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 A SYSTEM 
 
 OF 
 
 iHONETIC SPELLING 
 
 ADAPTED TO EXGLLSH. 
 
 BY 
 
 HUGH L. CALLENDAPv, B.A. 
 
 FELLOV. OF TIIIXITY COLLE(iE, CAMBIUUOK. 
 
 UTdVEKSiTY OF GAL!^0F;K{A, 
 
 i^OG ANGELES, CALir. 
 
 jx ,^ !•-.-• t: I 
 
 Itontion : C. J. clay and r30NS, - 
 I5BR1DGE UN'IVEESITY PIlESS WAKEHOUSE, 
 AVE MAEIA LANE. ' ' -; 
 
 1889 / V 
 
 Price Sixpence.
 
 
 P E 
 
 W 5 
 
 c 
 
 \^ - 
 
 PHONETIC 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 - o 
 
 1. Introductory. The i^honetic notation explained in 
 the following pages was primarily devised for the exposition of 
 a phonetic system of shorthand * . It is published separately 
 because it is felt that it may prove useful for other purposes 
 than those for which it was first intended. 
 
 Among the many educational uses of phonetic spelling the 
 foremost are those of teaching children to read and foreigners 
 to pronounce. Children unacquainted with the common or- , 
 thography find a good system of phonetic spelling extremely 
 simple, if properly taught. It has been proved by careful , 
 experiments, conducted in the most scientific manner on , 
 children of all classes, that when they have learnt to read and 
 write phonetically, they acquire the ordinary spelling with 
 very Uttle trouble : with so little trouble, in fact, that the 
 whole tune spent in learning to read and write in this way, 
 including the preliminary phonetic training, is less than half 
 that required if phonetic spelling is not employed, and the 
 results are generally more satisfactory. 
 
 Again, the difficulties which foreigners encounter in learning 
 to speak our language, arise almost entirely from the un- 
 phonetic nature of our orthography. The structure of the \ 
 English language is very simple, and it is otherwise admirably , 
 fitted to become ' the universal language '. If only some simpler 
 system of spelling were allowed currency side by side with the 
 literary English, the difficulties of foreigners would be greatly 
 lessened, and the supposed necessity for Volapiik, or any other 
 artificial language, in great measure superseded. 
 
 In my opinion the true functions of phonetic spelling at 
 
 present are of this nature. The reform of our spelling, if it 
 
 is to come at all, must necessarily be a gradual process. 
 
 The received orthography is endeared to every educated person 
 
 by thousands of associations with which they would not 
 
 willingly part, and possesses other important advantages to 
 
 which no existing phonetic system can at present lay claim. 
 
 * Cursive Shorthand, H. L. Callendar, 12S ijp., price 2*.; London, 
 C. J. Clay, M.A. and Sons, Cambridge Uuiversity Press Warehouse, 
 Ave Maria Lane. 
 
 C. P. S. 1
 
 Ffiomtic Spelliiiff. 
 
 I shall return to this puiut iu a subsequent section: but 
 I wish at the outset to assure the reader that phonetic 
 spelling', apart from all question of spelling reform, has its 
 uses and deserves his attention. 
 
 2. In devising this system of phonetic spelling, among 
 the many conditions which such a system should satisfy, I 
 have specially kept the following objects in view : 
 
 (1) To use only such types and materials as are readily 
 
 available. 
 
 (2) To avoid confusion with the received orthography, 
 while retaining as far as possible all the consistent and useful 
 associations that belong to it. 
 
 I have boiTowed freely from all the best authorities on 
 the subject of Phonetics, but to save space and historical 
 research I have made no attempt to refer each device to its 
 originator. 
 
 The present notation is based on a thorough analysis of the 
 pronunciation of that dialect of English which is spoken by the 
 educated classes. This analysis may be said to represent the 
 labours of Bell, Ellis, Sweet, and other leading phoneticians, 
 and may be considered sufficiently complete and accurate 
 for practical purposes. 
 
 I have avoided as far as possible the use of technical 
 phraseology, restricting myself to the use of terms, like vowel, 
 consonant, diphthong, etc., which are commonly understood, 
 and used in a general sense. 
 
 I have made no attempt to give any account of the vocal 
 mechanism, or the physiology of speech, which, though in- 
 teresting and instructive, are generally puzzling, except to the 
 medical or philological student. 
 
 My object is simply to expound with the aid of key- words a 
 system of spelling which involves only such distinctions as are 
 practically recognised in speech. The connection between the 
 letters and the sounds they represent, can be readily acquired 
 without any special training, and without any knowledge of the 
 nature of the sounds themselves, or of the manner in which 
 they are produced.
 
 1^/wictylcc AljiJoaJjct. 
 
 Examples of sounds given ^n this phonetic notation are 
 distinguished throughout by the use of thick, or clarendon, type. 
 PHONETIC ALPHABET. 
 
 Class 
 
 Type 
 
 Xaiiic 
 
 Exainiilus nf .'^ouiul 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 ai 
 
 P 
 
 b 
 t 
 d 
 k 
 
 g 
 
 Mutes 
 
 or 
 
 Explodents 
 
 Pp 
 Bb 
 T t 
 Dd 
 Kk 
 ^g 
 
 piy, pi^a 
 My, bee 
 tiy, tea 
 diy,' dee 
 key, kay 
 gey, gay 
 
 Wiop, pei 
 mot, hei 
 hit, rip 
 bi(Z, rfip 
 ma/.:e, lick, fat 
 gviQ, (JO, get, gay 
 
 V 
 b 
 t 
 d 
 k 
 
 P 
 b 
 t 
 d 
 
 k 
 
 - 1 
 
 c/j ^ ra 
 
 Trills j 
 
 F f 
 V V 
 
 031 
 
 Aq 
 S s 
 Z z 
 C c 
 J j 
 
 ef, ef 
 viy, vee 
 e^i, etli 
 iliy, thee 
 es, ess 
 ziy, zee 
 cey, shay 
 jey, /af + 
 
 if, for, /ew, jj/aal 
 of, have, nepJiew 
 hxeatJt, tliigh., thin 
 hveathe, tJiy, then 
 hi.w, seal, price, lo.s.s- 
 hix, 2:eal, prize, law.s 
 oct'au, sugar, sAall 
 vis/on, pleasure, Jef 
 
 i 
 
 V 
 
 th 
 dh 
 
 s 
 
 z 
 
 sh 
 
 zh 
 
 f 
 
 V 
 
 th 
 dh 
 
 s 
 
 z 
 
 sh 
 zh 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 f 
 
 V 
 
 s 
 z 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 L 1 
 
 E r 
 
 el, ell 
 riy, re 
 
 ■will, like, pZace 
 vejy, from, ?-ed 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 m 
 n 
 * 
 
 Nasals -^ 
 
 Mm 
 N n 
 Qq 
 
 em, em 
 en, en 
 iq, ing 
 
 me, a?«, la»//^   
 
 in, )io, into 
 
 king, singer, fiHger 
 
 m 
 n 
 
 q 
 
 h 
 w 
 
 y 
 
 m 
 n 
 
 h 
 
 w 
 y 
 
 Sighs or ( 
 
 Sus23i- < 
 rants ( 
 
 ^£ 
 o ^J 
 
 Hh 
 
 W-w 
 Yy 
 
 My, he 
 
 UW, 00 
 
 iy, ee 
 
 ho, ahead 
 ire, a?('ay, hofo 
 ge, beyond, theg 
 
 h 
 w 
 
 y 
 
 Q, 
 A a 
 E e 
 I i 
 
 
 A A 
 
 Uu 
 
 60, er 
 at, at 
 et, et 
 it, it 
 ot, ot 
 
 At, lltt 
 
 ut, out 
 
 father, comma 
 prtt, man, arrow 
 pet, bread, fr/end 
 pit, b?/sy, women 
 pot, what, not 
 hnt, come, blood 
 pat, foot, woman 
 
 9 
 
 e 
 i 
 
 
 
 a 
 u 
 
 X 
 
 a 
 e 
 i 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 no 
 
 absatt 
 
 a 
 
 e 
 i 
 
 
 
 * 
 u 
 
 Com- \ 
 pound 1 
 
 Xx 
 
 ex, ex 
 
 si.c, e.rplain 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 t This word is Frencli. 
 
 ' Pitman uses special type. 
 
 1—2
 
 Phonetic Alphabet. 
 
 3. The Phonetic Alphabet is devised so that anyone who 
 already knows the common alphabet, may be able to learn it 
 with the least possible difficulty. It contains thirty letters, if 
 we include the compound x {ks). 
 
 Twenty- three of these are used in the most generally ac- 
 cepted way, namely the letters: — 
 p, b, t, d, k, g, s, z, f, V, 1, r, m, n, h, w, y, a, e, i, o, u, and x. 
 
 But each letter is restricted to the representation of a single 
 sound. 
 
 The letters c, j, q are used for the simple sounds ordinarily 
 represented by the digraphs (double letters) sh, zh, ng; c {sh, 
 ci, etc.), as in the word vicious, vicos; j {zh, s, etc.), as in 
 vision, vijon ; and q (ng), as in king, kiq. 
 
 The remaining four letters 3[, ii. A, are obtained by in- 
 verting the letters k, h, v, c. The common alphabet affords 
 several instances of this principle of inversion : q is like inverted 
 b, p like inverted d, n like inverted u. 
 
 ^ and n are used for the two varieties of th, as in 
 
 icreath, ri3Ti ; icreathe, riyii ; 
 
 thin, iiin ; then, qen. 
 
 These are commonly represented in other phonetic systems 
 by th, dh; they have the same sounds as the modern Greek 0, 
 A, which are used for the corresponding capitals. >i and a 
 are used for the small capitals when required. Small capitals 
 when inverted range well enough for a makeshift, seeing that 
 they are seldom needed; but large capitals cannot be inverted, 
 because they go below the line and give an awkward appear- 
 ance; we therefore borrow Greek letters. 
 
 This would be a great disadvantage but for the fact that 
 capitals are rarely required, and that the particular capitals 
 chosen, namely O A A fi*, are good letters, and range fairly 
 well with Eoman caps. The lower-case Greek letters 6, S, are 
 suitable for italics, and as script forms, but do not sort well 
 with the lloman type, unless cast to a special pattern. 
 
 A and are used for the two vowel sounds of the words 
 • If not available use Th, Dh, U', A'.
 
 Phonetic Alphahei. 
 
 bAto, butter; kAmo, comer: the Greek letters A, fi are used for 
 the corresponding capitals, as they have some resemblance in 
 foi-m to A and o. Small capitals a, o. Italics, v, d. 
 
 Long vowels in English are almost always of a distinctly 
 diphthongal character: they are represented by digraphs, as 
 will be explained in § 21. 
 
 Phonetic spelling naturally appears barbarous and illegible 
 at first to those who have spent years in learning to spell 
 unphonetically. It takes them some time to get rid of old 
 associations; to realise, for instance, that neither c {shay), nor 
 (er), nor q {ing), nor Ji [eth), are ever to be pronounced like 
 k, but that a distinct and definite sound corresponds con- 
 sistently to each symbol. 
 
 4. Names of the Lettees. The Phonetic Alphabet should 
 be learnt Uke the common alphabet, by saying the names of 
 the letters in the order given in the table. 
 
 If the names of the letters were only required for descriptive 
 purposes, names such as w 'double-u', a 'inverted-v' would be 
 quite clear, and good enough. But if spelling words out letter 
 by letter is to be of any use as an aid to pronunciation, we 
 require names which shall suggest the sounds as nearly as 
 possible. 'Doiihle-you-aitch-eye-see-aitch' does not in sound 
 resemble the word ichicli. 
 
 The phonetic names of the letters, given in the third 
 column, are as far as possible the same as the common names : 
 they are given, for the sake of beginners, both in phonetic and 
 in common spelling. Changes have been made in the names 
 only where the common name fails to suggest the sound of 
 the letter. 
 
 Names like 'jee' for g (pronounced as in give), 'aitch' for 
 h. {he), 'ah' for r (re) are rejected as misleading. 
 
 Theoretically the consonants are best named for spelling 
 purposes with the neutral vowel o (er). The letter p for instance 
 should be called op (rq)) or po {pSr), according as it is to be 
 pronounced with a preceding or a following vowel. Compound 
 consonants such as are pronounced together in the same syllable
 
 Phonetic Alphabet. 
 
 should bo sounded together in spelling : st, nt, tc should have 
 names like est, ent, etc (etch). 
 
 0. Namks of thk Vowels. The sounds of the short vowels 
 in Englisli cannot be properly given without a following con- 
 sonant, and are unsuited therefore as names for the letters. 
 
 The sound of the i in pip is difficult to pronounce alone 
 without making it into iy, which would suggest j^ccp: the 
 name eye suggests jj/pe, and is still less like the i of pip. 
 
 In spelling, therefore, these vowels should always be 
 taken with the following letter; thus, piy-it, ;:>;t; piy-ip, pjj? 
 (not piy-it-piy); piy-ep-eo, pepo, ju'jiper. 
 
 Similarly in the case of the long vowel digi-aphs (§ 21), we 
 should spell hiy-ow, liow ; es-aw, saw; qiy-ey, qey, they; biy-oy, 
 boy; ef-00, foo, fur ; hiy-eo, heo, her. 
 
 The names at, et, it, ot, At, ut, will serve to suggest the 
 sounds and the manner of spelling. 
 
 The sounds w and y, whether used as consonants or 
 vowels, are best represented by the names uw (oo), iy [ee). 
 To realise the close connection between w and oo, y and ee, 
 compare English we; Vrench. oui: and try to distinguish be- 
 tween the words year and ear"*. 
 
 6. OiiDEii oE THE Letters. The order in which the letters 
 are arranged in the Phonetic Alphabet, is not arbitrary as in 
 the common A, B, C... 
 
 The letters are arranged in 'classes' from 'close' to 'open', 
 and the order in each class is from 'front' to 'back'. Thus 
 we begin with the ' mutes ', the ' closest ' stops of all, and pass 
 through the various gradations of 'hisses', 'trills', 'nasals', 
 to the ' vowels', which are the most ' open ' sounds. 
 
 Each class consists generally speaking of sounds formed in 
 the same kiad of way, but in different positions in the mouth. 
 For instance in the second class of consonants f— j, called 
 'hisses' (Ellis), the breath is made to hiss through a small 
 
 * This (lisliiictioii is often marie by prorioiincins the words yea and 
 iy.) rcsixjctivcly: strictly sijcakinj,' year should bo proiioiuiced yiy&.
 
 Phonetic Alphabet. 
 
 aperture : in the case of f and v, the aperture is between the 
 upper teeth and lower Up (the corresponding sounds in German 
 are produced between the two lips); Ji, q, between the tip of 
 the tongue and the upper teeth ; s, z, further back, between the 
 tongue and the upper gums; c, j (*/(, zh), between the tongue 
 and the roof of the mouth (palate rim). 
 
 In some of the other classes this arrangement does not 
 apply, or is modified for other considerations. The classifica- 
 tion is necessarily rou^'h, but sufficient for practical purposes. 
 
 7. The various forms of the new letters are as follows : — 
 
 New Letters. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Italics. 
 
 Script Forms 
 
 ■Jl {thin) 
 
 G s 
 
 .V 
 
 i9^ 
 
 q (then) 
 
 A a 
 
 u 5 
 
 a% 
 
 A (b!(t) 
 
 A A 
 
 .1 V 
 
 V-a 
 
 (butter) 
 
 12 3 
 
 3 
 
 a^- 
 
 It is a misfortune that the written and printed forms of the 
 Roman letters, and the capitals and lower-case type, differ so 
 considerably, and that there are several different script forms 
 in vogue of many of the letters. 
 
 The above script forms if properly written are not liable to 
 clash; except that d should not be used for d, or 2 for Q. 
 Since however q is used for the back nasal nrj, which does not 
 occur initially, no script form of the capital Q will be required. 
 
 Inverted c ( a ) is an easy letter to write, but clashes with 
 s if not carefully written; 3 (inverted e) is therefore used as 
 the script form of o. 
 
 The two forms ( r ) and ( H ) are not wanted for ;■ ; the 
 second should be discarded. It might be used for 2, since the 
 form ( 2 ) is clumsy. The other script form of z, namely {j} ), 
 would do better for the back-nasal q, since (q) is liable to be 
 confused with (g), and ( r; ) is more suggestive of n. 
 
 In the facsimile of writing given on p. 27, all the letters 
 have then- ordinary forms. 
 
 8. Other Systems of Phonetic Spelling. In the last 
 three columns the equivalent letters from the phonetic alphabets
 
 8 Consonants. 
 
 of Sweet (Romic), Ellis (Glossic), Pitman (Phonotype) are given 
 for the Bake of comparisou. 
 
 An asterisk in the last column denotes that Pitman uses a 
 special type fur the corresponding letter. This is of course a 
 great disadvantage (see § 33), but avoids the use of digraphs. 
 Sweet and Ellis use digraphs for the consonants jj, q, c, J. 
 Sweet uses the simple letters c, j for the compound sounds 
 to {tsh) as in itch, itc; and dj (dzh) as in edge, edj : he spells 
 itch ic, and edge ej. lie uses the same symbol 3 for both the 
 vowels of the words butter, beta ; corner, kema. 
 
 Pitman and Ellis do not provide any distinct symbol for 
 the neutral sound 0, but spell it er, ur, ir, a, or otherwise, 
 according to the ordinary spelling. 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 9. The following examples will illustrate the cases where 
 there is any variation from the common usage of the letters. 
 
 t is only used for the hard sound, as in hit, tip, and not 
 for tc as in nature nesrtco, or for c as in nation neycon. 
 
 k is used for the hard sound of c and ch as in cat kat, 
 character karykto. 
 
 g is only used for the hard sound of g as in gii^egiv, get get. 
 The soft sound of g is dj or j as in gentle, judge, rouge, which 
 would be spelt djentol, djAdj, ruwj, resjjectively. 
 
 10. 7[, xi{eth,thce). The usageof the letters3i,q, c,j, requires 
 more illustration. The distinction between ^ and q, or c and j, 
 is exactly analogous to that between p and h, or t and d. 3i 
 and c, p and t, are said to be 'breathed"; ij and j, b and d, 
 'voiced' articulations. Many persons fail at first through 
 want of practice to discriminate between them with certainty; 
 the distinction is most easily seen by comparing similar pairs 
 of words like the following : 
 
 wreath, riy^   thigh^^j^y- thin, 7[in; /mf/t, ha3[; 
 
 wreathe, riy^ ; thy, qAy; then, ^en■, 2vith, wUi; 
 
 truth, truwTi; breath, tre-^,; 
 
 smooth, smuwij; hrcathe, briyq.
 
 Consonants. 9 
 
 Compare j^of/fooit, pothuk ; sTiorthand, coothand; in wliich 
 the t and the h are separately pronounced. 
 
 11. c {shay). The letter c is not used for s, as in city, or 
 for k, as in cat, but only for sh, as in the words, 
 
 sugar, cugo; mission, micon; ivitch, witc; nature, neytco; 
 nation, neycon; u-ish, wic; shaU, cal; vicious, vicos. 
 
 Compare viishap, mishap ; misshapen, misceypon. 
 
 The hard sound of ch is k, as in character. The soft sound, 
 as in church, is the compound to. 
 
 The letter c is so recklessly used in the common spelling 
 for s, 1c, etc. that, although it is an exceedingly good letter, it is 
 necessary to relegate it to the representation of the somewhat 
 rare sound sh. Even then the associations to which it gives 
 rise are at first misleading, as in the words toish, shall, 
 which become wic, cal; imhlic and imblish become pAblyk and 
 pAblyc respectively. 
 
 12. j. The letter j is iTsed for the same sound as in the 
 French words je, jardin, commonly represented in English 
 phonetics by zh : it occurs in the words, 
 
 pleasure, plejo ; ' gentle, djentol ; rouge, ruwj ; 
 2>/fd(7cr, pledjo ; jwrfr/e, djAdj ; vision, vip-a. 
 
 Since the pure sound j does not occur initially in English, 
 while the compound dj is quite common, j might be used for 
 dj in this position without ambiguity. It would have the 
 advantage of shortness and neatness, as in the words 
 jey, j«?/; joy, joy; jaw, jrtjc; iA&i, judge; jowl, jowl; jest, jest. 
 
 13. s, z (ess, zee). In common spelling s does much of the 
 duty for z, and c for s : in phonetic spelling it is a little puzzling 
 at first to find s used for s, and z for z. Compare the words 
 villous, vilos ; gas, gas ; house (subst.), hows ; 
 villas, viloz ; gaze, geyz ; house (verb), howz ; 
 
 sauce, sa.ws; hiss. Ma; city, sity; 
 
 saws, sawz ; Ms, hiz ; cent, sent ;
 
 1 Consonants. 
 
 rtssfss, oses; Zoss, los ; cliaise, ceyz ; princess, -pTinses; 
 possess, -pozes ; hues, la.wz; chase, tceys; ^)?'t/tce.s, prinsyz; 
 
 excess, yxes; arciss, akses; axis, axys; axes (axe), axyz. 
 
 11. r (re). The phonetic r is used only for the consonantal 
 
 trill. In our dialect of English the letter r is not trilled unless 
 
 a vowel follows. When a consonant follows, r is weakened to 
 
 0, and the previous vowel is usually modified. This gives rise 
 
 to a series of vowels represented in common spelling by such 
 
 combinations as ar, er, ir, or, ur, air, ere, ire, oar, ear, our, etc. 
 
 In phonetic spelling these are represented by combinations with 
 
 the letter o : the r is not pronounced and tiierefore not written 
 
 unless a vowel follow. Compare the words : for, foo ; foreign^ 
 
 foryn; ylorij, gloory: fair, fao; fairy, faory: ^ajjer, peypo; 
 
 papering, peyporyq : star, stAO ; starry, stAory : fear, fio; 
 
 fearing, floryq : flower, flowo; floivcry, flowory : fire, fAyo; 
 
 firing, fAyoryq. 
 
 lo. q (ing). The letter q, in spelling, must not be called 
 cue, but ing, iq. It represents the ' back-nasal ', which is a 
 simple articulation like m or n, and should not be spelled 7ig. 
 Examples of q are: sink, siqk; singer, siqo ; finger, fiqgo; 
 kingdom, kiqdom; anxious, aqcos (sometimes pronounced 
 aqkcos); loving, lAvyq. 
 
 X may be used as in the common spelling for the compound 
 ks, in words like six, yxpleyn ; but wliere the s is an inflection 
 it is better to write ks. 
 
 wreck, rek; wrecks, reks: compare rex (a king). 
 
 cheque, tcek ; cheques, tceks. 
 
 looks, luks: compare lux (light). 
 
 lak, laks (of rupees) : compare lax (lazy, careless). 
 It will be seen that the consonants present little difficulty, 
 becausfe they are, with the above exceptions, used more or less 
 consistently in ordinary ppelling.
 
 Voioels. 1 1 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 16. The common orthography represents vowel sounds in 
 the most eiTatic and inconsistent way. The spelling of a 
 vowel is little or no guide to its sound, and the jDrouunciation 
 of each word has to be learnt separately. Not only is the 
 same letter used to represent several distinct sounds, but the 
 same sound is rejiresented by diiYerent letters; for instance, the 
 combination 'oit(jh' has a different sound in each of the words 
 tliough, cough, through, ro^igh, plough, hiccough, hough, ouglit: 
 and the vowel sound of go, commonly called long o (o), is spelt 
 in thirteen different ways. The reader will find several other 
 examples in the table § 21. It is unnecessary to dwell further 
 on so familiar a theme. 
 
 17. Short Vowels. The letters a, e, i, o, u, are used for 
 the accented short vowels pronounced as in the words ^wf, j^ct, 
 -pit, pot, put. 
 
 The sound of a in the words that, man, is consistently re- 
 presented in the ordinary spelling by the letter a : it is better 
 to retain an association so suggestive to English readers, than 
 to use the letter a for the foreign sound ah, as in the word 
 father, for which it is eomiDaratively seldom used in English. 
 Moreover the use of a for ah, would give rise to a series of 
 confusing cross-associations with the common orthography. 
 Out of the many instances that might be given, the words art, 
 pine, would become at, pain, respectively (as in Sweet's Eomic). 
 It is very important to avoid confusions of this kind. (§ 32.) 
 
 18 A. We requu'e a new symbol for the accented short 
 vowel sound which occurs in the words up, come, blood, enough, 
 etc. The letter a, inverted v, is used for this sound. It is 
 a good letter and not likely to lead to confusion. 
 
 Examples are: mutton, mAton*; Monday, MAndy; two- 
 pence, tApons; come, kAm; enough, yuAf; blood, blAd. 
 
 * I prefer to distineruish the ' vocal ' or ' syllabic ' n from the con- 
 sonant, by prefixinp: thesymbola. Compare for instance w;^('c)M(w«Y^t>?)), 
 vwtany [muttony, Bab Ballads), and Pvtny [Putney) ; kiln, and vil97i 
 {villain); Mi J n (3Iilne), and Jiihii (.Mi'lon) : similarly with syllabic I;
 
 1 2 Vowels. 
 
 19. Unaccented Vowels, o. A short vowel if not accented 
 generally loses its distinctive features, and is slurred into 
 a neutral voice murmur. The letter o (inverted c) is used 
 to represent this neutral sound in the ultimate stage of dis- 
 solution. The symbol a (inverted e), used by Sweet in hia 
 'Romic', is, I think, too suggestive of the e-mute of the 
 common spelling. To take a few examples from Sweet's 
 Eomic : honour becomes ona, compare (one) ; similarly hitter, 
 bito, (bite) ; sinner, eina, (sine); copper, co-pa, (cope); nature, 
 neic9, (niece); ditcher, dic9, (dice); richer, rica, (rice), etc. 
 
 The sound o occurs in the conversational pronunciation of 
 the words attempt, otemt ; oppoi^e, opAWZ ; to-day, to-dey; 
 sofa, BAwfo; mention, mencon; carrot, karot; honour, ono; 
 measure, mejo; measuring, mejoryq; shepherd, cejtod.; favourite, 
 feyvorjrt; exercise, exosAyz; Saturdaij, Satody; effort, efot ; 
 particular, potikywlo ; laborious, lobooryos. 
 
 y. It is convenient to distinguish also two other varieties 
 of unaccented vowel. The letter y can he used without 
 ambiguity for an unaccented 'front' or 'lingual' vowel, as 
 in very. It is not so common as o, and when it precedes 
 another vowel it is usually 'consonantized' into the familiar y 
 of words like yea. In fact it is practically impossible to draw 
 a sharp line of distinction between the unaccented vowel 1 and 
 the consonant y. The scientific method is, I think, in this 
 case, to use the same symbol to represent both. Examples; 
 
 forehead, foryd; knoivledge, nolydj; character, karykto; 
 shepherdess, cepodys; coivardice, kowodys; ladies, leydyz ; 
 specimen, STpesyvciyn; system, sistym; dyspeptic, Ays^e-ptyii; 
 
 expected, yxpektyd ; divide, dyvAyd ; eruption, yrApcon ; 
 
 Aryan, Aoryon; rivulet, Tirywlyt; soloist, SAvrlowyst. 
 
 compare djental (gentle), mental {mental), mentaly (mentally), and 
 djeiUly (gently). 
 
 The number of syllables in a word is of distinctive importance in 
 speech; and should therdbre be indicated if possible in spelling. On 
 the other hand 1 do not think it worth while to distinguish words like 
 Weston and western, silean and silvern, which are often confounded in 
 common proiumciation, or at least indistinguishable to the average ear. 
 
 Tlie symbol a may bi" regarded as merely corresponding to a voice 
 murnnir and not to any dednito oral configuration. In words such as 
 pyuwpyl (pupil), satyn (satin), sinfwl [sinful), milyn» {milliner), a 
 distmct vowel is generally lieurd in the second syllable.
 
 Vowel Digraph s. 13 
 
 w. Similarly the letter w may be used for an unaccented 
 'lip' vowel. This is very rare except in combination (see §21), 
 as the second element of a diphthong. It may be heard in the 
 conversational pronunciation of to before a vowel, as in to all, 
 tw awl ; and in words like urgument, AOgywmont ; hnpudent, 
 impywdont ; before a consonant it is usually replaced by the 
 much easier sound o, as in to-day, pronounced to-dey. 
 
 20. Vowel Digraphs. 'Long vowels' in English are nearly 
 always of a distinctly diphthongal character: they are thei'efore 
 ai^propriately represented by digra23hs. The method adopted 
 in forming these digraphs is one which is sometimes used in 
 the common spelling; it avoids the objection to which digraphs 
 are generally liable, of causing ambiguity whenever two vowels 
 occur in succession without an intervening consonant. 
 
 By adding to any one of the six letters a, e, i, o, a, u, any 
 one of the three letters w, y, o, we can form eighteen digraphs 
 none of which can clash with other combinations, or with 
 the 'consonantal' use of w and y, in words like away, owey. 
 The ' consonant ' w, for instance, never occurs in English after 
 an accented short vowel (as it does in the Welsh pronunciation 
 of Lewis, or the 'new' ijronunciation of the Latin word levis); 
 it cannot therefore clash with the 'vowel' w. 
 
 Of these eighteen, phonetic spelling requires only a dozen 
 to represent all the commonest and most important of the 
 so-called 'long vowels' in English: some of the remaining six 
 digraphs might be appropriately used to express foreign sounds. 
 
 The digraph assigned to each diphthong is chosen as far as 
 possible to suggest its afiinities ; except where associations 
 exist which it is worth while to preserve. The choice is gene- 
 rally so simple and obvious that the vowel digraphs may be 
 very easily learnt. 
 
 Ordinary spelling employs about two hundred different 
 vowel combinations, few of which are consistently used to 
 represent single sounds.
 
 14 
 
 Vowel Diyraphs. 
 
 21. Table of Vowel Dior.umis. The accompanying table 
 contains the digraphs required in English, with copious 
 examples of words containing the corresponding sound. 
 
 The equivalents of the same sounds in other alphabets 
 are given as before for the purpose of comparison. 
 
 S^i 
 
 .a a 
 
 
 
 g.- 
 
 S :- 
 
 y- 
 
 o.C 
 
 o a. 
 
 ■=■ 3 
 
 Oaa 
 
 ^r? 
 
 
 M 
 
 Kxuiiiplt'S of tlic sounds. 
 
 te O 
 
 
 ^ 2 
 
 air 
 
 •r 
 
 aa 
 
 * 
 
 ar 
 
 ar 
 
 er 
 
 er 
 
 et<^ 
 
 et« 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 an 
 
 jt 
 
 ou 
 
 ou 
 
 oa 
 
 * 
 
 00 
 
 * 
 
 
 • 
 
 ai 
 
 « 
 
 ee 
 
 * 
 
 oi 
 
 oi 
 
 ei 
 
 ei& 
 
 ai 
 
 au- 
 
 ah, 
 ar 
 
 ur, 
 er 
 
 or 
 
 aw 
 
 ou, 
 ow 
 
 oo 
 
 ee 
 oi, 
 
 oy 
 
 ao 
 
 AO 
 60 
 
 CO 
 
 aw 
 ow 
 
 AW 
 UW 
 
 ey 
 iy 
 oy 
 Ay 
 
 ( fare, fair, thcr -, their, boar, aerate t 
 I fao, fao, qao, qao, bao, aoreyt 
 
 i father, baa, clerls, heart, guard, laugh | 
 
 jfAOtlO, bAO, klAOk, hAOt, gAOd, lAOf \ 
 
 i( heard, herd, surd, bird, word, journey) 
 \ heod, heod, seod, beod, weod, djeony \ 
 
 j lord, for, four, fore, door, sore, soar ] 
 \ lood, foo, foo, foo, doo, soo, soo \ 
 
 K laud, law, broad, all, ought, caught 
 I lawd, law, brawd, awl, awt, kawt 
 
 I fowl, foul, plough 
 
 ( fowl, fowl, plow 
 
 jflow, no, toe, beau, soul, sole, oak 
 
 (flAW, nAW, tAW, bAW, SAWl, SAWl, AWk 
 
 J two, too, to, true, truth, grew, shoe 
 (tuw, tuw, tuw, truw,truwji, gruw, cuw 
 
 \ they, vein, \yA\n, ))ay, pane, break 
 I qey, veyn, peyn, pey, peyn, breyk 
 
 ( me, receive, feel, machine, belief, leaf 
 |miy, rysiyv, fiyl, mociyn, byliyf, liyf 
 
 ( boy, oil 
 
 \ boy, oyl 
 
 (buy, by, eye, wine, lie, aisle, high, I 
 
 (bAy, bAy, Ay, WAyn, Uy, Ayl, liAy, Ay 
 
 ae 
 
 aa 
 a 
 
 oe 
 
 aoa 
 
 03 
 
 ao 
 au 
 
 ou 
 
 un 
 uw 
 
 ei 
 
 ii 
 
 iy 
 
 oi 
 ai 
 
 t Sweet's pronunciation. * Pitman uses special type. 
 
 The pronunciation of many of these words fluctuates (§28). 
 
 22. AO, eo, ao, oo. These digraphs represent the long 
 vowels of the words /ar, fur, fair, for, which are spelled with a
 
 Vowel Digraphs. 15 
 
 'mute r'* iu lac common spelling, and are generally followed 
 by the 'o-glide'. In English the r is not trilled unless a vowel 
 follows (see § 14), but the sound of the vowel is generally 
 the same whether the r is trilled or not. 
 
 Compare the words : 
 soars, sooz; fairs, faoz; stais, stAOZ; 
 
 so(! ?•/■;,'(/, sooryq; ' fairy, faory; starry, stAory. 
 
 The word soars is sometimes pronounced SAWoz (like soiccrs). 
 
 The digraph uo might be used to distinguish words like 
 poor, puo; tour, tuo; p»;r, pjoio; from derivatives like doer, 
 duwD; hewer, hyuvro. 
 
 Similarly Id in words like mere, mio; fear, fio; meer, mio ; 
 pier, pio ; weird, wiod. (Sweet.) Compare seer, siyo (a prophet). 
 
 The pronunciation of all these o vowels is somewhat 
 variable and often disputed. 
 
 Some people distinguish words lilce pa and par, fa and fir, 
 ma and mar, without trilling the r, by dwelling on tljo 'o-glide' 
 in the case of the r-vowel. This distinction might be preserved 
 by using the letter m. (inverted w) for the pure ah sound, 
 thus: fojio, father; fjioiio, farther: but it is of no practical 
 importance, and iw is too suggestive of M. Like many 
 of these distinctions, it is generally visionary and subjective, 
 and affects the mind of the speaker but not the ear of the 
 hearer. 
 
 23. Ay, ey, iy, oy. The digraphs Ay, ey, iy, oy, are used 
 to represent tlie vowels in the words hy, titey, me, hoy; 
 ey is not likely to be mispronounced as in the word key to 
 rhyme with me. 
 
 The digraph ay miglrt be used for the broad sound of 
 
 Ay (compare German ai and ei), but this is of no 'distinctive' 
 
 value in English; besides the digraph is frequently used in 
 
 common spelling for the ey sound in words like pay day, and 
 
 would therefore give rise to serious ' cross-associations' (§ 32). 
 
 * The phrase 'mute r' is used here and elsewhere with reference to 
 the cast's in which the letter r is used iu the common spelling merely as 
 a vowel diacritic and not pronounced as a consonant. Like the French 
 'mute s', when final it is often trilled if the next word beghis with a 
 vowel.
 
 Vowel Digraphs. 
 
 24. AW, ow, uw. The three digraphs aw, ow, uw, repre- 
 senting the long vowels of the words no, hoio, who, are 'rounded' 
 with the lips, which move as in making an w {oo). Anyone can 
 easily satisfy himself of this by watching his lips in a mirror 
 while he says the words. 
 
 The 'long-<5' aw, of so, go, note, etc., as commonly pro- 
 nounced, is a distinct diphthong, and not a pure vowel. The 
 first element of the diphthong in my own pronunciation is 
 identical with the neutral vowel er eo, in }ierd. 
 
 The digraph ow is used for the vowel of how, because that 
 sound is consistently represented by ou or ow in the common 
 spelhng. The use of the digraph ow for any other sound would 
 give rise to very serious cross-associations. 
 
 For a similar reason I have retained the digraph aw for the 
 sound in law, laud; although, like Professor Everett, I make 
 no distinction in my own pronunciation between oo and aw, 
 lord and laud, morn and dawti, short and caught. Sweet uses 
 ao for aw, and oj as an abbreviation for aoa in words like 
 more (compare mate), drawer (comi^are draw). 
 
 The distinction between oo and aw is frequently neglected 
 in conversation by peo^Dle who imagine that they make it; 
 and is in any case so slight that it is not easily perceived 
 even when correctly made. It is perhaps scarcely of sufficient 
 practical value to be recognized in si^elling. It is sometimes 
 made by pronouncing aw as a lip-vowel, something like the 
 German long o, in ach so, wohl. 
 
 The digraphs ew, iw, might be used to represent the French 
 vowels of the words peu, pu : the latter is iy ' rounded ', and is 
 like the German il. The digraph ow represents the sound of 
 AW when unaccented, as in pilloic, pilow (cp. pillar, pilo). 
 
 SPELLING EEFOEM. 
 
 25. Sweet in his Handbook of Phonetics begins the 
 appendix, on Spelling Eeform with the following paragraph : 
 
 "The absolute necessity of phonetic reform is now almost 
 universally recognized, not only by practical teachers but also 
 by scientific philologists. All the objections that prejudice and
 
 spelling Jie/orm. 17- 
 
 irrational conservatism liave beeu able to devise have been 
 successfully met, and the only question now is, What system 
 shall we adopt?" *■ 
 
 These are strong words, but the facts certainly go very far to 
 justify them. It would be out of place here to discuss in any 
 detail the absurdities of the common spelling, or to raise any 
 of the vexed questions of phonetics. On these and similar 
 points the reader is referred to other works*. But since our 
 phonetic notation, though primarily designed for a different 
 object, might be accused of radical tendencies, we will indicate 
 briefly the difficulties of spelling reform and the coaditions 
 which any proposed system should satisfy. 
 
 26. A Fixed Oethogkaphy is essenti-al for Spelling 
 Eefokm. It is of primary importance that the standard of 
 spelling should be uniform and strict ; that a definite and 
 invariable letter-group should correspond to each word, so that 
 it may be recognized by the eye at a glance without being con- 
 sciously spelled or pronounced. 
 
 Any elastic system of spelling reform which proposes to 
 adapt itself (even within limits) to every change and variety of 
 pronunciation, and to allow individuals to spell as they think 
 they pronounce, would give rise to endless confusion, and can 
 have Uttle chance of success. "We already possess a standard 
 orthography which for strictness is practically perfect, in that 
 no one may spell badly under penalty of being considered il- 
 literate : that it is not accurately phonetic, is comparatively 
 unimportant. Is it likely that the nation will risk the greater 
 evil for the chance of curing the lesser? 
 
 27. A Phonetic Orthography, provided there were a 
 recognized standard spelling for each word, would have the 
 advantage of serving also as a standard of pronunciation, and 
 so would tend to check the growi;h of dialectical varieties and 
 the slurring and degradation of the spoken language. 
 
 * We may particularly recommend to the general reader the appendix 
 of Sweet's i/c(«(7/y()«A- o/ PAojjf^Vs above-mentioned, also an article by 
 Professor Max Miiller in the Fortnightly for Ajiril, 1876, republished 
 (price one penny) by Isaac Pitman and Sons, Phonetic Institute, Eath. 
 
 C. P. S. 2
 
 la SiJelling Reform. 
 
 Tliis end might be attained by the publication of an autho- 
 rized Phonetic Dictionary. There would probably be con- 
 siderable divergence of opinion with regard to the way in which 
 words should be spelled. It is not all quite such plain sailing as 
 many ardent reformers would have us believe. The following 
 arc some of the main difi&culties, with a brief discussion as 
 to the possible modes of treating them. 
 
 28. Varieties of Peonunciation. Delicate shades of pro- 
 nunciation, such as are of no practical use for distinguishing 
 words in conversation, should not be recognized by differences 
 of spelling. It would be unpractical to make distinctions in 
 speUing too fine to be generally maintained in speech. 
 
 For example, foreigners often try to make a distinction 
 between the vowels of myrrh and sir, birth and berth, herd and 
 heard, bird and ivord, burden and guerdon, journal colonel 
 and kernel. In our dialect of English the vowel sound in each 
 case is the same (represented by eo), and is like the German 6, 
 or the sound in the French word peitr. It is possible by trilling 
 the r to distinguish between er, ir, or, ur, etc. in these words, 
 but the effort is productive of confusion rather than clearness. 
 Pairs of words like birth and berth are rare, and rarely clash, 
 and need not be spelled differently if they are always pronounced 
 alike. For if in the hurry of conversation there is hardly ever 
 a doubt as to which word is meant, surely there would be 
 much less danger in the slow process of reading a continuous 
 sentence. The fact is that words liable to create confusion 
 in this way, are kept out of a language by a natural process of 
 selection. 
 
 In many systems* a distinction is made between the un- 
 accented terminations, a, er, or, ar, our, ure, as in the words, 
 sofa, loafer, editor, particular, labour, measure. This secures 
 a greater similarity to the common orthography, but is pho- 
 netically unjustifiable, because the distinction is not generally 
 made in speech, and, if it is to be made in writing, can only 
 be acquired by spelling lessons. 
 
 * E.g. Bell's World- English, see p. 29.
 
 Sjyelling Reform. 19 
 
 29. In cases where the varieties of pronnnciation are more 
 serious and marked, and include sounds which are frequently 
 used to distinguish words, a standard pronunciation would 
 have to be selected for purposes of spelling. 
 
 Where two or more pronunciations are equally common 
 and correct, that would be selected which accords best with 
 the etymology and history of the word, and especially with the 
 received spelling, and with the pronunciation of cognate words. 
 
 Variations affecting only indindual words, are numeroiis 
 but of slight importance. Among common varieties which 
 affect whole classes of words, we may mention the following : 
 
 The broad ao sound is the commonest pronunciation of 
 words like pass, laugh, calf, ask, but we may frequently hear 
 pas, laf, oaf, ask. This difficulty is commonly evaded by 
 using a special letter, denoting a quality of sound intermediate 
 between ao and a, in the spelling of such words as these. 
 
 The aw sound shortened is often heard instead of ot in 
 words like God, off, cross, cloth. This pronunciation of o occurs 
 regularly in the first element of the diphthong oy ; it survives 
 also in several country dialects, and is common in Amei'ica, 
 
 Words like_poo7- (and door, floor), your (tour, pour) are often 
 pronounced like yore, pore; similarly pw;e pyoo not pyuo, cure 
 kyoo not kyuo; pier and 2)eer, more like pyeo than piyo, or pio. 
 
 In the termination -tion, ti is always c {sh) ; a similar 
 tendency is observable in many other cases where y follows 
 another consonant, issue is pronounced both isyw and lew 
 (Sweet, isliu); virtue, both veotjrw and veotcw ; azure, both 
 azyo and ajo; the terminations -ture and -dure, as in picture 
 and procedure, both too and tyo, djo and dyo, and sometimes 
 affectedly -tyuo, -dyuo. Compare the conversational pronun- 
 ciation natcroly with the precise natjrwroly (riaturally). 
 
 30. Ikdication of Stress Accent. The way in which a 
 word is accented is of great importance in English speech. A 
 word may be rendered quite unintelligible to the ear by being 
 wrongly accented. 
 
 The necessity of using a special diacritic to mark the 
 accent, is avoided in the present system by using the un- 
 
 2—2
 
 20 Spelling Reform. 
 
 accented vowels, o, w, aud y, in unaccented syllables. The 
 spelling itself is thus made to express all that is required for 
 the correct accentuation of the word. 
 
 These obscure sounds are the most characteristic feature 
 of the English accent. Most systems of phonetic spelling, 
 however, have no means of expressing them. In some systems 
 the iudefiniteness of sound of unaccented short vowels is 
 iudii-ectly implied by marking the accented syllables ; but in 
 many cases even this provision is neglected, aud the accentua- 
 tion is left to be inferred from a knowledge of the word. 
 
 In Sweet's Eomic the symbol 3 is consistently used for the 
 neutral vowel o; but since the same letter is used for the 
 accented vowel a, confusion is likely to occur in pronunciation, 
 unless the accented vowel is always marked with a diacritic, as 
 in ((hut, ob-at; uttered, a-tad (Eomic); compare the spellings 
 obAt, Atod (Callendar). 
 
 The unaccented vowels w aud y are generally rejiresented 
 in other systems by the letters u and i\ but the soi;nd y is also 
 often represented by e. Both e and i when unaccented are 
 generally indistinguishable from the final y in words like very. 
 It seems better to use the letter y consistently in such cases 
 than to be always hesitating between e and i. 
 
 When y and w come together the first is consonantal, as in 
 ekwyty equity, anjrwol annual. (In terminations of the latter 
 class the 3 is often dropped especially when inflections are 
 added; thus, anywly anuiKiUy.) 
 
 The prima facie objection to the use of the special letters 
 0, w, y, for the unaccented vowels, is that it gives the spelling 
 an unfamihar and barbarous appearance. This soon wears 
 off, and is of no serious consequence compared with phonetic 
 accuracy and expressiveness. 
 
 31. Vakiations of Stkess. It is a disadvantage to which 
 all strictly phonetic systems are liable, that the pronunciation 
 of some words varies according to their position in the 
 sentence; and that the same syllable is often accented dif- 
 ferently in different members of a series of cognate words.
 
 Spelling Reform. 21 
 
 For instance the word to, when unaccented, is pronounced 
 tw before vowels, and to before consonants ; similarly the is pro- 
 nounced qy and qo; a and are are generally both pronounced o. 
 The word /or, according as the r is trilled or not, and according 
 as it is accented or slurred, and followed or not by the o-glidc, 
 may be pronounced in the following different ways : fo, faiv, 
 foo (fawo), fr, for, for, fawr, foor (fawor): some of these pro- 
 nunciations are doubtless uncommon, but it is not difficult to 
 imagine cases in which they might be heard. 
 
 In the accentuation of cognate words similar variations 
 occur: the addition of a termination often changes completely 
 the sound of the root syllable. 
 Compare the worils: 
 
 atom atom, and ati'iiiic otomyk; 
 oppose opAWZ, and opposition opozican; 
 particle pAOtykol, ?.u.di particular potikywl.; 
 Jdbour leybo, and laborious lobooryos; 
 hero hyeorow, and heroine herowyn. 
 For the purposes of spelling reform such variations of 
 spelling in cognate words are objectionable, as obscuring the 
 connection between the words. In a strictly phonetic system 
 they cannot be avoided, and undoubtedly present a serious 
 obstacle to the adoption of a purely phonetic standard of 
 spelling in place of the received orthography. 
 
 The present system of spelling is not therefore j^roposed 
 with a view to spelling reform. It is rather intended to 
 supply a means of indicating, as simply and definitely as pos- 
 sible, the common pronunciation of English words, and in 
 particular as a guide to the method of spelling adopted in 
 Cursive Shorthand. 
 
 32. Ceoss Associations. The most serious difficulties in 
 learning phonetic spelling are those which arise from a pre- 
 vious acquaintance with the common spelling. The false 
 analogies and inconsistent associations acquired therefrom are 
 exceedingly persistent and misleading. The kind of association 
 which is most annoying to the reader and most difficult to get 
 rid of is the cross-association between different words.
 
 22 Sjyelling Reform. 
 
 Owing to the use of the letters of the Eoman alphahet we 
 may find pairs of words such that the phonetic spelling of one 
 of them coincides with the common spelling of the other. In 
 tlie present system such cases of cross-association are very rare, 
 special care having been taken to avoid them; a few however 
 occur (especially with the letter s, as in sauce, saws ; cent, sent), 
 and may at first mislead those who are familiar only with the 
 common orthography. A few more might perhaps have been 
 avoided by the use of special types, provided that they were 
 well enough designed not to suggest any of the common letters : 
 but this condition is very difiicult to satisfy. (See p. 30.) 
 
 33. Special Types. The use of diacritical signs and 
 special types, is dispensed with in our alphabet by employing 
 digraphs and inverted letters; these devices have been sanc- 
 tioned by the experience of previous workers in phonetics. 
 
 We have endeavoured to represent each simple articulation 
 by a single letter, diphthongs and compound sounds by com- 
 binations of two or more letters, so designed as not to clash 
 with each other, and to suggest as nearly as possible the nature 
 of the sounds in question. 
 
 Pitman, in his Phonotypc (designed solely for the purpose of 
 spelling-reform) uses thirteen new letters, besides twenty-three 
 of the old alphabet, making a total of thirty-six, or nearly half 
 as many again as in the Koman alphabet. Some of the new 
 letters represent diphthongs and other common compounds. 
 He thus succeeds in saving nearly one-tenth in the space 
 required for printing. This is often put forward as a great 
 advantage of phonetic spelling on his system. We should say 
 that the great increase (10 °/o) in the number of different types 
 required, and the inconsistency of expressing compounds by 
 single letters, were alone more than sufficient to counterbalance 
 this advantage. 
 
 The prima facie objection, that the use of special type 
 involves a special fount and skilled composing, would soon be 
 overcome if there were any great demand for phonetic printing : 
 but where it is only required in small quantities, it is a distinct
 
 Spelling Reform. 23 
 
 advantage to use only such materiala as any common fount 
 can supply. 
 
 It is from the point of view of the reader and the writer 
 that the introduction of so many new letters appears most 
 objectionable. Centuries of gradual development have ren- 
 dered the Roman lower-case alphabet comparatively perfect for 
 reading purposes. It is very difficult to introduce any new 
 types at all without spoiling it, and making continued or rapid 
 reading very trying to the eyes. 
 
 Again, in ordinary long-hand writing (not copper-plate) 
 points of distinction between the letters are with difficulty 
 maintained. It stands to reason that, with so many new letters, 
 it will be more difficult to preserve the distinctions, and harder 
 to write legibly. The small saving in the number of letters 
 required to express any given word, will be more than counter- 
 balanced by the more complicated forms of the characters and 
 the necessity of writing them more carefully; and even if 
 equally well written, the writing will be more troublesome to 
 read. ' 
 
 34. Specimen of Pitman's Style. To illustrate the com- 
 mon style of phonetic spelling, we give a transliteration of a 
 specimen of Pitman's Phonotype. The italicized digrai^ha 
 represent special single types in the original ; Pitman also uses 
 special types for the sounds c, j, q, a, Ji, q. 
 
 "H/(/r and X{eijx a fiu Iqglic WArdz m.ey hiy found in qe 
 ymo]nsLl orj^ografi, whiic liyv nvw ruwm for dout az tu qc!/r 
 pronAnsieycon. BAt qis iz kweit eksepconal. Yet wiy ar 
 cuii-v qat our speliq woz orirfjinali f»?rnetik. It iz nou pro- 
 pvtczd tu revert tu qat priusipel. In qis cort paragraf, "white 
 konteynz qe 36 siqgel leters and 5 difjioqz ov qe Niu Alfabet, 
 vwn\i qe tciyt points kud hiy inkhacded, bAt qe alfabetik law 
 iz fZjenerali kliyr, and qe ei wil hiy cyhcl tu dJMlj priti wel 
 whot qe apij/rans vrad hiy in printed buks. Konip. ?/rd wiq qe 
 .^wld Alfabet, dAZ it not heyr awey de p»3m? Ai." 
 
 It will be seen that Pitman represents the vowels ey and 
 AW, by single letters, though they are always pronounced as
 
 24 Spelling Reform. 
 
 diphthongs in English. He represents the compound dj by the 
 single letter j', and the compound tc by a letter very like c. He 
 uses the letter r not only for the consonantal trill, as in 
 paragraf, yenerali, oridjinal, but also as a vowel modifier in 
 the words ar, revert, short, kompeyrd. The sounds italicized in 
 the words nm and ywwjual, wwrdz and reve7*t, though identical, 
 lire differently spelled. 
 
 Among minor inaccuracies, we may notice that the words 
 the and a do not contain the same vowels as pet and pa?; the 
 spcUiugs ?/e and a cannot therefore be considered phonetic. 
 The word room is not often pronounced ruwm, like rheum. 
 
 The accent is not generally marked, but is left to be inferred 
 from a knowledge of the words. The iudefiniteness of the 
 vowel sounds in unaccented syllables is in no way indicated. 
 Vowels whose sounds are indistinguishable in speech from the 
 neutral vowel denoted herein by the letter o, are variously re- 
 presented in Pitman's 'Phonotype' by the letters a, o, e, u, er, 
 etc., following the common orthography. Thus not only is it 
 impossible to deduce the aorrect accentuation of a word from 
 the ' Phonotype ', but the correct ' phonotypic ' rendering cannot 
 be deduced from the pronunciation, witliout a knowledge of 
 the received spelling *. 
 
 Pitman's system of spelling cannot therefore be strictly 
 called phonetic. It is, at best, a compromise with the common 
 orthography. 
 
 35. The following version shows, within the limits of 
 accuracy which we have laid down in the preceding pages, the 
 common pronunciation of each word in the above extract. 
 
 HiD and qao ey fyuw Iqglyc weodz mey biy fownd in qiy 
 yuwjwol OD>[ogrofy, witc liyv nAw rum foo dowt az tuw qao 
 prouAnsyeycon. BAt qis iz kwAvt yksepconol. Yet wiy ao cuo 
 qat owo spelyq woz oridjynoly fownetyk. It iz now propAwzd 
 tuw ryveot tuw qat prinsypol. In qis coot parogrAof, witc 
 kouteynz qiy 30 siqgol letoz and 12 dAygrafs ov qiy Nyuw 
 Alfobyt, Awnly qiy tciyf poynts kud biy ynkluwdyd, bAt qiy 
 alfobetyk law iz djenroly klio, and tpy Ay wil biy eybol tuw 
 * See also Sweet, Handbook of Phonetics, p. 202.
 
 spelling Reform. 25 
 
 dJAdj prity wel wot qiy opiorons wud biy in printyd buks. 
 Kompaod wiq i^iy Awld Alfobyt, dAz it not bao owey ipy 
 pAom? 
 
 In the above version each word is spelt according to its 
 sound when spoken separately, apart from other words. In 
 actnal speech, and especially in conversational pronunciation 
 (see § 30), the case is very different. Many of the mono- 
 syllables and short words are unaccented, and some change 
 their sound according to their situation and meaning. 
 
 36. To illustrate what is meant by the ' conversational', 
 as opposed to the 'precise' pronunciation, we give another 
 examijle of phonetic spelling, in which tlie short words are sj^elt 
 as they might be actually read or spoken. The position of 
 the stress accent is shown in every case by the spelling. 
 
 When a word ending in a mute r is followed u-'ithout a 
 pause by a word beginning with a vowel, the r is often trilled 
 in pronunciation. Such cases are indicated by (r) placed after 
 the first word : Sweet always inserts the r. 
 
 Specimen of Conversational Pronunciation. 
 Yt opioz qot qao(r) ao yn Iqgbnd on Weylz, yn. rownd 
 nAmboz, fAyv milyon tcildron ov qo leybryq popywleycon, huw 
 mey by yxpektyd tw otend pAblyk elymentory skuwlz. 
 Obowt hAof qis UAmbo Ao(r) aktcwly on ip rAwlz ov SAtc 
 skuwlz. Wiy mey estymeyt ipt obowt liAof-o-milyon tcildron 
 anjTvly pAOS qo limyt ov qo skuwl eydj ond ento(r) on o 
 Livf ov leybo. Ao hAyyst standod fixt yn qiyz skuwlz, qo sixij 
 standod, rykwAyoz qopjii-wpyl to riyd o coot pasydj from o buk 
 oo uj'uwspeypo, on to rAyt o coot 3[iym wyq korekt spelyq — 
 not very hAy rykwAyomont seotynly. How many tcildron 
 riytct qis standod? Awuly twenty j[owzoud; WAyl qo numbo(r) 
 ov tij'tcoz, ynkluwdyq pyuwpyllij'tcoz, jTiiployd yz obowt fifty 
 j[owzond ; qat iz, tuw pynwpylz pB[r) an9m fo(r) evry fAyv 
 tiytcoz I Awnly obowt WAn hAndrod jjowzond tcildron anywly 
 evo get biyond qo ^eod standod, witc mijTiz qo riydyq ov on 
 iyzy stoorybuk, ond rAytyq o coot pasydj from qo sejTU wyq 
 korekt spelyq.
 
 26 Spelling Reform. 
 
 37. For the sake of comparison we give a version of the 
 same passage in Sweet's system of phonetic spelling (Romic). 
 The chief accent in each word is marked by (•) following the 
 letter on which the accent begins. If the word is accented on 
 its first syllable, the accent is not marked. The use of the 
 digraphs, th and sh, gives the spelling a more familiar appear- 
 ance, in spite of the absence of capitals. 
 
 it op-ioz dhat dhor ar in iqgland an weilz, in raund nambaz, 
 faiv milyan cildran ev dho Icibariq popyal-eishan, huu mei bi 
 exp-ektid tu 9t-end pablik elim'entari skuulz. ab'aut haf dhis 
 nambor ar sektynali on dlia roulz ev sac skuulz. wii mei 
 estimeit dhat ob-aut haf-a-m-ilyan cildran ffinyuali pas dha 
 limit av dha skuul cij and entar on a laif av leiba. dha haiist 
 stffindad fixt in dliiiz skuulz, dha sixth staendad, rik-waiaz 
 dha pyuupl U riid a shaot ptesij fram a buk oa nyuuspeipa, an 
 ta rait a shaot thiim widh kar-ekt speliq — not a veri hai 
 rik-waiomant soctnU. hau meni cildran riict dhis stsndad? 
 ounli twenti thauznd ; whail dha nambar av tiicaz, ink-luudiq 
 pyuupltiicoz, imp-loid iz ab-aut fifti thauznd ; dlifet iz, tuu 
 pyuuplz par ainam far evri faiv tiicaz ! ounli ab*aut wan 
 handrad thauznd cildran fenyuali eva get hiyond dha thoed 
 stffindad, whic niiinz dha riidiq av an iizi staoribuk, and raitiq 
 a shaot pffisij fram dha seim widh kar-ekt speliq. 
 
 Eomic versions of the following extracts will also be found 
 in Sweet's Handbook, p. 209. 
 
 (1) Huwsowevo hioryj[ tjiyz seyyqz ov nuyn, on duwy^i 
 T{om, Ay wyl Lvykon him Antw o WAyz man, witc bilt hyz hows 
 opon rok : ond ip rcyn dysendyd, and xp flAdz keym, and qo 
 windz bluw, oud biyt opon qat hows ; ond yt fel not : foa yt 
 woz fowndyd opon o rok. 
 
 find cvrywAn qot hioryj^ qiyz seyyqz ov niAyn, on duwy5[ 
 qom not, cal by lAykond Antw o fuwlyc man, wytc bilt hyz hows 
 opon qo sand: oud qo reyn dysendyd, ond qo AaJz keym, ond 
 qo windz bluw, ond biyt opon qat hows; ond yt fel : ond greyt 
 woz qo fawl ov yt. 
 
 (2) fi dyspyuwt waus orAWZ bytwiyu qo wind ond qo
 
 Spellinff Reform., 27 
 
 SAn, \s-itc woz qo stroqgo ov qo tuw; ond qey ogriyd ta put qo 
 poyut on qia isyw, qot wytcevo suwnyst meyd o travb teyk of 
 hyz klAwk, cud by okowntyd qo moopowofwl. Ao wind bygan, 
 ond bluw wyq awl byz niAyt on meyn o blADst, kAwld on fios oz 
 Oreycon stoom ; bot qo stroqgo by bluw qo klAwso qo travb 
 rapt byz kkwk orownd bym, ond qo tAyto by grAOspt yt wyq hyz 
 bandz. Aen brAwk owt qo SAn : wiq hyz welkom biymz by 
 dyspeost qo veypo ond qo kAwld; qo travlo felt qo djiynyol 
 woomi[, ond az qo SAn con brAyto(r) on brAyto, by sat down 
 AWVokAm wyq qo hiyt, ond kAOst byz kUwk on qo grownd. 
 
 38. Facsimile of Phonetic Writing. 
 
 ^t»t vTt-^ Tn^iX-nyr ayr\J'i v^ ^a^ ^ err   CX^m &iui^ 
 
 ^■nJi. Cey i^i^ eOt ^■aumx. cu^ '^tij txu^n and ^oiif 
 
 O/t^ %^ Je^j /.ffu- cCe^^Ut , C/cy A-a-nyf f^f^ fnyty!i430z, 
 TXj P^ C-^-rn ^^-<> fit-OAL • QUy ynM4A< ^Wn o-u- ■f^ty-yx. 
 ajy^ji. vf-ry. Xcvrx. YvunxjoL Q/^\.a( &t>t^ o-C-yn. Vy cO>''<nrX~ Se ~ 
 
 ey^rf~<j n/ii^ut a^r^M duj ^34a>- Tyrryt ^C^ fnA^u^m. ■^xxx.'-Ccj, . 
 
 The above is a juvenile essay selected by 'Mark Twain' 
 from English as she is Taught. The original is given on p. 89 
 of Cursive Shorthand. Its quaint spelling is imitated in one 
 or two points, such as be have your. Otherwise, the style
 
 28 Spelliuy Refonti. 
 
 of spelling adopted illustrates the 'precise', as opposed to the 
 ♦conversational' pronunciation. Each word is given its full 
 Bound as though it were pronounced separately. The letter y 
 should, however, have been used in the words, dignyfvyd, 
 bylivv, and meykyq, and the letter a in sfreyd. 
 
 39. Exceptional Cases of Accentuation. The use of the 
 letter o in any syllable, as in oksept accept, does not neces- 
 sarily imply that the vowel is never clearly pronounced, but 
 simply that its sound is generally indefinite. A secondary 
 stress is sometimes, for the sake of special clearness or em- 
 phasis, laid on a syllable which is otherwise unaccented. The 
 word accept might be pronounced aksept, if it were desired to 
 distinguish it particularly from yxept except. Unusual pro- 
 nunciations of this sort are easily indicated in the present 
 notation by not using the indefinite vowel. 
 
 In precise speech, the root syllable of a word is often 
 marked in this way in order to suggest the meaning as dis- 
 tinctly as possible ; especially in cases where the full accent 
 naturally falls on it in cognate words : as in, 
 
 Essence, esons; despotisyn, despotizom; jKhish, 'p&ryc. 
 ^sdntial, esencol; despotic, despotyk; j)dr6chial, parAWkyol. 
 
 Again, in dictating, it is a common practice to give each 
 syllable its full sound so as to suggest the spelling as vividly as 
 possible. Similar effects are observable in the case of un- 
 familiar words, which are commonly pronounced with special 
 care. 
 
 As a general rule, in English, the stress-accent does not fall 
 on two consecutive syllables. Exceptions to this rule are for 
 the most part either foreign words not yet completely natural- 
 ized, or compound words whose components have not lost their 
 individuality. Examples are; 
 
 amen, index, msect, humhufj, pothook, inlet, armpit, 
 
 eymen] 
 (or) \ , Index, Insekt, hAmbAg, pothuk, inlet, Aompit, 
 
 instep, hiackguard, hathand, shorthand, canteen. 
 instep, blagAod, hatband, coothand, kantisTi.
 
 APPENDIX ON WORLD-ENGLISH. 
 
 Since the above pages were in type, a new system of 
 phonetic spelUng, called World-English, by A. M. Bell, the 
 well-known author of Visible Speech, has appeared, a brief 
 account of which will not be out of place. 
 
 World-Eiujliah is intended as a stepping-stone to Literary 
 English, and in particular to facilitate the acquisition of the 
 language by foreigners. Mr Bell's object has therefore been to 
 retain at all costs the closest possible similarity to the common 
 orthography. He discards the letters c, q, x, and uses the 
 remaining 23 letters as they are used in our notation, except 
 that the letter u is used for the sound in uj), hut, come (and not 
 for that in put, pull), and the letter J, for the compound dj [dzh). 
 In addition to these 23 letters, he employs nine special 
 types, and distinguishes eleven other varieties of vowel sound 
 by the use of ' diacritics '. 
 
 In both these points, but especially in the use of diacritics, 
 World-English diSers fundamentally from the present system. 
 With regard to diacritics, the common objections to them 
 seem to me to be decisive against their use. They multiply 
 special types, and are not sufficiently distinctive. They often 
 give rise in reading to confusion between different words, and 
 to cross-associations with the common orthography. They are 
 also very vexatious m writing, because the going back to put in 
 a dot or a circumflex, breaks the flow of the words. 
 
 The chief advantages attending their employment are: 
 (1) that a greater similarity to the common orthography is 
 retained wherever diphthongs are represented in the ordinary 
 spelling by single letters, as in the word halo; (2) that the 
 difficulty of variations of pronunciation is partly avoided in 
 those cases in which the variation affects the diacritic only 
 and not the letter. 
 
 With regard to special types, the general question is suf- 
 ficiently discussed in § 33.
 
 30 Appendix. 
 
 The following special types are used in World-English : — 
 
 SpecialTypes g^l HP^^i^qY 
 
 Capitals I 4 S Z T D C W 
 
 Script forms p-^^ "^ "i- 1 \ i % H 
 
 Common Equivalents... luj r* i hf .^h (zh) th (dh) ch %oli 
 
 Sound represented q o Ay by c j 31 q to hw 
 
 Mr Bell says in a note that capitals are not required for the 
 special types representing ng and mute r, because these sounds 
 never occur at the beginning of a word in English. He would 
 probably object to the use of capitals in headings. Capitals 
 are not used in the published illustrations of World- English. 
 
 The lower-case special tjTies for ng (q) and mute r, are 
 very suggestive, and could hardly be improved. 
 
 The type used for I, is very like an inverted I (\), and 
 presents a rather odd appearance at first sight; as in ffar [fire), 
 enlpnz (enlivens), t^m (time), pps (pious), kw^et (quiet). 
 
 The special types provided for 'breathed' iv and y, ap- 
 pear almost superfluous, regard being had to the extreme 
 rarity and unimportance of these sounds. The breathed y (q) 
 is only used before « {you), as in human; and could be quite 
 adequately represented by liy. The breathed w (wh) is not 
 practically distinguished by most Englishmen from the common 
 'voiced' w. 
 
 The special types employed by Mr Bell for sh, zh, th, dh, ch, 
 resemble s, z, t, d, c, much too closely. For instance, in Woi-ld- 
 English, the words faith and fate look like fat; sheath, sheet, 
 and seat, like set; bathe and bade, like bad; showed, seived, and 
 shod, like sod; shame, sham, psalm, and same, like sam; cheioed, 
 like cud; rouge, like ruse. 
 
 The forms suggested for the capitals are even more liable to 
 the same objections. Minute distinctions of this kind are very 
 trying to the eyes in reading. Script forms for the capitals 
 are not suggested. An ordinary capital T, written with a 
 cross stroke, would look perilously 1 ke an F. 
 
 Unaccented Vowels. As Mr Bell remarks (World-English, 
 p. 22) : "The only real difficulty to speakers of other languages 
 
 * Mute r ; r not followed by a vowel, 
 t i/ before « (i/ow), as in human.
 
 Appendix. 31 
 
 is the accent, or stress, which, in English, is always placed on 
 the vowel of a single syllable in a word or phrase. The effect 
 of this habit of utterance is rather to render indefinite the 
 sounds of aUied unaccented syllables, than to give force to the 
 accented syllables." 
 
 Nevertheless he makes no provision for the expression of 
 these obscure sounds, preferring rather to follow the common 
 orthography, and to use a special diacritic (') to mark the 
 accented vowel. Thus the World-English spelling cannot be 
 deduced from a knowledge of the pronunciation, unless the 
 writer is also familiar with the received orthography (p. 18) ; 
 and the foreigner who has only the World-Englhh spelling to 
 guide him, is likely to be more or less unsuccessful in acquiring 
 the knack of accentual pronunciation. 
 
 The neutral sound o, which is so common in conversational 
 pronunciation, has no special equivalent in World-English, but 
 appears variously as a, e, o, or «, often dotted, and followed 
 by 'mute ?•'. The unaccented vowel y is generally represented 
 by e or i, sometimes by e; thus, bin (been), bene [bene), 
 recev {receive), veri {very). 
 
 We cannot, for want of special types, reproduce accurately 
 a specimen of World-English, but the following extract will 
 give the reader some idea of its general effect, and will show 
 the extent to which special types are used. 
 
 epilog, 
 evari wun haz hard ov di bucar, hii, aftar a long sarc for hiz 
 n^f, at last fawnd it in hiz maut. so, spekarz ov ingglis hav bin 
 Stiking for a yunivaVsal laHf/gwij, teen lo! it iz in dor maudz\ 
 di intelijibi'liti ov wurdz haz bin obskywVd h^ a dens mist ov 
 letarz. dis iz nau dispa'rst in wurld-in^glis ; and di lan^/gwij 
 standz reve'ld— beyo'nd kompa'risun kler, simpl, kopius, and 
 kozmopoUitan — di &ting tnng ov qi<ma'niti. 
 
 [Inverted e (a), 1 {{), h (q), are used, as in World-English, for 
 dotted e, long ?, and breathed y. The italics a, o, u, represent 
 dotted vowels. The italics ng, r, s, z, t, d, e, w, are used to 
 represent the special types for ng, mute r, sh, zh, th, dh, ch, ich, 
 which closely resemble the letters ng, r, s, z, t, d, c, w, re- 
 spectively.]
 
 32 Appendix. 
 
 World- English, in the closeness with which it imitates 
 the common orthography, and in its neglect of unaccented 
 vowels, is somewhat akin to Glossic (A. J. Ellis) ; the latter 
 however uses no special types or diacritics, and, although it 
 leaves something to be desired in point of phonetic accuracy 
 and consistency *., appears to us to be far preferable to World- 
 En<jlish as an introduction to the common spelling. 
 
 The following is the version of the above paragraph in 
 Glossic. 
 
 Everi wuu haz herd of dhe buocher, hoo, aafter a long 
 serch for hiz ucif, at laast found it in hiz mouth. Soa, 
 speekers ov Ingglisli hav been seeking for a euniversal langgwij, 
 when loa ! it iz in dhair moudhz ! Dhe intelijibiliti ov werdz 
 haz been obskeurd bei a dens mist ov leterz. Dhis iz nou 
 disperst in Werld-Ingglish ; and dlie langgwij standz reveeld — 
 beyond komparison kleer, simpl, koapius, and kozmopolitan, — 
 dhe fitiug tung ov heumaniti. 
 
 If Glossic is not a theoretically perfect system, it is at any 
 rate pre-eminently practical ; as an introduction to the common 
 orthography it could hardly be surpassed, and those who are 
 already familiar with the received spelling can read Glossic at 
 sight without the least difificulty. 
 
 For this very reason among others it is less suited for illus- 
 trating pronunciation. It is too simple and familiar. It does 
 not compel the attention to details of accentuation, and the 
 means which it uses for distinguishing words, correspond 
 rather with orthographic methods than with those that are 
 actually employed in speech. 
 
 The present system, on the other hand, is intended to em- 
 phasize these very details ; and to draw special attention to 
 distinctions which are commonly made and recognized in 
 conversation. It is therefore better suited for indicating pro- 
 nunciation, and in particular for the purpose for which it was 
 primarily designed, namely the exposition of Cursive Shorthaml, 
 in which differences of accentuation play as important a part 
 in distinguishing words as they do in speech. 
 
 • See Sweet, Handbook of Phonetics, p. 202. 
 
 CAMRKIDGE: PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. & SONS, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 51
 
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