 Babe, S. 
 
 Baban 
 
 Bow 
 
 Boga, S. 
 
 Bogha 
 
 Bake 
 
 Baka, S. 
 
 Bacalta 
 
 Bowl 
 
 Bolle, D. 
 
 Bolla 
 
 Bar 
 
 Bar, D. 
 
 Barra 
 
 Box tree 
 
 Buxbonitrae,D. 
 
 Bugsa 
 
 Bark 
 
 Bark, D. 
 
 Bare 
 
 A box 
 
 Byssa, S. 
 
 Boigsin 
 
 Bath 
 
 Bad, D. S. I. 
 
 Baidhte 
 
 Boy 
 
 Pog, D. 
 
 Buachail 
 
 Bawl 
 
 Bola, S. 
 
 Bolsgairam 
 
 Brew 
 
 Bruggare, I. 
 
 Bruitham 
 
 Beans 
 
 Bonne, D. 
 
 Ponair 
 
 Bride 
 
 Brud, D.S.I. 
 
 Brideac 
 
 Bear 
 
 Bcera, S. 
 
 Beirim 
 
 15 row 
 
 Brun, I. 
 
 Bra 
 
 Beast 
 
 Becst, D. 
 
 Beathacl 
 
 Buck 
 
 Brock S. 
 
 Buic Boo 
 
 Bee 
 
 Bii, S. 
 
 Beathog 
 
 Bull 
 
 Bol, D. 
 
 ^Bola, cow 
 2 Bologjheifer
 
 211 
 
 English. 
 
 Danish, l(e. 
 
 Galic. 
 
 English, 
 
 toaillsh, tfc. 
 
 Galic. 
 
 Burn 
 
 Brinnan, G. 
 
 Bran 
 
 Coal 
 
 Kol, J. 
 
 Guail, fire 
 
 Burst 
 
 Briste, D. 
 
 Bris 
 
 Cole 
 
 Kaal, D. 
 
 Colis 
 
 Buss 
 
 Puss, S. 
 
 CBus, the 
 C mouth 
 
 Cost 
 Cot 
 
 Kosta, S. 
 Kot, I. 
 
 Cosdas 
 Colta 
 
 Cake 
 
 Kaka, S. 
 
 Caca 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ko, D. S. 
 
 Bo 
 
 Cale 
 
 Ka^l, I. 
 
 Cal 
 
 Crab, fish 
 
 Krabbe, D. 
 
 Cm ban 
 
 Call 
 Can, S. 
 
 Kalla, S. 
 Kande, D. 
 
 A gal la 
 Cuineog 
 
 Creep 
 
 ^Kriupa, T. 
 f Krybe, D. 
 
 Crubam 
 
 Cap 
 
 Kappa, S. 
 
 Copchaille 
 
 Crook 
 
 Krok, S. 
 
 Cruca 
 
 Cart 
 
 Karra, S. 
 
 Coirt 
 
 Cup 
 
 Koppa, D. S. 
 
 Cuibh 
 
 Carve 
 
 Karfwa, S. 
 
 Cearb 
 
 Dale 
 
 Dalur, I. 
 
 Dal 
 
 Cat 
 
 Katt, S. 
 
 Cat 
 
 Day 
 
 Dagur, I. 
 
 Dia 
 
 Cave 
 
 Kofwa, S. 
 
 Cuas 
 
 Dear 
 
 Dyr, D. S. I. 
 
 Daor 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Kalk, D. S. I. 
 
 Cailc 
 
 Death 
 
 Dauthur, G. 
 
 Teidhm 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Kes, S. 
 
 Caise 
 
 Deem 
 
 Daeme, I. 
 
 Dimhnighm 
 
 Chest 
 
 Kiste, D. 
 
 Cisde 
 
 Desk 
 
 Disk, S. 
 
 Daisgin 
 
 Chick 
 
 Kuckling, S. 
 
 ^Coicht 
 ^Children 
 
 Dike 
 Dim 
 
 Dige, D. 
 Dimmur, I. 
 
 Dig 
 leimheal 
 
 Chin 
 
 Kinn, G. 
 
 Smigein 
 
 Dip 
 
 Daupjan, G. 
 
 Dnbani 
 
 Clay 
 
 Glina 
 
 Cladatch 
 
 Dirt 
 
 Diyt, I. 
 
 Doiit 
 
 Clear 
 
 Klaar, I. 
 
 Gleair 
 
 Do 
 
 raukjan,. G. 
 
 Deunam 
 
 Cleave 
 
 Klyfwa, S. < 
 
 Cliobani ' 
 
 Door 
 
 Oyr.T. Daur,G. 
 
 Dorus 
 
 Clod 
 
 Klod, D. 
 
 Clod 
 
 Dough 
 
 Deyg, D. 
 
 I'aos 
 
 Clothe 
 
 Kloeda, S. 
 
 Cleitham 
 
 Drag 
 
 Draga, I. S. 
 
 Oragam 
 
 Club 
 
 Kolt; S. 
 
 Colbh 
 
 E 
 
 Dray 
 
 e2 
 
 Drog, S. • 
 
 Drabh, Scc.
 
 212 
 
 It has been judiciously observed by Pinkerton, that the Welch and 
 Irisli arc languages so full of Gothic words in disguise, that it is impos- 
 sible to say, if any particular word be originally Gothic or Celtic. In 
 fact these nations had the same remote progenitors, whose language they 
 preserved, though much disfigured and disguised. 
 
 Wachterus, a learned German, assures us, that the more ancient and 
 obsolete are the expressions in Galic, Welch and German, the more 
 striking is their resemblance, and that he could demonstrate this by six 
 hundred examples. (Quo antiquior est sermo noster et ab usu hodierno 
 alienior, eo major est ejus cum Gallico et Britannico convenientia. 
 Possem hoc sex centis exemplis demonstrare. Praefat ad Gloss. Germ.) 
 
 III. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE RUSSIAN. 
 
 IT cannot be imagined, that the Galic is either the parent, or the 
 offsjiring, of the Russian; yet they are related. They are certainly 
 descended from one common ancestor. Should we, however, attempt 
 historically to trace the degree of affinity between them; we should be 
 obliged to call for the records of remote antiquity. But unfortunately no 
 such records are to be found, nor can they have existed, because wan- 
 dering hordes, whatever transactions may have been for a time preserved 
 in the memory of their progenitors, and delivered by tradition from 
 paients to their children, have no written records. The only resource 
 therefore is in their languages. These indeed have been liable to change;
 
 213 
 
 yet by a careful investigation we may be able to trace an affinity where, 
 at the first glance, it may not meet the eye. 
 
 In this investigation, we must call to mind, what has been delivered 
 respecting prepositions and terminations to be removed, before we can 
 detect the radical part of any word; and we must consider the aptitude, 
 which letters of the same organ have to assume each other's place, before 
 we can determine the resemblance of such roots, when found. 
 
 We have already noticed the substantive verb ismi in Galic, and have 
 seen the radical Is preserved in all the persons of the present tense. No\r 
 let us examine it in Russian. Here we have esm, esi, est; esmui, este, 
 sut; I am, thou art, he is; we are, ye are, they are. 
 
 The numerals, as far as four, discover affinity, but, excepting six and 
 ten, the remaining numbers of the decad have not visibly the least re- 
 semblance. 
 
 In Russian they stand thus: one, odin; two, dua; three, tre; four, 
 chetuire; five, pat; six, shest; seven, sem, which is in Slavonian sedm; 
 eight, vosem; nine, debat; ten, desat. 
 
 In Galic: one, aon; two, da; three, tri; four, ceathair; five, coig; 
 six, seisir; seven, morsheisar; eight, ochd ; nine, naoi ; ten, deich. 
 Each of these series exhibits the numeration of a rude people, who, be- 
 fore their separation, had little occasion for and no knowledge of arith- 
 metic. 
 
 The Russian verb iem, iesh, iest; iedim, iedite, idat, I, thou, he, we, 
 ye, they, eat, is allied to ithim in Galic, and their affinity is rendered siill 
 more evident by the resemblance of both to the same verb in Greek and 
 Latin. Apparently connected with this verb we observe the Slavonian 
 jito, which, like ith, already noticed in the Galic, means wheat.
 
 214 
 
 Both these hiiiguages are intimately connected with the Greek, as the 
 Italian, French and Spanish are with the Latin. This proves their 
 affinity; wliilst their want of resemblance to each other clearly shews 
 that their progenitors must have separated at a very early date. 
 
 [ have, in my observations on the English language and its affinities, 
 noticed its intimate C(jnnexion with Galic, Russian and other Slavonian 
 dialects, from which it follows that Galic and the Slavonian dialects are 
 intimately connected. 
 
 As we advance, it will be clear, that these languages, though at pre- 
 sent exceedingly dissimilar, are radically one. 
 
 IV. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN THE MUNGALIC OR KALMUC AND 
 
 THE GALIC. 
 
 STRAHLENBERG has enriched philology with a vocabulary of the 
 Culmuco-Mungalian language, in a work, of which one edition appeared 
 in I73O. I have read it with pleasure, and derived much information 
 from it. 
 ■ From this vocabulary General Vallancey made a considerable selection, 
 in order to point out the affinity between the Kahnuc and the Irish. 
 
 This nomade natimi wanders over the elevated regions, which extend 
 to the north of 'J'ibet, from ISIount Imaus, that is from the sources of 
 the Indus and of the Ganges, to the Eastern Ocean. 
 
 I shall here subjoui a few expressions, in which the resemblance has 
 been best preserved, at the same time requesting the reader to recollect
 
 215 
 
 the length of time, which has elapsed since the separation of these dis- 
 tant nations, their ignorance and want of records, their wandering 
 habits, and the rules I have suggested for the detection of the most 
 recondite roots, founded on the changes to which all languages are 
 subject. 
 
 Kalmiic. 
 
 Abdara, a bed — — 
 
 Ara, a bolster — — 
 
 Are and Ere, a man — 
 Aeme or Eme, a woman — 
 
 Ama, the mouth — — 
 
 Ara, jaw teeth — — 
 
 Allaga, the hand — — 
 
 Assun, hair — — — 
 
 Artzul, kerchief — — 
 
 Arul, a spindle — — 
 
 Alasko, a hammer — • — 
 
 Alun, a halter • — — 
 Acha, a brother^ 
 Aice, a relative \ 
 Aroeku, to sweep away 
 
 Abo, hunting — — 
 
 Aleraamodo, an apple tree 
 
 Ascun, evening — — . 
 
 Achtol, to cleanse - — . — 
 
 Trish. 
 Abdairt and Adairt, a bolster 
 Arel, a bed 
 
 Ar, air, ear, and fear 
 Im, Em, Fern 
 Amac, ravenous 
 ^Carr, the jaw 
 f Carbal, the palate 
 Glac 
 Cassan 
 Ciarsul 
 Oirle 
 
 Lasca, to strike 
 All, a bridle 
 
 Aice, of the same tribe 
 
 Ruasaire, to drive away 
 
 Abus, a wild beast 
 
 Amhalmaide 
 
 Schun 
 
 Eacta
 
 2l6 
 
 Kalmiic. 
 Asoc, to ask — 
 
 Ainae, I fear — 
 
 Alun, a pannel of a saddle 
 Anni, I know — 
 
 Ala, I kill — 
 
 Agutschi, good — 
 Argul, to bore — 
 ^rigi, I seek — 
 Ailshi, I go there — 
 Aorkyl, I leave behind 
 iEmnae, I cry out — 
 Abirae, I vex — 
 
 iElgi, I earn — • 
 
 Ba, I commit a crime 
 Baienae, I have been 
 Baiehu, I live long 
 Billran, I work in timber 
 Bolun, horned cattle 
 Bugu, a buck — 
 Bula, burial — 
 
 Bulack, morass — 
 By, I — — 
 
 Choy, ewe — 
 
 Choraga, lamb — 
 
 Iriah. 
 Ascadh 
 Ahinne . 
 
 Ulan, a pack saddle 
 Aithne 
 
 Ala, a wound 
 Aghas and Adhas 
 Aragail, a needle 
 larraigh 
 Aillso 
 
 Ar cul, behind 
 Eirae 
 Buairea 
 Ailgeas, wages 
 Bai 
 Binn 
 
 Baoth, long life 
 Bile timber, Rinne made 
 Bolan, a bullock 
 Boc, a he goat 
 Beala, death 
 Balac 
 
 Bim, I am 
 Choi 
 Caorog, &c.
 
 2i7 
 
 The vocabulary is copious, and the agreement striking; but, for want 
 of well constructed dictionaries in both these languages, in numerous 
 instances, their radical identity cannot be demonstrated. 
 
 In Bell's travels through the same country, we have certain expressions, 
 the origin of which is apparent in the Galic. Thus for instance, kontai/sha, 
 chief, agrees with ceann taoisi. Tush-da-chan and ayuka-clian, a prince, 
 are tuis-do-cheann and aice-cheann. Lama, a priest, and delay-lama, 
 priest of the chief tribe, agree with the Irish lamais a poet and dala a 
 tribe. 
 
 But that, which is most remarkable is, that isky, the Galic term for 
 water, terminates the name of every place in the vicinity of the Kalmuc 
 rivers. 
 
 Did the Kalmucs and other wandering hordes in Tibet and Tartary 
 possess ancient poems, transmitted by tradition from their remote proge- 
 .nitors, like the Irish and the Welch, we might be able, not merely to 
 conjecture, but to demonstrate the identity of all these venerable 
 languages. 
 
 V. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE SANSCRIT. 
 
 SANSCRIT, although not the parent language of the East, is yet 
 acknowledged to be the elder sister of a very extensive family. It stands 
 allied in close affinity to the Persian, to the Mahrattan, and to all the 
 langirages of Indostan. Henry Coiebrook, a distinguished scholar in this 
 
 VOL. II. F f
 
 218 
 
 branch of literature, views it as a most polished tongue, gradually refined, 
 and fixt in classic writings of the best poets, who flourislied before the 
 Christian era. It is cultivated by the learned Hindus all over India, as 
 the lanoruase of science. In his opinion, it is evidently derived from a 
 primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various climates, and 
 became Sanscrit in India, Pahhivi in Persia, and Greek on the shores of 
 the Mediterranean. It excels in euphony, and avoids incompatible and 
 discordant sounds in compound terms by a deviation from orthography. 
 
 In these observations, the opinion of Mr. Colebrook perfectly coincides 
 with that of Sir W. Jones, who informs us, that hundreds of the Parsi 
 nouns are pure Sanscrit, that many imperatives are the roots of Sanscrit 
 verbs, and that even the moods and tenses of the Persian verb substan- 
 tive, which is the model of all the rest, are deducible from the Sanscrit 
 by an easy and clear analogy. He delivers it as his opinion, that the 
 Sanscrit is more perfect than Greek, more copions than Latin, and more 
 exquisitely refined than either; yet bearing to each of them a stronger 
 affinity, boih in the roots of verbs and in the fox:: , of grammar, than 
 could possibly liave been produced by accident, so -trong indeed, that 
 no philologer can examine them without believing tivcm to have sprung 
 from some common source. 
 
 When I shall proceed to treat of the Sanscrit, it wiM, I trust, be evi- 
 dent, that Greek and Sanscrit are twin sisters; and wiien we shall have 
 examined the aflfinity between Galic and Greek, it will be equally clear, 
 that these stand nearly in the same relation, the consequence of which 
 discoveries will be, that we shall acquiesce in the opinion of General 
 'Vallancey, and, independently of any direct comparison, be perfectly
 
 ?19 
 
 satisfied, that Galic and Sanscrit are radically one. Yet, as some im- 
 mediate comparison may be satisfactory to the reader, and serve to elu- 
 cidate the affinity l)etween these far distant and most interestinjrlantruaffcs, 
 I shall subjoin a few expressions, such as have occurred to me in the 
 course of my investigations. 
 
 English. 
 
 Galie. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 English. 
 
 Add 
 
 Agadh 
 
 Aghi 
 
 Day 
 
 Am 
 
 Asmi, Ismi 
 
 Asmi 
 
 Deal 
 
 Bake 
 
 Bacalta 
 
 Paka 
 
 Death 
 
 Bath 
 
 Baidhte 
 
 Bad a 
 
 Dim 
 
 Be 
 
 Bheith 
 
 Bhavitum 
 
 Door 
 
 
 Bhami, I was 
 
 Bhavami, I am 
 
 Doubt 
 
 Bear 
 
 Be i rim 
 
 Bhri 
 
 Each 
 
 Beast 
 
 Beathach 
 
 Pasu 
 
 Eat 
 
 Beat 
 
 Bata a stick 
 
 Pita Badh 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Bench 
 
 Binse 
 
 Pankaya 
 
 Fire 
 
 Bit 
 
 Bida 
 
 Bhid Bid Bhitta 
 
 Float 
 
 Boy 
 
 Brow 
 
 Bala 
 Brai 
 
 Ballachan 
 Bhru 
 
 Flood 
 
 Brother 
 
 Brathair 
 
 Bhratara 
 
 Fold 
 
 Coal 
 
 Gual 
 
 Gala black 
 
 Foot 
 
 Cot 
 
 Cotta 
 
 Cuti 
 
 Give 
 
 Cow 
 
 Ceo, milk 
 
 Gavou 
 
 
 Crook 
 
 Cruca 
 
 Vacragtee 
 
 Grieve 
 
 Cry 
 
 Sgread 
 
 Crad 
 
 Hall 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 f 2 
 
 Galic. 
 
 Sanscrit, 
 
 Dia 
 
 Diva 
 
 Dailim 
 
 Dal 
 
 Todhas 
 
 Fadi 
 
 Dei m he 
 
 Timira 
 
 Dorus 
 
 Dwar 
 
 Dubhatai 
 
 Dwon 
 
 Ceach 
 
 Ecauca 
 
 Ithim 
 
 Attum 
 
 Aoi 
 
 Ava 
 
 Aghna 
 
 Agni 
 
 cPlodanstand-i 
 f ing water : 
 Fal 
 Fuidh 
 Daighead 
 Grame, O a 
 Gearbam ) 
 Talla 
 
 Plutu 
 
 Palayati 
 Pa dee 
 Datum 
 
 Grima 
 
 Sal a
 
 220 
 
 English. 
 
 Ualic. 
 
 Sarucrit, 
 
 English. 
 
 Galic. 
 
 Sanscrit 
 
 Heart 
 
 Criodh 
 
 Hrid 
 
 Much el, 
 
 \Ieall 
 
 Mahaa 
 
 Hoi, warm 
 
 Garam 
 
 G harm a 
 
 Nail 
 
 Ail 
 
 Nal 
 
 Midst 
 
 Meadhon 
 
 Madhya 
 
 Name 
 
 Ainm 
 
 Naman 
 
 Might 
 
 Mocht 
 
 Mahata 
 
 Nay 
 
 Ni 
 
 Na 
 
 Mind 
 
 Mien 
 
 Manas 
 
 Navv 
 
 Naoi 
 
 Nau 
 
 Mix 
 
 Measeaini 
 
 Miserani 
 
 Sew 
 
 Nuadh 
 
 Nava 
 
 Mode 
 
 Modh 
 
 Moto 
 
 Nigh 
 
 Nach 
 
 Nicata 
 
 Moon 
 
 Mios 
 
 Masa 
 
 Night 
 
 Nochd 
 
 Nakta 
 
 More 
 
 Moide 
 
 Mahattara 
 
 Nine 
 
 Naoi 
 
 Navan 
 
 Mother 
 
 Mathair 
 
 Matra 
 
 No 
 
 Ni 
 
 Naha 
 
 These few examples will sufficiently prepare u^ to receive the testimony 
 of Sir \V. Jones, that a well marked affinity exists between the Sanscrit 
 and the Irish. I shall therefore close my observations on this branch of 
 affinity, and* immediately proceed to the examination of the strict con- 
 nexion, which may be traced between the Galic and the Greek. 
 
 VI. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE GREEK. 
 
 IN the preceding section we have seen the opinion of Mr. Colebrook, 
 that the same language, which became Sanscrit in the east, gave birth to 
 Greek on the shores of the Mediterranean, and we have traced an affinity 
 between the former of these languages and Galic. But independently of
 
 221 
 
 this mode of deduction, a well conducted compaiison between them will 
 sufficiently evince their agreement. 
 
 It has appeared that, like the ancient Greek, the Galic alphabet uas 
 confined originally to sixteen letters. 
 
 In both these languages B frequently supplies the place of P, as in 
 Latin V and F are substituted for B Thus we find ^inpog for 'Jixf.og vita 
 for /3ioTH, and frcnio for (ipsiJ^co. 
 
 C answers to kap]>:i. But, as in the ancient Greek, gamma had the 
 power of both G and C, so in Galic these letters are indifferently used. 
 
 D and T, both in Galic and in Greek, seem to have been taken without 
 distinction. Thus we find both carad and carat, oudl and ovre. In like 
 manner the Latin has both hand and haut. 
 
 We have had occasion to notice, that in Galic mh and bh are equi- 
 valent, as in amhan and abhan, amnis, uamhan and uabhan, answering 
 to (pofiov. A similar licence as to M, B and P, appears to liavc been 
 assumed in Greece, for the iEolians, instead of i^eKKeiv wrote /SgAXeiv, for 
 zx^ovaa they used it-x^ovjx, and for i^mavXog they said 'Trr/.-AvKog. 
 
 A striking feature of the Galic is the conversion of P into C, as in 
 cos for •^ouj, casga for 'T^dtr^x, and ca for vrou. In this practice it coiir'orms 
 to the Ionic, Beeotian and /Eolian dialects of Greek, in which we find 
 Kitig for Tra'j, Horov for 'p^ofoi/, kot£ for Tore and lixyy,y.eg for lyvvxTxag. 
 
 Like the Greek, Galic abounds with aspirates. This breathing was 
 formerly expressed by a point over the letter tq be aspirated. At present 
 they adopt the H. Yet the aspirate of Greek wordsis either omitted in 
 the Galic, or converted into a sibilant, as for instance evoiJ.cc ainm, «*;/>) 
 ain, ov/. eac, «KXog eile, lif.zX'og samhai), aXg and aXog, salann and salar.
 
 222 
 
 It is impossible for any one to cast' even the most transient glance over 
 the auxiliary verb ismi, I am, without seeing the strict affinity between 
 the Galic and the Greek; for certainly Ts must be the root in both, as 
 appears by s^g, eq\ s^^^ev, eVe, f*Tt, a^joix-ai, eiej^xi Ejoi^evog, wliich indubi- 
 tably connect themselves, not with e»f*t, but with ir[t,i, and p^j must be 
 the jironoun, as I shall render evident, when I shall proceed to the ex- 
 amination of the structure of the verbs in Greek. From what I have 
 already said, it is apparent, that the substantive verb in Galic is more 
 perfect, than it is in (ireek, in which i^-f^t is wanting. 
 
 The numerals likewise shew that Galic and Greek are kindred languages. 
 Even where the expressions seem to differ most, they are radically one, 
 as will be evident, when we call to mind, what has recently been stated 
 of the commutability of '^ and k. I may here be permitted to remark, 
 that the Galic enables us to trace the origin of Asy.a, and to point out 
 da cuig, as the parent of deich and Sanx. Counting appears to have 
 been originally conducted by the fingers; and this custom gave limits to 
 the first numerals, which were five. Hence ■Trff^Ta^w, derived from 'Kefi-ve 
 of the tEoIIc for ae'/Tf, signifies I count. In this sense it is used by 
 Homer, when he introduces Proteus numbering his sea calves. (Od. 
 iv. 412.) 
 
 The intimate connexion between Galic and Greek will clearly be seen 
 by a comparative vocabulary. The few words I here subjoin, are such 
 as occurred to me in the course of my reading. It must be confessed, 
 that the importance of the subject calls for a more minute investigation; 
 but what I here produce will be sufficient to satisfy the attentive mind, 
 that Galic and Greek have a radical affinity.
 
 223 
 
 I must premise, that my selection is made without distinction, equally 
 from the Erse and from the Irish. The Calic in Scotland, in Ireland, and 
 in the Isle of Man, is one language, and the dialects have a minute 
 resemblance. 
 
 In the Galic verbs, I here consider the first person singular of the 
 indicative mood present tense as the theme. This I have done in con- 
 formity to the practice of lexicographers. But, in fact, we have thus a 
 compound, including the radical expression connected with the substan- 
 tive verb, which, as I have stated, subjoins its pronoun. It must be 
 remembered that C is pronounced as K. 
 
 Galic. 
 
 Abhra 
 
 Ac 
 
 Aedh 
 
 Aer 
 
 Agalla 
 
 Agliaim 
 
 Agh 
 
 Agh 
 
 Aibheis 
 
 Ain 
 
 Aingeal 
 
 Ainm 
 
 Airde 
 
 Aireamk 
 
 English. 
 
 Eyelid 
 
 Not 
 
 Eye 
 
 Skv 
 
 Tell 
 
 Aghast 
 
 Good 
 
 Battle 
 
 Sea 
 
 Praise 
 
 Messegner 
 
 Name 
 
 Beight 
 
 I number 
 
 Greefi. 
 
 Oalic. 
 
 Englith. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 o<ppOg 
 
 Airigh 
 
 Prince 
 
 xpx'^'^ 
 
 OVU 
 
 Airgim 
 
 I drive away 
 
 tipyci) 
 
 eiSu 
 
 Airghean 
 
 Rein 
 
 Hpyco. apKiiti 
 
 
 Airgiod 
 
 Silver 
 
 xpyog 
 
 xyyiXKu 
 
 Ais 
 
 Bashful 
 
 Xi:TX^^'< 
 
 xyxa 
 
 Aisg 
 
 Reproof 
 
 xij-^vvu 
 
 x'ya.'^og 
 
 Aithcbim 
 
 [ ask, beg 
 
 xntu 
 
 x'yav 
 
 Aith 
 
 Kiln 
 
 Xi^Oi 
 
 x^viTdOg 
 
 All 
 
 Other 
 
 xXKog 
 
 
 All 
 
 All 
 
 oXog 
 
 xyysKog 
 
 All 
 
 Wild 
 
 xXjog 
 
 0VO\i.X 
 
 Alga 
 
 Noble 
 
 
 aipia 
 
 Ama 
 
 Hame 
 
 X[t.[KX 
 
 Kpi%\t.iu 
 
 Amhar 
 
 Vessel 
 
 x[t.<popevg
 
 224 
 
 Gala. 
 
 Engli.ih. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 A nam 
 
 Soul, Life 
 
 ccvE[i.og 
 
 Anear 
 
 Man 
 
 5 \ 
 
 auvip 
 
 Anios 
 
 Up 
 
 ctva 
 
 Anoidche 
 
 By night 
 
 svvvxog 
 
 Aon, Ein, En 
 
 One 
 
 ev 
 
 Aondeiig 
 
 Eleven 
 
 svSaKx 
 
 Ar 
 
 For 
 
 IT a. pa. 
 
 Ar 
 
 Upon 
 
 xipcii 
 
 Ar 
 
 Slaughter 
 
 xp^S 
 
 Ar 
 
 Ploughing 
 
 xpovpx 
 
 Aram 
 
 r plough 
 
 ocpoco 
 
 Aran 
 
 Bread 
 
 XpTOg 
 
 Arg 
 
 White 
 
 ipyoi 
 
 Arg 
 
 Champion 
 
 xpxav 
 
 Art 
 
 A bear 
 
 XpHTO? 
 
 Ascath 
 
 Warrior 
 
 XtTHViT^i; 
 
 Ath 
 
 Again 
 
 art 
 
 Athach 
 
 Request 
 
 
 Atliach 
 
 Blast 
 
 1 / 
 
 Atharaif'ham 
 
 I alter 
 
 STepocsi 
 
 Atliair 
 
 Father 
 
 TVOcli/ip. xt'tx 
 
 Athais 
 
 Reproach 
 
 ZITLX 
 
 Atlilath 
 
 Young warrior 
 
 x^kvj^Vig 
 
 Auacli 
 
 Xeck 
 
 xvx^v 
 
 Galie, 
 
 Baichim 
 Bach 
 Bachal 
 Baile 
 
 Basal 
 
 Fearg 
 Gearg 
 
 English, 
 
 I strike 
 
 Aviolentattack 
 
 Staff 
 
 City 
 
 Judgement 
 
 Pride 
 
 Summit of hill 
 
 Wrath 
 
 ! 
 
 Ixaiirh ' 
 
 R 
 
 reim 
 
 Step 
 
 Living 
 
 Life 
 
 Food 
 
 Milk 
 
 I manifest 
 Cow 
 Buffalo 
 Cow herd 
 V drop 
 
 A 1 m 
 Noise 
 
 Greek. 
 
 'Tts'xaiy.x 
 
 HEItxluX 
 jixHTpOV 
 
 jixcnXevf 
 
 opyv) 
 
 /3;0T0f 
 yxKxnTOt 
 
 \aV(T(T03 
 
 ^ov^xXct 
 
 If r 
 
 tTTi^pxivca 
 (ipx%io)v
 
 225 
 
 Galie. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Galic. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Breithir 
 
 Word 
 
 B'TTl SC p^'TOg 
 
 Ceir 
 
 Wax 
 
 Wpog 
 
 • 
 
 CA box 
 
 7ruB,1g 
 
 Ceist 
 
 Hoard 
 
 y/iqv\ 
 
 Bugsa 
 
 f Box tree 
 
 7CvE,og 
 
 Cenel 
 
 Children 
 
 <y£Vi5>.ti 
 
 Cacaim 
 
 
 y-iX^y-u 
 
 Ceo 
 
 And 
 
 yxi 
 
 Cal 
 
 Colcwort 
 
 nxvXog 
 
 Cial 
 
 Jaw 
 
 XeiKo; 
 
 Cala 
 
 Hard 
 
 ^aXcTOj 
 
 Cidham 
 
 I see 
 
 eiSoi 
 
 Calloid 
 
 Outcry 
 
 yixKeiv 
 
 Cine 
 
 Kin 
 
 yivog 
 
 Cam 
 
 Crooked 
 
 HX\i.'Ttloii 
 
 Cior 
 
 At hand 
 
 %£IP 
 
 Canaib 
 
 Hemp 
 
 •/.xvi/x^tg 
 
 Cisde 
 
 Treasure 
 
 ■/m;vi 
 
 Caolain 
 Capall 
 
 Intestines 
 Horse 
 
 nx^xXKog 
 
 Citag and^ 
 Cota 3 
 
 A coat 
 
 %iTWt^ 
 
 Cara 
 
 Friend 
 
 Xtxpig 
 
 Cladach 
 
 Clay 
 
 yXix 
 
 Caraim 
 
 [ love 
 
 Xxpi^Q\j.ai 
 
 Claonard 
 
 Steep 
 
 nXivw 
 
 Caran 
 
 f Crown of 
 ( head 
 
 KXpViVOV 
 
 Clas 
 Claoi 
 
 Lock 
 Lament 
 
 kXxiu 
 
 Carraig 
 
 Rock 
 
 pw$ 
 
 Cliath 
 
 Hurdle 
 
 •/iXeico 
 
 Cartam 
 
 I cleanse 
 
 yu^Xlpb) 
 
 Clith 
 
 A close 
 
 nXeiot) 
 
 Cathair 
 
 Chair, city 
 
 nx^sSpx 
 
 Cluin 
 
 Park 
 
 xXbicj 
 
 Ce 
 
 The earth 
 
 7H 
 
 Cliobam 
 
 I tear 
 
 aXxca 
 
 Ceach 
 
 Each 
 
 snaqog 
 
 Cluas 
 
 The ear -k 
 
 
 Ceachtar 
 
 Either 
 
 exxrspog 
 
 Clunim 
 
 I hear K 
 
 y.Xvcii 
 
 Cead 
 
 Hundred 
 
 enxTOv 
 
 Cluisim 
 
 I hear ) 
 
 
 Ceard 
 Ceart 
 
 Trade 
 A rag 
 
 KipSog 
 
 neipo) 
 
 Cloisdean 
 
 The hcar-^ 
 ing S 
 
 yXvu 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 
 G g 
 
 

 
 226 
 
 Oatie. 
 
 English. 
 
 Clos 
 
 A repoit ■ 
 
 Clotha 
 
 Meard 
 
 C'.othac 
 
 Famous 
 
 Clu and cloth 
 
 lame 
 
 Cluain 
 
 Adulation 
 
 Cluainire 
 
 A flatterer 
 
 Cluainireacht 
 
 Flattery 
 
 Cluig and Clog 
 
 A beJl 
 
 Clo2;aim 
 
 I sound 
 
 Clogarnach 
 
 Tinkling 
 
 Cloigin ^ 
 
 A little j 
 bell ; 
 
 r 
 
 Noble 
 
 Cloth H 
 
 Generous 
 
 ^ 
 
 Brave 
 
 All these are connected with 
 
 Cluas, the Ear, and con- 
 
 sequently with - - - 
 
 Cluain 
 
 ^A green / 
 c meadow S 
 
 Cnaoidham & ") 
 Cnaoighim 3 
 
 I gnaw 
 
 Cnaoi 
 
 Cnagh 2 
 
 Maggots . 
 
 A Con- 
 sumption 
 
 Cncadh 
 
 A wound 
 
 Greek. 
 
 •/iXv7og 
 
 nKvcc 
 
 
 nvacoi 
 
 Gatie. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Coirnheadaim 
 
 I heed 
 
 
 Coimheud 
 
 A ward 
 A keeper 
 
 •yiViS0[i.«f 
 
 Coimheudaighe 
 
 
 Coinne 
 
 Woman 
 
 yuvvi 
 
 Colaini 
 
 I hinder 
 
 
 Colac 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 H0),V6> 
 
 Col 
 
 Prohibition 
 
 
 Coll 
 
 Destruction 
 
 oXXv(j.i 
 
 Corcuir 
 
 Purple 
 
 TcopCpvpx 
 
 Cos 
 
 Foot 1 
 
 
 Cois 
 
 Near 
 
 
 Coisidhe 
 
 A footman ! 
 
 ■xovg 
 
 Coisin 
 
 A foot stalk j 
 
 
 Ca 
 
 Where 
 
 TOU 
 
 Casga 
 
 Passover 
 
 '7rflr(3-%* 
 
 Cuig 
 
 Five 
 
 yteyKe 
 
 Cruim 
 
 Thunder 
 
 lipu(j.ot, 
 
 Cri 
 
 Heart 
 
 KSXp 
 
 Croch 
 
 Saffron 
 
 HpOHOf 
 
 Croich 
 
 Skin 
 
 Xpwi 
 
 Croidh 
 
 Heart 
 
 HpxSlVi 
 
 Cron 
 
 Time 
 
 Xpovo( 
 
 Cruban 
 
 Crab 
 
 napcc^Oi 
 
 Cu 
 Cuib 
 
 Dog ; 
 
 Greyhound 3 
 
 avccv
 
 23t 
 
 Galic. 
 
 EngUth. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Galic. 
 
 English, 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Cuala 
 
 Hear 
 
 XH'Sd) 
 
 Cuib 
 
 Cup 
 
 nvTrsKKov 
 
 Cimn 
 
 Sea 
 
 lay.exvot 
 
 Cuacli 
 
 Cuckow 
 
 >iOKHV^ 
 
 CAar 
 
 Curve 
 
 yvjjoco 
 
 Cuinneog 
 
 A can 
 
 y.xvv\^ 
 
 Cubam 
 
 I stoop 
 
 nv-nTW 
 
 Cuirm 
 
 Ale 
 
 y.ovpy.1 
 
 This vocabulary I exhibit merely as a specimen of what might be pro- 
 duced, were the remaining letters of the alphabet to pass in review 
 before us. 
 
 By means of this venerable language we are able to explain some ex- 
 pressions in Greek and in its NjoYic dialect, the Latin, whose origin and 
 genuine import has been lost. A few of these I have already noticed, 
 and to them I shall venture to subjoin the following: 
 
 Aia^oXog is, in Galic, Di abheil, the terrible God. 
 
 Aatfjowv is De amh, evil Deity. 
 
 In the Roman history are many names which, when rightly understood, 
 appear to be descriptive of either offices or habitations. 
 
 Vercingetoriv exhibits Fear, Cean and Tor, that is, man, chief and 
 sovereign, to which the Romans added Rex. 
 
 It is said of Liscus, that he was Vergobretus of the ^'Edui, an officer 
 chosen annually, with power of life and death. In this appellation we 
 discover Breith and Fear, the designation of a judge. 
 
 The Allobrogi were mountaineers, inhabitants of Savoy. In this name 
 we have All, a rock, precipice or cliff, and Brog, a habitation. 
 
 In short, every name used by Cassar in his Galic war, whose initial 
 syllable is Vcr, whether it appertain to one person, or to many collec- 
 
 G g2
 
 228 
 
 lively, points to its origin, and gives us distinctly Fear, that is man 
 or men. 
 
 Should the first syllable be Can, it implies a cape or headland, answer- 
 ing to Cean of the same import in Galic, precisely as it does in Cantire, 
 a headland in Scotland, which stretches into the Irish Sea. In modern 
 orthography Cean becomes Kin, as in Kinross, Kinsale, &c. 
 
 Magus, when it terminates a name, is Magh, a plain, and implies a 
 level country; but Dim conveys the notion of a fortress usually established 
 on the summit of a hill. 
 
 The very name of Celt^ given by historians to the Galic tribes, may be 
 referred to Coillte and Geilt, woods and woodlanders. General Vallancey 
 informs us, that the most ancient inhabitants of Ireland called themselves 
 Royal Shepherds. They had flocks and herds, and therefore sought for 
 shelter and protection, not in the elevated fortress, but in the extensive 
 forests of uncultivated countries. 
 
 VII. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE HEBRREW. 
 
 THE affinity between the Galic and the Hebrew, with its dialects, 
 the Childee, Syriac and Arabic, is, in some respects, more striking than 
 between the Galic and the Greek. It appears to me, that the two latter 
 stand related to each other as descendants from one conmion ancestor; 
 but that the Galic is the elder branch. With the modern Irish I am 
 sufficiently acquainted; but of the ancient dialect, the Bearla na feine,
 
 229 
 
 I am perfectly ignorant, and can only therefore refer my readers to 
 
 General Vallancey. 
 
 from him we learn, that the ancient language, as it exists in manu- 
 scripts, IS purely Chaldee, and that the verbs are conjugated in kal, pihil, 
 hiphil, hophal and hithpael, as reguhvrly as in Chaldee and Hebrew. 
 Like these lansruaires, it has two moods, the indicative and the impera- 
 tive, and in the oldest manuscripts the same word is used for the pre- 
 terite and the future. 
 
 These certainly, are striking resemblances, and carry back the Irish 
 language to the most remote antiquity. In one circumstance, the Galic, 
 whilst it agrees with the Hebrew, difiers from the Gothic languages, for 
 the verb subjoins its pronouns. 
 
 L is a preposition, as in Hebrew, signilying with, to and for, and M 
 is a very general servile letter, prefixed, as in Hebrew, Arabic and Chal- 
 dee. In these languages L and R are apt to be changed for each other. 
 
 The Rev. Mr. A. Stewart, in his Galic Grammar, delivers it, as his 
 opinion, that the Galic bears a much closer affinity to the Asiatic s-tock, 
 than any other living European language, and General Vallancey assures 
 us that nine words in ten of the ancient Irish are pure Chaldaic and 
 Arabic. 
 
 I here select a few as examples of the rest. 
 
 Aide, Aid and Acl, one. This agrees with Ahad of the Hebrew. Coimh 
 is in. Hebrew giin (Di') with; and ach an idiomatic termination, which 
 forms adjectives and participles. These combined compose coimheadach 
 coupling, and from the same root with imi, answering in like manner to 
 CJ/ and adhag, we have imiadhag, a coupling oc joining together. But
 
 230 
 
 from ahad combined with ath, whicli answers to stj and to Tiy, we have 
 ath-ahad re-uniou. 
 
 lomad man}', may be "THi^ Di? because 0^ in given circumstances 
 implies negation. 
 
 Ailes, Olas and Solas, joy, are probably allied to '^^jV. f 7^ and 07-^ 
 ioyful exultation. 
 
 AUod, ancient, old, may be allied to hcled of the Hebrew ("^.70) time, 
 a'l-e. Or it may be a compound of ^IV hidden, and "^V. which signifies 
 endless duration. Hence our Saxon ancestors may have derived allodial. 
 In Arabic ola, in Latin olim, in Irish ad and aoid, are all applied to time. 
 
 Aos, fire, sun, God, is {^^) esh of the Hebrew and Chaldee. This 
 seems to be the parent of Eeshoor and Eswara in the East Indies, of acher 
 of Persia, of osiris in Egypt, of the Etruscan aesar, and of the Gahc 
 aosar, of whom mention is made in ancient manuscripts. 
 
 Ceannam, T buy or sell, cean the price, ceannach a purchasing, 
 ceannaighe the place of exchange, and ceannaidhe a merchant, agree 
 with 1.^5? of the same import, and explain the name of Canaanites, as 
 given to the merchantile people of Phoenicia. 
 
 Ed and id, the hand, edim I handle, catch, feel, possess, eidir a 
 captive, eidirlen captivity, eidean ivy, a five-fingered leaf, iod a cast of 
 a dart and a measure of land, and cdel the lifting up of the hands in 
 prayer, all refer us to "^1 the hand, and Hl^ he cast a dart. 
 
 Raigh, riog and rig, a king, seem to have been derived from n;;-i he 
 tiourishcd, and nj^l a shepherd, and metaphorically a king. It is said 
 of David, in the seventy-eighth Psalm, " So he fed them (DI'"T') with a 
 faithful and true heart, and ruled them prudently with all his power."
 
 231 
 
 The Almighty, speaking of Cyrus, says " He is my shepherd" ('Ji^'i''). 
 This image is familiar to the sacred writers, and to the most venerable of 
 the Grecian poets; and the word, by which their supreme ruler is 
 designated in France, Spain, Portugal and [ndostan, must be referred 
 to it. 
 
 I may be here permitted to observe^ that king, koning, ktming, and 
 konge, in the Gothic line, look toward cecum of the Galic, and not im- 
 probably towards cohe?i of the Hebrew and Arabic, which means, not 
 merely priest, but prince; and indeed prior to the Mosaic institution, 
 we find the two characters united. In the Manx dialect ccann, the head, 
 becomes kione, whose genetive singular is y-diing, and whose nominative 
 plural is ny-king. Agreeably to this notion and derivation we may 
 readily conceive the Irish m, a king, to be derived from (t^'^^l) rcsh, the 
 head, the most excellent, the chief, and rishon, the first, that is, the 
 first in dignity and power. 
 
 All the dialects of Galic, although they have been subjected to the 
 mutations, which time inevitably brings, still retain sufficient vestiges of 
 their oriental descent, and exhibit a striking affinity to Hebrew. This 
 will be evident to the student, if he consults the vocabulary, short as it 
 is, which will appear in the Appendix.
 
 OF 
 
 THE MANX JLAIN'GIJAGE, 
 
 XHE Manx appears to be ibe connecting link between the Irish and 
 the Welch. 
 
 It is not my intention to compose a grammar of this language, a 
 a work which has been already accomplished by Dr. Kelly, to whom 
 we are indebted for most interesting information. Yet a transient view 
 of its structure will throw much light on both the Irish and the Welch. 
 
 The original alphabet had nearly the same distinction of letters, 
 founded on organic affinity, as the Greek ; but in the Manx, as in the 
 Welch, their mutations are governed by peculiar laws. The modern al- 
 phabet has adopted ch, j, k, and q; but these are not properly Manx 
 letters. Ch takes the place of t. J is substituted for dh of the Irish, 
 k for c, and q for cw. A, o and u are used indifferently one for the 
 other. R, when radical, is aspirated as in Greek. L, n, r, are con- 
 sidered as immutable, b, p, ph , f, and m ; c, ch, cw, and g; d and 
 j ; t and s are mutable and demand particular attention. 
 
 In the beginning of a word b may become v or m.
 
 253 
 
 Bea life; c vea his life ; nyn mea, our life. 
 
 M may become v; moir a mother, dan voir to the mother. 
 
 Pii and f may be dropt, or may become v. Phaal a fold for 
 sheep; e aal his fold. Foays advanrage; nyn voays our advantage; 
 e oays his advantage. 
 
 C may become ch or g. Carrey friend; e charrey his friend; nyn- 
 garrey our friend. 
 
 Ch may become h or j. Chiarn Lord; e hiarn his Lord; nyn jiarn 
 our Lord. 
 
 C\v or (| may become g and wh. Quing a yoke, nyn guing our 
 yoive, e whing his yoke. 
 
 G may become gh; goo report, e ghoo his report. 
 
 D Miay become gh; dooinney man, e ghooinney his man. 
 
 J may become y ; jee God, e yee his God. 
 
 T may become dh and h; taggloo discourse, nyn dhaggloo our dis- 
 course, e haggloo his discourse. 
 
 S may become h and t; sooill eye, e hooill his eye, y tooill the eye. 
 
 In these mutations Manx conforms nearly to those of the Welch, and 
 in some measure it resembles Sanscrit. 
 
 The numerals are un, daa, three, kiare, queig, chea, stragsht, haght, 
 nou, jeih. 
 
 The Pronouns — mee, oo, eh; shin, shiu, ad; I, thou, he, we, he 
 they. 
 
 The Verb Substantive — ta mee, I am; va mee, I was; ta mee erve I 
 have been; beem, I shall be; bee, be thou; dy ve, to be. 
 
 VOL. II. H h
 
 334 
 
 The Verb Active — cliluin mee, I heard; cluinym, I shall hear; clasht, 
 hear; cluinit, heard; dy clilashtjn to hear. Dooyrt mee, I said; jir-yni, ' 
 1 shall say, abl^yr, speak. Dinsh mee, I told; inshym, I shall tell; dy 
 insh, to tell. Diu mee, I drank; iu-ym, I shall drink; dy iu, to drink. 
 Faik, see thou; fakin, seeing; dy akin, to see. Hie mee, I went; gow, 
 go; dy gholl, to go. Jean, do thou; dy yannoo, to do; jannoj, doing; 
 jeant, done. 
 
 The present tense, as in Welch, is formed by a noun substantive with 
 the substantive verb. Ta fys aym, there is knowledge with me, I know; 
 ta graih aym, there is love with me, I love. 
 
 Manx has no passive voice. 
 
 Adverbs — nish, now; jiu, today; noght, tonight; daghlaa, daily; 
 cuin, when; quoi, who; my, if; lane, fully; mona, solely; foddee, per- 
 haps; dy feer, in truth; cha, not; nj', not; nar, nor. 
 
 Prepositions — co, with; myn, little; a and an, not; mee, not; neu, not. 
 
 The Manx language is not more distantly related to Galic, than the 
 Portuguese to Spanish. In orthography the difference is great ; but ia 
 sound they approximate; as must be evident to every one, who considers, 
 that in the Galic an aspirate usually renders the antecedent consonant 
 quiescent. The more readily to discern this affinity, we must advert to 
 the mutations, which I have above described, as, not merely admissible, 
 but absolutely required in the Manx. I here subjoin a short vocabulary, 
 such as I collected in reading a few chapters of St. John in Gcihc and 
 in Manx.
 
 235 
 
 Galici 
 
 English, 
 
 Manx, 
 
 Galic, 
 
 English. 
 
 Manx, 
 
 Agam 
 
 I have 
 
 Ta ajmie 
 
 Math air 
 
 Mother 
 
 Moir 
 
 Againne 
 
 Our 
 
 Ain 
 
 Maith 
 
 Good 
 
 Mie 
 
 Athair 
 
 Father 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Mharbhadh 
 
 Kil] 
 
 Varroo 
 
 Bean 
 
 Woman 
 
 Ven 
 
 MhuiHonn 
 
 Mill 
 
 Wyllin 
 
 Beatha 
 
 Life 
 
 Vea 
 
 Naoi 
 
 Nine 
 
 Nou 
 
 Bha 
 
 Was 
 
 Va 
 
 Neamh 
 
 Heaven 
 
 Niau 
 
 Biodh 
 
 Be 
 
 Bee 
 
 Oidche 
 
 Ni<rht 
 
 Oie 
 
 Brathair 
 
 Brother 
 
 Braar 
 
 Posad h 
 
 Wedding 
 
 Poosey 
 
 Dean 
 
 Do 
 
 Jean 
 
 Jaibh 
 
 Was 
 
 Row 
 
 Deich 
 
 Ten 
 
 Jeih 
 
 Righ 
 
 King 
 
 Ree 
 
 Dia 
 
 God 
 
 Jee 
 
 Rireadh 
 
 Truly 
 
 Jarroo 
 
 Dias 
 
 Two 
 
 Jeeg 
 
 Sgriobh 
 
 Wrote 
 
 Scrieu 
 
 Domhain 
 
 Deep 
 
 Dowin 
 
 Suidhe 
 
 Sit 
 
 Hoie 
 
 Dubhairt 
 
 Said 
 
 Dooyrt 
 
 Shabh 
 
 Hill 
 
 Clicau, Slieau 
 
 Eirich 
 
 Rise 
 
 Irree 
 
 leas 
 
 Heat 
 
 Ciiias 
 
 Firinn 
 
 Truth 
 
 Irriney 
 
 Toirt 
 
 Gives 
 
 Coj^rt 
 
 Fuair 
 
 Find 
 
 Hooar 
 
 Fearapull 
 
 Temple 
 
 Chiamble 
 
 Ghabh 
 
 Take 
 
 Ghow 
 
 Thig 
 
 Come 
 
 Hig, Jig 
 
 Gradh 
 
 Love 
 
 Graih 
 
 Tharruing 
 
 Draw 
 
 Hayrn 
 
 Gheibh 
 
 Take 
 
 Yiow 
 
 Thir 
 
 Land 
 
 Cheer, Heer 
 
 Ith 
 
 Eat 
 
 Ee 
 
 Thuig 
 
 Knew 
 
 i'heig, Hoig 
 
 Judhac 
 
 Jew 
 
 Hew 
 
 Thug 
 
 Gave 
 
 Hug, Dug 
 
 Labliair 
 
 Spake 
 
 Loayr 
 
 Tigh 
 
 Mouse 
 
 Thie, Hie 
 
 Lamh 
 
 Hand 
 
 Laue 
 
 lu 
 H h 2 
 
 Thou 
 
 Oo
 
 236 
 
 In tliese examples, it is clear, that the Galic and the Manx differ in 
 orthography, although thev agree perfectly in sound. 
 
 In the Isle of Man they write as they pronounce ; but in Ireland and 
 in the Highlands of North Britain, attention is paid to orthography, by 
 which stai)ility is best preserved, and the affinity of kindred languages 
 more readily discerned. Were either French or English written as pro- 
 nounced, how soon would they be corrupted, how difficult would it be 
 to understand them, and how impossible to discover their connexion and 
 descent I This I demonstrated, when trealing'of orthography. 
 
 But although the Galic in various instances discovers its origin and 
 affinities much better than the Manx; 3'et the latter, in many words, 
 evinces more clearly than the former, their connexion with kindred 
 lansnases, both ancient and modern. 
 
 From this transient view of the Manx, it is clear, that, like the Irish, 
 it is related to the Greek, to its iEolic dialect the Latin, and to the 
 Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee. 
 
 Among the few words which either occur in this vocabulary, or present 
 themselves to my recollection, are some whose affinity to Greek is most 
 evident. These are aal, auXvj ; agam, f%w ; an, «/f u ; baillym, jiovXo^x-i ; 
 clieau, y.Xi'itvg; cluinym, kXuw ; cha, ovx^ ; hie race, afxe ; hooill, the eye, 
 viXto,', the sun; mec, t^n ; mona, f^-ovog; myn, i^eicov ; noght, wkto^^ ; n^r, ue; 
 ta Jijs aijm, Iriifj-i ; irree, a.i^uj. 
 
 In its affinity to Hebrew, I shall notice two expressions, which require 
 particular attention. First then, jcc and yee, which in Manx mean the 
 Deity, are in the Irish written f/^a. because, like Greek and Hebrew, this 
 language is a stranger to I, consonant, a character which, although in-
 
 237 
 
 troduced into Latin, did not originally belong to it; for Priscian informs 
 us, that the ancients used peiius for pejus, and eiius for ejus. The Irish 
 therefore, not having the letter J, have no means of supplying its place, 
 but by dh, yet they retain its power, and therefore o dhia is pronounced 
 
 o yia. 
 
 From this circumstance, and from the natural connexion between D 
 and J, I am inclined to think that the parent of jee, yee, yia and dia, 
 is to be sought for in the Flebrew Jah and Jehova, the self-existent, the 
 eternal. The affinity between D and J is strongly marked by the practice 
 of the Germans, who, to express the power of J, or of the palatine G, 
 combine D with S, C, and II, or with S and J, and thus write dschellid 
 for gelid, dsjelli for gelly, dsjost for just, and dsjuus for juice. The 
 conversion therefore of I into J, and of J into D, or the reverse, as when 
 diurnus becomes jxiurnee, must not excite our wonder. 
 
 The second expression,^ to, which I invite particular attention, is baillym 
 ox.saillym, of which in Irish we find the root in ail, the will. Of this the 
 original seems to exist in 7"'^in he willed. Here it is remarkable, that 
 in baillym the aspirate is converted into a labial, and that in saillym it is 
 supplanted by a sibilant. When we shall proceed to treat of tlie Greek 
 language, we shall have occasio) to notice some curious circumstances 
 respecting the aspirate and its various substitutes in other kiMguages. 
 
 In Irish we have toil the will, in which the T, may be derived from i^»^ 
 leaving oil for the root, which makes a near approach to hod of the. 
 Hipbiew,
 
 ON 
 
 THE GOTHIC ILAWGUAGESo 
 
 J.T is not my intention to perplex either my reader, or myself, in mazes 
 more intricate than the labyrinth of Crete. This task I abandon to those 
 bold adventurers, who are in possession of Ariadne's thread. 
 
 In my researches, therefore, after the origin of the Danish nation, I 
 shall not think it incumbent upon me to trace the steps of Odin, nor to 
 ascertain the time of his departure from the East. Suffice it then to 
 say, that traditional reports confirm the suspicions of the linguist, and 
 tend to prove that the hordes, whose descendants now, as Norwegians, 
 Danes and Swedes, command the entrance of the Baltic, came originally 
 from the borders of the Euxine, directed in their course, and confined 
 in their migrations, between two great rivers, the Volga and the Nicper 
 or Borysthenes, till they met with the Riphsean mountains, which, ex- 
 tending north and south for nearly fifteen hundred miles, marked their 
 utmost limits to the cast.
 
 239 
 
 Their most ancient records arc in the Edtia, first compiled and com- 
 mitted to writing in Iceland, by Sigfuson, who was born about the year 
 1057- These however, before the introduction of alphabetic characters, 
 had been imposed as a task upon the memory, and transmitted by tra- 
 dition, like the Poems of Valmeeki, of Homer, and of Ossian, from one 
 generation to another. In them we may observe history and mytholog}^ 
 truth and fiction, intimately blended. Yet from these records wc may 
 venture to assume, that a distinguished leader, named Odin, Codcn, 
 Woden, or Otho, came from Turkey, where his capital was called Asgard 
 by the Goths, but Asburg by the Greeks. 
 
 When, however, it is said that he came from Turkei/, it is evident, 
 that by Turkey is pot intended either Turkestan, situated to the east of 
 Imaus, and of the Aral Sea, orTurkomania, which extends through the 
 mountainous district, whence flow the Nieper, theWolga, and the Don. 
 Indeed, it is particularly stated, that he came from the Magotic Lake, 
 and from the country watered by the Don, that is probably from 
 Taurica. 
 
 Here his Scythian Archers occupied vast forests, and gained their 
 livelihood bv huntinor. From hence, as it is stated, he extended his con- 
 tjuests to the north, drove back the first inhabitants, whether Finns, 
 Laplanders, or other hordes unknown, and, after having established his 
 sons in separate kingdoms, he himself took possession of Reidgotoland, 
 now called Jutland and Gotland, where he erected his throne, and gave 
 the name of Asgard, i. e. Fortress^ of the Gods, to the seat of his 
 dominions.
 
 240 
 
 It is particularly noticed, that he governed his realm b}? the assistance 
 of a senate, composed of tAveive peers, whom he appointed as judges in 
 the land; and from this institution, we may possibly have derived our 
 juries. 
 
 This account of Odin is confirmed by Snorro Sturleson, a distinguished 
 poet and historian, born A. D. 1179, of an illustrious family, and himself 
 the supreme judge in Iceland. From him we learn, that Suecia was 
 considered as a new Sci/thia, an appellation, which did not escape the 
 attention of Jornandes and of Bede. 
 
 Odin could have found little resistance from the rude inhabitants, the 
 hunters, swineherds, and nomade tribes of Scandinavia, whether Finns 
 or Laplanders; for so thinly peopled was this country, that even in the 
 eleventh century the sea coast alone was occupied, whilst the interior was 
 one extensive forest, abandoned to wild beasts. Even the portion oc- 
 cupied by wandering hordes remained uncultivated. This agrees with 
 the description of Strabo and of Caesar. 
 
 It appears, that Odin was not the original appellation of this dis- 
 tinguished hero. His true name was Sigge. But either at his departure 
 from the east, or after his extensive conquests, and the establishment of 
 his throne in peace, he assumed the sacred name of that God, before 
 whose altars, as high priest, he had been accustomed to offer sacrifice, 
 and to whose protection, as Lord of hosts, he had attributed his vic- 
 tories; for in the country, from which he came, it is probable, that the 
 Deity was known, as m Palaslinc, under the appellation oi Adon, the 
 Lord of the whole earth.
 
 241 
 
 , In the religious system of these our Gothic ancestors, wo may catch 
 aglympsc of pure theology, clouded by mythology, and the bhisphemous 
 pretensions of a successful warrior. Indeed I am much inclined to think, 
 that some knowledge of the true God remained, and that the total cor- 
 ruption of religion did not take place till after the death of Odin. 
 Human sacrifices had bled by his hand before the aUars of Jehovah, the 
 Lord of Hosts: but it was not till after his decease, that superstition dif- 
 fused its midniglit darkness over the northern hemisphere. It was then, 
 that he was considered as the God of war, and that all the prisoners, 
 taken in battle, were reserved for his altars. 
 
 Under the notion of his divinity, one day in the week was consecrated 
 to him, and called by his name. Such is the origin of our Wednesday, 
 Wonsday of Iceland, Odm's day of Sweden, Wodensday of the Anglo 
 Saxons. 
 
 In like manner the fifth day of the week, being devoted to his wife 
 Frigga, who became the Venus of the north, was called Freytao-. The' 
 day preceding this, called Dies Jovis by the Romans, became Thorsdag, 
 because Thor, the Taranis of Lucan, was the most valiant of the sons of 
 Odin, These became the three superior deities of our Gothic ancestors, 
 and to them were consecrated three annual festivals, of which the first, 
 at the winter solstice, was called Juul. It is by no means improbable, 
 that, as, like the Persians, these Asiatic tribes had their sacred fire, and 
 were addicted to the worship of the sun, Juul is allied to y,Xiog. Certain 
 it is, that the festival was sacred to Thor as the bright orb of day. This 
 festival gave occasion to much riot, and was celebrated with nocturnal 
 orgies. 
 
 VOL. II. I i
 
 242 
 
 From this institution undoubtedl}' arose the custom in, our northera 
 counties of calling the great block of wocid, which burns on the hearth, 
 all the twelve days of Christmas, the Yule log. 
 
 Among the inferior gods, are to be nxkoned MarOy from whom we de^ 
 rive night mare, and Neccus, called Nocca by the Danes, and known to- 
 us by the appellation of Old Nick. His office appears to have been to 
 drown men in the waters of the ocean. Another deity was called Flynt, 
 Him they represented by a human skeleton, with a lighted torch, and 
 sitting ona flint. 
 
 It appears that every ninlli year, the king, attended by the senate, 
 offered in the great temple nine captives to Odin. And it is recorded, 
 that in a time of famine the first king of Vermiand was himself offered 
 up as a burnt sacrifice to the same divinity. Having estahli-hed the 
 worship of this sanguinary god, they conceived, that no victim could 
 be too precious for his altars. Under this persuasion, Hacon, king of 
 Norway, to secure his protection, and to obtain the victory over Harold, 
 devoted his own son to Odin. 
 
 The structure of his most ancient altars deserves particular attention. 
 They consist of one large, flat, but unhewn stone, reposing on three 
 others, and placed on the summit of a high tumulus, which is seldom 
 solitary. In general the tumuli are three, disposed near together, and 
 the central one is largest. The monumental tumuli stand single. In the 
 rubbish under the large flat stone, flints are found, and the sacred area 
 is surrounded by a square, inclosed by lesser stones. In one of the 
 inclosures near the Royal Road in Zeeland, which leads to Bircke, th« 
 columns are of a stupendous magnitude.
 
 243 
 
 These altars, being all of unhewn stones, constructed in the open air, 
 carry back the imagination to remote antiquity, and help to confirm tlie 
 traditional reports respecting Odin and his family. 
 
 It is probable, that the royal priesthood was continued in succession 
 from the days of Odin, till the introduction of Christianity, an event 
 which took place about the year 948. Attendant on the royalty, we find 
 a race of bards, precisely as among the Celtic nations; but, in Scandi- 
 navia, denominated skalds, that is probably men of skill in poetry, 
 whose office it was to celebrate the heroic actions of their ancestors. 
 
 The great temple of Odin was at Upsala, in the same inclosure with 
 the palace, on a considerable eminence, surrounded by the extensiv-e 
 plain of Waksala, which is on the margin of a lake, and well watered 
 by abundant springs. Here was established the habitation of the sacred 
 virgms, and the supreme tribunal of the realm. This temple is described 
 by an ecclesiastic, who lived at the time of the introduction of Christi- 
 anity into Sweden, and before the Pagan worship was abolished, as 
 resplendent in every part with gold. 
 
 Here the images of Odin, Thor and Frigga reclined on couches. But 
 of these deities, Thor, as being most mighty, was most elevated, with 
 seven stars in his left hand and a sceptre in his right. Frigga had her 
 sword and bow. 
 
 Succeeding writers confirm this account. Some time after Christianity 
 had diffused its light over the daik regions of the north, the adherents 
 of the ancient superstition made strong efforts to restore idolatry in 
 Sweden. In consequence of this, the first Christian kings transferred the 
 seat of empire from Upsala, and about the year 1024, Olof Skbt, th« 
 
 I i 2
 
 244< 
 
 koniing, that is the king, gave orders to destroy the Pagan temple, with 
 its idols ; but as these injunctions were not implicitly obeyed, Ingenuuid, 
 in 1085, spoiled the temple of its ornaments, buriit the idols, and cut 
 down the groves. Succeeding monarchs tollowc i is extH,iple, and about 
 the year lloO, a cathedral dedicated to St. Lawrence was built on the 
 foundati n of the Pagan edifice. 
 
 All our records are agreed in bringing Odin from the East; and Wil- 
 liam of Malmsbury traces the descent of Hengist from this Asiatic hero. 
 N.iy, such, according to our best accounts, is the correspondence, such 
 the conformity of customs and manners, between the A^^ic'iic Scydiians 
 and the Goths, that we scarcely stand in need of historic evidence. In 
 both countries the women not only attended their husbands to the field, 
 but assisted them in battle. For this purpose they were provided with 
 horses and oftensive weapons by theii husbands on the wedding day. 
 
 In both countries the female infants were deprived of their right breast, 
 and in both, the warriors drank out of the skulls of their enemies. In 
 both, their covenants were confirmed by blood. This we learn, as far 
 as relates to the Scythians, from Lucian ; and SaxoGrammaticus informs 
 us, that the same practice prevailed in Denmark. 
 
 But the clearest evidence of the close affinity between the Gothic 
 nations and the Scythians of Eastern Europe and of Asia, may be de- 
 rived from the languages of Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, Eng- 
 land, Germany, Greece, Persia and Indostan, which all essentially agree, 
 as dialects of one common tongue. 
 
 To Odin has been commonly attributed the introduction of the Runic 
 characters, which he is said by the northern poets and historians to have
 
 245 
 
 brought with him from Asia. That letters were imported at an early 
 period, is probable, because, hke those of the (J reek, Galic and Welch, 
 they were sixteen in number, as wore those of the Hebrew, at a period 
 particularly noticed by Bayer. 'J'liese were A, B, D, F, H, I, K, L, M, 
 N, O, R, S, T, U, Y. 
 
 Here we must particularly notice thai P, V and W, C, G and Q, are 
 wanting, as are the double consonants X and Z, but that in the Danish 
 we find P as a modification of K. In the more ancient inscri|)tions of 
 Iceland, Norwdv, and Denmark, as preserved by Ohms Wormius and by 
 Peringskiold, Y does not appear; consequently the characters may be 
 reckoned fifteen. In this enumeration T do not include E, because it is 
 a modification of A; and I must here remark, that O is expressed by a 
 reduplication of the A, so that originally t^e Goths appear to have been 
 contented with three vowel characters, A, I and U. 
 
 According to Pliny, the letters introduced by Cadmus into Europe 
 were A, B, C, D, E, G, I, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, V, which nearly 
 coincide with those of Denmark. Whether, or not, the aborigines of 
 Italy had P, in the alphabet, which they received from Evander the- 
 Arcadian, lam not competent to say; but 1 suspect that either B has 
 been a comparatively modern refinement upon P, or that P is a refinement 
 upon B; to which it is confessedly allied. Mr. Baxter remarks, that the 
 Brigantes, whom he regards as the most ancient inhabitants of Britain, 
 had not P, till it was introduced by the Bilgae. The Noiwcgians, 
 Danes, and Swedes, as I am inclined to think, were strangcis to ihe 
 letter B, or had but one character for B and P.
 
 246 
 
 Indeed fewer characters thar\ those, which occur in the most ancient 
 inscriptions of Scandinavia, would have been sufficient for the purposes 
 of speech. The original Pelasgic letters, which, in form, approach to 
 the Runic, more particularly in I, F, and T, were twelve, A, E, I, U, L, 
 R, M, N, S, T, P, K, and of these, P and T potentially contain B, F 
 and D. As for U, it might perhaps, as in Hebrew, serve for 0. Even 
 so late as 150 years before the reign of Augustus, the Romans had but 
 one character for the power of K, C, and G, like the northern Goths, 
 and therefore wrote not legiones, magistratos, eifugiunt; but leciones, 
 macistratos, exficiont. This circumstance has been very properly noticed 
 by Walton, in the Prolegomina to his Polyglot. 
 
 There is a remarkable conformity between the Runic and the Welch 
 characters, compared with those of the Mancheou Tartars, as described 
 by Du Halde. Among these the Runic appear most simple, the Welch 
 most refined. Both have a striking resemblance to the Greek, and both 
 were evidently contrived for the use of people who possessed no imple- 
 ments for writing beyond a square stick and the fragment of a flint, or 
 some kind of cutting instrument. To make this visible, I here subjoin 
 the Runic and the Bardic characters, as they appear in the Pantographia 
 of Mr. Edmund Fry, with the radical Pelasgian alphabet of Father Gori, 
 which Astle conceives to be the most correct.
 
 247 
 
 RUNIC CHARACTERS, 
 a b c d e f 2; h 
 
 i B Y 4i> i Y Y % 
 
 i k 1 m n o n q 
 
 I r i^ Y K € B F 
 
 r s t V X y z 
 
 B M- 't h.¥ ^hh 
 
 Such is the Runic alphabet, consisting of twenty-five characters, as 
 given by Mr. Fry, and published in the year 1799. 
 
 On this it is needful to make some observations. In the first place I 
 must remark, that we have here a mixture of ancient and modern cha- 
 racters. All the pristine characters, sixteen in number, are, as I 
 have stated, composed of straight lines, but in Fry's alphabet we have 
 curves, which are certainly modern. We have here likewise both B and 
 P. One of these is superfluous, and of modern date. The ancient 
 form, found in Norway, is a modification of K. G and K had originally 
 one character, which is that of K in the modern alphabet. But here, 
 fo« G, one stroke of K is curved, as are the two lateral strokes in M. 
 Here also V and Z have the same character, which surely they never 
 could have had. The same observation will apply to S and Y. Q is 
 modern, as are X, Y and Z. Here also E differs from the more ancient 
 form, as found in Norway and Denmark, which is a cross. The remain- 
 ing characters, A, I, O, V, L, N, S, T and U, consisting of straight 
 strokes, perfectly agree in both the ancient and the modern alphabets.
 
 248 
 
 I have stated, that in Wales the Bardic alphabet was composed entirely 
 of straight stiokes. To demonstrate this, I here produce it. 
 
 
 
 
 BARDIC. 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 aa 
 
 e 
 
 ee 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 u 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 Nl 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 y 
 
 u 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 y 
 
 b 
 
 V 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 Y 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 Y 
 
 1/ 
 
 t^ 
 
 > 
 
 W 
 
 V 
 
 p 
 
 ph 
 
 mh 
 
 f 
 
 k 
 
 ch 
 
 ngh 
 
 u 
 
 h 
 
 N 
 
 ^ 
 
 f:^ 
 
 < 
 
 K 
 
 < 
 
 g 
 
 ng 
 
 t 
 
 th 
 
 nh 
 
 d 
 
 z 
 
 n 
 
 n 11 1 rh r s h hw 
 
 This Welch alphabet seems to have been a refinement on the ancient 
 Runic, and in a few of their characters they make a near approach. 
 These are A, I, F, V and T. Others have a more remote resemblance. 
 
 Most of the radical Pelasgian letters are composed of straight lines, 
 and a few of these resemble either the Runic or the Bardic, particularly 
 I, P, F, M, N, K, T. 
 
 PELASGIAN CHARACTERS OF CORT. 
 m I k k k i e a 
 
 AA vj >l )1 :) I a fl 
 
 f f f t s r p n 
 
 8:iV + 2<11M
 
 849 
 
 In tills alphabet we observe some characters with straight strokes and 
 others with curves, the former evidently more ancient than the latter. It 
 contains three characters for V, which in (he more ancient Pclasgian in- 
 scriptions, found A.D. 1456, at Eugnbium, are used for F. At this we 
 need not wonder, because F and V being letters of the same organ, are 
 extremely apt to assume each other's place. We have three characters 
 for K, and as this alphabet, like Hebrew and Chaldee proceeds from 
 right to lelt, we may oi)serve a strd<ing resemblance in form between the 
 Pelasgian and the Bardic K. I is precisely the same in both. M and 
 F are in Oi e of these alpliabels. turned upside down. Both F and P 
 are reversed. N and T in both alphabets resemble, but in the Pelasgian 
 they appear distorted. 
 
 It is remarkable, that the Danes and Germans call a letter by the 
 name of bugstav and buch stab, or beech staff, and that this species of 
 wood is most abundant in Denmark. Even book is derived from beech, 
 and four verses in our Psalms are called a stave. A poet, who wrote 
 about five hundred years bt-fore the introduction of Christianity in our 
 northern regions, has left iiicse lines: 
 
 " Barbara fraxineis pinguntur Runa tabellis, 
 " Quodque papyrus agif, virgula plana valet." 
 
 The Welch inscriptions seem to have been confined wholly to such 
 rods; but in Scandia they were committed to the rock. Of these, the 
 most ancient, as far as my observation goes, appears to have been A.D. 
 270, and even later than this period, the characters consisted of straight 
 lines. But in process of time, when B and D were introduced, these, 
 with M an I R, began to exhibit curves. This change became natural, 
 
 VOL. II. K k
 
 250 
 
 whsi) they were to inscribe their characters in stone; not with a knife, 
 but with a mallet and a chisel, or with a graving tool; and still more 
 natural, when succeeding generations wrote on skins, or in the place of 
 skins had substituted paper. 
 
 The operation having been performed originally by incision, and in 
 subsequent periods by engraving furrows on the rock, gave birth to a 
 metaphorical expression, when Tully said, " Haec cum essem in senatu 
 exaravi." Indeed the Gothic term rj'nner, from whence runes and Runic 
 have been derived, means grooves, trenches, furrows. 
 
 It is said, that Abraham and Abimelech made a covenant, but 
 in the Hebrew the verb is carath, and in Chaldee gazar, both which 
 convey the notion of engraving, whether in wood, in metal, or in stone. 
 See also Job xix. 24. Jer. xvii. Ezek. xxxvii. l6. 
 
 Of the Runic inscriptions, some are disposed from top to bottom, 
 after the manner of the Chinese writing, and the quipoz of Peru; some 
 from right to left, or the reverse and others, alternating like the Greek 
 /Sou^po(p>j5ov, gave birth to the expression verse. 
 
 In Sweden some monumental inscriptions surround a shield. Of such 
 Peringskiold has preserved examples. One of these, discovered in the 
 Royal Domain, called Konungsgiird, about one hundred yards from the 
 Temple of old Upsal deserves particular attention. The monument was 
 raised by Elof and Sigwed in remembrance of their father Wilfast, as 
 appears by the epitaph engraved on the body of a serpent, which sur- 
 rounds the scutcheon. For the crest we observe a wolf looking back- 
 wards, and tlic patronymick name is IVolf. On this monument Pering- 
 fikioid remarks as follows: " It is certain, that the ancestors of this
 
 251 
 
 family liave been famous for military talents, during a period of more 
 ihan two thousand years, and continued to produce distinguished 
 generals till the fifteenth century, when the male branch became extinct." 
 As they frequently commanded on foreign expeditions, he thought it 
 probable, that Romulus and Remus were of this family. In America 
 ^^e find one tribe distinguished by the name of JVolf. A monument, 
 similar to this in all respects, has been discovered in the parish of 
 Danmark, near Upsal, erected by the two sons of Lafia for their father. 
 
 The Skalds were, as I have stated, the constant attendants upon 
 royalty, and seemed to have exercised the same functions as the re- 
 corders both in China and Judea, and to have composed in verse their 
 chronicles, their creed, their sacred hymns, and their moral essays. 
 
 Such probably was their original institution. But, as all rude nations 
 are subject to superstitious fears, the Skalds soon learnt to abuse the 
 poetic art and Runic characters for the purposes of magic. Hence arose 
 their incantations, by which they were to call the moon and stars from 
 heaven, to stop the course of rapid rivers, to quench the devouring 
 flame, to burst asunder the gates of death, and to call departed spirits 
 from the deep. These magic arts were, by the Skalds, universally attri- 
 buted to Odin, who was surnamed Runhofdi, that is chief of the Runic 
 art. Such in fact was the intimate connexion between the Runic cha- 
 racters and magic, that in the Cimbric Language run means magic; and 
 run, Saxon, like runa, Gothic, means mystery. In Saxon runcrajftigen 
 is enchantment, and runstaf is both a magic character and incantation. 
 
 The Runic havnig been abused for the purposes of the most execrable 
 superstition, Ulphilas, Bishop of Mcesia, about A. D. 380, endeavoured, 
 
 K k2
 
 252 
 
 as it is said, to introduce new characters. Such, however, was the force 
 of prejudice, such tiie power of inveterate habits, such the universal pro- 
 pensity to magic, that Christianity itself was unable to produce a re- 
 formation, and the iS mic continued to prevail in all the Gothic coun- 
 tries till they were prosciibed, first in Sweden by the Pope, A. D. 1050 
 then in Spain by Alphonzo, A. D. 1086, and finally by the Council 
 of Toledo, A. D. UK). Even the characters invented by Ulphilas, seem 
 to have been considered as approaching too nearly to the Runic, and 
 were forbidden in this council. 
 
 In the Cimbrip Chersonesus, we find at present three people, who 
 resemble each other in essential character and language, tlic >forwegians, 
 Danes and Swedes. These appear to have been formerly one people 
 dispersed and scattered over the North, but separated from each other 
 by seas, by mountains, or by the accidental circumstance of various 
 governments and distant scats of empire. 
 
 The origin of the name Dane has not been ascertained. Amonof their 
 sea port towns we observe Tonningen and Tunder. In Lower Saxony is 
 Danneberg. At the mouth of the Vistula is Dantzick, anciently called 
 Gedanum. We likewise see Tonsburs: and Sinus Codanus in the district 
 of Jutland, wiiose inhabitants were called fyeTwog, by the Greeks. All 
 these names resemble and seem to be connected. They direct our at- 
 tention to one nation and lead us to conclude with Sheringham, that 
 the apparently discordant names of Danes and Goths originate in one. 
 
 As to the inhabitants themselves they are evidently Goths.
 
 OF 
 
 THE ©AWISH JLAWGUAGE, 
 
 OlAUS Wormius, a learned Dane, considered the English and the 
 Danish as one language ; and, that they are so, will I apprehend, be 
 evident to every one, who takes the trouble to compare them. He 
 coincides in opinion with Lyscander, that Danish is a compound of 
 Teutonic and of Hebrew corrupted, since the dynasty was changed, 
 A. D. 1523, by the importation of Teutonic words. These, however, 
 appear as aliens and intruders usurping the place of ancient words, 
 which, though neglected, have been yet preserved. Certain it is that 
 the Laponic is a dialect of Hebrew, as I shall hereafter take occasion 
 to demonstrate. 
 
 I 
 
 The strict affinity between English and Danish will be evinced, as 
 we proceed in the examination of the latter. It may be here observed 
 that aa is pronounced as o.
 
 254 
 
 The Pronouns. 
 leg, I; du, thou; ban, he; bun, she; det, it; vi, we; I, you; de, 
 they; os, us; dem, tbera; min, mine; din, thine; eders, yours; deres, 
 theirs. 
 
 The Auxiliary Verbs. 
 leg er, I am; vi ere, we are; iegvar, 1 was; vaere, to be; vaerende, 
 being; vaeret, been; ieg bar, I have; du har, thou hast; ban bar, he 
 has; vi have, we have, I have, ye have; de have, they have; ieg havde, 
 I bad; ieg havde bavt, I bad had. At have, to have; havende, having; 
 bavt, bad. leg skall, I shall; ieg skulde, I should; at skulle, to be 
 obliged. leg kan, lean; ieg kunde, I could; ieg skal kunne, I shall 
 be able; at kunne, to be able; ieg vil, I will; ieg vilde, I would; at 
 ville, to be willing. leg maa, I may; ieg maatte, I might, I must; 
 at maatte, to be allowed, to be forced. 
 
 The Irregular Verbs. 
 leg taenker, I think, i. e. I am thinking. leg taler, I am talking, 
 I am telling. leg aeder, I am eating; ieg aad, I ate, aedt, eaten. Baere, 
 bar, baaren ; bear, bore, born. Briste, brast, brustet; burst. Drage, 
 drog, dragen; draw, drew, drawn. Drive, drev, dreven; drive, drove, 
 driven. Falde, faldt, falden; fall, fell, fallen. Finde, fandt, funden; 
 find, found. Flye, flyede, flyedet; fly, flew, fled. Fryse, fros, frossen; 
 freeze, froze, frozen, Give, gav, given; give, gave given. Glide, gleed, 
 gleden; slide, slid, slidden. Gnave, gnov, gnaven ; gnaw, gnawed. 
 Hugge, huggede, buggen ; hew, hewed, hew>i. Kiende, kiendte, kiendt; 
 know, kne\\, known, or ken, ken'd. Klaede, klaedte, klaedt; clothe,
 
 255 
 
 clad, clothed. Laane, laante, laant; lend, lent. Raekke, rakte, rakt; 
 reach, reached. Soelgc, solgte, solgt; sell, sold. SidJe, sat, siddet; sit, 
 sat, sitten. Skinne, skinncde, skinnet; shine, shone, shined. Synke, 
 sank, sinnket; sink, sank, sunk. Traede, traadte, traadt ; tread, trod, 
 trodden. Trive, trivedes, trivets ; thrive, throve, thriven. Det regner, 
 it is raining. Det hagler, it is hailing. 
 
 The Comparisons. 
 
 Aaben, aabnere, aabnest ; open, opener, openest. Faa, faerre, faerrest ; 
 kw, fewer, fewest. God, bedre, bedst; good, better, best. Hoe, 
 hoiere, hoiest; high, higher, highest. Lang, laengere, laengst; long, 
 longer, longest. Naer, naermere, naermest; near, nearer, nearest. Ung, 
 ungere, ungst ; young, younger, youngest. 
 
 The Numerals. 
 Een, to, tre, fire, fem, sex, syv, otte, ni, ti. 
 
 Phrases. 
 
 Lukke doren i, shut the door. Lukke doren op, open the door. To 
 shut may be also tillukke or tilslutte. To open may be aabne or oplukke. 
 Hvem er det der banker ? Who knocks? Giver ham eders bog, give him 
 your book. 
 
 By these examples, it is evident that Danish and EnHish are kindred 
 languages. Their near affinity will be rendered more distinctly visible, 
 when we shall have removed the veil, which, in numerous instances, 
 tends to conceal resemblance from the unpractised eye: that is, when
 
 236 
 
 I shall have called lo tlie recollection of my readers those cor- 
 ruptions, to which all languages are subject, and which have happened 
 both to the Danish and our own by the practice, universally adopted, 
 of considering letters of the same organ as commutable. These maj 
 be divided into classes. 
 
 In the first class of commutable consonants, b, p, f, v, u, w, m, we 
 have the subsequent examples. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Danish, 
 
 Englis h. 
 
 Aabne 
 
 Open 
 
 Halv 
 
 Half 
 
 Stav 
 
 Staff 
 
 Dyb 
 
 Deep 
 
 Kalv 
 
 Calf 
 
 Stiv 
 
 Stiff 
 
 Gab 
 
 Gap 
 
 Due 
 
 Dove 
 
 Fern 
 
 Five 
 
 Gabe 
 
 Gape 
 
 Lov 
 
 Law 
 
 Navn 
 
 Name 
 
 Gribe 
 
 Gripe 
 
 Frisk 
 
 Brisk 
 
 Stevn 
 
 Stem 
 
 Haabe 
 
 Hope 
 
 Faeste 
 
 Beast 
 
 Emmer 
 
 Embers 
 
 Hob 
 
 Heap 
 
 KlafF 
 
 Clap 
 
 Kammer 
 
 Chamber 
 
 klcbe 
 
 Cleave 
 
 Klippe 
 
 Cliff 
 
 V^aad 
 
 Wet 
 
 Ober 
 
 Over 
 
 TafTel 
 
 Table 
 
 Vgekke 
 
 Wake 
 
 Plot 
 
 Blot 
 
 Fiaele 
 
 Veil 
 
 Varm 
 
 Warm 
 
 Saebe 
 
 Soap 
 
 Liv 
 
 Life 
 
 Vrang 
 
 Wrong 
 
 Straebe 
 
 Strive 
 
 Rive 
 
 Rub 
 
 Vriste 
 
 Wrest 
 
 Dov, Doev 
 
 Deaf 
 
 Rove 
 
 Rob 
 
 Vraenge 
 
 Wring 
 
 In like manner English words in w, have in Danish v. Viid, wide; 
 ville, will; viin, wine; uld, wool.
 
 257 
 
 The second class of conimutablc 
 
 consonants. 
 
 c, ch, g, gh, h, k, i, y 
 
 and w, has the subsequent examples. 
 
 
 
 Danish, 
 
 English. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Entflish. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Flage 
 
 Flake 
 
 Kaal 
 
 Cole 
 
 Skave 
 
 Shave 
 
 Hage 
 
 Hook 
 
 Krolle 
 
 Curl 
 
 Skede 
 
 Sheath 
 
 Hog 
 
 Hawk 
 
 Saek 
 
 Sack 
 
 Ski aire 
 
 Shear 
 
 Kage 
 
 Cake 
 
 \rag 
 
 Wreck 
 
 Skirerpe 
 
 Sharpen 
 
 Mage 
 
 Make 
 
 kig 
 
 Rich 
 
 Skield 
 
 Schold 
 
 Mog 
 
 Muck 
 
 Raskke 
 
 Reach 
 
 Skine 
 
 Shine 
 
 Rage 
 
 Rake 
 
 ^"^.yg 
 
 Sick 
 
 Skib 
 
 Ship 
 
 Lige 
 
 Like 
 
 Sigt 
 
 Sight 
 
 Skiold 
 
 Shield 
 
 Stage 
 Snog 
 
 Stake 
 Snake 
 
 Skrige 
 
 c Shriek 
 ^Screech 
 
 ■ikiorte 
 Skoe 
 
 Shirt 
 Shoe 
 
 Soge 
 
 Seek 
 
 Laege 
 
 Leech 
 
 ikoet 
 
 Shod 
 
 Svag 
 
 Weak 
 
 Magt 
 
 Might 
 
 Skorte 
 
 Short 
 
 Stryge 
 
 Stfuke 
 
 Trug 
 
 Trough 
 
 Skovl 
 
 Shovel 
 
 Tage 
 
 Take 
 
 Kule 
 
 Hole 
 
 Skud 
 
 Shot, Shoot 
 
 Tiixng 
 
 Rank 
 
 Kam in 
 
 Chimney 
 
 Skytte 
 
 Shooter 
 
 Kam 
 
 Comb 
 
 Kirke 
 
 Church 
 
 Vogte 
 
 Watch 
 
 Karde 
 
 Card 
 
 Klar 
 
 Clear 
 
 Sukkc 
 
 Sigh 
 
 Kaste 
 
 Cast 
 
 Klaske 
 
 Clash 
 
 Disk 
 
 Dish 
 
 Kat 
 
 Cat 
 
 Klokke 
 
 Clock 
 
 Fisk 
 
 Fish 
 
 Koe 
 
 Cow 
 
 Klukke 
 
 Cluck 
 
 Kort 
 
 Short 
 
 Kok 
 
 Cook 
 
 Skaeg 
 
 Shag 
 
 Mask 
 
 Mash 
 
 Kop 
 
 Cup 
 
 Skarp 
 
 Sharp 
 
 Rcidfisk 
 
 Roach 
 
 roL. II. 
 
 l1
 
 2o8 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English, 
 
 Rask 
 
 [{ash 
 
 Rug 
 
 Rye 
 
 Drage 
 
 Draw 
 
 Skal 
 
 Shall, Shell 
 
 Sige 
 
 Say 
 
 Drukne 
 
 Drown 
 
 Skam 
 
 Shame 
 
 Slaegte 
 
 Slay 
 
 Dusrsr 
 
 Dew 
 
 Skosse 
 
 Chaise 
 
 Stag 
 
 Stays 
 
 Egen 
 
 Own 
 
 Skaevc 
 
 ChafF 
 
 Frugt 
 
 Fruit 
 
 Foelge 
 
 Follow 
 
 Skaft 
 
 Haft 
 
 Lagt 
 
 Laid 
 
 Fugl 
 
 Fowl 
 
 Vaske 
 
 NVash 
 
 Nagle 
 
 Nail 
 
 Hugge 
 
 Hew, How 
 
 Gaarde 
 
 Yard 
 
 Regne 
 
 Rain 
 
 Svaelge 
 
 Swallow 
 
 Laegge 
 
 Lay 
 
 Snegl 
 
 Snail 
 
 Talg 
 
 Tallow. 
 
 Fcerge 
 
 Ferry 
 
 Tegl 
 
 Tile 
 
 
 
 Mange 
 
 Many 
 
 Vogn 
 
 Wain 
 
 
 
 The thirc 
 
 i class of cora 
 
 mutable consonants, d, t, 
 
 th, has these examples 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English, 
 
 De 
 
 The 
 
 Geed 
 
 Goat 
 
 Smuds 
 
 Smut 
 
 Disse 
 
 These 
 
 Had 
 
 Hate 
 
 Sod 
 
 Soot 
 
 Doed 
 
 Death 
 
 Hytte 
 
 Heed 
 
 Sod 
 
 Sweet 
 
 Du 
 
 Ihou 
 
 lord 
 
 Farth 
 
 Sprude 
 
 Spurt 
 
 Dig 
 
 Thee 
 
 Ivlaede 
 
 Cloth 
 
 Stad 
 
 State 
 
 D under 
 
 Thunder 
 
 Langde 
 
 Length 
 
 Svede 
 
 Sweat 
 
 
 CThrostle or 
 
 .Vord 
 
 North 
 
 Tand 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Drossel 
 
 cThrush 
 
 Vrcd 
 
 Wrath 
 
 Taenke 
 
 Think 
 
 Feed 
 
 Fat 
 
 Vride 
 
 Wreath 
 
 I'anke 
 
 Thought 
 
 Flad 
 
 Flat 
 
 Mud 
 
 Sleet 
 
 Torn 
 
 Thorn 
 
 Iledc 
 
 Heat, Heath: 
 
 Sraed 
 
 Smith 
 
 Tong 
 
 Thong
 
 '2dD 
 
 Danish, 
 
 Eiv.'Ush. 
 
 Diinuh. 
 
 F.ng^iah. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 EnglHh 
 
 Toe 
 
 Thaw 
 
 Pre 
 
 ['hrce 
 
 Tyk 
 
 Thick 
 
 Torst 
 
 riiiist 
 
 Trives 
 
 Thrive 
 
 lyiicl 
 
 rhin 
 
 Traad 
 
 Threat 
 
 TroiDine 
 
 Drum 
 
 Vy V 
 
 i hief. 
 
 Trcenge 
 
 Tiirong 
 
 iVoHc 
 
 riirone 
 
 
 
 From this comparative view, I trust it wii! be evident, that Danish 
 and Lnglish were originally one. In fact they continued one, till William 
 the Conqneror introduced Norman words. -Since that time, althouo-li 
 rustic expressions remain unchanged; such as are found in cities and 
 about a court, are derived from Normandy, Sheep, goat, cow, calf 
 swine, ox, bull, remain; subject only to such changes as time universally 
 produces. But the meat, which these animals aftord, takes the Norman 
 appellation. Hence we no longer retain the expressions lammekiod, 
 oxekiod, kalvekiod and swlnekiijd, but in their stead universally adopt 
 the Norman names mutton, beef, veal, and pork. The affinity between 
 the Danish and the Greek, will be particularly noticed, and it will then 
 be evident, that whatever relation subsists between Enrrlisli and the 
 oriental languages, is to be found equally in Danish. 
 
 In the former part of this work we have traced the connexion between 
 English and Greek, and we have now demonstrated the close affinity be- 
 tween the Danish and the English. Hence the relation, which subsists 
 between Danish and Greek, is manifest. It follows as a consequence. 
 
 I shall, however, compare these languages together; I will brino' them 
 into contact, and then it will immediately appear that they originate in one. 
 
 When two languages pass in review before us, we readily imagine, that 
 the one, which can by authentic documents be traced backward to tlie 
 most remote antiquity, must be the most ancient of the two, and that 
 
 l12
 
 260 
 
 this, when they happen to accord, must be the parent of the other. It 
 may, however, be frequently observed, that the venerated language is 
 indebted for words to languages, which afford no other evidence of their 
 antiquity except these words. Thus, for example, we are disposed to 
 think, that Greek and Latin may be the parents, but cannot be the 
 offspring, either of Danish, or of any other language, from which it is 
 imniediaiely derived. 
 
 The impropriety of this conclusion will, I trust, immediately be seen. 
 In English we observe male, in old French masle, both evidently derived 
 from masculus. But whence comes inas? This appears to have been 
 derived, by the usual process of abbreviation, either from the Danish 
 mnnds, a male, or from the Sanscrit manushya, human ; but certainly 
 neither mands, nor manushya, was derived from mas. 
 
 Between Danish and Greek words it may be sometimes difficult to say, 
 which is the parent, which the offsoring. I am disposed to think, as in 
 the conclusion it ma}' appear to others, that they are not related as parent 
 and offspring, but that they are separate dialects of one language, and 
 indebted for their existence to that, which was spoken either immediately, 
 r,Y remotely by the common ancestors of both nations. 
 
 fn Danish the substantive verb differs in its form from Greek. But 
 then it must be observed in the first place, thai em, I am, is still pre- 
 served in the Icelandic, a:id, in the next place, it must be remembered 
 th-at ftui is a comj>ound, W'^m which, if wc remove the pronoun (xi, only 
 i.i remains io be compar;\l with e in the modern Dcinish of cr, am, which 
 seems likewise to be a compound. 
 
 In order \n trace llie allinity between these languages, I shall examine 
 ■ /irst some few bimplc words and then compounds.
 
 oir 
 
 THE SWEDISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 X HE Swedish language is essentially the same with Danish and with 
 English. All these are confessedly dialects of Gothic. That they are 
 equally connected with the Greek, will be evident to every one, who 
 takes the trouble to compare them ; and it will appear, that the resem- 
 blance has been best preserved in the most obsolete expressions. 
 
 To make this evident, I have selected numerous examples from Pering- 
 skiold, who considers them as belonging to the most ancient Gothic or 
 Scando-Scythian tongue, which prevailed in Europe, and extended itself 
 into Asia. These will be found interspersed among the more modern 
 terms, and will be readily distinguished by the adept in Swedish 
 literature. 
 
 In the examination of this vocabulary, the reader must recollect, what 
 I have said on ihe investigation of radicals, and more parliculavly, what 
 I have had frequently occasion to explain respecting the three principal 
 classes of commutable consonants; because, by the application of this 
 key to languages, he will gain access to their most recondite treasures, 
 through the whole extent of Europe and of Asia.
 
 OF 
 
 THE ICELAWBIC ILAMGUAGE, 
 
 It is acknowledged, that the first inhabitants of Iceland were emigrants 
 from Scandinavia, who, A. D. 874, fled from the tyranny of Harold, 
 surnamed Harfagre. In this sequestered spot they cultivated science, 
 and their language is the purest Scandinavian, uncorrupted by admixture 
 with the German. 
 
 Having already said so much on the Danish, I shall here content 
 myself with the most transient view of the Icelandic. 
 
 The Pro7iouns. 
 Eg, thu, hann ; vier, thier, thaug; I, thou, he; Ave, ye, they. 
 In the oblique cases we find myn, thyn, hanns; oss, vorra, ydur, and 
 theirra, which give birth to the possessives. 
 
 The Verbs. 
 Eo- cr and Eg em, I am ; Eg var, I was ; ad vera, to be; verande, being. 
 Eo- hef, I have; Eg haffde, I had; ad afa, to have. Eg skal, I shall;
 
 263 
 
 Eg aa, I owe; Eg aaatte, I did owe; Eg man, I may; Eg meige, I 
 might. Eg vil, I will; Eg inun, I must. Eg gef, 1 give; Eg gaf, 1 
 gave; ad gefa, to give; gefande, giving; giefenn, given. Eg tem, I 
 tame; Eg tamde, I have tamed; ad temia, to tame; temianda, tamino-. 
 Eg finn, I find; Eg iann, I have found; finnande, finding. 
 
 The Comparison of Adjectives. 
 
 Dyr, dyrare, dyraste; dear, dearer, dearest. Laus, lausare, lausaste; 
 loose, looser, loosest. Mikell, meire, meste; much, more, most. Litil, 
 minne, minst ; little, less, least. Goode, betre, beste; good, better, 
 best. Ill, verre, vest; bad, worse, worst. Laung, leingre, leingst; long, 
 longer, longest. Fagur, fregre, fegurstur; fair, fairer, fairest. 
 
 This confessedly is the purest of the northern dialects, and, agreeing 
 essentially with the Danish and the Swedish, its affinities are the same 
 with their's.
 
 OF 
 
 THE MiESO-GOTHIC. 
 
 JL HE fragment, whicli remains to us of the Gospels translated into 
 Gothic by Ulphilas, who was bishop of Maesia, A. D. S60, is a valuable 
 treasure; because it enables us to trace back our language towards its 
 parent stem, and helps us to ascertain a fact, that English, Anglo-Saxon, 
 German, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Ma3SO-Gothic and Greek, to which 
 we must add the Persian and the Sanscrit, are nearly related, and ori- 
 ginate in one branch of the primeval language. 
 
 As a fragment, we cannot expect its vocabulary to be copious, yet the 
 comparatively few words contained in it are evidently connected with the 
 other languages of this branch, as will be clearly seen by the subsequent 
 
 examples. 
 
 The Pronotim. 
 
 Ic, tliu, is; weis, izwis, eis; 1, thou, he, we, ye, they. 
 In tlic oblique cases we observe, meina, theina, is; unsara, izwara, 
 ize; answering to mine, thine, his; our, your, their.
 
 265 
 
 The Verbs. 
 
 Im, IS, ist; svum, syuth, sincl ; T am, thou art, Sec. Was, wast, was; 
 wesiun, wesuth, wesun; I was, &c. Du wisan, to be; wisands, being. 
 Wairtha, I become; warth T became. Ilaba, habais, habaith; haljam, 
 habaith, baband ; 1 have, thou hast, &c. Skal, I shall, will and must; 
 skulda, should. Magan, to be able; mahta, might. Sokja, sokjais, 
 sokeith; sokjam, sokeith, sokjand, I seek, thou seekest, &c. Sokida. 
 I sought; sokjei thu, seek thou; stikjands, seeking. Aigan, to have, 
 aihida, had. Andbindan, to unbind; andband, unbound. Biiidan, to 
 bid; band, bade or bad. Biskeinan, to shine; biskain, shone. Briggan, 
 to bring; brahta, brought. Bugjan, to buy; bauhta, bought. Driggkari, 
 to drink; dragk, drank. Duginnan, to begin; dugan, began. Gabri- 
 kan, to break; gabrak, broke. Galisan, to lease; galas, leased. Gawi- 
 than, to join; gawath, joined. Gaggon, to gang; iddja, went. Gasitan, 
 to sit; gasat, sat. Giban, to give; gaf, gave. Greipan, to seize; graip, 
 seized. Hafjan, to heave; hof, heaved. Hlahjan, to laugh; hloh, 
 laughed. ISiman, to take, to nim; nam, took. Quiman, to come; 
 quam, came. Quithan, to say; quath, quoth. Slahan, to slay; sloh, 
 slew. Standan, to stand; stoth, stood. Steigan, to go; staig, went. 
 Swaran, to swear; swor, swore. Thagkjnn, to {l>ink; thahla, thought. 
 Thwahan, to wash; thwoh, washed. Ussingan, to read; ussang, read. 
 Urreisan, to rise; urrais, arose. Waurkjan, to woik; waurhta, 
 wrought. 
 
 The Gothic, like the Greek, is apt to form its preterite by redupli- 
 
 VOL. II. M m
 
 266 
 
 cation, as in aukan, to eke, to increase; aiauk, he increased; fahan, to 
 take, faifah, he took; tekan, to touch; taitok, he touched. 
 
 Like the Greek, it has the double g in the place of ng, as in gaggan, 
 to go, to gang. Tuggo, the tongue ; lagga, long ; briggan, to bring ; 
 huggrjan, to hunger; drigghan, to drink; thaggkian, to think ; aggilus, 
 angel ; Aggun, Augustus. 
 
 Like Greek, it has the dual number in its verbs, and like Greek, it 
 delights in compound expressions. It has some resemblance to the 
 Hebrew in its hiphil conjugation, as in kunnan, to know; gakunjan, to 
 make known. 
 
 Its numerals are similar to those of its kindred languages in Europe 
 and in Asia. 
 
 A in, twa, thrins, fidwor, fimf, saihs, sibun, ahtau, niun, taihun. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN DANISH AND GREEK. 
 
 I must here premise that aa is pronounced as o, that b, answering to 
 iTTt, is apt to be prefixed to the root, that letters of the same organ ha\e 
 been substituted for each other without scruple by the Danes, and that 
 the part of the verb adduced is commonly the infinitive.
 
 26r 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Eihjlish, 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Enylifh. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Aabe 
 
 Open 
 
 OTTV] 
 
 Blusse 
 
 lilazc 
 
 Ktujjio 
 
 A age 
 
 Yoke 
 
 Xvycv 
 
 Bog 
 
 Beech 
 
 'py,ycg 
 
 Mde 
 
 Eat 
 
 eSeiv 
 
 Boe 
 
 Live 
 
 ^lOiC 
 
 Aal 
 
 Eal 
 
 tyxtXog 
 
 Bonne 
 
 Bean 
 
 'TtVCC^/OV 
 
 Ande 
 
 Breathe 
 
 
 Borg 
 
 Castle 
 
 7rup<yog 
 
 Aare 
 
 Oar 
 
 tpeatrco 
 
 Bore 
 
 Bore 
 
 xeipw 
 
 CEg 
 
 Egg 
 
 xryfyog 
 
 Bosse 
 
 A box 
 
 Tcv^ig 
 
 Af 
 
 con hy, ; 
 
 C from S 
 
 X'KO 
 
 Braege 
 Braekke 
 
 Bark 
 Break 
 
 I'ipvxxof^cei. 
 pviyv'jui 
 
 Al 
 
 All 
 
 okog 
 
 Broende 
 
 Burn 
 
 Ttvpoeiv 
 
 Alen 
 
 Ell 
 
 (cXiVi^ 
 
 Braemme 
 
 Brim 
 
 7[epiuiJ.[t.oi 
 
 Albue 
 
 Elbow 
 
 dXevvifiiog 
 
 Brist 
 
 Burst 
 
 pvi<r(Tcc 
 
 Almisse 
 
 Alms 
 
 eXeyi[j,oiTwyj 
 
 Bring 
 
 Bring 
 
 (pspsiw 
 
 An 
 
 <|Thepre-p 
 c position S 
 
 ocvx 
 
 Brum me 
 Bryst 
 
 Roar 
 
 Breast 
 
 
 Arm 
 
 Destitute 
 
 e^v,[>,og 
 
 Bue 
 
 Bow 
 
 3iOs 
 
 Be, Bi, 
 
 ^The pre-'i 
 C position ) 
 
 evi 
 
 Bux 
 
 Daatter 
 
 Box 
 
 Dauofhter 
 
 ^vyccTvp 
 
 Baere 
 
 Carry 
 
 (pspeiv 
 
 Daekke 
 
 Cover 
 
 rf7£iv 
 
 Bedre 
 
 Better 
 
 SeKrspog 
 
 Dele 
 
 Deal 
 
 5i£X£iV 
 
 Bedst 
 
 Best 
 
 SekTigog 
 
 Die 
 
 Suck 
 
 m^'/l 
 
 Blad 
 
 Blade i 
 
 iXxgxvcti, 
 
 Dige 
 
 Dike 
 
 reixog 
 
 Blege 
 
 Bleach 
 
 KevKog 
 
 Dobbelt 
 
 Double i 
 
 hirXcvg 
 
 Blomstre 
 
 Bloom J 
 
 3Xuw 
 
 Dogge 
 
 Dog 
 
 ijc'/LOg
 
 268 
 
 Danish. 
 
 i3okke 
 
 Doinme 
 
 Dor 
 Drage 
 Drive 
 Du 
 
 D 
 
 "gg 
 
 Dyb 
 Dyppe 
 Dykke 
 Dyr 
 
 Ebbe 
 
 Eg 
 
 Eje 
 
 Een 
 
 Faa 
 
 Faae 
 
 Fad 
 
 Falde 
 
 1 
 
 aiige 
 
 Faic 
 Fatte 
 
 English. 
 
 Dock 
 
 ( Deem 
 
 I Doom 
 
 Door 
 
 Drag 
 
 Drive 
 
 Thou 
 
 Dew 
 
 Deep 
 
 Dip 
 
 Dive 
 
 Beast 
 
 Ebb 
 
 Edge 
 
 fiave 
 
 One 
 
 Few 
 
 Obtain 
 
 Pan 
 
 Fell, Foul 
 
 Covet 
 
 Seize 
 
 Go 
 
 Catch 
 
 I Greek. 
 
 8eSpz<y[j.xt 
 
 rpijicii 
 \ 
 
 TV 
 
 VTiTOI 
 SvTTTCC 
 
 ev 
 
 TTxvpog 
 
 TTOCCO 
 
 TTXTOCUVI 
 
 rreXup. (pxvXog 
 ekSofj-xi 
 
 opevofj^xi 
 n-xco 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Feed 
 
 Fegte 
 
 Feile 
 
 Finte 
 
 Filt 
 
 Flaae 
 
 Flase 
 
 Flere 
 
 Fleest 
 
 Flette 
 
 Flod 
 
 Flyde 
 
 Fod 
 
 Fode 
 
 Fore 
 
 Foge 
 Fole 
 Fold 
 Folk 
 For 
 Forest 
 Fra 
 [Fragte 
 
 Engliih. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Fat 
 
 (pocTVoj. TreTTxlxi 
 
 Fight 
 
 TTUHTf-veiv 
 
 Fail 
 
 cr^xWstv 
 
 Feint 
 
 (fiivai 
 
 Felt 
 
 (paXXog 
 
 Flay 
 
 (pKoi^ui 
 
 Flake 
 
 TiKsy.M. TrXxAog: 
 
 More 
 
 ■n-X^peg 
 
 Most 
 
 TrXeiqog 
 
 Plait 
 
 vXeaco.rie'jXaTxi 
 
 Flood ; 
 
 Flow 5 
 
 (pXySuu 
 
 Foot 
 
 nohog 
 
 Food 
 
 (iOTO^ 
 
 ( Carry ; 
 (Guide S 
 
 (pepca 
 
 Fix 
 
 TTViyw 
 
 Foal 
 
 TTOiXog 
 
 Fold 
 
 (pvXo^ 
 
 Folk 
 
 oxXo'; 
 
 For, Fore 
 
 rrxpx. Trpo 
 
 First 
 
 TrpCOTiqOi 
 
 Prom 
 
 TtXpx 
 
 Freight 
 
 fiopTi^ca
 
 209 
 
 Danhh, 
 
 Engtixh. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Frisk 
 
 Brisk 
 
 ^(ppiyxu 
 
 Hele 
 
 Frygt 
 
 Fright 
 
 (ppi.77U 
 
 ficle 
 
 Fuld 
 Fyre 
 
 Full 
 Fire 
 
 ii:jXXo( 
 
 TrVp 
 
 Hen 
 
 Gaae 
 
 Go 
 
 AUO. lot 
 
 Henncp 
 
 Galdc 
 
 Gall 
 
 %oXvi 
 
 Herre 
 
 Gall 
 Gabe 
 
 Crow 
 Gape 
 
 KocXeu 
 
 Hie 
 
 Gierde 
 
 Hurdle 
 
 ryvposiv 
 
 Hielpe 
 
 Giest 
 
 Guest 
 
 eqiscco 
 
 Hierte 
 
 Giog 
 
 Cuckoo 
 
 MKKvE, 
 
 Hiul 
 
 Glose 
 
 Word 
 
 yXci>(T(TX 
 
 Hob 
 
 God 
 
 Good 
 
 xyci^Oi; 
 
 Hone 
 
 Godhed 
 
 Goodness 
 
 aya&oTvif 
 
 Hore 
 
 Gnave 
 
 Gnaw 
 
 avxic 
 
 Hov 
 
 Graa 
 
 Gray 
 
 ypaix 
 
 Hud 
 
 Gravere 
 
 Grave 
 
 ypxCpeiv 
 
 Huede 
 
 Grotte 
 
 Grot 
 
 upvirTU 
 
 Hul 
 
 Hade 
 
 Hate 
 
 KOTOg 
 
 Hull 
 
 Ilaenge 
 
 Hang 
 
 xyxa 
 
 Humll 
 
 Hage 
 
 Hook 
 
 oymvos 
 
 Hyle 
 
 Hale 
 
 Hale 
 
 eXyoD 
 
 Hyrde 
 
 Halm 
 
 Halm 
 
 nxXx[j.^ 
 
 Hyre 
 
 Hagel 
 
 Hail 
 
 XxXxi^x 
 
 Hytte 
 
 V ii.. II. 
 
 
 N 
 
 n 
 
 P.ngliiS. 
 
 All 
 
 Heal 
 
 (The pre-<^ 
 
 Cposition 5 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Lord 
 
 ^A den, / 
 
 c A hauntS 
 
 Help 
 
 Heart 
 
 Wheel 
 
 Heap 
 
 Hen 
 
 Whore 
 
 Hoof 
 
 Hide 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Hole 
 
 Cave 
 
 Hops 
 
 Howl 
 
 Herd 
 
 Hire 
 
 Heed 
 
 Gree^i 
 
 oXog, 
 xX^tu 
 
 xvx 
 
 ■<xva(ii.( 
 
 'iVpiOf 
 
 o^kXXo) 
 
 H£Xp 
 
 nvXia 
 
 xiTtog 
 y\)w. 
 
 nSpvi 
 
 OTrXv\ 
 
 THVTO( 
 
 TITO! 
 
 noiXo? 
 xoiXot 
 
 JJfxCTfXOf 
 
 vXxcii 
 xyappw 
 
 ASpSOf
 
 270 
 
 Daniah. 
 
 Jkke 
 
 lid 
 
 ludcn 
 
 Kalde 
 
 Kalk 
 
 Katiiin 
 
 K a miner 
 
 Kande 
 
 Kappc 
 
 Kiende 
 
 Kiercst 
 
 Kierne 
 
 Kierne 
 
 Kind 
 
 Kicibe 
 
 Kioii 
 
 Kirke 
 
 Kiste 
 
 Klaede 
 
 Klaff 
 
 Klage 
 
 Klantr 
 
 Klinge 
 
 English. 
 
 Not 
 
 Fire 
 
 Within 
 
 Call 
 
 Cup 
 
 Chimney 
 
 Chamber 
 
 Cann 
 
 Cut 
 
 Know 
 
 ^Best be-( 
 
 C loved ' 
 
 Kernel 
 
 Churn 
 
 Jaw 
 
 Buy 
 
 Kin 
 
 Church 
 
 Chest 
 
 Clothe 
 
 Cuff 
 
 Complaint 
 
 Clang 
 
 Clink 
 
 Greek. 
 
 OVK 
 
 tVTCf 
 
 axXetv 
 
 KUAi$ 
 
 ■ACCV^xpOf 
 
 Z^p'ieqxTOi 
 
 neap 
 
 yvpoiiv 
 
 ytvui 
 
 yei/og 
 
 y.iqv\ 
 
 y.oxz(pOi; 
 ly.Xx<y£ 
 y.xot'y'yyi 
 y-xxiyyv) 
 
 Danish. 
 
 A. line 
 Klebe 
 
 Klint 
 
 i'llippe 
 
 Klokke 
 
 Klynke 
 
 Knae 
 
 Knaele 
 
 Knage 
 
 Knekke 
 
 Knibe 
 
 Knytte 
 
 Komme 
 
 Kone 
 
 Koppe 
 
 Kort 
 
 Krabbe 
 
 Kradse 
 
 Kraft 
 
 Krane 
 
 Krebs 
 
 Englinh. 
 
 Glue 
 
 ^Cleave ) 
 
 (Clue ^ 
 
 \ '3 row of^ 
 
 } a hill S 
 
 Lop 
 
 Bell 
 
 Lament 
 
 Knee 
 
 Kneel 
 
 Crash 
 
 Snap 
 
 Nip 
 
 Knit 
 Come 
 Woman 
 Wife 
 Cup 
 Short 
 Crab 
 Scratch 
 Strength 
 Crane 
 Crab 
 
 Green. 
 
 yxix 
 
 noxxaw 
 
 xenXaxx 
 
 yovv 
 
 xxvoixyj 
 y.xvux^ 
 
 hVXttTU 
 
 ipXO[i-cci 
 
 nvirewov 
 xeipoj 
 
 xxpx^Of 
 
 XXpXTTU 
 
 yepcevOf
 
 271 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Kiigle 
 
 Kule 
 
 Kule 
 
 Kukiik 
 
 Kunne 
 
 Kysse 
 
 Labbe 
 
 La be 
 
 Laegge 
 
 Laead 
 
 Laekke 
 
 Lagt 
 
 Larape 
 
 Lantse 
 
 Lee 
 
 Levne 
 
 Lige 
 
 Ligge 
 
 Line 
 
 Loft 
 
 Lofte 
 
 Log 
 
 Engtish. 
 
 > Globe 
 
 ^ Bowl 
 lole 
 
 Storm 
 
 Cuckoo 
 
 Know 
 
 Kiss 
 
 Paw 
 
 Lap 
 Lay 
 
 Loin 
 
 Leak 
 
 Laid 
 
 Lamp 
 
 Lance 
 
 Laugh 
 
 Leave 
 
 Alike 
 
 Lie down 
 
 Line 
 
 Roof 
 
 Lift 
 
 ^ On ion 
 
 Leek 
 
 ! 
 
 Greek. 
 
 y.vxXor 
 
 xotXcr 
 aaXXx 
 
 kovvsiv 
 
 Xa(ivj Kxjiiiv 
 
 XxTna 
 
 Xeyca 
 
 Xxycov 
 
 Xxyapof 
 
 Xsyo^i-xi 
 
 XafATTW 
 
 Xoyx,^ 
 
 ysXecca 
 
 Xei'Tteiv 
 
 xXlAlO; 
 
 Xtyoj 
 Xiuov 
 
 eiXi^(px 
 Xa.%xvov 
 
 Daniih. 
 
 Logn 
 
 Logte 
 
 Lok 
 
 Lose 
 
 Lue 
 
 Lukke 
 
 Lye 
 
 Lyd 
 
 Lykke 
 
 Lyse 
 
 Maade 
 
 Msegte 
 
 Ma3no;e 
 
 M 
 
 age 
 
 Med 
 
 Meel 
 
 Meen 
 
 Meest 
 
 Meget 
 
 Alelk 
 Meie 
 Mene 
 
 A lie 
 
 Lantern 
 
 Lock 
 
 Loosen 
 
 iiame 
 
 Lock 
 
 Listen 
 
 T/Oud 
 
 Luck 
 
 Light 
 
 Mete 
 
 Might 
 
 Mingle 
 
 Make 
 
 ^The pre-^ 
 
 ' position 
 
 Meal 
 
 Oefect 
 
 Most 
 
 ^Great 
 
 cMnch 
 
 Milk 
 
 GreeA, 
 
 Xcjoi 
 Xvxvog 
 
 TrXOY.Cg 
 XiVUJbl 
 
 y^exXetKx 
 
 aXvw 
 
 HXVTO^ 
 
 Xxxog 
 
 X£V(T(j-c<; 
 
 ,\^'^Xx:/xo\j.ai 
 
 \i.ETX 
 
 \hvX<^ 
 
 f*£AKa: Galen 
 
 Mow. 
 Chink 
 
 real 
 
 UU.XOO 
 
 lj.£vog
 
 
 
 2? 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Danish, 
 
 English. 
 
 Gredt. 
 
 xMikil 
 
 Much 
 
 [j-ifyxw^ 
 
 Op 
 
 Up 
 
 uTtep 
 
 Mild 
 
 Mild 
 
 cc\i.ct>.og 
 
 Ophielpe 
 
 Help 
 
 K^ewu' 
 
 Min 
 
 My 
 
 
 Ore 
 
 F.ar 
 
 ovzg 
 
 Minde 
 
 Mind 
 
 i^evo; 
 
 Otte 
 
 I'vight 
 
 OxTO) 
 
 Moder 
 
 Mother 
 
 UV5TV1/) 
 
 Oxe 
 
 Ax 
 
 .2:^iv^ 
 
 Moe 
 
 Maiden 
 
 5fj.a;iV 
 
 
 rUpon, -N 
 
 
 IVIOJC 
 
 Trouble 
 
 u-oX^og 
 
 Paa 
 
 <at, in, > 
 
 6Xt 
 
 Mole 
 
 Mill 
 
 fjuUAV) 
 
 
 'after ^ 
 
 
 IMudder 
 
 Mud 
 
 uvSxca 
 
 Pandt 
 
 Pawn 
 
 ttKU 
 
 Muus 
 
 Mouse 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Page 
 
 vxig 
 
 Mjre 
 
 Ant 
 
 l^vp^viE, 
 
 Pande 
 
 Pan 
 
 n-XTXVVj 
 
 Nat 
 
 Night 
 
 Vl/lCTOJ 
 
 Pael 
 
 Pale, Pole 
 
 TTXJS-iXXOg 
 
 Navn 
 
 Name 
 
 ovofj^a 
 
 Pillc 
 
 To pill 
 
 ^^iXOw 
 
 Nei 
 
 Nay 
 
 VII 
 
 Pine 
 
 Pain 
 
 Ttev^o? 
 
 Net 
 
 Neat 
 
 Vi'JTO) 
 
 Plads 
 
 Place 
 
 TXXTSIX 
 
 Net 
 
 Net 
 
 vvi^ca 
 
 Plage 
 
 Plague 
 
 eirxxyov 
 
 Ni 
 
 Nine 
 
 twtx 
 
 Planke 
 
 Plank 
 
 'Ttxxi, 
 
 Nu 
 
 Now 
 
 vvv 
 
 Pligtig 
 
 Bound 
 
 TTACxW 
 
 Ny 
 
 New- 
 
 veog 
 
 Priis 
 
 Price 
 
 'vpy^aig 
 
 Ober 
 
 Over 
 
 UTTf/J 
 
 Purre 
 
 Irritate 
 
 jwepx^tv 
 
 Oge 
 
 F.ke 
 
 CCuE,(i3 
 
 Puste 
 
 Puff 
 
 TTTUOV/ 
 
 Oje 
 
 Olie 
 
 Eye 
 Oil 
 
 o^Kog 
 
 Raa 
 Raft 
 
 Yard ^ 
 Rafter i 
 
 pxjiSog 
 
 Om 
 
 Round 
 
 cnj.(pi 
 
 Rage 
 
 Shave 
 
 xpxjau. B,u)
 
 ♦)7.'' 
 
 73 
 
 Danish. 
 
 EnglUh. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Regne 
 
 Rain 
 
 paivui 
 
 Raise 
 
 Voyage 
 
 tpea-iTca 
 
 Rense 
 
 Rinse 
 
 fixiv<a, pxvig 
 
 Ringe 
 
 Circle 
 
 yupotiv 
 
 Rive 
 
 Snatch 
 
 ctpTaci) 
 
 Rod 
 
 Root 
 
 fi^a 
 
 Rove 
 
 Ravish 
 
 kp'Kon 
 
 Ryg 
 
 Ridge 
 
 gxxig 
 
 Saare 
 
 Sore 
 
 (p^opx 
 
 Seede 
 
 Seat 
 
 eSog 
 
 Saette 
 
 Set 
 
 e^to 
 
 Sseve 
 
 Sap 
 
 OTcog 
 
 Sak 
 
 Sack 
 
 tranaog 
 
 Sal 
 
 Hall 
 
 auAV) 
 
 Salt 
 
 Salt 
 
 xXg 
 
 Salve 
 
 Salve 
 
 xXei<pii} 
 
 Sex 
 
 Six 
 
 \l 
 
 Sidde 
 
 Sit 
 
 i'^etv 
 
 Skierm 
 
 Shelter 
 
 (7Ki« 
 
 SkufFe 
 
 Shovel 
 
 aXflfTTTW 
 
 Skye 
 
 Cloud 
 
 avuu. 
 
 Skygge 
 
 Shade 
 
 e(7nixiix 
 
 Skyde 
 
 Shoot 
 
 jneSxca 
 
 Skyts 
 
 Votection 
 
 (7Ki«?ft) 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 
 Skole 
 
 jcliool 
 
 -%oXv) 
 
 
 Skam 
 
 Shame 
 
 ^-^X^ii^ovsiv 
 
 
 Skib 
 
 Ship 
 
 THx(pVI 
 
 
 Soel 
 
 Sun 
 
 \^Xiog 
 
 
 Soe 
 
 Sow 
 
 vg a-vg 
 
 
 Sove 
 
 To sleep 
 
 UTvactf 
 
 
 Sovn 
 
 Sleep 
 
 v'xvog 
 
 
 Span 
 
 Span 
 
 (rs7i&afji,vj 
 
 
 Spinde 
 
 Spin 
 
 (TTHl^eiV 
 
 
 Spise 
 
 Eat 
 
 eo-Siw 
 
 
 Stamme 
 
 Stem 
 
 «re(/.[*fl: 
 
 
 Stade 
 
 Station 
 
 qxiTig 
 
 
 Staae 
 
 Stand 
 
 qxu 
 
 
 Stand 
 
 State 
 
 eqSi/xi 
 
 
 Stem me 
 
 Stop 
 
 k^h^ 
 
 
 Stemme 
 
 Voice 
 
 qo[>.x 
 
 
 Stem pie 
 
 Stamp 
 
 q-£fji./3fiV 
 
 
 Steen 
 
 Stone 
 
 qiov 
 
 
 Sted 
 
 Place 
 
 qa^[j.og 
 
 
 Stierne 
 
 Star 
 
 xq^p 
 
 
 Stige 
 
 Step up 
 
 qoixia 
 
 
 Stikke 
 
 Stick, sting 
 
 k^xf^ 
 
 
 Stilk 
 
 Stalk 
 
 qtkexog 
 
 
 Stiv 
 
 Stiff 
 
 qijiapog 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 

 
 274 
 
 Danisli. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greet. 
 
 Danish, 
 
 English. 
 
 Gree*. 
 
 Stivelse 
 
 Starch 
 
 qil^oifiog 
 
 Tre 
 
 Three 
 
 TptTg 
 
 Stof 
 
 Stuff 
 
 qv(p(a 
 
 Troe 
 
 Trust 
 
 Sappty 
 
 Stonne 
 
 Groan 
 
 qava^M 
 
 Trone 
 
 Throne 
 
 ^powog 
 
 Strid 
 
 ^Strife } 
 C Battle 3 
 
 qpccTevikCt 
 
 I ug jn ^ 
 Hertug 3 
 
 Duke 
 
 Txyog 
 
 Str<5e 
 
 Strevr 
 
 qp(i)W[s.i 
 
 Tunge 
 
 Tongue 
 
 (p^oyyog 
 
 Sye 
 
 Sew 
 
 ^X(77Vb3 
 
 Tusk 
 
 Ink 
 
 Sa(Tniog 
 
 Synde 
 
 Sin 
 
 (TIVU 
 
 Vaev 
 
 Weave 
 
 v(pi£iv 
 
 Sjg 
 
 Sick 
 
 tnH^os 
 
 Vasde 
 
 Wet 
 
 vsTog ^iou 
 
 Taale 
 
 Suffer 
 
 TxKiia 
 
 Ved 
 
 With 
 
 fjoETa 
 
 Taare 
 
 Tear 
 
 i5axpu(*« 
 
 Vikke 
 
 Vetch 
 
 /3ixia 
 
 Tsekke 
 
 Cover 
 
 (^eiyo) 
 
 Vide 
 
 Know 
 
 eiSetv 
 
 Taemme 
 
 Tame 
 
 Bx\t.oi(a 
 
 Vidie 
 
 Withy 
 
 Itex 
 
 Tage 
 
 Take 
 
 iTayov 
 
 Veed 
 
 Wood 
 
 ■jXciSvfg 
 
 Tand 
 
 Tooth 
 
 T£V&« 
 
 Viin 
 
 Wine 
 
 oivog 
 
 Tappe 
 
 Tap ' 
 
 TUTTO; 
 
 Vild 
 
 Wild 
 
 vXuSvit 
 
 Ti 
 
 Ten 
 
 5fxa 
 
 Virke 
 
 Work 
 
 epyd^eiv 
 
 Tiur 
 
 Bull 
 
 Tccvpog 
 
 Vise 
 
 Shew 
 
 l(7-i/l\i.L 
 
 To 
 
 Two 
 
 Sva 
 
 Voxe 
 
 Grow 
 
 ■>f z 
 xvt,eiv 
 
 Torre 
 
 Dry 
 
 ivipog 
 
 Vrag 
 
 Wreck 
 
 pviyi** 
 
 Traette 
 
 Strife 
 
 qpccTtvixx 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Trffikke 
 
 Drag, draw 
 
 SaBpctx'^ 
 
 

 
 275 
 
 V/e have here taken a survey of more tliaii tbioc hundred and fi-w 
 inonosylhvbic expressions, in which the affinity between the Danish an I 
 the Greek is "vident. Now let us examine such compounds, as tend still 
 further to illuscrate this affinity. Of these, most of the prMiiitivcs will 
 be found in tlie preceding vocabulary, and the compounds themselves 
 are reduced to classes, according to their prepuiritions. 
 
 I. Primitives combined with aTro, af and op. 
 
 Afocde eat off, qfbkle bite off, afbrmnde burn up, ofdcle divide, afdrage 
 detract, afdrive drive off, afhage unhook, afflae flay, offdre evacuate, 
 asgaae go off, afgnave gnaw off, qfkalde reclaim, afkappe chop oft', ajkiobe 
 purchase, afklcede undress, afknappe nip off, afko'te shorten, afkradse 
 scratch off, afloegge cast off, ajl'ose loosen, afmeie mow, afmcegtig weak, 
 af nappe pluck oflF, afpille pille, afrage shave, af reuse rinse, ofrive tear off, 
 afstaae desist, afstand stand off, afstige descend, afstikke en'fravc, 
 aftrcekke draw off, opfare ascend, opfore bring up, opgaae rise, oplosc 
 unbrace, oplijse enlighten, opstaae rise, opstige ascend, optage take up. 
 
 II. Primitives combined with livx, an and hen. 
 
 Anhrmide kindle, anfore guide, anhage hook, anklage arraign, antagc 
 and hentage take, accept, henbcere transport, hen/are depart, henrive 
 ravish. 
 
 III. Primitives combined with £7r< be. 
 
 Bedakkt cover, bek/age lament, belee laugh at, berove rob, beskierme 
 ^sheJter, beskygge sha^ . beskgtte hide, bestaae consist, bestride combat, 
 hetr^t trust, bide gnaw, bistaae aid.
 
 276 
 
 JV. Primitives coinbined with vTtep over. 
 
 Overdrive exaggerate, overfdre transport, overgaae surpass, overklade 
 clothe over, overmagt superiority. 
 
 V. Primitives combined with utto, seemingly for 't-^'t, paa, pro- 
 nounced po. 
 
 Paadrive drive on, paakalde call on, paakhige accuse, paaklade dress, 
 paakomme happen, paalcegge lay on, paaligge lie on, paam/ anew, 
 panstaae insist on, paatage handle, paatrcekke put on, paavirke work on. 
 
 VI. Primitives combined with «(>.(pi oiti. 
 
 Omhmre bear round, omdeele distribute, omfang circuit, omfare travel 
 round, omfatle embrace, omguae go round, omski/gge shade round, omringe 
 surround. 
 
 VII. Primitives combined with [^e^x med. 
 
 Meddele share, medbare carry with, meddrive drive with, medfare go 
 with, medfdre carry with, mcdmaade with moderation. 
 
 VIII. Primitives combined with eviog ind. 
 
 Tnddrive drive in, indfare go in, indfire introduce, indkalde call iri, 
 indkomme enter, indlcegge lay in, indlukke lock in. 
 
 TX. Primitives combined with 'Trapa fra and frem. 
 
 Fradragc deduct, frnfare depart, frafdre carry away, frakalde recall, 
 frastaae desist, frembcere produce, fremknlde call forth, fremfdre produce, 
 J'remdrage draw out.
 
 277 
 
 X. Primitives combined with irpo for and fore. 
 
 Forehringt offer, forckele disperse, fordrive turn out, forekomme come 
 before, fortmette propose, foretage undertake. 
 
 XT. Primitives combined with tx k and s. 
 
 Klap aXxTTx, knytfe vvt'^aiv, krybe ep^eiv, kule atKhu, glas glass, Xevirffu 
 glippe fail, tyiKei^.-aiv, gabe gape, crnv^. 
 
 XII. Primitives combined with eE. s. 
 
 Skim'e neiptiv, skov a copse, mo^tw, skrige cry, y-pi'^tiv, skrive ypaipeiv, 
 smdre anoint, \j.\ipi^si.v, snee snow, viCpnv, spior spear, 'Ttsipxu, stinke Txyyi^eiv, 
 storm opi^vi, stro/n stream pevfj-x. 
 
 XIII. Primitives combined with ou and ovSh u and uden. 
 Vbrmidt unburnt; lifwio- discordant, wyi^i/^flr infallible, ukaldet uncalled, 
 
 ukyndig ignorant, idig unlike, ulykke unlucky, utaalmodig intolerable, 
 utcemmet untamed, ustadig unsteady, uslridig incontestible, udenmaade 
 immeasurable, udenmoje not difficult. 
 
 XIV. Primitives combined with either x'tco and ei, xvx and £t<, or eisi. 
 and t^ af, s, an, be. 
 
 Jfskcere cut off, afstorse dry, afskrive copy, afsiage take off, anbetrse 
 trust, anskrive write down, beskare cut round. 
 
 XV. Primitives combined with £«■*, or e^ and tTi, or ct* and i-^t, or si 
 and £T», or vpo and £7ri. 
 
 VOL. II. P p
 
 278 
 
 Bespise feed, hesprmige sprinkle, bevidne witness, spmkke crack, for- 
 hiqnae pass, forbifare pass, forbireise pass, furblive remain. 
 
 XV r. Primitives combined with cv, ovxi. and tm, e^ aito, avx, Trpo 
 
 and ai'-tpi, Sec. 
 
 Ubkget unbleached, iibrakket unhvrok'en, ubestridet conceded, nfoveenlig 
 i) reconcilable, cu, ^po, sv, aUy.iog; ugiaihaldelig irrevocable, ovxi xvx, 
 y.xXeiv xXmiog; vgieiibringeHg irreducible, itgicnki^beUg irredeemable, 
 M07>7/nf;«6/'?/Jc//^' impenetrable, ovxi, xvx, x\j.(pi, wnptiv, a'kiy.io<;; unfvidende 
 secretly, tianseelig uncomely, uantagelig unacceptable, ubehoet unin- 
 habited, vbeskreven undescribed, ubevidst unknown, itbestandig incon- 
 stant, iihrcekket unbroke. 
 
 The propensity to multiply prepositions evinces the resemblance of 
 these languages, and the identity of boih primitives and prepositions 
 demonstrates their affinity. 
 
 The double G and double K, which occur in Danish, give this 
 language a striking resemblance to the Greek, which is the more remark- 
 able, because we cannot but observe, in given circumstances, the equi- 
 valence between k, y, %, K and G convertible into N. Thus Xcf^xavu 
 produces lykke luck, and (pSoyyoc tongue. Thus qpa'^^^ and (Tpayyfua 
 inay have given birth to streng and strikke, both which in Danish signify 
 a string; and the Danish stikke may be the immediate parent of both 
 stick and sting. Thus also ktinge, to clink, click, and klynke, to cry, 
 lament, bemoan, connect themselves with KXayyfw, xXay^w, KXayiyvj, 
 clangor, and so does hange with ay^".
 
 279 
 
 This conversion of N into gamma, or of gamma into N, is extremely 
 interesting. It remains for some good philologist to aceountfor a [practice 
 by which Gronovir.s was exceedingly perplexed, and on which no li dit 
 has hitherto been thrown. 
 
 I am disposed to suspect that N before G and C, or n, y, % became a 
 nasal, as in the French word etang, and that for want of an appropriate 
 character, by which it could be distinguished, it was expressed by 
 gamma, and denominated agma, for this was the name, by the ancient 
 grammarians, given to gamma, when it preceded either m, 7, or %, 
 (v. Gronovii Dissertationes.) 
 
 In this display of the affinity between our parental language and the 
 Greek, the reader cannot fail to observe, that although the lineaments 
 are changed by time, the family likeness between Greek, Danish, and 
 English still remains. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN SWEDISH AND GREEK. 
 
 Sicedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Grtek. 
 
 Swedish, 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 A and Ai 
 
 Always 
 
 ie: 
 
 iEIja 
 
 But 
 
 iX}J 
 
 Ach 
 Ade 
 
 Ah! 
 Disposition 
 
 «i and a.7 
 
 iEljes ; 
 Aljes S 
 
 Otherwise 
 
 aXAffif 
 
 Adel 
 
 Nobility 
 
 i^Kov 
 
 iElta 
 
 To desire 
 
 iXSoiAXl 
 
 iEga 
 
 To have 
 
 eXtiv 
 
 iEmbar 
 
 A vessel 
 
 <xiJ.(popsCi 
 
 ^gff 
 
 Edge 
 
 
 Mn 
 
 If 
 
 1 \ 
 
 iXV 
 
 Aela 
 
 A storm 
 
 xiWx 
 
 iEnda 
 
 To end 
 
 eCl/VTTM
 
 280 
 
 Swedish 
 
 English, 
 
 Greek. 
 
 
 Swedish, 
 
 Engtith. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Aga 
 
 Astonish 
 
 Z7H 
 
 Aga 
 
 A btroke 
 To lead, -n 
 
 XIV.IX 
 
 Aga j 
 
 drive } 
 
 z<ya 
 
 Agi 
 
 A leader ^ 
 
 
 Agoetr 
 
 Good 
 
 ^zya^Of 
 
 ^gg 
 
 Ach 
 
 «%Cf 
 
 Agn 
 
 Stra\v,chafr'='%!^« 
 
 Akta 
 
 To think 
 
 v,<)'io\t.at 
 
 Ala 
 
 To kindle 
 
 aKex 
 
 Ala \ 
 
 To nourish 
 To fatten 
 
 yakBaw 
 
 Alfbarg 
 
 The Alps 
 
 ccKTreig 
 
 All 
 
 All 
 
 oKos 
 
 Aln 
 
 Ell 
 
 aiKev^ 
 
 And 
 
 Against 
 
 avTi 
 
 Ande 
 
 Spirit 
 
 5/ V 
 
 Ane 
 
 King 
 
 xvx H 
 
 Ankar 
 
 Anchor 
 
 xyKvpa 
 
 Ankel 
 
 Ankle 
 
 aynuXv) 
 
 Ar 
 
 Beginning 
 
 ipx^i 
 
 Ar 
 
 Dawn 
 
 vip ver 
 
 Ar 
 
 Oar 
 
 (vipvif in
 
 281 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Arg 
 
 Art! & lard 
 
 Arf 
 
 Argi 
 
 Aria 
 
 Arm 
 
 Arpe 
 
 Art 
 
 Ask 
 
 Aska 
 
 Askio; 
 
 Asp 
 
 Ast and i 
 
 Venast S 
 
 Awi 
 
 Axel 
 
 Backe 
 
 Back 
 
 Badda 
 
 Baegga 
 
 Bagge 
 
 Baggo 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 Enylish. 
 
 Lazy, Idle 
 
 Earth 
 
 Field 
 
 Ire 
 
 ^To plough 
 
 rio drink 
 
 Poor 
 
 Filthy 
 
 Disposition 
 
 CA vessel,^ 
 
 (Ship 
 
 Ashes 
 
 Worth 
 
 A spin 
 
 Vesta 
 
 Woe 
 Axis 
 Hill 
 
 A fountain 
 To beat 
 A sheep ) 
 A ram J 
 A boy 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Swedinh. 
 
 Engtiih. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 xpyoe 
 
 Balja 
 
 A pail 
 
 xtXXa 
 
 if^Ot 
 
 Ban 
 
 A path 
 
 (ixivcc 
 
 e^a 
 
 Bane 
 
 Destruction 
 
 (povog 
 
 Opr/Vi 
 
 Barbar 
 
 Barbarian 
 
 ^xpjlxpog 
 
 ap8V 
 
 Barn 
 
 Infant 
 
 ^xp Hesych 
 
 (xpvcc 
 
 Bars 
 
 A barge 
 
 (ixpig Hesych 
 
 ep\^lf.og 
 
 Baera 
 
 To bear 
 
 (ptpEllt 
 
 pUTTOW 
 
 Bassolyds 
 
 King 
 
 ^xcnKav; 
 
 apu. upeToti 
 
 Bffist 
 
 Best 
 
 jieX'Tiqo; 
 
 
 Ba^ttrc 
 
 Better 
 
 (itX^epog 
 
 xjaog 
 
 Ball 
 
 Ball 
 
 '7rx).Xx Hesych 
 
 xc,co 
 
 Beck 
 
 Pitch 
 
 xitIx 
 
 xawccipoj 
 
 Becken ? 
 Begare 5 
 
 A beaker 
 
 jliyiOg fiiyiiSio:/ 
 
 
 Beraetta 
 Bessa 
 
 To relate 
 To fall 
 
 pvidtg 
 
 ■KEdeiV 
 
 1 \ 
 
 OVXI. 
 
 Betala 
 
 To pay 
 
 STiiraXeiv 
 
 a^ccv 
 
 Beta 
 
 To bait 
 
 /3iOT£U£;v 
 
 liiyog 
 
 Bi 
 
 By, u pon 
 
 6774 
 
 7rytyv\ 
 
 Biart 
 
 Pure 
 
 ^ixpog 
 
 t:xtx(TJCO 
 
 Bleck 
 
 ^A plate- } 
 
 n-XxE, 
 
 /Sv'kvi Hesijch 
 
 Bleck 
 
 c lanien S 
 Slothful 
 
 iX^^ 
 
 vctig 
 
 bleck 
 
 Pale 
 
 XevyJog 
 
 Q 
 
 q 
 

 
 282 
 
 Saedith. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Saedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bleka & I 
 Breka 3 
 
 To rain 
 
 /3p£%a> 
 
 Dike 
 Disk 
 
 A ditch 
 A dish 
 
 Blia 
 
 To look at 
 
 fTTi Xoiio 
 
 Djup 
 
 Deep 
 
 Blia 
 
 To flow om 
 
 (3Xuw 
 
 Djur 
 
 Deer 
 
 Blomma 
 
 A flower 
 
 /SXuo; 
 
 Docka 
 
 A dock 
 
 Bloss 
 
 Flame 
 
 (pXoE 
 
 Dofta 
 
 To dip, dive 
 
 BHnd 
 
 Blind 
 
 ^Xcivog Hes. 
 
 Dona 
 
 To sound 
 
 Bol 
 
 A city 
 
 TToXig 
 
 Doppa 
 
 To dip, dive 
 
 Brinna 
 
 To burn 
 
 TrVpOStV 
 
 Dor 
 
 Door 
 
 Braka 
 
 ^ To make ^ 
 (. a noise 3 
 
 (ipzxco 
 
 Doter 
 Drom 
 
 Daughter 
 Dream 
 
 Bromma 
 
 To roar 
 
 |3^£fji.W 
 
 Dron 
 
 Drone 
 
 Brod 
 
 Food 
 
 (ipcaTog HeSi 
 
 Dros 
 
 Tumult 
 
 Brussa 
 
 To boil 
 
 ^pxa-jci} 
 
 Draga 
 
 To draw 
 
 Byssa 
 
 A box 
 
 nvbg 
 
 Drifwa 
 
 To drive 
 
 Bytta 
 
 Bottle 
 
 jicti'Tiov Hes. 
 
 Drog 
 
 A dray 
 
 Dacke 
 
 Purse 
 
 &V)KV) 
 
 Dry pa 
 
 To scourge 
 
 Dagga 
 
 To gnaw 
 
 Szavw 
 
 Dubbel 
 
 Double 
 
 Dagg 
 
 Dew 
 
 
 Dunt 
 
 A stroke 
 
 Dam 
 
 A dam 
 
 5£f*W 
 
 Dura 
 
 To dure 
 
 Danat 
 
 Death 
 
 ^ccvxTog 
 
 Efter 
 
 x-lfter 
 
 Dickta 
 
 To form 
 
 TfU%W 
 
 Eg and lag 
 
 r 
 
 Dika 
 Dikcl 
 
 Vo excavate 
 A spade 
 
 UrnfAXa 
 
 Egg 
 Elandig 
 
 Egg 
 Merciful 
 
 Greek, 
 
 T£l%OJ 
 
 Si(rMg 
 
 O0%£K}V 
 (SuttTW 
 
 Spa[j.x 
 ^pdvzE, Hes^, 
 
 SiTrX^g 
 
 Svigog 
 
 XUTX§ 
 
 tyca 
 
 xyyog 
 
 i\eeivog
 
 28$ 
 
 Swedfab^ 
 
 Elg 
 
 Em 
 
 En 
 
 Eriur 
 
 Erfida 
 
 Fader 
 
 Falla 
 
 Fana 
 
 Fara 
 
 Fara 
 
 Fara 
 
 Fasta 
 
 Fat 
 
 Fa 
 
 Fauai 
 
 Fee 
 
 Fa 
 
 Far 
 
 Feckta 
 
 Fel 
 
 Fela 
 Fein 
 
 EnglitU. 
 
 Help 
 
 I am 
 
 One 
 
 Strife 
 
 Labour 
 
 Father 
 
 To cast 
 
 Cloth 
 
 To depart 
 
 To plough 
 
 To attempt 
 
 To fast 
 
 A horse load 
 
 Pack saddle 
 
 Few 
 
 A flock 
 To take 
 A sheep 
 To fight 
 
 A fault. 
 
 Error 
 To veil 
 Five 
 
 Greek. 
 
 xKnOi 
 
 eu . 
 
 Spig 
 
 spyz^eiv 
 
 'Tsai^p 
 
 (iaXKeiv 
 
 Tiyivog 
 
 ntepoiv 
 
 (pxpav Hes. 
 
 ■n-eipa^siv 
 
 cnraqix 
 
 ■f^aqxt(>: 
 
 TrXVpOl 
 
 irXiO 
 
 TTXiO 
 
 (ixpx Hesych 
 
 ItVUTiVeiV 
 
 
 Sacdiith. 
 
 Fetna 
 
 Finna 
 
 Fierta 
 
 Firn 
 
 Fisa 
 
 Flake 
 
 Fla 
 
 Flasa 
 
 Flaska 
 
 Flasta 
 
 Flat 
 
 Flatur 
 
 Flax 
 
 Fleck 
 
 Fleister 
 
 Flicka 
 
 Flik 
 
 Flock 
 
 Fnysa 
 
 Fole 
 
 Folk 
 
 Fon 
 
 English, 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Fat 
 
 (paT!/vi 
 
 To find 
 
 Xir0^xivi<i 
 
 
 wnphtiv 
 
 Before 
 
 ■n-piv 
 
 To inflate 
 
 (pvaxu 
 
 A flake 
 
 vKxy.x 
 
 To flay 
 
 (pXoia 
 
 To be hot 
 
 ^ (pXx^c,' 
 \.7rx(pXx^C0 
 
 A flask 
 
 (pXairy.eioy Sincl 
 
 Many 
 
 TrXsLqoi. 
 
 Flat 
 
 ttX^TUj 
 
 Flat 
 
 TrXoCTVq 
 
 Flame 
 
 (pXot. 
 
 A blot 
 
 IXxyii; lies. 
 
 More 
 
 TrXsiqOq 
 
 A girl 
 
 irxXXxi, 
 
 A prostitute - 
 
 ivxXXxV.'A 
 
 A fold 
 
 TTXey.i: 
 
 A flock 
 
 \0%<ic 
 
 To breathe 
 
 n-vai!) 
 
 A foal 
 
 Ttaxoi 
 
 Folk 
 
 3%AC?. CoA-y&r 
 
 Fire 

 
 284 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Greek 
 
 Fot 
 
 Foot 
 
 TT'S; TrO^Oe 
 
 Gina 
 
 To yawn 
 
 
 XXIV03 
 
 For 
 
 Fore 
 
 Trpo 
 
 jGjuta 
 
 To pour out 
 
 'X,iv(jai 
 
 Fraede 
 
 Wisdom 
 
 (PpixSvj 
 
 Glad 
 
 Glad 
 
 
 ccyXaia 
 
 Froekn 
 
 Fragil 
 
 ^pviyv) jEoI. 
 
 Glantz 
 
 Splendor 
 
 
 xiyXxvTx 
 
 Frffisa 
 
 To fret, furne 
 
 (ppvujcro: 
 
 Glas 
 
 Shining 
 
 
 xrf Kao? 
 
 Fresta 
 
 To try 
 
 TZBr^xqvii 
 
 Glata 
 
 To destroy 
 
 
 ■/.Xx^u 
 
 Fri 
 
 Free 
 
 jipiysg Hes. 
 
 Gliis 
 
 LauHiter 
 
 
 y'^xcc; 
 
 Fro 
 Fro 
 
 Early 
 Joyful 
 
 'Zpbll, 
 
 Cilo 
 
 ^Attentive 
 cLook 
 
 i 
 
 Kacc. Afef 
 
 Frucht 
 
 Frio lit 
 
 (ppty.Tog 
 
 Gnaga 
 
 J'o gnaw 
 
 
 %fi3:J&; 
 
 Frysa 
 
 To be cold 
 
 (ppirs-uj 
 
 Gnida 
 
 To rub 
 
 
 wvj'ba 
 
 Ful 
 
 (Foul, ^ 
 U^olluted S 
 
 (poXvvct) lies. 
 
 Gorr 
 Goa 
 
 Gore 
 To bark 
 
 
 ^xcop. ]%ccf 
 yeyuu; Hes> 
 
 Full 
 
 Full 
 
 ^vX'AOi 
 
 Gok 
 
 Cuckow 
 
 
 y.6y.y.vE, 
 
 Fjra 
 
 Four 
 
 TTSTOpX MoJ. 
 
 Gbl 
 
 Mire 
 
 
 fACf 
 
 Geedas 
 
 Joy 
 
 yci.ho[i.cn 
 
 Gradiff 
 
 Voracious 
 
 
 ypau) 
 
 G a fuel 
 
 Gable 
 
 <f(p^X'/| 
 
 Grafwa 
 
 To grave 
 
 
 ypxCpoi 
 
 Gall 
 
 1 barren 
 
 yaXXOf 
 
 Grobos 
 
 A ditch 
 
 
 ypatx Hes, 
 
 Galla 
 
 •;aii 
 
 XoXv, 
 
 Gras 
 
 CI rass 
 
 
 ypaqii 
 
 Gamman 
 
 Joy 
 
 yccvwiJ^ai 
 
 Gra 
 
 Greyheaded 
 
 yyi^xca'. y^xta 
 
 Gaiitas 
 Gat hod 
 
 Sports 
 Delight 
 
 yxi'ii.-iJ.x 
 
 Grena 
 
 ^To skrecr 
 'Separate 
 
 ( 
 
 y.^iva 
 
 Gaelning 
 
 Libidinous 
 
 yx).Xtxc-) lies. 
 
 Grift 
 
 A cave 
 
 
 
 Gast 
 
 A spectre 
 
 iyccqo? 
 
 Gripa 
 
 I'o gri{)C 
 
 
 7fi'3-<^w
 
 285 
 
 Saediih. 
 
 Bngliiih. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Swedith, 
 
 Ungli. fit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Oris 
 
 A pig j 
 
 y^iixSv Hes. 
 
 Hat 
 Haller 
 
 Hate 
 Rather 
 
 
 Grop < 
 
 A pil, cave 
 A gruff otj 
 Mendip 
 
 1 ry^x(p(0 
 \ y^V7!T0} 
 
 Heil 
 
 Hei 
 
 HJelm 
 
 Whole 
 
 Hay 
 
 Helmet 
 
 £10: 
 
 Gum man 
 
 Marriage 
 
 yafj-eiv 
 
 Hlena 
 
 To lean 
 
 KXiueiv 
 
 G before E and I is Y. 
 
 Hliftus 
 Hof 
 
 A thief 
 Hoof 
 
 nKt-zlvig 
 
 Hafvva 
 
 To have 
 
 x^eiv Hes. 
 
 Hoga 
 
 To think 
 
 Vi<yio[t.a.i 
 
 Hatjel 
 
 Hail 
 
 y_u\ac^c6 
 
 Hoi 
 
 Hollow 
 
 KOtXog 
 
 Hala 
 
 To let down 
 
 %fl:Aav 
 
 Hoik 
 
 A hulk 
 
 oXnaf 
 
 Hall 
 
 Hall 
 
 auAVI 
 
 Hon 
 
 Reproach 
 
 wetSog 
 
 Hamali 
 
 An assembly 
 
 of*u<'a 
 
 Hult 
 
 A holt 
 
 iIAv) vKciSwig 
 
 Halm 
 
 ^A quill ^ 
 cA reed * 
 
 x:!:A«(x.vi 
 
 Hand 
 Hoppa 
 
 A hound 
 A mare 
 
 I'TtTTOg 
 
 Halt 
 
 Lame 
 
 KUAXCf %aA05 
 
 Hwal 
 
 Whale 
 
 (paKccivu 
 
 Hampa 
 
 Hemp 
 
 aavvcc^n 
 
 Hycklare 
 
 A flatterer 
 
 aiyix)<0( 
 
 Hand 
 
 Hand 
 
 XeivSavu 
 
 Idia 
 
 Prudence 
 
 eiSeiv 
 
 Hara 
 
 Rock,monnt 
 
 O^Oi 
 
 Idrott 
 
 Skill, art 
 
 iSpix 
 
 
 ( Very ; ^ 
 < Hard in [ 
 ' Wilts 3 
 Hare 
 
 
 11 
 
 A storm 
 
 hXkx 
 
 Hard 
 
 HX^TX 
 
 In 
 
 In 
 
 ev 
 
 Hare 
 
 aufoy Suidas 
 
 Inni j 
 
 To inn, to 
 rest at noon 
 
 tvSiov 
 ivSidca 
 
 Harf 
 
 PI arrow 
 
 K^irui, 
 
 Infoda 
 
 Genero 
 
 ei^(pvTevu 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 

 
 S86 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ingifwa 
 
 ^To en- ? 
 r gage for 3 
 
 lord 
 
 Earth 
 
 Ister 
 
 Fat 
 
 lul 
 
 Yule 
 
 lufwer 
 
 Udder 
 
 Kakla 
 
 Cackle 
 
 Kam 
 
 Comb 
 
 Kammar 
 
 Chamber 
 
 Kaaip 
 
 A plain 
 
 Kappa 
 
 To cut 
 
 Kappsaeck 
 
 A knapsack 
 
 Kara 
 
 To rejoice 
 
 Karing 
 
 Old woman 
 
 Kas 
 
 Far off 
 
 Kaster 
 
 Tin 
 
 Katt 
 
 A cat 
 
 Kajlke 
 
 A dray 
 
 Kaenna 
 
 To ken 
 
 Kffipp 
 
 A staff 
 
 Kafta 
 
 Coif 
 
 Kate 
 
 A cottage 
 
 Kinda 
 
 To kindle 
 
 I (Shfeek: 
 
 SflCC 
 
 ceosp 
 
 uiap ov(pxp 
 ;g(*vi 
 
 x^fxTos ties. 
 
 XS-lpui 
 
 yapxia 
 
 v/.xg 
 
 y.X(7a-iTspog 
 
 K«TV)? Suidas 
 
 eXkw 
 
 Kovmv Hes. 
 
 KX'J'joilix Hes 
 
 nctvSxpcg Jles 
 
 Smdtsh. 
 
 Enrjlish. 
 
 Kinnen 
 
 Chin 
 
 Kista 
 
 Chest 
 
 Klang 
 
 A clang 
 
 Klappa 
 
 I'oclap 
 
 Klaga 
 
 Weeping 
 
 Kleede 
 
 Cloth 
 
 Klibba 
 
 I'o cleave 
 
 Klint 
 
 Oescent 
 
 Klippa 
 
 Cliff 
 
 Klister 
 
 (jlue 
 
 Kljfwa 
 
 Vo cleave 
 
 Knaka 
 
 Fo resound 
 
 Knee 
 
 Knee 
 
 KuEepp 
 
 A sound 
 
 Knaepp 
 
 riie nape 
 
 Knia 
 
 To pluck 
 
 Koia 
 
 A habitation 
 
 Kol 
 
 Fire 
 
 Kollops 
 
 Kollops 
 
 Kon 
 
 Kin 
 
 Konaand^ 
 Kuna 3 
 
 Quean 
 
 Kordel 
 
 Cord 
 
 Kosa 
 
 A cup 
 
 Greek. 
 
 i^Xxiyyvi 
 
 ■KOkxTilj} 
 
 kKxiu 
 
 y.Kw'^a 
 
 yhix 
 
 AXiTOg 
 
 KXi.Tvg nXirrvg 
 
 yxix 
 
 nKxca 
 
 kxvxxi^u 
 
 yow 
 
 AOvx(ii^a 
 
 ■■^XttH 
 
 y.vt^ca 
 
 Oixix 
 
 y.vixeog 
 
 oxojiog 
 jsv9g 
 
 yvvv\ 
 
 XopS^ 
 X00(
 
 287 
 
 *Dn/^*«f. 
 
 En^fiiJft 
 
 GreeD. 
 
 StoedUli. 
 
 Engim. 
 
 Gruk. 
 
 Kost 
 
 Gust 
 
 ysuqc; 
 
 Lagg 
 
 Extremity 
 
 
 Krabba 
 
 Cral; 
 
 •/.ctpx^o? 
 
 
 I leave off 
 
 
 Kraft 
 Kram 
 
 A den 
 Money 
 
 
 Lacjga 
 
 ^l cause to") 
 r lie down ' 
 
 Xsyco 
 
 Kranck 
 
 Sick 
 
 xupxyyvi? Hex 
 
 Lakrits 
 
 [.ifjuorice 
 
 y/.vzuf,i^x 
 
 Kras 
 
 I'ragments 
 
 pv\(T(7ia 
 
 [.alia 
 
 To talk 
 
 XxXta 
 
 Krasir 
 
 Eatables 
 
 ■y^pBlX; 
 
 Lanj 
 
 Lame 
 
 XAXlJ^ft'o^ 
 
 Kratta 
 
 To scratch 
 
 Xapx'Tlai 
 
 Lamm 
 
 Lamb 
 
 x\i.v'bg 
 
 Kroka 
 
 To creek 
 
 xpsnco 
 
 Lauipa 
 
 A torch 
 
 Kx[j.7:xi 
 
 Kropp 
 
 Summit 
 
 ytopv(pi^ 
 
 Lants 
 
 Lance 
 
 Xciyxvi 
 
 Kross 
 
 Border 
 
 y.poj(Tog 
 
 La pp 
 
 A lappet 
 
 Kxt.(pix Hes, 
 
 Krubba 
 
 A crib 
 
 ypx^jiuTOg 
 
 La^])pia 
 
 To lap 
 
 KXTTTU 
 
 Krug 
 
 A cruise 
 
 xpwcrcrof 
 
 : ast 
 
 A burthen 
 
 XsLcov Sllid. 
 
 Krut 
 
 An herb 
 
 %0pT0f 
 
 Lack 
 
 Lack, a leak 
 
 X-x^lg 
 
 Krupa 
 
 To creep 
 
 fp'XCO 
 
 Laka 
 
 I'o heal 
 
 xyito\i.xi 
 
 Kula 
 
 A den 
 
 yaiXeec 
 
 Lana 
 
 To lean 
 
 Kkivaiv 
 
 Kunna 
 
 To ken 
 
 KOi/i/fiv Hes. 
 
 Le 
 
 To laugh 
 
 yex«w x^evx 
 
 Kwinna 
 Kuckling 
 
 A woman 
 Chicken 
 
 
 Lefwa } 
 Leifa 3 
 
 To leave 
 
 XeiTw 
 
 
 c 
 
 hvttxi. Hes. 
 
 J^ast 
 
 Turpitude 
 
 Xxia-^Vj 
 
 Kyffe 
 
 Hovels J 
 
 XI eE, vKvii nut 
 
 Lefwer 
 
 Liver 
 
 ViTrXp 
 
 
 ( 
 
 XopTH oixv^fxaig 
 
 Lejon 
 
 Lion 
 
 \auv 
 
 Kjssa 
 
 ''o kiss 
 
 xV(TXlr 
 
 Lemna 
 
 To leave 
 
 XlfxvXVU 
 
 Lag 
 
 Juavf 
 
 Xoyog 
 
 Lid 
 
 Side 
 
 *A170(
 
 288 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Englith. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Bngluh, 
 
 [Grteh. 
 
 Lid 
 
 The people 
 
 (ion. 'kviiiog 
 
 Magle ") 
 Magt ) 
 
 Might 
 
 flj.eye^og 
 
 Lin 
 
 Linen 
 
 "Kivov 
 
 Maizn 
 
 Greater 
 
 ^ti^WU 
 
 Linna 
 
 To cease 
 
 eKivuOa 
 
 Maists 
 
 Greatest 
 
 fx£y»<705 
 
 Lipa 
 
 To afflict 
 
 Xwzect) 
 
 Mala 
 
 To grind 
 
 f*uAV) 
 
 Litcn 
 
 Little 
 
 ekixTlau 
 
 Male 
 
 Meal 
 
 xi^-vMu 
 
 Lillast 
 
 Least 
 
 £\ce>iiqo; 
 
 Mamma 
 
 Mother 
 
 (*aVl**1 
 
 Li us 
 
 Light 
 
 >^Vx^l 
 
 Mat & Med 
 
 With 
 
 {j^BTX 
 
 Leuclit ? 
 Liecht 3 
 
 Whiteness 
 
 xevKOTi^i 
 
 Mat 
 Markir 
 
 Meat 
 A sword 
 
 fj.xa-xoiJ.xi 
 \j.xxxipx 
 
 Litast 
 
 To see 
 
 Xsvixa-u 
 
 Mar 
 
 A meer 
 
 ft.£ipu 
 
 Locka 
 
 To entice 
 
 KxKiK'o lies. 
 
 Mala 
 
 To mete 
 
 fi£T/)£tV 
 
 Lofft 
 
 Loft 
 
 X6<pot 
 
 Man a 
 
 Moon 
 
 MVV) 
 
 Lbk 
 Lcipa 
 
 Grass 
 
 ^To bark ^ 
 
 ' a tree j 
 
 Xettw 
 
 Meen 
 
 Men 
 
 ^ Necklace^ 
 ' a chain 3 
 But truly 
 
 (j.ev. \i.ViV 
 
 Lbsa 
 
 To loose 
 
 Xutrai 
 
 Men 
 
 Diminution 
 
 (j.ivu5« 
 
 Loya 
 
 I'o wash 
 
 y^ovia 
 
 Mena 
 
 To tiiink 
 
 \j.ivog 
 
 Lunga 
 
 To sob 
 
 Kvyyccvia 
 
 Mena 
 
 To signity 
 
 [j.ViVViil 
 
 Lucka 
 
 Luck 
 
 ^xxoi ^ctyx<xvc!) 
 
 Mjall 
 
 Soft 
 
 [J.X?J}Q 
 
 Ly 
 
 Tepid 
 
 Mxpo; 
 
 Meth 
 
 With 
 
 \j.k7X 
 
 Ljsna 
 
 To see 
 
 \evj(Tiiu 
 
 Minst 
 
 Little 
 
 \j.i'jvo; 
 
 Maan 
 
 Bracelet 
 
 ^ctvvo'; 
 
 Mig&Mey 
 
 To me 
 
 u.q\ 
 
 Mage 
 
 A maw 
 
 qo[i.xxoi 
 
 Miga 
 
 To piss 
 
 l[i.lX^M
 
 289 
 
 Saedish, 
 
 Mikel 
 
 Mild 
 
 Minne 
 Mizdo 
 Minga 
 Miska 
 
 Mjolk 
 
 Mjolka 
 
 Mod 
 
 Moda 
 
 Moder 
 
 Moka 
 
 Mblla 
 
 Moo 
 
 Mord 
 Mork & ^ 
 Maurk S 
 Mosa 
 Mun and) 
 Mon S 
 
 Multen 
 
 \'0L. II. 
 
 English, 
 
 Great 
 
 Mild 
 
 Memory 
 Reward 
 
 To 
 
 mix 
 
 Milk 
 
 To soothe 
 
 Weary 
 
 Vo care for 
 
 .VlothtT 
 
 Muck 
 
 Vo grind 
 CA maid i 
 ( servant . 
 Death 
 
 Dark 
 
 Mucus 
 
 A moment 
 
 Putrid 
 
 Greek. 
 
 [u£i.xixog 
 lj.vccoij.cii, 
 
 ^ ij.tXy.x Galen 
 
 ij-ySog 
 
 lJ.)^TVip 
 [j.\J(T!jOi1 
 
 c(\j.ctvpoia 
 
 \J.V^X 
 
 \j.ovxg 
 (AeX5« Hes. 
 
 Sweiith. 
 
 Mus 
 
 Mykest 
 Mamn 
 N^arr 
 Naas 
 N^eessla 
 Nseste 
 Naett 
 Ned 
 Nesa 
 Nicka 
 Nio & Nie 
 Niosa & 
 Nosa 
 Nocka 
 Nun & Nu 
 Oiidel 
 Of 
 Ok 
 OIja 
 Op 
 Ore 
 Ort 
 Orn 
 s 
 
 ! 
 
 English. 
 
 A mouse 
 
 Greatest 
 
 Name 
 
 A fool 
 
 Island 
 
 Nettle 
 
 Nest 
 
 Neat 
 
 Nether 
 
 Reproach 
 
 To nod 
 
 Nine 
 
 To know 
 
 A fleece 
 
 Now 
 
 Ever clear 
 
 Very much 
 
 A yoke 
 
 Oil 
 
 A whooping 
 
 A rock 
 
 Borders 
 
 A bird 
 
 Greek. 
 
 ij.vg 
 
 lj.eyiqOg 
 
 ovoij-a 
 
 v«pv) 
 
 Hes. 
 
 uyiijog 
 
 VcOa-jix 
 viTrJco 
 
 VFAO^l 
 
 viveunx 
 
 ivvEx 
 
 evo-^Tx 
 
 VXMi 
 
 vvv 
 
 xEiSaXog 
 
 l(pi Hesi/ck 
 
 ^vyov 
 
 iXxiov 
 
 OTTii Hesyck 
 
 opvt 
 
 OpOf 
 
 opvii
 
 290 
 
 Suiedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Os 
 
 Odor 
 
 h^ai 
 
 Raiiila 
 
 To ramble 
 
 ptfj-jiuJ 
 
 Ostra 
 
 Oyster 
 
 oqp£iOu 
 
 Rapp 
 
 To rap 
 
 
 Ofwer 
 
 Over 
 
 
 Rapper 
 
 Rapier 
 
 pxij.(py] Hes. 
 
 Oga 
 
 Eye 
 
 cixxof Hes. 
 
 Kaska 
 
 To destroy 
 
 t / 
 
 pajdci} 
 
 Ora 
 
 Eagle 
 
 opvi? 
 
 iiaedas 
 
 Dread 
 
 o/puheco 
 
 Osa and ^ 
 
 To draw ") 
 
 
 Raede 
 
 Speech 
 
 pnng 
 
 A fosa 3 
 Ouden & ^ 
 Ode - S 
 Packa 
 
 water j 
 No one 
 To pack 
 
 a^uxtrw 3 
 ouBev 
 
 Raeka 
 
 Roof 
 
 (To be ; 
 niealtl.y S 
 
 ^ff.t(pca.opo(pog 
 Land 'pvi7:at 
 
 'fjxl'of, 
 
 Pat & Pfad 
 
 Path 
 
 TTx^og 
 
 ''rgna 
 
 'I'o rain 
 
 t / 
 puivco 
 
 Pate 
 
 Rumor 
 
 (ptXTli 
 
 Uenna 
 
 To run 
 
 ^esiv 
 
 Pil 
 
 A dart 
 
 liiXog 
 
 Rep 
 
 A rope 
 
 ' ^ 1 
 
 Pina 
 
 Punishment 
 
 TOiVVJ 
 
 Rppa 
 
 To reap 
 
 <5p£T« 
 
 Piatt 
 
 Wide 
 
 ■TiXxrvf 
 
 Reta 
 
 1 o nrilate 
 
 l/t'^la 
 
 Plffitt 
 
 A stroke 
 
 -KX^nIcO 
 
 Rock 
 
 A rag 
 
 p a.y.og 
 
 Puse 
 
 A purse 
 
 livpjx 
 
 Has 
 
 A rose 
 
 poSov 
 
 Potta 
 
 A cup 
 
 -rrOT^piov 
 
 Rot 
 
 Root 
 
 pi^x 
 
 Pol 
 
 A lake 
 
 ttViAo? 
 
 Rod 
 
 Red 
 
 epv^pO( 
 
 Plata 
 
 To speak 
 
 (pp«'?a, 
 
 Roina 
 
 'I'o try 
 
 epevvxii) 
 
 Putten 
 Pvackla 
 
 The bottom 
 To enict 
 
 Iptvyeiv 
 
 Rost 
 
 Bold 
 
 \p avuvfui 
 CpQic:iy.o^[Ies. 
 
 Rtida 
 
 \n oration 
 
 
 i\oste 
 
 Roof, roost 
 
 opo(poi 
 
 Ragata 
 
 A racket 
 
 li^xryo^ 
 
 Rufwa 
 
 To brood 
 
 £pC<pa>
 
 291 
 
 SiBedish. 
 
 English, 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Suiedifh, 
 
 English , 
 
 Chreek. 
 
 Rugg 
 
 The back 
 
 pxx^i 
 
 Sex 
 
 Six 
 
 e^ 
 
 Rjkta 
 
 yro take 
 'care of 
 
 iwpXHLXV 
 
 cEustath 
 
 Sikel 
 Siuk 
 
 Sickle 
 Sick 
 
 riyixog 
 
 Rjnkia 
 
 Wrinkles 
 
 p iXl/Of 
 
 Simla 
 
 Flour 
 
 Tefj.iSxKii 
 
 Rysa 
 
 To tremble 
 
 (Ppia-Tiii 
 
 Sind 
 
 [Jurt 
 
 nvo\/.xi 
 
 Sam 
 
 ^As a ter-^ 
 'mi nation ^ 
 
 0[t.OlOQ 
 
 Sinna 
 
 (To un- -^ 
 'derstand 3 
 
 TVVUVXt, 
 
 Sam 
 
 As a prefix 
 
 
 Sire 
 Skackt 
 
 Sir 
 A well 
 
 avpis 
 
 T'^X-TtTlji 
 
 San & Sin 
 Saker 
 
 Thy 
 Secure 
 
 ffOV 
 
 Skaffa 
 
 I^To shape^ 
 c prepare S 
 
 Ty.evx^iO. 
 
 Saerk 
 Sate 
 
 {A silk ; 
 
 'garment 3 
 Seat 
 
 
 Skaft 
 Skaft 
 
 A haft 
 A spear 
 
 ' <7Ka:7r7oi/ Doric 
 
 Saetta 
 
 To sit 
 
 i(^eii/ 
 
 Skallig 
 
 Dry 
 
 cn<eX}.cti 
 
 Saar 
 
 The itch 
 
 ■^'CC^X 
 
 Skare 
 
 A scar 
 
 hyj^x 
 
 Saga 
 Sail 
 
 ^To saw 
 cTo cut 
 A sieve 
 
 jxyxqii 
 ixXsvn 
 
 Skarp 
 Skappa 
 
 Dry 
 
 A hollow } 
 vessel J 
 
 tryx^O; ) 
 
 and a-yJ^i^ 3 
 
 Se 
 Se 
 
 To see 
 To sit 
 
 T£XO\j.XI, 
 
 Skara 
 
 o cut 
 
 hies. 
 
 Sed 
 
 A custom 
 
 e^og 
 
 Skal 
 
 A scale 
 
 ryoiUg Hes. 
 
 Sedan 
 
 After 
 
 V 
 
 nix 
 
 Skeel 
 
 ['ortuose 
 
 nKo/uog 
 
 Sela 
 
 Bridle 
 
 ■^^iXKlOV 
 
 

 
 292 
 
 Sk befo 
 
 re E and I 
 
 is Sch. 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Englinh. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Sno 
 
 Snow 
 
 vi.(pa 
 
 Skeppa 
 
 To cover 
 
 rUfzo) 
 
 Sniire 
 
 A rope 
 
 vevpou 
 
 Skid 
 
 Cleft wood 
 
 r^r^a; 
 
 Snoter 
 
 A wicC man 
 
 (j-vve Tog 
 
 Skinn 
 
 Skin 
 
 
 
 
 / o.vK%oc Hes. 
 
 Skirta 
 
 To run 
 
 'yy.xipcio u-'/iLpjza 
 
 Socka 
 
 Socks 
 
 Skbfvve 
 
 A covering 
 
 (T'/^e-TTca 
 
 , 
 
 
 Skcir 
 
 Filth 
 
 (rH.wp 
 
 Some 
 
 A seam 
 
 (7CC'y{j.oc 
 
 Skora 
 
 To fracture 
 
 o-yiipog 
 
 So pa 
 
 To sweep 
 
 a-ojiica 
 
 Skria 
 
 To scream 
 
 'Api^aiv 
 
 Sompn 
 
 Sleep 
 
 UTTVO? 
 
 Skrifwa 
 
 To write 
 
 ypx^eiv 
 
 Sot 
 
 Sweet 
 
 VJ^Of 
 
 Skudda / 
 & Skeda S 
 
 To scatter 
 
 KsSact} 
 
 Spada 
 Span a 
 
 A spade 
 To drag 
 
 
 Slicka 
 
 To lick 
 
 Kel%a 
 
 Sparka 
 
 To vibrate 
 
 a-^xipw 
 
 Slem 
 
 Slime 
 
 'kv\i.x 
 
 Sparka 
 
 To urge 
 
 a-TStpx^ 
 
 Slif 
 
 Sleave 
 
 \cu(poq 
 
 Spisa 
 
 To expand 
 
 a-TSi^ai 
 
 Sluta 
 
 Shut 
 
 nXeio) 
 
 Split 
 
 Split 
 
 a-TSxXv(T(TO[^xi 
 
 Smaelta 
 
 To melt 
 
 fji-fcASo! 
 
 Spott 
 
 To spit 
 
 TTTUEtV 
 
 Smaerta 
 
 To smart 
 
 [j-ipho: Ilea. 
 
 Sta 
 
 A town 
 
 xi;v 
 
 Sma 
 
 Small 
 
 lj.£lOCi3 
 
 Stadig 
 
 Firm 
 
 qxSlOg 
 
 Smeka 
 
 To stroke 
 
 <j\J~kM 
 
 Staf 
 
 A stump 
 
 qVirOi 
 
 Smila 
 
 Vo smile 
 
 [ui'ikiy^oi; 
 
 Siafvva 
 
 To gird 
 
 qe<^M 
 
 Sinorja 
 
 I'o smear 
 
 lj.VpHV 
 
 Stall 
 
 A stable 
 
 qxKvi Hesi/ch 
 
 S my oka j 
 
 To cleanse 
 to adorn 
 
 
 Stalla 
 Stiilla 
 
 I'o state 
 To adorn 
 
 TiKcg 
 qnKKu
 
 29S 
 
 Svoidiih. 
 
 Stampa 
 Stiimma 
 
 Stain 
 
 ma 
 
 Slanka 
 
 To groan 
 
 Stania 
 
 To groan 
 
 Stanna 
 
 To stand 
 
 Stapel 
 
 A heap 
 
 Starr 
 
 Rigid 
 
 Sta 
 
 To stand 
 
 Sticka 
 
 To stick 
 
 Stjelk 
 
 A stalk 
 
 Stiga 
 
 To o;0 
 
 Stinga 
 
 To sting 
 
 Stinn 
 
 Robust 
 
 Stock 
 
 A beam 
 
 Stodel 
 
 A pillar 
 
 Stol 
 
 ^An expe- 
 c dition 
 
 Stoppa 
 
 ^To stop, 
 ? stuff 
 
 Storm 
 
 Storm 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 
 Greek. 
 
 q£i(lcii 
 
 ■tfjLf*a: 
 
 Iqxixsvog 
 
 qtvca 
 iqoi-^xi 
 
 ceppog 
 
 qacco Inusif. 
 
 qeXtxoi 
 
 qi^ca 
 
 qvkog. qy^Xvi 
 qoKog 
 
 qsijicc 
 
 Sutedish. 
 
 Strong 
 
 Stroa 
 
 Strom 
 
 Stubbe 
 
 Stum 
 
 Stympa 
 
 Stufwa 
 
 Stum 
 
 Stupa 
 
 Styf 
 
 Styfr 
 
 Stugg 
 
 Styre 
 
 Swalg 
 
 Suaelja 
 
 Sy 
 
 Tak 
 
 Tack a 
 T'ticke 
 Taga 
 Tffinja 
 Tffira 
 Thius 
 t 
 
 EnglMt. 
 
 ^Strin 
 
 
 Strong 
 
 h 
 
 Vo strew 
 A torrent 
 Stem, stump 
 A residue 
 To mutilate 
 To amputate 
 Dumb 
 To scourge 
 Stiff 
 
 Finn, iigid 
 Odious 
 Barren 
 The throat^ 
 To swallow J 
 To sew 
 The roof 
 To roof 
 Hcpository 
 To touch 
 To extend 
 To tear 
 God 
 
 Greek. 
 
 qpa'Y'yevo! 
 
 qoptci}. qpuwvca 
 qi^o^^og 
 
 jqvTTyi lies. 
 qvzOf Apol. 
 
 I 
 
 xqo[j.cg 
 qvKxX^iVj Hcs. 
 
 S-EipX 
 
 cr(pxpx'YOg 
 
 &HXV1 
 TTfJVftV 
 
 ^£og
 
 294 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 English , 
 
 Oreeh. 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Tekna 
 
 Tiga 
 
 To shew 
 To be silent 
 
 
 Twinga j 
 
 To restraint 
 To pinch 3 
 
 <7(piyyu 
 
 Tijo 
 
 [ am silent 
 
 (TLyXCO 
 
 Tycka 
 
 To think 
 
 Soasiv 
 
 Tisse 
 
 A teat 
 
 TiT^V] 
 
 mi 
 
 Wool 
 
 LOvXog 
 
 Tolciiin 
 To'ras 
 
 Such 
 To dare 
 
 
 Wada 
 
 Togo 
 
 (.'KXTU 
 
 lag far 
 
 I dare 
 
 S^ppo; 
 
 Wagel 
 
 A staff 
 
 ^xhKq'^ 
 
 Trampa 
 Tra 
 
 To trample 
 ^A tree, ") 
 c the oak 3 
 
 
 Wagn 
 Ward a 
 
 ^ A waggon^ 
 'a chariot 5 
 To be made 
 
 x<yxwx Hes. 
 e'p^eiv 
 
 Tridie 
 
 The third 
 
 TpiTH 
 
 Wigra 
 
 To restrain 
 
 eipyca 
 
 Trifwas 
 
 Thrive 
 
 TpfCpW 
 
 Wilja 
 
 To will 
 
 ^ovXoij.xi 
 
 Throsha 
 
 To thresh 
 
 ^pxvu 
 
 Waxa 
 
 To increase 
 
 xv^eiv xa^tiv 
 
 Tr^cka 
 
 To vex 
 
 Tf,V%ilV 
 
 War 
 
 Spring 
 
 ■>/ 
 exq 
 
 Truma 
 
 A hole 
 
 TpvTia, Tpvy-oi 
 
 Wat 
 
 Wet 
 
 vSaq veTOi 
 
 Tull 
 
 Toll 
 
 TtKeiv 
 
 We 
 
 Woe 
 
 OVXl 
 
 Tuchta 
 
 To bring forth 
 
 TiKTO) 
 
 Wei 
 
 A wile 
 
 (pvjAfCt; 
 
 Tulla 
 
 To involve 
 
 evruXiTlci} 
 
 Weta 
 
 To wit 
 
 eiSaiv 
 
 iunn 
 
 Thin 
 
 Tvvuof Hes. 
 
 Wika 
 
 Like 
 
 i'lueiv 
 
 1 urna 
 
 To turn 
 
 TOpVOCO 
 
 Win 
 
 Wine 
 
 oii/og 
 
 Tutir 
 
 Daughter 
 
 '^VJXTViP 
 
 Winkel 
 
 Crooked 
 
 ayy.vKoi 
 
 Twa & Toa 
 
 Two 
 
 Bvco. Suo 
 
 NVira 
 
 To whirl 
 
 yv^^v 
 
 Twina & ^ 
 Tymi ^ 
 
 To dwindle 
 
 (p^tvw 
 
 vVisa 
 VVrak 
 
 A song 
 A fissure 
 
 XOU. XSCO
 
 295 
 
 Swedish, 
 
 Yfer 
 Yfrit 
 Yppe 
 
 EnglSth. 
 
 Over 
 Intensitive 
 
 particle 
 Open 
 
 Greek, 
 
 
 H(pi 
 
 O'TTyi 
 
 Swedish, 
 
 Entjlinh. 
 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Yrka 
 
 To work 
 
 
 t^yxi^ea-^cci 
 
 Yxa 
 
 An ax 
 
 
 xiivvi 
 
 Yttersta 
 
 Extreme 
 
 
 GfCfa 
 
 N.B. 670 
 
 words. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN MiESO-GOTHIC AND GREEK. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek, 
 
 Gothic, 
 
 English, 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Abu and A\ 
 
 from 
 
 XTIO 
 
 Bairan 
 
 To bear 
 
 Cpff£iV 
 
 Aftnja 
 Aflifnan 
 
 Po devour 
 I'o remain 
 
 
 Bairgan 
 Baurg 
 
 To guard ") 
 A fortress 3 
 
 XUif/05 
 
 Ahma 
 
 Breath 
 
 iZVJJj.^ 
 
 Bairht 
 
 Bright 
 
 (i^t^mrxv Hes 
 
 Ahtau 
 
 !^.ight 
 
 OXT« 
 
 Bidian 
 
 To ask 
 
 Tfj&fiv 
 
 Aigan 
 
 To liave 
 
 f%ftv 
 
 Bi 
 
 By, against 
 
 Sir I 
 
 Alja 
 
 But 
 
 aKXct 
 
 Bistagun 
 
 Ascended 
 
 rfi%c<.' 
 
 All & Alia i 
 
 Vll 
 
 okoi 
 
 Bloma 
 
 Bloom 
 
 /3Auw 
 
 Allis 
 
 Vltogether 
 
 oXwg 
 
 Brinnan 
 
 To burn 
 
 TTuqosi:/ 
 
 Aleva 
 
 )il 
 
 IXXLX 
 
 Briggan 
 
 To bring 
 
 (pff£ii/ 
 
 Allcina 
 Ams 
 
 Ulna 
 Slioulder 
 
 WfvoOf 
 
 Daddna 
 Daddjandei 
 
 A teat ) 
 A nurse J 
 
 T1T&V1 
 
 Augo 
 
 Eye 
 
 ctv>y^ Hes, 
 
 Dags 
 
 .\ day 
 
 hxoi 
 
 Auso 
 
 Kar 
 
 ovg 
 
 Dailj >n 
 
 To deal 
 
 hliXt'Cv 
 
 ' Aukan 
 
 To eke 
 
 xv^eiv 
 
 Daulitar 
 
 A daughter 
 
 ^f^iXTVip
 
 296 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 English. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Engiish. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Daurstan 
 Ei 
 
 To dare 
 [f 
 
 SI 
 
 Gathrask 
 
 ^Threshing/ 
 L floor 5 
 
 i^avci) 
 
 Etan 
 
 To eat 
 
 aBsiv 
 
 Galisan 
 
 To collect 
 
 Keyeiv Ke^ 
 
 Fad rein 
 
 Fathers 
 
 TlXT^ip 
 
 Gains 
 
 He 
 
 ansivog 
 
 Fagr 
 
 Fair 
 
 (piapo; 
 
 C;ods 
 
 Good 
 
 xyx^oi; 
 
 Fahan 
 
 To take 
 
 -TTaco 
 
 Graban 
 
 To di^ 
 
 'ypx(pcij 
 
 Fairra 
 
 Far 
 
 TlOppU 
 
 Gras 
 
 Grass 
 
 ypxqiQ 
 
 Fairzna 
 Fa ran 
 
 I'lie heel 
 To go 
 
 crCpvpov 
 Tropevoij-zi 
 
 Gredags 
 
 Wlungry ? 
 c Greedy S 
 
 j^xa 
 
 Fauai 
 Faurhtan 
 
 Few 
 
 To fear 
 
 (ppLTlco 
 
 Gahailjan 
 Hails 
 
 To heal J 
 Hail S 
 
 ovXo; 
 
 Fidvor 
 
 Four 
 
 'KBTOpCC. 
 
 Ha us j an 
 
 To hear 
 
 OUf 
 
 Fimf 
 
 Five 
 
 'Tl£[>.ira 
 
 Hlahjan 
 
 To laugh 
 
 yeKsLu 
 
 Fodan 
 
 To feed 
 
 /3oT£iv Hes. 
 
 Hlaine 
 
 A hill 
 
 V.O\u!VVi 
 
 Fon 
 
 Fire 
 
 (pai/cj 
 
 Hliftus 
 
 A thief 
 
 xAgT^^f 
 
 Fotus 
 
 Foot 
 
 -Tio^og 
 
 HIiumans 
 
 The ears 
 
 jtAupti 
 
 Frodein 
 Fret an 
 
 Prudence 
 To eat 
 
 Tipoeideiv 
 
 Hnaivjan 
 
 ^To bow } 
 ( down S 
 
 ■navw 
 
 Gadaursta 
 
 Durst 
 
 ^xppia 
 
 Hramjan 
 
 To suspend 
 
 upsiiXiiv 
 
 Gadailjan 
 Gadiupida 
 
 l^o divide 
 Dig deep 
 
 
 Hrugga \ 
 
 A shepherd's 
 crook 
 
 rKxpvKio-y 
 
 Ganatida 
 
 Watered 
 
 VOTLX VOTig 
 
 Hiiikida 
 
 Crowing 
 
 xpaL'7 v] 
 
 Gahrainjan 
 
 To rinse 
 
 puiv(a 
 
 Hrains 
 
 Pure 
 
 pxivu 
 
 Gathiutiijan 
 
 i'o bless 
 
 v£Or 
 
 Huaian 
 
 To meditate 
 
 V]<ycvij.xi
 
 297 
 
 Golhic. 
 
 EnglUh. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Englith. 
 
 Gretk. 
 
 Hundos 
 
 Flounds 
 
 avveg 
 
 Menoth 
 
 Month 
 
 Mvoi 
 
 Ik 
 
 I 
 
 eyoi 
 
 Mikil 
 
 Much, great 
 
 Ij.eytx).'/! 
 
 Im 
 
 I am 
 
 
 Maists 
 
 Greater 
 
 u.£y^qo{ 
 
 In 
 
 In 
 
 SV 
 
 Maistaim 
 
 The great 
 
 h^ytqoi 
 
 Innatgaggan 
 
 To enter 
 
 evTOg msiv 
 
 Minnista 
 
 Least 
 
 f^ivvog 
 
 Inuh 
 
 Without 
 
 UViV 
 
 Milith 
 
 Money 
 
 iJLtXiTOg 
 
 Juka 
 
 Yoke 
 
 ^vycv 
 
 Mis 
 
 To me 
 
 
 Kald 
 
 Cold 
 
 xtfXXv) 
 
 Mith & Mid 
 
 With 
 
 jueT^ 
 
 Kaupoth 
 
 To buy & sell 
 
 nccvi^kevai 
 
 Mizdo 
 
 Meed 
 
 l^ij^og 
 
 Kausjan 
 
 To taste 
 
 ysvej^ai 
 
 Nahts 
 
 Night 
 
 ^u^. uvuTOt 
 
 Kukjan 
 
 Vo kiss 
 
 nvo. asyivnx 
 
 Namo 
 
 Name 
 
 h)/0(j.x 
 
 Kunnao 
 
 To know 
 
 yivoijau) 
 
 Ne, ni 
 
 No 
 
 
 Kuenais 
 
 Of the wife 
 
 yvvccmog 
 
 Niujo 
 
 N^ew 
 
 veO( 
 
 Laggan 
 
 ^To send, ^ 
 c place 5 
 
 ktytiv 
 
 Niun 
 Nu 
 
 Nine 
 Now 
 
 evuaa 
 
 Leigvan 
 
 To lick 
 
 Ktixeiv 
 
 Quairn 
 
 A quern 
 
 yupoeiv 
 
 Lifnan 
 
 Vo leave 
 
 Xainiiv 
 
 Qiiein 
 
 A woman 
 
 yvvv\ 
 
 Ligan 
 
 Fo lie down 
 
 \eyny 
 
 Rakjan 
 
 To stretch 
 
 opeyeiv 
 
 Lukarn 
 
 A lantern 
 
 \uy.>^ 
 
 Rathizo 
 
 Easily 
 
 pxSiOi 
 
 Malan 
 
 To grind 
 
 fxuAvi 
 
 flazda 
 
 A speech 
 
 f)tCt). p\^7l>i 
 
 Matjaith 
 
 Eat ye 
 
 thi.Ti. 
 
 ■^ai 
 
 See / 
 
 
 Mats 
 
 Meat 
 
 tSaiv 
 
 Saihva 
 
 I see S 
 
 ^iao\i.at 
 
 Mfiins 
 
 Meus 
 
 
 Sakk 
 
 A sack 
 
 Txunog 
 
 Mena 
 
 Moon 
 
 M- 11 VII 
 
 Saihs 
 
 Six 
 
 li 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 

 
 298 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Safjan 
 Sitan 
 
 Skadau 
 
 Skaidan 
 
 Slahan 
 
 Sokja 
 
 Spureidans 
 
 Staig 
 
 Steigan 
 
 Stibna 
 
 Stika 
 
 Stiur 
 Stravan 
 Tagr 
 Taikn 
 
 Talziand 
 
 Bnglith. I 
 
 To set 
 
 To sit 
 A shade, / 
 Shadow 5 
 
 To separate 
 
 To smite 
 
 To seek 
 
 Basket 
 
 He went * 
 
 Togo ^ 
 
 The voice 
 A moment 
 A point 
 
 A steer 
 
 To strew 
 
 A tear 
 
 A token 
 A tutor ^ 
 Preceptor 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Englith. 
 
 Grttk. 
 
 iSog. iV 
 
 i'anjan 
 
 fo do 
 
 7i\J%tiV 
 
 c(OiJ.Xl 
 
 Pan h an 
 
 To towe 
 
 Joa^fjv 
 
 
 Tundu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 TfV&« 
 
 jyiiaStov 
 
 Tvai 
 
 Two 
 
 3uw 
 
 
 Thairs 
 Thairh 
 
 A foreman"^ 
 Through * 
 
 3y/i« 
 
 (xwvpig 
 
 Thaursjan 
 Thaursus 
 
 To thirst ) 
 Dry > 
 
 &fpe« 
 
 
 Thrins 
 
 Three 
 
 Tpitg 
 
 qeiXa 
 
 Tekan 
 
 To touch 
 
 Siytiv 
 
 qo\^x 
 
 Valjan 
 
 VVfll 
 
 (SsXof^art 
 
 i 
 
 Ubu & Uf 
 
 Under 
 
 u-xo 
 
 rT'Vl** 
 
 Ufar 
 
 Over 
 
 r V 
 VTttp 
 
 Tccvpog 
 
 Vigan 
 
 To fight 
 
 7rWKT£U£»V 
 
 qpuvvvu 
 
 Uil 
 
 The sun 
 
 fjXiOf 
 
 (5axpi;[*a 
 
 Vitan 
 
 To wit 
 
 iiSti 
 
 hainvv\j.i 
 
 Vrakja 
 
 
 pwXM? 
 
 
 Wahsjan 
 
 To increase 
 
 XV^iLV 
 
 ivTeXKeiv 
 
 
 
 
 Thci double G, which marks affinity between Danish and Greek, is 
 equally found in the Gospels of Ulphilas. Thus we have briggan, bring; 
 driggkan, drink; gaggan, gang; kuggrian, hunger; lagga, long; thaggkian^ 
 think; tuggo, tongue.
 
 299 
 
 Had Lord Monboddo paid attention to the Gothic of Ulphilas; he 
 would not have been misled by " his learned friend, who, in all the 
 four gospels could not find one word derived from either Greek or Latin." 
 {v. Monboddo, Vol. 4. p. l72 ) 
 
 How much is it to be lamented, that a person of such superior talents, 
 extensive knowledge, and commanding influence, should, without ex- 
 amination, have reported this opinion of his friend ! His lordship had 
 to prove, that Creek is perfectly an original tongue, not derived from a 
 preceding language. In confirmation of this doctrine, he brought forward 
 a declaration of his friend, respecting the Gothic of Ulphilas as not de- 
 rived from Greek. 
 
 By the vocabulary, here produced, it is rendered clear, that they are 
 nearly related. But if neither is derived from the other; if they do not 
 stand in the relation of parent and offspring; they must be descended from 
 some common ancestor, and Greek cannot be, what his lordship affirms 
 it to be, an original language invented by Sages, inhabitants in Greece. 
 
 No good linguist will call in question, either the close affinity between 
 Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Greek, or the radical identity of all 
 these northern languages and the Gothic of Ulphilas. Consequently 
 whatever affinity is proved to exist between the former and the Greek, 
 must be allowed equally to exist between the latter and the Greek. 
 
 In the progress of my work I shall demonstrate, that no Sages ever 
 prevailed upon the inhabitants of Greece, or of any other country to dis- 
 use the language, which from their youth they had been taught, and to 
 learn a new language invented for them by philosophers. 
 
 u u 2
 
 THE 
 
 FEESIAW JLANGUAGE, 
 
 i ERSIA, including Media, and Chorasan, situated in the intermediatt 
 space between India, Arabia, and Tartary, has for its limits, the rivers 
 Jihon, and Euphrates, the Caspian and the Persian Gulf or Indian Ocean. 
 
 "What languages prevailed through this extent of country in the days 
 of Chedorlaomer, or in succeeding generations prior to the Sassanian 
 dynasty, which subsisted from the commencement of the third century 
 to the middle of the seventh, does not appear. But it is agreed, that 
 during this period the Persian had no fewer than seven dialects, of which 
 four have become obsolete. Of these, numerous expressions have been 
 preserved in the fragments of Sadi, a celebrated poet, who wrote in the 
 thirteenth century. Three dialects survive, and with them the learned are 
 acquainted. 
 
 Of these the most ancient is the Pelavi, or, as the natives pronounce 
 this word, P^hellavi. It has been preserved pure upon the mountains, 
 and in the most revered of their religious books; and it is commonly
 
 301 
 
 spoken at Ry, Ispahan and Dinoor. Hyde, in the 35th chapter of his in- 
 estimable work, informs us, that in the fifth century, tiie Pelavi dialect 
 was proscribed by Behrdm Ghfir, who in its place established the pure 
 dialect of Media, as the language of his court; and this, by Sir W. Jones, 
 has been considered as related to the Chaldee. In the progress of my 
 work, it will be my endeavour to demonstrate, that his opinion is well 
 founded. 
 
 The Parsi, which was the idiom of Istakhar and of Farsistan, or Persia 
 proper, is divided into the Zebani Deri, or language of the court, as 
 refined by Behrdm Gh<lr, and the Zebani Farsi, or general language of 
 the country. These, since the battle of Cadessia, A. D. 656, have been 
 exceedingly corrupted by Arabic. 
 
 The Deri is chiefly spoken by the people of Meroo, Shahijan, Buckhara, 
 and Badakhsham, and according to Hyde, by the inhabitants of Elymais, 
 Media, Parthia, and Chorasan. My valuable acquaintance. Dr. James 
 Ross, has been so obliging as to indulge me with extracts from the intro- 
 duction to the best, as well as the most ancient dictionary now subsisting 
 of the pure Persian language, a work undertaken A. D. 1608, by 
 Jemal-ud-deen Husain Anjoo, at the command of the great Mogul Em- 
 peror Acbar, and the produce of more than thirty years close application. 
 It was collected from forty-four dictionaries, then well known, and nine 
 others, wliose authors were unknown, beside histories, commentaries, the 
 book of the Zjend, Pazjend, and many other ancient works. This la- 
 borious philologist, when he had finished his dictionary, dedicated it to 
 the son of Acbar, in the year 1C3.9. This inestimable work, iJoctor Ross 
 is now translating for the press.
 
 302 
 
 The pure language has been well preserved by Ferdusi, the epic poet, 
 who is called the Homer of Persia ; but Sadi, who wrote in the thirteenth 
 century, admitted without scruple, numerous expressions from the Arabic. 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 THE present alphabet is adopted from the Arabic. It has been con- 
 sidered as composed of thirty-two letters, all consonants; but eight of 
 these are never found in words purely Persian. Of the twenty-four 
 genuine letters, eight are modifications of others; consequently the 
 original characters were sixteen. 
 
 Of these, alif, wa, ya, are called long vowels; but to produce a sound, 
 each requires a vowel point, and each, like our vowels, may have a de- 
 terminate variety of sounds. Thus for instance, alif has given to it the 
 sound of a in ale, of a in fall, of ee in eel, of i in begin, of i in idle, of 
 in open, of oo in poor, of ow in cow, and of u in under. JVa, commonly 
 sounded like o in stole, has eight distinct sounds. 
 
 Ya, most frequently pronounced as i in sin, as ie in liege, ea in ease, 
 ei in conceive, or ee in feed, has seven distinct sounds. All these however 
 are not abandoned to caprice, but determined by fixed rules. The short 
 vowels have an obscure sound of i, o, or u in bird, mother, sun; as foi^' 
 instance, bd is pronounced bud. Of the short vowels, two appear above 
 the consonant and one below it, the latter being a small stroke straight 
 and inclined. Of the two others, one is similar to this, the other re- 
 sembles wa. All the vowels may be considered as interchangeable.
 
 ' 303 
 
 Change of Cojisonants. 
 
 THE Persian, like other languages, readily assumes one letter for 
 another of the same organ. Thus it changes 
 
 In the first Series. 
 B into M: ghurb, ghurm, the west. — B into W: buzung, wozurg, great. 
 P into F: parsi, farsi, Persians. 
 FintoV: fam, voam, aspect. 
 
 VintoF: yavah, yafah, jests. — V into B: novishtah, nobishtah, 
 written. 
 
 In the second series. 
 
 K into KH: shamakchah, shamakhchah, pitch. — K into Gh: kuloolah, 
 ghuloolah, clew, 
 
 KH into H: khecher, hecher, voracious. — KH into GH: sateekh, 
 sateegh, spear. 
 
 GH intoG: legham, legatn, riddle. 
 
 H into J : maah, maj, moon. — H into KH ; hyiz, khyiz, hermaphrodite. 
 
 I into K : akhshii, akhsheek. 
 
 In the Third Series. 
 
 T into D: dustas, dusdas, a mill. 
 
 D into T : guftund, guftunt, they said. — D into Z : audur, auzur, uncle. 
 
 Z into J : poozesh, poojeesh, apology. — Z into GH: gereez, gereegh, 
 height. 
 
 J into Z : rejah, rezah, series. — J into Z H : kej, kezh, curved.— 
 J into T: taraj, tarat, plunder.
 
 304 
 
 Iti the Fourth Series. 
 R into L: soor, sool, rampart. — L into R: zuloo, zuroo, leech. 
 N. B. One character ancientlj? served for both these letters. 
 
 Li the Fifth Series. 
 
 S into SH: mayoos, mayoosh, hopeless. — S into CH: kheroos, 
 kherooch, dunghill cock. — S into H: amas, amaah, tumour. 
 
 SH into S: sharek, sarek, niglitingale. — CH into SH : kach, kash, 
 would to God. 
 
 In the Sixth Series. 
 N into M : ban, bam, cieling. 
 
 The Numerals. 
 Yec, du, seh, chehar, penge, shesh, heft, hesht, nu, deh : yazdeh, 
 duaz deh, &c. 
 
 The Nouns. 
 
 Nouns substantive are said to have but one variation of case. Thus 
 puser, a child, in the dative and accusative has pusera. But they have 
 a genetive case of peculiar structure, as puscri an, his son, 'J'he plural 
 is formed by adding an or ha to the singular. Thus gurk, a wolf, makes 
 gurkan, wolves; bal, awing; balha, wings. 
 
 The noun adjective admits of no variation. 
 
 Degrees of comparison are marked by ter and terin ; as khnh fair, 
 khubter fairer, khubterin fairest. The English Man, after a comparative, 
 is expressed by az.
 
 305 
 
 The Pronouns. 
 
 Mun, to, ; ma, shuma, ishan — I, thou, he ; wc, ye, they. 
 
 Mora me, tiira thou, ora him, mara us. 
 
 The pronoun adjuncts are six, sh, t, m ; nd, id, iin. These are sub- 
 joined to nouns and verbs to indicate the person either acting, or in- 
 terested. Sh added to the end of nouns means his, her, it's. Jameiash, 
 liis robe ; dilhesii, his heart; muish, his hair. T subjoined indicates the 
 second person singular, thou, thy, to thee. Jameiat, thy robe; dilet, 
 thy heart; muii, thy hair. 
 
 M indicates the first person, T, my, to me. Jameiam, my robe; dilem, 
 ray heart ; niuim, my hair. 
 
 When the pronoun precedes the verb, the agent is changed, and it 
 implies the dative case, as for instance, zeram dad, gold to me he gave. 
 
 In the plural number, nd indicates the third person, id the second 
 person, and im the first. 
 
 Here it is to be observed, that although M may have been abbreviated 
 from mun or ma, and T from to, all the other adjuncts are fragments of 
 more ancient pronouns, now obsolete. 
 
 The Verbs. 
 
 These are chiefly derived from nouns, which Jemal-ud-deen Husain 
 Anjou considered as their roots. 
 
 They have but one conjugation and three changes of tense. 
 
 I have stated that the persons are indicated by adjunct pronouns, 
 which form the terminations. In this all Persian philologists agree, and 
 
 VOL. ir. XX
 
 306 
 
 affirm that to prefix a pronoun is a superfluity. The substantive verb 
 booden, to be, may serve as a model for the variations of the persons 
 in all tenses. 
 
 Booden, or boodun, to be. 
 
 The present tense is wanting in this verb, and is therefore supplied by 
 two other verbs, of which only the present tense remains. Tliese are 
 um and hasteem, which run thus, — um, ee, ust; eem, eed, und, ; and 
 hestum, hestee, hest ; hesteem, hesteed, hestund: lam, thou art, &c. 
 
 The preterites are. — boodum, boodee, bood ; boodeem, boodeed, 
 boodund ; I was, &c. — boodeh um, boodehee, boodeh ust, Sec. I have 
 been. — Boodeh shudum, boodeh shudee, boodeh shud. Sec. I had 
 been, &c. 
 
 The future is — khahurabood, khaheebood. Sec. I shall be, &c. 
 
 Then follow, booum, booee, booud; booeem, booeed, boound, I be, 
 thou beest, he be, &c. — Bushum, bushee, bushud; bushecm, busheed, 
 bushund, I be, &c. — Boodraee, ^c. I would be, &c. — Boodeh bushum, 
 &c. I shall have been. Sec. — Boo, &;c. be thou, &c. — Bash, being; 
 boodeh, been. 
 
 Shudun and shoodun, to be, is thus conjugated: 
 
 Mee shooum, mee shooee, niee shooud; mee shooeem, mee shooeed, 
 mee shoound, I am, &c. — Shudum, shudee, shud, &c. 1 was. — Shudeh 
 um, shudhee, shudeh ust, &c. I have been. — Shudeh boodum, &c. I 
 had been, &c.— Khahum, shud, Sec. I shall be.— Shooum, I be, &c. 
 — Shoo, be thou and being. — Khahum bude, to be willing. — Khahum, 
 khahee, khahed; khahcem, khahced, khahund, I will, &c. 
 The other tenses are formed like those of the regular verbs.
 
 307 
 
 Daden ordadun, to give: 
 
 Present tense: Meedehum, meedchee, mecdehud ; mccdahceni, mee- 
 daliced, meedahund, I give, &c. 
 
 Preterite: Dadum, dadhee, dad; dadeem, dadeed, dadiind. 
 
 Imperfect: Meedaduni, meedadhee, meedad, Sec. I was giving, &c. 
 
 Pluperfect: Dadeh boodum, I had given, &c. 
 
 First future: Bedahum, Sec. I shall give. 
 
 Second future: Khaumdad, khaueedad, I will give, &c. 
 
 Subjunctive or Aorist: Dheum, &c. I may give. Sec. 
 
 Potential: Dadmee, I might give, Sec. 
 
 Compound future: Dedeh bashum, &c. I shall have given. 
 
 Imperative: Deh, give thou; dahud, let him give. 
 
 Infinitive: Dadun, to give; dadeh booden, to have given. 
 
 The passive voice has the present, preterite, &c. formed by the aux- 
 iliary verbs shuden, booden, and khustum. 
 
 Among the prepositions we find abe7\ upon; and among the con- 
 junctions u or V, and. 
 
 Prom this transient view of the grammar, we may see clearly, that the 
 same language, which in the peninsula of India produced Sanscrit, and 
 became Greek, with its iEolic dialect, the Latin, on the European 
 shores of the Mediterranean Sea, gave birth to Persian in the country 
 intermediate between the Caspian and the Indian Ocean. 
 
 All these languages agree in multiplying their compounds; by which 
 practice they form a striking contrast to the Hebrew, Arabic, and Chal- 
 dee. Yet, notwithstanding this discordance, they have a discernible 
 affinity. 
 
 X X 2
 
 ON THE 
 
 ILAMGUAGES OF INBIAc 
 
 X HE natural boundaries of Indostan seem to be Caucasus, theTibetian 
 Mountains, the Indus, and the Ocean. 
 
 But, when we examine the languages of India, other limits present 
 themselves to view, and we are disposed to consider as one the whole 
 extent, in which the various languages allied to Sanscrit and the Nagari 
 character prevail. With these letters and languages we see combined 
 certain religious practices and opinions, which serve to connect Indostan, 
 Tibet, Cashmire, Napaul, Buian, Asam, Siam and Ava, presenting them 
 to our view as collateral branches of one stem. 
 
 The Sanscrit has been regarded as the parent of a numerous progeny; 
 but it is acknowledged that both parent and progeny maj' be the com- 
 mon offspring of some remote progenitor. 
 
 'All, who have paid attention to this subject, agree with the Brahmins, 
 that Sanscrit literature resend)les an extensive forest, abounding with a 
 rich variety of beautiful and luxuriant ibiiagc, splendid blossoms and
 
 309 
 
 delicious fruits, but surrounded by a strong and thorny fence, which 
 prevents those, who are desirous of plucking its fruits and flowers, from 
 entering. 
 
 Yet such has been the ardour of our countrymen in pursuit of know- 
 ledge, that no difficulties have been sufficient to restrain their efforts. 
 
 Mr. Halhead was the first who ventured to break through this thorny 
 fence, that lie might catch a glimpse of the inestimable treasure, which 
 jealous superstition h:id concealed. In the year 17/6 he began to pene- 
 trate the forest, and having tasted its delicious fruits, he invited others 
 to partake with him. Tiiese were his words of invitation: " The grand 
 source of Indian literature, the parent of almost every dialect from the 
 Persian Gulf to the China Seas, is Sanscrit; a language of the most 
 venerable antiquity, at present shut up in the libraries of Brahmins. 
 This appears to have been current over most of the oriental world, and 
 its traces may yet be discovered in almost every district of Asia. It 
 agrees with Persian, iVrabic, Latin and Greek in the most common ex- 
 pressions, more especially such as are monosyllabic. The coins of Asam, 
 Napaul, Cashmeer, Butan, Tibet, and many other kingdoms, are stampt 
 with Sanscrit letters. The same arrangement of the letters appears in 
 the greatest part of the East from the Indus to Pegu, and the same 
 affinity in the names of persons, places, titles and dignities, to the fur- 
 thest limits of Asia, is Sanscrit." 
 
 Such was the representation of this distinguished orientalist. 
 
 Sir W. Jones, the most elegant scholar of his day, perfect master of 
 Greek, and deeply imbued in oriental literature, no sooner arrived in 
 the peninsula of India, than, availing himself of the influence derived
 
 310 
 
 from his office, he obtained Bhratninical assistance, and turned his ener- 
 getic mind to the sacred language of that country. 
 
 In the year 1787, he allotted one hour a day to these pursuits, and was 
 soon able to trace the features of resemblance between Sanscrit and 
 the languages of Europe. He admired " its wonderful structure, more 
 perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exqui- 
 sitely refined than either, yet bearing to each of them a stronger affinity 
 both in the roots of verbs and in the form of grammar, than could pos- 
 sibly have been produced by accident." 
 
 Henry Colebrooke, not inferior in mental powers and exertions to Sir 
 Vi, . Jones, and every way qualified to estimate the comparative im- 
 portance of oriental literature, considers the Sanscrit as a most polished 
 tongue, fixed in classical writings of the best poets, most of whom 
 flourished in the century before Christ. In his opinion it is evidently 
 derived from a primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various 
 climates, and became Sanscrit in India, Pahlavi in Persia, and Greek on 
 the shores of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Such are the testimonies of these learned men as to the structure and 
 excellence of Sanscrit. 
 
 Had Mr. Halhead, in his enumeration, omitted the Arabic as a 
 language " with which the Sanscrit agrees in the most common ex- 
 pressions," his description would have been more conformable to truth. 
 
 With Mr. Colebrook, T am persuaded, that Sanscrit is derived from a 
 primeval tongue, and I discover affinity between it and Hebrew. Yet 
 I am satisfied, that neither Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, Sanscrit, nor 
 Persian, has any claim superior to the rest, or can be considered as their
 
 311 
 
 parental language. They are co-relatives, and have originated in one 
 common ancestor now no more. 
 
 The Arabic lias been preserved in the Koran, the Persian in Ferdosi, 
 the Sanscrit in Valmeeki, the Chaldee in Daniel, Ezra and Nehemia, 
 the C J reek in Homer, and the Hebrew in the Pentateuch. Beyond these 
 limits we have no documents, from which we can derive a knowledge of 
 the language, which prevailed in Arabia, Persia, Indostan, Chaldaea, 
 Greece, or Palestine. 
 
 It is not my intention to write an extensive treatise on the Sanscrit 
 language, and much less to teach its elements to those, who wish to 
 learn them. Indeed, were I equal to this undertaking, the task would 
 be loo laborious, because the Grammar alone, as published by Carey, 
 occapies more than a thousand quarto pages, and even this may be con- 
 sidered as an epitome, when compared with H. Colebrook's most labo- 
 rious work. 
 
 The alphabet is the most philosophical of any, with which I am 
 acquainted. The letters are classed according to the organ of speech 
 employed in their articulation, whether guttural, palatine, dental or 
 labial, with their respective aspirates and nasals. Beside these, they 
 have the sibilant with its aspirate, the semi-vowels, and a character for 
 the separate breathing occasionally used. It must be here particularly 
 noticed that the aspirate is distinctly articulated, and does not change 
 the consonant to which it belongs, as with us in th and ph, converting 
 the latter into f, and the former into a letter of a peculiar sound, per- 
 fectly distinct from T and H. Nor does it make its attendant consonant 
 quiescent, like the Galic, and like the English in high, nigh, &c.
 
 312 
 
 Letters of the same organ are liable to change; but in Sanscrit these 
 changes are governed by estabhsheii laws. 
 
 The roots in Sanscrit are said to be 1 J 56, and these are neither nouns 
 nor verbs; but may become either, according to tlic suffix. Tlicy are 
 biliteral, as I suspect the Hebrew to have originally been, and are com- 
 posed of consonants; but then each consonant includes within itself 
 the short vowel, v,hich is required for its enunciatiiin, and which seems 
 to be an equivalent for scheva of the Hebrew. The sotmd of this short 
 vowel, as I apprehend, cannot be expressed by any one of our alpha- 
 betic characters, because different writers, equally attentive to ortho- 
 graphy, differ in their choice. 
 
 Like Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, and Creek, it has the dual number 
 both in its nouns and verbs. 
 
 The nouns have seven cases, the nominative, accusative, instrumental, 
 dative, ablative, possessive, and locative, all distmguished by appro- 
 priate suffixes. 
 
 The tenses of Sanscrit verbs are ten, and the several persons have each 
 its pronoun suffixed, as in most otiier languages. 
 
 Li perfect conformity to the Persian, Greek, Danish, and German, it 
 delio'hts in compounds; for, not satisfied with arbitrary sounds and un- 
 meaning names, they construct such as are descriptive, and mark the 
 peculiar quality of the animal or thing intended, which is tlierefore suf- 
 ficiently characterized, and strikingly represented to the mind. Thus, 
 for instance, a frog is the leaper, an elephant the handy one, a bee the 
 flower drinker, a bird is the frequenter of the sk), a serpent the mover 
 on his breast; rice is tuft-growing, a cloud water giver, and the sun is
 
 313 
 
 maker of day and lord of light. So acarin is a crime, that wliicli should 
 not be done, from carttum to do. 
 
 No language is better adapted for composition, because tjjc words 
 coalesce with ease, and the compound readily submits to the laws of 
 abbreviation^ 
 
 The pronouns are — asmad and aham, T; mahyam and me, to nie; 
 yushmad, bhavat, bhavan and twam, tliou; tubhyam and te, to thee; 
 vayani, we; asmabhyam and nas, to us; yuyam, ye; yushmabhyam and 
 vas, to you; me and mam, my; te and tava, thy; etasya, his; nasa and 
 asmacama, our; usmacama, your; eshama and etcshania, their. 
 
 The substantive verb runs thus, the initial A being pronounced as I in 
 Sir, — asmi, asi, asti ; smah, stha, sanli, I am, &c. Dr. Wilkins writes 
 this, usnii, usi, usli ; usma, usa, sunti, Asani, let me be; asama, let 
 us be. Syam, syah, syat; syama, syata, syuh, may I be, kc. Bhavami, 
 bhavasi, bhavati ; bhavamh, (olim, bhavamas,) bhavalha, bhavanti, I 
 am, thou art, he is; we are, (Sec. 
 
 In bhavamah, the final H is substituted by the Brahmins for S. 
 Bhavani, let me be; bhavam, let us be; bhu, be thou. Abiiuvam, I 
 have been; bhavdshyami, I shall be; bubhushati, may he be; varttitum, 
 to be ; avarttishi, I have been ; varttita, he shall be, he will be. Vivrat- 
 sati, may he be. 
 
 I shall here exhil)it select parts of various verbs, in order to shew the 
 genius of this language. 
 
 Admi, atsi, atti; admas, attha, adanti, I, thou, he, we, ye, they eat; 
 adani, let me eat; adama, let us eat; attasmi, I will eat; attasi, thou 
 wilt eat; atta, he will eat; attum, to eat. 
 VOL. II. Yy
 
 3U 
 
 Dadatc, lie gives ; dadanto, tlicy give ; adat and adadishla, he gave ; 
 data and diidila, Ik; will give ; dadatu, let him give ; dadiluni, to give; 
 dadamana, giving; dadadana, having given; dadish_yainana, about to 
 give. 
 
 Pivati, li(^ drinks ; pivanti, tliey drink; apat, lie drank; pata, he will 
 drink; paturn, l.o drink. y\snati, he eateth ; asot, he ate ; ashta, he will 
 eat. Vasnii, vakslii, vashli, 1 wish, iSccr. vasani, let lue wish ; iidhi, wish 
 thou; vasiitu, let him wish; avasisham, J have wished. Lasliali, he de- 
 sires ; alashot, lie hath (U;sir(;d ; lashitiim, to desire. 
 
 Vamati, Ik; vomits ; avamot, ho hath vomilt;d. Dayate, he nourishes ; 
 adasta, ho hath nonrishcd ; data, he; will nourish; datum, to nourish. 
 I'adyatc, Ik; nK)ves ; apadi, ho nu)V((i ; patla, he will move. Dasati, 
 he biles; adagnkshoti, he; bit; danshta, he will bite; danshtum, to bite; 
 (laiila a tooth. \'a(i, Ik; nH)ves ; ayasot, he hath moved. Amayati, he 
 goes; amimat, Ik; w(;nt ; ami, I eause to go. Mali, he metes ; amasot, 
 he hath mclcd ; mata, he will nKlc Lubhyati, he eovets ; alubhat, he 
 hath eovcled ; lobhita, he will covet; lolihilum, to eovet. ])oyata, he 
 decays; didoye and adasi, Ik; hath dreaycd ; data, he will deeay. 
 .layale, Ik; [trodiices ; njani, he lialli produced ; janita, he; will produce; 
 janitum, lo pr()thi(;e. Mriyatc, Ik; dies; amrala and mamara, he died; 
 maiKa aiKl marisliyali, h<; will die. 
 
 Kaionii, karosjii, karoli; I do, thou iloest, he does ; karavami, let me 
 do; karolu, let him do; aearsliam or akarsham, I hav(wloiK; ; chakar, I 
 did; karlla, he will <lo ; earltum, to do, to make, to create; karaymi, 
 I eause to d) : payayati, Ik- causes to driidv. 
 
 Chekroveluni, lotloolUn. Dedoyate, he gives often. Pepoyate, he
 
 drinks often. Janjanyatc, he produces often. vSosliupyatc, lie sleeps 
 often. Vavasyate, he desires often. Papaclioti, he cooks often. Daii- 
 danshti and dandasyate, he bites often. Varivrati, he turns often. 
 Panopat, fall often, and panphul, produce often or niucli. 
 
 Ilere the reader will please to notice, that the reiterative is produced 
 by reduplication in its peculiar form. Similar reduplications may be 
 observed in volitives. Thus \n is drink, and pipasati he wants drink. 
 Chikorashti, he wants to make. Didarishti, he wants to tear. Bibha- 
 rishti, he wishes to bear. Susupsati, he wants to sleep. From Pad we 
 have Pitsate, he wants to step; and Labh produces Lipsali, he wishes 
 to obtain. Ab, have, gives Ipsati, ho wishes to have; and other forms, 
 expressing both cause and volition, being connected with a verb, indi- 
 cate a desire to cause some one to act; as, for instance, to eat, to drink, 
 to walk, to run, to take, to give. 
 
 This language, with peculiar aptitude, converts nouns into verbs. 
 Putroyati, he loves his son ; matroyati, he loves his mother, or she be- 
 haves like a mother. Putrakamyati, he desires a son. Prasadoyati, he 
 behaves as if he were in a palace. Kutoyali prasade raja, the king con- 
 ducts himself in his palace as in a cottage. 
 
 I might here call the attention of the Greek scholar to the close affinity 
 between the preceding verbs, and verbs of the same import in Greek ; 
 but this will be left to his own discernment for the present. I proceed 
 to the comparative degrees, in which it will be difficult to say, whether 
 the affinity is most striking in the Greek or in the Latin. 
 
 Vidwasa, wise; vidwattara, wiser; vidwattania, wisest. \'idusho, 
 wise; vidushitara, vidushitama. Vahoo, many; vahootara, vahootama. 
 
 Ty 2
 
 316 
 
 Vahoola, much; vahoolatara, vahoolatama. Alpa, few; alpatara, al- 
 patania. Dadat, generous ; dadattara, dadattama. Yuvan, young ; 
 juvatara, yuvatama. 
 
 The numerals are — eka, one; dwau, two; tri, tliree ; chatur, four; 
 panchan, five; shash, six; septam, seven; ashtan, eight; navan, nine; 
 dashan, ten ; ekadasan, eleven ; visati, twenty. 
 
 The numerical figures resemble those of Europe. 
 
 We have already had occasion, by numerous examples, to observe the 
 affinity between Sanscrit and all the languages of Europe and of Asia. 
 
 But here it may be useful to take a more particular survey of its re- 
 lation to English, Latin, Greek and Hebrew, in order to confirm my 
 position, that all these languages are radically one. For this purpose, 
 we must always bear in mind, what has been delivered respecting abbre- 
 viation, the change between letters of the same organ, the presence or 
 absence of prepositions, the conversion of the aspirate into either the 
 guttural, sibilant, or labial, and the licentious change of D into L, 
 which however has not been universally adopted. 
 
 I begin Avith the English, confining myself principally to such terms 
 as are most ancient, that is the monosyllabic, and those expression* 
 which occur most frequently in common life. 
 
 When these in Sanscrit have turn for their termination, they are not 
 roots, but are here taken in the infinitive, as in daraitum, to tame; of 
 which the root is dam. In numerous instances, I confine myself to the 
 roots, in others I take either the noun substantive, or any part of the 
 verb.
 
 317 
 
 English. 
 
 Sameril, 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanscrit, 
 
 English. 
 
 San'cril. 
 
 Add 
 
 Adi more 
 
 Boat 
 
 Pota 
 
 Cock 
 
 Cuckuta 
 
 Am 
 
 Asmi 
 
 Bold 
 
 Bal 
 
 Coming 
 
 Agaman 
 
 And 
 Anoint 
 
 Anantarum 
 Anjana 
 
 Booty 
 
 ^ Bhata, a 
 ' soldier 
 
 Coo 
 Cot 
 
 Ku 
 Kuti 
 
 Ape 
 
 Kapi 
 
 Bray 
 
 Braha, speak 
 
 Count 
 
 Ginte 
 
 Arrayed 
 
 Parihita 
 
 Brother 
 
 Bhratara 
 
 Cow 
 
 Gau 
 
 Arrow 
 Axe 
 
 Sara 
 Cathaca 
 
 Brow 
 Buck 
 
 Bhru 
 Bukra 
 
 Create 
 
 ^Carttum, 
 'Crata,done 
 
 Bake 
 
 Pachtum 
 
 Budge 
 
 Baj 
 
 Crib 
 
 Cripana 
 
 Band 
 
 Bandh 
 
 Bunter 
 
 Banita 
 
 Crime 
 
 Acarm 
 
 Bask 
 
 QBhascara 
 
 Burden 
 
 Bhara 
 
 Cud 
 
 Cud, Eat 
 
 
 'The sun 
 
 Came 
 
 Agama 
 
 Cur 
 
 Cuccara 
 
 Bath 
 Bawd 
 
 Bad 
 
 ^Badhu, a 
 c wife 
 
 Carp, see) 
 Crib ) 
 Carve 
 
 Cripana 
 Charve, eat 
 
 Cut 
 Dale 
 
 ^Ch'hada 
 'Cat'haca 
 Dal, separate 
 
 Be 
 
 Bhu 
 
 Caw 
 
 Cavati 
 
 Damp 
 
 Tima 
 
 Beg 
 
 Pakja 
 
 Cede 
 
 Shad 
 
 Dare 
 
 Dhrish 
 
 Bear 
 
 Bhritum 
 
 Central 
 
 Antaral 
 
 Dark 
 
 Andhacara 
 
 Beauty 
 Beat 
 
 Budracha 
 Vyadh 
 
 Champ ) 
 
 Cham, Gham 
 and Jam 
 
 Daughter 
 Day 
 
 Duhitri 
 Divas 
 
 Beloved 
 
 Bullubh 
 
 Chant 
 
 Gana 
 
 Dawn 
 
 ^Dodhatum 
 
 Better 
 
 Bhadratara 
 
 Chick 
 
 Chica, small 
 
 ' to shine 
 
 Bid 
 
 Vidhi 
 
 Churn 
 
 Chur& Churn 
 
 Dead 
 
 rudi 
 
 Bide 
 
 Bad 
 
 Coal 
 
 Cala, black 
 
 Deal 
 
 Dal, separate
 
 S18 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Gaurava 
 ram a
 
 319 
 
 EttgiisU. 
 
 Sanaerit. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Horse 
 
 IJras 
 
 Love 
 
 Lubh 
 
 More 
 
 Mahatteran 
 
 Hunt 
 
 Huntuin 
 
 Luck 
 
 Lacshmee 
 
 Mother 
 
 Matri 
 
 Hurt 
 Hut 
 
 Hartuni 
 Cut 
 
 Lust 
 Mad 
 
 Lashyati 
 Unmatta 
 
 Mouch, > 
 to stealS 
 
 Mush 
 
 In 
 
 Ni 
 
 Male, evil 
 
 Mala, dirty 
 
 Mouse 
 
 Mushica 
 
 Is 
 
 Asmi 
 
 Man 
 
 Manushya 
 
 Murder 
 
 Mrityu 
 
 It 
 
 Etad & Tad 
 
 Me 
 
 Mam 
 
 Nail 
 
 Nal 
 
 Join 
 
 Yung 
 
 Mead 
 
 Madhu, honey 
 
 Naked 
 
 Nagna 
 
 Joke 
 
 Jacsh 
 
 Meal, mix 
 
 Mil 
 
 Name 
 
 Namen 
 
 Keep 
 Kiss 
 
 Gup 
 
 Cus, embrace 
 
 Mean, * 
 Medium 3 
 
 Madhya 
 
 Neat 
 New 
 
 Nieta 
 Nava 
 
 Knack 
 Knee 
 
 Anuka 
 Janu 
 
 Mean, ) 
 Mind ) 
 
 Manas 
 
 Nigh 
 Night 
 
 Nicata 
 Nakta 
 
 Knit, Knot 
 Lazy 
 
 Nah 
 Alasya 
 
 Mean, } 
 diminutive J 
 
 Manaca 
 
 Nme 
 No 
 
 Nava 
 No 
 
 Less 
 
 Lis 
 
 Mete 
 
 Mat urn 
 
 Nor 
 
 Nir 
 
 Lick 
 
 Lih 
 
 Midst 
 
 Madhya 
 
 Nose 
 
 Nasica 
 
 Light, not^ 
 heavy 5 
 
 Laghu 
 
 Might 
 Mightier 
 
 Mahata 
 Mahatara 
 
 0! 
 Oar 
 
 0! 
 Arittra 
 
 List, desire 
 
 Leshita 
 
 Mind 
 
 Manas 
 
 OfF 
 
 Av 
 
 T/Oplr "i 
 
 Lagna, Alak 
 
 Mine 
 
 Muma 
 
 Oh 
 
 Haha 
 
 .i—i\j\y^ J 
 
 and Sloch 
 
 Mixt 
 
 Misrana 
 
 One 
 
 Jani 
 
 Look 
 Lop 
 
 Lochitum 
 Lup 
 
 Month, } 
 Moon ^ 
 
 Masa 
 
 Ooze 
 Other 
 
 Ghas 
 
 I tar, A that
 
 320 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanscrit. I 
 
 1 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanscrit, 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanscrit, 
 
 Otter 
 
 Udra 
 
 Reign 
 
 Ranjana 
 
 Six 
 
 Shash 
 
 Over 
 
 Upari 
 
 Right 
 
 Rit 
 
 Sixth 
 
 Shasta 
 
 Owl 
 
 Ulaca 
 
 Rite 
 
 Riti 
 
 Sister 
 
 Swasri 
 
 Ox- 
 
 Ucsha 
 
 Root 
 
 Rad 
 
 Sit 
 
 ^Situm, to 
 
 Pad 
 
 Pad 
 
 Rude 
 
 Raud 
 
 ' lie down 
 
 Pannier 
 
 Avapani 
 
 Ruminate 
 
 llumantbayate 
 
 Skill 
 
 Cusala 
 
 Pass 
 
 Pis 
 
 Sake 
 
 Sakhi, friend 
 
 Sod 
 
 Sata 
 
 Pat 
 
 Pit 
 
 Same 
 
 Sama 
 
 Son 
 
 Santana 
 
 Path 
 
 Bat & Palha 
 
 Scatter 
 
 Kirtum 
 
 Soon 
 
 Sondra 
 
 Paw 
 
 Pani 
 
 Scratch 
 
 Grit 
 
 Sound 
 
 Swan a 
 
 Piece 
 Piss 
 
 Psa, Eat 
 Payas, water 
 
 Seam, a ? 
 border 3 
 
 Siman 
 
 Stall 
 Stand, Stay 
 
 Sthal 
 Shtha 
 
 Pluns^e 
 
 Plu 
 
 Serve 
 
 Sri 
 
 Star 
 
 Tara 
 
 Prayer 
 
 Prarthana 
 
 Serpent 
 
 Sarpa 
 
 Stun 
 
 Stan, thunder 
 
 Prime 
 
 Para ma 
 
 Seventh 
 
 Saptama 
 
 Sum 
 
 Sama 
 
 Proud 
 
 Praudh 
 
 Sew 
 
 Shiv 
 
 Sweat 
 
 Shwid 
 
 Quean, ^ 
 Queen 3 
 
 Cunya 
 
 She 
 Shear 
 
 Esha and Sa 
 Cshur 
 
 Sweet 
 Swoon 
 
 Swadu 
 Swap 
 
 Quern 
 Quoth 
 
 Ghurna 
 Cathayati 
 
 Shroud 
 
 ^Sraddha, 
 'Obsequies 
 
 Tame 
 Tear 
 
 Damitum 
 Dri, Daran 
 
 Rage 
 Rave 
 
 Rajra 
 Rav 
 
 Sign 
 Sink 
 
 Sanjna 
 Sanna 
 
 Teat 
 
 ^Dayati, he 
 ^ sucks 
 
 Read 
 
 Rat 
 
 Site 
 
 Sthita 
 
 Ten 
 
 Dashan 
 
 Red 
 
 llitjati, Iludhira 
 
 Sit 
 
 Asitum 
 
 Tepid 
 
 Tapta
 
 321 
 
 Engliili. 
 
 Sanscrit* 
 
 Euijliah. 
 
 SitllHl-ll. 
 
 E.ijU^h. 
 
 SaaiCTil. 
 
 That 
 
 Tad 
 
 Vast 
 
 Valuisa 
 
 What 
 
 Yad 
 
 Then 
 
 Fan a 
 
 Valet 
 
 Bala, Boy 
 
 Wheel 
 
 Gola 
 
 They 
 
 re 
 
 Valiant 
 
 Balavan 
 
 White 
 
 Sweta 
 
 Thin 
 
 Tana 
 
 Vanish 
 
 Vinash 
 
 Wliose 
 
 Yasya 
 
 Third 
 
 rrita3'a 
 
 Vest 
 
 Vastra 
 
 Widow 
 
 Vidhava 
 
 Thirst 
 
 Frish 
 
 Village 
 
 Palli 
 
 Wind 
 
 Vayajana 
 
 This 
 
 Ades 
 
 Voice 
 
 Vac 
 
 
 ( Vihanga, 
 
 Thou 
 
 Twain 
 
 Vomit 
 
 Vamati 
 
 Wing 
 
 'Air-going 
 
 Thy 
 
 Tava 
 
 Vomited 
 
 Vamita 
 
 Wise 
 
 Vidwas 
 
 Thrice 
 
 Tisra 
 
 
 /-Udhasa 
 
 Wish 
 
 Ish 
 
 Tie 
 
 Tah 
 
 Udder 
 
 ^ Udara, 
 
 Wit 
 
 Viditum 
 
 Time 
 
 Smina 
 
 
 ^ the belly 
 
 Witch 
 
 V^idasha 
 
 Toss 
 
 Tas, Das 
 
 Upper 
 
 Upari 
 
 Woman 
 
 Vamini 
 
 Tother 
 
 Tatara 
 
 Wain 
 
 Vahan 
 
 Wrath 
 
 Crodh 
 
 Tree 
 
 Tara & Diu 
 
 Warm 
 
 Gharma 
 
 Ye 
 
 Yuyam 
 
 Tripod 
 
 Tripad 
 
 
 rWaran, 
 
 Yea 
 
 Ji 
 
 Trow, -s 
 a boat > 
 
 Tro 
 
 Warn 
 
 < Prevention 
 ' Varana 
 
 Year and^ 
 Yore 1 
 
 Jara 
 
 Trough ^ 
 Truly 
 
 Dhruvam 
 
 Was 
 
 CWabhuvas 
 [wasa 
 
 Yoke 
 
 SYuja 
 ( Yugam 
 
 Two 
 
 Dwau 
 
 We 
 
 Vayam 
 
 Young 
 
 Yuvan 
 
 
 rVayana 
 
 Weave 
 
 Ve 
 
 
 
 Vane 
 
 < Vayajana, 
 
 Wed 
 
 Vadhu, Wife 
 
 
 
 
 ^ the wind 
 
 Well 
 
 Vilakshan 
 
 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 
 2 
 
 ' z 
 

 
 322 
 
 Such is the comparative vocabulary, I have been able to collect in the 
 course of my reading. A more extensive acquaintance with Sanscrit 
 literature will, I am persuaded, add greatly to my treasure. These few 
 words, however, will sufficiently evince the connexion between our lan- 
 guage and the Sanscrit. 
 
 I shall now call the attention of my readers to the affinity between 
 Sanscrit and Latin, and shall avail myself, in my observations on this 
 subject, of the very interesting remarks made by the Edinburgh 
 Reviewers, in their critique on Dr. Wilkins' Grammar, a work, which 
 can never be too highly valued by the student, who is solicitous to gain 
 a critical knowledge of this venerable language. 
 
 But here also I must premise, not merely that letters of the same organ 
 may supply each other's place, but that, in conformity to the practice of 
 other nations, the labials B and P are commutable with the sibilant, and 
 with the gutturals C, G, K, Q; as are M with N, and L with R. In- 
 stances of such changes will immediately appear, because Latin con- 
 forms to the iEolic dialect of Greek, in which we have y.ag for ^wg and 
 y.ofov for Tifov. 
 
 Latin. Sanscrit. Latin. Samcrit. Latin, Sanscrit. 
 
 Ab 
 Ac 
 
 Ad 
 
 Adeptus 
 
 lEs 
 
 Annona 
 
 Anser 
 
 Ava 
 
 Cha 
 
 Ad 
 
 Ap 
 
 Ayas 
 
 Anna 
 
 flansa 
 
 Antrum 
 
 Aqua 
 
 Arena 
 
 Bell urn 
 
 Bibit 
 
 Bove 
 
 Cado 
 
 Antara 
 
 A pa 
 
 Aranya 
 
 Vala 
 
 Pivati 
 
 Gava 
 
 Shada & Pit 
 
 Caeremonia 
 
 Caesaries 
 
 Canis 
 
 Cano 
 
 Carmen 
 
 Carus 
 
 Coclum 
 
 Carman 
 
 Kesa 
 
 Shvana 
 
 Gano 
 
 Carman 
 
 Shra 
 
 Capias
 
 S93 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Clam 
 
 Coquo 
 
 Coctum 
 
 Concha 
 
 Cor 
 
 Creo 
 
 Da 
 
 Datum 
 
 Das 
 
 Dat 
 
 Dedit 
 
 Dator 
 
 Donum 
 
 Dens 
 
 Decern 
 
 Deus 
 
 Dexter 
 
 Dies 
 
 Disco 
 
 Dixit 
 
 Doceo 
 
 Domitum 
 
 Duo 
 
 Durus 
 
 SaMtytt, 
 
 Chukimp 
 
 Pach 
 
 Pachtum 
 
 Sanclia 
 
 Hridaja 
 
 Cri 
 
 Da 
 
 Datum 
 
 Dadasi 
 
 Dadati 
 
 Dadat 
 
 Datri 
 
 Danam 
 
 Danta 
 
 Dasama 
 
 Deve 
 
 Dekshan 
 
 Divas 
 
 Upadoshaca 
 
 Disat 
 
 Upadoshaca 
 
 Damitum 
 
 Dwau 
 
 Dura 
 
 Lnfini 
 
 Eat 
 
 Edo 
 
 Ed ere 
 
 Esse 
 
 Eget 
 
 Et 
 
 Evanesco 
 
 Feinina 
 
 Ferre 
 
 Flu ere 
 
 Fluvius 
 
 Folium 
 
 Frater 
 
 Genetrix 
 
 Genitus 
 
 Gentes 
 
 Genu 
 
 Genus 
 
 Gigno 
 
 Gravis 
 
 Gustavi 
 
 Hodie 
 
 Humus 
 
 Hyems 
 
 Santtyrit, 
 
 LaUn. 
 
 SatucrHi 
 
 Jjata 
 
 Id 
 
 Etid 
 
 Ad 
 
 Idem 
 
 Idem 
 
 Attum 
 
 Ignis 
 
 Agni 
 
 A stum 
 
 Immolo 
 
 Mulya 
 
 Ichchhati 
 
 Inquit 
 
 Cathayati 
 
 Ath 
 
 Intra 
 
 Antara 
 
 Vinash 
 
 Is 
 
 Esha 
 
 Vamini 
 
 Ita 
 
 Ifi, Yalha 
 
 Bhritum 
 
 Itum 
 
 Etum, Yatum 
 
 Plotum 
 
 
 ^Yugum & 
 
 Plav 
 
 Jugum 
 
 ?Yaja 
 
 Phali 
 
 Jussit 
 
 Japayamas 
 
 Bhratara 
 
 Jungo 
 
 Yung 
 
 Janoni 
 Genita 
 
 Juno, } 
 Genetrix 3 
 
 Janoni 
 
 Janata 
 
 Jusculum 
 
 Yusha 
 
 Janu 
 
 Juvenis 
 
 Yuvana 
 
 Gana 
 
 Labi 
 
 Labi 
 
 Jajanmi 
 
 Labium 
 
 Lapamya 
 
 Gaurava 
 
 Laedo 
 
 Ladi 
 
 Aghasam 
 
 Lretari 
 
 Hladitum 
 
 Adya 
 
 Levitas 
 
 Laghava 
 
 Bhumi 
 
 Libido 
 
 SLubdha, 
 
 Hima 
 
 
 ' a greedy man 
 
 z z 2
 
 324 
 
 latin. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Samcrit. 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Saii»cr«. 
 
 liOCUS 
 
 ^Loca, the 
 
 Neco 
 
 Nighna 
 
 Pergo 
 
 V^aja 
 
 
 I world 
 
 Nepos 
 
 Naptara 
 
 Pingere 
 
 Pinjitura 
 
 Lubet 
 
 Lubhyati 
 
 Neque 
 
 Nacha 
 
 Piacere 
 
 Pritum 
 
 Major 
 
 Mahatara 
 
 Neve 
 
 Nava 
 
 Piuo 
 
 Plu 
 
 Malus 
 
 Mala 
 
 Nidus 
 
 Nidhi 
 
 Polleo 
 
 Bal 
 
 Mare 
 
 Nara 
 
 Noceoe 
 
 Nasayitum 
 
 Post 
 
 Poschat 
 
 Mas 
 
 Manusbya 
 
 Novem 
 
 Nava 
 
 Potis 
 
 Poti, Lord 
 
 Mater 
 
 Matri 
 
 Novus 
 
 Navya 
 
 Potum 
 
 Patum 
 
 Mayors 
 
 Mahavarsaya 
 
 Nomen 
 
 Namna 
 
 Prandet 
 
 Pranipsati 
 
 Medium 
 
 Madhya 
 
 Nos 
 
 Nah, Olira, Nas 
 
 Praelium 
 
 Pralaya 
 
 Meio 
 
 Mi ha 
 
 Noctem 
 
 Nactam 
 
 Precor 
 
 Prachh 
 
 Me urn 
 
 Mama 
 
 Nox 
 
 Nisa 
 
 Primus 
 
 Prathama 
 
 Meminit 
 
 Mamana 
 
 Nubes 
 
 Nabhas, air 
 
 Prodigiuni 
 
 Prabhavaja 
 
 Menda 
 
 Manda 
 
 Nubo 
 
 Niva 
 
 Prope 
 
 Prapta 
 
 Mens 
 Metiri 
 
 Manas 
 Ma turn 
 
 Nurus 
 Octo 
 
 Snusara 
 Ashta 
 
 Pullulat ^ 
 Pull us S 
 
 PhuUati 
 
 Micturiet 
 
 Mekshyali 
 
 Oculus 
 
 Acs hi 
 
 Quatuor 
 
 Chatur 
 
 Misceo 
 
 Misra 
 
 Odit 
 
 Atvat 
 
 Que 
 
 Cha 
 
 Modus 
 
 Afata 
 
 Os 
 
 Asthi 
 
 Qui, Quern 
 
 Ki, Kim 
 
 Mors 
 
 Mrityu 
 
 Ovis 
 
 Ava 
 
 Quid 
 
 Yad 
 
 Moritur 
 
 Mrayati 
 
 Pastum 
 
 Psatum 
 
 Quinque 
 
 Pancha 
 
 Mus 
 
 Mushica 
 
 Pater 
 
 Pitri 
 
 Quo 
 
 Cwo 
 
 Musca 
 
 Maksha 
 
 Patera 
 
 Pattra 
 
 Quot 
 
 Cwoti 
 
 Navis 
 
 Nau 
 
 Pes, pedis 
 
 Pad a 
 
 Rectus 
 
 Rit
 
 325 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Santcril. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Santcrit. 
 
 Rego 
 
 Raj 
 
 Sopire 
 
 Swoptum 
 
 Uncus 
 
 Ancusli 
 
 Res 
 
 Rai 
 
 Specie 
 
 Pasya 
 
 Unus 
 
 Jana 
 
 Rem 
 
 Rayama 
 
 Statio 
 
 Sthan 
 
 Ustus 
 
 Ushatu 
 
 Reverti 
 
 Paravertatuin 
 
 Statum 
 
 Sthatum 
 
 Uterus 
 
 Udar 
 
 Rex 
 
 R;ija 
 
 Suavis 
 
 Suadu 
 
 Uter 
 
 Yatara 
 
 Rhcda 
 
 Ratha 
 
 Supremus 
 
 Su para ma 
 
 Valeo 
 
 Bal 
 
 Ritus 
 
 Riti 
 
 Super 
 
 Upari 
 
 V'ates 
 
 Vadi 
 
 Rota 
 
 Ratha 
 
 Suum 
 
 Swayarn 
 
 Ve 
 
 Va 
 
 Ruber 
 
 Rudhira 
 
 Taceo 
 
 Tushna 
 
 Vegeto 
 
 Voja 
 
 Rugit 
 
 Rau, Ravati 
 
 Tactus 
 
 Twac 
 
 Veho 
 
 Vaha 
 
 Sanus 
 
 Susthana 
 
 Taeda 
 
 Daha 
 
 Venor 
 
 Vana, Vanyah 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Syata 
 
 Tepescere 
 
 Taptum 
 
 Ventus 
 
 Vayajan 
 
 Seipsum '^ 
 
 
 Tenuis 
 
 Tanu 
 
 Verres 
 
 Vara ha 
 
 & Suus3 
 
 Swa 
 
 Terra 
 
 Dhara 
 
 Vertere 
 
 Vartitum 
 
 Septem 
 
 CSapta and 
 'Saptem 
 
 Tibi 
 
 ^Tubhya 
 cTubyama 
 
 Vestire 
 Victitare 
 
 Vastum 
 Bhaetum 
 
 Serpens 
 Servire 
 
 Sarpa 
 Sretum 
 
 Tonitru "| 
 Tono i 
 
 Stanit 
 
 Victus 
 Videre 
 
 Bhacsha 
 Veditum 
 
 Sex 
 
 Shash 
 
 Trans 
 
 Tri 
 
 Vidua 
 
 Vidhava 
 
 Siccus 
 
 Sush 
 
 Tres 
 
 Tri 
 
 Villa 
 
 Palli 
 
 Silex 
 
 Sila 
 
 Tredecem 
 
 Triyadashan 
 
 Vieo 
 
 Yu 
 
 Socer 
 
 Swasur 
 
 Tuum 
 
 Twam 
 
 Vir 
 
 Vara 
 
 Somniuni 
 
 Svvapua 
 
 Ungo 
 
 Anja 
 
 Vires 
 
 Vir 
 
 Sonus 
 
 Swan a 
 
 Ungula 
 
 An gal ay a 
 
 Viridis 
 
 Harit
 
 326 
 
 muiii 
 
 Sanseril. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Vis 
 
 Basa 
 
 Nonest 
 
 ISTasti 
 
 Vita 
 
 Vida 
 
 Est niihi 
 
 Asti mama 
 
 Vivere 
 
 Jevitum 
 
 Quid mihitecum 
 
 Kim maya tava 
 
 Vos 
 
 Vas 
 
 Tibi id 
 
 Tavid 
 
 Vox 
 
 Vak 
 
 Node dieque 
 
 Nactum divapi 
 
 Vox ita 
 
 Vaka yatha 
 
 - 
 
 
 If the affinity between Sanscrit and Latin is apparent, the close con- 
 nexion between Sanscrit and Greek is more so. This must have been 
 observed particularly in the substantive verb, in the numerals, and in 
 the few instances of regular verbs I have already noticed. But the sub- 
 sequent examples will more abundantly demonstrate their affinity. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 avxreSsiv 
 
 ave[j.og 
 
 etve'j 
 
 XTTO 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 At'ha Esheta 
 
 Aja 
 
 (Limpami 
 
 C & Lip 
 
 Ama 
 
 Anapadan 
 
 Ana 
 
 An 
 
 Nar 
 
 Yache 
 
 Vi 
 
 Creek. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 apt 
 
 Ura 
 
 Sei^eiv 
 
 Dis 
 
 a?v\g 
 
 Ari 
 
 SepXCfji-xi 
 
 Drakshmi 
 
 xcr^eveta, 
 
 Asusthana 
 
 Seva 
 
 D'he 
 
 xv^eiv 
 
 Aksha 
 
 Six 
 
 D'hi 
 
 T'evvxcn) 
 
 Atma 
 Jajanmi 
 
 hxiTx 
 
 (Dayitum 
 ( Dayate 
 
 yi/jpau 
 
 Jarami 
 
 SiSxanoj 
 
 Upadesaca 
 
 ypxca 
 
 Gras 
 
 5j5a!fj.j 
 
 Dadami 
 
 lyvpoct! 
 
 Ghurn 
 
 i5i£Xfi'y 
 
 Dal 
 
 ^aia 
 
 Dahami 
 
 'Eye /pa; 
 
 Gorami 
 
 Sxfj^xa 
 
 Dam 
 
 eSw 
 
 Ad mi
 
 527 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Sanscrit, 
 
 eiBu 
 
 Vadi 
 
 I^vif^i 
 
 Tishtami 
 
 kvxvog 
 
 Loka 
 
 tl,'i^i. sum 
 
 Asmi 
 
 
 Yomi 
 
 MiZ^VlTVIS 
 
 Mith 
 
 eTfj-i. eo 
 
 Enii 
 
 Ka;<y%«^£iv 
 
 Kakhc 
 
 ^j-xuTig 
 
 Mantre 
 
 SJ£J^Xl 
 
 Astuni 
 
 y.xi 
 
 Cha 
 
 [/.XpXlPCii 
 
 Maranya 
 
 ia-^iei 
 
 Asnati 
 
 nxXeca 
 
 Kala 
 
 \».i<yx [j.syxv 
 
 Mahan 
 
 enccqog 
 enatepoi 
 
 Ekaike 
 Ekatara 
 
 hxXv7:tci: ) 
 
 HxXv^^t-X J 
 
 Chulump 
 
 
 Ma 
 Manayasa 
 
 t'k«(T<T!>lV 
 
 Lisyate 
 
 naKave^v 
 
 Kil, Kal 
 
 f^HTVip 
 
 Matri 
 
 iXctX^qog 
 
 Lagishtha 
 
 y.£(pxK)/\ 
 
 Kapala 
 
 jxicxyo) 
 
 Misra 
 
 {•Avpx 
 
 Antara 
 
 M[t.UV 
 
 Hima 
 
 li.ev£Xivw 
 
 Manyamana 
 
 iWiX 
 
 Navana 
 
 yiioj 
 
 Chay 
 
 \i.vxoy.ai. 
 
 Mnanii 
 
 iTraivw 
 
 Panami 
 
 nKxsiv 
 
 Kale 
 
 N«u\ 
 
 Nava 
 
 £pt 
 
 Uru 
 
 nXetg j) 
 
 Kol 
 
 veog 
 
 NTavya 
 
 epig 
 
 Ari 
 
 noKKx ) 
 
 
 veu 
 
 Nahye 
 
 ta-^co siT^ei 
 
 Asnati & Asot 
 
 nfiXTog & ) 
 
 Karttara, ) 
 
 v£(pakyi 
 
 Nabh 
 
 e^epoi 
 
 Itara 
 
 nxpTOg J 
 
 ruler ) 
 
 ''Oy.ou 
 
 Om 
 
 £%£iV 
 
 Gini 
 
 Kpl^CC 
 
 Krad 
 
 O^J-QIOCO 
 
 Masyanii 
 
 £01 
 
 Emi 
 
 KVIDV 
 
 San 
 
 OVOfJ.X 
 
 Namna 
 
 "Upcog 
 
 Sura 
 
 A«jX/3iXl/W ) 
 
 Laniij La 
 
 oqtov 
 
 Asthi 
 
 vidvxloi 
 
 Asoca 
 
 X«/3aJ ) 
 
 Labh, gain 
 
 o(ppvg 
 
 Bhru 
 
 
 
 k^l-^O^i.XI, 
 
 Lipsati 
 
 YIxixv 
 
 Pan 
 
 &xppa 
 
 Suia,Susthira 
 
 kxca 
 
 Loch 
 
 TociSsvu 
 
 Upadesaka 
 
 Svi^oi 
 
 Tija 
 
 Xeixw 
 
 Lehmi 
 
 'KUO\t.Xt 
 
 Pami 
 
 ^vpx 
 
 Dwara 
 
 Aa)/3vi 
 
 Lubi 
 
 'KxpxdoTog 
 
 Pradatna
 
 328 
 
 Greek. 
 
 vxpx'joBx 
 
 vXTOtO'lTCO 
 
 'K XT tea 
 
 'Axeiv 
 
 TTiipxqVif 
 'xeTreipxnx 
 
 TTiTTTO) 
 TTcpl 
 
 TrspSeiv 
 
 ttOK'J 
 
 trohog 
 'jpxog 
 
 TrpOlVilJ-l 
 
 Samcrit. 
 
 Prapti 
 Pit, kill 
 Pad, Pat'iie 
 Pa 
 Paclami 
 
 Parakshita 
 
 Pane,Patum 
 
 Patanii 
 
 Pri 
 
 Paid 
 
 Vahoola 
 
 Pad a 
 
 Prasam 
 
 Prasana 
 
 Prevami 
 
 Greeli. 
 
 TtpOTOi 
 
 TTupyot 
 
 TTcoXog 
 
 Pi/)(yi/U(iJ 
 
 pyiTOi 
 
 ^^Toop 
 
 YixXevai 
 
 TSl^X 
 
 qepeoi 
 Txxvi 
 
 TiHTCCl^ 
 
 TeXeicc 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Prat'iiama 
 Varga 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Dhayati 
 
 Tada 
 
 Traimi 
 
 Tripada 
 
 Yushainana 
 
 A pa 
 
 Vami 
 
 Sphaja 
 
 Bibhaya 
 
 Ghini, 
 Ghuni 
 
 jCarttum & 
 Cn, make, do 
 
 Carya, a thing to be done; Carma and Criya, an action; Carta, 
 an agent. 
 
 From Cri we have many derivatives. Sucara, easy; dashcara, difHcuIt; 
 curbate, produce; crishacan, a labourer; nishcarmmaneh, idle, not 
 active; apacrishta and acarma, wicked, that which ought not to be done; 
 cro, get, purchase. 
 
 C or K as a termination signifies a maker.
 
 339 
 
 Crash, as a root, implies to make, seize, draw, cultivate; yll allied to 
 %fi/j; as maybe crashtum, to make furrows, xxpxTrnv. %a:;a(TTa' seems 
 to be allied to crintati, he cuts; acarttot, lie liatli cut; cnrtlita, lie 
 will cut. 
 
 Whilst tracing the affinity between Sanscrit and (J reck, it will be 
 worthy our attention to compare their numerals and ordinals, &c. 
 
 1, eka, "ig. 2, dwau, Svu. 3, frb/a, Tplx. 4, chat in; '^tTTzpes and 
 teiTcc^si. 5, pencha, 'Trtv^e and TtVTrg. 6, shesh, tt 7, septa, tv-i. 
 8, ashta, oktw. Q, iiava and navan, Iwicc. 10, des, Sena. 
 
 Here I must observe, that, although we can trace no direct corres- 
 pondence between eka and ev, yet there is a strict affinity between jena, 
 one person, and ev, and no less between eka and eaxcot, each one. 
 
 It is evident that ch in chatur and pencha takes tiie place of T in 
 TfTTflifEf and TefTe, and equally evident, that in shesh the first sh supplies 
 the place of the aspirate in l^. The second sh contains the sibilant part 
 of ^. 
 
 The ordinals are Prat'hama or Protoma, Dwitya, Tritya, Chetoorta, 
 Penchema, Sheshta, Septlma, Ashtima, Novuma, Decima, Yekadesha, &c. 
 
 Here I would call to the recollection of my reader the affinity and 
 radical identity between Greek and Latin, and I would at the same time 
 observe, that no one ever thought of deriving either tt/jotoj from primus, 
 or primus from nrpQioc but both these may safely by abbreviation be 
 derived from protama, the m being rejected by the Greek and the t 
 by the Latin. So monami, I remind, I admonish, connects itself equally 
 with f^vacoy.ui and moneo. 
 
 In Greek we have t/jjtoj and tpk, in Sanscrit tritya and trisa. 
 
 VOL. ir. 3 a
 
 330 
 
 What I have here exhibited will be sufficient to exemplify the nature 
 of that affinity which subsists between Sanscrit and Greek. 
 
 I might now proceed to examine and to trace the affinity between 
 Sanscrit and Hebrew, which are certainly related, although not as 
 sisters, nor as parent and offspring; but for the present I forbear. I 
 shall however shortly take occasion to demonstrate that Greek and 
 Hebrew are radically one, as I have here adduced sufficient evidence to 
 prove, that a similar identity subsists between Sanscrit and Greek. It 
 will then, I trust, be clear to every one, that Sanscrit and Hehrezo have 
 a radical affinity, and may claim descent from the same progenitor, 
 existing at a given time, when the whole earth was of one language. 
 This conclusion is perfectly agreeable to the axiom, that if two things 
 are equal to a third they are equal to each other. The argument will 
 then stand thus, Sanscrit and Greek are radically one, Greek and 
 Hebrew are radically one, therefore Sanscrit and Hebrew are radically 
 one, q. e, cL
 
 Ii ' -ji ! j-jtjj.j»mu-,jj. ' i ;t- ' .)—^ VW.i. l u^i — L- 
 
 ON THE 
 
 HFSSIAM LANGUAGE. 
 
 "RIOR to the time when Peter, siirnamecl The Great, conceived the 
 benevolent intention of civiHzing his savages, they were Httle noticed 
 by more polished nations, and, for want of early records, they them-, 
 selves know nothing certain of their origin. The whole nation was 
 plunged in the grossest ignorance, like the wandering hordes of the 
 present day, who inhabit independent Tartary. It is said of Svatoslaf, 
 the son of Igor, who died in 973, that on his march he had no baggage, 
 that his food was the flesh of horses and of other animals, warmed over 
 the fire; that he carried with him no tent, and that his housings served 
 him for a bed, and his saddle for a pillow. What a description this, of 
 uncivilized wanderers ! 
 
 Respecting the ancestors, therefore, of such unlettered hordes, we 
 must be contented with conjectures. These can have no other foun- 
 dation, than what is derived from the examination of their language, 
 
 3 A 2
 
 332 
 
 which must of necessity be exceedingly defective, because they have 
 never paid that attention to orthography, which we observe in other 
 nations, in the Welch, the Irish, the English, and the French. Con- 
 sequently the etymology of their language cannot easily be traced. 
 
 It is indeed stated by Mr. Coxe, that they are descended from the 
 Slavonians of the Danube, and came from the country now called 
 Hungary and Bulgaria, in the middle of the ninth century, at which 
 time Rurik laid the foundation of his empire. We learn, however, from 
 Levesque, that the term Slavon was unknown in Europe till the fourteenth 
 century. He states, that, according to Aboulgasi Baiadour, a Tartar 
 prince and historian, and to the authors quoted by d'Herbelot, in his 
 Oriental Dictionary, the Slavi are the descendants of Seklab, as the 
 Russians are of Rouss, who were both the offspring of Japhet. In his 
 opinion, these Slavonian nations came from Tartary by way of the 
 Caspian and the Euxine Seas, into Thrace, from whence they divided. 
 
 Certain it is, that the Polish, Bohemian, Moravian, Croatian, Carin- 
 thian, Carniolan, Bosnian, Servian, Albanian, Dalmatian, Hungarian, 
 Bulgarian and Russian, are dialects of the Slavonian, and all these, in 
 the opinion of Mr. Coxe, have a greater resemblance to the Greek than 
 to each other. It is likewise from an attentive examination of the 
 Russian Grammar, and of the incomparable Dictionary written by 
 Cellarius, clear, that Latin, Greek, and Russian are allied.
 
 333 
 RUSSIAN ALPHABET OF THE NINTH CENTURY. 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 r 
 
 4 
 
 E 
 
 }K 
 
 3 Ti; I 
 
 H 
 
 K 
 
 b 
 
 • 
 
 V 
 
 g 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 J 
 
 z ts i 
 
 i 
 
 k 
 
 AMHonpcmyox 
 
 1 m noprstuph ch, kh 
 
 HmmLLlb^K)£ed;3 
 
 ch sch slich ui e in ya tli o e 
 
 A is pronounced as in far; E as in fate when preceded hy a con- 
 sonant; but in the beginning it is ie. I, as e in me; O, as in no; U, as 
 in bull; J as s in pleasure or as j in jour. Of the two forms which have 
 no vocal sound, the first hardens, the other softens the preceding con- 
 sonant. 
 
 G in the beginning of a word is often, and sometimes at the end, pro- 
 nounced as an aspirate, and thus gospod becomes hospod. 
 
 G forms the genitive in V. 
 
 The nouns have seven cases; nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, 
 vocative, instrumental, and prepositive; of which the five first conform 
 to other languages. In the instrumental they agree with the ablative of 
 Greek and Latin ; but the prepositive is peculiar to this language. It 
 is marked by the preposition O, meaning of, from, concerning. 
 
 They have four declensions for substantives and one for adjectives, in 
 all which the vocative conforms to the nominative.
 
 334 
 
 Fh'sf Declension of Suhstantive&. 
 N. rukA, G. ruki, D. ruke, A. ruku, /. rukoiu, P. o ruke; the hand: — 
 P/. N. A. rdki, G. ruk, i). rukdm, J. rukami, P. o rukakh. 
 
 Second Declension. 
 N. bardn, G. A. barana, D. baranu, T. baranom, P. o barane; a sheep: 
 PL N.A. barani, G. baranov, D. baranam, I. baianami, P. o baranakh. 
 
 Third Declension. 
 N. A. siemya, G. D. siemeni, I. siemenem, P. o siemeni; seed: 
 Fl. N.A. siemena, G. siemen, D. siemenam, I. siemenami, P. o siem- 
 enakh. 
 
 Fourth Declension. 
 N. A. mat, G. D. materi, I. materiu, P. o materi; mother: 
 PL N. materi, G. A. materei, D. materyam, I. materyami, P. o mater- 
 yakh, mothers. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 Masc. N. chistoi; Fern, chistaya; Neut. chistoe; pure, clean, chaste. 
 
 Degrees of Comparison. 
 D6rog, doroje, predorog; dear, dearer, dearest. 
 
 Nw7ierals. 
 Odin, dwa, Iri, chetare, pyat, shest, sedm, sem, osm, devyat, desyat, 
 1, 2, 3, &c. 
 
 Ordinals. 
 Pervoi, vtoroi, tretoi, chetvertai, pyatai, shestoi, sedmoi, vosmoi, 
 devyatoi, desyatoi.
 
 335 
 
 Pronouns. 
 Ya, ty, on, ona, ono; my, vu, ony, oroiii; I, thou, he, she, it, we, 
 ye, they. 
 
 N. ya, G. A. menya, D. mne, I. mnoiu, V. o mne. 
 
 Fl. N. my, G. A. nas, D. I. nam, P. o nas; I, of me, &c. 
 
 N. ty, G. A. teba, D. tebe, &c. Thou, of thee, &c. 
 
 PL N. vu, G. J, vas, D. vam, &c. 
 
 N. on, G. J. jego, D, yemu, /. yim, P. o nem; he, of him, &c. 
 
 PI. N. ony, G. y^. yikh, X). yim, 7. imi, P. o nikh. 
 
 Possessives. 
 
 N. moy, G. A. moyego, D. moyemu, I. uioyim, P. o moyem; my, 
 of my, &c. 
 
 N. nash, G. A. nashego, &c. our. Twoy, thy; svoy, his; vash, your; 
 yikh, their. 
 
 Substantive Verb, 
 
 Esm, esi, est; esmui, este, sut; am, art, is, are. 
 
 Buil, was; buili, were. 
 
 Budu, budesh, budet; budem, budete, budut, shall be. 
 
 Bud, be; buit, to be. To these the pronoun is to be prefixed. 
 
 The verbs are exceedingly irregular. By some of these, here sub- 
 milted to the inspection of the reader, he will clearly discern the genius 
 and the affinities of this lansuage. 
 
 Daiu, daesh, daet, daem, daete, daiut; I, thou, he, &c. give. 
 
 Ya daval, tui daval, on daval, mui davali, I gave, «Scc. 
 
 Dam, dash, dast; dadim, dadite, dadut; will give. 
 
 Dai, give; davat, to give.
 
 336 
 
 lem, iesh, iest; iedim, iedite, iedjat; I, &c. eat. 
 
 Ya iel, tui iel, on iel; mui ieli, &c. I, &c. ate; iedal, I had eaten. 
 
 Budu iest, will eat; iesh, eat; iest, to eat. 
 
 Verchu, vertish, vertit; vertim, vertite, vertyat, I, &c. turn. 
 
 Ya vertiel, &c. I turned; ya budu vertiet, &c. I will turn, &;c. 
 
 Verti, turn; vertiet, to turn; menya vertiet, I am turned. 
 
 Poiu, poesh, poet; poem, poete, point, 1, ^c. sing. 
 
 Stoiu, stoish, stoit; stoim, stoite, stoyat; I, Sec. stand. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Tntiyiilioe. 
 
 Bleiu 
 
 Bleyal 
 
 Zableiu 
 
 Blei 
 
 Bleyat, bleat 
 
 Bielieiu 
 
 Bieliel 
 
 Pobielieiu 
 
 Bieliei 
 
 Bieliet, pale 
 
 Voruiu 
 
 Voroval 
 
 Svoruin 
 
 Vorui 
 
 Vorovat, rob 
 
 Viedaiu 
 
 Viedal 
 
 Sviedaiu 
 
 Viedai 
 
 Viedat, know 
 
 Glotaiu 
 
 dotal 
 
 Glonu 
 
 Glotai 
 
 Glotat, swallow 
 
 Dergaiu 
 
 Dernul 
 
 Dernu 
 
 Derni 
 
 Dergat, draw 
 
 Derzaiu 
 
 Derzal 
 
 Derznu 
 
 Derzai 
 
 Derzat, dare 
 
 Deru 
 
 Oral 
 
 Fzderu 
 
 Deri 
 
 Drat, tear 
 
 Dremliu 
 
 Dremal 
 
 Vzdremliii 
 
 Dremli 
 
 Dremat, dream 
 
 Dumaiu 
 
 Dumal 
 
 Vzdumaiu 
 
 Dumai 
 
 Dumat, deem 
 
 lgu 
 
 Jeg 
 
 Ojgu 
 
 Igi 
 
 Jech, burn 
 
 Jeltieiu 
 
 Jeltiel 
 
 Pojeltieiu 
 
 Jeltiei 
 
 Jeltiet, yellow 
 
 Jivu 
 
 Jil 
 
 Pojivu 
 
 Jivi 
 
 Jit, live 
 
 Idu 
 
 Shol 
 
 Poidu 
 
 Podi 
 
 Itti, go 
 
 Kolieiu 
 
 Koliel 
 
 Okolieiii 
 
 Koli 
 
 Kolof, cool 
 
 Lgu 
 
 Lgal 
 
 Solgu 
 
 Lgi 
 
 Lgat, lie
 
 337 
 
 Present. 
 
 Prtterilt. 
 
 Vulure. 
 
 Imperalioe, 
 
 /nftniHoa, 
 
 Liju 
 
 Lizal 
 
 Liznu 
 
 Liji 
 
 Lizat, lick 
 
 Maraiu 
 
 Maral 
 
 Zamaraiu 
 
 Marai 
 
 Marat, defile 
 
 Materieiu 
 
 Materiel 
 
 Zamaterieiu 
 
 Materiel 
 
 Materet, mature 
 
 Mogu 
 
 Mog 
 
 Vozmogu 
 
 Mogl 
 
 Motschi, able 
 
 Mochu 
 
 Morhil 
 
 Moknu 
 
 Mochl 
 
 Mochit, wet 
 
 Oriu 
 
 Oral 
 
 Vzoriu 
 
 Orl 
 
 Orat, plough 
 
 Pluivu 
 
 Pluil 
 
 Budupluit 
 
 Pluivi 
 
 Pluit, float 
 
 Poiu 
 
 Piel 
 
 Poiu 
 
 Pol 
 
 Plet, sing 
 
 Susu 
 
 Sosal 
 
 Budu sosat 
 
 Sosl 
 
 Sosat, suck 
 
 Sieiu 
 
 Sieyal 
 
 Posieiu 
 
 Siei 
 
 Sieyat, sow 
 
 Temnieiu 
 
 Tern ni el 
 
 Poteninieiu 
 
 Tenmiei 
 
 Temniet, dim 
 
 Tonieiu 
 
 Toniel 
 
 Otoniu 
 
 Ton! 
 
 Tonit, thin 
 
 Khochu 
 
 Khotiel 
 
 Zakhochu 
 
 Khotl 
 
 Khotiet, choose 
 
 Veliii 
 
 Veliel 
 
 Poveliu 
 
 Veil 
 
 VeHet, command 
 
 Verchu 
 
 Vertiel 
 
 Vernu 
 
 Vernl 
 
 Vertiet, turn 
 
 Viju 
 
 Vidiel 
 
 Uviju 
 
 Vld 
 
 Vidlet, see 
 
 Goriu 
 
 G oriel 
 
 Sgoriu 
 
 Gori 
 
 Gorlet, burn 
 
 Dwoiu 
 
 Dwoil 
 
 Ydwoiu 
 
 Dwoi 
 
 Dvvolt, double 
 
 Krichu 
 
 Krichal 
 
 Zakrichu 
 
 Krlchi 
 
 Krlchat, screach 
 
 Leju 
 
 Lejal 
 
 Poleju 
 
 Lejl 
 
 Lcjat, lie down 
 
 Lochu 
 
 Lokal 
 
 Loknu 
 
 Lochl 
 
 Lokat, lap, lick 
 
 Liubliu 
 
 Liubil 
 
 Poliubliu 
 
 Liubl 
 
 Liubit, love 
 
 Moriu 
 
 Moril 
 
 Ymoriu 
 
 Mori 
 
 Morlt, kill 
 
 Siju 
 
 Sidiel 
 
 Syadu 
 
 Sjad 
 
 Sid let, sit 
 
 Troiu 
 
 Troll 
 
 Ytroiu 
 
 Troi 
 
 Troit, triple 
 
 Mru 
 
 Mer 
 
 Budu meret 
 
 Meri 
 
 Meret, die 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 
 3 F 
 

 
 338 
 
 The above selection is sufficient to mark affinity between the Russian 
 and the English. But to render this more evident, I subjoin a vocabu- 
 lary, in which the corresponding terms, however dissimilar in form, 
 essentially agree. To be satisfied of this, we must remember, what has. 
 been demonstrated, respecting abbreviation and the change of conso« 
 nants, as practised by all nations. 
 
 A VOCABULARY, ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN. 
 
 English, 
 
 Am 
 
 Anchor 
 Angle 
 Apple 
 
 Bake 
 
 Balk 
 Bawd 
 Bath 
 Be 
 
 Beard 
 Beech 
 Beggar 
 
 Billows 
 
 Bind 
 Blaze 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Esm 
 
 Yakor 
 
 Ugol 
 
 Yabloko 
 
 Peku, roast 
 
 Pech, Furnace 
 
 Palka 
 
 Svod, Fornix 
 
 Banya, Balneum 
 
 Buivaiu 
 
 Boroda, Brada 
 
 Buk 
 
 Ubogii 
 
 ^Volna Flouctus 
 
 'irobiluiu affluo 
 
 ^Vuinimaiu 
 
 cObvivaiu, Vyaju 
 
 Bletschu 
 
 English. 
 
 Boar 
 
 Book 
 
 Bore 
 
 Bow, V. 
 
 Box 
 
 Brook 
 
 Brother 
 
 Buck 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Calash 
 
 Can 
 
 Cart 
 
 Cat 
 
 Chaste 
 
 Chastity 
 
 Cheek 
 
 Chew 
 
 Bussian. 
 
 Borov, Verres 
 
 Bukva, Litera 
 
 Burav, Terebra. 
 
 Perevoju 
 
 Buk, Buxus 
 
 Rieka, Flumen 
 
 Brat 
 
 Buik, Bos 
 
 Kapusta 
 
 Kolaska, Rheda 
 
 Stakan, Poculum 
 
 Kareta 
 
 Kot 
 
 Chistuii, clean, pure 
 
 Chistota 
 
 Tscheka 
 
 Juiu
 
 339 
 
 Eicgtislt. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Choose 
 
 Khochu 
 
 Dear 
 
 Dorogii, Carus 
 
 Clay 
 
 Glina 
 
 Deem 
 
 Dumaiu,Reor,Opinor 
 
 Clock 
 
 Kolokolchik 
 
 Desk 
 
 Doska, Tabula 
 
 Coal 
 
 L^gol 
 
 Dew 
 
 Dojd, Pluvia 
 
 Coat 
 
 Koja, Pel lis 
 
 Dim 
 
 Duim, Fumus 
 
 Cock 
 
 Kucha, Strues 
 
 Dome 
 
 Dom 
 
 Cold 
 Cool 
 
 Kholod 
 Kolieiu 
 
 Door 
 
 ^Dwer, Foris 
 cDoroga, Via 
 
 Cork 
 
 Korka, Cortex 
 
 Dough 
 
 Toje, naduvaiujtumeo 
 
 Corn 
 
 Zerno 
 
 Dray 
 
 Drovni, Traha 
 
 Cow 
 
 Korova 
 
 Dream 
 
 Dremliu, Dormito 
 
 Creek 
 
 Krik, Clamor 
 
 Dross 
 
 Drojdi 
 
 Crib 
 
 Krovat, Torus 
 
 Dry 
 
 Tru, Terges 
 
 Crook 
 
 Krug, Circulus 
 
 Ear, V. 
 
 Oriu, Aro 
 
 Cry 
 
 Krichu, Clamo 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Ovtsa 
 
 Curve } 
 Curl S 
 
 Krivuii, Krivliu, Curvo 
 
 Fan 
 Field 
 
 Vieyanie 
 Pole, Ager 
 
 Dad 
 
 Died 
 
 File 
 
 Pila 
 
 Dale 
 
 Dolina, v. Hollow 
 
 Fill 
 
 NTapolniaiu 
 
 Dance 
 
 Tantsuiu, Salto 
 
 Flame 
 
 Plama 
 
 Dare 
 
 Derzaiu, Audeo 
 
 Folk 
 
 Polk, Caterva 
 
 Daughter 
 Day 
 
 Dotch and Dtscher 
 Den 
 
 Foot 
 
 CPod, Nadpodlie adpedes 
 ^Podlie & Po, Juxta 
 
 Deal 
 
 ^Dielaiu, Ago 
 cDielenie, Partior 
 
 Full 
 Furnace 
 
 Polnuii, NapolnyaiUj Impleo 
 Gorn 
 
 
 3 
 
 B 2 

 
 340 
 
 Bttgihh. 
 
 Russian, 
 
 English: 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Furrow 
 
 Borozda 
 
 Grim 
 
 Ygriumuii, Torvus 
 
 Gall 
 
 Jelch, V. Yellow 
 
 Grub, a. 
 
 Grubuii, Rudis 
 
 Garden 
 
 Ogorod 
 
 Grumble 
 
 Gremliu, 1 ono 
 
 Gargle 
 
 Gorlo, Guttur 
 
 Guild 
 
 Gildiya, Tnbus 
 
 Glass 
 
 Glaz, Lumen 
 
 Guest 
 
 CJost, Hospes 
 
 Glide 
 
 Gladkii, Laevis 
 
 Heart 
 
 Serdtse 
 
 Glisten 
 
 ^Losk, Nitor 
 cBlistaiu, Niteo 
 
 Herald 
 Hill 
 
 Ceroid 
 Kholm, Collis 
 
 Globe 
 
 Golova 
 
 Hollow 
 
 Jolobovatuii 
 
 Glue 
 
 Klei, Kleiu 
 
 Host 
 
 Gost, Hospite 
 
 Glut 
 
 Glotaiu, Glutio 
 
 Hurry 
 
 Skoro, Promtu 
 
 Go 
 
 Khoju, Eo, descend 
 
 I 
 
 Ya 
 
 
 Voskhoju, Scando 
 
 Judge 
 
 Suju, Judico 
 
 
 Ukhoju, Fugio 
 
 Ivy 
 
 Iva, Salix 
 
 
 Vskhoju, Inscendo 
 
 Knee 
 
 Kolieno, Genu 
 
 
 Otkhoju, Exeo 
 
 Knit 
 
 Nit, Filum 
 
 
 Perekhojujtranscendo 
 
 Know 
 
 Znaiu 
 
 Goat 
 
 Kozel 
 
 Knoot 
 
 Knut, Flagellum 
 
 Gold 
 
 Zolato,t;. Jelch,yellow 
 
 Lad 
 
 Molodoi 
 
 Goose 
 
 Gus 
 
 Lady 
 
 Molodaya 
 
 Grapple 
 
 Grabliu, Praedon 
 
 Laud 
 
 Slavliu 
 
 Grave 
 Graze 
 
 (Pogrebaiu, Humo 
 (Pogrebenie, Sepultura 
 Gruizu, mordeo, rodo 
 
 Lay 
 Leaa 
 
 Polagaiu, Pono 
 ^Kloniucya, Verge 
 (v. Thin
 
 341 
 
 English. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Leek 
 
 Luk, Cepa 
 
 Loaf 
 
 Khlieb, Panis 
 
 Left 
 
 Lievuii, Sinister 
 
 Lodge 
 
 Leju, Jaceo, Cubo 
 
 Letter 
 
 Bukva 
 
 
 Polojenie, Situs 
 
 Lewd 
 
 Biudnitsa, Scortutn 
 
 Love 
 
 Liubovc, Liubliu 
 
 Lick 
 
 Liju, Lingo, Lambo 
 
 Lucid 
 
 Blistaiucya, Mico 
 
 Lie 
 
 (Leju, Cubo 
 
 Lungs 
 
 Legkoe 
 
 
 CLoj & Lgu, Mentior 
 
 Lump 
 
 Lomaiu, Rumpo 
 
 Linen 
 
 Len 
 
 Mallet 
 
 Molot, Malleus 
 
 Lion 
 
 Lev 
 
 Mama 
 
 Mam, Mater 
 
 Light 
 
 Letaiu, Volo 
 
 
 Mamka, Nutrix 
 
 
 Priletaiu, Advolo 
 
 Many 
 
 Mnogii, Plerique 
 
 
 Yletaiu } 
 
 VAvolo 
 Otietaiu 3 
 
 Margin 
 
 Bereg, in Wilts called 
 Barge, Margo 
 
 
 Sletaiu, Convolo 
 
 Mash 
 
 Miesaiu, Misceo 
 
 
 Obletaiu, Circumvolo 
 
 May 
 
 Mogu, Possum, Quco 
 
 
 Pereletaiu, Transvolo 
 
 Mead 
 
 Med, Mel 
 
 
 Naletaiu, Involo 
 
 Mean 
 
 Mniu, Reor 
 
 Light 
 
 Legkii, Levis 
 
 Meat 
 
 Myaso, Caro 
 
 
 Oblegchaiu, Allevo 
 
 Meek 
 
 Myakhkii, Mollis 
 
 Lights 
 
 Legkoe, Pulmo 
 
 Midst 
 
 Mejdu, Inter 
 
 Like 
 
 Voloku, Traho 
 
 
 /-Motsch, Potentia 
 
 
 Privlekaiu, Attraho 
 
 Might 
 
 < Pomogaiu, Adjuvo 
 
 List 
 
 ^List, FoUum 
 cSluishu, Audio 
 
 Milk 
 
 vMochnuii, Potens 
 Moloko, Lac
 
 342 
 
 Ennlish. 
 
 Rua.tian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Mill, V. 
 
 Mel ill 
 
 Nest 
 
 Gnezdo, Nidus 
 
 Mill, s. 
 
 Melintsa, Melnitsa 
 
 Net 
 
 Nebod, Rete 
 
 Mire 
 
 Muravei, Formica 
 
 
 / Novuii, Novus 
 < Novina, Novitas 
 
 Mix 
 
 Meshaiu 
 
 New 
 
 Moist 
 
 Moiu, Lavo 
 
 
 ^Obnovlyaiu, Renovo 
 
 
 Muite, Lavatio 
 
 Nigh 
 
 Nad 
 
 Molt 
 
 Molchu, Sileo 
 
 Night 
 
 Notch, Nox 
 
 Month 
 
 Mesyats, Mensis 
 
 No 
 
 Ni 
 
 Moor 
 Morose 
 
 More, Mare 
 Moroz, Rigor 
 
 None 'i 
 Nought 3 
 
 Nikto, Nemo 
 
 
 rMertvuii 
 
 Nose 
 
 Nosada, Nos, Nasus 
 
 Mortal 
 
 <Smert, Mors 
 
 Nostrils 
 
 Nosdrya, Nares 
 
 
 v-Umiraiu, Morior 
 
 Oats 
 
 Oves, Avena 
 
 Mouse 
 
 Muish, Mus 
 
 One 
 
 On, Ille 
 
 jVIuck 
 
 Mokr, Moknu, Madeo 
 
 
 Edin and Odin, Unus 
 
 
 Moknu, Humesco 
 
 Ooze, Ozier 
 
 Ozero, Stagnum 
 
 
 Mokrui, Udus 
 
 Out 
 
 Ot, Extra 
 
 .^lurder 
 
 Ymertschvlyaiu 
 
 Pale 
 
 Bieliel, Pallidus 
 
 Mute 
 
 Niemui, Mutus 
 
 Palace 
 
 Palatka, Tabernacum 
 
 My 
 
 Moi, Meus 
 
 Pay 
 
 Biu, Ico 
 
 Naked 
 
 Nagii, Nudus 
 
 Peace 
 
 Pokoi, Pax 
 
 Name 
 
 Imya, Nomcn 
 
 Pit 
 
 Petschera, Caverna 
 
 Nasty 
 
 Nechistuii, Sordidus 
 
 Pierce 
 
 Proverchivaiu 
 
 Need 
 
 Nujda, Necessitas 
 
 Pleat 
 
 Pletu, Piccto 
 
 
 Nadobno, Nccessuni 
 
 Plough 
 
 Plukh, Aratrum
 
 343 
 
 English. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Poet 
 
 Poet, Cantat 
 
 Rob 
 
 Grabliu, Prffidor 
 
 Pole 
 
 Palka, Fustis 
 
 
 Grabej, Spolium 
 
 Pork 
 
 Porosenok 
 
 
 Borovstvo, Furtuni 
 
 Pot 
 
 Pile, Potus 
 
 Roof 
 
 Krovlva 
 
 Port 
 
 Vorota 
 
 Rose 
 
 Roza 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Roe 
 
 Rojdaiu, Gigno 
 
 Pray 
 
 Prosliu 
 
 Rumble 
 
 Gremhu, Tone 
 
 Probity 
 
 Pravda, Veritas 
 
 Salt 
 
 Sol 
 
 
 Spravedliwost, Id. 
 
 Scrape 
 
 Skrebu, Rado, Scabo 
 
 Rage 
 
 Vrjda, Ira 
 
 Scrub 
 
 Skoblio, ditto 
 
 Rave 
 
 Revu, Boo 
 
 Screech 
 
 Krichu, Clamo 
 
 Raven 
 
 ^Voron, Corvus 
 c Vorona, Cornix 
 
 
 Ruichu, Rugio 
 Skrejetschu Strideo 
 
 Raze 
 
 (Gruizu, Rodo 
 vRazzoryaiu, Destruo 
 
 Secret 
 See 
 
 Skruitno 
 Siyaiu, Luceo 
 
 Reach 
 
 Ruka, Manus 
 
 Seven 
 
 Sedm, Septem 
 
 Red 
 Rein 
 
 Ruijii, Rufus 
 Remen, Lorum 
 
 Sew 
 
 ^Shiu 
 
 cSvyazuivaiu, Jungo 
 
 Rib 
 
 Rebro, Costa 
 
 Shoe 
 
 Skoba 
 
 Rive 
 
 Rvu, Ruivaiu, Rupi 
 
 Shop 
 
 Pokupaiu, Caupona 
 
 
 Otruivaiu, Runipo 
 
 Siege 
 
 Osada 
 
 
 Pereruvaiu, Perseco 
 
 Sister 
 
 Sestra 
 
 
 Podruvaiu, Subseco 
 
 Sit 
 
 Siju, Sedeo 
 
 Rope 
 
 Berovka 
 
 Seat 
 
 Sidienie
 
 344 
 
 English. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Russian, 
 
 Six 
 
 Shest 
 
 Step 
 
 Stupaiu,Scando,Cedo 
 
 Sleep 
 
 Spliu, Dormio 
 
 
 Otstupaiu, Abscedo 
 
 
 Sliepota, Caecitas 
 
 
 Pristupaiu, Accedo 
 
 
 Usuiplyain, Consopio 
 
 
 Ystupaiu, Concedo 
 
 Snow 
 
 Sneg 
 
 
 Zastupaiu, Intercedo 
 
 Sock 
 
 Sokha, Aratrum 
 
 
 Nastupat, Succedere 
 
 Sodder 
 
 Soshnika, Vomer 
 Soedinyaiu, Jungo 
 
 Stool 
 
 (Stul, Sedes 
 (Stol, Mensa 
 
 Son 
 
 Suin 
 
 Stone 
 
 Postoyannuii, Stabilis 
 
 Sore 
 
 Sor, Sordes 
 
 Story 
 
 Stroiu, Struo 
 
 Sound 
 
 Voniu, Sono 
 
 Stubble 
 
 '^tebel, Stipula 
 
 
 Vieniu, Tinnio 
 
 Style 
 
 Stul, Sedes 
 
 Sow 
 
 Seiu, Sero 
 
 Suck 
 
 Sosu, Sugo 
 
 Seed 
 
 Seinya, Semen 
 
 Succour 
 
 Skoruii, Skoro, 
 
 Speed 
 
 Speshu 
 
 
 Festinanter 
 
 Spine 
 
 Spina, Dorsum 
 
 Su e 
 
 Proshu, Peto 
 
 Spur 
 
 Shpor 
 
 Sun 
 
 Solntse, Sol 
 
 Spy 
 
 fspuituivaiu 
 
 Swine 
 
 Swinya 
 
 Stand 
 
 Stoiu 
 
 Swoon 
 
 Son, Somnus 
 
 Station 
 
 Stan 
 
 Tall 
 
 Dolgii, Longus 
 
 Stall 
 
 Stoilo, Stabula 
 
 Teach 
 
 Uchu 
 
 
 Postavleinaya, Tentorium 
 
 Tear 
 
 Terzaiu, Lacero 
 
 Stavil 
 
 Stavlyaiu 
 
 
 Deru, rumpo 
 
 Steel 
 
 Stal 
 
 
 Razdiraiu, Scindo
 
 sm 
 
 English. 
 
 Teat 
 
 Thin 
 
 Thorn 
 
 Thrush 
 
 To 
 
 Tree 
 
 Trumpet 
 
 Twins 
 
 Verge 
 
 Vow 
 
 Vo^'age 
 
 War 
 
 "Ware 
 
 Water 
 
 Well 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Busixtin, 
 
 ritka 
 
 I'onkii, Tenuis 
 
 Fernie 
 
 Drosd 
 
 Do 
 
 Derevo 
 
 Truba 
 
 Dwoini 
 
 Bereg 
 
 Bojusya, Juro 
 
 Otvoju 
 
 Voina 
 
 Tovar> Merx 
 
 Voda 
 
 V^olna, Fluctus 
 
 Pshenitsa, Jits, Far 
 
 Engliitk 
 
 Wheel 
 
 When 
 
 Whole 
 
 VVidow 
 
 Will 
 
 Wind 
 
 Wolf 
 
 Wool 
 
 Wrath 
 
 Vellow 
 
 Yet 
 
 Koleso; 
 
 Kogda 
 
 Tsieluii 
 
 Vdova 
 
 Jelaiu, Volo, Avea 
 
 Volya, Voluntas 
 
 Vulno, Licet 
 
 Volnuii, Liber 
 
 Povelievaiu, Mando 
 
 Vieyanie, Flatus 
 
 Vieiu, Flo 
 
 Volk 
 
 Volna 
 
 Vrjda 
 
 Jelcb, V. Bile, Gali 
 
 Etsche 
 
 A VOCABULARY, GREEK AND RUSSIAN. 
 
 Greek, 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Russian, 
 
 ^Amvi 
 
 Ukho, Auris 
 
 TxXet, «KTOS 
 
 Moloko, Lac 
 
 ^Apoia 
 
 ApXJJCO 
 
 Oriu, Arc 
 Razzoryaiu 
 
 
 Zenaiu 
 
 Bojyio} 
 
 Pasu, Pasco 
 
 rxuCw ■) 
 
 Glotaiu 
 
 ^ov\o[j.ai 
 
 Jelaiu, Velle 
 
 rXWTT* 3 
 
 Poglotschaio 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 < 
 
 i c 
 
 ^
 
 346 
 
 Grak. 
 
 AiMfiiin. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 AutMaii. 
 
 T\ix 
 
 f Klein, Glutino 
 ' Glina, Argilla 
 
 KXa<yw 
 
 Plachu "^ 
 Oplakivaiu ^ ^"^° 
 
 
 
 KXaw 
 
 Kliu, Cuneus 
 
 ^leXeiv 
 
 Razdielenie 
 
 KXeiia 
 
 Kleiu 
 
 Aoxifji,a;^w 
 
 Dokazuivaiu 
 
 KXfK 
 
 Kliuch, Clavis 
 
 
 Daiu 
 Odievaiu 
 
 
 Khvaliu, Laudo 
 
 ' Ehu) 
 
 Jedal, Comedi 
 
 KXifw 
 
 Sklonnuii 
 
 'EiVea 
 
 Viedaiii 
 
 K.'kvoo-aiii 
 
 Sluisliu 
 
 Ev 
 
 On 
 
 'K.oiXog 
 
 Jolobovatuii 
 
 'Eoj 
 
 Svoi, Suns 
 
 'K.OvTbJ 
 
 Kopaiu 
 
 El'^lBlV 
 
 Jest 
 
 KpccjixTOg 
 
 Krovat 
 
 Epf^w 
 
 Krovlya, Tectum 
 
 Kp/xcj 
 
 Kriig 
 
 Et, 
 
 Etsciie 
 
 KpUTTTW 
 
 Kroiu, Tego, Lateo 
 
 ©ixppw 
 
 Derzaiu 
 
 
 Skruivaiu, Occulto 
 
 Qvpx 
 
 Over 
 
 
 Pokruivaiu ^Tego 
 
 KaTpcf 
 
 Vepre 
 
 
 Nakruivaiu SOperio 
 
 Kfa^ 
 
 Serdtse 
 
 
 Otkruituii, i\pertus 
 
 Kv;tv| 
 
 Kit 
 
 KuAfO) 
 
 Koleso, Rota 
 
 K/o) 
 
 Clioju, Eo, Ambulo, Hum 
 
 Ax€e. KxIj-^xvcc 
 
 Ylovljaiu, Lovlenie 
 
 
 ifkhoju, Fugio 
 
 Asujjai 
 
 Blistaiu and Blesk 
 
 
 r'rokhoju, Penetro 
 
 Meye^og 
 
 Pomogaiu 
 
 1 
 
 ^rikhojii, Accedo, adeo 
 
 Mio-iyw 
 
 Vlieshaiu 
 
 ( 
 
 )tklioju,abcedo,abeo 
 
 Mu>.n 
 
 VIelnitsa
 
 347 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Ruiiiati. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 ituSM'MI, 
 
 NfOf 
 
 Novuii, Novus 
 
 OoXt;? 
 
 Bolshe, Plus 
 
 Tlaita. Bt« 
 
 Biu, Caedo, Verbero 
 
 ITsf. TTOiSof 
 
 Pod, Infra 
 
 
 Ubivaiu, Occido 
 
 
 Podlie, Juxta 
 
 
 Otbivaiu, Reverbero 
 
 T/IO 
 
 Pred, Prae 
 
 Jliipw 
 
 ^Burav and Napare, 
 
 TTLI^O? 
 
 Buk 
 
 
 f Terebra 
 Otvoryaiu, Aperio 
 
 Pio.'. eppevnx ^ 
 'Pu'«$ S 
 
 Rieka, Rivus 
 
 
 Otversto, Aperte 
 
 "E/Txcii. qu 
 
 Stoiu 
 
 
 Zapiraiu, Operio 
 
 
 Perestaiu, Cesso, absisio 
 
 neTO(*«i 
 
 Ptitsa, Avis 
 
 
 ^Stoyanie and Stan, 
 
 
 Pticlika, Avicula 
 
 
 } Statio 
 
 iii'vw. n/o! 
 
 Piu, Bibo, Poto 
 
 
 PredstoiiJ, Adsto 
 
 
 Pite, Pot us, Potio 
 
 
 Postoyanstvo, Con- 
 
 
 Pet, Potor 
 
 
 stantia 
 
 Ili'VW 
 
 Pitiii, Potulentus 
 
 
 Otstoiu, Disto 
 
 TiW 
 
 Vuipivaiu, Epoto 
 
 
 Ostaiusya, Resto 
 
 
 Vuipit, Ebibere 
 
 St£X£%OJ 
 
 Stol, Mcnsa 
 
 ITurTa) 
 
 Padaiu 
 
 STfV«C^ 
 
 Stenu 
 
 rioTj'^« 
 
 Napoitsya, Imbibere 
 
 ST^WWUfi!.* 
 
 Stroiu, Construo 
 
 IlAla; 
 
 Plavaiu, Navigo, Fluito 
 
 ToT£ 
 
 Togda, Tunc 
 
 
 Plavanie, Navigatio 
 
 cDXo$ 
 
 Losk 
 
 
 Vuipluivaiu, Enavigo 
 
 Oom 
 
 Zvoniu, Sono 
 
 nxfM 
 
 Polnuii, Plenus 
 
 ^tfaTvip 
 
 Brat 
 
 
 Napolnyaiu, Impleo 
 
 XoAvi 
 
 Jelch 
 
 
 3 
 
 c 2 

 
 348 
 
 EXTRACT FROM A VOCABULARY, LATIN AND Rl SJ!IAN. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 Agnus 
 
 Agnets 
 
 Jugum 
 
 [go 
 
 Prope ■) 
 
 Podlie 
 
 A per 
 
 Vepr 
 
 Jus 
 
 Sud 
 
 Ad pedes ) 
 
 
 Angulus 
 
 Ugol 
 
 Latro, V. 
 
 Laiu 
 
 Pulvis 
 
 Puil 
 
 Asellus 
 
 Oslik 
 
 Lingo 
 
 Liju 
 
 Rugio 
 
 Ruikaiu 
 
 Baculus 
 Barba 
 
 Palka 
 Boroda 
 
 Linum 
 Malleus 
 
 Len 
 
 Molot 
 
 Rapio ) 
 Abripio 5 
 
 Otruivaiu 
 
 Brachium 
 
 Ruka 
 
 Mare 
 
 More 
 
 Ros 
 
 Rosa 
 
 Cast us 
 
 Chistui 
 
 Margo 
 
 Bereg 
 
 Rupi 
 
 Rvu 
 
 Cudo 
 
 Kuiu 
 
 Medium 
 
 Mejdu 
 
 Abrumpo 
 
 Otruivaiu 
 
 Culmen 
 
 Kholnij Jiigum 
 
 Mens 
 
 Mnienie 
 
 Ructo 
 
 Ruigaiu 
 
 Domus 
 
 Dom 
 
 Molo 
 
 Meliu, 
 
 Sal 
 
 Sol 
 
 Duo 
 
 ■ 
 
 Dvajdui 
 
 Morior 
 
 Mru 
 
 Scutum 
 
 Pschit 
 
 Flamma 
 
 Planien 
 
 Mors 
 
 Smert 
 
 Seco 
 
 Seku 
 
 Furor 
 
 V^oruiu 
 
 Mugio 
 
 Muichu 
 
 Sedeo 
 
 Siju 
 
 Fur 
 
 Vor 
 
 Nescio 
 
 Meznaiu 
 
 Sosedaiu 
 
 SimuljSedeo 
 
 Gluten 
 
 Glina 
 
 Ovis 
 
 Ovtsa 
 
 Sedile 
 
 Sidiel 
 
 Glutio 
 
 filotaiu 
 
 Plango 
 
 Plachu 
 
 Semen 
 
 Semya 
 
 Ignis 
 
 Ogon 
 
 Plecto 
 
 Pletu 
 
 Septem 
 
 Sedm 
 
 Inclioo 
 
 Nachinaiu 
 
 Porta 
 
 Vorola 
 
 Siccus 
 
 Sukhii 
 
 Induo 
 
 NTadievaiu 
 
 Post 
 
 Poslie 
 
 Siliqua 
 
 Shelukha 
 
 Itum 
 
 rtti 
 
 Precor 
 
 Proshu 
 
 Sol 
 
 Solntse 
 
 Judico 
 
 "^iiju 
 
 Pridie 
 
 Pcred 
 
 Somus 
 
 Son 
 
 Judex 
 
 Sudya 
 
 Probus 
 
 Pravednui 
 
 Sono 
 
 Zvoniu
 
 349 
 
 tatin. 
 
 Uussian. 
 
 Lafin. 
 
 nussiun. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 /i usiiatt. 
 
 Sordes 
 
 Sor 
 
 Valde 
 
 Velikii 
 
 V'ico 
 
 Vyaju 
 
 Stipula 
 
 Stebel 
 
 Veho 
 
 V^czu 
 
 
 Obvivaiu 
 
 Succus 
 
 Sok 
 
 Ventus 
 
 Vietr 
 
 Vivo 
 
 Jivu 
 
 Suo;o 
 
 Sos 
 
 Ventilo 
 
 Vieiu 
 
 Vita 
 
 Jivot 
 
 Tenuis 
 
 Tonkii 
 
 Video 
 
 Viju 
 
 Voluntas 
 
 Volya 
 
 Tepor 
 Tero 
 
 Teplota 
 
 ^Tru 
 
 cRastiraiu 
 
 Verto ; 
 Torqueo 3 
 
 Verchu 
 
 Volo 
 
 Jelaiu 
 
 We have here taken a very transient view of the Russian language; 
 yet from this we may venture to affirm, not merely, that a considerable 
 part of it has an affinity to English, German, Spanish, Galic, Sanscrit, 
 Latin, Greek and Hebrew; but that these languages are radically one. 
 
 It is clear, that the Russians have been fond of forming new com- 
 pounds and of abbreviating old ones. It is equally clear, that thej 
 have not only substituted for each other consonants, which have organic 
 affinity, but have adopted many arbitrary changes peculiar to themselves, 
 and, like other nations, have, by dint of their mutations and contrac- 
 tions, made one word represent various notions, with which originally it 
 had no connexion. 
 
 In the analysis of Russian expressions we have more than common 
 difficulties. Had we a succession of writers, from remote antiquity, as 
 in Greek, to which we might refer, we should then be able to trace the 
 successive changes, which have happened to this language. But whilst 
 the Slavonian hordes wandered with their flocks over extensive plains, or
 
 350 
 
 hid themselves in the dark recesses of their forests, they had not the use 
 of letters. We must not therefore wonder, that in the Russian language 
 there should be numerous expressions, which cannot be analysed. These 
 are evidently compounds; but so contracted, that the root can no longer 
 be discovered. 
 
 In those words, which have been selected for my vocabularies, the 
 novice in languages may be at a loss to trace affinity between Russian, 
 Greek and Latin; but, to remove his difficulties, he must ever bear in 
 mind, that abbreviations are the wheels of language, the wings of 
 Mercury. These, therefore, to the adept, will not create embarrassment, 
 and much less will the mutation of consonants, such as all nations 
 have adopted. 
 
 By other mutations the novice may be exceedingly perplexed, when 
 change of vowels, change of consonants, and change of meaning, in 
 any given word, unite to conceal the radical expression and the original 
 notion from which he is to trace its deviation. Of these, numerous 
 instances have occurred to us in the progress of our investigations.
 
 SJLAYONIAW, 
 
 VV HAT has been said of the Russian, will apply to the Slavonian; 
 but it must be observed, that the former is a dialect of the latter, which 
 embraces Lusatian, Polish, Bohemian, Moravian, Croatian, Carinthian, 
 Carniolan, Bosnian, Servian, Albanian, Dalmatian, Hungarian, Bul- 
 garian, &c. 
 
 Their letters resemble, but are not all precisely the same in figure. 
 Both conform nearly to the Greek. 
 
 This language, so extensively diffused, is exceedingly corrupt. It is 
 evidently derived from some dialect of the Greek, chiefly from the 
 iEolic, and has some connection with the Sanscrit. This will appear, 
 when we examine the vocabulary, to which I immediately proceed. I 
 might have given this in the Appendix, but I am of opinion, it will be 
 more profitable to the student to place it here. It is not to be expected, 
 that the affinity should be self-evident in every word ; but the practised 
 eye will readily discern features of resemblance.
 
 352 
 
 « 
 
 It must be observed, thai A is pronounced as in far; E, in the begin« 
 
 iiing of a word, like yea, and in the middle like A in fate; J like S in 
 
 pleasure; I, like E in me; Y, as U in bull; shtch, as in parish-church i 
 
 lU, as U in cure; UI, as Y, or rather as UI in liquid. 
 
 But A, if followed by two consonants, becomes O, and the consonants 
 
 are separated by O; thus glaka becomes goloka. 
 
 SLAVONIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 Siattmian, 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Aggl 
 
 Agnets 
 
 Agnus, af^vOi, 
 
 Bitcli, V. Bitie 
 B,letchanie 
 
 Flail 
 Lightning 
 
 Boroda, 
 
 ^Barba, a 
 ' beard 
 
 Aer 
 
 
 Bleyu 
 
 /3Xv]%ft;(ji.i3ri 
 
 Borov 
 
 Boar 
 
 j\lector 
 
 aXey-TCiip 
 
 Blcyaniya 
 
 Balatus 
 
 Boroniu 
 
 A furrow 
 
 Aris 
 
 kp^,i 
 
 Blistanie 
 
 Splendour 
 
 Botiu 
 
 ■niaivai 
 
 Banya 
 Bdiu 
 
 Balneum 
 Video, Vigilo 
 
 Bloud 
 Bled 
 
 A blot 
 Pallidus 
 
 Botelyi 
 
 ^ Fat, butter 
 
 Bditel 
 
 Vigil 
 
 Bledneyu 
 
 Pallesco 
 
 Bruda 
 
 Beard 
 
 Bdyenie 
 
 Vio-ilia 
 
 Blyadibyi 
 
 Blatero 
 
 Brat 
 
 Frater 
 
 Bercza 
 
 A birch 
 
 Bodou 
 
 A bodkin 
 
 P.rov 
 
 Brow, fiCppuj 
 
 Beru 
 
 (pe.fic 
 
 Bojva 
 
 A vow 
 
 Brod 
 
 Ford 
 
 Bilo 
 
 Fl age 11 urn 
 
 Boi 
 
 War 
 
 Bouk 
 
 A beech 
 
 Biba 
 
 A batUe 
 
 Bolma 
 
 Full, %Xio./ 
 
 Bouivol 
 
 Bubalus 
 
 Bitie 
 
 A beating 
 
 Boloto 
 
 Bl()t,Lutni). 
 
 Bouravok 
 
 A borer 
 
 Bitch 
 
 A flail 
 
 Bolschii 
 
 Mil) or, Plu.- 
 
 Bourav 
 
 Bore 
 
 Biyou 
 
 Bix^w Ttxlca 
 
 Borenic 
 
 Worry 
 
 Bouraviu 
 
 I bore
 
 353 
 
 Slavonian. \ 
 
 .Buk 
 
 Bjvayu • 
 Byvanie 
 Byvait 
 
 Beg 
 
 Bejdenie 
 
 Bclia 
 
 Bejdou 
 
 Vaga 
 
 Vajdenie 
 
 Valenie 
 Yalyaia 
 Vas 
 Vat 
 Vdova 
 Velii 
 Vedro 
 Velenie 
 Veliu 
 Vepr 
 A'crtlo 
 Vert ; 
 
 Vertograd 5 
 VOL. ir. 
 
 A. beech 
 
 Be 
 
 Being 
 
 Fit 
 
 Fuga 
 
 Bia 
 
 Pale 
 
 WeJcrh 
 
 c Accusatio 
 
 Fall 
 
 V'oivo 
 
 Vestruni 
 
 Vat 
 
 Vidua 
 
 vhpLX 
 
 A. com man d 
 
 I will command 
 
 A per 
 Terebra 
 
 [Tortus 
 
 SliKOnian. 
 
 Vcrch 
 
 Vesna 
 
 Vetchost 
 
 Vetchii 
 
 Vetschaiu 
 
 Vctschou 
 
 Vetscbanit 
 
 Vetscher 
 
 Vjigaiu 
 
 Vzemaiii 
 
 Vidiniyi 
 
 Vid 
 
 V^igdou 
 
 Virscha 
 
 Vitie 
 
 Vino pi tie 
 
 Viiu 
 
 Vienie j 
 
 Vkaus 
 
 Vklonyaiu 
 
 Viagaiu 
 
 Vlas 
 
 Vlekou 
 
 Vmiecheiiie 
 
 Vertex 
 
 Vernus 
 
 Vetustas 
 
 Vetus 
 
 V^eterasco 
 
 Invetero 
 
 fnveteratio 
 
 Vespera 
 
 y.xio) 
 
 Assume 
 Visibiles 
 
 Video 
 Verse 
 Tie 
 
 Slavonian, 
 
 Vmeryaiu 
 Voda 
 
 Vodoupiiu ^ 
 Vodopitie S 
 Vojdu 
 Vozdvoyaiu 
 Vozdaiu 
 Vozlagaiu 
 Vozlojenie ^ 
 Vozlejou 3 
 Vozmezdie ") 
 
 leo 
 
 gustus, yev^u 
 
 Impoiio, lay on 
 Villus, pilus 
 
 tXnciJ 
 
 3d 
 
 V^ozmezdyaiu 
 
 Vozmnjno 
 
 Vostanie 
 
 Vostorgaiu 
 
 Voina 
 
 Vol 
 
 Volokou 
 
 Volenie 
 
 Volopas 
 
 Volna 
 
 
 { 
 
 Water 
 
 V'eho, duoo 
 Reduplico 
 Reddo 
 Lay 
 
 Lodge, lay 
 
 Retribuo 3 
 Might, may 
 
 qxcri; 
 
 Tear 
 
 War 
 
 Bull 
 
 i'Xxo; 
 
 Volitio 
 
 Bubulcus 
 
 Lana, "svool 
 
 Veil us 
 
 Wool, V.
 
 354 
 
 'Slavonian, 
 
 Volk, XvHog 
 
 Voliu 
 Vop 
 Vopiiu 
 Vor 
 
 Vordiu 
 
 Vosk 
 
 Voskormlyaiu 
 
 Vostanie 
 
 Vostaiu 
 
 Vostorgaiu 
 
 Vpadaiu 
 
 Yrana, vorona 
 
 Vrata 
 
 Vratar 
 
 Vryvaiu 
 
 Vreiu 
 
 Vscliuveziiji 
 
 Vtjkaiu 
 Vehod 
 Vtschera 
 Vschivaiu 
 
 Lupus, wolf 
 
 Vulpes 
 Volo, will 
 Vociferatio 
 /3oft;. vocifero 
 Fur 
 Furo 
 
 Cera, wax 
 Nutrio 
 
 xvxquJic 
 Tear 
 
 'TTiTT/iJ 
 
 Porta 
 
 Porter 
 
 Infodio, furrow 
 
 Brew 
 
 ^Omnibus 
 
 c Amicus 
 
 Stick, Infigo 
 
 Go 
 
 Ilcri 
 
 Insuo 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 Vypivaiu 
 Vedaiu 
 Veiu 
 
 Vetr, Vietr 
 Vyajou 
 
 Gai 
 
 Gat 
 
 Gladkii 
 
 Glaber 
 
 Glava 
 
 Glagol 
 
 Glagoliu 
 
 Glas 
 
 Glina 
 
 Glotka 
 
 Gnezdo 
 
 Golouve ^ 
 
 Golub S 
 
 Golot 
 
 Gora 
 
 Gorve 
 
 Gorka 
 
 Gorschc 
 
 Ebibo 
 
 oihcc. eiSoi 
 Ventiio 
 Ventus 
 Vincio, vico 
 (Comix, a 
 ^ jay 
 
 Strata via in 
 paludibus 
 
 K£(p«Xvi. globe 
 Kcyog 
 
 Vox, y\cc(r(rx 
 
 yMx. Argilla 
 
 Gutlur, y^OTTa; 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Glacies 
 
 opog 
 
 Curvus 
 
 7l 
 
 opog 
 
 Worse 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 Gorenie 
 
 Goriu 
 
 Gospod 
 
 Gost 
 
 Gradeg 
 
 Grad 
 
 G orod 
 
 Grad 
 
 Gramota 
 
 Grau 
 
 Gratsch 
 
 Grakaiu 
 
 Grov 
 
 Grount 
 
 Gryzou 
 
 Greiu 
 
 Goriu 
 
 Gryaz 
 
 Go us 
 
 Davaiu 
 
 Davatel 
 
 Datcl 
 
 zupoa, "li^S 
 
 KUCJOc llOSt 
 
 H OS pes 
 (Host, guest 
 A hedfje 
 
 A city, -1^;; 
 
 Grando 
 
 <ypu\i-[j.x 
 opioy. limes 
 nopci'^, corvus 
 y.pay.i^a. croak 
 Grave 
 (The base 
 ( ground 
 Graze 
 
 [ warm 
 
 Mud, dirt 
 Goose 
 Si$ct}ii.i. do 
 
 Dator
 
 355 
 
 Slavonian: 
 
 Davanie 
 
 Davno 
 
 Daleko 
 
 Daliu 
 
 Dan 
 
 Darovatel 
 
 Daroni 
 
 Darouiu 
 
 Dva 
 
 Dvadesyat 
 
 Dvajdy 
 
 Dver 
 
 Dvernick 
 
 Dvoiu 
 
 Dennji 
 
 Den 
 
 Dennitsa 
 
 Derzaiu 
 
 Derou 
 
 Desyat 
 
 Dnes 
 
 Do 
 
 Dodaiu 
 
 Diu 
 Far off 
 
 Dally 
 Tributum 
 
 Gratis, donuiu 
 
 Sctipsacv 
 Svoj. two 
 
 \^is;inii 
 
 Duo, bis 
 
 Door 
 
 Janitor 
 
 Divido, duo 
 
 Diurnus 
 
 Dies 
 
 Lucifer 
 
 Dare 
 
 Tear 
 
 Decern 
 
 Hodie 
 
 To, at, in 
 
 Addo 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Dolina 
 
 A dale 
 
 Jena 
 
 ywv) 
 
 Doma 
 Dom 
 
 Domi 
 Domus 
 
 Jivou, Jvu 
 
 ((ipdu}. vivo, 
 
 C chew 
 
 Doska 
 
 Desk 
 
 Jivot 
 
 Vita 
 
 Dostoit 
 
 Decet 
 
 Jija 
 
 Jusculum, juice 
 
 Dotsch 
 
 Daughter 
 
 Za 
 
 Six 
 
 Drasrii 
 
 Dear 
 
 Zaviduiu 
 
 [nvideo 
 
 Dragost 
 
 Caritas 
 
 Zagryzaiu 
 
 Graze 
 
 Drevo 
 
 Tree 
 
 Zakalaiu 
 
 Jugulo 
 
 Drova 
 Dremliu 
 
 Ligna 
 Dormito 
 
 Zaklej'aiu 
 
 f Agglutino 
 ^Glue 
 
 Drojdie 
 
 Dross 
 
 Zakrivljaiu 
 
 Incurvo 
 
 Drosd 
 
 Thrush 
 
 Zakryvaiu 
 
 yipUTTTu 
 
 Dymno 
 
 Fumosus,dim 
 
 Zalagaiu 
 
 Lay down 
 
 Delenie 
 
 Deal 
 
 Zgaraiu 
 
 Comburo 
 
 Delia 
 
 Deal 
 
 Zerno 
 
 Graiium,corn 
 
 Ed in 
 
 Unus 
 
 Zima 
 
 Hyems 
 
 Ediniu 
 
 Unio 
 
 Zigaiu 
 
 Hio 
 
 Epkop 
 Esm 
 
 ETTiO-KOTrOf 
 
 Sum, Ei[ji.{ 
 
 Zlato 
 
 rCold, sec 
 cyellow 
 
 Jovaiii 
 
 Chew 
 
 Znaemyi 
 
 Notus 
 
 Jgou 
 
 HXiU 
 
 Znak 
 
 Sign urn 
 
 Jelt 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Znanienaii5 2 
 
 rv)[j^lKJVW 
 
 Jeltsch 
 
 Fel, bile, gall 1 
 
 Znanie •: 
 
 /VUO'lj 
 
 3 
 
 D 2 
 

 
 556 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Znaiu 
 
 Know 
 
 Kareta 
 
 Carpentum 
 
 Legkost 
 
 Levitas 
 
 Igla 
 
 Acus 
 
 Karman 
 
 Crumena 
 
 Legtschou 
 
 Levo 
 
 Igo 
 
 Jugum, yoke 
 
 Kaya 
 
 ■rrOlx 
 
 Lokaiu ) 
 
 XSI%C-J 
 
 Idu 
 
 Eg 
 
 Kii 
 
 Quis, qui 
 
 Ligu ) 
 
 Lick 
 
 Idi 
 
 rto 
 
 Kliniu 
 
 •aXuu 
 
 Luk 
 
 Leek 
 
 Iz 
 
 ^Exjincom- 
 
 Kliutsch 
 
 Clavis 
 
 Litra 
 
 AiTpiZ 
 
 c position 
 
 Klei 
 
 y.oxxcc, tyXiz 
 
 Liubliu 
 
 I love 
 
 
 ( Excorio, 
 
 1 
 Koja 
 
 Coat 
 
 Liubliu 
 
 Lascivio 
 
 Izdiraiu 
 
 Kw^ohipoi 
 
 Kozel 
 
 Caper, goat 
 
 Loje 
 
 Lectus, lodging; 
 
 Izytie 
 
 Evito 
 
 Koleso 
 
 Calash 
 
 Malakiya 
 
 [j.aXz'Aix 
 
 Iskonpdio 
 
 Redimo, caupo 
 
 Kopiu 
 
 fleap 
 
 Marnier 
 
 Marmor 
 
 Izlagaiu 
 
 Educo 
 
 Korkaiu 
 
 Crocito 
 
 Mater 
 
 Mater 
 
 lito 
 
 (UTog 
 
 K,ost 
 
 Ossis 
 
 Mejdou 
 
 Mediuni- 
 
 Izpivaiu 
 
 Ebibo 
 
 Kot 
 
 Cat us, cat 
 
 Mladyi 
 
 Lad 
 
 Iztiraiu 
 
 Extero 
 
 Krakaiu 
 
 Crocito 
 
 Mleko 
 
 Milk 
 
 11 
 
 Uligo 
 
 Kratiu 
 
 Curto 
 
 Mne 
 
 Mihi 
 
 Im 
 
 Him 
 
 Krebat 
 
 Crib 
 
 Mnee 
 
 Minus 
 
 Iskanie 
 Ispolnenie 
 
 Scan 
 Full, fill 
 
 Krest 
 Krokos 
 
 Crux 
 Crocus 
 
 Mogoutuyi 
 
 (Mighty 
 
 Clxsye^og 
 
 Istina 
 
 x'kv.^eiz. iq/,ij.i 
 
 Koub 
 
 Cup 
 
 Mogou 
 
 May, can 
 
 Istiayaiu 
 
 Take out 
 
 Koubscliin 
 
 Lagena 
 
 Mojno 
 
 Possible 
 
 Ischod 
 
 i^ohog 
 
 Koupouiu 
 
 Caupo 
 
 Moknou 
 
 Muck, madco 
 
 Kabak 
 
 Caupona 
 
 Legu 
 
 Lie 
 
 Mo k rot a 
 
 Humiditas, muck 
 
 Kapousta 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Legkic 
 
 Light 
 
 Mokryi 
 
 Hutnidus, muck
 
 35r 
 
 S7flroJii"a«. 
 
 
 Slavonian, 
 
 
 Slavonian. f 
 
 
 Monach 
 
 i^fOj 
 
 Napadaiu 
 
 f I fall into 
 
 Oralo i 
 
 A.ratrum 
 
 Monaschkii 
 
 1*0 VOf 
 
 
 (ttittIo; 
 
 Oranie 
 
 A ratio 
 
 t 
 
 More 
 
 Mare 
 
 Nasch 
 
 Noster 
 
 Oratch 
 
 \rator 
 
 Mor. 
 
 j.xpxiVCil. plagae 
 
 Ne 
 
 Ne, non 
 
 Organ 
 
 Jrganura 
 
 Moch 
 
 Muscus 
 
 Nebidnyi 
 
 Obscure 
 
 ^)riu 
 
 Aro 
 
 Motschiusya 
 
 Madeo 
 
 Nemog 
 
 Nequeo 
 
 Osel 
 
 Asellus 
 
 Motscheu 
 ]\Irou 
 
 ^Esm valco, 
 ' I am mighty 
 Morior 
 
 Neznaiu 
 Neposstoya- 
 
 istbouiu 
 
 Fgnoro 
 ^Instabilis 
 
 Otels 
 
 Otsko 
 
 Paba 
 
 Pater, aTTa 
 
 Ocellus 
 
 Pavo 
 
 Moucha 
 
 Musca 
 
 Neprochodno 
 
 Go 
 
 Padaiu 
 
 TTiTTW 
 
 My 
 
 We 
 
 Nige 
 
 Nee 
 
 Pakidaiu 
 
 Red do 
 
 Mya 
 
 Me 
 
 Ni 
 
 Non 
 
 Pakipoiu 
 
 Recanto 
 
 Myaso 
 
 Mess, meat 
 
 Nibo 
 
 Nove 
 
 Pastbinnyi 
 
 Pascuus 
 
 Nadaiu 
 
 Appono 
 
 Nozdri 
 
 Nares 
 
 Pastyr 
 
 Pastor 
 
 Nagii 
 
 I Nudus, 
 ( Naked 
 
 Nos- 
 Notsch 
 
 Nasus- 
 Nox 
 
 Pachotnik 
 Pekou 
 
 Agricola 
 Coquo 
 
 Najou 
 
 Nudo 
 
 Oba 
 
 Ambo 
 
 Periu 
 
 Prius 
 
 Nadlagaiu 
 
 Lay, appono 
 
 Obitaiu 
 
 Habito 
 
 Pika 
 
 Pike 
 
 Nadstoiu 
 
 [nslo 
 
 Obtscha 
 
 Ovis 
 
 Platsclilibyi 
 
 Plango 
 
 Nakrybaiu 
 
 ■/.pvT^Tca 
 
 Obes 
 
 Oats 
 
 Platschou 
 
 Ploro 
 
 Nalaganie 
 
 Lay, impositio 
 
 Ogn 
 
 [o-nis 
 
 Pletou 
 
 Plico, pleat 
 
 Nalagaiu 
 
 Lay,impono 
 
 Ognitschc 
 
 Rogus 
 
 Plabaiu 
 
 Fluito 
 
 Nalojnitsa 
 
 r Lodging, 
 (Concubine 
 
 Oko 
 On 
 
 Oculus 
 One, he 
 
 Planta 
 Plamen 
 
 Plank 
 Flamrna.
 
 358 
 
 Slavonian, 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Pobar 
 
 Coquus, ^eTrl 111 
 
 Predbedatel 
 
 A prophet 
 
 Repa 
 
 Rapum 
 
 Poberyaiu 
 
 Probo 
 
 Predanie 
 
 Proditio 
 
 Sakos 
 
 Saccus 
 
 Pogrebaiu 
 
 ^ Grave, 
 cl bury 
 
 Predlog 
 Predpomogaiu 
 
 Prepositio 
 Auxilio 
 
 Sam 
 Saraoliubie 
 
 Same 
 
 love, self love 
 
 Pod 
 
 Pede, under 
 
 Presbyter 
 
 Presbyter 
 
 Sberdel 
 
 Bore, terebra 
 
 Podabaiu 
 
 Trado 
 
 Pribiraiu 
 
 I collect 
 
 Sbiniya 
 
 Swine 
 
 Podarok 
 
 Donum 
 
 Pridanie 
 
 Additio 
 
 Se 
 
 Ecct; 
 
 Podatel 
 
 Dator 
 
 Prisedaiu 
 
 Assideo 
 
 Sedm 
 
 Septem 
 
 Poddanyi 
 
 Subject 
 
 Probijvou 
 
 Praevideo 
 
 Serdtsc 
 
 Cor 
 
 Podpadaiu 
 
 TTiTTTW 
 
 Prodaiu 
 
 V'endo 
 
 Slouga 
 
 Servus, sluggard 
 
 Pokou 
 
 Pax 
 
 Protibo, lejou 
 
 Coiitrajaceo, lay 
 
 Slepyi 
 
 Caecum, sleep 
 
 Polagaiu 
 
 Lay, pono 
 
 Profibobozdaiu 
 
 Reddo 
 
 Slepiu 
 
 Cascum facio 
 
 Polk 
 
 Folk, agmen 
 
 Prcjtibo- 2 
 
 Contranavigo 
 
 Smert 
 
 Mors 
 
 Pole 
 
 Field 
 
 plabaiu S 
 
 ttAuVW 
 
 Sneg 
 
 Nix 
 
 Polnos 
 
 ■n-oXvg 
 
 Prochojdenie 
 
 Peregrinatio, go 
 
 Sol 
 
 Sal 
 
 Pomogaiu 
 
 Might, aJjiivo 
 
 Ptitsa 
 
 ttSTSIVOV 
 
 Soliu 
 
 Salio 
 
 Posled 
 
 Postea 
 
 Pout 
 
 oSog 
 
 Solitsche 
 
 Sol 
 
 Posva2;aiu 
 
 Spouse, uubo 
 
 Pyat 
 
 TrBUTS 
 
 Son 
 
 Sopor, somnus 
 
 Potir 
 
 ^OTi^piOV 
 
 Razstoiu 
 
 Disto, «7V5|j^i 
 
 Sosets 
 
 mamma, suck 
 
 Poia 
 
 Cano, TOivjfiiz 
 
 flasterzanie 
 
 Ruptio, tear 
 
 Sosedaiu 
 
 Sedeo, simul 
 
 X^rabda 
 
 Probus 
 
 Remeu 
 
 Rein 
 
 Sopletaiu 
 
 Connecto, TrXf%a 
 
 Prabo 
 
 Probus 
 
 Rosa 
 
 Ros 
 
 Sopostat 
 
 Rebellis, sto 
 
 Prabji 
 
 Probus 
 
 Rouka 
 
 Reach, hand 
 
 Spliu 
 
 I sleep 
 
 I'iMbosoudcls 
 
 Justus, piobus 
 
 Rytchou 
 
 Rugio 
 
 Spanie 
 
 Sopor
 
 359 
 
 Slavonian, 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 Slavonian. 
 
 
 SpogrebctJu 
 
 ^Gravc, 
 Csimul sepelio 
 
 Styajou 
 Styajanie 
 
 Possldeo 
 Possessio 
 
 Tcmno 
 
 Tern ni 11 
 
 Dim 
 [ dim 
 
 Spech 
 
 rFestinatio 
 
 Stynjatel 
 Soudiya 
 
 Possessor 
 ludex 
 
 Tcper 
 Teplota 
 
 Fcpid 
 Tepor 
 
 Speschou 
 
 ^Festino 
 
 (g-^evSa 
 
 Soujdou 
 Souchoya 
 
 Judico 
 A rid a 
 
 Tcpleiu 
 Terzaiu 
 
 Caleo, tepeo 
 Tear 
 
 Sosou 
 
 Sugo, libera 
 
 Soucho 
 
 S'lcch 
 
 Ternie 
 
 Thorn 
 
 Statiya 
 
 Status 
 
 Soutschou 
 
 Sicco 
 
 Tertie 
 
 Tritura 
 
 Stabliii 
 
 Stabilis 
 
 Sedalitsche 
 
 Sedilc 
 
 Tertyi 
 
 Trims 
 
 Steniu 
 
 qBvct^a. qsuco 
 
 Sejou 
 
 Sedeo 
 
 Titki 
 
 Teat 
 
 Stol 
 
 Mensa, stool 
 
 Seden 
 
 Sessio 
 
 Tigr 
 
 Tigress 
 
 Stenananie 
 
 qevxyij.oi 
 
 Sekou 
 
 Seco 
 
 I'kanie 
 
 Textura 
 
 Stomacli 
 
 Stomachus 
 
 Semya 
 
 Semen 
 
 Togda 
 
 Tunc, TOTS 
 
 Stamna 
 
 qaij.vo; 
 
 Seiu 
 
 Semi no 
 
 Togdaje 
 
 Eodem tempore 
 
 Stopa 
 
 Pedale, spatium 
 
 Seyanie 
 
 Seminatio 
 
 Tt)rgaiii 
 
 Lacero, tear 
 
 Stopanogi 
 
 The sole of a foot 
 
 Seyatel 
 
 Sator 
 
 Trapeza 
 
 Tpzva^iz 
 
 Stopanojnaya 
 
 Vestidium 
 
 Siudy 
 
 Semino 
 
 Trepetshou 
 
 Trepid 
 
 Stoiu 
 
 Sto, maneo 
 
 Taler 
 
 Talerus 
 
 Tretii 
 
 Tertius 
 
 Stoiuokrest 
 
 ^Quiesco, 
 'Circumsto 
 
 Talant 
 Teboe 
 
 Talentum 
 Tuuni 
 
 Tret 
 Tretschou 
 
 Tertia 
 Strido 
 
 Stoilo 
 
 Stabulum 
 
 Tboi, Tvoi 
 
 Tuus 
 
 Tri 
 
 Tpix. Tpeit 
 
 Stoianie 
 
 Static 
 
 Tebe 
 
 Tui, Tibi 
 
 Troe 
 
 Tpif 
 
 Stoyatschii 
 
 Stabilis 
 
 Tekou 
 
 Curro 
 
 Ty, Tui 
 
 '7:v. <n> 
 
 Stoud 
 
 Pudor 
 
 Teiiinost 
 
 Dimness 
 
 Tya 
 
 Te
 
 360 
 
 Slavonian, 
 
 
 Slavonian, 
 
 
 Slavoniatii 
 
 
 Ouddoyaiu 
 Ougl 
 
 Duplico, Svu 
 Angrulus 
 
 Ouskoryaiu 
 Oupadaiu 
 
 Festino 
 
 Chotenie 
 
 CVolutio 
 (.Choice 
 
 Oug 
 
 Ano-uis 
 
 Oucho 
 
 A uris 
 
 Chod 
 
 Iter 
 
 Ouj 
 Oulagaiu 
 
 Anguis 
 Struo, lay 
 
 Ouje 
 Chleb 
 
 Loaf 
 
 Chotschou 
 
 (Aveo 
 
 <- Choose 
 
 Oupadaiu 
 Oupibaiu 
 
 Cado, TTiTrTw 
 Ebibo,, TT/i/w 
 
 Cham'ina 
 
 (Domus 
 cChiQiney 
 
 Chojdou 
 Schiiu 
 
 Go 
 
 Suo 
 
 Oumiraiu 
 
 Morior 
 
 Choi Ml 
 
 CoUis, culraus 
 
 Younost 
 
 Juventas 
 
 In its grammar the Slavonian is exceedingly confused. 
 
 It was not to be expected, that uncivilized hordes, wandering with 
 their flocks among mountains, or over boundless plains, without 
 historians, without poets, and without letters, should be good gram- 
 marians. They had the use of speech; but, at a distance, they had no 
 means to communicate their thoughts ; nor could they transmit these to 
 ^ucceedino; generations. 
 
 Their pronouns are — ya, ti, on; mi, wi, oni; I, thou, Sec. 
 
 The substantive verb runs thus — esm, ese, est; esra, est, soit; I am, 
 iScc. -Boodu, I shall be; bood, be thou. Boodon, let him be; bit, to be. 
 
 Tlie form of the verbs in some measure agrees with the Russian. 
 
 Daju or daiu, I give; dal!, I gave; dam, 1 will give; day, give; dat. 
 
 to give. 
 
 Its radicals are comparatively few; but, like the Greek, it is fond of 
 compounds. It has more than three hundred with the preposition pro, 
 ^.nd more than twelve hundred witli pre and pri, answering to prcc
 
 361 
 
 Professor Michaells regards the Bohemian, PoHsh and Vanda?ia« 
 diahxts of the Slavonian, as poor in the extreme, when compared with 
 the Russian, which on philosophic subjects has borrowed freely from 
 the Greek. 
 
 As spoken in Lusatia, formerly a province of Bohemia, it is the 
 poorest of all languages; being here confined to rustics. In Poland it is 
 corrupted to the last degree; but it is still Slavonian. Yet in the midst 
 of all its corruptions, we may discern a remarkable affinity bet\yeen it 
 and Galic. 
 
 To this I have already called the attention of the reader, but I must 
 again remind him, that in the numerals, in the substantive verb, and in 
 numerous verbs, both of universal and of daily use, there is a clear, 
 distinct and well decided affinity. 
 
 This affinity it is extremely difficult to trace in Polish, because it has 
 duplicates of C, of W, of L, of N, and of Z, which are most abundant, 
 and seem to be needlessly introduced. 
 
 The first C has the sound of either ts or tsh, as in cukier, sugar, pro-, 
 nounced tsookier, and pec, to drink, pronounced pitsh. 
 
 The second C is articulated as tsie, as in yesc, to eat, sounded like 
 yestsie. 
 
 W in the beginning of a syllable is V, in the end it is F. 
 
 Z has three distinct sounds. Thus noz is pronounced noosh, czar is 
 char, koszula is koshoola, wieczor is vietchore, and wacpan is vatspan, 
 
 I here subjoin a few examples of Polish, to exhibit tlje genius of 
 this language. 
 
 VOL. II. 3 £
 
 362 
 
 Able, mozney i acid, octet; add, przidawam ; all, csall : am, Jestem ; 
 apple, Jab loji ; arm, ramie; ash,jesion; ass, osiel. 
 
 Baker, piekar ; beat, hiti; both, ohadwa ; bread, cldkh ; breast, /jzem; 
 brother, hrat; burn, goram; buy, kupiiie; by, podlie. 
 
 Cabbage, kapusta; cat, kotka ; c\\o'\CQ, chezizsosct; choose, c/zce; clay, 
 glhia; clean, czisti; coach and cart, kotczi; cook, kucharz ; cross, krziz ;: 
 crow, kruk cind wrona ; cry, wolain ; cup, kiijlik and kubek ; craft, kunst. 
 
 Day, dzicn; deal, dzielie ; death, smiercz ; dig, grzebe ; door, drzzn^j ;. 
 double, dwoie ; drink, j^ye. 
 
 Ear, 2<c^o ; eat, ?ew ; eating, iedzenie ; egg, jV/«e ; eye, oko. 
 
 One, jeden; two, rfa'c; three, ^ra; four, czterzi; five, p?cc,~; sis» 
 32:esc2:; seven, siedm; eight, 05??« ; nine, dziewiec; ten, dzesziec. 
 
 Give, f/aie; given, dany ; giver, dawca; gift, f/ar.
 
 Ojr THB 
 
 JLATIM LANGUAGE. 
 
 E learn from the best historians, that Latlum and Gra3cia-magna 
 were peopled from Elis and Arcadia, whose first inhabitants derived 
 their origin from the Avestern coast of Asia Minor, being principally 
 Cohans and lonians, who were Pelasgic colonists. Of this origin we 
 shall have no doubt, when we shall have examined the languages of 
 Greece and Rome; for Latin is little more than the ^olic dialect of 
 Greek. 
 
 Such was distinctly the opinion of Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, and 
 of Quintilian. 
 
 With the utmost propriety therefore, Lennep, after minute investi- 
 gation, concluded " Lingua Latina, si excipiamus panca verba Sabina 
 et externa vocabula, nihil aliud est quam iEolico-Graeca. (Vol. iii, p. 45.) 
 
 From ancient inscriptions, collected by Fabretti, we learn, that the 
 Roman alphabet had eighteen letters, A, B, C, D, F, F, H, I, K, L, 
 M, N, 0, P, Q, R, S, T. The characters were Grecian, and therefore 
 
 3 E 3
 
 564 
 
 probably the first inhabitants brought with them the Pelasgic alphabet, 
 to which in subsequent periods they made additions. The radical 
 Pelasgic alphabet of Father Gori, which Astle conceives to be the most 
 correct, contains only twelve characters. These are A, E, V, I, K, L, 
 M, N, P, E, S, T; but, in addition to these, ancient inscriptions, which 
 were found at Eugubiura, a city of Umbria, have H. The letter G 
 was not in use till after the first Punic War, when it was introduced by 
 Spurius Carvillus. Before that time, C supplied the place of k and 7. 
 Thus, in the Columna rostrata of Duillius, we read, " Macestratos, 
 Leciones, Cartacinenses, Pucnando," &c. 
 
 In tracing the affinity between Latin and Greek, it will be seen, that, 
 whilst some words, and these even radical, remain perfectly the same in 
 both languages, others not only change their voyels, but admit of trans- 
 position, addition, and subtraction, with considerable substitution of 
 one consonant for another, not merely of the same, but of different 
 Organs. Thus we observe, not only that the several classes of homo- 
 geneous consonants, B, P, F, M and V — C, G, K and Q — D and T, 
 glide respectively into each other's place, but that M and N, with L and 
 II — H and S, readily submit to the same law, and are used one for 
 the olher. 
 
 These permutations are common to all languages; but the Roman 
 people seem to have assumed the privilege of converting G into D and 
 N, L into D and G, D into B, G, L, R and S, K into P and F, P into 
 C, K, G and L, R into S, and T into F. Tiicy seem likewise to have 
 inserted L, as in filius, from eviog or Fuiot ; fulica, from (paii^; halo, from 
 Aft>; palatum, from Uocw; salus and salvus, from Xaoj; and trochlea.
 
 from Tpoxoi. In conformity to this practice, we liave converted fuga 
 
 into flight, and IleSiov into field. 
 
 One of the most striking features of resemblance between Latin and 
 
 the iEolic dialect of Greek, is to be observed in the use of the digamma, 
 
 as a substitute for the aspirate. 
 The arbitrary, ^^anton and violent changes, ivhich have taken place in 
 
 the original language of Latium, since the time of the first arrival of 
 
 colonies from Greece, have rendered it extremely difficult to trace the 
 
 affinity between the Latin and other languages distantly allied to it. 
 Thus lingua and tongue discover no connexion ; but when we observe, 
 that the ancient word was dingua, we immediately trace the features of 
 resemblance between this word and tongue. 
 
 The strict analogy between the Greek and Latin Grammars, as far as 
 relates to the inflexions of nouns and verbs, cannot escape the attention 
 of the learned. Of the nouns, Lennep forms two principal divisions; 
 the first parisyllabic, the second imparisyllabic ; and these he subdivides 
 into five declensions. 
 
 I. Parisyllabic. 
 
 1. Nouns of the first declension terminate in a, e, as, es, answering to 
 
 2. Those of the second end in us, um, answering to og, ov. 
 
 II. Imparisyllabic, 
 1. These may terminate in a, e, o, c, 1, n, r, st, or x, in Latin; «, i, 
 •j **» fi <r» «r ^> ia Greek, and are impurely declined, as Aexc^i^, hkpvof.
 
 S6i 
 
 2. They may terminate in us, purely declined, as i^oTpvg, fioTfivo^^ manus, 
 manuis, which the Romans contracted into manus. 
 
 3. They may terminate in m? or £^. Av)[A(33-&£i/ii?-foj-£r. Dies, diei, in 
 the dative. 
 
 x\Ithough Lenncp has considered the declensions as being five, it may 
 be observed, that originally they were no more than three; because the 
 fourth and fifth were anciently included in the third, and were not con- 
 tracted as in succeeding ages. 
 
 The Greek Adjectives terminate in ce;, a, uv, o?, ii, ou, or eg, c(, ov, 
 t'.g. '5?^?, '^rx^x, 'zxv, nxXoi;, y.xXvi, nxXov, xyio?, ccyix, xyLOv. 
 
 The Latin terminations are us, a, um; bonus, bona, bonum. 
 
 The Fronouns in the singular number have preserved similitude. Eyw, 
 e-u, and anciently of, answering to ego, tu, is. In the accusative these 
 become Ef/.£, o-£, I; me, te, eura. The possessives have a similar resem- 
 blance, £/jto?, vwiTfpof, £0?, meus, noster, ejusi. 
 
 In the Numerals we distinctly trace analogy. Ev, Zvx, Tfeig, T£<7a-«p£r 
 
 and T£7T«p£r, 'ZaVTt, l^, e-!rrrre^ OKTOJ, evV£X, SsKa, VjliY.X, 5«5«J<,X, K. T. X. 
 
 Unus, duo, tres, quatuor, quinque, sex, septem, octo, novem, decem, 
 undecem, duodecem, &c. 
 
 Betvyeen either Tfa-jix^ss or T^TTizgfj and quatuor, ther? obviously ajp- 
 pears no connexion. But instead of Tecra-xpa and TBTTxpe;, we meet with 
 -!ritrvp£i and TtiiTu-xpeg, and we know thjit in thq.4ioil;iiC dialeqt '^ is converted 
 into ", as in xwj- for ni^g, and y-oiov for 'joiov. 
 
 It might be difficult to conceive in what manner quinque could have 
 been derived from ■rrevie, did we not know, thi^t th?; iEolic dj^lejCt, is liHe- 
 tvise in the habit of converting t intoT, and, tha,t, by iliQs? fluitatioos,.
 
 iri)/r£ may have been cdnvevted into quinque. In i^ and tTrTa (he aspirater 
 ■gives place to the sibilant. 
 
 The Prepositions and other particles display the same affinityj parti- 
 cularly <5;'ro, ab ; ^'^ti, ante; £k and £s, ex; fv, in; vf., ne; t^o, prte; cw, 
 Gum; uB-tp, super; uTo^sub; ti, si; eti, ct; x^i, ac; ouk, ncc; o'l, hei ; 
 o&£v, unde ; -^ov, ubi. 
 
 The Feris in their structure and inflexions mark a radical identity, and 
 prove that Greek and Latin have a near relation to each other. Mr. 
 Jones, in his valuable Grammar of the Greek tongue, judiciously re- 
 marks, that verbs consist of a pronoun expressing the agent, together 
 with a noun, which is expressive of the object; and in his opinion, the 
 terminations w, ek ei, o^j^ev, ers, cvti, were originally personal pronounsj 
 subject, however, to changes, like all other parts of speech. He derives 
 the terminations w from fyw, and (^.i from ey-e; and in like manner ei, 
 from £. 
 
 Now as the pronouns in Latin are evidently allied to those of Greek, 
 so are many terminations of its verbs. Of this we can have no doubt 
 in the first and second persons singular, both of the indicative and thef 
 subjunctive moods. In the first and third persons plural it is not so- 
 evident, till we recollect in what manner the venerable Doric formed its 
 first person plural. For as eyu becomes e^-e, so, by analogy of the third 
 declension, £f*£ becomes ffx-fs, and in this dialect we find TvwTO[j.es and 
 ETuv^afx-e.;, we beat, which in subsequent ages became TinrTOiJ.ei^, and 
 £'7u^4/«f*£^'. Hence the Latin forms its first person plural, not in n, but 
 in s,.
 
 368 
 
 The third persons plural seem to be equally discordant in these Ian-, 
 guages ; for we can trace no analogy between dant and AiSun, but t 
 between dant, AiSovtxi, eSovro, and Soivto the analogy is clear. In like 
 manner, amanto, ysvoivro and tioiv^o mark the affinity, as dialects of one 
 language, between Greek and Latin. In Welch, hwynt means theg, 
 and from it both these languages derive the nt. 
 
 Both the Greek and Latin, in the formation of their moods and tenses, 
 have recourse to the auxiliary verb £<(>-«, sum. In the last syllable of 
 amen we have distinctly e/f^t, which, although less distinctly, appears in 
 amabam. In amafi, f^t is converted into vi. In amavissem, we have 
 amavi and essem. As we proceed, it will be rendered evident, that both 
 in Greek and Latin the substantive verb is composed of fragments de- 
 rived from verbs, which in Sanscrit exist perfect and intire. 
 
 From what has been here stated, it is sufficiently clear, that Greek 
 imd Latin are radically one. But should the student retain doubts upon 
 this subject; these will be speedily removed by a reference to the voca- 
 bulary, which he will find in the Appendix.
 
 369 
 ON THE MOUC DIGAMMA. 
 
 rr luis been imagined, that Homer as a poet availed himself of his 
 privilege, and occasionally adopted tlio several dialects of Greece, but 
 chiefly the .-Eolic and Ionic. 
 
 This however cannot be |)roved. It is even probable, that the most 
 ancient poet of Greece wrote in the language of his day, which in pro- 
 cess of time gave birth to dialects, namely, the TEolic and Ionic. 
 
 We know that Latin branched oif at a very early period, and is tEoHc. 
 Hence the yEolic digamma is found in such words as are aspirated in 
 Greek, and have not either the sibilant or a gutteral. Ancient manu- 
 scripts explain this mystery. 
 
 The Greek, like the Irish and the Welch is extremely fond of aspirates. 
 These being at various periods differently formed, we sometimes find C, 
 sometimes F or V. Pindar used V, as in ccvxto-m for aFatan, a.\ji\j%Qi for 
 «Fia%o^. 'EXta; is by Herodotus called TsX^i. 
 
 The lonians therefore had the digamma. The ^Eolians wrote FotxtaK 
 for "oiVAxv and F^uto for auTo, 
 
 In the Sigaean marbles, 500 j'ears, A. J. C, V is used in place of F. 
 In the Heraclean Table, C is frecpient, as in Ct^, and Qilw, and 
 Mazzocchi thinks it corresponds to V of the Latin. Salmasius informs 
 us, tliat the /Eolians insert S between the vowels, and says Mohs, qui 
 nuruiuam aspirabaut, partim l>^v\j.(px luvv dicchant partim Nu(>.(pa;7«v. 
 
 Like them the Romans converted the aspirate into the sibilant, and 
 therefore wrote sex for Vi and musa for muha. In Leuconia they said 
 
 VOL. II. 3 r
 
 370 
 
 TIxx Mwa for Trao-a: fAous-a, and for F they used B and P, as in Bp^^up for 
 TviTwp, 'B:tSu for aSv, that is for y,5v. 
 
 It is understood that the aspirates, the double letters, and the long 
 vowels were invented in times subsequent to Cadmus. For the aspirated 
 letters $ and % the ancients used -s- and k, as for instance, ccij-tco for «fj^(pw, 
 SiOTTOfji.'Trof for 0fO7ro(j(,wO5, Siw for &£co, e'TtTiiccvTO for fK(pi5;vT0, £T£i;KHO(ii.£voj for 
 
 The Museum of Nani, in Venice, has an inscription, which is attri- 
 buted to the age before the Trojan war, and in which are seen ey.rr^^xvToi 
 for fK(pavTW, fl:fji,£{ji,7rvif5 for x[i.e[t,(p£(, f7rfUKV]0(ji-fvof for freu^offc^i/or, and Tpoirviov 
 for qpo<pov. 
 
 The Sigean inscription, in a town built on the ruins of Troy, has 
 Hfp(>.oxp«Toy for Tou Epij.0 npxTOV;, y.Soiixfj.veij,ot for eSurnz [i.vvi[kx, uauovot for 
 'Ato-WTTOJ, and uaSeKCpot for aSeX(poi. 
 
 From Athens we have HaSa evioi ■!tj'ks\t.oi for oiha av tco TroXsjxw. In 
 these H is the aspirate, and it must be remembered that uTiZ answers 
 precisely to heth of the Hebrew, and was originally the aspirate in Greek. 
 
 In the Lamina Borgiana we find Fomixv for hnixv. Felia and Helia in 
 Pliny are the same word. 
 
 The ancient Greeks prefixed F to most words which begin with a vowel. 
 For this the Romans substituted H, as for instance, hordeum for for- 
 deum. For ItxXo( they wrote vitulus. The Eolians said fipi^Top for Pvnwp. 
 
 S and N took place of the aspirate. In Festus we have Necritu for 
 iEtrritudo. 
 
 Priscianus called the digamma gravior aspiratio. It must always be 
 remembered that their orthagraphy was unstable. Erunt was written
 
 371 
 
 erihont, crafont, and eriront. In the most ancient Latin inscriptions we 
 find lases for lares, triumpe for triuniphe. 
 
 The letter in question is called digamma from its figure, not from its 
 power. It is in fact a double gamma, but its power is that of F, and I 
 have no doubt that it was originally an aspirate. 
 
 It is remarkable, that the Greek aspirate should become a labial in 
 Latin, and equally remarkable that in Spanish, derived from Latin, this 
 labial should again become an aspirate, as in hoja folium, hijo filius, 
 haba faba, hacer facere, haz facies, hablar fabulari, hado fatum, halcon 
 falco, hcbilla fibula, herir ferire, bender findere, heno foenuin, hermoso 
 formosus, hilo filum, hiel fel, hondo funda, hongo fungus, horca furca, 
 horma fornm, &c. 
 
 In ancient Latin we observe fuvo, fuvi, fuvimus and fluvo for fluo, 
 whence we derive fluvius. 
 
 These observations will assist us in accounting for the labial which is 
 introduced into the middle of words derived from Greek. 
 
 3 f2
 
 ON THE 
 
 GREEK JLAMGFAGE. 
 
 J-N our schools we learn first Latin, then Greek: and here, as far as 
 relates to languages, our education ends. To the latter, attracted by 
 its superior beauty, we turn our principal attention; we admire its com- 
 position and consider it as a model of perfection. 
 
 In this language are displayed such tokens of deliberate contrivance, 
 that some learned men have been led to form a rash conclusion, and 
 have imagined, that the whole, from its first elements, originated in 
 Greece, and was the work of art, the production of consummate skill. 
 That it has been highly polished and refined by art, is evident: but the 
 substance remains the same as when imported by the pristine hordes, 
 which, migrating from the East, and spreading themselves ti^wards the 
 West, arrived in Asia-minor, and from thence crossed over into Greece. 
 
 As long as hunters and nomade fiimilies either built hovels in the 
 woods, or wandered in tents over extensive plains, seeking pasture for 
 their flocks; this language must have continued rude. But when cities
 
 373 
 
 arose; when civil polity became established; when agriculture, manu- 
 factures and commerce iiourished ; whcij lice governments were intro- 
 duced; when, for deliberation, the citii^ens met frequently in each 
 republic; when the orator, in these assemblies acquired celebrity and 
 power; when historians wrote; and when bards exerted all their skill to 
 gain renown; when taste improved; and when the ear was progressively 
 attuned to harmony of diction; then the rude elements assumed a grace- 
 ful form, and the language of a polished people attained that degree 
 of perfection, which we now admire. It is indeed worthy of the praise 
 it has universally received. Yet we must be careful lest, dazzled by its 
 lustre, we should too readily acquiesce in the claims, which have been 
 urged in ils behalf. 
 
 To correct our misapprehensions, we must not confine our attention 
 to one languao-e; we must look around us, and examine others to the 
 East and to the West, to the North and to the South, that we may dis- 
 cern the common elements, of which they all consist. For this purpose 
 I shall begin my investigation Avith the substantive verb. 
 
 Substantive Verbs, being constantly and indispensibly needful to dis- 
 course, must have been retained by the successive generations of man- 
 kind in every climate, must have attended them to the most distant 
 countries, and must have been transmitted to their children less changed 
 in the progress of society, than other terms descriptive of those objects, 
 which either occasionally occurred to them in their migrations, or which 
 new wants obliged them to invent. Yet, upon a transient view, to the 
 unpractised eye, these verbs appear to be peculiar to each nation, and 
 to have no correspondence with terms of the same import in any Ian-
 
 374 
 
 guage, which may have been received as tiic first language of the 
 human race. 
 
 If we consider our own substantive verb, in its several moods, tenses, 
 numbers, and persons, we must be struci< with its irregularity. It has 
 no bond of union, nothing in common between its discordant parts. 
 Each portion is detached ; it stands alone, independent of every other, 
 and cannot possibly be traced to one original expression. 
 
 I am; he is; we are; they were; be thou; I was; I have been; I shall 
 be; 1 should be; I will be; I would be. 
 
 Of these expressions, which can be considered as the one from which 
 all the rest proceed? Or by wliat rule can we trace the various branches 
 to one common stem? By none ; for it is impossible, that such inco- 
 herent members, collected at different times, and which have met by 
 accident, can be considered as one body. The fact is, and this I shall 
 immediately demonstrate, they are scattered fragments of different verbs, 
 which have survived the general wreck, and have been transmitted to 
 us from our remote progenitors. And I may add, we shall be soon con- 
 vinced, that the substantive verb in Greek and I^atin also is composed 
 of fragments. 
 
 Am readil}' connects itself with eom, Saxon; im, Gothic; em, of 
 Iceland; am, em, icn, om, um, of Persia, of Armenia, and of Turkey, 
 with iiiJ-l of Greece, and even with sum of Latin, all of the same import. 
 That sum and sim are allied to 'ti\j.1 is evident, because here the sibilant 
 corresponds to the aspirate, as it does in 'a'kg sal, kX\o\j.ai salio, aXo-oj 
 sallus, ti, sex, I; si, tTrTu septem, thog scdes, ofiog sors, v.y.iog sol, virsp super, 
 \jg sus.
 
 375 
 
 Supposing then that f>-t in tt(i.t sliouki 1)0 tlic pronoun, as will imme- 
 diately appear, h will remain for the radical part of this expression. 
 
 That (aj is the pronoun of the first person singular, can be demon- 
 strated by kindred languages. 
 
 The Galic of Scotland, the Irish, the AVelcli, the Armoric, liie Ilin- 
 dostanee, and the venerable Sanscrit, use mi for this pronoun, and the 
 Russian has me, in this acceptation, as we shall soon have occasion to 
 observe, in the termination of its verbs. 
 
 For this pronoun, the Romans and the Greeks, in the nominative case 
 use ego ; but then in Latin we have mi, mei, mihi, nie and mens, cor- 
 responding to fj^B, fj^of, f/,£, £pi.£ and eij.o;, which certainly are not derived 
 from Eyw. We are not prepared to say, when mi in the nominative first 
 gave place to ego. But, as in Greek and Latin, the vocative conforms 
 to the nominative, and is derived from it; the probability is, that mi 
 once existed in the nominative; for, what correspondence can we discern 
 between the vocative mi and eeo.'' 
 
 Among the Greeks the pronoun in question differed much. For, not 
 to mention the TEolians, who had lyuv, as the Dorians had eydv^i and 
 iiyuyryx; the Boeotians had, idvyx and Iwyx. The Coptic has anok, the 
 Chinese say ngo, and the Hindostanee has hoong. In the subsequent 
 expressions of the Sanscrit, isani and hevani, let me be; vashani, let me 
 wish; dedani, let me give, we have distinctly anl for the pronoun. Be- 
 tween all these and the Hebrew anoki, anki, ani and anu, which may 
 have given birth to vu, there is such conformity as leads me to con- 
 clude, that they are of the same family, and are radically one.
 
 576 
 
 In the priiiitive Greek, the long vowels were unknown, and O was 
 equivalent to A. The progress therefore from anki and tw;/7« to liiiyx and 
 ijui is obvious, even hy the mere process of abbreviation. But it is 
 worthy of remark, tliat in Welch, a kindred languague to the Greek, 
 G is commutable with Ng, as in ()Was, a servant, U ngwas, my servant: 
 and C is liable to become ngh, as in car, a relation, fy nghar, my 
 relation. 
 
 It is indeed possible, that ii^jx may be a compound, and mean I 
 myself, because I is the abbreviated form of this pronoun in Hebrew, 
 Arabic, and Chaldee. 
 
 Mi seems to have originated in ani or eni. Tlic commutability of N 
 and M is firmly established by the practice of all nations. It subsisted 
 between the Hebrew and Chaldee, as may be observed in the masculine 
 plurals of their nouns; between the Greek and Latin, as appears in the 
 terminations nm and ov ; and it is not unfrequent in the Sanscrit. Tn 
 this language M is considered, not as a labial, but as a nasal. The 
 same word, which is written Sanscrit by some of our countrymen from 
 India, is Samskrit with others, and with Carey it is Sungskrit: yet in 
 pronunciation they all agree. 
 
 This practice is not altogether foreign to the French, as appears in 
 the articulation of these words, temps, tant, ctang, which agrees in all 
 of them. 
 
 In the Portuguese it is well established: for 1\I at the end of a word, 
 when preceded by E, has a nasal sound, like that of N in the French 
 words vin and p^in: but if preceded by A, 0, or 1, this nasal sound is 
 so difficult of pronunciation, that no one can obtain it but by the
 
 377 
 
 fiKsistaiu-c of ;i inasier. Jii liiis laiiguagp, N after any vo^vd is di-iinrtly 
 a nasal: as a final letter it is converted into AJ, and is usually placed 
 over the word, as in be for bene, thai is for bene of the Latin. In 
 plurals the N is restored to nouns, as in homein, a man ; honicns, men. 
 
 That N and AI in the Creek verl) are equivalent, seems evident, be- 
 cause both these terminations are used for the pronoun of the first per- 
 son singular, which appears in af^i-i I am, vi\ I was, £ivii/ may I be, (I^^ja 
 I go, tji^v I went; like as in Sanscrit, ismi or asmi, 1 am; isani, let 
 nie be. 
 
 Ilcnce it is probable that both i^i and eyco originate in the Hebrew 
 pronoun of the same import. Having seen that i^i in f^i is the pro- 
 noun, surely no one can doubt of £t being the root, when he considers 
 its inflections elva:i, eiv\v, uvj, fivi[*fi/, ^, vjv, m^e^, vi'if, n, i, X. 
 
 In Swedish the same root has been preserved in one of its forms, ia fe, 
 du e, han h; wi e, ni ^, di e; I am, thou art, he is, we are, ye are, 
 they are. 
 
 The Persian has im, ee, est; eem, eed, end; I am, thou art, he is; 
 we are, ye are, they are. From these remove the pronouns, and the 
 verbal part remaining will resolve itself into E, I. These look to haia 
 [i^''!^) the substantive verb of the Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee. In 
 the Hindostanee we find hai in the singular, and haing in the plural; or, 
 according to Gilchrist, hy and hyin. 
 
 From what has been here advanced, does it not appear, that in eo-em 
 of Iceland, and in our own I am, there is a redupHcation of the pro- 
 noun? Such superfluities are common in all languages, more especially 
 
 VOL. II. 3 G
 
 378 
 
 when the original structure and import of words has been forgotten, or 
 when new modes of phraseology have been introduced. 
 
 Is, it) English, supplies the third person singular of the indicative 
 mood present tense of the verb to be, and in no other person, mood or 
 tense, does it appear. It stands alone, and cannot be derived from 
 either am or be. 
 
 The Galic and the Irish have ismi, I am; is tu, thou art; is e, he is: 
 is sinn, we are; is sibh, ye are; is iad, they are. 
 
 In the fVelch, oes and ys remain in the third person singular. 
 
 The Russian and Slavonian have esm, esi, est; esmui, este, sute; 
 I am, thou art, he is, &c. Esm is pronounced iesm. 
 
 In Persian the modern verb looks like a corruption of the Latin; for 
 it runs thus, hestem, hestee, hest; hesteem, hesteed, hestend. 
 
 Sanscrit approaches nearer to the Galic, the Irish and the Russian ; for 
 here we have asmi, ismi, or usmi, as variously written, I am; asi, thou 
 art; asti, he is; sma, we are; stha, ye are; santi, they are. 
 
 That i<r[*t once existed in the Greek, appears from hence, that it is 
 found in all the kindred languages, and is not confined to India; but 
 extends, as we have seen, to all the Slavonian nations, Ireland, ;)nd the 
 Hiirhlands of North Britain. From this circumstance alone, we might 
 be warranted in our conclusion; but in addition to this, we must observe, 
 that most of the inflections of this veib contain U and eg. Indeed we 
 may venture to assume for granted, that af^t never produced the subse- 
 quent inflections, eql, e<ri*.'tv, tc(, la^'i, iqu, i<TO\^xi, heTai, e<rej^e, eo-fo-^at.
 
 379 
 
 Now if from the supposed obsolete verb Io-im we remove the pronoun 
 f*t, Ig will then remain for the radical part in Greek, ns it does in the 
 other languages here particularly noticed, which are nearly related to 
 the Greek. This perfectly coincides with is ov jcnh (^*!'.) in Hebrew. 
 
 We have thus detected in ij^i and af/^i the two fragments which com- 
 pose the suljstantive verb in Greek. 
 
 Are in English forms the plural of the indicative mood present tense. 
 In Danish the verb runs thus, jcg er, 1 am; du er, thou art; ban er, he 
 is: vi ere, we are; i ere, ye are; de ere, they are; ieg var, I was; du 
 var, thou wast; ban var, he was; vi vare, we were; I vare, ye were; 
 de vare, they were; ieg shall vaere, I shall be; vaer, be thou; at vaere, 
 to be; vaerende, being; vaeret, been. The Germans say ich war, I 
 was, &c. 
 
 In Latifi we find fragments of this verb; for, as such, we must regard 
 eram, ero, fore, and the termination of its infinitives: but in Greek and 
 Hebrew it is not distinctly to be found. 
 
 The Turkish language is no stranger to this verb, for not only does var 
 indicate existence, as in varede, there was; but ar and er form the in- 
 flexions of verbs when the imperative terminates in a consonant. Thus 
 at, cast thou, has atarem, I cast; at ar, he casts; and thus e^, make 
 thou, has in the indicative ederim, I make. 
 
 In Irish we seem to have a small fragment of this verb in romi, I have 
 been; ro thu, thou hast been, &c. 
 
 The Welch use er and ir in the imperative and future of their passive 
 voice, as for instance, dysger di, be thou taught; dysgir ti, doctus eris tu. 
 
 3 G 2
 
 380 
 
 Were forms the plural in the praeter-imperfect of the indicative mood, 
 and is used in the subjunctive, but in no other mood or tense. It con- 
 nects itself not merely, as already stated, with waere of the Danish, but 
 with werden of German and wertetum of Sanscrit, to be. These in 
 Sanscrit are regularly conjugated, and appear in their several moods, 
 tenses, numbers, and persons, like other verbs. 
 
 I suspect, that we have here a compound, and not a primitive, and, 
 when we shall have examined the subsequent portions of our verb, more 
 particularly was, my suspicion may be confirmed. 
 
 fVas supplies the first and third persons, and zipast the second person 
 of the praeter-imperfect of our verb to be. 
 
 The Irish has bhios and bhadhas, pronounced vas. In JFelch the plu- 
 perfect of bod, to be, is buaswn, buasit, buasai; buascm, buasecli, 
 buascnt, I had been, &c. 
 
 The Germans say gewesen. In the Anglo-Saxon we have ic waes, and 
 in the Gothic ik was. 
 
 The Persian verb exhibits nearly the same form as the Welch in its im- 
 perative and subjunctive moods; bash, be thou; bashad, let liim be; 
 bashim, let us be; bashend, let them be. 
 
 In Sanscrit the preterperfect is ahavishi; and vastiim means to dwell. 
 
 Hence it is not improbable that was may be a compound, and that, 
 as B, V and W are commutable, it may be composed of be and is. 
 Should this be granted; we must next inquire in what manner was and 
 were, is and are can be allied. 
 
 We know that Latin is a very ancient dialect of Greek, and it has 
 been proved, that f<(*j, tn and eqi correspond to sum, cs, est, as ea-eo-^ai
 
 381 
 
 does to essel It is therefore not ini probable, that tjiic and £(70f*ai may 
 have given birth to ero. Such was the conjecture of Professor Scheidius, 
 and, in support of Ids opinion, we may remark, that S gives place to P 
 in app^v fi-xpTvp, ^xlpeoj iWop, x>iMp, for apuBv, {j-apTVi, ^xpceoi, ^r.-noi, ao-xoc. 
 This practice leads to a conjecture, that P in (p^eipw, yepaioa, Lf^eipca and 
 tXexipu may have been a substitute for S, and that these new themes, 
 derived from 'p^ao, <yepxioo, i\,.xu), eXeeu, may have originated in their 
 futures, agreeably to a common practice in the Greek. 
 
 .Should K'ffs be considered as compounded of be and is, and should 
 etrw be acknowledged as the parent of ero, we shall then see how ero, 
 erim and esse became component parts of the same verb, and shall be 
 disposed to grant that zms and were have been properly connected with 
 be and is. 
 
 Be in English, used for the infinitive, imperative and subjunctive 
 moods, may be traced through a vast extent of country and to remote 
 antiquity. 
 
 The Galic has bumi and bhami, I was; bithidhmi, pronounced vimi 
 or bimi, I shall be; bith thu, be thou; bhith, to be. 
 
 The Irish has bim and fuilim, I au); bi tu, thou art; bi se, he is, &c. 
 bha me, I was; beidh me, pronounced bimi, I shall be; bi, be thou. 
 The Manx has bee boethou and beem, I shall be. 
 
 In ff'elcft there is some little variation; for bum, buost, bu; buom, 
 buoch, buont, answering to fui, fuisti, fuit; fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt, are 
 the perfect, and wyf the present, I am; ym, we are. Buddwn is the 
 imperfect; buddaf, the future; buad, the imperative, and bod the in- 
 finitive. Here it may be proper to remark that in Welch del is pro-
 
 382 
 
 nounced th, and consequently that bidd pcrlectly agrees with the Galic 
 and the Irish, and that the final F is regularly the substitute for M. 
 
 The German avails itself of no part of this verb excepting ich bin, 
 du bist, 1 am, thou art. 
 
 The Russian has ya buill, I was; budi, be thou, and buiti, to be; but 
 in this language the final i is mute, like the final e in French. 
 
 The Persian has enriched itself beyoiul most other languages by what 
 it has preserved from the fragments of this verb. We find it in the indi- 
 cative, subjunctive, imperative, infinitive and participles. In the pre- 
 terite it has budem, budee, bud; budeem, budeed, budtnd, I was, &c. 
 bu, be thou; bad, let him be; budmi, I would be. 
 
 But it is to the ancient storehouse of the Sanscrit we must resort for 
 the regular conjugation of this verb. Here we discover it, not as a 
 fragment, not as a defective verb, but in perfection, with a rich variety 
 of inflections to express the time, the person, the mode, the purpose of 
 the action, whether performed for the benefit of the agent, or of another, 
 both in the active and in the passive voice. In this language we find 
 bhu as the genuine root, from which are formed bhavami, bhavasi, 
 bhavati; bhavamah, bhavatha, bhavanti; lam, thou art, he is; we are, 
 ye are, they are. Bhavani, let me be; abhavam, I have been; bha- 
 vashyami, I shall be; bhavitum, to be. Is it possible to view these 
 examples, even transiently, and not discern the affinity between Sanscrit, 
 Greek and Latin. 
 
 In Latin, fui is not derived from either sum or esse; but fu is the root 
 and I the pronoun. As to /weram, fuer'im and fucro, they are evidently 
 con) pounds. Fuisse is fu and esse.
 
 383 
 
 This verb may possibly, perhaps probably, have been derived from 
 Hu and Ilavah ('"'"''"') of Chaldee and Hebrew, because in the oriental 
 dialects, U, V and W are commutable, and the letter, which in one 
 province of India has the power of U or V, in others may become dis- 
 tinctly B. Examples of siicli chani^es, particularly of U into V, are not 
 wanting in the Hebrew, in which we have oth and evatii, zoth and ziveth 
 (nix and J^-V^, J">^* and ri]?). Anciently, both in Latin and in English, 
 U was both a vowel and a consonant. So among the modern Creeks 
 ttvTxp is pronounced aftar, and ^uTOf^aTov aftomaton. 
 
 The conversion of V into B is not peculiar to the oriental dialects; it 
 has extended to the West, and particularly prevails in Spain. 
 
 V is equally commutable with F. Thus, for instance, vadden of Hol- 
 land becomes fade, vallen full, varen fare, vasten fast, vat fat, veldt 
 field, vuer fire. In German, volk is folk, voll is full and vader is father. 
 The Welch and the Spanish convert F into V and V into F. In short, 
 all languages consider B, F and V as equivalent. 
 
 In support of my conjecture, that our verb and the correspondent 
 verbs of other languages originate in Hin, I shall venture to observe, 
 that in the mountains of Britany, where the ancient Celtic, in its 
 Armoric dialect, subsists, otia, in the expression me a oiia, I was, still 
 continues the regular imperfect of beza, to be. 
 
 Shall has narrow limits in our language; but in German and in Danish 
 it is more extensively used, and is regularly conjugated. The former of 
 these, in the subjunctive, converts ich soil into ich soUte, the latter, ieg 
 skal into ieg skulde, I should. In Danish we have at skulk, to be 
 obliged, and skyldig, guilty, that is bound by the law and subject to its
 
 384 
 
 penalties. Saillym, in Manx, means I am willing; shal or sal, in 
 Sanscrit, indicates intention, and is the root of a verb, which is regu- 
 larly conjugated. 
 
 Will and would connect themselves with baillym, Manx, vil and vilde 
 of Denmark, wollen and wollte of Germany, volo and velje of Italy, 
 ^ovXo\i.cci of Greece, ail of Irish, and may terminate in (Vn^^^) hoil of 
 the Hebrew. 
 
 It is therefore evident, tiiat in most languages the substantive verb is 
 composed of fragments, some few in number, others more abundant. 
 
 In the Galic appear six of these, ismi, ammi, thami, bheil mi, I am; 
 bumi and romi, I was; all distinct and independent of each other, as if 
 they had met by chance. 
 
 The Turkish has three fragments, variously compounded ; em, I am; 
 esam, if I be; ol, I shall be; and olayem, may I be. 
 
 The Latin has preserved the remnants of four verbs, in sum, fui, ero, 
 esse, of which, as I have proved, the Greek has retained two in tif*;' 
 and i.(je(j^ci.i, answering to the Hebrew and Chaldee HTH and ^'H. 
 
 Having ascertained the structure of the substantive verb in Greek, 
 and proved that, like the Galic, Irish, Welch, Russian, Turkish, Persian, 
 Sanscrit, Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee, it suffixes the pronouns; we 
 may now proceed in our examination of the Greek verb in general. 
 
 It was the opinion of Lennep, that the form of the Greek verbs in 
 ui is more ancient than that of verbs in w, and the arguments adduced 
 by him must carry conviction to the mind of a grammarian. In favor 
 of its antiquity he states, that the first persons of the passive and middle 
 voices in Greek and the subjunctives in Latin are formed, not from
 
 385 
 
 verbs in w, out from verbs in m-j. We must not forget, that tlie optatives 
 confirm his observation, for these are, from tutto), t^tttciui, TfTiy$)oifxi, 
 ru-^xifj-t, Tuv^oifAi and TUTToifjbj, in the singular, TvirToiiA-ev, 'iF.Tv(poiiJ.ev, 
 ruNl^flfifAfv, Tv^oi[t.ev, '7U'7[o7iJ.£v in the plurals. 
 
 Agreeably therefore to this analogy, T-wTrTOfAtv in the plural should have 
 had TVTtToofj.i in the singular. Certain it is that many verbs have both 
 terminations, and that f^t existed in verbs where it is no longer seen; for 
 surely ^rr^t is derived, not from tivm, but from .iff/.j, and yvai^i from yi/^fit. 
 Whether the termination be ^t or u. if. must be the prononn of the 
 first person singular. It is therefore a matter of indifference to my ar- 
 gument, respecting the structure of the Greek verb, which form is most 
 ancient, that of f^-t or «. Yet, in confirmation of Lennep's opinion, we 
 may appeal to the Sanscrit, which, if not the parent, is at least closely 
 nllied to both Greek and Latin. In this language the roots are neither 
 riouns nor verbs, but may be either according to the affix, and none of 
 its verbs terminate in O; but the first person singular of the indicative 
 mood present tense has usually 77ri, the perfect ain. Thus we have 
 vushami, I wish; avusham, I wished. 
 
 'J'hat the Sanscrit exhibits the genuine radicals of both Greek and 
 Latin, may be in some degree rendered probable by one example taken 
 from the third conjugation of the Sanscrit verbs. Of this the root is 
 da, the verb datum, to give, and the indicative mood present tense runs 
 thus; dadami, I give; dadasi, thou givest; dadati, he giveth; dadmas, 
 we give; dattha, ye give; dadati, they give. In the potential mood 
 we have dadyat, he may give; in the imperative, dadani, let me give; 
 dehi, give thou; dadato, let him give; dadama, let us give; datta, give 
 ye; dadato, let them give. 
 
 VOL. II. 3 H
 
 386 
 
 In the subsequent part of my work I shall enlarge upon this subject. 
 Suffice it at present to observe, that men of letters consider Greek and 
 Latin as dialects of one language. Some indeed conceive Latin to have 
 been derived from Greek; but all agree, that they are intimately con- 
 nected. Now, when in the latter we find TrpoTos and primus in the former; 
 how can we connect these together ? It were easy to say that T is 
 converted into M. But of such a change we have not one example. 
 When however we observe pfatama in Sanscrit, and consider, that ab- 
 breviations are the wheels of language, the wings of Mercury; we are 
 prepared to trace both the words in question to pratcmm, of which the 
 Greek retains the T, and the Latin has preserved the ]\L 
 
 In addition to what I have said, I may be permitted to remark, that 
 the Sanscrit ra is the root of both xpirao and rapio, iiina of \j.vxo[uxi. and 
 moneo, and lip of limus and a:A£i(pw. From Up we obtain Ibnpami, I 
 smear, and from mna we have monami, I mind, I remind, I admonish. 
 Now as between Greek and Sanscrit the affinity is evinced b}' the termi- 
 nation of its verbs, so, in like manner, between these languages and 
 Latin, the relationship appears, not merely in the subjunctives, but in 
 one indicative at least; for we have inquam, that is inquami, answering 
 to the Doric tv<px[t.1 as hcpoLTi does to inquit. 
 
 It is true, the majority of dialects in Greek have fw for the termi- 
 nation of their verbs; but then both w and £w, in the opinion of 
 Scheidius and Valckenar, may be considered as the abbreviated forms of 
 its usual pronoun '£70). {v. Valckenaerii Observ. & Scheidii Animad- 
 versiones, p. '159-) 
 
 Nothing is more common in languages, than* for the guttural to vanish 
 altogether, or to have its place supplied by the slightest aspiration. Or
 
 387 
 
 we may invert this order, and then the aspirate will be supplanted by a 
 guttural. In the southern dialects of India, they pronounce the H hard, 
 like as in North Britain, and thus for maha they say maga, and for vahaii 
 they say Dagan. (Asiatic Researches, VI. p. 493.) 
 
 Maha in Sanscrit implies reverence. This radical, with the pronoun 
 suffixed, forms the several persons of the verb, and thus niahati mean? 
 he is majestic, and mahami I am mighty. In Slavonian, mogoutuyi is 
 mighty; mogou, I may; mojno, possible. For this term our Saxon 
 ancestors used meahf: the Greek has i^eje^og: we retain the guttural, but 
 pronounce it as an aspirate, I miglit. 
 
 Vah, the Sanscrit root of valian, contains the notion of passing, and 
 seems to have given birth to veho, perhaps to vado. Certain it is, how- 
 ever, that our wain and waggon are allied to vahan and vagan of In- 
 dostan, with which are connected, fen of the Galic, benn and menu of 
 Wales, benna of France, banasta of Spain, wagen, vagn and vogn of 
 Gothic, and xyxwx of the Greek. 
 
 It is worthy of our notice, that the rough breathing of Greece has, 
 in different periods, been represented by, or at least has given birth to, 
 H, B, V, F, P, U, W, G, C, and S, when used as prefixes, or intro- 
 duced before a vowel in the middle of a word. These appear in ancient 
 inscriptions, and have been particular!}' noticed by Heyne, in his edition 
 of Homer, torn. 7, p. 708, and by Lanzi, in his Treatice di lingua 
 Etrusca. In Homer we frequently observe an hiatus, where either the 
 spiritus asper or the digamma was originally found. Such hiatus may 
 have existed in eco for sym, or, should this suggestion be considered as ill 
 founded, we may certainly refer the absence of the consonant to the 
 usual process of abbreviation. 
 
 3 h2
 
 388 
 
 J. Should it be conceded, that Sanscrit is tbe parent of Greek; the form 
 of verbs in (*< will be readily acknowledjred as more ancient, tlian tliat of 
 verbs in co. But independently of this argument, the example of Homer, 
 supported by the practice of the iEolians, should suffice, for he has 
 more verbs in fiut than any author who succeeded him. lie is the most 
 ancient bard, and iEoiic one of the most ancient dialects. 
 
 It is allowed, that the iEolians made fewer changes in their language^ 
 than the Athenians, and that the former retained the same verbs in fj-i, 
 which the latter terminate in a. 
 
 It cannot be doubted, that both in the East and in the West, the 
 most usual termination conforms to Sanscrit. Thus the Pe/'s/a/i has por- 
 sidem, I asked; porsem, I may ask; por.sidum, I Lave asked: buporsem, 
 I shall ask. 
 
 The Turks say, ver, give thou; -ccririm, i give; yy, eat thou; yerim, 
 I eat. 
 
 The Galic has feud mi, I am able; dean mi, I do. So, in the Welch, 
 we have dysgu, to teach, and dysgu uyf, T teach or am teaching, which 
 Is perfectly equivalent to ^iWxty ?t[/,j, because the [>. is regularly con- 
 verted into F. 
 
 Here the verbal roots appear, each with its proper suffix, which is 
 either simply the pronoun, or the substantive verb with its proper 
 pronoun. 
 
 We have thus examined the first persons; but wiien we shall proceed 
 to the second and third persons, both singular and plural, we shall find 
 the pronoun subjoined to each. Let us then begin our investigation 
 with the language, which, from remote antiquity, has been preserved in 
 the most northern mountains of our island.
 
 3S9 
 
 lu Galic \vc find the subsccjucnt expressions: fctui mi, I am aijlc; teiul 
 ■tliu, tliou art able; feud e, he is able; feud siun, \vc arc able; ieud stbh, 
 ye arc able; feud iad, they are aide. The pers(jual prouaims arc mi, 
 tu, e, sinn, sibh, iad. The imperfect prefixes D, which the English 
 takes for its termination, and runs thus, dfheud mi, J. was able; dfhcud 
 thu, thou wast able, Sec. 
 
 The Irish conforms nearly to the Galic; but omits the aspirate, and 
 has dfeud mc, I was able; dfeud thu, thou wast able; dfeud se, he was 
 able; dfeud sinn, we were able; dfeud sibh, yiD were able; dfeud sead, 
 they were able, answering to potcns of the Latin, and to poti, a lord, in 
 Sanscrit. The pronouns are me, tu, se, sinn, sibh, siad. 
 
 The pronouns in ff'clch arc mi, ti, e and ef; ni, chwi, hwynt, and 
 they are thus a[)plied in the imperative, dj^sger fi, dysger di, dysger ef, 
 dysger ni, dysger chwi, dysger hwynt; le me be taught, &c. To the 
 latter I would call particular attention, as being the parent of sunt, and 
 t)f the terminations ant, ent, int, unt. 
 
 We find in Russian, iemi, ieshi, iesti, iedim, iedite, iedat; I, thou, he, 
 we, ye, they eat. 
 
 Dedan, to give, of the Tersian, is thus conjugated, dadani, dadi, dad; 
 dadim, dadid, dadunt, I gave, &c. 
 
 In the Hi?idostanee, this verb is more complex; for to the participle 
 data it subjoins its own substantive verb, which has already passed in 
 review before us. 
 
 In Sanscrit we have seen both da and dad, of the same import, with 
 the pronouns suffixed to form the persons. 
 
 This verb in Latin exhibits do, das, dat, &c. dedi, dedermn, dederim,
 
 390 
 
 dedero, dedm^, in which we readily discover the root combined, either 
 simply with the pronoun, or with the substantive verb, which, as we 
 have seen, subjoins the pronoun. 
 
 The Greek displays this with clearness in Si§ojy.i, SiSwg, SiBmi, SiSofj.ev, 
 anciently StSoi^eg, S^SoTa, SiSovji ; SiSoiy,v, SiSoiyg, SiSon^j 8iSoi\^iJ.iv, StSoivi'Ta, 
 SiSoiya-av. In the imperfect, the most ancient form was not ov, but oa-xv 
 and ejuv. In Persian the pronoun is acsaji, they. 
 
 The learned Professor Schultens has judiciously remarked, that syl- 
 lables cut off from ancient pronouns formed the persons of Greek verbs. 
 This observation may be equally applied to all other languages. 
 
 It will not be difficult to demonstrate, that many of the personal pro- 
 nouns resorted to for terminations, are preserved in Hebrew, Arabic and 
 Chaldee, and may have been derived from thence. 
 
 The pronoun of the first person singular has been already noticed, and 
 it has appeared, that the English, to which the Russian approaches very 
 near, is identically the same with Hebrew; that Eyo; of the Greek, with 
 ich German, iag Swedish, icg Danish, and eg Icelandic, may be the 
 abbreviated form of artki, and finally, that mi may be derived from aid 
 of the Hebrew. 
 
 We have seen that the second person singular in Galic and Irish, is 
 tu, in AVelch ti, in Russian tui, in Icelandic thu, in Swedish, Danish 
 and German du, in Persian, Sanscrit and Latin tu, in Greek SJ, but in 
 Doric Tu, and in Hebrew atha or ate (iTlN). 
 
 The third person singular in Galic, Irish and Welch is e, in Icelandic, 
 Danish and Swedish, han; in Russian one, in Turkish and Persian, o 
 and au; in Hindostanec ooee; in Greek ovTog,_ kvn-^, tovto; in Hebrew //// 
 or Jioe, ze and otho.
 
 39 1 
 
 The first person plural is in Welch iii, in Russian mui, in Danish vi, 
 in Swedish wi, in Sanscrit vaym, in Latin nos, answering to vwt, the 
 dual in Greek. In Hebrew wc have aim and nu. In Greek the first 
 person plural is V^*?. 
 
 The remaining persons in the plural have not the least agreement with 
 each other, even in those languages, which arc most evidently derived 
 from one parental stock. 
 
 Is it possible for us to take the view, we have already taken, of the 
 substantive verb in Greek, and not to be convinced, that it did not ori- 
 ginate in Greece? As we proceed, every doubt, if doubts are still en- 
 tertained, will vanish, and this truth will appear, as in meridian lustre, 
 that all languages originate in one. 
 
 Had Lord Monboddo been a general linguist, he never could have 
 assumed the first person singular of the indicative mood present tense in 
 Greek verbs for his radical expression in preference to any other mood, 
 tense, or person, nor would he have persuaded himself and others, that 
 *' the Greek has all its words of its own growth;" and much less would 
 he have imagined, that all Greek verbs originate in ««, eu, tw, ou, vcc, 
 which now appear to be the pronoun of the first person singular suffixed 
 to verbs, and not the radix. In fact that part of the verb must be con- 
 sidered as the root, which is found equally in every number and person 
 of each voice, mood and tense. 
 
 This great man, like Lennep and Valckenaer, has formed a beautiful 
 hypothesis; and could we suppose, that, when Cadmus scattered the 
 dragon's teeth upon the new ploughed earth ; the Greeks arose in perfect 
 manhood, profound in wisdom, and a nation of philosophers; we might
 
 392 
 
 then conceive, that " from five vocal sounds they composed a perfect 
 language, flowing with an easy descent and a most copious stream." 
 
 Such a description would not, however, perfectly accord with ther 
 savage state, in which this nation is stated to have wandered, like brute 
 beasts in their native forests, till the Pelasgi taught them the use of 
 speech, and till Cecrops arrived to polish the rude language, in which 
 their first preceptor had instructed them. 
 
 Were Lord JSIonboddo living, and disposed to reject this tale of 
 Cadmus as a fiction, the creature of poetic fancy, he must conceive 
 a given epoch, when some great philologist arose to invent and teach a 
 perfectly philosophic language, and when the whole nation was per- 
 suaded to reject that mode of speech, in which from infancy they had 
 been instructed by their parents, and to adopt new elements from this 
 wise reformer. It appears, however, that Lord Monboddo is incon- 
 sistent with himself, because he distinctly delivers it as his opinion, that 
 " the Greek is an original language, and not derivative," and yet he is 
 persuaded, that *' it is derived from the Hebrew, or from some other 
 Egyptian, or oriental language," and he acknowledges, that " the 
 Pelasgic, the immediate parent of the Greek, was very near of kin to 
 Hebrew." He even charges the Greeks with vanity, for having " made 
 their language, as well as themselves, the growth of their own country." 
 He seems to have been exceedingly perplexed in difiiculties, from 
 which he was unable to extricate himself. But had he been acquainted 
 with Sanscrit, he would have found a clue, by means of which he might 
 have directed his steps with well-grounded confidence of a successful 
 issue, and would have at last discovered, that the languages of Eiirojic 
 and of Asia arc radicallv one.
 
 395 
 
 From the knowledge we possess of Sanscrit and of Greek, the first 
 apprehension of the mind is, that they stand in tlic relation of progenitor 
 and offspring, and that Sanscrit is the language, from which Greek 
 proceeds. Numerous expressions lead to this conclusion. But the 
 more we advance in the knowledge of these languages, the more dis- 
 posed are we to acquiesce in the opinion of Henry Colcbrook, that 
 both are derived from a primeval tongue. Yet, even though Sanscrit 
 should not ultimately be acknowledged as the parent of Greek; it 
 must be considered as a kindred dialect of great antiquity, whose 
 roots exhibit clearly the first elements of Greek. 
 
 It is curious to observe, with what facility and to what an extent, 
 the Greek has created new themes from verbs in common use. These 
 were frequently derived from the preterperfect and the future tenses, but 
 commonly from the infinitive mood. This must be obvious to the 
 Greek scholar, and appears in the clearest light to every one, who is 
 conversant with Scapula's Lexicon. 
 
 All these themes were subject to abbreviation^ and most of them 
 have been abbreviated in various languages. Of this, numerous ex- 
 amples have been adduced; and I may here repeat a remark already 
 made, that, when the same word conveys various and discordant 
 meanings, it is an abbreviated term derived from various and discordant 
 primitives. Thus the verb aw, according to its various accents, may 
 convey the notion of eo, induo, sum, sim, sino, miserim, aurora, and 
 suo, which last is evidently derived from fos suus ; cH^io is arefacio, but 
 i'Co; is veneror; uyo^ is dux, but uyos- is scelus; c^mg is laus, hut zivos is 
 
 VOL. II. 3 I
 
 394 
 
 horribilis; av« is per, but aW Rex; ^^xoj- is opinio, but Soko? is trabs ; 
 xaXoi/ is lignum, but xaXov is bonum; >i^^ is cor, but xv'o is mors. 
 
 It is by the assistance of accents, and by these alone, that the 
 Chinese are able to ascertain the various and discordant meaning of 
 their monosyllabic expressions, and this use of accent is not altogether 
 foreign to the English language. 
 
 In demonstrating the affinity between Latin, Greek and Hebrew, I 
 shall bring forward part of a numerous vocabulary from Avenarius; but 
 I shall say nothing of the grammatical structure of these languages, 
 because in no country has this been permanent. 
 
 English is evidently the offspring of Saxon, Danish, German, and 
 other Gothic and Slavonic languages, which are all radically one: yet 
 in no two of these can we find the grammatical stmcture perfectly " 
 alike. The same observation will apply to Latin, Erench, Italian, 
 Spanish, and Portuguese. 
 
 It is however worthy of our notice, that in one particular, Hebrew, 
 Greek, and Latin are agreed, for anciently in all these languages, the 
 present, the preterite, and the future, either adopted the same form, 
 or were used indifferently for each other. 
 
 In the more ancient Greek the future Avas the same in form as the 
 present tense, but when a newer form was introduced, which termi- 
 nates in <rw; the ancient became the second future, its penultima was 
 short, and the last letter was circumflexed as in (paivw, (pxv2 ; Tf(*v&>, 
 TEfxw; vc>w, vei^oS; and the preterites converted the terminating Omega 
 into Alpha, as in 7«w, yeyax of Homer. 
 
 It has been well observed by Valckaenar that Sigma, in what is
 
 395 
 
 now called the first future, supplies the place of an aspirate as in 
 xMVTOj instead of axouFw, for which Digamma of the iEolians, the Romans 
 used its kindred letter B, saying amabo for amaso or amaFo. In his 
 opinion, audiani and legam, are properly the present tense used for 
 the future in Hebrew. 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN LATIN, GREEK, AND HEBREW. 
 
 MANY learned men have been satisfied, that there is affinity between 
 Greek, with its kindred dialect the Latin, and Hebrew; but few, per- 
 haps, have seen this in its full extent. 
 
 To trace the features of resemblance requires a knowledge of those 
 general laws, to which all languages are subject, and of the special laws 
 by which every language in particular is governed in its mutations. It 
 has been my endeavour to bring these laws to light. 
 
 With regard to those to which Greek has confornied in its derivatives 
 from Hebrew, I cannot do better than give them in the words of 
 Avenarius, the greatest philologist of the age in which he lived, who 
 published his work in the year 1589, and who has firmly established 
 sixteen canons. 
 
 With these, he that runs may read, and the most transient glance will 
 be sufficient to convince him, that a family likeness is still to be dis- 
 cerned between these languages. But should the student wish for further 
 information, let him consult Ernesti de vestigiis linguae Hebraicae in 
 lingua Graeca. 
 
 The rules laid down by Avenarius are the subsequent:
 
 396 
 
 I. Radicalium literarum imprimis habenda est ratio; quae si sint con- 
 nexiles, connectuntur in aliis Unguis, ut: pt^ (ry.i^vow. ^p^ ano'Tteu, &c. 
 
 II. Gutturalibus et quiescentibus literis aliae lingute non habent cor- 
 respondentes; earn ob rem pro eis aut ponunt vocales, aut dipthongos, 
 aut prorsus eas omittunt, ut: Din apxauia. D70i? Sufiuatvw. 
 
 III. Si duae ex literis "'THi^ quiescentibus gutturalibus fuerint, ambae 
 omittuntur aut mutantur in vocales. i'T' fiSfo; li^*^ aoca HID nxia mi pta 
 njX vxw, n^l odoratus est in Germ, riechen. 
 
 IV. Non raro literae ejusdem instrumenti symbolico transitu inter se 
 commutantur, quemadmodum Grffici, in formandis temporibus, mutant, 
 quando tenuem in mediam et aspiratam 21 ^ y.sp[^x grumus ossis 7QJ 
 y.Oi[i.\^'kog 11^3 Tupow H/^ 'jxXxiObi 7i'3 (pAfw 1^12 ^xaiXivu. 
 
 V. Saepe Graeci assumunt afformationes in praesenti, quas tamen in 
 reliquis temporibus abjiciunt, cum non pertineant ad substantiam radicis. 
 TID aiJ-xpTxvu. p112 fj^o^yvuw ^ti'J* ao(pi,'C,o:. sapiens. 
 
 VI. Abjicitur prima radicalis 3, ut apud Ebrasos. 
 Wll eyyt^co. CH] oif^^ew. 3p3 cavo. 
 
 VII. Quae apud Ebraeos sunt duplicatahabentque secundam et tertiam 
 radicalem easdem literas, in derivandis aliarum linguarum vocabulis 
 abjiciunt alteram. 11i^ xpxoi*.xi. 77^ nvXtco, T*J ^fw, li^ (jvXxai, IIH epog. 
 
 VIII. Ssepe radicibus desinentibus in '?r, 2, Grtcci Euphoniae causa 
 addunt literam t. HS/D clava, xoAaTTTw. ^^T) tvvtu. HDX ovtku. ^2D 
 
 IX. In Graecis tbematibus profertur ^ per rrl vel (7(7 mn ^xpxTla. Mn2 
 
 vXJaU vel nXTlcO, nm TXTTCa. 
 
 X. Metathesis aliquando admittitur. /^U:} xjiXyxivu. iJlj; tpuTxa). vliJ
 
 3i< Pater etTt'Tcix Dor. Sc Mo\. Abba Syr. 
 
 ^^II^i puber, maturus, vi/3«c<j. £(pii/3o?. indc yil^xrm. pubesco. 
 
 13 S< periit, $?(5ow. perdo. 
 
 n3»S voluit, aveo, inde, 3n»^, ni^\ DS*n 
 
 ">i3i^ O vse, ai/3(3i. /3(5arw. f^ow, 
 
 ^'VIJ? egenus, vri-yvif. 
 
 n3t5 & nii< calefecit, splenduit, ^(pauw «Sc «ua'. 
 
 D3X saginavit, (iojyM. pasco, obesus. 
 p2^ pugnavit, "^2^, ?^^, P^^, ttO^. ctl"-/;*h. 'jrv^Tf^a-, 
 "13^^ remigravit, cropeu^. 
 Ti^i^ iibertus, ojipiiJLOi. vvtp. 
 niJi* fasciculus, cex^oi. fascis, onus. 
 DJ^^ stagnum, ly.y.cig. eni/^cciva. ay.[t.cc,Xoo. 't^^^ scirpus, iiiundavit, y-uit-xTi^a 
 TJS< &, \^'^ pelvis, crater,' ayyog, 
 JlJX agmen, ^V-if*** 
 '^J^^ congregavit, ayelpc-j. agger, uyeX--^. grex. 
 
 "I^? vapor, fliTfy-if. id. 
 nns< & 3»S-r contabuit. 
 
 17^ basis, fulcrum, iifi? sustentator, Swxqvii. Suvxqeix. aedes. 
 1i^ illustris, aSpog. 
 3nX amavit, ayccTrxco. D. i13i5 
 
 vnii fixit tentorium, xvkvi. xvKiov. kvXxi.k. aula, aulaeum. 
 
 VOL. II. 3 K
 
 398 
 
 '7''TK stultus, viX(iivofd.cti. ^Xi^icc^a. 
 
 yiK properavit, atjua. 
 
 TTi^ lucebat, ^ip. apx. upxi^oy^xi. wpxi'o;, ovpxvo?. f/-fl;jp«. aurora, oriens, 
 hora, sera, Sax. early Eng. 
 
 ^71^^ celeiiter recessit sic 7P, 7?3, 7l?3, 7?t, crxXxu. cxXivu. aeXXa., 
 
 Jii^ auscultavit, sicj^^ our. wto?. wiz?. wizV/.o;. 
 TtX cinxit, sic"IDKj iriD, aepi'^a. 7£pU. aeipx. ^eipcc. x^eipoi, 
 Tnx unitus est, Ut.cv. iSix^co. 
 '|TCDi^ Txivia. o^ovvi. o^oviov. 
 1^^ ohturavii, see "1^33. thp^w. tuerL 
 
 "•i^ insula, xix. ovxi. vae. 
 7^!i^ cervus tXu(pog. 
 
 nS^i< Ubi, ■TTOL/. 
 
 PX non, xuev. ai.voiJ.xi. vs. vvi. ne. 
 ns^i^ ubi, oTtov. 9rou. TTOi'. quo. 
 5:/\S nti^K vir, emina, (V%uw. ((r%u?. vir, vis, vires, eig. ititx ut in 
 Xxpieg. xxpLsaax. 
 "^^ etiam, imo, ac, axi. 
 b'D^ edit, xmXov. xiXog. xXox. r\72SD, \i.x%xipx. culter. 
 IDi^ agricola, arator, x<ypog. ager, xypiog. 
 
 nSi^ ilex, JAvi. 4X«ifl:. oliva, li*?^ ilex, quercus alnus, fixXxvog. /"'^^idem; 
 CTl7i< Deus, £X£ii[ji.wv. eXeXev. 
 7 wi^ nihiliim, oAXuf*;. 
 ^vH docuit, duxit, (xX(pdw, dX(p«^w. ht(p«i.
 
 399 
 
 V^ si, an, non, m. ti. Di* mamma, mater, amo. 
 ^12)^ infirmavit, iit.x'ko;. uvxXoi. afx/SXuj. mollis. 
 
 DD5<D^^ nCk?, (Aa:w. i/.xi.c£. afj-jxa:. ij^xij^Ij^t^ . fj.xij.ij.aix 
 
 \^i^ sustentavit, fidelis, verax, o\j.vvw. x]j.v\io\j.xi. \j.iv. munio, 
 
 ^DK valde consolidatus, f^fi^wi/. 
 
 HiX natavit, vxoi. j/xvai. vevca. ""^^ navis, 
 
 T\l'A cremuit, xvlx. aviacc. avixipog. 
 
 1D3i< ego, eya. tyw'jyx. Dor, tf^vyx. 13n2 vw. wf. nos, noi, Ital. ich, Ger. 
 
 D3i5 opprimere, onus, 
 
 ^3i< spiravit naribus, HSiJ, ''S, 1i< nasus, facies, wx^/. 7rp53-a;7rov, «v£[*of. 
 
 p3i< ingemuit, exclamavit, P^3, pn2, n:X id. oyKa'ot^at. eV^oj. Asinus. 
 
 Ji'DK aegrotavit, Ji'ii voa-of. voj\\\j.x. vir, mortalis, ai^vip. av^paiiiog. 
 r\n2ii Chald. nn^ Heb. Tu. Tu. au. ScVoeLTuve. 
 "•DDi^ horreum, T^(x;£ji5:. Dtl''* op.-o(rf. si/m^Z posuit, sammen, Ger> 
 
 f\Di^ collegit, traxit, ID"', HDD, o-Triw. aar-Tri?. 
 
 ")D« ligavit, "1^"^, "ID^ ^apa. 
 IJIDX a^vjp. astrum. 
 
 ^^^ apte ligavit, ^ttw. o-uv^TrTw. apto, I adapt. 
 
 (ID J? coxit panem in furna, OTtixoo. T.iitTa, Trf^a-a;. i'^4'W. 
 
 Vsi? caliginosiis, fs^fAn. nebula, (pwXEo;. (pwXaj. velo, velamen, a veil. 
 
 J2i^ rota, uTTv^^^fi. rheda, ^^^^ circumrotavit, af*(pi. 
 
 i/Di< sibilus viperae, n;/a sibilavit, n;/2ii vipera, o(pf?. o(pi«5vif. $««. 
 
 TS^ cinis, TSJ^ pulvis, Ti(ppx, Te(ppo(a. TeC^pi^a. (pvpeca, - 
 
 T^i* thesauravit, Sv^o-aupoj. crcopavu. crop'og. acervo, 
 
 3"!^ insidiatus est, fcpudi^oj. 21iJ ipi(po}.
 
 400 
 
 31^* texuit, apa^i-H. aranea, upxx^iov. fpya^sjv. TCirkcn, Ger. 
 m^i abstulit sicut Leo, kiptcj. '^"li* Leo. 
 "^■)^ elongavit, opt>yo[i.cii. porrigo, arceo. 
 yi^^ 'terra, ipx. a^oco. apovpa. epysi'^. 
 11^ execratus est, «pa. apao\j.ai. y.ara^w^ai. 
 "I»^ rivLis, i\mos, viii. 8. li^"" &11^*' id. 
 '^1^ desponsavit, puTiov. pvcii^o\j.ai. do pignora sponsalia. 
 
 ^'^ ignis, tela, 'IK^p.iqog. "ccir^c^. k^oi. iaxa^a. e%a^i^. asSO, Vesta. 
 Htt'J^ oblatio ignita comp. ex, ^1^ h'^'^. ^'^'^ sol comp. :i'i^ & 5i'. 
 X^^ ao(pog. X^DtiNS* Chald. Dan. i. 20, ii. 27, iv. 4, HS^'S* pharetra. 
 '7^^ quercus, quercetum, sjlva, uIto;. x7v)m'. asylum, v. Dionys. 
 
 Hal. /. 3, cap. 15, Aa-vkov. i^ecoohv. Svoiv. B§viJ.av. 
 N'i^X Chald. rrnj* Heb. ^scc. Wo^. ^ox^cj. H^6cj. itum. 
 inx fortiter stetit, ]Tr\K oyo?. asinus. 
 :K:in.S Chald. v.^'i^ iEtna, v. Bocharti Chan. I i. c. 28, et Yegilii 
 iEn. iii. 571— -582. 
 
 I have liere confined myself to the first letter of the alphabet: were it 
 needful, we might have taken a more extensive survey, and by multi- 
 plied examples have more clearly demonstrated the close affinity, which 
 subsists between Greek and Hebrew. This however is sufficiently evinced 
 by Avenarius, to whose inestimable labors I have been indebted for this 
 vocabulary. Prom him I have adopted it, and might have easily col- 
 lected more than one thousand roots in addition to those which have 
 already appeared in the progress of my work.
 
 401 
 
 AFFINITY BETWEEN LAPONIC AND HEBREW. 
 
 THE country north of the Gulf of Bothnia and of the White Sea, 
 including Finmark, is known by tlie naine of Laphmd. The Finns and 
 Laplanders seem to have been driven in remote periods from countries 
 situated between the Danube and the Volga, to this high, latitude, by 
 more powerful hordes, who, seeking only pasture for their flocks, had no 
 inducement to penetrate the frozen regions, in which snow remains nine 
 months in the year, regions suited only to the rein deer, who on these 
 mountains find a sufficiency of lichen, their usual food, beneath the 
 snow. Some of these granitic peaks rise many thousand feet above the 
 level of the sea. Sneehatten in particular is 8115 feet high. 
 
 In these elevated regions the Laplanders wander with their herds, 
 some of which contain 1500 or 2000 head of deer, and here, finding 
 rest, they remained from generation to generation, without a wish to quit 
 their dreary haunts. They had no intercourse with other nations, who 
 could have no inducement to invade their mountains; no commercial 
 transaction, excepting only by barter to some small extent, and no 
 occasion to pass through a country, which was surrounded by the 
 Frozen Ocean. 
 
 Here they remained distinct and separate, like the natives of Arabia. 
 
 Their language therefore is uncorrupted by foreign words, either im- 
 ported by commerce or introduced by conquest. 
 
 In consequence of this it has retained its original purity to a greater 
 degree than the Arabic in Arabia, which probably is not so pure as the 
 language spoken by Ishmael. 
 
 VOL. II. 3 jL
 
 402 
 
 The Hungarian dialect of this language has not had these advantages, 
 and may therefore be considered as a most corrupted Finnish. 
 
 In the Lapland language are numerous expressions which connect 
 themselves with Greek and Latin. These languages, however, as we 
 have seen, have near affinity to Hebrew. When I say Hebrew, I do not 
 mean strictly one particular dialect of that Oriental tongue, which in- 
 cludes Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and ^thiopic; but any one, or 
 all these kindred lano;uaoes. 
 
 Olaus Rudbeckius, a Swede, and the most eminent linguist of his age, 
 assures us that out of 2000 or 3000 words, not more than 200 or 300 in 
 the space of 3000 years, have been either changed or lost. The rest are 
 either Hebrew, Chaldee, Sj/7-iac, or Arabic. 
 
 He has not given us his Canons; but we may safely conclude that his 
 must essentially agree with those of Avenarius. 
 
 I shall here subjoin a few examples, which may be sufficient to shew the 
 close affinity, which has subsisted between two kindred languages after a 
 separation of some thousand years. 
 
 Laponic, 
 
 Achaedi 
 
 Aedhame 
 
 Aelo 
 
 Aema 
 
 Afo 
 
 Al 
 
 Alah 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Honoravit 
 
 Terra, humus 
 
 Non 
 
 Mulier 
 
 Adlnic 
 
 Super 
 
 Altus 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 nin 
 
 hi; 
 
 nhi: 
 
 Laponie. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Ali 
 
 
 Ascendit 
 
 Aim 
 
 
 Juvenis 
 
 Almevoth 
 
 inventus 
 
 A lop 
 
 
 Multitudo 
 
 Asi 
 
 
 Fecit 
 
 Asie 
 
 
 Opus 
 
 Asso 
 
 
 Fundanientum 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 rbii 
 Dbi;
 
 403 
 
 Laponic. 
 
 1.0(11!. 
 
 Heirtw. 
 
 Laponic. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 He' Tit. 
 
 Atzah 
 
 Fulgur 
 
 «i;s 
 
 Hathi & Adhi 
 
 Dormivit 
 
 n?n 
 
 Atzi 
 
 Arsit 
 
 Jim 
 
 Hialo 
 
 Fortis, potens 
 
 '7^n 
 
 Allui 
 
 Egit 
 
 hbM! 
 
 Hished 
 
 Benignus 
 
 Ton 
 
 Autzi 
 
 Robustus 
 
 u;i:;M^nr} 
 
 liniz 
 
 Culter, liasta 
 
 n^iT} 
 
 Auzi 
 
 Roboravit 
 
 njyx B'^i't^ 
 
 Eloki 
 
 Percussit 
 
 T]2ry 
 
 Avohi 
 Eke 
 
 Desideravit 
 Etsi 
 
 
 Huolgi'&) 
 NYuolgi ) 
 
 Abiit 
 
 i^r^ 
 
 Epe 
 
 Nihil, non 
 
 Esai. ili. 24. 
 
 Jarodi 
 
 DeciJit 
 
 Tl^ 
 
 Eseli 
 
 Elevavit, laudavit 
 
 -T^D 
 
 Jaur 
 
 Lacus 
 
 -IS^ 
 
 Fauro 
 
 Decora vit 
 
 -)SD 
 
 Jed 
 
 Manus 
 
 n> 
 
 Galmai 
 
 Abscond it 
 
 ubi; 
 
 Jen (ien) 
 
 Non 
 
 l^K 
 
 Gaska 
 
 Corrosus 
 
 T]^\2;y 
 
 [se 
 
 Vir 
 
 m^^ 
 
 Gaski 
 
 Rosit 
 
 mm 
 
 Joh vel hio 
 
 Fuit 
 
 n\"! 
 
 GiecU 
 
 Scivit, novit 
 
 J/T 
 
 Jukand ke 
 
 Qui 
 
 •«D 
 
 Had 
 
 Had as 
 
 Dignus, ccstimatus 
 Nov US 
 
 Tin 
 mm 
 
 Juoks 
 
 (Laqueus, ) 
 Carcus, fraus) 
 
 t^'P^ 
 
 Hadsie vel 
 Hadshe 
 
 /Luna 
 
 cnn 
 
 fze 
 Kah 
 
 Ipse 
 Sicut 
 
 n3 
 
 Haeg 
 
 Sinus, abdomen 
 
 p^n 
 
 Kali 
 
 Comedit 
 
 '7DK 
 
 ( 
 
 Noxa, cahi- 
 
 ) 
 
 Kaliti 
 
 Saturavit 
 
 b^DKii 
 
 Haeivi < 
 
 mitas, ahyjx 
 
 \ Isa. xlvii. 2. 
 
 Kalli 
 Kapi 
 
 Per fee it 
 Texit 
 
 il2 
 dial. 5^2n 
 
 Ha rami 
 
 Destruxit 
 
 D-in 
 
 Kalze 
 
 Iratus est 
 
 r^p 
 
 Harezi 
 
 Celer fuit 
 
 3 ] 
 
 Katzi 
 
 o 
 
 Fastidivit 
 
 pp
 
 404 
 
 Lapenic. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 1 Hebrew. 
 
 Laponie. 
 
 Laliit. 
 
 Hebreu. 
 
 Kay 
 
 Mugivit, claraavit ^I/J 
 
 Nisum 
 
 Mulier, uxor 
 
 ■D^^2 
 
 Kazi 
 
 Evigilavit 
 
 r? 
 
 Nuogi 
 
 Quievit 
 
 m: 
 
 Kez 
 
 Finis 
 
 Hi')? 
 
 Nuor 
 
 Juvenis 
 
 -i;/3 
 
 Kioetzi 
 
 Vidit 
 
 nm 
 
 Nuoravoth 
 
 Pueritia 
 
 mi;;: 
 
 Kied vel iec 
 
 Man us 
 
 T 
 
 Outho 
 
 Signum 
 
 ms* 
 
 Kiesi 
 
 Operuit 
 
 nD3 
 
 Outhoi 
 
 Miratus est 
 
 ann 
 
 Kietzi 
 
 Sprevit 
 
 Jrab. ^rn 
 
 Pali 
 
 Separavit 
 
 iib^ 
 
 Kieeze 
 
 iEstas 
 
 pp 
 
 Paiiii 
 
 1 
 
 Vertit 
 
 n:i5 
 
 Kole 
 
 Vox 
 
 h^p 
 
 Pakadi 
 
 Punivit 
 
 "TpD 
 
 Kuoim 
 
 Cum 
 
 d;/ 
 
 Pako 
 
 Verbum 
 
 Si/r. T^ 
 
 Lahi 
 
 Lassus, segnisfiii* 
 
 .ni^b 
 
 Palih 
 
 Fodit 
 
 nVs 
 
 Lait 
 
 Maledixit 
 
 Ch. Syr. ^-h 
 
 Palteooth 
 
 Terror 
 
 mi'VD 
 
 Lauki 
 
 [vit 
 
 f^^ 
 
 Palthi 
 
 Tremuit 
 
 r^= 
 
 Lulue 
 
 Nisi 
 
 ab^b 
 
 Paluk 
 
 Tjaculus 
 
 1^2 
 
 Made 
 
 Alultus 
 
 IHD 
 
 Pasclii 
 
 Dividit, percussil 
 
 ■^DD nt^D 
 
 Marad 
 
 Rebel !is fuit 
 
 llf2 
 
 Pateri 
 
 Fugit 
 
 -ira 112 
 
 Maravot 
 
 Rebellis 
 
 nn-iD 
 
 Peisdi 
 
 Perdidit 
 
 102 
 
 Marsfe 
 
 Sponsa 
 
 Cha. XDn.SZ2 
 
 Pelki 
 
 Lis, divisio 
 
 }b-^ 
 
 Mi and ma 
 
 Quis 
 
 HD 
 
 Pethi 
 
 Persuasit 
 
 n;iD 
 
 Min 
 
 Cum, ex, in 
 
 \D 
 
 Pikde 
 
 testis 
 
 122 
 
 Miide 
 
 V^cstis 
 
 ID 
 
 Posgi 
 
 rransgressus est 
 
 V'^-i 
 
 Muossi 
 
 Fxploravit 
 
 IL'^'D 
 
 Pothi ' 
 
 i^enit 
 
 K3 
 
 Na : 
 Nasi 1 
 
 !*func 
 
 ?ugit 
 
 ii2 
 
 Pudi 
 
 ( 
 
 JExemit, ) 
 Kedemit 3 
 
 iTTD
 
 405 
 
 iMpanic. 
 
 Puodkc 
 Puodki 
 Puore 
 
 Puozeli 
 
 Purki 
 
 Ragi 
 
 Rahki 
 Raki 
 
 Rakie 
 
 Rassi 
 
 Raudi 
 
 Raudni 
 
 Razi 
 
 Renni 
 Rugui 
 
 Ruoki 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Fissura 
 ^In rimas ) 
 C fissus est J 
 Purus, clarus 
 fPcdibus, "\ 
 \ contractus^ 
 ^2 Sam. ix. 13 J 
 
 (In visit, ) 
 CMaledixit ) 
 ^Cumulavit ^ 
 Ccongregatiis ' 
 Abiit, abfuit 
 Dilexit 
 
 Extensio 
 
 Pluit, stillavit 
 
 Fluxit 
 
 Fluvius 
 Fregit, 
 Perforavit 
 
 Clamavit 
 
 Festinavit 
 
 cPavit, 
 
 yComedit 
 
 Hebrew, 
 
 pin 
 
 12 
 
 Heb. dial. At. Syr 
 
 pm 
 
 Chal.Si/r. JJ-| 
 
 DD") 
 
 nil 
 
 Ch. Syr. ^i^lTl 
 
 V)il 
 
 T\V1 
 
 Lapunic 
 PillOSO 
 
 Saedke 
 
 Saek 
 
 Safothi 
 
 Sagi 
 
 Sagih 
 
 Salahi 
 
 Sara 
 
 Saru 
 Sialki 
 
 Siegi 
 
 Sielki 
 
 Sieki 
 
 Sjokki 
 
 Siuki and, 
 
 fuki ' 
 
 Siurho 
 
 So 
 
 Sobet 
 
 Soiki 
 
 Latin. 
 
 em or. 
 
 ^^onitru 
 
 Jus 
 
 Saccus 
 
 Quievit 
 
 Crevit 
 
 Auxit 
 
 Spoliavit 
 
 'Dux, 
 
 (Princeps 
 
 Bos, taurus 
 
 Emisit 
 
 /Depressus 
 
 \ Immersus 
 
 ^Fuit 
 
 Albuit 
 
 Delevit 
 
 Divisit 
 
 Bibit 
 
 Horde um 
 Ille 
 Virga 
 Sedit 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Wi 
 pT-f 
 
 n2iu 
 
 1^ 
 l^m 
 
 Arab, "^j^ti' 
 
 ni)}^ 
 22^
 
 406 
 
 Laponie, 
 
 Stago 
 Sudi 
 Sudi 
 Sudon 
 
 Suopudi 
 
 Tevi 
 
 Tevoaikne 
 
 Thivoi 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Jugum 
 Ferbuit, coxit 
 Peccavit 
 Peccatum 
 ^Percussit f 
 cPIanxit 5 
 Impletus fuit 
 VFl'jvius, ') 
 CAbundans ) 
 -^dificavit 
 
 Hebrew. 
 Ara. Syr. Ch. Jl^ 
 
 "nr 
 -nr 
 inr 
 
 TDD 
 
 Arab. ^2^^ 
 
 Laptnic, 
 
 Thoumiz 
 
 Thulue 
 
 Thuoki 
 
 Vala 
 
 Uali 
 
 Vazi 
 
 Zaigi 
 
 Zayethi 
 
 Zoulii 
 
 Ztorri 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Didymus 
 
 Aquaeductus 
 
 Pressit, fixit 
 
 Sed, nisi 
 
 Juravit 
 
 Exivit 
 
 Inclinavit 
 
 Erravit 
 
 Luxit 
 
 Anxit 
 
 HArew.
 
 HEBIREW. 
 
 vJF Hebrew I shall say litlle. It is a language well understood, 
 and much admired by all who understand it. It carries marks of 
 the most venerable antiquity. The alphabet has been supposed to 
 contain vowels independently of the points, like the modern languages 
 of Europe. But I am disposed to agree with those who consider 
 Aleph to be the most gentle breathing, as it is in Persian, Sanscrit, 
 and Arabic, and with my ancient tutor Professor Robertson, of Edin- 
 burgh, who always taught his pupils to regard aleph as very soft, he 
 as not so soft, heth as hard, and ajin as a most rough breathing. 
 Certain it is, that, according to the Septuagint, the attendant vowel- 
 sound may be that of either a, aa, e, o, ou, or it may be g. 
 
 The pronouns are, ':)3^^ I, nn.S thou, ^<in he, 12»^ we, DnK ye, HZ^rr 
 they. From these the verbs have taken their terminations to indi- 
 cate their persons — Thus, "Tpi3 he visited, has mpD thou visitedst, 
 "ripD I visited, TTpii they visited, ompD ye visited, T3Tp2 we visited. 
 
 But here I must observe, that although we cannot in Hebrew as- 
 sume any part of ""S^X, excepting "• for the first person singular of
 
 408 
 
 of the preterite, yet the Ethiopic, which is closely allied to Hebrew, 
 has ''2"Ip2 I visited, which was probably, at a remote period, the 
 genuine preterite in both languages. 
 
 The tenses are three, past, present, and future ; its moods, the 
 indicative, imperative, and infinitive. Here we have such simplicity, 
 that the conjugation of its verbs is attained with facility; whilst m 
 other languages they are perplexing to the last degree. Properly 
 speaking, Hebrew has but one conjugation, to which all its verbs es- 
 sentially conform. They have indeed eighteen modifications formed 
 chiefly by the points, which create no embarrassment to the learner, 
 whilst in the comprehensiveness of their expression they surpass all 
 the languages of Europe. Eor instance in 1 Kings, ch. xx. v. 27, 
 we find nj^ariC they were obliged to be reviewed. Here we have 
 the consummate art and contrivance of a most polished nation. 
 
 In Latin we observe some resemblance to this contrivance, as in 
 facit factus est; factavit factatus est; facere fecit; facere factus est; 
 factitavit. So in surgo, erigo; sto, sisto; fugio, fugo; doceo, disco; 
 cado, coedo; jaceo, jacio; jacto, jactor. 
 
 The Greek has ttotoj and ttoti^w although it wants ttotc:,', which is re- 
 tained in Latin. It has (pujy.u and (pwr/^w, (pws- ^CpwToc (pxu and (pcclvu. 
 The English has raise, rise; sit, set; fall, fell; quick, quicken, &c. 
 
 In Hebrew we find some modes of expression, with which other 
 languages arc not conversant. 
 
 I. It expresses the genitive case of nouns by juxta-position, as 
 for instance, "'Tl '^im ''D'', that is literally, days, years, my life, meaning 
 the days of the years of my life. The Arabic and the Galic in this con- 
 form to Hebrew.
 
 409 
 
 11. It is fond of ellipsis, and fiequently omits the auxilinry verb. 
 Thus in Joel, ^'7 «^3'7 nM!hnD\ HnN' '•yd; vy^, literally, His teeth 
 lion and cheek teeth lion to him. 'I'hat is, his teelh are the teeth 
 of a lion and the cheek teeth of a li(;n are his. J'loni the [)reva- 
 lence of this figure, other words, which arc introduced in the begin- 
 ning of a sentence, are freciuently to he understood, though not 
 expressed in the latter part, as in Psalm 1. v. 7, Hear O my people 
 and I will speak — Israel, and I will testify against thee: so Psalm 
 ix. V. 18, would literally run thus, For the needy shall Jiot always 
 be forgotten; the expectation of the poor shall perish for ever, which is 
 properly translated shall 7iot perish for ever. And again in Psal. Ixxv. 5, 
 Lift not up your horn on high — speak with a stiff neck, that is, speak 
 7iot with a stiff neck. In Psal. xci. v. 5, 6, the negation is three times 
 understood, though not expressed. 
 
 III. In Hebrew we frequently find the future tense used for the 
 present and for the preterite, but most often the preterite for the future. 
 In the most ancient writers both of Greece and Rome, the present tense 
 and the future had the same form. Thus in Homer we observe (*£vw, 
 manebo, Sfw recurram, oT^vveco hortabor, f<fxi ibo. So, in Plautus, ibo 
 domum atque ad parentes reduco Silenium. 
 
 IV. When vau is prefixed to the future tense, this becomes a pre- 
 terite. 'lDi<'>% '^h''^ p|J/p"'l and Naaman ffi'as wrath and a'e/jf away and 
 said. 
 
 So in Genesis, ch. xxii. v. 3, we have six futures, each preceded by 
 vau, and consequently all are translated properly as preterites. 
 
 VOL. II. S M
 
 410 
 
 V. Vau prefixed converts perfect tenses into futures. In Isaiah, 
 ch. viii. V. 15, no fewer than five verbs appear, each with vau prefixed, 
 which are thus converted from preterites into futures. 
 
 VI. The regular mode of expression for preterites is to place them 
 before the nominative: otherwise placed, it is commonly the present 
 tense. 
 
 VII. The roots are commonly regarded as triliteral, but some 
 learned men consider them as originally biliteral. In numerous instances 
 the third letter seems to modify the sense. Thus for instance i^vD, 
 ^•72), n'jD, n'^D, '7'7D, p"?-!, all mean to f/it;iJe, and ^"^ D, DID, DnCJ, DID 
 j;"lD, pD, p"lD, n"lD with ti'lSi convey the same radical notion. Of 
 Of these expressions therefore /D and T^ appear to be the essential 
 portion, and of these, 7 and "1 are commutable. 
 
 In "1"IJ dissecuit, 21 J scabies, 11 J abrasit, scalpsit, ill J ruminavit, HJ 
 abscidit, n"lJ sauciavit, DIJ fregit, I'U diminuit, the original root 
 seems to have been U from which perhaps the Greeks derived their 
 x£;/)w. Certain it is, that J and h are letters of the same organ, and 
 it is worthy of our notice that 112, 1X2, and HTD, mean scidit, 
 fodit, 212 secavit, yip scidit, divisit, i'12 rupit, laceravit.
 
 CHALDEE. 
 
 XHE Chaldee, such as we find it, is comparatively modern, for we 
 are not able to trace it back beyond the captivity of Israel in Babylon. 
 In the writings of Daniel and of Ezra we possess it in its purity, as 
 spoken at court in the capital of a mighty empire. Since that period, 
 it has degenerated, and in the lapse of time, lost much of its elegance. 
 This appears in the Targums of Jonathan and of Onkelos. 
 
 i\fter the birth of Christ, we find the language of the Jews still 
 more remote from that of their progenitors. Yet during a period of 
 about J, 500 years, from the mission of Moses to the birth of the 
 Messiah, the changes have not been such as to conceal the orifinal 
 identity of Hebrew and Chaldee. It is impossible for any one with 
 even a moderate knowledge of these languages not to see clearly, that 
 they are very nearly related. Yet they differ in many particulars. 
 
 The reader must not expect, that in a work like this I should enter 
 minutely into each language, which passes in review before us. 
 
 What I shall therefore say respecting the Chaldee will be merely 
 to point out some of the changes which have taken place, between it 
 and Hebrew, since the time of their separation. 
 
 3 M 2
 
 412 
 
 I. Beth in Hebrew may answer to mem and phe in Chaidee, as in 
 J^3Dandi^ȣ3; 'jnn and "^nQ. 
 
 II. The Hebrew nouns and verbs, which terminate in Ae, change this 
 for aleph in Chaidee, as in HDa and ^^QI1; nJ2 and i<33; nb'^b and 
 
 III. He in Hiphil is aleph in Chaidee, as in I^TTn and IHTS; p3'7n 
 and pVi*; 
 
 IV. The emphatic he prefixed to nouns in Hebrew, answers to aleph 
 suffixed in Chaidee, asinHD^n and ^^^DD. 
 
 V. The terminating mem of Hebrew becomes either aleph or 7nin in 
 Chaidee; thusQ^Qti' becomes ^^Q^^' ; D^D, X^Q; D^:3, ]^J3; D^pT, ^pr. 
 ThusC and 1^ most perfectly agree, ^* answering to"' and ] to D. 
 
 The dual number, which in Hebrew terminates in mem, has men in 
 Chaidee, as in ^'^^ and V^^. 
 
 VI. Aleph of Hebrew may correspond to ajin of Chaklee, as in ^H? 
 and i^i!^; i^f^^ andi'QJ. We find ^^ IT, m? and ;?")? to ventilate, to 
 scatter seed. 
 
 VII. Between Hebrew and Chaidee daleth and zojiii are commutable, 
 as in ni'^D and nm^, 23T and ^^1 ; 12* and "l^T 
 
 VIII. Likewise between teth and f^a^^e, as in "^V;/ and V^;'; V^?^ and 
 CO;;^; '?'?•»' and '7'7£2. n'?^'^^'? of the Hebrew answers to i^bt^/^nb of 
 the Chaidee. 
 
 IX. Zajin and /z«f/e take each the other's place, as in HIH and NVH; 
 
 -ti;V and i<1^;^». 
 
 X. So do shin and teth, as Iti'p and IJ^p. 
 
 XI. Shin in Hebrew very frequently becomes than in Chaidee, as in 
 
 "liSi' and "liri, whence T«y^of; IVl^ and J'lJ^, Supa,
 
 413 
 
 XII. Tzade and ajin correspond, as appears in f1*? and V'^'^ or 
 
 n;;n « ; ] xy and ] «i^ ; n i; -i and n;;n. 
 
 XIII. Ill the same word we find ajin answering to aleph and tzade to 
 ajin. p and J^«. 
 
 XIV^ Schin and samceh take one the otlier's place, as in "^l^^ Ileb. 
 and 10D Chald. 
 
 These' few examples may suffice to show the mutations which have 
 taken place in one or both these languages. Dissimilar as they now 
 appear, yet to the attentive and discerning eye it will be evident, that 
 they are radically one. Considering the length of time which intervened 
 between their separation, when Abraham (juitted Chaldaea, and the 
 Babylonish captivity, we may well expect, that the signification of 
 numerous words must have been greatly changed. This precisely is 
 what the most superficial glance will be sufficient to discern. 
 
 In Hebrew, he made, is Hi^J/, but to express this action in Chaldee, 
 the word is "T^^, which in Hebrew means he served. A feast, in 
 Hebrew, is mishte, in Chaldee lehem^ the latter referring to bread, the 
 former to drink. The expression for wine is, in Hebrew V^ jaji?}, but in 
 Chaldee hamar, "IDH so called, perhaps, from its red colour,^ perhaps 
 from its being a fermented liquor. Our term Jirst is in Hebrew iitt'X"! 
 the notion being taken from the head; but in Chaldee it is commonly 
 ^QTp, from Dip prior fait tempore, loco veldignitate, whence CTpis 
 the East, both in Hebrew and Chaldee, and V^^^ in Hebrew is trans- 
 lated ^ an p in Chaldee. 
 
 That there should be a near affinity between Hebrew and Chaldee, is 
 not to be wondered at, because Abraham was a native of Chaldaea.
 
 414 
 
 Even between hi3 leaving his country, his kindred and his father's house, 
 to the departure of Israel from Egypt, being more than four hundred 
 years, considerable changes must have taken place in both these 
 lano-uages. But between the time when Hebrew first appeared as a 
 written language in the Pentateuch, and that in which Daniel, Ezra and 
 Nehemiah wrote in Chaldee, was more than double that long period. 
 
 In more recent times the Talmudic writers formed some of their 
 infinitives in aleph, some in he and others in either jod or van. 
 
 Now it is remarkable, that in Swedish the termination is a, in Danish 
 «, and both in Slavonic and in Welch u, but this ii is pronounced as i. 
 It is likewise worthy of our notice, that both the Hebrew and Chaldee 
 make use of vowel points. 
 
 The pronouns are i«JX, nx, «in; l]t«, ]^rMi, \Mn ego, tu, ille vel 
 ipse, &c. "^ mens, 1 tuus, H ejus, •, noster, V^ vesler, PH eorum.
 
 A M A B I C» 
 
 >SUCH is the affinity between Hebrew and Arabic, that without the 
 assistance of the latter, we should not, in numerous instances, be able 
 to ascertain the radical meaning of the former. Indeed no oriental 
 scholar ever doubted respecting their original identity. 
 
 We are informed that Ishmael, the son of Abraham by Hagar, being 
 banished to the Wilderness of Paran, took to wife an Egyptian, and 
 became the father of twelve princes. It does not appear, that he was 
 the founder of all the Arab nations ; but it is acknowledged, that the 
 principal hordes of the wandering Arabs descended in part from him, 
 and in part from Joktan, the son of Eber. No wonder then, that 
 Hebrew and Arabic should agree like dialects of one language. 
 
 The Arabs from the beginning have been insulated; and, although 
 their sword has been against every man, and every man's sword against 
 them, they have never been subdued. As their country is divided into 
 petty sovereignties, we must not wonder, that they should abound with 
 dialects, and that in process of time these should differ to such a degree 
 as Niebuhr assures us they now do. Troni him we learn, that even at
 
 416 
 
 Mecca tlie Arabic of the Koran is taught in colleges, precisely as Latiu 
 is at Rome. Yet though the difference between the ancient lancuase 
 and the modern is so great, they agree as dialects, like Latin and 
 Italian, which are radically one. Tliese dialects now indeed differ widely 
 from each other; but in the days of Mahomet they must have approx- 
 imated, and the Koran remains as the standard, by which we are to 
 determine what was the language of his day. 
 
 This language and Hebrew essentially agree, not merely in words, but 
 in grammar, which is more than we can say of English and its legitimate 
 parents, the Anglo-Saxon, German and Danish. In Arabic, the nouns 
 are declined and the verbs are conjugated, precisely as in Hebrew. 
 The grammatical construction is the same, and they make the same use 
 of vowel points. 
 
 The pronouns agree with those of the Hebrew, and are ''Ji^, fi3S, STU; 
 Tin 3, Dr\K, on I, thou, he, Sec. but the Arabic characters are com- 
 paratively modern. 
 
 In their verbs they perfectly agree. These usually consist of three 
 radical letters. They have but one conjugation. The various persons 
 are distinguished by suffixing to each the last syllable of its pronoun. 
 They have the same number of moods, the indicative, the imperative, 
 and the infinitive. Their tenses are the pra5terite, the future, and the 
 participles. 
 
 They require only to be compared, in order to manifest their radical 
 identity.
 
 S Y R I A C. 
 
 X HE Syriac differs little from the Chaldee. They have both the same 
 alphabet with Hebrew, and in all these languages, like as in Arabic, 
 aleph is the most gentle breathing. This letter in the beginning of words 
 either forms the first person singular of the future tense, as in 3r(DX 
 scribam, or nouns substantive, as in i^3i\^ digitus. The Syriac, 
 Chaldee and Arabic, all agree in substituting aleph for the servile he in 
 the beginning of hi phil and of hithpael, as for instance, 7T3K for 7"'T2n 
 and '^Tnnbi for "jf^nn of the Hebrew. Aleph is likewise substituted 
 for the emphatic lie, and is placed, both by the Chaldee and Syriac, 
 not at the beginning, but at the end of words. Thus "l^DH of Hebrew 
 becomes iO/D of Chaldee, Syriac and Arabic. So likewise for the 
 feminine gender n2 7Q regina in these kindred languages becomes i<37D. 
 
 This conformity alone would be sufficient to demonstrate the close 
 affinity, which subsists between Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Syriac. 
 
 The pronouns in Syriac are ^3i^, ^3J<, IH; pn, pr\:»^, p:«, ego, tu, 
 ipse, &c. Vh^i^ iin. 
 
 VOL. II. 3 N
 
 418 
 
 Syriac forms its adjectives in aleph for the feminine, as 3D bonus, 
 J^2£3 bona, ^i!^'2'\ quartus, H^H^^l quarta. 
 
 I shall here subjoin a few words, which will still more clearly evince 
 the affinity subsisting between Syriac, Chaldee, Hebrew and Arabic. 
 
 3K pater, S. C. H. A. 
 
 12ii periit, ditto 
 
 hia doluit, S. C. H. 
 
 P»* H. C. iJ1« Syr. 
 
 1JJ«pactusest,S.C.H.A. 
 
 r^^ habitatio, S. C. 
 
 n::'K femina, H. 
 
 i^rii^ C. 
 
 ^n:^ A. 
 
 i^n:^ S. C. 
 
 i^ni^ signum, S. n.S C. 
 
 m.s H. 
 
 I« tunc, H. n« C. A. 
 
 p-r^TSyr. 
 
 ■JTX abiit, S. C. H. A. 
 
 D^3t« aures, H. 
 
 P3"r«S. C. A. 
 
 "inK unus, H. 
 
 x"Tn s. C. A. 
 
 n« fratcr, H. C. 
 
 x^^i A. 
 
 pni^ cognatus, S. C. 
 
 »S'nx consuit, C. 
 
 fni< cepit, H. 
 fnx C. potitus est 
 
 1'ns* S. potens 
 "tHK tardavit, H. A. 
 
 Iinx poster!, C. 
 
 nnnt* posteritas, H. 
 
 nTli^ ultimus, A. 
 
 i^TTin posteritas, S. 
 
 i:0S* carduus, H. C. 
 
 to:D« s. 
 
 n3\S odium, H. 
 
 N*3S* S. 
 
 ^''X quomodo, S.C.H. 
 
 '7Dii comedit, S.C.H.A. 
 
 1Di5 agricola, S. H. 
 
 D'^")3S agricolae, IT. 
 
 p:3i« S. C. 
 mxD.s A. 
 
 n"?*^ ululavit 
 
 J«'7«, S. C. 
 
 D^'^'7^« Deus, H. 
 
 l^•^'?^^, C. S. 
 nnha a. 
 
 mnX7J< divinitas, A. 
 
 n"in'7x s. 
 
 ;^'7N* costa, S. 
 
 i^"?;^, C. 
 
 <y'7V H. 
 {V^ studuit, docuit,i 
 
 r s. c. H. ^ 
 
 ^l'?^ du.x, H. 
 
 SC»^ cubitus, C.S. 
 
 (i^^ stabilis, verax, 
 
 I H. C. S. I 
 
 ID.^ dixit, H.C.A. 
 
 -)7J5<ns* dictus fuit, S.
 
 ^JKego, J«2N* C. S. A. 
 
 n3t5 gemuit, H. 
 
 mnii C. mnns* s. 
 
 Ctl'iX doluit, [I.liomo,j 
 
 C C. s. i 
 
 dx:n* a. 
 
 "IDK pulvinar, S. C. 
 HDK sanavit, S. C. H. 
 
 419 
 
 "lDi< ligavit, S. C. H. A. 
 (121K, rota, H. ]2«'7^ 
 C circa, S. ) 
 
 ;;3VNdigitus,S.C. H.A. 
 rHpK caprea, C. H.) 
 ( NT\^ S. ) 
 
 1"!^^ longus fuit, S. C. H. 
 ni^&^ni'obviavi^C.S. 
 
 '^'i^ ignis, II. i^^'« C. 
 
 am'i^ febris, S. 
 "^^ii cffudit, S. C. If. 
 
 r^nii ivit, H. i<nK s. C. 
 ■ins* locus, C. S. 
 
 Tt must be here remarked that I have confined my vocabulary to the 
 letter aleph, which alone is amply sufficient for the illustration of my 
 subject. But I must likewise add, that numerous expressions are found 
 in some of these languages, which have not been preserved in others. 
 Did we possess a greater number of authors, we might be able more 
 fully to demonstrate the perfect agreement, which subsists between 
 them. Sufficient, however, has been here produced to prove, that 
 Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Syriae, are merely dialects of one 
 language. 
 
 5 N §
 
 ETHIOFIC. 
 
 J- HE treasure, which the philologist possesses in the Hebrew and 
 Chaldee Scriptures, is inestimable; yet great as it may be, he laments 
 that it is not equal to his wants and to his wishes. In his lexicon 
 he seeks in vain for the roots of numerous words, of whose specific 
 meaning he is obliged to guess. Some few of these he finds in Syriac, 
 and more in Arabic, but the greatest number are said to be con- 
 tained in the Ethiopic. 
 
 With this language I have no acquaintance, but I give full credit 
 to Ludolf and to Bruce, wheu they assure us, that it has a close 
 affinity to Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, and that the roots of many 
 Hebrew words are only to be found it. Sir William Jones delivered 
 his opinion to the same effect, and considered all these languages as 
 dialects of one primeval language. Hence he deduced, that each of 
 these must throw light upon the rest. 
 
 Ludolf m his Ethiopic history has illustrated this affinity by two 
 examples.
 
 4;i 
 
 In Hebrew we have tlD"TI^ (Adamah) the earth, Admah the name 
 of a city in that beautiful valley, resembling Paradise, " the 
 warden of the Lord," which Lot chose for his residence, when 
 with his flocks and with his herds he separated himself from Abraham 
 his venerable uncle; and Adam was the name given by the Almighty 
 to our first parents, when created in his image. 
 
 These names have commonly been referred to a root in Hebrew, 
 which means red, but this epithet docs not seem so appropriate to 
 a Being of superior excellence as beautiful, Avhich corresponds to 
 the same root in Ethiopic. It is worthy of remark, that y.o(T[uog, the 
 Greek expression answering to Adamah is derived from y.ou\t.i(a^ I adorn, 
 and in Latin mundus, like munditia, means, not merely cleanliness, but 
 ornament and elegance. 
 
 The second example is T)^i)^ (Alja) which is translated rump, 
 but in Ethiopia means the tail of a particular breed of sheep, pe- 
 culiar to Africa and the East, which is loaded to such a degree 
 with fat as to require a little cart for its support, whilst 3 3? 
 (zenab) is the term applied to the tail of other sheep.
 
 COPTIC, 
 
 A O Mr. W. Drummond of Edinburgh we are indebted for an account 
 of Coptic and the ancient language of Egypt. 
 
 The alphabet appears to be nearly similar to the Greek both in form 
 and power. Mr. Drummond delivers it as his opinion, that Coptic is 
 radically allied to Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Ethiopic, and that it 
 has been corrupted by the Persians, Greeks and Romans. This inge- 
 nious writer refers us to Woide's Lexicon, a work which I have never yet 
 had the happiness of seeing. 
 
 Mr. Drummond has produced seventy examples of Ethiopic which 
 have strict affinity with Hebrew, and express either articles of the first 
 necessity or the most common actions of savage life; and he assures us, 
 that the names of the Egyptian deities can be better explained in 
 Hebrew than by the modern Coptic.
 
 T U M K I B H» 
 
 I HAVE not paid the same attention to Turkish as I have done to 
 other languages; but I have examined it sufficiently to see, that it is 
 exceedingly corrupt ; and they who are best informed, assure us, that it 
 contains ten Arabic or Persian words for one originally Scythian. Indeed 
 it was not to be expected that wandering hordes, without an alphabet, 
 or written records, should have preserved the language of their ancestors. 
 The same want of written records has been noticed by Sir William Jones 
 in all the Tartar nations. 
 
 Of the Chinese I shall not speak at present; but should my life be 
 spared, I shall hope to pubhsh such an History of China, as will point 
 out the origin and peculiar nature of their language. In the mean time, 
 the Rev. Mr. Carey, and the laborious missionaries who are connected 
 with him, will, I doubt not, give us a satisfactory account of the written 
 language of this wonderful people. 
 
 By the view I have taken of the languages of Europe, Asia and 
 Africa, I trust it is rendered probable, that in the period subsequent to 
 the deluge, and prior to the dispersion of mankind, the whole earth was 
 of one language. This precisely is the declaration of Moses, and in this 
 assertion, his veracity as an historian sta'nds unimpeached.
 
 TOWER OF BABEL 
 
 AND CONFUSION OF TONGUES. 
 
 (Subsequent to the deluge, and prior to the dispersion of mankind, 
 the first event recorded by Moses, which calls for particular attention, is 
 the building of a Tower in the Plain of Shinar. 
 
 As to the use for which this magnificent structure was designed, 
 divines are not agreed, and in the record there is scarcely a word, which 
 has not been a subject of discussion and discordance of opinion, both 
 among the Christians and the Jews. 
 
 The existence of this towei* is sufficiently established by ancient 
 authors, by Eusebius, by Josephus, and by Herodotus. The latter 
 gives the dimensions of the temple, and a particular description of it's 
 towers. These were eight in number, diminishing in size, and rising one 
 above the other. In the eighth, that is on the summit, was the temple 
 sacred to ]3elus or Baal, as the sovereign of the universe. 
 
 Diodorus says, that this temple having fallen to decay, he could give 
 no (terrain information respecting it, but that it was of great all^tude. 
 
 The account which we have in the book of Genesis has occasioned 
 much perplexity to tiie most learned.
 
 425 
 
 It is stated in the record, that the ark rested upon Mount Ararat, that 
 the whole earth was of one language and of one speech, and that as they 
 journied iTom the east, or, as it is in the margin, to the east, they found 
 a plai?i, perhaps more properly a vallei/, (for i^p3 means dissecuitj, in 
 which they built their Tower. 
 
 On this expression Dip fl^, it may be observed, that if they went first 
 from Ararat into Assyria, they might have arrived at Babylon from the 
 east; but if they came from Canaan, they journied towards the east. 
 The Arabic very frequently uses the preposition ^ and l^S for in, into. 
 Here then is the first ambiguity. 
 
 But DTpJ2 may with equal propriety be translated, from the beginning. 
 This appears by Hab. ch. i. v. 12. Should it be so translated, we must 
 understand it thus. This migration was the most ancient. Again, it 
 has been suggested that 0"Tp may be a proper name. Certain it is that 
 Kedemah is mentioned by Mcses as one of the sons of Ishmael; but it 
 does not follow from hence that, in the passage before us, dp was the 
 name either of a district or of a city. 
 
 It has been conceived, but without sufficient evidence, that the 
 languages now spoken, that is French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, 
 Latin, Welch, Galic, English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian, 
 Swedish, Slavonian, Persian, Sanscrit, Greek, &c. &c. originated at one 
 time, and were produced by God himself, for the purpose of dis- 
 comfiting the impious projects of a degenerate race, and preventing the 
 construction of a tower whose top might reach to Heaven. 
 
 That the common opinion is erroneous, may be inferred from hence, 
 that they began their edifice in a valley, and not upon the mountain top. 
 
 VOL. II. 3 o
 
 426 
 
 Had they chosen Ararat, and not the plain of Shinar, as the site of their 
 nefarious building, such an opinion might have had some little semblance 
 of truth; but we cannot readily believe, that any of the human race 
 were so destitute of understanding as to imagine, that ihey could ascend 
 to the throne of the Most High. When the giants of fable were said to 
 have heaped Petion upon Ossa in their rebellion against the gods, such 
 fictions were well suited to the inflamed imagination of the poet, but 
 would be unworthy the pen of an historian. It is therefore difficult to 
 conceive what notion we should affix to the term (D^'C::') shamaim, the 
 heavens. For were nothing more intended than to construct an elevated 
 beacon, which might be discovered at a distance from their habitations; 
 they surely would not have built their tower in a valley. 
 
 In our translation we read " let us build a tower whose top may reach 
 to heaven." But in the original it is simply said, " whose top to the 
 heavens," leaving us equally at liberty to say, " whose top may be 
 sacred to the heavens." We know that idolatry commenced with the 
 worship of the heavenly host, the" sun, the moon, the stars, and it is 
 probable that the first altars of the idolaters were pyramids, like this 
 tower, as described by Herodotus. 
 
 As to the declared purpose of this structure " let us make to ourselves 
 a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth," 
 the learned are at a loss to understand it. 
 
 Had it been written " let us make to ourselves a beacon, lest we be 
 dispersed," we could have understood their purpose: but how making to 
 themselves a name, could prevent their dispersion, we cannot%fipnceive. 
 All that is clear is, that the Almighty " confounded their language, that
 
 427 
 
 they might not understand one another's speech." But in whitt manner, 
 to what extent, and for what duration this confusion lasted, we are not 
 informed. 
 
 Some divines, equally distinguished for learning and for piety, have 
 conjectured, that the confusion produced at the tower of Babel, was' a 
 confusion with respect to worship, creating such disputes as terminated 
 in the dispersion of the builders. 
 
 That the common opinion respecting the confusion of tongues, and 
 the innumerable languages, now spoken upon the surface of the earth, 
 as all originating in Babel, is erroneous, must be evident to every one, 
 who is able to trace French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian, however 
 now discordant, back to Latin; the Celtic, German and Gothic 
 languages to Greek, and all these back to Arabic, Chaldee and Hebrew. 
 
 I have stated the difficulties, which occur to the learned, in their 
 interpretations of the record, and their various opinions as to its meaning 
 and extent; but in these I do not feel myself immediately interested. 
 All I have undertaken to demonstrate is, that subsequent to the deluge 
 the whole earth was of one language, and that a radical affinity may be 
 traced in all the languages, with which we are acquainted. This, I 
 trust, has been performed to the satisfaction of the learned; and, if so, 
 they will readily agree, that the veracity of Moses in this instance is 
 established, and rests upon a firm foundation. 
 
 So2
 
 428 
 
 DISPERSION OF MANKIND. 
 
 MOSES having related the destruction of the antediluvian world, and 
 the preservation of the human race in the person and family of Noah, 
 next proceeds to trace their progeny in their dispersion and their distant 
 settlements. From all that we have seen we may safely venture to con- 
 clude, that their dispersion was the cause, and not the consequence of 
 that diversity of languages, which have prevailed in the world. The 
 misunderstanding, discord and confusion, with which the builders were 
 visited at Babel, was the cause of their abandoning their impious enter- 
 prize; but the most effectual cause of the dispersion of mankind over 
 the surface of the earth has invariably been, and ever will be, want of 
 food. Such was the cause of separation between Abraham and Lot, 
 when " the land was not able to bear them, that they might dwell 
 together. For Abraham said unto Lot, let there be no strife I pray thee, 
 between me and thee, and between my herdsmen and thy herdsmen. 
 Is not the whole land before thee? separate thyself, I pray thee from 
 me." 
 
 From the most remote antiquity, historians have recorded the migra- 
 tion of nations in search of food for themselves and of pasture for their 
 flocks; and it has been constantly observed, that in proportion to the 
 difficulty of communication with the parent stock, their languages have 
 varied. 
 
 Moses informs us, that all the nations of the wOrld, however scattered 
 and dispersed, are the progeny of the patriarch, and of his sons, who
 
 4:9 
 
 survived the flood and peopled the renovated earth. He has given us 
 the names of their descendants, names which have been preserved in 
 profane histor}', and by the colonies, which they estabhshed both in 
 Europe and in Asia. These have been traced distinctly by Bochart, who 
 in fixing their primitive abode, confirms the veracity of Moses. 
 
 From SiiEM our sacred Iiistorian derives Elam, the father of the 
 Elamites, that is of the Persians, the same nation, which in its infancy 
 had Chedorlaomer for its kins;. 
 
 From the same patriarch, according to the Mosaic account, descended 
 Ashur, the acknowledged father of the Assyrians, Eber, the Father of 
 the Hebrews, and Aram of the Syrians, who, by Hesiod and Homer, are 
 called apiit^i. 
 
 From Ham he derived the Cushites, who settled in Arabia, and 
 Nimrod, who, it is agreed, remained in Shinar, where he made Babel 
 the seat of his dominion. Miu;raim, the second son of Ham, was the 
 father of the Ethiopians, now called Abyssinians, and of the Egyptians, 
 whose country is peculiarly styled the land of Ham. From Canaan, the 
 fourth son of Ham, Moses distinctly traced elevea families, of which 
 one was Sidon, the father of the Sidonians. 
 
 Japhet is stated to have been the father of Gomer, Magog, Madai 
 and Javan. Gomer settled north west of Media; Magog and his 
 descendants occupied Russia, Moscow, and the extensive deserts, over 
 which the Scythians wandered with their tents, with their flocks and 
 with their herds. From Madai the Medes derive their origin. Javan, 
 wko may^g^th equal propriety be called Jon, was the progenitor of the 
 lonians, of Elisha, from whom we derive Elis, Hellas or ^olia, of
 
 430 
 
 Tarshish or Tarsus, and of Kittim, the founder of th(! Macedonian 
 empire. 
 
 From a careful investisjation of tiie dispersed families, it is evident, 
 that they originally confined themseiv-es within contracted limits; but 
 that succeeding generations, in proportion to their increasing families 
 and flocks, passed beyond those limits, invaded the territory of sur- 
 rounding nations, and by new conquests extended the bounds of their 
 dominion. This view of the progressive increase of empires, is sufficient 
 to satisfy every candid mind, that Moses, as an historian, is throughout 
 the whole of his narrative perfectly consistent^ with himself, and with the 
 descriptions of the best profane historians. In the infancy of states, we 
 see five kings occupying one little territory, each inhabiting his own 
 metropolis; these are Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Bela, and Zeboiim. 
 We see these petty sovereigns, for twelve years, subject to Chedorlaomer, 
 the king of Elam; then rebelling against him. We see this king, with 
 the assistance of his allies, making war upon the five kings, and putting 
 them to flight. What was the number of the confederate and victorious 
 army, we are not informed ; but we behold it smitten and pursued by 
 three hundred and eighteen armed servants of the patriarch Abraham. 
 
 About four hundred and thirty years after this event, we see one branch 
 of Abraham's family leaving Egypt, to the number of more than six 
 hundred thousand fighting men, and making conquests throughout the 
 whole extent of Canaan. How perfectly consistent is the narrative of 
 these events to the slate and condition of mankind !
 
 431 
 
 THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. 
 
 WHEN the nations of tlie earth apostatizing from tlie Avorship of 
 Jehovaii, became idolaters, worshipped the host of heaven, and offered 
 sacrifice to devils; it pleased the Almighty, as we are informed by 
 Moses, to separate for himself one famii}', which, by restoring and pre- 
 serving pure religion, might stem the torrent of corruption, and become 
 a blessing to all succeeding generations. With this merciful intention, 
 God entered into special covenant with Abraham, commanded him to 
 break off all intercourse with idolaters, and, for tliis purpose, to depart 
 from his country, his kindred, ari*d his father's house. 
 
 On his part, the Almighty most graciously promised, " I will make of 
 thee a great nation, I will bless thee; I will make thy name great, and 
 thou shalt be a blessing. I will bless them that bless thee, and curse 
 him that curseth thee: and in thee shall all the families of the earth be 
 blessed." 
 
 Having made this covenant, it was ratified by a seal, and it became 
 a law, that every male proceeding from the loins of Abraham should be 
 circumcised. That this rite was typical, and representative is clear, 
 because "^ the law had the shadow of good things to come, and not the- 
 substance." It betokened an engagement on the part of Abraham, that 
 he and his offspring should be distinguished from all other nations as 
 servants of the living God; and a promise on the part of the Lord his 
 God, " I will circumcise thine heart, and the heart of thy seed, to love 
 the Lord thy God with all thine heart and with all thy soul; that thou
 
 432 
 
 mayest live." Circumcision to the Jews was a sacramental seal, an out- 
 ward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace, ordained by 
 God himself, given to his people, as a means whereby they might receive 
 the same, and a pledge to assure them thereof. If stiff-necked and 
 rebellious, they would demonstrate, that they were uncircumcised in 
 heart, because " he is not a Jew which is one outwardly, neither is that 
 circumcision which is outward in the flesh; but he is a Jew, which is 
 one inwardly, and circumcision is that of the heart." 
 
 We Jinow that some other nations, not descended from Abrttham, 
 practised circumcision; but this must have been by imitation, for it was 
 never dictated by nature, and could have no other origin, but that 
 which Moses has assigned to it, because we may safely venture to 
 affirm, that there never was a time, when either the nation of the Jews, 
 or the scattered tribes of Israel, could have been prevailed upon to adopt 
 a perfectly novel practice, as derived by uninterrupted tradition from 
 their ancestors, and whose institution is, described in the sacred Code and 
 earliest records of their ancestors. 
 
 Every thing we meet with in prophane historians tends to confirm the 
 representation given by Moses of the darkness which covered the earth 
 before the call of Abraham, and which subsequently prevailed in all 
 the nations, which surrounded Judsea, whilst the Israelites had light in 
 their tents. 
 
 Compared with the offspring of Abraham, how low in the estimate of 
 reason, do all the most admired nations of the earth appear! Look at 
 the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, abandoned to cruel superstition, 
 enslaved by the most execrable vices, and devoted to the most contempt-
 
 433 
 
 ible idolatry; whilst pure religion, with the rational service of the true 
 God, is maintained by one little nation, descended from the patriarch; 
 for " truly in Jewrey is God known, his name is great in Israel." 
 
 Here then we have a further confirmation of the veracity of our his- 
 torian. 
 
 PASTORAL STATE. 
 
 THE pastoral state, patriarchal government, and primitive simplicity 
 of manners, described by Moses, as existing subsequent to the deluge 
 and the call of Abraham, perfectly agree with the beautiful pictures of 
 the poets and descriptions of the best historians. 
 
 The wealth of Abraham and of Lot consisted in their flocks and in 
 their herds, which wandered freely, wherever pasture was to be found. 
 The venerable patriarch performed at once the double office of priest 
 and king; he offered sacrifice, and he led his servants forth to battle. 
 We behold this monarch exercising hospitality towards strangers, who 
 pass near to his habitation. He runs from his tent door to meet them, 
 bows himself towards the earth, invites them to enter, runs to the herd, 
 fetches a calf, and delivers it to a young man, who hastens to dress it, 
 whilst Sarah makes cakes upon the hearth. 
 
 What beautiful simplicity! How well does this accord with a narrative 
 to be met with in Herodotus. He informs us, that a fisherman, having 
 caught a fish of an extraordinary size, presented it to Polycrates, who 
 
 VOL. II. 3 p
 
 434 
 
 said to the fisherman, " Come thou and sup with me." This invitation 
 was accepted, and the fisherman partook of the fish with his ro}'al host. 
 
 By this narrative it appears, that in the primitive ages described by 
 Moses, the subjects approached their sovereign as a father, and that he^ 
 on his part, received them as his chihlren. 
 
 Not so, when the Roman fisherman presented a turbot of eiif)rnious 
 size to the Roman emperor; for he, far from receiving it as a free-will 
 offering, regarded it as a tribute due to his supreme authority, and at 
 midnight assembled the trembling senate, to consult what could be done 
 to procure a vessel large enougii to contain this extraordinary fish. 
 What a contrast of manners liave we here! How little does this resemble 
 primitive simplicity! 
 
 Such is the information to be derived from the descriptions of our best 
 historians; and not inferior to their's, is that to be obtained in the works 
 of our most venerable poets. 
 
 Homer has recorded an example of primitive simplicity, in a princess 
 going with her maidens to the river, to superintend the washing of her 
 clothes; an operation performed in a manner precisely as now practised 
 in the rivers of North Britain. 
 
 In all respects, the Jewish historian conforms to truth, and gives a 
 faithful description of men, of manners, and of events. 
 
 It is related by him, that the Ishmaelite merchants, who carried on 
 trade with Egypt, occasionally dealt in slaves. This account agrees with 
 the practice of modern times, as we learn from Bruce, and from other 
 travellers.
 
 43o 
 
 rOPULATlON. 
 
 ANOTHER event recorded by Moses, is flic vast increase of the 
 Israelites in E^^ypt. In modern Europe no snch increase c.'in take place. 
 To double their numbers, some nations have required centuries, I>ut, 
 accordinfT to JVloses, the Israelites in the land of Egypt doubled their 
 numbers every fifteen years. Without the assistance of political arith- 
 metic, this increase would appear to be miraculous; but it is not stated 
 to have been so. With this assistance, considering the extreme fertility 
 of Egypt, and more especially of Goshen, it should not be deemed im- 
 probable. For it is now well understood, that in a healthy climate, with 
 a sufficiency of food, the tendency of the human race is to double its 
 numbers in the same periods in which the children of Israel doubled 
 theirs. Such has been the increase in the back settlements of North 
 America. 
 
 THE DELIVERANCE OF ISRAEL FROM EGYPT. 
 
 THE most important event recorded by Moses remains yet to be 
 particularly noticed, which is the deliverance of the Israelites from 
 the galling yoke of Pharaoh, king of Egypt. 
 
 Of this, irrefragable evidence appears in the institution of the 
 Passover. 
 
 During a time of famine, Jacob Avent down into Egypt with his 
 family. Here, under the protection of Joseph, his posterity increased 
 and multiplied: but after the death of Joseph there arose a king,
 
 436 
 
 who was unmindful of the benefits, he had conferred upon the na- 
 tion by his wisdom and fidelity. 
 
 This monarch became jealous of the Israelites, and his fears pro- 
 duced a destructive persecution. But when the appointed time was 
 come for the deliverance of Israel, Moses was sent to shew signs in 
 Egypt and wonders in the land of Ham. The greatest of these was 
 the destruction in one night of all the first-born of the Egyptians, 
 both of man and beast. 
 
 To keep up a perpetual remembrance of this marvellous event, 
 which immediately preceded the departure of Israel from Egypt and 
 their passage through the Red Sea, the Passover was instituted, Of 
 this event we want no other proof, than the institution itself, which 
 took place at the time of that deliverance, together with the constant 
 celebration of this solemn festival from its first institution to the 
 present time, attended by the record which has been constantly preserved 
 in all the countries through which the several tribes have either wandered, 
 or been scattered by their enemies. For had not the festivalbeen insti- 
 tuted at the recorded time, there never was a time when an impostor 
 could on its introduction have persuaded the Jews in every part of the 
 world, that they and their fathers had constantly observed this festival in 
 commemoration of the deliverance of their ancestors from Egyptian 
 bondage. 
 
 The character of Moses, therefore, as an historian, stands firm and 
 unimpeached. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
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