* 
 
 V 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF -CALIFORNIA. 
 
 <.IKT OK 
 
 Jb 
 
 :W JU":, 21892 /^ - 
 'Accessions No. ^ftf Shelf No. \ 
 
WEATHER CHARTS & STORM WARNINGS 
 
leather Charts 8c Storm Warnings . 
 
 50 
 
 I HAPARANDA. 
 HERNOSANO. 
 STOCKHOLM. 
 WISBY. 
 
 CHFUSTIANSUND. 
 SKUDESNAES. 
 OXO.(XTIANSWID.) 
 
 FANO. 
 
 CUXHAVEN. 
 
 SUMBURGH H? 
 
 STORNOWAY. 
 
 THURSO. 
 
 WICK. 
 
 ABERDEEN. 
 
 UE.ITH. 
 
 SHIELDS. 
 
 YORK. 
 
 SCARBOROUGH 
 
 NOTTINGHAM. 
 
 ARDROSSAN. 
 
 GREENCASTLE. 
 
 DONAGHADEE. 
 
 KINGSTOWN. 
 
 LIVERPOOL (8,osro 
 VALENCIA 
 
 29 ROCHES POINT. 
 
 30 PEMBROKE. 
 PORTISHEAD. 
 SCILLY. 
 PLYMOUTH. 
 HURST CASTLE 
 DOVtR. 
 LONDON. 
 OXFORD. 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 YARMOUTH. 
 THEHELDER. 
 CAPEGRIS NEZ. 
 BREST. 
 LORIENT. 
 ROCHEFORT. 
 BIARRITZ. 
 CORUNNA. 
 BRUSSELS. 
 
 CHARLEVILLE. 
 
 PARIS. 
 LYONS 
 TOULON. 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 Henry S. Kmg & C London. 
 
 CHART SHEWING THE POSITION OF THE TELEGRAPHIC REPORTING STATIONS 
 
 JANUARY 1876. 
 
WEATHER CHARTS 
 
 AND STORM WARNINGS 
 
 BY 
 
 ROBERT H. SCOTT, M.A., F.R.S. 
 
 DIRECTOR OF THE METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 'UNIVERSITY' 
 
 HENRY S. KING & CO., LONDON 
 1876 
 
(The rights of translation and reproduction are reserved] 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THIS little work has been put together in the endeavour 
 to supply a want which has been expressed in many 
 quarters : that of an explanation of the weather charts 
 which appear in the newspapers, and of the remarks 
 which are appended to them. 
 
 The conceptions and principles on which the science 
 of weather study is based are apparently quite new to 
 the majority of ordinary readers, who still hold to the 
 belief that the barometer rises or falls in direct relation 
 to the weather, without any attempt to consider how or 
 why it does so. 
 
 It is hoped that the following pages may convey 
 some idea, however imperfect, of the present state of 
 Weather Knowledge, as distinguished from the science 
 of Meteorology itself, of which this book makes no claim 
 to be called a manual. 
 
 With a very few exceptions, theories of the causes of 
 storms have been left unnoticed, as the object has been 
 to explain to the reader what he can learn from a careful 
 study of the information published in the newspapers 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 or in the daily weather reports, and therefore accessible 
 to all. 
 
 In treating of a science now in process of rapid 
 development, it can only be expected that every year 
 will add to our knowledge, and that many of the prin- 
 ciples stated in these pages will be extended or modified 
 by the results of subsequent experience. All that it 
 is here attempted to give to the public is an account of 
 the actual state of our knowledge at present. 
 
 I must express my sincere thanks to several friends 
 who have aided me with their advice during the prepa- 
 ration of the book, and most notably to Mr. Frederic 
 Gaster, of this Office. 
 
 The illustrations which are contained in the text 
 have all been executed by the Patent Type Founding 
 Company, by the same process as they employ for the 
 production of charts for newspapers. 
 
 ROBERT H. SCOTT. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE : 
 June 10, 1876. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. THE MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR WEATHER STUDY . i 
 
 II. THE WIND . . . . . 19 
 
 III. THE BAROMETER . . . . . .28 
 
 IV. GRADIENTS . . . . . 40 
 V. CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES . . . -53 
 
 VI. THE MOTION OF STORMS AND THE AGENCIES WHICH 
 
 APPEAR TO AFFECT IT . . 80 
 
 VII. THE USE OF WEATHER CHARTS . . . .102 
 
 VIII. STORM WARNINGS 116 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 A. WEATHER REPORT. NOVEMBER 29, 1874 . . . 148 
 
 B. READINGS OF AUTOMATIC INSTRUMENTS. VALENCIA. 
 
 MARCH 26, 27, 1874 . . . . 151 
 
 C. READINGS OF AUTOMATIC INSTRUMENTS. ABERDEEN. 
 
 OCTOBER 20, 21, 1874 . . . . . . 152 
 
 D. READINGS OF AUTOMATIC INSTRUMENTS. FALMOUTH. 
 
 FEBRUARY i, 2, 1873 . . . . . 153 
 
CHAR TS. 
 
 CHART SHEWING THE POSITION OF THE TELEGRAPHIC 
 
 REPORTING STATIONS, JANUARY 1876 . . to face Title 
 
 WEATHER CHARTS, NOVEMBER 29, 1874, 8 A.M. (REDUCED 
 
 FROM THE DAILY WEATHER REPORT) . . to face p. 150 
 
WEATHER CHARTS 
 AND STORM WARNINGS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR WEATHER STUDY. 
 
 BEFORE proceeding to describe the charts themselves, 
 or to give an account of their utility in aiding us to form 
 a judgment as to probable weather, it will be well to 
 explain the character of the observations and the nature 
 of the service on which they are based, confining our- 
 selves exclusively to the instruments employed and 
 observations taken at our own telegraphic reporting 
 stations (the outfit of which is necessarily far less com- 
 plete than that of a fully furnished meteorological 
 observatory) ; omitting technical descriptions of the 
 instruments themselves. 
 
 The observations taken at these stations refer to 
 Atmospherical Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, (or the 
 Dampness of the air,) Wind, Rain, Weather, and, at sea- 
 coast stations, Sea Disturbance. 
 
 The drawing of weather charts depends on the com- 
 
2 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 parison of various observations taken at the same time, 
 at several different stations. It is therefore indispens- 
 able, that all the observations to be compared should 
 be freed, as far as possible, from incidental inaccuracies 
 and discrepancies, by reducing the conditions at each 
 place to common standards of comparison, and this is 
 done by applying the several instrumental and other 
 corrections. 
 
 Atmospherical pressure is measured by the barometer, 
 and by this is meant the mercurial barometer ; for the 
 aneroid, however convenient it may be for ordinary 
 use as a weather glass, cannot be recognised as an inde- 
 pendent instrument, its indications depending entirely 
 on the delicacy of the mechanical appliances employed 
 in its construction. 
 
 The barometer has a thermometer attached to it, in 
 order to show the temperature of the instrument itself, 
 and this must be read whenever an observation of the 
 height of the mercurial column is taken. 
 
 The readings of the barometer are always said to be 
 * corrected and reduced to 32 and to sea level/ and it 
 is necessary to explain these expressions. 
 
 * Corrected/ means that corrections have been applied, 
 
 a, for the error of the scale of the instrument, which 
 has been ascertained by sending it for verification to 
 some recognised establishment, such as Kew Observatory, 
 
 #, for what is called 'capillarity/ which depends on 
 the bore of the tube, and 
 
 c y for what is called ' capacity/ which depends on the 
 
Tlie Materials available for Weather Study. 3 
 
 proportion which the bore of the tube bears to the sec- 
 tional area of the cistern. 
 
 ' Reduced to 32,' means corrected according to the 
 reading of the attached thermometer. The column of 
 mercury in the barometer tube behaves like almost all 
 other bodies, being lengthened by heat, and shortened 
 by cold. It is therefore obvious that unless two similar 
 barometers be precisely at the same temperature, they 
 cannot possibly read alike, and hence is apparent the 
 absolute necessity of reducing all readings to the same 
 common temperature of melting ice, 32 R, which has 
 been unanimously adopted as the best standard tempe- 
 rature for the purpose. 
 
 The temperature of the column being therefore in- 
 dicated by the reading of the attached thermometer, ac- 
 cording as that reading is above or below 32 F. we can 
 discover, by means of printed tables, how much the 
 column is too long, or too short, as compared with what 
 it would be at 32, and consequently what correction 
 is required for the barometer reading. 
 
 ' Reduced to sea level/ is a phrase which requires 
 rather more explanation than the foregoing. The baro- 
 meter, as its name implies, measures the weight of the 
 air, and that weight, of course, depends mainly on the 
 quantity of air which is above the instrument pressing 
 upon the cistern, and keeping up the column of mercury in 
 the tube. If, therefore, two similar barometers be placed 
 one directly under the other, say, one in the attic, and 
 the other on the ground floor, it is evident that there will 
 
 B 2 
 
4 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 be a less quantity of air above the former, than above 
 the latter instrument, and consequently, the barometer 
 in the attic will read lower than that on the ground floor. 
 
 Precisely the same reasoning will apply if we are 
 considering two barometers at different heights on the 
 side of a mountain, or one at an inland station, and the 
 other at the level of the sea ; in every instance the baro- 
 meter at the higher station will read lower than that at 
 the lower. 
 
 Hence we find that all readings must be reduced to 
 their equivalent readings at a standard elevation, as 
 well as at a standard temperature ; this standard eleva- 
 tion is the mean level of the sea, and the reduction is 
 carried out by means of tables. 
 
 A slight consideration of the foregoing remarks, and 
 of the last-named principle in particular, will show how 
 it comes about that the reading given in a Daily Weather 
 Report for an inland station, like Oxford, or Nottingham, 
 can never agree with the actual reading taken by an 
 observer at either of those stations at the same time, 
 unless the latter reading be corrected and reduced to 
 32, and to sea level. 
 
 Temperature. This does not require much explana- 
 tion. In addition to the actual readings of the thermo- 
 meters, ' in the shade ' (i.e., suspended in a properly con- 
 structed louvre- boarded screen at a height of four feet 
 above the ground), which are taken at certain definite 
 hours, the Daily Weather Reports give also two columns, 
 showing respectively, the maximum and minimum read- 
 
The Materials available for Weather Study. 5 
 
 ings taken during the twenty-four hours, ending at 8 
 o'clock each morning, by thermometers so constructed 
 as to register, one the highest, and the other the lowest, 
 temperature reached during the interval which has 
 elapsed since the last setting. 
 
 The last-named readings may also be turned to very 
 useful purpose. The mean temperature of the day is 
 often mentioned in connection with sanitary statistics, 
 as for instance in the Registrar-General's Reports. This 
 mean temperature is theoretically the average of twenty- 
 four thermometer readings taken at hourly intervals 
 during the day. There are well-known rules for deter- 
 mining this mean temperature out of various combina- 
 tions of hours of observation. The simplest method, 
 and, for practical purposes, nearly the most exact, is 
 to take the average of the maximum and minimum 
 readings given in the Daily Weather Report, on any 
 day, and put that down as the mean temperature of 
 the preceding day. 
 
 Humidity. The amount of moisture in the air is 
 measured by the reading of a thermometer with its bulb 
 encased in muslin, and kept damp (a wet bulb), com- 
 pared with that of an ordinary (dry bulb) thermo- 
 meter, without any such mounting, taken at the same 
 moment. 
 
 This is not the place to enter into the theory of 
 these observations. Suffice it to say, the greater the 
 difference between the readings of the two thermometers 
 the drier is the air, and when the two thermometers read 
 
6 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 alike, the atmosphere is exceedingly damp. The differ- 
 ence between the two thermometers ranges in this country 
 from o to 10 or even 15, and sometimes a difference 
 of upwards of 20 has been noticed. 
 
 The chance of rain depends to a great extent on 
 the degree of humidity of the air from time to time, 
 and if we are dealing with reports from an extensive 
 tract of country, as North America, or the Continent of 
 Europe, the distribution of the moisture, or of the vapour 
 tension will afford great assistance in tracing out the 
 probable motion of storms. As regards these islands, 
 the fact that most of the telegraphic stations are on the 
 sea-coast detracts from the value of the reports of hu- 
 midity, inasmuch as the amount of moisture in the air is 
 seriously affected by proximity to the sea ; and so we 
 are unable to use reports of vapour tension in weather 
 study as much as our neighbours. 
 
 Rain is measured by means of a rain-gauge. The 
 values given represent the depth of water which would 
 have accumulated on a level piece of ground, if none 
 of the rain which fell could have escaped by drainage, 
 etc. Too much faith must not be placed on the rain 
 returns in the daily reports, for two reasons. Firstly, 
 the gauges are often necessarily placed in towns, where 
 a good exposure is not to be had, so that the amount 
 measured is not quite the same as might be yielded by 
 a gauge in a more open situation ; and secondly, the sta- 
 tions are so sparsely distributed over the kingdom that 
 it is impossible that they should give a precise account 
 
The Materials available for Weather Stitdy. 7 
 
 of the rain-fall in every county. What they do show is 
 whether or not the rain is general and heavy. 
 
 Wind. As a general rule, for the purposes of the 
 Daily Weather Report, this is not measured by an in- 
 strument, but is simply estimated according to the Beau- 
 fort scale, which is so named after the late Admiral 
 Sir Francis Beaufort. The following is the scale, 1 with 
 the approximate equivalent velocity of the wind in miles 
 per hour, as determined in the Meteorological Office. 
 
 Calm 
 
 Miles 
 per hour. 
 
 1. Light air 
 
 2. Light breeze 
 
 3. Gentle breeze 
 
 4. Moderate breeze 
 
 5. Fresh breeze . 
 
 6. Strong breeze . 
 
 7. Moderate gale 
 
 8. Fresh gale 
 
 9. Strong gale . 
 
 10. Whole gale 
 
 11. Storm .. j> , , 
 
 12. Hurricane 
 
 Or, just sufficient to give steerage way 
 
 [Or, that in which a well- \ 
 conditioned man-of-war, I i to 2 knots . 
 with all sail set, and v 3 to 4 knots . 
 ' clean full,' would go in I 5 to 6 knots . 
 smooth water from . J 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 Or, that to which she 
 could just carry in chase, 
 ' full and by ' . 
 
 Royals, &c. . . . 28 
 Single-reefed topsails and 
 
 topgallant sails . . 34 
 Double-reefed topsails, 
 
 jib, &c. . . .40 
 Triple-reefed topsails, 
 
 &c 48 
 
 , I Close-reefed topsails 
 
 * and courses . . 56 
 
 Or, that with which she could scarcely bear close- 
 reefed main-top-sail and reefed foresail . . 65 
 Or, that which would reduce her to storm-stay-sails . 75 
 Or, that which no canvas could withstand . . 90 
 
 1 Since Admiral Beaufort's time there has been a great change in the 
 rig of merchant ships by the introduction of double topsail yards. It 
 seems therefore advisable to add to Beaufort's scale the amount of sail 
 which his ship would have been able to carry had she been rigged with 
 double topsail yards, but under all other circumstances the same. The 
 change would only affect forces 6 to 10. 
 . 6. Topgallant sails. 
 
 7. Topsails, jib, &c. 
 
 8. Reefed upper topsails and courses. 
 
 9. Lower topsails and courses. 
 
 10. Lower main-top-sail and reefed foresail. 
 
8 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 It is obvious that as this scale refers to the rate of 
 sailing of, or to the amount of sail carried by, a ship, it 
 is at first sight not well suited for use at land stations ; 
 but experience has shown that the reporters' estimates 
 are never very far from the truth, when once they have 
 gained some practice in observing. There are objections 
 to supplying instruments for the measurement of wind 
 to telegraphic stations, owing to the great difficulties 
 which would be experienced in erecting them in suit- 
 able positions. Anemometrical indications taken in the 
 middle of a town are almost worthless, as the buildings 
 produce such eddies that the true movement of the air 
 cannot be ascertained from the instrument. 
 
 As regards the numbers of the Beaufort scale, it is 
 those from 6 upwards which present the most interest. 
 6 is the lowest number which is taken in the Meteorolo- 
 gical Office to justify the issue of a warning to the 
 coast, and 9 is the lowest figure which by the regula- 
 tions of the Board of Trade can be pleaded by a captain 
 as 'stress of weather,' in case of casualty to his craft. 
 These velocities are not uniform, like that of an express 
 train. The statement of 56 miles an hour, means 56 
 miles in the hour, but during that hour the wind may 
 have been gusty, and at times have had a velocity of 
 near 100 miles an hour, while at other times its hourly 
 speed may have scarcely reached 30 or 40 miles. 
 
 It may be remarked that if we employed the pres- 
 sure, instead of the velocity of the wind, to measure the 
 violence of a gale, we should be able to obtain a record 
 
The Materials available for Weather Study. 9 
 
 of individual gusts, and in the opinion of many persons, 
 such as engineers, &c., such information would be more 
 practically useful to the public, than statements as to 
 velocity. The reason that pressure anemometers are 
 not generally adopted is, that as yet it has not been 
 found possible to reason with sufficient confidence as to 
 the pressure of the wind on a structure, such as a factory 
 chimney, from the indications shown by a pressure plate 
 of, say, one foot square in area. Till the influence of the 
 size of the pressure plate on its indications, in a wind of 
 given strength, has been thoroughly determined, it seems 
 premature to recommend the employment of such 
 instruments. 
 
 Weather. The various observations which are com- 
 prehended under this general term are those which do 
 not admit of instrumental record, such as the fact of the 
 occurrence of thunder, &c. These are reported accord- 
 ing to the subjoined notation, which, like the wind 
 scale, is due to Sir F. Beaufort. 
 
 b Blue sky, whether with clear or 
 
 hazy atmosphere. 
 c Cloudy but detached opening 
 
 clouds. 
 
 d Drizzling rain. 
 / Foggy. 
 
 g Dark gloomy weather. 
 h Hail. 
 / Lightning. 
 
 m Misty hazy atmosphere. 
 o Overcast, the whole sky being 
 
 covered with an impervious 
 
 cloud. 
 
 p Passing temporary showers. 
 q Squally. 
 
 r Rain, continued rain. 
 s Snow. 
 / Thunder. 
 u ' Ugly,' threatening appearance 
 
 of the weather. 
 v 'Visibility,' whether the sky be 
 
 cloudy or not. 
 w Dew. 
 
 The only thing to be remarked about the use of these 
 
io Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 letters in the Daily Weather Reports is that, formerly 
 when two or three Avere entered to the same place on 
 the same day, it was implied that the observations had 
 been taken in the order in which they were printed. 
 Thus b. c.p. r., used to mean that during the interval 
 which had elapsed since the previous report, the sky was 
 at first ' quite clear/ then ' detached clouds' came over it, 
 ' passing showers ' ensued, at last turning to persistent 
 ' rain ' which ' continued ' at the time of sending off the 
 telegram. This is the method in which the letters are 
 used in Appendix A. This practice has now been dis- 
 continued, and the reports give information as to the 
 state of the weather at 6 p.m. and 8 a.m., as will be seen 
 at p. 1 6. 
 
 Sea Disturbance. Lastly, the table contains.a column 
 for the Sea Disturbance, of which there are nine grades, 
 depending on estimation, like the scale for wind force. 
 
 0. Dead calm . 
 
 1. Very smooth. 
 
 2. Smooth. 
 
 3. Slight. 
 
 4. Moderate. 
 
 5. Rather rough. 
 
 6. Rough. 
 
 7. High. 
 
 8. Very high. 
 
 9. Tremendous. 
 
 The height of the waves not unfrequently gives most 
 valuable information as to the force of the wind in the 
 offing, but we must not place too much dependence 
 on this particular indication, for many of our most 
 serious storms have come on without any previous dis- 
 turbance of the sea on our coast. This is due to the 
 fact that the sea disturbance is caused by the wind out- 
 side, and if that wind is not blowing in the direction of 
 
The Materials available for Weather Stitdy. 1 1 
 
 the coast, it will not impel waves towards that coast. 
 It will presently appear how it comes to pass that a 
 wind may advance to a coast without blowing towards 
 it, but for the present it may be said, that the fact of a 
 wind blowing in the direction of these islands, and 
 driving a heavy sea on parts of our coasts, is no positive 
 proof that the wind itself will ever be felt on our shores. 
 In fact, some of the heaviest seas reported on our 
 western coasts are proved to have been caused by 
 Westerly gales blowing far out in the Atlantic, which 
 never reached Europe at all. 
 
 There are yet other remarks to be made as to the 
 sea disturbance column, which is, after all, a portion of 
 our table often consulted anxiously by such landsmen and 
 landswomen as may have to cross the Channel. In the 
 first instance, the sea close in shore, at a place like Dover, 
 is often much calmer than it is outside, as the harbour 
 is sheltered from several winds, especially northerly ones. 
 Secondly, the roughness of the sea depends in great 
 measure on the direction in which the tide is running at 
 the time of observation. ' Wind against tide ' knocks 
 up a sea at once, and frequently the delay of a few hours 
 may make all the difference between the miseries of sea- 
 sickness, and the enjoyment of perfect comfort, if the 
 tide has changed in the interval. 
 
 These, then, are the materials with which we have to 
 deal in drawing charts, discussing weather, and in study- 
 ing warnings to the coast, and it is self-evident that 
 they are far from complete. 
 
1 2 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 It is obvious that the amount of information as to 
 the appearance of the weather at each station which can 
 be conveyed by the three or four letters which, at most, 
 are given in the proper column, is quite insufficient to 
 convey to our minds any clear idea of what an ex- 
 perienced person would have gathered as to the general 
 character and prospects of the weather at that station ; 
 and yet the general appearance of the weather was all 
 that our fishermen and pilots had to guide them for 
 generations, nay, for centuries, before the barometer was 
 invented. Right well did they then, and do their suc- 
 cessors now, know how to profit by such signs ! 
 
 In the first place the code is necessarily so con- 
 densed that it cannot give information as to the form of 
 clouds, whether these be the highest ' mare's tail ' or the 
 lowest rain cloud, or whether there be more than one 
 stratum. The value of such particulars for the purposes 
 of weather study need hardly be mentioned. The cha- 
 racter of the clouds, their changes, and their amount, 
 afford to the practised eye almost the most valuable 
 information attainable as to the condition of the atmo- 
 sphere above us. Lastly, the code does not tell us any- 
 thing about the motion of the clouds, so often the 
 truthful indication of coming wind, though we do endea- 
 vour to obtain, by means of words added to the tele- 
 grams, information on this motion, when there is any- 
 thing remarkable in it. 
 
 In these and all such particulars, the Weather Reports, 
 no matter how correct they may be, are only a poor 
 
The Materials available for Weather Study. 13 
 
 substitute for actual personal observation. Any one 
 trying to form a correct judgment of the look of the sky 
 from these alone is like a physician trying to deal with a 
 case without a chance of a personal interview with his 
 patient. What can a resident in an inland town like 
 London know of the appearance of the weather on the 
 sea-coast on any day from any telegram, no matter how 
 detailed ? 
 
 The reports are therefore incomplete as to quality 
 and quantity, but in many respects they are capable of 
 material improvement, especially if it should ever be 
 rendered possible to devote more money to the service. 
 
 As to quality, the instruments should be automatic, 
 so that by looking at the record traced mechanically, we 
 should be able to notice all that had passed since the 
 last observation. The reporters should be experienced 
 observers, with outdoor occupations, so as to be con- 
 stantly on the look-out for any change of weather which 
 may take place, and therefore they should be selected 
 from such a class of men as signalmen on the coast. It 
 is obvious that such a weather report as can be given by 
 a clerk who simply runs out to look at the sky just before 
 filling up his despatch, cannot be of as much value as 
 that of a man who has been in the open air watching 
 the weather for an hour or so, or even for the better part 
 of the day. As to quantity also, the reports are not 
 sufficiently complete, both as regards time and space. 
 
 As regards time, they are not nearly frequent enough. 
 The Signal Office at Washington receives three reports 
 
1 4 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 every day from each of its stations ; but, as is well known, 
 that office is most liberally supplied with funds by 
 Congress. Our own Meteorological Office, however, 
 can only afford one at 8 a.m. from most of our 
 stations, and at best we only get additional reports at 
 2 p.m. and at 6 p.m. from a few places. As regards 
 Sunday mornings, our information does not reach us till 
 next day. The reason of our not making a change in 
 this respect is that, if we did receive the reports on 
 Sundays we could not use the information to much 
 purpose, for we could not warn the coasts of storms, the 
 local telegraphic offices being all closed on Sundays for 
 nearly the whole day. We have therefore one chance in 
 seven always against us in trying to keep pace with the 
 weather changes. On Sunday evenings, however, w r e have 
 lately received reports, but only from a few stations. 
 
 Lastly, as to space, the area over which our own net- 
 work and our international exchange extends, is far too 
 limited for us to gain a general idea of the conditions 
 which are prevailing all around us, and it is on these 
 that our weather in great measure depends. This 
 might, to a certain extent, be remedied by an extension 
 of our continental communications, but, as I shall point 
 out later on, the information obtainable from Europe is 
 comparatively unimportant when contrasted with what 
 we can supply to our continental neighbours. What we 
 really want, to give us a better insight into our chances of 
 weather from time to time, is unfortunately unattainable, 
 -and that is a system of reports from stations in the 
 
The Materials available for Weather Study. 15 
 
 Atlantic, say, at a distance of 600 miles from our coasts, 
 for most of our storms advance on us from the Atlantic. 
 It is a problem as yet unsolved, to moor a vessel in 
 1,000 fathoms water, and to connect her with the shore 
 by a telegraphic cable. The experiment of a floating 
 telegraphic station, which was tried in 1869 at the 
 entrance of the Channel, in much shallower water than 
 1,000 fathoms, was not encouraging, as will be explained 
 later (p. 129). 
 
 Nevertheless, in spite of all the geographical defects 
 of our insular position, and the difficulties which are un- 
 avoidable in the early stages of any branch of knowledge, 
 I shall hope to show that satisfactory progress has been 
 made in the science of Weather Telegraphy in these 
 islands. When so much has been accomplished in the 
 short space of fifteen years, since the service was first 
 organised by Admiral FitzRoy in 1861, it may be hoped 
 that with perseverance, and continued efforts to improve 
 our methods, we shall one day arrive at some clearer 
 knowledge of the laws of our storms and our weather. 
 
 The following is a specimen of the Daily Weather 
 Report, as issued in January 1876. A chart showing the 
 stations will be found as the Frontispiece. 
 
1 6 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 c/5 TTBiunrvr ON. .00 . . . . co W W 
 
 H jo lunouiy b >:::: g :::: ggg 
 
 ^ JJH g il u ! JM I * * * *< r>~ <->-. t-^vo N too to r^ r-^. r^vo co t^ <-> to 
 < g en co co en 
 
 (6ojo)B3g ' 
 
 \ L "^ >Q ^ " o .Q 
 
 ( SI ^>I * 
 
 Q 
 
 
 > Q 
 
 <J 
 
 Q 
 
 A\ ^ Xt>njai;3X t ^ ^_ O 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 1 ~* A| 8>S>g>%g>%?o?o^ ^> Q 9> ^ ^? !0 3>>o *o 
 
 CO ^JfT I ^ ^" ^^ ^^O ON O ON T}~ CO ** O OO OO ON ^ -H 
 
 UI-B 3 uiojj r>-. .-...-.-......-. .-.-.- ; P n.. P 
 
 H 30U3J3JtJia III + IMII + I+ + + + I + 
 
 s 
 
 to o co to M i^co covo >> ^ to TJ-OO M ON 
 ^ i ^i --.T QN rJ-O ONVO pONpNNripNppp*-iMNNcOcO 
 
 pq P u ^ Jo s cobNONONONbcNONobbNobbbbbbbb 
 
 C< M N N M COM W COCOC4 COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO 
 
 (si 3 rj i *>< 
 
 
 
 _,_-)- rfCO >-i CO N to t-* to t^.OO CO ON ON T)-CO to 
 t-i Th^p ^"pNO O N r^"? 3 ^pp^^^cococo/ 
 
The Materials available for Weather Study. 17 
 
 P P : :p":^P"rPPp": : : P : P * : 1 : : i : 
 
 bb**b"bbbbbb* ' o o 
 
 O " 
 TJ-Tj- 
 
 n s^ s 
 
 oo o 
 
 O O 
 
 I I I 
 
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1 8 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 Daily Weather Report, Jan. 17, 1876 continued. 
 JAN. 1 6, 2 P.M. REPORTS AND REMARKS. 
 
 Stations 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Dry 
 
 Wet 
 
 Wind 
 
 Wea. 
 
 Sea 
 
 Skudesnaes 
 Thurso 
 Scarborough 
 Greencastle 
 Holyhead 
 Valencia 
 Scilly . 
 London 
 Rochefort 
 
 29-96 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 w. 
 
 6 
 
 bcf 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 3 
 
 30-46 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 NE. 
 
 5 
 
 be 
 
 EXPLANATION OF COLUMNS. 
 
 WEATHER. Beaufort scale is : b, blue sky ; c, detached clouds ; d, 
 drizzling rain ; f, fog ; g, dark, gloomy ; h, hail ; 1, lightning ; m, misty 
 (hazy) ; o, overcast ; p, passing showers ; q, squally ; r, rain ; s, snow ; 
 t, thunder ; u, ugly, threatening ; v, visibility, unusual transparency ; w, 
 dew. 
 
 * An Asterisk is inserted in all places for which information is not 
 usually received. 
 
 f The evening observations are taken at 6 p.m. in our Islands, at 8 p.m. 
 (Christiania time) in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, and at 7 p.m. (Paris 
 time) in France. 
 
 The report being for a Monday, the 2 p.m. reports 
 of the previous day, Sunday, are defective. 
 
 It will be seen that in addition to the absent obser- 
 vations, which are marked with an asterisk, as is ex- 
 plained at foot of the table, various spaces are marked 
 with dots (. . .), indicating that the report had not arrived 
 for that day ; and others with notes of interrogation, 
 indicating that for some reason or other the report 
 appeared to be doubtful, in which case it is sometimes 
 inserted and queried, and at others omitted altogether. 
 
The Wind. 19 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE WIND. 
 
 HAVING thus discussed the observations themselves, I 
 come to the results and conclusions we can draw from 
 them, and in order to make these intelligible, I must 
 indulge in a little theorising, and refer to some things 
 which, though not yet recognised as absolutely proved, 
 appear at least probable, as regards the behaviour of the 
 wind. 
 
 Every one knows that the East is very different in 
 its character from the West wind, the former being 
 reputed to be 'good neither for man nor beast.' Any 
 one with a touch of bronchitis or rheumatism can (or at 
 least thinks he can) tell you, without looking at a 
 weather-cock, whether or not there is easting in the 
 wind. This contrast arises from the fact that as a rule 
 the temperature and dampness of the air in Western 
 Europe are both lowest when the wind is about North- 
 east, and highest when it is about South-west. This is, 
 however, a local phenomenon peculiar to certain parts 
 of the globe, for if we travel from Western Europe, on 
 the same parallel of latitude as our own, either east- 
 
 HIV1KSITT 1 
 
2O Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 wards to the Sea of Ochotsk or westwards to Labrador, 
 we shall find that in these districts the coldest wind 
 is near North-west, and the warmest about South-east. 
 In each case the coldest and driest point of the compass 
 lies towards that region in the neighbourhood of the 
 point of observation where the mean temperature is 
 the lowest. In these islands, in winter, this region is 
 northern Russia, in Labrador it is the Barren Grounds 
 of the Hudson's Bay Territory, and at the mouth of the 
 Amur it is the district of Yakutsk. These two latter 
 cold regions lie to the north-west of the respective coast 
 districts to which reference has been made. 
 
 The wind, then, is cold and dry when it comes from a 
 cold region, warm and moist when it comes from a warm 
 district, such as the sea surface in these latitudes in winter. 
 In summer there is not so strong a contrast between 
 the temperature of different parts of the earth's surface 
 in the northern hemisphere as in winter, and so the dif- 
 ferent winds do not differ so much in their characters. 
 
 For many years it has been the fashion to say, that 
 all cold winds flowed from the Poles to the Equator, 
 forming the so-called Polar Currents, and becoming the 
 Trade Winds when they approached the Tropics, while 
 the warm winds flowed from the Equator to the Pole, 
 forming the Equatorial Currents, or Anti-trades. 
 
 There can be no doubt that these statements are 
 right in principle, as the original disturbing action which 
 produces motion in the atmosphere is the heat of the 
 sun ; and this acts most strongly in the Torrid zone, 
 
The Wind. 21 
 
 which ought, accordingly, to be the region towards 
 which all the cold air flowed, were it not for the irregular 
 arrangement of land and water on the globe. Recent 
 investigations have, however, shown that a body of air 
 can hardly ever be proved to have made its way direct 
 from the equator to the pole, inasmuch as it will probably 
 have been caught up on its way by some of the eddies 
 and local circulations at all times existing on the earth's 
 surface. The motions of the atmosphere are found to 
 be mainly regulated by the distribution of barometrical 
 pressure over the globe, the particles moving from the 
 regions where the pressure is high to those where it is 
 low, and being modified in the direction of their motion 
 by various causes, among which the earth's form, and its 
 rotation on its axis, are the most influential. 
 
 I have said that a body of air can hardly be 
 proved to flow the whole way from the equator to 
 the poles or back again, but nevertheless it is the fact 
 that over extensive areas of the earth's surface the 
 wind does maintain a constant direction for a consider- 
 able period of time. To prove this it is only necessary 
 to cite the well-known phenomena of the Trade Winds 
 and the Monsoons, where the wind blows persistently 
 from the same direction, in one case for the whole year, 
 and in the other for months at a time. In our own 
 latitudes the phenomena of the winds are not so regular, 
 but yet it is found that over large tracts of Europe and 
 the North Atlantic, the wind at times blows for weeks 
 together in a definite direction, either Easterly or West- 
 
22 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 erly, (speaking in general terms,) and that these tracts, 
 or the channels of these great currents, lie the one 
 alongside the other. The disturbances which cause our 
 storms appear to occur along the debateable regions 
 between two such currents, and when the currents 
 change their beds, or the lines of demarcation between 
 them alter their positions, the storms and disturbances 
 move with them. 
 
 It will be explained subsequently how the motion of 
 the air, both in direction and velocity, is regulated by 
 the distribution of atmospherical pressure at the surface 
 of the earth, which is shown by the distribution of the 
 readings of the barometer in the weather chart ; but as 
 this relation lies at the very foundation of the whole 
 structure of modern weather knowledge, it will be useful, 
 at the very outset, to state it, even at the risk of having to- 
 repeat my words more than once in the succeeding pages. 
 
 This principle, which, for convenience, is known as 
 Buys Ballot's Law, is contained in the following state- 
 ment. 
 
 Stand with your back to the wind, and the 
 barometer will be lower on your left hand 
 than on your right. 
 
 These words hold good, except close to the equator, 
 for the northern hemisphere ; in the southern we must 
 interchange left and right. If this principle be once 
 thoroughly recognised, the broad features of wind motion 
 will be at once understood. 
 
The Wind. 23 
 
 The Forced the wind, as distinguished from its Direc- 
 tion, is related to the amount of difference of barome- 
 trical pressure over a given distance, and this is defined 
 as the 'gradient,' a term which will be explained in 
 Chapter IV. p. 41, so that this force in no way depends 
 on the absolute height of the barometer at any one 
 station, which the words printed on the scales of many 
 old-fashioned barometers would seem to indicate. In 
 fact, as an illustration of this statement, I may anti- 
 cipate my future explanation by stating that at Liverpool, 
 during a severe storm on January 24, 1876, from 2 
 till 3 a.m., the velocity of the wind from SW. was 
 sixty-two miles within the hour, while the barometer 
 was 30' I o inches, nearly at 'Set Fair.' Conversely, on a 
 still more recent occasion, at 6 p.m. on March 9, 1876, 
 the barometer at Wick read 27*94 inches, far below 
 ' Stormy,' and the force of the wind was only 3, (a 
 'gentle breeze,') from NW. In the one case, therefore, 
 we had a heavy gale with a high barometer ; in the 
 other, a gentle breeze with a very low barometer. The 
 reason of these discrepancies between old theories and 
 actual facts will appear when we treat of gradients. 
 
 Storms were formerly divided into two great classes, 
 circular storms (hurricanes and typhoons), and straight- 
 line storms. The former are almost the only class of 
 storms which occur within the tropics, and are known 
 under the general name of cyclones. The latter class were 
 formerly supposed to be the most usual type of storms 
 in these latitudes, inasmuch as it is a common observa- 
 
24 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 tion here that the wind will blow hard from the same 
 point, and for a considerable length of time, over a large 
 district. The study of observations taken at the same 
 hour over an extensive tract of the earth's surface has, 
 however, shown that the storms of the Temperate zone are 
 almost without exception cyclonic, or partially so, in their 
 character, although not so perfectly developed as those 
 within the tropics. All cases of so-called straight-line 
 storms are to be explained either by the persistence of the 
 same characteristics for several days over the same region, 
 or else simply by the fact that they are mere local 
 phenomena, due to the contour of the country, like the 
 exceptionally strong breezes often met with on rounding 
 prominent bluff headlands, or, to use a more familiar 
 illustration, at street corners. By this statement it is 
 not meant to imply that strong winds from a definite 
 point are not met with for days together in the region of 
 the Trade Winds and Monsoons ; but, firstly, these forces 
 never reach those of an actual 'strong gale,' and, secondly, 
 the conditions which cause them are of the same nature 
 as those which cause our own storms, and it is the persist- 
 ence of the conditions which determines the constancy in 
 the force of the wind. 
 
 In speaking of the general character of storms, it 
 should be mentioned that in most cases the vertical 
 depth of the stratum of the atmosphere which is in the 
 condition of storm is very small in comparison with the 
 superficial extent of the area over which the storm is felt. 
 Everyone knows that it is a common occurrence to see 
 
The Wind. 25 
 
 clouds at a moderate elevation either moving rapidly 
 while calm prevails below, or else at rest or nearly so, 
 while we are feeling a strong wind. On a recent occasion, 
 August 1 8, 1875, when a tornado passed over a village 
 in Sweden called Hallsberg, in the province of Nerike, 
 it was expressly noticed that while the branches of 
 trees and fragments of the wreck of buildings were 
 carried by the wind for miles, the clouds did not indicate 
 the slightest sign of disturbance. 
 
 I have already spoken of great currents of air 
 extending over vast tracts of the earth's surface, and the 
 best idea which we can gain, for practical purposes, of 
 the winds which affect us in these islands, is that the air 
 over the Atlantic Ocean, north of latitude 40 north, is 
 constantly flowing from west to east, like a gigantic 
 river. If such a river be flowing rapidly, we often see 
 on its surface small waves, each with its own eddies and 
 circulations, which are carried on with the stream. If 
 we could look at the upper surface of the atmosphere, 
 we should see much the same sort of conditions, except 
 that what corresponds to the hollow of the wave would 
 be a patch of defective pressure, while that which 
 corresponds to the crest of the wave would be an 
 area of excessive pressure. We shall shortly learn 
 how these areas influence the motion of the air and the 
 weather. 
 
 There remains one general principle which has been 
 often brought forward as almost indisputable, and that is 
 the princip le known under the name of the ' Law of Gyra- 
 
26 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 tion,' propounded by Professor Dove, of Berlin, some forty 
 years ago. This principle is, that the wind changes more 
 frequently 'with the sun/ that is, from east, through south, 
 to west, in the Northern Hemisphere, than it does in 
 the other direction, and that this is true all round the 
 compass. The enunciation of this doctrine as an uni- 
 versal law has arisen from the fact of meteorology 
 having been first studied in Western Europe, where the 
 truth of the principle is undeniable. When, however, 
 we look to the evidence cited by Professor Dove himself 
 for Arctic stations, we find that the statements from 
 those regions are not nearly so positive in favour of the 
 law as the experience gained in lower latitudes, and the 
 evidence from the German Arctic Expedition shows 
 that on the east coast of Greenland the direction of 
 change of wind was more frequently against the sun 
 than with it. 
 
 Moreover, when we come to consider the motion of 
 wind in the systems of high and low pressure, of which I 
 have just been speaking, and the motion of these systems 
 themselves over the earth's surface, we shall find that 
 the question of the shifting of the wind in accordance 
 with the law (' veering '), or its shifting in opposition to 
 the law (' backing '), simply depends on the motion of 
 the systems of circulation to which the winds in question 
 belong. For instance, a wind ' veers,' or shifts, ' with the 
 sun,' at any station when an area of low pressure passes, 
 from west to east to the northward of that station, and 
 it ' backs ' when the area of low pressure passes in the 
 
The Wind. 27 
 
 same direction to the southward of the station. See 
 fig. 14, p. 73. 
 
 The reason that veering, especially from SE. or S. 
 through SW. to W. or NW., is so common in these 
 islands, is that the most usual track of cyclonic systems 
 of air is from SW. to NE., the centres of the storms 
 passing to the northward of most stations in this 
 country. 
 
 We have learnt, therefore, that wind is always con- 
 nected with some disturbance of the pressure of the 
 atmosphere, and it will be at once understood that its 
 existence is due to the tendency of an elastic fluid, like 
 the air, to regain the condition of equilibrium from 
 whence it has by any means been disturbed, while its 
 motion is regulated by certain fixed laws to which we 
 have alluded, and which will be more fully stated 
 presently. 
 
28 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE BAROMETER. 
 
 WE have to consider next what the nature of these dis- 
 turbances of which we have been speaking really is. They 
 are connected with irregularities in the distribution of 
 atmospherical pressure. I only say ' connected with,' 
 and do not say ' traceable to,' or use any more positive 
 expression of opinion, for I do not propose to discuss 
 the question of what the original causes of the distur- 
 bances are. Various theories have been propounded to 
 account for storms, and some will be mentioned in Chapter 
 VII., but none of them have met with general acceptance 
 as yet. We must therefore only take things as we find 
 them, and endeavour to make the best of them. 
 
 But it is necessary, at the outset, to explain the 
 meaning of some of the terms which will recur most 
 frequently in the following pages. 
 
 The first of these is the word ' isobar,' which is de- 
 rived from two Greek words signifying ( equal weight.' 
 An isobar, or isobar ic line, is a line passing through tJiosc 
 places where the barometrical pressure is equal. 
 
The Barometer. 29 
 
 If we look at the chart (fig. i, p. 30) containing the 
 readings from the Report given on pp. 1 6, 17, we see 
 that the readings in question, all of which are shown on 
 the chart, varied from 29*65 inches at Christiansund in 
 Norway, to 30*56 at Rochefort and Biarritz in France. 
 We find several lines drawn across the chart : all these 
 lines are isobars, and the values of each are given. 
 
 The courses of these isobars are determined with 
 reference to the stations on each side of them where 
 actual observations exist. Thus the isobar of 30*1 passes 
 in Scotland between Nairn (30*14) and Wick (30*07), and 
 it reaches the Danish coast between Fano (30*22) and 
 the Scaw (29*95), its probable position in each case being 
 ascertained by dividing the distance between the stations 
 in question in proportion to the difference in readings 
 between them. Similarly, points are found for the other 
 isobars crossing the North Sea by dividing the distance 
 between the stations on each side of that sea in propor- 
 tion to the difference in readings between them. In 
 this manner the courses of isobars drawn over the sea, 
 and in regions whence no observations are obtainable, 
 are inferred from the readings taken at the nearest 
 stations whence observations exist. Thus it is quite 
 easy to trace the course of the isobar of 30*4, where it is 
 prolonged outside the coast of Cornwall. As a general 
 rule isobars drawn on comparatively insufficient infor- 
 mation are dotted instead of being drawn in full. 
 
 The isobar of 30*5 inches takes a sweep over the 
 western parts of France, but is not continued over the 
 
3O Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 sea, or over Spain, from want of information. That of 
 30-4 passes between Plymouth (30*43) and Portishead 
 (30-36), through Cape Gris Nez and Charleville (both 
 
 10 5 5 
 
 FIG. I. January 17, 1876, 8 a.m. Barometrical Readings and Isobars. 
 
 30-40), and ends nearly half way between Toulon (30-20) 
 and Biarritz (30-56). The line of 30*3 is very clearly 
 marked ; it starts close to Valencia (30*31), through 
 
The Barometer. 3 1 
 
 Kingstown and Holyhead, close, on the northern side, 
 to York, Scarborough, and the Helder (all three 303 1). 
 It is then dotted, from deficiency of information, and 
 carried out to the neighbourhood of Marseilles. That of 
 30*2 passes through Glasgow and St. Andrews to Den- 
 mark, a little north of Fano (30*22). That of 30*1 
 crosses Ross-shire and the Moray Firth to the west 
 point of Jutland, while the line of 30 inches sweeps just 
 south of Sumburgh Head (29-98), through Skudesnaes 
 and south of the Scaw (29-95). There are three other 
 lines indicated for a short portion of their course over 
 Norway, inasmuch as the nearest reading to Skudesnaes 
 on the northern side is Christiansund (29*65), and so the 
 difference of three and a half tenths of an inch between 
 these stations necessitates the drawing of three lines. 
 
 From what has been said, it will be understood that 
 as these lines pass between stations where the observa- 
 tions show higher or lower pressures respectively than the 
 values assigned to the isobars themselves, it is presumable 
 that the reading at any other station exactly on any line 
 would have precisely the value shown by the isobar. 
 
 These isobaric lines are drawn on all weather charts, 
 and a knowledge of their respective values in barometri- 
 cal readings, and of their courses, lies at the very founda- 
 tion of all that we know about weather. 
 
 It will already have been seen from fig. i, that the 
 readings are not the same at all stations simultaneously, 
 and if we look at any chart representing the conditions 
 of barometrical pressure over an extensive region for 
 
32 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 any epoch of time, we shall find that this pressure is 
 very far from being equal at all stations, so that it is 
 greater in some places than in others. If we then pro- 
 ceed to draw the isobars, we shall find that several of 
 these lines form closed curves round certain spots where 
 the barometrical readings are either lower or higher than 
 they are over the neighbouring districts. 
 
 These two contrasting states of affairs are known by 
 different names. The districts of low pressure, or of 
 depression, are termed 'cyclonic,' and those of high 
 pressure ' anticyclonic,' the names being derived from 
 the Greek word ' cycles,' a circle, and expressing the fact 
 that the wind in both classes of areas has a tendency to 
 circulate round the centre of the system of disturbance, 
 but in opposite directions in the two cases. 
 
 There is a very marked difference between the areas 
 in which the barometer is lower, and those in which it is 
 higher, than in the surrounding districts, for the tempera- 
 ture and the weather, as well as the circulation of the wind, 
 differ most materially under the respective conditions. 
 
 In both cases there is a calm at the centre, or over 
 the region enclosed by the innermost isobar, and, as a 
 general rule, in the cyclonic systems the extent of this 
 calm centre is less, and the isobars surrounding it lie 
 closer together than in the anticyclones. We shall 
 shortly learn that this indicates a material difference as 
 regards the force of the wind. 
 
 In order to do this it will be necessary to give some 
 charts as instances of cyclonic and anticyclonic distur- 
 
The Barometer. 33 
 
 bances respectively, which have existed over the region 
 embraced by our telegraphic reporting system. It is, 
 however, comparatively seldom that the whole of a 
 system will be found developed over our limited district. 
 More frequently we only find curves trending one way 
 or the other, which enable us to conclude, from the 
 general distribution of pressure, in what direction the 
 central area of high or of low pressure, as the case may 
 be, is situated. 
 
 Fig. 2 (p. 34) gives a good example of an area of low 
 pressure, or a ' depression,' or a cyclonic disturbance, for 
 the terms are used almost indiscriminately, developed as 
 fully as it is usual to find them in Western Europe. 
 Since the mode of drawing isobars has already been ex- 
 plained, it has not been thought necessary to reproduce 
 the actual barometrical readings at the different stations. 
 
 It will be noticed that the chart contains other indica- 
 tions besides those afforded by the isobars which require 
 some explanation. 
 
 The direction and force of the wind are given by 
 arrows, or by a circle if there is a calm. 
 
 The direction is of course shown by the direction in 
 which the arrow is flying. 
 
 The force is indicated by differences in the symbols 
 employed, which are as follows : 
 
 Forces o-l (Beaufort scale, p. 7) Q 
 
 2 ~4 ^ 
 
 5-7 ,, -> 
 
 8-10 ,, =*-> 
 
 ,, above 10 ,, g^-> 
 
 D 
 
34 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that there is a very heavy gale at 
 Rochefort from WNW., a heavy gale at Scarborough 
 from SE., a fresh breeze at Aberdeen from E., a light 
 
 45 
 
 FIG. 2. November 29, 1874, 8 a.m. Isobars and Wind, Cyclonic System. 
 
 breeze at Brussels from SSE., and a calm at Toulon. 
 (See Appendix A.) 
 
The Barometer. 35 
 
 The lowest reading (28*55 inches) is at Holyhead ; 
 the highest (30*00 inches) at Corunna. 
 
 The innermost isobar (28*6) embraces almost the 
 whole of Wales. That for 28*8 is oval in shape, and 
 covers nearly all England, and the east and north of 
 Ireland. That for 29*0 takes in a little of France and 
 Belgium, and the greater part of Scotland. The isobar 
 of 29*2 envelops the whole of Scotland, but is not carried 
 out over the Atlantic beyond the Orkneys on one side 
 and the coast of Brittany on the other, and it is only 
 dotted in, as being merely inferred, in the absence of 
 observations over the Bay of Biscay. 
 
 The other isobars are only partly shown ; in fact the 
 position of a portion of that for 30 inches is only indi- 
 cated by the single observation of 30*00 at the station 
 of Corunna. 
 
 The chief feature noticeable in the northern part of 
 the chart is that the isobars of 29*4 and 29*6 trend 
 away to the northward, and so the curves spread out 
 in a fan shape between the Shetlands and the coast of 
 Norway. 
 
 If we now turn to the wind arrows, we shall find that 
 they show a circulation round the centre of depression. 
 They are : 
 
 Westerly at Stilly and in France, . , on its southern side. 
 
 Northerly at Valencia, I ., > 
 
 * . on its western side. 
 
 North-north-east at Donaghadee, \ 
 
 East at Ardrossan, , . . . on its northern side. 
 
 South-east along the whole east coast of Great -j 
 
 Britain north of Hull, s on its eastern side. 
 
 South at Yarmouth and in the Straits of Dover, j 
 
 D 2 
 
36 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 In fact the wind sweeps round the central area of 
 depression, against watch hands, and this is the in- 
 variable law in all cases of cyclonic disturbances in the 
 northern hemisphere. The wind moves in a direction 
 opposite to that of the hands of a watch, and its course 
 is nearly parallel to the isobars ; but to this subject, as 
 well as to the relation of the force of the wind to the 
 distribution of pressure, we shall return later on. 
 
 Let us now take the converse case, an instance of an 
 area of high pressure, or an anticyclone, and for this we 
 have an excellent example in February 4, 1874 (fig. 3). 
 On this day at 8 a.m. the absolute highest reading is 
 30*67 at Nottingham, and the only English reports which 
 give readings below 30*6 are Dover, Plymouth, and 
 Scilly, the isobar of 30*6 enveloping almost the whole of 
 England and Wales. That of 30-5 stretches to Holstein 
 near Fano (30*49), passes south of Paris (30*52), being 
 shown by dots owing to deficient information between 
 these points, sweeps close to Valencia (30*49), is again 
 dotted over the sea outside the coast of Ireland, and 
 finally reaches Aberdeen (30*49). 
 
 In the north and south readings decrease rapidly ; on 
 the south side 30*40 passes half way between Rochefort 
 and Biarritz, and 30*30 skirts the coast of Spain and the 
 Pyrenees, readings being 30*28 at Corunna, and 30*24 
 at Toulon. In the north 30*4 passes below Stornoway 
 (30*39), runs between Wick and Thurso and across to 
 Jutland, where the reading at the Scaw is 30*34. 
 
The Barometer. 
 
 37 
 
 Passing further north, 3030 runs close to Sumburgh 
 Head and across to the neighbourhood of Bergen in 
 Norway, while above it still we find that of 30*20, the 
 reading at Christiansund being 30*15. 
 
 5 o 5 10 
 
 FIG. 3. February 4, 1874, 8 a.m. Isobars and Wind, Anticyclonic 
 System. 
 
 When we look at the winds in this case we find that 
 
38 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 their circulation is exactly opposite to that which is 
 shown in fig. 2 ; it is with watch hands, being : 
 
 North . . .in Germany, on its eastern side. 
 
 East . . . in France, on its southern side. 
 
 South . . .in Ireland, on its western side. 
 
 South-west to west . . in Scotland, on its northern side. 
 North-west . . in Denmark, on its north-eastern side. 
 
 The arrows also appear to draw out from the 
 centre instead of drawing in towards it as in cyclonic 
 systems. 
 
 The force is far lighter than it was in the former case, 
 a characteristic of anticyclones as compared with cy- 
 clones. This, as will shortly be explained, is owing to- 
 the fact of the isobars being far apart, a marked feature 
 of anticyclonic systems. 
 
 We have therefore learnt in this chapter (i), that the 
 distribution of atmospherical pressure on a weather map 
 is made clear by the isobars ; (2), that there are two- 
 grand types of disturbance of the equilibrium of pres- 
 sure, called respectively, a, cyclonic and, b, anticyclonic,. 
 according as the pressure in a given locality is either in 
 defect or excess of its mean value in the surrounding 
 region ; (3), that these two types are characterised by 
 strong contrasts to each other, among which the most 
 striking are the differences in the direction of motion of 
 the wind. 
 
 Cyclonic and anticyclonic are, however, merely rela- 
 tive terms ; the reading may be above 30 inches at the 
 centre of a cyclonic area, and below 29-5 inches at the 
 
The Barometer. 39 
 
 centre of an anticyclonic region. If at any place, or 
 over any district, the barometrical reading is lower than 
 at the places all round it, that place or district is the 
 centre of a cyclonic area : if, on the contrary, the reading 
 at the place or district is higher than at the places all 
 round it, that place or district is the centre of an anti- 
 cyclonic area. 
 
 U1H7EE,3IT7 
 
4O Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 GRADIENTS. 
 
 LET us now proceed to examine still more closely into 
 the principles in regard of the motion of the wind, 
 which have only been faintly hinted at before. The 
 direction of motion of the wind, in relation to the distri- 
 bution of atmospherical pressure, may be easily perceived 
 to be such that if you stand with your back to the wind 
 the barometer will be lower on your left hand than on 
 your right. This is the principle already cited, and gene- 
 rally known, as Buys Ballot's Law, from the name of 
 the Dutch meteorologist who first insisted on its uni- 
 versal applicability. It is simply the extension, to all 
 cases of wind motion, of the Law of Storms first announced 
 by Redfield and Reid for the Hurricanes of the West 
 Indies and of the Southern Indian Ocean, as well as 
 for the Typhoons of the China seas. The direction of 
 rotation is opposite in the two hemispheres. The law 
 as above stated refers to the Northern Hemisphere. 
 The law therefore gives the direction of the wind, but it 
 also enables us to judge of its force, for it is found that 
 this latter depends mainly on the amount of difference 
 of pressure between adjacent stations. 
 
Gradients. 4 1 
 
 Air, being a gas, is even more mobile than water, 
 and as the least difference in level between two portions 
 of a free surface of the latter generates motion, tending 
 to produce equality of level ; so in the former case the 
 slightest difference of pressure causes motion in the 
 atmosphere, in the endeavour to restore equilibrium of 
 pressure. 
 
 It is evident that the greater the difference of pres- 
 sure over a given distance, the greater will be the effort, 
 and consequently the more violent and rapid will be the 
 motion, required to regain equilibrium. There is there- 
 fore a convenience in fixing a standard of comparison 
 by which to measure the disturbance of pressure, and 
 here meteorologists borrow an idea from engineers, who 
 measure the inclination of a road or railroad by what is 
 termed the ' gradient,' implying, when they speak of a 
 gradient of one in sixty, that the slope rises one foot 
 vertically for every sixty feet of horizontal measurement. 
 
 Meteorologists speak of gradients also, but instead of 
 applying the same unit of measurement, as of feet, to the 
 vertical and horizontal scales, they give the vertical scale 
 in units of barometrical measurement, and the horizontal 
 scale in miles of distance. These gradients therefore are 
 expressed in differences of barometrical pressure over a 
 given distance. 
 
 The gradients adopted by the Meteorological Office 
 are expressed in hundredths of an inch of mercury per 
 one degree of sixty nautical miles. 1 
 
 1 On the Continent gradients are measured as millimetres per one 
 
42 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 In the accompanying figure (fig. 4), the horizontal 
 distance between the two stations A and B is supposed to 
 
 10 D 
 
 oS 
 
 06 C 
 04 
 
 FIG. 4. Gradients. 
 
 be sixty nautical miles. The divisions on the vertical 
 line B D are hundredths of an inch, and they correspond 
 to the differences between the barometrical readings 
 taken at the same hour at the two stations. The 
 gradients are the ratios between the intercepts B C, B D, 
 &c., and the line A B which is supposed to be=i. 
 The gradients are given as 6 for the angle B AC, 10 
 for the angle BAD, corresponding to the several ob- 
 served differences. These lines A C, A D, &c, are imagined 
 to be drawn every morning between the most important 
 stations given in the Daily Weather Report, and from 
 their inclinations conclusions as to the probable direction 
 and force of the wind for the day are drawn. It is found, 
 for instance, that the force of the wind will not exceed 
 the figure 5 or 6, a ' fresh breeze ' on Beaufort's scale, 
 
 degree of sixty nautical miles. These gradients are therefore about one- 
 fourth the magnitude of ours. 
 
 The unit of distance for gradients formerly used in this country was 
 fifty nautical miles ; the change to sixty has been made for greater uni- 
 formity with foreign nations. 
 
Gradients. 43, 
 
 unless the gradient be higher than 6 (A C on the dia- 
 gram). 
 
 To reduce this statement to a practical form, I may 
 put it in these words. The distance from Penzance to 
 Brest is 113 nautical miles. A gradient of 7 between 
 these stations represents a total difference in barome- 
 trical readings of 0*13 inch, so that, in accordance with 
 what has just been said, whenever a Westerly gale is. 
 blowing at the entrance of the Channel we may expect 
 that the barometer at Penzance will be at least 0*13 
 inch lower than that at Brest ; vice versd, the readings 
 at Brest will be proportionably lower than those at 
 Penzance whenever an Easterly gale is felt in the district 
 in question. 
 
 An instance in point for the former state of affairs is 
 the gale of January 8, 1870, during which the reading at 
 Brest at 8 a.m. was 29*38, and that at Penzance, at 
 the same hour, was 29*19. The difference between these 
 readings is 0*19, and the resulting gradient 10. A very 
 severe Westerly storm was that morning reported from 
 the Channel. 
 
 The converse conditions, accompanying an Easterly 
 gale, were observed on May 14, 1869, when the reading 
 at Penzance was 29*92, and that at Brest 29*68. The 
 resulting gradient is nearly 13, and accordingly heavy 
 Easterly gales were felt on our Channel coast. 
 
 To apply the same principle to the winds of the 
 British Islands generally, it may safely be asserted that 
 no storm of any serious extent is ever felt over the 
 
44 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 United Kingdom unless there be an absolute difference 
 in barometrical readings exceeding half an inch of mer- 
 cury between two of our stations. 1 
 
 The difference in readings between Rochefort and 
 Aberdeen on February i, 1868, when a tremendous 
 Westerly gale was raging, was as much as 176 inch : 
 the reading at Rochefort being 30*16, and that at Aber- 
 deen 28*40 inches. These figures give a gradient of 
 157 over the entire distance of 673 miles, and we find 
 that gales were reported from seventeen stations that 
 morning. 
 
 No very precise relation has as yet been established 
 between the amount of the gradient and the force of the 
 wind, if such exists, but as a convenient figure to be 
 remembered I may repeat that a gradient of 0*07 inch 
 per 60 miles indicates the probability of as much wind 
 as an ordinary yachtsman likes to meet with. 
 
 We are now in a position to see more clearly how 
 entirely this idea of gradients does away with the old 
 notion that the actual height of the barometer at one 
 station gives a certain indication of the probable direc- 
 tion or force of the wind or of the character of the 
 weather at that station, a notion which has found ex- 
 pression in the words ' Very Dry/ ' Fair,' ' Change/ 
 ' Rain/ * Stormy/ &c., &c., which have been for so many 
 years placed on barometer scales. 
 
 1 Local storms, which occasionally do great damage, may be felt when 
 the barometrical disturbance is itself only local, and when the actual 
 amount of difference between the extreme readings is less than half an inch, 
 although the gradients for a short distance may be high. 
 
Gradients. 45 
 
 The small trace of truth which the scale lettering in 
 question contains is accounted for in the following way. 
 On the average of a great many readings of the barome- 
 ter, taken under various circumstances as regards the 
 direction of the wind, it is found that in these islands 
 the reading is highest when the wind is North-easterly, 
 and, as has already been stated, this is when the air is 
 coldest and driest. Consequently we have ' Very Dry ' 
 put down at the top of the scale, and according as the 
 mercurial level rises from ' Change,' 29-5 inches, to its 
 maximum height, we have ' Fair ' or * Set Fair ' entered. 
 Conversely, when the air is warm and moist and the 
 wind South-westerly, the barometer is low, and so we 
 have then the descending scale of ' Rain,' ' Much Rain/ 
 and ' Stormy.' It is, however, quite a mistake to imagine 
 that on any given day there is any certainty of the 
 weather according with the description of it given by the 
 word corresponding to the barometer height for that day. 
 
 There are yet other points of view from which the 
 inutility, and in fact the absolute error, of these words 
 may be indicated. 
 
 Let us take for example the word ' Change ' ; this 
 is placed opposite the reading 29*5 inches, which read- 
 ing is naturally supposed to be taken at sea level. If 
 the barometer be removed to a station situated, say 500 
 feet, above that level, the corresponding reading will be 
 about 29-0 inches, so that the whole scale will be half an 
 inch out, and the error will be greater the more consider- 
 able the height of the station. The lettering is therefore 
 
46 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 again wrong, because it does not take account of the 
 necessary reduction of the reading to sea level. 
 
 Once more, the range of the barometer is far greater 
 in winter than in summer, so that the reading which 
 corresponds to 'Fair' should be much nearer to 'Change' 
 in summer than in winter. The lettering is still further 
 in fault, therefore, as taking no account of this difference. 
 The words are in fact little less than utter nonsense. 
 
 It is undeniable that there is more chance of strong 
 wind when the barometer is low than when it is high, 
 but this arises, not from the actual height of the baro- 
 meter, but from the circumstance that cyclonic areas 
 are usually much smaller than anticyclonic, so that when 
 the barometer is low there is a greater probability of a 
 steep gradient, from adjacent higher readings, existing 
 in the neighbourhood and causing high winds, than when 
 the barometer is high. 
 
 It, however, sometimes happens that the barometer 
 in these islands will remain for a day or two below 29 
 inches : that is, below ' Stormy' ; without any gale, because 
 the area of low pressure is extensive and the gradients 
 slight. An instance of these conditions has already been 
 cited at p. 23, as having occurred March 9, 1876. 
 
 The question is often asked why gradients can be 
 said to be for certain winds? The answer to this is very 
 simple. Let us recur to fig. 2 (p. 34), and add to the curves 
 and arrows already shown, a number of straight lines 
 joining Holyhead to Valencia, Aberdeen, Skudesnaes, 
 the Helder, and Brest. These lines (fig. 5) represent 
 
Gradients. 
 
 47 
 
 the direction of the gradients, and a glance at the chart 
 will show that the winds, as regards their direction and 
 force, bear a definite relation to these gradients in accord- 
 ance with Buys Ballot's Law. 
 
 FIG. 5. November 29, 1874, 8 a.m. Isobars and Wind, with 
 Principal Gradients. 
 
 It will, however, be seen that as the form of the 
 central isobar is oval, not circular, and as the lowest 
 
48 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 reading, that at Holyhead, is at some distance from the 
 centre of the oval, the accordance of the winds with 
 the gradients is not so exact as would be evinced in the 
 case of a more perfectly circular storm. This is par- 
 ticularly the case as regards the relation of the winds 
 at Scilly and Pembroke to the gradients between Brest 
 and Holyhead. The centre of the disturbance really 
 lies not far from Shrewsbury, and a gradient from Brest 
 to Shrewsbury would be steeper than that from Brest 
 to Holyhead, and the winds would be more nearly per- 
 pendicular to it than is the case in the chart. In fact 
 I may exhibit this relation of the winds to the gradients 
 by the following table : 
 
 GRADIENTS. 
 
 Stations 
 
 Amount 
 
 Direction 
 of wind 
 indicated 
 
 Actual winds 
 
 Valencia to Holyhead 
 
 OT3 
 
 NNW. 
 
 NW. 8 at Roche's Point 
 
 Aberdeen to , , 
 
 O'll 
 
 E. by S. 
 
 ( E. 7 at Aberdeen 
 \ SE. 7 at Leith 
 
 Skudesnaes to , , 
 
 0'12 
 
 ESE. 
 
 SE. , at Scarboro' and Shields 
 
 The Helderto ,, 
 
 O'O7 
 
 S. 
 
 (S. 5 at Yarmouth 
 S. 7 at Cape Gris Nez 
 
 Brest to ,, 
 
 0-13 
 
 w. 
 
 /WNW. 10 at Scilly 
 \W. 9 at Brest 
 
 It is needless to multiply examples. The chart 
 shows a complete cyclonic circulation, and the gradients 
 are taken on various sides of the centre. The entire 
 condition furnishes a clear ocular proof of the statements 
 that the gradients are nearly perpendicular to the isobars, 
 while the wind is nearly perpendicular to the gradients, 
 and therefore nearly parallel to the isobars. 
 
Gradients. 49 
 
 From the way in which the direction of the gradient 
 is described, we gather the direction of the wind indi- 
 cated. When we speak of a gradient from Valencia to 
 Holyhead being for North-westerly winds, we imply that 
 the reading at Valencia is the higher of the two readings, 
 the station with the higher reading being always placed 
 first, and so a man standing midway between the two 
 stations, with the lower barometer on his left-hand side, 
 would face SSE. and have his back to the NNW. : the 
 wind would therefore be North-North-westerly, which 
 brings us back again to Buys Ballot's Law. 
 
 We have now learnt how the idea that the reading 
 of the barometer at any time gives an indication of 
 probable weather is controverted by the more correct 
 conception of the value of gradients, but there is another 
 idea which, though not absolutely misleading, is yet an 
 unsafe mode of interpretation of barometrical readings. 
 This is the idea that the motion of the mercury in the 
 barometer is an infallible indication of coming weather. 
 It is often asserted that if the barometer falls, say, at 
 the rate of one-tenth of an inch per hour, a storm is cer- 
 tain to ensue at the place. 
 
 Depressions with slight gradients, moving quickly, 
 will, however, cause the barometer to fall, at stations 
 over which they pass, as rapidly as depressions with 
 steep gradients which move slowly. 
 
 It is of course true that if an area of depression 
 passes over us the barometer will fall till the centre has 
 gone by, and then will rise, and that the rates of such 
 
 E 
 
5<D Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 fall and rise, for a given rate of motion, will bear a close 
 relation to the amounts of the gradients along the path 
 of the centre ; but it is not by any means certain that 
 because a barometer falls rapidly, there must be a gale 
 at the place where this fall is observed. A very good 
 instance of the fallacy of this opinion is to be found in 
 the following circumstance, when the barometer fell with 
 extraordinary rapidity over an extensive region, and yet 
 hardly at a single station within that region was there 
 any gale felt. 
 
 November 22, 1869, a very remarkable barometrical 
 depression appeared over Western Europe. The actual 
 fall of the mercury since 8 a.m. on the 2ist had ex- 
 ceeded O'9 inch over the entire district extending 
 from Dover to Valencia and from L' Orient to Shields. 
 This area is bounded by the meridians of i E. and 11 
 VV. and by the parallels of 48 and 55 N., and its 
 superficial extent is about 200,000 nautical square miles. 
 
 On this occasion, although there was such an enormous 
 disturbance of equilibrium, there were absolutely no 
 strong winds reported on our coasts during the day, 
 excepting slight gales from North-west at Cape Clear, 
 and from South-east at Yarmouth. 
 
 Outside our west coasts, however, on the edge of 
 the disturbance, gradients were very steep, and there 
 gales were felt between the 2ist and 23rd, not only by 
 the Atlantic steamers ' Scotia' and ' City of Brooklyn,' 
 which were near the Irish coast, but also by the ' Inver- 
 ness' and ' Foam,' which were further south. In fact, the 
 
Gradients. 5 1 
 
 last-named vessel, in the latitude of Cape Finisterre, was 
 driven to the southward, out of her course, and suffered 
 severely. At Corunna, however, and on the coast of 
 Portugal, the gale was not felt seriously at all. In 
 this case, therefore, a fall of the barometer of an inch at 
 several stations was not followed by a gale at those 
 stations. 
 
 March 9, 1876, the instance already quoted (p. 23), 
 affords quite as striking an illustration. That morning at 
 8 a.m. the fall in the barometer within twenty-four hours 
 had amounted to i'io inch at Wick, had exceeded an inch 
 over the entire north and east of Scotland, and had been 
 more than O'8 inch over the rest of Great Britain, most 
 of Ireland, and the north of France, yet the only wind of 
 a force above 7, 'a moderate gale,' was at Rochefort, 
 where a heavy Westerly gale was reported, and at the 
 very centre of the disturbance, where the barometrical 
 fall was the greatest, the force of the wind was the 
 slightest, because the gradients were least. 
 
 This entire depression, like that mentioned just above, 
 passed off without causing any gale worth notice in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 We have learnt in this chapter that the distribution 
 of pressure, as defined by the gradient, is the best 
 guide, by the use of the barometer alone, towards a 
 knowledge of the laws of wind motion, and, as we shall 
 subsequently learn, of coming weather ; but J must 
 state that it appears that the force of the wind is not 
 regulated solely by the gradients, though meteorologists 
 
 E 2 
 
5 2 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 have not yet determined what are the other agencies 
 which influence it. 
 
 It is therefore evident that any attempt to foretell 
 weather by the indications of the barometer at any one 
 station, unsupported by observations of wind, clouds, 
 weather, &c., must necessarily fail. The direction and 
 force of the wind in no way depend on the actual baro- 
 meter reading at the time. 
 
 We have, moreover, seen the meaning of the phrase 
 ' gradients for such and such winds,' which are nothing 
 more than the expression of the laws of wind motion in 
 a practical form. 
 
Cyclones and A nticy clones. 5 3 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES. 
 
 THE consideration of gradients, and of the effects of the 
 distribution of pressure, brings us to the contrast of the 
 two classes of atmospheric systems, anticyclonic and 
 cyclonic, and the weather they bring with them. 
 
 Anticyclonic systems are marked by a very slow 
 circulation of the air, or, in other words, 'by light winds, 
 
 7 ^7 
 
 by low temperature in winter, "great ' absolute ' dryness 
 of the air^ at least at the centre, and consequent absence 
 of rain, although fog is frequently very prevalent. These 
 circumstances are accounted for, by some meteorologists, 
 on the supposition that the air, in an anticyclone, flows 
 out from the centre, and therefore must be supplied 
 from the upper regions of the atmosphere by a de- 
 scending current, which cannot possibly contain much 
 moisture, owing to the very low temperature of the 
 regions from whence it is drawn. 
 
 Cyclonic systems, on the contrary, are distinguished 
 by the exact converse of the above conditions. ' The air 
 circulates more rapidly, causing strong winds, and appears 
 to flow in towards the centre, so that it must naturally 
 
54 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 be supplied from below and ascend in the centre. 
 Cyclones bring with them, at least over a considerable 
 proportion of the area they cover, a comparatively high 
 temperature, much moisture, and consequently heavy 
 rain. I say, over a considerable proportion of the 
 circumference, because, in certain parts of a cyclonic 
 system, the wind which is felt is often very dry. This is 
 in the rear of the disturbance. 
 
 These statements refer to the winter; in summer the 
 conditions are exactly reversed, at least as regards the 
 temperature which accompanies the respective systems 
 of disturbance. 
 
 Anticyclonic systems in summer produce our hottest 
 weather, inasmuch as the air is so dry that no heavy 
 clouds can be formed, so that the sun has full opportunity 
 for exerting his heating power, while there is hardly any 
 motion in the air to produce a cooling breeze. 
 
 Cyclonic systems in summer, on the contrary, bring 
 cloudy weather, rain, and a reduction of temperature, the 
 latter being mainly due to the density of the cloud cover- 
 ing which entirely intercepts the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 It is easy to illustrate these statements by examples. 
 Let us take the instance of an anticyclone first, in fact 
 the very day which we have already cited, February 4, 
 1874 (fig. 3, p. 37), which will serve as a very good illus- 
 tration of a winter anticyclone. Fig. 6 exhibits the isobars 
 as before, but the figures on the chart refer to temperature. 
 
 It will be perceived that over the central area, 
 embraced by the isobar of 30-6 inches (see p. 36), the tern- 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 
 
 55 
 
 perature is lower than it is anywhere else in these islands, 
 and that there is a fall in temperature noticed at every 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 FIG. 6. February^ 1874; 8a.m. Isobars and temperature, showing 
 changes in previous 24 hours. * Anticyclone. 
 
 1 The changes of temperature in figs. 6 and 7 are shown by small 
 figures placed after the thermometrical readings. When these figures are 
 above the readings, as at Wick, they indicate a rise of temperature ; when 
 they are below, as at Scarborough, they indicate a fall. 
 
56 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 station, varying from iat Dover and Yarmouth to more 
 than 10 in the north of England, and even 1 6 at Scar- 
 borough. In fact the cooling influence of the area of 
 high pressure is noticeable over almost the whole map, 
 except in Ireland and Scotland. In the north of the 
 latter country, however, the rise in temperature is very 
 marked, amounting to 8 at Aberdeen, and 7 at Wick 
 and Sumburgh Head. This change of thermal conditions 
 arose from the fact that, on the previous day, the north 
 of Scotland had been the region of an independent anti- 
 cyclonic system, as will be gathered from the examination 
 of fig. 24, p. 86, but the barometer had fallen during the 
 night, and the wind, though still light on our coasts, had 
 shifted from N. to SW. both in Caithness and in the 
 Lews. In fact this rise of temperature was connected 
 with a cyclonic disturbance further northward, which is 
 shown in fig. 26, p. 87. 
 
 As regards the force of the winds, a glance at fig. 3, 
 p. 37, is sufficient to show that they are very light ; in fact 
 the only British or Irish station where they exceed the 
 force of 5 of the Beaufort scale, a 'fresh breeze,' is Scilly. 
 
 The general dryness of the air is sufficiently evinced 
 by the fact that rain was recorded for this morning from 
 only five stations out of the fifty-one mentioned in the 
 Reports, at three of them the amount being only cror 
 inch; the greatest quantity was at Scilly, and that was 
 only 0*06 inch; nevertheless, the actual difference between 
 the dry and wet bulb was but slight, showing that the at- 
 mosphere was near its point of saturation for the tempe- 
 
Cyclones and A nticy clones. 5 7 
 
 rature. This circumstance is partly owing to the fact 
 that the observations were taken at 8 a.m., so that the 
 influence of the sun's heat had hardly made itself felt, 
 and what moisture there was present was in the form of 
 cloud or fog. Owing to this latter condition we find that 
 the only region where the sky is clear was the north of 
 Scotland, and that as we come south we meet with an 
 entirely overcast sky at Leith, while fog and mist were 
 reported all along the east coast of England, as being 
 either prevalent at 8 a.m. or as having been so during 
 the preceding twenty-four hours. 
 
 Frequently, though this was not the case in this par- 
 ticular instance, these fogs only last during the early part 
 of the day and clear off about noon, so that the diurnal 
 range of temperature during the existence of anticy- 
 clones is very great. 
 
 These conditions are more or less characteristic of 
 the entire class of areas of high pressure, and, as we 
 shall shortly proceed to show, the most striking feature 
 of the weather which accompanies them is its permanency: 
 i.e. the slowness with which changes succeed each other. 
 
 Let us now take the case of a cyclonic area (November 
 29, 1 874), fig. 2, the very instance which has been already 
 cited (p. 34), and examine into the features which cha- 
 racterised the weather which these conditions of pres- 
 sure brought with them. This storm was so typical 
 that the Weather Report and Charts for the day have 
 been reproduced in Appendix A. 
 
 In the first instance we see (fig. 7), that over almost 
 
58 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 the whole of the map the rise of temperature from the 
 previous day (indicated by figures above the readings 
 
 45 
 
 10 5 o 5 10 
 
 FIG. 7. November 29, 1874 ; 8 a.m. Isobars and temperature, showing 
 changes in previous 24 hours. Cyclone. 
 
 as before) has been very striking, especially at the south- 
 eastern stations, where the increase has exceeded 10, 
 amounting even to 23 at Cape Gris Nez, near Boulogne. 
 This region lies in front of the advancing disturbance, 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 59 
 
 and is the district of the Southerly and South-east 
 winds. The motion of this particular storm will be 
 traced figs. 19-22, pp. 83-85. 
 
 In the rear of the storm, i.e. in Ireland and Cornwall, 
 where the wind has shifted to North-west, we find that 
 a fall (indicated by figures below the readings) is re- 
 ported at all the Irish stations, as well as at those in the 
 extreme north of Scotland. That this is due to the 
 direction of the wind is sufficiently clear from the fact 
 that at almost all the places where the cooling effect is 
 observable, the direction of the wind is from some point 
 to the Northward of West, being NE. at Donaghadee, 
 N. at Valencia, NW. at Roche's Point, and WNW. in the 
 south of England, where, although no fall of tempera- 
 ture from the reading at 8 a.m. on the previous day is 
 reported, the rise is only i at Scilly and Plymouth, as 
 compared with 10 at Dover and 14 in London. 
 
 As regards clouds and rain, the facts are still more 
 striking. Out of the entire list of stations, only thirty- 
 seven give the amount of cloud in their reports : of these 
 twenty-three stated the sky to be 'entirely overcast/ 
 thirteen others reported various proportions, varying 
 from the above quantity down to that of six-tenths of the 
 sky being covered, while at one solitary place, Hurst 
 Castle, with a WNW. wind, the sky was half clear. 
 
 The rainfall is equally marked. During the twenty- 
 four hours preceding the epoch for which the chart is 
 drawn, rain fell at every station in these islands and 
 France, whence we have reports, except Nairn, and, as 
 
60 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 to its amount, at four stations this exceeded an inch, and 
 at ten others it was more than 0*7 inch. 
 
 It may therefore be said that areas of low pressure 
 are accompanied by a high temperature, especially in the 
 front of the storm, a large amount of moisture in the 
 air, and consequent rainfall and prevalence of cloud. 
 The instance which has been given, however, although it 
 illustrates very well many of xthe features of a cyclonic 
 disturbance, does not exhibit all the circumstances which 
 may be observed in a given storm as to the march of the 
 different phenomena within the system itself. One of 
 the most striking characteristics of a cyclonic storm is a 
 sudden shift of wind which takes place between SW. and 
 NW., accompanied frequently by a heavy squall and a 
 shower, together with an almost instantaneous fall of 
 temperature, and this is entirely absent in the case in 
 question, as will be explained on p. 85. To take a very 
 remarkable instance, we find that on February 12, 
 1869, a cyclonic storm passed up the English Channel ; 
 the lowest barometrical reading being recorded at Fal- 
 mouth at noon, when the wind flew from SW. to WNW., 
 and the temperature fell 6*2 in a few minutes. At 
 Kew similar changes took place at 4.30 p.m., but in a 
 very aggravated form : the shift of wind having been 
 from WSW. to ENK, and the fall of the thermometer 
 1 1'6 in about five minutes. 
 
 The storm of Sunday, March 12, 1876, will be fresh in 
 the memory of all residents in the south of England. In 
 this case, which is too recent to discuss at length in these 
 pages, the shift of wind at Kew was from SW. to N., and 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 6r 
 
 the fall of temperature 8'5 in 30 minutes, accompanied 
 by a heavy snow shower. 
 
 I have already said that one great distinction between 
 cyclones and anticyclones, is that the former move, and 
 the latter are usually nearly stationary, and as the usual 
 motion of a cyclonic system is from West to East across 
 these islands, it will be interesting to see what we 
 can learn from the continuous records at our self- 
 recording observatories of the actual changes which will 
 occur at a station during the passage of a storm in that 
 direction. 
 
 This will naturally differ according as the station 
 lies to the North or the South of the centre of the storm, 
 and, as it very rarely happens that the storms are truly 
 circular, it is obvious that the shifts of wind and changes 
 of weather will not all be perfectly regular. In fact the 
 extraordinary changes of February 12, 1869, just cited, 
 afford a very good proof of the unequal distribution of 
 the gradients in such a system of disturbance. 
 
 Let us first take the most common case in these 
 islands, that of a station lying on the southern side of the 
 path of the centre of depression, moving from West to 
 East across central England, and that we are situated 
 in London. We shall experience first the phenomena 
 belonging to the front of the system : the appear- 
 ance of cirrus clouds, ' mare's tails, 5 in the sky, then the 
 South-easterly winds, the great rise of the thermometer 
 and excessive dampness, the sky becoming gradually 
 overcast and the setting in of mist and rain, the barometer 
 falling persistently, while scud begins to drift from the 
 
62 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 southward. As the system advances the barometer 
 continues to fall, the wind veering through S. to SW., 
 and rain falling steadily. As soon as the wind passes 
 the SW. point and draws to W. or NW., the barometer 
 begins to rise, often with a sudden jump, and the tempe- 
 rature falls, with a very heavy shower of rain, possibly 
 turning to hail, after which the air becomes much drier, 
 and the sky clears with a N W. wind, which as a rule soon 
 dies down. After such a disturbance as this we have 
 frequently a smart frost at night, inasmuch as the great 
 dryness of the air has allowed great radiation of heat 
 from the ground. 
 
 It is not easy to find 
 an instance which exhibits 
 the entire course of changes 
 just described, but the 
 table, Appendix B., will 
 illustrate several of the 
 points. 
 
 The table represents 
 the hourly readings of the 
 barometer, thermometer 
 (dry and wet), anemometer 
 (direction and velocity), 
 rain-gauge, and the vapour 
 tension from the continu- 
 ous records at Valencia on 
 March 26 and 27, 1874, 
 
 29-8 
 
 FIG. 8. March 27, 1874; 2 p.m. 
 Storm passing north of Valencia. 
 
 when the centre of a cyclonic storm passed to the north- 
 
Cyclones and A n ticy clones. 6 3 
 
 ward of that observatory. At 2 p.m., March 27, (fig. 8,) 
 the centre of the storm lay off the North-west coast of 
 
 26th 27th 
 
 Noon 6p.m. Midnt. 6a.m. Noon 6p.m. Midnt. 
 
 FIG. 9. March 26 and 27, 1874. Automatic records at Valencia. 
 
 Scotland, outside the Hebrides. The diagram (fig. 9) 
 exhibits the course of the curves. 1 
 
 1 These diagrams require explanation. They are copied from the plates 
 in the Quarterly Weather Report, and exhibit the continuous records of : 
 
 1 . The barogram or barometer curve, marked bar. The scale for this 
 is given in the lower left-hand corner. It is in inches, and the readings, 
 though corrected for temperature, are not reduced to sea level, and range 
 over i^ inches. 
 
 2. The thermograms, marked respectively dry and wet. The scale for 
 these is in the lower right-hand corner, and ranges over 30. 
 
 3. The curve of tension of vapour, marked vap. ten. , calculated from 
 the two thermograms, dry and wet. 
 
 4. The rain in hourly amounts of fall. These are measured upwards 
 from the base line of the scale which serves for vapour tension and rain, 
 
64 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 The barometer fell steadily for twenty-three hours, 
 until 9 a.m. on the 2/th, and then rose in twelve 
 hours nearly to the same height as it had held before. 
 Temperature and vapour tension remained singularly 
 steady during the afternoon of the 26th, rising very 
 slowly during the night, and reaching a maximum at 
 8 a.m. nearly simultaneously with the epoch of the 
 lowest barometer readings. The dry thermometer then 
 began to fall briskly, and by 9 p.m. had sunk f"f. It 
 will be observed that, owing to the influence of the storm, 
 the temperature was higher during the early morning 
 hours of the 2/th than it was during the afternoon of 
 either the 26th or 27th, and yet 2 p.m. is usually about 
 the hottest part of the day. While it lasted, therefore, 
 the storm entirely disturbed the regular diurnal march of 
 temperature. The secret of this disturbance of tem- 
 perature lies in the wind. 
 
 During the whole time that the barometer was fall- 
 ing the wind remained nearly constant between SSE. and 
 S., blowing a stiff gale, and a little rain fell. When 
 the centre of the storm was approaching, the rain set 
 in again at about 4 a.m., and became heaviest just at 
 
 and is on the left-hand side, above the barometer scale ; it is in tenths of 
 an inch, and extends over half an inch. 
 
 5. The wind direction, marked direc. This is on a special scale shown 
 at the left-hand side, which represents a paper wrapped round a cylinder, 
 and then laid flat. N is at the top, then come successively E, s, w, and N 
 again. 
 
 6. The wind velocity, marked velocity, in hourly amounts, measured by 
 the scale of miles up to seventy, shown on the right-hand side. 
 
 The time scale is shown at top and bottom. 
 
Cyclones and A n t icy clones. 6 5 
 
 8 a.m., when the barometer was nearly at its low- 
 est level and the wind was about veering towards SW. 
 At the hour of the lowest barometer reading we find 
 the first trace of Westing in the direction of the wind, 
 and at the same hour the velocity shows a sudden in- 
 crease, the rain still continuing. The sky then cleared, 
 the barometer rose briskly, and the wind increased till 
 noon, when it blew a heavy gale from SW.byS. It 
 subsequently veered pretty quickly to WNW. with a 
 slight shower of rain at 3 p.m., and fell very light after 
 sunset, at 7 p.m. 
 
 The courses of the wet bulb thermometer curve, and 
 of the curve of vapour tension, illustrate very clearly the 
 contrast between the Southerly and North-westerly 
 winds as regards the humidity of the air. As long as 
 the wind remained to the Eastward of South the curves 
 of the two thermometers remained close to each other 
 and the curve of vapour tension rose steadily, but very 
 slowly. At the hour of the minimum barometer reading, 
 we notice the curves going apart, and for the remainder 
 of the period they pursued courses diverging more and 
 more from each other, indicating, what is also shown by 
 the descent of the vapour tension trace, that the air was 
 becoming drier and drier according as the wind be- 
 came more Northerly. 
 
 Owing to this extreme dryness of the air of the North- 
 west wind, in the rear of a storm, it is believed by some 
 meteorologists that this wind is a downrush of air from the 
 upper regions of the atmosphere, which is necessarily 
 
 F 
 
66 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 very dry, owing to the low temperature to which it has 
 been exposed. 
 
 The case just cited, though it exhibits some of the 
 phenomena with great distinctness, is not one which can 
 be made clear to the reader as an instance of a storm 
 passing to the northward of a station, inasmuch as the 
 system to which the gale in question belonged was so 
 extensive that the limited area of our charts would not 
 exhibit the conditions in a convincing manner. Fig. 10, 
 
 FIG. 10. October 21, 1874; 8 a.m. Storm .passing north of Aberdeen. 
 
 however, is an indisputable case of a storm passing on 
 the northern side of Aberdeen, and close to it, October 
 20 -2 1, 1874, and the course of the curves at that obser- 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 67 
 
 vatory is shown .on fig. n. The actual hourly readings 
 will be found in Appendix C. 
 
 Noon 6 p.m. Midnt. 6 a.m. Noon 6 p.m. Midnt. 
 
 FIG. II. October 20 and 21, 1874. Automatic records at Aberdeen. 
 
 The fall of the barometer was slow at first, but then 
 increased in rapidity, and in twelve hours the mercury 
 ;sank to the extent of 1*14 inch. It then rose in the 
 next twelve hours as much as O'S inch, and for a por- 
 tion of the time the rate of rise was more rapid than that 
 of the previous fall had been. It will be noticed that 
 the epoch of the maximum rise of the barometer was 
 also that of the shift of wind through three points to the 
 Northward, as well as of the strongest wind and the 
 heaviest rain. This is the heavy shower of rain, coinci- 
 dent with the shift of wind to the North-west, of which 
 
 F 2 
 
68 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 mention has previously been made, p. 60. Temperature 
 and humidity do not follow a similar course respectively as 
 they did in fig. 9, as both curves are far less steady in their 
 course than on the former occasion. We see, however, 
 that the diurnal march of temperature is again entirely 
 disarranged, the thermometer remaining pretty nearly at 
 the same temperature throughout the night of the 2Oth, 
 and the sudden fall of both temperature and vapour 
 tension taking place nearly simultaneously with the shift 
 of wind above noticed, and at the time when the natural 
 rise of day temperature ought to be most brisk, viz.,, 
 about 10 or n a.m. 
 
 The wind commenced at about SSW., and blew 
 pretty steadily from that quarter for twenty hours, its 
 velocity being at first slight, and increasing to that of a 
 stiff breeze at midnight. When the barometer was at its 
 lowest and beginning to rise, the direction of the wind' 
 rapidly shifted to WNW., and its velocity more tharr 
 doubled itself in three hours, rising from 24 to 55 miles an- 
 hour. The velocity of a strong gale, however, only lasted 
 for four hours, from 9 a.m. to I p.m. The absence of 
 rain is very noticeable during the early period of the gale ; 
 the reason for this absence can be seen from the fact of 
 the great distance between the wet and dry thermo- 
 grams ; in fact no rain of any consequence fell excepting 
 just at the period of the lowest barometer, already noticed. 
 
 It will be seen from figs. 48 and 49, p. 140, 141, that 
 this storm, which was a very severe one in other parts, 
 passed just to the northward of Aberdeen. 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 
 
 Taking now the second 
 case, that of a cyclonic sys- 
 tem passing on the south- 
 ern side of the station, we 
 have a very good instance 
 of the course of the phe- 
 nomena in the records of 
 Fal mouth for February I 
 and 2, 1873. The hourly 
 values, as before, are given 
 in Appendix D, and the 
 instrumental records are 
 .shown on fig. 13, while the 
 conditions of pressure at 8 
 -a.m. on the 2nd are shown 
 on fig. 12. 
 
 FIG. 12. February 2, 1873 > 8 a.m. 
 Storm passing south of Falmouth. 
 
 2nd 
 
 Noon 6p.m. Midnt. 6a.m. Noon 6p.m. Midnt. 
 
 r n 
 
 FIG. 13. February i and 2, 1873. Automatic records at~Fahr.outh. 
 
70 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 Here, too, as in the previous case, we have ai 
 great dip in the barometrical curve, which falls very re- 
 gularly for twenty-four hours until noon on the 2nd. 
 It then rises more rapidly than it had fallen before, and 
 at midnight on the 2nd attains to within a quarter of an 
 inch of its previous height. 
 
 Temperature shows very remarkable changes during 
 the night of the 1st and 2nd, rising 10 between 10 p.m.. 
 and 4 a.m. It then continues high until 2 p.m. on the 
 2nd, when it falls 6 in a few minutes, a change nearly as 
 sudden as that at the same observatory on February I2 r 
 1869, already noticed (p. 60). 
 
 As before, we find the explanation of these changes 
 in the direction of the wind. Up to midnight on the 1st 
 this was steady at ESE. It then veered slightly to SE.,, 
 and even a couple of points further. The highest 
 temperature, already noticed, coincided with the direc- 
 tion S.byE. As the centre drew nearer, the vane 
 backed smartly to E.b>S., E.byN., and NE., and the 
 sudden fall of temperature marked a shift from NE.by 
 N., to N.byE. The shift went on further, and the 
 period closed with the wind about NNW. 
 
 The extreme force of the wind did not coincide pre- 
 cisely with the period of the lowest barometer reading,, 
 as it was far greater a little before midnight on the 1st 
 than at any other time. This affords a further proof, if 
 such is needed, that the violence of a gale does not 
 depend on the actual height of the barometer. 
 
 Vapour tension showed a steady curve, following that 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 7 1 
 
 of temperature, until the appearance of the Northerly 
 and North-westerly winds, when it sank in a marked way, 
 thus again corroborating the former statement as to the 
 dryness of winds from that quarter. 
 
 The rainfall was very remarkable ; it continued 
 almost without intermission from noon on the 1st till 
 5 p.m. on the 2nd, being heaviest shortly before the 
 period of the strongest wind. The total amount which was 
 collected during the twenty-four hours, ending with noon 
 February 2, was no less than 1*275 inch, and it will 
 be noticed that the rain gradually lessened as the wind 
 backed through N., and ceased entirely when the direc- 
 tion was NNW. 
 
 This persistence of rain with the Easterly and North- 
 east winds in the front of a cyclonic depression is a very 
 striking characteristic of these disturbances. It is an 
 unmistakeable proof that North-east winds are not 
 always dry, and the only reason that this fact is not 
 more frequently observed, is, as will shortly be shown, 
 that the occurrence of these winds in the front of 
 cyclonic disturbances is a comparatively rare pheno- 
 menon in the British Isles, for the storms usually pass 
 by us on the northern side, and at first give us South- 
 easterly, not North-easterly winds. 
 
 These instances are amply sufficient to show the way 
 in which we are to interpret a couplet well known to 
 sailors, which expresses Dove's Law of Gyration referred 
 to at p. 25 : 
 
 When the wind shifts against the sun, 
 Trust it not, for back it will run. 
 
72 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 Under certain conditions a backing of the wind is 
 quite en rgle, and is simply an indication that a cyclonic 
 disturbance is passing on the southern side of the ob- 
 server. The actual motion of the disturbance of February 
 I and 2, 1873, was along the north coast of Brittany, 
 and therefore to the south of Falmouth. 
 
 The rule as regards the veering or backing of the 
 wind in connection with atmospherical disturbances may 
 be thus stated. 
 
 If the observer supposes himself at the centre of a 
 cyclonic system in the northern hemisphere and moving 
 with it, the wind at all stations which he passes will veer 
 if the station be on his right-hand side and will back if 
 the station be on his left-hand side. 
 
 This is made clear by the following diagrams (fig. 14, 
 a, b, c, d,) in which I. II. III. indicate the successive posi- 
 tions of a cyclonic system, and the large arrows repre- 
 sent different directions of its motion. A is always 
 on the right-hand side of the centre, B on its left-hand 
 side. The successive directions of wind experienced at 
 each station are shown by the figures i, 2, 3, and i' 2' 3'. 
 In every case it will be seen that the shift from i to 3 is 
 veering, and from i' to 3' is backing, whatever the first 
 direction of the wind may have been. 
 
 The reason that a backing wind is considered dan- 
 gerous is, that when the wind backs from NW. towards 
 SW., S. and SE. at a station A in fig. 14, it indicates that 
 the SE. wind of the North-eastern side of another area 
 of low pressure is approaching the station which has 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 
 
 73 
 
74 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 been experiencing the NW. wind of the South-western 
 side of the previous area of low pressure, and which is 
 passing away to the eastward, so that the wind merely 
 backs until the station is fairly under the influence of 
 the new disturbance, when it begins to veer again, if the 
 centre of the depression passes to the northward of the 
 station, as is usually the case in these islands. 
 
 There is one point in connection with cyclonic dis- 
 turbances which is gradually attracting more and more 
 attention, and that is the appearance of secondary 
 eddies in connection with the larger areas of barometrical 
 depression. These smaller systems are usually less per- 
 fectly developed than the larger ones, and they manifest 
 themselves in general on the southern sides of the latter. 
 Accordingly, while they cannot exhibit any Easterly 
 winds of much force, (owing to the fact that pressure is 
 lower on their northern than on their southern edge), 
 they intensify the Westerly winds on the extreme South- 
 ern edge of the original disturbance by increasing the 
 gradients in that part of the system. 
 
 It is probably owing to these circumstances that 
 Easterly winds are so rare in our storms. Investigations 
 into the distribution of pressure over the earth's surface 
 have shown that there is an almost constant deficiency 
 of pressure in the neighbourhood of Iceland, and so pro- 
 bably most of the depressions which cause our storms 
 are simply secondary to a vastly more extensive area 
 of depression over the North Atlantic. 
 
 It will be interesting to give a few instances of these 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 75; 
 
 ' satellite' depressions (as the French call them), to illus- 
 trate what I have been saying, and fig. 1 5, for January 
 3, 1874, show r s us on a small scale the conditions to which. 
 
 50- 
 
 45 
 
 5 o 5 10 
 
 FlG. 15. January 3, 1874; 8 a.m. Subsidiary depression. 
 
 allusion has just been made as characterising many of 
 our gales. We see that there is a small cyclonic dis- 
 turbance with its centre near Holyhead, and that the 
 
76 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 circulation round it is very imperfectly developed, inas- 
 much as there are no Easterly winds at all. The reason 
 of this deficiency is at once visible when we look at the 
 northern part of the chart. The reading of 29*23 inches, 
 at Holyhead, which is at the centre of the -subsidiary 
 depression, appears again over Caithness, in the isobar 
 of 29*2, and to the northward of it again we see that of 
 -29*0 inches, so that evidently readings must be still lower 
 if we went further north. As the reading both at Holy- 
 head and at Wick is about 29*2, and as the highest 
 reading between these points is 29*3 inches, it is impos- 
 .sible that there can be a gradient of any extent for 
 Easterly winds over the intervening region, and so those 
 winds do not appear. On the other hand the circulation 
 round the west, south, and east sides of the subsidiary 
 depression is clearly shown. 
 
 It is not often, however, that we find the secondary 
 depressions so clearly marked as in fig. 15. The chart for 
 October 9, 1874, gives us their more common character 
 {fig. 1 6). They manifest themselves simply by a loop in 
 .some of the isobars, and their effect is, as already described, 
 to reduce the gradients on the side turned towards their 
 primary, and to increase them on the opposite side. We 
 'Could hardly have a better example of this than in fig. 
 1 6. The strong NW. wind at Stornoway, and the SW. 
 ; gales in the Skagerrack and in Denmark, show that the 
 conditions for strong winds prevail generally, but over 
 .southern Scotland and central England nothing but 
 Jight Westerly airs are reported. On the other hand, in 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 
 
 7T 
 
 the Channel and in France the isobars are crowded 
 together, and heavy gales are the result. 
 
 Another instance is represented on fig. 17, for 
 October 22, 1874, but here it is the North-westerly winds 
 of the primary that are reduced in force, on account of 
 the fact of the secondary system manifesting itself on. 
 
 FIG. 1 6. October 9, 1874 ; 8 a.m. 
 Subsidiary depression. 
 
 FIG. 17. October 22, 1874 ; 8 a.m, 
 Subsidiary depression. 
 
 the south-west side of its principal. Owing to the appa- 
 rent equality of pressure over the Bay of Biscay there 
 are no gradients of consequence there, and therefore no- 
 gales in connection with the smaller system, but so far 
 as direction is concerned, the circulation round the- 
 smaller depression is very clearly marked. 
 
 At times it is hard to say which of the .depressions is. 
 
 'UNIVERSITY 
 
78 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 the primary, and which the satellite, as there is appa- 
 irently not much difference in size between them. This 
 "Was the case on January 27, 1872 (fig. 18), when we see 
 
 45 
 
 10 5 o 5 
 
 FIG. 18. January 27, 1872; 8a.m. Coexisting depressions. 
 
 one depression, with central readings as low as 28*3 
 inches, near Scarborough, while another shows itself off 
 Valencia. The result of the interference of these two 
 
Cyclones and Anticyclones. 79 
 
 systems is to produce a comparative calm between them, 
 the winds being very light over St. George's Channel, 
 while strong gales are blowing wherever this interference 
 does not exist. 
 
 In treating of the interpretation of weather charts 
 and of storm warnings, I shall show the use which can 
 sometimes be made of these subsidiary cyclonic systems. 
 
 In this chapter we have considered the contrast 
 between cyclonic and anticyclonic systems, or areas, as 
 they are indiscriminately termed, and the character of 
 the weather which accompanies each respectively. 
 
 We have learnt that while anticyclonic areas move 
 slowly, cyclonic areas travel more or less rapidly over 
 the country, and moreover that their passage past a 
 station presents marked features of difference, according 
 as the station lies on the right or left side of the path of 
 the centre. Lastly, we have found that cyclonic sys- 
 tems are not always isolated, but occasionally have what 
 may be called satellite systems in connection with them 
 which exert a material influence on the gradients, and 
 consequently on the winds belonging to the original 
 disturbance. 
 
So . Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE MOTION OF STORMS AND THE AGENCIES WHICH 
 APPEAR TO AFFECT IT. 
 
 BEFORE we treat of the motion of storms it must be 
 admitted, as will appear in the next chapter, that me- 
 teorologists are not at all agreed as to what the real 
 causes of that motion are. It has not been satisfactorily 
 determined to what intent the storm moves forward as a 
 whole, or to what extent the advance observed is only 
 due to the continued reproduction of the same pheno- 
 mena at successive points, as is the case in wave motion. 
 The fact that storms are swept onward over the 
 earth's surface with a motion of translation in addition 
 to their own rotatory motion has, however, long been 
 known. The earliest notice of it which we can discover 
 is an entry on a map of Virginia, published in 1 747 by 
 Lewis Evans, to the effect that ' all our great storms 
 begin to leeward.' Franklin, in 1760, followed in the 
 same strain, but it appears that his attention had been 
 caught, at an earlier period, in 1743, by the fact of his 
 being prevented, by the clouds brought by a hurricane, 
 
The Motion of Storms. 8 1 
 
 from observing a lunar eclipse at Philadelphia, while the 
 eclipse was seen at Boston, which lies further to the 
 North-eastward, before the storm came on. The reader 
 hardly needs to be reminded that hurricanes and cyclonic 
 disturbances in general are accompanied by an abundance 
 of cloud. Along the eastern coast of the United States, 
 therefore, the advance of storms from south-west towards 
 north-east has long been a recognised fact. 
 
 The direction of the motion is different in different 
 parts of the earth. Of storm tracks which are well 
 made out, those of the West India Hurricanes, in the 
 earlier part of their course, are, speaking in general 
 terms, from east-south-east to west-north-west : in the 
 Indian Ocean the Mauritius Hurricanes advance at first 
 from east-north-east to west- south- west, but both of 
 these classes of storms sometimes recurve subsequently 
 at a sharp angle, and advance towards the eastward. 
 The Typhoons of the China seas move towards the coast 
 from the eastward. 
 
 Over these islands, however, the motion of storms is 
 not nearly so constant in direction as in the instances 
 which have been cited, and although as a general rule it 
 may be said that our storms travel from the westward, 
 there are many exceptions to this rule, and in fact 
 storms can, and do, move from every point of the com- 
 pass, but a motion from an easterly point is extremely 
 rare in this part of the world. 
 
 It will be best to consider the less usual directions 
 of motion in connection with the causes which appear 
 
 G 
 
82 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 to give rise to such variations in the usual course of 
 affairs, and I shall also offer some remarks on the motion 
 of anticyclones, and show what a contrast this presents to 
 the behaviour of cyclonic systems. 
 
 As regards the rate of motion I may premise that 
 this varies very greatly, some storms travelling very 
 slowly or even remaining apparently steady, while others 
 are propagated with great rapidity. The rate of motion 
 of West India hurricanes ranges from ten to fifteen or 
 twenty miles an hour in their early stages, but becomes 
 accelerated in the latter portion of their path, while in 
 these islands the motion has attained the prodigious 
 speed of fifty miles an hour, February 12, 1868, an in- 
 stance already cited, p. 60, and even seventy miles an 
 hour, December 16, 1869, a velocity nearly equalled on 
 the night of November 10-11, 1875, as well as March 
 12, 1876. 
 
 It must be clearly understood that the rate of trans- 
 lation of the storm has no relation to the velocity of the 
 wind in that storm, for the West India hurricanes exhibit 
 almost the strongest winds of which we have any know- 
 ledge, and they travel slowly, while the rapidly moving 
 storms just cited were not exceptional as regards their 
 violence. 
 
 However, one of the greatest difficulties which meets 
 us in the issue of Storm Warnings is our almost total 
 ignorance of the rate at which any given storm is travel- 
 ling, until it has already moved over a considerable 
 tract of country. 
 
The Motion of Storms. 
 
 83 
 
 It is easy to cite instances of the motion of storms, 
 and I shall select two of the cases which have already 
 been employed as illustrations of cyclonic disturb- 
 ances, and trace their progress across the area of our 
 weather maps, paying attention mainly to the isobars 
 and the wind. 
 
 Let us first take the storm of November 29, 1874. 
 The earliest unmistakeable signs of its approach (fig. 19), 
 
 FIG. 19. November 28, 1874; 
 8 a.m. Approaching depression. 
 
 were at 8 a.m., November 28, when a rapid fall of the 
 barometer at Valencia, with the Southerly wind, and the 
 course of the isobar of 29-3 inches, show that there must 
 be an area of lower readings at sea, outside the coast. 
 Over the greater part of England the direction of 
 
 G2 
 
84 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 the wind is South-easterly ; a very general phenomenon 
 on the approach of a serious storm, owing apparently 
 to the in-draught of air towards the region of diminished 
 pressure. 
 
 The next chart, for 6 p.m. on the same day (fig. 20), 
 shows the central isobar (of 29*0 inches) over the south 
 
 29-8, 
 
 FiG. 20. November 28, 1874; 
 6 p.m. Depression advancing. 
 
 FiG. 21. November 29, 1874; 
 8 a.m. Centre over Wales. 
 
 of Ireland, while the SE. winds over England have 
 veered to SW., and the isobars, previously running nearly 
 north and south, show a marked curvature. Even in 
 Norway pressure has given way, the isobar of 29-8 inches 
 having taken the place of that of 29-9 inches. 
 
 During the night the storm made rapid progress, 
 and at 8 a.m. (fig. 21), we have the conditions already 
 
7Jie Motion of Storms. 
 
 described at p. 34, the centre of the storm lying near 
 Holyhead, and the influence of the depression extending 
 over the whole of western Europe. 
 
 At 6 p.m. on the 2Qth (fig. 22), we find the centre 
 of the storm near Newcastle, with a reading of 28*4, 
 while the general course of 
 the isobars follows that of 
 an ellipse, with its longer 
 axis stretching east and 
 west. The Southerly winds 
 have nearly entirely dis- 
 appeared, and the gales are 
 from East in Scotland, and 
 from West over England, 
 without any amount of 
 North-west winds worth 
 notice. 
 
 If we were to pursue 
 this disturbance further, we 
 should discover that the FIG. 22. -November 29, 1874; 
 
 6 p.m. Centre near Scarborough. 
 Oval Shape of the isobars Depression passing off. 
 
 was caused by the approach of a second cyclonic area 
 towards Ireland, which checked the rise of the mercury 
 and reduced the gradients in the rear of the former 
 system, and thus hindered the development of the North- 
 westerly winds, a feature to which allusion has already 
 been made at p. 60. In fact the chart for the next 
 morning exhibited two separate areas of depression, 
 one over Ireland, the other over the North Sea, 
 
86 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 while the latter area showed evident signs of being- 
 filled up. 
 
 It is not necessary to quote other instances to prove 
 the fact of the motion of cyclones, and we shall now 
 proceed, by way of contrast, to consider the motion, or 
 rather the comparative absence of motion, in anticyclones, 
 and shall select the period at the beginning of February 
 1874. It is not necessary to give more than the daily 
 charts for 8 a.m., as the changes from day to day are 
 very slight. 
 
 FIG. 23. February 2, 1874 ; 
 8 a.m. Anticyclone. 
 
 FIG. 24. February 3, 1874 ; 8 a.m. 
 
 Anticyclone stationary, but changing 
 
 in shape. 
 
 Fig. 23, for February 2, shows an area of readings 
 above 30*4 inches over the Channel. In fig. 24 this 
 
The Motion of Storms. 
 
 has hardly changed its place, but a sudden rise of the 
 barometer has taken place over the north of Scotland, 
 so that we have two independent centres of high pressure 
 over our limited area. In fig. 25, for the 4th, the 
 secondary anticyclone has vanished, and we have the 
 conditions already cited at p. 36 as a typical anticyclone, 
 
 30-3 
 
 FIG. 25. February 4, i8'4; 
 8 a.m. Original shape regained. 
 
 FlG. 26. February 5, 1874 ; 8 a.m. 
 Anticyclone disappearing. 
 
 and at the same time the effects of a cyclone outside 
 the Shetlands are just felt on the coast of Norway, where 
 the barometer has begun to give way, accompanied by 
 a stiff South-west gale at Christiansund. 
 
 The last chart of the series, fig. 26, shows us the 
 central isobar of 30*6 inches over the eastern counties, 
 
88 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 while all over the North Sea strong Westerly winds 
 have appeared, owing to the advance over Norway of 
 the cyclonic disturbance just mentioned. 
 
 In this case, therefore, which is a fair sample of the 
 behaviour of areas of high pressure, it is evident that 
 the persistence of the conditions of high barometrical 
 pressure over the south of England was as marked as 
 the instability of the conditions of low barometrical 
 readings was proved to be in the preceding instance. 
 Anticyclones, however, do change their position, but 
 it is needless to pursue the subject further in this place. 
 
 Before treating of the agencies which appear to rule 
 the motion of cyclones, it may be well to say a word 
 or two on the influences which appear to modify 
 that motion, at least in the neighbourhood of these 
 islands. We find that the storm path is much affected 
 by the contour of the country. It is well known 
 that the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland are bold 
 and rugged. It has sometimes happened that a storm 
 has advanced from the Atlantic to the coast of Kerry, 
 but has returned, and passing out to sea again, has moved 
 northwards along the coast until it found the opening of 
 Donegal Bay, and has then crossed Ireland along the tract 
 of low land stretching from Ballyshannon to Dundalk, to 
 the Irish Sea, where the centre often appears to be arrested 
 for a while : or else the disturbance, clearing Ireland 
 altogether, and crossing Scotland south of the Grampians, 
 has passed out to the North Sea. In fact we have 
 already seen, from the phenomena of the Hallsberg 
 
The Motion of Storms. 89 
 
 Tornado, p. 25, that the stratum of air affected by a 
 storm is frequently very thin as compared with the 
 entire depth of the atmosphere. We can therefore 
 easily understand that eddies in the stratum of air 
 which is in immediate contact with the surface of the 
 ground may be very much affected in their character 
 and motion by the irregularities of that surface, which 
 have a tendency to turn them aside. 
 
 It need hardly be pointed out (as suggested to me 
 by my friend Prof. John Purser of Belfast) that the sus- 
 ceptibility of storms to such an influence, exerted by the 
 contour of the country, bears some resemblance to the 
 behaviour of smoke-rings, which are deflected from their 
 course by obstacles placed in their path, although they 
 may not actually come in contact with such obstacles. 
 Remembering that the depth of storms is insignificant 
 compared with their lateral extent, we may to a certain 
 extent compare cyclonic disturbances to smoke-rings, 
 although the constitution of the two phenomena is widely 
 different. 
 
 As regards the actual direction of motion of cyclones, 
 when we come to examine a series of charts extending 
 over a wide area, like those of Captain Hoffmeyer, for 
 Europe and the Atlantic, it is found that the cyclones fre- 
 quently have a tendency to move round the anticyclones, 
 but it is almost impossible to follow out these motions 
 fully when we can deal only with the limited area of our 
 own charts. It is, however, from this mutual action of the 
 areas of high and low pressure on each other that we gain 
 
90 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 some notion of the coasts which are likely to be visited 
 by a storm, of the direction which that storm will take, 
 and of the quarter whence the wind in that storm will 
 blow hardest. 
 
 If we find the readings highest over Ireland, the 
 depressions will sweep down over Scandinavia or even 
 over the North Sea, in a direction from the northward to 
 the southward, giving us Northerly gales along the east 
 coast of Scotland and England, owing to the fact that 
 
 the steepest gradients will 
 be on their western sides. 
 These areas of low pressure 
 will follow each other until 
 by some means or other 
 the excess of pressure in 
 the west has been reduced.. 
 Figs. 2730 afford very 
 good examples of the above 
 conditions. We start on 
 November 17, 1874 (fig. 27), 
 with readings highest in 
 the south-west, general 
 North-west winds, and a 
 definite depression exist- 
 ing over Denmark, marked 
 by the isobar of 29*2 inches. 
 At the same time a back- 
 ing wind at Stornoway and the SSE. wind at Chris- 
 tiansund show that a fresh disturbance is not far off. 
 
 FIG. 27. November 17, 1874; 
 8 a.m. Pressure highest in south- 
 west. Depression disappearing over 
 Denmark. 
 
The Motion of Storms. 
 
 Fig. 28, for next morning, November 18, still exhibits 
 the traces of the cyclonic disturbance over Denmark,. 
 but the lowest readings there are about 297 inches, 
 showing a rise of half an inch in pressure. All over the 
 chart, except just in the south-west, the course of the 
 isobars is changed and the advancing depression is per- 
 
 FIG. 28. November 18, 1874; FIG. 29. November 19, 1874;, 
 8 a.m. New cyclonic disturbance 8a.m. Depression over Heligoland. 
 appearing in north. A third appearing in the north. 
 
 fectly visible, and has produced its effect on^the winds,. 
 causing them all to f back ' to W. or [SW. and even to 
 SE. in Shetland. The morning of the iQth (fig. 29) 
 shows us a great change ; the [area of low pressure, 
 which lay off Shetland on the previous day, has ad- 
 vanced rapidly southwards and lies over the mouth of 
 
92 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 the Elbe, while another similar system has appeared over 
 Shetland. Each of these independent disturbances has 
 its own atmospheric circulation. 
 
 The last chart of the series is fig. 30, for the 2Oth. 
 In it we see the last-named depression situated in 
 
 nearly the exact locality 
 of its predecessor, over 
 northern Germany, while 
 the disturbance of the 
 winds at the northern sta- 
 tions shows that the per- 
 turbations are not yet at 
 an end. The rise, however, 
 of the barometer over Hol- 
 land indicates that the 
 general distribution of 
 pressure is undergoing a 
 change. 
 
 In this case therefore 
 we have a succession of 
 cyclonic disturbances chas- 
 ing each other for several 
 days, along similar paths, while the region of highest 
 pressure lies in the west. 
 
 If the highest readings be over France, the path of 
 the cyclonic disturbances will run from west to east, 
 .across the British Isles, and the wind will blow hardest 
 from the Westward. When the centre of the anticyclone 
 lies over England we find that the storms hardly affect 
 
 FIG. 30. November 20, 1874; 
 8 a.m. Depression disappearing 
 over Denmark. 
 
The Motion of Storms. 
 
 93 
 
 our stations at all, but pass outside the north coast of 
 Scotland, producing strong Westerly gales on the Nor- 
 wegian coast, above the sixtieth parallel, at Christian- 
 sund, Bodo, and northwards. It is needless to cite in- 
 stances of these conditions, they are already admirably 
 illustrated by figs. 25 and 
 26, p. 87. 
 
 When the area of high 
 pressure is located more to 
 the east or south-east, over 
 Denmark or Germany, the 
 cyclonic systems cannot 
 make good their footing 
 over these islands at all, 
 but pass from south to north 
 outside the Irish and 
 Scotch coasts, producing 
 gales from the Southward. 
 Such storms frequently 
 only appear in the west of FI^I. -January 14, 1875^ 8 a.m. 
 
 Ireland, and are thence Pressure highest in south-east. De- 
 , - T T pression off Hebrides. 
 
 propagated to the He- 
 brides, Orkneys, and Shetlands, without extending to 
 the English coasts. 
 
 A very good instance of this type of weather 
 occurred in the beginning of the year 1875. Fig. 31, 
 for January 14, shows us the barometer highest over 
 Switzerland, and the isobars running NE. and SW., 
 across these islands, while a depression is just visible off 
 
94 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 the NW. coast of Scotland. Fig. 32, for the I5th, shows 
 but little change of pressure over central Europe, 
 but a fresh disturbance has appeared off the west coast 
 of Ireland, causing the winds to back to S. and SE., 
 and blow with the force of a gale. Fig. 33, for the i6th, 
 shows us this second disturbance in the position of its 
 
 FIG. 32. January 15, 1875 '> 8 a - m - FlG ' 33- January 16, 1875 ; 8 a.m. 
 New disturbance off west coast of Pressure highest in south. Depres- 
 Ireland. si o n off NW. coast of Scotland, 
 
 moving eastward. 
 
 predecessor of the I4th, but pressure having given way 
 over Norway the conditions are altered, and the region 
 of highest barometrical readings is transferred to Spain. 
 I have hitherto spoken of the cases when pressure 
 is highest in the west, south, and east respectively, but 
 the anticyclone must sometimes lie to the northward of 
 
The Motion of Storms. 95 
 
 us, and then, if ever, should the disturbances advance 
 from the eastward. Such a movement is, however, ex- 
 cessively rare in these latitudes, though this is not the 
 case with the tropical hurricanes or cyclones, which at 
 first move from the Eastward. There are, however, some 
 principles which have not yet been thoroughly ex- 
 plained, and which are antagonistic to the development 
 of such a motion in the storms of our part of the Tem- 
 perate zone. I shall hereafter say a few words as to the 
 causes which have been adduced to account for the 
 motion of storms, but it will suffice, at this juncture, to 
 remark that the motion of cyclones round anticyclones 
 will not by any means account for all the motions which 
 have been noticed in our storms. 
 
 The typical cyclone of November 29, 1874, figs. 
 19-22, pp. 83-85, to which reference has frequently been 
 made, did not skirt round the region of high pressure on 
 our charts, but travelled directly towards it. In this 
 case, however, as in many others, it is possible that a 
 study of the weather over more extensive charts, like 
 those of Captain Hoffmeyer, might throw more light on 
 this question of motion than we are at present able to 
 obtain. 
 
 While discussing the motion of storms, it may be in- 
 teresting to trace the path of a very erratic disturbance 
 which visited these islands in April 1872, and the course 
 of which has been followed out with the aid of the con- 
 tinuous records at our self-recording observatories. The 
 following seven charts (figs. 34-40) show the successive 
 

 FIG. 34. April 20, 1872; 8 a.m. 
 
 Centre of disturbance near 
 
 Waterford. 
 
 FIG. 35. April 20, 1872 ; 6 p.m. 
 
 Centre of disturbance off south coast 
 
 of Ireland. 
 
 FIG. 36. April 21, 1872 ; 8 a.m. 
 Centre of disturbance near Havre. 
 
 FIG. 37. April 21, 1872 ; 6 p.m. 
 
 Centre of disturbance near 
 
 Portsmouth. 
 
2.9 -Q- 
 
 29 
 
 2.9 i 
 
 O*3V 
 
 .A . o 
 
 FIG. 38. April 22, 1872; 8 a.m. FIG. 39. April 23, 1872 ; 8 a.m. 
 Centre of disturbance near Centre of disturbance off south coast 
 
 Penzance. of Ireland. 
 
 2.9-3 
 
 o 
 
 FIG. 40. April 24, 1872 ; 8 a.m. FIG. 41. April 20-24, 1872. 
 
 Disturbance passing off over Ireland. Path of disturbance. 
 
 H 
 
98 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 positions of the central disturbance, and fig. 41 gives 
 its track for the entire period. It came in over Ireland 
 and retreated along its own path again. That it did 
 not advance as far as the Strait of Dover is clearly 
 shown by the records at Kew, and that it passed first 
 on one side and then on the other of Falmouth, is indi- 
 cated by the records at that observatory, which prove 
 by the direction of the shifts of wind, on the same prin- 
 ciples as are explained in Chapter V., that the path of 
 the centre lay first on the southern and then on the 
 northern side of the station. 
 
 This storm presents us also with the rare pheno- 
 menon of an advance from the eastward. As far as we 
 can at present form an opinion, this latter condition de- 
 pends on circumstances of pressure far outside the area 
 of these islands or even of that embraced by our weather 
 charts. It is needless to say that such a storm as that 
 just described afforded a striking instance of failure of 
 warnings, as will be explained in Chapter VIIL, p. 144. 
 
 The storms of which I have been treating have all 
 exhibited motion more or less rapid, and in various 
 directions, but it sometimes happens that areas of low 
 pressure are stationary for two or three days together, 
 nearly to the same extent as the anticyclone already 
 noticed (figs. 23-26, p. 86). It is a remarkable fact as 
 regards these islands that there are certain localities which 
 apparently exert an attraction on these systems, and so 
 retard their motion for a time. This is most strikingly 
 the case with the region situated at the entrance of the 
 
The Motion of Storms. 
 
 99 
 
 Channel, where, especially in the early autumn, cyclonic 
 disturbances appear to remain almost immovable for 
 days together. 
 
 A very good instance of a stationary depression 
 occurred at the end of November 1872. Fig. 42, for 
 
 FIG. 42. November 30, 1872; 
 
 8 a.m. Depression appearing 
 
 off Valencia. 
 
 FIG. 43. November 30, 1872 ; 
 
 6 p.m. Centre of depression 
 
 near Cork. 
 
 November 30, at 8 a.m., shows us the isobar of 
 28*5 inches over the south-west of Ireland. There is 
 nothing else very remarkable, except that readings are 
 generally very low, and that a subsidiary depression 
 appears off the coast of Lincolnshire. Fig. 43, for 6 
 p.m. on the same day, exhibits the centre of a storm 
 over Cork, but matters otherwise do not show much 
 
 H 2 
 
ioo Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 change, except that pressure has given way considerably 
 over France. 1 
 
 Fig. 44, however, for 8 a.m. December i, shows 
 us the centre of the cyclonic area in nearly identically 
 
 FIG. 44. December I, 1872 ; 8 a.m. Centre of depression nearly 
 in same place, but depression rilling up. 
 
 the same spot as it had been fourteen hours previously, 
 but the whole system is being filled up, for the lowest 
 isobar is that of 287 inches, while 28*3 inches was the 
 minimum in fig. 43. 
 
 This disturbance subsequently took a course to the 
 SSE., and passed on to the west of France. 
 
 1 In 1872 we did not receive 6 p.m. reports from Norway, so that 
 portion of the chart is blank. 
 
The Motion of Storms. 101 
 
 In this chapter therefore I have shown that atmo- 
 spherical disturbances advance over the earth's surface, 
 and that cyclonic systems move more rapidly than anti- 
 cyclonic. It has also been remarked that we know very 
 little about the rate at which a storm is moving until it 
 has advanced well within the area of our telegraphic 
 reporting system. We are also virtually ignorant of 
 what the real cause of this motion of storms is, whether 
 it is due to the change of position of the entire mass of 
 disturbed air, or to the production of a depression in 
 front of the storm while it is filling up in the rear. We 
 have traced some cases of motion of cyclones, and have 
 stated that this is modified by the contour of the country 
 over which they have to pass, but that it appears to be 
 regulated in great measure by the position of the anti- 
 cyclonic areas in the neighbourhood. 
 
 
1O2 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE USE OF WEATHER CHARTS. 
 
 IF we come to consider what is the practical use, to an 
 ordinary observer, of weather charts, giving, as they do, 
 a representation of past conditions of weather, it will be 
 necessary to recapitulate briefly the results to which we 
 have been led in the several preceding chapters, and 
 then to mention some of the most general principles on 
 which a judgment is formed as to coming weather, when 
 the observer knows by the study of a chart what con- 
 ditions have been prevailing elsewhere. Subsequently 
 I shall allude to some of the theories which have been 
 propounded to account for the origin and motion of 
 storms, and lastly, to the ideas which are entertained by 
 some meteorologists as to a periodicity of rain and of 
 storms, and as to a connection between disturbances in 
 the gaseous envelope of the sun, and those which take 
 place in our own atmosphere. 
 
 It will be useful in the first place to summarise 
 briefly the principles which it has been endeavoured to 
 establish in the preceding chapters. 
 
 Chapter I. has been devoted to an account of the 
 
The Use of Weather Charts. 103 
 
 materials, in the way of observations, with which we 
 have to construct our edifice. 
 
 In Chapter II. the wind has been discussed, as the 
 atmospherical phenomenon which is most directly related 
 to weather. It has been shown that wind is always 
 connected with some disturbances of the pressure of 
 the atmosphere, its existence of course being due to the 
 tendency of an elastic body, like the air, to regain the 
 condition of equilibrium from whence it has, by any 
 means, been disturbed, while its motion is regulated by 
 certain fixed laws. 
 
 The subject of Chapter III. is the barometer, as 
 being the instrument by means of which the amount of 
 atmospherical pressure, and therefore of its disturbances 
 from time to time, is measured. It is shown how the dis- 
 tribution of pressure on a weather map is indicated by 
 the isobars, and how there are two grand types of dis- 
 turbance of atmospheric equilibrium, named respectively 
 cyclonic and anticyclonic, according as the pressure is 
 either in defect or in excess of its average value for the 
 special chart in question. Th-ese two types of disturb- 
 ance are characterised by different features, among 
 which the most striking is the contrast in the direction 
 of motion of the wind. 
 
 In Chapter IV. gradients have been explained, and 
 it has been shown that the distribution of pressure, as mea- 
 sured by the gradient, is the best guide we have towards 
 a knowledge x>f the laws of wind motion, and therefore, 
 in some degree, towards a knowledge of coming weather. 
 
IO4 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 It has, however, been stated that there are apparently 
 other agencies than the distribution of pressure which 
 influence the force of the wind, but that their precise 
 nature has not yet been ascertained. It has also been 
 pointed out that the phrases 'gradients for such and such 
 winds,' &c., are nothing more than the expression of the 
 laws of wind motion in a practical form. 
 
 Chapter V. contains a closer examination into the 
 principal features of cyclonic and anticyclonic systems 
 respectively, and into the character of the weather which 
 accompanies each. It states that while anticyclonic 
 areas are usually stationary or move slowly, cyclonic 
 areas travel more or less rapidly over the country, and 
 shows that their passage past a station presents marked 
 features of difference according as that station lies on 
 the right-hand or left-hand side of the path of the centre. 
 This has been illustrated by the continuous automatic 
 records of some of the self-recording observatories in 
 connection with the Meteorological Office, and it has 
 been shown how the usual changes of wind are such as 
 are referred to in Dove's well-known Law of Gyration. 
 
 It has also been explained that cyclonic systems are 
 not always isolated, but have occasionally what may be 
 called satellite systems in connection with them, which 
 exert a material influence on the gradients, and conse- 
 quently on the winds belonging to the original disturbance. 
 Finally, Chapter VI. has been devoted to the motion of 
 atmospherical disturbances, where it has been explained 
 at more length than in the preceding chapter, that 
 cyclonic systems move more rapidly than anticyclonic. 
 
The Use of Weather Charts. 105 
 
 Some cases of the motion of' storms have been traced, 
 and it has been shown that while we know very little of 
 . the rate of motion of a storm before it arrives, we can 
 frequently form a conception of the probable direction of 
 motion of the storm. This motion is affected by the 
 contour of the country over which it passes, and it 
 appears in great measure to be regulated by the position 
 of the anticyclonic areas in the neighbourhood. 
 
 The least consideration of the principles just 
 enumerated will abundantly show that the weather 
 prevailing over any district on a given day is clearly 
 affected by, if it may not be described as the result 
 of, the conditions prevailing in the districts round about, 
 so that by observing what those conditions have been 
 for some time back, we are enabled to form some opinion 
 as to the weather which we are experiencing, and which 
 is related to those conditions, whether it is likely to be 
 permanent or transient in its character, and if transient, 
 in what way it is likely to change. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say that the fresher the in- 
 formation is the better, but owing to the cost, it is not 
 possible in this country to follow the example of the 
 United States, and send out by telegraph, in all directions, 
 the entire mass of figures in the Daily Weather Reports, 
 in order that it may be published simultaneously in 
 every large town. Practically, in these islands the 
 readers of newspapers and the subscribers to the Daily 
 Weather Report cannot see their charts until several 
 hours, frequently even an entire day, after date. 
 
 Such information, however, can generally be turned 
 
io6 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 to very good service, if rightly used, and I shall take the 
 case of an observer resident not far from London, and 
 see what he can do with it. 
 
 I have already explained that most of our dis- 
 turbances travel from the westward, and as they take a 
 certain time to advance over the distance which separates 
 the east of England from the west of Ireland, we 
 can learn, by studying the chart for the previous day,, 
 what conditions were then existing at the western stations, 
 and consequently we can gain some idea of what is 
 likely to be the result of the changes which we notice by 
 our own local observations, instrumental and otherwise. 
 
 If, for instance, the barometer at our station is high 
 and steady, with dry weather and light winds, either in 
 winter or summer, we may form a general notion that 
 the type of weather is anticyclonic, and as this type is 
 peculiarly permanent, we may feel sure that any change 
 will give us at least several hours' notice of its coming, 
 by alterations in instrumental readings occurring over 
 some part of the district covered by the Reports. The 
 study of the charts in this case is the more important, 
 because frequently, at such a time, ' cirrus ' or ' mare's 
 tail' clouds appear in the sky, which are usually the 
 precursors of coming wind ; and change of wind in such 
 a case means change of weather. The charts then will 
 show whether or not this wind, existing at a great 
 elevation, had made its way down to the earth's surface 
 at any place on the previous day within the district just 
 referred to. 
 
The Use of Weather Charts. 107 
 
 In the case of cyclonic conditions, we have already 
 learnt that it will not do to trust implicitly to the fact of 
 storms advancing from the westward, but on the other 
 hand some ideas have been thrown out by means of 
 which we can, at least in some cases, forecast the pro- 
 bable direction of motion of a storm. At any rate we 
 are usually able to learn from a careful study of the 
 chart, whether or not we have to deal with disturbances, 
 on a large or a small scale, and accordingly, whether the 
 changes in progress indicate lasting, or merely temporary,, 
 conditions of weather. 
 
 These charts are therefore useful helps to the local 
 observer, and will be found so by those who study them 
 regularly, and combine with that study careful and sys- 
 tematic observations of their own instalments, and of local 
 weather ; but for the purpose of judging whether a 
 particular afternoon will be wet or fine, which is all that 
 the public generally care to know about weather, it is 
 obvious that charts which are in many places necessarily 
 twenty-four hours old cannot be of much service. More- 
 over the phenomena which we include under the general 
 term 'weather,' often depend in great measure on the 
 nature and conformation of the ground in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the observer, so that one place will be 
 much more liable to rain during disturbed weather than 
 another, while a second will exhibit a greater tendency 
 to the formation of fog at a calm period than an adjacent 
 district might show. As, therefore, such exceptional 
 tendency is confined to each special locality, and does 
 
io8 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 not belong to the phenomena produced at all stations 
 by the system of circulation prevailing at the time, it is 
 necessary that the observer who endeavours to forecast 
 probable weather should seek to ascertain under what 
 conditions such peculiarities manifest themselves, as it 
 would be useless to apply merely general rules in order 
 to see the meaning of phenomena of a purely local 
 character. 
 
 On the whole it must be said that our insular and 
 exposed position precludes us, in the present state of 
 our knowledge, from the possibility of issuing forecasts 
 of future weather sufficiently trustworthy to be worth 
 publication, excepting occasionally, and then principally 
 for the south-east of England. 
 
 Let us now examine in what manner the knowledge 
 we have gained would enable us to issue storm warnings 
 to the coasts. In the first place we can in many instances 
 learn from the general conditions of wind, &c., in fact ot 
 weather as a whole, what will be the character of the 
 changes likely to occur, and in what direction they will 
 propagate themselves. 
 
 We then notice the conditions of pressure as shown 
 by the barometer, what its changes are, and whether any 
 changes which may manifest themselves are traceable at 
 adjacent stations, and in what degree, so that we can 
 gain some idea of the extent of the disturbances which 
 are approaching. 
 
 We next see in what degree the barometrical changes 
 are borne out by the wind, both in direction and force; in 
 
The Use of Weather Charts. 109 
 
 fact we often get earlier intimation of approaching change 
 of weather from abnormal features in the direction of 
 the wind, than from the barometer readings, taken by 
 themselves. 
 
 Temperature, too, must be looked to, for as a general 
 rule, in winter, if the temperature has been very low, 
 even though the wind has been Southerly, we need not 
 fear a Southerly gale until the advancing depression has 
 exerted a marked influence in raising the temperature. 
 
 We have then the reports as to weather at the dif- 
 ferent stations, and the deficiency of information of this 
 nature has been amply explained in Chapter I. To 
 this class of observations belong reports of the cha- 
 racter and motion of clouds, and of the clearness or 
 mistiness of the air. Each of these latter may be, in 
 their way, a prognostic of storm ; the former, an un- 
 natural clearness, being a very bad indication before the 
 storm has actually reached us and affected our winds, 
 while the latter, mistiness, is often the immediate fore- 
 runner of coming rain, and sets in when the wind in 
 an advancing cyclonic system has begun to blow from 
 the South or South-east, or more especially on the ridge 
 of high pressure or debateable ground, which lies between 
 the NW. wind of a retreating, and the SE. wind of an 
 advancing, area of low pressure. 
 
 Reports of the Aurora are also very useful as cor- 
 roborative evidence. The past winter (1875-6), since the 
 beginning of December, has been the freest of any for the 
 last nine years from Westerly winds, i.e. from cyclonic 
 
no Weather CJiarts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 disturbances passing to the northward of these islands, 
 and it has also been remarkable for the rarity of reports 
 of the Aurora. 
 
 It is, however, obvious that we, in the Meteorological 
 Office, labour under prodigious disadvantages in at- 
 tempting to issue warnings for the United Kingdom. 
 Interest therefore attaches itself to the attempts which 
 we are making from time to time, to draw conclusions 
 from the experience of past weather which may be 
 useful to us in forming opinions on what is to come. 
 
 Attention has already been drawn to cyclonic dis- 
 turbances which follow each other along the same track 
 as long as the general distribution of pressure remains 
 unchanged, and it has also been stated at p. 15 that 
 cyclonic disturbances travel across the Atlantic for long 
 distances, if not from shore to shore. This is abundantly 
 proved by the well known fact that steamers, when out- 
 ward-bound to America, often meet a succession of such 
 cyclonic systems on their way towards Europe, and 
 when homeward-bound to England, often run for a cer- 
 tain time with such a system, so that in the former case 
 the changes in the instrumental indications, as well as in 
 winds and weather, are much more rapid than in the 
 latter, on the simple principle that if walking in a 
 crowded thoroughfare you meet many more vehicles 
 than you pass, or than overtake you. I shall return to 
 this subject of the advance of storms from America at 
 p. 126. 
 
 If, then, these disturbances are frequently travelling 
 in succession over the Atlantic, it is evident that we 
 
The Use of Weather Charts. 1 1 1 
 
 in these islands must at times encounter a series which 
 bears a close resemblance to a series which has pre- 
 ceded it as to the general character of the areas of de- 
 pression themselves, and as to the intervals which occur 
 between them. This we have noticed in our own weather 
 on various occasions, and the parallelism has been found 
 to hold good for as many as eight days together. Here, 
 then, is a most promising field for enquiry, which it is 
 hoped will eventually be carried out. 
 
 As to the theories which have been of late years 
 propounded to account for the origin and motion of 
 storms, I shall not attempt to discuss them, but merely 
 indicate the broad features of some of them in a very 
 cursory way. 
 
 Professor Mohn, the Rev. W. Clement Ley, and others, 
 attribute the generation and motion of storms to the 
 condensation of moisture in the form of clouds, resulting 
 in rain. This condensation takes place principally in 
 front of the storm, and, so to speak, draws it on. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Belt and Professor Reye account for the 
 origin of the storm by the existence of a condition of 
 unstable equilibrium in the atmosphere ; a cold stratum 
 being situated at some height above the ground, if the 
 air at the earth's surface becomes heated, it must even- 
 tually force its way through the superincumbent colder 
 layer, and the upward current thus generated will be the 
 core of the resulting cyclone. Professor Reye goes so 
 far as to say that the storms of the largest dimensions 
 experienced in these latitudes are substantially analogous 
 to the smallest waterspouts or dust-whirls we can observe. 
 
112 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 In direct contradiction to this view, M. Faye, in the 
 ' Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes' for 187 5, has pro- 
 pounded the view that cyclones are vortices descending 
 from the upper regions of the atmosphere to the earth's 
 surface, and that their motion is that of the upper current. 
 
 Lastly, Mr. Meldrum and others consider that 
 cyclones are always generated in the space intervening 
 between two currents, which themselves are tangents to 
 the nascent cyclone. Thus, in the North Temperate 
 zone, the conditions which would give rise to the 
 cyclones are those which will be noticed at p. 131, of 
 Easterly winds on the northern side of Westerly winds. 
 We need hardly remind our readers that every perfectly 
 developed cyclonic disturbance here must have East 
 winds in the north and West winds in the south. 
 
 It is clear that when 'doctors differ' to the extent in- 
 dicated in the above sketches of the different theories, 
 the world in general must be content to wait patiently 
 for a complete theory of weather to be developed. 
 
 Before we leave the subject altogether, it will per- 
 haps be interesting to see the extent to which we are 
 able to forecast the weather for longer periods than a 
 day or two. Attempts have not unfrequently been 
 made to predict the seasons for a long period in ad- 
 vance, but without much success hitherto. One great 
 cause for failure is that accurate meteorological records do 
 not extend beyond the beginning of the present century 
 at more than a few stations, and at these we are unable 
 to eliminate the local influences altogether. Thus, it is 
 
Tlie Use of Weather Charts. 113 
 
 hardly possible to say what has been the approximate 
 temperature of these islands for more than twenty years 
 a period far too short for the definite recognition of a 
 cycle. The shortest of such cosmical cycles which has been 
 determined is the sun-spot period of I \\ years, according 
 to Wolf, and there are indications of far longer periods, 
 such as 3 3 years, or even 69 J years, according to Hornstein. 
 
 Of late years Mr. Meldrum,of the Mauritius, has shown 
 that the cyclones for which that district of the Indian 
 Ocean enjoys an unenviable notoriety, have been more 
 frequent in some years than in others, and that these 
 epochs of maximum frequency occur at intervals of 
 about eleven years, coinciding with those of maximum 
 sun-spot frequency. 
 
 This agreement is most important, and it appears to 
 be corroborated by an examination of the rainfall at 
 several stations which has been conducted by Mr. 
 Meldrum and others. The results, for the compara- 
 tively short period to which they refer, are very striking, 
 and are sufficient to show that a periodicity is traceable 
 in the weather of the Southern Indian Ocean, which is 
 eminently suggestive of an intimate relationship between 
 the changes which take place on the sun's surface, and 
 the phenomena of our own atmosphere. 
 
 It will at once be asked, Why has not this periodicity, 
 if it exists, been detected long ago by an examination 
 of European records, which are far more complete than 
 any existing for the Indian Ocean ? The answer to this 
 is twofold. 
 
 I 
 
1 14 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 In the first place we are pre-eminently in the region 
 of the variable winds, and our storms are not nearly so 
 regular in their type as those of the Mauritius, where 
 almost the sole type of storm is the true tropical 
 cyclone with its concomitant rainfall. It is next to im- 
 possible in this country to keep a record of all the 
 storms which pass over us. We have already seen that 
 the existence of conjugate storms is not unfrequent : 
 two or even three systems of disturbance being traceable 
 at one time within the limited area of the United King- 
 dom. Are these one single storm or several, and how 
 should they be counted in a catalogue ? Rain also can- 
 not be taken as a sign of the frequency of wind storms in a 
 year ; for although we know that warm winters are in- 
 variably wet and stormy, and moreover, that cyclonic 
 disturbances are accompanied by rain at all seasons, yet 
 it cannot be asserted that either the almost constant 
 rain of 1872, or the recurrence of floods in 1875, were in 
 any way related to storms of wind, though their connec- 
 tion with the presence of areas of depression over these 
 islands is indisputable. 
 
 There is, however, in the second place, a far deeper 
 reason for the non-discovery of these cycles in any 
 chance series of rainfall records. The sun passes through 
 phases of greater and less activity, and the terrestrial 
 phenomena corresponding to the epochs of the former 
 character are excessive evaporation in some parts of the 
 globe, and consequent excessive precipitation in others. 
 We must therefore ascertain in what districts we are to 
 
The Use of Weather Charts. 1 1 5 
 
 look for the one and for the other of these phenomena 
 respectively. In fact we cannot yet say where we shall 
 find the maximum solar effect produced. 
 
 The lesson that we are to learn from the fruitful 
 researches of Mr. Meldrum has been pointed out by 
 himself and others ; it is that we should aim at attaining 
 a thorough knowledge of the movements and changes 
 of our own atmosphere, and should then seek to establish a 
 connection between them and other cosmical phenomena, 
 such as terrestrial magnetism, the relation of which to the 
 state of the sun's surface was pointed out by Sir E. Sabine 
 more than twenty years ago. 
 
 I 2 
 
1 1 6 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 STORM WARNINGS. 
 
 STORM Warnings may be considered as the most imme- 
 diate practical application of weather knowledge, and in 
 fact it was the possibility of issuing such intelligence 
 which gave the first impetus to the development of 
 Weather Telegraphy. Although this branch of the sub- 
 ject has not yet been reduced to such strict rules of pro- 
 cedure as are demanded by the requirements of an exact 
 science like Astronomy, meteorologists can at all events 
 lay claim to having established some principles which 
 are sufficient, in many cases, to throw valuable light on 
 the conditions which may be expected to result from 
 existing circumstances, and so to some extent to lift 
 the veil which shrouds the future from our eyes. 
 
 The first suggestion of the electric telegraph as a 
 method of conveying intelligence of storms from one 
 place to another is apparently due to Mr. Redfield in 
 America, who shares with our own countryman, Sir 
 W. Reid, the honour of having reduced the Law of 
 Storms to a science. Redfield's paper is in the 'American 
 Journal of Science and Art ' for 1847. 
 
Storm Warnings. 1 1 7 
 
 The subject was taken up in a tentative way in 
 the United States between the years 1850 and 1860, 
 but further operations in this direction were brought 
 to a standstill by the war in 1861. 
 
 On this side of the Atlantic the credit of taking the 
 initiative is due to LeVerrier, the present director of 
 the Paris Observatory, who, as early as on February 17, 
 1 85 5, received the Emperor's sanction for the creation of 
 an extensive organisation destined to distribute intelli- 
 gence of weather over the countries embraced by it. 
 The possibility of rendering such an organisation really 
 useful had been previously shown by the study of the 
 Balaclava storm of November 14, 1854, which had 
 wrought immense damage to the allied fleets in the 
 Black Sea, and by whose effects hardly a country in 
 southern Europe had been left unscathed. It was evi- 
 dent, from a mere cursory study of the facts of this storm, 
 especially of its rate of progress, that timely notice of its 
 approach might have been issued from the coasts which 
 were first visited to those which subsequently felt its 
 effects. 
 
 The plan gradually assumed a definite form, and in 
 the spring of 1860 M. LeVerrier addressed a letter to Sir 
 George Airy, inviting the co-operation of this country 
 in his scheme. This letter contains certain expressions 
 which have such an important bearing on the subse- 
 quent history of storm warnings that they are worth 
 translation and quotation. They are as follows : 
 
 ' The ultimate result of the organisation which we 
 
1 1 8 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 are establishing should be to announce a storm as soon 
 as it appears at any point in Europe, to follow it on its 
 course by means of the telegraph, and to give timely 
 notice of it to the coasts which it may reach/ 
 
 I shall proceed to show to what extent this pro- 
 gramme has been carried out, and to what extent it has 
 been possible to go beyond it. 
 
 In this country the idea of storm warnings had been 
 broached before 1860, for at the meeting of the British 
 Association at Aberdeen in 1859, a formal resolution 
 was adopted in favour of the organisation of such a 
 system. A month after the meeting the loss of the 
 * Royal Charter ' on the coast of Anglesea arrested uni- 
 versal attention, and as there seemed, at first sight, a 
 chance that that ship might possibly have been warned 
 of her danger, the hasty conclusion was drawn that no 
 storm could ever come on without giving timely indication 
 of its own approach. Subsequent experience soon proved 
 how very unsafe such a generalisation was. 
 
 Early in 1861 the first tentative warnings were sent 
 out, and by the beginning of 1862 Admiral FitzRoy's 
 system was definitely established. The principles on 
 which our present warning system is based are mainly 
 the same as the principles of that devised by the 
 Admiral, but exhibit some contrasts to them. 
 
 Admiral FitzRoy, when he issued a signal, intended 
 by it to imply that the storm of which it gave warning 
 would be likely to occur within the next seventy-two 
 hours. He therefore had the signals kept up until the 
 
Storm Warnings. 119 
 
 evening of the day on which they were hoisted, and then 
 lowered, while by the present system they are not 
 lowered until all danger of the gale appears to be past. 
 It is evident from this that if, as often happens, threaten- 
 ing symptoms disappeared without the actual occurrence 
 of a gale, Admiral FitzRoy had no means of announc- 
 ing to the ports, on the day after the issue of a warning, 
 the fact of the improvement in the weather prospects. 
 This arose from the fact that once his signal had been 
 lowered there was no public indication that it had even 
 been hoisted at all, and yet the warning had been 
 intended to cover three whole days. By the present 
 system the fact that no signal is exhibited is, to a cer- 
 tain extent, a proof that no danger is apprehended at 
 the Office in London. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to describe the signals, as their 
 appearance is familiar to all who have been at seaside 
 places, but for the sake of those who may not have been 
 on the coast in winter, at which season the signals are most 
 frequently visible, I may give the following explanation 
 of their meaning. 
 
 TELEGRAPHIC WEATHER INTELLIGENCE. 
 
 The fact that a warning has been received at any 
 station is made known by a signal, which is hoisted on 
 the receipt of the message, and remains hoisted, but 
 only during the day-time, for the space of forty-eight 
 hours and no longer, counted from the time the message 
 is sent out. 
 
1 20 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 The signals are made by means of two canvas shapes, 
 a cone and a drum, fig. 45, p. 121. 
 
 The cone is three feet high and three feet wide at 
 base, and appears as a triangle when hoisted. 
 
 The drum (or cylinder) is three feet high and three 
 feet wide, and appears as a square when hoisted. 
 
 The cone, point downwards, means that strong winds 
 are probable, at first from the Southward (from SE. 
 round by S. to NW.). 
 
 The cone, point upwards, means that strong winds 
 are probable, at first from the Northward (from NW. 
 round by N. to SE.). 
 
 The drum is hoisted with the cone whenever an un- 
 usually heavy gale, either Southerly or Northerly, as the 
 case may be, is probable. 
 
 The drum is not used without the cone. 
 
 It must be remembered that a Southerly wind is 
 much more likely to veer suddenly to a point North of 
 West than a Northerly wind is to veer to a point South 
 of East. 
 
 Accordingly, when the South cone is hoisted, and 
 the anchorage or harbour is exposed to the North-west, it 
 is advisable to make preparations for a North-west gale. 
 
 The signal is kept flying until dusk, and then lowered, 
 and hoisted again next morning ; and so on until the 
 end of forty-eight hours from the time the message has 
 been issued from London (which is always marked on 
 the telegram), unless orders are received previously to 
 lower the signal. 
 
Storm Warnings. 
 
 121 
 
 CAUTIONARY SIGNALS. 
 Day signals. 
 
 PROBABLE HEAVY GALE OR STORM. 
 
 SOUTH CONE. NORTH CONE. 
 
 a b 
 
 Gale Gale 
 
 probably probably 
 
 from the from the 
 
 Southward. Northward. 
 
 Dangerous Dangerous 
 
 Winds, Winds, 
 
 probably at first probably at first 
 
 from the from the 
 
 Southward. Northward. 
 
 Night signals (instead of the above), lights in triangle. 
 
 Gale 
 
 probably from the 
 Southward. 
 
 FIG. 45. 
 
 Gale 
 
 probably from the 
 Northward. 
 
122 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 At dusk, whenever a signal ought to be flying if it 
 were daylight, a night signal may be hoisted in place of 
 the cone, consisting of three lanterns hung on a triangu- 
 lar frame, point downwards or point upwards, as the 
 case may be. It is not considered necessary to hoist 
 lanterns to represent the drum. The lanterns are 
 kept burning until late in the evening, say nine or ten 
 o'clock. 
 
 MEANING OF SIGNAL. 
 
 The hoisting of any of these signals is intended as a 
 sign that there is an atmospherical disturbance in exist- 
 ence which will probably cause a gale, from the quarter 
 indicated by the signal used, in the neighbourhood (say, 
 within a distance of fifty miles) of the place where the 
 signal is hoisted, and the knowledge of which is likely 
 to be of use to the sailors and fishermen on that part of 
 the coast. Its meaning is simply, ' Look out ! It is pro- 
 bable that bad weather of such and such a character is 
 approaching you/ 
 
 In every case some of the principal reasons which 
 have led to the hoisting of the signal are explained in 
 the telegram, which should always be kept posted up 
 for public inspection while the signal is flying. 
 
 The simplicity of the idea of using a cone and a 
 drum, which must necessarily show the same shape, as a 
 triangle or a square, no matter how they are blown about 
 by the wind, is the great merit of FitzRoy's plan, as 
 the sailor need not burthen his memory with a complex 
 
Storm Warnings. 123, 
 
 code of signals. In fact when the Meteorological Office 
 in 1868 made an attempt to introduce a more complex 
 apparatus, like a railway semaphore, in order to con- 
 vey intelligence to ships in the offing, the experiment 
 fell perfectly flat, owing to the difficulty of introducing 
 a totally novel system for the use of our coasting seamen, 
 for whose benefit storm warnings are originally intended. 
 
 The question of signals is not an easy one to set 
 finally at rest. There is no doubt that the information 
 conveyed by them would be infinitely more valuable if 
 they could be shown from headlands which shipping 
 usually make, such as the Lizard, than if they were 
 simply exhibited in harbours. Here then we see the 
 necessity for a special signal code. By our present system 
 we can only give a limited number of possible signals, so 
 that we cannot convey detailed information to ships at 
 any distance from the shore ; say, even riding at anchor 
 in the Downs. 
 
 Our system is to hoist the signal as an indication that 
 some information of a certain kind has been sent to the 
 signal station, which it is of importance to the seaman to 
 know : but he must land and read the telegram himself 
 if he wants to learn more precisely what the facts are. 
 We are as yet a long way off from the condition which 
 may be described as the acme of weather-signalling, and 
 which has often been suggested, that of having a weather 
 signal book containing charts of different types of weather,, 
 much like the illustrations in these pages, duly numbered,, 
 so that by simply hoisting a number on the signal staff, 
 
1 24 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 we could tell the seaman to what page in the book he 
 had to turn, and what weather he had to expect. Thus 
 such a chart as that for November 29, 1874 (fig. 2), 
 might be described as No. 371, and so on. It will, however, 
 be many a long year before our knowledge of weather will 
 justify our issuing such a collection of typical weather 
 maps as would be likely to be of service for such a pur- 
 pose, but we may fairly cherish the hope that in the 
 future something of this kind may be done. 
 
 It may here be observed that the Meteorological 
 Office is often expected to be far more venturesome in its 
 announcements of weather than it is at all prepared to 
 be. Not very long ago, a gentleman called on me with 
 the request that I would prepare for a newspaper which 
 he had recently started, a forecast of the probable weather 
 for a week in advance. On my declining the task, he 
 remarked that Admiral FitzRoy had issued forecasts for 
 three days in advance, and that by this time we ought 
 to be able to do so for double that period. He quietly 
 ignored the fact that Admiral FitzRoy's three-day fore- 
 casts were not successful enough for them to be continued, 
 and that accordingly they have not been kept up. 
 
 Other men call on us to be as precise in our an- 
 nouncements of ' probabilities' as the Chief Signal Office 
 at Washington, in simple oblivion of the circumstance 
 that while that office has an immense continent to deal 
 with, and is itself situated on the eastern side of its area 
 of observation ; so that the gradual march of weather 
 changes over the western stations can be observed and 
 
Storm Warnings. 125 
 
 reported long before they reach the more thickly popu- 
 lated portions of the States ; we have to deal with an 
 extended oceanic coast, and can by no possibility have 
 a series of stations on our western side, so that, unless 
 by the appearance of the clouds and sky, we have no 
 chance of learning what is going on, out of sight of land. 
 Our reporting system is shown on the frontispiece, and 
 a glance at it will prove how badly we are off for stations 
 on the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland. These are 
 the most important districts for gaining early intelligence 
 of weather changes, but in the first instance telegraphic 
 communication is only very scantily developed in such 
 wild regions, and in the second place the habitable spots 
 are all in sheltered bays, where the true force of the wind 
 is hardly ever felt, owing to the fact that few ordinary 
 houses could bear the brunt of a winter Atlantic gale, 
 blowing, as it sometimes does, with a velocity of over 80 
 miles in a single hour, and reaching the speed of at least 
 100 or 1 20 in gusts. The observers therefore cannot 
 possibly send up perfectly true reports of the direction 
 and force of wind, as will be at once admitted when the 
 position of the stations is considered. Valencia lies on 
 the shore of a narrow sound, with high hills about it. 
 At Greencastle the high land of Innishowen breaks 
 the force of the South-west and West winds. Ardrossan 
 is a valuable station, but it is far up the Frith of Clyde, 
 and at least fifty miles, as the crow flies, from the ex- 
 treme western point of Islay. We have no other station 
 till we reach Stornoway in the Island of Lewis. 
 
126 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 A great deal is talked about our getting reports from 
 Newfoundland, the United States, the Azores, and the 
 Faroes, and lastly from moored signal ships. 
 
 We received telegrams for a long time from Heart's 
 Content gratis, through the liberality of the Anglo- 
 American Telegraph Company, but we could not turn 
 them to practical account, partly owing to the fact that 
 the situation of that station was chosen as a sheltered 
 nook, where no storm could hurt the cable, so that the 
 wind felt there bore little relation to that blowing at 
 sea outside ; but more particularly on account of the 
 circumstance that though storms do sometimes cross 
 the Atlantic from shore to shore, they change their 
 character en route, some increasing and others dying 
 out, so that we cannot possibly predict which storm, out 
 of several starting from the States, will reach us. Pro- 
 fessor Loomis, a very high authority on American 
 weather, supports the above view very strongly in the 
 following words, taken from the ' American Journal 
 of Science and Art' for January 1876. 
 
 ' When storms from the American continent enter 
 upon the Atlantic Ocean they generally undergo im- 
 portant changes in a few days, and are frequently merged 
 in other storms which appear to originate over the ocean, 
 so that we can seldom identify a storm in its course 
 entirely across the Atlantic.' 
 
 To give an instance of a storm failing to advance 
 over any great distance, I shall take one which will be 
 reasonably fresh in the memory of all. On November 
 
Storm Warnings. 127 
 
 30, 1874, the steamer ' La Plata,' with a telegraph cable 
 on board, foundered in a heavy gale near the Channel 
 Islands. This storm entirely died out and disappeared 
 before it crossed the North Sea. 
 
 These statements show how rash is the opinion 
 which is held by Professor Daniel Draper, of New 
 York, and announced in the Reports of the Central 
 Park Observatory for 1872 and 1873, to the effect that 
 out of eighty-six storms which he had investigated, as 
 having started from New York, only three had failed to 
 show themselves either at Valencia or Falmouth. This 
 assertion has cropped up again and again in newspapers 
 and magazines at this side of the Atlantic, but it is only 
 fair to ourselves to say that the idea was received with 
 even greater incredulity by meteorologists in the United 
 States than it met with among scientific men over here. 
 
 To take a matter nearer home ; it has often been sug- 
 gested that this country should bear a considerable 
 share in the cost of daily telegrams from the Azores to 
 Europe, as it was assumed that as the islands in ques- 
 tion are situated in the Atlantic, off the coast of 
 Portugal, they must be, so to speak, pickets to give us 
 early news of danger approaching from that quarter. 
 
 All this is very plausible, but when we come to test 
 the simultaneous reports taken daily in those islands 
 and at Valencia, as has been done at the Meteorological 
 Office for two years and a half ('Quarterly Journal of the 
 Meteorological Society,' vol. i. p. 183), we find that 
 there is practically no connection between the pheno- 
 
128 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 mena occurring at the two stations, so that we could get 
 no direct warnings of approaching storms from the Azores, 
 though of course a daily knowledge of the conditions 
 of weather over the part of the Atlantic where those 
 islands are situated could not fail to be of value to us, 
 as is evident from what has been said in Chapter VL 
 In fact the Azores lie to the southward of the usual 
 track of Atlantic storms, and it would apparently be a 
 far better investment of money for this country to spend 
 it in obtaining reports from the Faroes, if ever a cable 
 were laid to those islands, than in paying for telegrams 
 from the Azores, as many of the most destructive 
 storms on our north-east coast come down on us from 
 the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean and pass over 
 the Faroe Islands. The value of St. Kilda as an out- 
 post could hardly be overrated, but there is no present 
 hope of telegraphic connection with that island, and in 
 all cases it must be remembered that unless a cable will 
 pay commercially it is hopeless to look for the establish- 
 ment of telegraphic communication for scientific purposes. 
 The idea of the employment of ships moored at a 
 distance from the coast, and connected by a telegraphic 
 cable with the shore, has already been noticed in Chapter 
 I. This plan has over and over again been suggested 
 as a most valuable mode of obtaining information, not 
 only of the position of vessels in distress or wind-bound, 
 but of the meteorological conditions prevailing out at 
 sea. Some scientific men, as Mr. Morse, have even 
 gone so far as to propose that these signal ships need 
 
Storm Warnings. 129 
 
 not even be manned, but might be simple buoys pro- 
 vided with electrically self-registering apparatus, which 
 might record its indications automatically at the nearest 
 station on land! 
 
 The plain state of the case about any such visionary 
 projects is that, even if we were to overcome the dif- 
 ficulty of mooring a ship in 1,000 fathom water, we 
 should find it next to impossible to maintain the tele- 
 graphic cable in perfect working condition. Some years 
 ago the Admiralty lent H.M.S. * Brisk ' to be moored as 
 a trial signal ship at the entrance of the Channel. The 
 experiment was given up in six weeks, mainly on the 
 ground of the difficulty of maintaining the telegraphic 
 connection in a perfect state, and I believe that the 
 venture cost the promoters about as many thousand 
 pounds as the ' Brisk ' was days at sea. 
 
 We learn therefore from all this, that we in the 
 United Kingdom have to rely on our own resources and 
 our own stations, for gaining information for storm- 
 warning purposes, and so we must only do our best to 
 improve our own arrangements. 
 
 It is evident that, if we had an extensive continent 
 like North America to deal \vith, we too, in the Meteoro- 
 logical Office, could probably make good our claim to a 
 proportion of successes for our warnings, rivalling that 
 with which the Chief Signal Office is justly credited. 
 That this is not an idle boast is shown by the following 
 figures taken from the Report of the Meteorological 
 Office (the Deutsche Seewarte) at Hamburg for 1874. 
 
 K 
 
130 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 A system of warnings for Hamburg from our Office has 
 been in operation since 1 867, and the general results are, 
 that 301 warning messages were issued from London in 
 the course of the 7 years. 72 per cent, of these warnings 
 were followed by gales, while in only three cases did the 
 storm outrun the message. Naturally in these figures 
 no account is taken of the gales missed owing to the 
 Sunday interruption of our service. 
 
 The reason of this success in issuing to Hamburg 
 timely warning of all storms, which is far more brilliant 
 than we can ever show for our own coasts, is that our 
 network of stations, as will be seen from the frontispiece, 
 entirely surrounds the North Sea, and that no storm can 
 reach Hamburg without passing over our outposts, unless 
 it comes- from the continental side, a very unusual direc- 
 tion for its advance. As a proof of this statement I may 
 say that in the year 1869 twenty-three storms were felt 
 in Hamburg, and twenty-two of these had previously 
 passed over some part of the United Kingdom. 
 
 If it be asked what the real practice of storm warn- 
 ings is at present, I can only reply that it is a moderate 
 advance on LeVerrier's anticipations in 1860, p. 117. It 
 will appear from the previous pages that we have some 
 sort of knowledge of the circumstances under which 
 the various types of storms approach the different parts 
 of our coasts, but these are not sufficient to tell us in 
 every case when a storm is imminent. 
 
 Some conditions, like those pointed out in a paper of 
 mine printed in the ' Proceedings of the Royal Society ' 
 
Storm Warnings. 131 
 
 for I869, 1 give us more warning than others. In that 
 paper it is shown that the appearance of Easterly winds 
 on the northern side of Westerly winds is a nearly sure 
 sign of the approach of Southerly winds, the precursors 
 of a cyclonic area, and perhaps of a storm, which will 
 probably affect the whole kingdom, while the appearance 
 of Easterly winds on the southern side of Westerly winds 
 is not followed by any disturbance of a cyclonic character. 
 In all this we are of course speaking of the northern 
 hemisphere. 
 
 These circumstances, and other premonitions of a 
 similar nature, are not of very frequent occurrence, and 
 in general it is not until the storm is quite close at 
 hand, and the barometer has begun to fall briskly at 
 the outposts, that we feel ourselves justified in issuing a 
 definite warning. The appearance of one of the small 
 satellite depressions, however, not very unfrequently 
 precedes that of a more serious storm ; accordingly, if we 
 notice one of these lesser disturbances, we are at once 
 put on our guard. 
 
 A rapid and unexpected rise of the barometer is 
 often the precursor of a coming depression, so that, 
 whenever we see a sudden rise we may expect an 
 equally sudden fall, and must be on the look out for the 
 slightest tendency of pressure to give way. 
 
 It should, however, be remembered that, as regards 
 
 1 ' On the connexion between oppositely disposed currents of air, and 
 the weather subsequently experienced in the British Islands : ' Proceedings 
 of the Royal Society, vol. xviii., p. 12. 
 
13- Weather Charts and S term Warnings. 
 
 barometrical indications, we are guided not only by the. 
 actual fall of the mercurial column on a certain line of 
 our own coasts, but also by the behaviour of the baro- 
 meter at far distant continental stations. Thus in the 
 case of the storm already so often quoted, November 
 29, 1874, a warning had been issued to the coasts at 
 3.30 p.m. on the 28th, when the most alarming sign 
 was not so much the fall of the barometer at our south- 
 western stations, taken by itself, as the fact that this was 
 accompanied by a slight rise, of O'Oi inch, since 8 a.m. 
 at Rochefort, readings being already seven tenths of an 
 inch higher in the south-west of France than in the 
 south of Ireland. This showed that pressure was bank- 
 ing up to the southward, and that gradients were con- 
 sequently becoming steeper along the Channel coast. 
 If, when the barometer falls at our south-western sta- 
 tions, the fall affects those in the south of France, we 
 know that we have less to fear from Westerly winds, as 
 the tendency of such a change is to reduce the gradients 
 for winds from that quarter, while a rise of pressure 
 over France when it is already relatively high there, puts 
 us at once on our guard for a blow from the Westward. 
 
 Similar reasoning will apply to barometrical indica- 
 tions in other parts, but of almost equal value to them, 
 and in some respects of even higher importance, as 
 giving earlier intimation, are the changes in direction 
 of the wind. 
 
 I have already alluded to the proverbial danger of 
 a backing wind p. 72 ; this, however, is chiefly true as 
 
Storm Warnings. 133 
 
 concerns the 'backing' of the wind from NW. to SW. 
 .and S., which indicates the approach of a fresh disturb- 
 ance, for it has been explained that if one cyclonic 
 storm is following another in quick succession, as the 
 wind on the southern side of each runs gradually from 
 SE. through S. and W. to NW., the approach of the 
 second depression will cause the vane to shift back 
 from NW. towards SE. This backing is almost the 
 most dangerous sign of all. 
 
 It has, however, been stated already that it is not safe 
 to depend on the observations from our western stations 
 as to the direction and force of the wind, owing to the 
 hilly nature of the coasts, so that we cannot implicitly 
 trust the reports on this subject which we receive. 
 
 Another very important sign as regards the wind, is 
 the indraught of air towards the storm area. This is 
 perfectly intelligible on the supposition that the air 
 really flows in towards the centre and rises there. On 
 the approach of a cyclone to the west coast of Ireland, 
 we frequently find the winds South-easterly on the west 
 coast of France, as on November 28, 1874, p. 83, while we 
 can hardly say that the barometer at such a distance from 
 the centre of the disturbance had yet felt its influence. 
 
 The reports of sea disturbance are even more un- 
 certain guides to us than the observations of wind, as 
 is explained in Chapter L, p. II. 
 
 Temperature is also a very useful aid in gaining a 
 knowledge of coming disturbance, for it will be remem- 
 bered how the rise of the thermometer in front of a 
 
1 34 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 storm is a marked characteristic of areas of low pressure, 
 but the indications of temperature have, for various 
 reasons, not yet been reduced to strict rules like those of 
 the barometer. 
 
 We know, however, that a great contrast of tem- 
 perature between adjacent stations or, so to speak, 
 a great thermometric gradient, being an indication of 
 serious atmospherical disturbance, is the precursor or 
 concomitant of a serious storm, so that if we find a 
 great difference between the reports of temperature, we 
 are at once warned of approaching disturbance. A 
 recent instance of this fact may be cited. On Novem- 
 ber 13, 1875, at 8 a.m., the thermometric report from 
 Scilly was 57, and from Wick 21. The resulting dif- 
 ference is 36. The gale of Sunday, November 14, with 
 its accompanying high tide and consequent inundations 
 on the south coast and in London, will be fresh in the 
 memory of all. 
 
 Besides all the symptoms of the approach of a storm 
 which have been enumerated, there are the innumerable 
 local signs which enable the fisherman and shepherd,. 
 not to speak of the inferior animals, to judge of coming 
 bad weather. Among all these, almost the most im- 
 portant are the character and motion of the upper 
 clouds, showing the existence of wind aloft which will, 
 in all probability, soon descend to our level. Another 
 great sign is the clearness of the atmosphere, the un- 
 usual visibility of distant objects, which is well known 
 to all as a sign of a coming gale. 
 
Storm Warnings. 135 
 
 It must always be remembered, that in order to 
 issue perfectly correct storm warnings, we should re- 
 quire to know the size, shape, position, and motion, in 
 direction and rate, of an advancing depression, and also 
 whether it is becoming deeper or the contrary, and that 
 there is not one of these conditions of which we have a 
 really sufficient knowledge at present, while of most of 
 them we can have no knowledge at all till the storm has 
 burst upon us. The problem which is put before the 
 Meteorological Office daily, is similar to one which astro- 
 nomers would at once recognise as impossible of solution, 
 and that is to determine the elements of a comet's path 
 from a single observation taken, say, in a brief clear in- 
 terval on a cloudy night. The first glimpse we get of a 
 storm must suffice for us to issue our warnings. 
 
 It is therefore evident that for our own exposed 
 western and northern coasts we can but rarely issue 
 timely warnings, but fortunately these iron-bound shores 
 are not frequented by an amount of coasting craft at all 
 to be compared with that navigating the comparatively 
 calmer waters of the two Channels and the North Sea. 
 
 The results of the warnings to our own coasts 
 have been printed as Parliamentary papers for several 
 years back. The following is the abstract of these re- 
 sults for the year 1874 (Parl. Paper, No. 210, 1875, 
 being the last which has been published). 
 
136 
 
 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 r which no warn 
 was issued 
 
 
 a 5 S 55 = 5* |1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 ^- i ""* 
 
 11U 
 
 - - H 
 
 W 
 
Storm Warnings. 
 
 '37 
 
 If these figures be compared with those for the year 
 , we see that the results in percentages are nearly 
 identical. 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 
 Warnings justified 
 
 Warnings not 
 justified by 
 subsequent 
 weather 
 
 By subsequent 
 gales 
 
 By subsequent 
 strong winds 
 
 Totnl success 
 
 45'2 
 45'4 
 
 34'0 
 32-8 
 
 79-2 
 78-2 
 
 16-8 
 16-4 
 
 Accordingly it appears that nearly half the signals 
 of approaching storms (force upwards of 8, Beaufort 
 scale, 'a fresh gale') were fully justified, and the same 
 is the case for four out of five signals of approaching 
 strong winds (force upwards of 6, Beaufort scale, a 
 * strong breeze '). 
 
 It is therefore evident that the system of storm 
 warnings renders it possible to give useful intelligence 
 to the coasts, but it need hardly be said that the system 
 for these islands is rather of the ' from hand to mouth ' 
 type, and that our warnings would be far more useful 
 if they could be issued sooner, so as to render it pos- 
 sible for captains to get intimation of a coming gale 
 before leaving port. This, however, cannot be hoped for 
 the present state, the infancy, of weather telegraphy, 
 f ew instances will suffice to show what are the 
 principal causes of failure of warnings, in addition to 
 those arising from the imperfections of our arrangements 
 which have been already described. 
 
 I shall commence with a case in which even a 
 
138 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 practised seaman's experience was at fault, so that we 
 can hardly blame our telegraphic reporters, who are 
 mostly landsmen, for their failure to notice from the ap- 
 pearance of the sky and sea, that a tremendous storm 
 was imminent. Some of my readers may remember the 
 gale of November 22, 1872, when the ' Royal Adelaide' 
 was lost on Chesil Bank. On that day at noon the 
 telegraphic reports showed an apparent improvement 
 on the weather of the previous day, so that the signals 
 then flying were lowered on the south coast. At night 
 the storm came on, and of course the comments on 
 the Office were not favourable. On this day one of 
 our best sea-observers, the late Captain Thomas Donkin, 
 of the * Inverness/ (one of the three ships that rode 
 out the Madras cyclone of May 2, 1872), was out in the 
 gale, and was blown back by it, hove to, from the 
 Lizard to the Casquets, off Alderney. I wrote to him 
 as soon as I heard that he was safe at anchor at Port- 
 land, to ask him whether he, being at sea, had anticipated 
 the storm from the look of the sky and sea, and his 
 answer was : ' With respect to the weather on November 
 22, I may say that at noon I was standing in towards 
 the land, between Falmouth and Plymouth, and a pilot 
 cutter came alongside, and if I had had the least appre- 
 hension of such a gale as followed being near at hand, 
 I should have taken a pilot and gone into Plymouth. 
 The appearance of the weather at the time was fine, 
 though the glass was falling, though not low at the 
 time for SW. wind and unsettled weather.' 
 
Storm Warnings. 
 
 139 
 
 In this case, therefore, the signals, once hoisted, had 
 been lowered too soon. 
 
 The next case, which I shall illustrate by charts,, 
 affords specimens of a double failure of warnings. In 
 the first instance the signals had been hoisted on the 
 north-west coasts on the morning of the 2Oth, and had 
 been lowered again in the afternoon, while subsequently 
 they were hoisted unnecessarily and had to be lowered. 
 The gale is that of October 21, 1874, which has already 
 been noticed p. 66. 
 
 Taking the first chart (fig. 46) for 8 a.m. October 
 
 'T31^^ 
 &r*z-^&> 
 
 FIG. 46. October 20, 1874; 8 a.m. 
 
 Depression approaching coast of 
 
 Norway. 
 
 FIG. 47. October 20, 1874 ; 
 6 p.m. Depression off Chris- 
 tiansund. 
 
 20, we find pressure highest over the entrance of the 
 Channel, and least in the far north, where SW. gales are 
 
Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 reported. These gales, with a falling barometer in Scot- 
 land, caused some alarm, but this was allayed by finding 
 conditions unchanged at 2 p.m. By 6 p.m., however, 
 (fig. 47), the depression existing in the north had ad- 
 vanced to the coast of Norway, where the barometer 
 liad fallen 0*6 inch, but the signs of danger to ourselves 
 were the bend southwards of the isobar of 29*4 round 
 the Butt of Lewis, and the backing of the wind, though 
 still light in force, to South-west at Stornoway and over 
 the Moray Firth, and, though last not least, the steady 
 rise of the barometer at the entrance of the Channel. 
 
 During the night the storm came on, and at 8 a.m. 
 October 21, its centre lay half way between Peterhead 
 and the Shetlands (fig. 48), while a terrific Westerly gale 
 
 FiG. 48. October 21, 1874 ; 8 a.m. New depression off north of 
 Scotland. 
 
Storm Warnings. 
 
 141 
 
 was blowing over the whole of the United Kingdom, and. 
 the area of high pressure had been displaced, and lay 
 over the extreme south-west of France. 
 
 The next chart (fig. 49), for 6 p.m. on the 2ist, shows, 
 us that the disturbance had 
 made rapid progress east- 
 wards, and now lay over 
 western Norway, while the 
 winds in these islands had 
 moderated in violence, and 
 veered towards North-west. 
 
 If we now turn back to 
 fig. 17, p. 77, we shall see 
 the cause of the unnecessary 
 warnings to which allusion 
 has just been made. 
 
 At 8 a.m. on the 22nd, 
 a brisk fall of the barometer 
 
 FIG. 49. October 21, 1874 ; 6 p.m. 
 
 Depression has advanced to the 
 
 coast of Norway. 
 
 took place in the west of 
 Ireland, with a 'backing' 
 wind, and warnings were at once issued, but as will be 
 seen by fig. 17, this was only a false alarm, for the fresh 
 disturbance was only subsidiary to the more serious one 
 which had preceded it, and its only effect was to equalise 
 pressure there, by reducing the gradients and moderating 
 the force of the wind. 
 
 The storm which has been taken as a typical cyclone, 
 that of November 29, 1874, whose course we have traced 
 (figs. 19-22, pp. 83-85), is a good instance of a partial 
 
142 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 success and partial failure. On the 28th, warnings were 
 issued to the west, north, and east of England, but not to 
 the Channel coast or to the French stations. It will be 
 seen from fig. 2 1 that while the warning was eminently 
 successful on all the coasts to which it was issued, its 
 omission was a striking failure at the southern stations. 
 
 It will be interesting to examine yet another case of 
 failure of warnings, and one which has arisen from the 
 unexpected direction of motion of the storm. 
 
 Fig. 50, for 8 a.m. January 21, 1875, shows us no 
 
 FIG. 50. January 21, 1875; 8a.m. Small depression over Belgium. 
 New disturbance approaching Ireland. 
 
 less than three cyclonic disturbances over the area of 
 our chart. One large one is disappearing over Norway. 
 A very small subsidiary one is lying near Dover, while 
 
Storm Warnings. 
 
 the third, the one I am about to trace, is just showing 
 itself off the west coast of Ireland. 
 
 Warnings were issued to all our own coasts except- 
 ing Scotland and the north-west of England, from 
 Fleetwood northwards. Fig. 51, for 2 p.m. on the 
 same day, shows us the disturbance in question with its 
 centre near Lundy Island, while pressure over the south 
 of France has barely changed since the morning. 
 
 FIG. 51. January 21, 1875 ; 2 p.m. 
 New disturbance near Pembroke. 
 
 FIG. 52. January 21, 1875; 6 p.m. 
 New disturbance near Dover, in 
 same position as that at 8 a.m. 
 
 At this time, however, the depression was becoming 
 deeper, and was extending rapidly to the southward. 
 Fig. 52, for 6 p.m. on the same day, shows us the 
 centre of the storm lying over Dover, and a very 
 
144 Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. 
 
 heavy gale from North-west is blowing all along the 
 west coast of France, while our shores had nothing but 
 moderate breezes. 
 
 These warnings therefore were quite unnecessary for 
 several of the English stations to which they were issued, 
 but they ought to have been transmitted to France, where 
 they would have been of good service. 
 
 Lastly, a storm like that of April 20-24, 1872 (p. 95), 
 which doubles back on its own course, naturally causes 
 much difficulty in the issue of warnings. 
 
 The instances cited are sufficient to show that there 
 is great uncertainty in the practice of storm warnings, 
 owing to the deficiency of our information as regards 
 quality and quantity, and that even with all the in- 
 formation we can procure we are often to a great extent 
 in the dark as to the character and motion, in direction 
 and rate, of the storms which approach our coasts, until 
 they have wrought more or less damage. 
 
 With all these drawbacks, however, I have shown 
 at p. 137 that we are able to maintain a general success 
 of nearly eighty per cent, for our warnings, a result on 
 which we may fairly congratulate ourselves. 
 
 In conclusion, I can only say that the foregoing 
 pages contain what is, necessarily, a very condensed and 
 brief abstract of the present state of our knowledge of 
 weather, in so far as this knowledge depends on the 
 system of Weather Telegraphy, a branch of investiga- 
 tion which can hardly be said to have got out of the 
 leading-strings of infancy as yet. 
 
Storm Warnings. 145 
 
 To do the subject justice, double the space, and at 
 least treble the number of charts and illustrations, would 
 have been required. If, however, the contents of these 
 pages shall have awakened in any of my readers a real 
 conception of what the weather work of the Meteoro- 
 logical Office is, and an interest in the careful study 
 of weather, one of the most enticing of all enquiries 
 not to mention its practical importance to everyone 
 the trouble of putting together these notes will have 
 been far more than repaid. 
 
APPENDICES 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 Appendices. 
 
 874. 
 
 NOVEMBER 29, 
 
 1 EN* 
 
 ;i 
 
 sS 
 
 Q eg 
 * ^ 
 
 w S 
 
 & <s 
 
 6 oj o 'aDtreqjnjsip ^sg 
 
 sjnoq 'fz }SBd m uBjure-sj ******* 
 
 j O O O -NO Tfop 
 
 _l_fi_9LSLS b bob 
 
 Aq ' 
 
 01 oj 6 'pnopjo junouiy 
 
 t^t^OOO OOOOO O O O 
 
 ERMOMETERS 
 (in shade) 
 
 a 
 
 (si oj o) 
 
 Tj- xooo o m t^ LOGO to o 
 
 (si o; o) 
 
 33JOJ 
 
 M O N ^ N GO VO 
 
 souls qjnq Ajp 
 ' 
 
 
 fvororfr-^rOfMrorO 
 ^" ^-Tf-Tl-^-Ti-ri-TtTj-Tj- 
 
 IIIII+ 
 
 O 
 
 1-1 
 
 ++++ 
 
 qjnq 33^ M co co 
 qjnq AJQ w ro ro N 
 
 O M N 
 
 Tt"OO ro M C^ W ^~ C^ ^" f^* t^ ^^ O Tf"vO ON C^ 
 CO CS C^ ro TJ" TJ- to ^" ^" C^ ro tO Tt" "^~ *-O^O OO 
 
 'l 'l "l 'l 'l 'l 'l 'l 'l 'l 'l 'l '( 'l 'l 'l 'l 
 
 W CO >>! vO I-H to O OM 
 
 op op op op f^ y>vp ^p 
 
 r r P 
 
 -li-'iS---^-- 
 
 g^'-Coj B * 5i S 
 
 ||||||||||1 || o||||-g 
 
 For explanation of the columns see p. 150. 
 
Appendices. 149 
 
 to t~^ co t~^ -<tvo >o* * * to ; 1000 oo 
 
 ION -tf-o N\> t^^N to CNO fcriNi>.r*Kf>> vot^o coo O 
 ob b b^^bbbb^bbb^bbbbb bbbbb b 
 
 OOO* OOt^OO*** O* O 
 
 . . g. 
 
 r-^vo toi>.cx)00 O t^- OO t<. 10 vn co co to* CO -< ON rl- 10* * * co# to 
 cOr>- "O O ^h O O t^vQ N*-iMiO 
 
 to CO 
 
 PO co N r^oo M t^io>-- lo-H-N LOO t^<^ tovo N.^io -<ti-4co 
 t^vOr^t^^ONM^t^C^TfvNt^C^ONN^t-^jrOi-ii-K 
 
 i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i + 
 
 rtNOQ O "-" -* tOO rOiOt^TfvO toOO 10 O "-" to 10 ON 
 
 p 9^^ vp P^^P^^P^pvpt^jucip^, >-> <$ t^ p p (S Mt>. 
 
 ON M 00 OMOt^-iot^rJ-N^ 
 
 ONCO co oo ONOO oooooccoooooZIoo 
 
 C 
 
 
Appendices. 
 
 NOVEMBER 28, 2 P.M., REPORTS AND REMARKS. 
 
 Stations 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Dry 
 
 Wet 
 
 Wind 
 
 C. 
 
 Wea. 
 
 Sea 
 
 Skudesnaes 
 
 29-87 
 
 37 
 
 33 
 
 ? 
 
 6 
 
 * 
 
 O 
 
 4 
 
 Thurso . 
 
 29-48 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 SSE. 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Scarborough 
 
 29-55 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 ssw. 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Greencastle 
 
 29-30 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 ESE. 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 rr 
 
 * 
 
 Holyhead . 
 
 29-34 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 SSE. 
 
 2 
 
 IO 
 
 d 
 
 I 
 
 Valencia . 
 
 29-12 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 E. 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 r 
 
 5 
 
 ScUly 
 
 29-26 
 
 5i 
 
 5i 
 
 S. 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 d 
 
 6 
 
 London . 
 
 29-53 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 SE. 
 
 2 
 
 IO 
 
 omg 
 
 # 
 
 Rochefort . 
 
 29-60 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 SE. 
 
 4 
 
 IO 
 
 in 
 
 3 
 
 The barometer continues to fall, excepting at Rochefort, most on our 
 SW. coasts, and the wind at Valencia has backed to E. The sea is 
 increasing at the mouth of the Channel, and rain falls along our western 
 coasts. Warnings issued to our W. and N. coasts. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF COLUMNS. 
 
 BAROMETER. The letters r (rising), f (falling), and s (steady), indicate 
 the motion of the mercury in last 14 hours. EXTREME WIND is the 
 strongest wind experienced in past 24 hours. WEATHER : see p. 18. 
 
 * An Asterisk is inserted in all places for which information is not 
 usually received. The ' extreme ' wind for the Swedish, Norwegian, and 
 Danish stations is an observation taken at 8 p.m. 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 For Sunday -, November 29, 1874, at 8 a.m. 
 
 During the past twenty-four hours a serious fall of the barometer has 
 taken place over the United Kingdom, amounting to more than an inch at 
 Nottingham ; and the centre of a very deep and well-defined depression has 
 advanced to Wales and the western central parts of England. From Corunna 
 to Pembroke there is a gradient of 0-13 inch per 50 miles for W. winds ; 
 while from Skudesnaes to Holyhead there is one of o-io inch for SE. winds. 
 
 Temperature has risen very considerably at all but the most western 
 stations. Over central England the change amounts to 14 in the twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 Strong SE. gales have set in on ourNE. coast, while very strong W. to 
 NW. gales are felt in the SW. and Bay of Biscay, and S. winds in the SE. 
 of England. The sea runs very high, especially in the N. and NE. 
 
 Very heavy rain has fallen over the whole of the United Kingdom, 
 accompanied by hail and snow in some places ; the fall continues at most 
 stations. The weather is extremely unsettled. 
 
 NOTE. The chart which faces this page is reduced from the Daily 
 Weather Chart. 
 
Weather Charts 8c Storm \Varnings. 
 
 lenry S.Kng &. C? London.. 
 
 WEATHER CHARTS, Nov.29.1874',8A.M. 
 
 Rediiced from the Daily Weather Report. 
 
Appendices. 
 
 00000 
 
 JTlOdEA JO 
 
 ww w .w'w 
 
 CD r-^OO OOvOOO ON t~ N OOO t^t^xoN ON O CO JO CO 
 O O CO t>VQ iovQ vp io T rj- tN N 
 
 >, I ^P^P^Pr^ 
 
 O I w> i-o 10 1 
 
 vO Th<X> N O TJ-CQ rhvO ^ vO Tt- rhCXD TtOO vo 
 M w C\ f--. to co ONVO Tt'Tf-iOiOONt-'.NvO >-< t^-t-i 
 t^ t^vO vOvOvO iOvnvr>toiou-> vr>vO I s * t^OO OO ^ ON ON 
 ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON 
 
 fO ^" vnvo t^CO 
 
 nHHvScorf- ovo t>.00 ON O ^ 
 
 
 1010 O O 
 
 a ::::::::::::: p P :: p p ::: 
 
 00 00 
 
 CN !>. N O vO Tl-vo vo 10 O CO O CO 
 
 1 | .................. w"...ww P4 
 
 '; i/j i/> i/j </j W cfl ffin ^^c/i vi c/i 
 c/2c/2c/:c/3a)a).ai. 
 
 C/2 C/3C/2 C/3 
 
 ON 1000 | ^ C^ vO t^ X% H^ ON > * rovO 
 anoa^A jo ^ tf )^. lf ) lf )^.^.^. ir) ^.^ \o vo vb 
 
 " *^"**^ *^ 5*^ p* *> *** S** {**** *^ *o *** **4 
 
 ^"e* Tf O p p t^co op p^ p t^ ON N w 
 
 ci I :::::::::: ^ ^ T O P_ p_ c^ ON ON ON o o Q 
 
 W >^ ONOCFp OO t^vp t^ t^vp ON rj-vp O ON 
 
 Q 
 
 * O OO Tj- rj- rj- O -^-vO rfCO N vO N^" 
 O ON ON ONOO OO CO OO CO !** t*^ t^* t^ t^ 
 
 O ONONONONONONONONONONONONON 
 rOtNNMvNNMNlNvNtNNvNvN 
 
 w N fO Tt- 10VO t^OO 
 
 IOVO 1>OO ON O HH 'g 
 
 " 
 
Appendices. 
 
 O OOOOO^^toi-O i_o vr> 
 
 >-< .roN'-'OOOOOQO "- 1 1-1 Q 
 
 p :ppppppp : : : : :p : p p 
 
 b bbbbbbbb b bb 
 
 O oo oo ON O ro TJ- u-v^o Lot^t^Oi-MM^O^l-NNOt^O'- 
 CON M N rON N CQ-^-u->x/->xy)U->ri-Tl-rOCOfOCOrOfOM ^ rj- 
 
 
 1-1 rOOO rO Tf- 
 t-^O O 1-1 N 
 
 - 00 "> 
 
 rH> ON O O M O\ vo OM^ >- N 
 rhO C\oo c^oo t>. r^oo O O >-> O 
 NNwwH-iwwwhHMNNN 
 
 O pNOO vO >-n T}- CO ro ro '^vp I>OJO 
 
 ONOO COOOoboOOOOOoboodooOOOOOOO ONONONONONONONONON 
 MMMCSC^MNNMNNMMMMNMNCSNNNMN 
 
 t^CO O\ O "-" -" 
 
 
 
 t^oo o\o >->"5 
 
 r^ r 1 v P "P T*" P v P 9 s v^ r 
 
Appendices. 
 
 '53 
 
 p p"p'p p 
 
 b 
 
 >o 10 O O O O ' 
 
 . co co -i M <s ro 
 
 : p : p p p p p 
 
 AiiooiaA I ""* ^ ^^C* PJ oo ON 
 1 A I 10 N PI N P4 P4 Pi 
 
 co . co co 
 
 CO CO 
 
 X 
 
 r^ t; ij~> TJ- 1-1 v** i^ VN VN lO >O Tt" ON OOO IO O O ^^ t^*. PI 1O O O 
 jnOCl'BA JO T^-OO t^ t^.vO lOTj-TJ-'^-Tj-rj-xJOVOM ONOO t^vO O lOVO t>> t>iVO 
 
 ^ uoisuax 
 
 P " r 4 P P V^P P 
 
 I i* ~A_ 
 
 W a> . P) P) t^^* P4 O t^ ^* f^^* ON 10 ONOO P^ ^O co ro O ON t^*vO ^OOO O vO 
 
 i w io ioo vb Tj-Tj-Tt-^h^tcnro ^-oo oo vb w-> ^}- ^)- rh io iovb io 
 
 H T^^^TfT^T^^T^T^Tt^T^r^cocOcOfOfOfOfOrOfOrOfO 
 
 OO roO rorOrOCOOOO t>. t^ >- >-c ONr^fOfT) ONOO 1-1 fO PI ro *O 
 T!" N ON^O ^O O 1^ PI O vO ro covO ^ OO i^ *o co O vO O vO O ^J" 
 
 cbooobcooboboooooooooooooooooooooo 
 
 HH p) co ^ 1OVO t^OO ONO*-'S^PIPO^ >OvO t^OO ON O 
 
 M M "^ 
 
 *OOOOOOOO hHH ^*^OO 
 
 b ' 
 
 ::::::::::: Tf 
 
 i 1 ** j .CO 
 
 ^ : i i i : : i : i i rgSS^SS 
 
 CO " 
 
 S Totug :::::::::: : ? ^ &" 8 8 
 
 ^P ^ ^P f ^i^r^P P P r^r 1 
 
 obobob i>.f>.t^.t^.t> t>vb vb vb ob 
 W " 
 
 "5% 
 
 O COO OO ONMOO COOO ONOO co 
 ** vO PI t^ cO t^ cOvO PI vO P4 ^" HH 
 
 ON 
 
 HH PI CO * mvQ t^.00 
 
 MWfO^ vnvO t^OO ON O -" ' 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ABE 
 
 A BERDEEN Observatory, curves 
 ** for October 21, 1874, 67 ; 
 
 readings for same period, 152 
 America, possible value of tele- 
 graphic reports from, 126 
 Anticyclones defined, 32, 37 ; il- 
 lustration of, 36 ; characteristics 
 f> 53 > typical, 54 ; motion of, 
 86 
 Atlantic Ocean, advance of storms 
 
 over, 15, no, 126 
 Aurora as sign of storm, 109 
 Azores, possible value of telegraphic 
 reports from, 127 
 
 ' TRACKING' of wind explained, 
 ^ 26 ; reasons of, 72 ; why 
 considered dangerous, 72, 129 
 
 Balaclava storm, experience of, 117 
 
 Barometer, corrections of, 2 ; for 
 capillarity, 2 ; for capacity, 3 ; 
 reduction of, to 32 F., 2 ; - 
 to sea-level, 3 ; a single read- 
 ing of, at any time, no indication 
 of wind or weather, 23 ; scales, 
 wording on, misleading, 44 ; rise 
 and fall of, not infallible sign of 
 weather, 49 ; instances of serious 
 fall of, with calm weather. 50 
 
 Beaufort, Sir F., scale for wind, 7 ; 
 notation of weather, 10 
 
 Belt, Thomas, F.G.S., theory of 
 origin of cyclones, 1 1 1 
 
 CYC 
 
 'Brisk,' H.M.S., as signal-ship, 
 
 129 
 Buys Ballot, Prof., laM r of motion 
 
 of wind, 22, 40 
 
 /CHARTS, weather, explained,. 
 
 V 33 
 
 Circulation of wind with cyclones,. 
 35 ; with anticyclones, 38 
 
 Cirrus-clouds, value of, as signs of 
 change of weather, 106 
 
 Clearness of atmosphere as sign of 
 weather, 109 
 
 Clouds, deficiency of information 
 respecting, in the Daily Weather 
 Reports, 12; accompanying a cy- 
 clonic storm, 59 
 
 Coexisting depressions, 78 
 
 Currents, equatorial and polar, 20 ; 
 relative positions of, as sign of 
 disturbance, 131 
 
 Curves from self-recording instru- 
 ments at times of storm, 63-69 
 
 Cyclones defined, 31, 53 ; illustra- 
 tions of, 32, 53 ; typical, 57 ; 
 passage of, on the northern side 
 of a station, 61, 66 ; passage of, 
 on the sotithern side of a station, 
 69 ; advance of, 6 1 et seq, ; 
 probable rate of, unknown, 82 ; 
 affected by surface of ground^ 
 88 ; probable direction of,, 
 known to some extent, 88 ; 
 
156 
 
 Index. 
 
 DEP 
 
 affected by conditions of pressure, 
 89 
 
 T)EPRESSIONS defined, 32; 
 very extensive, instance of, 50; 
 
 secondary, 74 ; co-existing, 78. 
 
 See Cyclones 
 Draper, Prof. D. , on storms crossing 
 
 the Atlantic, 127 
 
 TpVANS, LEWIS, first published 
 *"-' statement of motion of storms, 
 80 
 
 "PALMOUTH Observatory, curves 
 for February 2, 1873, 69; read- 
 ings for same period, 152 
 
 Faroe Islands, importance of infor- 
 mation from, 128 
 
 Faye, M., theory of origin of 
 storms, 112 
 
 FitzRoy, Admiral, institution of 
 storm warnings, 118; storm-sig- 
 nal system, 119 
 
 Fogs with anticyclones, 57 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, first recogni- 
 tion of motion of storms, 80 
 
 /"* ERMANY, results of warnings 
 ^^ from London to, 130 
 Gradients explained, 41, 49 ; in- 
 stances of, 43, 48 ; for certain 
 winds, 49 ; relation of, to winds, 
 
 51 
 
 Gyration of wind, law of, stated, 
 25; explained, 72 
 
 "LJAMBURG, warnings from 
 
 J " L London to, 130 
 
 Heart's Content, telegraphic reports 
 
 from, value of, 126 
 Hoffmeyer's charts, 89 
 
 NEW 
 
 Humidity, importance of, as indi- 
 cation of weather, 6 ; changes of, 
 during progress of storms, 65, 68, 
 70 
 
 Hurricanes, 40, 81 
 
 ISOBARS defined, 28; mode of 
 -*- drawing, 29 
 
 T AW, Buys Ballot's, 22, 40 ; of 
 *-* Gyration, 25, 71 ; of Storms, 
 40, 116 
 
 LeVerrier, M., first proposal of 
 storm warnings in Europe, 117; 
 ideas as to object of storm warn- 
 ings, 117, 130 
 
 Ley, Rev. W. Clement, theory of 
 motion of storms, III 
 
 Loomis, Prof., on storms crossing 
 the Atlantic, 126 
 
 TV/TELDRUM, C, theory of origin 
 of storms, 112; periodicity 
 of rainfall, 113 
 
 Mistiness of atmosphere a sign of 
 weather, 109 
 
 Mohn, Prof., theory of origin of 
 storms, in 
 
 Monsoons, 21 
 
 Motion of cyclones in different di- 
 rections, effects of, 72 ; probable 
 rate of, comparatively unknown, 
 82 ; in relation to mountains, 88 ; 
 in relation to distribution of pres- 
 sure, 89 et seq.; erratic, instance 
 of, 95 
 
 Mountains, effects of, on motion of 
 cyclones, 88 ; effects of, on winds, 
 125 
 
 TVJEWFOUNDLAND, telegra- 
 phic reports from, value of, 
 126 
 
Index. 
 
 157 
 
 PRE 
 
 PRESSURE, relation of, to wind, 
 * 41 ; to motion of cy- 
 clones, 89 
 
 ~D AIN, not properly indicated by 
 telegraphic weather reports, 
 
 7 ; with cyclones, 61 ; with 
 
 easterly winds, 71 
 Rainfall, periodicity of, 113 
 Rate of motion of storms, 81 
 Redfield, discoverer of the Law of 
 
 Storms, 116 
 
 Reid, Law of Storms, 116 
 Reports, telegraphic, defects of, 13 
 Results of Storm Warnings for the 
 
 British Isles, 135 
 Reye, Prof., theory of origin of 
 
 storms, in 
 
 CT. KILDA, value of, as a pos- 
 ** sible reporting station, 128 
 Satellite depressions, instances of, 
 
 74 
 Sea disturbance, scale for, II ; 
 
 value of, as indication of weather, 
 
 ii 
 Sea-level, reduction of barometrical 
 
 readings to, 3 
 Secondary depressions, instances of, 
 
 74 ; effects of, on their primaries, 
 
 75 
 
 Shower, with shift of wind to north- 
 west, 60, 67 
 
 Signal-ships, proposal of, 15, 128 
 
 Signals, storm, explanation of, 119 
 
 Signs of storm, 131 
 
 Storms, definition of, 8 ; with high 
 barometer, 23 ; vertical depth of, 
 slight, 24 ; advance of, 81 ; rate 
 of advance of, unknown, 82; 
 probable direction of advance of, 
 87 et seq. ; advance of, over the 
 Atlantic, 15, no, 126 
 
 Storm warnings, institution of, Il8; 
 
 . difficulty of issuing correct, 132 j 
 results of, 135 
 
 WEA 
 
 Straight-line gales, explanation of, 
 24 
 
 Summary of principles recognised 
 in weather study, 102 
 
 Sunday interruption to weather re- 
 ports, 14 
 
 Sun-spots, relation of, to rainfall, 
 
 '"TEMPERATURE, correction of 
 * barometer for, 3 ; information 
 respecting, given in Daily Weather 
 Reports, 5 ; mean, definition of, 5 ; 
 mode of ascertaining, 5 
 instances of sudden falls of, 60 ; 
 regular daily course of, disturbed 
 by storms, 64, 68 ; differences of, 
 as sign of storm, 134 
 
 Thermometer, attached, 2 ; wet and 
 dry bulb, 6 
 
 Tornado in Sweden, 25 
 
 Trade winds, 21 
 
 Typhoons, 40, 81 
 
 WALENCIA Observatory, curves 
 V for March 27, 1874, 62 ; read- 
 ings for same period, 151 
 
 Veering of wind explained, 26 ; 
 reasons of, 72 
 
 , storm, first pro- 
 posal of, in America, 116; 
 first proposal of, in Europe, 117; 
 first proposal of, in England, 118; 
 results of, for Hamburg, 130 ; 
 results of, for the United King- 
 dom, 135; instances of failure of, 
 137-144 
 
 Washington, Chief Signal Office, 
 14, 124 
 
 Weather, Beaufort notation for, 10 ; 
 value of reports of general ap- 
 pearance of, 12 ; charts, explana- 
 tion of, 32 ; with anticyclones, 
 53, 54 ; with cyclones, 53, 59 ; 
 
158 
 
 Index. 
 
 WEA 
 
 charts, mode of using,. 1 06 ; local 
 characteristics of, 107 
 
 Weather Reports in 1876, specimen 
 of, 1 6 ; in 1874, specimen of, 
 148 
 
 Wind, Beaufort scale for, 7 ; can- 
 not be measured instrumentally 
 at telegraph stations, 8 ; measure- 
 ment of, by velocity instead of 
 pressure, 9 ; characteristics of 
 main currents of, 19 ; currents, 
 
 WOR 
 
 polar and equatorial, 20 ; Trade, 
 21 ; Buys Ballot's law for, 22 ; 
 motion of, in cyclones, 36 ; mo- 
 tion of, in anticyclones, 38 ; 
 cause of, 41 ; relation of, to gra- 
 dients, 49 ; reports of, from tele- 
 graphic stations sometimes de- 
 ceptive, 125 
 
 Wording on barometer scales, mis- 
 leading, 44 
 
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