mt
 
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 CLYDE 'WORKS, 
 
 GRANVILLE. 
 
 THE CLYDE 
 
 STRIPPERS 
 WINNOWERS. 
 
 From 
 
 Nortb, South, West, 
 we hear: 
 
 " Could not be more 
 satisfied." 
 
 " Something splendid." 
 
 " In every way fault- 
 less." 
 
 " Light Draught." 
 &c., &c. 
 
 "I have named your PLOUGH 
 the CAN'T-BK-BEAT. ' 
 
 " All you say in advertise- 
 ment MORE THAN borne 
 out in my experience." 
 
 " Your Chaffcutter is BETTER 
 and CHEAPER than the 
 IMPORTED article." 
 
 Letters open to inspection. 
 
 Catalogues Post Free.
 
 THE 
 
 ^ 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURIST 
 
 AND 
 
 GUIDE FOR LAND OCCUPATION 
 
 PLAIN EXPERIENCES IN STATION, FARM, ORCHARD AND GARDEN WORK, 
 
 DAIRYING, CATTLE, SHEEP, PIGS, ENSILAGE MAKING, POULTRY 
 
 FARMING, FRUIT PRESERVING, PESTS OF THE AGRICULTURIST 
 
 AND HOW TO CHECK THEM, HOME HELPS, DIRECTIONS 
 
 FOR TREATING WOUNDS, SNAKE-BITE, DROWNING, 
 
 &c., &c., WITH 
 
 Directions for 'field and Sarden Work, from January to December 
 
 BY ANGUS MACKAY, F.C.S. 
 
 IHSTRUCTOH IN AGHICULTURK, TECHNICAL COLLEGE, SYDNEY 
 
 Author of ' The Sugar Caue in Australia." " Elements of Australian Agriculture. 
 " Helpful Chemistry for Agriculturists." Sic., Sic. 
 
 NEW ISSUE 
 
 UKORGE ROBERTSON & COMPANY 
 MKLUOURNK, SYDNEY, ADELAIDE AND BRISBANE 
 
 1897
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 
 
 THIS work is simply an arrangement of every-day Colonial Experiences 
 in Bush Life, Stock Raising, Farming, Gardening, Dairying, Fruit Pre- 
 serving, and kindred subjects. Throughout, the leading effort is to connect 
 the systems of Agriculture, including Stock Farming and Gardening, as 
 followed in the Old Land, with what is gradually proving to be the best 
 practice in Australia. In arranging the work the author had no beaten 
 track to follow There were no similar works to help him. The track of 
 the settler in new country, whichever branch of life he may choose, is 
 rugged at best, and the assistance that can be given by those who have 
 travelled in advance and earned experience on the journey, cannot fail to 
 be serviceable. 
 
 Although the bulk of the contents of this volume were written with a 
 view to their ultimate publication in book form, there is no desire to sup- 
 plant any of the valuable works at the disposal of the agricultural reader. 
 The author could wish that such guides as those of Lindley, Loudon, Stephens, 
 Johnston, Burn, Morton, Youatt, Gamgee, Oliver, Wright, Mechi, and the 
 several excellent journals that devote space to agricultural subjects, were 
 more extensively studied by his fellow-workers. The object in view is to 
 furnish a connecting link between the practice of the Mother Country and 
 America, as laid down in the standard works, with the practice found 
 most suitable here. In treating of grain crops, for instance, the desire is 
 merely to connect the seasons and the necessary alterations in detail with 
 the practice followed in older countries. The same system is followed in 
 the articles upon Stock Farming and Fruit Growing. Each chapter, at the 
 same time, being, as a rule, sufficiently full to form a comprehensive guide 
 in itself. 
 
 The articles upon Budding, Grafting, and other means of propagation, 
 will, it is trusted, tend in no inconsiderable degree to the cultivation of 
 Fruit throughout the country. With the aid of the illustrations given, 
 and directions as to proper time and condition for operating, with ordinary 
 skill and care, there need be comparatively little difficulty in budding or 
 grafting the better sorts of fruits upon the suitable stocks available. 
 
 Machinery, implements, and the various mechanical appliances that 
 do much to simplify labour and reduce the expenses of colonists, have 
 received considerable attention. In the use of machinery, horse, and 
 steam power, the author feels assured, comes the surest way out of the 
 labour difficulties that beset colonists in every pursuit they enter upon. 
 
 Throughout there has been an effort to avoid semi-scientific terms, 
 and to make the work acceptable and useful to those engaged in all the 
 departments of agriculture, and to residents in the country districts gene- 
 rally. To what extent he has succeeded, the reception of the work will 
 prove ; and with this understanding the author places " The Semi-Tropical 
 Agriculturalist and Colonists' Guide " at the disposal of the public. 
 
 Enoggera, Queensland, March, 1875. 
 
 11GG285
 
 iv. PREFACE. 
 
 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 On returning from a Commission to the United States and the West 
 Indies, the author was asked to prepare a second edition early in 1880 ; 
 but he had not opportunity for doing so till now. Since the time men- 
 tioned the work has been practically out of print, and has become scarce 
 and dear. It is now re-arranged, so as to be suitable for teaching pur- 
 poses, while still continuing to be the guide for practical work, as designed 
 in the first instance. 
 
 Several new chapters are added, bringing us up to what is going on at 
 the present time in Dairying, Ensilage-making, Poultry Farming, &c., and 
 special chapters concerning our Soils, Native Grasses, &c., of which much 
 less was known when the first edition was published. 
 
 The thanks of the author are tendered very heartily to the officers of 
 the Education Department, and to their chief (the Hon. J. H. Carruthers, 
 M.P.) for recommending the work as suitable for students in the advanced 
 classes for agricultural instruction in the National Schools. As now 
 arranged, it really contains a series of lessons for an entire course of teaching 
 upon the lines followed with so much success in the Sydney Technical 
 College. The practical part of the work, and those divisions which have 
 so long been followed as affording seasonable useful information concerning 
 the working of Soils and Crops, have been carefully revised and added to 
 with the hope that they may prove even more useful than formerly. 
 
 Balmain, N. S. Wales, February, 1890. 
 
 PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. 
 
 The second edition having gone out of print, I have been called on for 
 a third, and have tried to bring the experiences up to date. Chapters are 
 added upon the Mechanics of Agriculture, Attractions of Plant Life. 
 Rotations for Cropping, and Irrigation. The chapters on Land Selection, 
 Dairying, Pigs, Poultry Farming, the Home Garden for Vegetables, Fruits, 
 and Flowers, Dairying, Insect Pests and how to check them, and Home 
 Helps have been re-written, extended, and brought up to the experience of 
 the present time. I have again to thank the chief of the Public Instruc- 
 tion Department, the Honourable Jacob Garrard, and his officers, for 
 including the work amongst those considered useful for teaching purposes 
 in Public Schools. It is in very general use in advanced schools through- 
 out Australia for object lessons on Australian agricultural subjects, and is 
 the class-book for Elementary Agriculture in the Technical College and 
 country classes. I can but trust that this third edition may prove as 
 acceptable and useful to agriculturists generally as its predecessors. 
 
 The publishers, Messrs. Batson ft Co. , Ltd. , deserve all credit for the 
 expense and trouble they have devoted towards illustrating the work. 
 
 Balmain, N. S. Wales, January, 1895.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PEEFACE to First edition ; to Second ; to Third - - - 4-5 
 
 CHAP. I. INTRODUCTORY : The Land Agricultural Soil ; The Best is 
 the Cheapest ; But what is Eichness of Soil ? Process of Soil Forma- 
 tion ; What Growing Vegetation Tells of the Soil ; The Seasons, 
 Climatic Influences, Rainfall, Semi-Tropical Seasons - - - 9 18 
 
 CHAP. II. SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND : Chemical Contents of 
 Soils ; What Chemistry Tells Us ; Some Representative Australian 
 Soils 18-28 
 
 CHAP. III. CLEARING LAND, FENCING, BUILDING, ETC. : Seasons for 
 Clearing ; Timber and Materials Used 28-41 
 
 CHAP. IV. AGRICULTURAL DRAINING : What It Means ; Distances 
 Apart and Cost of Drains ; Tools and Materials for Draining ; Open 
 Ditches and Covered Drains ; Cropping Healthy and Unhealthy Soil 
 
 41-47 
 
 CHAP. V. MECHANICS OF AGRICULTURE, The Principles brought into 
 Use; Scienc- in the Plough; Hand and Horse Tools for Different Kinds 
 of Work; Good Tools the Cheapest Labor 47-56 
 
 CHAP. VI. CULTIVATION OF CROPS : The Objects in View ; The Means 
 Employed ; Hand Tools ; Hors^ Implements ; Methods of Cultivation ; 
 Surface Stirring ; Subsoil Ploughing ; Harrowing. Rolling ; Commenc- 
 ing with Horse Labor- ------ . 56-70 
 
 CHAP. VII. GRAIN CROPS : Quantities of Seed per Acre ; Maize, 
 Wheat, Barley, Oats, Eye, &c. - 70 83 
 
 CHAP. VIII. EOOT CROPS. Potatoes : To Make Sure of a Crop ; 
 Sweet Potatoes, Yams, Beets, Mangolds, ttc. ... 83-88 
 
 CHAP. IX. SBMI-TROPICAL CROPS: Sugar Cane, Tobacco, Arrowroot, 
 Millet, Sorghum, Planter's Friend, &c. 88-101 
 
 CHAP. X. PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW : Silk, Cotton, Tea, Coffee, 
 Ginger, Chicory, Rice, Hops, Cocoa, Chocolate - 101-116
 
 Vi CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XI. ROTATION OR CHANGE OF CROPS : Results and Advantages 
 of Rotation ; Oil and Fibre Yielders ; The Olive, Peanuts, Flax or 
 Linseed, Broom Corn, Castor Oil ; Getting Out the Oils ;. Banana 
 Fibres 116-127 
 
 CHAP. XII. MAKING AND USING MANURES. How Crops are Made ; 
 What Plants Take Out of the Soil ; Vegetables, Field Crops. Fruit j 
 The Australian Compost Heap ; Materials Available ; Artificial 
 Manures; The Time for Manuring ; Waste of Manures- - 127-135 
 
 CHAP. XIII. IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE : Relation of Plants 
 to Water ; Crops by Artificial Watering ; M- thods ; Scarcity of Water ; 
 Sources of Supply ; Irrigating Hill Sides, For Grass, Crops, Orchards, 
 Vegetables ; When Water is Scarce ; Water Storage ; Pumping ; 
 Temperature of Water ........ 135 149 
 
 CHAP. XIV. LIVE STOCK IN AUSTRALIA : Grazing Farming ; The 
 Stock Available ; Physiology of Life ; Shorthorns, Herefords, Devons, 
 Polleys, Crosses ; Live and Dead Weight ; Connection between Live 
 Stock and the Soil 149-157 
 
 CHAP. XV. SHEEP AND WOOL : Small and Large Flocks ; The Merino ; 
 Country for Fine Wool ; Mutton Sheep; Leicesters. Lincolns South 
 Downs, Romney Marsh, Crosses ; Classifying Wool ; Weight of Fleeces 
 
 157-166 
 
 CHAP. XVI. THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA. Buying a Horse ; Judging 
 Age; Good Mothers Good Stock ; Breeding Horses, Training 166-175 
 
 CHAP. XVII. THE DAIRYING INTERESTS : Materials Available for 
 Profitable Dairying; A Business-like Cow; Breeds for the Dairy; 
 Points of a Real Milk Maker ; Milking ; Testing the Qualities ; How 
 Much Feed? Treatment of Milk; BUTTER MAKING; The Factory 
 System ; Creameries ; CHEESE MAKING ----- 175 201 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. THE PIG : The Kind that Pays ; Breeds ; What Pig 
 Points Mean : Pen and Paddock Pig Keeping ; Killing and Curing ; 
 Lard versus Meat 201 213 
 
 CHAP. XIX. POULTRY : Requirements for Success ; Fences, Buildings, 
 Roosts ; Feeding ; Water ; Peculiarities of Breeds ; The Egg Layers ; 
 Table Breeds ; Crosses ; Breedin ; Incubation ; Incubators ; Testing 
 Eggs; Ducks, Geese, Turkeys; Diseases of Fowls - - 213-236 
 
 CHAP. XX. CROPS FOR FEED, SILOING, HAY, ETC. : Requirements 
 for Feeding:; The Crops Available ; The Silo, and Ensilage Making; 
 Feeding with Ensilage ; Chemistry of the Operations ; Haymaking 
 
 236-244
 
 CONTENTS. Vll. 
 
 CHAP. XXI. GARDEN AND OBCHAED : Vegetables, Fruits, Flowers ; 
 The Home Garden ; Arranging the Land ; Starting with Vegetables ; 
 Warm and Cold Weather Crops ; Sowing Seeds ; Bush House Experi- 
 ences; How to make Big Crops; Market Gardening on a Big Scale ; 
 ORCHARD WORK : Selecting Trees ; Sorts Available ; Planting ; Bud- 
 ding; Grafting; Propagating; Pruning; Cultivating; Marketing. 
 GRAPES AND WINES: Working a Vineyard. FLOWERS AND SHRUBS: 
 Plants Available ; Annuals; Roses, Climbers ; Bulbs, &c., &c. 244-280 
 
 CHA.P. XXII. FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING: Requirements 
 for Success ; Factory Processes ; Bottling ; Canning ; Drying ; 
 Candying, &c. 280-295 
 
 CHAP.XXIII. ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFE : Rudimentary Botany 
 
 296-305 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. FUNGUS AND INSECT PESTS : Their Methods of Life ; 
 How to Check and Destroy Them 305-315 
 
 CHAP. XXV. HOME HELPS: Good Bread and How to Make It; 
 Maize as Food ; Puddings, Cakes, etc. ; Soap and Candle Making ; 
 Bough Paint for Rough Work. TREATMENT OF ACCIDENTS : Burns, 
 Scalds; Drowning; Lost in the Bush 315-333 
 
 CHAP. XXVI. Seasonable Field and Garden Work for the Whole 
 Year Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter- - - - 335-351 
 
 WORKS ON AUSTRALIAN AND OTHER AGRICULTURE - - 352
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 I. INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 THE LAND AGRICULTURAL SOIL. 
 
 " THE best is the cheapest." In 
 no walk of life does this truth carry 
 more force than in that pertaining to 
 land to the operations of the agri- 
 culturist. Comparatively, it matters 
 little which department we enter 
 into : whether that of the farmer 
 pure and simple, the grazier or 
 squatter, the gardener, or a combina- 
 tion of two or more of those 
 somewhat divided pursuits, we find 
 that the prospects favor the men who 
 have the best land. This matter, 
 consequently, of close examination of 
 the nature and quality of the soil, 
 is most important. And as we come 
 more closely to examine the matter, 
 it is found that good agricultural 
 land is good for whatever branch wo 
 from Kid, Soil, may take it up, always providing 
 the mechanical and chemical con- 
 ditions of the soil, its formation, situation, surroundings, 
 and extent are suitable for the object in view. 
 
 " But, What Is Richness of Soil ?" There is an agricul- 
 tural answer to this query, when we come to look ink)
 
 10 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. %, 
 
 " Selecting and Classifying Land," Chapter II. But, as an 
 introduction to the nature and qualities of soils, it may be 
 desirable to make before proceeding to soil selection a 
 commencement here. The time is not so far past, and 
 there may be the idea still, that soil is just a mass of dead, 
 inert, mineral matter, in which, by some means or other, 
 plants grow somehow, and when they are good enough, 
 animals can live by eating the plants, and crops can be got 
 from such soil by merely turning it over. As an advance in 
 knowledge concerning the real practical nature of soils, we 
 may see that decayed and dead vegetation, insects, and 
 animals, with the mineral matter, all go to aid the formation 
 of rich soils. The vegetable contents make up the loamy or 
 humus matter of the agriculturist, the organic matter of 
 scientific agriculture. We may next, and in perfect safety, 
 go another step forward, and treat soil as a mass of 
 living material, having more or less life and richness in 
 proportion to its contents of mineral substances and 
 healthy humus, or vegetable, or organic matter. 
 
 It is at this stage that first acquaintance may be made 
 with the wonders and the extreme usefulness of that 
 microscopic life which connects the dead past with the 
 living present. The purpose of those minute organisms 
 so small that myriads of them in a body would scarcely be 
 visible to the human eye is to break down what has been 
 in growth both vegetable and animal into the elements, 
 the plant food, which we use again for building up flowers, 
 fruit, vegetables, grains, grasses, for nourishing*animal life ! 
 This is one of the visible purposes of the micro-organisms, 
 the microbes, the bacterial life upon which the very 
 existence of all other progressive life is dependent. 
 
 Next we may find that these minute things have 
 another purpose ; that they are the means by which that 
 most valuable aid to agriculture, nitrogen, which we may- 
 know more intimately as ammonia, is absorbed from the air, 
 becomes part of the soil, an essential part of the nourishing 
 food of both plants and animals. Such, in brief, is an 
 outline of the process by which soils have been formed ; 
 their richness being dependent upon the proportions of 
 mineral and orgcinic matter in such state that plants can
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOIL. 11 
 
 use this food, and live upon it, develop into healthful 
 flowers, fruit, and yield crops for the benefit and 
 sustenance of man and animal life generally. 
 
 The Process of Soil Formation. The changes, the 
 growth, the evolution in soil, from the first breaking down 
 of rocks, upon the dust of which woody lichens may grow, 
 until it becomes rich enough to produce the heaviest 
 vegetation, say 100 bushels of maize, or 60 tons of sugar 
 cane per acre, offer a wonderful lesson the forethought 
 and industry of the great Creator a lesson, valuable, 
 curious, and interesting. The process is visible all through 
 the stages of development in our new country. The rocks, 
 broken down, as we see, by the agency of the weather 
 " weathering down " is a very suitable term applied to the 
 process and the fine dust thus produced is the first stage of 
 soil formation. Coarse, woody plants manage to live upon 
 it. They decay, helped by bacterial action, and go to the 
 formation of richer soil, upon which richer plants live. 
 Then animal life comes in, living upon the vegetation, 
 and decaying in due course, help to make still richer soil ; 
 and so the process goes on until the land is rich enough to 
 support the wants of man and the more exacting require- 
 ments of woman, upon whom man himself is dependent ! 
 
 The combined contents of various rocks give us the 
 minerals lime, magnesia, potash, soda, sulphur, iron, silica. 
 From air and water come nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and 
 hydrogen. All of these must be in agricultural soil and 
 the air around it. They all enter into plant life and 
 animal life; and the work of the agriculturist is to use, 
 maintain, and increase this plant food, and by supplying 
 what becomes necessary, and by the admission of air and 
 rain into the soil by "cultivation," in short secure the 
 conditions necessary for making crops. 
 
 Sources of Soil. The rocks are the sources of all soils, 
 but, as explained in the chapter on soil selecting, where 
 analyses are given representing several of the leading 
 formations of New South Wales, they differ very much 
 in the proportions of material they hold for the use of 
 plants. In Australia the disintegration, or breaking up of 
 the rocks, is going on very rapidly, the agents being rain
 
 12 AUSTRALIAN AORICULTUKE. 
 
 air, &c. The very excellent geological works published by 
 Mr. Wilkinson (geological surveyor), Professor Liversidge, 
 and Messrs. Cox and Ratte, afford much and very 
 interesting information on that subject. The soils referred 
 to have been analysed mechanically, in the farming sense, 
 and chemically, in order to get at the proportions of plant 
 food available and stored up, awaiting the skill and 
 labour of the agriculturist. 
 
 Then, Vegetation Speaks of the Soil. The native 
 grasses, herbs, shrubs, and trees offer a capital index to the 
 quality of the soils in which they grow. It is simply 
 impossible to find a heavy growth of rich herbs and grass 
 upon poor land. The timbers also form a guide. As a 
 rule, the softer woods are on richer soil, the harder on 
 poorer soil. Taking, then, the land in its native state, 
 there is less difference in the best soils suited for the 
 purposes of the grazier, the farmer, or the gardener, 
 than might at first appear. They all require land rich 
 in the elements that produce rich grass, and with the 
 exception of the scrub, brush, and other lands, so heavily 
 timbered that there is no grass whatever, the best 
 naturally-grassed lands are the best, as a rule. In taking 
 up land that has been in use, the plants or crops growing 
 upon it aid very much in coming to a decision regarding 
 its present state, and the kind of treatment it has received. 
 When the country is open, and used for grazing only, the 
 grass and herbs offer as good an indication of its capa- 
 bilities as the animals feeding upon the land. The dense 
 thick growth of annual grasses, or herbage, closely matted 
 together and fresh looking, tells an unmistakable tale of 
 the natural wealth of the soil. The symptoms of decay are 
 undue preponderance of long, coarse grasses, which during 
 the winter months become dry, brittle, and of a dark 
 brown colour. There is but little nourishment in them. 
 Weeds, coarse thistles of various kinds, sorrel, shrubby 
 and weedy plants generally, tell their own tale of poor 
 cultivation, overstocking, and of poverty that nothing 
 short of skill in treatment, heavy manuring, or long and 
 absolute rest can bring back into fertility. In the sections 
 of country longest settled, but too much land in this state
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOIL. 13 
 
 can be seen. It is neither profitable to the farmer, grazier, 
 nor gardener. Worn-out land is a millstone round the 
 neck of the man who owns it ; and neglected land is but a 
 stage better. We can only bring it into fertility by clean 
 cultivation and manuring. 
 
 Under the most favorable circumstances, land 
 improvement is costly, and still favours him who has 
 the best to operate on. This we find to be true all over 
 the country, in the grain-growing as well as the sugar- 
 producing districts. Drainage is amongst the valuable of 
 land improvements; but it is costly, and we would give 
 the preference to the land that requires least artificial 
 drainage. As a rule, soil that is liberally mixed with sand, 
 is less costly in working than more stiff or clayey soils. 
 We would also give the preference to land that will allow 
 most horse labor, and has no more fall than is necessary to 
 carry off water readily. The less it is cut up with gullies 
 or water-courses, the more profitably it can be worked. 
 
 To Make Agriculture Pay. So to get to the first 
 requirements for comfort and success, we see that agricul- 
 ture, look at what branch of the occupation we may, to 
 make it pay, must be followed as a business ; that skill, 
 capital, and perseverance are all necessary. It is one of 
 the serious mistakes in connection with colonial life that 
 men enter upon grazing and fanning without any special 
 training or knowledge of what they undertake. Agricul- 
 ture is the only business into which men enter largely 
 upon such terms, and it is no matter of surprise, therefore, 
 that many fail, and that others complain about the want of 
 success. When a man has plenty of money he may be able 
 to buy experience, but it is very expensive. In other cases 
 men commence without either capital or skill, but with 
 strength, courage, and perseverance, and above all with 
 tact to take advantage of every circumstance in their favor 
 that presents itself. They gradually make headway. The 
 colonies are dotted with successful men who have com- 
 menced in that way. They are certainly more numerous 
 than the successful men who have purchased their experi- 
 ence. But at a glance it will be seen that the talents thus 
 brought to bear would have gone far to carry n man
 
 14 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 successfully through any pursuit. And such is the fact : 
 There are few occupations that call for more skilful 
 perseverance than agriculture. On the other hand, with 
 these requisites, there are few that offer safer prospects 
 of making an independent livelihood. 
 
 THE SEASONS THE CLIMATE. 
 
 Australia, to those who know little or nothing of the 
 country, is a land of perpetual summer, subject to terrific 
 floods and excessive droughts the latter, as a whole, 
 prevailing. This belief is not confined to persons in other 
 countries, whose knowledge of Australia has been acquired 
 from books of the kind which state that flowers have no 
 odors in Australia, that birds do not sing here, and other 
 absurd things. Colonists, old colonists among them, have 
 opinions of the country and the climate that differ but 
 slightly from the foregoing. One reason for this belief is 
 the extraordinary similarity of the climate of the seaboard 
 towns, considering the distance they are apart. Take 
 Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, the whole year 
 round, and the climate is wonderfully alike ; nor does it 
 change to anything like the degree the geographical 
 situation of these places might warrant us believing. As 
 we travel northwards to Newcastle, Grafton, Brisbane, 
 Mack ay, Towns ville, or southwards to Melbourne, Adelaide, 
 Perth, the change is just a little more decided. There is a 
 little more winter in the southern sections ; a little more 
 summer in the northern. The cultivation of sugar-cane 
 has shown, to an extent unthought of before, that in 
 Australia the frosts of the winter season are felt for 
 hundreds of miles within the tropics. 
 
 But leaving the coast and travelling inland, the 
 common notion that perpetual summer prevails is soon 
 upset, and very often in a manner that is telling. A 
 hundred miles inland from the coast, unless in low-lying 
 situations sheltered by mountain ranges from the west, the 
 winter season is very decided. Frosts prevail in these 
 inland districts all over the country, even to the centre of 
 Australia. In the south, and as far north as the Queens- 
 land border, snow is common during the months of July
 
 THE SEASONS THE CLIMATE. t> 
 
 and August. Even in the north, the climate inland more than 
 100 miles from the sea can only be considered semi-tropical 
 in so far as the summer months are concerned. The cold 
 of winter is very decided, and the summer vegetation dies 
 off. It is well to understand this fact. It is the key to 
 the serious misunderstandings that exist regarding the 
 nature of the country, and the but too prevalent impression 
 that the climate is very dry and uniformly hot. 
 
 Seasons ; the Rainfall. For practical purposes, the 
 seasons may be divided as follows : Spring : August, 
 September, October. Summer : November, December, 
 January; in wet seasons, February is added to the summer, 
 and in the northern sections of the country is often the 
 most decidedly hot month of the whole. March and April 
 are autumn months, in so far as the bulk of the indigenous 
 grasses ripen and go to seed during that time. May, June, 
 and July are the winter months. The seasons vary to 
 some extent according to latitude, but climatic influences 
 are due in a still greater degree to local causes, to the 
 existence of ranges of mountains running parallel with 
 the sea, to the direction of the prevailing winds, and the 
 quarter from which the rains come, that modify the force 
 of high winds. It is no mere figure of speech to say that 
 within six hours' ride by rail from any of the large cities, 
 we reach places that differ as much from the semi-tropical 
 summer of the coast as the Highlands of Scotland differ 
 from the Midland Counties of England, as Denmark does 
 from Spain, or Western New York from South Carolina. 
 Travel where we will, much the same peculiarities are 
 found. The seasons, the rainfall, and the local productions 
 are modified by the formation of the country to a much 
 greater degree than is observable in other climates. 
 
 Dry and Wet Seasons. Droughts have been ex- 
 perienced in this country. 1828, 1838, 1849, 1802, 1878, 
 1895, were seasons of that kind. The average rainfall of the 
 coast country may be taken as between 40 and 50 inches; 
 and here again the fall is found to be due more to local 
 surroundings than otherwise. Inland the rainfall is less, 
 but the .same rule holds good with sufficient certainty to 
 justify great care on the part of any one who desires to
 
 16 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 choose a location for any particular description of agricul- 
 ture. Thus, for instance, sections of the hill districts, on 
 the slopes of the Dividing Ranges, are found suitable for all 
 kinds of European fruits and grain. The average rainfall 
 there is about 30 inches ; while other places, at nearly the 
 same distance from the sea, have scarcely one half the 
 rainfall. And so it is all over the country. Local know- 
 ledge is of great value ; for places are found at no great 
 distance apart where the seasons, the cold, heat, and rain- 
 fall are essentially different. Still, these peculiarities are 
 merged in the leading seasons of the country which mark 
 the time of spring, summer, autumn, and winter with a 
 degree of accuracy which does not seem to be generally 
 understood. In so far as the grass vegetation is concerned, 
 the seasons are unmistakable, and in neglecting what they 
 teach we are but shutting our eyes to facts, and com- 
 plaining against conditions of climate over which we have 
 no control, but concerning the effects of which we can do 
 much. The great bulk of the grasses die off during the 
 winter months. In sheltered places this is scarcely noticed. 
 Here the grass merely goes to seed, stands like so much hay, 
 and makes tolerable food for stock it keeps life in them 
 at least. So the case stands during the winter. In such 
 places the soil heat seldom goes lower than 50 deg., and as 
 soon as rain falls in the spring months, young grass 
 displaces the old, and so the seasons run into each other. 
 But where frosts occur, the case is different. Its first effect 
 is to reduce the indigenous grasses to dust, or dry woody 
 particles; its next is to lower the point at which indigenous 
 vegetation grows vigorously. When the rain falls at this 
 stage while the soil is cold the evil is aggravated. The 
 soil takes longer to rise in heat when wet, and the land 
 continues bare of grass until the temperature is sufficiently 
 high to cause a spring, so that the growing season is 
 shorter. It is in noting this peculiarity that we see the 
 adaptability of the climate for cultivating European 
 grasses and forage plants. During the cooler, damp season 
 of the winter, that destroys the indigenous grasses, wheat, 
 oats, barley, rye, potatoes, turnips, and the annual grasses of 
 Europe generally, thrive freely in good soil, and form a
 
 THE SEASONS THE CLIMATE. 17 
 
 sufficient basis for feeding purposes. During a moist 
 spring, the growth of the cultivated grasses is very strong, 
 while the same weather that makes them grow keeps down 
 the heat that is necessary for the vigorous growth of the 
 indigenous grasses ; but by combining the two, that is, 
 by having cultivated pasture with the indigenous, the 
 seasons are very rare indeed in which continuous growth 
 cannot be maintained all the year round. 
 
 Semi-Tropical Seasons. In the true semi-tropical 
 sections of the country, including the seaboard northwards 
 from Sydney, the whole of the settled portions of Queens- 
 land, and the Northern Territory of South Australia, the 
 seasons may be still further divided. In these warmer 
 sections there are in reality two growing seasons in the 
 year. One commences as the temperature moderates in 
 March, and continues through the winter months. It is 
 during this time that European grains and vegetables are 
 grown, and in sheltered situations where the soil is rich, 
 they come to extraordinary perfection during this short 
 season. In sheltered places, the time of growth for grains 
 and vegetables is extended through September and October. 
 In other places in the north, rain falls in April and May, 
 and semi-tropical vegetation, such as cotton, corn, &c., does 
 very well when planted at that time. The true tropical 
 spring of the country commences in September and October, 
 and summer continues until March. In very warm, moist 
 localities, such as the Tweed in New South Wales, and 
 Mackay, Mooroochie, and other places on the northern coast 
 of Queensland, the season of growth runs right through the 
 year ; the best time for sowing and harvest being selected 
 in accordance with the usual rainfall of the locality. 
 
 There is but one planting season for fruit culture 
 April-May to August according to locality. Fruits come 
 into leaf in the true spring of the country, and mature 
 during the summer. 
 
 Grasses indicate the Seasons. As the peculiarity of 
 our grasses as indicators of the soil, the seasons, and 
 the climate are better understood, there are fewer complaints 
 regarding the unsuitability of portions of the country for 
 cultivation purposes. Large numbers of the grasses speak
 
 18 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 so plainly in this respect, that they offer conclusive proof 
 that without irrigation to develop the vegetation of spring 
 at the time of seed sowing, it were folly to attempt growing 
 crops where perennial grasses only are found. But though 
 thus indicative of irregularity of seasons, and of a capacity 
 to grow and mature during whole seasons without a shower 
 of rain, those very grasses, and the climate in which they 
 grow, have proven unexceptionally favourable for sheep 
 and the production of the very best quality of wool ; and 
 with skill, wheat with sheep comes in as a desirable branch 
 of Australian agriculture, as explained in the chapters 
 which deal with sheep, cattle, horses, as part of the live 
 stock of Australian agriculture. 
 
 II. SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 
 
 IN the introductory 
 
 chapter and those 
 upon cultivation, 
 native vegetation, and 
 what it indicates, we 
 may see how useful 
 and valuable is the 
 knowledge offered by 
 the indigenous and 
 other plants. Mean- 
 time, we have avail- 
 able the means which 
 science with practice 
 places at our disposal 
 for judging the quali- 
 ties of soils. Chemical 
 analysis is an immense help in this direction, but it must 
 be something more than a mere laboratory analysis. 
 Inspection of the mechanical condition is necessary, and the 
 geological formation. When a knowledge of the peculian- 
 
 ;>/'/^ 
 
 1x 
 
 They Usually Camp near Water, and on 
 Gooi Land
 
 SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 19 
 
 ties of the indigenous vegetation is also brought to bear, 
 there is a closer approach to certainty in our work. By 
 analysis of soil, we get at its various parts by separating 
 them, in the mechanical or practical, and the chemical sense, 
 and can come to very definite conclusions regarding the 
 suitability of any soil for grazing or cultivation purposes. 
 Plants live like other things, and the soil must supply the 
 basis of the means of life that is, the plant food other- 
 wise there must be poor grass or short crops, or no crops at 
 all, and the attendant risks of disease and bitter disappoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Earth Substances for Making Grass and Crops. For 
 grazing and for cultivation one of the most important 
 substances indeed, the most important part of the soil is 
 the vegetable or organic matter. This contains the 
 available nitrogen, which plays such an important part in 
 building up plant life. When with this the mineral 
 substances are sufficiently abundant, the best grasses and 
 the most plentiful crops can be got. In this climate 
 the vegetable matter contains most of the plant food in 
 such condition that the roots of plants can take it up at 
 once, and enables them further to reach all the mineral 
 food they can find in the soil and the subsoil. But this 
 matter is not very abundant, and the agriculturist acts 
 wisely who saves all he can. By cultivation, by rotation 
 of crops, by manuring, and by resting or fallowing the 
 land, the process of making plant food is quickened. The 
 soils having the most vegetable matter take in rain-water 
 most readily, and hold it longest for the use of crops or 
 grass. This, in dealing with Australian soils, the analyses 
 going on prove, is a rule almost without an exception, and 
 it proves conclusively how destructive is the custom of 
 burning grass, or stubble, or indeed any vegetable matter 
 on the land. We have none to spare for the purpose. 
 
 Judging Soils by Analysis. The soils here described 
 have been separated, or analysed mechanically (in the 
 farming sense) and chemically to prove their contents : 
 also tested for their capacity to absorb and hold water, 
 in the manner suitable for vegetable life. The figures 
 represent each soil divided into 100- parts of the whole,
 
 20 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 which affords an easily understood basis for calculation 
 and comparison : 
 
 
 1 ** 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 |f 
 
 CONTENTS OF SOILS.* 
 
 !- 
 
 51 
 
 : O 
 
 SI 
 
 >JS 
 
 
 
 &i* 
 
 It 
 
 * 
 
 8.1 
 
 Organic (vegetable) matter ... 
 
 20-40 
 
 12-9G 
 
 3-70 
 
 2-00 
 
 Nitrogen - ammonia ... 
 
 10 
 
 07 
 
 01 
 
 Traces 
 
 Clay matter (alumina) and iron 
 
 19-60 
 
 1895 
 
 1-00 
 
 400 
 
 Lime 
 
 1-40 
 
 1-22 
 
 Traces 
 
 02 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Traces 
 
 18 
 
 Traces 
 
 
 Sulphuric acid ... 
 
 01 
 
 04 
 
 Traces 
 
 01 
 
 Potash 
 
 90 
 
 09 
 
 05 
 
 Traces 
 
 Sodium chloride (salt) 
 
 20 
 
 07 
 
 06 
 
 02 
 
 Phosphoric acid... 
 
 08 
 
 03 
 
 Traces 
 
 Traces 
 
 Sandy matter and loss 
 
 56-50 
 
 6605 
 
 9i-10 
 
 93-75 
 
 
 99-19 
 
 99-66 
 
 98-92 
 
 99-80 
 
 Capacity for absorbing water... 
 Capacity for retaining water . . 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 lot 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 The Clay and Iron. Clay in soil, though not a plant 
 food, is useful to a certain degree, as giving closer texture 
 and capacity for retaining moisture. Iron may be healthy 
 for plant growth, or it may be injurious. Tests to get at 
 the state of the iron are very useful. 
 
 Lime is present in all useful soils. It exerts marked 
 effects in preparing the food of plants. When it is almost 
 absent, or the proportion is low, say less than is represented 
 in the analysis as '2, that soil is very slow in yielding 
 crops, and the indigenous vegetation is poor. The applica- 
 
 Soil analyses, and the analyses of water, plants, inilk, and sub- 
 stances generally of use in agricultural practices, including manures, 
 are dealt with fully in the author's work on " Helpful Chemistry for 
 Agriculturists," 4s., Batson and Co., Clarence-street, Sydney, and all 
 booksellers. 
 
 t The standard 10 is a perfect soil for absorbin * and retaining 
 moisture.
 
 SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 21 
 
 tion of lime, in some of its many forms, in sufficient 
 quantity for grass and crops, is one of the least costly of 
 soil improvements, and one of the most effective. Lime is 
 abundant in Australia. 
 
 Magnesia is an alkaline earth in much the same sense 
 as lime. It is not a scarce ingredient in New South Wales 
 soils. 
 
 Phosphorus as Phosphates, in combination with other 
 substances, is fairly plentiful in our soils, but, as a rule, 
 additions of this mineral are desirable in the form of bone 
 material. In conjunction with lime, &c., the phosphates form 
 bone, and not a few of the defects in grazing and dairying 
 countiy can be traced to scarcity of these materials. Wheat 
 is very heavy on phosphates, an ordinary crop of 30 bushels 
 absorbing some 251b., a demand which but few soils in a 
 state of nature can supply for many successive crops. But, 
 like lime, the phosphates can be easily made good by 
 manuring. 
 
 Sulphur, or Sulphuric Acid, is an essential to plant 
 life. It is fairly plentiful, though additions are advan- 
 tageous for some crops, such as peas, onions, &c. 
 
 Carbon, as carbonic acid, is gathered by plants from 
 the air. 
 
 Potash is not plentiful in our soils. It is a most essen- 
 tial part of plant life. Where it is scarce the indigenous 
 vegetation, both grass and timber, is poor and coarse. 
 Fruit trees, as a rule, search greedily after potash ; the 
 success of potato crops, tobacco, and grape vines is depen- 
 dent upon it. Wool also absorbs much potash, and a 
 deficiency in sheep feed is quickly seen in less and less 
 yolk in the wool. Potash, as a mineral, may be present in 
 the subsoil more plentifully than in the surface soil. 
 
 Soda has, to some extent, the same characteristics as 
 potash in plant life ; but, unlike potash, soda is not 
 uniformly present in the ash of healthy crops. Potash also 
 acts as a substitute for soda in manurial operations, but 
 soda is not found to act for potash in ordinary crops. 
 
 Chloride of Sodium (common salt) is abundant in our 
 soils as a rule, and supplies the soda that is necessary.
 
 22 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Sandy Matter (silica). It is a plant food to sonic 
 extent. The greater or lesser proportion of silica in a soil 
 indicates whether it can be worked easily. 
 
 What Chemistry Tells Us. The foregoing, with water 
 sufficient to maintain the food in a fluid state, are, 
 practically, all the materials with which the agriculturist 
 need make himself acquainted, as plant foods that he 
 must have present in the desired proportions or he cannot 
 
 ?et the quality of grass, crops, or fruit trees he aims at. 
 lants absorb them in varying proportions, but all require 
 some of each. When in the accompanying analysis the 
 presence of ammonia, potash, phosphates, sulphuric acid 
 are indicated by " Traces," there is, for the time, likely to 
 be a sufficiency of these substances for grasses and fruits, 
 but not for grain or root crops, and they should be supplied 
 with other manures. Mere " Traces " of lime are not 
 sufficient for grass or any other purpose. It can be supplied 
 direct in the form of newly slacked lime or as bone 
 manure. The latter is the better form for sandy or thin 
 soils. 
 
 Some Representative Soils of New South Wales. 
 A few of the analyses made for the little work, 
 " Grazing, Farm and Garden Soils of New South Wales," 
 which can be had for Is. from Batson and Co., Ltd., 
 Sydney, are here appended. The first soil dealt with 
 was taken from the excellently worked garden of Mr. 
 H. Heard, some three miles from the pretty town of 
 Ryde, on the Parramatta River. It is typical of a very 
 large area of the metropolitan shale series of the Ryde, 
 Lane Cove, Seven Hills, and Parramatta districts. The red 
 colour is due to iron. It is a good sound loam, and seems 
 more clayey in composition than analysis shows the state 
 to be in reality. The native timbers in the district include 
 the eucalyptus generally, the gum and box trees being of 
 great size. Oak, cherry, hickory, and black butt are still 
 seen. Until cleared of the native timber, which costs from 
 7 to 10 per acre, there is very little pasture land, but the 
 leading grasses present indicate the character of the soil 
 very clearly, and that draining and liming are the first 
 requirements.
 
 SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 23 
 
 Organic matter... ... .. ... ... ... ... 13'560 
 
 Clay or alumina, and iron ... ... ... ... ... 5 '305 
 
 Lime 0'023 
 
 Magnesia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0'012 
 
 Potash 0-672 
 
 Soda 0-020 
 
 Salt (chloride sodium) ... ... ... ... ... 0'047 
 
 Phosphoric acid ... ... ... ... ... ... 0*042 
 
 Sulphuric oxide 0'024 
 
 Moisture T160 
 
 Sandy matter and loss 78'647 
 
 Nitrogen (in the organic matter), 0*163. 
 Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 7. 
 
 Goulburn Soil. From a paddock of Mr. Grunsell, and 
 adjoining his fine garden. The soil is alluvial, and is of 
 excellent quality for both cultivation and grass, being a 
 mixture of silurian with trap-rock soil, granite and lime- 
 stone, brought down by the Mulwarrie River. Analysis 
 shows : 
 
 Organic matter ... ... ... ... ... ... 6.00 
 
 Alumina and iron ... ... ... ... ... ... 5.00 
 
 Lime 0.90 
 
 Mngnesia ... ... ... ... ... ... Traces 
 
 Potash 0.05 
 
 Chloride sodium 0.06 
 
 Phosphates . 0.06 
 
 Silica and Loss 8700 
 
 Nitrogen = ammonia, -16. 
 Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 8. 
 
 This land, for fruit-growing purposes, has sufficient 
 alkalies, and should l)e excellent for grass. Nitrogenous 
 manure of any kind would be advantageous, and for 
 potatoes, potash would be helpful. 
 
 Lucerne Soils of the Hunter Valley. From undisturbed 
 alluvial deposits below the line of cultivation, and near the 
 bridge, West Mai tland : 
 
 Organic matter ... ... ... ... ... 15.60 
 
 Alumina and iron ... ... ... ... 16.00 
 
 Carbonic acid ... ... ... ... ... 002 
 
 Lime ... ... ... l.ll 
 
 Magnesia ... ... ... 020 
 
 Potash ... 065 
 
 Chloride sodium 0.50
 
 24 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Phosphoric acid 008 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.02 
 
 Silica and loss 65.00 
 
 Nitrogen = ammonia, 0.44. 
 Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 10. 
 
 This soil, taken as a whole, is very rich, and being 
 naturally well drained, with its heavy vegetable and lime 
 supplies, it has all the advantages of very first-class soil for 
 bearing extra heavy crops. The fertility can be easily 
 maintained, and at no great outlay for fertilizers or labor. 
 Should the proportion of organic matter be allowed to wear 
 down, the soil will become heavier to work and less 
 productive. 
 
 New England Soil. From near Exhibition Paddock, 
 Armidale. Fair for fruit; grasses very excellent for 
 dairying, for butter especially : 
 
 Organic matter and moisture 10.00 
 
 Alumina and iron .. ... ... ... ... ... 1280 
 
 Lime . 0.05 
 
 Potash ... ... ... . ... ... Trace 
 
 Chloride sodium . 0'02 
 
 Sulphuric acid ... ... ... ... ... ... Trace 
 
 Phosphates Trace 
 
 Magnesia ... 0.08 
 
 Silica and loss ... ... ... ... ... '... ... 77.00 
 
 Nitrogen = ammonia, 1.5. 
 Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 9. 
 
 Suitable for Irrigation. From cultivation land of Mr. 
 Fuss, some two miles from Narrabri. Soil alluvial, and of 
 great depth. Quality apparently uniform to river level, 
 about 30 feet below soil surface. A very quick soil during 
 rainy weather, or under irrigation. The Narnoi is a muddy 
 river, bringing down debris of claystone, shale, and slate, 
 rotten basalt, &c., which deposits rich material by floods or 
 irrigation. The capillary attraction of the soil near the river 
 banks is equal to raising water in the wells from five to 
 seven feet above level of the river. There can be no layers 
 of clay in the soil under such circumstance. It is an 
 exceptionally capable soil for irrigation, for gardening, or 
 for grass, provided there is ample water available for dry 
 spells. In the mechanical sense this soil is perfect :
 
 SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 25 
 
 Organic matter 5.510 
 
 Alumina and iron 4.000 
 
 Lime 0.630 
 
 Magnesia 0.012 
 
 Potash 0.020 
 
 Chloride sodium 0.063 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0.014 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.031 
 
 Moisture 1.870 
 
 Silica and loss 87.730 
 
 Nitrogen = ammonia, 0.112. 
 Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 9. 
 
 A Soil Capable of Immense Improvement. From 
 portion of the Government lands at Rookwood, some 10 
 miles from Sydney, the formation is of the Wianamatta 
 shales series. Until cleared, there was very little grass 
 upon the land : 
 
 Organic matter ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14.70 
 
 Alumina and iron ... ... ... .. .. ... 9.10 
 
 Lime 0.01 
 
 Magnesia Faint traces 
 
 Phosphates Traces 
 
 Potash ... Traces 
 
 Chloride sodium ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.02 
 
 Sulphuric acid ... ... ... ... None 
 
 Silica and loss 76.00 
 
 Nitrogen = ammonia, 0.15. 
 Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 5. 
 
 The subsoil is stiff clay, the first six inches red, and 
 bearing oxidised iron ; under that, white clay in a bad 
 state, from the presence of unoxidised iron ; but analysis 
 shows considerable traces of alkalies, magnesian earth, &c. 
 Draining should improve this soil very much ; without 
 drainage, but little can be expected from it. As an 
 experiment, a portion of the land under grass, is drained to 
 a depth of 3 feet, witli 2-inch and 1^-inch pipes. 
 
 Peculiarities of Our Soils. There is now opportunity 
 for seeing what is the real character of some hundreds of 
 our soils fairly representative soils from all parts of the 
 country. Main features of our soil are wonderfully alike 
 in many respects, soils taken from locations hundreds of 
 miles apart. There is also, and it is said with decided 
 regret, marked uniformity in a deficiency of necessary
 
 26 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 materials characteristic of even rich grazing and cultiva- 
 tion soils. The ingredients are not numerous, fortunately ; 
 but as the absence of even one is quickly felt, poverty of 
 grass and crops must result, unless the deficiency is made 
 good. The marked deficiencies are in the alkalies, 
 alkaline earths, and nitrates, all of which can be made 
 good in such quantity as warrants their use for profitable 
 agriculture. Their absence, in not a few cases, accounts, in 
 unmistakable manner, for the falling-off in both grass and 
 crops and not them only, but for deterioration of live 
 stock on the land, which suffer very soon from absence of 
 bone-forming material. The dairying districts also suffer 
 from this cause. 
 
 Poverty of Soil v. " Blights." From several of the 
 soils of which analyses were made, heavy crops of corn, 
 wheat, barley, tobacco, roots, &c., were got in years gone 
 by. Thirty to forty bushels of wheat, eight tons potatoes, 
 eighty bushels of corn, and up to 1500 Ibs. tobacco were 
 got per acre while the land was in full vigour. This went 
 on from three to ten years, then the crops began to be 
 lighter and lighter ; and then and this is heard in many 
 of the older settlements " The blight fell upon the land ; 
 and since that happened, it is no use cropping. We may 
 get a bit of corn, and the grass, but nothing else." 
 " Blights " are attributed to numbers of causes to long- 
 continued dry weather ; to grasshoppers and caterpillars ; 
 to insects, westerly winds, and various other causes, all of 
 which are annoyances, and the cause of loss here as 
 they are in all other agricultural countries. But soil 
 impoverishment accounts for no small portion of such 
 pests, and there is ground for confidence that, as more 
 attention i.s given to the state of the soil, and the conditions 
 of fungus and insect life, we will be the better able to 
 ward off the enemies always on the watch to ravage 
 suffering vegetation. 
 
 What Skill Has Done. There are exceptions to the 
 long list of complaints, and men amongst us who have 
 been sufficiently successful all along to give confidence that 
 as the better system becomes more general, agriculture must 
 make the advance so very earnestly desired all over the
 
 SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 27 
 
 country. These men have treated their land, usually from 
 the outset, with consideration and judgment. The effects 
 of skill are very clearly defined in many quarters. There 
 is grazing land to-day which is as good, possibly better, 
 than it was fifty years ago ; and farms, orchards, and 
 vineyards which have improved in quality and condition 
 of soil by the system of treatment and cropping followed. 
 We can hope that the better system is to extend from this 
 time forward. 
 
 The entire agriculture experience of the country goes 
 to prove that very much the same processes of soil treat- 
 ment, selection of seeds and plants, and their feeding and 
 cultivation, according to the best methods, yield results 
 here on much the same terms as in other countries. 
 
 Fire \ and Water Tests for Soils.* Two diagram 
 sketches are given illustrative of how soils can be tested. 
 
 In the first, a weighed 
 ^^^^^^f^f^ portion of dry soil, usually 
 1000 grains, is being tested 
 by tire. The operation is 
 best performed in a calcin- 
 ing dish (cost Is. 6d.), which 
 withstands the heat of a 
 Bunsen burner, or a spirit 
 lamp, until all the vegetable 
 matter is incinerated or 
 burnt out. Or the operation 
 
 <n be < rri OUt O11 a 
 
 F.re Test For Boil. Ice. 
 
 of iron, as shown. When 
 
 complete, the soil is reweighed. The difference shows the 
 (|uuntity of organic matter, with moisture (even from 
 air-dried soil) which was in it. Anything over eight parts 
 of the 100, expelled by heat, shows such proportion of 
 vegetable matter as indicates a soil of good quality in that 
 respect. By reference to the various analyses and the 
 accompanying notes, the value of this test will be still 
 more apparent. 
 
 From "Helpful Chemistry for A*rioulturMt," 4s.. from the publishers of this 
 work, and all booksellers. Methods of testing soils, manures, waUr, milk, &c.. *c. 
 are (riven iu detail in " Helpful Cueaisjtry."
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Testing for Water Capacity. Glass vessels answer 
 best for this test, so that we may see what is going on ; 
 but other vessels of the same form 
 may be made to do duty. 10 ounces 
 of air-dried soil answer very well. 
 A glass funnel, or filler, with an 
 ordinary paper filter, is placed in the 
 cylinder, as shown. Then the soil to 
 be tested is put in the funnel, the 
 paper preventing it from passing 
 through. For the test, gently pour 
 water upon the soil. A fairly good 
 loam, with say 10 per cent, of vege- 
 table matter, will be found to absorb 
 the water freely, and may take up and 
 hold, by capillary attraction, over 
 one-half its own weight, or, say the 
 10 oz. of soil may take in and hold in 
 suspension 6 ozs. of water. A rich, 
 loamy soil, having over 18 per cent, 
 of vegetable matter in its composition, 
 
 may absorb 8 ozs. of water. In practice it is found that 
 the soils which take in water most readily by this test 
 give it off most slowly by evaporation. Hence their value 
 in a climate where so much of the success of agriculture of 
 all kinds is dependent upon the capacity of the soil to 
 absorb rain and to resist dry spells. 
 
 Testing Soil for Water 
 Capacity. 
 
 III. CLEARING LAND, BUILDING, FENCING. 
 
 Clearing off Timber, &c. The help of an experienced 
 hand, or the advice of a neighour is of great value in 
 falling heavy trees, scrub or any dense growth of timber 
 that has of necessity to be burnt off. The winter season 
 June, July and August is the time for this work. The 
 blacks in the less populous parts of the country are expert 
 at it. They cut down vines and light timber first, then 
 tumble the heavy stuff on top, lopping off the branches to
 
 CLEARING LAND, BUILDING, FENCING. 29 
 
 get the whole mass packed as close as possible. Bushmen 
 follow the same plan. The stuff is allowed to lie until it is 
 perfectly dry. This brings us into November, at which time 
 the weather is usually dry ; when in that state, the mass is 
 fired, and when the packing has been sufficiently close the 
 fire clears off all except the trunks of the big trees. These 
 are then rolled together and burnt, and garden stuff, for 
 home use, corn, potatoes, or sugar-cane, or other crops 
 can be planted at once, right in the ashes. As much 
 as 110 bushels of corn per acre have been got in this way. 
 
 Ringing, or Ring-barking rees. Trees are killed 
 without falling them, by cutting a deep ring through the 
 bark into the solid wood all round. 
 The operation has proved beneficial in 
 cases. If grass is the only object in 
 view, and the land is at all liable to 
 visitations of frost, then some of the 
 timber, say from twenty to thirty trees 
 to the acre, should be left alive for 
 shade and shelter to stock. All the 
 
 1 , , 
 
 young saplings, should be grubbed out, 
 
 for they do more to prevent grass 
 from growing than the larger and deeper rooting trees. 
 One of the annoyance of ringing is the danger from and the 
 getting rid of bark, branches, and timber as they fall. 
 On moderately timbered land that has been ring-barked, 
 eight, ten, or more years elapse ere all this dead stuff is got 
 rid of, and in every case it is desirable to calculate whether 
 it would not be cheaper to cut down and burn the timber 
 at once, rather than ringbark. 
 
 Falling Timber. The autumn is the best time to fell 
 timber for building, or for posts, rails, vine stakes or other 
 purposes. At that season the wood is at maturity, and 
 there is less free sap and soft matter in it than there is 
 at any other season of the year. In timber fallen and 
 split up in autumn, the seasoning process is much more 
 gradual and perfect, because the weather is cooler, and the 
 grain of the timber contracts more equally and uniformly. 
 Fencing stuff made from almost any of the hardwood
 
 30 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 trees, felled and split in autumn, outlasts stuff from the 
 same timber cut at other times. 
 
 FENCING. It is of importance to the agriculturist, 
 whether he be squatter, farmer or gardener, to have such 
 fences as enable him to protect growing crops, and to get 
 the benefit of all his grass ; to have grass eaten down even 
 and clean ; to enrich any desired piece of land ; and to 
 work his place at the lowest cost. The kind of fence 
 best for each locality depends upon the nature of the 
 timber, or other material, and the labor available. 
 
 Wire and Netting Fences. A thoroughly colonial 
 garden fence is made of wire netting, fixed to split posts. 
 The posts are set in the ground 8 feet apart, and two feet 
 deep ; then three barbed wires are stretched and fixed to the 
 posts by staples, and wire-netting is fastened to the wire 
 and the posts. To prevent rabbits, &c., getting under the 
 netting, it is set in a trench 3 inches or so under the 
 surface. This fence then presents 5 feet of wire-netting. 
 The cost is from 7s. 6d. to 10s. per rod. 
 
 Wire Fences. Six wires of No. 6, with the posts 
 a rod apart, make a good farm, cattle or sheep fence, spaced 
 thus : Lower wire 10 inches from the ground ; first space 
 4 inches; second, 4 inches; third, 5 inches; fourth, 10 
 inches ; and the top space 12 inches. Two wire ties, at 
 equal distances should connect all the wires in each panel, 
 by being passed round each, and then staked to the 
 ground. The above distance is better than having posts set 
 closer together. Fasten the wire to the posts with staples. 
 A good " bush " strainer is a round piece of wood, three or 
 
 four inches in diameter 
 and three feet long. This 
 is turned by a pin, worked 
 in a hole, near each end. 
 The wire is thus made to 
 coil round the centre, and 
 the power is quite suffi- 
 cient. The posts ought 
 
 A Simple Poat Stitfenw. to be tWO feet in the 
 
 ground, and the straining- 
 posts four feet, a foofc in diameter and twenty rods apart
 
 CLEARING LAND, BUILDING, FENCING. 31 
 
 A man can sink twenty-five holes a day in ordinary soils. 
 The straining post may be secured by a stay resting in a 
 notch, and on a block sunk in the ground ; the stay can be 
 moved forward as the work proceeds, two being used 
 alternately. The wire should be so tough as to coil closely 
 round itself without giving way. Such a fence, under 
 ordinary circumstances, costs from 80 a mile. Neither 
 the ground auger for making post-holes nor the driving of 
 posts by hand has been found to work particularly well. 
 
 Wire is sold by the hundredweight and ton. Prices 
 vary according to the guages. Nos. 6, 7, 8 and 9 are 
 favourite sizes for sheep fences, and answer very well, with 
 a top rail or two barbed wires, for cattle and horses. 
 
 Stretching and Tying Wire. Wire strainers of various 
 forms are sold by the ironmongers for a few pence each. 
 The strainer shown consists of a mowing machine finger 
 bolted to a stout stick ; a stick curved as shown in the 
 
 engraving is preferable to 
 a straight one, as it does 
 not turn in the hand. 
 When using it, the wire is 
 held firmly in the slot of 
 the finger, and may be 
 A Home-made strainer. easily stretched by apply- 
 
 ing the stick as a lever. 
 
 Post and Rail Fences. Ironbark, bloodwood, blue and 
 red gum, or other hardwood are in favour for fences They 
 are very durable. Three-rail fences cost from 3s. 6d. to 7s. 
 per rod, according to location. Two-rail fences are about 
 Is. per rod less. 
 
 Paling Fences. An effective close-paling fence is made 
 by sinking posts nine feet npart, one top rail on top with 
 an open trench alxmt six inches deep between the posts. Set 
 the bottom ends of the palings in the trench, letting the 
 tops rest against the rail. In stiff' soil, well rammed 
 against the palings, this fence answers well, and costs from 
 10s. to 16s. per chain. 
 
 Double Post and Rail, with Saplings. This style of 
 fence is more frequently used for sheep yards than for 
 paddocks. It is formed by sinking two posts in the ground
 
 32 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 about six inches apart, at intervals of from twelve to fifteen 
 feet. Saplings of any diameter not exceeding eight inches 
 are then dropped between the posts, and when built up to 
 the height or about four feet the posts are secured together 
 at the top by wire, hoop, green hide or, in some instances, 
 stringy bark. 
 
 Virginian Snake or Zigzag Fence. When constructed 
 of heavy timber this is a substantial fence. It is made by 
 embedding the butt end of one tree in a notch cut for the 
 purpose in the top end of another, laying them along the 
 ground in zigzag form, so that each log intersects the line 
 at an angle of forty-five degrees. When the logs have 
 been piled up to the desired height, cross-legs and a heavy 
 top-rail are then put on so as to bind the whole. 
 
 " Basket Fence " is found serviceable for those residing 
 in scrubby or brigalow country. It is made by driving 
 five feet six inch stakes in the ground with mauls to a 
 depth of nine to twelve inches, and four feet six inches 
 apart ; saplings from about two inches in diameter are then 
 closely entwined with the stakes to the height of four feet 
 six inches. It can be strengthened by staying firmly at 
 intervals with strong forks, or, if erected in scrub, stumps 
 of saplings can be made available where practicable 
 instead of driven stakes. This fence can be run up rapidly 
 at a cost of about 20 per mile. 
 
 "Brush Fence" is that most commonly erected on 
 sheep runs. Two descriptions are in use ; the first being 
 formed by cutting down trees along the line of fence, laying 
 down the butts, as well as any dead timber that may be 
 lying about, as a foundation, and making it up to the height 
 of four or five feet with the branches obtained from the trees, 
 just cut down. This is the same as the ordinary brush 
 fence used in the construction of sheep yards, and may be 
 erected at as low a rate as 7 in thickly timbered country 
 and 15 in ordinary bush land. The other description of 
 bush fence is formed by cutting down a tree, drawing it 
 by means of a strong team of bullocks on to the line, and 
 chopping off only such branches as come to a height of over 
 seven feet. The next tree is then drawn on and placed so 
 that its branches commence to form part of the fence
 
 SETTLING ON THB LAND. 33 
 
 immediately where the branches of the first tree left off, and 
 so on throughout. This fence costs from 15 to 20 per 
 mile. Division boundary fences are frequently erected of 
 this description of material in Victoria, and can be made 
 perfectly cattle proof. But, like all timber fences, there are 
 the risks from fire. 
 
 Contracts for Fencing. A written agreement between 
 the parties concerned is in all cases desirable. In 
 timbered country the contract should specify by whom the 
 line is to be cleared and the width of the clearing ; dead 
 timber should never be allowed to remain within five feet 
 of a fence. Also the height of the posts out of the ground ; 
 their depth in the ground (usually two feet) ; the size of the 
 rails ; whether posts are to be barked (always desirable) ; 
 arrange for slip rails and gates ; whether any of the stuff 
 is to be hauled upon the line by the owner ; and, if possible, 
 the timber to be used should be specified. Towards the 
 erection of boundary fences it is usual for all parties 
 concerned to pay equal shares. The law provides that this 
 shail be done, but a written understanding between the 
 parties is more satisfactory. Where fences have Govern- 
 ment land for boundary the occupier has to erect fences at 
 his own cost. 
 
 SETTLING ON THE LAND. 
 
 Having selected the land suitable for his purpose, the 
 handy resourceful man finds ways and means for making 
 wife, family and himself comfortable, which others may 
 fail to see. And the wife and little ones help all along the 
 line. There is not much prospect of a home unless help is 
 given by all interested. A temporary shelter of bark may 
 
 be set up by stripping 
 black butt, turpentine, 
 stringy bark, or other 
 trees. The sheets may 
 be six feet long, and as 
 wide as can be got. 
 Lay them out to flatten 
 
 A Primitire Humpy Bark held by Sapling!, with logs Or other 
 
 weights on top ; then set the bark upon a sapling
 
 34 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 framework (as shown). There has been and is much 
 
 happiness in such shelters. A great deal can be done, by 
 
 selecting the location in a suitable spot, for shelter from 
 
 prevailing winds and the afternoon sun. Convenience for 
 
 water is another consideration ; and it may be possible to 
 
 set upon a spot where a bit of a garden, if only for 
 
 pumpkins, melons, beans, potatoes, &c., can be commenced 
 
 at once. Always avoid land subject to floods. Where 
 
 corrugated iron can be availed of, a humpy of this kind 
 
 can be set up in an hour or two. When erected in a 
 
 shady place for iron takes 
 
 fierce heat from the sun a very 
 
 tolerable shelter can be made. 
 
 Trees showing straight bark in 
 
 the grain from which sheets can 
 
 be got two feet wide or wider are 
 
 the best. With a small axe or 
 
 tomahawk cut into the bark, saw 
 
 tooth fashion, as shown in the 
 
 illustration, along the top and 
 
 bottom. Then make an upward 
 
 cut to join the two, and gently 
 
 prize off the bark from the tree, 
 
 and spread it out for use. 
 
 Tents. When well set up, and 
 
 of strong material, a comfortable 
 
 temporary home can be made in 
 
 a tent. The erection shown in 
 
 the illustration is of a good type. The " fly " an extra 
 
 sheet stretched over the 
 tent proper, having 
 about a foot of air space 
 between them is an 
 advantage. It shades 
 the tent from the sun 
 heat, and throws off 
 rain. A coil of 
 handy things in bush 
 
 Taking off Bark iu Strips. 
 
 good 
 life. 
 
 Well-arranged Tent with Fly. 
 
 stout rope is amongst the 
 
 All the parts of the tent require to be thoroughly 
 
 fastened, either to stout forked stakes or to pegs driven
 
 SETTLING ON THE LAND. 
 
 35 
 
 Framework of Saplings. 
 
 into the ground firmly, 
 A tent loosely set up and 
 without a fly suffers 
 badly in stormy weather. 
 A More Permanent 
 Erection. Split stuff is 
 the more solid and 
 durable for permanent 
 buildings. But saplings 
 
 rni t. 11 Badly Arranged Without Fly. 
 
 answer. They should '-- 
 
 be as straight as possible, not less than three inches through 
 
 when the bark 
 is knocked off, 
 or as much 
 thicker as can 
 be managed. 
 The whole 
 framework of 
 the building 
 may be set up 
 
 with window and door openings arranged before the 
 covering of bark, iron, shingles, or other material is put on. 
 Saplings of ironbark or red gum are durable, and are not 
 so likely to shrink or warp as other timbers. 
 
 Cutting Down and 
 Falling Trees The 
 illustration shows how 
 this is done. Close 
 examination should be 
 always made to make 
 sure of the direction in 
 which the tree leans, 
 for in that direction it 
 can be made to fall. 
 Cut the side first upon 
 which it is to fall, then 
 the other. 
 
 cuttiuKDownaTroe. Corner Posts and 
 Window Sills. It is well to square 
 the timber for the corners (A) and 
 
 Corner Tost.
 
 36 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 notch in the sills (B) if possible, as s,hown in the illustration. 
 The corners are all the better for being of heavy timber, 
 and set well in the ground, say two feet deep, and well 
 rammed. Each corner of the building, whatever size it 
 may be, should be stayed firmly by cross pieces, and every 
 care exercised to have the posts straight ; otherwise there 
 will be trouble when the covering is put on. 
 
 The Finished Building. The covering of that shown 
 in the illustration is of bark. The accommodation is live 
 rooms one 
 large general 
 room and two 
 bedrooms in 
 front, and 
 two rooms in 
 the lean - to 
 behind. The 
 
 floor is of Cottage of Saplings and Bark. 
 
 earth raised six inches above the level of the ground, and 
 rammed solid. But boards are better for flooring. 
 
 Splitting Timber. A tree in 
 which the grain of the timber 
 runs straight can be split into 
 thin shingles, palings, posts, 
 rails, or other materials. The 
 illustration shows how this is 
 done by first bursting the log 
 into two or more " flitches " or 
 slabs, and then selecting the 
 parts for the purposes to which 
 they are best suited. 
 
 Section of Log for Splitting. 
 
 Bursting the Log. This 
 is the first operation after 
 barking the fallen tree, and 
 sawing it into the lengths 
 required. Wedges (a and bj 
 are driven into the log 
 along the lines we require.
 
 SETTLING ON THE LAND. 
 
 37 
 
 Shingles, Palings, Bails, &c. 
 
 Slabs, Shingles, Palings, Rails. 
 The illustration shows how the 
 different parts of the log from the 
 outside to the inside are brought 
 into use by splitting for the dif- 
 ferent purposes required for fenc- 
 ing, building, and the many 
 requirements of a j^home for a 
 bush home. 
 
 Getting out Shingles. 
 The stump of the fallen 
 tree (a) may make an excel- 
 lent block for splitting 
 shingles. A heavy forked 
 stick (6) is arranged to lie 
 across the stump, and into 
 this fork the shingle block 
 (c) is wedged. 
 
 The Knife. 
 
 Arranged for Shingle Splitting. 
 
 Shingle Knife. This is a heavy 
 wedge-shaped blade of steel (a) set 
 into a handle of wood (bj. The piece 
 cut out for shingles is laid upon the 
 block, as shown in preceding illustra- 
 tion, between a forked piece of heavy 
 timber. The block being thus in 
 position the edge of the knife is laid 
 where required upon the block and a 
 shingle is severed with one blow. 
 
 The Maul. The 
 splitting is helped by 
 making a maul of wood, 
 generally heavy solid 
 hardwood, formed so 
 that it can be worked 
 with comfort and effect. 
 
 Maul for Splitting.
 
 38 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 to the 
 
 Shingling a Roof. 
 
 battens the shingles 
 
 are 
 short shingles, say 10 in number, 
 
 Laying Shingles. 
 This operation re- 
 quires skill and atten- 
 tion to what will 
 result from the manner 
 in which the work is 
 commenced. Battens 
 are nailed down firmly 
 upon the rafters, and 
 nailed. A row of 
 is laid down and 
 
 upon them a second row (1) usually three inches longer, is 
 laid, so that the joints between the first row are covered 
 right up to the edges. Then a second, third, fourth, and 
 other rows are laid until Wie ridge or top of the roof is 
 reached. Each row being so laid as to cross the joints of 
 the row under them. 
 
 Sleeping Places. There 
 is neither comfort, happi- 
 ness, nor inclination for 
 work in the bush or any- 
 where else unless there is 
 comfortable sleeping ac- 
 commodation. Much 
 sound, healthful sleep has 
 been got with the makeshift arrangement shown. It is 
 simply a couple of flour or other stout bags tli rough which 
 saplings are inserted. The ends of the sapling supports 
 rest on logs, and the sleeper is thus off the ground. The 
 short sapling (a) may answer for a pillow. 
 
 A More Elevated 
 Bed. - - The couch 
 shown is raised upon 
 forked stakes, which 
 are all the stronger 
 when strips are nailed 
 across at the head and 
 foot to prevent the 
 bed buckling under a 
 
 Bed of Bates and Saplings. 
 
 Bags 011 Forked Stakes.
 
 SETTLING ON THE LAND. 
 
 39 
 
 Home-made Box Chair. 
 
 heavy sleeper, and shutting him up like an oyster. Where 
 it can be managed by any available contrivance, sleeping 
 upon the bare ground should be avoided. Strong men may 
 think it all right for a time ; but rheumatics and other 
 complaints are contracted in that way. 
 
 A Box Chair. This de- 
 sign in furniture explains 
 itself. It is a style brought 
 to scientific development in 
 mining camps. It is said 
 that no end of gold has been 
 planted under such chairs, 
 and that in addition to being 
 comfortable as seats, they 
 offer more difficulty to 
 thievishly inclined visitors 
 than the ordinary burglar- 
 proof safes. 
 
 Verandah Chair. This is a 
 really comfortable rest for a 
 tired housewife, or the man 
 after his day's work is done, and 
 rest is helpful in preparing for 
 another day. The timbers may 
 be 1J by 2J inches, which is 
 strong enough for any tired 
 mortal under 14 stone. The 
 box seat, a stump, log, or the 
 floor might be safer under 
 heavier weights. Or the design 
 shown, by making the timbers 
 2 x S, would be strong enough 
 for of a ton. Strong canvas, 
 well sewn, is necessary for 
 these chairs. A man with 
 sailor experience is the one to manipulate such canvas. 
 
 Tables can be made of Inxxes, or from slabs, and bark 
 has been inado to do duty where nothing more suitable 
 could be got. 
 
 
 Home-made Verandah Cbair.
 
 40 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Safes for Provisions. We must have 
 something to keep ants, flies, and other 
 bush visitors from investigating our 
 provisions. Until some more per- 
 manent conveniences can be arranged, 
 the makeshift shown in the illustration 
 answers the purpose. At (a) and (b) 
 are rings of wire, the upper ring being 
 strengthened by two cross pieces, in the 
 centre of which a hook is attached, for 
 hanging the " safe." Mosquito netting 
 or calico answers for covering. Fine 
 wire netting is best of all. The 
 opening below is so arranged that it can be closed by a piece 
 of netting. The arrangement answers for hanging meat. 
 
 The next "safe" is more 
 substantial, and when covered 
 with wire netting, is good 
 and effective for a long time. 
 The framework is stiff wire. 
 The entrance (a) of mosquito 
 netting, to be drawn or tied 
 when closed. 
 
 Meat Safe. 
 
 Tc Keep Acts from the Sugar. 
 
 The Home in Prospective. Verandah and Fixing* to follow. 
 
 And all the time, while we are making such materials 
 as can be got, canvas, saplings, bark, iron, answer what is
 
 AGRICULTURAL DRAINING. 
 
 41 
 
 necessary to make temporary shelter, we are looking 
 forward to the house in prospective, which can be made a 
 home in the best sense of the term. 
 
 ~ . 
 
 Barren until Drained. 
 
 IV. AGRICULTURAL DRAINING. 
 
 To see that the drainage of his land is right is 
 amongst the most important matters the agriculturist 
 has to deal with. It is all important in warm, semi- 
 tropical countries, subject to 
 excessive falls of rain, and to 
 spells of parching drought. In 
 a sentence it might be said that 
 soil to be of its true value to 
 the cultivator should be porous 
 to the depth of from two to 
 four (eet, to admit water to 
 filter through it, and with free 
 egress for any surplus rain, so 
 that no water can rest or 
 accumulate in the surface soil, 
 or the subsoil reached by the roots of cultivated crops. 
 When water saturates a soil, its first effect is to expel the 
 air which it contains and the gases which may have been 
 generated in it. But as the water moves 
 along in the soil, as from D to c to A, and 
 into the drain, it is followed by fresh 
 atmospheric air, the oxygen in which at 
 once stimulates into activity important 
 chemical changes, furnishing a fresh 
 supply of food for plants. There are 
 some subsoils naturally porous, and which 
 admit the water to pass downwards and How Soil is Deepened . 
 drain off; but the majority of subsoils are 
 tenacious ; and in land which abounds in iron, hard cement- 
 like layers are formed. These layers prevent water and 
 the roots of plants from penetrating, although there may 
 be rich material below. When rain falls, the shallow 
 surface is soon saturated, and is either washed into ruts or
 
 42 AUSTRALIAN AGRICOLT-URE. 
 
 it remains wet until evaporation has dried it up, and it 
 becomes hard like brick earth. The effect is destructive to 
 vegetation. Evaporation from the surface is unhealthy for 
 vegetable and animal life. It produces cold, and the land 
 is chilled below the vegetating point. Putrefaction in such 
 a soil takes the place of that more perfect oxidation which 
 brings about the healthy change so needful for healthy 
 cultivation. 
 
 The case shown in the first illustration in this chapter 
 is that of a section of what is now a prosperous plantation 
 in the Richmond River district, which was barren until 
 drained. There was a good coating of loam (a), but under 
 it was a layer of clay (6), through which rain water could 
 not pass. Consequently the land suffered badly from frost 
 and during wet and diy spells. Several crops of cane 
 were lost. The surface soil was in a state of mud during 
 wet weather, it baked hard as soon as the water on the 
 surface was evaporated. But the trouble was cured by 
 putting in drains of slabs (e) in 4ft. lengths. They are 
 3ft. below the surface. The cost was 6s. 4d. per chain, 
 and the draining converted what was a deceptive, 
 dangerous flat into rich loamy soil. 
 
 Draining has developed an immense variety of tools of 
 the spade, or wedge and lever type, to every one of which 
 the features apply of quality and weight and material 
 dealt with in the treatment of spades and digging tools 
 generally. Draining itself has opened out other develop- 
 ments in the science of agriculture. Prior to 1750 it seems 
 to have been scarcely known that water in the soil is only 
 beneficial to agriculture while it is in a state of move- 
 ment. Stagnant water is known to be injurious to 
 vegetation, to crops, to grasses, and the animals upon or 
 near where the water stagnates. When this fact became 
 evident to the advanced British agriculturist of 100 years 
 ago and there were some advanced men in those times 
 open ditches were made to carry off the stagnating water, 
 and during some twenty years open drains and ditches were 
 supposed to answer all the purpose. Then another 
 advance was made by laying stones, wood, &c., in the 
 lower part of the drains, filling in the soil, and cultivating
 
 AGRICULTURAL DRAINING. 43 
 
 the surface. The effect was surprising. The land about 
 the drains was found to be easier to work, it became 
 warmer in winter, and cooler in summer, and gave much 
 better returns. 1836 saw the first tile drains laid. Pipe 
 drains followed soon after. Now it is known that not 
 only does draining carry off stagnating and undesirable 
 water, but important chemical changes follow, the soil is 
 deepened, and the drained land withstands drought, while 
 und rained land becomes parched and bakes hard as bricks. 
 
 Cost of Drains. In places where considerable quanti- 
 ties of this work are done, drains three feet deep and 
 formed of a single slab covering the lowest six inches 
 (made narrower 011 purpose) have been put down at a total 
 cost of 5s. per chain ; that is 66 feet of drain. The price, 
 then, varies according to the material used and the nature 
 of the land, from 5s. to 12s. per chain. In a big job of 
 2-inch pipe draining, the cost (men working at 5s. per day 
 and rations) proved to be 9s. 8d per chain. One and 2- 
 inch pipe drains, laid 3ft. deep in stiff, shaley soil at 
 Rook wood, cost 10s. per chain. 
 
 Distances and Depth. As it is in other countries, so it 
 is here, various distances and depths are in favor. Perhaps 
 the most general depth for field crops is three feet. Drains 
 at this depth, and 20 feet apart, make an improvement upon 
 land that becomes more and more marked year after year. 
 Hut distance and deptli in this matter must be regulated by 
 the nature of the soil. Fifteen feet apart is found quite 
 far enough in draining stiff clay soil, while 40 feet apart is 
 found effective in sandy loams. To facilitate the getting 
 together of material for draining, the following calcula- 
 tions may be useful. The pipes referred to are each 
 one foot* in length. In slab draining the slal)s are com- 
 ni'Milv four feet long, so that one slab would represent four 
 pipes. 
 
 t O" I) lUT-Htl'El HKQUIRK!) 1> !lt ACHF. 
 
 10 ft 12 t'-et ! I o feet 17 f " 18 (- ( M -eel 
 ap-iT. ' Mp.irr. apart. npirt. Hp;irt. :ipMt.
 
 44 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The cost and weight of pipes vary so much that it 
 would not be safe to quote them. But at present 1 ^-inch pipes 
 cost from 30s. to 40s. per 1000 ; pipes of that size weigh 
 about 21bs. per foot, other sizes of pipes, ordinarily made, are 
 2-inch, 3-inch, 5 and 6-inch, the cost of which is in proportion 
 to the size. Pipes from 3 inches and larger are used for 
 taking the drainage from the smaller or feeding drains. 
 
 Levels for Draining. Steep hillsides may be as much 
 in need of effective drainage as more level land ; even more 
 so, as soil is most likely to be washed from the steeper land. 
 Where possible, levels of the whole place should be taken ; 
 but the ordinary spirit level and a length of straight-edged 
 batten may do duty for ordinary draining, and so well is 
 the work done that capable drainers can open a pipe track 
 6ft. deep, 4in. at bottom, and 22in. at top, and lay in the 
 pipes without a speck of loose earth about them, until the 
 work is ready for filling in. Drainage can be done at any 
 time of the year, but as a rule the quickest effects are 
 noticed in summer. 
 
 Materials for Draining. Porous drain pipes, stones, slabs 
 of hardwood, or saplings, and various 
 other materials are used for draining. It 
 is a good plan to look about before com- 
 mencing such work, and see what can be 
 used for the purpose. Stone, or rubble, 
 drains are very effective and durable, and 
 in some places land could be improved 
 immensely by gathering stones, which 
 are a nuisance on the surface, and make them do valuable 
 work as draining material. Slabs of hardwood make 
 excellent drains, and tee-tree saplings, laid so that a passage 
 under them is secured, are effective. Short 
 lengths of tee-tree, so laid that the butt of 
 each may rest on the end of the piece 
 above, answer very well for " weeping 
 drains." In our stiff, clay soils, when once 
 a drain is opened, the opening seldom closes 
 up. Drain pipes require less soil moving Agricultural Drains 
 
 L i i i.u i Filled In. 
 
 than other material, and may be the least 
 
 costly of all. The leading principle of all drains is alike, 
 
 Drain Pipes.
 
 AGRICULTURAL DRAINING. 
 
 45 
 
 
 that is, they should 
 be so arranged, and 
 the material into and 
 from which the 
 water is to pass 
 should be so laid that 
 
 Branch or Weeping Drain " of Tee-tre-. water Can enter f rom 
 
 below and from both sides freely. The depth at which 
 drains can act most effectively depends upon the nature of 
 the soil and the character of the culti- 
 vation. Two and a-half feet is the 
 most shallow limit for field crops ; 
 three and a-half for orchards. 
 
 Draining Tools. If but a small area 
 is to be drained, suitable tools make 
 the work less expensive. For big jobs 
 8 the best kind of tools soon pay for 
 
 themselves. They are not costly. The 
 requirements are a steel spade and 
 mattock, deepening and clearing spades 
 (A. B. c.), a scoop, and a hook for layin 
 pipes when they are used. 
 
 Where much work has to be done, 
 a draining plough may be an advan- 
 tage. The revolving coulters cut the 
 edges, 5 or more inches deep, the 
 Deepening Spade* for soil being raised by the mould board 
 Draining am | deposited at the side, thus making 
 
 the first opening. Draining tools are then used forgetting 
 to the required depth. Not an inch more soil need be moved 
 
 Draining nr Ditching Plough. 
 
 than is absolutely necessary at either top or bottom, and 
 in filling up, the poorer soil should be nearest the drain 
 material, and tramped firmly on top, so as to make the
 
 40 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGKICU1.TORK. 
 
 effects of drainage as deep as possible, by the water 
 entering from under. 
 
 Draining Hill and Valley Laud. 
 
 The case illustrated shows how leader drains (a) (c) 
 
 (d) (e) (f) are laid down in the lowest parts, to get an 
 outlet at (bj, into a gully or natural water course. 
 Between (6) and ((/) the pipes are 3 inch inside measure- 
 ment, and from this leader drain from (e) to (d), (e) to (/), 
 
 (e) to (a), 2-inch pipes. The feeder pipes are J \ inch bore. 
 As soon as the pipes are down, commencing at the lower 
 side through all the work, the soil is filled in, the 
 drainers treading the soil over the pipes as they fill in, and 
 are careful that no soil gets into the last pipe laid. 
 
 Open Ditches and Covered-in Drains. The effects of cut- 
 ting even a ditch through a piece of such land as described 
 are very great. Reeds and coarse grasses give place to 
 finer qualities, and what may have been a source of 
 danger from sickness, or a useless swamp in wet weather 
 becomes healthy, valuable cultivation land in all weathers, 
 and especially valuable in dry spells. When underground 
 draining is adopted, the improvement is very marked. On
 
 AGRICULTURAL DRAINING. 47 
 
 cultivated land and grass land also in warm climates we 
 see satisfactory results follow this kind of improvement. 
 It not only tends to make the soil workable and capable of 
 bearing crops and sweet grass during wet seasons, but in 
 dry seasons the drained land holds out better than 
 undrained land of the same character, a change due to the 
 powers of drained land to absorb moisture from the damper 
 subsoil below, by the force of capillary attraction. Expe- 
 rience has proved that soils gorged with water cannot 
 perfect crops ; that excess of water is a hindrance to the 
 due mechanical action of the soil ; that it diminishes or 
 checks the power of all kinds of manures ; that it lowers 
 the temperature of the mass of the soil ; that it precludes 
 the free entrance and exchange of air, without which 
 plants cannot live or their life processes go on ; that it 
 prevents the free descent of rain through the soil. These 
 amongst other truisms concerning drainage are even more 
 effective in warm than in colder climates. 
 
 Cropping Unhealthy Soil. When gardening is attempted 
 in soil which is not sufficiently open to allow the roots to 
 penetrate freely, the orchard dies off; no pruning or dressing 
 can keep the trees alive. The systematic analyses carried 
 out in the Technical College, Sydney, show plainly how 
 the unoxidised iron in the soil has done very serious injury. 
 In hot and dry seasons the water evaporates from the 
 surface, baking yet harder the subsoil and chilling the 
 land. Oxidation is but imperfectly carried out, and, 
 despite the application of manure, vegetation languishes. 
 Draining suddenly changes all this, and brings the soil 
 into a condition to render a grateful return for the care of 
 the agriculturist. The reason for the change brought about 
 by draining becomes very evident in a warm climate, and 
 especially where iron is abundant in the soil. During 
 moderately moist seasons trees and crops may do fairly 
 well. Both develop in the soil, gathering what may be 
 available for them in it, to a depth of three feet, possibly 
 deeper under favourable conditions. Then a wet spell 
 follows. 'I he roots become surrounded by stagnating water, 
 are gorged by the unhealthy material about them. They 
 sicken and die, the first direct indication to the owner
 
 48 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 being the unhealthy look of his trees or crops. This state 
 of things occurs on hill sides as surely as on more level 
 lands. Indeed the case of hill sides is the worst. For, in 
 addition to the drowning of roots and development of 
 unhealhy stuff in the subsoil, the best of the surface 
 matter may be washed away and lost. 
 
 CHAPTER V. MECHANICS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Before entering upon the work of crop making, it may 
 be well for us to look still more closely into the nature 
 of the mechanical appliances available for our operations. 
 Agriculture has advanced in two very distinct lines during 
 the hundred and fifty years since the science emerged 
 from the long dark period during which the cultivator of 
 the soil was the drudge of the time, whose main efforts 
 were dependent upon his own manual strength. Those 
 two lines are chemistry and mechanics. The former has 
 
 The Plough Wedffe, .Screw, and Lever. 
 
 done much for agriculture, tending as it has, directly and 
 in the most effectively practical manner, to make clear and 
 plain what, prior to the days of agricultural chemistry, 
 were dark, doubtful, or mysterious. This branch of 
 chemistry, fortunately for agriculture, has been fostered 
 and encouraged by public as well as by the individual 
 efforts of the many grand and noble men who employed 
 their talents in that direction during late years. And in 
 the various schools opened for agricultural instruction, 
 chemistry has been recognised as a leading principle, and 
 due attention has been paid to it. 
 
 But mechanics, as applied to agriculture, have not 
 fared so well. With the exception of the American
 
 MECHANICS OF AGRICULTURE. 49 
 
 agricultural schools, and notably those of New York, 
 California and Illinois, comparatively little has been done 
 for educating the farmer in agricultural mechanics. And 
 the impression has gone abroad that while mechanics 
 and engineering have done so much for the industries 
 generally, agriculture is far behind in that respect. The 
 supposition is not correct. As we shall see while investi- 
 gating and illustrating this department of agriculture, the 
 aid afforded by mechanical engineering is nothing short 
 of wonderful. And it will be seen further that the 
 skilled agriculturist of the present day has to be, of 
 necessity, an efficient mechanic. The tendency of all 
 agriculture is in that direction very decidedly, and towards 
 further advancement. And there is still ample scope for 
 improvement. 
 
 So far, the developments of agricultural mechanics 
 are due very largely to private effort, and to the pushing 
 business tact of the many individuals and firms who have 
 made specialties of the agricultural tools and machines 
 manufactured and brought into notice by them. Progress 
 of that kind is not without its advantages ; hence, every 
 credit is due to those who have been the direct means of 
 many of the immense advances made in the form and 
 quality of farming tools and machines generally. But the 
 process has its disadvantages. It has led to the palming 
 off upon the classes who cultivate the soil of immense 
 numbers of machines and contrivances which actual work 
 prove to be absolutely unsuitable for the purposes for 
 which they were recommended and pushed into notice. 
 Worry, loss of time and money, and disappointment follow 
 the purchase of bad and unsuitable tools and machines. 
 But, in spite of all drawbacks, the agriculturist has now 
 the choice of tools and machines equal to the best seen 
 in other countries. The author's object then in drawing 
 attention to the foregoing facts is twofold : First, in order 
 to show the effective services already extended to agricul- 
 ture by mechanical developments in the form and quality 
 of the tools and machines in use. Secondly, to show 
 further that mechanical skill is absolutely necessary to 
 the agriculturist of every degree, that he may be able,
 
 50 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 from his own knowledge, to decide whether an implement 
 offered him is suitable in a practical way for the work to 
 be done ; that he may be able to use his implements to 
 the best advantage, and to make such repairs, alterations, 
 or improvements upon them as may become necessary. 
 It has been a boon to agriculture that implement makers 
 and others have done so much ; it is still better when the 
 agriculturist himself is a skilled mechanic the two 
 divisions are combined in the one man with great 
 advantage. 
 
 The Royal Agricultural Society of England and the 
 Highland Society of Scotland have done much for the 
 development of agricultural mechanics and engineering. 
 Those societies offered prizes not only for such machines 
 as were coming into use, but gave special prizes for doing 
 special work, and by this means many very desirable 
 improvements have been introduced. Other societies, in 
 Australia as well as in other places, have followed in the 
 wake of the great institutions of the mother land ; but the 
 latter have always been prominent, a circumstance due 
 largely to the exceptional ability of the men the Royal 
 and Highland Societies were able to secure as experts and 
 judges. The most notable case of this kind in Australia, as 
 yet, was the veiy handsome offer of the Government of 
 South Australia for the invention of a harvesting machine 
 that would reap the grain, thresh, winnow, and bag it, all 
 in the field. The author had the privilege of seeing that 
 trial, and, although none of the machines submitted came 
 up to the requirements of the case, he was much taken 
 with the very great skill and enterprise made manifest by 
 the competition. South Australia is peculiarly adapted for 
 wheat farming on an immense scale, and upon a system in 
 which mechanical engineering is all important. The only 
 parallel to South Australia is seen in parts of California 
 and in Colorado. The South Australian wheat soils, with 
 but rare exceptions, are veiy light. The soil is loose in 
 nature, and very rich in lime. It overlies immense beds of 
 limestone. By the aid of gang ploughs a series of two or 
 more light plough bodies in a frame the soil is turned 
 over four or five inches deep, each furrow being from Sin.
 
 MECHANICS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 51 
 
 to lOin. wide, a team, with two men and four to six horses, 
 going over from four to ten or more acres daily. Seed is 
 at once sown by centrifugal seed sowing machines the 
 first of which were brought to Australia by the author 
 doing from 50 to 100 acres daily, and in very excellent 
 style. The crops grown are light in quantity, from six to 
 ten bushels per acre being about the average. The har- 
 vesting is done by stripping machines, reaping 200 to 400 
 bushels daily. The grain is threshed winnowed, and 
 bagged in the field by different machines. Altogether the 
 system is peculiar, and would not be rated as high-class 
 fanning in either Europe or America. But it is adapted to 
 the light, open treeless lands of South Australia and sec- 
 tions of Victoria and New South Wales, and the skilled 
 agriculturist is careful in securing the tools best adapted 
 for the work he has to do. The results per man, that is. 
 the number of bushels produced per man and horse 
 engaged, are not low by any means. The whole process 
 offers excellent illustration of what mechanical aids are 
 doing for wheat fanning. It is very safe to say that, 
 without their peculiar ploughs, their seed sowers, and their 
 harvesting appliances, it could not pay, possibly, to reap 1 
 bushels of wheat per acre. But by the South Australian 
 system six bushels pay. The author has not a doubt that, 
 with further mechanical aids for ploughing deeper, and 
 as manuring or pasturing enters into their system, much 
 larger returns will be got for the same outlay. 
 
 The principles of agricultural mechanics are identical 
 with the science of mechanics. The lever, wedge and screw 
 have all their outlets in agricultural engineering, in the 
 same manner precisely as in the other branches of 
 mechanics. In the plough, in seed-sowing machines, in 
 mowers, reapers, hay-cutters, baling presses, and the 
 other machines used in agriculture, the knowledge, the 
 practice, and theory of mechanics is as useful in agriculture 
 as in shipbuilding, railroad engineering, or other branches 
 of the art. In the spade, mattock, pick, trenching, drain- 
 ing, and other tools of that type we have the very first 
 principles of the lever and the wedge. To l>o effective, to 
 move soil with the least exertion to the worker, and to
 
 52 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 enable him to get the best results, the tools should not 
 weigh an ounce more than is necessary for the strain put 
 upon them. Quality of material, steel, iron, and wood, 
 and substance where required only, rather than weight 
 and bulk, should guide in the choice of tools of that kind, 
 even more than in those used for horse, steam, or other 
 mechanical power. 
 
 Science in the Plough. The history of improvement 
 in ploughs and ploughing is amongst the curious in agricul- 
 tural advancement. The implement, as we have it 
 nowadays, is the direct outcome of scientific skill in the 
 mechanics of agriculture. The implement is a lever of the 
 first order. It also acts as a wedge, and when well and 
 proportionately made, is a jnost effective and scientifically 
 arranged implement. At a the draught of horse or bullocks 
 is brought to bear ; b b are the handles for the hold of the 
 driver ; c the points of the share and the coulter. When 
 leverage is required at c or higher up on the mould board, 
 power applied at 6 is very effective. In good ploughing 
 the implement should run perfectly true in the furrow 
 from the draught at a without extra application of force 
 from the ploughman at b. 
 
 The share (a) acting as a 
 wedge raises the soil or fur- 
 row slice. When b is reached 
 the slice of soil is still fur- 
 ther raised, and the top is 
 tilted gradually outwards 
 from the surface. When at 
 
 As Wedge aud Section of Screw. 
 
 c, the soil is turned over. 
 
 Here we see 
 how the soil is 
 turned over, and 
 the principle upon 
 which the share 
 and mouldboard 
 
 of the- plough do their work. At a the soil has reached 
 the mouldboard, and as the implement moves forward the 
 furrow slice is raised and turned gradually, until finally 
 
 How the Soil is Turned Over.
 
 MECHANICS OP AGRICULTURE. 53 
 
 laid against the preceding furrow from the end of the 
 
 mould-board at 6. 
 
 6 represents the surface, and 
 the course of movement of the 
 soil until it is turned over is 
 seen in the following sections 
 of the diagram. Next we have 
 the furrows laid up in regular 
 Moyiug tbe soil. order tor the reception of seed 
 
 or for harrowing down for other 
 
 crops. When grain is sown it falls into the angles between 
 
 the furrows and is 
 
 11 -i 'V / < \/'-X/v\/.X /.\ 
 
 covered by passing har- /^ / ^.'' :: ^^<^' 
 rows over the land. '/^"J^\^^f^^'^ 
 which smooth down the 
 tops of the furrows. The 
 
 movement Of horses and Section of Regularly Laid Furrow. 
 
 men over the surface 
 
 tend also to break down the furrows and close up the 
 spaces under them. The covered surface growth is thus 
 converted into manure for nourishing the young roots of 
 the crop. The process shows further how green manuring 
 (the growth of green crops for manure) enriches the land. 
 
 By ploughing, we make the soil ready for seed and for 
 plants, and by after ploughing, shallow or deep as may be 
 required, the surface of the soil is kept loose and clean, and 
 in the best state for the growth of crops. The cultivator, 
 scarifier, grubber, and other implements drawn by animals 
 or by steam, are used for cultivating the land by pul- 
 verising it, killing weeds, &c. 
 
 The plough, then, is a combination of the wedge, 
 screw, and lever, and just in proportion to the skill of the 
 maker in developing those principles in mechanics in the 
 plough, each in the right proportion, and of the right 
 material in the right place for the work to be done, those 
 features go to make the most suitable plough. But different 
 soils require differently arranged implements, whether the 
 work be breaking up new land, ploughing where stumps and 
 roots cannot l>e got rid of for a time then the stump- 
 jumping plough of South Australia is a l>oon ploughing
 
 54 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 for ordinary crops, subsoiling, draining, ditching, tank- 
 making, and other operations, for each class of work special 
 adaption of the implement is necessary. And in these 
 days, it is better and cheaper to provide suitable tools than 
 to worry men and horses, and waste time and money trying 
 to get on with tools that are not suitable. 
 
 In stump-extracting and tree-falling machines, some- 
 times termed " forest devils," we have most excellent results 
 from the application of lever power. By a combination of 
 levers and chains, or by the use of the screw, trees and 
 stumps are taken down, or raised out of the ground by one 
 or two men- or horses may be used these contrivances 
 are able to tear out of the ground stumps, roots, stones, etc., 
 that could not be moved by a 10-horse power engine with- 
 out the aid of the lever or screw, or hydraulic force. 
 
 Seed sowers combine the screw, lever, and centrifugal 
 
 ' O 
 
 force in such a manner as to sow, with mathematical regu- 
 larity, from 50 to 1 00 acres of wheat daily, one man and a 
 horse doing the work. 
 
 Mowing, reaping, binding, stripping, threshing, winnow- 
 ing, and other machines of that type, are all built upon the 
 recognised mechanical principles followed in other classes 
 of engineering. The rules for quality and suitability of 
 the materials in the machine apply in these with even 
 greater force than in ploughs. Every pound of unnecessary 
 weight, every unnecessary combination or increase of parts 
 all tell against complicated machines of this kind. Steel 
 and iron, now-a-days capable of endless applications in 
 mechanics, are decidedly better than wood in all machines 
 in which jolting, dust, and risks of wear from friction of 
 the parts are combined with very rapid speed. Machines 
 of this kind have been improved immensely since their first 
 introduction in Australia, nineteen years atjo, and improve- 
 ments still go on steadily. The results already are that the 
 white man, with their aid, is able, even in .these depressed 
 times for grain, to hold his own in the market in competi- 
 tion with grain from Russia, India, and other cheap labour 
 countries. Draining has develop H! an immense variety of 
 tools of the spade, or wedge and lever type, to every one of 
 which the features apply of quality and weight of material
 
 MECHANICS OF AGRICILTURE. OO 
 
 dealt with in the treatment of spades and digging tools 
 generally. Irrigation is not possible without effective 
 drainage, allowing the water to soak into the soil. 
 
 The sugar business is much indebted to engineering. 
 The improvement made, both in the speed of doing the 
 work and the cost of production, is nothing short of wonder- 
 ful. The quality of the product is also vastly improved. 
 Yet there are many, openings for farther advances. The 
 author will mention one only on this occasion the want of 
 a machine to cut down cane in the field. There is a fortune 
 for the man who perfects a contrivance of that kind. The 
 difficulties in the way are all of the mechanical kind, and 
 they are to be overcome by the man who studies the subject 
 carefully, but it must be in the field, and while the crop is 
 being harvested. 
 
 Good Tools theC heapest Labour. What mechanical 
 skill, worked out upon scientific lines, is doing for agricul- 
 ture is very clearly demonstrated in the value of agricul- 
 tural labour in various parts of the world. Taken as a 
 whole, the American agriculturist and the labour he 
 employs, produces and makes most out of his produce. 
 Possibly, Australia comes next, and the condition is assisted 
 materially by the fact that Australian agriculturists use 
 American machines and implements more generally than is 
 usual in Europe, which comes next in the earnings from 
 agriculture. India, which is amongst the oldest agricul- 
 tural nations, otters telling illustration that cheap labour is 
 not able to compete with the skilful use of modern 
 machinery. The average labour wages of India is barely 
 2 id. per day. In America and Australia the average is 
 between 3s. and (5s. per day. The Indian farmer uses the 
 implements of his ancestors, and the product of his labour 
 is worth about (hi. per day, or Ad. per hour, for his working 
 days are long. The American fanner's labour brings in an 
 average of (iid. per hour. He produces enough wheat to 
 supply the requirements of three hundred people. The actual 
 estimate is that four men, working with modern appliances 
 in the field and the mill, produce enough flour for 1000 
 people ! European fanning is away behind in the averag* 1 
 per hand produced. In Britain it is but little more than
 
 56 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUBE. 
 
 one half of the American average per man, and France is 
 far behind Britain, while Gennany, Italy, Scandinavia, 
 Spain, Russia, Egypt, Bulgaria, and Turkey, drop lower 
 and lower in the products won per man from the earth. 
 Turkey and Egypt come almost as low as India. All these 
 nations compete in the great markets of the world, and 
 America and Australia come out on top for the amount of 
 products per man engaged, and the wages paid for agricul- 
 tural labour. That is, in grain and wool production. But, 
 in dairying, Denmark and Sweden have made rapid steps to 
 the front of late years, and our best efforts are called out in 
 this other special branch of agriculture. 
 
 VL CULTIVATION OF CROPS. 
 
 The Objects in View. Whatever branch of agricul- 
 ture we follow, the soil has to be so treated that it may 
 
 yield the best results 
 from the crops sown 
 or planted. These 
 results are got by 
 maintaining the food 
 materials necessary 
 for building the crop 
 in view ; by keeping 
 the soil loose and 
 clean, in the mechani- 
 cal sense, so that air 
 and rain may do their 
 work in the chemical sense. That means cultivation. 
 ^ The Means Employed. Tools and implements 
 suitable for the work to be done are necessary. Suitable 
 and effective tools, of good quality, give us the most 
 efficient and the cheapest kind of labour. Xo one can do 
 the best without effective tools, and the very best are 
 available for Australian agriculturists. 
 
 Hand Tools, Horse Implements. Hand tools are 
 necessary in all branches ; spades, forks, hoes, mattocks, 
 rakes, shovels, barrows, &c. But horse labour is so easily 
 
 Fruits of Cultivation.
 
 CULTIVATION OP CROPS. 57 
 
 obtained and is so effective, that, so far as practicable, it 
 should be brought into use as speedily and as generally 
 as possible. The chapter on Mechanics of Agriculture, 
 treat this subject more fully. 
 
 To Keep up Fertility. This is dealt with in the 
 chapters on manuring, and the " Reminders " for work in 
 season in the garden, farm and orchard, at all periods 
 of the year. For crops must be fed. 
 
 Ploughs and Ploughing. Many implements have been 
 tried, and many efforts made to do the work of the plough 
 by other means. The times were when the spade was 
 considered a formidable rival, and in the description of 
 work for which the plough was considered best suited. 
 Enthusiastic admirers wrote essays upon " spade culture," 
 and the vast improvement it would confer on mankind. 
 But that time has gone, and for ever, from all but the 
 inner recesses of barbarism, where men are considered of 
 no more value than to compete with horses in turning over 
 the soil. Not that we would speak slightingly of the spade. 
 It is a good implement in good hands ; but in many kinds 
 of work the same hands might do much more with a well- 
 made plough, and do it as well better, as market 
 gardeners near the great city of Europe and America 
 believe. And they have about the best opportunities for 
 judging. In the colonies, the plough is the main 
 implement of culture, and, to the credit of the colonists be 
 it added, not only are the best imported implements of this 
 class popular, but a degree of skill has been brought to 
 bear upon the plough by colonial makers that is highly 
 to their credit. Their efforts have been mainly directed to 
 making ploughs suitable for the nature of the work to 
 be done. We see the result in the heavy colonial 
 plough. This breaking up machine is made for new land, in 
 which it has to cut through roots, &c., to a deptli of eight 
 or ten inches. This it doe.s in a way that calls out the 
 admiration of those even who at first look upon the 
 implement as ponderous and unwieldly. The form 
 adopted is similar to that of the ordinary Scotch swing 
 plough. The breast is higher, and runs out in a more 
 cutting edge than ordinary. The coulter is very heavy
 
 58 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AOUCOLTURE. 
 
 and sharp, and there is a strong draught bar. The 
 dimensions of the plough as made by M'Lean, Brisbane, 
 are length of beam from draught-bar, four feet ; handles, 
 from end of mould board, seven feet; body, two feet; 
 total length, thirteen feet; from point of share to end 
 of mould board, five feet ; the coulter is made of four by 
 one inch iron. Altogether it is a most suitable implement 
 for breaking purposes. Ten bullocks or six horses are used 
 for breaking up land. Four acres per week is fair work. 
 The disc coulter is an improvement for cutting through 
 grass land. In each of the ploughs mentioned, and indeed 
 in cultivating tools generally, modifications are made and 
 introduced for special kinds of work and different con- 
 ditions of soil. Thus friction wheels (see pp. 61 and 62) 
 are found to lessen the draught in free loamy soil. The 
 double mould -board is used for ridging up potatoes, opening 
 furrows for sugarcane, corn fodder, &c., and is a decided 
 labour-saving implement. Hudson Brothers, of Clyde ; 
 Ritchie, of Auburn, and others are notable makers of 
 ploughs, and at the warehouses of Lassetter & Co., James 
 Martin, Martin & Martin, Friend, Wm. Fleming, M'Lean 
 Bros. & Rigg, Gandon, and many others, implements of the 
 best kind can be got for all sorts of soils and the different 
 crops. 
 
 Double-furrow, three, four, and six-furrow ploughs are 
 coining into favour, and deservedly so, in the grain-growing 
 districts. With a team of three horses for a double-furrow 
 plough, nine or ten acres weekly can be got through com- 
 fortably, and the work is nearly as well done as by the 
 single plough. There is less tramping of horses and a 
 decided saving of labour. 
 
 Stump-jumping Ploughs are made for getting through 
 land where there are mallie and other roots, and grass is 
 not an active enemy amongst the cultivation. 
 
 The steam plough is found suitable for both old land 
 and for breaking up, and promises to become a powerful 
 aid to semi-tropical farming where large areas are under 
 crop.
 
 CULTIVATION OP CROPS. 
 
 59 
 
 Various Styles of Ploughing. First-class ploughing is 
 seen at times; but, as a rule, the roughest kind of work, passes 
 muster. The regularly laid up furrow, laid on edge, (p. 53) 
 seen in our illustration as prepared for grain sowing, is the 
 
 style of work most 
 in favour with 
 trained plough- 
 men. It is the 
 system adopted 
 for their prize 
 matches by the 
 Royal and High- 
 land Agricultural 
 Societies, and by 
 colonial societies 
 generally. The 
 test of merit is 
 "That the plough 
 cut the sole of the 
 furrow perfectly 
 flat, leave the land 
 side clear and true, lay the furrow slices with uniformity, 
 with perpendicular cut on land side, and leave a roomy 
 horse walk." A usual width of furrow is nine inches in 
 width by six in depth. The slice is laid up at an angle 
 of about 45deg. ; this exposes a large surface to the action 
 of the air, and is found suitable in old cultivated land, and 
 for soils of uniform richness to the depth stated. On the 
 whole, it is the system best adapted for grain crops where 
 the seed is broadcasted. 
 
 The crested or peaked furrow is much in use in 
 Scotland, and also in the grain-growing sections of the 
 colonies where stiff soils, or those with more than the 
 average proportion of strong vegetable matter prevails. 
 The peak of the furrow exposes still more soil to the action 
 of the air, and by dipping the share downwards at the 
 land side a depth of seven or eight inches is made at that 
 point. 
 
 The inverted furrow is a favorite colonial style of 
 ploughing, and answers very well where the land is not too 
 
 Inverted Furrow, Australian Ploughing.
 
 60 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 dirty. On thin open soils the extra wide furrow is, 
 perhaps, the best for general purposes. The rich mould is 
 retained on the surface, and depth can be obtained by 
 running a subsoil plough or grubber in the furrow 
 immediately after the plough. Enormous crops of potatoes 
 are grown in rich sod-land by adopting; this plan. The 
 furrows may be drawn 10 x 3, 11 x 4, or* 14 x 6 inches. 
 The mould-board must be wide and short for this work, 
 and the ground is gone over very rapidly; one and a-half 
 acre per day being nothing unusual for a good man with 
 team. The furrow is turned completely bottom up, and 
 the thick growth of weeds common on rich semi-tropical 
 soils, are buried and soon rot. Nothing short of inversion 
 will serve them, as their vitality is strong, and they will 
 live again if anything like a chance is allowed them. 
 
 A Day's Work Ploughing. While cutting a furrow 
 9in. wide the ploughman walks about 11 miles while he is 
 turning over an acre a fair day's work. That is, without 
 reckoning the journey from the stable to the field and 
 back again. It is one of the advantages of long furrows 
 that the time occupied in turning at the ends is so much 
 less than on shorter stretches. This is worth keeping in 
 view when laying out land for cultivation. In ploughing 
 an acre 352yd. long, cutting a 9in. furrow, the plough goes 
 27 i times round, and turns on the headland 55 times. If 
 we allow 1 min. for turning, the time thus occupied is equal 
 to 55 min, or say an hour's work the hardest of the day, 
 too. This would be in a paddock or field of average 
 length, some 16 chains long. The plough pace, to do good 
 steady work varies from 1 ^ to 2 miles per hour. Applying 
 these figures to the 11 miles walked in ploughing an acre 
 at the rate of 1| miles an hour, takes 7 hours. With a 
 lOin. furrow there is one mile less of walking, which may 
 be reckoned as half an hour to three quarters, according to 
 the estimate of travelling pace. With a lOin. furrow on 
 light land, where the furrows are 352yd. long, from six to 
 seven hours are occupied per acre, at the ordinary pace of 
 two miles per hour. Thus, in making short furrows, with 
 plough, cultivator, or other implement, a great amount of 
 extra work becomes necessary, and time is lost in turning.
 
 CULTIVATION OP CROPS. 61 
 
 So an acre may require eight or nine hours. Ploughs 
 cutting a double furrow, or three, four, or more furrows at 
 the same time may be estimated on the same lines. 
 
 Points in Ploughing. Ploughs with one or two wheels 
 are the easiest for the inexperienced, and practice, with the 
 advantages of a good steady team, and an implement 
 suitable for the soil, with the further advantages of being 
 acquainted with the principles upon which the 'machine 
 does its work, are all effective in training for this kind of 
 
 labor. The plough 
 body and beam 
 should be upright in 
 the furrow while at 
 work. The wheels 
 are for regulating: 
 
 Wheel Plough British Style. . 
 
 the width a n d 
 
 depth, and for turning the plough round at each end of the 
 furrow. The small, or land wheel, runs on the surface of 
 the ground, and the higher it is drawn up, the deeper the 
 plough will work. The large or furrow wheel runs in 
 the preceding furrow, level with the bottom of the plough, 
 and regulates the width of the furrow slice. 
 The plough should come out of each furrow easily at the 
 end, by a little pressure on the handles whilst the 
 horses are moving forwards. The plough should not be 
 lifted or carried round at the end of the work, but 
 must follow the horses or draught power, and should be 
 turned on the large, not on the small wheel. A little 
 practice soon enables this to be done easily. The draught 
 chain at the head should be set so that the plough will run 
 straight forward in work, and the best point will soon be 
 found by trying it in the different positions from the centre 
 either to the right or left. It can also be raised or lowered 
 for hard or soft land. Two horses or six bullocks are found 
 sufficient for ordinary work. Yoke them in pairs. In dry 
 soil the animals should be further from the plough than in 
 loose or soft soil. Steel breasts or mould-boards are better 
 than iron for stiff soil. The share should have more or less 
 inclination downwards at the point in proportion to the 
 hardness of softness of the soil. Stiti' soils require sharp
 
 62 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUBK. 
 
 keen shares; half-worn shares may be kept for softer 
 
 soil. Strong sharp 
 
 coulters are necessary 
 
 to cut through the 
 
 strong, matted grasses 
 
 of warm climates. In 
 
 heavy grass land the 
 
 coulter should have a 
 
 decided slope forwards American Style of Plough. 
 
 at the point ; in clean land it may be almost straight down 
 from the beam. The point of the coulter should just clear 
 the share, and always cut in a straight line with the sole. 
 
 American Ploughs. They are shorter than those 
 described, and do good work. The coulter iu not common 
 in America. A gain of draught by dispensing with the 
 coulter of 15'6 per cent., American makers say, is got by 
 ploughs designed with sharp cutting edge on the body. 
 
 Chilled Shares. On stony and sandy soils the share 
 of the plough wears away very quickly, and time is lost in 
 taking it off for relaying, sharpening, 
 &c. The chilled share is an advantage 
 in modern implements. The share 
 being chilled, ormadeharderonthe under 
 side than it is on the upper, the metal 
 Chined share. weara sharp until the share is worn out. 
 Subsoil Ploughing. The value of subsoiling by means 
 of the plough of giving as great a depth as possible to 
 land under cultivation without bringing the poorer, raw 
 soil to the surface cannot be overrated in a warm climate. 
 The work is effectively done with the subsoil plough, many 
 forms of which are made, for one, two, three, and four 
 horses. We prefer the single horse implement. It is light, 
 handy, and breaks the soil 
 from 4 to 7 inches deep, 
 (a) is the sole of the sub- 
 soiler, (6) the standard for 
 cutting; (d) is a nut for 
 holding the standard. When 
 run in the furrow after a 
 
 , , . ,. Subsoil Plougl 
 
 plough turning out a slice
 
 CULTIVATION OF CROPS. 
 
 63 
 
 I '2 34-56 
 
 Subsoiler at Work. 
 
 6 inches deep (see p. 59), a total depth of from 10 to 12 inches 
 is obtained at the lowest cost of labor. Subsoiling may 
 follow draining. Water allowed to lodge under in a 
 
 shallow furrow converts the 
 subsoil into a sour mud that 
 is destructive to every root 
 that comes into contact with 
 it. With combined drain- 
 age and subsoiling, we have 
 the means of growing crops 
 at all seasons, whether they 
 be very dry or very wet, or the happy medium between 
 the two. 
 
 Implements for Surface Cultivation. The plough may 
 do wonders in the hands of a man who knows how to use 
 it. There are those among us who do all the labour of 
 cultivation with the plough and harrow, and do it well. 
 But these are exceptional cases, and even in them it is 
 questionable whether there would not be saving of time 
 and labour, and money as a consequence, by the use of 
 
 other implements. It is in 
 this direction that the colo- 
 nial farmer has to look for a 
 solution of the labour diffi- 
 culty that cramps his ener- 
 gies. In dry weather, while 
 it is desirable to keep all the 
 moisture possible in the soil, 
 the grubber is of peculiar 
 value. With it the soil can 
 be loosened to the required 
 depth, and prepared for seed 
 without turning it over, and 
 consequent exposure to the 
 air. This is becoming com- 
 mon practice in preparing 
 
 Plough cultivator. land for wheat in the Rive- 
 
 rina district, and in other 
 parts where the soil is sandy and inclined to be dry.
 
 64 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Surface-stirring. This is a most important branch 
 of the cultivator's art especially important in hot 
 
 countries. In warm, 
 moist weather grasses 
 and weeds spring into 
 shape, and flourish 
 with a degree of 
 vigour that surprises 
 European farmers, and 
 they are no novices in 
 Cultivator. the warfare with 
 
 weeds. This growth has to be checked promptly for two 
 reasons: First, weeds cannot exist without injuring the 
 crop ; second unless they are destroyed at once they 
 become too powerful for ordinary treatment, and often 
 cost more than the crop is worth. It is exhausting work 
 for hand labor, this necessary destruction of weeds. We 
 are free to confess to a feeling of pain whenever we see a 
 man trying to cultivate with a hoe or a hand-tool where a 
 horse implement would answer as well ; it is neither 
 healthful nor profitable in this climate. The man who 
 attempts to farm by such means works with heavy odds 
 against his health and his success. It is very up-hill work 
 to attempt anything in the way of cultivation more 
 extensive than home gardening without the aid of horse labor. 
 Cultivators are made for one or two horses, and are 
 in high favour for stirring the surface soil between cane, 
 corn and other crops in rows, and for garden and orchard 
 cultivation. 
 
 Harrows and Harrowing. Of late years, and in warm 
 climates especially, much attention has been bestowed 
 
 upon the harrow as an 
 effective and a labor-saving 
 implement. The work of 
 the harrow is almost iden- 
 tical with that expected 
 from the gardener's rake : 
 it breaks or smooths down 
 the rough places, prepares 
 soil for seed, and rakes in 
 
 Make-shift Harrow.
 
 CULTIVATION OP CROPS. 
 
 65 
 
 and covers the seed. For fining the surface of the soil, the 
 harrow is one of the 
 very best implements 
 we have, and with 
 the large number of 
 different kinds for 
 choice, we can select an 
 implement adapted to 
 almost any kind of 
 soil. Amongst the more 
 generally used are the 
 zig-zag, disc, and pul- 
 veriser. The back-tooth harrow is a good implement. 
 
 Home-made Harrow. 
 
 In 
 
 it the teeth have a slope backwards, and do not clog with 
 grass, &c. 
 
 Bury the Weeds, or Rot Them in the Manure Heap. 
 Numberless analyses of Australian soils, made with the 
 special object of tracing the changes going on, afford 
 evidence of the need of saving all the vegetable matter we 
 can. In all Ike analyses made not a single soil has been 
 found which has, or ever appears to have had, any vegetable 
 matter in it that could be burned with advantage to the soil. 
 Grass-burning in pastoral districts has been a fearful cause 
 of destruction on the grazing lands ; and stubble-burning 
 has been only the less destructive on farming land by 
 reason of the smaller quantity burned. If exception could 
 be made to these terribly suggestive facts it might be 
 
 found 
 
 extraordinarily 
 
 their capacity to absorb 
 
 ich grazing soil from 
 near Coopernook, Man- 
 ning River, heavy soil 
 from near Gunnedah, 
 Namoi River, and rich 
 volcanic and limestone 
 loam from Tumut Plains. 
 Each of these is rich in 
 vegetable matter ; upon 
 that the fertility of the 
 soil is dependent; and 
 after testing them closely 
 
 rain-water, and to hold
 
 66 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 moisture in suspension during dry weather for each of 
 which qualities they stand in the very first rank it is 
 seen that even they have no vegetable matter that could be 
 spared for burning without injury to the fertility of the 
 soil. The conclusion, then, is inevitable, that where 
 burning can be avoided it should be by every possible 
 means. 
 
 Skill in Harrowing. When going over land for the 
 first time, we may harrow the same way as the land was 
 
 A ploughed, after which it 
 does good work to pro- 
 ceed as follows : Start 
 at corner No. 1 and go 
 straight to corner No. 2 
 diagonally across the 
 field, going back to No. 
 3, from 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 
 and 5 to 6. Keep right 
 on, and when the field is 
 done it will be harrowed 
 over twice, and every 
 mark will be diagonal 
 
 A skilful Hrrowin<. 5 2 across the field, which 
 
 is just as it should be, whether we mark for corn, use the 
 check-row planter, or drill in seed. We will thus finish 
 at (a) (a). A stiff piece of sod cannot be harrowed 
 properly without going diagonally across the furrows, and 
 we have only to turn 
 half round at the 
 corners. The team need 
 hardly be stopped at all. 
 In a field of fifteen acres 
 possibly one-third more 
 can be done in a day 
 than by taking one-half 
 of the field, harrowing 
 it diagonally, and then 
 the other half. The 
 work is made easier for the horses also. They first travel 
 on ground that has been gone over once ; after a short 
 
 Disc Cultivating Harrow.
 
 CULTIVATION OF CROPS. 
 
 67 
 
 
 time they will be on where it has been harrowed twice, 
 which makes it easier. 
 
 The Essence of Cultivation. It is to keep the soil 
 clean and loose, that the roots, whether grass, field, or 
 garden crops, may grow amongst it and feed in all 
 
 directions. With prac- 
 tice and skill the best 
 results are got with 
 the least labor, and the 
 soil is maintained in 
 perfect cultivation. To 
 get this result, the soil 
 must be prepared in 
 thoroughly fine con- 
 dition before sowing 
 or planting. Then to 
 keep the soil in good, loose tilth until the crop is past all 
 danger from weeds, which are much more easily destroyed 
 when young than when they get a start to grow. The soil 
 prepared before planting the seed is in a majority of cases 
 in that condition that the harrow is found the cheapest 
 and best implement for doing the necessary work. 
 
 For Rolling Land. The roller is an effective culti- 
 vating help. It may be of iron, hollow, and filled with 
 
 water, where weight is 
 necessary. But a well- 
 rounded log of hard 
 wood, cut in two or 
 more sections, with a 
 spindle passing through, 
 The Boiler for Cultivation makes a good roller. 
 
 Mechanical Condition of the Soil. In all the operations 
 of cultivation, we must see to the mechanical state of the 
 soil whether it is stiff, or what is called clayey ; or loose, 
 or sandy, or gravely or stony ; whether it is rich in vege- 
 table or organic matter ; or whether there is but a small 
 proportion of this substance in it. All those conditions, as 
 we have seen, are influenced by the mechanical state, not 
 of the surface only, but of the subsoil as well, to as great
 
 68 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 depth as roots penetrate, or even to still greater depth. A 
 leading object of soil cultivation is to maintain it in such 
 condition that rain and air can penetrate freely ; that as 
 small quantity as possible of rain water may run over the 
 surface. It is, in reality, as necessary to have the soil in a 
 workable mechanical state as to have sufficient and the 
 right sort of plant food for the crops we are endeavouring to 
 make. To understand these conditions, and to help in 
 bringing the soil into the state that roots can develop and 
 feed most effectively, is amongst the most valuable experi- 
 ences of agricultural knowledge. For instance, we may 
 have a soil containing such a proportion of clay matter or 
 clayey substances that during wet weather it becomes plastic 
 or sticky like clay, and which, in dry weather, may become 
 hard, like brick material, and quite unfit for working. Or, 
 going to the other extreme, we may have such a heavy 
 proportion of sand in a soil that, during dry weather, it 
 becomes a loose heap of sand grains which will throw off 
 rain, and yet absorbs the sun heat so freely that the roots 
 of plants, and even the plants above ground are scorched 
 and burned. Both these conditions are mechanical, and the 
 skill of agriculture comes into action in making the best 
 use of the conditions which have to be dealt with. The 
 stiff soil, though the most likely, by far, to be rich in plant 
 food, is the more difficult for treatment in this climate. 
 Where heavy frost would swell and break up the clayey 
 inass.we would plough up such soil rough in autumn, possibly 
 while the land was soggy wet, and allow the frost of winter 
 to " cure and sweeten " it. But where there is no frost, the 
 treatment is different. Heavy liming would, unless it were 
 already fully supplied (not a likely condition in Australia) 
 come into the first course of treatment. Then surface, 
 rooting crops, like maize, sorghum, etc., or such fruit as 
 apples or pears would be suitable. Our object being in all 
 the methods of treatment followed, to keep the soil open- 
 that air and rain may penetrate, and that the roots of crops 
 may spread and find what they require. Unless this latter 
 condition exists, neither rich grass, nor trees, nor field 
 crops, nor vegetables can prosper, and the good qualities of 
 manure are lost. With sandy soil, after breaking it loose
 
 CULTIVATION OF CROPS. 69 
 
 by plough, fork, hoe, or other implements to the depth re- 
 quired, our object is to retain as much moisture as possible 
 in it. This is done in the most effective manner, as the 
 case is in all soils, by seeing that the drainage is effective 
 to the depth required. That being right, we keep the im- 
 mediate surface loose, but the soil below in a more compact 
 state than the others. And to prevent overheating of the 
 surface, well rotted vegetable matter, bush scrapings, leaf 
 mould, etc., make very helpful manure dressings. All soils 
 are influenced by the conditions stated, and are aided further, 
 both in the mechanical and chemical sense, by using 
 manures in comparatively fresh state in the stiffer soils, 
 and well rotted in the more sandy. In the latter, lime is 
 best supplied as bone dust, over one half of which is lime. 
 Capillary action, sending up moisture from the subsoils 
 which seldom dry up entirely under well cultivated land- 
 is quickened by the foregoing conditions of soil and culti- 
 vation. 
 
 Commencing with Horse Labour. Numbers of horses 
 are spoiled by being put to harder work than they are fit for 
 at first. Putting horses to stiff' ploughing as a commence- 
 ment for what is expected from them is a common cause 
 of trouble. Rather let them do lighter work for the first 
 few days. See that the collars fit well, that they do not 
 gall. Loose collars are frequent cause of sore shoulders. 
 Sponge the shoulders night and morning with a strong tea 
 made from wattle or iron bark until they get hardened. 
 It repays the trouble in added comfort to plough horses to 
 change the team or rest them at midday, in the shade if 
 possible. It is like taking off' your hat when you come in 
 tired and heated by work. When a gall does arise, bathe 
 it at least three times a day with cold water, and then 
 kerosene. If possible Irt the animal rest until the spot is 
 healed, but by all means try to relieve the sore place by 
 winding cloth around the collar to ease off' the pressure. 
 Do not hurry too much. Let the horses take their own 
 natural pace as nearly as good work will allow, and they 
 will not need to rest so often, and will leave the field 
 fresher than if hurried along. For many kinds of work it 
 is better to use two light than one heavy horse. In
 
 70 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 marking out ground for corn or potatoes, one horse is not 
 so easy to drive in a straight line as two. But when a 
 single horse is used he goes straighter and better when 
 going slowly. A horse that is jerked and yelled at becomes 
 nervous and does not know what is required. Give a horse 
 a loose rein when he is at work. He cannot use his full 
 strength if his head is drawn up with a tight rein. 
 
 VIL GRAIN CROPS. 
 
 SEED PER ACRE. Calculated for average good land in 
 a fair state for the reception of seed. But prepare land and 
 sow early. A sown crop is safest. Rain stops sowing, but 
 makes crops grow. Poor land requires most seed. Thin 
 sowing gives best crops to good farming. 
 
 Bushels. 
 Corn for grain ... ... ... ... 1 
 
 Corn for fodder or ensilage ... ... . . 2 to 3 
 
 Wheat, broadcast li to 2 
 
 Wheat, in drills i to 1 
 
 Barley, broadcast .. .. . ... ... 2 to 3 
 
 Barley, in drills If to 2 
 
 Oats .. 2 to 3 
 
 Buckwheat 1 to' Ik 
 
 Sorghums and Millets, broadcast 4 to $ 
 
 Grass, lawn .. ... ... ... ... ... 2 to 3 
 
 Grass, orchard ... ... ... ... 2 to 3 
 
 Rye, broadcast ... ... ... 1J to 2 
 
 Rye grass ...... ... 2 
 
 Vetches ... .. ... 2 to 3 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Beets and Mangel Wurzel ... .. ... 4 to 6 
 
 Cabbage (to be transplanted) . 1 to l 
 
 Carrot .. ... 2 to 3 
 
 Cucumber, in hills . ... ... ... ... 1 to 2 
 
 Clover, red, broad cast ... 15 to 2ft 
 
 Clover, white, broadcast ... .. 12 to 16 
 
 Lucerne, broadcast .. ... ... ... ... 14 to 20 
 
 Lucerne, drilled ... ... ... 8 to 12 
 
 Onion, in drills ... .. ... ... .. 4to5 
 
 Parsnip, in drills ... ... ... ... ... 4 to 5 
 
 Rape, in drills 5 to 8 
 
 Radish, in drills 5 to 8 
 
 Turnip and Ruta Baga, broadcast ... ... 3 to 5 
 
 Turnip and Ruta Baga, in drills ... ... 2 to 3 
 
 Ozs. 
 
 Tobacco 1 to 3
 
 GRAIN CROPS. 71 
 
 Quarts. 
 Beans, pole, in hills, 3 ? x 4 ... . . ... 8 to 12 
 
 Broom, corn, in hills ... .. ... ... 6to8 
 
 Sorghum, or Chinese sugar cane . . ... ... 2 to 3 
 
 Cwt. 
 Potatoes, in drills or hills, cut tubers ... ... 4 to 6 
 
 Potatoes, cut in single eyes ... ... ... 2 to 4 
 
 The Grain Crops Available. All the finer grains 
 wheat, maize, oats, and barley are grown extensively, 
 and over a large area of country ; and in their production 
 the conditions of good farming that rule in other parts of 
 the world tell equally here. The coarser grains rye, 
 bere, buckwheat, millet, &c. are also grown, but more as 
 articles of curiosity associated with recollections of other 
 lands, than for food. Rice is a grain differing essentially 
 in the requirements of climate and rainfall from those 
 mentioned. It is a beautiful grain and grows freely in 
 the semi-tropical sections of the coastal country. In 
 cultivating the richer grains, as wheat, maize, and oats, 
 heavy soil, with a proportion of clay, answers best. Deep, 
 clean farming also tells its own unmistakable tale upon 
 each crop; for, although vagaries do occur, it is seldom 
 indeed that slovenly or thoughtless farming secures 
 heavier crops than the sound system and practice which 
 European agriculturists find necessary to secure uniform, 
 good results. 
 
 MAIZE, or Indian Corn. The leading position is given 
 to corn, or maize, as the most valuable grain in semi- 
 tropical countries the safest as a yielder, and the most 
 certain of grain crops. It is an American product. 
 Columbus found the "Indians" growing maize there; but 
 the quality was much inferior to the "corn" of these 
 times. Unless something very unusual happens during 
 the season, the farmer who sets his mind and his energies 
 to the production of a big crop of maize seldom fails in 
 his object. But there are various ways of making the 
 crop. We must have suitable seed and suitable land ; 
 plant at the right time ; cultivate as clean and with as 
 little hand labor as possible ; protect the grain from 
 vermin out of doors and in ; and use or sell it to 
 the best advantage. (See chapter on bread -making, for
 
 72 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 how to use maize as human food.) The extent of land in 
 Australia suitable for growing maize is very 
 great. Victoria has considerable tracts 
 where good returns arc gathered, and the 
 whole of the seaboard country of New 
 South Wales, Queensland, and the Northern 
 Territory, in so far as climate is concerned, 
 is a vast corn area, sufficient to produce 
 grain for millions. The season for plant- 
 ing extends from August to January. 
 In warm, sheltered localities in the 
 Northern districts, corn is planted all the 
 year round, and three distinct crops are 
 gathered, but not from the same land, of 
 course. The usual practice is to sow in 
 August, September, or October, some of the 
 large varieties for a summer crop, which 
 is gathered in January or February ; and 
 some of the smaller sorts in December or 
 January for a winter crop, gathered in 
 April. In the cooler districts, but one crop 
 is grown between October and February. 
 Maize changes in character and appearance 
 in different localities ; and favorite kinds 
 are found in each district. In reality there 
 or five varieties of maize ; and botanists 
 reduce these again to two. We will mention five distinct 
 sorts, in so far as the farmer is concerned, and then 
 proceed to see how they are grown to the best advantage. 
 
 1. The large, yellow, or whitish corn, with stalks from 
 9 to 14 feet; cobs from 10 to 15 inches in length. There 
 are many sub- varieties in this family, all of which require 
 from four to five months of tropical weather, with sun heat 
 from OOdeg. to 120deg. and rich soil to come to maturity. 
 Under such conditions the yield is from 60 to 120 bushels 
 of shelled corn per acre. (Two bushels in the cob, as a 
 rule make one bushel shelled.) 
 
 2. Small yellow or flint com very hard grain. Stalks 
 from 5 to 7 feet high ; cobs from 6 to 9 inches long. Comes 
 
 Maize. 
 
 are but four
 
 GRAIN CROPS. 73 
 
 to maturity, in four months and in cooler locations than the 
 former. Yield about one-third less than No. 1. 
 
 3. White, corn (Tuscarora). Stalks about 6 feet high ; 
 cobs from 5 to 8 inches in length ; matures in three months 
 in moderately rich soil. Yield from 30 to 40 bushels per 
 acre. 
 
 4. White glazed corn. In habit and size of cob like No. 
 3. Grain hard, tough, and shrivelled ; matures in from 
 100 to 120 days in temperature ranging between 90deg. 
 and 120deg. 
 
 5. Variegated corn received here with great promise 
 from South America has not done well. 
 
 It can be said with safety that land cannot be too 
 rich nor too " active " for maize. We see the truth of this 
 in the enormous crops grown upon newly cleared scrub 
 land in which, from the density of timber and under- 
 growth burnt upon the land, the quantity of potash and 
 other active salts is excessive. In such places, by merely 
 scratching in the seed with a hoe often among half-burnt 
 logs and several inches deep of ashes crops of from 80 to 
 1 20 bushels per acre are gathered. That is cultivation on 
 new land, however, and for but a season or two, while the 
 corn has no weeds to contend with, and is but the first 
 approach to farming. Next to new land, closely cropped 
 sod, freshly turned in, gives the heaviest crops of corn. 
 Then comes regular farming in conjunction with manuring 
 and other crops for rotation, and the yields come in 
 accordance with the richness of the soil and the skilj 
 employed. 
 
 Preparing Land for Com. As much vegetable matter 
 as possible should be retained near the surface ; and to 
 effect this, shallow ploughing from three to five inches 
 deep answers very well, and particularly so when a subsoil 
 plough, plough body, or grubber, is run four or five inches 
 deeper in the furrow, immediately .after the plough, that 
 merely loosening the under or subsoil. 
 
 The Seed. Much care should be exercised in the 
 selection and care of maize seed. A practice highly 
 recommended is to plant each year a few acres of the most 
 productive land with the most choice seed, and from this
 
 74 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AOHICOI.TURE. 
 
 select seed for the following year. Selections should be 
 made with reference to both stalk and ear. Good .stalks 
 
 <s. > should be from 
 
 d. 
 
 \ 
 
 7 
 
 8ft. to 10ft. in 
 height, with 
 short joints and 
 a abundant foli- 
 age, bearing the 
 * ears at a height 
 iof about 4 feet. 
 Good ears should 
 be from Sin. to 
 lOin. in length, 
 
 Marker for Corn. Potatoes, *c. and have an 
 
 uniform diameter to near the tip of about 2^in. ; they 
 should be well filled to both ends with from 16 to 
 20 rows, little space between the rows, and with shanks 
 large enough to support their weight. The kernels 
 should be thick rather than thin, somewhat wedge-shaped, 
 and in length equal to or greater than one-half the diameter 
 of the internal core. 
 
 Planting. There are two established systems of 
 planting corn in hills, made by taking out a lift of soil 
 with the hoe from 3 to 4.^ feet apart each way; in each 
 hole thus made half-a-dozen or more seeds are dropped ; 
 from three to six of the plants that come up are allowed to 
 grow, and all the stronger when the hills are well manured. 
 In cultivating by this system the soil is drawn up towards 
 the corn as it advances in growth, thus forming the hills. 
 The plan is the best where the land is new, and encum- 
 bered with burnt logs, roots, &c. Hill planting is also 
 managed by running out furrows with the marker or plough 
 from tour to five feet apart, then crossing them with fur- 
 rows about three feet apart. In the checks or corners thus 
 made, where the furrows cross, the corn is planted, and 
 answers very well when a little rich manure meets the 
 roots. The other system is to drill in the seed by machine 
 or hand, and where horse-labor is available, this is the 
 system that enables men to do the most work. Where the 
 land is thoroughly ploughed and smoothed down with the
 
 GRAIN CttOPS. 75 
 
 harrow, six acres per day, in TOWS from 4 to 5J feet apart 
 can be put in by a man with a one-horse machine, without 
 exposing the soil to a dry atmosphere. In other cases drills 
 are marked and opened with plough or hoe, seed scattered 
 in by hand, and covered with the harrow or hoe, and the 
 crop worked to maturity as in he preceding plan. 
 
 Cultivation. To allow the crop a fair start, it is 
 customary in good farming to harrow just before sowing, 
 " that corn and weeds may have an equal chance," as the 
 saying is." Some farmers go a step further than this, and 
 harrow again after the corn is up above grqund. It seems 
 to be rough practice with the ordinary vertical-toothed 
 harrow, as a glance at the form of the teeth will explain; 
 the crop is torn of necessity before the weeds could be 
 got out ; but still it is considered better practice than 
 allowing the two to struggle for mastery, and hand-hoeing 
 for corn is out of the question the crop would not stand 
 the expense. In America the same difficulty was 
 experienced, and to overcome it the smoothing or weeding 
 harrow, with teeth sloping backwards, came into use. As 
 the crop advances the plants are thinned or pulled until they 
 stand 6 to 12 inches apart, according to the strength of the 
 soil, and the cultivation is then carried on to maturity with 
 the harrow, single-horse ploughs, cultivators, or hoes. 
 
 Harvesting. Farmers in the damp, tropical sections 
 where heavy crops are grown, know that it is more difficult 
 to preserve than to grow the grain during the summer 
 season. Whether one, two, or three crops are gathered it 
 the course of the year, the main yield is ripe during the hot 
 months, in January or February, when the weevil, the pest 
 of pests to the grain farmer in warm countries, is very 
 active. But before investigating the proclivities of the 
 weevil, it will be well to follow the cobs from the pulling in 
 the field to the barn. They are shot upon the floor, the 
 grain being thoroughly protected by the wrappers around 
 the cobs. These wrappers are stripped or husked by hand. 
 Any one who has the use of both hands can husk corn, 
 which is merely tearing the wrappers from the cobs ; but 
 some operators get wonderfully expert at it. An average 
 day's work of a good hand (and amongst the best hands are
 
 76 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 active young women) may be taken at about thirty bushels 
 of ears, although over one hundred bushels have been got 
 through at husking matches. The fingers and finger-mils 
 suffer severely while husking; and it is usually dene in 
 spells, in the evenings, during the heat of the day, &c. To 
 aid in the work, a glove is made with small hooks at the 
 points of the fingers and at the palm of the hand. This 
 glove helps the worker very much. 
 
 Shellmg Corn Maize Fevers. Very excellent shelters 
 are made in the colonies. Hand, horse, 
 and steam power are employed for 
 operating ; and power is very helpful, 
 for the work is hard when done by 
 the hand. The corn should be win- 
 nowed or cleaned as effectively as 
 possible, in order to look well when 
 sent to market. While shelling, the 
 fine dust (fungus dust amongst it) 
 from the sheaths of the cobs, is apt 
 to get into the throats of the 
 operators. It is disagreeable, and 
 has caused fevers, by irritation. The most effective pre- 
 ventive is to arrange the work and the shellers so as to blow 
 the dust away from the operator. 
 
 WHEAT. The land available for wheat farming in 
 Australia is enormous. Where 
 the rainfall ranges between 20 
 and 30 inches, the location is 
 likely to be suitable. South 
 Australia exports this grain 
 largely ; Victoria is also a heavy 
 producer ; New South Wales 
 grows nearly enough for her own 
 use : and Queensland grows a 
 considerable area. It is a winter 
 crop, the seed being sown during 
 the months of March, April, 
 May ; the harvest is in Septem- 
 ber, October, November. Loca- 
 Oau, Barley. tion and the state of the wea- 
 
 Shelling C'>rn.
 
 GRAIN CROPS. 77 
 
 ther whether it be dry and unfavorable for ploughing, or 
 dropping and suitable have much more to do with the get- 
 ting in of this crop than in Europe. But each district has 
 its favorite time for sowing say the first or second half of 
 April, or a little earlier or later, as the case may be. There 
 are also favorite varieties in each district, prominent 
 amongst which, for suitability to the climate, are the 
 Tuscans (for quickness and heavy crops in favorable 
 seasons) ; Talavera and purple straw (favorite with the 
 millers) ; Lammas (heavy plump grain, but disposed to 
 make too much straw) ; Fenton (velvet or woolly ear) ; 
 Bearded wheats from India and Egypt, are also in favor. 
 The Egyptian is specially hardy, and, perhaps, the safest 
 wheat for home use on new land. Much depends upon the 
 climate as to which variety is most suitable, and the safest 
 way to avoid mistakes is to sow the favorite of the neigh- 
 bourhood until a better is found. Regarding hardiness and 
 freedom from rust (see chapter on fungus enemies), the red 
 and bearded varieties are most in favor ; but the millers 
 prefer the plumper and whiter grains. All wheats give the 
 heaviest crops from rich, heavy land, and the rule found 
 best with corn to keep the vegetable matter as near the 
 surface as possible applies equally well with wheat. It is 
 becoming a customary practice to skim or merely surface 
 plough land that has been under this crop previously, or 
 under grass, at such time as will allow the surface coating 
 to rot before sowing the seed ; to harrow roughly twice or 
 thrice, and then sow broadcast at the rate of 1 to 2 bushels 
 per acre. Thin seeding is much in favor where the land is 
 rich and quick. The smoothing harrow covers this grain 
 especially well. Wheat does not demand a moist seed-bed ; 
 but it must be well packed in with the harrow or roller. 
 Drilling has been tried, and with marked success, and, as 
 the land is brought into better tilth, and skilled labor can 
 be easily obtained, drilling promises to take the lead of all 
 other methods of sowing. 
 
 Steeping the Seed. To prevent fungi, it is u.sual to dress 
 or steep the seed in liquids made up of bluestone, salt and 
 water, lime and salt, manure-water, hot water to 155 
 degrees, F., &c. The object of all steeps is to destroy the
 
 78 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUEE. 
 
 E i 
 
 seed of rust, smut, or other fungus that may be clinging to 
 the grain. All the 
 steeps mentioned are 
 useful, and without 
 entering into their re- 
 spective merits, it may 
 be added that some of 
 them should be used. 
 The grain can either be 
 set into the steep in 
 baskets, or the liquid 
 can be sprinkled over 
 the seed, which is all the 
 
 better Of a dusting With Hand Seed-Sower for Grain, Grass, Ac. 
 
 lime or ashes before sowing. A fair steep is made by 
 dissolving in hot water lb. bluestone per bag of seed, 
 which takes up about two gallons of water. 
 
 Sheep and Wheat. To bring land into heart that has 
 
 become too poor for this 
 grain, the Australian 
 farmer has two power- 
 ful aids in his sheep and 
 cattle. Grass land eaten 
 clown closely (as it 
 generally is in small 
 paddocks about the be- 
 ginning of the year), 
 
 Broadcast Seed-Sower. when Well Worked, offers 
 
 a fine seed-bed, and by feeding lucerne to the stock the 
 land soon regains the strength it has lost. When the yield 
 falls below 10 bushels per acre the land is too poor for 
 wheat. 
 
 Science in Wheat Farming. In a recent lecture to the 
 Liverpool Plains Agricultural Association, the author gave 
 the following particulars of how wheat is built up in the 
 field : The nature of wheat of its component parts had 
 received very close attention at the Technical College, and 
 searching analyses had been made of the different 
 substances it obtains from the soil, and what from the 
 Atmosphere. An impression existed that if we had rain
 
 GRAIN CROPS. 79 
 
 there would sure to be good crops of wheat. Such an idea was 
 erroneous. But of course the supply of rain affects the 
 crop in a great measure. Wheat contained water, as 
 hydrogen and oxygen, 45.86 parts in each 100. These are 
 two of the gases that form water, it might be rain or 
 irrigation water. Thus wheat is made up of some 46 parts 
 of moisture. It was necessary to have at least five inches of 
 water, and seven inches would be better, before crops of 
 wheat, of about 35 bushels to the acre, could be raised. 
 Then, from the air, the grain absorbed carbon to the extent 
 of 44 '43 parts in each 100. So that altogether from the 
 atmosphere and rain, wheat obtained some 90 parts of its 
 whole bulk. Thus, it was seen how bountiful was nature. Of 
 lime, soda, chlorine, sulphuric acid, magnesia, iron and silica 
 (or sand), other ingredients essential to the growing of wheat, 
 4 per cent, were absorbed, and there was an abundance of 
 them in the soils of this country. But the other six parts 
 had, after a crop or two was reaped, to be supplied by man 
 unless in very exceptional cases, for the crop exhausted the 
 substances that composed these six parts more quickly 
 than nature provides, as a rule. Nitrogen, or ammonia, must 
 be supplied. Wheat required it in the proportion of 2'6 in 
 the 100. The Gas Company of Sydney were sending 
 away immense quantities of this substance in the form of 
 sulphate of ammonia, which could be purchased in the 
 colony cheaper than in Britain, where thousands of pounds 
 worth were purchased yearly. Wheat got some nitrogen 
 from the atmosphere, but not sufficient to make a paying 
 crop. Then the wheat required of phosphoric acid 1'28 
 parts, of potash T3, of lime '79. If it were to rain 100 inches 
 each year, not one part of these ingredients would be sup- 
 plied. And yet, without phosphoric acid and lime, it was an 
 impossibility to get wheat. But bone manures supplied 
 them. He had noticed that some new land of the Namoi 
 Pastoral Company had given a yield of 45 bushels to the 
 acre, and the old land had only yielded 22 bushels. The 
 cause of this was that there were phosphoric acid and lime 
 in the new land, whereas it was reduced considerably in the 
 old. Unless the wheat found these substances in the soil, 
 a large crop was not possible, and the constitution of the
 
 80 AUSTRALIAN AQRICCLTUKK. 
 
 grain deteriorated. Deficiencies of plant food in the soil 
 might not be the cause of rust, but there was no doubt 
 that by weakening the plant it became more susceptible to 
 the attacks of the insidious parasite. Wheat was the main 
 food for the white man, because it contained a large amount 
 of bone and muscle making substances; phosphoric acid 
 and lime help materially to make bone. The recom- 
 mendations made were to use every care in the selection 
 and treatment of seed, and earlier sowing and quicker 
 maturing of the crop, in order to avoid the dangerous 
 time for rust October and November. 
 
 BARLEY. In Australia, this is both a summer and a 
 winter crop. In the wheat districts it is sown a month or 
 so after that grain say in June or July. In other places, 
 August is a favorite month for sowing. Man}- varieties of 
 barley have been tried. The sorts in general cultivation 
 are Early English or common ; long-eared or Nottingham ; 
 Cape, German, or Pomeranian; Chevalier, the best for 
 malting ; Bere, or four-rowed barley. Any good com land 
 will answer for barley ; and soil too poor for the former 
 can, with careful treatment, be made to yield fair crops of 
 barley. It is a deeper rooter, seldom liable to attacks of 
 fungus, and will stand direct manuring ; while, for wheat, 
 manure is best applied to a preceding crop or by grazing. 
 Barley will not do with wet at the roots, and is a slow 
 grower and shy bearer upon clay. For malting barley, 
 magnesia is a requirement in the soil, and a heavier rainfall 
 than for wheat is necessary. The land should be drained. 
 Plough as deep as possible, and harrow clean before sowing. 
 Barley : as a crop, follows well after lucerne ; it has also 
 done well when sown after sugar-cane, and is a useful 
 rotation crop for either cutting green or for grain where 
 horse feed is grown. It is also a quick, useful catch crop 
 for wild, porous land, intended for ensilage, cane or other 
 summer crops. 
 
 BERE. A variety of barley, and the same treatment 
 answers. It can be sown from April to July. It is 
 an almost certain crop on moderately good, well-drained 
 !and.
 
 QEA.IN CROPS. 81 
 
 OATS. One of our most useful crops. Any soil answers, 
 and rough treatment ; oats require more rain than wheat 
 or barley, the yield being in proportion to the richness of 
 the soil and rainfall. When grown for grain, it is a winter 
 crop, sown in April or May, according to location ; for hay 
 or green feed, it can be sown as a catch crop from March to 
 August. The varieties in favor are Tartarian, Grey or 
 Angus, Potato, and Indian the two former for cool 
 districts, the latter for the coast and warmer localities. 
 For hay, as much as four bushels per acre are sown. From 
 a quarter to a half bushel of tares or vetches per acre 
 make an excellent mixture ; to the presence of vetches the 
 extra superiority of oaten hay from certain localities is 
 traceable. It has been said that the oat does well with 
 rough treatment. This is owing to the extraordinary 
 strength and searching powers of the roots ; but good 
 farming, draining, and manuring, all tell when the crop is 
 harvested. There is a great deal in sowing also, and in 
 acquaintance with the rainfall of the locality. The danger 
 of sowing too thick, and the attendant risk of the crop 
 falling or lodging in wet ground, are especially to be 
 guarded against. 
 
 RYE. This grain is a favorite with the German 
 colonists. Otherwise, rye as a crop is neglected. It makes 
 capital bread, of dark colour; it is also used for poultry 
 and cattle. In the green state it is amongst the best food 
 for sheep, and is worthy of attention where sheep are kept 
 on the farm. Rye is grown under several names Broad 
 leaf, Midsummer, and Tyrolese ; but the varieties run into 
 each other so much that one description will answer. 
 Wheat land answers for rye ; as a rule, the cultivation for 
 wheat is suitable. The effects of drilling and after treat- 
 ment witli the harrow are very marked upon this crop, and 
 where it is sown late, say after June, and comes into 
 contact with the summer grasses, after-harrowing should 
 not be neglected. Rye is a good hay crop in wet seasons, 
 when it may be sown as thickly as may be de.sired (say 
 five bushels per acre). The stiffness of the straw prevents 
 it from lodging, and when half a bushel of tares or vetches 
 are sown with the rye, the mixture is excellent for stock
 
 82 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 feed, or making ensilage. For grain the same quantity of 
 seed used for oats answers for rye. Drilled in, one and 
 a-half bushel per acre is sufficient. Ergot, a kind of rust 
 to which rye is subject in Europe, has not been noticed 
 here. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT. This, like rye, is one of the neglected 
 crops. Properly speaking, it is not a wheat, but a soft 
 heroacious plant of the botanical order polygonacecB, of 
 which sorrel is a representative. But buckwheat is a 
 heavy seed-bearer (from 30 to 60 bushels per acre with fair 
 culture), and the meal of the seed is of good color, fine, and 
 very wholesome. In various parts of Germany, and in 
 America, it is in high favor for making bread and cakes, 
 which, like rye bread, has the reputation of being easier of 
 digestion than bread made of wheat flour. It contains 
 but little sugar, and is in high repute for the food 
 of sufferers from diabetes disease. Buckwheat is one 
 of the quickest of grain crops, and one of the easiest 
 cultivated, but the soil, to give quick full crops, must be 
 rich in nitrogen and potash. In our climate it is sown, 
 grown, and reaped in ninety days. It can be sown any 
 time from June to December ; in warm localities the cooler 
 season is best ; in colder locations it may be either grown as 
 a spring crop, sown in July or August, or as an autumn 
 crop, sown at the end of February. The treatment of the 
 soil is similar to that for oats, buckwheat being even better 
 than that crop for fining down rough land. The seed is 
 sown in drills from 14 to 18 inches apart. The author 
 has grown buckwheat on new and not over-rich forest 
 land only once ploughed, and while the grass was green 
 between the furrow laps. One bushel of seed was sown 
 per acre ; the returns were nearly thirty bushels of seed 
 and seven loads of straw. In harvesting, the grain is very 
 apt to shell out, and it is well, therefore, to get it into 
 the barn before the seed cases are quite dry. It ripens 
 freely after being cut. This crop is used extensively 
 for green manuring, and is amongst the best for that 
 purpose. It grows on average soils except those that are 
 wet. It is also shy of great sun heat, and perishes from 
 frost.
 
 ROOT CROPS, CLEAN CROPS. 
 
 VIII. ROOT CROPS, CLEAN CROPS. 
 
 83 
 
 THE BASIS OF AGRICULTURE. Potatoes, turnips, man- 
 golds, beets, and other root croops, in European agriculture, 
 are estimated as the very foundation of perfect farming. We 
 cannot get crops of this kind from either poor land or 
 slovenly work that is crops that pay. They must be fed, 
 and they must be kept clean ; hence the high repute of 
 root crops in skilful agriculture. 
 
 Potatoes Treating the Seed to Make a Big Crop. 
 
 Potatoes. In this family we recognise the potato proper 
 the " English potato," as it is misnamed ; the Americans 
 call it the " Irish potato," and have much better reason for 
 their choice, although the potato proper is an American 
 product. Then there are sweet potatoes and the large 
 family of yams. The common potato holds the first place 
 in the colonies, as it does in the mother country and 
 America. In the cooler districts of Tasmania and Victoria, 
 and in New South Wales, very fair crops of potatoes are 
 grown, which seem to have found a proper location near 
 such places as Port Fairy and Warrnambool. Crops of from
 
 84 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUBB. 
 
 12 to 15 tons per acre are not uncommon in favourite 
 localities. The quality is very superior. The varieties grown 
 are pink eyes, Brown's River, fluke k idney s, Warrnambools, 
 regents, cups, ash-leaf kidneys, Circular Heads, &c., &c. 
 Many other sorts are described, possibly too many. Care 
 is necessary in experimenting with them. In the warmer 
 districts, the potato is also a favourite, but it is a much 
 more uncertain crop ; the weight per acre seldom exceeds 
 six tons, and it is found necessary to change the seed every 
 other season, in some places every season, drawing the 
 supplies of seed from Tasmania and the other southern 
 colonies. Several new varieties Early Rose, Brownell's 
 Beauty, Snowflake, Ash-leaf, Manhattan, Webster's best, 
 Smith's early, Somner's hundredfold, and others have been 
 tried; but with the exception of Brownell's Beauty and 
 Early Rose, growers have had to fall back upon seed from 
 the cooler latitudes. 
 
 Planting Seasons. There are two decided planting 
 seasons for the potato in Australia ; in the cooler districts. 
 June and July are chosen for the tirst crop, August and 
 September for the latter crop. In the wanner districts, 
 February and March are chosen for a winter crop, July, 
 August, and September for a summer crop. In close, moist 
 situations, a crop is grown during summer, by planting at 
 Christmas time. In other places wet weather is chosen 
 for planting at any season. In other respects, the culti- 
 vation suitable to the potato in other countries answers 
 here. 
 
 Preparing the Seed. Either whole potatoes, uncut, or 
 cut, may be used for seed. The illustration (B) shows how 
 three cuts, or more, may be made from a well-matured 
 potato of medium size. Large tubers are not so reliable for 
 seed. After being cut, the seed can be started into growth 
 by placing them in layers in a box (A), surrounded by dry 
 wood ashes. Two or more layers may be arranged in this 
 way in each box, while the land is being prepared and 
 manured. The seed takes from ten to twenty days before 
 growth starts. They can then be set out in rows from 
 twenty-four to thirty inches apart, and the seed from eight 
 to twelve inches apart in the rows. The advantages of
 
 ROOT CROPS, CLEAN CROPS. 85 
 
 thus preparing the seed are that only those that show signs 
 of growth need be planted, and misses are fewer an 
 important point in sections or country where potato culture 
 is less certain. 
 
 Chemical Soaking of Potato Seed. A method of 
 soaking seed potatoes in a solution of nitrate of potash and 
 sulphate of ammonia ^lb. of each in two gallons of water 
 for 12 to 18 hours, is followed by some growers. The 
 seed, after soaking, is dried with wood ashes and planted. 
 Extra returns are said to follow this treatment ; but it is 
 risky. 
 
 To Make Sure of a Potato Crop. The requirements 
 are, loose soil, sufficient rain or irrigation, and the 
 necessary cultivation. The soil must be rich in vegetable 
 matter and potash material. Exhaustion of the latter is 
 the most common cause of the crop falling off, and possibly 
 of disease, but it can be supplied now, from potash 
 manures. Then to help the crop, all the vegetable matter 
 obtainable, all the leaf mould, all the wood ashes, sea- 
 weed, &c., should be added to the manure heap prepared 
 specially for potatoes. They well deserve such attention. 
 The case of Ireland may be instanced, where, as well 
 as in other parts of the old land, the potato had 
 become such a victim to fungus disease in years gone past 
 that it was said over and over again that the crop 
 was done. But science and skill came to the aid of 
 the potato growers ; and now, heavier and better crops 
 of potatoes than ever are produced crops up to 15 and 
 20 tons per acre. We certainly can learn much from the 
 grand old land, and from the splendid men who devote 
 such care and skill to agriculture over there. When 
 studying the careful plodding, with which such magnifi- 
 cent work as the Woburn experiments were carried on, to 
 test the quality of crops for feeding and the manures got 
 by stock under varying conditions, it might well kill the 
 conceit that we have nothing to learn from the old land. 
 
 THE SWEET POTATO. This is the root crop of the 
 semi-tropical farmer. With care, and certainly at lefs 
 expense for seed, it yields from 10 to 20 tons of roots per 
 acre, and fully as much green feed. Every part of this
 
 86 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 crop is available for use ; the vines or tops being very 
 valuable feed for dairy stock, for working cattle, pigs, 
 sheep, and horses. Four named varieties are grown the 
 white, a long almost cylindrical root that grows in bunches 
 from the main plant only (this sort is mealy and rich, and 
 not very sweet) ; the large red, a globular-shaped sort, with 
 long trailing vines, a rather watery potato ; the small red, 
 which forms bunches of small potatoes wherever the vines 
 touch a spot of unoccupied ground (an excellent variety 
 for stock-feeding purposes ; it is an enormous bearer) ; 
 and the " Maltese," with a serated leaf, the vines 
 springing in bunches instead of singly from the 
 main root, as in other varieties (the roots of this 
 sort are mealy, firm, and very rich). All the varieties are 
 planted and cultivated alike. Two methods are followed 
 for raising plants : the first is by planting potatoes in rich, 
 loamy soil over a hotbed, and is peculiarly suitable for 
 colder locations and where it is necessary to carry the seed 
 long distances. Put in the seed potatoes as soon as the 
 cold weather is over say in August. The vines come up 
 in bunches, which, when about six inches long, can with ease 
 be drawn out from the parent potato and set out. The 
 other method of obtaining plants, and the best for warm 
 districts, for it gives by far the hardiest vines, is to leave a 
 few rows of the old potatoes, vines and all, in and on the 
 ground. These, when covered up from cold and risk of 
 injury, commence to shoot as soon as the weather gets 
 warm. A sprinkle of weak, liquid manure helps them on. 
 As the vines run out and show white points, or "root pens" 
 at the joints, they are cut off in eight or ten inch lengths, 
 and planted out at once. Plants of this kind very seldom 
 fail ; but if they or the drawn plants are to be sent to a 
 distance, they ought to be packed in small bundles, wrapped 
 up snugly in paper. The soil for sweet potatoes need not 
 be very rich, but it should be worked as deep and fine as 
 possible, and then laid up in ridges about three feet 
 apart. Flatten off the tops of the ridges, and insert the 
 cuttings or sets about a foot apart. Make holes about 
 three inches deep with the hand, a piece of wood, or garden 
 trowel Lay in the sets nearly flat, leaving about one-third
 
 KOOT CROPS, CLEAN CROPS. 87 
 
 of each out of the ground. If the soil is dry, pour in 
 about a pint of water to each ; then cover with soil, but do 
 not press hard. When the soil is clean and well worked, 
 the plants are not liable to fail. They catch at once, or fail 
 altogether. When right, they commence to throw out side 
 shoots from the trailing vine or hulm. The soil should 
 then be ridged up around them, the ridges being similar to 
 those for common potatoes, but in this case broader and 
 higher. Keep working the soil loose and clean as long as 
 the vines will permit of it, to help the roots travelling in 
 search of food and the tubers to swell. On very light 
 soil there is a danger of the potatoes forming too far 
 down, and being long and thin. To prevent this, pass a 
 scuffle-hoe, or the broad share of a plough under the ridges 
 before finishing the cultivation, the object being to cut 
 the deep roots and force them into forming thick, chunky 
 potatoes. As this crop advances it covers ridge and furrow 
 with a mass of vines from six inches to a foot in thickness. 
 As the crop ripens, the potatoes crack and burst the ridges, 
 and the crowns are often seen in bunches coming up to the 
 surface. At this stage the big ones can be fossicked out 
 with a stick for immediate use, without injuring the growth 
 of their fellows, and the vines can be thinned out or cut 
 off close to the crowns of the potatoes, and used for green 
 feed. 
 
 Harvesting Sweet Potatoes. The crop is dug, forked 
 or ploughed out in the same way as common potatoes. The 
 roots must be handled carefully ; they are easily injured. 
 In dry soil they are often left in the ground during winter, 
 and dug as required. They keep well in barrels packed 
 amongst sand or ashes, but they must be kept dry. With- 
 out exception this is one of the most valuable crops at the 
 disposal of the semi-tropical farmer, and one that offers a 
 good field for enterprise in preserving this very valuable 
 and always acceptable variety of potato. 
 
 YAMS. Various sorts of this tuber are grown ; the 
 best are those obtained from the South Sea Islands and 
 from China. They are rough-coated, potato-like tubers, 
 that in favourable soil reach the weight of five to twelve 
 pounds. They are propagated from the crowns of the
 
 88 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tubers, and also from seed, not unlike small rough potatoes 
 that grow freely on the vines above ground. All the 
 varieties are climbers ; some have beautifully coloured and 
 spiral vines. Plant as soon as the soil heat reaches 60deg. 
 in September or October, in rows about three feet apart 
 each way. Cover the plants with soil, and place a stake 
 from four to six feet high with each. The plants are 
 hardy, shoots appear above ground in 12 to 30 days, and 
 immediately twist around the stakes. The crop is ripe 
 when the vines die back. Yams generally grow deep in 
 the soil. To dig them out two-pronged forks are used. 
 To facilitate the digging attempts have been made to grow 
 yams upon ridges, but the heavy yields are got from flab 
 planting. 
 
 Other Root Crops. Beets and mangolds, or mangel- 
 wurzel, of various sorts, answer well for cropping in the 
 colder districts. They must have the very richest soil, or 
 manure'equal to 30 loads or more per acre. Sow in September, 
 4 to 6 Ibs. of seed per acre. Turnips and field carrots also 
 do well, swedes especially ; great crops of them are grown 
 as rotation in the Hunter River district. Sow in September. 
 February, March about 31b. of seed per acre. Other 
 turnips are grown as garden crops. Beets, for sugar, 
 answer in the colder districts. Cultivation much the same 
 as mangolds and swedes. 
 
 IX. SEMI-TROPICAL CROPS. 
 
 Maize. Indian corn is the leading of all semi-tropical 
 products ; but in Australia this crop is so general over the 
 the country, that here the making of maize crops is ranked 
 with grains. 
 
 SUGAR CANE. In the wanner coastal districts the 
 extent of country suitable for sugar cane, in so far as the 
 climate is concerned, is enormous. It extends from Sydney 
 northwards, along the coast of Queensland, Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, the Northern Territory of South Australia, 
 and probably the north-western coast will also be found
 
 SEMI-TROPICAL CROPS. 
 
 89 
 
 to have many places adapted for cane cultivation. The 
 range to which it succeeds inland is not great seldom 
 further than 30 miles from the sea ; the 
 nearer the sea, as a rule, the better the 
 crop, providing always that the land is 
 suitable. Experience has shown that 
 cane likes a moderately, but not too rich, 
 soil ; both stiff land and sandy loams 
 answer ; it requires perfect drainage, a 
 humid atmosphere, and rainfall of 50 
 inches or more. Many varieties of cane 
 are grown, and they differ much in hardi- 
 ness ; a few withstand a moderate attack 
 of frost, say a visit of temperature 
 ranging between 30 and 35 during the 
 night for a week or so. The author 
 $rtx has grown cane for years in the Sydney 
 district the hardy Creole variety, brought 
 Cane. by him from Louisiana, U.S.A. But even 
 the hardiest canes do best as sugar-yielders when the 
 thermometer keeps above 40 during the winter season. 
 Convenience of communication by water and land is 
 essential towards working cane successfully. It is a 
 heavy crop (ranging between 25 and 60 tons to the acre), 
 and carriage is a serious item. 
 
 The Land for Cane. Soil with over 10 per cent, of 
 vegetable matter is necessary. The land should not be flat, 
 nor very broken. Around the former frosts gather, water 
 lodges about the roots, and artificial drainage is difficult. 
 In the latter, the cost of working is increased in proportion 
 to the difficulty of employing horse-labor, and the soil is 
 washed into ruts by heavy rains. The mode of preparing 
 land for corn is suitable for cane. The ploughing should 
 be deep, 10 inches at least ; to reach which heavy colonial 
 ploughs of iron are used, with teams of 10 or 12 bullocks, 
 or 6 horses. Bullocks are best for new land, where roots 
 have to be encountered in the first deep ploughing. After 
 harrowing, rolling, cross-ploughing, &c., until the soil is 
 made fine (absolutely necessary for cane), furrows are run 
 out with ridging or double ploughs. The furrows should
 
 90 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 be wide 12 inches if possible and deepened by passing a 
 subsoiler or a grubber through after the plough. These 
 cane furrows are from 5i to 7ft. apart, according to the 
 strength of the soil (the stronger, the greater distance 
 necessary), and the description of cane to be planted. In 
 new rooty land that cannot be ploughed conveniently, holes 
 are made with pronged hoes, the spade, crowbar, &c. The 
 distance apart of the holes depends upon the strength of 
 the land and the cane to be planted, in the same way as in 
 furrow-planting. 
 
 Varieties of Cane. Some scores of named sorts of 
 cane are known in Australia, but in their nature and 
 qualities they may be reduced to four, viz., those that are 
 stripped, or ribbon canes ; Bourbon and yellow canes 
 generally ; purple and black canes, which include the 
 Creole ; and Scott's cane or Otaheite. The ribbons are the 
 strongest growers, require the richest soil, and come to 
 maturity in from 16 to 20 months from time of planting. 
 They require space varying from 2|ft. by 6ft. to 4ft. by 
 7ft. for each stole of plants. Yellow and green canes come 
 to maturity earlier than the ribbons, or between 12 and 15 
 months. They are planted from 1ft. by 5^ft. to lift, by 
 6ft., according to the soil. The black canes are still earlier 
 than the green varieties, and are planted at about the same 
 distance apart. 
 
 Planting. Cane planting commences with the true hot 
 weather in September, October. Plants are usually made 
 from the top parts of the canes, consisting of four or six 
 of the top joints, the buds or eyes of which are fully 
 developed or perfect. But any part of the cane (with 
 four to six perfect buds) answers for plants. It is all 
 important that the buds are perfect, and that fermentation 
 has not destroyed the sap. To secure both, the cuttings 
 have to be handled carefully, and planted as soon as 
 possible ; although they can be carried long distances by 
 excluding the air. In planting the sets, the furrows should 
 be laid carefully from four to six inches below the surface, 
 and covered with from two to four inches of soil. The 
 shoots come up in from 12 to 20 days. If longer, the 
 plants should be examined and replaced, if sour or withered.
 
 SEMI-TBOPICAL CROPS. 91 
 
 The after cultivation is to keep the surface soil loose and 
 clean until the crop shades the land, in say from three to 
 five months. As they arrive at maturity the lower 
 leaves droop and die, and the canes become hard and very 
 sweet. 
 
 Harvesting. When arrived at a fit stage, " trashing," 
 or stripping off the dead leaves, is proceeded with. The 
 plants are then as thick in the rows as they well can be. 
 The top leaves of the tall-growing varieties meet overhead, 
 and at the sides the canes form a wall through which an 
 opening can scarcely be found. Between the rows a man 
 can barely force a passage, while the trash which has 
 collected during the season is piled up in the centre of the 
 rows, and forms a soft mass from 12 to 20 inches deep. 
 Ripe canes should have, at least, four feet (after cutting off 
 the green sappy top) fit for the mill. 
 
 Weight of Crop. Thirty tons of ripe cane to the acre 
 is considered a fair average. With the best machinery, 80 
 per cent, of juice is obtained from the canes in their best 
 condition ; but 70 per cent, is a high return. At that, 
 25 tons of cane, the juice of which may mark 10 upon 
 Baume's saccharometer, gives, with the superior manufac- 
 ture of the present day, nearly 2 tons of dry sugar from 
 an acre of land. 
 
 TOBACCO. This is an old Australian product. Its 
 cultivation is well understood and followed extensively in 
 a few localities. Tobacco, to yield a creditable crop, must 
 have rich soil, close attention, and steady, clean farming. 
 Varieties grown are Havanah, Yarra, Virginia, Florida, 
 Connecticut, Maryland, German or Cabbage Leaf, Turkish, 
 Bird's-eye, &c. A fair average yield is 12c\vt. per acre. 
 Sowing is done from early in August until the end of the 
 year, and planting out during September and October for 
 summer crops, and again in January and February for later 
 crops, in accordance with the seasons found to answer best 
 in various localities. The varieties are liable to mix when 
 grown together, by bees and insects hybridising the 
 flowers. Care has, therefore, to be used when a choice 
 and suitable sort is being grown that it is kept well apart 
 from other sorts.
 
 92 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Sowing. Seed, at the rate of an ounce to the acre, is 
 sown in beds, a good size for which is 3^ feet wide and any 
 desired length. Three and a half feet by twelve feet gives 
 sufficient plants for an acre. For a seed-bed, select a piece 
 of the richest soil, level it and dig it a good spade deep. 
 Then spread over it a layer about six inches thick of dry 
 sticks or brushwood, and burn the mass well down to ashes. 
 By doing this we destroy seeds of weeds and eggs of 
 insects, as well as eggs of ground grubs that destroy young 
 plants. Frames with bush or calico covering are useful as 
 protection against frosts at night or during cold winds or 
 heavy rains. The bed is raked very fine ; then an ounce 
 of seed mixed well with some two quarts of fine sand or 
 ashes, is sown evenly over the surface. After sowing, with 
 the back of a rake smooth the bed lightly, packing in the 
 seed with the teeth of the rake, then sprinkle short (stable 
 or cow pen manure or ashes over it just sufficient to 
 cover the seed. Water as may be required to keep the soil 
 moist and the plants growing. Thin out to harden them, 
 and when about five inches high and the under leaves 
 begin to turn yellow and the top ones a dark blue, they 
 are ready for transplanting. The dangers to young seed 
 plants are fungus growth and grubs. Hence the need of 
 care in preparing the seed bed. 
 
 Planting Out. Let the ground be well worked and 
 harrowed fine. In planting out Virginia, Yarra, Havanah, 
 Cuba and Turkish, the plants are allowed five feet by two on 
 rich soil and closer on poorer soil ; Kentucky, German, and 
 Connecticut sorts require four feet by three. Choose cloudy 
 weather or the afternoon for planting out. Before raising 
 the plants, soak the seed bed. Be careful to prevent 
 breakage of the roots, which are very large ; take up as 
 much earth with them as possible. In planting, make the 
 holes roomy and deep, and spread the roots as much as 
 possible, pressing the soil gently with the point of a dibble 
 or the fingers against the roots. Should the sun be very 
 hot, the plants may need shelter from a shingle, pieces of 
 bark, &c. 
 
 Cultivation. When the plants are established com- 
 mence to use the hoe, cutting out weeds and loosening the
 
 SEMT-TEOPICAL CROPS. 98 
 
 soil. When about a foot high pull off the under leaves to 
 about six inches from the ground, which strengthens the 
 main leaves and gives room to draw the earth up to the 
 stem in a round, flat-topped hill ; this serves to keep the 
 roots moist. As soon as blossom buds appear pinch out 
 the tops, so as to leave not more than nine or ten leaves 
 on each plant ; pinch out all shoots that spring from the 
 base of the leaves, and all that may be starting from the 
 roots ; this is done with a view to throw the whole strength 
 of the plant into about a dozen leaves on each plant. 
 
 Signs of Fitness. When ripe, brown or yellow spots 
 appear, and the leaf gets a brown or yellow tint ; it again 
 changes to a dark blue, the leaf becomes thicker, rougher, 
 and more elastic than at any other time, and on handling 
 we find it to be quite sticky. It is then charged with the 
 true tobacco gum, and cannot be too quickly cut. The gum 
 rises best in close sultry weather, but if, when it is just 
 coming on, the weather changes to wet. the gum may go 
 down again, but it returns with fine weather. 
 
 Harvesting. -When the plant is fit to harvest, take a 
 sharp-pointed knife, and split the stem down the middle 
 from about one-third from the top to within about two inches 
 of the bottom ; then cut it off below the split. Lay the 
 plants on the ground in rows, and unless the weather is 
 very dry let them have the sun on one side for an hour or 
 two, then turn them over, and give them the sun on the 
 other side. If the nights are dewy, so much the better, as 
 the sun and dew together help to mature the leaf. In very 
 dry weather the crop is cut and brought under cover at once. 
 If rain should fall, pile the tobacco in heaps under cover 
 of some sort, but the heaps must be spread out should signs 
 of heating or mildew arise. 
 
 Sheds and Appliances for Drying. These are absolutely 
 necessary. The shed may be a mere cover for drying 
 in the field, but a building, in addition, is necessary for 
 curing, enclosed all round and with windows or loopholes to 
 admit air when required. Beams are placed across at 
 about three feet apart say one, two or three tiers 
 according to the room required, only so far above each that 
 the tobacco hung upon one will not touch the next.
 
 94 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Prepare drying sticks long enough to rest upon two beams, 
 run them through the slits in the stalks and hang each plant 
 up to dry, the thick end upwards. They must be placed on 
 the sticks so as not to touch each other. Before hanging 
 the tobacco, take each stalk by the butt end and shake it 
 well to shake the leaves well asunder. In wet weather the 
 windows are closed, and smouldering wood fires are made 
 on the floor of the shed. The object is to prevent the 
 tobacco turning mouldy, and at the same time giving it a 
 good colour, and also the peculiar flavour prized by the 
 manufacturers. In dry weather no fires are wanted, and 
 the windows may be kept open to admit a free current of 
 air. In very dry weather the curing is helped by sprinkling 
 the floors. Tobacco requires hanging in this manner for 
 three or four weeks. The way to tell when it is dried 
 enough is to " try " one of the stalks, and if it breaks off 
 short it is sufficiently done. Wait for a damp day to take 
 the crop down, when the leaves will be limp and will not 
 break in handling ; or damp for this purpose also may be 
 got in well enclosed sheds by sprinkling the floors. 
 
 Curing or Sweating the Leaf. When properly dried, 
 the leaf is put up in bundles or " hands," containing ten or 
 more each, weighing about half a pound. These are then 
 arranged for " sweating " the size of the heap according to 
 the quantity of tobacco ; the larger the bulk the better it 
 sweats. Pack it closely and straight, the butts or tied ends 
 of the " hands " on the outsides, and, if necessary to deve- 
 lope heat in the mass, keep it pressed as close as possible 
 by means of slabs of wood, bags, &c. Watch the bulk 
 well by removing some of the stuff on the top, and feeling 
 into the centre, and when it is so hot that we can scarcely 
 bear the hand in it the time is come for shifting ; put the 
 tobacco from the top of the heap by itself, and that from 
 the centre by itself (that being the most sweated), then 
 take the sides and bottoms and place them together. It is 
 then stacked again, putting that which was before in the 
 centre at the bottom and sides, and that from the bottom 
 and sides in the middle ; the stalks that are greenest should 
 be kept in the middle. It should be done quickly, so as 
 not to let the mass get cold, or it may not sweat so well the
 
 SEMI-TROPICAL CKOPS. 95 
 
 second time. Cover over as before. If done well the 
 tobacco acquires the well-known flavour, and becomes a 
 beautiful brown colour, and is fit for the next operation. 
 
 Stripping and Sorting. In arranging the quality of 
 the leaf, it is classified as near as possible as follows : The 
 first three leaves from the bottom of the stalk are No. 1, or 
 best quality ; the next three No. 2 ; and the rest No. 3. The 
 sorts are selected because they vary in quality and appear- 
 ance. Ten or twelve leaves are made a bunch or " hand," by 
 twisting a leaf round the thick end, commencing with the 
 thin end of the leaf and tucking the stalk end between 
 the leaves of the " hand " to keep it fast. The tobacco is 
 then fit for the manufacturer, and the sooner it goes to him 
 the better ; but if kept on hand for a time it must be in a 
 dry place, at least three feet above the ground, and not 
 bulked thickly, lest it become partially heated and turn 
 mouldy. 
 
 Late Crops. A second crop is sometimes gathered. 
 For this, break off all the shoots that spring from the stool 
 but the strongest one, and this shoot is treated precisely 
 as the first crop, with the exception that the leaves are 
 considered all of one quality, and are rated as of less value 
 than the first. After the second crop is cut the roots are 
 collected and burnt, thus manuring the ground with the 
 ashes. There is another mode of obtaining a late crop 
 which is useful when the season proves too dry for trans- 
 planting. Sow the seed in di'ills, or put in a pinch of seed 
 where each plant is wanted to stand, and thin them out to 
 the proper distance as soon as large enough. This plan 
 may come to be extensively adopted in the case of the late 
 crops, on account of the difficulty of transplanting during 
 the heat of summer. 
 
 Curing in Damp Weather. One who knows the diffi- 
 culties attendant upon curing tobacco in damp weather, 
 and who feels for those who are so situated, says : I advise 
 all who can to have something like a stove and flue in their 
 tobacco-curing places. There will be less danger of 
 scorching than when fires are used, the leaf will be free 
 from the smell of smoke, &c., and the colour more uniform. 
 But those who cannot have this should make their barns
 
 96 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tight from the ground up for nine or ten feet, and then 
 have frequent openings all around to allow the air to pass 
 freely through while the process of curing is going on, 
 and thus prevent " house burn," or curling up with sudden 
 heat. The number of plants on a stick and distance 
 between the sticks may vary according to the size of the 
 leaf, say, upon sticks four and a half feet long ten plants of 
 small or eight of large size, and about seven inche? 
 between the sticks for the small and ten for the large. 
 As the leaf becomes cured, the sticks containing the plants 
 may be crowded closer together to make room for the later 
 cuttings. Then make small fires of chips or bark, with as 
 little blaze as possible. There should be a sufficient amount 
 of heat to bring the tobacco into a wilted state, and when 
 the tails become a little dry and curl up, the heat may be 
 gradually increased until the leaf is sufficiently cured to be 
 out of danger of moulding or souring. The leaf of tobacco 
 should be dried slowly, and the fires kept going regularly 
 day and night. The length of time for drying or curing 
 will vary, according as the weather, from 4 to 20 days. 
 Much labour and risk may be saved by spreading the leaf 
 on scaffolding out in the sun in fair weather, but care must 
 be exercised that it is not caught in rain. 
 
 Enemies. Tobacco, whilst growing, has several 
 enemies a brown grub commonly known as " the cabbage 
 or ground grub," which attacks the plants when quite 
 young. Its habits are as follows : During the day it is 
 not seen on the plants, but by scraping or stirring the soil 
 for six or eight inches around the stem it may be found 
 within half an inch of the surface. At night it pursues its 
 mischievous depredations by climbing the stalks and eating 
 holes in the leaves and occasionally the stems. This grub 
 generally disappears when the plant is about a foot high. 
 The best way to prevent it is, when the land is prepared 
 for planting, to spread about a ton of quicklime to the acre. 
 Another enemy is a green caterpillar, which generally 
 makes its appearance with the hot weather. There is 
 sometimes also a small white grub that eats its way from 
 the root and ascends through the centre of the stalk. Its 
 presence is shown by the bulging or swelling of the stalk,
 
 SKMI-TROPICAL CROPS. 97 
 
 in which a sort of knot is formed. On seeing this, open 
 the part with a knife, and pick out the grub ; when this 
 is removed the plant thrives again. Grasshoppers are, 
 perhaps, the greatest pests of any, for though cleared off 
 one day, a fresh lot may come on the next. Paris green 
 and copper sulphate sprays are the remedies for the insects 
 that eat. Magpies or seagulls are useful, and turkeys, 
 clucks and fowls generally prevent insects from increasing. 
 Young fowls or turkeys do the best services when let in 
 just before roosting time, and turned out again as soon as 
 they fill up with the grubs they love. 
 
 ARROWROOT. This is amongst the safest of semi- 
 tropical crops, and one which, with the machinery that the 
 white man brings to his aid, enables him to compete 
 successfully with Malays, Indians, negroes, and others, who 
 until late years had the monopoly of arrowroot culture. 
 The article of commerce so extensively used in preparing 
 food for the sick, and for the finer kinds of cookery, is 
 a pure white flour or starch. This flour is obtained from 
 two bulbous plants, the Maranta arundinacae and Cana 
 edulis. To growers they are known as white and purple 
 arrowroot respectively. In habit there is but little differ- 
 ence in the plants, and the flour obtained from them is 
 almost identical ; but there is a vast difference in the 
 yield, which is fully one-half heavier in the purple sort, 
 which is grown over an area of country stretching from 
 Sydney northwards. For this crop, the preparation of land 
 recommended for corn and sugar cane is about right. It 
 does best in rich soil, but not where freshly manured. It 
 comes in as a very good rotation after a heavy crop 
 of corn, and being light upon the soil (although yielding 
 from 10 to 15 tons of bulbs per acre), it can be grown 
 several seasons in succession. The bulbs vary in size from 
 six inches to twelve inches in circumference, and may, for 
 all practical purposes, be likened to large potatoes in 
 appearance. 
 
 Cultivation. The smaller bulbs are used for plants. 
 Wide furrows, about six inches deep, are run outalxmt four 
 feet apart ; into the furrows the seed bulbs are dropped, 
 and covered by the plough or hoe. The soil must
 
 98 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 be warm (say, from 65deg. to 70deg.), which brings 
 the planting into September and October in the cooler 
 sections of the country. In about 14 days, strong spiral 
 shoots appear above ground, and the soil has to be kept 
 clean as for corn. The plants grow rapidly. The eaves 
 are broad at the tops, and borne upon stalks not unlike 
 those of maize. In three months the tops spread over the 
 whole of the field, and are from three to five feet in height. 
 The bulbs at the same time are growing in a cluster around 
 the base of the stems to which they are firmly attached. 
 As the cultivation proceeds, the soil is worked up around 
 the stems. From six to eight months bring the crop to 
 maturity, some of the bulbs peeping above ground ; a 
 touch of frost aids ripening by shrivelling up the tops 
 and concentrating the sap in the bulbs. In other cases 
 when the tops wilt and dry up, the crop is ripe. Forks 
 and pronged hoes are used for digging, the work being 
 similar in many respects to potato digging, but with the 
 arrowroot the tops and tubers come out in a mass. The 
 latter are trimmed in the field, the tops, and as much of the 
 adhering soil as possible being trimmed off with heavy 
 knives. 
 
 Manufacture. The bulbs are washed until they are 
 absolutely clean, and then grated into pulp in a very simple 
 sort of mill, to make which a sheet of galvanised iron, into 
 which holes have been punched, is nailed upon a round 
 piece or frame of wood, with the rough or grating surface 
 outwards. This grater is fixed under a hopper box, and 
 is turned with a handle. The bulbs must be pressed against 
 the grater, and there must also be a steady stream of water 
 flowing in upon the bulbs. They are thus quickly reduced 
 to a dark brown mass of fibry-looking pulp, which is 
 ran into long troughs, boxes, or tubs, in which it 
 is stirred and beaten about briskly in the clean water, the 
 object being to free the starch that is held in the cells and 
 fibres. The starch, being the heavier substance, falls to the 
 bottom, and the fibre and other lighter substances are 
 gathered or drifted off from the surface. The water has 
 to be changed several times, or better still when the settling 
 of starch is in long troughs, a current of water flows over
 
 SEMI-TROPICAL CROPS. 99 
 
 it, until the pure white starch only remains in a mass at 
 the bottom. This starch while wet is liable to ferment, and 
 the tibry matter separated from it is still more liable to 
 fermentation. Cool weather (not hotter than 70deg. in the 
 shade during the day) is desirable at the time of manufac- 
 turing. Weather of the requisite description is usual 
 during May, June, and July, during which season the 
 arrowroot is at its best stage for manufacturing. After 
 being stirred until perfectly clean a simple process, owing 
 to the weight of the starch always bringing it quickly to 
 the bottom of the vessel the starch is spread out in the 
 sun or in dry rooms upon cloth, and freed from the last 
 trace of moisture as rapidly as possible. When perfectly 
 dry, it keeps in bags, boxes, &c., for years, and is esteemed 
 as a valuable food material for the sick and healthy. 
 
 The Australian Process. Machinery of very ingenious 
 construction has been brought to bear upon the manufac- 
 ture of this article, the cost of production being reduced in 
 proportion, while the quality is improved, as it is scarcely 
 handled from the time of leaving the field. The Messrs. 
 Grimes (Queensland) are famous for this article, their 
 arrowroot being extensively used in the colonies, in 
 England, and other countries. Instead of the laborious 
 and doubtful process of hand washing and grinding, which 
 is still the ordinary way of manufacturing this article in 
 the Indies, Cape, and other places, Australian arrowroot is 
 barely handled from first to last. The roots are shovelled 
 into long troughs, through which run continuous streams 
 of water. There is a screw in each trough with flanges, 
 which turn, roll and push the roots about, and keeps 
 gradually working them towards the upper end all the 
 time. They are perfectly clean by the time they arrive 
 there, and are pitched (by the flanges on the screws) in 
 ones, twos, and threes upon an endless chain which lifts 
 them some fourteen or fifteen feet and discharges them 
 into the hopper of a grinding machine. Here they are 
 reduced to pulp, which pulp by means of a stream of water 
 is discharged into perforated revolving drums, where it is 
 knocked about, beaten, and washed, all to separate the 
 starch from the coarser particles. The starch, as driven
 
 100 AUSTRALIAN AQBICOLTUBK. 
 
 through fine perforations on the outside of the drums, is 
 then carried in suspension by the water to a long series of 
 troughs, where it is gradually deposited in a solid mass, 
 and the water flows off. The arrowroot, now a creamy- 
 coloured starch, is then washed in vats, and becomes 
 almost white. It is then put into centrifugal machines 
 and freed from the water. To complete the drying pro- 
 cess, the arrowroot (now beautifully white and sparkling) 
 is laid out in trays in the sun. When perfectly dry it is 
 put up in the bags and packets familiar all over the 
 country, and is ready for use a delightful, light, nourish- 
 ing warmth giving food for the invalid and healthy. The 
 yield of bulbs of the purple varieties varies between ten 
 and fifteen tons per acre. A ton of bulbs gives rather more 
 than one cwt of manufactured arrowroot. The white 
 variety is grown and manufactured in the same way as 
 the purple, but the yield is much less. 
 
 MILLETS. Broom Corn, Sorghum, &c. Under the name 
 of millet, sorghum, farmer's friend, &c., a great variety of 
 grain-bearing plants are cultivated, but mostly for cutting 
 green for feed. They all require hot weather, and are 
 annual summer crops, sown in the cooler districts in August 
 to October, and in the hot districts from April to January. 
 As grain, none of the millets are used to the extent they 
 deserve. In Italy, parts of Germany, in India, China, 
 and many other countries, millet seed, ground into meal, 
 is an important portion of the food of the people. It is 
 inferior to oats or wheat for that purpose, but being an 
 easily produced crop on ordinarily good soil, it is 
 worth growing, first as green feed (it stands cutting 
 four or five times during the season) and secondly 
 as grain for poultry and pig-feeding, &c. Some of 
 the varieties also yield sugar (crushed out of the 
 cane and manufactured in the same way as cane-sugar), 
 but it is an inferior article for that purpose, and will not 
 stand competition with the cane. The soil may be either 
 strong or medium for the millets. Plough as for a 
 grain crop; when wanted for cutting green, drill in the 
 seed in rows of 29 inches apart, and cultivate between the 
 rows until the ground is shaded by the plants. For seed,
 
 PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 10 1 
 
 or cane for sugar, make drills 3 to 4 feet apart ; scatter in 
 the seed so that plants may be obtained about three inches 
 apart when thinned out. When well cultivated, this crop 
 grows very rapidly, and in the course of four months from 
 planting, assumes the form of canes from one to two inches 
 in diameter, and from 6 to 12 feet in height. The canes 
 become brownish as they ripen, and a heavy mass of seed 
 is borne on the top of each. If seed is the object, it is 
 allowed to become dry and hard on the plant. If for 
 sugar, the sap is at its best (from 7 to 9 in density) 
 while the seed is forming. 
 
 Broom corn is a variety of this family, grown much 
 the same as the others, and cut while the seed is young, 
 and before the branching head that supports it becomes 
 brown. This head makes capital brooms, whisks, &c. The 
 crop is dealt with in Chapter XL, with fibre yielders. 
 
 X. PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 
 
 SILK COTTON TEA COFFEE GINGER CHICORY RICE. 
 
 OIL AND FIBRE YIELDERS. They might come within 
 the list of crops for which the climate and soil are suitable. 
 And, as explained in the chapter on rotations, they have 
 the additional merit of taking but little from the soil. 
 
 SILK. During many years the production of silk has 
 been an attraction in the colonies one after another. 
 Victoria, Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia, 
 have each made efforts to include silk in their products 
 upon a large scale. New South Wales is making efforts in 
 that direction by private and public effort, and Queensland 
 has been exporting cocoons in quantity sufficient to test 
 their real value in the great silk markets of the world. In 
 the production of silk the first consideration should l>e the 
 cultivation of proper food for the insect from which it is 
 obtained. Next, that there is sufficient and suitable help 
 available. The silk-worm is a caterpillar which grows
 
 102 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 from the size of about one-eighth of an inch that at 
 which it emerges from the egg to from two and a-half to 
 nearly three inches long. All the best silk-producing 
 
 Silkworm, Sloths, aud Cocoon. 
 
 varieties feed upon the leaves of the mulberry; and the 
 primary step to take is to ascertain the best kinds for 
 feeding, regard being made to the rapid growth of the 
 worm, and the quantity and kind of silk to be got from it. 
 That being arranged, the next thing is to cultivate the 
 trees in the best form. In Italy and in China pruned 
 hedge or dwarf growth is preferred, the trees being trained 
 as shrubs. In others, larger growth is encouraged, and the 
 trees are planted at distances of 10 to 20 feet from each 
 other. The difference may account for different methods 
 in feeding, which in one place is by the summary process 
 of throwing branches of trees, with the leaves on, to be 
 stripped by the worms ; and in another by leaves picked
 
 PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 103 
 
 from the trees, and given, either whole or chopped, to the 
 worms on trays prepared for the purpose. In this climate 
 the wholesale lopping off of branches, even from a shrub 
 tree, would soon result in its destruction ; while small- 
 leaved trees would call for an amount of labor in picking 
 the leaves that would increase the cost of production to a 
 perhaps almost prohibitory extent ; so that a modified 
 process seems most likely to succeed. 
 
 Varieties of Mulberry for Silk. Of the great numbers 
 of mulberry trees imported into Australia, five or six seem 
 most suitable. The first is that known as the morus 
 multicaulis or large-leaved, or, as some call it, the Chinese 
 mulberry. Its first value is that the worm seems to prefer 
 the young leaves to those of any other kind ; its second is 
 economy in picking, since from the great size of the leaves 
 a few will feed more than a considerable quantity of the 
 other sorts. This, however, only holds good of the first 
 crop the second growth is harder and poorer feed ; but 
 by that time other varieties, the morus alba and morus 
 nigra, come into use, and the silk produced by feeding upon 
 their leaves is said to be Al. These two kinds again 
 present each two varieties the rose-leaved and the oak- 
 leaved the fruit-bearing morus alba and morus nigra 
 being oak-leaved mulberries. In rich, loose soils, leaves of 
 considerable size and great richness of texture are 
 produced. Generally, the multicaulis begins to break into 
 leaf early in August, the alba and nigra a fortnight to 
 a month later. We may add to these trees the ordinary 
 Cape mulberry, originally a Chinese sort, for the later 
 stages of the worm ; and the Indian mulberry for all stages, 
 so far as experience has yet gone. The English mulberry 
 seems well adapted for food as the insect matures, 
 but it has not yet been sufficiently tested. Beyond 
 this, experience tends to prove that it is not necessary 
 or profitable to go. The other varieties here are rather 
 objects of curiosity than usefulness. 
 
 Soil for Mulberry Trees. Good orchard land is 
 necessary, with sufficient depth of soil, and drainage, such 
 as orchard trees require. Distances apart may be 10 x 10
 
 104 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 feet to 20 x 20 feet, according to variety and method of 
 working. 
 
 Treatment of Silk Worms. All the varieties, 
 Japanese, Italian, Bivoltines, and others are produced from 
 eggs laid by the moth the previous season. The conven- 
 tional or trade method of dealing with the eggs is to treat 
 a card or cloth of the surface of 80 square inches as 
 containing an ounce of what is technically called " grain," 
 and an ounce should produce from 30,000 to 32,000 worms, 
 or about lOOlbs. cocoons. In Australia, the eggs commence 
 to hatch out in August, just as the mulberry begins to 
 break into leaf. The worms generally commence emerging 
 early in the morning, and continue until afternoon. About 
 2 o'clock it is advisable to take a smooth, soft feather or 
 camel-hair brush, and gently but rapidly sweep the 
 worms from the card or cloth into a tray. This done, 
 some finely cut leaves should be scattered, to which the 
 worms will instantly crawl, and the first operation is so 
 far complete, care being taken to mark the date on each 
 tray. Trays of convenient size are made 18 by 14 inches, 
 and are simply frames of 1| inch x inch timber, the 
 bottom being calico or Victoria lawn. Eight such trays 
 will be required for the product of an ounce of " grain." 
 The worms should be fed three or four times a day with 
 finely cut leaves, until they have reached their first stage, 
 which will be from four to five days after hatching. The 
 quantity of leaves for an ounce will be at first from 2^ Ibs. 
 to 3 Ibs. per day to 20-30 Ibs. as they grow to maturity. 
 Thirty pounds leaves make about one pound cocoons. 
 
 From Worm to Silk. The time at which the spinning 
 stage is reached is subject to much difference, arising from 
 feeding, from the weather, and from the kind of worm 
 itself. We have known worms to mature in thirty-four 
 days ; others were sixty before they began to spin. The 
 average of a good Japanese, however, may be taken, in an 
 ordinary season, at from forty to fifty-five days. The 
 " bivoltines " grow more rapidly than the annual sorts. 
 When the worms show a desire to crawl to the sides of the 
 trays, and assume a transparent tinge, the time for their 
 removal has come. A good method of dealing with them
 
 PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 105 
 
 then is to have a table on a strong frame, the top being 
 formed of strong mosquito net. Cardboard cells have to be 
 prepared, each cell about one inch square, and an inch and 
 a-half deep are made of stout paper. Lay a few of these 
 cell-cases on the mosquito-net table, and as you gather the 
 spinning worms from the trays, drop one in each cell. 
 When the worms are all got in, cover the upper side with 
 a piece of mosquito-net fastened down by weights at the 
 sides, or by placing another cell-set on top, and then leave 
 the worms to spin their cocoons. In about four days we 
 may take the cocoons out ; in two, if necessary, we may 
 remove the cell-set and hang it up. The object of using 
 cells is to keep the worms separate, and avoid double 
 cocoons. After the fourth day, they are ready for the 
 winder. 
 
 The Cocoons. In the cocoon is the embryo of another 
 moth, which in twelve to fourteen days will eat its way 
 out, and in that interval there is time to determine on one 
 of three processes ; to wind the silk off at once ; to dry the 
 cocoons (killing the grubs) for exportation ; to allow the 
 moths to come out, thus reducing the value of the cocoons 
 for silk production, but to secure eggs for sale as " grain." 
 As to the rirst, there is no demand for raw silk. As to the 
 second, the method of drying cocoons here is by adaptation 
 of the common iron oven, heated by gas or fire, taking care 
 that there is thorough ventilation by a hole or grating at 
 the bottom of the door, and another at the top. In such 
 an oven, and with three-inch intervals, there may be racks 
 or small bars strong enough to hold trays of cocoons. The 
 cocoons are placed not more than two deep, on cardboard 
 or chip on the rocks, covering the topmost layer with paper. 
 When the oven is hot enough just to tinge white paper to 
 a light straw colour, it will do. Twenty minutes kills and 
 dries the grubs. When the cocoons are taken out, they 
 should be spread in the sun to evaporate any moisture left 
 in them. When thoroughly dry and that can l>e told by 
 cutting one open, when the grub should fall to powder 
 they can be pressed and packed in bales of lOOlbs. each, for 
 exportation, The price, in Europe, for good clean cocoons 
 is variously quoted at from 3s. Gd. up to 6s. per Ib.
 
 106 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Silkworms' Eggs. The production of " grain," as it is 
 called, has led to more disappointment than can well be 
 imagined. The grain market in Italy is very variable. A 
 great deal depends, experience shows, not upon the actual 
 quality of what is sent, but upon its accredited reputation ; 
 and again, the time when sent is an essential element in 
 success. To sell grain profitably, it should leave here to 
 reach Italy by December, so that it may have the benefit 
 of the cold. Arriving later, it will run a chance of being 
 crowded out. In past seasons, good Japanese grain, coming 
 late into the market, could not be sold at more than 
 eighteen-pence an ounce, and hardly at that. From a variety 
 of sources of information concerning the silk market, it 
 would seem that really good grain may be expected to 
 fetch, as a permanent price, from 14s. to 15s. per ounce. 
 As to the reports of 24s., 2 (and we have even read of 6), 
 they are very doubtful. Exceptional seasons will, of 
 course, yield exceptional prices, and 20s. per ounce has been 
 paid for Queensland grain as a sample; but it would be 
 folly to reckon on a higher general rate than that quoted 
 above. 
 
 COTTON. Large tracts of country have been found 
 suitable for this crop in Australia, and when the prices are 
 such as pay, enormous quantities can be produced. The 
 land available is still more extensive than that for sugar, 
 for cotton answers in cooler locations. Good corn land suits 
 it. Cotton is grown from seed, and the usual planting time 
 is August. The crop matures in from six to nine months, 
 and is either re-sown, or in districts where frost does not 
 prevail the plants are pruned close to the ground, and are 
 thus made to yield two, three, or more crops in succession. 
 Two leading varieties are grown, viz., uplands or woolly- 
 seed, and sea island. The latter seed is almost free from 
 wool, is of a dark brown colour, and runs into but few 
 varieties ; the longest and silkiest fibre is obtained from it, 
 but the variety is delicate. The woolly-seed has many 
 varieties ; it runs into sorts of greater or less strength, 
 length, and beauty of fibre wherever grown, and is capable 
 of indefinite improvement by selections from the best plants 
 iu the field. The average yield of cotton gives twice the
 
 PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 107 
 
 weight of seed to the weight of fibre. Seed, therefore, soon 
 becomes plentiful. 
 
 BEETS for Sugar, Feed, &c. Beet culture has been 
 carried on in the cooler parts of the country at various 
 times, and with such results as proved that beets might be 
 made profitable. They are summer croppers. Seed, from 
 10 to 151bs. per acre, is drilled in in August or September. 
 Plants come up quickly, and are thinned out from six to 
 twelve inches apart, according to soil, season and sort. 
 For sugar making, small beets are best, from 1| to 3^ Ibs. 
 Cultivation much the same as swedes and mangels. Sugar 
 beets should harvest from twelve to eighteen tons per acre 
 at a total cost of 5 to 7. 
 
 HOPS. Hops of colonial growth are earning a high 
 reputation, and their cultivation is extending in New 
 Zealand, Tasmania, Victoria, and South Australia. The 
 soils most favourable are strong, deep loams, with an open 
 or well drained subsoil good grain land, broken up by the 
 common plough, followed by the subsoil plough. The 
 " breaking up " in the first instance may be accompanied by 
 a dressing of lime or manure. The hop is a greedy plant to 
 excess, and requires good and generous treatment from the 
 very start. 
 
 Sowing and Planting. Hops are grown from seed to 
 
 fet plants or sets, which are put out in the open ground, 
 lanting six feet by six feet, triangular method, is handy 
 and sufficient between the sets. It is advisable to have 
 wide twelve-feet openings through the plantation, for a 
 better supply of air during the stronger growth of the 
 plants. 
 
 Cultivation. The hop grows much faster in the 
 colonies than in England, and frequently produces a light 
 crop from the " set " the first season. Surface cultivation 
 to secure loose, clean ground, is necessary. Early cropping 
 is considered more a disadvantage than otherwise, as it 
 exhausts the young plants too much. In England 
 a common practice is to simply twist the first year's 
 growth into a bundle and place a clod upon it, so 
 as to encourage growth in the roots as much as 
 possible ; but occasionally a short pole of six or seven
 
 108 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 feet is made use of where the growth is rank. The 
 reason for planting in triangle position is because the 
 poles are " pitched " or sloped at an angle of about 
 ten degrees from the vertical ; and if the " sets " 
 are allowed to come with their crowns towards each other 
 the bines would soon meet, grow twined together, 
 and so, from the first " tying up," be an endless source 
 of trouble and breakage, in separating them. When 
 the plants are poled, which ought to be as soon as the 
 shoots or "bines" appear in the yearling plants, the space at 
 level with the tops of the poles ought to be equally divided. 
 Each plant, if growing strongly, will have a spread of two 
 feet all the way up, and require as much sun and air as 
 can possibly be provided for it. 
 
 Harvesting. Hops begin to flower, or " bell," in the 
 colonies about Christmas. In a week or two the seeds may 
 be felt between finger and thumb, and in a month after, when 
 the weather is favourable, the clusters of flowers will at 
 first become a pale yellowish or straw colour, and then a 
 lightish brown. At this stage they can easily be broken 
 up in the palm of the hand, emit the familiar fragrance of 
 the mercantile hop, and the sooner they are harvested and 
 dried the better. Gathering hops, or " picking " as it is 
 called, is usually done by women and children by contract ; 
 for this reason it is advisable to form plantations in locali- 
 ties where such labour is obtainable, for delay in this 
 operation is ruinous. A grower must have everything in 
 readiness for his harvest ; his cribs must be made, and an 
 " oast " or kiln prepared. 
 
 Drying. Kilns are used for this purpose. Hops ought 
 to be dried, if possible, within twelve hours after being 
 picked. This is an important point, as the aroma of the 
 flower is very volatile, and in it lies the " strength " and 
 flavour of the hop. They must not be put in large heaps 
 prior to drying, for although of a brownish colour and 
 apparently ripe, they are full of sap, and will "heat " readily 
 if thus placed, and materially decrease in value. The 
 drying must be carried on day and night until all are 
 finished. The fires (of charcoal) must not be very fierce at 
 first, but the "floorings" will need constant stirrings. A
 
 PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 109 
 
 great deal depends upon the weather. When dried suffi- 
 ciently, they are allowed to lie for a day or two in order to 
 acquire a certain decree of toughness, when they can be 
 pressed, " or pocketed," without going into dust. 
 
 Chemistry, Manuring, &c. Hops contain and require a 
 large amount of potash. It is calculated that seventeen 
 pounds are taken off an acre of ground in the season's 
 growth. Besides the potash, which is principally found in 
 the bine and leaf, the plant also requires ammonia, 
 phosphates, sulphates, lime, magnesia, &c. 
 
 Irrigation is helpful, though not actually essential, to 
 hops. When the land is well and deeply broken up, the 
 roots soon find safe quarters from the danger of our 
 summer heat ; and when the poles are well covered with 
 bines, they are self-protecting ; the evaporation in a hop 
 ground is not nearly so great as in a vineyard. 
 
 TEA. Although the tea plant the shrub or bush 
 which yields tea in China, Japan, India, Ceylon, the South 
 Sea Islands, and other places has been well known in 
 Australia for many years it has never come into general 
 cultivation. It is another instance, and a striking one, of 
 the manner in which we go on year after year, buying 
 what we can grow. The tea shrub is quite hardy from 
 the Clarence River northwards. It may be seen growing 
 in gardens in all sorts of soils ; but with the exception of a 
 few ;< old folks," nobody tries to make their own tea, from 
 a most erroneous idea that there is something very 
 mysterious about it. 
 
 Cultivation. The tea bush is handsome in form, with 
 dark green leaves like those of the rose ; the flowers are 
 pinkish white, and have a pleasant odor. When full 
 grown, the bush is about three feet high, nicely rounded in 
 form, and altogether pretty. A pound or two of leaves 
 can be picked from a three-year old plant, and the yield 
 goes on incre.'using for thirty or more years. Seed may l>e 
 sown or young plants set out in the open ground during 
 August or September. All seeds of this kind require rich 
 soil. 
 
 Harvesting. No doubt tea manufacturers have a 
 certain way of manufacturing, but a very good ami whole-
 
 110 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 some tea is made by putting the young green leaves into a 
 shallow preserving pan over a slow wood fire. When they 
 begin to curl, throw them upon a table and rub them with 
 the hand into the form of ordinary tea. Let them stand 
 in a current of air for a few hours, or swing them about 
 in a basket; then put the leaves in the pan again, heat, 
 and roll them as before. Do this four or five times, and 
 the result is a greenish black tea, of a far better quality 
 than the average post-and-rail compound. 
 
 COFFEE. This plant has been more extensively grown 
 in Australia than tea. It has proved delicate in exposed 
 situations ; but in rich soils, on the sides of hills protected 
 from westerly gales, and on well sheltered flats, it is a 
 hardy, handsome tree, and bears great quantities of cherry- 
 like fruit which, in its preserved state, we call coffee. 
 
 Cultivation. The plants are raised from seed sown in 
 August, in rows about a foot apart. If they are to be 
 removed, the seeds are sown in pots or boxes. By the 
 following April the plants are about ten inches in height, 
 and can be set out from eight to twelve feet apart. 
 Choosing wet, sultry, still weather. Coffee does not bear 
 transplanting well. To overcome this difficulty, the seed 
 may be planted three or four at each place where a tree is 
 wanted. In moist weather, during August, September, 
 and October, they come above ground in twelve to four- 
 teen days. By this plan, growing without transplanting, 
 stronger trees are obtained. Unless the soil is very rich 
 and porous as in the case of what is known as mountain 
 scrub the soil for coffee should be trenched by hand or 
 plough. 
 
 Harvesting. The trees come into bearing in the third 
 or fourth year, by which time they are five or six feet 
 in height, and pretty, nicely-balanced bushes, with very 
 handsome foliage. To force them into fruit, the tops 
 of the leading branches are pinched or pruned off. This is 
 also done to keep the trees at a convenient height for 
 picking off the fruit. The first crop of berries is usually 
 straggling. The fruit is in the form of dark purple berries 
 along the limbs. These berries are ripe when the two 
 beans in the interior of each move about freely on being
 
 PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. Ill 
 
 pressed with the fingers. Between the outside covering of 
 the fruit and the berries is a gummy-like sweetish 
 substance. To get rid of this, the fruit is allowed to lie in 
 masses until a slight fermentation sets in. The mass is 
 then washed to get rid of the gum, and the fruit spread 
 out in the sun or shade, as occasion may require. Around 
 each is a dry, parchment-like wrapper, and when this is 
 dry the fruit is passed between rollers that separate the 
 beans from the skins. In dry weather the berries dry up 
 when exposed freely to the air, and the tough outside 
 covering can then be removed by rubbing the berries. The 
 flavour of Australian coffee (roasted in the usual way) 
 thus prepared is very fine. 
 
 COCOA Cacao or Chocolate. Cocoa, from which the 
 chocolate of commerce is made, is obtained, in the form of 
 seed-pods, from a handsome tree. In its nature this plant is 
 even more tropical than coffee, but it fruits in the northern 
 sections of Australia. The seeds are sown as soon as 
 possible after they are gathered, as they soon spoil for 
 germinating upon becoming dry ; as do the seeds of most 
 pines and some other plants. The growth of seedlings and 
 transplanting is much the same as coffee. Cocoa trees in 
 the plantation should stand apart ten to fifteen feet, 
 according to the richness of the soil, twelve feet being a 
 good average distance. In the fourth year a fair crop may 
 be expected. The fruit must be quite ripe before it is 
 gathered. When ripe it has a pale yellowish colour. 
 After being picked, it is allowed to lie in heaps for about 
 twenty-four hours. Then the pods are cut open, and 
 the pulpy mass of seeds taken out and put into baskets 
 to drain. As soon as this drainage of what becomes an 
 acid pulp has ceased, the mass is emptied into boxes, 
 in which " terrage " (a property of sweating) continues 
 for thirty-six or forty-eight hours. After removal 
 from the sweating places, the seeds are freed from 
 any adhering matter, and spread out loosely to dry in 
 the sun, l>eing turned over very frequently. This process 
 of drying occupies al>out three weeks and when complete 
 the seeds should be of a fine dark red colour. The 
 produce of a tree, when prepared, ranges from five to eight
 
 112 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 pounds. The crop has the advantage of being easily 
 cultivated, and prepared for export by a few hands. 
 
 Manufacture. The manufacture of chocolate from the 
 seed is an extensive business in England, France, and 
 Germany. The seeds are first roasted similar to those of 
 coffee, and with the same object to draw out the rich 
 aromatic flavour. The mass is then crushed by a single 
 roller of stone or iron working in a bed of similar 
 material ; the bed is heated slightly as the process goes 
 on. The paste thus obtained is mixed with honey, sugar, 
 and other sweet substances in England. In France, Italy, 
 and Germany, pimento, vanilla, cinnamon, &c., are added, 
 in accordance with the taste of consumers. It is then 
 made up into little packets familiar to those who use cocoa, 
 and which furnish an invigorating and healthy beverage : 
 and into tablets, and other forms of chocolate confec- 
 tionery. In cheap preparations, arrowroot, sago, and 
 similar ingredients are added. 
 
 RlCE. This grain is grown somewhat extensively in 
 the northern river districts. It changes considerably 
 according to the soil, location, &c., and the treatment given. 
 The rice of commerce is usually grown in swampy land. 
 Another variety, named Mountain Rice, does tolerably well 
 on dry land ; but it does better when water is applied, and 
 still better when the surface of the soil is flooded for a few 
 days. The grains also become similar as they are subjected 
 to similar treatment ; so that if they are different varieties, 
 the difference is but very slight. Both the common and 
 mountain varieties are annual grain plants, something like 
 wheat. 
 
 Cultivation. The seed of rice, or " paddy," is the 
 undressed grain. It is sown in drills about fifteen inches 
 apart, and comes through the soil like so much grass, and 
 at first it is not easy to say which is the rice and which 
 weeds ; but in wet weather the crop shoots ahead. When 
 five or six inches high, it is an advantage to be able to 
 flood the drills with water, and keep the water on for three 
 or four days. The water kills weeds, and helps the rice 
 wonderfully. It also affords opportunities for filling up 
 blanks, by lifting knots of plants (with soil attached) from
 
 PEODDCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 113 
 
 where they come up too thick, and filling up blanks and 
 thin spaces. After being thinned out to an average 
 distance of about an inch apart, two or three hoeings bring 
 the crop to maturity. By dry cultivation, rice is found to 
 ripen sooner than when it is flooded, but the latter is 
 unmistakably the heavy crop, and experts say the grain is 
 finer. In America the rice-fields are flooded at planting 
 time, and to a depth of four or five inches around the 
 plants as soon as they are high enough to stand it, and this 
 is repeated at intervals until the crop comes into ear. In 
 favourable seasons and on strong land the roots, in 
 Australia, are found capable of bearing two crops. The 
 first ripens in February and March. When ripe, the grain 
 and straw become yellowish, like wheat, and the tokens of 
 ripeness in that grain apply to rice. The heads of the first 
 crop are then cut off the wheat-stripper should answer 
 for this work, as the grain stands well up. The second 
 crop (at this stage looking like half-grown wheat) then 
 springs up. and ripens in from five to eight weeks. In 
 ordinary farming, the rice is cut down with reaping-hook, 
 scythe, or machine, bound up in sheaves, stacked, and 
 thrashed out. The husks stick very closely to the grain, 
 and are removed by millstones, set at such distance apart as 
 to split off the chaff without injuring the grain. In 
 America, " hullers " are used for this purpose ; they cost 
 from 15 to 40. The rice is then dressed or polished in 
 machinery less or more expensive. The grain i.s best 
 preserved in the husk or " paddy " state, and is usually 
 sold in that form by the growers. The crop ranges from 
 twenty to forty bushels per acre. It is one of the 
 bestrpaying and least-exhausting grain crops grown, and in 
 Australia would be harvested at a time when there is little 
 doing on the cane plantations. 
 
 CHICORY. This plant has been cultivated here, as a 
 forage crop principally, for many years. Our German and 
 French fellow-colonists are especially partial to it, and in a 
 few cases have extended chicory culture to over an acre. 
 As a rule, however, a few perches only are grown, mostly 
 used for feeding cattle. Ten tons of roots per acre is a 
 fair average crop of chicory in Victoria, where it is grown
 
 114 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 somewhat extensively, and sold to wholesale coffee dealers 
 at from 3 to 5 per ton. 
 
 Cultivation. The seed may be sown in either 
 February or March for a winter crop, or in September for 
 a summer crop. It vegetates slowly, and the soil should 
 be perfectly clean to prevent weeds from choking the 
 young plants. lib. of seed gives plants for about a 
 quarter of an acre. When fit to handle they are set out 
 in rows two feet by about eighteen inches ; or the seed can 
 be drilled into rows two feet apart, and thinned out, like 
 turnips or beets, with the cultivation of which chicory 
 corresponds, when grown for roots. When for forage, the 
 seed can be sown broadcast at the rate of Gibs, to the acre, 
 and the tops can be either picked off or bladed, or cattle 
 may be turned in to graze them down. 
 
 As a Feed Crop. Chicory is of more value to mow, 
 and consume in a stable or byre, than to graze. It might 
 also be used for ensilage. A small extent of chicory 
 ground fattens a large number of sheep. The best way is 
 to let the plant reach its full growth, the full succulence 
 being retained until the flower-buds appear, in which state 
 (not being permitted to flower) it has attained its greatest 
 perfection ; it may be then cut off near the ground, and 
 is eaten by all kinds of stock. 
 
 The Chicory for Coffee. To prepare the chicory-root, 
 it is sliced, and dried in driers much the same as fruit. For 
 use, the dried chicory is heated in iron cylinders, which are 
 kept revolving as in the roasting of coffee. In England, 
 about two pounds of lard are added per cwt. of chicory 
 during the roasting process ; in France butter is used ; by 
 this a lustre resembling that of coffee is imparted to it. 
 When roasted, the chicory is ground to powder and mixed 
 with coffee. The analysis of chicory gives 25 parts 
 watery extractive, and three parts resin, besides sugar, 
 salammoniac, and woody fibre. 
 
 GINGER. This is another of the roots found admirably 
 adapted to the warmer sections of Australia. Three 
 varieties are grown. 
 
 Cultivation. The white and yellow are much alike in 
 habits ; the roots of both grow in clumps close to the
 
 PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 115 
 
 surface of the soil, and in dry seasons become tough and 
 fibry, and therefore are not so well adapted for making 
 preserves as the third, which roots deeper, and is more 
 fleshy and tender. A1J the varieties are propagated from 
 knobs or pieces from the roots. They require very rich, 
 free soil, moist but not wet. Plant from August to 
 November, putting the sets about one foot apart each way ; 
 if a quantity is grown, the white varieties answer in rows 
 about twenty inches apart ; the plants being put in about 
 eight inches apart in rows. The yellow variety requires a 
 little more space. Merely cover the sets with soil old 
 cow manure answers well for the purpose. The leaves 
 or shoots come above ground in twelve or fourteen days ; 
 they are at first pointed and reed-like, but soon spread out 
 into long thickish leaves, not unlike those of arrowroot. 
 The cultivation necessary is to keep the surface soil loose 
 and clean, and this should be done with a pointed stick or 
 the hand, and not more than an inch of soil should be 
 stirred. During the process the plants are all the better of 
 a few shovelfuls of rich old compost added to the surface ; 
 the yield is in proportion to the richness of the soil. 
 
 Harvesting. The roots are ripe in about seven 
 months from the time of planting. Any difference that 
 exists in ginger is due more to its quality than to any 
 peculiarity in habit or growth. The white sorts are 
 richest in flavour ; the smaller or narrow-leaved is that 
 used for the dry ginger of commerce ; for this purpose the 
 roots are allowed to lie in the ground until the leaf-stalks 
 have withered ; they are then dug up and washed ; the 
 outside skin is brushed or scraped off and the roots are 
 dried in the sun. 
 
 Preserved Ginger. To make preserves, the roots are 
 dug as soon as they are fully grown, while the root is soft, 
 ana before the leaves begin to wither; they are then 
 washed, scraped if necessary, cut into slices or " chunks " of 
 any desired shape, and put into jars with salt and water for 
 a few hours, or just sufficiently long to take away any 
 earthy flavor ; then rinse the slices in clean water, and put 
 them back in the jar with a first syrup made from white 
 sugar ; change the syrup in three or four days, or as soon
 
 1J6 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 as it shows signs of fermenting ; re-boil it, for a second 
 syrup, adding more sugar, and pour it upon the ginger 
 again. This strengthening of syrups has to be done three 
 or four times, until the ginger has lost all wild flavor, and 
 is perfectly sweet and aromatic. It can then be put up 
 for use, as one of the richest and most pleasant preserves 
 known. To make it in the highest perfection, and with 
 the delicious flavour peculiar to Jamaica preserved ginger, 
 the roots are allowed to remain in the soil through the 
 winter ; they start into fresh growth next season, and in 
 November or December following, the young offshoots 
 from the old roots are dug and preserved as described. 
 
 XL ROTATION OR CHANGE OF CROPS. 
 
 THE OIL AND FIBRE YIELDEHS. 
 
 The results and advantages of rotation or change of 
 crops are many. They include such treatment of the soil 
 as secures the heaviest returns from the crop in the land 
 at the time ; and to give the soil renewed strength for the 
 g crops to follow. Some 
 
 system to secure rota- 
 tion has been followed 
 from the earliest times. 
 The rule now is that 
 no two crops of the 
 same order of plants 
 should follow in suc- 
 cession. The soil con- 
 tents the plant food 
 in the soil are thus 
 distributed and induced 
 
 Wedge Press (or Extracting OiiB from Seeds. 
 
 to do duty in the most effective manner, by supplying to 
 one crop what had not been used up by the preceding 
 product. In the process of nature, richer plants take the 
 place of poorer, as the latter decay and furnish the
 
 ROTATION, OB CHANGE OF CROPS. 117 
 
 necessary material. The process is the very basis of 
 evolution. In advanced farming practice, by rotation, the 
 land is cleaned from weeds, and many enemies of one crop 
 are starved out of the soil, not finding what they require in 
 the next put in as a succession, belonging as it does to a 
 different family. The process also allows of such heavy 
 manuring as is necessary for potatoes, corn, &c., and which 
 are all the better of such treatment, to be followed by 
 others which do not require manure supplied to them 
 direct. Labor and outlay are saved in this way, and 
 heavier and healthy crops secured. But comparatively 
 little has been done in the warmer sections of the country 
 in the way of rotation. In the wheat districts the aim of 
 the farmer may be to have a fifth of his cultivation land 
 under wheat ; another fifth under maize, potatoes, beans, 
 &c., or under lucerne, prairie, or rye grasses, which 
 do exceedingly well, the remainder in indigenous pasture. 
 Yet knowledge of the different crops which may succeed 
 each other profitably on the same land is of as great 
 importance to the skilled colonial as the European farmer, 
 who always works on some system of rotation. All aim at 
 a judicious change, so as to obtain the most valuable 
 produce from any given soil in as quick succession as 
 possible. Thus wheat, potatoes, grass, and maize, might be 
 alternating crops in suitable districts. In other parts, maize 
 might take the place of wheat; and again, wheat, sheep, and 
 grass form a rotation. A usual course is to plough one of 
 the cultivated grass sections for wheat, and the wheat- 
 ground is either allowed to go to grass, under sheep for one 
 or two seasons, or it is ploughed up as soon as the crop 
 is off', and worked for the next crop of beans, potatoes, &c. 
 Lucerne is seldom profitable after seven or eight years ; it 
 may then be broken up and the piece sown with wheat. It 
 would not be advisable to re-sow the same paddock witli 
 lucerne during a full course of rotation, say seven years. It 
 is found advisable to dress the lucerne land with quick-lime 
 before ploughing for wheat ; the same with the prairie grass. 
 Beans (kidney or haricot) are great bearers, and do well 
 planted with maize in alternate hills. They can be put in 
 with the corn-planter, are convenient for cultivation and
 
 118 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 harvesting with corn, and makes good feed for horses, pigs, 
 &c. Crops with fibrous roots that throw up seed stems 
 with few leaves thrive best after crops with fleshy roots 
 and soft, broad leaves, on a branching stem. Thus wheat 
 thrives after beans, vetches, clover, or grass; barley and 
 oats after turnips, carrots, or potatoes. 
 
 WHY OIL AND FIBRE YIELDERS ARE GOOD FOR ROTATION. 
 
 They Take so Little from the Soil. They are built up 
 from carbon mostly, and plants get that from the air. 
 Where suitable, they may be brought in as very desirable 
 rotation crops with wheat, or any of the other grains, as 
 neither oil nor fibre impoverish the soil to any extent, the 
 bulk of their contents being carbon. 
 
 Percentage of Oil from Seeds. The following gives a 
 fair average of oils obtained from seeds, fruits, &c., and may 
 be found useful : 
 
 Castor-oilseeds ... ... ... ... ... about 62 per cent. 
 
 Poppy seeds . 56 to 63 
 
 Rape, col wort, and Swedish turnip ... ... ... 33 
 
 Colza seed 36 to 40 
 
 Wild mustard, gourd, lemon ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 Hemp-seed .. ... ... ... .. 14 to 25 
 
 Linseed, flax, or lintseed ... ... ... ... ... Ilto22 
 
 Sunflower seeds ... .. ... . ... ... 15 to 30 
 
 Grape stones ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14 to 22 
 
 Cottonseed 18 to 33* 
 
 Olive-oil, about 2 gals, per tree. 
 
 FIBRE CROPS. Australia is peculiarly rich in fibre- 
 yielding plants. The aboriginal natives make very strong 
 lines, nets, &c., from the curriejohng, fig, and many other 
 plants that grow in or on the boarders of creeks and scrubs. 
 Bananas, pine-apples, sida retusa, and others are fibre- 
 yielders. As they are of the order of plants that take very 
 little from the soil, fibre-yielders are excellent for rotation 
 with wheat, &c. New Zealand flax (phormium tenax) 
 grows freely all over the colonies, and produces a fibre of 
 acknowledged value. It does best in rich and rather 
 sandy soil, in this respect being similar to fibre-yielders 
 
 * The heavy percentage of husks in cotton-seed accounts for the 
 apparently low percentage of oil.
 
 ROTATION, OB CHANGE OP CROPS. 119 
 
 generally. Seed of New Zealand flax vegetates at any 
 time of the year, and as it seeds freely, even in the warmer 
 latitudes of Queensland, its cultivation could be extended 
 rapidly. 
 
 Flax, Lintseed or Linseed. There are many reasons 
 why linseed might be a general Australian product. I 
 mean as a seed crop. It does well where it has a fair test, 
 and that is somewhat extensively in the southern parts of 
 New South Wales, and to a limited* extent in the north 
 and in Queensland. The yield is from 20 bushels upwards. 
 Marketable seed should be as heavy as wheat, or say 601bs. 
 per bushel. When ground into meal and scalded, it 
 makes excellent feed material for calves and stock, and is 
 decidedly beneticial in dairying. But the main requirement 
 is to make linseed oil, the basis of good paint. The value 
 of the seed in Victoria and in New Zealand, in both of 
 which are oil mills, is from 6s. to 8s. per bushel. And as 
 the crop is much less exhausting on land than either 
 wheat or corn, the value to the farmer becomes evident. 
 
 Cultivation. There is no special requirement in the 
 farming of linseed. It- is a summer crop, sown as for 
 wheat, and cultivated much the same. Good com land 
 answers. Linseed, for daily feed, is extending in the 
 southern districts, but is just as suitable for the central 
 and northern districts, or in other parts where the 
 rainfall is sufficient to bring on fair crops of maize. 
 
 BROOM COIIN. The fibre from which " American 
 brooms" are made is got from a variety of millet, or 
 sorghum. It has been grown in various parts of Australia, 
 and does as well as the millets usually do here, and that is 
 as well as in any part of the world. But, hitherto, as a 
 crop, this variety has not made headway. The prospects 
 ought to be better now, because several broom factories are 
 at work in the colonies, and no doubt they would purchase 
 from Australian growers, could they get the material as 
 good as that brought from America. 
 
 Cultivation. Fairly good maize land does for the 
 cultivation of broom corn. The season for sowing is the 
 same as for maize. It does all the better in rich land, and 
 takes kindly to manuring as a means of increasing the
 
 120 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 yield. The seed is much the same as sorghum seed, and 
 where a quantity has to be planted a seed-dropper does the 
 work rapidly and well. From 15 to 20 Ibs. of seed per 
 acre are sown, in drills, 3| to 4 feet apart. The plants are 
 thinned in the rows to from 3 to 6 inches apart, and ordinary 
 good corn cultivation is followed, in order to get the plants 
 to grow up straight and clean. The " broom " fibre is at 
 the top of the plant, and the object is to have it straight 
 and tough. It would be well for those who may try this 
 crop to examine the fibres of a good " American broom," to 
 see what is required. 
 
 Harvesting. In order to toughen the fibre and hasten 
 maturity, the heads of the " corn " are bent over just as 
 the blossoms appear. The bend is made about a foot 
 below the seed head or " brush." The plants of two rows 
 may be bent over and made to hold each other in that 
 position. The blossoms come out while the " corn " is in 
 this bent position, and when they begin to fall the crop is 
 fit for cutting. At this stage a good deal of the seed has 
 formed, and it has all to be got out, a common hackle 
 being used for the purpose. The heads are laid on the 
 ground as cut, when the soil is dry and clean. The fibre 
 would be injured by dirt of any sort. The drying or 
 curing is done in barns or sheds. All the moisture has to 
 be dried out, which takes from a month to six weeks. 
 The heads are then sorted into bundles of uniform length 
 and color, and are ready for sale. From 500 to 600 Ibs. is 
 the yield in Indiana, where broom corn is a general crop. 
 The value ranges according to the length and color, at 
 from 30s. to 2 per 100 Ibs. 
 
 SIDA RETUSA, or Queensland Hemp. This, the 
 " paddy's lucerne " of colonial farming populations, 
 is one of the best known fibre-yielders. In the 
 coast districts of New South Wales it grows like a 
 weed, and becomes a serious nuisance where neglected. 
 It is an enormous seed-bearer, and being perfectly 
 hardy, when it gets possession of a piece of good 
 land its eradication is a difficult matter. Nothing 
 appears to injure the plants; on good land, they 
 grow up a dense mass of straight, supple twigs, about
 
 ROTATION, OB CHANGE OP CROPS. 121 
 
 half an inch in diameter at the base, and tapering away to 
 a point as the tops reach three or four feet in height. 
 When grown singly, sida retusa is a stocky, branching 
 plant; when in masses, it is straight, handsome, single 
 stem, and a literal mass of fibre. Quantities of this fibre 
 have been manufactured in much the same manner as flax 
 fibre in Ireland, and the yield estimated to be fully up to 
 one-and-a-half ton per acre. The fibre is valued in 
 England at from 30 to 40 per ton. When young and 
 tender, sida has qualities for feed purposes, but it is tough 
 on the teeth. 
 
 BANANA FIBRES. Manilla is got from banana musa 
 textilis. This variety grows freely on the seaboard and 
 on the banks of the rivers and creeks in the coast country. 
 On an average a full-grown plant is found to produce 5 Ibs. 
 of clean fibre, and in their own country the best exertions 
 of an experienced workman ^Indian or Chinese) produce 
 about 1 2 Ibs. of fibre per day. Their wages are necessarily 
 very low less than would keep a white man in beef and 
 flour. We fear, therefore, that until machinery is brought 
 to their aid, Australians will have to leave Manilla fibre 
 culture to those who work for 5d. per day and think it 
 good wages. It is not agreeable to give up the matter in 
 this way ; but business is business ; if it won't pay, our 
 people can have nothing to do with it. 
 
 PINE-APPLE FIBRE. Fibre is obtained from the leaves 
 of the pine-apple, and is amongst the finest ; and pine-apple 
 cultivation being capable of extension to any extent, the 
 production of the fibre is a question that depends upon the 
 introduction of machinery. 
 
 RAMIE, Chinese-Cloth Plant. Better things are 
 expected from this, as the fibre has a value with 
 comparative little labor on the part of the grower. The 
 plant has l>een grown for years in public and private 
 gardens. It is healthy, grows freely from cuttings planted 
 during the spring season, in rows two feet apart. 
 
 Extracting Fibres. Various methods of separating the 
 fibres of flax, hemp, &rc., from the glutinous matter with 
 which they are surrounded, have l>een adopted in various 
 countries. In Ireland, Belgium, Holland, and in France
 
 122 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the plants, after being pulled, are dried in the sun, being 
 set up on the root-end in two thin rows, the top interlacing 
 in the form of the letter /\ inverted. Then sun and air 
 soon thoroughly dry the stems, and they are bulked and 
 made into sheaves, and the seed afterwards threshed oft'. 
 The stems are steeped subsequently. Another mode in 
 general use in Ireland and in part of Flanders, is to steep 
 the green stems immediately after they are pulled. In 
 Flanders the seed is invariably separated from the stems 
 before the latter are immersed in water. In Ireland, 
 although this has been practised to some extent, yet the 
 great bulk of the flax-crop is put in the water at once, 
 with the seed capsules attached. In Belgium and 
 Germany, dew-retting is practised. That is, in place of 
 immersing the stems in water, they are spread thinly 
 on short grass, and the action of the dews and rains 
 in time effect what immersion in a running stream or 
 pool accomplishes in a much shorter time, namely, the 
 decomposition of the gum which binds the fibres to the 
 stem and to each other. But fibre obtained by this 
 method is considered of inferior quality and color. If the 
 fibre of flax be separated from the stem without the 
 decomposition of this matter, it is found to be loaded 
 with impurities, which are got rid of afterwards in the 
 wet-spinning, the boiling of the yarn, the subjection of the 
 woven fragment to the action of alkaline lye and the 
 action of the atmosphere, of rains, and of alternate 
 dippings in water, treated with sulphuric acid and a 
 solution of chloride of lime, to perfect the bleaching. The 
 great object is to obtain the fibre as nearly free from 
 foreign substances as possible. At various periods 
 attempts have been made to prepare flax fibre without 
 steeping or retting. Weak acids, solutions of caustic 
 potash, and soda, soap, lye, and lime, have all been tried, 
 but have all been found objectionable. 
 
 COTTON. What a rotation cotton would make with 
 grain or root crops, were it a paying crop ! Three sorts 
 are grown in Queensland : woolly seed, Egyptian, and 
 sea island. All belong to the natural order Malvacae, and 
 are heavy oil as well as fibre-yielders ; there is a large
 
 ROTATION, OE CHANGE OP CROPS. 123 
 
 amount of that order of plants in these colonies, 
 fibre-bearing; they do not impoverish the soil to any 
 great extent. For a rotation on light lands, maize or 
 barley may be sown the first year, cotton the second, 
 grass the third and fourth years. The two-year old 
 grass ploughed up and sown with maize or other corn 
 crop, or planted with potatoes or other roots, would be a 
 rotation. 
 
 OIL CROPS The Pea and Ground Nut. This valuable 
 edible and oil-yielder grows luxuriantly in Northern 
 Australia. It is a lowly soft plant, not unlike well-grown 
 clover. The fruit is found just under the surface of the 
 soil all round the stem. The pea-nut likes a free, rich 
 sandy loam, without stones, and from its nature it is 
 absolutely necessary that the soil be kept quite free from 
 weeds. The fruit is in thin-shelled vessels, each containing 
 two seeds, of greyish white color, about the size of 
 almonds, and of rich nutty flavor. This seed is planted 
 either singly or in pairs as dug, and as soon as the soil 
 is sufficiently warm for semi-tropical vegetation, say in 
 September or October in the cooler, and two months 
 earlier in warmer localities. Prepare the land as for 
 corn ; harrow very fine ; run out shallow furrows from 
 three to four feet apart. Drop in the seed about ten 
 inches apart, and cover. Harrow or rake the surface soil 
 three or four days after planting ; in eight or ten days the 
 plants commence to break through. They come in strong 
 shoots not unlike common potatoes, and rapidly develope 
 clover-like leaves which shade the ground. Cultivate as 
 clean as possible. Flowers come out at the ends of the 
 shoots, and as they fall the shoots bend down and send out 
 stout feelers, or roots, that enter the ground. The fruit is 
 borne in bunches on these feelers, and all round the stem. 
 As the nuts ripen the leaves decay. In all, the crop 
 occupies the ground from eight to ten months. The nuts 
 must be gathered during dry weather, otherwise the color 
 is injured not a matter of much moment when it is 
 grown for oil, or for feeding stock ; but this is a crop that 
 ought to find favor for domestic use, and to that end 
 should be gathered as clean as possible.
 
 124 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 SUNFLOWERS. All the order are heavy bearers of seed 
 that yields a good oil. Sunflowers grow in summer in much 
 the same way as maize ; the seed being borne upon large 
 circular heads some of them twelve inches in diameter. 
 The seed is easily rasped off, and is treated for oil in the 
 same way as other seeds. 
 
 THE OLIVE. Coming to oil-yielders in the tree form, 
 we find the olive a favourite. There are several varieties, 
 some suitable for strong and others for lighter land. 
 Cuttings or truncheons are used for plants ; from eight to 
 twelve inches in length is considered a good size ; and they 
 may be either from the branches or roots. The olive is also 
 grown from seed by planting in September. Plants thus 
 obtained are fit for setting out in the following September. 
 The tree in all its stages suffers from frost ; it is well, 
 therefore, to select warm and sheltered places for it. The 
 olive grafts freely ; the sorts found to answer best can be 
 increased in this way upon the less desirable varieties. 
 The trees are planted from sixteen to twenty feet apart, 
 according to variety and strength of the soil. They 
 require ordinary good cultivation, and manure where the 
 soil is not strong enough. Pruning is recommended as a 
 means of inducing fruitfulness. The trees commence to 
 bear in their fifth or sixth year, and are long lived when 
 justice is done them. The fruit is of the plum kind, and 
 usually egg-shaped; when ripe, it is of a reddish color, 
 and is borne in enormous quantities upon the full -bearing 
 trees. It is gathered by hand and by shaking the trees ; 
 the product in view being a valuable oil, it is obvious that 
 the cleaner and less bruised the fruit is the better. The 
 test of ripeness is to press the fruit ; when oil comes away 
 freely, it is fit for the press. 
 
 Olive Oil. To get the oil, the fruit is ground into 
 pulp ; the pulp is put into bags of horsehair or other strong 
 stuff; these bags are put under a screw press, and the 
 oil forced out. The oil is allowed to run into vessels 
 containing water, and is skimmed off as soon as the 
 impurities pressed out with it have separated. A second 
 pressing, perhaps a third, is obtained by heating the pulp, 
 and sprinkling it with warm water. Oil of first quality is
 
 ROTATION, OR CHANGE OF CROPS. 125 
 
 of greenish color and of nutty flavor. The coarser sorts 
 are darker in color. To purify it, olive oil is allowed to 
 stand for three or four months in jars or tanks, that all 
 impurities may be deposited. The oil is then put up in 
 bottles for use. The yield of oil varies very much. One 
 to two gallons per tree is considered a fair average, but as 
 high as one cwt. of oil is mentioned as the product of 
 famous trees. The pressed pulp, etc., is used as feed stuff. 
 
 Home made Olive Oil. To those who have a few olive 
 trees the following for getting the oil may be of use. Those 
 who have once tasted the pure article will not be willing to 
 use any other. Crush the olives in a common corn-crusher ; 
 put the pulp thus obtained into bags, and press with lever 
 or screw into a vessel containing water. The pure oil 
 swims on the top of what is thus expressed, and is after 
 skimming, clarified by filtering through blotting paper, 
 which answers the purpose ; the oil, after thus being 
 filtered, is ready for use or market. A lever for crushing 
 may be made from a stout piece of timber, about 20 feet 
 long, fixed at one end by a bolt to a stump or post, with a 
 heavy weight at the other. The bags containing the 
 crushed olives are put under the lever a few feet from the 
 fixed end and the oil pressed out. 
 
 Pickled Olives. For this purpose the fruit is gathered 
 before quite ripe, and soaked for half a day in lye made from 
 one part quicklime to six parts wood ashes, with sufficient 
 water to extract the alkali. The object of this alkaline 
 steep is to extract a portion of the bitter principle peculiar 
 to the fruit. After steeping, the olives are washed in fresh 
 water and then put up in bottles, with a brine of salt and 
 water, in which aromatic herbs may also be placed. Ripe 
 olives are also used for preserving. 
 
 CASTOK-OIL. The plant from which the castor-oil of 
 commerce is made has long claimed a home for itself in the 
 coast country of Northern Australia. On the banks of 
 rivers the trees grow in dense masses, and as a dozen trees 
 throw off about a bushel of seed annually, and each seed 
 may make a plant that bears within a year, the rate of 
 extension while they meet suitable soil is prodigious. To 
 succeed as an oil-yielding crop, the plants require good rich
 
 126 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 corn-land, prepared as for a crop of maize. Plant the seed 
 about five feet apart, in rows ; the rows, for the convenience 
 of cultivation, may be from 10 to 12 feet apart. The seed 
 is hardy, and the young plants appear above ground in 
 from 10 to 14 days. No other crop can be grown between 
 the rows, as the castor oil is a decided surface rooter and 
 rapid grower. The smoothing or back-toothed harrow, the 
 horse hoe, or a shallow cultivator is run between the rows to 
 keep down grass, weeds, &c. With moderately fair treat- 
 ment, in six months after planting we have trees from 8 to 
 12 feet in height. The fruit is borne in clumps of small 
 rough seed-vessels. As the seed ripens, the covering cases 
 commence to split open. Then is the time to gather. Some 
 varieties " pop," or fly open, and the seed is scattered out 
 on the ground. Others have to be forced open. It is the 
 task of each grower to select such seed as will give him a 
 crop that will neither ' pop " too soon, nor be too stiff to 
 separate from the seed-vessels. The crop is gathered by 
 hand, and also by stretching a cloth around the tree, and 
 " yanking," or jerking off the seed with a stick. As 
 gathered, the seed is placed in a heap either under shelter 
 in the field, on a verandah, or in a barn. In any case it 
 must be surrounded with boards one foot or more in height, 
 that the seeds may not pop over. To make the stiffer ones 
 fly open, they may be beaten with anything soft. There is 
 great difference in the yield of different beans ; those that 
 are solid, and from which the oil oozes freely on being 
 pressed with the fingers, are the best. They also vary in 
 size and colour ; some are. beautifully striped and mottled ; 
 but colour is no guide to quality in the castor bean. When 
 very large, they are frequently hollow in the centre. 
 Those about the size of common coffee beans are usually 
 the best. 
 
 Getting the Oil. The oil is obtained by bruising or 
 grinding the seed (we have seen an ordinary large-sized 
 coffee mill used for the purpose). The pulp is then put 
 into horsehair or other bags, and the oil extracted by 
 pressure as olive oil. This is the cold-drawn article of com- 
 merce. It is also extracted by simmering in vessels heated 
 by steam or fire, as described in article on vegetable oils.
 
 MAKING AND USING MANURES. 
 
 127 
 
 Caution. The residue of castor oil seeds, after the oil 
 is pressed out, is poisonous. The seeds also are injurious 
 except as medicine. The oil is used largely for lubricating 
 purposes. 
 
 Manure Makes the Crop. 
 
 XII. MAKING AND USING MANURES* 
 
 THIS is amongst the most important subjects the 
 Australian farmer has to consider; and it is encouraging 
 to note the growing attention given to it. Let the natural 
 
 richness of his land be 
 what it may, the man 
 acts wisely who pre- 
 pares to feed his crops 
 on manure from the 
 start. For rich land, 
 the quantity required 
 to keep up the soil in 
 its best condition is 
 but small when the 
 right material is sup- 
 plied. The poorer the 
 land the more feed has to .be supplied in the form of 
 manure, and skill is called out more and more to get what 
 the soil stands most in need of. Skilful manuring, with 
 good cultivation, is the safe road to success, and the only 
 one that enables the agriculturist to prosper in dry as well 
 as in wet seasons. There are many sources of manure 
 available. The best and most effective of all, additional to 
 the compost heap, is to combine grazing with fanning, and 
 either to feed stock on land intended for cultivation, or to 
 lay the land down in grass and graze and top dress it 
 until the piece has received a thorough coating. This 
 process is followed with absolute success as a portion of a 
 course of rotation. In the grain districts where sheep are 
 kept this system of manuring is very effective, especially 
 
 Artificial manure making, superphosphnte making, and the science aspect of 
 manure making and manuring generally, are dealt with in the author's work, 
 "Helpful Chemistry for Agriculturists," 4s., Datson 4 Co., Ltd , Sydney, and book- 
 seller* generally.
 
 12S AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 so where, in addition to the natural grasses, the stock get 
 additions of cultivated feed. 
 
 Making Manure. The dryness of the atmosphere, 
 and the occurrence of very heavy rains, are against the 
 making of manure in open yards or in pits, as followed in 
 Europe. But when cattle are put under the sheds at 
 night, this plan becomes successful fcere. While working 
 upon this system, and to overcome excessive evaporation, 
 the liberal application of dry, loamy soil to the surface where 
 stock camp is decidedly beneficial. This dry soil absorbs the 
 ammonia and other gases that are otherwise blown away, 
 and after lying for four or five months becomes as rich as 
 the very best portions of the heap upon which the soil is 
 scattered. The free application of dry earth in covered 
 stockyards and upon manure heaps has this additional 
 advantage : the manure can be hauled out on the field 
 with less loss from evaporation than when the compost has 
 been made in the ordinary way. Where cane megass 
 and refuse, corn stalks, coarse grass, &c., are available, 
 enormous quantities of manure can be made in this way in 
 the pig pen, or with the aid of a small lot of working 
 cattle that are yarded at night. 
 
 The Australian Compost Heap. Of dry soil we have 
 already spoken. It is one of the valuable aids in favor 
 of manure-making in Australia, as will be more clearly 
 understood after study of this chapter, and especially of 
 page 133 referring to waste in ordinary farm-yard stuff. Few 
 things will be found to pay better than a shed under 
 which a dray can travel, and in which soil can be stored 
 
 in dry weather, so 
 that it may be kept 
 fit for use when- 
 ever required. 
 Loamy soil is the 
 best for the pur- 
 pose. The richer 
 it is in vegetable 
 _ matter, the better 
 
 The Australian Compost Heap. and more effective 
 
 it is. With this agent, nothing need be lost ; it absorbs
 
 MAKING AND USING MANURES. 129 
 
 matter of all sorts. A load or two of it packed around the 
 carcass of a dead beast prevents all smell, and affords 
 a compost equal to the richest for many purposes. It is also 
 the best agent for absorbing night-soil and making it avail- 
 able for use, and many other purposes that will reaclly 
 suggest themselves. The compost heap should be under 
 cover, if at all practicable, and to prepare for it 
 as much loamy earth dried stuff from swamps does 
 splendidly, being rich in vegetable matter should be 
 carted up in readiness. As a foundation for the compost, 
 put down a thick layer of earth (a) ; and on top of that (b) 
 any weeds, grass, &c., that can be got together, in order to 
 rot them down, and destroy seeds of weeds, &c. Then, 
 any night-soil or refuse stuff can be added, as at (c). 
 Then more earth (d), and so on, adding layer upon layer, 
 cow-pen, stable, or other stuff, and making a heap as large 
 as may be required. If ammonia, in the form of sulphate 
 of ammonia, now made by the gas companies, is required, 
 or potash, or bone manure, or any other rich fertilizing 
 material, it can be mixed up in the compost heap, care 
 being taken all through the process to keep a covering of 
 earth (h h h) all round, to prevent loss. Such a heap as 
 this does not heat ; the earth prevents that, and it can be 
 hauled out as required for the immediate use of the crops. 
 What Crops Take Out of the Soil. As has been seen 
 in the chapters dealing with soils, what makes soils rich 
 and what causes poverty, the main ingredients taken away 
 by crops are ammonia, potash, phosphates, lime, sulphates, 
 &c. With the exception of the three first named, ammonia, 
 potash, and phosphates, the other substances that build up 
 plant and animal life are sufficiently plentiful in Australian 
 soils, and it is mainly to supply the scarce substances that 
 manuring or feeding of crops has to be attended to by 
 agriculturists in all branches. The accompanying tables 
 show that field and garden crops require the same 
 substances, but in very different proportions, some requiring 
 more ammonia, some more potash, others more phosphates, 
 lime, sulphur, and so on. But all require some, and the 
 skill of the agriculturist tells upon his crops when he 
 supplies their requirements in the right proportions and at 
 the right time.
 
 180 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 HOW CROPS ARE BUILT UP. WHAT THEY TAKE 
 
 AWAY PER ACRE. 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Yield. 
 
 = | 
 tt 
 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 S ^ 
 
 o 
 
 A 
 
 
 *l 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 p- 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 Ibs- 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs 
 
 bs. Ibs- 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 30 bushels (with straw).. 
 
 46 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 11 i 4 
 
 5 
 
 MAIZE 
 
 50 bushels 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 6 3 
 
 1 
 
 BARLEY ... 
 
 28 bushels 
 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 19 ; 12 
 
 4 
 
 OATS 
 
 33 bushels 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 29 
 
 15 11 
 
 7 
 
 RYE 
 
 26$ bushels 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 16 5 
 
 4 
 
 LUCERNE 
 
 20 tons green or 4 tons hay 
 
 115 
 
 87 
 
 53 
 
 105 16 
 
 30 
 
 CLOVER 
 
 12 tons green or 2$ tons hay 
 
 85 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 72 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 NATIVE GRASSES 
 
 10 tons green or 2 tons hay 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 26 6 
 
 11 
 
 TOBACCO 
 
 15wt. cured leaf 
 
 54 
 
 69 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 POTATOES 
 
 5 tons 
 
 70 
 
 100 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 SWEET Do. 
 
 10 tons and 5 tons tops.. 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 5 3 
 
 9 
 
 TURNIPS 
 
 6 tons 
 
 78 
 
 52 
 
 14 
 
 9 5 
 
 16 
 
 BUCKWHEAT 
 
 24 bushels (l,2001b.) .. 
 
 42 
 
 89 
 
 18 
 
 12 4 
 
 13 
 
 Similar substances are absorbed by fruits, and the 
 accompanying table is arranged to show, comparatively, 
 what the proportions are, so that manures may be com- 
 posted to suit the crop we are making : 
 
 FRUIT AND VEGETABLES ABSORB PER ACRE. 
 
 
 u"* 
 
 
 f? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Crops- 
 
 fcs 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 oti 
 
 |s 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 J3 
 
 o. 
 
 Js3 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 * 
 
 04 
 
 fe 
 
 ^ 
 
 5 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs- 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 APPLES 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 PEARS 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 PEACHES 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 APRICOTS 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 PLUMS 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ORANGES 
 
 66 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 LEMONS 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 i 9 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 GRAPES 
 
 25 
 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 CABBAGE 
 
 118 
 
 15 
 
 1 21 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 O 
 
 CAULIFLOWERS 
 
 134 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 
 45 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 LETTUCE 
 
 80 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 45 
 
 18 
 
 ' 14 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 PBAS 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 50 
 
 41 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 5
 
 HOW CROPS ARE BUILT UP. 131 
 
 Natural manures of the organic kind that have been in 
 the growth of vegetable or animal life, such as rich soil 
 from swamps, &c., leaf mould, bush scrapings, stable, 
 stockyard, pig pen, and poultry yard stuff, offal, 
 sawdust, &c., &c., supply some of the ingredients 
 that plants live on, but in still more varying quantities 
 than crops take them. Hence the use of composting, so as 
 to supply in the heap such other materials as may be 
 necessary, and in such form as may mix thoroughly with 
 the others in less or greater quantity in the proportions 
 required. It is a further advantage in using natural 
 manures that as they are broken up and decay in the soil 
 they make room for the development or spread of root 
 growth, and add enormously to the good results got from 
 purchased manures. 
 
 The sources of manures available for Australian 
 agricultural purposes include : 
 
 Bone in Various Forms. By breaking and grinding, 
 bones are made more readily soluable for the use of plants. 
 Bones supply phosphates and lime, and small quantities of 
 the other food materials of drops. Raw bone is most 
 valuable, next cooked bone. Bone ash and burnt bone are 
 least valuable as manure. 
 
 Boiling Down Stuff. This is the refuse material from 
 boiling-down works, and contains all the substance of 
 sheep, cattle, &c., except the tallow, which is of no value 
 for manure. 
 
 Offal from Slaughter-houses. When this contains 
 blood material, it is rich in ammonia in addition to the 
 other substances of animal life. It is valuable in propor- 
 tion to the less quantity of moisture in it. 
 
 Stable, Cow-pen, Piggery Stuff. The value is 
 proportionate to the feed of the animals, and whether it 
 lias been wasted by exposure to he weather. 
 
 Fowl Yard Stuff. This is very valuable, rich in 
 ammonia and phosphates, and other sutetances in propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Ashes. Wood ashes contain potash, lime, and various 
 other substances of plant life, the value being dependent 
 on the quantity of potash.
 
 132 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Sea Weeds and Ferns. Potash, soda, lime, and 
 sulphates are got in sea weeds ; also in ferns, both of 
 which make desirable additions to the compost heap. 
 
 Sawdust. Does best when mixed with a small pro- 
 portion of lime, say a bucketful to a load of sawdust. 
 
 Mineral Manures. These include superphosphate, or 
 bone reduced by sulphuric acid, sulphate of ammonia, a 
 product of gas-making. Potash is imported in the form 
 of sulphate of potash and kanit, or salt of potash, the 
 value of each being dependent upon the potash contents. 
 Manures of the mineral kind give best results when 
 composted with the more bulky natural manures. 
 
 Lime. Very plentiful in Australia, and of excellent 
 quality. It should be applied to the land separately from 
 other manures, and freshly slacked with water, that is, in 
 the form of quick lime, as a rule, where the land contains 
 much clay, or more than 10 per cent, of vegetable matter. 
 On thinner soils, air-slacked lime or bone dust answer 
 better. It is best to apply lime frequently and in small 
 quantities, to keep it near the surface and always active. 
 From one to three tons df lime to the acre may be 
 considered an average application. More may be applied 
 on very strong soil, and less on light land. Excellent 
 results often follow a first application of lime, but future 
 dressings may seem to fail to have the same effects. In 
 these cases, green crops might be ploughed in, and other 
 manures used, when, after a season, lime may again be 
 applied with profit, and to bring the fresh material into 
 active service by breaking them up for the use of crops. 
 
 Green manuring the ploughing into the soil of 
 growing crops is one of the most certain, as it is one of 
 the always available means of enriching any moderately 
 good land. Amongst the plants specially available for this 
 purpose are peas, corn, buckwheat, oats, cotton, sorghum, 
 and the summer grasses. The effect of this treatment is to 
 supply vegetable matter in heavy quantity and in a form 
 most acceptable to the soil and the crop. It has the effect 
 of keeping the surface soil cool during our hot summers, 
 when crops rooting near the surface suffer badly from the 
 heated surface earth, and especially in sandy soils. The
 
 HOW CROPS ARE BUILT UP. 
 
 133 
 
 following is a fair estimate of the quantity of vegetable 
 matter from various crops ploughed in. Their nitrogen- 
 ammonia contents are gathered mostly from the air : 
 
 Plant 
 
 Tons 
 per acre 
 
 Nitrogen 
 Ibs. per acre 
 
 Value of 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Other 
 substances 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 8. d. 
 
 Cow Pea .. 
 
 
 
 9.7 
 
 151.0 
 
 87 7 
 
 50 6 
 
 Maize 
 
 
 
 25.5 
 
 72.0 
 
 41 9 
 
 47 6 
 
 Sunflower .. 
 
 
 
 18.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 60 11 
 
 40 
 
 Sorghum . . 
 
 
 
 15.8 
 
 54.1 
 
 31 5 
 
 36 6 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 
 4.8 
 
 54.4 
 
 31 7 
 
 28 2 
 
 Mustard . . 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 39.9 
 
 23 2 
 
 5 
 
 Turnips 
 
 
 
 2.4 
 
 34.0 
 
 19 9 
 
 28 8 
 
 Artificial Manures. Very excellent compounded 
 manures are supplied by Australian manufacturers. 
 Their value is mostly in the ammonia, potash, and phos- 
 phate contents, all of which are obtainable now 
 by Australian agriculturists, at rates which put us on 
 an equality for feeding crops with any part of the world. 
 Sulphate of ammonia, got from what was formerly a 
 waste product of gas works, is excellent in quality and low 
 in price. Sulphate of potash and kainit, or salt of potash, 
 supply this essential of plant life. Bones supply phos- 
 phates in their very best form. The tables of what crops 
 take from the soil supply the needful information of the 
 proportions required for various crops. When mixed in 
 the compost heap with one or more of the coarser manures 
 described, we get the best result from artificial manures. 
 
 Waste in Ordinary Farm Manure. It has long been a 
 matter of concern in countries where farm-yard manures 
 form the foundation of the general manuring, that there is 
 such a loss of labor in bringing it into use. Thus, an 
 ordinary average ton (2240 Ibs.) of farm-yard manure, as 
 made after the careful manner followed in Scottish 
 farming, is composed as follows : solid matter, say, G40 Ibs., 
 which contains about 50 Ibs of soluble matter; some 
 1600 Ibs. of water make up the ton. The water is of very 
 little value to the fanner in that country, and he has not 
 the dry soil that is available here for our manure-making.
 
 134 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The 50 Ibs. mentioned are made up of ammonia, 
 phosphates, potash, lime, soda, salt, sulphuric acid, &c., 
 and the value of the whole ton of stuff is dependent upon 
 the proportions in which the first three ammonia, 
 phosphates, and potash are in it. We thus see how the 
 value of the manures are reduced to very small quantities 
 when the right materials are present. 
 
 The Time for Manuring. When we have a choice, 
 in order to apply manure with the best effect for nourish- 
 ing what is planted, whether orchard trees or field or 
 garden crops, then just before they start into active growth 
 is the time which gives the most effective results. New 
 feeding roots are being formed then, and the sap for 
 building up the plant for the season is coming forward, and 
 necessary material is being stowed away for the growth of 
 the following season, or for maturing the buds, grain or seed. 
 Next to the time for applying manure, is the selection of 
 the right kind chemically, and its nature in the mechanical 
 sense. The effect of manure substances on soils is very 
 various. Long manure made from the straw and litter of 
 stables is not so suitable for sandy soils, unless it can be 
 used on the surface as a mulch. When dug or ploughed 
 into thin soils, it tends to make the land still more dry, 
 and hence should only be applied to this kind of soil after 
 being thoroughly rotted, or better as part of a compost. 
 What sandy soils require, as a rule, is vegetable matter 
 compost, or thoroughly rotted manure in right condition to 
 supply food to the crop without heating the soil. Leaf 
 mould, bush scrapings, etc., help this compost greatly. 
 Crops on sandy soils, when the right manure is there for 
 them, use it up very fast, and hence the apparent dis- 
 appearance of manure in such soils is accounted for. It 
 goes quickly into the crop, if in a soluble state, and the best 
 results are got when the crop can take it up at once. But 
 loamy soils and clays, on the contrary, store up and digest 
 manure, and are able to hold it until it is given up to the 
 roots. The reason why manure is more quickly eaten out 
 from sandy soils is that they contain less food material for 
 the roots. They are more porous and eat more than the 
 clayey soils. Root action is more rapid in them. That
 
 IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 
 
 185 
 
 is, provided the sandy soil is sufficiently moist. So when 
 soils are stiff, or clayey, long, undigested manure may be 
 useful. It tends to render such soils more open, light 
 and porous. But for sandy soils, we must aim to render 
 them as compact as possible, while the naturally firm 
 clay soils require breaking up and working to make them 
 most productive. 
 
 XIIL IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 
 
 Admitting Water from Uiver or Creek. 
 
 Relation of Plants to Water. All plants are composed 
 largely of water. Grasses contain 40 per cent., many of 
 the herbage plants, and some of the most valuable, much 
 more. Fruits, vegetables and flowers are made up of water 
 to the extent of two-thirds of their weight. Some of them 
 over 90 per cent. This water has been absorbed through 
 the roots mostly, and is but a portion only of the total 
 moisture absorbed. For water is the medium through 
 which the earthy substances of plant life are carried up
 
 136 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 So that all plants must have water in some proportion ; 
 most of them in large proportion. They perish unless it is 
 supplied. 
 
 " Irrigation ?" In the agricultural sense, this term 
 applies to watering by artificial means. It has, ever since 
 the time of white settlement, been a subject of interest in 
 Australia, and irrigation has been carried out sufficiently 
 for pastoral, general farming, and gardening purposes, to 
 supply sufficient data to work on. Then Southern Europe, 
 California, Utah, Colorado, Mexico, India, Syria, Egypt, 
 even the South Sea Islands afford further details of use 
 to the progressive agriculturist. From the time of the 
 Romans onwards, works have been constructed for water 
 storage for irrigation purposes a very different arrange- 
 ment from water storage for cities, both as to cost, and the 
 quality of the water. 
 
 Methods of Irrigation. They are very various. 
 From the earliest times, water has been applied to plants 
 when the rainfall was not sufficient for the purposes of the 
 agriculturist. The defined methods of applying water 
 are by sprinkling all over the plants ; by saturating or 
 soaking the soil without sprinkling, and by a combination 
 of both processes. The basin system is suitable for sandy 
 and gravelly soils, and is followed extensively in California. 
 
 Advantages and Disadvantages. Sprinkling seems 
 the more natural method. It is most like rain. The 
 disadvantages of sprinkling are that sediment and mineral 
 substances in the water dry upon or crystalize on growing 
 plants, and may destroy them by closing the breathing 
 pores. When water is used on the soil only, this risk is 
 avoided, and water may be used in that way with excellent 
 effect, which would be destructive if used the other way. 
 There is also an immense difference in the cost of the 
 methods of applying water. 
 
 Irrigation and Drainage. The chapters no drain- 
 ing and cultivation explain how necessary and beneficial it 
 is to have rain water sink into the soil to the full depth 
 to which the roots penetrate. The same rule applies in 
 irrigation. The water, put it on in which way we may, 
 must sink into the soil, and do its work through the
 
 IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 137 
 
 agency of drainage, natural or artificial, or irrigation is 
 worse than wasted labor. The most effective irrigation is 
 where the soil is saturated from the surface to the subsoil, 
 and is on the move all through. Any layers of dry earth 
 under the wetted surfaces would be ruinous to the crop, 
 whether it were grass, corn, potatoes, fruit, or flowers. 
 We must soak the soil right through. 
 
 Quantity of Water for Grass, Crops, Fruits, &c. 
 The nature of the soil and the crops will regulate the quantity 
 of water necessary. Grass may be effectively irrigated by 
 the application of 5 inches of water during a dry season 
 in which no rain falls. Sugar cane, to make a full crop of 
 40 to 60 tons per acre, requires 30 inches ; maize, 14 
 inches; potatoes, 12 inches.; orchards, 10 inches. The 
 Chinese use about 10 inches, and they water all the 
 year round. Heavy yields of wheat are got from 7 inches 
 of irrigation water. When rain falls during the irrigation 
 time, half an inch of rain has wonderfully brightening 
 effects upon the irrigated crops, and does more good than 
 double the quantity of water by irrigation. 
 
 " But, an Inch of Water ?" For ordinary purposes, 
 25,000 gallons is reckoned as an inch, and is estimated 
 to cover an acre, 1 inch deep. Whether we get the 
 water by pumping, or by other means, we have to 
 allow for 10 Ibs. per gallon as being the weight, and the 
 calculation is useful in working out systems of pumping, 
 or carrying water over tressels, &c. An inch of water 
 saturates soil from 3 to 6 inches, according to its condition. 
 
 Sources of Supply. There are districts in Australia 
 where snow water supplies may be made available during 
 dry spells. But the rainfall has to be depended on in most 
 cases. Hence, water storage by damming rivers, creeks, 
 and water courses has to V>e seen to. Artesian supplies are 
 available where the geological formation is suitable, and 
 very valuable experiences are being gained through 
 the wells sunk in the western districts. Wrlls may 
 supply vast quantities where springs exist. Tanks are 
 used in other places. Rivers, creeks, and lagoons, as 
 storage places, supply the best irrigation water. Wells 
 may contain doubtful mineral substances
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICCLTURB. 
 
 All Water should be Analysed. This is an absolutely 
 necessary precaution before laying out land for irrigation, 
 or applying water to land for agriculture, and is especially 
 necessary before using well or sewerage water. 
 
 Irrigation from Wells At a huge strawberry 
 farm in Santa Clara, California, the author saw the effects 
 of irrigation from artesian wells, and the necessity that 
 exists for exposing water to the air before using it on crops. 
 In the case under notice an immense tank of concrete had 
 been raised some 10 feet above the level of the cultivated 
 land, which is level plain of great extent. In this tank 
 the well water was aerated, and mineral substances were got 
 rid of before the water was used. The elevation was suffi- 
 cient to give water pressure all over the cultivation land. 
 
 Irrigation by Soakage. This process is followed 
 usually where capital and skill are brought to bear, and is in 
 general favor. Very efficient work of that kind is in opera- 
 tion at the sewerage farm, at Botany, connected with the 
 Sydney water supply. The land is laid out in levelled 
 paddocks, fields, or beds. Crops, such as lucerne, are sown 
 
 Irrigating for Vegetables by Gravitation and Soakaue 
 
 either upon this levelled land or the land is laid up in 
 ridges by the plough, and the crops are planted or sown 
 upon the ridges. The water is brought upon the land at a
 
 IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 
 
 139 
 
 sufficiently high level 7 feet or higher to be run upon 
 the cultivation by gravitation. The soil is very porous, 
 originally it was barren sand, and the water sinks into it 
 rapidly, feeding the roots in its passage when the water 
 is suitable. At Mildura, and other settlements on the 
 Darling, soakage is the system followed. 
 
 Irrigation for Grass. Where water can be brought 
 upon pasture land at a sufficient elevation, it may be 
 allowed to trickle over the surface and sink into the land. 
 Comparatively steep land may be treated in this way. 
 
 Crop Irrigation. Where water is run upon cul- 
 tivated land, whether under field crops, orchard, or 
 vegetables, we have to be careful that the soil is not 
 washed away. In laying out the land, the channels 
 through which the water is to pass, opened by plough or 
 hoe, as A B in illustration, should not be steeper than 1 foot 
 
 DITCH <- 
 
 Furrows for Irrigating Field or Orchard. 
 
 in 10 ; 1 in 100 is better. Water runs effectively with a 
 fall of 6 feet per mile ; in all steeper gradients there are 
 risks of washing away the soil. 
 
 Irrigation Land with Gradual Fall. In the plan shown, 
 
 at upper end is the ditch, 
 flume, pipe, or other 
 source of water supply. 
 The arrow shows the 
 course of the water-flow. 
 Near the butt of the ar- 
 row, in the water course, 
 by a gate or other means, 
 the water is stopped and 
 tin- How directed into the 
 feeder, from which it is 
 led upon the ground in 
 furrows (A A A). At the 
 lower end of these fur- 
 rows it may be turned 
 (B B B) into the channels 
 
 
 A J 
 
 - THE FEEDER 
 
 Ji 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 A^, 
 
 LB 
 
 
 
 
 JI 
 
 
 
 
 JJ 
 
 
 
 
 JI 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 .B 
 
 
 
 *J 
 
 ^Ja 
 
 
 
 M^. 
 
 LU 
 
 
 
 - B 
 
 
 W^. 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 A Model Irrigation Paddock.
 
 140 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 between, or allowed to flow into the lower channel (shown by 
 arrow), and so returned to the ditch again. The most effective 
 irrigation is where all the water allowed to pass into the 
 feeder is absorbed or soaked into the soil, without allowing a 
 
 Irrigating by " Stepping " Process. 
 
 run of water at any point. Hilly, broken ground is not so 
 suitable fcr irrigation. The cost and labor of working 
 places of that kind increase rapidly as soon as we get a 
 greater fall than 1 foot in 25. The illustration shows how 
 a very awkward place has been treated. The water 
 
 Irrigating Hilly, Broken Ground. 
 
 brought in at I, which must be the highest part of the 
 land. B B are feeders from the main supply, and the water 
 is then carried along in still smaller channels (c c), follow-
 
 IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 
 
 141 
 
 ing the formation of the land, so as to allow it to soak in 
 without running, which would be more dangerous than in the 
 first instance cited. In cases where the water must be let 
 down to lower levels, in order to do what is necessary 
 that is, saturate the soil catchments or shallow wells 
 (H H) are made, and the overflow water from them used 
 in the still lower parts of the ground. At (c D E F G), 
 while the water is flowing, it is stopped and directed in 
 small streams as required upon the field. 
 
 Irrigating Hill Sides In order to irrigate land thor- 
 oughly, channels or furrows with very little 
 |^i^_^-jr|[ fall for the flow of water have to be laid out 
 by levelling instruments, and by this means 
 gf* ridges and inequalities are saturated by 
 
 1 _" y* ~"~ if carrying the water round their sides, by 
 ^j_= r ~ =H|H contouring. Water gates and sluices, for 
 admitting water from a ditch or other 
 water Gate. channel upon the land to be irrigated, 
 are of various forms. In the gate shown, the flow is 
 regulated by lifting one or more of the pieces of wood 
 which slide between grooves in the side posts, and so 
 
 Irrigating bj Contouring. 
 
 allow the water to flow in, or be stopped, as may be 
 required. 
 
 Where Water is Scarce. Where but smallqtmntilies of 
 water are available, for soakage, the always abundant 
 supply of old fruit and jam tins may be brought into use 
 for home garden irrigation pretty much upon the plan by 
 which Mexicans and Egyptians supply water to plants
 
 142 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 by means of chatties. The arrangement answers best 
 when the crop is grown to some extent, and is then in 
 danger from dry weather. The tins, each having two or 
 three small holes punched in the bottom, are set out 
 
 Helpful When Water is Scarce. 
 
 amongst the growing vegetables. At nightfall, and again 
 during the day, the tins are filled, and the water enters the 
 earth slowly. The rate of distribution can be regulated by 
 settling the tins deep or shallow into the soil. But, simple 
 and crude though the arrangement may look, it has been 
 the means of keeping up supplies of vegetables where, 
 without this help, there could have been none. Self-help 
 is the lever of success in agriculture. 
 
 Sub-Irrigation. Some acres of drain pipes have been 
 laid down on the Government ground at Rookwood, for 
 combined drainage and sub-irrigation. For the latter 
 purpose the pipes can be filled from the highest level, so 
 that by closing up the outlet, the water may rise to 
 the roots of grass, field, garden, or orchard crops. 
 There is also another plan available for making the most 
 of waste water, or where small quantities only are 
 available. A box is fitted in a convenient place, and 
 from the box pipes are put down so that garden stuff 
 can be grown over them, the roots being supplied in this 
 way. 
 
 What Experience Says. Irrigation for crops can be 
 successful only where the soil is thoroughly drained, either 
 naturally, by having an open sub-soil, or artificially by 
 means of drains. California, Colorado, Utah, and other
 
 IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 143 
 
 States of the Union, with climate very much like that 
 of Australia, have advanced rapidly with irrigation. 
 Victoria, our neighbour, is also moving ahead, as are a 
 few enterprising men both in New South Wales and 
 Queensland. Irrigation is applied successfully for grain 
 crops, grass, orcharding. &c. The mechanical engineering 
 principles involved are not difficult to work out. The 
 papers and reports from officers in the Water Department 
 are helpful in that direction. From lake, river, or dam, 
 water is led in open ditches with a batter of about 45 
 degrees, where the fall does not exceed 6 feet per mile. 
 Where the fall is greater, or gullies, &c., have to be crossed, 
 flumes made V shape, and of timber, or close pipes of 
 wrought iron or steel (made up to 40 inches diameter) are 
 used. Ploughs and scoops are employed with good effect 
 in opening out the ditches. When the water is got to the 
 place where it is to be used, it is brought upon the land 
 with as little run or fall as possible, otherwise it would 
 quickly cut the land into gullies, wash away the soil, and be 
 worse than a dry spell. What is termed stepping is used 
 where steep land has to be crossed. The steps are made 
 by putting logs or boards across the ditch so as to raise 
 the water a foot or so. The water from each terrace flows 
 out from a bevelled notch in the centre of the log, which is 
 really a dam. Efficient levelling, when the water can be 
 run upon land, may be regulated by the water itself, 
 always being careful not to allow it to run too fast, nor cut 
 away the soil. In practice, it is found the best course to 
 saturate the soil say two, three, or more times during a 
 season, rather than to wet the surface oftener. For wheat 
 and other grains, two saturations are found ample to 
 secure crops ; once after the seed is in, and again 
 when the crop is in flower. But much depends upon the 
 soil and the season. There is no hard ami fast rule for 
 guidance. 
 
 Water Storage In Australia, river and creek beds 
 offer inducements for storing water. Where the fall of the 
 land is 1 foot in 50, or less, immense bodies of water may 
 be impounded by laying logs across, or l>y " stepping. ' 
 Heavier works are formed by earth, having an inside wall
 
 144 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGUICULTORE. 
 
 of clay a " puddle wall." Stone, concrete, and timber 
 
 are all in use for the same purpose. 
 
 Wells. In the sedimentary and other geological 
 
 formations which hold 
 water so that it can 
 be got by sinking 
 or boring wells, heavy 
 supplies are got. Then 
 boring augers, diamond 
 drills, and other con- 
 trivances are used for 
 reaching the water- 
 water BjrinK Gear. bearing strata or vein. 
 
 Tubes of metal are in places set in as lining to 
 
 the wells, and pumping is employed, unless the flow 
 
 reaches the surface, as the case is in the western districts, 
 
 in Gippsland and other parts. The cost varies from 15s. 
 
 per foot to 3. 
 
 Tube and Pumping Wells. 
 
 Tube wells have been driven with 
 
 success in various parts, where the 
 
 formation is suitable, and are found 
 
 to answer admirably where a 
 
 limited supply of water is sufficient. 
 
 When sunk and in contact with a 
 
 water giving stratum or spring, 
 
 pumping has to be resorted to. The 
 
 pointed tube goes with comparative 
 
 ease through sand, loam, gravel or 
 
 clay ; but when rock is met the 
 
 tube may be withdrawn it will 
 
 bend if forced too much. A likely 
 
 place for water being selected, the 
 
 tubes lengths of ordinaiy iron- 
 
 piping are arranged for driving. 
 
 Into one of the lengths is screwed 
 
 a piece of solid iron, pointed, 
 
 about eight inches long, and the 
 
 shoulder next the pipe is made of a 
 
 greater diameter than the pipe. 
 
 Tube or Driven Well.
 
 IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 145 
 
 This is for driving into the ground, and this pointed part 
 being greater than the pipe, it clears the way. Just above 
 where this solid point is screwed, holes are drilled in the 
 pipe along sixteen or eighteen inches of its length. The 
 number of these holes must of course be in proportion to 
 the size of the pump, so as to admit as much water as the 
 pump is capable of taking up. A No. 6 Douglas pump is 
 as large as can be reasonably worked by manual labour. 
 In order to protect the top of the pipe as well as the 
 driving block from injury by the blows in driving, a cap 
 which screws on to the ends of any of the pipes is fitted, and 
 upon it the forcing power is applied, care being exercised 
 in seeing that the blows are struck fair by a maul or 
 driving monkey, and that the pipe is not bent. 
 
 When Water is Reached. When the tube well pipe is 
 driven to a depth where water may be expected, it is useful 
 to let down a plummet to try for water. When the 
 plummet comes up wet, it may be well to screw on the 
 pump and try whether merely soakage water is reached, or 
 whether it comes from a spring. In a well put down in this 
 way, at a depth of 20 feet, 8 feet of water was got. The pipe 
 was then driven to 26 feet, and the water rose 20 feet in the 
 tube. At first it came up but slowly, mixed with sand, and 
 there was great pressure on the handle. It required several 
 hours' work before the water became clear and came with 
 a free flow. But the success of the pump may be judged 
 from the fact that two tanks, containing each 400 gallons, 
 were filled in an hour and a quarter, the pump throwing 
 out the water as fully at the end as in the beginning, 
 showing that the water found was fully equal to a pipe of 
 2 inch bore. There is not much difficulty in lifting these 
 pipes, when that is necessary. Get a sapling or piece of 
 timber for a lever, say 15 feet long; put a bullock-chain 
 round the pipe, with the hook to run on the chain ; roll the 
 other ond round the lever. When the end of the level" is 
 lifted, the chain tightens on the tube so thoroughly that it 
 does not slip, and the tube can be drawn with a strong lift of 
 the lever. When the end of the lever is lowered after the first 
 lift of the pipe, the chain round the pipe slips down, and 
 when the lever is again lifted it tightens round the pipe, so
 
 146 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 that it takes the pipe up gradually, without any readjust- 
 ing or re-fixing of the chain. 
 
 Helpful in Driving Pipes or Stakes. 
 
 The usual method of driving pipes, 
 
 stakes, &c., is to strike them on the 
 
 upper end with a maul or other heavy 
 
 hammer. When driving long poles or 
 
 the pipes of a tube-well this mode is 
 
 impracticable. But the driving, if in 
 
 sandy or soft ground, may be done 
 
 quickly, and without a high step or 
 
 platform, by using the device shown in 
 
 the illustration. This consists of a 
 
 block of tough wood 1 foot in length, 
 
 4 or 5 inches square at the top, made 
 
 tapering as shown, with the part next 
 
 the pipe slightly hollowed out. Take a 
 
 common trace-chain, wind closely about 
 
 the pipe or pole, and hook it in 
 
 position. With maul, axe or sledge, 
 
 strike upon the block. Each blow serves 
 
 only to tighten the grip of the chain. To keep the chain from 
 
 falling to the ground when unfastened from the pole it should 
 
 pass through a hole bored through the block, as shown at B, 
 
 one end of the chain being fixed on staple, E. 
 
 Pumping. Centrifugal and various others pumps are 
 
 used for raising water ; the quantity, height for delivery, 
 
 sizes of pipes, flumes, &c., being matters of calculation and 
 
 engineering skill, which are dealt with fully in many works 
 
 on that subject. 
 
 Water as a Pumping 
 Power. In places where there 
 is plenty of water, or where 
 from 8 to 12 parts of what 
 passes through a water raising: 
 machine can be used that one 
 part might be raised, then 
 hydraulic, turbine and other 
 machines may be used with 
 
 Hjdmnlic Water Rair. good effect. The Water in
 
 IRRIGATION AND WA1ER STORAGE. 
 
 147 
 
 these contrivances is the force used for lifting. In the case 
 of the ram or lifter illustrated, the water is admitted at 
 b, and enters an air chamber a through valve e until there 
 is pressure enough to lift the valve d, when the flow escapes 
 until the valve again drops. Meanwhile the water confined 
 under great air pressure in a is forced into the pipe c, where 
 it finds outlet into tanks or other storage places. 
 
 Windmills. In many parts of the 
 country these wind engines do excellent 
 work. The requirements to make them 
 effective are a well fixed mill of sufficient 
 size, set on a well braced tower, an effective 
 lift and force pump, and tank space to 
 hold a body of water sufficient for irriga- 
 tion purposes. Much experience has been 
 gained in this country concerning the 
 capacity of wind engines of different sizes, 
 for raising water to any exent, where the 
 supply is available, and also concerning the 
 sizes of pipes that are suitable. 
 
 Self-acting Syphons. By so arranging 
 a syphon, set in a tank, that when full 
 the water will overflow, the syphon thus 
 started will flow until the supply is 
 exhausted. Thus windmill and tanks can be made self 
 acting, and supply irrigation water with very little labor 
 and outlay. 
 
 Watering Plants in a Dry Spell. Each plant has its 
 requirements. Some do with very little ; others want all 
 they can get. But none can live without water, not even 
 the rock lily or flannel flower, which seem to exist upon 
 dry, barren stones or gravel ; yet, even the greatest absorbers 
 of water, as sugar cane, maize, potatoes, water cress, or soft 
 annuajs may get too much. Much disappointment arises from 
 mistaken ideas concerning the watering and the way iu 
 which water is applied. Pot plants suffer seriously from 
 too much watering, as do plants in the bush-house and 
 conservatory. The general principle with which we have 
 to deal in using water by artificial means applies to field 
 crops equally with pot plants. In the early days of 
 
 Windmill for 
 Pumping.
 
 148 AUSTBALtAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 irrigation, in California, large areas of young wheat were 
 destroyed by over-watering, and for a time it was thought 
 that irrigation for wheat would not answer there ; watering, 
 it was said, brought on rust, but skill overcame that 
 mistake the watering had been overdone. The capacity 
 of all plants to take up water is dependent very largely 
 upon the extent of their roots ; so that, in watering, say a 
 bush-house, we may be starving some and drowning others, 
 while we continue to serve all alike, by using the sprinkling 
 pot or hose upon them. Thus, a young begonia may be 
 gorged with water, while its full grown sister alongside is 
 starving ; or it may be that a plant has not been shifted 
 and that its ball has been over-crowded with roots, and 
 after being repotted, all the water may pass through the 
 new soil while the interior of the hardened ball is dry, and 
 in that state it is so much slower in absorbing water. In 
 this way, shade-tree plants newly set out ; may be starved 
 for want of water. As a rule, the larger the leaf surface 
 of plants or the quicker they grow, the more water is 
 required. Plants with narrow leaves, or that grow slowly, 
 do not require water to the same extent. The quantity 
 of water required also depends to a great extent 
 on the situation in which they are growing ; thus, in the 
 moist atmosphere of a conservatory, evaporation from the 
 leaves is much less than in an airy bush -house. So with 
 wheat in comparison with maize, less water requires to be 
 pumped up by the wheat from the soil, and it is, therefore, 
 not necessary to give water so often. Among active water 
 absorbers are the ferns that naturally belong to moist, 
 mossy situations ; most of the orchids, when in baskets or 
 pots, require to have their roots kept constantly moist while 
 in a state of growth, though they endure almost complete 
 dryness when dormant. Various of our indigenous plants, 
 as rock lilies, staghorns, &c., although able to resist an 
 almost absolute condition of drought, yet to bring them to 
 perfection a regular supply of water must be given when 
 they are in a state of growth ; for, though they do not lose 
 much moisture by evaporation or breathing, a large 
 supply is needed to fill the tissues of the growing shoots or 
 leaves.
 
 IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 149 
 
 When Plants are at Rest. Mistakes in the watering 
 may be made during the resting as well as the growing 
 period. Nearly all tropical and most of our Australian 
 native plants rest during seasons of drought, and start into 
 growth with the advent of rain ; the contrary being the 
 case with plants of temperate and cold regions, where the 
 soil contains the greatest amount of moisture during the 
 winter or resting season, and they are thus well provided 
 for on the advent of spring, which is the time when 
 irrigation would be most useful in Australia. 
 
 Temperature of Water. The temperature of water is 
 very important. It is best when the same as the air for the 
 time being, and may frequently be higher with advantage, 
 but water that is much colder than the air temperature is 
 injurious to plants. 
 
 XIV. LIVE STOCK IN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 GRAZING-FARMING. Agriculture as practised, and as be- 
 lieved to be best for the warmer sections of Australia, differs 
 considerable from that followed in other parts of the world 
 similarly situated with regard to climate. In many 
 parts of the country it would be considered folly to attempt 
 cultivation without sheep ; and cattle help in much the 
 same way. It is only the larger grazier or squatter who 
 depends upon the native grasses for his herds or Hocks ; and 
 cultivation is receiving more attention from graziers every 
 year, for no branch of agriculture is at the mercy of the sea- 
 sons to an equal degree with that of the squatter who depends 
 solely upon indigenous vegetation. The agriculturist 
 who combines cuttle or sheep with his tillage ope- 
 rations is not only secured in the benefits incidental 
 to live stock, but the manure made by them 
 lessens the effects of bad seasons by increasing the fertility 
 of his fields and the capacity of his land to withstand a 
 dry spell.
 
 150 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Better Prospect. It is a source of much hopeful- 
 ness regarding the future of the warmer sections of 
 Australia that farming is already carried on with more full 
 knowledge of the relations between highly-cultivated fields 
 and success. Draining, subsoiling, and manuring are 
 receiving more attention. Consequently horses, cattle, and 
 sheep are in much favour among the farming classes. The 
 practice most in favour is to use the native grasses largely 
 during summer, to cultivate for winter feed, and to have the 
 common run of cattle or sheep as the basis of the herd or 
 flock, resorting to thoroughbred male animals for improving 
 or keeping up the quality. When feeding is attended to 
 from the start, and shelter is provided against the changes 
 of climate felt in warm as well as in colder climates, the 
 groundwork of success is secured. The making of manure 
 is a primary object with the grazing-farmer, and he sells 
 when his stock brings a fair profit. Those who follow this 
 system may get no hundreds for a single animal, nor do 
 the animals sold " cost more than they come to." There 
 are, and will, we trust always be numbers of gentlemen who 
 have the time, the means, and the taste for breeding fine 
 stock, cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, &c., and to warrant them 
 in maintaining the herds and studs needed for the supply 
 of the active demand always existing ; and in case it should 
 cost some of them a few thousands for the gratification of 
 a worthy desire in this direction, nobody is much hurt. 
 But with the ordinary grazier or farmer who practises 
 mixed husbandry as a business rather than specialities, the 
 condition is different. The experimenting has been done 
 for him ; on a large scale it is always risky. 
 
 The Stock Available. In this branch of agriculture 
 Australia has followed very close upon the lines of the 
 mother land. The noble cattle of England and Scotland, 
 the massive stately, handsome breeds are all here the 
 Shorthorns, the Herefords, the Devons, the red-polled cattle 
 of Norfolk and Suffolk, Longhorns from the early impor- 
 tations, South Devons, " South Hammers," an offshoot of 
 the Devons, North Devons, " cobs," plump, lively, enduring, 
 active and decidedly pretty. Then we have the larger 
 Welsh breeds, the polled breeds of Scotland and the
 
 IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 151 
 
 handsome, shaggy rugged West Highlanders, so suggestive 
 of mountains and forests and heather-clad moors. The 
 notable dairy breeds of Europe dealt with in the chapters 
 on dairying the Ayrshires, Jerseys, Kerrys, Holsteins.have 
 all found favour. The breeders here are not stinted in 
 the material they have to operate on. 
 
 Points in Breeding. That from the male parent is 
 mainly derived the physical strength and structure and 
 outward characteristics, and the locomotive system. From 
 the female parent, the internal structure, the vital organs, 
 and in a much greater proportion than from the male, the 
 constitution, temper, and habit, in which endurance and 
 " bottom " are included. That the purer the race of the 
 parent the more certainty there is of its transmitting its 
 qualities to the offspring. Say, two animals are mated, and 
 where one is of purer descent than the other, then, he or she 
 will exercise the most influence in stamping the character of 
 the progeny, particularly when the greater purity is on the 
 side of the male. That apart from disturbing influences or 
 causes, the male, if of pure race and descended from a stock 
 of uniform colour, stamps the colour of the offspring. That 
 the influence of the first male is not unfrequently protracted 
 beyond the birth of the offspring of which he is parent, and 
 his mark is left upon subsequent progeny. That the 
 transmission of disease of the vital organs is most likely if 
 on the side of the female, and diseases of the joints if on 
 the side of the male parent. 
 
 The physiology of life in relation to domesticated 
 animals and birds, the question of the distinctive influences 
 of the sexes, is of essential importance to the stock-breeder 
 in all branches, from horses to poultry and pigeons. That 
 each sex has an allotted part in stamping the offspring 
 with hereditary properties becomes obvious in every stage, 
 but how and to what extent the distinctive attributes are 
 made dominant is not so clear. Experiments in breeding 
 for the purpose of elucidating this mystery must be 
 conducted with due regard to the relative qualities of the 
 sexes. When one of a long-fixed type is mated with 
 another of mixed breeding, it follows almost for a certainty 
 that the influence of the former will overbalance that of
 
 152 AUSTRALIAN AQBICCLTDRE. 
 
 the latter. So that in experimentalising it is requisite to 
 select those only which may be said to start equal, when a 
 fixed result is aimed at. 
 
 A striking instance in support of this observation was 
 presented in the poultry yard, where very close tests of 
 this nature can be made. The case was with a well-bred 
 brown Leghorn male, mated with two good light Brahma 
 hens. Twenty-six chickens resulted, fourteen of them 
 cockerels, twelve pullets. The hen chicks were small-boned 
 brown birds, as much alike as possible, with little or no 
 feathers on their legs, everyone without exception a 
 presentable reproduction of their grandmother, the pure 
 brown Leghorn hen. The fourteen cockerels developed 
 into tine birds, very similar in appearance to each other, 
 big-boned, stalking, muff-legged, of decided Brahma type, 
 and excepting for a few dark feathers on the backs and 
 spotted beaks of a few of them, they might be taken for 
 the lineal descendants of their maternal grandfather, the 
 light Brahma, none showing more than a trace of Leghorn 
 blood. They all follow almost closely the lines found 
 correct in so many cases as to the reproductive influences 
 of the sexes. The study of the science of reproduction 
 is at once important and interesting. Perhaps the fore- 
 going may induce younger breeders when selecting 
 their stock to make careful enquiries as to the properties 
 of the parents, as upon these in a great measure will 
 the qualities of their stock depend. 
 
 Shorthorns. " The Durhams, as they were originally 
 termed, and by which name they are still generally known 
 in the bush districts of Australia, were originally confined 
 to the counties of Durham and York, in England. They 
 were large, loose, short-horned cattle, in the early times 
 celebrated as milkers. Although the .shorthorns of the 
 present day bear very little resemblance to the original 
 Durhams, there can be no question but that they are the 
 same breed of cattle. The breeders on the banks of the 
 river Tees, favored by their rich soil, by practising careful 
 selection, soon moulded them into a different and almost 
 distinct type, and they then became celebrated throughout 
 Great Britain as the Teeswater cattle. It is claimed for
 
 LIVE STOCK IN AUSTRALIA. 158 
 
 the shorthorns that they mature earlier, fatten more 
 kindly, and produce a greater amount of superior meat, 
 with less proportionate amount of bone and offal than any 
 other variety of cattle. As milkers they stand unrivalled 
 by all except the Ayrshire and Jersey or Alderney. The 
 prevailing colours are red, red and white, white and roan. 
 The light roan body and dark roan neck, with red or 
 brown- tipped ears, is the favorite colour with Australian 
 cattle owners. The latter is perhaps the prevailing colour 
 of the Booths, whilst the dark red, characteristic of the 
 Duchess family, is preferred by many in the Bates' strain. 
 
 Herefords. Next to the shorthorns, the Herefords, or 
 " white faces," are considered the most valuable of modern 
 beef cattle. They are proving amongst the best for export 
 shipping. Unlike the shorthorns, however, which have at 
 times been denominated an " artificial " breed, the Herefords 
 may be considered an aboriginal race, having been bred up 
 to their present state of perfection quite within their own 
 blood. Originally, the Herefords were brown or red- 
 brown, without any white, but for nearly a century the 
 white face has been a characteristic of the breed. The 
 improved Herefords, until late years, were of a light, 
 almost 3 r ello\vish, red ; but the fashionable colour of the 
 present time is a dark red, white face and crops, and 
 in most instances white dewlaps. The Hereford of the 
 present day is a magnificent animal for the butcher, pos- 
 sessing in a marked degree the propensity to lay on flesh, 
 particularly on the hind quarters. So much is this the case 
 that to the symmetrical eye they appear groas, and lack the 
 beautiful appearance so much a characteristic of the 
 shorthorns. They are poor and inferior milkers, and it has 
 been observed that their calves do not withstand rough 
 usage so well as the Durhams. But it is claimed for the 
 Herefords that they are better adapted for our coast lands 
 than the shorthorns ; and that they mature earlier on our 
 natural pasturage, l>eing as a rule fit for the butcher at 
 four years. It is also claimed for them by their admirer* 
 that they travel letter to market than the shorthorns ; but 
 this is stoutly denied by the shorthorn men. It cannot, 
 however, be denied, that if we take the market prices as a
 
 154 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 guide, they are held in even greater esteem by the butchers 
 m these colonies than the shorthorns ; although this is not 
 the case at Smithfield. For purposes of improving other 
 breeds, the Herefords are in no respect equal to the 
 shorthorns. 
 
 Devons. Like the Herefords, the Devons, " The Reds," 
 have been preserved pure from the aboriginal cattle inhabi- 
 ting North and South Devon. They are also proving hardy 
 for shipping purposes. The breed were formerly known 
 as the " Middle Horns." They are considerably smaller 
 than either of the previously described breeds, and were, 
 until recently, comparatively little known in Australia. 
 They are now, however, fast rising into notice. It has 
 been said that the grand secret of breeding is to suit the 
 breed to the soil and climate, and where the fattening of 
 cattle is limited solely to natural herbage, the Devons 
 would appear eminently suited to thrive where larger and 
 less hardy breeds cannot hold their own so well. The Devons 
 are better milkers than the Herefords, and next to the Sussex 
 they make the best and most effective workers. In color 
 the Devons are dark-red, without a spot of white. Their 
 skin is somewhat thin, but not delicately so, and they feel 
 and handle like a glove. They are more what a breeder 
 would call " pretty " with fine bone ; but without the 
 squareness of outline so justly appreciated in the 
 shorthorns and Herefords. 
 
 Hornless or Polley Cattle. The development of the cattle 
 export trade is attracting more attention to the polleys. 
 They have long been in favour in New Zealand, and to a 
 lesser extent in Australia. They are gentle and thrive well 
 under the conditions that develop high-class shorthorns. 
 So far dehorning the cutting off of horns, or the dissolving 
 of young horn material by acids has not been practised 
 here to any extent as yet. The true polleys are the 
 favourites for hornless cattle. 
 
 As Beef Yielders. The relative merits of the beef stock 
 may be gathered from the following details of a recent 
 Smithfield Show : The top weights were Shorthorns, 
 23cwt. Iqr. 71b.; Hereford, 23cwt. 201bs.: Sussex, 23cwt. 
 3qrs. 121bs.; Highland, 21cwt. 3qrs. 161bs.; polled, 21cwt.
 
 LIVE STOCK IN AUSTRALIA. 155 
 
 3qrs. 161bs.; Devon, IScwt. 2qrs. 271bs.; cross (shorthorn 
 and polled), 27cwt. It will thus be seen that this short- 
 horn polley cross topped the shorthorns and Herefords by 
 nearly 4cwt. and the Devons by nearly S^cwt. 
 
 Crosses. By this term is not meant the indiscriminate 
 use of two or more varieties of cattle in the same herd, 
 with the hope of ultimately establishing a fixed breed 
 midway between the two. Any attempt in that direction 
 will result, as it has always done, in disappointment. 
 Between certain breeds, however, a first cross produces a 
 better animal for the butcher than even the very best pure 
 varieties, but it does not follow that a cross between two of 
 the largest varieties will result in the production of the 
 loeat and heaviest ox. On the contrary, experience has 
 shown that a cross between the shorthorn and Hereford, 
 although these are individually the two most valued 
 breeds, does not equal the cross between the shorthorn and 
 Devon, and is far inferior as a butcher's ox to a first-class 
 cross with the shorthorn and Highland cattle. But 
 unquestionably the most valuable cross, both for the butcher 
 and breeder, is that between a shorthorn bull and the 
 Aberdeen black-polled cow. A reference to the reports of 
 the Smithtield Club experiences show that this cross has 
 reigned supreme for many years, not only as regards weight 
 and the small proportion of bone and offal ; but the flesh 
 which is beautifully marbled, is superior to any other 
 known class of cattle, and they are therefore held in the 
 highest esteem in the London market. 
 
 To Succeed with Cattle. They all require rich feed 
 and plenty of it. This means good country, helped by 
 cultivation, which in turn means quiet cattle which can be 
 handled without wasting. 
 
 Live and Dead Weights. An average of dead to live 
 weight of cattle is 57 per cent, in an ordinary fat beast. This 
 percentage is frequently largely exceeded in stall-fed cattle 
 some having given as much as 71 per cent, of dead to live 
 weight ; but for ordinary bush fattened Australian cattle, 
 57 per cent, is fair. In very fat cattle, an odd one of 
 which may be found in most mobs, the percentage may 
 reach 60; occasionally, 61-62.
 
 156 itTBTRALIAN AGRrCTTLTURE. 
 
 Connection Between Live Stock and Soil. That 
 a knowledge of geology is desirable in laying out land for 
 stock-rearing, we have only to note some of the effects 
 evidently produced by soils. Whether speaking of horses, 
 cattle, or sheep, in either species we find a great many 
 really different varieties designated by the common 
 term of breeds. These have originated partly through 
 selection and cultivation, but chiefly by the influence of 
 soil and climate. Breeds owe their origin to these two 
 conditions to no inconsiderable extent. Sheep of the same 
 breed placed on different soils in Australia, in a few years, 
 become so much altered in appearance and in condition as to 
 be almost unrecognisable as belonging to the same family. 
 Much the same effects become apparent in cattle and horses. 
 All modern breeds correspond in size and weight with the 
 nature of the soil and the climatic conditions where 
 they were developed. All the established breeds tell the 
 tale of climate and feed. They may alter somewhat in 
 color, according to the tastes of the breeders; but the 
 animals are in reality what the soil and the feed grown on 
 that soil has made them. No amount of artificial feeding 
 or breeding has the same result. Nature has certain laws, 
 and none more strict than in the matter of breeding live 
 stock. Were it not for that limit which soil and climate 
 put upon races of animals, new breeds might be "evolved 
 indefinitely. Animal life essentially owes its originality to 
 the geological and chemical contents of the surroundings in 
 which " they live, and move, and have their being." No 
 breeder of live stock should overlook this great fact when 
 settling in a new locality, with the intention of breeding. 
 In cases where climate and soil are similar, stock can be 
 removed with safety and success from one district to 
 another, not otherwise, or failure is sure to follow. 
 
 Soil, Health, Diseases. And while soil influences are 
 proverbial in regulating the formation of breeds, they have 
 important influences upon the health. It has been 
 ascertained, for example, that in carboniferous country 
 certain diseases are prevalent, which are markedly absent 
 in other parts. This is in cases attributed to the presence of 
 lime, iron, &c., or their absence in other cases, which give
 
 SHEEP AND WOOL. 157 
 
 different results. Again, the sandstone and other formations 
 which are notably deficient in lime, are subject to many 
 diseases peculiar to them. When pleuro-pneumonia was 
 rife in America some years ago, it was then stated that on 
 farms where the cattle had access to water coming from 
 the limestone formation, there was the least infection of 
 animals from the disease, and the fewest deaths. Nearly 
 every district has its own individual experience with 
 diseases, which are affected largely, there is every reason 
 to believe, by the prevailing geographical surroundings. 
 Chemical analysis has revealed that the framework of 
 animal life is composed largely of minerals found in the 
 soil. Enough has been ascertained on these points to 
 encourage further investigation ; and it is hoped that 
 science may yet be able to map the area and region of 
 diseases as accurately as the different characters of the 
 surface soils. 
 
 XV. SHEEP AND WOOL. SMALL AND LARGE FLOCKS. 
 
 THERE has been enough done to prove that sheep can 
 be made to pay in flocks of hundreds as well as thousands, 
 and that the idea of the country being suitable only for 
 squatting, and dependence on the native grasses only is 
 amongst the notions of the past. Victoria and our own 
 southern districts offer striking examples of successful 
 changes from the old style of squatting to a system of 
 grazing-f arming. The bulk of the cattle and sheep raised 
 there are on sections of less than 2,000 acres. Some of the 
 most successful men carry on operations on less than 500 
 acres ; though for years we were assured that in the hands of 
 farmers the staple product of export wool was to 
 disappear or become so worthless as not to pay for carriage 
 to the European market ! Beyond this, the carcase was 
 thoroughly to deteriorate. Of course, no one with any 
 exercised sense believed such extreme views, and none
 
 158 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 without an overpowering or interested motive ever sought 
 to make converts to them. Time has gone on, and we read 
 in a report of one of the largest wool sales catalogued 
 in Australia that "the wool interest has changed its 
 character. A new set of producers has come into the 
 field." The catalogue consists of 1444 lots, representing 
 12,274 bales, nearly the whole of it the produce of farms in 
 Riverina, Pentland Hills, Bacchus Marsh, the Werribee, 
 Kyneton, &c. 
 
 SHEEP FOR WOOL THE MERINO. This celebrated 
 family, from the time that they first attracted attention 
 
 under their present family name, 
 may be considered as indigenous 
 to Spain. The Spanish merinos 
 were divided into two grand 
 families the Transhumantes, or 
 migratory sheep, which were 
 driven from the southern pro- 
 . vinces in April or May to the 
 mountains in the north, some 
 400 miles, and driven back again 
 in the autumn ; and the Estantes, 
 escurials, or stationary sheep, which remained on the 
 estates. 
 
 Introduction into Australia. This national event was 
 in 1797, and afforded an illustration of the hackneyed 
 saying, " It's an ill wind that blows no one good ;" for to 
 the circumstance of a Colonel Gordon at the Cape of Good 
 Hope having shot himself, Australia was indebted for her 
 first shipment of merino sheep. They had been presented 
 by the King of Spain to the Dutch Government, had 
 passed into the possession of Colonel Gordon at the Cape, 
 and at his death were sold by his widow, and shipped in 
 the war ships "Reliance" and "Supply" for Sydney. 
 They were of the escurial breed, and were considered very 
 superior. On their arrival, Captain Macarthur purchased 
 three rams and five ewes, and these formed the basis of his 
 celberated Camden flock. In 1805, Captain Macarthur, 
 when in England, purchased some of the Kew flock, 
 which had been presented to George III. by the Spanish
 
 SHEEP AND WOOL. 159 
 
 Government. Although inferior to Colonel Gordon's, these 
 were added to the Camden flock, and from these two lots 
 Australia has gradually risen to the first rank of the great 
 wool trade of the world. Mr. Cox, of Mulgoa, also 
 purchased some of Colonel Gordon's sheep, but he does not 
 seem to have been so successful with them as Captain 
 Macarthur. At a subsequent period, however, having 
 purchased the flock of Mr. Riley, of Raby, he added some 
 Rambouillet ewes from the French flocks, and removed 
 them to Mudgee, and from this dates the origin of the now 
 celebrated Mudgee flocks. 
 
 The Australian Merino. The flocks have been spread- 
 ing over the land ever since the Macarthur days. The 
 merinos being now, as then, the sheep for wool. 
 The experience of years has proven that merinos, 
 when well cared for, are as suitable for small 
 flocks as large. With the cessation of impor- 
 tations, the European names Saxon, Negritti, Rambouillet, 
 &c., have almost dropped, and the great family name of 
 Australian merino adopted. 
 
 Country for Wool. The wool of the Australian merino 
 varies in quality with the influence of climate and 
 pasturage, but it may be divided into two classes, combing 
 and clothing. Clothing wool is the class principally grown, 
 but of late years it has been found that a large portion of 
 the country lying on the western slopes of the main 
 dividing ranges favours the growth of a staple considerably 
 longer than that recognised by the manufacturer as clothing, 
 hence many breeders so situated have adopted, and with 
 great success, the growth of the longer combing wools. In 
 the far inland and saltbush districts, a medium combing 
 has been found profitable. The coast lands have been 
 found unsuitable for the merino, and are being gradually 
 brought under cattle. But here, as in other lands, quality 
 of soil has its decided effect on wool. 
 
 Sheep for Mutton. These are the coarser wool 
 producers, with heavier frames, and giving a carcase more 
 suitable than the merino.s for European consumers. The 
 development of chilling and freezing and export of livestock 
 have given an impetus to the breeding of mutton sheep 
 which was quite unforeseen a few years since.
 
 160 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Leicesters. Of all the long-woolled, or as the 
 Americans term them, the mutton-producing varieties the 
 Leicester ranks first. As the Booth tribe of shorthorn 
 cattle have always been famous for the great improvement 
 their blood makes in a herd, so there are few varieties of 
 long-wools of the present day that have not been indebted 
 to the blood of the Dishley Leicesters for improvement in 
 shape and aptitude to fatten ; in fact, as has been quaintly 
 remarked, they have almost completely eaten up every other 
 long-woolled breed. To such extreme perfection has the 
 frame of this animal being carried, that one is lost in 
 admiration at the skill and good fortune of those who 
 worked out such an alteration. It would seem as if they 
 had chalked out upon a wall a form perfect in itself, and 
 then had given it existence. For a number of years 
 Leicesters have at various times been imported into 
 Australia and have been successfully bred in New South 
 Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand ; but it was 
 not until 1868 that the breed was finally established, and 
 their value in crossing with the merino thoroughly 
 demonstrated. 
 
 Lincolns. Next to the Leicester, the Lincoln is the 
 most valuable of the long- wools. Although at one time a 
 distinct variety, the Lincolns have of late years been so 
 modified and intermixed with the Leicesters that they may 
 now be dominated a sub-variety of the latter. The 
 Lincoln of the present day is a larger sheep than the 
 improved Leicester, with a heavier fleece of very lustrous 
 wool ; so much so that in some instances samples of 
 Lincoln wool have been mistaken for those of fine Angora 
 mohair. The Lincoln, however, has not the fine bone and 
 head, nor the same extreme white and beautiful silkiness 
 of hair on the face and legs as the Leicester. For purposes 
 of crossing, however, it is considered superior to the 
 Leicester, inasmuch as whilst giving an equally large 
 carcase, the fleece of the Lincoln-cwm-merinos are heavier 
 and much more lustrous, They are, therefore, held in 
 great esteem by the breeders on rich volcanic and 
 limestone country. 
 
 The Cotswolds rank next to the Lincolns; but
 
 SBE1P AND WOOL. 161 
 
 although the largest of any known variety of sheep, 
 ihey are not on that account considered the most suitable for 
 these colonies. It may interest some to know that the 
 name of this family originated from the circumstance of 
 their having been housed in cots or sheds in winter, and 
 from being grazed over wolds or hilly grounds in summer. 
 The Cotswolds can be traced back as a pure and distinct 
 -variety to an earlier date than any other breed of British 
 :sheep ; but within the last quarter of a century they have 
 greatly modified, and lost many of their original character- 
 istics by repeated infusions of the Leicester blood. The 
 wool is coarse and open, and it has been found, in the 
 .southern colonies, that they do not amalgamate well with 
 the merino. It is a peculiarity of the three last described 
 varieties that, when fattened, the ewes are heavier 
 than the wethers, by amounts varying from lOlb. to 
 401b. 
 
 South Downs. They are also handsome sheep, with 
 clofie fleece of comparatively fine wool, speckled face and 
 legs dark, in some instances almost black. To one whose 
 eye has long been accustomed to the merinos, the 
 South Down would probably be more fancied at first 
 than any other of the longwool breeds. Unlike those 
 previously described, South Downs have been handed 
 down pure, any attempt at crossing with larger varieties 
 having resulted in failure. It was thought that the 
 South Downs would be well suited to the higher lands 
 in Australia, and consequently were at one time extensively 
 used in New England and Monaro ; but they were 
 superseded by the merino. 
 
 Kentish or Romney Marsh. This breed possesses 
 additional interest to us from the fact that it has been 
 found that they have the power to resist fluke and foot rot 
 better than other sheep, and on this account are considered 
 the best class for the coast lands of Australia, which may 
 be said to be subject to these diseases all along the south 
 and eastern seaboard. The Romney Marsh is a large 
 sheep, carrying a heavy fleece of long staple, but it lacks 
 the deep round chest of the Leicester, and cannot compare 
 either with the latter or with the Lincoln for symmetry.
 
 162 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Cheviot. The fact of this race of sheep inhabiting 
 and thriving well on the precarious and mountain pasturage- 
 of Scotland must stamp them as a very hardy race. The 
 Cheviot of the present day is a handsome animal weighing 
 from 1301b. to 1501b., capable of enduring great privations, 
 thriving equally well under the same conditions with 
 the hardy black-faced mountain sheep. On this account, 
 those who have had practical experience in their manage- 
 ment in Scotland, are of opinion that they would be 
 eminently suited to our broken, hilly country and coast 
 lands. . The wool of the Cheviot is coarser than that of the 
 South Down, but when crossed with the merino the 
 progeny has been found little inferior to that of the 
 Leicester, except that the fleece presents an appearance of 
 wanting yolk when on poor country or the feed is not 
 sufficient for their best development. 
 
 Crosses. It is found that a first cross between the 
 merino and a long-woolled variety produces an excellent 
 crossbred wool and a valuable sheep for the butcher or for 
 export, a sheep that matures much earlier than the merino. 
 The Leicester crosses are superior in carcase to those of 
 the Lincoln, while the latter excel the former in length 
 and lustre of wool. Both crosses are fit for the butcher at 
 from 16 to 18 months. When these crosses were confined 
 to a few breeders, very little demand existed for cross- 
 wools ; since, however, large numbers have embarked in 
 its production in the different Australian colonies, 
 sound crossbred wool has been adapted by the manu- 
 facturers to special purposes. It should, however, be 
 clearly understood that only the first cross are safe 
 while the sire and dam on both sides are pure of their 
 respective families. Beyond this, results will be disap- 
 pointing. If ewes of a first or subsequent grade are bred 
 from, it should be to pure males, so as to breed back to the 
 pure stock on either side; and if to Leicester or Lincoln 
 rams, the fourth or fifth generation will be tolerably pure 
 for general purposes. It has been said that " an attempt 
 to unite the fleece of the merino and the carcase of a 
 Leicester, for instance, is an unqualified absurdity." No- 
 crossbred males should, therefore, be used for stud 
 purposes.
 
 SHEEP AND WOOL. 163 
 
 CLASSIFYING WOOL. The illustration shows the 
 different parts or sections of a fleece. Sections 1 and 2 
 have the finest, longest, and strongest wools; sections 3 
 and 12 short but close ; 4, somewhat longer, but a shade 
 lower than 3 ; 5 and 6, good ; 8, lower still, and called the 
 britch or breech ; 7, good length, but rather lower in 
 quality than 1 and 2 ; 9, shorter, and loses vitality as 
 compared with better parts; 10, short, and generally 
 frowsey ; 11, shorter than 12 ; 13, the cap, dry and harsh ; 
 14, fribby and of little value; 9, 10, 11, 13, and 14 
 constitute the skirt. 
 
 Combing and Other Wools. The difference between 
 combing, clothing, and other wools is comparatively in the 
 length of staple. A combing wool is seldom less than 1$ 
 inch. A desirable arrangement or classification may be 
 made as follows : 1st. Super-combing from fleeces that 
 have a soft, silky appearance, strong and dense in the 
 staple, a considerable length and very bright. 2nd. First 
 combing from fleeces not so silky and dense in the staple, 
 but strong and bright. 3rd. Second combing, coarse long 
 wool, handling rather harshly. 4th. First clothing 5th. 
 Second clothing. 6th. Dingy : that is, sandy, stained and 
 cotty fleeces.
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Shearing and Sorting. It is necessary that the wool 
 be cut as nearly as possible to the same length all over. 
 When the shearer makes a cut which is not quite so near the 
 skin as the others, he should not be allowed to take it off 
 with a second cut, for that piece of wool is of no use in the 
 fleece, and if found there reduces its value ; but if left on 
 the sheep could be shorn off the following year to better 
 advantage. After the fleece is shorn, it should be spread 
 fleshside down, on a table made of battens placed an inch 
 apart, that all the small pieces of wool may fall below, and 
 leave the fleece perfectly free from locks. It then should 
 be carefully skirted, the stained parts taken off and put 
 by themselves ; then the hind legs and britoh, which also 
 should be kept separate, and called second pieces ; next the 
 fore legs and neck, and any other wool which is not of the 
 same quality as the fleece. These should also be kept by 
 themselves and classed as first pieces. The pieces may be 
 divided into five classes, viz.: First pieces ; second pieces ; 
 third, stained pieces ; fourth, belly pieces ; fifth, locks. 
 After the fleece has been properly skirted, it should be 
 rolled up, taking care to have the shoulder part on the 
 outside, as the best wool is on that part. 
 
 Sheep in Small Flocks. The merino continues, and 
 is likely to continue the leading breed in Australian sheep 
 farming. It is as suitable for small flocks as for flocks of 
 tens of thousands. But crossbreeds for farmers and export 
 purposes have many recommendations where the feed is 
 good enough, to bring on early lambs and carcases fit for 
 exporting. Such sheep first of all fill the requirements for 
 butcher meat in the owner's family. They clean up stubble 
 and land that will become foul from weeds developed 
 during cultivation, as no other stock do. And they enrich 
 the land for further cropping for grain, potatoes, grass, 
 &c. Of the many heavier framed sheep available for 
 crossing with the merinos, the improved Leicester is held 
 in high esteem by men in the wheat and dairy districts 
 inland, who farm heavy land. The Merino- Lincoln cross 
 gives very good returns. The wool of these crossbreds is 
 dense, of good fair average quality, and the sheep mature 
 rapidly on rich soil. The crossbred wethers at two years
 
 SHEEP AND WOOL. 165 
 
 old weigh from 601b. to 801b., and yield from 6lb. to lOlb. 
 of wool. 
 
 Butcher Lambs. They sell well when ready for the 
 botcher by August or September. That is, where they 
 have the feed, for lambs will not fatten on poor stuff. 
 
 The South Down Merino is very useful where lambs 
 only are required. They take on flesh rapidly, are well 
 shaped, deep and full in flesh. Possibly, the very best 
 sheep to breed butcher's lambs from is the first cross from 
 the Lincoln-Merino, again crossed by the South Down. 
 The progeny arrive at a good size, and weigh well very 
 quickly. But then, wool with the South Down cross in it 
 sells badly ; being shorter and harsher, and when once in 
 a flock, it will take a lifetime to breed it out. After the 
 first cross, we have to decide whether to breed for mutton 
 or wool. If for mutton, we must use coarse-woolled sires ; 
 if for wool, merino sires. But in either case pure bred 
 sires must be used. 
 
 Buying Sheep. We may work on store sheep all the 
 time, and never breed any. To one who does this, sheep 
 which fatten quickly are of first importance, for any wild 
 wethers accustomed to wide grazing, and which travel 
 long distances do not settle down comfortably in small 
 paddocks. Quiet sheep fit the case in preference to wild 
 station sheep. Small sheep are not desirable, not only for 
 their size for which the usual difference in price partly 
 compensates but because they seldom fatten well ; their 
 condition being weak, most likely they may have disease. 
 
 Risks from Poor Feed. Sometimes the beginner gets 
 a lot that puzzles him from their never getting " tip top." 
 On killing one of the poorest, we probably find the 
 stomach filled with felted balls of irregular size, caused by 
 taking indigestible feed, especially old tibry grass or leaves, 
 during long journeys in dry seasons. If the sheep are 
 young and the season early with plenty of sound feed, they 
 may partially recover, but if old or the grass is drying up, 
 there is no cure except the butcher's knife. 
 
 Points of Sheep. The most profitable sheep is the 
 most perfect the country will produce. This can only be 
 obtained by close attention and culling ; and to do this it
 
 166 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 is necessary to know the " points " of a sheep thoroughly. 
 The points of a carcase and they apply equally to merinos, 
 Leicesters, Lincolns, and others are depth, girth, a round- 
 ness of barrel, with ribs well sprung, thickness behind the 
 shoulders, breadth of forehead, and width between the eyes, 
 shortness of neck and legs, and general squareness of frame. 
 The sheep to avoid, are thin-necked, leggy, flat-sided narrow 
 made, small-footed, ill-shaped animals, with prominent, 
 staring eyes, and narrow, hard faces. The carcase of a 
 first-class Lincoln should be covered with a long, bright, 
 lustrous fleece, in length from eight to ten inches, free from 
 fuzziness, which denotes a bad merino cross ; so does 
 anything like wool on the face, which should be covered 
 with a soft, white hair. Horns also denote a cross of some 
 sort. Want of attention may quite spoil a flock by breeding 
 from mongrels. Possibly we cannot do better than buy as 
 many ewes as required full-mouthed (as few men will sell 
 their best maiden ewes), from some well-known station 
 breeder. But do not let us have any broken-mouthed or 
 sheep with defective teeth. The rams should be put in five 
 months before the lambs are wanted. 
 
 Weight of Australian Fleeces. Awards for fleeces 
 were made as follows at a recent exhibition at Wagga : 
 First, total weight 3 ewes' fleeces in grease, 351b. 7oz. ; 
 scoured, 211b. 14oz. Second, weight in grease, 301b. lloz. ; 
 scoured, 201b. 3|oz. Third, in grease, 361b. 4oz. ; scoured, 
 201b. llioz. Fourth, in grease, 331b. 9oz. ; scoured, 201b, 
 15|oz. Fifth, in grease, 321b. 13oz. ; scoured, 211b. 
 
 XVI. THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 HE lives much more in the open air than in Europe or 
 America. The climate allows of his being put upon grass 
 at all periods of the year. Consequently he is a much 
 sounder animal than where he is continuously stable fed. 
 The horses of Australia are noted for sound limbs and
 
 THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 167 
 
 rough ungroomed appearance, both due to the freedom 
 of life of the animals, and the excellent native pasturage. 
 
 Heads Show Character nnd Temper. 
 
 Buying a Horse. It may be said without egotism 
 that Australians know a good, serviceable horse when 
 they see him, as well as any people upon earth. And 
 notwithstanding all that is said about the deterioration of 
 
 horses, in comparison with 20 years 
 ago, there are a few places where a 
 good serviceable horse can be 
 picked up more easily than in Aus- 
 tralia. Good horses, both in look 
 and action, abound in the country 
 compact, hardy animals, which, 
 if light, are light all over; and 
 if heavy, then heavy all over. 
 The head, body, and limbs look as though they belonged 
 to one animal and in forming an estimate of the 
 appearance of any horse, we should pay attention to 
 this relative position of his body and limbs. The body 
 should give a distinct impression of being placed on 
 the limbs, not suspended between them. Where the body ia 
 placed on the limbs, the horse will have the power of
 
 168 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 doing his work within himself, as it is termed, and will 
 not be easily fatigued ; while the horse whose body is 
 swinging, as it were between his limbs, will have a 
 very slack, uncomfortable gait, and will be very easily 
 fatigued. He may have a showy action, which might 
 lead the casual observer to imagine that he was going 
 at a tremendous pace ; but a few miles of heavy work 
 makes him drag his legs heavily, and, in a long journey, 
 he gives up with downright exhaustion. 
 
 Horses are as different as men. In buying, look first 
 to his head and eyes, for signs of intelligence, temper, 
 courage and honesty. The eye should be well developed ; 
 hazel is a good colour. Unless a horse has brains, you 
 can't teach him more than a half-witted child. See that 
 tall bay there, a fine-looking animal too, fifteen hands 
 high. You can't teach that horse anything. Why ? 
 Well, I'll show you, but have a care of his heels. Look at 
 the brute's head, that rounding nose, that tapering fore- 
 head, that broad full face below the eyes. You can't 
 trust him. " That's an awful good mare !" may be said 
 of another. True as the sun. You can see breadth and 
 fulness between her eyes. You couldn't hire that mare 
 to act mean or hurt anybody. I like a small, thin ear, and 
 want a horse to hold his ears well foward. Look out for 
 the brute that seems to listen to all the conversation going 
 on behind him. The horse that turns back his ears till 
 they almost meet at the points is sure to be up to tricks. 
 A horse with a dishing face is cowardly, and a sulking 
 brute is always vicious. I like a square muzzle, with 
 large nostrils, to let in plenty of air to the lungs. So 
 much for the head. Next the build of the animal. Never 
 buy a long-legged stilty horse. A short, straight back 
 and a straight rump, are indications of a reliable type. 
 The withers high and the shoulders well set back and 
 broad. The foreleg short. A pretty straight, hind leg, 
 with the hock low down, short pastern joints and a 
 rounded foot. There are all kinds of horses, but the 
 animal that has these points is pretty sure to be 
 sightly, graceful, and, most likely is good-natured and 
 serviceable for the work that nature intended him for.
 
 THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA. 160 
 
 The Head Shows Character. Aye ! very much as a 
 man's does. Vice is shown in the eye and mouth ; 
 intelligence in the eye and in the breadth between the ears 
 and between the eyes ; spirit in the eye and in the nose, in 
 the mobile nostril and active ear. The size of the eye, the 
 thinness of the skiu, making the face bony ; the large, 
 open, thin-edged nostril ; the fine ear, and the thin, fine 
 inane and foretop are indications of high breeding, and the 
 development cf a high-strung nervous organisation, which r 
 with good limbs and muscular power, ensures a considerable 
 degree of speed in the animal. The first of the two 
 shown in page 167 is high-strung and mettlesome, with an 
 untrustworthy eye and a vicious mouth a powerful animal of 
 great endurance, but, being wilful, is hard to control. The 
 other is equally high-bred, with great breadth of forehead, 
 a large, full, friendly eye, not lacking in spirit. The 
 bony face indicates blood, the ear and thin-edged nostril 1 
 show spirit, while the whole expression of the face abounds- 
 in docility, kindliness, and honesty. We candidly confess- 
 we should greatly hesitate in buying a horse with a bad 
 doubtful-looking nouutenance, though many worthy men 
 and many well-disposed horses are unfortunate in this 
 particular. Wo may not value a friend the less for it; but 
 it would certainly not induce us to form an acquaintance 
 with the man so arranged without cogent reasons for so 
 doing. Books tell us what a perfect horse is, but they 
 do not quite tell us where to find him. So we have to look 
 out. Get a bridle on the horse and test him in his stall first. 
 Give the strap a sudden sharp jerk. When the horse throws 
 his head up, holds his neck stiff and ears rigid, and his eye 
 assumes a glassy look straight out from either side, he is 
 the stamp likely to put his feet through the dashboard, or 
 his fore feet over the other horse's neck, the first time you 
 hitch him up. When yon harness up a horse, and he turns 
 his head round flat towards the side, and looks at you with 
 a meek, lamb-like expression as you take your place in the 
 seat, if you have not a temper that is "child-like and bland," 
 you will probably put a head on that horse that will make 
 him look differently before you get far on your journey. 
 Balking or jibbing horses are of two kinds those which
 
 170 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 want to go too much and -those which don't want to go at 
 all. The first is the nervous, jibbing- horse ; the second 
 the sulky, balky horse. A good way to manage the first is 
 to unhitch him at the first manifestation of the evil spirit, 
 and without any blustering or whipping, get on his back 
 and run him about three miles at the top of his speed. Nine 
 times in ten a horse will, after this treatment, when put in 
 harness again, pull as steadily as the most sober-minded 
 old horse in the world. A very usual way to manage the 
 second kind, those experienced in horse dealing say, is to 
 trade him off to some one in want of a good, steady, 
 reliable, old family horse. A favorite, but not generally 
 successful plan, pursued with horses of either of these 
 types, is to pound them over the head with the butt of the 
 whin or with a sapling. This is useless, but natural. 
 There is nothing in animated natuie that can develop bad 
 bile in a man to such an extent as can an animal of this 
 kind. There is a legend of a man who hired a horse and 
 went out for a drive. The horse balked ; the man lighted 
 a cigar, took out a newspaper, settled himself back in the 
 cushions, and read two hours and forty-five minutes by his 
 watch. Then that horse got- ready to go, and the man 
 must have been pretty well prepared for a better world. 
 This process would be tiresome, but quite likely more effective 
 than rubbii:g dirt in the mouth of the sulky one or kindling a 
 fire under him. The latter sort of inducement to " go," has, 
 it is said, proved effective with confirmed jibbers. 
 
 Judging Age. What experiences there are in judging 
 the age of horses by the teeth ! While all the little black 
 cups or hollows are still in the teeth of the horse's lower 
 jaw, the animal is not over six years ; when those in the 
 corner teeth only are left, the horse is under nine. When the 
 cups are all gone in the under jaw, but are still left in the 
 teeth of the upper, the horse is probably not older than 
 ten, but this is not a certain rule. 'J he shape of the teeth 
 tells much to the experienced observer. In youth the 
 cutting surface of the tooth is long from side to side ; in 
 old age long from front to rear. When the cutting surface 
 of the teeth in the upper and lower jaws arc worn smooth, 
 and so long from front to rear a? to resemble in shape the
 
 THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 nails on yonr little finger, the horse is. probably not less 
 than 15, and perhaps 20 years of age. 
 
 Good Mothers, Good Stock. "Good horses, like great 
 men have good mothers." Reliable animals get their 
 
 goodness that way. 
 Speaking of that 
 most reliable of all, 
 the Clydesdales, 
 Topsman, Darnley, 
 Prince of Wales, and 
 Old Times, all of 
 them had excellent 
 *'%\ mothers, and of the 
 four only Prince of 
 Wales had a sire of 
 more than ordinary 
 merit. The early 
 improvers of cattle 
 fully recognised the 
 
 force of the above truism, and the pedigrees of cattle in 
 herd books are tabulated according to the dam's side. 
 
 Judging the Horse from the Foal. The future height 
 to which a newly-born foal will attain, when a full-grown 
 horse, may be approximately ascertained by doubling the 
 length of his fore limb, measured from the fetlock to the 
 elbow. From the knee to the ground the limb is near.y 
 the full length of the adult animal, but it is decidedly 
 shorter from the knee to the elbow than at maturity. 
 
 To Choose a Heavy Draught. The characteristics of 
 a good heavy draught horse are large deep chest, straight 
 shoulders, a little inclined to flesh, thick body, not too much 
 belly, straight loins, the hindquarters a little depressed, thick 
 through the thighs, and sound, sizeable feet. The horse 
 that has sound, well-formed legs, feet, aud chest, and 
 thick short muscles in the thigh, is strong and likely to be 
 steady in a heavy pull. The speed is not so material ; 
 there are draught horses that are quick, and those that are 
 slow. The steady, light horses are good for farm work 
 when the ground is light and even ; the heavy, slow horses, 
 with firm tread are excellent for new heavy ground, or on
 
 J72 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 bad, uneven roads. A horse for drawing loads, to be well 
 formed ought to be high in front, having high and projecting 
 withers, large chest, front legs strong and set well apart, 
 back and loins straight, hindquarters a little depressed, 
 muscular, short in the flank, large sinews. With such a 
 shape a horse is solid and able to resist knocks upon uneven 
 roads and the weight which presses when going down hill. 
 To be fiery is a fault in a plough horse, or for drawing heavy 
 loads on uneven roads. A strong, slower horse is better ; 
 he resists fatigue longer, and does more service. 
 
 Clydesdales and Suffolks. The Clydesdale is well 
 esteemed in Australia for heavy work, and for giving 
 strength to lighter animals. But in the eyes of not a few 
 good judges the Suffolk Punch is looked upon as the most 
 uniform of cart horses in shape, style, action and colour. 
 There is a theory that the generally-prevailing colour was 
 obtained long ago from a cross with horses imported from 
 Norway brought over by the " Hardy Norsemen." There 
 is not much similarity now existing between the Norfolk 
 trotter and the Suffolk Punch, but it seems to be recog- 
 nised as a fact that sufficient family likeness still exists 
 to stamp them as being of a common origin. According 
 to Arthur Young, who wrote a century ago, there were 
 then but two pure-bred varieties of cart horses in England, 
 and these were the large black or old English, and the 
 sorrel Suffolk Punch. The farmers of a portion of East 
 Anglia have for generations stuck to this breed, and have 
 good reasons for doing so. 
 
 Breeding Horses. The draught horse and the 
 roadster offer the best prospects. There are two classes 
 of draughts, the light and heavy. The lighter and more 
 active draught are more properly omnibus or light cart 
 horses. Given a 12001b. mare, whether we get a light 
 draught or heavy depends on two things, the selection of 
 a sire, and the feed. The light draught or spring cart 
 horse should weigh from 1350 to 14301b., have good action 
 and definite colour. He should not be a dun, a light sorrel 
 or light grey, or have a white face or a glassy eye, and 
 must have good clean limbs and fair style. He may be 
 over four years old and well broken to harness. Even :v
 
 THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA. 173 
 
 heavy draught horse may be the progeny of a grade draught 
 mare weighing 14001b. and a pure bred-horse weighing 
 from 1800 to 20001b. He should not weigh less than 1500lb. 
 in fair condition. The hack or roadster is also a paying 
 horse, when the breeder keeps a level head on himself and 
 breeds level-headed horses. He may not attempt to raise 
 fast horses. But he is good for road horses that travel as 
 fast as any Christian ought to want to go, and to do first- 
 rate farm work, just as much, in fact, and a little more, 
 than the draught horse, and sell at five years old for a 
 fair price, provided that the breeder is skilled in training 
 and driving such horses, and has a taste for it. To 
 produce roadsters, it is not good to start with a draught nor 
 a plug, rior with anything small. The draught may give 
 size but no speed ; the small mare may give action. Both 
 qualities are desirable in good hacks. If we want mares 
 well bred, with style and action, then breed to the large 
 standard-bred trotter, and we are not likely to miss the 
 roadster. The highest priced of all is the coach horse. Great 
 speed is not required, but size, good high-steppiug action, 
 colour, motion, style, disposition, and, in addition, training. 
 These are rare qualities, and like rare things, are costly. 
 The coach horse, whether Australian, French, English, or 
 American, is a cross between the thoroughbred or 
 standard bred to trot, and some cross of the draught horse, 
 possibly Clydesdale, with stylish farm mares. We have 
 glanced over the field and indicated the various classes of 
 horses that seem likely to pay. There is plenty of room 
 for variety of tastes and skill. But let no one imagine 
 that he can succeed without good judgment, skill and 
 feed. 
 
 Mental Training for the Horse. Whether we are 
 interested in the midget Shetlanders or Timours, or the 
 farm horse, hackney or the blood horse, it is now felt that 
 animals reared without the advantages of early handling, 
 through which they learn to look upon man as a friend 
 rather than as an enemy, require to be put through the 
 process called " breaking." This, as usually practised, 
 can hardly come under the head of mental training. To 
 get willing service from a horse, is to so manage him that
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGBICDLTUBE. 
 
 he will become attached to his master. The dullest hor-e 
 knows the meaning of a kick or a bite, when he deals either 
 of these out to the person nearest him, and he is less likely 
 to kick his friend than his enemy. One of the Arab 
 maxims is permit your colt to live with you, having acce-s 
 to your tent from his tender age. When grown he will be 
 faithful, and will take pleasure in doing your bidding, 
 through hardship, fatigue, and privation. Without educa- 
 tion the horse is crude in the manner of giving his work 
 to his master, yet, after the manner of a mere brute, he 
 may be to a degree faithful. When properly educated, he is 
 much mere than this, he is automatic, self-propelling, self- 
 sustaining, while yet studiously holding all his powers in 
 reserve for the word of command. As the mind of the horse 
 gets in fuller sympathy with the mind of the man, as it should 
 and will, provided he be properly educated, although his 
 powers are limited, he will cheerfully go beyond this 
 limit uncomplainingly. If he has native spirit native 
 as inherited from ancestry no education properly directed 
 will take this from him, but will rather add to it. 
 Education, adroitly applied, shows the limit of intelligent 
 manifestations in the average horse to be far ahead of the 
 general belief in such matters, still there are horse owners 
 who act as though the young horse should " rough it," 
 both mentally and physically, until he is old enough to be 
 put to work, without any preparation to meet those sights 
 and sounds that cause runaways, as a rule, and from which 
 most of the serious accidents arise. Now, it is entirely 
 possible to educate the colt in such a manner as to take 
 him out of fear of fright from drums, fire-arms, locomo- 
 tives, paper, or other objects driven towards him by the 
 wind while in the harness. A horse may prove to be 
 physically fit for bodily exertion, while, from his 
 education having been neglected, he is not fit to be 
 trusted in any position were he is liable to be frightened. 
 The safeguard, in his case, is to be harnessed with 
 a mate able to hold him to his proper place. It 
 is no uncommon sight to see country horses when 
 put to work in cities fill this description fully. They 
 may be startled by trifles, fear men in general, and
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. 175 
 
 run away on the slightest pretext, unless guarded as 
 described. 
 
 Training Horses. After young horses have once 
 become sufficiently bridle wise and an excellent system of 
 circular machine training is now in use for that purpose 
 it is a good practice to teach them the meaning of words. 
 This is not a difficult matter, provided too many words are 
 not used at any time. The first step is to adopt some 
 word, at the sound of which the horse is to understand that 
 he must stop. Words that are easy to speak, and which 
 can be made emphatic, should be chosen, such as " Ho !" 
 " Whoa !" &c., and every time fche word is used the horse 
 to which ic is spoken should be made to obey it fully. 
 Carelessness in regard to this matter will do more to undo 
 what has been taught than anything else. When a horse 
 fully understands the meaning of the word used when we 
 wish him to stop and stand still, the greater part of the 
 work is accomplished. To make the work more effective, 
 it is a good plan to get into the vehicle to which the horse 
 is hitched, and having stopped after a short drive, one 
 should get out and leave him for a shore distance. Should 
 tlie horse then start, the one in the vehicle cau draw the 
 lines suddenly, and thus prevent his getting away. There 
 will be no great trouble in teaching a horse with an ordinary 
 amount of common horse-sense to stand without being 
 hitched, when a little judgment and patience are used in 
 training him. 
 
 XVII. DAIRYING J INTERESTS. 
 
 DAIRYING as an export business lias been of slow 
 growth in Australia. During tin- long series of years since 
 milking cattle were introduced, they were the few only, and 
 generally classed ,-is dreamers, who had an idea that dairy 
 products butter, cheese, preserved milk, bacon, hams, and 
 lard would become exports from this country ; yet in the 
 very early days. Alexander Berry, located in the Illawarra 
 district, had such an idea. He was no dreamer, but a
 
 176 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 stern, matter-of-fact man. and he put his idea to the test 
 by exporting butter to California in the early fifties. And 
 <lairying has had lodgment in the Illawarra country ever 
 since, and is extending there more rapidly than ever ; 
 while the business has spread north, west, and south, into 
 Victoria, South Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania. 
 Even Queensland and Western Australia have hopes of 
 
 A Busiuess-like Cow. 
 
 sharing in what is growing into one of the greatest 
 industries of the country. The growth of export dairying 
 has been of immense magnitude since 1882, when Mr. D. 
 L. Dymock, of Kiama. introduced the cream separator. 
 The exports have already reached two millions sterling 
 for the produce of a year. The business, with tact, skill, 
 and judgment, may be worked up to ten millions ! 
 
 Materials Available for Profitable Dairying. In 
 Australia, climate, soil, and indigenous grass, unequalled, 
 taken as a whole, compare favourably with any other part 
 of the world. Possibly, the conditions are too favourable, 
 and have led dairying into comparatively slovenly methods, 
 from which first-class results are not likely to be obtained. 
 Taking the climate, for instance, its very mildness has been 
 against the business, for it has led to a want of attention
 
 DAIKYING INTERESTS. 177 
 
 to the needs of dairy stock, the results of which are seen 
 every winter. Shelter for stock such shelter as prevents 
 their being pestered with insects or exhausted by heat in 
 summer, or perished with cold during wet and raw cold 
 weather is as necessary here as in other lands where the 
 temperature range from heat to cold is even less than the 
 range in Australia. Cold tells upon the condition of stock 
 in Australia with terrible effect. When scarcity of feed 
 is added, the effect is destructive ; and that is the case with 
 too much of our dairying during the long winter months 
 from May to September. Shelter and regular feeding 
 from cultivated grasses and crops are necessities for the 
 advancement of dairying. 
 
 DAIRY CATTLE. The breeds are well represented. 
 They include : 
 
 The Illawarra Strain. Placed first by right of 
 qualities for milk giving, hardiness, and general capacity, 
 when they are really well bred. They are the offspring of 
 the Shorthorns, Ayrshires, and Holsteins, sometimes named 
 " Shipleys," first brought into the country, and good types 
 of which have been introduced ever since. There have 
 been careful breeders in the business all the time, and the 
 strain has formed gradually, though with no definite basis. 
 Shorthorn and Ayrshire blood is prominent in the best of 
 the type ; others are a good deal mixed. The reliable 
 cows show the following points: Long, narrow face, large 
 eyes, small horns, large muzzle, long, fine neck and 
 shoulders, large body, wide hips, long fine toil ; teats larger 
 than the Ayrshires, as a rule ; legs rather long, but not out 
 of proportion to the size of the animal ; general colors, reds 
 and roans. The requirements to keep up such a race are 
 got in the grand constitution and milking qualities of the 
 milking strain of the Shorthorns and the Ayrshires. 
 Mixtures of Jersey and other Channel Island cattle have 
 been tried, but tend to make the stock lighter and delicate. 
 The Illawarra is essentially a business dairy cow ; l>eef 
 making is not in her line, nor. indeed, in any really high- 
 class milking strain. Ayrshire bulls, with South Coast 
 cattle, produce grades of beautiful animals that are a 
 feature in so many of our dairy herds.
 
 178 AUSTRALIAN AGKlCUL'i UKE. 
 
 Shorthorns. Really excellent milkers are got at times 
 from the Shorthorns or Durhams; but their progeny are 
 not reliable as milk-givers. Properly speaking, Jerseys, 
 Ayrshires, as well as Durhams, are really Shorthorns, but 
 the milking strain of the Durham or old Teeswater cattle 
 are generally called " Shorthorns." Good milking qualities 
 have a near connection with the feed, provided the cows 
 are of a milking strain if not the more and better fed the 
 greater quantity of flesh they put on. This is the case 
 with the white-faced Hereford^, which should be avoided 
 for dairy purposes. There arc only few herds of the 
 original milking strain of Shorthorns even in England. 
 
 Ayrshires. This strain is a masterpiece of science-in- 
 practice in cattle-breeding. The Ayrshire is the dairy 
 cow of to-day as she was fifty years since recognised in the 
 old world and the new. She is the product of skilful 
 Scottish farming ; improved in the face of immense 
 difficulties which meet dairying in poor country with very 
 changeable climate. But to continue to be the milker she is, 
 the Ayrshire must be well kept. She is a giant to milk 
 when the food is given her. She is not the cow for star- 
 vation and neglect ; of this, those who are desirous of seeing 
 the Ayrshire take the place in Australia to which she 
 is entitled, may rest assured. In olden times, the native 
 country of this breed was a poor place for dairying. Burns, 
 in his quaint way, tells us of the hardships of those 
 Ayrshire farmers. The climate cold and raw ; the soil wet,, 
 stiff, and unproductive. The dry granite or volcanic 
 hillsides were the only exceptions to the general bleakness 
 of the country. There the .spring grasses were early and 
 comparatively rich, and as cattle, half-starved during 
 winter, began to make a little flesh, the natives saw that, 
 if the feed could be maintained, profitable dairying was- 
 within their reach. They were an observant people, those 
 early Ayrshire dairyists, and some of them located on the 
 hilly pastures came to see that by getting their cows on 
 the best grass, and when the grass failed, providing for 
 them barley, turnips, and the few other things they could 
 grow, the cows gave milk of richer quality and greater 
 quantity ; and that it was better, more business-like, and
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. 179 
 
 more profitable, to feed, shelter, and milk the cows, than to 
 let them run down during the cold, raw winter. So the 
 best cows were gradually selected for the better treatment. 
 The process occupied some fifty years, while the country 
 was being drained, limed, and manured. Somewhere 
 about the time Waterloo was fought, the Ayrshire cow had 
 earned a leading dairy reputation. As a first-class milker, 
 she holds it still, and she is as able to hold it in Australia 
 as in the dairies of London, New York, or elsewhere. If 
 she has a fault for Australian dairying, it is the size of the 
 teats, which may be too small for men milkers. 
 
 Jerseys and Alderneys are the true Channel Island 
 breed of dairy stock. They came originally from 
 Normanby, are gentle, and thrive excellently in this 
 country. For richness of milk and as butter-yielders, they 
 are very superior ; but like the Ayrshires, and, indeed, all 
 good milkers, they must have the feed or they cannot give 
 the milk. During late years, and both in Great Britain 
 and America many breeders have tried to improve these 
 cattle. So far, however, they come back to the old 
 stock, so well defined in the native Normanbys and their 
 descendants in the Channel Islands. The colors range 
 from light fawn to dark brown and decided black, and 
 the same distinctive marks are common to us in Australia, 
 ever since the late Mr. Edward Wilson made his selection 
 of Alderneys and sent them to Victoria. The Guernseys, 
 for their greater weight, yield more milk and butter 
 than the others, and carry more flesh. The Alderneys 
 proper have or had much more black, some being nearly all 
 black with just a steel grey patch or a few yellow hairs 
 running through. But, as between tlu use the whole breed 
 make of the feed they eat and the rich quality of their 
 milk, the differences are not marked to any extent. 
 
 Devons. " The pretty reds " come nearest the 
 Channel Islanders for richness of milk ; but unlike the 
 famous breeds named they are unreliable dairy stock. 
 Very desirable crosses, however, are got, having the 
 Devon and also the Shorthorn strains. But all through the 
 breeds, feed comes in as the fhxt requirement for successful 
 dairying, and not for milk only, or for butter or cheese.
 
 180 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Points of the Dairy Cow. Of the indications of a 
 good milker, of any of the breeds, the following is 
 expressive: 
 
 She's long in her face, she's fine in her horn, 
 She'll quickly make milk with grass or with corn ; 
 She's full in her jaws and full in her chine, 
 She's heavy in flank and wide in her loin. 
 
 She's broad in her ribs and long in her rump ; 
 A straight and flat back, with no signs of a hump 
 She's wide in her hips and calm in her eyes, 
 She's fine in her shoulders and thin in her thighs. 
 
 She's light in her neck and thin in her tail, 
 She's wide in her breast and good at the pail, 
 She's fine in her bone and silky of skin, 
 She's a beauty without, a milk maker within. 
 
 Milk Yielding Largely in the Breed. The foregoing 
 are the well-established breeds. There are risks in going to 
 others for " improvements in breeding." Long horns on a 
 heavy head, coarse hair, large bones, and small teats, are to 
 be avoided in choosing cows for dairying. A long udder 
 lengthwise of the body is best ; and it should be quite elastic 
 to the touch ; that qualit}' means capacity to make milk. 
 A soft skin, mossy, silky hair are safe recommendations. 
 They are evidences of healthfulness and thrift. A cow 
 should have broad loins with long rump ; a rather long, 
 lean neck, with clean-cut face and prominent eyes These 
 points indicate enduring power to stand the strain of a 
 long milking season. But, even then, uncomfortable 
 conditions of keeping, as to feed and shelter, will 
 neutralise and ultimately destroy even these equipments. 
 Milk-giving cows are very feminine, and the sex, as a rule, 
 require care and attention all the time. 
 
 Milk-giving Indications. Different breeds exhibit 
 different characteristic shapes of both udders and teats. 
 This is natural ; udders vary in form as much as the 
 cows themselves. A cow's udder, when the animal is 
 sound, has four perfect teats, and in cases she may 
 also have one to three rudimentary or very small teats. 
 The four should give milk. Each communicates with a gland 
 in which the milk is secreted out of the blood. This gland, in
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. 
 
 18J 
 
 Hilk-Oiving Ind. cations. 
 
 the upper portions, is solid, almost like liver, but it becomes 
 more open in its structure below, as tubes and channels for 
 
 conveying away the milk branch 
 from it. Just above each teat 
 the principal conduits form an 
 irregular cavity, but of small size. 
 The udder is the laboratory in 
 which milk is made, so shape and 
 size are important. Judged by 
 anatomy, the larger the gland, 
 the more milk should be secreted 
 (which is not saying that the 
 largest udders always give most 
 milk). The teats should be of 
 even size, and large enough to be 
 conveniently grasped by the 
 hand. When they are evenly 
 and squarely placed, the form is about right. The 
 texture of the skin of both teats and udder should be soft 
 and mossy, covered with fine, silky hair. Tiiese general 
 features are, as to form, indicated in the accompanying 
 sketch. The milk comes in through arteries, which are so 
 deeply seated as not to be observable, but the veins, which 
 carry it towards the udder, are nearer the surface, and may 
 be clearly seen. It is in accordance with universal 
 observation, that the size, length, and numerous corruga- 
 tions of these milk veins bear tolerably definite relation 
 to the amount of milk which the udder is capable of 
 secreting. But, of course, to give quality and quantity, the 
 animal must have sufficient food to make that quality and 
 quantity, and sufficient clean water to supply the material 
 of which milk is made. And through the whole process it 
 pavs to keep her comfortable, warm, and quiet, without 
 having to travel too far for her food and drink. 
 
 To Milk a Cow Clean. This has always been the 
 ambition of the careful milker, and when that end is 
 attained, he may l>e generally satisfied. But to milk a cow 
 in a cleanly way, although of equal importance, does not, 
 in a large percentage of cases, come within the scope of 
 consideration. (Jood dairy cows arc often quite spoiled by
 
 AUSTRALIAN AQRICOLTURK. 
 
 bad and careless milking. It is astonishing how few 
 milkers give attention to the delicate organism of the cow's 
 udder, or milk system. A word or two on this point may 
 not be out of place. The udder of the cow is divided into 
 two chambers by an impervious membrane. This dividing 
 substance runs in the direction of the backbone, and is so 
 placed that the milk from one chamber cannot pass into 
 the other. For this reason, it is advisable that we should 
 operate, say, on a front and hind teat next the milker, 
 and having emptied one chamber should then proceed with 
 the other. This is not, however, the general practice, it 
 is customary rather to operate on the teats of different 
 chambers, taking one fore and one hind teat, instead of 
 the two teats on one side. The idea being to preserve the 
 natural state of the udder, and this method of milking, 
 according to this practice, is mainly responsible for much 
 "of the malformation in the udders of so many co s. 
 This of course is a great evil, and it detracts from the 
 appearance of the animals, and lowers their money value 
 when offered fur sale. Milking with wet hands is a main 
 source of sore and cracked teats, and is also a source of 
 contagion. Again, too rapid and violent milking is to 
 be avoided, as also conversation between milkers while 
 milking is in progress, as both of these causes tend to 
 make the cows uneasy, and to retain their milk. 
 
 Every Cow Should Be Tested. This is becoming 
 more and more a necessity in modern dairying. Efficient 
 dairyists soon become experts at testing. Under what 
 may be termed average conditions, an animal is of little or 
 no value to the owner unless he is able to derive a profit 
 by keeping it. In the dairy a good animal is the one that 
 will profitably convert the most feed into the most and 
 richest inilk, butter, or cheese. In this, quantity is not the 
 only consideration, neither is quality. Both are necessary. 
 The cost of the product is more important than all else. 
 There must be a liberal quantity, and the quality must be 
 good. At the same time both must be secured at a cost 
 that will leave a fair per cent, of profit when rightly 
 managed. And there is more certainty of doing this with 
 the dairying breeds than with others. There may be
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. 183 
 
 individual animals in all breeds that excel in some 
 essentials, as there are others that fail almost as regularly. 
 Yet, generally, there are breeds that as a class can be 
 depended upon to convert their excess of food, the amount 
 over and above what is necessary to sustain animal life, 
 into milk and cream, and this characteristic is in the breed 
 to an extent that it can be depended upon to transmit this 
 quality from parent to offspring. 
 
 Proportions of Butter in Milk. From the tests made, 
 the following afford some guidance. A cow which gave 
 441bs. 9oz. of milk yielded lib. lO^oz. butter; another 
 gave 311bs. 14oz. of milk, and lib. 5|oz. of butter; a 
 third 46lbs. I5oz. milk, and lib. 3.\oz. butter. These 
 were heavy cattle, mostly of the Shorthorn type. For 
 cows under lOOOlbs. live weight, a Jersey gave 291b. 7oz. 
 milk, which yielded 21bs. 4|oz. butter ; the second, 401bs. 
 12oz. milk, and 21bs. 3^oz. butter; the third, 381bs. lloz. 
 milk, and 21b. 3oz. butter the third yielding the largest 
 quantity of butter in proportion to her live weight. The 
 weight of this good little cow was 8341bs., or about 7.^cwt. 
 
 How Much Feed. The experience is that a real 
 dairy cow can make good use of from two to two and a 
 half per cent, of her own weight as food, or say, twenty to 
 thirty-five pounds of solid feed daily, and all the clean water 
 she can drink, for an animal weighing a thousand pounds. 
 While this may be approximately correct, we should 
 remember that the richer and more concentrated the feed, 
 tho fewer pounds will be required, always provided there is 
 coarser feed with it to ensure digestion. Tims, five pounds 
 of pollard, or maize meal, or wheat bran may be equal to 
 twenty pounds of bush hay ; but where both are given, the 
 value of each is increased. And while lOlbs. of oaten hay 
 may be a full feed or ration for a small animal, it does not 
 follow that 2011)8.. of poorer hay that would show by 
 analysis to be half as rich would, in practice, be of equal 
 milk making value to that same cow. There is a limit to 
 the ability of the animal to chew and digest both bulky and 
 concentrated stuff ; very concentrated feed may be too 
 rich for tho digestion of the cow. Portions of each 
 mixed feeds are best. This is tho case, frequently, with
 
 184 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 pollard, bran, and maize meal. So, when we have poor y 
 bulky stuff, it is safer to mix with it something richer 
 i*ather than to feed it alone in excessive quantity. 
 
 Conveniences for Milking. The quantity of milk that 
 a cow gives depends to a great extent upon how it is got, 
 the mode, time, and regularity of milking. Cows do best 
 that have one regular milker, and the time of milking 
 should be carefully attended to, and not be subject to 
 
 Comfort for Milker and Cow. 
 
 variations from day to day. The udder should be rubbed 
 clean with a dry cloth, when that is necessary. Wetting 
 the hands or teats with milk before milking is bad 
 practice, both for the comfort of the animal and the 
 cleanliness of the milk. The milker should have short 
 finger nails, for long finger nails will be sure to hurt the 
 teats and cause inflammation. 
 
 Stalls and Bails. Conveniences for holding the cattle 
 in position while milking are necessary in Australian 
 dairying, where the milking is in yards where flies and 
 other annoyances disturb the cows. Bails designed to 
 work easily are very helpful, to open and shut without 
 the need of much movement, for the insertion or removal 
 of pins, &c. When young cattle are being broken in
 
 DAIRYING INTEBESTS. 
 
 185 
 
 5 FT. 
 
 ZFT. 
 
 A Handy Milking Stall. 
 
 2trr. 
 
 the process in careful hands is really a system 
 of teaching for dairy 
 purposes, it is very con- 
 venient to be able to 
 fasten or unloosen the 
 bail without going into 
 the stall. The bail illus- 
 trated is convenient to 
 work, and removable when 
 necessary. The stan- 
 chions are 2 x 4in. hardwood put together with wooden pins 
 or bolts. The bed piece is two two-by-four inch scantling, 
 
 and so is the 
 top piece. In 
 the illustra- 
 tion, one is 
 removed to 
 show how 
 they are fas- 
 tened; aa are 
 the stationary 
 parts, cc the 
 m o v a b 1 e 
 Bail8 ' slides that 
 
 hold the cattle in ; ee are automatic fasteners which hold 
 the stanchions shut. In stall a the slide c is shown open. 
 When the animal puts her head in place, a push on c closes 
 the stanchion, e drops automatically and holds it shut, as 
 shown in stall B. The movable part (c) has no pin in the 
 lower end to hold it in place, but one on each side of it. 
 A pin at the top keeps it down when it is shut. In stall c 
 is shown how the movable part is moved from its place 
 when taking the stanchions apart. Stall D shows a simple 
 contrivance by which the cattle can be shut in as they 
 enter their places, and let out, also, without going 
 between them. A strong string (s) is tied to the 
 staple (n) and passes through to any convenient 
 place. Pulling on this will close them, and the one 
 attached at w and e will open them and let the cattle 
 out.
 
 186 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Pasteurising Pail. 
 
 Preserving Milk by Heating. The object of 
 " Pasteurising " milk is to destroy " the bacterial germs " 
 of fermentation or decay. But by " scalding " up to 
 the boiling p.p.jnt, milk is injured seriously. As it 
 becomes known that the germs can 
 be destroyed much more effectively 
 while the milk is at a temperature 
 far below the boiling point, the 
 f-afer and better process is followed. 
 Germs in milk, both vegetable and 
 animal are destroyed, and the milk 
 effectively " Pasteurised " at a tem- 
 perature of 155 degrees. The 
 apparatus shown in our illustrations 
 is quite effective for the purpose. 
 The can or pail (A) is fitted up as 
 seen in the second illustration. The 
 bottles (B) (B) (B), as many as may 
 be required, or the pail can hold, 
 are filled with milk, or other fluid 
 substance to be sterilised. The 
 bottles stand upon a perforated 
 grating (D), and are surrounded 
 by water as shown. luto each 
 bottle is inserted a plug (c)(c)(c) 
 of cotton wool or other porous 
 substance. Heat is then applied 
 gradually to the vessel, and 
 brought to about 155 degrees. 
 Thirty minutes of that tempera- 
 ture is ample, as a rule, for sterilis- 
 ing the contents of the bottles, and 
 milk thus treated will remain sweet 
 during several days. The object E- 
 of the porous stoppers is to allow 
 the escape of vapours from the contents of the bottles, 
 while preventing the admission of any other vapours. To 
 finish the process up to the point of actual sterilising, 
 the water is brought up to nearly the boiling point, or 
 200 degrees, for three minutes or so, and the bottles
 
 DAIRYING INTBBBST8. 187 
 
 are then taken out, cooled, and sealed or corked tightly, in 
 which state, and in a temperature of 55 degrees or lower, 
 it remains good for an indefinite time. 
 
 BUTTER MAKING. Setting the milk for cream, and 
 converting the cream into butter by hand labor, is still 
 followed as a process ; and for making home supplies 
 the process answers very well. But for business purposes, 
 and where the product has to be sold in competition with 
 factory made and creamery butter, the hand made process 
 suffers badly. To carry it out in a satisfactory manner, 
 a real dairy room is necessary, with entrance and windows 
 so arranged that flies and other winged abominations 
 cannot enter. They are fearfully mischievous when they 
 reach milk which is set in shallow pans. Coolness and 
 semi-darkness aid in the rising of the cream, which is 
 then skimmed off, and, if sufficient in quantity, may be 
 converted into butter at once, with the aid of some one of 
 the many churns available for this branch of work. Or 
 the cream may be held back for one, two, or more days, to 
 " ripen/' or until there is enough for a churning. 
 
 Ripening the Cream. To get the rich flavor which is 
 in request to a lesser or greater extent in all butters, except 
 the really sweet, unsalted, made direct from new milk, 
 three agencies or generators of fermentation are brought 
 into action. They are : Buttermilk from a previous churning, 
 cream already ripened, or a special ferment as a starter. 
 Before butter factories were thought of, the first two agencies 
 were in use in extensive, well conducted dairies. And butter 
 often went wrong then, as it does still. There is much room 
 for improvement in order to start and complete the bacterial 
 action or souring, possibly more so than at any previous time 
 in all the experiences of dairying. Skill comes in at every 
 point of the operations of fermentation, skill in selecting, 
 regulating and working the flavor as required. In this, 
 the effect of lower temperature is very marked; 50 degrees 
 Fahrenheit seems the point of safety at which ferment 
 material should be stored, whether it be butter-milk, cream, 
 or special preparation, and then churning at something like 
 the same temperature, after ripening, which may require from 
 6 to 24 hours, according to the skill and method of the
 
 188 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 operator. The time in which cream ripens in ordinary 
 practice is influenced by the weather, and the cleanliness 
 of the milker and appliances. The temperature at which 
 the cream is set for ripening, and the amount of fat present, 
 also influence the process and extent of this first fermenta- 
 tion. Hot or warm muggy weather has a tendency to 
 hasten the change ; while a clear, bright atmosphere, as 
 
 Factory Cream Separator. 
 
 well as cold, is slower for the growth of the bacteria, which 
 develop the changes. It is the milk sugar and casein that 
 are broken up when cream sours. Thus thin cream, with 
 10 to 15 per cent, fat, contains more milk-sugar; and acid, 
 or tartness, is generated faster than in cream which con- 
 tains more fat, and less milk-sugar and casein. 
 
 Factory System for Butter- Making. It is to the credit 
 of our dairymen that they were amongst the first outside 
 of Denmark and Sweden to entertain the feasibility of the 
 factory system. For this change New South Wales is 
 largely indebted to the efforts of Mr. D. L. Dymock, of 
 Kiama. The system is both co-operative and proprietary. 
 The milk is taken over from the dairymen as quickly as 
 possible after it is got from the cows, and is paid for, 
 according to the contents of butter fat and the ruling price 
 of butter ; an ordinary fair calculation to all parties being 
 that 251b. of milk, or 2^ gallons, should yield 1 Ib. of 
 butter. This is very close to a correct estimate, as worked 
 out by careful analysis of milk and also by the churn tests 
 from fairly well-fed cows. 
 
 Cream Separating Machines. They are of different 
 patterns, but all get at the result of separating the cream
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. 189 
 
 from the inilk in much the same way. The cream or butter 
 particles of new milk are the lightest part of the fluid, and 
 rise to the surface of their own gravity when milk is set 
 in pans. And this separation of cream 
 particles is completed, almost instantly, 
 by the machine, the revolving sepa- 
 rator of which is moving at the rate of 
 from 3000 to 5000 revolutions per minute, 
 and separating 25 to 250 gallons per 
 hour by hand, steam, or other power. 
 This contrivance is a really scientific 
 conception, long in use in laboratory 
 practice, and founded on an ac- 
 quaintance with the fat globules 
 in !nilk,andaknowledgeof their 
 different specific gravity from 
 the liquid in which they tioat, 
 and a further knowledge of 
 
 Hand Cream Separator. what must be the behaviour 
 
 of a mixture of such globules and such liquid when 
 subjected to centrifugal force. In operation, the milk 
 runs in a steady stream into the top of the separator, 
 and the heavier portion in reality the skimmed milk 
 is thrown to the outside of the machine, aud is discharged 
 in a steady stream. The cream meanwhile is gathering 
 in an inner layer, and is discharged from another outlet. 
 Amongst the advantages of the system, it is more 
 cleanly, everything heavier than cream is extracted 
 promptly, and very curious substances are thus seen to 
 be present in milk, whether coming from the poor con- 
 dition of the animals, from poverty of feed, from dirty 
 milking, bad water, exposure to excessive cold or rain, or 
 other causes, need not be followed at this stage. The 
 evils of contact from flies, dust, &c., that can scarcely be 
 avoided when milk is set out to get the cream to rise in 
 pans, are also overcome. 
 
 From Cream to Butter. The whole of tho operations, 
 from the time of milking to the production of cream, are 
 accomplished in tho factories, as a rule, during the cool of 
 the morning a change, indeed, from tho time when the
 
 190 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE . 
 
 whole day, and often the night, had to be occupied in 
 milking, creaming, churning, &c., by the dairyman and his 
 family. The process allows us to see that the fatty matter 
 in milk is not uniform. A part of the milk from cows on 
 good grass consists of the essential oils of the grasses, 
 and which give the nutty flavor to butter and cheese. 
 But the milk of poorly fed cows is deficient in both the 
 butter fat, and the flavoring oils of grasses. Thus, cows 
 fed on artificial feed may be oily and rich enough in 
 butter fat, but poor in the true butter flavor. Hence 
 when butter is gathered from a number of dairies, it is 
 liable to be defective in that uniformity of quality and 
 appearance which have such marked effect upon this 
 product when offered for sale. 
 
 The Creamery System. It is to overcome the 
 defects of butter making in small lots that the creamery 
 system has found favor. With that end in view, the 
 cream is cooled as much as possible, and sent off to the 
 creamery or central factory for butter making. It is there 
 cooled down still lower and made into butter in a tempera- 
 ture of from 55 to 60 degrees, and water as low as 40 
 degrees is used for washing and the other operations of 
 first-class butter making. Butter made at this colder 
 temperature can be separated more effectually from the 
 water and casein of milk, which forms from 24 to 40 per 
 cent, of the cream, than is possible in a higher tempera- 
 ture, a most important feature in butter for keeping or 
 export. 
 
 The Water of Butter. There must be some water in 
 it, or the composition would not be butter. The healthy 
 proportion is about 12 per cent., or 121bs. of water in 
 lOOlbs. of butter. The test for the quantity of water is 
 simple enough, and it is seldom we find less than 11 per 
 cent. There is very often much more, over 22 per cent, 
 sometimes, and then the water is an active agent of 
 destruction. Possibly more butter, put up to keep, is lost 
 from excess of water and bad salt than all other causes 
 combined. It is the water which carries the salt, which 
 averages between 1'20 and 2'50 per cent. No amount 
 of working can take out all the water gathered in with
 
 INTERESTS. 191 
 
 the butter from the churn, but 3kill can wdfk the quantity- 
 down to the point of safety, say 12 per cent. 
 
 Butter-Making Machinery. 1 From the earliest times 
 churns of some sort were in use for separating the true 
 
 butter fat from the water of the 
 milk or cream. In Scotland, the 
 United States, and in other coun- 
 tries as well^ butter is made 
 direct from the milk without 
 creaming. But this process is 
 suitable only for cold climates, 
 and where the butter can be 
 marketed at once, and the butter- 
 milk has a value. The forms of 
 __ churns are as various almost as 
 
 the countries where they are used, 
 Chnrnin? - all sort of appliances being in 
 
 favor, from shaking the milk in a bottle 1 till the butter 
 comes, to the revolving of a disc driven by machinery. But 
 there are safe general rules for churning, amongst them : 1. 
 That the cream should be churned at a temperature of 
 55 to 60 degrees if at all practicable ; though, in the 
 colonies, butter is often made in a temperature above 70 
 degrees. During very hot weather it is considered better to 
 lessen the speed of the churn when the butter begins to 
 form. 2. When during the churning the temperature 
 increases, the butter can be helped by adding in the 
 churn very cold skimmed milk or water. 8. As soon as 
 the butter "comes," that is, forms in a granulated state, 
 and there is actual separation of the butter from the 
 buttermilk, the churning must be stopped at once. 4, 
 When cream has been churned at say 58 degrees, or the 
 mass of butter has not a higher temperature than 62 
 degrees, it may be put into the butter-worker without any 
 washing ; this is the Danish system. 5. Should it 
 be preferred to wash the butter, then the butter-milk 
 should be allowed to run out by the tap or plug 
 placed on the lower part of the churn. Fill the churn 
 with cold water and let it run from the tap in the same 
 manner.
 
 192 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Butter Workers. In the factories, butter is not handled 
 nt any stage. It is worked over, and salt is applied, by 
 various contrivances wliich press the mass so as to squeeze 
 
 out the butter-milk and water, 
 and such particles of casein as 
 may be free, and can be floated 
 out. Centrifugal machines are 
 being introduced for this purpose 
 also. 
 
 The Salt. Salting is a most 
 important-part of butter making. 
 Very serious damage is likely to 
 result to butter in which lime, 
 magnesia, sulphur, and other uat- 
 ^^^^ aral compounds of salt may be 
 A small uutter l "w^r. present. Their detection should 
 be part of the butter maker's art. 
 It is not difficult. The salt left in Al butter varies between 
 1 and 2 per cent. 
 
 Coloring. Annetto, a vegetable coloring, is used for 
 those who like something deeper than the natural straw 
 color of butter. The carameJ of sugar gives a rich whole- 
 some color. The juice of carrot .is also used. 
 
 Further Ripening and Making Lip. lib. and lb. 
 packets, put up in nicely prepared printed paper, give a 
 further attraction to butter. Or it may be put up in 
 enamelled boxes or kegs for transfer or export. Further 
 "ripening" in the mass is also in order in some of the 
 factories, much the same rules as guide the ripening of 
 cream being followed. 
 
 Bad Flavors in Butter. They are acquired simply 
 enough. Should either cream or milk or butter be put 
 along with a substance that has any other flavor, most 
 likely the butter will absorb it. Flavors of leather, kero- 
 sene, onions, cheese, bacon, soap, turpentine, and other 
 substances have been got in that way. Bad flavors may 
 also be got from feed. Lucerne, sorrel, turnips, bitter 
 weeds, and other substances affect the flavor of both milk 
 and butter. Lucerne hay is better ; turnips may be fed 
 tvfter milking. Scalding to 1 55 degrees and then suddenly
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. 193 
 
 cooling removes some odors, but does not drive out the 
 flavor of others got from bad feed stuffs, or bad water. 
 
 CHEESE MAKING. The modern cheese maker works 
 closely upon chemical lines. All the operations from the 
 time of cooling or heating the milk to a fixed degree of 
 temperature ; the use of coagulating materials, or rennet, 
 all bring about chemical changes. The thermometer, use 
 of litmus for acid and other tests, the qualities of the 
 milk for butter fat, and the solids that form cheese, all 
 come into the operations of cheese making. 
 
 Australian Cheese. Cheddar, the product of the 
 whole milk, butter included, is the favourite product 
 for home use and for export. To make such cheese, 
 of sufficient quality, there must be the milk from 
 well fed cows. The product of even one cow in bad 
 condition, or that has fed on rank stuff from swamps, upon 
 the leaves of trees, or drank of unclean water, has spoiled 
 many makings of cheese. But all being well, including 
 suitable appliances for cooling, heating, curdling, 
 extraction of the whey, salting, preserving, and curing, 
 the product should be up to the standard of sound 
 Cheddar cheese, and the product equal to lib of cheese 
 for each gallon of milk used. 
 
 Composition of Cheddar. The Ib. of cheese thus 
 made is composed, in the practical sense, of one-third true 
 cheese matter, amongst the best material known for 
 building up muscle, sinew, and flesh; one-third butter fat 
 and warmth-making material ; the remainder being salt, 
 flavouring n;atter, and the water of composition. 
 
 The Process of Making. Here the intention is to be 
 introductory only. The many excellent works available 
 Oliver, Millard, Wright, Dowliug, Long, Sheldon, and 
 others give details in fulness which is beyond the scope 
 of an elementary work. The practice may well follow the 
 close study of the chemistry and practice of cheese 
 making, though the details given here may be helpful. 
 
 Cheese for llome Use. All of us, who either make 
 butter or send milk to the factories, have at times a few 
 gallons of milk which can be worked up into cheese. 
 With, say, 10 gallons of milk, or a little over lOOlbs., we can
 
 194 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 make 10 to lllbs of sound cheese, always acceptable upon 
 the farm table. We do not use all the cheese we might 
 with advantage to the food supply of the family. A.nd if 
 we don't want it, then a lOlb. cheese soon finds a customer 
 in a neighbour, or storekeeper. The appliances necessary 
 for making small cheese for home use are a deep pail or 
 milk can, a tub big enough to set the pail in surrounded 
 by water, a hoop or hoops big enough for from 7 to 141 bs. 
 of cheese. Suppose we take the evening and morning 
 milk for our purpose. The former can be put to cool 
 during the night ; the morning milk can be cooled in the 
 pail, set in cold water. Mix the two, stirring thoroughly ;. 
 and, by pouring hot water round the pail, we can raise the 
 heat of the whole mass of milk from 80 to 90 degrees; 84 
 degrees is a safe temperature for milk made ready for 
 cheese. To thicken the milk into curd, use the fluid 
 rennet, directions for which are given on the bottles ; or 
 that sold in lozenges will do. One lozenge, of the 
 strength purchasable for a shilling a box, is reckoned as 
 enough fcr 10 gallons of milk. Dissolve the lozenge in 
 water, and stir it into the warmed milk, then cover with 
 blanketing. The milk thickens in 12 to 15 minutes from 
 the time of adding rennet, and should be ready to cut in 
 from 30 to 40 minutes from the time of thickening. It is 
 found to be workable in practice to allow double and 
 one-half the time taken to thicken to secure curd ripe for 
 cutting. The curd should then be tough enough to be 
 readily lifted with the finger, and fit to be cut by a long 
 blad- d knife into squares of an inch. This liberates the 
 whey or watery part of the milk. The whey is run off 
 with a syphon, or dipped off by means of a shallow dish, 
 put inio a vessel, and heated to 100 degrees, and poured 
 over the curd, which is again covered to keep in the heat. 
 After half an hour the curd will be tough enough to lift 
 with the hands, and can be heaped upon a table to permit 
 the remainder of the whey to drain off. The curd is then 
 broken as small as beans, by rubbing with the hands, the 
 whey being so carefully pressed out, that no cream may 
 escape with it. The broken up curd is then covered on the 
 table, and thus left until decided acid action sets in, when-
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. l'95 
 
 salt is Tubbed in at the rate of 2 to 4 ozs. of finely-ground 
 salt to say 12 pounds of curd, which is then placed in a hoop 
 OT mould, lined with a clean cloth dipped in the whey. 
 The curd is pressed into the mould firmly but slowly. It is 
 then further pressed, during a night generally, then taken 
 out and set on a board, an 1 turned once a day until 
 perfectly firm. Cheese is all the better in flavour, an<fr 
 more wholesome, by being " cured/' which means keeping 
 it in a cool, dry place for a month, six weeks or longer. 
 This " curing," is caused by bacterial ferment which ripen 
 the curdled milk into flavored cheese. It is a desirable 
 process, and gives us a really welcome addition to the 
 dairyist's table. 
 
 Rennet in the Chemical Sense. It is of the nature of 
 pepsin, spirit of salt, &c. These substances are in the 
 digestive system of the calf. The purpose of it in nature 
 is to coagulate the milk and so render it easy of digestion. 
 In the human economy, the gastric juice is akin to rennet. 
 The stomach of a ruminant or animal which chews the cud 
 is arranged with four divisions, adjoining each other and 
 leading directly from one to the other. Each of these 
 parts of the stomach has a special function to perform. 
 The first, when the animal is old enough to eat grass, is 
 mainly employed to hold the food ur.til it has time to chew 
 and so bring it into a fine state of division ; the second is 
 employed as a compressor to force the food to fctoe mouth 
 to be there chewed ; the third is used as a filter, to 
 effectually divide the chewed food allowing only the 
 sufficiently fine portions to pass onward into the fourth 
 stomach, where it is acted Upon by the gastric juices. 
 This stomach is known as the rennet stomach, because 
 from it the digestive substance is prepared, whether it be 
 in a concentrated form or not. This stomach may bo used 
 fresh or preserved in a solution of salt, or rubbed with salt 
 and dried. In either case, when soaked in warm water, it 
 yields up its essence, a substance possessing the power of 
 curdling milk that is of coagulating the cheese matter 
 and the butter. The amount of acid in rennet is seldom 
 more than two-tenths of one per cent. The quantity of 
 pepsin varies considerably. The risks of making rennet
 
 196 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 from the stomach are that should there be any decom- 
 position of the membranes there will pass into solution 
 substances generally of a disagreeable odour, and the 
 further risk of unpleasant taint to the cheese. Pepsin is 
 a peculiar ferment ; it causes other substances to undergo 
 changes without undergoing any material change itself 
 so far as known. Experience and observation, however, 
 encourage the belief that rennet continues its digestive 
 properties when absorbed as food with the other contents of 
 cheese. 
 
 Cheese Factory System. Jacketed vats are used, 
 wherein heat can be regulated by steam supply from a 
 boiler. The milk having been cooled the night previous 
 and the cream prevented from rising by frequent stirring 
 ia usually about 65deg. in the morning. Into this is run, 
 after cooling, the morning's milk, and the temperature of 
 the whole is raised to about 84deg. in hot weather, and up 
 to 90deg. in cooler weather, making a mean temperature 
 of about 85deg. for setting in mild weather. When colour 
 is used, the colouring liquid is mixed with the milk, and 
 then sufficient rennet added. Coagulation begins in about 
 ten minutes. Prepared chemical rennet as fluid, powder, 
 or in lozenge form, is now in general use in preference to 
 the rennet made from the stomach of the calf. When 
 colouring matter is used it is in a liquid state and prepared 
 from the best annatto. Hansen's prepared colouring is in 
 favour, and also the form known as aunattoine. It is easy 
 to reduce to a liquid state, and is put up in packages 
 accompanied by a recipe for its preparation and use in 
 cheesemaking. One tablespoonful (^oz.) is generally used 
 for 20 gallons of milk. A slight agitation is kept up 
 until the milk begins to roll thick and heavy, for the 
 purpose of preventing the cream from separating, but care 
 must be taken not to stir too long, or a smooth compact 
 mass of curd will be impossible, a broken, spongy mass 
 may appear in its place, from which many of the fine 
 particles of butter will be washed off in the whey. As 
 soon as the curd breaks smoothly across the finger, leaving 
 the finger clean and the clear whey settles in the broken 
 place say in 35 minutes from time of adding the rennet
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. 197 
 
 the curd is fit to cut, which is done as quickly but as 
 gently as possible, first with a horizontal knife lengthwise 
 of the vat, then with a perpendicular knife until the pieces 
 of curd are about the size of beans. If the milk is very 
 sweet, the pieces may be left coarser; if it shows more 
 ripeness and is souring rapidly, the curd is cut finer still, 
 so as to secure even action of the heat in a shorter space 
 of time, and before the acid gets too much developed. 
 Move the curd about gently, only enough to prevent 
 packing, while raising the temperature of the whole mass 
 gradually and steadily, but more or less rapidly, 
 according to the state of the milk, to 96, 98, or 
 lOOdeg. as experience shall have determined to be the 
 proper point for the district. Hold the curd 
 steadily at the desired point of temperature until the 
 action of the heat is nearly or quite complete, and acid, 
 just a taste of sourness, is got. The use of litmus test 
 paper is desirable at this stage, as it shows the first trace 
 of acid and the extent of acid development. When a 
 curd-mill is in use, draw off all the whey early, as soon as 
 there are any signs of acid. To aid the flow, raise one 
 end of the vat, draw the curd away from the lower end and 
 pile it up along each side of the vat ; leave it to drain, and 
 when the course is desirable let the curd take on a little 
 more acid or " ripeness," occasionally cutting it lengthwise 
 and across into convenient pieces to handle, and turning it 
 so as to air the bottom and inner portions, and to give the 
 outer portions that have cooled somewhat the advantage 
 of more warmth. When the whey that drains from it 
 is unmistakably acid, or when an iron heated to a black 
 heat applied to the curd will draw it out into fine threads 
 a quarter or half an inch long, commence to break or 
 grind the curd as soon as possible, and apply from 2 to 
 6oz. fine table salt to the curd per ten gallons of milk. 
 The curd may then be filled into moulds at once, and sent 
 to press, or allowed to stand and drain for an hour or so, 
 according to temperature, and what experience may prove 
 to be the best course. 
 
 Another system, and it answers well, is not to grind 
 the curd, but allow the whey to drain off pretty well in the
 
 198 AUSTRALIAN 
 
 vat, while thoroughly stirring and separating the curd, 
 then throw the mass out on a table, and rub it down with 
 the hands to the size of peas or wheat grains, and then 
 apply, as evenly as possible, from 2 to 6 oz. of fine salt per 
 ten gallons of milk, then cover it up, if necessary, 
 according to the state of the acid and the amount of whey 
 left, to carry away the free salt. Air the curd well and 
 put it to press, having regard both to the acidity of the 
 curd and the temperature of the atmosphere : 74 deg. is a 
 favourite temperature. If put to press too warm in hot 
 weather, the curd may ferment in the centre of the cheese 
 and cause it to swell and lose flavor. In cool weather the curd 
 temperature must be worked high enough to make a 
 smooth face to the cheese. 
 
 Pressing and Curing. As pressing, in some form, is 
 always resorted to for ordinary cheese, it is a matter of 
 importance to get the best and most convenient appliances. 
 The gang-press, with improved iron vats or hoops, is in 
 favor in the factories. It is compact, economical, and 
 does its work satisfactorily. Great variety of other presses 
 are also in use, the principle of which is the lever, 
 weighted lightly at first, and heavier as the pressing goes 
 on. A very good press is made by fixing a notch of wood 
 to the wall of the room in which the pressing is done ; the 
 butt of a sapling is then fixed to rest upon the cap of the 
 cheese-vat, the end being weighed as may be desired. 
 
 Temperature, Acid, &c. One of the most difficult 
 points in cheese making is to determine exactly where the 
 heat and acid development should be arrested, and the 
 salt applied to the curd. Experience and judgment tell 
 at this point; some acquire the skill in a few months, 
 others scarcely ever reach it. No fixed rule can be laid 
 down, as the milk of different cows, and of different 
 localities, as well as of different years and different seasons 
 of the year, work differently. Averages can only be given 
 here. Each cheese maker must determine for himself or 
 herself the degree of heat and acid required for the time 
 and place. The importance of having curing rooms, in 
 which the temperature can be controlled and kept between 
 70 and 80 degrees, is beginning to be more and more
 
 DAIRYING INTERESTS. 199 
 
 recognised, and more pains to secure this end are taken in 
 putting up buildings for dairy purposes. 
 
 Points in Cheese-making. When the salt is added 
 and thoroughly intermixed, a clean cloth wrung out of 
 warm water is placed inside the cheese vat to prevent the 
 curd adhering and the almost powdered curd is pressed in 
 by hand firmly, putting a rounded top of curd on, bringing 
 the ends of the cloth over all, and fastening them into the 
 edges of the vat with a block. Experience, and the size 
 of the hoop, show how much curd is required, to make 
 a desired weight of cheese, after it is pressed. In some 
 dairies, before the cheese is removed from the press, it is 
 put under pressure with a cloth wrung out of nearly 
 boiling water, to give toughness to the skin. It is then 
 removed to the cheese-room, and turned daily for a 
 fortnight or three weeks, and afterwards at longer 
 intervals. 
 
 Digestive Cheese. There are several means of 
 securing a soft and rapidly-curing cheese, all of which 
 combine not only to make a cheese soon ripe, and 
 believed to be more digestive ; but then it does not keep. 
 These conditions are less heat, less acid, less salt, and more 
 rennet. The secrets of cheese making are in the proper use and 
 degree of these several agents. And also to produce a firm, 
 flaky, but not crumbly, sweet flavoured article, that will 
 improve at least for a year, and melt in the mouth like 
 butter, leaving a clean sweet taste on the palate. Such a 
 cheese is not likely to be fit for use in much less than 
 sixty days. A good deal of judgment may also be 
 exercised in the size of cheese made. For instance, a 
 Cheddar, or whole milk cheese for family use, weighing 
 about 61b., is coming into great favour in the Sydney 
 market. 
 
 Special Cheese. Where small quantities of specially 
 rich cheese are made, extra cream is added to the milk 
 before warming; coagulating is followed as in other systems 
 of working. A favourite plan is to set the new cheese 
 before the fire, and, by frequently turning, it sets with no 
 other pressure than the weight of the curd. Early next 
 morning it receives a dry cloth. At this time, should the
 
 200 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 weather be cool, the hoop containing the cheese is again 
 warmed before the fire. Changing again takes place at 
 ten o'clock, and also at two, and if everything has gone on 
 well (the condition is indicated by a uniform yellow colour 
 and an elastic feel to the touch), it should be ready to take 
 from the hoop that afternoon. Some makers find that 
 twelve or even twenty-four hours tend to mature this rich 
 cheese better; and, perhaps, for larger sizes this latter 
 course may be advisable. 
 
 Cheese by Evaporation. This process is in favour in 
 Canada. The water is evaporated down to the cheese 
 standard, without adding rennet. The sugar is thus 
 incorporated with the casein and butter. Salting, pressing, 
 and curing are followed as for other cheese. 
 
 Cream and Skim-Milk Cheese. For soft cream cheese 
 mix two pints of milk and one pint of cream ; raise the 
 temperature to 86 degrees, mix three to six drops of 
 Hanson's rennet to each pint. Stir all the time in one 
 direction, and put the mass in a draining bag for twelve 
 hours (or eighteen, as the case may be) ; after six hours, 
 shift the outer curd inside and the inner curd outside; then 
 hang up again for the remainder of the time, to let the whey 
 drain off. Then put this luscious cheese into little shapes 
 lined with paper. 
 
 For Skimmed-Milk Cheese. A large vat is heated by 
 steam. The milk is raised to 94 degrees. Add the 
 colouring matter (Hansen's annatto). The colouring is 
 dissolved in water for cheese, and in oil for butter ; stir 
 well, and then let the mass coagulate ; next cut it in 
 cube-shaped pieces with a curd knife, up and down and 
 across ; then drain off the whey, and put the curd in the 
 mill and grind into small pieces like grain ; then put it into a 
 cheese hoop (lined with muslin) and press. This cheese 
 ripens best in a temperature of 60 degrees. Fit to eat in 
 about two months. 
 
 Floating Curd in Cheese-making. This is troublesome 
 at times, and especially when cows take to eating bush 
 trees, rank weeds in swamps, and other rubbish. It is a 
 result of unhealthy ferment, and to deal with it the curd is 
 broken as finely as possible, gradually adding salt while the
 
 THE FIG: TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 
 
 201 
 
 breaking proceeds. Raise the temperature very slowly to 
 104 degrees Fahr. Cook as firm as possible, draw off the 
 whey, and wash the curd in cold water until cooled to 70 
 degrees Fahr., when it is piled and allowed to mellow in 
 the usual way, and vatted at 60 Fahr. To remove the 
 whey, cut the curd in narrow lengths, say three inches 
 wide and nine to twelve inches long. Then pile on edge 
 length and crosswise. Soda has good effect, at times, in 
 checking fermentation, dissolved in the rennet ^oz. to 100 
 gallons of milk is sufficient. We have found in this climate 
 that doubtful ferments and acidity are most likely to be 
 present in milk from cows that are on poor feed or bad 
 water, or when the milk is retained beyond the right time 
 for cheese-making. 
 
 XVIII. THE PIG. To RAISE AND USE HIM. 
 
 THE pig is a popular institution on the station and the 
 farm, in towns where municpal laws are not enforced, and 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 The I'iif Tiiat Pays. 
 
 in the country. Yet Australia does not export pork to 
 any extent, and well-fed and cured ham and bacon are by 
 no means so general as might be. This is the more
 
 202 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 singular because maize the great pork producer of 
 America grows to the fullest perfection of quality and 
 weight of crop over a large extent of country, and other 
 foods sugar cane, sweet and common potatoes, wheat, 
 barley, milk, pumpkins, &c., are plentiful. Perhaps the 
 feeling that it is of no use making more pig meat than we 
 can consume is due to the cheapness and abundance of 
 beef and mutton ; and that when higher prices rule for the 
 latter,pigs may be more looked after. Be that as it may, there 
 are few more useful or more satisfactory things about a 
 place than a good pig in the stye, when put up in a proper 
 manner for fattening. The animal agrees well with the 
 climate. He enjoys robust health and a lively appetite. 
 He puts on flesh as rapidly as in any other part of the 
 world. The smaller sizes, those ranging from 801 b. to 
 1501b., dead weight, are the animals most in demand by 
 butchers, and the most suitable for home use. Larger sizes 
 may do for curing in wholesale, always providing that the 
 food given keeps pace in quality and quantity with the 
 improvement. No breed has been invented yet that 
 thrives without feed, though the better sorts make the 
 best out of what they eat. The poor lots make bone, 
 muscle, and trouble amongst neighbors. When stinted 
 of their food, the best sorts become tyrants, and others 
 become miserable spectacles. It is a good rule in pig 
 keeping that keeps up the breed by keeping the troughs 
 well supplied. 
 
 The Pig That Pays. Most people have their ideas as 
 to best breeds of pigs. Colour has much to do with 
 the choice. While numbers, possibly the majority, prefer 
 the Berkshire, black with white points, others give 
 preference to whites, to the Cheshires and medium 
 Yorkshires, and some people actually detest black pigs. 
 And yet the Berkshire cures Al for sides and hams, and the 
 Essex and Tamworths are not far behind for quality. But 
 white pigs have their points, and are not objected to any more 
 than the well-bred black sorts. It is astonishing how 
 quickly even coarse pigs " breed up " when due selection, 
 care in mating, paddocking, and feeding arc attended to. 
 To breed up, or improve, a male animal of the chosen
 
 THE PIG : TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 203 
 
 type is the main requirement. In a really good pig, we 
 find neat neck and shoulders, round ribs, thick loins, stout 
 thighs, small head and snout, short legs, long and silky hair. 
 This type of animal should be aimed at, whether black or 
 white, thorough-bred, half-bred, or common bred pigs are 
 kept. And now that there are prospects of exporting, it is 
 well to know that the general run of bacon and hams for 
 London or other English market are got from animals 
 weighing about 1501b. to 2001b. dead weight. The curing 
 trade regard all pigs over the top weight as inferior. 
 
 What Pig Points Mean. Neat in the head means 
 a nose neither too long nor too short, a nice, shapely keen- 
 looking face, with bright mild eyes, broad forehead, a 
 good-tempered appearance. Ears, soft and pliable ; when 
 they fall a little to the front without actually being lopped, 
 the point is good. Light neck and shoulders ; for the 
 coarser parts of a side of bacon, and those which fetch the 
 lowest price are the neck and shoulders, and the lighter 
 those parts the better the side, and the higher price it will 
 make. Deep in the ribs. Looking at this from a bacon 
 curer's point of view, a pig that is deep and round in the 
 ribs will of necessity produce a larger proportion of first 
 class bacon. Thick in the loin. A pig with heavy loin 
 has capacity for food, together with good digestion and 
 strong constitution generally. The loin is high-priced, 
 and the weight of that should be kept up. Stout in the 
 thighs. The hams are most important, and in the case of 
 pigs killed for the ham and middle (flitch) trade, the most 
 valuable of all. Long silky hair indicates strength of 
 constitution as well as lean meat. Such are conditions 
 which indicate a happy union between thriftiness and lean 
 meat, a union which suits both the curer and the producer. 
 
 Judging the Age. As a general thing, we are 
 content to take the pig by general appearances, with 
 respect to age. But the teeth, like those of other animals, 
 help to tell the tale. The animal is born with eight teeth, 
 four corner incisors and four tusks. On the eighth or 
 tenth day second or third temporary molars appear. At 
 four weeks old four nippers appear, two in the upper and 
 two in the lower jaw. At the fifth or sixth week the
 
 204 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 foremost temporary molars are in the upper and lower 
 jaws. At the age of three months, intermediary incisors 
 appear above the gums. At the sixth month, the " wolf 
 teeth" appear, and at the same age the third permanent 
 molars. At the ninth month, their permanent corner 
 incisors should be visible, permanent tusks, and second 
 permanent molars. At the twelfth month the permanent 
 nippers should be in view. With the twelfth and 
 thirteenth month the three temporary molars shed, and 
 their permanent substitutes, which at fifteen months of 
 age will have fully appeared, are cutting through the 
 gams. With the eighteenth month the permanent 
 intermediary incisors and the hindmost permanent molars 
 should make their appearance, and with the twenty-first 
 month should be fully developed. Then we have a full 
 mouthed pig. 
 
 Pen and Paddock Feeding. Pen feeding until the 
 fattening time is reached is not profitable with pigs in 
 Australian practice. The animals require much attention 
 when penned ; they fret and suffer in flesh when they are 
 not attended to. They do better in paddocks, on a piece 
 of good soil, with a stretch of swamp in it, irom the time 
 of weaning until they are penned for fattening. They 
 may be fed in paddocks, but not at regular times. A 
 whistle or horn should call them, and they should get 
 nothing without calling ; then they do not "loaf" around 
 waiting for the slop-pail, but occupy their time rooting 
 and grazing as well-ordered pigs ought to do. When 
 there are shelters in the paddock for warmth, and in case 
 of storm, pigs are profitable stock and do not exact so much 
 attendance. 
 
 Points in Feeding. Pigs allowed to ream at will over 
 good grass, lucerne or other green feed, and which got all 
 the milk and grain they would eat, made the most rapid 
 growth, and made the best use of what they ate. Those 
 fed on grass, with milk and maize, on a small patch made 
 more rapid growth than those fed on grain alone, and 
 apparently made a slightly better use of the food eaten. 
 Green grass appears to be of the greatest value as an 
 appetiser. Pigs kept on grass alone made but slow growth
 
 THE PIG : TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 
 
 205 
 
 The Feu Finished. 
 
 so slow that it would require two seasons for maturity 
 making the profits very doubtful. Pigs kept in a movable 
 pen on lucerne ate within seven pounds as much grain as 
 did those in a paddock covered with grass, but did not 
 make as good use of it. Exercise is necessary to increase 
 eating capacity, and probably digestion, that growth may 
 be both rapid and economical. 
 
 A Natty Pen Arrangement. That some people have 
 an idea that pigs do all the better when they have 
 comfortable camping places, is made evident in the 
 
 accompanying series 
 of illustrations. The 
 pen was built to 
 accommodate two 
 families a mother 
 and her young, and 
 a group of fatteuers. 
 The size is 20 feet 
 long by 1 o feet front- 
 age. The position of 
 the pen being in somewhat ornamental grounds, the 
 building is arranged in keeping with the surroundings. 
 The first sketch 
 shows the pen com- 
 plete. It is of hard- 
 wood timber framing, 
 covered with weather- 
 boards ; corrugated 
 iron roof, nicely 
 ornamented. The 
 second sketch shows 
 the framework. The 
 floor, and two feet up 
 the sides, is hard- 
 wood, 6 x 1 stuff. 
 A main feature of the pen is the feeding arrangement 
 shown in the third sketch. There is a trough shown 
 by the dotted lines a b, over which is a heavy swing 
 partition. The operation of this swinging arrangement is 
 teen in the first illustration where, on the lefthand side it is 
 
 Framework of the Pou.
 
 206 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUBE. 
 
 shown pushed inwards, so 
 
 that feed may be pnt 
 into the trough (B). As 
 the pigs get their heads 
 into the trough they 
 push the swing out- 
 wards, where it is 
 stopped, so that they 
 cannot get out. Modi- 
 fications of these devices 
 will suggest themselves 
 to the many who like to 
 have even their pig- 
 geries convenient and 
 comfortable ; the latter 
 Peed Trough Arrangement. feature is all important. 
 
 As a Farm Helper. There are opportunities for his 
 capabilities in this country. He harvests corn in Al style, 
 and in a manner that as a rule pays as well as shelling it 
 and sending it to the grain markets. For fertilising the 
 land and exterminating weeds, then pigs come very near 
 perfection. They utilise the grass and coarse feed quite as 
 well as sheep, and perform a work in stirring the soil that 
 sheep cannot do. The nose of the pig is made for rooting, 
 and we follow nature's hint by giving him a job on the 
 soil. A moveable yard, large enough to keep two or three 
 pigs, can be made of strong hurdles or of stout inch 
 boards, say 14 feet long and 6 inches wide Split stuff 
 will do, though it is heavier to move. A barded wire at 
 the bottom prevents pigs from shifting a fence. For the 
 corners use heavy posts. Nail the boards or palings to the 
 posts about 6 inches apart, making four lengths or panels 
 4 feet high. Fasten the corners with stout hooks and 
 staples, and we have a pen or yard 14 feet square, which is 
 easily moved by two men. When we place two 50-pound 
 pigs into this yard they use up all the weeds and other 
 vegetation in it in three or four days, and thoroughly 
 disturb the soil several inches in depth. The great 
 agricultural enemy, sorrel, soon disappears before them ; 
 so does nut-grass, that terrible pest of the coast farmers. 
 Corn and other feed can be given when necessary. When
 
 THE PIG : TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 207 
 
 they have done their work satisfactorily, the pen can be 
 moved onward and onward, as required. The advantages 
 of this method are that it fertilises the land for grass or 
 crops, destroys weeds and insects, and mixes and fertilises 
 the surface of the soil about as well as it can be done. 
 Even ferns and small brush are effectively destroyed. 
 Worms and caterpillars are available food for the pig, and 
 it is not the least of the benefits t at small stones, if they 
 are in the soil, are brought to the surface, where they 
 can be seen and removed. The keeping of pigs gives 
 opportunity for disposal of produce in times of nlenty, 
 when it does not pay to send maize or wheat to market. 
 It is advantageous at such times to turn the grain into 
 pork or bacon. Many of the farm products which otherwise 
 might not pay may be utilized by having the pig among 
 the live-stock as part of the system of the Australian 
 agriculturist. 
 
 The Pig a Factory. Provide him with a good feed and 
 he makes good bacon ; but if stinted, no matter how 
 perfect his breed, his form, and fattening qualities, he 
 cannot make flesh. A badly-fed sow cannot have vigorous 
 healthy pigs of good size, with a tendency to grow rapidly 
 and mature early. Thrifty pigs should weigh at four 
 months 701b. to 801b. During two months of that time 
 the pigs get most of their living from the sow, and during 
 the next month they eat far less food than older pigs. On 
 most farms a suitable patch can be laid out where sorghum, 
 pumpkins, sugar beets, chicory, carrots, or mangold- 
 wurzel will grow. These, with a little corn, make splendid 
 bacon-yielding material. 
 
 Pigs on Grain Stubble. Possibly we do not in all cases 
 utilise the pigs as much as we might do by turning them into 
 the stubble to pick up the shelled grain, though, of course, it 
 is not always expedient to let them roam over stubbles. In 
 some cases want of suitable fences to restrain the pigs and 
 other reasons may prevent this practice being followed out, 
 but it could certainly be more generally pursued to good 
 advantage. Especially is this the case during a dry 
 season. In a wet time, when the stubble is lightly 
 ploughed soon after harvesting, the shelled grain would
 
 208 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 start growing, and there would bo a certain amount of 
 green crop for feed or to turn under, and in this way there 
 would be some return in the shape of manure, but in u dry 
 season the grain would not start till too late in the year. 
 When pigs are allowed to run in the stubble, there will not 
 be much of the shelled grain wasted, nor much chance of 
 weeds and other bad growths springing up. They hunt 
 over the ground and root out all they can find. Even nut 
 grass roots disappear before pigs. 
 
 Wheat and Maize as Feed. When wheat is cheaper 
 than maize, weight for weight, and when mixed with maize 
 it gives a better result than maize alone. Thus 
 
 Flesh formers Heat givers. Fat. 
 
 Wheat 10 ... 65 ... If 
 
 Maize 9 ... 70 ... 5 
 
 Maize and Wheat mixed .. 10 ... 67i ... 3J 
 
 Maize is a rapid fattener of the pig, but the meat is 
 neither so firm nor so good in flavour as where the maize 
 is mixed with wheat, or when milk helps the maize. 
 For fattening, therefore, it is advantageous to use one- 
 hird wheat to two-thirds maize, while for growing pigs 
 and stores one-third maize may be added to two-thirds 
 wheat. 
 
 Australian Points in Pig liaising. Gum leaves and 
 bush scrapings generally, make excellent bedding for the 
 farrowing sow altogether much better than straw. The 
 little suckers are great on burrowing, and when covered 
 up in straw are in danger of being overlain by the 
 mother and smothered. 'J hen the bush stuff is 
 dryer, warmer, and altogether more cleanly. The expe- 
 rience is that pigs that farrow amongst gum leaves very 
 seldom if ever worry their young. Bat, perhaps, that may 
 be because of a habit of rubbing the little ones soon as 
 possible with a sponge and a little eucalytus oil It is an 
 unfailing precaution against a very common mishap, espe- 
 cially during warm weather. The first litter here as a rule 
 is smaller than in England. Six, seven, and eight are the 
 numbers with us, and more often six than eight. In the 
 old land, ten is common with both the white and black 
 breeds. But tl.e after litters are up to the full number,
 
 THE PIG! TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 209 
 
 and oar pigs breed longer than in England, where the 
 long, cold winters tell upon the mothers. 
 
 To Select Breeding Stock, In selecting for breeding 
 purposes, whether male or female, it is important to choose 
 from among large litters that have been well suckled. 
 Some breeds are noted for prolificness, others could 
 probably be made equally prolific if closer attention were 
 paid to this well established law of nature. The milking 
 qualities of the sow (wliich, by the way, are just ns 
 hereditary as in the dairy breeds of cattle), should not be 
 overlooked ; for no matter how large a litter a sow may 
 produce, they are a drawback unless she can suckle them 
 well. The question of whether the youngster is to be a 
 profit or a loss is largely decided during the few weeks 
 that he draws his mother sustenance. Mauv dairy cows 
 of strong milking inheritance, and that have been brought 
 up to the milking period, are spoiled by bungling milkers. 
 There is no such danger for the brood sow. The 
 youngster when hale and hearty, before he is an hour old 
 has mastered the science of milking, and has acquired 
 greater proficiency than the most skilful dairyist. That 
 organised appetite, wliich we call the young pig, is thorough 
 master of all the instruction ever given on the subject of 
 milking. He milks quietly, thoroughly, and yet gently, 
 except when his rights are disputed. 
 
 KILLING AND CURING. To do up a pig promptly, a 
 sharp knife is requiste, with a blade about eight inches 
 Jong, not more than an inch wide, with a rounded point. 
 Have it very sharp. If his pigship is about loOlbs. a 
 good handy size, by the way, for home use one used to 
 the work would bale him into a corner of the stye, grip 
 him by a leg and an ear, tumble him with his head 
 towards the righthand side, and with his feet towards 
 the operator, who then places his left leg across the 
 pig, and quickly inserts the knife at the centre of the 
 neck and as low as the fore-leg. Or, by whipping >i 
 line round a hind leg, the pig can be raised by a sapling 
 laid over a rail, upon a triangle (as shown in engraving), 
 or other convenient arrai gement. There is no noi.se from 
 a pig laised in this way. And when the knife does its
 
 210 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 work, the animal is in the very best position for bleeding 
 effectively. Touch the heart with the knife (easily known 
 
 by a film coming over the 
 eyes of the pig). The 
 animal feels no pain after 
 that. He bleeds freely, 
 and dies in peace. The 
 sticking is a main feature, 
 for unless well done the 
 animal does not bleed 
 freely ; and unless well 
 bled, the meat does not 
 keep well. The mistake 
 in this matter often arises 
 from inserting the knife 
 too high up in the neck 
 instead of the breast, where 
 
 the heart is. As soon as the animal is dead, souce him with 
 hot (not scalding] water. The usual practice is to put him 
 into a tub or trough, deep enough to cover the whole body ; 
 but the job can be done as well by putting him in before 
 applying the water. Tuck the head and feet under the 
 body, then pour in the hot water, and commence scraping 
 off the hair at once. The hair comes in flakes from a 
 young, good-conditioned pig, but sharp knives and an 
 approach to shaving have to be employed to get the back 
 bristles from old and coarse stagers. By the time it is off, 
 the feet, ears, and snout will be soaked, and the hair can 
 be scooped off with the hands or the knife. Take off the 
 hoofs, clean the head at once, and keep actively at the 
 other parts, pouring on water where the hair sticks, until 
 it is all off. Then lift him on a board, douse him with 
 cold water, and shave off any bristles that remain. 
 
 Scalding and Cleaning. A safe temperature of water 
 for scalding pigs is 160 deg. If the heat is much greater, 
 it sets the hair fast, and may break the skin ; when much 
 lower, the hair will not loosen at all. As low as 140 deg. 
 may do for a fine-haired pig, provided 75 or 100 gallons 
 of water are used ; but, where a tub is employed, the heat 
 must be at least 150 deg. In the open air, and in cold
 
 THE PIO: TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 211 
 
 weather, this may not be high enough. 160 deg. is the 
 point for pigs over 751bs. 
 
 Cutting up the Pig. The body should be allowed to 
 cool thoroughly. When pork is tainted, after salting 
 it is almost invariably for 
 want of thorough cooling 
 before cutting up the car- 
 cass. A good way to cut 
 up a pig, is to saw or chop 
 down the back, and make 
 two sides. The shoulder 
 
 . , , ce , i ,-, Cuttmg-up a Pig. 
 
 is then cut on as at 1, the 
 
 ham nicely rounded as at 2, leaving the small rump-piece 
 with the tail. The belly (3) is cut off, and the loin (4 and 
 5) is cut into two more or pieces, as may be desired. The 
 rib-bones should all be taken out and used fresh. The 
 shoulder should be freed from the ribs, and, with the 
 hams and the belly pieces, cured and smoked by them- 
 selves. The belly is often cut up into long, narrow pieces, 
 weighing 51b. to 61b., and, after being carefully cured and 
 smoked, is readily saleable as breakfast bacon. 
 
 Curing Hams and Bacon. Cut out the ribs, using a 
 sharp heavy knife for the purpose, and passing it close to 
 the bone, the rule beirg to cut out the bones, and nothing 
 more. In warm localities, where the meat is wanted for 
 home use, it is safest to cut out the bones of the hams 
 also ; follow them out closely as in the former case, 
 leaving only the small bones at the points of the hams and 
 shoulders. In cooler localities the bones may be left in, 
 in which case a sharp saw should be used to trim those 
 on the surface quite flat. Leave neither holes nor 
 protuberances, fill them with bran soaked in lard when 
 necessary, and the appearance will be improved very much. 
 Use purified saltpetre about one ounce to 501b. of meat. 
 Pound it fine ; run a steel or skewer close alongside the 
 bones, pushing down the salt-petre with it, giving 
 particular attention to the places were joints occur. Then 
 rub in salt as much as covers the meat, say lOlb. for lOOlb. 
 meat; but double the quantity of salt should be handy. 
 Surround the meat with salt, pack it on a table or board
 
 212 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUBE. 
 
 to drip; rub it again 10 or 12 hours afterwards. Rub it 
 well, and again the next evening, and the next, changing 
 the pieces from top to bottom of the heap each time, 
 placing boards between the pieces, when it is desired to 
 flatten them out nicely. It may then stand for 12 or 14 
 days being rubbed occasionally. 
 
 Smoking. After about 14 days, wash the meat quite 
 free from salt and hang it up until just dry, no more ; then 
 smoke it with tea-tree, wattle, stringy bark or other hard- 
 wood. Those first-named are the best. Do not allow 
 flame, the heat of the smouldering fire, or draughts of 
 drying air to reach the meat. To darken the colour, a 
 little sweet oil may be rubbed on ; smoking for 10 or 12 
 hours, either at once or during different times during a 
 week is sufficient for ordinary tastes. The smoking is all 
 the better done in a cool, close place To get rid of salt on 
 the surface, and also to improve the colour, of the hams 
 or sides, they are dipped in water of ISOdeg., having Jib. 
 soda in, say, ten gallons of water. Let the meat drip, then 
 hang up till dry, and smoke. 
 
 Pickling A popular American Method. Rub the 
 hams and shoulders with salt, and let them lie 36 hourn. 
 Then cover with brine for from three to six weeks. When 
 taken from the brine, insert a strong string in the large 
 end, and hang the pieces in the smoke-house, hock-end down- 
 ward. By this means tenderness and flavour are given to 
 a portion of the ham often treated badly. When they are 
 sufficiently smoked and dried, wrap each in brown paper, 
 and put in a loose bag of strong calico. Tie up the 
 mouth of the bag carefully, leaving out the string by 
 which it was hung up, and return to the hook in the 
 smoke-house, or any other safe convenient place. Hams 
 thus treated keep for years. 
 
 Curing with Sugar. The sides of hams are neatly 
 rounded and trimmed, well sprinkled with salt, and 
 allowed to He twenty-four hours to let all blood escape. 
 Then use for curing: l^lb. coarse sugar, l^lb. fine salt, 
 3oz. saltpetre pounded fine, lib. salt. This is enough for 
 icwt. of meat. Lay one of the flitches on a table or 
 bench, where the brine can run off, and rub a quarter of
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 213 
 
 the mixture well into it ; lay the second flitch on the top, 
 and proceed in the same way ; lastly the hams, taking care 
 in every case to have the flesh side up, with plenty of the 
 mixture sprinkled over. It should lie thus for a month, 
 turning it every other day, putting the top flitch to the 
 bottom, and adding a little pickle if much brine has run 
 off. Then wash off the salt, hang the meat in the smoke 
 for ten days, not too near the fire. 
 
 Lard versus Meat. Lard is a very good thing for 
 making pastry and for some other purposes, but, in a 
 warm climate, people do not appreciate lard. The pig of 
 the future will not be a dumpy " bladder of lard," but a 
 succession of streaks of fat and " leau pig." The sooner 
 we realise the fact, the sooner will pig-raising become 
 profitable. Fat pork is altogether to ) greasy for this 
 climate, though it is nice and very nourishing when 
 rounding Cape Horn, and during the bleak European 
 winter. 
 
 XIX. THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 MAKING A COMMENCEMENT. The management for eggs 
 and for table birds is the concern of this department. 
 Poultry fancing, that is, the breeding and development of 
 birds or breeds for special points or for show purposes, is 
 a much more exacting occupation. To be successful with 
 fancy poultry, calls out the very best qualities of the stock 
 breeder. The chapter on the Physiology ol Breeding is 
 worth attention in that connection. Some who commence 
 the stndy of poultry life in the more modest manner of this 
 department, may follow into that of the poultry fancier. 
 The training should be helpful in that direction, but, 
 meanwhile our attention will be directed to poultry for 
 their egg laying or their table qualities, for home use or 
 as a business. We will soon see that there are very 
 marked differences in the breeds of fowls for the purposes 
 aimed at, and that requirements in the form of necessary 
 accommodation, both indoor and out, care in feeding and
 
 214 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 general attention, and to the qualities of the feed for 
 building up young stock, for egg laying, and for making 
 high-class table birds, all come into the pursuit of poultry 
 farming. 
 
 The Kind to Keep, and Where to Keep Them. The 
 latter is the more important matter of the two. Fowls, to 
 do well, must have room ; must have suitable house, roosting, 
 and yard accommodatiou, the right kinds of food and clean 
 water, the run of grass and weeds, with their belongings 
 of insects. These living things mean that fairly good soil 
 answers the best for a poultry run. They must also have 
 gravel and lime in the form of a carbonate, such as bone, 
 shells, limestone, etc., dry places to shake themselves in, 
 and moist places to scrape in. 
 
 Fences. The place being available, it becomes neces- 
 sary to fence it in an effective manner ; for unless the 
 whole property is to be given up to fowls, indoors and out, 
 they must be fenced in, or dissatisfaction, annoyance, and 
 trouble follow on their trail. Seven feet is not too high 
 for the fence of the place in which layers are to be confined, 
 though lower fences do for the heavier breeds. Palings or 
 wire-netting should surround the enclosure, as well as 
 gates. To make a hen satisfied that she must stay within 
 an enclosure, leave no room for any doubt upon her mind 
 as to whether she can get out of it ; she must not succeed, 
 or there will be trouble in that neighbourhood. Fowls are 
 persevering in proportion to their early successes. Con- 
 tentment on their part is the result of feeling that they 
 cannot do the other thing. Then they become satisfied 
 with their lot, lay many eggs, or grow big, as the owner 
 may desire. In their fenced-in enclosure should be the 
 roosting and laying places. This is necessary, for poultry 
 in this country have many enemies, including dogs, guanos, 
 hawks, &c., and mean thieves of the man kind. 
 
 Wire-Netting Fences. They answer well for poultry, 
 are easily erected, and cost little. Hardwood posts of the 
 desired height, say 6 feet above ground and 2 feet in the 
 ground, are set and rammed in firmly. About 10 feet apart 
 answers. Then stretch a wire firmly on the top, another 
 at bottom, and where two widths of wire-netting are used,
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 215 
 
 a wire where they join is desirable. Unroll the netting 
 flat on the ground along the posts. Then carefully raise it 
 to position on the posts, and fasten all along the top tight, 
 exactly the height of the wire above the bottom line ; go the 
 full length of the roll fastening the top, and let the bottom 
 hang. One man can draw it tight, while another fastens 
 it ; draw it just tight enough so that it doesn't sag between 
 posts. After the top is fastened, draw the bottom down 
 in place, and fasten, being careful not to draw the wire 
 down any wider than it was made that is, 6ft. netting 
 should be exactly 6ft. from top to bottom, other widths the 
 same way. If the wire is properly woven, it will remain 
 straight and even when put up as above, and not have that 
 unsightly warp which some fences have. 
 
 MoveablePens. This is amongst the handy contrivances 
 made possible with wire-netting. Four posts are sunk in 
 the ground. Strips of batten connect the four on the 
 
 Portable Feuces of Wire-Netting. 
 
 ground line ; then the wire is set up, and we have a run 
 that keeps the birds in place, and is not unsightly in any 
 part of the grounds. A roll of wire netting is amongst 
 the materials of great use iu working poultry. When sick- 
 ness occurs, a temporary pen can be set up for the patients 
 away from the others, and in a quiet, shady, well grassed 
 spot, is of the greatest use for restoring birds to vigorous 
 health again.
 
 216 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Buildings. There is immense scope for the display of 
 taste in poultry buildings. Our concern will carry us amongst 
 
 For a Small Lot. 
 
 For a Small Place, as for Breeding Pens. 
 
 orections put up for use mainly ; leaving decoration to the 
 taste of the owner. The absolute requirements are tight 
 roofs, through which water cannot 
 enter, close walls, and floor of dry 
 earth, raised sufficiently to prevent 
 the inroads of dampness, even in wet 
 weather. Ventilation is best pro- 
 vided for by windows or shutter 
 openings. Wood, iron, slabs, bark, 
 and other materials are available 
 for buildings. When shade or 
 shelter can be secured from trees or 
 vines, the advantages are very decided. 
 
 Roosts, Nests, Water, &c. Much of their comfort and 
 health is dependent on how fowls .roost. The roosting 
 and laying places of hens should be sufficiently tight to 
 protect the inmates from rain, wind, and enemies. There 
 should be no roosting on trees and fences. Place roosting 
 sticks, at least 3 inches thick, across the building about 20 
 inches apart ; no roost should be higher than 3 feet. A 
 good plan is to have the roosting sticks set upon a levelled 
 frame ; in any case they should be so arranged that at any 
 time they can be removed, cleaned, and replaced with the 
 least trouble. Nest-boxes (barrels and kerosene cases 
 answer well) are placed in the quiet, shady, out-of-the-way 
 places, where birds are not likely to roost on them. 
 They should always be supplied with dry sand or 
 soil, gum leaves, &c., and each contain a nest-
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 217 
 
 egg. Drinking vessels being provided in the yard, 
 and supplied with clean water, we are ready for 
 the inmates. The reason for recommending low roosts is 
 that laying-hens are often ruined by jumping or falling 
 from high places. 
 
 Let the Hens Roost Low Down. A laying-hen, of 
 genuine egg-laying breed, is a wonder a nervous, 
 irritable, egg-laying machine. The natural state is 
 vigorous activity; and all the time such a hen is a delicate 
 concern. She has immense capabilities for egg making 
 and laying, but the organs are complicated in the extreme. 
 
 Thousands of hens are 
 ruined every year by 
 rupture or other injury 
 to the egg-producing 
 organs from falls, being 
 chased, and other dis- 
 turbances. Then this 
 danger is aggravated 
 when hens roost high 
 up. The jump, flight, 
 or fall from a high perch is always dangerous. So let us get 
 the hens to roost low down. Three feet is quite high 
 enough for roost sticks. Our sketch shows a very good way 
 for arranging them, as at (A). (B) (B) are boards sloping 
 under the roost sticks for the droppings to fall into a box (c), 
 or there may be no box, when there is a deep layer of dry 
 earth for a floor, which can be raked over daily. 
 
 Food, Drink and Digestion. Fowls need good sharp 
 grit or gravel. They have no teeth ; their food must be 
 ground up in the digestive system. Good grit keeps the 
 birds in a healthy condition. And fowls need a constant 
 supply of clean water. A fowl does not drink much at a 
 time, but comes often. Water makes up the largest part 
 of the body and the egg. Fowls need green food summer 
 and winter. Cabbages hung up in the hen house answer 
 excellently. Keep the place clean, be careful what you 
 feed, and success follows. But don't forget to feed early 
 in the morning. It does not pay to keep more hens- 
 than we have time to attend to. 
 
 Let The Fowls Roost Low Down.
 
 218 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AQBICULTURB. 
 
 Poultry Fountain. 
 
 Clean Water. This is the precaution against disease. 
 The water fountain shown in illustration has a colonial look 
 about it. It is made from a four-gallon kerosene tin. A 
 hole is cut as at (A), and a piece of tin, bent half-circle 
 fashion, (B), is soldered to the bottom of the tin, so as to 
 
 surround the hole. We 
 then have a true water seal, 
 and a continuous supply of 
 say half an inch of water, 
 as loug as the contents of 
 the four gallon tin hold out. 
 The requirements are that 
 the tin be perfectly air-tight. 
 The outlet hole may be 
 about half an inch high, by one inch or two inches wide. 
 An efficient "fountain" on the same principle can be made 
 with preserved meat, jam, and other tins. When set upon a 
 raised board or I ox, in a shady place, a supply of cool, clean 
 water is ensured to the yard. 
 
 Feeding. This is a leading consideration. Fowls 
 must be fed often and every day, early and late. They 
 require careful feeding ; but a tempts to provide special 
 food leads to no end of tribulation, and little else. They 
 will eat any good food when healthy, and are scarcely 
 worth troubling with when unhealthy. Wheat, oats, 
 barley, pollard, and bran are all good. Maize, whole or 
 cracked, is too fattening, if given without other grain, 
 bread, rice, meat, anything and everything that man uses, 
 is readily eaten by fowls ; but while the former can 
 educate himself into using all sorts of messes and 
 mixtures, into suffering from dyspepsia, indigestion, 
 gout, medicine swallowing, and many other forms 
 of stomach ruination, fowls suffer from all such 
 attempts at " civilising " them, and wherever any- 
 thing of the kind is persevered in, they become 
 discontented, diseased, and die. A reliable system 
 of feeding is to give soft crumbly food in the morning, 
 which in winter should be blood warm ; and grain with 
 meat, broken bone, oyster shells, a^d other bone, flesh, 
 fat, and egg-forming materials at other times. Laying
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 219 
 
 fowls require all the good and suitable feed they can 
 eat. More care has to be used with the breeding hens, 
 than the fleshy table breeds. Comfortable quarters on 
 good grass land, and liberal feeding with meat, are safe 
 foundations for poultry farming for eggs. 
 
 Poultry in Confinement. Some curious and much 
 needed tests have been made with a view of observing 
 
 the temperaments of 
 different breeds of 
 fowls and their 
 adaptability for con- 
 finement. With this 
 end in view, a series 
 of sheds were erected 
 each eighteen feet by 
 five, and in these, 
 breeding flocks of five 
 to nine birds, Brown 
 Leghorns, Minorcas, 
 Redcaps, Andalu- 
 
 sians, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Houdans, Ham- 
 burgs. Langshans, Dorkings, and Cochins, were put 
 up. The floors were originally covered with straw, but 
 this was soon changed for dry earth, and the condition of 
 the birds at once improved. The first breed to develop 
 any vice were the Minorcas, which laid well for two 
 months, and then commenced feather eating. The next 
 to develop this habit were the Audalusians, which were 
 succeeded by the Hamburgs, Wyandottes, and Redcaps. 
 Then it was decided to change the treatment, with a view 
 to curing them of the propensity they had acquired. The 
 birds were allowed their freedom on grass, and they at once 
 abandoned the habit of feather pulling, but which they 
 recommenced when again confined in the pens. This is 
 a nice point for considering with poultry, and shows how 
 desirable it is to have a run for even a small flock. The 
 Leghorns one cockerel and seven laying hens did by 
 far the best, as they laid well all through the experiment, 
 sometimes providing six eggs a day, and developed no 
 vice or symptoms of ill-health whatsoever.
 
 220 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Peculiarities of Breeds. They are so well defined now 
 that we reckon their merits and drawbacks with some- 
 thing like certainty. Taking the 
 laying breeds first, they are 
 smaller, more wiry, are more 
 timid, and more able to fly fences 
 and roost upon trees than the 
 heavier, flesh-forming, table birds. 
 The egg-layers are not disposed 
 to sit, or to become broody, to the 
 same degree as the flesh formers. 
 Their eggs are larger, from l^oz. 
 Egg-iayin& Type. to 2oz., are white as a rule, and 
 
 do better in small confined places, 
 
 than the heavier breeds. Leghorns. Brown, white, 
 cuckoo ; combs, large, upright ; all are hardy. Have laid 
 up to 170 eggs during second year, and 700 during life; 
 weigh up to 71 b.; capital foragers. Hamburgs. The 
 "red-caps," black pencilled, spangled; solid, red combs; 
 second year up to 180 eggs ; during life, 660, but smaller 
 eggs than Leghorus ; weigh up to 6 jib. Minorcas. Black ; 
 large upright combs ; eggs large, not so numerous as 
 foregoing ; weigh up to 81b.; fair foragers. Houdans. 
 Black with white ; have top knot and fifth toe ; second 
 year, 150; total, 650 (light coloured eggs) ; weigh up to 
 81b. Polish. Black, with white top knot; much the 
 same egg capacity as Houdans, but smaller birds ; weigh 
 up to 6|lb. Andalusians. Slatey blue ; look like game ; 
 egg capacity and weight much the same as Houdans. 
 Wyandottes. Beautiful laced feathering ; supposed to be 
 from a cross of Brahma with laced Asiatic ; fine, firm flesh ; 
 laying capacity 390 ; best year, 140 ; good mothers and 
 fair foragers; weigh up to 81b. Spanish. Black, with 
 white face and ears; second year, have laid up to 170 
 eggs ; total, 650 (eggs extra large) ; breed reputed 
 delicate ; weigh up to 7lb. 
 
 Pullets of the foregoing commence to lay when six 
 to seven months old. They lay best in their second year. 
 
 Table Breeds. Colour of eggs mostly brown; smaller 
 in size than the egg layers; weigh from 1^ to lozs.
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 221 
 
 For Export. 
 
 Game. British, Australian, Indian and others Heavy, 
 
 rich flesh and full breasts ; 
 capacity for egg laying, 
 470; best year, 100; good 
 mothers ; weigh up to 91bs. 
 Dorkings. Silver grey, 
 white legs and five toes; 
 eggs white ; capacity, 500 ; 
 best year, 120 ; weigh up 
 to lOlbs. Rocks. Ash grey, 
 towards black ; supposed to 
 be cuckoo with Asiatic, 
 hardy and domestic; egg 
 capacity, 400 ; best year, 
 110; weigh up to 9 Ib. and 
 are excellent foragers and 
 good mothers. Dominiques. 
 Lighter than Rocks ; flesh 
 finer ; not so hardy ; egg 
 capacity about same. Lang- 
 shans. Termed "black cochins," and have feathered legs ; 
 good winter layers; capacity, 380 ; best year up to 100; flesh 
 firm and fair; weigh up to 10|lbs. ; are poor foragers. 
 Orpingtons. Black, bronzed, supposed cross of minorca 
 with langshans ; clean legs; egg capacity about the same 
 as langshans ; hardy ; excellent flesh and good mothers ; 
 weigh up to lOlbs. There are, also, buff and white 
 Orpingtons ; all are fair foragers. Brahmas. Light and 
 dark; flesh, coarser; egg capacity, 350; best year, 100; 
 \\eigh up to lllbs. ; poor foragers and delicate. Cochins. 
 Buff, white, dark ; feathery legs ; flesh poor ; egg 
 capacity, 300; best year, 60; weigh up to 121bs. ; poor 
 foragers, great eaters, and lazy. La Fleche. A noted 
 French breed, of the Spanish type, have proved delicate 
 and inferior in Australia. 
 
 Crosses for Table Birds. Game give weight and quality 
 of flesh. Game with dorkings are hardy, have light- 
 coloured legs and weigh up to 91bs. Houdan-dorkings are 
 suitable, and make good cross for eggs and table birds. 
 Houdan-orpingtons are suitable, also Iloudan-game. The
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 houdana are, also, in favour for crosses with orpingtons, 
 Plymouth rocks, brahmas and cochins. Heavy-breasted, 
 firm-fleshed birds, with white legs, and weighing up to 
 91bs., are desirable. 
 
 For Export. A bird with yellow skin, clean white or 
 yellow legs, small in bone and plump when dressed. 
 
 BREEDING. Hens, Turkeys, or Incubators ? Much 
 experience is available concerning the merits of hens, 
 
 turkey hens, and incubators for 
 hatching. So far as the time is 
 concerned there is no difference; 
 but as to the results, very 
 marked differences occur. 
 Briefly it may be said that it is 
 best to gain experience with 
 hens, or turkeys, before ventur- 
 ing upon an incubator. A good 
 deal will be learned during a 
 season or two with hens, which 
 will simplify matters when the 
 incubator is taken in hand. 
 
 Self-regulating Incubator. 
 
 Hatching Time. Which ever process we follow, the 
 cooler months from July to September answer best for 
 bringing out chickens ; but, with the precautions 
 mentioned regarding nesting, hen mothers, vermin, &c., 
 other seasons will do, though there is always the serious 
 risks of vermin during hot weather. With the aid of 
 incubators, chickens can be raised at any time. Hen-eggs, 
 of all breeds, take 21 days to hatch cut ; ducks, 28 days, 
 with the exception of the Muscovy, which often takes 35 
 days ; goose, 30 to 35 days ; Guinea and pea fowls, from 
 28 to 30 days ; turkeys, 28 days. 
 
 The Breeding Stock. Select the fowls from which the 
 next year's stock of chickens are to be bred and place them 
 apart from others. Even if not pure bred, a careful 
 selection of half-a-dozen hens which are in good health and 
 good layers, and a vigorous male of the breed considered 
 best for the purpose in view, will give eggs more sure of 
 hatching and more hardy and vigorous chickens than can 
 be got from twice as many eggs taken from a larger stock
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 223 
 
 without selection. In selecting fowls to breed from, it is 
 better that the sexes should be in no way related, the hens 
 should be over a year old, rather than younger, and the 
 male bird is better at two or three years than at one. 
 Never use males of one year old if older ones can be had. 
 If there exists any imperfection which should cause a bird 
 to be rejected as a breeder, it will usually be seen 
 distinctly in the second year, while in the bird of less than 
 a year it migrht not be noticed. But for ordinary purposes, 
 good physique in both the male bird and the hens are the 
 main requirements. For stud purposes, five hens and a 
 male bird make a nice pen. For the smaller breeds, 6 to 
 8 hens may be allowed. Where practicable, the male bird 
 should be smaller than the hens. 
 
 PJaiii Brooding Pens. 
 
 Eggs and Places for Setting. The eggs must be 
 quite fresh. When over eight days old, in the summer 
 season, the progeny will be weak to a certainty. To 
 carry eggs a long distance, pack them in bran or sawdust. 
 They carry better by road or on horseback than by 
 steamer. The shaking of a vessel at sea generally 
 proves destructive to the reproductive properties of the
 
 224 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 eggs. In setting hens, nests on the ground made of dry 
 sandy or loamy soil answer well, with a sprinkling of 
 
 broken down gum 
 leaves. The nests are 
 healthy, and are easily 
 kept clean and free 
 from vermin ; or the 
 nests may be in boxes 
 or barrels. They 
 should be where the 
 Coop for a sitting Hen. sitters cannot be mo- 
 
 lested. The hen 
 
 should be roused from the nest every day after the 
 second day of sitting, and induced to drink and 
 feed freely and dust herself. These are the best 
 precautions against vermin. A sitting hen requires 
 steady nourishment, to keep up her courage and 
 natural heat. When the weather is very dry, it is a good 
 plan to sprinkle both eggs and nest with warm water 
 every day when the hen leaves it. On the 19th or 20th 
 day, unless the hen comes off of her own accord, lift her off 
 and look over her eggs. But be careful not to drag the 
 mother bird while moving her, for eggs may be broken 
 unless great care is used. Place one hand under each 
 wing and then quietly lift her up, taking care that she 
 carries no eggs in her feathers. Some, if not all, of the 
 eggs may be cracked and chipped where the young ones 
 are struggling to get through. Take away any shells of 
 chicks that have hatched out. On the 2 1st day take the 
 sitter off her place again. By this time all the chickens 
 should be hatched out, and if the mother has not pushed 
 all the empty shells out of the nest, it is advisable to clear 
 up all litter and put mother and brood on clean dry earth 
 in a coop or otherwise. 
 
 Incubators. Self-regulating machines are best, and 
 possibly the best results are got from those in which the 
 eggs are placed in sand. The temperature must be very 
 steady, ranging between 101 and 105 degrees. An 
 occasional cooling for half an hour or so does no harm, and 
 by some experienced operators is believed to be necessary.
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 225 
 
 Eggs While Hatching. Turn them every day after 
 the second day. Prompted by nature, hens turn their 
 eggs from the outside to the warmer inside of the nest. 
 From the 7th to the 10th day use an egg-tester, and 
 examine each egg before a bright light. If all is well, red 
 streaks or veins will be visible in the fertile eggs 
 on the 7th day. Others show a dai-k mass in the 
 centre ; they have to be rejected. Such eggs are 
 useful when boiled, for feeding chickens. On the 
 19th or 20th day, some of the eggs may be cracked, but 
 may seem no further advanced than the day before. In 
 this case, it may be necessary to remove a small portion of 
 the shell around that part where the beak of the confined 
 chicken has made an opening. This requires the utmost 
 care, and should never be done except as a last resort. 
 Warm water, of blood heat, or, say, lOOdeg., is useful for 
 freeing the chicks sometimes. It may enable a weak chick 
 to free itself out of its shell, when it has not strength to do 
 so by itself. Only too strong help might be given and the 
 life destroyed. 
 
 An Effective Egg-tester. The light (A) of a lamp or a 
 candle answers very well. A cylinder (B) of paper is set 
 around the light., into which a round hole is cut. This 
 
 gives a streak of clear 
 concentrated light, and 
 by holding an egg- 
 testei shield (c) into 
 which the egg (D) is 
 placed in the ray of 
 light, remarkably clear 
 observations can be 
 made. With a little 
 practice the condition 
 of the contents of the 
 egg become visible. 
 After the seventh day of 
 incubation, fertile eggs will be observed to have a dark 
 patch in the centre and a number of red streaks radiating 
 from it, giving it the appearance of a long-legged spider. 
 An unfertile egg, sure to go bad, is distinguished by a dark 
 
 Testing
 
 226 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 spot adhering 1 to the shell, and by a cloudy and ill-defined 
 appearance, but no red streaks. 
 
 Moisture in Egg-Hatching. I am afraid that mistakes 
 are being 1 made, and other mistakes are likely to be mad e, 
 by stifling both hens and incubators for want of sufficient 
 moisture. Serious disappointments have occurred from 
 this cause, and from an idea which has somehow got 
 abroad that moisture is a bad thing in incubation. No 
 doubt too much water would be bad it is bad in every 
 sense, whether we have to deal with it in plant life, or in 
 animal life. Water simply drowns life action when there 
 is too much of it, and if incubators are allowed to sweat 
 moisture about the eggs, they will go bad to a certainty. 
 But the anatomy of the egg, and the process of hatching 
 from first to last, all show that moisture that is, healthy 
 life moisture is a necessity for life all through. Both 
 hens and incubators require such a degree of moisture, or 
 chicks cannot come forth in a strong, robust, healthy state. 
 When eggs are hatched in leaves, as in the case of the 
 Australian scrub turkey, in manure substances, or in tlie 
 nest-like arrangements of Egyptians, Indians, or Chinese, 
 their climate, habitations, and surroundings supply the 
 required warmth and moisture. Our experiences are just 
 the same. Thousands of chicks are lost during every 
 hatching season when dry winds prevail. Life heat, from 
 102 to 105 degrees, just moist, is the state of things for 
 generating life in the egg, and developing healthy chickens. 
 Hen Mothers. The hen n, other I refer to is a box, say 
 12 x 24 x 9, the 9 inches being the height in front. The 
 top of the box slopes downwards towards the back, so that 
 it is about 4 inches high at that side. The inside of the 
 top and also the back is lined with woollen rag, or short 
 wool sheepskin will do. This hen mother may either have 
 a wooden floor, or it will do without the floor, if it is 
 arranged on dry earth. The chicks can be taken from the 
 hen or incubator when 24 hours old. They may then be 
 put in families of 20 or 25 in a grassy pen, but quite dry, 
 fenced with boards, from 2 to 10 feet square, and about 2 feet 
 high, and so close or tight at the bottom that the smallest 
 cannot squeeze through. Young ducks will do well treated
 
 THE POULTEY YARD. 
 
 227 
 
 this way ; but they will try to get through any opening, no 
 matter how small. The pen should be movable, and be 
 
 Portable Hen Mother and Yard. 
 
 frequently changed, or it will soon become foul. When 
 they have a " hen mother," both chicks and ducks do 
 better without a hen than with one. Young ducks are 
 very restless ; they are ever on the move, and heus become 
 nervous at the noise and continuous motion of ducklings, 
 and often lose their heads and trample the little restless 
 things to death. 
 
 Hen Mother and Hen Chickens. A first brood of 
 chickens put into a hen mother may be a week old. They 
 
 Hen Mother, with Run for Chick* or Younn Ducks.
 
 228 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 can then pick and forage, and younger chicks put with 
 them are warmer, and soon acquire the arts of chicken life. 
 But, when for the first six weeks chickens remain with 
 their mother, it may be found most convenient to confine 
 the hen in a roomy coop, and allow the chicken to run out- 
 side. It is best to place the chicken's food and water where 
 they alone can get at it, while corn and other feed is put 
 inside for the hen. The coop and yard should be portable, 
 and must be kept scrupulously clean, and be frequently 
 shifted from place to place. Adult birds may thrive in a 
 tainted atmosphere and on impure soil, but for young 
 chickens these conditions mean certain death. Where 
 there is grass, the chickens should not be allowed out too 
 early in the morning, while the dew is heavy on the 
 ground, or cramps may be their fate. 
 
 Young Chickens and Young Ducks. About the close of 
 the sixth week, the hen is likely to abandon her charges. 
 Suddenly all her former tenderness and devotion are then 
 turned to harshness. She will drive the chickens from 
 her, and if any of the wee things creep to her for warmth 
 and shelter, she will often peck at them unmercifully. 
 She knows that they will then thrive better by themselves 
 and hence she refuses them care any longer. So after all 
 she is " cruel only to be kind." Here again the advan- 
 tages of the hen mother all favour the chickens. For a 
 week or two the youngsters, when suddenly abandoned, 
 need extra care and attention. They must be fed well and 
 warmly housed. If a spell of cold weather comes on, a 
 sprinkling of pepper may be added to their morning meal. 
 Their best camp will be a warm box with dry leaves or 
 leaf mould, where they can cuddle together, or warmth can 
 be supplied by a lamp, hot water, a hot stone on top, or 
 other means. Early roosting is not good for fleshy, 
 well-nourished chicks. Should they roost on sharp, 
 narrow sticks, they are likely to be deformed. 
 
 DUCKS. The established varieties are well represented 
 in this country, and they all do well. In addition, we have 
 Australian ducks, native to the soil or water. They 
 are small, but make up for it iu quality, being more of the 
 type of game birds than any of the imported breeds. The
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 229 
 
 Rouen Ducks. 
 
 weights (standard) of domestic ducks are: Pekin drake, 
 eight- pounds ; A ylesbury drake, nine pounds ; Rouen drake, 
 
 nine pounds ; Cayuga 
 drake, eight pounds ; 
 Muscovy drake, ten 
 pounds. The duck of each 
 breed averages about lib. 
 less in weight than the 
 drake. Pekins and Ayles- 
 bury breeds are white, 
 Cayugas black, and 
 Rouens of varied colour. 
 The Muscovy does not 
 really belong to the duck 
 family. The eggs require 
 the same period for hatch- 
 ing as those of the goose, 
 while the produce of a mating of the Muscovy with 
 other breeds causes a sterile hybrid. 
 
 Breeding, Rearing and Marketing. They do better 
 on good grass without water than when they have water 
 without the grass. Board floors are best for the camping 
 places of grown ducks, with bush scrapings or litter on the 
 floor. When in confined yards it costs about 3d. per Ib. 
 to produce ducks. They eat twice as much as chicks, but 
 they make up by growing twice as fast. Feed ducklings 
 on soft stuffs, and have shallow pans of drinking water 
 near, as a duckling may choke to death if deprived of water 
 while eating. Very cold water for drinking causes cramps 
 in ducklings. So, also, does water on their backs. The 
 Pekin and Muscovy are considered the most rapidly- 
 growing breeds. When crowded in yards, ducklings often 
 die suddenly, due to eating the filth in the yards. 
 Dampness is fatal to ducks, both adults and ducklings, 
 hence they must have dry sleeping places. 
 
 GEESK. All the varieties are common the handsome 
 white, the Toulouse, the China, and improved Irish. They 
 are healthy, and a desirable addition to the poultry-yard 
 wherever there is plenty of good, rich grass, or soft, green 
 feed and a liberal supply of water. They are really grazing
 
 280 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 birds. Those who breed generally assign one gander to 
 four or five females. In mild seasons the goose lays early ; 
 she sits with exemplary patience, but ought, during 
 incubation, to be well supplied with food and water placed 
 in a convenient and undisturbed situation, to which she 
 may have free access. The gander is very attentive to his 
 favourite, sits by her, and is vigilant and daring in her 
 defence. The goslings, or gulls as they are termed in some 
 parts, require the same treatment as ducklings ; it is 
 advisable to pen the mother for a few days upon a dry 
 grass plot or green sward, supplying her with water and 
 grain, of which the young will partake ; green food, as 
 chopped cabbage or beet-leaves, crushed maize, and the 
 like, may be given. One thing is imperative : let not the 
 young be starved upon poor grass, for poor pasturage 
 occasions disease and mortality ; a few handsf ul of corn, 
 given morning and afternoon, are turned to good account 
 in the goose economy. 
 
 THE TURKEY. The young are more difficult to raise 
 than fowls or ducks, but are quite healthy in after-life. 
 Full-grown and well-bred birds bring splendid prices, and 
 are much in demand. The mothers are excellent sitters. 
 The young suffer from exposure, and attacks of hen-lice or 
 other vermin are fatal to them. Dry, sandy situations, on 
 limestone or volcanic country, answer best for turkeys, and 
 when extra care is taken with them at the early stages they 
 do very well. It is desirable to keep only young male 
 birds, say those between two and three years old, and they 
 should be apart from other fowls. 
 
 GUINEA FOWLS AND PIGEONS. All the varieties are 
 healthy, and do well with the care found to fit them best in 
 other countries. 
 
 DISEASES OF FOWLS. They are not numerous in this 
 country. The exciting causes are damp, developing cramp 
 from exposure, want of proper shelter, exposure to 
 draughts, indigestion from feeble life action, defective 
 feeding and accidents, mostly from roosting too high. 
 Young birds and laying hens suffer most from these 
 causes. The most serious disease amongst older birds 
 is roup, due to much the same causes as those from which
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 
 
 231 
 
 young birds suffer cold, damp, and exposure, 
 digestive ailments 
 aggravated by 
 of grinding 
 
 Nearly all 
 
 A Portable Hospital Coop. 
 
 are 
 want 
 
 material in the crop. 
 Pounded gravel,lime- 
 stone, crockery, or 
 glass should always 
 be within the reach 
 of fowls. Cold 
 draughts of air blow- 
 ing across them 
 while roosting or 
 down on them, will cause swelled heads and eyes, and, 
 very likely, lead to roup. It is often the case that rupture, 
 weak legs, and other complaints are caused by high roosts, 
 the birds being injured by jumping or falling therefrom 
 to the ground. The roosts should be low. 
 
 The Safeguards. When poultry have plenty of space 
 to roam in, if only for a few hours each day, and they are 
 not molested with dogs or by quarrelling with neighbours' 
 fowls, they have more certain prospects of continuing in 
 health. They require very little doctoring. Wheu much 
 of that sort of thing becomes necessary it is evident there 
 is something wrong in the breed, in the feeding or the 
 location. By far the greater proportion of diseases arise 
 either from exposure or ovei'crowding, or neglect in 
 preserving cleanliness often all combined. The first 
 requirement in case of sickness is to put the patient in a 
 separate pen. 
 
 Symptoms of Disease. The first symptoms of nearly 
 all fowl diseases are moping and diarrhoea At this stage 
 much evil may be warded off. When a fowl hangs its 
 wings and looks drooping it should be caught and put in 
 the hospital pen. See at once whether it appears purged, 
 and, if so, give immediately in a tablespoonful of warm 
 water, a tablespoouful of the purgative mixture, and when 
 purging ceases, give a few drops of spirit of camphor. 
 Repeat this next morning, and, in most cases, the disease 
 will be checked, care being taken, of course, to give the 
 invalid warmth and shelter. Oil, as a medicine, is not
 
 282 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 so certain in this climate; salts made by dissolving au oz. 
 in half a pint of water is more effective. 
 
 lioup. This is the most serious of fowl diseases here 
 as in Europe. The early symptoms are loss of appetite 
 and drooping, then weak eyes and appearances of cold, 
 gatherings of matter about the nostrils and eyes. The 
 disease is highly contagious, being communicated through 
 disease germs issuing from the sickly beak contaminating 
 the drinking water ; therefore let all fowls affected by it 
 be at once put by themselves. Keep them warm, squeeze 
 out the matter from the nostrils, wash the beak with 
 Condy's fluid, add peppers or other spice to the feed, with 
 green stuff unlimited, and put in the water a little sulphate 
 of iron. Roup runs its course rapidly, and in a week the 
 bird will be either almost well or so nearly dead that it 
 had better be killed. 
 
 " Fowl Cholera " comes on like a feverish cold, and, 
 like roup, quickly develops disease germs. Other symptoms 
 are thirst, debility, anxious nervous movements and 
 greenish droppings. The treatment is to isolate the patient 
 at once, giving a purgative dose, and adding spirit of 
 camphor to the food or drinking water. Should the patient 
 become worse, a few drops of camphor mixture, from 3 to 
 10, may be given twice daily with warm food. 
 
 Cramp, Sore Eyes, Sore Heads. These are symptoms 
 mostly of the more serious diseases described. Isolate the 
 birds in warm pens, and try to bring up their vitality by 
 warmth, tonic drinks, and stimulating feed. Sores on the 
 head may develop from attacks by vermin. Washing with 
 Condy's fluid in warm water, carbolic or eucalyptus soap, 
 or the soda-resin-petroleum mixture the latter for 
 extreme cases only seldom fail as remedies. 
 
 Crop Bound. A. serious, but easily detected ailment 
 of fowls. It is caused by some stoppage in the digestive 
 process carried on in the crop. The passage between 
 that part of the digestive apparatus and the gizzard, or 
 grinding stomach, is small, and may be choked by 
 something the bird may have swallowed, an onion skin, a bit 
 of rag, or other material. A m&re common cause is 
 feeding with wet cold, soggy, semi-cooked bran or pollard,
 
 THE POULTRY YAED. 233 
 
 or other stuff, daring cold mornings. The birds being 
 hungry bolt a lot of this, and are unable to warm it up 
 sufficiently for digestive purposes. The crop ia swelled 
 up, the bird droops, and may perish, as numbers do every 
 winter starved to death while the crop is full to gorging. 
 As soon as a case is seen, catch the bird, and pour water, 
 as warm as can be borne, down the throat, till the crop is 
 full ; then work it to loosen the food, and dissolve it in 
 the water; some may be got out of the mouth. 
 Try and relieve the mass by dissolving it; then give 
 a purgative dose ; and put the patient in a quiet, 
 warm pen. In more serious cases, the crop may 
 have to be cut open, the contents removed, the 
 crop washed and stitohed by two or three loops or surgical 
 stitches. 
 
 Apoplexy. Very prevalent at times, and as it carries 
 off its victims suddenly, and, generally during the night, 
 it causes great alarm amongst poultry owners. Apoplexy 
 is most prevalent in alluvial districts, where grit or gravel 
 ia scarce. Old and young fall victims; no particular 
 breed are exempted. The first stages are staggering gait 
 in the birds affected for one or more days before death ; 
 Or the head is slightly twisted back on the neck, or to one 
 side. The patient ia soon afterwards found in a sitting 
 posture, or half turned on its back. If disturbed, its gait 
 is staggering, and it seems involuntarily compelled to go 
 to one side ; attacks of convulsions occur at intervals, in 
 one of which the poor bird expires. Cause : The appear- 
 ances after death are effusion of blood on the brain, or 
 otherwise a turgid and congested state of its blood-vessels. 
 Here, it is usually supposed that this disease is the effect 
 of high and unsuitable feeding, especially with maize. 
 The birds in best condition, and those of the flesh-forming 
 type, usually suffer first. Various remedies have been 
 suggested, such as bleeding by cutting the comb, giving 
 purgatives, drenching with cold water, reducing the 
 supply of food, &c. In practice, it is best to always see 
 that the birds have plenty of grit material. Reduce the 
 feed, and change the whole stock when this complaint 
 becomes serious.
 
 284 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Gapes. Choking and suffocating symptoms indicate 
 this disease. The cause is found in numbers of small 
 worms which infest the windpipe and throat, causing the 
 patient to gasp for breath. When taken early, it may be 
 sufficient to give, for two or three days, a morsel of 
 camphor the size of a grain of wheat, and to put camphor 
 in the drinking water, or a little turpentine or sulphuric 
 acid may be given daily in meal, taking care, of course, 
 that deficiencies in diet and shelter be improved. In 
 fully-developed cases, the worms n:ust be removed by 
 introducing a feather or a loop of horsehair, saturated 
 with kerosene, into the throat, and turning it round during 
 withdrawal, the operation to be repeated several times, till 
 the worms are extracted. 
 
 Loss of Feathers and Feather-Bating. This trouble 
 is supposed to be caused by want of green food or having 
 no dust bath, but it is often a symptom of depraved, 
 morbid apetite, not easily cured. Additions of meat to 
 the feed, sulphate of iron in the drinking water, and a run 
 on fresh grass, aid in curing. 
 
 Vermin. They used to be,and may be still,in neglected 
 cases, the most serious drawback to poultry-keeping in 
 warm climates. During dry summer weather the little 
 pests, peculiar to fowls, attack human beings, or horses, 
 and may become fearful scourges. To keep them in check, 
 sitting and broody hens should be put apart from others, 
 then rubbed on the head and under the wings with sulphur 
 ointment, and dusted with flour of sulphur and lime daily. 
 The fowls should also have shady, damp places in which 
 to roll and clean themselves. The vermin, be it well 
 understood, cannot travel or live in damp places, nor do 
 they like dry dust. Soda-resiu-petroleum spray mixture 
 and hot lime-water are most effectual for clearing them off. 
 
 Scaly Legs. Caused by small parasites. Usually a 
 dressing with kerosene is effective ; rub it in freely, and 
 after an hour or so, wash off with Condy's fluid or carbolic 
 soap. In very bad cases use soda-resin-petroleum mixture, 
 washing afterwards. 
 
 Soft-Shell Eggs. Lime material, or crushed bone, 
 oyster shells, lime-stone (not lime) wanted in feed.
 
 THE POULTRY YARD. 235 
 
 Egg Bound. This may be caused by want of vitality in 
 the hen. See to the feeding ; give purgative, oil applied 
 with a feather, or a syringe, or more mechanical means 
 may be necessary to give relief. Be careful not to break 
 the egg while operating. 
 
 Rupture, Abortion. Passing of discolored matter indi- 
 cates rupture, often caused to laying hens by their falling 
 from high roosts. Isolate the patient, and use remedies 
 same as for egg bound. 
 
 Oil is destructive to insect life generally, and in the form 
 of kerosene, or some of the vegetable or animal oils, is 
 effective against them. 
 
 The Moulting Time. A time of trial and risk to fowls. 
 It extends through March to July, and has much to do 
 with winter laying. When a hen begins to moult in March, 
 she is not likely to be in full plumage again until May or 
 June, and she cannot lay again till the moulting has been 
 completed. When the weather is mild, however, during 
 April, and the winter does not set in before May or June, 
 she has a longer rest, and may begin laying, and then 
 continue through the winter. Hence, this rule must not 
 be overlooked, that if the hens begin to lay before cold 
 weather they are likely to lay during the winter ; but 
 if cold days overtake them before they begin to moult, they 
 will probably not begin again before spring. 
 
 Broody Hens. When not wanted for hatching, they 
 are looked on and treated as nuisances sometimes. Yet 
 it is a natural condition of hen life, and may be indulged to 
 
 give the birds a rest, 
 by setting them on 
 two or three dummy 
 eggs. Kindly skill 
 and attention are 
 requisite to do the 
 right thing by them. 
 Cruelty is stupid, and 
 has the desired effect 
 less frequently than 
 iniury or death to 
 
 Coop for Curing Cluckers. 1 , J * , , m . 
 
 the clucker. The
 
 236 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 coop shown effects the object more readily and easily. 
 The clucker or cluckers are put in, and then the coop is 
 tilted up as shown. Biddy becomes very much disgusted 
 when she has to occupy an angular floor like this, and is 
 so glad to escape after a day or two of discomfort, that 
 she forgets to cluck, eats heartily, and gets to laying 
 again. 
 
 Dairy Silo. 
 
 XX. CROPS FOR FEED, SILOING, &c. 
 
 THAT cultivation must be increased to provide feed for 
 such times as the early months of 1895, which racked the 
 
 energies of the most skil- 
 ful in the dairying busi- 
 ness, was made painfully 
 apparent. Never before 
 were such quantities of 
 feed stuff purchased. 
 Hay, maize meal, pollard, 
 bran, and molasses, were 
 amongst the feed stuffs 
 in demand. But the best 
 of them are poor and 
 unsatisfactory in comparison with the maize, sorghum, oats, 
 rye, barley, and the grasses we can store up in ordinary 
 seasons for feed in times of scarcity. That green feed, as 
 well as grain, and other substances could be preserved in 
 pits, or silos, is no new discovery. In Biblical times they 
 were used for storing grain. There are several silos 
 for grain storage near Sydney, built in early colonial days. 
 
 The Silo. As brought into use in recent times for 
 storing soft feed for stock in Europe and America, the silo is 
 an excavation or pit in the ground, built of brick, as a 
 rule, laid in cement ; stone has also been used. In New 
 South Wales, silos of this elaborate sort have also been put 
 down ; but, since it became evident how suitable is the 
 climate for preserving feed, with as much moisture as 
 possible in it, silos have been simplified very much. For 
 instance, excavations are made in granitic and other porous
 
 CROPS FOE FEED, SILOING, ETC. 
 
 287 
 
 Ensilage Stack At 
 
 soils, and in these places (without artificial walls) feed has 
 been stored upon the siloing principle, with results as good 
 as the best. In other places, silos have been made partly in 
 the ground, and partly above the surface. The part above 
 ground is lined with timber, and that below is sometimes 
 lined; in other cases, the soil forms the sides. Barns, 
 
 sheds, and other erec- 
 tions have been used ; 
 and stacks above 
 ground, of much the 
 same form as hay- 
 stacks, are in favour. 
 The object in view, in 
 all cases, is to compress 
 the stuff sufficiently 
 close to allow mild 
 fermentation to set in, 
 but to prevent over- 
 heating, and the active fermentation and the destruction sure 
 to follow overheating. 
 
 Requirements for Siloing. The success of the operation 
 depends very much upon the conditions of thorough 
 drainage of the sides and bottom of the silo, expulsion of 
 air from the mass of forage ensiled, and upon keeping air 
 out with its ever-active germs of fermentation after the 
 ensilage is covered in. Whatever may be put into a silo 
 should be thoroughly well trodden in, and rammed down at 
 the sides into a compact mass. The same rule applies to 
 ensilage above ground. This packing of ensilage is greatly 
 facilitated by passing the material through a chaff-cutter, 
 as the long stalks of uncut stuff occupy greater space and 
 offer more opportunity for stagnating air and unhealthy 
 fermentations. To secure the exclusion of air, it has been 
 found useful to cover the mass with close-fitting boards, or 
 shutters, in one or more divisions. Where a silo can be all 
 filled at one time, and where there is no intention of 
 re-opening it to put in more stuff, dead weights to press 
 down the mass appear to be the most economical. But 
 whore the coverings have to be removed to add more to 
 make up for shrinkage, the value of mechanical appliances
 
 238 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of the clutch or screw kind, becomes evident. To avoid the 
 necessity of refilling, a super-silo, or over silo, removable at 
 will, has been usefully employed. By filling to the top of 
 this addition, sufficient material is provided so that the silo 
 itself may be full to the top after shrinkage, which should 
 not amount to more than one-third of the bulk, when the 
 material is cut and well trodden when first put in. 
 
 The Crops Available. Corn, giving as it does so very 
 much more feed than any other crop, is ranked first ; then 
 
 come oats, wheat, rye, sorghum, rye 
 or barley with vetches, lucerne, 
 rape, chicory, native grasses, corn- 
 stalks, variegated thistles, &c. ; in 
 fact, anything that affords food for 
 stock can be preserved in this way. 
 Oats, because of their qualities in 
 milk-giving material, form the 
 richest feed of all. When corn 
 stuff was put in green, the ensilage 
 was so juicy as to soak and soften 
 the more woody parts, so that the 
 stuff came out more evenly. 
 
 Taking Out the Feed. When 
 put in whole, the ensilage has to be 
 cut out with a hay-knife or broad 
 axe in strips a foot wide, when it 
 is easily pitched out and put into 
 feed troughs. But the better 
 course is to cut the stuff before it is put into the silo or 
 stack, from which it can then be taken and fed like chaff. 
 
 Form and Capacity of Silos. Experience in ensilage 
 making favours round silos, next square, so as to have the 
 least possible outside space. It is there where air or damp 
 are most in contact, and where ensilage becomes colored or 
 goes bad. Depth is a recommendation. Twelve feet is a 
 good depth, 20 feet better, the pressure being more effective 
 at the greater depth. Where the arrangement is such that 
 great depth is secured, and yet the stuff can be taken out 
 as near to the level where it is fed to stock, the less labour 
 is necessary. The weight of ensilage varies according to 
 
 Enjoying a Look at his Ensilage 
 Crop.
 
 CROPS FOR FRED, SILOING, KTC. 
 
 239 
 
 the crop, whether it has been cut short, and the depth of 
 the silo. Thus ensilage may weigh from 20 to 251b. per 
 cubic foot near the surface ; at 12 feet deep may weigh 
 between 40 and 501b. So the greater the depth the greater 
 the capacity per foot. To store 50 tons, say 12 feet in depth 
 and 1 2 feet diameter is necessary. The further calculation 
 is that silos of 20 feet diameter hold 109 tons, 122 tons, 135 
 tons, 149 tons, 163 tons, 179 tons, and 194 tons, when 17, 
 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24 feet deep respectively. A 
 silo 30 feet deep and 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 
 or 24 feet in diametei', will hold, approximately, 105, 119, 
 134, 157, 168, 187, 205, 225, 246, or 268 tons of ensilage 
 when well made and pressed. 
 
 Ensilage from Native Herbage. During spring and 
 summer, grass and herbage grow more rapidly after rain 
 than stock can consume it, and in many cases the greater 
 quantity is lost or becomes food for bush fires. The making 
 of bush hay is expensive, is attended with risks, and only 
 in special cases is the dried bush hay of any great value. 
 On Liverpool Plains some 1500 tons of bush grass were 
 converted into excellent ensilage. In appearance the stuft' 
 when opened up seemed rather wet, but it did not 
 smell unpleasantly, and stock took to it quickly. The 
 work of getting and stacking it employed 26 men, 
 three mowing machines and an acme hay-raker during 
 two weeks. 
 
 Cost of Ensilage. 
 In the case stated, the 
 cost of making the en- 
 silage was 4s. per ton, 
 but with the appliances 
 now available, and the 
 experience gained, pos- 
 sibly 2s. ('d. may cover 
 the cost. Maixo en- 
 silage costs about 6s. 
 
 Cutting Down for Enailftg*. pel* toil. 
 
 Ensilage as Feed. Although [disappointments have 
 occurred, because of the extravagant claims made
 
 240 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 regarding the superiority 
 of ensilage in com- 
 parison with other kinds 
 of feed, the material still 
 advances in the estimation 
 of those who have made it 
 carefully. The advantages 
 of the system are beyond 
 a doubt, for any available 
 fodder stuff can be stored 
 away in any weather, and 
 at the least cost for making 
 feed ; and that coarse, woody 
 
 To See the Silo Opened. 
 
 matter is made more 
 digestible is reason- 
 able. The quantities 
 of corn and sorghum 
 ensilage given to cows 
 in milk may range 
 between 30 and 601b. 
 daily. When given 
 with 4 to 71b. of 
 scalded maize meal, 
 pollard, or bran, or 
 better still, a mixture 
 of all, milking cows have done extra well upon such feed. 
 
 For Moving Ensilage Stuff, Hay, &c. The 
 accompanying sketches, represent a simple contrivance 
 for moving green corn, &c. It consists of a pole ten or 
 twelve feet long, tapering to a point at one end. Near 
 the large end is a f -inch hole, to which a clevis is attached. 
 A stout rope, 15 to 18 feet long, is fastened by one end 
 to a whiffletree, and at the other end is a ring four inches 
 in diameter. When in use, the pole is thrust through the 
 shock or cock to be removed, or the load may be built 
 upon the pole, the rope is run through the clevis, 
 and over the top of the pile of stuff, the ring being slipped 
 over the small end of the pole. Then a horse is attached to 
 the whiffletree and started. The draught tightens the rope, 
 
 Haiidj Feed Arraugemeut.
 
 CROPS FOR FEED, SJLOING, ETC. 
 
 241 
 
 For Moving Ensilage Stuff, Hay, &c. 
 
 Loaded up for the Silo. 
 
 and binds all compactly together while it is moving. 
 When the clevis is provided with a small pulley wheel or 
 
 loose sleeve of iron, it 
 saves friction and wear 
 and tear of the rope. 
 
 Chemistry of the 
 Operations Any changes 
 made in the silo are of a 
 chemical character, due 
 to fermentation, and 
 require close attention. 
 Fermentation can be 
 regulated in two ways 
 by drying or wilting out 
 less or more of the natural 
 sap of the cut stuff before 
 it is put in the silo or 
 stack ; or by shutting out 
 the air by means of 
 pressure, got either by 
 tramping in the stuff, loading it above, or by rope 
 pressure, as in the Johnson stack apparatus. The 
 more natural moisture there is in the stuff when put 
 up the less it heats, and the temperature can be 
 regulated between 120 and 140 degrees the limits of 
 safety in green ferments. A very effective apparatus is 
 being introduced to aid in regulating the temperature. It 
 is an auger, with a handle so long that it can be sent six 
 feet into a mass of stuff. The handle is hollow right down 
 to the boring point, and into the handle a thermometer can 
 be inserted as required, and the temperature tested. With 
 this aid, good stuff to operate on, and the knowledge that 
 fermentation cannot go on without air, the chemistry of 
 ensilage-making becomes simple enough. There is one 
 other point worthy of attention : Milking stock like a 
 little sourness in their feed ; it promotes the secretions of 
 milk. The stuff full of sap when put in is the most likely 
 to sour. To make the sweeter ensilage, it may be the better 
 practice to let the stuff lie a little after it is cut, in order to 
 get rid of some of the sap. That the fermentation of
 
 242 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ensilage between 120 and 140 degrees makes dry stuff 
 more digestible is a main feature of the change. Then, in 
 a dry season, it is a great advantage to have the sap in the 
 feed. Experiments and experiences are confirmatory that 
 while filling in the stuff, or immediately thereafter, a heat 
 equal to about 130 degrees can be induced which shall 
 pervade the mass in the silo, and when, after that stage, 
 the silo or stack is tightly closed, fermentation ceases, the 
 ensilage remains sweet until re-opened. These results are 
 attained by not too rapid filling, the temperature being 
 watched; and as soon as that of one layer or portion reaches, 
 say 130 degrees, another layer of three or four feet in thick- 
 ness may be added, levelled off, packed closely around the 
 sides, and left for a day or two to heat in turn. Pits filled in 
 this way turned out beautifully, and the cattle, especially 
 milch cows, have had healthful excellent feed. Chemical 
 change and heating of plant material is developed by cutting, 
 by which the juices are exposed to the action of ferments, the 
 germs of which are almost universally distributed. The 
 very fine cutting which used to be recommended is 
 probably unnecessary, but lengths of from four to six 
 inches answer well. Neither corn nor grass, when packed 
 whole, come so certainly into a uniform heat, and there is 
 the greater risk of over-heating, mould, &c. This applies 
 equally to ensilage stacked above ground as to that stored 
 in pits. 
 
 Other Feeds Available, Cob Meal included. Pollard 
 and bran make excellent feed ; but, to get all the benefit to 
 
 enable the stomach of 
 the cow to digest it, 
 the feed does best 
 when cooked, or 
 scalded, otherw i s e 
 there is loss. Maize- 
 meal with the same 
 treatment enriches 
 and increases the flow 
 Revoi g Hay *** of milk. About 6 Ibs. 
 
 of either, with ensilage or other feed, as much as the animal 
 can eat, make ample feed for a cow giving milk equal to 1
 
 CROPS FOB FEED, SILOING, ETC. 
 
 243 
 
 Ib. of butter daily. Then meal made by grinding the com, 
 cob and all, has long been in use, and is known to be 
 economical feed. This has been proved by those who have 
 used both, and now we have the results of recent experi- 
 ments at the Kansas Agricultural College, where ten beasts 
 have been fed, five on corn-meal and five on cob-meal, under 
 exact conditions, each tied in a stall four feet wide. 
 
 Warmth, Shelter and Feeding. This is a most 
 important point, and to dairymen in particular. The first 
 
 call upon food is 
 to maintain the 
 animal heat, and 
 
 Warmth in Winter and Shade in Summer. 
 
 even in our 
 favoured climate 
 cows exposed to 
 the cold of winter 
 fall off in their 
 milk, in its quality and quantity, to a far greater extent than 
 dry weather accounts for. The loss may be even one-third of 
 the milk supply. To prevent such loss, sheds, stables, or 
 such shelter as saves the stock from suffering cold and wet 
 are the most certain safeguards. 
 
 Haymaking. The value of hay, as feed, need not be 
 underrated, in order to see the advantages of ensilage. 
 Haymaking requires skill, 
 and machinery specially 
 suitable. Then it suffers 
 from the risks of wet as 
 well as excessively dry 
 weather, neither of which 
 affect so much the cutting 
 and storing of ensilage, in 
 either pits or stacks. 
 Webster defines hay as dry 
 grass, cured for future use as food for animals. But it is 
 as well to know, that to preserve tho valuable qualities of 
 herbs or grasses, they must first be wilted in the sun, and 
 then dried in the .shade, and in the operation there is loss 
 of flavour and of valuable juices. " Make hay when the 
 sun shines " does not mean too much .sun, as we have it at 
 
 Hake fur Mar, Ensilage Stuff, 4o.
 
 244 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 times ; it means that the grass should be stirred and willed 
 as evenly as possible after being cut. It does not mean 
 that it should be left bleaching in the sun and dews two or 
 three days after cutting, until it has lost nearly all that is 
 attractive for food, and has become much as flax should be 
 for the brake. The revolving rake seen in the illustration, 
 does good work in gathering up stuff either for hay or 
 ensilage. 
 
 Measuring Hay in the Stack. For calculation purposes 
 it is usual to estimate a cwt. of hay to the cubic yard. 
 For instance, in an oblong stack : Suppose it to measure 20 
 feet x 10 feet X 15 feet, the cubic contents are 20 X 10 X 
 15 = 3000 cubic feet. This divided by 27, the number of 
 cubic feet in a yard, will give the weight in cwts., say 111 
 1-9 cwts., or 5 tons 11 cwts. 
 
 This feed cover is useful where open-air feeding is 
 
 followed. It is made 
 of weatherboards 
 held in position by 
 wire stapled to the 
 boards. The arrange- 
 ment makes an excel- 
 lent cover, from 
 which the cows can 
 
 A Handy Feed-Cover. eat &i the ends an( J 
 
 calves at the sides with the least risk of waste.. 
 
 XXI. GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 VEGETABLES F RUITS FLOWERS. 
 
 THE HOME GARDEN. Supplies for home use are a 
 first requirement, whichever branch of agriculture we 
 enter. Fresh vegetables are at once the most healthful 
 and nourishing of food supplies, and nowhere can we 
 get them so sound and fresh as from the home garden, 
 which at once reduces the expenses of housekeeping, and 
 supplies the table with just what the agriculturist
 
 CHOPS FOR PEED, SILOING, ETC. 
 
 245 
 
 deserves to have, the very best vegetables, and fruits ; and 
 flowers to make a real home. 
 
 Extent of the Home Garden. 
 For a family of eight persons, and 
 to have supplies for the poultry 
 yard and the pig, and an occasional 
 sweet mouthful for the cow, from 
 half to an acre is ample. 
 
 What an Acre Holds. 43,560 
 plants, 1 foot apart; 10,890 at 
 2 teet ; 4,840 at 3 feet ; 537 at 
 9 feet ; 193 at 15 feet; 134 at 18 
 feet ; 108 at 20 feet. 
 But an Acre ? 43,560 square feet; or 10 square 
 chains ; or one chain wide by 10 chains long ; 66 feet is 1 
 chain ; 60 feet by 726 feet make an acre ; or 220 feet by 
 198 feet ; 640 acres make one square mile. 
 
 Plants per Acre. The following shows the number of 
 plants required per acre. 
 
 Arranging the Work. 
 
 Feet apart 
 
 No. of Plants- 
 
 1 
 Feet apart. 
 
 No. of Plants. 
 
 Feet apart- 
 
 No. of Plants- 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 10,890 
 4,840 
 2,722 
 1,742 
 680 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 12 
 15 
 18 
 
 537 
 435 
 302 
 193 
 134 
 
 20 
 21 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 
 103 
 
 98 
 69 
 48 
 35 
 
 Rule. Multiply the distances into each other, and with the product 
 divide 43,560 (the number of square feet in an acre), and the quotient ia 
 the number of plants. 
 
 Starting with Vegetables. Where there is choice of 
 soil, then a decidedly sandy loam is the best for a kitchen 
 garden. It is easiest to work, and we cannot get vegetables 
 without manure. The seed-sowing time for the cabbage, 
 turnip, pea, and onion tribes extends through February, 
 March, April, and May, and can lie carried on still longer 
 where the soil has been made very rich, and an occasional 
 soaking with water can be administered. In preparing 
 land for vegetables, two things are essential : that it be rich 
 in plant food and closely fenced. The reason for the former 
 will be obvious the climate we have to deal with is
 
 246 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 changeable and occasionally dry. Vegetables to be first- 
 class and we trust the operator aims at nothing short of 
 the best must go on growing continuously. A check to 
 their growth from poverty, drought or disease, invariably 
 affects the quality. And fencing is necessary to keep off 
 the domestic and the wild pests that never fail to harass 
 an exposed garden. 
 
 Cold Weather Crops. Cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower, 
 brocoli, sprouts, peas, carrots, turnips, onions, leeks, parsley, 
 herbs, &c., are sown from February to August, when possible 
 in sheltered seed beds or after rain. Richness of soil, fair 
 cultivation, and the use of water enable the grower to 
 extend the cultivation of these crops, it may be over the 
 entire year. 
 
 The Warm Weather Crops. Beans, sugar, corn, 
 cucumbers, melons, marrows, tomatoes, capsicums, &c., are 
 sown from July right through the warm weather, their 
 success, as in the case of the other classes, depending upon 
 the richness of the soil. 
 
 Radishes, beets, shalots, mustard and cress, rhubarb, 
 celery, asparagus, are more general crops, that are worked 
 at any time of the year the weather and convenience will 
 allow. 
 
 Experience Helps. In no department of agriculture 
 does the experience of the old world come more to our aid 
 than in the kitchen garden. The same system of shallow 
 covering in clean, well-raked ground applies admirably 
 here ; as does transplanting into rich, clean ground, frequent 
 hoeing, care in staking and tying up climbers, &c. Some 
 of our very best vegetable gardeners are men who were 
 trained in the old land. Depth of soil and drainage are 
 easential requisites. In this fast-growing climate plants 
 root deep when they have the opportunity. The quick 
 growers are also heavy feeders, and will stand as much 
 manure as can be conveniently given them. 
 
 Mulching. Mulch covering is a decided aid to our 
 kitchen garden. Almost anything that is not too solid, 
 that is light and of a vegetable nature, answers for this 
 purpose. Straw, old hay, dried cow manure, leaf mould, 
 leaves, small branches, burnt and scrub soil ; all these
 
 CROPS FOR PEED, SILOING, ETC. 247 
 
 things and many others aid us in having fine vegetables 
 during the summer season and do no harm in winter. 
 Scatter the mulch an inch or two in depth around the 
 crops. It keeps in the moisture, keeps the surface from 
 packing, and keeps the land clean and cool. Water- 
 sprinkling without mulching is like labour in vain ; but the 
 effects of water upon mulch are decidedly beneficial. 
 
 Sowing Garden Seeds. Whether for vegetables or 
 flowers, the old rule, to cover the seed with its own 
 thickness of soil, is still about the best 
 guide to anyone in doubt as to the 
 depth of covering material for seeds. 
 Loose vegetable stuff makes the best 
 covering. Onions for instance do best 
 if sown on the surface, or on a shallow 
 ridge slightly higher than the ground 
 level, and then to sow on the ridge, by 
 making a slight mark if in drills, or if in 
 
 Makil for s e whT 8 Firm k 6 ^ 8 ky sowing on the surface, raking 
 gently and regularly in and covering 
 with short manure stuff. Most seeds do better when 
 the ground is made firm by rolling or treading before 
 sowing. Generally sowing in drills is the most satisfac- 
 tory and economical, being much easier kept free from 
 weeds and stirred between the rows. The usual plan is to 
 mark out with a drill marker several at a time ; or, on a 
 small scale by cutting a notch in middle of the end of the 
 rake and stretching a line, and then pressing the rake handle 
 along the line. Turnips and onions only require slight 
 pressure, carrots and parsnips a little heavier. Very neat 
 work can be done in this manner. Larger seeds, as peas 
 and beans, &c., can be sown in drills opened by a spade or 
 hoe. On sandy soil, treading the seed in firmly is 
 generally beneficial. The distance the drills should be 
 apart, is a matter to be decided by the condition of the soil 
 as to richness and the height the crop will grow to, about 
 the same distance apart as the height of the plant is usually 
 rifht. We can have the drills well apart and the plants 
 closer in the row where space is valuable ; but if plenty of 
 room is available, it is best to err on the side of abundance
 
 248 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of space both for the rows and between the plants : that is 
 in all sorts of vegetables that ripen their seed, or those used 
 in the pod or fruit. Beets, carrots, turnips, parsnips, all 
 that class may be sown pretty thickly together, so as to send 
 them to the kitchen in a young state, by just thinning out as 
 required, and leaving enough in the rows for a full crop. 
 Whilst still very small, beets, carrots, &c., are much more 
 succulent and tender, and are well worth the extra trouble 
 in preparing for the table. Cabbage and cauliflower and 
 lettuce are sown in seed beds for transplanting, and may 
 be used from the home garden before they are too big. 
 French beans and peas should be pulled whilst quite 
 brittle and tender. 
 
 The Shade or Bush Frame. These are the handiest and 
 certainly amongst most effective contrivances in Australian 
 
 Bush House, with Propagating Beds for Seeds, &c. 
 
 practice. What we require is protection from drying 
 winds and heavy rains, and this we get by making up a 
 seed-bed in the ordinary way, ouch as that recommended 
 for tobacco, for instance. Then to furnish shade and 
 shelter, stakes are fitted at the corners, and a cover of 
 bushes, old bamboo shade stuff, calico, or sacking, is made to 
 fit over the bed in such a manner as allows of its being 
 fitted close to the soil, or say six inches above it, or it can be 
 fixed two or three feet above. This gives shade, and
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 249 
 
 admits unlimited air. It is a real climate improver. With 
 its aid we can raise vegetables, flowers, or other seedlings, 
 as required, and an occasional spring of lettuce, mustard 
 and cress, or other salad, during hot, dry weather. And 
 thus from four to six weeks can be gained in growing 
 early vegetables. Lettuce, radishes, early cabbage, 
 tomatoes, celery, egg-plants, mustard, &c., may be sown in 
 the frame by the first of February, and amply repay the 
 little extra trouble it will be to care for them. 
 
 The Bush House. This is becoming and deservely so, 
 a special feature of the Australian garden. It may be a 
 very simple affair, or it can be as elaborate and fanciful as 
 taste and outlay allow of. The principle is the same, and 
 that is to get sha de, and shelter, without shutting out the 
 air. To effect this, any framework can be set up, of any 
 desired form or size. The roof should be high, to make it 
 convenient, say eight feet at least. Then the sides and 
 roof are covered with bush material, laid as evenly and 
 neatly as possible. The brushwood of young tee-tree 
 answers admirably ; laths and 2x1 hardwood are also 
 used ; also bamboo blind stuff, and close mesh wire netting. 
 
 All that is required 
 is to divert the direct 
 rays of the sun, and 
 to break the force of 
 heavy rain. In very 
 exposed places, it is 
 desirable to make 
 the sides from which 
 drying winds come 
 as close as conven- 
 ient. In a house, or shelter arranged in this way, the 
 growth is immense. Where water can be spared, the 
 place becomes delightful. It is evergreen, literally, and in 
 addition to the plants, ferns, &c., that do so well when 
 thus protected, seeds, can bo raised for the flower garden, 
 and where there is space, for the vegetable garden as well. 
 Nurserymen and gardeners are taking more advantage of 
 the opportunities tlie bush house oHV-rs for raising seed- 
 lings of all kinds. Some have over an acre of bush house 
 
 Securing Bottom Heat.
 
 250 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 accommodation. It may well become a feature of every 
 garden, whether for private or business purposes ; for, 
 with a little taste, and no great outlay, the bush house 
 may be ornamental as well as useful, and many things can 
 be brought to perfection which would be impossible in the 
 open air. 
 
 Where we have the help of a little 
 artificial heat, a propagating pot and a 
 bell glass (as/ in the illustration), plants 
 are raised in this way with certainty. 
 Prepare the propagating pot by putting 
 bits of charcoal to a depth of two or 
 three inches, as in a b. Then fine loamy 
 earth (c), and finally the cuttings (d). 
 The younger shoots, from the extre- 
 mities of branches, make roots most 
 readily. The needful bottom heat is 
 got by packing in a less or greater 
 quantity of fresh stable stuff. As it 
 decays, moist warmth is given off to 
 the surrounding soil. 
 
 -e 
 
 Warmth. 
 
 A Propagating Pot. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 For KaiaiDK Little Things- 
 
 Digging Two Spades Deep- 
 
 between 70 and 80 degrees 
 and moisture are of immense 
 help in carrying on propagating 
 work of all kinds. 
 
 Dig Deep and Plant in 
 Long Rows. Let us have 
 the use and benefit of at 
 least 2ft. of soil. So much 
 for preparing, and Jet us 
 sow in long rows ; they 
 make a big difference in 
 gardening. The cost of 
 working is lessened so 
 much that once adopted 
 no one is likely to again 
 drop the system. It has 
 advantages in both old
 
 QAKDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 21 
 
 former is sure to be 
 
 and new places. The soil of the 
 
 full of the seeds 
 
 of weeds. These 
 
 are kept in check 
 
 more easily and 
 
 with less labour 
 
 in long rather 
 
 than short rows. 
 
 Then on new 
 
 places, manure is 
 
 generally scarce, 
 
 so we can use it 
 
 in the rows, either 
 
 under or over the 
 
 seed, or between 
 
 the rOWS of plants Lon,' Rows i.i the Vegetable Garden. 
 
 as the case may be. 
 
 Transplanting. Fig. 1 shows a plant nicely set out, 
 the roots are spread all round ; No. 2 has been pushed into 
 
 Translating Cabbage, Tomatoes, Tobacco, &c. 
 
 the ground, the roots being left up too high instead of 
 spreading downwards, us in No. 1 ; No. 8 is planted too 
 shallow, and No. 4 is too deep. The planting trowel 
 shown near No. 1 is better for this work than the dibble 
 shown at No. 4. 
 
 Thinning Out. Our active growing seasons force 
 vegetables into becoming half-starved weeds unlws
 
 252 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 thinning out is attended to very closely. Take carrots, 
 for instance, which are grown in rows and also sown 
 broadcast. When thinning is neg- 
 lected they will be the sort of 
 things seen in the first sketch sent 
 (A), mere twisted fibrous roots. But 
 when thinned, so as to have two or 
 more inches space either in the 
 rows or sown broadcast, we get 
 good sized, well-grown vegetables. 
 As a whole, and when they are for 
 home use mostly, I now prefer to 
 grow carrots sown broadcast. When 
 the beds are kept clean, thinned 
 out, and watered during dry weather, 
 very heavy yields are got, and the 
 to carrots 
 Radish and 
 
 Carrots Crowded. 
 
 is equal 
 rows. 
 
 quality 
 grown in 
 
 parsnips may be worked in the 
 same way, and can be sown 
 together and at the same time. 
 The radish are so much quicker 
 than the parsnips, that with care 
 to prevent absolute over-crowding, 
 they can be off the ground before 
 the spade is required for the 
 parsnips. The quality of both, as 
 grown in this country, can be very 
 fine. 
 
 Little Gardeners. And the children naturally take 
 great pleasure and interest in plant growth. Parents 
 should encourage them in this taste, and ever be ready to 
 give them a few hints upon the subject of plants and 
 flowers. A little seasonable advice, and a few pence 
 to purchase seeds, and by helping in the work occa- 
 sionally the young lives are filled with happiness. 
 There is not only considerable healthy interest mani- 
 fested, but they could not possibly be better or
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 253 
 
 Admiring Her own Work. 
 
 more innocently employed. 
 A portion of the home gar- 
 den might be given up to 
 each child, and some very 
 creditable results ensue. 
 These little gardeners take 
 quite a pride in pointing 
 out the results of their skill 
 to friends and relatives. 
 They are so fond of any- 
 thing grown by themselves 
 and watch so anxiously a 
 flower on the point of 
 blooming. 
 
 Give the Boys a Bit of Land To work as they think 
 fit and to dispose of the produce on the same terms. Both 
 boys and girls are all the more healthy, independent, and 
 industrious when they earn something, and feel that they 
 have a perfect right to their earnings. 
 
 Market Gardening on a Big Scale. Chinamen do 
 not control the market garden business in other lands. 
 Their skill is not of the kind which surpasses that of the 
 European systems of vegetable gardening. Their efforts 
 with fruit are very defective. The occupation of market 
 gardening offers decided inducements in Australia for skill 
 and capital. To keep up the immense supplies required by 
 London and the great cities of Britain generally, and also 
 Paris, New York, and elsewhere, as well as our own profit- 
 able market gardens, they are the work of skilful white 
 men, who succeed by the unstinted use of manures. Large 
 capital is employed. A case may be cited of a garden of 
 85 acres. The soil is sandy. Everything on the place is 
 conducted in a strictly business manner ; accurate accounts 
 are kept, so that the exact cost of rent, labor, interest on 
 capital, manures, seeds, labor and marketing and returns 
 for each crop may be ascertained. Only such kinds as prove 
 most marketable are grown. The yield of a year was 5425
 
 254 
 
 AUSTRAIIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 barrels early cabbage, 31 50 bushels early potatoes, 3000 bus- 
 hels onions, 4650 bushels late potatoes, 12,000 bushels carrots, 
 3000 bushels onions grown for seed, 20 bushels white 
 beans, 175 barrels squash, 3 tons Hungarian hay, 100 
 bushels onion sets, 150 bushels Brussels sprouts, 401b. 
 carrot seed, 1501b. beet seed, 1500 bushels sweet corn, and 
 275,000 cabbage plants to carry over. The horses and 
 other live stock, poultry, &c., get a large proportion of their 
 living from the farm. The land is allowed no rest, a 
 rotation of cropping is kept up ; the land is cropped twice 
 a year ; for some crops three times. 
 
 LA.VD FOR FRUIT CULTURE. If it is for home use 
 
 The Tree We Aim at Making, 
 
 only, then the nearer the garden is to the house the better ; 
 when surrounding the house it is all the better. But if we
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 255 
 
 require a larger area, and there is a choice, then the best 
 soil for the majority of fruits is a good stiffer loam, 
 such as would yield good consecutive crops of grain. A 
 lighter soil, while working more freely, does not give such 
 stamina to the trees as to ensure long life, nor is the fruit 
 so long keeping. These remarks are especially true of 
 the apple tribe, and apply to fruits generally. Under- 
 drainage is an absolute necessity ; where it does not exist 
 naturally (which is rarely the case) it must be provided by 
 the careful, forecasting orchardist, as described in the 
 chapter on draining. The exposure of land intended for 
 fruit is worthy of consideration, experience pointing to the 
 eastern and north-eastern slopes as being especially 
 favorable. Accessibility to market speaks for itself, and 
 needs no comment. The cultivator who resolves to either 
 wholly or in part prosecute fruit-growing as a business will 
 spare no trouble in order to obtain a suitable piece of land 
 for his orchard ; fertile soil, not too steep, good exposure, 
 sufficient under- drainage, and an accessible market, are 
 absolutely necessary in order to ensure success. Skilful 
 manuring tells effectively in the orchard. 
 
 Fruits Available. The experimenting stage has long 
 been worked out in Australia. In the elevated districts, 
 immediately west of the great Dividing Ranges, the apple, 
 pear, plum, peach, nectarine, cherry, apricot, grape vines. 
 &c., the fruits of the temperate zone are thoroughly at home, 
 In the coastal districts, the orange, lemon, lime, date plum, 
 loquat, mango, olive, banana, &c., find a congenial climate, 
 and flourish abundantly; while in both sections of the 
 country the grape thrives well, but does best where the 
 rainfall is between twenty and thirty inches. Some of the 
 plums, Japan plums, apples, pears, &c., thrive also on the 
 coastal lands, as do peaches of the Chinese races; and the 
 orange succeeds in favourable situations further inland, as 
 well almost as in the coast country. 
 
 Experiences With Varieties of Fruits. Every district 
 in the country has its experiences of varieties that do well, 
 and of others, found excellent in some parts, which prove 
 unsuitable in others. Suggestions from neighbours, from 
 the catalogues of nurserymen, and from the experiences of
 
 256 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 those who have knowledge of the country generally, are of 
 much usefulness. The foregoing applies to fruit trees 
 especially, and the merits and defects of each family of 
 which, for marketing in the fresh state or for preserving, 
 are generally well known. 
 
 Seedling Trees. >eeds sown in boxes are more easily 
 seen to, and can b^ watered and shaded more effectively, 
 and then when a suitable day can be chosen for transplanting, 
 few losses need occur. Seeds of trees that make a tap root 
 that is not wanted are very often best sown in seed boxes, 
 and then transplanted in nursery rows when fit. The 
 question of leaving the tap root on trees depends a good 
 deal on the soil and how they are worked. Trees the roots of 
 which feed near the surface, such as oranges, may be better 
 without the tap, but trees of the citrus family on deep, 
 well-drained soil, with the tap root are longer lived and make 
 more upright growth. Where unhealthy and wet subsoil 
 underlies the ground where trees are growing, the taproot 
 may get down into such soil, and when wet spells occur, 
 suffer badly, and the trees look unhealthy and die off but 
 too frequently. Where the under-drainage is good and the 
 subsoil porous and healthy, a taproot should be an 
 advantage to a tree, especially in the dry seasons. Oranges, 
 and lemons, last longer and give better results, provided 
 the drainage is right, when the seed is planted where the 
 tree is to be grown. Indeed, in suitable soil, deep and well 
 drained, experience says that many trees would do much 
 better if sown where they are to remain, either to bear fruit 
 or to be grafted or budded. They would take longer to bear, 
 but live longer ; still, we must be guided by circumstances to 
 make the best use of the soil and the position we work in. 
 
 Measuring Off for Trees. The implements required 
 for laying out land for orchard trees are a surveyor chain 
 or a length of fencing wire about 7 chains long with an 
 iron ring at each end does very well ; half a dozen hard- 
 wood stakes well pointed ; a batten of the length the trees 
 are to be apart, with a notch for the side distances when 
 used for triangle planting ; and a few hundred pegs about 
 six inches long. We will presume that the land is not fenced 
 all round, and that it will be necessary to mark and peg
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 257 
 
 out correct top and side lines. To commence opera- 
 tions, drive one of the stakes firmly into the ground at one 
 of the projected corners. Now place one of the rings of the 
 wire over the stake and stretch it along the line of the 
 proposed boundary, and drive in short stakes till the line is 
 marked off straight. Another corner is then marked 
 The next line is to be at right angles. To find a right 
 angle, mark off exactly 60 feet along the first line, and put 
 in a temporary peg, and from the corner stake stretch a 
 line as nearly at a right angle as you can guess, and put 
 in another temporary peg, at 80 feet. When the two pegs 
 are proved to be 1 00 feet apart the angle is a right angle. 
 When there is any difference the second line and peg must 
 be shifted inwards or outward until the required 100ft. is 
 attained. Having found the right angle, stretch the chain 
 down the proved line to the end, and put in a stake, this being 
 the third corner. Now find the other right angle, proceeding 
 exactly the same as before, and a stake will stand in each 
 of the four corners, with the sides and ends for guidance. 
 We can then measure off the top and side lines for triangular 
 or square planting, as may be desired. Putting in a peg 
 
 where each tree is to 
 stand. 
 
 Selecting the Trees. 
 Maiden plants, that is 
 plants that have made 
 one year's growth from 
 the buds or graft, are 
 best for planting in this 
 country. Older and 
 larger trees carry more 
 risks. They do not 
 transplant so well, and 
 may lead to gumming 
 and other annoyances 
 of the orchardist. The 
 roots should be kept 
 moist. A dip in liquid 
 soak, made up with cow 
 manure is helpful for that purpose.
 
 258 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Putting in the Trees. They are to be put in exactly 
 where the pegs are placed, the accompanying sketch shows 
 an ingenious contrivance for ensuring this. The "planting 
 board" (a) is a piece of deal about 6 feet long, with a 
 hole near each end ; a notch is cut in the middle. 
 To use this planter, place the middle notch against the first 
 peg, and then place a peg into each of the end holes as 
 in (a). The centre peg may then be lifted, and the 
 board moved round on one of the end pegs as seen 
 at (6). The hole is then dug between the pair of 
 pegs, and large enough to spread out the roots nicely. 
 When planting the tree, the board is again fitted 
 on to the two pegs, the tree is rested in the notch in the 
 board and it is then where the planting peg"] was placed. 
 When necessary, stakes are driven in after the holes are dug, 
 but, as a rule, trees are more hardy and vigorous when they 
 grow without the aid of stakes. 
 
 Watering Newly-Planted Trees. In very dry 
 weather, it may be necessary, where possible, to damp the 
 soil in order to get it to lie close to the roots, but care has 
 to be used here also, for until the roots start into growth, 
 water may do more harm than good, by inducing fungus 
 growths to fix themselves upon the newly planted wood. 
 
 Tree Planting. This work calls for all the care and 
 skill we can devote to' it. Distance apart, method in 
 planting, and preparation of the land all 
 have their effect. Two well-defined 
 methods of arranging trees for orchard- 
 ing are followed planting in squares or 
 in triangle. The triangle system offers 
 many advantages, as set off against the 
 somewhat greater difficulty of laying out 
 land for this kind of planting. Amongst 
 the advantages are the greater number 
 of trees per acre, and the increased 
 facilities for working the land with horse 
 labour, the land between the rows of 
 trees being workable in three or four directions. The 
 system also allows of planting on irregularly-shaped pieces 
 of laud, such as that shown in the third illustration. In
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 259 
 
 arranging land for triangular planting, say the trees arc to 
 be 20ft. apart, the spaces in the first row (A to F), the 3rd, 
 5th, 7th, and so on, will be 20ft. apart. The 2nd (B to C), 
 4th, and other rows, where the trees come between two 
 trees in the 1st and 3rd, will, by measurement on the side 
 lines, be 17ft. 4in. The triangular slope (as between A and 
 B) makes up the difference, so that when the trees are 
 planted they will be 20ft. apart from each other, in which- 
 
 ever way they may be measured. The side-line measure- 
 ments, for various distances apart, from 10 to 20ft. are : 
 
 Top line. 
 20ft. 
 1 8ft. 
 10ft. 
 14ft. 
 12ft. 
 10ft. 
 
 Side line. 
 17ft. 4in. 
 15ft. Tin. 
 l.m. lOii 
 12ft. lin. 
 10ft. 4Jin. 
 8ft. Sin.
 
 260 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 To plant in squares, the land is measured off in equal 
 distances, top, bottom, and sides, pegs inserted, and trees 
 planted as in the square method. 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 1 * * * 
 
 1 
 
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 Planted in Squares.
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 261 
 
 The number of trees at different distances in square 
 and triangular planting are : 
 
 In squares. In triangle. 
 
 20ft., 108 per acre 125 per acre. 
 
 18ft, 134 154 
 
 16ft., 170 195 
 
 14ft., 222 255 
 
 12ft., 302 347 
 
 10ft., 435 500 
 
 Pruning the Newly -plan ted Trees. 1 he end bud where 
 the cut is made may be about 30 inches from the ground, 
 which answers for most orchard trees in order to secure 
 strong, healthy side growth from the buds along the trunk. 
 
 Large or Smaller Orchard Trees ? This is a very 
 important question at the season when we are arranging 
 
 either to plant 
 new trees, or to 
 regulate those we 
 have, by pruning. 
 The old idea was 
 to have trees as 
 large as possible ; 
 the tendency now 
 is to keep down 
 the size. Both 
 in e t li o d s are 
 within control by 
 closer planting and 
 regulating the 
 pruning, until we 
 work on to 
 
 '' 
 
 
 u 
 
 system in which 
 trees that can 
 bidders, and the 
 
 Doesn't Pay to Work Treeo Like Thin. 
 
 be pruned from the ground without 
 fruit gathered under similar conditions. The type of 
 trees we aim at making is shown at the beginning of this 
 chapter. It does not pay to climb high ladders to prune, 
 regulate, or gather fruit in orchard work.
 
 262 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGKICULTD1.E. 
 
 Cultivation and Manuring in Fruit Growing. The 
 requirements for quality of soil, draining to make sure of 
 depth, and manuring are dealt with in preceding chapters. 
 Cultivation, that is the maintenance of a loose, clejin 
 surface, is as necessary here as in the field or vegetable 
 garden. The selection and application of manure requires 
 very close attention in order to supply what the different 
 fruits require in the form of vegetable matter, ammonia, 
 potash, phosphates, lime, and the other ingredients. 
 
 Pruning Reminders. Taking oranges and lemons first 
 they may be thinned out at any time and the points of 
 too vigorous growth pinched, but the stems and lower 
 
 branches must not be exposed 
 to the sun. When one branch 
 commences to run away or 
 grow faster than the others, it 
 has acquired rank or sucker 
 habits, and should be pinched 
 or cut to check such growths. 
 If any branch or shoot starts to 
 crowd to grow under another, 
 rub it out. Apple and pear 
 trees require shortening and 
 bending of the branches to de- 
 
 The out in Fig. 1 is too far from the velope fruit SpUl'S, but when 
 bud. No. 2 is too close to the bud. No. 3 11 -i T_ 
 
 is the right distance from the bud they begin to bear require 
 
 very little priming. Cherries 
 
 much the same. One-third to one-half of the latest growth 
 should be pruned off peach and nectarine trees, and they 
 are the better for it. When the growth is thin and weakly, 
 cut back the top growth of plums, but do not prune off short 
 spurs on plums or apricots. It is on them we get the 
 fruit. Raspberries, blackberries, currants, and gooseberries 
 need a great deal of prunning out and thinning. The canes 
 of raspberries which bore last season should be cut out and 
 fresh canes bent over for bearing. Grape vines should be 
 pruned according to age and variety ; but generally three 
 buds may be left on the young bearing wood or spurs of 
 old trellised vines. Weak shoots and those on the lower 
 sides of bearing wood should be rubbed out. The number of
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 263 
 
 branches to a bush or stake vine may be three to five 
 and each of these, as the vine grows older, may support two 
 spurs, of one season's growth, with two or three buds each, 
 from which the fruit is obtained. 
 
 Pruning for Form. There is every inducement for 
 the exercise of skill at this work. Pruning commences 
 with the planting. All branches should spring from buds 
 that form at the same time as the roots that grow after 
 
 Pruning for Form. 
 
 planting out. This means close cutting back. Then we 
 train the trees to be broad at the base or at the top. The 
 former is preferable for orchard purposes. The general 
 tendency is to keep fruit trees under J2 feet in height. 
 
 Pruning for Fruit Leaf and Fruit Buds. Young 
 fruitgrowers are often at a loss to distinguish between these 
 two kinds of buds. A young tree, for instance, to which 
 it is desired to impart more vigour is checked by cutting 
 away leaf-shoots and leaving fruit spurs. Fruit buds of 
 apples, pears, cherries, &c., are generally distinguished by 
 their rounded and obtuse form : while leaf buds are 
 more slender and sharper. Many fruit spurs are really 
 stunted shoots, originally produced from leaf buds, but 
 which, making but little growth, become fruit-bearera. 
 In the pear, and some other trees, they are never less 
 than two years old, and they often continue to lear for many
 
 264 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 years. 
 
 Whatever tends to a free circulation of the 
 sap, and consequently to a rapid growth, 
 causes the formation of leaf buds 
 rather than fruit buds. And what- 
 ever tends to retard the motion and in- 
 crease the accumulation of sap in any part 
 (roots or branches) induces the produc- 
 tion of fruit buds. The vigorous one- 
 year shoot of the cherry is mostly sup- 
 plied with leaf buds ; but the short spurs 
 on the second year's wood, which are but 
 shortened branches, may be covered with 
 fruit buds, with usually a leaf bud in 
 the centre. This also explains the chief 
 reason why young and vigorous trees of 
 the apple kind, the wood and bark of 
 which are comparatively soft and 
 yielding, and through the large and 
 unobstructed vessels of which the sap 
 flows without restraint, do not bear so 
 freely as the older and more rigid wood, 
 in which the circulation is slower. A 
 young tree growing in very vigorous 
 condition may not produce fruit buds 
 for many years ; while, if checked by 
 skilful pruning, it bears at the right age. The varieties of 
 fruit available for planting are very numerous perhaps 
 too numerous. 
 
 BUDDING and GRAFTING. Both operations are followed 
 with the same object in view 
 to secure desirable sorts of 
 fruits, flower or foliage plants, 
 
 ^ := ~' l ^(b l ^il ^^\^V upon roots suitable for their 
 V %.\A most vigorous growth. Graft- 
 
 ing is done in the early spring 
 season, from July onwards, 
 according to the variety of 
 plant and the location. Bud- 
 ding, or gra'ting with a single 
 bud, is an autumn operation, 
 
 Pruning for Fruit. 
 
 How the Bud Is Taken Off.
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 265 
 
 by which a single bud is worked upon a desirable stock, 
 usually a seedling. 
 
 Peaches and roses are amongst the first plants 
 amongst us ready for budding. The operation as worked 
 out here is much the same as budding in other countries, 
 with, of course, the difference of the seasons, and that here 
 
 less care is supposed to be 
 necessary in preparing the buds 
 and in attention to the details 
 of tying upon the stock and 
 after treatment. All the same, 
 it will be found that the more 
 carefully the work is done, the 
 more success follows the opera- 
 tions of budding. The buds 
 used should be taken from the 
 bearing wood of fertile trees 
 that is, trees that have flowered 
 and fruited. Trees younger 
 than three years are not suffi- 
 ciently matured for propagating 
 
 purposes. The young bearing wood, the growth of one 
 season, contains the buds suitable for propagating. The 
 wood should be fully ripe and well matured ; the buds 
 plump and firm. The illustrations accompanying this 
 article show how the work is done. With care in selecting 
 the right materials for working and practice, the rest 
 comes easy for effective budding. Practice and attention 
 to details are the chief points. 
 
 The Stocks. Healthy plants grown from seed are best 
 for fruit trees, and rooted cuttings in the case of roses. 
 About half an inch in thickness is a good size for a stock 
 to bud on. 
 
 Cutting Off, Inserting and Tying the Bud. The 
 illustrations show clearly how this work is done. The bud 
 is cut off from the chosen wood, about half an inch of bark 
 being left above and below the bud. When taken off, a 
 small portion of wood may be found attached to the bud. 
 It is best to remove this. To make the opening on the stock, 
 make a cut across, then another downwards the first 
 
 Cutting a Bud. for Insertion.
 
 266 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 being about an inch across the downwards cut about three 
 
 The Cross Cat. 
 
 Cat Downwards. 
 
 Opening Cuts for Bud. 
 
 inches in length. Then open the cuts thus made by folding 
 them over slightly, as shown in the engraving. This work 
 has to be done quickly, to avoid the sap of the bud, or the 
 sap of the stock, or both, from drying. The bud (which is 
 usually in the lips of the operator while he is making the 
 cuts) is then inserted. In order to make an effective 
 junction between the sap flow in the stock 
 and the sap of the bud, which we desire to 
 unite, the upper part of the bark is cut 
 across, and the bud is then pressed up- 
 wards, so as to join the parts. The parts 
 are then tied, thin strips of calico being in 
 general use for the purpose. Worsted 
 thread is also used, and answers well for 
 small plants, also " raffia," a fibrous material. 
 Veneer budding and ring budding, the 
 latter for soft bark plants as a rule, are 
 also practised ; and some operators prefer 
 to insert the bud from below the "f" cut, in 
 But in all cases, the leaf growth on the 
 
 -ted.
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 267 
 
 stock above where the bud is inserted is left on until the 
 bud starts into active growth, so that it may be 
 supplied with sap material. Orange and peach 
 buds, and some roses, may start growing at 
 once, and the growth on the stock above them 
 may then be cut off before the season closes ; 
 others are slower, as apples and pears, and 
 may remain dormant till spring. 
 
 Budding is found most suitable for fruit 
 trees generally, and for roses, in this country, 
 and is gradually taking the place of grafting 
 for orchard purposes. Veneer Budding 
 
 The Principles of 
 Budding and Grafting. 
 Grafting, like bud- 
 ding, is that operation 
 in gardening which 
 unites a plant or a 
 portion of a plant 
 taken from a tested 
 variety, fixing it upon 
 a plant of same order 
 which has roots, and 
 which will support and 
 furnish the graft with 
 a part of the nutri- 
 ment necessary for 
 growth. The graft 
 then supplies that por- 
 tion of plant food got 
 from the air. As the 
 poet says : 
 
 ^^ "Which does inend nature, 
 
 or change it rather ; 
 Tongue or Splice Grafts. But the art itge]f J8 natu re." 
 
 The plant that receives the graft then is usually furnished 
 with roots. It has to draw its nutriment from the soil and 
 transmit it to the part grafted. It is called the stock. In 
 some cases, as grape vines, apples, and a few others, the
 
 268 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUBE. 
 
 stock is a simple cutting or bit of root ; but it is planted 
 in such a manner as to be soon furnished with roots. 
 That portion of the other plant which is to be grafted on 
 to the stock should have at least one eye or bud, 
 it is, however, better to have two or three buds 
 if possible. It is called the graft, or scion, and it is 
 analagous to a cutting put to root in soil. The scion 
 continues its growth through the stock ; but notwith- 
 standing the intimate union of the stock and the graft, 
 they really preserve their individual characters and 
 constitutions distinctively, their layers of bark and wood 
 continue to be developed without the wood vessels or 
 fibres converging with each other ; it is, as it were, a 
 federative union which leaves to both their own character- 
 istics. The objects of grafting are to change the 
 
 character of a plant by modify- 
 ing the wood, the foliage, or the 
 fruit which it is required to 
 produce ; to excite the develop- 
 ment of branches, flowers, or 
 fruit on the parts of a plant 
 where they are deficient ; and 
 to restore a defective or exhaus- 
 ted tree by transfusion of the 
 fresh sap of a vigorous kind. 
 Thus a variety naturally delicate 
 Boot Graft-Apple. becomes robust when " worked" 
 
 on a more robust stock, and the consequence is a 
 more abundant production of flowers and fruit. 
 Thus it is that fine and delicate kinds of grapes 
 that do not thrive on their own roots are 
 made to produce large and fine bunches when 
 grafted on some vigorous stock such as the 
 Isabella, Syrian, or Gross Colman. The 
 peculiar qualities of some plants can only be 
 preserved by "working." This is especially 
 the case with variegated or striped roses. 
 These retain their gay markings when budded 
 or grafted ; but become plain when grown on 
 their own roots. So in grafting a great insertion.
 
 GARDEN AND OBCHARD. 269 
 
 deal of the success depends on the skill of the 
 operator. The other essential conditions are affinity 
 between the species. We cannot be too careful in seeing 
 that the two portions are of such character to be 
 thoroughly suitable for the union we desire to perfect. 
 Vigour of the stock and graft, the condition of their 
 sap, their intimate union, the season, and the temperature 
 are other essential conditions for success in this 
 operation. 
 
 Grafting Clay and Wax. Clay for grafting is 
 prepared by mixing one-third cow droppings, free from 
 straw, and two-thirds clay or clayey-loarn, where possible 
 adding a little hair, like that used in plaster, to prevent its 
 cracking. Beat and temper it for two or three days until it 
 is thoroughly incorporated. When used, the clay should be 
 of such consistency as to be easily put on and shaped as may 
 be desired. Grafting wax of excellent quality is made by 
 melting together three parts of beeswax, three parts of 
 rosin, and two parts tallow. While yet warm, it may be 
 worked with the aid of a little water like shoemaker's 
 wax, by the hand. Wax to be laid on with a brush in a 
 fluid state is made of half a pound of pitch, half a pound of 
 beeswax, and a portion of cow droppings, boiled together. 
 Another mixture, which is spread while warm on strips of 
 coarse cotton or strong paper, and wrapped directly about 
 the graft, answering at once to tie and protect it, is 
 composed of equal parts of beeswax, turpentine, and 
 rosin. And another grafting wax and suitable for laying 
 on strips of calico or paper is made of tallow, beeswax 
 and rosin in equal parts, or as many prefer, with a little 
 more tallow to render it pliable. Grafting wax is a much 
 neater and perfect protection than grafting clay, but the 
 trifling cost of the latter, where a great deal of work is 
 to be done, accounts for its greater use by nurserymen and 
 gardeners generally. The purpose of both is similar. It 
 is to prevent drying of the parts we have joined, and to 
 aid in keeping them in position, and the more carefully 
 these points are attended to, the more are we likely to be 
 successful in perfecting the work we are at.
 
 270 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE . 
 
 A Handy Fruit Gatherer. This is a useful 
 contrivance for bringing down oranges and other 
 fruits from trees where they are difficult 
 to reach by means of a ladder. It is 
 made of iron wire bent as shown, and 
 fastened to a bent piece, which in turn 
 is fastened to a pole of any desired 
 length. A clip piece of wire or wood 
 projects from the top, and with it the 
 fruit is disengaged from its stem, and 
 drops into the gatherer. 
 
 Cutting v. Pulling Fruit. Where 
 possible, fruit should be cut from the 
 tree. It keeps better. Very handy 
 cutters for the purpose are being 
 introduced, and do excellent work. 
 Neatness in Marketing. It pays to size or grade 
 fruits, to wrap lemons, apples, &c., paper, and to use the 
 
 Put up Fiuit Nicely. 
 
 neatest cases and packages available. A half-case of 
 strawberries, cherries or other fruits, put up in packets,, 
 made of thin wood chip is very attractive to buyers of these 
 fine fruits. The illustrations show cases arranged for 
 carrying plums, apricots, peaches, &c., neatly edged in 
 with blue or other colored paper, or for apples, pears, or 
 other marketable commodity. 
 
 GRAPES AND WINE. This is a special branch of 
 Australian agriculture. The grape in some of its varieties
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHABD. 271 
 
 grows in all parts of Australia, even in the colder districts 
 where frost holds the land in its firm embrace during 
 several months of each year ; and in the drier interior, 
 where the rainfall is uncertain, and too limited for the 
 production of other fruit, if we except the fig and 
 the almond, which both delight in dry country, when they 
 get an occasional soaking. The grape, some of its many 
 varieties at any rate, does better than other fruits in dry 
 country, without the soaking. It is a deep-rooting plant in 
 every case, and is at its best when the roots have oppor- 
 tunity to get away down into the fissures of rocks or 
 amongst boulders where they gather in the mineral food 
 of plants from which the richest flavoring of the grape is 
 evolved. That is the character and the habits of the grape- 
 vine in other lands, and the family show much the same 
 charac teristics here. All of them require five months of 
 real hot weather to develop their fruit to its rich maturity, 
 and three or four months of milder spring or autumn. 
 Where freezing frosts occur, vines require winter shelter. 
 It is under such conditions that the great vine at Hampton 
 Court grows so vigorously. 
 
 Soil for Grapes. Possibly the greatest mistakes have 
 arisen from planting in soil that is too poor in plant food. 
 Volcanic and carboniferous country answers best. Not 
 one of the family like rich, rank, or flat land ; but all 
 require lime, potash, and the material for making 
 flavourings. 
 
 Varieties. Next to soil and climate, come the sorts of 
 grapes suitable for different locations. Immense expe- 
 rience has been gained on this point. In almost every part 
 of the country sorts have been proven, which answer better 
 than any others, so far as known. Thus, in the districts 
 where the rainfall averages between 15 and 25 inches, the 
 finer flavoured grapes, the muscatels and muscats, do 
 excellently well. In coastal and warmer country the 
 more robust growers find what they require. In the 
 tropical parts, American sorts of the Isabella type, come 
 to absolute maturity. In some locations the acid secretions, 
 so prominent in this family of grapes in less favourable 
 quarters, are checked at the sugar stage, and the fruit
 
 272 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ripens sweet and extraordinarily rich in spirit matter. That 
 is, when they have room and are cultivated. All grapes 
 starve when crowded ; 6 x 6 is close enough for the more 
 feeble sorts, 8 x 8 is a standard distance for wine grapes, 
 and some are grown 20 or more feet apart, and yield heavier 
 crops than if three were grown in that space. They are 
 grand rooters, and find their own way downwards where 
 there is the material of life, and the natural drainage is 
 good enough ; so that deep preparation of soil is not so 
 necessary for this fruit. Cuttings of matured wood are 
 used for plants ; they are put in where they are to grow, 
 the soil being opened by plough, spade, bar, or fork. 
 
 Grafting Grape Vines. A. good deal of this kind of 
 work, in order to secure blight proof roots, and also for 
 
 renewing old stocks, and 
 displacing sorts that are not 
 so good for wine making, is 
 going on. The scion, for 
 insertion, is cut wedge shape, 
 as is the stock when a blight 
 proof cutting is used for 
 rooting purposes. When old 
 vines are worked over, the 
 stock is cut off about three 
 inches under the ground, as 
 splice Graft. Grafting old vines. 8 hown, and then opened by 
 
 the grafting tool, or a knife or chisel answer the purpose. 
 
 The scions two generally in 
 
 each stock are inserted in the 
 
 cut, and tied in position. The 
 
 soil is then heaped firmly round 
 
 the graft. With these condi- 
 
 B f ., ,, Grafting Tool for Vines. 
 
 tions failures seldom occur. 
 
 Spring Treatment of Vines. The sketch below illus- 
 trates a first step in the way of regulating growth, as the
 
 GARDKN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 273 
 
 vines break into leaf for the season. The plant shown has 
 been pruned effectively. The new wood on each arm from 
 b, and the short spurs on the upper side all along both 
 arms, being the wood of last season's growth, from which 
 the coming crop is expected. To aid the development of 
 strong buds on the upper side, those that break on the 
 lower side (a, a) of the bearing wood have to be rubbed 
 out as they appear. This rubbing out of buds does not 
 check the vigour of the vines, but it directs the sap to the 
 upper buds, where it is required to give them strength for 
 bearing. 
 
 FLOWERS AND SHRUBS. There is no limit to the 
 beauties available for adorning the Australian home, and 
 
 making home life attrac- 
 tive. In all seasons of 
 the year we can have 
 flowers, from some of 
 the myriads of annuals, 
 shrubs, or flowering 
 trees that grow so well. 
 Roses, bulbs, climbers, 
 creepers, and the many 
 varieties of ferns avail- 
 able, all come into the 
 possibilities ol flower 
 gardening in Australia 
 for adding to the home 
 attractions and for decoration. (See calendar of seasonable 
 work for directions). 
 
 The Soil Necessary. The directions given for soil 
 selection and treatment for farming and gardening apply 
 equally here, as does cultivation. The same means for 
 improving a bad or poor bit of land may be employed for 
 deepening the flower patch, draining, manuring, &c. 
 
 Flowers in a Business Sense. The skilful application 
 of opportunity amongst flowers may be as effective here as 
 in other lands. Plants in pots, cut flowers, new or 
 improved specimens got by selection, hybridising, and 
 other processes of gardening, are as enticing here as in 
 Europe and America. The Isle of Wight is famous for
 
 274 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 seedling raising. The numbers of ladies engaged there in 
 raising plants, flowers, bulbs, and fruits, are immense ; and 
 London and other seedsmen pay good prices to known 
 people for good things. New and improved bulbs, cosmos, 
 and many other novelties are got from them. The chrysan- 
 themum has been treated ever since it was introduced into 
 this country as a hardy herbacious perennial, but it may- 
 be raised from seed yearly and be treated as an annual 
 with the greatest facility and success ; and, doubtless,, 
 lovers of this autumnal favourite may be induced to give 
 attention to the raising of seedlings, inasmuch as this 
 practice, apart from the prospect of obtaining something 
 new and distinct, is accompanied by immense interest and 
 pleasure from the time the seed is sown to the production 
 of the flowers. In raising seedlings, it is good practice, as 
 soon as the young plants have grown sufficiently, to take 
 off cuttings and root them. It affords better and quicker 
 opportunity for testing the merits of any seedlings of 
 promise. 
 
 Seed Sowing and Propagating. The rules and 
 practices laid down in the chapters on vegetable gardening, 
 tobacco culture, and other branches, are suitable for flower 
 growing. 
 
 Bush and Glass Houses. The former is helpful in 
 every branch of gardening in Australia for seed raising, 
 propagating, and shelter for plants that suffer in the open 
 ground. 
 
 Summer-flowering Plants. Annuals, of the many 
 varieties available, may be sown in spring to be ready for 
 planting out as required for flowering. Plant out cuttings 
 of pensternons, phloxes, fuchsias, &c., that may have been 
 struck earlier in the season. Cuttings of chrysanthemums 
 may be put in to make strong plants for flowering next 
 season. Amongst other shrubs and plants available are : 
 Acacias, yellow, from 2ft. to 30ft. high ; ageratum, blue, 
 1ft. ; agonis (billotia) marginata, white, 5ft. ; aloes, orange, 
 red, &c., 2ft. to 6ft. ; alyssum, various, rock plants f 
 amaranthus (late, annuals) ; antirrhinums, all colours, 18 
 inches; armeria formosa (sea-pink or thrift), 18 inches > 
 banksias ; bouvardias, several colours ; brugmansias ;
 
 GARDEN AND ORCHAED. 275 
 
 btidleas, varieties; calendula, marigolds, yellow, white, 
 double, &c. ; callas (so-called pitcher lily) ; canarina cam- 
 panula, orange, 3ft. ; cassia, yellow, 5ft. ; chrysanthemums ; 
 clematis ; coreopsis (annual), yellow, 2ft. ; daphne odora, 
 red, white, 8ft. ; dianthus, various, 1ft. ; euphorbias, red, 
 scarlet, 1ft. to 3ft. ; fuchsias, 1ft. to 6ft. ; gaillardias. 
 reddish, yellow, 2ft. ; grevilles, brown, greenish-yellow, 
 6ft. to 40ft. ; pampas grass ; hibiscus ; heliotrope, blue, 
 18 inches ; ipomoeas, climbers, blue, red and white ; 
 jasmines, white, yellow ; lasiandria, purple, 7ft. ; honey- 
 suckles, scarlet, JOft. ; mesembryanthemums, red, yellow, 
 orange, &c., 1ft. ; oleander, pink, red, yellow, white, 10ft. ; 
 passion flowers; pelargoniums, various; penstemons, various; 
 petunias ; phlox drummondii, colours, 18 inches ; plumbago 
 capensis, blue, 2ft. ; roses ; salvias, scarlet, red, blue, 2ft. 
 to 3ft.; tecomas, yellow, 6ft. to 10ft; tritonia, yellow, 
 orange, 1ft,; veronicas, blue, red; violets; pansies; and 
 hosts of others, described in the nurserymen's catalogues. 
 
 Bulbs. Some of the many varieties can be in flower 
 all the year, as described in the chapter on seasonable 
 work. The requirements for bulbs are loose, rather sandy 
 soil, made rich where the roots are to form. 
 
 Specialities in Roses. The numberof kinds catalogued 
 is unlimited. The great desideratum is, of course, to secure 
 those which are of vigorous growth, good, healthy, and 
 pleasing foliage, good-shaped flowers, and free-blooming 
 disposition. Those qualities are found largely among the 
 tea-scented and Noisette kinds, the following amongst them : 
 Marechal Neil, golden yellow ; Reine Marie Henriette, 
 deep pink; Madame Mathilde Lenaerts, deep rose; 
 Francisca Kruger, coppery yellow ; Madame Lambard, 
 salmon pink ; Niphetos, pure white ; Rubens, rosy white ; 
 Safrano, buff ; Souvenir d'un Ami, rosy pink ; The Bride, 
 pure white ; Jean Ducher, salmon yellow ; Homer, rosy 
 pink, very free ; Catherine Mertnet, rose; Alphouso Karr, 
 bright crimson ; Dovoniensis, pale yellow ; Lore Tarquin, 
 rosy pink ; Madame de Watteville, rosy white ; The Queen, 
 white; the Meteor, dark crimson; Madame C. Kuster, 
 pale yellow. For climbing or pillar roses : William Allen 
 Richardson, orange yellow ; Lamarque, sulphur yellow.
 
 276 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 A Simple Pretty Trellis. 
 
 These and many others are reliable for garden decoration 
 and for cut flowers. 
 
 Climbers. They will, as a rule, require deep, 
 moderately good soil, and sufficient trellis, frame, wall, 
 stake, or other support. That shown in the illustration 
 
 may be brought into use 
 for many purposes. It is 
 simply a row of posts, say 
 10 feet apart, the end 
 posts being stayed firmly. 
 Over the top a stout wire 
 is fastened, and two other 
 stout wires are stretched 
 along the ground from 
 two to three feet from the 
 posts as shown. Strings 
 or wires are then ar- 
 ranged between the ground and the wire on top, and to 
 these latter the plants are trained. Concerning varieties, 
 the seedsmen catalogues offer much information. 
 
 Saving Seed. To secure strong, full-grown vigorous 
 seeds too many should not be allowed to mature on any 
 plant, and then every flower can be saved for seed bearing. 
 To leave a few pods along the bottom of the stem for maturing 
 seed after picking off the best flowers is bad practice. 
 When several pods are left to ripen, the strength of the 
 plant is absorbed by them, and the growth is consequently 
 checked. This is as correct of flower seeds as vegetables, 
 beans, peas, &c. 
 
 Plants from Cuttings. One of the most satisfactory 
 methods of propagation. We can depend upon plants 
 from cuttings being identical with the parent plants from 
 which they were taken, whether they are for foliage, flower, 
 or fruit bearing. A cutting from young wood is the most 
 likely to grow. It should have from four to six buds. 
 Sandy soils answer best for this kind of propagating, and 
 shade and shelter from drying winds with moderate 
 watering help them to root. Roots are also got by 
 suspending the cuttings in water in bottles. It is an old- 
 fashioned method, but as effective as ever. The process
 
 GARDEN AND OECHARD. 
 
 277 
 
 of root forming is shown in the second illustration. 
 
 The sap travelling down- 
 wards, as it does, gathers 
 at the bottom, where a 
 "callus" forms. From this 
 the first root germs are sent 
 out, and when they get into 
 open free soil, with suffi- 
 cient nourishment, roots are 
 formed as shown in the 
 third illustration. Some 
 plants make second and 
 third tiers of roots, which 
 spring from the buds 
 higher up and it may be 
 The Catting. HOW Roots Form. necessary to cut them off. 
 
 Propagating by Layers. Many kinds of trees and 
 shrubs can be increased by layers in a temperature 
 equivalent to that of which they 
 are natives. Springtime July 
 to September is a good time of 
 the year for this kind of propa- 
 gation. A layer is a branch 
 bent into the earth, and three 
 parts of the layered wood are 
 cut through at the bend by a 
 long sloping cut ; it is, in fact, 
 a cutting only partially separ- 
 ated from its parent. The layer will emit roots into the 
 soil at the cut or tongue. The sap forms cellular tissue on 
 the tongue at the cut part, which ultimately throws out 
 roots. When rooted, the new plant may be severed from 
 the parent and set out where required. Should the cut 
 show a tendency to close, it may be kept open by inserting 
 a grain of wheat or maize, a piece of gravel or charcoal ; 
 when the soil is heavy or stiff, the cut part should be 
 covered with light sandy soil. Oranges, lemons, figs and 
 other fruits can be successfully propagated by layers. 
 
 Plants from the Leaf. Gloxinias, foliage begonias, 
 some of the gesneras, and other plants can be propagated 
 
 Layering.
 
 278 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 from their leaves. The gloxinia leaf makes buds freely, 
 which develop flowers next season. It is from the ribs of 
 
 Leaf Throwing oat Roots. 
 
 the leaf taken from the plant when in the full vigor of 
 growth that roots develop. If several plants are required 
 from one leaf, the mid rib on the under surface of the 
 leaf should be notched in several places. This under 
 surface is then placed on the soil, the mid-rib slightly 
 pressed in and pegged down to keep it firm without any 
 soil over it. At each fracture of the rib a little callus 
 develops and quickly throws out roots. 
 
 Leaves and Buds. Leaves of the rose, camelia, the 
 orange family, and others strike when treated as for leaf 
 growth in moisture and warmth, but although they make 
 roots under such favourable conditions they do not seem to 
 have the power to form buds. Few plants can form another 
 of its species without first organising a bud the necessary 
 step in the process of multiplication. Buds spring exclu- 
 sively from the soft pulpy or cellular matter that constitutes 
 the flesh of plants, and not from their solid woody parts. 
 This cellular matter is formed by nature out of organisable 
 fluids largely formed in the leaves, hence it follows that 
 leaves are really the great agencies of propogation in any 
 case, whether cuttings, layers, or other methods of 
 multiplication are followed.
 
 GARDEN AND OECHAED. 
 
 279 
 
 The Arrangement as We Got It. 
 
 How We Improved the Place. It was rather nice 
 when we got it ; that is, there were nice trees and shrubs 
 about it, but not so healthy as could be, and the arrange- 
 ment in planting was too formal looked too stiff; not 
 
 enough homelike. 
 So we went to 
 work upon it, and 
 with such will 
 
 that there was all 
 the enjoyment ex- 
 perienced which 
 can be got out of 
 work which im- 
 proves and adorns 
 the home. The 
 first improvement 
 was made by 
 draining the land. There are about two acres in all, and 
 upon this three tons of quicklime wore spread. It was 
 thought by some who were observing the operations that 
 the lime would kill every plant it touched. But not it ! 
 What a change that liming and draining has made on the 
 place ! Truly enough, lime is food for plants. During 
 May, June, July, 
 
 we commenced 
 changing the po- 
 sition of the trees 
 and shrubs, and 
 adding others. 
 We commenced 
 early, you will 
 see, which is a 
 good plan where 
 you can, before 
 the season is 
 over, and prune back closely. All of which we did ; and 
 how the plants have flourished ! After an absence of a 
 year, I scarcely knew the place it is a veritable Australian 
 home ! 
 
 Packing Cut Flowers. In the first place, gather the 
 
 The Place Now.
 
 280 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 flowers either very early in the morning 1 , or the last thing 
 at night. Then put them away in water till wanted, in 
 order that they may absorb all the moisture to keep them 
 fresh through their travels. Wooden boxes are more 
 suitable than those of cardboard for packing flowers. They 
 may cost a trifle more, but the extra outlay will be well 
 worth the better condition in which the flowers are 
 preserved. When possible place at the bottom of the box a 
 sheet of dry, not damp, cotton wool, and over this lay a 
 sheet of soft tissue paper, on which to arrange the flowers in 
 rows, taking care that the head of each rests immediately 
 over the stem of the preceding one. Avoid the mistake of 
 overcrowding. The box ought to be about ten inches iii 
 depth, and should not contain more than one layer of 
 flowers, or the results may be disappointing. When 
 sending ferns, put them at the bottom of the box, placing 
 soft paper between them and the flowers. Maidenhair 
 should be kept very moist when packed. A " refresher " 
 in common use for keeping up the freshness of cut flowers 
 is nitrate of potash, or sweet nitre ; joz. per pint of water 
 is about right. The same (t refresher" is good for growing 
 plants as well, but it is then applied to the soil of course. 
 
 XXII. FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING. 
 
 THE PROSPECT. This branch of agriculture offers 
 many inducements for the most careful application of 
 skill that can be brought to bear upon it. The demand 
 for fruits preserved by bottling, canning, drying, candying 
 or crystallising ; and as jams, jellies, and other preserves, 
 is unlimited. The right materials are here to supply the 
 demand. With the facilities available for carriage, the 
 market for Australian fruit preserves is Unlimited. 
 
 Requirements for Success. Properly matured first 
 class fruits of the kinds in demand ; pure, white Australian 
 cane sugar ; the necessary appliances for preserving ; 
 attractive methods of marketing are all necessary for the 
 full development of this trade.
 
 FRUIT AKD VEGETABLE PRESERVING. 281 
 
 The Fruits. Nearly all the varieties held in favour 
 in Europe and America are already grown in Australia, 
 and several others that offer sufficient attractions. New 
 varieties possibly too many are coming continuously 
 into notice, and amongst them, occasionally, are sorts 
 which prove more suitable than what had been grown pre- 
 viously. Cane sugar of the very best quality is also available. 
 
 Contents of Fruits and Vegetables. When ripe, 
 water has the lead in all varieties, the proportions ranging 
 from 60 to 901b. of water in lOOlb. of fruit; carbon and 
 sugar come next in most fruits, then minerals, acids, and 
 the various flavourings peculiar to each. The latter are all 
 important, and it is the aim of the fruit preserver to secure 
 all of the flavouring, and lose as little as possible of the 
 sugar. The water is the substance he deals with most 
 decisively. It is the part of fruit which carries with it the 
 greatest risks. By controlling the water contents, fruits 
 ean be preserved for lengthy periods. But before the 
 stage of ripeness is reached, fruits undergo various 
 chemical changes, in which the mineral contents got from 
 the soil, and starches in various forms, play important 
 parts. The result in the processes of maturing being the 
 peculiar flavour of each fruit. 
 
 Stages of Fruit Growth. -There are three well denned 
 stages in fruit growth. At first the fruit enj bryo is much like 
 the leaf in its tree life, taking up carbon from the air, and 
 giving out oxygen ; but the fruit is all the time helped 
 by the leaves. In the ripening stage, the fruit reverses its 
 action ; takes up oxygen and gives off carbonic acid, after 
 storing its quantity of carbon. The fruit flavourings are 
 developed during the ripening ; also the sugar, acids, and 
 alkaloids. The full sugar change occurs mostly after growth 
 ceases. In some fruit considerable change arises at the 
 time the size is increasing. In grapes the acid becomes 
 alkaloid, and decreases in proportion to the development 
 of sugar. Some fruits ripen to perfection on the plant, as 
 grapes, bananas, &c.; others mature better after picking. 
 Raspberries, strawberries, blackberries, and pears gain in 
 this. way. The grape does not ripen after being taken 
 from the vine, but evaporation may remove a considerable
 
 282 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 portion of the water and thus improve the flavour. Most 
 apples follow a middle course partly ripening in the fruit 
 house as do oranges and lemons generally. After fruit 
 is matured, we may wish to keep it for use, either fresh, 
 dried, or preserved. But the natural fruit ferments 
 become active in ripening, and continue their work 
 afterward. Then there are minute fungus growths, always 
 ready to operate upon ripe fruit, and especially while all 
 the natural moisture is present. 
 
 Fallen and Bruised Fruits. When fruits drop from 
 the tree they quickly begin to decay. Fungus and other 
 growths attack and destroy them. When bruised, the 
 decay is still more rapid, and no process of preserving 
 can rectify the damage or improve the quality. Damaged 
 fruits that have been preserved decay rapidly when opened. 
 The question of when to gather fruits, and how to preserve 
 them, are closely related. The success of the latter 
 depends on the former. 
 
 Preservative Agencies. The aids available are heat 
 to destroy fungus growths, or by evaporating such portion 
 of the water as may be necessary ; cold to check 
 bacterial or ferment action ; or drying to reduce moisture 
 and consequent risks in that direction. Further, there 
 is the process of excluding the air, and its spore contents 
 by bottling or tinning, and so shut out the cause of decay. 
 
 Supplies for Home Use First. In 
 warm climates we should have fruit, fresh 
 or preserved, on the table with every 
 meal. It is more wholesome than 
 meat, and we can use it more often. 
 Fruits and vegetables contain all the 
 requirements of healthy life, in their best 
 forms. To eat fruit half-a-dozen times a 
 day is not too often, during hot spells. 
 Mature suggests at such times to eat little 
 but often, and in fruit we have both meat and 
 drink. Stewing is the foundation process 
 for the home table. Use plenty of sugar, 
 and then see how old and young revel in 
 the wholesome seasonable change. Fruit
 
 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING. 283 
 
 on the tables of the growers is a most effective way 
 of convincing other people of how good fruit diet is. 
 
 Bottling may be our first step in preserving. Apricots, 
 peaches, plums, pears, quinces, cumquats, cherries, 
 marmalade, jams, &c., are possible, and without stint for 
 use when fruit is scarce. There is no unapproachable 
 secret and but small expense in bottling. The process 
 is simple, and depends on the fruit being sound to start 
 with ; then sorted properly, and, either in the bottles or 
 in the preserving pan, heated to the boiling point' until 
 cooked, according to the nature of the fruit. All germs 
 which cause decay are thus destroyed. The bottle is sealed 
 while hot and the contents may then keep for years. 
 Apricots should be split in halves, peaches stripped of their 
 skins by dipping them in a boiling bath of water, with 2 to 
 6 ozs. caustic soda per gallon of water; or a sufficient quantity 
 of stronger or weaker soda to make an effective skin 
 stripping bath. Then dip the fruit in cold water, and the 
 skins slip off, leaving the fruit beautifully smooth. 
 
 Time for Cooking. Judgment and practice soon give 
 the necessary experience. The following will be found 
 helpful, the variation depending on ripeness, appliances, 
 &c. Apricots, take from three to ten minutes ; peaches, 
 six to twelve minutes ; cumquats and pears, from ten to 
 fifteen minutes ; quinces, twenty minutes ; plums, from 
 ten to twenty minutes ; cherries, from five to twelve 
 miuutes. The covers or tops are put on while the contents 
 are boiling hot, in order to secure a vacuum, by the 
 condensing of the steam. In bottles closed up when in 
 this condition there will be no mould or other sign of 
 decay nfter long keeping. Soft tough parchment paper 
 or paper dipped in spirits, quickly applied, and tightly 
 bound on while hot, and a coat of some waxy material put 
 on afterwards, answers well ; but bottles with spring or 
 screw tops are handy, reliable, and not costly. 
 
 Sugar or Syrup. So far as acting as a preservative, 
 sugar or syrup has but little effect. The quantity used is 
 matter of taste. From to 20 oz. sugar per pound of 
 fruit is used, but the flavour is injured and the sugar as 
 well by cooking fruit and sugar together. This part of
 
 284 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the subject will be dealt with separately in syrup making 
 for preserving, candying, &c. 
 
 Without Syrup. Quince, pear, clingstone peach, 
 currants, gooseberries, and other fruits that have 
 distinctive flavourings and sufficient body, may be bottled 
 or canned without syrup, the space being filled with 
 boiling water, and the contents closed to secure a vacuum, 
 as in other cases. 
 
 Heating Bottles. This is usually done by placing 
 them in cold water, which is brought gradually to the 
 boil; but, with practice, bottles can be heated while held in 
 the haud, ready for receiving cooked, boiling hot fruit, 
 by gradually heating them with warm and then with hot 
 water. 
 
 Heated Air Process. Fruits are cooked by heated air 
 and then bottled or canned. 
 
 Canning. Bottling was the predecessor of canning. 
 Cans of tin were first used by fish curers in the north of 
 Scotland ; by them brought into use in Nova Scotia, and 
 other of the British-American settlements. The process 
 has been improved and extended enormously in America. 
 In Australia it is used largely for meat preserving, and is 
 equally adapted for fruits, vegetables, white sugar corn, 
 peas, and other products. 
 
 Grading and Stoning Fruit. In the factories, fruit is 
 graded, or sorted, into sizes, and for appearance. It is then 
 
 pitted, pared, or 
 skinned, as may be 
 required, dipped in 
 clean, cold water, 
 drained, and packed 
 neatly into the cans by 
 women mostly. The 
 cans are then filled to 
 the very top with 
 syrup of stre n gth 
 according to the grade 
 or quality of the fruit. 
 The top is soldered on, 
 the cover being left 
 
 Grading Fruit into Sizes. 
 
 a very small hole in the centre of
 
 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING. 
 
 285 
 
 Stoning or Pitting Fruit. 
 
 open. The cans are then lowered into a cooking bath, 
 
 which may be water 
 
 only, or some substance 
 
 as lime or salt, to give 
 
 more heat, when tough 
 
 fruits are being 
 
 handled. As in bot- 
 tling, the time allowed 
 
 for cooking varies from 
 
 five to twenty minutes. 
 
 The cans are then 
 
 raised, steam issuing 
 
 from the top. The hole 
 
 is then soldered close, 
 
 and the cans are dipped 
 
 in cold water, to secure 
 
 a vacuum. They are 
 
 then put in a hot test- 
 ing room, and should no change occur they are scoured, 
 
 labelled, and painted, and sent out the handsome tinned 
 
 goods in such general use. Machines are used for stoning 
 
 and pitting fruit in the factories. 
 
 FRUIT DRYING. This process is peculiarly adapted for 
 
 Australian fruits. The requirements are not expensive. 
 
 From 5 to 10 covers the 
 cost of such a dryer as shown 
 in the illustration. It is made 
 of iron or timber. It may be 
 of any < It-si rod size, say from 
 Oft. high by 4ft. in front, and 
 4ft. deep, or any larger size 
 required. The open door shows 
 arrangement of trays on which 
 the fruit is spread. Below is 
 a stove, or tire, which may be 
 arranged on the ground, the 
 smoke passing away in a 
 chimney behind. The fruit is 
 
 either pared (as apples), cut (as apricots, pears, &c.), or dried 
 
 whole. Many other forms of . dryers are in use. In 
 
 A Simple Frnit Dryer.
 
 286 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 California, where fruit drying is an enormous business, 
 scores of designs are seen. In Victoria and South Australia, 
 drying houses of sun-dried clay, stone, brick, iron, and 
 timber are in use. 
 
 American Dryer. Mr. Frank Coffee, of the Universal 
 Nursery, Wahroonga, has introduced a rapid working and 
 effective dryer of the 
 American type. The fruit 
 is inserted at the front 
 (A) and can be returned 
 from the back (E D). G 
 are the frames used. They 
 are made of wood, as a 
 rule, iron being likely to 
 color the fruit. Sizes to 
 fit openings of 4 feet are 
 found to be handy and 
 
 Workable. American Dryer. 
 
 The Shelton Dryer. Professor Shelton, of Queensland, 
 has arranged a dryer in which the fruit trays are placed 
 upon racks on endless chains, so that any desired degree of 
 temperature can be regulated. The trays are moved by 
 the lever, seen in the front view of the machine. Their 
 
 SUelton Dryer The Front* 
 
 Shelton Dryer Innide.
 
 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING. 
 
 287 
 
 position is shown in the second illustration. The ground 
 plan shows ths furnace, or fire box, 
 and arrangements for heating and 
 passing off the smoke. 
 
 Home Dryers. Machines have 
 been arranged for drying with the 
 aid of the heat of a kitchen stove or 
 fire place. But they proved too slow 
 in operation for profitable use. 
 Sufficient size is required in all cases 
 to secure a rapid current of heated 
 
 air. 
 
 Shelton Dryer Ground Plan. 
 
 A Portable Dryer. The size is 7ft. long, and the same 
 in height to the eaves, and 4ft. wide. The frame is made 
 
 in three sections of 
 2in. by 4in. scant- 
 ling, one for each 
 end, and one for the 
 centre. The whole of 
 the further end and 
 the back of the dryer 
 are enclosed with 
 tongued and grooved 
 stuff, allowing the 
 centre board to 
 extend a foot above 
 the peak to help to 
 form the upper 
 ventilation. T li e 
 other end is covered 
 in the same manner 
 
 -Simplicity Fruit and Vegetable Dryer. to within 2U't. from 
 
 the ground, which is 
 
 closed with sheet iron. On each side at the V>ottom a 4in. 
 space is left to admit air. If the draught iis at any time 
 too strong, a piece of iron or l>oard can be set against the 
 opening on the windward side. The front side has an Sin. 
 .strip along the eaves to allow the roof boards to extend 
 over without interfering with the trays, or the door (E) ;
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 this latter being hinged at the lower edge ; the upper edge 
 being held in place when closed by buttons on the eave 
 strip. Into this open space, the fruit trays are slipped on 
 pieces nailed to the sides, care being taken to fill up the 
 spaces behind the slats, so that the hot air cannot pass 
 without going through the fruit. 
 
 Drying Trays. They are made of timber ; or strong 
 wire netting for the bottoms. Three feet eight inches square 
 
 is a good workable 
 size, leaving a space 
 for the heat to pass 
 around the ends and a 
 4in. space in front; the 
 second tray is kept for- 
 ward so as to leave the 
 same space at the back, 
 and is on the top. 
 This arrangement 
 gives a strong current 
 of hot air between the 
 trays. For the stove 
 or heater, two cast- 
 iron heads, 15in. di- 
 ameter, form the ends, 
 having flanges for 
 sheet iron; one head, as 
 in illustration, (page 
 287), has a door for 
 wood, and below a draught hole. The sheet iron 
 cylinder for the fire is made with a stove-pipe hole on 
 each side near the back end. This machine dries 5001bs. in 
 apples or peaches a day. Where an 1 Sin. or 26in. cylinder 
 is used, spaces for three sets of trays are placed, thus 
 allowing of longer return pipes, saving more of the heat, 
 and allowing more work to be done. 
 
 The Drying Medium. It is the same, heated air, in all 
 cases. Sun drying is risky and uncertain. Currents of 
 heated dry air are arranged to pass under, through, and over 
 the fruit in the dryers, extracting the moisture, until just 
 sufficient is left to have the fruit flexible. The more water 
 
 Circular Dryer.
 
 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING. 
 
 289 
 
 that can be left in with safety, the better the quality of 
 the fruit. But that point of safety may mean that from 
 two-thirds to nine-tenths of the whole weight has to be 
 extracted. Thus from 
 7 to lOlb. of apples, 
 make lib. dried; from 
 2 to 51b. plums make 
 lib. dried prunes, and 
 others proportionately. 
 Ripe well grown fruit 
 giving the highest re- 
 turns. 
 
 Time and Heat In 
 Drying. From four to 
 ten hours, according to 
 the fruit contents of 
 water, and the capacity 
 of the machine to send 
 through heated air, 
 from 120deg. to 220deg. 
 The greatest heat is 
 applied to the fresh 
 fruit, until signs of 
 wilting are seen, in 
 say, fifteen to thirty 
 minutes. 
 
 Advantages of Dry- 
 ing. Less cost for 
 
 .. ,!!, Circular Dryer InsideArraugement. 
 
 appliances ; suitability 
 
 for small as well as large quantities; convenience 
 and lower cost of carriage. As a rule the weight is 
 reduced 75 per cent.; or 10011). is converted into 2511)., 
 which retain nearly all the properties of the fruit, except 
 the water. The water is restored for use as required by 
 soaking the dried fruit over night. 
 
 Drying in the Sun. There aro always risks from 
 change of weather, flies, &c., and sun drying may occupy from 
 five to twenty days, involving much laliour. In some 
 cases a combination of sun and dryer is carried out. And 
 rough drying is done in big bush chimneys in cases.
 
 290 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Open Air Drying. This is possible in very dry 
 parts. The process of drying illustrated shows how trays 
 
 Drying ou Lucerne, in the Open Air. 
 
 of fruit are so arranged, on mown lucerne or grass, that 
 dust is warded off, and covers can be dropped over a 
 number of cases, from a central point, by connecting the 
 covers with wire or rope. But open air drying is always 
 risky, as even a shower or heavy dew discolours the 
 fruit. 
 
 Drying Potatoes, Tomatoes, Herbs. Potatoes dry 
 nicely, and are in active demand on stations, at the 
 goldfields, and other places. The potatoes are washed, and 
 peeled by means of a machine similar to an apple parer. 
 They are then boiled, then broken up, not too fine, spread 
 evenly on trays, and placed in a dryer. The drying 
 process takes about ten hours, at temperature of about 140 
 deg. When the contents of the trays are thoroughly dry, 
 they are exposed to the air in a cooling chamber, then 
 ground to about the consistency of bonemeal, and packed 
 in tins for export. The great advantage in boiling the 
 potatoes previous to evaporating, is that they are much 
 more easily prepared for table afterwards, and very much 
 less water is required, the latter being a very important 
 consideration in places where water is scarce. The potato 
 meal does not require soaking before being used. Four 
 cupfuls of water are added to one cupful of potato, boil for 
 ten minutes, and the product is ready for use. It cannot 
 then be distinguished from potatoes cooked in the ordinary 
 way.
 
 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING. 
 
 291 
 
 Tomatoes are dried at a lower temperature, as are 
 vegetables, herbs, &c. The process here for tomatoes is to 
 cut the fruit into sections, which are placed, cut side up, on 
 the ordinary drying trays, and put out in the sun, then 
 finished in the dryer. In Italy, where large quantities of 
 tomatoes are dried, they are put into coarse cloth bags 
 through which the pulp is squeezed, leaving the skins and 
 seeds in the bag. The pulp is spread on boards and dried 
 in the sun. When dried, it is packed in boxes for export. 
 It is largely used in soups. 
 
 Prunes, Raisins, Figs, &c. The plum (the prune 
 d'agen is considered the best) when ripe, is shaken off the 
 
 trees (p. 292). The prunes are 
 then dipped in a hot lye made of 
 potash lb. to gallon. The illus- 
 tration shows a contrivance 
 for dipping on a large scale. 
 The tank (A) contains the lye ; 
 by means of tackling the 
 dipper (B) is lowered into the 
 tank, and, when sufficiently 
 treated, is raised as at (c), and 
 discharged upon tables. The 
 fruit is then sorted and dried. 
 Prunes are among the very 
 nicest of dessert relishes and 
 food. To prepare the fruit for the table, it is soaked in 
 cold water over night. It swells to the size of the original 
 plums, and is then stewed. Raisins are dried partly in the 
 sun ; then finished in the dryer. In the French method of 
 curing prunes, each grower, as a rule, dries his produce in 
 an oven sufficiently to keep for about two weeks. The 
 prunes are then sold to factories, where they are fully 
 cured. After being graded by use of wire screens they 
 are packed in long hollow metal tubes ; after being tilled, 
 a cap is screwed on to make them airtight. The tubes are 
 put in an air drum, low temperature steam is turned on, and 
 the prunes are thus "cooked" for a longer or shorter time, 
 according to the sizeof the fruit, at a temperature of alxnit 210 
 deg. When cold, they are ready to pack for market. 
 
 Dipping Prunes-
 
 292 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Californian sun-dried prune is delicious when 
 stewed, while the French being already cooked in the 
 
 Harvesting Prunes for Drying. 
 
 process of curing, tastes well before stewing, but becomes 
 rather bitter afterwards. But French operators can be 
 profitably followed in their method of grading. 
 
 Sulphuring. When fruit is cut it loses colour. This 
 is the effect of oxidation or contact with the air upon the 
 exposed parts. To check this action, sulphur fumes are 
 brought to bear as in a bleaching process. The effect is 
 very decided upon cut fruits that have to be dried. In 
 operation, the fruit trays are put in such numbers as may 
 be required in a close box. Sulphur fumes are got either 
 by burning sulphur in the box or in an outside burner, 
 the fumes or smoke being brought into the box through a 
 tube. The colder the fumes are the better. Half a pound 
 of sulphur is enough for 501b. of fruit, and 10 to 30 minutes 
 completes the operation. The fruit is then dried as desired. 
 During the drying, the sulphur disappears. 
 
 Candying or Crystalising. This process is amongst 
 the most attractive and elegant for fruits, lemon, orange, 
 and other peels, ginger, &c. Only thoroughly matured and
 
 FBU1T AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING. 293 
 
 undamaged fruits are suitable. The fruits are, in the 
 cooking stages, treated as for bottling or canning. Then 
 saturated in cold syrup and dried to crystalisation stage, as 
 with peels. Peels, gingers, &c., that contain oils, earthy, 
 or other flavourings that have to be got rid of, are first 
 soaked in salt and water from 10 to 30 hours to get rid of 
 the undesirable flavour. The fruit is then washed to clear 
 off as much as possible of the salt. Then "cooked" in fresh 
 water, strained, and dried. It may be necesssary to change 
 the water in cooking several times to extract all the salt. 
 Then drain the fruit and put it into a first syrup. The 
 action of this syrup is to displace the water in the fruit 
 The time for first saturation depends upon the nature of the 
 fruit, from two hours to six days. But in any case the syrup 
 has to be changed as soon as signs of fermentation appear. 
 A second syrup is then substituted for the first, and after 
 another saturation, a third syrup displaces the second, and 
 a fourth or fifth when neceessary, by which time the fruit, 
 peel, cumquats, ginger, or other material should be saturated 
 with sugar. The finishing syrup, No. 5, is boiling hot when 
 the fruit is put into it, the time for amalgamating the two 
 depending again upon the nature of the fruit. When 
 saturated, the fruit is taken out and dried, rapidly or slowly 
 according to whether it is to be glazed or crystallised. For 
 the latter purpose sugar may be sifted upon the fruit as 
 much as will stick. For peels, cumquats, figs, ginger, &c., 
 the finishing syrup is allowed to crystalise. 
 
 Syrup. A key to success for most of the canned and 
 crystalised fruits, indeed for fruit preserving generally, and 
 jam-making as well, is got in the treatment of the sugar or 
 syrup. Only the whitest cane sugar is suitable. Beet sugar 
 is risky. No. 1 syrup is made by dissolving in boiling 
 water 1 part of sugar in 3 parts of water 3lb. of sugar 
 in 1 gallon of water is a standard syrup for canned fruits. 
 No. 2, 1 to 2 ; No. 3, 1 to 1 ; No. 4, 2 of sugar to 1 of 
 water ; No. 5, the strongest syrup made, is 3 of sugar to 1 
 of water. The sugar is heated before amalgamating, where 
 practicable. The nearer it is to the temperature of boiling 
 water the better. As soon as the sugar is absorbed, the 
 syrup is ready. It is then quite clear, there is no loss of
 
 294 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 flavour or colour by carmalising or burning. Syrups of 
 any required strength are added to the fruit in the various 
 stages of cooking and preserving as described. 
 
 Temperature in Syrup Making. The thermometer is 
 useful in manipulating sugar. When reduced to symp in 
 the boiling state there is a marked increase of heat. At 
 215 to 218 degrees fruit with sugar is in the most effective 
 jellying stage ; it is smooth, slippery, and does not candy or 
 granulate. This is the " small thread " stage in sugar 
 making. At 220 to 228 degrees granulation sets in 
 the "large thread" stage. At 231 degrees we have 
 crystalisation " small pearl "; at 232-3 " large pearl " 
 candying. 
 
 Pop Corn. Great fun and a wholesome edible is got 
 by roasting or " popping " the kernels of the pretty little 
 pop corn which grows well wherever other corn grows. 
 Put the dry kernels in a deep fry pan; a "popper," or a 
 covered pan is better. A slow heat is best at first, then increase 
 it, and the kernels burst out into great balls of flour like 
 substance. They are nice that way, and better when 
 dropped into No. 5 syrup boiling hot. As coated, they are 
 taken out and allowed to candy. Dry sugar may be shaken 
 over them to make crystalised pop corn. 
 
 Marmalade. Seville oranges, lemons, and citrons are 
 used. Wipe the fruit, slice thinly, picking out the seeds, 
 Use all the juice, and one third or more of the skin. Water 
 is then added, the quantity being dependent upon 
 the fruit and season, the proportions varying from 30ozs. 
 (1^-pint) water to 3flbs. water to each Ib. fruit, which is 
 allowed to soak in the water for 12 hours, or longer in cold 
 weather. Then boil ; by steam heat in jacketed pans is best. 
 When the fruit is nearly cooked, add sugar, heated, as in 
 syrup making, say l| to 3^1bs. for each Ib. of fruit. 
 Then boil until the marmalade sets as a jelly when 
 cooled, a trial portion being dropped on a plate for test 
 purposes. 
 
 Shaddocks make extra fine, clear marmalade, but 
 the pith has to be removed with the seeds. Quince, 
 and tart apple are also used, the skins being cooked 
 with the fruit.
 
 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PEE8EEVING. 
 
 295 
 
 Jams and Jellies. Use ripe sound fruit only. For 
 
 jelly use drip or jelly bags 
 saturated first in hot 
 water. Cook in jacketed 
 pans, without which there 
 is not sufficient control of 
 the temperature. Cook at 
 first in the juice, or by 
 adding water where neces- 
 sary, as quinces. Add the 
 sugar from f to ] |lb. for 
 each Ib. of the fruit, with- 
 out checking the boiling, 
 and cook till the jam or 
 jelly sets when tested. 
 The thermometer, as in 
 marmalade making, is 
 useful in boiling. 
 Flavorings and Colorings. Much can be done by 
 skilful blending of fruit juices ; as a flavoring of lemon, 
 grape, &c., in apple jelly ; or the stones of peach, apricot, 
 plum, Ac., for flavoring those fruits. Brown and reddish 
 colorings are got from caramel and cochineal ; golden from 
 annetto, saffron, and tumeric ; blue, green, and other colors 
 are also got, but not from safe materials, and none of them 
 are natural. Different colors are also got by inserting glazed 
 paper in the centre of the jars, filling each side with the 
 jelly, and withdrawing the paper, soon as the contents are 
 set sufficiently. 
 
 " Curing " Fruits. Lemons, pears, etc., are improved 
 by lieing stored in dry, airy places, where a portion of 
 their natural moisture is evaporated. 
 
 Straining for Jelly.
 
 296 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 XXIIL ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFE. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY BOTANY. All mankind, or nearly all, and 
 all womankind at some stage of existence, have taken such 
 interest in plant life as might have induced them to master 
 
 the rudiments of 
 botany. And many 
 follow up the pursuit 
 sufficiently to make it 
 a source of life-long 
 euj oy ment. As a step 
 towards the desire to 
 know more of plant 
 growth, a book or 
 books on botany may 
 have been purchased 
 most works of that 
 kind are valuable ; but 
 Commencing Early. notone can give all the 
 
 information required 
 
 by reading only not for a first, second, or even a third read- 
 ing. That is got by close study of the 'principles laid down, 
 and by cultivating acquaintance with the subjects the 
 orders of plants described. When investigation is added to 
 reading, the knowledge is got as we proceed, and plant life 
 opens out into paths even as attractive as animal life. 
 
 Botanical Classification. To the specialist, minute 
 classification upon the lines followed by botanists in all 
 lands is necessary. Many of the terms and names employed 
 difficult though they may seem are really more closely 
 descriptive of the plants in view than even the " plain 
 English " common names and terms which it will be our 
 effort to use at this stage. Botanical science terms may 
 follow after. Thus annual plants, or annuals, are those that 
 grow from seed and flower, and mature seed again in one 
 season, or during one year. We may at once recognise 
 many plants of that nature, such as poppies, cosmos, corn, 
 and scores of others. Bi-annuals are plants that live over 
 one year, but not over two ; and perennials include the 
 great mass of shrubs climbers, and trees which live longer
 
 ATTRACTIONS OP PLANT LIFE. 
 
 297 
 
 than two years. This arrangement seems so simple that 
 the question is quite natural, " Then why use Latin terms 
 in any form when common terms are so effective ? Why not 
 call corn, just corn, and be done with it !" And that may 
 answer by-and-bye, when all the world speaks the same 
 language, and all are equally agreed as to the common 
 name, and which plant is described when we say "corn." But 
 the corn of Australia may be so very different from the corn of 
 other lands. And the Australian ash tree is different from 
 the ash of Great Britain ; ours is a gum, and our apple tree is 
 closely allied to the eucalyptus, and wholly distinct in every 
 way from the apple tree that bears apples, the only apple 
 tree known to myriads of people. Numberless other 
 instances tell us that if every country were to name its 
 plants in " plain language " in the way that seemed best to 
 them, hopeless confusion would ensue, and botanical 
 identification would be impossible. 
 
 Classification by Methods of Growth. Another easily 
 understood arrangement is that which separates plants 
 which increase in size from the inside (botanically termed 
 endoyens). This includes the great families of grasses, 
 grain yielders, and others. Then another great family, 
 the exogeiia, grow from the 
 outside, and include shrubs, 
 trees, and plants with bark 
 generally. The third great 
 family are acrogens, which 
 include ferns, the fungus tribe, 
 lichens, and others that do not 
 flower, and many of which live 
 on other plants. 
 
 Life Development of 
 Plants. The illustration explains 
 the process of plant life gene- 
 rally. In the first stage of 
 development from the perfect 
 seed (a), warmth, moisture, and 
 air are all necessary for the 
 changes that follow (b cj. Then 
 the seed leaf (the plumule of Fir.,t stages of PI, i,t i,if.
 
 298 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE, 
 
 botanists) comes up out of the soil. At the same time 
 rootlets, the radicles (d) are developing underground. All 
 new plants spring from seed, and the seed must be sufficiently 
 sound and matured to nourish the young plant to the stage 
 described, whether it be the seed of a tiny daisy or the 
 beginning of a huge gum tree. 
 
 Leaf Growth. When the seed is right and its sur- 
 roundings healthy for plant life, 
 leaf growth follows the appear- 
 ance of the plumule (a) above 
 ground. Leaves (b d) are of many 
 kinds, some long, some short, 
 some oval, some round, some with 
 saw-like edges, some are quite 
 smooth and plain, and each form 
 has its name in botany, and can 
 be identified anywhere. But 
 all leaves have the same work to 
 do there is work for all useful 
 life. The leaves are the lungs of 
 plants. It may seem strange, but the bulk of the solid 
 
 Development of Leaf Growth. 
 
 Breathing Pores of Leaf. Leaf Breathing. 
 
 matter of plants, the stems, timber, and bark, from wheat 
 to oak trees, is supplied through the leaves. For the air 
 supplies most of the solid food material of plants. What a 
 great garden ground is thus opened up for the inquirer ! 
 
 Flowers Tell Something. What hosts of flowering 
 plants we can see ! Annuals, bulbs, climbers, roses, fruit 
 trees, grasses. Those that flower are by far the most 
 numerous. And the colours tell a good deal concerning 
 odours and scents. The pinks, red and white, smell most
 
 ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFE. 
 
 299 
 
 sweetly, the darker colours less so. And there are great 
 families of plants that do not flower; the acrogens, which in- 
 clude with others the ferns, mushrooms, lichens, mosses, and 
 many more, are a most interesting host. 
 
 Flower Development. Flowers mean much to the 
 botanist the gardener, the florist, the bee keeper, the 
 farmer, and all who take a real inter- 
 est in plant growth. That is, who 
 look upon them as things of life in- 
 terest as well as things of beauty or 
 of profit. The colour of flowers that 
 open at night is generally white, that 
 night flying moths see and come for the 
 sweets in them. Pale red flowers are 
 liked by bees, and flies and beetles 
 in Flower. also search them for sweet sap ; brown 
 
 flowers are attractive to wasps ; and pink, red, yellow and 
 white flowers ; by pollen storing and pollen eating insects. 
 Bees gather the floury substance actively, and carry it home 
 as food material for their young. And while doing this, 
 they also fertilize the plants they are collecting from, and 
 so aid in giving us flowers and fruit. The pollen is the 
 active fertilizing material of plant life, but it must come 
 in contact with the pistil, the central organ seen in the 
 accompanying illustration, and bees and other insects, the 
 winds and other agencies, help in the process. Thus the 
 
 "fruit" of botanists, that is the 
 seed, is formed below the pis- 
 til. But some plants notably 
 some varieties of strawberries 
 have not got both of these 
 organs. Some have the pol- 
 len, others have none. The 
 former are termed staminate, 
 (with stamens), or pollen bear- 
 Development of Seed, ers. Those without pollen, 
 are termed pistillate. While referring to the strawberry, 
 and the rule applies to other plants as well, it becomes 
 useful in the practical sense to know that l>oth kinds of 
 flowers are necessary in order to get crops of fruit ; and
 
 300 . AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 that very serious losses and disappointment have occurred 
 through weeding out the pistillate, the seemingly more 
 delicate plants. Careful Mother Nature ! How well she 
 knows the importance of each part of the most marvellously 
 complicated of plant life. Thus the pollen of grasses grow- 
 ing in or near water is arranged to resist the dissolving 
 effects of water, which, as a rule, melts pollen generally. 
 Then the many means which flowers possess, for the 
 protection of this so valuable pollen from rain and 
 dew, are never ending sources of delight and wonderment 
 to the keen observer. The closing of flowers at night, 
 the drooping or nodding of flowers, the possession of 
 sheathing sheltering apparatus for the arching of portions 
 of the flower leaf over the stamens, are all instances 
 of nature's care for plant life. In some poppies, the 
 flowers roll up at night over the pollen which has been 
 shed upon them during the day. In others there are parts 
 that act like a brush, sweeping the pollen out of its case 
 towards the pistil, so that the winds may carry it to its 
 destination. In the camphor laurel, the pollen cases close 
 in wet weather, and so shield the grains from injury. 
 Flowers fertilized by the agency of the wind are generally 
 thin and narrow in form and leaf, and quiet in color. 
 Some are borne on trees which flower before the formation 
 of the leaves, others are on lowly plants with long narrow 
 leaves, so that there may be few obstacles to the pollen 
 laden breezes. The fertilization of corn and fruit trees is 
 mostly managed by bees, which also fertilize clover and 
 lucerne; arums by flies and bees, and hibiscus by ants and 
 flies. This latter family include the apparent!}' distant 
 relatives, the jam yielding rosella, and the somewhat under- 
 rated xida rctitifii, or " Paddy's lucerne," of which several 
 varieties are of Australian origin. 
 
 Hybridisation. That intensely interesting and practi- 
 cal branch of botanical usefulness, 
 by which such wonderful results 
 are got in flowers and fruits, 
 is dependent upon the transfer of 
 pollen grains by artificial means 
 from plant to plant. The process 
 offers such attractions !
 
 ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFE. 
 
 301 
 
 Orchid Life. This curious family of plants (for which 
 Australia is specially notable) offers most interesting 
 
 botanical study. There are two 
 distinctive branches of orchids, 
 one of which grows from the 
 ground like other plants, and has 
 lily, or iris-like leaves, as a rule. 
 The others are epiphytes, which 
 means those plants that lodge 
 upon or grow upon others by a 
 system of hair-like grippers, 
 having bulb-like terminations. 
 The pollen and pistil late arrange- 
 ments of the family, as a rule, 
 are such as make insect action 
 for their development a neces- 
 sity. Without this insect help, 
 
 orchids would have passed out of existence, as many other 
 families of plants have done, and we would have none of 
 the butterfly, bee, beetle, spider, boot, slipper, or other 
 curious forms taken by those wonderfully attractive 
 flowers. 
 
 The Pea Family. The ' legumes " of botanists are 
 classified by bearing the seeds in pods. It is a family of 
 immense extent, forming a thirtieth part of the known 
 plant life of the world. The welcome pea of our gardens, 
 the lucerne and the mighty Moreton Bay chestnut, the 
 wattles and myals of the Australian bush corne into this 
 order. 
 
 Australian Gums. The eucalyptus another great 
 family are classified in a general way by their bark. The 
 gums usually are the smooth-bark trees. The leaves and 
 timbers aid in the classification and are peculiar. The oily 
 sacs of the leaves, which contain the essential odors of the 
 family, are visible when held to a bright light. Some of 
 the leaves are richly scented, and all are healthful. 
 
 Figs. This is another curious family, especially in 
 the formation of the seeds and fruit. Australian plants of 
 this order have been termed vegetable snakes or 
 pythons, by reason of the enormous strength of
 
 302 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 some of the family, which crush and 
 absorb the largest gum trees within their 
 snake-like limbs. The origin of these trees 
 may arise from the deposit of a single seed, 
 small as that of a mustard seed, in the fork 
 of a gigantic gum, far up. The fig seed 
 germinates there, sends out thread like 
 feelers or root fibres, which thicken and grow 
 strong from what they gather in from the 
 host plant and the air. In a brief time the 
 tiny fibre becomes a strong rope-like sub- 
 stance, which reaches the earth, roots there, 
 and swells and grows strong until, with the 
 aid of other limbs, formed in the same 
 manner, the great gum tree is surrounded, 
 and is absorbed by the fig. 
 
 Why Should Plants Live on Animal 
 Matter ? In some cases the reason is very evi- 
 dent : There is not enough vegetable food in the soil where 
 they are to support them. This is the case with a very 
 curious family common enough in Australia, the Drosera of 
 botanists, the sundews of gardeners. What a tale they 
 tell the observing that the soil is too poor, for some 
 reason or other, to support vegetable life sufficiently for 
 useful purposes. The definition, that " plants are 
 organisms that remain stationary in and live upon 
 the soil," is disturbed by microscopic and everyday 
 observations. [See illustration Page 303.] 
 
 Seeds Travel. In Autumn, 
 the air is thick at times with 
 seeds, some borne on their own 
 feathery wings, often from very 
 distant places. And other seeds 
 are sent in such masses along 
 the ground by winds that they 
 make immense banks along fences 
 in the pastoral districts, and it is 
 said that railway cuttings have 
 been so filled with these masses, 
 that the trains had to stop till they 
 
 Jumping Seed of Grass.
 
 ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFB. 
 
 303 
 
 were cleared out. Many liguminous plants, and balsams, 
 castor oil, and others, send their seeds to long dista.nces, 
 as the seed vessels come to maturity and spring 
 open. The seed in the illustration is a type of 
 several of our Western grasses, which spring from 
 place to place, until a nice moist, rich spot is reached, 
 and there the seed locates and grows. But, all the time, 
 
 Animal Absorbing Plants. [See Page 302]. 
 
 it is telling a wonderful tale of the climate and rainfall of 
 the location it belongs to. Some seeds are so coated with 
 hard glass-like material that they may lie for months on 
 the surface of the ground exposed to fierce sun heat and 
 drying winds, and then, when rain comes, they spring 
 from place to place, till the required spot is reached for 
 their development into nourishing feed for stock.
 
 304 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 How New Sorts of Plants Are Got. Seed is the source. 
 While heredity is a well-marked principle in vegetable life, 
 there is a constant tendency to depart from the higher 
 forms got by skilful treatment, sometimes for the better, 
 oftener for the worse. The reversion may be in the form 
 of a wildsport, or a distinct reproduction from a late or 
 remote ancestor. The cabbage grower of to-day might 
 scarcely recognise in the coarse wild collard of the sea- 
 shores of northern Europe the parent of our improved 
 varieties ; nor the celery lover see his favourite in the 
 bitter weed, as found in its native habitat ; nor the epicure 
 in water melons, the bitter indigenous fibry things found 
 covering whole districts in Africa. The present develop- 
 ment in plants is the result, of selecting specimens. The 
 wild carrot of the field was experimented with not long 
 since, and after seven years of selection, high culture and 
 skilful treatment, it developed into a root quite soft, juicy 
 and palatable. Good sized and fairly edible tubers, after 
 live years of cultivation, have been produced from the wild 
 potato of Mexico. The originals of garden vegetables and 
 garden flowers were caught, tamed and improved through 
 cultivation and selection, covering longer or shorter periods 
 of time. The same work of selection and improvement 
 of good qualities in vegetables is yet going on, and mo 'e 
 earnestly than ever before. We may, possibly, be going 
 too fast, introducing many new things of little merit, rather 
 than attending to the selection and perpetuation of reliable 
 varieties that have proved suitable for this country. Seed 
 growers know that the purest crops will sometimes develop 
 very queer " sports." For instance, cabbage of apparently 
 absolute purity may produce some plants like the wild 
 collards of Denmark, which is a result of reversion alone. 
 The grower is powerless to prevent this natural physio- 
 logical freak. 
 
 Changing the Nature of Plants. The fruiting reason 
 of plants has been changed by systematically picking off 
 the flowers which appeared before or after the time required. 
 Annual plants may be made perennial by persistently 
 destroying the flower buds as they appear. This has been 
 done with the cotton plant in Australia. Few plants
 
 ATTRACTIONS OP PLANT LIFE. 305 
 
 except those which are distinctly woody, have perennial 
 parts ; in tubers, rhizomes, and bulbs, the older portions die 
 after new portions have been formed. The power to 
 produce offshoots or stolons is the real difference between 
 annual and perennial herbaceous plants. Even in the case 
 of those annuals which throw up only a single flower stalk, 
 if the flower buds are removed before they expand, and the 
 flower-stem cut up into sections, plants may be raised which 
 will live for many years if annually treated in the same 
 way. 
 
 Pleasures of Thought and Work. And yet even the few 
 changes of plant life, thus briefly outlined, may seem 
 difficult at flrst. But let us consider the great difference, 
 visible all through nature and the world we live in, even 
 between one man and another that one is poor and 
 another rich, that one is strong and another weak, 
 that one is sick and another well, that one knows a 
 great many things and another very few ; that one 
 thinks much and another very little, if any. In all our 
 plans for what we hope to do another day, in all our 
 reading, all our learning, in our amusements, let us try 
 and think about what we are doing. Get into the way 
 of asking the meaning of what we see or do. All have 
 not the same power of thought, but all can think, and 
 can cultivate that amount of thought which is natural to 
 each for study and work. It is true of every one of 
 us, that to do anything for good, or what is more 
 important, for the good of fellow men, we must use the 
 mind and not the hands only, in what we are doing. The 
 study of plant life then comes, with many other pleasures, 
 into the enjoyments of existence. 
 
 XXIV. ENEMIES OF THK AGRICULTURIST. 
 
 THE more serious sources of annoyance and loss to the 
 cultivator arise from fungi and insects. In the dairy, 
 and in wine making, we have to gain the acquaintance of 
 bacterial visitors and their effects upon both vegetable and
 
 306 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 animal substances ; but so many of them have beneficial ten- 
 dencies, when they are developed 
 aright, that agriculturists, as a 
 body, are coming to look upon 
 such changes as they make 
 with kindly eyes. There is no 
 such feeling towards the larger 
 fungus growths, a few only of 
 which have a direct value 
 for man, necessary though 
 they are in the plan of nature. 
 And insects are only so much 
 less objectionable because the 
 
 bad ones are more easily reached, and there are many 
 
 Sections of Sugar Caue. 
 
 Healthy Sap Vessels of Potato, Sugar Cane, &c< 
 
 friends of the agriculturist amongst them, in the form of 
 ladybirds, ichneumons and others. A, shows sap cells of a 
 plant in which the starchy matter is secreted in the case of 
 the potato, and saccharine, or sugar matter, in the sugar 
 cane. It is here that fungus growths make serious 
 attacks. B, illustrates cells near the skin or rind, where 
 gummy matter is formed. 0, ordinary form of inter- 
 mediate cells between the two. The A and C cells are 
 influenced very much by wet and dry weather the G cells 
 especially.' At one time they may be almost dry, while 
 when growth is active, and after rain, they may become 
 gorged with sap. And that is the most dangerous time for
 
 ENEMIES OF THE AGRICULTURIST. 
 
 307 
 
 the spreading of fungus attacks, as a rule. The enemy, 
 at such times, increases enormously by absorbing the sap 
 and destroying the cells and tissues of the host plant. 
 
 Fungoid Enemies are true parasites things that live 
 upon other things. Some of them attack animal life in 
 their operations ; and to such an extent is this visible 
 through the microscope that it has become questionable 
 whether animals feed more upon vegetables than vegetable 
 life upon animals. Our concern, at the present stage, 
 is with vegetable parasites. Domestic animals in this 
 country, so far, have been wondrously exempt from 
 ailments of epidemic kind a fact due, in great measure, to 
 the very excellent system of stock inspection common to 
 all the colonies, and the departments of which work well 
 to each other, and to the benefit of the whole community. 
 
 Kniikri, Growing from Section of Leaf of a Host Plant. 
 
 A, upper side of leaf; B, lower side; C, developing seed heads of 
 fungus; D, spore or seed cups; E, seed cup springing from breathing 
 pore of plant ; F, developed seed head ; G, spores or seeds of fungi 
 located in breathing pore. 
 
 Fungus growths may be divided into two easily 
 observed divisions: They are those which appear generally
 
 308 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 as blackish, smut-like dust upon the leaves of lemons, 
 oranges, and various flowering shrubs, as mildew on grapes, 
 <fec. ; and the much more numerous and destructive fungi 
 growths penetrate the leaf, twigs, or fruit of the host plant, 
 destroying leaves, twigs, fruit, and the whole plant as they 
 increase. The former are termed epiphytes, or things that 
 live outside. The more dangerous fungi are endophytes, 
 that live inside the host. The epiphytes may indicate other 
 diseases in the plant, as do all fungus growths, and the 
 drainage and manuring should be seen to, while the 
 fungus is destroyed by spraying Bordeaux mixture 
 being effective for the purpose. When e.ndophyte fungi 
 are present the leaves may appear spotted with whitish, 
 yellowish, or brownish blotches which spread more or less 
 rapidly. The leaves and leaf stalks become affected, and 
 the disease then saps the strength of the crop. Such, for 
 illustration, are the visible symptoms of strawberry fungus 
 or " brand," passion fruit and melon " scald," potato 
 blight, &c. Occasionally all at once as it may seem the 
 leaves perish, it may be in masses, and the whole plant 
 wilts as though it were scalded. The term " scald " has 
 long been applied to attacks of this kind, and the 
 idea is still prevalent, even amongst skilled men, 
 that the check to growth has been caused by such a 
 change of weather that the leaves, or it may be the whole 
 range of plants, are scorched by the sun, by sun-heated air, 
 or by hosts of minute insects too small to be visible. 
 Foliage plants are otten attacked in this way. But in reality, 
 the disease may have been present and spreading long 
 before it was observed. That terrible enemy of wheat, the 
 rust, is of this very dangerous kind. Jt may be upon the 
 crop for weeks, even months, in spots, visible under a good 
 glass ; then should moist weather occur while the wheat is 
 ripening, the rust becomes epidemic. 
 
 Specific Names. The names given to these fungi 
 growths are numberless they are bewildering in some 
 cases. But they are useful for scientific classification, while 
 the foregoing classification may be ample for the ordinary 
 purposes of those whose main objects are to identify the 
 enemy promptly, in order to check or destroy the invader 
 as soon as possible, and before serious mischief is done.
 
 ENEMIE3 OF THE AGRICULTURIST. 
 
 309 
 
 Means of Checking Fungus Growths. -Sulphur, in its 
 many forms, is found effective against fungus growths in 
 the early stages, and in the form of copper sulphate (blue- 
 stone), iron sulphate, sulphuric acid, flour of sulphur, &c., 
 is a necessary part of the equipment of the agriculturist. 
 
 INSECT ENEMIES and FRIENDS. Fortunately the 
 agriculturist is helped by the latter, or the insect enemies, 
 which are everywhere, in all lands, would be too many for 
 all his efforts to check or destroy. For identification pur- 
 poses, names are given to the myriads of these things, but 
 as a classification for everyday use it may be sufficient, as a 
 first step, to identify them as insects living by sucking the 
 juices of plants; others tbat eat plants; and those that live 
 upon the vegetable destroyers. Foremost as plant enemies 
 
 are the aphides, or plant lice. 
 The name means exhaust. They 
 are fearfully numerous and 
 destructive during dry summer 
 seasons. They are everywhere 
 on the roots, limbs, branches, 
 and leaves of plants, and con- 
 tinuous war should be waged 
 against the whole tribe, for they 
 are destructive in the field, in 
 the vegetable garden, and in the 
 orchard. They are terribly 
 annoying in the flower garden 
 and summer house. The peach 
 tip/i ift, rose aphis, and cabbage 
 a phi* afford easily observed 
 specimens of the family gene- 
 rally, their mode of life and 
 method of destruction. They 
 appear for the season in numbers 
 during August, and unless checked continue to increase 
 and destroy all through the spring, summer and autumn, in 
 proportion to the means taken to keep them in check from 
 the time of their first appearance. The ants, as seen in the 
 illustration, follow aphis on fruit trees, that they may 
 gather a sweet sap ejected by the smaller insects. The rose
 
 310 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 aphis, in the form of a light green fly or insect, congregate 
 in sleepy-looking masses, near the points of the younger 
 shoots and the buds, and upon other parts of the plants as 
 well. The grape vine aphis, termed phylloxera, live on the 
 roots and also on the leaves at times, as do similar insects 
 on other plants. When examined under a powerful glass, 
 they seem to be crawling about listlessly, as it appears, or 
 are fastened by their snouts or proboscis to the plant, the 
 juices of which they are sucking. Cabbage aphis are 
 found in similar masses under the younger leaves of the 
 plants. Almost every tree and other plant in the garden 
 has visitors of the aphis kind, and their mode of life is 
 much the same. 
 
 " American Blight." The woolly apple tree louse (mis- 
 named " American blight") has long been known in Europe, 
 
 and is proving very des- 
 tructive in parts of Aus- 
 tralia. The insect is a 
 plant louse of the aphis 
 kind, is quite small, and 
 fastens itself in crevices 
 of the bark, where it 
 deposits masses of minute 
 eggs, so small that a very 
 powerful observing glass 
 is necessary to see them. 
 The effect upon trees is 
 to literally exhaust the 
 part they settle on of all 
 sap. The wood seems 
 honeycombed, swells 
 into knobs, and soon 
 becomes prey to disease. 
 Many remedies have 
 been tried to cure trees 
 infested with this 
 scourge, amongst the 
 mosteffective being clay- 
 lime-sulphur paint for 
 winter dressing, and 
 
 Woollj Aphis " American Blight."
 
 ENEMIES OP THE AGRICULTURIST. 
 
 811 
 
 soda-resin-petroleum paint or spray for other times. 
 When taken early, they may be eradicated ; but when the 
 disease has got into the roots and limbs, the better course 
 is to cut down and burn the tree root and branch, and plant 
 sorts of apples which resist the attacks of the louse. 
 
 Scale or Cocus Insects. Scale insects are at times, 
 when they are allowed to increase, very destructive upon 
 
 Scale Insects. 
 
 pear, apricot, peach, orange and other trees. They ar^ 
 covered by a horny scale or shell when grown, but are 
 more easily kept in check than woolly aphis, unless they 
 have been allowed to become too numerous. They cling 
 to the bark singly and in masses, sucking the juices, 
 portions of which they eject, until black, sticky patches are 
 seen on the wood. The females are stationary, and they 
 cover their eggs with their horny shell until the young 
 hatch out, when the mother insect shrinks and dries up. 
 The eggs and the young scales are carried about on the 
 feet of birds and insects from plant to plant, and also by 
 the wind at times. The males have wings during the 
 autumn season, and are much smaller than the females. 
 Rather appropriate " common " names are given to scale 
 insects thus 1 in the illustration is the oyster scale, that 
 mite which damages oranges and lemons ; 3, muscle scale ;
 
 312 
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 4 and 5, scale larvae, much magnified ; G, black scale ; 2, 
 insect in the winged state. Their methods of life make 
 scale insects more difficult of eradication than the ordinary 
 aphides. But by the use of clay paint and alkaline oil 
 mixtures they also can be kept in check. 
 
 Codlin Moth Grub. This, the carpocupua pomonella, 
 " the fruit devourer " of science, is one of the worst of 
 fruit eaters. The mother insect, A in illustration, appears 
 as a moth during August and September, and lays eggs 
 
 Coil. in Moths on Apple Blossoms. 
 
 in the flower cups of apples (B), pears, and other fruits at 
 times. The eggs (C) hatch in from 10 to 20 days, and the 
 grubs eat into the young apples. 
 
 Risks from Introducing Plants and Animals. That 
 many of the worst parasites from which both plants and 
 animals suffer have been introduced is only too true. The 
 greatest care is necessary in introducing new things, for 
 parasites, both fungoid and insect, exist in other countries 
 much more destructive than any we have yet had to 
 encounter. 
 
 The " Buffalo gnat " of America is a fearful pest, and 
 would be a bad visitor here. It propagates in water, the
 
 ENEMIES OF THE AGRICULTURIST. 
 
 313 
 
 pests 
 
 are 
 
 often 
 
 Mississippi watershed being specially subject to ravages 
 
 of this mosquito-like pest, the attacks of which are so 
 
 awful that cattle become terrified at the sounds made 
 
 by these gnats, and to flee from the 
 
 drowned. 
 
 To Check Fungi 
 
 and Insects. In the 
 
 application of means 
 
 for checking destruc- 
 
 tive insect pests, it is 
 
 well to note that they 
 
 all obtain their food 
 
 by sucking or biting ; 
 
 sucking insects are 
 
 provided with tube- 
 
 like sucking mouths, 
 
 by which they pene- 
 
 trate the tissues and 
 
 pump out the juicy 
 
 contents. Biting in- 
 
 sects have jaws, with Hand Sprayer at Work; 
 
 which they bite and destroy the entire substance. It is 
 
 evident then that an insect subsisting upon the liquids 
 
 inside of a fruit, leaf, 
 or twig is not likely 
 to be killed by a 
 poison applied to the 
 outside of a leaf which 
 might kill an insect 
 eating the leaf; but 
 there is another way 
 of reaching them. 
 Insects do not breathe 
 as we do. They have, 
 instead of noses and 
 lungs, rows of very 
 
 Spraying in the Orchard. *?. , . . 
 
 small breathing open- 
 
 ings along the sides of their bodies, with air tubes which 
 branch and spread out through all the tissues of the body, 
 carrying air to them. It is a fortunate circumstance that
 
 314 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 a very little of any oily substance will close these small 
 openings, and smother the insect as effectually as 
 clasping the wind-pipe will smother a man. But oil is 
 injurious to plants. Hence oily substances, dissolved 
 with alkalis to prevent the oil injuring the plants, 
 are used for checking and killing insects. Fumigation, 
 from sulphur and carbon compounds mostly, has long 
 been in use, and is still effective where plants can be 
 covered. 
 
 Friendly Insects. Were it not for the natural enemies 
 which plant lice, scales, &c., have, like all animals, they 
 would soon become destructive beyond the powers of man 
 to keep them in check. The best known destroyers of plant 
 lice are ladybirds (Coccinella) and their grub-like larvae. 
 Well-known ladybirds are about the size and form of 
 split peas. The perfect insect is of dull orange colour, and 
 usually has nine small black dots on the wing shells. 
 These insects lay their tiny eggs near the plant lice, and as 
 soon as the grub hatches out it proceeds to devour its 
 natural food. They may be often seen upon potato plants, 
 upon melon vines, and on other plants. The grubs vary in 
 colour on different coloured plants. They do not look nice, 
 but it is safe to conclude that when they are about more 
 disagreeable visitors are disappearing. The young of 
 various flies are also destructive to plant lice, upon which 
 the mother flies deposit their eggs. The young maggots 
 devour great numbers of aphides. 
 
 Knowledge of Fungus and Insect Life. That some 
 acquaintance with the methods of insect life, even the very 
 rudiments of entomology, are useful to the agriculturist is 
 evident. It is during the early stages of insect attacks, the 
 same as those of fungus attacks, that the most effective 
 efforts to check or destroy them are made. An hour spent 
 then may prevent heavy losses more certainly than weeks 
 of toil, expenditure, and lamentation after the pests have 
 got a start. The skill is in being able to identify and check 
 the enemy at the beginning, and is a sort of skill which 
 young folks acquire rapidly and eagerly. They are soon 
 able to identify the enemy and their works, and the 
 presence of friendly beetles, ichneumons, and others, which
 
 HOME HELPS. 315 
 
 may be clearing off the pests by eating them or their eggs, 
 or depositing eggs on the bodies of their enemies, which 
 are from that stage doomed to destruction. 
 
 XXV. HOME HELPS. 
 
 GOOD BREAD and How to Make It. Good bread is the 
 rule in Australia, bad bread the exception. This is the 
 case in the bush as well as the towns, and is attributable in 
 the first place, to the excellent quality of the wheat and 
 flour ; and in the next to the skill in bread-making that 
 pervades the community. It is an accomplishment of which 
 Australian women may well feel proud. Good bread means 
 good digestion, contentment, health ; for all of which the 
 country is somewhat famous. The first requisite for good 
 bread is good flour not necessarily the whitest or finest 
 flour, but sweet, dry, wholesome flour, made from sound 
 grain, without mixture of any kind. Whatever the price, 
 this is the cheapest, the most healthful flour. Even in 
 public establishments it has been proved by actual testSj 
 extending over months and years, that the best flour is the 
 cheapest in the end. Flour can be tested for its " strength " 
 or bread-making qualities, in the manner described in the 
 author's "Helpful Chemistry for Agriculturists." 
 
 Yeast. This is another important ingredient in bread- 
 making, A simple and thoroughly good way of making it 
 is to put loz. of hops into 2 quarts of water ; boil until the 
 water is reduced by one-third ; strain this, and add to the 
 water two tablespoonsful of sugar ; when the mixture is 
 cool add two tablespoonsful of flour, and bottle the mixture. 
 This should make about 3 pints, and what is wanted first 
 for use should be put into a bottle that contained yeast 
 before. If no sucli bottle is handy, a few drops of vinegar 
 or a bit of dough will cause it to ferment. It is ready for 
 use as soon as fermentation sets in, or in moderately warm 
 weather about twenty-four hours after the fresh yeast is 
 made. It keeps for weeks when corked tight and put away
 
 816 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 in a cool place. One pint of this yeast is sufficient for 
 121bs. of bread. 
 
 Making the Bread. To make, say 151bs. of bread, use 
 water slightly warm, say of 80 degrees in cool weather, and 
 colder water in warm weather. Put 2 quarts water, or 
 skimmed milk if it can be got from a butter factory, and 
 1 pint yeast and sufficient salt into a dish. Add flour 
 sufficient to make a thin batter ; beat it up until thoroughly 
 mixed ; do not spare the beating at this stage. This is the 
 " sponge," and when it is tough and elastic, and fine with 
 beating and working, tuck it in nicely with flour from the 
 sides of the dish, and cover it over with a cloth and place 
 it in a warm or cool place (according to the weather). A 
 good " sponge " will spring or rise three or four inches dur- 
 ing the night ; in cool weather it takes longer. When ripe, 
 turn the sponge out upon a table, into the flour necessary 
 to make oread say 81bs. flour if we are making 151bs. of 
 bread. It may be home-made flour, or pollard, or bran, or 
 coarser flour, or maize meal may be added at this stage. 
 Mix it until the dough is just stiff enough not to stick ; work 
 it well ; don't spare elbow-exercise that is one of the 
 secrets of bread-making. Form the well worked dough 
 into any desired shape or size for loaves pans are the best 
 for baking and let them stand until it rises an inch or 
 so ; then put into the oven and bake. 
 
 Camp Bread. A bit of dough the size of the fist, put 
 away in a cool place, in flour, will keep for three or four 
 days, and make good bread. To use it, mix up the dough 
 in about 3 pints warm water ; mix them thoroughly ; then 
 add a tablespoonful of sugar, with salt and flour, and mix 
 up the sponge as in the former case, and make it into bread 
 in the same way. This can be repeated in warm weather 
 until the bread begins to have a sourish taste ; and this 
 again can be corrected by adding a little baking-soda, until 
 compelled again to make yeast. 
 
 The Oven. In the bush, this is an important part of 
 successful home life. " Is marriage a failure ?" has a serious 
 look in the face of a bad oven. The so-called " camp-oven " 
 is simply a flat-bottomed iron pot, with a lid less or more 
 hollowed to hold fire or ashes. The dough, when ready for
 
 HOME HELPS. 317 
 
 baking, is put into this pot, which is set into a mass of hot 
 ashes, covered over, or a fire is kindled around it, bottom, 
 sides and top. It is a hasty process, entailing close watch- 
 fulness, and risks of burnt fingers and clothes, and swear- 
 words at times, when the man is called on to come and help 
 over a difficulty. It is altogether a barbarous arrangement, 
 and should be beneath the notice of a man who can use 
 brains and hands. An oven is easily made. An iron nail or 
 oil-can makes a good one. Set it lengthways upon stones 
 or bricks, sufficiently high to save the wife from stooping 
 any more than is necessary to get fire under it. Then cover 
 the oven body round with a sheet of iron or anything that 
 will stand fire, leaving about an inch of clear space between 
 the iron drum or oven and the cover. Over the latter put 
 a layer of clay, working it well to make it stick and prevent 
 cracking ; the thicker the clay the longer it will hold heat ; 
 the more it is worked the less it cracks. Leave an outlet 
 for smoke at the top or back of the oven. Fit a lid of wood 
 or iron to the mouth of it. Put in a shelf to form a sole. 
 Use iron-bark or diy gum-bark for the tire, and there you 
 have an oven, not much to look at, perhaps, but it is all 
 there for baking anything from a biscuit to a roast fit 
 for a man that is able and willing to work for the best food 
 in the land. He deserves it. But he who allows his wife 
 to destroy temper and fingers over an iron pot deserves the 
 burnt offerings that are often found in such barbarisms. 
 Colonial ovens, on the above correct principle, that is, with 
 a confined space for fire or hot air round the sides and top, 
 are made of iron and sold in the towns. Ovens are also 
 made of brick and stone, or by scooping out a white-ant 
 nest, and are heated by kindling afire inside until sufficient 
 heat is gained ; then put in the article to be baked, and close 
 up the front tight to keep in the heat until the cooking is 
 completed. On a pinch, bread can be baked in red-hot 
 ashes ; ashes from bark are the best ; or by heating stones, 
 as is done in the South Sea Islands, putting the bread or 
 meat amongst them, and covering up the whole until the 
 baking is completed. 
 
 Baking Powder. A good article is made by mixing 
 3 oz. tartaric acid, 5 oz. bi-carbonate of soda, and Alb. of
 
 318 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 arrowroot. These proportions can be carried out to any 
 extent. Dry each of the articles separately in the sun or 
 oven, and when perfectly dry mix them thoroughly, and 
 put the mixture in a bottle, corked tight to keep off the air. 
 Two teaspoonsful of the powder makes 21b. of bread, or 
 nearly as much biscuit. Mix the powder with the flour and 
 salt, then add cold water or milk to make dough. Do the 
 mixing and kneading quickly, and bake in a quick oven. 
 
 Self-Raising Flour. There are several processes for 
 making "self-raising flour," among which the following are 
 fairly good : lOOlbs. well-dried flour, lO^oz. tartaric acid, 
 12oz. bi-carbonate of soda, 8oz. white sugar, l|lbs. salt. 
 The ingredients must be perfectly dry, and reduced to fine 
 powder before mixing. 
 
 " Machine Milk " for Bread-Making. Those who are 
 near enough to a cream -separating machine might try the 
 effect of using the skimmed or " machine milk " instead of 
 water, or as part of the water, for bread-making. It is 
 extra excellent. 
 
 MAIZE AS FOOD. In maize we have an every- day 
 instance of the peculiarities which regulate what we eat and 
 drink. In speaking to a dozen persons upon the healthful- 
 ness of maize as food, eleven would readily admit that, 
 in one form or other, it is pleasant, easily digested, and 
 strengthening, but it is doubtful whether one of the twelve 
 uses the article not because of its scarcity, for maize is 
 amongst the things seen everywhere, but from little 
 difficulties in the way of preparing it for food. Difficulties 
 also arise from not finding freshly-prepared maize-meal or 
 flour in the stores, and thus it does not find its way to the 
 table to anything like the extent merit and real value 
 should secure for it. 
 
 Green Corn. When the grain of maize is just full 
 upon the cob, and when, upon pressure with the thumb, the 
 sweet juice can be squeezed from it, pull off the ears, strip 
 the wrappers from them, and boil the cobs with meat, or 
 in water, or roast them. When cooked, the grain comes 
 off freely. Cooked cobs can be sent to table in various 
 neat ways that will readily suggest themselves. The 
 grain tastes like green peas, and may be either
 
 HOME HELPS. 319 
 
 eaten from the cob without further preparation, or after 
 being pared off with a knife, can be served up as peas. 
 There is a peculiar flavour in this green corn, not unlike 
 cooked oysters, to enjoy which is an acquired taste; but it is 
 very easily acquired, and few things are more nourishing. 
 In America vast quantities of the grain are put up in cans 
 in the same way as preserved meat and fruit, and it comes 
 into use while the corn is out of season. In Australia we 
 have had fresh green corn on the table during seven months 
 of the year. The white varieties are most in favour for 
 cooking : but all are good. 
 
 Maize-Meal. To make the best meal or flour, the grain 
 must be dried in an oven until quite crisp, then, if there is 
 no grinding-mill handy, a hand-mill (sold by the iron- 
 mongers at from 2 to 4) answers very well. These 
 hand-mills make excellent meal ; they grind a bushel in an 
 hour, and last for years. Grind the corn coarsely at first 
 the work is too hard when the meal is ground fine at one 
 operation ; then screw up the mill as fine as may be desired, 
 and grind what will be necessary for not longer than a 
 week. It should always be fresh. 
 
 Porridge. There are few things better than maize- 
 meal porridge for persons of weak digestion. It is also 
 good food for strong men. Boil the water, and pour in the 
 meal gradually through the fingers of one hand while 
 stirring with the other. It requires at least half-an-hour's 
 boiling, and is all the better of being boiled still longer. 
 Eut with milk, molasses, or butter. When cold, it forms 
 into a stiff mass that is excellent when fried. 
 
 Puddings. They require four or five hours' cooking. 
 The meal makes up well with suet, eggs, milk, molasses, 
 currants, spices, or other pudding fixings. Stir the 
 ingredients into as much meal as may be desired, making 
 the whole into a stiff batter. L"t it stand a bit, and 
 prepare a pudding-cloth by first dipping in boiling water; 
 then dredge flour over it and put in thr pudding, tying it 
 so that water will not get in and make the pudding heavy. 
 Leave plenty of room for swelling maize-meal swells more 
 then Hour. Put the bag into boiling water, and do not let 
 it go off the boil until cooked.
 
 320 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Baked Puddings. A. quart of meal, half-pint of milk, 
 lib. molasses, and eggs and other fixings to fit, make 
 excellent puddings. Scald the milk and mix it with the 
 molasses and meal, stirring the whole thoroughly together. 
 Add eggs and any desired spice, with salt, &c. Pour the 
 whole into a well-buttered pudding-dish. Bake it well, and 
 use while hot. It is good. Various other puddings, boiled 
 and baked, and known by various names, are made by 
 modifying the foregoing, and using more or less molasses, 
 eggs, essence, or juice of lemon one of the best seasonings 
 for maize-meal puddings, &c. They must all be well 
 cooked, and special care taken that water does not get inside 
 the cloth while boiling. To turn them out nicely, dip the cloth 
 in cold water as soon as taken out of the pot. 
 
 Bread. To make bread from maize-meal, it must be 
 worked up in the first place with boiling water, and then 
 the meal and water must be allowed to incorporate and 
 "leaven." Put the meal into a dish, add the salt, then stir 
 in the water boiling hot, until there is a stiff, well-mixed 
 batter. Let this stand covered with a cloth until it is 
 blood-warm, then mix yeast with the dough (a little more 
 than is allowed for wheat-bread) ; knead the whole 
 thoroughly ; don't spare the elbows. If the dough should 
 get sour, mix a little soda in warm water and stir it into 
 the dough ; mould the loaves as desired, and bake. Maize 
 requires longer baking than wheaten bread ; and to prevent 
 a hard crust forming, each loaf should be wrapped up in a 
 damp towel until required for use. The foregoing is a 
 most wholesome bread. A finer bread is made by mixing 
 one-half or less wheat-flout with the meal, and using warm 
 instead of hot water in making the dough. The other 
 process described answers for the remainder of the work. 
 
 HOME-MADE SOAP AND CANDLES. The cold weather 
 season is the time for using up the spare tallow and fat, and 
 making supplies of soap and candles. To make good, 
 hard, white soap, we must have clean tallow or fat, lime, 
 and soda. If a yellowish tinge is considered desirable, 
 resin is used. The following proportions may be doubled 
 to any extent for making larger quantities ; though the 
 experience of makers differs a good deal about the relative
 
 HOME HELPS. 321 
 
 proportions of tallow, lime, soda, and water used ; but this 
 will be found to depend a good deal upon the heat of the 
 fire, hardness or softness of the water, all of which differ in 
 nearly every case, and can only be settled by experience : 
 
 1. 71bs. soda and 71bs. lime, to be boiled in five gallons 
 of water for half an hour ; when cold, pour off the clean 
 water or lye ; add 61bs. fat and ^lb. resin, and boil about 
 4 hours ; test the soap by pouring a little upon an earthen- 
 ware vessel ; as soon as it acquires the right feel of soap, 
 pour the whole mass into a tight box of a good shape for 
 cutting the mass into bars when it cools. Cut it with a 
 thin wire, or string will do. 
 
 2. A new branch of the soda trade now supplies caustic 
 soda, which for years has been used in soap-making. 
 Melt your fat in plenty of water, ?md keep putting in small 
 quantities of caustic soda, until saponification takes place. 
 It is well to test all your soap just as jam is tested. When 
 you think it looks soapy enough take out a spoonful and 
 put it in a mould, and if it becomes solid be satisfied. 
 Next apply it practically to your arms and neck, and if you 
 feel no smarting or irritation then your soap is right ; 
 but, if in washing, the skin smarts, then there is too much 
 caustic soda in it, and the boiling must be continued, while 
 fat or tallow is added in sufficient quantity to absorb the 
 caustic property of the soap. Lately there has been 
 introduced a special lye for soap-making, and by following 
 the directions upon the tin, a good household soap can be 
 made. In making soap, boil it well, and towards the end 
 " give it a galop," as soap-makers say, and remember that 
 soap, like candles, improves by keeping. 
 
 Soft-Soap. The difference between hard and soft soap 
 is that soda is the alkali used for the former, and potash 
 for making soft-soap. It is safest to purchase the potash, 
 as it is not plentiful in our native timbers, but fresh ashes 
 from mangrove and oak may do ; swamp oak is amongst 
 the best for the purpose. Any sort of tallow or fat will 
 do if reasonably clean. When the potash is to be got from 
 wood-ashes, make a hole at the bottom of a tub or barrel ; 
 plug up the hole, and nearly fill the barrel with wood- 
 ashes ; pour in as much water as the ashes will hold, and
 
 822 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 let it stand for three days ; run off the liquor, now called 
 lye, and pour in more water, until three degrees of lye are 
 taken from the ashes. Put the first lye into a pot with as 
 much tallow as it can saponify or make soapy, and boil 
 about three hours ; then add the second lye, and boil about 
 two hours more ; draw off the water as it separates from 
 the soap, and add the third lye and boil for an hour or so, 
 making three boilings of about six hours in all. Allow the 
 mass to settle, and as it cools, draw off all water that remains 
 under the soap, which is then ready for use. In first 
 experimenting in soap-making, as in cookery and fruit- 
 preserving, disappointment may be a first result. It may 
 happen that the saponification is faulty, and if so, add a 
 little lye, and boil the whole over again, stirring it well in 
 the meantime. Many a boiling of soap is spoiled for want 
 of a log of wood. In making starch the laundress knows 
 by the appearance when the proper quantity of boiling 
 water has been poured in, and in the same way practice 
 will soon enable anyone to tell by sight when saponification 
 takes place. As soon as soap appears in the centre of the 
 boiling mass withdraw the fire, and leave the boiling 
 mass covered up till it partially cools before pouring it into 
 the moulds. 
 
 CANDLES. They can be made from any tallow, but the 
 cleaner and firmer it is the better the candles. Equal 
 portions of beef and mutton tallow answer very well. 
 When beeswax is added, in the proportion of about 3 oz. 
 to a pound of tallow, we have an improved candle. Should 
 the fat be old, discoloured, or offensive, it can be purified 
 by the following simple process : Put a bucket of water 
 into a copper, and the fat with it. When well boiled 
 withdraw the fire, and sprinkle in a handful of powdered 
 alum, and repeat the sprinkling now and then as the tallow 
 cools, when it will be sweet, clean and white ; and if a 
 piece of rough string has been laid in the bottom of the 
 boiler, the alum will be found crystallized on the string, 
 and can be pounded up and used again. Moulds to 
 make half-a-dozen at a time are sold by the tinmen. They 
 are rounded to a point at ono end ; through this end 
 twisted candle wick is passed, and fastened in the centre
 
 HOME HELPS. 323 
 
 of the other end to a pin or skewer. The wicks should first 
 be dipped in alum or lime water, and dried before they are 
 put into the moulds, to prevent their burning too 
 rapidly. When the wicks are all placed, pour in the melted 
 tallow. 
 
 If the tallow when run into the mould be too hot it 
 will stick to the tin, and then the application of hot water 
 is necessary, which spoils the look of the candles. To 
 obviate this, let the tallow cool until a scum forms on the 
 surface. This scum begins at the edge, and moves to- 
 wards the centre, and it is just when the last clear spot 
 vanishes, that the temperature is perfect for moulding 
 purposes. It is better that the temperature be under than 
 over this degree, but if it be too cool the candles will have 
 a honey-combed appearance. When the candles have 
 thoroughly cooled, press them downwards with the thumb, 
 when they will give way with a click, and can be easily 
 drawn out with an awl. 
 
 PAINT FOR OUTSIDE PLACES. Few things please better 
 than a coat of paint, and the winter season is the time to 
 do it. Be the object a slab wall, or any rough outside 
 place, it is not only preserved, but the surroundings are 
 much improved. Amongst other compositions found 
 useful for this purpose, the following are favorites : 
 
 1. Uuslacked lime 20 Ibs., slake it with water, 
 covering during the process to keep out carbonic acid ; 
 strain the liquid through a tine sieve or bag, and add to it 
 5lbs. or more salt, previously dissolved in water ; rice, 
 31bs., boiled to a thin paste and stirred in boiling hot; 
 Spanish whitening, ^lb. ; clean glue, lib., previously dis- 
 solved. Add hot water to the mixture, enough to make a 
 nice thick paint, stir it well, and let it stand a few days 
 covered from dust; then put it on hot, if possible. This 
 will last on wood, stone, or brick for years, and is suitable 
 for coating iron roofs. 
 
 2. "Machine," or skimmed milk, 2 quarts; fresh 
 slacked lime, 8 ozs.; linseed oil, 4ozs.; common whitening, 
 3 Ibs. Put the lime in a stoneware vessel ; put upon it 
 sufficient milk to make it like thick cream ; add the oil a 
 little at a time; mix thoroughly ; add remainder of milk,
 
 824 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 then the whitening made fine ; strain the paint, and keep the 
 whole well stirred while using. 
 
 SHEEP SKINS FOR HOME USE. Make strong soapsuds 
 with warm water ; when cold, wash the skins in it, carefully 
 squeezing them between the hands to get the dirt out of 
 the wool ; then wash the soap out with clean cold water. 
 Dissolve alum and salt) each half-a-ponnd, in hot water, 
 which put in a tub of cold water sufficient to cover the 
 skins, and let them soak in it over night, or say for twelvo 
 hours ; then hang over a pail to drain. When they are 
 well drained, spread or stretch carefully over a board to dry. 
 While they are still a little damp, have 1 oz. each of saltpetre 
 and alum pulverised, and sprinkle the flesh side of each 
 skin, rubbing in well ; then place two flesh sides together 
 and hang in the shade for two or three days, turning the 
 under skin uppermost every day until perfectly dry. Then 
 scrape the flesh side with a blunt knife to remove any 
 remaining scraps of flesh ; trim off projecting points, and 
 rub with pumice stone and with the hands ; they should be 
 very white and beautiful. 
 
 Kangaroo, Wallaby, 'Possum, and Smaller Skins. 
 These are cured singly. Tack each skin using galvanised 
 tacks to a board, wall or fence, spreading them fully, flesh 
 side out. Dissolve alum about two ounces for a large 
 wallaby skin in a pint of warm water, and with a spongo 
 or flannel rag dipped in this solution moisten the surface 
 all over ; repeat this every now and then for three or four 
 days. When the skin is quite dry take out the tacks, and 
 rolling it up loosely the long way, flesh side out, draw it 
 quickly backwards and forwards through a large smooth 
 ring, or anything of a similar kind, until it is quite soft ; 
 then roll it the contrary way of the skin and repeat the 
 operation. A very good and simple process in use in the 
 bush is to sprinkle the flesh side, after scraping it well, 
 with equal parts of pulverised salt and alum ; then fold the 
 flesh sides together and roll the skin compactly, in which 
 state it should remain ten or twelve days. Then it is 
 opened, and sprinkled with bran or sawdust to absorb the 
 moisture, and rolled up again for twenty-four hours ; the 
 process is completed by thorough rubbing and manipula-
 
 HOME HELPS. 325 
 
 tion, as above, on which the pliability depends. Skins, 
 when taken off, should be freed from grease or flesh by 
 thorough scraping, when they may be dried, and left to 
 wait the leisure of the owner. 
 
 Indian Soft Skins. Trappers wash animal skins with 
 soap and soda to free them from grease, then rinse them in 
 clean water to cleanse them from the suds, then rub as dry 
 as possible ; after which the skins are put into a mixture of 
 two ounces of salt to a quart of water containing one ounce 
 of sulphuric acid added to three quarts of milk or bran- 
 water, and stirred briskly for forty or fifty minutes ; from 
 this the skins are put into a solution of soda, and stirred till 
 they will no longer foam ; then they are hung up to dry. 
 
 MEDICAL HELP IN EMERGENCIES. To the timid mind 
 there is something dreadful in the idea of meeting an 
 accident, or being taken sick in places beyond the 
 reach of medical aid, and the feeling is natural. Visitations 
 of the kind are amongst* the distressing features of life in 
 the bush, when those concerned have not the skill or the 
 courage necessary to help themselves, or to help another in 
 a case of emergency. But, fortunately, colonists are seldom 
 so placed. The amount of downright medical skill afloat 
 in the bush might seem surprising. It is seldom that one 
 comes to a station, a plantation, a large work in progress, 
 or other place where bodies of men are collected, without 
 hearing of one or more who can treat an accident or 
 ordinary ailment in case of emergency. It is an admirable 
 peculiarity of bush life, and one that will be still more 
 extensively cultivated as the medical school becomes a more 
 general colonial institution. 
 
 The following notes always keeping in mind the 
 remedies likely to be available in the bush have been put 
 together with the view of aiding those in a pinch while 
 beyond medical aid. It is in every case the desirable and 
 safest course to call in a medical man, if one can be 
 reached ; but in the meantime, it is simply the duty of 
 those around the sufferer to help to do whatever can 
 be done. 
 
 Flesh Wounds. These are of various kinds- 
 punctured, a tear, a bruise, a shot, &c. The first, in a
 
 826 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 warm climate, is dangerous. It may lead to lock-jaw and 
 other serious consequences. The first care is to extract 
 any substance that is left in the wound, and if this can be 
 done without exhausting the patient it should never be 
 omitted, although the pain may be severe. If this cannot 
 be acccomplished, wash the wound and apply poultices to 
 encourage the injured part to suppurate or throw out the 
 foreign substance. In other cases the parts of the wound 
 should be brought together as naturally as possible, and 
 either held in place by means of a stitch or two brought 
 through the skin with an ordinary needle and thread, or 
 by strips of adhesive plaster or bandages. Nature is very 
 kind in such cases, and if the patient is kept clean and 
 quiet, and the bowels are kept regular, the cure may prove 
 rapid. Where the wound is on the face, or other part 
 where a mark tends to disfigure, the bandages should be 
 covered with oiled silk, or cotton, or rubber, to exclude 
 the air. At times a poultice of gum-leaves (boiled if 
 possible) is tied around the wound. To relieve pain, an 
 effective plan is to burn sugar in a pan, and hold the 
 wounded part in the smoke that arises. 
 
 The Head Broken Bones. The colonial "buster," 
 or fall from horseback, very often results in a damaged 
 head, or in dislocation of an arm or leg, or both. Falling 
 timber gives very bad wounds, and the sufferer has to be 
 treated with every consideration and care. In such cases 
 no time should be lost in securing the best medical aid 
 available. But at once lay out the patient where he will 
 be easy and quiet ; cut the hair from the wounded part ; 
 wash it clean, and bring the parts together with a plaster 
 or with bandages. Stitches are not desirable in wounds of 
 the head, as anything irritating is liable to bring on 
 erysipelas. When the scalp has been injured by severe 
 bruises, warm-water dressings will in general be found the 
 best application, unless there be considerable heat and 
 inflammation, when, if procurable, a lotion of sugar of 
 lead, in the proportion of 2 drachms of the sugar of lead to 
 a pint of water and 2 ounces of vinegar, is to be applied 
 slightly warmed, on pieces of lint or linen. Owing to the 
 number of pieces of bone composing the skull, a simple
 
 HOME HELPS. 327 
 
 fracture seldom extends far, as it is usually confined to one 
 bone ; in such cases the fracture may be a mere crack, as 
 in a pane of glass, and perfect quietude with the necessary 
 precautionary measures in keeping down inflammation, 
 and keeping off flies, may be sufficient. 
 
 General Treatment. The object is not to cure broken 
 bones, but to get the broken ends into their proper places, 
 and keep them there. A door, a flour-sack cut open, a 
 sheet of bark, or a blanket fastened at the four corners to 
 two saplings, makes a hammock, on which an injured 
 person can be placed. In case of injury to the arm or hand, 
 a splint is helpful, but whatever is used let it be long 
 enough to reach from the elbow to a little beyond the ends 
 of the fingers. Cover this with anything soft, then not 
 only the arm but the hand will rest comfortably. The 
 hand must not hang lower than the elbow. In cases where 
 the patient is insensible, lay him gently in a dry, quiet 
 place, and in the most natural position possible. Keep the 
 mouth and nose clean, keep off flies or insects, and keep up 
 the heat of the body with warm clothes, tins of hot water, 
 stones, or anything handy. Stimulants should be used 
 with the greatest caution, as tending to excite and bring 
 on inflammation. 
 
 Burns and Scalds. Keep the air from the injured 
 parts. Cover the injured parts ; cloth, cotton, if possible 
 (but anything in an emergency), white of an egg, flour, oil, 
 or starch, are useful agents for that purpose. W^hen a 
 person is discovered on fire, he or she should be brought to 
 the ground as speedily as possible, with the double object 
 of smothering the tire and covering the injured parts. A 
 coat, a blanket, a sack, anything that will keep away the 
 air and smother the fire should be wrapped around the 
 sufferer. Do not attempt to tear off the clothes ; smother 
 out the fire ; that is the best thing that can be done. Do 
 not take cff anything that adheres to the flesh. Cover all 
 sores with flour, white of egg, molasses, or soap, or 
 starch, or oil, and put poultices of bread or bran over any 
 burnt pieces of cloth that may cling to the wound. They 
 will come off freely in five or six days, when a new skin 
 has formed. Do not puncture or peel off any of the skin ;
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 it is the best possible covering. In cases of prostration or 
 great shock to the system, stimulants may be given, such 
 as brandy, and warm-water bottles, bricks, stones, or any- 
 thing that will keep up the natural body heat should be 
 applied to the feet, under the arms, &c. 
 
 Gum Leaves and Banana Leaves for Wounds, Sore 
 Eyes, &c. The leaves of the gums generally, and of the 
 plantain or banana, form useful applications, thus . As a 
 dressing for blistered surfaces, for which purpose they are 
 admirably adapted in hot climates. After the removal of 
 a blister, gum leaves, or a piece of plantain leaf smeared or 
 coated with oil, should be applied to the denuded surface, 
 and kept in its place by means of a bandage. The first 
 sensation it occasions is peculiarly cooling and soothing, and 
 the blistered surface generally heals satisfactorily. For 
 the first two days the upper smooth surface is placed next 
 to the skin, and subsequently the under side, until the 
 healing process is complete. It should be changed twice 
 daily, or ofteuer if required. As a substitute for india- 
 rubber or guttapercha coverings in the water dressing of 
 wounds and ulcers, banana leaf is decidedly good ; the 
 younger the leaf the better it is suited for this purpose. 
 Two points require attention (1) the piece used should be 
 sufficiently large to cover or envelope the whole part; and 
 (2) it should be carefully kept in its place by bandages, &c. 
 If properly applied, evaporation of the natural fluids is 
 effectually prevented. As a shade for the eyes, in 
 ophthalmia and other diseases of the eye, no manufactured 
 shade is superior to banana leaf. The older and greener 
 leaves answer best for this purpose. 
 
 ACCIDENTAL POISONING. Some one has said that there 
 is poison in everything, and, in fact, we do find ourselves 
 surrounded with, and daily using, articles that in unskilful, 
 careless, or thoughtless hands are dangerous to human life. 
 
 Poisonous Plants. No better general rule can be laid 
 down for the detection of poisonous plants than that nature 
 has made them nauseous to the palate of both man and 
 beast. There are exceptions to this rule, as for instance, 
 the "poison plant" of Northern Queensland, the lantana 
 seeds, the " native currant," and a few others that are rather
 
 HOME HELPS. 829 
 
 pleasant than otherwise to the palate ; but the poisonous 
 qualities of these things* operate by preventing digestion, 
 and they are removed with comparative ease from the 
 human stomach by the aid of warm water, mustard, salt 
 and water, or other emetic. The real poison plants have 
 generally a milky, bitter juice, disagreeable to both taste 
 and smell, and without exception it is very painful should 
 a drop get into a sore or the eye. Treat them as acids. 
 
 Prompt action is everything in cases of accidental 
 poisoning. Seconds, not hours, are at our disposal to 
 apply a remedy, and in places where medical aid is not at 
 once obtainable, and where no other guide is handy, the 
 following may prove useful in case of emergency : 
 
 Arsenic Paris green, green colourings, ague drops, 
 rat and dog poison, &c. Symptoms : Pain and burning 
 heat of stomach, dryness of throat, cramps, purging, and 
 vomiting. Treatment : Give large quantities of milk and 
 raw eggs, lime-water, or flour and water; then castor -oil. 
 
 Strychnine Dog and rat poison, &c., nux vomica. 
 Symptoms : Twitching of the muscles, convulsions, lock- 
 jaw, or the body is bent backwards. Treatment : Try to 
 empty the stomach by an emetic, then give linseed-tea or 
 barley-water, and to an adult thirty drops of laudanum 
 occasionally to relieve the spasms. Hurry for a medical 
 man. 
 
 Acids Oxalic, sulphuric (vitriol), nitric (aqua fortip), 
 muriatic (spiiit of salt), carbolic. Symptoms: Horrible 
 burning sour pain from the mouth downwards. The skin 
 of the lips, mouth and throat may be dissolved. Treat- 
 ment : Water or milk in quantity, carbonate of soda, 
 magnesia, whiting, chalk, or lime-water j or knock a piece 
 of plaster off the wall, pound it small, and give it in milk 
 or water. While one person attends to this, let another cut 
 some common soap into small bits, and give a teaspoonful 
 with water, or a tablespoonful of soft soap. 
 
 Laudanum. Opium, paregoric, soothing syrup, syrup 
 of poppies, &c. Symptoms : Giddiness, stupour, the pupil 
 of the eye very small, lips blue, skin cold, heavy, slow 
 breathing. Treatment : Empty the stomach as quickly as 
 possible by vomiting ; hot water, mustard and water, salt,
 
 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 or soap, or tickle the throat with anything that is handiest. 
 Then for an adult, if it can be got, give fifteen grains of 
 sulphate of zinc in a little water ; to a young person half 
 the quantity; to an infant a teaspoonful of ipecacuanha 
 wine. After vomiting, give plenty of very strong coffee, 
 put a mustard plaster round the calf of each leg, and if 
 cold and sinking give spirits and water. Get medical help. 
 Keep the patient roused till the effect has passed off by 
 beating the soles of the feet, walking, or dashing cold 
 water on the face. Remember that if the patient goes to 
 sleep at this stage it is the sleep of death. 
 
 SINSTROKE. When the temperature rises over 100 
 degrees, and the weather is moist, care is necessary to 
 prevent the exhausting effects of so great a heat. Temper- 
 ance in living is of the first importance in this respect not 
 temperance in eating and drinking only, but in the clothing 
 worn, in government of the temper, &c. As means of 
 prevention, it is advisable to wear head-coverings that, 
 while light, give shade and air to the head and neck. For 
 these purposes the colonial shell-hat, and calico or other 
 pngaree attachments, are good. Loose clothing should be 
 worn, and of the lightest possible colour. The symptoms 
 of an attack are sharp pains in the head and giddiness, and 
 unless the patient is of very strong nerve, and can get 
 under shade at once, he falls to the ground insensible the 
 victim of over-heated blood. To cool the temperature of 
 the body, by applying water all over, and by exposing as 
 much of the body to the coolest possible currents of air, are 
 means of the first consideration. Bleeding is often effective, 
 and the application of mustard poultice to the back of the 
 neck, rubbing the spine with spirits, ammonia, or turpen- 
 tine, are all aids towards recovering the patient. Seme- 
 times a man exposed to the direct rays of the sun is struck 
 down without any warning ; and sometimes the high 
 temperature of the atmosphere under cover, or at night, 
 especially if the air be fouled by defective ventilation, may 
 induce symptoms of sunstroke. Whatever checks per- 
 spiration, whatever induces nerve-weariness, or emtarrasses 
 the normal working of the organic system, powerfully 
 predisposes to heat fever, or apoplexy.
 
 HOME HELPS. 331 
 
 SNAKE BITES. Australian snakes, with few exceptions, 
 are timid, and get out of the way. But at the season of 
 the year when snakes are pairing (during January and 
 February) they are less timid and more dangerous than 
 usual. In the event of being bitten, the following may be 
 of value : In former times everything in the shape of a 
 snake was considered poisonous ; but of late years colonists 
 know that many of the more common snakes, notably the 
 carpet species, are not poisonous. The death adder is the 
 really dangerous reptile of the snake tribe, because it is 
 sluggish, at all times, and retains its position until touched, 
 when it bites instantly. None of the snakes are known to 
 attack ; they bite only when disturbed in logs or elsewhere,. 
 or when trodden upon by men or animals. They are easily 
 disabled, and seldom escape when attacked with a whip, 
 stick, or other weapon. Most snakes move about at night r 
 and lie in a semi-dormant state during the winter months, 
 in logs, hollow trees, amongst stones, heaps of bark, &c. 
 It is in all cases advisable to have a stick handy, and tc- 
 look cautiously about when working near places that give 
 cover to snakes. In the event of a bite, the flesh around 
 the wound, to the size of a sixpence, should be cut away to- 
 the depth of about an eighth of an inch, or scarified at once 
 to cause a free flow of blood, and warm water applied to 
 induce bleeding. The late Dr. Bancroft, of Brisbane, 
 recommended the immediate application of leeches to the 
 wound to be effective, and leeches are plentiful enough in 
 scrubs, swamps, &c. A bandage or piece of cord should, 
 if practicable, be tied tightly between the wound and the 
 heart, and the blood and poison sucked out with vigour. 
 If the patient cannot do this himself, there is no great risk 
 to another person doing so, as snake poison is dangerous 
 only when it comes in contact with a wound. Drowsiness 
 is the first symptom of snake poison ; and as soon as it 
 appears every effort should be employed to keep the patient 
 awake by moving him about, rubbing, &c. ; medical aid 
 should bo called in as rapidly as possible. Stimulants are 
 valuable in such cases. If bleeding the wound has been 
 neglected, then much depends on giving large doses of 
 stimulants, whisky, brandy, rum, weak ammonia, &e,
 
 332 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 APPARENT DEATH PROM DROWNING The following 
 instructions for restoring persons apparently drowned are 
 issued by the Royal National Life-boat Institution. Send 
 immediately for medical aid, blankets and dry clothing, but 
 proceed to treat the patient instantly, on the spot, in the 
 open air, with the face downward whether on shore or 
 afloat ; exposing the face, neck, and chest to the air, 
 except in severe weather, and removing all tight clothing 
 from the neck and chest, especially the braces. The points 
 to be aimed at are first and immediately, the restoration 
 of breathing ; and secondly, after breathing is restored, 
 the promotion of warmth and circulation. The efforts to 
 restore breathing must be commenced immediately and 
 energetically, and persevered in for one or two hours, or 
 until a medical man lias pronounced that life is extinct. 
 Efforts to promote warmth and -circulation, beyond remov- 
 ing the wet clothes and drying the skin must not be made 
 until the first appearance of natural breathing. For if 
 circulation of the blood is induced before breathing has 
 recommenced, the restoration of life will be endangered. 
 
 To Imitate the Movement of Breathing. Standing at 
 the patient's head, grasp the arms just above the elbows, 
 and draw the arms gently and steadily upwards above the 
 head and keep them stretched upwards for two seconds. 
 (By this means air is drawn into the lungs.) Then turn 
 down the patient's arms and press them gently and firmly 
 against the sides of the chest. (By this means air is 
 pressed out of the lungs.) Repeat the movements alter- 
 nately and perseveringly about fifteen times in a minute, 
 until a spontaneous effort to breathe is perceived, imme- 
 diately upon which cease to imitate the movements of 
 breathing and proceed to induce circulation and warmth. 
 
 Treatment After Natural Breathing has been Restored. 
 Rub the limbs upwards, with firm, grasping pressure 
 and energy, using handkerchiefs, flannels, &c. (by this 
 measure the blood is propelled along the veins towards the 
 heart). Promote the warmth of the body by the ap plica 
 tion of hot flannels, bottles of hot water, heated stones, 
 bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, between 
 the thighs, and the soles of the feet. If the patient has
 
 HOME HELPS. 833 
 
 been carried to a house after respiration has been restored, 
 be careful to let the air play freely within the room. On 
 the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of warm water should 
 be given ; and then, if the power of swallowing has 
 returned, sma 1 quantities of wine, brandy-and- water, or 
 coffee, should be administered. The patient should be 
 kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. 
 
 EXPOSURE AND STARVATION. The time during which a 
 human being can exist without food depends upon his 
 mode of life, his temperament, and his bodily condition. 
 Well authenticated cases have come to notice of persons 
 being in the bush without food for ten or twelve days, and 
 still 6 live. In these cases the mind has been affected before 
 the person had disappeared, and the body did not crave 
 that regular solid nutriment demanded by a healthy 
 organization. In such cases it is almost certain also that 
 the sufferers had obtained water, with the aid of which 
 human nature holds out much longer. In ordinary cases 
 the bodily powers are exhausted in four days ; delirium 
 sets in and completes the destruction. With water, a cool, 
 collected man has held out for seven days and nights, and 
 still retained his faculties. Children have been known to 
 live five days without food. It is curious that children 
 discover food material in the native plants and grasses 
 much more readily than adults. The chapter on 
 "Attractions of Plant Life" is well worthy of study. in 
 this connection. Even a slight acquaintance with f .he 
 indigenous vegetation discloses many sources for the 
 support of life. On reaching a person exhausted 
 by hunger, great caution is necessary. Milk is the 
 best of all nourishment in such cases ; next to it is 
 bread and water, reduced to the consistency of milk. 
 Whatever is given must be in small quantities the eager- 
 ness of the starving person to have nourishment must be 
 restrained. Stimulants are worse than dangerous, and 
 should on no account be given to a person exhausted by 
 hunger. Put warm clotl ing around the sufferer, lay him 
 in bed, if possible, but not so near a fire as to get direct 
 heat, and so gently nurse the nearly exhausted spark of life 
 into fresh visrour.
 
 334 AUSTRALIAN AGRICOLTURK. 
 
 XXV [.REMINDERS FOR SEASONABLE WORK. 
 
 As explained in the opening chapter (page 14) the seasons in Australia 
 may be classed as Sprimj, commencing in August ; Summer, in November ; 
 Autumn, in February; and Winter, in May. With such modifications as 
 may arise from the location in which we may be operating, this classifica- 
 tion answers very well in order to form a fair idea of the usual weather of 
 the season in view, and the crops and crop treatment most suitable 
 
 For detailed information concerning the seasons, the rainfall, prevail- 
 ing winds. &c. , perusal and study of Chapter I., and the records and 
 reports of the Meteorological Observer, are recommended. 
 
 FIELD WORK FOR THE SPRING SEASON. 
 AUGUST, SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER. 
 
 Usual Weather. The temperature of both air and soil, and the sun 
 heat rises sensibly during August. The native grasses, shrubs and trees, 
 and many spring herbs, show evidences of warmer weather. As do stone 
 fruits in the earlier sections of the country. Wheat, oats, barley, and 
 other cold season field crops, make active growth. Rain usually comes in 
 light showers. Heavy dews have a stimulating effect upon vegetation. 
 Dry weather is indicated by westerly winds, and shelter from them is a 
 decided advantage. 
 
 Planting. Where early ploughing has been followed, we can, with but 
 a light fall of rain, get in corn, sorghum, millet, chicory, artichokes, and 
 summer crops generally. For all these crops well prepared manure is 
 advantageous. It is at this stage where real skill comes into Australian 
 farming. (Read up the chapters on " Cultivation, Manuring, and Irriga- 
 tion " carefully. ) Add mineral fertilisers, such as sulphate of ammonia, 
 potash, and phosphates, to the manure heap, where one or more are 
 necessary for the crop in hand, composting them with coarser stuff in 
 Accordance with the wants of the crop. 
 
 Maize. May be planted from August onwards. Where a start has 
 been got, and the crop is showing up, the safe prospect for bringing maize 
 on to maturity is in keeping the surface soil loose. This prevents rapid 
 evaporation of the moisture in the soil, of which growing corn takes the 
 full benefit, and the land is in the best condition for absorbing any showers 
 that may fall. 
 
 Wheat. Usually sown during May, earlier or later, according to 
 location. The crop is well grown by August. The risky time for rust 
 comes towards the end of October and November. Harvesting appliances 
 may be got in order, so that should the enemy appear during muggy warm 
 weather, the rusted pieces can be cut out at once. Stuff thus cut may be 
 useful for hay. If rusted patches are allowed to stand the disease spreads 
 quickly, and may ruin the whole crop. 
 
 - Selecting Wheat for Seed. As wheat approaches ripeness, real good 
 work can be done by selecting wheat ears that ripen early and clean. Dry 
 seasons may develop very superior varieties of wheat. It is by such means 
 that the very finest sorts have been got.
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 335 
 
 Potatoes, Swedes aud Mangolds. Usually planted earlier in the 
 season, but with rain in the late districts these root crops may be got in 
 still. In the warmer districts they should be so well forward that hilling 
 up and thinning comes into the seasonable work. 
 
 Beets. For either sugar or feed, beet seed may be sown now. From 
 ten to fifteen pounds of seed per acre. 
 
 Onions. Thinning is especially necessary during dry spells. For this 
 crop, the soil must be kept clean and open, and the plants so thinned out 
 that heavy, solid bulbs are got. Where sowing has still to be done, the 
 seed should be drilled into the rows so that transplanting will be unneces- 
 sary. 
 
 Pumpkins and Melons. Every available spare piece of land may be 
 got to yield these crops during summer ; plant now. They keep weeds in 
 check, and mellow down new rough land for future cropping. 
 
 Buckwheat. Where wheat, oats, barley, or other cold weather crops 
 have missed, this is an excellent catch crop, and is well worth being tried 
 on land that is not required for other purposes. 
 
 Rye. This is a rapid-growing crop, and does well during spring 
 weather. When vetches are put in with rye the combination makes excel- 
 lent feed for cutting green or for ensilage. 
 
 Grass Land. When dry spells occur during spring, there is opportu- 
 nity for freeing the land from sorrel, docks, thistles, and other weeds. 
 They all suffer with the spring grasses. The latter grow quickest when 
 rain falls on soil that is warm, and weeds can be still further checked by 
 pulling them out as they appear. Top-dressing with manure, and harrow- 
 ing the dry soil, helps the grasses to get ahead of their weed enemies, 
 amongst which " tussock grass" is becoming very serious. 
 
 VEGETABLE GARDEN. 
 
 Crops Available. The variety for spring cropping is enormous, and a 
 good deal can be done to help them on during dry spells with but a little 
 water. Beans, both dwarf and climbers, tomatoes, peas, cucumbers, 
 marrows, and melons being in the list of crops for sowing and planting at 
 this time. Cabbage, lettuce, and salads, also beets, for home use can be 
 kept going all through the season. 
 
 The Cabbage Tribe. Good sorts for planting for spring and summer 
 growth are Colonial King and St. John's Day. They stand hot weather 
 better than the earlier kinds. 
 
 Mulching. As warm weather advances, and especially during dry 
 times we find the benefit of having plenty of short stuff for mulching. 
 With its aid seedlings can be kept going, and great growtli can begot with 
 very little water. 
 
 Beans. Dwarf beans are always in favour. Canadian Wonder and 
 Negro Eye still hold leading place, and many other sorts also deserve 
 attention. They all require fairly rich soil, and planting in rows from 
 two feet to thirty inches apart. The seed is dropped into the furrows 
 about three incites apart, and thinned out to about nix. 
 
 Climber Beans. The Lima and others are held in high esteem for 
 quality. They do best on poles about six feet high, or on such trellis as 
 are illustrated in the chanter on " Home Gardening. " The rows may be 
 four feet apart, and the plants from eighteen inches to three feet apart.
 
 386 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Depth for Planting Beans. Not deeper than two inches. There are 
 disappointments every season from planting too deep. 
 
 White Corn. This delicious vegetable, which might be an item in 
 every garden, may be planted now. It is an agreeable, haalthy product, 
 and as suitable for small as larger places. Plant in rows from three and 
 a-half to four feet apart. The plants to stand about one foot apart. 
 
 Water Cress. Set out sods of roots, or single plants. Running water 
 is an advantage, but not absolutely necessary. An occasional soaking, just 
 to keep the soil moist, is sufficient. 
 
 Salads being in great demand as hot weather advances, frequent 
 Bowings of lettuce, cress, &c. , may be made. The best summer sorts of 
 lettuce are those of the drumhead class, which comprises many good 
 varieties. The chief properties of good lettuce are crispness and sweet- 
 ness. To develop these qualities, rapid growth and very rich soil are neces- 
 sary. For lettuce, indeed, as for celery, the soil cannot be too rich. 
 
 Celery Plant out, and earth up earlier lots to secure tender, crispstems. 
 
 Radish and Parsnips. They may be sown together, and fair crops of 
 radish may be got by thinning before the parsnips require the land. 
 
 Asparagus. Where water can be given, cutting may go on till 
 Christmas ; although, November very generally sees the end of this 
 delicious vegetable. 
 
 Tomatoes, Cucumbers, Melons. They may be planted. Creeping and 
 climbing plants all require watering. Where plants are not making strong 
 growth, fewer shoots should be allowed and fewer fruits produced. Water 
 melons should not have as many shoots as rock melons. A water-melon 
 plant with eight shoots, each carrying one fruit in the first instance, is 
 about a useful arrangement. Where cucumbers can be trained upon banks 
 of loose stuff they fruit their very best. 
 
 FRUIT GARDEN 
 
 Summer Pruning. Careful thinning of fruit trees is lalx>ur well 
 bestowed. We can get quite as much weight of crop in smaller numbers 
 of larger size, and much finer quality than when trees are crowded with 
 small, woody specimens. We can also save the trees from a heavy strain 
 of seed bearing, and much heavy pruning in winter by thinning out badly- 
 placed and over-bearing shoots at this time. 
 
 Grafting. In the late districts, orange grafting is in season. Both 
 buds and grafts that have taken require attention, by loosening the 
 bandages and making grafts secure against heavy winds. 
 
 How Much Fruit on a Tree ? There is an ordinary calculation by 
 fruit-growers who aim at making produce of the highest quality. It is to 
 thin out until about six inches of space is allowed to each fruit on the tree. 
 This rule applies with good effect to apples, apricots, peaches and oranges. 
 Of course, observation, experience, and practice are all required to be able 
 to work out the system effectively. 
 
 Spraying. Aphis may become bad as warm weather is felt on the 
 early peaches and plums. They must be checked at once, or there will be 
 serious trouble. Soda, resin, petroleum, kerosene, soft soap, and other 
 sprays, are effective preventatives against the increase of these destructive 
 pests.
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 337 
 
 Grape Vines. They are shooting out new growth freely now. Thin 
 out all undergrowth and such shoots as may not be required, tying up 
 the growing limbs snugly. Use the sprayers with soluble sulphur com- 
 pounds freely to keep fungus in check. 
 
 Grubs and Caterpillars. Moths oodlin moth amongst them and 
 butterflies may l>e around, and the eggs they lay hatch out into the grubs 
 and caterpillars which eat off leaves and plants as the warm weather 
 advances Bordeaux mixture, with a little Paris green in it, settles them. 
 
 Strawberries. They should be fruiting freely, but require stimulating 
 by liquid manure and cultivation to keep up the growth with effect. 
 Roots intended to produce plants for setting out should not be allowed to 
 fruit. To check leaf blight, spray with Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 Gooseberries, Raspberries, &c. Keep the young growth well off the 
 ground by pinching oft badly -placed shoots, and so secure fine fruit and 
 prevent mildew. During dry weather, weak liquid manure helps the crops 
 on very much. 
 
 Stocks for Fruit Trees. Sow now the seeds of peach, almond, plum, 
 orange, lemon, loquat, and other fruit trees saved when the fruit was 
 ripe. It is from seedlings got in this way that the best stocks for buddirg 
 and grafting are got. 
 
 SHRUBS AND FLOWERS. 
 
 Native Plants. They are amongst the attractive things in the garden 
 during springtime, especially the heaths. They resist the dry weather so 
 well. And on their merits of beauty many native plants deserve attention 
 and a place in both outdoor and indoor gardening. 
 
 Sowing. The seeds that can be put in to secure plants and flowers 
 for the warm weather season include amaranthus, candytuft, dianthus, 
 gaillardia, larkspurs, lobelia, pansy, petunia, stocks, and hosts of others. 
 
 Annuals. Planting out may be carried on as actively as may be neces- 
 sary to fill in all the space available. The selection of seeds for annuals is 
 enormous. 
 
 The Daffodil Family. Jonquils, polyanthus, in addition to the always 
 favourite daffodils, should be plentiful, where the directions given for 
 planting and for the cultivation of bulbs have been followed. 
 
 Other Bulbs. We can now get in the first of the double-flowering 
 dahlias, making the soil rich and loose for their rooting in full strength. 
 
 Roses. They require extra care at this time, now that the growth of 
 the season is fairly commenced. Look out for aphis. Pinch out all badly- 
 placed buds ; keep mildew in check, and encourage firm, healthy growth, 
 which is the really natural state of the Teas, Hybrids, and Noisettes in 
 this country. Neglect is fatal to the whole rose family. 
 
 Climbers. They require close attention where the buds are breaking 
 into flower and leaf. Tie them up snugly and to such supports as will pre- 
 vent their being knocked about by heavy winds. 
 
 Hollyhocks and Carnations. Roth of these families are the better of 
 applications of bone manure where it can bo applied without making the 
 surface unsightly, or liquid manure in other situations. 
 
 Thinning Summer Pruning. There should l>e heavy growths of buda
 
 888 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 now, and thinning out is highly beneficial to prevent overcrowding, and 
 to give us vigorous, healthy, fine flowers. 
 
 Violets and Pansies. They are just coming to perfection. The flower- 
 ing is helped by the process recommended for hollyhocks, &c. 
 
 Grass. Now is the time to make a firm foundation for grass, whether 
 edgings, plots, or the larger pieces for lawns or playgrounds. See that 
 every weed is got out, mow closely, and add to the surface a light or a 
 heavier coating as may be required of rich soil. Roll firmly where the soil 
 is dry, and the results include firm soles of rich grass that delight the eye 
 all through the summer. 
 
 BUSH-HOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. 
 
 More Bush-house Shelter. Look up the chapter on flower gardening. 
 The bush house is in reality the very backbone of flower successes during 
 spring as well as summer weather. 
 
 Ferns. They hold out better than most things during dry spells. 
 Cut off all decayed fronds to give strength to others. Most ferns do best 
 with shade, but there are exceptions. Cheilanthes, Woodsias, Pellseas, 
 Northoclaenas, Ac., are better without it, and thrive in the full light and 
 with abundance of air. Gold and silver ferns, too, in a modified degree, do 
 admirably under very similar treatment. The Filmy ferns, Todeas, Tri- 
 chomanes, &c., which in nature are found growing under dense shade or 
 overhanging rocks, and in many cases under a constant drip of water, 
 mnst have special shelter. 
 
 Fuchsias. They start off into summer growth, but suffer badly with- 
 out water. Liquid manure helps to keep up the vitality, as it does all 
 soft- wooded plants breaking into flower and leaf. 
 
 Propagating. By division of the roots, and by cuttings, many soft- 
 wooded plants just starting into growth can be increased at this time. 
 For making cuttings root freely, sandy soil is best. 
 
 The Newly Potted. If at all possible, let the roots have the moisture 
 they require direct, by setting the pots in water. Water that has come 
 through pipes, carrying, as most of it does, iron in a bad form, should be 
 avoided. Rain water is best, and, where possible, a tank should be re- 
 served for sprinkling. 
 
 Renewing. Pots that have to be used again, and woodwork that 
 shows signs of decay, will be all the better of renewing now to prevent 
 spread offungus growths, which are always active at this time. 
 
 SEMI-TROPICAL CULTIVATION. 
 
 In the Paddock and Field. The true spring of Australia is felt with 
 full force in the warmer sections of country. Grass begins to make active 
 growth. Sugar-cane can be planted ; also maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, 
 yams, arrowroot, tobacco, and crops for feed. Look up the chapter on 
 Semi-Tropical Cultivation. 
 
 In the Garden. Bananas, pineapples, mangoes, and tropical fruits 
 generally of the evergreen type, can be set out. 
 
 Shrubs and Flowers. Our dependence during the next six months will 
 be for floral beauties upon the thousand and one shrubs that can be grown 
 in the open air. Annuals are not so satisfactory for summer flowering.
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 339 
 
 The bush-house is our mainstay for ferns, fuchsias, gloxinias, primulas, 
 inimulas, azaleas, rhododendrons, and other beauties, which require arti- 
 ficial warmth in the colder south. Water and shade, with shelter from 
 winds, are our requirements to have a steady blaze of flowers and foliage 
 all through the summer season. 
 
 SUMMER FIELD A.ND GARDEN OPERATIONS. 
 
 NOVEMBER, DECEMBER, JANUARY. 
 
 Summer Weather. We can be certain of having heat enough during 
 this and the two months following. Rain is more uncertain. Heavy 
 thunderstorms have been common in November in former years ; so have 
 dry spells. 
 
 Summer Farming. Our most certain course of action now, seeing 
 that we are fairly in for summer heat, is to get all the work we can done 
 by the cultivators ; to have the surface loose and open, so as to keep the 
 crops growing by taking in all the rain that falls, and so resist the effects 
 of dry spells. 
 
 Feed for Winter. Now is the time to get in winter feed for making 
 ensilage or hay. In no part of the world are more suitable or heavier 
 yielding crops available. (See chapter xvii. Dairying.) 
 
 Wheat. Harvesting commences in the early districts northwards 
 in November, and reapers and binders require to be got into thorough 
 working order for the crop. 
 
 Select Seed Wheat Harvest is the time to do it. By marking off the 
 pieces that are most thrifty and suitable for the district. Such wheat, 
 when allowed to ripen thoroughly, and then threshed out by hand, gives 
 the best promise we know of for seed wheat. 
 
 Maize. Go on planting, giving the crop all the manure that can 
 be spared. Maize will take any quantity of it, and any sort available, 
 though manures rich in ammonia and phosphates are the best. Manure- 
 means big cobs and plenty of them. 
 
 Harvesting for Hay. Oats, barley, rye, and vetches are all ripening 
 for the harvest, whether for hay or ensilage. 
 
 Catch Crops. Cape barley is very quick, so is buckwheat, and either 
 or both of them may be sown at this time where there is land available 
 that is not wanted for other crops 
 
 Potatoes. Care is required now. Where they have been hilled up, 
 and all weeds killed, very little need be done until they are tit for digging, 
 but when ripe, dig at once, or they may start growing again. Stirring of 
 the soil is a.s likely to injure as benefit potatoes in growth during the 
 warm season. In the warmer sections potatoes are planted in January 
 and February. 
 
 Tobacco. This crop requires constant attention from seeding to 
 harvesting. It should now be showing for the full crop of leaf, and in 
 addition to such cultivation as keeps the land clean and open, flowering 
 buds have to be pinched off, and the leaf thinned until eight, ten, or 
 twelve leaven are left upon a stern, according to its strength. This 
 treatment tends to mature and ripen the crop for harvesting.
 
 340 AUSTRALIAN AQKICOLTUKE. 
 
 Chicory. Seed may be sown for chicory as a fodder crop and for 
 ensilage. February sowing answers better for the roots used with coffee. 
 
 Oil and Fibre Crops. Linseed, hemp, castor oil, and oil and fibre 
 seeds generally may be sown. 
 
 Harvesting Seeds. Lucerne and clover seed may ^be left as long as 
 possible that is, until they commence to shell out naturally before 
 reaping. The more matured the seed the better it is. 
 
 VEGETABLE GARDENING. 
 
 For Christmas. It is looking forward certainly, but it is worth while 
 sowing what lettuce, mustard, and cress, and such other salad comforts as 
 may be all the more welcome at Christmas. Sow now in rows, and thus 
 avoid transplanting. 
 
 Beans. They are the basis of our summer supplies. Dwarfs and 
 climbing beans do well all over the country, and may be planted to any 
 exteat required for home use or marketing. 
 
 Saving Seed. The better course is to allow all the fruit on a few 
 rows of peas and beans to go to seed. When some are picked and others 
 allowed to ripen on the same plant the seed is weak, and fails to give 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 Asparagus and Rhubarb. Both should be coming on to ripeness for 
 summer supplies. They require about the same treatment nice, clean, 
 open cultivation, with liquid manure, where vigour is necessary to keep 
 a strong growth going. 
 
 Onions. The early plantings should be coming on nicely, nd are all the 
 better of the treatment recommended for asparagus. Later sorts may 
 still be sown, but in the rows where they are to grow when thinned out. 
 
 Cucumbers and Melons. For fruiting, let the vines, if at all possible, 
 raise themselves off the ground. They fruit better when there is plenty of 
 air about them, and are more free from attacks of grubs. 
 
 Tomatoes. They also are all the better of being raised off the ground, 
 and both are the better of liquid manure, which shows immediate effects 
 when applied to the soil direct during dry weather. 
 
 For Winter Crops. We have to commence now for winter cropping. 
 Lettuce for summer and autumn may be sown at any time, and, provided 
 the seed is good, always yield to some extent. Sow the seed now in the 
 rows, so that there need be no transplanting. Towards the end of 
 November, and during December and January, seed-beds of cabbage and 
 cauliflower may be started to supply early plants. 
 
 FRUIT GARDEN. 
 
 To Bring On Heavy Crops. Active work is necessary, whether the 
 season be dropping and vigorous for growth, or dry and backward. 
 During the former, surface culture keeps rampant growth in check ; in 
 backward weather it stimulates the crops. 
 
 Thinning. Unless this is attended to, poor fruits are sure to follow. 
 Peaches, apricots, plums, and grapes all suffer from this cause. In a few 
 hours spent now in careful thinning, rubbing or breaking out buds and 
 shoots, more effective work can be done than during hour* spent in winter 
 pruning.
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 341 
 
 Spraying. A necessary part of orchard work here as elsewhere. 
 Fungus growths and insects multiply immensely unless checked. With 
 the use of sprays good service is done at the right time. 
 
 Cultivation. Keep the s'urface soil loose. That is the key to success 
 during the summer season. It may be done by coating the surface soil 
 with a few inches of bush scrapings, leaves, &c., where such effective helps 
 to orcharding can be obtained. 
 
 Citrus Fruits. Lemon or orange trees suffer badly when dead or 
 decaying wood is allowed to increase on the branches. The presence of 
 even a few dried-tip shoots is indication that there is more on the tree than 
 it can support. Use the pruners freely, and clear out all such drawbacks 
 to orangft and lemon culture. Mulching and the use of bush scrapings, as 
 recommended in the preceding paragraph, is more suitable than surface 
 cultivation for this family. 
 
 Stocks for Citrus Fruits. As the season of growth proceeds, observat- 
 ion is helpful in guidance as to whether seedling oranges, or lemon or orange 
 stocks, are best for budding or grafting. The belief that the lemon is the 
 stock for lemons and the orange for orange is coming more generally into 
 favour. 
 
 Olives. The time is suitable for planting cuttings or truncheons of 
 suitable sorts to make trees. From the older plants, and, indeed, from all 
 orchard trees, all suckers, and bad and rampant-growing shoots, should 
 be removed as soon as they appear. 
 
 Trees Fruiting. Figs, guavas, loquats, mulberries, cherries, plums, 
 peaches, and others now developing fruit, are aided during dry spells 
 by even moderate soakings of water. See chapter on "Irrigation" 
 for methods of application. 
 
 Budding. As the buds for next season's growth mature, after the fruit 
 is off, budding commences. (See page 265). 
 
 Strawberries. Where strong plants were set out on richly-manured 
 land, and the enemy of the strawberry (the leaf fungus) has been kept in 
 check, this fruit should be showing up well. Strawberries are helped in 
 fruiting by mulching and watering. 
 
 Tomatoes. Give liquid manure, and keep the vines well off the ground 
 on trellis or other supports, in order to get heavy, clean crops. 
 
 Grape Vines. They should be in full growth now. Use sulphur freely ; 
 thin out badly-placed shoots, and tie up the stragglers. 
 
 FLOWERS AND SHRUBS. 
 
 Roses The "queen of flowers" has the lead at this time, and when 
 carefully attended to the response is very handsome. Seldom have there 
 been finer flowers than during October, but as soon as they have passed 
 their prime, pinch them off, in order to give the swelling buds the sap 
 they require. All approach towards seed-forming is fatal to flowering. 
 The very early roses may be budded. 
 
 Propagating. Roses that were shy of making roots from cuttings 
 earlier in the season may be induced to root now. Shade and shelter 
 from winds help rooting. Petunias respond to the same treatment. 
 Herbaceous plants generally may also be induced to root from cuttings at 
 this time
 
 342 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULT'JKK. 
 
 Layering. Choice roses and flowering shrubs may be layered, and a 
 little mulch, and an occasional watering will prompt them to- 
 make roots the sooner. 
 
 Bulbs. Set out gladioli, dahlias, tube-roses, and trigardias for suc- 
 cessional blooming. The earlier dahlias and gladioli require staking, and 
 liquid manure is helpful where the growth is not vigorous enough. 
 
 Ferns. Cut out all the rusty fronds ; give shade, part of the day ab 
 least, and water freely where there is vigorous growth. 
 
 Annuals. They are getting out of season, although developed seedlings 
 may be set out. Balsams, zinnias, portulacas, amaranths, and sunflowers 
 are safe and hardy enough. To raise others, they must be sown in pots 
 either in the bush-house or in some shady, sheltered corner. 
 
 Edgings of alternanthera may be planted in moist weather. Hedges 
 may be clipped and kept trim as required. 
 
 BUSH-HOUSE. 
 
 How Helpful It Is ! When dry spells occur at this season, the bush 
 house is an effective help and a safe attraction in the garden. With shade 
 and protection from winds, and just a little water, so much can bo lone. 
 
 Shade. But we must avoid overdoing the shade, and particularly 
 avoid any living shade over the growing plants. It is death to all flowering 
 and ornamental favourites except ferns. 
 
 Things Coming On. Cinerarias, fuchsias, primulas, gloxinias, 
 achimenes, and tydeas may require regular looking to, or they will be 
 quickly overrun and destroyed by vermin. 
 
 Water Treatment. As orchids cease blooming, they need less water. 
 All flowering plants may be the better of weak liquid manure applied to 
 them at intervals of three or four days. Choice ferns may still be trans- 
 planted and put into suitable places, always seeing that the soil is light, 
 open, and well drained where they are to grow. Stag horn, bird's nest, 
 and elk horn ferns should be freely supplied with water to keep them 
 luxuriant. 
 
 Coleuses should be amongst the attractions, and need attention to keep 
 the bush-house gay. They can be either raised from seed or propagated 
 from cuttings all through the season. Well trained balsams in pots, 
 pelargoniums, &c. , will help to make this retreat attractive ; also good 
 cockscombs. 
 
 Propagating from Leaf. Foliage begonias strike readily from leaves 
 during this time. Lay them flat on a damp, loose surface, just pressing 
 them into the soil ; then shade, and the leaves may send down roots in a 
 few days. It is late enough to pot ferns, but if this has not already been 
 done do it at once. 
 
 Enemies. Fumigation with sulphur or tobacco smoke is effective if 
 they can be shut in with it closely under a frame ; but not without. Some 
 spray or wash is the next best treatment. 
 
 IN THE WARM SECTIONS. 
 
 Field Work. Cane harvesting and sugar making are in full blast now, 
 and while the work is on they act wisely who each season root out all 
 diseased or feeble stools of cane, and plant strong, vigorous sets of reliable 
 sorts, using body cane where possible.
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 343 
 
 Maize Sow to any extent. Arrowroot. Plant medium-sized bulbs. 
 Potatoes. Dig as soon as ripe. Should they show for a second growth, 
 the crop will be spoiled. Sweet Potatoes and Yams. They are 
 starting into growth now, and tilling and clean cultivation help to make 
 crops. Cotton. Thin out the plants to prevent overcrowding. Misses 
 may be made up by planting seed in well-manured hills. Tobacco. Pre- 
 pare for harvesting. Pinch out all flower stems, and take off all leaves 
 that are defective. Close, well-roofed barns are necessary for curing. 
 Peanut and Oil Seed Crops. Plant out as may be desired, and keep 
 the earlier plantings clean and the crops growing. 
 
 Garden Operations. The work in this department, for both fruits and 
 vegetables, is much the same as in the south. The exceptions are such as 
 coffee, tea, bananas, pine-apples, rosellas, and a few other purely semi- 
 tropical products, which can be transplanted at this time. In the flower 
 garden, annuals do not answer so well, but substitutes are got to any 
 extent desired in the great choice of shrubs available for flowers and foliage. 
 
 AUTUMN FIELD AND GARDEN OPERATIONS. 
 FEBRUARY, MARCH, APRIL. 
 
 Autumn Weather. The change from summer heat to the cooler autumn 
 time is gradual as a rule. In the colder districts, the night temperature 
 is noticeable first, and is usually felt early in February ; but in the warmer 
 districts of the coastal country, February is, at times, the hottest month 
 of the year, and semi-tropical crops, sugar cane, oorn, sorghum, sweet 
 potatoes, ginger, &c., make enormous growth at such times, as do the 
 summer grasses and indigenous pastures generally. 
 
 Rainfall. Heavy and general rains are common in February. March 
 and April are drier as a rule, though heavy floods have occurred during 
 these months. 
 
 Maize. This is still the leading crop, and it is helped on to maturity by 
 surface cultivation, which is advantageous in building up big cobs, as long 
 as there is any growth in the crop. Harvesting of maize becomes general 
 as cold weather is experienced. 
 
 Maize for Winter Feed and Green Manuring. In the warmer sections, 
 excellent results are got by sowing maize broadcast at this time, either for 
 feed purposes or for green manuring. 
 
 Winter Feed Generally. Oats, barley, rye, vetches, rape, and other 
 seed crops may be sown in order to come in for use as the indigenous pas- 
 tures dry off for the season. 
 
 Wheat. Sowing commences in March and goes on in the different 
 districts till May. Early ploughing is an advantage for making a wheat 
 crop. When the land is made ready, as described in page 76, the seed can 
 be sown in dry soil should the season be dry, and an excellent spring may 
 be got by rolling the land firmly. 
 
 Root Crops. The stubble of land that was under wheat last season 
 makes an excellent foundation for potatoes, which may be planted now ; 
 alao swedes, and field carrots. See chapter viii.
 
 844 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Cultivated Grasses: This is a good time for growing pasture grasses, 
 which may either be put in with or without a grain crop. Rye grasses 
 hold a leading place in cultivated pastures, but cocksfoot, the clovers, 
 prairie, and other strong growers all deserve a place. Fair results are got 
 at times by chipping the surface soil only, and sowing as the chipping goes 
 on, but the true cultivation is the preferable process to get strong growth 
 of pasture. 
 
 VEGETABLE SUPPLIES FOR WINTER AED SPRING. 
 
 The Home Garden. This may be made a profitable and attractive 
 feature of the homestead in all the departments of agriculture, and in all 
 parts of the country (see pages 244 to 280). The choice is immense. 
 
 Some Good Things Available. We are just entering upon the season to 
 have vegetables in abundance. Where the summer series are backward, 
 including melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, &c., they should be pushed on to 
 maturity as rapidly as possible. We cannot make them grow much after 
 February, so that manuring, either liquid or solid, is not helpful in that 
 direction. But, by using the hoe as freely as circumstances may allow, we 
 can help them along towards ripeness. When the weather is dry, and all 
 the better for our purpose, we stir the surface soil somewhat deeper, to 
 check the surface root action, and so force on as perfect maturity as we 
 are likely to get after this month. Celery claims attention. Advantage 
 should be taken of the first dry days to earth it up ; the soil should not 
 be so moist as to adhere together when earthing, but should be in nice 
 friable condition. Sow peas in any quantity required. Turnip and radish 
 may be sown at intervals, and parsnips sown with the radish, when 
 required ; monthly sowings may be made of spinach and carrots. Small 
 sowings of onions may be made. A few growers also make a so wing about 
 the middle of March for transplanting and growing into full-sized bulbs 
 for early spring, when dry bulbs begin to get scarce and dear. Sow for 
 parsley. Slips of marjoram, winter-savoury, tansy, tarragon, and thyme 
 may be planted. Shallots, garlic, potatoe and tree-onions may be planted, 
 and fresh sowings made of cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce : while trans- 
 planting is being carried on until the full crops are in the ground. 
 
 Vegetables for Autumn Cropping Artichoke, green globe ; aspa- 
 ngus, giant Dutch, Connover's colossal; broad beans, broad Windsor, 
 green Windsor, green gem, long pod ; beet, blood-red, silver and 
 spinach for the green tops, which are an excellent substitute for spinach ; 
 borecole, dwarf green ; brocoli, early white, white mammoth very 
 hardy, grows to greater perfection in cold localities than the cauliflower ; 
 Brussels sprouts, hardy ; cabbage (early), St. John's Day, early York, 
 augarloaf , ox heart ; medium early, marble head, east Ham, London 
 market, Enfield market, king, Winningstadt ; late, large, drumhead, flat 
 Dutch, Schweinf urt, red drumhead (for pickling), Savoy, large drum- 
 head, green curled ; carrot, sh rthorn, intermediate ; cauliflower, early 
 London, large Asiatic, Stadtholder ; celery, white solid, turnip-rooted, 
 or celeriac ; chervil, curled ; shallots, garlic : kohl rabi or turnip-rooted 
 oabbage ; leek, London flag ; lettuce, drumhead, Neapolitan in cold 
 districts, white cos ; mustard, white ; onion, brown Spanish, brown 
 globe, silverskin ; parsley, triple-curled ; parsnip, hollow crown ; peas, 
 Yorkshire hero, Veitch's perfection, McLean's little gem in cold 
 districts, rising sun, Bedman's imperial, blue Peter, Laxton's supreme
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 345 
 
 radish, long scarlet, red and white turnip, French breakfast, black 
 Spanish; salsify; scorzonera; sea kale; spinach, prickly, New Zealand, 
 crach ; turnip, white stone, white nepaul, snowball, red American stone, 
 orange jelly, Laing's garden Swede ; potatoes, Brownell's, early rose, 
 white rough, snowflake, &c., are desirable sorts; rhubarb, Myatt's 
 Victoria. Also, herbs, sage, thyme. Tomato plants are to be found in 
 most gardens at this time, and, where good sorts only are grown, these 
 self-sown plants can be set out, but will require shelter during the cold 
 weather. 
 
 THE FRUIT GARDEN. 
 
 Seasonable work. Budding is still in order. [See page 265]. Th stone 
 fruits operated on may have the bandages loosened and regulated, to 
 prevent them cutting into the wood. Go on budding the yellow mundy 
 and other late sorts ; as the fruit ripens and the buds swell, they ar ready 
 for operating. Grape harvesting for wine is in season. 
 
 Fungus and Insect Enemies. They include codlin grub, " blight," and 
 other pests. [See Chap, xxiv.] The time is on for making war against 
 them, and it should not be neglected. Use lime sulphur clay paint freely 
 upon the trees after the leaves fall, and so clear out hosts of enemies. 
 
 Transplanting. Towards the end of February, in the cooler districts, 
 transplanting of the orange tribe, loquats, guavas, cherimoyers, &c., may 
 be carried on, so as to allow the trees to settle and make some new roots 
 ere the cold weather sets in. 
 
 Draining. This work can be carried out during cooler weather, and 
 wherever trees have been suffering, or have shown signs of root weakness 
 or disease, it is worth while examining into the state of the drainage. 
 
 FLOWERS AND SHRUBS. 
 
 Beauties in Season. Where the attention necessary to ensure success 
 has been given them, dahlias, amaranthus, cockscombs, &c., should offer 
 sights worth all the labour given previously. The dahlias still require 
 attention ; pinch or cut back, where necessary, and give liquid fertilizer 
 liberally ; the response will prove how good is the treatment. Thin'out 
 the weakly growths, and keep the shoots securely tied to stakes. 
 
 Enemies. Set 3-inch pots, with a little soft hay, in an inverted position 
 on the stakes, as traps for snails and ear-wigs ; they are troublesome at this 
 season, and do great damage to Sowers. The same treatment applies to 
 autumn-flowering chrysanthemums ; caterpillars are the troublesome 
 pests to contend against with this class of plants. The surest remedy is 
 handpicking. As the stems of gladioli die down, lift and store the bulbs 
 in a cool place ; see that they are properly named. 
 
 The Bulb Season. For the approaching bulb season, prepare beds 
 with well-rotted manure and leaf mould, and plant the following, not too 
 deep : Anemones, Ranunculus, Narcissi, Hcillas, and a few hyacinths for 
 winter flowering ; all these are more effective at the flowering season when 
 planted in groups in separate beds. See that the sites are well 
 drained, for if heavy rains should set in, and the soil becomes toddened 
 with water, then bulbs and tul>ers rot off. 
 
 Propagating. Finish putting in soft-wooded cuttings as the weather 
 get* cooler; when rooted early, the plants are better able to stand through 
 the winter without extra protection. Carnations, pelargoniums, zonale
 
 346 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUKE. 
 
 geraniums, penstemons, iresines, ageratums, verbenas, cineraria maritima, 
 good varieties of snapdragons, lobelias, &c., are amongst the desirable 
 things. Fine types of lobelia can usually be got by striking cuttings from 
 seedlings ; for they are very variable. Take up the layers of flowering 
 shrubs propagated last spring and establish them in pots ; they are 
 transplanted to their permanent quarters more readily that way. Look 
 over the shrubberies and any plants that are overcrowding their 
 neighbours, mark for transplanting, which operation can be done as soon 
 as the ground has had a thorough soaking. Early autumn is the best for 
 setting out, as the plants get established before the succeeding summer. 
 
 Seasonable Seeds. Sow seeds of pansies, candytuft, campanula, 
 Virginian stocks, helichrysum, calendulas, silene, alyssum, nemophyla, 
 German stocks, ageratum, Phlox drummondii, gillias, double flowering 
 pyrethrums, dianthus, wallflowers, &c. 
 
 BUSH-HOUSE AND GREENHOUSE. 
 
 An Active Time. Rampant growth is the rule in the bush-house dur- 
 ing early autumn ; a chief trouble is to keep plants from rooting into the 
 soil ; as a preventive, place under each a saucer or a piece of slate. Pot- 
 grown pelargoniums should now be breaking finely ; it will be necessary 
 to shake them out, and after pruning back the roots, re-pot in good, fresh 
 soil. Fuchsias may be in their second flowering, and have some liquid 
 manure given them. In the frames, cinerarias, primulas, and calcolaria 
 should be ready for first potting. Cuttings may be made and treated in 
 the manner recommended for garden. Caladiums, very early started, may 
 show signs of rust, which should be cut out at once. Preparations for ensur- 
 ing a stock of coleus of the best descriptions by the cutting process should 
 not be delayed. 
 
 In the greenhouse, orchids may be liable to scale insects at this time, 
 which must be attended to, as they will causa disease and death if allowed to 
 remain. (See Chap. xxm. ) Ferns and climbing plants should be carefully 
 attended to, as mealy bug may be prevalent. Gloxinias may go to rest as 
 they progress towards that period ; but some may be coming into flower, 
 and, therefore, should have stimulating treatment. On favourable oppor- 
 tunities, whitewash walls with quicklime, keep stages clean, and have the 
 temperature o regulated, as far as practicable, according to the weather, 
 a little warmer or cooler, that visits may be a pleasure. 
 
 SEMI-TROPICAL OPERATIONS. 
 
 Field Work. Cane has to be kept clean, and trashed in the early 
 districts, preparatory to crushing. Plant potatoes ; early rose, Brownell's 
 beauty, ruby, snowflake, and hundredfold are good sorts. Harvest corn 
 as soon as it is fit, and house it in dry barns. Sweet potatoes require a 
 final hoeing up. Some may be ready for lifting. (See Chap. ix. ) Sow for 
 lucerne, clover, prairie, rye, and cultivated grasses generally ; the practice 
 recommended for the cooler districts being suitable here also- This is 
 a good time for setting out buffalo grass, which is propagated from clumps 
 of the roots. Sow for wheat, the recommendations for the cooler districts 
 being suitable. Sorghum may be sown, and maize and millet to cut green 
 for feed. Sow for mangels. Tobacco should be ripening, and prepara- 
 tions are necessary for housing and curing the crop. Sow oats, barley, 
 tares, vetches, <fec.
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 347 
 
 Garden Work. The sun heat is likely to be sufficiently powerful to 
 make the setting out of cabbage, cauliflower, &c,, a ticklish operation, but 
 it should be done at every opportunity, giving sufficient water to the young 
 plants to start them strong ; fresh sowing of seeds are necessary to keep 
 up the supply of plants. Onions, beet, parsnips, and carrots are safe 
 crops, and can be got in at once. Sow for turnips, lettuce, Brussels 
 sprouts, savoys, <fec., and make the land as rich as possible for setting out 
 plants. Beans can be planted still ; also peas. Earth up the celery, and 
 prepare land for mustard, cress, and other salads, which may he grown in 
 abundance all through the winter, if water can be spared for them. 
 
 Fruit Garden. Attention has to be paid to the peach and other trees 
 budded during January. Where the stocks are sluggish in sap flow, let 
 the roots have some fertilizer with water to stimulate them. Where 
 bananns and pines are backward, liquid manure is absolutely necessary to 
 bring on the fruit before winter comes, with frost, perhaps. 
 
 Pruning Planting. It is considered good practice to prune peaches 
 and stone fruits generally, as soon as the fruit is off, by cutting out freely 
 such limbs and branches as are not necessary. The time will soon be on 
 for transplanting, and the variety of fruits available for the warm districts 
 is really endless. Trench and drain the land thoroughly, in order to be 
 ready for them. 
 
 Fruits Available. The peaches include flat China, which come amongst 
 the first of the early sorts ; then the large family of peaches, apricots, and 
 nectarines, oranges, lemon, limes, citrons, guavas, of which there are now 
 several very excellent sorts, the purple and yellow being suited especially 
 for the northern districts, loquats, date plums, Brazil cherries, mangoes, 
 4c. Plant out strawberries as soon as the shoots are rooted sufficiently 
 for removal. 
 
 Flower Garden. The bulb-planting season is now on. Sow for 
 annuals. Prune roses. Carnations, pinks, geraniums, &c , can be set out. 
 la other respects, the reminders for southern districts are suitable. 
 
 Flower Seeds Available. Abrouia, ageratum, sweet alyssum, antir- 
 rhinum (snapdragon), aquilegia (columbine), bartonia, double daisy, cal- 
 liopsis, Canterbury bells, candytuft, carnation, chrysanthemums, clarkia, 
 collinsia, cowslip, cornflower, dahlia, diauthus, digitalis (foxglove), exhs- 
 choltzia, forget-me-not, fuchsias, gaillardia, geranium, hollyhock, larkspur, 
 lavender, lobelias, lupins, marigold, mignonette, nemophila, pansy, pelar- 
 gonium, pentstemon, phlox, pinks, picotee, polyanthus, poppy, pyrethrum 
 (golden feather), scabiosa, stocks, sweet William, verbena, sweet violet, 
 wallflower, zinnia, &c. , &c. 
 
 For Greenhouse and Bush-house Culture. Auricula, begonia, calceo- 
 laria, cineraria, cyclamen, gloxinia, mimulus, primula. Sow in well- 
 drained pots or boxes, and transplant during showery or cloudy weather. 
 
 WINTER FIELD AND GARDEN OPERATIONS. 
 MAY, JUNE, JULY. 
 
 Usual Weather. Warm days, cold nights, and stoppage in growth of 
 all crops of the warm season are in order. When rains fall at this time,
 
 348 AUSTRALIAN AOBICULTOBE. 
 
 they are heavy as a rule, and precautions are necessary to ward off visita- 
 tions of the flood kind. It is the season for cold weather crops. 
 
 Wheat. May is a favorite month for sowing, and where early 
 ploughing is attended to, the seed can be got in, even during dry weather. 
 Many new sorts of wheat are being tested, and quite a good number give 
 promise of being valuable ; but wheat growers have to experiment care- 
 fully, and possibly, the better course for growers to follow for the main 
 crop is to take the advice of the miller or agents who are buyers in their 
 districts as to which would be the best sorts to sow sorts already grown in 
 the district. The steeping of seeds cannot be neglected without risk. 
 Bluestone makes the most effective steep. Four gallons of water, containing 
 half a pound of bluestone, into which the grain is put for five minutes or 
 so, is about right. 
 
 Other Grain Crops. Barley, for grain, malting, and green feed can be 
 sown at any suitable time during these months. Rye can be sown, and if 
 for feed, vetches, with the rye do well, and are excellent either for cutting 
 green or for the silo. 
 
 Peas, Roots, &c. Peas may be sown as a field crop, where there is no 
 risk of frost ; in colder districts, it will be as well to wait until the end of 
 the season. Bone dust or superphosphate is the manure for peas and beans, 
 and a capital machine is being introduced for sowing the seed and manure 
 in one operation. Sow onions for a field crop, or plant out where sets are 
 available, they do capitally on rich, well-farmed ground. Swede turnips, 
 field carrots, beets, and cabbage can be got in. Potatoes planted in 
 February-March should be coming on promisingly. They do not require 
 much hilling up at this time of year, but the rows have to be gone over in 
 order to destroy weeds, and secure a loose bed for the crop. The summer- 
 grown potatoes should be dug as soon as the tops wither. Harvest 
 mangolds, pumpkins and swedes as they ripen. It is the better course to 
 market them as soon as they are fit ; or where required for winter feed, to 
 pit them, as soon as possible, covering the pits sufficiently to throw off rain. 
 
 Grass for Pasture. Look up the notes for the autumn season as to the 
 sowing of grass seeds. The work can be carried on during May, except in 
 the colder districts, where frost may injure the young growth. In such 
 places, better wait till August. 
 
 VEGETABLE SUPPLIES. 
 
 The Work in Season. To keep the cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce 
 tribes going is a first requirement. Sow more seed ; when for home use 
 only, those whicjj turn into hearts quickest are safest. Carrots : Sow 
 and thin out those already making roots. The narrow-bed system is 
 most easily managed to keep the crops growing and free from weeds. 
 This includes carrots, parsnips, salsify, and similar root crops. Onions : 
 Continue to sow in good, rich land, and if the soil be sandy make it as 
 firm as possible, both before and after the seed is sown. The modern 
 giant varieties are worth giving a trial, and, providing they have good 
 soil and are well thinned out, the results are usually satisfactory. 
 Turnips may be sown at any time ; thin out if the crops are too thick ; 
 the tops of young turnips may be utilised for cooking purposes. The 
 narrow-bed system will be found advantageous for this crop also, as the 
 ground about the plants remains more open from the absence of feet-
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 349 
 
 treading. Asparagus should be in growing condition, and therefore 
 must be left alone until the stalks become yellow. Where our practice 
 has been followed respecting planting tomatoes, well trellised and 
 facing the sun, a supply of this wholesome fruit should be abundant. 
 To save seed of tomatoes, select the best shaped fruit, and if any 
 peculiar feature is seen in samples save them for seed. Peas may still 
 be planted, and the ground well forked up amongst crops that are 
 growing. Sow broad beans as required in moderately rich land. Beds 
 of spinach of both the round and prickly-leaved can be got in every 
 month to keep up a regular supply. Globe artichokes may be harvested, 
 divided, and transplanted. Continue to earth up celery ; with growing 
 crops, liquid manure will be of great service. To raise herbs from seed, 
 sow now; the seed germinates quickly, and gives good plants for 
 putting out during the winter months. Take up old stocks of herbs, 
 divide, and after well heading back, replant. Rhubarb can be trans- 
 planted ; good, well-trenched land, low-lying if possible, is suitable. 
 The ordinary tuber artichoke should be ready for digging ; a good plan 
 is to take up each day what is sufficient. Sow for radishes ; the olive- 
 shaped are perhaps the prettiest for the table, and equal to the best in 
 flavour and crispneas. Mustard and cress can be easily made a feature 
 in the garden for salading purposes, and plots should be allowed for 
 the very excellent land cress, perennial cress, and the New Zealand 
 spinach, all of which are health-giving for salads, &c. Clear away dead 
 leaves of all kinds of vegetables from growing crops, and manure as 
 freely as circumstances allow. 
 
 WINTER IN THE FRUIT GARDEN. 
 
 Planting. Where fruit culture is attempted on shallow, thin, or 
 wet, badly-drained soil, the risks of disappointment are largely 
 increased. But where the land is right, planting out of oranges and 
 lemons may be carried on now, so as to get some root growth before 
 really cold weather sets in. In arranging for apple trees for planting, 
 see that they have been worked on blight proof stocks. As a guide for 
 planting deciduous trees, the leaf-shedding may be considered a fair 
 criterion that the tree is at rest, and therefore ready for the change. 
 Plant cherimoyers, guavas, leeches, Chinese raisins, and one or more of 
 Japanese pluuis in fair, rich land, in order to test them. 
 
 Pruning. (See Chap xxi.) Where pears and apples are shy 
 bearers, it is a good plan, at the pruning season, to shorten the root 
 growth, and cut or pinch back the young, rampant shoots, to develop 
 fruit liii'l.-. The apricot, at times, also seems a shy bearer, and root 
 pruning and spring pinching are generally effective in bringing the 
 tree into bearing form. Grape vine pruning is on ; in all cases where 
 fungus is observable on the vines, it is the safe plan to burn the 
 prunings and leaves, which may be raked up for the purpose. As rasp- 
 berries have now made their shoots for next season's fruiting, they may 
 he pruned without delay, leaving to each stool a few stout canes, and 
 then remove all others. 
 
 General Work. Continue to transplant strawberries ; keep runners 
 away from those planted ; well loosen up the ground. The eradication 
 of weeds has to be attended to, as when allowed to grow they form 
 belter places for snails, slugs, and other pests.
 
 350 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE. 
 
 FLOWERS AND SHRUBS. 
 
 Seasonable Operations. Dahlias, where cut and manured in the autumn 
 treatment, seldom fail to give vigorous growth. But the elegance of cosmos 
 and chrysanthemums are pressing those beauties closely to occupy the 
 place held so long by the dahlias. The chrysanthemum tribe, of late years, 
 has been brought to great perfection by hybridisation. The colours are ex- 
 
 3uisite, as are the forms of flowers classed as incurved, anemone-flowered, 
 apanese and pompones. The lists of varieties offered by nurserymen are 
 ample for those who love either form or colour, or blendings of both. 
 
 Things Worth Looking Up. Amongst other beautiful things flowering 
 at this time may be dahlia imperialis, which has a majestic appearance ; its 
 single pinkish hued flowers hanging in graceful clusters ; it requires liberal 
 treatment, and a good sheltered position. Dombeya Natalensis loaded with 
 beautiful white flowers.* Cuttings of this plant may be struck, any fairly 
 good garden soil suits. The composite Veronia Arborea has clusters of pale 
 lavender flowers, very striking. Cyclobothra fusca is a remarkable flower- 
 ing bulbous plant from Mexico, flowering at this time ; it requires a rich, 
 sandy loam. 
 
 Propagating. May is a busy month for transplanting shrubs and 
 making fresh flower beds. Next month we may commence pruning, manur- 
 ing and digging shrubberies and flower borders, and as the work is proceed- 
 ing divide herbaceous plants, taking care to leave the youngest portions of 
 the plants in the ground ; also plant out spring flowering seedlings, of which 
 there ought to be plenty. When planting pansies and violets, give them 
 sufficient well-rotted manure, or disappointment in the shape of small 
 flowers will ensue. 
 
 Sowing and Saving Seeds. Sow for Virginian stocks, alyssum fo r 
 rockeries or rough places, pansies, German stocks, and double French an" 
 German carnation-striped poppies in small pots, are very attractive. Pop' 
 pies make a grand display in October and November. Save seeds of amar" 
 ranthus, cockscomb, balsam, gaillardia, zinnia, and the French and African 
 marigolds. Put decaying plants into the compost heap ; the decaying 
 vegetable matter makes excellent manure for pot plants. 
 
 Roses. Put in cuttings (but do not prune the plants back yet); select 
 well-ripened wood and cut with a sharp knife into lengths with seven eyes 
 attached ; cut out the four lower eyes, to prevent the plant from suckering. 
 Insert this portion in the ground, the three eyes above ground to form the 
 future branches. Take up and pot or plant in their permanent quarters any 
 layers that have made roots of choice varieties of roses. 
 
 Bulbs. As anemones, ranunculuses, and hyacinths get above ground' 
 give them a good top dressing of well-rotted manure. 
 
 Grass. Lawns that arc poor induce a great many weeds to root 
 upon the surface, now is a good time to get them out ; in the spring a 
 light top dressing of good, rich sifted soil can be applied to help on the 
 grass vigorously. 
 
 BUSH AND GLASS HOUSES. 
 
 Seasonable. The tubers of caladiums, gloxinias, tydoeas, and achimanes, 
 after the foliage has died down, should be carefully stowed away. An 
 excellent way to preserve bulbs from decay in winter is to place them in 
 powdered charcoal in a rather warm and dry position. Encourage the
 
 SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 351 
 
 growth of primula and calceolaria ; give them occasional waterings of weak 
 saltpetre water or manure liquid. Put into single pots the fuchsias that have 
 rooted, attend to watering and giving air where the glass house structure 
 is not artificially heated, close early in the afternoon to save the sun heat. 
 Artificial heat must be used with discretion, as it is a very undesirable plan 
 to keep plants growing too fast in winter when they ought to be at rest* 
 thereby lessening the chances of healthy growth and flowers during th 
 ensuing season. 
 
 Bush House. Epiphyllums showing flowers should be transferred to the 
 glass house, also the earliest batch of cinerarias, which may now be show- 
 ing their flowers. Pelargoniums have to be kept well nipped back, and as 
 soon as possible attended to in the way of repotting. This treatment is 
 suitable also for fuchsia cultivation; both must be kept as hardy as possible. 
 Cyclamens may require liquid manure, and caladiums and tuber-rooted 
 begonias put into their resting place for the winter. With clerodendrons 
 and other favourite plants, they have to go through a partial season of rest. 
 In warm seasons, ferns may require shading and water while growing, and 
 as mealy bug may be prevalent, a syringing with insecticide will be 
 very beneficial. The same treatment applies to exotic palms, marantas, 
 dracaenas, and crotons, which must be kept fre from all kinds of insects. 
 Gloxinias ihowing signs of new growth may be brought forward and 
 pushed on into activity. Where camellias are grown in the bushhouse, 
 it is well to give them manure water. Seedlings of mimulas and other 
 fancy plants should be potted off as soon as they are strong enough. 
 Plenty of air must be given to both description of houses in fine 
 weather, no as to secure satisfactory growth. 
 
 And Through all the Seasons. Good soil, manure, 
 care, attention, and cultivation are necessary in all 
 departments, to ensure success.
 
 WORKS ON AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BT 
 
 ANGUS MACKA.Y. 
 
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 GOOD CROPS AND GOOD BANK BALANCES. 
 
 If your Land does not produce Good Payable Crops, bring up its 
 value by MANURING, and use the very Best Fertilizer you 
 can get, for 
 The BEST Is THE CHEAPEST in the LONG RUN. 
 
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 . . . AND 
 
 THESE MANURES, made by the Sydney Meat Preserving Company, are the 
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 Manures complete. 
 
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