THE SUPERHUMAN ORIGIN OF 
 THE BIBLE. 
 
THE SUPERHUMAN 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE BIBLE 
 
 INFERRED FROM ITSELF. 
 
 THE CONGREGATIONAL UNION LECTURE FOR 1873. 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY ROGERS. 
 
 M ; 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 WiTh DRAWN FROM 
 UNIVERSITY OF REDLANDS LIBRARY 
 
 Hontion: 
 
 HODDER AND STOUGHTON, 
 PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
 MDCCCLXXIV. 
 
 (A II rights Reserved.} 
 
"8 S+to 
 
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 UNWIN BROTHERS , PRINTERS BY WATER POWER. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 BY THE COMMITTEE OF THE CONGREGATIONAL UNION 
 OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 THE CONGREGATIONAL UNION LECTURE has been 
 established with a view to the promotion of 
 Biblical Science, and Theological and Ecclesiastical 
 Literature. 
 
 It is intended that each Lecture shall consist of 
 a course of Prelections, delivered at the Memorial 
 Hall, but when the convenience of the Lecturer shall 
 so require, the oral delivery will be dispensed with. 
 
 The Committee hope that the Lecture will be main- 
 tained in an unbroken Annual Series ; but they promise 
 to continue it only so long as it seems to be efficiently 
 serving the end for which it has been established, or as 
 they may have the necessary funds at their disposal. 
 
 For the opinions advanced in any of the Lectures, 
 the Lecturer alone will be responsible. 
 
 1 8, SOUTH STREET, FINSBURY, 
 January, 1874. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 T REGRET that so long an interval should have 
 elapsed between the first announcement of these 
 Lectures, and their publication ; and I owe my thanks 
 to the Committee of the Union for their patience in 
 waiting for them. But I can hardly charge myself 
 with any fault. The results of a very serious accident, 
 and frequent and prolonged interruptions to health, 
 prevented my touching my task for nearly two years 
 after it was first proposed to me. 
 
 These things, together with a feebleness of voice, 
 which made me doubt whether it would not be scant 
 courtesy to the public to allow an audience to be in- 
 vited to hear what might, in great part, be inaudible, 
 led me to shrink from all thought of oral delivery. 
 This deviation from the usual course, however, is 
 perhaps greater in appearance than reality ; since it 
 rarely happens that more than portions of a series 
 of Lectures of this kind can be given in the time to 
 which the speaker must necessarily restrict himself. 
 They are in general largely supplemented and ex- 
 panded before publication. 
 
viii Preface. 
 
 As the Lectures were not to be delivered, I naturally 
 paid less attention than I should have done to those 
 minute proprieties which, I am well aware, ordinarily 
 distinguish spoken from written composition. I have 
 also taken advantage of the same circumstance, to 
 determine the length of each Lecture, rather by the 
 nature of the subject than by the Lecturer's hour- 
 glass. 
 
 It is often a valuable and interesting feature of 
 volumes of this class (at least it is so in my estima- 
 tion), that they contain a large supplement of refer- 
 ences and citations, for the illustration or corroboration 
 of the Lecturer's positions. In conformity with this 
 time-honoured practice, I also had designed a com- 
 pilation of passages for the same purpose ; but I soon 
 found that the extent of my subject would leave me 
 little space for them, and I have contented myself 
 with throwing a few of my materials into the form 
 of foot-notes. The Appendix to the present volume 
 is simply intended to elucidate some of the points 
 which I could not fully treat in the Lectures them- 
 selves. 
 
 It may be proper to inform the reader that, in some 
 few places, I have extracted two or three sentences, 
 and in one case several paragraphs, from anonymous 
 and fugitive articles which I wrote some years ago, 
 and which I have no intention to republish. Should 
 
Preface. ix 
 
 the reader recognise any such passages, he will be 
 kind enough to absolve me from the charge of pla- 
 giarism. 
 
 In the seventh Lecture there are one or two thoughts 
 so like one or two in Professor Leathes' little 
 volume "On the Structure of the Old Testament," 
 that if his book had been published some years ago, 
 and I had read it then, I should surmise that in 
 these cases my memory had unconsciously suggested 
 what it could no longer trace to its source. But as 
 my manuscript was finished many months before the 
 publication of his volume, and was even in the 
 printer's hands before I saw it, I hope that any 
 coincidence (which is purely accidental) may be re- 
 garded as some presumption that our views, so far 
 as they agree, are founded on truth. 
 
 PENNAL TOWER, MACHYNLLETH, 
 December %th, 1873. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND 
 EDITION. 
 
 IN this edition, some few verbal errors which had escaped 
 my pen have been carefully corrected. I may also take 
 the opportunity of saying that an intelligent and courteous 
 correspondent, who conceals his name, reminds me that the 
 passage attributed to Sir Thomas Browne (p. 311 ), though ex- 
 tracted from Wilkin's accurate edition of his Works (vol. iv. 
 p. 276), where it is given as part of an " unpublished paper" 
 found in the British Museum, is not genuine : the " fragment" 
 being composed by a very skilful mimic of Sir Thomas 
 Browne's style and manner. The imitation is, indeed, so 
 perfect, that except for the confession of its author it would 
 have continued to impose, as it has often imposed, on the 
 most discerning readers. If not Sir Thomas Browne's, all 
 who are familiar with his writings would say it deserves to be. 
 I see that one of my friendly critics has expressed surprise 
 that greater prominence has not been given to the argument 
 derived from the spiritual and moral influence the Scriptures 
 exert, and which, to Christians in general, is so principal a 
 reason for believing them to be of superhuman origin. I do 
 indeed believe with him, that to Christians this is, as I have said 
 in the book itself, " the evidence of evidences." But it implies, 
 if admitted, that he who admits it already concedes the con- 
 clusion which these Lectures are designed to establish; while 
 to those who do not, it can only partially, and within certain 
 limits, be insisted on. But in Appendix No. VII. (which may 
 possibly have escaped the notice of my critic) I have touched 
 on the argument itself, its value to those who accept the Bible 
 as of superhuman origin, and the mode and degree in which 
 alone it can be logically valid with those who doubt or deny it 
 For the reasons just stated, I have purposely treated this 
 matter briefly, and thrown it into the Appendix. 
 
 May -L^th, 1874. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 ON SOME TRAITS OF THE BIBLE WHICH SEEM AT 
 VARIANCE WITH CERTAIN PRINCIPLES AND TEN- 
 DENCIES OF HUMAN NATURE 2 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED . . . 57 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 ANCILLARY ARGUMENTS, DRAWN FROM CERTAIN 
 TRAITS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, AS CON- 
 TRASTED WITH WHAT MIGHT BE EXPECTED FROM 
 
 THE ANTECEDENTS OF THE WRITERS. . . 107' 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 ARGUMENTS DERIVED FROM (/. ) "COINCIDENCES" 
 BETWEEN CERTAIN STATEMENTS OF SCRIPTURE 
 
 AND CERTAIN FACTS OF HlSTORY. (//. ) INDI- 
 CATIONS OF THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE . .141 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 A REPLY TO OBJECTIONS FOUNDED ON CERTAIN PE- 
 CULIARITIES OF FORM AND STRUCTURE EXHI- 
 BITED IN THE BIBLE 185 
 
xii Contents. 
 
 LECTURE VI. 
 
 ON CERTAIN PECULIARITIES OF STYLE IN THE SCRIP- 
 TURAL WRITERS 211 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED . . ; .251 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 ON THE EXCEPTIONAL POSITION OF THE BIBLE IN 
 
 THE WORLD 309 
 
 LECTURE IX. 
 
 ON CERTAIN ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE BIBLE AND 
 
 " THE CONSTITUTION AND COURSE OF NATURE" . 369 
 
 APPENDIX , ; . 427 
 
LECTURE I. 
 
 CERTAIN TRAITS OF THE BIBLE VIEWED IN 
 RELATION TO HUMAN NATURE. 
 
LECTURE I. 
 
 ON SOME TRAITS OF THE BIBLE WHICH SEEM AT 
 VARIANCE WITH CERTAIN PRINCIPLES AND TEN- 
 DENCIES OF HUMAN NATURE 
 
 AN argument, of no mean force, for the super- 
 human origin of 'the Bible, may, I conceive, be 
 fairly founded on the difficulty of accounting for such 
 a phenomenon by referring it to % purely human forces. 
 Human nature in general, as exhibited in the course 
 of the world's religious history, or again, as specially 
 conditioned in that people who composed the Bible 
 and transmitted it to us, seems to me, in many re- 
 spects, equally incapable of producing such a book, 
 and unlikely to attempt it. 
 
 There will of course be certain generic resemblances 
 among the professed Revelations which have met with 
 any notable acceptance among mankind, and for this 
 it is not difficult to account. They must appeal with 
 more or less pt^isjoji^Jo.lhp^sej^li^iiHJ^p-rinciples and 
 instincts which_an ._experiencejL .far _too .uniform, to be the 
 result of accident, proves to be ineradicably implanted 
 in human nature. That uniformity has prevailed long 
 and far enough to show, if there be any force in in- 
 duction at all, that even if there be no God, men will 
 
 2 * 
 
4 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 yet have One, or even many rather than be destitute 
 of a God altogether. If, therefore, professed Revelations 
 successfully appeal to men's religious nature, it may be 
 expected that there will be points in which they will 
 osculate. Otherwise, it is hard to see how any one of 
 them, wholly destitute of such points, should have any 
 chance of success at all. The counterfeit must have 
 some resemblance to the genuine, else it would impose 
 on nobody : it is precisely this element which makes it 
 dangerous, and it is dangerous in proportion as it pos- 
 sesses it. As Bishop Hampden well observes in his 
 "Essay on the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity :" 
 "Without some conformity with experience, it seems 
 impossible that any religion could obtain even a tem- 
 porary currency in the world. A system of unmixed 
 absurdity, which recoiled from all contact with the 
 reality of human life, would carry too palpable a refu- 
 tation of itself on its own front, to be received and 
 embraced to any extent among mankind. . . Thus 
 we find, even in those superstitions which are most 
 revolting to common sense, some countervailing truths 
 which have both softened and recommended the asso- 
 ciated mass of error, otherwise too grossly repulsive 
 for the heart of man ever to have admitted." 1 
 
 Whatever analogies, therefore, may be detected in 
 diverse systems of professed Revelation, we cannot from 
 these alone justly determine the pretensions of any ; 
 for the true, granting for argument's sake one of them 
 to be so, will have analogies with the false, and 
 1 Pp. 132, 133. London, 1827. 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 5 
 
 the false with it. As little can it be hence inferred 
 (though it too often has been) that* all Revelations / 
 having such analogies are equal, or nearly equal, in/ 
 their claims on human adoption and respect. To__ 
 determine this, it js necessary, not only to examine / LD 
 the points of analogy _ bMw^jejLjdiffbrejat Revelations, / 
 but to note the points of _ contrastj^the^Bpints which / 
 are exclusively characteristic of each. 
 
 Reading the Bible with this view, I seem to see, 
 unless it be a strange delusion, a multitude of traits, 
 which prevent my accounting for it, as I can for other 
 professed sacred books, by a reference to the known pro- 
 perties and forces which exist in our nature. There are 
 many points in which it seems altogether out of analogy 
 with that nature in general, and contradictory to- all its 
 prevailing tendencies as exhibited in human history; and v 
 many other traits which could never have been antici- 
 pated from the condition of those who composed the 
 book. On the other hand, if in nmnyj^jiitsjt^ appears 
 at variance with what man would or could have pro- 
 jected, it seems, in many of these very points, in unison 
 with the works and ways of God, as disclosed in " the 
 constitution and course of nature." Again ; if the 
 indications of unity about the book, in spite of its being 
 the work of so many writers, separated by such wide 
 intervals of time and space, be not mere fancy, it is 
 impossible to refer them to human contrivance, and 
 almost as impossible to refer them to chance. Further, 
 the manifold unique peculiarities of structure, matter, 
 and style, which, whatever its general resemblance to 
 
6 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 other books, palpably discriminate the Bible from them 
 all, and the altogether exceptional position and influence 
 which these peculiarities have given it, and still give 
 it in the woild, make one suspect at least that more 
 than the hand of man has had to do with its origina- 
 tion. These and many other arguments, the force of 
 which must, of course, depend on the details and 
 illustrations given in the subsequent lectures, have long 
 compelled me to feel the truth of both parts of the 
 following thesis : That the Bible is not such a book as 
 \ man woula have made, if he could ; or could have made, 
 \ if he would. 
 
 Nor would it be a sufficient reply, that there may be 
 isolated facts in the doctrine or history of other religious 
 systems, which seem eccentric deviations from the ordi- 
 nary course of human experience, though not absolutely 
 incompatible with it. This is doubtless true ; but it 
 is on the degree, the startling character, and the num- 
 ber of such deviations, that the present argument is 
 founded. It is on the tout ensemble, rather than any one 
 or even several of its elements, that its force depends. 
 
 One thing more in justice to my theme. I do not 
 pretend to have exhausted it ; I have but touched a few 
 topics under each head, and have no doubt that minds 
 of greater compass and knowledge than mine may 
 indefinitely enlarge them. Nor, whether the argument 
 is strong or otherwise, does it in any way interfere with 
 those other, and doubtless more weighty and direct 
 arguments, on which the claims of the Bible have been 
 usually vindicated. 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human N attire. j 
 
 This, in justice to my theme. In justice to myself, 
 I would say that these lectures are not controversial. 
 I simply speak of the impression which certain features 
 of the Bible have made upon me, and state the reasons 
 of it. If any think it a delusion, I have no right to 
 complain that he does not see with my eyes ; but I 
 shall feel amply rewarded for any trouble in writing 
 these lectures, if they should originate or confirm a 
 similar impression in any who may peruse them. 
 
 Without further preface, I proceed to enumerate 
 some few of the many traits of Scripture which human 
 nature in general, as known to us by consciousness 
 and experience, would hardly warrant us in expecting, j 
 if it _be a book of purely human authorship. 
 
 i. The inveterate proneness of mankind to idolatry 
 is attested by the nearly universal condition of the 
 world at the earliest dawn of authentic history, through 
 all ages since, and even to 'the present day. The 
 founders and progenitors of the Jewish nation origi- 
 nally practised it, like the rest of mankind, as might 
 have been anticipated, even if their history had said 
 nothing about it. The facility and obstinacy with 
 which this nation relapsed into it, age after age, in 
 spite of instruction and chastisement, bear witness in 
 like manner to the same proclivity of human nature ; 
 while that sure, though gradual process, by which 
 Christianity was at length transformed into something 
 very like the paganism it had supplanted, tells the same 
 tale. One wonders, therefore, by what strange fortuity 
 
8 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 it is that the Bible, though more varied in its contents 
 than any other book, composed by different writer?, 
 who lived in far distant ages, utters from beginning to 
 end a solitary, but persistent and clamorous protest, 
 against this practice.,, and -everywhere maintains the 
 doctrine of a sublime, elevated, uncompromising mono- 
 theism. Nor is it an insignificant proof of the tenden- 
 cies which it opposes, that even these writers for many 
 ages iterated warning and instruction on "ears that 
 would not hear," and " hearts that would not under- 
 stand." 
 
 It is not easy to see how all this came to pass. The 
 tendencies of human nature would seem to be all on 
 one side ; the decisive voice of the book, and of this 
 book alone, on the other. 1 
 
 Of the lofty character of this monotheism, and the 
 magnificent language and imagery in which the attri- 
 butes of the One God are expressed, I need say little, 
 because to transcribe the passages which proclaim 
 them, would be to copy many pages of the Bible. 
 The substance of a few will suffice: "He is God in 
 heaven above, and in earth beneath, there is none else." 
 " His is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, 
 and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in 
 
 1 It is not necessary to advert to the case of Mahomet. He 
 comes too late. He did not originate monotheism. His was 
 avowedly an attempt to recall his countrymen to that monotheism 
 of their ancestors from which they had apostatized. That the 
 nation once enlightened in this doctrine had lapsed into idolatry, 
 is (like the similar lapses of the Israelites) a stronger indication of 
 the genuine tendencies of human nature than Mahomet's solitary 
 recovery of the forgotten truth can be of the contrary. 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. g 
 
 the heaven and in the earth is His ; and He reigneth 
 over all." " He is the high and lofty One, inhabiting 
 eternity, whose name is holy." " Heaven is His 
 'throne and earth is His footstool ; where is the 
 house" that man "will build for Him, and where the 
 place of His rest ? " " The heaven and the heaven of 
 heavens cannot circumscribe Him." " Whither can I 
 go from Thy spirit, or whither shall I flee from Thy 
 presence ? If I ascend up to heaven, Thou art there ; 
 if I descend to hades, Thou art there ; if I take the 
 wings of the morning and dwell in the uttermost parts 
 of the sea, there also Thy hand shall lead me and Thy 
 right hand shall hold me." " The darkness and the 
 light are both alike to Thee." " The heavens shall 
 perish, but Thou shalt endure ; they all shall wax old 
 like a garment ; as a vesture shalt Thou change them, 
 and they shall be changed ; but Thou art the same, and 
 Thy years shall not fail." He is "the King eternal, 
 immortal, invisible, the only wise." He is " infinite in 
 understanding;" He is "able to do all things;" He 
 knows all things ; He foresees all things, " even the 
 end from the beginning;" He "is righteous in all 
 His ways and holy in all His doings." Though He 
 exercises a dominion absolute and universal, still it 
 is in consonance with infinite beneficence, for " His 
 tender mercies are over all His works ; " and though 
 most holy and just, He is " merciful and gracious, 
 slow to anger, and abundant in goodness and truth." 
 Finally, all the manifestations of Him in His works 
 are yet but inexpressive images of His essential 
 
io Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 excellence. However luminous with His glory, they 
 are still but a faint reflection of Himself. They are 
 but a " whisper of Him," according to the strong 
 figure of Job; 1 "but the thunder of His might, who 
 can comprehend ?" 
 
 Many pages might be filled with a mere enumeration 
 of the passages in which the essential unity and the 
 .unlimited perfections of Deity are described with similar 
 unexampled force. Taking them together, there is no- 
 thing in the same line with them in the whole range 
 of human literature ; nothing as regards grandeur of 
 thought or power of imagery that can be compared 
 with them in any of the casual expressions found in 
 the greatest of heathen poets or philosophers, when they 
 caught momentary glimpses, through the haze of the 
 polytheistic atmosphere about them, of some supreme 
 power which presided over the universe. We shall in 
 vain search even Homer or Plato for expressions of this 
 nature which will vie in force and sublimity, far less in 
 frequency, copiousness, and consistency, with the Scrip- 
 ture representations. They stand alone. 2 
 
 1 Inadequately translated in our version "These are parts of 
 His ways, but how little a portion is heard of him ? " 
 
 2 The contrast between the manner of ancient philosophy when 
 it lights on anything approaching just conceptions of the Deity, 
 and that of the Scriptures, is as striking as the usual contrast in 
 matter. In the one case, language is cold as philosophic abstrac- 
 tion can make it ; that of the Bible is steeped in emotion. As if to 
 SDften and temper that oppressive awe which the needful assertion 
 of the Infinite Majesty must create in us, it everywhere represents 
 Him in vivid sympathy with us, and to enforce this conviction, 
 resorts without scruple to the most familiar images drawn from 
 whatever is touching and winning in our own nature. It feels 
 secure (as, I think, Coleridge somewhere expresses it), that though 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human N attire. TI 
 
 Now, considering what human nature had always 
 been, and is still, and not least that Jewish human 
 nature which showed so intense a sympathy with the 
 general tendency to idolatry, as to cast a liquorish eye 
 on every wandering form of it that came near them, 
 it is hard to understand how the Jews came by this 
 curious monopoly of unadulterated monotheism ; con- 
 served indeed, not by them, but in spite of them, by an 
 uninterrupted succession of writers, living in distant 
 ages, one of whose chief functions was perpetually to 
 remind them of what they were perpetually willing 
 to forget ! 
 
 2. One of the most characteristic and prominent 
 features of the Bible, considered as a whole, that 
 which runs through it from beginning to end, and which 
 distinguishes it at once from all other books, is that it 
 subor4in.a.te^_very thing to the idea of GOD. It is 
 not without reason called the Book of God ; and would 
 be so, in a very intelligible 'sense, even if it were 
 wholly false, or if there were no God at all. From the 
 first sentence {^jthe last He is the great theme of it, the 
 Alpha and Omega. Infinitely various as are its con- 
 tents, this is the keynote which runs through the whole. 
 This, considering that it is a book of fragments, writ- 
 ten by many different authors in far distant ages, could 
 
 the character and attributes of God are often depicted in Scripture 
 not merely in the sublimest, but the most anthropopathic imagery, 
 the expressions of the spirituality of God are so numerous, per- 
 spicuous, and emphatic, that no mind of any candour can for a 
 moment doubt about their meaning. But this is a subject to which 
 I shall return when I come to speak of certain peculiarities of 
 Scripture style. 
 
12 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 hardly be expected from human nature, whether mono- 
 theistic or not. It was not to be expected from human 
 nature, whether the appeal be made to the conscious- 
 ness of individual man, or to the facts of the religious 
 history of the world. God is here exhibited as 
 exercising an all-pervading moral government over the 
 universe over the invisible thoughts as well as over 
 the actions of men and directing the whole course of 
 events to the manifestation of His glory and that which 
 is inseparable from it (or, rather, which is identical 
 with it), the felicity of His creatures as involved in 
 the ultimate triumph of a purely moral and spiritual 
 empire. Is man in such sympathy with such objects, 
 judging from human consciousness or from history, 
 as to make this uniform assertion of the paramount 
 claims of God other than a paradox ? 
 
 We find this<ejLclusive reference to God in the series 
 of Biblical writers^; and it is not found elsewhere, not 
 only not among other nations, but not even among the 
 Jews themselves apart from their writers. The Jews, 
 like the rest of the world, had little sympathy with such 
 views, and the iteration of them from age to age in 
 so long a succession of documents was no more than 
 necessary to preserve them from oblivion. The per- 
 petual relapses of the children of Abraham into idola- 
 try, and rebellion against the One God they confessed, 
 show that this tone was no more natural to them than 
 to the rest of the world. They were like the kine that 
 bore back the " Ark " from the land of the Philistines, 
 and who went against their instincts and their inclina- 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 13 
 
 tions up to Bethshemesh, " lowing as they went," after 
 their calves that had been shut up at home. 1 
 
 A peculiarity of this book, consequent on its thus 
 subordinating everything, whether in the history of the 
 Jews or of other nations, to this dominant idea of 
 God, and the claims of His universal and spjritual 
 government, deserves to be mentioned here. There is 
 not only an unique, but (looking upon it as the work 
 of men) an unnatural sublimity about it. TFe relative 
 importance of events seems often inverted. The book 
 
 1 This peculiarity of Scripture seems to have particularly 
 struck the mind of the earliest modern Apologist for Christianity, 
 Philip de Mornay, whose work was partly translated into English 
 by Sir Philip Sydney, and at his request completed by 'Arthur 
 Golding. (London, 1604.) The author has a long and striking 
 section (pp. 393-7) entitled, " The Bible tendeth altogether to the 
 glory of God." It is unique among books in this respect, "that it 
 aims at none other mark than the honour of God, contrary to 
 man's nature." And so impressed was Werenfels with this charac- 
 teristic of Scripture, and so little able to imagine it the product of 
 human nature, that in his " Meditatio de zelo in Sacra Scriptura 
 ubique conspicuo pro una Dei gloria," he avows that if there were no 
 other proof of the superhuman origin of the Bible, this would convince 
 him. " Subsiste hie, lector, et considera num hasc doctrina quam hie 
 liber ubique urget, quse animum tuum ab omnibus creaturis abstrac- 
 tum ad Deum dirigit, a creatura sit, an a creatore tuo ? Illud si 
 credere potes, monstra si potes, in toto hoc universo, unum tantum 
 ex omnibus omnium gentium et seculorum libris, huic similem: mon- 
 stra librum cujus unicus ubique scopus sit, tibi ostendere, Deum 
 solum summum esse tuum bonum : de quo tot sapientissimi homi- 
 nes, qui tain multa de hoc argumento scripserunt, vix unquam 
 cogitarunt: neque tantum intellectui tuo hoc ostendere, sed omni nisu 
 cor tuum ad hoc bonum unice quasrendum impellere." (Opuscula. 
 4to, torn. i. p. 107.) In contrasting the manner of the Bible 
 with that of all other books, and the tone of its writers with that 
 of all other writers, he has some admirable remarks. Though there 
 is no proof that he had seen De Mornay's work, he probably 
 had done so. At all events, the thoughts are often singularly 
 coincident. 
 
14 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 passes by, or casually notices, most of the things 
 which men regard as supremely momentous the rise 
 and fall of empires, the changes and revolutions which 
 fill great nations with terror or triumph. These events, 
 which fill the page of ordinary history, it leaves to be 
 chronicled in other books, or to drop into oblivion. 
 Touching on an infinity of subjects, dealing with the 
 minutest as well as most important facts, with the 
 smallest details of private life, with the fortunes of 
 vast communities; everything, great or little, is viewed 
 in relation to the government of the Supreme Ruler, 
 or rather is great or little only as it has a bear- 
 ing on the development and issues of that invisible 
 spiritual empire which He is intent on founding and 
 rearing in the world. In all this there is something most 
 strange, and, looking at what might be expected from 
 man, unnatural. The way in which the Bible treats 
 those themes of history which, in man's estimate, are 
 of such infinite importance (at least, each generation 
 that witnesses them, thinks so ; for though the " ruins 
 of empires" in a measure correct the illusion with 
 respect to the remote past, they cannot disenchant us 
 of the like illusion in relation to our own time), is 
 not indeed inhuman, but ..assuredly. wwhuman. Of the 
 great political changes which passed over the ancient 
 world, the Bible is almost as silent and unconcerned 
 as sun and stars when they look down upon the 
 tumult and noise of man's battle-fields. We hear 
 as it were the sound, but it is as the ocean on a dis- 
 tant shore. The intrigues of courts, the career and 
 
L] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 15 
 
 achievements of great conquerors, the thrilling events 
 which marked the extinction or transfer of political 
 power and civilization, the great battles which shook 
 the world; in a word, all those things over which the 
 imagination of the ordinary historian lingers with such 
 intense emotion, are touched only as they happen to 
 traverse the religious history of the strange com- 
 munity whose destinies the Bible is tracing, or those 
 ulterior designs of which this people were to be the 
 unconscious instruments to the world. In brief, all 
 is viewed in relation and subordination to the religious 
 ideas which permeate the book. The fortunes of the 
 nations which surrounded Judsea, as well as those of 
 the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, are cursorily 
 referred to just so far as this ; otherwise the Bible 
 does not deign to notice them at all. Though the 
 world might be ringing with the achievements of their 
 great captains, and the ground shaking under the 
 tread of their innumerable legions, the writers of 
 this strange book are deaf to it all all passes before 
 them "silent as a picture;" or if the Bible con- 
 descends to give a transient glance at such things 
 (as it sometimes does, and often with touches of 
 surpassing sublimity), it is still only within the limits 
 above mentioned. As Butler says, " the common 
 affairs of the world, and what is going on in it," 
 are in the estimate of Scripture " a mere scene of 
 distraction." 
 
 There are two ways in which an objector might 
 attempt to account for this singular elevation of tone, 
 
1 6 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 or this stolid incuriosity, whichever the reader may be 
 pleased to consider it. A very few words will suffice 
 for each. 
 
 It has sometimes been said that those who wrote 
 thus, regarded the Jehovah of the Hebrews as one 
 who did not concern Himself with the fortunes of the 
 world. The answer is, that they have a thousand 
 times asserted the contrary, in the most vivid and 
 emphatic terms. It can be from no thought of limiting 
 His prerogatives that they have thus spoken. He is, 
 they tell us, " the Judge of all the earth;" that " He 
 removeth kings and setteth up kings;" that " His is 
 the greatness, and the power and the glory, and the 
 victory and the majesty;" and that "His dominion 
 is over all things." The language they put into His 
 mouth, when the course of Bible narrative brings it into 
 contact with pagan nations, is in harmony with all this. 
 He is made to say to Pharaoh, " In very deed, for this 
 cause I have set thee up, to show in thee My power, 
 and that My name may be declared through all the 
 earth." "I know," He says to Sennacherib, "thy 
 abode, and thy going out, and thy coming in, and thy 
 rage against Me. I will put My hook in thy nose, and 
 My bridle in thy lips, and I will turn thee back by the 
 way by which thou earnest." He says to Cyrus, 
 " I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not known 
 Me;" and to Nebuchadnezzar, that he is to be chas- 
 tised till he shall know "that the Most High ruleth in 
 the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever He 
 will." If any one say, " We do not believe such words 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 17 
 
 were ever thus actually applied, they are fragments 
 of 'myths,' " be it so: it does not concern my present 
 argument to show the contrary. They prove at all 
 events incontestably what were the sentiments of those 
 who wrote them, and that it was not because they 
 thought that Jehovah had abdicated the throne of uni- 
 versal dominion, that they were so incurious about 
 those events which in general stir the hearts of men 
 to their very depths, or that they are so frigid where 
 others are all animation. 
 
 Others may perhaps suspect that Jewish vanity led 
 the writers thus to ignore or treat lightly the affairs 
 of all nations except their own. The answer is concise, 
 but conclusive. Let Jewish vanity in general be what 
 the reader pleases, these writers would seem to have 
 had none of it. If they have passed by the glorious 
 achievements of secular history, they have recorded all 
 the infamies of their own nation ; and, indeed, their 
 principal references to oilier nations are as " scourges " 
 of their own scourges justly sent, they confess and 
 aver, for apostacies which had wearied out the patience 
 of heaven ! But the same egregious incuriosity or 
 sublime indifference about the gyeat events of the 
 world (except in the one point of view already referred 
 to) characterises the writers of the New Testament 
 just as much as those of the Old. They have frequent 
 occasion in the Gospels and the Acts to refer to such 
 events, as traversing or intersecting the plane of their 
 record; but their allusions are all similarly incidental, 
 and the events of the Roman empire seem to interest 
 
1 8 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 them no more than those of Assyria or Babylon did 
 their predecessors. 
 
 In point of philosophy, indeed, the Scripture writers, 
 however unnatural their seeming lack of sympathy 
 with what the world thinks so supremely important, 
 might plead some apology for their reticence. For 
 the greater part of these " great events " are at last 
 covered, in spite of either secular or sacred chronicle, 
 with ignominious oblivion. As we wander among the 
 " ruins of empires," and in the " desolate places " of 
 history, we are compelled to feel for the most part how 
 evanescent is what is called " immortal glory," and 
 how little worthy or capable of a durable record. As 
 we look on the mounds of mouldering rubbish which 
 were once mighty cities, and see how soon kindly 
 mother earth covers the red battle-fields of her foolish 
 children with her gre n mantle, we feel that the Bible 
 may be excused for telling us so little (even if it had not 
 other and far higher objects to attend to) about these 
 problematical glories. Yet we must not be ungrateful 
 to the Bible even in this point. Little as it tells us of 
 that more ancient world which preceded Greece and 
 Rome/ that little is at present almost all we know 
 about it. Some nations and empires are only not 
 forgotten because it has occasion to mention them. 
 
 Thus, in truth, everything is paradoxical about this 
 singular book. It omits much which human historians 
 could not but have dilated upon ; but what it has said 
 is immortal, and has outlived more voluminous records. 
 Of many of the nations the Moabites and Ammonites, 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature, 19 
 
 for example which were in contact with the Jews, 
 we know almost nothing, except as their fortunes were 
 involved with those of the Jews ; and of even Nineveh 
 and Babylon, almost all that was known for many ages 
 was from the same Jewish source. So completely had 
 " their memorials perished with them," that it is only 
 now we are just beginning to reclaim and decipher 
 them. For centuries they were chiefly remembered 
 by the scanty notices in the book which inscribed their 
 epitaph, and which has preserved their name better ^/ 
 than their own annals ; though its declaration was_ya 
 also true, that they should lie in " utter and perpetual 
 desolation;" that the "wild beast of the desert" and 
 every " doleful creature " should make his abode there ; 
 " the cormorant and the bittern lodge in the lintels, 
 and their voice cry in the windows ;" that " dragons 
 and owls should dwell in their pleasant palaces," and 
 their very site be a controversy for ages. 
 
 On the whole, this peculiar reserve or indiffer- 
 ence of the 1 Bible respecting events in the world's 
 history to which man inevitably attaches such mo- 
 ment, is well worthy of note. It is natural to us to 
 exaggerate their importance ; to think that revolu- 
 tions which have shaken the world, the_ns^and_foll of 
 empires, are things on which the eyes of the universe 
 ought to be fixed. So notorious is this tendency, that 
 even those who might have learned better from this 
 very book, and from the tone it has everywhere main- 
 tained, will often dream that each stirring event which 
 happens in their own time is of sufficient importance 
 
 3* 
 
20 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 to be chronicled in the volume of its prophecies; 
 and all of us are apt to attach to them a permanent 
 importance, altogether disproportionate to what we see 
 to be, for the most part, their effect upon the world, 
 or even on a small part of it. A few years, and men 
 are compelled to say of the contests of men as of the 
 contests of bees : 
 
 " Hi motus animorum, atque hc^c ccrtamina tanta, 
 Pulveris exigui jactu, compressa quiescent." 
 
 But the Bible writers and these alone seem to have 
 purged their minds from all such sympathies or pre- 
 judices: they view the history of the world, so to 
 speak, from a heliocentric position. They hardly 
 speak "as men;" they are either above us or below 
 us. To them, the greatest events events which thrill 
 ordinary humanity with hopes and fears seem, in 
 the presence of the yet greater things with which 
 they are concerned, as little worthy of exciting vivid 
 emotion as the ordinary pomps and grandeur of this 
 world will be thought in that day, when, to use the 
 language of a great divine, " crowns and sceptres shall 
 lie about, as neglected things." l 
 
 3. Another peculiajrity in the Bible, which makes 
 the system of .religion it propounds, unique among 
 the many propounded by men, is the strict subordi- 
 nation of ethics to theology. Its foundations are laid 
 in the idea of God and our relations to Him ; its 
 sanctions are derived from His will. This is a pecu- 
 
 Howe's " Vanity of man, as mortal.'* 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 21 
 
 liarity of the Hebrew system long ago observed by 
 Josephus in his treatise against Apion. 
 
 The great commands of the " Second Table," the 
 duties we owe to ourselves or our fellow-men, are here 
 ultimately based on the relations in which all creatures 
 stand to Him who demands our homage in the " First 
 Table." Not that they are represented as the mere 
 expression of arbitrary Will ; on the contrary, they 
 are represented as emanating from a Will itself deter- 
 mined by supreme rectitude, wisdom, and goodness ; 
 which knows what is " go'od" and enjoins what it 
 enjoins, from a perfect knowledge of our nature, and 
 the necessary conditions of our well-being. How 
 much this draft of_ morality, consistently articulated 
 as it is with the idea of God, differs from that of the 
 heathen nations in general, is obvious enough to any 
 one who has attentively considered their history. x 
 
 That this ought to be the relation of morality and I 
 religion, if there be indeed such a God as the Scrip- 
 ture affirms, probably no rational creature would deny. 
 If there be a God who exercises absolute dominion, t 
 but with perfect rectitude and goodness who is 
 cognizant of thoughts as well as actions who will 
 make equitable allowance for all infirmity, and whom 
 no cunning can blind and no power can resist, it is 
 fit that all morality should be thus jra*L4o man's 
 relations to Him. If there be no such Being in the 
 universe, even an intelligent atheist might well say, so 
 much the worse for the universe: if there be, then 
 the supremacy assigned to Him is His right. Every 
 
22 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 loyal subject of such a King will offer implicit homage 
 to Him; and to every dutiful child of such a Father, 
 every thought of Him will be welcome as a sunbeam 
 to the soul. 
 
 It is on this principle that the whole code of Biblical 
 ethics is constructed. On the other hand, that nothing 
 like the strict conjunction and articulation of morality 
 with religion which is found in the sacred volume, is 
 to be found in any other ancient book, much less in 
 a long succession of books of one and the same nation, 
 will hardly be denied. Among the most advanced and 
 polished nations of antiquity, we see not merely 
 defective views of the principles and obligations of 
 morality, but, w^hatj^ jworse,_the almost entire isola- 
 tion of religion from _jL;^aot Jo say that the very 
 religion itself was too often the grand obstacle to all 
 morality ! If we look into the most systematic treatises 
 on ethics bequeathed to us by ancient philosophy, those 
 of Aristotle, we find this great genius taking man to 
 pieces, anatomizing his moral nature and principles of 
 action, with the hope thence to find out what course 
 of conduct will best promote his " happiness," secure 
 the " summum bonum," that evSa^ovia which, truly 
 understood, is indeed the end of life, and yet forgetting 
 to take God into account at all ! On the other hand, 
 the religion of the Greeks and Romans had a very 
 precarious connection with morals, if indeed it can be 
 said in strictness to have had any. The priest who 
 stood at the altar, and the augur who interpreted omens, 
 addressed themselves almost exclusively to the ear 
 
i.] Vieived in relation to Human Nature. 23 
 
 and eye of superstition, to the credulity of a weak, 
 and the terrors of a guilty being. They prophesied 
 good or evil, after groping in the entrails of the sacri- 
 fices, or watching the flight of birds, or the direction 
 of the thunder; they instructed their votaries how they 
 might avert the Nemesis of offended invisible powers, 
 or cleanse the conscience of guilt, by sacrificial offerings 
 or ceremonial lustrations ; but they did little more. 
 They forgot the indissoluble connection between re- 
 ligion ai.d morality that complete subordination^ of 
 the one to the other, of which Josephus justly boasts'") 
 as found in the code of his own nation. It has been 
 truly said that with Greeks and Romans religion and 
 morality formed two different spheres of duty, and were 
 taught by totally different masters ; the latter by philo- 
 sophers, who for the most part did not care to radicate 
 it in religion ; the former by the priests, who did not 
 care to connect it with morality. In the one case, the 
 tree was severed from its principal root, and no wonder 
 that leaves and blossoms alike languished ; in the other, 
 the root itself was rotten, and no wonder that it yielded 
 no fruit at all. 
 
 The contrast, then, between the views of the world 
 in general and those of the Bible, in relation to this 
 subject, as seen in this and the last section, being so 
 palpable and undeniable, to what shall we attribute the 
 all-pervading characteristic of the latter, as compared 
 with other books and other systems ? I imagine, if we 
 look into ourselves into human nature, and the current 
 of the world's history as illustrating it we should not 
 
24 Certain Traits of tJie Bible [LECT. 
 
 expect to find, in any human system, such exclusive and 
 paramount deference to the claims of. God, or any 
 similar strait alliance, or rather incorporation, of re- 
 ligion and morality. Whatever modified views may 
 be taken of human depravity, however the graver 
 facts which Scripture seems to affirm may be denied, 
 or whatever abatement may be made from them, yet 
 the general facts of the world's history show that the 
 whole tendency of mankind (that of the Jews them- 
 selves quite as much as of the rest of the race) is 
 in revolt against that view of God's supreme and 
 all-controlling authority, and that perpetual obtrusion 
 of His claims, which characterise the Bible. If the 
 conscience of the natural man speak sincerely, I fancy 
 it will echo this ; and if it remain dumb, the history 
 of mankind will speak only too eloquently to the same 
 effect. The actions of men, and the general trans- 
 actions of the world, show that the Bible says truly 
 that man " does not like to retain God in his 
 thoughts;" much less to give Him the supreme 
 . place which the Bible assigns Him. 
 
 Some in these days may say, perhaps, that it is 
 fanaticism to do so. Be it even so ; the fact is all I 
 am now intent upon. I still ask, how is it that we find 
 it the perpetual characteristic of this book alone, to 
 inculcate doctrines universally distasteful to mankind ? 
 We cannot say that the Jews, of themselves, had any 
 more proclivity to this unwelcome fanaticism than 
 any other people. This their history proves but too 
 plainly. Their perverse indocility, and proneness to 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 25 
 
 every form of revolt ; their constant apostacies from 
 that very God whose claims and authority they 
 acknowledged to be paramount, seem to demonstrate 
 that, had only human nature spoken in them, it would 
 have spoken to the same effect as human nature 
 everywhere else in the world. The features of the 
 book in this respect are not in analogy with human 
 systems, nor with the human nature which dictated 
 them. 
 
 4. There are, as appears to me, certain characteristics 
 in the morality of the New Testament in violent con- 
 trast with what might be expected from human nature, 
 whether we judge by the systems which are its^^m- 
 doubted product, or, which is perhaps still more * QJ 
 significant of its tendencies, by the nature and di- 
 rbction of the innovations by which it has, from time 
 to time, corrupted the Christian code of morals. The 
 deflection, purely the effect of human nature, shows 
 how little likely was that nature to construct such a 
 morality. 
 
 That the morality of the Scriptures generally, but 
 especially of the New Testament, will bear comparison 
 with that of any other moral system ever propounded, 
 probably few will deny. In the truth, justness, and 
 comprehensiveness of its moral principles and precepts, 
 it is at least equal to any other. In one point it is far 
 superior, if, as I have contended, morality ought to 
 be strictly co-ordinated with religion. In the variety 
 and perspicuity of its moral statements ; in the weight 
 and compactness with which moral maxims are ex- 
 
 ffffo t: \ 
 {) 
 
26 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 pressed; in the earnestness and impressiveness with 
 which they are enforced ; in the examples and apoph- 
 thegms by which they are illustrated ; above all, in the 
 vivid, emotional character which pervades it, as con- 
 trasted with the cold abstractions of mere philosophy, 
 the New Testament will certainly suffer nothing if 
 compared with the best ethical treatises of pagan 
 antiquity. 
 
 But it is not my intention to insist upon this, how- 
 ever strange it may seem that Jews should have at 
 least rivalled, not to say outdone, the wisest sages and 
 philosophers of Greece and Rome ; nor even to inquire 
 how it is that these same Jews, in the New Testament, 
 should have risen above all their national prepossessions, 
 and revised and transcended the ethical spirit of the 
 Old Testament. Both facts might be added to the 
 paradoxes of the Bible I am now considering ; but I 
 pass to a greater. 
 
 There are some features of that morality, not only 
 "original," as Soame Jenyns and Paley observe, but 
 so palpably in the face of human nature, as to make 
 it difficult to believe (if we appeal to our own con- 
 sciousness or the testimony of history) that they were 
 the native utterances of human nature at all. This, 
 not the " originality " of these features of New Testa- 
 ment morality ("original," though I think them to be), 
 is the point I would now lay stress upon. " Origin- 
 ality " may, or may not, reflect glory on the authors, or 
 convict them of folly or absurdity ; their system may 
 be better or worse than other systems, in the points on 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 27 
 
 which it differs from them. This it is not necessary 
 to my argument to decide, though I have no doubt 
 about it. But I am considering whether man such 
 a creature as we know him to be generally, or that 
 variety of the species known as the Jew would ever 
 have propounded a moral system containing such 
 features at all. The points more particularly referred 
 to are those which Soame Jenyns, in his little book on 
 the " Internal Evidences of Christianity," first clearly 
 and comprehensively stated, though, of course, some 
 of them had often attracted notice before. Paley has 
 given due prominence to them in his work on " The 
 Evidences;" and by his quoting them in extcnso, and 
 with such emphasis, shows how deeply his acute mind 
 was impressed with them. They are in brief these : 
 that Christianity canonizes, and takes und_its special 
 patronage, some reputed virtues, of which a heathen 
 moralist, and perhaps many a modern one, would doubt 
 whether they are virtues at allj or, if virtues, whether, 
 as practised to the extent and in the spirit which 
 Christianity enjoins, they would not cease to be such, 
 or even be transformed into vices such, for example, 
 as humility, and the patient endurance and unlimited 
 forgiveness of injuries. On these, and kindred moral 
 qualities, which the world never either admired or 
 practised, it bestows its special benediction. 
 
 As little can the world in general sympathise with 
 the stemness_ with which the Gospel so absolutely 
 gauges and determines moral turpitude by thought 
 and feeling. It pronounces unresisted evil inclinations 
 
28 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 to be equally guilty with evil actions ; not so perni- 
 cious in their influence on moral habit, it may be ; not 
 so pernicious to others, certainly ; nor so deplorable 
 in their effects on society ; but as equally constituting 
 moral guilt: consequently, that covetousness indulged 
 is " theft ;" lascivious looks, with no attempt to repress 
 them, "adultery;" malignant hatred, which would 
 fain go forth in act, " murder." I specify tfre limit- 
 ations, because the context in which they occur - 
 "out of the heart proceed evil thoughts" requires 
 them ; and because, if the incursion of such thoughts 
 and feelings be met by a resisting will, their moral 
 quality is visibly changed, and the turpitude of the 
 agent with it. 
 
 That, in the first of these views, there is much 
 " originality," if we compare the Gospel morality with 
 the systems of the generality of ethical speculators, is 
 pretty plain ; and probably few will deny that, in the 
 second, the extent and uncompromising thoroughness 
 with which the principle is asserted and the conse- 
 quences accepted, also constitute originality. But, as 
 already said, this is not the point I wish at present to 
 press ; but rather, are these (" original," or not) the 
 principles and maxims which human nature, whether 
 Jewish or pagan, would have~~chosen to consecrate? 
 Are the virtues which Christianity specially regards as 
 worthy of all veneration and imitation ; are the passive 
 virtues those of patience, humility, meekness, for- 
 giveness of injuries the moral excellencies-which have 
 secured the admiration of the world ? Setting aside 
 
i/| Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 29 
 
 those virtues in the inculcation of which all systems 
 of ethics, Christian or otherwise, coincide such as 
 truthfulness and honesty and to which, however base 
 to be without them, no great merit for that very reason 
 is attached, is it not true (as Paley says) that the more 
 brilliant and enterprising qualities an emulous love 
 of distinction, a quick sense of honour, dauntless 
 courage, promptness to assert our rights and to resent 
 or repel injuries are not these, and such as are con- 
 genial with these generosity, public spirit, patriotism 
 the qualities of human nature, which in the world's 
 estimate are the most worthy of applause, and the 
 constituents of that " heroic character" for which it 
 reserves its highest homage ? And are not the quali- 
 ties which Christianity fondly takes under its wing, 
 pitiful or ignoble things fit only for a man who has 
 " no spirit "? the attributes of the worm that crawls, 
 not of the soaring eagle ? Whether human nature left 
 to itself, whether any individual man left to himself, 
 would ever have propounded such features of a moral 
 system, far less given them such prominence, the pages 
 of moralists and the facts of history must decide. The 
 model heroes of antiquity those who got statues in 
 the Pantheon, and inspired eloquence and poetry to 
 celebrate them were of very different clay ; they were 
 of such material as constitutes the /meja^o-^v-^la, the 
 " magnanimity," of Aristotle, and breathed the spirit 
 and maxims which animate the world's " codes of 
 honour." 
 
 Probably it will be said, " Well ; and has it not 
 
30 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 often been contended that the degree in which the 
 maxims concerning humility and meekness are pressed 
 in the New Testament is excessive ; that even if de- 
 ductions be made for the rhetorical language in which 
 they are clothed, they still seem extravagant ; that 
 they have frequently been condemned on that very 
 ground, as inconsistent with the principles of human 
 nature, and therefore impracticable ? " If this be said, 
 it is the very thing on which I am insisting as certain 
 to be instinctively felt by human nature; and I therefore 
 wonder, that if the system be of human parentage, 
 humanity should thus have belied itself. 
 
 " To turn the left cheek to him who hath smitten 
 us on the right, and to let him who hath taken our 
 coat take our cloak also," even when not interpreted 
 with strict literality, but understood to mean that we 
 are to cherish an unresentful spirit even towards those 
 who have most egregiously injured us, are yet ex- 
 pressions so unnaturally rhetorical, that it is a puzzle 
 to me that mere human nature should have ever so 
 expressed itself; or, if it did, how it could hope to 
 be attended to. 
 
 Similarly, the degree in which moral conduct is 
 determined from the motive, so as to make the guilt 
 complete, though the corresponding action be not 
 performed, is not " after the manner of men " in 
 general. People very properly make a great difference 
 in social morality between a criminal purpose and its 
 execution, even though no internal arrest of conscience, 
 but merely an outward barrier, has prevented it. But, 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature 31 
 
 in foro comcientice, and in respect of the actual moral 
 condition of the man himself (supposing nothing but 
 an external obstacle has interposed between his pur- 
 pose and the action), no doubt the principle laid down 
 in Scripture is unassailable. It is not a principle, 
 however, which human nature would be likely to 
 propound so absolutely or in so marked a form. It 
 would not be natural, considering how generally men 
 have been content to speculate on morals in isolation 
 from religion, which alone can take adequate cognisance 
 of the interior life of man. Tr^y have been busied in 
 constructing a social morality, such as society may be 
 contented with, and which will work. Man cannot go 
 beyond the outside of his fellow-man ; and as he nmst 
 leave, so he is willing to leave, the domain of invisible 
 thought and feeling uninvaded. The principle in ques- 
 tion would be likely to be uncompromisingly stated 
 and enforced, only in a system propounded under an 
 engrossing sense of the claims of God ; as a Judge 
 cognisant not only of the visible, but of the invisible 
 actions of His moral and accountable creatures, and 
 determining the true position of man to be virtuous 
 or vicious, not as he appears, but as he is. To that 
 Judge " the darkness and the light are both alike." 
 He sees all that transpires behind the curtain which 
 conceals each man's interior life, as well as the actions 
 which faintly express it to his fellows. This charac- 
 teristic of Christian morality is therefore in harmony 
 with what has been already said of the Bible, as alone 
 everywhere asserting the pre-eminent claims of God, 
 
32 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 and of that spiritual empire which He is represented 
 as administering amidst all the apparent confusion and 
 discordance of the moral world. It is in harmony also 
 with such a morality, that Christ lays such infinite 
 stress on the regulation of the thoughts, and enjoins, 
 consequently, a jealous, watchful inspection of the 
 heart. There, on that invisible stage, the moral life 
 of the man is really transacted. If the thoughts and 
 emotions which well up from that hidden fountain 
 be not pure, exact outward rectitude is impossible ; 
 and if it were possible, being only outward, would be 
 of no worth. 
 
 As men in general, if we may judge by their ordinary 
 sentiments, or by the treatises of morality which have 
 given expression to them, w r ould not have propounded 
 a system of ethics marked by the peculiar features 
 of the morality of the Gospel, so certainly the Jews, 
 but especially the Jews at that epoch, were as little 
 likely to propound it as any. They showed, indeed, 
 distinctly throughout their whole history that they 
 chafed even under the less spiritual yoke of the Mosaic 
 code, and, as time went on, continually corrupted it ; 
 till, when the Gospel morality was proclaimed, they 
 are declared to have made the " law of God of none 
 effect by their traditions." Thus they exaggerated 
 what was ceremonial at the expense of what was 
 moral, or rather substituted the one for the other. 
 So far from dreaming of such a spirit of boundless 
 forgiveness as that inculcated by Christ, they added 
 a gloss to the words, " Thou shalt love thy neighbour," 
 
L] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 33 
 
 in a clause, unknown to the Pentateuch, " Thou shalt 
 hate thine enemy." They even, in some cases, made 
 the pretended service of God a reason for evading the 
 most sacred obligations as, for example, of filial 
 piety. They reduced the standard of virtue by measur- 
 ing it too often by external actions ; sometimes went 
 further still, and commuted its appropriate acts for 
 ceremonial observances. All this they did according to 
 the tendencies of human nature, which spoke unequivo- 
 cally in them, and which so little accounts for such a 
 system of morals as that which the Scripture presents, 
 whether in the Old Testament or the New, that when 
 it had got it, it immediately proceeded to adulterate it. 
 Precisely the same thing was done by the Christian 
 world with the New Testament morality. When 
 Christianity was corrupted, human nature proceeded to 
 mould it into the forms most congenial with itself. All 
 the alterations effected in it were accommodations in 
 one and the same direction, and gradually assimilated 
 it to the more compliant schemes of this world's 
 morality. By so acting, by so uniformly acting, 
 human nature testifies how little likely it was to 
 originate a system of ethics so much against the 
 grain as that of the Gospel. The current of resisting 
 tendencies was so strong, it seems, that so far from 
 being likely to propound such a system, man could 
 only corrupt it. And the cycle of change was ever 
 the same. Christians, like the Jews, relaxed the 
 claims of conscience ; abated the supremacy of motive ; 
 thought more of material acts than of the springs 
 
 4 
 

 34 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 of action ; too often commuted moral duties for ritual 
 observances or penances of no moral value at all ; 
 at last discovered strange methods, not only of ab- 
 solving from guilt, but of creating merit, if men could 
 but pay for it ; leased " sin " out to the wealthy bidder, 
 and sold virtue and heaven by the penny-weight ! x 
 
 5. When we consider the entire character of Christ, 
 as the Founder and Exemplar of this peculiar system 
 of morality so foreign from what had issued, or was 
 likely to issue from man we perceive that the diffi- 
 culty just touched is only one of a knot of difficulties 
 of the same kind. What was a single paradox, in 
 contemplating the morality alone, becomes, as we 
 contemplate the history and character of Him who 
 propounded it, a bundle of paradoxes. The problem 
 is a very complex one, moral, intellectual, and literary 
 all at once; and I, for one, look in vain for the pro- 
 perties of human nature in any class of mortals which 
 will enable us to solve it. 
 
 Taking the ensemble of qualities which make up the 
 character of Christ, together with the originality and 
 wonderful peculiarities of the form in which it is 
 presented, the entire phenomenon would seem out of 
 the plane of human nature. Neither in Greek, nor 
 Roman, nor Jewish human nature, can we discover the 
 elements which could have evolved so peculiar a crea- 
 tion, whether supposed to be real or fictitious ; and in 
 the Jews, to which the problem historically limits us, 
 as little as anywhere. These had none of the con- 
 1 See Appendix No. I. 
 
i] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 35 
 
 ditions under which such a character, if real, could 
 have spontaneously risen among them as a simple 
 growth of the national genius, culture, or institutions, 
 or been ideally conceived as a deliberate fiction, or de- 
 veloped as a gradual aggregation of myth or legend. 
 The first is clearly proved by the shock which such a 
 Messiah gave to all their prejudices, and the vivid in- 
 dignation He evoked ; by their persecution and cruci- 
 fixion of Him ; by their incessant hostility to those who 
 espoused His cause; and by their bitter and immovable 
 hatred of Him from that day to this ! Eighteen hun- 
 dred years have not exhausted, or even sensibly abated 
 their prejudice ; and its inveteracy and constancy bear 
 evidence how little such a character was likely to be 
 generated as an actual phenomenon, or conceived as 
 an ideal creation, in a nation thus conditioned. 
 
 On the latter hypothesis, that is, that Christ Him- 
 self is a mere fiction or myth, the argument is rather 
 strengthened than otherwise. For how should Jews 
 be either able or willing to paint such a portrait, 
 or embody such a myth, the mere exhibition of which 
 has roused the undying animosity of their nation for 
 eighteen hundred years ? 
 
 Whether the Gospels present to us a real or imagi-" 
 nary portrait of Christ (and one of the two suppositions 
 must be true), it seems to me, I confess if regarded 
 simply as a phenomenon which human nature might 
 have produced or human nature could have invented 
 crowded with the most startling incongruities.^ 
 
 On the first supposition that Jesus Christ was a 
 
 4* 
 
36 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 real personage, but simply a man not a man in the 
 Unitarian sense, preternaturally endowed with Divine 
 gifts, such as made Him a unique ambassador of God 
 to us, and indefinitely higher than any who had exer- 
 cised any similar function but a man in the sense 
 which the theory of a purely human origin of Chris- 
 tianity requires ; born under those ordinary conditions 
 of humanity which might have given the world many 
 Christs before Him, or may give us many after Him 
 a man who, whatever His natural endowments (which 
 must, at any rate, have been great, if we only look 
 at the effects He has produced in the world), was still 
 no more ; let us examine how, on that hypothesis, 
 such a personage is conceivable, or whether the attri- 
 butes hang together. 
 
 But the reader perhaps will say, " How about the 
 miracles imputed to Him?" I presume, of course, if 
 He was a mere man, that they were never wrought. 
 On the principles on which I am now arguing, as to 
 whether the Bible can be accounted for by simple 
 human forces, I, for argument's sake, reject them. The 
 theory which attempts to account for their belief on 
 mythical principles, will be briefly considered when we 
 come to look at this wonderful character as a fancy 
 portrait. At present, I will suppose the miracles as 
 unreal as any rationalist can desire. 1 
 
 1 At the same time, if we suppose the miracles imputed to the 
 historic Christ, and with His acquiescence, as M. Renan and many 
 others imagine, and as seems most certain to have been the case, 
 some additional and very difficult paradoxes disclose themselves. 
 For a few observations on this subject, see Appendix No. II. 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 37 
 
 Let us then, for a moment, put the question of the 
 miracles aside, and confine ourselves to the traits in 
 Christ's character whicMn_^ertain_d.egree, and taken 
 separately, might be purely human. But then, as a 
 question of human nature, what shall we say of their 
 heterogeneousness ; and that, heterogeneous as they 
 are, they exist in Him without limit ? It is impossible 
 not to see that in this light, and viewed as a mere man, 
 instead of deserving the homage generally accorded 
 to Him, the character of Christ is a mere bundle of 
 inconsistencies, and tumbles to pieces the moment we 
 analyse it, by the mere force of incongruity. How 
 shall we reconcile the humility, the modesty, the self- 
 denial, the gentleness, the unresisting submission to 
 wrong, which are so liberally ascribed to Him, or the 
 prudence, no less than humility, which made Him 
 decline all opportunities of aggrandisement and all 
 proffers of greatness, with that impious ambition or 
 more than midsummer madness (in either case insup- 
 portable arrogance) which made Him claim to be the 
 vicegerent of God, the arbiter of human destinies, the 
 "Judge of quick and dead;" to be "invested with all 
 power in heaven and upon earth," and entitled to the 
 absolute homage and implicit obedience of every human 
 creature ? How shall we reconcile that beautiful 
 humility which pointed to a "little child" as the 
 symbol of the simplicity and docility demanded of all 
 who would " enter the kingdom of heaven," and took 
 occasion thence to administer a severe rebuke to the 
 disciples for contending " which should be the greatest;" 
 
 
38 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT 
 
 how shall we reconcile it, I say, with that enormous 
 egotism which in the very same breath arrogated an 
 immeasurable superiority over them ? which made 
 Him forbid them to call any man " Master," but only 
 because He was their Master, and all His followers 
 brethren ? which thus told them that though there 
 might be differences between them some teachers and 
 others scholars yet all these differences were of no 
 account, and vanished in comparison with that exclu- 
 sive superiority which He claimed ? Again ; what 
 mere man can be imagined perfectly to exemplify (as 
 He is represented to have done) his own system of 
 morals, and that, too, a system so peculiar ? Or what 
 man could challenge exemption from all infirmity, 
 and ask, "which of you convinceth me of sin?" or 
 rather, what other man would not have " sinned " 
 by his presumption in imagining that he could right- 
 fully challenge such immunity ? How, if He were a 
 mere man, shall we reconcile such traits as these 
 with the moral rectitude, the practical wisdom, the 
 self-abnegation, the intellectual greatness, which have 
 fixed the admiring gaze of mankind for near two 
 thousand years ? 
 
 M. Renan, indeed, observes that we must not judge 
 of Christ as of other men ; " that what would be an 
 insufferable pride in others, ought not in His case 
 to surprise us." But, as I have elsewhere said, " If 
 Christ be n thing more than a man, we must try Him 
 by the rules of men. If He indulged in these fantas- 
 tical claims to universal power, and fantastical demands 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 39 
 
 of unlimited love and self-sacrifice on the part of the 
 whole species ; if He insisted on all the world's bowing 
 down to Him in absolute self-abnegation, and all only 
 in virtue of a ' reve sublime,' I think there would be 
 very good reason for not only demurring to His claims, 
 but for treating His pretensions with as sovereign scorn 
 or indifference as we should the pretensions of any 
 straw-crowned monarch of Bedlam." x 
 
 Perhaps it will be said, " True ; no such incon- 
 gruities as these could exist in human nature, least 
 of all in such various combination and such sharp 
 contrasts as we find them in Christ ; therefore it must 
 be inferred that no such personage ever existed." If 
 He is to be regarded simply as a man, like other men, 
 I concede it. This is precisely what I am contending 
 for. His character is, on such conditions, opposed to 
 all the principles of human nature an ensemble of 
 heterogeneous and impossible attributes. 
 
 Let us, then, look at the other alternative. Whether 
 Christ ever existed or not, His professed portrait exists; 
 there can be no doubt about that. Now, if not a por- 
 trait, it is, in the first place, a curious paradox, that 
 a painting has to a large extent changed the great 
 facts of the world's history; or (which comes to the 
 same thing, only more difficult to be believed), if it be 
 the embodiment of myth, then the casual illusions of 
 
 1 Critique on Kenan's "Vie de Je'sus." "Reason and Faith," with 
 other Essays, p. 236. The language is no doubt strong, but I use 
 it deliberately. The same alternatives were subsequently put with 
 admirable power in Dr. Liddon's Bampton Lectures. See Lectures 
 III. and IV. (1867.) 
 
40 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 a multitude of imaginations have issued in a painting 
 of such exquisite skill as to produce the same effects. 
 We are told of an ancient painter, who, finding that 
 he could not depict to his mind the foam about a fiery 
 steed's mouth, dashed his brush against the canvas in 
 a paroxysm of despair; and lo! what skill could not do, 
 chance did for him. It is much the same with the 
 mythical hypothesis, as applied to account for such 
 a transcendent creation as that of Christ. 
 
 On the supposition that it is an ideal creation, we 
 are no longer met, it is true, by the conflict of hete- 
 rogeneous qualities, such as would make the reality, 
 if a mere man, simply a monster; for, on this sup- 
 position, the incongruous attributes must be supposed 
 to form part of the ideal, and we are left only to 
 wonder at the marvellous art which has blended 
 them, however incongruous, in such exquisite union 
 and harmony, that the most heterogeneous qualities 
 do not instantly give the impression of incongruity. 
 But we are still met with an equal paradox in human 
 nature ; namely, that the very qualities which should 
 have warned the world that it was a mere ideal on 
 which it was gazing, have not prevented its mistaking 
 it for a reality; the painter has so overdone his part, 
 that the stupid world has vehemently contended and 
 generally believed that the painting is no painting at 
 all; nay, rather than believe it such, has been willing 
 to receive all those supernatural traits with which it 
 is fraught, as also copied from reality ! 
 
 But this is not the only or chief thing which runs 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 41 
 
 counter to all probability. It is a still greater paradox 
 in human nature that the artists to whom this painting 
 must be ascribed, who actually painted it, whatever 
 rude materials fancy or myth may have supplied, 
 were, so far as we can judge, as utterly incapable of 
 imagining or executing such a portrait, as the merest 
 dauber of emulating the divinest performances of a 
 Raphael or a Michael Angelo. In the ordinary Jew 
 of those days, in the class of men to which this problem 
 limits us, there was not one single attribute, moral or 
 intellectual, to account for this chef-d'oeuvre. It is often 
 and justly said, that it is impossible for men to rise 
 far above the spirit and prejudices of their age. It is 
 so favourite a maxim in modern times, that it is some- 
 times unreasonably strained into an apology for the 
 most egregious follies or the most atrocious crimes. 
 But it is at least equally true in relation to extra- 
 ordinary excellence. Now in contemplating the Jews 
 of that age, it is impossible to imagine men more 7 
 destitute, whether of the moral or the intellectual / 
 elements, essential to equip them for the creation of 
 such an ideal as Christ. The whole stress of their 
 national predilections, which had been fondly cherished 
 for ages, tended in a totally different direction. How 
 came the men who wrote the Gospels to emancipate 
 themselves from the prejudices of their nation, which 
 gloried in exclusive privileges, was steeped in reli- 
 gious bigotry, and consoled itself amidst its calamities 
 with the dream of a conquering Messiah, who should 
 restore and augment the glories of ancient Israel ? 
 
42 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 How came any of them to unswathe themselves from 
 all these lifelong notions, and conceive a Messiah 
 whose whole life is depicted as one series of humilia- 
 tion and ignominy, whose glories were all to be in 
 the future and invisible world, who shrank from every 
 attempt to coax or force Him to a practical assertion 
 of His sovereignty, and who at last died the death 
 of a common malefactor ? His career of obloquy and 
 suffering is only relieved by glimpses of a species 
 of moral greatness, which their education and associa- 
 tions disqualified them from fully appreciating, and 
 they themselves, so far from being able to invent it, 
 confess their "slowness of heart" to perceive and 
 apprehend it ? How came they to originate a "Messiah " 
 who, in direct opposition to their national narrowness 
 and intense bigotry, inculcated universal brotherhood 
 and a world-wide charity; who proclaimed the approach- 
 ing abolition of all those darling privileges on which 
 a Jew prided himself, in favour of a religion which 
 should no longer know the badge of Jew or Gentile ? 
 How was it possible for human nature, conditioned 
 as were the Jews of that age, to rise to a conception 
 like this? 1 
 
 But the moral transformation thus implied in some 
 plebeian Jews of that age, involves no greater anomaly 
 in human nature than to suppose them endowed with 
 the extraordinary intellectual qualities which so unique 
 
 1 It has been well observed that in the character of Christ, we 
 not only do not see the generic qualities of the Jew, but not a trace 
 of any of the prevailing sects, of the Pharisees, the Sadducees, the 
 Essenes. 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human -Nature. 43 
 
 and so wonderful a portrait demands ; a portrait which 
 it is inconceivable that even one should successfully 
 execute, and yet which no less than four have dared 
 to essay, and with similar success ; a portrait in which 
 even the combination of the human elements, and their 
 mode of presentation, are of the most singular origi- 
 nality ; in which obscurity, poverty, and suffering are 
 covered with a halo of glory which belongs to no hero 
 of history or romance ; in which a boundless sympathy 
 with human frailty is conciliated with a holiness which 
 knows no frailty ; in which virtue, perfect as it is, is 
 untinctured with that austerity which is almost always 
 its shadow, and which so often detracts from its loveli- 
 ness ; in which patience. and meekness which can bear 
 all wrongs and forgive them, are united with a courage 
 on behalf of truth which the frowns of an opposing 
 world cannot daunt; a gentleness which will not "break 
 the bruised reed or quench the smoking flax," with 
 an indignation which launched at' incurable hypocrisy 
 more bitter and burning invectives than ever before 
 fell from human lips. All these, and many traits more, 
 equally unlikely to be combined in human nature, are 
 conjoined with supernatural qualities which, far from 
 betraying discordance with the human elements, are 
 so artfully wrought into the picture, that, as already 
 said, instead of at once convincing the world (as 
 they should have done) that Christ was a mere 
 ideal, have beguiled it into accepting Him as an 
 historic reality ! Whence came these four obscure 
 painters to possess this power ? to dip their pencils 
 
44 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 in " colours of the rainbow/' and handle them with 
 such skill as to cheat the world into the notion that 
 incredibilities were true, and chimeras realities ? 
 
 But the marvels of this unnatural achievement do 
 not end here. Not only did this wonderful creation 
 proceed from men whose whole moral and intellectual 
 characteristics would seem to have made it impossible ; 
 not only was the task successfully essayed four several 
 times, with variations of incident indeed, yet all in the 
 same unique style; but one and all dared it in the same 
 most difficult of all forms, that of dramatic exhibition. 
 They undertook to make this ideal personage, whose 
 mere human qualities exist in a combination which 
 would seem to lift it out of the sphere of our sym- 
 pathy, and are conjoined with preternatural attributes, 
 which would seem to do this yet more effectually, speak 
 and act and live before us ! Utterly hopeless task, one 
 would say. Yet they have done it, and with such suc- 
 cess that the majority of readers not only believe the 
 character natural, but believe it historic, and have had 
 their sympathies far more deeply moved by it than by 
 all other dramatic personations put together 1 
 
 Of their own peculiarities, we know next to nothing. 
 They are lost in their subject. But of this trait, as 
 forming an unnatural feature, not of them only, but 
 of the sacred writers in general, I shall take a future 
 opportunity of speaking. 
 
 Nothing of a literary character that the contempo- 
 raries of their nation, or those who succeeded them, 
 have left, affords the faintest indication that any of 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Hitman Nature. 45 
 
 them could have originated such a character, or so 
 exhibited it. 1 Their moral, and for the most part also 
 their intellectual qualifications for such a task, may be 
 measured by the Talmud ; and the " Talmudic " tone 
 and spirit are, in general, perfectly true to that form of 
 human nature which, as I have said, might be expected 
 under the given conditions. 
 
 And that the Christians were as little capable as the 
 Jews of originating such books as the Gospels, or rather 
 such pamphlets for all, put together, make less than 
 one hundred quarto pages, though they have made such 
 a prodigious noise in the world is very distinctly seen 
 in the Apocryphal Gospels. All that the Christians 
 of after time could do with the original delineation 
 of Christ was to spoil it. 
 
 The authors of these seem to have had the original 
 Gospels before them as a model, and yet, in the second 
 and third century, could do no better! The bulk of 
 these apocryphal writings seem to have been composed 
 with no ill design, though with execrable want of taste 
 and judgment; but they are things which the world 
 can hardly be prevailed upon to look into. It has been , 7 
 well said : " What strikes every one, whatever be his / 
 opinion of the origin and merits of these writings, is I 
 their immeasurable inferiority to the Canonical Gospels. 
 Immeasurable, indeed, is a word which faintly expresses 
 the extent of the difference between them. They belong- 
 to another sphere. It was short-sighted policy in the 
 
 1 This point is well argued in the " Essay on Mythical Theories 
 of Christianity/' by Rev. Chas. Row, M.A., inserted in the course 
 of lectures against " Modern Scepticism," pp. 305-360. 
 
46 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 scoffing unbelievers of Voltaire's school to bring the 
 two things into contact, in the hope of discrediting the 
 Gospel. And the somewhat similar attempt of Strauss 
 suggests the best refutation of his own theory. No 
 more striking proof could be desired by Christians 
 of the unique character of the Evangelic narrative, 
 nor can any fair-minded sceptic fail to perceive the 
 force of it. An impassable line separates the simple 
 majesty, the lofty moral tone, the profound wisdom 
 and significance of the Canonical Gospels from the 
 qualities which we forbear further to particularise in 
 the writings that claim to be their complement. We 
 feel, as we turn from one region to the other, that the 
 difference must be due to something more than lapse 
 of years, or defect of reliable information. If the con- 
 trast between the writings of the Epistles and the 
 apostolic fathers is so great that we are reminded 
 perforce of the doctrine of inspiration, how much 
 more when we turn from the sacred volume to the 
 best of the writings before us ? . . In a word, if these 
 are the legendary records preserved by the simple faith 
 and unassisted powers of early Christian disciples, to 
 what power are we to ascribe the authorship of the 
 New Testament?" x 
 
 The sentiment, therefore, which Rousseau has put 
 into the mouth of his Savoyard apologist, 2 and which 
 
 T "Edinburgh Review," July, 1868, pp. 105-109. 
 
 2 ' r lt seroit~plus mcbncevable que plusieurs hommes d' accord 
 eussent fabrique ce livre qu'il ne 1'est qu' un seul en ait fourni 
 le sujet." Rousseau. "Emile." Liv. IV. Tom. iii. pp. 128, 129. 
 Geneve, 1784. 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 47 
 
 seems to have been his own, at least for the moment, 
 is profoundly true. 
 
 On the whole, the ideal origination of the character 
 of Christ, and the world's stolid reception of it, not- 
 withstanding, as historic, would seem one continued 
 violation of all laws of human probability; whether 
 we consider the antecedents, moral, intellectual, and 
 literary, of those who produced it, or compare it with 
 any contemporary relics of Jewish, or any subsequent 
 performances of Christian minds ; or reflect that this 
 shadow has clothed itself with substance, and made the 
 world think that a painting lives ! As it gazes trans- 
 fixed, it exclaims, like the rapt Leontes before the 
 supposed statue of Hermione, when Pauline proposes 
 to draw the curtain, 
 
 " Let be, let be : 
 
 What was he that did make it? See, my lord, 
 Would you not dream it breathed, and that those veins 
 Did verily bear blood ? " 
 
 That we cannot well exaggerate the wonders of this 
 unique creation, whether substance or shadow, real or 
 mythical, is proved alike by the intense veneration 
 and the intense opposition it has evoked. Indeed, 
 it is hard to say whether the boundless admiration, 
 or the vehement hostility to the name and claims of 
 Christ, be the more signal tribute to His power. Is it 
 conceivable that a bundle of myths or fictions should 
 thus permanently stir the heart of humanity ? We 
 shovel out of the way, age after age, whole cart- 
 loads of this traditional lumber, in every other case 
 
48 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 but this one ! No man, especially in enlightened and 
 civilized ages like ours, ever thinks of standing up 
 for any forms of mythology, least of all if they be 
 of foreign growth and origin. If there be any- 
 thing striking in them, we read about them with 
 otiose curiosity, just as we should a nursery tale or 
 a romance. But we should as soon think of be- 
 lieving that the lions and asses in ^Esop's fables 
 really talked, as attach the smallest serious value to 
 any mythology, Greek or Roman, Egyptian or Hin- 
 doo, ancient or modern. Jupiter in this respect is as 
 Brahma, and Serapis as Vishnu. All are consigned to 
 universal contempt or oblivion ; and if any man were 
 to undertake either to claim for them any religious 
 significance to us, or elaborately maintain they had 
 none, he would equally be regarded as out of his senses. 
 But while all cultivated and civilized nations survey 
 all mythologies with the same contempt, and even all 
 superstitious nations look scornfully askance on all 
 mythologies except their own, this Christian mythology 
 (if it be mythology), and this alone, is inexhaustibly 
 fascinating. Amidst the greatest diversities of race, 
 nationality, tradition, culture, in modern as in more 
 ancient times, in regions far remote from its native 
 seat, and ages far distant from the epoch of its birth, 
 it is still capable of exerting such an influence, that 
 the loftiest minds, endowed with all that nature and all 
 that culture can bestow, are not ashamed, in never- 
 ceasing and most animated controversy, to engage in 
 impugning or defending it. Its truth or falsehood, its 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 49 
 
 historical or mythological origin, is the perpetual battle- 
 field from age to age. Those who challenge it are as 
 eager as its champions. Yet if the former really 
 believe it what they profess to believe it, they would 
 (one would imagine) be as reluctant to submit to such 
 lifelong labour to prove it vanity and delusion, as to 
 prove the like of the many other systems, in refuta- 
 tion of which not a soul of them could prevail upon 
 himself to waste a syllable ; they would be as languid 
 about it as about the Mahometan or Hindoo super- 
 stition. But with regard to Christ and His claims, the 
 conflict even becomes more keen in that very region of 
 light which kills all ordinary superstitions. Strauss, 
 Renan, Neander, Pressense, and scores of doughty 
 champions more, are in our day straining every nerve 
 to prove Christianity either true or false, amidst the 
 universal contempt or neglect of so many other systems. 1 
 At all events, it is a significant proof that, be the 
 
 1 The " Lives " of Christ which this generation alone has pro- 
 duced would make a hundred times the amount of all the original 
 " Memoirs " put together. If it be said that all this controversy 
 shows the difficulty of establishing the claims of Christianity to all 
 the world, it certainly does so ; but, first, that may be owing to 
 other causes than the difficulties of its evidence ; secondly, the strife 
 shows most conclusively the perpetual interest it inspires. That 
 all this trouble should be necessary to confute it, if false (just like 
 other systems about which unbelief does not trouble itself at all), is 
 the really wonderful thing ; that it should excite much controversy 
 is not wonderful, for, as Christianity declared from the beginning, 
 that it would be " everywhere spoken against " (and time has veri- 
 fied at least that much truth concerning it), so I only wonder, 
 considering what its doctrines are, and what human nature is, that 
 it has not " been spoken against " still more. But that, if it be 
 no more than a contrivance of fiction, or a fardel of myths, it 
 should not have been long since confuted and done with, is, as 
 Bishop Butler says, marvellous indeed. 
 
 5 
 
50 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 character of Christ real or imaginary, history or myth, 
 it is a wonderful phenomenon. But if it be the latter, 
 its fabrication by the Jewish mind, and its reception 
 by the world as history, are equally paradoxical, and 
 in defiance of human nature. 
 
 6. Another paradox strikes me, I confess, in the 
 desperate tenacity and boundless veneration with which 
 the Jews have ever clung to their Scriptures. I feel 
 this, let them be ever so ancient ; but far more, if they 
 $Uvvtf are, as so many modern critics affirm, of comparatively 
 ^ .wkj , recent date, and in great part of fictitious origin; facts 
 ^ which it was far more the interest of the Jew to find 
 out than that of any of the modern critics, who have 
 kindly made the discovery for him, and yet cannot 
 convince him of it. If fabulous (wicked forgeries or 
 ingenious fictions), it is difficult to imagine they could 
 have been palmed on the nation as their genuine his- 
 tory at either an earlier or later date; but certainly at 
 neither, without exciting vehement suspicion and protest. 
 Yet this is supposed to have been managed without 
 one syllable or one murmur coming down to us ! Now, 
 when we reflect on their contents, that they constitute 
 (if false) one long libel on the Jewish nation, is it cre- 
 dible they should have been received with one voice, 
 not only as true, but as no less than " sacred and 
 inspired," treasured as the most precious deposit, 
 and transmitted to posterity with the most solicitous 
 care ? One can understand how fables tending simply 
 to glorify a nation, may be willingly accepted, be 
 they ever so foolish, though we do not find nations 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 51 
 
 thus cheating themselves at late periods of their history. 
 But when the pretended records bear witness to little 
 but their shame, are rilled with reproaches and de- 
 nunciations, tax them with the most tremendous 
 guilt, and menace them with terrible punishment ; 
 upbraid them with the most egregious folly and the 
 most odious ingratitude ; remind them that their 
 fathers had a glorious heritage, and had forfeited 
 it ; a noble lineage, and disgraced it ; a Divine King, 
 against whom they had been perpetually plotting 
 treason ; when this is the constant burden of these 
 documents, is it conceivable that, if they be in a great 
 measure fictitious, every nerve should not have been 
 strained to prove it ; that they should have been re- 
 ceived as authentic history, nay, as inspired truth, 
 without one effort such as a score of disinterested 
 critics in our day have gratuitously made on the 
 Jews' behalf to prove the contrary ? If so, it is cer- 
 tainly not after the " manner of men." Age after age, 
 and with one voice, they confess the heavy indictment 
 against them to be just; yea, though these books not 
 only told them that they had been a " perverse and 
 stiff-necked generation," but predict that they would 
 continue so, would refuse to be warned or reformed, 
 and at last become a "hissing and a by -word among 
 the nations! " x 
 
 If not true, these documents are little better than 
 
 what they have been well called, "archives of libel," so 
 
 dark are the colours in which they paint the nation, 
 
 1 Appendix. No. III. 
 
 5* 
 
52 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 and so incessant and vehement the reproaches which 
 they shower upon it. Instead of guarding and trans- 
 mitting them with such profound veneration, instead 
 of jealously counting each word and syllable, as if loth 
 to be robbed of one iota of their shame, one would have 
 imagined that patriotic Jews would have hunted down 
 these documents for destruction, since, in fact, they are 
 but an enlarged commentary on that pregnant text of 
 Stephen, which he declares to be an epitome of their 
 history " Ye uncircumcised in heart and ears, ye do 
 always resist the Holy Ghost. As your fathers did, so do 
 ye." If it be said that the record flatters them with 
 being the chosen people of God, it as constantly taxes 
 them with a forfeiture of this privilege ; and threatens, 
 and at length pronounces, their rejection, for their 
 unutterable apostacies, perverseness, and ingratitude. 
 Were these the documents which national vanity would 
 so eagerly fasten upon, and transmit with scrupulous 
 ridelity to posterity ? No ; had they been untrue, the 
 mood of the profane Jehoiakim, sitting by his winter 
 fire, cutting to pieces with his penknife the ominous 
 roll of the prophet, and tossing the fragments into 
 the flames, would have been natural enough, and as 
 naturally imitated by the whole Jewish nation. Each 
 man would have emulously sought out these infamous 
 libels with more than the zeal of a Diocletian in his 
 crusade against the copies of the New Testament. 1 
 
 1 If it be thought that some of the above remarks bear hard on 
 the Jews, I can only reply that I simply take the statements of 
 their own Scriptures, which themselves account inspired ; but 
 their case would certainly 1& little improved by supposing that 
 
i.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 53 
 
 they tamely acquiesced in such severe condemnation, though un- 
 just. Lest it should seem, however, that I think their case worse 
 than that of mankind at large, I have no hesitation in saying that 
 such is my conviction of the indocility of man in relation to God's 
 teaching, so slow to learn, and so apt to forget, His lessons, that I 
 heartily subscribe the declaration of Paul, " What then ? Are we 
 better than they? No ; in no wise." Nor can we forget that the Jews 
 have given unexampled proofs of heroic constancy and sincerity in 
 their veneration for books which so reproach them. " Cependant," 
 says Pascal, " ce livre qui les de'shonore en tant de famous, ils le 
 conservent aux ddpens de leur vie. C'est une sinceritd qui n'a 
 point d'exemple dans le monde, ni sa ratine dans la nature" 
 (Pascal. Pensees. Tom. II. p. 189. Ed. Faugere.) 
 
LECTURE II. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
LECTURE II. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 T N the present lecture, I propose to resume the 
 J- subject of the last. Without further preface, I 
 remark : 
 
 7. That it has always seemed to me an incom- 
 prehensible anomaly that Jews should by any natural 
 process have originated such a book as the New 
 Testament, and such a religion as it contains. If 
 they originated it (as they certainly did), it would 
 seem to be in diametrical contradiction to all the 
 principles and tendencies of their nature, as well as of 
 human nature in general. The point has been partly 
 anticipated in discussing the difficulty of accounting 
 for such a " Messiah " as Jewish evangelists have 
 painted ; but the reasoning equally applies to all the 
 writers of the New Testament, and to the origin of 
 Christianity in general. There is hardly a feature of 
 the religion which the Jew might not naturally be 
 supposed the last man in the world to tolerate. The 
 entire system of institutions under which his cha- 
 racter had been formed made him recoil from it, and 
 especially from its cosmopolitan character. That the 
 Jewish nation was the chosen of Heaven ; that to 
 
58 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 them "were committed the oracles of God," and that 
 they had a monopoly of them these were first prin- 
 ciples to the Jew ; and everything in his education, 
 habits, prepossessions, made him clutch them pas- 
 sionately to his heart. The Gospel abruptly broke 
 in upon these, and, as with volcanic force, fractured 
 and upturned these solid strata of his belief. It 
 went avowedly on the principle that all the Jew's 
 privileges were transient, and subordinate to higher 
 ends than his glory or welfare ; that they were abro- 
 gated by the Gospel; that under it there was to be 
 "neither Jew nor Greek;" that Christ came to throw 
 down the " middle wall of partition " between them. 
 One of the first lessons taught to Peter when he 
 entered on his apostolic mission (and, like every Jew, 
 he was astonished at it), was that God had abolished 
 this distinction, and that he was henceforth to regard 
 the Gentiles as on a level with himself. That all this 
 should be most repugnant to the ordinary Jew, was 
 natural, and the inevitable effect of the abuse of those 
 privileges on which he had plumed himself for ages. 
 He was of the highest caste, and the Jewish Brahmin 
 looked down on the Gentile Pariah with all the contempt 
 with which the Pharisee regarded the publican. We 
 are not left to conjecture as to the degree of revulsion 
 which his mind experienced ; we see how it manifested 
 itself, and may thence exactly measure the impro- 
 bability of any such religion as that of the Gospel 
 having naturally originated with him. It was his grand 
 quarrel with Christ and His apostles that they pro- 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 59 
 
 posed to ignore the religious prerogatives of the Jews, 
 and their exceptional religious position among the 
 nations of the earth. So slow, indeed, were even the 
 immediate disciples of Christ to entertain any such 
 notion, that the expectation that their Messiah would 
 found a temporal kingdom, of which the Jews should 
 form as it were the aristocracy, and in which they were 
 to cast off the Roman yoke, was a besetting halluci- 
 nation. We see, again, the same principle at work in 
 the natural reluctance even of many of those Jews who 
 did become converts, to part with any tatters of their 
 ancient law that they could retain, and in the infinite 
 trouble which their " Judaising " tendencies gave to the 
 Apostle Paul and the Churches which he had founded. 
 We see it still more strongly in the national hostility 
 to Christ Himself; in the persecutions, which in the 
 first age of the Gospel the Jews almost always origi- 
 nated, and always fomented, against the hated sect 
 of the Nazarenes; and in the persistent abhorrence 
 with which they have recoiled from this religion for 
 near nineteen centuries. How came Jews, then, to 
 fabricate a religion so diametrically opposed to all their 
 native prejudices? How came they to rise to this 
 grand conception of a universal religion, in which all 
 mankind were to be of equal value in the eyes of God, 
 and equally entitled to a participation in His favour ? 
 How came incarnate bigotry to go forth as the spon- 
 taneous apostle and herald of universal love ? The 
 narrowness of the Jew had been a proverb among the 
 nations ; he is here, all at once, and of his own accord, 
 
60 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT- 
 
 the champion of all mankind against himself; strips 
 himself of all in which he had gloried, as the special 
 donative of God; renounces his own heritage, and gives 
 it to strangers ! It is this Jew, exclusive par excellence, 
 who conceives the thought, of which far less bigoted 
 nations had never dared to dream, of a universal 
 religion and an unlimited charity. " He who had no 
 dealings with the Samaritans " preaches a religion 
 which not only permits, but commands him, to ac- 
 count " all men his brethren." 
 
 Another principle, equally unaccountable, if Jewish 
 human nature alone prompted it, is that intense 
 spirit of proselytism to the new religion by which 
 its founders were from the first animated. It is in 
 violent contrast with all the previous habits of the 
 Jews. Their sullen isolation, their exclusive pecu- 
 liarities, were notorious. They were not, indeed, for- 
 bidden to receive proselytes; and in truth, their Law 
 enjoined a spirit of frank kindness to the " stranger," 
 which, had it been complied with, might have made 
 many more proselytes; but which their exaggeration 
 of their exceptional privileges too often led them to 
 disregard. But if they unreluctantly received such 
 as spontaneously sought their communion, they were 
 certainly animated in general by no active spirit of 
 proselytism : whereas the " missionary spirit " is the 
 spirit of the early Church, and of Christianity every- 
 where; it is the reflex of that universality of do- 
 minion to which it aspires, and that universality of 
 privilege which it concedes ; just as the comparative 
 
IT.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 61 
 
 inertness of the Jew was the reflex of his religious 
 monopoly, and consequent isolation. But how came 
 the Jew, self-prompted, to " cast his skin " ? to throw 
 off all the ingrained habits of his nature, and to become 
 cosmopolitan ? 
 
 But the strongest proof of the point now argued 
 has been already alluded to. The very conception of 
 such a Messiah as Christ, implies in itself a bouleverse- 
 nient of the deepest principles of the Jewish mind. The 
 idea of a "triumphant" Messiah, who, while swaying 
 His sceptre over the subject nations, should confirm 
 and enhance the privileges of the favoured people, 
 and reflect upon them the lustre of His reign, had 
 been their daydream for centuries ; and so strong had 
 been the illusion, as to blind them to the many pro- 
 fessedly prophetic passages of their ancient books, 
 which spake as plainly of the sufferings and humilia- 
 tion of their promised Deliverer, as of his ultimate 
 victory and glory. In this respect as in others, but 
 in this emphatically, they fulfilled the ancient declara- 
 tion : "They had eyes but saw not," and "ears but 
 heard not." Yet by them, and against the whole 
 stream of their convictions, interests, and passions, 
 was proclaimed a Messiah, whose humble origin and 
 condition, whose character and teaching, and whose 
 ignominious death, made Him the object of the most 
 intense aversion to the bulk of the nation, and has 
 made Him so from that day to this. That repugnance 
 is not sensibly abated even yet; and as Christ Himself 
 said that the "publicans and harlots" would enter 
 
63 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 "the kingdom of heaven" before the "Scribes and 
 Pharisees," so, for similar reasons, it would seem that 
 every nation of the world, civilised or savage, Greek 
 or Roman, "barbarian, Scythian, bond or free," Gaul, 
 Saxon, Indian, Hottentot, Otaheitan, Malagasy, in 
 spite of infinite prejudices and immemorial super- 
 stitions, is more easily persuaded to listen to the 
 Gospel, and with less difficulty proselyted to it, than 
 the " children of Abraham." This, of itself, gives us a 
 measure of the improbability of their having spontane- 
 ously projected such a Messiah as Christ ; and, justly 
 viewed, subverts the foundation of the theory of Strauss, 
 who endeavours to show how such a " myth " as Christ 
 might have grown out of the Jewish interpretations of 
 Messianic prophecy. The intense opposition of the Jew 
 to the Gospel is itself a proof that there was nothing 
 in his preconceptions, his habits, his institutions, which 
 could have led him to such a conception, or to tolerate 
 it, had it been presented to him. The very moment it 
 was presented, he averted his eyes from it, as from a 
 spectacle that filled him with mingled shame, anger, 
 and horror, which he has retained to this day. 
 
 Another anomaly in connection with this last topic 
 deserves notice. If it is wonderful that such a religion 
 as that of the New Testament should have come from a 
 Jewish source, it is not less wonderful that, being from 
 such a source, its authors should have prognosticated 
 its rejection by the Jews, and its acceptance, though not 
 without vehement opposition, by the Gentiles, among 
 whom the New Testament proceeds to narrate its 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 63 
 
 rapid progress. For the former allegation, if such a 
 religion could naturally spring up in the mind of Jews 
 at all, there would be plausible ground ; for assuredly 
 it was more likely that Jews would reject it than that 
 Jews should invent it. It was also plausible to suspect 
 that such a religion considering how distasteful are 
 many of its doctrines would meet with opposition 
 from the heathen world ; but what reason its authors 
 could have if the religion was a purely human pro- 
 jection of Jewish minds, and its authors spoke from 
 conjecture so confidently to affirm that it would 
 prosper in spite of that opposition, it is hard to say. 
 True though it turned out to be, it was a most un- 
 Lkely thing for any men, but especially Jews, to reckon 
 
 It might have been supposed that, looking to the 
 condition of the Jews, their relations to other nations, 
 
 1 I do not farther prosecute this subject, because its full illustra- 
 tion would require me to go beyond Stripture (to which I restrict 
 myself), and enter on the history of the propagation of Christianity 
 in the face of all the obstacles opposed to it. The argument derived 
 from this topic has always been insisted upon as of great force by 
 Christian apologists ; and, I think, most justly. That the religion 
 was vehemently and everywhere opposed is a fact abundantly 
 proved by the history of the first three centuries ; the storm of 
 obloquy and persecution beat upon it incessantly, during which 
 its votaries were a " sect everywhere spoken against " and every- 
 where defenceless, though everywhere growing. As we might 
 conjecture from its character, that this religion would excite, so 
 historic fact shows that it did excite, the vehement enmity of men 
 when first propounded of the vulgar and the learned, of rulers 
 and the populace, of priests and philosophers. And it may be 
 argued, as it often has been ably argued, that its propagation 
 and reception, in spite of all that was arrayed against it, and in 
 utter destitution of all that could make for it, is (if it was a purely 
 human phenomenon) not easily accounted for. 
 
64 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 their unsocial isolation, and the contemptuous esti- 
 mate formed of them, that as the Pharisees thought 
 no " good thing could come out of Nazareth," so the 
 Gentile would think "that nothing good could come 
 out of Judea," and that the antipathy to any religion 
 emanating thence would be invincible. As there was 
 no element in Judaism, especially as moulded by its 
 misinterpreted prophecies and corrupt traditions, that 
 would be likely to originate Christianity, so when 
 it was originated, the very fact that its cradle was 
 Judea could not but operate as an immense obstacle 
 to its reception beyond the pale. If the Jew (as the 
 facts show) was intensely opposed to any such Messiah 
 as the New Testament exhibits, the Gentiles were 
 intensely opposed to any Jewish Messiah whatsoever. 
 And in this point of view, again, Strauss' theory com- 
 pletely breaks down ; it utterly fails to account for the 
 success of the Gospel, even if it accounted at all for its 
 origination. For even if it were conceded that Jewish 
 prepossessions were in favour (as all facts prove they 
 could not be) of any such conception as that of the 
 Messiah of the New Testament, there was not a 
 thought, a sentiment, a prejudice of the Gentiles, 
 which could recommend it. 1 
 
 1 " Consider," says Davison, " the difference in aptitude and 
 qualification for spreading any system of doctrine, between Jewish 
 and some other teachers. Had it been foretold, for instance, that a 
 novel and prevalent religion should one day appear and take a lasting 
 possession of a considerable part of the civilised world, emanating 
 from Athens or from Rome, the popular philosophy and literature 
 of the one, which had a certain freedom of access to the world at 
 large, or the growing empire of the other, might have furnished 
 some pledge for the accomplishment of the prediction. But Jewish 
 
ii. Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 65 
 
 In truth, the origin and reception of Christianity in 
 the world bristle with paradoxes. The Jews, though 
 most unlikely to originate that religion which the 
 bulk of them constantly rejected, and still reject, did 
 originate it; and that heathen world, which any one 
 would have thought would certainly reject it, did in 
 vast numbers receive it. These are curious facts, 
 which, like so many more on which I am insisting in 
 these pages, it is not easy to account for on any 
 principle of human nature or historic probability. 
 
 8. Another paradox or rather a double paradox 
 I find in this : that the New Testament dares to pro- 
 pound a religion which aspires to universal dominion, and 
 that too to be achieved without violence, and by moral 
 force alone. I am now speaking simply of what the 
 New Testament says. I know full well that men have 
 in many cases been so little capable of comprehending 
 it, that they have unwisely and wickedly departed from 
 its programme, and attempted the propagation of this 
 religion by resorting to methods which itself sternly 
 condemns. This is notorious ; but what the book 
 propounds is plain enough, and absolves it from all 
 participation in the crime. No system of morals is 
 ever made responsible for the violation of its precepts, 
 and no code of laws for the crimes it expressly pro- 
 doctrine could look to no such auxiliaries in civil or intellectual 
 empire to favour its introduction, or recommend its pretensions. 
 Prophecy, therefore, we may say, when it predicted the reception 
 of a Law of Religion, which was to have Jews for its teachers, and 
 kings and nations for its converts, had nothing to build upon, 
 nothing either in present appearances, or the ordinary calculation 
 of things." Davison on Prophecy, p. 282. 
 
 6 
 
66 Certain Traits of tlie Bible [LECT. 
 
 hibits. The command of the Founder of Christianity 
 was " to preach the Gospel to every creature," to pro- 
 claim it " to all nations under heaven ; " but it is 
 equally incontrovertible, that He renounced for Him- 
 self, and that His apostles renounced for Him, all 
 employment of force in the establishment of His novel 
 kingdom. The same thing necessarily follows from 
 the very nature of that kingdom. Its sovereign did 
 not content Himself, as other monarchs, with demand- 
 ing the homage of lip and knee, which a man 
 may pay and still be a rebel in heart ; but an inward 
 homage which, unless sincere, would make all outward 
 service perfectly worthless. His was an empire over 
 Mind and Will. The only allegiance this strange King 
 would condescend to accept, was a voluntary allegiance, 
 founded on the love of TRUTH, and itself the symbol of 
 submission to it. If the whole world bent the knee and 
 cried "Hosanna!" Christ would regard it as empty 
 form, or rather as hypocrisy added to disloyalty, unless 
 the heart went with it. It is a glorious characteristic 
 of that only true royalty which is ascribed to Him, and 
 "worthy of the King of kings and Lord of lords." 
 Though 'the symbols of all-various dominion be ex- 
 pressed in the diadem " of many crowns," with which 
 the apocalyptic vision invests Him, no jewel in it 
 sparkles more resplendently than this. The very 
 nature, therefore, of this empire made all force nuga- 
 tory, and a contradiction in terms. It was not like 
 "the kingdoms of this world;" if it had been, as Christ 
 Himself said, " then would His servants have fought." 
 
IL] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 67 
 
 Now, this ambitious dream of universal dominion, 
 especially when conjoined with renunciation of all 
 violence as a means to the end, presents us with a 
 prodigious anomaly, as contrasted with all previous 
 history and experience. 
 
 I think I might insist upon either of these circum- 
 stances as in itself a paradox, but both together cer- 
 tainly constitute a very startling one. The audacity 
 of the project itself takes away one's breath ; it is 
 about the last which, looking at the infinite and im- 
 memorial religious differences of mankind, hallowed 
 and strengthened by time, custom, and tradition, human 
 nature would be likely to entertain. It would be re- 
 garded as indeed it still is by the bulk of mankind 
 as the most chimerical of enterprises. Nor do I know 
 of any other well-attested instance of such a dream 
 having ever entered the imagination of man, if we 
 except the case of Mahomet, and Mahometanism 
 may be summarily dismissed as no parallel at all : 
 first, because it came after Christianity, and was in 
 this, as in several other respects, a plagiarism from it ; 
 and secondly, because the means by which it proposed 
 to attain its object, and which it so ruthlessly employed, 
 was force, in its coarsest and most vulgar form. 
 
 Nor is it easy to conceive how, in the face of the 
 universal religious condition of the nations at the time 
 Christianity appeared, and the apathy with which the 
 world acquiesced in it, a thought so presumptuous, 
 however sublime, should be suggested. As one looked 
 
 abroad upon the many-coloured panorama of the 
 
 6 * 
 
68 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 religions of the world, with their "gods many and lords 
 many ; " saw the neighbourly terms on which these 
 for the most part dwelt together; how contentedly 
 they "cantoned" out the world amongst them, and 
 conceded to each other the limited dominion and the 
 limited prerogatives they severally claimed in all 
 which their worshippers cordially acquiesced he would 
 assuredly say that the dream of the universality and 
 supremacy of one religion was of all things the most 
 visionary. Indeed it looked so hopeless, that the world 
 seems to have quietly assumed its impossibility, the 
 compression or extension of each area of belief seldom 
 depending on any instinct or effort of religious pro- 
 pagandism, but on political revolutions or military 
 violence. This last, indeed, did effect considerable 
 changes ; sometimes destroyed a nation and its gods 
 too ; sometimes drove both, equally forlorn and help- 
 less, from their native seats. Colonisation, again, some- 
 times effected the same thing. The emigrants carried 
 their gods to a new locality, by the same means and 
 on the same terms that they took their other " goods 
 and chattels." In these changes the gods and their 
 worshippers acted characteristically ; the last were 
 active and the first passive. The gods did not " move ;" 
 they "were moved" as Isaiah says in his graphic 
 picture of the huge images of Bel and Nebo "nodding" 
 on the groaning wains that bore them into captivity 
 "a heavy burden to the weary beasts!" But 
 there was no display of active propagandism, or any 
 serious attempts to overcome the vis inertia of tra- 
 
IL] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 69 
 
 ditional and local beliefs, far less any dream of the 
 universal supremacy of any one religion. 
 
 Yet the paradox does not end here, for we must sup- 
 pose this audacious speculation to have first entered 
 the head, not of sages and philosophers, not of great 
 legislators and conquerors, but of a Jew; who, if no 
 more than a Jew, was one of a community who, as we 
 have seen, doted on their exclusive privileges, and jea- 
 lously guarded the mountain-passes which shut them 
 out in religious isolation from the rest of the world ; 
 who, if their ancient wiitings intimated that " from the 
 midst of them " a religion would arise which should 
 spread beyond Judea, and in which their own exclusive 
 privileges should expire, had grossly misinterpreted 
 these records, and would not hear of a religion that was 
 to be universal, in any sense that would not still admit 
 of the supremacy of that of Moses. Like the rest of 
 the nations, they assuredly made no active efforts to 
 realise any such dream. 
 
 An objector will probably say, "And is it not, in 
 spite of the progress of Christianity, still a dream ? 
 Would any one, looking on the infinite religious dis- 
 cords and controversies of the world, venture to say, 
 without superhuman illumination, that these discords 
 would one day be hushed, and one religion prevail ?" 
 I answer, this is precisely what I am saying; this 
 objection is my present argument. I do not think any 
 human being, left to his own intelligence, would have 
 indulged any such dream. 
 
 But it is the combination of the two features I have 
 
70 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 mentioned the predicted universality of the religion 
 with the renunciation of all violence in attaining it 
 which constitutes the great peculiarity on which I am 
 now insisting, and which makes it deservedly rank as one 
 of the many paradoxes which require to be accounted 
 for, if the New Testament was the work of unaided 
 men. Nor is it, as I have hinted, any answer to say 
 that the religion of the New Testament has not always 
 been propagated by merely moral forces, or rather it is 
 an objection which much strengthens the argument, 
 as we shall presently see. It did restrict itself to such 
 means in the days of its signal and most rapid triumphs, 
 namely, for the first three centuries ; and has done so 
 since in all its most worthy and durable conquests. 
 Nor, perhaps, can a single instance be pointed out in 
 which it has not received more damage than benefit by 
 the ill-judged and ignorant resort to other than its own 
 weapons. Beyond question, if its nominal sphere has 
 been sometimes enlarged by such methods of propa- 
 gandism, the violence done to the genius of the religion 
 has generated evils which, for ages, have obscured its 
 lustre, and impeded its real progress and legitimate 
 influence. But this is not the only, nor the chief reply 
 to the objection. The objection, in fact, answers itself. 
 My argument is based upon the paradoxical character 
 of the original conception ; of a universal religion, in 
 the establishment of which all coercion was to be 
 abjured. Nothing depends on whether men have acted 
 up to this conception or not. But that they notoriously 
 have not, is of itself an argument for the wwhuman 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 71 
 
 character of the project itself. For it could only be 
 because they despaired of the possibility of realising 
 it in the prescribed methods, that they deviated from 
 them, and violated the express letter of the Scripture 
 rule. They have thereby simply borne witness to the 
 genuine tendency of human nature ; demonstrated how 
 little likely men were to originate, how difficult for 
 them even to entertain, such a conception. They have 
 thus shown that it was foreign to all their ideas and 
 repugnant to their passions and their impatience. They 
 found it impossible to adhere to such a conception, 
 though it had been clearly sketched out before their 
 eyes. The veil of our common nature was upon their 
 hearts, as the veil of old prejudices was upon the 
 hearts of the Jews when the Scripture was read in 
 their hearing : "seeing, they saw not," and "hearing, 
 they heard not, neither did they understand." 
 
 g. It is another paradox, though only a corollary 
 from the preceding, that the New Testament, in thus 
 peremptorily prohibiting all attempts to protect or 
 propagate Christianity by coercion and penalties, recog- 
 nises the rights of conscience in general as sacred, 
 and consecrates the principle of toleration. It recog- 
 nises at once what Christians themselves, with the 
 book before them, too soon unlearnt, and were slow 
 to learn again, that religion, by its very nature, 
 can be propagated by nothing but argument and 
 persuasion. 
 
 Now, however various and multiform the religions 
 of the ancient world, we look in vain for such a prin- 
 
73 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 ciple of toleration as this. Gibbon eulogises, and with 
 some show of justice, the tolerance of the imperial 
 government of Rome; but it is easy to see that the 
 praise, for anything more than political wisdom, does 
 not belong to it. It never recognised, it never dreamt of 
 recognising, the true nature and claims of conscience 
 or religious liberty. Nor is it even true, that the kind 
 of toleration it at last practised, was known to it when 
 Rome was a homogeneous state and had a homogeneous 
 religion. Then, like all the rest of the world, it could 
 persecute with rigour ; it could banish from the state, 
 under severest penalties, those who presumed to inno- 
 vate in religion, and essayed to be " the setters forth 
 of strange gods ; " who either introduced new rites 
 into the old worship, or alien divinities for a new 
 worship. 1 It was not till after the Roman power had 
 absorbed into itself many nations of heterogeneous 
 race and creed, that the problem was forced upon 
 it as to how the various religions were to be treated. 
 Without attempting to solve it on any religious or 
 philosophical principles, without having any just no- 
 tions of religious liberty at all, the political instincts 
 of that great people, and the consummate administra- 
 tive sagacity which so distinguished them and so fitted 
 them for empire, suggested that the nations should 
 be left to the undisturbed enjoyment of their various 
 religious systems, and the Pantheon be open to all 
 the divinities of the earth; provided always the gods 
 
 1 See passages proving this, from Cicero, Livy, and other writers, 
 cited in Waddington's " Church History." Vol. I. pp. 110-112. 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Hitman Nature. 73 
 
 would live on terms of peace with one another, and 
 engage that their votaries would be as quiet as their 
 statues ! So long as the gods were contented, each 
 with his own belt of territory and his own peculium of 
 incense and sacrifice, and their votaries refrained from 
 troubling the imperial government, Rome was content 
 to tolerate them all. Nor is there, in all the history of 
 Rome, any greater proof of political genius than the 
 instinctive wisdom with which, abandoning early predi- 
 lections (in which she shared with all the rest of the 
 world) for religious uniformity, she restricted her aims 
 to what alone was possible ; and exacting, with all the 
 sternness of her iron rule, absolute obedience to the 
 civil government, left the many-coloured religious 
 panorama of the world just as she found it. Rome, 
 doubtless, felt that not even Rome could rule the na- 
 tions, if she attempted to reduce the religious opinions 
 of men to one, and that a foreign, standard. Nothing 
 but persuasion can change these ; and indeed it is one 
 of the proofs of the indestructible religious nature of 
 man the deep foundations in which religious senti- 
 ment is laid that it is easier to rob him of his 
 liberty than of his conscience, even though it be a 
 superstitious one; easier to despoil him of his goods 
 than of his gods, though he would so often gain by 
 the loss ; easier to enslave his body than coerce his 
 mind. In the knowledge of this, the Romans were 
 assuredly wiser than many a Christian ruler. For 
 though their toleration was only a political compromise, 
 and no true concession to the sacred claims of con- 
 
74 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECI. 
 
 science, it was a discreet expedient in the absence 
 of a toleration founded on better principles. They 
 and their subjects had at least peace, though it was 
 founded only on a truce between truth and error, 
 - both of which the theory held equally sacred. 
 But at all events they did not stultify themselves 
 (as many Christian rulers, that ought to have known 
 better, have done) in the attempt to propagate truth or 
 suppress error by force. But that Rome had no true 
 idea of religious liberty, or genuine toleration, such as 
 is claimed for it by Gibbon, appears from these {wo 
 simple facts : first, that all the gods and goddesses 
 were regarded as equally eligible to a place in the 
 Pantheon, showing that indifferentism to all religions 
 was Rome's conception of reverence for conscience, 
 and a courteous bow to every idol ex quovis ligno fit 
 Mercurius the true sign of an enlightened statesman ; 
 secondly (and it proves the point more conclusively), 
 that no sooner did the haughty mistress of the world 
 apprehend that Christianity aspired (even though with- 
 out violence) to universal dominion, would make no 
 compromise of equality, nor accept a place with the 
 rabble of the heathen deities, nor sit cheek by jowl 
 with Osiris and Jupiter in the Pantheon, than she 
 instantly began to persecute it with a zeal and vigour 
 which showed but too plainly what her notions of 
 religious liberty really were, and within what narrow 
 limits she practised it. She was prompted, in part, 
 probably, by some misconception of the nature of that 
 " universal dominion " which Christianity challenged, 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 75 
 
 or jealous that if it was obtained, whatever its nature, 
 it might endanger her own political supremacy. The 
 notion of toleration, as entertained by heathen states- 
 men, is excellently well implied in the epigrammatic 
 sentence of Gibbon, " that in the estimate of the 
 vulgar, every religion was equally true ; in that of the 
 philosopher, equally false ; in that of the statesman, 
 equally expedient; " and, therefore, as equally expedient, 
 equally worthy of being cherished, and, as far as pos- 
 sible, protected from the proselytising zeal of every 
 other. 
 
 When we reflect on the proneness of men to persecu- 
 tion, how almost universally it has been practised, how 
 late, in point of fact, men have come to the discovery 
 of its enormity, or anything approaching true liberty 
 of conscience, the peculiarity of the New Testament on 
 which I am now insisting would seem very remarkable. 
 That it does prohibit all persecution, is beyond ques- 
 tion. No one with the least particle of intelligence 
 or candour will deny that, both by precept and ex- 
 ample, by direct statement and oblique implication, 
 everything in the form of force and violence is for- 
 bidden to every disciple of Christianity in terms per- 
 fectly decisive and perspicuous. This has never been 
 disputed; and if it be rejoined that Christianity has 
 paid but little regard to the will of its Founder, and 
 has persecuted as largely as any other religion in the 
 world, I reply, as I have already done, that the more 
 true the charge, the better for the present argument. 
 It proves most conclusively that the peculiarity of the 
 
76 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 New Testament is not the natural expression of the 
 tendencies of man. It proves that so strong are his 
 impulses in the contrary direction, that in this, as in 
 many other cases, they have led him, even when he 
 has accepted Christianity, to violate the plainest laws 
 and principles of its statute book, and to act in direct 
 opposition, both to the precept and example of the ac- 
 knowledged lawgiver. Nor is it without significance 
 that when Christians in general, in blindly following 
 that nature which the New Testament contradicts, 
 had forgotten their Master's maxims on this subject, 
 the true principles of religious liberty were recovered 
 by renewed appeal to the neglected book. We stand 
 indebted for the discovery of toleration, not to philoso- 
 phers (who in general troubled themselves but little 
 about religious liberty), but to the religious men who 
 found it two centuries ago in the New Testament. 
 It was hence they drew the obsolete maxims the world 
 had forgotten. 
 
 That the New Testament should have contained 
 these maxims, is the more wonderful when we reflect 
 that it was Jews who consigned these principles to 
 us. Their own religion was severe towards all wilful 
 deviations from it ; and reasonably, if their govern- 
 ment was (as they thought, and as the Old Testament 
 professes it was) a true theocracy administered by 
 God Himself; for every deviation from it was also, 
 ipso facto, an act of high treason against their Divine 
 King. And if it did not enjoin proselytism by vio- 
 lence (as it certainly did not), yet considering the 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 77 
 
 rigorous laws against religious error among them- 
 selves, it was not very likely they would discover 
 what they would naturally have no conception of, 
 the true principles of religious liberty as applied to 
 the world outside them, and under conditions wholly 
 different from those of their own institutions. Those 
 principles are found in the books of the New Tes- 
 tament ; and I venture to think constitute another 
 anomaly in the structure and contents of that book, 
 viewed in reference both to the tendencies and practices 
 of human nature. 
 
 10. As regards the relations between Religion and 
 Political Government, I cannot help thinking there is 
 an observable contrast between the tone of the Bible 
 (different as are the Old and New Testaments in this 
 respect), and that which the founders of human systems 
 of religion have almost universally advocated. 
 
 Though the position of the Old Testament in this 
 matter would seem the very reverse of that of the New, 
 the position of both is equally opposed to that which 
 has approved itself to human judgment and practice. 
 
 In the Jewish dispensation, " Church and State " 
 were not merely allied, but incorporated ; not united, 
 but identified. I am not now arguing that it was a 
 Divine institution ; rather, as usual, I am arguing on 
 the supposition of its human origin, and considering 
 how far it bears the traces of this, as compared with 
 undoubted fabrications of man's religious handicraft. 
 
 The Jewish system of government was a genuine 
 theocracy. God was presumed to have constituted 
 
78 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 Himself monarch of the State, and hence its contrast 
 with every other form of government in the ancient 
 world. It was an anomaly. Politics were identified 
 with religion, the sacred and civil codes were essen- 
 tially one, and the priestly functions assumed a para- 
 mount importance. God was the invisible, but real 
 Sovereign. Moses himself was merely His " servant " 
 and administrator; he did not affect to be, like the 
 Grand Lama, or even the Pope, the visible repre- 
 sentative and vicegerent of God. So emphatically, 
 according to the original draft of the Jewish consti- 
 tution, was Jehovah the Monarch, that when they 
 demanded to have a "mortal" and visible king, " like 
 the nations around them," His controversy with them 
 was that they had " rejected Him from being king 
 over them ; " deposed Him, and placed an usurper on 
 His throne. " They have not," He is represented as 
 saying to the great prophet, who then administered 
 His kingdom, "rejected thee, but ME, from being their 
 king." 
 
 On the other hand, the New Testament seems to 
 assume an exactly opposite position. Not a syllable 
 is said on the subject ; not a hint is given of any 
 contemplated alliance or connection of Christianity 
 with any form of political government. On the con- 
 trary, the line of demarcation between the "kingdoms 
 of this world " and itself, as " not a kingdom of this 
 world," is seemingly most sharp and trenchant. 
 
 In saying this, I do not mean to prejudge the ques- 
 tion of the lawfulness or expediency of the union of 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 79 
 
 Christianity with the State, though I have strong 
 opinions on the subject. But to the present argument 
 it is indifferent how the question shall be decided. The 
 very long and protracted controversy on the subject 
 may perhaps be admitted to prove that the silence of 
 the New Testament does not altogether preclude doubt 
 upon it. But the silence, and apparent indifference, are 
 the features on which I lay stress, be they inter- 
 preted as they may; for we do not find them in the 
 other drafts of religion which man's ingenuity has 
 framed ; and certainly not in the Jewish, out of the 
 bosom of which Christianity immediately sprang. This 
 very fact, indeed, has had no small influence in in- 
 ducing men to argue that it must have been the design 
 of Christianity to maintain close relations with civil 
 governments. So intimate was the union in the Jewish 
 economy; so customary the alliance in o^r cases; so 
 often had the " kingly and the priestly functions " in 
 ancient times been combined in the same person; and, 
 even when those functions were severed, so general had 
 been the conviction that the alliance between them 
 ought to be of the strictest kind, that people were 
 slow to believe that anything else was possible ; or 
 that the office of legislator and magistrate could be 
 fitly exercised, unless consecrated by formal connec- 
 tion with religion. It was urged, therefore, that 
 though the New Testament was silent on the subject, 
 its silence must be supposed to " give consent" to 
 an arrangement so apparently natural, and all but 
 universal. 
 
80 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 This (as is now evinced by the general current of 
 modern speculation and policy) was a hasty inference. 
 However reasonable it may be, if God by express 
 revelation assumes the immediate government of a 
 people (as was supposed in the Jewish theocracy), 
 that " Church and State " should be incorporated, 
 it would certainly be rash to conclude, without any 
 such warrant, that it is lawful for every casual form 
 of government and polity which man's caprice or 
 ingenuity may set up, to enter into alliances equally 
 variable with those religious systems which happen 
 to have the suffrage of the government. This, the 
 theory necessarily comes to; for as each government 
 is left to choose what religion it will establish, it as 
 necessarily chooses that which it deems true ; and with 
 what results we see. If there were no other argument 
 against such a course, it would be a strong one, that 
 it must be obviously inexpedient for the interests of 
 Truth ; for as false religions are many, while the true 
 can be but one, it throws the whole weight of political 
 power and patronage into the scale of error, in the 
 ratio in which false religions are a multiple of the 
 true, which has always been, is still, and must be 
 the case. 
 
 It has, accordingly, come to be felt that the remark- 
 able silence of the New Testament, in relation to this 
 subject, is susceptible of a different interpretation ; that 
 so momentous an inference as that just mentioned 
 required a positive sanction, and that " silence " rather 
 forbade than authorised it. It also came to be felt, 
 
IT.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. SL 
 
 that as the old dispensation was generally abrogated, 
 it is but natural to infer that this feature of it, in 
 the absence of all provision for its continuance, and 
 of all sanction for any attempts to renew it, was abro- 
 gated too. Accordingly, after many ages of a con- 
 trary opinion, during which it was taken for granted 
 that the practice of the ancient world generally, and 
 the example of the Jewish polity in particular, were to 
 be imitated by the nations which embraced Christianity, 
 we see that a more cautious study of the New Testa- 
 ment, and more profound meditation on the genius 
 of the Gospel, have gradually generated a conviction, 
 which is becoming more and more widely diffused, 
 that the older theory was erroneous ; that Christianity 
 was not designed to be formally taken under State 
 patronage, or implicated with the fortunes of any 
 earthly polity ; that its sublime function was to make 
 both kings and subjects Christians, and therefore the 
 better kings and subjects, by moulding their opinions 
 and characters. So far as it did this (and it must, so far 
 as it is embraced and loved), it would be the inspiring 
 genius of a nation, without being trammelled or shamed 
 by the equivocal support of statesmen and politicians, 
 often too ignorant of its nature or too often indifferent 
 to its claims ; who, applying their maxims to a purely 
 spiritual institution, have been too apt to subordinate it 
 to their ends, or to intrigue, bribe, and even persecute 
 on its behalf. It asks no such equivocal patronage. 
 
 Like some subtile, but potent elements, which, 
 though invisible and imponderable, freely enter into 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
82 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 combination with all bodies without being identified 
 with them, Christianity aspires to permeate every 
 form of human polity without being enthralled to any. 
 This leaves her free and unshackled to pursue her work 
 of supreme beneficence, for the spiritual and immortal 
 welfare of man, in her own way and at her own 
 charges, as becomes her; depending not on revenues 
 extorted from reluctant hands, by tax or bribe or 
 menace, but on the gifts of love freely cast into her 
 treasury; in happy immunity from the bitter taunts to 
 which man's folly has so sorely exposed her that she 
 preached love, but practised theft ; laid unwilling obla- 
 tions on her altars, and counted "robbery a burnt 
 offering;" did not "take of the things of Christ and 
 give them to man," but took of the things of man and 
 gave them to Christ. As to those temporal benefits 
 which she confers, which are but the " bye-work " 
 of her beneficence, the fruits and flowers which "drop 
 from her piled-up horn of plenty," as she passes along; 
 for these, priceless as they are, she counts herself 
 sufficiently requited, if governments are wise enough 
 thankfully to accept them, and leave her alone ; dread- 
 ing nothing so much as that they should seek to make 
 that fatal return of aiding her by incongruous methods, 
 and blindly essaying to coax or cozen or force men into 
 the affectation of yielding her that merely nominal 
 homage, which to her is not only nothing worth, but 
 an insult and a wrong. 
 
 Thus do men now reason. And so extensively have 
 these and such like views prevailed, partly as I have 
 
IL] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 83 
 
 said from pondering the nature and genius of Chris- 
 tianity, and partly from a more thoughtful weighing 
 of the significance of that silence which the New Testa- 
 ment maintains on this subject, that the tendency of 
 modern thought cannot be mistaken. Everywhere a re- 
 construction of the world's old theories about " Church 
 and State " is going on. New States will not accept 
 " establishments;" young States that had, in a certain 
 degree, adopted them, are shaking them off; old States 
 are beginning to feel that they had better have been 
 without them, and that it will be wise to consider 
 how they may be got rid of; while there is hardly 
 one thoughtful man out of a thousand who can be got 
 to say more for them than this : that, as they exist, 
 it is not desirable to abolish them ; though he is often 
 ready to add, that if a man were laying the foundations 
 of a new State, he would be wise to have nothing to 
 do with them. 
 
 Now, though my sympathies are, and ever have 
 been, with modern views on this subject, it is not 
 necessary lor the present argument to express any 
 decided opinion upon it. The singularity of the New 
 Testament " silence" on the point, let the ques- 
 tion be settled how it will, remains. The mere fact, 
 visible to anybody who will read the book, is that there 
 is not one syllable on the subject ; and it is in palpable 
 contrast with all that one would have expected from 
 previous experience. The universal adoption of some 
 "Church and State" theory in ancient times; the ex- 
 ample of the Jewish polity itself, from which the new 
 
 7* 
 
84 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 religion sprang ; the quiet acquiescence in the time- 
 honoured principle, when Christianity became a great 
 power in the world, and kings were enrolled amongst 
 her converts, clearly show what is the general tendency 
 of human thought and opinion, and how little likely 
 it was to leave no trace of itself in the New Testament, 
 if human thought and opinion alone had to do with 
 its fabrication. 
 
 But even if it be contended, as many still contend, 
 that the New Testament by its silence only indicates 
 that the position of Christianity is designedly neutral 
 in this matter, and leaves the nations freely to adopt 
 or reject the practices of their ancestors as may seem 
 expedient; yet, even so, its very abstinence from any 
 utterance on the subject, considering what was the 
 constitution of the Jewish polity, what the habit of 
 the old world, as well as that of the nations who em- 
 braced Christianity, is remarkable, and is at variance 
 with the general stream of human speculation and 
 practice. 
 
 ii. Another paradoxical feature of the Scriptures, 
 of the Old Testament and the New alike, and not to 
 be expected in any religion devised by man, whether 
 we judge by the actual specimens he has left us of 
 his religious manufacture, or from the abstract prin- 
 ciples of human nature, has often been insisted upon. 
 I refer to their reticence in relation to the future and 
 invisible world. Here the Bible confines itself to the 
 vaguest and most general statements that are con- 
 sistent with its moral aims. It tells us little more 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 85 
 
 than that there will be "joy and sorrow" in that in- 
 visible world ; that such joy and sorrow will be the 
 fruit and consequence of our conduct in this, as deter- 
 mined according to the rules of that moral government 
 it discloses to us. But there are no details ; nothing 
 but what just suffices for our guidance and duty. Now 
 this abstinence is " not after the manner of men ; " for 
 the human mind instinctively yearns for light on the 
 darkness of the future world, and this yearning is 
 amply and constantly met in the religions which are 
 of undoubted human origin. Every man, indeed, on 
 reflection, can see how much more worthy of a true 
 revelation is this reticence ; how much more befitting 
 the majesty of Him " to whom secret things belong " 
 and whose " glory it is to conceal them," not to tell 
 us what is merely calculated to gratify an idle curiosity, 
 but those things only which " belong to us and to our 
 children," as' necessary for our guidance and safety. 
 But it is not a reserve to which human nature easily 
 reconciles itself. To show this, we have but to look 
 into the fables of the Greek and Roman mythologies, 
 or those of oriental nations, or of our Gothic ancestors. 
 Similarly, the pages of the Koran only too copiously 
 illustrate the same fact. But a still stronger proof 
 of this inordinate tendency of human nature, and con- 
 sequently of the contrariety of that tendency to the 
 tone of the Bible, is to be found in the additions which, 
 as human nature proceeded to corrupt Christianity, it 
 made to the disclosures of the New Testament. So 
 strong was the impulse of nature to break bounds 
 
86 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 in this matter, that the book could not keep men 
 within its own limits ; and those who professed to 
 take it as a guide, supplemented it with all sorts of 
 unauthorised revelations. In the multitudinous fables 
 of monkish superstition ; in the dreams of the school- 
 men, who with their strange faculty of reasoning with- 
 out premises, undertook to map out heaven and hell, 
 and even to describe a new province on the confines 
 of both, of which the New Testament says nothing ; 
 who adventured to give us exact descriptions of the 
 felicities of the redeemed, of the torments of the lost, 
 and of those penal fires which were to purify the 
 souls that hovered in suspense between them ; nay, 
 even in the comments of more sober and temperate 
 theologians, we see how greedily the human mind 
 revels in these speculations, and what violence the 
 writers of the New Testament (if they were, indeed, 
 simply human) must have done to its native tendencies, 
 in abstaining from \hern. Nor is it without instruction 
 to mark what is the character of these superstitious 
 additions. They consist for the most part of pretended 
 discoveries as to the physical conditions of that future 
 life; its modes and degrees of enjoyment or suffering; 
 detailed descriptions of all that can appeal to the senses 
 or the sensuous imagination. They do not tell us any- 
 thing of moral significance. In this respect, indeed, 
 they could add nothing to the disclosures of the New 
 Testament ; for these, scanty as they are on all else 
 touching the future life, are full and express on the 
 moral aspects of the subject. They tell us not only all 
 
IT.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 87 
 
 that is needful, but perhaps also all that it is possible 
 for us to know. 
 
 And this leads me to remark that, however just the 
 stress so often laid on the reticence of the New Testa- 
 ment in relation to a future state, it sheds on one spot 
 so intense an illumination, amidst the surrounding 
 darkness, as to constitute another anomaly of Chris- 
 tianity as compared with religions of confessedly human 
 origin. They are copious on the physical accessories 
 of a future life ; on these the New Testament is silent, 
 but it points, as with a sunbeam, to that which con- 
 stitutes the characteristic and essential felicity of that 
 life ; and in this is perfectly consistent with the reign- 
 ing feature which from first to last distinguishes this 
 book from every other that it subordinates every- 
 thing to the claims of God, of religion, and morality. 
 It accordingly declares that the future state, to which 
 it tells us to aspire, will consist of " new heavens 
 and a new earth," the characteristic of which is, that 
 " therein dwelleth righteousness." It leaves us to 
 conjecture, indeed, what are the secondary sources 
 of that felicity which belongs to such a world ; though 
 we may safely augur that they will be ample enough, 
 both from the instincts of our moral nature, which 
 associate virtue with well being, and the tendency 
 of virtue itself (confirmed, even by present experience) 
 to draw after her, as part of her train and retinue, the 
 best kinds of all inferior good. The metaphors, also, 
 which the New Testament employs (though, doubt- 
 less, only metaphors), and which are derived from our 
 
88 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 sources of enjoyment here, seem to foreshadow the 
 same thing. In the songs, sung to harp and lute, 
 of the celestial choirs ; in the ever-verdant trees of 
 immortal fruit (the aliment of perpetual youth), which 
 overhang "the river of life; " in the enamelled meadows 
 of perennial green, through which the ever-brimming 
 stream rolls its translucent waters ; in the paeans of 
 victory and the ideas suggested by crowns of gold and 
 wreaths of unfading amaranth, faint images are sug- 
 gested of some of the adjuncts of the felicities of the 
 celestial life of the delights which salute and wait upon 
 " the spirits of the just made perfect." But still the 
 book makes no precise promise beyond the fact that 
 man shall be immortally happy, because immutably 
 holy, there. More it may have been as impossible to 
 tell us, as to give us a conception of a sixth sense, 
 or enable us to comprehend modes of existence and 
 capacities of enjoyment absolutely transcendental to 
 all our present experience. But as to the essential 
 characteristics of all happiness that which makes the 
 " mind its own place," and enspheres heaven within 
 it, the New Testament casts on this point an intense 
 light. The felicity of that world will principally consist 
 in perfect rectitude of soul towards God and all His 
 creatures; and in that favour of the Infinite Beneficence 
 " which is life for evermore." Add that that world will 
 contain only such as are made worthy of it ; that all 
 sin, and error, and sorrow are banished thence, and 
 who would not call it heaven, even though, physically, 
 no better than earth ? 
 
IL] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 89 
 
 Let any one compare the pictures of a future life 
 given in the Koran, and he will see how prodigious 
 is the difference. Though it is admitted there, too, 
 that only virtue, such as the Koran defines it, shall 
 be admitted to heaven, it has provided such a species 
 of happiness, so voluptuous, so fondly tricked out 
 v/ith sensual delight, that it is hard to imagine that 
 virtue can mean anything very different from vice. 
 True virtue, to enjoy it, must be corrupted before it 
 enters paradise, or in some peril of being so afterwards. 
 The pleasures, most gloatingly described, are merely 
 Epicurean delights of this world intensified and multi- 
 plied. The unlimited command there of all the con- 
 comitants of an Oriental harem and banquet, make up 
 almost the sum of the heaven promised to a devout 
 follower of the Prophet. And in offering this sort of 
 heaven, as Bishop Hampden justly observes, the Koran 
 so contradicts that preliminary moral judgment by 
 which we must determine whether or not a professed 
 revelation is worthy of coming from God, that it alone 
 refutes Mahomet's claims. In a draft of a future world 
 drawn by man's pencil, the importance attached to con- 
 ditions of physical enjoyment or suffering analogous 
 to those which are found on earth, is natural ; but it 
 strongly contrasts with the supremacy given to moral 
 elements in the New Testament. 
 
 The stress laid on moral pre-requisites, not only as 
 the conditions but the chief essence of all true felicity, 
 pervades the Scriptures, and is in harmony with its 
 characteristic subordination of every thing to the 
 
90 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 claims of God and religion. It assumes that God is 
 carrying on a Moral Government of the world, pre- 
 paratory to a more perfect dispensation, wherein its 
 principles will be fully vindicated and brought to their 
 true issues. This world, therefore, is but the school 
 in which man is educating for another and a better, 
 the quarry whence the "precious stones" which 
 are to " adorn the spiritual temple " are hewn, the 
 mines whence the diamonds which are polishing for 
 the coronets worn above, are dug. We need not 
 wonder, therefore, at the emphasis which the New 
 Testament lays on this aspect of a future state, or 
 that it is almost silent on every other. Many portions 
 of our very nature, many of our appetites and passions, 
 would seem merely provisional, the transient means 
 and appliances for the formation of habits which are 
 to last for ever, and which, when they have answered 
 their purpose, perish, like the envelope which protects 
 the chrysalis or the shell of the young bird ; or if 
 they survive at all, may probably reappear in forms 
 and under conditions analogous, indeed, to the present, 
 yet so different, that we can have no present conception 
 of them. If so, it is no wonder that Scripture says 
 little or nothing of the physical accessories of a future 
 state. But if the character now formed is to be the 
 chief instrument and condition of happiness ; " if 
 heaven be now," to employ the fine image of Robert 
 Hall, " attracting to itself whatever is congenial to 
 its nature, and enriching itself with the spoils of 
 earth;" if, as Butler conjectures, it be not God's pur- 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. gi 
 
 pose to make His creatures happy, simply as creatures, 
 but only in harmony with the laws of the-ir moral 
 being, and that it is a fond imagination of ours that 
 Beneficent Omnipotence has the former for its sole 
 object; if (to use his words) it "be His design only to 
 make the virtuous man happy" and, indeed, it seems 
 something like a contradiction in terms to suppose 
 that even God Himself can make any other man so 
 then the supreme importance which the New Testa- 
 ment attaches to this subject, the intense light which 
 it throws on this central point of its disclosures with 
 regard to a future state, while it leaves the surround- 
 ing topics and the whole scenery of the heavenly 
 world in darkness, is intelligible, and worthy of a true 
 revelation. But it is not " after the manner of men ;" 
 and this peculiarity of the New Testament, as com- 
 pared with drafts of the future state given by religious 
 systems of human origin, needs and demands an ex- 
 planation. 
 
 12. The last point I would urge is the difficulty 
 of imagining how human nature should spontaneously 
 have given such a picture of itself as we find in the 
 dogmatic statements of the Bible. There every soul 
 of man is charged with a total failure in the primary 
 and cardinal obligations of a rational and moral nature, 
 those we owe to GOD ; as also, though not to the 
 same extent nor in equal degree in all cases, with a 
 failure in the duties we owe to one another. The 
 indictment in the former case is of the most abso- 
 lute and comprehensive character. "God looked down 
 
g 2 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 from heaven upon the children of men, to see if any 
 did understand and seek God. They are altogether 
 gone astray ; they are altogether become polluted ; 
 there is none that doeth good, no, not one." They 
 are described as universally and by nature opposed to 
 God, and alienated from Him, and therefore also as 
 exposed "to His wrath." These are not the colours, 
 I think, which human nature would spontaneously 
 employ in painting itself; still less could we reason- 
 ably expect such a picture from many different authors 
 in the same book. 
 
 It may be very true that interpreters have erred 
 in supposing that the language of Scripture which 
 asserts the " depravity of human nature " in rela- 
 tion to God, is equally applicable to man in his entire 
 moral and social capacity, as if no good of any 
 kind remained in him, or was to be expected from 
 him. This extreme view appears sufficiently refuted 
 (if there were no other argument) by the words of 
 Christ, in which, while declaring our nature to be 
 " evil," He still implies that man knows very well 
 how to do some things " that are good." "If ye 
 then, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto 
 your children, how much more shall your heavenly 
 Father give good things to them that ask Him ? " 
 There are actions of human nature which we cannot, 
 without absurdity, deny to be "good;"- - actions 
 prompted by benevolence and compassion; by generous 
 and self-sacrificing patriotism ; by the self-forgetting 
 abandon of parental or filial love ; by incorruptible 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 93 
 
 honesty and truthfulness in the dealings between man 
 and man. It is true, indeed, that these will want that 
 quality which can alone crown them, if not radicated 
 in religious principle, or if performed without a thought 
 of God, and must assuredly be utterly without avail 
 as a compensation for failure in the yet higher moral 
 claims which the Creator rightfully makes upon us. 
 Still they are beautiful, and claim our admiration 
 accordingly ; nor is there any ground for the exag- 
 gerations of theologians on this subject. The Scripture 
 representations of man in his ordinary moral relations 
 with his fellow-men are, soberly interpreted, dark 
 enough, and only too well justified by the history 
 of the world. Its crimes, and consequent miseries ; 
 its wars and oppressions ; its vices and selfishness, 
 too surely show that there is something very wrong 
 in human nature. But, in truth, the better a man is 
 affirmed to be in his social capacity, the better he 
 knows what is morally right and fair, and the better 
 he acts it in his relations to his fellow-men, the heavier 
 is that indictment which the Bible brings against him 
 of being disloyal to God. For would it not aggravate 
 that charge, if God could say with truth to any one 
 of us, " You have known how to fulfil every relation 
 in life, except to Me. You were a good son you 
 knew how to ' reverence and obey ' your parents ; you 
 were a good father you knew ' how to give good gifts 
 unto your children ; ' you were a good neighbour, and 
 shared your bread with the hungry ; you were a just 
 master, and ' never robbed the hireling of his wages ;' 
 
94 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECF. 
 
 you were just, 'and coveted no man's silver and gold;' 
 but ME, the Author of your being, who ' breathed into 
 you the breath of life,' who bestowed upon you all the 
 faculties you possess and all the blessings you enjoy, 
 by whose bounty you have been fed, by whose mercy 
 you have been spared, ME you have not thought of; 
 or if a thought has obtruded itself, it has been un- 
 welcome to you; you have offered Me neither gratitude 
 nor obedience ; you have not sought to please Me, or 
 shrunk from offending Me ; never asked My counsel 
 or sanction in any plan of yours, and have' lived as 
 though I were not." Would it be any extenuation of 
 man's guilt that he knew so exactly how to comply 
 with the requisitions of the Second Table, while he 
 so egregiously failed in those of the First ? Now 
 this great and universal apostacy the Bible charges, 
 in the most direct and unsparing manner, on the 
 whole human race. 
 
 If the charge be true, if the " natural man " be thus 
 universally oblivious of God, if he does " not like to 
 retain " his Creator and Benefactor " in his thoughts," 
 it is a charge against him of a far baser ingratitude 
 than he could possibly be guilty of towards his neigh- 
 bour, and a far more insolent disobedience than he 
 could ever display towards any earthly superior. Now, 
 considering how unwilling human nature is to suspect, 
 and much more proclaim, its own baseness; how easily 
 it deceives itself into a good opinion of itself; above all, 
 how quietly it takes the thought of this very indictment, 
 and how much more loudly it resents any charge of 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nat^ire. 95 
 
 baseness towards man than of any amount of delin- 
 quency towards .God, I doubt whether it would spon- 
 taneously paint itself in the dark colours of the Bible. 
 If it could not " wash the Ethiop white," it would at 
 least not intensify the dye. 
 
 If it be said as indeed the very repulsiveness of the 
 Bible declarations has made many say that the pic- 
 ture seems grossly overcharged ; that the estimate of 
 man's moral delinquency is exaggerated; I must leave 
 it to each man, looking at the history of the world in 
 relation to God, and the voice of his own conscious- 
 ness, to judge of that. But if the Bible thus appears 
 to be a libel on human nature, it strengthens my 
 present argument. It certainly is a paradox that a 
 draft of human nature, which seems greatly to wrong 
 itself, should be persistently given in a book written 
 by so many different men, in such distant ages, and 
 in the teeth of all natural prepossessions of egotism 
 and vanity. 
 
 Similar remarks apply to the doctrines by which the 
 Bible proposes to remedy the evils under which our 
 nature labours. The whole process by which man is 
 to obtain forgiveness and restoration is a process 
 of humiliation. He is to cast himself, without one 
 attempt at justification or extenuation, upon " the 
 mercy of God in Christ Jesus ; " assured, that if he 
 does so, he will be accepted ; and from that lowest, 
 but needful stage of " self-abasement," be enabled 
 to climb the whole arduous ascent between sin and 
 holiness, earth and heaven. I doubt much whether 
 
g6 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 a plan so unflattering to man's self-righteousness, and 
 so deeply offensive to his pride and vanity, would 
 have been devised by himself. 
 
 In truth, I believe there never was a religious sys- 
 tem, especially when conjoined with the self-denial 
 it exacts and the austere heaven it promises, which 
 has been on the whole more distasteful to the intellect 
 and heart of man ; and accordingly it has met with 
 a more general and bitter opposition among men than 
 any other. 
 
 If it be affirmed, as sometimes it has been, that 
 Christianity must have a subtle adaptation to the 
 condition of human nature, to account even for that 
 degree of welcome and that emphatic admiration it 
 has met with, so that its main peculiarities of doc- 
 trine have been mentioned as indicative of a deep 
 knowledge of that nature, of its moral necessities 
 and remedies, in those who proclaimed them, all this 
 is quite true too. It is adapted to human nature, 
 as a bitter medicine may be to a patient ; and the 
 question is, would human nature have prescribed it ? 
 Those who have taken it, tried its efficacy, and re- 
 covered spiritual health, gladly proclaim its value. 
 But to those who have not, and who will not try it, it 
 is an unpalatable potion still. Moreover, the myriads 
 who have experimented upon it, and now see its adap- 
 tation to the moral wants, guilt, and weaknesses of 
 human nature, have with one voice proclaimed that, 
 before taey tried it, it was to them, as to the rest of 
 the world, an " offence " alike to intellect and heart, 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 97 
 
 as also the book itself expressly declares it would be. 
 "The gospel," said Paul, " is to the Jews a stumbling- 
 block, and to the Greeks foolishness." 
 
 The mere character of the doctrines of the Gospel 
 so remote on the whole from the ordinary track of 
 human speculation (whatever faint analogies may be 
 found with other systems), forms no slight argument 
 that man would not have been likely to conceive them ; 
 and the Jew, to whom they have ever been as gall 
 and wormwood, as little as any. But the indictment 
 against human nature, the unflattering portrait that 
 is everywhere given of it, it is still more difficult to 
 ascribe to human nature itself. Nay, more; if the 
 Bible be of purely human origin, we must not only 
 imagine men spontaneously giving expression to a 
 religious system in which themselves and all mankind 
 are painted in the most odious colours, but telling 
 the world at the same time that they know the 
 portrait will be an " offence " and a " scandal " tc 
 it, and encouraging all who receive it to expect 
 " tribulation " for so doing ! Is this " after the manner 
 of men " ? 
 
 Quite as extraordinary is the tone in which the 
 " depravity" of man in his relation to God is asserted. 
 It is in no cynical, no satirical spirit ; there is nothing 
 akin to misanthropy in it. This last is always bitter 
 enough ; for it is itself the mere expression of a vin- 
 dictive memory of the real or presumed injuries by 
 which wounded vanity or self-esteem, or perhaps some 
 better qualities, have been shocked ; and hence its 
 
 8 
 
98 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 morbid view of human nature in general. Misanthropy 
 thinks simply of man, and his relation to his fellows. 
 Of that great moral lesion of his nature with which 
 the Bible deals of God's controversy with him it has 
 not a word to say. It is too human for that. In all 
 philosophy and fiction, in the maxims of a Roche- 
 foucauld, in the speeches of a Timon, there is not a 
 word that indicates the faintest conception that it is 
 man's relation to God that chiefly determines the 
 question of his moral worthlessness or worth. 
 
 On the other hand, the writers of the Bible, in 
 their tremendous impeachment of human nature, 
 seem not to think as men at all. They speak in 
 accordance with what I have represented as the 
 character of the Bible, on behalf of God. They are 
 simply witnesses for Him. There is not a shadow 
 of petulance or malice or resentment in their utter- 
 ances ; and yet if any men ever had cause for resent- 
 ment, surely they had. The most uncompromising 
 charges of man's religious apostacy are made with 
 judicial calmness and composure, mingled, indeed, 
 with a deep compassion for those whom they thus 
 arraign, and with urgent entreaties to "flee from 
 the wrath to come ; " but there is nothing of human 
 passion, or pique, or waywardness, or moroseness, 
 discernible about it. On the contrary, it is most 
 evident that they thus arraign human nature, and 
 point out the evils under which it groans, only with 
 the conviction that the detection of the malady is 
 essential to the cure, and with the hope of effecting 
 
ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 99 
 
 it. The matter and the tone of the sacred writers on 
 these subjects are unparalleled in all other litera- 
 ture. 1 
 
 Lastly, a general presumption that the religion of 
 the Bible sprang from some other source than that 
 which gave birth to the religions which are incon- 
 trovertibly of human growth, may be further gathered 
 from this, that when man proceeded, as he has so 
 often done, to modify or corrupt that religion, it has 
 always been in the direction, and " after the simili- 
 tude," of those religious systems which have his own 
 signature upon them; till at last Judaism under the 
 Jews, and Christianity under the Christians, were so 
 far assimilated to the religions man had incontestably 
 invented, that it has not always been easy to discern 
 the difference. Thus human nature has borne signi- 
 ficant testimony, both to the alien nature of that which 
 it has so obstinately bent to its purpose, and to its 
 own original and native propensions. 
 
 The process by which the Jews reduced the religion 
 of the Old Testament to that condition in which 
 Christ Himself declared that they had " made the 
 law of God of none effect by their traditions," was 
 much the same with the process by which Christians 
 slowly, but surely, engrafted upon Christianity abuses 
 which at last offended men like Erasmus almost as 
 
 1 Chalmers has well illustrated this peculiar tone of the sacred 
 writers in his work on the "Evidences." Collected works. Vol. II. 
 Book III. chap. ii. pp. 118-120. 
 
 8* 
 
VYI I nurvnivn i 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF REDLANDS LIBRARY 
 
 100 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 much as men like Luther ; and in either case the 
 deflection was in the same direction, for human nature 
 was true to itself. Whately, in his admirable work on 
 the " Errors of Romanism," justly objects to speak of 
 them as if they were exclusively those of the Church 
 of Rome. For similar reasons, I would not speak 
 either of Jewish or Romanist errors, as if they were 
 exclusively chargeable on some particular races or 
 classes of men. It is not so ; they are the errors of 
 human nature, and might be reproduced, in various 
 forms and degrees, in any age and by any men. From 
 tendencies characteristic of that nature, have all the 
 evils in question come. 
 
 That the corruptions and abuses, of which no 
 candid Jew or Romanist will deny their fathers to 
 have been guilty, were of a nature which tended to 
 assimilate Judaism and Christianity more and more 
 to the current religions which had extensively pre- 
 vailed in the world, and whose origin was distinctly 
 human, is evident on the slightest inspection. The 
 Jews for ages, even down to the Captivity, were per- 
 petually falling into the idolatries of the surrounding 
 nations, though they were so severely scourged for it ; 
 and that great lapse was accompanied, as might be 
 expected, with manifold corresponding corruptions in 
 their entire institute. As for the New Testament, it 
 might at first sight seem, to a candid and intelligent 
 reader, incredible that any similar degradation could 
 take place in the religion it taught ; a religion marked 
 by the purest morality, by the most simple ritual; a 
 
V , , 
 
 ii.] Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 101 
 
 religion which seemed to give so little handle by which 
 corruption could lay hold of it ; which made so little 
 appeal to the senses, had no esoteric mysteries, came 
 out into the light, disclaimed all force, exulted in 
 spiritual freedom. Any man might rationally have 
 doubted whether it could have been converted into 
 that system which immediately preceded the Refor- 
 mation, and in which all these characteristics were 
 reversed; in which hierarchical pomp, sacerdotal pre- 
 tensions, a meretricious splendour of worship, were 
 prominent characteristics ; in which a huge wild 
 growth of superstition had overshadowed and blighted 
 alike simple doctrine and pure morality ; in which 
 the moral code was so relaxed that its proper claims 
 were too often commuted for penance, or even pence; 
 in which (as if to hide the transformation) the very 
 statute book of the religion was, in a great degree, 
 suppressed, or kept in the hands of the priesthood; the 
 service mumbled in an unknown tongue ; ignorance 
 hailed as the " mother of devotion;" and all resistance 
 to the spiritual tyranny thus erected, met through- 
 out Europe with the most ruthless resort to fire and 
 steel ! Was it possible, one is ready to ask, that 
 human nature could transform primitive Christianity 
 into that ? The thing was possible, for it was done ; 
 but it could have been done only because the tenden- 
 cies of human nature, so far from being likely to 
 originate the religion of the New Testament, vehe- 
 mently reacted against it. All that man did, when 
 he took it in hand, was to spoil it. Illustrations of 
 
IO2 Certain Traits of the Bible [LECT. 
 
 this have been given in this and the preceding lec- 
 ture, when dealing with special instances of apparent 
 contrariety between the Bible and human nature ; 
 as for example, when speaking of its morality, which 
 man has ever made more accommodating ; and its 
 scanty revelations of a future state, which he has so 
 voluminously supplemented. But in point of fact 
 the same spirit is seen through the whole series of 
 changes. All are in one direction. Man loved a 
 gorgeous ritual, and the simplicity of the Christian 
 worship was soon enveloped in a glittering cloud of 
 ceremonies. He was addicted to idolatry, and he was 
 taught that there were a thousand tutelary saints and 
 angels to whom he might legitimately offer various 
 species of adoration. He was prone to "self-righteous- 
 ness," and he was told that austerities and penances, 
 and even money, were efficacious supplements of a 
 defective repentance and obedience. His pride often 
 aspired to superhuman merit rather than content 
 itself with plain Christian obedience, and he learned 
 to attach an artificial sanctity to celibacy, to mo- 
 nastic seclusion, and to the cell and roots of the 
 anchorite, Christianity had no priest except the one 
 invisible High Priest, " passed into the heavens ; " 
 but man's weak heart had been accustomed to the 
 solace of many, and he soon inaugurated an order of 
 priests with more than the prerogatives of the heathen 
 priesthood, and more than its sacerdotal pretensions. 
 Christianity had no " sacrifices," except the " one 
 offering " of the invisible High Priest ; but as man had 
 
ii. J Viewed in relation to Human Nature. 103 
 
 made "priests," so they must "needs have somewhat to 
 offer," and that somewhat was no less than a sacrifice 
 perpetually renewed by a stupendous miracle. And, 
 finally, to all this, human nature gave its consent, for 
 it loves to lay responsibility on other shoulders than 
 its own; and leaning credulously on the priest, fully 
 divided with him the infamy and guilt of "priestcraft." 
 " Populus vult decipi" is but a prelude and invitation 
 to the priest's "decipictur" and to a great extent an 
 apology for it. 1 
 
 In conclusion, if human nature gradually constructed 
 the system of religion which overshadowed Europe 
 just before the Reformation, out of the New Testa- 
 ment (as it undoubtedly did), it is to me a strong 
 presumption that that same human nature, which 
 showed its genuine proclivities in so long a course 
 and on so great a scale, was not the sole or legitimate 
 author of the New Testament itself. 
 
 * Whately, in his " Errors of Romanism," makes candid, but 
 
 just admission of this. Pp. 89-95. London, 1845. 
 
LECTURE III. 
 
 ARGUMENTS ANCILLARY TO THE SAME 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
LECTURE III. 
 
 ANCILLARY ARGUMENTS, DRAWN FROM CERTAIN TRAITS 
 OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, AS CONTRASTED WITH 
 WHAT MIGHT BE EXPECTED FROM THE ANTE- 
 CEDENTS OF THE WRITERS. 
 
 are certain peculiarities in the teaching 
 * and conduct of the writers of the New Testa- 
 ment (and it would be easy to select like topics from 
 the Old) which are ancillary to the same conclusion. 
 Considering the condition and antecedents of the 
 founders of Christianity, and that, on the points to 
 which I am about to refer, philosophers and religionists, 
 in their attempt to reform human error, have very 
 generally gone astray ; it is not easy to see how the 
 suggestions of mere human sagacity kept ignorant men 
 like the apostles in the right path, when it is so 
 difficult even for the wise to find it. 
 
 The first point I would mention is the decision with 
 which the principle is asserted, that conscientiously 
 to reduce to practice what we already know, and so far 
 as we know it, is the surest method of advancing in 
 the knowledge of Divine truth. " To do the will of 
 God," is in the New Testament the great source of 
 further illumination. It rests indeed on a very general 
 
io8 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 principle of our nature which applies to all things 
 that are practical ; and therefore to religion which, if 
 not practical, is nothing. 
 
 It did not escape the penetration of Aristotle any 
 more than that of Butler, 1 that we are so constituted, 
 that the only effectual way of learning things of a 
 practical nature, is to work them into the soul by habit, 
 and to give them expression in the life. The great 
 exponent of this principle, as applied to religion, is our 
 Lord Himself, who expressly proclaims it in the words, 
 " He that doeth the will of God shall know of the 
 doctrine whether it be of God." This is the true " Via 
 Intelligentiae," "The way of understanding," as Jeremy 
 Taylor calls it in his celebrated sermon on the text. 
 That text, indeed, does not mean, " Blindly accept 
 whatever you are told, on human authority, is the 
 
 1 " It is well said, therefore, that the just man becomes so by 
 doing what is just, and the temperate by doing what is temperate. 
 But many there are who do not practise these things, but betaking 
 themselves to talking about them (STTI & rbv Xdyov /cara^ei/yovree), 
 imagine they are philosophizing, and that in that way they will 
 be duly affected by them (KUI OVTUQ taeaOai aTrovcaioi) ; doing some- 
 thing like what the sick do when they listen diligently to their 
 physicians and follow none of their prescriptions. As therefore 
 these do not get health of body by that sort of therapeutics, 
 neither do those health of soul by such sort of philosophy." 
 Aristotle, Eth. II. iv. 
 
 Butler, with yet deeper philosophy, proceeds one step further. 
 " Going over the theory of virtue," says he, " in one's thoughts, 
 talking well, and drawing fine pictures of it ; this is so far from 
 necessarily or certainly conducing to form a habit of it in him 
 who thus employs himself, that it may harden the mind in a 
 contrary course, and render it gradually more insensible ; that is, 
 form a habit of insensibility to all moral considerations. For, from 
 our very faculty of habits, passive impressions by being repeated 
 grow weaker." Analogy. Part I. chap. v. 
 
in. to the same Conclusion. 109 
 
 will of God, and act upon it." Neither does it say, 
 " If you are doubtful whether or not a doctrine is of 
 God, nevertheless act upon it ; that is the way to 
 know of the doctrine whether it be of God:" for that 
 would imply a contradiction, telling us to do the will 
 of God without any presumed knowledge of that will. 
 But it plainly means what it says that if we do what 
 is the will of God, we shall in that way best learn 
 the doctrine whether it be of God ; that is, come to 
 a clear perception and plenary conviction of its Divine 
 origin. 1 
 
 Religious knowledge, then, being practical, can be 
 made effectual by no mere intellectual assent or con- 
 viction, but must be wrought into the very tissues 
 of our moral and spiritual life ; just as food can 
 nourish us only as it is actually assimilated into our 
 flesh and blood. Practical truth thus becomes our 
 own in a sense in which no mere theoretical truth 
 ever can be ; and a soul, thus cognisant of it, is in a 
 position to attain higher and higher degrees of it. 
 
 Nor is it difficult to see that the prescribed method 
 naturally tends to produce .this result. It does for the 
 soul what the " rectification " of his instruments does 
 
 1 It is true that the rule to each individual man must be his own 
 conscientious conviction, after diligent use of such means of illumi- 
 nation as are in his power, as to what is the will of God. But even 
 so, it is the right rule. For this faithful listening to conscience, 
 after diligent examination, is at any rate the will of God ; and if 
 conscience be sincere and diligent, will rarely lead men astray. 
 At all events, it is the only possible rule, and for the reasons 
 assigned in the context, the one best calculated to clarify the mind 
 and prepare it for further truth. 
 
no Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 for the astronomer. As that is necessary for the just 
 observation of sun or star, so is this docile disposition 
 necessary to place the soul in a right posture in re- 
 ference to the great source of spiritual illumination. 
 It lays the axe at the root of all prejudices and sinister 
 aims, and necessarily implies that simplicity and can- 
 dour, the lack of which it is that chiefly obstructs our 
 mental vision. 
 
 I know that Christianity tells us (and I believe with 
 perfect truth) that He who made this docility the con- 
 dition of our progress, directly rewards it by express 
 donation of increased light from Himself. But I do 
 not, of course, urge this, because it would be to assume 
 the truth of the claims of the New Testament. I 
 simply remark that it was in a spirit of deep knowledge 
 of the necessary conditions of spiritual and moral illu- 
 mination, that it thus insists on the diligent " doing 
 of the will of God," as the condition of all advance in 
 the knowledge of Divine truth; just as he alone can 
 truly discern the excellence and beauty of integrity and 
 virtue who becomes acquainted with them by practice. 
 Nor, even if it be supposed that the initial knowledge 
 of the will of God, on the part of a genuinely sincere 
 disciple, is still mixed with remaining error, is the rule 
 less philosophically just. For the dispositions it enjoins 
 and cherishes put us in the most likely way to defecate 
 the mind from mistake and illusion; just as in ordinary 
 practical matters, candour and docility, when we come 
 to test knowledge by experience, will usually soon show 
 where a misleading fallacy lies. 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. in 
 
 2. A second point, in which the teaching of the 
 New Testament alike transcends the antecedents of 
 the writers, and the then prevailing impressions of the 
 value of orthodoxy per se and the efficacy of rite and 
 ceremony, is akin to the preceding : I mean the decision 
 with which the writers insist that no religious know- 
 ledge is worth anything at all if it be not reduced to 
 practice. If they insist on the vital importance ofr-v 
 faith, it is impossible not to see that it is as a " motive 
 power," as the informing spirit of action, that they 
 so commend it. 
 
 " Faith without works is dead," says St. James. 
 It is, says St. Paul: for "though I had all faith so 
 that I could remove mountains, without charity I am 
 as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal." " Can faith 
 save ? " says St. James. Yes, says St. Paul, but it 
 must be a " faith working by love," unfeigned Jove 
 to God and man. And all this is but the echo of the 
 same doctrine which is found in the Old Testament. 
 " To man, God saith, The fear of the Lord, that is 
 wisdom, and to depart from evil is understanding ; " 
 to which it were easy to add a score of like passages. 
 
 Now when we consider how very generally this great 
 truth is forgotten by men of all religions, and too often 
 by Christians themselves, who have been often taunted 
 (and have not seldom given just grounds for the taunt) 
 that they pay more attention to " faith " than to 
 "works," to a creed than a life, and plume themselves 
 on that dead orthodoxy which resembles true faith 
 about as much as a mummy a living man ; it is not 
 
112 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 a little remarkable that the New Testament should 
 have been so perspicuous and decisive on a point on 
 which Jew and Gentile generally went astray, and in 
 which Christians themselves, yielding to those ten- 
 dencies of human nature by which they at last as- 
 similated their religion to that of the heathen, too 
 often followed their example. The heathen priesthood 
 (as elsewhere said 1 ) were generally contented to aban- 
 don the field of practical morality altogether ; and 
 without much caring even about an orthodox faith, 
 reduced religion to a thing of rite and ceremonial, in 
 which the Christian Church, in a few centuries, too 
 faithfully imitated them. 
 
 3. A third point, I think, worthy of attention, is the 
 noble freedom from minute casuistry which charac- 
 terises the writings of the New Testament, and the 
 astonishing wisdom and moderation with which such 
 questions, when they must be confronted, are discussed. 
 Of the first, there is not only abundant proof in the very 
 general form in which the moral precepts of the New 
 Testament are given, frankly relying on the common 
 sense and candour of the reader to interpret and apply 
 them aright; but it is conceded even in the objections 
 which adverse critics have made to that very generality. 
 
 i Ante. Pp. 22, 23. 
 
 " But the religion of the heathen, as was before observed, little 
 concerned itself in their morals. The priests that delivered the 
 oracles of heaven, and pretended to speak from the gods, spoke 
 little of virtue and a good life. And, on the other side, the philo- 
 sophers, who spoke from reason, made not much mention of the 
 Deity in their ethics." Locke's " Reasonableness of Christianity." 
 Works. Vol. VI., p. 144. London, 1824. 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 113 
 
 The New Testament, it has been affirmed, often lays 
 down rules so vague as to be practically no rules at 
 all. Few, I think, will acquiesce in this judgment. 
 On the other hand, the objection is fairly met by a 
 reductio ad absurdum; for to specify all the specialities 
 of circumstance which must modify and limit any 
 moral precept, would be to ask a moral teacher to per- 
 form an impossibility, and has never been exacted of 
 any. Even the precepts, " Love your enemies," "Love 
 all men" "Do to others as ye would that others 
 should do to you," may be met by many seeming and 
 some real limitations. But they are safe rules enough 
 for any honest man who sincerely wishes to act upon 
 them ; and so in other cases. The precepts of Christ 
 and His apostles are all of this general nature embody- 
 ing principles of which common sense, if it be but 
 conjoined with candour, can easily see the propriety, 
 and leaving it to that same common sense and right 
 feeling to determine the application. Sometimes, in- 
 deed, Christ does not hesitate, in order to give greater 
 point and force to His maxims, to embody them in 
 forms which look paradoxical ; as where He enjoins 
 us, when " smitten on the one cheek, to turn the other 
 also ; " or to " pluck out even a right eye," if it is 
 the cause of " offence " to us. The former command, 
 a captious critic would tell us, is a little too much for 
 the world, or even for the Christian. But until he 
 consistently interprets the latter, and many other such 
 expressions, with the same extravagant literality, it 
 would be but fair to apply the more rational interpre- 
 ts 
 
114 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 tation to both ; and to say that we have in the first a 
 rhetorical expression of the spirit which Christ would 
 inculcate on His disciples, and which ought to animate 
 them, even when suffering most wrongfully. 
 
 But, at all events, the moral elements of the New 
 Testament are notably free from those minute, no doubt 
 often difficult, but as often frivolous discussions, which 
 so many casuists have taxed all their ingenuity to 
 multiply, and by which they have made their books 
 as much the laughing-stock, as the oracles, of the 
 world. Anxious to anticipate every conceivable assem- 
 blage of circumstances which may modify moral 
 precepts, casuistry aims at a scientific completeness 
 which is unattainable, for a thousand folios would not 
 be sufficient for it. And, in general, it may be said 
 that the more minute it is, the more pretentiously 
 exhaustive, so much the more thorny, litigious, frivo- 
 lous, and, in a moral sense, pernicious, it becomes. All 
 this is but too notoriously exemplified in the volumi- 
 nous collections of "cases" and " judgments" which 
 make up the more ponderous systems of Christian 
 casuistry ; the questions, in the immense preponder- 
 ance of instances, being either such as an upright 
 heart and an honest conscience will intuitively decide 
 from the general precepts ; or such as, if they really 
 justify doubt and involve difficulty, had far better be 
 left to be argued and determined as the exigencies of 
 practical life give rise to them, than formed into 
 a system; which, in order to make it complete, tempts 
 men to raise ten thousand imaginary questions that 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 115 
 
 would never require to be decided in practice, and 
 which only tend to wiredraw the judgment, and not 
 seldom ensnare, or even pollute, the conscience both 
 of those who ask and of those who decide them. 
 
 But while there is in the New Testament a remark- 
 able freedom from all those minute and supersubtile 
 questions which make the staple of casuistry, yet when 
 such questions (for, as just intimated, they will occur 
 in actual life) incidentally present themselves, it is 
 impossible not to be struck with the singular prudence 
 and moderation with which they are treated. We 
 have several examples in the Gospels, and others in 
 the Epistles. The Jews, indeed, like all who have 
 perverted a moral institute into a copious system of 
 casuistry, had well-nigh evacuated the moral element 
 of their law altogether ; and Christ in the most tren- 
 chant manner explodes and ridicules that sophistry, 
 equally captious and wicked, which had led to this 
 result. Under pretence of giving to the " treasury of 
 God," some of them would fain, in certain cases, 
 evade the obligations of filial affection; by the frivo- 
 lous distinction between the " temple and the altar," 
 or 1 " between the altar and the oblation laid upon it," 
 they would absolve themselves from the obligations of 
 an oath ; and by straining the law of the Sabbath in a 
 thousand absurd ways, they converted into an intoler- 
 able yoke what was intended to be a merciful rest and 
 solace to the "weary and heavy laden." He might 
 well say of the first, " Ye make the law of God of 
 none effect by your traditions ; " of the second, " Ye 
 
 9 * 
 
n6 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 fools and blind, for whether is greater, the altar or 
 the temple? the altar or the oblation?" and of the 
 third, "The Sabbath was made for man, and not man 
 for the Sabbath;" " God will have mercy and not sacri- 
 fice ; " and, " Had ye known what this meaneth, ye 
 would not have condemned the guiltless." Again, His 
 answer to those who sought to inveigle Him into 
 dangerous collision with the civil government, by 
 asking, "Whether it was lawful to give tribute to 
 Cajsar or not" (though blamed by some critics for 
 reasons to me utterly incomprehensible), has been 
 generally considered, as it seems to have been by 
 those who put the invidious question, a masterpiece 
 of that prudence which combines the " wisdom of 
 the serpent with the innocence of the dove." 
 
 All these matters are decided on the broadest prin- 
 ciples, in marked contrast with the mode of casuists 
 in general, and especially of the Jewish casuists of 
 that age. 1 
 
 The same spirit rules in the Acts and Epistles. In 
 
 1 It is the same with the Old Testament. "What doth God 
 require of thee," says the prophet, " but to do justly, to love mercy, 
 and to walk humbly with thy God ? " Throughout the book there 
 is no countenance given to those refinements of casuistry which 
 ever mark the decadence of a moral system. Nay, it is curious 
 to see that while the Jews were continually degrading their own 
 institute, and gradually piling up those traditions by which Christ 
 expressly says " they had made void the law of God," the succes- 
 sive prophets not only show no sympathy with them (or rather 
 the most marked antipathy), and not only perpetually recal them 
 to that spirit of the law which they were sacrificing to the letter, 
 but continually give their code a higher and higher spirituality, 
 and make the claims of the moral over the ceremonial law more 
 and more emphatic. 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 117 
 
 these are discussed some questions of great difficulty, 
 which would have provoked whole chapters of ingenious 
 wiredrawing in the tomes of the Escobars and Baunys 
 of a later age ; questions which arose out of the novel 
 circumstances in which Christian maxims and institu- 
 tions had placed the world. In the treatment of these 
 questions it is impossible, I think, to deny the just- 
 ness of thinking and consummate prudence which the 
 Christian teachers evince. 
 
 We see this conspicuously in the management of 
 that vehement dispute which arose so early at Antioch 
 between the Jewish converts who were still attached 
 to Judaism, and could not reconcile themselves to its 
 summary abolition, and the Gentile converts, who 
 could not consent " to bind that heavy yoke " on 
 their shoulders. The question was referred to a coun- 
 cil of the Apostles, Elders, and Church generally, at 
 Jerusalem. Though almost all the members, certainly 
 all the principal, were Jewish Christians, yet in what 
 a modest and gentle temper, in how conciliatory a 
 spirit, on what reasonable terms, is the question dis- 
 cussed and decided! One cannot find a trace in this 
 Council of that blind bigotry which has so often 
 made subsequent ecclesiastical assemblies, and pro- 
 fessedly Christian Governments, when dealing with 
 ecclesiastical matters, so obstinate and intractable. If 
 it be reckoned (though with some latitude) the first of 
 the long series of " Ecclesiastical Councils," there is 
 hardly one in all Labbe's huge folios of subsequent 
 " Concilia " on which a Christian can look with such 
 
n8 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 unmingled satisfaction. Whence came these rude 
 men, in the starkness of their ignorance and inex- 
 perience, in the infancy of their institutions, them- 
 selves only just escaped from life-long bondage to a 
 system of most opposite characteristics, to be thus 
 superior to prejudice, and so prudent in their conduct 
 as compared with all their successors, who yet had 
 their light to walk by, and shut their eyes to it ? 
 
 Similar observations apply to the several cases of 
 casuistry which Paul had to decide. His judgments 
 are singularly marked by robust good sense, modera- 
 tion, and charity. Take the case of the convert, for 
 example, whose lapse from Christian morality had 
 brought scandal on the Church of Corinth. While the 
 apostle uncompromisingly demands his expulsion, 
 he none the less welcomes him back the moment he 
 exhibits genuine repentance ; and with exquisite pathos 
 enjoins his fellow-Christians to assure the returning 
 wanderer of their forgiveness, and to " comfort him, 
 lest he be swallowed up of over-much sorrow." J What 
 
 1 Most exquisitely has Milton touched this trait of the evangelical 
 discipline in the wonderful descriptions of the true office of ex- 
 communication, given in his " Tracts on Church Government " 
 and "On Reformation :" 
 
 "It may be truly said, that as the mercies of wicked men are 
 cruelties, so the cruelties of the Church are mercies. For if re- 
 pentance sent from heaven meet this lost wanderer, and draw him 
 out of that steep journey, wherein he was hasting towards destruc- 
 tion, to come and reconcile himself to the Church ; if he bring 
 with him his bill of health, and that he is now clear of infec- 
 tion, and of no danger to the other sheep ; then with incredible 
 expressions of joy all his brethren receive him, and set before him 
 those perfumed banquets of Christian consolation, with precious 
 ointments bathing and fomenting the old, and now to be forgotten 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. ng 
 
 an entire absence is here of that austerity and spiritual 
 prudery which soon after characterized Christian 
 Fathers and Churches, and which proclaimed that one 
 lapse into flagrant sin was an irrecoverable error, and 
 must operate as an eternal bar to renewed commu- 
 nion ! How superior is Paul's decision both to that 
 fanaticism and that laxity which on this subject and 
 so many others alternately infested the Church, when 
 man undertook to remodel the Gospel ! So little was 
 that Gospel likely to come from him, that the moment 
 he takes it in hand, he bends its rules to one extreme 
 or other; now to the side of extreme rigour, and now 
 of scandalous laxity. 
 
 Another instance of a decision, equally marked by 
 moderation and good sense, is the one respecting the 
 propriety of " abstaining from meat offered to idols," 
 as also that respecting the observance of " certain 
 days ; " on both which points divisions of opinion had 
 arisen in the Church, aggravated, as usual, by the 
 strong prejudices of those who still clung with the 
 customary pertinacity of human nature to tradition 
 and antiquity. Paul decides that these things, in them- 
 selves, are neither good nor bad: "that an idol is 
 nothing in the world ; " that he who eats of meat 
 offered to it, is " neither the better nor the worse " for 
 it ; that he " who observes " certain days, and " he 
 who does not observe them," may offer an equally 
 acceptable service to God, provided " their conscience 
 
 stripes, which terror and shame had inflicted ; and thus with 
 heavenly solaces they cheer up his humble remorse, till he regain 
 his first health and felicity." 
 
I2O Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 condemn them not in the things they allow ; " and that 
 there is nothing in such variety of opinion and usage 
 that should break the "perfect bond of charity." At 
 the same time he affirms that though every man had 
 a right to perfect liberty of judgment and practice in 
 such matters, yet that a true Christian will in some 
 cases impose a voluntary law upon himself, if his 
 innocent liberty is likely to lead others into sin, 
 " through their weak conscience." He will avoid that 
 which may be " a stumbling-block in his brother's 
 way;" and Paul nobly declares, "If meat make my 
 brother to offend, I will eat no flesh while the world 
 standeth." 
 
 And this "counsel of perfection" is based on the 
 only true principle; not on the "weak brother's" 
 rights, but on our own charity towards him, lest we 
 be to him the accidental cause of sin. This we may 
 be by inadvertence ; for with true philosophic discri- 
 mination the apostle asserts that even an " erroneous 
 conscience " still binds ; and that if, therefore, the 
 "weak brother" imitates us, on our authority or by 
 our example, in an action of the innocence of which 
 we may be convinced, while he himself still doubts, he 
 is not free from sin ; since he " who doubts," is self- 
 condemned, if he performs any action while in that 
 state of doubt about its lawfulness ; and that he only 
 is " happy, who condemneth not himself in the thing 
 that he alloweth." Well had it been for the work 1 , 
 if principles so plain and comprehensive had guided 
 the decisions of those who have treated of such matters 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 12 1 
 
 in their books of casuistry. The famous doctrine of the 
 "probable," and the rules for directing the "intention," 
 with which Pascal makes himself and the world so 
 merry, would never have been heard of. 
 
 But that the concession to a "weak brother" was 
 merely a voluntary concession to his " weakness," and 
 not to be construed to the prejudice of Christian 
 liberty, is plain, both from Paul's founding it wholly 
 on charity, and from his own conduct ; for while 
 he enjoins this magnanimity on proper occasions, 
 he firmly rebukes Peter's equivocal compliance with 
 Jewish prejudice at Antioch. That, too, was a com- 
 pliance in things, in themselves, indifferent, and a hasty 
 reasoner might have imagined that Peter was only 
 doing what Paul avowedly did on some occasions, 
 " becoming all things to all men." But he was far 
 too perspicacious to be imposed upon by any such 
 false analogy, or to confound treachery to confessed 
 truth and mean truckling to 'ignorance and bigotry, 
 with an indulgent charity ! He felt that the question 
 was, whether liberty should be, not voluntarily fore- 
 gone, but unworthily sacrificed : he therefore says, 
 " To whom we gave place, no, not for an hour." x 
 
 And on the same principle, had it been demanded of 
 him, as a moral obligation, that he should surrender 
 his liberty of " eating meat offered to idols," or abstain- 
 
 1 The full import, and therefore rational vehemence, of Paul's 
 protest on this occasion, is admirably drawn out in a remarkable 
 Sermon (or rather Dissertation) by the Rev. Thos. Binney, entitled 
 "The Law our Schoolmaster." Sermons preached in the King's 
 Weigh-house Chapel. (1826-1866.) 8vo. London. Pp. 276-284. 
 
122 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 ing, as he pleased ; had he been told that he must 
 look at the thing as morally wrong ; we cannot have a 
 doubt that he would have eaten the obnoxious viands, 
 in the very face of his censors, on the first opportunity. 
 To do or not to do a thing that we admit to be in- 
 different, is Christian prudence or imprudence according 
 to circumstances ; it may be Christian charity, it may 
 be Christian folly. A magnanimous desire not to " give 
 offence to weak consciences " is one thing ; to be told 
 that though a thing be indifferent, we must practise it ; 
 or that, though we think it indifferent, we are to regard 
 it as morally right or wrong, is quite another. 
 
 Now where did this Jew, a " Hebrew of the Hebrews, 
 and as touching the law a Pharisee," who had been 
 brought up after "the straitest of that sect/' and sat 
 at the feet of Gamaliel, come by his discriminating and 
 elevated casuistry ? Not, we may be sure, from the 
 Jews, who were so tenacious, not only of their ancient 
 law, but of their most frivolous glosses upon it; whose 
 whole soul was immersed in ceremonial, and who had 
 made void even the " weightier matters of the law" 
 by their punctilious scrupulosity. 
 
 Nay, how superior is the apostle's whole mode of 
 looking at such questions to that in which the Chris- 
 tian Church afterwards, and for many ages, looked, 
 and to a considerable extent still looks, at them. How 
 many "Churches" and "Councils" have contended 
 to the death, not only for the exact observance of 
 a given ceremonial, but even for the mode of that 
 ceremonial, even for the shadow of that mode ; con- 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 123 
 
 tended for it as for the most vital truth, and sacrificed 
 not only charity, but liberty, to their crotchet. Nay, 
 how often for the sake of their senseless idol of 
 " Uniformity " (which, in such matters at least, the 
 apostle's whole reasoning shows to be of no con- 
 sequence of no more than those other " Mumbo 
 Jumbos" which he reduces to the same category of 
 " nothing in the world"), have men imprisoned and 
 scourged and slain their fellow - Christians ; not 
 " weaker brethren," indeed, but men a great deal 
 stronger in every respect, except in the pernicious 
 prerogative of persecution. How came Paul and the 
 other writers of the New Testament to be so much 
 wiser than the millions of their successors, who had 
 their precepts and example before them, and set them 
 both at naught ? 
 
 Similar commendation, in my opinion, is due to the 
 apostle's decisions in reference to another question on 
 which the Corinthians consulted him ; I mean, mar- 
 riage. But on this I will not lay any special stress, 
 inasmuch as many demur to the accuracy of the 
 apostle's judgment ; and deem that, though confessing 
 marriage not only " lawful," but " honourable in all," 
 and to men in general, expedient, he has too much 
 admiration for celibacy, and in some degree sanctions 
 the extravagant views on that subject afterwards de- 
 veloped in the Church. I shall content myself, there- 
 fore, with simply expressing my conviction that those 
 who thus argue do less than justice to his views, and 
 with giving, in a few words, my reasons for so thinking. 
 
124 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 The error of their interpretation seems to me to con- 
 sist in supposing that the apostle, in the phrases they 
 censure, is speaking of the expediency, or otherwise, 
 of marriage in general marriage in all ages, and in 
 reference to all men. Now if this be inferred, it seems 
 contradicted by what the apostle expressly says in 
 other places. He says, showing what his opinion of 
 marriage generally is : " It is good for every man to 
 have his own wife, and every woman her own husband." 
 It seems more reasonable, therefore, to suppose that 
 he is speaking with special reference to the circum- 
 stances of the Corinthians, who had consulted him. 
 Some may ha.ve asked him whether marriage, however 
 desirable, was expedient in times of persecution and 
 " present distress " like theirs ; whether it was wise 
 "to give" (as Bacon phrases it) " such hostages to 
 fortune, as wife and children." He decides that, in 
 such circumstances, such as could receive the doctrine, 
 would be wiser to abstain from such bonds than to 
 entangle themselves with them. In similar circum- 
 stances (whether in that age or any other) he would 
 also seem, by implication, to say, that such as could 
 be celibates, and yet chaste ; pure, yet without a daily 
 warfare with impulse and passion, would in his judg- 
 ment be better if they remained celibates; but he 
 acknowledges, that as a general principle, " every man 
 should have his own wife;" that only some men 
 can receive the above counsel; and therefore concludes 
 that it is " better to marry than to burn ;" better to 
 face the inconveniences of marriage even in times of 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 125 
 
 persecution, than to live in perpetual conflict with 
 passion. 
 
 The apostle has also been charged, and that in 
 somewhat coarse terms, with treating this subject too 
 exclusively in its lower and more animal aspects. The 
 answer is, first, that even in these aspects, marriage 
 has such momentous bearings on human welfare, 
 on virtue and vice as to make it necessary that the 
 moralist should not overlook them ; and secondly, that 
 the passages in question are not the only passages in 
 which the apostle lets us see what are his sentiments 
 on this subject. It is impossible to imagine a loftier 
 ideal of the purity, the tenderness, the forbearance, 
 the devotion which ought ever to characterise con- 
 nubial love, than he has given us in various parts 
 of his epistles, and especially w r here he tells us that 
 it ought to emulate the self-sacrificing love of Christ 
 Himself. In truth, the sentiments of the New Testa- 
 ment in relation to women are so vividly contrasted 
 with those of the ancient world in general, that they 
 may be fairly adduced, not merely as an illustration 
 of the argument of the present lecture; namely, the 
 superiority in many points of the teaching of the New 
 Testament to what might be expected from the ante- 
 cedents and condition of the teachers, but of its 
 superiority to the teaching of the greatest sages of 
 antiquity. 
 
 On another related matter there can be no doubt 
 that Paul's decision is eminently that of common sense. 
 I mean that in which he decides that, if a Christian 
 
126 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 husband has an unbelieving wife, or a Christian wife 
 an unbelieving husband, the marriage shall not be 
 dissolved on that account ; and for this reason, if for 
 no other, that it was possible continued intercourse 
 might issue in the conversion and salvation of the 
 unbelieving party. It had been well if all who have 
 treated cases somewhat akin to this, had imitated his 
 tact and good sense. 
 
 4. Another point, worthy of being noted here, is the 
 place assigned to Charity in the New Testament. It 
 is represented as the crown and glory of all religion. 
 That eminence is not given to correct belief, to that 
 faith which is yet so highly exalted, and which so many 
 in after ages would fain honour more than charity. 
 Faith, though of paramount importance, is so only 
 relatively, as the necessary condition of charity and 
 every other excellence. It is the root, as some other 
 graces are the leaf and stem ; but Charity is repre- 
 sented as the flower and fruit. It is the immortal 
 product of them all, and still " abides," when " hope " 
 vanishes in fruition, and " faith" is lost in " sight." It 
 is the fulfilling of the law ; it is that which faith must 
 produce, or faith itself exists not. In the glowing 
 eulogy of it in I Cor. xiii., we see that Paul extols it 
 ab'ove every other Christian grace, above all intellec- 
 tual orthodoxy, above all " revelations," "visions," and 
 " miracles ;" above the " eloquence of men and of 
 angels," above the self-devotion of martyrdom itself. 
 Well might Lord Lyttelton ask whether this was like 
 the language of ordinary fanaticism ? How seldom has 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 127 
 
 the Christian Church how seldom has the individual 
 Christian risen to the elevation of this thought ! 
 How often has higotry contemned it as a test of 
 Christian character altogether, and indeed rather 
 thought its opposite, if it but masked itself under zeal 
 for orthodoxy, a surer proof of heing sound in the 
 faith ! 
 
 And this glowing eulogy of Charity of " love un- 
 feigned " is in harmony with another reigning pecu- 
 liarity of the Christian religion, and which is charac- 
 teristic of no other ; namely, that it makes benevolence 
 and philanthropy, practical philanthropy, the genuine 
 fruit of this charity, the absolute proof and criterion 
 of a sincere profession. However important its dog- 
 mas, even in relation to this very thing, the test 
 by which it is determined whether or not they have 
 been loved and embraced, is this. 1 The characteristic 
 of Him who founded the religion, is that " He went 
 about doing good; " and He not only demands that all 
 His disciples should imitate His example, but declares 
 that the single trait by which He will determine 
 whether they are such, is their conformity to Him in 
 this point ; that like Him, they have ministered to 
 the necessities and mitigated the sorrows of mankind. 
 This is plain from the instances He gives in His own 
 
 1 The language of the Old Testament is almost equally strong 
 in the inculcation of this duty of practical benevolence, as in- 
 separable from all true religion. " Blessed is he that considereth 
 the poor " (or the sick), " the Lord will deliver him in the time of 
 trouble." "He that giveth to the poor lendeth unto the Lord." 
 See also Isaiah Iviii. 6-n; Jer. xxii. 16; Job xxix. 11-16; and 
 many other passages. 
 
128 Arguments Ancillary [LECT- 
 
 exposition of His rule of judgment. (Matthew xxv. 
 34-45.) However orthodox the faith, however ap- 
 parently devout the life, it is adjudged that there 
 cannot be either genuine faith or genuine devotion 
 without this active benevolence. The language of the 
 apostles is to the same eftect. 1 
 
 And as no religion but Christianity has ever made 
 benevolence so exclusively a test of the sincerity of 
 profession, so none has ever practised it to the same 
 extent. However short her disciples may have come 
 of her requirements and they have come very short 
 indeed we shall look in vain in any other than Chris- 
 tian lands for such efforts to succour sickness and 
 poverty, ignorance and destitution, as she has made ; 
 such funds for the maimed, the halt, the blind, the 
 orphan, and the widow, as the treasury of Christ has 
 supplied. Hospitals and asylums were unknown in 
 the ancient world. They were created by the Gospel. 
 
 Now I cannot but doubt whether men, such as the 
 apostles, or, indeed, any zealots such as religious 
 history generally celebrates, men intent on the pro- 
 clamation of certain doctrines, and convinced of their 
 momentous importance, would have suspended the 
 whole value of their darling orthodoxy on a practical 
 issue, which (however vitally connected with it and 
 necessarily flowing out of it), seemed, in the sole test 
 given of it, to keep it out of sight altogether ! 
 
 5. There is yet another point on which, as it appears 
 to me, the writers of the New Testament exhibit a 
 
 1 James i. 27 ; i Tim. vi. 17-19 ; Eph. iv. 28. 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 129 
 
 practical wisdom which from their antecedents and cir- 
 cumstances we could scarcely expect, and which, in like 
 circumstances, has been rarely, if ever, manifested in 
 the world's history. I allude to the singular tact with 
 which the apostles managed to steer clear, enthu- 
 siastic and zealous though they were in their new 
 enterprise, of those social and political rocks on which 
 their bark might have been so easily wrecked. All 
 history shows how easy it is for religious to pass into 
 political zeal, or coalesce with it, especially where men 
 are suffering under oppression and persecution. The 
 Jews in particular, from both sorts of zeal, from fervid 
 attachment to their laws, and hatred of that ignomi- 
 nious yoke against which they were always chafing, 
 were inflammable as tinder. They were perpetually 
 breaking out into insurrection, till, at last, resistance 
 ended in their utter ruin. Hardly had Luther entered 
 on his career than he was troubled with the fanaticism 
 of Carlstadt, and soon after by far worse fanatics, who 
 would have turned the Reformation into an instrument 
 of political revolution, and thereby gravely imperilled 
 his enterprise. In our own country, during the six- 
 teenth and seventeenth centuries, how often did the 
 movements which took their rise in religious zeal 
 (sometimes an auxiliary, sometimes an incentive, to 
 political discontent) flame out into resistance against 
 the persecutions that would suppress it ! 
 
 Now, when we consider that from the first the 
 Christians were a sect not only " everywhere spoken 
 against," but cruelly maltreated, it does appear mar- 
 
 10 
 
130 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 vellous that its leaders could escape all the mischiefs 
 and scandals which might TO easily have sprung from 
 this source. It is attributable, no doubt, to their in- 
 flexible adherence to the course the New Testament 
 ascribes to them. They were exclusively intent on a 
 single object, the propagation of the Gospel ; and 
 though not insensible to the evils of their time, and 
 quietly depositing principles in the world, which if 
 received, and so far as received, would infallibly cor- 
 rect them, they seem to have instinctively felt that 
 to enter upon a crusade for this object, would be to 
 imperil their religious mission, and retard that miti- 
 gation of political and social evils which its success 
 would bring with it. None can accuse them of time- 
 serving and subservience. They openly professed their 
 resolution to prosecute their proper enterprise in spite 
 of all the powers of the world, and they kept their 
 word. They accordingly denounced with unflinching 
 decision whatever was inconsistent with it; whatever 
 stood between man and God's favour, between man's 
 soul and its salvation ; all idolatry, all impurity, all 
 sensuality, all covetousness and dishonesty, all malice 
 and uncharitableness, and these, of course, none the 
 less, when they flowed from vicious social customs 
 and political institutions. 
 
 But while inculcating principles, which if accepted 
 and acted upon would have destroyed the essence of 
 despotism and slavery, transformed every despot, in 
 fact, into a just and beneficent sovereign, every slave- 
 owner into a kind master, like Philemon, and every 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 131 
 
 slave into a freeman in all but the name, like Onesi- 
 mus, nay, into a " brother beloved," they refrained 
 from a crusade against despotism and slavery as politi- 
 cal institutions. Both had so long and extensively pre- 
 vailed, and the last was so universally sanctioned, the 
 roots of both were so entwined with the framework 
 of society, that they could not be extirpated by any 
 summary process, nor denounced and resisted, except 
 at the risk of transforming the religious into a political 
 revolution. The apostles seem to have been con- 
 tented, therefore, to wait, and while plainly proposing 
 principles which must, if acted upon, secure liberty 
 and extinguish slavery, left the seed to germinate 
 in the soil. Such, at all events, appears to be the 
 posture of the writers of the New Testament in re- 
 ference to these evils ; nor can we do them justice 
 except by recollecting that Christianity was a system 
 suddenly inserted into the framework of ancient 
 society, and that it was impossible, without certain 
 ruin to its main enterprise, and infinite hazard even 
 to its secondary objects, directly to encounter some 
 of the political and social enormities of the time. It 
 was the case of the "wheat and the tares" in the pa- 
 rable; they must for a while grow together. The evils 
 of a corrupt social or political system, indeed, would 
 certainly be corrected in each individual by the moral 
 reformation which Christianity, if sincerely received, 
 would effect ; but the correction of the system itself, 
 the assertion and vindication of men's social rights, 
 and the limitations of exorbitant political power, could 
 
 10 
 
132 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 only be effected in two ways; by the gradual for- 
 mation of enlightened opinion, which was the work 
 of time; or by violence and revolution, which cer- 
 tainly was not the work of apostles. They wisely 
 chose the former; and, dropping the seed into the 
 ground, waited for the harvest. 
 
 Thus we see a reason for what to some seems a 
 paradox, namely, that the New Testament does not 
 explicitly forbid slavery, nor command the converts 
 to Christianity instantly to manumit their slaves. This 
 fact, I think, every candid reader of the New Tes- 
 tament must concede. Nor is it wonderful; for slavery 
 was a thing to which the world was so accustomed, 
 that it would require time, and familiarity with the 
 consequences of the social principles which Christianity 
 inculcates, to educate men even to apprehend that it 
 was an evil at all. Neither philosophers, nor the 
 vulgar, seem to have had the slightest conception of 
 there being anything wrong in it. Plato and Aristotle, 
 the greatest ethical authorities of antiquity, appear 
 to regard it quite as a natural and proper institution. 
 Nor can we estimate the social confusion which might 
 have resulted from the sudden adoption of a contrary 
 principle, before either master or slave was in any 
 degree prepared for it. But a general servile war 
 would have been a natural, if not an inevitable con- 
 sequence. 
 
 On the other hand, that the New Testament pro- 
 pounds principles which, if they be acted upon, must 
 necessarily put an end to slavery, is not only obvious, 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 133 
 
 but is abundantly proved by experience. As antiquity 
 had no conception of the enormity of slavery till Chris- 
 tianity appeared, so no modern nations, ignorant of 
 Christianity, have any such notion to this day. But 
 wherever it is known, there the contest between itself 
 and slavery is sure soon to begin ; and the most signal 
 triumphs over both the slave trade and slavery, which 
 have ever been achieved, have been the distinct result 
 of the influence it has exerted and the public opinion 
 it has formed. 
 
 Similar remarks apply to the tone the founders of 
 Christianity adopted in reference to the despotic go- 
 vernments of the day. While initiating principles 
 which, if they be accepted, must extinguish all ty- 
 ranny, and eventually establish all political rights, the 
 apostles did not attempt that premature realisation of 
 such objects which would but too well have justified the 
 calumny so often falsely cast upon them, " of turning 
 the world upside down." They enjoin, therefore, in 
 the most general terms, submission to " rulers and 
 governors " de facto, as the duty of the Christian, and 
 forbid him to resist them by violence, on any pretence 
 that in his judgment governments might be much 
 better constituted ; least of all, to resist on account of 
 the oppressions and wrongs inflicted on Christians as 
 such. This last prohibition is, no doubt, absolute ; the 
 wrongs of persecution are to be submitted to ; the 
 martyr must not turn soldier, nor fight the battles of 
 the faith with fire and sword. This would be incom- 
 patible with, the very essence of the Gospel itself, at 
 
X 34 Arguments Ancillary [LECT. 
 
 once destroying its object, and transforming that " king- 
 dom " which is not of this world into one directly 
 resembling those that " are of this world," in the most 
 vital point. Beyond this the New Testament does 
 not go ; it neither invites nor forbids discussion as to 
 whether there may not be extreme cases which, on 
 political grounds, will justify men in open insurrection 
 against an unjust and cruel government. 
 
 Paul, in the thirteenth chapter of the Epistle to 
 the Romans, is by many supposed to have determined 
 the question in the negative, and to have enjoined un- 
 qualified " passive obedience " and " non-resistance ; " 
 and there was a time in the history of our own country 
 when these doctrines, in their most slavish form, were 
 as slavishly preached from that chapter. But we all 
 know that the fanatical champions of such a per- 
 verted loyalty were themselves effectually confuted by 
 James II., and at last admitted there might be limits 
 to the submission even of the most servile. Nor will 
 a candid reader of the New Testament hesitate to say 
 that this amended interpretation is very rational. The 
 apostle, prescribing general rules, rules applicable 
 even to governments very far from theoretical perfec- 
 tion, merely says what all sensible men, what every 
 sound politician, every upright citizen, would say in 
 every age, that it is the duty of a loyal subject to obey 
 the edicts of government, without prejudging the ques- 
 tion whether there may not be cases in which insurrec- 
 tion may be justifiable, or even imperative; just as they 
 would lay down the duty of obedience to parents as the 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. 135 
 
 general rule, without pretending that there could be 
 no cases in which children would be released even 
 from that obligation. As a general rule, all wise men 
 assert these maxims as strenuously as the apostle did ; 
 and, considering the infinite suffering which usually 
 results from any rash attempt at innovation by vio- 
 lence, and the terrible responsibility incurred by every 
 self-constituted authority that proposes it, it is the only 
 safe general rule. But while all wise teachers, no less 
 than the apostle, agree in this, no one would imagine 
 them to be pronouncing upon, or even thinking of, the 
 lawfulness of resistance in those extreme cases which 
 alone, with any sane man, will justify revolution; in 
 those extreme cases, for example, where a king tramples 
 on the charters to which he has sworn, and violates the 
 articles and conditions which notoriously limit his pre- 
 rogative; or again, where an absolute monarch, who has 
 no well-defined limits to his power, abuses it to resist 
 every limitation which the rising intelligence of his 
 subjects demands, and will give no security against 
 the most intolerable oppression. The New Testament 
 does not decide upon any such extreme cases, and it 
 would be strange if any manual of general duty did : 
 they are best decided when the terrible emergency 
 occurs. It would be of ill omen for the world if 
 religious systems, or even manuals of morality and 
 politics, instead of laying down the general rules of 
 duty, entered into a nice discussion of all the cases in 
 which they ceased to be obligatory, and to canvass all 
 the possible justifications of resistance to authority. 
 
136 Arguments Ancillary [LECI. 
 
 That the writers of the New Testament were not 
 thinking of any such cases, is sufficiently clear from 
 their description of those governments to which their 
 principle applies. They must (whatever their defects) 
 still be such as, on the whole, to be " a terror to 
 evil doers, and a praise to them that do well." 
 
 Now suppose, if you will, that the New Tes- 
 tament is very defective as a manual of political 
 rights (as I confess I think it is for it has nothing 
 directly to do with politics) ; say, if you will, that the 
 apostles were timid and pusillanimous (though, I fancy, 
 few who consider their history will say that) ; still, 
 considering how easy it is for religious zeal to become 
 factious, how often the attempt to innovate in religion 
 has proceeded to political violence, especially under 
 persecution ; how pertinacious and exasperating the 
 persecution directed against the founders of Chris- 
 tianity was, and how incessant the insurrections 
 among their turbulent countrymen, the Jews, I can- 
 not help thinking it a very extraordinary thing that 
 the apostles should have been such wary pilots, 
 and steered their bark in safety amidst shoals and 
 breakers where so many other mariners have suffered 
 shipwreck. 
 
 May we not ask, as the Jews did, concerning their 
 Master Himself, "Whence had these men this wis- 
 dom ? " How is it that while they introduced a system 
 which operated a greater revolution in the world than 
 had ever before been effected, they yet avoided those 
 excesses into which the passions of men in general, 
 
in.] to the same Conclusion. . 137 
 
 with far less enthusiasm than theirs, and under far 
 less wrongs and oppressions, are so easily provoked ? 
 How is it, that while they made greater progress than 
 Puritans or Huguenots, the apostles exercised a self- 
 control, a sobriety, a moderation, which the most 
 ardent admirers of those reformers and confessors of 
 subsequent times will hardly claim for them ? 
 
 I will not say that the wisdom and prudence implied 
 in the various particulars enumerated in this lecture 
 could not have been manifested by other men. I do 
 not place these things precisely on a level as argu- 
 ments, with some of those other traits of the Bible 
 already mentioned, which seem to me absolutely 
 against the grain of human nature. But I think 
 that, taken altogether, the conduct of the apostles, 
 as contrasted with that of the generality of those who 
 have propounded systems of religion to the world, and 
 as contrasted also with what might have been rea- 
 sonably expected from such men, from their origin 
 and their antecedents, does exhibit a considerable 
 paradox, to be added to the many others I have 
 dwelt upon, and which justify the presumption that 
 the New Testament is not simply a book of man's 
 origination. 
 
LECTURE IV., 
 
 SINGULAR COINCIDENCES BETWEEN SCRIPTURE 
 AND HISTORY. 
 
 INDICATIONS OF UNITY IN THE BIBLE. 
 
LECTURE* IV. 
 
 ARGUMENTS DERIVED FROM (l.) 
 
 TWEEN CERTAIN STATEMENTS OF SCRIPTURE AND 
 CERTAIN FACTS OF HISTORY. (ll.) INDICATIONS 
 OF THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 the argument from "prophecy" is 
 beyond the scope of these lectures, yet those 
 strange "coincidences" between certain ancient Bib- 
 lical statements and historic fact (on which the argu- 
 ment of prophecy is founded) are fairly within it, and 
 are among the many things this volume presents us 
 with that seem difficult to account for. These " coinci- 
 dences " must, at all events, have been very striking, 
 to lead so many millions of intelligent men, and among 
 them so many possessed of the greatest acuteness and 
 learning, to acquiesce in them as nothing less than 
 veritable instances of inspired prediction. 
 
 Bishop Butler lays great stress on the general 
 harmony between the statements of Scripture and 
 historic facts, not only in the " prophetical " portions, 
 but in the "ordinary" narrative; and contends that 
 its general correspondence with the world's civil and 
 religious history, as gathered from extraneous sources, 
 
142 Singular Coincidences [LECT. 
 
 is a strong argument for its veracity. He says that 
 if a person, previously quite ignorant of the Bible, and 
 uncertain, after perusing it, whether it purported to 
 be fact or fiction, were told of the entire series of 
 harmonies between it and history, he could not but 
 be much impressed with their variety and extent. 
 
 It is but a very limited portion of this large field 
 that I have space to touch ; and even of the so-called 
 prophetic conformities between Scripture and history, 
 but which I simply call " coincidences," I shall con- 
 tent myself with selecting a few of the more prominent 
 by way of specimen. Nor as regards the greater part 
 of them, will there be the slightest room for that 
 favourite subterfuge, that the " sayings " of the book, 
 instead of being long anterior to the events to which 
 they seemingly point, were in fact written long after 
 them, and are, therefore, not only not prophecies, but 
 not even coincidences. The events to which I shall 
 principally refer, confessedly transpired long since the 
 books were written. If not, some of these documents 
 must have been written very recently; at a date, 
 indeed, to which no sceptical imagination, however 
 daring, has yet ventured to assign them. 
 
 Instead of taking a man ignorant of the Bible, I will 
 modify Butler's supposition, and suppose him alike 
 ignorant of history and the Bible. I will further sup- 
 pose him indoctrinated in the former by a candid 
 instructor who did not believe in the latter, and sedu- 
 lously kept it out of sight ; and that he is afterwards 
 informed of the coincidences between what he has 
 
iv.] between Scripture and History. 143 
 
 learnt even from such a mentor, and the undoubted 
 utterances of the Bible. 
 
 Let us suppose him then taken through a brief 
 course of Ancient History, and that the outline of the 
 Jewish annals is given (traditionally) thus. He is told 
 by his guide that in the times immediately preceding 
 authentic history, the nations of the earth, so far as 
 could be ascertained, savage and civilised, were alike 
 sunk in the profoundest religious degradation, having 
 "gods many and lords many," gods of all sorts and 
 sizes, of all form and feature, of wood and stone, brass 
 and iron, gold and silver, malign and benevolent ; but 
 that from the earliest times of which we have any 
 genuine records, there was one people, the Jews, who 
 professed the most decided monotheism, and alone (as far 
 as reliable history made known to us) preserved that 
 doctrine in the world ; that, nevertheless, they shared 
 so fully in the general proclivities of mankind to idol- 
 atry, that they did their very utmost from time to 
 time to extinguish their better light, and again and 
 again fell into all the grossness of the worship of the 
 nations that surrounded them : though they still 
 clung obstinately to the theory of monotheism, always 
 returned to it, and confessed its truth, even while they 
 failed to practise it. Our neophyte will be told that in 
 the course of their history they were often reduced to 
 great straits, and more than once led into cruel cap- 
 tivity by other nations, events which they foolishly 
 and superstitiously attributed to their forgetfulness and 
 neglect of the doctrines and duties of their religion ; 
 
144 Singular Coincidences [LECT. 
 
 that though they were doubtless mistaken in that, yet 
 it was a curious fact that, though they were frequently 
 conquered, and, as was the case with so many other 
 ancient nations, torn away from their native soil, and 
 subjected in foreign lands to the influences which had 
 so often broken up and at last absorbed other com- 
 munities, this singular people did not share in the 
 same fate of disintegration ; that though mixed up 
 with other nations, they were not incorporated with 
 them ; remained a foreign element interfused through 
 the communities in which they existed ; and that that 
 has been in effect their condition, through every 
 variety of their fortunes, since their final conquest and 
 dispersion, about 1800 years ago; still wandering 
 everywhere, but having a country nowhere. He will 
 be told that their entire system of laws, though its 
 moral elements were perhaps superior to those of any 
 other ancient codes, was on the whole so peculiar 
 and so burdensome, that they continually broke away 
 from it ; that some of them acknowledged that it 
 "imposed a yoke which neither they nor their fathers 
 were able to bear;" and yet that they have obstinately 
 clung to it notwithstanding. He will be told that 
 small and insignificant as they always were, and 
 weakened and dispersed as they have been through a 
 great part of their history, they had cherished from 
 remote ages a foolish delusion that from among them 
 should arise an eminent Personage, who should not 
 only reign over them, but over all nations ; that His 
 kingdom should never be destroyed : that some among 
 
iv.] between Scripture and History. 14^ 
 
 them had ventured to speculate as to His charac- 
 teristics and fortunes ; that some said He was to be 
 from the first a triumphant king; others, that He was 
 to reign only after dire defeats and sore troubles ; 
 others, that He was to combine the character of priest 
 with that of king ; while it was also insinuated by 
 some sour and unpatriotic spirits that, considering 
 how obstinate the nation had ever been, how slow to 
 learn and how apt to forget the lessons of heaven, it 
 would proceed to reject the claims even of this illus- 
 trious Personage ; but that if it did, it would be " pro- 
 voked to jealousy " by seeing Him accepted by other 
 nations. All these things, the pupil will be told, may 
 be supposed the illusions of diseased fancy ; though 
 (curiously enough, and by a very odd coincidence) 
 about the time and at the place which certain dreamers 
 among them had fixed upon as the date and spot at 
 which this personage should appear, a most remarkable 
 Man did really claim to be the king in question; that 
 He was rejected by the Jews in general, and, what 
 is still more odd, after being crucified by the Gen- 
 tiles (though at Jewish instigation) as a malefactor, 
 was eagerly accepted by immense numbers of widely 
 diverse nations among these Gentiles; invested by 
 them with attributes of royalty greater than ever 
 belonged to royalty before, and voluntarily honoured 
 with a homage such as king had never received. He 
 will be told, further, that though the Jews were 
 upbraided (no doubt, very unreasonably) with the 
 rejection of their fabulous king, and nothing but 
 
 ii 
 
140 Singular Coincidences [LECT. 
 
 superstition suggested that they would be punished 
 for it, yet curiously enough, and by another odd 
 coincidence, their capital very shortly after was 
 burnt, their polity destroyed, and their nation finally 
 dispersed. 
 
 If our professor of history maintains his candour, 
 he will inform his pupil, that though the strange 
 empire erected by this pretended Monarch, and 
 founded on Religion, gathered strength from day to 
 day, till the temples and shrines of the Roman empire 
 fell before it, and has since successively received the 
 allegiance of many nations of the most diverse cha- 
 racter and condition ; yet the foundations of this 
 new Power in the world were laid without any resort 
 to force on its own part, and in spite of the most 
 violent resistance on the part of the world at 
 large ; that it was scorned by philosophers, hated by 
 priests, and opposed by tyrants. It will be added that 
 to account for its success would be to account for 
 the infinite caprices of mankind ; but that the mystery 
 may, perhaps, in part be solved, by candidly admitting 
 that its first votaries and emissaries were singularly 
 upright and virtuous men, and that their impulse was 
 for a long time felt in the religious empire they set 
 up. Our pupil will be told further that the ancient 
 empire which had most vigorously opposed this re- 
 ligious empire was at length destroyed, while this 
 last gradually usurped its seat, and succeeded to the 
 power it wielded, in the same spot, though in another 
 form ; that after many vicissitudes of fortune, this 
 
iv.] between Scripture and History. 147 
 
 power, too, had waxed very corrupt, seemed to be 
 growing decrepid in consequence, and would doubt- 
 less soon " vanish away." But if our professor be 
 cautious, he will perhaps add, that after so eventful 
 a history, it is not possible to speculate very con- 
 fidently on the future ; that the " superstition " on 
 which this empire was founded had a curious pro- 
 perty of revivescence ; that, as Tacitus said of it in 
 its early days, it was an " obstinate " superstition, 
 tenacious of life, and apt " to break out again ;" that 
 it had hitherto been proof both against murder and 
 suicide ; that accordingly its emissaries, apparently 
 without any ordinary human motive, might be seen 
 still doing what no other religionists, Jewish or Gen- 
 tile, had ever been foolish enough to do, busying 
 themselves in every corner and region of the earth, 
 savage and civilised, in proselyting the world to their 
 belief; to which end they had actually given some 
 ancient voluminous documents in Hebrew and Greek, 
 on which they professed to found it, a voice in two 
 hundred languages ; more, by many scores, than any 
 other of the professedly sacred books in the world 
 had ever spoken in ! 
 
 If now our historic student begged to have a sight 
 of those same documents, and on inquiry about their 
 date, were told that though there was some doubt 
 about some of them, it was absolutely certain that 
 they were all in existence nearly 2000 years ago, and 
 the most ancient certainly more than 2500 years ago, 
 would he not be surprised to find so many " coinci- 
 
 n * 
 
148 Singular Coincidences [LECT. 
 
 dences " between them and " history," legibly inscribed 
 there ? that all the facts, so cautiously narrated to 
 him, were there described, as what was to be ; that 
 even those parts of the books which are most ancient 
 (or if the rationalist will, the least modern, for they are 
 still ancient enough for my purpose), palpably contain 
 such " coincidences ;" that, for example, the Penta- 
 teuch speaks of the captivity and dispersion of the 
 Jews as their characteristic doom, while it expressly 
 stipulates for their continued national "life" notwith- 
 standing; and that their final dispersion did not occur 
 till they had rejected the proffered Messiah, many 
 centuries after the last of the Hebrew documents had 
 been written ? Would he not be struck on finding, that 
 if they frequently apostatised from their religion, it 
 was said they would do so, and be punished by repeated 
 captivity and dispersion for it ; as also that if they 
 repented they would be restored, and that this change 
 of their fortunes was repeatedly exemplified in their 
 history before their last dispersion ? Would he not be 
 more struck still, to find that, if in spite of their 
 dispersion, they have been still preserved, it was ex- 
 pressly said that they should be so ; and no less, that 
 the characteristics of their promised king which our 
 neophyte had been taught to regard as the fond illu- 
 sions of national vanity were copiously described, 
 conjoined with others which no national vanity would 
 ever have suggested, and which national vanity, there- 
 fore, not unnaturally misinterpreted ? Would he not 
 be surprised to find that if, at the very time and 
 
iv.] between Scripture and History. 149 
 
 place, when and where the Jews expected this great 
 personage, one appeared claiming to be such, and 
 who seemed to unite the contradictory attributes 
 of greatness and lowliness, these documents, many 
 hundred years before, had made statements which 
 tallied with the expectation ; that, if the Jews re- 
 jected Him, it was hinted they would ; that if the 
 nation was conquered, their temple and polity de- 
 stroyed, and their old doom of dispersion, but with- 
 out extinction, finally inflicted, it was in conformity 
 with declarations that all this would be so ; that if 
 the Messiah proffered to them, but rejected by them, 
 was accepted by the Gentiles as the founder of a new 
 religion, it was implied that He would be ? Would 
 he not be astonished to find that if that new religion 
 succeeded against the combined power, philosophy, and 
 superstition of the ancient world, and destroyed the 
 ancient paganism, it was " coincident " with declara- 
 tions to that effect ? that if it became corrupt as it 
 became prosperous, and arrogated in a new form, the 
 power, as well as the pomp, of the great empire on 
 whose ruins it had risen, it is " coincident " with state- 
 ments that it would ? that if, notwithstanding, this 
 religion not only exhibits signal recuperative power, 
 but (unlike other religions) is irrepressibly aggressive, 
 and bent on preaching its " gospel " to " the ends of 
 the earth/' it is expressly declared that it would be 
 so? What would our tyro say on discovering these 
 things ? I fancy he would say what I am now saying, 
 that whether these things be prophecies or not, this 
 
150 Singular Coincidences [LECT. 
 
 book is full of the strangest, most mysterious, most 
 unaccountable "coincidences." 
 
 Nor, as already said, is it possible to get quit of 
 these " coincidences " by the method which has been 
 applied to certain parts of Daniel's prophecies and 
 some other portions of the Old Testament by saying 
 that the documents were written after the facts, and are 
 therefore history and not prophecy. For the greater 
 part of the " coincidences " to which I have referred 
 are between documents and facts, as to which it is 
 uncontested that the former were prior to the latter 
 by many centuries. What shall we say then ? A man 
 may affirm, as Butler says, that the "conformity" 
 between the documents and the events " is by ac- 
 cident ; but there are many instances in which the 
 conformity itself cannot be denied." 
 
 We can scarcely imagine the conformities in question 
 to be the result of accident, as little as in the case of 
 Daniel's prophecies. But then we cannot, as in that 
 case, dispute about the date of the documents. Nor can 
 it be pretended, any more than in that case, that they 
 are due to political sagacity. Indeed, it is more easy to 
 imagine that the seer of Babylon might conjecture the 
 (comparatively) imminent, and far less complex events 
 of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (though most 
 people will agree with Porphyry that it was impossible 
 he should do so), than that any man should have 
 sagacity enough to anticipate events in the world's 
 history, so distant in time, so peculiar in character, 
 so complicated in their relations, and involving the 
 
iv.] between Scripture and History. 151 
 
 fortunes of so many different nations, as those just 
 referred to ; a notion which reaches the ne plus ultra 
 of incredibility when it is remembered that the docu- 
 ments proceeded from different hands and were written 
 at widely remote eras. Several of the authors, on this 
 hypothesis, must have been gifted with a sagacity which 
 it is utterly incredible should have belonged even to 
 any one. What, then, is a man to do in this case ? 
 Is he determined to adopt the argument of Porphyry 
 in relation to Daniel ? If so, I see but one course for 
 him. He must take the same line as Porphyry, and say 
 that the documents were posterior to the facts. He 
 must affirm that the writings of the Old and New 
 Testaments were compiled not only as late as many 
 renowned critics of the present day maintain, but much 
 later ; not only that the books of the Pentateuch, and 
 the greater part of the prophets, were written after 
 the Babylonish captivity, and t,he gospels somewhere 
 about the end of the second century ; but that none, 
 whether of the Old or New Testament, were com- 
 posed till a few hundred years ago ; if even they can 
 be supposed to be composed yet ! If, with the very 
 books in his hands, he finds it hard, however scep- 
 tical he may be, to come to this last conclusion, he 
 must at least emulate the courage of Pere Hardouin, 
 who professed to believe that the whole series of Greek 
 and Roman classics was the work of the monks of the 
 middle ages! If Porphyry's argument be sound, if 
 veritable prophecy be an impossibility or incredibility, 
 and if it is equally impossible to ascribe the " coinci- 
 
152 Singular Coincidences [LECT. 
 
 dences " in question, between the various statements 
 of the Bible and the course of the world's history, to 
 either accident or sagacity, there remains nothing for 
 it but to believe that the documents were compiled 
 long after the Christian era commenced, and perhaps 
 within the last few hundred years. The sceptic must 
 find their cradle where the eccentric Jesuit found the 
 cradle of all the classics, in the monk's cell; and with 
 about as much reason. Nor is it impossible that if the 
 course of the world goes on so perversely to multiply 
 "coincidences" with the Bible, as it has done in the 
 past, and as it is still doing, a sceptic 2500 years 
 hence may believe that our modern Hardouin, in as- 
 signing its documents to the middle ages, has made 
 them too ancient after all, and prove that they are not 
 even composed in our day ; just as Porphyry proved 
 the prophecies of Daniel to be subsequent to the 
 days of Antiochus Epiphanes. He may prove 2500 
 years hence that the books, in spite of our having 
 them under our very eyes, could not have been com- 
 piled before A.D. 2000. 
 
 If, on the other hand, there be no doubt that the 
 books are of the date generally attributed to them, 
 all the Old Testament composed many centuries before 
 the Christian era, and the New within a century after 
 it, it is impossible to say why the critic should find any 
 great difficulty, in the face of the " coincidences " on 
 which I have insisted, in admitting that the writings 
 of Daniel may have contained equally curious "coinci- 
 dences," without supposing them copied from history. 
 
iv.] between Scripture and History. 153 
 
 In accounting for the conformity between certain 
 complex movements in the moral history of the world, 
 and the anticipations of the Bible, it is impossible 
 to take refuge in an argument often resorted to in 
 relation to some special " coincidences " between its 
 language and the subversion of this or that nation or 
 empire ; namely, that such an issue, some time or 
 other, is so probable, from the general analogies of 
 human history, that it may be expected, and there- 
 fore predicted. The events to which the present 
 lecture refers are too peculiar in their tout-ensemble, 
 too unique and strange, and in many points too con- 
 tradictory to the natural and ordinary speculations of 
 men, to allow of such an hypothesis being applied to 
 them. 
 
 The argument just adverted to, and which was a 
 favourite argument with Bolingbroke and many who 
 followed him, is of no real force even against the 
 order of " coincidences "now referred to. It does not 
 account for the conformity between the documents 
 and the facts. As Davison has well shown in his 
 lectures, the specific characteristics of national catas- 
 trophes threatened in Scripture, have nothing in 
 common with the vague anticipation that at some 
 time or other, in some way or other, the most flourish- 
 ing nations will decay and fall. This is presumed 
 to be their lot, by a universal natural law, which 
 a considerable induction of facts makes plausible 
 enough ; though many distinguished historic critics, 
 and Lord Macaulay among them, doubt whether it 
 
154 Singular Coincidences [LECT. 
 
 be founded on anything better than fallacious analo- 
 gies in the natural world, forming a precarious basis 
 for any such sinister vaticination. But whether there 
 be any such law or not, the Scripture " coincidences " 
 in this kind have nothing to do with it. They are 
 not founded on any historic " parallelisms " which, 
 according to the remark of the philosophic Thucydides, 
 may, " while human nature remains the same," be 
 assuredly anticipated. Davison shows that in many 
 of these cases the language, so far from being equally 
 applicable, as Bblingbroke affirms, to any nation of 
 the world, is strictly limited to one ; so that it is 
 impossible, in interpreting it (though it ought to be 
 possible, if this theory be correct), to ''shuffle the 
 cards," transpose the subjects of prediction, and apply 
 the descriptions of the doom menaced against different 
 nations indiscriminately. Repeated captivity and dis- 
 persion, with all their attendant miseries, were to be 
 the lot of Israel, but their national life was to be a 
 " charmed life" notwithstanding. Nineveh and Baby- 
 lon were to be absolutely destroyed, and to become 
 a by-word for " desolation," and a " habitation " of 
 "doleful "creatures," in perpetuity; and they have 
 been. Egypt was not to be destroyed, but to be 
 what she has been, " a base nation." The sons of 
 Ishmael were to be restless wanderers in their own 
 land, as the Israelites were to be in every land but 
 their own ; and so it has come to pass. 1 The only 
 way of neutralizing the "coincidences" in these cases 
 1 See Appendix, No. IV. 
 
iv.] between Scripture and History. 155 
 
 is to contend, as Porphyry does with regard to Daniel, 
 that the documents were antedated. 
 
 But this, I submit, is impossible in the case of 
 the chief " coincidences " adduced in the present 
 lecture, not only from their nature, but because the 
 priority of the several documents to the principal 
 facts is uncontested. 
 
 I now pass to the second subject of the present 
 lecture. 
 
 If there be any unity in the Bible, if the appear- 
 ances of coherence, and of reciprocal adaptation, in 
 its several parts, be not a dream of fancy, or some 
 unimaginable result of chance, then one part of my 
 thesis, that the Bible is not such a book as man "could 
 have constructed, if he would," is beyond all contra- 
 diction ; for that condition, on which alone the con- 
 clusion could be denied, namely, that its unity might 
 possibly be the effect of collusion amongst its authors, 
 is absolutely precluded. The volume is the product 
 of about forty different authors, writing under every 
 conceivable diversity of circumstances, at far distant 
 dates ; and who were therefore unconscious of each 
 other's purpose, and incapable of acting in concert. 
 The earliest of these writers is separated from the 
 latest by an interval of at least a thousand years, 
 to content myself with a very modest limit, which even 
 the most courageous rationalist will hardly dispute. 1 
 
 1 In spite of the infinite discordance of rationalist criticism, as to 
 the dates of the Hebrew sacred writings, the earliest of which it 
 refers to all periods between Samuel and the return from Babylon, 
 
156 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 Before proceeding further, however, it may be as well 
 to say that this phenomenon of a quasi-sacred book so 
 composed, of such miscellaneous contents and various 
 authorship, and that took a thousand years to finish 
 it, is itself anomalous, and must be ranked with the 
 many other anomalies which discriminate the Bible 
 from all other so-called sacred books. None of them 
 can be ascribed to a series of writers extending in long 
 procession to a thousand years ; and whose writings, 
 moreover, traverse large portions of secular history, 
 are imbedded in it, and run parallel with it. This 
 sharply discriminates the Scriptures from the books 
 of Confucius, and many others. The Koran was the 
 work of Mahomet alone. The striking difference in 
 this respect between Mahommedanism on the one 
 hand, and Judaism and Christianity on the other, is 
 well put by an able writer, who certainly cannot be 
 accused of understating the claims of Mahomet, and 
 who, if he has erred at all in appraising them, has 
 erred on the side of candour and charity. 1 
 
 comparatively few would deny that some of the more important 
 were in existence long before the former epoch. Nor does it much 
 matter to my present argument if it be denied ; for as the more 
 sceptical of these critics postdate the books of the New Testa- 
 ment in the same manner, to the middle or close of the second 
 century, there will still be an interval of nine or ten centuries 
 between the earliest portions of the Bible and the latest. 
 
 1 " Each again of these three great monotheistic religions has its 
 written revelation. Herein comes one of the most marked distinc- 
 tions between the three, and a specially marked distinction between 
 Christianity and Islam. The book which contains the revelation 
 of Islam is the work of the founder of Islam. It proclaims itself 
 as the word of God, not indeed written by the hand of the prophet, 
 but taken down from His mouth, and spoken in His person. It is a 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 157 
 
 This then is itself a unique feature of the Bible, 
 which must be added to the many other paradoxes of 
 this strange book. It is not easy to account for it, 
 and it is plainly out of analogy with religious history 
 in general. 
 
 But to resume the more important subject of this 
 lecture, which is to point out certain indications of 
 unity in the Bible. 
 
 As a matter of fact, and about which there is no 
 doubt, immense multitudes of the human race, of the 
 most diverse nations, nations differing by every con- 
 ceivable variety of custom, history, and culture, but 
 including amongst them all the most pre-eminent in 
 modern science and civilization, have somehow come 
 
 revelation which began and ended in the person of its first teacher, 
 which none of his successors dare add to or take away from. But, 
 as that revelation does not take the form of an autobiography, it 
 follows that there is no narrative of the acts of the prophet which 
 can claim Divine authority. But the sacred books of the Christian 
 revelation are biographical ; they are not the writings of the founder 
 of Christianity, but records of His life, in which His discourses are 
 recorded among His other actions. Certain other of the writings 
 of His earliest followers are also held to be of equal authority with 
 the records of His own life. The Jewish law comes to us in a 
 third shape : it is a code incorporated in a history, a history 
 which orthodox belief looks on as an autobiography. But in 
 this case the revelation is not confined to the first lawgiver him- 
 self, or to his immediate followers : an equal authority, a like 
 Divine origin, is held to belong to a mass of later writings of 
 various ages, which are joined with those of the original lawgiver, 
 to form the sacred books of the first dispensation. In short, the 
 Mahommedan accepts nothing as of Divine authority, except the 
 personal utterances of his prophet, taken down in his lifetime. 
 With the Jew and the Christian the actual discourses of Moses 
 and of Christ form only a portion of the writings which he ac- 
 cepts as the sacred books of his faith." " British Quarterly 
 Review," Jan. i, 1872. Pp. in, 112. 
 
158 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 to regard the Bible as intelligibly one ; as possessing 
 unique and pervading characteristics of sentiment 
 and doctrine, structure and style ; a coherence of pur- 
 pose and design, which both discriminate it from all 
 other books and proclaim its own identity : all this 
 in spite of that wonderful composite authorship, and 
 very gradual formation, just referred to. In this delu- 
 sion, if it be one, many of the greatest names in all 
 these communities, names illustrious in every sense, 
 for genius, for learning, for intellectual power, for 
 moral worth, have deliberately, and after prolonged 
 study, shared. It is true that the bulk of those who 
 have believed this have also regarded the book as con- 
 taining, in some sense, a " Divine Revelation," and 
 therefore as being divinely inspired, either in whole or 
 in part. But it is not necessary here to canvass the 
 justice of this conclusion. Whether such a view be 
 true or false, is here irrelevant ; I am simply consider- 
 ing whether there are solid grounds for this so general 
 impression of the unity of the book. A priori, indeed, 
 we may be almost sure there must be some plausible 
 reasons for it, otherwise it would be difficult to imagine 
 either how the idea of a " Divine Revelation " should 
 have clung to this fabric of fragments, or if such a 
 crude notion had been adopted in ages of ignorance 
 and superstition, why it should not long since have 
 vanished away in that searching scrutiny to which it 
 has been subjected. One would expect that the folly 
 of any such view would have been proved a thousand 
 times over out of the book itself, which, if it be a 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 159 
 
 fortuitous aggregate of heterogeneous writings, must, 
 from its very mode of formation, give such infinite 
 advantages to its assailants. 
 
 Whether the Hebrew literature, for example, as some 
 have supposed, was much more voluminous than its 
 extant fragments, or really consisted of very little that 
 is not incorporated in the books of the Old Testament 
 itself, 1 there would seem no reason, if it was the product 
 of simple natural causes (like those which developed 
 the Greek, Roman, and other literatures), why the idea 
 of unity should have so obstinately attached to a certain 
 number of its fragments, of widely different contents 
 and of far distant dates. 
 
 The Greek or Roman literature probably contains 
 a hundred times the mass of all that is extant in the 
 ancient Hebrew. Yet it is not within the compass of 
 the human imagination to conceive, that if only a 
 portion of either literature, equal to the Bible, had 
 survived, but containing fragments by as many different 
 authors as have composed that, such a volume could 
 have been supposed to be one. By no process, let us 
 shuffle the more copious existing materials as we may, 
 or exercise the most discriminating arts of selection, 
 could we compile a melange equal in bulk to the Bible, 
 that could for a moment cheat any ordinary mind into 
 the belief that it formed an organic whole ; much less 
 impose on many millions of mankind of different races 
 
 1 A few works of Hebrew authorship, as for example, certain 
 historic, poetic, and didactic compositions (more especially those 
 ascribed to Solomon), are no longer extant ; but there is no reason 
 to suppose they were very numerous. 
 
160 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 and epochs, including among them thousands of the 
 most illustrious for genius and learning. By no mani- 
 pulation, by choosing a poem here and an oration there, 
 a piece of history as one element in the fabric, and a 
 play as another, so as to give, on the whole, some- 
 thing like the same variety of form, matter, and 
 authorship which we find in the Bible, and as far as 
 possible a similar diversity of dates, could we effect 
 even the faintest approach to that semblance of unity 
 which such vast multitudes have' found in the Scrip- 
 tures. 
 
 Nor is the wonder at all diminished if we suppose 
 that the Hebrew literature contained little but what 
 has been incorporated in this one book. If that was all 
 their literature, and the effect of purely human causes, 
 it would show, indeed, that the Hebrew pen was not 
 very fertile ; but there would be no more reason than 
 before why the Jewish people, and still less so many 
 other people, should fancy that nearly all that scanty 
 literature (though on widely different subjects, and by 
 authors living centuries apart) was linked together 
 by a common object and pervaded by an essential 
 unity. 
 
 Should it be supposed that the Hebrews regarded 
 nearly all their literature as sacred, and so conceived 
 it to have unity ; this is contradicted by fact, for they 
 certainly did not incorporate in the book all else they 
 wrote, whether much or little. Moreover, the books 
 that have been selected for this honour (as I have 
 had occasion to notice more fully in a preceding 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 161 
 
 lecture), are full of matter which national vanity must 
 vehemently resent, and, if it could, would willingly 
 forget. This is notoriously the case with the largest 
 and most important of them, with the Pentateuch, 
 books of Judges, Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, the 
 prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. If the 
 facts they record be not true, they are the most cruel 
 collection of libels with which any people was ever 
 branded ; and if not history, but romance, if merely 
 the natural, and yet most unnatural product of certain 
 perverse minds among them, one can hardly imagine 
 the patriotism of their countrymen excessively solicitous 
 to find either "sacredness" or "unity" about these 
 books, much less jealously to watch over their inviolate 
 preservation, and least of all to revere them as origi- 
 nating in nothing less than Divine inspiration ! 
 
 However, even if the Jewish ascription of unity to 
 these writings could be solved by any such theory, 
 it would not account for the equally obstinate belief 
 which has led so many other nations, utterly without 
 sympathy with them, nay, by original traditions and 
 associations, in intense antipathy to them, to imitate 
 their fatuity, and cherish the same delusion. 
 
 Somewhat similar observations will apply to the 
 multifarious contents of the New Testament, and still 
 more to the Old and New Testaments together. 
 
 It is then, I think, a natural presumption that there 
 must be some very plausible reasons which, under the 
 most diverse circumstances, have led such multitudes 
 (including among them so many of the greatest minds, 
 
 12 
 
1 62 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 exercising the most deliberate judgment) to see a pre- 
 vailing unity in this series of fragments. Unless this 
 had been the case, that obstinacy of belief which 
 attaches to the supposed unity of these writings could 
 hardly have been proof against the rigorous criticism 
 which has subjected them to an infinitely more severe 
 ordeal than any other writings in the world. The 
 works alone that have been written against them 
 would make a library far greater than all the literature 
 of Greece and Rome, taken many times over. 
 
 No such unity as is justly attributed to the writings 
 of such men as Confucius or Mahomet, furnishes any 
 parallel. The cases differ toto ccelo. The Mahometans, 
 for example, very rightly regard the Koran as one, for 
 it is so : let the discrepancies, or contradictions, or 
 extravagancies be what they may, it was the work, 
 though composed and given to the world in fragments, 
 of one mind. The world did not make the unity, 
 it simply acknowledged it. But if the Bible be not 
 one, those who believe it to be so have made it so ; and 
 if they made it so without reason, we ought to be able 
 to assign some sufficient cause for this singular con- 
 sentaneousness of hallucination. If the Bible is a 
 mere collection of " shreds and patches; " if its books 
 really originated in purely natural causes, and have 
 no internal cohesion, other than belongs to human 
 writings produced in the course of many centuries 
 by the same nation ; there would seem no more reason 
 why the book of Deuteronomy, the prophecies of 
 Isaiah, the Gospel of Mark, and the Epistle to the 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 163 
 
 Romans should have been imagined to form parts of 
 one book, than why a collection of a score or two of 
 fragments from any other literature should be so 
 considered. The Bible, in fact, is a "Miscellany" 
 a very various one. The question is, why, with so 
 wide a consensus, it should ever have been supposed 
 to be anything else ? 
 
 Among the indications, then, of this unity, must be 
 reckoned, though it is only a presumption, the general 
 and obstinate persuasion that it exists. 
 
 But whatever presumption of unity may be inferred 
 from this singular concurrence, it can be of little avail 
 unless confirmed by indications in the contents of the 
 book itself. A few, and only a few of these, I will now 
 enumerate. Some of them I have had occasion to 
 advert to under another aspect and for another pur- 
 pose, namely, when endeavouring to show that the 
 Bible is distinguished by certain uniform character- 
 istics, which could not be expected, a priori, in any 
 book of man's making. Now, some of these, not 
 simply as unique, viewed relatively to human nature, 
 but as pervading the book, also suggest its unity. I 
 shall simply remind the reader of some of them with- 
 out dwelling on them. For example : I. The fact that 
 the Bible is, as Butler says emphatically, "the book 
 of God," in the sense of being exclusively dedicated to 
 Him and His claims. 2. The subordination of its 
 contents to this conception. 3. The indissoluble con- 
 nection everywhere maintained between religion and 
 morals. 4. The uniform reticence of Scripture on 
 
 12 * 
 
164 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 topics which merely tend to gratify curiosity, and 
 on which other books of professed revelation have 
 been singularly copious. Some other particulars in 
 the first two lectures, considered as uniform traits of 
 the book, in the same manner suggest its unity. 
 
 A trait closely related to the first three of these 
 peculiarities, and in like manner pervading the book, 
 argues the same thing. It is this : that God is there 
 represented as establishing a great spiritual kingdom, 
 an " imperium in imperio," separate from, but also 
 existing in the midst of, His universal providential 
 empire, in which are enrolled, without any restriction 
 of political or social or intellectual differences among 
 men, or rather in contempt of these, as well as of all 
 conventional distinctions, all who from the heart un- 
 feignedly recognise, in proportion to their light, the 
 principles of that spiritual government, and act upon 
 them. Those who, wherever they are found, 1 un- 
 feignedly love and obey God, and give Him, in 
 thought and act, the supremacy He claims, are re- 
 presented as the true aristocracy of this world, the 
 elite of humanity. He is represented as gathering all 
 
 1 " Of a truth I perceive God is no respecter of persons ; but in 
 every nation he that feareth Him and worketh righteousness, is 
 accepted with Him." Acts x. 34, 35. This, and other texts, con- 
 clusively and delightfully prove to me that there are those who will 
 be saved by the Gospel who yet never heard of it by means of that 
 sincere, conscientious use of the modicum of light afforded to them, 
 which is the germ of all " faith " and goodness. The helianthus is 
 said to turn towards the sun, though clouds may partially veil him ; 
 and the sincere soul, like the plant shut up in darkness, will struggle 
 towards the light, even though it stream only through hole or 
 cranny ; and that determines it to be " a child of light," though it 
 can only attain its maturity under other conditions. 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 165 
 
 such into one community ; " enriching heaven from the 
 spoils of earth," and constituting a "kingdom" which, 
 as " it cannot be moved," so is it worthy of being 
 " immovable." For it is to be composed exclusively 
 of those who, trained for self-government by inflexible 
 rectitude of will and habitual subjection to an en- 
 lightened intellect and conscience, can dispense with 
 the mechanical bonds and ligaments of this world's 
 governments, and those irksome restraints and dis- 
 cipline which imply a remaining reluctance to duty, 
 an imperfect virtue which needs to be still artificially 
 guarded. This kingdom, being spiritual, is therefore 
 a true and genuine dominion, where loyalty is the 
 loyalty of the heart, and obedience the obedience of 
 the will. 
 
 Now I am not arguing that this is a conception 
 that will be actually realised, though I believe it will. 
 But that it is a very sublime one, looking on all 
 other kingdoms as but the shadow of the true, the 
 field of the world as but the nursery of a paradise 
 better than Eden, few will deny. I might have ad- 
 verted to it in the earlier lectures as a trait which, 
 considering man's religious history in general, he was 
 not likely to exhibit in any system of religion conceived 
 by him. But not wishing to press any topic too much, 
 I refrained from looking at it in that light, nor will 
 I now insist that the conception is beyond what the 
 human mind might have originated. Nay, for aught I 
 am at present concerned, it is quite open for people 
 to say, though I think few but Plato's Thrasymachus 
 
1 66 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 would say it, that there is nothing sublime about it ; 
 that physical power is as good as moral; that they 
 would as soon reign over a kingdom of slaves as of free- 
 men, or of men who obeyed reluctantly as of those who 
 obeyed from love. All I am now arguing for is that 
 such a peculiar conception pervading the Bible, though 
 it be made up of fragments by different writers, with 
 chasms of centuries between them, may be urged as an 
 argument for its unity. And it is further strengthened 
 if we consider, not only that the conception pervades 
 the successive fragments of the book, but that it 
 is developed very gradually, and grows with the book 
 itself. Such a conception, had it been equally pro- 
 minent from the beginning, might not have been less 
 unique, contrasting the Bible with other books ; but 
 it would hardly have been so strong an argument for 
 its unity, for the several writers mi^ht be thought to 
 have derived their conception from one another. But 
 the very mode in which the idea is developed precludes 
 this. It is by many gradual steps. The light " shining 
 more and more to the perfect day," and passing from 
 twilight to dawn, and from dawn to noon, is the fitting 
 image of its growth. 
 
 The general results which the multitudes who have 
 studied the book with the most diligent and persevering 
 efforts to comprehend its meaning, pretty generally 
 coincide in, are these: that man, reduced to a con- 
 dition of guilt and misery which estranged him from 
 God, received a promise coeval with the calamity itself 
 that some Deliverer bearing the nature of man, and of 
 
IV .] in the Bible. 167 
 
 " woman born," should be sent into the world, charged 
 with the functions of rescuing him from the con- 
 sequences of his apostacy. Nothing more is said ; the 
 oracle is silent for a long time. The promise, indeed, 
 is not vague ; it is clear as far as it goes : the subse- 
 quent announcements are like it ; clear, but imperfect, 
 marked by very gradual augmentations of light. A 
 particular race, we are told, is selected to be the de- 
 positary of the great fact, and of the elements of all 
 true religion, while the world in general is sunk in the 
 darkest and most hideous idolatries. That such a 
 temporary ark for the great truths of religion was 
 absolutely necessary, would appear, not only from the 
 fact that the rest of the world was involved in religious 
 delusions, but that man universally was so prone to 
 them, that even the " chosen nation " itself, in spite 
 of all its peculiar safeguards, again and again obsti- 
 nately relapsed into idolatry. 
 
 Centuries after the first promise was given, a voice 
 was heard declaring that the promised Deliverer was to 
 be of the lineage of Abraham, but with no restriction 
 of benefit to his race : on the contrary, it is said that 
 in " him shall all the families of the earth be blessed." 
 Long after, another oracle declared that He was to be 
 in the line of Jacob. At this patriarch's death, it 
 seems obscurely intimated that amongst his many sons 
 Judah is the one in whose line the promised Messiah 
 is to appear. The oracle is again silent for long ; but 
 in due time further intimations are given which succes- 
 sively limit ths meaning of the promise, and the light 
 
i68 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 converges to a focus. We are told that the Deliverer 
 is to come in the line of David ; the place of His birth 
 is also intimated, and writers, one after another, gra- 
 dually disclose many other circumstances concerning 
 his character and history; that He is to be a lawgiver, 
 as was Moses ; that He is to be a priest, not of the 
 lineage of Aaron, but of the tribe of Judah, and with 
 some undisclosed attributes which are to assimilate his 
 priesthood to that of Melchizedek. They also gradually 
 give hints as to the nature of His kingdom ; that, 
 though springing out of the Jewish dispensation, and 
 grafted upon it, it was to be by no means conterminous 
 with it or limited by it ; that, on the contrary, it was 
 to be cosmopolitan, throw down the invidious " par- 
 tition " walls between Jew and Gentile, and open the 
 privileges of God's people to all nations. They also 
 intimate with increasing clearness the spiritual and 
 moral characteristics of this kingdom; that, founded on 
 truth, it would aspire to exercise dominion over the 
 hearts and consciences of men ; that literal compliance 
 or reluctant obedience had no moral significance, much 
 less mere outward rite and ceremony ; that these last 
 could be of no value except as really expressive of 
 devotion to the moral truths they symbolized ; and 
 that this spiritual economy would have the reality and 
 substance of what had before existed only in "type" 
 and " shadow." 
 
 After the last of the writers of the Old Testament 
 had spoken, there was a silence again for no less than 
 four centuries, and when the New Testament opens, it 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 169 
 
 is to tell us that the great Deliverer was come ; that 
 in Him the various tokens, which had been predicted 
 of Him in the course of so many ages, met. In confir- 
 mation of this it proceeds to give the history of His life, 
 death, character, and many details of His teaching and 
 doctrine. He assumes the character assigned Him, 
 and declares He is come to set up that spiritual king- 
 dom of which so many seeming prognostications had 
 been given, the " kingdom not of this world." Un- 
 like other monarchs, He claims nothing less than 
 the obedience of love ; and, in fact, His true dominion 
 begins where all others end in that interior realm of 
 thought and feeling which earthly potentates cannot 
 reach. 
 
 The New Testament goes on to give us the history 
 of the commencement of this kingdom in the world ; 
 attracting to itself, and incorporating with itself, all 
 such as spontaneously accepted this new allegiance, 
 and were willing to live in accordance with the laws 
 its great Spiritual Potentate prescribed. It tells us 
 that these, continually increasing in number, are to 
 form a kingdom which shall silently subsist among all 
 other kingdoms, and be unshaken by the causes which 
 ruin them ; that it shall survive them ; and that, at 
 last, all its subjects, gathered from the heterogeneous 
 kingdoms of this world, and invested with immortality, 
 shall be translated into a world that shall be meet for 
 such occupants, " a new heaven and a new earth, 
 wherein dwelleth righteousness." 
 
 That the idea of such a kingdom, however chime- 
 
170 Indications of Unity [LECT, 
 
 rical it may be deemed, is a very sublime conception, 
 few, I think, will dispute : that even now, as a m itter 
 of fact, Christ exercises a more various dominion, and 
 attracts more love, than any monarch of history ; has 
 more subjects that are willing to signalise their loyalty, 
 if need be, by dying for Him ; is, I think, as little 
 liable to dispute. 1 But it is not on the truth of any 
 such conception that I am now insisting : let it, if 
 the reader will, be a dream. I am merely pointing 
 it out, as one of the singularities of the book, that 
 this conception is found there ; and that being 
 gradually developed by a number of authors, writing 
 at far distant times and places, and without any 
 possibility of concert, it confirms the argument for 
 its unity. 
 
 That this representation of the contents of the book, 
 so far as I have gone, coincides with what the great bulk 
 of those who have most sedulously studied it imagine 
 to be its significance, will be admitted ; that in most 
 men's judgment it clearly declares more than all this, 
 and tells us much as to the means by which the Founder 
 of this spiritual kingdom proposes to work out His 
 design, and give efficacy to His doctrines, will also 
 be generally granted. But I have confined myself to 
 the conclusion which the vast majority, who profess 
 to interpret the book as a whole, concur in finding 
 there. 
 
 1 The reported sentiments of Napoleon I. in reference to the 
 grandeur and solidity of Christ's empire and he had well learnt by 
 experience its contrasts with his own are admirably commented on 
 by Liddon in his Bampton Lectures. Pp. 222-225. 8vo. Ed. 1867. 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 171 
 
 Shall we say that it is all a dream, that the book 
 contains nothing of the kind, or that all who have 
 thought so have gone mad together ? If this be 
 thought incredible, then how shall we account for the 
 delusion ? By chance ? Who can compute the chances 
 against it ? By concert of the writers ? The mode 
 in which the book has been constructed, its gradual 
 composition, makes this impossible. 
 
 I do not here enter on the question, whether the 
 facts of history have at all corresponded with the 
 representations of the book. I have briefly touched 
 on the subject in the previous part of this lecture, 
 and content myself with saying that the degree in 
 which that conformity may be truly affirmed is one 
 of the singularities with which the book is encom- 
 passed, and of which the philosopher may be asked 
 to give some account. At present, for anything my 
 argument requires, Christianity may be a failure in 
 the world ; the " spiritual kingdom," of which the 
 book is supposed to speak, hardly commenced, or 
 regarded as an absolute delusion. 
 
 But in proportion as it may be deemed chimerical, let 
 us recollect in that proportion is the incredibility of 
 such a chimera entering any head, much less the heads 
 of a succession of men, whose writings must be sup- 
 posed to have only an arbitrary connection, and who 
 lived centuries apart from one another. 
 
 I turn to another topic. On the supposition that 
 the Bible is an accretion of casual writings, arbitrarily 
 linked together, and without any pervading unity, it 
 
172 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 would not appear easy to account for the many latent 
 " correspondencies " (as they may be called) between 
 statements which occur in very different portions, and 
 often at wide intervals, in the sacred books, anymore 
 than for the " undesigned coincidences " in the historic 
 portions, which also tend to prove the same thing. 
 These " correspondencies " seem too remote in place 
 or time, or too oblique in their reciprocal reference, 
 to be the result of human art, and yet are connected 
 by such refined links that we cannot regard them as 
 accidental or arbitrary insertions. I will content my- 
 self with taking two or three instances, just as spe- 
 cimens, though I might give as many scores. 
 
 The expression, " And the veil of the temple was 
 rent," is dropped in the most casual manner. And 
 where ? It occurs in the midst of the most intensely 
 interesting narrative, that of the crucifixion and 
 death of Christ, which it suddenly arrests. Apart 
 from the reality of such an occurrence, and a con- 
 viction of its significance (this last only to be cleared 
 up to the reader, however, by subsequent disclosures 
 of the bearing of Christianity on Judaism), it seems 
 inconceivable how a writer, whether of fiction or of 
 history, should have paused at such a moment, and 
 without any comment, to insert this parenthetical 
 irrelevance; or if he invented the incident as a deep 
 stroke of art, that he should not have paused to connect 
 it with the narrative which it so abruptly interrupts. 
 Yet when we consider -the symbolic significance 
 of that "veil," how it was designed to seclude the 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 173 
 
 " Shechinah " from the gaze of all but the high priest, 
 and from him in every hour of the year but one; 
 that it indicated that restricted access to God which 
 the new dispensation was designed to abolish for ever ; 
 that its characteristic function ceased at the death of 
 Christ, and contemporaneously with the cry, " It is 
 finished ; " that the rending of it proclaimed that 
 henceforth the way to the " Holy of Holies " was 
 laid open, and every one, " worshipping God in spirit 
 and in truth," was welcome to the " throne of grace ; " 
 we see that the incident becomes profoundly significant. 
 It quadrates with the intimations given in the Old 
 Testament of the symbolism of the " Holy of Holies," 
 and with the reasoning of the author of the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews, who without mentioning on his part the 
 incident of the Gospels, shows us what the veil was 
 designed to typify. But it is the isolation of the in- 
 cident, in itself considered, the perfectly unnatural 
 manner (supposing it either not true, or the writer 
 not aware of its significance) in which it is intruded 
 in a narration of such transcendent interest, without 
 preparation and without comment, that suggests the 
 idea of "undesigned correspondence" with those other 
 statements of Scripture with which it is so consen- 
 taneous. 
 
 Another correspondence, or rather series of corre- 
 spondencies, is found in the mode in which Melchizedek 
 is connected with Christ. I may remark in passing 
 that the original abruptness with which that " priest 
 of the most High God" is introduced to us, the equally 
 
174 Indications of Unity LECT. 
 
 sudden manner in which he is dismissed, all that we 
 know of him being confined to that one incident in 
 Genesis ; is (as may be said of so many other inci- 
 dental passages of the Biblical narrative) an argument 
 for historic reality ; it being, apart from that reality, a 
 thing perfectly unimaginable that a writer would have 
 thought of thrusting into the narrative an invention so 
 utterly irrelevant ; and, moreover (as regarded by a 
 Jew), not very flattering, since, as the writer of the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews shows, Melchizedek is re- 
 presented as receiving the homage of the great pro- 
 genitor of the race. However, the name of Melchi- 
 zedek emerges but a moment from deep obscurity, and 
 night falls upon it again. It is as a shadow passing 
 for a moment along an illuminated portion of a wall 
 on a dark night : the outline of some figure silently 
 steals out of the gloom into the line of illumination, 
 and vanishes into the darkness again. The eclipse 
 here is long indeed ; for we hear no more of Melchize- 
 dek for many hundred years, and then once, and once 
 only, till after the close of the Old Testament canon. 
 In the second verse of Psalm ex., generally regarded 
 and even by many critics slow to trace Messianic 
 vestiges as a prophecy of the Messiah, a solitary 
 voice proclaims, " I have made thee a priest for ever 
 after the order of Melchizedek." The oracle is again 
 silent for about another five hundred years ; and then 
 Christ once more recals it, by asking the Pharisees 
 the meaning of it, and not obscurely indicating that 
 the reference is to the Messiah, though without 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 175 
 
 saying who that Messiah is. Some thirty or forty 
 more years pass after Christ's death, and then for the 
 first time an ingenious interpretation of this obscure 
 phrase, and of the allusions to Melchizedek generally, 
 a raison d'etre of the.ir place in the Jewish history, is 
 given to the reader. Whether it is the true interpreta- 
 tion or not, I am not now discussing; but I think it is 
 impossible even for a sceptic not to admit that it very 
 ingeniously draws the parallel between Melchizedek 
 and Christ. The points of resemblance are various, 
 and suggest an account of the obscure and detached 
 allusions found so far apart, which, if not true, does 
 credit to the writer's powers of invention. The history 
 makes Melchizedek superior to Abraham (who was the 
 head of the Jewish race, and from whom the Aaronic 
 priesthood was to descend), in representing him as 
 receiving " tithes " of the "father of the faithful." 
 From the abrupt manner in which he is ushered into 
 the history and vanishes from it, from no mention being 
 made of his lineage or posterity, he serves to adum- 
 brate the mysterious origin of Christ, and His mys- 
 terious future when He left the world. No mention 
 being made " of father or mother," his priesthood did 
 not depend on lineage, whereas it was essential to 
 the validity of the order of the Jewish priest that 
 he should be able to trace his pedigree to Aaron. 
 Further, as Melchizedek (so far as appears) derived 
 his priesthood from no predecessor and bequeathed 
 it to no successor, he, unlike the Jewish priests, ex- 
 ercised it for an indeterminate period. In all this he 
 
176 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 is a shadow of Christ, who was not in the line of 
 Aaron, and fulfils His functions without restriction of 
 time. 
 
 I am not attempting to prove that the reasoning of 
 the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews is correct, 
 though I fully believe it is. I am simply solicitous 
 to point out the singular " correspondencies " which are 
 here found between hints so obscure and so various, 
 given at such distant intervals and by such widely 
 different writers, and which it is hardly imaginable 
 that any fortuity (contrivance is out of the question) 
 should have brought together. Who will compute the 
 chances against all these notices, fragmentary and 
 unconnected as they are, in the different documents, 
 being thus ingeniously combined ? x 
 
 To take one other instance. Let us consider the 
 account in Matthew and Luke of the Temptation of 
 Christ. It is an isolated narrative. Nothing seems 
 founded upon it in other parts of Scripture, nor is 
 any distinct reference made to it. His whole life, 
 indeed, considering how it was spent, might be called 
 one long temptation; to anger, scorn, impatience, 
 repining ; temptation such as none can conceive, if 
 He could indeed penetrate all the depths of evil in 
 the hearts of men, and shudderingly recoiled from all 
 contact with it. There does not, therefore, seem 
 anything that would naturally suggest this peculiar 
 scene. But when it is recollected, on the other hand, 
 that it is elsewhere declared to be absolutely neces- 
 1 Appendix, No. V. 
 
iv.j in the Bible. 177 
 
 sary, and part of Christ's function, that He should 
 endure, in all their variety and extremity, the tempta- 
 tions to which we are subject ; that, having been thus 
 tried, He might sympathise with us, be " able to 
 succour them that are tempted," to "have compassion 
 on the ignorant and them that are out of the way," 
 be capable of being "touched with the feeling of 
 our infirmities, having been in all points tempted 
 like as we are, though without sin ; " and when we 
 recollect, on the other hand, that if we, like Him, 
 would be victorious over temptation, we are told 
 we must take into our hands the " sword of the 
 Spirit, which is the word of God," recalling and 
 applying in the hour of conflict all the motives which 
 it presents ; it is impossible not to feel how congruous, 
 at least, all this is with that brief scene in which all 
 the keenest bolts from the quiver of the Evil One, 
 those aimed at the chiefly vulnerable parts of our 
 nature at appetite, cupidity, vain-glory, ambition, and 
 presumption, are said to be launched against Christ ; 
 and where in every case the victory is represented as 
 won by the same weapon, the appeal to the word of 
 God : " It is written it is written it is written." 
 
 I am not now arguing for the reality of the narrative, 
 nor pretending to solve any of the difficulties which, 
 at first sight, would seem to preclude the possibility 
 of Christ's being the subject of temptation. Suffice it 
 to say that He is represented as being truly man ; and 
 therefore whosoever receives that fact, whatever else 
 he may believe Him to be, must acknowledge that 
 
 13 
 
178 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 He was liable to temptation. Nor is it difficult to 
 show that, however impeccable, He might at least 
 receive from the presentation of temptation under the 
 pressure of those sufferings and privations which so 
 generally give it its power over us that vivid sense 
 of our temptations, and of the conflict they necessitate, 
 which only experience can impart. 1 
 
 But I am here merely pointing out how this sin- 
 gular episode, standing out as it does in bold relief, 
 with no key to its bearing on any other transactions 
 of Christ's life, harmonises with the representations 
 of subsequent pages of the New Testament and its 
 development of the entire doctrines of Christianity. 
 It seems not difficult to perceive a keeping in the whole, 
 for which neither fiction nor fortuity will account. 
 
 Of course, the argument I am now pressing is not 
 founded on the singularity of any one instance of 
 " correspondence," but on the aggregate of them. 
 They abound in almost every part of the book, and 
 would easily fill a volume. 
 
 To the same effect I might, perhaps, adduce the 
 
 1 We see this illustrated in some degree, and in one point or 
 other, even in our ordinary humanity. There is many a poor but 
 virtuous man, who would sooner face starvation than rob ; but if he 
 has been, on some dire occasion, compelled to make the election, 
 he will ever after have a very different measure of thai temptation 
 though he was incapable of being conquered by it from that of 
 him who, also honest, has never known anything but ease and 
 plenty. And there is many an honourable merchant, who would 
 sooner be a martyr than a forger ; but if solicited, in an hour of 
 impending ruin, to save himself or family by some act of dishonour 
 though he might be in no danger of succumbing to the tempta- 
 tion he would know how to appraise it as he never did before. 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 179 
 
 great number of instances in which what are called 
 "types and shadows" in the Old Testament are 
 interpreted, and apparently without violence, to point 
 to certain facts and doctrines of the New as their 
 " reality " and " substance." Large parts of the 
 complex machinery of Jewish institutions have, at all 
 events, seemed to immense numbers of the wise and 
 learned to be too curiously and artificially " analogous " 
 with the chief facts of Christianity to have too much 
 of a " mortise and tenon " relation about them to be 
 accounted for by accident or by a besotted exegesis 1 . 
 " This," says Davison, 1 " is the virtue and striking pro- 
 perty of the Mosaic types, especially that principal one 
 of sacrifice, that they do reflect so clear and unequi- 
 vocal an image of the Gospel system, when once they 
 are confronted with it. Their cryptic characters are 
 illuminated, and their latent import is called forth." 2 
 Still as it is probable, on the one hand, that few would 
 attach the due value to this argument for the unity of 
 Scripture, until they had already admitted arguments 
 more direct and obvious ; and as, on the other, it 
 is a topic which the extravagance of allegorical inter- 
 preters in all ages has only been too prone to abuse, 
 I will not dwell on it further. 
 
 I might also mention, in this place, as confirmatory 
 of my present argument, the general effect of those 
 undesigned "coincidences" of statement, which have 
 
 1 Lectures on Prophecy, p. 100. 
 
 2 This subject is beautifully illustrated in the sermon of the 
 Rev. Thomas Binney, to which I have already made a reference, 
 "The Law our Schoolmaster." (See particularly pp. 295-300.) 
 
 13* 
 
180 Indications of Unity [LECT. 
 
 been traced between different portions of Scripture ; in- 
 ferring not only the credibility of these separate portions, 
 but, if that be admitted, a consequent reciprocal con- 
 nection between the books in which they are found. 
 These coincidences have been elaborately traced in 
 the Evangelists as compared with one another, in the 
 Acts as compared with Paul's epistles, and in the 
 several books of the Pentateuch. There is no reason 
 to suppose that they are yet exhausted, and they 
 may hereafter disclose relations of similar signifi- 
 cance between other parts of the Bible. This mine, 
 which has yielded so many contributions to the 
 evidence, was only opened by Paley, in his " Horse 
 Paulinae," about eighty years ago ; and the copious 
 and important additions which have been made by 
 Blunt and others, give us ground to think that the 
 vein is by no means worked out. 
 
 I might further argue the "unity" of the Bible 
 from a certain tone and manner which generally per- 
 vade these writers, and which are not found in the 
 same degree in any other ; as also from a certain 
 resemblance of style, which, however undeniable the 
 differences that discriminate the various authors 
 and attest their individuality, is perceptible in the 
 compositions of Scripture in general; a diapason 
 which runs through all its complex strain of har- 
 mony. It is heard, as the surge of ocean is heard 
 above the many-voiced winds which sweep over its 
 surface. It is not without reason that critics have 
 spoken of the " Bible style." 
 
iv.] in the Bible. 181 
 
 But as this lecture is already sufficiently long, and 
 as the two last topics, however they may suggest 
 some arguments for the " unity of the Bible," are 
 more naturally connected with its peculiarities of 
 structure and of style, I reserve what I have to say 
 upon them to subsequent lectures. 
 
 Meantime, if there be unity in the Bible, then, 
 from the mode of its composition, it is not a book 
 that man could have made, if he would. 1 
 1 Appendix, No. VI. 
 
LECTURE V. 
 
 REPLY TO SOME OBJECTIONS FOUNDED' ON THE 
 FORM AND STRUCTURE OF THE BIBLE. 
 
LECTURE V. 
 
 A REPLY TO OBJECTIONS FOUNDED ON CERTAIN PECU- 
 LIARITIES OF FORM AND STRUCTURE EXHIBITED 
 IN THE BIBLE. 
 
 THOUGH my principal object in the present 
 lecture is to obviate certain objections, I hope 
 it will not be entirely without matter which may 
 contribute to the main purpose of my present line 
 of argument. 
 
 It is impossible to open the Bible without being 
 struck with the variety of its form and contents. It 
 was composed by manifold authors, writing at far dis- 
 tant dates, in different languages, in the most diverse 
 circumstances, and with the usual peculiarities of in- 
 dividual genius. Though there is, as I have said in 
 the last lecture, a general resemblance of style which 
 pervades the Scriptures, there is also the distinct 
 idiosyncratic impress of many minds. If there be 
 harmony, it is the harmony of a large orchestra"! 
 where the instruments, however in unison, are yet / 
 plainly distinguishable from one another. Further, 
 these authors write on an immense variety of subjects, 
 and the form of their compositions is as various as 
 
1 86 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 their matter. Narrative and poetry of various kinds, 
 history and biography, odes and hymns, writings 
 devoted to simply didactic purposes, familiar letters 
 all are there ; in short, nearly all the compositions 
 which, as addressed to the several faculties of the 
 human mind, and evoked by them, naturally distin- 
 guish every national literature ; but marked in this 
 case, as we shall presently see, by peculiarities 
 which do not belong to ordinary compositions of 
 (loosely speaking) the same genus in other literatures. 
 In truth, the Bible is so multifarious that, as has been 
 well said, it is rather a " library " than a " book.'* 
 
 If there be that unity about so multiform a thing, 
 for which I have argued, the inference from such 
 unity is strengthened in proportion to this variety for 
 it is in that proportion incredible that man produced 
 it. If there be unity at all, it exists in spite of this 
 variety. It is a unity, like that of some natural 
 system, that of the human body, for example, where 
 elements the most dissimilar in form, property, and 
 function, are found in juxta-position, and order reigns 
 amidst seeming confusion. If any such unity be de- 
 nied, and the book be supposed a mere conglomerate 
 of heterogeneous things, this makes it all the more un- 
 accountable that so many millions of intelligent men 
 should have been deluded into the belief of its unity. 
 
 But this very variety of authorship, form, and matter, 
 has often been urged as an objection to its supposed 
 Divine origin. "Can we imagine it worthy of Deity," 
 it is said, " to give a revelation in scraps and frag- 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 187 
 
 ments, ' here a little and there a little,' through suc- 
 cessive ages and in the most dissimilar forms?" 
 
 Though I think, with Butler, that we are not very 
 competent, except in a few points (as regards morality, 
 for example), to judge a priori of what a revelation is 
 likely to consist, still less of the forms which it may 
 possibly assume, I conceive it is not difficult to repel, 
 or at least neutralize such an objection, by the follow- 
 ing considerations. 
 
 If it be supposed incredible that God should re- 
 veal Himself by so complex an instrument, then the 
 best way is to test the objection by an appeal to 
 "analogy." The prodigious variety and consequent 
 seeming confusion of Scripture are certainly in con- 
 formity with the corresponding variety and consequent 
 seeming confusion in which the phenomena of nature 
 are submitted to man's study and contemplation. Nor 
 are the conditions on which he .has to perform his 
 office of " minister and interpreter " in either case very 
 dissimilar. 1 
 
 But I am not sure that the objection, if it be 
 really the most natural conclusion human reason 
 could arrive at, might not be pressed into the service 
 of the line of argument adopted in these lectures. 
 For it at least bears witness that man would not have 
 chosen so elaborate and complicated an instrument of 
 a professed revelation. 3 
 
 1 In a future lecture, this, as appears tome, instructive "analogy," 
 will be more fully illustrated. 
 
 2 A similar objection has been founded on what is for the most 
 part a necessary consequence of the complexity and variety of the 
 
i88 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 But, in truth, I doubt whether deliberate judgment 
 would attach any force to such an objection at all. 
 
 Bible, the unsystematic distribution of its contents. On the other 
 hand, this very quality has seemed to others a mark of superhuman 
 wisdom. Boyle has thought it worth while to reply at some length 
 to the objection ; Whately and many others have largely vin- 
 dicated the peculiarity itself. Perhaps, as the quality is the 
 natural consequence of the structure of the Bible, and its gradual 
 growth, and as, on the other hand, it is often found in other pro- 
 fessed revelations, more stress has been laid on this topic than, per 
 se, it deserves. The trait in question is not in itself a perfection ; 
 it may consist, like the phenomena of the universe, " with order," 
 but " ill understood ;" or it may imply real confusion; it may be 
 the effect of comprehensiveness and variety of purpose, or of 
 ignorance and an inconsequent logic. 
 
 But if it be made an objection that it is incredible that God could 
 have chosen such a method, then I conceive that the reasoning of 
 Boyle, in his reply to the fourth and seventh Objections to the style 
 of Scripture, and that of Whately, founded on the ends that may 
 be palpably answered by such an arrangement, is amply sufficient. 
 The principal answer, indeed, as before, is derived from " analogy." 
 We see in what way God does school us in the world He has 
 made ; how seemingly unsystematic the distribution of the phe- 
 nomena man is called to study ; and how seemingly slow and 
 desultory the lessons he is taught to learn. 
 
 But the ends to be answered by such a method are various and 
 important enough to make the objection sufficiently precarious apart 
 from this. It is quite true that the doctrines and precepts of Scrip- 
 ture are scattered up and down as different occasions call for them, 
 or suggest them; that sometimes they are conjoined, sometimes 
 detached ; doctrine without the practical inferences to which it 
 leads, precepts without the doctrinal truths from which they 
 flow ; sometimes they lie latent in the bare facts of the narrative, 
 and are to be deduced by our own sagacity, or by comparison 
 with other passages ; sometimes they are taught or confirmed by 
 oblique allusion, and seem all the more impressive for so incidental 
 a reference to them ; sometimes, as they represent progressive 
 truth, they are necessarily developed in fragments, and thus 
 the more important dogmas of the Gospel pass through all 
 stages of illumination, between twilight obscurity and the bright 
 noonday. But then, on the other hand, this method impresses 
 truth more deeply on the mind by the varied forms and constant 
 iteration with which it is presented ; it gives "line upon line and 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 189 
 
 If a man of large and cautious mind permitted 
 himself to speculate on what form a Revelation might 
 
 precept upon precept ;" it imposes on the reader the duty of 
 diligently exploring and collating the different portions of Scripture, 
 if he would rightly comprehend its contents ; it involves a 
 perpetual discipline of the intellect, and the exercise of caution, 
 patience, and humility. It prevents the mind from stagnating, 
 through too constant familiarity with, or parrot-like repetition of, 
 one unvaried, however accurate and logical, compend or syllabus 
 of religious truth. "God's wisdom," says Whately ("Errors of 
 Romanism," Essay iv. Sect. 6), "doubtless designed to guard us 
 against a danger which I think no human wisdom would have 
 foreseen the danger of indolently assenting to and committing 
 to memory * a form of sound words/ which would in a short time 
 have become no more than a form of words received with passive 
 reverence, and scrupulously retained in the mind leaving no room 
 for doubt, furnishing no call for vigilant investigation, affording no 
 stimulus to the attention, and making no vivid impression on the 
 heart. It is only when the understanding is kept on the stretch by 
 the diligent search the watchful observation the careful deduc- 
 tionwhich the Christian Scriptures call forth by their oblique, 
 incidental, and irregular mode of conveying the knowledge of 
 Christian doctrines it is then only that the feelings, and the moral 
 portion of our nature, are kept so awake as to receive the requi- 
 site impression." He elsewhere illustrates the same subject by 
 a very striking image. On the supposition that theology had been 
 taught in Scripture in the form of a logically-arranged compen- 
 dium, he observes that, "The compendium itself, being not like 
 the existing Scriptures, that from which the faith is to be learned, 
 but the very thing to be learned, would have come to be regarded 
 by most with an indolent, unthinking veneration, which would 
 have exercised little or no influence on the character. Their 
 orthodoxy would have been, as it were, petrified, like the bodies 
 of those animals we read of incrusted in the ice of the polar re- 
 gions ; firm-fixed, indeed, and preserved unchanged, but cold, 
 motionless, lifeless. It is only when our energies are roused, and 
 our faculties exercised, and our attention kept awake by an ardent 
 pursuit of truth, and anxious watchfulness against error when, 
 in short, we feel ourselves to be doing something towards acquir- 
 ing, or retaining, or improving our knowledge, it is then only that 
 that knowledge makes the requisite practical impression on the 
 heart and on the conduct." Peculiarities in the Christian Reli- 
 gion. Essay vi. p. 361. 
 
I go Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 not unnaturally assume, I am by no means sure that 
 he would not anticipate, on a survey of all its require- 
 ments, a very great complexity of structure and variety 
 of form. He might conjecture that, to answer so 
 many diverse and complicated ends, it must be not 
 simply a perspicuous, logical abstract of the great 
 truths which constitute its essential value as a Revela- 
 tion, but an exhibition of those truths in the most ver- 
 satile and flexible forms, adapted to minister to the 
 spiritual wants and aspirations of universal humanity ; 
 that being the book of all time and of " every land," it 
 would be suited to all the faculties of human nature, 
 and all the intellectual and moral varieties in indi- 
 vidual men; capable of arresting not the intellect 
 alone, but the memory, the imagination, the affections, 
 and the heart ; that it would contain spiritual aliment 
 for the wisest and the weakest among us, wisdom 
 here, so profound, that the deepest intellects cannot 
 exhaust it; there, so easy, that the child cannot miss 
 it ; aphorisms which may well employ the meditative 
 powers of a Bacon or a Pascal, poetry worthy of 
 kindling the congenial fancy of a Milton, and parables 
 which even Bunyan's allegories cannot equal ; that its 
 narratives would form such a picture of human life, 
 that the learned and the ignorant, the rude and po- 
 lished, age and childhood, the happy and the sorrow- 
 ful, would hang over them with equal delight, as they 
 saw reflected in that mirror the image of their own 
 various nature, and the methods of Divine providence 
 in dealing with it. He might conjecture that it would 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 191 
 
 be a book which should exhibit the most various truths 
 in the most various forms "line upon line and precept 
 upon precept" so as both to be its own best com- 
 mentary, and bid defiance to any successful tampering 
 with its text; a book which, in addition to all this, 
 should contain within itself in its very structure in 
 its undesigned harmonies of part with part, and in 
 remote coincidences with the history of that world 
 with which its own is implicated, some of the very 
 chief proofs of its own superhuman origin; and, lastly, 
 that it would be composed in such a style (everywhere 
 generically the same, while yet bearing the specific 
 imprint of the different minds that were employed 
 upon it) as to adapt itself, with flexible ease, for 
 transfusion into every dialect of man. 
 
 If really fitted to answer all this variety of ends, it 
 must, like the outward universe, be exceedingly complex 
 in its structure and various in its contents ; nor need it 
 surprise us that these last, like those of the material 
 world, should exist in seeming glorious confusion ; 
 but in confusion like that of Eden, where was every 
 tree that was good for food, or that could minister to 
 beauty and delight not planted with the stiff formality 
 of a little Dutch garden, but as described in the vivid 
 words of him who sang it as if he had seen it : 
 
 " Flowers worthy of Paradise, which not nice art 
 In beds and curious knots, but Nature boon 
 Poured forth profuse on hill and dale and plain, 
 Both where the morning sun first warmly smote 
 The open fields, and where the unpierced shade 
 Imbrowned the noontide hours." 
 
192 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 Now assuming, for argument's sake, the Bible to be 
 a Revelation, I apprehend that our supposed critic, 
 on inspection of the principal elements of which it 
 consists, their proportions, and the different purposes 
 they seem adapted to answer, would say that it met 
 in a high degree the conditions of his speculation. 
 I have no space to enter into such extended investi- 
 gation here ; but I am tempted to take a single illus- 
 tration from the manifold adaptations to the surmised 
 ends of such a Revelation, presented in that element 
 of the Bible which is by far the largest and the most 
 important, I mean, narrative. 
 
 The staple of the book is history and biography, 
 which in fact make up about four-fifths of the whole. 
 This alone sharply discriminates it from all other so- 
 called sacred books, from which the historic element 
 is almost wholly absent. The Bible, on the other 
 hand, is professedly imbedded in human history, runs 
 parallel with it, and if true, forms the most important 
 part of it ; for all the principal dogmas themselves 
 purport to be/flc/s, and make the most significant part 
 of the history it records. 
 
 Now, in the first place, this form of composition 
 is one of the most easy and impressive vehicles of 
 conveying moral instruction ; it illustrates precept by 
 example, and appeals to the imagination as well as 
 the reason. It makes good the maxim, old as Aris- 
 totle and no doubt much older, that the things most 
 effectually and quickly learnt are those which are 
 "learned with delight." It is capable of being at 
 
v -] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 193 
 
 once understood and relished by the young and old, 
 the learned and the ignorant, and in some measure 
 equalises the condition and capacities of those who 
 read it. We all know that history has been called 
 " philosophy teaching by example : " in the case of 
 the Bible it may be truly called " theology teaching 
 by example ; " for everything is regarded in the light 
 of those great principles which characterise the entire 
 book, and which subordinate everything to the claims 
 of God, as the Creator and Sovereign of the universe. 
 It constitutes, therefore, a perpetual commentary on 
 God's providential government, and shows us, by in- 
 numerable examples, how to interpret those lessons 
 which the varying events of life, its joys and sorrows, 
 its temptations and trials, are calculated to teach us. 
 There is hardly an event, hardly a character that has 
 not its parallel in that immense picture gallery of 
 historic and biographic sketches which the Scripture 
 opens to us. The whole of life seems mirrored 
 there; nor can the attentive and candid reader fail 
 to be struck with the fact that such a panorama, in 
 which all the conditions of human life seem exhibited, 
 should be painted in so small a compass. The examples 
 range through all the ranks of social life, embrace all 
 varieties of character, and illustrate, by analogous 
 cases, almost every conceivable combination of cir- 
 cumstances in which man can be placed. It is 
 hardly possible to imagine ourselves in any situation, 
 in which that immense repertory and storehouse 
 of monitory or touching examples will not furnish 
 
194 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 a precedent either for our warning, consolation, or 
 guidance. 
 
 I shall presently have to notice a prevailing feature 
 of this history, which greatly augments its usefulness, 
 as an exercise and study : I mean its essentially 
 dramatic character, by which bare historic facts, 
 usually without a w r ord of comment or reflection, 
 are given, leaving us to draw the inference from the 
 general principles elsewhere developed, or by refer- 
 ence to similar cases. It is easy to see that this 
 character of the history increases its value as a source 
 of instruction ; and the mode of teaching is in this, as 
 in many other respects, in analogy with that of nature. 
 It solicits the mind to exert its own intelligence, in- 
 stead of making everything quite plain, and leaving us 
 to be the mere passive recipients of knowledge. It 
 is hard to say whether the common mind is better 
 pleased with inferring a general conclusion from a 
 particular example, or referring a particular example 
 to a general principle : in both ways the book ministers 
 to a concurrent activity of mind in the student of it. 
 This feature of the Bible also affords an inexhaustible 
 fund of apt illustration to those whose function it is 
 to interpret the book to the ignorant. Probably it 
 would not be difficult to illustrate the whole gnomic 
 wisdom of the Book of Proverbs by quoting parallel 
 examples from the historic books of the Bible. In 
 this way, the Bible is not only adapted to be a text- 
 book of morals and theology, but is its own best 
 interpreter ; nor is there perhaps any commentary 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 195 
 
 more useful than one made out of the Bible itself, by 
 a careful collation of all parallel passages. 
 
 Other reasons for the prevalence of the historic form 
 will readily suggest themselves. It plays a most 
 important part in relation to the " evidences " of the 
 truth of the Bible. It yields the far greater part of 
 those " undesigned coincidences " which constitute so 
 important a portion of apologetics. Of this species 
 of evidence, lying enfolded in the leaves of the Scrip- 
 ture history and lying unnoticed for near eighteen 
 centuries, the most brilliant example is still the 
 " Horse Paulinas" But though the collation of Paul's 
 " Epistles" with the "Acts" gives the most striking 
 specimen of this argument, it is one that may be 
 gathered from many other books of Scripture, as 
 many works, similarly constructed with that of Paley, 
 show. The wonder is that no one lighted on the 
 entrance to this subterranean gallery before. Pascal, 
 indeed, makes a casual remark that some such evidence 
 might be extracted from a comparison of the inci- 
 dents of the Gospels ; and Doddridge has an acute 
 observation, which contains, in fact, an anticipation 
 of Paley's argument. But the idea was certainly not 
 wrought out till .Paley's admirable work appeared. x 
 
 1 Professor Leathes, in his able "Lectures on St. Paul" (p. 64), 
 has justly remarked that it is a curious instance of the fluctua- 
 tions of controversy, that an attempt is now often made to "turn 
 the tables " on Paley, by alleging minute historic discrepancies 
 between the " Epistles " and the "Acts " as a set-off against the 
 "undesigned coincidences." It is true ; but surely it is not difficult 
 to see the futile character of the "set-off." To suppose it can be 
 such, is to show an incompetence to discern the nature of the 
 
 I 4 * 
 
ig6 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 In a similar way, many of the driest portions of the 
 historic books, the genealogies for example, minister 
 to the same end. The mere frequency and copiousness 
 of such matter, untinctured with the smallest trace of 
 mythological influences, and attended, as it often is, 
 with a break in the continuity and interest of the 
 narrative, is, pro tanto, a voucher that the writings 
 in which they occur are neither fiction nor myth. A 
 writer of fiction would never dream of introducing 
 
 argument from " undesigned coincidences." Of the alleged historic 
 discrepancies, some may be due to corruptions of the text ; many 
 have been satisfactorily solved ; others are in course of solution, 
 and we cannot tell how far the solutions will ultimately go. Of 
 many others, we have reason to believe that they exist only in the 
 objector's imagination, and are due to the omission of some 
 facts which, if known, would clear them up ; and, supposing, in 
 some few insignificant cases, that they are the result of mistake, 
 ignorance, error on the part of the writers, even this will not 
 affect the substantial truth of the history. But an argument for 
 the " undesigned coincidences," once established, admits of no 
 such abatements : they are not a variable quantity ; they are 
 too numerous and exquisite to be referred to accident, and 
 lie too deep for fraud, unless fraud intended to defeat itself, 
 for they were never discovered for eighteen centuries. The argu- 
 ment, indeed, from historic discrepancies is in one respect like that 
 from the " undesigned coincidences ; " for they both suggest that 
 the writers could not be in collusion ; but even this is proved 
 far more effectually by the latter. In a word, they are of a totally 
 different argumentative nature and value from the mere discre- 
 pancies, and tell far more powerfully for the historic validity of a 
 document than mere discrepancies can tell against it. 
 
 It is as if a man thought to prove that a child's puzzle map was 
 no such thing, though the " cloven tallies " fell so exactly into their 
 places, because one of the pieces was chipped, another missing, a 
 third had a misprint of a place on it, and so on. These " dis- 
 crepancies" may be accounted for ; but nothing can account for 
 the " coincidences " except that they belong to the map, " un- 
 designed " indeed by the child who puts it together, just as the 
 oblique "coincidences " in Paul and Luke are evidently undesigned 
 by them ; but not by the maker of the map. 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 197 
 
 so large an amount of this unattractive matter, with- 
 out one picturesque or poetical detail to relieve it ; 
 far less obstruct the narrative for the purpose. We 
 can understand the moderate use which Homer or 
 De Foe may have made of such matter : that is, just so 
 far as to impart a general air of verisimilitude. But 
 whole pages together of nothing but names are so 
 preposterously beyond all imaginable necessities of illu- 
 sion, and so destructive of all interest in the reader, 
 that we may safely infer that the introduction of such 
 matter, to the extent we find it in the Bible, will 
 admit of no such solution. As little will it admit 
 of a mythical origin ; for though myths may be a 
 gradual and insensible growth of the popular ima- 
 gination, they are yet true to the principles on 
 which they have been constructed and embellished 
 - to amuse or instruct ; and neither the one pur- 
 pose nor the other can be answered by whole 
 chapters containing nothing but long catalogues of 
 names. I 
 
 On the other hand, many of these portions of Scrip- 
 ture, regarded as history, have another important 
 bearing on the evidences. The genealogies, however 
 dry they may be, often throw light on some obscure 
 passage in a remote part of Scripture ; or clear up 
 
 1 " It is to be added, also, that mere genealogies, bare narratives 
 of the number of years which persons, called by such and such 
 names, lived, do not carry the air of fiction ; perhaps do carry 
 some presumption of veracity ; and all unadorned narratives, which 
 have nothing to surprise, may be thought to carry somewhat of the 
 like presumption too.' ; Butler's Analogy. Part ii. ch. 7. 
 
198 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 some difficulty 'in a totally different book by a totally 
 different writer, and of a far distant age. 1 
 
 Another point in which the historic form con- 
 duces to the " evidences," consists in the challenge 
 which it offers to criticism, by so often intersecting 
 secular history. It is assuredly most extraordinary 
 that the sacred history, supposing it other than it 
 purports to be, that is, fiction, or myth, or both, 
 should so boldly have defied the scrutiny of the 
 world by deliberately traversing profane history, and 
 yet have emerged from the most " fiery ordeal " of 
 criticism ever applied to ancient documents, with 
 scarcely the " smell of fire " upon it. It comes into 
 constant contact with profane history, both in the Old 
 Testament and the New, but especially in the last. It 
 everywhere inserts its alleged facts into the plane of 
 contemporaneous or nearly contemporaneous events, 
 without the smallest hesitation, or preparation, or 
 apology, or timidity, as though it was quite certain 
 that none would or could challenge the accuracy of 
 its representations. Yet one would imagine that the 
 immense difficulty of preserving consistency, or any 
 approach to it, in such attempts to say nothing of the 
 greater difficulty of inducing those who must have 
 known the true history, to acquiesce without protest 
 in the feigned incidents mixed with it, as history too 
 would deter the most audacious impostor. In fact, 
 far more limited attempts of this nature have been 
 
 1 See Boyle. Style of the Holy Scriptures : Answer to Objec- 
 ' tion IV. 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 199 
 
 unmasked by less than a hundredth part of the un- 
 relenting rigour of criticism to which the history of 
 the Scriptures generally, but especially that of the 
 New Testament, has been subjected. In this last 
 case, though every advantage is given to the sceptic 
 from the large remains of profane history with which 
 the sacred history may be compared, and though the 
 most acute minds, animated by the keenest desire to 
 find flaws, have exhausted their skill in endeavouring 
 to find them, the effect is absolutely inappreciable. 
 On the other hand, unexpected confirmations of its 
 accuracy are frequently found in the discovery from 
 time to time of documents, medals, and other relics 
 of antiquity, in which fresh light is cast on the 
 harmony, even in minute points, between the Scrip- 
 tural representations of profane history and those of 
 secular writers. Now if Scripture history be either 
 fiction or legend, or aught else but history, this 
 "reckless scattering of names and dates," this profuse 
 introduction of historic persons and actions ("where 
 nothing," as Paley says, "but truth can produce 
 consistency"), ought to be fatal to it. It ought to 
 be as easy to tear this artificial web to tatters as 
 so many other flimsy fabrics which have been sub- 
 jected to the ordeal of criticism. 
 
 The immense importance of the historical form of 
 the Scriptures to the evidence is obvious, if we allow 
 (what few deny) that the facts of profane history, im- 
 plicated with the New Testament, are true. Is it 
 possible to conceive that those who then lived or 
 
200 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 those of the next generation, with every disposition 
 and motive to reject the impostures or legends with 
 which those facts are so impudently connected, would 
 have acquiesced in them if not true ? Is it possible, 
 for example, if the history of Paul in the "Acts" be 
 not true, that it could have been affirmed that he 
 had been brought before Agrippa, had appealed to 
 the facts of the evangelical history, and to Agrippa's 
 own knowledge of them as " not done in a corner," 
 without provoking vehement reclamations ? Would it 
 not have been said that these things had not been 
 done, either " in a corner" or anywhere else ? Would 
 those who could so easily have shown the effrontery 
 of this cheat, and who had every reason to do so, have 
 been silent ? And so of numberless other things, 
 which it is certain that the contemporaries of the 
 apostles, or the men of the next generation, would have 
 instantly contradicted, instead of accepting them as 
 history. It is inconceivable that events, professedly 
 of a public character, can be thus closely implicated 
 with persons and transactions occupying a large space 
 on the theatre of the world, without being either in- 
 stantly contradicted, or beyond contradiction. 
 
 The prevailing historic form is attended with yet 
 another advantage as regards the evidence. If it 
 gives every facility to its adversaries for proving it 
 false, the artlessness of the narrative, its vivid air 
 of reality, its simplicity and apparent honesty, im- 
 press ninety-nine readers out of every hundred with 
 a conviction that the writer is speaking truth. The 
 
v.] <w #*0 jporm 0^ Structure of the Bible. 201 
 
 natural air of unsophisticated testimony is often 
 irresistible, and it certainly belongs as conspicuously 
 to the Bible narratives as to any. 
 
 There is, if I mistake not, another prevailing pecu- 
 liarity about the history of Scripture, which it is worth 
 while to note, as it is a symptom of reality, and is in 
 analogy, at any rate, with the actual history of men, 
 whether they be conceived as communities or indi- 
 viduals. I refer to the general disregard of what art 
 exacts in fiction, and instinct so often suggests in 
 myth, as essential to its appropriate interest ; namely, 
 a well-rounded narrative, in which, even if there be 
 some want of skill in the management of the inter- 
 mediate incidents, or ill-judged digressions, or too 
 long a suspension of the catastrophe, there is, as there 
 should be, a well-defined beginning, and, above all, 
 a well-defined end, a denouement such as shall satisfy 
 the imagination. Now, Scripture history is generally 
 little solicitous about this, and is thereby in accord- 
 ance with human life. 
 
 The history of individuals and communities as 
 given in the Bible, and as transacted in the world, is 
 something like the last voyage of Paul, in the Acts. 
 The ship moves, indeed, but is driven hither and 
 thither by baffling winds, and meets with strange 
 variety of fortunes and disasters ; an image of that 
 devious course which, under the providential govern- 
 ment of God, marks the general history of human 
 life. As there is nothing " so unlike a battle as a 
 review," so there is nothing so unlike real history as 
 
202 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 the plot of a skilfully constructed novel, or a well-ad- 
 justed drama, where the unities are fairly preserved, and 
 the catastrophe unexceptionable. In each man's life, 
 and in that of each nation, we find "passages which 
 seemingly "lead to nothing;" though we are sure it 
 is not so, inasmuch as they are part of the discipline 
 and schooling of men part of the "plan de Dieu" 
 however we may fail to see the connection between 
 the means and the end. We often see incidents of 
 apparently the most trivial character leading to the 
 most momentous issues, and events which thrilled 
 the contemporary world with awe or admiration, as 
 often collapsing to nothing; profound sagacity stum- 
 bling over some simple obstacle, and projects long 
 cherished in vain, and at last given up in despair, made, 
 by a sudden turn of events, unexpectedly feasible. 
 Civil and political history, which records these things, 
 is of a corresponding complexion. In reading it, we 
 encounter numberless digressions and episodes, which 
 seemingly interrupt the course of it, and which are 
 inserted, not because they have any vital, or, indeed, 
 any visible connection at all with the main purpose of 
 the story, but because the historian is bound to record 
 what did happen, whether it always conduces to its 
 interest or not. In fact, in human life and human 
 history, we see but fragments of the " acts " and 
 " scenes" of that vast drama which every rational theist 
 believes to be transacting on the theatre of the world. 
 
 Now it is of just such fragments that the historic 
 portions of Scripture, for the most part, consist ; 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 203 
 
 connected, indeed, but just as the incidents of 
 human life and of political and civil history are con- 
 nected, by relations of cause and effect, of proximity 
 of time or place, or contemporaneousness ; but not 
 by the laws of unity which imagination prescribes 
 in her works. 
 
 There are comparatively few narratives in the his- 
 tory of the Bible to which these remarks do not apply. 
 In reading them, therefore, we are continually struck 
 with abrupt terminations of the story, with seemingly 
 isolated facts or passages, which end in a cul de sac. 
 We find ourselves continually putting questions which 
 our unsatisfied curiosity asks in vain. We wonder what 
 was the history of Jacob and his sons, and what their 
 relations, during the twenty years of Joseph's exile ? 
 what the degree and effect of those suspicions which, 
 from that explosion of feeling which took place when 
 Simeon was missed and Benjamin seemed in peril, 
 had, it would seem, been smouldering so long in the 
 patriarch's bosom? what became of Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
 Ezekiel, and so many other prime actors in the history 
 of the Jews ? how the Acts came to break off with 
 such provoking abruptness in the very crisis of Paul's 
 fate, leaving him a captive at Rome between life and 
 death, without a word to indicate the catastrophe ? 
 These are specimens of a thousand questions which 
 we ask in Biblical and ordinary history alike. 
 
 If there are any notable exceptions, the histories of 
 Joseph and David may be deemed such. Yet even 
 in these, though they are marked, perhaps (especially 
 
204 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 the former), by a greater completeness and more 
 copious details than any of the rest, how many digres- 
 sions and irrelevancies are there, which would never 
 have been admitted by writers solely intent on the 
 interest of their story; and how many vicissitudes 
 and complications which seem to obstruct it. These 
 things, however, are reflected in real life and real 
 history. These circuitous methods, these long delays 
 and slow preparations, this flux and reflux of fortune, 
 are constantly seen in the biographies of those whom 
 God has conducted from obscurity to greatness. 1 
 
 1 Davison, in his "Lectures on Prophecy," remarks that the 
 history of David is particularly worthy of study, as an example 
 of fulfilment of a prophecy, the predicted elevation of David 
 from a shepherd's hut to the throne, by the interposition of a 
 long, intricate, and most diversified series of incidents, without 
 a miracle ; by a series of events in themselves perfectly natural, 
 and not out of the ordinary path of Providence. As I am not now 
 arguing on the supposition of either prophecy or miracle, I here 
 refer to this portion of Scripture history, simply as an image of 
 the complex play of human passions and interests the slow pro- 
 cesses, the abrupt transitions, the sudden metatheses, which true 
 history has so often exemplified ; as, for example, in the fortunes 
 of Masaniello or Cromwell. The results are wrought out, as it 
 were, dramatically, but with an intricacy of incident, a going back- 
 ward and forward, a variety of vicissitudes and oscillations, on 
 which the dramatist does not venture, for fear of too long sus- 
 pending the action or marring its unity. 
 
 One remark seems necessary to qualify Davison's observation. 
 When he says that the history of David is developed without the 
 intervention of a miracle, he probably means what we commonly 
 call such, not the entire absence of the supernatural ; for that is 
 not absolutely excluded. Prophecy, prophetic vision, and appeals 
 to the oracles of professed Divine appointment among the Jews, 
 form an appreciable, though a small part of the history of David. 
 Understanding him in this sense, he might, with equal justice, have 
 adduced the history of Joseph, as carried on from first to last, 
 without miracle, and as an equally striking illustration of the slow 
 and intricate, yet certain, methods of providence. 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 205 
 
 But though these are very beautiful episodes in 
 Scripture history, and exhibit more of dramatic com- 
 pleteness than almost anything else in its pages, they 
 are sufficiently assimilated to the ordinary history of 
 Scripture, and to that of life, to bring them under 
 the criterion in question. If they be not history, 
 one is lost in wonder at the contrast between the 
 prodigal invention which has feigned such an in- 
 finitude of incidents, and so naturally interwoven 
 and expressed them in so small a compass, and yet 
 has introduced so much digressive, and, so far as the 
 main story is concerned, irrelevant matter. As history, 
 indeed, we can understand it ; but if the authors were 
 composing fiction or embellishing myth, one does 
 not comprehend how writers should have been both 
 so exquisitely skilled, and such utter bunglers in the 
 same art. What, for example, can be more incon- 
 gruous than the intrusion, into the history of Joseph, 
 of the fragment of Judah's story in chap, xxxviii. 
 of Genesis; or than many of the interludes, and 
 especially the insertion of genealogies, which break 
 the continuity of that of David ? All natural enough 
 if these things belong to the domain of fact, but not 
 very intelligible on the other hypothesis. 
 
 Assuming then, for a moment, and for argument's 
 sake, as I have here done, the truth of the Bible, 
 and seeing how many ends, principal and subordinate, 
 may possibly be contemplated and attained by the 
 very same instrumentality, objections from the arti- 
 ficiality of its structure, or the multifarious character of 
 
206 Reply to some Objections founded [LECT. 
 
 its contents, need not trouble us. But though I have rea- 
 soned only hypothetically, I think it is scarcely possible 
 for a candid mind to consider the apparent convergence 
 to many related ends which is found in so complex 
 a structure how naturally the various parts seem to 
 argue mutual dependence and support, as seen in 
 the many volumes which have been written on its 
 self-derived evidences without having some suspicion 
 at least excited that all this is not a result of accident ; 
 and, if so, that some wisdom greater than that of the 
 several authors and compilers must have presided over 
 the whole, determined the relation of the parts, and 
 directed them to their end. 
 
 // Scripture be a revelation of God's will, the sub- 
 stance of its contents, no doubt, will have quite another 
 and far higher object than to give incidental proofs 
 of its truth. Its design will be "to make men wise 
 unto salvation." Yet in conformity with so many 
 analogies in the works of God, where we see manifold 
 purposes often attained by one and the same set of 
 organs and instruments, it may engraft on its primary 
 purpose many subordinate purposes, and attain the 
 latter in attaining the former. Accordingly we see, in 
 point of fact, how large a portion of the arguments 
 in defence of the Bible are derived from itself. Nor 
 to the cumulative power of that argument is it easy 
 to set any limit, as the contexture, peculiarities, and 
 relations of the several books come to be more search- 
 ingly investigated. If these views be correct, the 
 book may be compared to some ancient temple, the 
 
v.] on the Form and Structure of the Bible. 207 
 
 elaborate ornaments of which, though the temple 
 itself be designed for a higher purpose than to evince 
 the skill of the architect, yet do bear witness to 
 it. The shield of Achilles, though chiefly intended 
 to protect the hero's life in battle, and to turn every 
 weapon by its adamantine temper, yet proclaimed, in 
 the pictured wonders which encircled its margin and 
 covered its ample field, the skill of the divine artificer 
 who had forged it. 
 
 But whether these considerations have any force 
 besides answering an objection or not, there are two 
 or three prevailing peculiarities about the writers of 
 Scripture history, and especially the evangelists, 
 which have always appeared to me perfectly unintel- 
 ligible, except on the supposition that they are not to 
 be placed in the category of merely human authors. 
 Of these peculiarities I shall treat in the next lecture. 
 
LECTURE VI. 
 
 ON CERTAIN PECULIARITIES OF SCRIPTURE 
 STYLE. 
 
LECTURE VI. 
 
 ON CERTAIN PECULIARITIES OF STYLE IN THE 
 SCRIPTURAL WRITERS. 
 
 r | ^HE first of the peculiarities to which reference 
 -* was made at the close of the last lecture is one 
 which characterises the Bible generally, not only far 
 more than any other book, but to such an extent as 
 can hardly be imagined by any one who has not 
 made the subject his express study. The quality I 
 refer to is that of exhibiting character in a purely 
 dramatic form ; by simply relating naked facts and 
 incidents without comment, without criticism, with- 
 out description of character, without enumeration of 
 qualities ; in a word, to the utter exclusion of that 
 analysis which is so favourite an exercise of the human 
 mind, and without which, not once in ten times, can it 
 prevail on itself to let facts speak nakedly for them- 
 selves, or give the reader credit for sagacity enough to 
 draw his own conclusions. As it is a very unusual 
 way of writing, so it is incomparably the most difficult. 
 Genius of high dramatic order is of very rare occur- 
 rence; and it is certainly not among Jews, whether in 
 ancient or modern times, that we should expect the 
 most profuse exhibition of it. To portray character by 
 
 15* 
 
212 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 simply exhibiting it in action, by its own sayings and 
 doings, is very rare even in the most famous novelists. 
 Even by the greatest masters of the art Walter Scott, 
 for instance characters are often introduced by a 
 long and sometimes wearisome preparation of analytic 
 description ; ticketed and labelled with such and such 
 properties, as if the author wished to engrave more 
 deeply on his own mind the lines of the character he 
 had conceived, or to frame a sort of model to work by, 
 before dramatically exhibiting it ; or as conscious that 
 his actual exhibition would inadequately convey to the 
 reader the ideal he would paint. Even Shakespeare 
 himself that Prince of Dramatists, of whom one is 
 accustomed to think (as a friend once expressed it) 
 not so much as a " sublimation of what other men may 
 feel in a weaker degree in themselves, but as something 
 of another order " even Shakespeare, not seldom, puts 
 into the mouth of an interlocutor a vivid picture of the 
 character he is about to exhibit, or gives it in the 
 course of the drama, as though for the purpose of aid- 
 ing the reader's conception. As to history, we know 
 that elaborate portraits of the principal characters have 
 exercised the utmost skill of great masters in this 
 department of literature, from Thucydides and Tacitus 
 to Clarendon and Macaulay. They would have 
 thought themselves strangely wanting to their sub- 
 ject, and to themselves as philosophers, if they had 
 not given us such " characters," and also essayed 
 to analyse the motives by which their actions were 
 determined. All this is natural, and we expect it ; and, 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 213 
 
 in truth, the element is found rather in excess than 
 in defect in all the principal histories. It is only too 
 copious, misleading the reader and prejudicing him 
 for or against the characters, beyond what the facts, 
 impartially judged, would justify; and he is thus led 
 astray by false lights into erring estimates. With the 
 biographer this fault is proverbial. In many " Lives " 
 the reader can hardly get an opportunity of fairly 
 observing the professed subject of the biography for 
 two pages together. The author stands between them 
 with perpetual comment and reflection, stricture and 
 admiration, so that, as people say, " we cannot see 
 the ground for the flowers'* or "the wood for the 
 trees." To novelists, the extreme difficulty of repre- 
 senting character dramatically is some excuse for 
 dropping so often into dissertation and reflection. 
 The historian and biographer are not, indeed, under pre- 
 cisely the same temptation, for the facts are made for 
 them. Yet practically it comes to the same thing ; 
 partly from the intrinsic difficulty of presenting mere 
 facts without becoming dry and dull, partly from the 
 strong temptation to play the philosopher to excess. 
 The historian is anxious to show that he can penetrate 
 into the causes of events, as well as narrate the events 
 themselves. But whatever be the temptation to de- 
 part from a severely dramatic exhibition of characters 
 and in some degree it is necessary, the writers of 
 the Bible seldom do. The greater part of the book is 
 history ; and yet, in the vast majority of instances, the 
 characters are brought out by simple speech and act, 
 
214 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 and not at all by description. They are not, like many 
 portraits, half idealised by the artists ; they are photo- 
 graphs, and photographed in the moment of action. 
 A few instances of this quality must suffice here ; 
 but they might be given ad libitum, and would amply 
 justify my assertion of the enormous extent to which 
 this element is a characteristic of the Bible. 
 
 Take, for example, the character of Peter. When 
 he is " called to be an apostle," nothing is said of him, 
 either good or bad ; nothing either of his intellectual 
 or moral qualities. Neither is any comment of this 
 kind made in narrating the actions by which his 
 whole natural character comes out. It comes out 
 nevertheless in the clearest possible light, and as dis- 
 tinctly as if there had been a whole dissertation upon 
 it. He was evidently of that order of men whose 
 strong, impulsive nature does not wait to consider 
 the prudence, and is apt to forget even the rectitude, 
 of an action, in the presence of any sudden appeal to 
 feeling of whatever kind, and who may be heroes 
 or cowards, impelled to generous and magnanimous 
 conduct, or hurried into foolish blunders, or even 
 crimes, as external circumstances prompt them ; and 
 both the one and the other, because they want self-pos- 
 session to pause for the decisions of deliberate judg- 
 ment. The instant view which such a mind takes 
 of the circumstances which invite and provoke pre- 
 cipitate action determines it, and leads now to rash 
 confidence, now to panic terror. This lack of retenue 
 and self-possession, this emotional susceptibility, which 
 
vi.] f Scripture Style. 215 
 
 dwells on the border-land of virtue and vice, and may 
 easily pass from one to the other, was the natural 
 characteristic of the apostle ; and all his actions, 
 though the Evangelists say not one word about the 
 trait, are dramatically true to it. While his fellow-dis- 
 ciples, perplexed with the incomprehensible character 
 of Christ, doubted whether He was the Messiah or 
 not, and, wavering in their opinions like their fellow- 
 countrymen, were dumb to the question, "But whom 
 say ye that I am ? " Peter gave expression to the 
 conclusion which his impulsive nature had prompted 
 him to form, and exclaimed, " Thou art the Christ, 
 the Son of the living God." His bold confession is 
 rewarded by an emphatic commendation of his faith. 
 But the instant after he blunders into an error, which 
 calls down upon him rebuke as strong as the eulogy 
 that had just preceded it. Sharing in all the convictions 
 of his countrymen, that the expected Messiah would 
 come as a mighty king and conqueror, and that there- 
 fore He whom he had recognised as Christ, however 
 disguised for the moment, would soon break forth from 
 the cloud and shine in the full blaze of His glory, he 
 could not brook the idea of the humiliation and ignominy 
 which his Master deliberately said awaited Him, and 
 exclaimed, "That be far from Thee, Lord: this shall 
 not be unto Thee." He is rebuked with, " Get thee 
 behind Me, Satan ; " and is told, in spite of the boldness 
 and decision of his recent confession, that he had no 
 apprehension of the Divine purposes, and that he 
 judged of them by a merely human standard. When 
 
216 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 Christ was seen at midnight walking on the stormy 
 waters, Peter, hearing His reassuring voice, passed at 
 once from the state of superstitious dread in which 
 "they had all cried out, thinking that they had seen 
 a spirit," into a transport of love and faith, and 
 exclaimed, " If indeed it be Thou, bid me to come 
 unto Thee on the water ; " strong in his conviction 
 that He who had performed, and was now exhibiting 
 such miracles, could sustain him there. But with that 
 same facility of receiving impressions from every new 
 occurrent, no sooner does he find himself exposed to the 
 boisterous winds around him and the unstable element 
 beneath him, than he feels all his courage and faith 
 ooze away, and cries, " Save, Lord, I perish ! " It is a 
 scene which is really the very counterpart one might 
 almost call it symbolic prefiguration of the similar, 
 but more signal exhibition of mingled presumption and 
 weakness on that memorable night on which he de- 
 clared, "Though all should forsake Thee, yet will 
 not I;" and before daybreak had "denied Him with 
 oaths and curses." " Though I die with Thee, yet will 
 I not deny Thee," said he, with full honesty of purpose, 
 but in profound self-ignorance. " Before the cock 
 crow thou shalt deny Me thrice," were the monitory 
 words with which his Master received the declaration. 
 When Christ was apprehended, Peter it was who 
 hurries into rash resistance and "draws the sword." 
 But in spite of this show of resolution, in spite of 
 all his protests, and with that warning voice as it were 
 still ringing in his ears, such was the power of 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 217 
 
 sudden terror and danger to cow his spirit, that he 
 forgot alike all that he had said to his Master, and 
 all that his Master had said to him. Though he 
 yields to his abject panic, no sooner does he hear " the 
 cock crow " than another revulsion of feeling takes 
 place, and horrified with the thought of what he had 
 done, he passes at once into the most violent paroxysm 
 of remorse, and " going out, wept bitterly." When 
 Mary Magdalene announces to Peter and John that 
 she had found the sepulchre empty, they both instantly 
 ran thither. John, more fleet of foot, gets there first, 
 but stands outside irresolute, apparently arrested by 
 awe and wonder : the ardent Peter rushes at once into 
 the sepulchre. 
 
 At the Sea of Tiberias, after the miraculous draught 
 of fish, no sooner does John whisper to Peter that 
 the seeming stranger who had spoken to them from 
 the shore must be " the Lord," than the impetuous 
 disciple girt his fisher's coat about him, and without 
 waiting till the bark had drawn its freight to land, 
 casts himself headlong into the sea. When at the 
 ensuing meal, his Master so tenderly, yet so deeply 
 probed (and probed that He might heal), that wound 
 which Peter's lapse had inflicted and which still bled 
 inwardly, by the thrice repeated question, " Simon, 
 son of Jonas, lovest thou Me ? " Peter, though grieved 
 at the repetition of the question, is no less impul- 
 sive than of old : strong in the consciousness of the 
 sincerity of his love in spite of all his failures, and 
 proof against that self-distrust which, after such a 
 
2i8 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 fall and such an exposure, would have kept many 
 a man dumb, he confidently appealed to the om- 
 niscience of his Lord "Thou knowest all things, 
 Thou knowest that I love Thee." And here, by the 
 way, in this very scene of surpassing pathos, besides 
 the characteristic trait of Peter, we see other in- 
 dications of that quality of the Scriptures of which 
 I am now speaking. The exquisite delicacy of the 
 reproof to Peter, without one word of upbraiding or 
 unkindness, is in dramatic keeping with the whole 
 character of Christ ; and so also is the reticence of the 
 historian as to the significance of the incidents them- 
 selves. There is not a syllable about the occasion 
 which led our Lord thus to question Peter, no direct 
 allusion to the circumstances which would seem to have 
 led to such questioning ; yet doubtless in the mind 
 of Peter and of the disciples then (as of every intel- 
 ligent reader now), one thought was present that has 
 no mention in the narrative. It is impossible not to 
 interpret the whole scene by the light of the preceding 
 history, though not a word is dropped by which the 
 connection might be indicated. Are there any other 
 historians in the world who would have exercised 
 this abstinence ? Would it be possible for one who 
 was fond of tracing "causes to their effects,' 1 and making 
 all plain to the reader, or who was intent on eulogising 
 the subject of his biography, to miss so fair an oppor- 
 tunity ? As Tholuck in his commentary on John very 
 justly observes: " The reproving look which Christ had 
 cast on Peter after his denial (Luke xxii. 61) was still 
 
vi.] . of Scripture Style. 219 
 
 burning in his soul : he was deposed, as it were, from 
 his earlier official dignity, and must be restored to it 
 again. The mode in which this is done is one so full 
 of spirit, so far beyond the reach of invention, that any 
 presumption of a mere fiction in the case is put to the 
 blush." 1 
 
 But to resume the traits which are characteristic 
 of Peter. No sooner is he reinstated in the "Master's 
 good opinion, and has heard that affecting prediction 
 of the " death by which he was to glorify God," 
 than with the same impulsive eagerness which had 
 so often brought him under reproof, he asks, looking 
 to John, "And what shall this man do?" His 
 curiosity receives for reply, "What is that to thee ? 
 follow thou Me." 
 
 After the resurrection, the apostles are represented 
 as suddenly recovering from the profound dejection into 
 which the shipwreck of all their hopes had cast them, 
 and assuming an air of indomitable confidence and 
 dauntless courage, a change, the unaccountable 
 abruptness of which has compelled even sceptics like 
 Strauss to acknowledge that "something remarkable' 1 '' 
 must have occurred thus to transform them. Peter, 
 as might be expected from his character, comes to 
 the front among them, boldly avows before the San- 
 hedrim his Master's resurrection, denounces the guilt 
 of the Jews who had crucified Him, proclaims his 
 purpose of fulfilling his Master's commission, and to 
 all menaces of punishment for so doing, makes the 
 1 Clark's edition, pp. 423, 424. 
 
22O On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 noble declaration, " Whether it be right to hearken 
 unto you more than unto God, judge ye." 
 
 That the Gospel was intended not for the Jews 
 alone, but for all nations, and that the exclusive privi- 
 leges of the " house of Israel " were to cease, was first 
 communicated in vision to Peter, and he proceeded 
 to proclaim it to Cornelius. Astonished as he was, he 
 did not parley with his prejudices, nor recoil from 
 the summons to abandon them. Yet in connection 
 with this very subject, he later on gives one little 
 last indication that the old infirmity of his nature 
 was not quite cured, the " old man " not yet " cruci- 
 fied." Though he had declared at the " council " at 
 Jerusalem, as absolutely as Paul himself, that the 
 Gentiles were not to be trammelled with Judaical 
 restrictions, yet that same disposition, which was the 
 source of so much that was laudable and so much 
 that was blamable in him, once more, and for the 
 last time, made him stumble. He was betrayed, it 
 seems, at Antioch, into a cowardly surrender of his 
 convictions and judgment, through fear of certain Ju- 
 daising brethren who had come down from Jerusalem, 
 and who perhaps were watching him with jealous eyes. 
 The apostle (as Paul tells us) had freely " eaten and 
 drunk, and kept company with Gentiles," till these 
 precise brethren, who could not go that length of 
 latitudinarianism, came ; and then Peter, with that 
 same faintheartedness which had so often made him 
 flinch in sudden temptation, " withdrew himself," and 
 slunk out of his Gentile company, afraid of shame 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 221 
 
 and reproach at the hands of the Jewish zealots. 
 How natural is the picture, when we consider his 
 antecedents, and especially his " denial ! " On this 
 occasion he received the open rebuke of Paul, who 
 on his part consistently displays that adamantine 
 firmness of temper which his whole life illustrates. 
 His character, too, is dramatically presented to us, 
 and if there were space for it, it might be instruc- 
 tive to trace it as minutely as that of Peter. He 
 never " conferred with flesh and blood " in face of 
 a present temptation. 
 
 Peter's vacillation on this occasion was just the 
 remains of that same weakness which made him 
 bluster, and stammer, and grow pale, and lie, when 
 suddenly and publicly charged by the "maid" in 
 the hall of the high priest's palace. True religion 
 will gradually subdue the original tendencies, but it 
 rarely quite extinguishes all traces of them. 
 
 Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. 
 
 But consistent with nature as Peter's character is 
 throughout, it is still only by his actions, nakedly 
 set forth without criticism or comment, that we 
 know it. 
 
 Here be it recollected that I am not arguing that 
 the naturalness of the narrative gives us reason to 
 think that we are reading history, and not fiction or 
 myth. All the Bible history does that. Far less am 
 I assuming that the facts were as they are related, 
 and the Gospel therefore true. I am simply pointing 
 
222 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 out a very constant trait in the manner of the Bib- 
 lical writers, the all-prevailing dramatic form, and 
 the almost entire absence of reflection or comment, 
 by which they are marked. They state bare facts, 
 and let these speak for themselves. 
 
 Another slight, yet striking instance may be pointed 
 out from the Old Testament. I refer to the history 
 of Laban. He is most incidentally introduced, and, 
 as usual, not a word is uttered by way of advertising 
 us what we are to expect of him. He turns out to 
 be a mere muckworm, sordid and rapacious in the 
 extreme. The very first trait we have of him is in his 
 interview with Abraham's steward, after the first brief 
 interview with Rebecca, his young sister. What- 
 ever might be Eliezer's business, a single glance is 
 sufficient to win Laban's favourable attention. We 
 are told that " when he saw the earring, and the 
 bracelets on his sister's hands, and when he heard 
 the words of Rebecca, saying, Thus spake the man 
 unto me ; than he ran unto the man, and said, Come 
 'in, thou blessed of the Lord, wherefore standest thou 
 without?" Though Laban, no doubt, like the rest of 
 the patriarchs, was "given to hospitality," it is impos- 
 sible not to surmise that the vision of the earring 
 and the bracelets reinforced and gave cmpressement to 
 it. But if the historian meant to intimate it by this 
 little trait, nothing, as usual, is said. At all events, 
 no injustice is done to Laban in surmising it, for 
 almost every incident every act and speech in 
 which he is concerned through the after history 
 
vi.J of Scripture Style. 223 
 
 (though the historian himself bestows not a single 
 epithet upon him), is of a piece with the beginning : 
 he is dramatically represented throughout. 
 
 Another trivial instance, trivial in itself, but worth 
 noticing from the very obliquity of the incident, is 
 found in the letter with which Lysias, the captain of 
 the Roman forces in Jerusalem, dispatches Paul to the 
 governor Felix. Lysias seems, on the whole, to have 
 been a very fair specimen of the Roman official, and 
 anxious to do his duty. He very promptly rescued 
 Paul from the tumult which the exasperated Jews had 
 raised against him, and took every precaution for his 
 safety. Of course it was hardly in the nature of a 
 Roman subaltern, or indeed of any official in any age, 
 not to give as favourable a report as possible to his 
 superiors of the manner in which he had discharged 
 his trust. Nor is the statement of Lysias absolutely 
 untrue in any particular ; but there is a most natural 
 and politic turn given to one part of the transaction, 
 on which his conduct, if exactly reported, might have 
 brought him into trouble. We know how jealous was 
 the Roman government for the maintenance, in all 
 its vast dependencies, of the privileges of the Roman 
 citizen, the violation of which was regarded as an 
 atrocious crime, a crime which Lysias, it seems, was 
 very near committing. " This man," says he, "was 
 taken of the Jews, and would have been killed of 
 them ; then came / with an army and rescued him, 
 having understood that lie was a Roman.''' x But Lysias 
 1 Acts xxiii. 28. 
 
224 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 does not say that when he first rescued Paul he did not 
 know that he was a Roman, and that he acted merely 
 from the ordinary and proper motive of maintaining 
 the peace of the city. Far less does he say that he 
 did not know .that Paul was a Roman citizen until, 
 having decided, without any inquiry at all into the 
 matter, to scourge him, he accidentally hears from the 
 centurion the quality of the man he was about to subject 
 to such ignominy, and " that he must take heed " to 
 what he was about. Then, being evidently frightened, 
 he sees Paul in a new light, and treats him with much 
 consideration. But in the letter to Felix, not a word 
 of this interlude in the transaction appears. His 
 whole conduct seems to turn on his patriotic zeal, and 
 solicitous regard to those inviolable privileges of a 
 Roman citizen, which he had so nearly violated him- 
 self. He may also have thought that any possible 
 reference on the part of Paul to the peril he had been 
 in, might as well be anticipated by his own politic 
 version of the affair. 
 
 Instances of this kind, from the Old as well as the 
 New Testament, might be multiplied by the score. 
 How shall we account for this method of composition 
 in the Scripture history, that of exhibiting character 
 and conduct so almost exclusively by dramatic traits ? 
 I have said (what all literature shows) that it is a 
 talent very rarely possessed in its highest form, 
 and that in the case even of the highest dramatic 
 genius it is seldom that there is such absolute absti- 
 nence from the by-play of comment, reflection, and 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 225 
 
 description, as we find in the great bulk of the Bible 
 narratives. 
 
 I fancy I hear some one say : " There is no great 
 mystery in the matter; the authors were describing 
 bare facts; they were neither fictitious writers possessed 
 of wonderful fertility of invention (which, if they were 
 fictitious writers, they must have been, since they have 
 compressed in the moderate compass of the Bible such 
 an infinity of matter so strongly marked by the cha- 
 racteristics in question); nor were they philosophical 
 historians, intent not only on setting forth facts, but 
 anxious also to set forth their own sagacity in pene- 
 trating causes, and their skill in portraying human 
 character. They were simply annalists, who set down 
 such facts as came under their observation; and this 
 mere copying of nature, this simple photographing of 
 facts, does not imply that they were great artists for 
 the sun can do as much but simply people who kept 
 their eyes open. Any real account, however simple, of 
 the actions of a man, will give the same dramatic effect, 
 because it is the man in action, and he will be sure to 
 be true to himself." Very well; I should be quite con- 
 tent with that answer. I have no doubt it is, in the 
 main, a correct one; but it concedes at once the truth of 
 the sacred history in by far the greater part of it. Not 
 only so, but it rids us in some measure of another 
 difficulty by which these histories are embarrassed; 
 namely, how it is that obscure men of such mediocrity 
 of mind and deficiency of culture as those to whom the 
 conditions of the problem restrict us, were able to write 
 
 16 
 
226 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 these wonderful histories. If they were merely copy- 
 ing what was under their eyes, making a .transcript of 
 facts which had fallen under their personal scrutiny, 
 a great part of the difficulty would be removed. But 
 while perfectly content to accept this solution, and 
 to let the argument rest there, I must say, in the in- 
 terests of truth, that it does not fully account for the 
 phenomenon now before us, whether we look at the 
 narratives of the Old or the New Testament. Mere 
 chroniclers have not had the same good fortune to 
 seize upon the admiration of the world in the way 
 the sacred writers have done. They are not equally 
 expert at photography. Somehow, neither in the selec- 
 tion, nor the grouping, nor the description of their 
 facts, nor in exquisite simplicity of style, can they 
 come into comparison. Nor have they in general been 
 able to infuse into their composition the charm or 
 grace attained by many writers of ordinary poetic or 
 prose fiction. 1 
 
 1 It is curious to see how little the exquisite simplicity of Scrip- 
 ture narrative has been appreciated by many critics of past ages, 
 whose literary vanity has employed strange arts to transform and 
 elevate it ! Few have outdone in this respect the Jewish historian 
 Josephus, whose affected imitation of his classical models has often 
 led him completely to spoil the Scripture story. If any one wishes 
 to see a specimen, he may consult his preposterous version of the 
 pathetic speech of Judah to Joseph. Campbell justly says: " It is 
 impossible for any one whose taste can relish genuine, simple nature, 
 not to be deeply affected with the speech of Judah, as it is given in 
 the Pentateuch. On reading it, we are perfectly prepared for the 
 effect which it produced on his unknown brother. We see, we feel, 
 that it was impossible for humanity, for natural affection, to hold out 
 longer. In Josephus it is a very different kind of performance ; 
 something so cold, so far-fetched, both in sentiment and in language, 
 that it savours more of one who had been educated in the schools 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 227 
 
 But the fact remains, that the dramatic exhibition 
 of character, character walking out of the historic 
 
 of the Greek sophists, than of the plain and artless patriarchal 
 shepherds." Many like attempts to make the Scripture looky?^ 
 have been made since. One of the most imposing is that of Pere 
 Berruyer, who essayed to recompose the " Histoire du Peuple de 
 Dieu " in a more florid style than that of the Bible ; in the style, 
 in short, of Clelia or the Great Cyrus ! A single sentence given 
 in the "Curiosities of Literature" will be enough for the reader : 
 "Joseph combined with a regularity of features, and a brilliant 
 complexion, an air of the noblest dignity ; all which contributed 
 to render him one of the most amiable men in Egypt." Moses 
 is too "common-place" and "barren," thought the good father : and 
 it is in this style he supplies his deficiencies. 
 
 But of all the methods of spoiling Scripture which Christian 
 ingenuity has invented, that of " Paraphrase " has been the most 
 common, and one of the worst. All books suffer indeed from this 
 device of dilution; and as every "abridgment" of a book has 
 been called a " foolish abridgment," so may every paraphrase be 
 called a foolish paraphrase. Most books need comment, explana- 
 tion, illustration ; but if that be the object, paraphrase is the worst 
 way of effecting it, since it treats what is difficult and what is 
 perspicuous in the same way, and reduces the whole to the same 
 marsh level. But while it would be difficult to name any book 
 which is the better for a paraphrase, the Bible suffers most of all 
 in virtue of its general brevity, simplicity, and weight of expression. 
 Plenty of scope for legitimate comment and exegesis there un- 
 doubtedly is, in its more difficult portions ; as in Job or Hosea, where 
 the language is elliptical and sententious, and the transitions of 
 thought obscure ; or in the Epistles of Paul, where the reasoning 
 is close and compressed ; but it is not easy to imagine them im- 
 proved by mere paraphrase. When they are clear, they are simply 
 marred by dilution ; when they are obscure, they are better treated 
 by ordinary exegesis. Yet, strange to say, this weak device has 
 been rather a favourite with many excellent expositors ; and, worst 
 of all, they have been especially fond of practising it on the pellucid 
 narrative of Scripture, which, of all compositions, least needed 
 it, and is most injured by it. That men of so much good sense 
 as Patrick and Doddridge should have given in to it is surprising. 
 The prolixity of the former is amusingly commented on by Macaulay 
 in his History, when speaking of the project for " shortening the 
 collects." " If," says the historian, " the object had been to lengthen 
 them, no man could have been better fitted than Patrick." He 
 
 16 * 
 
228 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 picture - frames, and speaking and living before our 
 eyes, is a strongly prevalent characteristic of the 
 Biblical history ; to an extent, indeed, constituting an 
 unique feature of it. That the quality should be 
 found, not only in one writing, but in the historic 
 writings of Scripture generally (of widely different 
 dates, and composed by minds so variously constituted 
 and educated), augments the singularity. 
 
 There is another characteristic of the Biblical 
 writers in general, so completely alien from " the 
 manner of men," that it might almost as well have 
 been discussed in the lectures on the " anomalies " 
 which the book presents in relation to human nature, 
 as here. But perhaps it is as well to take it in con- 
 nection with the present subject. I allude to their 
 freedom from vanity, egotism, and ambition, foibles to 
 which that class of mortals called authors are supposed 
 to be addicted as much as most men, and by many a 
 little more. But in the Scripture writers generally 
 
 then gives a brief specimen or two of the good bishop's apti- 
 tudes for paraphrastic dilation. " He maketh me," says David, 
 " to lie down in green pastures : He leadeth me beside the still 
 waters." Patrick's version is as follows : " For as a good shepherd 
 leads his sheep, in the violent heat, to shady places, where they may 
 lie down and feed (not in parched but) in fresh and green pastures, 
 and in the evening leads them (not to muddy and troubled waters, 
 but) to pure and quiet streams ; so hath He already made a fair 
 and plentiful provision for me, which I enjoy in peace, without any 
 disturbance." 
 
 Campbell, in his lectures on " Systematic Theology," says : 
 " I own, that of all the kinds of expositors I like least the para- 
 phrast. ... In the very best compositions of this kind that can 
 be expected, the Gospel may be compared to a rich wine of high 
 flavour diluted in such a quantity of water as renders it extremely 
 vapid." 
 
vi.] vf Scripture Style. 229 
 
 there is not only an exemption from such foibles, but 
 for the most part an absolute suppression of feelings 
 that would have been most natural to them. Though 
 we see intellectual and other differences among them, 
 which prove that they were not mere automata (accord- ^ *. 
 ing to one not very rational theory of inspiration), 
 they might very well have been such, looked at only in 
 this one aspect. 
 
 Though these traits are particularly observable in the 
 "Evangelists," they are also discernible in the writers 
 of the Old Testament generally, and especially in the 
 case of Moses. If the books ascribed to him were not 
 his, the wonder is increased a hundredfold, and consti- 
 tutes in itself a strong plea for their general veracity. 
 It is possible, indeed, that supposing Moses the writer, 
 we may impute to a very exalted virtue the perfect 
 frankness with which he recounts all his failings, his 
 reluctance to enter upon his great work, the various 
 instances of his impatience and the penalty which 
 chastised it, as well as his self-suppression; though, 
 considering his wonderful achievements (which writers 
 like Ewald eulogise as much as any of the orthodox), it 
 is perhaps not easy to imagine such self-obliteration in a 
 merely mortal virtue. But what are we to think if other 
 men composed the writings ? That the great founder 
 of the Jewish nation and polity should not have been 
 the theme of unbounded panegyric by those who wrote 
 of his achievements is inconceivable, unless the writers 
 were either different from all other writers, or utterly 
 destitute of every sentiment of admiration, gratitude, 
 
230 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 and patriotism. Never has Jewish patriotism, out of 
 the Bible, so treated this great leader. The Jewish 
 writers beyond that circle, as is customary with those 
 in all nations who record the achievements of illustrious 
 ancestors, know how to use the loftiest hyperboles of 
 panegyric and to embellish their narrative with all sorts 
 of traditional glories. It is well said in the Speaker's 
 Commentary (Introduction to Exodus. Vol. I. part i. 
 p. 240): " Such a representation of Moses is perfectly 
 intelligible as proceeding from Moses himself; but what 
 in him was humility would have been obtuseness in an 
 annalist, such as is not found in the accounts of other 
 great men, nor in the notices of Moses in other books." 
 It is also well remarked by Isaac Taylor, in his "Lec- 
 tures on Hebrew Poetry," that the Hebrew poets never 
 seem to dream of winning admiration by the opulence 
 of their imagination, nor of charming by their sub- 
 limity : they have no descriptive Poetry like that of 
 modern poets, where description is the very object ; no 
 heroes celebrated, no national ideas set forth, in epic 
 or dramatic fiction." 1 
 
 But the traits in question are most conspicuous in the 
 Evangelists. Never did men write on such exciting 
 topics, on topics of such transcendent interest too 
 (as subsequent facts prove them to be, for the world 
 has never been at rest since), with such wonderful 
 suppression of all personal animus, or apparent care- 
 lessness as to whether they were believed or not. The 
 bird that deposits its egg in the sand, and leaves 
 1 Pp. 57-60. 
 
vi.j of Scripture Style. 231 
 
 the hot soil to cherish it or the foot of the wayfarer to 
 crush it, as may happen, might be their emblem. The 
 ostrich is not "more hardened against her young ones," 
 to use the expression in Job, than these writers seem 
 towards their intellectual offspring. A few incontro- 
 vertible traits will illustrate this peculiar character, or 
 rather want of character, the "neutral tint," that 
 belongs to them. 
 
 They simply retail facts, or what, at all events, they 
 declare to be facts ; facts, too, which were certain to 
 produce, as they ever have done, and do still, the 
 most vehement ferment in the world, whether they be 
 believed or denied. Yet the authors say nothing byway 
 of preparation or apology; stoop to none of the rhetorical 
 arts usually employed to conciliate attention, to soften 
 hostility, to obviate prejudice. The writers have to 
 deliver certain facts, and whether men will receive 
 them or not, is not their business, but theirs whom 
 they address. This more than judicial imperturbability, 
 this want of susceptibility (as we should naturally call 
 it), would surprise us in any writers ; but in men who 
 had devoted themselves to the maintenance of a great 
 cause, a cause, if we may believe them, of transcen- 
 dent importance, and under circumstances which, in 
 all other cases, inevitably kindle enthusiasm and make 
 men fanatics even in spite of themselves, it is incompre- 
 hensible. Yet these men seemingly maintain an air 
 perfectly stolid ; and we should even call it stupid, if we 
 did not know the character of their compositions, and 
 the effect which these have had on the world. They 
 
232 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 content themselves with the most colourless and pas- 
 sionless statement of what purport to be facts. They 
 might be mere machines, for anything that appears in 
 their manner to the contrary. 
 
 Not only does this unnatural calm singularly contrast 
 with the wonderful facts they relate, and their own 
 estimate of them, but not even opposition and per- 
 secution can provoke them out of it; no, nor even 
 the cruel wrongs done to Him whom they called their 
 "Master" in a far higher sense than any party or 
 sect ever called its Founder such. Not even His 
 sufferings not even His death could inoculate 
 them with the spirit which is universal in the world ; 
 and which, where innocence has to be vindicated, 
 and great iniquities denounced, is invariably regarded 
 not simply as excusable, but meritorious. As Pascal 
 says, they have scarcely a word of passion or resent- 
 ment even for Christ's worst enemies. 1 The facts, 
 indeed, which they profess to relate (dramatically 
 exhibited, after the usual manner of Scripture) deter- 
 mine the moral character of those they describe as 
 
 1 " Le style de 1'Evangile est admirable en tant de manures, et 
 entre autres, en ne mettant jamais aucune invective centre les 
 bourreaux et ennemis de Jesus Christ. Car il n'y en a aucune 
 des historiens centre Judas, Pilate, ni aucun des Juifs. 
 
 " Si cette modestie des historiens evange'liques avait e'te affecte'e, 
 aussi bien que tant d'autres traits d'un si beau caractere, et qu'ils 
 ne Teussent affecte*, que pour le faire remarquer ; s'ils n'avaient ose" 
 le remarquer eux-memes, ils n'auraient pas manque de se procurer 
 des amis qui eussent fait ces remarques a leur avantage. Mais 
 comme ils ont agi de la sorte sans affectation, et par un mouve- 
 ment tout desinterresse', ils ne Font fait remarquer a personne." 
 Pensecs de Pascal. Ed. Faugere. Vol. II. p. 370. 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 233 
 
 agents ; but there is no word of indignation or in- 
 vective, such as is the infallible resort of parties in 
 conflict. They call no names, make no clamorous 
 reproaches; indulge neither in curses nor querulous 
 objurgation. Pilate, for example, is represented as 
 afraid of the people; and it is about the worst they 
 have to say of him. 
 
 When, in the "Acts/' the apostles of Christ are 
 represented as beaten and scourged, the historian 
 might well have been excused if he had broken out 
 into vehement invective against the cruelty of their 
 persecutors. "He has nothing to say, but that they 
 went to another city." 1 Though the Evangelists 
 represent Christ Himself, seemingly wearied out at 
 last with the wickedness of those Scribes and Phari- 
 sees who dogged His steps and scanned His words 
 with unsleeping malignity ; who accused Him of work- 
 ing His miracles by " Beelzebub," and tried to extract 
 even from His deeds of compassion matter for cavil, 
 and to turn them into instruments of His destruction ; 
 though they represent Christ Himself, I say (wearied 
 out at last), launching at these hypocrites bolts of 
 blasting, scathing invective, such as never before fell 
 from human lips ; denouncing them as those who took 
 away the "key of knowledge," and would neither enter 
 in themselves nor "suffer others to enter;" "who 
 devoured widows' houses," and " for a pretence made 
 long prayers ; " who " compassed sea and land to 
 make one proselyte, and after they had got him, 
 1 See Paley. 
 
234 O H Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 made him tenfold more the child of hell than them- 
 selves ; " though they describe Christ once thus 
 transported as never before, yet they themselves, who 
 must have deeply felt His wrongs and sympathized 
 with His resentment, have nothing to say even against 
 the Scribes and Pharisees ! If they are not relating 
 facts, but inventing them, or selecting or adorning 
 legends ; if Christ never used the words above referred 
 to, but these writers have put them into His lips, 
 it is clear that it was no want of the power of vehement 
 invective that kept them mute no lack of eloquence 
 which imposed this restraint. This manner, w;jhuman, 
 not to say ^human, if they "spoke as men," by 
 which they confine themselves to bare facts, and do 
 not tinge them, as human nature usually does and 
 cannot help doing, with personal feeling, is certainly 
 a paradox of peculiar significance. Even the calmest 
 historian, much more he who has suffered in civil 
 or religious strife, cannot thus school his tongue ; 
 and would not, if he could. 
 
 As these writers seem above resentment for their 
 own wrongs or the wrongs of their fellow-disciples, or 
 even of Him whom " they called Lord and Master," 
 whose sufferings they have yet described with such 
 inimitable touches of pathos, so they seem to be 
 equally free from all else that we should include in 
 " party spirit." They show, indeed, plainly enough, 
 in the course of their narrative, whom they think 
 in the right and whom in the wrong; with whom 
 they sympathise and with whom they do not : but 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 235 
 
 for anything that appears in the way of comment, 
 from the absence of the usual modes of expressing 
 personal bias, of softening or concealing the faults 
 or consulting the interests of their own party, they 
 might have no more feeling for their friends than for 
 their enemies. They record with the same wonderful 
 phlegm the errors and failings of their colleagues 
 and partisans as the cruelty and malignity of their 
 adversaries, and make no more apologies for the former 
 than for the latter ; a thing which to him who has 
 the slightest tincture of "party spirit" is incompre- 
 hensible. 
 
 When two of the disciples, provoked at the in- 
 hospitality of some Samaritan village to their Master, 
 not only broke into strong language, but wanted to 
 back it by stronger deeds, the writers tell us that 
 they received a severe rebuke for it, and have left 
 it on record to their shame ; he who records it being 
 generally regarded as one of the guilty parties. 
 
 If Peter falls shamefully, they do not even suggest 
 what his compassionate Master said for them all, 
 " The spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak." 
 With like frankness of spirit, they acknowledge the 
 pusillanimity they all displayed when they " forsook 
 their Master and fled ; " the denial of one, the 
 treachery of another, and the cowardice of all : they 
 confess the stupidity which so long made them " slow 
 of heart " to believe in His claims or to understand 
 His doctrines, and commemorate with impartiality 
 His chidings at their unbelief. 
 
236 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 Now many of these traits may be said to be without 
 parallel in the history of faction. The excesses of 
 the tongue, in all religious or political parties, are 
 notorious. The bitterness of ecclesiastical and theolo- 
 gical strife has even passed into a proverb, and has 
 been branded by the name of the " Odium Theolo- 
 gicum ; " and it makes it the more wonderful that 
 the authors of the gospels are free from it. It cannot 
 be pretended that human nature was more exempt 
 from it then than now ; for no sooner do we get away 
 from these writers, than we have it in abundance 
 in the early Church. When Paul, after his signal 
 success at Corinth, left that Church awhile to itself, 
 he soon found human nature asserting itself, as it 
 has always done, and as it does still. The Church 
 was broken up into violent factions. Some were 
 "for Paul," and some ''for Cephas," and some "for 
 Apollos," and some "for Christ;" and in the usual 
 unamiable fashion of party spirit, they proceeded to 
 considerable lengths in abuse of one another. The 
 apostle, just like the writers of the gospels, is above 
 everything of the kind. With that absolute loyalty 
 of surrender to Christ which characterises his whole 
 history, he contents himself with saying, " And who 
 is Apollos, and who is Cephas, or who is Paul, but 
 ministers by whom ye believed ?" and recommends, as 
 the cure of all faction, that self-oblivion in Christ 
 which he himself so remarkably exemplified. Like 
 the Evangelists, he is willing to be "nothing," that 
 Christ may be " all in all." 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 237 
 
 Again, the Evangelists make no attempt to remove 
 what writers of a hundredth part of their power of 
 delineation might have seen would be likely to occasion 
 difficulty to their readers. They do not attempt to 
 explain or get rid of any apparent discrepancy, either 
 in their own statements or (if they knew them) in the 
 statements of one another. They tell the most won- 
 derful things with the same composed air as the most 
 trivial incidents ; nor, as has been well remarked, does 
 one kind of miracle surprise them as more stupendous 
 than another. They bespeak no indulgence^ as is the 
 usual way of narrators of the marvellous, for the degree 
 in which they tax the credulity of the world ; nor deign 
 to give any reason why the things which they narrate, 
 however improbable, should be received. In a word, 
 remembering the thrilling things they relate, the whole 
 manner of these writers is full of paradox. 
 
 But this is not all, nor perhaps even the most won- 
 derful feature in the Evangelists. I have spoken of 
 the dramatic way in which narratives of the Bible 
 are conveyed, as a very general characteristic of the 
 book; it is attended, as usual, by a proportionate self- 
 oblivion, or, at all events, self-repression of the writers. 
 But what shall we say of that more than dramatic skill 
 by which the Evangelists have not only lost themselves 
 in their subject, but have managed to make mankind 
 equally lose sight of them ? I They are, one may say, 
 
 1 " There is another species of simplicity, besides the simplicity 
 of structure and the simplicity of sentiment above mentioned, for 
 which, beyond all the compositions I know in any language 
 Scripture history is remarkable. This may be called simplicity 
 
238 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 never thought of. One does not realise their greatness 
 as masters of description. They have so hidden them- 
 selves in their theme, that they leave us neither the 
 power nor the inclination to trouble ourselves about 
 them. Yet as mere portrait-painters, far more if 
 they were, as some say, really the creators of Christ, 
 whether by sheer invention, or by the skill with which 
 they selected and laid on the colours which vague 
 and fleeting myth supplied, one would think that 
 they must have arrested more of the attention of the 
 world. On the supposition just mentioned, indeed, 
 they ought to be regarded as little less than demigods. 
 If Christ be but a phantom, to which they have 
 given greater substance than belongs to any cha- 
 racter in history ; whose imaginary career (more 
 romantic than romance itself) they have made so 
 many myriads accept as historic verity; for whom 
 they have created an empire over the minds of men 
 mightier and more durable than king or conqueror 
 ever established before; to whom homage is given 
 by far more various races than were ever combined 
 under one sceptre ; and who exacts more from the 
 willing love of His subjects than all the tortures of 
 tyranny ever exacted from their fear ; if that " phan- 
 tom " Christ was really the handiwork of the Evan- 
 
 of design. The subject of the narrative so engrosses the attention 
 of the writer, that he is himself as nobody, and is quite forgotten 
 by* the reader, who is never led by the tenour of the narration 
 so much as to think of him. He introduces nothing as from him- 
 self. We have no opinions of his; no remarks, conjectures, doubts, 
 inferences ; no reasonings about the causes or the effects of what 
 is related." Campbell on the Gospels. Vol. i. p. 67. London, 1825. 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 239 
 
 gelists, the men who achieved that unparalleled feat 
 ought certainly to be the wonder of mankind. If it 
 be said : " No, these did not create Christ. He is 
 indeed a phantom, or little more ; but it proceeded 
 out of the mist of myth, and is the product of some 
 utterly nameless and forgotten obscurities, after whom 
 the Evangelists wrought ; they merely copied from 
 their designs:" if this be said, it may be an- 
 swered, first, that the wonder is rather increased 
 than diminished. For we have at least the names 
 though little else of those who composed the 
 Gospels ; a few, though very few, particulars of their 
 history. But according to this theory, those who 
 really founded the solid empire of a visionary Christ 
 have hidden themselves more effectually than even 
 the authors of the gospels have done ! Secondly, it 
 must still be said on this theory, that if the authors 
 of the gospels be no more than portrait-painters, 
 it is the portrait they have left us of Christ 
 that has chiefly secured Him the homage of the 
 world. The hints and whispers of myth on which 
 the evangelists worked (if they really wrought from 
 such things) would soon have been buried in oblivion 
 had they not so preserved them. Of the many at- 
 tempts which have been made, even by His own most 
 devoted followers, to paint Him, none but the "four" 
 have been able to win a thousandth part of the same 
 admiration for Him. 
 
 Now, I repeat that, on any such theory, the world 
 ought to be struck dumb with admiration at the 
 
240 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 perfection of dramatic representation which must have 
 been possessed by these writers of whom yet we 
 never think at all as the wonderful geniuses they 
 must have been if they either created or merely 
 painted such a character as Christ. They have so 
 completely buried themselves in their subject, that 
 even by a reflex act we find it difficult to speculate 
 on the endowments which, on any such theory, 
 they must have possessed. It is not so in any other 
 case. Of all human writers, Shakespeare is the one 
 who (next to the Evangelists) exhibits in greatest 
 perfection this power of forgetting himself in his 
 characters ; or rather, of so transfiguring himself, as to 
 lose in them, for a time, his own individuality. And 
 while his spell is on his readers, he is equally lost to 
 them also. Still, it is only for a short time that he is 
 under such eclipse. Genius exacts its own. He does 
 not wrong himself. His superlative dramatic skill 
 is not defrauded of the admiration and homage' due to 
 it. Once remitted to ourselves, we see that Shakes- 
 peare is on every page ; and, transferring to him the 
 interest we felt in his works, ask ten thousand ques- 
 tions about him which we would fain have answered. 
 We stand for awhile absorbed in the characters of 
 Macbeth and Othello ; forget Shakespeare and our- 
 selves in the sorrows of Ophelia and Desdemona ; yield 
 to every varying emotion which the great enchanter 
 conjures up; and then, when his phantoms have 
 stalked across the stage, cease to think of them, and 
 concentre our thoughts on the enchanter himself. In 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 241 
 
 closing his plays we say what, probably, no man ever 
 said of Matthew, Mark, Luke, or John : " What a 
 prodigy of intellectual power is this man ! What 
 knowledge of human nature ! What affluence of 
 genius ! What imperial command of language ! Surely 
 he is the leviathan among mortal intellects on earth 
 there is not his like." If it be said his work is 
 greater than that of the Evangelists, we must deny 
 it ; and on the supposition that the gospels are 
 not history, point to the effects of the writings of 
 their authors for proof. Though all they wrote, put 
 together, would not make more than a couple of 
 Shakespeare's plays, yet how much greater the 
 effect ! Shakespeare's delineations terminate in the 
 ideal; the Evangelists, on this theory, have trans- 
 formed the ideal into the real, and made the world 
 mistake it for history ! If they created the cha- 
 racter of Christ, or even painted it from floating 
 mythical materials, as Shakespeare did that of Mac- 
 beth, they far outdid him. Why does no man break 
 out into raptures of admiration about them ? I appre- 
 hend the reason must be, that if they are but painters, 
 they have given such a life-like representation, that the 
 generality of people cannot help thinking the illusion 
 real. The mirror is so perfect, that the image is no 
 longer discerned to be such ; the medium so trans- 
 lucent, that it eludes the sense. 
 
 But on the ordinary hypothesis even that of their 
 being simple historians, the trait I am now par- 
 ticularly insisting on still comes out with transparent 
 
 17 
 
243 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 vividness. They are not only self-oblivious, but we 
 forget them too. Even on this generally received, and, 
 as I believe, true hypothesis, that they are tran- 
 scribing from the life, and not inventing or adorning 
 an ideal at all, this feature is very wonderful. 1 
 
 Somewhat similar observations might be made on 
 the Apostle Paul; not, indeed, that there is self- 
 repression in his writings (for that was impossible in 
 compositions of such a nature), but in his mode of 
 self-exhibition. In his epistles we naturally find his 
 personal peculiarities his modes of thought and feel- 
 ing laid bare before us. Yet, in one respect, he is just 
 like the other writers of the New Testament. He 
 loses himself, as the Evangelists do, in that great 
 Personage, that reality or that shadow, by which 
 the world has been saved or beguiled ! Nor is there 
 anything more wonderful, considering Paul's antece- 
 
 1 It is said of Robinson, of Cambridge (Robert Hall's pre- 
 decessor, and himself a man of remarkable genius), that being 
 asked to take part in the ordination of some young minister, he 
 thought he saw (as will be the case sometimes, even in young- 
 ministers) certain tendencies to foppery ; and among other indi- 
 cations of it he observed a disposition to exhibit a rather brilliant 
 ring on the little finger of the candidate's right hand. In the 
 course of his charge he took an opportunity, as he well knew 
 how, to give him a hint which he would not forget, but which 
 no person in the audience but himself would understand. " My 
 young friend," he said, "as a Christian minister, you must con- 
 sider yourself as a mere servant, occupied in holding up to the 
 gaze of visitors some master-piece of portrait-painting. All that 
 you should desire to do is to exhibit it in the best light, and with 
 as little intrusion of yourself as possible. You will be anxious to 
 be entirely hidden behind the picture-frame. As you hold it up, 
 you will not, if it be possible, allow even a little finger to be seen.'' 
 The Evangelists have certainly acted on this principle to the utter- 
 most, and have not even allowed "a little finger" to be seen. 
 
\ri.] of Scripture Style. 243 
 
 dents his early history, his education at the feet of 
 Gamaliel, his burning zeal for the law, his ambitious 
 hopes, his brilliant prospects than his sudden, abso- 
 lute surrender to Him whom, but the day before, he 
 had esteemed as a justly-crucified malefactor, the very 
 thought of whom naturally stirred all the gorge of 
 this Pharisee of the Pharisees. Yet so entire is 
 the apostle's absorption in Christ, that his whole life 
 is henceforth without a thought but for Him. It is 
 bound up in Him. For Christ he cheerfully endures 
 "the loss of all things;" for Him he casts all the 
 hopes of his life away, and counts them " but dross 
 that he may win Him ; " exposes himself to every 
 kind of suffering, to bonds, scourges, imprisonment, 
 to a vagabond life of toils and privation, and to a death 
 of agony and shame, for the love of Him. According to 
 his own strong saying, "To him to live was Christ." If 
 he ever becomes assertive, urgent, indignant, vehement, 
 it is for Christ, not for himself. There is not a particle 
 of egotism about him. He is willing to be forgotten 
 by the world, or to be remembered only as the butt 
 of its scorn and anger; to have his labours depre- 
 ciated, his achievements questioned or appropriated by 
 others ; and his dearest recompense, the affection of 
 those for whom he yearned and laboured,- snatched 
 away ; all is alike to him if Christ may be but 
 honoured, whether it be " by his death or his life," 
 and if His Gospel may be " by any means " preached, 
 even though by his enemies, and " out of envy and 
 strife." He resembles that planet which revolves 
 
 17* 
 
244 O H Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 nearest the sun, which makes only very moderate 
 excursions from the luminary round which it rolls, 
 and is generally lost in his beams. 
 
 It is not surprising that from the strange history 
 of Paul, from the impossibility of accounting for his 
 conduct by any ordinary motives of reducing it either 
 to enthusiam or imposture, or any modification of the 
 two, many should have thought that his character 
 and achievements, even if there were no other evidence 
 of the truth of Christianity, would afford irrefragable 
 proof. So thought Lord Lyttelton in his well-known 
 essay. 
 
 Before concluding this lecture, I would reply to an 
 objection sometimes brought against some of the scrip- 
 ture narratives, which, when the subject is fairly con- 
 sidered, seems to me rather to tell the other way. 
 The objection is, that whatever beauties of narrative 
 and poetry the Bible may contain, whatever treasures 
 of spiritual and moral wisdom, it also contains much 
 which is repulsive to taste, and which cannot be read 
 without pain. But if it be a " Revelation " in very 
 deed, it could not but be so. If it addresses itself to all 
 men, even the most abandoned, it ought not (and it 
 does not) scruple to lay bare the secret pollutions, to 
 probe the worst ulcers, of our moral nature. It pro- 
 fessedly carries the " candle of the Lord " into the 
 deepest and most tortuous recesses of the human 
 heart. In performing this necessary office of "holding 
 the mirror up to nature," there is, no doubt, much in 
 its history and biography, in its descriptions of human 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 245 
 
 life, in its anatomy of character, in its exposure of sin 
 and vice, which not merely grates on the ear, but 
 is positively painful and repulsive. The only ques- 
 tion is, in what spirit and for what purpose is such 
 matter introduced. For the matter itself, it makes 
 no apology; it is discharging an obligation which, 
 however unwelcome, is imperious ; one which even 
 specially belongs to it as designed to reach the very 
 lowest outcasts of human kind, in the uttermost 
 depths of pollution and misery, and exhibit to them 
 a clear image of the moral evil from which it would 
 rescue them. But the mode in which, with all plain- 
 spoken simplicity, it does this, deserves to be men- 
 tioned as one of the most striking peculiarities of 
 the Bible, and which alone would contrast it with all 
 human literature. Treatises of morality hardly dare 
 to approach those dark spots of human nature which 
 Scripture so fearlessly exposes, and still less to illus- 
 trate them by such appalling accuracy of moral 
 anatomy. Satire, indeed (as that of Juvenal), is often 
 as plain-spoken, and far coarser ; but it is easy to see, 
 in general, that indignation and contempt are the pre- 
 dominant emotions expressed and awakened ; some- 
 times it is but the vehicle of misanthropic cynicism. 
 As for all lesser forms of human infirmity, and many 
 which are by no means to be counted such, comedy 
 eagerly seizes on them as the legitimate food for mirth 
 and laughter. Infinitely different is the tone of the 
 Bible ! In consistency with that universal aim which 
 characterises it throughout, as asserting everywhere 
 
246 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 the paramount claims of religion and virtue, it 
 never approaches guilty man with less than the gravity 
 and compassion with which a humane judge looks 
 upon the criminal. It acts up to its maxim, that it 
 is " fools " alone who " make a mock at sin," for sin 
 is not a thing for mockery. It exposes it, indeed, 
 unsparingly; but the light it sheds on it is as little 
 contaminated by it, as the sun by the material pollu- 
 tions it discovers to us. It denounces it also, but still 
 with a yearning pity to the victims of it ; to warn 
 them by the " terrors of the Lord," to " flee from it 
 as from the face of a serpent ;" and to " beseech them 
 by the mercies of God " to " repent and live." So 
 clear is all this, that of all those who have complained 
 of the plain-dealing of the Bible in this matter, the 
 repulsive and distressing details into which it some- 
 times enters, probably no one ever taxed it with 
 gloating on such things either with cynical malevolence 
 or cynical levity, far less with that pruriency which 
 must so often be charged on satirists and comedians. 1 
 
 1 In mitigation of an objection sometimes made, that the public 
 reading of some of the chapters of the Bible is a painful ordeal 
 to a promiscuous audience, it may be allowed to ask, "Whose 
 fault is that ? " It may well be a question, whether every part of 
 the Bible is intended for "public" perusal in "a promiscuous 
 audience," any more than the genealogies and lists of mere 
 names, which are also found there, but are never so read. 
 
 As to some gross vulgarisms in our English version (the ori- 
 ginal equivalents of which passed without notice in countries 
 and ages less artificially refined than ours), they are the result of 
 translating idioms literally, instead of into corresponding idioms ; 
 and the same folly would make many phrases in our own or 
 any other language sound almost equally uncouth to the ear of 
 a foreigner. They will doubtless disappear from that "revised 
 
vi.] of Scripture Style. 247 
 
 It may be remarked, as another peculiarity in the 
 manner of Scripture in general, that, so far from being 
 chargeable with this fault, it never seems even to 
 glance at the comic side of life and the world at all, 
 as little as though, in its apprehension, there were no 
 such thing. It cannot be that those who wrote the 
 book did not feel there was plenty of scope for ridicule. 
 No satire was ever more powerful than that in which 
 Isaiah denounces the folly of the idolater ; never sar- 
 casm more bitter than that with which Elijah taunts 
 the worshippers of Baal ; nor invective so withering as 
 that with which the Saviour unmasks the hypocrisy of 
 the scribes and Pharisees. The Christian, of course, 
 
 version" which, considering what immense accumulations have 
 been made in every department of Biblical study since the au- 
 thorized version was made, cannot but be of immense value. 
 Let the learned "revisers" only guard against spoiling the racy 
 English of that version, and for the rest they cannot but earn 
 our thanks. 
 
 But the topics of the Bible, however painful occasionally, require 
 no apology, if they are not wantonly intruded on " a promiscuous 
 audience/' If the book indeed speaks to every man, as well as to 
 all men ; if it says what is strictly appropriate to the individual as 
 well as to the species ; if the reader, whoever he be, is to feel, 
 as Robert Hall says, " that it is impossible for him to escape by 
 losing himself in the crowd," it must sometimes talk with us as 
 a parent with a child, as a guardian with his ward, as a friend with 
 an erring brother, as a clergyman with a condemned criminal, as 
 a kind physician with his patient ; that is, in confidential secrecy. 
 As we are commanded to "enter into our chamber" for private 
 prayer, and not " stand at the corners of the streets," so the Bible, 
 which is to be the " man of our counsel," will have some things 
 for our ear alone. If it has given needless offence in this matter 
 to modesty, it is not because it has spoken plainly (for while human 
 nature is capable of the evils it condemns, these must be exposed 
 and denounced) ; but because men have unwisely proclaimed that 
 which is intended "for the ear and the secret chamber" in "the 
 market-place " and " from the house-tops." 
 
248 On Certain Peculiarities of Scripture Style. 
 
 will be disposed to think that this trait arises from the 
 very function which the Bible everywhere assumes; that 
 its object being so transcendently grave and solemn, to 
 assert the claims of God, and to reclaim " a lost world 
 to Him," mirth, in the ordinary sense, however inno- 
 cent, would have been as unnatural in these writers 
 as laughter, though equally innocent, in the " Man 
 of sorrows ; " and that as He, though the most perfect 
 type of human nature, felt (under the perpetual weight 
 of that burden which oppressed Him), no temptation 
 to exhibit this phase of it, so for similar reasons the airy 
 tones of wit and humour in the pages of the Bible would 
 be as unnatural as a jocular vein in a judge on the bench 
 of criminal justice, or a physician by the bedside of 
 patients in their mortal agony. Doubtless this is 
 sufficient reason for the peculiarity; but still, it is a 
 peculiarity, which distinguishes the Bible from every 
 other growth of human literature. If it had been the 
 product of mere human genius, it might not have been 
 very easy to account, among so many different writers, 
 for the absence of what is so large an element in other 
 literature ; and in this point of view, perhaps the feature 
 in question might have been added to those in which it 
 is argued that the Bible is not a book that man would 
 have produced. But it is more natural to mention it 
 here, as one of the characteristic trails in the structure 
 of the Bible, and which discriminate it from human 
 literature in general. 
 
LECTURE VII. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
LECTURE VII. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 AT the revival of letters, keen controversies arose, 
 and long raged, with regard to the literary ca- 
 pabilities of the languages in which the Bible was 
 written, and its consequent qualities of style. There 
 were not wanting those, of more piety than wisdom, 
 who contended for perfections of diction and of elo- 
 quence, which the sacred writers themselves resolutely 
 disown. They declared that the Hebrew, being the 
 original language (which they took for granted), must 
 be as copious and expressive rs any of later derivation ; 
 and that the New Testament, in spite of its being 
 in that "common Greek" which was formed after the 
 Macedonian conquests, and in the formation of which, 
 as is usual in such cases, the language had undergone 
 great changes of structure ; in spite of its being full 
 of grammatical idioms which would have shocked an 
 Attic ear, and in spite of Syriac, Hebrew, and Chaldee 
 barbarisms, which would have shocked it still more, 
 wanted little of Attic purity, and could match in 
 force and grace the periods of Demosthenes or Plato. 1 
 
 1 There is an excellent dissertation of Werenfels, entitled De 
 Stylo Scriptorum Novi Testamenti, in which many of these follies 
 are exposed and rebuked in a spirit of criticism far in advance of 
 the time. 
 
252 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 They much mistook the matter. While contending 
 that the Bible had a force and grace of its own, which 
 would more than justify comparison with the classic 
 writers, they should have owned that it is palpably 
 destitute, and proclaims its destitution, of the elaborate 
 polish and artificial beauty of the eloquence which 
 " man's wisdom teacheth." As truth and candour 
 should have compelled them to acknowledge so much, 
 so they should have gladly accepted the position, and 
 made their argumentative gain of it. They should 
 have shown, in the first place, as Michaelis does, that 
 the very style of the New Testament, with its strong 
 tincture of Hebrew and oriental thought and idiom, is 
 itself a voucher for its antiquity and genuineness ; that 
 none but Jewish Christians could have written it ; that 
 after the destruction of Jerusalem it was as incredible 
 that impostors could have written in so peculiar a 
 dialect, as that they should have been able to weave 
 a contexture of narrative which, like that of the 
 New Testament, is so minutely in harmony with the 
 events and customs of the preceding period as known 
 from profane history. Next, they should have argued 
 that, willingly admitting the imperfections of the 
 vehicle which the writers of the Bible employed, 
 the ruggedness and restricted compass of the He- 
 brew, the barbarisms, the solecisms, uncouthness, 
 and deformity of the Greek, it is all the more won- 
 derful that, in spite of all this, the writings of the 
 Bible have somehow been imbued with a force, gran- 
 deur, and beauty of their own, which have procured 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 253 
 
 for them a name and place in the forefront even of the 
 world's literature, and extorted the highest admiration 
 even of those who denied them all other than a literary 
 claim to it. 
 
 That the Bible possesses many qualities of style, 
 which, like so many other things touched in this volume, 
 make it unique among books, and fit it for being 
 cosmopolitan, is what I am about to endeavour to 
 show. It is only a few of these properties that I have 
 space to touch ; but they will be sufficient, I think, 
 to prove what has been just said. Of course, though 
 I have said the Bible is generally characterised by 
 its own peculiarities, there are large portions of it 
 consisting of dry statements of the barest fact, 
 genealogical catalogues, juridical matter which, 
 however conducive to some of the many ends enu- 
 merated in the preceding lecture, do not admit of 
 any beauty or grace of composition ; or any excellence, 
 indeed, beyond that (not a very common one) of 
 saying the thing that is meant to be said in the 
 plainest way and in the simplest words. But large 
 as is the amount of matter to be deducted on this 
 account, even in the residuum there is more than 
 enough to test the justice of what I have said, 
 or to confute it. 
 
 Speaking generally, I venture to say that the style 
 of the Bible is very distinguishable from that of all 
 other literature. It is neither oriental nor occidental ; 
 its writers were, indeed, of the East, and as they speak 
 naturally, they have a tinge of oriental thought and 
 
254 O H Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 imagery sufficient to remind us perpetually of their 
 origin ; but it is not such as to prevent their readily 
 making themselves denizens among any people, and 
 being heartily appreciated by the western world, a 
 privilege which Asiatic writers in general, Hindoo, 
 Chinese, Arabic, Persian, scarcely ever attain. 
 
 Into some of the causes of this curious phenomenon 
 I shall briefly enter by-and-by, when I come to speak 
 of the facility with which the Bible can be translated 
 as compared with books in general. Here it is suf- 
 ficient to point out that, tested by the fact of general 
 appreciation, its position is unique. One has but to 
 compare it with ninety-nine out of every hundred 
 oriental books, translated into the western languages, 
 to see how widely different it is ; how free from the ' 
 peculiarities that disgust us with them the excess 
 and extravagance of imagery, the meretricious and 
 florid ornament, the diffuseness, the bombast and 
 fustian, which are so repulsive to western taste 
 and intellect. It may be said, and justly, that only 
 a thorough knowledge of oriental languages, manners, 
 and customs, can enable a critic to see how far a work 
 has been adequately translated. I admit it, and the 
 more willingly, as it makes for my argument. Doubtless 
 only a competent knowledge of the original language 
 will enable us to judge of the merits of any translation. 
 But here is the remarkable difference between the Bible 
 and other oriental books ; that while the oriental style 
 in general cannot be so translated as to overcome the 
 disgust of the western nations, the Bible is everywhere 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 255 
 
 capable of it. My point is, that whereas they cannot 
 be naturalized, the Bible can. Nay, the more literally 
 they are translated, they become (like the translations 
 of the classics) less attractive ; the more literally the 
 Bible is translated, the better, for the most part, it 
 appears. Oriental compositions in general, like many 
 imported articles, require to be adapted to the European 
 market. There are comparatively few books of the 
 East that can vie in popularity with the " Arabian 
 Nights ; " and yet it may be questioned whether the 
 literal translation of Mr. Lane, generally acknowledged 
 by competent judges to be excellent, is, after all, 
 so much relished by the English reader in general 
 as the " translation of a translation " with which we 
 were long contented in the Version from the French 
 of M. Galland ; and that precisely because the trans- 
 lation of Mr. Lane is more literal. 1 
 
 Few men have been of more catholic taste in lite- 
 rature than Sir W. Jones, and certainly as few whose 
 familiarity with oriental literature could better enable 
 them to appreciate its merits; merits which he sets 
 forth with no stint or grudging in those " Commentaries 
 on Eastern Poetry" which he wrote in imitation of 
 Lowth's Prelections. But though, as an excellent 
 critic has said, he had " an exceptional power of 
 assimilating the exotic beauty of Eastern poetry," he 
 everywhere admits the superiority of the Hebrew bards, 
 
 1 Sir W. Jones, in his translations from the Persian and Arabian 
 poets, freely admits the necessity of adapting them to western 
 taste. Where he has given us a literal version, he rarely succeeds 
 in abating their repulsiveness. 
 
256 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 and of the Scriptures generally, as compared with all 
 other literature. He has left an emphatic eulogium 
 of them in his Eighth Discourse : " Theological in- 
 quiries are no part of my present subject; but I 
 cannot refrain from adding that the collection of 
 tracts, which we call from their excellence the Scrip- 
 tures, contain (independently of a Divine origin) more 
 true sublimity, more exquisite beauty, purer morality, 
 more important history, and finer strains both of poetry 
 and eloquence, than could be collected within the same 
 compass from all other books that were ever composed 
 in any age or in any idiom. The two parts of which 
 the Scriptures consist are connected by a chain of 
 compositions which bear no resemblance in form or 
 style to any that can be produced from the stores of 
 Grecian, Indian, Persian, or even Arabian learning." 1 
 
 The Bible, in general, belongs to no school of litera- 
 ture. A similar remark may be made on the peculi- 
 arities which characterise its several compositions as 
 compared with their analogues in other literatures. 
 As literature has various species of composition ad- 
 dressed to those principles of human nature which 
 inspired them, so the Bible has compositions in ana- 
 logy with these, yet specifically different. They bear 
 but a very general resemblance to similar productions 
 in other literatures. Nor can one now read with 
 patience many of the pedantic disquisitions of our 
 elder critics (and even of some of more recent date), 
 who, borrowing all their measuring-lines from classical 
 1 Sir W. Jones' Works. Eighth Discourse. Vol. iii. p. 183. Ed. 1807. 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 257 
 
 standards, disputed whether any creations of the 
 Hebrew poets comply with the conditions of the true 
 epic or the genuine drama. Even Lowth has a long 
 discussion (Prelect, xxxiii.) as to whether the book 
 of Job be or be not a regular drama whether it 
 complies with the rules laid down by the Father of 
 Criticism ; and he justly decides that it does not. But 
 the discussion is about as much to the purpose as 
 those older disputes as to whether the New Testament 
 Greek was such as Attic taste would have approved. 
 The true answer is that, though the Bible has com- 
 positions which approximate to various species of 
 composition in other literatures, * didactic, narrative, 
 poetical, they refuse to come under any strict canons 
 of criticism, and differ from other compositions of 
 the same name, almost as much in form as in sub- 
 stance. 
 
 A marked peculiarity in the style of Scripture, as 
 compared with other books, is the prodigious extent to 
 which what is called parallelism prevails in it; that is, a 
 mode of speech by which similar or contrasted ideas, 
 and, indeed, ideas related in many other ways, are 
 expressed in various forms of antithesis. Though not 
 exclusively found in the Bible (in fact, it is a favourite 
 form of speech in oriental style generally), it may be 
 justly said that the degree in which it prevails there, is 
 so enormous, and the functions it performs so important, 
 as to constitute it a distinguishing feature. The "paral- 
 lelism" has been copiously treated by Lowth in his 
 Introduction to his Translation of Isaiah, and in his 
 
 18 
 
258 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 Lectures on Hebrew Poetry; as also by Herder, by 
 Jebb, by Ewald, and numberless other writers. They 
 have treated it chiefly in relation to the poetry of the 
 Hebrews, in the form and expression of which it is 
 an essential element ; in fact seems to be the sole 
 substitute for the metres which are such essential 
 adjuncts of poetry in general. But though chiefly of 
 importance in poetry, it is in fact a prevalent character- 
 istic of the Scriptures throughout, of the New Testa- 
 ment in a considerable degree, as well as of the Old. 
 
 Of the various species of the parallelism, critics have 
 endeavoured to give an exhaustive analysis ; but re- 
 fined, and often over-refined, as their classifications 
 have been, they have not succeeded in reducing them 
 all within the circle of formal definition. As the com- 
 positions of Scripture are sui generis, and have only 
 a general analogy with those of similar character 
 in ordinary literatures, so it may be said of this 
 prevalent modus loquendi, that it does not submit to 
 the artificial classifications of rhetorical criticism. So 
 ample is the range, so elastic is the nature of this 
 one expedient of expression, that though it might be 
 imagined that nothing but monotony could ensue from 
 its predominant use, it is far otherwise; and not even 
 the most copious analysis suffices to exhaust all its 
 varieties. The believer in the Bible can hardly help 
 suspecting that that same wisdom which knows how to 
 give infinite variety to the few features of the " human 
 face divine," has so subordinated the language to the 
 thought, the instrument to its end, as to secure bound- 
 
vii ] of Scripture Style. 259 
 
 less diversity in the modifications of this one form. No 
 doubt its principal varieties, as Lowth states, may in 
 gross be ranged under " synonymous," " antithetic," 
 "constructive," and so on; but there are manifold 
 modifications either of idea or form which cannot be 
 reduced to such Procrustean tests. It has been well 
 said that " there is rhythm in all poetry, and in that of 
 the Hebrew it is prominent enough." But it cannot 
 be fettered by artificial rules ; it is free, untrammelled, 
 as the spirit which moulds it ; no more capable of 
 being reduced to precise scale and measure than the 
 music of the ^Eolian harp to the laws of artificial 
 melody. 
 
 By this one generic form, infinitely varied in its 
 applications, the Hebrew poets, though destitute of 
 those regular metres which so many critics, with 
 such waste of subtilty, have endeavoured to discover 
 in their compositions, 1 have given expression to what 
 the whole world recognises and confesses to be poetry 
 of the very highest order, and in a form worthy 
 of the substance ; poetry exhibiting wonderful rhythm 
 and music, though not metrical in the ordinary sense 
 
 1 After finding all sorts of classic metres in the Hebrew poetry 
 hexameters, pentameters, trimeters, and many more, critics by 
 general consent are agreed that there are none. An amusing sum- 
 mary of the controversy, from Jerome to Jebb, may be seen in 
 Smith's " Dictionary o* the Bible," under the article Poetry. 
 Marcus Meibomius, in the seventeenth century, professed to have 
 discovered, by aid of Divine revelation, the true metrical system 
 of the Hebrews ; but he was prudent, and proposed to let the 
 world have the secret for thirty thousand pounds ! It was a high 
 price to pay for nothing ; for such his scheme was found to be 
 when, in compassion to mankind, he gave some glimpses of the 
 secret gratis. 
 
 t8 * 
 
260 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 of the term ; in fact, poetry that in its form is more 
 nearly allied to prose than verse. 
 
 Here, then, is another striking anomaly in the 
 style of Scripture; that whereas in other literature 
 there is nothing so intolerable, so offensive to a 
 pure taste, as those hybrid compositions which at- 
 tempt to express poetry in the forms of prose, the 
 Bible, by a strange felicity, seems to have conciliated 
 the seemingly incompatible claims of both. 
 
 A form so very prevalent as the parallelism sug- 
 gests that there may have been other reasons for 
 so generally resorting to it. At all events, we see 
 that it is conducive to other ends, which, if the 
 Bible be what it professes to be, are of great impor- 
 tance. No doubt its principal use may be found in 
 the various functions it performs in relation to Hebrew 
 poetry. But it is not difficult to see that if the 
 Bible was designed for the use of all mankind, faci- 
 lities must be given for perpetual transmission and 
 universal translation ; and this peculiarity of style 
 is of great importance in relation to both objects. 
 As to the first ; it conduces in a variety of ways 
 to preserve the text incorrupt, as well as to assist 
 the critic in the attempt to restore it where it has 
 been accidentally vitiated. It is true that neither this, 
 nor any other expedient of composition, can perfectly 
 exempt the Bible, any more than other books, from 
 the influence of those innumerable causes of minute 
 error which subjection to the ordinary laws of trans- 
 mission implies, and which must produce, in the 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 261 
 
 course of successive transcription from age to age, 
 appreciable results : but there can be little doubt 
 that the integrity of the text of the Bible is in 
 part to be attributed to that form of parallelism 
 which so generally characterises it. The way in 
 which it operates as a check on the corruption 
 of the text is obvious. The duplicate expression 
 of thought makes each member of the parallelism 
 a guard and key to the other. It acts as a per- 
 petual admonition to the transcriber, forewarning 
 him by the form of expression when he has gone 
 or is going wrong, and recalling him, in the re- 
 vision of his copy, to any erroneous substitute of 
 one word for another ; or, if it has not prevented 
 his going astray, it has in many cases assisted the 
 critics of after times in the recovery of the text, or, 
 at all events, of the meaning. Too great caution 
 cannot be exercised before actually admitting into 
 the text of any author emendations opposed to the 
 weight of manuscript authority; still, in the case 
 of not a few " parallelisms " of the Bible (even 
 though the critic may not feel justified in substi- 
 tuting his conjecture for the text), we are enabled 
 to see there has been error, and to feel morally 
 certain in what sense, if not by what word, the 
 true text is to be recovered. Thus, though every 
 sober critic must condemn that license of conjec- 
 tural criticism in which Bishop Lowth was wont 
 to indulge, it must be allowed that he has given 
 some felicitous examples of corrections suggested 
 
262 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 by the parallelism, and the same may be said of 
 many other critics. 1 
 
 Some critics have compared the "parallelisms" 
 of Scripture in this respect with the beneficent 
 arrangement by which (as the wise man says) God 
 has made many " things double ; " thus giving us a 
 twofold security for our senses of sight and hearing, 
 and many other important organs and functions of 
 our physical nature. 
 
 The parallelism also facilitates the translation of 
 the Bible into other languages; especially its poetry. 
 This one simple, though flexible form, being the 
 chief vehicle of it, it is released from all bondage 
 to the highly complex and artificial metres in which 
 poetry is usually expressed ; and is assimilated, though 
 without losing its rhythm, to the character of prose. 
 The comparative ease with which the Scripture is 
 transfused, with the least possible sacrifice of grace 
 
 1 " Ihr Parallel! smus/' says Herder's imaginary objector, " ist 
 eintonig ; eine ewige tautologie, dazu ohne Mass der Worte und 
 Sylben, das sich nur einigermassen dem Ohr empfohle. ' Aures 
 perpetuis tautologiis Isedunt' sagt einer der grossten Kenner der- 
 selben, 'Orienti jucundis, Europoe invisis, prudentioribus stoma- 
 chaturis, dormitaturis reliquis,' und das ist Wahr." Whether the 
 Latinist might not have improved his own style in the two last 
 uncouth natitheses, by imitating the " parallelism " a little better, 
 I will not stay to ask ; but, however " hateful to Europe " the 
 oriental form in general may be, the mystery is (as I have already 
 urged) that in the exceptional case of the Bible it has not proved 
 hateful. The Bible has been a greater " success, " as Carlyle says, 
 " than any Paternoster Row in the world ever heard of." 
 
 The squeamishness of the above critic reminds one of the 
 Ciceronian cardinal, who said he had once read the Bible (in 
 the Vulgate, of course), but that he should never read it again, lest 
 it should ruin his Latinity ! 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 263 
 
 or strength, into other languages, is in a considerable 
 degree due to this. 
 
 But it is only one of many causes which conduce 
 to that facility of translation which characterises the 
 Bible, and which forms, as I think, another unique 
 peculiarity of it. This, of course, is not proved by 
 the unprecedented number of languages into which 
 it has been actually translated; for though that fact 
 gives it a solitary pre-eminence over all other books, 
 sacred or profane, it may be accounted for by the pro- 
 found conviction the book has somehow wrought in 
 so many different communities, during so many ages, 
 that it is the duty of those who receive it to make its 
 contents known to all mankind, and therefore to give 
 it a voice in every language. This conviction, indeed 
 (as I have elsewhere said), is a curious phenomenon, 
 which itself requires to be accounted for; but it will 
 not account for the fact I am now considering 
 namely, that the book has not only inspired men with 
 an intense desire to give it a diffusion commensurate 
 with human speech, but has itself, by peculiarities of 
 structure, diction, and style, given peculiar facilities 
 for the task it has imposed. 
 
 Of course, every book must in some degree suffer 
 from translation, and therefore the Bible. No one 
 can compare even the best translations of the great 
 works of human genius with the originals of Homer, 
 for example, or Virgil, or Milton, or Dante, or Goethe, 
 and, above all, Shakespeare without feeling that the 
 sacrifice is grsat, and that to give anything approaching 
 
264 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 a perfect translation is (what it has been represented) 
 an insoluble problem. To turn to a translation 
 after perusing the original has been well compared 
 to looking on the wrong side of a piece of tapestry, 
 from which the brightness of the colouring and the 
 sharpness of the figures are gone ; or looking at a scene 
 by moonlight after gazing on it by the sunlight. Some- 
 how the energy of the diction is weakened, the imagery 
 paled, the grace of manner, the "curiosa felicitas," to 
 a great extent vanished. The connection between the 
 thoughts and words was so vital, that to tear them 
 asunder was to touch the life. 
 
 Now, it is a great merit in the works of human 
 genius when the divorce of thought from language is 
 thus nearly fatal ; it is a test of excellence ; so much 
 so, that it is no paradox to say that the more perfect 
 a work of genius, the less capable it is of adequate 
 translation. But this cannot be said of the Scriptures. 
 
 It may be urged, perhaps, that if the Bible be more 
 easily translated than other books, then the application 
 of the preceding canon may account for it ; and that 
 since a book, the more perfect it is, is less transfusible 
 into other languages, the Bible, if it indeed possesses 
 this unrivalled quality of assuming a multiform garb, 
 must possess it from its having less literary merit 
 than any other ! But this, I fancy, will be said by 
 few who recall the homage it has exacted from so 
 many of the greatest of the sons of men, by the 
 eulogiums pronounced upon it by such an array of 
 genius and intellect, and the qualities conceded to it 
 
VIL] of Scripture, Style. 265 
 
 by so many to whom it has no special merit beyond 
 its literary excellence. Moreover, the argument is 
 met by this simple reductio ad absurdnm : that even if 
 it were true that a book is more easily translated in 
 proportion as it has little merit (which, however, is 
 far enough from being' without exceptions), it would 
 be, in the same proportion, less likely to get itself 
 translated. Now as the Bible is found in two hundred 
 languages, it can hardly be its inferiority to all other 
 books which has given it so many voices. 
 
 However, let the fact be accounted for as we will, 
 I believe none ever inspected a number of translations 
 of the Bible, of even tolerable execution, without feel- 
 ing that though they no doubt differ in merit, yet that 
 in all the elevated passages, where there is no doubt 
 about the meaning, the rendering in one and all is 
 closer, and sounds more idiomatic, than translations 
 of equally lucid passages of other books into the same 
 languages. I say, " where there is no doubt about 
 the meaning," because this is essential to the com- 
 parison. No doubt there are passages in the Bible 
 (as there are in Plato and Pindar) which are difficult 
 enough ; in the prophets for example. They are diffi- 
 cult partly from their intrinsic, perhaps sometimes, 
 designed obscurity; partly from their lyric character, 
 and the consequent brevity, elliptical constructions, 
 and rapid transitions of thought proper to that species 
 of poetry. 1 Such passages, whether in the Bible or pro- 
 
 1 The number of these passages will no doubt be much diminished 
 in the " Revised Version." The learned investigations of nearly 
 
266 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 fane authors, are obscure in the translation, rather from 
 inadequate comprehension of the sense, or insufficient 
 means of ascertaining the true text, than from any 
 difficulties proper to translation ; that is, of conveying 
 the meaning when once ascertained. The real com- 
 parison, of course, must be between passages well 
 understood of the one, and passages well understood of 
 the other; between, for example, Isaiah's magnificent 
 apostrophe to the crowned phantom of Babylon, when 
 all Hades is moved at his coming, and Homer's sub- 
 lime description of Apollo's descent on Mount Ida. 
 The difficulty of adequately translating an ode of Pindar, 
 or a chorus in ^Eschylus, is all but insuperable, though 
 a translator may understand the meaning perfectly ; 
 while, on the other hand, the Bible where there is 
 no difficulty in ascertaining its meaning may in 
 general be translated almost without the loss of either 
 energy or beauty ; and viewed in almost any trans- 
 lation, seems to do little violence to the foreign 
 idiom. 
 
 The causes of this are partly disclosed in some of 
 those peculiarities of style to which reference has been 
 
 three centuries cannot be without effect. Admirable as our au- 
 thorized version is, there are many passages of Job and the 
 prophets, in which the worthy translators, perplexed to find the 
 meaning, have been content to put down words without any. 
 Such has always seemed to me the last verse in Job xxxvi., on 
 which the previous verse, in spite of the liberal use of interpolated 
 italics, sheds no light. 
 
 32 With clouds He covereth the light ; and commandeth it 
 not to shine by the cloud that cometh betwixt : 
 
 33 The noise thereof showeth concerning it, the cattle also con- 
 cerning the vapour. 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 267 
 
 already made. Among the chief is the parallelism ; to 
 which may be added the great simplicity of construc- 
 tion which ordinarily obtains, the character of the 
 metaphors, and not least, the specific character of its 
 language a quality which distinguishes the Bible 
 more than any other book equally occupied with moral 
 subjects and abstract thought, and which is itself 
 more conducive to perspicuity and force than any 
 other quality whatsoever. 1 In numberless passages, 
 again, of great energy, the effect is due in the smallest 
 possible degree to the felicities of language; it is due 
 to the majesty of the thought, and hence is equally 
 preserved in any language. The terms in many of 
 
 1 " The ox knoweth his owner and the ass his master's crib, but 
 Israel doth not know My people doth not consider." Let this be 
 translated into its philosophic equivalent : " The lower animals 
 recognise and are grateful for kind treatment, but My rational 
 creatures are insensible to it ;" and it is easy to see that the 
 pathos and energy are gone. Campbell has admirably illustrated 
 this subject in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, in which he applies the 
 same refrigerating process to a part of the Sermon on the Mount. 
 There is a little gentle satire, I fancy, directed against Doddridge's 
 paraphrase, which on the same portion of the New Testament 
 is hardly less preposterous than Campbell's caricature. Campbell, 
 as we have seen, abhorred paraphrase, one of the most insipid ex- 
 pedients of which is the translation of the specific into the general 
 of the picturesque into the soi-disant philosophical. The depen- 
 dence of definiteness and vividness of conception on the speciality 
 of language has been copiously and admirably illustrated both 
 by Campbell and Whately. Individuals alone have an objective 
 existence ; species and genus are intellectual creations. The 
 former are the source of our most vivid states of mind of our 
 perceptions ; and our conceptions being definite and vivid in pro- 
 portion as they approach these, and hazy in proportion as they 
 recede from them, expression will follow the same law, and the 
 energy of terms be in inverse ratio to their generality. " The more 
 general the terms are," says Campbell, " the picture is the fainter ; 
 the more special they are, the brighter." 
 
268 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 these passages, wonderful for compressed force and 
 strong imagery are often of the most common, 
 homely, and even trivial character. It is the ideas 
 suggested and placed in juxta-position by them, not 
 any rare excellence of diction or construction, that 
 produces the effect. To take two or three brief illus- 
 trations. Isaiah asks, in his magnificent challenge to 
 find the "equal" of Jehovah, " Who hath measured 
 the waters in the hollow of His hand, and meted out 
 heaven with the span, and comprehended the dust of 
 the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains 
 in scales, and the hills in a balance ? " z 
 
 Jeremiah promises the easy conquest of Egypt to 
 the King of Babylon in these terms "He shall 
 burn their gods with fire, and shall carry them away 
 captives ; and he shall array himself with the land of 
 Egypt, as a shepherd putteth on his garment, and he 
 shall go forth from thence in peace." 2 
 
 The utter overthrow of Jerusalem is predicted to 
 Manasseh in that contemptuous image " And I will 
 wipe Jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish, wiping 
 it, and turning it upside down." 3 
 
 Such passages as these, energetic though they be, 
 produce their effect by means of metaphors borrowed 
 from the most common objects, expressed in the most 
 undisguised literality. No language, however meagre, 
 in which such vulgar things as scales, weights, 
 dishes, and shepherds' plaids are to be found, can 
 fail to render them perfectly ; nothing depends on 
 
 i Isaiah xl. 12. 2 Jer. xliii. 12. 32 Kings xxi. 13. 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 269 
 
 felicity of language or construction. Whether, there- 
 fore, we compare the translation of such passages 
 in the Septuagint, Vulgate, French, German, or 
 English, every reader feels that there is hardly 
 any difference worth noting ; in one and all, the 
 rendering assumes a most natural and idiomatic 
 dress. By these and other artifices (Divine arti- 
 fices, the Christian will say; unaccountable freaks 
 of accident, the unbeliever will call them, as he 
 well may if the Bible be purely of human origin), 
 this book is capable of being more perfectly trans- 
 lated into every human language than any other. 
 I believe the former theory to be the true one ; and 
 that hence the difficulties of a problem which human 
 genius cannot solve, that of combining the highest 
 literary excellencies, with aptitude for transfusion 
 into all languages has been solved in the construc- 
 tion of the Bible; and that the old saying is true 
 in another sense than the one originally meant by it, 
 . that while " Mortals speak many tongues, the Im- 
 mortals have but one." 
 
 TroXXat fJLev Qvrjrois <y\a)TTai, pia RaOavaroLcnv. 
 Another peculiarity in connection with Scripture style 
 is this; that while, for the reasons just stated, the 
 Bible, on the whole, is more easy to translate than any 
 other book, and suffers less injury in the process, it is 
 perhaps more than any other susceptible of injury if it 
 be cast in any mould but its own. It will submit to 
 no fetters of metre or rhyme ; it is impatient of the 
 yoke, and rebels against it. Take the very best me- 
 
270 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 trical versions of the Psalms, for example. There is 
 hardly one of them I know of none that does not 
 palpably fall below the level, both of the original and 
 of any simple prose translation in which the original 
 may be rendered. This is another of the paradoxes of 
 the Bible. It easily accommodates itself to a dress 
 like its own in any language, but will not submit to 
 foreign costume. The Hebrew, in the strict sense, has 
 no metres; at least in the modern sense, as the infinite 
 controversies on the subject suffice to show. Yet the 
 rhythm, the music, of these compositions is generally 
 far beyond that of the metrical and rhymed translations 
 of them, whether in Greek, Latin, or English. It is 
 just the contrary with renderings from Greek, Latin, or 
 any other poetry, of which no prose version can be 
 endured. It cannot be said that it is because none 
 but inferior men have set themselves to the task. They 
 have not always been Sternholds and Hopldnses, 
 Bradys and Tates. No less men than Bacon, Milton, 
 Barrow, Buchanan, Parnell, Cowper, Sandys, Herrick, 
 Davies, Heber, Milman, Watts, Keble, have tried their 
 hands at it. Dryden asked Milton's leave to turn his 
 majestic blank verse into rhyme. The poet replied 
 that he was welcome to " tag " them if he liked. It 
 was a thankless task; but the attempt is still more 
 hopeless to improve the poetry of Scripture by running 
 it in any mould but its own. To a man of any taste 
 and sensibility, with an ear for the true music of 
 language, and a soul capable of feeling the majesty and 
 sublimity of the Hebrew poetry when reproduced in its 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 271 
 
 own simple forms, the difference is hardly to be ex- 
 pressed. Whatever the powers of the imitator, and 
 however qualified by sympathy of spirit with the sacred 
 writers to express religious sentiment and devotional 
 feeling, it is impossible, I think, not to feel that a 
 simple prose translation is better. 1 
 
 I had hoped to illustrate this at some length, and 
 had collected a variety of examples for the purpose. 
 
 1 The following observations of Lowth illustrate this point : 
 " Duo hie occurrunt adnotanda, quae ex jam dictis quasi con- 
 sectaria quaedam enascuntur. Primo quidem, Poema ex Hebrasa 
 in aliam linguam conversum, et oratione soluta ad verbum ex- 
 pressum, cum sententiarum formse eaedem permaneant, multum 
 adhuc, etiam quod ad numeros attinet, pristinaa dignitatis retinebit, 
 et adumbratam quandam carminis imaginem. Hoc itaque in ver- 
 nacula sacrorum poematum interpretatione cernitur, ubi plerumque 
 
 ' Invenias etiam disjecti membra poetae : ' 
 
 quod in Graecis aut Latinis eodem modo conversis longe aliter 
 eveniret. Alterum est, quod poema Hebrasum Graecis aut Latinis 
 versibus redditum, sententiarum formis ad peregrini sermonis in- 
 dolem jam accommodatis, id est, confusis, perditisque, nativi orna- 
 tus et proprias venustatis non exiguam faciet jacturam. Nam in 
 exprimendis alia lingua egregiorum poetarum operibus, multum 
 in eo positum est, ut non tantum iidem sint intimi sensus, par 
 in sensibus explicandis vis et venustas, sed ut quantum fieri potest 
 externa etiam oris lineamenta effingantur, ut suus cuique color 
 atque habitus, suus etiam motus et incessus tribuatur. Qui itaque 
 sacros vates Grasco vel Latino carmine exprimere, adeoque eorum 
 veluti personam sustinere conati sunt, fieri non potuit quin toto 
 genere et forma, si non inferiores, multum certe, ab iis dissimiles 
 essent : an ex altera parte ad eorum vim, majestatem, spiritum 
 propius accesserint, non est hujus loci quaerere." Praelect. iii. 
 
 Lowth cites a single sentence from Rabbi Azarias to the same 
 effect. "Is it not plain that if you translate the Hebrew poems 
 into another language, they retain their own rhythmical construc- 
 tion, if not wholly, yet in a great degree ; which cannot be the case 
 with those pcems whose measure consists of a certain number 
 and quantity of syllables/' See also Pareau's Principles of Inter- 
 pretation. Vol. i. p. 241. Vol. ii. p. 185 (Clark's Biblical Cabinet), 
 for some judicious remarks on the points here touched. 
 
272 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 But my space fails me, and I must be content with 
 two or three brief illustrations. Let us take the 
 simple, yet exquisite image in the very first Psalm, 
 which describes the happy condition of him who " me- 
 ditates in the law of the Lord day and night." 
 
 " And he shall be like a tree, 
 Planted by the rivers of water ; 
 That bringeth forth his fruit in his season ; 
 His leaf also shall not wither ; 
 And whatsoever he doeth shall prosper." 
 
 It is surprising to see that Bacon, whose genius 
 may perhaps be said to have rivalled Shakespeare's, 
 and who "took all knowledge for his patrimony," 
 could have been content with a version not much 
 better than that of Sternhold and Hopkins. But it 
 is the exigencies of artificial metre and rhyme that 
 plainly baffled him. 
 
 " He shall be like a fruitful tree 
 
 Planted along a running spring, 
 Which in due season constantly 
 
 A goodly yield of fruit doth bring ; 
 Whose leaves continue always green, 
 
 And are no prey to winter's power ; 
 So shall that man not once be seen 
 
 Surprised in an evil hour." 
 
 But if it be said that Bacon was a philosopher 
 and no poet (though he certainly had imagination 
 enough to make a score of ordinary poets), let us see 
 how it fares with Milton. It is no better with him, 
 and for the same reason. He has kept almost the 
 very terms of the simple prose translation ; but he has 
 so shuffled and transposed them, to meet the exigencies 
 of his metre, that we hardly recognise them again. 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 273 
 
 * He shall be as a tree which planted grows 
 By watery streams, and in his season knows 
 To yield his fruit : and his leaf shall not fall, 
 And what he takes in hand shall prosper all." 
 
 Buchanan's Latin is no real version at all, but 
 a free paraphrase : the secondary images with which 
 he has adorned it are wholly unauthorised by the 
 original, and " Sirius " jars upon the ear almost as 
 much as Phoebus Apollo would do. 
 
 " Ille, velut riguas quae margine consita ripae est 
 Arbor, erit : quam non violento Sirius asstu 
 Exurit, non torret hiems, sed prodiga laeto 
 Proventu beat agricolam : nee flore caduco 
 Arridens, blanda dominum spe lactat inanem." 
 
 Watts, who in spite of all his defects, is one of our 
 greatest hymn writers, is as bald as any : 
 
 ' He like a plant of generous kind, 
 
 By living waters set, 
 Safe from the storms and blasting wind. 
 Enjoys a peaceful state. 
 
 " Green as the leaf, and ever fair 
 
 Shall his profession shine, 
 
 While fruits of holiness appear 
 
 Like clusters on the vine." z 
 
 1 Watts's translation of the seventy-second Psalm is one of his 
 most beautiful effusions. But on inspection it confirms what I am 
 saying. It is no translation at all, or even a. paraphrase : it is an 
 independent poem, in which in fact he declines the task of rendering 
 the Psalm, and contents himself with applying its general spirit, 
 and retaining two or three of its images. For like reasons it is 
 that so many sacred poems, founded on passages of Scripture 
 some of those of George Herbert, Habingdon, Cowper, and Keble, 
 for example are so much better than any metrical versions. 
 Buchanan has successfully imitated the various Horatian metres. 
 But he necessarily reminds one of Horace as much as of David ; 
 or rather he is like Horace turned Christian, with the Geneva 
 bands and gown on, and his Latin a little rusty with time. 
 
 19 
 
274 n Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 Take again the forty-sixth Psalm : 
 
 " God is our refuge and strength, 
 A very present help in trouble. 
 Therefore will not we fear, 
 Though the earth be removed, 
 
 And though the mountains be carried into the midst of the sea ; 
 Though the waters thereof roar and be troubled, 
 And the mountains shake with the swelling thereof." 
 
 Here it is impossible not to feel that the grand 
 march and rhythm of this poetical prose is infinitely 
 better than anything that exact metrical arrangement 
 could give us. It is impossible to imagine anything 
 much tamer than Watts's version : 
 
 " God is the refuge of His saints, 
 
 When storms of sharp distress invade, 
 Ere we can offer our complaints, 
 Behold Him present with His aid. 
 
 ** Let mountains from their seats be hurled 
 
 Down to the deep, and buried there ; 
 Convulsions shake the solid world, 
 Our faith shall never yield to fear." 
 
 His failure is equally conspicuous in the close of the 
 Psalm. The English version is as follows : 
 
 " He maketh wars to cease unto the ends of the earth, 
 He breaketh the bow, 
 And cutteth the spear in sunder ; 
 He burneth the chariot in the fire. 
 Be still, and know that I am God ; 
 I will be exalted among the heathen, 
 I will be exalted in the earth. 
 The Lord of hosts is with us, 
 The God of Jacob is our refuge." 
 
 Watts's version reads thus : 
 
 " He breaks the bow, He cuts the spear, 
 
 Chariots He burns with heavenly flame 
 Keep silence all the earth, and hear 
 The sound and glory of His name. 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 275 
 
 " Be still and know that I am God, 
 
 I'll be exalted o'er the lands ; 
 I will be known and feared abroad, 
 But still My throne in Sion stands ! " r 
 
 He has done better in one of his three versions of the 
 ninetieth Psalm, the others have the usual faults of 
 the metrical translators : 
 
 " Our God, our help in ages past, 
 
 Our hope for years to come, 
 Our shelter from the stormy blast, 
 And our eternal home. 
 
 " Under the shadow of Thy throne 
 Thy saints have dwelt secure ; 
 Sufficient is Thine arm alone, 
 And our defence is sure. 
 
 " Before the hills in order stood, 
 Or earth received her frame, 
 From everlasting Thou art God, 
 To endless years the same. 
 
 " Thy word commands our flesh to dust, 
 
 ' Return, ye sons of men ; ' 
 All nations rose from earth at first, 
 And turn to earth again. 
 
 u A thousand ages in Thy sight 
 Are like an evening gone ; 
 Short as the watch that ends the night, 
 Before the rising sun." 
 
 Still, compared with the original, it is as the tinkling 
 of a lute to the majestic roll of an organ, or (to use 
 a grand Scripture image) the " voice of many waters." 
 
 " Lord, Thou hast been our dwelling-place in all generations. 
 Before the mountains were brought forth, 
 
 1 Even Luther's celebrated metrical rendering of this psalm will 
 not bear comparison with the poetic prose in his own admirable 
 version. 
 
 19* 
 
276 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 Or ever Thou hadst formed the earth and the world, 
 
 Even from everlasting to everlasting Thou art God. 
 
 Thou turnest man to destruction, and sayest, Return, ye children 
 
 of men ; 
 For a thousand years in Thy sight are but as yesterday when 
 
 it is past, 
 And as a watch in the night." 
 
 Here any one who has the slightest tincture of 
 taste, or any ear for the music of language, will see 
 the immense interval between the simple prose trans- 
 lation and the metrical imitation ; in simplicity, in 
 condensation, in the solemn march and cadence of 
 the rhythm. 1 
 
 1 D'Alembert, whose exquisite simplicity of taste, like that of 
 Pascal, seems to have derived additional severity from his geo- 
 metry, has some remarks in his " Reflexions sur 1'Elocution oratoire 
 et sur le Style en general," which show that he felt, sceptic as he 
 was, the vast superiority of the Scripture poetic prose to the best 
 metrical versions of his countrymen. The constraint, the feeble 
 expletives, the redundant phrases, the stuck-on ornaments of these, 
 justly offended him. He says : " L'eloquence ne consiste done 
 point, comme quelques anciens 1'ont dit> et comme tant d'dchos 
 1'ont re'pe'tes, a dire les grands choses d'un style sublime, mais d'un 
 style simple. C'est affaiblir une grande idde que de chercher a la 
 relever par la pompe des paroles. Le Psalmiste a dit, ' Les cieux 
 racontent la gloire de Dieu, et le firmament annonce 1'ouvrage 
 de ses mains :' voyez comment un de nos plus grands poetes 
 a de'figurd cette pensde sublime, en voulant l'e"tendre et Torner. 
 Les cieux instruisent la terre 
 
 A reVerer leur Auteur ; 
 Tout ce que leur globe enserre 
 
 Celebre un Dieu Createur. 
 Quel plus sublime cantique 
 
 Que ce concert magnifique 
 De tous les celestes corps ? 
 
 Quelle grandeur infinie, 
 Quelle divine harmonie 
 
 Requite de leurs accords ? 
 
 L'exemple, dira-t-on peut-etre, est mal choisi ; cette strophe 
 presque toute entiere est mauvaise en elle meme, et indigne d'etre 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 277 
 
 One of the most successful of close metrical trans- 
 lations of Scripture is that of the passage in the last 
 chapter of Habbakuk, by Cowper. It is elegant 
 (as Cowper ever is, no matter what he touches), but 
 there are few who will not prefer the original. 
 
 " Though vine nor fig-tree neither, 
 
 Their wonted fruit shall bear ; 
 Though all the field should wither, 
 
 Nor flocks nor herds be there ; 
 Yet, God the same abiding, 
 
 His praise shall tune my voice ; 
 For, while in Him confiding ; 
 
 I cannot but rejoice." 
 
 * Although the fig-tree shall not blossom, 
 Neither shall fruit be in the vine ; 
 The labour of the olive shall fail, 
 And the fields shall yield no food ; 
 
 compare'e a son modele. Prenons-en done une autre dont on ne 
 puisse contester la beautd, la premiere du Cantique d'Ezechias, 
 traduit par la meme poete, et rapprochons-la de rorigjnal. 
 J'ai vu mes tristes journe'es 
 
 De'cliner vers leur penchant ; 
 Au midi de mes anne*es 
 
 Je touchais a mon couchant; 
 La mort ddployant ses ailes, 
 
 Couvrait d'ombres dternelles 
 La clarte" dont je join's, 
 
 Et dans cette nuit funeste 
 Je cherchais en vain le reste 
 
 De mes jours eVanouis. 
 
 Quelqu' admirables que soient ces vers, on y reconnait encore 
 le Poete : ' Le midi et le couchant des annees, les journe'es qui 
 de'clinent vers leur penchant, les ailes de la mort de"ployees. J Ces 
 images, belles a la verite, mais Fouvrage de 1'esprit qui cherche 
 cipeindre, et non du sentiment qui ne veut qu'exprimer, peuvent- 
 elles etre comparees a la simplicitd touchante de 1'Ecriture, a la 
 tristesse profonde et vraie avec laquelle le prince, jeune et mourant, 
 se repre'sente aux portes de la mort? 'J'ais dit au milieu de mes 
 jours, je vais mourir: et j'ais cherche' le reste de mes ans.'" 
 Melanges. Tom. ii. pp. 326-8. 
 
278 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 The flock shall be cut off from the fold, 
 And there shall be no herd in the stalls : 
 Yet I will rejoice in the Lord, 
 I will joy in the God of my salvation." 
 
 Another peculiarity of the style of Scripture worthy 
 of notice a peculiarity which has arrested the attention 
 of many who doubt its Divine claims is its unique 
 power of adequately expressing devotional sentiment 
 and emotion. 1 It not only gives us the most copious, 
 but by far the noblest, specimens of this language 
 that can be found in all extant literature ; and so 
 uncontested is its superiority in this respect, that the 
 most celebrated compositions of the kind, the liturgies 
 by which the Jewish and the Christian Church have 
 endeavoured to kindle or sustain the flame of devotion 
 in their public assemblies, are close imitations of 
 the models which the Bible furnishes ; and, indeed, 
 their most effective portions are little else than appro- 
 priations from this treasury of devotion, tesselations 
 of the Scripture phraseology itself. 2 
 
 Take, for example, the English liturgy. Most justly 
 admired it is, no doubt, for the propriety and fulness 
 of its matter, and for the majesty and rhythm of its 
 style. And it may well be ; for not only has it incor- 
 porated many of the best specimens of liturgical com- 
 position which the ancient Church has handed down to 
 
 * See Appendix No. VII. 
 
 2 "It is but feebly, and as afar off, that the ancient liturgies 
 (except so far as they merely copied their originals) come up to the 
 majesty and the wide compass of the Hebrew worship ; such as is 
 indicated in Psalm cxlviii. Neither Ambrose, nor Gregory, nor 
 the Greeks, have reached or approached this level." Isaac Taylor 
 On the Spirit of the Hebrew Poetry^ p. 157. 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 279 
 
 us, and wisely enriched itself with the spoils of ages, 
 but its most impressive and beautiful portions (as was 
 the case also with the ancient liturgies it has laid 
 under tribute) are derived directly from Scripture itself. 
 This is its chief excellence, as it was theirs. If any 
 one will analyse the contents of the Book of Common 
 Prayer, and deduct, not only the larger portions of Scrip- 
 ture, but all the minute scripture phrases and clauses 
 which it has most judiciously interwoven, he will find 
 that at least five-sixths of the whole book is simply 
 extracted from the Bible. I am far from saying this 
 in derogation ; rather it is, in my view, the highest 
 eulogium that can be pronounced upon it. 
 
 From the extreme rarity of the choicer specimens of 
 this species of composition, we may infer its immense 
 difficulty. How is it then that the Bible has almost a 
 monopoly of it ? How is it that there, and there alone, 
 we find language so expressive of the loftier and deeper 
 moods of devotion, that we are continually tempted, 
 not to say compelled, to borrow from Scripture, and 
 uniformly fail when we attempt to do long without it ? 
 How is it that so few attempts are made to compete 
 with it in original compositions of the same kind, or the 
 results so poor when they are made ? Of course if the 
 Bible be a book of Divine origin, if it be a manual 
 designed by celestial wisdom to instruct men in the 
 offices of religion, to inspire and express devotional 
 thought and feeling, we need not wonder that it should 
 so immeasurably outstrip mere human compositions of 
 the same class. If not, this is one more paradoxical 
 
280 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 feature of the Bible, for which it is difficult to account, 
 and which compels us to ask whence came it ? 
 
 The chief object of the present lecture is to point out 
 certain peculiarities of style which discriminate Scrip- 
 ture from other books. I shall therefore say but little 
 on the degree in which it possesses those qualities 
 which, if it is to answer the purpose of books in general, 
 it must have in common with them. But there are 
 three of chief importance for all purposes of impression 
 energy, sublimity, and pathos, which it possesses in 
 so pre-eminent a degree, that it may well make us 
 wonder how the Jews, who did so little, except in this 
 one book, to distinguish themselves in literature, thus 
 immeasurably surpassed themselves. As it has been 
 asked how they came "to be men in religion, and 
 children in everything else ? " so it may be asked how it 
 is that their almost solitary literary relic should be 
 marked by t such prodigious excellence in the three 
 most important qualities of all composition ? 
 
 I have already said that there are huge portions of 
 the volume which (however rendered necessary by its 
 complexity of design and purpose) do not admit either 
 of much force or of any ornament of style ; portions 
 in which the highest merit is a natural and unadorned 
 simplicity. Nor does it, in any part, affect that uni- 
 form elegance or fastidious refinement which may be 
 looked for in more homogeneous writings, still less 
 those elaborate artifices of human rhetoric which itself 
 most vehemently disclaims. Yet in those parts of 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 281 
 
 Scripture in which alone the above three qualities can 
 be rationally looked for, I think it may be safely said 
 that they exist in greater copiousness than in any equal 
 amount of written matter in the world. 
 
 Of all the qualities of style on which the effect of 
 writing principally turns, that which rhetoricians in- 
 differently call energy or vivacity is the most im- 
 portant ; and of its chief elements, philosophical writers 
 on rhetoric, like Campbell and Whately, have given a 
 careful enumeration. It principally depends on what 
 I have already mentioned as a perpetual quality of 
 Scripture, the suppression, as far as possible, of all 
 general and abstract, and the use of the most specific, 
 terms ; on the selection of characteristic incidents or 
 objects in narrative or description, rather than on full 
 enumeration of them, or of one or two salient points 
 as representative of a whole group of associated cir- 
 cumstances ; on metaphors marked rather by strength 
 than beauty ; and sometimes on the iteration of the 
 same idea under various forms, though more frequently 
 on brevity and condensation of expression. 
 
 A very general characteristic of Scripture style is 
 undoubtedly a pregnant brevity in its separate utter- 
 ances : in no book can we find so many weighty 
 sentences expressed in fewer words. Yet in many 
 parts (in Deuteronomy and Ezekiel, for example) we 
 see, however brief each single expression, an amount 
 of repetition which has often been taxed with diffuse- 
 ness. How then shall we reconcile the conflicting 
 claims of energy as usually dependent on paucity of 
 
283 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 words, and yet as sometimes demanding iteration of 
 statement ? In the way that nature and the critics 
 teach us to reconcile them. 1 The true remedy for a 
 too stringent brevity, which proverbially becomes 
 " obscure," is not a diffuse copiousness, but a varied 
 exhibition of the same thought. 2 Sometimes this 
 is absolutely necessary to produce the due effect, for 
 the mind must be detained on the same thought for a 
 certain time to insure its impression ; the work cannot 
 be done by a simple stroke, but by a number of them, 
 as by the repeated touches of the sculptor's mallet. 
 We see this continually exemplified in Shakespeare. 
 
 Now Scripture, full (so to speak) of negligent and 
 scattered graces, but never fastidious about continuous 
 beauty or elegance, nor solicitous about them at 
 all in comparison with strength of expression, pro- 
 fusely exemplifies all the above characteristics of 
 energy. Its narrative style, as I have already had 
 occasion to remark, is exquisitely dramatic, but as 
 bare as possible, not only of all general reflections, 
 
 1 Lowth has beautifully described both these characteristics 
 of energy in the Hebrew poetry. Speaking of the song of triumph 
 at the Red Sea, he says : " Unum tantum adnotabo, quod et in 
 unm ersa Hebrceorum Poesi locum habet, et in hoc poemate 
 praecipua cernitur : nimirum dictionis brevitatem unum esse 
 maximum subsidium sublimitatis. Rerum ponderi plerumque 
 officit diffusa et exuberans oratio : quantum sano corpori carnium 
 et obesitatis addideris, tantum detraxeris de vigore et viribus. 
 Hebraei, si universa species, sunt largi, copiosi, uberes ; si singula, 
 parci, restricti, pressique : variando, repetendo, subinde addendo 
 amplificant : tota quidem res fuse interdum tractatur, sed iteratis 
 crebrisque, et per omnia brevibus et nervosis sententiis ; ita ut 
 nee copia, nee vis desit." Prselect. xxvii. p. 362. Ed. Oxon. 1810. 
 
 a Whately's Rhetoric. Part iii. ch. 2. 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 283 
 
 but of all words of general and abstract import. It is 
 for the most part the naked presentation of individual 
 facts in the most appropriate and most specific terms 
 by which they can be expressed. Agents and actions 
 are there, but the reader himself must fully interpret 
 them. The representation is like that of sculpture 
 or painting, where the mute action, the pose of a 
 figure, a gesture, an incidental adjunct, is the symbol 
 of a whole group of associated ideas. The eyes look 
 on it, but intuition is the commentator. Thus the 
 effect of the whole preceding train of incident, and 
 all the variety of emotion which it inspired in the 
 actors, is conveyed in that simple passage in which 
 Joseph, overmastered by the pathetic speech of 
 Judah, and surprised out of his mask of assumed 
 austerity, makes himself known to his brethren. 
 Even the apparently irrelevant question about his 
 father, " Is he yet alive ? " of which his previous 
 inquiries had left him without a doubt, is a natural 
 expression of that tumult of joy and grief in which 
 the perturbed soul hardly knows what it says, and 
 yet, in its confusion, instinctively turns to the object 
 nearest the heart, and therefore nearest the lips. 
 
 Everywhere we see indications of the graphic suppres- 
 sion of all needless generality. A feature which to some 
 extent may be natural (for it is found more or less in 
 the laws of many ancient nations) is wonderfully cha- 
 racteristic of the laws of Moses. A great part, even 
 where we cannot doubt that general principles of duty 
 and humanity are inculcated, are expressed by individual 
 
284 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 specifications : " Thou shall not curse the deaf ; " 
 "Thou shalt not lay a stumbling-block before the 
 blind; " " Thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy 
 land ; thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt 
 thou gather every grape of thy vineyard ; thou shalt leave 
 them for the poor and the stranger. I am the Lord your 
 God." "Thou shalt not muzzle the ox that treadeth 
 out the corn," where the comment of Paul shows 
 that the precept is not intended for the benefit of 
 " oxen " alone, or chiefly. Similarly, a great part of 
 the gnomic wisdom of Scripture is expressed (as is 
 usual indeed with proverbs) by the specification of a 
 particular case. 
 
 Examples, again, in which some specific circum- 
 stance is selected as the representative of a whole class 
 of associated ideas, and the picture is completed at a 
 stroke, might be cited by hundreds. The utter panic 
 of soul which makes a man start at everything, and (as 
 Scripture has it) " flee when none pursueth," is won- 
 derfully expressed in that image, " The sound of a 
 shaken leaf shall chase them; " as is also that contrasted 
 spirit of heroic daring which a good conscience and a 
 sense of Divine protection can inspire "And five 
 of you shall chase a hundred, and a hundred put ten 
 thousand to flight." 1 That utter weariness of heart, 
 which vainly seeks relief (like the fever-stricken patient) 
 in mere change and tossing to and fro, is compre- 
 hensively depicted in the single trait, " In the evening 
 thou shalt say, Would God it were morning ; and in 
 1 Levit. xxvi. 8. The hyperbole is varied in Deut. xxxii. 30. 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 285 
 
 the morning, Would God it were evening." Nor can 
 anything better express the helplessness of a mind 
 dazed and stunned by overwhelming calamity, than 
 the words, " Thou shalt grope for the door as the 
 blind." No length of description could possibly con- 
 vey a more forcible picture of the utter degradation 
 that was to overtake the Israelites after the doom of 
 their dispersion, than the threat that they should be 
 exposed in " the slave mart," and even then be re- 
 garded with such contempt " that no man should buy 
 them." Devastation, whether of war or of locusts, 
 was never more vividly suggested by any amount of 
 details than by the simple expression, "The land 
 is as the Garden of Eden before them, and behind 
 them a desolate wilderness ;" 'nor benevolence more 
 graphically painted than in the words, "I was eyes 
 to the blind, and feet was I to the lame; the bless- 
 ing of him that was ready to perish came upon me, 
 and I caused the widow's heart ta sing for joy.'" 
 
 In conformity with the same preference for energy 
 as the great instrument of impression, most of the tro- 
 pical terms of Scripture are chiefly characterized by 
 force. Where beauty is not incompatible with it,, they 
 are often exquisitely poetical and elegant, as in those 
 plaintive expressions of Job, when thinking of his past 
 prosperity, " When the ear heard me, then it blessed 
 me ; and when the eye saw me, it gave witness unto 
 me : my root was spread out by the waters, and the dew 
 lay all night upon my branch." But as a rule, the 
 metaphors and other figures are principally marked by 
 
286 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 the quality on which I am insisting; often homely, 
 sometimes even to coarseness; but in admirable con- 
 formity with the true canons of criticism adopted by 
 the earnest writer, whose object is not elegance, but 
 strength; and whose end is not to charm, but to con- 
 vince and to persuade. 
 
 How contemptuous but expressive is that image in 
 which God threatens the great Behemoth of despo- 
 tism, Sennacherib, " I will put my hook in thy nose 
 and my bridle in thy lips, and I will turn thee back 
 by the way by which thou earnest." Is it possible to 
 imagine the condition of the " wicked," torn and dis- 
 tracted by their own passions, and the tumults and 
 terrors of an evil conscience, more aptly described than 
 by comparing them with the "troubled sea, when it 
 cannot rest, whose waters cast up mire and dirt " ? 
 or can the condition of a conscience which has at 
 last lost all sensitiveness to sin, be more terribly de- 
 noted than by saying that it is " seared as with a 
 hot iron ; " implying that, as in the eschar pro- 
 duced by actual cautery, no nerve thrills and no 
 life-blood circulates there ? But examples of this 
 prevailing quality of its metaphors abound in every 
 part of Scripture. 
 
 The energy of our Lord's language is usually very 
 remarkable, especially from its condensed brevity. 
 Never was more meaning expressed in fewer words 
 than in many parts of the Sermon on the Mount ; in 
 many of His parables, as in those of the Prodigal Son 
 and the Good Samaritan; and in that wonderful de- 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 287 
 
 scription of the Last Judgment in Matt, xxv., where He 
 expounds the principles on which the decisions of that 
 day will be based. The energy of the passage is 
 gradually enhanced, as it proceeds, by the perpetual 
 condensation of the expression. There is, in truth, 
 everything even to the adjuncts of cadence and rhythm 
 to give solemnity and impressiveness to the descrip- 
 tion. In whatever language translated, Greek, Latin, 
 German, English, it reads with nearly equal force. In 
 brief, I have no scruple in saying that neither in 
 Demosthenes nor in Shakespeare (and if not in them, 
 certainly in no other author) is this cardinal property 
 of style more prodigally exemplified than in many 
 parts of the Pentateuch (especially Deuteronomy) and 
 of the Prophets 1 in the parables and discourses of 
 
 1 The bitter taunts of Elijah, addressed to the prophets of Baal, 
 and the still more wonderful passages of Isaiah xliv. 9-20, are 
 fair specimens. The folly of idolatry was surely never more 
 vividly expressed than in this passage. After describing the devotee 
 as warily choosing a tree worthy of becoming a god, the main 
 desideratum of which (as expressed in another passage) is that it 
 shall not soon "rot," the prophet represents him as economically 
 using the superfluous wood his axe has lopped from the embryo 
 Divinity, to kindle his fire and to cook his food ; and then proceed- 
 ing with strenuous toil and infinite cost of thirst and " sweat," and 
 lavish skill of all that art of carver and gilder can do, to make the 
 residue of his "log" into "a god, that it may remain in the house. " 
 ' And the residue he maketh a god, his graven image ; he falleth 
 down unto it, and worshippeth it, and prayeth unto it, and saith, 
 Deliver me, for thou art my God ! . . . . And none considereth 
 in his heart, nor is there knowledge or understanding to say, I 
 have burnt part of it in the fire ; yea, also I have baked bread upon 
 the coals thereof ; I have roasted flesh, and eaten it ; and shall I 
 make the residue thereof an idol ? Shall I fall down to the stock of 
 a tree ? He feedeth on ashes : a deceived heart hath perverted 
 him, that he cannot deliver his own soul nor say, Is there not a lie 
 in my right hand ? " 
 
288 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 Christ, and in the more impassioned parts of Paul's 
 Epistles. 
 
 Of the sublimity of Scripture, I need say nothing ; for 
 it is universally admitted to possess this quality in at 
 least as large a measure as any equal portion of written 
 matter in the world, and, as critics in general agree, 
 sublimity of a far higher order. Few, I think, will 
 doubt it who will duly examine the volume itself, or the 
 copious proofs and illustrations given in the Lectures 
 of Lowth, or the Dialogues of Herder on Hebrew 
 Poetry. In Deuteronomy, 1 in Job, in the Psalms, in 
 the Prophets, in almost every part, we are struck with 
 this characteristic. From that utterance in the com- 
 mencement of Genesis " Let there be light, and there 
 was light " which evoked the admiration of the heathen 
 Longinus, to that "sevenfold chorus of hallelujahs and 
 harping symphonies " in the Apocalypse, which moved 
 the congenial soul of Milton, examples of the " true 
 sublime " meet us at every step. But when we reflect 
 on all else the Jews have done in literature, can we fail 
 to ask whence had this one book of theirs such an 
 exceptional majesty of thought and diction ? 
 
 But the third quality, pathos> exists in so large 
 a measure in the Bible, and fulfils such important 
 functions, that it requires somewhat more to be said of 
 it. Deducting that large portion of Scripture in which 
 this quality could not be expected, a candid inquirer 
 
 1 It is not without reason that Dean Milman says of the latter 
 portions of Deuteronomy : " The sublimity " (and assuredly the 
 energy) '' of the denunciation surpasses anything in the oratory 
 or poetry of the whole world." History of Jews. Vol. i. p. 211. 
 Ed. 1866. 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 289 
 
 will be astonished at the excess of this element in 
 the remainder, as compared with what is found else- 
 where, in an equal compass, and especially in any 
 so-called " sacred " books. It is a remark (if I do not 
 mistake of Principal Campbell) no less ingenious than 
 just, that there is perhaps not a single passage of 
 genuine pathos in the whole Koran ; scarcely one 
 which can he imagined to extort a tear even from a 
 Moslem himself, notwithstanding all his associations 
 in its favour ! 
 
 Now, pathos of the highest character is perhaps the 
 rarest of all the excellencies of composition ; the most 
 potent spell by which great historic or poetic imagina- 
 tions hold the human mind in thraldom. It is one to 
 which all yield. Profound reasoning is for the few; 
 didactic wisdom raises no emotion ; even beautiful and 
 sublime fancies require a correspondent sensibility and 
 culture to appreciate them; but " one touch of nature 
 makes the whole world kin." 1 
 
 It is also the most powerful vehicle in which moral 
 wisdom can convey its lessons; and hence, as Aristotle 
 remarked, the force with which these may be embodied 
 in tragedy. Moral truth is there steeped in human 
 emotion, and "the heart," as he expresses it, "is 
 purified by pity and terror." 
 
 1 " La raison/' says Pascal, " agit avec lenteur, et avec tant de 
 vues sur tant de principes lesquels 11 faut qu'ils soi-ent toujours 
 presents, qu'a toute heure elle s'assoupit et s'egare, manque 
 d'avoir tous ses principes presents. Le sentiment n j agit pas ainsi ; 
 il agit en un instant, et toujours est pret k agir. II faut done mettre 
 notre foi dans le sentiment: autrement elle sera toujours vacil- 
 lante." Pensees de Pascal. Faugere. Vol. ii. p. 176. 
 
 20 
 
2go On Certain Peculiarities [LECT 
 
 Now of this most insinuating and persuasive ele- 
 ment, this chief instrument of touching the soul, the 
 Bible (in proportion to the matter in which this 
 quality is possible) not only avails itself more fre- 
 quently, but more powerfully, than any other single 
 volume in the world. It abounds in pathetic incidents 
 and passages which do not become stale, though so 
 often read; which make the eye glisten and the heart 
 throb even on the hundredth perusal. 
 
 I am now only speaking of the higher exhibitions 
 of this quality, and these in literature generally 
 have ever been rare. If any one, whose reading is 
 tolerably extensive, were called upon to name those 
 examples of pathos which he would consider worthy 
 to rank in the very first order of excellence, for 
 example, with the parting of Hector and Andromache, 
 the meeting of Priam and Achilles, the farewell of 
 Medea to her children, the description of the death 
 of Desdemona, or of the sorrows of Ophelia, he 
 would, I think, be surprised to find how slender the 
 catalogue with which all his reading could furnish 
 him. Plenty of touches of pathos of a slighter kind, 
 and plenty more spoiled by overdoing and affectation, 
 he could no doubt recall; but those in the very first 
 rank those which are read again and again with 
 unabated feeling, exact our tears for the fiftieth 
 time, and defy familiarity to deaden their charm, are 
 comparatively few. 1 
 
 1 It may be remarked that many of the most touching specimens 
 of pathos in modern literature derive their chief effect from the 
 Bible sentiments and associations which suggested them, often even 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 291 
 
 And this element in Scripture, frequent as it is, and 
 whether of a higher or lower intensity, is expressed with 
 
 from the Scriptural incidents and phraseology by which they are 
 illustrated and expressed. This is not seldom the case with Shakes- 
 peare, and far more frequently with Walter Scott. Many of the 
 more affecting examples of pathos in his masterpieces, the "Anti- 
 quary," " Guy Mannering," the " Heart ot Midlothian," the " Bride 
 of Lammermuir," owe the greater part of their power to the 
 consummate way in which he conjures with the incidents and 
 phraseology of Scripture, and applies them to his purpose. Thus 
 the sc-ni in which the faithful Dominie Sampson devotes his 
 life to the orphan child of his old patron, derives its chief charm 
 from the "affectionate creature's" beautiful application of the 
 language ot Ruth to Naomi. "The Dominie laid the money on 
 the table. ' It is certainly inadequate/ said McMorlan, mistaking 
 
 his meaning, 'but the circumstances ' Mr. Sampson waved 
 
 his hand impatiently. ' It is not the lucre it is not the lucre 
 but that I, that have ate of her father's loaf, and drank of his 
 cup, for twenty years and more, to think that I am going to leave 
 her and to leave her in distress and dolour. No, Miss Lucy, 
 you need never think it ! You would not consent to put forth 
 your father's poor dog, and would you use me waur than a messan ? 
 No, Miss Lucy Bertram, while I live, I will not separate from 
 you. I'll be no burden to you. I have thought how to prevent 
 that. But, as Ruth said unto Naomi, Entreat me not to leave 
 thee, nor to depart from thee ; for whither thou goest I will go, 
 and where thou dwellest I will dwell ; thy people shall be my 
 people, and thy God shall be my God. Where thou diest will 
 I die, and there will I be buried. The Lord do so to me, and more 
 also, if aught but death do part thee and me.' " 
 
 The same observation applies still more strongly to the " Heart 
 of Midlothian." In numberless instances the intense pathos of 
 that incomparalb novel is derived from Scripture allusions; as 
 for example in the last dying prayer of Douce Davie Deans for 
 his " puir lost Effie." " He prayed in the most affecting manner 
 for Jeanie, her husband, and her family, and that her affectionate 
 duty to the ' puir auld man,' might purchase her length of days 
 here, and happiness hereafter. Then, in a pathetic petition, too 
 well understood by those who knew his family circumstances, he 
 besought the Shepherd of souls, while gathering His flock, not 
 to forget the little one that had strayed from the fold, and even 
 then might be in the paw of the ravening wolf." 
 
 In a word, the higher examples of Scott's parties are felt to be so, 
 
 20 * 
 
293 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 the most inimitable simplicity. It is nature herself 
 speaking to us, in that severely simple style in which 
 the narrative of Scripture is generally clothed. Pathos 
 there, is equally free from that exaggeration which too 
 often spoils it in the hands of inferior writers, and of 
 that highly-coloured poetic imagery in which even 
 genius sometimes mistakenly arrays it ; and which, 
 though we may pardon it for the sake of that light of 
 genius that plays about it, we feel to be after all a 
 trespass on nature; a language in which the soul of 
 grief, under the given conditions, never would or could 
 have expressed itself. 
 
 This element in Scripture (and that too of the highest 
 order) is so profuse, that it would not be easy to exhaust 
 the catalogue of examples. It will suffice to remind the 
 reader of such scenes as that between Abraham and 
 Isaac on the mournful journey to Moriah, and especially 
 the question with which the unconscious Isaac rends 
 his father's heart : " My father, here is the fire and 
 the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt-offering ? " 
 
 of the scenes between Joseph and his brethren in 
 Egypt, and especially the passionate intercession of 
 Judah, to be allowed to take the place of Benjamin ; 
 
 of the lament of Jacob over Joseph, when he refused 
 " to be comforted " by his sons, and suppressed the sus- 
 picions which had evidently made his anguish so much 
 more bitter ; his equally passionate refusal to let Ben- 
 
 not only because they are so true to nature, but because they are 
 so bound up with the incidents, sentiments, and emotions with 
 which the Bible had made him familiar, and are so deeply tinc- 
 tured even by its phraseology. 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 233 
 
 jamin " go down with his brethren," and that heart- 
 rending explosion of his long pent-up thoughts " Me 
 ye have bereaved of my children;" 1 of the meeting 
 between the patriarch and his long-lost son ; the plead- 
 ing of Joseph's brethren in deprecation of his anger 
 after Jacob's death, and that touching argument of their 
 father's last wish, the very appeal to which dissolved him 
 in tears ; of the scene in which Pharaoh's daughter 
 discovers the ark among the bulrushes, and is melted 
 into compassion by the infant wail of Moses ; the inter- 
 view of Ruth and Naomi ; the parting of David and 
 Jonathan ; David's lament over his friend ; the death 
 of the Shunammite's child, and her passionate expos- 
 tulation with the prophet ; of the tragic scenes at the 
 
 1 The spark which kindled that explosion was evidently the 
 ominous discovery of the money (which his sons had taken to 
 Egypt to pay for their corn) which was found in their sacks, when 
 they came to unload. This, coupled with the absence of their 
 brother Simeon, seems to have reawakened suspicions which had 
 no doubt often perplexed Jacob about Joseph's fate, and to have 
 suggested that Simeon might have been similarly made away with. 
 This would readily account both for their bringing back the corn 
 without payment for it, and for Simeon's mysterious abduction ; 
 and seemed to point to a like fate for Benjamin, if he should leave 
 his fond father's side. The whole transaction, exquisitely natural, 
 affords, on analysis, an instance of two things of which, as I have 
 said, Scripture is full : undesigned coincidences recondite corre- 
 spondencies between different statements, which it is left to the 
 sagacity of the reader to detect ; and that purely dramatic style in 
 which the history of Scripture Is told ; bare incidents being given, 
 most graphic, indeed, but without comment on the causes which 
 connect them. Nothing is here said to account for the sudden 
 transport of suspicion into which Jacob was surprised, and which 
 for so many years he must have suppressed. But the facts of the 
 narrative show how natural that suspicion was, how deeply it had 
 rankled, and how poignantly it had been felt. 
 
2 g4 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT, 
 
 siege of Samaria ; of the Judgment of Solomon, with its 
 thrilling revelation of the unfathomable depths of a 
 mother's love ; of David's lamentation over Absalom, 
 in which nature herself speaks to us in the accents 
 of that desperate sorrow which can do little but iterate 
 in varied tones the name of the lost object of its love : 
 these and many other passages in the Old Testament 
 are full of pathos. 1 It equally pervades the New. 
 The parable of the Prodigal Son ; the incident at the 
 gate of Nain ; the scenes connected with the resurrec- 
 tion of Lazarus ; the fall and repentance of Peter; the 
 
 1 Numberless brief passages might easily be added, which irre- 
 sistibly awaken sympathy, both as appealing immediately to the 
 heart, and as representative of ten thousand analogous scenes in 
 human life. They are often compressed into a verse or two some- 
 times into a sentence ; and are as often, like some intaglios and medal- 
 lions, masterpieces of artistic skill on a field of microscopic dimen- 
 sions. Such is the description of the dying patriarch in Egypt (an 
 exile in a strange land), yearning " for the sepulchre of his fathers :" 
 " There they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife ; there they 
 buried Isaac and Rebecca his wife ; and there I buried Leah." 
 There he desired his own dust to be laid, not without a pang, 
 probably, to think that the best beloved of all lay in her lonely tomb 
 "on the way to Ephrath.''-' Such is the description of Rachel's 
 death, when her " departing soul " called the name of the " child 
 of her sorrow," Benoni, but which he who had loved her so fondly, 
 and for whom seven years' servitude appeared but as a day, ex- 
 changed for a name of happier omen. Such is the scene between 
 Jacob and Joseph, in which the dying patriarch adopts, as his very 
 own, Manasseh and Ephraim (born in Joseph's exile, and named in 
 allusion to it), and blessed them, saying, " The angel that redeemed 
 me from all evil, bless the lads." The whole scene, indeed, includ- 
 ing the little contest between Jacob and his son in reference to the 
 privileges of the firstborn, and that touching last memorial of the 
 patriarch's affection for him whom he had loved so much and lost 
 so long, " Moreover, I have given to thee one portion above thy 
 brethren, which I took out of the hands of the Amo;ite with my 
 sword and my bow," is one of the most graphic, as well as most 
 affecting, in Genesis. 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 295 
 
 institution of the Last Supper ; the entire history of the 
 crucifixion ; the scene at the cross between Christ and 
 the "beloved disciple ; " that between Christ and Mary 
 Magdalene at the sepulchre ; Christ's prayer for His 
 persecutors ; His compassion to the dying malefactor ; 
 His last tender reproof of Peter ; many passages of 
 Paul's Epistles, especially to the Corinthians, to 
 Timothy, and Philemon ; suffice to show the frequency 
 and intensity with which this element enters into the 
 composition of the New Testament. 
 
 And human genius has shown its appreciation of 
 this quality in the Scriptures by the enormous extent 
 to which poetry, painting, and sculpture have resorted 
 to this class of Biblical incidents and descriptions as 
 subjects for art. 
 
 But the book is not only marked by its large infusion 
 of the pathetic element in its ordinary narrative, in 
 scenes which correspond to analogous scenes in ordi- 
 nary life : it has a yet higher excellence. It has invested 
 with the deepest pathos subjects to which that quality 
 never belonged before, in those numberless pictures 
 in which Deity, with infinite condescension, and infinite 
 knowledge of the fountains of human feeling, is repre- 
 sented as pleading with His wayward creatures and 
 soliciting their love. 
 
 Voltaire said that Pascal had illustrated the supre- 
 macy of his genius in his " Provincial Letters," 
 by theologizing two things that seemed not made for 
 theology wit and pleasantry. It may be said of the 
 Bible that it has made susceptible of pathos, and 
 
On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 brought within the range of human emotion, subjects 
 which had hitherto dwelt in the region of remote 
 abstractions, or, if they ever came nearer, came in 
 forms which awakened only awe or terror. To 
 familiarise, to endear, the thought of God, without 
 degrading the conception ; to bring Him within the 
 sphere of human affections, without impairing His 
 majesty, is the triumph of the Bible. 
 
 Viewed in this light, the scriptural representations 
 of God, appealing as they do to all the deepest 
 analogies of our own nature, far transcend those 
 given by the most enlightened theism as elsewhere 
 expounded. They are not only in the plane of human 
 thought ; what is far more important to give them 
 force, they are in the plane of human affection. This 
 may be illustrated more particularly by the mode and 
 degree in which Scripture dwells on the paternal cha- 
 racter of God. Vivid indeed is the contrast in this 
 respect between its tone and that which generally 
 prevails, whether in the current religions or the current 
 philosophies of the world. And no wonder; for, on the 
 one hand, superstition has troubled and deformed men's 
 conceptions of God, and invested Him with terrors, 
 naturally ascribed, indeed, by a heart that is more prompt 
 to dread Him as the Governor, than to love Him as the 
 Father of His creatures, but which, so far as they 
 prevail, naturally repel and alienate affection. On 
 the other hand, philosophic theism has almost exclu- 
 sively dwelt on His abstract perfections, and placed 
 Him in inaccessible remoteness from human sym- 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 297 
 
 pathies; He is not only incapable of being adequately 
 conceived, which must be always true, but so secluded 
 and shrouded in the mysteries of His own nature, 
 that all that can kindle the emotions of childlike love 
 and trust is obliterated from His character. We 
 " stand afar off," and gaze in silent awe ; paying mute 
 homage, indeed, to such Infinite Perfections, but feel- 
 ing that if any Being possesses them, He is so com- 
 pletely beyond the sphere of our affections, that all 
 emotion must be faint, and at best more akin to fear 
 than to love. In the contemplation of such a Being, we 
 feel utterly unable to echo the words of the Psalmist, 
 " As the hart panteth arter the water brooks, so 
 panteth my soul after Thee, O God : " " This God is 
 our God for ever and ever ; He will be our guide even 
 unto death." x 
 
 1 The following eloquent remarks of Dr. Mozley I believe to 
 be profoundly just : " The vulgar believed in many gods, the 
 philosopher believed in a Universal Cause ; but neither believed 
 in God. The philosopher only regarded the Universal Cause 
 as the spring of the universal machine, which was necessary 
 to the working of all the parts, but was not thereby raised to 
 a separate order of being from them. Theism was discussed 
 as a philosophical, not as a religious question; as one rationale 
 among others of the origin of the material universe, but as no 
 more affecting practice than any great scientific hypothesis does 
 now. Theism was not a test which separated the orthodox phi- 
 losopher from the heterodox, which distinguished belief from 
 disbelief; it established no breach between the two opposing 
 theorists ; it was discussed amicably as an open question ; and well 
 it might be, for of all questions there was not one which could make 
 less practical difference to the philosopher, or, upon his view, to 
 anybody, than whether there was, or was not, a God. Nothing 
 would have astonished him more than, when he had proved in the 
 lecture-hall the existence of a God, to have been told to worship Him. 
 'Worship whom?' he would have exclaimed. 'Worship what?' 
 
On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 Even the Israelites, in spite of the more benignant 
 aspects under which God had already revealed, and was 
 even then revealing Himself, are represented as palsied 
 with terror in front of the burning mount, at the 
 momentary manifestation of those austerer aspects of 
 the Divine character which it was important for them, 
 as it is for us, not to forget. In vain did He proclaim 
 that He was " The Lord, the Lord God, merciful and 
 gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in goodness and 
 trut'i, forgiving iniquity, transgression, and sin." That 
 He also proclaimed Himself, amidst such awful scenes, 
 
 Worship how ?' Would you picture him indignant at the poly- 
 theistic superstition of the crowd, and manifesting some spark oi the 
 fire of St. Paul, ' when he saw the city wholly given to idolatry/ you 
 could not be more mistaken. He would have said that you did not 
 see a plain distinction ; that the crowd was right on the religious 
 question, and the philosopher right on the philosophical ; that how- 
 ever men might uphold in argument an infinite abstraction, they 
 could not worship it ; and that the hero was much better fitted 
 for worship than the Universal Cause ; fitted for it, not in spite 
 of, but in consequence of his want of true divinity. The same 
 question was decided in the same way in the speculations of the 
 Brahmans. There the Supreme Being figures as a characterless, 
 impersonal essence; the mere residuum of intellectual analysis, 
 pure unity, pure simplicity. No temple is raised to Him, no knee 
 is bended to Him. Without action, without will, without affection, 
 without thought, He is the substratum of everything, Himself 
 a nothing. . . Thus the idea of God, so far from calling forth 
 in the ancient world the idea of worship, ever stood in antagonism 
 with it. The idol was worshipped because he was not God ; God 
 was not worshipped because He was. One small nation alone of 
 all antiquity worshipped God, believed the Universal Being to be 
 a Personal Being. That nation was looked upon as a most eccen- 
 tric and unintelligible specimen of humanity for doing so ; but 
 this whimsical fancy, as it appeared in the eyes of the rest, was 
 cherished by it as the most sacred deposit ; it was the foundation 
 of its laws and polity ; and from this narrow stock this conception 
 was engrafted upon the human race/' Mozlefs Hampton Lectures. 
 Miracles. Pp. 76-78. 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 299 
 
 to be the righteous Governor of the world, who would 
 not suffer His laws to be broken with impunity, and 
 who, therefore, would "not clear the guilty," was too 
 much for them. They naturally " stood afar off," and 
 found no heart within them to approach a Being who 
 made " the thick darkness His pavilion," and revealed 
 Himself in " earthquake, tempest, and fire." " Let not 
 God speak to us any more, lest we die," was their 
 cry; and God Himself bore witness both to the 
 naturalness and reasonableness of their emotion in 
 contemplating swc/t aspects of Himself; "They have 
 well said all that they have spoken." 
 
 And if the philosophic representation of the Deity as 
 an infinite abstraction creates, from its very remoteness 
 from all our sympathies, no terrors, it kindles as little 
 love, and exerts no attractive force. If not from con- 
 scious moral alienation, yet from intellectual apathy, 
 arising from the impossibility of being en rapport with 
 such a Being, man, in his impotence and ignorance, 
 is apt to say to this God also, " Depart from us, for 
 we desire not the knowledge of Thy ways." 
 
 The Bible takes a different and more effectual way. 
 In the frequent assertion and iteration of those as- 
 pects of the Divine character which are most likely 
 to allure us, it constantly and unfalteringly appeals to 
 the analogy of the deepest and most familiar emotions 
 of our own nature. It does not scruple to resort to the 
 most naked anthropopathic images and expressions ; 
 either secure, according to the already quoted saying 
 of Coleridge, that it could not be misconstrued, amidst 
 
300 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 such clear and copious assertions of the Divine spiritu- 
 ality; or else as careless, even though it were, in some 
 degree, misunderstood, if it could but win us from our 
 fears and our distrust. 1 
 
 It may be said without hesitation, that in this point of 
 view, no religious book ever written, no professed reve- 
 lation ever propounded, comes within appreciable dis- 
 
 1 It is impossible, I think, to imagine anything more intensely 
 pathetic than the daring anthropopathic imagery by which the 
 prophets often represent God as chiding, upbraiding, threatening, 
 and, anon, relentingly beseeching His perverse and ungrateful crea- 
 tures. There is a free assumption of all the passions, and, if the 
 reader will, even some of the infirmities of our nature : all that 
 tumult and conflict of contradictory and tempestuous passions 
 indignation, anger, sorrow love by which a father's heart is 
 torn as he sees some unthanklul and rebellious child proof against 
 all reproof, chastisement, and affection. See particularly Isaiah 
 i. 2, 3, 18 ; Jeremiah xxxi. 18-21 ; xxxii. 36-40; Ezekiel xvi. 3 ; Hosea 
 vi. 4; vii. 13-16; xi. 7, 8 ; xiii. 4-10, and a host of other passages. 
 
 The symbolic lesson which God instructs Jeremiah to read to the 
 Israelites from the conduct of the Rechabites, whom no temptations 
 no presentation of "wine cup and flagon" could induce to swerve 
 from their " father's commandment," while Israel so easily forgot 
 and trampled upon His, is wonderfully touching : " Thus saith 
 the Lord of hosts, Go and tell the men of Judah and the inhabit- 
 ants of Jerusalem, Will ye not receive instruction to hearken unto 
 my words ? saith the Lord. The words of Jonadab the son of 
 Rechab, that he commanded his sons not to drink wine, are per- 
 formed ; for unto this day they drink no wine, but obey their father's 
 commandment : yet I have spoken unto you, but ye hearkened not 
 unto Me. I have also sent unto you all My servants the prophets, 
 rising up early and sending them, saying, Return ye now every 
 man from his evil way, and amend your doings, and go not after 
 other gods to serve them, and ye shall dwell in the land which 
 I have given to you and to your fathers : but ye have not inclined 
 your ear, nor hearkened unto Me." Nor is it the least instruc- 
 tive part of the lesson, that though "the children" He had "nou- 
 rished and brought up had rebelled" against Him, He declares He 
 would signally honour and reward the filial obedience even of the 
 inferior type ; and commissions Jeremiah to assure the Rechabites 
 of it. 
 

 ,*r'<ty ol 
 
 vii.] o/ Scripture Style. 301 
 
 tance of the Bible, and especially 'the New Testament; 
 above all, in the teaching of Him who expressly "came 
 to reveal to us the Father." Nothing in the mytholo- 
 gies of Greece or Rome ever reminds us of the tone of 
 the Scriptures in this respect; none of the religious 
 systems formed in the absence of the Bible (and these, 
 after all, are the true tests of what man's unaided 
 powers can do), no, nor any of the religious theories 
 which philosophic theism has propounded, even when 
 aided by the Bible, approach the Bible in the purely 
 human interest, the intense pathos which it has 
 infused into its modes of exhibiting the relations be- 
 tween man and his Maker. As to the few and cold 
 expressions which are met with in heathen poets, it 
 is perfectly ludicrous to compare them with those 
 constantly recurring passages of Scripture in which 
 God speaks to the heart of man in the language o. 
 its own emotions. 
 
 The purest and best instincts of our nature are 
 freely resorted to for illustration. That parental com- 
 passion, to which the spectacle of helpless weaknesr, 
 cast on its protection, gives such tenderness, such as is 
 felt by a mother for the infant hushed on her bosom, or a 
 father for the child whose tiny fingers confidingly clasp 
 him by the hand ; that yearning of soul which views 
 with indulgence every error and failing in the objects 
 of its inextinguishable love ; which inflicts chastisement 
 with more sorrow than the culprit suffers it ; which 
 thinks of the pang it has inflicted almost with self- 
 reproach; which asks for reconciliation with a pas- 
 
32 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 sionate desire, which no sullenness and no obstinacy 
 can overcome; which not only smiles with benignant 
 complacency upon every effort to obey, but exaggerates 
 every symptom of affection which it fancies it still sees 
 in the ungrateful child who has cast off the yoke of 
 authority, and wandered forth from his father's house; 
 which cannot cast him off when the world, wearied out 
 at last with his falsehood and his vices, has closed 
 every door to him ; which, on the slightest symptom of 
 returning sense of duty and affection, impatiently rushes 
 to meet him, and will not hear those sobs of a broken 
 heart which it breaks a father's heart to listen to ; which 
 cuts short even the short confession of error and guilt 
 that sincere penitence longs to utter, and seals the lips 
 that would make it with a kiss of all-forgetting love : 
 such traits as these are freely attributed to God, " the 
 Father of our spirits," in delineations of Him drawn from 
 the depths of the purest, profoundest, sincerest, least 
 corrupted font of human emotion. In vain shall we 
 search for them, or anything approaching them, in the 
 Vedas or Koran, in the poetry or philosophy of ancient 
 Greece or Rome. In vain shall we search for such 
 texts as these : " Like as a father pitieth his children, 
 so the Lord pitieth them that fear Him." " He knoweth 
 our frame ; He remembereth that we are dust." " Is 
 Ephraim My dear son? is he a pleasant child? for since 
 I spake against him, I do earnestly remember him 
 still." " Thou hast had compassion on the gourd for 
 which thou didst not labour, neither madest it grow ; 
 and should not I have compassion on this great city, in 
 
vii.] of Scripture Style. 303 
 
 which are more than three-score thousand persons who 
 know not their right hand from their left ? " " Can a 
 woman forget her sucking child, that she should not 
 have compassion on the son of her womb ? Yea, she 
 may forget: yet will not I forget thee." " And while 
 he was yet a great way off, his father saw him, 
 and had compassion, and ran, and fell on his neck 
 and kissed him ; " and said, " Bring forth the best 
 robe, and put it on him, and put a ring on his 
 hand and shoes on his feet ; and kill the fatted calf, 
 and let us eat and be merry; for this my son was dead, 
 but is alive again ; he was lost, and is found." " Son, 
 thou art ever with me, and all that I have is thine. It 
 was meet that we should make merry and be glad, for 
 this thy brother was dead and is alive again ; he was 
 lost and is found." Such are a very few of the ex- 
 pressions which may serve to illustrate this point. 
 
 In our Lord's teaching, who came to make known 
 to us the " Father," this free use of analogies is appro- 
 priately emphatic. As it was said of Socrates that he 
 brought down philosophy from the skies, to dwell 
 with men, it may be said with yet greater truth of 
 Christ, that He brought God Himself down from 
 cloudy abstractions into the sphere of human appre- 
 hension and human affection. 
 
 If He would have us trust in Divine Providence 
 for the supply of our wants, it is because our heavenly 
 Father " knoweth that we have need of such things ;" 
 if He would have us confide in that minute care which, 
 like that of the human parent, thinks nothing little that 
 
304 On Certain Peculiarities [LECT. 
 
 affects the welfare of those who are its objects, He 
 tells us that " the hairs of our heads are all numbered, 
 and that not even " a sparrow can fall to the ground " 
 without the cognizance and permission of our heavenly 
 Father. If He would have us forgiving and forbearing, 
 it is because our Father has compassion on the ungrate- 
 ful and disobedient, for He " makes His sun to shine 
 on the evil and the good, and sends His rain upon the 
 just and the unjust." If He would encourage us to ask 
 boldly what we need from the all-bestowing bounty, He 
 tells us that, " evil " as we are, we know by an unerring 
 instinct how to "give good gifts to our children; " and 
 how much more will our heavenly Father give them 
 to His ? " If the son of any of you that is a father, 
 ask bread, will he give him a stone ? or if he ask a 
 fish, will he give him a scorpion ? If ye then, being 
 evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children, 
 how much more will your heavenly Father give good 
 gifts to them that ask Him ? " In His comprehensive 
 model of all prayer, the invocation is not to the Infinite, 
 the Holy, the Just, the Wise, but to " our Father in 
 heaven." When He rose from the dead, His first 
 announcement to the disciples was the renewed recog- 
 nition of the same relation : " I ascend to my Father 
 and to your Father; to my God and to your God." 
 
 In brief, no small portion of that pathos in which, as 
 I have said, the Bible abounds above all other books, 
 is found in the various manifestations of the paternal 
 character of God, by which He would seem intent 
 on subduing both that dread which results from our 
 
VIL] of Scripture Style. 305 
 
 sense of guilt, and that intellectual apathy which is 
 the equally certain effect of the bare contemplation of 
 His abstract perfections. All these illustrations are 
 drawn so freely from the depths of our own nature 
 from that parental heart which He Himself inspired 
 with its passionate and unquenchable love, that no 
 self-despairing, forlorn child of pollution and misery, 
 is without ample warrant to come in his rags and deep 
 poverty the effect and sign of his transgression 
 and, breaking through the cloud of doubt and dis- 
 trust which the sense of infinite purity and the awe 
 of illimitable power and wisdom might interpose, to 
 cast himself, though it be with burning shame and 
 blinding tears, into those loving arms, which he is 
 assured, in accents and by arguments so infinitely 
 touching, are ever open to receive him. 
 
 21 
 
LECTURE VIII. 
 
 ON THE EXCEPTIONAL POSITION OF THE BIBLE 
 IN THE WORLD. 
 
LECTURE VIII. 
 
 ON THE EXCEPTIONAL POSITION OF THE BIBLE IN THE 
 WORLD. 
 
 [~ T is not a little paradoxical that amidst the wreck 
 *- of the many nations by which the Jews were 
 surrounded some of them incomparably mightier than 
 themselves they, and they alone, should have suc- 
 ceeded in preserving copious and continuous written 
 memorials of themselves. The passion for durable 
 monuments was certainly strong enough in Egypt and 
 Assyria, as the pyramids and gigantic wrecks of 
 architecture prove ; and not less perhaps those mum- 
 mies of the former country, by which it was sought 
 to make even " evanescence immortal.'* But the 
 Hebrews, and they alone, seem to have learned the 
 higher art of " embalming " the spirit, the thought, 
 the laws, in a word, all that constitutes the life of 
 a nation. While the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Baby- 
 lonian monarchies have perished, so that their "me- 
 morials " for the most part have perished too, or are 
 being reclaimed in tattered fragments, as the " huge 
 drag" of the antiquary (casually, and at intervals of 
 centuries,) brings them up; while the hieroglyphics 
 of Egypt, and the inscriptions of Nineveh and Per- 
 
3io On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 sepolis, still provoke, and, for the most part, still baffle 
 the sagacity of the most accomplished scholarship, 
 which, with all its efforts, can but imperfectly explore 
 the mystic characters, and often fails to convince the 
 world that it has truly deciphered them ; the Jews, 
 an utterly insignificant nation compared with those 
 just named insignificant in arts and arms, in wealth 
 and population, in civilisation and refinement have 
 handed down a record of the history and fortunes of 
 their race from remote ages ; not in vague symbols, 
 but by means of an alphabetic notation ; in charac- 
 ters clearly decipherable, and in a language, the 
 grammar and syntax of which are as regular and 
 intelligible as those of Greek and Latin. Whether 
 their annals contain truth or fable, or how much of 
 either, is not now the question. I am speaking 
 merely of the fact, that they alone have consigned 
 to us (what the far greater surrounding nations, nay, 
 that whole ancient world with which their elder history 
 is involved, either never had, or were never able to 
 keep) their annals and their language. 
 
 It is certainly no abatement of the mystery that this 
 nation would appear to have had very little literature, 
 and has seemingly conserved nearly all that it had ; 
 while the written records possessed by the other na- 
 tions connected with their fortunes (and they certainly 
 inscribed much on stone and metal, whether they had 
 books or not) have as hopelessly gone into oblivion as 
 the score of Roman authors who lived between Cato the 
 Censor and Augustus, or even as the still earlier utterly 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 311 
 
 unknown annalists, in whom the later Roman his- 
 torians groped for the materials of their narrative. 
 If a fragment like that of the " Moabite Stone " comes 
 to light once in a thousand years, it awakens the as- 
 tonishment of the learned world. Even this, however, 
 is clearly read only by the light of the chronicles of the 
 Jews, to the antiquity of whose language it bears 
 witness, and the credibility of whose history it in some 
 measure confirms. But it exhibits still more conspi- 
 cuously, by contrast, the difference between the copious 
 and well-preserved records of which the Jews can boast 
 and the scanty relics of the surrounding nations. The 
 little ark of the Jewish literature still floats above the 
 surges of time, while mere fragments of the wrecked 
 archives of the huge Oriental empires, as well as of the 
 lesser kingdoms that surrounded Judea mere " flotsam 
 and jetsam " are now and then cast on our distant 
 shores. " Time sadly overcometh all things," says Sir 
 Thomas Brown, " and is now dominant, and sitteth 
 upon a sphinx, and looketh unto Memphis and old 
 Thebes ; while his sister Oblivion reclineth semi- 
 somnous on a pyramid, gloriously triumphing, making 
 puzzles of Titanian inscriptions, and turning old glories 
 into dreams. History sinketh beneath her cloud. The 
 traveller, as he paceth amazedly through those deserts, 
 asketh of her who builded them, and she mumbleth 
 something, but what it is he heareth not." 
 
 This paradox of the exceptional superiority of the 
 Jews in this matter, is certainly not diminished by their 
 alleged insignificance and comparative obscurity. It is 
 
312 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 a theme on which their enemies have been fond of 
 dilating, though surely not wisely ; for the greater their 
 obscurity and insignificance, the more difficult is it to 
 account for the role they have played in the world. It 
 would seem that they have done, and done effectually, 
 what their far greater neighbours, more enterprising, 
 more populous, more civilized, either never attempted 
 or could not achieve, that of inscribing, on more 
 durable forms than brass or marble, a continuous 
 narrative of their history and fortunes, which " Time 
 and Oblivion " should not be able to " overcome.'* 
 
 If these records really contain a contemporary or 
 nearly contemporary account of the events they describe, 
 this singular nation has anticipated, without knowing 
 it, that canon which modern criticism has established 
 as the true condition of all reliable history. Niebuhr, 
 indeed, while contending for the fabulous quality of 
 so much ancient history, and perhaps in his icono- 
 clastic zeal using the sponge too freely, flattered himself 
 that it was possible for critical sagacity to divine to a 
 great extent what the past has been, and, by cautiously 
 treading in the footsteps of tradition, to ascertain what 
 no contemporary documents vouch for. Too many of 
 his countrymen have essayed this perilous task of 
 manufacturing history, or interpreting what ancient 
 tradition " drowsily mumbles; " but one cannot but feel 
 with Dean Milman in this matter. Speaking of the 
 too common modern fashion of making history without 
 historic materials, he says : " I confess that I have not 
 much sympathy for this not making bricks without 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 313 
 
 straw but making bricks entirely of straw, and offering 
 them as solid materials." 1 That accomplished scholar, 
 Sir George Cornewall Lewis, in his great work on the 
 credibility of the early Roman history, has sufficiently 
 confuted this error, and shown that for distant periods 
 there can be no authentic history without written 
 documents. The Jews would seem to have acted 
 (ignorant as they were) on that condition ; and whether 
 their books be proved ancient and authentic, or com- 
 paratively modern, they at least come before the bar of 
 criticism with books of their own. They have com- 
 posed and preserved records which time could not 
 destroy, and which the whole world is now resolved 
 "not willingly to let die." 
 
 What still adds to the singularity of the case is, that 
 if the Jews can thus point to their written treasures, 
 while time has confiscated those of contemporary 
 antiquity, those records also contain express declara- 
 tions that the great nations immediately surrounding 
 them should thus be " overcome of time and oblivion," 
 and pass away without a history. Of the great 
 monarchies whose history is more or less connected 
 with that of the Jews, it is declared that they should 
 be destroyed, and their memorials and monuments 
 perish. A few passages to this effect have been 
 already alluded to in a previous lecture for another 
 purpose, and it is not necessary to repeat them, or to 
 add to them, for they are familiar to all. I do not 
 
 1 " History of the Jews." Preface to New Edition. 1866. p. 25. 
 See also p. 23. 
 
314 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 appeal to these declarations as prophecy, for that would 
 depend on when they were written ; but few critics 
 would deny that they were written some time before 
 the final desolation of the countries and cities to 
 which they apply. They are here mentioned merely 
 as illustrating the exceptional destiny of the Jewish 
 people; that they not only had memorials which the 
 above-named nations had not, but ventured to declare 
 that these other and often greater nations should have 
 none ! 
 
 On the hypothesis that the Hebrew records had 
 more than a human origin ; that they were designed 
 to embody, in gradual and successive disclosures, 
 a Divine revelation to the world, accommodated to 
 the various stages of its history, and illustrative 
 of the great principles of God's moral government ; 
 that the Jews were to be the depositaries of the 
 elementary truths and principles which were else- 
 where and everywhere buried under superstition and 
 idolatry; it is not of course surprising that this nation 
 should thus possess, and so wonderfully preserve, their 
 national history and its written records ; or that Scrip- 
 ture has conformed, without its authors being aware 
 of it, to the conditions on which, by a law of necessity 
 (as modern criticism declares), the safe transmission 
 of facts to distant epochs is suspended. This would 
 account, indeed, for the anomalous fact on which I am 
 commenting; but I must not take such solution for 
 granted. Let the fact then simply pass for one of 
 the many curious facts on which I am insisting 
 
vin.] of the Bible in the World. 315 
 
 one of the innumerable proofs of the unique character 
 and position of the Bible. 
 
 It does not diminish the singularity of which I am 
 here speaking it merely shifts it to suppose, after 
 the favourite method of modern rationalism, that the 
 historic records of the Jews were not contemporary 
 with the events described, nor compiled from trust- 
 worthy annals that were so ; but late compilations 
 of unknown authors. It has been not unreasonably 
 surmised that this theory would not have been sug- 
 gested, except by considerations altogether foreign to 
 the evidence, whether external or internal ; for the 
 stress of both is the other way. But it does not 
 abate the singularity of the fact now insisted on, 
 though it transfers the paradox to another point. 
 For (as already insisted on) is it credible that a 
 bundle of fictions thrust wholesale into the middle of 
 the history of a nation, could or would be accepted 
 by that nation as its true history ? Could it re- 
 ceive a rationale of its national existence of its 
 laws and institutions of which their fathers had 
 no consciousness and left no record ; and all, too, 
 without a murmur, denial, or remonstrance ? Could 
 a series of romances pass into the most intense 
 historic belief, and the whole nation be so pro- 
 foundly ignorant or so unanimous in fraud as not to 
 mutter a word of doubt or suspicion ? And, lastly, 
 would it so act in favour of fictions, which so far 
 from flattering the humour or exalting the character 
 of the nation, are, if fictions, terrible libels upon 
 
316 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 it ? But on this I have said enough in a previous 
 lecture. 1 
 
 Thus this theory is beset with difficulties ; but even 
 if it were true, it admits that paradoxical position 
 of the Jewish records of which I am here speaking. 
 For even supposing the earliest of these records was 
 unknown till the days of Solomon (and few ration- 
 alists would go so far down), and the latest extant four 
 hundred years before the Christian era, the Jews would 
 still have had a series of national memoirs and a 
 national literature which the other countries about 
 them Moab and Edom, Assyria and Babylon never 
 had or always lost. 
 
 We are struck with another anomaly, or rather a 
 knot of anomalies, when we come to consider the 
 various modes and the extraordinary degree in 
 which the Bible, as compared with any other book 
 sacred or profane, has stimulated the intellect and 
 energy, and attracted the love and veneration of men. 
 It will be seen, I think, as we follow the argument into 
 its details, that on the supposition that this book is a 
 fortuitous collection of tracts, composed by men who 
 belonged to a nation in many respects among the most 
 insignificant, and certainly among the most despised, 
 on the face of the earth a nation that is chiefly 
 distinguished by the degree in which these writings 
 have extorted the homage of mankind their pro- 
 digious influence is not a little curious. It adds to 
 1 See ante, pp. 50-53. 
 
VIIL] of the Bible in the World. 317 
 
 the difficulty, that all subsequent literary productions 
 of this nation have been characterised by no special 
 excellence ; in fact, are rather below than above the 
 average merit of other literatures. Indeed, the pro- 
 ductions of Jewish Rabbis are generally such as to 
 engender a natural suspicion that, since they did no 
 better, even with such models for imitation before 
 them, no such powers as theirs unaided could have 
 produced books which have so arrested the attention 
 of an alien world. Nearly all else that the Jews 
 have written men willingly leave in obscurity. On 
 these books alone they concentrate their regards. 
 
 These books make a volume of no very great size. 
 In hundreds of cases the " Opera Omnia" of single 
 authors have contained many tirries the bulk of all the 
 tractates of this book put together, and have not 
 seldom included among them works which rank among 
 the choicest productions of human genius genius 
 that had deserved and secured the applause of man- 
 kind. But in no one of these cases can the in- 
 fluence exerted on the world be for a moment com- 
 pared with that of this volume, as measured by the 
 facts to which I am about to refer. 
 
 Among these facts, I will not insist on the ab- 
 solute self-surrender, the passionate love, this book 
 has inspired in' the thousands and tens of thousands 
 who have laid down their lives, or been ready to lay 
 them down, rather than consent to renounce it, or ab- 
 jure the faith it has taught them. I will not insist on 
 the long array of martyrs who have sealed their testi- 
 
318 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 mony to their vehement zeal for it, and intense belief 
 in it, with their blood. I am persuaded, indeed, 
 that the influence of the Bible (or, which comes to 
 much the same thing), of the religion it teaches and 
 enjoins, is, even in this point of view, unique, whether 
 we consider among how many different nations and 
 communities, and through what a long succession of 
 ages, this self-sacrifice has been demanded and re- 
 peated, or contemplate the character of the martyrs 
 themselves. The phenomenon is quite independent 
 of race, culture, tradition, national characteristics; 
 while the character of the martyrs the Bible has 
 so often inspired, has been the same, of a type 
 wholly different from that of the devotees of other 
 religions. To suffer in majestic patience, in silent 
 meekness, with forgiveness on their lips, and, as far 
 as can be discerned, in their hearts, has been the 
 characteristic of thousands of Christian martyrs since 
 that hour in which their Great Exemplar prayed 
 on the cross for His murderers. The style of such a 
 martyr differs from that of the soldier-martyr of Islam, 
 who died for his prophet with all those impetuous 
 passions which, in the fierce eagerness of battle, 
 quench fear and dull pain, as much as " the lamb led 
 to the slaughter " differs from the lion who casts himself 
 in rage on the spear of the hunter. Polycarp and 
 Huss, the martyrs of Lyons, of the Vaudois, of the 
 Malagasy in our own day, are no more like the Fakirs 
 of India swinging on their hook, or devotees casting 
 themselves under the wheels of Juggernaut, than 
 
VIIL] of the Bible in the World. 319 
 
 Howard dying of prison fever resembles the vulgar 
 suicide. 
 
 But I will not insist on this. Such is undoubtedly 
 the strength even of the perverted spirit of religion in 
 human nature, and such also the power of human pas- 
 sion, that it is too. possible even for the most degrading 
 superstitions to point to those who have been willing 
 martyrs for them. And in this respect, the worst, as 
 well as the best of religions, bear witness to the depth 
 and indomitable energy of those principles of our nature 
 on which religion is founded ; principles far mightier 
 than any which usually prompt men to attach them- 
 selves to any schools of politics or philosophy. This is 
 a fact which, if duly dwelt upon, would make men 
 despair of uprooting these principles of our nature, and, 
 instead of attempting it, render them solely intent on 
 discovering what religion is the true. There is scarcely 
 a religion, however " beggarly " its " elements," that 
 cannot point to more willing martyrs for it, simply 
 because it is a religion, than philosophy or science 
 could ever boast. 
 
 Without, therefore, conceding that the various mani- 
 festations and characteristics of the martyr-spirit the 
 Bible has inspired, furnish no argument in favour of the 
 perfectly unique influence it has exerted, or might not 
 be enumerated among the many paradoxes involved in 
 the theory of its purely human origin, I waive it. For 
 the same reason, I as little insist upon the mere numbers 
 it has succeeded in persuading of its Divine claims to 
 attention. It cannot be doubted that the adherents 
 
320 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 of other religions, those who have sworn by the Vedas 
 or the Koran, may have been equally or more numerous; 
 mere nominal suffrages are of no avail for any system. 
 Let this argument, therefore, be also waived as preca- 
 rious; though here, too, I am persuaded that there is 
 no other "sacred book" in the world that can pretend 
 to the suffrages of so many men of great genius, 
 of so many intelligent and educated adherents, from 
 so many different races and nationalities, as those 
 which the Bible has extorted ; that, too, in spite of 
 previous prejudices, and after prolonged and patient 
 examination. In truth, the difficulty is to find, in the 
 otiose reception or rejection of other sacred books, the 
 traces of any severe criticism or examination at all. 
 
 But the following facts, which show the peculiar po- 
 sition the Bible occupies among books, and the para- 
 mount influence it has exerted, cannot be disputed. 
 
 i. It is curious to see how wonderfully independent 
 of race has been the welcome given to this book. It 
 has been spontaneously received (by spontaneously, I 
 mean as the fruit of persuasion only, and to the exclu- 
 sion of all political influence or military violence) by men 
 of far more various races and nations than any other 
 religious books ever have been. I have already con- 
 ceded that, unhappily for the Bible, those who have mis- 
 understood it, and therefore wronged it, have not always 
 refrained from the above methods (though prohibited 
 by itself) of extending its influence, 1 But still, during 
 
 1 It must be added that the Bible, so far from authorising these 
 proceedings, has itself too often been the victim of them, and 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 321 
 
 the three first centuries, the religion it teaches and the 
 book which embodies it made their way, without any 
 such questionable allies, into almost every part of the 
 " Orbis Romanus;" and since that time, with similar 
 independence of all such aid, have made similar 
 impressions on various heathen communities in all 
 quarters of the world, from Greenland to the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and from Otaheite to Madagascar. 
 
 Now history shows us that the progress of a religion, 
 apart from the fanaticism or ambition which leads men 
 to fight for its diffusion, is almost uniformly circum- 
 scribed by race and nationality; and how impassable 
 the barrier which these fortified by old superstitions 
 and the customs w r hich they consecrate oppose to 
 it. It is almost impossible, in ordinary cases, to get 
 people to pay any attention at all to an alien reli- 
 gion, except as a subject of curious or learned investi- 
 gation ; and we should be as much astonished at any 
 European becoming a worshipper of Brahma by poring 
 over the Hindoo mythology, as at a student of Homer 
 becoming a devotee of Jupiter. 
 
 How is it, then, that the Bible has had so little 
 difficulty in transcending the bounds of race and nation- 
 ality? By what gift has it been capable of breaking 
 
 has been imprisoned, exiled, burnt, like its own confessors and 
 martyrs. Not the heathen Diocletian alone hunted down for 
 destruction the copies of the Scriptures. In the worst times of- 
 Christian, or rather Antichristian persecution, the Bible has had 
 to suffer its full share : whoever might be chargeable with heresy, 
 that was still the heretic of heretics ; and this fact is a sufficient 
 compurgation from the charge, sometimes made, of being an ac- 
 complice with the Alvas and the Bonners. 
 
 22 
 
322 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 through the barriers which, in general, so obstinately 
 enclose each variety of religious belief ? An objector 
 may, perhaps, say it was not so with the Hebrew 
 Scriptures the greater half of the volume. Why, no ; 
 but that rather increases the wonder. The addition of 
 the lesser half altered the complexion and the properties 
 of the whole. That is so buoyant, that it bears up itself 
 and the mass which is attached to it, and which had 
 been almost as little known to the world in general as 
 the contents of other sacred books usually are. Those 
 who received the Old Testament, and accounted it to be 
 the inspiration of the Most High, yet followed the law 
 of other religionists, or nearly so ; and, for the most 
 part, kept their oracles to themselves. The rest of the 
 world followed their own law, in caring nothing about 
 alien oracles at all. I have had occasion to observe in 
 a previous lecture that the Jews, though not required to 
 reject proselytes far from it yet in general did little 
 to make them : they seem to have been only too well 
 pleased to think themselves the exclusive possessors 
 of a Divine revelation, and to hug themselves on that 
 superiority. If they received proselytes from among 
 the heathen, it was with no very genial welcome ; they 
 acquiesced in their occupying an inferior place in the 
 " Court of the Gentiles," but would have vehemently 
 protested against the " middle wall of partition," which 
 shut them off from the more sacred enclosure, being 
 broken down. 1 On the other hand, the Gentiles recoiled 
 as strongly from the Jews as the Jews from them. 
 1 See " Davison on Prophecy," pp. 280-82. 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 323 
 
 Both mutually repelled, instead of attracting one an- 
 other. 
 
 It is, therefore, not a little wonderful that the Bible, 
 though with its larger half in this sense a dead weight 
 upon it, and as little likely to pass, by spontaneous 
 reception, from race to race and from people to people, 
 as any other collection of so-called sacred books, has 
 found it comparatively easy to break through the bar- 
 riers ; and, as the ages have rolled on,, to migrate with- 
 out violence into new regions, and find a home among 
 tribes, separated by every conceivable difference of 
 climate, government, customs, culture, and religion, 
 from those which had previously accepted it ; among 
 the various nationalities which acknowledged the 
 Roman sway, and among various modern nationalities 
 which succeeded it ; among the conquering Goths and 
 other barbarians of the early centuries, and in the South 
 Seas, in Africa, and in Madagascar, in our own time. 
 
 Will it be said that it is because this book, alone 
 among sacred books, teaches a religion which is worthy 
 of universal reception, enjoins its universal diffusion, 
 and is alone capable of forming a succession of men 
 heroically bent on making it universal ? Doubtless, if 
 this be granted, the mystery is solved. This concedes 
 the special characteristics of the book, for which I am 
 contending. It is indeed unlike all other sacred books, 
 if so much can be said for it ! 
 
 It is true, however, that this strange volume has 
 the power, wheresoever it got it, of prompting men to 
 proclaim and to propagate its contents. Whether we 
 
 22* 
 
324 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 look at the ancient or the modern converts to it, they 
 are somehow instantly bent on proselytism. 
 
 2. Among other singularities of this book, if it be a 
 mere production of human genius, like any other book 
 or collection of books of the same size, may be mentioned 
 the prodigious literature which it has evoked. Either 
 it must have claims to attention altogether transcendent 
 to those of any other, even the greatest compositions 
 of human genius, in order to account for men's cease- 
 less activity in translating, illustrating, explaining, in- 
 terpreting, propagating, impugning, and defending it ; 
 or we must conclude that, on this one subject, no 
 inconsiderable portion of mankind has virtually gone 
 mad ; or, rather, that each successive portion of the 
 race, each new community or nation, that comes under 
 the fascination of this book, is smitten with this same 
 incurable bibliomania, and proceeds to do in behalf of 
 it, or against it, what it would never dream of doing for 
 or against any other books in the world, sacred or pro- 
 fane ! This mysterious book (the whole or parts of it) 
 speaks no less than two hundred languages, and is 
 daily learning to speak more ; that is, probably speaks 
 as many as any ten of the very chiefest classics of 
 human genius, however widely translated, put together ; 
 more than Homer, Virgil, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, 
 Goethe, Walter Scott, put together ; far more than 
 the Vedas and Koran put together. In numberless 
 cases, again, it has allured men to do what, so far 
 as we know, was never done on behalf of any other 
 book, howsoever counted " sacred," before. It has 
 
VHI. of the Bible in the World. 325 
 
 induced them, not only to encounter every form of peril 
 and the most enormous self-sacrifices, to get the mere 
 chance of proclaiming the substance of its contents, 
 but to undergo the most gigantic labours, in order to 
 translate it into barbarous and uncouth languages. 
 Nay, more ; in a score of cases it has impelled them to 
 submit to the more arduous preliminary drudgery of 
 giving a notation and visible shape to languages which 
 were previously but a "wandering voice," and nothing 
 else. This book it is that first conferred on many a 
 barbarous nation the wondrous art of condensing the 
 volatile vapour of human thought into a visible form, 
 taught them the first elements of those arts which are 
 the necessary condition of all progress and civilisation, 
 and opened to them the road which leads on to all the 
 triumphs of human intellect and national greatness. 
 Many such nations perhaps hereafter to be graced 
 by a muster-roll of names as illustrious, and achieve- 
 ments as great as adorn the history of our own country 
 may say, as she in great part must say also : " These 
 things we owe to some obscure missionaries, who, like 
 the birds that carry the seeds of forests to desert 
 islands, brought us the germs of all these blessings in 
 giving us the Bible. They first made language visible 
 to us ; they analysed the sounds which it represents, 
 expressed them in an alphabet, reduced them to gram- 
 matical forms, compiled a lexicon for us, opened to us 
 the intellectual treasures of all literature and science, 
 and made it possible to have a literature and science of 
 
326 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 Meantime its translators wrought, not for the sake of 
 these vast collateral and adventitious benefits (however 
 much they may have rejoiced in them), but simply for 
 the book's sake itself; and would have done the work, 
 all the same, if they had been sure that no literature 
 but that one book would ever be known to the people 
 for whom it was translated. Such is the strange en- 
 thusiasm it is capable of inspiring ! 
 
 Similarly, this book has probably done more to fix 
 and preserve the languages into which it has been 
 translated, to retard the progress of change and cor- 
 ruption, than any other single cause whatever. This 
 has been conspicuously a result of our own English 
 version. 
 
 And it is only just to remember that many languages, 
 which already had a written character indeed, but 
 were still so incrusted with barbarism as to make them 
 wholly unfit for the purposes of literature, have been 
 largely indebted to the toil of those who sought to 
 transfuse the contents of this book into these uncouth 
 vehicles for it. This has often done more to purify and 
 polish them, to mould them into forms which science 
 and poetry could deign to use, than any other single 
 cause. This was to a good extent the case with the 
 early translations into our own language and the 
 German. The " Kornige Sprache " of Luther's trans- 
 lation, as a German critic calls it, played no mean 
 part in the development of that language. 
 
 The passion for translating the Bible into other 
 tongues has been intense from the very commencement 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 327 
 
 of the Christian era, and may probably be said to have 
 created the taste for translation in general. The 
 ancients seem to have had little that was worthy of 
 the name. Cicero and Quintilian, indeed, speak of the 
 signal benefits the rhetorical student and youthful 
 orator may derive from frequent translation of fine 
 passages from the Greek into their own tongue, just 
 as Lord Chatham commends the same exercise to 
 his son, William Pitt. But the practice of syste- 
 matically endeavouring to import the masterpieces of 
 Greek literature into the Latin, or vice versa, seems 
 not to have been adopted in the ancient world. Nor, in 
 days when printing was unknown, and there was such 
 infinite toil and cost in making even original manu- 
 scripts public, is it any wonder that this sort of literary 
 labour was generally declined. But no such difficulties 
 depressed the energies of men where the Bible was 
 concerned. By about the middle of the second century, 
 there were no less than three Greek versions of the 
 Old Testament, in addition to the Septuagint, those 
 of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus. Still earlier, 
 the Peshito-Syriac version, including Old and New 
 Testaments, was completed. About the same time it 
 appeared in Latin (the old Italic). It was translated 
 again into that language by Jerome. By the end of 
 the fourth century, the Scriptures were translated in 
 whole or in part, but certainly nearly the whole of 
 the New Testament, into Coptic, Sahidic, Armenian, 
 Ethiopic, and Gothic. Nor were the darker ages with- 
 out their like triumphs. In the sixth century it was 
 
328 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 translated into Georgian ; in the ninth into the Scla- 
 vonic; and various translations of the Gospels and other 
 parts of Scripture into Anglo-Saxon, and several other 
 Teutonic languages, were executed at intermediate 
 dates. If it be said that reverence for a supposed 
 " sacred " book will account for all this, we must 
 reply ; first, reverence for other supposed " sacred " 
 books has never produced anything like it ; and secondly, 
 that if, in this case, reverence was so exceptionally 
 powerful, what inspired it ? 
 
 One of the most interesting books in the world to 
 look at, few, perhaps, except Professor Max Miiller, 
 and two or three other accomplished linguists like him, 
 can read more than a few pages of it, is the hand- 
 some quarto volume entitled "The Bible of every 
 Land;" in which beautifully printed typographical 
 specimens are given of the multitudinous versions of 
 the Bible in all their variety of alphabetic characters. 
 It is impossible to inspect it without feeling what 
 stupendous (and if the Bible be not more to the world 
 than the Koran or the Vedas, Homer or Plato), what 
 utterly disproportionate and wasteful toil man has 
 foolishly expended on this one volume ! 
 
 How much more must we feel this in contemplating 
 the enormous masses of literature to which it has given 
 birth ! This one book, not more than the three-hundreth 
 part of the extant Greek and Roman literature, has 
 probably attracted to it, and concentrated upon it, 
 more thought, and probably produced more works, 
 explanatory, illustrative, apologetic, upon its text, 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 329 
 
 its exegesis, its doctrines, its history, its geography, 
 ethnology, chronology, and evidences, than all the 
 Greek and Roman literature put together. There is 
 scarcely a tractate in it, however short, that has not 
 had more pains expended upon it than many even of 
 the mere voluminous ancient writers. In walking 
 through any great library, in inspecting any large 
 catalogue (as that of the British Museum, or the 
 Bodleian), one is astonished at the immense bulk of 
 literature which, either directly or indirectly, owes 
 its origin to this one book. It is surprising to see 
 how large a portion of the huge London Catalogue 
 is made up of books which, had it not been for this 
 one, would never have had an existence ! 
 
 And now, endeavouring for a moment to place my- 
 self in the point of view of those who regard this book 
 as a simple collection of tractates, written by a number 
 of obscure men, of no greater actual endowments than 
 those possessed by many others (often their equals, 
 sometimes their superiors), and all of them, with 
 perhaps one exception, 1 belonging to one of the most 
 despised of human communities, I am lost in amaze- 
 ment at that insanity (I can call it, on that hypothesis, 
 by no other name) which has kept the most diverse 
 nations, but always those in the very van of all science, 
 learning, and civilisation, thus everlastingly poring 
 over this book; illustrating, interpreting, attacking, 
 defending it ; thinking no pains too great to be be- 
 stowed even on its least significant parts, and deeming 
 1 1 refer to Luke ; but even that is doubtful. 
 
33 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 it of more importance to prosecute this task than to 
 give themselves to the like labours on the very chef- 
 d'ceuvres of human genius. 
 
 The " Propaganda" for this book is a phenomenon 
 we should in vain seek in the case of any other 
 books, sacred or profane. The Bible Society, for ex- 
 ample, may be a fanatical organisation ; but fanaticism 
 never evoked anything like it in behalf of any other 
 book, however revered as presumed to be inspired, or 
 admired as pre-eminently instinct with human genius. 
 I observe that during the year 1872-73 no less than 
 2,592,936 copies of the whole Bible, or large portions of 
 it, were issued by the Society. Now, the " Publishers' 
 Circular" tells us that last year (1872) 4814 works 
 of all kinds, including pamphlets (not sermons), and 
 reprints, were published in London ; and if we sup- 
 pose each impression to average 1000 copies (rather 
 a liberal allowance, and perhaps only too flattering to 
 most authors), then the copies of this one old book 
 issued in London, exceeded the half of all the copies 
 of the new and old books of the year put together ! z 
 
 A library made up of all the books which have been 
 written solely in defence of the Bible, would be an im- 
 posing spectacle. About a century and a half ago the 
 
 1 One does not readily imagine Euclid to be, in any sense, more 
 popular than Homer or Virgil ; or that his Geometry has had a 
 larger circulation than the Iliad or ^Eneid. Yet it was certainly the 
 fact for some generations after the revival of letters. So De Morgan 
 assures us in his admirable Life of the Old Greek Geometer, in- 
 serted in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. But as 
 he truly says, if all other books may be challenged to rival Euclid 
 in circulation, the Bible must still be excepted. 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 331 
 
 great Fabricius gave a Catalogue Raisonne of all the 
 books that had been, directly or indirectly, evoked in 
 defence of Christianity down to his time. Though not 
 exhaustive (some pages, however, are occupied with 
 other subjects), it forms a quarto of more than seven 
 hundred pages. I apprehend that, by this time, a simi- 
 lar work would extend to at least three times the bulk. 1 
 
 Equally striking, in some respects, would be the 
 spectacle of all those works which have been written, 
 more or less, against the book; in general confutation 
 of its claims, or against some of its principal facts and 
 evidences. The volumes thus written for the purpose 
 of correcting men's eccentric love and veneration for it 
 (eccentric on the hypothesis of its merely human origin), 
 showing either that it is substantially incredible, or, 
 like other books, a mixture of wisdom and folly, would 
 form a library of no inconsiderable bulk. If collected 
 from the earliest times (beginning with the fragments 
 of Celsus and Porphyry) to the present day, they would 
 occupy far more than a thousand times the space of the 
 one volume against which they are directed ; and would 
 certainly be much more numerous than all the works 
 that all other " sacred " books ever had the honour of 
 provoking either for or against them. 
 
 If all these books were placed in one library, and this 
 single one set on a table in the middle of it, and a 
 stranger were told that this book, affirmed to be, for 
 
 1 "Jo. Albert! Fabricii Delectus Argumentorum et Syllabus Scrip- 
 torum Veterum Recentiumque qui Veritatem Religionis Christiana 
 asseruerunt." 4to. Hamburg. 1725. 
 
332 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 the most part, the work of a number of unlearned 
 and obscure men belonging to a despised nation called 
 the Jews, had drawn upon itself, for its exposure, con- 
 futation, and destruction, this multitude of volumes, I 
 imagine he would be inclined to say: " Then, I pre- 
 sume this little book was annihilated long ago ; though 
 how it could be needful to write a thousandth part so 
 much, for any such purpose, I cannot comprehend. For 
 if the book be what these authors say, surely it should 
 not be very difficult to show it to be so ; and if so, 
 what wonderful madness to write all these volumes ! " x 
 How surprised would he then be to learn that they were 
 felt not to be enough; that similar works were being 
 multiplied every day, and never more actively than at 
 the present time ; and still to no purpose in disabusing 
 mankind of this same phrenzy ! He would learn, 
 indeed, that so far from accomplishing the object, the 
 new volumes are little more than necessary to replace 
 those of this fruitful, yet fruitless literature, which are 
 continually sinking into oblivion ; 2 a fate which may 
 
 1 If he were asked, " Do you find, then, that error and prejudice 
 are so easily dispelled ? Do not men cling with inexpressible 
 tenacity to any system consecrated by custom ? " He would pro- 
 bably say, " Yes ; but then such systems have never had a 
 thousandth part of the same energies directed against them which 
 this prodigious array of controversial volumes implies. Usually 
 we have otiose assent on one side, and laws prohibiting all .dis- 
 cussion on the other ! " 
 
 2 "Who," said Burke, nearly a century ago, of a whole library 
 of this literature, " who, born within the last forty years, has read 
 one word of Collins, and Toland, and Tindal, and Chubb, and 
 Morgan, and that whole race who called themselves Freethinkers ? 
 Who now reads Bolingbroke? Who ever read him through ? Ask 
 the booksellers of London what has become of all these lights 
 of the world." Burke's Reflections. Works. Vol. v. p. 172. 
 
vjti.] of the Bible in the World. 333 
 
 be said, perhaps, with almost equal truth, to await 
 the new works written in its defence. A large mass of 
 these, too, pass every age out of sight, or are known 
 only to the literary student. 
 
 But the volume itself survives both friends and 
 foes. Without being able to speak one word on its 
 own behalf, but what it has already said ; without any 
 power of explanation or rejoinder, in deprecation of the 
 attacks made upon it, or to assist those who defend it ; 
 it passes along the ages in majestic silence. Impassive 
 amidst all this tumult of controversy, in which it takes 
 no part, it might be likened to some great ship floating 
 down a mighty river like the Amazon or Orinoco, 
 the shores of which are inhabited by various savage 
 tribes. From every little creek -or inlet, from every 
 petty port or bay, sally flotillas of canoes, some seem- 
 ingly friendly and some seemingly hostile, filled with 
 warriors in all the terrors of war paint, and their 
 artillery of bows and arrows. They are hostile tribes, 
 and soon turning their weapons against one another, 
 assail each other with great fury and mutual loss. 
 Meantime the noble vessel silently moves on through 
 the scene of confusion, without deigning to alter its 
 course or to fire a shot : perhaps here and there a 
 seaman casts a compassionate glance from the lofty 
 bulwarks, and wonders at the hardihood of those who 
 come to assail his leviathan. 
 
 In spite, and perhaps, indeed, in consequence of 
 these attacks (M. Kenan's " Vie de Jesus " in particular 
 is said to have had this effect in France), the book is 
 
334 n the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 more and more widely diffused, every year multiplies 
 its copies, and every year speaks some new language. 
 
 3. It may be said, further, that there is no other book, 
 and I think I might say no other ten books, that have 
 left so many or so deep traces on human literature ; 
 none that are so often cited or alluded to ; none which 
 have supplied so much matter for apt illustration, or 
 been so often resorted to for its vivid imagery and 
 energetic diction. It has lived on the page, not merely 
 of great divines such as Barrow or Jeremy Taylor ; in 
 such cases, though genius might be stimulated by the 
 literary beauties of the book, reverence for it, and 
 familiarity with it, might be thought to account for so 
 frequent and spontaneous a use of it. But the remark 
 is applicable to modern literature generally, on which 
 the traces of the influence of this book are incompar- 
 ably deeper and more legible than those left by any 
 other single volume. 
 
 None but those who have been in the habit of 
 inspecting the best portions of modern literature, with 
 the express view of tracing the influence of the Bible 
 upon it, can have any adequate idea of the extent to 
 which it has moulded thought and sentiment, or given 
 strength or grace to expression. Its literary excellencies 
 in general have insensibly extorted the homage and 
 tinged the style of the greatest masters of eloquence 
 and poetry, with little reference to the degree in which 
 they yielded to its claims on their reveres^, and in 
 many cases though they rejected ;:iose claims alto- 
 
VIIL] of the Bible in the World. 335 
 
 gether. Its apophthegms, its examples, its historic 
 illustrations of human life and character, its moral 
 maxims, its lessons of conduct, its vivid and intense 
 imagery, come spontaneously to the lips, as more 
 exactly or forcibly expressing thought and feeling than 
 anything found elsewhere. x 
 
 In reperusing lately some of the greatest masters of 
 prose, Bacon, Milton, Cowper, Macaulay, expressly 
 with a view to this subject, I have been surprised to 
 note how often, when struggling to give emphasis to 
 their thought, or to intensify a feebler expression of it, 
 they have laid hold unconsciously, as it were, of Scrip- 
 ture phrase or metaphor. 
 
 In Bacon's Essays, in his " Novum Organum " and 
 his " De Augmentis," one is perpetually struck with 
 the felicity with which passages of Scripture are intro- 
 duced, and, in the two last works, where one would 
 little expect them. As to Shakespeare, no less than 
 three works have been expressly written to trace the 
 
 1 Such, indeed, is its comprehensiveness of meaning, and so 
 various its susceptibility of application, that it perpetually 
 tempts wit and humour (by no means always or generally with 
 a profane intent) to resort to it for illustration, albeit the occasions 
 on which its language comes so pat to the lips may often seem 
 light and trivial. The religious mind, which regards the book as 
 the book of God, may be somewhat scandalised (not without reason) 
 by this too familiar use of it ; but it at all events bears testimony to 
 the force, aptness, and plasticity of the language of Scripture. In 
 reading some of our principal daily papers, during my preparation 
 of these lectures, I have been much struck with the frequency with 
 which the writers have quoted clauses or sentences of the Bible 
 its historic parallels or its proverbial wisdom not lightly or 
 irreverently or in mockery, but evidently as the most apt and ex- 
 pressive for the purpose. 
 
33 6 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 influence of the Bible on his genius and writings. 
 The matchless energy x of Milton's diction in many 
 parts of his prose writings is in no slight degree due 
 to the use he has made of Scripture. In that lofty 
 passage in the "Animadversions on the Remonstrant's 
 Defence," conceived in the very spirit of the Hebrew 
 poetry, in which, pledging himself for his immortal 
 poem, he says, "And he that now for haste snatches 
 up a plain ungarnished present as a thank-offering 
 to Thee, may then perhaps take up a harp and sing 
 Thee an elaborate song to generations," -in that 
 most splendid passage, some phrase or clause of the 
 Scripture adds energy to almost every line. It is a 
 wonderful mosaic indeed, but a mosaic still. 
 
 Carlyle's book on the French Revolution even were 
 its defects as a history all that the most unfriendly critic 
 would make them out to be will be confessed by all to 
 be one of the most graphic in our own or any other lan- 
 guage. Now it is curious to see how often, in describing 
 
 1 In this quality of style, many single passages of Milton's prose 
 writings are unmatched in English literature. In spite of his long 
 involved periods, which, though Coleridge might admire them for 
 their " majestic march and complex harmony," are certainly a sole- 
 cism in our language, and ' in spite of his pedantic coinage of 
 Latinized words, which made Hobbes profanely call his style 
 " a Babylonish jargon," he has often risen to an energy which is 
 only to be paralleled in Demosthenes or the Bible. Redundant 
 as are his Latinisms, he had an absolute mastery of the raciest 
 and most sinewy Saxon English. It has been said of Shakespeare 
 that had he not been the Prince of Dramatists, he might have 
 been the Prince of Orators. Perhaps it might be said of Milton 
 with equal justice, that if he had not rivalled Homer, he might, 
 if he had cultivated his oratorical powers, not fallen far short of 
 Demosthenes ; at all events, in energy. 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 337 
 
 the scenes of his tremendous "Trilogy of Tragedies," 
 fragments of Scripture language come unbidden to his 
 pen, as the best and most forcible he can employ. 
 In reperusing the work recently, for the very pur- 
 pose of ascertaining the degree in which phrases are 
 interwoven, and examples and illustrations cited, from 
 the Bible, I could not help being struck with their 
 frequency. In truth, however, it is no wonder; for it 
 is not possible to imagine any phraseology more exactly 
 adapted to express the lurid sublimity, or point the 
 terrible moral, of the scenes he describes, than that 
 which the "Law and the Prophets" often launch 
 against communities that have " sown the wind, and 
 shall reap the whirlwind ; " that, being incurably cor- 
 rupt, are threatened with being "swept away with the 
 besom of destruction ; " and yet, deaf to warning and 
 chastisement, persist in "treasuring up wrath against 
 the day of wrath." There is no book in the world in 
 which the inevitable doom which waits on guilt, let 
 its seeming security be what it may, is so vividly set 
 forth as in the Bible ; none that so energetically pro- 
 claims that " thrones are established only in righteous- 
 ness," and that nothing else can permanently " exalt 
 a nation." 
 
 "There never was," says Carlyle somewhere, or 
 to this effect, for I quote from memory, " any book 
 like the Bible, and there never will be such another." 
 "Read to me," said the dying Scott to his son-in-law. 
 "What book shall I read to you?" said Lockhart. 
 "Can you ask me?" was the reply. "There is but 
 
 23 
 
338 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 one;" and bade him read a chapter in the Gospel 
 of John. "This collection of books," says Theodore 
 Parker, in a passage of great eloquence, " has taken 
 such hold of the world as no other. The literature 
 of Greece, which goes up like incense from that 
 land of temples and heroic deeds, has not half the 
 influence of this book from a nation despised alike 
 in ancient and in modern times. ... It goes 
 equally to the cottage of the plain man and the 
 palace of the king. It is woven into the literature of 
 the scholar, and colours the talk of the streets. It 
 enters men's closets, mingles in all the grief and 
 cheerfulness of life. The Bible attends men in sick- 
 ness, when the fever of the world is on them. . . . 
 It is the better part of our sermons ; it lifts man above 
 himself. Our best of uttered prayers are in its storied 
 speech, wherewith our fathers and the patriarchs 
 prayed. The timid man, about to wake from his dream 
 of life, looks through the glass of Scripture, and his 
 eye grows bright ; he does not fear to stand alone, 
 to tread the way unknown and distant, to take the 
 death angel by the hand, and bid farewell to wife and 
 babes and home. . . . Some thousand famous 
 writers come up in this century to be forgotten in the 
 next. But the silver cord of the Bible is not loosed, 
 nor its golden bowl broken, as Time chronicles his 
 tens of centuries passed by." 1 
 
 1 The following striking admissions of Professor Huxley, which 
 [ read with equal surprise and pleasure, as to the marvellous 
 qualities of the Bible, show what impressions it is capable of 
 making on a candid mind, however sceptical of its Divine origin ; 
 
vui.] of the Bible in the World. 339 
 
 To these testimonies it were easy to add many more 
 some of them from men wholly sceptical as to any 
 
 and many similar testimonies might be added to his. But surely all 
 who think with him ought to enter deeply into the question Whence 
 has this one volume this singular, and altogether exceptional 
 ascendency, over the human mind ? "I have always," says Pro- 
 fessor Huxley, "been strongly in favour of secular education, 
 in the sense of education without theology; but I must con- 
 fess I have been no less seriously perplexed to know by what 
 practical measures the religious feeling, which is the essential 
 basis of conduct, was to be kept up, in the present utterly chaotic 
 state of opinion on these matters, without the use of the Bible. 
 The pagan moralists lack life and colour, and even the noble Stoic, 
 Marcus Antoninus, is too high and refined for an ordinary child. 
 Take the Bible as a whole ; make the severest deductions which 
 fair criticism can dictate for shortcomings and positive errors ; 
 eliminate, as a sensible lay teacher would do, if left to himself, 
 all that it is not desirable for children to occupy themselves with ; 
 and there still remains in this old literature a vast residuum of 
 moral beauty and grandeur. And then consider the great his- 
 torical fact that, for three centuries, this book has been woven into 
 the life of all that is best and noblest in English history ; that it 
 has become the national epic of Britain, and is familiar to noble 
 and simple, from John o' Groat's house to Land's End, as Dante 
 and Tasso were once to the Italians ; that it is written in the 
 noblest and purest English, and abounds in exquisite beauties 
 of a merely literary form ; and, finally, that it forbids the veriest hind 
 who never left his village to be ignorant of the existence of other 
 countries and other civilizations, and of a great past, stretching 
 back to the furthest limits of the oldest nations in the world. By 
 the study of what other book could children be so much humanized, 
 and made to feel that each figure in that vast historical procession 
 fills, like themselves, but a momentary space in the interval between 
 two eternities ; and earns the blessings or the curses of all time, 
 according to its effort to do good and hate evil, even as they also 
 are earning their payment for their work ? 
 
 " And if Bible reading is not accompanied by constraint and 
 solemnity, as if it were a sacramental operation, I do not believe 
 there is anything in which children take more pleasure. At least 
 I know that some of the pleasantest recollections of my childhood 
 are connected with the voluntary study of an ancient Bible which 
 belonged to my grandmother. There were splendid pictures in it, 
 to be sure ; but I recollect little or nothing about them, save 
 
 23 * 
 
34-O On the Exceptional Position 
 
 superhuman claims of the Bible on our reverence or 
 belief. I am far from charging them with any in- 
 sincerity, either in what they admit or in what they 
 deny ; but I would fain ask, What must be the qualities 
 of the Bible, coming " from a nation alike despised in 
 ancient and modern times," and whence did it get 
 them, that could prevail on men like these, men of 
 capacious minds, the acutest reason, adorned with all 
 that culture and taste could bestow, to speak of the 
 Bible in terms they never would dream of applying to 
 any other book or books whatsoever? 
 
 I would not be misunderstood. I can easily fancy 
 the derisive smile with which those who will not be 
 at the trouble of considering what degree of impor- 
 tance is attributed to each variable element in a com- 
 plex argument like the present, may say : " This writer 
 seems to think that because great authors have used the 
 Bible for purposes of illustration more frequently than 
 other books ; because it has, no doubt, deeply tinctured 
 the literature of the ages and nations familiar with it, 
 
 a portrait of the high priest in his vestments. What comes vividly 
 back on my mind are remembrances of my delight in the histories 
 of Joseph and of David; and of my keen appreciation of the 
 chivalrous kindness of Abraham in his dealings with Lot. Like 
 a sudden flash there returns back upon me my utter scorn of the 
 pettifogging meanness of Jacob, and my sympathetic grief over the 
 heartbreaking lamentation of the cheated Esau, ' Hast thou not 
 a blessing for me also, O my father ? ' And I see, as in a cloud, 
 pictures of the grand phantasmagoria of the book of Revelations. 
 
 " I enumerate, as they issue, the childish impressions which come 
 crowding out of the pigeon-holes in my brain, in which they have 
 lain almost undisturbed for forty years. I prize them as an evidence 
 that a child of five or six years old, left to his own devices, may be 
 deeply interested in the Bible, and draw sound moral sustenance 
 from it." Contemporary Review, Dec. 1870 (pp. 14, 15). 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 341 
 
 that therefore it must be inspired, and of supernatural 
 origin ! " Not so. I mention the fact merely as one 
 of the "thousand and one" paradoxical facts insisted 
 upon in these lectures. It is, I think, a strange thing, 
 that one moderately-sized book (if it be no more than 
 the hypothesis of a purely human, and that a Jewish, 
 origin assumes it to be) should have left wider and 
 deeper traces of itself on modern literature than any 
 dozen of the chef-d'ceuvres of human genius which 
 grace fhat literature, and pre-eminently on many of 
 those chef-d'&uvres themselves. Surely it is a curious 
 phenomenon; but it is only one of many which beset 
 us in considering the peculiarities and the exceptional 
 character and fortunes of this singular volume. 
 
 Should it be said again, " All this is accounted for by 
 the reverence which it has somehow inspired ; " in part, I 
 grant it. But on the hypothesis I am proceeding upon, 
 the purely human, and that, too, the Jewish-human, 
 origin of the book, whence this profound reverence ? 
 How should the book have inspired it, and why should 
 the world feel it? Either the Bible is invested with 
 the properties which give it this pre-eminence, or it is 
 not. If it is, whence, considering its source, did it get 
 them ? If not, how came the world to invest it with 
 them? 
 
 I say then it is curious that, supposing the book to 
 be the unaided product of men, far less endowed by 
 nature than many writers of Greece, Rome, France, 
 England, or Germany, and inferior in culture and 
 education, it should have exerted greater influence, 
 
343 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 and left deeper traces on literature than any one, or 
 any five, or any ten writers of all these countries put 
 together. It is a curious phenomenon ; curious, I say; 
 
 not a proof that the Bible may not be merely 
 human, but one of the many paradoxes which, on 
 that hypothesis, compel us to ask, as the Jews 
 concerning Christ, " Whence hath this book all this 
 wisdom ?" 
 
 4. Similar observations, with similar cautions as to 
 the precise argumentative value attached to it, will 
 apply to the inordinate influence of this book, as 
 compared with any other, on the imaginations of men, 
 
 especially as seen in poetry, sculpture, painting, 
 and music. Though genius has had all the resources 
 of Greek and Roman story to resort to (and has pro- 
 fusely used them), to say nothing of that far ampler 
 field which the annals of the last eighteen centuries 
 have opened to it, no cycle of incidents and events, 
 equally limited with that of the Bible, has stimu- 
 lated genius in anything approaching the degree in 
 which the scenes of the Bible have stimulated it. 
 Every event of any importance in its records has 
 been again and again the theme of painting or music. 
 The greatest masters in each of these arts seem 
 never weary of embodying ideas which have been 
 thus suggested to them. The inimitable word-paint- 
 ing of Scripture, its graphic narratives, its poetry 
 and pathos, seem an inexhaustible fount of inspira- 
 tion to the painter; while every group of events of 
 importance has been made the subject of some great 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 343 
 
 oratorio, on which Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, 
 and Mendelsshon have lavished all the gifts of their 
 genius. Not only has this book been resorted to more 
 frequently than any other book, as furnishing themes to 
 pictorial, poetical, and musical genius ; but, in general, 
 the chef-d'czuvres of modern art are those which this book 
 has inspired. The greatest paintings of Raphael and 
 Michael Angelo are to be traced to it ; the greatest 
 modern epic, the only one that is worthy to be com- 
 pared with those of Homer and Virgil, and the greatest 
 musical creation by many degrees the " Messiah" 
 both have for their theme the great theme of the Bible. 
 Which work is the greater effort of genius it is hard 
 to say. They are so akin, that whether Milton be 
 called the Handel of poetry, or Handel the Milton of 
 music, little matters. But each, supreme in his own 
 art, has identified his genius with the Bible, and 
 drawn his inspiration from it. 
 
 Now, this class of facts again constitutes a curious 
 phenomenon (I mention it as no more), one of the 
 many which swarm about the Bible'; which either 
 must have properties which will account for them all, 
 and if so, suggests the question how it came by them ? 
 or if it have them not suggests another, why mankind 
 should have been so infatuated as to surround it with 
 this halo of glory, and allow it thus " in all things 
 to have the pre-eminence ? " 
 
 5. Proceeding on the same supposition of the purely 
 human origin of the Scriptures, I think it might fairly 
 have been anticipated that in some ages of the world, 
 
344 O H ^ ie Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 and especially within the last eighteen hundred years 
 (during which the human mind has made such pro- 
 digious progress and exhibited such intense activity), 
 some qu&si-sacred books, or other works of human genius, 
 would have been produced, which might in general 
 estimate have vied with the Bible, if not supplanted 
 it ; and which, in the various influence they exerted, 
 and the enthusiasm for their diffusion which they 
 evoked, might have had a history in some faint 
 degree like that of the Bible, as proved in the facts 
 already pointed out. Yet nothing of the kind is seen ; 
 the Bible still has an exceptional destiny. Its superiority 
 to other quasi-sacred books is universally admitted by 
 those who can make the comparison, even though they 
 reject its peculiar claims. Nor are there, among the 
 immense variety of theological works which itself has 
 created (hundreds of them the fruit of the richest genius 
 and the most various learning), any that have concen- 
 trated upon themselves a tithe of the interest which 
 mankind (with strange servility, if all stand on the 
 same level of a purely human origin) have attached to 
 this one volume. Amidst all the schools of religious 
 thought, and the manifold types of religious character 
 it has itself originated, we search in vain for any author, 
 though it be a Luther or a Bossuet, a Pascal or a 
 Butler, whose pretensions (and least of all in the esti- 
 mate of the authors themselves) can be placed on a 
 par with those of the Bible, or whose works have 
 provoked anything like the same interest or a similar 
 solicitude for their preservation and diffusion. To 
 
VIIL] of the Bible in the World. 345 
 
 the illustration of this subject, and some others related 
 to it, I propose to devote a page or two. 
 
 As to the superiority of the Bible to all the so-called 
 sacred books, I need not insist ; all with whom I am 
 arguing would at once grant their intrinsic inferiority. 
 They would admit that the Bible, in its views of the 
 Deity, in its spiritual elevation, in its moral wisdom, 
 in the grace of its narrative, in sublimity and force of 
 imagery, diction, and style, transcends them all. But 
 there is one of them, perhaps, which may be supposed 
 to demand a few words more : I mean the Koran. It 
 is the most celebrated, and perhaps the most widely 
 diffused among the nations, of these so-called sacred 
 books. Its author had all the advantages of some 
 acquaintance with the Bible, which he assumed to 
 contain a true revelation. He freely borrowed from 
 its matter, and seems to have closely imitated its 
 style. Yet the difference is immense. It is not, 
 perhaps, easy, and certainly not necessary, to deter- 
 mine the character of the Arabian prophet ; whether 
 he was a fanatic or an impostor, or first one and then 
 the other, or even at times both together. This is of 
 no consequence to the argument ; of his great powers 
 none can doubt. 
 
 Now one would imagine there ought not to be so 
 great a contrast between the Bible and the Koran, if 
 each was the mere composition of unassisted human 
 genius, Nay, one would even think that the advantage 
 would have been, in some signal respects, on the side 
 of the later work. If the one was the production 
 
346 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 of many minds, of very unequal power, writing with- 
 out concert (as they must, for ages separate them), 
 one would suppose the advantage, in point of unity of 
 character and continuous elevation, would be with that 
 book which was the effusion of one master mind. As 
 such, it might have been expected to be marked by 
 many qualities which could not belong to the varying 
 and casual productions of the authors of the Bible. 
 Yet, though Mahomet had this model to work by, was 
 able to borrow its light and avoid its presumed errors, 
 this new product of religious genius is immeasurably 
 below the old. The doctrines, indeed, so far as they 
 are coincident with those of the Bible, the doctrines 
 which declare the unity and attributes of the Supreme 
 Being, and affirm His universal government of the 
 world, are excellent. But then, if they be not 
 plagiarisms from the Bible, the Bible, ex confesso, had 
 preoccupied the ground, and expressed the same 
 thoughts incomparably better ; and where the imita- 
 tion of the Bible is palpable, the inferiority is equally 
 so. A candid reader can in some measure put the 
 matter to the test by comparing the sublimest passages 
 from the best translation of the Koran with corre- 
 sponding passages I will not say from the best but 
 from any translation of the Bible. 
 
 If there be anything in the Koran capable of being 
 confronted with what may be found in the Bible, 
 one would imagine, from the frequency and applause 
 with which it has been cited, it would be the follow- 
 ing: "God! there is no God but He; the living, the 
 
VIIL] of the Bible in the World. 347 
 
 self-subsisting; neither slumber nor sleep seizeth Him; 
 to Him belong all, whatsoever is in heaven and on 
 the earth. Who is he that can intercede with Him, 
 but through His good pleasure ? He knoweth that 
 which is past, and that which is to come. His throne 
 is extended over heaven and earth, and the preserva- 
 tion of both is to Him no burden. He is the high, 
 the mighty." Yet any one can see that this is little 
 more than a cento of Scripture phrases 1 strung together, 
 and that not very coherently ; for it is not easy to per- 
 ceive the relevancy of the question in the fifth clause 
 to the rest, while the whole falls far below many 
 passages of Scripture in energy and majesty of ex- 
 pression. It has been so often cited, however, that 
 one cannot help feeling that such passages in the 
 Koran must be rather rare, as indeed they are. It 
 figures in White's Bampton Lectures, is repeated in 
 Mohler, is cited from him by Castenove in his article 
 on Mahomedanism, 2 and is one of the three passages 
 of the Koran which Gibbon has thought it worth while 
 to signalise by his encomium. 
 
 But it would be futile to dwell longer on this subject. 
 Probably none but a Mahometan would challenge any 
 comparison of merit between the Koran and the Bible, 
 in respect of either matter or manner. Even those who 
 
 1 Compare Isaiah xliii. 10 ; xliv. 6 ; xlv. 5-12 ; Psalm cxxi. 
 
 2 "We feel the justice," says Castenove, "of Mohler's dictum, 
 'That without Moses, and the prophets, and Christ, Mahomet 
 is simply inconceivable for the essential purport of the Koran 
 is derived from the Old and New Testaments.'" Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica. Art. on Mahomedanism. 
 
348 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 think both to be equally the product of human genius, 
 would as little hesitate to affirm the superiority of the 
 latter as the most devout Christian ; and in manner 
 no less than matter. Every one knows, of course, that 
 the plenary proof of the inspiration of the Koran, a 
 proof to which Mahomet himself appealed, is said 
 to be its incomparable style ; in fact, in the lack of 
 all other miracles, and in reply to the demand for them 
 on the part of the "faithless" among the "faithful," 
 Mahomet affirmed that this was in itself a " miracle." 
 
 "This argument," says Gibbon, with eloquent irony, 
 " is most powerfully addressed to a devout Arabian, 
 whose mind is attuned to faith and rapture, whose ear 
 is delighted by the music of sounds, and whose igno- 
 rance is incapable of comparing the productions of 
 human genius. The harmony and copiousness of style 
 will not reach, in a version, the European infidel : he 
 will peruse with impatience the endless incoherent 
 rhapsody of fable, and precept, and declamation, which 
 seldom excites a sentiment or an idea, which some- 
 times crawls in the dust, and is sometimes lost in the 
 clouds. The Divine attributes exalt the fancy of the 
 Arabian missionary, but his loftiest strains must yield 
 to the sublime simplicity of the book of Job, composed 
 in a remote age, in the same country, and in the same 
 language. If the composition of the Koran exceed the 
 faculties of a man, to what superior intelligence should 
 we ascribe the Iliad of Homer, or the Philippics of 
 Demosthenes?" 1 
 
 1 Gibbon's Decline and Fall. Chap. 50. 
 
VI:L] of the Bible in the World. 349 
 
 If Mahomet had reflected how very questionable that 
 test of a universal revelation must be, which only an 
 Arabian can fully understand and appreciate, he would, 
 perhaps, have laid less stress upon it. Surely it were 
 better that the subject-matter and contents of the 
 volume should attest its Divinity, than the language 
 in which these are expressed. It must be one of the 
 disadvantages of a universal revelation, to have the 
 thought so tied to the words, that the very test of its 
 Divine origin, the celestial aroma of its force and 
 beauty, must exhale and vanish when it is translated 
 into another tongue. Its chief excellencies, in that 
 case, are intransferrible. It is certainly a much more 
 rational ground which the apologist for Scripture takes, 
 when he endeavours to show that,^ though its language 
 is admirably adapted to the subject-matter, yet it is 
 so subordinated to it, that its merit is as nothing in 
 the comparison ; and that, therefore, the book is 
 eminently fitted for transfusion into every language 
 with the smallest possible diminution of energy or 
 grace. While the Mahometan affirms that none but 
 an accomplished Arabic scholar, or rather none but 
 a born Arab (for he alone is fully competent), can 
 judge of those intransmissible felicities of style, which, 
 to tho^e who can discern them, are, it seems, the 
 best proofs of the inspiration of the Koran, no Christian 
 contends that the Hebrew is essential to the force or 
 beauty of the Old Testament (though some minor 
 graces may be better seen by those who are ac- 
 quainted with the original language), or that the 
 
350 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 Greek of the New Testament, its enemies themselves 
 being judges, at all approximates to the classic 
 elegancies of Sophocles or Plato. As a universal 
 revelation, the Koran would have more to say for its 
 pretensions, if it readily fell into the idiomatic forms 
 of any language whatsoever ; it would be the better in 
 proportion as it lost little, not much, of its force or 
 beauty in the process. As the matter stands, the 
 evidence, par excellence, which is to prove its Divine 
 origin, which is even to take the place of all 
 " miracles," is that very incommunicable excellence 
 of which a foreigner cannot judge ; and the want of 
 which therefore must, ipso facto, prevent the great 
 bulk of those for whom it was designed from com- 
 prehending its chief claim to inspiration ! 
 
 But let the mysterious merit of the Arabic be what 
 it may, the world in general is obliged to submit Koran 
 and Bible to the equal test of translation ; and judged 
 by that, the interval is seen to be enormous, even if we 
 take the worst English translation of the Bible and the 
 best English translation of the Koran. 
 
 But I repeat that, on the supposition that both are on 
 the same level, as products of mere human intelligence, 
 it is hard to say why there should have been either 
 so great an intrinsic difference, or that it should ap- 
 pear so great in the translation. 
 
 The facts of the history of both correspond. The 
 Koran has not, like the Bible, been spontaneously sent 
 to the most various races and nationalities, differing 
 by every conceivable diversity of religion, customs, 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 351 
 
 laws, and language, or been spontaneously received by 
 them. It has, indeed, gone wherever the sword went 
 before it ; and any book would go where so potent a 
 missionary led the way. It has not, like the Bible, 
 prompted to ceaseless efforts to translate, to multiply, 
 to diffuse it. Some of the principal translations of it 
 have been made by Christian scholars ; and even in- 
 cluding these, it probably does not speak a tenth part 
 of the languages in which the Bible speaks. 
 
 There is one point, indeed, in which there can be no 
 comparison between them, but it serves to make the 
 position of the Bible more singular. The Koran has 
 never been subjected to the ordeal of hostile criticism 
 among its own votaries to which the Bible has been 
 subjected, nor seen growing up about it that enormous 
 harvest of general literature which can only be produced 
 on the soil of freedom. We cannot, therefore, judge 
 how it would have fared under such conditions; 
 whether something might not have appeared to rival, 
 supplant, or destroy it. The Bible has stood this 
 test. It may be said indeed of both, that the reputa- 
 tion of quasi-sacred books has been their protection. 
 This may in part be true ; but if the Bible be a book 
 only quasi-sacred, if it be really only human, it would 
 not seem unlikely that, amidst the freest examination 
 of its claims, and full liberty to accept or reject it, 
 something might have appeared in the immense and 
 varied literature of so many centuries which would, by 
 self-evident equality or superiority, have tended to 
 
352 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 dissipate this illusion, especially when aided by the 
 multitudinous books which, during so many ages, and 
 in the very communities among which it has been 
 received, have been written expressly to show the 
 world that this exceptional reverence for the Bible is an 
 illusion. The thing is still more remarkable when we 
 consider how various are the schools of thought and 
 types of religious character reflected in the literature 
 produced by it ; showing us that, whatever the rever- 
 ence for the Bible, it has not destroyed the independence 
 of the human mind, nor prevented the natural growth 
 and expression of the most diversified modes of thought. 
 
 6. Nevertheless, in all this immense succession and 
 variety of literature, we cannot find any books which, 
 in the estimate of men in general, or perhaps in the 
 estimate of the fondest admirers of the authors them- 
 selves, will admit of comparison with the Bible. 
 
 As to the Hebrew Scriptures, no other writings of 
 Jews, ancient or modern, come near them. That is 
 equally affirmed by Jew and Gentile. As I have al- 
 ready remarked, it is curious that a single volume 
 should contain almost all the extant ancient literature 
 of the Jewish nation ; and that so exceptionally su- 
 perior to all their other productions, whether ancient 
 or modern, that the nation not only acquiesces in its 
 superiority, but venerates it as sacred and inspired. 
 It does not diminish the singularity that the popular 
 tendencies of the nation were in perpetual revolt 
 against the doctrines and institutions which it was 
 the chief object of this book to maintain. Thus the 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 353 
 
 chief literature they possess, instead of reflecting (as 
 is usually the case) the spirit of the people, was for 
 the most part diametrically opposed to it. When that 
 spirit (which had warped the Old Testament, just as 
 Christians afterwards warped the New) embodied itself 
 in a literature of its own, we see what it produced : 
 wide indeed is the interval between the Scriptures and 
 the Talmud. A strenuous attempt, it is true, has been 
 made in recent times to rescue the Talmud from neg- 
 lect and contempt. But it is in vain. That a work 
 of so many folios (even if it were put together by the 
 dullest compilers) must contain many passages of force 
 and beauty, may be admitted. A few of those passages 
 are so similar to parallel passages of the Gospels, as 
 to suggest the idea of being plagiarisms, or, at all 
 events, imitations, though of inferior workmanship. 
 It has been pretty well proved that the date of the 
 Gospels must have been prior to the compilation of 
 the traditions of the Talmud ; but even if this were 
 more doubtful than it is, one has but to compare 
 the rare flowrets in question with the general pro- 
 ducts of the soil, to feel that they are not indigenous; 
 that foreign as they are to the whole tone and spirit 
 of the genuine genius of Rabbinism, they are either 
 the reflection of some parallel passages from the Old 
 Testament, or borrowed from the New. If such 
 passages be abstracted, it is impossible to imagine 
 a more arid desert of words than the bulk of the 
 Talmud ; and even if they be admitted to be genuine, 
 they are in such infinitesimal ratio to the mountain- 
 
 24 
 
354 O n tht Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 loads of superstitious folly and fable, that it is still 
 impossible to imagine how people that could only com- 
 pile Talmuds could ever have composed the Old Tes- 
 tament. But at all events, even the Jews themselves 
 loudly proclaim the immense chasm between them. 
 
 If, again, we take any of the genuine and undoubted 
 remains of the Apostolic Fathers, one is absolutely 
 struck dumb with the difference between them and 
 the New Testament. As immediate disciples of the 
 apostles, we might have expected that they would 
 in some degree have approached the level of their 
 teachers ; and in their moral excellencies they seem 
 no unworthy disciples. The remains of Clement 
 and Polycarp, and such fragments of Ignatius as 
 criticism pronounces to be undoubtedly genuine, ex- 
 hibit traits of Christian piety, simplicity, and sincerity, 
 which reflect no dishonour on the religion the authors 
 had embraced. But in everything else, in force and 
 weight of thought, sentiment, and diction, infinite is 
 the difference if we compare even these, the best of the 
 Apostolic Fathers, with the writers of the New Testa- 
 ment. As I have elsewhere expressed it, "the Alps 
 amidst the flats of Holland could not exhibit a greater 
 contrast than we find between the writers of the New 
 Testament and these Fathers." 
 
 Observations to the like purport, though for different 
 reasons, apply to the Fathers of the second, third, and 
 fourth centuries. It is no slight portion of their re- 
 mains which has come down to us, though probably 
 as much more has perished. More than a hundred 
 
vni.J of the Bible in the World. 355 
 
 times the bulk of the entire Bible itself has been saved 
 from the wreck. Many of these Fathers were very ex- 
 traordinary men ; masters of all the erudition of their 
 age, and gifted with great natural genius. Chrysostom, 
 Augustine, Origen, Tertullian, and Jerome, will bear 
 comparison, in natural and acquired endowments, with 
 any men of their time, and with most men of any time. 
 Their intellectual character, especially of these five 
 (though, as usual, very various if we compare them with 
 one another), is favourably contrasted with the medio- 
 crity of mental power which is found in the Apostolic 
 Fathers. Yet no reader of any discernment will affirm 
 that there is any fear of their rivalling, much more 
 eclipsing, the Bible. They are not to be compared 
 either in the force or accuracy with which they express 
 religious truth. Their eloquence indeed is often great, 
 but their style is as distinct as possible from that of the 
 Bible, and as plainly inferior to it. It is of a cast far 
 removed from the severe simplicity, the force, the com- 
 pression and brevity, which so largely characterise the 
 Scriptures. The style is sometimes dry and barren as a 
 profitless dialectic subtilty can make it, and, more often, 
 ornate and florid as can be found in the worst speci- 
 mens of Oriental rhetoric. But if they are inferior 
 to the Scriptures in expression, they are still more so 
 in matter. In the third century, that transforming 
 power of human nature on primitive Christianity, of 
 which I have already spoken, had plainly manifested 
 itself. Christianity, brought into contact with human 
 preconceptions and tendencies, was moulded and 
 
 24* 
 
356 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 warped by them in various ways, and showed in 
 this transfiguration what is the natural bent and 
 ply of man's nature ; for he therein followed the law 
 which had ruled in the formation of religions which 
 undoubtedly bear his " image and superscription." In 
 reading the later Fathers, in spite of all their excel- 
 lencies, we cannot help feeling that we have got into 
 a different atmosphere of religious thought and feeling 
 from that of the Bible; breathe, as it were, the air of a 
 hot-house, and gaze on exotic productions. In the ex- 
 aggeration or mutilation of some Scripture doctrines, 
 in the suppression or neglect of others, in the fanatical 
 thirst for martyrdom, in the superstitious honours given 
 to celibacy, in the excessive value attached to austerities 
 and ceremonial, in the passion for allegorical interpre- 
 tation, in the childish multiplication of grotesque 
 marvels and the enormous credulity with which they 
 were received, in the doting homage paid to shrines and 
 relics; in one or other of these ways the Fathers of 
 the third century, and still more those of the fourth, 
 show us how materially they had deranged the system 
 which the New Testament delivers to us, and innovated 
 on its spirit and doctrines. 
 
 To those who believe that the Bible is a divinely 
 inspired volume, there is of course no difficulty in 
 accounting for all this. They would naturally expect, 
 on the one hand, that it would exhibit a perpetual 
 superiority in its form and contents to those of mere 
 human productions ; on the other (in conformity, 
 as they would say, with its own express predictions). 
 
VIIL] of the Bible in the World. 357 
 
 that its system would probably be deteriorated, like 
 so many other excellent gifts of God, when it came 
 into contact with human nature, and was interpreted 
 by its prejudices and passions. As the light of heaven 
 is refracted and obscured when it enters into the at- 
 mosphere of earth, so (they would say) were the rays 
 of celestial truth distorted and dimmed when they 
 came into the sphere of the human intellect. Raw 
 converts from gross superstitions or false philosophies 
 would attempt, as they naturally did, to reconcile Chris- 
 tian truth with antecedent theories or inveterate pre- 
 judices, rather than simply abandon them. It was 
 this very thing that led even to the extremest forms 
 of Gnostic error ; they were but attempts to adjust the 
 Gospel to those dreams of Alexandrine metaphysics or 
 oriental theosophy in which some of the early con- 
 verts to Christianity had been nurtured, and to which 
 they clung with perverse tenacity. In various degrees, 
 and in infinite ways, the old entered into affinity with 
 the new, and modified it accordingly. If any think 
 this strange, the answer of the Christian apologist 
 would be that it was inevitable, unless the laws of 
 human nature had been themselves subverted by some 
 inconceivable miracle, a miracle multiplied, too, in- 
 definitely, for it must have been as manifold as the 
 erratic tendencies of the human mind itself. Further, 
 these apologists would perhaps say that the pheno- 
 menon has been often repeated, and that two instruc- 
 tive reflections are suggested by it; first, that it is 
 curious that the Scripture maintains its superiority 
 
On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 to the various systems of religious belief which different 
 schools of thought have founded on it, so that none 
 rival and none supplant it ; and, secondly, that their 
 perpetual divergencies from Scripture show how little 
 likely human nature was to frame such a book, and 
 in what directions it naturally gravitates. 
 
 This representation of the apologists of Scripture 
 may be just ; I believe, indeed, that it is so ; but 
 into that I do not enter. I merely note the fact 
 (universally admitted, and by the Fathers themselves 
 as readily as by any), that the Bible far transcends 
 them, both in matter and manner ; a conclusion which 
 even those who think they have only developed, and 
 not depraved, the Scriptures, also affirm with one voice. 
 They say, with the rest of the world, that the Fathers 
 have left nothing which can be put on a par with it. 
 It may not be so easy to say, on the hypothesis that 
 they and the Biblical writers are simply and equally 
 human, why they should not. 
 
 But the practice of the world is in harmony with 
 its judgment. Of the hundred tomes of which patris- 
 tic literature consists (all evoked by the Bible), only 
 a small portion is ever read, and that chiefly by those 
 who have a professional interest in it. The greater 
 part is consigned to oblivion ; not the hundreth part 
 has had even a thousandth part of the readers of 
 the Bible. The books take their chance with all 
 other literature ; if they perish, they perish, and no 
 man seeks to lay an arrest on the judgment ; there 
 is no furore to guard, to diffuse, to propagate them ; 
 
VITI.] of the Bible in the World. 359 
 
 though, on account of their connection with the Bible, 
 there has perhaps been more solicitude to preserve 
 them than has been displayed about the generality 
 of ordinary authors. 
 
 The accuracy of the judgment is confirmed by the 
 testimony of many who do not receive the Bible as 
 other than a purely human production, for they would 
 be very slow to bestow on the Fathers the eulogiums 
 they have not hesitated to lavish on the Bible. 
 
 Similar observations may be made on the incon- 
 testable supremacy conceded to the Bible over those 
 modern schools of theological writers, with their 
 many forms of religious thought, to which it has given 
 birth. Whatever eccentricities the human intellect 
 may exhibit in dealing with it (in virtue of the ten- 
 dencies of human nature to which I have so often ad- 
 verted), or whatever divergencies it may wander into, 
 the pre-eminence of the Bible is still granted. If we 
 take the period of the Reformation, or that which 
 immediately followed it, we see illustrations of this. 
 These periods are all the more striking, as there was 
 an unusual amount of newly-awakened intellectual 
 activity exerted in the direction of theology ; and 
 never, probably, since the times of the apostles, has 
 there been a more profound and earnest spirit of reli- 
 gion than was then awakened. One might have ex- 
 pected, in this disentombment of the human mind, that 
 men, in studying the Bible, would have been disen- 
 chanted of their mere prejudices (for such they were, on 
 the hypothesis on which I am now arguing) in its favour; 
 
360 On the Exceptional Position JLECT. 
 
 that, reading it with fresh eyes, they would have de- 
 tected, among so many other ancient illusions then laid 
 bare, this illusion among the rest; and justified the judg- 
 ment by giving the world works which, if they could 
 not supplant, might at least rival the Bible. Yet it 
 is impossible to consider the characteristics of even 
 Luther and his contemporaries, or the schools of reli- 
 gious thought to which they gave rise, without feeling 
 what Luther and his contemporaries unanimously 
 affirmed, the superiority of the Bible to them all. 
 Take, again, the Puritan writers. All candid minds 
 will be impressed with the profound religious character 
 of the more eminent among these men ; none ever 
 studied the Bible more intensely, or made it more per- 
 petually their model. Yet it is impossible to read even 
 the best and greatest of them without feeling, as in 
 the case of the Fathers, that they have fallen infinitely 
 below that model, both in matter and in manner ; in 
 the ideal of religious character they deduced from 
 it, and the style in which they expressed religious 
 truth. And, therefore, however impressed with the 
 religious elevation and the wonderful fertility of 
 thought which distinguished many of the greatest of 
 these men, we cannot turn from the Bible to them 
 without feeling that we are descending to a 
 lower plane. Some of its doctrines they distort or 
 exaggerate, and hence their unsym metrical theology 
 a theology here stunted, there unnaturally developed. 
 Large classes of them cherished disproportionate 
 zeal for the Old Testament, without sufficiently con- 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 361 
 
 sidering how far the New Testament had avowedly 
 abrogated it. This and other causes (among which, 
 doubtless, must be reckoned the sombre circumstances 
 of their own life, and the shadow which persecution 
 threw upon it) generated a cast of religion which, 
 however sincere and devout, was marked by a gloom 
 and austerity, not to say grimace, which have no 
 counterpart in the serene and cheerful spirit of apostolic 
 Christianity, even when, as in the case of Paul, men 
 were exposed to the most depressing influences, and 
 might be said, like him, to " die daily." 
 
 But what can adequately express the difference 
 between their style and that of the Bible ? Homely as 
 the latter often is, as it must be, if it be the book for all 
 men and for all time, yet how free from the vulgarity 
 of conception and expression, the wearisome prolixity, 
 the metaphysical subtlety, the pedantic quaintness, the 
 endless divisions, the word-splitting and common-place 
 too often chargeable on these excellent men. In 
 the gross familiarity, again, with which they too 
 often treat the most solemn themes, one is astounded 
 that they have not more successfully learned the 
 lessons of the book which they so devoutly studied. 
 It is a manner often grotesquely contrasted both 
 with the austerity of their outward life and the 
 severity of their theology. Not rarely, quips and 
 puns, and every kind of quaintness and unseemly 
 paronomasia, light up their sombre page, like a 
 ghastly smile. In these and various other points 
 we see at how great a distance these writers stand 
 
362 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 from their model. Yet many of them were men of 
 the amplest powers, with a fertility of imagination and 
 extent of learning very far beyond anything the gene- 
 rality of the writers of the Bible (according to the 
 hypothesis I am combating) could make the smallest 
 pretensions to. In the writings of men like Fuller, 
 Bishop Hall, Adams, or Trail (and many more might 
 be added), eccentric as is their manner, intolerable 
 as is their quaintness, there is more of original illus- 
 tration, more new thoughts, more novel applications 
 of old thoughts, more sudden turns of fancy and un- 
 expected applications of learning, than can be found 
 in hundreds of volumes written by ordinary men. 1 
 
 Similar remarks apply to the greatest names of that 
 or of the next age to the " Dii majores " of English 
 theology to such men as Barrow, Jeremy Taylor, 
 Howe, Leighton. Though distinguished by great 
 genius and erudition, they still none of them originate 
 anything which leaves the superiority of the Bible (to 
 which they all pay homage) in peril. They are con- 
 tent to sit at its feet, and learn, but declare that they 
 cannot approach it. This is the fountain-head that 
 supplies all these conduits, and the water in them 
 cannot rise above its level. If it be asked : " Who 
 affirm this ? " I answer, men in general, but chiefly the 
 
 1 Of Fuller, Coleridge was wont to say, that next to Shakespeare, 
 he was not quite sure that Fuller did not most impress him with 
 wonder and admiration at the perfection in which certain faculties 
 were possessed in comparison with the like qualities in other men. 
 Nothing ever seemed to enter the mind of Fuller that he could 
 not immediately digest into aliment of the imagination. 
 
viii.] of the Bible in the World. 363 
 
 men themselves; for thus they speak both of themselves 
 and of one another. They, with one voice, proclaim 
 the justness of the world's verdict. As it was said of 
 Christ, " Never man spake like this man ;" so they say 
 of this book, that never book was written like it. But 
 why this should be so, considering the lofty endow- 
 ments of so many of these sons of genius; why the 
 world in general should acquiesce in such a judgment, 
 and why these men should, with such humility, not 
 only admit, but loudly affirm its justice, is, I confess, 
 to me a puzzle, on the supposition I am now arguing 
 upon, namely, that the writers of the Bible had no 
 more than the ordinary endowments of men, and less, 
 certainly, than those of many of these men. 
 
 Take, again, the best of the imaginative works which 
 have been founded on the Bible ; t for example, Bunyan's 
 " Pilgrim's Progress," and which I the rather name, 
 because in all probability the original position of its 
 author was not very much below that of some of the 
 men who record the life of Christ. Born in humble 
 life, with little education beyond what he bestowed on 
 himself, with abundance of mother wit, but with little 
 culture of intellect, Bunyan may bear some comparison 
 with those humble Jews whose Memoirs of Christ 
 have from that time to this kept the world in per- 
 petual wonder ; who in a few brief pages (all of them 
 together not half the bulk of the " Pilgrim's Progress ") 
 have been able to fix on themselves, or rather upon 
 their Master, the continued gaze of the world. 
 
 No one can more ardently admire than I do that 
 
364 On the Exceptional Position [LECT. 
 
 work of the inspired tinker, which makes an equal 
 impression on age and childhood, on the learned and 
 the unlearned; that book, ignorance of which, in 
 Bishop Percy's little child, made Dr. Johnson put 
 her from off his knee in splenetic contempt for her 
 stupidity or incuriosity. 1 Its merits must indeed 
 be great, when such different men as Macaulay and 
 Southey each with strong, though different reasons for 
 being prejudiced against Bunyan, if his genius had not 
 vanquished them all vie with each other in the 
 language of eulogium. But if we compare even this 
 book with any one of the Gospels, everybody will 
 justify the world in the very different place it assigns 
 them. Transcendent as was the imagination which gave 
 birth to many portions of Bunyan's allegory ; full as it 
 is, in parts, of sublimity and pathos, and especially in 
 those concluding pages which Dr. Arnold said he could 
 never read without tears ; yet, in the first place, there 
 is not an idea, not a sentiment of more than common 
 interest in it, that is not, directly or indirectly, derived 
 from the Bible. That book made Bunyan ; first evoked, 
 then perpetually nourished his genius ; supplied the 
 continual aliment of his thoughts, and entered both into 
 the "web and woof," the entire tissue, of his immortal 
 allegory. Yet none will challenge equality with those 
 gospels which have given him nearly all his materials. 
 
 1 " Not read the ' Pilgrim's Progress ! ' then I would not give 
 a farthing for you." BoswelVs Johnson. A summary conviction, 
 no doubt, of the surly old critic ; but marking his sense, at all 
 events (however unamiable his mode of showing it), of the wonder- 
 ful attractions of the book. 
 
VIIL] of the Bible in the World. 365 
 
 And then how superior are they to his defects ! With 
 all his wonderful merits, how often does he drop 
 plumb down into the merest vulgarity and common- 
 place ! Quaint and ingenious as some of his coarser 
 scenes may be, we cannot imagine them forming a part 
 of any one of the gospels, without the strongest sense 
 of incongruity. The effect would be as grotesque as a 
 Dutch painter's essay to remodel a painting of Raphael. 
 
 In brief, the position the Bible has occupied, and still 
 occupies, amidst such various circumstances and 
 through such distant ages, amidst such fluctuations of 
 taste and revolutions of literature, is a unique pheno- 
 menon. 
 
 It is not unworthy of remark that while the Bible 
 thus retains its pre-eminent position in successive cycles 
 of literature, multitudes of works of high merit, to 
 which itself has directly given birth, often pass into 
 comparative oblivion in a few generations. The world, 
 perhaps, would not " willingly let them die, " if the 
 ceaseless flood of new and equally excellent literature 
 did not overwhelm them. No zealous efforts, however, 
 are made to perpetuate their memory, to multiply, to 
 translate, to diffuse them. With all their merits, they 
 are left to the usual fortune of all other literature; to 
 keep afloat on the waters if they can, and to sink be- 
 neath them if they cannot. 
 
 The book which has given them all their ephemeral 
 renown seems alone untouched by time. It is like 
 some old oak which has seen the harvest of a thousand 
 years spring, ripen, and fall beneath the sickle. 
 
366 On the Exceptional Position of the Bible. 
 
 It is in vain to say, " We have many instances of so- 
 called ' sacred books ' regarded with extravagant ad- 
 miration and reverence by this or that particular 
 nation in a low stage of civilisation, or by -the mass of 
 ignorant people among them." I have already replied 
 in brief to this evasion. But, to anticipate once for 
 all any such mock analogies, I would remark that, 
 to find a parallel to the case of the Bible, we must see 
 a collection of many writings all written by one of 
 the most obscure and despised nations spontaneously 
 accepted as a unique repository of Divine and moral 
 wisdom, not by one tribe or nation only, but among 
 many, and these of the most diverse races, of every 
 conceivable variety in local position, historic origin, 
 religious belief, tradition and language; not during 
 a period of barbarism only, but in ages of the greatest 
 knowledge, learning, and refinement ; not by the vul- 
 gar and ignorant only among these various nations and 
 races, but by multitudes of the loftiest and most accom- 
 plished minds; not by such as are led by tradition 
 merely, and who give an otiose assent accordingly, but 
 by men who have come to their convictions after the 
 most sifting scrutiny as to the evidence of that which 
 has thus enthralled them ; not where error is so con- 
 secrated by law, and so fenced from all opposition, that 
 nothing can be said against it, but where hostile criti- 
 cism has had full liberty to do its worst. 
 
 When I find other sacred books, of which the same 
 can be truly said, I shall admit the force of the above 
 objection, and withdraw this item of my argument. 
 

 LECTURE IX. 
 
 ON CERTAIN ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE BIBLH 
 
 AND " THE CONSTITUTION AND COURSE 
 
 OF NATURE? 
 
LECTURE IX. 
 
 ON CERTAIN ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE BIBLE AND 
 "THE CONSTITUTION AND COURSE OF NATURE." 
 
 I" F there are many peculiarities in the Bible which 
 ^ seem in contrariety to what might be naturally 
 expected of man, there are also many peculiarities 
 which seem in analogy with the " works and ways of 
 God ;" and the concurrence of such contrariety and 
 analogy is not insignificant in this argument. 
 
 It has been generally and justly asserted that the 
 chief use of Analogy, and especially in relation to theo- 
 logy, is in the refutation of objections ; and Butler's 
 book shows what a powerful solvent it is. But it is 
 not without force on the positive side, in proportion to 
 the number, closeness, and subtlety of the observed 
 analogies. 1 
 
 At first sight it may seem strange that an argument, 
 
 1 In a passage, justly commended by Bishop Hampden, Dugald 
 Stewart observes : " I may be permitted to express my doubts 
 whether both of these ingenious writers (Reid and Campbell) have 
 not somewhat underrated the importance of analogy as a medium 
 of proof and as a source of new information. I acknowledge, at the 
 same time, that between the positive and negative applications of 
 
 this species of evidence there is an essential difference In 
 
 some instances, however, the probability resulting from a concur- 
 rence of different analogies may rise so high, as to produce an 
 effect on the belief scarcely distinguishable from moral certainty." 
 
 25 
 
370 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 the very same in substance and direction, should ap- 
 pear to be so cogent in one aspect, and so much less 
 cogent, or even feeble, in another. The reason is 
 that, though the argument is the same in itself in 
 either case, it derives its principal force, as an answer 
 to objections, precisely from the objector's own state of 
 mind. So employed, it is strictly an argumentum ad 
 hominem. An illustration or two will make this plain. 
 
 If it were contended that a man could not have 
 written a certain letter, on account of some supposed 
 incompatibility between its sentiment or expression, and 
 some indications of the character of the writer other- 
 wise known, then it would demonstrate the absolute 
 futility of this conclusion if we could produce an 
 undoubted letter of the same man, in which similar 
 sentiments had been expressed, and in identical terms. 
 On the other hand, if it were contended that the man 
 did write the letter, merely because it was marked by 
 modes of thought and expression which harmonised 
 with what he was known to have thought and said, 
 then the conclusion would at best be but probable, 
 and in many cases precarious. 
 
 Similarly, if it were contended that a certain paint- 
 ing could not be by Raphael, from some supposed 
 enormous incongruity of subject, or from the mode 
 of treatment, then it would be sufficient to annul that 
 objection, if we could produce a genuine work of that 
 same artist to which the same objections might be 
 made. But if it were argued that the work was a 
 genuine painting of Raphael, because it had many 
 
ix,] " the Constitution and Course of Nature" 371 
 
 characteristics of his style, then it would be but a 
 probable conclusion, and in many cases open to much 
 doubt. 
 
 Once more : if a being, happily ignorant of our 
 own planet, and familiar only with worlds on which 
 sin and sorrow had never cast their shadow, were 
 to urge that a world could not be otherwise con- 
 stituted under the government of omnipotent wis- 
 dom and love, he would be sadly, but irresistibly, 
 refuted by visiting the earth, or receiving authentic 
 accounts of its condition. He could not deny the fact, 
 though it might be (as it undoubtedly is) an inexplic- 
 able difficulty that there should be such a world. On 
 the other hand, if a philosopher were to argue (as many 
 a philosopher has done), from the analogies among the 
 members of our planetary system, the physical re- 
 semblances observable amongst them, that, since the 
 earth is inhabited, those other orbs, which roll round 
 the same centre of light and heat, must be inhabited 
 also, the conclusion would be but probable and pre- 
 carious; and, in fact, has been eagerly disputed in 
 one of the most ingeniously sustained and instruc- 
 tive controversies of our day. 
 
 Nevertheless, in this last case, could it be shown 
 that a second, a third, a fourth planet and so of 
 the rest, in proportion as they became known were 
 characterised by more and more of the physical con- 
 ditions which accompany life in our world, then the 
 argument, though still only founded on probabilities, 
 would be strengthened at each step ; and, at last, in 
 
 25* 
 
372 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 spite of the great diversity of circumstances still sub- 
 sisting among the different orbs compared, might pro- 
 duce nearly the conviction of a complete induction. 
 The argument, therefore, would not be of little weight, 
 though it could not possibly have the absolute validity 
 of Butler's " Analogy." That, like the first, third, and 
 fifth cases given above by way of illustration, is abso- 
 lutely irrefragable. It says in effect : " You deny that 
 a revelation can be true, because it contains such and 
 such things that could not be found in a book coming 
 from God. Survey the world, which we both admit 
 comes from Him. See if the same objections do not 
 apply there, and whether God has not done, or per- 
 mitted to be done, the very things which you say it is 
 incredible that He should do or permit to be done, and 
 for which you reject this revelation." He therefore 
 shuts up his opponents, so long as, like himself, they 
 are theists to one of two courses either to give up 
 their theism, or to give up these specific objections 
 to Christianity ; and, therefore, as Butler truly says 
 " Objections, which are equally applicable to both 
 natural and revealed religion, are, properly speaking, 
 answered by its being shown that they are so, provided 
 the former be admitted to be true." 
 
 But now let us suppose that Butler has succeeded 
 in showing a man (as he happily has many) the 
 futility of the objections against which his argument 
 is directed, does it follow that the man must admit 
 that Christianity is true ? By no means, unless those 
 objections be his sole objections. In that case, indeed, 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature.' 19 373 
 
 he has absolutely no logical alternative but to embrace 
 Christianity or abandon his theism. And as, in thou- 
 sands of cases, these are the main objections which 
 stagger faith, so their removal has often happily issued 
 in a surrender of the rest. But the chief force of 
 the argument was no doubt spent in repelling the 
 objections. The wind which may be irresistible, while 
 the ship meets it, may be hardly felt when she goes 
 before it. 
 
 But is the argument of no force then ? This is not 
 true either. The points of analogy between nature and 
 a presumed revelation, between the professed word and 
 the acknowledged works of God, may be numerous, 
 varied, and subtle enough, to leave a very consider- 
 able impression on any candid mind, though no longer 
 possessing that demonstrative force with which they 
 may be used as an argumentum ad hominem. To this 
 purpose establishing a general similarity between 
 nature and revelation, and a presumption of the 
 identity of their origin all the analogies on which 
 Butler has insisted contribute their quota and have 
 a legitimate influence. The resemblance in the cha- 
 racteristics of the Divine government, whether as 
 exercised in relation to man's temporal interests or in 
 relation to his moral probation ; the seeming circuit- 
 ousness of method by which the Divine wisdom at- 
 tains its ends; the seeming inadequacy, or a priori 
 unlikelihood, of the means employed ; the sort of 
 evidence on which man is called upon to act, whether 
 as an inhabitant of this world or as a probationer for 
 
374 n certain Analogies between tlie Bible and [LECT. 
 
 another ; the obscurity or imperfection of that evidence 
 in either case ; the apparent inequality or partiality of 
 the Divine administration ; these, and many other 
 considerations which suggest analogies between the 
 ''Constitution and Course of Nature" and "Divine 
 Revelation," avail pro tanto on the positive side, as 
 establishing resemblance between the two, though 
 chiefly potent in refuting objections. 
 
 But as the force of the argument on this positive side 
 depends on the number, variety, and concurrence of 
 the " analogies," there are many others besides those 
 insisted on by Butler, which, though it would have been 
 irrelevant to dwell upon them in a work expressly con- 
 structed to neutralize objections, might be very pro- 
 perly added in any attempt fully to exhibit the positive 
 side of the argument. 1 On a few of these, I would 
 now say a little. It will, of course, be seen that I as- 
 sume nothing as to the actual truth of the revelation. 
 I here reason only hypothetically. 
 
 I. // the Bible be what I have presumed to argue 
 it, if it be characterised by the unity which has been 
 so generally ascribed to it, then, in strong contrast 
 with all the works of man, but in strong conformity 
 with those of God, it is a very gradual development. 
 Man's plans are like himself; they must be circum- 
 scribed within very narrow limits, or they cannot be 
 executed at all. He must not count on distant ages, 
 
 1 Hampden, in his " Essay on the Philosophical Evidence of 
 Christianity ; or, the Credibility obtained to a Scriptural Revela- 
 tion, from its coincidence with the facts of Nature," has successfully 
 prosecuted a portion of this argument. 
 
ix.] "the Constitution and Course of Nature.' 9 375 
 
 for he is an ephemeron. To construct a machine, 
 to excogitate a theory, to write half-a-dozen books, 
 to fight twice as many battles, to found an empire 
 or (which is more easy) to destroy one, is all that 
 he can achieve. His life in general is all too short 
 even for his plans, and, limited as they may be, he 
 cannot stay to finish them. But if it be true, as it 
 has been here argued, that this book is one, and yet 
 the slow product of many and far distant ages ; com- 
 posed by writers neither conscious that they were 
 co-operating, nor capable of it (which at all events 
 is true, for centuries separated them) ; if it is em- 
 bedded in the world's history, and forms part of it ; if 
 its disclosures are made piecemeal, a fragment now 
 and a fragment then, and yet these constitute one 
 whole, and are adjusted to one end; then, though it 
 neither is, nor conceivably could be, the work of man, 
 it does strikingly resemble the general manner of the 
 works of God, in which we see results attained by 
 slow evolution from the minutest beginnings, and by 
 a prolonged application as well as stupendous com- 
 plexity of means and instruments. 
 
 I shall not here insist on the proof that the supposed 
 revelation is characterised by the features above men- 
 tioned, because that would be but to repeat the various 
 arguments by which it has been attempted to establish 
 the unity of the Bible. Whatever proves that, what- 
 ever tends to show that, though the writers be so 
 various, and the times in which they lived so distant, 
 yet that there is unity in the result ; that the book 
 
376 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 possesses peculiarities of a unique character, which 
 discriminate it from all human books ; that it sub- 
 ordinates, in a way no other book ever did, everything 
 to the claims of God, in relation to man and to the 
 universe He has made and governs ; that it develops 
 from the beginning a plan for vindicating the Divine 
 government and securing man's felicity ; that it dis- 
 closes this plan in minute fragments, in such a leisurely 
 way, and by such gradual accessions of light, as to 
 remind us of the process by which the day dawns or 
 the bud opens; in a word, whatever considerations 
 (these and the many others before insisted upon) in- 
 dicate the unity of the Bible, also show, ipso facto, that 
 it has been, like the strata of the earth and the oak of 
 the forest, marked by that slow continuous growth 
 which is one of the signatures of the works of God. 
 
 His methods of procedure in general are notably 
 impressed with the same characteristic. His plans 
 work themselves out by the most deliberate processes, 
 and long periods are required for tracing even a small 
 segment of them. The index on the dial plate seems 
 not to move at all, so slow and continuous is the 
 motion. All this seems worthy of Him to whom a 
 " thousand years are as one day, and one day as a 
 thousand years ;" to whom Time, as we measure it, is 
 nothing ; who sees the future, present ; and the distant, 
 near. 
 
 In every department of nature we see this note of 
 the Divine workmanship. Geologists tell us, and tell 
 us with truth (however they may lose themselves 
 
ix.] "the Constitution and Course of Nature." 377 
 
 in speculations as to the conjectural dates of their 
 phenomena), of the enormous lapse of time during 
 which the earth has been slowly progressing to its 
 present state ; of the immense periods required to 
 condense it from the condition of a fiery vapour into 
 a solid sphere, to cool the still glowing mass, and to 
 give it, by revolution on its axis, like a vessel on the 
 potter's wheel, its present elliptical form; of the un- 
 known ages, again, that passed before it assumed the 
 condition which fitted it to be the abode of life, and 
 during which land and water seem often to have 
 changed their seats; and of those other ages, equally 
 unknown, during which it was preparing, by successive 
 forms of vegetable and animal life, for the habitation 
 of man. 
 
 But though it is in the phenomena of geology that 
 we are most forcibly struck 'with the inconceivably 
 deliberate methods by which the Divine Agent pro- 
 ceeds, we have but to open our eyes to see that 
 it is a general characteristic of all His workman- 
 ship and operations. He often destroys, indeed, in a 
 moment. The fierce fires of fever shall dissolve in 
 a day the wonderful fabric that has been slowly com- 
 pacting for thirty years, or a stroke of palsy shatter 
 in a moment all the energies, and with them all the 
 schemes and activity, of the greatest of human in- 
 tellects ; the bolt of heaven shall shiver, in the twinkling 
 of an eye, the oak that has been growing for hundreds 
 of years, and an earthquake instantaneously reduce 
 to ruin cities that have outlived a millennium. But 
 
378 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 He brings things into existence, and develops their 
 powers and perfections after a different method. The 
 gradual continuous movement by which the seasons 
 change ; by which flowers and trees put forth leaf 
 and blossom; by which the grain and fruit rip^n; by 
 which animals grow, from the minutest germs, to the 
 perfection of their form, strength, and beauty ; all these 
 are but familiar examples of the same great law w T hich 
 pervades the universe of God. The changes, however 
 stupendous, are effected by such imperceptible steps 
 that they elude our observation. The oak is millions 
 of times the bulk of the acorn, yet has it arrived at 
 its majestic growth of many centuries by such infini- 
 tesimal increments, and by a law so strictly continuous, 
 that no eye is keen enough to detect the advance from 
 one stage to another. 
 
 It is by reference to this law of vegetable growth 
 that our Lord illustrates the parallel law in the spiri- 
 tual economy, and tells us that "the kingdom of God 
 cometh not by observation," whether in the individual 
 soul or in the history of mankind. 
 
 Similarly slow is the development of God's design in 
 the government of the universe ; of that final purpose 
 of His providential administration which every devout 
 theist must believe to be contemplated amidst all 
 the fluctuations and apparent retrogradations of the 
 world; and not only in spite of present distractions 
 and confusion, but by means of them. All political 
 changes, the rise and fall of races and empires, in 
 a word, all events, each rational theist must believe 
 
ix] "the Constitution and Course of Nature" 379 
 
 are tending to some unknown result, some issue un- 
 speakably glorious, though beyond our present com- 
 prehension. But if so, the movement is immeasurably 
 slow. Man himself is " but of yesterday," though 
 his race has existed for thousands of years ; and 
 probably only a small portion of his histoiy, and 
 that seemingly strangely blurred and blotted, 
 has been yet written. For the denouement we 
 must wait. God's plan is so incomprehensibly vast, 
 that partly from the contracted view which each 
 generation, or even many generations, can take, and 
 partly from the intricacy and complexity of the 
 machinery by which the results are being w T rought 
 out, we can discern little or nothing of it as a 
 whole. We must gain a knowledge of the- designs 
 of God (which, we are compelled to believe, must 
 embrace the whole world He is governing) in the 
 same way in which a great philosopher of a former age 
 said we must gain a knowledge of His works. These, 
 as they present themselves to our investigation, he 
 compares to a huge piece of " rolled-up tapestry," 
 or "scroll of writing," the significance of which can 
 only be gathered as the cylinder which contains the 
 figures or the characters is " slowly opened to our 
 gaze." 
 
 Now it is certainly in conformity with this that the 
 Bible, supposing it to be a revelation, is constructed. 
 It is a very gradual development of Divine truth. Its 
 disclosures, designed in part to illustrate the provi- 
 dential history of the world, run parallel with it, and, 
 
380 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 indeed, form part of it. And for the very same reason 
 however adapted to illumine some of that dark- 
 ness which otherwise rests on the designs of God 
 in the moral government of the world, and probably 
 with increasing brightness as its pages " unroll," 
 itself necessarily partakes in that obscurity which the 
 gradual evolution of the Divine plan involves. That 
 there is such a plan, some devout and thoughtful specu- 
 lators among the heathen themselves seem to have 
 guessed ; but in the present scene of confusion it de- 
 manded something more than philosophical specula- 
 tion to determine it. For though, as Butler shows, 
 many things argue God's moral government of the 
 world, not only are His designs very gradually un- 
 folded, but His dispensations are often so inexplicably 
 mysterious, and the events He permits so often in 
 seeming conflict with equity and benevolence, that it 
 requires the distinct and explicit assurance of Revelation 
 to make us believe that the issues will be ultimately 
 worthy of supreme power, wisdom, and goodness. 
 Much, therefore, of the " cylinder " of the world's 
 history as it is " unrolled " is found inscribed in hiero- 
 glyphics, on which speculation and conjecture exhaust 
 themselves in vain ; and the Bible, which without en- 
 abling us adequately to decipher them, gives, if it be 
 true, a significance to some of these enigmatical cha- 
 racters, is involved in corresponding shadow. I say, 
 if it be true, for I am not assuming its truth, but merely 
 suggesting to the reader what are certain palpable 
 features of it. Whether Scripture casts much or little 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature" 381 
 
 light upon the darkness of the past, or projects strong 
 or faint illumination on the future, its structure is in 
 analogy with the general procedure of God in the slow 
 development of all His purposes, and with the obscurity 
 necessarily implied in a process so gradual ; with that 
 long array and succession of means by which He 
 attains His ends and " perfects His work." 
 
 II. And this suggests a second analogy between 
 the structure of the Bible, as contrasted with other 
 professed revelations, and " the constitution and 
 course of nature." The Divine plans, whatever they 
 be, are being wrought out by the actions of moral 
 agents, the sum of which constitutes human history; 
 so that, when completed, the history of the world will 
 also be the history of the Divine plan. It is simply 
 in analogy with this, that if the Bible be a genuine 
 revelation, whatever light it ma'y cast from time to 
 time on the Divine purposes, and however it may 
 sustain faith by partially illumining what would be 
 otherwise continuous darkness, it is (and it cannot 
 be said of any other professed revelation) thrown into 
 an historic form, has an historic development, runs 
 parallel, in its successive communications, with the 
 great epochs of the world's history; and, as I have 
 said elsewhere, is let into it. 
 
 Of the various ends to be answered by this form, I 
 have already said something in the filch lecture ; more 
 especially on the corroborations of the truth of the 
 Bible, which this form insures, and which could belong 
 to no other ; the challenge which the book thus 
 
382 On certain Analogies between the BiUe and [LECT. 
 
 gives to detection, if it be false ; the hostages which 
 it gives to truth, if it be true ; the impossibility 
 that its unity, if there be unity, could be the result 
 either of human contrivance or of any conceivable 
 casualty. But I am not here arguing its truth; 
 I am merely pointing out that, supposing it a Revela- 
 tion, it is in analogy with the mode in which God 
 is fulfilling His designs (to use the expression of 
 Bunsen) as " God in history." This Revelation is 
 imbedded in history. It resembles the temple at 
 Jerusalem, in which the masonry of the foundations 
 not only rested on the natural rock, but in many 
 places followed the line of it, and was let into it. 
 
 III. // the Bible be a Revelation, the mode of 
 giving it falls in with the method by which God 
 usually operates on human destinies. The progress 
 of men, their advancement in knowledge, science, 
 and civilisation, is brought about for the most part 
 by His sending forth into the world from time to time, 
 with special equipments for their task, certain trans- 
 cendent geniuses, the Bacons, the Newtons, the 
 Shakespeares, the Miltons of our race, who are the 
 levers that move the world ; who give a new stimulus 
 and impulse to the human mind, and whose appear- 
 ance constitutes the world's true epochs ; who, be- 
 queathing great discoveries or signal inventions, lift 
 the intellect and imagination of man to a higher 
 level, and become guiding lights of their species for 
 many generations, or some of them even as long 
 as the world shall last. It is in analogy with this 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 383 
 
 that God is represented in the Bible as raising up, 
 from time to time, men who should impart con- 
 tinual accessions of spiritual light to the world ; 
 " speaking at sundry times and in divers manners 
 by the prophets," till He at last consummated His 
 Revelation " by speaking to us by His Son." 
 
 IV. There is an analogy also in the material in- 
 struments by which the progress of man is in each 
 case secured. The development of the race, its ad- 
 vance in knowledge and civilisation, depends on 
 garnering up the experience of the past and making 
 it available for the future. Without that, each man, 
 each generation, is but a disjointed link. Apart from 
 some methods of conserving experience, there can be, 
 in fact, no history ; and accordingly of many ages and 
 nations there is none. Until, therefore, men can 
 secure and hand down the treasures of knowledge, 
 fix volatile thought, and make it visible and per- 
 manent, there is, and can be, no progress. Till that 
 be done, the world must be in perpetual nonage. Con- 
 sequently all advance, all civilisation, waits on the 
 discovery and application of an alphabet. Mechanical 
 as it seems, pen and ink, or some equivalent, is the 
 moving power of the world ; the sine qua non, without 
 which it would be at an eternal standstill, or rather 
 would be " ever learning," and never coming to a 
 stable " knowledge " of any " truth." All the ac- 
 quisitions of each generation would be but as "water 
 spilt on the ground," or poured into a sieve. It 
 is therefore in precise analogy that this Revelation 
 
384 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 if it be a Revelation indeed has taken the form 
 for which so many have presumed to deride it, the 
 form of a " book," where all the successive com- 
 munications it makes are durably registered. Ridi- 
 cule the thing as we may, it is absolutely necessary 
 in the very nature of things each generation being 
 ephemeral that man's progress, whether in religion 
 or philosophy or anything else, should be effected in 
 this precise way. Nor is it a little curious (as I have 
 remarked in a previous lecture) that the Bible would 
 seem to have anticipated the conclusion to which just 
 historic criticism leads us, and to have recognised 
 most strongly the supreme importance of this con- 
 dition of human progress. It alone gives us, in a 
 plain written form and in intelligible language, any 
 memorials at all of ages from which all other me- 
 morials have vanished 
 
 Here, again, I am not assuming the truth of the 
 book; I am merely contending that the form in 
 which it is addressed to us, and the continued aug- 
 mentation and preservation of its successive commu- 
 nications by the pen, are in conformity with the laws 
 and conditions on which alone all human progress 
 is secured or rather, on which alone it is possible. 
 
 V. If this be a Revelation, it is submitted to us under 
 conditions similar to those on which the works of God 
 and His providential government of the world are sub- 
 mitted to us, exacting profound study, investigation, 
 and reflection. Man, in the physical world, is to be, 
 as Bacon says, " the minister and interpreter of 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 385 
 
 nature." If the Bible be from the same source, it is 
 in analogy with this that he is summoned to similar 
 functions here. The Bible has its difficulties and 
 mysteries, as nature has ; and it requires, just as 
 nature does, prolonged thought and effort to pene- 
 trate or decipher them. Both have their level plains, 
 where the eye sees far and the feet travel softly ; but 
 both also have lofty summits, which only persevering 
 toil can scale, and deep abysses, which keen eyes 
 and adventurous feet can alone explore. And such 
 things are probably found in both for the same reason, 
 to make ample provision for the moral and intel- 
 lectual discipline of man. Some have said that if 
 a revelation were to be given at all, it would be 
 "written in the skies," and flash instantaneous and 
 universal conviction. No doubt, if man constructed 
 one, he would endeavour at least to imitate such a 
 " flash." But on this point, all that need be said is, 
 that if such a revelation were given, it would be in 
 glaring contradiction to all the analogies of that natural 
 revelation which God has given us in His works. There, 
 as in relation to the Scripture, man is equipped, as 
 Butler says, with apparently very inadequate instru- 
 ments of investigation, to plod on his path to know- 
 ledge; and in each case his experience is analogous. 
 He has all along to wrestle with innumerable difficult 
 problems, and in every direction finds that research 
 terminates at last in insurmountable mysteries. He is 
 often the victim of his own prejudices, and the dupe of 
 his own imagination. In both fields he is fond of 
 
 26 
 
386 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 generalising faster than his facts warrant, and is con- 
 tinually the slave of one or other of those seductive 
 idola of the human mind which Bacon has so com- 
 prehensively sketched. From the comparative rapidity 
 with which, during the last few lustres, man has ad- 
 vanced the frontier of physical science, he is apt in the 
 present day to forget what the real history of all science 
 has been, and to become, from his very triumphs, the 
 victim of one of the above illusions. We are prone to 
 fancy that, at least in this domain of science, we march 
 on adamant, and along a plain and straight viaduct, 
 reared on lofty and stately arches, far above the jungle 
 and morass through which the pioneers of other truth 
 have to toil their weary way. No doubt a conclusion in 
 this department, once established, is, from its peculiar 
 nature, established for ever. But it is forgotten 
 through how many errors it has been attained, how 
 many lath and plaster tenements have usurped the site 
 on which the solid edifice at last stands. The structure, 
 once reared, not only sweeps them away, but con- 
 ceals and soon extinguishes the very memory of the 
 numberless and often obstinate errors which preceded 
 it. The false views, the utterly inadequate and ab- 
 surd theories which science once accepted, men are 
 only too glad to cover with oblivion. And thus 
 the instructive, though humiliating history of man's 
 past ignorance, and of his futile attempts to remedy 
 it, is more apt to escape us in this department of 
 science than in those in which, from the nature of the 
 evidence and the complexity of the phenomena, the ulti- 
 
ix.J " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 387 
 
 mate truth is established with less convincing certainty. 
 But we have only to explore the huge records (willingly 
 thrown aside as so much lumber, or hidden away as 
 with shame) of erroneous or imperfect science to see 
 that here, too, as elsewhere, the path of knowledge is 
 strewn with the wreck of vain speculations; with hypo- 
 theses now utterly forgotten, or only recalled with 
 wonder and derision that they could so long prevail, 
 and so extensively impose on the human mind. To 
 these, not a few modern theories will, doubtless, here- 
 after be added, which now stand in imposing semblance 
 of truth, or are even paraded as proofs of the accuracy 
 and unfaltering course of human science ; but which 
 will be quoted hereafter as ignominious examples of 
 man's proneness to hasty generalisation and overween- 
 ing self-confidence. 
 
 And when truth, even in this department, is in part 
 established, how slow is the advance to anything like a 
 complete solution of all the phenomena it involves ! 
 How many are the steps, and how gradual the process 
 by which certain seemingly refractory facts, which a 
 theory, true in the main, has not perfectly explained, 
 are ultimately adjusted to it. Of this, the enlargement 
 and rectification of the Newtonian system by mo- 
 dern science, affords a conspicuous example. But even 
 the more fundamental truths of a correct theory, in 
 any branch of physical science, are in general slowly 
 verified, and through a succession of blunders. As 
 Butler truly remarks, the great objects and phenomena 
 of the universe had been exposed to the gaze of men, 
 
 26* 
 
388 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 and importunately invited the exercise of the human 
 intellect, thousands of years before the true theory of 
 the sublimest of the sciences presented itself. The 
 heavens were as bright and the intellect of men as 
 vigorous, three thousand years ago, as now. Yet a true 
 astronomy is but of yesterday. Till within the last 
 three hundred years, men in general, and philosophers 
 among them, believed that the earth was stationary, 
 and that the sun and stars revolved around it. Even 
 when the Copernican theory was at last discovered, 
 how slow were men to believe in it, and how tenacious 
 of ancient error. Harvey's \vell- known saying, that 
 " he could not get any man above forty to believe in 
 the circulation of the blood," is instructive: it is a 
 specimen of the difficulty with which even scientific 
 truth breaks through the obstructions of ignorance 
 and prejudice. 
 
 But this, as might be expected, is seen still more 
 conspicuously in the history of all those sciences which 
 are founded on moral evidence ; a result both of the 
 greater obscurity of the evidence itself, and the more 
 bewildering entanglement of the phenomena. But no 
 matter what the department of study, in all alike, 
 though not in the same degree man is so organised, 
 and his condition such, that he can gain knowledge 
 only by a tedious process, and through a labyrinth of 
 errors and misconceptions. 
 
 If, therefore, the Bible has been constructed (as it 
 certainly has been) in such way as to necessitate the 
 perpetual activity of man's intellect, and to exercise 
 
ix.] " Hie Constitution and Course of Nature." 389 
 
 dustry, perseverance, and humility, in other words, 
 to constitute a perpetual discipline for him ; it 
 is in palpable analogy with his condition as a 
 "minister" of the mysteries, and "interpreter" 
 of the works, of nature. The rational, and, indeed, 
 perhaps sufficient account of the fact in both 
 cases, is suggested in the great truth that man 
 is a creature who, to a great degree, must have 
 "the making of himself;" and that, presupposing 
 such modicum of knowledge (whether of physical 
 facts or of religious truth) as may be essential to 
 him, placed within his reach, the strenuous exercise 
 of all his powers, and its result in the forma- 
 tion of character, are of yet more importance to 
 him than the absolute amount of knowledge he may 
 acquire ; in a word, that the , chase is to him of as 
 much moment as the quarry. 
 
 No doubt it would be a serious objection to this 
 view, if the things absolutely necessary to his being, or 
 even to his zeW/-being, were as difficult to attain as 
 those which chiefly stimulate his curiosity, impel him 
 to mental activity, or provide a discipline for patience 
 and humility. But this is not so. The facts of the 
 outward world, on which man's existence and suste- 
 nance depend, and on which the common arts of life 
 are founded, are obvious to all. And so, in the study 
 of Scripture, are the truths that " belong to life and 
 godliness." But of the profounder " arcana," whether 
 of nature or of Scripture, the same general analogy 
 holds, that they necessitate and provoke the same 
 
3QO On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LTEC. 
 
 diligent and persevering use of all the faculties of 
 our nature. 
 
 Nor, in connection with this subject, ought the 
 sagacious inference which Butler draws from the 
 remark, last quoted from him, to be omitted ; that if 
 the true science of astronomy tarried so long and 
 came so late, though the heavens had been ablaze 
 for so many centuries with the bright hieroglyphics 
 man was asked to decipher, there is no absurdity 
 in supposing that the Bible may still contain un- 
 discovered truths, which await the continued appli- 
 cation of the human intellect to elicit them. The 
 remark has been verified by the progress made, since 
 his time, in the interpretation and elucidation of 
 Scripture, and especially in the construction of works 
 founded on the evidence which the Scripture itself 
 yields to the diligent investigation and collation of 
 its own contents. Several volumes have been written, 
 for example, on the evidence supplied by " undesigned 
 coincidences " which it " had not entered into the 
 heart of man to conceive," though, like the phenomena 
 of astronomy, they had been perpetually under man's 
 eye for so many ages. 
 
 VI. There is another point, intimately connected 
 with, and indeed but a corollary from, the preceding, 
 which suggests another analogy between the Bible (ij 
 it be indeed from God) and the Universe, which is 
 incontestably His work. I mean that each seemingly 
 affords, from its variety, ample scope for that study 
 and reflection which each exacts. Not that the one 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature" 391 
 
 can, in the same sense or to the same extent, afford 
 such a field for investigation as the other. All I mean 
 is, that, like the world, or even some very limited portion 
 of it (as, for example, man), the book is apparently 
 a theme of inexhaustible study and contemplation. 
 I found this observation, not exclusively, or even 
 principally, on the qualities on which I have insisted 
 in previous pages, the artificiality of its structure, 
 or the varied character or complex relations of its 
 contents, or the versatility of form in which these 
 are presented to us, though it is, in fact, by far the 
 most varied book, both in contents and form, ever 
 given to the world : I found it on that fact to which 
 I have already adverted in a previous lecture and 
 for another purpose, namely, that though so many 
 thousands of volumes have been written on this one, 
 though it has been so familiarly known for so many ages, 
 among widely different races, among nations speaking 
 different languages, and differing also by every variety 
 and degree of culture, men do not seem to come to 
 a term of their curiosity or admiration or hostility ; 
 for their ceaseless efforts to refute its claims, as well 
 as those to establish them, prove how profound 
 and how constant is the impression it produces. And 
 now, at the end of so many ages of unremitted study, 
 the world still sees a never-ceasing flood of litera- 
 ture evoked by it, and the most gigantic efforts made 
 for its elucidation, translation, and diffusion ! It 
 is hardly possible, after such experience of unslaked 
 interest in it, to avoid the conclusion that, in con- 
 
392 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 templating it, as in contemplating the works of God, 
 the time will not soon come when the " eye will be 
 satisfied with seeing," or the " ear with hearing." 
 
 If, for extent and complexity, the book cannot 
 as all will confess be compared with these 
 last, it may at least be compared with many of the 
 single objects which they present to us, and which, 
 though small in compass, exhibit such marvels of 
 design and structure, as to afford unbounded exercise 
 for man's research and investigation. Like man, the 
 Bible is a "microcosm" of itself; and, as shown 
 in a previous lecture, seems to have as great com- 
 plexity of structure, and as great variety of con- 
 tents commensurate, however, with the variety of 
 purposes it is designed to serve as can possibly 
 belong to a book ; and which make it, as a book, as 
 much sui generis as any of the works of God com- 
 pared with the imitations of men. 
 
 VII. Another analogy suggested by the last topic 
 (for it is one cause of that inexhaustible interest which 
 both Nature and the Bible would seem capable of in- 
 spiring) is not unworthy of mention. I allude to the 
 seemingly unsystematic form in which the multifarious 
 contents of the Bible are exhibited to us, and which, 
 though in part a necessary consequence of its gradual 
 formation, its complexity of structure, and its various 
 matter, reminds us of the similar presentation of the 
 phenomena of the universe, and involves similar effects 
 on us. 
 
 Some, as we have seen in a previous lecture, have 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature" 393 
 
 made this very characteristic a grave objection to it. 
 They have complained that its contents are delivered 
 in so unsystematic a form, and have demanded that 
 a true revelation should be marked by that orderly 
 arrangement and classification of results which their 
 logical propensities and habits of analysis best love. 
 In so doing, they bear witness to a certain tendency of 
 human nature, at least of philosophical human nature; 
 in truth, one would expect that if man constructed the 
 book, it would have been marked by less variety of form 
 and complexity of structure, and far less apparent 
 irregularity in the distribution of its contents; in a 
 word, by more seeming method. In the mean time, 
 however incompetent we are (as must be admitted) 
 to say in what form a Divine revelation would be best 
 given, it is incontestable that if the Bible be one, the 
 mode in which its contents are presented is in palpable 
 analogy with the mode in which the phenomena of 
 nature are presented to us; that is, in glorious and 
 seemingly bewildering confusion. In either case they 
 are flung down, so to speak, before man, and invite 
 him to employ his intellect upon them ; to spell out 
 the alphabet of that highly complex language in which 
 the " manifold wisdom " of God speaks to us. Though 
 science may be made out of the phenomena of nature 
 thus submitted to us, they were not primarily made for 
 science, but for immediately practical ends. The entire 
 phenomena, indeed, constitute a system though a sys- 
 tem, as Butler says, so far beyond our comprehension, 
 that " he must literally know nothing who does not con- 
 
394 n certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 fess his ignorance of it." We perceive also, for that is a 
 visible fact, that the adjustments in this vast machinery, 
 and the reciprocal influences at work in it, maintain a 
 stable system a system in which even we may trace 
 some of the relations which subsist between its most dis- 
 tant parts, and which connect by insensible gradations 
 the sublimest phenomena of astronomy with the meanest 
 phenomena of animated nature. I The more we study 
 the phenomena, the more we perceive this mutual 
 interdependence. But the aggregate of the phenomena 
 are nevertheless in seeming utter confusion, and with an 
 aspect the very reverse of that of a well-arranged mu- 
 seum. Sun, moon, and planets ; earth, air, and water ; 
 electricity and magnetism ; inorganic and organic struc- 
 tures; countless tribes of vegetable and animal existence, 
 are linked together by ten thousand relations of adapta- 
 tion, and constitute a system only while they are so. All 
 
 1 Exquisitely has Paley illustrated this in his " Natural Theology." 
 " If," says he, " the relation of sleep to night, and, in some instances, 
 its converse, be real, we cannot reflect without amazement upon 
 the extent to which it carries us. Day and night are things close 
 to us ; the change applies immediately to our sensations. Of all 
 the phenomena of nature, it is the most obvious and the most 
 familiar to our experience ; but in its cause, it belongs to the great 
 motions which are passing in the heavens. Whilst the earth glides 
 round her axis, she ministers to the alternate necessities of the 
 animals dwelling upon her surface, at the same time that she obeys 
 the influence of those attractions which regulate the order of many 
 thousand worlds. The relation, therefore, of sleep to night, is the 
 relation of the inhabitants of the earth to the rotation of their 
 globe. Probably it is more : it is a relation of the system of which 
 that globe is a part, and still further to the congregation of systems 
 of which theirs is only one. If this account be true, it connects 
 the meanest individual with the universe itself a chicken roosting 
 upon its perch with the spheres revolving in the firmament. "- 
 Paley's " Natural Theology," vol. i. p. 363 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 395 
 
 the laws of all the natural sciences, of astronomy, 
 chemistry, anatomy, and a score more, are at work at 
 once, and in infinite entanglement. To exhibit its ele- 
 ments apart, would be to take the universe to pieces, 
 and destroy it by doing so. It would be to turn it into a 
 collection of curiosities the garden of Eden into a hortus 
 siccus. It would be no more the universe, but the la- 
 mentable debris of a post-mortem dissection ; not a 
 watch, but its various parts spread out on the watch- 
 maker's board ; the elements of a system, but a system 
 no longer. Meantime it is given to man to exercise 
 himself for ever about these objects to take a survey 
 of them, to trace their relations, analyse and classify 
 them. To do this perfectly in any case, he must 
 at least imagine the object on which his scientific 
 curiosity is exercised no longer existing in reality, but 
 reduced to its elements ; and . in many cases (for 
 example, the system of a living organism) he must 
 actually destroy it before he can attempt the work of 
 analysis. That most marvellous of all, the human 
 body, must cease to have that life, which alone 
 makes it worth anything, before the scientific man can 
 even lay the foundation of its anatomy and physiology. 
 Man must cease to breathe before he can exist for the 
 philosopher. He must die, that science may live. 
 
 But though the philosopher has plenty to do in his 
 " interpretation " of the complex phenomena of nature, 
 they are thus unsystematically exhibited because far 
 other ends are contemplated than his convenience ; and 
 i/ the Bible be a revelation, it is even so with that. 
 
396 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 VIII. I may here note another analogy of a similar 
 practical character, between the Word (if the Bible 
 be such) and the Works of God. For as the philo- 
 sopher is apt to complain that the Bible is not sys- 
 tematic enough for him, so the man of imagination 
 is sometimes repelled by its frequent homeliness, 
 its unpoetic realism, and complains that it is not 
 all so " perfect in beauty " as the human mind might 
 conceive it would have been. The useful, and there- 
 fore the homely, is no doubt there in close rela- 
 tions with the beautiful, and often mars or impairs 
 the effect of it. But so it is in Nature, and with 
 the same result. In either case it is what the poetical 
 mind naturally resents, and in the products of art 
 laudably endeavours to prevent. It is the function of 
 that wonderful faculty of imagination which God has 
 given us, to idealise Nature, and give it a homo- 
 geneity, a symmetry, an etherial grace, which Nature 
 never has. It is the province of poetry, as Bacon says, 
 " to give some shadow of satisfaction to the mind of 
 man in those points wherein the nature of things doth 
 deny it the world being in proportion inferior to the 
 soul ; by reason whereof there is, agreeable to the spirit 
 of man, a more ample greatness, a more exact good- 
 ness, and a more absolute variety than can be found in 
 the nature of things." 1 
 
 Poetry, therefore, in consistency with this partial 
 design of art, eliminates from its pictures of reality all 
 that is mean, vulgar, homely, and presents to us objects 
 1 Advancement of Learning. Book 2. 
 
ix.] "the Constitution and Course of Nature" 397 
 
 not as they are, but as they may be conceived to be in 
 unsullied beauty ; just as the painter refuses to put into 
 his scenes anything that merely suggests the idea of 
 what is simply repulsive, and incapable of being ex- 
 hibited with a picturesque effect. The poet's aim, in 
 like manner, is to select such objects, images, and 
 expressions as shall be pleasing, or at all events give 
 an excess of pleasurable over painful emotions. He is 
 as sedulous to clear everything that is disgusting from 
 his description as the painter from his canvas. This is 
 his design, and his efforts terminate there ; but far 
 different is it in that world of realities from which, by 
 selection and elimination, his beautiful, but ideal scenes 
 are drawn. There the production of the beautiful is 
 but one of the many indissolubly connected designs 
 which Nature has in view. We feel offended with the 
 poet Cowper for even introducing into his beautiful de- 
 scription of a " garden " the mention of the " dunghill,'* 
 though without it the garden would lose its charms ; and 
 are still more displeased by his attempting to give an 
 affected disguise to it, but really a double emphasis, 
 by the unpoetic periphrasis of the " stercoraceous 
 heap." But Nature is not, and cannot afford to 
 be so squeamish. She is intent upon more serious 
 things than poetry and painting; she is profuse in 
 giving us the beautiful, so long and so far as it may 
 be compatible with all the objects of her vast system, 
 but will not postpone the useful to it. Adorning the 
 world with as much beauty as is compatible with other 
 and more practical good, she has no horror of " ster- 
 
398 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 coraceous heaps,*' or anything else that is conducive to 
 her manifold ends. The purposes of benevolence and 
 manifest utility come first, however they may mar a 
 picture or cloud the ideal. And therefore it is that we 
 so seldom see landscapes to which the artist cannot 
 take exceptions, and which he could not in fact im- 
 prove, if the mere purpose were to produce a scene of 
 faultless beauty. True it is that there are thousands 
 of scenes in Nature infinitely more replete with grandeur 
 and loveliness than any that the artist can at all 
 adequately represent on his canvas ; but few in which, 
 looking at the beautiful and picturesque alone, he 
 could not suggest something superfluous or defective. 
 He will exclude objects which simply suggest the idea 
 of what disgusts us, however really there ; and if he 
 paints the scene, will annihilate or transmute them. 
 
 The peculiarities referred to in these two last sec- 
 tions, apparent defects of method and apparent 
 violations of taste, must characterise the Scrip- 
 ture (or any true revelation), if it is to answer 
 the manifold and diverse purposes of such a book 
 to the entire race of man ; to be the universal 
 counsellor of all ages, of every land, of every race ; of 
 men of all conditions, old and young, prince and 
 peasant, the learned and the ignorant, and these in 
 every degree of moral excellence or moral degradation ; 
 \ to say nothing of being its own interpreter, com- 
 x mentatory, and evidence. Like the universe, it is a 
 system indeed, but a system too vast, too complex, 
 prosecuting too many ends simultaneously, to be 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 399 
 
 amenable to the philosopher's trim analyses or the 
 poet's idea of beauty. Though it may contain, in 
 many parts, wisdom, sublimity, beauty, eloquence, and 
 pathos, which will more than compare with anything 
 of the kind in merely human literature, it has too many 
 purposes to serve, is too deeply steeped in the real and 
 the actual, too intent on practical utility, to permit of 
 its pursuing exclusively or pervadingly any such logical 
 or poetic ideal. The sick, the poor, the ignorant, the 
 vicious, the miserable, will claim its care as much as 
 philosophers and poets ; and more, since they are more 
 numerous. For these reasons (to say nothing further 
 of the scope which such a various structure affords to 
 the intellectual activity of men, in exploring its charac- 
 teristics and analysing its contents), that unsystematic 
 form given to a revelation may well be justified. At 
 any rate, the traits in question are in analogy with 
 the mode in which, for apparently similar reasons, 
 the natural phenomena of the universe are presented 
 to us. 
 
 IX. If the contents of the Bible are exhibited 
 unsystematically, like the objects and phenomena of 
 the natural world, the proportions in which the dif- 
 ferent elements in each exist for us, present another 
 analogy. As what is essential to life is cheap and 
 common, like the air and sunshine, and what is neces- 
 sary for subsistence is for the most part easy of 
 acquisition ; so it has often been remarked that in 
 the Scripture, what is of primary moment, is insisted 
 on and illustrated with proportionate fulness and 
 
400 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 iteration, and is equally accessible to the learned and 
 the ignorant. 
 
 Things that are of chief importance are made plain, 
 and exhibited in every diversity of light. It is for the 
 most part only things that are of little practical 
 moment, of curiosity rather than utility, or which 
 seem designed to exercise our modesty and humility, 
 or to stimulate our curiosity or industry, that are left 
 obscure. Their rationale, the complete solution of 
 the mysteries which environ them, are not essential to 
 salvation 
 
 X. In a previous lecture I said a few words on 
 the probable complexity which would characterise any 
 volume, designed to be a guide and light to all men 
 in every condition of life, and for all purposes of 
 moral instruction and education, if it be indeed a 
 revelation. That complexity, seemingly inevitable on 
 any hypothesis, would seem still further increased in 
 the case of the Bible by expedients to attain at once 
 these manifold primary ends, and certain secondary ends 
 simultaneously with them. I illustrated this by re- 
 ferring to the historic form which it has assumed, 
 and which, in addition to manifold advantages as a 
 vehicle for instruction, secures important contributions 
 to the internal evidence. Similar remarks apply to cer- 
 tain expedients and peculiarities of language and style 
 adapted to secure the integrity of its text ; to aid its 
 interpretation; and, not least, to impress upon it a 
 character which facilitates its easy translation. This 
 complexity is still further increased by the interfusion, 
 

 ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 401 
 
 with all its elements, of various marks and evidences 
 of its truth ; a Trdpepyov, or " byework," indeed, but 
 apparently more or less contemplated in the entire 
 fabric of Scripture. Let it have, then, as much sim- 
 plicity as is consistent with these multifarious ends, 
 as much beauty as is consistent with the higher pur- 
 poses of perspicuity and utility, such a structure is 
 yet necessarily very complex. Now this is just what 
 so often strikes us in the analogies of nature ; where 
 we are filled with wonder that so many ends should 
 all be attained by the same set of instruments, with 
 so little sacrifice and with such approximate perfection. 1 
 Every species of creature affords illustration of it. But 
 
 1 There are few things that strike a reflecting mind as more 
 wonderful than that set of operations, all of them of primary im- 
 portance in the vital economy, which are performed by the conjoint 
 action of the tongue, mouth, palate, and throat. Functions essen- 
 tial to the life of the body, and by which that of the soul is 
 expressed, are performed by these few organs, the organs them- 
 selves in such close proximity, and working in and by each other 
 with such marvellous intricacy, that the wonder is that they should 
 be performed at all, much more with such ease. It is true, indeed, 
 that we cannot perform them all quite simultaneously; but with 
 how inconceivable facility do the organs by which these all-im- 
 portant processes of respiration, mastication, deglutition, articula- 
 tion, are effected, by which tastes are perceived, sounds produced, 
 thought expressed, I say with how inconceivable facility do these 
 organs commence and cease, alternate, modify, suspend, resume 
 their various functions ! " In a city feast, for example," says Paley, 
 in his lively style of illustration, "what deglutition, what anhela- 
 tion ! yet does this little cartilage, the epiglottis, so effectually 
 interpose its office, so securely guard the entrance of the windpipe, 
 that whilst morsel after morsel, draught after draught, are coursing 
 one another over it, an accident of a crumb or a drop slipping into 
 this passage (which, nevertheless, must be opened for the breath 
 every second of time) excites in the company, not only alarm by 
 its danger, but surprise by its novelty. Not two guests are choked 
 in a century." 
 
 27 
 
402 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 perhaps it is seen most conspicuously in man him- 
 self; on the wonders of whose organisation, material 
 and mental, on the mechanism, anatomy, physiology, 
 chemistry of whose body, on the nature and faculties 
 of whose mind, and on the laws of reciprocal inter- 
 action between them, a thousand volumes have 
 been written, and a thousand more will not exhaust 
 the theme. In the entire phenomena of this " abridg- 
 ment of the universe " (as he has been called), we 
 have an object of the greatest conceivable, or rather 
 of utterly inconceivable complexity (corresponding to 
 the variety of purposes which are all to be fulfilled), 
 in the small compass of a few solid feet, and with 
 the least possible sacrifice of higher to lower ends. 
 We are filled with amazement that such diversified 
 and important purposes should be conjointly attained. 
 
 XI. When that genuine Christian philosopher, Robert 
 Boyle, composed his admirable essay on the " Style 
 of the Holy Scriptures," he replied at length to some 
 a priori objections which would scarcely be insisted upon 
 now even by the sceptic, at least since the appearance 
 of Butler's Analogy ; as, for example, that the Bible 
 left many " mysteries and difficulties " unsolved on 
 its pages, and that many parts demand deep study 
 and prolonged investigation to master them, even 
 when they do at length yield to persevering effort. 
 Such traits, it must be conceded, are not evidences 
 for the truth of any revelation ; but, so far from 
 being objections, they are rather of the nature of 
 necessary conditions of it. Though they would prove 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 403 
 
 the truth of no professed revelation, their absence 
 would be a great presumption against the claims of 
 any. For : 
 
 i. A revelation without mystery is not even con- 
 ceivable. A revelation, if it deserves the name, must 
 make known some new truths ; and every augmentation 
 of knowledge, even of a lower kind, is attended, not 
 accidentally, but necessarily, with the revelation also 
 of our ignorance. The horizon widens, but the indis- 
 tinctness is still upon it; and the larger that horizon 
 is, the larger becomes the periphery of haze that 
 surrounds it. Thus it is in natural science, and must 
 be as long as man is a progressive being; that is, 
 until (if that be conceivable, which to men in general 
 it certainly is not) "he shall know all mysteries and 
 all knowledge." If that ever come to pass, then, 
 constituted as man is, he will probably have con- 
 summated his misery just as he has arrived at 
 perfection ! For he will still have as strong appetite 
 for knowledge as ever, but nothing wherewith to 
 satisfy it. 
 
 But this is not likely to be the case ; and until it 
 is, every new truth he learns reveals to him his igno- 
 rance, and he seeks to know more. Thus, when the 
 law of gravitation was discovered, and explained so 
 many phenomena, men asked (as they do still), 
 " What is this property with which all matter is 
 endowed ? What is the rationale of it ? What is the 
 Maw' of this 'law'? How is it inherent in matter? 
 Is it inseparable from its very nature ? " And hitherto 
 
 27 * 
 
404 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 all speculation on this subject has been in vain, and 
 probably will ever be. It is the same with the law of 
 chemical affinities ; it explains some mysteries and dis- 
 closes others. It is thus with every new law, which is 
 either but the ultimate fact of the moment, and ceases 
 to be so the next year or the next generation ; or, if it 
 be absolutely immovable, is so, not because there is 
 nothing more to know, but because we have reached in 
 that direction the limit of our faculties, a limit as 
 insurmountable as the barrier which separates us from 
 the planetary worlds. We have sufficient proof, in- 
 deed, that such limit is not soon attained, and may 
 often fancy we have reached it when we have not. 
 Still, whether attained or not, there is always the 
 horizon of mist, sometimes immovable, sometimes 
 capable of being rolled back. Only a few years ago 
 almost everybody believed the ocean depths to be 
 devoid of life : we are now led to see that a whole 
 world of future science has been concealed from our 
 ignorance, and we wait for further exploration. Only 
 a century ago, geology opened a new hunting-field 
 for the intellect of man, and it is hard to say how far 
 our adventurous Nimrod will be carried. A few years 
 ago he was hunting the megatherium and ichthyo- 
 saurus: he has disposed of that small game, and, 
 mounted on his hippogriff, is pushing his incursions 
 into the uttermost deserts of time and space. But with 
 every excursion he finds, if not clear knowledge, most 
 absolute proof of an ever-widening frontier of dark- 
 ness. A few years ago men seldom made expeditions 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 405 
 
 much beyond the planetary system ; now they are busy 
 with the problems of sidereal astronomy, and every 
 new fact discloses that " man is but of yesterday and 
 knows nothing." 
 
 Now if this be so when men tell us of " earthly 
 things," can it be otherwise if God tell us of " heavenly 
 things " ? These, too, must have their relations and 
 connections with other and unknown truths, truths 
 at least as deeply veiled from us as the ultimate truths 
 of secular science. And especially may we expect such 
 mystery, if the revelation not only refuses, as Scripture 
 does, to tell us anything that merely tends to gratify 
 curiosity, but seems to give us glimpses of some 
 truths, simply as involved in the course of revealing 
 to us other truths of more immediate importance to us; 
 so that we only see them by gleams and sidelights, 
 as we might catch a glimpse of an object behind a 
 curtain, as it fluttered in the wind. 
 
 2. But, again; if a professed revelation were given 
 without mystery and difficulty, it would be in such 
 startling contrast with all the analogies of the previous 
 revelation in nature, that it would rather be an obstacle 
 to receiving it than not. Here, as just shown, we 
 cannot move in any direction without soon finding 
 that we are stopped by a present limit, and, if we go 
 far enough, by a permanent one ; one that we cannot 
 hope to surmount, because our very faculties fail us. 
 This is notoriously the case with certain great mys- 
 teries, as, for example, the essence of matter or of 
 mind, the laws of their union or interaction, the origin 
 
406 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 of evil, and the problem of the consistency of the 
 Divine government with freedom of the human will, 
 on all which men have been guessing, speculating, 
 and reasoning, from time immemorial, without coming 
 to any satisfactory solution. 
 
 If there were no difficulties or mysteries in a pro- 
 fessed revelation, parallel with those which are so 
 abundant in the world, the contrast would probably 
 rather startle than conciliate .us. 
 
 XII. Though I do not here contend for the actual 
 occurrence of miracles or prophecy, I think it may be 
 said, not only that they form a species of evidence, 
 which, if there be a revelation at all, is in conformity 
 with the only conditions on which man, from the 
 constitution of his intellect, could be rationally ex- 
 pected to receive it, but is also in analogy with the 
 tendencies of his nature in general. A sense of the 
 supernatural, an expectation of its manifestation, 
 somehow and at some time, would seem among 
 the most characteristic phenomena of human nature, 
 and has been attested generally by the facts of 
 man's history ; and, not least, by the eager credulity 
 with which he has listened even to the most idle 
 legends which have been invented to gratify it. In 
 short, it would seem that a belief in the supernatural is 
 founded in some of the deepest and most ineradicable 
 instincts. " This love and belief of the supernatural," 
 says Dr. Mozley, " has flourished successively upon 
 heathen, upon Christian, and upon scientific material ; 
 because in truth it is neither heathen, nor Christian, 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature" 407 
 
 nor scientific, but human. Springing out of the com- 
 mon stock of humanity, which is the same in all ages, 
 it adapts itself to the belief, the speculations, and the 
 knowledge of its own day." 1 
 
 Somewhat similar remarks apply to prophecy. The 
 yearning of the heart of man for some glimpses into 
 futurity is so natural, that it has ever prompted him 
 to practise, in all ages and countries, a hundred arts 
 of divination. It would seem a tendency of our nature, 
 which, like the belief in the supernatural, is ineradic- 
 able. 2 
 
 The unequivocal tendency to believe in miraculous 
 interposition, and the equally unequivocal desire to 
 penetrate the future, would seem to indicate an origin 
 in the principles of our nature ; and if so, the provision 
 for them in the alleged phenomena of the Bible is in 
 " analogy " with that nature. 
 
 I do not enter now into the question whether the 
 miracles recorded in Scripture are facts; if not, the 
 Bible is false by its own verdict, for it appeals to 
 them : but appeal it must, if its evidence is to be 
 in unison with the constitution of human nature. 
 Every revelation made to one man, or to a few men 
 in order to be communicated to the world at large, 
 containing things confessedly undiscoverable by human 
 reason, and demanding to be received on the testimony 
 of the first witnesses, must thus appeal. If a professed 
 
 1 Miracles, p. 163. Third Edition. 
 
 2 See some pertinent observations on this subject in Davison 
 on Prophecy, pp. 213, 214. Sixth Edition. 
 
408 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 emissary from the skies tells me only what my own 
 instinct or reason had anticipated, I tell him I do not 
 need him, and that he may go. If again he tells me 
 only things which, indeed, I had not suspected, but 
 which when known are seen to be involved in the pre- 
 mises which nature has furnished (though I had not 
 discovered them), I tell him that his professed revela- 
 tions may have been discoveries made by himself, or 
 by others ; and that for such truths no revelation is 
 necessary. But if he demands my assent to propo- 
 sitions, which by the very terms of them are palpably 
 beyond all human discovery, for which neither he nor 
 I have any natural data, as, for example, the resur- 
 rection of the body, the certainty of the soul's im- 
 mortality, the incarnation of Christ, His atonement 
 for the sins of men, then he is bound to make good 
 his claims on my faith by evidence as preternatural 
 as his communications. I ask him, "Who told you all 
 this ? Why am I to believe you ? " It is in vain to 
 say, " I had it in a dream of the night, or in a vision 
 by day." " Dreams and visions, they must remain," 
 I reply : " to you they may be, to me they can be, 
 nothing more. You must give me evidence miraculous 
 as your message." So reasonable, so natural is this 
 course, that even a man utterly sceptical as to the 
 possibility of miracle and prophecy, would have little 
 difficulty in assenting to its hypothetical propriety. 
 He would reasonably argue, that if a revelation of 
 the nature described was to be given at all, it must 
 be thus corroborated. 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Naturt,' 409 
 
 It was in analogy with nature, therefore, that the 
 Jews asked of Christ " What dost thou work?" and 
 He, by working miracles, admitted their claim ; and 
 more expressly still when He said, " If I had not done 
 among them miracles which none other man did, they 
 had not had sin," that is, in rejecting His message. 
 It was natural, in like manner, for the followers of 
 Mahomet to ask him for miracles ; and if nothing else 
 had stamped his professed revelation as destitute of 
 trustworthy evidence of its celestial origin, it would 
 be sufficient to point to the fact that he evaded this 
 only sufficient test. 
 
 It is accordingly in analogy with this that men 
 proceed in analogous circumstances of ordinary life. 
 When their belief or action is demanded by unknown 
 pei so is, and on momentous matters, the intrinsic truth 
 of which is not evident, and may seem a priori incre- 
 dible, no reasoning nor seeming honesty nor vehe- 
 mence of asseveration on the part of the messengers, 
 can or ought to satisfy. Men ask and must have the 
 indubitable cr^fjueia of a right to demand their cre- 
 dence ; the letters, the sign-manual, or other accre- 
 dited proofs that the messengers speak with authority. 
 Such peculiar " signs " alone will suffice ; and these, 
 in the supposed case of a Revelation, can be nothing 
 less than miracle and prophecy. 
 
 To any one, therefore, who demands implicit assent 
 and obedience to things absolutely undiscoverable to 
 human reason, man, if he be reasonable, will say, 
 " Show me that you have the authority of Him whose 
 
4io On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 emissary you say you are." When the Lord of Nature 
 and of Time, He who can control causes and pre- 
 dict the future, confirms your message, I shall believe 
 you, and not till then." 
 
 I have said that I am not now arguing for the truth 
 either of miracles or prophecy, but merely that the 
 appeal to them is in analogy with the constitution of 
 human nature. The claim to have furnished such 
 evidence, no more proves a revelation to be true, than 
 the existence of mysteries does, for they may both 
 characterise a false revelation ; but the absence of 
 such claims would be a presumption against a revela- 
 tion, and out of analogy with the constitution of that 
 human mind which is summoned to submit to them. 
 
 My space forbids me to pursue this topic of 
 " Analogy" further. I must content myself with refer- 
 ring the reader to some further examples in Bishop 
 Hampden's admirable work on the "Philosophical 
 Evidence of Christianity," and begging him to bear in 
 mind that all the analogies insisted on by Butler are 
 also to be taken into the account; for they are available 
 on this, the positive side of the argument, though they 
 derive their chief force from being a reply to specific 
 objections. 
 
 This lecture may be considered as complementary 
 of the two first. If these show that the Bible is not 
 in conformity with what might have been expected to 
 proceed from man, analogy shows that it has, at all 
 events, certain conformities with what has incontest- 
 ably proceeded from God. 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature." 411 
 
 It will be seen, from the train of reasoning generally 
 pursued in these lectures, that I infer no more than 
 that the Bible, in its substance, had a superhuman 
 origin. 
 
 It is possible to contend that this does not show 
 it to be Divine ; nay, it is possible to imagine some 
 sceptical Quixote suggesting that even if it had a 
 preternatural origin, it may have been a malevolent 
 one. But as such an objector is hardly conceivable, 
 we may wait till he appears before indulging in the 
 equal Quixotry of confuting him. Unless one of those 
 old Pharisees, who imputed the miracles of Incarnate 
 Benevolence and Mercy to the agency of Beelzebub, 
 could rise from the dead, I do not know that such an 
 objector could be found ; and even then he would be 
 answered by our Lord's own argument, " That a king- 
 dom divided against itself is brought to desolation 
 and that -a house divided against itself cannot stand." 
 
 If it be once granted that the Bible, on the whole, 
 is not the work of man, few will hesitate to whom to 
 assign it. 
 
 At the same time, it is incumbent on me to mark 
 distinctly the limits of the thesis I contend for. 
 
 It is not necessary for me to affirm that the Bible, 
 as we have it, or even if we had it (as we cannot have 
 it) in the very autographs of its original writers, is 
 absolutely free from errors. To show that these ques- 
 tions do not affect the conclusions I am concerned 
 with, I would offer a few brief observations. 
 
 As apologists for Christianity justly affirm that the 
 
413 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 sum of the general evidence for it cannot be neutralized 
 by minute errors, referrible either to accidental cor- 
 ruptions of the text, or even to less than infallible 
 accuracy in the writers, so I may say the same of the 
 reasoning I have endeavoured to develop. No diffi- 
 culties in minute points of chronology or history, no 
 various readings, no mistakes as to numbers, nay, nor 
 even such errors of detail (if they can be proved such) 
 as have been charged on the original writers, will in- 
 validate the conclusions for which I contend. All the 
 facts I have dwelt upon remain, and point still in one 
 direction. 
 
 The evidence for the general conclusion cannot be 
 equated with these specific objections. They may 
 require, more or less, a limitation of our faith ; they 
 may affect in a certain degree the sum of our deduc- 
 tions from the book or our theories of its inspiration; 
 whether that was plenary or partial, continuous or 
 intermittent. But they will still leave its substance 
 untouched, and the great doctrines it unfolds and the 
 great duties it enjoins, just as they were. 
 
 If, for example, all the alleged historic contradictions 
 which, with any tolerable plausibility of argument, have 
 been charged upon the Bible, were admitted to be such, 
 and withdrawn from its pages as errors which had 
 got there we knew not how, none of the paradoxes 
 which the supposition of the human origin of the Bible 
 involves would be at all diminished, nor any argument 
 founded on them refuted. Similarly, if all the pas- 
 sages in which it is contended that fact or doctrine 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature" 413 
 
 is affected by corruptions of the text or discrepancies 
 in the manuscripts, 1 were given up on all sides, so 
 various and copious are the statements of Scripture, 
 that their surrender would make scarcely any appre- 
 ciable difference in the determination of the points for 
 or against which they may have been cited. 
 
 These things cannot affect any of the facts on 
 which I have argued that the Bible, as a whole, is not 
 such a book as man would have compiled if he could, 
 or could if he would. 
 
 Now, let a man only grant that the Bible is really 
 such a book, and it is certain that he will not lightly 
 tamper with its contents; his veneration will make 
 him very careful how he rejects any portion of it ; 
 he will exact the severest proois that what he is sum- 
 moned to reject is demonstrable error, before he casts 
 it away. The excrescences which the accidents of 
 time may have produced, he will remove with a 
 cautious hand, lest his critical scalpel should go too 
 deep. Alleged errors of the original writers them- 
 selves he will approach (to use the language of 
 Burke on another subject) as he would " the wounds 
 of a father," with " awful reverence and filial tender- 
 ness ; " but if they can be proved, he will, as an 
 
 1 " Make your thirty thousand various readings as many more," 
 says Bentley, "if numbers of copies can ever reach that sum : all 
 the better to a knowing and considerate reader, who is thereby 
 more richly furnished to select what he sees genuine. But even 
 put them into the hands of a knave or a fool, and yet with the most 
 sinistrous and absurd choice, he shall not extinguish the light of 
 any one chapter, nor so disguise Christianity but that every feature 
 of it will be still the same." Remarks on Free-thinking, 31. 
 
414 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 honest man, feel no temptation to harbour them. He 
 will be simply careful to ascertain that they are errors 
 which are charged upon the writers ; and, except for 
 the most coercive reasons, will rather modestly dis- 
 trust his own wisdom than theirs. 
 
 Nor need we hesitate to affirm that whoever acts 
 with this reverential caution, and rejects only what 
 has been demonstrated to be contradiction or error, will 
 find, when he has subtracted every iota to which he 
 can attach that character, that his Bible is much the 
 same, both in bulk and weight, that it was before. 
 
 But it can no more be his duty to reject the whole, 
 on account of such errors, than of the theist to reject 
 the conclusion that there is a Divine artificer of the 
 world, because there are many things in it he cannot 
 comprehend, and some phenomena which seem even 
 at variance both with wisdom and goodness. The 
 theist leaves these, and, notably, all the phenomena 
 of evil, in all their insolubility. Feeling, as Butler 
 puts it, that the whole system of things, though 
 plainly a system, is utterly beyond his comprehension, 
 he waits f jr further light and the slow evolution of the 
 vast plan de Dieu. As I have elsewhere said, " his 
 faith is exercised indeed; but he feels that to ignore the 
 evidence of his reason for his general conclusion, would 
 be to sacrifice faith and reason too ; to make his 
 ignorance the rule and measure of his knowledge, 
 or, rather, to abandon what he knows, because there 
 are other things which he knows not." 
 
 That there are errors in the Bible, as we have it, 
 
ix.] '* the Constitution and Course of Nature" 415 
 
 I 
 
 is incontrovertible. Not only are there errors, but 
 
 there must have been, even on the principles of those 
 Who hold the most rigid theories of inspiration. For 
 even they do not deny that the book of God was, like 
 every book of man, committed to human custody under 
 all the ordinary laws on which the preservation or 
 corruption both of the one and the other must depend. 
 To all the casualties which can affect the integrity of 
 the latter, the former is equally liable; qualified only by 
 that exceptional reverence which it has in fact inspired 
 in those who transcribed and transmitted it ; by the 
 facilities for revising the text which the greater number 
 of copies (produced by the same exceptional estimate 
 of its value) would supply, and by certain artifices in 
 its construction, which, as pointed out in a former 
 part of these lectures, subserve, and seem intended 
 to subserve, a like purpose. But, apart from such 
 deductions, whatever imperfections, arising from the 
 causes above referred to, are found in any human 
 author whatever, may, nay, must be found in the 
 Bible. Every species of error that could flow from 
 inadvertence or negligence of the transcribers, from 
 ignorance or presumption in editors, from lapse of 
 memory or illusion of eyesight, and which so largely 
 deform profane literature substitutions of one word 
 for another, slight omissions, lacuna, mistakes in 
 numbers, and so on may be equally expected here. 
 Whatever difficulties from these causes may perplex 
 the critic who edits or interprets Plato's dialogues 
 or Livy's history (and none need be tolcl how manifold 
 
4i 6 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 and often baffling they are), must also be found in 
 the Bible, aggravated in some degree by the far 
 greater antiquity of a large portion of the book, and 
 by the greater number of various readings which 
 the incomparably more frequent transcription has 
 occasioned. 1 If we find in these authors, as we do 
 find, passages which, from such causes, are obscure, 
 or ambiguous, or palpably corrupt, or unintelligible, 
 or contradictory passages on which infinite ingenuity 
 of conjecture, and all the resources of learning, often 
 exhaust themselves in vain we must expect to find 
 the same or similar passages in the Scriptures. 
 That these difficulties must be very considerable in 
 number, if not in weight, considering that the book 
 has been transmitted through such long periods, and 
 so often transcribed by ignorant or incompetent 
 copyists, can hardly be doubted. If it be asked, 
 " Then what trust can we have that the very sub- 
 stance may not be touched by this class of error?" 
 the answer is, " The same warranty that we have in 
 the case of any other book, and no more." The 
 
 1 This last source of difficulty is, however, probably more than 
 compensated by the aid which the various readings afford in the 
 revision and recovery of the text. The manuscripts which exist 
 in whole or in part of the New Testament are so much more 
 numerous than those of any other ancient book, even the most 
 popular, that that circumstance would lead one to conjecture that 
 the preponderance of the impressions of the printed volume 
 over every other printed book (to which reference has been made 
 in a previous page), was as great, \T\ proportion^ in the manuscript 
 copies. The immense efforts made, and yet in vain, to destroy the 
 copies of the New Testament during the fierce persecution under 
 Diocletian, confirms the suspicion of an exceptional activity of 
 transcription, as afterwards of the press. 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature " 417 
 
 laws on which the transmission of the Bible depend 
 are at least as certain as those on which the trans- 
 mission of any other book depends. Now we find, 
 in point of fact, that the limits of error are always 
 very moderate, and leave the essence, even of 
 writings far less carefully guarded than those of the 
 Scriptures, untouched. All the reasons therefore 
 which satisfy us that we have the substance of 
 Plato's or Livy's genuine thoughts (let what deduc- 
 tions we will be made for the injuries of time and 
 negligence), may satisfy us (and much more fully, if 
 we weigh and number the passages which are in- 
 curably corrupt, doubtful, or contradictory in the 
 several cases) that we possess the genuine substance 
 of the Bible ; that the life is untouched, though the 
 skin be razed here and there ; that the tree is 
 sound, though some twigs and leaves may have been 
 carried away in the storm. 
 
 I have sometimes thought that the amount of error 
 in the Bible, from these causes, may be somewhat 
 greater than the comparison of manuscripts will dis- 
 close, and may even embrace some of those cases 
 for which it is supposed nothing but ignorance or 
 mistake, on the part of the original writers, will ac- 
 count. It may be suspected that in some, at least, 
 of the difficulties which exercise and baffle our in- 
 genuity or provoke injurious surmises, our embar- 
 rassment may originate in the unguarded substitution 
 or omission of a word or clause. Considering what 
 errors have thus crept into the text, we can hardly 
 
 28 
 
41 8 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 be quite sure that, though the testimony of the manu- 
 scripts is of course our best, and indeed our only safe 
 guide in ascertaining it, many minute errors do not 
 still exist, of which the manuscripts give us no suffi- 
 cient indication, or in some cases none at all. 
 
 Such a suspicion is sometimes forced upon one in 
 the examination of those parallelisms which, as said 
 elsewhere, seem to have been, in part, intended as 
 a device for conserving the text. In some of them, 
 we see that the alteration of a syllable or even a letter 
 will at once restore the parallelism which the received 
 reading obviously violates. I would be the last, indeed, 
 to plead for any other emendations of the text than 
 those which manuscript authority justifies ; for it would 
 be better to let intractable passages remain so, than 
 sanction the freaks of conjectural criticism at one 
 time so liberally indulged in. Still it is impossible 
 not to suspect that in many cases, where the sub- 
 stitution of a single resembling word, or even the; 
 insertion of a single resembling letter, will remove all 
 obscurity or solve a difficulty, that the copyist, not 
 indeed intentionally, but from inadvertence, has been 
 unfaithful to his text. 
 
 I think it is perfectly competent to the Christian 
 apologist to proceed one step further. Supposing there 
 are some difficulties or discrepancies incapable of being 
 solved by the theory of some casual corruption of the 
 text, difficulties which would be found on the face 
 of the autographs themselves, if we could inspect 
 them, and finally shown to be insoluble, it is im- 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature" 419 
 
 possible that even that can neutralize the positive 
 evidence of so many kinds for the substantial truth 
 of the Bible. In all argumentative fairness we should 
 merely have to surrender so much proven error, no 
 matter how it originated. It is accordingly asked by 
 many in the present day, " What would it matter if 
 the sacred writers, on immaterial points, and wholly 
 foreign to their functions as religious teachers, 
 now and then spoke in ignorance or forgetfulness, 
 or in compliance with the current notions of their 
 times, or under natural prejudices of education? 
 What would it matter if it were proved, as it has 
 been surmised, that Stephen by a lapsus lingua said 
 ' Sychem,' when he was thinking of another place, 
 and that the New Testament has truthfully recorded 
 his blunder ? " 
 
 This theory is altogether consistent with the admis- 
 sion of the substantial truth of the Bible, and is in 
 fact untenable by none, but such as claim for it 
 that it is absolutely " perfect chrysolite," inspired 
 in every particle, if not verbally, yet plenarily, from 
 the first verse of Genesis to the last verse of the 
 Apocalypse. 
 
 Without professing or pretending that this is de- 
 monstrated to be the true explanation of the difficulties 
 in question, I know of no reasons why the theory 
 should invalidate, in any degree, the evidence on which 
 the claims of the Bible to our belief, reverence, and 
 obedience, essentially depends. It could make no dif- 
 ference to the honest mind. It would eliminate only 
 
 28* 
 
420 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 those errors that are demonstrated to be such, and which 
 must therefore be rejected, however we may account 
 for them. But it could no more destroy the huge 
 accumulation of proof for the Bible in general, than 
 some minute errors detected in any memoir or history 
 could destroy the evidence on which its general trust- 
 worthiness is affirmed. And in the case of the Bible, 
 if the whole of those passages in which it can be at 
 all pretended that error has been demonstrated, were 
 subducted from it, the sum of all its more important 
 contents would remain just what it was. 
 
 Without affirming or denying this theory, it must 
 be admitted that, if true, it is by no means without 
 analogy in the constitution of nature and the dispen- 
 sations of Providence. How often does God permit 
 His most excellent gifts to be in some degree marred 
 by the hands through which they are administered! 
 How often does He allow the slips and weaknesses of 
 the wisest and best to tarnish their worth .or diminish 
 their usefulness; not indeed to the frustration of the 
 great objects for which they are equipped and sent 
 into the world, or of the benefits they were destined 
 to confer upon it ; but so far as to evince that there 
 is a baser element in even the most precious things 
 of earth, of ignorance and infirmity even in the noblest 
 forms of humanity. It is thus conceivable that, as 
 the sun has its macula, so may even inspired genius ; 
 that even " the water of life " may have some tang 
 of the conduit through which it reaches us ; and the 
 "heavenly treasures" bear marks of the "earthen 
 
ix.] " the Constitution and Course of Nature" 421 
 
 vessels " in which they have been deposited. If it be 
 so, it is no more than in analogy with nature, while 
 it would be by no means inconsistent with some of 
 the purposes of revelation. To ascertain the limits 
 of our ignorance and knowledge, of error and truth, 
 would impose a perpetual exercise of caution and 
 candour, patience and docility ; and if the trait in 
 question answered no other purpose, it would at 
 least (as Bishop Butler says of the designed obscurity 
 which rests on the evidence of religion in general) 
 admirably serve as an instrument of " probation," and 
 in some respects would be better than if there were 
 no such difficulties at all. 
 
 To him, then, who admits the substantive truth of 
 the Bible, founded on the aggregate of all its evidences 
 the amount of demonstrable error in it, measured by 
 the contradictions and discrepancies actually proven, 
 will give little difficulty. It little matters to him what 
 theory may be formed as to their origin ; he will simply 
 ignore them. They will be as if obliterated from the 
 book; but they will not disturb the general con- 
 clusions, any more than some minute discrepancies 
 among witnesses, of which neither bench nor bar can 
 suggest any explanation, will arrest the verdict of a 
 jury founded on the convergence of all the principal 
 lines of evidence. 
 
 But before surrendering any such fragments, such a 
 man will justly demand rigorous proof that they are to 
 be surrendered. He will not hastily reckon that all 
 the passages on which error is confidently charged, 
 
422 On certain Analogies between the Bible and [LECT. 
 
 especially some of those relating to primeval history, 
 and involving most dark and difficult problems of a 
 cosmical, ethnological, and chronological nature, and 
 which science too often proclaims to be utterly incre- 
 dible, are of this description. They may often be left 
 sub lite till both the interpretation of Scripture and the 
 discoveries of science shall have advanced much nearer 
 to incontrovertible conclusions. The theologian, on his 
 side, has still a good deal to do for the full elucidation 
 of the Bible ; and science on hers must not only pro- 
 ceed much farther than she has done, but hush her 
 own clamorous discordances, and be quite sure that 
 her theories of to-day will not (as often in the past) 
 be corrected or even exploded by the theories of to- 
 morrow. Till then she cannot be allowed that ma- 
 gisterial tone which, in spite of her very self, of all 
 the prophetic warnings of her great prophet in the 
 " Novum Organum," and the still visible ruins of so 
 many futile theories, she is so fond of employing ; till 
 then, she cannot be allowed to speak ex cathedra. 
 
 As to those more extenive excisions which demand 
 the surrender of all that is supernatural in the Bible 
 (however interfused with all its elements, and as 
 incapable of being rent from it without destroying it, 
 as the system of bones or arteries from the human 
 body without destroying thaf) t the advocate of the 
 Bible will justly require, before even listening to such a 
 demand, that science shall not affirm, but demonstrate, 
 the impossibility or incredibility of miracles. When she, 
 has done that, I for one acknowledge that it will be 
 
ix.] "the Constitution and Course of Nature." 423 
 
 time to shut the book as a hopeless riddle of fable 
 or falsehood, or both, which it will be hardly worth 
 while to open again. 
 
 Mean time he who admits, in any degree, the reason- 
 ing in these lectures namely, that the Bible is not 
 to be accounted for by merely human forces, ought not 
 to feel much difficulty in this last matter; for if he 
 concedes a revelation at all, in which are discovered 
 truths and facts undiscoverable by human faculties, 
 and conveyed in modes and forms for which human 
 nature will not account he has already admitted a 
 miracle a fact as much in the face of that " invariable 
 order" of nature, and those "immutable series of an- 
 tecedents and consequents " on which the objector to 
 miracles insists, as any that can be conceived. The 
 only difference is that the miracle here has been wrought 
 in the sphere of mind, and not in that of matter, a dif- 
 ference which, to a man who knows what the objection 
 to all miracles logically involves, will not affect the 
 question. 1 
 
 1 On some of the difficulties referred to above, a few pages will 
 he found in the Appendix, No. VIII. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I., p. 34. 
 
 WHILE the morality of the Old Testament is substantially the 
 same with that of the New, both being summed up in those 
 "two commandments" which, as Christ says, embody all that 
 "Moses and the prophets" taught, and which contain, by impli- 
 cation, all the principal developments of the Gospel, it cannot be 
 denied that the ethics of the New Testament modify in certain 
 points the code of the Old ; not, indeed, by relaxing any moral 
 precepts, but by enlarging them beyond the scope of what equity 
 strictly demands, and making that a part of Christian morality which 
 nature had not made so. This, it seems to me, is implied in that 
 "new commandment" which Christ gave to His disciples. He 
 forbade to Christians much which Jew or Gentile might blame- 
 lessly have felt and done ; for neither would have done what 
 was wrong in exacting, within the limits of equity, retribution for 
 injuries, provided the claim was urged strictly within those limits, 
 and without malignity of feeling. Exact reparation for injuries 
 wantonly inflicted, when enforced only on these conditions, cannot 
 be censured as injustice. But the Gospel code takes man out of 
 himself ; lifts him into a loftier plane of morals ; tells him to refrain 
 from much which it would be natural, and, by other codes, not 
 wrong to do : in many cases, to waive the rights he might press, 
 and endure wrong, rather than requite or resent it. 
 
 And this is what our Saviour plainly means when He says, " It 
 has been said by them of old time, An eye for an eye, a tooth for 
 a tooth" (this is truly part of the Mosaic law, and TLQ gloss). But 
 / say unto you, Love your enemies Do good to them that hate 
 you, and pray for them that despitefully use you and persecute 
 you." It is as though He had said, " I abolish the lex talionis, 
 though it is a part of your law, and is in itself bare justice ; but I 
 show you a more excellent way." 
 
428 Appendix. 
 
 I confess I am very much perplexed to know how this more 
 elevated morality, not only above nature, but against it, should 
 have proceeded from the heart of man ; and as little can I con- 
 ceive it coming from the Jews as from any body, since it was in 
 contradiction to a law they deemed to be Divine, and which 
 sanctioned, as they thought, a very different practice. I 
 
 To the observation that the moral precepts of Christianity seem 
 against the grain of human nature, it may be thought, on a super- 
 
 1 It seems to me that in the distinctions here suggested, we must find the 
 answer to many of the difficulties in what are called the "imprecatory " Psalms. 
 1 am aware that some of these difficulties admit of grammatical answers, and 
 are solved by a more just translation ; but not all. Of these, it is often said, 
 "What an unchristian spirit they display ! " forgetting that David was not a 
 Christian. A Christian would be wrong in cherishing a desire for even just 
 retribution on those who had most deeply wronged him. Whether David 
 was so, would depend on whether malignity prompted his feelings and language. 
 But we must put ourselves in his situation, before we can justly weigh, far less 
 harshly press, his expressions. They were wrung from one who had been 
 driven from home and friends, and the "house of God ;" chased "like a par- 
 tridge on the mountains ; " his life sought, his blood thirsted for, by those to 
 whom he had been a signal benefactor. Even so, they would still be incon- 
 sistent with the code of the Gospel, though (Christians as we profess to be) 
 it is impossible not to recognise the same spirit in the satisfaction often ex- 
 pressed at the condign punishment of some abnormal iniquity. To understand 
 David aright, we must remember how Englishmen feel and speak during the 
 agony of an Indian mutiny, or when they are stung by some atrocity of Greek 
 brigandage. The feelings are felt to be natural and -just ; so David's were ; 
 but they are not the Gospel. On this point there are some admirable remarks, 
 full of philosophic discrimination, in Isaac- Taylor's Lectures on Hebrew 
 Poetry. "We fail to realise circumstances and states of mind such as are here " 
 (in some of the Psalms) "brought into view. To do so, we, in these easy times, 
 must travel far away from the secure and tranquil meadow-lands of ordinary life 
 But there have been tens of thousands in ages past, who have trodden the 
 rugged heavenward road, and found it to be a way, not only very thorny and 
 flinty to the feet, but beset with terrors ; for spiteful and remorseless men have 
 couched beside this narrow way, and have rendered it terrible to the pilgrims. 
 A path of anguish and of many fears it has been. In our drowsy repetition 
 of these Psalms, cushioned as we are upon the soft luxuries of modern life, we 
 fail to understand these outcries from the martyrs' field, 
 
 ' Arise, thou Judge of the earth, 
 Recompense a reward to the proud.' 
 
 Let .only .such times return upon us as have been of more frequency than these 
 times of ease in the history of the Church, and we should quickly know how 
 to understand a Psalm such as the 94th. Christian men and women, when they 
 are called in like manner to suffer, are required to pay respect to a rule of 
 suffering which is many centuries later than the times of David ; but which, 
 although it is a higher rule, does not bring under blame the natural and the 
 religious emotions that were proper to the earlier dispensation." 
 
Appendix. 429 
 
 ficial glance, sufficient reply to ay that the practices adopted under 
 many systems of false religion, for example, the frightful self- 
 torture and austerities so often enjoined and submitted to, are 
 as much against it. The brief but conclusive answer is, that the 
 facts in question are not contrary to human nature, but as abundant 
 experience shows, quite in analogy with it. Fanaticism will submit 
 to any course of discipline and suffering that promises to realise the 
 dreams of spiritual ambition, or lay the spectres of a guilty con- 
 science ; but it is a selfish impulse that exacts obedience, whether 
 it be the expiation of guilt, or the attainment of superhuman sanc- 
 tity, or the hope of reabsorption into the Deity. But though it 
 is easy to account for such cases, I know not how to account, on 
 the mere principles of human nature, for such a general principle 
 as this "Love your enemies ; do good to them that hate you, 
 arid pray for them who despitefully use you and persecute you." 
 This fruit is not grown on the crabbed stock of a selfish superstition. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. II., pp. 36, 37. 
 
 IF the miracles were falsely imputed to the historic Christ with 
 His acquiescence, it occurs to ask the following questions: 
 
 I. Did He pretend to work them, though He never did? 
 
 If so, then in spite of all M. Rdnan's sophistical attempts to 
 justify Him in such tracasserie, His conduct is at utter variance 
 with the impressions of that intellectual and moral greatness the 
 world has ever accorded to Him. He was equally weak and wicked. 
 He was weak, because, though plenty of miracles can be palmed 
 on credulous ignorance in behalf of systems already firmly es- 
 tablished, to appeal to them in order to establish a new religion, 
 and in the face of inveterate prejudice guarding an ancient re- 
 ligion, is so far from being a likely thing for a wise man to attempt, 
 that as Davison x justly says, there are but two religions in which 
 the attempt would seem ever to have been made; that is, the 
 Jewish and the Christian! 
 
 Mahomet, it is well known, declined this test, which his astute- 
 ness doubtless saw would be fatal (as it has often been found to 
 be) when a hostile and therefore vigilant world is to be the judge. 
 Accordingly we find that Mahomet tells us of many wondrous things 
 acted behind the scenes, as of his monstrous night journey on 
 horseback, from Mecca to the seventh heaven, but he does not 
 bring such things on the public stage. 
 
 But the above supposition reflects still more on the goodness than 
 on the wisdom of Christ. If He attempted this cheat, it is impossible 
 
 1 Lectures on Prophecy. Paley also well says : "To hear some men talk, one 
 would suppose the setting up of a religion by miracles to be a thing of every 
 day's experience ; whereas the whole current of history is against it. Hath any 
 founder of a new sect amongst Christians pretended to miraculous powers, 
 and succeeded by his pretensions ? . . . The French prophets, in the be- 
 ginning of the present (i8th) century, ventured to allege miraculous evidence, 
 and immediately ruined their cause by their temerity." Evidences, p. 133. 
 
Appendix. 431 
 
 that He can have been possessed of those qualities which have 
 ravished the world's admiration, and which seem to beam out upon 
 us from His whole history. To invest Him with such contradictory 
 attributes, is indeed to make Him a paradox in human nature! 
 
 It is hardly worth while to ask how it came to pass that He 
 cheated prejudiced and hostile multitudes into a belief that He had 
 performed miracles when He had not. If He did, their character 
 as human beings is almost as inexplicable as His own. I am con- 
 tent to say, that if Christ pretended to work miracles, and did nof, 
 His conduct is wholly inexplicable on the principles of human 
 nature, supposing the portrait to be that of a real personage ; for 
 he has undoubtedly impressed the world, even those who have 
 been most hostile to His higher claims, with strong convictions 
 both of His intellectual and moral greatness. But I need say 
 the less on this point, as it is now almost universally conceded 
 that Jesus Christ was wholly incapable of any such conduct ; 
 and, indeed, not a few writers against Christianity taunt its ad- 
 vocates with perpetually trying to prove what they now say 
 nobody denies that it is not a forgery, and that Christ is no im- 
 postor ; though, in fact, this was long the favourite theory of 
 scepticism, and is even now partially resorted to by Re'nan and 
 Strauss, who, in the difficult task of accounting for everything by 
 myth, feel that it may be as well not wholly to reject it. They forget 
 that, if it be not rejected wholly, it may as well be accepted alto- 
 gether ; for as the subject of the great controversy says, " He who 
 is unfaithful in the least, is unfaithful also in much ; " and if Christ 
 cheated the world at all, it is impossible to say how far. 
 
 2. Shall we next, then, suppose that the miracles were never 
 wrought by Christ, and that He never falsely pretended to work 
 them, but that He fancied He had wrought them before the gaze 
 of the world, and that the world fancied it too ? How shall we 
 reconcile this weakness, or rather madness, of fanaticism, with the 
 qualities which belong to the historic Personage described to us ? 
 with His self-possession, His calmness, His singular prudence, His 
 entire freedom through all His discourses and conduct from every 
 trait of an ill-balanced mind? And, further, how shall we account 
 for multitudes of men simultaneously fancying the same thing ? 
 Surely, it is to suppose an inconceivable subversion of human 
 nature, not only in Christ Himself, but in all that came in contact 
 
432 Appendix. 
 
 with Him ! But on this point, again, it is not necessary to say 
 more. The naturalism (one would imagine the name was given 
 in irony) which once conjectured that the miraculous phenomena 
 of the Gospel might be resolved into misunderstood natural phe- 
 nomena, and that a number of people simultaneously mistook 
 lanterns for stars, thunder for articulate speech, women in white, 
 or even men in armour, for angels, is not the naturalism of human 
 nature. 
 
 The author of " Ecce Homo " regards it as indubitable that 
 Christ must have been accredited vi\\h the performance of miracles; 
 and if that able writer has not made it so clear as could be wished 
 whether, in his opinion, those miracles were real or not, logically 
 his argument can lead to no other conclusion than that they were 
 real. He believes that Christ's disciples and followers fully ac- 
 quiesced in thus accrediting Him; and that nothing less than their 
 plenary honesty in this, will account for all that influence He 
 exerted over them. If so, and their belief was the effect of decep- 
 tion or delusion on His part, all the anomalies in His character 
 reappear ; His fraud or His fanaticism stands out in glaring con- 
 trast with all those traits of intellectual and moral greatness which 
 the world has attributed to Him, and which even the majority of 
 those who reject His claims have not been slow to concede. Such 
 are some of the paradoxes in which the mere ascription of the 
 miracles to Christ, if He was a real personage, and knew anything 
 about it, involves us. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. III., pp. 51-55. 
 
 THE paradox in the text is not at all diminished, rather in many 
 respects increased, by the fond theories adopted by many critics of 
 modern times, who assure the Jews of what their halting patriotism 
 failed to find out for themselves, that their annals are fabulous, 
 the inventions of a late age, and successfully palmed on the nation 
 as their true history ! 
 
 Every one can see, indeed, what it is that has led to the projec- 
 tion of these theories ; namely, the necessity (as the rationalist 
 supposes) of getting quit, at any cost of contradiction or absurdity, 
 of the preternatural events in the history of miracles and pro- 
 phecy. Apart from such exigency, which demands a later and 
 fabulous origin of the documents which ,record them, there is not 
 one in ten thousand who would not feel that there was abundantly 
 greater reason to acquiesce in their authenticity and genuineness 
 than to accept any such hypothesis ; for the obstacles are enormous. 
 
 Its advocates are at infinite variance among themselves ; the 
 periods they assign for the imagined origin of the books differ by 
 many centuries, and are in any case determined by the merest con- 
 jecture, which wanders through all epochs, from the time of the 
 Judges to that of Malachi, " seeking rest and finding none." On 
 the other hand, every such hypothesis is in defiance of the vehe- 
 ment and consentient testimony of the Jewish nation in every age ; 
 of the astonishing proofs they have given of the care and honesty 
 with which they have preserved what they so revere ; and in the 
 absence of any, the faintest, indication that their nation possessed 
 any tradition of the persons by whom, or the time when, these 
 libellous annals were substituted for the true, and, disgraceful as 
 they are, adopted without a protest or a suspicion by the people ! 
 The very names of those who operated so gigantic a fraud, and 
 inflicted at the same time such a stab on national vanity, have 
 
 29 
 
434 Appendix. 
 
 been suffered to drop into oblivion ; while the victims, who could 
 not but be aware when these pretended chronicles of an older time 
 wereyfrj/ attempted to be palmed upon them, clutched the ignomi- 
 nious records to their hearts, affirmed that they contained God's 
 own account of their nation ; and not only clung to their shame, 
 but lied, and lied universally, that the stigma might abide for 
 ever ! 
 
 If the Bible be not what it professes to be, the conduct of the 
 Jews abounds with paradoxes. On the other hand, supposing it to 
 relate a true history of the Jewish people, they vanish. It is pos- 
 sible to conceive that the successive generations of Israelites, 
 being conscious that the conduct charged upon their ancestors and 
 themselves was truly charged, would accept the recital, and submit 
 in silence to the unmeasured reproaches cast upon them, though 
 even this would demand the indisputable notoriety of the facts. 
 It is impossible, indeed, to point out any entire community, which 
 at a late period of its existence has accepted mythical fabrications 
 as its genuine history ; certainly it would never do so unless 
 they enormously nattered its vanity, nor even then without pro- 
 voking suspicion and protest in many quarters. But is it imagin- 
 able that it would do this, with absolute unanimity and in absolute 
 silence, when stigma and invective marked every page ? Only 
 those who have carefully read the Pentateuch, the Historical books, 
 and the Prophets, with express view of ascertaining the extent of 
 this element, can have any adequate idea of the space occupied 
 by invective, rebuke, and reproaches addressed to the nation, 
 though mingled, it is true, with the most inimitable touches of 
 pathetic remonstrance on their wilfulness, wickedness, and folly. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. IV., p. 154. 
 
 THE impossibility of prophecy (as of miracles) is a pure dogma, 
 or prejudice rather, of pseudo-science, unworthy of trtie science, 
 and as much a generalisation beyond the data, as much a preci- 
 pitate "anticipation" of facts, as any that Bacon has exposed and 
 denounced in his " Novum Organum." It is a position which a 
 theist, in any proper sense, can hardly be imagined to maintain ; 
 nor probably has there ever been one who would venture thus to 
 limit the Divine omnipotence and omniscience. There would be 
 this additional absurdity in it, that it would deny to God what 
 many modern savans believe will one day be possible to man. 
 We are assured that, in virtue of advancing science, man is at 
 length to endue himself with the power of pre-vision, whether 
 God ever gives it to him or not. To say, then, that God cannot 
 speak to us by prophecy, is to say, either that He is not so well 
 acquainted with the relations of all possible events, with the whole 
 chain of antecedents and consequents, as man will one day be ; 
 or, that having that knowledge, He cannot impart it, though man 
 (when he has thus equipped himself) certainly can ! 
 
 On the other hand, to say that prophecy is absolutely incredible, 
 not because God cannot, but because He certainly will not give it, 
 is little better ; for in the first place it is impossible to imagine how 
 we are to ascertain this ; and secondly, it is not very compatible with 
 the above speculation of man's possibly becoming a seer himself. 
 For if that shall ever be the case, it must still be because God, who 
 gifted him with such powers, wills it ; and if so, one would surmise 
 it to be not improbable that God might, in some cases, anticipate 
 a gift which it seems He wills man should one day possess ; and 
 confer, for special purposes, on some favoured persons, what He 
 designs that certain sages and savans, with more liberal hands, 
 shall hereafter bestow on the world at large! 
 
 29 * 
 
43 6 Appendix. 
 
 It must be admitted that the argument from prophecy may, 
 by a little stratagem, be often plausibly eluded. Prophecy may 
 always be alleged to be too plain or too obscure : if too plain, it 
 was written after the event, and is history and not prophecy ; if 
 obscure, its reference is uncertain, and we cannot be sure that it is 
 prophecy. 
 
 This solvent immediately discharges all colour from much of the 
 prophetical matter to which it is applied. Is there any obscurity 
 about the prophecy ? Then it is not clear that it refers to the events 
 of which it is interpreted. Is it perfectly clear, so that no one has 
 any doubt that it does refer to them ? Then, ipso facto, it is proved 
 to be no prophecy at aH, but history. So that, in short, we may say 
 the ingenuity of man infallibly arms him against almost any im- 
 pressions that prophecy, let it be ever so true, can make upon him, 
 if he but act courageously on these principles. 
 
 It might, indeed, appear reasonable to say, that if the world is to 
 be governed on the ordinary principles on which God at present 
 governs it ; if events are to be brought about by moral agencies 
 and moral forces, that is, by rational creatures acting upon motives ; 
 then, unless men are to be tempted to tamper with the Divine 
 plans, to accelerate or retard (as they imagine) the events they 
 deem predicted, it is hardly conceivable that prophecy should not 
 have such a degree of obscurity resting upon it, be here enveloped 
 in such twilight, lie there so deep in shadow, that it shall be 
 always possible to feel, or to affect, doubts about its application, 
 till the events which fulfil it make it plain. 
 
 I see not, however, how either of the principles above-men- 
 tioned, one depending on the allegation that documents are later 
 than the facts they record, the other on the allegation that they 
 are not decipherable, will suffice to explain those " coincidences " 
 between Scripture and the world's history to which reference has 
 been made in the text, and to many others like them, in which 
 none can pretend that the facts preceded the documents, or that 
 their interpretation is ambiguous. I only mentioned them in that 
 place, as amongst the many eccentric traits, rd 7rapadoa, of the 
 Bible ; for that is all my present theme required. But I appre- 
 hend it will be difficult to give any explanation of them which 
 will not involve true prophecy. 
 
 It may be as well to remark that difficulties in relation to 
 
Appendix. 437 
 
 some portions of prophecy must result from the historic form of 
 any such revelation as the Bible professes to be. Slowly developing 
 through many ages, the earliest utterances will be covered with the 
 " hoar of antiquity " before the last are spoken. Of many historic 
 facts, therefore, cursorily related, it may be difficult to recover the 
 true account. Nay, it is conceivable that the prophecies (sup- 
 posing them, for argument's sake, to be such) of the decay and 
 extinction of some kingdoms, for example, of Edom and Moab, 
 may be so true, that there are no longer adequate relics to verify 
 them ; and that though (as Davison says) they may have done 
 their work at the time they were fulfilled, and inspired confidence 
 in other prophecies then unfulfilled, may, so far from being evi- 
 dence to us, be simply problems for our diligence and research ; 
 perhaps even difficulties to our faith, and tending, amongst other 
 things, to make the conditions of that faith much more nearly 
 equal in different ages than is often imagined. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. V., p. 176. 
 
 THE wildest hypotheses have been formed as to the character 
 and history of Melchizedek, founded on the expression, " Without 
 father, without mother, without beginning of days, or end of life." 
 They have arisen, as it seems to me, simply from forgetting that in 
 any " type " it is only analogical resemblance that is pretended. 
 Indeed, anything more would destroy the type. If the "type" 
 and the " antitype " had not only similarity of attributes, but iden- 
 tity, there would no longer be between them mere resemblance, 
 and the image would vanish. From the words quoted above, it 
 has been imagined that Melchizedek must have been literally 
 " without father and without mother ; " whence it has been argued, 
 though there is not a syllable in the brief record to favour so 
 strange an hypothesis, that he must have been a superhuman 
 or celestial personage ; or the Messiah Himself, anticipating His 
 own incarnation ; one of those transient manifestations which 
 are much more rationally associated with the character and attri- 
 butes of that "Angel of the Covenant "who plays so conspicuous 
 a part in the transactions of the Pentateuch. 
 
 The theories in question are as superfluous as irrational, if we 
 duly consider what a type not only is, but to be truly such, must be : 
 always founded on partial and often remote and accidental resem- 
 blances, though still sufficient to suggest the relation between the 
 type and the thing typified. 
 
 Not only is this the case with the typ^s of Scripture, but, in 
 fact, every poetical comparison between objects which have a 
 certain "analogical resemblance" (though they may differ by a 
 thousand contrasts) demonstrates the same thing. Whether 
 the analogy be between animate and inanimate objects, or 
 between animals and men, or between material objects and 
 
Appendix. 439 
 
 abstract qualities ; in all, it is very partial and often very fan- 
 ciful. Thus the observation, so far from applying to Scripture 
 magery alone, is equally applicable to poetry generally; and 
 whatever peculiarities may be technically predicated of a "type " 
 of Scripture beyond a mere image, its fundamental principle is 
 illustrated by a universal law of human thought and language. 
 When a hero is compared to a " lion," or a " ship ." to a " bird," 
 or a "nest" to a "house," everybody perfectly understands in 
 how infinite ways these conceptions differ from one another 
 how shadowy is the resemblance between them ; and, moreover, 
 that that resemblance is not founded on any essential identity, 
 even of the qualities in which they are compared, but on the 
 analogical resemblance of those qualities, on the \6ywv o/zoiorTjc, 
 the " equality of ratios," as Aristotle aptly expresses it ; and ac- 
 cordingly every metaphor, founded on analogical resemblance, 
 can always be expanded in the terms of a geometrical proportion. 
 Thus, when we call "youth the morning of life," or "virtue the 
 enamel of the soul," we mean that what the morning is to the day 
 so is youth to life ; or that as enamel is to that which it encases and 
 preserves, so is virtue to the soul. The courage of the hero, con- 
 scious of danger, and " looking before and after " while he braves 
 it, is no more the courage of the lion, than the innocence of Christ 
 is the innocence of the "lamb;" though superficial appearances, as 
 in other cases of resemblance, justify the simile, and give vividness 
 to the correspondent conception. If these obvious facts with 
 regard to the nature of " types," and indeed of poetical imagery in 
 general, had been remembered by those who commented on the 
 seventh chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews, it would have 
 spared the world much strange speculation. It would have been 
 seen that the manner in which Melchizedek appears on the stage 
 of history, emerging like a phantom out of darkness for a moment, 
 and vanishing into darkness again ; springing from no known 
 progenitors, and having no known relation to posterity ; indepen- 
 dent in his priesthood of any priestly lineage ; deriving his func- 
 tions from no predecessor, and consigning them to no successor; 
 were sufficiently striking, though only analogical resemblances, to 
 constitute him a type of the great High Priest with whom he is 
 compared. They are as intelligible as a thousand other resem- 
 blances on which similar imagery, both in ordinary allegory and 
 
44 Appendix. 
 
 in the types of Scripture, is rationally founded. This is said in 
 explanation of what appears to me the natural exegesis of the 
 apostle's language. The fact of the singular correspondence among 
 the scattered allusions to Melchizedek, which occur between the 
 book of Genesis and the Epistle to the Hebrews, is quite inde- 
 pendent of it, and is the point on which I have insisted in the 
 text. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. VI., p. 181. 
 
 I MUCH regret that my limited space did not permit me to treat 
 the " Unity " of the Bible at greater length. Those who wish for 
 further information may consult the excellent lectures of Dr. W. L. 
 Alexander, " On the Connection and Harmony of the Old and New 
 Testaments," and the works to which he has made reference. The 
 little book of Lord Hatherley on the "Continuity" of the Bible con- 
 tains some excellent observations on the same subject; and the 
 like may be said of a section in a little tractate entitled " Divine 
 Footprints in the Bible." The book is designed, the author mo- 
 destly tells us, for " youth ; " and it needs only a more cautious 
 statement of some points, and greater expansion and illustration 
 in others, to make it a valuable " manual " for those for whom it 
 is designed. 
 
 Many in our day, as well as some in former times, would 
 endeavour to extricate Christianity from certain difficulties by 
 cutting the ligaments between it and Judaism. They would dis- 
 place it from what they regard its precarious foundations in the Old 
 Testament. I am profoundly convinced that this cannot be done 
 without leaving both in ruins. Much stress has been laid on an 
 admission of Paley, which is in itself a very reasonable one, but 
 which has been pressed in a way which, liberal as he was in his 
 theology, he would have been far from approving. He states, with 
 his usual admirable succinctness and precision, his main reasons 
 for his belief in the superhuman origin of the Jewish dispensation. 
 " I conceive it," he says, " to be very difficult to assign any other 
 cause for the commencement or existence of that institution : 
 especially for the singular circumstance of the Jews adhering to the 
 unity of God, when every other people slid into polytheism ; for 
 their being men in religion, children in everything else ; behind 
 other nations in the arts of peace and war, superior to the most 
 
442 Appendix. 
 
 improved in their sentiments and doctrines relating to the Deity. 
 Undoubtedly, also, our Saviour recognises the prophetic character 
 of many of their ancient writings. So far, therefore, we are bound, 
 as Christians, to go." He then proceeds to say : " But to make 
 Christianity answerable with its life for the circumstantial truth of 
 each passage of the Old Testament, the genuineness of every book, 
 the information, fidelity, and judgment of every writer in it, is to 
 bring, I will not say great, but unnecessary difficulties, into the 
 whole system." I conceive every rational man would concede as 
 much as this, and even more ; for he would not " make Christianity 
 answer with its life for the circumstantial truth of each passage " in 
 the New Testament, any more than for each passage in the Old. 
 But this is very different from fancying that the Old Testament 
 generally may be given up without affecting the position of the 
 New. It were well if youthful theologians would ponder the 
 following words (expressly intended for them) of Herder. In spite 
 of his free spirit of criticism, he writes of the Old Testament thus : 
 " Der Grund der Theologie ist die Bibel, und der Grund des N. T. 
 ist das alte. Unmoglich verstehn wir jenes recht, wenn wir dieses 
 nicht verstehen : denn Christenthum ist aus dem Judenthum 
 hervorgegangen, der Genius der Sprache ist in beiderlei Buchern 
 derselbe ; und den Genius der Sprache konnen wir nie besser, d.i, 
 nie wahrer, tiefer, vielseitiger, angenehmer studiren, als in Poesie, 
 und zwar so viel moglich in den altesten Poesien derselben. Es 
 ist falsch und verfiihrend, wenn man jungen Theologen das N. T. 
 mit Ausschliessung des alten anpreiset ; ohne dieses ist jenes auf 
 cine gelehrte Weise nicht einmal verstandlich. Dazu ist in ihm, 
 dem A. T., eine so reiche Abwechslung von Geschichten, Bildern, 
 Charakteren, Scenen : in ihm sehen wir die vielfarbige Dammerung, 
 der schonen Sonne aufgang ; im N. T. steht sie am hochsten 
 Himmel, und jederman weiss, welche Tageszeit dem sinnlichen 
 auge die erquickendste, die starkendste ist Studire man also 
 das A. T. auch nur als ein menschliches Buch voll alter Poesien, 
 mit Lust und Liebe, so wird uns das Neue in seiner Reinheit, 
 seinem hohen Glanz, seiner iiberirdischen schonheit von selbst 
 aufgehn. Sammle man den Reichthum jenes in sich und man 
 wird auch in diesem kein leerer geschmakloser oder gar entweih- 
 ender Schwasser worden." Herder. Preface to his Geist der 
 Ebraischen Poesie. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. VII., p. 278. 
 
 IT is no slight testimony to the adaptation and comprehensiveness 
 of the religious contents of the Bible, that so many millions 
 have declared that all the moods and necessities of their moral 
 and spiritual life are exhaustively expressed there. As there is 
 scarcely any condition in human life but may find its parallel in 
 the scenes of the Scripture history, so may it be truly said 
 that all the phenomena of religious experience are there de- 
 scribed with incomparable force. The devout mind finds every 
 shade of emotion, of penitence, faith, hope, devout aspira- 
 tion, and every variation of spiritual consciousness, already 
 expressed to his hand, in words better than his own, and as if by 
 one who knew man better than man knows himself. His whole 
 nature is reflected, as it were, in that faithful mirror. This is 
 especially the case in the Psalms, Gospels, and Epistles, which 
 have made' so many say that they found in the Bible the vivid 
 expression of what, till they read it there, was hardly known to 
 themselves, or could be uttered only in faltering accents and 
 with a stammering tongue. 
 
 Accordingly, they have felt that the strongest evidence of the 
 truth of the Bible is to be found in its own pages, and that its moral 
 and religious elements are to them no less than demonstration. 
 The consciousness that its representations find an echo in their 
 own hearts ; that the doctrines it propounds are exquisitely adapted 
 to meet the conditions of that nature which it thus reveals, and yet 
 so out of the range of all ordinary human speculation, and so 
 little likely to suggest themselves ; that, above all, an unfeigned 
 faith in those doctrines has transformed their whole life, made 
 them emulous of all goodness, and filled their hearts with joy and 
 peace ; the consciousness, I say, of all this, has been to them the 
 
444 Appendix. 
 
 " evidence of evidences." To such men, it seems the climax of 
 absurdity that the Scriptures should be false. 1 
 
 1 This subject has been very powerfully dealt with by Dr. Chalmers in his 
 "Evidences." Vol. II. bk. iii. ch. 3, pp. 99-169. Experimental Evidence. It is 
 true that this evidence cannot be directly appealed to in arguing with a man who 
 rejects Christianity. The argument, while he is in such a condition, must take 
 lower ground. Yet even /fomay be reasonably asked to attach some weight to 
 the immense "cloud of witnesses" that depose on its behalf ; the multitudinous 
 examples of a transformed life it has furnished; and the moral changes, the 
 revolutions in sentiment and practice, which, after making all deductions, it has 
 wrought in modern as compared with ancient civilisation. Some exceedingly 
 powerful remarks will be found on this point in Mozley's " Bampton Lectures." 
 Lecture 7. 
 
 And though the argument from experimental evidence cannot in strictness 
 be used with a man who rejects the Bible altogether, for the controversy would 
 be, as Frederick the Great said of a war between Prussia and England, like ' ' a 
 fight between a dog and a fish," yet even one who rejects the Bible may, if 
 he faithfully consult his own consciousness, at least judge of the fidelity or 
 falsehood of its own draft of our moral nature. On the other hand, the im- 
 possibility of giving the full impression of this species of evidence to him who 
 lacks it, is no argument against Christianity, because its own express test of its 
 truth is that man shall make a practical trial of it. Those who will not, can as 
 little disprove the testimony of those who will, as he who will not use a physician's 
 prescription can disprove the allegations of its efficacy on the part of those 
 who do. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 No. VI 1 1., p. 423. 
 
 1. PERHAPS the difficulty which in this age has been as much 
 insisted on as any, is the Scriptural account of " Creation " in the 
 first chapter of Genesis. Some indeed maintain that the phe- 
 nomena with which geology chiefly has to do, are not involved with 
 the first chapter of Genesis ; that the first verse simply ascribes 
 the original of all things to the will of God ; and then passing by 
 (with characteristic silence about all subjects of mere curiosity, 
 whether connected with distant worlds or primeval time) the 
 immense interval occupied by those changes which chiefly chal- 
 lenge the study of geologistSj proceeds to describe the phenomena 
 which were immediately antecedent to the appearance of man, and 
 preparatory to it. According to these commentators, the account 
 of Moses does not properly come into collision with geology. The 
 unnumbered centuries which the geologist demands for the processes 
 by which he contends the world was constituted, are given him ad 
 libitum. On the other hand, it is fair to say that many geologists 
 maintain that if this theory were adopted, similar difficulties 
 would still encounter us in the interpretation of this chapter. 
 
 Now without venturing into this controversy, or pretending 
 to say whether the chapter professes to relate only the changes 
 wrought at one epoch of the world's history, and introductory to 
 the creation of man, or embraces phenomena far anterior to it, 
 may it not be possible to say something for the chapter indepen- 
 dently of either hypothesis? Is it not possible that both those 
 who contend for the literal accuracy of the description, and those 
 who would gauge that accuracy by the standard of geological 
 research, may be in the wrong ? Is it not conceivable that any 
 statement whatever on such a subject, under similar circumstances, 
 would be liable to similar criticism ? 
 
 I would illustrate my meaning thus. There has been much 
 
446 Appendix. 
 
 controversy as to whether this chapter is poetry or history, and 
 champions have appeared for either opinion. That it is very 
 little like ordinary poetry in manner, and as little like ordinary 
 history in its matter, is obvious. But is it not conceivable that it 
 may, in any ordinary sense, be neither the one nor the other? 
 May there not be another art, which may give juster conceptions 
 of the possible significance of the chapter than either history or 
 poetry ? I mean the art of painting, in which objects are re- 
 presented, not indeed according to their real dimensions or in 
 their true relative positions, and yet not untruthfully ; in which 
 they are delineated in the same plane, though they are not in it, 
 and in which foreshortening and perspective make strange work 
 with the actual proportions and appearances of objects ? This 
 necessarily follows from the very attempt to give us any idea 
 of a landscape on the same plane. Yet none call the repre- 
 sentation false. On the contrary, we say it is sufficiently true, to 
 convey to us a very vivid conception of the real scene. A still 
 better illustration, perhaps, might be taken from the same art, in 
 those panoramas which are sometimes exhibited, in which some 
 hundreds of miles of scenery are represented in as many feet of 
 canvas, with the unrolling of which the spectator seems to traverse 
 many degrees of latitude and longitude, and sees all their scenery 
 in an hour or two. It is not a false representation which thus 
 cheats the eye of the spectator. It is simply an inadequate one ; 
 quite inadequate, no doubt, but such as is alone possible for the 
 spectator to receive ; a view adjusted ad moduin recipients. But 
 it gives a true approximate conception. That it can go no further, 
 results from the nature of things, and the limitations under which 
 the communication is made. 
 
 Now let us suppose, for the sake of argument (and it will hardly 
 be thought a very extravagant postulate), that, by way of preface to 
 a volume of Revelation, it was desirable not only to inform man that 
 all things originated in God's will, that all in heaven and on earth 
 was the effect of His creative energy and wisdom, but to give him 
 some general conception such as it was possible for him to re- 
 ceive of the gradual development and succession of the principal 
 phenomena by which this mundane system arose. What but such 
 description as would be analogous to a pictorial delineation, with all 
 its dislocation of real relations, would be possible to such a creature 
 
Appendix. 447 
 
 as man, and within the limits of a mere superscription to the book 
 which was of course to consist mainly of widely different matter ? 
 All the phenomena, in the nature of things, are supposed to have 
 preceded the appearance of man ; he could not be a spectator of 
 them; he could only be addressed through the medium of his 
 imagination by the presentation of some mental picture of what 
 "eye had never seen." If the true processes, which all reasoning 
 shows to have* been carried on by a very gradual development, and, 
 according to many geologists, during thousands or millions of 
 years, had been fully described, the " records of creation," instead 
 of forming a brief preface to the book, would have been as long in 
 the telling as in the doing ; the compilation would have been as 
 slow as the earth's stratification ; so voluminous, that the " world 
 itself could hardly contain the books that would have been written." 
 Or if the story did not proceed as leisurely as the processes it de- 
 scribed, it must, at least, have been as voluminous as the books by 
 which science (though indeed it has hardly yet mastered the alpha- 
 bet of Nature's mysteries) has so slowly spelt out the hieroglyphics 
 of creation ; or rather, as voluminous as the records of science 
 will be when it has finally deciphered them. But, in that case, the 
 " Preface " to the book of Revelation would have been a thousand 
 times as big as the Revelation itself ; if, indeed, the volumes of the 
 " Transactions" of Science shall ever terminate, and the world last 
 long enough to bring its researches to a close. 
 
 In the mean time, such a commentary, voluminous as it would 
 be, would have been of no conceivable use. It would have been 
 quite unintelligible for many successive generations of men, and 
 even then Methusaleh's life would not have been long enough to 
 master it. 
 
 What imaginable course, then, could be taken but that of giving 
 man a brief and general, though most imperfect, conception of the 
 apparent procession of phenomena ; to exhibit the wondrous scene 
 as in a picture, in which objects are necessarily distorted, and their 
 real distances and dimensions disguised. In whatever way we 
 imagine a representation given to man, of phenomena which he 
 never saw nor could have seen, whether in mental vision or 
 graphic language, it is impossible to conceive it given otherwise 
 than with these limitations. 
 
 Of the Mosaic cosmogony, these two facts may, at all events, be 
 
448 Appendix. 
 
 without hesitation affirmed. First, that it deviates far less from the 
 conclusions approximately reached by the most careful inductions 
 of modern geology, than any other ancient cosmogony ; so that, 
 comparing it with them, and supposing it only one of the guesses 
 of a rude primeval philosophy, it is difficult to understand how the 
 writer of Genesis should have been so superior to all other ancient 
 speculators. Secondly, that there is not one of these cosmogonies 
 that approaches it in the combined simplicity and sublimity of 
 description, and unexampled compression of style, found in the 
 first chapter of Genesis. 
 
 One cannot but lay great stress on the former point. The an- 
 cient cosmogonies, Egyptian, Greek, Hindoo, Chinese, commit 
 themselves so hopelessly by outrages on all physical science, and 
 abound in such monstrous fables, that they are the subject of 
 universal derision. How is it that in the Hebrew cosmogony 
 (without pretending to conceal the difficulties of a literal interpreta- 
 tion) the reader is struck both with its approximation to many of the 
 results of modern science, and its utter divergence from all ancient 
 speculation ? If Moses did not know as much as modern world- 
 builders, still, how is it that he is so superior to all the ancient ? 
 
 Nor is it a point unworthy of remark, that the Bible has very 
 little that can come into coniiict with modern science. This is the 
 effect of its characteristic abstinence from what is not closely con- 
 nected with its great object. The point has been well argued by 
 Dr. J. H. Gladstone, in his recent lecture, entitled " Points of Sup- 
 posed Collision between Scripture and Natural Science." He shows 
 that in the ordinary systems propounded in quasi-sacred records 
 (whether independent of the Bible or grafted on it), the tendency 
 to play the philosopher always so pleasant to human nature 
 has tempted the authors to betray themselves by their egregious 
 attempts at explaining physical phenomena. " It seems to me," 
 says he, " a question worthy of consideration, How did it come 
 to pass that these (the Jewish) writers did not profess to explain the 
 phenomena of the universe ? So completely is this the case, that 
 
 it is rarely possible to ascertain their own views But 
 
 in order fairly to understand the significance of the fact that these 
 writers avoid scientific explanations, it is necessary to turn to other 
 professed revelations, or to the commentators on the Bible itself. 
 It is well known that the Phoenicians, Babylonians, Persians, 
 
Appendix. 449 
 
 Indians, Greeks, Chinese, and other nations, had wonderful cosmo- 
 gonies, in which a mundane egg generally appears ; and that the 
 Puranas give a large amount of such information, as that India is 
 surrounded by seven oceans, composed respectively of salt water, 
 sugar-cane juice, wine, clarified butter, curds, milk, and fresh water. 
 The books that grew up alongside the sacred Scriptures are still 
 more to the point." l 
 
 2. The few statements that the Pentateuch makes on ethno- 
 logical and some related subjects, are of strikingly different cha- 
 racter from those which we find usually put forth by nations in 
 their cradle. There is nothing in them that savours of the pride of 
 race ; they are singularly cosmopolitan. Moses does not pretend 
 that the Hebrews, like the Greeks, were Autochthones, or that 
 their race, like the Hindoo or Egyptian, flourished some millions 
 of years before other nations began. He affirms that " all men 
 are of one blood," and that their " speech " was originally one 
 very singular declarations to make in the face of so many appa- 
 rently conflicting facts. They have been accepted, however, to a 
 great extent, by modern science, though just now again questioned ; 
 perhaps, after further research, to be accepted again. But how- 
 ever this may be, one cannot but wonder how Moses came to 
 think so differently from all the rest of the ancient world. 2 
 
 It similarly surprises us, that if he spoke from conjecture in that 
 early age, in ignorance of the extent of the world, and of the 
 species of creatures it might contain, he should so confidently have 
 promised man the dominion of the earth that he should people 
 and subdue it; 3 and that no great physical disturbance should ever 
 interfere with that " law " (of the stability of which he seems to 
 have had as clear an idea as any modern could desire) which 
 guaranteed the perpetual recurrence " of day and night, summer 
 and winter, seed-time and harvest." Experience has confirmed 
 these things, but at that early date they were somewhat bold 
 speculations. 
 
 Whether some points in dispute between the Bible and science, 
 and still sub lite, are to be added to or subtracted from the difficulties 
 
 1 Lectures on ' ' Faith and Free Thought, " p. 165. 
 
 2 This is well illustrated in "Aids to Faith," Essay 6 ; in Birk's "Bible and 
 Modern Thought," ch. 14; and by Dr. Gladstone in the lecture just cited 
 
 3 This point is well put in Dr. Redford's Lectures, entitled, " Holy Scriptures 
 Verified," pp. 66-85, 140-146. 
 
 30 
 
45 o Appendix. 
 
 of the Scriptures ; whether they are to be accounted errors which 
 require to be met by one or other of the theories referred to in the 
 text, or, by being shown to be in harmony with more advanced 
 knowledge, shall be transferred to the side of proofs, must be left 
 at present to conjecture. Such are some of the questions connected 
 with those prehistoric problems which the present generation is so 
 eagerly discussing ; for example, as to the primeval condition of 
 the human species ; its antiquity ; the ethnological relation of its 
 various races ; the order and date of their diffusion ; the origin of 
 language ; and whether all languages are related to one another 
 by radical affinities, and spring from one source. On some of 
 these questions, perhaps, we shall never get much light ; on others 
 we require far more than we have (both from Scripture and 
 science) to justify a definite conclusion. Nor is it unreasonable 
 to ask, both of the believer in the Bible and its opponents, to 
 exercise patience, for it is quite as necessary to the one as to the 
 other. For if the first, in his unwise presumption, and haste to 
 defend himself, has often snatched up a weapon which has broken 
 in his hand, the last has quite as often greedily listened to any 
 whisper of a discovery which promised discomfiture to the Bible, 
 even though in a few brief years it has been dismissed, by science 
 itself, with contempt. He has waited for no rigorous verification, 
 but caught at the too welcome conclusion at once. Both parties, 
 in truth, have reason to exercise much indulgence towards one 
 another; for, as the history of science and of theology shows, 
 both, though for different reasons, one from love of tradition and 
 the other from love of novelty, have anticipated the conclusions 
 which should have waited for a calm and patient weighing of 
 evidence. 
 
 Perhaps those who read these admonitions to patience may smile 
 at the possible alternative above stated ; namely, that some of 
 those difficulties of science which are still sub judice may be solved 
 in a manner which, instead of adding to the difficulties of Scripture, 
 will prove strong confirmations of its truth. I grant this is conjecture : 
 nevertheless it is founded on many analogies in the past history of 
 science. The first immature speculations in almost every branch 
 ot modern science have been presumed to be of ominous aspect on 
 the Bible. But many of the objections science has raised, science 
 itself has in a few years dispelled. 
 
Appendix. 451 
 
 3. There are those who find great moral difficulties in the Bible, 
 and it may be deemed uncandid not to say at least a few words 
 about them. The whole book, in accordance with what I have 
 represented as one of its pervading characteristics to vindicate the 
 claims of God and His moral government over us is so perspi- 
 cuous and so earnest in its assertion of all duty, and its protests 
 against all "ungodliness and unrighteousness of men," it is 
 throughout so irradiated by the light of the Divine purity, that it 
 is impossible any doubt can exist as to its general tendency. 
 
 Accordingly, the objections are to certain special portions or 
 details, which, if they be demonstrably of immoral character or 
 tendency, are ipso facto condemned by the whole tenour and sub- 
 stance of the book : if they are not, their purport ought to be 
 determined by its universal spirit. Nevertheless, it is not difficult 
 to give a specific reply to the greater number. I have only space 
 for a few. 
 
 Sometimes it is inferred that, because the Bible relates evil deeds 
 without express condemnation, it must sanction them, or at least 
 deem them venial. To this it is sufficient to reply that, as on the 
 one hand it is one of the most marked characteristics of Scripture 
 to state bare facts dramatically, without comment and without 
 reflection, leaving the reader to draw his own conclusion, so its 
 perpetual and emphatic assertion of the claims of the Divine law 
 and of human duty leaves him in no doubt as to the inference 
 which, in such cases, he ought to draw. 
 
 In some cases, actions in the Old Testament are, no doubt, 
 represented as pardonable or justifiable, which, judged by the 
 Christian standard, would not be so. But they are unfairly mea- 
 sured by that standard, which to a certain extent is an innovation 
 on all moral codes, and condemns many acts of strictly retributive 
 justice which the instinct of a natural sense of equity would not. 
 But to this I ha\e already referred in a previous article. 
 
 Sometimes objection is taken to what is .called God's "partiality" 
 towards certain " favourites," in spite of enormous delinquencies, 
 and criticism has especially fastened on Jacob and David as ex- 
 amples. This accusation, again, might be left to be answered by the 
 general character of the book, which perpetually assures us that, 
 whatever appearances there may be to the contrary, " God is no 
 respecter of persons," and that He will, in due time, prove it 
 
45 2 Appendix. 
 
 Mean time I cannot but express my astonishment that these two 
 instances should ever have been pleaded as affording even prima 
 facie evidence to the contrary. For if ever sin was seen to be a 
 "hard bargain," if ever it was seen in its punishment, it is in the 
 history of those two men. The whole sequel of their lives was 
 tinged, and in a great degree embittered, by it. Rebecca never 
 saw again that darling son for whom she had brought the guilt of 
 perjury on her soul and his : Jacob himself was driven into exile 
 from his father's house for twenty years ; and during nearly all that 
 time he was the hireling and the victim of his rapacious kinsman, 
 who " deceived " him by just such trickery as he himself had prac- 
 tised on his father; palming upon him Leah for Rachel, and 
 " changing his wages ten times." After twenty years he returned, 
 but in abject dread of his injured brother, at whose approach he 
 was thrown into that ecstasy of sorrow and terror which ushered in 
 his solitary night-vigil by the brook Jabbok. To this add all the 
 mournful episode of Joseph's exile, Dinah's dishonour, and his 
 other domestic trials, and who can think his sin " unvisited " ? 
 
 As to David, it was declared to him, at the very moment he 
 was told that his repentance was accepted, that his iniquity was 
 marked, and would be remembered before God ; that though he 
 thought he had wrapt his crime in secrecy, it should be blazoned to 
 the world with every note of shame and ignominy. So the oracle ran ; 
 and left David for long years to expect when and how this dreaded 
 bolt would fall, perhaps not the least part of his punishment. 
 At last it fell, and hardly could he have imagined how dreadful the 
 stroke would be. His favourite son Absalom rises in rebellion 
 against him, drives him from his throne and capital, involves his 
 people in the horrors of civil war ; and, in pursuit of his detest- 
 able policy, visits on his father, and " in the face of the sun," the 
 dishonour, and worse than the dishonour, which David had 
 brought into the house of Uriah. If such chastisement in the case 
 of Jacob and David be instances of the Divine partiality and 
 favouritism, who of us but must pray, " Oh, God, in Thy great 
 mercy, deliver us from being at last accounted among Thine 
 enemies " ? 
 
 It is true that on deep repentance and forsaking of their sin, God 
 did forgive even such transgressors. But is there any heart so 
 hard as to wish it otherwise ? Shall our " eye be evil," because 
 
Appendix. 453 
 
 God " is good " ? Is it not just what the book says God will 
 do, and is "delighted" in every such case to do? Is it not our 
 felicity to know it ? If any one says, " No ; such man ought 
 never to have been forgiven, nor received into favour more ; " 
 but no, I cannot suppose any that is but a man will say that. 
 
 Another difficulty has been found in the slaughter of the 
 Canaanites. Appalling as such a fact is, and incomprehensible as 
 it must a priori be, yet, so far as the moral government of God is 
 concerned, it is no more appalling in the effects, nor quite so incom- 
 prehensible in character, as those things which we are compelled to 
 say He does or permits to be done in His ordinary administration 
 of the world. The devastations of pestilence, earthquake, famine, 
 involving guilt and innocence, age and infancy, in the same 
 indiscriminate ruin, are just as awful, and equally mysterious, 
 however firmly we may believe that God will at length vindicate all 
 His proceedings : while they are hardly so incomprehensible, 
 because we are assured that in the case of the Canaanites the 
 visitation was judicial; that their iniquity had been long borne 
 with, and that "its measure was now full ;" that such was the 
 grossness of all unutterable crimes with which they were tainted, 
 that, as in the case of Sodom and Gomorrah, something little 
 short of extirpation was the only remedy. 
 
 The reader may doubt, if he will, whether this be the true 
 history of the transaction; but in founding a moral objection 
 on the Bible account of it, it is utterly unreasonable to forget 
 that this is the scriptural account, and, as far as the book is 
 concerned, the one cannot be separated from the other. Nor 
 must we forget, as a confirmation, that the Israelites were for- 
 bidden to carry on ordinary war in the same ruthless fashion : 
 in other cases they were enjoined to resort to the usual ex- 
 pedients which temper its inevitable horrors. In this case alone 
 they were to recollect they were not so much warriors as exe- 
 cutioners. 
 
 But though we cannot deny, if we open our eyes to the facts of 
 God's administration of the world, that the destruction of these 
 doomed nations is parallel to many of the appalling calamities with 
 which, in His providence, He visits it; it may be thought that 
 though God may be competent to do such things, it cannot be 
 competent to Him to commission men to do them. But if it be 
 
454 Appendix. 
 
 competent to Him to do them ; if He can do them, and rightly 
 do them, and vindicate His doing of them, is it quite so certain 
 that in no case will He make men His agents ? Or how is it 
 more incomprehensible than His employing (as He perpetually 
 does, though without any expres.s commission) one nation to be the 
 scourge of another ? The difficulty, therefore, in this and every 
 like case, is not so much a difficulty of Scripture, as a difficulty of 
 the Divine Government in general ; and we shall be able fully to 
 solve the one when we have solved the other, but not till then. So 
 long as a man believes in a God at all, the objection is fully met 
 by the " analogies in the constitution and course of nature ; " and 
 if he will be consistent in urging it, he must abandon not only 
 the Bible, but his theism. 
 
 A difficulty again has been found in the enjoined sacrifice of 
 Isaac as "a test of faith." In my judgment, infinitely greater 
 difficulties have been made in attempts to get rid of it by some of 
 the utterly incredible versions of the history suggested by modern 
 criticism ; one of which is, that so far from Abraham's " faith " 
 being " staggered," or there being any occasion for " staggering," 
 he acted in blind but willing obedience to it ; only it was a pagan 
 "faith," from which ("friend of God" though he was) he had 
 never been redeemed ; the faith in the acceptableness to God 
 of human sacrifices ! I must say that to me this interpretation 
 of the history is abundantly more difficult to digest than the 
 ordinary one, even when taken in all its literality. 
 
 If it be said to be morally impossible that God should have 
 exacted this proof of the patriarch's faith ; that though God could , 
 blamelessly (as no doubt He can, for He does it continually) have 
 taken away an only and darling son " at a stroke," yet He could not 
 command a parent to take that life away as a test of obedience, even 
 though he never intended fat sacrifice to be made, one cannot help 
 asking on what principle this is affirmed? If God can right- 
 fully do such a thing, and does it continually for reasons unknown 
 to us, are we certain that He could not, for like unknown reasons, 
 enjoin Abraham to be the agent, although He never intended the 
 command to be acted upon ? If it be said that God had given 
 Abraham a certain moral nature, which made it impossible that 
 he should do (even though God enjoined it) what God might blame- 
 lessly do ; we must take heed lest we stultify the argument which 
 
Appendix. 455 
 
 argues the character of God from the analogous moral qualities 
 found in ourselves. If there be those analogies, then, though we 
 may justly believe that there are still many things which, not having 
 God's unlimited wisdom and authority, we may not do, vhile He 
 may, it will not be so easy to believe that, in spite of these moral 
 analogies, there are many things which, while God can blamelessly 
 do them, man may <?/, even when God commands them ! 
 
 Mean time, we must not forget that not only did God never 
 intend the sacrifice to be made, but the Scripture shows that 
 Abraham himself was convinced that, even if he obeyed the com- 
 mand to the letter, his Isaac would still be restored to him. He 
 believed that even in that case God in some strange way would 
 restore him from the grave. This is represented as the very 
 triumph of his faith, and a mighty faith undoubtedly it was. " By 
 faith Abraham " (says the Epistle to the Hebrews), u when he was 
 tried, offered up Isaac ; accounting that God was able to raise him 
 up, even from the dead ; from whence also he had received him in 
 a figure ; " that is, as the child of miracle and " of promise," both 
 of which confirmed his faith that (whatever might be present 
 appearances) " in Isaac" still would all the Divine pledges given to 
 him be fulfilled. 
 
 Some have said, "Well, human nature will not and cannot 
 believe in the reality of this history, on account of the moral 
 paradox it involves." But then the question must be asked What 
 human nature ? Is it human nature, born only yesterday, and still 
 developed only in a few individuals ? for until quite recently the 
 generality of readers, and the generality of them even now, have felt 
 no difficulty in receiving the history. If it be said they must all 
 be supposed to be morally obtuse, can we believe the great majority 
 of mankind to have been so in reference to so fundamental a prin- 
 ciple of morality? Have myriads of the most enlightened and 
 virtuous minds in successive generations, and among them, the 
 Apostles James and Paul, both of whom applaud the act of the 
 patriarch as an act of heroic virtue, been utterly in the dark ? 
 
 Until the modern objectors can prove that their moral instincts, 
 and not those of the founders of Christianity and the generality of 
 mankind, are right in this matter, it is a simple begging of the 
 question to say, as has been so often done of late, that this portion 
 of the Bible presents an insuperable moral difficulty. 
 
456 Appendix. 
 
 4. A well-known sceptic as to miracles, but a truly candid man, 
 and of first-rate scientific reputation, confessed to a friend of mine 
 that he saw no reason in the nature of things, none in our in- 
 tuitions or in our deductions from them, why miracles should be 
 regarded as either impossible or incredible. He said he imagined 
 that the physicist was prone to think so, because from the habit 
 of contemplating phenomena in which uniformity of antecedents 
 and consequents obtained, he could not refrain from coming to 
 the assumption that nothing that was at variance with that limited, 
 though constant experience, was possible. This frank confession, 
 I apprehend, exactly represents the truth of the case. The dogma 
 in question is a hasty generalisation from very partial data ; nay, 
 in the last resort, from the data of individual experience ; for, if 
 a miracle be incredible except verified by experience, each man 
 would be justified in disbelieving them unless his experience had 
 also verified them. But though this candid opponent gave a true 
 account of the matter, the " prejudication" and "anticipation" of the 
 "possible" or "credible" from so inadequate data, is no less a viola- 
 tion of true science than any of those which Bacon has so severely 
 judged as amongst the errors of the vulgar philosophy. The impos- 
 sibility or incredibility of miracles is one thing ; their impossibility 
 or incredibility to minds that have superinduced that belief on 
 themselves by certain habits of thought, is quite another. 
 
 The impugners of miracles will never be able to do justice 
 either to their adversaries or themselves until they bear in mind : 
 First, That what is required to prove their point is, not a precarious 
 generalisation from a limited experience, but a demonstration of 
 the impossibility or incredibility of miracles, founded either on 
 such intuitions as all universal or necessary truth is based upon, 
 or on logical deductions from them. This is constantly asked 
 for, but as constantly declined ; and consequently the debate 
 goes on. Secondly, That the question really is not, as they are too 
 apt to represent it to themselves, whether it is more probable and 
 credible that the ordinary sequences of phenomena should take place 
 or be broken, whether, for example, it is more probable or credible 
 that a dead man should remain in his grave, or return to life ? for 
 there is no question about this ; but whether, if the exceptional 
 events called miracles be not impossible or incredible, sufficient 
 reasons may not be assigned (in the communication and authentica- 
 
Appendix. 457 
 
 tion of a Divine revelation) which fairly meet their antecedent impro- 
 bability? Admitting that miracles are not impossible or incredible, 
 then, as Paley has admirably shown, the improbability of their 
 occurrence is no greater than that of God's vouchsafing to give us 
 a revelation. Whatever reasons make the last credible, will make 
 the other credible also. Admirably has Paley argued this point in 
 the Introduction to his " Evidences." z Thirdly, The opponents of 
 miracles must also bear in mind, that if a revelation be given at 
 all, then, unless it be made known specifically to each individual 
 mind, which, however, since a revelation is itself miraculous, 
 would be but the multiplication, and not the suppression of miracles, 
 it passes the wit of man to imagine how it could be unexception- 
 ably made known to those who had not personally received it, 
 except by such means as miracles. But on this I have briefly 
 spoken in the text. 
 
 The credibility of " miracles " has no doubt been much debated 
 in the present day, and perhaps a larger number of persons than at 
 any former period have been disposed to adopt the negative side 
 of the question. Yet I must profess my conviction that their 
 scepticism is not due to the force of any novel arguments. When 
 thoroughly examined, the general objections are found to be 
 identical with those which were currently used long ago. Nor is 
 there anything in the discoveries of modern science which really 
 affects the ancient conditions of the controversy ; perhaps it may 
 be even said that much which is held as unquestionably true by a 
 certain school of savans should in candour lead them (whether they 
 admit the possibility of miracles or not) to concede that the chief 
 
 1 "Mr. Hume states the case of miracles to be a contest of opposite proba- 
 bilities, that is to say, a question whether it be more improbable that the miracle 
 should be true or the testimony false: and this, I think, a fair account of the 
 controversy. But herein I remark a want of argumentative justice, that, in 
 describing the improbability of miracles, he suppresses all those circumstances 
 of extenuation which result from our knowledge of the existence, power, and 
 disposition of the Deity ; His concern in the creation ; the end answered by 
 the miracle, the importance of that end, and its subserviency to the plan pur- 
 sued in the work of nature. As Mr. Hume has represented the question, 
 miracles are alike incredible to him who is previously assured of the constant 
 agency of a Divine Being, and to him who believes that no such Being exists in 
 the universe. They are equally incredible, whether related to have been wrought 
 upon occasions the most deserving, and for purposes the most beneficial, or for 
 no assignable end whatever, or for an end confessedly trifling or pernicious. 
 This surely cannot be a correct statement. " Paley's Evidences, p. 5. 
 
458 Appendix. 
 
 argument usually urged against miracles ought not to be listened 
 to, simply because it is abundantly contradicted by their own 
 scientific hypotheses. For what, after all, is the palmary argument 
 (now as of old) against miracles ? Is it not that they are incon- 
 sistent with that experience which teaches us to expect similarity of 
 antecedents and consequents in the phenomena of nature, within 
 the limits of variation authentically made known by that same 
 experience ? and that no such variation as would be transcendental 
 to such experience is to be admitted ? Now, this is to be taken as 
 universally and immutably true, or it is not. If it is, then there is 
 really nothing for it but to adopt some theory similar to some of 
 the exploded dreams of ancient Atheism ; and to hold not only that 
 all idea of creation is chimerical, but that of a gradual develop- 
 ment of the universe, such as modern science contends for ; that 
 is, of organic and inorganic natures, under conditions and by a 
 series of metamorphoses altogether transcendental to experience. 
 Nevertheless, this is a favourite speculation, in the hasty prosecu- 
 tion of which science has often been betrayed into oblivion alike 
 of the maxims of Bacon and the practice of Newton. But if 
 we are to go strictly by experience, we can admit nothing but a 
 constant succession of phenomena, such as we now see, within 
 those limits of variation of which that same experience can take 
 cognizance. 
 
 If the above axiom is not to be taken absolutely : if we are to 
 believe, either in any origin of things at all, or in a series of trans- 
 formations of which a tadpole may have been one term and man 
 another ; then there have been immense periods of the unknown 
 past in which phenomena were occurring which utterly elude our 
 conception ; of which we have, and can have, no historic trace ; and 
 which are beyond and beside all our experience. If so, then let men 
 dispute as they will, they without doubt concede that which carries 
 with it the refutation of that cardinal maxim on which the possi- 
 bility of miracles is usually denied, or the probability of their occur- 
 rence asserted to be incredible. For, let it ever be remembered that 
 the validity of the above argument against miracles really depends 
 on the unlimited application of the principle it involves, and has 
 nothing to do with the question of time. If a man were raised 
 from the dead, even though a thousand years be supposed to be oc- 
 cupied in the process, it would be no less a miracle than if he had 
 
Appendix. 459 
 
 been raised in a moment, because \hzfact would contravene all our 
 experience. Similarly, the wondrous metamorphoses asserted to 
 have taken place by processes which transcend the sphere of all 
 experience, are by that very fact incredible, if miracles on the like 
 account be so. They are not less miracles in the sense of contra- 
 dicting the axiom in question, than a miracle technically so called. 
 It is granted that such phenomena as are implied in the conception 
 either of " creation," or of a gradual " evolution " of the universe 
 from two or three " primordial germs " (though how these are got 
 without " creation," no man can say), differ from what are tech- 
 nically called miracles ; but not in that one point which makes 
 them all alike incredible, if miracles be so. An event, contradictory 
 of all present experience, which demands a thousand or a million 
 years to bring it about, may be different from an event equally con- 
 tradictory of present experience, which is instantaneously wrought ; 
 but they differ not at all in this, that if either has occurred, it 
 refutes the fallacious criterion on which the impossibility of all 
 miracles is made to depend. As far as that goes, both stand on 
 the same level, and if the one be incredible, so will the other be. 
 If the possibility of miracles is to be disproved, it must be by some 
 other principle than one which will serve equally to show that the 
 process by which the world was either v created " or " developed," 
 or originated in what way soever (for all the modes contravene all 
 our experience), is incredible likewise. The only escape from the 
 rigorous application of experience, within the limits of variation itself 
 prescribes, will be one of those rejected theories which once main- 
 tained that day and night have eternally succeeded one another ; 
 that generations of men have been infinite, and that neither the 
 dead nor the living came first ; and that that ancient problem, 
 u which was first, the hen or the egg ? " has no meaning, for that 
 neither was before the other, and both from everlasting ! 
 
 Neither will that principle of the mind, on which all the obstinate 
 prejudice against miracles is supposed to be justified, bear the 
 weight attached to it, I mean the expectation (as Butler calls it) 
 "that things will continue as they have been, unless we have 
 reason to conclude that they will be otherwise." That such a " law 
 of expectation " does operate upon us, must be conceded ; and, 
 indeed, unless some such law had been impressed on the human 
 mind, it is impossible that such a creature as man, in such a world 
 
460 Appendix. 
 
 as this, could have existed to any purpose at all. We could not 
 have anticipated that even the near events of the future would 
 be like the past ; and memory, and the experience it garners for 
 us, would have been of no use. But what this law is, whence it 
 springs, and how far it rightfully extends in its anticipations of the 
 future, it has infinitely perplexed metaphysicians to explain. Some 
 say it is itself the result of experience. If so, it palpably cannot 
 transcend experience; it can neither guess at the unlimited past 
 nor anticipate the unlimited future. And, indeed, that its limits 
 are very restricted, whatever its origin, seems sufficiently proved by 
 the caution with which men in general apply it. " The morrow," 
 say they, " will be as this day." Yes ; but you cannot get one in 
 a million (who yet, if the principle as urged against miracles were 
 correct, ought to affirm it with undoubting dogmatism) to affirm 
 that the experience of the morrow will be that of an eternal succes- 
 sion of to-morrows, or that the experience of yesterday was that of 
 an eternal precession of yesterdays ; that the sun, for example, 
 which set last night, has so set from everlasting ; or that, as he 
 will rise to-morrow, so he will rise in secula seculontm. 
 
 Others affirm that the said principle is not a result of experience, 
 but an anticipation of it. Even so, it seems to be of limited appli- 
 cation. It is not of the nature of the intuitions on which we base 
 the knowledge of what is called necessary truths ; for that would be 
 inconsistent with the ready way in which the mind strengthens or 
 relaxes its hold on the principle, according as the future is near or 
 remote. No man believes that two parallel lines, if they be but 
 produced far enough, will meet ; nor that there is probably some 
 world in which two intersecting right lines will, if produced far 
 enough, intersect again, or in which the three angles of a triangle 
 are greater or less than two right angles. Some, therefore, are 
 disposed to think that this general tendency to anticipate that the 
 future will resemble the past, is arbitrarily inserted in our mental 
 constitution as a necessary condition of our activity (since with- 
 out it all experience would be in vain), but requiring to be itself 
 corrected and limited by experience. If so, we need not wonder 
 that though in general a safe and true guide, in relation to the near 
 and constantly-recurring phenomena of daily life, it hesitates to 
 extend its inference either to the unlimited future or the unlimited 
 past. Anyhow, it has no such predominance as either to prevent 
 
Appendix. 461 
 
 the ready belief of supernatural events by the great bulk of man- 
 kind, or to induce them to apply the principle in question without 
 limit to the past or the future. 1 
 
 It is in vain to say, as has sometimes been said, that in whatever 
 direction, in whatever department of nature, the scientific eye now 
 glances, it sees no miracle, and that all is subordinated to " law." 
 This is no refutation of the assertion that there have been miracles, 
 which, having fulfilled their object, have ceased and will not recur. 
 To argue against miracles from their cessation, is like arguing that 
 volcanoes, long extinct, were never active. No one contends that 
 the miraculous is now to be expected, any more than the repeti- 
 tion of those primeval processes which (whether people contend 
 for the hypothesis of "creation" or of "development") must have 
 taken place at some time, however unknown to experience now. 
 
 The usual uniformity of antecedents and consequents in natural 
 
 1 This principle, the nature, origin, and legitimate operation of which, are 
 metaphysically so obscure, which looks at all events so much like an instinct 
 arbitrarily inserted for a special purpose, and which men dare not apply with- 
 out limit to past or future, resembles an intuition of a necessary truth as little 
 as can well be imagined ; and certainly seems an unstable foundation for the 
 weighty inferences suspended upon it. The characteristics of this tendency 
 of our nature, and the insecurity of the reasoning founded upon it in dis- 
 proof of miracles, have been admirably treated by Dr. Mozleyin his " Bamp- 
 ton Lectures." 
 
 On one point, by-the-bye, he seems to me to have conceded too much to his 
 opponents. While contending, and justly, that the idea of successive "crea- 
 tions," or the introduction per saltum of new species, involves similar concep- 
 tions with miracles, he seems to concede that if a savant adopts that flunet 
 theory of unlimited transformation, by which (for aught we know) anything 
 may by gradual change be evolved out of anything ; by which antecedents 
 lead, by absolutely continuous steps, to utterly unknown and indeed un- 
 imaginable consequents, he escapes the above difficulty. On the contrary, 
 it seems to me that our author might have said that the difficulty is then at its 
 maximum; that if a miracle be that which contradicts our experience, the world 
 of perpetual flux is the world of " miracles " par excellence. Dr. Mozley, in- 
 deed, justly argues, that on that theory, the fixity of the present (and of all 
 historical ages) must be accounted "miraculous," if the theory of universal 
 flux (resembling that of Heraclitus, with which Socrates and Theodorus make 
 themselves so merry in the Thaetetus) be the rule. For, surely, if the criterion 
 of the incredibility of miracle be founded on the unchangeable relations of 
 antecedents and consequents, that ductile state of the world which such a 
 theory involves must be conceived as a perpetual miracle. None can tell 
 what consequents will follow from what antecedents : so far from the "law of 
 expectation " being in operation, no one can say what we may expect, or rather 
 what we may not expect ; the experience of the moment could only justify us 
 in saying that nothing is, but everything is becoming something else. 
 
462 Appendix. 
 
 phenomena is freely conceded ; and, indeed, always has been 
 felt to be the general " law," even in ages, and among nations, in 
 which the belief in the miraculous has been most excessive and 
 irrational. Uniformity, as the law, has been the universal belief; 
 the " miraculous " having been held to be the exception to the rule, 
 occasional and temporary deviation from the law. I am aware, of 
 course, that the contrary has been sedulously inculcated by many 
 modern sceptics, who would fain persuade us that it is only within 
 the last few generations that any just conception of " law," as pre- 
 siding over the phenomena of nature, has been attained by the 
 human intellect ; that, till our modern savans taught them better, 
 men's general belief was that every effect depended on a variable 
 and capricious will. " It is necessary to bear in mind," says 
 M. Rdnan, " that all antiquity, except the great scientific schools of 
 Greece, and their Roman pupils, believed in miracles ; that Jesus 
 not only believed in them, but had not the least idea of a natural 
 order regulated by laws" I 
 
 It is, of course, just to point the argument against Judaism and 
 Christianity, that he admits that some approximation to the idea of 
 " law " was found in the philosophic schools of Greece and Rome, 
 though Christ and the Jews had no notion of it ! Now to say 
 nothing of the fact that belief in miraculous phenomena, of their 
 occasional intrusion into the sphere of ordinary experience, was 
 equally shared by Greeks, Romans, and Jews, it may be easily 
 shown that among none of them was such belief inconsistent 
 with a clear recognition of prevailing " law," a conviction that 
 the "miraculous " has been the exception in every age and nation 
 of the world. This is equally proved, whether we look at the matter 
 a priori, or by the light of history ; whether we reason from that 
 very principle by which the existence of the preternatural is denied, 
 or from the history, philosophy, proverbs, of any nation, ancient 
 or modern. 
 
 For, first, If that principle on which the impugner of miracles 
 relies, be true ; if, by the very constitution of the human intellect, it 
 is impelled to believe that nature is uniform in her operations, and 
 that what we have seen to-day we may expect to-morrow and 
 always, it could not but be that the general idea of " law " would 
 be developed in all men, however it might be (as it doubtless has 
 1 " Vie de Jesus," p. 257. 
 
Appendix. 463 
 
 been) qualified by the belief of the exceptional " miraculous." If 
 it be said this is doubtless true, but that this is not the idea of 
 " law " contended for ; that what is meant is such a " law" as never 
 has been or will be departed from, that is, a law which is exclusive 
 01 all " miracles," then, whether such a " law '' is to be predicated 
 or not, is still the very question, and to assert it is simply to beg 
 that question. But that the bulk of men have arrived at the 
 idea and conviction of the general law of uniformity, is beyond a 
 doubt ; and, indeed, if it were not so, we must admit that the 
 asserted necessary "law" of the human mind, which uniformly 
 prompts to this belief, has failed, which would be something as 
 unaccountable as a miracle itself ! It is as though it was contended 
 that the faculty of vision or the appetite of hunger was a principb 
 of human nature in general, and yet that whole communities of 
 men for many ages showed no trace of either, and that it is vain to 
 look for more than partial traces of them before these last ages. 
 
 Secondly. If we look at history, the proverbs, the maxims, the 
 conduct of mankind, we see the same thing, as we might well ex- 
 pect to do ; for except for the general operation of that same principle 
 which leads to the conception of this " law," there could have been 
 no calculation of the future and no rule of action at all ; there 
 could have been no assurance that the events of the morrow would 
 resemble those of to-day. It would be easy to adduce a thousand 
 citations from ancient writers of Greece and Rome, to show that 
 their general idea of the stability of nature, in spite of the influence 
 of their superstitions superstitions quite as rife as were ever im- 
 puted to the ancient Hebrews or to mediaeval Christianity was 
 as decided as our own. That the writers of the Old and New 
 Testaments very distinctly participated in the same conviction, is 
 plain from numberless passages, of which it will suffice to cite 
 two or three : " As long as the earth endureth, seed-time and 
 harvest, summer and winter, day and night, shall not cease;" " He 
 appointeth the moon for seasons, and the sun knoweth his going 
 down ;" "Do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles? a 
 good tree cannot bring forth bad fruit, neither doth a corrupt tree 
 bring forth good fruit; " "Thou hast established the earth, and it 
 abideth ; " " They continue for ever according to Thine ordinances, 
 for all are Thy servants." 
 
 In short, man's asserted ignorance of " law " in past ages would 
 
464 Appendix. 
 
 have been utterly inconsistent with that "law" in himself, the 
 tendency to believe in the uniformity of nature, which is yet sup- 
 posed so strong as to teach him that miracles are even impossible ! 
 
 But if the world in all ages has admitted the fact of nature's 
 general uniformity, it has not believed in it so as to exclude the 
 "preternatural," though contending that it is exceptional. It 
 has known nothing, on the one hand, of universal caprice in the 
 phenomena of nature, as some modern speculators affirm ; and 
 as little, on the other, of absolute scepticism about miracles. 
 Whether those who utterly exclude the preternatural be not as 
 unreasonable as those who too readily admit it, whether there may 
 not be a juste milieu in this matter, evidence must determine. 
 The fact of men's undoubting assent to the general law of uni- 
 formity, combined with the facility with which they have also given 
 assent to the occasional " miraculous " and the impossibility of 
 getting them to assert that the uniformity of phenomena has been 
 or will be an eternal uniformity, indicate that there is such a 
 moderate position, and form a presumption that it is the true one. 
 
 It may be worth while to notice a certain modern objection to 
 miracles, plausible, but assuredly shallow, since it subsists only 
 by abuse of terms. By a studied, but most arbitrary, antinomy 
 of "law and will," some sceptics urge, that to suppose God 
 working miracles, is to suppose that He acts by a "will" that 
 is opposed to "law;" in other words, that His will, as ours 
 is apt to be, is arbitrary and capricious. But this, in truth, is 
 a most whimsical restriction, resulting from the most gross 
 anthropormorphism. No such antinomy betweeen " law " and 
 " will " is imaginable by him who has worthy conceptions of the 
 Deity. In the first place, if the universe be under the dominion 
 of perfect wisdom, it is quite consistent with that, to suppose 
 general uniformity of administration to be the law ; but not so, 
 to suppose that that administration can never vary, no matter 
 what changes be supposed in the system administered. To illus- 
 trate by a familiar example: God has given "will" to us His 
 creatures ; and the very action of that, if abnormal, may involve 
 variations from what would have been the normal rule of His 
 administration, had our will been obedient to His. If "law" 
 that ought to have prevailed, has by truly capricious " wills like 
 ours " been infringed, it may be the part of a wise and benevo- 
 
Appendix. 465 
 
 lent Governor to adjust His administration to that fact ; to vindi- 
 cate the laws thus broken, and correct the evils thus introduced 
 into the universe ; and, for aught we know, Revelation and Miracle 
 may be instruments to that end. There is no caprice in "will" 
 thus exercised ; the caprice would rather be, if it did not so act. 
 A "capricious" governor would be one who did not vary his 
 administration as circumstances required, however true it may 
 be (as it will always be) that a wise government will be administered 
 in a course of general law. But, secondly, there is another fallacy 
 involved in this objection. It loses sight of the fact that to infinite 
 wisdom there is, strictly speaking, no such thing as " law" and 
 "exception" to it. These are relative to our conceptions. To 
 infinite wisdom the same perfection of reason reigns in the mi- 
 nutest details, in apparent deviations from general law as in the 
 most conspicuous uniformities. Everything ordinary, or as to us 
 it may seem exceptional, will, as Butler says, be administered 
 according to " general rules of wisdom," and will be equally com- 
 prehended in the Divine plan. 
 
 To affirm that " will" and " caprice" are inseparable, is futile. 
 Will, founded on the perfection of knowledge, wisdom, and power, 
 is the most stable thing in the universe ; and what the author just 
 quoted says of " Goodness," may well be said also of that. 1 
 
 1 A sufficient justification of miracles is found in the authentication of a 
 Divine revelation ; but even independently of that, a man must be very con- 
 fident to affirm that they might not be at some times desirable and expedient, 
 if God is not to be absolutely forgotten by His creatures. The principle which 
 enjoins us to believe in the absolute and immutable uniformity of the material 
 machinery of the universe, is not, it is true, inconsistent with theism. But it 
 has an unquestionable power of concealing God from us, or inducing the belief 
 that He, too, is in bondage to Fate. Man, indeed, is a creature whom it is 
 hard to satisfy. If all things "continue as they were," he is apt to say that 
 God exists not at all, or, if He does, takes no interest in the universe. It 
 miracles were frequent, and the stable order of things often interrupted, it is 
 all but certain he would soon say that " chance" alone governs it. 
 
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 31 
 
NEW EDITION OF PROFESSOR HENRY ROGERS'S 
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