VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. . QND EDITION REVISED. NEW YOEK: D. VAX NOSTRAND COMPANY, 23 MUBRAl iND v; V- ^BRiEJN 'i.KETS. L906. THE VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. 16mo, Boards. Price 50 Cent* Eaeh. LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORN Class N6. a-A TREATISE ON THE COMPOUND ENGINE. By John Turnbull, jun. Second edition, revised by Prof. S. W. Robinson. No. 0. A TREATISE ON FUEL. By Arthur V. Abbott, C.E. Founded on the original treatise of C. Will- iam Siemens, D.C.L. No. K). COMPOUND ENGINES. Translated from the French of A. Mallet. Second edition, revised, with results of American Practice by Richard H. Buel, C.E. No. 11. THEORY OF ARCHES. By Prof. W. Allan. No. 12. THEORY OF VOUSSOIR ARCHES. By Prof. W. ? Cain. Second edition, revised and enlarged. No. 18.-GASES MET WITH IN COAL-MINES. By J. J. Atkinson. Third edition, revised and enlarged by Edward H, Williams, jun. Ma MI-FRICTION OF AIR IN MINES. By j. j. Atkinson. Second American edition. No. > 6KEW ARCHES. By Prof. E. W. Hyde, C.E. Illustr. No. 16. A GRAPHIC METHOD FOR SOLVING CERTAIN QUESTIONS IN ARITHMETIC OR ALGEBRA. By Prof. G. L. Vose. Ma. Ifc-JWATER AND WATER-SUPPLY. By Prof. W. H. Cortield of the University College, London. Second American edition. No. 18. SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE PURIFICATION. By M. N. Baker, Associate Editor " Engineering News." TBS VAN NOSTKAND SCIENCE > No. 19. STRENGTH OF BEAMS UNDER TRANSVERSE LOADS. By Prof. >W-. A^a^ai^p*^ " Theory of Arches." Secon No. 20. BRIDGE AND TUNNEL CENTRES. By John B. McMaster, C.E. Second edition. Mo. 81.-SAFETY VALVES. Second Edition. By Richard H. BueJ, C.E. Ho. 22. HIGH MASONRY DAMS. By E. Sherman Gould, M. Am. Soc. C. E. No. 23. THE FATIGUE OF METALS UNDER REPEATED STRAINS. With various Tables of Results and Experiments. From the German of Prof. Ludwig Spangen burgh, with a Preface by S. H. Shreve, A.M.. No. 24. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS. By Prof. S. W. Robinson. Second edition, revised. No 25 ON THE THEORY AND CALCULATION OF CON- TINUOUS BRIDGES. By R. M. Wilcox, Ph. D. Lo. SO. PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS BRIDGES. By Charles Bender, C.E. No. 27.-ON BOILER INCRUSTATION AND CORROSION. By F. J. Rowan. New Ed. Rev. by F. E. Idell. No. 28.-TRAN3MISSION OF POWER BY WIRE ROPES. Second edition. By Albert W. Stahl, U.S.N. No. 29. STEAM INJECTORS. Translated from the French of M. Leon Pochet. No. 30. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND THE MAG- NETISM OF IRON VESSELS. By Prof, Fair- man Rogers. No. 31. THE SANITARY CONDITION OF DWELLING- HOUSES IN TOWN AND COUNTRY. By George E. Waring, jun. No. 32. CABLE-MAKING FOR SUSPENSION BRIDGES* By W. Hildebrand, C.E. No. 33,-MECHANICS OF VENTILATION. By George W. Rafter, C.E. New and Revised Edition. No. 34. -FOUNDATIONS. By Prof. Jules Gaudard, C.E. Second edition. Translated from the French. No. 35. THE ANEROID BAROMETER : ITS CONSTRUC TION AND USE. C9mpiled by George W Plympton. Eighth edition. No. 36. MATTER AND MOTION. By J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A. Second American edition. No. 37.-GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING 5 ITS USES, METHODS, AND RESULTS. By Frank De Yeaux Carpenter, C.E. #0. 88. MAXIMUM STRESSES IN FRAMED BRIDGES. By Prof. WUliam Cain, A.M., C.E. New and revised edition. cur TAB jrosratffz> seisms asm*. No. . A HANDBOOK OF THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. By A. E. Loring. No. 40. TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY COMPRESSED AIR. By Robert Zahner, M.E. Second edition. No. 41. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. By William Kent, C. E., Assoc. Editor, Engineering News. Second Ed. No. 42. THEORY OF STEEL-CONCRETE ARCHES, AND OF VAULTED STRUCTURES. By Prof. William Cain. No, 48. WAVE AND VORTEX MOTION. By Dr. Thomas Craig, of Johns Hopkins University. No. 44. TURBINE WHEELS. By Prof. W. P. Trowbridge, Columbia College. Second edition. Revised. No. 45. THERMODYNAMICS. By Prof. H. T. Eddy, Uni- versity of Cincinnati. No. 46. ICE-MAKING MACHINES. From the French of M. Le Doux. Revised by Prof. Denton. No. 47. LINKAGES ; THE DIFFERENT FORMS AND USES OF ARTICULATED LINKS. By J. D. C. de Roos. No. 48.-THEORY OF SOLID AND BRACED ARCHES By William Cain, C.E. No. 4S. ON THE MOTION OF A SOLID IN A FLUID. By Thomas Craig, Ph.D. No. 50.-DWELLING-HOUSES: THEIR SANITARY CON- STRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENTS. By Prof. W. H. Corfield. No, 51. THE TELESCOPE: ITS CONSTRUCTION, ETC. By Thomas Nolan. No. 53. IMAGINARY QUANTITIES. Translated irom the French of M. Argand. By Prof. Hardy. No. 53.-INDUCTION COILS: HOW MADE AND HOW USED. Fifth edition. No. 54. KINEMATICS OF MACHINERY. By Prof. Ken- nedy. With an introduction by Prof. R. H. Thurston. No. 55. SEWER GASES : THEIR NATURE AND ORIGIN. By A. de Varona. 2d ed., revised and enlarged. No. 56. THE ACTUAL LATERAL PRESSURE OF EARTH- WORK. By Benjamin Baker, M. Inst. C.E. Ha' 57. INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LIGHTINGo A Practical Description of the Edison System. By L. H. Latimer, to which is added the Design and Operation of Incandescent Stations. By C. J. Field, and the Maximum Efficiency of Incandes- cent Lamps, by John W. Howell. Mb. 88. THE VENTILATION OF COAL-MINES. By W. Fairley, M.E., F.S.S., and Geo. J. Andr6. Ho. 89. RAILROAD ECONOMICS ; OR, NOTES, WITH COMMENTS. ByS. W. RobiusoD.C.K- OTHER WORKS BY WILLIAM WALLACE CHRISTIE. Boiler Waters, Scale, Corrosion, Foaming. 8vo, Cloth, Illustrated. Chimney Design and Theory. A book for Engineers and Architects, with numerous half-tone illustrations and plates of famous chimneys. 8vo, Cloth, - - - - $3.00 FURNACE DRAFT; ITS PRODUCTION BY MECHANICAL METHODS, WILLIAM WALLACE CHRISTIE CONSULTING ENGINEER, MEMBER AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, AUTHOR OP "CHIMNEY FORMULAE AND TABLES," "CHIMNEY DESIGN AND THEORY," AND "BOILER-WATERS SCALE, CORROSION, FOAMING." SECOND EDITION REVISED. NEW YORK: D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS. 1906. COPYRIGHT, 1901, %ILLIAM WALLACE CHRISTIE. COPYRIGHT, 1906, D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY. PEEFACE. IN presenting this monograph to the public, I make no claim for its complete^ ness, nor of my infallibility, but take pleasure in giving the reader some facts concerning mechanical draft in a handy form for ready reference. Some of the material has already ap- peared in an article which I prepared for the Engineering Magazine. Credit for the work of others is given as far as possible. I trust that the book may be read as being unbiased, as far as any particular make of apparatus is concerned. The rapid sale of the first edition of this book has led to its reissue as one of the Van NostrancTs Science Series, with a few corrections and additional matter added. WILLIAM WALLACE CHRISTIE. Paterson, N. J., Nov. 1901. 148734 FURNACE DRAFT. Its Production by Mechanical Methods. A CHIMNEY is a means most frequent- ly employed to provide draft for the combustion of fuel under or in boilers or other heat devices. It provides the draft by means of the waste heat, or a waste of heat; the draft being a result of the difference in weight of a column of comparatively cold air without, and a column of com- paratively very hot air within the chim- ney; the writer would call draft pro- duced in this way natural or static draft. Draft produced by mechanical meth- ods as in the case of a blower, or steam jet, could be termed forced or dynamic draft. It is dynamic or forced draft 6 with which we are directly concerned at present. The particular method of producing draft to which the term " forced draft" is or has been applied, is that which em- ploys a centrifugal fan which forces air in a closed ashpit, up through the bed of fuel, the gases passing out of a short chimney. This method is not used for excessively heavy fires, nor in large boil- er units; it being necessary to shut off the fan before firing fresh coal, as the air forces itself through the fire in spots, unless closely watched, giving a very un- satisfactory combustion. Forced draft has the advantage of be- ing easily installed, and that no specially cooled bearings are needed on the fan as it handles cool air. Forced draft is regulated in part by means of a valve or hood connection to the inlet pipe located in the ashpit of the boiler, having a rod extending to the outside of the setting which may be used to open or close a flap valve as con- ditions require. Induced draft is a system much generally used than "Forced Draft;" the fan drawing the air through the fire and boiler to itself, the result- is more nearly like natural draft from a chim- ney, and it has no serious effect on the fire, nor does it interfere in the least with charging fresh coal while the fan. continues to run. The high temperature of the escaping gases, however, necessitates a design of fan suited to the purpose. Especial at* tention must be paid to the design of the journal boxes of the fan; these are usually kept cool with a water jacket, a device which has proven all that is needed for the purpose. While fans for forced draft may be made of cast iron, fans for induced draft are always made of sheet steel. In either instance peripheral discharge fans are used, high pressure not being as much needed as a great volume of air at a mod- erate pressure. Fig. i. Induced Draft Plant. 9 A chimney which extends at least 10 feet above the roof of the building containing the fan or fans is used with either method in order to prevent fire, and to carry the gases so high as not to be offensive to the com- munity. Frequently for archi- tectural effect, or on account of local regula- tions, the chimney is. made higher; and again where looks are of no consequence the chim- ney may be omitted al- ^together. "" Another system that is often employed is Forced-Induced draft, BiasTNowie Suspended a combination of the m Brick chimney. ^ wo S y S tems mentioned ^ "pig. 2 ab Ve - 10 Still another system is Forced-Natural draft in which a centrifugal fan is em- ployed to furnish the air necessary to combustion, also to regulate the same to suit the steam pressure carried in the boiler; a chimney being used to produce the draft and exhaust the gases from the furnaces. An absolutely air-tight ashpit is not needed with this method, but is both desirable and necessary with " forced " draft. A steam jet in the chimney or flue, is frequently used to create draft or assist and increase that already obtained by the heat of the escaping gases. The large quantity of steam used by the [jets in proportion to the quantity made in the boiler plant using steam jets will be considered later. In connection with a chimney to assist in exhausting the gases, a steam blower (not jet) is occasionally used, being placed in the furnace front or side wall of a boiler setting haying a closed ashpit. 11 As is the case with the jet, the blower is a large consumer of steam. The ad- vantages of mechanical draft as com- pared with natural-chimney-draft are well summed up by Mr. Jas. Howden, of England, as follows: 1. Complete combustion of fuel of all qualities under conditions in which com- bustion could not be efficiently obtained by natural draft. 2. The power of regulating with ease the amount of combustion desired, from zero to many times that possible by nat- ural draft, also the capability of main- taining the fuel in the furnace incandes- cent for a considerable time without appreciable consumption. 3. A great reduction in the size or number of boilers required to produce a given power, and the capability of in- creasing the power in steamships far be- yond that now obtainable with boilers worked by natural draft. 4. Greater economy in producing steam from the following causes: 12 (a) From more complete combustion of fuel than is attainable by natural draft with a reduced admission of air. (b) From the higher temperature of the furnace arising the more perfect and higher rate of combustion, and from the air supply being partially heated before entering the furnace. (c) From the utilization of the waste heat of the escaping gases. (d) From the prevention of heat from the furnaces and ashpits being radiated into the stokehold. (e) From the much less expenditure required to supply the air of combustion, from a fan than is required to heat a column of air in a chimney, to obtain supply by natural draft, (/) From preventing a cooling down of the boiler by a rush of cool air to the furnace, when a furnace door is opened. 5. Less discomfort in stoking, the stokehold fresh and cool by the radiation of heat from the furnaces being pre- 13 vented, and the fan drawing fresh air into it continuously independently of ventilators. 6. The complete absence of the great nuisance of smoke in the use of steam power. 7. The abolition of all unsightly chimneys in town and country now nec- essary for combustion by natural draft The readiness with which one of these systems may be adapted to any of the various conditions that exist is a point in its favor. The convenience of the outfits leads to their adoption, in many cases; for on short notice a few days or even less a forced draft outfit may be ordered, re- ceived and installed. Likewise we can as readily arrange for a steel chimney of reasonable diameter and height. Forced draft and chimney draft may be regulated within the extreme limits provided by, or inherent to the outfits themselves. 14 The economy in burning cheap fuels is an inducement offered to steam users in favor of forced draft; the cheaper grades of fuel may also be burned in a properly designed boiler furnace using natural draft. A draft required for the efficient com- bustion of all fuels, in the majority of cases, is within the limit of that pro- duced by a chimney of moderate height, which can be seen from the accompany- ing tables. Draft Required for Efficient Combustion of Fuels.* Inches of Water. Straw 0.20 Wood 0.30 "Sawdust 0.35 Peat, light 0.40 Peat, heavy 0.50 Sawdust mixed with small coal 0. 60 Slack, ordinary : 0.6 to 0.9 Steam coal, round 0.4 to 0.7 Slack, very small 0.7 to 1.1 Coal dust 0.8 to 1.1 Semi-anthracite coal 0.9 to 1.2 Breeze and slack mixed 1.0 to 1.3 Anthracite, round 1.2 to 1.4 Breeze and coal. dust mixed. . . 1.2 to 1.5 Anthracite slack 1.3 to 1.8 * Dr. R. H. Thurston. 15 This Table Compiled by the Author from Actual Test!. c*2 S3 2 * S " 2 sj ^5 tt> - ^> M. 'SSij ,8S b ||| Its 6 ! || j ly ; W cfl 25 & jgjm V 6*O "Sofe 6 O"* :>. r 1 w Rice CoaL 5 ck. 14.8 0.88 18.4 0.41 365 133 17.9 0?54 23.9 0.51 368 133 21.3 l!lO 332 1.16 638 192 21.5 25.8 1.01 0:89 tl T> CL Run of Mine Bit. coal. * J^ 27.0 1.04 649 0.16 371 8.33 28. 0.92 *649 0.15 351 - 52 8.72 28. Buckwh 1.26 eat Coal. 8.89 9.33 0.21 0.28 414 361 6.04 7.42 16.4 54 12.13 0.33 444 100 6.15. 16.7 0.59 12.30 0.31 412 105 5.55 19.8 0.34 15.80 0.38 421 125 6.81 19.8 20.14 0.37 0.58 16.35 *1745 0.36 0.39 470 436 150 150 4.93 5.06 22 3 223 0.87 0.93 1920 19.73 0.42 0.53 455 447 170 4.93 5 76 26.1 0.96 20.87 0.51 506 170. 4.96 26.3 1.23 23.86 0.71 490 5.49 27.3 0.94 26.55 0.65 526 200 4.63 30.2 1.10 27.32 0.86 523 225 4.53 31.4 1.00 30.10 0.62 551 4.43 325 32.9 1.08 83 34.30 0.67 646 240 425 454 0.80 1.68 Anthracite Tests by R B. Coxe Max. Sizes. Relative rates of 13.63 0.375 Oneida Pea in. Combustion. 13.58 0.5 No. 1 Buck 9-1 6 in. Pea Coal 100 11.40 0.625 No. 2 .." f in. Buckwheat . 85 11.33 1.04 No. 3 ;* | in. Rice... 70 9.44 1,125 Eckley%3-16 in.' * Tubes having retarders, Hor. Tub. Boiler Tests. Trans. A S, M. E., Vol. 17. 16 INITIAL HEAT. According to Kerl, the initial or free heat, or temperature to be reached to al- low the particles of carbon to properly ignite with those of oxygen, is as fol- lows: SUBSTANCE DEGREES c. Fahr. Peat 225 295 326 360 600-800 437 563 619 680 1112-1472 Pine Soft Coal Charcoal made by low heat . Charcoal made by high heat HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 1 Ib. C to C0 2 gives 8140 calories, or 14,650 B. T. U. 1 Ib. C to CO gives 2474 calories, or 4450 B. T. U. 1 Ib. C from CO to C0 2 gives 5666 calories, or 10,200 B. T. U. 1 Ib. CH 4 to C0 2 pins H 2 gives 13,305 calories, or 23,950 B. T. U. [N. E. C. M. A., No. 58. E. B. Coxe. 17 The results in evaporation of water when using different grades of small anthracite coal has been determined by a large number of tests,* giving us the following averages : Buckwheat Ibs. water from and at 212 F. t per Ib. coal per Ib. com- bustible 8.77 9.05 8.74 8.39 11.07 11.18 11.19 10.89 Rice (No. 2 Buckwheat). Culm (pea, buckw., rice, barley and dust) Barley (No. 3 Buckwheat) Xot from same mine. In a general way we may say there is no difference in evaporative results when using any of the above coals. The rate of combustion with forced draft may be increased far beyond 25 Ibs. of coal per square foot of grate per hour, which is about all that is de- sirable to have with chimney draft, to as much as 120 Ibs. and even more, as in * N. E. C. Mfrs. Assn. No. 58 Coxe. 18 locomotive practice, for in the Purdue Tests we have a rate of 240.8 Ibs. report- ed, and this without a very great loss in efficiency, as we shall see later. One of the large installations of In- duced Draft is in the Electric Power House, 59th Street and East Kiver [Power Dec. 1897] where 2 or 3 14-ft. fans draw the gases through American Fuel Economizers, and then to further reduce their temperature and remove the soot, etc.,, the gases are passed about baffle plates, much as steam is sent through a separator, and then in a scrubber from which they emerge at about 100 deg. F. This plant has a short steel chimney just sufficient to clear the roof of the buildings in the immediate vicinity. The space occupied by centrifugal fans is often that above the boiler set- ting, and as such is considered of no particular value; in a like manner steel chimneys are frequently set on boiler settings and do not take up as much 19 space in a horizontal plane as a centrif- ugal fan. In the installation of the steam plant of the Lacombe Electric Co., Denver (Fig. 3), not only is the forced draft ap- paratus occupying room away from the boilers, but is of necessity under cover of a steel truss roof. Steel chimneys when located out of doors take up much less space than in this lay-out, and while brick chimneys may take up as much room, still they eliminate the roof ex- pense, and the exterior dimensions of the base of the foundation is about the same in brick and self-supporting steel chim- neys. Large brick, or any brick chimneys cannot be moved intact as readily as can steel ones, or centrifugal fans, and the portability of the fan is a point that has been raised in its favor. If a company is in business only for a few months, almost any draft device will do, but should they intend to continue in business for a longer period, portability 20 will not cut much of a figure in any sys- tem of draft production. Fig. 3. Induced-Draft Plant Lacambe Electric Co., Denver, Col If the rate of combustion is increased by mechanical methods, so that we ob- tain sufficient evaporation from a part of 21 the plant, we can dispense with one or more of the boilers ; the increased rate of combustion, however, which must be at- tained to do this, will naturally give us a less efficient rate of evaporation of water per pound of coal, so that the user will need to decide which is the more desir- able, to get the most out of the coal for its cost, or the most out of the plant for its first, cost only. With an increased rate of combustion, we have added wear and tear on all parts of the boiler; this expense is also to be considered. As nearly all well conducted boiler plants have an extra boiler or two, so as to allow of one or more being out of commission all of the time for cleaning or repairs, there is no advantage in^having a "smaller boiler plant." DAVIDSON'S SYSTEM. A system of forced draft invented by Mr. Davidson of Belfast [Elec. Times London] consists of a cylindrical box of diameter equal to the furnace fitted on its front, from which cast-iron tubes project at a slight declivity over the fire, through which air is blown over or into the fire, and by tubes into the ashpit, the air in it is also kept under pressure. Tests made on four boilers thus equipped, at a large manufacturing plant showed A. B. Coal used during working hours 50 tons 64 tons Gallons of water evaporated during working hours . . . Evap. per Ib. of coal 80000 7 14 Ibs 80000 5 53 Ibs Cost of coal per week, .s.d. 23.19.2 17.14.9 or a saving of 25$ in coal bill by using forced draft, B, over natural draft, A. (St. Eng., v. 3, p. 250). The late Eckley B. Coxe, probably more than any other man, understood the successful burning of small anthra- cite coal. In a paper* before the New England Cotton Manufacturers' Association in * N. E. Cotton Mfrs. Assn., No. 33, p. 142. 23 1895 on this general subject, when treat- ing of steam-making and boiler settings, he gives the unavoidable losses of com- bustion as follows : "First. The heat lost by converting into steam the water contained in the coal, in the air used in burning it, and that formed by the burning of the hydro- gen and heating it to the temperature at which the gases leave the stack. "Second. The heat necessary to raise the carbonic acid gas formed by burning the carbon, the nitrogen present in the air, and the sulphurous anhydride, that may be formed by burning the sulphur, to the stack temperature. . When we have perfect combustion there will also be a certain amount of free oxygen in the stack gas, which must also be heated to the same temperature, as it is impossible not to have a certain excess of air when the combustion of the coal is complete or nearly so. There is also a certain amount of heat lost by heating the ashes, which are taken from the ashpit at a 24 temperature above that at which the coal enters the furnace, and there is a certain amount of nnconsumed carbon remain- ing in the ash which occasions a loss, in many cases a large one. The latter can, by careful firing, be very much reduced, but can never be entirely eliminated. There is also an unavoidable loss occa- sioned by the radiation from the boilers and walls, which, by careful construc- tion, and coating the plant as far as pos- sible with non-conducting materials, may be reduced, but never eliminated. "The avoidable or partly avoidable losses are : "First. Those due to incomplete combustion. Too large a proportion of the carbon may be unconsumed and pass out with the ash, a portion of the carbon instead of being burnt to carbonic acid may be converted only into carbonic ox- ide, and thus 69.62 per cent, of the heat units in the carbon be lost, a certain amount of hydrogen and marsh gas may ' be allowed to pass out of the stack, and 25 all the heat units contained in them be lost. "Second. Loss from excess of air. While theoretically, to burn one pound of carbon it is necessary to use only 11.60 pounds of dry air, yet in practice this is not possible, as every particle of oxygen in the air cannot be brought in intimate contact with the incandescent fuel at the proper time, so that it is necessary to use more than the theoretical quantity. But in most cases the excess is far beyond what would really be required if the firing is carefully done. tc This occasions great loss. "First. Because all the oxygen not used and the nitrogen which accompanies it must be heated to the stack tempera- ture, and heat thus lost; and Second. Because it is practically im- possible to obtain air free from moisture, which must be converted into steam and heated to the stack temperature. As vapor of water carried into the fire by the air causes a loss, it is evident that the artificial introduction of moisture, either by wetting the coal or by producing the blast with steam must necessarily increase materially the loss of heat in the stack " Third. The next avoidable cause of loss is too high a stack temperature. It is self-evident that the heating of the vast amount of stack gases which are be- tween ten and thirty times the weight of the coal burned, above the tempera- ture to which they can be economically reduced, is a very serious waste, particu- larly if this temperature is very much in ^excess of what it should be. "Fourth. Loss by removing the ashes &t too high a temperature. In many oases the ashes are so hot when taken from the furnace that they have to be wetted down. Of course all this loss of heat that can be avoided, represents* so many dollars thrown away. " Fifth. Loss by radiation. It is im- portant to have the outside surface of the plant, up to the point at which the gases 27 cease to give up their heat, as small and' as cool as possible, either by increasing the thickness of the walls, or by covering everything exposed to the air as much as conveniently can be done with non-con- ducting material, as the radiation in- creases with the area exposed, and with the difference in temperature of the sur- face of the walls above that of the sur- rounding atmosphere." "We shall now consider the first three of the avoidable losses: (a) The loss from incomplete combus- tion is due largely to poor firing and careless cleaning of fires, when much un- burnt fuel passes through the grates, or when with too strong a draft the particles- of coal dust are blown to the chimney or exhausted to the blower before they are? consumed. (b) The loss from excess of air is one to which we cannot give too much thought. One pound of carbon requires 11.6 Ibs* of air for its complete combustion. Though there is much uncertainty as 28 to just how much air is used in the burn- ing of fuel, it is said that with forced draft 50 per cent, excess air is required in addition to the theoretical quantity, or a total of 18 Ibs. of air per pound of coal. When natural chimney draft is used 100 per cent, excess of air or 24 Ibs. of air per pound of coal. First Case. Natural draft, 60 deg. F. temp, of outside air. Escaping gases, 60 deg. plus 440 deg. , or 500 deg. F. One Ib. of coal requires, with 100 per cent, excess of air, 24 Ibs. of air. Second Case. Forced draft, 60 deg. F. temp, of outer air. Escaping gases, 60 deg. plus 240 deg., or 300 deg. F. To raise one Ib. air First case re- quires 0.2377 x 440 = 105 B. T. U. To raise one Ib. air Second case re- quires 0.2377 x 240=57 B. T. U. One Ib. of coal, forced draft, wastes 18 Ibs. of air, with 57 B. T. U. each lost, or 1126 B. T. U. per Ib. coal. One Ib. of coal, natural draft, wastes 24 Ibs. of air, with 105 B. T. U. each lost, or 2520 B. T. U. per Ib. of coal. Under the above noted conditions there* is a waste of 2520-1126 or 1394 B. T. U. per Ib. of coal burned with natural draft as compared with forced draft. Consid- ering the heat units per Ib. of coal as 14200 B. T. U. we have a heat loss from using natural draft equivalent to 2520 x 100 14200 - We have a heat loss from using forced draft equivalent to 1126 x 100 14200 - From the above we have a heat loss of 17.747.93 = 9.81 per cent, from using- chimney draft, which may seem to be in favor of forced draft by a centrifugal blower, but it can readily be appreciated that when the air needed to complete*; combustion, or admitted to the fire when natural draft is used, approaches the quantity sent through the fire by a, blower, there is less and less economy of the blower over the chimney until when the amount of air is the same, no differ- ence exists as to the economy of the 30 method over the other, excepting the interest and operating expenses of the blower, which latter is a considerable item and one not to be lightly turned aside. The influence of surplus air and a common temperature of escaping gases on the economy of a boiler is shown by what E. B. Coxe says: " If you have 3 per cent, free oxygen, 17 per cent, car- bonic-acid gas, and 80 per cent, nitrogen, and a stack temperature of 500 deg. F., the heat loss is 12.27 per cent. If you have 1 per cent, of carbonic ox- ide, 3 per cent, of free oxygen and 16 per cent, of carbonic acid, and a stack tem- perature of 500 deg. F., the heat loss is 16.12 per cent. Thorough burning of (CO) carbonic oxide is necessary to a high heat efficiency. From the following table: Air at 300 deg. F. has a volume of 1.546 cu. ft. 500 " " " 1.954 " based on a volume of 1 for air at 32 deg. F. So that from the above the chimney moves about 26.39 per cent, greater vol- ume of air than the fan. 31 Composition of Dry Air. By Weight By Volume Nitrogen 76.815 79.04 Oxygen 23.185 20.96 N/0 3.313 3.7709 [From J. P. Cooke's Principles of Chemical Philosophy .} Table of Weight and Volume of Dry Air. Pressure Pounds per Atmospheres Pounds per Sq. In. above a Vacuum Sq. In. above the Atmos- phere (Gauge Volume in Cubic Feet x Pressure) 1.00 14.70 0.00 1.0000 1.10 16.17 1.47 0.9346 1.25 18.37 3.67 0.8536 1.50 22.05 7.35 0.7501 1.75 25.81 11.11 0.6724 2.00 29.40 14.70 - 0.6117 2.50 36.70 22.00 0.5221 3.00 44.10 29.40 0.4588 3.50 51.40 36.70 0.4113 4.00 58.80 44.10 0.3741 5.00 73.50 58.80 0.3194 6.00 88.20 73.50 0.2806 7.00 102.90 88.20 0.2516 8.00 117.16 102.90 0.2288 9.00 132.30 117.60 0.2105 10.00 147.00 132.30 0.1953 15.00 220.50 205.80 0.1465 20.00 294.00 279.30 0.1195 25.00 367.50 352.80 0.1020 Volume and Weight of Dry Air at Different Temperatures under a constant Atmos- pheric Pressure of 29.92 inches of Mercury in the Barometer (One Atmosphere), the Volume at 32 Degrees Fahrenheit being i. 2 02 s ^ 53 -^ QQ g ^ 1 8 'o 1 * la -| 'o 8 2 B a? S o ~ J g o I? s * IH ** ^ ^ OH ^d 11 &l pH IS _bJD |S ft I- 3 si* 1 .3 EH 'O -3 M' 9 32 .000 0.0807 650 2.260 0.0357 42 .020 0.0791 700 2.362 0.0338 52 .041 0.0776 750 2.464 0.0328 68 .061 0.0761 800 2.566 0.0315 72 .082 0.0747 850 2.668 0.0303 82 .102 0.0733 900 2.770 0.0292 92 .122 0.0720 950 2.872 0.0281 102 .143 0.0707 1,000 2.974 0.0268 112 1.163 0.0694 1,100 3.177 0.0254 122 1.184 0.0682 1,200 3.381 0.0239 132 1.204 0-0671 ,300 3.585 0.0225 142 1.224 0.0660 ,400 3.789 0.0213 152 1.245 0.0649 ,500 3.993 0.0202 162 1.265 0.0638 1,600 4.197 0.0192 172 1.285 0.0628 1,700 4.401 0.0183 182 1.306 0.0618 1,800 4.605 0.0175 192 1.326 0.0609 1,900 4.809 0.0168 202 1.347 0.0600 2,000 5.012 0.0161 212 1.367 0.0591 2,100 5.216 0.0155 230 1.404 0.0575 2,200 5.420 0.0149 250 1.444 0.0559 2,300 5.624 0.0142 275 1.495 0.0540 2,400 5.828 0.0138 300 1.546 0.0522 2,500 6.032 0.0133 325 1.597 0.0506 2,600 6.236 0.0130 350 1.648 0.0490 2,700 6.440 0.0125 375 1.689 0.0477 2,800 6.644 0.0121 400 1.750 0.0461 2,900 6.847 0.0118 450 1.852 0.0436 3,000 7.051 0.0114 500 1.954 0.0413 3,100 7.255 0.0111 550 2.056 0.0384 3,200 7.459 0.0108 600 2.158 0.0376 [From Compressed Air.} 33 Calorific Power and Air Required per Cubic Foot. 1 Cubic Foot B. T. U. at60F. and 30" Cubic feet required Cu. ft. formed of Hydrogen 326.2 323.5 1009.0 1558.0 0. Air Steam C0 2 .5 .5 2.0 3.0 2.39 2.39 9.56 14.34 1 2 2 1 1 2 Carbon Monoxide Marsh Gas ' Olefiant Gas.. Air = 20.92 per cent, of Oxygen. 1 lb. Carbon burning to CO 2 requires 11.6 Ibs. of air. 1 lb. Carbon burning to CO requires 5.8 Ibs. of air. [R. D. Wood & Co.] From tests made at the Electro-tech- nical Exhibition, Frankfort-on-Main, in 1891, we have for two types of water-tube boilers these results : Per ct. heat utilized by boiler " lost in escaping gases " " " ashpit 70.00 17.70. 1.70 73.30 17.70 3.10 " " unaccountable, radia- tion, etc 10.60 5.90 Total loss 100. 100. Times theoretical quantity of air supplied 2.00 1.82 Temp, escaping gases, degrees F. Water gauge (with Siegert Burr's Instrument) 545.9 0.43 in 590. 0.20 in [See &. E. C.M.A. No. 58, p. 168, for more complete table] The heat lost, etc., confirm in a general way the previous calculations. The losses from too high a temperature of the escaping gases are common to boiler plants, and with a blower forcing the draft, the temperature may easily and frequently does become excessively high. The economy of the low flue tempera- tures, combined with comparatively low rates of combustion, low percentages of CO, and little or no free oxygen in the es- caping gases, is shown quite conclusively by the following reports of actual tests : Tests of a Babcock and Wilcox Boiler.* APRIL, 1899 Day llth 12th 13th 14th Average per cent. CO 2 10.7 10.9 10.9 11.1 " **. . O 7.8 8.1 8.7 " CO .5 .02 .06 Ashpit clos'd open clos'd clos'd Air Supply cold norm. hot cold Temperature escaping gases, uptake deg. F 619 445 572.7 521 Temp outs, air, deg F 55 1 52.4 64.9 62. " fire room, deg. F 71.0 66.3 96.1 83.75 " of air entering ashpit . . 165.5 Vacuum in chimney. . . .inches Rate of combustion coal Equiv. evap. from and at 212 F. per Ib. comb., atmos.pres. 1.43 46.39 10.18 0.43 19.88 11.79 1.41 41.88 11.21 .61 28.82 12.15 * For U. S. S. Alert, 1899. St. Eng. Rep., U. S. N. 35 Niclausse Boiler.* MAY 1899 Day . .. 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th Average per cent. CO 2 . . . CO ! ! ! N Temp esc gases deg F 6.18 11.58 .94 81.30 5.07 13.73 .62 80.58 525 4.95 13.63 80 .'65 464 6.74 11.62 .53 81.11 389 7.10 9.60 .90 82.40 794 " outside air, " fire room, deg. F. .. 41 of air entering ash- 84.6 98.2 106 4 70.7 80.4 189 1 62. 79.8 69.4 85. 69. 96.6 319.9 Rate of combustion, coal. Equiv. evap. from and at 212 F. per Ib. combus. 26.63 10.24 26.79 10.38 23.87 9.76 14.24 10.78 46.18 9.22 Gas Analysis Boiler Tests. a 8 I fi Per Cent. 3 Dry Gas 1 Carbon. 9 *& |l '3.Q 8 8 s - Q & r * 1 2H. 20.45 20.95 12.19 12.70 14.0 12.7 4.5 5.7 1.1 0.0 16.8 19.1 466 deg. F. 493 3H. 34.06 11.47 13.1 4.2 1.5 17.3 608.6 4H 35.61 11.50 12.8 5.7 0.6 18.8 570.6 1|If5 50.95 11.43 11.8 6.9 0.4 20.6 640.0 g- s -\ GH. 48.31 11.12 14.5 4.8 0.2 17.7 637.0 Illlr 59.75 10.52 less than 900 deg.F. Pocahontas Flat Top Mine Coal was used in all tests. Contained considerable slate; clinkered badly. [St. Eng. Rep.,\5. S. N., 1900. See same for full details.] * For U. S. S. Alert, 1899. St. Eng. Sep., U. S. N. 36 Prom tests of boilers* where forced natural draft was used, these results ac- company very economic evaporation : Boiler pressure, by gauge, Ibs. per sq. in 63 68 70 71 Temp, escaping gases deg. F. 346 355 395 400 Another avoidable furnace loss is too high temperature of the escaping gases ; for example, in tests made on B. & W. boilers with Coxe Stokers, at Deringer, Pa. , we have : Hate of Combustion, Ibs Temp, of escaping gases, deg. F. Equiv. evap. per Ib. of combus- tion, Ibs Air pressure in ashpit, inch, water 449.5 11.28 0.60 20.34 900 8.51 1.00 The loss in evaporation in the second test accompanies a very high temperature of 900 deg. F. A forced draft plant now in operation, without an economizer, delivers the escap- * Barrus. 37 ing gases at such a high temperature, say 1,000 deg. F., that at times they heat the short steel chimney to a dull-red heat. In the Otto Colliery, Branchdale, Pa., cylinder boilers under forced draft de- liver the gases at about 1,600 deg. F., and vertical boilers, 711-732 deg. F., in both of which the evaporative efficiency is low. The highest evaporative efficiency of a gun-boat type of horizontal boiler was reached with the temperature of escaping gases at 516 deg. F., with a certain type of vertical boiler 500 deg. F., another 421 deg. F. Forced draft used alone generally re- sults in higher temperature of the escap- ing gases than is usual with natural chimney draft; we here have another ob- jection to forced draft. The Purdue tests show that after a certain high rate of combustion has been , reached, as it increases the temperature of the escaping gases decreases the same total quantity of coal being burned in a 38 given time on a grate of varying area, under the same boiler, but that point is reached only at a very large rate of com- bustion. Coal per hour per square foot of grate . . Ibs 61.40 647 2.20 8.26 83.50 629 2.50 7.87 124.20 610 3.30 7.59 240.80 500 5.60 6.67 Temp, of escap. gases, .cleg. F. Draft, in inches of water Equivalent evaporation per Ib. of combustion Ibs Noting for example that the tempera- ture of steam under 100 Ibs. pressure by gauge is 338 deg. F., and 150 Ibs., 366 deg. F., we can readily see that the nearer the temperature of the escaping gases is to the temperature of the steam in the boiler the more economical the boiler is, the temperature of the flue gases should not exceed 400 deg. to 500 deg. F. for economy. The utilization of the heat of waste gases, or the waste heat in escaping gases, especially when forced draft is installed, is best accomplished in many cases by putting in an Economizer as an adjunct to the boiler plant. 39 It is to all intents and purposes a feed water heater, and is described by one manufacturer as follows : The Economizer consists of a series of sets of cast-iron tubes about 4 inches in diameter and 9 feet in length, made in sections (of various widths) and connect- ed by "top" and "bottom headers," these again being coupled by "top" and .' ; bottom branch pipes " running length- wise, one at the top and the other at the bottom, on opposite sides and outside the brick chamber which encloses the appar- atus. The waste gases are led to the Economizer by the ordinary flue from the boilers to the chimney. The feed water is forced into the Econ- omizer by the boiler pump or injector, at the lower branch pipe nearest the point of exit of gases, and emerge from the Economizer at the upper branch pipe nearest the point where the gases enter. Each tube is provided with a geared scraper, which travels continuously up and down the tubes at a slow rate of 40 speed, the object being to keep the exter- nal surface clean and free from soot, a non-conductor of heat. The mechanism for working the scrap- ers is placed on the top of the Economiz- er, outside the chamber, and the motive power is supplied either by a belt from some convenient shaft or small indepen- dent engine or motor. The power re- quired for operating the gearing, how- ever, is very small. The apparatus is fitted with blow-off and safety valves, and a space is provided at the bottom of the chamber for the col- lection of the soot, which is removed by the scrapers. Economizers are not installed in Amer- ica so extensively as in Europe, for the European design of boiler costs less per H. P. than the American boiler and con- sequently Americans put in more boiler and less Economizer. In America, where boilers are compar- atively expensive, the Economizer is used to take the gases after they leave the boiler, and reduce them, by heating feed water to the lowest possible temperature. Economizers in no way alter the con- ditions in the boilers of plants of which they form a part, but they materially, in many yes, in most of cases, add to the efficiency of the steam plant. From four tests made by Mr. Barrus> we have : 1 2 3 4 Degrees of temp, of gases lost 145 107 104 156 Degrees of temp, of feed water raised in Economizer 80 66 58 92 Degrees of temp, of gases leav- in 01 Economizer 231 254 299 279 Per cent, increase in evapora- tion due to Economizer 10.5 7 9.3 12. & The evaporative efficiency of the boiler being increased from 7 to 12.8 per cent. In these tests the temperatures of the gases leaving the Economizer were from 231 to 299 F. Had the gases not passed to an Economi- zer, the temperature of 500 F., or 961.2 absolute, would be compared with 231^ or 691.2 F. absolute or with 299 F. - 42 or 760.2 absolute, in order to ascertain the intensity of chimney draft produced in either case, and as the intensity is a direct function of absolute temperatures, we can say in a general way that the loss of intensity of draft due to the loss of heat in the economizer is 30 per cent. ; therefore, to produce the same draft in an economizer plant, a chimney say 41 per cent, higher than for an ordinary in- stallation without an economizer would be necessary. It is because of the gases reaching the chimney of a given plant at a t emperature below 300 deg. F. that forced combustion is employed to provide sufficient draft without using a chimney for the purpose. Unless the boilers and economizers are designed with special reference to forced combustion, the gases are likely to escape from the boiler setting at a much higher temperature than with natural draft, resulting in an inefficient boiler; at the same time the gases leaving an economizer in a forced draft plant are 43 frequently not so very much lower than may be obtained with natural draft. Whatever saving there may be in a blower-economizer outfit over natural chimney draft should be credited to the economizer alone. With a chimney alone producing draft we have a heat loss of about 17.74 per cent. (50 excess air.) With a blower alone, a heat loss of 8 per cent, to which we should add the cost of operating the blower which is from 1 to 7 per cent, of the steam made in the boilers. Anthracite Pea Coal. Averages Ibs. 5 tests Stationary Tapper grates Natural draft 10.17 4 tests Shaking grates Natural draft 10.45 3 tests Shaking grates Natural draft and Steam Blower (steam made used in blower) 10.39 Anthracite Buckwheat Coal. 1 test Shaking grates Natural draft 10.86 2 tests Shaking grates Natural draft and Steam Blower (steam made used in blower) 9.96 W'ith a blower and economizer outfit 44 which gives the same flue temperature as in a chimney and economizer, we have a loss which is the cost of operating the blowers. Two Vertical " Manning" Boilers, when operated under the conditions named, gave the preceding equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. per Ib. of combustible, showing as far as they go the economy of shaking grates. All of the blower methods of draft production must be considered in con- nection with, and be planned with espe- cial regard to the quantity of fuel to be burned in a given time, and the amount of air needed for the complete combus- tion of the fuel, which air must necessa- rily pass through the blowers. 18 to 25 Ibs. of coal per square foot of grate per hour is all the coal that should or can be burned with economy under natural draft, a greater amount necessi- tates forced draft. Another thing which should not be lost sight of in connection with the burn- ing of small coals, is that the unburnfc coal falling through the grate which in the case of anthracite culm has reached 58 per cent, (found in the ashes). Fan, Stoker and Economizer Engines in a 24-hour test used 800 Ibs. of coal to- burn 19,612 Ibs. of coal or 4.01 percent, Sturtevant Fan, American Stoker and Green Economizer. Eng. Rec. Vol. 42, p. 348. The effect of the temperature of the gases on the power required to operate a fan, is shown clearly by the following: Effect of Temperature of Gases on Fan Load. Induced Draft. 1 2 3 Draft in inches of water 0.42 46 24 Temperature of gases at fan, deg. F. . Speed of fan, revolutions per minute. . 199.6 154 162.5 179 330 230 Current req. by fan motor, amperes. . Current generated by plant, amperes. . 10.3 896 13.3 1236 20.4 960 Proportion used by fan, per cent Boiler H. P. developed 1.15 521.7 1.17 600.6 2.08 439 2 The blower used was an American Blower Co. ? s centrifugal fan with 28 x 84 inch wheel. Size of Fa Diam. Wheel inches. Width at Per- iphery. to Size of Outlet. - oo inches square. s Speed R. P. M. for 1-inch Draft. j Capacity of Fan in J cubic feet per minute, Temp. Gases 550 deg. F. H. P. Boiler Ca- pacity from Fan Capacity. tOO 00 04 t rf*. JO N)t H- >- >- Pounds Goal per hour at 5 pounds per H. P. hour. Evaporation per hour at 34 5 pounds Water perH. P. Brake H. P. drive Fan Speed . I9sli!i3i! Capacity of Fan per inch Width at Periphery. R. P. per inch Width at Peri- phery. i Cubic feet Air per I minute for Com- ; bustion, Temp. ) 62 deg. F. . 9 .. _ 28*1? Ell! - H a> -g 2 O < g 2 ? ~ W ? 2 N r S 3 ff: -s l g g '!; S O B 47 The third test, gases 130 deg. hotter than first, require about 100 per cent, more power, and yet the boiler evapora- tion is about 20 per cent, less than in the first test. Curtis Pub. Co., by Davis & Griggs. The cost of the above Mechanical Draft outfit (2 fans), including motors, was $5.53 per boiler H. P. The data concerning Induced Draft Fans in the accompanying table is taken from the 1901 catalogue of the American Blower Co. One of the recent installations of In- duced Draft apparatus is that of the Curtis Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Pa., which contains 3 (250 H. P.) B. & W. Boilers for 160 Ibs. pressure. An old chimney 30 x 40 inches by 90 feet high. The Induced Draft plant was installed in duplicate, i. e. one plant in reserve, by American Blower Co. Fan, 120 inches, water cooled bearings, 8 H. P. Electric Motor. 48 Temperature of escaping gases 540 deg. F. from boiler. Temperature of escaping gases 260 deg. F. from economizer. The fan requires 1.4 of the power used by the plant. (Eng. Rec. VoL:43, p. 172.) The economizer consists of two brick chambers, each containing 24-6 tube sec- tions of 4 T 9 -g- inch pipe, each pipe 7^ feet long; cost, including masonry, was $5.73 per boiler H. P. Results from Tests. 4 2 3 deg. F. deg. F. deg. F. Temp.of gases leaving boilers . . 411 - 422 474 " " " " economizer " ** water entering " 199.6 116.9 162.5 38.2 Ec'n.off " " " " boilers.. 212.5 192 9 38 3 Saving due to economizer. per ct. 9.92 16.01 [Davis & Griggs.] ECOKOMIZEK TESTS. Tests made at the 74th Street station of the Manhattan Elevated Eailway, New York City, resulted in these facts : OF THE UNIVERSITY OF The unit of absorption is ilr5 BV per square foot per hour per degree dif- ference in temperature. Loss of draft in economizer H = pounds of gases per square foot of draft area per hour. n = number of sections in length of economizer. During this test these averages were obtained as follows : Water entering economizer. . . . 93.5 F. Water leaving economizer 203.8 Temperature gases at chimney .399 Draft entering economizer. . . .0.64" Draft leaving economizer 0.87" Draft in chimney at base 1.16" Chimney feet high. The Sturtevant Co. in "Mechanical Draft " give the following rule for ca- pacity area of a blast fan: 50 The square inches of blast, or capacity area of a cased fan, is approximately : DW Capacity area = D = diameter of fan wheel in inches. W = width of fan wheel at circumference in inches. X = constant dependent on type of fan and casing. In general practice X = 3. The area of the casing outlet is always larger than the above figures give for capacity area. The volume of air passing through the fan is calculated from the capacity area. The power required to operate a fan varies with the air pressure, volume, tem- perature, and its efficiency in generation depends upon whether a belt-driven fan is used, or the power is furnished by di- rect connected motor or steam or other type of engine. 51 BLOWERS. Sturtevant No. 2 monogram blower, no piping, 1800 revolutions per minute, 0.8 H. P. (D). Sturtevant No. 9 foundry blower, sup. plying iron-melting cupola, 25 H. P. (W. 26). No. 6 Sturtevant* Fan wheel 23 in. diam. x 6f at periphery. Diameter of inlet on each side is 12 1 in. : 8 blades, area 45.59 sq. in. each. At a speed of 1468 rev. per min., blast 3 oz. to sq. in. took 3.55 H. P. with area of discharge of 44 sq. in. giving 2750 cu. ft. of air per min. At a speed of 1519 rev. per min. blast pressure, 3.5 oz. per sq. in. 0.8 H. P. with opening closed and no air delivered. Mr. Snell ran air through a tubular heater placed about 30 feet from the blower; at 1100 revolutions per minute of blower, air was discharged at 161 deg. F., * Topical Discussion, 222-226. Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 7. Mr. H. I. Siiell. 52 water would have been 190 deg. F. ; at 2100 revolutions the air was a little higher temperature. Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 20, p. 89. Steam to operate steam jet 7.4 of boiler evaporation. Steam to operate steam jet 8.78 of of boiler evaporation. Fan 4 per cent, of boiler evaporation used to drive the fan. Fan 18 H. P. to supply 1800 to 1950 boiler H. P. Fan 3.21 H. P. to supply 401.5 boiler H. P. (Whitham). Fan 5.6 H. P. to supply 520 boiler H. P. (Wagner). Admitted relative efficiency of fan to jet 8 to 1. 53 Buffalo Steel Pressure Blowers. Table of Dimensions. .-E--i~F-i| No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 111/2 12 32 40 43*6 53 53 6 7% 10 4% 4% 5 l / 2 5% 7H 101/2 121/2 16 20 25 28 28 7* 8% 10 14*6 16i/2 18 15% 1634 19 22 12 liy z 131/2 H 11 13^13 14% 13& 15% 17H 19 25V2 17i/2 20 30i/2 21H 23i/2 11V6 36H 29 2% J 7 91, 10% 9*i25 16% 41% 34 41% 34 K 13 19J4 14 211/2 161/2 19 10*6 3Qi/2 25i/2 lQi/2 4554 19V* 23 12 12% 12% M 3 4 5 4% 27% 61/2 33% 40 41 50% 53 53 Dimensions in inches, 54 Table of Speeds and Capacities in Cubic Feet per Minute. (Forge.) Number of Blower 4 Oz. PRESSURE 6 Oz. PRESSURE Forges R.P. M. Cap. R. P. M. Cap. 2 3 4986 289 5596 326 3 5 3993 542 4473 607 4 6 3363 573 3754 642 5 7 2952 651 &308 730 6 8 2573 839 2883 940 7 11 2275 1002 2549 1123 8 16 2067 1501 2316 1681 9 22 1851 2136 2074 2393 10 32 1384 3116 1550 3491 11 40 1154 3845 1293 4308 UK 50 937 4741 1050 4734 12 60 937 5002 1050 5604 Number of Blower 6 Oz. PRESSURE 7 Oz. PRESSURE . R. P. M. Cap. R. P. M. Cap. 2 6132 355 3 4910 666 5tfl4 '721 4 4121 705 4459 762 5 3631 801 3929 867 6 3165 1032 3425 1117 7 2798 1233 3029 1334 8 2543 1845 2750 1997 9 2275 2627 2460 2844 10 1702 3832 1842 4147 :n 1419 4729 1586 5119 11 '/a 1152 5831 1247 6312 12 1152 6152 1247 6658 55 Table of Speeds and Capacities for Cupola Service. Number of Blower Inside Diameter of Cupola Pressure in Ounces Revolutions Minute Melting Capacity in Ibs. per Hr. Cubic Ft of AirRequir'd per Minute 4 20 8 4732 1545 666 5 25 8 4209 2321 773 6 30 8 3660 3093 951 7 35 8 3244 4218 1486 8f 40 8 2948 5425 2199 9 45 10 2785 7818 3203 10 55 10 2195 11295 4938 11 65 12 1952 16955 7707 ntt 72 12 1647 22607 10276 12- 84 12 1625 25836 11744 4 20 9 5030 1647 717 5 25 10 4726 2600 867 6 30 10 4108 3671 1067 7 35 10 3642 4777 1668 8 40 10 3310 6082 2469 9 45 12 3260 8598 3523 10 12 2413 12378 5431 11 65 14 2116 18357 8358 a*. 84 J4 14 1797 1775 25176 -28019 , 11144 12730 56 Cupola Practice Tests. Root's Blower, Acme No. M. Iron melted, 22 tons, 10 cwt. 5 tons melted per hour. Motor and Shaft light. Blowing Cupola Maxim. Minim. Revolutions 360 246 104 32.7 28.2 4.5 350 233 66 21.7 Volts 245 14 4.6 Amperes E. H. P. Total ' ' Average Time, hours Eoot's Blowor. Acme No. K. Iron melted, 12 tons. 7 tons melted per hour. Motor and Blowing Cupol Shaft light Maxim. Minim. Revolutions 430 394 Volts 232 237 225 Amperes 9.5 57.0 50 E. H. P. Total 2.96 17.1 15 2 Average 15 94 Time, hours 3.00 The first cupola has a capacity of 7 tons per lour. 57 The American Blower Co. also gives this table of data concerning fans for forced draft, which only goes as far as fans with wheel 33 inches in diameter. Blowers for Forced Draft. Forced Draft Capacity Table for Blowers. Temperature air, 62 degrees F. ;' 18 n>s. air per \. Ib. coal; 34.5 fcs. water per H. P.; Barometer. 29.92; 234 cublcrft, per 1 tb. coal; Evaporation, 6.9 tt>s. Water per 1 n>. coal; Pressure, 1V4 ounces; 5 Ibs. coal per H. P. hour. H Si* IS! 1.24 1.87 2,66 3.50 4.54 5.72 .(American Blower Co.) A Niclausse* (Marine Type) water tube boiler was under test on land, and it was desired to maintain a rate of combustion of 30 Ibs. of coal per square foot of grate * St. Eng. fiep.U. S. N. 58 per hour. "It was difficult to regulate the blower so as to obtain the desired uni- form rate of combustion." " The weather cleared and a fresh breeze sprang up, in- creasing in strength so that the blower, started at 500 revolutions, had to be gradually slowed to 330." The maximum rate of combustion un- der this boiler with forced draft was 46.76 Ibs. of coal per square foot of grate per hour, which may be considered the maximum for "naval vessels other than torpedo boats and destroyers." One authority has carefully analyzed a representative boiler test, and gives the following losses: coal capable of evapo- rating 13. 97 Ibs. of water per lb., actually evaporated 9.68 Ibs. : Losses Chimney . . 12.59 per cent. Ashpit, . . 2.68 " Not specified . 15.43 " Total 30.80 59 The products of combustion are given by Williams as : 1. Steam highly rarefied, invisible, and incombustible. 2 . Carbonic acid invisible and incom- bustible. 3. Carbonic oxide invisible, but com- bustible. 4. Smoke visible, partly incombusti- ble, partly combustible. Hydrogen is in- visible. Carbon returns to black state and be- comes visible. Much can be learned re- garding the completeness of the combus- tion of fuel by the analysis of the escaping A large boiler with a good fire gava gases with : 16. 5 per cent, of C0 a 3.3 " " 0.9 " " CO 71.3 " " N 92.0 60 See Table X, pp. 158, 159, Trans. JT. K C. M. A. No. 58. Smoke prevention is in reality complete combustion, and forced combustion aids or rather prevents smoke only in so far as it regulates the quantity of air fed to the fire. One authority in Mechanics* some years ago gave these notes on smoke pre- vention : " The question of smoke prevention has agitated the minds of engineers for many years, although pretty well solved by Mr. C. Wye Williams more than 20 years ago. Many of the so-called inven- tions of the present day are either mere copies of his or reinventions of what was known to him and used in his experi- ments. The principle of burning the gases of coal is best illustrated in the Argand and Siemen's burners for lamps, and depends wholly on a thorough and intimate mixture of air with the gas * Published in Philadelphia, Pa. 61 at a high enough temperature to insure combustion i. e., the air must be mixed with the gas before the latter has been cooled down by contact with cold sur- faces. Then by having openings for air through the doors, and by firing alter- nately and reversing the draft, the gas from the fresh coal is passed over the in- candescent coal on the other side, and so burned before it reaches the combustion chamber or tubes, in which case the com- bustion chamber may be smaller than otherwise. "Another way is to have the fire chambers side by side, and supply the air at the bridge as the gases pass to the combustion chamber; then by firing al- ternately there is always a stream of hot gas coming in contact with the fresh gas from the fire chamber last fired, which in- sures a perfect combustion. In this case we have nearly the same conditions as in an Argand burner, burning ordinary illum- inating gas. The fire chamber being the gas producer and the combustion cham- 62 ber the burner, the combustion, com- menced in the former, is completed in the latter, and the tubes absorb the heat, so that the carbonic acid passes away at a comparatively reduced temperature." The effect of varying quantities of air can be readily seen by carefully studying notes of actual tests. Eob. Kane, M.D., M.R.I.A., and E. H. Brett, Ph.D., F.L.S., conducted some elaborate tests on Williams's patent furnace, when they found that with or- dinary charging of coal and usual air admitted much dense smoke passed through the flues at a temperature of 650 deg. F., admitting the proper quantity of air, finely divided no smoke visible temperature 1211 deg. F. ; then shutting off one-half the air-inlets, giving one-half the amount of air as in the preceding test, lurid flame passed through the flues at 985 deg. F., and a light gray smoke issued from the chimney* 63 The following table by E. B. Coxe is abstracted from a quite extensive one published in the N. E. C. Manf. Assn. Trans. No. 58: Table. 1 2 3 Gas analysis com- bustible in fuel burned 100 per cent, carbon. Number of times the theoretical air supplied n. Per cent, of heat lost when T-t=500 deg. F. Per cent. H. C0 2 = 21 ) N = 79 f 1.00 10.1535 C0 2 = 14 ) = l[ 1.50 14.8241 N =79) C0 2 = 10 ) = 11 [ 2.10 20.4288 N = 79) C0 2 = 7) = 14} 3.00 28.8359 N = 79) C0 2 = 3 ) = 18t- 7.00 -66.2008-- N = 79) EN 79 Formula : n = T^J- Percent n r(11.5Xn)+l]X.238x(T-t) rer cent. a. 64 TABLE. Abstracted from same authority as the preceding table gives the number of times the theoretical quantity of air sup- plied, with various gas analyses : 123 C0+C0 3 frsrTfl C0 2 + C0 + 0=21 N=80 C0 2 + C0 + 0=20 21 1.00 19 1.10 1.05 Original 17 1.23 5 1.16 table con- 15 1.40 1.31 tains 5 col- 14 1.50 1.39 umns, and 12 1.75 1.60 Column 1 10 8 7 2.10 2.62 3.00 4.20 1.89 2.29 2.57 3.39 has every number from 21 to 1 3 7.00 5.00 9.43 21.00 Formula for values of columns 2 and 3 is 1 1- 79 On 21 N These conditions can only exist when hydro- gen is present in the fuel burnt, and has been converted into water. 65 GAS ANALYSES. With a McClave grate and a steam jet blower the analysis was C0 2 8.20 per cent. CO 13.15 " " H 11.08 " " CH 4 2.00 " " 0.30 " " With fan blower and stoker, C0 2 16. 80 per cent. 1.70 " " CO .40 " " Mr. Magnus Troilius*'in a paper on "The Analysis" of furnace gases gives for gas from producers : C0 2 7.50 8.00 CO 16.00 15.50 H 15.30 I 14.90 CH 4 1.90 Which is very similar to the first above, showing by the large amount of (CO) carbonic oxide and (H) hydrogen that there is a decided loss of heat. * A. L M. E., 1883. 66 Blowers can be regulated; one would think that " damper regulators" had never been heard of in connection with chimneys; in fact, many plants are not now equipped with them. The effect of the quantity of surplus air on the temperature of combustion in the furnace is for theoretical quantity of air 4940 F. above 32 F. 50$ additional air 3332 " " '" " 100$ additional air 2505 " " " " When the gases are under pressure, as in stokeholds of vessels, the temperature of combustion is at ordinary atmospheric pressure 2760 F. above 32 F. atpres. of2atmos. 3475 " " " " " * 3 3968 " ," " " The first cost of steel chimneys for small horse-power is less than that of brick chimneys or forced combustion outfits. For very large powers it costs less to install the blower systems, but though we have no operating expenses for chim- 67 neys we have the cost of the power used to operate the blower and economizer engine, if the latter is used. We are told that compared with the cost of a good brick chimney A forced draft plant costs 25 per cent. of the brick chimney; A single induced draft plant costs 40 per cent, of the brick chimney ; A double induced draft plant costs 50 per cent, of the brick chimney : but that depends entirely upon the design of the chimney. The life of a forced draft fan having constant use is said to be about fifteen years, while a well cared for steel chim- ney lasts from 20 to 25 years, if it is kept properly painted outside the inside being protected with soot; a brick chim- ney lasts a hundred years. The relative areas of grate surface to boiler heating surface, when forced com- bustion is used, should be decided by a careful consideration of the kind, quality, and quantity of the fuel to be burned. 68 " It has been claimed by the advocates of forced draft that more power is re- quired to drive the fans* owing to their having to deal with heated gases; this we think wef can prove erroneous." Experience has shown that in a prop- erly designed installation it is not nec- essary to maintain an average vacuum of more than 2|- inches water gauge at the fan inlet, the temperature of the gases to be dealt with being about 450 degrees F. On the other hand, it is generally acknowledged that about three inches water gauge at the fan discharge is nec- essary to get the best results with forced draft, and as the air is taken from the engine room its temperature may be taken at 80 degrees F. * More for induced draft fans. t Ellis and Eaves (Patent) System of Induced Draught* 69 If the supply of air to the furnace be* 12 Ibs. per Ib. fuel, then volume, 12 Ibs. at 32 per Ib. of fuel is 150 cu.ft. 18 Ibs. do. do. do. 225 " 24 Ibs. do. do. do. 300 " The volume at any other tempera- ture T is xr i A o^o V== volume at 88 x +461.2 TT = V.- The following are some of the results : Deg. F. Tempera- Supply of air in Ibs per Ib. of fuel. 12 | 18 | 24 ture Vol. of gases per Ib. of fuel in cu. ft. 4640 1551 3275 1136 1704 2500 906 1359 1812 1832 697 1046 1395 1472 588 882 1176 1112 479 718 957 752 369 553 738 572 314 471 628 392 259 389 519 212 205 307 409 104 172 258 344 68 161 241 322 32 150 225 300 * Rankine, Steam Engine, p. 286. 70 "W = coal burned in a given furnace per second. V = Volume at 32 F. of the air sup- plied per Ib. of fuel. r a = Absolute temperature of the gas dis- charged by the chimney. r = Absolute temperature of the air at 32 = 493.2 F. r = Absolute temperature at tempera- ture T. A = sectional area of the chimney ; then the velocity of the current in the chimney in feet per second is Density, Ibs. per cubic foot = D = 1 ^- - 0.0807 + 71 Fig. 4. Steam Blower. Eynoa-Evans Co, s I! D sii s3i?lll -gooo <$**'- '' 73 sls<< go2 TP^TJ< S*S , . ,=i OTTTirainOJ ti&iiplv fef ^1 || - * g^^ onn 88eoeS?33 310ns U J .tUtmO'B A d d d d d d e Usssssq I d d d d d d aid u,si3 ut oanssaad ra-eaas aSn^o , ^^ a ui 'I^oo ^Cap U pu qsB jo -auao iBJS jo ! j 'I)s J8d uq UB auanq IBOO Ajp jo spunoj B J9do : -01 'H Janoq J oo o> eo t- T* n ift t- t O O tO - CO pasn s pasri a ai poq iq padota A9p -^ (auiui g. >. auo raoj; n) Ioo jo puix g" ^' I CQ 76 Steam jets or steam blowers are means ^by which draft is assisted or created, but neither, as a rule, are employed without :a chimney; while they are cheap in first cost and installation they are expensive to keep in repair and to operate. Steam blowers under grates are fre- quently used in connection with mechan- ical stokers, also under boilers whose -chimneys do not furnish the desired draft, and which boilers have become of insuf- ficient capacity by the natural growth of a plant. Steam jets are used in chimney flues for like reasons. Two horizontal return tubular boilers tested by the writer: A boiler using steam blowers under the grates in connection with chimney draft, B chimney draft alone, resulted as follows : 77 A B Boiler rated Horse Power 90 130 Boiler Horse Power Developed . 122.55 121.91 Equiv. Evap. from and at 2120 per Ib. of combustible 10.76 10.73 (No. 2 anthracite pea coal used in both tests.) One disadvantage in the use of steam jets or blowers is that just so much more water has to be heated in the chimney and carried up out of it; another and more serious objection is the large amount of carbonic oxide, hydrogen and marsh gas formed. In one plant the writer found frequent explosions on the opening of the boiler furnace door, and the burning of the fireman's arms from explosions of marsh gas in the boiler; the explosions were seen to extend up into the main flue to the chimney. Again, the steam required to run or operate the steam jets or blowers is large in proportion to the quantity of steam made under the boilers, having been given (Trans. A. 8. M. K Vol. XX) as from 7.4 to 8.78 per cent., and the rela- 78 tive efficiency of centrifugal fan blower to steam jet is as 8 to 1. The capacities of the Steam-jet Blow- ers and Exhausters made by L. Schutte & Co., of Philadelphia, Pa., are: Size Quantity of air Diam.of pipe, inches No. per hour in cubic feet Steam Air 000 1,000 1 1 00 2,000 1 n 4,000 1 2 1 6,000 11 n 2 12,000 H 3 3 18,000 2 3 4 24,000 2 4 5 30,000 5 6 36,000 4 6 7 42,000 3 6 8 48,000 3 7 9 54,000 gl 7 10 60,000 8} 8 A greater rate of combustion can be obtained with the centrifugal blower than with a steam jet, and steam in the ashpit reduces the tendency of the coal on the grate to clinker and form an obstruction 79 Consumption of Steam Blasts Compared.* Per cent, of Coat Name of blower. Per cent* of atr openings in grate. Pounds of dry coal burned an hour per sq. ft. of grate. total steam generated in the boilers that is re- quired to operate the steam blasts Rice. Young. 11 25.8 11.1 11 17.9 7.0 Wilkinson. 7 27.0 10.8 Buckwheat. ^ Young. 11 27.3 10.8 11 16.7 4.6 26 31.4 8.9 ft McClave. . 11 16.4 6.7 11 26.1 9.3 Wilkinson. 7 32.5 7.8 7 45.4 10.2 "Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. XVII. Whit ham. Set. No. 1 ., ,i 2 4. ., 3 .. 4 " ".5 Rate of combustion in boiler, 24.3 35.2 " " " 14.2 " 26.9 . .< 27.7 21.2 20.7 8.3 12. 14. Blower, annular slit 33 1-32 holes 1-16 in. hole! X In. " > Jet *-64 in. " J **Per cent, of steam made required to operate jet or blower (U. S. Bureau of St. Eng., 1890.) to the free passage of the air necessary to combustion. 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