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 Dominion Series of Catholic School Books. 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 " In History, as in every branch of mental culture, the first elementary school- instruction 
 is not merely an important, but an essential, condition, to a higher and more scientific knowl- 
 edge. At first, indeed, it is merely a nomenclature of celebrated personages and events— a 
 sketch of the great historical eras, divided according to chronological dates, or a geographical 
 plan— which must be impressed on the memory, and which serves as a basis preparatory to 
 that more vivid and comprehensive knowledge to be obtained in riper years." 
 
 Frederick von Schlegel. 
 
 MONTREAL : 
 JAMES A. SADLIER, 
 
 1669 NOTRE DAME STREET. 
 
jFmprimatur, 
 
 ^ John, Cardinal McCloskey, 
 
 Archbishop of New Yor 
 
 Copyright, 1884, by William H. Sadlier. 
 
V/03 
 
 P R E F ACE 
 
 For Canadians, and for Catholic Canadians, especially, an interest in jp^en- 
 eral European liistory is both natural and essential. As Canadians, we belong 
 to a country which is peopled by contingents from every European nation ; by 
 ancestry we are all foreigners here ; and our interests in history are as general 
 as the mixture of blood in our people is varied and diverse. As Catholics, our 
 conception of history cannot centre in the assumed superior importance of any 
 one nation to all others, such as a narrow patriotism sometimes imagines for 
 its own kindred and race ; nor can our conception be satisfied with a knowl- 
 edge of the one or two national histories to which a blood relationship alone 
 might confine it. 
 
 History, for Catholic conception, is a history of Christian civilization, or 
 of the ancient civilizations which preceded, as transformed and resurrected by 
 it. This history converges in ancient times to that centre of ancient civiliza- 
 tion which became, and has ever since remained, the focus of the Christian 
 faith. It diverges from that centre to the nations of later time as they became 
 subject to its influence, and have remained to the present day, unconsciously, 
 it may be in some cases, controlled by it. 
 
 In oflfering this book for uses of instruction, the author is supported, then, 
 by the sense that its topic is one of vital importance ; but as for the methods in 
 which this topic shall be presented in one short book, under the limitations of 
 size which practical usefulness demands, there, indeed, is a broad field for 
 variance of opinion. For the art of teaching has little to do with the knowl- 
 edge it conveys. The art of teaching is also a science to whose acquisition a 
 lifetime of experience, or the bent of natural genius, must be assistant. A 
 good historian may be a poor instructor — may fail, and sometimes does fail, in 
 the preparation of a text-book on the subject. Practical usefulness being, then, 
 the condition of success and the standard of judgment, the author takes the 
 liberty of noting the practical features ^.Ahi^ work. 
 
iY PREFACE. 
 
 The typography makes use of tliree sizes of print. To the large print is 
 assignee! the direct matter of fact considered necessary for a general History 
 Primer, and recita ions confined to this print will still furnish an exact survey 
 of the subject. The medium print is generally employed for explanatory 
 matter, summaries, descriptions of civilizations, etc. The small print, not 
 intended for recitation, is devoted to details which will give the work addi- 
 tional value for colleges and advanced classes, or to matter which will make 
 the book more interesting to the younger learner, and which could not be 
 otherwise supplied without undue increase of size. 
 
 The Chronologies, Synchronistic Tables, Genealogies, and Questions for 
 Review have been given all the space and typographical clearness which their 
 great importance demands. 
 
 A most important feature is the space devoted to Historical Geography, in 
 connection with a series of twenty-three double-page, jirogressive, historical 
 maps. This subject, at once the most neglected in historical instruction and 
 the most fundamentally essential to any exact conceptions of the Past, has 
 never hitherto been adequately illustrated in text-books on general history, 
 and matter relating to it has been necessarily excluded by absence of illustra- 
 tion. The maps here in question have been supplied, with kind approbation 
 of the Author, by the Publisher of Dr. Robert H. Labberton's Historical 
 Atlas. 
 
 This Atlas is undoubtedly at once the most useful and the most comprehen- 
 sive of all Historical Atlases published for student use, not excepting the valu- 
 able works of German origin. Its use of colors is more forcible and decided, 
 and therefore clearer in its effects and contrasts, than that usually employed. 
 Such colors, which would be inadvisable in geographical maps, are absolutely 
 essential where the varying . boundaries cf successive political changes have to 
 be clearly represented. 
 
 In illustrations, as in maps, the author has to acknowledge an unprece- 
 dented liberality on the part of the Publishers. An examination of the sub- 
 jects chosen will show them to be of serious historical value — engraved photo- 
 graphs of the monuments of the Past in their present condition, or direct 
 reproductions of the pictures, medals, and engravings of older periods. The 
 portraits reproduce authenticated works made in the time of the individual 
 portrayed. 
 
 The Table of Contents presents a summary view of the nations and periods 
 treated, and of the arrangements adopted. This arrangement must be tested 
 by its results in use ; but it is the first in which a sequent view of the epochs 
 of liistory has been presented without abandoning a treatment by nations. 
 
PREFACE. Y 
 
 It is the common opinion of teachers that history should be taught by 
 nations rather than by epochs or philosophical divisions, in view of the diffi- 
 culties w^hich the latter method causes in the mind of the pupil. In defer- 
 ence to this opinion the author has planned the book, but has preserved the 
 sequence of epochs in Book II. by breaking the histories of the states of West- 
 ern and Central Continental Europe at 1500. FoUoviring the history of the 
 Roman Empire, Germany comes first, and the Germanic epoch of the whole 
 of Europe, which succeeded that of the West-Roman Empire, is thus pre- 
 sented in proper sequence. Leaving the history of Germany at 1500 for that 
 of France down to the same time, the French ascendency over Europe in the 
 time of the Crusades thus receives its proper place. Once more leaving 
 the history of France at 1500 for the Renaissance civilization of Italy, which 
 culminated at that time, the sequence is still preserved. The history of Spain, 
 next taken up, is carried through the epoch of Charles V., for which the matter 
 relating to Germany, France, and Italy affords a solid basis. The Hapsburg 
 monarchy of Charles V. once more gives a footing for the later history of Ger- 
 many, and that of France is then connected with a brief summary for Europe 
 in general after the French Revolution. 
 
 The nations of Northern and Eastern Europe lie in an arch around those of 
 the West and Centre, and are most logically treated after those from which 
 their culture is derived. Here the order of development in civilization has 
 been from west to east. Thus is dictated the arrangement of Book III., which 
 places Ireland first, England second, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden third, 
 Russia fourth, and Turkey last, as only in the 19th century becoming subject 
 to Europeanizing influence. The arrangement of the Ancient Nations in Book I. 
 also observes the sequence of historical development. 
 
 Thus much to an indulgent public, as far as preface is concerned. To the 
 kind friends whose confidence inspired and made possible his task — the tribute 
 of the final sentence of his work and the warm well wishes of 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 MoNTBEAL, June, 1885, 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2008 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/ancientmodernhisOOnewyrich 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK I.— ANTIQUITY— EASTERN NATIONS, GREECE AND ROME. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 EGYPT 3-18 
 
 CHALD^EA AND ASSYRIA— MEDIA, BABYLONIA, AND PERSIA 19-24 
 
 THE PHOENICIANS 25-28 
 
 GREECE 29-72 
 
 ROME 73-116 
 
 BOOK II.— MODERN HISTORY— WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE. 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE AFTER THE CHRISTIAN ERA 119-139 
 
 GERMANY ...TO A. D. 1500 140-173 
 
 FRANCE TO A. D. 1500 174-212 
 
 ITALY BEFORE AND ABOUT A. D. 1500 213-223 
 
 SPAIN BEFORE AND AFTER A. D. 1500 224-242 
 
 GERMANY AFTER A. D. 1500 24S-2G3 
 
 FRANCE AFTER A. D. 1500 264-289 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION LATER CONTINENTAL EUROPE 290.304 
 
 BOOK III.— MODERN HISTORY— NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE. 
 
 IRELAND 307-350 
 
 ENGLAND (SCOTLAND INCLUDED) 351-400 
 
 DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN 401-410 
 
 RUSSIA AND POLAND 411-421 
 
 ARABS AND TURKS 422^31 
 
1 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 ANTIQUITY. 
 
 THE EASTERN NATIONS OF ANCIENT HISTORY- 
 GREECE AND ROME. 
 
 "The virtues of tlie Pagans were not sins, as Luther pretended. They 
 were real natural virtues, which St. Augustine believed God had often re- 
 warded by great temporal blessings."— Thebaud, The Church and the Moral 
 W<yrU. 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 MODERN STUDIES OF THE ANCIENT HIEROGLYPHICS. 
 
 The earliest authentic records 
 of History, aside from those of Holy 
 Scripture, relate to Egypt. In the times 
 of the Greeks and Romans, by whom 
 the Nile valley was successively subject- 
 ed, authors of these nations described 
 the country and related its history. But 
 their accounts have been mainly sup- 
 planted by studies, made in our own 
 19th century, from the still earlier rec- 
 ords of the Egyptians themselves — 
 partly from their ruins, paintings, and 
 sculptures, partly from the liieroglyphics 
 (" sacred carvings ") carved on the tem- 
 ples or written on rolls of papyrus. 
 
 These modern studies in Egyp- 
 tian history have been promoted by 
 the interest attaching to this country, 
 since the opening of the Suez Canal in 
 1869, as the highway for European com- 
 merce with India. They were first ex- 
 cited by the Egyptian expedition of 
 Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. 
 
 i^' 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 f 
 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 [ 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 •11 
 
 S* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 
 Obelisk at On.* 
 
 * Showing a hieroglyphic inscription. On, or Heliopolis, is in the Nile Delta. Its obelisk, 
 erected by Sesortasen I„ is the oldest now standing in Egypt and earlier than B. c. 2000. It 
 is of granite, and 68 feet high in the solid block. 
 
4 EGYPT. 
 
 Modem "Egypt is a province of the Turkish Empire, but only 
 loosely connected with it. The Khedive is a semi-independent 
 prince, rather controlled by European holders of Egyptian bonds 
 and of the shares in the Suez Canal than by the Sultan. The 
 native population consists of Arabs and Kopts. The Arabs are 
 descendants of the Mohammedan conquerors of the 7th century 
 A. D. The Kopts are the descendants of the ancient Egyptians, as 
 their name implies, which is a modified form of the word Egypt — (the 
 Greek Aiguptos=iKoptos). They have been long oppressed by the 
 Turks and Arabs, who profess Mohammedanism, while the Kopts 
 are Christians. The Koptic Church resembles the Greek Church, 
 though not governed by it. 
 
 The Koptic language has been supplanted by the Arabic, 
 and is no longer spoken ; but as found in the Missals and Bibles 
 still used by the priests, it is the key to the study of the old Egyp- 
 tian language, of which it is the direct descendant. Such diffi- 
 culties as still exist in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics are not 
 so much owing to difficulty in spelhng them out, as to the fact 
 that the modern Koptic has lost many old Egyptian words, and 
 has much modified others. 
 
 The study of Koptic was not, however, taken up by Euro- 
 pean men of science until they could spell out the hieroglyphics, 
 and the first steps in this direction date from Bonaparte's campaign 
 in Egypt. 
 
 The Rosetta Stone. — There was then found in the Delta 
 of the Nile a slab of basalt — now in the British Museum in 
 London — known from the place of discovery as the Rosetta Stone. 
 This slab was covered with three inscriptions — one in Greek, and 
 two in different hieroglyphic styles. The Greek inscription showed 
 that the stone dated from the time of the Ptolemies, the Greek 
 kings of Egypt. Corresponding to the letters in the Greek inscrip- 
 tion sjxjlling the word Ptolemy and other proper names, were hiero- 
 glyphics spelling the same words. Thus was found the clue to the 
 letters of the old Egyptian alphabet. 
 
ANCIENT HIEROGLYPHICS. 5 
 
 Later study of this writing bas shown that it had three stages : first, that 
 of picture writing of the simplest kind (like that still used by American Indians), 
 where the picture represents the actual object — for instance a picture of a lion 
 to represent this animal. The second stage used the picture to signify a related 
 idea — the picture of a lion would then, for instance, represent the idea of power. 
 The third stage was the alphabetic, in which the picture signified the first 
 sound used in naming it ; the picture of a lion would then represent the letter 
 L, the Egyptian word for lion being "labo." 
 
 In process of time the pictures of the alphabetic stage were more and more 
 simplified into symbolical and abbreviated forms, on account of the toil of 
 carving them, or just as in writing we may grow to shorten and abbreviate the 
 forms of our own letters. For example, the picture of a sieve had been used 
 to denote the sound H. The sieve was finally denoted by a circle with a single 
 
 line across it, instead of many Clj . The Phoenician merchants of the coast of 
 Syria, who borrowed this alphabet, found it simpler to make the form H . 
 
 This, as adopted by the Greeks, was written ^— | , the form from which the 
 
 letter H is taken. (The letter H, in Greek use, was subsequently replaced by 
 a "breathing" mark, or aspirate sign.) 
 
 Through similar transformation, all other letters of the Phoenician alphabet 
 were modified from Egyptian hieroglyphics and transmitted through the Greeks 
 to later times; all known alphabets of Europe being modified Phoenician. 
 The Phoenician derivation of our alphabet has been always admitted, but 
 its Egyptian origin is one of the latest results of historic study. The most im- 
 portant fact of Egyptian history is that we owe to it the alphabet in which 
 our books are written. 
 
 TEMPLE RUINS OF EGYPT. 
 
 "When modem travelers saw the wonderful temple ruins 
 of Egypt entirely covered with hieroglyphic carvings ; when they 
 saw the mummy cases (coffins) and papyrus rolls found in them, 
 covered with hieroglyphic writing ; it was natural for them to sup- 
 pose that mysterious secrets would be discovered, and untold knowl- 
 edge unfolded, after this writing should be deciphered. But the 
 result of deciphering the hieroglyphics was disappointing. Much 
 was made known of deep interest, but tlie results did not meet the 
 expectations of students. The temple inscriptions were found to 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 TheG 
 
 Kaniak, Thebes. 
 
 concern themselves largely with chronicles of the royal campaigns and 
 victories, and with detailed catalogues of the booty. The style of 
 
 the inscriptions is prolix, and 
 much space is taken up in the 
 repetition of titles. The study 
 and collation of inscriptions 
 have enabled scholars to extend 
 their knowledge of Egyptian 
 history and character in a mul- 
 titude of interesting ways, but 
 perhaps the most interesting 
 result of hieroglyphic study 
 is negative. From what has 
 been left us of Egyptian liter- 
 ature we find it differing from 
 later literature by the absence 
 of individuality or personality of style. 
 
 This uniformity and monotony of character in the Egyj)- 
 tian writings remind us that the greatness of this nation was col- 
 lective; it did not lie in the individuals, but in the mass. The 
 typical expression of Egyptian life and character was not in litera- 
 ture — it was in building. It is on the architecture of Egypt that 
 the colossal greatness of this nation stamped itself, and to this we 
 must look especially for our conceptions of its character. Along 
 the Nile lie the most stupendous, and the earliest, monuments of 
 history ; in their ruins more imposing, a thousand times, than the 
 most perfect modern structure. Notwithstanding the magnificence 
 and number of these remains, they represent but a small portion 
 of the ancient structures. 
 
 Description of the Buins. *— It is not till the traveler reaches Abydus, about three hnndred 
 and fifty miles from the mouths oi the Nile, that he finds an important temple ruin of the ancient 
 period. Meantime, the fertile country has narrowed from its greatest width in the Delta to a 
 width, above the head of the Delta, of from seven to nine miles. On either side of this strip 
 
 • The smallest print is not intended for recitation unless directed by the instructor to be 
 BO used. 
 
TEMPLE RUINS. 7 
 
 of land, annually fertilized by the inundations of the river, lie barren mountains, with deserts 
 beyond. The temple at Abydus, built about 1400 b. c. by King Sethos I. , is well preserved. Here, 
 aa in all temples, the roofs and ceilings are solid blocks of stone. About fifty miles higher up 
 the stream, at Denderah, is found a splendid temple completed by the last of the Greek sov- 
 ereigns of Egypt, Cleopatra, about 50 b. c. The ruins of Thebes, most important of all, are 
 next reached. Some of these are named after the Arab villages built around them— as the 
 ruins of Karnak, of Luxor, of Kourneh, and of Medinet Habou. The date of these temples 
 varies from 1600 to 1200 b. c. 
 
 Thothmes III., about 1600 B.C., built the earliest Theban temple which remains in 
 any sort of preservation (one of those at Karnak), though there are some temple columns 
 standing of earlier date. This king erected before a temple at On, in the Delta, the two obe- 
 lisks which have been recently transported, the one to London, the other to New York. 
 
 Amenophis III., about 1 500 B. C, erected the two colossal statues at Thebes known as 
 the statues of " Memnon," each sixty feet in height. He also built the Theban temples whose 
 remains are named after the Arab village of Luxor. Between Luxor and Karnak he placed an 
 alley of sphinxes, six hundred in number, each one from 12 to 18 feet long, in solid blocks of stone. 
 
 Sethos I., about 1400 B. C, built, besides the temple of Abydus, the Theban temple of 
 Kourneh, and began the Great Hall of Karnak. This was finished by his son, Ramses II., 
 1350 b. c. The roofing blocks of its central nave are each 25 feet long. The Great Hall 
 was 340 feet by 170, and contained one hundred and thirty-four columns. The twelve largest 
 are 75 feet high and 12 feet in diameter. On the top of the capital of a single one of the largest 
 columns a hundred men might stand together. Ramses II. also built at Thebes the temple 
 now known as the Ramesseum. Beside its ruins lie the fragments of a statue of Ramses 
 in red granite, which was 75 feet high, and weighed 887 tons. The Theban temple near the 
 Arab village of Medinet Habou was built by Ramses IIL about 1370 b, c. 
 
 Above the temple ruins of Thebes lie those of Esneh (Latonpolis), Edfou, Kom Om- 
 bos, and of the Island of Philse. All of these belong to the time of the Greek rule over Egypt, 
 after b. c. 330, or to the Roman period, after b. c. 30. They are, notwithstanding, absolutely 
 Egyptian in character, a most remarkable fact when we remember that other countries ruled by 
 Greeks and Romans adopted their forms of art. The peculiar tenacity of Egyptian customs 
 in general, which foreign influence could not shake, is illustrated by this permanence of their 
 architectural styles. The temple at Edfou is the best preserved, and serves as a type by which 
 other ruins may be imagined in restoration. 
 
 The Island of Philae, five hundred and twenty-six miles fi-om the mouths of the Nile, 
 marks the limit of Egypt proper. Rocky formations here create a cataract in the Nile, known 
 as the First Cataract, which impedes river navigation to the south. Above this point the char- 
 acter of the country begins to change. The narrow strip of fertile soil becomes still narrower, 
 lying on one side of the river, and only two or three miles wide. Prom the Plrst Cataract 
 to the Second (about two hundred miles), this country is known as Nubia. Above the Second 
 Cataract lies Ethiopia, stretching for three hundred miles to the Third Cataract. Egyptian 
 temples are found along the river banks through Nubia and Ethiopia, showing that the civiliza- 
 tion as well as the armies of Egypt controlled these countries. 
 
 The most important monuments of Nubia are the rock temples of Ipsamboul, 
 executed under Ramses n. about 1350 b. c. The largest of these has a hewn facade 100 feet 
 high, with four sitting figures ; portraits of the king, semi-detached from the rock ; each 75 
 feet high. The temple is cut into the rock 150 feet, with an interior height of 35 feet, the 
 ceiling being supported by colossal human forms. See view from Ipsamboul, p. 10 ; from 
 Edfou, p. 12 • and portrait of Thothmes Til. at p. 15. 
 
8 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 The Great Pyramid. 
 
 THE PYRAMIDS AND THE OLD EMPIRE OF MEMPHIS. 
 The large number of ruined temples in Ethiopia and 
 Nubia led the earlier writers of our century to seek the origins of 
 
 Egyptian civilization in this 
 direction. But the same ex- 
 planation accounts at once for 
 the disappearance of temple 
 ruins in the lower Nile valley, 
 and for the fact that the oldest 
 Egyptian civilization centered 
 there. The superior fertility 
 of the Delta, and the large 
 expanse of cultivable ground, 
 made this portion of the coun- 
 try the seat of earliest civiliza- 
 tion, and also, in later times, 
 the most tempting to invasion, and the most open to the destruc- 
 tions of foreign conquest. The proximity of the Delta to invading 
 populations from Arabia and Syria made it peculiarly exposed to 
 attack. On this account, the Mohammedan Arabs, in the 7th cen- 
 tury A. D., settled and increased especially here. From their time 
 dates the entire destruction of ancient city ruins in the lower valley. 
 These ruins have been used as building quarries by the new settlers, 
 and have in this manner disappeared. 
 
 Only the Pyramids, near the head of the Delta, have been able to 
 withstand this process of destruction, and thus they are interesting, 
 not only for themselves, but also because they represent the earliest 
 epoch of Egyptian history and architecture — the period when Mem- 
 phis, at the head of the Delta, was the capital. 
 
 The Pyramids were the tombs of the kings of Memphis— the 
 kings of the Old Empire. The kings of the New Empire, whose 
 capital was Thebes, were buried in rock tombs still to be seen there 
 in the mountain-sides. The important royal names of this period 
 
THE PYRAMIDS. 9 
 
 have been already mentioned in connection with the ruins of 
 Thebes. 
 
 Over sixty pyramids are still in fair preservation. Of these, the 
 greater pyramids of Gizeh, three in number, are the most won- 
 derful. The largest of the three covers thirteen acres of ground — 
 twice the area of the largest building in the world, St. Peter's at 
 Eome — and is 480 feet high.* It contains two tomb chambers for 
 the stone coflBus of the king and queen. The king who built this 
 pyramid was named Chufu f — a name transformed by the Greek 
 Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the 5th century b. c. and de- 
 scribed the pyramids, into Cheops-J The pyramid of Ohafra 
 (Chephren, in Herodotus) is 447 feet high; of Menkera (Myker- 
 inus), 218 feet high. The entrances to the galleries which lead 
 to the tomb chambers were originally closed by enormous blocks 
 of stone. 
 
 Religion.— The sentiment which prompted the construction of these tombs was analogous 
 to that which created the custom of embalming the mummy. Both are expressions of an ideal 
 of eternal duration, which also stamped itself on the massive and solemn forms of the Egyptian 
 temples. The Egyptians were believers in the immortality of the soul and in rewards and punish- 
 ments after death. Their moral law contained many distinctions of great refinement. Their 
 worship of animals became, among the lower orders in the times of decay, a degrading idol- 
 atry ; but it first originated in the pictorial symbolism by which the forms of animals were used 
 to indicate the attributes of various divinities, and so were connected with them. It probably 
 was the expression, also, of a reverence for animal life, which strove to limit the killing of 
 various kinds of animals for food, by making them sacred. In the submissive nature of the 
 brute creation, accomplishing its work without repining, obedient to the natural instinct of 
 its species, the creature of habit and routine, the Egyptian found the symbol of the life which 
 he himself pursued. 
 
 The Egyptian mythology was polytheistic in form, its deities being personifications of the 
 forces of nature, the Sun-god, Ra, at the head. 
 
 The Sphinx.— Near the pyramid of Chafra is the colossal rock-hewn Sphinx, 65 feet in 
 height and 142 feet in length, including the extended paws. It consists of a lion's body with 
 a human head, the emblem of supreme power and supreme intellect in combination, the Egyp- 
 tian symbol of divinity. Between the paws is a small temple 18 feet high. On its wall an 
 inscription records that Chafra restored the Sphinx, leaving us to assume an unknown author 
 and an earlier date for this wonder of the world. 
 
 * The Strasburg Cathedral tower, the highest in Europe, is 461 feet high ; the dome of St. 
 Peters is 429 feet high. 
 + Soft "ch" in Egyptian. 
 If Pronounced, as always in Greek, hard " ch." 
 
10 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 The oldest standinsr obelisk, at On (Heliopolis), was erected by a king, Sesortasen 1, 
 somewhat later than the time of the great pyramids. The obelisks were probably symbols of the 
 gnn's rays, certainly dedicated to the Sun-god. Amenemha III. constructed the Labyrinth, an 
 immense palace, for the use of congresses of the Egyptian magistrates, now utterly ruined, but 
 seen and described by Herodotus. Amenemha III. also excavated the immense reservoir called 
 Lake Mceris, to control and regulate the inuijdations of the Nile, by holding over the waters 
 of an excessive inundation for the years of drought. The site and outlines of this reservoir, 
 with a ruined pyramid in the center, are still visible. There is a Nile measure, for naarking 
 the height of the inundations, cut in the x-ock at the Second Cataract, and inscribed with the 
 name of Amenemha III., showing that the armies of the Old Empire had already conquered 
 Nubia. 
 
 Tombs of Beni Hassan.— For the period of the " Old Empire" the wall-paintings in 
 the rock tombs of Beni Hassan, between Memphis and Abydus, have the deepest interest. All 
 phases of Egjrptian life and industry are here represented in still vivid colors. 
 
 The drawing of the Egyptian pictures is stamped with the formalism and rigidity of the 
 people, but its peculiarities are partly the result of decorative principles which reject tints and 
 shadings for the sake of strong and positive color effects ; which refuse to represent figuMs 
 out of profile in order to maintain harmony with the flat surface decorated. The earliest known 
 drawings and statues are the most life-like, and often thoroughly natural. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 
 
 Between the Memphite Empire of the pyramids, the times 
 of Chiifu, Chafra, Menkeva, Sesortasen I., and Amenemha III., 
 
 and the Theban Empire, distin- 
 guished by the temple ruins of 
 Karnak, Luxor, Medinet Ha- 
 bou, Abydus, and Ipsamboul, 
 the times of Thothmes III., 
 Amenophis III., S ethos I., 
 Ilamses II., and Ramses III., 
 til ere was an intervening pe- 
 riod known as the Middle Em- 
 pire. 
 
 Owing to insufficient, or as 
 yet unsupplied, records, the be- 
 ginning and duration of the 
 Old Empire are not yet definitely known. The year 2000 B. c. may 
 be taken as an approximate round number for its close. It was 
 
 Kock Temple al Ipsamboul, 
 with colossal statues of Ramses II. 
 
CHRONOLOGY . H 
 
 overthrown by a foreign conquest, by way of Suez, of wandering 
 tribes from Arabia or Syria. 
 
 Middle Empire. — The foreign conquerors were known as Hyk- 
 sos (Shepherds), During their ascendency the Hebrews came into 
 Egypt. The date for Joseph is fixed approximately * at b. c. 1750. 
 The overthrow of the Hykso power was completed under Thothmes 
 III., whose date, about b. c. 1600, begins the time of the — 
 
 New Empire. Its period of greatest glory was under Ramses 
 II., B. c. 1350. Besides conquests in Ethiopia, he made repeated 
 campaigns through Syria to the upper portions of the Tigris-Eu- 
 phrates valley, and possibly to Asia Minor. The Island of Cyprus 
 ^was at this time under Egyptian ascendency. On the mountain- 
 side near Beyrout, in Syria, may still be seen immense reliefs of 
 figures in Egyptian style, believed to date from these campaigns. 
 
 The son' of Ramses II. was Menephtah. He is considered the 
 Pharaoh of the Exodus, which would date, in this case, about 
 1314 B. c. 
 
 After Ramses III., about 1270 b. c, began the decline of the 
 New Empire, which lasted, however, over seven hundred years 
 longer. After 1200, it was ruled for a time by kings of an Ethi- 
 opian dynasty, and also for a time, by kings of Assyrian blood or 
 appointment. 
 
 The final overthrow of Egyptian independence was eflFected 
 by the Persian Cambyses, in b. c. 525. The institutions were not, 
 however, changed by this conquest, nor by the succeeding conquests 
 of the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 REVIEW OF THE LEADING DATES OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 
 
 Old Empire (Pyramid kings), before b. c. 3000 
 
 Hyksos, Middle Empire, ends about " 1600 
 
 New Empire, ends " 525 
 
 Persian period, ends about " 333 
 
 Greek period, ends about " 50 
 
 Roman period, ends with an Arab-Mohammedan conquest A. D, 640 
 
 * By the computation of Brugsch and Josephue. 
 
12 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 After the Arab Mohammedan conquest, Egypt was ruled by different Mohammedan dynas- 
 ties till after a. d. 1500, when it was incorporated with the Turkish Empire, its present govern- 
 meot. 
 
 Christianity made rapid progress in Egypt from the opening of the Christian era, and was 
 definitely sanctioned, as in all other Roman provinces, under the Roman Emperor Constantine 
 )he Great, after a. d, 300. 
 
 The old Egyptian temples were closed under the Roman Emperor Theodosias the Great, 
 and pagan worship was forbidden before a. d. 400. 
 
 CHARACTER AND INSTITUTIONS OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 The decline of the New Empire, after b. c. 1200, concerned chiefly 
 the power of Egypt over other nations, and the successions of foreign domina- 
 tion after b. c. 525 (time of the Per- 
 /^"^ ^>. sian conquest), are all subordinate 
 
 to the grand fact that the Egyptian 
 institutions and character were not 
 changed by the changes of govern- 
 ment. The picture of the last Greek 
 sovereign, Cleopatra, on the wall of 
 the temple of Denderah, is still 
 made according to the stiff, sche- 
 matic style of Egyptian art. At this 
 time (about b. c. 50), after nearly 
 five hundred years of foreign rule, 
 the killing of a cat, a sacred animal, 
 by a Roman soldier, roused a popu- 
 lar revolt which came near destroying the Roman army, to which the people 
 had quietly submitted before this sacrilege. In the second century after Christ 
 the Egyptian style of sculpture even became fashionable at Rome. The name 
 of the Roman Emperor Decius, of the third century after Christ, is inscribed 
 on the temple of Esneh in Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
 
 This tenacity of fixed character and institutions doubtless orig- 
 inated in the peculiar conditions of geography and climate. The absolute 
 dependence of the entire people on the annual inundation of the Nile obliged 
 them to regularity of habit in all departments of life, and to constantly recur- 
 ring occupations at constantly recurring intervals. Rain is unknown in Upper 
 Egypt, and rarely falls in the Delta. No dependence whatever is placed on 
 this necessity of all other agriculture, which is therefore subject to such 
 changes and variations. The Nile differs from all rivers in the world in receiy- 
 
 Temple of \\ 
 
CHARACTER AND INSTITUTIONS. 13 
 
 ing no tributaries for a distance of about 1350 miles above its mouths, through 
 Eigypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia. Its annual rise and overflow result from the 
 melting of the snows on the lofty mountains of Central Africa, and occur at 
 almost exactly the same dates of each suceeeding year. The sediment deposited 
 during the overflow is a rich fertilizer. Thus the sowing of seed, reaping the 
 harvest, repairing the dykes and canals, verification of landmarks, and all 
 other agricultural activities, were here forced into a regularity of recurrence 
 and arrangement which the climate and conditions of other countries would 
 not even remotely allow. 
 
 Besides the fixity and regularity of all other habits of life, determined by 
 the controlling occupation, the Egyptians were fixed still further in accustomed 
 grooves by an exclusiveness which was also forced upon them. Other nations 
 have been modified by contact with those surrounding them, and have often 
 wished to change their conditions to resemble others. But the Egyptians 
 wished to repel all other nations. Their own valley supplied them with an 
 unfailing source of riches, for which no foreign residence could ofEer them 
 a substitute. Their valley was bounded by deserts from which the wan- 
 dering nomads were constantly tempted to descend for pillage. Barbarians 
 from the wilds of Southern Africa were tempted to descend the Nile. Wander- 
 ing tribes from the desert Peninsula of Sinai, from Arabia, or Syria, were con- 
 stantly tempted to effect an entrance by way of Suez. Thus the Egyptians 
 were obliged to be an exclusive people. They wanted to keep other people 
 out of their country, and never wanted to leave it themselves, unless to make 
 their own land secure by terrifying other warlike nations. The campaigns 
 of their greatest conquerors never really aimed to combine other countries with 
 the Egyptian valley, but simply to teach them that they were not to enter it. 
 
 To these two elements of influence — that of constantly recurring habits of 
 life, and the antagonism to all modifying external influence — we may add the 
 influencje of landscape and climate. The Egyptian lived in a valley of 
 fertile soil, one thousand miles long, and from two to nine miles wide above 
 the Delta, with barren mountains on either side. The monotony of climate 
 and surroundings added an emphasis to the more important influences pro- 
 duced by the same grand facts. 
 
 From what has been said of the riches of Egypt and its relation to sur- 
 rounding nations, we may argue the reasons for a form of government of 
 the most absolute despotism. The loss of a single battle might place the 
 entire valley at the mercy of the conqueror. There were no mountain fast- 
 nesses to prolong resistance or check invasion. The rivers of other countries 
 offer obstacles to attack, but the line of the river being also the line of the 
 
14 EGYPT. 
 
 country, here made attack more easy. Thus the military and governmental 
 forces were of necessity massed together — placed at the sole disposal of a single 
 man that he might use them with instantaneous and crushing power against 
 the foreign foe. The kings of Egypt were not hated as despots ; they were 
 worshiped as the safety of the nation. And since the form of government 
 could not be changed without endangering the people, Egypt was generally 
 free from seditions and would-be refoi-mers. A despotic government, devised 
 and accepted by the people, reacted upon them and held them to their tradi- 
 tional institutions from century to century. 
 
 Thus we understand the system of caste by which each Egyptian fol- 
 lowed the occupation of his father, and the division of hereditary occupations, 
 by which priests, who were the men of learning, formed one caste, the warriors 
 another, agriculturists another. The various trades and occupations were all 
 hereditary. There are found cases in the tomb inscriptions, where for twenty 
 generations the son is recorded as having followed the occupation of his father. 
 The lives of individuals were so bound down by tradition, that in the case of 
 the king his hours of eating and drinking and of sleeping were defined by 
 unvarying law. 
 
 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION. 
 
 The antiquity of Egyptian civilization, the wealth of the country, the con- 
 tinuity of life, and the hereditary transmission of traditional occupations, help 
 to explain the perfection of Egyptian science and of the technical and 
 mechanic arts. On the threshold of history we are astounded by the exist- 
 ence of a nation which surpassed in many arts of civilized life the boasted 
 advancement of the nineteenth century. The various applications of electricity, 
 the use of steam, photography, printing, and the modern explosive agents, are 
 almost the sole exceptions to the general law of Egyptian superiority to, or 
 equality with, ourselves, in material things. 
 
 The jealousy with which the priests guarded their knowledge makes the 
 extent of their astronomic science uncertain, but it was certainly great. 
 The Greek astronomers who flourished in Egypt in the 3d century b. c. , were the 
 first who announced to the world the true diameter of our earth, the approximate 
 distances of the fixed stars, and the revolution of our planetary system round 
 the sun. How much of this knowledge they owed to Egyptian studies is un- 
 certain, but these were at least the basis of their own results. It was an Egyp- 
 tian astronomer who computed, at a later time, for Julius Cjesar, the Julian 
 Calendar (first corrected under Pope Gregory XVI. in the 16th century a d.). 
 
CIVILIZATION. 
 
 15 
 
 Tlie high perfection reached in geometrical science is implied in the 
 construction of the pyramids and temples. (Euclid, the Greek geometer of the 
 3d century b. c. , was a resident of Alexandria.) No buildings, excepting those 
 of the Greeks and the Phoenicians, 
 taught by Egyptian art, have ever 
 exhibited the same accuracy and 
 delicacy of masonry construction. 
 
 Blocks of stone over 100 feet in 
 length were quarried in certain obe- 
 lisks. An obelisk 90 feet high is 
 still erect at Thebes. The still 
 standing statues of Amenophis III., 
 at Thebes, are 50 feet high in the 
 solid block, resting on a solid pedes- 
 tal 10 feet high. The roofing blocks 
 of the Great Hall of Karnak have 
 been mentioned. In the great pyra- 
 mids, blocks 20 feet long are com- 
 mon. Herodotus tells of a single 
 stone hewn into the aspect of a 
 small temple, which was moved 
 from the quarry at Assouan, at the 
 First Cataract, to the Delta of the 
 Nile. Its dimensions were 31 feet 
 by 31i feet, and 18 feet high. He 
 says that the architect engaged in 
 moving the stone, which was des- 
 tined to stand in the court of a tem- 
 ple, heaved so deep a sigh when it 
 had reached the outer entrance, that 
 the king in pity ordered the work- 
 men to leave it standing there. This 
 block was seen and described by an 
 Arabian physician, Abdulatief, in 
 the 13th century after Christ. It has since disappeared. 
 
 The method by which heavy blocks were raised is in dispute, 
 but the use of cranes and derricks appears sufficiently certain. The blocks 
 were moved from the quarries on wooden sledges. These were drawn by man 
 power on tramways of wood, which were greased. A picture at Beni Hassan 
 
 Thothmes ni. Colossal Head of Red 
 Granite, British Museum. 
 
16 EGYPT. 
 
 exhibits the moving of a colossal statue in this way, while a workman pours 
 oil under the sledge runners. 
 
 The arts of metallurgy may be argued from the superior cutting of the 
 blocks of stone, and they are otherwise attested. The granites habitually used 
 in the colossal sculptures turn the best modem steel chisel. The use of steel is 
 also argued from the colors used to distinguish different metals in the pictures 
 at Beni Hassan. Iron clamps have been found in the pyramids. Gold and 
 silver were worked as perfectly as now. The goldbeater's art was practised in 
 perfection. Gold and silver wires of extreme tenuity were woven into textile 
 fabrics. 
 
 Precious gems were counterfeited in glass, and artificial emeralds were 
 made of enormous size. The diamond was used in cutting glass. The specific 
 gravity of the British "crown" glass is the same as that made in Egypt. The 
 well-known superiority of Venetian glass manufactures in modern times is an 
 inheritance from antiquity. There is still in existence an Egyptian mosaic of 
 colored glass threads, under two-thirds of an inch square, making the picture 
 of a duck, in which the eyeball and the texture of the wing feathers can be 
 clearly distinguished. 
 
 Pottery was made, as now, by the potter's wheel. Leather manufac- 
 ture was carried to the highest perfection. In the tomb pictures, the leather- 
 cutter holds the semicircular knife still used in this trade. Paper was made 
 from the papyrus plant. It is from the Greek word papyrus, applied to this 
 plant, that our word paper is derived. Use was made of papier mache for 
 various utensils ; even boats of burden were made of it. Specimens of Egyp- 
 tian rope and textile fabrics are common in the museums of Europe. The 
 finer Egyptian linens were equal to our finest cambric. The carpenter's 
 art was practised in perfection, as still existing carpentry work demonstrates. 
 The furniture was joined, not glued, although glue was known. The gay 
 colors and luxurious stuflBngs of modern upholstery are found in the articles of 
 furniture represented in the tomb pictures. Egyptian wigs are not uncommon 
 in the museums. One of the earliest Egyptian kings is noted for the invention 
 of a hair pomade ; another for a treatise on medicine. Draughtsmen and a 
 checker board have been found at Thebes. 
 
 The perfection of the chemical arts is implied in the etymology of the 
 word Chemistry. The Egyptians called their country Chemi (the black land). 
 The Arabian Mohammedans coined from this word the word Chemistry — that is 
 to say, " the Egyptian art." The perfection of chemical art is also implied in 
 the use of changing dyes in te3 tile fabrics, such as are found in moire antique 
 Bilk, and in the still brilliant coiors^of Egyptian paintings four thousand years 
 
SUMMARY, 17 
 
 old. The plaster and mortar work lias stood the same wonderful test of 
 time, and is far superior to our own. The use of the arch principle (contrary to 
 supposition of earlier writers of our century) was habitually made in brick 
 structures. Many brick arches are still found in Thebes. In temple structures 
 the arch was never used ; whence the earlier belief that it was unknown. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 From the modern studies in the hieroglyphic records of Egypt, 
 we have passed to monuments of architecture, which require no 
 study of ancient languages or of forgotten alphabets to persuade 
 us of the genius and greatness of their founders. From the pres- 
 ent distribution of ancient ruins, we learn to distinguish from the 
 epoch of the still existing temples, another of still earlier date, repre- 
 sented by the pyramids. Memphis and Thebes were the two suc- 
 cessive centres of Egyptian history. The massive heaviness of Egyp- 
 tian architecture, the rigid aspect of its art, symbolize the fixity and 
 unchanging aspects of Egyptian hfe. So far we are dealing only 
 with Egypt studied for itself; but in approaching the technical 
 and mechanic arts of Egyptian civilization, we approach the signifi- 
 cance of Egypt for later history. One other people shares with her 
 the honor of preparing for all later civilization its material basis. 
 That people was the Ohaldseo-Assyrian. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 
 
 These questions are arranged without reference to the order of theboolc, to test the general 
 knowledge of the student. It is suggested that the answers to these questions, and to those of 
 later corresponding sections, be written down in such manner as to make an affirmative sen- 
 tence, by combining the question and answer. The pupil will then have, in consecutive 
 written form, an abridged summary of the work. The following sentences, combined from 
 the first three questions and answers, will serve as an example : — The Mohammedan conquest 
 divides the old Egyptian culture from modern times. It took place about 640 a. d. The Moham- 
 medan Arabs, and the Byzantine Greeks or East Bomans, passed down the Egyptian arts, as 
 then existing, to later times, etc., etc. 
 
 What conquest divides the old Egyptian culture from modem times ? Ans. The Moham- 
 medan conquest. 
 
 Date this conquest. (Chronology, p. 11.) 
 
18 EGYPT. 
 
 What nations passed down to later times Egyptian arts as then existing ? Am. The Moham- 
 medan Arabs, and the Byzantine Greeks or East Romans. 
 
 How long had the Romans been in contact with Egypt at the time of the Arab conquest ? 
 (Chronology, p. 11.) 
 
 When'did the Greeks come in close contact with Egypt ?— by what conquest ? 
 
 What nation had carried Egyptian arts to Greece and ItAly at a much earlier date ? Ana. The 
 Syrian Phoenicians, as early at least as b. c. 1500. 
 
 Recapitulate the nations contributing to the general diffusion of Egyptian arts and sciences, 
 and the periods after which they were successively in contact with Egypt ? 
 
 Mention important Egyptian arts and sciences ? 
 
 What early date may be fixed on as a time before which these arts and sciences were per- 
 fectly developed ? Answer implied in the following question. 
 
 What other remains belong to the epoch of the pyramids ? 
 
 Where are the pjrramids ? 
 
 Why are other remains of their epoch so scanty ? 
 
 In what period did the Jews enter Egypt ? 
 
 Where are the most important remains of the New Empire? 
 
 Who conquered it? 
 
 How long was this before the Greek conquest ? 
 
 What is the character of art in Egypt under the Greeks and Romans? 
 
 What does this indicate and iUustrate (p. 12) ? 
 
 Explain some conditions of life contributing to the tenacity and duration of Egjrptian 
 civilization (p. 13) ? 
 
 What other nation shares with Egypt the honor of preparing for later civilization its mate- 
 rial basis ? 
 
CHALD^A AND ASSYRIA 
 
 POLITICAL HISTORY. 
 
 In the single valley formed by two rivers, the Euphrates and 
 Tigris (now belonging to Turkey, but to-day an almost ruined 
 country), we find again the natural process by which the more 
 fertile lower river valley was the earlier seat of empire. The Prov- 
 
 Au Assyrian Palace (Kestoration). 
 
 ince of Chaldaea (the lower valley), capitaT Babylon, was the first 
 seat of empire. The province of Assyria, capital Nineveh, was 
 the later military and governmental centre. About 1250 b. c. 
 the transfer was efiected, and the rise of Assyria is thus contem- 
 porary with the decline of the external power of the New Empire 
 of Egypt. 
 
 In distinguishing the Chaldsean Empire from the As- 
 syrian, not much more difference is implied than that between the 
 
20 CHALDiEA AND ASSYRIA. 
 
 Empires of Memphis and of Thebes. The civilization remained 
 essentially the same, since the one river valley was open to the same 
 influences. It is true that the Chaldseans and Assyrians were not 
 originally of one blood, but this made no more difference in the 
 unity of civilization than the mixture of different nations in America 
 to-day. 
 
 Assyrian Empire. — The most essential difference between the 
 Chald^ean and the Assyrian Empire lies in the larger extent of the 
 latter. The Ohaldaean Empire took in the whole Tigris-Euphrates 
 valley, and reached over Syria at times. The Assyrian Empire 
 was much more firmly fixed in its control of Syria. It also 
 extended over Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor to the river Halys 
 (h2,liz). On the East of the Zagros Mountains, which lie on the 
 east bank of the Tigris, the Assyrian Empire comprehended two 
 important provinces between the Caspian and the Persian Gulf — 
 viz., Media (North) and Persia (South). It extended beyond these 
 provinces at times, but with indefinite boundaries, toward the Indus. 
 
 Media and Babylonia. — The Assyrian Empire, supplanting 
 the Ohaldaean about 1250 B. c, lasted till about 625 B. c. But the 
 change which took place then was only one of external government, 
 and the conditions of civilization were unaltered. The Assyrian 
 Empire was simply divided into two parts, known as the Median 
 and Babylonian Empires. The province of Media revolted, and 
 founded an empire which ruled the provinces of Persia, Media, and 
 Asia Minor to the Halys. The province of Ohaldaea revolted, and 
 ruled an empire including the Tigris-Euphrates valley and Syria. 
 This empire is called Babylonian, after the capital of Ohaldaea, only 
 to distinguish it from the earlier Ohaldaean state of about the same 
 extent. Its second king, Nebuchadnezzar, lived about B. c. 600. 
 This division of the Assyrian states into tlie Median and Babylonian 
 Empires lasted only about seventy years, till about 555 B. c. 
 
 Persian Empire. — The province of Persia then revolted, under 
 Oyrus, against Media ; conquering rapidly this state and Babylonia. 
 It also conquered the Lydian Empire, in Asia Minor, beyond the 
 
POLITICAL HISTORY. 21 
 
 Halys, and the country east of Media and Persia to the Indus, and 
 in 525 B. c, under Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, subdued Syria, 
 Phoenicia, and Egypt. 
 
 The Persian Empire was simply the reunited Assyrian Empire 
 remodeled and enlarged. The character of the civilization was not 
 revolutionized. The Persian mountaineers took the lead of Western 
 Asia simply as governors and soldiers. Their empire lasted till 
 333 B. c. This date, already given for the Greek conquest of 
 Egypt, may stand also as date for the Greek conquest of all other 
 Persian provinces. 
 
 This last conquest effected a decided change of manners, cus- 
 toms and institutions in the Chaldaeo-Assyrian countries, which 
 will be noticed under Greek History. But the foregoing sketch 
 makes apparent that, in the Tigris-Euphrates valley and dependent 
 countries, from the dawn of history to the fall of the Persian Em- 
 pire, we are dealing with the same civilization essentially. Thus we 
 shall be able to describe it as a whole in the next section, not allow- 
 ing the changes of dynasty to confuse us. The changes and gradual 
 increase of area are important, however, and the distinctions between 
 the empires and the provinces of the same name must be noted. 
 
 TABLE OF EXTENT OF AREAS. 
 
 Chaldean Empire. — Tigris-Euphrates valley, and weak hold of Syria. 
 
 Assyrian Empire. — Tigris-Euphrates valley, Syria, Asia Minor to the Halys, 
 Media (the province), Persia (the province), with changing bound- 
 aries to the east of these two provinces. Asia Minor, beyond the 
 Halys, was a vassal state (the Lydian Empire) till a century before 
 the fall of Nineveh. 
 
 <^ f 
 
 ^ g ^. I Babylonian Empire. — Tigris-Euphrates valley and Syria. 
 
 •| >^-| -( Median Empire. — Province of Persia, Province of Media, and Asia 
 !E J^ I Minor to the Halys. 
 
 Persian Empire. — Assyrian States reunited, with addition of the rest of Asia 
 Minor (Lydian Empire), of Egypt, and of the country east of Media, 
 find Persia to the Indu^. 
 
22 CHALD^A AND ASSYRIA. 
 
 ICap Explanation.— The time of the "Four Great Powers" represented on tht; map is 
 that of the division of the Assyrian Empire into the Empires of Media and Babylonia. The 
 two additional great Eastern powers of this time were Lydia and E<;ypt. 
 
 The earlier Chaldaean Empire, in its greatest extent, corresponded to the dimensions of 
 " Babylonia" on this map. The extent of the Assyrian Empire would be obtained by uniting 
 the States of Babylonia and Media as here represented. The extent of the Persian Empire 
 would be obtained by uniting all four Great Powers with the addition of the countries on the 
 East, as far as the Indus, The extent of the Persian Empire is also indicated on the map for 
 the Empire of Alexander the Great, which corresponded in extent to the Persian, with the 
 addition of the Greek states. 
 
 In the use of this map, and all others, it is very desirable to make comparison with the maps 
 of a modem geography, and to exercise the historical knowledge gained, by pointing out the 
 fiame facts on a modern map. 
 
 TABLE REPRESENTING THE RELATIONS OF THE ANCIENT EASTERN EMPIRES. 
 
 Egypt. ) 
 
 Chaldea.— Assyria.— P^^y^^^^*~r Persian Empire. 
 ( Media. — ) 
 
 TABLE OF DATES FOR THE HISTORY OF THE TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY. 
 
 Chaldaean Empire, — Unknown beginning to about B. c. 1250 
 
 Assyrian Empire. — Ends. , " 635 
 
 Median j " 
 
 Babylonian P°^P^^^«--^"d ^^o^* " ^^^ 
 
 Persian Empire. — Ends with a Greek conquest about ** 333 
 
 CIVILIZATION OF CHALD/EO-ASSYRIA. 
 
 Interest in Assyrian and Chaldaean history was awakened in the 
 19th century by the discoveries of Sir Henry liayard, an English traveler and 
 diplomatist. It appears from his excavations that the architecture of the Chal- 
 daeans and Assyrians was exclusively of brick. Hence heaps of shapeless ruins 
 are all that remain of their structures, as opposed to the still existing massive 
 slone remains of ancient Egypt. In the immense mounds, scattered here and 
 there below Babylon, may still be traced, however, the original form of the 
 Chaldaean temples. 
 
 The temples were immense circular cones ascended by an external spiral 
 staircase, on the summit of which the priests made their astronomic observa- 
 tions and offered sacrifices. The bricks of these structures are stamped with 
 the names of the reigning kings. 
 
 The Chaldaean writing is known as cuneiform (wedge-shaped), because 
 
CIVILIZATION . 
 
 23 
 
 the clay was marked while moist by strokes of a stick, sinking deeply at one 
 end and leaving the mark narrower and lighter at the other. The cuneiform 
 symbols are believed to be modifications of a pictorial alphabet. This form of 
 writing continued in the Assyrian period. In the 
 cellars of the Ninevite palaces have been found the 
 ancient libraries of the kings — eight-sided bricks cov- 
 ered with cuneiform inscriptions. The Assyrian lan- 
 guage was related to the Hebrew, Arab, and Phoeni- 
 cian, and is deciphered with considerable success by 
 the aid of these languages. 
 
 The translation of the cuneiform signs into 
 the corresponding sounds was first made possible by 
 inscriptions of the Persian period using the cuneiform 
 symbols for the Persian language. In these inscrip- 
 tions, certain frequently recurring combinations were 
 presumed to be the names of kings. Guesses at trans- 
 lations of certain combinations as being the names of 
 Darius and Xerxes, were proved correct by a vase (now 
 in the Louvre at Paris), which contained a Persian 
 and an Egyptian inscription side by side. Thus a key 
 was obtained to the cuneiform syllabary. The reading 
 
 of Assyrian inscriptions in the cuneiform writing was first achieved in connec- 
 tion with a rock inscription at Bagistana in Media, dating from King Darius, 
 and repeated in three languages, Persian, Medish, and Assyrian, with the 
 same cuneiform symbols. The matter of the Ninevite inscriptions contains 
 some interesting legends. They consist mainly, however, of royal chronicles of 
 campaigns and conquests. 
 
 The sculptured, stone slabs with which the brick walls of the palaces 
 were covered are the most interesting of Assyrian remains. Numbers of these 
 are in the British Museum, London. These reliefs furnish very vivid and 
 spirited pictures of the lives of the Assyrian kings, their warfare, hunting 
 excursions, sacrificial processions, etc. Immense human-headed bulls — emblems, 
 like the Egyptian Sphinx, of combined wisdom and power — flanked the palace 
 entrances. The ruins of Babylon and of Persepolis offer interesting examples of 
 a later period of decorative sculpture based on the same methods. Arched city 
 gates and arched drains have been excavated at and near Nineveh. Beautiful ex- 
 amples of tile work, and many ivory carvings and carved gems have also been 
 found. 
 
 Assyrian Divinity.* 
 
 '■' Belief slab from Nimroud, in the British Museum. 
 
24 CHALD^A AND ASSYRIA. 
 
 The manufactures especially famed were those of textile fabrics and 
 carpets. Many of the ornamental patterns of our own time have been derived 
 from Babylonian carpets and other fabrics through Greek transmission. Em- 
 bossing on metal was also a highly developed art. The weights and measures 
 now in use are mainly traced to Assyria and Babylonia through Greek trans- 
 mission. Even the English division of the pound into twenty shillings goes 
 back to the Babylonian system. The English shilling is the equivalent of the 
 drachma of the Greeks, which was one-twentieth of a Babylonian gold shekel. 
 Our division of time by hours of sixty minutes and minutes of sixty seconds is 
 also Babylonian by Greek transmission. In luxury and general civilization we 
 can scarcely rate the Tigris-Euphrates valley lower than Egypt. The system 
 of canals for irrigation was carried to marvelous perfection. 
 
 The government of the successive empires already mentioned was uni- 
 versally despotic, for reasons like those which determined the government of 
 Egypt. The fertile valley was surrounded by warlike and poorer nations which 
 had to be quelled and kept at bay by a strong military and despotic power. The 
 government of the subjugated nations was not especially oppressive. They were 
 ruled by satraps, who were expected to raise the required tribute, but the in- 
 ternal affairs of the subject nations were not disturbed. Rebellious populations 
 were punished by wholesale deportations. The conquest of the kingdom of 
 Israel by Assyria in 721 b. c, and of Judaea by Babylonia (Nebuchadnezzar) in 
 586 B. c, were accompanied by such transfers of population. During the Persian 
 period the Jews were mildly treated. 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON CHALD/EO-ASSYRIA. 
 
 The system ofwriting question sand answers in consecutive sentences is again recommended. 
 
 What valley always remained the seat of power, both of Chaldsean and Assyrian rule? 
 
 What was the capital of Chaldaea ? Of Assyria ? 
 
 When did the latter province become head of an empire? 
 
 What was the difference in size between it and its predecessor ? 
 
 Into what two empires was the Assyrian State finally divided ? When f 
 
 What tribe and province reunited these empires ? When ? 
 
 What additions were made ? 
 
 When was a decided change in the civilization of Western Asia effected ? By whom t 
 
 What was the condition of art and science with the Assyrians ? 
 
 Why have the buildings been so totally ruined ? 
 
 How do we learn to know the lives and occupations of the Assyrians ? 
 
 To what language was theirs related? In what form are the written remains ? 
 
 What inscription corresponds to the Rosetta Stone as key to the cuneiform writing ? 
 
 What nation united the civilizations of Egypt and Assyria, traded with them, and transmitted 
 their arts and science to all the natious around the Mediterranean ? For answer sc^ next 
 Bectioij. 
 
THE PHCENICIANS. 
 
 HISTORY AND CIVILIZATION. 
 
 If we examine the map, we shall notice that direct commerce 
 between Egypt and Assyria was obstructed by the deserts of Arabia. 
 Syria was the country which connected their civilizations, and which 
 
 borrowed its own civilization 
 from its two great neighbors. 
 The peoples of Syria were nat • 
 urally the mediators and mer- 
 chants engaged in exchanging 
 the products of the Nile valley 
 and of the Tigris-Euphrates val- 
 ley. Especially the Phoenicians 
 of the Syrian coast were active 
 in this exchange; and, look- 
 ing out over the waters of 
 the Mediterranean, they were 
 tempted to engage in the trans- 
 port of Egyptian and Assyrian 
 luxuries to the then uncivilized peoples of Greece, of Italy, and still 
 remoter countries. 
 
 The Phoenicians were experts in the manufacture of a dye — 
 the Tyrian purple— made from a small shell-fish. Each shell-fish 
 yielded a drop of liquid, and the dye had to be manufactured where 
 the shell-fish were dredged. The supply of shell-fish had become 
 exhausted on the coast of Syria. It was still plentiful on the shores 
 of Greece. Here, then, the Phoenicians established factories and 
 
 Foundations of the Acropolis at Balbek. 
 
26 THE PHCENICIANS. 
 
 traded with the Greeks. In Cyprus they rained for copper, from 
 Italy they brought hides, from Spain they procured silver, from 
 Cornwall and the Scilly Islands they brought tin. They have also 
 left abundant traces of traffic in Ireland and in Scandinavia. 
 
 It lias been held by some historians that they visited Central America. 
 Before 600 b. c, under the direction of the Egyptian king Necho, they circum- 
 navigated Africa. The dates of their earliest voyages must reach considerably 
 back of B. c. 1300, for at this time they were already sailing to Ireland and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The great cities of Phoenicia were Aradus, Tripolis, Berytus (tlie 
 modern Beyrout), Tyre, Sidon, Acca (Acre). The most important Phoenician 
 remains in Syria are at Balbek — the foundations of its Acropolis. The three 
 largest blocks of stone are each 64 feet long, 15 feet thick, and 15 feet high, 
 and each one is estimated to weigh about 1,100 tons. The date of these famous 
 foundations is uncertain, but probably earlier than 1000 b. c. They are the 
 most stupendous existing monuments of Phoenician science under Egyptian 
 tuition. 
 
 When the Phoenicians began their voyages the other Mediter. 
 ranean nations were comparatively barbarian. Through intercourse with them 
 these nations — Greeks and Italians first of all — obtained the basis of a civiliza- 
 tion which they were to transform and develop in new ways. 
 
 About 850 B. C. the Phcenicians, who had already many colonies on the 
 northern shores of Africa — in modern Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco — founded a 
 new one, Carthage (in modem Tunis), which became the head of all the others. 
 It acquired ascendency over part of Sicily, over Corsica, Sardinia, and the coasts 
 of Spain. After this time the mother country rather declined, and Carthage 
 partly took its place. The Greeks had meantime become active merchants and 
 sailors in the Eastern Mediterranean, pushing out their older teachers. The 
 prosperity of the greatest Phoenician city, Tyre, was crippled by the campaigns 
 of Nebuchadnezzar at the time of the Babylonian captivity of the Jews, 
 586 B. c. 
 
 Chronology of PhoBnicia.— Down to the year b.c. 1000, and for cen 
 tunes before, the Phoenicians were the civilizing force and sole commercial 
 power of the Mediterranean. Under this influence Greece and Italy developed, 
 gradually assuming independent importance after that date. 
 
HISTORY AND CIVILIZATION. 
 
 27 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON THE PHCENICIANS. 
 
 Why were the Phoenicians, among Eastern nationis, especially devoted to traffic and com- 
 merce ? Ans. By reiason of geographical position. 
 
 What was this position ? 
 
 With what European nations did they come in contact? How early? 
 
 Name some of their colonies. 
 
 Name the important cities of the mother country. 
 
 How shall we estimate the civilization of the Phoenicians? Am. By knowing that it was 
 Assyrian and Egyptian amalgamated. 
 
 Wliat European nation was first influenced by them ? 
 
 What manufacture caused the contact ? 
 
 What first brought the Greeks into hostile contact with the East ? (See page 28.) 
 
 When ? Ans. About b. c. 500. 
 
 How long had a peaceful intercourse lasted before this time ? Ans. From the earliest date 
 of Phoenician visits to Greece. 
 
 SYNCHRONISM OF ANCIENT EASTERN HISTORY. 
 
 Pyramid kings of Egypt, before b 
 
 Early kings of Chaldsea, before 
 
 Phoenician traflBc between these countries, before 
 
 Joseph in Egypt, about 
 
 Thothmes III. (Obelisks of New York and London), New Empire. . . . 
 Amenophis III. (Ruins of Luxor, and colossal statues of " Memnon ".) 
 
 Sethos I. (Great Hall of Karnak) 
 
 Ramses II. " " 
 
 Menephtah (the Jewish Exodus) 
 
 Phoenicians trading to Britain *. . , 
 
 Ramses III. (Ruins of Medinet-Habou, at Thebes) 
 
 Rise of Assyria and decline of Egypt, after. . 
 
 Empire of Solomon, Phoenicians build the Jewish temple, about 
 
 Foundation of Carthage 
 
 Israelite captivity (Assyrian) 
 
 Division of Assyria into Median and Babylonian Empires 
 
 Africa circumnavigated, before 
 
 Jewish captivity under Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon , . 
 
 Persian Empire unites the Median and Babylonian States 
 
 Persian Cambyses conquers Egypt and Syria 
 
 Persian Empire conquered by Greeks 
 
 c. 2000 
 
 2000 
 
 2000 
 
 1750 
 
 1600 
 
 1500 
 
 1400 
 
 1350 
 
 1314 
 
 1300 
 
 1270 
 
 1250 
 
 1000 
 
 850 
 
 721 
 
 625 
 
 600 
 
 586 
 
 555 
 
 525 
 
 383 
 
 * Still earlier control of the Mediterranean is implied by this date. 
 
28 SYNCHRONISM. 
 
 Among the foregoing dates, the three fives and three threes are the 
 most importaut. They may be taken as the turning points of all ancient his- 
 tory. Cyrus did not erect the Persian Empire in a single year, nor did Alex- 
 ander the Great overturn it in a year. But b. c. 555 and b. c. 833 are as exact 
 as any single dates would be, and they are easily memorized. 
 
 B. C. 555, taken as a central date for the rise of the Persian Empire, may 
 recall also the conquest of Egypt, which so rapidly followed its rise, and the 
 fall of the great Assyrian State, which shortly preceded. Before b. c. 555, the 
 great empires of the Nile and of the Tigris -Euphrates valley had pursued their 
 course for centuries without progress and without essential change. Different 
 dynasties had replaced one another in either valley ; the area of external conquest 
 had been expanded, diminished, or divided; but the East was always the East. 
 Great material prosperity, the highest perfection of mechanical art, fabulous 
 luxury, despotic power of the chief, willing slavery of the masses, are always 
 the elements of its history. But the expansion of Persia to the shores of Asia 
 Minor brought the East into conflict with a new system of military organism, 
 governmental institutions, and individual culture — that of the Greeks. 
 
GREECE. 
 
 THE GREEKS OF LATER AND MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The attention of students is generally diverted from the later historj 
 of Greeco by the glories of its ancient civilization, but the Greeks have, not- 
 withstanding, always remained a highly refined and highly civilized people 
 
 since the time of ancient great- 
 ness. The misfortunes of his- 
 tory have fallen with especial 
 weight upon the mother coun- 
 try, and the relative insignifi- 
 cance of its power among the 
 modern European States some- 
 times obscures the fact that the 
 Greeks are very numerous out- 
 side of their peninsula, in the 
 Turkish territories of the East- 
 ern Mediterranean. They are 
 much more influential in the 
 East as individuals than the 
 power of their state would im- 
 ply, and everywhere noted for 
 success in business and for an 
 intelligent use of wealth. In 
 polish and courtesy they are at least the equals of any other nation in Europe. 
 The dependence of the Turks on their services is indicated by the fact that 
 every mosque in Constantinople is the work of a Greek architect, and they are 
 frequently employed in Turkish diplomatic service. But the territory of modern 
 Greece has only enjoyed national independence from Turkey since 1829, and 
 during the preceding four centuries it suffered more from Turkish misrule than 
 it has in so short a time been able to retrieve. 
 
 Before the Turkish conquest, about a. d. 1400, this territory was a 
 
 Athenian Acropolis. (From the South.) 
 
30 GREECE. 
 
 portion of the Roman Empire, called at that time the "Byzantine" or " 
 Roman." This name is given the Roman Empire of the East after the loss of 
 its Western provinces, in the 5th century A. D. All countries of this portion of the 
 empire, comprising all those afterwards included in European and Asiatic 
 Turkey, were dominantly Greek in population and culture at the time of the 
 Turkish conquest. They were so before they became provinces of the Roman 
 Empire, and were, in fact, the countries from which those of the Western 
 Mediterranean had borrowed their civilization, either before or after they had 
 become Roman as to government. 
 
 The territory of the Greek peninsula had been, as it is now, rela 
 lively insignificant since the loss of independence by its numerous petty states 
 in the 4th century B. c. But at this time the Greeks had become masters of the 
 wealth and luxury of the West Asiatic countries and of Egypt. Therefore their 
 importance as individuals increased abroad a thousandfold more than it de- 
 clined at home, so that first the Eastern and then the Western Mediterranean 
 was entirely permeated by their culture, which thus became that of the Empire 
 of Rome. Through that medium especially it has always influenced later 
 history. This influence of the Greeks is explained by affinities of blood and 
 language, which allied them to the other nations of Europe. It is also ex- 
 plained by the fact that, being by geographical position nearest to the East, 
 their transformation and adoption of Eastern civilization made them the 
 civilizers of the West of Europe. The Phoenicians had done much for the West- 
 ern Mediterranean in material things before Greek influence began, but after it 
 began it gradually covered over or transformed the Phoenician elements. 
 
 DIVISIONS OF RACE AND UNGUAGE. 
 
 Europe in Pre-historic Times, — In passing from the great empires of 
 Northeastern Africa and Southwestern Asia to the continent of Eurox)e, it is 
 desirable to form some conception of the relations of its different peoples as to 
 rac*!. In describing the early commerce of the Phoenicians with the Mediter- 
 rani-an nations, the latter have been spoken of as otherwise without civilization. 
 This is true in the sense of luxuries and of many mechanical arts. But the 
 peoples of Europe, though infinitely below the Egyptians and Assyrians in 
 material civilization before they borrowed this civilization through Phoenician 
 commen-e, had lived a settled agricultural life, with nionogamic family organ- 
 ism, l)€'.fore they migrated from Asia, and they possessed, b<'fore entering 
 Europt*. many interesting traits and institutions, which are studied by the 
 affimties of language. 
 
DIVISIONS OF RACE. 31 
 
 Europe had been previously peopled by a race of which the Lapps 
 and Finns of the North are a remnant. The lake dwellings of Switzerland, now 
 submerged, but originally built on piles in the water, are remains of this earlier 
 time. This race was replaced by the one from which most of the present nations 
 of Europe are descended. These were generally established over Europe before 
 B. c, 1500. They are divided into families according to languages. 
 
 THE ARYAN RACE. 
 
 rirish. 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Celtic ancestors of modem J 
 
 I Highland Scotch. 
 
 [ French. 
 ' Anglo Saxons. 
 Dutch. 
 Germanic ancestors of modern .^ Germans. 
 
 Danes. 
 
 Norwegians and Swedes. 
 Russians. 
 Poles. 
 Slavonic ancestors of modem ^ Bohemians 
 
 Servians. 
 
 Bulgarians. 
 
 Latins. 
 
 Greek-Italic ancestors of ^ Samnites and other Italian tribes. 
 
 (^ Greeks. 
 
 (The early population of Spain was partly Iberian, partly Celtic. The Iberian 
 Jement continues in the Basques of the Pyrenees, but its language has no 
 ifEnities with others in Europe. The Turks and Hungarians are much later 
 arrivals in Europe, also without affinity to its other nations.) 
 
 Besides these families settled in Europe, others remaining in Asia belonged 
 to the same race — the Phrygians {Trojans) and Armenians of Asia Minor, the 
 Persians (of the province of Persia), and the Hindoos. The entire race is some- 
 times called the Indo-European, because its members are found both in India 
 and Europe. It is now more generally called " Aryan," from Aria, a province 
 of the Iranian plateau (modem Afghanistan), an early centre of the race. It is 
 from this province that the Hindoos are thought to have passed, before 1500 B. c, 
 down the Cabul valley into the valley of the Indus, whence they spread to the 
 country of the Ganges. The Aryan race is also called Japhetic. 
 
32 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Opposed to the Aryans in temperament and forms of language are the 
 Semites — namely, the Jews, Phoenicians, and other Syrian populations, the 
 Arabs, and the Assyrians. The languages of these peoples are closely related. 
 They resemble the Aryan languages in having inflections and parts of speech, 
 but the stock of words is different. 
 
 The Egyptian language. appears to contain primitive forms of both 
 Aryan and Semitic words. It is called Hamitic. 
 
 The word Turanian is applied to all the languages of Asia which are 
 not Semitic or Aryan. These languages, otherwise very dissimilar, resemble 
 each other in the use of nouns for all parts of speech. They are not inflected, 
 and belong to the most primitive and undeveloped form of language. The 
 Chinese is an instance; the Turkish, another. The word Turanian is formed 
 from Turan, the steppe plateau of the Turcomans, north of the Iranian plateau 
 of Persia and Afghanistan. Here were the hereditary enemies of the ancient 
 Aryans, and from their country is named the class of languages opposed to theirs. 
 
 The Chaldsean language contained words of all classes— Aryan, Sem- 
 itic, Hamitic, and Turanian. 
 
 GREEK MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION. 
 Aryan Period. — From the foregoing sections two cardinal features of 
 
 Temple of TheseuB, Athens. 
 
 Greek history are explained. First, we understand how the modifications of 
 Eastern civilization made by the Greeks were in time generally adopted by the 
 
MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION. 
 
 33 
 
 other Aryans of Europe, because the natural movement was one from East to 
 West. Greece, being most eastern of the South-European countries, devel- 
 oped first, and controlled the rest in later ancient civilization. The rise of the 
 Roman Empire was favorable to this extension of Greek civilization, and 
 spread it still further. 
 
 Secondly, we understand why studies in the books of the most ancient Per- 
 sians, the Zend- Avesta (written long before the time of the Persian Empire), and 
 of the Hindoos, the Vedas, throw an interesting light on Greek mythology. 
 From these books it appears that the ancient Aryans believed in a constant 
 struggle between light and darkness, between the powers of good and of evil 
 (teachings of the Zend-Avesta). They believed ( Vedic hymns) that the thunder- 
 storm was such a contest of good and evil 
 spirits, in which the latter tried to keep away 
 the fertilizing rain. The lightning dispelled 
 the evil spirits, of the black clouds, and 
 allowed the rain to fall. This was the origin 
 of the conception of Jupiter (Greek, Zeus). 
 The power of light, as symbolized in the 
 clear and open sky, was personified in Min- 
 erva (Greek, Athene). The triumph of the 
 sun over the night was personified in the con- 
 ception of Apollo. The dawning sun was 
 conceived as a child with wings, the origin 
 of the later Cupid {Eros). 
 
 In later Greek paganism, the Jupi- 
 ter grew to be the personification of su- 
 preme power of will. The Juno was his 
 consort. Minerva grew to be a personifica- 
 tion of spiritual enlightenment. Apollo also 
 became a personification of cultivation and 
 enlightenment; of interest in the beautiful, 
 in music, and in physical health and exer- 
 cise. 
 
 Many forms of Greek mytliology are not to be. distinguished in the older 
 Aryan conceptions — Diana, the moon-goddess, the personification of chastity ; 
 Vulcan, the worker in metals and artificer ; Mars, the god of the combat and 
 the warrior ; Neptune, the ffod of the sea and the rivers. Hercules, half hero, 
 half divinity, was the personification of physical energy devoted to civilization. 
 Mercury, originally the cloud divinity, represented the flocks of the sky, and so 
 
 Statue of Minerva. 
 ( Vatican Museum, Rome.) 
 
34 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 became patron of flocks on earth; then, for this reason, the god of wealth 
 and raercliants in general ; the swift traveler, because the merchants were trav- 
 elers, and therefore the messenger of the gods. Bacchus, the harvest divinity 
 and god of the vine, was represented in Greek sculpture without intoxication. 
 Venus, the goddess of love, was borrowed from the Phoenician worship of the 
 Mother-Earth, and was represented with much nobility and modesty by the 
 Greek sculptors. 
 
 Our estimate of Greek paganism depends entirely on the time of 
 which we speak of it. In the Aryan period it was a childish but simple worship 
 of natural forces. In the time of Homer, b. c. 1000, the Greeks were not shocked 
 by the conception of deities moved by human passions and weakness. As their 
 civilization developed in noble qualities and formed great characters, these 
 reacted on the conceptions of mythology, idealized and purified them. A con- 
 ception of a supreme being formed itself, in which the ideals of their mythology 
 represented, at least to certain Greeks, various side? of one divine power. When 
 the Greek states decayed, and life became licentious 
 and corrupt, after 380 b. c, the more trivial aspects 
 of the old belief made it an object of ridicule to 
 many. Widened views of the world shook the faith 
 of the multitude in their divinities, without bring- 
 ing them nearer to true religion, and superstition 
 was not the less dominant because skepticism large- 
 ly prevailed. The Latin poets belong to a later 
 epoch than the Greek, and came under the influ- 
 ence of the Greek mythology in this later period. 
 The Latin names are generally used, however, in 
 this chapter, as being the most familiar. 
 
 The Greek religion was not represented by a 
 distinct priestly caste, but the knowledge and 
 practice of its rites and observances were heredi- 
 tary in certain families. The temples were State 
 sanctuaries, which served also as the civic treasuries. They were also the 
 museums of art, for the most important stutucs, pictun s, and other works of 
 art were those dedicated in them, and from century to century the store of these 
 was constantly increasing. Of all (iroek temples, that dedicated to the Athe- 
 nian hero king. Tiieseus, is the best preserved, and serves as a type by which 
 other ruins may be restored in imagination. It was erected about 460 B. c. 
 
 Head of the Apollo Belvedere." 
 {Vadcan Museum.) 
 
 * The Bc'Ivederf Apollo statue has lti» name from the Vatican Belvedere Garden, arranged 
 by Popr .IiilliH n MS a stndio for sonlptors, in 1606. 
 
EARLY HISTORY. 35 
 
 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 Early Settlements. — No records exisfc of the migrations by 
 which Greece was settled. The Phrygian highlands of Northwest- 
 ern Asia Minor, the country about Troy, and the whole coast of 
 Asia Minor, are found peopled, at a later day, by Greeks. Part of 
 this population returned from Greece, but this country was also the 
 one from which the migrations started. By way of Thrace and 
 Macedonia, and by way of the islands of the Archipelago, the pas- 
 sage was an easy one. Colossal fortifications are found in the Pelo- 
 ponnesus and elsewhere of the pre-historic time. The early settlers 
 are named Pelasgians by the Greek historians. 
 
 The first authentic fact of Greek history is a movement from 
 the north central mountains of Greece (Doris), about B. c. 1100, by 
 which the more civilized peoples of the South were subjugated. This 
 movement is known as the Doric migration, and the Greeks, from 
 this time on, are known as divided into the two tribes of Dorians 
 and lonians. A third tribe, the iEolian, simply represents the con- 
 tinued existence, in some parts, of the older stock, otherwise divided 
 into Doric and Ionic. The Dorians were the hardier and rougher 
 people. Their most important and influential settlements were 
 Argos and the province of Argolis; Sparta, and the province of 
 Laconia, all in Peloponnesus. 
 
 The Ionic Greeks were those of the eastern shores of Greece, 
 of the islands of the Archipelago, and the shore of Asia Minor 
 (Ionia proper). The province of Attica, capital Athens, was the 
 leading Ionic state of Greece proper. On the shore of Asia Minor, 
 Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna, and Phocoea were important Ionic towns. 
 The lonians, being the maritime Greeks, as distinguished from the 
 hardier Dorian mountaineers, were more vivacious and subtle. Open, 
 by temper and position, to the influence of Asiatic civilization, they 
 were also more refined. 
 
 Siege of Troy. --The disturbances of the Doric migrations led 
 to a general colonial movement towards the shores of Asia Minor, 
 
36 
 
 GREECE 
 
 whence the ancestors of the Greeks had come. The siege of Troy 
 was doubtless an actual historic event of this colonial movement. 
 It is not necessary, however, to suppose that the poems of Homer 
 founded on this siege — the Iliad and the Odyssey — are historic 
 accounts. They idealize and celebrate the period of colonial con- 
 quest, making the siege of Troy a theme for depicting the heroic 
 exploits and warlike valor of the time. 
 
 Homer is supposed to have lived about 1000 b. c. His place of birth is 
 disputed. He was certainly au Ionic Greek. The poems attributed to him are 
 the first and greatest works of Greek literature. The ' ' Iliad " describes an 
 episode of the siege of Troy — the quarrel of the heroes Agamemnon and Achilles. 
 The " Odyssey " describes the wanderings of Ulysses, the wisest of the Greeks, 
 returning fiom the siege. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE AND ITS COLONIES. 
 
 The Peloponnesian province of Laeonia, conquered and ruled by 
 the Doric Spartans, is bordered on the w< st by Messenia. Sparta, in the 8th 
 
 and 7th centuries u. c, subjugated 
 this province. 
 
 Above Messenia lies Elis. 
 Its capital, Olympia, was the seat of 
 the famous gymnastic games held 
 every four years after b. c. 776. This 
 year is called the first Olympiad, and 
 the Greeks reckoned time by this era. 
 Great importance was attached to 
 this gymnastic festival, because the 
 military protection of each indepen- 
 dent Greek state was confided to the 
 personal valor of the richer and more 
 highly born citizens. Gymnastics 
 were, therefore, an essential part of 
 state education. 
 
 In connection with these bodily 
 exercises, the art of sculpture be- 
 came a natural expression of Greek life. At Olympia might be seen, in later 
 antiquity, over three thousand statues of athletes. Here was tlie temple which 
 
 Jupiter Temple at Olympia. 
 (Restoration.) 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 37 
 
 contained the famous colossal Jupiter by Phidias, the greatest Greek sculptor 
 (5th century b. c). Like other important temple statues, it was made of ivory 
 and gold — ivory for the flesh, gold for the drapery. This statue still existed in 
 the 5th century after Christ. 
 
 The province of Achaia (Northern Peloponnesus) was not an impor- 
 tant state until after the overthrow of Greek freedom (b. c. 330), when the 
 Achaian league of cities became prominent. 
 
 Sicyon and. Corinth were important Doric states. The latter, being an 
 important centre of Mediterranean commerce, was famed for great wealth. 
 
 The province of Argolis brings us back once more to the northern 
 border of Lacouia. Argos was the lead- 
 ing city, heading the most important 
 state of Greece down to b. c. 777. Here 
 was the colossal gold and ivory Juno by 
 Polyclitus (5th century b. c), of which 
 the Ludovisi Juno in Rome is a copy. 
 Mycenae and Tirynth, strongholds of the 
 Pelasgian period, have their immense 
 walls still standing. At Nemea and on 
 the Isthmus of Corinth gymnastic games 
 were held. 
 
 Arcadia, the central province of 
 the Peloponnesus, was also the least 
 important. It was inhabited mainly 
 by shepherds, furnishing the adjective 
 " Arcadian " to later poets. 
 
 Attica.— Beyond the Isthmus of 
 Corinth lay first the little state of Me- 
 garis, then the Peninsula of Attica. 
 
 Opposite the Pirseus, the seaport of Athens, lies the island of Salamis, where 
 the Persian fleet was defeated in b. c. 480. On the opposite side of Attica is 
 the field of Marathon, where the Persian army was defeated in b. c. 490. The 
 island of Euboea stretches above this coast, with the important cities of Ere- 
 tria and Chalcis. 
 
 BoBOtia. — Above Attica is the low and marshy province of Bceotia. Its 
 inhabitants were proverbial for a dull and heavy temperament. But Plataea, 
 on its southern border, was a quick witted and public-spirited community. 
 Thebes was the important city of Bceotia. Leuctra and Choeronea were sites of 
 important battles in the 4th century b. c. 
 
 Juno of the LuucMbi Villa, Eome. 
 
38 GREECE. 
 
 Fhocis. — Next to the west, along the Corinthian Gulf, lies Phocis, with 
 the famed Apollo Sanctuary of Delphi, where the Pythian games were cele- 
 brated. Here was the leading Oracle of the Greeks. A priestess seated on a 
 tripod placed over a cleft in the earth, from which vapors rose casting her into 
 trance, gave disjointed and fragmentary answers to the questions which were 
 put to her by the priests on behalf of those consulting the oracle. These 
 answers, when reduced to writing, were generally enigmatic, containing a 
 double meaning. But the advice of the Delphic priests had also great weight, 
 md for centuries their influence was exerted for the good of Greece. 
 
 Locris and Doris. — On either side of Phocis were the two provinces of 
 Locris. On the northwestern side of Phocis is Doris; 
 
 Northern and Western Provinces.— From the northern Locris 
 we pass into Thessaly, along the sea shore, by the pass of Thermopylae, 
 where three hundred Spartans died for the liberties of Greece, resisting the 
 strength of the entire Persian Empire, b. c. 480. The large province of Thes 
 saly was never important in Greek history. Here is the battlefield of Pharsalia, 
 where Pompey was defeated by Julius Caesar. The Avestem provinces of 
 Epirus, Acamania and .^tolia, are also unimportant. On the northeast prom- 
 ontory of Acarnania, off Actium, the Roman Antony was defeated by Augustus. 
 
 This rugged and barren western side of Greece looks over to the almost 
 equally unimix)rtant eastern side of Italy. The leading states of the two 
 countries were turned away from each other, and thus, as well as by position 
 further west, Italy was destined to later development than Greece. 
 
 The mountain chain which divides Greece from Macedonia terminates on 
 the east in Mount Olympus, the fabled home of the gods. 
 
 Climate. — From these mountains to the southern capes of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus the distance is about 850 miles ; but between these limits are 
 comprined all the changes of climate and production found otherwise be- 
 tween the climate of North Germany and that of extreme Southern Italy. The 
 mountain chains which separate the various provinces destined Greece to be 
 the home of a series of independent states. Its variety of independent and 
 individual life is in marked contrast to the monotony of the Eastern civiliza- 
 tions. The deeply indented coasts and multitude of surrounding islands made 
 navigation a necessary art. A spirit of enterprise was early developed, which, 
 in the increase of ]x>pulation, led to the establishment of almost countless 
 colonies beyond the limits of the mother country. 
 
 The Colonies.— Besides the colonial cities along the shore of Asia Minor, 
 of which Smyrna still exists, and the important islands along this coast of 
 LesboB, ChioB, Samoe, and Rhodes, there were settlements on the promontories 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 39 
 
 of Chalcidice, jutting out from Macedonia. Especially important here were 
 Olynthus and Potidiea. On the Bosphorus was situated Byzantium (Constanti- 
 nople). On the Black Sea, Odessa, Sinope, and Trebizond still remain from the 
 multitude of cities which lined these coasts. In Crete and Rhodes entirely, in 
 Cyprus partially, the earlier Phoenician settlements gave way to Greek. 
 
 On the African coast of Cyrene, west of Egypt, were important Greek 
 colonies. The whole coast of Southern Italy was lined with them to such an 
 extent that it was called Magna Grecia (Great Greece). Naples was the most 
 important. From Sybaris our word "sybarite "is derived. Crotona was the 
 home of Pythagoras, the philosoi)her of the 6th century. On the island of 
 Sicily, where the Phoenicians gradually encroached on the western part, the 
 eastern half belonged to the Greeks. Syracuse was the most important city, 
 the home of Archimedes, Greek geometrician and mechanician of the 3d century 
 B. c. The eastern coast of Spain and the southern coast of France had several 
 colonies. Marseilles was the leading Greek colony of this part of the Mediter- 
 ranean. From this port it is thought that the Greek navigator Pytheas reached 
 Iceland in the 4th century b. c. It is certain that he sailed far to the north of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 All the colonies above mentioned were established before 555 b. c. Greece 
 at this time controlled the commerce of the Eastern Mediterranean, and dis- 
 puted with Carthage that of the West. 
 
 SPARTA AND ITS INFLUENCE IN GREECE. 
 
 The great la^v-giver of the Spartans was Lycurgus, 9th cen- 
 tury B. c. His peculiar institutions are best understood by noting 
 that this tribe lived in the midst of the earher population of La- 
 conia, which they held in subjection, and from which they had 
 taken the fertile lands of the Eurotas valley. Large numbers of the 
 conquered population had sunk to the condition of helots, or slaves. 
 They were treated with great severity, and none of them had polit- 
 ical rights. 
 
 The Spartans were the landed aristocracy. No intermarriage 
 with other Greeks was allowed to destroy the purity of their blood. 
 Each individual Spartan was a nobleman. But to maintain this 
 ascendency of conquest, of government, of birth, and of possessions, 
 each Spartan was bound to submit himself to the strictest military 
 
40 
 
 GREECE 
 
 discipline. He was a warrior for life. Taken from the mothei-'s 
 care at the age of seuen, he was thenceforward subject to the disci- 
 pline of the camp. The men messed together at all times, like 
 soldiers. Their fare was meagre and plain. The gymnastic exer- 
 cises were obligatory, even on the 
 women. The discipline, endurance, 
 and bravery of these men were be- 
 yond description. They entered bat- 
 tle as if on parade, and remained 
 victors or dead on the field. The 
 self-confidence of the Spartans was 
 supreme, but it did not lead them 
 into a career of conquest, or to 
 dream of general dominion. Their 
 discipline could only be preserved 
 by isolation. Spartans were there- 
 fore not allowed to travel or to carry 
 on commerce. Frequent battles 
 with the same state were avoided, 
 lest their enemies might learn vic- 
 Wars which would entail too long an 
 Even music was controlled bv 
 
 Early Greek Warrior.* 
 
 tory from frequent defeats. 
 
 absence from home were avoided. 
 
 law, and care was taken that no languishing and tender melodies 
 
 should effeminate the people. 
 
 Government. — Royal ambition was not allowed to carry the 
 state out of its accustomed grooves. Hence the peculiar and other- 
 wise unknown institution of a double monarchy. One king was to 
 check and cross the plans of the other if he attempted political 
 innovations. The mutual jealousy of the two kings kept them busy, 
 and prevented them from carrying out plans for individual aggran- 
 dizement. But monarchy was the form of government, because, 
 the army and state being inseparable, permanent genera's were 
 
 * From a Hmall bronze statuette in Berlin, found at Dodona, in Epirus. A spear 
 imagined as held In the right hand. 
 
 to be 
 
SPARTA AND ITS INFLUENCE. 41 
 
 required. The kings were also controlled by an elective commitief) 
 of five state officers called Epliors. 
 
 Influence on other States. — The military power of the Spar- 
 tans, their wariness, caution, and conservative self-restraint, made 
 them finally the arbiters of the Greek states, after the decline of Argos, 
 B. c. 777. Their mediation and interference regulated the relations 
 of the other civic communities. The Spartan rigidity, narrowness, 
 and exclusiveness were peculiar to themselves, but their example 
 sustained, among the other Greek states, the ideal of a government 
 in which the wealtliier citizens bore its burdens, were its protectors 
 and defenders, subject to military discipline, fighting in the ranks 
 as private soldiers, and training their bodies from youth, by con- 
 stant physical exercise, to the public service. Education was there- 
 fore universally controlled by the state. The idea of citizenship, of 
 political rights, was associated with that of personal military serv- 
 ice, and connected with hereditary birth. Large numbers of slaves 
 were found in all Greek communities, but outside of Sparta they 
 were humanely treated. The dimensions of the Greek states were, 
 from a modern standpoint, absurdly small — generally consisting only 
 of a single city, with the surrounding territory. The methods and 
 ideals of Greek self-government were inconsistent with large dimen- 
 sions, because the citizens managed their own affairs in personal 
 concourse. Government by deputy — ** representative government" 
 — was unknown. But the small scale of the Greek states was favor- 
 able to the development and training of individual <}haracter. 
 
 ATHENS AND ITS INFLUENCE IN GREECE. 
 
 Hereditary monarchy, the form of government in the time of 
 Homer, was gradually abandoned in the Greek states, with the 
 peculiar exception noted of Sparta. The last important Greek king 
 was Pheidon, of Argos, b. c. 777. 
 
 Aristocratic republics then became the rule. With the in- 
 crease of commerce, and the rise to wealth of non-landholding and 
 
42 GREECE. 
 
 unprivileged inhabitants of the republics, this rule of the old aris- 
 tocracies was often found oppressive. This feeling became general 
 in the 6th century b. c. Down to this time the foundation of col- 
 onies had been the vent and outlet of such discontent, but the 
 coasts open to this enterprise had all been occupied. Resort was 
 now had, sometimes, to concessions of political rights to hitherto 
 unprivileged members of a community. 
 
 The Greek Tyrants. — In other cases, some member of the 
 aristocracy put himself at the head of a revolt of the lower orders, 
 and founded a "Tyranny." This meant simply a one-man power, 
 which represented the popular side against the aristocracies. But 
 the Tyrants were always bitterly hated by the order which they 
 betrayed. An odious significance was gradually attached to the 
 term, from the arbitrary acts and cruelties into which the Tyrants 
 were forced in order to keep their power. Especially famed and 
 odious were Polycrates, Tyrant of Samos (6th century), and Diony- 
 sius. Tyrant of Syracuse (4th century). 
 
 In Athens both expedients above mentioned were resorted to. 
 Hence, in the 6th century b. c, the Eeforms of Solon and the 
 ** Tyranny" of Pisistratus. 
 
 Solon, known as one of the wisest of the Greeks, was a member of 
 the privileged class, but sought to still the dissensions with which his 
 country was distracted by concessions to the democratic spirit. He 
 based the voting privilege and the obligations of state service, which 
 were inseparable in Greek conception, on the possession of property 
 instead of on descent from the already privileged citizens. But the 
 newly admitted citizens now became also hereditary transmitters 
 of the citizenship. A wealthy non-resident of Attica could not be- 
 come an Athenian citizen, or the father of citizens, by moving 
 there. 
 
 The people were divided into four classes, according to amount 
 of property. All could vote for officers of state, but eligibility to 
 the higher offices was confined to the higher classes. The reforms 
 of Solon also attempted to alleviate the economic distress which was 
 
ATHENS AND ITS INFLUENCE. 43 
 
 one cause of trouble. But this distress kept the poorer population 
 dissatisfied with Solon's measures, while his own order was dissatis- 
 fied with the amount of concession. 
 
 Fisistratus. — Of the three parties in the state — reactionists, 
 moderates (Solon's party), and radicals — the latter gained the lead- 
 ership under Pisistratus, one of the privileged class, who put himself 
 at the head of the democracy, and became "Tyrant" in b. c. 560. 
 He ruled with wisdom and glory, and did not disturb the legislation 
 of Solon, who thus was the founder of the democratic constitution 
 of Athens. But the odium attaching to a one-man power, which 
 the personality of Pisistratus had conquered, ruined the government 
 of his sons, who succeeded him after B. c. 527. His son Hipparchus 
 was slain, and his son Hippias was expelled and took refuge with the 
 Persians, B. c. 510. 
 
 The reforms of Clisthenes now increased the democratic tendencies of 
 Solon's constitution. Among his institutions was the device of Ostracism, so 
 named from ostrakon, the oyster-shell, on which the vote was written when the 
 measure was made use of. Ostracism was banishment without other penalty 
 and without disgrace. Whenever a name was proposed for ostracism, six 
 thousand votes cast in favor of the measure required the person named to leave 
 Athens for ten years. It was a device (showing the small scale of Greek pol 
 itics), by which the power of a single man to overthrow the state and unduly 
 control it was to be restrained. It was applied against men of unquestioned 
 patriotism when their policy was antagonistic to the will of six thousand citi- 
 zens. It was also a device to forestall the re establishment of a " Tyranny." 
 
 The Spartans viewed with disfavor the democratic tendencies of the Athe- 
 nians, as tending to sap the conservative spirit and traditional institutions of 
 Greece. The spread of democratic tendencies would endanger Spartan ascen- 
 dency in Greek politics, and threaten their own power in Laconia. Unsuccess- 
 ful in overt attempts to cripple Athenian democracy, they constantly main- 
 tained relations with the reactionary party in Athens. Thus Athens and 
 Sparta, as the heads of democratic and aristocratic tendencies in Greece, stood 
 to each other in a permanently hostile attitude. The Athenians disliked the 
 narrowness and lack of refinement in the Spartan ; the Spartans disliked the 
 levity and fickleness of a people constantly engaged in tinkering their constitu- 
 tion and advocating liberties which the Spartans could not themselves bestow 
 
44 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 without self-destruction. Behind this opposition of policy was a difference of 
 fundamental character — that of the Doric and the Ionic Greek — the contest 
 between an old land-holding and a new mercantile spirit, between the spirit of 
 Doric solidity and conservative indifference to luxuries and the Ionic taste for 
 beauty and artistic refinements. For centuries the Doric spirit had dominated 
 and controlled the Ionic — the latter was now to take its turn. At this moment, 
 B. c. 500, the outbreak of the Persian Wars apparently reconciled and broke 
 down these oppositions of policy and taste in a common resistance to the 
 foreign foe. 
 
 THE WARS WITH PERSIA— IONIC REVOLT. 500 B.C. 
 
 The Lydian Empire. — Between the Greek cities which lined 
 the coast of Asia Minor and the river Halys, stretched, in earUer 
 antiquity than the time we have reached, the Empire of Lydia. 
 
 This empire (capital 8ardes) grew out 
 of the smaller province of the same 
 name, formed by the valleys of the 
 Hermus and the Cayster. (At the 
 mouths of these rivers lie Smyrna 
 and Ephesus.) It was a vassal state 
 of Assyria after 1224 b. c, and exer- 
 cised an important influence on the 
 Greeks in earlier antiquity, as a chan- 
 nel by which Assyrian civilization 
 acted on them. But it was also a 
 buffer, protecting the Asiatic Greeks 
 from direct contact with the great 
 powers of the Tigris-Eupli rates valley. 
 In the decline of Assyrian 
 power, about 150 years before tlie 
 fall of Nineveli,* Lydia became independent. The Medes attempted 
 to conquer it, but made peace, GIO b. c, by a treaty which was 
 observed till the overthrow of the Median Empire by Persia. The 
 
 Qreek Vabe. 
 {Combat of Greeks and Persians.) 
 
 * ^amc the date. 
 
WARS WITH PERSIA. 45 
 
 great wealth of Lydia was gold. The fabled wealth of King Midas,* 
 and the actual wealth of King Croesus, are equally famed. 
 
 Croesus was king of Lydia when Cyrus the Great of Persia 
 began his career of conquest. Croesus had brought the Greek cities 
 of the Asiatic coast into a species of dependence, but his relations 
 with them were friendly. On a sudden the Lydian Empire of 
 Croesus was overwhelmed by Cyrus, and the barrier between the 
 crushing power of the great Asian empire and the Greeks was 
 broken down. 
 
 The Greek cities of the Asiatic coast were forced to accept 
 Tyrants (of Greek blood), who obeyed the Persian satraps, and 
 kept their own despotisms in existence by Persian protection. The 
 liberty and power of the greatest and richest Greek colonial cities, 
 surpassing in wealth those of the mother country, were at the mercy 
 of Asiatics. The king of Persia could not be ignorant of the smolder- 
 ing discontent and uncertain obedience.of the Ionic cities. Meantime, 
 Cyrus died in 529, after conquering Babylon in 538. His son 
 Cambyses, 529-522, had added Phoenicia and Egypt to the empire. 
 
 The third king of Persia, Darius, first turned attention to the 
 conquest of the lower Indus valley, and then directed his energies 
 to the West. Until the power of the mother country wa^ humbled, 
 the Greeks of Asia Minor could not be regarded as securely con- 
 quered. Thrace and Macedonia,! which lay between the boundary 
 of the Persian Empire on the Hellespont and Bosphorus, and the 
 states of Greece, must be first annexed. This was the object of the 
 Scythian expedition of Darius, 508 B. c. 
 
 Darius entered Thrace with an army of 800,000 men, and 
 then turned north to the Danube to secure this frontier. The 
 country of the wandering and barbaric Scythians beyond the 
 
 * The fable relates that Midas, king of Phrygia (a province of the Lydian Empire), requested 
 of Dionysus (Bacchus) that all he touched might turn to gold. The favor was granted, but 
 because his food and drink were turned to gold he was starving. Midas was obliged to 
 beg that the granted favor might be revoked. 
 
 t Map, p. 28. 
 
46 GREECE. 
 
 Danube was entered, in order to teach these peoples to respect the 
 power of Persia and forestall predatory incursions on the new prov- 
 inces. A century before, the Scythians had ravaged Western Asia, 
 contributing greatly to the dissolution of the Assyrian State. This 
 campaign was intended also to take vengeance for this invasion. 
 Darius crossed the Danube, just above its delta, on a bridge of 
 boats constructed for him by the Asiatic Greeks, who had been 
 forced to join the expedition with 600 ships. 
 
 The Athenian Miltiades, who ruled a state of his own on the 
 Thracian Chersonesus (the promontory bordering the Hellespont), 
 proposed to destroy the bridge during the absence of the Persian 
 army in the wilds of Scythia, and by thus causing the destruction 
 of Darius to secure the liberties of the Asiatic Greeks. This plan 
 was crossed and defeated by the Greek satrap of Miletus, Histiaeus. 
 Miltiades made his escape to Athens. 
 
 Histiceus was rewarded, on the safe return of Dariu^, by the 
 governorship of Myrcinus, at the mouth of the Strymon, the extreme 
 frontier of the Persians in Europe. The son-in-law of Histiaeus, 
 named Aristagoras. was made governor of Miletus. There were rich 
 gold mines in the vicinity of Myrcinus, and the power of Histiaeus 
 grew rapidly. It threatened to assume a position of independence, 
 which would make Myrcinus rather a barrier between the Persians 
 and the European Greeks than a stepping-stone to further conquest. 
 Histia3us was therefore summoned to the Persian Court at Susa, 
 and was detained there in a sort of honorable captivity. He then 
 sent messages to his brother-in-law, AristagOras, to incite a revolt 
 of the Ionic Greeks. 
 
 Aristagoras himself was disposed to this step, because he had 
 failed in iin attack on the Island of Naxos, owing to the jealousy of 
 the Persian satrap of Asia Minor. Aristagoras seized the Tyrants of 
 the Greek cities who were with his armament, delivered them up to 
 the people, and proclaimed democracy among the Asiatic Greeks, 
 500 B. c. He then immediately sailed over to Greece, to secure help 
 against the Persians. Sparta had no ships, and had never risked so 
 
PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 47 
 
 distant and doubtful an undertaking, nor did the troubles of lonians 
 give her much concern. She refused assistance. The Athenians 
 gave twenty ships and the Eretrians of Euboea gave five. 
 
 An expedition of the Ionic G-reeks, with the allies thus sent 
 over, marched on Sardes, took, and burned it. On their retreat to 
 the coast they were defeated by the Persians. The Athenians and 
 Eretrians sailed home. The revolt of the lonians continued, and 
 was now utterly crushed by Persia (by b. c. 494). The next step 
 was to take revenge on Athens for its defiance of the " Great King " 
 and the burning of Sardes. 
 
 PERSIAN WARS— 500-480 B.C. 
 
 The first expedition of the Persians moved by way of Thrace, 
 in 49,2, attended by a large fleet. In reunding Mount Athos (penin- 
 sula of Chalcidice) the fleet was nearly destroyed by a terrible 
 storm, and the land forces, also 
 much annoyed by the Thra- 
 cians, turned back on account 
 of this disaster. 
 
 ^^Ih 490 a second expe- 
 dition of about 200,000 men, 
 with 600 ships, sailed from the 
 Bay of Issus, at the angle 
 where the coasts of Syria and 
 Asia Minor join each other, by 
 way of the islands of the Archi- 
 pelago, into the strait between 
 Attica and Euboea. Eretria was destroyed, and its inhabitants were 
 enslaved. The Persians then landed, for the march on Athens, on 
 the plains of Marathon. Messengers had been dispatched from Athens 
 for the aid of Sparta, which was promised but delayed. The Athe- 
 nian army of 10,000 heavy armed infantry, with 1,000 Platseans, was 
 posted on the heights protecting the road to Athens. They were com- 
 
 Acropolis at Athens. (Restoration.) 
 {From the West.) 
 
48 GREECE. 
 
 manded by ten generals, heading respectiye divisions of the army, 
 and each taking turn for a day in command of the whole. 
 
 Among these generals "was Miltiades (page 46). For sev- 
 eral days the armies watched each other, the Persians wishing to 
 tempt the Greeks down into the plain, where the immense superi- 
 ority of the Persian numbers might easily overwhelm them, and also 
 because their best forces were cavalry, which could not be used on 
 broken and hilly ground. On the day which gave Miltiades the 
 command, he marshaled his army at dawn for descent into the 
 plain. 
 
 While Eastern armies placed their great dependence on light 
 cavalry and archers, the Greeks used the phalanx — a compact mass 
 of heavy armed infantry. Each warrior was armed with a heavy 
 spear and protected by a long buckler. 
 
 The phalanx was drawn* up ten deep, thus giving their army 
 something over a thousand front only. The Greek tactics depended 
 on the momentum of the phalanx, with its forest of projecting 
 speai*s, and on the discipline by which the ranks were kept solid, 
 for any break of the line made its array useless. A slow and cautious 
 advance was therefore generally made, in order to be sure of keeping 
 the ranks of the phalanx perfect till its impact against the oppos- 
 ing force. On this occasion, contrary to use, the Greek line insen- 
 sibly quickened its pace as it descended the slope, the rear ranks 
 pushing the front ones forward. Whether this quickened step was 
 pre-arranged, or an effect of the sloping hill-side, is unknown. A 
 running charge of the phalanx was unheard of, but this one did not 
 break its ranks, and its momentum was irresistible. 
 
 The Persian array was swept down like grass, and the battle 
 was instantly won, over an immensely superior force, by the con- 
 fusion and terror resulting. A large part of the Persian force made 
 its escape to the ships, and these set sail for a direct attack on 
 Athens. But the quick march of the Greek army back to the oppo- 
 site coast forestalled a surprise, and the Persians did not venture a 
 second landing. 
 
PERSIAN WARS. 49 
 
 The battle of Marathon was not such a case of discipline conquering 
 numbers that it lay in the power of the Persians, by adopting Greek tactics, or by 
 perfecting their discipline, to retrieve defeat. The system of the Eastern world 
 could not develop the individual training and discipline on which the Greek tactics 
 depended. It was, moreover, impossible to infuse into an Eastern army the 
 moral courage and patriotic enthusiasm which inspired the victors of Marathon. 
 The Persian despotism was not especially odious to the peoples united by it 
 (excepting to Egypt), but the contingents of various nations of wliich a Persian 
 army was composed were not bound together by the inner cohesion of common 
 nationality and of absolute devotion to a common cause. As long as the East- 
 ern civilizations had lasted, the plan of depending on superior numbers and 
 physical force had served its end, because among all Eastern nations the same 
 system essentially prevailed. Now, for the first time in history, it became 
 apparent that Europe, which had so lately been dependent on the Asiatics in 
 matters of civilization, had risen above and outstripped Its teachers. The vic- 
 tory of Marathon was a triumph of moral over physical nature, of intelligence 
 over matter, of European self-government over Asiatic despotism. 
 
 A new Persian armament against the Athenians was delayed 
 l)y the death of Darius, b. c. 486, but was continued by his son and 
 successor, Xerxes. Xerxes marched on Greece, in b. c. 480, by way of 
 Thrace and Macedonia, with about 1,000,000 men, and attended by 
 a fleet of 3,000 sail. It was against this army that 300 Spartans 
 under Leonidas, with some auxihary contingents, successfully de- 
 fended the Pass of Thermopylae for two days, until, having informa- 
 tion that an army of Persians was crossing, by a treacherously 
 exposed mountain defile, to the rear of the pass, they refused to save 
 themselves by flight, and continued fighting till the last man had 
 fallen. The Persian armies marched through Boeotia into Attica, 
 and burned Athens. Her citizens had taken refuge on shipboard. 
 
 The Athenian fleet had been constantly increased and con- 
 stantly drilled, since the battle of Marathon, by the foresight of 
 Themistocles (p. 65). It amounted to one half of the entire Greek 
 fleet, which had altogether about 600 ships. After three naval 
 battles off Euboea, in which the Persians lost heavily without being 
 beaten, the Greek ships drew into the narrow sound between 
 
50 GREECE. 
 
 the Island of Salamis and Athens. Here they were surrounded by 
 the Persian fleet, and a battle was fought, which Xerxes and his 
 army watched from the shore. The superior handling of the Greek 
 galleys, whose oarsmen had been carefully drilled to naval manoeu- 
 vres, gave them the victory. 
 
 Although the Persian fleet was still numerous and the land army 
 undefeated, Xerxes was so disheartened that he returned to Asia, 
 leaving 300,000 men to effect the conquest of Greece. 
 
 This army "was defeated by the Greeks, under command of 
 the Spartan Pausanias, at Plataea, in the following year, b. c. 479. 
 On the same day, a decisive victory over the Persians in Asia Minor 
 was won on the promontory of Mycale, opposite Samos. 
 
 In their expeditions against the Greeks, tlie Persians depended mainly for 
 their fleets on the Phoenicians. An alliance with the Phoenicians of the West 
 had combined all the forces of Carthage against the Sicilian Greeks. An 
 immense Carthaginian army was defeated at Himera, in Sicily, on the day of 
 the battle of Salamis. 
 
 ATHENIAN ASCENDENCY, 480-430 B.C. 
 
 The result of the victories over the Persians was an expan- 
 sion of Greek character and Greek life which makes the 5th century 
 B. c. the glorious age of literature and art. The Athenians had 
 been the main object of attack, and had exhibited the most devo- 
 tion to the cause of Greece in general. Marathon and Salamis, two 
 of three greatest victories, had been won by their valor. In the 
 third victory, at Plataea, they had played a most important part. 
 They now became the head of an aggressive war on the Persians, 
 which was concluded with success, b. c. 4G0. Naval armaments 
 being essential in this war, and foreign to the genius of Sparta, this 
 state was more in tlie background. 
 
 The cities of the shores and islands of the ^gean were 
 combined by the Athenian Aristides into the Confederacy of Deles, 
 so called from the island of the Archipelago in which the treasury 
 
ATHENIAN" ASCENDENCY. 
 
 51 
 
 of the confederacy was first established. In place of the contribu- 
 tions of men and ships supplied at first by the different states, 
 contributions of money were afterwards made, with which Athens 
 undertook the protection of the confederacy. 
 
 ^3i^i^^ 
 
 I'.^^a 
 
 
 7^ 
 
 '''^'■* ' 
 
 
 Euins of the Parthenon. 
 
 The treasury was soon moved to Athens, and tlie taxes were raised with- 
 out reference to actual expenses. Finally they were regarded as a tribute to 
 that city. Under the direction of the famous statesman and orator, Pericles, 
 (after the death of Aristides, 468), the Athenian democracy was the arbiter, 
 judge, and director of the whole confederacy. With the wealth of which 
 Athens was now mistress, Pericles beautified the city with the buildings and 
 statues which have made Athenian art the synonym for classic perfection. 
 
 The sculptor Phidias was the ruling mind in these artistic creations. 
 Under his direction was erected on the Acropolis the Parthenon, most famous 
 of Greek temples of the Doric style, about 440 b. c. For the colossal gold and 
 ivory Minerva within this temple, six hundred thousand dollars worth of gold 
 was employed. The entrance gates of the Acropolis (Prophylsea) were no less 
 famous. The temple of the Erechtheium, also on the Acropolis, was built in 
 the Ionic order after the Prophyleea were finished, after 430 B C. (p. 53). The 
 ruins of these buildings are still the wonder and admiration of the world, 
 while the gable sculptures of the Parthenon, now in the British Museum at Lon- 
 don, rank as the most perfect works of sculpture (the Elgin Marbles). 
 
52 GREECE. 
 
 In literature, the 5th century generally boasts the most distinguished 
 names (excepting Homer), or the pre-eminence of having prepared the greatness 
 of those who came later. Herodotus was a Greek of Asia Minor, whose history ot 
 the Persian wars is interwoven with interesting accounts of the Eastern nations 
 and of his own travels. He is called the " father of history." Thucydides was 
 an Athenian who wrote the history of the Peloponnesian war, the great contest 
 between Athens and Sparta (to be summarized in the next chapter). Xenophon 
 wrote the account of the expedition of the 10,000 Greeks into Persia, knoAvn as 
 the " Anabasis " (summarized in the next chapter). These authors show that 
 combination of unaffected simplicity with supreme art which distinguishes all 
 productions of the Greeks. 
 
 In philosophy, Socrates the Athenian developed, by conversational 
 analysis, without himself leaving literary works, a system elaborated by Plato 
 (4th century), also an Athenian. The dialogues of Plato touch the highest 
 level of purely human moral philosophy. Aristotle (4tli century) was the 
 father of science and of scientific method. 
 
 The dramatic authors of Athens wrote for a stage before which the 
 entire people assembled for edification and instruction as well as amusement. 
 The tragedies of JSschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides exhibit the religious 
 ideals of the Greeks in their greatest period. The comedies of Aristophanes 
 conceal, under an external cover of wit and license, the severity of a censor 
 and a moralist.* 
 
 The worth of Greek literature may be valued by its later influence. 
 The Latin authors and poets afterward drew their ideals and inspiration, and 
 much of their matter, from Greek sources. The Italian Revival of Letters, or 
 Renaissance, in the 15th and 16th centuries a. d., from which the later modem 
 learning is derived, is based on the learning of the Greek and Roman authprs. 
 
 PELOPONNESIAN WAR, 430-400 B. C. 
 
 The civic constitutions of Greece were not adapted to expansion or 
 foreign dominance like that of Rome. The career of democracy on which 
 Athens was fully launched in the times of Pericles was not long compatible 
 with a dominance over the states combined in the Confederacy of Delos. The 
 fickleness of the Athenian multitude increased with the increasing number of 
 citizens. Del liberations carried on in public concourse lost their moderation 
 when the control of the voting body escaped the power of the orator's voice. 
 
 * For a cbancteriBtic type of the Greek theatre, see illastration at page 90. 
 
PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 53 
 
 The loudest lunged became the leaders of the people. The organism of the 
 Greek states, having no representative system, and no Roman ideal of giving: 
 rights of the victors to the 
 vanquished, could not ex- 
 tend its control over its 
 fellows without ruling 
 them by force and arbi- 
 trary power. 
 
 The rule of a for- 
 eign democracy proved 
 more galling to the Greek 
 states of the Mge&n than 
 the rule of native " Ty- 
 rants." As the memory of 
 the Persian wars faded 
 away, they grew restive 
 under the taxation for 
 Athenian works of art. 
 
 Conservative Sparta 
 viewed with more and 
 more distaste the ascen- 
 dency and democratic in- 
 fluence of Athens. A ten- 
 sion between these states, dating from the time of Glisthenes (page 48), devel 
 oped into a struggle in which many of the states in the Confederacy of Delos 
 became an assistance to the Spartans, and gave them courage to enter on the 
 war. 
 
 The formal pretext for this strife between Athens and Sparta 
 was a quarrel between Corinth and her island colony, Zacynthus 
 (west of the Peloponnesus). 
 
 The Peloponnesian war lasted nearly thirty years, from 431 
 to 404 B. c. Pericles died soon after it began. Sparta having an 
 undoubted ascendency in the land army, and Athens having an 
 undoubted ascendency in the fleet, each party raided and distressed 
 the other without decisive results for some years. All the states of 
 Greece, and most of the colonies as far as Sicily, took sides, accord- 
 ing to their democratic or aristocratic tendencies. In each state a 
 
 Ruins of the Erectheiuui. 
 
54 aREECE. 
 
 democratic and aristocratic party struggled to control its policy, 
 and as one party or the other triumphed the state changed sides. 
 The war differed from those waged from time immemorial among the 
 independent states of Greece by becoming a social struggle, in which 
 parties were more than patriotism, and to which the animosities of 
 rich and poor, of privileged and unprivileged, added unheard-of 
 bitterness. Mercenary soldiers began to be used, a thing hitherto 
 unknown in Greek warfare, and equally unusual cruelties were 
 committed. The first ten years of war ended without decisive 
 results. A treaty was made by which each party gave up its 
 conquests. 
 
 The Sicilian Expedition. — In 415 the Athenians, still un- 
 shaken in confidence, apparently unshaken in power, were led by 
 Alcibiades to an expedition against the Sicilian Syracuse, with 
 intention to incorporate the Sicilian Greeks in general in the 
 Athenian Empire. Alcibiades was disgraced with the fickle multi- 
 tude, on a charge of sacrilege, before Syracuse was attacked, and 
 was obliged to take refuge in Sparta, which he incited to war on his 
 native city after the Sicilian expedition had failed. This began 
 the third period of the war, in which Alcibiades at last became 
 again for a time the commander of his countrymen. 
 
 A final defeat of the Athenians at ^gos Potamos, on the 
 Hellespont, placed Athens at the mercy of the Spartan general, 
 Lysander. She was deprived of all her dependencies and subject 
 states. Her walls were torn down, and an aristocratic party was 
 placed in power under Spartan protection. Although the internal 
 government was soon afterwards again made democratic, the power 
 acquired after the Persian wars was not regained. But Athens re- 
 mained, in the world of intellect and of letters, the seat of a more 
 glorious empire than the fate of arms can bestow or take away. 
 
 Sparta had apparently triumphed, but she had conquered 
 with the arms of her enemy — that is, by becoming a naval power, and 
 this was to undermine the fabric of her old Doric conservatism. She 
 had accepted the money and assistance of the Persians on the shore 
 
PELOPONXESIAN WAR. 55 
 
 of Asia Minor, and thus lost the esteem of patriotic Greeks. Her 
 kings had become involved in the intrigues of the East, and in the 
 pursuit of criminal ambitions. The cities of the iEgean had been 
 compelled, in general, to accept Spartan governors, and their rule 
 was as odious to one party in these cities as Athenian demo- 
 cratic rule had been to the other. Thus the Peloponnesian war 
 marks the decline in strength of the Greek political constitu- 
 tions, both Doric and Ionic. But the influence of the Greeks as 
 individuals, and as representatives of European civilization, was 
 increasing. • 
 
 The Anabasis. — Exactly at the close of the Peloponnesian war occurred 
 an event which gave the Greeks a new sense of their superiority to the East. In 
 405 died Artaxerxes I. of Persia. The succession of his son, Artaxerxes II., was 
 contested by his younger brother Cyrus, son of another and more favored wife, 
 and firstborn after his father had become king. On this ground, Cyrus (called 
 the Minor to distinguish hira from Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian 
 monarchy) laid claim to the throne. As governor of Asia Minor, Cyrus had 
 assisted Sparta to her triumph in the Peloponnesian war, in order to raise, by 
 her permission, an army of Greek mercenaries, with whose assistance he in- 
 tended to conquer the Persian throne. 
 
 Cyrus marched with 10,000 heavy armed Greeks from Sardes on Babylon. 
 Arrived near that city, at Cunaxa, the Greek phalanx won an easy victory over 
 an immense army of Persians, 401 B. c. ; but in the moment of victory Cyrus 
 lost his life in a charge of cavalry. The Ten Thousand were led back by Xeno- 
 phon in safety through the mountains of Armenia lo the shore of the Black 
 Sea, and thence home. His history of this memorable expedition is called the 
 ' ' Anabasis " (the going up, or march up, to Babylon). 
 
 The project of Cyrus shows the respect in which the Greeks were beginning 
 to be held by the older Eastern nations, and the march of the Ten Thousand 
 laid bare the weakness of the Persian Empire to friend and foe. One resource 
 only was left the Persians — the power of gold to excite dissensions among the 
 Greek states, and thus divert their energies from turning against Persia. 
 
56 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 CONTESTS OF GREEK STATES TILL THE MACEDONIAN 
 ASCENDENCY, B. C. 400-350. 
 
 Corinthian War. — War was declared by Persia on Sparta in 
 retaliation for the assistance given Cyrus Minor. The campaigns of 
 
 Athenian Silver Coin, 
 with Head of Minerva. 
 
 Eeverse, with Owl 
 sacred to Minerva. 
 
 the Spartan king Agesilaus in Asia Minor were so successful that 
 Persia was obliged to stir up strife in Greece. This led to the 
 Corinthian war, in which Corinth, Argos, Athens, Thebes, and 
 Thessaly, assisted by Persian money, combined against the Spartans. 
 
 The result of this war was to preserve and strengthen Spartan 
 ascendency, but the Greek cities of Asia Minor were sacrificed by 
 her to the Persians for this end. The peace was even arranged at 
 the Persian Court, 387 B. c. 
 
 Olynthian War. — The only state which refused to accept the 
 peace and the supremacy of Sparta, thereby made obligatory, was 
 Olynthus (on Chalcidice) and the confederacy of cities which it 
 headed. This led to war with Sparta, in which the powerful Olyn- 
 thian Confederacy was crushed, 383-379, and the way made easy 
 for the later rise of Macedonia, hitherto held in check by this Con- 
 federacy. 
 
 A Spartan army, marching through Boeotia against Olynthus, 
 was invited by the aristocratic i)arty of Thebes to seize the citadel 
 and support a Theban oligarchy, 383. 
 
MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 57 
 
 Theban Ascendency. — This led to the struggle of Thebes, 
 378-e362, headed by Epaminondas, in which the power of Sparta 
 was broken by the battles of Leuctra, 371, and Mantinea, 362. She 
 was even stripped of her century-long rule of Messenia, and the city 
 of Megalopolis was founded in Arcadia to cripple any restoration of 
 power. These remarkable victories over the hereditary masters of 
 Greek land warfare were effected by the new tactics of Epaminondas 
 — also pursued by Napoleon Bonaparte — the method of breaking 
 the enemy's hne by concentration of force on one point. To this 
 end the phalanx was given the form of a wedge. Epaminondas died 
 on the battlefield of Mantinea. Philip of Macedon was his pupil, 
 and developed his system into the famous Macedonian phalanx. 
 
 THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY; FINALLY ESTABLISHED 
 
 B. C. 338. 
 
 The inhabitants of Macedonia belonged to the stock of 
 which the Greek race were members, but down to the time of tlieir 
 king Philip had been a hardy peasantry, without refinement or 
 civilization. Under this ruler the Macedonian powec was extended 
 over Thrace, and acquired great importance by the subjugation of 
 the important Greek colonies reaching from the Bosphorus to the 
 Peninsula of Chalcidice. While wealth was secured by their tributes 
 and the control of their important commercial interests, the power 
 of Macedonia was consolidated by strong organism, and supported 
 by the most highly perfected military system yet developed. • 
 
 The Macedonian phalanx was given a spear twenty-one feet ^ 
 in length, and its depth was increased to sixteen files. The front 
 rank was protected by five projecting spears, the others were held 
 up, slanting forward. Thirty-two thousand men thus arranged 
 would make a front of only two thousand men, and the momentum 
 of a phalanx thus constituted was irresistible in warfare as then 
 known. 
 
 Above all, the Macedonian power was wielded by a shrewd and 
 
58 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 politic prince against the divided councils and weakened force of the 
 jarring repubUcs of Greece. The intervention of Philip in Greek 
 politics was invited by certain states against their rivals, and resulted 
 in the overthrow of all. 
 
 A period of intngues and warfare, which began shortly after 
 the death of Epaminondas, and which lasted about twenty years, 
 proved that the moral forces and patriotic vigor of Greek life were 
 exhausted, that the ambition of Thebes was unequal to the task 
 which her victories over Sparta had tempted her to undertake. In 
 these intrigues and quarrels Philip was first a mediator and participa- 
 tor, then a gradually ascendant power. Foremost in a league against 
 Philip was Athens, headed by Demosthenes, and joined with Thebes ; 
 but the defeat of ChBeronea, in Boeotia, b. c. 338, decided the fate of 
 Greece and subjected her states to the Macedonian supremacy. 
 
 MACEDONIAN CONQUEST OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, B.C. 333. 
 
 Amalgamation of the Greek and Eastern Civilization.— 
 
 Philip was a partisan of Greek culture and education, and did not 
 
 abuse his victory. The gradual decay of 
 the Persian Empire offered a new field 
 for Greek enterprise, a new mission for 
 Greek civilization. Under Macedonian 
 leadership and adoption it was about 
 to begin a new career — that of foreign 
 triumph and diffusion. 
 
 The project of conquering the 
 East, which Philip contemplated as a 
 means of uniting the energies of Greece 
 in foreign enterprise, and so leading 
 
 its states to forget their subjugation, was interrupted by his 
 
 death, b. c. 336. The project descended to his son Alexander the 
 
 Great. 
 
 After quelling the revolts which the accession of a young and 
 
 Coin with Head of Alexander. 
 
CONQUEST OF THE PERSIAN EMPIUE, 
 
 59 
 
 untried prince (he was but twenty), naturally excited in an empire 
 so lately brought together, Alexander entered Asia Minor with an 
 army of but thirty-five thousand men. He won his first victory 
 over the Persian forces in a brilliant cavalry action on the Granicus 
 (Northwest Asia Minor, b. c. 334). Not till he reached the town of 
 Issus, on the coast of Northern Syria, did the Persians again oflPer 
 dangerous resistance. 
 
 In the battle of Issus, b. c. 333, the Persian king, Darius. 
 escaped with difficulty : his army was totally defeated. Alexander 
 
 Battle of Issus. Ancient mosaic picture in Naples Museum, from Pompeii.* 
 
 did not march on Babylon and Persepolis, but turned down the 
 coast of Syria, in order, by conquering the entire coast line of the 
 empire, to prevent expeditions against the Greek states, or alliances 
 with them, after he should march into the interior of Asia. After 
 a desperate resistance by the city of Tyre to his besieging army, 
 Syria was won, and Egypt was next conquered without striking a 
 blow, B. c. 332. Here the Persian despotism had always been odious 
 
 * The horse in the foreground is being held ready for the escape of the king, but Darius is 
 too much agitated by the fate of a friend, transfixed by the spear of Alexander, to care for hig 
 own safety at the moment here represented. 
 
60 GREECE. 
 
 — ^the Greeks were welcomed as liberators. The site of Alexandria 
 was fixed, and this still important city was then fouaded. 
 
 From Egypt Alexander marched by way of Syria, on the 
 countries of the Euphrates and Tigris. He met the Persian army at 
 Arbela, B. c. 331 (beyond the site of Nineveh), and totally defeated it. 
 Darius fled for his life, and was murdered by a satrap during the 
 pursuit of the Greeks. 
 
 The battle of Arbela decided the fate of Persia. Where so 
 many nations were bound already by a foreign rule, the change of 
 masters was at least indifferent to them if not actively desired, and 
 the rule of Alexander was mild and benevolent. The march of the 
 Macedonians was now continued toward the Indus, with a turn to 
 the north which added the upper valleys of the Oxus and Jaxartes 
 to their conquests. 
 
 Beyond the Indus Alexander entered the country of the Pun- 
 jaub (b. c. 327), and defeated the Indian prince, Porus, who opposed 
 him with elephants. But on the banks of the Kyphosis the wearied 
 soldiers refused to advance further. Alexander then descended the 
 Indus, dispatched a fleet to return by way of the Persian Gulf, and 
 himself led the bulk of the army back by land. The most terrible 
 privations were suffered on this march. 
 
 In Babylon, Alexander, having himself married the daughter 
 of Darius, effected the marriage of ten thousand of his officers and 
 soldiers with Persians, as symbol and beginning of the amalgamation 
 between Greece and Asia which he proposed, and which was effected 
 in the centuries following his death (b. c. 323). 
 
 THE GREEK STATES OF THE EAST WHICH REPLACED THE 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Alexander had chosen no successor and left no children, except an 
 infant b«m after his death. But the division of his empire resulting from this 
 absence of a single successor rather facilitated than impeded the expansion of 
 
GREEK STATES OF THE EAST. 
 
 61 
 
 Greek civilization, by dispersing difEerent centres of Greek military rule and 
 Greek culture. The final division of the Greek Eastern states among the gen- 
 erals of Alexander and their successors was established by the battle of Ipsus 
 in Asia Minor, 301 B. c. 
 
 Ptolemy already held Egypt. After him are named the Greek rulers of 
 Egypt till the time of Roman conquest, b, c. 30. Alexandria, the capital, be- 
 came the most important centre of Greek science and learning, and the seat of 
 the famed library finally destroyed by the Mohammedan- Arabs, in the 7th cen- 
 tury A. D. The wealth of Egypt was centred in Alexandria — a Greek city — 
 but the Egyptians were ruled with wisdom and tolerance. A new period of 
 Egyptian architecture began, which attests a prosperity unknown since B. c. 
 1200. 
 
 Seleucus and his descendants, the Seleucidae, ruled Syria, Asia Minor, and 
 the countries of the Euphrates and Tigris. Antioch in Syria was a Greek city 
 and capital of this empire. 
 
 The city of Pergamus, in Asia Minor, and surrounding territory, was 
 ruled by the Attalids. Pergamus was an important centre of literature and 
 learning. Our word parchment is hence named. 
 
 The farther countries of the Persian Empire next the Indus, for 
 a short time ruled by the Seleucidae, were then ruled by Greek dynasties loosely 
 connected with the West, and gradually faded (3d century b. c.) into the Par 
 
 Ruins of Persepolis. 
 
 thian Empire, which also conquered the Euphrates- Tigris valley before b. c. 
 100. The province of Parthia is southeast of the Caspian. 
 
 Macedonia was ruled by a dynasty which exercised an ascendency over 
 the states of Greece without directly annexing them. The ^tolian and 
 
62 G^ R E E C E . 
 
 Achaean leagues were confederations which claimed and exercised independent 
 powers. 
 
 If the spirit of liberty had still existed, actual freedom was possible and not 
 denied. But the most important centre of Greece was the recruiting ground on 
 the promontory of Taenarum (Southern Peloponnesus). Greece itself was 
 depopulated by the drain for mercenary service in the armies of the Greek 
 Eastern States, and by the attractions of the Greek Eastern courts and luxury. 
 Athens, however, continued to hold its own as a seat of philosophy and 
 of learning. Corinth remained an important centre of Mediterranean com- 
 merce. 
 
 The Island of Rhodes acquired control of the corn trade between Egypt and 
 the other countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, and thus rose to great wealth 
 and power. The Greek cities of Sicily, of Southern Italy, of South France, of 
 Africa (Cyrene), of the Black Sea, were important places in the " Alexandrine " 
 time. 
 
 All states and cities mentioned (except those beyond the Euphrates) were 
 ultimately incorporated in the Empire of Rome. (See Chronology, p. 63, for 
 the dates.) 
 
 SUMMARY OF GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 From the origins of the Greek race, as indicated by the comparative study 
 of languages, we have passed to the mythology and the ideals of Greek pagan- 
 ism in general, whose origins are also studied by these analogies of speech. 
 From the mythical period we pass to the colonial. The poems of Homer unite 
 the two, and belong to both. 
 
 From the colonial period we pass to the internal revolutions of the Greek 
 constitutions, when this outlet of population was no longer possible, and when 
 the coasts open to this enterprise had all been occupied. Two different ideals 
 are incorporated, and headed, one by the aristocratic monarchy-republic of 
 Doric Sparta, and one by the democratic Ionian republic of Athens. 
 
 In the Persian wars the latter takes the load, and afterwards develops the 
 Athenian ideal of literature and art. In the Peloponnesian war Sparta regains 
 the mastery by sacrificing its traditional conservatism. Each system in turn 
 proves itself unable to solidify an external permanent empire. Greek military 
 tactics are devcloixid by Thebes which destroy the power of Sparta, and in the 
 liands of a Macedonian king consolidate the energies of Greece on the mastery 
 of the Eastern world. 
 
CHRONOLOGY. 63 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 Aryan period, before B. c. 1500 
 
 Doric migration, about " 1100 
 
 Ionian (and other) settlements in Asia Minor, before and after.. " 1000 
 
 (The poems of Homer represent this time.) 
 
 Institutions of the Spartan Lycurgus, after '* 850 
 
 First Olympiad " 776 
 
 Marseilles founded " 600 
 
 (Average dates of colonies nearer home — Italian, Sicilian, etc. — 
 before this time.) 
 
 Institutions of the Athenian Solon, about ** 590 
 
 Tyranny of the Athenian Pisistratus, after. '* 560 
 
 His sons, Hipparchus and Hippias, after 527 ; Hippias till " 510 
 
 Ionic revolt ** 500 
 
 Marathon " 490 
 
 Thermopylae and Salamis " 480 
 
 Athenian ascendency, till " 430 
 
 Broken during the — 
 
 Peloponnesian war (431-404), till " 400 
 
 March of the Ten Thousand to Babylon (401). about " 400 
 
 Corinthian war results, duration seven years (394-387), central date.. . " 390 
 
 Olynthian war results, duration three years, central date " 380 
 
 Struggle of Thebes and Sparta results, duration sixteen years (378- 
 
 362), central date " 370 
 
 Macedonian intervention of Philip, begins about " 350 
 
 Battle of Chaeronea " 338 
 
 Alexander the Great gains the Battle of Issus " 333 
 
 Greece and Macedonia Roman provinces (146), after " 150 
 
 Asia Minor Greek after Alexander, Roman (133) after " 130 
 
 Syria Greek after Alexander, Roman (63) after " 60 
 
 Egypt Greek after Alexander, Roman after " 30 
 
 (Approximate round numbers are generally preferred in foregoing table as 
 easiest to memorize.) 
 
64 
 
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DISTINGUISHED GREEKS. 65 
 
 TABLE OF DISTINGUISHED GREEKS, ARRANGED IN THE 
 ORDER OF TIME ACCORDING TO VOCATION. 
 
 STATESMEN Ai^D GEKERALS. 
 
 LycTirtrus. Lawgiver of Sparta. Authenticated facts of his life are unknown. His 
 
 9th Century b. c. institutions, see p. 39. 
 
 Pheidon. T^^g of Argoa, and last representative of absolute monarchy in Greece. 
 
 8th Century B. c. The first to coin money in Greece, and possibly inventor of the art. Some 
 ancient accounts give precedence to the Lydians, but all unite in ascribing the flist coinage to 
 the 8th century b. c. Before this time rings or stamped ingots of the precious metals were 
 used. Pheidon' s dominion reached from the Isthmus of Corinth to Cape Malea. His date 
 marks the final greatness and subsequent decline of Argos. 
 
 Solon. Founder of Athenian democracy. His laws were copied by Rome. Re- 
 
 6th Century B. o, fused the supreme power when offered; traveled and studied in Egypt, 
 whence his law against idleness, and other laws, were derived. Is said to have known the 
 Lydian king, Croesus. 
 Pisistratus. "Tjrrant" of Athens. Rearranged and established the text of the 
 
 6th Century b. c. Homeric poems. Laid the foundations of the Olympian Jupiter temple at 
 Athens, erected by Hadrian, the Roman Emperor, seven hundred years later ; ruins stiU stand- 
 ing. The friend and relative of Solon. Though often antagonized by the latter, he cherished 
 his institutions. 
 
 Polyorates. " Tyrant " of Samos, famed for his great possessions and his cruelty ; 
 
 6th Century b. c. ally and friend of Amasis, last king but one of Egypt ; was decoyed to the 
 mainland of Asia Minor and put to death shortly before the Ionic revolt. " The Ring of Poly- 
 crates," by Schiller, translated byBulwer-Lytton, is a famous poem. 
 
 Clisthenes. Statesman and reformer in Athens after the expulsion of 
 
 Close of the 6th Century b. c. Hippias in 510 b. c. : probably deviser of " Ostracism." 
 
 Miltiades ^^ Athenian, but also " Tyrant " of the Thracian Chersonese. 
 
 5th Century B. c. Having proposed to destroy the bridge of boats over the Danube, 
 
 Time of the Persian Wars. ^^ ^^^ ^j^^ ^^ ^^^ Scythian expedition of Darius, he fled to Athens 
 and became the hero of Marathon. He then persuaded his countrymen to give him command 
 of a fleet, but used it for private ends in an attack on the Island of Paros. The attack failed, 
 Miltiades was severely wounded, and on his return was prosecuted and imprisoned for deceiv- 
 ing the people. He died in prison. 
 
 Theiulstocles Creator of the Athenian fleet by which the fortunes of the day 
 
 5th Century B. c. of Salamis were determined. A man of immense fertility of 
 
 Time of the Persian Wars, j-gsource and self-confidence. His confidence brought on him the 
 charge of boasting ; his success brought on him the charge of ambition. Involved in party 
 contentions, the savior of his country was made to feel the " ingratitude of republics," and 
 forced to leave Athens, then driven from Greece. He obtained protection of the Persian king, 
 but took poison in 449 b. c. rather than serve against his country as he was summoned to do. , 
 
66 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Aristides. 
 
 5th Century b. c. 
 
 Time of the Persian Wars 
 
 and after. 
 
 of hearing him called 
 "The Just," but was recalled at the time of Sala- 
 mis. He was distinguished as a general at Platsea, 
 and was a prominent commander and leading 
 statesman till his death in 468. 
 
 The son of Miltiades, 
 
 Had opposed the plans of Themistocles for creating the Athe- 
 nian fleet and was ostracized for that reason, and also because the 
 Athenians were tired 
 
 Cimon. 
 
 Was 
 
 Alcibiades. 
 5tb Century b. c. 
 Time of the Pelo 
 ponnesian War. 
 
 5thCenturyB. c. a successful general and lead- 
 Middle Period. .„g ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ .^ ^^^ ^.^^ 
 
 intervening between the greatest power of Aris- 
 tides and that of Pericles, which followed. He 
 brought the reputed bones of the ancient hero 
 Theseus to Athens, and built the temple of The- 
 seus, still standing, the most perfectly preserved 
 of the Greek temples. (Illustration, p. 32.) 
 
 Pericles. ^^^ ™°^* famous statesman 
 
 ^^^■9^^^^ ^\P- of t^e Greeks, and as an orator 
 Middle Period, , , ^, 
 
 doubtless as great as Demos- 
 
 thcr.cs. The undying fame of Pericles is his 
 devotion to art and literature amid the cares of 
 p'ate. His democracy destroyed itself, and his 
 Parthenon is immortal. 
 
 A brilliant, versatile, dar- 
 ingly brave, and consummately 
 gifted man. His gifts were his 
 ruin. His ambition was, how- 
 ever, but the climax of that Athenian self-glorifica- 
 tion which trusted that the times of Pericles would last when the man himself was dead 
 was the projector of the Sicilian expedition (b. c. 415), which politically ruined Athens. 
 Epaminondas. Regenerator of Thebes and conqueror of Sparta. In military tactics the 
 4th Century b. o. teacher of the Macedonian Philip. 
 
 Demosthenes. Whose name is a synonym for greatness in oratory. As with most Buc- 
 
 4th Century B. 0. cessful orators of all times, his speeclies were carefully prepared, but 
 delivered as though extempore. The Philippics of Demosthenes were delivered to induce the 
 Athenians to assist the towns of Chalcidice before Philip, by conquering them, should cast 
 down the last rampart which divided him from Greece. 
 
 PhilipofMacedon. Made a great state of his native country, and brought it within the 
 4th Century b. o. circle of Greek culture. He could not destroy the liberties of Greece, 
 as has been said ; for the spirit of liberty was dead, and Demosthenes could not awake it. He 
 rather solved the problem of finding a new mission abroad for Greece in decay at home. 
 Alexander the Great. Conqueror of the Persian Empire. The pupil of Aristotle com- 
 4th Century b, c. bined the enthusiasm of a poet with the bravery of a warrior and 
 
 the sense of a statesman. His fame as a conqueror should not eclipse the glory of his states- 
 manship. 
 
 Stiitiie of Aristides. 
 {From Herculamum, Naples Museum.) 
 
 He 
 
DISTINGUISHED GREEKS. 
 
 ei 
 
 Homer. 
 Hesiod. 
 
 Sappho. 
 Alcaeus. 
 
 POETS, PHILOSOPHERS, AND MEN OF SCIENCE. 
 
 Epic poet ; the greatest of all time. Wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey about 
 B. c. 1000. An Ionic Greek of Asia Minor. 
 
 Didactic poet. Works—" Theogonia," a history in verse of the origin of the 
 gods and creation of the world, and " Works and Days." A Boeotian ; lived 
 about B. c. 850. 
 
 Amatory poetess of Lesbos, b. c. 600. 
 
 Wrote warlike and patriotic odes; native of Lesbos ; about 600 b. c. 
 
 Anacreon. Lyric poet of Teos (Ionia) about the middle of the 6th century b. c. 
 
 iEsop. 
 
 Bom in Phrj'gia ; flourished about 600 b. c. A slave. Although undoubtedly 
 the author of animal fables noted in antiquity, the fables now known as .^sop's 
 are not considered his. 
 
 Thales. 
 6th Century b. c. 
 
 Philosopher. An Ionic Greek of Asia Minor. 
 
 Philosopher ; born at Samos ; traveled in Egypt ; settled at Crotona in 
 Italy. An astronomer and geometrician of great knowledge. He taught 
 that numbers are the basis of all things, the harmony (music) of the spheres, and the immor- 
 tality of the soul. 
 
 Wrote odes to the victors in the Olympian, Nemean, Isthmian, and 
 Pythian games. A native of Bceotia, and one of the most esteemed Greek 
 poets. 
 
 Fought as an Athenian warrior at Marathon, Salami s, and Platsea. 
 The first and most sublime of the Tragic Poets. Seven tragedies only pre- 
 served, among them "The Persians," "Prometheus Chained." 
 
 The ideal of finished perfection in Greek dramatic art: danced as a boy 
 
 of eighteen in the chorus which celebrated the victory of Salamis. The 
 
 greatest of his tragedies are the three on the fates of the House of 
 
 (Edipus. 
 
 Eurir>ides ^^^ tragedies are philosophical, moral, and didactic rather 
 
 ~ " ' than religious or ideal. He was the favorite poet of later times, 
 
 therefore more of his pieces have been preserved than of his 
 
 Pythagroras. 
 
 6th Century B. c. 
 
 Pindar. 
 
 Flourished before 
 and after 500 B. c. 
 
 -ffischylus. 
 
 5th Century b. c. 
 
 Early Period. 
 
 Sophocles. 
 
 5th Century b. c. 
 
 Middle Period. 
 
 4th Cent. b. c. Later Period. 
 
 Born on the day of Salamis. 
 two earlier contemporaries together. "Medea " and " Alcestis" are his greatest works. 
 Aristophanes ^^^ P°^* ^^^ scourged in his comedies the demagogues and ranters 
 
 5th Century b. c. 
 Closing Period. 
 
 of the Peloponnesian war. His comedy of the " Clouds " shows the old 
 Greek standpoint of conservative objection to speculation in religion. 
 Socrates, as teacher of novelties, is ridiculed in this play. 
 
 Socrates Was, like all the leading men of his time, valiant as a warrior in the 
 
 5th Century B.C. ranks. His inquiring mind and taste for dialectics led him to develop a 
 I)ie^399 system of doubt as to the traditional beliefs, and to advocate the substi- 
 
 tution of morality for mythology. Involved in the odium which the fate of 
 Athens in the Peloponnesian war brought on the radical and progressive party, he was con- 
 demned to death by the reactionary government set up by Sparta when the war was over. He 
 left no books ; his teachings were written down by Xenophon and Plato. 
 
68 GREECE. 
 
 Plato. The father of ideal philosophy, and author of the " Dialogues,'* i» 
 
 4th Cent. B.C., 428-S47. which Socrates appears as teacher. From Plato's place of teaching, in 
 the groves of Acaderaos, comes our word academy, 
 
 Isocrates. The greatest teacher of Athenian rhetoric and oratory. His Con- 
 
 4th Cent. b. c. Ist half, stitution did not allow him to enter public life. 
 
 Aristotle. Contemporary and teacher of Alexander the Great ; the first to estab- 
 
 4th Cent. B.C., 384-323. ijph the natural sciences on a sure foundation. Only in the latest times 
 has human knowledge passed the limits reached by Aristotle. Born at Stagira in Chalcidice ; 
 taught at Athens, whence he was banished after Alexander's death. 
 
 Epicurus. Settled at Athens ; taught that pleasure is the sovereign good, but his doctrine, 
 348-270 B. c. as taught by himself, conceived that pleasure could not exist without reason and 
 prudence. 
 Euclid. Flourished at Alexandiia. " His Elements of Geometry have been trans- 
 
 About 300 B. c. lated into most languages, and have held their ground for 2000 years as the 
 basis of geometrical instruction." 
 Aristarchus. Greek astronomer of Alexandria ; born at Samos. The first astronomer 
 
 3d Century B. c. ^ho discovered the revolution of the planetary system about the sun. 
 He had also a conception of the enormously remote distances of the fixed stars. Ptolemy, an 
 Alexandrine astronomer and geographer of the 2d century a. d. (Roman Imperial Period), 
 abandoned the system of Aristarchus, and made the earth the centre of the solar system, per- 
 haps out of reverence for the authority of Aristotle. The doctrme of Ptolemy was again 
 reversed by Copernicus, 16th century A. d. 
 
 Eratosthenes. Greek astronomer and geographer of Alexandria ; called the Surveyor 
 
 3d Century b. c. of the World ; measured the diameter and circumference of the earth 
 within a few miles of the present computation. 
 Hipparchus. Greek astronomer of Alexandria ; made a catalogue of the fixed stars, 
 
 3d Century b. c. and was the father of mathematical astronomy. He discovered the Pre- 
 cession of the Equinoxes. 
 Archimedes. ^^ Syracuse. The most celebrated mathematician and mechanician 
 
 3d Century b. o. among the ancients. The combination of pulleys for raising heavy weights, 
 the endless screw, a sphere to represent the motions of the heavenly bodies, a musical organ 
 worked by hydraulic action, were invented by him. During the defence of Syracuse, besieged 
 by the Roman Marcellus, he is said to have fired the Roman fleet by burning-glasses con- 
 nected with a series of reflecting mirrors. The story of the burning-glasses has been much 
 doubted by moderns, but appears credible in view of the experiment of the modem savant 
 Buflbn, who ignited wood at a distance of 150 feet by a combination of plane mirrors. 
 
 HISTORIANS. 
 
 Herodotus ^ Halicamassus, In Asia Minor. Wrote the history of the Persian 
 
 5th Century b. c. warn, interwoven with accounts of his own travels. The most simple and 
 
 Middle Period. perhaps the most interesting of all historians; certainly the first whose 
 works have been handed down. 
 
 Thucydides ^' Athens. Wrote in banishment the history of the Peloponnesian 
 
 5th Century b. c. war, in which he had been at first a general. His work is distinguished as 
 
 Closing Period, ^j^^ ^^^ philosophical of the ancient histories. 
 
DISTINGUISHED GREEKS. 
 
 69 
 
 Xenophon. 
 
 Before and after 
 400 b. c. 
 
 An Athenian. Wrote the "■ Anabasis " of the Ten Thousand Greeks and 
 "Memorabilia" of Socrates; also continued the history of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war where abandoned by Thucydides, and carried Greek history 
 down to the battle of Mantinea. Xenophon lived after the Anabasis in banishment at Sparta, 
 whose institutions he much admired. 
 
 Polvbius. -^ Greek hostage in Rome. Became the friend of Scipio Minor, whom he 
 
 2d Century b. c. accompanied in the third Punic war, 146 B. c. He wrote a general history 
 of Greece and Rome during, and just before, his own times. 
 
 SCULPTORS. 
 
 Phidias. Of Athens; time of Pericles; createdtheidealsof Jupiter and Minerva in 
 
 5th Century b. c. sculpture. Under his direction were executed the gable sculptures of the 
 Parthenon, the " Elgin Marbles," now in the British Museum at London. He was the greatest 
 of all sculptors. His style was simple and grand. 
 
 Praxiteles and Flourished in the 4th century b. c. Middle Period. They are the repre- 
 Scopas. sentatives of the beautiful and lovely as opposed to the majestic and com- 
 
 manding. The types of Venus, Bacchus, Cupid, and the Faun were created by them. The 
 Niobe group in Florence dates from Scopas ; the " Marble Faun" of the Capitol in Rome, from 
 Praxiteles. These works, however, are copies. 
 
 Was the contemporary of Alexander, and he alone was allowed to make 
 ysippus. ^.^ portrait. From him dates, in copy, the immense Hercules now in the 
 Naples Museum. 
 
 SCULPTURE AFTER ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 Temple of the " Wingless " Victory at Athens. louic Order. 
 
 The names of this period are 
 obscured by the multitude of 
 works. All the statues of the 
 Itahan and other European mu- 
 seums, except the portraits of 
 distinguished Romans, are Greek 
 in subject and design, though 
 generally made in the times of 
 the Roman Empire. 
 
 Especially famed, of the time 
 after Alexander, are the Laocoon 
 group and the Belvedere Apollo 
 of the Vatican Museum. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 The simple and heavy 
 Doric style was dominant 
 before the Peloponnesian war 
 (examples, pp. 32, 51). The 
 Ionic, more graceful and ele- 
 gant, was most flourishing from 
 
70 GREECE. 
 
 430 to 3;30 B. c. (examples, pp. 53, 69.) The Corinthian order, representing the more elabor^t^ 
 tastes of the later luxury and wealth, belongs to the time after Alexander, and so passed to the 
 Romans, who used it much more than the Doric or Ionic (example, p. 126). The Greek archi- 
 tectural orders and ornamental forms were dominant throughout the times of the Roman Em- 
 pire in all provinces but Egypt. As revived in Italy about 1500 A. d., they became the common 
 property of modem times. The preference shown in modern architecture for Corinthian f onn» 
 is thus a result of Roman and of Italian influence. 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 The division by lessons is made with deference to the individual teacher, but it is believed 
 that few classes could lengthen these review lessons with advantage. 
 
 Some of these questions are designedly made rather difficult. Some of them are designedly 
 repeated. Exercise on them may be deferred till after a review of the entire Greek his. 
 tory, if desired. A complete mastery of them will probably furnish matter for the number oC 
 lessons indicated. The method is again suggested of directing the pupil to write down each 
 question and answer in a consecutive sentence. By this method the pupil will have a written 
 summary of the period, and will be saved the confusion, in preparing the recitation, of refer- 
 ring to different pages of the book whenever special points may have escaped the memory. 
 This method, even if not absolutely required by the teacher, will also be found by the pupil the 
 readiest way to prepare recitations on the questions. 
 
 Example, taken from the opening questions:— 7%6 most important century of Greek history 
 is the 5th century b. o. It opens with the events of the Persian wars, and closes with the I'eloiJon- 
 nesian war and the Expedition of the Ten Thousand, etc., etc. 
 
 FIRST LESSOK FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 What century is the most important in Greek history ? 
 
 What events open this century ? What events close it ? 
 
 What great names in literature belong to it ? (P. 67.) 
 
 What names distinguished in war and statesmanship belong to it f (Pp. 65, 66.) 
 
 How long after 400 did Greek independence last ? (P. 58.) 
 
 What war before 400 began the decline ? How was the decline apparent ? (Pp. 54, 55.) 
 
 How did Athens become obnoxious to the Confederacy of Delos, which she founded ? (P. 53.) 
 
 What states were embraced in the Confederacy ? (P. 50.) 
 
 Why did the triumph of Sparta over Athens contribute to her ovra decay? (P. 54.) 
 
 What state overthrew the ascendency of Sparta in the 4th century? 
 
 How long after did Macedonian intervention in Greek affairs begin ? 
 
 Date the battle of Chseronea. Why is it important? 
 
 What coimtries were included in the Persian Empire conquered by Alexander? (P. 21.) 
 
 What Greek states rose in the East after his campaigns ? (P. 61.) What became of them? 
 
 SECOND LESSON FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 When does Greek written history begin ? (P. 35.) 
 Wbat famous Doric state was founded soon after 1100 f 
 Wbat was the time of Lycorgus ? (Chronology, p. 68.) 
 
QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 71 
 
 Why were Spartan institutions so rigid ? (P. 39.) 
 
 What influence had Sparta on the Greek states after 777 b. c. ? (P. 41.) 
 
 What had prevented discontent in the early times of the Greek states ? (P. 42.) ' 
 
 Why did popular discontent become general in the 6th century? 
 
 What were the different ways of coping with tliis discontent ? 
 
 Were both adopted in Athens ? To what tribe did the Athenians belong ? (P. 35.) 
 
 How did Ionic character differ from Doric ? 
 
 Who was the father of Athenian democracy? (P. 42.) Who preserved his laws? 
 
 What statesman, before 500, devised ostracism? Why was this device adopted? 
 
 What was the general size of a Greek state ? (P. 41.) 
 
 What were the extreme dimensions of the country ? (P. 38.) 
 
 What provinces were unimportant within these dimensions ? 
 
 How do Greek government and character differ from the Eastern ? (P. 38.) 
 
 Why could not the Greek states establish permanent empires of large size ? (Pp. 52, 53.) 
 
 THIRD LESSOK FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 In what departments have the Greeks excelled and controlled later periods of history? 
 (Pp. 51, 52.) 
 
 When did Greece begin to make its civilization cosmopolitan? (P. 58) 
 
 What architectural order corresponds to the time of Alexander? (P. 71.) 
 
 What order corresponds especially to the time of, and after, the Peloponnesian war? 
 
 What architectural order was dominant before the Peloponnesian war ? 
 
 Name all countries in which Greek civilization w.as established by colonies ? (Pp. 38, 39.) 
 
 How early were these colonies generally diffused in foreign countries ? (P. 63.) 
 
 In what period did their influence still continue ? (P. 68.) 
 
 In what countries was Greek culture diffused after Alexander ? (P. 61 and map.) 
 
 How long had the New Empire of Egypt existed in the time of Homer ? (Pp. 63, 64.) 
 
 What nation connected the Eastern world with Greece at this time ? 
 
 FOURTH LESSON" FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 In what century was the New Empire of Egypt overthrown? (P. 64.) 
 
 What contemporary events happened in Greece in this century? (P. 63.) 
 
 How long had the Assyrian Empire been overthrown at the time of the Ionic revolt? 
 
 (Pp. 63, 64.) 
 
 Against whom did the lonians revolt ? (Pp. 45, 46, 47.) 
 
 How long had the Persian Empire then existed ? (P. 27.) 
 
 From what two Empires was the Persian Empire founded ? (P. 20.) 
 
 What countries did it add besides ? Name the extent of the two preceding empires ? 
 
 How long had they lasted when united by Persia ? (Pp. 20, 64.) 
 
 What empire preceded them ? (P. 20.) ^ 
 
 What difference between Greek and Eastern civilization is implied in the battle of 
 
 Marathon ? (P. 49.) Why could not the East remodel its discipline ? 
 
 What varieties of climate are embraced in the limits of Greece ? (P. 38.) 
 What provinces of Greece are relatively unimportant in Greek history ? (P. 38.) 
 
72 GREECE. 
 
 What Btates are most important ? 
 
 What is their size as compared with the whole country T 
 
 What is the size of the whole country as compared with the Persian Empire? 
 
 FIFTH LESSON FOR EEVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 In what countries did Greek culture exist after Alexander ? {Include the colonies.) 
 Who were the great authors of Greece ? Name their works ? 
 Were there great authors in Egypt ? 
 
 What was the extent of Greek astronomic science ? (P. 68.) 
 What was the condition of sculpture ? Of architecture ? (P. 51.) 
 What forms of art were adopted by the Romans ? (Pp. 69, 70.) 
 What literature was adopted by the Romans ? (P. 52.) 
 When were this art and literature revived ? (Pp. 52, 71.) 
 In what century of Greek history was Rome founded ? (P. 65.) 
 In what century lived Lycurgus ? Solon ? Pericles ? 
 
 What Greek state declined in the century Rome was founded? (See " Pheidon," p. 65 ) 
 Who was its last great king ? What state replaced Argos as leader in Greece ? 
 Why did Athens replace Sparta as leader in Greece after the Persian wars ? (P. 50.) 
 When Greek independence was overthrown, how long had Egypt ceased to exist as an 
 independent power ? (Compare pp. 27, 63 ; or consult Synchronism, p. 64.) 
 
 How long had Assyria ceased to exist when Greek independence was overthrown ? 
 
 SIXTH LESSON FOR REVIEW OF GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 How long after the Doric migration did Egypt continue an independent power? 
 
 How long after the Doric migration did Assyria continue an independent power ? 
 
 When was Carthage founded ? (P. 27, and Synchronism, p. 64.) 
 
 What power established itself in Western Sicily ? (P. 39.) 
 
 What power controlled the eastern half? (P. 39.) 
 
 What battle was fought in Sicily at the time of the. Persian wars ? (P. 80.) 
 
 Did the rivalry between Greeks and Phoenicians in Sicily continue after Alexander f 
 Ans. Yes. 
 
 When were the Greeks in Sicily nearly expelled by Carthage ? Am. In b. c. 275. 
 
 What power preserved the Greeks in Sicily ? Am. The Roman. 
 
 What power sustained the Greeks in France (Marseilles) at this time ? Am. The Roman. 
 
 What power preserved Greek culture in the Western Mediterranean after b. c. 275? Am. 
 The Roman. 
 
 What power sustained and revived the decaying Greek culture of the East in the time just 
 preceding the Christian era ? Am. The Roman. 
 
 What period of history continued and developed the influence of Greek civilization for all 
 later time ? Am. The Roman Imperial Period. 
 
 When did Greek independence end ? (Synchronism, p. 65.) 
 
 When did Roman area begin rapidly to extend? (Synchronism, p. 66.) 
 
 \ 
 
ROME 
 
 TILL THE OPENING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 EARLY NATIONS OF ITALY. 
 
 In the middle of the 8 th century B. C, when the city of Rome was 
 founded, the Assyrian Empire was at the height of power. It had still a cen 
 tury and a quarter of existence to run. Egypt did not lose its independence 
 
 View on the Tiber. St. Peter's in the distance, Hadrian's tomb (Papal Ca.^tle of St. Angelo) 
 
 on the right. 
 
 till two centuries and a quarter later than the middle of the 8th century. The 
 Phoenicians, who for so long a time united the civilizations of these countries and 
 bore them to other nations, had already, in the main, abandoned the eastern 
 
74 ROME. 
 
 half of the Mediterranean to the Greeks, in order to extend their power in its 
 western portion. One hundred years before the foundation of Rome the city of 
 Carthage had been founded by them. This city, uniting imder its control the 
 earlier Phoenician colonies of the African coast, extended its influence in fol- 
 lowing centuries to the shores of Spain, where Gades (Cadiz) was an ancient 
 Phoenician settlement, over Corsica and Sardinia, the Balearic Isles, and over 
 the western portion of Sicily (while the Greeks held the rest of the island). 
 
 The influence of Phoenician and Greek intercourse had already 
 developed powerful and civilized nations in Italy at the time of the foundation 
 of Rome. These nations overshadowed in importance, for four centuries fol- 
 lowing this time, the small Latin tribe settled to the south of the lower Tiber. 
 
 "Italy" did not at this time, nor did it till the times of Caesar, b. c. 50, 
 include the territory above the peninsula proper — i. e., the territory of the 
 valley of the Padus. This belonged to Gaul (Cisalpine Gaul), and was inhab- 
 ited by Celts allied to those in France. (The Ligurians along the shore of the 
 Gulf of Genoa, and the Veneti in the district named after them Venetia, at the 
 head of the Adriatic, were remains of non-Aryan populations of small impor- 
 tance for later Italian history.) 
 
 The Apennines, which form, below the Padus valley, the backbone of 
 the peninsula, send out a series of short transverse spurs to the east, cutting 
 up this side of Italy into a relatively barren and rugged country. But from 
 these mountains flow to the west the rivers watering the fertile plain of Etru- 
 ria. lying between the Amo and the Tiber. The inhabitants of this country, 
 the Etruscans, were a powerful and highly civilized people. The Etruscan 
 antiquities of the Vatican are deeply interesting. With them, as with other 
 ancient nations, the habit of placing articles of use or of value in tombs, as offer- 
 ings to the dead or as memorials, has resulted in filling the modern museums 
 ■with remains of great value for historic study. The language of this people is 
 so far undeciphered, and probably non- Aryan. 
 
 The rest of Italy, as far as the fringe of Greek colonies reaching around the 
 southern coasts, was inhabited by the Italic portion of the Greco-Italic stock. 
 
 The small territory of Ijatium reached from the mouth of the Tiber 
 to the promontory of Terracina. Around the Latins were grouped (besides the 
 Etruscans on the north) the Sabines, .^uians, Hernicans, and Volscians. The 
 mountain region reaching from these settlements to the Adriatic, and as far as 
 Ancona on the north (t. «., to the southern limit of the Gallic population) was 
 held by the Umbrians. West and south of the tribes grouped around the 
 Latins were the Samnites, who controlled the rich plain of Campania from the 
 pioontains of Samnium, and became the dominant nation of the South above 
 
EARLY NATIONS OF ITALY. 75 
 
 the Greek colonies, as the Etruscans were the dominant nation of the North 
 below the Celts. 
 
 Both Samnites and Etruscans possessed a civilization based upon 
 their early commerce with the Phoenicians, but now overlaid and influenced by 
 the rising superiority of the Greeks, 
 whose towns, reaching all around 
 the southern coasts, gave to this 
 portion of Italy the name of Magna 
 Grecia. 
 
 In matters of civilization 
 
 the Latin tribe was dependent on 
 
 these other nations, especially on 
 
 the Etruscans, and was much more 
 
 backward than they. But when 
 ■ . ^ ^. ^ ., , , , Etruscan Tomb at Veil, 
 
 this Latin tribe grew to be the 
 
 ruling nation of Italy, its language supplanted the other related Italic dia« 
 lects and the language of the Etruscans. Italy was thus welded into a com- 
 mon nation, whose general civilization had existed before its conquerors were 
 an important people, and then became their property also. 
 
 The history of Rome antedating the time of the Christian 
 era (after which it continues in the West for 500 years and in the 
 East over 1400 j^ears) has thtee natural divisions — the time when 
 Rome controlled the small territory of Latium, the time of the con- 
 quest of Italy, and the time of the development of Roman rule 
 over the Mediterranean. 
 
 We may simplify this threefold division into a double one— the 
 time of internal development and the time of external expansion. 
 These two periods are best divided by the date 333 B. c, only ten 
 years removed from 343, the beginning of the Samnite wars, which, 
 lasting fifty years, resulted in the conquest of Italy. An important 
 synchronism between Greek and Roman history is established by 
 memorizing this date. 
 
 Map Study.— Carthage ; map at p. 73. Cadiz ; modern map. Corsica, Sardinia ; p. 73. 
 Balearic Isles; map for western part of Rome's dominions. Map at p. 73 for the Padus. Ligu- 
 ria, Veneti; p. 86. Maps at p. 73 for Apennines, Etruria, Amo (Arnus), Tiber, Latium, Terra- 
 cina, Sabini, ^qui, Hernici, Volscian range. Map at p. 86 for the Adriatic, Ancona, Umbria, 
 Samnium, Campania, Greek colonies, p. 29. Localities are arranged in the order of reference. 
 
76 ROME. 
 
 PERIOD OF THE ROMAN KINGS, B. C. 750-510. 
 
 Tradition derived the settlers of Latium from Trojans 
 led by ^neas, who fled from the Greeks after the capture of Troy. 
 This tradition reveals at least a sense of Latin relationship to the 
 Greco-Itahc stock settled in Asia Minor, and it is not impossible 
 that a colony from the region of Troy may have made its way to 
 Italy by sea. 
 
 The site of Rome, fourteen miles from the mouth of the 
 Tiber, was determined by the fact that here was, and still is, the 
 head of river navigation, and also the point of frontier commerce and 
 contact between Etruscans, Sabines, and Latins. Rome was therefore 
 a frontier trading post of connection with, and also a military post 
 against, the two bordering nations of the North and West. 
 
 From 750 to 510 B. C, that is, for 240 years, Rome was 
 governed by a monarchy. The ancient records of this period were 
 destroyed in the burning of Rome by the Gauls in 390 b. c, and 
 150 years after this date the records since used were compiled. 
 Therefore the details of the regal period are partly mythical. 
 
 The traditions of later times name the brothers Romulus 
 and Remus as founders of tlie seven-hilled city. (These seven hills 
 are named the Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, CcBlian, ^squiline, 
 Viminal, and Quirinal.) 
 
 The right of intermarriage was begged of the neighboring Sabines 
 and denied. The companions of Romulus then carried off wives for themselves 
 by violence — " the Rape of the Sabines." This led to a war with the town of 
 Cures. The women placed themselves between the two armies when about to 
 join battle. A treaty was made by which the Sabines of Cures settled at Rome, 
 forming the second tribe, the Tities, so named after their king Titus Tatius. 
 From the original Roman tribe of the Ramnes an advisory senate of 100 mem- 
 bers had been named, to whom 100 of the second tribe were added. 
 
 Numa Pompilius was the second king, and the lawgiver of 
 the new community. He appointed four Vestal virgins, who were 
 
ROMAN KING^g. 77 
 
 to preserve the sacred fire of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and 
 of the family. Four augurs were appointed to inquire the will of the 
 gods. Four priests, headed by the Pontifex Maximus, were to have 
 in charge the calendar of the state and the rehgious observances. 
 
 The Roman paganism sprang, like the Greek, from the Nature worship 
 of the early A)yans, but this assumed with the Romans a more practical and 
 utilitarian — a less poetic — cast than with the Greeks. Certain spirits were 
 worshiped as guardian deities of the household possessions (the Lares and 
 Penates). Another spirit was revered as guardian of the landmarks of the 
 farm (Terminus). Innumerable guardian deities were conceived for various 
 classes of objects and for various mental abstractions — Peace, Concord, Terror, 
 Fear, etc. Above these conceptions ranked others, afterwards brought into 
 analogy with the Greek (which themselves became known by the Latin names), 
 such as Jupiter, Mars, Juno, etc. The Romans were excessively superstitious, 
 and paid great attention to the science of divination in affairs of state. 
 
 TuUus Hostilius was third king. He made Rome the head 
 of the Latia confederation of towns, thirty in number, in place of 
 Alba Longa. 
 
 This event is dated about 650 B. c, and is connected with the story of three 
 Roman brothers, the Horatii, whose combat with three brothers of Alba, the 
 Curiatii, was to decide the contest between' the cities. One of the Horatii sur- 
 vived ; the five others fell, giving the victory to Rome. At this time the 
 inhabitants of Alba were transferred to Rome. The leading Alban families 
 formed the third tribe, the Luceres, now added to the original Roman tribe of 
 the Ramnes and the Sabine settlers, the Titles, with a corresponding addi- 
 tion of another 100 members to the senate. 
 
 These three tribes formed the body of patricians, a word meaning " born of 
 a father," — that is, of a father who was citizen of the state, with full political 
 rights. The Roman citizenship was thus derived from the junction of three 
 ancient clanships. Besides the patricians, other settlers multiplied who were 
 not given the citizenship ; some known as clients, dependents and followers of 
 the patricians, or as the plebs, i. e., the multitude, meaning the unprivileged 
 multitude. 
 
 A fourth king, Ancus Martius, to whom is attributed the 
 first bridge across the Tiber and the founding of the port of Ostia,, 
 
78 
 
 HOME; 
 
 was followed by the fifth king, Tarquiniiis Priscus. 1*0 him is 
 attributed the still existing Cloaca Maxima, an immense arched 
 sewer for draining the marshy ground around the Palatine Hill. 
 
 The use of the arch was borrowed from Etruria. Tarquinius Priscus is 
 said to have been a rich Etruscan who settled in Rome and was made guardian 
 of the children of Ancus Martius, but effected his own election by the people- 
 Various regal insignia, borrowed from Etruscan use, are attributed to this king 
 — the golden diadem, the purple embroidered robe (toga picta), the ivory chair 
 (sella curalis), and the fasces, a bundle of rods bound round an axe, the emblem 
 of executive power. These were borne by lictors. 
 
 To Servius Tullius, the sixth king, are attributed the earliest 
 city walls, of which some remains are still to be seen. 
 
 After him is named the " Servian " constitution (about 550 b. c). This was essen- 
 tially a reform like that of Solon at Athens, about the same time, which extended the duties of 
 military service to the plebs by making property instead of birth the condition of service. The 
 people were divided into five classes, according to the value of their farms, and within these 
 classes into " centuries," each " century " casting one vote in the assembly of the " centuries.'" 
 The wealthiest class was allotted such a number of centuries that its vote outnumbered all the 
 other classes added together, thus keeping the balance of power with the large property 
 holders. It is not certain what political rights, beyond that of voting an aggressive war, were 
 accorded the assembly of " centuries " in the royal period. 
 
 During the republic, soon after instituted, this assembly voted at the elections of state 
 officers and on the acceptance or rejectioa of the laws, decided peace or war, and was the 
 court of final judicial appeal. 
 
 The three patrician tribes were originally divided into ten curiaj each, and the curiae 
 
 were again subdivided into gentcs, or fami- 
 
 -^:^^.L----~- . lies. Thus the assembly of the curiae was an 
 
 -" ^ ' assembly of patricians alone. The assem- 
 
 ~- . ' , ^ " bly of the centuries was one of the whole 
 
 people, in which the heavy property owners 
 
 had a controlling voice. But the Servian 
 
 constitution had made a local division of 
 
 thirty tribes for purposes of enrollment and 
 
 census. Hence a third assembly, that of 
 
 the "tribes," which consisted, however, of 
 
 plebeians alone, because the patricians had 
 
 already their own independent concourse. 
 
 The "comitia curiata" then consisted of 
 
 patricians, the "comitia centuriata" of patricians and plebeians together, and the "comitia 
 
 Iributa " of plebeians. 
 
 The " comitia centuriata '♦ became the important public assembly. 
 
 Cloaca Maxima (the great sewer) at Rome. 
 
ROMAN KINGS. 
 
 79 
 
 The seventh king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, was 
 
 the last. By arbitrary actions he aUenated the people, who expelled 
 him, B. c. 510, and organized a republic. 
 
 Doubts ai*e expressed by historians as to the number of kings 
 and details of their reigns, owing to the uncertainty of the records 
 explained, but no doubt prevails about the essential facts relating to 
 government and organism in the royal period. 
 
 Map Study.— Troy ; p. 29. Site of Rome ; see section maps of Italy during regal period. 
 Seven Hills ; see section map for "Map of the Roman Empire." Cures, Alba Longa, Ostia; 
 Bee section maps, p. 73. 
 
 In the section map for " Latium during the regal period " the color is extended over South- 
 ern Etruria, from the presumption that the three last kings, of Etruscan origin, were rather 
 conquerors than emigrants. It is more than possible that the patriotism of the later tradition 
 has forgotten or passed over an actual Etruscan ascendency over Rome at this time. 
 
 SYNCHRONISM OF THE ROYAL PERIOD. 
 
 .2 fl^oi 
 
 f3 1— I 02 
 
 cj sS ^ g 
 O 43 rj ^^ 
 
 s ^^^ I 
 >%pH ©"is 
 
 J2 b> DC O 
 
 '^ O Ti 
 "-3 on o*^ d 
 
 o ®'S 9 
 
 Romulus, about 750 b. c . . 
 
 Tullus Hostilius, about 650 
 
 Servius Tullius, about 550 
 B. c 
 
 Tarquinius Superbus, ex- 
 pelled 510 B. c 
 
 Roman republic follows, 
 confined to Latium 
 
 100 years after the founding of Car- 
 thage, 
 100 years after Lycurgus. 
 250 years after Homer. 
 350 years after Doric migration. 
 550 years after the Phoenicians had 
 
 reached Ireland and Britain, 
 1250 years after close of Old Empire 
 
 of Egypt. 
 1250 years after known beginnings of 
 Chaldaea. 
 r 25 years before fall of Assyria and 
 rise of Babylonia and Media. 
 50 years before Nebuchadnezzar of 
 Babylon. 
 j Cyrus founder of the Persian Empire 
 I about 550 b. c. 
 
 j Hippias expelled from Athens, 510 
 / B. c. 
 
 < Ionic revolt and Persian wars follow. 
 
80 Rome: 
 
 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, FROM 500 TO 350 B. C. 
 
 The constitution of the republic gave the power of the kings to two 
 yearly elected consuls. Tlie shortness of term, and the check of one consul on 
 the other, deprived the office of much real power. The quaestors (treasurers 
 and paymasters) were only for a short time appointed by the consuls, then by 
 the senate, at last by the people. In case of urgent necessity, a dictator might 
 be appointed with absolute power for six months. 
 
 The real power of the state was the hereditary senate — already, under 
 Tarquinius Priscus, doubled by the addition to the original number of an equal 
 number of plebeian families, and now again, after the expulsion of the kings, 
 filled up with new plebeian blood. But intermarriage with the patricians was 
 forbidden, and while the plebeians might vote, they could not be elected to 
 state offices. Besides the social discontent thus caused there was also economic 
 discontent. A plebeian might be rich, and often was ; but the bulk of the 
 plebeians were poor, and their condition generally, at the opening of the 
 republic, became rapidly worse. The burdens of military service fell on them 
 unequally, as no pay was given the army. A rich man could serve and hire 
 labor on his lands while absent, the poor man could not. The taxes, as always 
 in history, weighed most heavily on those least able to bear them. 
 
 Inequality was also felt in the distribution of conquered lands. These were 
 mainly treated as public domain, to be rented out to the highest bidder. It 
 became usual, after so renting these lands, to leave them in the hands of those 
 who obtained them without collecting the dues of the state ; for the same body, 
 the senate, which controlled payment of dues, distributed the lands, and was 
 tempted to favor its own order. In this injustice the rich plebeian shared with 
 the patrician families. Thus, while the poor grew poorer, the rich became 
 richer. The laws of debt allowed the creditor to enslave, sell, or even kill his 
 debtor. 
 
 When, in 495 B. C, an unfortunate debtor, who had been a 
 captain, escaped from his prison and appeared, appealing for protec- 
 tion, in the Forum, the populace demanded relief of the senate. An 
 attack by the Volscians, a neighboring tribe, was announced, and 
 one of the consuls promised a reduction of debts. The people, 
 having taken up arms and conquered the Volscians, were then 
 refused assistance. In the following year the same deception was 
 
THE EARLY REPUBLIC. 81 
 
 practised. The plebeians now threatened secession from the com- 
 monwealth, abandoned the city, and would not return until they 
 were accorded popular magistrates, called Tribunes of the People. 
 
 These annually elected tribunes might interpose their veto 
 on any project or measure considered prejudicial to the plebs, or 
 block the wheels of government if their rights were denied them. 
 Armed with this Aveapon, the plebeians began an agitation for 
 social and political equality, which resulted in the acquisition of the 
 right of intermarriage, and in the gradual acquisition of the privi- 
 lege to serve in the various offices of state. This struggle lasted 
 seriously for a century and a half, till about B. c. 350. It ended 
 entirely by B. c. 300, with the complete triumph of the plebeians. 
 The old patricians continued to form an aristocracy of birth, 
 though no longer one of privilege. 
 
 For the protection of the plebeians by written laws, a commission 
 was sent to Athens about 450, which returned with the Laws of the 
 Twelve Tables, so called from the tablets of brass on which they 
 were engraved, and which were set up before the senate-house. 
 
 During the eariy republican period, b. c. 500 to 350, Rome, 
 allied with the Hernicans, forced the Sabines, ^quians, and Vol- 
 scians to recognize its ascendency, and to accept a league with the 
 city on its own terms. 
 
 How comparatively small was the Roman territory, may be 
 argued from the war with Yeii, an Etruscan city only twelve miles 
 beyond the Tiber, which lasted nearly a century, ending with the 
 conquest of the city in 396. 
 
 The Etruscan power was thus weakened on the south, 
 when the Gauls attacked it on the north, and forced their way into 
 Etruria. The Etruscans appealed to their recent enemy for help. 
 The Romans sent an embassy, which took part in an attack on the 
 Gauls. The latter demanded reparation. When this was refused, 
 they marched on Rome, and defeated its army on the Allia, a small 
 tributary of the Tiber. 
 
 The Gauls then entered the city, burned it, slaughtered the 
 
82 
 
 HOME. 
 
 inhabitants who had not fled, and besieged the garrison in the 
 Capitol for seven months, b. c. 390. The cackling of geese kept in 
 the Capitol awakened a brave soldier and saved the fortress from a 
 night surprise. The Gauls finally withdrew on payment of 1,000 
 pounds of gold. The slight effect of the Gallic invasion on the 
 later fortunes of Kome is attributed to the fact that the Italian 
 nations in general suffered about equally. 
 
 Map Study.— Veii, the Allia ; see maps at p. 73. 
 
 To the early days of the republic belong the stories of Horatius Cocles and Mucins 
 Scaevola, of Coriolanus, and of Cincinnatus. 
 
 In 507 Lars Porsena, king of the Etruscan Clusium, had attacked Rome with the whole 
 force of Etruria. Tradition relates that Horatius Cocles defended, single handed, the bridge 
 over the Tiber, while it was being broken down behind him to prevent the passage of the 
 king's army, and then saved his own life by swimming 
 the Tiber in full armor. 
 
 Mucius Scaevola, penetrating to the tent of Lars 
 Porsena, slew his secretary, whom he mistook for the 
 king. Being then seized by the guards, he held his hand 
 in a basin of glowing coals, to prove his still undaunted 
 courage, and moved Lars Porsena to retreat by the as- 
 surance ttiat three hundred young Romans had sworn to 
 accomplish the deed if he should fail. 
 
 Coriolanus was a young patrician who proposed, 
 during a famine in 491, to withhold the com bought up 
 in Sicily and Etruria by the senate for the people, un- 
 less they would abandon their newly granted tribunes. 
 For this he was summoned by the tribunes before 
 the assembly of the tribes, and condemned to death. 
 Coriolanus made his escape to the Volscians, headed 
 their army against his native city, and ravaged the 
 farms of the plebeians. His mother came, with a band 
 of matrons, when he was five miles from the gates, and 
 besought him to spare Rome. He yielded to her en- 
 treaties, and sacrificed his own life to the rage of the 
 Volscians. 
 
 Cincinnatus was made dictator in 458 b. c, be- 
 cause the -^qnians had defeated a large Roman army. 
 The embassy of the senate found him at the plow, and 
 
 his wife was obliged to fetch his toga from the house before he could receive them. He 
 rescued the endangered army, defeated the iEquians, and in sixteen days, resigning his oflSce 
 of dictator, returned quietly to his farm. 
 
 Quintus Curtius is said to have ridden Into a chasm in the Forum to appease, by this 
 living sacrifice, the anger of the gods, which the newly opened gulf portended. 
 
 Roman wearing the Toga. 
 
 {Bronze Statue from Pompeii, 
 
 Naples Museum.) 
 
THE fiARLY REPUBLIC. S3 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE EARLY REPUBLIC. 
 
 Republic founded B. c. 510 
 
 Tribunes of the People , " " 495 
 
 Laws of the Twelve Tables " 451 
 
 TakingofVeii " 396 
 
 Burning of Rome by the Gauls •- " 390 
 
 Plebs admitted to the prsetorship (administration of justice), the last 
 
 important oflBce from which they had been excluded.. " 337 
 
 Temple of Concord " 300 
 
 Among the offices to which the plebs demanded and gradually acquired eligibility be- 
 sides those of consul and dictator, were those of praetors (administrators of justice), of quaestors 
 (treasurers and paymasters), and of censors, the officers who had charge of public morals, of 
 the enrollment of citizens, and of nominations for vacancies in the senate. 
 
 The sediles were officers of the market and of police, elected by the assembly of the plebs. 
 
 Curule aediles, in charge of the public games, were created at first for the patricians, and 
 then also made open to the plebs. 
 
 Down to 450 the patricians held their ground so firmly as to constantly attempt the over- 
 throw of the tribunate. After 450 the period of concession, but with constant resistance, 
 began. The struggle was complicated by several causes. Not only had the tribunes power 
 to block the wheels of government agamst the patrician party, but one tribune might block 
 the action of another. Thus, in the quarrels caused by financial distress and monopoly of 
 domain land, the rich plebeians sided with the patricians, and the power of one plebeian trib- 
 une might be turned against another. The patricians had also their party among the plebs— 
 viz., the clients, their dependents. As the patricians yielded up one office after another, they 
 created new offices for themselves, by which a portion of power given the old office was taken 
 away, and the new office became a new object of struggle. Thus the curule aediles, censorship, 
 and praetorship were successively created and successively won from the patricians. 
 
 The struggle was again complicated by the existence of the different assemblies, and the 
 conflict between them. At first the comitia curiata, patrician assembly, had the privilege of 
 passing judgment on laws made by the assembly of centuries (comitia centuriata). But the 
 laws of the comitia tributa were declared binding after 450. The patricians then took part in 
 this assembly, which was afterwai'ds practically the same as the comitia centuriata, and the 
 Publilian Law, 339, compelled the assembly of the patrician curiae to legalize all laws of the 
 comitia centuriata and tributa. 
 
 ORGANISM OF THE ROMAN STATE IN 350 B.C. 
 
 From the foregroing- chapter it is plain that, in 350 b. c, (the time when the Mace- 
 donian power began to interfere among the Greek states, which so shortly after lost their 
 independence) the Roman power was still confined to a small portion of Italy. And this date 
 is four hundred years after the foundation of Rome. On the other hand, within the 
 three hundred years next following, the territory of Rome extended Itself, first over Italy and 
 
84 
 
 ROME. 
 
 then over all the conntries bordering the Mediterranean— i. e., over North Africa, Spain, 
 France, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. 
 
 In 350 B. C. the territory controlled by Rome was about 125 miles long b}' 60 broad. It 
 reached froia the Tiber to the Liris— from the coast to the crest of the Apenuinep. The cities 
 
 of the Latins were connected* with Rome 
 by a league, which gave the latter pre* 
 cedence and direction, but allowed the for- 
 mer many of the privileges of Roman citi- 
 zens, and gave them their share of lands 
 conquered from the Sabines, iEquians, and 
 Volscians. 
 
 The territory was made secure by 
 a system of soldier colonies. Each conquest 
 had been confirmed and consolidated by the 
 establishment of such colonies. Allotments 
 of land were systematically made on and 
 near each advance of frontier to soldier 
 farmers, whose interest bound them to its 
 protection, On the other hand, conquered 
 tribes were not ruled as slaves. According 
 to the loyalty or importance of different 
 places, they were allowed more or less of 
 Roman privileges. Among individuals of a 
 single locality there was also a gradation of privilege, reaching up to full citizenship. 
 
 The strenii;h of the Roman rule rested on the absence of exclusi veness. The Romans 
 made it a principle not to ask, after victory won, severer terms than those demanded before 
 battle was given. They did not provoke the spirit of desperation. This spirit of moderation 
 in victory had much to do with their success. Its policy is in interesting contrast to the arbi- 
 trary and grasping attitude of the Greek states toward their fellows as they successively, after 
 the Persian wars, attempted to establish ascendencies. 
 
 The same spirit of politic compromise, mingled with tenacity, is apparent in the class dis- 
 putes within the commonwealth. Above the differences of interest and of classes, the Roman 
 character was distinguished by most important resemblances. The organism of the family was 
 of the strictest kind. The father had absolute power over the chDdren, even power of life and 
 death, such was the respect for the principle of authority. He was obeyed by the children 
 through life./ (The Greek was known by an individual name, the Roman was known by his 
 family name.) Just as the individual was subordinate to the family, the family was snbordi- 
 n&te to the state. All tendency to individual self-assertion was repressed. Only at his funeral 
 was the citizen allowed to be glorified. Then the effigies of his ancestors were borne in pro- 
 cession to the Forum, and the orator of the occasion rehearsed their deeds and virtues in turn, 
 concluding with those of the deceased. 
 
 Roman Coin, 4th Century, with Head of Janue.* 
 
 ♦ The type here represented weighed one pound, was of copper, and was cast, not stamped. 
 Its use illustrates the simple habits and backward civilization of Rome at this period. Janus, 
 according to old traditions king of the aborigines of Rome, was originally the Sun-god of the 
 Latins, and hence is represented with two faces— the rising and setting sun. Beginnings were 
 Ciacred to him (January). Hence entrances and doors (jantia) were decorated with his image. 
 
ORGANISM. 85 
 
 The system of public defence was one in which the state was protected by its citizens 
 without compensation. Especially in the organism of the army was the wonderful capacity 
 for discipline apparent. At the time we have reached, the phalanx had been abandoned by the 
 Romans. The Roman legion fought in open order, each man separated from his fellow by suf- 
 ficient space to allow the use of the sword, and the spear was reduced, for most of the army, 
 to a heavy javelin, of which each soldier carried two, for thrust or throw at the opening of the 
 combat, after which the sword was used. 
 
 The military array in open order was in a series of ranks, five or six in succession, 
 arranged like the alternate squares of a checker-board. The front rank was composed of the 
 vigorous young men, the second of the sturdy and fully grown ; in the third were the tried 
 veterans, behind them the recruits, or less able soldiers. These rear ranks opened combat by 
 advancing through the open spaces of the three front ranks as skirmishers. After expending 
 their strength and their missiles, they retired in the same way. The arrangement of the three 
 main ranks allowed each in turn to retire through the intervals of the one behind it, without dis- 
 order. At the critical or decisive moment the veterans took their turn. These alone were still 
 armed with the heavy spear of the phalanx. Closing their ranks, and supported by those 
 behind them, they then advanced for the final struggle. For light troops and light cavalry the 
 Romans relied on their allies. The legion coasisted of from 4,000 to 5,000 men. 
 
 Such was the spirit of discipline that, during the Samnite wars of the following period, a 
 young general was sentenced to death by his superior for oflTering battle in his absence, against 
 orders, and gaining a victory. With diflacnlty could the petition of the senate and the people 
 save his life. 
 
 In hard fought battles, where defeat was imminent, there were known cases in which a 
 leading officer, with certain religious ceremonies, oflered the sacrifice of his life for his country, 
 and then casting himself alone into the ranks of the enemy, spread confusion and panic by the 
 desperate valor of his death. Two victories of the Samnite wars were won by this devotion. 
 
 Officers of state, without class exclusion, were elected by the concourse of the people at 
 the close of the period ending about 350, and laws were made by this assembly; but the sov- 
 ereign and directing body of the state, in foreign aflfairs, was the senate, and the internal 
 struggle of the classes must not cause us to forget its importance. 
 
 The senate was at once an executive and consulting body — executive in the sense that its 
 directions and orders went into immediate effect, without control of an independent executive. 
 It not only made general regulations, but gave orders in individual and special cases. Its 
 members (300) held office for life. Its numbers were kept ftdl by nomination of the censors, 
 and their selection was generally made from those who had filled a state office. 
 
 No parallel institution has ever been known in history. The union of ministerial and de- 
 bating functions in the English Parliament is a parallel to a certain degree. But whereas the 
 House of Lords is an assembly of birth, and the House of Commons an assembly of popular 
 election, the Roman senate was neither. Neither has any state in history a parallel to the 
 existence of a popular government without monarchy which continued to maintain unchanged 
 an aristocracy of blood. For we remember that, although plebeians sat in the senate and 
 gained admission to every office of state, the patricians still continued as an aristocracy of birth. 
 
 To this singular union of conservative and progressive tendencies, of the spirit of compro- 
 mise with the sternest discipline, above all to a conception of conquest which, so far from 
 stripping the vanquished of their freedom, incorporated them in the system of the victors and 
 made them members of it, the Roman state owed the triumphs of its later times. To the Greek 
 belonged the genius of art and of culture ; to the Roman, the genius of politics and of law, 
 
86 ROME. 
 
 CONQUEST AND CONSOLIDATION OF ITALY, B. C. 350-270. 
 
 The Samnite Wars. — Just ten years before the date which has 
 been fixed in Greek history as the turning point of Alexander's 
 conquests in the East (battle of Issus, 333), began the " Samnite 
 wars," which, though known under this name, were no less wars with 
 the Etruscans. They lasted fifty years, and ended in 290 ^vith the 
 conquest of all Etruscan and Samnite territory, together with the 
 connecting eastern portions of Italy. 
 
 The Roman territory then reached up to Cisalpine Gaul on 
 the north, and down to the Greek colonies on the south. These 
 last were conquered ten years later (280), and the whole of ** Italy," 
 as conceived before the times of Caesar, was subject to Roman power. 
 The same process of consolidation, by soldier colonies, by military 
 roads, by concession of political rights and Eoman citizenship in 
 various grades, which had secured Latium, was applied to Italy in 
 general. 
 
 At the opening of these wars the Samnites covered and controlled 
 more territory than the Latins. Of kindred blood, they were not lacking in 
 determination and warlike bravery, but they were less compactly organized, 
 and there were feuds between the hardy Samnites of the mountains and their 
 Grecianized and more effeminate brethren in the rich plains of Campania. 
 These feuds led to the first intervention of the Romans beyond the Liris. The 
 powerful city of Capua, in its conflict with the mountain tribes, first begged 
 assistance from Rome. Tliis was refused, and the Capuans then submitted 
 themselves to Rome as subjects. Rome now ordered the mountain Samnites 
 to vacate the territory of Capua, which they refused. 
 
 The first Samnite war resulted, and lasted two years (M3-341). The 
 Samnites were beaten in the battles of Mt. Gaurus, near Cumse, and Suessula. 
 The treaty of peace secured Capua to the Romans, but surrendered another 
 important town, Teanum. 
 
 The Latin cities, not satisfied with their share of booty, demanded an 
 equal share in the Roman government. This was refused, and led to the Latin 
 war (340-338). Rome was saved by her soldier colonies (battles of Mt. Vesu- 
 vius and Trifanum). The Latin league with Rome was dissolved, and sepa- 
 rate arrangements and treaties were made with each separate Latin city, gener- 
 
CONQUEST OF ITALY 
 
 87 
 
 ally according them the Roman citizenship without suffrage, which was also 
 given the Campanian cities. The city of Antium had to give up her ships of 
 war, and their prows (rostra) were placed in the Roman Forum, whence the 
 word rostrum. 
 
 The expansion of Roman power in Campania led to the second Sam- 
 nite war (326-304), in which the Etruscans, the minor Italic tribes, and the 
 Gauls combined with the Samnites. After the surprise and surrender of a 
 Roman army in the Caudine Pass, the senate rejected the peace made by their 
 consuls, whom they delivered up to the Samnites. The Etruscans were beaten 
 on the Vadimonian Lake, and the Samnites at Longula (north of Antium). 
 
 The conquered peoples were obliged to surrender territory for Roman 
 settlers, but were admitted to a league giving them Roman privileges. 
 
 During this war the Appian Way was built through Latium and Campania. 
 But when the Romans began to build military roads, with fortresses, between 
 Samnium and Etruria, the third Samnite war (298-290) began. All the Italian 
 peoples joined with the Gauls against Rome. The Roman victory of Sentinum, 
 in Umbria, was decisive. The settlement of Venusia with 20,000 soldier colo- 
 nists (290) sealed this victory. The Samnites made peace on the old conditions. 
 
 Roman Conquest of the Greek States of Italy. — The Luca- 
 nians of South Italy had been accorded dominion over the smaller 
 Greek cities, but these preferred 
 the rule of Rome, to which they 
 appealed. The Lucanians be- 
 gan to negotiate a new war 
 against Rome. The Senonian 
 Gauls first rose, but were al- 
 most annihilated, and the Ro- 
 man colony of Sena Gallica, 
 above A neon a, was founded on 
 their territory. The Etruscans 
 were next once more defeated, 
 and became dependent on Rome 
 under mild conditions, 283. 
 The Greek colony of Thurii, which had appealed to Rome, was 
 freed from the Lucanians, 282, and most of the Greek colonies of 
 the South were willingly incorporated undpr Roman rule. But th^ 
 
 Greek Temples at Pseetnm, on the coast below 
 
 Naples. 
 
88 ROME. 
 
 Greeks of Tarentum now took up arms, and summoned Pyrrhus, 
 the king of Epirus, to their assistance (280-276). 
 
 Pyrrhus had become king of Epirus in 306, but was expelled, 
 and then passed several years at the Macedonian Greek courts of 
 Syria and Egypt. He fought with distinction at the battle of Ipsus, 
 in 301, after which the final settlement of the Alexandrine states 
 was made. Being one of the greatest warriors of ancient times, a 
 claimant to the Macedonian throne, and intimate with the leading 
 men immediately succeeding the times of Alexander, great interest 
 attaches to his campaigns in Italy. They brought about the first 
 contact of the Eomans with the Macedonian Greeks. 
 
 A Roman fleet of ten ships, dispatched for the protection of Thurii, had cast 
 anchor in the harbor of Tarentum. This was in violation of a treaty, made 
 twenty years before, by which Roman ships were forbidden to cruise around 
 Southern Italy. A mob attacked the vessels vnthout warning, seized several of 
 them, and sold the crews into slavery. A Roman embassy, sent to demand 
 satisfaction, was insulted by the populace. This led to a Roman invasion of 
 the territory of Tarentum, which accordingly summoned the Macedonian, 
 Pyrrhus, to the conquest of all Italy. 
 
 Pyrrhus landed in Italy vnth a phalanx of 25,000 Greeks and 20 elephants. 
 These last threw the Romans into disorder, and caused their defeat at Heraclea. 
 But the senate refused to treat for peace, although a general revolt in Southern 
 Italy ensued. In 279 Pyrrhus defeated the Romans at Asculum with such 
 diflBculty that he cried, " Another victory like this, and we are lost." Pyrrhus 
 now crossed to Sicily, at the call of Syracuse, which he relieved from siege by 
 the Carthaginians. (These were in temporary alliance with Rome.) With 
 equal celerity the Greek SiciUan cities accepted, and then expelled, the gover- 
 nors of Pyrrhus, who had imported the style and methods of the Eastern 
 satraps. Pyrrhus once more landed in Italy at the call of Tarentum, and was 
 defeated by the Romans at Beneventum (275). By the use of pitch torches the 
 elephants were frightened, and threw the phalanx into disorder. Pyrrhus 
 abandoned Italy, of which Rome now remained mistress. 
 
 Map Study.— See map for Italy, p. 86, and section map for theatre of war during Samnite 
 wars for the following:— River Liris, Capua, Mt. Gaums, Sueesula, Mt. Vesuvius, Trifannm, 
 Antium, Caudlne PaHH, Vadimonian Lake, Appian Way, Sentinum, Venusia, Lucania, Sena 
 Oallica, Ancona, Thurii (see Copia), Tarentum, Heraclea, Asculum, Syracuse, Beneventum, 
 ^Spirns, Bee map at p. 29, 
 
THE PUNIC WARS. 89 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF ROMAN CONQUEST OF ITALY BEYOND LATIUM. 
 
 First Samnite war, b. c. 343-341 
 
 Latin war, B. c. 340-338 
 
 Second Samnite war, B. c. 326-304. . . 
 Third Samnite war, B. c. 398-290 
 
 All Italy, from the Apennines bordering 
 the Padus valley (Cisalpine Gaul), to 
 the Greek colonies of the southern 
 coasts, becomes Roman. 
 
 The Greek colonies of the southern 
 
 iThe Greek colonies o 
 coasts become Roman 
 
 THE SAME CHRONOLOGY SIMPLIFIED. 
 
 The territorial expansion of Rome beyond Latium began in the time 
 
 of Alexander the Great ; central date B. c. 333 
 
 Conquest of Central Italy effected by the year " 290 
 
 Conquest of Southern Italy effected by the year ** 275 
 
 According to the above dates, the Roman consolidation of Italy was effected 
 in the early part of the 3d century b. c. 
 
 CONQUEST OF THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN, 
 B. C. 270-200. 
 
 The Punic Wars. — At the moment when the events just de- 
 scribed had carried the Eoman power down through the tongue of 
 land which looked over from the town of Rhegium across the Straits 
 of Messina to Sicily, this island had reached a critical point of 
 history. 
 
 In the general falling off of patriotic and civic virtues which the 
 Greeks experienced in the Alexandrine period, the Greek colonies 
 of Sicily had gradually been yielding to Carthaginian aggressions, 
 until, at the time we have reached, only the town and territory of 
 Syracuse continued to hold out. The campaign of Pyrrhus in 
 Sicily had made a temporary headway against the Phoenician con- 
 quest, which his abandonment of the island again allowed to 
 expand. 
 
90 
 
 ROME 
 
 Greek Theatre at Egesta, in Sicily. 
 {Bestorationfrom the. Buins.) 
 
 Phcenician troops were always mercenaries, and the Greeks 
 
 had used no other soldiers since Alexander. (The final failure of 
 
 Phyrrhus in Italy was 
 the failure of such a 
 Greek mercenary force 
 against Roman citizen 
 soldiers.) Among the 
 mercenaries employed 
 in Sicily, both by 
 Greeks and Phoeni- 
 cians, were bands of 
 Campanians called 
 Mamertines (men of 
 Mars), who just at 
 this time seized on 
 the town of Messana 
 
 for their own profit. Besieged by Syracuse, they offered the town 
 
 to the Romans in return for an alliance. 
 
 The senate was loath to deal with such disreputable men, but 
 
 the will of the people ordered the Roman occupation. Meantime 
 
 another band of the Mamertines delivered up the town to Carthage. 
 
 The Phoenician garrison was now expelled by the Roman army. 
 
 This was the beginning of the Punic— t. e., Phoenician wars. 
 
 The contest about the town of Messana depended on the fact that 
 its position made it the key to Sicily, and tlie struggle arose at this point also 
 because here, and for the first time« Roman power extending one way, and Car 
 thaginian power extending the other, came in contact. The bitter struggla 
 between Rome and Carthage was really, however, one between two systems. 
 
 As far as the Carthaginians had made themselves masters in the Western 
 Mediterranean it was as commercial monopolists, converting into plantation 
 slaves the subjugated populations, waging war with mercenary soldiers, who 
 were very cruelly treated, and only caring to extort wealth for themselves. 
 Their attitude made them odious, but as long as their power was unquestioned 
 successful revolt was impossible. The development of a strong power in Italy 
 vras a thorn in the side of Carthage, because the subjugated peoples in Africa 
 
THE PUNIC WARS. 
 
 91 
 
 and Spain were now tempted to throw off the yoke of oppression by appeal- 
 ing to Rome. This produced a state of tension and caused the Punic wars, 
 the contest about Messana being the spark which lit the conflagration. 
 
 Narrative of the First Punic War.— Hiero of Syracuse made an alliance with Rome, 
 which was really defending the cause of Greek civilization in Sicily as well as its own exist- 
 ence. The great difficulty of the Romans in the first Punic war lay in their lack of fleets and 
 marine experience. In maritime warfare the galleys were used as rams, and were provided 
 with beaks projecting under water. Success depended, therefore, on the expert manoeu- 
 vering of the galleys, so as to strike the enemy's ship in the side. The Romans not only con- 
 structed ships, but invented a system of bridges furnished with hooks and worked by tackle, 
 which were let down on the Phoenician vessels when they made their customary manoeuvre. 
 By these bridges the Phoenician galleys were boarded. Thus the superiority of the Romans as 
 land warriors was brought into play. The struggle, however, was long and desperate, as im- 
 plied by the dates for the duration of the war (204-241). It was prolonged by the landing of 
 a Roman army in Africa, which, at first successful, was finally defeated and almost destroyed. 
 The Carthaginians gained this victory with a mercenary army of Greeks led by a Spartan, and 
 by using the terrible war elephants (common in Macedonian warfare since Alexander's cam- 
 paign to India). The Roman general, Regulus, was taken prisoner. After Phoenician disasters 
 in Sicily, he was sent by Carthage with an embassy to ofier a peace, which Rome refused. 
 Regulus returned to Carthage as he had promised, and was put to death. (The death of Regu- 
 lus is not mentioned by Polybius, a contemporary author, and has been doubted by some in 
 consequence.) 
 
 The final Roman victory was won at sea off the ^gatian 
 Isles, Northwest Sicily. This 
 
 led to the peace by which Rome 
 gained its first province — viz., 
 Sicily. Syracuse remained an 
 allied Greek kingdom. 
 
 Between the first and sec- 
 ond Punic wars there were wars 
 with the Gauls in North Italy, 
 which gave the Romans con- 
 trol of the valley of the Padus 
 by the colonies of Placentia 
 (Piacenza) and Cremona (after 
 222). Carthage w^as occupied 
 with a revolt of her own mer- 
 cenaries, and Rome acquired 
 also Sardinia and Corsica. 
 
 
 %.\ 
 
 I 
 
 Roman Armor from Pompeii. 
 (Naples Museum.) 
 
92 • ROME. 
 
 Second Punic War. — The conquest of Sicily had made the 
 overthrow of Eome by Carthage more than ever a matter of existence 
 for the latter. Therefore in 237 Hamilcar Barca, the greatest 
 Phoenician general of the First Punic War, crossed over into Spain 
 to find and develop new resources for Carthage. His son-in-law, 
 Hasdrubal, who succeeded him, made a treaty with Eome not to 
 pass the Ebro. On the death of Hasdrubal, Hannibal, the son of 
 Hamilcar Barca, was elected general. As a boy he had sworn to 
 his father eternal hatred of the Eomans, and now determined to 
 attack them in Italy, first besieging Saguntum, their ally. This act 
 led the Eomans to declare war. Their available force, according to 
 Polybius, was 700,000 foot, 70,000 horse, of which force 273,000 
 men were Eoman citizens. The available force of Hannibal was 
 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse. 
 
 Narrative of the Second Punic War —In the spring of 218, the Carthaginians 
 marched with 50,000 men, 9,000 horse, and many elephants, by way of Southern France and the 
 Little St. Bernard Pass, over the Alps into Italy. The Gauls of the Padus valley joined them. 
 
 The consul, P. Cornelius Scipio, was routed on the left bank of the Padus, at the river Tici- 
 nus. The second consul, Tiberius Sempronhis Longus, who brought Scipio a second army 
 from Sicily, was routed on the Trebia, another tributary of the Padus. 
 
 After the winter, which caused the death of the elephants, Hannibal crossed the Western 
 Apennines, marched up the valley of the Arno, and destroyed the entire army of the consul 
 Plaminius on Lake Trasimenus. He then moved on Southern Italy, changing by the way the 
 arms and tactics of his soldiers to the Roman. The consul, Q. Fabius Maximus (from whom is 
 named the " Fabian " policy), constantly refused battle, and moved by the heights while Han- 
 nibal marched through Southern Italy by the plains. 
 
 In 216 the consul, C. Terentius Varro, with 86,000 men, lost the battle of Cannae and 70,000 
 of his army, Varro escaped, with seventy horsemen, to Venusia. The senate summoned him 
 to Rome, went in procession to the gates to meet him, thanked him " for not deepairiug of the 
 republic," then called under arms even the criminals, slaves, and imprisoned debtors. It was 
 the popular party which had appointed the defeated generals ; it now yielded place to the 
 patrician aristocratic leadership, and this unity saved Rome. 
 
 Hannibal was exhausted with victories. He received no reinforcements of importance 
 from Carthage, and none f^om Spain, where the Roman generals had beaten his brother Has- 
 drubal on the Ebro, and then transferred the war to the Bsetis (Guadalquiver). Hannibal had 
 made alliances with Syracuse (after the dea(h of Hiero) and with the Macedonian king Philip. 
 The latter was driven out of Illyria and held in check by the .^tolian league, allies of the Romans. 
 Syracuse, besieged two years, 214-212, by Marcellus, was then taken and plundered. (Death of 
 Archimedes, p. 68.) The transportation of Greek works of art to Rome began at this time. 
 
 Since 216 Hannibal had occupied Capua, and in 212 he took Tarentum. To relieve the 
 former city from siege he marched to within five miles of Rome, but the army about Capua 
 
THE PUNIC WARS. 93 
 
 could not be lured away. Both cities were retaken by Kome. After 211 Hannibal was con- 
 fined to Southern Italy, still waiting for the expected reinforcements. Jealousy ruined him 
 at Carthage ; his dependence was on Spain. Here, after defeats of the Roman army, which 
 drove it back to the Ebro in 211, the young Publius Scipio, who had saved his father's life at 
 the Ticinus, was made general. In 209 he attacked Hasdrubal at B;ecula in Andalusia, gaining 
 a doubtful victory, for Hasdrubal followed his brother's path into Italy, and appeared there 
 with 60,000 men, Hasdrubal was opposed on the Metaurus (above Sena Gallica) by a large 
 Roman army, and dispatched messengers to Hannibal. These were captured by the Romans. 
 The consul, C. Claudius Nero, holding Hannibal in check near Cauusium, secretly marched 
 with 7,000 picked men to the North. Hasdrubal was forced to give battle, and was defeated. 
 He committed suicide, and his army was destroyed, 20T. 
 
 When Hannibal received news of this defeat (his brother's head was thrown into his camp 
 by the Romans to announce it) he drew back into Apulia, where he held his ground for four 
 years longer, till 203. 
 
 Meantime Scipio had defeated a new Carthaginian army in Spain, which now came generally 
 into Roman power. In 205 he obtained with difllculty permission to make war in Africa. In 204 
 he landed near Utica. In the next year, after some Roman successes, Hannibal was recalled to 
 Africa, which he had not seen for thirty -four years. (At nineteen he went to Spain, at twenty- 
 six he began the war which he had waged single-handed till he was forty-two.) 
 
 The decisive battle was fought at Zama in 202. Scipio placed 
 his ranks one behind the other, instead of in the usual alternate 
 arrangement, so that the elephants might pass through without 
 breaking his lines. After desperate and undetermined conflict of 
 the foot, the battle was decided by the Eoman and allied African 
 cavalry. 
 
 Carthage made peace in 201 ; agreed to pay 10,000 talents 
 within tifty years (about $15,000,000) ; gave up all her elephants 
 and all her ships of war but ten ; and abandoned all Spanish, 
 Mediterranean, and African possessions excepting the territory 
 immediately subject to the town of Carthage. She also agreed to 
 wage no war without consent of Eome. Thus the latter power be- 
 came mistress of the Western Mediterranean. Fifty years later the 
 Romans resolved on the utter destruction of their ancient enemy, 
 now reduced to the rank of a rich mercantile city without political 
 power. 
 
 The Third Punic War is perhaps the only important one 
 undertaken by Rome where motives of self-preservation cannot be 
 directly traced. Hereditary animosity and commercial jealousy were 
 the motives here. Conditions of dependence so odious were required 
 
94 ROME. 
 
 of Carthage that she resisted with the fury of despair. The city 
 was entirely destroyed in 146 b. c. 
 
 The Roman general of the Third Punic War was Scipio Minor, 
 so nanied to distinguish him from Scipio Major, or Scipio Africa- 
 nus, hero of the Second Punic War. 
 
 Map Study.— Rheglum, Messana ; p. 73, Placentia, Cremona ; p. 86. Ebro, map at p. 92. 
 Saguntum ; see on a modern map of Spain Murviedro, north of Valencia. Hannibal's route 
 over the Alps, the Ticinus, and Trebia ; see map at p. 92. For other localities of his cam- 
 paigns ; map at p. 86. jEtolian League, p. 94. Zama is south of Carthage. 
 
 For general result of the Punic wars, see map of the western part of the Roman dominion a 
 century after their close, p. 92. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE PUNIC WARS. 
 
 First Punic War b. c. 264-341 
 
 Second Punic War " 218-201 
 
 Third Punic War ** 150-146 
 
 The First and Second Punic Wars made the essential changes in territorial 
 power. Each lasted about twenty years. A space of about twenty years inter- 
 vened between them. The dates might be thus simplified : 
 
 First Punic War B. C. 260-240 
 
 Second Punic War " 220-200 
 
 Third Punic War " 150 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF ROMAN ADVANCE IN THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica; alter b. c. 240 
 
 Cisalpine Gaul (North Italy); after " 220 
 
 Spain and North Africa ; after " 200 
 
 Transalpine Gaul (South France) ; after " 120 
 
 According to these dates, the shores and islands of the Western Mediter- 
 ranean were Romanized in the 3d and 2d centuries b. c. 
 
 CONQUEST OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN, B. C. 200-30. 
 
 War "With Macedonia naturally resulted from her alliance 
 with Hannibal in the Second Punic War, after this war was closed. 
 By the defeat at Cynosceplialse in Thessaly (b. c. 197) the Mace- 
 
CONQUEST OF EAST MEDITERRANEAN. 95 
 
 donian state was humbled, and agreed to wage no war without con- 
 sulting Rome. The Koman general Flaminius proclaimed the 
 freedom of the Greeks at the Isthmian games, and confined the 
 ^tolian league (p. 61), which had sided with Rome against Mace- 
 donia, to its previous limits. 
 
 Meantime Hannibal had set himself to regulate the finances 
 and reform the constitution of Carthage with such success that the 
 Romans had demanded, in 195, liis surrender. He fled to Antiochus 
 III. of Syria (Seleucid Empire, p. 61), whom he urged to fight Rome. 
 
 Antiochus was also urged into war by the discontented ^tolian 
 league. He invaded Greece and w^as defeated (191) at Thermopylae;, 
 but his decisive overthrow occurred the following year at Magnesia, 
 in Asia Minor, 190. This victory practically gave the control of 
 the Eastern civilized world to the power which had just conquered 
 the Western Mediterranean. But Rome was satisfied to cripple the 
 Seleucid Empire, and gave the greater part of Asia Minor to its ally 
 Pergamus. Hannibal's surrender was a condition of the peace. He 
 fled to King Prusias of Bithynia (Northern Asia Minor), and took 
 poison in 183, as his surrender had been again demanded by the 
 Roman ambassadors. 
 
 A second uprising of Macedonia, allied with the Greeks in 
 general, was put down by the victory of Pydna, in Macedonia, 168 ; 
 after which the Macedonian power was crippled by division into 
 four aristocratic republics paying tribute to Rome. 
 
 The G-reeks were no longer worthy of their freedom, nor had 
 they even the comprehension of their own feebleness as opposed to 
 the new power in the West, which they continued to tease with 
 their quarrels and futile jealousy. A third Macedonian war, attended 
 by a revolt of the Corinthian populace and the anti-Roman party 
 in Greece, resulted in the incorporation of Greece and Macedonia as 
 Roman provinces, 146 b. c. Corinth was destroyed, and its art 
 treasures were taken to Rome. 
 
 It was here that the Eoman general Mummius gave orders that any soldier breaking a 
 statue through carelessness in transport would have to replace it at his own expense. This 
 
96 ROME. 
 
 story reminds us of the glories of Greek art still continuing in the time of Greek decay, and of 
 the newly beginning Koman culture, which did not comprehend that anything besides money 
 was necessary to replace a Greek statue. 
 
 The kingdom of Pergamus (p. 61), comprehending (since the 
 victory of Magnesia) most of Asia Minor, was deeded to its ally 
 Rome by the will of the last Attalid in 133 B. c. 
 
 Only one power nearer than Parthia (p. 61) which could dare 
 to cope with Rome was now left, and this did not exert itself till 
 88 B. c. The Pontic Empire of Mithridates, a half Greek, half 
 Asiatic king, stretched around all the shores of the Black Sea on 
 the East, comprehending the important Greek cities of the Crimea, 
 and became the centre of opposition to Roman rule. 
 
 Three Mithridatic -wars were waged; the last was ended, 
 B. c. 64, by Pompey the Great. It resulted in the incorporation of 
 most remaining portions of Asia Minor and of Syria under Roman 
 rule. The latter province was not at this time directly annexed, but 
 was converted into vassal states under various arrangements ; so 
 that in Judaea, for instance, was installed under Roman protection 
 and direction the family of which King Herod was a member. 
 
 The Greek Ptolemies of Egypt were also, by this time, prac- 
 tically dependent on Roman policy and direction, which thus em- 
 braced all shores bordering on the Mediterranean. 
 
 Map Study.— Map for the Eastern Mediterranean at p. 94 — Macedonia, Cynoscephalae, 
 JEtolian Leajjue, Magnesia, Empire of Pergamus (after 190 b. c.) Bithynia, Pydua Pontic king- 
 dom of Mithridates and Judsea; see section map. Seleucid Empire (before Magnesia and the 
 Parthians) ; p. 58. Parthian Empire ; section map, p. 94, Ptolemies in Egypt ; p. 58. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF ROMAN ADVANCE IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 Macedonia humbled at CynoscephalsB b. c. 197 
 
 Seleucidae, humbled at Magnesia, surrender their possessions in Asia 
 
 Minor to Pergamus, ally of Rome " 190 
 
 Macedonia tributary after Pydna " 168 
 
 Greece and Macedonia annexed " 146 
 
 Pergamus, including? most important portions of Asia Minor, inherited " 133 
 
 Syria dependent on Rome after third Mithridatic war ** 64 
 
 Egypt is really in Roman dependence after this time. 
 
CONQUEST OF EAST MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 97 
 
 SAME CHRONOLOGY SIMPLIFIED. 
 
 Greece and Macedonia Romanized ; after b. c. 150 
 
 Asia Minor Romanized ; after ** 133 
 
 Syria Romanized ; after " 64 
 
 Egypt a Roman province ; after " 30 
 
 According to these dates, the shores and islands of the Eastern Mediter- 
 ranean were Romanized in the 2d and 1st centuries b. c. 
 
 POLITICAL HISTORY OF ROME AS AFFECTED BY 
 TERRITORIAL CONQUESTS. 
 
 Condition of Rome about 133 B. C— Some phases of Roman discipline, character, 
 and policy tending to explain the territorial expansion related in the three preceding sections 
 have been mentioned. It will have been noticed that the native populations of the Mediter- 
 ranean countries were already under foreign ^^__^^^_^______^___ 
 
 conquerors before they came under Roman /^l^^i ^"^ ^ - *'N^ 
 
 rule. The West was under a foreign Phce- / <&ffii''i" 
 nician despotism, and the East was under 
 foreign Greek despotisms. On the whole, 
 the condition of these subject populations 
 was decidedly benefited by the change of 
 rulers, although the development of a Ro- 
 man political equality for the foreign coun- 
 tries was not undertaken till the times of the 
 Empire (after 30 b. c). The full develop- 
 ment of Roman political equality in Italy 
 was in process during the period of the for- 
 eign conquests of the republic just narrated, 
 and was not fully accomplished till shortly 
 before the time of the Empire. 
 
 Thus, analogous to the struggle of the 
 patricians and plebeians, resulting in class 
 equality among Romans about 350 b. c, was 
 
 a second contest after that date, resulting in the class equality of all Italians before 30 b, c, and 
 a third development, resulting in the national equality of all conquered nations with the con- 
 querors, after 30 b. c. 
 
 This second period now concerns us. Its turning point is the year 133 b. c, the time 
 of the Gracchi. This year, already noted as that of the inheritance of much of Asia Minor 
 from Pergamus, is also memorable for the conquest of the town of Numantia, in farther Central 
 Spain, by which that country was finally and securely fixed under Roman rule. 
 
 With the time of the Gracchi began the Civil wars of Rome, which, lasting a century, 
 terminated with the accession of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, in 31 b. c. 
 
 A Roman Aqueduct, erected 145 b. c. 
 
98 ROME. 
 
 To understand the internal troubles and dissensions in the Roman state after the territorial 
 expansion began, we must remember what was the government of an ancient republic. In 
 Italy, as in Greece, such a government was controlled, or largely influenced, by public con- 
 course of the citizens, without intermediate representation as in modern states. The break- 
 down of the Athenian democracy and of the civic governments of Greece in general before the 
 time of Philip, was mainly a physical result of the overgrowth of the public concourse, and of 
 its consequent disorders and unwieldiness. In Greece the struggle between progress and con- 
 servatism, democracy and aristocracy— i. e., between the ideal of an unlimited and a limited 
 concourse— was never settled. In this straggle both sides (Sparta and Athens) became ex- 
 hausted, and military despotism stepped in with Philip of Macedon. 
 
 On the other hand, in the state which was to become the leading state of Italy and of the 
 Old World, the struggle terminated in the complete success of the democracy (plebeians) under 
 restraint of the senate and a continued aristocracy of birth. 
 
 But after the Samnite wars, when Roman colonies of citizen soldiers existed in all parts of 
 Italy, and when the gift of full Roman citizenship with suffrage had been partially bestowed on 
 the conquered Italians, a curious antagonism sprang up between the methods of an ancient 
 republic and the progressive tendency to political equality. In theory, every full citizen had a vote 
 in the public concourse ; in fact, the full citizens, because scattered over all parts of Italy, could 
 not vote in the concourse. In the city of Rome itself, increasing population made the meetings 
 of the concourse more and more disorderly and unwieldy. Increasing population meant als^o 
 increasing poverty of a rabble open to corruption. The disorders of the state which resulted 
 in civil war terminating in the empire are, then, partly explained by the progressive tendencies 
 to political equality in conflict with the method of civic government by concourse. 
 
 Asacond element of chang-e was introduced after the conquest of Sicily— the provin- 
 cial system. All conquered countries outside of Italy became provinces governed by a Roman 
 ofticial— a pro-consul, praetor, or pro-pra;tor. These provinces paid tribute to Rome, and this 
 tribute was partly used to support and pay the Roman legions stationed in the provinces. This 
 tribute was raised by contract. A contractor, called a publican, farmed the tax — i. e., paid to 
 the senate a certain sum for the privilege of raising the tax from the province. The publican 
 generally raised the tax with oppression and beyond the just due. The jniblican and sinner are 
 often mentioned together in the New Testament. The financial oppression of the provinces 
 continued till overthrown by the empire, whose mission to rai^ the provinces to equality has 
 been noted. 
 
 The tax-farming: system resulted in the growth .nt Rome of a class of tax-farming 
 bankers of enormous riches unjustly acquired. The fabulous luxury and corruption of the 
 later days of the republic are thus explained These wealthy men increased their riches 
 by entering into manufactures of various kinds on a colossal scale by means of slaves, and 
 they used their riches for political ends in the corruption of the Roman populace. They also 
 corrupted the senate and the courts in the lawsuits brought ngainst them for oppression in the 
 provinces. 
 
 One form of corruption, at last, not even reprobated, was the exhibition to the populace 
 of the bloody combats of trained gladiators with otio another or with wild boasts. Such gladi- 
 ator shows were unknown to Greece, where gymnastic training was used ax a means of educa- 
 tion. Tliey were also unknown nt Rome in the virtuous days of the republic, and were first 
 introduced from Capua after the Samnite wars. 
 
 The Plantation System.— The money of the Roman banking party, raised by provincial 
 0|)pression and manufacturing monopoly, was also employed in the purchase of large estates. 
 
POLITICAL HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 99 
 
 The small agricultural farms of Italy were bought up and turned into grazing farms, where 
 the immense herds of cattle were tended by slaves, or else the small farms were aggregated 
 into plantations worked by chain-gangs of slaves. This system was borrowed from the Car- 
 thaginian slave plantations of Africa after the Punic wars. The great slave market was on the 
 .sland of Delos, where 10,000 slaves were once sold to Roman capitalists in a single day. 
 
 The Roman army had been composed for centuries of farmer-citizens. To break up the 
 small farms was to destroy the free farming class, now replaced by slaves. Thus the Roman 
 legions became gradually composed of 
 mercenaries instead of unpaid citizens 
 fighting for patriotic motives. But the 
 legions of mercenaries could be turned 
 against one another. The banking mo- 
 nopolist party, in its scramble for the 
 spoils of the provincials; split into fac- 
 tions. These factions hired armies against 
 one another, thus causing the civil wars. 
 
 At the m.om.ent when these cry- 
 ing- evils of the state began to be 
 apparent, two brothers, Tiberius Sem- 
 pronins and Caius Sempronius Gracchus, 
 endeavored to reform the fast-rotting re- 
 public. Their measures were intended to 
 raise the farmer class by new distributions 
 of domain land, or by colonies in the prov- 
 inces. Tiberius Gracchus lost the favor of 
 
 the senate by his attempt at public division of the domain lands; Caius Gracchus lost even the 
 favor of the popular party by a proposal to make full citizens of all Italians. Both brothers 
 lost their lives in successive tumults. 
 
 Temple of " Virile Fortune." The only building 
 in Modem Rome dating from the Republic. 
 
 TIMES OF MARIUS, SULLA, AND POMPEY. 
 
 The growing corruption of the state became apparent in the 
 
 Jiigurthine war, 111-106 b. c. Micipsa, king of the North African 
 province of Numidia, which was under Roman protection, left two 
 sons and a nephew, among whom his inheritance was divided. The 
 nephew, Jugurtha, having served with a Numidian contingent 
 against Numantia, where he learned to know the corruption of the 
 Romans, believed that it would be an easy matter to supplant the 
 sons of Micipsa, and usurp the government of all Numidia. Suc- 
 cessive Roman armies were defeated by corruption or lax discipline, 
 but Jugurtha finally died in prison at Rome. 
 
 In the Jugurthine war two officers had made themselves a name 
 
100 
 
 ROME 
 
 — Marius, a man of low origin and of the popular party, the com- 
 mander who restored Roman discipline ; and Sulla, his lieutenant, of 
 
 the aristocratic party, whose 
 craft and energy secured the 
 person of Jugurtha and ended 
 the war. 
 
 Barbarians from North- 
 eastern Europe, called Cim- 
 bri and Teutons by contempo- 
 rary authors, probably mixed 
 Celts and Germans, meantime 
 invaded Southern (Roman) 
 France, 113-101. At Arausio 
 (Orange) the Romans found, 
 105, a second Cannae. Marius 
 was summoned to restore dis- 
 cipUne and success. He de- 
 feated the barbarians at Aquae 
 Sextiae (Aix), 102. They then 
 invaded Italy. He beat them 
 again at Vercellae (North 
 Italy), 101, after which they disappeared. Marius became the lead- 
 ing man at Rome, and head of the popular party— offending, by his 
 rough manners and person, as well as by his democratic principles, 
 the aristocracy. 
 
 Since the time of Caius Gracchus successive proposals to 
 make full citizens of the Italian confederates had failed, and these 
 began, in 90 B. c, the "Social war," after renewed denial of political 
 equality. With their demands the popular party at Rome now 
 sympathized, wishing to use them as allies against the power of the 
 aristocrats. The war ended, after some apparent Roman successes, 
 with a law admitting the Italians in general to the Roman citizen- 
 ship, 88 B. c. 
 
 In the same year began the first Mithridatic war, with the 
 
 Sulla. Prom an ancient bust in tlie Torlouia 
 Museum at Rome. 
 
TIMES OF POMPET. 101 
 
 news that Mithridates, king of Pontus, had caused the murder in 
 Asia Minor of 80,000 Romans, and had raised a revolt of the entire 
 province. Sulla was given command for this war by the senate, 
 but Marius was made commander by vote of the public concourse. 
 Sulla, then in camp near Capua, led his army on Kome. For the 
 first time in its history the legions appeared within the city with 
 their arms. A battle was fought within the walls, and the Marian 
 party was defeated. Marius fled for his life, while Sulla marched 
 on the East. 
 
 In the absence of Sulla, who defeated the forces of Mithri- 
 dates, 87-84 B. c, and compelled him to make satisfaction, the 
 popular party had recalled Marius. A fearful massacre of the sena- 
 torial and aristocratic party was carried out by his mercenaries. 
 Marius died before the return of Sulla, after which Italy was wasted 
 and depopulated by a civil war of the two parties. Sulla tri- 
 umphed, restored the aristocratic constitution, and by his terrible 
 proscriptions (sentences of outlawry, death, and confiscation) cowed 
 the opposition into silence. He then resigned his powers as dic- 
 tator, dying a simple citizen in 78 b. c. 
 
 Julius Csesar at this time was about twenty-four years old 
 (born 102 *). Two men, afterwards famous in association with 
 him, Pompey and Crassus, had been the lieutenants and partisans 
 of the SuUan reaction, whereas Caesar was related by marriage to 
 Marius, and belonged to the popular party, although of patrician 
 birth. 
 
 Pompey became the leading man at Eome after Sulla's death. 
 His abilities as a soldier were very distinguished, but as a politician 
 he lacked principles, and therefore a fixed conduct, wishing only to 
 keep himself in the good graces of a dominant party. 
 
 The gladiator Spartacus raised, in 73 b. c, a slave rebellion 
 in Italy, which counted an army of 120,000 men. It was crushed 
 by Pompey and Crassus. 
 
 * Mommseu. 
 
102 
 
 ROME 
 
 Meantime, amid other disorders of the Roman state, that of the 
 pirates, whose headquarters were on Crete and the coast of Oilicia 
 
 (Asia Minor), assumed 
 gigantic proportions. 
 They mastered numer- 
 ous towns, and counted 
 a fleet of 1,000 ships. 
 
 In 67, Pompey 
 was sent against the 
 pirates with extraordi- 
 nary dictatorial powers, 
 and crushed them in a 
 three months war. 
 
 A second war 
 with Mithridates 
 had been already con- 
 cluded before the death 
 of Sulla, 83-81. The 
 third war now began 
 on account of the will 
 of Nicomedes of Bi- 
 thynia (Northern Asia 
 Minor), who deeded his 
 state to Rome. Mith- 
 ridates undertook to expel the Romans from Bithynia. The war, 
 lasting 74-64, was concluded with results noted on p. 96. Here 
 again Pompey had been the final victor. Before his return from 
 the East, took place, in 63, the conspiracy of Catiline. 
 
 Catiline was a profligate Roman noble w^ho espoused the pop- 
 ular party in order, by raising himself to power, to repeat, on the 
 other side, the proscriptions and confiscations of Sulla. Defeated as 
 candidate for the consulship, he resolved to employ force. His 
 plans were detected, and he fled from Rome to an army raised in 
 Etruria. He was defeated and slain near Pistoria. In exposing 
 
 Pompey. 
 
 From an ancient bust in the Torlonia Museum 
 at Rome. 
 
TIMES OF POM PEY. 103 
 
 and defeating the plans of Catiline, the orator and lawyer Cicero, 
 of the senatorial party, made himself famous. 
 
 In 61, Pompey returned from the East His commands 
 against the pirates and against Mithridates had been secured by 
 affiliations with the popular party, although he began public life as 
 partisan of the aristocracy, and had not openly abandoned them. 
 He now expected favor from both parties, and failed with both, 
 because he belonged to neither. The senate refused to sanction his 
 arrangements in the East ; the public concourse refused his soldiers 
 the proposed allotment of lands. This led Pompey to a coalition 
 with Caesar, who had returned, in 60, from the government of Spain, 
 whither he went in 61. A third member in this coalition was Cras- 
 sus, whose enormous wealth was a needed assistance. Caesar was 
 made consul, and carried through, in 59, the laws for satisfying the 
 soldiers of Pompey, and for legitimizing his arrangements in the 
 East. 
 
 At the close of Caesar's consulship he obtained, in 58, the 
 governorship of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, with four legions, 
 for a term of five years. 
 
 Map study.— See map at p. 92 for Numidia, Numantia, Aurasio, Aquae Sextiae, VercelJae. 
 Pontic Empire of Mithridates ; p. 94. Cilicia, in Asia Minor ; see map for the Roman Empire. 
 Bithynia ; p. 94. Pistoria ; north of Florence. Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul ; p. 92. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Jngurthine War, 111-106 ; about B. c. 110 
 
 f Julius 
 
 Cimbric War, 113-101 ; about " 100 J Caesar 
 
 1^ born. 
 
 ( Times 
 
 Social War, 90-88 ; about " 90-( of 
 
 y^ Marius. 
 
 ( Times 
 
 First Mithridatic War, 88-84 ; about *' 85 J 
 
 Second Mithridatic War. 83-81 1 « ^, 
 
 I Sulla. 
 
104 ROME. 
 
 Sulla dies ; in B. c. 78 
 
 War of the Gladiators ; Spartacus ; 73-71 ; ends " 71 
 
 War with the Pirates " 67 
 
 Third Mithridatic War, 74-64 ; ends " 64 
 
 Conspiracy of Catiline (Cicero) " 63 
 
 CaBsar governor of Spain ; Pompey returns from the East. . . " 61 
 
 Caesar consul " 59 
 
 Caesar governor of Gaul " 58 
 
 Times 
 
 of 
 
 Pompey. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY SIMPLIFIED. 
 
 Jugurthine War b. c. 110 
 
 CimbricWar *' 100 
 
 Social War " 90 
 
 Sulla dies ; about " 80 
 
 Gladiator's War ; about " 70 
 
 Pompey returns from the East and Caesar consul ; aboUt. . . " 60 
 
 •TIMES OF JULIUS C/£SAR. 
 
 i 
 
 V Pompey 
 
 Marius. 
 
 Sulla. 
 
 In 58 B. C. only Southern Gaul was in the actual possession of 
 the Eoraans, but there was no natural boundary to limit the spread 
 of their influence and civilization to the centre and the north. At 
 this moment the Helvetians, inhabitants of Switzerland, overcrowded 
 at home, were contemplating migration in mass toward the West 
 into Gaul. Caesar opposed them in the pass between the Jura and 
 the Lake of Geneva. They then crossed the Jura, but were beaten 
 and dispersed by battles fought in the districts corresponding to 
 modern Franche-Comte and modern Burgundy. 
 
 The Sequani, Gauls of the former province, then begged Caesar 
 to expel from their territory a horde of Germans whom they had 
 summoned to fight against the Gauls of Burgundy, the ^dui, and 
 who had then settled themselves, to the number of 120,000, on their 
 lands. Caesar defeated this band, commanded by Ariovistus, in 
 Southern Alsace, and forced them over the Rhine. The Gauls now 
 began to dread the loss of their independence at the hands of the 
 Komans. 
 
TIMES OF JULIUS CtESAR. 
 
 105 
 
 The Belgi, between Seine, Marne, and Rhine, made a league, 
 which German tribes on the left Rhine bank joined. Caesar 
 regarded the assembling of troops 
 as conspiracy against Rome, and 
 invaded their territory in 57. 
 The Belgi attacked his camp, 
 were defeated and then subdued 
 in detail. 
 
 In 56 Cassar subdued the 
 coast tribes between the Seine 
 and the Loire, and those be- 
 tween the Loire and the Pyre- 
 nees. 
 
 In 55 he defeated German 
 tribes who had pushed over the 
 Rhine, then threw a bridge over 
 this river, probably between 
 Bonn and Coblenz, and made a 
 campaign of eighteen days in 
 Germany. In the same year 
 he made a short expedition to Britain. These last campaigns were 
 intended to secure the possession of Gaul itself by an exhibition of 
 Roman power. 
 
 Julius Caesar, From an ancient bust in the 
 Torlonia Museum at Rome. 
 
 Pompey and Crassus, in 55, were consuls at Rome, and Caesar's proconsulship in Gaul 
 was extended five years in addition to the first term. Crassus and Pompey were given, at the 
 close of their consulship for this year, respectively the provinces of Syria and Spain, each for 
 five years. 
 
 Crassus marched beyond the Euphrates against the Parthians, and found his own destruc- 
 tion, with his entire army of seven legions, in the deserts of Mesopotamia, 53. Pompey, against 
 the law which forbade the proconsul to govern his province while remaining in Rome, con- 
 tinued there, watching with jealousy the success of Caesar. Gladiator bands, in the interest of 
 the popular and the senatorial parties, gave battle to each other in the streets of the city. The 
 republican constitution was in its death agony. The elections of consuls went by default for 
 two years on account of the tumults. 
 
 Pompey had done nothing to preserve order, but being made sole consul in 52 by senatorial 
 influence, sided once more with that party. Since the times of Marius and Sulla the army had 
 been the controlling power of the state. Under Sulla the aristocracy had been bolstered up by 
 
106 ROME. 
 
 it. Under Pompey, military iuflueuce vacillated towards either party, till his jealousy of 
 drove him to side at last with the aristocracy and the cause of reaction. 
 
 Meantime Caesar had made new campaigns in Britain and Germany, and in Gaul had sup- 
 pressed insurrections in 54, 53, and 52, especially that of Vercingetorix, chief of the Arverni 
 (Auvergne). 
 
 The whole of Gaul had thus become a Roman province 
 
 when in 49 Pompey and the senatorial party were awaiting the con- 
 clusion of Caesar's term, the 1st of March, to supplant him and 
 work his ruin. The latter, again a candidate for the consulship, 
 was required to dismiss his army before the election. He offered to 
 do this if Pompey would do the same and retire to his government 
 of Spain, as required by law. 
 
 The refusal of Pompey to accept this proposal revealed bis 
 ambition to attain supreme power. A small river running into the 
 Adriatic, between the Apennines and the plain of the Po, was the 
 southern boundary of Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar crossed this Eubicon 
 without hesitating, and marched on Rome with a single legion. (A 
 legion, at this time, consisted of 6,100 men.) Pompey, with two 
 legions (recalled from Caesar's command), of which he felt insecure, 
 abandoned Italy, crossing into Greece. 
 
 Caesar, master of all Italy in sixty days, then sailed for 
 Spain to conquer the troops stationed there before attacking their 
 general. The army in Spain surrendered and generally took sides 
 with Caesar, but the officers hastened to join Pompey. Caesar then 
 returned by way of Gaul to Italy, and crossed from Brundusium 
 (Brindisi) to Greece. His army was 25,000 foot and 1,000 horse; 
 his rival's army was 45,000 foot and 7,000 horse. 
 
 On the battle-field of Pharsalia, in Thessaly, Caesar won a 
 decisive victory, 48 B. c. Pompey sailed to Egypt, and was here 
 murdered by the guardians of the young king, who was engaged in 
 war with his sister Cleopatra. 
 
 Caesar followed by way of Thrace and Asia Minor, thence sailed 
 for Egypt with 4,000 men, and received the news of his rival's death 
 on landing at Alexandria, He summoned Cleopatra and her brother 
 
TIMES OF JULIUS C^SAR. 107 
 
 to accept his arbitration iu their dispute, and favored the cause of 
 the former. On this account he was besieged by the army of the 
 king for five months in Alexandria, but finally received troops from 
 Asia, with which he defeated the young Ptolemy, who was drowned 
 in the Nile. He then made the kingdom over to Cleopatra and her 
 younger brother. 
 
 Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, was next conquered in North- 
 ern Asia Minor. The news of the victory was sent to Rome in 
 three words : " I came, I saw, I conquered " — Veni, Vidi, Vici. 
 
 Caesar returned to Italy, was made consul for five years and 
 dictator for a year by the senate. A revolt of the Pompeian party 
 called him to Africa. It was put down by the victory of Thapsus, 
 47. Fifty thousand Pompeian soldiers fell in this battle. In 46, 
 Caesar was obliged to combat the Pompeian s in Spain. The battle 
 of Munda, 45, made him master of the Roman world. 
 
 The next year of his fife was occupied with that reorganism of 
 the Roman state by which he was really the founder of the Empire. 
 
 The .policy of protecting the provincials began with him, 
 and was the basis of the prosperity and duration of Imperial Rome. 
 But the phantom of the old repubhc had still power over the minds 
 of men, and it caused the assassination of Caesar in b. c. 44. 
 
 Motive of the Assassination.— He was accused of wishing the title and insignia of a 
 king, but it is not likely that so great a man cared by what title his power was designated. 
 The aristocracy killed Caesar, not because he wished to be called a king, but because he ad- 
 mitted Gauls and Spaniards to the Roman senate. The provincials were his loudest mourners, 
 and the Jews of Rome, whom he had protected, refused to be driven from his bier. The great 
 symbolic act of his dictatorship was the reDuilding of a Phoenician Carthage and a Greek Cor- 
 inth, leveled in the dust by Roman monopolists a century before. His will gave the Roman 
 citizenship to the inhabitants of Sicily. 
 
 Map Study.— See modern map for Switzerland, Jura Mountains, Lake of Geneva, province 
 ■ of Franche-Comte, duchy of Burgundy, province of Alsace, the Rhine, the Seine, the Marne, 
 the Loire, the Pyrenees, Bonn, Coblentz, Auvergne. See map of the Roman Empire for 
 Mesopotamia and the Parthian Empire. The Rubicon enters the Adriatic between Ariminium 
 and Ravenna ; map at p. 86. See map at p. 94 for Brundusium, Pharsalia. See map at p. 92 
 for Thapsus, in Africa; Munda, in Spain. 
 
108 ROME 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Caesar in Gaul repels the Helvetian invasion and the German horde of 
 
 Ariovistus, B. c. 58 
 
 Subdues the Belg^i .' " 57 
 
 Subdues the Western Coast " 56 
 
 Crosses the Rhine and invades Britain '* 55 
 
 Invades Britain again ** 54 
 
 Suppresses insurrections " 53 
 
 Suppresses insurrections " 52 
 
 The whole of Gaul Roman " 51 
 
 " 50 
 
 Crosses the Rubicon " 49 
 
 Defeats Pompey at Pharsalia. , " 48 
 
 Defeats the Pompeians at Thapsus *' 47 
 
 And settles the affairs of Africa " 46 
 
 Defeats the Pompeians at Munda " 45 
 
 Assassinated " 44 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF C/CSAR TO THE ACCESSION OF 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 The senate ratified the acts of Caesar and pardoned his 
 murderers. These, however, felt themselves insecure at Rome, and 
 left the city. Marc Antony, the friend of Caesar, and his colleague 
 in the consulship,' was for the moment the centre of popular devo- 
 tion, and strove to be his successor. This place was contested by 
 Octavian, the grand-nephew of Caesar and his heir, but nineteen 
 years of age. The rivalry grew into a civil war, then ended in com- 
 promise, by which the provinces of the West were divided between 
 the rivals and a third member of the coalition, Lepidus. 
 
 Brutus and Cassius, heads of the conspiracy which slew 
 Caesar, were meantime raising troops in Greece, Macedonia, Asia 
 Minor, and Syria. Their army was assembled near Philippi, in 
 Macedonia. In two desperate battles, fought here within two 
 
ACCESSION OF AUGUSTUS. 109 
 
 weeks, November, 42 b. c, Octavian and Antony triumphed. 
 Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. 
 
 A new division of the Roman world was now made, by 
 which Lepidus received Africa, Octavian the rest of the West, and 
 Antony the East. In the society of Cleopatra the latter dissipated 
 tlie treasures of his provinces, alienated confidence at Rome by as- 
 signing Eastern provinces to her children, and estranged Octavian, 
 whose sister was his wife, by divorcing her. Meantime Octavian, 
 by politic management and successful wars, had become sole master 
 of the West Roman world, and once more the forces of East and 
 West were turned against each other by Roman rivals. 
 
 The naval battle of Actium, on the Ambracian Gulf, b. c. 31, 
 begins the history of the Empire. While the straggle was still 
 doubtful, Cleopatra sailed from the scene of action followed by 
 Antony. Both found death by suicide in Egypt, which became a 
 Roman province, b. c. 30. 
 
 Map Study.— See map at p. 94 for Philippi and Actium. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Philippi B. c. 42 
 
 Actium " 31 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF AUGUSTUS. 
 
 Octavian assumed the name of Augustus, and became the first 
 Emperor. The general of the army was called Imperator ; by this title the 
 Roman rulers now became known. In this one office were concentrated the 
 various powers distributed, in the republic, to many officials. The powers of 
 consul, tribune, censor, pontifex maximus, were united in it. The senate re- 
 mained an important administrative and advising body. To its charge were 
 also confided the provinces where legions were not required. Under the 
 especial care of the Emperor were the provinces requiring military rule or 
 defence. 
 
 The strength of the Imperial system lay partly in its open recogni- 
 tion of the fact that the army had become the controlling power in the Roman 
 
110 
 
 ROME. 
 
 state, and in placing the responsibility on the person who also controlled this 
 
 power. Above all, it owed its strength to 
 
 the fact that it came into existence as the 
 
 representative of the progressive and liberal 
 
 party, and of the policy of raising provincials 
 
 to Roman equality. To carry out this policy 
 
 was the task of the later empire. In spite 
 
 of crimes and odious personal character in 
 
 many cases, the Emperors were generally 
 
 faitliful to this trust. 
 
 During the reign of Augustus the 
 Danube and Rhine were securely fixed 
 as boundaries of the northern provinces. 
 From the crook in the Danube at Regens- 
 burg (Ratisbon), however, the Roman line 
 afterward lay north of this river, following 
 in general the line of the Main to the 
 Rhine. 
 
 Britain was acquired later, as 
 were also provinces (Dacia) beyond the lower 
 Danube, but the Empire did not pursue a 
 
 policy of conquest or of territorial increase. The additions under Augustus 
 were made to acquire and strengthen the necessary frontiers. 
 
 Map Study.— See map of modern Germany for the Rhine, the Danube, Regensburg or 
 Ratisbon, the Main. See map of the Roman Empire for Britain, Dacia, and other Roman 
 proyinceei. 
 
 Augustus. Ancient Portrait-statue 
 in the Vatican, at Rome. 
 
 TABLE OF ROMAN COUNTRIES IN REVERSE ORDER OF ACQUISITION. 
 
 {Not including Britain and Dacia, acquired after the Christian Era.) 
 
 Territories between the Alps and the Danube, in modern Austria and 
 
 Bavaria ; after b. c. 9 
 
 Egypt ; after •' 30 
 
 Gaul; after " 50 
 
 Syria ; after " 64 
 
 Asia Minor (important part); after " 133 
 
 Macedonia and Greece ; after " 146 
 
 Africa and Spain ; after " 200 
 
 Sicily ; after " 340 
 
CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Ill 
 
 TABLE OF ROMAN HISTORY BY CENTURIES. 
 
 Ckntubt. 
 
 CrVTLIZATION. 
 
 Internal Devel- 
 opment. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Government. 
 
 Date. 
 B. c. 
 
 8th 
 
 
 
 
 Kings. 
 
 700 
 
 7th 
 
 s . 
 
 g§ 
 
 On 
 
 n 
 
 
 Latium. 
 
 Kings. 
 
 600 
 
 6th 
 
 Servian Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 Latium. 
 
 Kings. 
 
 500 
 
 5th 
 
 
 Struggle of the Pa- 
 tricians and Ple- 
 beians. 
 
 Latium. 
 
 Republic. 
 
 400 
 
 4th 
 
 
 Latium. 
 
 Republic. 
 
 300 
 
 3d 
 
 Greek culture spreads over the 
 West. 
 
 Roman organism ex- 
 tends to the East. 
 
 li 
 ^^ 
 
 "Sis 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Republic. 
 
 200 
 
 2d 
 
 Western Med- 
 iterranean, 
 
 Eastern Med- 
 iterranean. 
 
 Republic. 
 
 100 
 
 1st 
 
 Provincials rise 
 to Roman 
 privileges. 
 
 Syria. 
 Gaul. 
 Egypt. 
 
 S. Austria and 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Empire. 
 
 
112 ROME. 
 
 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY OF ALL PERIODS BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 City founded B. c. 750 
 
 Alba Lcnga conquered by Tullus Hostilius " 650 
 
 Constitution of Servius Tullius " 550 
 
 Expulsion of the kings " 510 
 
 The Plebeians are conceded Popular Tribunes " 495 
 
 Laws of the Twelve Tables " 451 
 
 Burning of Rome by the Gauls " 390 
 
 Samnite wars begin •' 343 
 
 Plebeians attain absolute political equality " 300 
 
 Samnite wars end ; conquest of Central Italy " 290 
 
 War with Phyrrhus ends with the conquest of South Italy " 275 
 
 Punic Wars begin " 263 
 
 Second Punic War ends " 201 
 
 Greece and Macedonia Roman provinces " 146 
 
 Pergamus deeded to Rome ; Gracchic troubles " 133 
 
 Jugrurthine War begins • " HI 
 
 ( 'imbric War ends " 101 
 
 Social War ends " °° 
 
 Third Mithridatic War ends " ^ 
 
 Caesar's c<onquest of Gaul completed " 50 
 
 Battle of Actium " 31 
 
ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 113 
 
 Horace. 
 {From an Ancient Medal.) 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE AND ART. 
 
 Roman literature was an offshoot from the Greek, modified by the prac- 
 tical tendencies and peculiar genius of tlie adopters. Not till after the con- 
 quest of the Greek colonies of Southern Italy 
 (war with Phyrrhus, B. c. 275) does Latin lit- 
 erature boast the names of any authors. 
 
 Plautus, dramatic author, flourished 
 about B. c. 200. 
 
 Terence, dramatic author, flourished 
 about B. c. ] 50. 
 
 The comedies of these writers are more or 
 less original adaptations from the Greek, espe- 
 cially of Menander (Athenian dramatist of the 
 Alexandrine time\ 
 
 Cato the Censor, called Cato Major, 
 died B. c. 149. His work, " De Re Rustica,'* 
 is an interesting commentary on the agricul- 
 tural and domestic life of the Romans of the old school, fast decaying in his 
 time. 
 
 The practical and political sense of the Romans made them especially dis- 
 tinguished in the field of history. 
 
 Sallust, about 50 B. c, wrote the history of the Jugurthine War and of 
 Catiline's conspiracy. 
 
 Caesar wrote commentaries on the Gallic and the civil wars. 
 
 Livy, in the times of Augustus, wrote a history of Rome in 145 books. 
 Ten books covering the time down to 293, and fifteen books covering the time 
 from 218 to 167, are preserved. 
 
 Cicero, about 50 b. c, in his orations and in his philosophical works (drawn 
 from Greek sources) is a perfect master of Latin expression and construction. 
 
 Virgil, born near Mantua, flourished in the times of Augustus. He wrote 
 the " Eclogues" — pastoral poems ; the " Georgics," an agricultural poem ; and 
 the "^neid," the celebrated Latin epic relating the fortunes of ^neas after his 
 escape from the siege of Troy, his visit to Queen Dido of Carthage, and settle- 
 ment in Latium. His works are all more or less dependent on Greek models 
 and originals. 
 
 Horace, of Venusia, like Virgil, was a friend of Maecenas, the famous 
 patron of letters and intimate of Augustus. His works consist of odes, satires, 
 and epistles. 
 
114 
 
 ROME. 
 
 Ovid, born at Sulmo, in the Sabine country, was a friend of Horace and 
 favorite of Augustus till, for unknown reasons, he was banished to the shores 
 of the Black Sea (Tomi, at the mouth of the Danube). The " Metamorphoses," 
 mythological in subject, are his leading work. 
 
 Our conception of Roman civilization is derived from its literature 
 and art. The generally Greek character of both in the time of the Empire is 
 best understood by remembering that the first civilizing influences to which 
 Rome was subjected came from the Samnites and Etruscans, who were both 
 under Greek influence ; that the conquest of the Greek colonies of South Italy 
 and Sicily heightened this influence, which became overpowering after the 
 conquest, in the East, of Macedonia and Greece, of Grecianized Asia Minor, 
 
 Grecianized Syria, and the important 
 Greek Egyptian capital, Alexandria. 
 The peculiar original force of the 
 Roman was in law, in politics, and 
 in organism. The Roman reorgan- 
 ized the East, already Grecianized 
 by Alexander, and in organizing 
 the West spread over it the Greek 
 influences to which he was himself 
 subject. 
 
 The Roman art has a distinct 
 form of its own in portrait sculp- 
 ture, which was intentionally avoid- 
 ed by the idealizing Greeks, In architecture the arch and dome, borrowed 
 from the Etruscans, were developed in buildings of colossal and imposing mas- 
 siveness, whose ornamental forms were, however, always Greek. 
 
 .Sli 
 
 The Pantheon at Rome.* 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 Without refereDce to the order of the book. (See Baggestions as to use of qaestions 
 at p. 69.) 
 
 FIRST LESSON- FOR REVIEW. 
 
 What were the boundaries of the Roman Empire in the time of Augustus ? (See map for 
 the Roman Empire.) 
 
 What countries were included in the Roman Empire in his time ? (P. 110.) 
 What countries were added later? (P. 110.) 
 
 * Built in the reign of Augustus as portion of the Baths of Agrippa, but after erection dedi* 
 cated as a temple of the gods of the conquered nations. 
 
QtJESTJONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 115 
 
 Did the Empire pnrsae a policy of conquest ? 
 
 What additions were made by Tiberius to the Empire in the time of Augustus ? Ans. South 
 
 Germany. (P. 110, 2d paragraph.) 
 
 What territory did Rome gain by conquests of Caesar ? (P. 106.) 
 
 What, by conquests of Pompey ? (P. 96.) 
 
 In what year closed the Third Mithridatic War ? (P. 96.) 
 
 Who was Roman general in the First Mithridatic War ? (P. 101.) 
 
 Who was the rival general nominated in public concourse ? 
 
 When did Marius and Sulla first become prominent ? 
 
 What distinguished man was born in the year of the battle of Aquae Sextiae ? (P. 101.) 
 
 What significance for Roman history has the Jugurthine War ? (P. 99.) 
 
 Date it approximately ? (P. 104.) How did this corruption come about ? (Pp. 98, 99.) 
 
 What was the system of government in an ancient republic ? (P. 98.) 
 
 Why did government by concourse fail in the Greek states ? (Pp. 53, 98.) 
 
 What policy secured the Roman state from parallel disaster ? (P. 84.) 
 
 But what influence on government by concourse had the policy of extending the Roman 
 
 rights to conquered peoples ? (P. 98.) 
 
 When did the number of Roman citizens begin to augment rapidly ? Ana. After the Sam- 
 
 nite Wars ? 
 
 SECOl^^D LESSOi^ FOR REVIEW. 
 
 When did the Samnite Wars begin ? (P. 86.) 
 
 When did they end ? 
 
 What central date of Greek history falls within their extreme dates ? (P. 86.) 
 
 What additions of territory did they secure ? (P. 86.) 
 
 What was the extent of Roman ^territory before the Samnite Wars ? (P. 81.) 
 
 What fact exhibits the small area of the Roman state in the 5th century b. c. ? (P. 81.) 
 
 What addition of territory was next secured after the Samnite Wars ? (P. 87.) 
 
 When was Sicily acquired? (P. 91.) 
 
 What increase of the state came next ? 
 
 What was the extent of Roman power about 200 b. c. ? (P. 94.) 
 
 Give, in the order of time, dates of acquisition of territory in the Eastern Mediterranean ? 
 (P. 97.) 
 
 What period was destined to give Roman rights to the provinces ? (P. 97.) 
 
 Who admitted Gauls and Spaniards to the Roman senate ? (P. 107.) 
 
 After what war were Roman rights given to all Italian freemen ? (P. 100.) 
 
 How long before the Samnite Wars did the monarchy give way to the republic ? 
 
 What political contest began as soon as monarchy was overthrown ? (P. 81.) 
 
 When did this contest end ? (P. 81.) 
 
 How does the date of beginning territorial expansion relate to the date for the end of this 
 contest ? (Pp. 81, 86.) 
 
 THIRD LESSOliT FOR REVIEW. 
 
 What Macedonian kings were reigning in the time of the Samnite Wars ? (Pp. 57, 58.) 
 How far distant is the date for the battle of Chaeronea from the date for the beginning of 
 the Samnite Wars ? 
 
116 ROME. 
 
 Who was expelled firom Athens when the last Roman king was driven from his throne in 
 B.C. 510? (P. 43.) 
 
 How long had the Roman republic existed when the Ionic revolt began ? (P. 44.) 
 
 What Roman king first enrolled ihe plebeians in the service of the state? (P. 78.) 
 
 In what century ? 
 
 In what century lived Solon ? (P. 42.) 
 
 When did Alba Longa yield to Rome the precedence in Latium ? (P. T7.) 
 
 IIow long was this after the time of Nebuchadnezzar ? (P. 20.) 
 
 How long before Cyrus ? (P. 80.) 
 
 How long after the foundation of Rome? 
 
 How long before this foundation ended the old empire of Egypt ? the empire of Chaldsea? 
 
 How long before Rome was Carthage founded ? 
 
 How long after Rome's foundation did Carthage continue mistress of the Western Medi- 
 terranean ? (P. 93.) 
 
 What was the character of Phoenician rule ? (P. 90.) 
 
 Why did the rise of Rome menace the existence of Carthage ? (P. 90.) 
 
 FOURTH LESSON^ FOR REVIEW. 
 
 What civilized nations were there in Italy before Rome was founded ? (P. 75.) 
 
 What was the character of this civilization ? 
 
 When did the Greek colonies of South Italy become Roman ? 
 
 After what date did the Grecianized countries of the Eastern Mediterranean become Roman ? 
 
 At what time does a Roman literature begin to appear ? (P. 113.) 
 
 Whence did it draw much material and inspiration ? 
 
 What was the character of the Roman art ? (P. 114.) 
 
 What was the peculiar genius of the Roman as opposed t<J that of the Greek ? (Pp. 85, 114.) 
 
 How long did Roman rule continue in the West after the Christian era ? (P. 75.) 
 
 How long in the East ? 
 
 i 
 
BOOK U. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE AFTER THE CHRISTIAN 
 ERA, AND THE CONTINENTAL STATES OF 
 WESTERN EUROPE DOWN TO THE PRESENT 
 TIME. 
 
THE 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE 
 
 FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 The birth of our Saviour, during the reign of Augustus, in 
 the Roman province of Syria, divides the ancient from the modern 
 world. In the narrower use of the word " modern " it relates, how- 
 ever, to the period after 1500 A. D., when the modern states of 
 Europe had come to have in general the boundaries and divisions 
 of the present time. The progress of the Christian faith, although 
 bitterly opposed by pagan Rome, was especially rapid and general 
 within the limits of the Empire, in whose boundaries were combined 
 all the countries of the civilized world. The facilities of intercourse 
 established by the inner peace of the Empire, and the use of Latin 
 and Greek as languages of general intercourse- assisted this progress. 
 But the first three centuries of Christianity were a period of spiritual 
 transformation marked in written history mainly by the persecu- 
 tions which it provoked. Some notice of the early Fathers of the 
 Church is reserved for a future section. The poUtical history of 
 the Roman state under Augustus and his successors is continued in 
 the next. 
 
 EMPERORS OF THE FIRST CENTURY. 
 
 Augustus B. C. 37— A. D. 14 
 
 Tiberius A. d. 14— " 37 
 
 Caligula " 87— " 41 
 
 Claudius , , .,.,,.,., " 41— " 54 
 
120 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Nero A. D. C4 — a. d. 68 
 
 Galba, Otho, ViteUius " 68— " 69 
 
 Vespasian " 69— " 79 
 
 Titus " 79—" 81 
 
 Domitian " 81— " 96 
 
 Nerva ; " 96— " 98 
 
 Augustus was a man of deep character and subtle nature, 
 cruel in the attainment and humane in the exercise of power. " He 
 
 studiously veiled his suprem- 
 acy under the old republican 
 "^ forms, kept the people amused, 
 
 carried on wars only to defend 
 existing frontiers, promoted 
 agriculture, literature, and the 
 'rv^^^a-;s^^^^^^^^^^^^ arts, and made immense im- 
 ^"*''"^^^^^^^^^^^^ provements in the city of 
 
 Eome." His period was that 
 of Livy the historian, and of 
 the poets Virgil, Horace, and 
 Ovid, already mentioned. 
 Of his four immediate 
 A Street in Pompeii successors— Tibcrius, Calig- 
 
 ula, Claudius, and Nero — his- 
 tory relates little that is edifying. Their united reigns reach from 
 A. D. 14 to A. D. 68. The character of Claudius alone, in its appar- 
 ent weakness, contrasts favorably with the cruelties of the others. 
 This emperor was distinguished also by his zeal for public works. 
 Tiberius is represented by the Eoman historians as a sanguinary 
 tyrant, but it is certain that he was well regarded by the prov- 
 inces for strict and just administration. To the infamy of Nero's 
 private character is added the odium attaching to his persecution 
 of the Christians— the first general persecution. 
 
 During the persecution under Nero, St. Paul was arrested and 
 brought before his tribunal. Ilis eloquence saved him from the "fury of the 
 
EMPERORS OF THE FIRST CENTURY. 
 
 121 
 
 lions," but he was sent to prison. St. Peter was still, however, at liberty, and 
 wont to celebrate the divine mysteries in the house of a Christian named 
 Pudens. This has been regarded as the first church in Rome. The conversion 
 by St. Peter of a woman of Nero's household aroused the anger of the tyrant, 
 and he was thrown into prison. Both St. Peter and St. Paul were now con- 
 demned to capital punishment, St. Peter was crucified head downward and 
 buried on the spot now covered by the palace of the Vatican and the church 
 of St. Peter. On the same day St. Paul was beheaded a short distance from 
 the site of the later Basilica, "St. Paul's outside the walls" (p. 137). The 
 pontificate of St. Peter lasted thirty-three years, of which twenty-five were 
 spent at Rome. The following Popes, until the beginning of the 4th century, 
 were, like him, nearly all martyrs. {Abbe Darras is the authority followed.) 
 
 In 68, Nero was driven from 
 the throne and took his own 
 life, to escape the conspirators 
 who were pursuing him. A 
 year of confusion followed in 
 which three emperors, chosen 
 by the soldiers, quickly suc- 
 ceeded one another — Galba, 
 Otho, Vitellius. 
 
 Vespasian, 69 — 79, also 
 elected by the legions, re-estab- 
 lished order. In his reign was 
 erected the wonderful amphi- 
 theatre, still standing, partially 
 ruined, in Rome, known as the 
 Colosseum. It covers five acres 
 of ground and seated 80,000 
 spectators. 
 
 In the time of Nero the Jews 
 of Palestine had revolted against the Roman rule. Vespasian had 
 been the general appointed to subdue them. This task was trans- 
 ferred, after his accession, to his son Titus. Jerusalem was be- 
 sieged and destroyed. This destruction is commemorated by the 
 
 Titus. From an ancient bust in the Naples 
 Museum. 
 
122 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Arch of Titus, still standing in Rome. A sculptured relief on the 
 side of the arch represents the Koman soldiers bearing off the 
 seven-branched candlestick taken from the Jewish temple. 
 
 Titus succeeded his father. His reign was short, but well con- 
 ducted. Its leading event was the destruction, by volcanic eruptions 
 from Vesuvius, of the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii The 
 former town, destroyed by lava, has offered great difficulties to ex- 
 cavation. Pompeii, covered only with ashes, whose removal is still 
 in progress, affords a perfect picture of the domestic life of antiquity ; 
 of its private dwellings, their furniture, utensils, and decorative 
 wall paintings. All objects from Pompeii are kept in the museum 
 of Naples. 
 
 Domitian, brother of Titus, succeeded him. His character was 
 cruel and gloomy, but the officials were noted under his strict gov- 
 ernment for incorruptibility. The conquest of Britain, begun under 
 Claudius, was completed in his reign. Three columns of a temple 
 built by Domitian are still standing on the Roman Forum. To the 
 reign of Domitian and the period following belongs the historian 
 Tacitus. The naturalist Pliny belongs to the times of Vespasian 
 and Titus; the philosopher Seneca to the reign of Nero. The 
 emperor was assassinated by his own wife, who headed a conspiracy 
 against him. 
 
 The Senate then elected Nerva, who reigned two years and 
 adopted Trajan as his successor. Ruins of part of the Forum built 
 by Nerva are still standing. 
 
 EMPERORS OF THE SECOND CENTURY. 
 
 Trajan 
 
 Hadrian 
 
 Antoninus Pius 
 
 Marcus Aurelius • • 
 
 Commodus 
 
 Pertinax, Didius Julianus 
 
 The system of adoption, begun by Nerva, gave four excellent 
 
 A. D. 98— A. D. 117 
 
 117— " 138 
 
 138— " 161 
 
 161— " 180 
 
 180— " 192 
 
 192— " 193 
 
EMPERORS OF THE SECOND CENTURY 
 
 123 
 
 rulers to the empire — Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus 
 Aurelius. Their reigns lasted together eighty-two years — the 
 Golden Age of the empire. 
 
 Trajan added to the Roman territory a province beyond the 
 Danube — Dacia ; part of Southern Hungary and Roumania. The 
 
 The Column of Trajan and Ruins of his Basilica, or Business Exchange. 
 
 modern Roumanians boast of their descent from the soldier colo- 
 nists of this emperor. The Column of Trajan still stands in Rome 
 to commemorate his Dacian victories. Trajan also made conquests 
 in the Tigris-Euphrates valley (from the Parthians) of Mesopotamia 
 and Babylonia. These were abandoned by Hadrian. 
 
124 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 
 
 The reign of Hadrian was one of constant travel and personal 
 administrative care in all parts of the empire. The ruins of his for- 
 tified wall in Britain, built to protect the Roman British from the 
 inroads of the barbarian Picts and Scots of the Highlands, are still 
 to be seen. The gigantic tomb of Hadrian has become a Papal 
 fortress — the Castle of St. Angelo (p. 75). 
 
 Antoninus Pius enjoyed a long and peaceful reign. He was a 
 ruler of mild character and great ability. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius, 161-180, a man of philosophic taste and 
 benevolent disposition, succeeded him. In his time the wars with 
 German tribes beyond the Danube, in modern Bohemia and Mo- 
 ravia, began to assume an alarming aspect. 
 
 Under Commodus, the son and successor of Marcus Aurelius, 
 these wars continued. Oommodus was obliged to purchase a dis- 
 honorable peace. He was at once cruel and incapable. 
 
 EMPERORS OF THE THIRD CENTURY. 
 
 Septimius Severus a. d. 
 
 Caracalla 
 
 Macrinus, Heliogabalus 
 
 Alexander Severus 
 
 Maximin 
 
 (Rival emperors— Gold ian I., Gordian II., Pupienus, Balbinus.) 
 
 Philip 
 
 Decius 
 
 Gallus 
 
 -^milian •. 
 
 Valerian 
 
 Gallienus (associate emperor). 
 
 Aurelian 
 
 Tacitus, Probus, Carus 
 
 Numerian, Carinus 
 
 Diocletian 
 
 193-211 
 311-318 
 318-333 
 333-335 
 335-344 
 
 344-349 
 349-351 
 351-353 
 353-353 
 353-360 
 354-368 
 370-375 
 375-383 
 383-384 
 384-305 
 
 From the time of the assassination of Commodus dates an entire 
 century of more or less disorder. and military license. Since the foundation of 
 
EMPERORS OF THE THIRD CENTURY. 125 
 
 the empire the emperor had been the commander of the army. The system of 
 government was one which made the commander of the army also ruler of the 
 state. During the constant barbarian attacks on the frontiers, which continued 
 all through the 3d century, able generals were an absolute necessity. By a 
 stern law of self-preservation, an incapable general had to be displaced. But 
 an emperor could only be overthrown by violence, and since there was no power 
 in the state above that of the commanding general, the soldiers became, in the 
 8d century, the judges and creators of the emperors. Often they were overthrown 
 by conspiracies of discontent caused by strict discipline ; at other times they 
 were overthrown for incompetence. In ninety-five years following the death of 
 Commodus there were twenty-seven emperors. Only the leading names among 
 these need be mentioned. 
 
 Septimius Severus was a stern and successful ruler. His 
 triumphal arch still stands in the Roman Forum. In his time 
 lived the most famous lights of legal science — Papinian, Paulus, 
 and Ulpian. 
 
 Caracalla was son and successor of this emperor. The ruins 
 of his. famous baths are an astounding evidence of the perfec- 
 tion of material civilization under the empire. The character of 
 Caracalla was bad, and hi^ edict giving the rights of citizenship to 
 all freemen of the empire is attributed to mercenary motives — to 
 the design of increasing the revenue by increasing the number of 
 taxable persons. It was, notwithstanding, the final and crowning 
 step of the process by which the Eoman empire carried political 
 equality and equal rights to all the nations it had conquered. After 
 the short reign of Macrinus comes the name of Heliogabalus, the 
 most infamous in personal character of all the emperors. His cousin, 
 Alexander Severus, was a mild and worthy ruler. 
 
 A time of terrible confusion followed the death of Alexander 
 Severus. Barbarian attacks and a succession of emperors, often 
 assassinated by the soldiers, continue until Aurelian, 270-275. 
 Meantime the reign of Decius, about 250, is distinguished by the 
 most teiTible Christian persecution yet experienced. Its persistence 
 and atrocity are a testimony to the constantly increasing numbers 
 of the Christians. 
 
126 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The reign of Aurelian is distinguished by his expedition 
 against Palmyra, the famous city and state of Queen Zenobia, lying 
 east of Damascus, in an oasis of the Syrian desert. Zenobia was 
 carried prisoner to Eome. Palmyra was de- 
 stroyed. Its ruins are still highly remarkable. 
 Another series of short reigns, with violent ends 
 in general, intervenes before Diocletian, 284-305. 
 With Diocletian begins a change of sys- 
 tem which stopped the violence and disorders 
 of the century preceding. His expedient was 
 the multiplication of contemporaneous em- 
 perors, dividing the government. This was a 
 means of confronting the barbarian attacks 
 on different frontiers, at one and the same time, 
 with generals in supreme command. It also 
 diminished the chances of successful conspira- 
 cies, which could not well be carried out in far 
 distant places at the same time. 
 
 Under this emperor took place the tenth 
 general persecution, but this was finally stopped 
 by imperial order. Notwithstanding the hostility of Diocletian to 
 Christianity, a contemporary Pope, Eutychian, was his relation. 
 One emperor of the 3d century, Philip, had been a Christian, 
 although not publicly avowed. Alexander Severus had so far 
 favored Christianity as to keep the statue of Christ in his palace. 
 
 
 Eomau Ituius, Balbek, 
 Syria. 
 
 GENERAL REVIEW OF THE EMPIRE DURING THE FIRST 
 THREE CENTURIES AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 Map Study, p. 116.— The Roman provinces were : Syria ; Asia Minor ; Tlirace ; Mace- 
 donia ; Dacia ; Greece ; Eastern and Central Europe south of the Danube, including the parts 
 of modem Austria and Germany south of that river ; Switzerland and Germany eat>t of the 
 Rhine ; Britain ; France ; Bfl«,'ium ; Spain ; North Africa ; Egypt ; and Italy. These deeig- 
 natiouH of provinces are for the countries in general, without reference lo the Roman local 
 divisions. For instance, '• Syria" implies Judssa, etc. The dates of the book for the acani»»- 
 
GENERAL RKVIEW OP THE EMPIRE. 12? 
 
 tion of these provinces, as given in earlier sections, are fixed for the beginnings of the actual 
 ascendency, which was sometimes earlier than the legal acquisition. 
 
 The boiindaries were : On the south — the African Desert of Sahara ; on the west — the 
 Atlantic Ocean ; on the east— the Arabian Desert, the mountains of Armenia ; on the north— 
 the Black Sea, the Carpathians, the Danube, and the Khine. 
 
 By the political union of all these countries a homogeneous civilization was dif- 
 fused around the Mediterranean basin. The boundaries of civilization corresponded in general 
 with the boundaries of the Roman empire. The empire was not only a change of government 
 from the earlier republican form, it was a change of policy in the treatment of the provincials. 
 It was the substitution of the power of a single ruler for life, whose mission was the sup- 
 pression of extortion and the preservation of public order, for the power of a constantly 
 changing body of extortionate officials whose short terms of office were an incentive to cor- 
 ruption and oppression. But a system which is beneficial on the whole, may often be admin- 
 istered by bad men. The characters of many emperors are disfigured in their private lives by 
 horrible crimes. They do not, however, appear like the despots of Eastern nations, who often 
 systematically crush their subjects and rob them of their property. 
 
 The word Roman, used of the times of the empire, does not indicate distinction of 
 nationality. The Roman building in Syria may have been made by a Gaul, or the Roman 
 building in France by a Syrian, just as a Roman building in Rome may have been made by an 
 architect from Asia Minor. The word Roman, referring to the times of the empire, means a 
 person of whatever nation having the protection of Roman law, whose country was defended 
 by soldiers having Roman pay and directed by a general who received orders from the em- 
 peror ; or it refers to objects having a common style and character, wherever found witliin the 
 borders of the empire. 
 
 This cosmopolitan character of the Roman empire is indicated in the birthplaces of 
 the emperors. Constantine the Great, soon to be mentioned, was bom at York, in England ; 
 Diocletian was a Dalmatian ; Probus and Aurelian were lUyrians ; Macrinus was a Moor ; 
 Maximin, a Thracian ; Philip, an Arab ; Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus were Syrians ; 
 Caracalla and Septimius Severus were African Phoenicians ; Marcus Aurelius was a Spaniard ; 
 Antoninus Pius was a Gaul : Hadrian and Trajan were Spaniards ; Nerva was a Cretan ; Domi- 
 tian, Titus, and Vespasian were Italian, but not of Roman blood— leaving, as distinctively Roman 
 emperors by blood, only the first five. So, for instance, the Apostle St. Paul from Tarsus, in 
 Asia Minor, was a citizen of Rome. The Latin poet Ennius, the father of Latin literature, 
 was a Greek ; the Latin poet Plautus was an African ; the Latin poet Terence was a Spaniard. 
 Maecenas, the patron of Latin literature of the Augustan age, was an Etruscan ; the poet 
 Martial and the philosopher Seneca were Spaniards. In the 1st century A. d., soon after the 
 time of Cicero, the leading school of Latin eloquence at Rome was taught by Spaniards. In 
 the 2d century a. d., the most famous Latin writers were from Prance and Africa. The lead- 
 ing school of Roman jurisprudence was Beyrout, in Syria. Papinian and Ulpian, among the 
 most famous of the Roman lawyers of the, empire, were Syrian Phoenicians. 
 
 The liberal tendency of Roman political development had shown itself in the old 
 republic, when the plebeians, mostly emigrants to Rome, were admitted gradually to the rights 
 of the original settlers (patricians). The process accomplished in the original republic, was 
 then repeated on a larger scale for all Italy. The wonderful permanence of Roman conquests 
 in Italy is known to have been secured by admitting the conquered populations to full or lim- 
 ited rights of Roman citizenship. The process went on under the empire until the edict of 
 Caracalla making all freemen citizens. All nationalities had meantime been allowed represen' 
 
i2g THE ROMA^ EiviPlilg. 
 
 tation in the senate except native Egyptians. Caracalla also removed this* last restriction. 
 There was still a development of this tendency left for the Christian Roman time— namely, 
 the manumission of the slaves. 
 
 It will naturally be understood that these cosmopolite tendencies met with constant oppo- 
 sition on the part of certain Romans. This was especially the case in the early days of the 
 empire— the times of Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Caligula, and Nero— when the aristocratic 
 party of native Romans saw themselves supplanted by the provincials. This aristocratic party 
 of resistance to equal rights naturally found sympathizing support from men of letters, who 
 were shocked by the relative barbarism of the new provincial Roman citizens. The emperors 
 represented the policy of enfranchisement for the provinces, and were bitterly attacked by tbe 
 historians of the time. Their characters were blackened in many cases unjustly. The unde- 
 niably atrocious cruelties jiractised by some of the early emperora were generally provoked by 
 the assassin policy of the reactionai-y party, which murdered Cajsar, the father of the provinces, 
 and continued to threaten his successors with his fate. 
 
 Civilization of the Empire.— By v.hat has been said of the political greatness of pagan 
 Rome, we are not to underrato the undeniable corruption of civilization in the period of the 
 empire. This was admitted by the time itself. But some of the nob'.est spirits among the 
 pagans— for instance, Marcus Aurelius— were not inclined to the teaching of Christ, by which 
 alone morality could be redeemed. All learned Christian writers admit the nobility of spirit 
 and high conception of duty often found in pagan authors, but it is also agreed that the best 
 period of antiquity lies far back of the empire, in the time of the Greek republics before Alex- 
 ander, or of the Roman republic before 200 b. c. The pagan cultivation of the empire was 
 only an afterglow, without lasting warmth or brightness. This being understood, it is impor- 
 tant, before passing to events which introduced a new period of histoiy, to rate at its full worth 
 the Imperial material civilization. For this, by various channels, has become the property of 
 modern times. 
 
 The countries of the empire were relatively weak in pure and vigorous art, and the litera- 
 ture shows less and less spontaneous power. But in luxuries, comforts, and inventions the 
 time will compare favorably with our own. 
 
 Facilities for Travel.— Vessels sailed from Messina to Alexandria in six anrl a half days ; 
 steamers now require six days for this distance. Travel on land was not conducted with the 
 celerity of steam, but it was more expeditious than it has ever been since until 1830. In many 
 countries tte state of roads and bridges was better than it has ever been since— viz., in Greece, 
 countries of later European Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria, North Africa, Spain. In England, 
 France, Italy, and South Germany, roads and bridges were better than they have ever been 
 since until 1800. 
 
 Baths.— Hundreds of cities were then more bountiftilly supplied with water than modern 
 London, the present metropolis of the world. The city of Rome, in our own time, is the most 
 plentifully supplied with water of any in Europe, and it depends on three only of its ancient 
 fourteen aqueducts (p. 97). All provincial cities of importance boasted splendid public baths. 
 Those built by Caracalla accommodated sixteen thousand bathers, and contained also, like 
 several other similar structures in Rome, lecture-rooms, libraries, gymnasiums, art museums, 
 public club rooms, etc., all free of charge. There were at least five other bath structures little 
 inferior to those of Caracalla. 
 
 Arts and Sciences.— Houses in Rome were built six stories high. Hackney coaches 
 were used. The masonry work, plaster, cement, brick, and paints of the Roman time were fur 
 Btiperior to our own. The arts of Bculptnrc and of architecture existed in much higher perfection 
 
DISTRIBUTION OP RACES. 129 
 
 than with us. Astronomers and geographers taught the rotundity of the earth. Its motion 
 round the sun had also been discovered in Alexandria, the diameter of the earth had been 
 measured there, and the distances of the fixed stars had been approximately indicated in the 
 3d century b. c. (p. 68), but this knowledge was gradually lost in the time of the empire. The 
 study of medicine was cultivated, and an anatomist of the 2d century a. d. pointed out some 
 of the more minute differences between the structure of the ape and the human being. 
 
 The prosperity of some countries was far greater than now— for instance of Syria, 
 North Africa, Egypt, and Spain. Spain supported forty millions of people ; it now supports eight 
 millions. In the comforts and luxuries of living the period of the empire was not surpassed, 
 if it was equaled, by our own. We were also outdone in the matter of colossal fortunes and 
 the extravagant displays of wealth. 
 
 Social and Moral Corruption.— A disgraceful stain on the time was its pleasure In 
 the shows of the gladiators. These were frowned upon by many of the emperors, but in vain, 
 Christianity alone could combat with the decay of Paganism, and the shows of the arena were 
 abolished by a Christian monk. Social and moral corruption were then compatible, as they 
 are now, with enormous material prosperity, with a high development of science, and with 
 many wonderful inventions. (In 406 the monk Telemachus forced his way into the arena and 
 threw himself between the contending gladiators. He was instantly killed, but the horror 
 of the populace at his martyrdom led to the abolition of the games.) 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF RACES IN THE TIMES OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Europe and the Mediterranean countries were mainly peopled at the beginning 
 of the Christian Era by the races of our own time, but their distribution was not entirely the 
 same as now. The race from which Bohemians, Poles, and Kussians are descended (the 
 Slavonic race, p. 31) was then, as now, located in Eastern Europe ; but the Laps and Finns 
 were pushed down much farther in the North-east, and the Germans were spread farther to 
 the East than at present. Bohemia had not yet been occupied by the Bohemian Slavonians ; 
 the Hungarians bad not yet come into Europe. The Turks were also unknown to Europe. 
 
 The countries comprised in modern Turkey made up the eastern half of the 
 Roman Empire, and, as has been explained in Greek History, had been conquered by 
 Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great. The population here was mixed— Thracians, 
 between Macedonia and the Hellespont ; Greeks on both sides of the ^gean and around the 
 Black Sea : Armenians, Galatians, and other minor native populations in Asia Minor, were all 
 Greciauized in culture and mixed with Greek blood. The Syrians, Phoenicians, and Hebrews 
 in Syria were Greciauized and mixed with Greeks. The native population in Egypt was 
 not mixed, but the rich and populous capital Alexandria was Greek (with a large Hebrew^ 
 colony). The populations mentioned, as far as within the Roman boundaries, all come under 
 the explanations previously given of the Roman civilization and Roman citizenship. 
 
 The German tribes, uncivilized by Rome (there were Romanized Germans, south of 
 the Danube and west of the Rhine), pi-cssed against the Rhine and Danube. The inhabitants 
 of Noi-way, Sweden, and Denmark were Germanic and barbarian. 
 
 France and Belg-ium were mainly peopled by the race which still remains there, i. e., 
 by Romanized Gauls or Celts. The Romanized British belonged to the same Celtic stock, and 
 so also the Irish and Highland Scotch tribes ; both the latter beyond Roman rule. Spain 
 was peopled by Romanized Celto-lberians (p. 31). In modern Spain the Iberian blood is 
 
130 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 thought to appear only in and near the Pyrenees (the Basques). There was also Phoenician 
 blood (.from Syria by way of Carthage) on the coasts of Southern and Eastern Spain. 
 
 In France and Spain there had settled a large number of Italian and Roman colonists. This 
 holds also of Northern Africa, where there were also Romanized Berbers or Moors ; Roman- 
 ized Libyans and Romanized Phoenicians, the latter originally from Syria. 
 
 These details of race are rather perplexing, and they may be used for reference rather 
 than study. It is important mainly to understand that within the limits of the empire Latin 
 and Greek supplanted the earlier dialects and languages. In spoken use Latin was general for 
 the West and Greek was general for the East, but both languages were understood by all men 
 of letters and by educated persons. All races within the limits of the empire were amal- 
 gamated by commercial intercourse, by intermarriage, and by community of Greek civiliza- 
 tion. As far as Europe was concerned, it may be divided into two parts, civilized and 
 uncivilized. The Rhine and Danube form the dividing line. The uncivilized division is 
 divided again into Germanic (West) and Slavonic (East). For foregoing matter compare a 
 map of modern Europe with map at p. 116. 
 
 FATHERS OF THE CHURCH DURING THE FIRST THREE 
 
 CENTURIES. 
 
 St. Igmatius, Bishop of Antioch, suffered martyrdom under Trajan. 
 
 St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, suffered martyrdom under Marcus Aurelius. He was 
 a disciple of St. John the Evangelist. 
 
 St. Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, was disciple of St. Polycarp and author of a celebrated 
 Treatise against Heresies. The chief source from which St. Irenaeus draws his proofs is 
 tradition, of which he shows the existence, the character and sacred authority in the Church. 
 The argument of tradition had a peculiar force under the pen of a writer who cotmted between 
 the Apostles and himself no other intermediary than the famous Bishop of Smyrna. 
 
 St. Justin was born at Neapolis, in Palestine, of a family of pagan colonists established 
 by Vespasian. Originally a pagan philosopher, he was converted during the last years of the 
 reign of Hadrian. He was the first to open a Catholic school, where he moulded the minds of 
 his pupils in the faith. His first publication, entitled " Exhortation to the Greeks," was writ- 
 ten to dissipate the prejudices of the pagans against Christianity. This work was a prelude 
 to his first " Apology," which is supposed to have influenced Antoninus Pius to his toleration 
 of the Christians. His second " Apology," addressed to Marcus Aureliui^, was soon followed 
 by martyrdom. 
 
 Clement of Alexandria flourished at the close of the 2d century. A convert from 
 pagan philosophy, he became a fervent neophyte ; later, a zealous priest and indefatigable 
 apostle. In the three books of the " Pedagogue " and in the eight " Stromata," the two most 
 important of his works still extant, he constantly places religion at the summit of science by 
 proving the excellence of its dogmas and their harmony with sound reason. 
 
 TertuUian was born at Carthage, 160. He studied all the sciences, and succeeded in all 
 of them. Although a pagan by birth and prejudices, he could not resist the profound im- 
 pression made on his soul by the invincible constancy of the martyrs. He embraced the faith 
 of Jesus Christ, became a priest, and soon after addressed to the magistrates of the Roman 
 empire the most eloquent "Apology " which had yet been written. The "African Bossuet," 
 
FATHERS OP THE CHURCH 
 
 131 
 
 nothing would be wanting to his glory if he had always made humility the safeguard of his 
 genius. 
 
 Orig-en was for a time the intimate and instructor of Alexander Severus. His great 
 work was a version of the Scriptures, collating and placing side by side the various texts. In 
 his Commentaries some erroneous doctrines are found ; but his virtue, his love of poverty, his 
 
 The Arch of Constantine at Rome. 
 
 humility, the courage with which he confessed the faith, his immense labors, can never be 
 doubted by any one. Most of his life was spent at Alexandria. His period is the first half of 
 the 3d century. 
 
 St. Cyprian was Bishop of Carthage in the 3d century. He suffered martyrdom under 
 the Emperor Valerian, 258. 
 
 St. Laurence, archdeacon of Rome, died in the same persecution (the eighth). He was 
 roasted on a large gridiron, which thus becomes his emblem in Christian art. 
 
132 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 St. Sebastian, a captain of the Prjetorian guards, was martyred by Diocletian. He is 
 represented by the Cliristian artists as transfixed with arrows. This was his martyrdom. 
 
 St. Anthony lived to witness the triumph of the Church under Constantine. He was 
 born in Egypt of noble and wealthy parentage, but became an anchorite of the desert. Ttu 
 foregoing section is condensed from Abbe Dongas' " History of the Church.'''' 
 
 EMPERORS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY. 
 
 Constantine A. d. 306-337 
 
 Constantinus, \ " 337-340 
 
 Constantius, V " 337-350 
 
 Constans, ) " 337-361 
 
 Julian the Apostate " 361-363 
 
 Jovian, Valentinian I., Valens, Gratian, Valentinian II. 
 
 Tlieodosius the Great " 379-395 
 
 Arcadius, | " 395-(408) 
 
 Honorius, j" " 395-(423) 
 
 The Roman Empire in its Christian Period. — In 306 
 
 began the reign of Constantine the Great, at first with coadjutors, 
 with whom conflicts soon broke out. The victory at the Milviaii 
 Bridge, near Rome, over his rival Maxentius, in 312, was followed 
 by an edict granting toleration and State recognition to the Chris- 
 tians. 
 
 " Shortly before this battle, as Constantine was marching at the head of his troops, a 
 brilliant cross of light formed itself in the midst of the sky, in the direction of the sun. On 
 
 this miraculous cross appeared in 
 HH^pPS^mmHHH m^HBPmiHHI^I ^^ ^^^ words in Greek : 
 
 ^B^^^^^^^^I^H ^l^^^^'^^^^l^H " 111 this conquer." The apparition 
 ^^^gy^^^^R^^B HK^)^ " , ^^^ ^^^I^B ^^ ^^^^ prodigy, which was seen by 
 ■/i^^' '' V, \ '^^ IB ^^ \ \ -^ V ^%^ ^^^ whole army, deeply moved 
 E j » B ■■'^ '^ 1 ^-^^fwB Constantine, who long years after- 
 
 ■i^fe^^i . -*• :^M wi kx^ i'^ V t'^X'^s^vM wards related it to Eusebius, 
 ■j^^^i-;. . ,I^B BS^fe''"' V- -V^^^B Bishop of Caesarea. All that day 
 ^^BUkl)^^^^^^^! ^Hji^^£.^^^^^^^^^H ^^ ^^'^^ preoccupied with this mar- 
 ^^^^^^^'^^^^^^ HH^HHliiilfl^l^B vellous The night follow- 
 
 Eoman Coin of the 4th Century, with the Christian ing the same cross appeared to him 
 Monogram, Ch. R. anew. The next day. at the side of 
 
 the Roman eagles, a banner of a 
 form hitherto unknown was remarked. It was a long staff of gilded wood, bearing near the 
 top a transverse beam, forming a cross, from the arms of which floated a banner of cloth of 
 gold and jewels. Above it sparkled a crown of gold and precious stones, in the midst of which 
 
EMPERORS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY. 133 
 
 was the monogram of Christ, formed of the two Greek initials of tliis name. This monogram 
 and the image of the cross were also placed on the casques of the soldiers. Such was 
 the famous "Laharum," and in this manner the cross, reserved until then as an infamous 
 gibbet for the vilest criminals, after three centuries of outrages, incredulity and perse- 
 cutions, triumphed over the world and became the standard of the Roman legions."— 
 (Abbe Dabbas.) 
 
 The co-regent and remaining rival of Constantine, Licinius, 
 ruler in the East, continued to oppress the Christians. A war was 
 the consequence, by which Licinius was overthrown, and in 324 
 Constantine became sole ruler of the Roman world. 
 
 In 325 was held the famous Church Council of Nice (or 
 Nicsea), by which the heresy of Arius, denying the divinity of 
 Christ, was condemned. 
 
 In 330 the seat of government was removed from Rome to 
 Constantinople, whose older name of Byzantium was changed to 
 honor the emperor. 
 
 This removal of the capital was prompted by reasons connected 
 with the defence of the Eastern frontiers. After 226 A. d., the new 
 Persian Empire of the Sassanids replaced the Parthians in the Tigris- 
 Euphrates valley. (For the Parthians, see p. 61.) Ever since the 
 rise of this new Persian empire, which made itself strong by copying 
 the arts and military science of the Romans, the emperors had been 
 involved in constant wars on the Euphrates. By placing the capital 
 at Constantinople the seat of government was moved as far as pos- 
 sible toward the East, without being farther removed from the camps 
 of the Danube and Rhine frontier than before. In the century 
 before Constantine, the most vigorous and numerous of all German 
 tribes, the Goths, had moved down from Scandinavia and were 
 threatening the lower Danube, and this was an additional reason 
 for centering the forces of government at Constantinople. 
 
 It is manifest that these military considerations would not sug- 
 gest a removal of the spiritual supremacy of the Roman Popes from 
 its first home, nor did Constantine attempt this. On the contrary, 
 he made the See of Rome more powerful than before. 
 
 Constantine, dying in 337, was followed by his three sons, 
 
134 THEROMANEMPIRE. 
 
 Constan tinus, Constantius, and Constans. Their reigns lasted from 
 337 to 361. 
 
 Julian the Apostate, 361-363, represented the expiring effort 
 of Paganism to retrieve itself, but even the effort of an absolute 
 emperor made not the slightest impression. 
 
 Theodosius the Great, 379-395, closed the Pagan temples 
 and made their worship illegal. Those events of his reign, and of 
 that of his predecessor Valens, which belong to the Grerman inva- 
 sions, are related in the history of Germany, pp. 142, 143. 
 
 The century of Constantine the Great is one of the most im- 
 portant in the history of Christianity, For no sooner was the conversion of 
 the empire in general accomplished than that of the Gorman tribes (fore- 
 most the Goths) began. A Gothic bishop was present at the Council of Nice 
 in 325. The translation of the Bible by the German (Gothic) Bishop Ulfilas, 
 praised for its fidelity by St. Jerome, is the oldest literary monument of Ger- 
 manic language (4th century). He omitted the Books of the Kings, lest their 
 warlike spirit should influence the savage minds of the Gothic warriors. Hand 
 in hand with the Christianizing process went on the Romanizing, that is, the 
 civilizing process. But the Arian heresy was also spread far and wide among 
 the Romanized Germans by its apostles. 
 
 In 395 Theodosius the Great died. His sons, Arcadius and 
 Honorius, divided the empire between them. Arcadius took the 
 Eastern division, Honorius the Western. This division was not 
 intended to be permanent. It was made for convenience of gov- 
 ernment in times when military commanders with imperial powers 
 were absolutely needed in more than one place. Such divisions 
 were first made by Diocletian ; they had been habitual since. But 
 this one is emphasized by history because, almost immediately after, 
 the Western division of the empire was overrun by the German 
 tribes. 
 
 The 5th century is the time of the German invasions and of 
 the overthrow of Roman temporal authority in the West. The 
 account of these events of the 5th century will be given in con- 
 nection with the German tribes which took part in them. 
 
BYZANTINE ROME 
 
 135 
 
 Mosaic Portrait of Jus- 
 tinian, at Ravenna. 
 
 Byzantine or East-Rome. — The temporal empire of Rome 
 
 in Eastern Europe continued a thousand years 
 
 beyond the 5th century, till 1453, when the last 
 
 of the Roman emperors fell, fighting bravely in 
 
 the breach of the city walls over which the 
 
 Turks were pouring to the sack of Constanti- 
 nople. A glance at a modern map of Europe 
 
 will exhibit the approximate correspondence of 
 
 area between modern Turkey and the provinces 
 
 of the Roman Empire after the 5th century 
 
 A. D. (Compare map at p. 140.) This Roman 
 
 Empire of the East is known, however, in gen- 
 eral usage as the Byzantine 
 Empire. Byzantium was 
 the older name of the city, 
 re-named by Con stan tine, 
 Constantinople ; hence this 
 adjective. 
 
 After the Emperor 
 Justinian (6th century), 
 famous for his great codi- 
 fication of the Roman Law, 
 the Corpus Juris, which 
 is still the great authority 
 for legal students ; the 
 written history of Eastern 
 Rome is studied only by 
 specialists. But the un- 
 written history of that 
 slow process by which the 
 civilization of the old world, 
 partially buried in the 
 West under the ruins of 
 
 the German invasions, filtered back into Europe by Italian com- 
 
 The Church of St. Sophia at Cout^tantinople. Built 
 by Justinian. A Turkish Mosque since 1453. 
 
136 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 merce, is not to be estimated from the pages of books. At the 
 moment when this process was completed, the Turks drove the sur- 
 viving representatives of ancient culture into Italy, 1453, where 
 they assisted in the Revival of Learning, and aided the culture of 
 the Renaissance. 
 
 The Byzantine world exercised an important influence on 
 North-eastern Europe. Its most important corps of soldiery was 
 recruited from the Northmen of Scandinavia. The Northmen who 
 in the 9th century founded the state which grew into the modern 
 Russia, were therefore in more or less intimate relation with Con- 
 stantinople, though often also at war with its emperors, and in the 
 11th century they adopted the Byzantine Greek Christianity. After 
 1453 the Russians regarded themselves as the heirs of East-Rome, 
 and have waged many wars with the Turks in consequence. 
 
 FATHERS OF THE CHURCH IN THE FOURTH AND FIFTH 
 
 CENTURIES. 
 
 The accession of Pope St. Sylvester I., took place one year after the edict of Con- 
 etantine recognizing Christianity. His epoch is also that of Lactantius, Athanasius, and 
 Eusebius of Caesarea. 
 
 Lactantius professed rhetoric at Nicoraedia, in Asia Minor, and was summoned by Con- 
 stantine to preside over the education of his eldest son. He has been called the Christian 
 Cicero. His most celebrated work is that on the death of the Christian persecutors. 
 
 Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea, was an indefatigable historian, and rendered an eminent 
 service in preserving to history, by his " Chronicle," the precious monuments of the primitive 
 Church. His conduct in the great question of Arianism was not exempt from reproach. The 
 teaching of Arius, a priest of Alexandria, tended to deny the divinity of Christ. His great 
 opponent was St. Athanasius. This heresy was the cause of the Council of Nice, 325, from 
 which dates the Nicene Creed. 
 
 St. Athanasius was made Bishop of Alexandria in 826. For nearly half a century he sus- 
 tained with unshaken fidelity, through all changes of outward fortune, the part he had chosen 
 of champion of the Catholic doctrine. 
 
 St. Greg-ory of Naziansus was bora 316. He became Bishop of Constantinople in the 
 time of Theodosius, and was renowned for his eloquence. He closed hie long career of saint, 
 doctor, bishop, and hermit in 398. At Athens, whither St. Gregory had resorted for study, he 
 had met St, Basil, from that time his fast friend. 
 
 St. Basil, 817-379, was bora at Csesarea in Cappadocia, of which place he became Bishop. 
 His Greek style is so pure that Erasmire did not hesitate to compare it to that of the old Greek 
 orators, even to Demosthenes himself. 
 
 St. Cyril, native and Bishop of Jerusalem, belongs to the same century. His " Catechet- 
 
 N 
 
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH 
 
 137 
 
 icals" are a monument of iucBtiniablc worth, on account of the clearness and order with which 
 the Christian doctrine is explained and defended. 
 
 St. Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers (Poy-l5-a), was the brightest ornament of the Church of 
 Gaul in the 4th century. A second champion, worthy of St. Hilary, was St. Martin of Tours. 
 
 St. Ambrose was made Bishop of Milan in 374. In consequence of a tumult at Thessa- 
 lonica, the Emperor Theodosius sent an order for a general massacre. St. Ambrose went to the 
 emperor, remonstrated with him on his barbarity, and prevailed on him to promise that the 
 command should be revoked. The mandate was, however, carried into execution, and seven hun- 
 dred persons were slaughtered in oold blood. Shortly afterward, when Theodosius was about to 
 enter the great church of Milan, Ambrose met him at the porch and forbade him to appear in the 
 holyplace. The emperor pleaded the example of David. " You have imitated David in his crime, 
 imitate hhn in his repentance," was the reply, and Theodosius was excluded from the church for 
 eight months, and then was compelled not only to perform penance, but to sign an edict that an 
 interval of thirty days should pass before any sentence of death or of confiscation should be 
 executed. The numerous works of St. Ambrose on the Sacred Scriptures and against heresies, 
 his books on morals, and his letters, all abound in a wonderful unction and sweetness of style. 
 In his writings we find the first mention of the word Mass in relation to the Holy Sacrifice of 
 the altar. The Church still sings several hymns of his composition. Tradition attributes to 
 St. Ambrose the Te Deum, the solemn anthem of thanksgiving adopted by the whole Church. 
 
 St. Augustine was born in the year 354 in the little city of TagastS, in the Roman 
 province of Numidia (the present Algeria). His mother, St. Monica, brought him up in the 
 fear of God, but the ardent disposition of the youth led him into the path of pleasures, which 
 he joined to an unquenchable thirst for knowledge. At the age of twenty-eight years Augus- 
 tine had mastered Ihe whole circle of human science then taught, and gained the unbounded 
 applause of all his masters. He was then a celebrated professor of rhetoric at Carthage. He 
 went from here to Italy and obtained the chair of rhetoric in the city of Milan. Under the 
 influence of St. Ambrose, Augustine was converted. He returned to Africa in 388, was con- 
 secrated Bishop of Hippo in 395. In his immortal work, the "City of God," he shows the 
 kingdom of truth rising upon the ruins of 
 empires, and displays the plan of Provi- 
 dence in the institution of the Church and 
 in its development through all time. St. 
 Augustine died in 430, as the flames, kindled 
 by the barbarian Vandals, devoured his epis- 
 copal city of Hippo. 
 
 St. Jerome was born about 331, of a 
 noble and wealthy family in the Roman 
 province Dalmatia. He spent part of his 
 youth in traveling through Gaul and Asia. 
 At Rome he was baptized, then visited 
 Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, to form himself 
 to the religious life by the example of the 
 monks and saintly hermits whom he met 
 there. St. Jerome brought to the service 
 of the truth more learning than any other 
 
 St. Paul's outside the Walls," at Rome. 
 4th Century.* 
 
 * Partly destroyed by fire in 1832, and since reconstructed. 
 
138 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 fether of the Latin Church. His imineuse labors on the Scriptures are equaled only by his 
 incredible mortification, his love of retreat and poverty, and his burning charity, which moved 
 the great St. Augustine to compare him to St. Paul. His style is energetic, rich in figures and 
 in lofty and concise thoughts. His great work was the translation of the Bible known as the 
 *' Vulgate." St. Jerome died in Palestine in 420 at the age of eighty. 
 
 St. John ChjTTSostom of Antioch was made Patriarch of Constantinople in 398, He 
 achieved a reputation which ranks amid the most illustrious and best merited of the Christian 
 Fathers. Tlu foregoing section is condensed from Abbe Darra8\ " History of the Church^ 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 FIRST LESSON IN REVIEW. 
 
 In what century was overthrown the Roman power in Western Europe? 
 
 By whom ? (P. 134.) 
 
 When were these Germans generally Christianized ? (P. 134.) 
 
 But what heresy was also prevalent among them ? 
 
 By what council was this heresy condemned ? (P. 133.) 
 
 Who was then emperor ? 
 
 When was he baptized ? Ans. On his death-bed. 
 
 But when did he officially recognize the Christian Faith 1 
 
 What emperor preceded him ? 
 
 When was the last Christian persecution ? (P. 126.) 
 
 By what emperor was Pagan worship forbidden and Christianity recognized as state 
 T«ligion ? (P. 134.) 
 
 Who were the sons of Theodosius the Great ? 
 
 When did they succeed him ? 
 
 Why is the year 395 a. d. a memorable date ? 
 
 What is the connecting link between the Germanic period in Western Europe, beginning 
 in the 5th century, and the Roman period preceding ? Ans. The Roman Church, 
 
 What great Fathers of the Church belong to both periods ? 
 
 What was the nature of the division of the empire made by Arcadius and Honorius T 
 (P. 134.) 
 
 How long after the 4th century lasted the Roman Empire of the East ? 
 
 By what name is it generally known ? 
 
 Why? 
 
 What is the importance of this empire for the West ? (P. 186.) 
 
 What influence had it on modern learning ? 
 
 What emperor caused the compilation of the Corpus Juris t 
 
 SECOND LESSON IN REVIEW. 
 
 What countries, on a modem map, belonged to the Byzantine Empire r 
 
 When did its capital fall ? (P. 135.) 
 
 How old was Columbus in 1453? Ans. Seventeen years old. 
 
 Name the Important emperors of the 4th century. 
 
QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 139 
 
 Of the 3d century ? 
 
 What is the character of the 3rd century? 
 What policy preserved the stale from dissohition at its close? 
 Name the emperors of the 2ud century. 
 Name the emperors of the 1st century. 
 Were these emperors generally of Roman blood ? (P. 127.) 
 What do you mean by " Roman " in the times of the empire ? (P. 127.) 
 What countries were included in the empire ? (P. 126.) 
 What languages were general ? (P. 130.) 
 
 What peoples were included within the Imperial borders ? (P. 129.) 
 What peoples lay beyond the Danube and the Rhine ? 
 In whose reign did they begin to be formidable ? (P. 124.) 
 In what century did they contribute to the disorders of the empire ? (P. 125.) 
 In what century were many of them Christianized ? (P. 134.) 
 What other process accompanied the religious change ? (P. 134.) 
 By whom was the Roman power of the West overthrown ? 
 In what century ? 
 
 What history therefore naturally follows that of the Roman Empire ? Ans. The history of 
 the Germans and of Gennany. 
 
GERMANY 
 
 TILL A. D. 1500, INCLUDING THE GERMANIC STATES 
 IN WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 EARLY HISTORY TILL A. D. 410. 
 
 Language and Character. — The earliest written document in a Ger- 
 manic language is the translation of the Bible by the Visigothic Bishop Ulfilas 
 (p. 134). For our knowledge of earlier times we are dependent on the accounts 
 of the Romans, upon the comparison of languages, and on a survival (especially 
 in Iceland) of the Scandinavian form of Germanic Heathenism to a later age 
 than that in which the peoples of Germany itself became Christians. 
 
 The comparison of languages proves that all the great races of 
 Europe excepting Finns and Laps, Hungarians, Turks, and Basques belong to 
 a common family, the Aryan (p. 31). 
 
 The Germanic branch of this family included, besides the tribes of 
 Germany, the Anglo-Saxons, who settled in England in the 5th century A. d. 
 (they came from the peninsula of Jutland and the provinces of Sleswick- 
 Holstein) ; also the Dutch, Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. The three latter 
 are also known as Northmen, or Normans. 
 
 Our first written accounts of the manners and customs of the Ger- 
 mans are found in the Latin historian Tacitus (time of Domitian and Trajan). 
 He took pleasure in holding up the simple lives of an uncivilized people as a 
 reproach to the corruption of the Romans. According to Tacitus the Germans 
 were of powerful build, with blonde hair ; brave in war, faithful in peace ; 
 chaste in their morals, but given to drunkenness. They practised agriculture, 
 but without being thoroughly fixed as to locality of settlement and personal 
 ownership of the land. They governed themselves as free men, but gave 
 unswerving allegiance to their chosen military chief. Women were treated as 
 the equals of men, and their judgment was held ip esteem. A deeper insight 
 
i 
 
EARLY HISTORY. 141 
 
 into early Germanic nature is offered by its Heathen mythology, which was 
 mystical, fantastic, imaginative, gloomy, and contemplative. 
 
 Cimlbri and Teutons. — One hundred and thirteen years before Christ, 
 a horde of barbarians swept over Southern France and North Italy, till they 
 were exterminated by the Roman general, Marius (page 100). They were 
 called the Cimbri and Teutons ; the latter, at least, were doubtless Germans. 
 
 Fifty years later, a band led by a chieftain named Ariovistus, and prepar- 
 ing to invade France from Switzerland, was headed off by Julius Ceesar (p. 104). 
 
 The campaigns of Caesar in Gaul, which at this time secured that 
 province for the empire, 58-51 b. c, carried the Romans to the Rhine and sub- 
 jected certain German tribes along the west Rhine bank. Tiberius, serving as 
 general under Augustus, pushed the Roman power over South Germany to the 
 Danube. 
 
 Roman Germany. — Thus within the regular limits of the empire, had 
 been included, from the opening of the 1st century A. D., Austria proper — 
 that is, German Austria — the Tyrol, the South Danube territory of modern 
 Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden. Beyond the line of the Danube where it 
 bends to the south, at Regensburg (Ratisbon), the Roman line continued to the 
 Rhine north of the River Main. 
 
 Meantime, from the Lower Rhine, Roman troops, by various expeditions, 
 had pushed eastward to the Elbe. But this territory was lost by the fatal de- 
 feat of Varus in the Teutoburger Forest, near Lippe Detmold, in Northwest 
 Germany, 9 A. D, Augustus cried out, in despair at this defeat: "Varus, 
 Varus, give me back my legions." 
 
 The German Chieftain Hermann, the hero of the victory, lives to 
 this day in the memory of his nation. A commemorative statue was erected 
 on the site of the battle a few years ago. After this defeat no further attempt 
 was made to advance the Roman boundaries in Germany beyond the limits in- 
 dicated. 
 
 In 1869 was discovered near the site of this battle a richly decorated Roman silver table 
 service, supposed to have been lost in this defeat. It is now in the Berlin Museum. 
 
 Until the time of Conunodus, 180 a. d., the German tribes made no 
 serious attempts against the frontier, although there were occasional wars with 
 individual tribes. During the time between Augustus and Commodus the 
 Roman military camps served a most important purpose. They were also trad- 
 ing posts and the points from which the Roman merchants made their way over 
 Germany. It was Roman policy, as far as possible, to settle its soldiers as 
 farmer-colonists at the different military posts ; and so the legions were agents 
 in disseminating the arts of civilization. Many Germans were enrolled as Ro- 
 
142 
 
 GEHMANY. 
 
 German Soldier in Roman Pay. 
 (From Reliefs on the Column of Trajan.) 
 
 man soldiers. Some came to seek service from beyond the frontier and returned 
 to teach their kinsmen the use of Roman arms and Roman discipline. (Caesar 
 
 had won his victory over Pompey 
 at Pharsalia with his German Ba- 
 tavian cavalry.) The Rhine and 
 Danube frontier included, as we 
 have seen, Romanized Germanic 
 provinces, and these naturally fur- 
 nished large contingents of German 
 blood to the legions. 
 
 After the reign of Corn- 
 modus a great migration of 
 the Goths towards Southern 
 Europe unsettled and dis- 
 turbed the other German 
 tribes. These were crowded 
 against the frontier, and lack- 
 ing room, began to war upon it. The 3d century was a terrible 
 time of conflict. But necessity forced Rome to turn one tribe 
 against another. An entire tribe might thus be enrolled at once in 
 Eoman service, for military discipline was already becoming familiar 
 to the Germans. 
 
 In the time of Probus, about 275 a. d., the territoiy outside 
 the Danube line was lost (Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, part of Wur- 
 temberg). Still, through the 4th century, the main frontier was 
 successfully defended. 
 
 It was in the reign of Valens, 376 a. d., that the first for- 
 midable break occurred. Just as the Goths had disturbed and unset- 
 tled the locations of German tribes in the 3d century, so in their 
 turn the Goths were now disturbed, but this time by an Asiatic 
 race. 
 
 The Huns appeared in 376 A. D. north of the Black Sea, 
 crowding the Goths against the lower Danube. The Huns (Mon- 
 golians) were disgusting in appearance and habits, of squat stature, 
 thorough barbarians, but admirable horsemen. The Goths first 
 
\ 
 
 EARLY HISTORY. 143 
 
 encountered by them (the Eiist-Gotbs or Ostrogoths) were forced 
 into their army. The West-Goths or Visigoths (Christians, but 
 professing Arianism) besought permission from their Roman breth- 
 ren to cross the Danube. It was accorded. 
 
 About 200,000 warriors, with women and children, entered Ro- 
 man territory. They were ill treated by officials appointed to care 
 for them, revolted, and marching on Adrianople, defeated the Em- 
 peror Valens, who was killed in the battle, A. D. 378. His suc- 
 cessor was the Theodosius the Great, already known to us. He 
 enrolled the West-Goths in the Roman army and settled them as 
 soldier-colonists south of the Danube. 
 
 After the death of Theodosius, during a quarrel between 
 his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, this army of Goths was marched 
 into Italy. It was commanded by Alaric, who sacked Rome in 
 410. Alaric died in the following year. 
 
 His people diverted the river Busento from its bed, dng a grave in it, and after burial 
 turned the stream back to its course, that the tomb might never be disturbed. 
 
 His successor was his nephew Athaulf, who concluded a treaty 
 with Hon on us. 
 
 Map Study.— See on a modern map of Germany the various rivers indicated, and the 
 territories noted as Roman, and compare with the outline of the empire, at p. 116. See 
 modern maps for Hesse Darmstadt, Baden, Wurtemberg, Adrianople. 
 
 GERMANIC STATES IN WESTERN EUROPE. 
 
 Honorius gave his sister Galla Placidia in marriage to Athaulf, 
 and as her dowry the lands of Northeast Spain ( Catalonia =G()tha- 
 lunia). To this was soon added Southwest France and nearly the 
 whole of Spain. Thus was founded, 412-415 A. D., the state of the 
 West-Goths, the first Germanic kingdom on Roman territory. 
 Like all its followers, except the Anglo-Saxon states in England, 
 it was Christian and partially Romanized. 
 
 The theory on which the West- G-oth state was founded is best understood by 
 recallin": the Roman habit of paying off soldiers in lands, and of settling them as colonists in 
 large bodies. It had long been customary to incorporate whole bodies of German troops into 
 
144 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 the Roman annies, and the West-Goths, having already once settled in the Eastern Empire, 
 simply changed to the Western. Moreover, divisions of the empire under separate rulers, for 
 military purposes, were customary since Diocletian (pp. 126, 134). What distinguishes this par- 
 ticular settlement is that it was permanent, and created a new state, and that other states fol* 
 lowed it. We shall understand better why Honorius fixed the West-Goths as Roman soldiers in 
 France and Spain by recurring to an event which happened four years before Alaric's sack of 
 Rome. 
 
 On the Christmas-night of 406 a horde of German tribes 
 
 had pushed across the Rhine. 
 The frontier was broken, and 
 its military guards were scat- 
 tered. Pushed on by the swarm 
 of Huns and East-Goths mov- 
 ing into Central Europe, Ger- 
 man tribes had, since that year, 
 been pillaging and marauding all 
 over France and Spain. Hono- 
 
 Tomb of Galla Placidia, at Ravenna. pjug j^ade the West-Goths a home 
 
 that they might reduce these tribes to order and restore security 
 to the country. 
 
 Among the tribes which crossed the Rhine in 406 a. d. 
 were the (German) Burgmidians, who settled themselves just 
 after 415 A. d. in the valley of the Khone and Soane. Burgundy is 
 named after them. 
 
 The (G-erman) Franks were another tribe. They remained 
 for the time being in the territory of modern Belgium. France is 
 named after them. 
 
 The (German) Sueves, who left their name in Suabia, had 
 passed into Spain before the West-Goths founded their state, and 
 were then driven by the Goths up into the northwest corner of 
 that country. Finally they were incorporated in the West-Goth 
 state. 
 
 The (German) Vandals had also passed into Spain. Anda- 
 lusia is named aftter them. In A. D. 429 they moved over into 
 Africa, conquering the Roman province there. Their leader, Gen- 
 
 # 
 
GERMANIC STATES, FIFTH CENTURY. 145 
 
 seric, settling himself at Carthage, began to harry Sicily and 
 Italy. 
 
 The (German) Angles and (G-erman) Saxons, living in Sles- 
 wick-Holstein, on the shores of the Baltic and North Seas, were 
 invited into England, in 449, to protect the Roman Britons from 
 the Picts and Scots of Scotland. The Roman garrisons had been 
 withdrawn early in the century for service on the Continent. 
 
 The only German state not Christian at the time of settlement (or directly 
 after, like the Franks), was this one. The Anglo-Saxons were not converted 
 till after A, D. 600, and meantime exterminated the British Christians, or drove 
 them into Wales. 
 
 In 451 A. D., two years after the Angles and Saxons first 
 landed in England, the army of the Huns had reached France, led 
 by Attila, " the Scourge of God." Attila was met at Chalons-sur- 
 Marne by a united army of Franks, Romans, West-Goths, and Bur- 
 gun dians— Christians fighting against heathen, Romans and Roman- 
 ized fighting against barbarism. The Huns were defeated. The 
 encounter was so terrible that the spirits of the dead were said, in 
 popular tradition, to have continued for three days fighting above 
 the battle-field. 
 
 This is ihe subject of an immense wall-picture by Kaulbach in the Berlin Museum. 
 
 The Huns drew off from France. They next invaded Italy, A. d. 452. 
 Attila their leader was directing his army against the walls of Rome, when 
 Pope Leo I., attended by his prelates, rode out to meet him and warned him 
 to desist. Tradition relates that the Pope was aided by a supernatural appari- 
 tion. Raphael has so represented the event in his famous wall-picture in the 
 Vatican. After this the Huns withdrew from Italy, and were gradually dis- 
 persed and lost sight of. The city of Venice was founded in this year, 453, by 
 fugitives from Padua, who fled to the swamps and lagunes of the Adriatic in 
 their dread of Attila. 
 
 In the very centre of the Invasions of the 5th century stands the 
 pontificate of St. Leo I. the Great. "The decisions of the great Pope were 
 sought for by all the bishops of the world at a time when the torrent of inva- 
 sion pouring over every point of the Roman frontier added daily increasing 
 
146 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 difl&cuties to the Papal administration. He has left us an imperishable monu- 
 ment of apostolic eloquence in sixty-nine discoui-ses. To these labors we must 
 add the great deeds of his glorious pontificate — Rome saved ; once from the 
 invasion of the Hun Attila and again from murder and flames threatened by 
 the Vandal Genseric." 
 
 The Empire loses Italy. — Meantime Honorius, in 425, had 
 been succeeded by Valentinian III. (425-455), an emperor who 
 makes do figure in the events of the time. The leaders of the 
 Barbarian troops were more noted than the emperors of the West, 
 whom they protected. Eicimer, one of these captains, nominated 
 the insignificant successors of Valentinian. After Ricimer's death 
 in 472 his post of commander fell to Orestes, who made his own 
 son, Romulus Augustulus, emperor of the West in 475. 
 
 The German troops, under their leader Odoacer, now demanded 
 a third of the lands of Italy. When this was refused they slew 
 Orestes, and Odoacer made himself king of Italy, 476. Romulus 
 Augustulus returned to private life. Odoacer professed allegiance 
 to the Eastern emperor, but was practically independent of him. 
 This date, 476, is generally fixed as the year of the downfall of the 
 Western Empire. 
 
 The Ostro-Gothic Empire in Italy. — Odoacer's rule had 
 
 lasted fourteen years, when the 
 Emperor of East-Rome, Zeno, 
 commissioned the East-Goths 
 (now separated from the Huns) 
 to reconquer Italy, 490. They 
 did so under Theodoric the 
 Great, who ruled Italy wisely 
 and humanely till 526. The 
 tomb of Theodoric the Great 
 is an important monument of 
 
 Tomb of Theodoric the Great, at Ravenna. 
 
 The East-Goths held Italy 
 for over fifty years. They were expelled, 553, by the generals 
 
GERMANIC STATES, SIXTH CENTURY. 147 
 
 of Justinian (p. 135), who also reconquered for East-Rome the 
 province of Africa from the Vandals, 534. 
 
 The Byzantine generals held Italy for fifteen years, and they 
 were then expelled by the (German) Longobards. 
 
 The Longobards occupied in 568, under Alboin, the whole of 
 the Peninsula, excepting the territory about Eavenna, Genoa, the 
 city of Rome, and parts of Southern Italy. 
 
 The Iiongrobard or Lombard Germans (after them Lombardy is named) were thor- 
 ough barbarians when they conquered Italy. They were made doubly odious to the native 
 population by their adherence to the Arian heresy, which led them to persecute the orthodox 
 Catholics. The Lombards made drinking-cups of the skulls of their enemies. Alboin had 
 married the daughter of a barbarian chief, whom he had slain, and forced her to drink from 
 the skull of her own father at a banquet. In revenge she procured his assassination. 
 
 The Exarchate of Ravenna.—The territories mentioned as not con- 
 quered by the Lombards were called the Exarchate of Ravenna, because ruled 
 by an exarch, or governor, whose 
 capital was here. They were a 
 portion of the East-Roman Empire 
 until the 8th century, when the 
 Exarchate became the formal begin- 
 ning of the States of the Church. 
 The territorial rights which the 
 Eastern emperor had hitherto exer- 
 cised over the city of Rome and 
 other portions of Italy not held by 
 the Lombards, were lost as a result 
 of the Iconoclastic edicts of the 
 Eastern emperors. 
 
 The Iconoclastic, or image- 
 breaking movement, was an attempt 
 by the Eastern emperors to forbid 
 
 Cburcb of San Apollixicuo, 
 Ravenna. 
 
 century, at 
 
 the use of images and pictures in the churches. This interference with affairs 
 of the Church was resisted by the Popes, and led to the severance of their 
 temporal connection with the East-Roman Empire. The political power of 
 an absolute sovereign was exerted to such an extent in this dispute over the 
 bishops ot the Eastern Church, that the beoinnings were thus made of the 
 Greek Schism, which dates from Photiiis, Patriarch of Constantinople, in the 
 9th century. Although the Iconoclastic movement was abandoned in the 
 
148 GERMANY. 
 
 Eastern Empire, the policy of temporal interference with the Church was con- 
 tinued by its emperors. Thus were raised to the Patriarchate of Constanti- 
 nople the unworthy and corrupt political agents, by whom the Greek Schism 
 was inaugurated. 
 
 The Popes were thus left without a temporal protection, even in name, 
 and they had long suffered from the encroachments of the Lombards, who now 
 conquered the Exarchate of Ravenna and prepared to besiege Rome. In this 
 extremity Pope Stephen III. turned, a. d. 754, for protection to the (German) 
 Franks, whose rise to power may now be logically described. 
 
 Map Study.— Visigothic Empire, p. 140. Burgundian Empire, p. 140. See map of mod- 
 em France for course of the Rhone and Saone ; compare the smaller dimensions of the Duchy 
 of Burgnndy. Suevic Empire, p. 140. Suabia is a name applied to a portion of South Ger- 
 many, parts of Bavaria and Wurtemberg. Vandal Empire, p. 140. Andalusia, modern map, 
 Anglo-Saxons in England, p. 140. Sleswick-Holstein, modern map. Chalons-sur-Marue, 
 Venice, Padua; modem map. 
 
 The Italian kingdom of Odoacer, founded in 476, was overthrown by the Ostrogoths before 
 500. Ostrogothic Empire, p. 140. Lombard kingdom in Italy after 568. 
 
 The Empire of East Rome is entered on map for Europe about 500 A. d. as the " Greek 
 Empire." These terms are used synonymously with " Byzantine." 
 
 See location of the Lombards before mvasion of Italy. On same map, Ravenna, Genoa. 
 
 RISE OF THE (GERMAN) FRANKS. 
 
 The Franks permanently crossed the Rhine after 406 a. d., 
 (p. 144), first settling in Belgium. Toward the lattei part of the 
 5th century, Clovis, originally a petty chief of the Franks of Tour- 
 nay, made himself head of the whole tribe (481). 
 
 In 486, by the battle of Soissons (swoy-song *), he overthrew 
 the Roman power, which till that time had continued to hold out 
 in Nor them France. 
 
 The battle of Tolbiac (west of Cologne) reduced to subjection 
 the (German) Allemanni in 497. From them is derived the 
 French word for Germany — Allemagne. 
 
 In 507 the Frankish territory received an enormous addition, 
 the whole of West-Gothic France (excepting territory bordering the 
 
 ♦ The French nasal " n " has been indicated here by a final " g," as there is no other way 
 of denoting this sound in English. But to pronounce the "g" is to pronounce French badly. 
 Better rely on the pronunciation as given by a French scholar. 
 
RISE OF THE (GERMAN) FRANKS 
 
 149 
 
 Mediterranean called Septimania), won by the battle of Vougie 
 (vou-lytl), near Poitiers. 
 
 About thirty years later the Burgundian state was incor- 
 porated in tlie Frankish, and by the same time the rule of the 
 Franks had been pushed eastward over Central 
 Germany to the mountains of Bohemia. Besides 
 this eastern boundary, the territory was bounded 
 here by the Alps on the south and by the Thurin- 
 gian forest on the north (locality of the later 
 Saxon duchies). 
 
 By A. D. 550 the Frankish state had about 
 all the territory which it held in A. d. 750. The 
 rapid success of its arms in France is explained 
 by the fact that the Franks were orthodox Cath- 
 olics. The Catholic Gallo-Roman native popu- 
 lation hated its Arian rulers, the West-Goths and 
 Burgundians, and popular sympathy secured the 
 triumph of Clovis and his successors. 
 
 Clovis.* 
 
 The 6th and 7th centuries were times of dense ignorance and bloody 
 crimes among the Franks, but the Church was doing its best to master this 
 unruly material. Interesting indications of the barbarism of Frankish culture 
 in this period are the jewels. Side by side, in the same gold mounting, are 
 found precious antique gems and bits of colored glass. 
 
 The missionary work of the Church with the German tribes was 
 carried out under the auspices of the Order of St. Benedict, founded early in the 
 6tli century. Its members were the disseminators at once of Christianity and 
 of the arts and knowledge of the older civilization. 
 
 St. Benedict was a native of Nursia, in Southern Italy. The monastery 
 of Monte Cassino, founded in his lifetime, is still the famous centre of his 
 Order. 
 
 Pope St. Gregory the Great sent his famous mission to the Anglo 
 Saxons in England at the end of the 6th century (in 597). For further accounts 
 of Church missions at this time, see Irish history. 
 
 ♦ Tombetpne formerly in the Abbey of St. Genevieve at Paris. 
 
150 GERMANY. 
 
 Map Study.— See moderu map for Tournay, Soissons, Cologne. The map at p. 140 
 shows the Frankish state after battles of Soissons and Tolbiac, but before Vongll Merovaeus 
 was a reputed ancestor of Clovis, and his dynasty is called the "Merovingian." See map of 
 modern Germany for mountains of Bohemia and Thuringia. Monte Cassino is in South Italy, 
 •northwest of Naples. 
 
 FOUNDATION OF THE FRANK CARLOVINGiAN DYNASTY. 
 
 In the opening of the 8th century the Mohammedan Arabs 
 had entered Spain by way of the straits of Gibraltar. (Gibraltar is 
 a corruption of Jebel-el-Tarik-"The Hill of Tarik.'') In the 7th 
 century they had already overthrown the East-Roman power in 
 Syria, Egypt, and North Africa (see history of the Arabs and 
 Turks). Tarik landed in Spain, 711, and the West-Goth Empire 
 of Spain was overthrown in one battle. 
 
 Southern France was soon reached. The hosts of Islam were 
 preparing to annihilate Christendom, The Arabs of Spain were 
 to march over France and the Arabs of the East were to attack 
 Constantinople. 
 
 But Charles Martel, that is, Charles the Hammer, met the 
 Spanish Arabs at Poitiers and utterly defeated them, 732. The son 
 of Charles Martel was Pepin. 
 
 Pepin, like his father, had been Mayor of the Palace, that is to 
 say. Prime Minister. But he was minister of a king of a decrepid 
 dynasty, physically and intellectually unfit to rule, and, with the 
 approval of Pope Zachary, Pepin was made king of the Franks, 752. 
 
 Two years later Pope Stephen III., pressed by the Lombards, 
 turned for protection to the heir of Clovis and the son of the 
 preserver of Christendom. Pepin entered Italy, rescued the Roman 
 Pontiff from his distress, humbled the Lombards, and expelling them 
 from the Exarchate of Ravenna, gave it over to the Pope (p. 148). 
 
 This was the beginning of the States of the Church, 
 although the Popes long before this had exercised temporal power 
 in Rome and its vicinity. Pepin was founder of the Carlovingian 
 dynasty. The son of Pepin was Charlemagne, who succeeded his 
 father in 768, 
 
GERMANIC STATES, 4 00-8 A. D. 151 
 
 GERMANIC STATES IN ORDER OF FOUNDATION. 
 
 Fifth Century. 
 
 „r ^ ■, . j-,^ ( Roman provinces of South- West France 
 
 West-Goth state 415 -j ^^^ gp^in. 
 
 Burgundian state.. (About the same ) Roman provinces of S. E. France. 
 
 Suevic state ] time. ) Roman province N. W. Spain. 
 
 Vandal state 429 Roman province of North Africa. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon states 449 Roman province of Britain. 
 
 Prankish state 486 Roman province of North France. 
 
 East-Goth state 490 Roman province of Italy and Illyria. 
 
 Sixth Centuby. 
 Lombard state 568 Roman province of Italy. 
 
 This table shows that all Germanic states, except the Lombard, were founded in the 5th 
 century. 
 
 GERMANIC STATES IN ORDER OF OVERTHROW OR ABSORPTION. 
 
 West-Goth French territory To the Franks A. D. 507 
 
 533 
 534 
 553 
 
 568 
 585 
 711 
 
 774 
 
 Burgundian territory To the Franks , 
 
 Vandal territory To East-Rome 
 
 ( To East-Rome 
 
 East-Goth Italy 1 To the Lombards. .. . 
 
 Sueve territory To West-Goth Spain, 
 
 West-Goth Spain To the Arabs 
 
 Lombard Italy To the Franks 
 
 It appears from this table that the Germanic states, not conquered by the Arabs or by East- 
 Rome, were all absorbed by the Franks except the Anglo-Saxon states in England. 
 
 Two Germanic states were overthrown by East-Rome, the Vandals and East-Goths. But 
 the East-Goth state, conquered by Justinian, was soon yielded to the Lombards, except the 
 Exarchate of Ravenna, which afterward became Church territory, as related, and North Africa, 
 conquered by East-Rome from the Vandals, was yielded about a hundred years later to the 
 Arabs. 
 
 REVIEW OF GERMAN HISTORY, 400-800 A. D. 
 
 From the foreg-oing- tables it appears that the various streams of German history may 
 t>e conceived as centering a. d. 800 in the Franks, England excepted. The confusion of tribes 
 
152 GERMANY. 
 
 and of eveuts between Alaric and Charlemagne makes the early history of the Germans diffi- 
 cult as to detail. But the essential facts are broad and simple. 
 
 First.— Throughout Western Europe the more or less effete and worn-out populations of 
 the Roman period (effete especially in the upper classes, which naturally were most agitated 
 and shaken by the storm) were brought in contact with the new blood, vigorous natures, and 
 strong wills of the Grerman tribes. A period of barbarism followed the invasions, but its 
 vigor partially made up for its lack of refinement. 
 
 Second.— The partial overthrow of Roman temporal power was not accomplished in defi- 
 ance or contempt of Roman authority. The habits of soldier-settlement and territorial 
 divisions of supreme imperial authority (p. 126), combined with the continued and un- 
 shaken power of the emperors of the East (map, p. 140), allowed the greatest changes to be 
 made without a contemptuous overthrow of the Roman system. Alaric, Athaulf, Odoacer, 
 Theodoric, Clovis — all acknowledged allegiance to the temporal authority of the emperors, 
 whose main seat of government had been at Constantinople before any change occurred, and 
 still continued there. 
 
 Thtird.— Although the personal efforts and individual labors of the Roman missionaries 
 exceed the power of words and almost exceed the power of imagination, one cannot but be 
 struck by the willingness of the German tribes to adopt Christianity, and by the rapidity of 
 their conversion. In the confusion of the invasions the Arian heresy was adopted by entire 
 tribes, but this heresy disappeared under the ascendency of the Pranks. 
 
 A question wMcli cannot be definitely answered relates to the proportion of 
 German inhabitants, numerically speaking, settled over Western Europe in the time of the 
 German states. Since it is a natural tendency to assume that a Germanic state was entirely 
 peopled by Gtermans, we shall do well to note the following points : 
 
 First.— In Spain, Prance, and Italy the native population was neither exterminated nor per- 
 secuted (contrast England), but it suffered much in numbers and in quality from the confusion 
 and disorder of ^he times. 
 
 Second.— The proportion of the lands taken in possession by Germans was from one- 
 third to two-thirds, but as this implies control and ownership simply, it follows that a small 
 number of Germans might cover a large expanse of territoiy. Two hundred thousand West- 
 Goth warriors, with women and children, would not very sensibly affect the blood of the 
 Prench and Spanish population which they ruled, and with which they gradually mixed and 
 intermarried. The Salic Pranks of Belgium, when spread over Prance, would not very sensibly 
 affect the blood of the country by mixture and intermarriage. 
 
 It cannot be denied that an absolutely large, though not relatively large, element of German 
 population was transferred to Prance, Spain, and Italy. Nor can it be denied that it long flir- 
 nished the ruling and military caste. The infusion of German words into Prench, Italian, and 
 Spanish is small. This is significant at least for the rapid amalgamation of the German 
 element. 
 
 Beg-inningrs of the Feudal System.— The fidelity of the Germans to a chosen mili- 
 tary chief in the early times of the invasions has been mentioned (p. 140). This chief might 
 be head either of an entire tribe or of a band of followers only, and it is probable that much 
 of the confbsion of tribal names (there were very many not mentioned in this book) results 
 from the habit of naming each band of followers under a separate chief, without reference to 
 blood relationship. In some cases it was customary for the immediate followers of the chief 
 to sacrifice their own lives at his death. The chief shared with them his possessions, they 
 yved on his bounty and depended on his fortunes. 
 
THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 153 
 
 The relation of personal fidelity between followers and chieftain was naturally 
 weakened when, after settlement in the newly conquered countries, they ceased to be 
 attached to his person. They were separated from the chief by the gifts of land which he 
 made them. They held these lauds, not as absolute property (in theory everything belonged 
 to the chief), but on condition of military service as before. Only being now locally separated 
 from the chief, they tended to become locally iudepeudeut. 
 
 It was also natural that the father should pass his estate to the son, and the principle of 
 hereditary inheritance of the lands loaned by the chief, in return for military service, gradually 
 became general. (The Germans call the feudal system the " lend system *' or " loan system.") 
 Thus there was in the Middle Age a theory of absolute dependence of the followers on the 
 chief; of absolute ownership on the part of the chief of the lands of the estate. But the prac- 
 tice depended on circumstances, on locality, alliances, good will, strength or weakness. 
 Above all, the fact of hereditary transmission of the loaned estate involved contradictions 
 with the theory of absolute dependence on the feudal sovereign. This is why the Middle 
 Age is such a chaos when we descend to details. 
 
 The followers became the barons, the chief became the king.— The rela- 
 tions were always in contention and always undergoing individual variations of countless 
 color and circumstance. But the theory of fidelity, which, as regards kings and barons, was 
 often only a theory, was carried down by the barons to their dependents. And here it was 
 really a bond both of theory and of fact, because local association gave it strength. So also 
 the system of considering all property as loaned was extended to the dependents of the baron, 
 who held land under him, and from these dependents even to the serfs of the soil. 
 
 The relations of the dependents and serfs to the barons were not as harsh as 
 may be imagined. Complaints of the lower orders against the feudal system were not general 
 until the lords were divorced from their estates and called to the courts of the kings in modern 
 times. Then the want of humanizing personal contact between master and servant and the 
 demand for money to make display at court, changed the relations to one of mercenary interest 
 and speculation. But the chivalry of the Middle Age did not live to make money. 
 
 There was no absolutely controlling- royal power possible under the feudal sys- 
 tem. Disputes between barons and knights were settled by personal conflict— the right of 
 private war. This system of legalized petty warfare was fatal to commercial interests. But, 
 on the other hand, fighting was not generally done for pay. The poor and lowly were not in- 
 volved, as now, in the quarrels of the great, and the risks of war fell on those who waged it. 
 
 In the development of the feudal system the history of France and Germany 
 ofEtn-s a remarkable contrast. The great "■ fiefs " or loaned estates became hereditary in France, 
 in the century of Charlemagne (under Charles the Bald, about 877). On the other hand, the 
 great fiefs did not become altogether hereditary in Germany until after 1254 (close of the 
 Hohenstaufen period). But at this time, in France, the po^ver of the modem monarchy had 
 already begun to replace the isolated independence of feudal baronies. Therefore, the history 
 of France presents a clearer unity of development in the latter Middle Age, while the history 
 of Germany is more connected and»clear in its early period. 
 
 For this reason, and also because the theory of the empire created by Charlemagne con- 
 tinued to exercise most important influence on Germany, and soon failed to exert any influ- 
 ence at all on France, the history of Germany after Charlemagne is continued in this book 
 till 1500, before taking up Medieval France, 
 
 The Crusades, in which all Christendom took part, are reserved for treatment in connection 
 with France, which took the largest share in them. 
 
154 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 THE ROMAN-GERMANIC EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 Charlemagne, 768-814, was crowned at Rome in 800 a. d., as 
 Emperor of the West, by Pope St. Leo III. This revival of the 
 Western Empire was based on the severance by 
 the Popes of their temporal relations to the East- 
 ern Emperors and on the desertion of the West 
 by these Emperors. It was based also on the 
 fact that Charlemagne was master of nearly as 
 large an area, exceptmg Africa, as the Roman 
 Empire of the West formerly contained. He had 
 conquered Spam to the Ebro, and he ruled over 
 Italy (replacing the Lombards). To the Frankish territory in 
 France and South Germany (p. 149) he added Austria proper and 
 all North Germany to the Elbe. 
 
 Map Explanation.— A map of modem Germany must be compared with map for the 
 Empire of Charlemagne. Beyond the Elbe there were then no Germans, becaase their migra- 
 tions toward the west had given place to Slavonic tribes, as 
 far as the Elbe, and in Bohemia. The later course of events 
 pushed back the Slavonic race in the north to its present bor- 
 der—the western line of Prussian Poland. 
 
 The whole of North Germany, to the Elbe, was peopled by 
 Saxons, and was then called Saxony. The name was afterwards 
 confined to much narrower limits. 
 
 A Coin of Charle 
 magne. 
 
 The most important event of Charlemagne's 
 career was his conquest and conversion of the Saxons. 
 But his whole life was one of noble toil and arduous 
 effort. 
 
 The Germanic settlement of Austria 
 (proper) was made possible by the conquest and dis- 
 persal of the descendants of the Huns. These had 
 been settled in Hungary and were called Avars. 
 
 Administration. — Over his immense territories 
 the energetic administration of the Frankish emperor kept in force the uni- 
 form system of laws which he had framed. His zeal for learning sought out 
 and protected its professors. Among these the name of the English scholar 
 Alcuin (Alquin) is especially distinguished. Embassies from East-Rome, and 
 
 Military Costume. Ninth 
 Century. From Ancient 
 MS., Paris Library. 
 
THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 155 
 
 from the Arabian caliph Haroun al Raschid, paid honor to his greatness. " He 
 cherished with the greatest fervor and devotion the principles of the Christian 
 religion. Hence it was that he built the beautiful basilica at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 which he adorned with gold and silver, and with rails and doors of solid 
 
 brass When he discovered that there were Christians living in poverty 
 
 in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Carthage, he had 
 compassion on their wants and used to send money over sea to them. He 
 cherished the Church of St. Peter the Apostle at Rome above all other sacred 
 and holy places, and heaped its treasury with a vast wealth of gold, silver and 
 precious stones. He sent great and countless gifts to the Foyes."— Eginhard's 
 (contemporary) Life (published in Harper's Half-hour Series). 
 
 Louis the Pious, 814-840, succeeded his father Charlemagne. 
 But only the hand of the great Emperor himself could wield the 
 sceptre of such a territorial empire in such an age. Nor was it 
 necessary that this territorial empire should continue. The Saxons 
 had been brought within the pale of Christian civilization, the Mo- 
 hammedans had been pushed back in Spain, Central and Western 
 Europe had been united by similar laws ; but the national characters 
 were too different, the age too violent, and the empire too large for 
 permanent rule by a single sovereign. Charlemagne's work was in 
 no sense lost because his territories were divided by the sons of 
 Louis the Pious in the Treaty of Verdun. 
 
 By the treaty of Verdun, 843, the theory of the common 
 empire was retained, and thus Lothair, the eldest son, was given 
 with the title of emperor the central division, as containing the two 
 capitals of Aix-la-Chapelle and Rome. This division comprised 
 Italy and the territory corresponding to modern Switzerland, Savoy, 
 Alsace, Lorraine (named from Lothair Lotharingia, whence Lor- 
 raine), Belgium, and Holland. Above the border of Italy this terri- 
 tory has ever since been the debatable ground between France and 
 Germany. The existence of these two latter countries as separated 
 territories is dated from 843, Charles the Bald taking France, Louis 
 the German retaining Germany, which he had already ruled for ten 
 years as his father's deputy. 
 
156 GERMANY. 
 
 liOthair died in 855. After the death of a son, Lothair II., 8T0, his inheritance in 
 Northern Europe was divided between his uncles, while Italy passed to a younger son of 
 Lothair II.— Louis II.— with title of emperor. (Treaty of Meersen, a town on the Mease.) 
 Louis n. died, 875, without heirs. The Imperial title was then held in succession by 
 the two surviving brothers of the first Lothair— viz., Louis the German (died 876), and Charles 
 the Bald (died 877). Louis the German was succeeded by sons named in the Table. On^ of 
 these, Charles the Fat, reunited for one year, 888, the territories of Charlemagne, and 
 was then deposed for incompetency. For Italy had been overrun by the Saracens, France 
 by the Normans, Germany by the Slavonians, and against these enemies nothing had been 
 accomplished. A final division of Charlemagne's territories was then made, in which 
 France and Grermany retained mainly the dimensions of the Treaty of Verdun, but the portion 
 of Lothair was broken up into subordinate governments— Lorraine, Upper and Lower Bur- 
 gundy, and Italy— all more or less loosely connected with the Imperial rule, which passed in 
 title to the sovereigns of Germany under Otto the Great. There was meantime no recognized 
 emperor. The German sovereigns began to assert the most important place in European 
 History after the opening of the 10th century. The German line of Charlemagne ended here 
 in 911, but continued to linger in France till 987. The French Carloviugians descend from 
 Charles the Bald. 
 
 Map Study.— See map for the Empire of Charlemagne for Verdun and the divisions of 
 its treaty. Compare this map with a modem map of Europe especially for the territories of 
 Lothair named nbove. 
 
 CARLOVINGIAN RULERS OF GERMANY. 
 
 Pepin A. D. 768t 
 
 Charlemagne *' 814f 
 
 I^ouis tlie Pious, son of the foregoing " 840f 
 
 Louis the German, son of the foregoing •' 876f 
 
 Karlmann, J ( " 880f 
 
 Louis the Younger, >• sons of the foregoing < " 882f 
 
 Charles the Fat, deposed ) ( " 888 
 
 Amulf, nephew of the foregoing " 899f 
 
 Loais the Child, son of the foregoing " 911f 
 
 The first three sovereigns named ruled Germany as one portion of the entire Prankish state. 
 A cross indicates the year of death. 
 
 TENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Conrad of Franconia was elected king by the German princes 
 in 911, and was succeeded in 918 by Henry I. the Fowler, the 
 first of the celebrated Saxon line. 
 
 With his son, Otto I. the Great, 936-973, the empire of 
 
TENTH CENTURY. 157 
 
 Charlemagne, although now lacking in territorial extent the French 
 provinces, was otherwise continued and even increased. Italy was 
 an important portion of it. 
 
 Map Explanation.— (T'or the following matter a map of modem France should be com- 
 pared with that for Otto the Great.) From the area of modem Prance we must separate at 
 this time the whole valley of the Rhone and Saone, including the modern French provinces of 
 Provence, Dauphine. Savoy, Burgundy, and Franche-Comt6. These territories of the old Bur- 
 gundian state, then divided into Upper and Lower Burgundy, were not included in France, and 
 a little later than the time of Otto I. (in 1032) they were included in the Empire. AJsace, 
 Lorraine, Switzerland, and the Netheilands, all belonged to this Germanic empire. Italy was 
 also included in it. Its sovereignty was acknowledged by Denmark, Poland, Bohemia, and 
 somewhat later by Hungary. 
 
 Coronation. — Otto the Great was crowned at Rome by the 
 Pope, as Charlemagne had been, and from his time the German 
 sovereigns established a sort of prescriptive right to the Imperial 
 title. In theory any magnate or sovereign of Europe might be 
 crowned "Emperor of the West"; in fact, it was always a German 
 sovereign who gained this distinction. When there was no hered- 
 itary heir, the German sovereign was elected by the German princes. 
 In either case, after consecration by the Pope, he was Emperor of 
 Christendom in theory, and of a large part of it in ftict. 
 
 There were three lines of Grerman emperors — the Saxon, 
 Franconian, and Hohenstaufen, under whom this ideal of the 
 empire, as conceived by Charlemagne and restored by Otto I., was 
 upheld, in general with dignity and success, until the middle of the 
 13th century. 
 
 The Germanic character of this '^ Holy Roman Empire," as it is 
 called, is best comprehended by remembering that Charlemagne 
 himself was a German Frank, habitually speaking German ; that he 
 had proposed the compilation of a German grammar, and had made 
 a collection of the German folk-songs. His residences of Ingelheim 
 (westof Mayence) and of Aix-la-Chapelle were both on German soil. 
 By the female line, the Saxon House was descended from him. 
 
 The succeeding Saxon emperors were Otto II., Otto III., 
 and Henry II. 
 
168 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Hungary was occupied, in tlie 9th century, by the ancestors of the modem 
 Hungarians, then wandering nomads from Asia. Placo had been made for 
 them here by Charlemagne's dispersal of the Avars. The Hungarians were the 
 scourge of Germany till the decisive victories won by Henry I. near Merseburg 
 
 in Saxony, and by Otto the Great 
 
 f''^J^.|tfji( •■ .^ "'' ' ■ j^tefetov- on the Lechfeld near Augsburg. 
 
 ^ ?W\)B^\^rt^^^HBil i^ They became converts to Christi- 
 
 "^ llSivy J^^^^^^WI ■! ^"'*>' under the famous Pope Syl- 
 vester II. soon after 1000. This 
 Pope had been, under the name 
 of Gerbert, the tutor of Otto III. 
 The Slavonian Bohe- 
 mians and Poles were Chris- 
 tianized generally in the time of 
 Otto the Great, and largely in 
 consequence of his exertions. 
 He spared no efforts to exalt the 
 Church and to advance the Cath- 
 olic faith. It was this sovereign, 
 also, wlio secured the conversion 
 of the Danish king Harold. 
 
 From the Danes Henry I. 
 had already conquered and Ger- 
 manized the province of Sles- 
 wick. 
 
 From the Slavonians 
 beyond the Elbe Henry I. took the Duchy of Brandenburg, the territory about 
 Berlin, and colonized it with Germans. All the Ottos were distinguished by 
 efforts to introduce the Byzantine civilization into Germany. 
 
 Map Study.— For Merseburg, the Lechfeld, Brandenburg— see map for Otto the Great. 
 See modern map for Slesvvick. Speyer, Worms and Mayence are on the Rhine. 
 
 Cathedral of Speyer, begun by Conrad 11. 
 
 ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The last Sazon Emperor, Henry II., was canonized by the 
 Church. The fine cathedral at Bamberg, in modern Bavaria, was 
 erected by him. The great cathedrals of Speyer, Worms, and May- 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 169 
 
 Cathedral of Worms, 11th Century. 
 
 eiice, the finest in Europe of their time, also represent the glories 
 of the Germanic eaipire in this period. 
 
 The succeeding line of 
 German emperors is called the 
 Franconian. 
 
 In early German history Saxony, 
 meaning the country of the Saxous, com- 
 prised all North Germany as far as the 
 Slavonians beyond the Elbe. Franconia 
 was the name of Central Germany, lying 
 between Saxony on the north, and Suabia 
 and Bavaria on the south. It was bounded 
 on the northeast by theThuringian forest, 
 on the southeast by Bavaria, on the west 
 by Lotharingia or Lorraine. 
 
 Under Conrad II. was 
 
 added to the empire, 1032, 
 the Burgundian kingdom, 
 whose extent has been out- 
 lined, p. 157. 
 
 Under Henry III., a powerful and active sovereign, Hungary 
 also acknowledged the imperial authority. It was during this reign 
 that the poems of the Nibelungen, the great work of German 
 medieval literature, began to take the shape in which they have 
 been handed down. They are based on the adventures and myths 
 of the times of the German invasions. No individual author is 
 known. 
 
 The glories of the Holy Roman Empire were at their height 
 when France was still a chaos of warring baronies, and England a 
 comparatively barbarian country. 
 
 It was in the reign of Henry IV., 1056-1106, that the first 
 downward step was taken. His tutor, when a young man, had been 
 the monk Hildebrand, with whom, as the celebrated Pope Gregory 
 Vn., the emperor came in conflict. The right of appointing 
 bishops was claimed by the German sovereign and denied by the 
 Pope — the famous struggle about "Investitures." With Henry IV. 
 
160 GERMANY. 
 
 it was a question of power, of influence, and of money. With 
 Gregory VII. it was a question of principle. Henry was excom- 
 municated. Unable to maintain his influence nnder this punish- 
 ment, he knelt for three days in the snow, clothed in penitential 
 garb, before the gates of the castle of Canossa, in the Northern Apen- 
 nines, until absolution was accorded him, 1077. He did not, how- 
 ever, yield in good faith, and his son Henry Y. also continued to 
 antagonize the papal authority on this point. 
 
 The great importance attaching- to this controversy rested on the danger 
 which threatened the Church if its dignities were bestowed as political and temporal prefer- 
 ments, and on the immense power and territories of the Germanic Empire in which this usur- 
 pation was attempted. 
 
 The opposition of Imperial authority to the Papal, under the two last Franco- 
 nians, ultimately led to the downfall of the emperors. The results of the struggle were imme- 
 diately apparent in the access of power which the determined attitude of Gregory VII. secured for 
 the Church. Under Gregory's immediate successors began the period of the Crusades, in 
 which the Popes were politically the arbiters and directors of the destinies of Europe. 
 
 The First Crusade was undertaken in 1096, ten years before the death of Henry I\". ; but 
 the share of Germany in the movement was much less than that of France, and the influeuce 
 of the Crusades on after history is most apparent in this latter country. For this reason the 
 Crusades in general are summarized under French history. 
 
 TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 At the death of Henry V. without heirs, in 1125, the Hohen- 
 staufeu family, owning immense territories in 8uabia, had counted 
 on securing the imperial crown. Frederick of Hohenstaufen had 
 married the sister of Henry V., but his ambition was blocked by 
 the election of Lothair of Saxony, with the assistance and coalition 
 of Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria, who was given in marriage 
 Lothair's daughter and heiress. Thus were united in one family 
 the two large Duchies of Saxony (p. 159) and Bavaria. 
 
 The first Hohenstaufen emperor, Conrad IH., the son of 
 Frederick of Holienstaufen, secured election as emperor in 1137, 
 and finding his authority endangered by so powerful a vassal, de- 
 clared the union of two duchies under one head illegal, and outlawed 
 Henry the Proud. This duke died a year later, leaving an infant son 
 named Henry the Lion. The civil war begun by Henry the Proud 
 
TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 after outlawry, was continued in behalf of the son by his uncle, 
 
 of Bavaria. At the battle of Weinsberg, 1140, were first heard the 
 
 battle-cries of Welf (Velf) and Waiblingen (Vaiblingen). 
 
 "After the battle the long-besieged city of Weiusberg was obliged to yield. The emperor, 
 irritated by its long resistance, had resolved to destroy it with fire and sword. He, however, 
 permitted the females of the city previously to retire and to cany with them their dearest 
 jewels. And behold, when the day dawned and the gates were opened, the women advanced 
 in long rows', and the married bore each upon her back her husband, and the others each their 
 dearest relative. This affecting scene so moved the emperor, that he not only spared the men, 
 but also the whole city. '^—{Kohlrausch, Histoiy of Germany.) 
 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines. — Waiblingen was a castle of the 
 Hohenstaufens, and Welf the family name of their antagonists. 
 Hence the designations used in Italy of "Guelphs," and "Ghibel- 
 lines," applied to the Anti-Imperial or Papal and the Imperial 
 parties (but finally used in the Italian civic quarrels of later cen- 
 turies when this sense of the terms had utterly disappeared). 
 
 The Italians were growing weary of the constant pouring of 
 German armies into Italy U) assert the territorial rights of the em- 
 perors. Each new coronation at Rome — and the emperor at this 
 time was always crowned there — was the signal for the disorderly 
 march through Italy of a German host. The towns of Lombardy 
 which were most exposed in locality to the Imperial exactions, 
 resolved to assert their freedom, and the Roman Pontiffs favored 
 their aspirations for hberty. The father of Italian independence of 
 Germany was Pope Alexander III. 
 
 The revolt of the Lombard towns took place under the 
 great Frederick I. (Barbarossa), 1152-1190, the second Hohenstaufen 
 emperor. He made six campaigns in Italy, meeting decisive de- 
 feat in the battle of Legnano. Compelled to acknowledge himself 
 worsted, he knelt to kiss the foot of Pope Alexander III. before the 
 Church of St. Mark's in Venice. The stone on which Barbarossa 
 knelt is still shown. 
 
 Henry the Lion (p. 160), at first his friend and ally, then his 
 opponent, was therefore deprived of his possessions, with the ex- 
 ception in " Saxony " of Luneburg and Brunswick — the foundation 
 
162 GERMANY. 
 
 of the later state of Hanover. Thus Henry the Lion was the an- 
 cestor of the Guelphs of Hanover, the line to which the reigning 
 English sovereign belongs. 
 
 Barbarossa was an efficient sovereign and brave knight, but 
 his reign marks the time when the emperors lost their power in 
 Italy. He died on the Third Crusade, 1190. It was long a German 
 tradition that their greatest emperor was not really dead — that he 
 was slumbering with his knights in a mountain cave, and that he 
 would one day return to restore tlie glories and power of the past. 
 
 Henry VI., his son, apparently sustained the Italian prestige of 
 the emperors by marriage with the Norman heiress of Naples and 
 Sicily. 
 
 Map Study.— For union of " Saxony" and Bavaria see these provinces on map for Otto 
 the Great. Weiusberg, Legnano, Venice— same map. See map of " Europe in 1713" tor 
 Brunswicli-Luneberg. See map of "Europe during the 18th Century" for Norman kingdom 
 of Naples and Sicily. Suabia, same map. 
 
 THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Frederick II., 1208-1250, thus inherited the whole of South 
 Italy, as personal territory, beside Suabia. But the poHcy of antag- 
 onism to Italian independence, and to the Popes as representatives 
 of this ideal, ended in the downfall of the Hohenstaufens soon after 
 the end of the reign which had witnessed such large addition to 
 their family power. Frederick II. died in 1250. His son Conrad 
 IV. died in 1254, leaving an infant heir, Conradin. 
 
 Charles of Anjou (Ong-jon), brother of the French king 
 Louis IX., was culled into Italy by Pope Clement IV., to combat 
 the Hohenstaufen regent of Sicily, Manfred. With tlie defeat and 
 death of Manfred, 1266, and of the youthful Conradin in 1268, 
 ended at once tlio House of Hohenstaufen and the glories of the 
 Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 Since its foundation by Charlemagne in 800 it had lasted 450 years. Aitliough 
 shorn of its greatness, the " Empire " continued to exist in theory till 1806, when it was abol 
 ished by Buonaparte, who, however, once more conceived himself as heir of Charlemagne in 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 163 
 
 his own title of emperor. The history of Germany after 1354 is determined by the continued 
 union in one prince of two diflferent offices, namely, that of German sovereign and of emperor 
 of Christendom. The' struggle against this sovereign as an emperor so weakened his power 
 as a king in later Mstory, that Germany did not achieve its national unity until the 19th 
 century. 
 
 RULERS OF GERMANY FROM 911 TO 1354. 
 Conrad I., the Franconian A. D. 918f 
 
 SAXOIT LINE. 
 
 Henry I 
 
 Otto I., son of foregoing 
 
 OttoH., " 
 
 Ottoni, " 
 
 Henry H., grand-nephew of foregoing. 
 
 FRANCONIAN^ LINE. 
 
 Conrad II 
 
 Henry III., son of foregoing 
 Henry IV., " 
 
 Henry V., " 
 
 Lothair the Saxon. 
 
 HOHEKSTAUFEN LIN^E. 
 
 Conrad III 
 
 Frederick I. (Barbarossa), grandson of foregoing 
 
 Henry VI., J 
 
 „, .,. „ CI 1 . 1 sons of foregoing 
 
 Philip of Suabia, \ ^ ^ 
 
 Frederick II., son of Henry VI 
 
 Conrad IV., sou of foregoing 
 
 Otto IV., rival emperor. 
 
 Thirteenth Century Continued.— Between 1254 and 1272 no emperor was elected. 
 Richard of Cornwall, brother of Edward I. of England, and a Castilian prince, were both 
 suitors for the title. This shows that there was no legal connection between German royalty 
 and the title of emperor, which it so invariably secured. 
 
 The fall of the Hohenstaufens was followed by an immediate development in Germany of 
 the feudal independence for which the great nobles had so long been aspiring, and the history 
 of the country becomes broken and chaotic through this development of feudalism at the 
 moment when France was developing unity and national power. After 1272 the princes took 
 
 
 
 " 986t 
 
 y i 
 
 " 973t 
 
 s 
 
 " 983f 
 
 E^^ 
 
 " 1002t; 
 
 
 " 1024t^ 
 
 h 
 
 " 1039t 
 
 -2 
 
 " 10561 
 
 > 
 
 " iioet. 
 
 3 
 
 " 1135t 
 
 
 " 113Tt 
 
 >> 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 " 1153t 
 
 1 
 
 '' 1190t 
 
 ^ 
 H 
 
 " 1197t; 
 
 
 '' 1208t^ 
 
 ^ . 
 
 " 1250t 
 
 [fs 
 
 " 1254t 
 
 J 
 
 II 
 
164 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 care to select an emperor who, from smallness of his estates or other reasons, was not con. 
 
 sidered a dangerous enemy to their feudal independence. Thus, instead of a direct territorial 
 
 authority over Italy and the whole of Germany, with 
 some sort of influence over Hungary, Bohemia. Po- 
 land, and Burgundy, the Imperial office did not even 
 convey a sovereignty over Germany. It became an 
 ^ TIC^K^K. ^ M engine for the personal aggrandizement of the individ- 
 
 ual prince, whose family heirs might become (and 
 often did become) themselves feudal opponents of an- 
 other emperor. 
 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg, a man of 
 
 character but with relatively small pos- 
 sessions, was thus elected emperor in 
 1273. He owned territories in Swit- 
 zerland adjacent to the Castle of Haps- 
 l)iirg, with some possessions in what is 
 now Southern Baden and in Alsace. 
 Ofctocar of Bohemia, also ruler of Ger- 
 man Austria (Austria proper is the ter- 
 ritory of which Vienna is the immediate capital), contested the 
 election. Rudolf worsted him, and confiscated German Austria 
 for his own family possessions. 
 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg. 
 
 Map Study.— See Western Europe about 1400, p. 200. 
 
 Thus the House of Hapsburg became the House of Austria, with possessions including 
 Carinthia, Styria, and Carniola, to which the Tyrol was afterward added. But Hungary and 
 Bohemia, the largest part of the modern Austrian Empire, were not acquired till after 1500. 
 For original Hapsburg territory in Switzerland, Baden, and Alsace, see map for Europe about 
 1400. For addition of Austria, see the same map. Carinthia, Styria, Carniola, the Tyrol ; the 
 same. 
 
 When Rudolf vras crowned no sceptre was at hand. He removed the difflcnlty by 
 snatching up a crucifix, saying, " A symbol by which the world was redeemed may well sup- 
 ply the place of a sceptre." He was distinguished by indifference to personal appearances, and 
 did not hesitate to wear an inferior cloak, and to repair, with his own hand, his doublet. This 
 was made a subject of merriment by Ottocar of Bohemia, who was compelled, after his defeats, 
 to sue for pardon of the emperor attired in this very costume. 
 
 • Portrait-statue above the portal of Strassburg Cathedral. 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTUKY. 165 
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The story of William Tell belongs to the time of Albert of Austria, 
 the son of Rudolf. The feat of shooting an apple from a child's head is related, 
 in a Danish chronicle, of a freebooter living some time before William Tell. 
 But it is quite certain, at least, that a revolt of the Swiss cantons, Uri, Schwyz, 
 and Unterwalden, against the Hapsburgs, was caused by the oppressions of the 
 bailiff Gessler. 
 
 The later Swiss confederation dates its existence from this time. 
 Lucerne soon after joined the three cantons named, making the " Four Forest 
 Cantons." Before 1352, Zurich, Glarus. Zug, and Berne had joined the league. 
 
 In 1386 the Hapsburgs, endeavoring to recover some of their Swiss terri- 
 tory, were defeated at Sempach, mainly by the heroic self-sacrifice of Arnold 
 von Winkelried, who clasped the enemies' spears in his arms, and thus, by 
 offering up his life, opened a gap in their ranks for his comrades. 
 
 Map Study.— For the Swiss cantons named, see modern map of Switzerland. For Sem- 
 pach, see map of Europe about 1400. 
 
 Henry VII. of Luxemburg is the emperor celebrated by the 
 contemporary Italian poet Dante. Although a prince of small pos- 
 sessions, he strove to live up to his title. The marriage of his son 
 John with the Princess Elizabeth, heiress of Bohemia, founded the 
 important House of Luxemburg-Bohemia. 
 
 Charles IV. of this line estabhshed the "Golden Bull," by 
 which the right of choosing the emperor was legally fixed where 
 custom had devolved it — on seven electoral princes. This mode of 
 election was made necessary by the tumultuary elective meetings of 
 earlier times. At the election of Lothair the Saxon, for instance, 
 sixty thousand knights and barons entitled to vote had been 
 present. 
 
 The seven electors were the King of Bohemia, the Princes of 
 Brandenburg, of Saxony, and of the Palatinate, and the Arch- 
 bishops of Mayence, Treves, and Cologne. The jurisdiction of the 
 princes was made independent of appeal to the emperor. Thus was 
 formally established the territorial independence of the feudal Ger- 
 man states. In all ways the reign of Charles IV. marks the recog- 
 
166 GERMANY. 
 
 nition of the now purely titular character of the Imperial office, his 
 activity as a sovereign being almost entirely confined to his own 
 Bohemian kingdom. Here he created, at Prague, the first German 
 university. 
 
 Map Study. — '* Europe about 1400," the seven Electorates are underscored. The Palatinate 
 included territory on the Rhine, at the mouth of the Neckar (Heidelberg), and on the opposite 
 West-Rhine bank. The Upper Palatinate corresponds to the northern part of modem Bavaria. 
 Large territories on the Rhine and Moselle belonged to the Archbishoprics of Mayence, Treves, 
 and Cologne. 
 
 MAP EXPLANATION. 
 
 Dauphine.— Charles FV. abandoned, in 1347, the Imperial rights of supremacy over Sbuth- 
 eastem France— the " Burgundy" of map for Europe during the 12th century. These rights 
 were granted to the French crovi'n-prince John, who had inherited at this time the over-lord- 
 ship of Dauphin6, and thus united it with the French crown. The title of "Dauphin," corre- 
 sponding to that of the " Prince of Wales," and given to the oldest son of the King of France, 
 was derived from the acquisition of this province. Compare map for Europe about 1400. 
 
 Luxemburgr-Bohemia.— See map for Europe about 1400 for Luxemburg (colored blue, 
 the territory above Lorraine). With the Bohemian territories are included Silesia and Bran- 
 denburg. 
 
 Union of Hungary with Luxemburg-Bohemia.— Sigismund, son of Charles IV., 
 married Maria, heiress of Hungary, and was crowned king in 1387. Hence the union of Hun- 
 gary and Bohemia (so important for later history of Austria). Shakespeare has been derided by 
 English critics for ignorance of history in providing " Bohemia " with sea-ports— observe the 
 map. 
 
 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 As emperor after 1410, Sigismund conferred on the House 
 of Hohenzolleru the territory of Brandenburg, where this family was 
 established in 1417. The original home of the Hohenzollerns was 
 a small territory, still owned by them, in the southwest corner of 
 Wurtemberg. The family gained the title of Counts of Nurnberg 
 under Henry VI., with possession of the neighboring territories of 
 Anspach and Baireuth, in modern Bavaria. With tlie acquisition of 
 Brandenburg (capital Berhn) begins the rise of the modem kingdom 
 of Prussia, still ruled by the Hohenzollerns. Their territory of 
 Brandenburg has always remained the central province and heart 
 of this kingdom. The name "Prussia" is derived fi*om an out- 
 lying province acquired at a later date. 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 167 
 
 Map Study.— For Hohenzollern see map for " Europe about 1400.'" For territories of 
 
 Anspach and Baireutii, see map for "Europe in 1550. 
 parte and Prussia was occasioned by his marching 
 through Anspach and Baireuth, instead of stopping 
 to go around them, when on his way to the victory 
 of Austerlitz.) For Hohenzolleras in Brandenburg, 
 6ee map for 1550. Compare with map for 1400. 
 
 After Sigismund, the Imperial 
 title reverted to the Hapsburgs. 
 The reign of Frederick III. lasted 
 nearly half a century. His own 
 Austrian dominions were small, his 
 character and life quite narrow, and 
 the exercise of the sovereign rights 
 over Germany, implied in his title, 
 were almost absolutely in abeyance. 
 But this emperor was father of a 
 
 (The war of 1806 between Bona- 
 
 Maximilian I. 
 (From an old Wood-cut.) 
 
 German Knight of Maxi- 
 milian's Time. 
 (From an old Wood-cut.) 
 
 period of Charles V. 
 belongs to the 16th century. 
 
 famous son, who gave a fresh impulse to the 
 pretensions and also to the power of the 
 emperors. 
 
 This son was Maximilian I., a knightly 
 and energetic character. He succeeded his 
 father in 1493. 
 
 His grandson and successor, the Em- 
 peror Charles V., is the most important sov- 
 ereign — in character, possessions, and influence — 
 of the 16th century. But the dimensions and 
 history of his empire presuppose a knowledge of 
 Italy, of France, and of Spain, as well as of Ger- 
 many. For this reason the history of each of 
 these other countries is carried down to the year 
 1500, before entering on the 16th century and the 
 The most important part of Maximilian's reign also 
 
168 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 RULERS OF GERMANY FROM 1273 TO 1500. 
 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg a. d 
 
 Adolf of Nassau " 
 
 Albert of Austria, a Hapsburg and son of Rudolf " 
 
 Henry VII., of Luxemburg " 
 
 Frederick of Austria ; a Hapsburg, son of Albert " 
 
 Rival Emperor, Louis of Bavaria " 
 
 Charles IV. of Luxemburg-Bohemia " 
 
 Wenceslaus, of Luxemburg-Bohemia, his son, deposed " 
 
 Rupert of the" Palatinate " 
 
 Sigismund of Luxemburg-Bohemia, son of Charles IV " 
 
 Albert II., of Austria, a Hapsburg " 
 
 Frederick III., of Austria, a Hapsburg " 
 
 Maximilian, son of foregoing ** 
 
 .isgitlll" 
 
 1398t '^o 
 1308t 1 
 1313t U . 
 
 1330t Is' 
 1347t II 
 1378t^'" 
 
 1400 
 141 Of 
 1437t 
 1439t 
 1493t 
 15191 J 
 
 
 ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF GERMAN MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 
 
 Teutonic Knigrhts and 
 first settlement of Prussia. 
 — This province, which, united 
 at a later date with the territory 
 of Brandenburg, transferred its 
 name to the whole territory 
 of the Hohenzollems, lies in the 
 extreme noriheaetem comer of 
 modern Germany, on the Vistula 
 and its tributaries. (Map for 
 ''Europe about 1400.") It was 
 inhabited until the 13th century 
 exclusively by barbarian Slavo- 
 nians. 
 
 Pope Innocent III. created the 
 first bishop of Prussia soon after 
 1200. He was supported and assist- 
 ed by the Teutonic Knights, a cru- 
 sading order headed by Hermanu 
 von Salza, who colonized and Ger- 
 manized the province. 
 
 The Mongrols.— In i he reign 
 of Frederick II. the Mongols, hav- 
 ing conquered under Dschingis 
 (Gingis) Khan nearly the whole of Asia, invaded Europe. They defeated a German army 
 
 Interior. 
 
MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 
 
 169 
 
 in 1311 at Liegnitz (Leegnitz) in Silesia, but retired before a continued show of firm resistance. 
 They continued to occupy Russia, as related under this heading. 
 
 The Hansa.— After the middle of the 14th century the most important power of North 
 Germany was the league of the Hansa towns, which controlled the commerce of Northern 
 Europe, and even waged successful war as an independent power on Denmark. Among the 
 most important cities of this league were Llibeck, Wismar (Vismar), Rostock, Stralsund, Bre- 
 men, Hamburg, Cologne, Dant- 
 zic, Koenigsberg, Wisby, Riga, 
 Reval and Dorpat. 
 
 The Cathedrals. — We 
 are not to suppose, from the 
 chronicles of the Imperial title 
 and the weakness of German 
 sovereigns in the later Middle 
 Age, that the period after the 
 Hohenstaufens was insignifi- 
 cant in Germany. It is the 
 time of the rise and greatness 
 of the Free Cities. They have 
 written their own history, here 
 and all over Europe, on the 
 Gothic cathedrals, which be- 
 long to this period and repre- 
 sent its greatness. The Gothic 
 Style, borrowed from France, 
 developed in Germany after 
 the middle of the 13th century 
 and lasted till after 1500. 
 
 The earlyChristian churches 
 borrowed the forms, which de- 
 veloped into the later Cathedrals 
 the Roman Baptisteries or Bath 
 
 Cologne Cathedral, begun 1248. View of the Choir, 
 
 from the Roman Basilica (Business Exchange) and from 
 Basilica types are represented at pp. 123, 137, 147. The 
 Baptistery was a dome structure ; types at pp. 114, 135. 
 
 After 1000 the Romanesque Style ; types at pp. 158, 159 ; developed by combining the 
 dome with the basilica form of the cross. The dome was placed over the junction of nave 
 and transept, and the buildings were vaulted over with arched ceilings of brick or stone. 
 
 The Gothic developed from the Romanesque by increasing all dimensions and especially 
 the height. The pointed or Gothic arch was first introduced to attain greater stability of the 
 heavy ceilings at such immense altitudes. Combined with these immense dimensions was a 
 lightness of construction which required the support of the exterior Gothic buttress; types at 
 pp. 168, 169, 189, and in many later illustrations. 
 
170 GERMANY. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF GERMAN MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 
 
 4th Century.— Christianity begins to spread among the Gennan tribes. 
 
 5th Century, — German Invasions. 
 
 Overthrow of the West-Roman Empire in 476. 
 
 6th Century.— Spread of the Franks and Lombards in France and Italy. 
 
 7th Century. — Anglo-Saxons christianized. 
 
 8th Century.— Poitiers, 732. 
 
 Mayors of the Palace overshadow the Merovingian kings, 
 and found the Carlovingian line under Pepin, 752. 
 
 0th Century.— The Empire of Charlemagne. 
 Treaty of Verdun, 843. 
 
 10th Century.— Saxon Emperors after 918. 
 
 Otto the Great revives the Imperial ideal of Charlemagne. 
 
 11th Century. —Franconian Emperors after 1024. 
 
 Contest of Henry IV. and Gregory VII. about Investitures. 
 
 12th Century.— Hohenstauf ens after 1137. 
 
 Iiombard towns throw off the yoke of the German Emperors. 
 The Hohenstaufen Henry VI., acquires Naples and Sicily. 
 
 13th Century. — Fall of the Hohenstaufens and decline of the "Empire." 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg. 
 
 14th Century. — The House of Luxemburg-Bohemia founded. 
 Southeastern France abandoned, 1347. 
 The Golden Bull, 1366. 
 
 16th Century. — The Hohenzollems established in Brandenburg, 1417. 
 
 Imperial title continues in the Hapsburg line after 1439. 
 
QUESTIONS FUR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 171 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON GERMAN HISTORY BEFORE 1500. 
 
 FIRST REVIEW LESSOi^. 
 
 What people reached into Germany as far as the Elbe in the early Middle Age ? (P. 154.) 
 Why? 
 
 Who occupied Hungary before the time of Charlemagne ? (P. 154.) 
 
 Who subdued the Avars ? 
 
 Who made possible the German settlement of Austria proper ? 
 
 What important possessions of modern Austria did not belong to this State before 1500 ?— 
 Aug., Bohemia and Hungary. 
 
 What were the relations of Bohemia, Poland and Hungary to the Empire in the time of the 
 Saxon emperors? (P. 157.) 
 
 What emperor begins the line of Hapsburg in Austria proper ? (P. 164.) 
 
 What provinces were included with this duchy ? (P. 154.) 
 
 With what duchy was Bohemia united in the 14th century ? (P. 165.) 
 
 What part of the possessions of Luxemburg-Bohemia, passed to the House of Hohenzol- 
 lern ? (p. 166). When ? 
 
 What century saw the HohenzoUems established in North Germany? 
 
 What century saw the Hapsburgs established in Austria? 
 
 When was the Province of Prussia Germanized ? (P. 168.) 
 
 SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Why did the German princes favor the election of weak sovereigns after 1272 ? (P. 164.) 
 
 Who formally established the later electoral method? (P. 165.) 
 
 Where were the great possessions of the Hohenstaufens ? (P. 160.) 
 
 When did their power end ? 
 
 What Hohenstauf en was monarch of Naples and Sicily ? 
 
 How did he inherit Naples and Sicily ? 
 
 Who was called into Italy to combat the heirs of Frederick n. ? 
 
 In whose reign did the emperors lose in the main their territorial powers over Italy? 
 (P. 162.) 
 
 By whose reign was the system of a weak sovereignty in Germany established ? (P. 164.) 
 
 How did the reigning prince recompense himself tgr the weakness of sovereign power ? 
 (P. 164.) 
 
 What House held the Imperial title after Frederick III. till 1806 ? Ans. The Hapsburgs. 
 (After 1740 the Hapsburg blood passed by the female line through the Empress Maria Theresa, 
 who married a Duke of Lorraine. But it is still usual to speak of the present Austrian line 
 as that of the Hapsburgs.) 
 
 Was there any necessary connection between the Imperial title and the House of Austria ? 
 Ans. No. 
 
 Was there any necessary connection between the Imperial title and the Sovereignty of 
 Germany ? ^P. 157.) 
 
 What did the title mean ? (P. 157.) 
 
 With whom did it originate ? (P. 154.) 
 
172 GERMANY. 
 
 THIRD REVIEW LESSON^. 
 
 What territories did Charlemagne rule? 
 Which did he conquer? (P. 154.) 
 Which did he inherit ? (Pp. 148, 149.) 
 Who was the father of Charlemagne? 
 Who made Charlemagne emperor ? When ? 
 On what basis or theory? 
 
 How long had the Western Empire been in abeyance ? (P. 146.) 
 What assistance was rendered the Pope by Pepin ? (P. 150.) 
 
 Whose duty was it to protect the Pope from the Lombards ? Ans. The duty of the Emperor 
 of East-Rome. 
 
 What was the Exarchate of Ravenna ? (P. 147.) 
 
 To what empire did it belong ? 
 
 How did the schism of the Greek Church begin ? (P. 147.) When ? 
 
 What were the resulting relations of the Popes to the Eastern Empire ? (P. 148.) 
 
 When did the Lombards settle in Italy ? (P. 147.) 
 
 Whose power did they replace ? 
 
 What German power was overthrown in Italy by Justinian's generals ? (P. 146.) 
 
 How long did East-Rome hold all Italy J (P. 147.) 
 
 How long did it hold the Exarchate ? Ans. Until shortly before 754. (P. 148.) 
 
 Who drove the Lombards out of the Exarchate ? (P. 148.) 
 
 Who subdued the Lombards throughout Italy ? (P. 154.) 
 
 When did the East-Goths enter Italy ? 
 
 Whose rule did they replace ? 
 
 Who became ruler of Italy in 476 ? (P. 146.) 
 
 How long after the death of Theodosius the Great ? (P. 134.) 
 
 How long after Rome was sacked by Alaric ? (P. 143.) 
 
 FOURTH REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Who was Alaric's successor ? (P. 143) 
 
 Who founded the Visigothic State ? (P. 143.) Afi.^. After Athaulf had led the Visigoths to 
 the settlements assigned by Honorius, and had married Galla Placidia, he was assassinated in 
 415. He was succeeded by Wallia, who is generally called the founder of the Visigothic state. 
 
 Who overthrew Visigothic power in^ France ? (P. 148.) 
 
 Who overthrew it in Spain ? (P. 150.) 
 
 When did the Pranks cross the Rhine ? (P. 144.) 
 
 With what companions ? 
 
 What Germanic state was founded in North Africa ? ( P. 144.) 
 
 When established? (P. 144.) When overthrown ? (P. 147.) 
 
 What replaced it ? (P. 147.) 
 
 Who overthrew the East-Roman power in North AfHca ? (P. 160.) 
 
 Who prevented the Mohammedans from conquering Prance ? (P. 150.) When ? 
 
 Who was the father of Pepin ? (P. 150.) 
 
 When did Clovis begin his reign f 
 
 Give the successive additions to th^ Prankish state before 650. (Pp. 148, 1^.) 
 
QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 173 
 
 FIFTH EEVIEW LESSON". 
 
 How long before later additions were made ? (P. 154.) 
 
 What additions were made by Charlemagne ? 
 
 When was Charlemagne's empire divided ? 
 
 From what time date the beginnings of modern France and Germany ? (P. 166.) 
 
 What territorial power had Lothair in 843 ? 
 
 What territorial power had the Saxon emperors ? (P. 157.) 
 
 When was Italy practically lost to the emperors ? (P. 161.) 
 
 When was Germany lost to the emperors as a united state ? (P. 164.) 
 
 When was Germany the strongest state in Europe ? Ans. In the 10th, 11th, and 12th centuries. 
 
 What history unites the Roman Empire with later periods ? Am. The preceding Germanic 
 history of all Western Europe from the 5th to the 10th century. 
 
 How long a time between Alaric and Charlemagne ? And between Charlemagne and Bar- 
 barossa ? Between Barbarossa and Rudolf of Hapsburg ? Between Frederick U. and 
 Frederick HI. ? 
 
 Who was the successor of Frederick III. ? 
 
 Who was the successor of Maximilian I. ? (P. 167.) 
 
 What different countries are involved in a knowledge of the period of Charles the Fifth ? 
 (P. 167.) 
 
 GENEALOGY CONNECTING THE GERMAN AND FRENCH CARLOVINGIANS. 
 
 FOR REFERENCE IN USING TABLES AT PAGES 156 AND 178. 
 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 1814. 
 
 Louis the Pious. 
 t840. 
 I 
 
 Lothair. 
 
 t855. 
 
 Louis the German. 
 
 t876. 
 
 tht 
 
 Charles the Bald. 
 t877. 
 
 Lothair II. 
 t870. 
 
 Louis II. 
 
 t875. 
 
 Karlmann. 
 t880. 
 I . 
 Amulf. 
 
 the 
 
 Louis the Younger. Charles the Far. 
 t883. Deposed, 888. 
 
 Louis the Child. 
 
 t911. 
 
 (Extinct.) 
 
 Louis II. 
 
 +879. 
 I 
 
 Louis TIL 
 
 Karlmann. 
 t884. 
 
 I 
 
 Charles the Simple 
 
 +929. 
 
 I 
 
 Louis IV. 
 
 +954. 
 
 I 
 
 Lothair. 
 
 Louis V. 
 
 +987. 
 (Extinct.) 
 
FRANCE, 
 
 TILL A. D. 1500. 
 
 FRANCE IN ITS CELTIC, ROMAN, AND GERMAN PERIODS. 
 
 Celtic Period. — There is a marked distinction of character between the 
 Germanic peoples and those of the Celtic race, to which the French, Irish, 
 Welsh (Ancient Britons), and Highland Scotch, belong. In opposition to the 
 sometimes melancholy, generally contemplative and mystic, German nature, 
 the spirit of the Celtic race was, and is, distinguished by light-hearted gaiety, 
 by the cultivation of social graces, and by a more impulsive and spirited 
 temper. The mind of the German is deep and profound, the mind of the 
 Frenchman is logical and clear. A pecaliarly valuable trait of the Celtic race 
 is the nobility and chivalry of spirit which softens by mutual politeness the 
 contrasts of rank, and bridges over by social tact the inequalities of condition. 
 Notwithstanding this difference of traits, the Celts are a branch of the one 
 original Aryan family from Asia, which also peopled Europe with Germans and 
 Slavonians, Greeks and Italians (p. 31). 
 
 In common with these other peoples, the French Celts, as settled in 
 Europe before the time of written record, already possessed a moral and social 
 family organism, were acquainted with husbandry, and could by no means be con- 
 sidered a barbarous nation. It was also the good fortune of the French Celts, 
 unlike the Germans, to have begun their intercourse with Southern Europe at a 
 time when its ancient civilization was still vigorous. An important influence 
 on French civilization was exercised by the Greek settlement of Marseilles, about 
 600 B. c. At a much earlier date Phoenician commerce had brought from Syria 
 and from Carthage the luxuries and some of the knowledge of the East. The 
 famous monuments found in Celtic countries — immense blocks of stone, erect, 
 like those at Stonehenge in England, and forming temple inclosures, or sup- 
 
CELTIC AND ROMAN 5^ R A N C E . 
 
 1% 
 
 Dolmen near Poitiers, 13 feet long, 3 feet thick. 
 
 ported on other large stones as monumental tombs, called " cromleachs " or " dol- 
 mens," argue a meclianical science well known to the Phoenicians, and probably 
 acquired from them. The caste of 
 the Celtic priests called Druids is 
 thought to have derived its teacli 
 ing from Phoenician religion. 
 
 Besides the early influence 
 of Phoenicians and Greeks on 
 Gaul (the ancient name of France, 
 but including all territory west of 
 the Rhine), we. must notice the long 
 establishment of the Gauls in Italy 
 — Cisalpine Gaul. They controlled 
 the fertile plains of North Italy for 
 centuries. Gallic Italy was not 
 
 definitely conquered by Rome till after the Punic Wars. As mercenary soldiers, 
 the Gauls had invaded Southern Italy on many occasions, notably in 390 b. c. 
 (p. 81), and they invaded Greece in 290 B. c. This last invading force, after 
 leaving Greece traversed Macedonia and Thrace to the Black Sea, sailed across 
 it, and settled Galatia in Asia Minor. 
 
 Map Study.— The arrangement of reference follows the order of the book. 
 Marseilles (Map.«illa), p. 92. Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina), p. 86 and p. 92. Galatia, 
 p. 58 and p. 94. 
 
 The Roman Period. — In recalling the rapid conquest of Gaul by Roman 
 civilization after the campaiorns of Julius Caesar, we must remember that its 
 southern coast country — Gallia Narbonensis — had then been already Roman 
 for three-quarters of a century. 
 
 From the earlier Celtic period we pass then to the Roman period, which 
 lasted from 58 b. c. until the states of the West-Goths, Burgundians, and 
 Franks (after which latter tribe France is named) — a period of five hundred 
 years. For our knowledge of this time, the sections devoted to the Roman 
 Empire and its civilization must be consulted. In common with other provinces 
 of the empire, Gaul underwent the moral transformation which the spread of 
 Christianity carried with it. The large number of converts already existing 
 there in the 2d century is notorious. 
 
 Map Study.— Gallia Narbonensis, p. 92. See on a modem map Narbonne. 
 Ganl, p. 116. 
 
 Roman 
 
 The Frankish period of history, which begins with the German inva- 
 
176 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 sions of the 5th century (Clovis, 481-514), has been already summarized in 
 relating the history of the early Germanic states. It lasted live hundred years. 
 A reputed ancestor of the German Frank Clovis was named Merovaeus — hence 
 
 Itoinan Temple at NJH<mes, called the "Maison Carree." 
 
 his dynasty is called the Merovingian. In emphasizing the Germanic nature 
 and origin of Frankish history, we must not forget that the process of Roman- 
 izing the Franks and other Germans in France, of transforming them from bar 
 barian converts to intellectual and spiritual subjects of Rome, was largely the 
 work and mission of the native Gallo-Roman population. (See also the share 
 of the Irish missionaries in this work under Irish history.) The absence of 
 animosity of race, of the spirit of extermination, in the German invasions, has 
 been noticed already, and it helps to explain the assimilation of the conquerors 
 by the conquered. On the other hand, the Merovingian period was one of 
 ignorance and violence, for the native population as well as for the Franks. 
 While one part rose higher the other fell lower, till the general level was be- 
 tween the earlier condition of either. The decline of the Merovingian dynasty 
 brought the Mayors of the Palace to the throne, with Pepin, 752 (p. 150). 
 
GERMANIC FRANCE. 1^7 
 
 Map Study. — Merovingian France, p. 140. But remember that this map shows the 
 extent about 500 A. d. ; therefore notice the additions made in 507 and before 550, described at 
 pp. 148, 149. To appreciate the final extent of Prankish Merovingian rule, subtract from the 
 territory of Charlemagne, at p. 154, North Germany, Austria, Italy, and Northeast Spain. 
 
 The Prank Carlovingian period, of French history includes Germany 
 and Italy. The quarrels of the Pons of Louis the Pious show, however, a tend- 
 ency to national separation, which distinctly begins after the Treaty of Verdun, 
 843. This is tho period from which the liistory of France as a separate country 
 must begin. 
 
 Although the Frankish Carlovingian line continued to linger till 987, its 
 later kings had no influence and made no mark. Their names are included in 
 the dynastic lists mainly because to omit them would be to create confusion as 
 to the order of number of the French sovereigns in later times. Without ref- 
 erence, then, to the titular sovereigns after 843, the 9th century in France has 
 three important features — the dissolution of the territorial empire of Charle- 
 magne, the absolute triumph of the feudal system over the monarchy, and the 
 distress and disorder occasioned by the forays of the Northmen. England and 
 Ireland at the same time suffered in the same way. Germany was being devas- 
 tated by the Hungarians, and the coasts of Italy were ravaged by the Moham- • 
 medan Arabs. The 9th century is the darkest of European history. 
 
 The lyTorthmen of Denmark and Scandinavia were the last to trouble 
 Europe by pagan cruelty and violence. In contrast with the earlier Germanic In- 
 vasions their ravages were made by sea, and being more desultory were far more 
 destructive. Every navigable river was entered by their boats, and from the 
 farthest limit which could be reached by water they struck inland on plunder- 
 ing excursions, to burn and destroy what they could not remove. The animosity 
 of these northern pagans had been especially aroused by (Charlemagne's con- 
 quests of their kindred in Saxony, and a sentiment of revenge inspired their 
 terrible raids. The Northmen ravages in France continued from the close of 
 Charlemagne's reign in 814 for an entire century, till 911. The necessity of 
 combating with them at every point and the incapacity of the later Carlovin 
 gian rulers transferred all duties of defence and powers of government to the 
 local fiefs. The great fiefs were made hereditary by Charles the Bald 
 in 877. 
 
 The hereditary fiefs were simply independent kingdoms, without real 
 subordination to any other civil power. As opposed to this power of the Great 
 Barons the later Carlovingian kings had not even the revenues of a fief to pre- 
 serve their dignity and pay "their expenses. They had at last only the town of 
 Ijaon, east of Paris, for royal domain 
 
178 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 Map Study.— Empire of Charlemagne aud Divisione of the Treaty of Verdun, p. 154 
 Saxony (Saxonia), p. 156 ; Laon, p. 156. 
 
 CARLOVINGIAN RULERS OF FRANCE TO THE 10th CENTURY. 
 
 Pepin A. D. 752-768 
 
 Charlemagne, son of the foregoing " 768-814 
 
 Louis the Pious, " " " 814-840 
 
 Charles the Bold, " " " 843-877 
 
 Louis II., " ♦* " 877-879 
 
 Louis III., " " " 879-882 
 
 Karlmann, brother of the " " 882-884 
 
 Charles the Fat, 2d cousin of the foregoing " 884-888 
 
 Charles the Simple, son of Louis II " 
 
 TENTH CENTURY. 
 
 FRENCH KINGS OF THE 10th CENTURY. 
 
 Charles the Simple. a. d. (888>-929 
 
 Louis IV. , son of the foregoing " 929-954 
 
 Lothair, " " " 954-986 
 
 Louis v., " " 
 
 Hugh Capet 
 
 Robert 
 
 987-996 
 996-(1033) 
 
 Charles the Simple. 
 {Ancient MS.) 
 
 In 911 a band of Northmen under Eollo, 
 by treaty with Charles the Simple, settled the 
 territory since called Normandy, in the lower 
 valley of the Seine. This province was granted 
 them as a means of preventing the desultory 
 landings of their pirate countrymen. It was 
 now their interest to protect the coasts. 
 
 Northman barbarism at the time of set- 
 tlement is illustrated by the story of Rollo's 
 homage to Charles the Simple. When sum- 
 moned to kiss the king's foot he ordered an 
 attendant to perform the ceremony. This was 
 effected with such rudeness as to throw the 
 king on his back, amid the boisterous laughter 
 
I'HE TENTH CENTURY. I79 
 
 of Rollo's followers. But these Northmen (Normans) became 
 Christian converts, and rapidly assimilated the French language, 
 laws, and civilization. 
 
 Although now relieved from foreign invasion, the lack of a 
 central royal authority left France a prey to the feuds and con- 
 flicts of lawless Barons. The right of private war was absolute 
 (p. 153) and the worst side of the Feudal System made itself 
 apparent. 
 
 Capetian Dynasty. — In 987 the Carlovingian line became 
 extinct. The Duke of Paris, Hugh Capet, founded then the 
 dynasty from which all the later kings of France have sprung. 
 For the time being the only apparent change in the character of 
 French monarchy was, that the king had at least as much territory 
 as some of his so-called vassals. 
 
 This Territory was the Isle de France (with the Orleanais; 
 Orl-e-anai), the province of which Paris is the capital. The de- 
 velopment of modern France consisted in the gradual consolidation 
 around this territory of other feudal provinces, which successively 
 yielded their feudal and provincial independence to the authority 
 of the royal power. 
 
 Map Study.— Normandy (Normannia), p. 156; Isle de France and the Orleanais— their 
 extent at p. 156. For the provinces themselves see a modern map of France. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON THE 
 10th CENTURY. 
 
 Explain the Feudal System and its origin. (Pp. 152, 153.) 
 
 In what country was the local independence of feudal territories held in check until the 
 middle of the 13th century ? (Pp. 153, 163.) 
 
 Who founded the Holy Roman Empire ? (P. 154.) 
 
 In what country was its system continued ? 
 
 How long after the settlement of Normandy began the Saxon line of emperors ? (P. 156.) 
 
 Who was the greatest Saxon emperor ? (P. 157.) 
 
 What was his century ? 
 
 Does his reign fill the earlier, later, or middle portion ? (P. 163.) 
 
 What countries acknowledged his sovereignty? (P. 157.) 
 
 In what century were the beginnings of Christianity in Denmark? (P. 158.) Poland and 
 Bohemia? (P. 158.) 
 
180 FRANCE. 
 
 What Englieh king died one year after the beginning of the 10th century ? Ans., Alfred 
 the Great. 
 
 Who was Pope iu the year 1000 ? (P. 158.) 
 
 Of what German emperor had he a^ a monk been tutor ? 
 
 Of what French king had he also been the tutor ? Ans. Of King Robert. 
 
 ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 FRENCH KINGS OF THE 11th CENTURY. 
 
 Robert A. D. (996)-1033 
 
 Henry I. , son of the foregoing " 1033-1060 
 
 Philip I., " " " 1060-1108 
 
 The Truce of G-od. — The confusion and disorder of this period 
 in France, and also the efforts of the Church to improve it, are 
 
 Knights Tilting at a Mannikin. Fifteenth Century MS. at BrusselB. 
 
 apparent in the institution of the ** Truce of God." By a series of 
 provincial Church Councils a suspension of arms was ordered during 
 each week from Wednesday night to Monday morning. 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 181 
 
 Chivalry. — A more effectual and permanent influence was 
 exerted, in the efforts of the Church to turn the warlike instincts 
 of Feudalism in the right direction, by the institutions of chivalry. 
 These proposed the devotion of the warrior to the service of the 
 Church, of the poor and of the oppressed. The conditions of chiv- 
 alric education, by which the knight was bound to undergo a 
 species of novitiate and to maintain an unsullied honor, humanized 
 and softened the manners of the age. The elemental institutions 
 of the Feudal Period w*ere Germanic (p. 152), but the develop- 
 ment of chivalry w^as peculiarly French, and this nation above all 
 others has ever since retained the ideal of the self-respect, the 
 courtesy and the bravery of a " man of honor." The Court of the 
 King of France began to be looked upon as the highest school of 
 courtesy for the whole kingdom. 
 
 The Crusades. — The consecration of the warlike s])irit to the 
 service of Christianity and of Christendom took visible and practical 
 shape in the Crusades, which began at the close of the 11th century. 
 Jerusalem was taken from the Infidels in 1099. 
 
 Normans in Naples and Sicily.— In this century also the swords of 
 the Norman kniglits began to carry French ascendency to other countries of 
 Christendom. In 1016 Norman pilgrims had assisted in the expulsion of the 
 Arabs from lower Italy. Serving at first the Byzantine and Lombard rulers of 
 the state of Naples, they became its masters after 1059, when Robert Guiscard 
 was made Duke of Apulia and Calabria by Pope Nicholas II. Sicily was res- 
 cued by them at the same time from the Arabs and was added to the new state. 
 The Italian Normans rendered great service to the Roman Pontiffs in their 
 contest with the emperors. 
 
 Normans in England.— In 1066 the Normans, under William the Con 
 queror, accomplished the conquest of England. By this conquest England was 
 connected with French culture, and the period of Anglo-Saxon barbarism was 
 brought to a close. 
 
 The kings of France were still of small importance in terri- 
 torial possession. They were confined to their domain of the Isle 
 de France, and the Norman conquest of England was undertaken 
 and accomplished without the least reference to the wishes or in- 
 
182 FRANCE. 
 
 terests of the contemporary king, Philip I. It is not till after 1100 
 that the personal influence of the monarchs made itself appreciable 
 in French history. They first became important during the period 
 of the Crusades, and as a result of the influence of the Crusades on 
 France. Among the kings of the 11th century the name of Robert 
 is distinguished for Christian charity and devotion. 
 
 Map study.— Norman kingdom of Sicily and Naples, p. 182. Apulia, same map. Cala- 
 bria, p. 156. Normans in England, p. 182. Observe the relations of color in Normandy and 
 England. As the Norman conquest precedes the date of this map, turn to page 156 for the 
 domain of French monarchy " Francia," in the 11th century. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 What line of German emperors succeeded the Saxon line in 1024 ? (P. 163.) 
 
 Who was the first Franconian emperor of this line ? 
 
 What kingdom in Southeast France was incorporated in his empire in 1032? (P. 159.) 
 
 What were the dimensions of this state ? (P. 157.) 
 
 To what state belonged the modern French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine 'i (P. 15t.) 
 
 To what state belonged the Netherlands ? Switzerland ? (P. 157.) 
 
 Who was the second emperor of the Franconian line ? (P. 163.) 
 
 What new kingdom acknowledged his sovereignty? (P. 159.) When Christianized? 
 (P. 158.) 
 
 Who was French king in 1077 ? (P. 180.) * 
 
 Who was Pope in 1077 ? (P. 160.) 
 
 What happened in this year ? (P. 160.) 
 
 How long after the Norman-French conquest of England ? (P. 181.) 
 
 How long before Jerusalem was taken from the infidels ? (P. 181.) 
 
 Give the important events of the years 1066, 1077, 1099? 
 
 What nation took most active part in the Crusades ? Am. The French. 
 
 What tended to estrange the German empire from interest in the First Crusade f Ans. 
 The contest with the Popes. 
 
 TWELFTH CENTURY (INCLUDING THE FIRST CRUSADE 
 JUST BEFORE i loo). 
 
 FRENCH KINGS OF THE 12th CENTURY. 
 
 Philip I A. D. (1060)-1108 
 
 Louis VI., son of the foregoing , " 1108-1137 
 
 LouisVII., " " •' 1137-1180 
 
 Philip II., Augustus, son of the foregoing , , , , , . » " 1180-1^33 
 
THE FIRST CRUSADE. 183 
 
 Cause of the Crusades. — The Mohammedan Arabs had con- 
 quered Syria from the East-Roman or Byzantine Empire in 637 
 A. D. ; but pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre were not molested till 
 toward 1100, after the Mohammedan Turks had supplanted the 
 Arab rule. The Turks were originally wandering marauders of the 
 steppes between the Caspian and Aral, which extend south to the 
 Persian plateau. They adopted the religion of Mohammed in the 
 7th and 8th centuries, after the Arab conquest of Asia, which 
 reached beyond the Indus. Then, in the decline of Arab power 
 and civilization, the Turks assumed the role of ruling and propping 
 up the Mohammedan countries. The Turks holding Syria in the 
 11th century were the Seljuks ; not the tribe of Othman, which 
 afterward established the present state of Asiatic and European 
 Turkey. 
 
 The First Crusade for the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre from 
 Unbelievers was preached in Southern France by Peter the Hermit, 
 a monk of Amiens. Of all nations the French entered into the 
 Crusades most enthusiastically, and the name of the Christians of 
 Europe in the East has always since been the ** Franks." In conse- 
 quence of letters brought by Peter the Hermit from the Patriarch 
 of Jerusalem, depicting the oppressions of the pilgrims, and of the 
 pressing appeals from the East-Roman Emperor, whose territories 
 in Asia Minor had been conquered by the Turks, Pope Urban II. 
 convened the Council at Clermont in 1095, by which the Crusade 
 was publicly proclaimed. The appeal of Urban II. was greeted by 
 the assemblage with the cry, "It is the will of God." The enthu- 
 siasm comprehended all orders of society, and private feuds were 
 abandoned. 
 
 Details of the First Crusade.— An advance army of Crusaders fell to pieces on 
 the march, and was dispersed in the plains of Hungary and Bulgaria for lack of organism and 
 supplies. The second army, which also marched by way of the Danube, reached the walls of 
 Constantinople 600,000 strong. Its commander was Godfrey of Bouillon (boo-S-yon), Duke of 
 Lower Lorraine, who now atoned for earlier share in the opposition of the Emperor Henry IV. 
 to Gregory VII. Other leaders were Hugh of Vermandois (vermandwa), brother of Philip I. of 
 France ; Robert of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Bohemund of Tarentum, Nor- 
 
184 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 man ruler of Southern Italy and son of Robert Guiscard ; and Raymond the Count of Tou- 
 louse, ruler of Languedoc. The first work of the Crusaders was the siege and capture of Nicasa, 
 in Northwestern Asia Minor, for to this extent had the Seljuk Turks overrun the domain of the 
 Byzantine state. The army of the Sultan of Iconium, the ruler of Turkish Asia Minor, was de- 
 feated at Dorylieum, east of Nicaea. The Crusaders then marched under incredible privations 
 and ditficulties through Asia Minor to Tarsus. The dithculties of obtaining forage and pro- 
 visions, the debilitating effects of the Eastern climate for Europeans, and ignorance of the ter- 
 ritory to be traversed, were obstacles not less serious than the task of combating with the 
 highly trained warriors of the East. The Feudal chivalry, whose force lay in the valor and 
 prowess of individual knights, was not adapted to distant expeditions or to union in large 
 bodies. Thus the ultimate success of the First Crusade is sufficient testimony to the zeal and 
 valor of its leaders and soldiers. 
 
 Capture of Jerusalem.— On reaching Northern Syria, a por- 
 tion of the crusading army under Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, was 
 
 directed across the 
 Northern Euphrates, 
 and here was founded 
 the Christian princi- 
 pality of Edessa. This 
 was to protect the 
 Christians in Syria 
 from attacks by way 
 of the Euphrates. The 
 siege of Antioch occu- 
 pied nine months, and 
 after its capture it 
 became the centre of a 
 principality ruled by 
 the Italian Norman, 
 Bohemund of Taren- 
 tum. Only 1,500 
 knights and 20,000 
 foot reached the walls 
 of Jerusalem. They 
 stonned the city on the 15th of July, 1099. Godfrey of Bouillon 
 was elected the first Christian king of Jerusalem, but refused to wear 
 the crown where our Saviour had borne the chaplet of thorns. Th^ 
 
 Church of the Holy Scpulclire, Jerusalem. 
 (Built by the dmsaders.) 
 
TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 185 
 
 hold of the European Christians ou Syria lasted for two centuries, 
 although Jerusalem itself was lost in 1187. 
 
 The later Crusades generally miscarried, or was^ted much energy in proportion to 
 apparent resultB, but the broad fact still remains that the forces of the Mohammedan East were 
 thus occupied at home and prevented 
 from making aggressive war on Eu- 
 rope. The two centuries of Christian 
 occupation in Syria gave that much 
 additional lease of life to the East- 
 Roman Empire, which, although it 
 showed the Crusaders no gratitude, 
 continued an important factor in the 
 developnient of Western civilization 
 until the middle of the 15th century. 
 The commercial relations of the Gen- 
 oese and the Venetians were firmly- 
 established at this time in the Le- 
 vant, and continued long after the 
 Crusades were over, and until mod- 
 ern times entered on new paths of 
 commerce with Asia. 
 
 The Second Crusade 
 
 was undertaken in 1147, in 
 
 consequence of the conquest 
 
 by the Saracens of the principality of Edessa. The French king Louis VII. 
 
 and the Hohenstaufen emperor Con- 
 rad III. , both took part in it at the 
 summons of Pope Eugene III. St. 
 Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux (clare- 
 vo) was active in promoting it. The 
 Christian armies were almost de- 
 stroyed in Asia Minor, mainly by 
 the perfidy of the Byzantine allies, 
 who began to fear the West more 
 than the East. The remnants of 
 these armies which reached Syria 
 laid siege to Damascus without 
 success, and Edessa was not re- 
 covered. 
 Third Crusade. — In 1187 the capture of Jerusalem by the Turk Saladin, 
 
 Tomb of Godfrey of Bouillon 
 
 Church at Jerusalem. 
 
 Castle of the Syrian Crusaders near Tiberias. 
 {Restoration frmn the Ruins.) 
 
 From a drawing made 1828 ; the tomb since destroyed. 
 
186 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 wliose successes confined the Christians to two strips of territory on the Syrian 
 coast, the principalities of Tripolis and Tyre, led to the Third Crusade, time of 
 
 Pope Urban III. The Hohenstau- 
 fen, Frederick Barbarossa, was its 
 most important leader, on account 
 of the discipline of his army and 
 his military experience. He was 
 drowned in crossing the river Caly- 
 cydnus (near Tarsus), which had once 
 been nearly fatal to Alexander the 
 Great. Deprived of his leadership, 
 the German army reached the 
 Syrian Christians with diminished 
 numbers and weak heart. Forces 
 led by Richard I., ''the Lion- 
 hearted," of England, and by 
 Philip II. of France, sailed across 
 the Mediterranean to Syria, and 
 assisted the Crusaders already 
 engaged in the siege of Acre. 
 The capture of Acre was the only great success of the Third Crusade. 
 Dissensions between the French and English kings caused the return home of 
 the former. Richard performed prodigies of valor as a knight, but as a general 
 he was not successful in coping with Saladin, and Jerusalem was not recovered. 
 
 Knight of the Twelfth Century. 
 {From a seal dated 1196.) 
 
 Rise of French Royalty. — Meantime, in France the three 
 reigns which cover the 12th century — those of Louis VI., Louis VIL, 
 and Philip XL, began that development of the royal power which was 
 destined to make of this country the first compactly organized and 
 united modern state of Continental Europe. Under the direc- 
 tion of Suger (su-jfi), Abbot of St. Denis and Minister of Louis VI. 
 and Louis VII., the policy of royal alliance with the civic commu- 
 nities was inaugurated. 
 
 The city comfiiunes were the centres of comraerce, and therefore were 
 the natural antagonists to the system of feudal territorial independence and 
 private war, which had left the rulers of France without real power since the 
 death of Charlemagne. Charters and liberties were now granted by the kings 
 
TWELFTH CENTURY. 187 
 
 to the communes, which secured their financial and military alliance for the 
 monarchy in its contest with the Feudal system. This alliance was promoted by 
 the influence of the Crusades. Public sentiment had been raised above narrow 
 local jealousies by contact with foreign nations, and the merchant classes 
 acquired wealth and consideration by the more luxurious mode of life intro- 
 duced after contact with the East. 
 
 Map Study for the Crusades.— Byzantine Empire, p. 140. This empire is called 
 indifferently Byzantine, East-Eoman, or Greek. It is the Greek half of the Roman Empire. 
 On this map it is marked by the words " Greek Empire." Compare, for Arab conquest of Syria 
 and Egypt, map at p, 154. For f^irther description of these and other conquests, see history 
 of the Arabs and Turks, in Book lU. 
 
 Caspian and Aral Seas, see a moder« map. Amiens, in Northern Prance, modem map. 
 Turkish encroachment on Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor, p. 182. Clermont, p. 182. Hun- 
 gary and Bulgaria, the same. Constantinople, the same. 
 
 On same ma^, Lorraine— (belongs to what empire ?)— Toulouse and Langiiedoc, Nicsea, 
 Iconium, Dorylaeum. 
 
 Enlarged, map of Syria, time of the Crusades, Tarsus, Edessa, Antioch, Jerusalem. 
 
 Clairvaux, in Champagne. Damascus, p. 154. Tripolis, Tyre, Acre (see Ptolemais), p. 182. 
 
 ■ MAP EXPLANATION TOR ECTBOPE DURING THE TWELFTH CBNTITRT. 
 
 Eleanor of Acquitaine, wife of Louis VII., had for a short time brought her husband 
 as her dowry and inheritance, the whole of Southwestern France. But Eleanor was divorced 
 from Louis VII. soon after the Second Crusade, and carried these territories to her second 
 husband, Henry 11., King of England irt 1154 
 
 Since the Norman conquest of England, the Normans also ruled Brittany and Maine. The 
 additional extent of the English color is derived— first, from the Plantagenet inheritance of 
 Anjou and Touraine. The father of Henry II. was Count of these provinces. Second : 
 
 Henry's marriage with Eleanor gave the English kings Acquitaine (in which name 
 Gascony was then included), that is, the whole of Southwest France. The provinces of this 
 hiheritance are to be looked out on a modem map. They are Gascony, Guienne, Limousin, 
 Angoumois, Saintonge, Poitou, and Auvergne. 
 
 Thus, in the 12th century, one French Baron ruled about a third of France and England 
 beside. 
 
 On the other hand, the French king ruled only about one-fifteenth of France. 
 
 The following- were also Feudal independent territories : 
 
 Languedoc, map, p. 183. 
 
 Provence and Dauphine (map for Europe about 1400) were in "Burgundy," p. 182, and 
 belonged to the Germanic Empire (p. 157). 
 
 Champagne (p. 156) was an independent Feudal state. 
 
 Franche Comte (or the Free County of Burgundy) belonged to the Germanic Empire. 
 
 Lorraine and Alsace (modern map) belonged to the Germanic Empire. See explanations 
 at p. 157. 
 
 Picardy (modern map) belonged to the Count of Flanders (Flandria, p. 156). 
 
188 FRANCE. 
 
 The Duchy of Burgundy (map for Europe about 1490), where see its distinction from the 
 county and kingdom of same name), was also independent. 
 
 The foregoing- explanations are especially important for the later part of the reign of 
 Philip II. and for following sovereigns. Under them modern France began to be built up 
 from these hitherto independent states, beginning with the Anglo-French provinces. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC AND OTHER QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What line of emperors began in 1137 ? (P. 163.) 
 
 What two French kings may be dated by this year ? (P. 182.) 
 
 When did Barbarossa become emperor ? Ans. In 1152. 
 
 Who was French king then ? 
 
 Date the battle of Legnano ? Afis. 1176. 
 
 What change in the relations of Italy and Germany does this recall ? (P. 161.) 
 
 Who was Pope ? (P. 161.) 
 
 What followed ? Ans. The independence and subsequent greatness of the Italian Com- 
 munes. 
 
 Name the most important ? Ans. Venice, Milan, Genoa, Pisa, Florence. 
 
 What is, therefore, the most important feature of Italian history in the 12th century ? 
 
 What is the important feature of French history in this century? (P. 186.) 
 
 When did the Gothic Cathedralti rise in Germany ? (P. 169.) 
 
 What do they indicate ? (P. 169.) 
 
 Whence did the style come ? (P. 169.) When did it begin ? Ans. In the ISth century. 
 
 How many Crusades in the 12th century ? 
 
 What German emperor took part in the Third Crusade ? What French king ? 
 
 What sovereignty did the provinces of Northwestern France acknowledge in the reign of 
 Philip II. before 1200 ? Ans. The English, 
 
 What sovereignty was acknowledged by Southwestern France? Ans. The English, 
 
 What sovereignty was acknowledged by Southeastern France ? Ans. The German. 
 
 SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What provinces of France were not subject to the monarch in 1200 ? 
 
 What great events had, however, led the people to wish for closer unity ? 
 
 In what ways did the Crusades assist the rise of French monarchy ? (P. 187.) 
 
 Why were the City Communes opposed to the Feudal System ? (P. 186.) 
 
 What is the century of St, Bernard ? 
 
 By what Crusade can his date be fixed ? 
 
 What sovereigns did he influence and inspire ? Ans. Lothair the Saxon and Louis VII, 
 
 What important event of English history belongs to the 12th century ? Ans. The murder 
 of Thomas a Becket, 1170. 
 
 What important event of Irish history In the 12th century? Ans. The Anglo-Norman 
 invasion, about 1170. 
 
 When was founded, by French Normans, a Norman state in Naples and Sicily ? (P. 181.) 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 189 
 
 What became of this kingdom at the close of the 12th century ? (P. 162.) 
 
 What wat? the Byzantine Empire ? (P. 135.) 
 
 What province of the Byzantine Empire was almost entirely conquered by the Seljuk Turks, 
 before the First Crusade ? Map for the 12th century. 
 
 What provinces had been conquered by the Mohammedan Arabs ? (P. 150, and map for 
 Charlemagne, p. 154.) When? (P. 150.) 
 
 From whom had the generals of Justinian conquered Northern Africa ? (P. 147.) 
 
 When did the Vandals come there? (P. 144.) 
 
 Of what empire was it a portion previously ? 
 
 THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 FRENCH KINGS OF THE 13th CENTURY. 
 
 Philip II., Augustus A. D. (1180)-1323 
 
 Louis VIII., son of the foregoing " 1223-1226 
 
 Louis IX., " " " 1226-1270 
 
 Philip III., " " " 1270-1285 
 
 Philip IV., the Pair, son of the foregoing '* 1285-(1314) 
 
 Calhedrai ut 2>uirc l^iiac, i'liiis. Bniit in the reign of Philip Augustus. 
 
190 FRANCE. 
 
 Royal Acquisition of Northwestern France. — After the 
 death of Richard of* England m 1199, the succeeding English king 
 John had murdered his nephew, Duke Arthur of Brittany, the 
 rightful heir. 
 
 From motives of policy and of justice, Philip II. Augustus 
 had espoused the cause of Arthur, and as John's feudal lord 
 cited him to answer for the crime. John refused to appear, 
 and in consequence lost, after 1204, as much by disaffection of 
 these provinces as by conquest of arms, Normandy, Brittany, 
 Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, Saintonge, Angoumois, and the 
 Limousin. Guienne, including Gascony, alone remained English. 
 The Channel Islands, which still belong to England, are the 
 meagre remnant of the possessions lost by John to the French 
 king. 
 
 Auvergne was also about the same time, in 1209, acquired by 
 confiscation. 
 
 Battle of Bouvines. — 'J'o recover his losses, John united an 
 army of Germans and Flemings 150,000 strong. Philip defeated it 
 with an army of 60,000 militia of the Communes at Bouvines, be- 
 tween Lille and Tournay, 1214. 
 
 Albigensian Crusade. — To this hold gained on Northern and 
 Western France was soon added the control of Languedoc, the most 
 important province of the South. In Southern France the sect of 
 the Albigenses, named from the town of Alby, bad developed a 
 heresy dangerous to religion and to morals. Pope Innocent III. 
 proclaimed a crusade against them, which was undertaken by the 
 French of the North. 
 
 Acquisition of Languedoc. — The general in command against 
 the Albigenses was the Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, whose 
 son is considered the originator of the English House of Commons. 
 To Simon de Montfort was given the province of Languedoc, for- 
 feited by its ruler, Eaymond of Toulouse, on account of the sym- 
 pathy and assistance given the Albigensian sectaries. Amalric, 
 elder son and successor of Simon de Montfort, unable to control his 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 191 
 
 inheritance, transferred it three years after the death of Philip 
 Augustus, to his successor, Louis VIII. (in 1226). 
 
 The Fourth Crusade. — At the opening of the 13th century, in 1302, the 
 Fourth Crusade was undertaken to recover Jerusalem, lost since 1187 (p. 185). 
 The expedition was assembled at Venice, and by Venetian persuasion, after set- 
 ting sail, was directed against the Byzantine state, contrary to the Pope's 
 wishes. Constantinople was taken, and Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was de- 
 clared sovereign of the "Latin Empire " of the East, although three-fourths of 
 its territories were divided among other participants " in the expedition, the 
 Venetians taking the larger share. This " Latin Empire " lasted from 1204 to 
 1261, The Byzantine Empire was then reconstituted. 
 
 The Fifth Crusade. — Although two abortive expeditions are sometimes 
 included in the number of the Crusades, the fifth is generally counted as the 
 one undertaken by the Hohenstaufen emperor, Frederick IL, in 1227 and 1228. 
 He was successful in making a truce with the Sultan of Egypt, by which Jeru- 
 salem was yielded again to the Christians. But in 1244 a new horde from the 
 steppes near the Caspian, the Charismian (Karismian) Turks, overflowed Syria, 
 and Jerusalem was lost once more. 
 
 The Sixth Crusade. — This led to the Sixth Crusade, undertaken in 1249 
 by the French king, Louis IX., the most celebrated sovereign of Medieval 
 France. His expedition was directed against Egypt, in order to secure by the 
 possession of this country a sure hold of Syria. But after some successes, the 
 army and king were made captives by the Egyptian Sultan. Louis was ran- 
 somed, and spent some time in assisting the Crusaders of Syria to strengthen 
 their positions on the coast, returning to France in 1254. 
 
 The Seventh Crusade. — In 1270, Louis IX. again undertook a Crusade, 
 the seventh and last. Intended to conquer both Egypt and Syria, it was first 
 directed against the Mohammedans of Tunis, and was here overtaken by a 
 pestilence in which the king lost his life. 
 
 Later history of the Christians in the East.— Discontent at the diminution of 
 Louis' ransom by tlie Egyptian Sultan had led to the overthrow of the latter by his body-guard 
 of Tartar and Caucasian slaves, called Mamelukes. They placed one of their own number on 
 the throne of Egypt and then gradually wrested from the Christians in Syria their remaining 
 strongholds. After desperate resistance Acre, the last crusading fortress in this country, was 
 taken in 1291. 
 
 The Ottoman Turks occupied Constantinople, 1453, one hundred and fifty years 
 later, but the Knights of St. John held the Island of Rhodes till 1523, and Cyprus, which 
 passed to the Venetians, was held by them till 1571. In this year the naval battle of Lepanto 
 was a decisive check on the farther advance of the Mohammedans in Europe. (See Turkish his- 
 
192 PRANCE. 
 
 toTj, Book in.) It is not, however, till our own century that the Turkish Mohammedan powei* 
 has begun sensibly to yield ground. The miserable condition to which its rule has reduced the 
 once flourishing territories of Southeastern Europe, of Asia Minor, of Syria, Egypt and North 
 Africa, is an all-sufficient testimony to the fiar-seeing wisdom of the Mediaeval Popes, in unit- 
 ing the energies of Europe against the foe of its civilization and in attacking it on its own 
 ground. 
 
 In a time when the arms and inventions of Western civilization have placed it above the 
 danger of destruction, it is not easy to estimate the dangers which threatened it when the 
 weapons and skill of Eastern warfare were equal, and often superior, to those of the West. 
 To the policy of the Popes— which enabled the states of Europe to develop their strength and 
 forces before the barrier against the East which the Byzantine Empire interposed was over- 
 thrown—the very existence of modern civilization must be attributed. 
 
 " Although the later Crusades were unsuccessful and the territorial gains of the earlier ones 
 were gradually lost (the fall of Acre at the close of the 13th century, 1291, ended the Christian 
 power in Syria), it cannot be said that the result of the Crusades was a failure. Their imme- 
 diate effect was to save the Christian world from a Ttirkish invasion, and to teach the sons of 
 the Prophet what they had to fear from the warriors of Jesus Chiist They increased the 
 spiritual and temporal power of the Popes, who were supreme directors of the transmarine 
 warfare. The political influences of the Crusades extended, 1st, to the rulers, who were 
 enabled by them to strengthen their authority and extend their domain ; 2d, to the nobility— the 
 orders of knighthood established in the East shed their lustre upon Europe and were imitated 
 in every Christian kingdom; 3d, to the people— the Crusades did more than any other agent 
 to favor emancipation, the establishment of municipalities, and of the third estate or commons ; 
 4th, to commerce and indntry— the growing necessity for more frequent journeys, their 
 profitable issue, and many practices borrowed from the pilots of the Levant, gave a great im- 
 pulse to the nautical art. The maritime cities which became the emporiums of Eastern com- 
 merce drew to themselves increase of population, and some of them became powerful repub- 
 lics. Witness the prosperity of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Marseilles and Barcelona. Prom the 
 same source, though by less direct action, sprang the wealth and activity of the Flemish cities, 
 which were at once commercial and manufacturing towns, serving as great marts between the 
 North and South. The soil was taught to bear new products, and the mulberry, buckwheat, 
 sugar cane, etc., were brought into Europe. The Crusades advanced general civilization by 
 opening new relations between the various nations and the mutual interchange of practical 
 knowledge. The laws of honor and courtesy were communicated by chivalry to the practices 
 of daily life and did much to raise the middle classes. The repeated expeditions to Syria, the 
 diplomatic relations consequently opened with the Mongols of the farther East, and the new 
 roads they cleared for commerce, gave to the West a much more correct notion of the East 
 and even of the interior of Asia. Oriental history also shared the new light cast upon geogra- 
 phy, and Arabia gave to medical science many new ideas for the treatment of diseases and the 
 use of simples, while mathematics and mechanics were eoricbed from the treasures of Eastern 
 lore.''— {Abbe Darras' " History of the Church."") 
 
 The Domestic Policy of Louis IX. was not attended by 
 the disasters which the Eastern cHmate and unaccustomed surround- 
 ings brought upon his two foreign expeditions. He was both a 
 strict and merciful executor of justice. He protected the common 
 people, held in check his Barons and won the hearts of all by up- 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 193 
 
 right behavior and nobility of life. In view of the very recent and 
 large increase in the extent of the royal domain, of the savage Albi- 
 gensian war by which one portion had been gained, and of the insub- 
 ordinate spirit of the times, the 
 later security and solidity of 
 the French monarchy must be 
 attributed largely to the esteem 
 for it which he inspired in his 
 people. 
 
 Louis IX. was canonized 
 by Pope Boniface VIIL at the 
 close of the same century. He 
 owed mucli of the elevation of 
 his mind to the Franciscans 
 and Dominicans by whom he 
 was surrounded. On difficult 
 questions he was wont to con- 
 sult St. Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 Under Philip III. the 
 monarchy was peaceful and 
 well governed. 
 
 Philip IV., the Fair, added (^^^^^ *'^ ^"' 
 
 to its territory Champagne, in 1285, by marriage with its heiress. In 
 his relations with the Church he lacked the spirit of Louis IX., and 
 maltreated shamefully Boniface VIIL, who had canonized his grand- 
 father. His difficulties with the Pope arose from the exactions 
 which he practised on the French clergy, and these again were 
 caused by need of money to carry on war with the English and their 
 Flemish allies — defeat of the French at Courtrai (Koortray), 1302. 
 
 The Templars. — The same need of money led to Philip's con- 
 fiscations of the wealth of the Knights Templars, who were cruelly 
 persecuted by him to this end. History is in doubt as to the crimes 
 of the Temple Order, but not as to the cruelty of Philip's process. 
 The Order was suppressed by Pope Clement Y. in 1312. It had 
 
 Amiens Cathedral. 
 
 reign of Louis IX.) 
 
194 FRANCE. 
 
 been the great bulwark of the Crusaders in the East, but became 
 corrupt by the immense wealth heaped upon it. 
 
 Map Study.— The provinces lost by John are indicated by the light blue color on map 
 for the 12th century ; if Gaecony and Guienne be noted as the only ones remaining English. 
 
 Province of Auvergne, see modern map. 
 
 Bouvines, in Flanders. 
 
 Languedoc, map for Europe about 1400. Alby, northeast of Toulouse, modem map. 
 
 V'enice, p. 182 ; Tunis, p. 182 ; Rhodes, modern map ; Cyprus, p. 182 ; Lepanto, modera 
 map of Greece, north side of the Gulf of Corinth ; Champagne, p. 156 ; Courtrai, in Flanders. 
 
 MAP EXPLANATION. 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX., had been given this province of Anjou by his 
 father. He added to it, by marriage with its heiress— Provence (map for 1400), so far a feudal 
 territory of the Germanic Empire, but by this time practically independent of it, and by con- 
 quest from Conradin, heir of the Hohenstaufens— Naples (South Italy), 1268. 
 
 In this conquest, made by Papal assistance and approbation, Sicily was included ; but this 
 island, lost to the French by the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. 1282, passed to the House 
 of Aragon, through a marriage relationship of the Hohenstaufens and the preference of the 
 revolted people. 
 
 Thus was founded the French Angevin line in Naples, with Provence as dependency. 
 (Angevin is an adjective formed from Anjou.) See also the color for Aragon and Sicily. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN 
 EXERCISE ON THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Who was French king before and after 1200 ? (P. 189.) 
 
 Who was Pope? (P. 168.) 
 
 What influence had this Pope on English history? Ans. He appointed the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, Stephen Langton, who procured the great charter of English liberties horn King 
 John. 
 
 What provincea did King John lose to Philip II. ? When ? 
 
 Since when had an English king ruled Normandy and Brittany ? Ans. Since the Norman 
 conquest of England. 
 
 Date it ? (P. 181.) 
 
 Since when had an English king ruled Anjou and Maine ? (P. 187.) 
 
 Since when had an English king ruled the Acquitanian inheritance ? (P. 187.) 
 
 What were these '• English " kings ? Ans. French Barons. 
 
 What province was united with the French monarchy in 1209? (P. 190.) 
 
 When was Languedoc united with the monarchy ? (P. 191.) 
 
 As result of what war ? 
 
 What Pope prompted the Albigensian Crusade ? (P. 190.) 
 
 What Pope procured the Fourth Crusade ? Ans. Innocent IIL 
 
 Did its result meet his wishes ? (P. 191.) 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 195 
 
 SECOND EEVIEW LESSOK- 
 
 What province passed to a French ruler (not the king) in the time of Louis IX. ? (P. 194.) 
 
 How did it become connected with Naples ? (P. 194.) 
 
 From whom was Naples conquered ? (Pp. 162. 194.) 
 
 When had the Hohenstaufens obtained it ? (P. 162.) 
 
 From whom? (P. 181.) 
 
 Who was Hohenstaufen emperor at the time ? (P. 162.) 
 
 For what else is Henry VI. renowned ? Ans. For detaining Richard the Lion-hearted, of 
 England, in captivity on his return from the Third Crusade. Richard was not released till 
 he paid a heavy ransom. 
 
 What was the legal condition of Provence when it passed to Charles of Anjou ? Ans. Fief 
 of the German Empire. 
 
 Since when ? (P. 159.) 
 
 But when had the power of the emperor met a decided check ? (P. 160.) 
 
 When had it been mainly excluded from North Italy ? (P. 161.) 
 
 What sustained the emperors in Italy a little longer ? (P. 162.) 
 
 Who overthrew the Hohenstaufen cause finally ? (P. 162.) 
 
 When were Germanic pretensions to sovereignty over Southeastern France formally 
 abandoned ? (P. 166.) 
 
 What province was united with the French monarchy in 1285 ? (P. 193.) 
 
 What province was receded to England under Henry III., son of John, by Louis IX. ? Ans. 
 The Limousin. 
 
 What province had the English always retained since the time of Eleanor of Acquitaine ? 
 Ans. Guienne, including Gascony. 
 
 What French provinces, therefore, had the English in the time of Louis IX. ? 
 
 How would you fix the time of Eleanor of Acquitaine ? Ans. Divorced from Louis VII. 
 and married Henry It. after the Second Crusade. Date the Second Crusade. 
 
 What cathedral dates from Philip Augustus ? Ans. Notre Dame, in Paris. 
 
 What king founded the University of Paris? Ans. Philip Augustus. 
 
 What is his central date ? 
 
 Who founded the college and theological faculty of the Sorbonne? Ans. Robert de 
 Sorbon, chaplain of Lonis IX. 
 
 THIRD REVIEW LESSON". 
 
 Who was French king in 1250 ? (P. 189.) When did he die ? 
 How long before the accession of Rudolf of Hapsburg did he die ? (P. 164.) 
 What is the character of the empire after Rudolf of Hapsburg ? (Pp. 163, 164.) 
 What influence on the French monarchy had Louis IX. ? 
 What Saint and theologian was his friend ? 
 Who caused him to be canonized ? 
 When did Louis IX. die ? 
 
 When did Edward I. succeed Henry III. as King of England ? Ans. 1272. 
 How many years between the death of Louis IX. and accession of Edward I. ? 
 How many years between the accessions of Edward I. and of Rudolf of Hapsburg ? 
 What phase of English history begins with Edward I. ? Ans. The French Buron, King of 
 England, has become an English king with French possessions. 
 
196 FRANCE. 
 
 What was the result ? Ans. Jealousy between the two nation?, as opposed to feudal con- 
 tentions between Frenchmen ; the earlier aspect of French and English relations. 
 
 What war offered Philip the Fair opportunity to harass the English? Ans. Edward's war 
 with Scotland after 1290. 
 
 Into what crime and cruelties did this contention draw Philip IV. the Fair ? (P. 193.) 
 
 Who was French king in 1200 ? In 1250 ? In 1300 f 
 
 Date the death of the last Hohenstaufen emperor ? Ans. 1254. 
 
 What important event in Northeastern Eitrope in the 13th century ? (P. 168.) 
 
 When was Syria abandoned by the Christians ? (P. 191.) 
 
 Did they therefore abandon resistance to the encroachments of the Mohammedan East ? 
 (P. 191.) 
 
 What shows the necessity of the Crusades ? (P. 192.) 
 
 When have the Turks begun to lose their hold on Europe ? (P. 192.) 
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 THE DESCENT OF EDWAUD III AND PHILIP VI. OF VALOIS. 
 
 Philip III., +1285. 
 
 I 1 
 
 Philip IV. the Fair. + 1314. Charles of Valois. 
 
 I — — 1- Philip VI. 
 
 Louis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Isabella = Edward II. 
 
 + 1316. tl322. +1327. | 
 
 Edward III. 
 
 FRENCH KINGS OF THE 14th CENTURY. 
 
 Philip IV. the Fair A. D. (1285-1314 
 
 liouis X. ^ ( " 1314-1316 
 
 Philip V. \- sons of the fore^ing \ " 131C-1322 
 
 Charles IV.J [ " 1322-1327 
 
 Philip VI. of Valois " 1327-1350 
 
 John, son of the foregoing " 1350-1364 
 
 Charles V., son of the foregoing " 1364-1380 
 
 Charles VI., " *' ** 1380-(1422) 
 
 BeigD of Philip the Fair, continued.— Notwithstanding the bad per- 
 sonal character of Philip IV., he assisted the tendencies of the country to unite 
 under the monarchy. The still remaining obstacle to this national unification 
 was the hold of the English kings on Acquitaine (dating from the marriage of 
 Henry II. and Eleanor). The consequent tension between France and England 
 resulted in a war which lasted over a century and terminated in the subsequent 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 197 
 
 rise of France as the first modern monarcliy. Philip IV. had seized portions of 
 this Southwestern France, when the English, under Edward I., were engaged 
 in war with Scotland after 
 1390, and, to combat the 
 English in France, the 
 Scotch were openly or cov- 
 ertly assisted. This led, 
 when England was freed 
 from the Scotch war, to- 
 ward 1330, to the out- 
 break of the long wars be- 
 tween France and England, 
 which continued till the 
 middle of the 15th century. 
 
 The accession of 
 Philip VI. gave Ed- 
 ward III., of England, 
 pretext for declaring 
 war, on account of his 
 own descent from Phil- 
 ip IV., whose daughter 
 Isabella was his mother. 
 Edward's claim could 
 not stand in French 
 law, which gave prefer- 
 ence to the male line. The ambition of the English king was, 
 however, not only to hold Southwestern France independent of the 
 French allegiance legally due, but to regain also the provinces lost 
 by John (p. 190). Hence the claim to the French throne. 
 
 The Franco-English "Wars.— The first period was one of suc- 
 cess for the English— victories of Sluys (naval), 1340; of Grecj, 
 1346, and Poitiers, 1356. In this last battle the French king John 
 the Good was taken prisoner, and he died in captivity. 
 
 The Peace of Bretigny (Bretinyi), in 1360, gave the English 
 absolute possession of Acquitaine, as opposed to their earlier feudal 
 
 Church of St. Ouen, at Eouen. 
 (Early 14th Century.) 
 
198 FRANCE. 
 
 possession, but they abandoned the claim to the French crown and 
 to the Northern provinces conquered by Phihp II. from John. 
 
 The war was reopened, at the accession of Charles V., in 
 1364, by the French. As carried on by their national hero, Du 
 Guesclin (Ghaklin), it resulted in the almost entire expulsion of the 
 English. They only retained Bordeaux and Calais. This latter town 
 had been taken after the victory of Crecy. The war languished after 
 1380, under Eichard II. of England, and the overthrow of this king, 
 in 1400, by the Lancastrian dynasty of Henry lY., represented the 
 resulting English discontent. 
 
 Map Study.— Sluys, in Flanders, p. 200 ; Crecy, or Cressy, extreme Northern France ; 
 Poitiers, in Poitou, p. 200. 
 
 Bretigny, southwest of Paris, p. 200. The English possessions given to England absolutely 
 and without French claim of feudal allegiance by the Treaty of Bretigny, are light red on the 
 map for Europe about 1400. 
 
 Bordeaux, Southwest France, p. 200; Calais, extreme Northern France, p. 200. 
 
 MAP EXPLAJ^ATION FOR BUBOPE ABOUT 1400. 
 
 Compare map for Europe in the 12th century with map for Europe about 1400. 
 
 Acquisition of Dauphine.— An important event of the 14th century is the acquisition 
 of Dauphine. See matter at page 166. 
 
 Independent "Secondary" or Branch. Lines.— But the process of unifying the 
 provinces of France was counteracted by gift of territories to branches of the royal family. 
 These then developed an independent influence, and often assumed an attitude of veiled or 
 open opposition to the monarchy. 
 
 Brittany, after conquest by Philip Augustus, was thus bestowed on the House of Dreux 
 (Droo), founded by the uncle of this king ; and the dukes of Brittany attained an independence 
 which makes the subsequent reunion of this province with France, at the close of the 15th 
 century, one of the most universally quoted facts of French history. 
 
 Provence became in the same way a dependence of Naples, when Charles of Anjou, 
 brother of Louis IX., acquired this kingdom in the 13th century and transmitted it to hiy 
 descendants. 
 
 The province of Anjou itself was reunited with the monarchy by Philip of Valois^ 
 and John the Good gave it to a son Louis — thus founding the Second Line of Anjou. 
 
 Dukedom of Burgrundy.— Of such branch lines the most important of all is the Line of 
 Burgundy, also founded by John the Good. John gave the duchy of Burgundy (map, p. 200) 
 to his son Philip the Bold, 1361. 
 
 Distinctions as to the meaningr of the word Burgrundy. -Under this duke and 
 three successors was developed, by additions through marriage, purchase and conquest, quo of 
 the most important European states of its time. Its possessions, as transmitted by marriage, 
 were an essential element in the greatness of the most potent sovereign of the 16th century, 
 the Emperor Charles V. ; and ignorance of its nature and territories involves a hopeless con- 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 199 
 
 fusion in the details of history after 1500. Such confusion is favored by the varying applica- 
 tion of the word "Burgundy " at different periods of history and its simultaneous use in dif- 
 ferent senses for the same period. 
 
 The origrinal kingdom of Burgrundy (map, p. 140), founded by the Burgundians of 
 the 5th century, took in the territories on the Rhone and Saone, reaching from beyond 
 their western banks to the eastern borders of modern France and from the Mediterranean 
 into Switzerland. It took in the territories afterwards known as the Franche-Comt6 or free 
 county of Burgundy, the duchy of Burgundy, Savoy, Dauphine and Provence. All of these 
 territories were incorporated in the Prankish dominions after 534 (p. 149). 
 
 In the division at Verdun, 843, the later " duchy " of Burgundy — that is, the province 
 so named on the modern map of France — was included in the French territories of Charles the 
 Bald. The remaining provinces were part of the Imperial domain of Lothair (map at p. 154). 
 When this domain was dismembered soon after (p. 156), the Burgundian territories were ruled 
 by independent princes and kings till the formal incorporation with the " Empire " ; time of 
 Conrad II., 1032 (p. 159). They are known (map at p. 156) as the kingdom of Burgundy or 
 Ardat (from the town of Aries). 
 
 Of the two most important Southern provinces of this state, Provence came 
 under Charles of Anjou (13th century) and so to the State of Naples, while Dauphine became 
 a French province, as just 
 noted, in 1347, when the Em- 
 peror Charles IV. abandoned 
 any farther Imperial claims on 
 Arelat. 
 
 Meantime, the French 
 Duchy of Burgundy, united 
 with the monarchy under Rob- 
 ert and transferred by him to 
 the line founded by his son, 
 continued under this house till 
 its extinction in 1361. John 
 the Good then gave it to his 
 eon Philip the Bold. 
 
 From this time "Bur- 
 gundy," which once indicated 
 provinces reaching from the 
 French duchy to tlie Mediter- 
 ranean, comes to mean coun- 
 tries reaching north of the 
 duchy to the North Sea. 
 
 The first Duke, Philip 
 the Bold, added to the 
 French Duchy by marriage 
 
 — Franche-Comte, Artois and Flanders (map at p. 200 and modem map), feudal dependen- 
 cies of the Germanic Empire. But the weakness of the Empire at this time (see the German 
 history) left the ov/ner of these possessions an independent prince. By conquest, purchase, or 
 marriage, these possessions were so extended before the middle of the next century (the 15th) 
 as to include Luxemburg and the Netherland provinces, that is, modern Belgium and Holland. 
 
 Seal of John the Fearless, third Duke of "Burgundy." 
 
200 FRANCE. 
 
 The final extent of the Burgnndian territory is represeuted on the map for Europe 
 about 1550, where the purple color in the " Franche-Comte " and the " Netherlands" denotes 
 the Burgundian inheritance of Charles V. and of Philip II. of Spain. But the duchy itself has 
 meantime reverted to Prance under Louis XI. 
 
 Independence of a Burgrundian Duke.— In the time of which we are speaking the 
 Netherland territories were attached to the Germanic Empire, but really yielded their ruler the 
 position of an independent sovereign. Thus for a small part only of his posscst^ions was a 
 Burgundian duke of the 15th century even theoretically the subject of a French sovereign. 
 For his richest territories he was feudally connected with an empire which had abandoned its 
 pretensions to real sovereignty. 
 
 The towns of the Netherlands, Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, etc., by their commerce 
 and manufactures, were the richest and the most important of Northern Europe. The Flemish 
 manufactures of cloth connected their commercial interests with those of England, which fur- 
 nished them with wool. Thus is explained the hostility to France of the "Burgundian" 
 dukes, in the 15th century, during and after the Franco-English wars. In the next section any 
 further explanation of this Burgundian hostility to France will be tumecessary. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC AND OTHER QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 FIRST REVIEW LESSOX. 
 
 Name the English kings of the 14th century? Am. Edward I., Edward II., Edward III., 
 Richard II. tl400. 
 
 How did the Scotch war affect relations with France ? (P. 197.) 
 
 Why were the French disposed to antagonize the English ? (P. 196.) 
 
 When did the sentiment in favor of French unity begin ? (P. 186.) 
 
 On which side were the brilliant victories of the Franco-English wars? 
 
 On which side the solid results ? (P. 198.) 
 
 What did these victories demonstrate? An.^. The inutility, in large battles, of the Feudal 
 chivalry, on which the French depended, as opposed to organized bands of foot like the Eng- 
 lish bowmen. The knights were employed by the EngUsh to complete their victories, not to 
 begin them. 
 
 What important province was united with the French monarchy in 1347 ? (P. 166.) 
 
 Who was king ? (P. 196.) 
 
 Who became the first Dauphin ? (P. 166.) 
 
 Who was emperor ? (P. 166.) 
 
 What had he to do in this acquisition ? (P. 166.) 
 
 Wbo was his father ? Ans. John of Luxemburg-Bohemia. (P. 165.) 
 
 Where was this king of Bohemia killed ? Ans. At Cr6cy. 
 
 What motto and crest were then borrowed from this king of Bohemia by the English Prince 
 of Wales ? Ans. The three ostrich feathers and motto " Ich dien " (I serve). 
 
 What is the date of the Golden Bull? (P. 170.) Of the battle of Poitiers ? 
 
 Who was paternal grandfather of the Emperor Charles TV. ? (P. 166.) 
 
 How does Henry VH. of Luxemburg call up the name of Dante, the Italian poet ? (P. 166.) 
 
 What is the century of Dante ? 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 201 
 
 SECOKD KEVIEW LESSON". 
 
 Who is the leading French author of the 14th century ? Ans. Froisyart, the liistorian of the 
 age, 1337-1410, 
 
 What leading English author lived in the 14th century ? Aus. Chaucer, author of the Can- 
 terbury Tales, 1328-1400. 
 
 What is the significance of these authors ? Ans. They indicate the beginnings of the 
 modern Italian, French, and English languages. 
 
 When was modern German formed ? Am. Not till the 16th century. 
 
 What does this indicate ? A>is. A more backward condition of national unity. 
 
 What shows this condition ? (P. 164.) 
 
 Who was French king in 1300 ? In 1400 ? 
 
 In what year began the history of the famous Burgundian dukedom ? (P. 198.) 
 
 Under what king ? 
 
 What province had this king acquired as Dauphin ? 
 
 What other pro\ince beside Burgundy did he transfer to another son ? (P. 198.) 
 
 What line was thus founded ? 
 
 How many years of the 14th century are covered by the united reigns of Louis X., Philip V. 
 and Charles IV. ? (P. 196.) 
 
 For what are these kings distinguished? Ans. For various acts of administrative wisdom, 
 which make more effect in the lives of nations than on the pages of books. 
 
 What shows the rise of the lower orders to power and influence in the French state during 
 the 14th century? Ans. The "sumptuary" laws of Philip the Fair (against luxury of living) 
 and the rebellion of the serfs and of the Third Estate (the common people) after Poitiers. 
 During the captivity of King John a merchant, Etienne Marcel, for a moment ruled Paris and 
 even France. He was overthrown by the Dauphin, who became soon after Charles V. 
 
 What important event took place in Southeastern Europe in the 14th century ? Ans. The 
 Ottoman Turks established themselves in portions of Byzantine Europe. 
 
 What important fact in the history of the Roman Pontiffs belongs to the 14th century ? Ans. 
 Their residence at Avignon from 1305 to 1378. 
 
 How long did Avignon continue a posse jiion of the Popes ? Ans. Till the French revolu- 
 tion of 1789. 
 
 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 FRENCH KINGS OF THE 15th CENTURY. 
 
 Clmrles VI a. d. (1380)-1422 
 
 Charles VII., son of the foregoing '. . " 1422-1463 
 
 Lonis XL, " " " 1462-1483 
 
 Charles VIIL, " " " 1483-1498 
 
 Louis XIL, 2d cousin of the foregoing " 1498-(1515) 
 
 Orleanists and Burgundians. — Since 1392 Charles VI. had 
 been insane. The regency was contested by two parties whose fac- 
 
202 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 tions distracted the kingdom. Louis of Orleans, the king's brother, 
 was opposed by the king's uncle, Philip the Bold of ''Burgundy," 
 
 who coveted his position and 
 his influence. The son of 
 this first Burgundian duke 
 (his successor in 1404), John 
 the Fearless, continued this 
 strife with his cousin, and 
 in 1407 procured his assas- 
 sination. Tlie Orleans party 
 was now headed by the 
 Count of Armagnac (Arman- 
 yak), father-in-law of the 
 murdered duke's son. 
 
 Henry V. of England 
 resolved to take advantage 
 of these disorders and to sus- 
 tain his credit at home by 
 recommencing the foreign 
 war. After the victory of 
 Azincourt, in 1415, he con- 
 quered the whole of Nor- 
 mandy, while party conflicts 
 still weakened the French. 
 In 1419 an interview between the Dauphin, of the Orleans or Ar- 
 magnac party, and John the Fearless, was arranged at Montereau 
 (Montero) and the latter was murdered by the Dauphin's attendants, 
 in revenge for the assassination of the Duke of Orleans. 
 
 Treaty of Troyes. — This led to a formal coalition between the 
 immense power of Burgundy (Philip the Good) and the English, by 
 the Treaty of Troyes, 1420. Henry V. was declared by this treaty the 
 successor of Charles VI., whose daugliter Catherine he married. The 
 jilnglish occupied Paris, and after the death oF Henry V., in 1422, the 
 regents for his young son Henry VI. met with continued successes, 
 
 Castle of Pierrefonds. Built by Louis of Orleans. 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 203 
 
 Joan of Arc. — The power of the Dauphin, now Charles VII., 
 was confined below the Loire, and the English siege of Orleans was 
 apparently about to terminate 
 in its capture and enable the 
 English to overrun the South. 
 At this moment France was 
 saved by Joan of Arc, a shep- 
 herdess of Domremy, on the bor- 
 der of Burgundy, which country 
 she had learned to detest be- 
 cause its duke had sold France 
 to the English. Declaring 
 her miraculous mission, she 
 raised the siege of Orleans, pro- 
 cured the coronation of the 
 Dauphin at "Rheims, and led 
 her countrymen to victory. 
 But Joan herself was captured 
 by the English and burned as 
 a sorceress. 
 
 Archers of the 15th Century. 
 
 The Story of Joan of Arc.-On the (^^^'^ ^"^ ^^^ ^^^"^^ «^ Rheims.) 
 
 24th of February, 1429, the court was visited 
 
 by a poor shepherdess of Domremy. "The King of Heaven," said she to the monarch, "has 
 sent me to tell you that you shall be anointed and crow^ned at Rheims, and shall rule France." 
 She said that mysterious voices had enjoined her to quit her native village, and in the armor of a 
 warrior to save her king aud country. The youthful heroine of eighteen years was sent to 
 Poitiers that her vocation might be tested by the bishop and doctors. " God needs not 
 warriors," they said to her, " if it be his will to save France." " The warriors," replied the 
 maid, "must fight and God will give the victory." "And what kind of language do your 
 voices speak?" asked a doctor. "A better one than yours," replied Joan, with some fire. 
 "If you show no better signs to give authority to your words," said the doctor, "the king 
 will not trust you with his soldiers, for you would lead them into danger." "I am not sent to 
 Poitiers to give proofs of my mission," answered the heroine. " Take me to Orleans and you 
 shall see the truth of my words. The sign I am to give is the rescue of that city from siege." 
 
 She was believed at last. The young heroine armed herself with a sword, pointed out to 
 lier by the mystorious voices. She held a white standard spangled with golden lilies, aud 
 bearing, as a pledge of victory, the names of Jesus and Mary. 
 
 On the 1st of April, 1429, in open day, she passed through the English lines and entered the 
 beleaguered city at the head of a provision train. On the 8th of May the enemy fled before thQ 
 
204 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 youthful maid, leaving their camp and military equipage in the hands of the French. On that 
 glorious day Joan of Arc received her title as Maid of Orleans. 
 
 The heroine might now claim to be 
 ^ ■'"''^: ^""""^^i^ believed on her word. " The will of 
 
 God," she said to Charles VII., '' is that 
 you come to receive the crown at 
 Rheims." In a natural point of view, 
 the idea seemed absurd and chimerical ; 
 such at least was the opinion of all the 
 leaders. They were more than eighty 
 leagues from that city, which was, with 
 all the intervening country, in the 
 hnnds of the enemy. But what is im- 
 possible to man is easy to God, and Joan 
 of Arc had proved that she was the en- 
 voy of God. Charles yielded to her re- 
 quest and set out for Rheims with only 
 twelve thousand men, without pro- 
 visions or artillery. Auxerre, Troyes 
 and Chalons successively opened their 
 gates. Rheims expelled its English gar- 
 rison and received Charles with tri- 
 umphal pomp on the 17th of July, 1429. 
 
 During the whole ceremony of the 
 coronation Joan, shedding tears of joy, 
 stood by the king with her white banner 
 in her hand. At the close of the solem- 
 nity, Joan threw herself on her knees 
 before Charles and kissed his feet. "My liege," she said with tearful eyes, "now the will 
 of God is done. He had decreed to raise the siege of Orleans, and to bring you to Rheims. 
 My mission is ended. I would go back to my parents to resume my life as a shepherd- 
 ess." The lofty simplicity of her words drew tears from every eye. But Joan had become 
 the army, the hope, the treasure of France, and Charles could not spare her then. She accord- 
 ingly continued her glorious career ; but she had said, "I shall last but another year, or very 
 little longer; I must therefore use it well." The sad prediction was only too strictly 
 fulfilled. 
 
 On the 24th of May, 1430, Joan of Arc was taken by the English before the walls of Com- 
 piegne (Conpian). If anything could add to her glory it would be the unbounded exultation 
 displayed by the enemies of France over their prisoner ; their whole camp resounded with 
 cries of joy. The soldiers crowded round to gaze on her whose very name had made them 
 tremble. 
 
 The heroine was taken to Rouen and tried for witchcraft. Peter Cauchon (KOchon), 
 Bishop of Beauvais (BO-va) condemned the guiltless victim to the stake. 
 
 The execution of the Maid of Orleans will ever remain an infamous blot on the English 
 nation (May 30, 1431). Twenty-five years after the death of Joan of Arc, Pope Call rtus III. 
 ordered the Archbishop of Rheims to institute an inquiry into the particulars of the cate. The 
 heroine's innocence was clearly proved and her memory gloriously vindicated. Calixtus pub- 
 
 Crossbowmen of the 15th Century. 
 {From MS., Paris Library.) 
 
Coin of Louis XI. 
 
 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 205 
 
 lished a solemn sentence declaring that Joan of Arc " had died a martyr for her faith, her king, 
 and her country."— Abbk Darkas. 
 
 Acquisition of Acquitaine. — The death of the Maid of 
 Orleans did not save the English. By 1454, when the war finally 
 closed, they had lost all possessions in France but Calais. Thus, 
 as final result of this hundred years struggle, Acquitaine was added 
 to the Monarchy. 
 
 Louis XI. — The greatest influence on the 
 final solidification of France was exerted by 
 Louis XL, son and successor of Charles VIL, an 
 unscrupulous and intriguing nature, whose in- 
 stincts, however, clearly discerned and assisted 
 the popular tendency to national unity. He 
 secured to the advancing geographical solidity 
 the moral support of the nation, by his preference for the common 
 people, and by his contempt of feudal titles. A footman was his 
 herald, a barber his master of ceremonies. 
 
 His great rival was the fourth, last, and most famous Burgun- 
 dian duke, Charles the Bold. Charles proposed the conquest of 
 Lorraine, then territory of the Germanic Empire, and the acquisi- 
 tion of Alsace (Austrian domain, p. 164), which he held in pawn 
 from the Emperor Frederick III. He also aspired to the royal title, 
 which it lay in the power of the Emperor to bestow. His ambition 
 and his life were cut short by the battle of Nancy, 1477. 
 
 Charles the Bold had refused to receive the money sent to redeem the Alsatians from 
 his oppressive extortions. The latter called on the Swiss for assistance, which was accorded, 
 and theBurgundiau duke accordingly invaded Switzerland. He was decisively defeated in 1476, 
 at Granson and Morat. The Duke of Lorraine then retook Nancy, his capital, and obtained 
 the victory that cost Charles the Bold his life. The gems from the diadem of the Duke, which 
 was found on the battle-field, are dispersed among the regalia of the modern European sover- 
 eigns, and many of their most precious jewels are traced to this single source. 
 
 Acquisition of the Duchy of Burgundy. — Louis XL pro- 
 ceeded to confiscate the French territories of the Burgundian duke- 
 dom, namely, the French Duchy of Burgundy and Picardy, both of 
 
^06 FRANCE. 
 
 which have ever since been portions of the French monarchy. The 
 daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, Mary of Burgundy, to 
 secure her states from farther losses, married Maximilian of Austria, 
 emperor after 1493. This marriage laid the foundation of the 
 greatness of the House of Austria, which thus acquired Franche- 
 Comte, Luxemburg and the Netherland Provinces. It also laid the 
 foundation for the rivalry of France with the Hapsburgs, the most 
 important feature of European history in the 16th and in the 17th 
 centuries. 
 
 Acquisition of Aiyou, Maine, Provence, and Brittany. — 
 Four years after the battle of Nancy, died the last heir of the second 
 House of Anjou (p. 198). This House had acquired Provence, by 
 adoption, from the Neapolitan line of Anjou, when this dynasty 
 died out in 1433, with Joanna H. of Naples. Louis XI. inherited, 
 by the extinction of this second line of Anjou, Maine, Anjou, and 
 Provence, in 1481. His successor, Charles VIII., added Brittany to 
 the crown by his marriage with its heiress. • 
 
 Influence of Italian Civilization.— To the weight which 
 France was destined to exert in history as the first modem con- 
 tinental state, consisting of a united people under a single ruler, 
 was now to be added the refinement drawn from the civilization 
 of Italy. The two successors of Louis XI. — Charles VIII. and 
 Louis XII. — were the kings who brought France into direct con- 
 tact with Italy, and their names will appear in this connection. 
 
 Map Study.— Orleans, on the Loire, p. 200 ; Azincourt, in modem French Artois ; Mon- 
 tereau, southeast of Paris ; Troyes, the same ; Domr^my, in Lorraine ; Rheime, northwest of 
 Paris, p. 200 ; Calais, extreme Northern France, p. 200 ; Lorraine, p. 200 ; Nancy, in Lorraine ; 
 Austrian Alsace, see Austrian Hapshnrg color on this map reaching beyond the Rhine, and 
 consult matter at p. 164. 
 
 On map for "Europe about 1550" see Duchy of Burgundy and Picardy, with the French 
 color, and compare boundary on "Europe about 1400." See Austrian Hapsburg color (purple) 
 reaching from Alsace (Elzase) over Franche-Comt4 and covering the Netherlands. 
 
 For acquisition of Anjou, Maine, and Provence, compare France on the maps for Europe in 
 1400 and 1550. 
 
 For acquisition of Brittany, compare the same maps. 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 207 
 
 MAP EXPLANATION. 
 
 Modern France compared with France in 1500.— Before 1500 the territory ruled 
 by the French king corrcgponded to the later France with the following exceptions— Bish- 
 oprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, added by Henry II. (map for Europe about 1550) ; Belgian 
 France (Artoi-s), added by Louis XIV,, Alsatian Franco, added under Louis XIV., Franche- 
 Comt6, added under Louis XIV. (map for Europe in 1713); Lorraine, added under Louis XV., 
 (map for Europe in 1748) ; Nice and Savoy, added under Napoleon III. (modern map). This enu- 
 meration omits some minor provinces of email extent. (Alsace and part of Lorraine, lost 1871.) 
 The steps by -which France was greographically built up are important, because 
 France is the country which most clearly exhibits the progressive development of modern 
 national monarchy out of the independent feudal estates. Germany has not even yet attained 
 to absolute national unity. It was still a chaotic mass of small principalities in 1500. 
 
 The same process is obscured in England by the fact that the country was absolutely 
 ruled, after 1066, by a foreign conqueror (w ho was only a feudal lord himself at home). Thus, 
 after 1066, England was not a feudal country in the full sense of the word, being long under 
 strict royal government. Again, the process is obscured in England by the fact that the Wars 
 of the Roses, exhibiting really the power and contentions of the Barons, were apparently and 
 professedly wars between two different royal claimants. The Barons concealed themselves 
 behind the shadow of divided royalty. Under Henry VII., time of Louis XL, England also 
 
 became a modern national state in the 
 political sense, but France is the country 
 where the logical process can be geo- 
 graphically traced by which independent 
 feudal provinces, one by one, came under 
 the roj'al power. 
 
 Spain was made a modern national 
 state by coalition of two royalties— by the 
 marriage of Ferdinand and Lsabella and 
 union of Aragon and Castile in 1469, and 
 by conquest of Grenada from the Moors, 
 1492. Once more, then, France is the 
 more clearly distinct type of the process 
 by which modern nations in general came 
 into being. 
 
 The tendency of European coun- 
 tries to combine feudal principal- 
 ities under national governments was 
 promoted by the formation of national 
 languages, after 1300, as opposed to a 
 multiplicity of dialects. Common speech 
 led to common government. The de- 
 mand for the comforts and luxuries of 
 modem civilization, which could be only supplied by cities, and free commercial intercourse, 
 demanded the overthrow of petty state divisions within the state Therefore the money power 
 (cities) assisted the kii.gs against the land power (feudal nobles). The idea of a nation, involv- 
 ing the idea of common protection under common laws, demanded the existence of au arbiter 
 
 French Medieval Costumes. 
 i^Frmn. MSS. qf the Time.) 
 
208 FRANCE. 
 
 and visible single head. The great military and physical power of feudalism demanded an 
 absolutely strong physical military power to overpower it— absolute monarchy. 
 
 Absolute monarcliy is peculiarly and distinctively modem, the means of destroying 
 feudalism ; but in later modern times the people, having secured their place and national posi- 
 tion, have no longer needed in many countries the protection of absolute royal power, hence 
 resort to constitutional monarchy or to republics. 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 Who was the Duke of Lorraine, victor at Nancy ? (P. 2(fi.) Am. Ren6 the Good, of the 
 Second Ldne of Anjou. This Line also ruled Provence since 1433, and claimed Naples 
 since the same time (pp, 206, 219). Rene had acquired Lorraine by marriage (map, p. 200). He 
 died in 1480. When his nephew and heir died in 1481, leaving Maine, Anjou, Provence, and 
 claims on Naples to Louis XL, LoiTaine passed, by marriage of Rene's daughter Violante, to a 
 branch of the older Line of Lorraine. Most of it was fief of the Germanic Empire. 
 
 Who were the English kings of the 15th century? Ans. Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VI., 
 Edward IV., Richard III., Henry VH. 
 
 What followed the close of the French wars in England ? Am. The Wars of the Roses- 
 civil wars in which the Barons destroyed each other. 
 
 How was the modern monarchy prepared in England ? Arts. By the self-destruction of the 
 feudal nobles, and the consequent rise of a new aristocracy of wealth. Very few noble families 
 of England can trace back of Henry VII. 
 
 How was it prepared in France ? Am. By the gradual consolidation with the monarchy 
 of provinces whose nobles entered the service of the state. 
 
 When did this distinction make itself felt ? Am. Especially in the 17th century, in the 
 inferiority of the Court of Charles II. to the Court of Louis XIV. 
 
 How did the higher society of France distinguish itself in the 16th century ? Am. By 
 especial aptitude for the art, culture, and civilization of the Italian Revival of Letters, or 
 " Renaissance." 
 
 When did French contact with Italy become especially close ? (P. 206.) 
 
 When had this Italian civilization begun to develop its flower ? Am. After the indepen- 
 dence of the Lombard and other Italian states had been secured by Pope Alexander m. (See 
 p. 161 and questions at p. 188.) 
 
 Who became the leading patrons of modern art and literature ? Am. The Popes of Rome. 
 
 In what country is their influence most evident ? Am. In Italy. 
 
 What event in the year 1453 assisted the revival of letters ? (P. 136.) 
 
 What had prevented the reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches ? Am. The political 
 jealousy of the Greek Byzantine state toward the Latin world. 
 
 What had the Popes done to achieve this union ? Am. Next to the defence of the West 
 from Mohammedan fatalism, it was their most constant efibrt. 
 
 Who were the guardians of learning through the Middle Ages ? Am. The dignitaries of 
 the Roman Church and the members of the Religious Orders. 
 
 What history naturally precedes the history of Western Europe after 1500? Ans. An 
 account of the civilization of Italy. 
 
 Synchronistic Exercise.— Compare the following Table with the Table by Centuries 
 for Germany (p. 170), and unite the two in recitation. 
 
LEADING EVENTS OF PHeKcH HISTORY. 209 
 
 LEADING EVENTS OF FRENCH HISTORY UNTIL 1500. 
 
 2d and. 1st Centuries B. C. — Roman conquests. 
 
 1st, 2d, 3d and 4th Centuries' A. D.— Roman civilization. Christiau 
 conversion. 
 
 5tli Century, — States of German West-Goths, Burgundians, and Franks. 
 6th Century.— The Franks conquer all France and South Germany^ 
 
 7th Century. — The Frankish state continues (Merovingian Line). 
 
 8th Century. — Arab-Mohammedan repulse. Carlovingian Line. 
 
 9th Century. — The Empire of Charlemagne founded and divided. North- 
 man ravages. Feudal system ; explain it (pp. 153, 153). 
 
 10th Century. — Normandy settled. Capetian Line in the Isle de France. 
 
 11th Century. — The Truce of God. Chivalry develops. French-Norman 
 conquests in Naples, Sicily, and England. 
 
 12th Century. — Crusades. Coalition of the Monarchy with the Communes. 
 The "English" possessions in France enlarged. 
 
 13th Century. — Crusades continued. Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, 
 Touraine, Poitou, Saintonge, Limousin, Auvergne, Lan- 
 guedoc, Champagne, acquired. Neapolitan Anjous, rulers 
 of Naples and Provence. 
 
 14th Century. — Anglo-French wars. Dauphine acquired. Second Line of 
 Anjou founded. Burgundian Dukedom founded. 
 
 15th Century. — The Anglo-French wars continue till 1454. Acquitaine, 
 Maine, Anjou, Provence, Plcardy, Duchy of Burgundy^ 
 Brittany, united with the monarchy. 
 
510 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY TILL 1500. 
 
 Clovis, ruler of Northern France a. d. 486 Dynasty ? 
 
 Conquers the Allemanians after A. d. 497 West Germany. 
 
 And Visigothic Gaul after " 507 Southwest France. 
 
 His successors conquer the Burgundians " 533 Southeast France. 
 
 All South Germany by the same date. 
 
 EIGHTH CEKTURY. 
 
 Charles Martel at Poitiers , 
 
 Accession of Pepin. (What Papal acquisition ?). . . 
 
 .A. D. 732 His title? 
 , " 753 Dynasty V 
 
 NINTH (JENTURY. 
 
 Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West 
 
 Treaty of Verdun 
 
 800 Territories ? 
 843 Conditions ? 
 
 TENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Normandy settled. (By whom ?) 
 
 Accession of Hugh Capet. (Dynasty ?) 
 
 911 What reign 
 987 Territory? 
 
 ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 French Norman conquest of Naples and Sicily .'. 
 
 French-Norman conquest of England 
 
 Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders, (What reign ?). . 
 
 1059 
 1066 
 1099 
 
 Till when? 
 What reign? 
 When lost? 
 
 TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 Second Crusade begins. (Cause? Results?) " 1147 
 
 French-Angevin line begins in England with Henry IL " 1154 
 
 Third Crusade begins. (Cause? Results?) " 1189 
 
 What reign ? 
 Territories ? 
 What reign ? 
 
 THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Philip II. worsts John of England. (What results?). " 1204 
 
 Auvergne confiscated to the crown ** 1209 
 
 Languedoc acquired after the Albigensian war " 1326 
 
 Louis IX., central date. (Name his brother.) " 1250 
 
 Champagne acquired before accession ** 1285 
 
 Charles of Anjou died. (What territories ?) ** 1285 
 
 4th Crusade. 
 What reign ? 
 What reign ? 
 Crusades ? 
 What reign ? 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HIS'TORY. 
 
 211 
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Anglo-French wars after A. d. 1337 What reign ? 
 
 Dauphine acquired " 1347 Emperor ? 
 
 Peace of Bretigny " 1860 Conditions? 
 
 Dukedom of Burgundy founded. (By whom?) " 1861 Territories? 
 
 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Treaty of Troyes " 1420 Conditions? 
 
 Joan of Arc raises the siege of Orleans " 1429 What reign ? 
 
 The Second Line of Anjou inherits Provence " 1438 How ? 
 
 Close of the Anglo-French wars " 1454 Acquisition ? 
 
 Death of Charles the Bold. (What acquisitions ?) " 1477 What reign ? 
 
 Second Line of Anjou extinct, (What acquisitions?). . ** 1481 What reign? 
 
 Charles VIII. marries Anne of Brittany " 1491 Acquisition ? 
 
 FAMOUS BATTLES OF FRENCH MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 
 
 Bouvines, 1214. 
 
 Philip II. Augustus. 
 Victory. 
 
 Courtrai, 1302. 
 
 Philip IV. the Fair. 
 Defeat. 
 
 Sluys, 1330. 
 
 Time of Philip VL 
 
 ^aval defeat. 
 
 Crecy, 1346. 
 
 Time of Philip VI. 
 Defeat. 
 
 Poitiers, 1356. 
 
 John the Good. 
 Defeat. 
 
 Azincourt, 1415. 
 
 Time of Charles VL 
 Defeat. 
 
 Nancy, 1477. 
 Time of Louis XI. 
 
 Significance. — Defeat of John of England's 
 effort to retrieve his losses, and proof of the devo- 
 tion of the communes to the French monarchy. 
 
 Significance. — Tremendous power of the Flem- 
 ish cities and their commercial sympathies with 
 England. 
 
 Significance. — The naval superiority of Eng- 
 land already begins to assert itself. 
 
 Significance.— M\\ita.Ty weakness of 
 chivalry when combined in large masses. 
 
 Feudal 
 
 Significance — The same. These defeats were 
 decided by the English archers and crossbowmen. 
 
 ".ance. — The same. Imminent subjuga- 
 tion of France by England. 
 
 Significance. — The Burgundian dukedom ceases 
 to be a thorn in the side of France. 
 
212 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 Son, 
 
 Sons 
 
 FRENCH KIMGS OF THE CAPETIAN LINE TO 1500. 
 
 Hugh Capet. What was the royal domain? a. D. 
 
 Robert. What event in 1033 ? (P. 159.) 
 
 Henry I. What event in 1059 ? . . 
 
 Philip I. What events in 1066, 1077, 1099 ? 
 
 Louis VI. What Minister and policy V 
 
 Louis VIL What event in 1147 ? 
 
 Philip II. Augustus. What events in 1187, 1202, 1204, 1214? 
 
 Louis VIIL What event in 1226 ? 
 
 Louis IX. What events in 1227, 1249, 1266, 1268, 1270 ?. . . 
 
 Philip III 
 
 Philip IV. the Fair. What event in 1285 ? 
 
 ( Louis X m. 
 
 ,\ Philip V 
 
 ^Charles IV 
 
 Philip VI. of Valois (Genealogy, p. 196). What events 
 
 Son, John the Good. What events in 1356, 1360, 1361 ? 
 
 Son, Charles V. the Wise. What events ? 
 
 Son, Charles VI. What events in 1415, 1420 ? 
 
 Son, Charles VII. What events in 1429, 1433, 1454 ? 
 
 Son, Louis XI. What events in 1477, 1481 ? 
 
 Son, Charles VIII. What event ? 
 
 Louis XII. of Valois-Orleans (Genealogy below) 
 
 987- 996 
 996-1033 
 1033-1060 
 1060-1108 
 1108-1137 
 1137-1180 
 1180-1223 
 1223-1226 
 1226-1270 
 1270-1285 
 1285-1314 
 1314-1316 
 1316-1322 
 1322-1327 
 1327-1350 
 1350-1364 
 1364-1380 
 1380-1422 
 1422-1462 
 1462-1483 
 1483-1498 
 1498-1515 
 
 BRANCHES OF VALOIS-ORLEANS AND ANGOULEME. 
 
 DBBCENT OF LOUIS XII. AND OF FBANOIS 
 
 Louis, Duke of Orleans, son of Charles V. 
 
 I 
 
 Charles of Orleans. 
 tl466. 
 
 Louis XII. 
 149&-1616. 
 
 John, Count of AngouISme. 
 Charles, Count of Angoulfime. 
 
 Clande of France = Francis L 
 tl547. 
 
 Henry n. 
 tl660. 
 
 I 
 
 Francis n. Charles IX. Henry IH. Marguerite of Valois=Henry IV. 
 tl560. 11574. tl589. Bourbon Line. 
 
ITALY 
 
 BEFORE AND ABOUT A. D. 1500. 
 
 CIVILIZATION OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 
 
 In the earlier Middle Ages Italy was one of the most backward 
 countries in Europe. Before Charlemagne the country had suffered much 
 from the barbarism of the Lombards. After Charlemagne the Arabs harried 
 the coasts — entirely mastering Sicily, then a territory of the Byzantine emperor, 
 after 880. They held Sicily until the Norraan conquest after 1059 (p. 181). 
 In the 10th century the country suffered in the Northeast from the savage 
 Hungarians, who at the same time were ravaging Germany, 
 
 The political history of Italy after 800 has been summarized in 
 the sections relating to Charlemagne and to the later territorial extent of his 
 empire, as sustained by the Germanic emperors of the 10th, lltb, 12th and 13th 
 centuries. 
 
 At the fall of the Hohenstaufens, after 1254, the Italian States be- 
 came practically independent of either an Imperial or Royal power. The Popes 
 exercised a general supervision over them, being also themselves temporal 
 Italian princes, but never attempted to fetter their independence or cripple 
 their progress. The States of Italy were civic, not feudal. The cities absorbed 
 the landed proprietors and established for themselves territorial ownerships. To 
 the absence of all feudal interference, or royal ownerships, is to be attributed 
 their unprecedented vigor and greatness, whioh finds its parallel only in the 
 free States of the Greeks of ancient times. 
 
 The Italian civilization was already highly developed in Pisa and in 
 Venice in the 11th century. Other states were not far behind. Among them 
 the greatest were Genoa, Milan, Mantua, Padua, Ferrara, Bologna, Florence, 
 Siena, and Perugia. Many others of smaller size, like Urbino and Rimini, were 
 scarcely less important for the history of Italian culture. The famous poem of 
 the Florentine Dante di Alighieri, the "Divine Comedy," belongs to the earlv 
 
214 
 
 ITALY 
 
 14th century. The Italian civilization reached its climax about 1500, blossom- 
 ing out at that time, and immediately after, into a perfection of art rivaling 
 the ancient Greek. The names of Leonardo da Vinci, of Michael Angelo, of 
 Raphael, Titian, and Correggio — the greatest painters of history — all belong to 
 the one generation, centering about 1500. 
 
 The greatest modern building, St. Peter's, was begun in 1506 under Pope 
 
 The Sistine Chapel, with Wall Puintinps by Michael Angelo. On the ceiling, the "Story of 
 Genesis ; " at the end of the room, the " Last Judgment." 
 
 Julius II. The names of this Pope and of his successor, Leo X., are household 
 words to all lovers of letters and of art. 
 
 Not only in art and in letters, but in j^ovemmental administration, 
 business relations, diplomacy, and the conventions of modern society, Italy 
 leads the modern time. In Florence and in Venice were first prepared the 
 census statistics of property, of taxation, of births and deaths, Avithout which 
 pi'^dern government could not be carried on, Just, regular and systematic 
 
THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 
 
 315 
 
 Pope Julius II., 1503-1513. 
 {Medal of tfie jjeriod.) 
 
 taxation for purposes of government, as opposed to irregular and arbitrary 
 loans and exactions, still common in Northern 
 Europe until a considerably later date than 
 1500, was usual here before 1400. In this 
 country was devised the system of marine in- 
 surance. Her bankers were in the early 15th 
 century already the main dependence of north- 
 ern sovereigns for loans of money. Medieval 
 coinage in England was long supervised by 
 Florentines, and Lombard Street in London 
 still reminds us of the Italian bankers who 
 carried on business there. The Pitti Palace in 
 Florence is to-day the finest palace in Europe, 
 and was built by a Florentine banker of the 15th century. 
 
 The nianiifacturfis of Valenciennes and Alen^on lace, now so highly prized, 
 were borrowed from Italy, and the manufacture 
 of Venetian glass still retains its reputation. 
 
 Venice was especially important for its 
 commercial relations with the East, and for 
 large territorial possessions in the Levant. Its 
 ambassadors were the most finished diplomatists 
 of the 16th century. The archives of Venice 
 are the most valuable in Europe for modern 
 studies of this period; so minute and exact 
 were the reports of these ambassadors from all 
 its various courts. The skill of Genoese navi- 
 gators is attested by a famous instance, and 
 Columbus had seen Iceland before discovering 
 America. 
 
 Ferrara was distinguished for its compact administration, and for the 
 high breeding of its Court. Here flourished in the 16th century the poet 
 Ariosto, author of " Orlando Furioso," and Torquato Tasso, author of ''Jerusa- 
 lem Delivered," a poem based on the events of the First Crusade. 
 
 Bologna had the leading university of Europe for the study of jurispru- 
 dence and of the Roman law. 
 
 In Padua, medicine and anatomy were especially cultivated. Here, at a 
 later time, had studied Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the blood — a dis- 
 covery possibly anticipated by the Italians. 
 
 XJrbino was celebrated for its library, the finest of the time in Europe. Its 
 
 Pope Leo X., 1513-1521. 
 {From a woodcut of the jperiod.) 
 
216 ITALY. 
 
 treasures were united with the Vatican collection in the 17th century, and have 
 assisted in securing that library its undoubted precedence over all others. 
 
 In Florence, the history of Italian painting begins with the names of 
 Cimabue and of Giotto, about 1300. (Nicholas of Pisa, a quarter of a century 
 earlier, had almost anticipated, in his famous pulpit still to be seen in that 
 city, the later perfection of modern sculpture by more than two centuries.) In 
 Florence, the great centre of the Italian Artists^ of the Renaissance (a French 
 word meaning Rebirth or Revival of ancient learning and civilization), was also 
 especially cultivated the knowledge of the Latin and Greek authors. 
 
 Toward 1500, this knowledge began to be more generally diffused by Italian 
 influence over Northern Europe ; extending now to laymen that knowledge of 
 the ancient languages which had previously been considered necessary only 
 for the clergy. In Florence, the studies of geography and astronomy were also 
 assiduously cultivated. From Florentine students of the ancient geographers the 
 rotundity of the earth was mads known to Columbus. Copernicus, who first 
 of moderns reannounced a fact already known to the ancients (p. 68) that the 
 sun is the centre of the planetary system, had spent five years in Italy, 1500- 
 1505. His system was published in 1543. 
 
 Influence of Italy on Europe.— A modern German writer and high 
 authority on Italian history declares that the cultivation of Italian women 
 before 1500 was generally superior to that of German ladies in our own time. 
 The knowledge of ancient languages, possessed in the 16th century by English 
 ladies like Queen Elizabeth or Lady Jane Grey, was entirely Italian in deriva- 
 tion. The " Elizabethan " style of architecture, so-called, is the style of the 
 Italian " Renaissance," and so also is the later so-called style of " Queen Anne." 
 The dependence of the English Chaucer, 14th century, on learning and litera- 
 ture of Italian origin is well known. In the late 16th century the name of 
 Shakespeare once more reminds us of Italian influence on England. Aside 
 from the many plays which are Italian in scene or story, all those of classical 
 subjects (borrowed from Plutarch) point in the same direction. In the 17th 
 century, the English Milton owed to his Italian travels and studies the classical 
 coloring and allusions of his poems. His French contemporaries, Molitire, 
 Corneille, and Racine, owe to the ancients their literary inspiration. And here, 
 as always in modern history, a classical inspiration points to an Italian influ- 
 ence. In the 18th century the English Dr. Johnson pronounced the "Courtier," 
 by Count Castiglione, the friend of Raphael, to be still the most perfect book 
 on manners and good breeding. 
 
 Soon after 1500 the employment of Italian artists and the prevalence 
 of Italian fashions in Northern Europe led to the overthrow of Gothic archi- 
 
THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, 
 
 2ir 
 
 lecture in favor of the style of the " Renaissance," a word applied equally to the 
 architecture, to the literary spirit, and general civilization of Italy at this time. In 
 the Renaissance style of St. Peter's at Rome were built the famous palace 
 facades of Heidelberg, the Escurial Palace near Madrid, the Palace of the 
 Tiouvre in Paris, and St. Paul's in London. Observe in illustrations of these 
 
 St. Petor's at Rome, begun by Pope Julias II. in 1506. The Vatican Palace on the right. 
 
 buildings, for instance in St. Peter's or in the Louvre (under modern French 
 history), the revival of classic Greek forms as used in the ornament of the Roman 
 ruins of Italy. The streets of every modern city, in which the Renaissance style 
 is still general, offer abundant ocular evidence of the long-continued dominance 
 of Italian influence on history. 
 
 Italy's Weakness. — But while this civilization was spreading by a thou- 
 sand channels over Northern Europe, France, Germany and Spain were engaged 
 in the effort to appropriate and rule over the territories in which so much 
 wealth, luxury, and cultivation were concentrated. For the Italian states 
 boasted all the features of civilization excepting a physically strong military 
 power. In this regard, the coarser European nations were all more or less 
 superior. Thus the beginning of modern history finds Italy becoming the 
 battle-ground of the North. To the greed and ambition of other countries 
 her later misfortunes must be attributed, although these warlike expeditions 
 
 10 
 
218 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 attested her superiority, and served, by closer contact of foreign nations with 
 her, to increase her influence. Moreover, highly developed civilization had 
 
 brought its ovi^n corruptions with 
 it. Human selfishness, vice, and 
 violence were not lacking to mar 
 and spot the picture of her excel- 
 lence and her perfections. Within 
 the limits of this single country 
 were concentrated and prefigured 
 not only the luxury, wealth and 
 culture, but also the diplomatic 
 intrigues, state rivalries, and self- 
 ish plotting of modern times in 
 general. In good and in bad the 
 Italy of 1500 was 19th century 
 Europe on a diminished scale, but 
 with more highly concentrated 
 energies and more pronounced 
 expressi<m. 
 
 The versatility and refinement 
 of Italian culture are illustrated by 
 an anecdote in Vasari's Lives of the 
 Italian Painters (written about 1550), 
 of a monk named Fra Glocondo. This 
 monk was at once painter, architect, 
 engineer, philosopher, theologian, horticulturist, and man of letters. As man of letters, 
 besides being an excellent Greek scholar, he published an edition of Vitruvius, the ancient 
 authority on architecture, and discovered in the Paris Library the greater part of the famous 
 Letters of Pliny. He collected ancient inscriptions throughout Italy, wrote. on the Commen- 
 taries of Csesar, and made a design of the bridge thrown across the Rhine by this Roman 
 general. As architect, 4ie was employed for a time in the construction of St. Peter's at Rome. 
 As engineer, he turned the course of the river Brenta, which was filling in the lagunes of 
 Venice, and so preserved this city from niin. The anecdote relates to his skill as horti- 
 culturist, as exhibited in the service of the French king, Louis Xn. 
 
 "Fra Glocondo was a man of universal attainment, and, in addition to the pursuits above 
 described, he found pleasure in the most simple occupations, among others, in agriculture and 
 gardening. On this subject the Florentine, Mcsser Donate Giannotti, who was his intimate 
 friend during mauy years that they spent together in France, relates that Fra Glocondo, while 
 they were thus living in the French court, once reared a peach tree in an earthen vase. The 
 little tree prospered so well, and was loaded with such a large quantity of fruit, that it was a 
 marvel to behold. Thereupon he was one day advised by some of his friends to set it in a place 
 where the king was to pass, and where he could not fail to see it, which he did. But it happened 
 that certain of the courtiers came by flr^t, and these men, as is the fiisluon of Buch gentry, 
 
 Literior of St. Peter's at Rome. 
 
POLITICAL HISTORY. 219 
 
 gathered all the fruit off the little tree, to the great displeasure of Fra Giocondo, and what 
 they could not eat they scattered along the whole length of the street. The matter coming to 
 the knowledge of the king, he amused himself for a time over the jest with his courtiers, but 
 then returning thanks to the monk for what he had done, his Majesty caused a gift of such 
 value to be presented to him that Fra Giocondo was consoled." 
 
 This story illustrates the refinement of Italian feeling which selected such a present as one 
 best worthy of a king, and also the inferior cultivation of Northern Europe at this time, when 
 French courtiers had so little sensibility as to destroy the gift. Notwithstanding the manifold 
 talents and knowledge of Fra Giocondo, he is by no means one of the best known examples 
 of Italian versatility. Leonardo da Vinci was at once painter, sculptor, architect, civil and 
 military engineer, anatomist, musician, poet and author ; and many other similar cases could 
 be given. 
 
 POLITICAL HISTORY OF ITALY ABOUT 1500. 
 
 Naples (Southern Italy, below the States of the Church) and 
 Sicily, had a history independent of the Civic States of Northern 
 and Central Italy. When Charles of Anjou (pp. 162, 194) had de- 
 feated, in South Italy, the Hohenstaufen regent Manfred, 1266, 
 and the Hohenstaufen heir Conradin, 1268 — the latter, who was be- 
 headed in Naples, bequeathed Sicily to the Spanish House of Aragon. 
 His half-uncle, Manfred, was related to this House by marriage. 
 
 Sicily was thus transmitted, after the revolt of the Sicilian 
 Vespers, 1282 (p. 194), to a branch line of the House of Aragon, 
 and was then reunited with the Aragonese line in 1409. 
 
 Joanna II. of Naples, with whom the Neapolitan Line of Anjou 
 ended in 1433, had adopted successively as her heirs, firet, the 
 Second Line of Anjou (p. 198) ; and, second, the Aragonese princes. 
 In the dispute which consequently arose, the Second Line of Anjou 
 succeeded in obtaining Provence, while the Aragonese claimants 
 established a collateral line in Naples. But the Second House of 
 Anjou maintained its claim' to Naples, contesting the validity of the 
 second adoption, and transmitted this claim with Provence, Anjou, 
 and Maine (p. 206) to the French crown under Louis XL 
 
 Charles VIII., his son, undertook to establish this claim and 
 conquer Naples. He was incited to this campaign by Ludovico 
 Moro, ruler of Milan (famous as the patron of the great painter 
 Leonardo da Vinci). Ludovico wished to supplant his nephew, for 
 
220 ITALY. 
 
 whom he was regent. In this intrigue he was resisted by his 
 nephew's wife, and her father, the King of Naples. War with 
 Naples and revolution in Milan were impending. To forestall this 
 danger he resorted to the French. 
 
 Hence the Italian Campaign of Charles VIII. The French 
 king marched an army through Italy, 1494, to Naples, and the 
 king, Ferdinand II., fled to Sicily. The rapid success of the 
 French caused a general coalition of the Italian states, and Charles 
 VIII. returned with difficulty to France, leaving part of his army 
 behind. This was soon conquered by Ferdinand IL, assisted by 
 Spanish infantry, under Gonsalvo de Cordova, furnished by Ferdi- 
 nand the Catholic of Spain. 
 
 French Claims on Naples and Milan. — AVhen Charles 
 VIII. died, in 1498, his successor, Louis XII., of the new line of 
 Valo is- Orleans, revived the claim to Naples, and added a claim to 
 Milan. His grandmother had belonged to the family of the Vis- 
 conti rulers of Milan, some time extinct. Both claims represent 
 the ambition of the new French monarchy to show its prowess, 
 to win new sources of revenue and rich possessions in the 
 South. 
 
 In 1499 Louis XII. invaded Italy, seized Milan, and then 
 allied himself with Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain for conquest of 
 Naples in partnership. This was effected in 1501. A quarrel arose 
 as to the division of the conquered territory. Gonsalvo de Cordova 
 then expelled the French, and Naples (all South Italy below the 
 States of the Church) with Sicily now belonged to Spain. 
 
 A turning point in history is marked by the French occu- 
 pation of Milan in 1499, and the Spanish conquest of Naples in 
 1501, the beginning of a rivalry between France and Spain for 
 ascendency in Italy. Both had contested Naples, the rich state of 
 the South. Both were soon to contest for Milan, the richest prov- 
 ince of the North. Thus does the year 1500 once more reveal itself 
 as a point which cannot be jmssed without a description of the 
 power of Spain. 
 
POLITICAL HISTORY. 221 
 
 Hap study.— Italy under the Roman Empire, p. 116; under the Ostrogoths, p. 140. 
 The Lombards succeeded the Ostrogoths in the 6th century, with a short intervening period 
 of Byzantine rule, p. 147. Italy under Charlemagne, p. 154; under Otto the Great and the Ger- 
 man emperors, p. 156. 
 
 For Sicily compare these last two maps. On the first it has the Byzantine color, on the 
 second, the Arab. Normans in Sicily, p. 182. 
 
 Italy in the 12th century, p. 182 ; still a part of the " Germanic " Empire. Italy in the 13th 
 century, before 1254, was also under Hohenstaufen rule in Naples and Sicily. 
 
 On map for Europe about 1400, p. 200, see Pisa, Venice, Genoa, Milan, Mantua, Padua, 
 Ferrara, Bologna, Florence, Siena, Perugia. 
 
 For Venetian possessions in the Levant, see color of Venice in the "Morea" or Pelopon- 
 nesus, same map. It became a Venetian possession somewhat later than the Fourth Cru- 
 sade. For Urbino, see map for Europe about 1550, under Charles the Fifth. 
 
 Anjous in Naples and Aragonese in Sicily, see p. 200. Second Line of Anjou in Provence, 
 see p. 200. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON ITALIAN AND PAPAL HISTORY. 
 
 FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What civilized peoples were there in Italy before the foundation of Rome ? (Pp. 76, 77.) 
 
 How many centuries of Italian history are covered by the history of Rome from its founda- 
 tion until a. d 476? 
 
 What Germanic kingdom does this date recall ? (P. 146.) 
 
 When did Theodoric the Great lead the Germanic East-Goths into Italy ? (P. 146.) 
 
 When did the generals of Justinian expel the East-Goths ? (P. 146.) 
 
 Who was Justinian ? (P. 135.) 
 
 When did the Germanic Lombards replace the Byzantine power in Italy (with exception 
 of the Exarchate of Ravenna ? (P. 147.) 
 
 Who expelled the Lombards from the Exarchate at a later time, soon after they occupied 
 it? (Pp. 148,150.) 
 
 What became of the Exarchate ? 
 
 Who overthrew the Lombard rule of Italy ? (P. 154.) 
 
 How was Italy affected by the Treaty of Verdun ? (P. 155.) 
 
 What was its condition after extinction of the line of Lothair ? Ans, Its throne was con- 
 tested by various claimants. 
 
 Who reunited it with the territorial empire founded by Charlemagne ? (P. 157.) 
 
 How was this territorial empire diminished under Otto the Great ? How enlarged ? 
 (Compare pp. 154, 157.) 
 
 What were the relations between the emperors and popes of the 10th century ? Ans. Gen- 
 erally harmonious. 
 
 When did the emperors and popes begin to be at variance ? (P. 159.) 
 
 Were the Imperial territorial rights over Italy then contested ? Am. No. 
 
 When did Italy begin to shake off the rule of the emperors ? (P. 161.) 
 
 When was she entirely freed from their influence ? (P. 162.) 
 
ITALY. 
 
 SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What great Pope of the 5th century Baved Rome from destruction ? (P. 145.) 
 
 What great Pope lived about 600 ? (P. 149.) 
 
 What people was Christianized at this time ? (P. 149.) 
 
 What Pope gave sanction to the Carlovingian line ? (P. 150.) 
 
 What great Pope crowned Charlemagne ? (P. 154.) 
 
 Who was the most learned man in Europe about 1000 ? Ans. Pope Sylvester 11. What 
 monarchs had he served as tutor when a monk ? (Pp. 158, 180.) What country became Chris- 
 tian in his pontificate ? (P. 158.) 
 
 What date fixes the time of Gregory VII. ? (P. 160.) 
 
 What date fixes the time of Urban 11. ? (P. 184.) 
 
 What event fixes the time of Alexander III. ? Ans. The battle of Legnano. 
 
 When was it ? Am. 1176. 
 
 What date fixes the time of Innocent III. ? (P. 191.) 
 
 What mission was promoted by this Pope ? (P. 168.) 
 
 What date fixes the time of Boniface VIII.? Ans. The jubilee of 1300. 
 
 What change of residence removed the Popes for a time from Italy ? (P. 201.) 
 
 What was the fate of most of the Popes in the first three centuries of the Christian era ? 
 (P. 121.) 
 
 About how many years between Pope St. Leo the Great and Pope St. Gregory the Great ? 
 Between Pope St. Gregory the Great and Pope St. Leo HI. ? Between Pope St. Leo III. and 
 Sylvester 11. ? Between Sylvester II. and St. Gregory VII. ? Between St. Gregory VII. and 
 Urban II. (using the single dates already fixed) ? Between Urban II. and Alexander HI.? 
 Between Alexander III. and Innocent III ? Between Innocent m. and Boniface VIII. ? 
 
 THIRD REVIEW LESSON". 
 
 What year precedes by three years the pontificate of Julius II. and by thirteen years the 
 pontificate of Leo X. ? Ans. The year 1500. 
 
 How does this year relate to the dates for the Spanish conquest of Naples ? The French 
 occupation of Milan ? (P. 220.) 
 
 In what year was begun St. Peter's at Rome ? (P. 217.) 
 
 What famous works of art were begun in 1508? Ans. The ceiling frescoes of the Sistine 
 Chapel by Michael Angelo, and the wall paintings of the Vatican by Raphael, 
 
 What great wall-painting preceded these works by just ten years ? Ans. The Last Supper, 
 in Milan, by Leonardo da Vinci 
 
 What is therefore its date ? 
 
 In what year was begun the famous Vatican Collection of Antique Statuary ? Ans. In the 
 year St. Peter's was begun. (See note on the Belvedere Apollo, at p. 34.) 
 
 What Pope made Michael Angelo architect of St. Peter's ? Ans. Pope Paul HI., in 1546. 
 
 What is the greatest modem statue ? Ans. The " Moses," by Michael Angelo, in San 
 Pietro in Vinculi in Rome, the tomb of Julius II. 
 
 What Pope caused the " Last Judgment " to be painted on the end wall of the Sistine Chapel 
 by Michael Angelo ? Ans. Paul HI., in 1534. 
 
 When did the Christian Crusaders leave Syria ? (P- 191-) 
 
 How soon after did the Ottoman Turks enter Europe ? Ans. In 1356. (See p. 201.) 
 
POLITICAL HISTORY. 223 
 
 Where were the Popes residing at this time ? (P. 201.) 
 
 What necessity especially redemanded their presence in Italy ? Ans. The mission of com- 
 bating Mohammedan encroachment on Europe. 
 
 What was the main political activity of the Popes of the 15th century ? Atis. Organizing 
 resistance to the Turks. « 
 
 Who was canonized for the heroic defence of Belgrade in this century ? Ans. St. John 
 Capistran. (See history of the Arabs and Turks, Book III.) 
 
 What proves the urgency of the peril ? Ans. Toward the close of the 15th century the 
 Turks occupied Otranto, the key to Southern Italy, and the Sultan proposed to feed his horse 
 on the altar of the old St. Peter's at Rome. 
 
 FOURTH REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What success attended the resistance to the Turks ? Ans. They were prevented from con- 
 quering any portion of Latin Christendom but Hungary. 
 
 When did the larger part of Hungary fall into their hands ? Ans. In 1526, when religious 
 schism had begun to weaken the energies of Europe. 
 
 Who then inherited the rest of Hungary (with Bohemia), and ultimately gained the whole? 
 Ans. The House of Austria. 
 
 Who was emperor in 1500 ? (P. 167.) 
 
 To what House did he belong ? 
 
 When did he become emperor ? (P. 167.) 
 
 What marriage had he previously contracted ? (P. 206.) 
 
 Soon after what battle? (P. 205.) 
 
 What rivalry was founded by that marriage ? (P. 206.) 
 
 Who was the son of Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian ? Ans. Philip, Duke of Austria. 
 
 Whom did he marry ? Ans. Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. 
 
 Who sprang from this marriage ? Ans. The great Emperor Charles the Fifth. 
 
 When was he born ? Ans. In 1500. What rivalry did he inherit from Spain ? (P. 220.) 
 What rivalry did he inherit from Austria ? (P. 206.) 
 
 What resulted from this succession of marriage alliances ? Ans. The Spanish monarchy 
 became the most powerful in Europe. 
 
 What history therefore must introduce the history of the 16th century ? 
 
 What countries are involved in an account of the period of Charles the Fifth ? Ans. Spain, 
 because he was its king. Germany, because he became its emperor. France, because Louis XI. 
 had seized Picardy and the Duchy of Burgundy from the Burgundian dukedom, and because 
 the Emperors still claimed the right to appoint the Dukes of Milan. Italy, because it became 
 the battle-ground of French and Spaniards. England, because this country was sought in 
 alliance by the two rivals. Turkey, because the Turks were in Austrian Hungary. 
 
 What European nations are not involved in the general history of the 16th century ? Ans. 
 The nations of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), and Russia. 
 
 When did Scandinavia enter the " game of nations " ? Ans. In the 17th century, with the 
 rise of Sweden. 
 
 When did Russia enter into general history ? Ans. In the 18th century, time of Peter the 
 Great. 
 
SPAIN, 
 
 BEFORE AND AFTEE A. D. 1500. 
 
 SPAIN BEFORE 1500. 
 
 CeltO-Tberian Period.— The Spanish Peninsula was inhabited in pre- 
 historic times, partly by Celts, partly by Iberians. Nothing exact is known of 
 the Iberian population. The Basques of the Pyrenees are its descendants. 
 Their language does not offer points of contact or comparison with any other 
 speech. 
 
 Phcenieian and Greek Colonies.— The coasts of Spain were colo- 
 nized many centuries before Christ by Phoenicians from Syria and from Car- 
 thage. Cadiz (Gades) was an old Phoenician colony, and silver was exported 
 in such quantity from it that the Phoenician ships are said to have added to 
 their cargo chains and anchors of this metal. There were also Greek towns on 
 the Northeastern coast after b. c. 600. 
 
 Roman Period. — After the Second Punic War was ended, the Roman 
 Republic rapidly gained control of the country. When the Roman Empire 
 replaced the Republic, Spain was already quite thoroughly Romanized, and its 
 language^ like French and Italian, still exhibits this decidedly Latin origin. 
 
 Visigothie Period.— Spain became, after a. d. 415, a portion of the state 
 of the Germanic West-Goths (they were confined to Spain by Clovis in 507), 
 but the Sue vie northwest comer of the country was not conquered by the 
 West-Goths till 585. 
 
 In 711 the Mohammedan Arabs (and Moors of North Africa) crossed 
 the Straits of Gibraltar under Tarik. The entire kingdom was conquered from 
 the last West-Goth king, Roderick, in a single battle. The Christians main- 
 tained their independence only in the strip of country under the Pyrenees 
 (Asturia). From this foothold, after Charlemagne had forced the Arabs back 
 to the Ebro, the Spaniards began to gain ground on the Mohammedans. 
 
SPAI N BEFORE 1500. 
 
 225 
 
 Portiou of the Alhambra. 
 {Palace of the Moorish kings at Granada.) 
 
 The whole medieval history of Spain is taken ap in this struggle. 
 The nature of the Spanish people developed in its long contest with the infidels 
 a peculiarly zealous, enthusiastic, and 
 warlike spirit. 
 
 Influence of the Spanish 
 Arabs. — Notwithstanding the an- 
 tagonism of the Spanish Arabs and 
 Spanish Christians there was much 
 intercourse between them. The con- 
 tact between the subject Spaniards 
 and the Mohammedans, in territory 
 ruled by the latter, involved a mixt- 
 ure of civilizations. The Arabs had 
 especially devoted themselves to the 
 technic arts, to medicine, chemistry, 
 and the natural sciences, and in these 
 departments their influence through 
 Spain on Europe was marked. The 
 numerals introduced in this way, and called Arabic, were derived from the 
 Hindoos, for the Arab conquests extended to India. Many of the Greek 
 authors, Aristotle among them, were made known to the Middle Ages by Latin 
 translations from the Arabic. 
 
 The justly vaunted Arabian civilization was Byzantine in its origin, and was 
 borrowed in the provinces of Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, conquered from East-Rome 
 about 640 (Mohammed died 632). 
 
 Political History. — In medieval Spain there developed after Charle 
 magne five or six petty Christian states, but the whole number on the Penin- 
 sula was finally reduced to four — the gradually decreasing Moorish state of 
 Granada, Portugal, Aragon, and Castile, These two last kingdoms were united 
 by the marriage of their rulers, Ferdinand the Catholic and Isabella, in 1469. 
 From this union, and from the consequent conquest of Granada in 1492, dates 
 the modern national state of Spain. 
 
 The Spanish Inquisition.— An untemporizing character was developed in Spanish 
 Christianity by a spirit of national hostility to foreign Arab and Moorish rule. The Spanish 
 Inquisition was first established as a political engine against the disloyalty of those Moors 
 who had made the sham of a Christian conversion a cloak to their disloyalty to the state, 
 in which they continued to live and intrigue after conquest. Undoubtedly its terrors have 
 been exaggerated and its procedure more or less unjustly stigmatized. But it is certain that 
 its introduction by the Spanish monarchs was antagonized by the protests and efforts of 
 
226 SPAIN. 
 
 the Popes, as being a secular interference with affairs of the Church. The first establishment 
 of the Spanish Inquisition, in the 15th century, led Pope Sixtus IV. to sever diplomatic rela- 
 tions with the Court of Spain, and the Inquisitors of Toledo were excommunicated by Pope 
 LeoX. 
 
 Map Study.— Spain after the Punic Wars, p. 92 ; under the Roman Empire, p. 116 ; under 
 the Visigoths or West-Goths, p. 140 ; under the Arabs, with Charlemagne's " Spanish March" 
 and the Christian kingdom of Leon, p. 154. Rise of other Christian states, p. 156. Develop- 
 ment of same in the 12th century, p. 182. Portugal, Castile, Aragon, Granada, about 1400, 
 p. 200. 
 
 . QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON MEDIEVAL SPAIN. 
 
 Date the end of the Second Punic War. (P. 93.) 
 
 The siege of Numantia. (P. 97.) 
 
 The beginning of the Roman Empire. (P. 109.) 
 
 The century of the German invasions. (P. 143.) 
 
 The expulsion of the West-Goths from France. (P. 148.) 
 
 The century of Mohammed. (P. 222.) 
 
 The overthrow of the Spanish Visigoths. (P. 150.) 
 
 The victory of Charles Martel at Poitiers. (P. 150.) 
 
 The Spanish conquest of Charlemagne (approximately by the round number of his coronation 
 at Rome. (P. 154.) 
 
 The union of Aragon and Castile. (P. 225.) 
 
 The conquest of Granada, (P. 225.) 
 
 In whose reign may England be considered a modern national state ? (.P. 207.) 
 
 What reign marks the final consolidation of modern France ? (Pp. 205, 206.) 
 
 When did Louis XI. die ? (P. 201.) 
 
 How long after occurred the conquest of Granada ? 
 
 When did Henry VII. become king of England ? Am. 1485. 
 
 How long after occurred the conquest of Granada ? 
 
 To what state did Sicily belong in the year 1500 ? Since when ? (P. 220.) 
 
 To what state did Naples belong one year later ? 
 
 To what state did Sardinia, Majorca, and Minorca belong in 1500 ? Ans. To Spain through 
 Aragon ; acquired in the 13th century. 
 
 MARITIME DISCOVERIES AND COLONIAL EMPIRE OF SPAIN. 
 
 The use of the magnetic needle, which assisted the discovery of new 
 countries by facilitating long voyages, came into general use through Flavio 
 Gioja (Gioya), native of Southern Italy, at the beginning of the 14th century. 
 Exploring expeditions of the Portuguese along the coast of Africa began under 
 Prince Heniy the Navigatx)r. At his death, in 1460, they had reached Sierra 
 Leone. Bartholomew Dia/ reached the Cape of Good Hope in 1486. 
 
 Italians, and especially Genoese, took part in these voyages, because 
 
MARITIME DISCOVERIES OF SPAIN. 
 
 2^7 
 
 Spanish Ship of the Fifteenth Century. 
 {From a print of tJie time.) 
 
 of the advantage of a sea route to the East Indies. Since the Crusades the 
 Genoese had had trading posts in the Crimea, which, by way of the Don, the 
 Volga, and the Caspian, kept open 
 a route to the far East. These 
 trading posts were broken up by 
 the Ottoman Turks when they 
 made the Crimea a province in 
 1475. Christopher Columbus, a 
 Genoese mariner, therefore con- 
 ceived the idea of reaching the 
 same destination by sailing to the 
 west. His idea was drawn from 
 Florentine geographers and astron- 
 omers, who were again dependent 
 for their knowledge on the Alex- 
 andrine geographer, Ptolemy, of 
 the 2d century a. d. Ptolemy was 
 acquainted with the rotundity of 
 the earth although he had aban- 
 doned the earlier teaching of Alex- 
 andrine astronomers as to the revolution of the earth around the sun 
 (p. 68). 
 
 Columbus applied for assistance to the Portuguese court, which refused it. 
 He then had recourse to Ferdinand and Isabella. The generosity of the latter 
 equipped the three vessels with which he reached the Bahamas in 1493. Co- 
 lumbus believed that he had reached a portion of the East Indies of which he 
 was in search, nor did his later voyages change this idea. In a second voyage, 
 1493-1496, he discovered Jamaica and some of the lesser Antilles. On his third 
 voyage he reached the main land of South America, 1498. Sebastian Cabot, a 
 Venetian mariner in the service of Henry VII. of England, discovered the coast 
 of Labrador in 1497 and sailed along the shore of North America as far as 
 Florida. 
 
 Spanish Colonies. — It was not till more than a century later that the 
 discovery of North America was utilized for settlements (the Spanish Colony of 
 Florida excepted). The first colony on the main land of America was founded 
 by Balboa, a Castilian Spaniard, in 1513, on the Isthmus of Panama. Colum- 
 bus had examined this territory (together with the shores of Central America) 
 on his. fourth voyage in 1504. Balboa obtained the first information of Peru. 
 The great significance of the American discoveries for Spain begins with the 
 
228 SPAIN. 
 
 immense riches gained by the conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez, after 
 1520, and of Peru, by Francisco Pizarro, after 1531. 
 
 Pope Alexander VI. fixed, in 1493, a line of demarcation, running from 
 north to south, 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, between the Span- 
 iards and the Portuguese, giving to the former all discoveries west, to the lat- 
 ter all discoveries east of this line. Thus, besides Brazil, the East Indian and 
 African discoveries were secured to Portugal. 
 
 The Portuguese navigator Vasco de Gama rounded the Cape of 
 Good Hope and reached India in 1498, and a Portuguese commercial empire 
 grew up, in consequence of this voyage, along the shores of Africa, of India, 
 and Ceylon, which opened relations after 1517 with China and Japan. 
 
 The Portuguese Magellan, in the employ of Spain, sailed through the 
 straits named after liim, reaching the Philippines in 1521. Here he was slain 
 in a combat with the natives, and his companions completed the first voyage 
 around the world. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 
 
 . f Sierrra Leone A. D. 1460 
 
 ,5 I* I Cape of GoodHope ** 1486 
 
 ^ I I Bahamas *' 1492 
 
 L American Continent and India , " 1498 
 
 ^ f First American Colony of Spain " 1513 
 
 ^ ^ ^ Spanish Conquest of Mexico after " 1520 
 
 "^ O I Spanish Conquest of Peru after " 1531 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLES V.; BORN 1500, DIED 1558. 
 
 GENEALOGY OF CHARLES V. 
 
 Maximilian of Austria = Mary of Bnrgundy. Ferdinand the Catholic = Isabella of Castile. 
 Philip I. = Joanna. 
 
 Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile had con- 
 tinued after mamage to rule their kingdoms as separate sovereigns. 
 
REIGN OF CHARLES V. 229 
 
 Their daughter and heir, Joanna, married Philip, Duke of Austria, 
 the son of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy (p. 206). She be- 
 came insane soon after the birth of her son Charles, in 1500. Isa- 
 bella died in 1504. Philip, who then assumed the regency of Castile, 
 died a year later, and Ferdinand became regent in Castile for bis 
 grandson and heir till his own death in 1516. 
 
 Cardinal Ximines was the most important person in Spain at 
 this time. His wise administration really accomplished the perma- 
 nent union of Aragon and Castile. It was he who had induced the 
 Castilian estates to accept the regency of Ferdinand, and who pre- 
 served order till the arrival of the new monarch. 
 
 Charles I. of Spain had been educated in the Netherlands, 
 spoke Dutch, and retained through life many peculiarities of the 
 Burgundian Netherlander. His title in 1516 was Charles I. of 
 Spain. But this inheritance involved the Spanish possessions already 
 gained or soon to be acquired in America, together with Majorca, 
 Minorca, Sardinia, Sicily and Naples (p. 220). In 1519 the death 
 of Maximilian of Austria, his paternal grandfather, added to these 
 possessions the " Burgundian " inheritance (p. 199) and the Austrian 
 territories (p. 164). These last included, since the time of Budolf 
 of Hapsburg, territories in Alsace and South Baden, beside Austria 
 proper, with the Tyrol, Styria, Carinthiq,, and Carniola. The " Bur- 
 gundian" inheritance included the "Franche-Comte" and the 
 Netherland Provinces (modern Belgium and Holland), with claims 
 on the Duchy of Burgundy and Picardy, which had been confis- 
 cated by Louis XL (p. 205). But there was something still to be 
 added to these immense possessions, namely, the rights and powers 
 of the Imperial Title (p. 154). These had long been in abeyance 
 practically, but might by a sovereign sufficiently powerful be again 
 asserted. 
 
 The Imperial power, which gave Charles I. of Spain his title 
 of Charles V., was not inherited from Maximilian, although he was 
 the preceding Emperor. This title was in the gift of the Electoral 
 Princes of Germany (p. 165). It was not necessary that the 
 
230 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 Charles V. 
 (Medal of his time.) 
 
 Emperor should be a German (p. 157) ; as a matter of fact, 
 he always had been. But there were, after the death of Maxi- 
 
 mihan, two other suitors for this 
 distinction, Henry VIII. of 
 England and Francis I. of 
 France (who succeeded Louis 
 XII. in 1515). The chances ap- 
 peared to be in favor of the lat- 
 ter sovereign. One considera- 
 tion turned the scale against 
 him, the menacing attitude of 
 the Turks (p. 223). Austria 
 was the natural bulwark of Ger- 
 many against them, and the 
 leadership of Germany was 
 therefore intrusted to the Haps- 
 burg ruler of Austria, Burgundy, Spain, and South Italy. 
 
 Charles V. was only nineteen years of age. He was thought to 
 be of feeble capacity. His manners and appearance gave an impres- 
 sion of awkwardness. The very extent of his possessions appeared 
 to be an element of weakness, and the electors were by no means 
 aware that they had made an emperor who was to reassert the terri- 
 torial pretensions of the " Holy Roman Empire" of Charlemagne 
 and Otto the Great. During this reign the states of Germany con- 
 tinued to retain much of their practical independence, but they were, 
 notwithstanding, overawed and dominated by the weight of the 
 emperor's character, the power of his diplomacy and of his enor- 
 mous territorial possessions. 
 
 In Italy the old theory of the "Empire'' (p. 157) gave a turn 
 to history which determined the whole later destinies of this country. 
 Since the time of the occupation of Naples by Ferdinand the Cath- 
 olic, the French had made North Italy the scene of their campaigns. 
 In 1512 they lost their conquest of Milan (made in 1499). They 
 were expelled by the efforts of Pope Julius II., whose whole pontifi- 
 
REIGN OF CHARLES V. 231 
 
 cate since 1503 had been devoted to this task, for the Popes were 
 the guardians of ItaUan independence. But in 1515, the year of 
 the accession of Francis I., this French king reconquered Milan 
 after the brilliant victory of Marignano (Marinyano), won by his 
 Swiss mercenaries (pontificate of Leo X., 1513-1521). 
 
 The election of Charles I. of Spain as Charles V. of the Empire 
 transferred the rivalry between France and Spain, which had begun 
 in the contest for supremacy in South Italy (p. 220), to this richest 
 province of its fertile northern valley. The Duchy of Milan was 
 the key to the rest of Italy, and hence the importance attached to 
 its possession. The Emperor still retained the legal power to nom- 
 inate its Duke, from the old period of territorial rights over Italy. 
 
 Rivalry of France and Spain in Italy. — The question to be 
 decided, by force of arms, whether the Emperor could sustain his 
 nominee (a member of the Sforza family, to which Ludovico Moro 
 belonged), was now a question whether France or Spain should con- 
 trol Italy. For two entire centuries the rivalry between France and 
 the Hapsburgs continued to furnish the most important material 
 for a history of events in Europe (as opposed to a history of civiliza- 
 tion which meanwhile continued to radiate from its Italian centre). 
 Therefore let it be remembered that this rivalry began in the seizure 
 of the Duchy of Burgundy and of Picardy in 1477, by Louis XI. 
 (p. 205), whose restitution- was demanded by Charles V., as taken 
 from the inheritance of his grandmother, Mary of Burgundy; 
 that it continued in the disputed claim of France and Spain to 
 Naples in 1501, and culminated in the rivalry of Charles V. and 
 Francis I. for the Imperial dignity and the control of Milan. 
 (Francis I. had encouraged revolts against the new monarchy in 
 Spain, another cause of quarrel.) 
 
 Francis refused to vacate North Italy. The generals of 
 Charles, who himself had returned to Spain, expelled the French 
 from Milan in 1521 and 1522. The pretensions of the Empire 
 to Southeast France (p. 159) were now revived, for although 
 Charles IV. of Luxemburg-Bohemia had made the French Dauphin 
 
232 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 his vicar in these provinces (p. 166) there Avas here also pretext for 
 war ; but the invasion of these territories by the Spanish forces was 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 A new invasion of North Italy by Francis resulted in his 
 defeat at Pavia, 1525. He was made captive and carried prisoner 
 to Madrid. To secure his freedom he agreed (Peace of Madrid) to 
 cede the French Duchy of Burgundy, to abandon claims to Milan, 
 and to pay a heavy ransom ; but, alleging compulsion, he reopened 
 the war on reaching France. 
 
 Pope Clement VII. (1523-1534) now took sides with the 
 French ; for the Spanish ascendency threatened to crush Italy under 
 the old Imperial pretensions. This led to the sack of Eome, in 
 1527, by an army of Germans in the pay of Charles. The Emperor 
 (in Spain) disavowed responsibility for the violence of his agents, 
 but the public sentiment of Europe forced him to an accommodation 
 with the Pope, wiio then crowned him at Bologna in 1530. 
 
 Two later wars with France did not reverse the general results 
 of the two wars between 1521 and 1529. These results were that 
 Spain became mistress of North Central Italy (Milan) as she was 
 already mistress of Naples; that a marriage, alliance between a 
 daughter of Charles V. and Alesandro Medici, a relative of Clem- 
 ent VII., founded the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which replaced the 
 Florentine Eepublic after 1530. The only important independent 
 state in Italy after 1530 was the Republic of Venice, which con- 
 tinued until the close of the 18tli century and the times of Bona- 
 parte. The small dimensions and diplomatic rivalries of the Italian 
 free states, in which modern civilization developed its earliest and 
 most beautiful flower, did not permit their continued existence after 
 the rise of the strong national monarchies of France and Spain. 
 But the spread of Italian culture over Europe began after this period, 
 in consequence of the closer relations with Italy, to be the most 
 important factor in the development of Northern civilization. 
 
 Addition of Bohemia and Hungary to the Hapsburg 
 Territories. — Between the first and second wars of France and 
 
REIGN OF CHARLES V. 233 
 
 Spain, took place, in 1526, the battle of Mohacz, in Hungary, be- 
 tween the Turks and Christians. In this battle the young king of 
 Bohemia and Hungary was killed. His sister and heir was the wife 
 of Ferdinand, brother of the Emperor, his regent in Austria. It 
 was in consequence of this battle that these countries were united 
 with the Hapsburg territories. The larger part of Hungary was, 
 however, held by the Turks for a century and a half. 
 
 In 1529 the Turkish Sultan, Solyman the Great, laid 
 siege to Vienna, which by valiant resistance preserved itself from 
 capture and Germany from a Turkish invasion. Charles V. now 
 turned his efforts against the Turks, and the army which he col- 
 lected preserved Germany from a second invasion in 1532. The 
 Turks retired without daring to encounter his forces. 
 
 Expedition to Tunis. — The Emperor next conducted an 
 expedition to Africa against the Mohammedan pirates of Tunis, 
 and freed their Christian captives, 1535. A later expedition against 
 Algiers was less successful. By the public spirit shown in these 
 expeditions, Charles V. secured the good will of Christendom in 
 general. Francis I., on the other hand, made alliances with the 
 Infidels in his two later wars with the Spaniards, which damaged 
 his standing in his own time and in later history. 
 
 Meantime the spread of the Lutheran movement in Ger- 
 many had already resulted, 1525, in a socialistic outbreak — the 
 " Peasant Wars " — which cost the lives of a hundred thousand 
 people. The communist excesses of the Anabaptists in North- 
 west Germany alarmed the supporters of morality and social 
 order. (The Anabaptists [rebaptizers] were named from their 
 rebaptism of adults. ) Church property w^as being confiscated by 
 the princes of North Germany, who entered into the " Eeforma- 
 tion" as a business speculation. The Hohenzollern Grand-Master 
 of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia (Northeast Germany, p. 168) 
 transformed himself into the Lutheran owner of the province 
 (held as a fief of Poland) in 1525. 
 
 The threatening invasions of the Turks had been utilized by the 
 
234 SPAIN. 
 
 Protestant German princes as a means to their own independence. 
 
 1 ; ; ! ) ; ;( olona of the Expedition against Tunis. Old Tapestry in Madrid. 
 
 Tlie Emperor liad been obliged to make concessions to the Protes- 
 tants before they would render assistance against the Turks^ but 
 
REIGN OF CHARLES V . 235 
 
 undertook, after 1545, to forbid the farther dissemination of anti- 
 Catholic tenets. 
 
 This led to the Smalcaldian "War in 1546. Its name is 
 derived from a league of the Protestant German princes formed at 
 vSmalcalden, in Saxony (1530). The victory of Miihlberg, 1547, 
 placed the most important Protestant leader, Frederick of Saxony, in 
 the hands of the Emperor, and Philip of Hesse Avas soon after made 
 prisoner. But the fortunes of war were turned by the defection of 
 Maurice of Saxony, who had been made Elector of this State by the 
 Emperor. The later House of Saxony is descended from Maurice. 
 
 The Peace of Fassau, 1552, left the religious parties about 
 evenly balanced in Germany.* Certain questions relating to the 
 ]-estitution of confiscated Church property were left open for future 
 settlement. 
 
 In 1556 the Emperor, at this time in the Netherlands, 
 formally abdicated and transferred the government of his pos- 
 sessions to his brother and to his son. He secured the Impe- 
 rial dignity and the Austrian possessions to his l^rother 
 Ferdinand, who founded the line of the Austrian Hapsburgs. 
 
 * Toleration was not usual with the Princes of either confession. The religion of the 
 ruler generally determined the religion of the State, Persecutions were common on both sides 
 throughout the Reformation period, and it is beyond dispute that they were set in motion on 
 both sides by the political rulers from political motives. Francis I. and eminently Henry II. 
 his successor, who bitterly persecuted the Protestants in France, as openly assisted them in 
 Germany, even by alliance in war. Elizabeth betrayed the cause of the Protestant Dutch and 
 persecuted the Jesuits at home, openly alleging political motives. So the Lutherans of Den- 
 mark expelled the Caivinists from the kingdom and refused to harbor the Calvinists who fled 
 from France. We can as little defend religious persecution for political motives as for religious 
 reasons; but it is important to know that persecution was not the policy of the Roman 
 Church. As far as political matters are concerned, it is undeniable that the Protestants were 
 the innovators, and it is undeniable that their cause was made the cover of political factions 
 from the moment of its inception. It may be urged that in the case of the sovereigns, the tol- 
 erance practised by some of them at first, notably by Charles V. for over twenty years, was the 
 result of religious indifierence. This could not be said, however, of the Roman Church, and 
 the continued mildness of the Roman Pontiffs towards the Protestants as individuals is a well- 
 authenticated fact of history. The habit of confounding the policy of the Roman Church with 
 the policy of certain Catholic sovereigns is not unusual, but we may confidently anticipate the 
 dissipation of this error as the truths of history are better known. 
 
236 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 He secured the Burgundian, Spanish, and Italian inheritance, 
 with the American possessions, to his son PhiUp, who became, 
 as Philip II., founder of the Spanish Hapsburgs. Charles V. 
 died two years later, in Spain. 
 
 Ijast Years of the Emperor.—" He had buried himself in the monastic seclusion of the 
 Convent of St. Just, in Estramadura. Here he wished to hide in solitude the greatness, the 
 ambition, and all the vast projects which for half a century had kept Europe in a state of alarm. 
 His pastimes were limited to occasional rides on horseback, to the cultivation of a garden, and 
 mechanical occupations. He had a passion for horology, and the inability to make two time- 
 pieces exactly agree is said to have drawn from him the reflection : ' How absurd was it, then, 
 to attempt the establishment of uniformity among men and empires, since I cannot even suc- 
 ceed in making two clocks agree.' " 
 
 PERIOD OF CHARLES V. 
 
 Important features of general European history during the time 
 
 of Charles V., besides the mar- 
 itime discoveries, were the ad- 
 vances made in astronomy, the 
 general diffusion of the art of 
 printing, the revolution in 
 warfare, and the rise of the 
 Protestants. 
 
 The discoveries of Co- 
 pernicus (native of Thorn 
 in Prussia proper), who had 
 studied in Italy, revived the 
 ancient knowledge as to the 
 movements of the planetary 
 system and broadened the 
 conception of the wonders of 
 the Universe. Tliese discov- 
 eries were published in printed 
 form in the year of his death, 
 1543. The Natural Sciences 
 in general began to be more 
 closely studied and more sys- 
 tematically developed. 
 
 Invention of Printing. — The diffusion of the newly ac(juired scientific 
 
 Printing Press, Iflth Century. 
 (Old OetTiian tooodcut) 
 
PERIOD OF CHARLES V. 
 
 237 
 
 knowledge and of the old classic learning was immensely assisted by the inven* 
 tion of printing, which came into general use after 1500. The discoverer of this 
 art was John Gutenberg, a citizen of Mayence, but long resident in Strasburg. 
 Here, about 1440, he improved the older art of cutting on wood by introducing 
 movable wooden types for printing entire books. He returned to Mayence in 
 1445 and entered into partnership with John Faust and his son-in-law Peter 
 SchceflFer. The latter invented cast metallic types. The first book printed was 
 a Bible begun in 1450, and published in 1456. The general knowledge of print- 
 ing was diffused by troubles in which Mayence was involved by contested claims 
 to its government, and by the consequent dispersion of many citizens. Venice 
 became the most important centre of the art. Here were first given to the 
 world in printed form most of the classic authors of antiquity. 
 
 The Use of Gunpowder and its application to artillery had 
 so far revolutionized the art 
 of warfare that the 16th cen- 
 tury, in this respect also, was 
 becoming distinctly " modern." 
 The strongholds of the feudal 
 nobility of Europe were de- 
 stroyed or made useless by the 
 new weapons. The courts of 
 the monarchs thus became the 
 centres of a new national life, 
 by which the old local and pro- 
 vincial isolation was broken 
 down. 
 
 The use of infantry in 
 war and of standing armies became general, and thus was overthrown the mili- 
 tary importance of the old chivalry. 
 
 The invention of gunpowder was probably known to the Chinese, Hindoos, 
 and Arabs, but was rediscovered by a German monk, Berthold Schwarz, of 
 Mayence, after 1300, and was first employed for warlike purposes during the 
 first half of the 1 4th century. 
 
 The author of the Protestant movement, Martin Luther, was 
 bom in 1483, at Eisleben, in Saxony. His family was poor, and his early sur- 
 roundings full of hardship. The friendship of a liberal lady, Ursula Cotta, 
 furnished him with means for his education. After taking his degree in 
 philosophy at Erfurt, he entered its Augustinian convent and received Holy 
 Orders in 1507. After visiting Rome in 1510 he was called to the chair of 
 
 Artillery ; 16th Century. Old German woodcut. 
 
238 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Philosopliy in the new university of Wittenberg, by its founder, the Elector 
 Frederick of Saxony. Here he began to develop a doctrine exalting faith as 
 the only means to salvation. In 1517, Leo X. granted an indulgence obtain- 
 able on certain conditions, one of which was the giving of an alms towards 
 the building of St. Peter's Church, Rome, and for an expedition against the 
 Turks. Luther, stimulated by jealousy, first began to attack the preachers 
 who had been commissioned to preach the indulgence, some of whom had 
 been guilty of exaggeration as to its effects, and finally proceeded to assail 
 the doctrine of indulgence itself. In the controversy which followed, he was 
 finally led to deny the authority of the Church Councils and of the Holy See. 
 He publicly burned at Wittenberg, in 1520, the Bull in which his errors were 
 condemned by Pope Leo X., and in which his sentence of excommunication 
 was pronounced, unless he should retract in sixty days. He was summoned, 
 in 1521, to appear at the Diet of Worms, presided over by the Emperor, but 
 made no particular impression on this august assembly, and left Worms 
 hastily. From this time till his death, in 1546, he continued to agitate in 
 favor of the heresy since known as Lutheranism. 
 
 John Calvin was bom at Noyon, in Picardy, in 1509. His father was 
 a cooper. Calvin made literary and legal studies at the universities of Paris, 
 Orleans, and Bourges. At the latter he imbibed Lutheran doctrines. In 
 1534 he went to Basle in Switzerland, where he published his leading work, 
 " The Christian Institutes." He afterwards settled at Geneva, where a most 
 rigorous and narrow system of government was established by his influence. 
 He died in 1564. His scholar, John Knox, was the leader of the Protestant 
 movement in Scotland. 
 
 Map Study.—" Western Europe about 1550." Specify the Hapsburg territories and the 
 time and way in which they severally became possessions of this family. What countries not 
 colored purple were ruled by Charles V. as an emperor ? Specify the division of Hapsburg 
 power after the abdication of Charles V., and the territories allotted to each branch. 
 
 Marignano, see the small section map for Northeast Italy. Duchy of Milan, when would 
 the purple color be first in place here ? (P. 239.) Pavia, see section map. Observe dimen- 
 sions of Tuscany and Venice. Mohacz— observe the line of Turkish color in Hungary as 
 result of this battle, and the purple color over Bohemia and the rest of Hungary also as result. 
 Compare extent of Austria in 1400, p. 200. Vienna ; Tunis ; Algiers. Observe the Hohen- 
 zollern color (Brandenburg) in Prussia. Trent (mentioned next page), see section map. Smal- 
 calden ; Mtlhlberg ; Passau. 
 
 Thorn ; Mayence ; Strasburg ; Eisleben. (Erftirt is marked on the map for age of Napo- 
 leon.) Wittenberg, Worms, Noyon. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 239 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE PERIOD OF CHARLES V. 
 
 Charles I. of Spain and V. of the Empire, born A. d. 1500 
 
 Conquest of Naples by Ferdinand the Catholic " 1501 
 
 Fourth voyage of Columbus begun — " 1502 
 
 Julius II. Pope after " 1503 
 
 St. Peter's at Rome begun " 1506 
 
 Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, a Portuguese possession " 150T 
 
 Henry Vni. King of England after.... " 1509 
 
 French driven from Milan by Julius II. in " 1512 
 
 First year of Pope Leo X " 1513 
 
 Francis I. succeeds Louis XII. and reconquers Milan " 1515 
 
 Death of Ferdinand the Catholic ; Accession of Charles I. of Spain " 1516 
 
 The Orlando Furioso published (p. 215) " " 
 
 Syria and Egypt conquered by Sultan Selim I., from the Mamelukes (p. 191) " 1517 
 
 The death of Maximilian of Austria gives " Burgundy " and " Austria" to Charles I. 
 
 of Spain. Charles I . of Spain elected Charles V. of the " Empire." " 1519 
 
 Spanish Conquest of Mexico after " 1520 
 
 Death of Pope Leo X ; Accession of Adrian VI. Magellant " 1521 
 
 Luther at the Diet of "Worms " '' 
 
 The Turks conquer Rhodes from the Kniglits of Malta " 1522 
 
 The French expelled from Milan " " 
 
 Pope Clement VII. succeeds Adrian VI. in *' 1523 
 
 Protestantism introduced in Sweden by Qustavus Vasa '* 1524 
 
 Battle of Pavia and " Peasant War " in Germany " 1525 
 
 Teutonic Knights suppressed in " Prussia " " " 
 
 Battle of Mohacz founds the Austrian power in Bohemia and Hungary " 1526 
 
 Sack of Rome by the army of Charles V " 1527 
 
 Solyman the Great lays siege to Vienna " 1529 
 
 Pope Clement VII. crowns Charles V. at Bologna '* 1530 
 
 The Florentine Republic becomes the Grand Duchy of Tuscany after " " 
 
 Spanish conquest of Peru, after " 1531 
 
 Charles V. prevents a second Tnrkish invasion of Germany " 1532 
 
 Pope Clement VII. succeeded by Paul III. The Jesuit Order founded " 1534 
 
 The Act of Supremacy makes Henry VIII. head of the English Church " " 
 
 Emperor's Expedition to Tunis. " 1535 
 
 Bull of Pope Paul m. against enslaving the American Indians " 1537 
 
 Charles V. makes his son, Philip II., Duke of Milan " 1545 
 
 Council of Trent (closed 1563) opened *' " 
 
 . Death of Luther ; Smalcaldian war begins. *' 1546 
 
 Battle of Mflhlberg •' 1547 
 
 Death of Francis I. (successor Henry II.) and Henry VIII. (successor Edward VI.).. . . *' " 
 
 Pope Paul HI. succeeded by Julius Til " 1549 
 
 Peace of Passau ends the Smalcaldian war " 1552 
 
 Death of Edward VI. of England ; Accession of Mary " 15.53 
 
 Abdication of Charles V. in 1555 and " 1556 
 
 Death of Charles V. Elizabeth of England succeeds Mary .- " 1558 
 
240 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC AND SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Who were the Popes in the period of Charles V. ? Ans. Alexander VI. till 15as, Pius III^ 
 Julius n., Leo X., Adrian VI., Clement VII., Paul III., and Julius m. 
 
 By what Pope were the colonial enterprises of Spain and Portugal separated and their later 
 colonial empires indicated ? (P. 228.) 
 
 What important exception to the general control of South American colonies by Spain 
 resulted from this line of demarcation ? Ans. The Portuguese Colony of Brazil. 
 
 What Popes are especially noted in the revival of art and letters ? (P. 214.) 
 
 What artists did they patronize? Ans. Among many others, especially Michael Angelo 
 and Baphael. 
 
 What Pope had been the tutor of Charles V. ? Ans. Adrian VI., when Bishop of Utrecht. 
 
 What famous goldsmith and sculptor did Clement VII. patronize ? Ans. Benvenuto 
 Cellini. 
 
 Under what Pope did Michael Angelo finish the famous tombs of the Medici in the 
 Church of San Lorenzo in Florence ? Ans. Under Clement VII. 
 
 Under what Pope was the " Last Judgment " of Michael Angelo painted in the Sistine 
 Chapel? (P. 222.) 
 
 Who made him architect of St. Peter's ? (P. 222.) 
 
 Repeat the names of Italian artists so far mentioned belonging to the period of Charles V. 
 
 What other artists are noted ? Ans. Correggio, born near Parma, and Titian of Venice are 
 especially famed. 
 
 What event crippled the later development of Italian art ? Ans. The sack of Rome. 
 
 Date it. 
 
 What interfered with Papal patronage of art and letters ? Ans. The wars of French and 
 Spaniards in Italy after 1581, and the troubles caused by the Lutheran movement. 
 
 What great German artists lived in the period of Charles V. ? Ans. Hans Holbein and 
 Albert Dflrer. 
 
 What was the later development of German art ? Ans. It was cut short by the disturbances 
 in Germany. 
 
 In whose pontificate was convened the Council of Trent ? (P. 239.) 
 
 Name the sovereigns of England and France in the period of Charles V. ? (P. 289.) 
 
 Name two Sultans of Turkey In this period ? (P. 239.) 
 
 When did the Turks first enter Europe ? Ans. In 1356. (See p. 901.) 
 
 When did they take Constantinople ? (P. 135.) 
 
 When did they occupy the Crimea ? (P. 227.) 
 
 When did they conquer Syria and Egypt ? (P. 239.) 
 
 Rhodes ? (P. 239.) 
 
 Part of Hungary ? (P. 233.) 
 
 Date their siege of Vienna. (P. 233.) 
 
 Who prevented flarther encroachments ? (P. 288.) 
 
 What American countries belonged to Spain under Charles V. ? (P. 888.) 
 
 Who became ruler of England in the year when Charles V. died ? (P. 239.) 
 
LATER HISTORY OF SPAIN. 
 
 241 
 
 SPAIN. AFTER THE PERIOD OF CHARLES V. 
 
 SPANISH HAPSBURGS. 
 
 Charles 1. (V.) A. d. 1516-1556 
 
 Philip II. , son of the foregoing " 1556-1598 
 
 Philip III.," " " " *♦ 1598-1621 
 
 PhilipIV., " " " " '* 1621-1665 
 
 Charles II.," " " " (Line extinct) " 1665-1700 
 
 The grandson of Louis XIV. of France founded by inheritance, after 1700, the Line of Span- 
 ish Bourbons, still reigning, with interniisaion in the time of Bonaparte, early 19th century, 
 and in late revolutions. The reigning Spanish Bourbon is Alphonso, proclaimed king 1874. 
 
 The Spanish ascendency over Europe continued for a century after 
 the death of Charles V., and did not, till the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659, 
 (reign of Louis XIV.,) yield the 
 precedence to France, which, 
 however, all this time constant- 
 ly contested it. This Spanish 
 ascendency is apparent in 
 the " Burgundian " possessions 
 within the Germanic Empire, in 
 the control of North and South 
 Italy (Naples and Milan) and 
 in the immense colonial posses- 
 sions. (Portugal was also a 
 Spanish conquest from 1580 to 
 1640.) It is apparent also in 
 the high perfection of Spanish 
 art in the 17th century — time 
 of the painters Velasquez and 
 Murillo — and by the reputation 
 in the field of letters of Cer- 
 vantes (1547-1616), author of Don Quixote ; of Lopez de Vega (1562-1635) 
 and Calderon (1601-1687), authors of a multitude of fine plays. 
 
 The Spanish Hapsburg rulers, after Philip II., made no especial 
 mark in history as individuals, and their line became extinct in 1700. Mean- 
 time Spanish commerce was much crippled in the later 16th century by the 
 English privateers, whose wholesale depredations in time of peace led to the 
 
 Palace of the Escurial, near Madrid. 
 {Built by Philip IJ.) 
 
243 SPAIN. 
 
 Spanisli Armada (see English history). Spain was also crippled in the 17th 
 century by the commercial wars with the Dutch which grew out of the revolt 
 of the Netherlands under Philip II. (see next section). 
 
 Decay of Spanish Power.— The country shows a marked decay of 
 vigor in the later 17th and in the 18th centuries. A period of exhaustion 
 naturally follows one of great expansion ; but probably the greatest injury to 
 the prosperity of Spain was her wealth in precious metals (so highly prized in 
 the 16th century) drawn from the American Colonies — just as in our own time 
 Germany grew poorer by the extortion of an immense war indemnity from 
 France. Any sudden increase in the amount of gold and silver has simply the 
 result of raising prices, and it is apt at the same time to cultivate habits of 
 prodigality and idleness. The poverty of modern Spain is the result of the 
 destruction of the trees and consequent dryness of the soil. This country sup- 
 ported 40,000,000 inhabitants in antiquity. It now support.s only 8,000,000. 
 
 Map Explanation.— Alter the extinction of the Spanish Hapsburg Line in 1700 Spain 
 and the American pos»«6sions passed, by the Spanish Succession War and Peace of Utrecht, 
 1713, to a French Bourbon Dynasty. The history of the remaining Spanish Hapsburg terri- 
 tories, after that time, will be found in later sections relating to the countries which acquired 
 them. 
 
GERMANY 
 
 AFTER 1500, 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 GERMANIC EMPERORS OF THE 16th CENTURY. 
 
 Maximilian I. of Hapsburg- Austria a. d. (1493)-1519 
 
 Charles V,, grandson of the foregoing " 1519-1556 
 
 Ferdinand I., brother " " " 1556-1564 
 
 Maximilian II., son " " " 1564-1576 
 
 Rudolf II., son " " *' 1576-(1613) 
 
 Austria acquired a new importance in the 16th century by its 
 Hungarian and Bohemian territories (to which Silesia belonged) and 
 by its position as the barrier for Germany against the Turks. On 
 account of this position and of the Hapsburg 
 influence over the Electors, Austria continued to 
 hold the Imperial dignity. The power to which M^^-^- 
 this dignity had been raised by Charles V. had m^^^ii% 
 tended to revive the old consolidated sovereignty 
 of Germany, but had not succeeded in doing so. 
 Maximilian had established in 1495 an organi- 
 zation of the empire by departments or "cir- m^m^»%^^j 
 cles," which was strengthened by his successor. (^iTmioaJii) 
 
 Each principality was to contribute a certain 
 number of men to a common army when needed, and a certain 
 amount of money to the common treasury. The authority of an 
 Imperial Court was also recognized. But the cumbrousness of pro- 
 
^44 GERMANY. 
 
 cedure and uncertainty of operation in these arrangements were 
 extreme. 
 
 The religious divisions of Germany were an additional ele- 
 ment of weakness and of confusion. It was under these disadvan- 
 tages that the Imperial reigns of the Austrian Hapsburgs Ferdi- 
 nand I,, Maximilian II., and Rudolf II. were conducted. 
 
 In the Burgundian portion of the Empire a revolt began 
 against the Spanish Hapsburgs in 1566, which lost them their Dutch 
 Provinces. Under the severe rule of the Spanish General Alba 
 both the Flemish Catholic and Dutch Protestant Provinces were 
 united in resisting the rule of Philip II. After 1579 the humane 
 and politic conduct of the Italian Duke of Parma, the greatest mili- 
 tary genius of his time, brought back the Catholic Flemish Nether- 
 lands to the rule of Spain. The Dutch continued their struggle, 
 headed by William of Orange, " the Silent," till his assassination in 
 1584. A price had been set on his head as a rebel by Philip II. The 
 war outlasted Philip's reign and the limits of the century. 
 
 Germany suffered mucli from the so-called Reformation, politically and 
 economically, in civilization as well as in religion. The great modern authors of Italy, 
 Spain, France and England, precede the great German men of letters by centuries. The 
 latter belong to the late 18th and early 19th centuries. By the Lutheran movement North Ger- 
 many was cut off from the cultivating influences of Southern Europe. South Germany, in 
 contention with the North, partly lost the advantages of its geographical contact with Italy. 
 After Italy and Spain the precedence in modern civilization belongs to France ; but the glori- 
 ous development of music iu 18th century Germany Qtalian influence) and of modern German 
 literature (under Greek inspiration) atones for the tardiness of the flower. During the 16th and 
 17th centuries the leading representatives of the interests of culture and education in the Ger- 
 man States were the Jesuits. 
 
 Map Study.— Compare maps for 1400 and 1550 to notice once more Austria's gain in 1520 
 of Hungary, Bohemia and Silesia. Observe the position of the Turks. 
 
 Compare maps for 1550 and 1648 for the Netherland provinces and the change of color for 
 the Dutch Republic. 
 
 MAP EXPLANATION. 
 
 (The places not entered on the map for 1550 may be found on later maps (among others see 
 map for 1816), or in a modern map, which should be need in all cases for comparison and con- 
 trast.) 
 
 Next to Austria the most important principality of the south was Bavaria— capital, 
 Munich ; of the north, Brandenburg-— capital, Berlin ; of the centre, Saxony— capital, 
 Dresden ; of the southwest, Wiirtembergr— capital, Stuttgart, and the Palatinate— cap- 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 245 
 
 Ital, Heidelberg ; of the west centre, the two Hesses and the Archbishoprics of Mayence 
 and Treves ; of the northwest, the Archbishopric of Colog-ne and Bishopric of Mtlnster. 
 
 The Castle at Heidelberg. Built in the 16th Century, 
 
 The free city of Frankfort on the Main was the capital of the Empire and place of coro- 
 nation. 
 
 North Germany was mainly Protestant, South Germany mainly Catholic ; but in the west 
 the Rhine-Palatinate was Calvinist, while the northwest remained Catholic. Saxony 
 was mainly Protestant under a Catholic dynasty. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF GERMAN HISTORY IN THE 16th CENTURY. 
 
 Accession of Charles V a. d. 1519 
 
 Luther at the Diet of Worms " 1521 
 
 Prussia "secularized" by a Hohenzollcrn, i ^^ 
 
 " Peasant Wars," ' 
 
 Hungary and Bohemia, Austrian after " 1526 
 
 Turkish Siege of Vienna " 1529 
 
 Anabaptist Communism " 1534 
 
 Smalcaldian War " -1546 
 
 Peace of Passau " 1552 
 
 Ferdinand I., Emperor, after " 1556 
 
 Council of Trent adjourned " 1563 
 
 Revolt of the Spanish Netherlands " 1566 
 
 Maximihan 11., Emperor after a. d. 1564 
 
 Ptudolf II. , Emperor after " 1576 
 
 Parma secures the Catholic Netherlands for Spain after " 1579 
 
 Assassination of William th« ««i»"t- " 1534 
 
246 GERMANY. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC AND SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. 
 
 What were the territories of the Spanish Hapsburgs after 1556 ? 
 
 What Spanish territories were in the Germanic Empire •* 
 
 What were the territories of the Austrian Haps-burgs after 1556? 
 
 What were the territories of the Hohenzollerns after 1525? 
 
 Who was king of Spain in the last half of the 16th century ? (P. 241.) 
 
 How long before the end of the century did he die ? 
 
 Who was queen of England during all this time ? Ans. Queen Elizabeth ; 1558-1603. 
 
 Who were the French sovereigns in the last half of the 16th century ? Aits. Henry H.^ 
 Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., Henry IV. 
 
 What is the origin of the word Protestant ? Ans. At the diet of Spires, 1529, a number of 
 German princes entered a Protest against the decisions of the Catholic majority. 
 
 What great Italian author belongs to the latter part of the 16th century ? (P. 215.) 
 
 What contemporary great Spanish authors ? 
 
 What contemporary great English author ? A/is. Shakespeare. 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 GERMANIC EMPERORS OF THE 17th CENTURY. 
 
 Rudolf II. of Hai)sburg- Austria a. d. (1576)-! 612 
 
 Matthias, brother of the foregoing " 1612-1619 
 
 Ferdinand II., cousin " " " 1619-1637 
 
 Ferdinand III., son of " ** : " 1637-1657 
 
 Leopold I., '' " " " " 1657-1705 
 
 The Dutch Republic. — After the year 1609 the independence 
 of the Dutch Republic from Spain was practically assured, and a 
 twelve years' truce was then made. The Dutch had already begun 
 to supplant the Portuguese in the East Indies (p. 228). (Portugal 
 and its colonies belonged to Spain from 1580 to 1640.) During this 
 century the Dutch became the most important commercial and 
 maritime power in Europe. 
 
 Catholic Reaction. — During the last half of the 16th century 
 a Catholic reaction had been gathering force in Germany. Prot- 
 estant confiscations of Church lands, continued after the Peace of 
 Passau and against its agreements, were a constant source of irrita- 
 tion and complaint. This was an important cause of the Thirty 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 247 
 
 Years' War ; but political motives were blended with religious. 
 The opponents and antagonists of the House of Austria assumed 
 the religious colors. This was especially the case in Bohemia, where 
 the war began. 
 
 Thirty Years' War. First Period.— In 1618 in order of the Em- 
 peror Mattliias to close two churches, erected by Protestants of Bohemia on 
 ground belonging to the Abbot 
 and Archbishop of Prague, 
 caused a revolt in this country 
 which assumed national pro- 
 portions on account of Bo- 
 hemian aspirations for a gov- 
 ernment separate from Austria. 
 The rebels elected a Protest- 
 ant, Frederick V. of the Palati- 
 nate, son-in-law of James I. of 
 England, as their king. They 
 were decisively defeated in the 
 battle of the White Mountain 
 near Prague, in 1620, by the 
 army of the new Emperor 
 Ferdinand II. Frederick the 
 "Winter-king," so called, be- 
 cause king only for one Avinter, 
 fled to Holland. His States 
 were confiscated by the Em- 
 peror and giv^en to Bavaria. 
 
 Thirty Years' War. 
 Second Period.— Christian 
 
 of Denmark, who was a* Prince of the Germanic Empire for Sleswick-Holstein, 
 instigated by France (Richelieu), and England (Charles I.), took up arms for the 
 cause of the Elector-Palatine in 1635. The Bohemian Count Wallenstein, 
 general for the Emperor, and Tilly, general of the Catholic German League, 
 invaded and occupied the North German States. Christian of Denmark was 
 driven out of Jutland to the Danish Islands. Wallenstein failed only in the 
 siege of Stralsund. By the Peace of Liibeck, 1629, Christian received back his 
 lost territories on condition of abandoning the war. 
 
 Thirty Years' War, Third Period.— An "Edict of Restitution" 
 
 Troopers of the Thirty Yeai-s' War. 
 {From a painting by Terburg, contemporary artist.) 
 
248 GERMANY. 
 
 was now issued by the Emperor, for the return of the Church lands confiscated 
 since the Peace of Passau ; but its execution was cut short by new diflBculties. 
 His successes in Bohemia and South Germany had been won by troops of the 
 Catholic League, of which Bavaria was the head. He now proposed to disband 
 them and replace them by the troops of Wallenstein. This general was known 
 to favor a consolidated German sovereignty resembling that of France, Spain, or 
 England, and the Catholic princes took the alarm and refused to disband their 
 army. In union with the Protestant States they demanded and procured the 
 displacement of Wallenstein. The Electoral Princes refused to ratify his pos- 
 session of the North German Duchy of Mecklenburg, given him, after conquest, 
 by the Emperor. The lack of organism and system made it impossible to pay 
 the Imperialist troops. The armies levied on the country, and the odium of 
 their excesses had fallen upon this general. 
 
 Meantime Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed with 15,000 highly 
 disciplined soldiers in Pomerania, in 1630. This invasion was the result of an 
 understanding with France, which pursued under the guidance of Cardinal 
 Richelieu her traditional policy of weakening the Hapsburgs. Gustavus Adol- 
 phus proposed the foundation of a Swedish Baltic Empire, including Northeast 
 Germany. His ambition, at a later day at least, even aimed at the Imperial 
 crown. 
 
 His arrival was not welcomed by the Protestant States, and Brandenburg 
 was forcibly occupied by him. Saxony hesitated between the two parties — was 
 invaded by Tilly after his destruction of Magdeburg, and then called in the 
 Swedes to assistance. Notwithstanding the coolness with which Gustavus 
 Adolphus had been received, the discipline of his army, which did not plunder, 
 won for him the good will of the people. As a general he was constantly suc- 
 cessful against the Imperialists. After the victory at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, 
 over Tilly, 1631, almost all Germany (excepting Austria) fell into his hands. 
 The Saxons, now allies of the Swedes, entered Bohemia and took Prague. 
 
 In this extremity recourse was had by the Emperor once more to WaUen- 
 stein. On condition of absolute independence of control, he accepted command 
 and raised an army. After some months of indecisive manoeuvres the Swedes 
 and Imperialists met at Liitzen in Saxony, 1632. Gustavus Adolphus was 
 killed, but Wallenstein was defeated and retired into Bohemia. 
 
 Divisions now rose in the army of the Swedes. Wallenstein's negotiations 
 with them, and his inactivity, awakened suspicions at Vienna. He was removed 
 from command, and as he continued to negotiate, was assassinated as a 
 traitor by one of his oflBcers, at Eger in Bohemia, 1634. The act was sanctioned 
 bjr the Emperor after comipission, by a proclamation, dated back, setting a price 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 249 
 
 on the head of Wallenstein, The plans of Wallenstein and the justice of his 
 fate are not certain. His character is perhaps the most mysterious one of his- 
 tory. The Swedes were defeated at Nordlingen, 1634. They had meantime 
 lost all discipline, and the country continued to be mercilessly plundered by the 
 soldiers of both parties. 
 
 Thirty Years' War. Fourth Perioci.~In 1635, Protestant Saxony 
 made peace with the Emperor, admitting the Edict of Restitution with some 
 restrictions. But the French now declared war on Austria and Spain (both 
 being Hapsburg powers), and Oxenstiern, Minister for the Swedes, in under- 
 standing with the French, refused to leave Germany without cession of terri- 
 tory and pay for his soldiers. This prolonged the war for thirteen years. 
 
 Character of the Thirty Years' War.— The main original causes of the Thirty Years' 
 War were Catholic irritation at the Protestant confiscations of Church property, Protestant 
 irritation at the rapid progress of Catholicism, and the general disorder and confusion of an 
 empire in which a sovereign authority was neither recognized absolutely nor entirely disputed. 
 The long duration of the war was not, however, caused by religious difierences, which would 
 only explain its first period. This long duration was partly caused by the inability of either 
 party to centre itself and present a determined front. The constant dissensions between 
 Lutherans and Calvinists, which were quite as bitter as those with the Catholics, weakened 
 the Protestants. The jealousy of Catholic Bavaria and other Catholic states, who refused to 
 admit the diminution of their powers and a more absolute subordination to the Emperor, 
 weakened the Catholics. The hereditaiy rivalry of France against the Hapsburgs, which 
 opposed the consolidation of Germany by Hapsburg power, and the ambition of Sweden to 
 establish a Baltic empire including the coast provinces of North Germany, continued the war 
 long after the Germans themselves wishcfl it over. Protestant soldiers fought in the armies 
 of Wallenstein ; Protestant states sided with the Emperor, in whole or in part, at diflferent 
 times. The Catholic French assisted Protestants in their resistance to the Imperialists. 
 
 To these elements of confusion was added the national spirit of Bohemia, whose Slavonic 
 population was subject to the Austrian German rule, and the general lack of cohesion in the 
 Austrian state resulting from the absence of ties of blood between its different portions— the 
 Hungarians and the Bohemians being of different blood both from each other and from the 
 German Austrians. (The Hungarians are an Asiatic race, originally allied to the Turkish 
 family.) 
 
 Since there was no recognized established central authority on either side to raise pay for 
 the troops, the armies of both sides lived on the countiy and supported themselves by plunder. 
 The result of the struggle was therefore an exhaustion and depopulation from which the 
 country did not recover till after the middle of the 18th century— perhaps has not yet recovered. 
 The small towns and villages suffered most. In them it is computed that three-fourths of the 
 inhabitants, four-fifths of the live stock, and two-thirds of the dwellings were destroyed. 
 Twenty thousand corpses were found in Magdeburg after its destruction by Tilly. 
 
 The Imperial cause corresponded partially to that which had unified the national states of 
 France, Spain, and England, but only partially, for the Hapsburgs did not possess sufficiently 
 the national confidence of Germany to solidify the country. This was for two reasons. Span- 
 ish sympathies, interests, and policy were naturally imputed to the Austrian dynasty, ana 
 
250 GERMANY. 
 
 Austria itself was only in a small part of its whole territories a Germanic state— namely, in 
 Austria proper. It was not sufficiently strong in its own territories to control securely the 
 rest of Germany, even had religious divisions not existed. 
 
 Peace of Westphalia, 1648. — The call for a congress of 
 ambassadors had been issued eight years, and their sessions had 
 continued four years, when the Peace of Westphalia was announced, 
 so named because sessions were held at Osnabriick and Munster 
 in this proyince. The most important feature of the treaty 
 was the total abandonment of the idea of a single Germanic sov- 
 ereignty. The Emperor retained only a nominal control of the 
 German principalities, which, to the number of over two hundred 
 and fifty, were recognized as practically independent, with separate 
 diplomatic representation at foreign courts and with independent 
 armies. 
 
 (In the arrangements between Prussia and Austria in 1866, one of these Grerman states was 
 omitted from the treaty. It was so small that it was forgotten. 
 
 The Austrian possessions in Alsace were ceded to France. 
 They had been conquered during the latter part of the war by a 
 German in French pay, Bernard of Weimar. Part of Pomerania 
 was ceded to Svreden, with the Bishoprics of Bremen and Ver- 
 den (these latter territories were afterward an important part of 
 modern Hanover). The independence of the Dutch Republic 
 was acknowledged both by Spain and by the Germanic Empire. 
 The independence of the Swiss Republic from the Germanic 
 Empire was acknowledged. The Swiss Cantons had been really 
 separated from the Empire since the time of Maximilian I. They 
 now became free legally. (See p. 195 for earlier Swiss history.) 
 
 In the matter of confiscated Church lands, the year 1624 was 
 adopted as the " normal " year — that is, confiscations made before 
 that year were to be undisturbed — a provision made in defiance of 
 the Papal protest. 
 
 G-ermany after the Thirty Years' War.— After 1648 the 
 numerous German principalities were bound together, for foreign 
 affairs, by a political confederation of which Austria was the head, 
 
/•/). 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 251 
 
 
 
 but absolute despotism of each particular prince became the form of 
 government for the people. 
 
 Rise of Prussia. — Under the " Great Elector," Frederick Will- 
 iam of Brandenburg, 1640-1688, 
 his province of Prussia was freed, 
 in 1657, from its feudal depen- 
 dence on Poland. Generally in 
 alliance and friendship with 
 Austria, he took an active part 
 in the wars with Sweden, Po- 
 land, and France, and raised 
 his state to the position which 
 secured his successors the royal 
 title for their Prussian prov- 
 ince, and therewith the appel- 
 lation of Prussia for all their 
 territories. 
 
 Rise of Austria. — The weakness of the Germanic Empire after 
 the treaty of Westphalia exposed it to the encroachments of the 
 French king, Louis XIV., whose wars disturbed Europe in the latter 
 part of the 17th century. The states of the Hapsburg Emperor, on 
 whose armies devolved the duty of defence, were far removed from 
 the borders attacked. Notwithstanding this disadvantage in the 
 wars with France, Austria increased in strength. After the siege 
 of Vienna by the Turks in 1683, when the Polish king, Sobieski, 
 rescued the city, rapid headway was made against the Turks in 
 Hungary. By the peace of Carlowitz, 1699, they entirely aban- 
 doned this country. 
 
 In intellectual and literary efiFort, 17th century Germany 
 is almost a blank. The fashions of the Court of Louis XIV. set the 
 tone for all her petty courts. France was the intellectual and 
 artistic force of the age. 
 
 statue of the Great Elector, Berlin. 
 {By Scfdiiter, contemporary 8culplcn\) 
 
 Map Study for "Europe in 1648." Prague. (Klostergrab and Braunau are the places 
 where churches were closed.) White Mountain is Weissenberg, near Prague. Sleswick and 
 
252 GERMANY. 
 
 Holstein. Jutland, Mecklenberg ; see Europe in 1713. Pomcrania, Magdeburg, Breitenfeld, 
 Leipzig, Lfltzen, Eger, Nordlingen, Osnabruck, Munster. 
 
 For Treaty of Westphalia, see French color in Alsace, colors of Sweden and Brandenburg in 
 Pomerania. See Swedish color at mouth of the Elbe for Bremen and Verden. Compare 
 Switzerland on last three maps with Switzerland without local sovereignty and part of the 
 German Empire on map for 1400. Observe the separation In locality, so far, between Branden- 
 burg aud Prussia. Carlowitz is near Belgrade— see modern map of Austria. 
 
 MAP EXPLANATION. 
 
 The importance of the Thirty Years' War and its closing treaty for the history of 
 Europe will appear by the reflection that all events of our own century in Germany are 
 changes in arrangements then made. Therefore some brief notice of the complicated geog- 
 raphy of the states then made territorially independent will be proper. 
 
 A modern map of Germany should be used with this explanation, but many smaller Ger- 
 man states are entered on later maps, especially on map for 1816. 
 
 Bavaria was increased in the north by the Upper Palatinate (p. 254), and was given an 
 eighth Electoral vote. The Lower (Rhine) Palatinate was returned to the heir of the " Winter 
 king." 
 
 Bavaria was about two-thirds of its present dimensions. It was first materially enlarged by 
 Bonaparte. 
 
 "WUrtemberg: was much smaller than now. It was enlarged at the same time. 
 
 Baden was a small strip of territory on the Rhine. An important part of modern Baden 
 then belonged to the Palatinate (capital Heidelberg). Modern Baden was created by Bonaparte. 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt was considerably smaller than at present (increased by Bonaparte). 
 
 The three large Bishoprics of Mayence, Treves, and Cologrne (p. 200) were secularized 
 (made secular property) by the French Revolution. In 1648 they occupied very considerable 
 territories along the Rhine and the Moselle. 
 
 Oldenburg- (map for 1816) is a territory famed for its Dynasty, which gave rulers to Den- 
 mark and intermarried with the Houses of Russia and Sweden. 
 
 Hanover, or Brunswick-Lflneburg, was much smaller in 1648 than when absorbed by 
 Prussia in 1866. It was afterwards increased by the territories of Bremen and Verden, ceded 
 to Sweden in 1648 (see map at p. 254). 
 
 Saxony had been increased since 1635 by Lausitz or Lusatia (p. 228), an addition to its 
 northern border from Austrian Silesia. It was made a kingdom and enlarged by Bonaparte. 
 
 The Saxon Duchies— Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Cobnrg, Saxe-Gotha, etc.— were in 1648 of 
 about the dimensions of later time. 
 
 Between and around the various states so far mentioned as enlarged since 1648 
 must be imagined the smaller independent states, towns, and Bishoprics, which afterwards 
 built up the increase of those mentioned by name. After Bonaparte there were thirty-nine 
 German states as against the two hundred and fifty and over recognized by the Treaty of 
 Westphalia. 
 
 Pomerania.— In North Germany the province of Pomerania was divided between 
 Sweden and Brandenburg, the latter having the larger share (p. 250). 
 
 Mecklenburg* had about the same dimensions in 1648 as now. 
 
 The Hohenzollems of Brandenburg.— Among these now both practically and 
 legally independent German princes, the Hohenzollems begjin, after 1648, to take the leading 
 position next to Austria, at least for North Germany. The steady rise of the Electorate of 
 Brandenburg to prominence was assisted by its dimension, which, after increase by the 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 253 
 
 Treaty of Westphalia, was larger than any other single German principality, and by the 
 thrift and good management of the reigning family, which has always exerted the most im- 
 portant personal influence on the fortunes of this state. 
 
 The Hohenzollems "of Brandenburg (Prussia) gained, in 1648, the larger (eastern) part of 
 Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg, and some smaller Bishoprics. 
 
 This House already owned in 1648, besides the little original Hohenzollern terri- 
 tory in the angle between Southern Baden and Southern Wurtemberg— first, Anspach and 
 Baireuth. in South Germany (p. 1G6), territories now belonging to Bavaria; second, the 
 Duchy of Brandenburg-, capital Berlin (since 1417) ; third, the province of Prussia, 
 in extreme Northeastern Germany, since 1.525. This province (as related, p. 168) was colo- 
 nized by crusading knights of the Teutonic Order about 1200. In 1525 the Grand-Master of 
 the Order, Albert of Brandenburg (a Hohenzollern), turned Lutheran, secularized its terri- 
 tories (made himself their secular ruler) and married. His territory of " Prussia " was in feudal 
 dependence to Poland. His line died out in the third generation, and Prussia then passed 
 in 1618, to the Hohenzollems of Brandenburg. In 1627 the Elector of Brandenburg acquired 
 certain territories in Western Germany— Cleves, Marck, and Ravensberg" (p. 254), im- 
 portant as opening the way to the large Prussian gains in Western Germany after the French 
 Kevolution, 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF GERMAN HISTORY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Spanish truce with the Dutch Republic a. d. 1609 
 
 Emperor Mattiiias, after " 1612 
 
 Thirty Years' War begins " 1618 
 
 Emperor Ferdinand II., after *' 1619 
 
 Christian of Denmark enters the Thirty Years' War " 1625 
 
 " abandonsit " 1629 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus invades Germany. . . " 1630 
 
 Battle of Breitenfeld " 1631 
 
 Battle of Lutzen ; death of Gustavus Adolphus ... " 1632 
 
 France declares war on the Hapsburgs . " 1635 
 
 Emperor Ferdinand III., after " 1637 
 
 Peace of WestphaUa " 1648 
 
 Emperor Leopold I., after " 1657 
 
 The Empire loses (Spanish) Franche-Comte to France " 1678 
 
 Turkish siege of Vienna " 1688 
 
 Burning of the Palatinate by French troops. (Ruins of Heidelberg Castle.) " 1689 
 
 Peace of Carlowitz with Turkey " 1699 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 How long after the beginning of the Thirty Years' War was the landing of the Pilgrims in 
 Massachusetts in 1620 ? 
 
 Who were the English rulers of the 17th century? Ans. James I,, Charles I. (executed 
 1649), Cromwell, Charles II,, James II., William III. 
 
 How long is 1614, the date when the Dutch settled New Amsterdam (New York), before the 
 beginning of the Thirty Years' War ? 
 
254 GERMANY. 
 
 How long after the Peace of Westphalia was Charles I. executed ? 
 
 How long after this peace is the date for the English possession of New York in 1664? 
 
 Who were French kings of the 17th century ? Afis. Henry IV., Louis Xm., Louis XIV. 
 
 In what wars with Louis XIV. was the Empire involved in the last half of the 17th century ? 
 Ans. In the war with Holland— the German Empire lost thereby (Spanish) Pranche-Comte in 
 1678— and the war of the League of Augsburg, when the Palatinate was devastated in 1689. 
 
 What was the character of the Spanish Hapsburg rulers ? (P. 341.) 
 
 What power ruled Milan in the 17th century ? (P. S32.) Sicily ? (P. 220.) Naples ? (P. 220.) 
 Sardinia? (P226.) The Southern Netherlands ? (P. 229.) Mexico and Peru ? (P. 228.) See 
 also p. 236 and maps, pp. 228, 250. 
 
 Who was the last Spanish Hapsburg ? (P. 241.) When did he die ? (P. 841.) 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 EMPERORS OF GERMANY IN THE 18th CENTURY. 
 
 Leopold I. of Hapsburg- Austria a. d. (1657)-1705 
 
 Joseph I., SOD of the foregoing " 1705-1711 
 
 Charles VI., brother of the foregoing " 1711-1740 
 
 Charles VII. (a Bavarian) " 1740-1745 
 
 Francis I. (of Lorraine), husband of Maria The- 
 resa, the daughter of Charles VI " 1745-1765 
 
 Joseph II., son of the foregoing " 1765-1790 
 
 Leopold II., brother of the foregoing " 1790-1793 
 
 Francis II., son of the foregoing " 1792-(1832) 
 
 Prussia obtains the Royal Title. — In 1701, by Imperial 
 grant, the Elector of Brandenburg obtained the royal title as king 
 of Prussia (the title being borrowed from the northeast province of 
 his territories). In return for this honor he gave active support to 
 Austria in the contest for the Spanish Succession. 
 
 Spanish Succession. — The extinction of the Spanish Haps- 
 burg line, in 1700, led to a general European war on behalf of the 
 rival claims of the Austrian Hapsburgs and French Bourbons. The 
 Spanish Hapsburg inheritance was claimedl)y the second son of the 
 Emperor Leopold, Charles — in order to propitiate the public senti- 
 ment of Europe, which was opposed to a reunion of the monarchy 
 of Charles V. But the second grandson of Louis XIV. was heir by 
 the will of the Spanish king. He was favorably received by tlie 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURA. ^55 
 
 Spaniards, had taken possession peacefully of his kingdom and its 
 dependencies. He had also abandoned any pretensions to the 
 French throne which might unite France and Spain under a single 
 king. A large part of Europe was, however, opposed, in view of the 
 immense power of France under Louis XIV. and its various con- 
 quests and aggressions, to the union under a French dynasty of 
 Spain, Belgium, Milan, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the American 
 Colonies — all this was involved in the Spanish inheritance (p. 354). 
 
 France, under Louis XIV., had, moreover, favored the Stuart 
 cause in England against the House of Orange (William III., king 
 of England since 1688). Both England and Holland, whose interests 
 were united under William III. (previously the Dutch Stadtholder 
 or President), therefore feared the further aggrandizement of France 
 as a menace to his rule. Holland and England were also inspired 
 by colonial and commercial jealousy. 
 
 The Duchy of Savoy also took part in the armed opposition 
 to Louis XIV. Its position, controlling the passes from France into 
 Italy, gave this State importance, and it feared the establishment of 
 French power on its eastern border, which would result from inherit- 
 ing the Spanish territory of Milan. 
 
 Prussia, Austria, England, Holland, Savoy, were thus 
 combined against the Spaniards and French, with whom Bavaria 
 sided. In the Turkish wars the lUistrian General Prince Eugene 
 had developed a marvelous military genius. To his weight was added 
 that of the great English General, Marlborough, while the greatest 
 generals of Louis XIV. were dead. 
 
 Battles of the "war were fought in Spain, North Italy, South 
 Germany, and the Netherlands. Generally these battles were crush- 
 ing defeats for the French, whose energies had been exhausted in 
 three preceding wars under Louis XIV. The most humiliating 
 offers were at last made by this king for peace and refused. The 
 dismemberment and destruction of France were in prospect, when 
 the tenacity of Spain, the disgrace of Marlborough, and the death of 
 Joseph I. (which raised hii brother to the Imperial throne, thus 
 
256 GERMANY. 
 
 ])reparing a revival of the monarchy of Charles V. if his claim were 
 successful), secured the Peace of Utrecht. 
 
 MAP EXPLANATION FOR THE PEACE OP UTBECHT AND CHANQES OF 1720 AND 1738. 
 
 Compare Europe in 1648 with Europe in 1713. 
 
 The Peace of Utrecht in 1713, accepted by Austria (at Eastadt in Baden) a year later, 
 gave her the Southern Netherlands (Belgium), Milan, Naples, and Sardinia. See the Hapsburg 
 color without the Spanish cross-lmes. The French dynasty retamed Spain and the American 
 Colonies. See French color in Spain. Thus was founded, by Philip V., the line of Spanish 
 Bourbons, still ruling Spain. 
 
 Sicily was ceded to the Duchy of Savoy (see the color), but was transferred to Austria, in 
 1720, in exchange for Sardinia and the royal title (origin of the royal line of modern Italy— the 
 kings of "Sardinia " and Savoy). See color of Sardinia, map for 1748. Sicily and Naples were 
 receded by Austria to Spain in 1738. See color on map for 1748. This loss was, however, 
 balanced by the gain of Tuscany, where the line of the Medici (p. 232) expired in 1737. See 
 Austrian color in Tuscany, map for 1748. 
 
 Thus Belgium and Milan (see color), after 1713, and Tuscany after 1738, were Aus- 
 trian possessions (the latter ruled by a branch Austrian line). 
 
 The territorial changes of 1738 were the result of the war of the Polish Succession, 
 in which France, Sardinia (Savoy), and Spain had supported the cause of the father-in-law of the 
 French king Louis XV., Stanislaus Leczinski, a Polish noble— while Austria and Russia sup- 
 ported the cause of the Elector of Saxony. Both had been elected to the Polish monarchy by 
 different parties in Poland. The Saxon Elector, Augustus lU., obtained the Polish crown. 
 Stanislaus Leczinski was indemnified with Lorraine, which was to pass at his death to France 
 (see French color of Lorraine in 1748), and Francis of Lorraine, husband of the Austrian heiress, 
 Maria Theresa, was indemnified with Tuscany (Peace of Vienna, 1738). 
 
 War of the Austrian Succession. — The death of the Haps- 
 burg Emperor Charles VI. in 1740, without male heirs, was again 
 the cause of a general European war. For many years liis policy had 
 been directed toward securing the undisturbed succession of his 
 daughter Maria Theresa. His cession of Naples and Sicily to Spain 
 and his support of the Saxon Elector in the Polish Succession had 
 been prompted by the wish to secure the support of other European 
 powers to this end. But the moment of his death was, notwith- 
 standing, the signal for the War of the Austrian Succession, 1740 to 
 1748. 
 
 Rival Parties. — England and Holland supported Austria. 
 France, Spain, Saxony, Prassia, and Bavaria were leagued against 
 her. It was not generally believed tlmt Maria Theresa could in any 
 case hold her States together, and each foreign power had interest 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENIURY. 
 
 257 
 
 in some particular portion of her territories. France wanted the 
 adjacent Austrian Netherlands, L e., Belgium; Spain wanted to 
 recover Milan ; Bavaria, having gained the Imperial dignity 
 (Charles VII., 1741 to 1745), wanted Austria proper or Bohemia. 
 The ambition of Prussia alone was successful. 
 
 Frederick the Great, king of Prussia after 1740, conquered 
 Silesia and kept it by the mediation of England. 
 
 Th.e participation of Eng-land in these Continental affairs was partly caused by the 
 fact that her kings since 1714 were the Electors of Hanover, with German interests and terri- 
 tory to protect and enlarge. 
 (See English color in Bruns- 
 wick-Ltoehurg, or Hanover, 
 on map for 1748.) Her league 
 with Austria was also owing 
 to her colonial jealousy of the 
 French and Spaniards, who 
 were for the time heing the 
 enemies of Austria. 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle.— Frederick the Great 
 retired from the war in 1742 
 with Silesia (Peace of Breslau). 
 (See Prussian color in Silesia, 
 map for 1748.) He re-entered 
 the war in 1744 and 1745, and 
 again made peace on the old 
 conditions. 
 
 A general Peace was made 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. This peace was, however, simply a truce. Maria Theresa was a 
 sovereign of great personal popularity, especially in Hungary (which had not always been so 
 devoted to its German rulers). Her husband, Francis of Lorraine, brought back the Imperial 
 dignity to the Austrian House in 1745, as Emperor Francis I. Meantime the power of Prussia 
 under Frederick the Gi*eat had a\^'akened the jealousy of Europe by a standing army of 150,000 
 men. But England now supported him, to antagonize France and Spain. 
 
 Seven Years' War. — The Empress was bent on the recovery 
 of Silesia. To secure this end she allied with her late enemies, 
 France and Spain, in 1756. Russia also joined this coaHtion, to- 
 gether with Saxony and Sweden. Thus Frederick, supported 
 only by British subsidies, had the whole of Europe against him. 
 Although his heroic genius and undeniable personal greatness 
 gained him everywhere sympathizers, the dismemberment of the 
 
 Officers of Frederick the Great. 
 {Design by Menzel.) 
 
258 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Prussian monarchy was the avowed aim of his enemies. At the 
 most critical moment of the war, after many victories as well as 
 crashing defeats, he was saved by the death of the Russian Empress 
 Elizabeth. Her successors, Peter III. and Catherine II., withdrew 
 the Russian armies from Germany. 
 
 The Peace of Hubertsburg (in Saxony), 1763, gave Europe 
 rest till the French Revolution of 1789. 
 
 The contemporary Peace of Paris, which closed the Seven Years' War as regards England 
 and Prance, is noted under the histories of these countries, and estahlished important changes. 
 
 This peace raised Prussia to the rank of one of the five Great 
 Powers of Europe, the others being Great Britain, Austria, Russia, 
 and France. The province of Silesia, which belongs by configura- 
 tion and drainage to North Germany, increased the riches and popu- 
 lation of Prussia by about one-third, and the First Division of Po- 
 land, 1772, closed the gap between the province of Prussia proper 
 
 and the Pomeranian 
 and Silesian provinces. 
 Austria and Russia 
 shared in this division, 
 as in the two later 
 ones (after Frederick's 
 death in 1786) of 1793, 
 and 1795. The gain of 
 Galicia by the first 
 division was permanent 
 for Austria ; the later 
 divisions were modified 
 by the changes of the 
 French Revolution. 
 
 Divisions of Poland.— 
 
 The history of the whole 18th 
 
 century is inspired by dynastic 
 
 and national selflphness. The lack of principle and of chivalry in its contests render)* their 
 
 details nninteresting, altbongli the territorial changes have the greatest importance for the cora- 
 
 prehensou of later history. The dismemberment of Prance (Spanish Saccessiou), of *uBtrta, 
 
 Palace at Potsdam. Bnilt by Frederick the Great. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 259 
 
 of Prussia, were successively attempted. Only that of Poland succeeded. Its government by 
 elective monarchy exposed the country to constant party quarrels. In its diets the right of 
 liberum veto—i. e., the right of any one member to veto a law— was recognized. Hence anarchy 
 and consequent weakness. 
 
 Prussia under Frederick the G-reat.— Amid the universal selfishness of the 18th 
 century dynasties, the rule of Frederick the Great of Prussia, always despotic, sometimes 
 unscrupulous, exhibits decided elements of greatness. In his zeal for industry he forced the 
 apple-women of Berlin to knit at their stalls ; but he announced the principle that the monarch 
 is the servant of his State. When the Jesuits were driven from all other European countries, 
 they found protection and patronage with him and with Catherine II. of Russia. Both these 
 sovereigns knew how to value their zeal and ability in education. In conceding this political 
 greatness to Prussia, its barrenness in intellectual and artistic interest is also to be conceded. 
 Only in the 19th century has this country shaken off its coarseness and barbarism. 
 
 Th.e Electorate of Saxony was the most important centre of artistic interests and 
 liberal education for Germany during the 18th century, before 1775. Here were collected, soon 
 after 1750, most of the valued treasures of the famous Dresden Gallery of Paintings. Of 
 Saxon birth was the great German critic, Lessing. 
 
 Vienna, by its connection with Italy, was an important seat of musical culture. 
 
 The little State of Saxe-Weimar became the intellectual centre of Germany after 
 1775, and was distinguished as the residence of the great poets Goethe (GaytS) and Schiller. 
 
 In Music the glorious names of Sebastian Bach (BShk), of Hayden (Hiden), Gluck, Beet- 
 hoven (BaythOven), and Mozart, belong to 18th century Germany. 
 
 Map Study.— Aix-la-Chapelle, Breslau, Hubertsburg; see "Europe in 1748," p. 256. 
 Galicia, see " Europe in 1816." Potsdam is near Berlin, map at p. 254. "Weimar, see " Europe 
 in 1810." 
 
 The following geographical references are for the table on the next page. See " Europe in 
 1713," p. 254, for Blenheim, Gibraltar, Ramillies (section map), Turin, Madrid, Barcelona, 
 Almanza, Oudenarde (section map), Malplaquet (section map), Villa Viciosa, Utrecht (section 
 map). See map at p. 256 for Rossbach. 
 
 For Division of Poland compare map for 1748 with map for 1816 (and see Russian history). 
 The arrangements of the intervening map for 1810 were not permanent. 
 
 GERMAN WARS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Spanish Succession War. Peace of Utrecht a. d. 1700-1713 
 
 Polish Succession. Peace of Vienna " 1733-1738 
 
 Austrian Succession. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. " 1740-1748 
 
 Seven Years' War. Peace of Hubertsburg and Paris " 1756-1763 
 
 Wars of the French Revolution " 1792-(1815) 
 
 KINGS OF PRUSSIA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Frederick I. a. d. 1701-1713 
 
 (He had succeeded the Great Elector Frederick William in 1688 as Elector Frederick IV.) 
 
 Frederick William I., son of the foregoing A. d. 1713-1740 
 
 Frederick II. the Great, son of the foregoing " 1740-1786 
 
 Frederick William II., nephew of the foregoing " 1786-1797 
 
 Frederick William III., son of the foregoing " 1797-(1840) 
 
260 aERMANV. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF GERMANY IN THE EIGHTEENTH .CENTURY. 
 
 Death of Charles 11. of Spain (causes the Spanish Succession War) a. d. 1700 
 
 Frederick I. King of "Prussia" " 1701 
 
 Anne, Queen of England, after " 1702 
 
 Marlborough's victory of Blenheim " 1704 
 
 Gibraltar taken by the English (ceded to England by the Peace of Utrecht) " " 
 
 Death of Leopold I. ; accession of Joseph I " 1705 
 
 Marlborough's victory of Ramillies " 1706 
 
 Prince Eugene's victory of Turin " " 
 
 The Austrian " Charles HI. of Spain " lands in Portugal and conquers Madrid " 1707 
 
 The Spaniards confine him to Barcelona by the victory of Almauza " " 
 
 Victory of Oudenarde (won by Prince Eugene and Marlborough) ^ " 1708 
 
 Victory of Malplaqnet; Marlborough " 1709 
 
 " Charles III. " reconquers Madrid " 1710 
 
 Spanish victory of Villa Viciosa confines him once more to Barcelona " 1711 
 
 Death of Emperor Joseph I. places Charles VI. on the throne of the Empire. ) ^^ 
 
 Threatened reunion of the monarchy of Charles V. ( 
 
 Disgrace of Marlborough " " 
 
 These events lead to the Peace of Utrecht " 1713 
 
 Frederick William I. of Prussia succeeds Frederick I " " 
 
 Death of Louis XIV. ; Accession of Louis XV T " 1715 
 
 Death of Charles XII. of Sweden " 1718 
 
 Dukes of Savoy made Kings of Sardinia ' " 1720 
 
 Death of Peter the Great of Russia " 1725 
 
 War of the Polish Succession opens " 1733 
 
 Closed by the Peace of Vienna " 1738 
 
 Frederick II. the Great, King of Prussia , " 1740 
 
 Death of Charles VI. of the Empire " " 
 
 Succession of Maria Theresa in Austria. War of the Austrian Succession " " 
 
 Peace of Breslau. Silesia to Prussia " 1748 
 
 Peace of Dresden. Silesia confirmed to Prussia " 1745 
 
 Peace of Aix-la Chapelle closes the Austrian Succession War. No changes " 1748 
 
 Seven Years' War begins ♦' 1756 
 
 Prussian Victory of Rossbach »• 1757 
 
 Peace of Hubertsburg ends the war for Austria and Prussia " 1768 
 
 Peace of Paris ends the war for England, France, and Spain " " 
 
 Death of Emperor Francis I. Accession of Joseph II " 1765 
 
 First Division of Poland " 1772 
 
 Death of Frederick the Great. Accession of Frederick William II " 1786 
 
 French Revolution begins " 1789 
 
 Death of Joseph n. Accession of Leopold U " 1790 
 
 Death of Leopold IL Accession of Francis II " 1792 
 
 Wars of the French Revolution in Germany open " '* 
 
 Second Division of Poland " 1793 
 
 Prussia abandons the war on France. Peace of Basle " 1794 
 
 Third Division of Poland " 1795 
 
QUESTIONS ON PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA. 261 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What territory unites Brandenburg and Silesia witli Prussia proper ? Compare "Europe in 
 1748" witli " Europe in 1816." 
 
 When acquired ? (P. 258.) 
 
 How much increase to Prussia by Silesia ? (P. 258.) When ? (P. 257.) 
 
 What territory occupied by Prussia before 1713, passed by treaty from Sweden to Prussia in 
 1720 ? Am. Part of Swedish Pomerania. Compare maps for 1648 and 1748. 
 
 What was gained by this acquisition ? 'Ans. Control of the mouth of the Oder. 
 
 What territory does the Oder drain ? Ans. Silesia. 
 
 When did Prussia obtain the royal title ? 
 
 What did Prussia gain in 1648 ? (P. 253.) 
 
 In 1627 ? (P. 253.) 
 
 When were Brandenburg and Prussia united under one ruler ? (P. 253.) 
 
 When did " Prassia " come under a l)ranch of the Hohenzollerns ? (P. 238.) 
 
 When was Brandenburg acquired ? (P. 166.) 
 
 What Hohenzollern territories were held in South Germany till 1816 ? (P. 166.) 
 
 When acquired ? (P. 166.) 
 
 Where is Hohenzollern ? (P. 166, and map, p. 200.) 
 
 Why are the successive steps in the rise of Prussia so important ? Am. Because they have 
 continued until, in the 19th century, Prussia supplanted Austria in the control of Germany, 
 and under her influence the German states have been consolidated. 
 
 How has Prussia exercised the ascendency acquired in Germany ? Am. With great arro- 
 gance, especially in her conduct to the Roman Church. 
 
 How may the study of history be a warning for individual conduct ? Am. Almost every 
 nation which has risen to great power has sacrificed its position and lost its ascendency by 
 pride and over-confidence, and a nation is composed of individuals. 
 
 SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 To what kingdom had Silesia belonged ? (P. 243, and map for 1713.) 
 
 When did Bohemia and Hungary become Austrian possessions ? (P. 2-33, and map for 1550.) 
 
 When was Hungary united with Bohemia ? (P. 166, and map for 1400.) 
 
 Who founded the line of Luxemburg-Bohemia ? (P. 165.) 
 
 To what inheritance had Brandenburg belonged when transferred to the Hohenzollerns by 
 Sigismund ? (P. 166, and map for 1400.) 
 
 Who were the English contemporaries of Frederick the Great? Am. George II. and 
 George III. 
 
 French contemporaries ? Am. Louis XV. and Louis XVI. 
 
 What emperor died in the year of Frederick's accession ? (Chronology, p. 260.) 
 
 Who was the daughter of this emperor ? How did she become an empress ? (P. 257.) 
 
 What territories became Austrian possessions in the 18th century without re-transfer 1 
 Am. Belg-ium, Milan, and Tuscany. See p. 256. and maps for 1713 and 1748. 
 
 What territories gained by Austria were re-transferred ? 
 
262 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Who were French sovereigns in the 18th century? Am. Louis XIV., Louis XV., Louis XVI. 
 
 Which of them obtained " Lorraine " from the " Empire " ? (P. 256.) How ? When ? 
 
 What is meant by England's " colonial jealousy " ? (P. 257.) Am. Jealousy of the French 
 in North America (p. 28T), of the Spanish- American trade, and of the French in Hindoostan. 
 
 Who were English sovereigns in the 18th century ? Am. William III. for two years, Anne, 
 George L, George H., George HE. 
 
 What other title and power had the last three ? Am. Electors of Hanover. The House 
 cf Hanover came to the English tlirone with George I. in 1714. 
 
 When was the House of Hanover fotmded ? (P. 162.) 
 
 When were England and Hanover separated? Am. At the accession of Queen Victoria 
 in 1837. 
 
 What is the first event in point of time of the Seven Years' War ? A7i8. Braddock's defeat 
 at Fort Duquesne in 1754— the fonnal declaration of war not made till two years later. 
 
 How many years before the beginning of the French Revolution did the American Revolu- 
 tion end ? (P. 260,) 
 
 How many years before the death of Frederick the Great is the American Declaration 
 of Independence in 1776 ? (Chronology, p. 260.) 
 
 How many years before his death is the Independence of the American Colonies in 1783 ? 
 
 How many years after the Seven Years' War ended (p. 260) did the American Revolution 
 begin ? 
 
 What Russian Tzar died in 1725 ? (Chronology, p 260.) What Swedish king died in 1718 ? 
 
 What did Prussia gain in consequence ? Am. The territory mentioned in a preceding 
 question relating to 1720. 
 
 What did England gain in consequence ? Am. The addition (by treaty) of Bishoprics 
 Bremen and Verden (conquered before 1713) to Hanover, and consequent control of the Elbe. 
 
 (On map for 1648, see Swedish color at mouth of the Elbe for Bremen and Verden. On map 
 for 1713, see dimension of Brunswick-Lflneburg or Hanover.) 
 
 SIMPLIFIED TABLE OF GERMAN HISTORY FROM 1500 TO 1800. 
 
 Accession of Charles V A 
 
 Division of his Monarchy 
 
 Revolt of tlie Netherlands under Philip II 
 
 Thirty Years' War, after 
 
 Peace of Westphalia 
 
 The Great Elector obtains the sovereignty of " Prussia " free from 
 
 feudal dependence on Poland 
 
 Kingdom of Prussia after - 
 
 Peace of Utrecht 
 
 Peace of Vienna 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Peace.of Hubertsburg and Paris 
 
 Death of Frederick the Great 
 
 D. 1519 
 1556 
 1566 
 1618 
 1648 
 
 1657 
 1701 
 1713 
 1738 
 1748 
 1703 
 1786 
 
IMPORTANT SYNCHRONISMS. 26S 
 
 IMPORTANT SYNCHRONISMS. 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen of England 1558 
 
 When did Charles V. die ? 
 
 When did Philip II. of Spain begin his reign ? 
 
 When did Ferdinand I. of the Empire begin his reign ? 
 
 Execution of Charles I. of England , 1649 
 
 When was the Peace of Westphalia concluded ? 
 
 When was the accession of Louis XIV. ? (See forward, p. 2TO.) 
 
 George III., King of England 1760 
 
 How is this date related to the accession of Frederick the Great ? 
 To the beginning and end of the Seven Years' War ? 
 
 The later history of Germany is connected with that of the other modern states, under the 
 heading of the " French Revolution and later Modern History of Western Europe." 
 
FRANCE 
 
 AFTER 1500. 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 FRENCH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 16th CENTURY. 
 
 Louis XII. (Genealogy, p. 212). a. d. (1498)-1515 
 
 Francis I. (Genealogy, p. 212) " 1515-1547 
 
 Henry II., son of the foregoing " 1547-1559 
 
 Francis II., son of the foregoing " 1559-1560 
 
 Charles IX., brother of the foregoing " 1560-1 574 
 
 Henry III., brother of the foregoing *' 1574-1589 
 
 Henry IV. of Navarre (Bourbon line) " 1589-(1610) 
 
 Louis XII., 1498-1515, was an economical and wise ruler. His 
 internal administration received the reward of national appreciation 
 which it deserved, and was marked by that absence of " events " 
 which is a certain indication of national happiness and prosperity. 
 
 Italian Conquests.— The French were expelled in 1512 from their occupation of Milan 
 (p. 220) only to return in the first year of the following reign. The same impulse which drew 
 expedition after expedition into Italy from Germany in the time of Otto I. or Barbarossa, was 
 now drawing France and Spain in the same direction. In our own time this charm of Italy 
 still exerts itself on foreigners. We see now armies of travelers instead of armies of soldiers, 
 but the attraction is the same, and the influence of Italy exerts itself now, as it did then, on 
 the stranger who beholds this country. 
 
 Italian Influence.— Because the stream of travel took the form of armed expeditions, 
 we must not suppose thac bloodshed and carnage were the rule. From all complications of 
 parties and diplomacy one general result was always the same— viz., increase of Italian influ- 
 ence on the habits, fashions, and learning of France. 
 
 Architectural styles are the surest indication of general aspects of civilization, and in no 
 country was the Gtothic so quickly and so thoroughly overthrown in favor of Italian " Renais- 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 265 
 
 sance" fashions in architecture as in the country which invented the Gothic. The "Renais- 
 sance" in architecture is the Italian Revival of Roman-Greek architectural forms. Com- 
 pare the Palace of the Louvre with the same Italian style in St. Peter's at Rome. Contrast 
 with the Gothic, pp. 189, 197. 
 
 Francis I., 1515-1547, continued the Italian policy of his 
 predecessor^ and in 1515 re-entered Milan after the battle of Ma- 
 rignano, holding the ducliy till 1522. The campaigns in Italy after 
 1521, during the long- 
 rivalry with Charles 
 v., have been already 
 summarized under this 
 reign. Francis was 
 a brilliant and showy 
 personality, prodigal 
 and brave, a patron 
 of Italian art and 
 letters. He brought 
 the artists Benvenuto 
 Cellini and Leonardo 
 da Vinci to France, 
 and many of their 
 countrymen. Da Vinci 
 is said to have died 
 in his arms. 
 
 Henry II., his son, 1547-1559, continued the connection with 
 Italy, by marriage before accession with Catharine de Medici, a 
 Florentine princess. He attacked the Germanic Empire, in alli- 
 ance with the Protestants, during the Smalcaldian war, and con- 
 quered, in 1552, the Bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. It was 
 to chastise this assault that Charles V. made the peace of Passau 
 (p. 235), in order that his hands might be free for a determined siege 
 of Metz. But he could not retake this stronghold (lost to France 
 in 1871). The war outlasted his abdication, and was inherited by 
 Phihp II. 
 
 The generals of Philip II. gained for hiin the brilliant victory 
 
 Portion of the Palace of the Lot 
 
 century. 
 
268 FRANCE. 
 
 the crown was a Protestant — Henry, the king of Navarre. (Navarre 
 was a small State on the borders of France and Spain.) 
 
 The claim of Henry of Navarre to the Crown was derived from Robert of Cler- 
 mont, the brother of Louis IX., and founder of the House of Bourbon by marriage with its 
 heiress. Antony, the father of Henry of Navarre, had married Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of the 
 little kingdom of Navarre, whence Henry's possession of that State. The family of Bourbon 
 had been in disgi-ace since the time of Francis I., when the Constable of Bourbon took service 
 against his country as a general of Charles V. and was killed before the walls of Rome in 1527. 
 The Bourbon estates, the Bourbonnais and Marche, were confiscated in 1531. The Constable 
 left no direct heirs. Antony of Navarre was descended from a parallel branch of the Bourbon 
 line, the Counts of Marche. Henry of Navarre had married Margaret of Valois, sister of 
 Charles IX., just before the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 Pope Sixtus V. declared that a Protestant could not inherit 
 the crown of France, and Henry was excommunicated. A Catholic 
 league was formed, which proposed to depose Henry III. He had 
 lost the respect of the nation by his profligacy. The head of this 
 league was the Duke of Guise, son of the duke already named, 
 called Balafre from a scar on the cheek. He proposed to take the 
 throne, in default of a better claim, as the heir of Charlemagne 
 through the line of Lorraine. Henry of Navarre was himself re- 
 moved by twenty-two degrees of affinity from the sovereign. 
 
 Thus there were three parties in France — the Protestant, 
 headed by Henry of Navarre after the death of his uncle Conde ; 
 the Catholic league; and the king's party, the weakest of all. 
 Henry III. caused the assassination of the Balafre. The odium 
 of this act forced him into the alliance of the Protestants, but 
 he found his own death also by assassination as he was preparing 
 to besiege Paris. 
 
 Henry IV., 1589-1610, had his kingdom and capital still to 
 conquer. He was a gallant soldier, but his faith could not be 
 allowed to control the destinies of France. The dilemma was partly 
 solved in 1593 by his conversion, although the Pope (Clement VIII.) 
 refused for some time to withdraw his sentence, and did not accord 
 him absolution till two years later. The Protestants were conceded 
 extraordinary political privileges by the Edict of Nantes, 1598, which 
 closed the Huguenot wars. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 269 
 
 Map Study for " Europe iu 1550," p. 328. Marignano is on the section map for Northeast 
 Italy. Metz ; Toul ; Verdun. (St. Quentin in northern France ie entered on the map for 1648, 
 p. 250). Calais. (Cateau Cambresis, in northern France, is entered on the map for 1648.) King- 
 dom of Navarre, see map for 1400, p. 300, and 1550. The Bourbon possessions are light red 
 on the map for 1550. Nantes is on the Loire. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Battle of Ravenna ; French victory over the Italian league, but the death of the 
 French commander Gaston de Foix caused the evacuation of Milan (p. 230) — A. 
 
 French reinvasion of Italy. Defeat of Novara. Consequent expulsion 
 
 Accession of Francis I. French victory of Marignano 
 
 Tournament of the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Friendly meeting of Francis I. with 
 Henry VIII. of England 
 
 Wars with Charles V. (p. 331) begin 
 
 French defeat of Pavia (p. 232) 
 
 Peace of Madrid (p. 232) 
 
 Second War with Charles V. and Sack of Rome (p. 232) 
 
 Peace of Cambrai 
 
 Calvin's influence on France (p. 238) after 
 
 Third War for Milan (p. 232) 
 
 Truce of Nice 
 
 Fourth War for Milan (p. 232) 
 
 Peace of Crespy 
 
 Accession of Henry 11. 
 
 He enters the Smalcaldian War 
 
 Conquers Metz, Toul and Verdun. 
 
 French defeat of St. Quentin 
 
 Peace of Cateau Cambresis. Accession of Francis U 
 
 Accession of Charles IX 
 
 Huguenot Wars begin 
 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew 
 
 Accession of Henry III 
 
 Accession of Henry IV 
 
 Edict of Nantes closes the Huguenot wars , 
 
 1512 
 1513 
 1515 
 
 1521 
 1525 
 1526 
 1527 
 1529 
 1535 
 1536 
 153S 
 1542 
 1.541 
 1547 
 1551 
 15.52 
 1558 
 1559 
 1560 
 1562 
 1572 
 1574 
 1589 
 1598 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 In what French reign was the fourth voyage of Columbus ? (P. 227.) 
 
 The voyage of Magellan ? (P. 228.) The conquest of Mexico and Peru for Spain ? (P. 228.) 
 
 What general features of European history in the 16th century ? (P. 236.) 
 
 How long after the accession of Francis I. occurred the Diet of Worms ? (P. 239.) 
 
 When did he fail to secure the Imperial dignity ? (P. 230.) 
 
 In what French reign was the word Protestant first used? (P. 246.) 
 
 Who was the English contemporary of Francis I. ? (P. 330.) 
 
 What two sovereigns died in 1547 ? (P. 239.) 
 
270 FRANCE. 
 
 What were the causes of the French rivalry with Spain ? (P. 231.) 
 
 Why did Henry n. enter the Smalcaldian War ? Ans. From this same rivalry— the wish to 
 cripple the Emperor. 
 
 What Peace resulted? (P. 266.) 
 
 In what French reign did the Council of Trent adjourn ? (P, 239,) 
 
 How long before Henry H. did Luther die ? (P. 239.) 
 
 In what French reign occurred the abdication of Charles V. ? (P. 239.) The revolt of the 
 Netherlands? (P. 245.) 
 
 What sovereign died in the year of the Edict of Nantes ? (P. 247.) 
 
 What English sovereign began to reign in 1558 ? (P. 239.) 
 
 In what French reign ? 
 
 Through what French reigns did Elizabeth continue ? (She was' Queen till 1603.) 
 
 Name the (Jermanic Emperors of the 16th century. (P. 243.) 
 
 What additions to the French monarchy in the 16th century ? (Pp. 265. 268.) 
 
 What style of architecture was adopted in France in this period ? 
 
 What style did it replace ? 
 
 In what French reign was begun St. Peter's at Kome ? (P. 217.) 
 
 In what French reign did England abandon the Eoman Church (1534) ? 
 
 In what French reign were the Hapsburg possessions divided ? (P. 235.) 
 
 Name the English sovereigns of the 16th century. (Pp. 239, 246.) 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 FRENCH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 17th CENTURY. 
 
 Henry IV a. d. (1589)-1610 
 
 Louis XIII., son of the foregoing " 1610-1643 
 
 Louis XIV., son of the foregoing " 1643-<1715) 
 
 DESCENT OF HENRY IV. 
 
 Louis IX. 
 
 Younger son, Robert of Clermont = Beatrice, heiress of Bourbon. 
 
 Louis of Bourbon. 
 
 \ 
 
 I I 
 
 Line ending with the Constable of Bourbon, 1527. James, Count of Marcho. 
 
 John, Count of Marche. 
 
 1 
 
 Louis of Vendome. James, Count of Marche 
 
 John 
 
 Francis. 
 
 Charles. 
 I 
 Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre = Antony, 11562. 
 
 Henry IV., King of Navarre and France. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 271 
 
 Henry IV. and Maria de Medici. 
 ( Old medal.) 
 
 The Reign of Henry IV. continued till 1610. He was a 
 character of great force, and a true Frenchman. Of a genial and 
 gallant nature, he quickly won the affec- 
 tion of his subjects, and became, per- 
 haps, the most popular of all French 
 sovereigns. The task of his reign was 
 to bind up the wounds of the civil wars, 
 and restore prosperity to a devastated 
 and impoverished country. In this 
 mission he was supported by an able 
 minister, Sully, whose interest in 
 manufactures, commerce, and agricul- 
 ture, laid the foundation for the later 
 greatness of France. Canada was colo- 
 nized and Quebec founded under his 
 administration. 
 
 There were no foreign wars in this reign (an unimportant con- 
 test with Spain in the last years of the preceding century excepted), 
 but in 1610 Henry prepared to take part in a disputed German 
 succession in the lower Rhine territories. This dispute concerned 
 the territories of Juliers, Marck, Cleve, and Berg (it terminated after- 
 wards in the acquisition made by Brandenburg in the year 1627), 
 but the motive of Henry was to attack the Hapsburg ascendency in 
 the Germanic Empire. The fact that on the west France had not 
 yet attained her natural boundaries, explains this project. The 
 Spaniards still threatened the security of France by their possession 
 of the Franche-Oomte and of the Belgic Netherlands (Spanish 
 Hapsburg portions of the Germanic Empire). Alsace and Lorraine 
 were still foreign territories of the same empire, into which the 
 three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun projected as the out- 
 posts for a farther advance. 
 
 On the eve of "war, when all preparations had been made, 
 the king was assassinated, on the day after the coronation of his 
 queen, which was intended to give additional stability to her 
 
272 FRANCE. 
 
 regency in liis absence. His murderer was named Francis Eavaillac 
 (Raviyak). No motive for this assassination could then be discov- 
 ered, nor has any since been assigned. It is not impossible that 
 the crime was committed by a fanatical subordinate partisan of the 
 parties attacked, to forestall the anticipated successes of so great a 
 soldier. 
 
 A daughter of Henry IV., Henrietta Maria, became afterwards 
 queen of Charles I. of England. St. Francis de Sales was his 
 intimate friend. 
 
 Paris was so enlarged and beautified by Henry rv. that when the Spanish ambassador 
 saw it, after a few years' absence, he scarcely recognized the city he had left so abject and 
 desolate. " You see," said Henry, " that the father of the family was not at home ; now he is 
 here to care for his children, and all goes well with them." The same grave Spaniard one 
 day surprised Henry on his hands and knees, and the dauphin riding on his back, while the 
 young Duke of Orleans administered the whip. " Monsieur Ambassador," said the king, "are 
 you a father ? " " Yes, sire." " Then I may go on with my game." 
 
 Louis XIII., 1610-1643, was nine years old at his accession. 
 The regency was conducted by his mother, Maria de Medici (second 
 wife of Henry IV., after 1600). She in turn was ruled by one of 
 her female Italian attendants, whose husband, 
 Concini, thus came to be head of affairs — with 
 the title of Marshal D'Ancre. The administra- 
 tion of Concini was antagonized by the great 
 nobles, and his treatment of the young king 
 was disrespectful and overbearing. He was 
 killed, at the royal order, by a captain of the 
 
 Louis XIII. Old medal. , , j . ^niiv 
 
 body-guard, m 1617. 
 
 Concini was succeeded by a favorite of the young Louis, De 
 Luynes (Lean), whose administration was also disturbed by dis- 
 order and outbreaks of the unruly aristocracy. This minister died 
 in 1620. 
 
 Richelieu, the Bishop of Lucjon, had been first employed in 
 state business by Concini, and after momentary disfavor was re- 
 employed by De Luynes. The influence of Maria de Medici pro- 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 273 
 
 cured him the dignity of Cardinal, and introduced him in 1624 to 
 the Council. Here lie soon acquired the supremacy and became for 
 eighteen years the ruler of the state. Under his guidance, Louis 
 XIII. was "the first personage in Europe and the second in France." 
 The influence of Cardinal Richelieu was repeatedly attacked by 
 conspiracies and cabals. These were generally headed by the brother 
 of the king, Gaston, who was for a long time, in default of a direct 
 heir, his prospective successor. Maria de Medici also became jealous 
 of her former protege, and took the side of the opposition. As 
 usual in the politics of the time, the foreign enemy leagued with, 
 and incited by intrigues, the domestic revolts. 
 
 Spain was this enemy. A marriage alliance had been made 
 with Spain by Concini (Louis XIII. married a daughter of Philip 
 III.), but this state was once more antagonized by the national 
 policy of Richelieu. His political genius was first apparent in the 
 seizure of the ValtelUna, the valley and pass leading from Milan to 
 the Tyrol, by which the Spanish Hapsburgs moved troops from 
 Italy into Germany during the Thirty Years^ War. 
 
 The policy of Richelieu had two aims — the elevation of 
 the royal power to an absolute sovereignty, and the humiliation 
 of the national rivals of France. In both these aims, pursued 
 through life with rigid consistency and bold daring, the great 
 Cardinal was thoroughly successful. In pursuance of his domestic 
 policy, it was necessary to crush the political independence of the 
 Huguenot faction. 
 
 Siege of Rochelle.— The Edict of Nantes had not only given the 
 Protestants toleration, it had also granted political and military self-government 
 to Rochelle, the great commercial centre of the South, and to other southern 
 towns. These were consequently the centres of every new intrigue or revolt 
 against the monarchy. Cardinal Richelieu therefore began, in 1627, the siege 
 of Rochelle, which he conducted in person. Charles I. of England sent two 
 expeditions, the first under his favorite, Buckingham, to its assistance. Both 
 failed. A great dyke had been constructed to prevent the entrance of vessels 
 to the harbor, and after an obstinate resistance the town was reduced by 
 
^u 
 
 PRANCE. 
 
 hunger. Cardinal Richelieu abolished the existence of the state within the 
 state, but continued the religious toleration of the Huguenots. 
 
 French Infentry. Sketch by Callot, 17th century. 
 
 In his treatment of the great nobles he showed unsparing 
 severity when it was demanded. Eesting on the support of a body 
 of "notables" of the upper middle class, the destruction of tho 
 castles of the aristocracy was accomplished and their power was 
 tlierewith broken. 
 
 The foreign policy of Richelieu supported the English Par- 
 liament against Charles I., the national aspirations of Portugal, the 
 freedom of the Dutch Eepublic, and the independence of the Ger- 
 man States from a Hapsburg ascendency. By supporting the move- 
 ments which the logic of events had destined to success, he estab- 
 lished the security and greatness of France among them. 
 
 The participation of France in the Thirty Years' War, 
 after 1635, involved a war on both branches of the Hapsburgs. In 
 this war the Austrian Hapsburgs suffered most severely, but Eicli- 
 elieu conquered Artois (Artwah) from the Spanish Netherlands, and 
 by taking Roussillon (Roos-i-yon) from Spain carried the French 
 border to the Pyrenees. 
 
 The Peace of Westphalia was made after the deaths of the Car- 
 dinal and of Louis XIII. ; but its gain for France (Alsace) was the 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 2?5 
 
 result of his policy, as was the renewed independence of Portugal 
 after 1640 (p. 241). 
 
 At home he built the Palais Cardinal, since called the Palais 
 Eoyal ; established the French Academy, 1635, and by his patronage 
 of learning created the generation which made the glory of the four- 
 teenth Louis. The great College of the Sorbonne, founded in the 
 13th century, was especially favored and enlarged by Richelieu. He 
 died on the 4th of December, 1642, in the arms of a Carmelite friar. 
 
 "With all his political greatness Richelieu was an earnest Catholic. He did much to 
 establish that spirit which has done such service to religion in our own time ; the spirit which 
 finds all political beliefs consistent with a Catholic faith and finds therefore no grounds against 
 political fellowship with Protestants. It is conceded that his policy opens the period when 
 religious differences ceased to occasion religious wars. 
 
 The g-reatness of Bich- 
 elieu consisted in a wise esti- 
 mate of the possible, combined 
 with an unswerving energy of 
 resolution in its accomplish- 
 ment, and his despotism of pro- 
 cedure was accompanied by that 
 unselfishness of purpose which 
 commands respect by its abso- 
 lute devotion. On his death-bed, 
 pressed to forgive his enemies, 
 he replied, "I have none but 
 those of the State." This charac- 
 ter was recognized by Louis 
 XIII., whose greatness it is to 
 have given full scope to the 
 talents of the Cardinal. 
 
 The character of Louis 
 XIII. was pure, his interests 
 elevated and noble. A musical 
 air of his composition is still a 
 favorite with modem orchestras. 
 In his time were written the 
 greater tragedies of Corneille— 
 the Cid, Horace, Cinna and Poly- 
 eucte (Poly-ute). It is the later 
 time of Corneille which belongs 
 
 to the following reign. "During the time of Louis XIII. appeared that remarkable constella- 
 tion of saints and saintly men of whom we read in the lives of St. Vincent de Paul and M. 
 Olier, and who renewed the faith of the Church in France. Even Richelieu consulted the 
 
 {l|niilliii;!''n"!iH!!Ni!iiii|iHii:niiiiHi!i!ii!|||p|j!;n 
 
 ||«iliWIII!IB 
 
 iB 
 
 ||m^ ^ 
 
 ^F 
 
 
 ■ '% 
 
 MHHiii 
 
 |^^% 
 
 
 i 
 
 'J^^^^^^^^B^iHi; 1; 
 
 St. Vincent de Faul. 
 {From an engraving of his time.) 
 
276 
 
 FRANCE, 
 
 venerable Monsieur Vincent with respect on Church matters and appointments, and it was in 
 his arms that Louis breathed his last." 
 
 Mazarin. — Cardinal Richelieu had designated the Italian Car- 
 dinal Mazarin as his successor. With less greatness, but with the 
 same general policy, this Minister carried on the traditions of his 
 predecessor into the following reign. 
 
 Louis XIV., 1643-1715, began his reign, like his father, 
 
 as a minor. He was not five 
 years old at accession. The 
 Queen mother, Anne "of Aus- 
 tria" (a Spanish Infanta), and 
 Mazarin had been left joint 
 members in the regency. The 
 smouldering opposition to the 
 stern will of Richelieu took 
 shape in a motion of the Parlia- 
 ment of Paris, setting aside this 
 provision and making Anne of 
 Austria the sole regent. The 
 effort to win influence in this 
 way was dashed by the action of the Queen, who reappointed Maza- 
 rin co-regent. He was, however, unpopular as an Italian foreigner, 
 and she w^as unpopular as a Spaniard. 
 
 Causes of Discontent.— The system of taxation was oppressive, and this increased the 
 discontent. The English parliament had made itself supreme in England against the king, 
 and the Parliament of Paris was infected by its example. The situations were really, how- 
 ever, very different, for the Parliament in France was not a representative body. The mem- 
 bers owed their place to purchase or appointment. Their duties were simply to register the 
 laws. Nor was there in France, as in England, a sentiment opposed to absolute sovereignty, 
 as a matter of principle. Therefore, the parliamentary opposition which began in France the 
 civil war of the " Fronde " had no lasting results. 
 
 The War of the Fronde is so named because the opposition 
 was thought to act like the boy playing ^vith a sling (fronde) who 
 throws a stone and then runs away. The Parliament began its war 
 with some public support arising from the unpopularity of the 
 regents and the weight of taxes, but found its cause mainly taken 
 
 Louis XIV. Old medal. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 277 
 
 up by the members of the nobility, who wished to reassert the old 
 
 freedom of the aristocracy and to break down the system of Eich- 
 
 elieu for selfish reasons. The Queen 
 
 mother and Mazarin were driven from 
 
 Paris. The latter had the wisdom 
 
 to leave France, still continuing to 
 
 direct his party. 
 
 Conde and Turenne.— Conde, first on the 
 side of the government, then leader of the aristo- 
 cratic revolt, hecame in this last capacity more un- 
 popular than the government and took service with 
 Spain. Turenne, the leader of the Fronde at first, 
 afterward took service for the court. It seemed 
 impossible for either party to be serious. Epi- 
 grams and jokes were plentiful on all sides. The 
 court had actually caused the arrest of Conde, be- 
 fore he took service with Spain, by an order signed 
 in blank by himself. The troubles of the Fronde 
 continued between 1648 and 1653. 
 
 Peace of Westphalia.— Maza- 
 rin had already, in the first year of 
 these troubles, effected the close of 
 the negotiations of the Peace of Westphalia, by which France ob- 
 tained the important possession of Alsace. This acquisition was 
 important in itself and also because it gave one portion of the king- 
 dom the Rhine as boundary. Brilliant victories of the French over 
 the Spaniards, in the last thirteen years of the Thirty Years' War, 
 had secured her these advantageous terms. 
 
 The victories of Rocroi, 1643, Freiburg, 1644, Nordlingen, 1645, Lens, 1648, were all won 
 by Conde. The war with Spain was not closed by the Peace of Westphalia, but continued 
 during the period of the Fronde, when the Spaniards secured some advantages and the service 
 of the famous French general, as noted. Turenne was now his opponent and gained Dun- 
 kirk by the battle of the Dunes. It was turned over to England, whose alliance (time of 
 Cromwell) ended the war in favor of the French. 
 
 The treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659, confirmed the conquests 
 of Artois and Eoussillon made in the time of Eichelieu, and gave the 
 Spanish Infanta in marriage to Louis XIV. Conde was pardoned, 
 and became one of the great generals of the king. 
 
 Musketeer ; 17th Century. 
 {Design bg Charlet.) 
 
278 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 Louis XIV. his own Prime Minister. —Four years before 
 this date the young king had shown his mettle by appearing in the 
 Parliament in hunting-dress, with a whip in his hand, and ordering 
 its members to confine themselves to duties of registration without 
 debate. Two years after the Peace of the Pyrenees, at the death of 
 Cardinal Mazarin, he assumed absolute control of the state. 
 
 The despotic system developed by two great Ministers was 
 now administered by the king himself, on the avowed principle — 
 ''I am the state." The system, which had begun by quelling the 
 nobles, continued under Louis XIV. by disarming them with royal 
 favors and employment at Court. 
 
 Popularity of the Monarchy.— Thus a despotism perfected by the support of the pub- 
 lic and the middle classes (accorded the monarchy in constantly increasing degree since the 
 time of Louis VI., p. 186), exided by making alsoan instrument and ally of the aristocratic power 
 it had overthrown. This is the greatness of the time of Louis XIV. Had his absolute rale 
 not received the support of public opinion it could not have existed. The development of 
 absolute monarchy in France must be regarded as the instrument and expression of a popular 
 sentiment demanding a power to quell the nobles and suppress the feudal system. In Den- 
 mark, Norway, and Sweden, even, the same popular aspect of abso- 
 lute monarchy was openly conceded. The antagonism of monarcii 
 and people in England, beginning in the 17th century and ending in 
 the revolution of 1688, had special local causes. It did not exist in 
 the 16th century, when Elizabeth was quite independent of her 
 parliament, though not of public sentiment. Against public sen- 
 timent no government can stand. 
 
 Great Names of the Period.— The influence wielded by 
 Louis XIV. was at once a tribute to his system, to his personality, 
 and to his patronage of art and of learning. He had not created 
 the generation of great men which surrounded him, but he dis- 
 cenied their qualities and rewarded their talents. Among dramatic 
 authors the period of Corneille continued, that of Racine and 
 J:ioiieic. Moli^re began. It was the time of F§n61on, Archbishop of Cam- 
 
 brai and author of " T616maque " ; of Bourdaloue, of Bossuet (Bos- 
 sn-a), and of Massillon (MassByon) in pulpit eloquence ; of Boileau (BwShlO) in criticism ; and 
 of La Fontaine, author of the celebrated Fables. The French language attained that polish 
 and facility of expression which has since made It the diplomatic and general language of 
 Europe. The names of the statesmen, Colbert (COlbare) and Louvois (LouvwSh), of the gen- 
 erals Turenne and Cond6, of Vauban, the military engineer, are world-renowned. The reign 
 of Louis XrV. exhibited its splendor and magnificence in the palace and gardens of Ver- 
 Bailies, on which 35,000 workmen were employed. 
 
 The War of Devolution.— In the Treaty of the Pyrenees 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 27^ 
 
 Louis XIV. had renounced any claims on behalf of his Spanish 
 Queen to the Spanish inheritance, but her dowry of 500,000 crowns 
 had not been paid. Moreover, Turenne considered the possession 
 of certain fortresses on the frontier of the Spanish Netherlands as 
 essential to the military security of France. At the death of 
 
 The Palace of Versailles ia ihc time of Louis XTV. 
 
 Philip IV. of Spain, in 1665, claim was therefore laid to the Span- 
 ish Netherlands by right of ''devolution," on the ground that 
 Charles II., the next (and last) Spanish Hapsburg, was son of a 
 second marriage, and that Flemish law gave preference to the 
 female heir of the first marriage. This right of devolution had been 
 discovered for Louis by the Flemings, who dreaded a reversion of 
 their state to the Austrian Hapsburgs, and favored in preference a 
 union with France. 
 
 In a single campaign, 1667-1668, the generals of Louis conquered 
 Belgium and the Franche-Comte. This rapid success alarmed the rest of 
 Europe, as leading, unless opposed, to an overpowering French ascendency, 
 and an overthrow of the *' balance of power." 
 
 A triple alliance was formed between Holland, Sweden, and England to 
 oppose the French, and this alliance secured the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668, 
 by which Franche-Comte was abandoned and French Flanders (the southern 
 border of Belgium with important fortresses) was retained by the French. 
 
280 FRANCE. 
 
 The active part taken by Holland in checking the amlHtionof Louis 
 and in forcing restitution of a conquest (tlie Franche-Comte) needed to carry 
 France to her natural barrier and frontier of the Jura Mountains, drew upon 
 the Dutch the hatred of the king. 
 
 The theory which made the monarch the state had this disadvantage— that the 
 sentiment of personal honor so lively in the French was carried by Louis into the science of 
 politics. A check to France was a personal insult to the monarch. This was the weak spot of 
 his system, and the very chivalry and generosity of the king's character exposed France to 
 ultimate exhaustion by constant war. 
 
 The Dutch war was opened to chastise Holland, in 1672. The 
 French armies overran the whole of the Spanish Netherlands, and 
 nearly all Holland, to the walls of Amsterdam. In this emergency 
 the Dutch overthrew the governmeat of the brothers De Witt, who 
 had ruled the Eepublic in the interest of the commercial aristocracy, 
 and appointed William of Orange, a descendant of William the 
 Silent, their Sfcadtholder. 
 
 Only one resource of resistance was left — to cut the dykes which 
 protect this country from the sea. The country was flooded, and 
 tiius was saved. Holland could afford the sacrifice, great as it was, 
 because her power and greatest wealth lay in her marine, then at the 
 head of the commerce of the world. When this first step had been 
 taken, William of Orange united in coalition against France — Spain 
 (now the ally, so long the enemy of the Dutch), Austria, Prussia, 
 and the Germanic Empire. France had now to contend with 
 almost the whole of Europe, but she emerged from the struggle 
 successfully, thanks to the genius of her great generals, Conde and 
 Turenne. The latter was killed in this war. 
 
 The Peace of Nimwegen, 1678, added to her provinces the 
 Franche-Comte, to her protection the barrier of the Jura, and her 
 fleet was mistress of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Continued success increased the jealousy of Europe against the French, and it 
 increased the self-confidence of Louis XIV. to the pitch of arrogance. Spanish ambassadors 
 were forced at all courts to give precedence to his. Pope Innocent X. was curtailed of his 
 rights of justice in the very city of Rome on a question of ambassadorial privilege. His 
 police were not allowed to have jurisdiction In the district of the French ambuesador. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 281 
 
 The rights of the Roman Church were seriously attacked iu France by claim of the king to 
 the revenues of all vacant bishoprics. The French Huguenots were to be forcibly made over 
 into Catholics, and the dragonades (exposure to the violence of the soldiery) forced thousands 
 of industrious people to abandon the country. (Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685.) 
 
 Meantime, although the organization of the German Empire was weak, Austria was growing 
 strong. The defeat of the Turks before Vienua iu 1683, by the Polish king, Sobieski, resulted 
 in a series of victories by which the Turks were driven out of Hungary. 
 
 In 1686 was formed the "Leagne of Augsburg," between Austria and the 
 Princes of the Empire, including Brandenburg (Prussia), Spain for the "Burgundian" terri- 
 tories, and Sweden for the Pomeranian countries. In this league the name of William of 
 Orange did not appear, but he was well known to be its supporter and instigator. The League 
 of Augsburg proposed to protect the integrity of the Germanic Empire. This was threatened 
 with encroachments by Louis XIV., through claims on behalf of his brother's wife to inherit- 
 ance in the Palatinate, and by claims to other German territories (based on old feudal preten- 
 sions of Metz, Toul, and Verdun), going back to the time of Charlemagne. That these 
 pretensions were to be pushed with vigor was apparent iu the absorption of Strassburg by 
 France. This important free town of Alsace, with some minor territories, had not been 
 included in the Peace of Westphalia, which affected the Hapsburg possessions of Alsace. 
 
 War of the League of Augsburg. — Louis XIV. declared 
 war on the Germanic Empire in 1688, making pretext of a quarrel 
 about the appointment of a new Electoral Archbishop of Cologne. 
 In this year James II. was expelled from the English throne and 
 replaced by William of Orange, who was husband of Mary, one of 
 the daughters of the English king. Louis declared for the cause 
 of James, to antagonize his great enemy William of Orange. 
 
 The war of the League of Augsburg continued nine years, with 
 many bloody battles and immense sacrifices. Spain, Holland, Eng- 
 land, Savoy, Austria, and Prussia, were combined against France. 
 The English naval victory of La Hogue, 1692, destroyed the French 
 fleet and the naval ascendency of France in the Mediterranean, 
 where England took her place. 
 
 In the Peace of Ryswick, 1697, France gained nothing, 
 made some cessions in Belgium, and in internal forces, in moral 
 stamina, had lost terribly. 
 
 Burning of the Palatinate.— In this war occurred the terrible French devastation 
 of the German Palatinate, p. 253, when entire towns and villages were destroyed, and the 
 country was laid waste Avholesale. The motive. was, to deprive the enemy of vantage-ground 
 against the two fortified towns of Philipsburg and Mayence by creating a desert. The country 
 was destroyed rather than surrender it to the rival armies. This cruel act was directed by 
 the policy of Louvois, but the king could have prevented it. 
 
282 FRANCE. 
 
 Map Study.— Juliers, Marck, Cleve, and Berg are entered on the map for 1713, p. 254. 
 In this disputed succession, the Palatinate gained Berg and Juliers ; Brandenburg acquired 
 Marclc, Cleve, and Ravensberg (p. 253). For the Valtellina, see section map for N. E. Italy, on 
 map for 1550, p. 228. Rochelle, map for 1648, p. 250. 
 
 Acquisition of Artois, map for 1713, but compare boundaries, pp. 228, 250. Acquisition of 
 Roussillon, compare maps for 1550 and 1648. Acquisition of Alsace, compare same maps. 
 
 Spanish Netherlands, map for 1648. Aix-la-Chapelle, map for 1713. Nimvvegen, same map. 
 Franche-Comte, compare colors on maps for 1648 and 1713. Augsburg, map for 1713. 
 Strassburg, La Hogue, the same. Byswick, see map for 1648. Palatinate, map for 1713. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Canada colonized after a. D. 1603 
 
 Assassination of Henry IV " 1610 
 
 Richelieu, Minister for Louis XIII. after " 1624 
 
 Siege of Rochelle *' 1627 
 
 France takes part in the Thirty Years' War after " 1635 
 
 Death of Richelieu " 1642 
 
 Accession of Louis XIV " 1643 
 
 Peace of Westphalia gives Alsace to France " 1648 
 
 Civil Wars of the Fronde till ♦' 1653 
 
 Peace of the Pyrenees secures Artois and Roussillon to France " 1659 
 
 Death of Cardinal Mazarin— Louis XIV. his own Minister " 1661 
 
 War of Devolution opens " 1667 
 
 Peace of Aix~la-Chapelle— French Flanders acquired " 1668 
 
 War with Holland begun " 1672 
 
 Peace of Nimwegen— Franche-Comte acquired " 1678 
 
 French Empire in India after " 1680 
 
 Strassburg: acquired " 1681 
 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes " 1685 
 
 War of the League of Augsburg " 1688 
 
 Burning of the Palatinate " 1689 
 
 English naval victory of La Hogue " 1692 
 
 Peace of Ryswick *' 1697 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 Who were the English rulers of the 17th century? Ans. James I., Charles I., Cromwell, 
 Charles II., James H., William m. 
 
 Why did the accession of this last king in 1688 embroil England with France ? (P. 281.) 
 
 What war began in this year ? (P. 281.) 
 
 When did the Great Elector die? (P. 251.) 
 
 How long before the execution of Charles I. of England was the accession of Louis XIV. f 
 (P. 263.) 
 
 How long before the Peace of Westphalia was this accession ? (P. 250.) 
 
 When did the Thirty Years' War begin ? (P. 247.) 
 
 How long after this time did Richelieu become Minister of France ? (P. 282.) 
 
 What did this country gain by the Peace of Westphalia ? (P. 250.) 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 283 
 
 What gain by the Peace of the Pyrenees ? (P. 277.) 
 
 With what two branches of one family were these treaties respectively made ? 
 
 Sketch briefly the history of Spain from 1469 to 1700. (Pp. 225-229, 241, 242.) 
 
 Cromwell was master of England from 1649 to 1658. Who was then Minister of France ? 
 
 When was Gustavus Adolphus killed ? (P. 248.) 
 
 What French Minister had favored his landing in Germany ? (P. 248.) 
 
 When did Portugal recover independence ? (P. 275.) How ? (P. 274.) 
 
 What English party was favored by Richeheu ? What German party ? (P. 274.) 
 
 When was Strassburg acquired by France ? (P. 282.) 
 
 What caused the war of the League of Augsburg ? (P. 281.) 
 
 What Spanish king died in 1700? (P. 241.) 
 
 What will had he made ? (P. 254, and Genealogy, p, 283.) 
 
 What powers opposed this will ? (P. 255.) Why ? 
 
 What contributed to the power of Austria in the last half of the 17th century ? (P. 251.) 
 
 What were the relations of Germany to France after the Peace of Westphalia ? (P. 251.) 
 
 What gains to Brandenburg by this Peace ? (P. 253.) 
 
 What part did Prussia take in the War of the Spanish Succession ? (P. 254.) 
 
 Why? (P. 254.) 
 
 Relate the course of this war. (P. 255.) The conditions of the Pea^p of Utrecht. (P. 256.) 
 
 What gain for England ? (Pp. 260, 284.) 
 
 When had the Spanish Hapsburg line begun ? (P. 257.) Name its possessions in 1556. 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 FRENCH KINGS OF THE 18th CENTURY. 
 
 Louis XIV A. D. (1643)-m5 
 
 Louis XV. , great-grandson of the foregoing " 1715-1774 
 
 Louis XVL, grandson of the foregoing " 1774-1793 
 
 GENEALOGT OP THE SPANISH AND FKBNCH BOURBONS. 
 
 Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 Maria Theresa = Louis XIV. of France. Charles 11. 
 
 I 1 1700. 
 
 Louis the Dan phi n = Maria Anna of Bavaria. 
 
 Duke of Burgundy. Philip V. of Spain. 
 
 I Founder of the Spanish 
 Louis XV. Bourbons. 
 
 1 1774. 
 
 Louis the Dauphin. 
 tl765. 
 
 J 
 
 Louis XVI. Louis XVin. Charles X. 
 
 + 1793. 1 1824. Deposed 1830. 
 
 Louis XVn. 
 tl795. 
 
284 FRANCE. 
 
 War of the Spanish Succession. — The Peace of Ryswick 
 lasted only three years. The Spanish Succession War (p. 254), which 
 opened in 1700, went almost uniformly against the French, whose 
 greatest generals, Turenne, Conde, and Luxemburg, were dead. 
 Marlborough, for tbe Enghsli, and Prince Eugene, for the Aus- 
 trian s, either separately or together won victory after victory — 
 Blenheim 1704, Ramillies and Turin 1706, Oudenarde 1708, Mal- 
 plaquet 1709. 
 
 Peace of Utrecht, 1713. — In the time of disaster the virtues 
 of the character of Louis XIV. were as conspicuous as his defects 
 had often been. His fortitude, patience, and dignity, won universal 
 admiration. A revolution of English parties displaced Marlborough, 
 and the death of the Austrian Hapsburg Emperor made the Aus- 
 trian Hapsburg claimant Emperor as well, and so turned Europe 
 against a reunion of the States of Charles V. Thus this war, which 
 threatened the downfall of France, gave her Bourbon dynasty a seat 
 on the throne of Spain (where it still continues) and the Spanish 
 American possessions. France resigned to England, besides Gib- 
 raltar, Hudson's Bay, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia, 
 and abandoned the cause of the Stuarts, the heirs of James II. of 
 England. 
 
 Map Study.— Blenheim, in Central Germany, map for 1713, p. 254. Same map, or comer 
 section, for Turin and battlefields of the Netherlands— Ramillies, Oudenarde, Malplaquet. For 
 Peace of Utrecht see Bourbon color in Spain ; for Austrian acquisitions and that of 
 Savoy see map explanation, p. 256, and map for 1713. 
 
 Two years after the Peace of Utrecht Louis XIV. died. Above 
 all the political changes and "historical events" of his reign must 
 be placed that expansion of the French spirit and cultivation over 
 Europe which has ever since continued. This it was which gave his 
 triumphs their strength and which deprived his reverses of im- 
 portance. 
 
 Character of Louis XTV.— In person this monarch was dignified and commanding. In 
 intercourse he was affable and careful of the feelings of his friends. His mind was quick. 
 His conversation had that combination of wit and sagacity peculiar to the French. His pri- 
 vate life was not blameless in youth, but bo had tbe grace to acknowledge and atone for his 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 285 
 
 sins in later years. On his deathbed greatness of soul did not desert him. To the friends 
 around him he said : " Why do you weep, did you think me immortal ? I did not think it was 
 BO easy to die." 
 
 Louis XV., 1715-1774, was the great-grandson of his prede- 
 cessor and under live years of age at accession. The age and associa- 
 tions were not those of the period of Louis XIV., 
 who had outlived the great artists and the great 
 men of letters of the 17th century. The regency 
 was conducted by the nephew of Louis XIV., 
 the Duke of Orleans, a man of ability, but of 
 dissipated character. His Prime Minister, 
 the Abbe Dubois, was also a vicious person. 
 Under the influence of such guardians the king 
 grew up to rival them in vice, but not in talent. Louis xv. 
 
 Louis XV. was declared of age in 1723, when iEngraved gem.) 
 
 the reoent retired, dying soon after. 
 
 Cardinal Fleury was the king's Prime Minister for many years 
 (1726-1743). His policy of economy and inactivity corresponded 
 to the changed position of France, whose vigorous action of the 
 century before was no longer congenial to a pleasure-loving court 
 and an aristocracy weakened by corruption. During his adminis- 
 tration, however, took place the War of the Polish Succession. 
 
 The Polish. Sxiccession.— Louis XV. had married the daughter of Stanislaus Lec- 
 zinski (king of Poland, in the early part of the century, till expelled by Charles XIL of 
 Sweden). Stanislaus was again elected at the death of the Saxon king of Poland in 1733. The 
 House of Austria, in league with Russia, favored the pretensions of the next Saxon Elector 
 (why ? p. 256) and he was elected by another Polish party. Hence the War of the Polish Suc- 
 cession, 1733-1738. France, in alliance with Spain and " Sardinia " (Savoy;, supported the claim 
 of the king's father-in-law, but without much vigor. 
 
 The Treaty of Vienna, 1738, secured the crown of Poland 
 to Augustus III. of Saxony, and indemnified Stanislaus Leczinski 
 by the Duchy of Lorraine, with reversion after his death to 
 France; and thus this important province was united with the 
 monarchy. (Compare maps for 1648, 1713 and 1748, pp. 250, 
 254, 256.) 
 
286 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 MAP EXPLANATION. 
 
 Tuscany.— The Duke of Lorraine, Francis, husband of the Austrian Queen Maria Theresa, 
 was indemnified with Tuscany, where the line of the Medici became extinct in 1737. Tuscany 
 became an Austrian Appanage (connected with Austria, but ruled by a branch line). See the 
 
 Austrian color on map for 1748. (The House of Austria 
 had obtained Belgium, Milan, Naples and Sardinia in the 
 Spanish Succession War. See map for 1713, with Haps- 
 burg color and Spanish Unes removed in these territories. 
 It had exchanged Sardinia for Sicily in 1720. So that it 
 ruled before the Peace of Vienna in 1738, Belgium, Milan, 
 Naples and Sicily.) The kingdom of Naples and Sicily was 
 transferred by this peace to a branch line of the Spanish 
 Bourbons. See Bourbon color on map for 1748. (Explan- 
 ation repeated from p. 256.) 
 
 Austrian Succession.— France also took part in 
 the War of the Austrian Succession (ijp. 256, 257), 1740-1748, 
 without glory and without any results except a large addi- 
 tion to an already enormous debt, the legacy of Louis XIV. 
 
 The Seven Years' War, 1756-1763, (p. 256,) cost 
 France the loss of Canada and of the Western Amer- 
 ican territories to England. England gained also the 
 French East Indian possessions and developed 
 from them the British Empire in India. (Peace of Paris, 
 p. 258.) 
 
 Corsica was ceded in 1768 by Genoa to the French. 
 It had long been a Genoese possession, when a rebellion 
 in 1755 which could not be suppressed caused finally the 
 cession of the Island to a stronger power. Only a few 
 months later, in 1769, Napoleon Bonaparte was bom 
 in Corsica, at Ajaccio. His family had emigrated at an 
 
 French Uniform, 18lh Century. ^""^'* '^^^^ ^""^^ ^'^^^"^^• 
 {Design by Charlet.) 
 
 After the death of Fleury (in 1743) 
 Louis XV. had conducted the government under the control of 
 female favorites. The monarchy forfeited the esteem of tlie people, 
 and while it continued to exhaust the resources of the country in 
 foreign war, it did not offer even the barren stimulus of glory to 
 the loyalty of the nation. 
 
 A wise financial administration and a progressive domestic policy 
 were absolutely essential to the national stability, and these were 
 not even attempted by the king. 
 
 Louis XVI., 1774-1793, was the grandson of the last king, 
 and twenty year^i old wlu'ii crowned. His character was amiable and 
 
ElGHTEETNTIi CENTURA. 
 
 28t 
 
 Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. 
 {Medal qf the time.) 
 
 Iiprigiit, without decision, without foresight, and without experience. 
 His Queen, Marie Antoinette, was the daughter of the Austrian 
 Empress Maria Theresa. In 
 spite of many engaging quaU- 
 ties,her extravagance and levity 
 made the court unpopular with 
 the common people, who were 
 beginning to contrast their con- 
 dition of misery with the opu- 
 lence of the aristocracy. 
 
 The Tax-farmers.— Most 
 opulent of all were the bankers 
 who farmed the taxes. The 
 old Roman Eepubli can system 
 of raising taxes by contract had 
 been followed in France with 
 the same results of oppression 
 
 and peculation. The burden of these taxes fell on the poor. The priv- 
 ileged classes held the bulk of property, and they were exempt from 
 taxation. This unjust distribution of burdens, combined with financial 
 mismanagement and heavy indebtedness, was one main cause of the 
 French Revolution. Public attention was, however, absorbed for the 
 moment by the enthusiasm for the cause of the American colonies. 
 
 The French in America before the Seven Years' "War.— After the opening of 
 the 17th century, the French had been foremost in the New World and England next. Spain 
 had relaxed her energies in this direction. While the Puritans were colonizing Massachusetts, 
 after 1620, the French had already fixed themselves on the St. Lawrence. French Jesuit mission- 
 aries began the conversion of the Indians to Christianity. In two points the French far sur- 
 passed the English ; in their treatment of the natives, in the extent of their territory. From 
 the St. Lawrence they pushed their exploring parties to Albany. Moving along the chain of 
 Great Lakes to Lake Superior, they descended the Mississippi to New Orleans. Then they 
 proceeded to open up the basin of the Ohio and the country between the crest of the Alle- 
 ghanies and the Mississippi. 
 
 This rapid advance of the French in the West alarmed the settlers in the English 
 colonies. The jealousy of England was excited. The Seven Years' War, 1756-1763, was begun 
 (in America) to wipe out the French hold of the West and of Canada. Without warning, at 
 the opening of the war, immense numbers of French merchantmen were seized. The Ministers 
 of Louis XV. could not cope with the rapid, daring, and broad combinations of the English 
 
288 FRANCE. 
 
 Minister, Pitt. And yet the English overreached themselves. The French abandoned their 
 American possessions at the close of the Seven Yeai-s' War ; but the French Minister, Choi- 
 seuil, prophesied that England would lose her colonies in consequence. Both the French and 
 Spaniards had much just reason for complaint, throughout the 18th century, against the colo- 
 nial policy of the English. English mercantile jealousy of the two Bourbon dynasties had been 
 the mainspring of her participation in the wars of the Continent. Since the loss of the Great 
 West and of the French Canadian territories, the French Ministries had been waiting their turn. 
 Participation of France in the American "War of Independence.— This now 
 offered itself in the outbreak of the American Revolution, 1715 and 1770. The participation 
 of the French in this war after 1778, was due to the influence of Benjamin Franklin at the 
 French Court. The French army, sent under Rochambeau in 1780, contributed materially to 
 the success of the American cause. The decisive turning-point was the surrender cf Com- 
 wallis in 1781, and American Independence was secured by the Treaty of Versailles in 1783. 
 
 An enthusiasm, for Republican liberty had been awakened by the r. newed studies 
 of classic antiquity toward the close of the 18th century, and was increased by the success 
 of the American colonies. Much philosophical speculation on the rights of man had led to an 
 exaggerated estimate of human liberties as opposed to human duties and responsibilities. 
 Skepticism and infidelity had become very general through the influence of talented but ill- 
 balanced authors. 
 
 The French Revolution thus presents a mixture of causes and a mixture in results. 
 It abolished class privilege and class distinction in legislation, which was a good thing to da 
 It attempted to establish a civil constitution for the Church, which was absurd. It attacked a 
 monarchy which had neglected the people, but in the person of a monarch who wished them 
 well. In its zeal for reform it made the mistake of conceiving that legislation is a nniversal 
 remedy for ills of the State. 
 
 The Revolution presents three stag-es.— A period of changes— some absolutely 
 necessary to the farther existence of France— some, destructive of religion and therefore of 
 morality. 2d. A period of attack on the rights of property, of hatred for the best and purest 
 characters in France, of wild legislation, of rampant infidelity and insane bloodshed. 3d. A 
 period of reaction in favor of religion, of discipline and order, ending in the military monarchy 
 of Napoleon Bonaparte as the only feasible government under the circumstances. 
 
 History of Europe during- and after the Revolution.— From the time of the 
 French Revolution the political history of Western Europe involves constant reference to all 
 its nations. A brief account of the main events is best presented in the order of time, without 
 attempt to separate the history of different countries. 
 
 IMPORTANT TERRITORIES ACQUIRED BY FRANCE AFTER 1500. 
 
 (P. 268.) Marche and Bourbonnais a. D. 1531 
 
 (P. 265.) Bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun " 1552 
 
 (P.277.) Alsace .h " 1648 
 
 (P.277.) Artois and Roussillon " 1669 
 
 (P.279.) French Flanders " 16G8 
 
 (P.280.) Franche-Comt6 " 1678 
 
 (P.281.) Strassburg " 1681 
 
 (P. 285.) Lorraine, 1738 and death of Stanislaus Leczinekl " 1766 
 
 (P.286.) Corsica " 1768 
 
Eighteenth century. 289 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF FRENCH HISTORY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Death of Charles II. of Spain. Cause of the Spanish Succession War (p. 260) A. D. 1700 
 
 Peace of Utrecht gives Spain and Spanish America to the Bourbons " 1713 
 
 Accession of Louis XV " 1715 
 
 Eeversion of Lorraine. (Spanish Bourbon Naples and Sicily. Austrian Tuscany.).. " 1738 
 French participation in the War of the Austrian Succession (p. 256), from 1740.-... " 1748 
 Seven Years' War, from 1756 to Peace of Paris (and Hubertsburg). 
 
 4- 
 
 ,.... 1763 
 France loses her American and East Indian possessions to England. 
 
 Death of Stanislaus Leczinsky gives Lorraine formally to France " 1766 
 
 Corsica acquired from Genoa *' 1768 
 
 Accession of Louis XVI " 1774 
 
 French participation in the War of the American Revolution, after " 1778 
 
 Peace of Versailles " 1783 
 
 French Revolution begins " 1789 
 
 Execution of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette " 1793 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte " First Consul " " 1799 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 What conditions of the Peace of Utrecht are 7wt mentioned at p. 284 ? (See p. 256.) 
 
 (Do not confuse these conditions with the changes of 1720 and 1738 mentioned in the same 
 connection.) 
 
 What relation was the first Spanish Bourbon to the last Spanish Hapsburg ? (Genealogy, 
 p. 283.) 
 
 When did the Spanish Bourbons acquire Naples and Sicily ? (Pp. 256, 286.) Prom whom ? 
 
 How long had Austria held these possessions ? As result of what war ? 
 
 Wiiat did Austria gain in return ? (Pp. 256, 286.) In the person of what Prince ? 
 
 What territory had he ruled ? What became of this territory ? 
 
 Who were the English sovereigns of the 18th century ? (P. 262.) 
 
 FRENCH SOVEREIGNS FROM 1500 TO 1800. 
 
 Louis XII A. D. (1498)-1515 
 
 FrancisI " 1515-1547 
 
 Henry n " 1547-1559 
 
 Francis U " 1559-15G0 
 
 Charles IX " 1560-1574 
 
 Henrylll " 1574-1589 
 
 Henry IV " 1589-1610 
 
 Louis Xni " 1610-1643 
 
 Louis XIV " 1643-1715 
 
 Louis XV " 1715-1774 
 
 LouisXVI " 1774-1793 
 
THE 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 A.ND LATER MODERN HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE. 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 THB BOURBON LINE WITH THE ORLEANS BRANCH. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 tl6l0. 
 
 I 
 
 Louis XIII. 
 tl64;3. 
 
 I 
 
 Gaston of Orleans. 
 
 Henrietta Maria. 
 
 Married Charles I. 
 
 of England. 
 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 tni5. 
 
 Louis, Dauphin. 
 
 tmi. 
 
 Louis, Dnke of Burgundy. 
 +1712. 
 
 Louis XV. 
 
 +1774. 
 
 Louis', Dauphin. 
 +1765. 
 
 Philip V. of Spain. 
 
 Louis XVI. 
 +1793. 
 
 (Louis XVII.) 
 
 i'uye 299. 
 
 +1795. 
 
 Louis XVIII. 
 +1824. 
 
 Charles X. 
 
 Deposed 1830. 
 
 + 18:36. 
 
 Duke of Berry. 
 
 +1820. 
 
 I 
 
 Philip, Duke of Orleans. 
 +1701. 
 
 Philip, Duke of Orleans. 
 The " Regent," +1723. 
 
 Louis. 
 
 +1752. 
 
 I 
 
 Louis Philippe, 
 
 +1785. 
 
 Louis Philippe-Joseph. 
 " Egalite," +1793. 
 
 Louis Philippe. 
 
 French kincr, 1830-1818. 
 
 +1850. 
 
 Ferdinand, Duke of Orleans. 
 +1842. 
 
 ( The Comte de Paris. 
 ( The Duke de Chartres. 
 
 Henry V.," Duke of Bordeaux. 
 Comte de Chambord. 
 
 +1883. 
 
 In 1786 the deficit in the French finances and the impossibility 
 of meeting it without extraordinary measures, caused the king to 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 201 
 
 summon a Convention of " Notables " to devise remedies. This 
 assembly did not accomplish anything. 
 
 Recourse was next had to a Convention of the Estates. Only 
 the privileged orders of clergy and nobles had been represented in 
 the meeting of Notables. In the new convention the Third Estate 
 of people in general, without any privilege of rank, was also 
 summoned. 
 
 On the 5th of May, 1789, the king convened the Estates at 
 Versailles. The Third Estate refused to be convened separately. It 
 demanded the holding of the Estates in one body to vote by numbers. 
 The Third Estate equaled in number the sum of the two other 
 orders, and this demand stated the grievance of the French people 
 in general, as being opposed to privilege of one class over another. 
 
 On the 27th of June, 1789, the clergy and nobility agreed to 
 sit with the Third Estate, and the National Assembly began to 
 act. It abolished all class legislation and all distinctions of rank, 
 but it also appropriated all Church property to the service of the 
 nation. A uniform system of taxation was decreed, and the As- 
 sembly dissolved. A self-denying ordinance was passed, by which 
 its members resolved not to serve in the Legislative Assembly which 
 was to follow. 
 
 This Assembly met in October, 1791. Its most important 
 act was a declaration of war, in 1792, against the German Emperor, 
 Francis II. of Austria. Since 1713 the Spanish Netherlands had 
 belonged to Austria. The principles of the French Revolution 
 were spreading all over Europe, and the Austrian ruler, dreading 
 the contamination of Belgium, posted an army on the Belgian 
 frontier. This was considered a menace by the French, who were 
 also much excited by efforts of refugee nobles to rouse Europe 
 against them. 
 
 The declaration (of Pillnitz) by Prussia and Austria that 
 they would take measures to emancipate Louis XYI. from confine- 
 ment was the immediate cause of war. German forces, collected by 
 the Austrian sovereign as Emperor of Germany, were directed 
 
292 THEREIGNOFTERROR. 
 
 against France, but the campaign of 1792 was ineffective except in 
 kindling French patriotism. (Check of the Germans at Valmy, 
 and subsequent retreat. Victory of the French at Jemmappes.) 
 
 Meantime the halting attitude of the king and his repugnance 
 to the war led to a coalition of the moderates with the extremists 
 of the Republican party, and monarchy was abolished by a National 
 Convention on the 21st of September, 1792. 
 
 The king was then tried for conspiring against the national 
 liberty, sentenced to death, and executed, January 21, 1793. His 
 queen, Marie Antoinette, was soon afterward put to death. All 
 members of the aristocratic or royalist party who could be seized 
 shared a like fate. The Cathohc priests, as defenders of law and 
 order, were subjected to imprisonment and condemned to death 
 wholesale. For opposing the frenzy of the extremists (the "Jaco- 
 bins "), the moderates ("Girondists"), who had themselves set the 
 ball rolling, found themselves the victims of the guillotine, and a 
 " Reign of Terror" began which has left its stamp on the name of 
 Robespierre (Rob-es-peair). The Catholic worship was proscribed 
 under pain of death. 
 
 Divisions among the leaders of the Reign of Terror termi- 
 nated in a reaction. July 28, 1794, Robespierre and the leaders 
 of the extremist party were executed. This ^ ended the Reign of 
 Terror. 
 
 In 1795 the National Convention completed a Constitution for 
 France and passed over the government to a legislative body of two 
 Councils. The executive power was held by Five Directors. 
 
 Meantime the execution of Louis XVI. had caused a coalition 
 in 1793, headed by England, of all European powers (except Den- 
 mark, Sweden, Turkey, and the Swiss) against France. But the 
 French had waged war so vigorously that they held already in 1794 
 all territory on the left Rhine bank, including Belgium. (The 
 Dutch Republic allied itself with France.) 
 
 Prussia, in 1794, withdrew from the war by the Peace of 
 Basle, stipulating for a line of demarcation beyond which the war 
 
^ 
 
- THE TIMES OF BONAPARTE. 293 
 
 was not to be carried in North Germany. Thus the Emperor was 
 left to wage war alone, with assistance of England. The French 
 made aggressive campaigns on South Germany and Italy at the 
 same time. 
 
 THE TIMES OF BONAPARTE. 
 
 Map Study.— See "Europe in 1810 " and compare in detail with " Europe in 1748," p. 256. 
 Notice the section map for North Italy. 
 
 Italy became a theatre of conflict, because Austria ruled Milan 
 and Tuscany. In Germany the French campaign was a failure, 
 but this reverse was more than balanced by 
 the brilliant successes of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte against the Austrians in Italy. 
 
 By the Peace of Campo Formio, 1797, 
 Austria formally relinquished the Netherland 
 possessions to France and recognized an Itahan 
 Eepublic erected out of the Austrian posses- 
 sions in Italy. Bonaparte. 
 
 In 1798 and 1799 took place the Egyp- ^^^ ^"'"'^'''^•^ 
 
 tian expedition under Bonaparte. Its idea was to clear the 
 way for a French ascendency in the East and the overthrow of 
 the British Empire in India. The destruction of the French fleet 
 by the English (Lord Nelson) in the Bay of Aboukir crippled these 
 plans. Bonaparte conquered Egypt, but could not hold Syria 
 against the Turks and English, and he returned to France. (Eg3rpt 
 was abandoned by the army left behind in 1801.) 
 
 In 1799 the violent transformation by the Directory of the 
 Papal States into a " Eoman Eepublic," with other aggressive acts, 
 again led to war. (England, Eussia, Turkey and Austria against 
 France.) The French were driven out of Italy by the Eussians 
 under Suwarrow (Soovarov). But on the return of Bonaparte 
 from Egypt he overthrew the Directory and was made First 
 Consul, 1799, i. e., elective head of the State. 
 
 The decisive battle of Marengo was gained by Bonaparte in 
 
294 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Italy, June 14th, 1800. The French General Moreau gained in 
 Germany, December 3d of the same year, the victory of Hohenlin- 
 
 den. Peace was made with Austria 
 at Luneville, 1801 ; with the other 
 Powers at Amiens, 1802. All terri- 
 tories on the left Rhine bank were 
 ceded to France. 
 
 Bonaparte restored the Catholic 
 worship, encouraged the return of the 
 Royalists to France, and in all de- 
 partments of government carried out 
 most important reforms. 
 
 In 1803 England again declared 
 war through jealousy of Bonaparte. 
 Russia, Austria, and Sweden com- 
 bined with her. Prussia remained 
 neutral. The victory of Austerlitz, 
 won by Bonaparte December 2d, 1805, 
 ended the war. At the moment of 
 victory Prussia was about to begin 
 hostilities because Bonaparte had not 
 stopped to go round Anspach and 
 Baireuth (see p. 167), instead of 
 marching through them. The am- 
 bassador who was deputed to declare 
 war changed his key after Austerhtz, but his original commission 
 was guessed by Napoleon, and Prussia lost favor. 
 
 By the Treaty of Pressburg Bonaparte was acknowledged by 
 Austria as Emperor of France (he had been crowned in 1804) and 
 King of Italy. Venice had been surrendered to Austria as com- 
 pensation for Belgium. But Venice and Dalmatia were both taken 
 from Austria now and made French territory, and the Tyrol was 
 given to Bavaria. Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden were enlarged. 
 The two former were made kingdoms. The kingdom of Naples 
 
 Colonel of Cuirassiers. 
 (Times of Bonaparte^ 
 
THE TIMES OF BONAPARTE. 
 
 295 
 
 m- 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Ppi^ 
 
 was given to Napoleon's brother Joseph. Holland was given as 
 ^ kingdom to his brother Louis (father of Napoleon III.). 
 
 In 1806 a large 
 part of Western Ger- 
 many was consolidated 
 into a "Rhenish Con- 
 federacy," with Na- 
 poleon as Protector. 
 Francis II. of Austria 
 renounced the title of 
 Emperor of Christen- 
 dom, held by the Ger- 
 man sovereigns since 
 Charlemagne, and as- 
 sumed the title of Em- 
 peror of Austria. 
 
 Prussia could 
 not brook the dom- 
 inance of Bonaparte in Germany, and the harsh words which her 
 own duplicity had provoked. She declared war in 1806. The 
 double victory of Jena (Yfinah) and Auerstadt in this same 
 year led to the triumphal entry of the French into Berhn. The 
 Russians, 90,000 strong, came to the assistance of Prussia. Bona- 
 parte defeated them at Friedland. The Peace of Tilsit then 
 stripped Prussia of one-half her territory, 1807, and made an alliance 
 between France and Russia. The French Empire now reached, 
 through Holland over Hanover, to the border of Denmark. 
 
 From the confiscated Prussian territories on the left bank 
 of the Elbe, with portions of Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel, Bona- 
 parte made the new kingdom of "Westphalia" for his younger 
 brother, Jerome. 
 
 To cripple the mercantile resources of England, which 
 (having lost Hanover) refused to abandon its hostility to the Em- 
 peror, he declared a blockade of Great Britain, that is, prohibited all 
 
 Church of the Madeleine, Paris, Built under Bonaparte. 
 
296 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 commerce with her on the part of the European States, and ordered 
 the confiscation of all British property and arrest of all British sub- 
 jects on the Continent. Portugal refused to confiscate British 
 property, and was occupied by a French army in 1807. (The 
 Royal family took refuge in Brazil, and one of its branches has 
 since continued there.) 
 
 Dissension between parties in Spain called in here also the 
 intervention of Bonaparte, who procured the abdication of the 
 incapable monarch, and gave the kingdom to his brother 
 Joseph ; his cavalry general, Murat, taking Naples. Many use- 
 ful reforms were proposed for Spain, but its national spirit rebelled 
 against them. English armies were poured in to assist the Spanish 
 revolt, and this war, in the years from 1808 to 1813, when the 
 French were driven out of Spain, caused the final ruin of Bona- 
 parte. (The Spanish South American Colonies threw off their 
 allegiance and established independent governments during the time 
 of the war with France. ) 
 
 Pope Pius VII. had refused his countenance to the extreme 
 measures against the English, and he was made prisoner in conse- 
 quence. Although Bonaparte had restored the Catholic worship, 
 suppressed in the Reign of Terror, his supreme power over all 
 Europe made him lose sight of the force of public sentiment, and 
 his treatment of the Pope was a second step on the downward path. 
 His first mistake had been the conquest of Spain. For the time 
 being he was still successful. 
 
 Austria again declared war in 1809, and was defeated in 
 the same year at Wagram. Carniola, Carinthia, part of Croatia, 
 were ceded to the French by the Peace of Schoenbrunn (Shern- 
 broon), and Napoleon, divorced from his first wife, Josephine, 
 married the Austrian Archduchess Marra Louisa, daughter of 
 Francis 11. , in 1810. 
 
 Russia resented the incorporation of Hamburg, Bremen, 
 and LUbeck with France, as prejudicial to lier interests in the 
 Baltic, and relaxed the restrictions on British commerce. Napoleon, 
 
THE TIMES OF BONAPARTE. 297 
 
 foreseeing further defection of this ally from his cause, invaded 
 Russia with 700,000 men, 1812, and reached Moscow. By the 
 burning of Moscow, set in flames by the inhabitants, October, 
 1812, his army was compelled to retreat in the dead of the Russian 
 winter. Not more than 30,000 men returned. 
 
 The failure of the Russian campaign caused a general 
 rising of Europe against Napoleon, 1813. He was defeated at 
 Leipsic, ''the battle of the nations." The allies entered Paris 
 in 1814. The emperor was forced to abdicate, and was given pos- 
 session of the Isle of Elba. 
 
 Napoleon re-entered France, while the ambassadors of all 
 Europe were deliberating at Vienna, overthrew the new Bourbon 
 government of Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., and staked his 
 all on the battle of Waterloo, 1815. Defeated by Lord Wel- 
 lington, the hero of the English campaigns in Spain, Bonaparte was 
 exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821. 
 
 WESTERN EUROPE, AFTER 1815. 
 
 Map Study.— For territories mentioned under Congress of Vienna, see " Europe in 1816." 
 This map should be compared in detail with Europe in 1810 and in 1748. For changes of the 
 Franco-Austrian war of 1859, of the war between Austria and Prussia in 1866, of the Franco- 
 Prussian war of 1870, '71, compare " Europe in 1816" with maps at i)p. 298, 300, 
 
 The Congress already assembled at Vienna continued its 
 session after Waterloo, and arranged the map of Europe about as it 
 stood till 1859. France was confined to its old boundaries, and the 
 Bourbons were again restored. Prussia obtained the West Rhine 
 country, Westphalia, and part of Saxony. Holland and Bel- 
 gium were united in one kingdom (divided since 1830). In com- 
 pensation for Belgium, Austria regained the Venetian terri- 
 tory, once given her by Bonaparte. The Tyrol and Milan were 
 returned to Austria. Tuscany was restored to its Austrian 
 branch line. The Spanish Bourbons recovered Naples and Sicily. 
 The Bourbon dynasty was restored in Spain. 
 
 The general efifect of Bonaparte's career and of the FreucU 
 
298 WESTERN EUROPE, AFTER 1815. 
 
 Kevolution was, territorially speaking, to recompose Germany. 
 The two hundred and fifty States of the Peace of Westphalia were 
 reduced to thirty-nine, and these were correspondingly enlarged. 
 
 In advancing legal equality the French Eevolution had a 
 marked and beneficial influence ovei- Europe ; but it substituted an 
 uncertain and changeable series of governments at home for the old 
 hereditary principle, and France has never since been able to con- 
 stitute a stable government. 
 
 The son of Louis XVI. had died in prison, 1795. Thus the 
 brother of Louis XVI. received the title of Louis XVIIL at the 
 Restoration of the Bourbons (Genealogy, p. 290). Louis XVIIL 
 died in 1824. His brother, Charles X., was expelled by revolution 
 in 1830, and was succeeded by Louis Philippe of Orleans. This 
 line of Orleans descended from the brother of Louis XIV., Regent 
 for Louis XV. 
 
 The Revolution of 1848 drove this king from the throne. 
 France became a Republic before the end of the year, under the 
 presidency of Napoleon, son of Louis, Bonaparte's brother. 
 
 The Empire was substituted for this Republic in 1852, the 
 President of the Republic becoming Emperor Napoleon III. 
 
 In 1854 began the Crimean War. France and England allied 
 to protect Turkey from Russian invasion. The war accomplished 
 its purpose, and for the time crippled the power of Russia by the 
 siege and capture of Sebastopol in the Crimea. 
 
 In 1859 Napoleon III. assisted the aspirations of Italy to expel 
 its Austrian rulers, by espousing the cause of the House of Savoy, 
 under Victor Emmanuel, King of "Sardinia" (p. 256). By the 
 battles of Magenta and Solferino, Austria w\as forced, in the Peace 
 of Villafranca, to give up to him Milan. The incorporation of 
 the other Italian States, excepting Venetia and the Papal terri- 
 tory, with the new Italian kingdom, followed in 1860. To France 
 were ceded Nice and Savoy. 
 
 In 1866 the rivalry between Prussia and Austria, existing since 
 the great increase of the former power in 1815, resulted in war for 
 
WESTERN EUROPE, AFTER 1500. 299 
 
 the supremacy in Genimny. This had been mainly exercised by 
 Austria since 1815. The pretext of the war was a quarrel about 
 the government of the Duchies of Sleswick and Holstein. After 
 the victory of Koeniggraetz (Kerniggrates) in Bohemia, Prussian 
 armies were about to march on Vienna, when Napoleon III. inter- 
 vened, compelling Prussia to accept tlie line of the Main as bound- 
 ary of her new ascendency. All North Germany was formed into 
 a " Bund," headed by Prussia, which retained Sleswick-Holstein 
 and confiscated Hanover, Nassau, Frankfort, and Hesse- 
 Cassel for assistance rendered Austria, thus uniting East and West 
 Prussia into a compact State. In this war Italy had been the ally of 
 Prussia, and was given in compensation the territory of Venetia. 
 
 Franco-Prussian war of 1870, '71. — Following the Resto- 
 ration of the Bourbons in Spain, after 1815, they reigned till the de- 
 thronement of Qiieen Isabella II. in 18G8. Amadeus, second son of 
 Victor Emmanuel, the Italian king, then accepted the Spanish mon- 
 archy, but abdicated in 1870. It was now proposed that a member 
 of the Prussian House of HohenzoUem should be King of Spain. 
 France resented this effort to establish Prussian influence beyond 
 the Pyrenees. Prince Bismarck, the Prussian Minister, resented the 
 restriction on Prussian ambition set in 1866. Hence the Franco- 
 Prussian war of 1870 and 1871. France was overrun by the Ger- 
 man armies. Paris was besieged and taken. Part of Lorraine, 
 acquired after 1738 ; Strasburg, acquired in 1681 ; Alsace, ac- 
 quired in 1648 ; and Metz, acquired in 1552, were ceded to Ger- 
 many with the bitterest feelings. Under the sentiment of patriotism 
 roused by foreign war; Bismarck constituted the Nevr Grermanic 
 Empire, headed by Prussia, in which the kingdoms of Saxony and 
 Bavaria, the Saxon Duchies, the Grand Duchy of Baden, kingdom of 
 Wiirtemberg, etc., resigned their diplomatic and military indepen- 
 dence, although still retaining their independent courts. 
 
 The unification of Germany has not answered the expecta- 
 tions which produced it. Under the direction of Bismarck, Ger- 
 many has shown an overbearing and persecuting spirit. Her mate- 
 
SUMMARY. 301 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, AND OF SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 
 IN WEST CONTINENTAL EUROPE. 
 
 Meeting of the Notables ; •••••• a. d. 1786 
 
 National Assembly " ^'^^ 
 
 Legislative Assembly " I'^'^l 
 
 War declared on Austria and Prussia. National Convention " 1T92 
 
 Execution of Louis XVI • " ^'^93 
 
 Death of Robespierre ends the Reign of Terror " 1794 
 
 French Directory " I'^'^S 
 
 Bonaparte's victories in Italy, over Austria, of Lodi and Arcole " 1796 
 
 Peace of Campo Formio • • " 1^97 
 
 Egyptian Expedition • — *' ^'^'98 
 
 Bonaparte " First Consul" ... " 1*799 
 
 Marengo " 1800 
 
 Peace of Luneville '" 1801 
 
 Peace of Amiens " 1802 
 
 England again declares war " 180-3 
 
 Bonaparte crowned Emperor " 1804 
 
 Austerlitz. Treaty of Pressburg " 1805 
 
 Jena and Auerstadt " 1806 
 
 Peace of Tilsit " 1807 
 
 Spain occupied by the French " 1808 
 
 Wagram. Peace of Schoenbrunn " 1809 
 
 Bonaparte marries an Austrian Princess, Maria Louisa " .1810 
 
 His son, " the King of Rome," 1 1832, born " 1811 
 
 Retreat from Moscow " 1813 
 
 Battle of Leipsic " 1813 
 
 Bonaparte in Elba " 1814 
 
 Waterloo and Congress of Vienna " 1815 
 
 Death of Bonaparte " 1821 
 
 Deathof Louis XVIII " 1824 
 
 Charles X. deposed " 1830 
 
 Louis Philippe abdicated " 1848 
 
 Napoleon III. Emperor " 1852 
 
 Crimean War " 1854 
 
 " ; " 1855 
 
 " 1856 
 
 Franco- Austrian War » " 1859 
 
 Italy consolidated under the House of Savoy " 1860 
 
 War between Prussia and Austria *' 1866 
 
 War between Prance And Prussia " 1870 
 
 " " 1871 
 
303 
 
 ROMAN PONTIFFS 
 
 LIST OF THE POPES SINCE 1500. 
 
 Alexander VI A. D. 1503t 
 
 Piusin " 1503t 
 
 Julius n " 1513t 
 
 LeoX " 1521t 
 
 Adrian VI " 1523t 
 
 Clement Vn " 1534t 
 
 Paul m " 1549t 
 
 Julius in " 1555t 
 
 Marcellus U " 1555t 
 
 Paul IV " 1559t 
 
 Pius IV " 1566t 
 
 StPiusV •' 1572t 
 
 Gregory XIH " 1585t 
 
 SixtusV " 1590t 
 
 Urban VH a. d. 1590t 
 
 Gregory XIV " 1591t 
 
 Innocent IX " 1592t 
 
 Clement VIH " 160&I- 
 
 LeoXI " 1605t 
 
 PaulV " 1621t 
 
 Gregorj'XV " 1623t 
 
 Urban Vm " 1644+ 
 
 Innocent X " 1655+ 
 
 Alexander vn •' 1667+ 
 
 Clement IX " 1669+ 
 
 Clement X " 1676+ 
 
 Innocent XI " 1689+ 
 
 Alexander VIII.... " 1691+ 
 
 Innocent XII a. d. 1700+ 
 
 Clement XI " 1721+ 
 
 Innocent Xni " 1724+ 
 
 Benedict Xm " 1730+ 
 
 Clement XII " 1740+ 
 
 Benedict XIV " 1758+ 
 
 Clement xm " 1769+ 
 
 Clement XTV " 1774+ 
 
 Pius VI '' 1799+ 
 
 PiusVn " 1823+ 
 
 LeoXn " 1829+ 
 
 PiusVm " 1831t 
 
 Gregory XVI " 1846+ 
 
 Pius IX " 1878+ 
 
 His Holiness Poue Leo XIIL 
 
ITALY AND THE NETHERLANDS SINCE 1500. 303 
 
 DYNASTIC ASCENDENCIES IN ITALY SINCE 1500. 
 
 Milan.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. (after 1545) till 1556. 
 
 Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 
 
 Austrian Hapsburg after 1713 (intermission during French Revolution) till 1859. 
 
 United Italy under House of Savoy since 1859. 
 Venice.— Independent till the French Revolution, 1797. 
 
 Austrian after 1815 till 1866. 
 
 United Italy under House of Savoy since 1866. 
 Tuscany.— Medici Grand Dukes, after 1530 till 1737. 
 
 Austrian Appanage (branch line) through Francis of Lorraine, husband of Maria 
 Theresa (with intermission during the French Revolution), till 1860. 
 
 United Italy under House of Savoy since 1860. 
 Naples.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. till 1556. 
 
 Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 
 
 Austrian Hapsburg, after 1713, till 1738. 
 
 Spanish Bourbon (branch line) till 1860 (intermission during French Revolution"). 
 
 United Italy under House of Savoy after 1860. 
 Sicily.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. till 1556. 
 
 Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 
 
 Possession of Savoy, after 1713, tiU 1720. 
 
 Austrian Hapsburg till 1738. 
 
 Spanish Bourbon (branch line, Naples and Sicily) till 1860. 
 
 United Italy, after 1860. 
 Sardinia.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. till 1556. 
 
 Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 
 
 Austrian Hapsburg, after 1713, till 1720. 
 
 House of Savoy till the present time. 
 
 The smaller Italian states are omitted. 
 
 DYNASTIC ASCENDENCIES IN THE NETHERLANDS SINCE 1500. 
 
 "Holland.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. (from Burgundian inheritance) till 1556. 
 
 Spanish Hapsburg till 1566. 
 
 Independent Republic till French Revolution, 1794. 
 
 Kingdom of United Netherlands, after 1815, till 1830. 
 
 Separate Kingdom of Holland since 1830. 
 Belgium.— Hapsburg Empire of Charles V. (from Burgundian inheritance) till 1556. 
 
 Spanish Hapsburg till 1700. 
 
 Austrian Hapsburg, after 1713, till French Revolution, 1794. 
 
 Kingdom of United Netherlands, after 1815, till 1830. 
 
 Separate Kingdom of Belgium since 1830. 
 
304 SOVEREIGNS OF THE 19th CENTURY. 
 
 FRENCH RULERS, 19th CENTURY. 
 
 Bonaparte, till , a. d. 1815 
 
 Louis XVm. till " tl824 
 
 Charles X. deposed " 1830 
 
 Louis Philippe deposed " 1848 
 
 Napoleon in. deposed " 1870 
 
 BBPUBUCAN PRBSIDBNTS. 
 
 Thiers,tm " 1873 
 
 MacMahon, resigned " 1879 
 
 Gr§vy 
 
 PRUSSIAN RULERS, 19th CENTURY. 
 
 Frederick William lU., till A. d. 1840 
 
 Frederick William IV., till " 1880 
 
 Emperor William. (Imperial title, after 1871.) 
 
 AUSTRIAN RULERS, 19th CENTURY. 
 
 Francis II., after 1806 as Emperor Francis I. of Austria (p. 306), till a. d. 1832 
 
 Ferdinand IV., abdicated " 1848 
 
 Francis Joseph. 
 
 SPANISH RULERS, 19th CENTURY. 
 
 Charles IV., till ....a.d.1808 
 
 Ferdinand VIL, till " 1833 
 
 Isabella IL, deposed " 1868 
 
 Amadeas, abdicated " 1870 
 
 Alphonso n. 
 
 KINGS OF ITALY, 19th CENTURY. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel, till a. d. 1878 
 
 Humbert. 
 
 Synchronistic Exercise on the 16th Century.— Write out a new table, uniting the 
 chronologies for Germany and France at pp. 245, 269. Arrange the dates in the order of time. 
 
 Synchronistic Exercise on the 17th Century.— Write out a new table, uniting the 
 chronologies for Germany and France at pp. 253, 282. 
 
 Synchronistic Exercise on the 18th Century.- Write out a new table, uniting th*- 
 chronologies for Gtermany and France at pp. 260, 289. 
 
BOOK III. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 (CONTINUED.) 
 
 IRELAND; ENGLAND; SCANDINAVIA; RtTSSIA; 
 POLAND; AND TURKEY. 
 
IRELAND 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 FROM PREHISTORIC TIMES TO THE FIFTH CENTURY. 
 
 The Race. — The Irish nation belongs to a race mentioned in previous 
 pages (p. 31)— the Celtic or Keltic. (The first orthography is general, the latter 
 is used preferably by men of science.) Of this race the French nation is also a 
 member, though mixed with foreign elements, while the blood of the Spanish 
 is a mixture of Celtic with Iberian. The same Celtic race once peopled the 
 whole of England and Scotland. The Welsh and the Highland Scotch are 
 iis existing representatives in these countries. 
 
 Some general characteristics of the Celtic race have been mentioned 
 in the History of France. The Celts are by nature enthusiastic and impulsive, 
 spirited, quick, and endowed with much natural genius. The wit of the French 
 and Irish is notoriously rapid and delicate, as opposed to the slow and some- 
 times ponderous humor of the English. The Highlanders of Scotland were 
 renowned, and still are, among the British regiments, for their rapid and head- 
 long battle onslaughts, and the gallant dash of French and Irish soldiers is also 
 famous. The Welsh have been obscured in modern times by being swallowed 
 up in general English society, but their natural genius, like that of the Irish 
 and the French, is superior to that of the Anglo Saxon English. In musical 
 talent they are known to excel. Their genius inspired the literature of Eng- 
 land in its early days (see England, under 15th century), and also furnished it 
 with the fables on which both Tennyson and Edmund Spenser have depended. 
 
 The Irish Celts.— No other country has shown the Celtic traits so clearly 
 and held to them so firmly as Ireland. The Scotch Highlanders, of small num- 
 bers and living in a barren country remote from cultivating inflaences, have 
 figured in history only as brave predatory warriors. The Welsh have been 
 nearly submerged by English influences. The French were diverted from 
 
308 IRELAND. 
 
 unmixed Celtic tendencies by the forms of Roman and of Feudal organism. But 
 to these the Irish never submitted, and thus their character stands pre-eminent 
 as a manifestation of the possibilities and greatness of the Celtic nature. 
 
 Antiquity of the Irish. — According to the natural order in which Sla- 
 vonian peoples (namely, Russians, Bulgarians, Servians, Poles, Bohemians) are 
 placed in Eastern Europe ; while Germanic peoples (Germans, Dutch, Danes, 
 Norwegians, Swedes, and Anglo-Saxon English) come next beyond in order 
 towards the West ; it will be inferred that the Celts preceded the Germans and 
 Slavonians in their migration from Asia. They were naturally pushed west- 
 ward by the later comers. So it would be understood how it is that the Irish 
 Celts lay claim, and establish it, to high antiquity. They belong to the most 
 ancient Celtic settlers of Europe. The Erse (Irish) language is known by 
 students to be the most primitive and least corrupted dialect of the Celtic. 
 
 Phoenician Commerce. — The first maritime visitors to the British Isles, 
 through whom the ancient nations of Southern Europe obtained knowledge of 
 Ireland, were the Phoenicians. First settled as a historic people on the coast 
 of Syria, where they were the natural traders between the great Eastern States 
 of Egypt and Chaldseo- Assyria, they passed to a sea trade with all coasts of the 
 Mediterranean, exchanging for the raw products of the then barbarous Greeks, 
 Italians, and other Mediterranean nations, the manufactured products of the 
 East. It was from the Phcenicians that the Greeks acquired the first knowledge 
 of "lerne"; thus they named Ireland. All the literature of the Phoenicians 
 has perished, but a Latin author of the 4th century a. d. (Festus Avienus) copied 
 Phoenician records of a Carthaginian temple, dating from the 7th century B. c. 
 From this copied record of the 7th century before Christ it appears that Ireland 
 had been known to this people from " ancient " times as the " Sacred Island." 
 
 Phoenician Influence.— The Phoenicians are held to have made their 
 first trading voyages to the British Isles as early as B. c. 1300, and the descrip- 
 tion of the poet shows a more intimate acquaintance with lerne (Ireland) than 
 with Albion (England). The Phoenicians had extensive settlements in Spain, 
 not only the famous Gades (Cadiz),, and along the south and eastern coast, but 
 also along the shore of Galicia. From the existence of these settlements on 
 the west coast of Spain we can understand more readily how an active inter- 
 course could have been maintained with Ireland. From Cape Ortegal to Cape 
 Clear is 150 leagues, two-thirds of the way in sight of land. 
 
 Ancient Navigration.— Julias Caesar describes the large seaworthy vessels of the Veneti 
 on the west coast of France, with leathern sails, and iron anchors and iron cables, and the 
 Phcenicians were no less provided with vessels which could brave the ocean. (About 600 b. c. 
 they had circumnavigated Africa.) The boats of the Irish themselves were apparently of 
 frailer description— of hide- covered wicker work ; but there is no doubt that they made voy- 
 
EARLY HISTORY. 309 
 
 ages of extent in these boats, possibly using stronger ones on occasion. They reached Ice- 
 land, for instance, in the 8th century after Christ, and were used to remaining for days out of 
 sight of land. 
 
 Early Civilization.— This intercourse with the Phoenicians, well authen- 
 ticated as it is, assists us to comprehend how this island might boast, centuries 
 before Christ, of wealth, luxury, and civilization. The earliest Irish alphabet 
 consisted, like the Phoenician, of sixteen letters, and was doubtless drawn from 
 it. Carved inscriptions in this "Ogham" writing are found. To the Phoeni- 
 cian period are attributed the coal-mining excavations at Ballycastle, on the 
 coast of Antrim. Other mining excavations bear close resemblance to mines 
 in Cornwall, attributed to the Phoenicians. Beads of Egyptian manufacture 
 have been found, and swords exactly resembling those of Carthaginian style, 
 as elsewhere known. 
 
 The Irish Cominerce with Spain, Avhich continued in the Roman period, is brought 
 vividly to the imagination by a phrase found in Tacitus, the Roman historian of the Ist cen- 
 tury A. D. He remarks that the waters and harbors of Ireland were better known through the 
 resort of commerce and navigation than those of Britain. This evidently could be only 
 through a Spanish Roman medium. The remark of Tacitus is curiously supported by the 
 geography of Ptolemy, of the 2d century a, d., who makes some remarkable errors in the 
 geography of North Britain, but shows considerable accuracy as to Ireland ; and yet most of 
 Britain was Roman possession at the time, and Ireland was not. Ptolemy gives names of 
 tribes in Southern Ireland corresponding with names of tribes in Spain. The river Kenmare 
 was called lerne ; there was a river of the same name in Spain. All these points give credence 
 to the tradition which peoples Ireland by Celtic tribes from Spain. According to the Bards 
 the sons of Milesius had sailed from the Tower of Betanzos in Galicia. (In our own times 
 Kinsale and Galway have the physiognomy of Spanish towns.) 
 
 Ireland settled from Spain.— Thus, from the known intercourse with Phoenicians and 
 with Spain, it is natural to argue that the first settlements of the island by Celts were from 
 Spain : not from Gaul or Britain. If the Irish Celtfe had passed over from Britain, it would be 
 diiiicult to explain why intercourse with Spain should not have been equally active for both 
 islands. 
 
 Early History. — The chronicles and ancient traditions of the 
 country carry back the lines of Irish kings more than a thousand 
 years before Christ. As the Celtic settlement preceded, cr was at 
 least contemporary with, the earliest Phoenician trading expeditions, 
 there is no reason for questioning the existence of the Irish royal 
 dynasties at this early time. Authenticity of detail and approximate 
 accuracy of date are generally conceded from about the year 300 b. c. 
 downward. About this time the historian Tigernach — of the 11th 
 century a. d.^ a thoroughly sober and matter-of-fact writer — 
 
310 IRELAND. 
 
 begins his account. The building of a splendid palace at Ema- 
 nia, not far from Tara, is recorded for the reign of Kimbaoth at 
 this time. 
 
 The lists of kings, and details of their lives, run on clearly 
 enough from this point to the time of St. Patrick. This was the 5th 
 century A. D., the time of the overthrow of the West-Roman Empire. 
 
 Notwithstanding the proximity of the Roman rule in Britain, no 
 attempt was ever made to subdue the island by Roman arms. The 
 Irish institutions, laws, and customs, as far as they did not conflict 
 with Christianity, were therefore transmitted unbroken from the 
 Pagan to the Christian period. This is why the Celtic institutions 
 can be studied in their purest form only in this country. 
 
 Institutions.— The most remarkable peculiarity of institution regards the method of 
 holding land. Land was owned in common bj' the clan, i. e., by a community of one family 
 blood. Every clansman had an equal right to, and share in the land, by virtue of his family 
 membership. The absence of selfish and mercenary traits in Irish character is one expression 
 and result of this race custom. Or it would be equally well to say that the absence of selfish- 
 ness could alone explain the custom. The aversion to living in walled towns or castles and 
 to the use of body armoi-— traits apparent as national habits even in times when these things 
 seemed to be necessary — all point to a conception of life in which c- ... c*re not hunted by theit 
 fellows, or taken unfair advantage of by others. 
 
 The Irish law was called " Brehon " law. The Brehons were legislators who were at thfe 
 same time judges and lawyers. Their punishments were mild, their traditions humane and 
 generous, but they were respected and obeyed. 
 
 The Bards.— An equally important class was that of the Bards, at once poets and mu- 
 sicians, who also were the guardians of history and tradition, Irish poetry holds high rank. 
 The use of rhyme, generally attributed to the Arabs in Spain, is found in am Irish Latin poem 
 of the 5th century a. d., the earliest instance of its use. The use of the harp is attested as far 
 back as the 7th century b. c. at least. An author of the 12th century a. d., otherwise hostile to 
 the Irish, speaks of their music in terms of enthusiastic admiration. The Welsh bards were 
 accustomed to receive their instruction in Ireland as late as the 11th century. Lord Bacon says 
 that no harp has so melting and prolonged a sound as the Irish, 
 
 The hospitality which is still proverbial in our own time, was always a national 
 virtue. The story of a chief who was about to burn his castle as an excuse for sending his 
 guests home, rather than confess that he had no more stores of provisions for them, is of late 
 date— perhaps a fable ; but the extravagance and profusion of attention to strangers and guests 
 find illustration in every period. Permanent signs signifying that every wayfarer should turn 
 aside for gratuitous entertainment have been known to exist down to late times. The English 
 historian, Bede, tells us that foreign students were not only given gratuitous instruction, but 
 also were gratuitously fed, clothed and lodged in the Irish schools of learning. 
 
 The Government was patriarchal monarchy. A supreme king was chosen, ruling from 
 Tara, but his power was rather that of a nominal than of an actual head. ThQ minor king- 
 
SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 11 
 
 doms over which he ruled were often practically independent, and much contention pre- 
 vailed amon^ them, as well as among the clans themselves. These contentions were, how- 
 ever, more as to points of honor in the matter of precedence than for gain or conquest. The 
 successor of a king was generally appointed in his lifetime, and called " Tanist." The Tanist 
 thus became a sort of rival king, and many email wars were fought in consequence. 
 
 The virtues of character and of institutions which Ireland boasts in her pagan period 
 undoubtedly explain the wonderful rapidity of Christian conversion. The lack of Irish martyrs 
 was made a reproach by the Norman barons, when they invaded the island, but it is the 
 highest test of Irish civilization in pagan times that Christianity made its way without perse- 
 cution and almost without resistance. The Irish Druids who, with the Bards and Brehons, 
 made up the three especially esteemed and favored classes, must have been in the 5th century, 
 A. D., rather men of science and of learning than devotees of the crael mysteries undoubtedly 
 known to Druidism in other countries and in earlier times. 
 
 The Monumental remains of the Irish Druid worship are of the same kind as are 
 found in England and in France. Circles of upright stones of large size, like that at Stone- 
 
 Druid Worship. 
 
 henge in England, i^erved as open-air temples for the religious rites. Cromleachs, or Dolmens 
 (p. 175), large stones, supported at one end or both ends by others, served at once as tombs 
 and altars of sacrifice. Menhirs, single erect blocks of large size, were symbols, as with the 
 Phoenicians, of divinity. The partial dependence, at least, of Celtic Druidism on Eastern influ- 
 ence is made probable by the consideration that the art of moving the immense blocks of stone 
 used in the Dolmens and Menhirs was an Eastern art, and by many customs and verbal analo- 
 gies pointing to Eastern sun and fire worship. 
 
 Map Study.— See modern maps for Galicia, Cape Ortegal, Cape Clear, Ballycastle, Antrim, 
 Cornwall, Kinsale, Galway, Tara, Stonehenge. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD: FROM A. D. 432 TO ABOUT 800. 
 
 Conversion to Christianity.— It is not supposed that St. 
 Patrick's mission, a. d. 432, brought the first knowledge of Chri^- 
 
312 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 "St. Kevin's Kitchen," Glendalongh. 
 {An Oratory of the 6th Century.) 
 
 tianity to Ireland. St. Patrick speaks of being in districts " where 
 
 no missionary had been before." The terms of his mission from 
 
 Pope Celestine were to 
 those "believing in Christ," 
 and there is no reason for 
 thinking that the British, 
 under Roman rule, could 
 have numbered many 
 Christians as early as the 
 2d centur}', without some 
 influence on the neighbor- 
 ing country. However, it 
 is certain that Ireland was 
 generally Pagan before St. 
 Patrick, and generally 
 Christian from the time of 
 
 his mission. King Leoghaire (Leary) was ruling over the country 
 
 when the Saint appeared at the Court of Tara. 
 
 St. Patrick was born 387 a. d. near Boulogne (in Northeastern Gaul). His parents 
 were people of rank. In the disturbances which France (then part of the Boman Empire) was 
 enduring through the German attacks on the Rhine frontier, her coasts were also exposed to 
 predatory excursions. The Irish king, Nial, " of the Nine Hostages," made a descent op the 
 coast and carried St. Patrick with other captives to Ireland, a. d. 403. Here he became a slave 
 and a herdsman of sheep in the County of Antrim. His master was named Milcho. In the 
 seventh year of slavery he made his escape and relumed to Gaul. He then studied four years 
 in the monastery of St. Martin, near Tours. 
 
 Having placed himself under the instruction of St. Germain of Auxerre, he accompanied him 
 in 429 to Britain to combat the Pelagian heresy. Hence he was recommended by St. Germain 
 to the Pope as a fit person to undertake a mission to Ireland. Meantime Palladius had been 
 despatched for this purpose, 431 a. d. Some of his disciples made known the death of 
 Palladius to St. Patrick, and he then landed in Ireland, 432 a. d., at Dublin (probably). 
 
 His first pronounced success was in braving the king and his ministers and court at Tara. 
 His bearing and sermons won him the tolerance of Leary, though the king does not appear 
 to have been himself a convert. Leary's leading Bard instantty devoted his talents to Chris- 
 tianity, and from this day till his death, in 465, the career of St. Patrick was one of constant 
 activity and constant success. His work was organized and established by the foundation 
 of the Episcopal seat of Armagh, not far from the ancient palace of Emauia. 
 
 Irish Influence on Europe.— Ireland owes her brilliant period in the 
 centuries following St. Patrick not only to natural genius. This was assisted 
 
SECOND PERIOD. 313 
 
 by general causes. In the disturbances and convulsions which. England, 
 France. Spain, and Italy suffered by the German invasions, Ireland was at peace. 
 In the revolution and break up which European society experienced in passing 
 from antiquity to the Middle Age, Irish institutions were unchanged. 
 
 This period of revolution and disturbance, as we shall notice from preceding 
 pages and especially from the accounts under the heading of German History, 
 was in the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries especially. (With Charlemagne, about 
 800 A. D., the reorganization of Europe begins.) In these centuries Ireland was 
 not only protected by her insular position from the inroads of barbarism, but 
 the civilization and culture of the other countries also sought refuge and pro- 
 tection here in the persons of nearly all learned and studious men of the times. 
 
 The Irish schools were frequeutedby thousands of foreigners, bo that the biographies of 
 the ecclesiastics of other European countries mention their studies in them generally as a 
 matter of course. Not only did the Irish universities— especially famous those of Lismore, 
 Clonmacnoise, Armagh and Bangor— thus diffuse learning and culture over other countries by 
 the return home of their own native students, but the Irish themselves became the missionaries 
 of Europe. 
 
 Irish Learning.— Their standing as men of letters and of mind is not simply one of com- 
 parative excellence. The Irish poet SeduJius (Shiel), contemporary of St. Patrick, but not 
 resident in Ireland, was the author, among other works of acknowledged merit, of a spirited 
 poem upon the life of Christ, the Paschale Opus, from which the Catholic Church has selected 
 some of her most beautiful hymns. Adamnan's life of St. Columba, written in the 7th cen- 
 tury, is considered a model of excellent Latin style. In the 8th century Virgilius (Feargal), 
 afterwards Bishop of Salzburg, asserted the doctrine of tlie earth's rotundity in a time when 
 the belief in this truth had apparently disappeared. In the 9th century the layman Scotus Eri- 
 gena was a renowned master of philosophy and dialectics at the Court of Charlemagne. In 
 the 10th century the English Saint Dunstan owed his leaniing in arithmetic, geometry, astrono- 
 my, and music, to the instruction of Iri>^h monks at Glastonbury. In the 11th century lived 
 the Irish historians Tigemach and Marianus Scotus, the latter long resident at Fulda in Ger- 
 many, and author of the first General History attempted in medieval times. 
 
 Irish Missions. — It was in the time immediately following St. 
 Patrick's, that Irish missionaries to foreign countries were especially 
 active — the 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries being those in which other 
 countries were most backward. In order of time the first, and also 
 first in order of importance, was St. Columba, or Columbkill, born 
 of the royal family of the Nials (CNeils) of Ulster, on the father's 
 side, and of a princely house of Leinster on the side of his mother. 
 
 lona.— Since the 3d century (258 A. d.), a branch of the Nial 
 family had established a colony in Scotland, corresponding at first 
 to the territory of Argyle, then reaching into Boss and Perth, 
 
314 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 and including the islands of the Hebrides. From the king of 
 this colony, his relative Conal, Columbkill obtained a grant of the 
 island of lona, and here he founded one of the most celebrated 
 monasteries of the world. This island is still covered with ruins 
 of ecclesiastical structures. From lona went forth the mission- 
 
 The Ruins of lona. 
 
 aries who converted the Picts of Scotland and of the Orkneys. 
 Columbkill himself penetrated beyond the Grampians, and was per- 
 sonally no less the missionary of Scotland than St. Patrick was the 
 missionary of Ireland. The Saint died in 596. The year in which 
 the first Roman missionaries landed in Kent was 597. 
 
 St. Columba.— " Of his tenderness an well as energy of character tradition and bis biog- 
 raphers have recorded many Instances; among others, bis habit of ascending an eminence every 
 
SECOND PERIOD. 315 
 
 evening at sunset, to look over towards the coast of his native land. The spot ie called by the 
 islanders to this day ' the place of the back turned upon Ireland.' The fishermen of the 
 Hebrides long believed they could see their saint flitting over the waves after every new storm, 
 counting the islands to see if any of them had foundered."— (McGee.) In Trinity College, 
 Dublin, is now preserved a splendid MS. copy of the Four Gospels in a cover richly ornamented 
 with gold. It is held to be the same one long kept in the monastery of Kells and written by 
 the hand of St. Columbkill. 
 
 Lindisfarne.— In the time following his death, lona sent out the Apostle of North Eng- 
 land, St. Aidan, just before the middle of the 7th century. He established on the island of 
 Lindisfarne, below the mouth of the Tweed, a monastery which became the centre of Chris- 
 tian influence and civilization for the Anglo-Saxons of Northumbria, parent of the Bishopric 
 of Durham and of the Archbishopric of York. 
 
 Irish Missions to the Franks.— The Picts of Scotland and 
 the Anglo-Saxons of England were pagans at the close of the 6th 
 century, but the Christian population of France had sunken into a 
 degradation which needed missionary labor no less. The barbarism 
 of the German Franks, first christianized under Clovis, only a cen- 
 tury before, had rieacted on the Christian Eoman population of 
 Gaul. It was in this country that another Irish Apostle first became 
 renowned. 
 
 Columbanus, the namesake of Columbkill, was born in 559 a. d. 
 in the province of Leinster, and entered the monastery of Bangor in 
 Ulster, where he mastered both Greek and Hebrew. Devoting 
 himself with twelve worthy companions to missions in France, he 
 founded within the realms of Thierry and Brunehilda the monas- 
 teries of Luxeuil and Fontaines (in Franche-Comte). By his pro- 
 tests against the wickedness of these sovereigns he lost their protec- 
 tion and favor, but courageously persisted in defying their malice. 
 He v/as compelled to leave their dominions, but was well received at 
 the Frankish courts of Theodobert and Clotaire, who soon after 
 reunited the Frankish dominions. (The various local divisions of 
 the Frankish State before Charlemagne have been omitted in this 
 history as too complicated and perplexing for students.) 
 
 From France Columbanus made his way to Italy and the Lom- 
 bard court at Milan. In the Lombard dominions he finally settled, 
 founding in the Apennines the monastery of Bobbio, and dying in 
 G15 A. D. At Bobbio his coffin, chalice, holly stafi", and an Irish 
 
316 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 missal are still shown. His memory also lives in the name of 
 the beautifully situated town of San Columbano in the territory 
 of Lodi. 
 
 Convent of St. Gall.— A disciple of Colambanns was Gallus, who founded on the Lake 
 of Constance, in Switzerland, the celebrated Convent of St. Gall. The architect's plan of thi.s 
 convent has been preserved. It shows by the various apartments, assigned to monks of differ- 
 ent trades and occupations, th.it such monasteries were centres, not only of learning and relig- 
 ion, but also of industiy and of the mechanical arts. 
 
 Irish Missions in Germany.— In the 7th century an Anglo-Saxon king and a Frankish 
 king were educated in Ireland— Alfred of Northumbria and Dagobert II. The latter appointed 
 the Irish St. Arbogast to be Bishop of Strassburg. His friend and countryman, St. Florentius, 
 succeeded him in this office. St. Wire, of County Clare, was Confessor of the Frankish Pepin 
 of Heristal. At Ratisbou (Kegensburg), in modern Bavaria, the tombs of two brothers, Erard 
 and Albert, distinguished Irish saints of this time, were long shown. The reputation of St. 
 Fridolin, a native of Conuanght, lives along the Rhine. He established a monastery on the 
 island of Seckingen. St. Killian is called the Apostle of Franconia (Central and West-Central 
 Gei-many). He is the patron Saint of "W^urzburg, in Bavaria. The Irish St. Cataldus, the patron 
 Saint of Tarentum, in Southern Italy, belongs to the late 7th or early 8th century. 
 
 In the 9th century Charlemagne placed two Irishmen, Albiuus and Clement, over the 
 universities of Paris and Pavia. This sovereign, wishing to inform himself on the reputed 
 occurrence of two solar eclipses in 810, addressed himself to the Irishman Dungal, of the 
 monastery of St. Denis. The reply of the latter has been preserved, and i)roves the writer an 
 accomplished astronomer. Of the same period was the Irish Bishop of Fiesole, in Italy, 
 Donatus. 
 
 It has been calculated that the Irish monks held, from the 6th to the 9th century, 
 
 thirteen monasteries in Scotland, twelve in 
 England, twelve in Brittany, eleven in 
 Burgundy, seven in other parts of France, 
 seven in Lorraine, nine in Belgium, ten in 
 Alsace, sixteen in Bavaria, fifteen in the 
 Tyrol, Switzerland and Suabia, others un- 
 computed in Thuringia (Saxon Duchies), 
 and on the left Rhine h&nk.—{T/i€baud, 
 " Msk Hace.'') 
 
 The Female Orders.— The activity 
 of study and the extent of learning in Ire- 
 land itself are sufficiently attested by the 
 foregoing matter, but we must not omit 
 mention of the Female Orders. St. Bridget 
 was twelve years old when St. Patrick died, 
 and she died in 525 a. d., four years after 
 
 o _i * _i « « ^ «*t. />! * -ara Columbkill was bom. From her activity 
 
 Scriptorium of a Monastery. 15th Centnry MS. . .,,,,. - „ i r* ^ „ 
 
 *^ J J ^^^^^ jjjg ingtitution of Female Orders 
 
 throughout Ireland. Her especially famous foundation, at the request of the people of 
 
 Leinster, was the monastery and town of Kildare. 
 
SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 317 
 
 Irish in Scotland. — From the territory of Dalriada (Antrim) in North- 
 west Ulster, it was but fourteen miles to the nearest Scotch coast of Argyle. 
 Carbry Riada, of the Nial family, ruler of Irish Dalriada, founded the State 
 of Scottisli Dalriada in 358, a. d. Community of blood with the Picts of Scot- 
 land and superiority of civilization made it easy to establish and extend this 
 colony. 
 
 The " Scots." — In the time of the Romans in Britain, and following their 
 withdrawal, constant mention is made of the incursions into England of the 
 " Picts and Scots." The Picts were the native and barbarian Celtic population 
 of Scotland, the Scots were the Irish settlers. " Scoti " was the name given to 
 the Irish by foreigners, and long confined to them. From the 3d century, a. d., 
 when the " Scots " first settled in Argyleshire, their relation to their Pictish 
 brethren had been, in matters of pfeneral civilization, that of superior to 
 inferior. The influence of the " Scots," as Christian missionaries and civilizers 
 from the time when Columbkill established the monastery of lona, in the 6th 
 century, was all powerful. Conal, the relative of Columbkill, was the sixth in 
 the line of princes of Scottish Dalriada. The first was Loam More, from whom 
 was named the district and Marquisate of Lome. The 
 successor of Conal, Aidan, anointed by Columbkill, raised 
 the colony to practical independence of the mother 
 country. 
 
 Kenneth McAlpine. — So rapid was the expansion 
 and influence of the Irish colony, through the missions 
 of the monks of lona, that Kenneth McAlpine, 843, A. D., 
 replaced the line of Pictish rulers, and " Caledonia " was 
 united under the sway of the Irish, or " Scottish " line. 
 Either in direct or female succession it continued to give 
 kings to Scotland till the union with England under 
 James I. 
 
 The celebrated Lia Fail, or Stone of Destiny, on which the 
 
 kings of Ireland used to be Inaugurated, had been brought over to 
 
 A.rgyle when the colony was founded. After the victory by which 
 
 Kenneth McAlpine, in 843, finally subdued the Picts, it was removed Irish Warrior. 
 
 by him from Argj-le to Scone, where it remained till the time of (^»'<wi a m Century MS. 
 
 . preserved m Gennany.) 
 
 Edward I. It was carried off by his order, enclosed in a stately 
 
 chair, and placed in Westminster Abbey. Thus it became, and still remains, the coronation 
 
 chair of the English sovereigns. 
 
 Proximity of Anglo-Saxon Northumbria to Irish Civilization.— In the time 
 
 of Kenneth McAlpine, Caledonia did not reach south of the Forth. The Lowlands of Scotland 
 
 were part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, as settled by the Anglo-Saxons at the 
 
 time they invaded England. This close proximity of the north boundary of Northiimbria to 
 
318 IRELAND. 
 
 the original Irish settlements in Scotland, enables us to understand the missionary influence 
 of lona in the 7th century, when Aidan, the monk of lona, became the Apostle of the An^lo- 
 Saxons of Northumbria at Lindisfarne. 
 
 Cession of the Iiowlands to " Scot "-land.— A century and over after Kennetli 
 Mc Alpine, the Lowlands, i. e., the territory between Forth and Tweed, were ceded to Scotland 
 by the great English statesman, Dnnstan. At this time the old Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were 
 united under the successors of Alfred the Great, and in the difficulty of protecting North Eng- 
 land from the Danes, Duustan wished to save the rest of Northumbria by building up a power 
 in the North against them. The union of this territory between Tweed and Forth with the 
 earlier possessions of the " Scottish " kings was facilitated and cemented by the missionary 
 and civilizing influences of lona and of Lindisfanie. It was in the reign of the English Edgar 
 (958-975) that the Tweed thus became the boundary between Scotland and England, which has 
 ever since remained. 
 
 Thus, an Irish line of Princes, assisted by the general ascendency of Irish Christianity 
 and civilization over North Britain, united the territories which became Scotland. But the 
 name Scotland was not yet used. This portion of North Britain had been known as Caledonia 
 or Alba. Alba (Albania, Albany) was the name used for it by the Scoti of Ireland. 
 
 The word Scotia (or Scotland), as applied to Caledonia, appears first with the Irish 
 writer Marianus Scotus of the 11th century. The use first became general in the 12th century. 
 Before the 12th century the terms Scoti and Scotia were used indifferently for the Irish, whether 
 in Ireland or Scotland. The latter were distinguished from the former as the Scots of Albania. 
 Some authors speak of the two Scotias, Ireland being Scotiva Major. So utterly, however, was 
 the memory of the original use of the words Scotia and Scoti at last forgotten that in the early 
 16th century some Irish monks, in partial possession of the old " Scottish" monastery at Re- 
 gensburg, in Germany, were expelled a.s intruders. Their place was given to Scotchmen, and 
 the expelled monks were accused of having forged, in the annals of the monastery, the words 
 Scotia Major to designate Ireland.— (Burton's History op Scotland, p. 202, Vol. I.) 
 
 The "Poems of Ossian"were published in the I8th century by the Scotch author 
 McPherson as a rediscovered ancient Scotch poem. Investigation into the auihcnticity of this 
 work has shown that, although modern in its combination, it is based on old fables and poems 
 of the Scottish Highlands which had been transplanted from Ireland in the times of the Irish 
 settlement. 
 
 The latest and most extended history of Scotland is that of Mr Burton, " Historiographer 
 Royal for Scotland." On the subject of the Irish in Scotland he says, p 2M, Vol. I. r "We 
 cannot thoroughly understand the ascendency so acquired by kings of the Dalriadic race with- 
 oifct realizing to ourselves, what is not to be done at once, the high standard of civilization 
 which separated the 'Scots' of Ireland and Dalriada from the other nations inhabiting the 
 British Isles, It was as yet a waxing civilization, bringing with It continual Increase of polit- 
 ical influence We have no conspicuous memorials of such a social condition, such as the 
 
 great buildings left by the Romans and the Normans. Celtic civilization took another and 
 subtler shape. It came out emphatically in dress and decoration. Among Irish relics there 
 are many golden ornaments of exquisitely beautiftil and symmetrical pattern. Of the trinkets, 
 too, made of jet, glass, ornamental stone, and enamel the remnants found in later time [in 
 Scotland] belong in so large a proportion to Ireland as to point to tlie centre of fashion, whence 
 they radiated, as being there. There seems to have been a good deal of what may be called 
 elegant luxury. The great folks, for instance, lay or ecclesiastic, had their carriages and their 
 yachts. Especially the shrines, the ecclesiastical vestments, and all the decorations devoted to 
 
THIHD PERIOD. 310 
 
 religion, were rich and beautiful. They had manuscripts beautifully written and adorned, which 
 were encased in costly and finely-worked bindin^js. It is to this honor done to sacred books, 
 of which the finest specimens belong to Ireland, that we may attribute the medieva^ passion 
 for rich bindings. The testimonies to the high social position of the Celts among the tribes 
 of the British isles are taken by induction from the examination of such memorials as have 
 turned up in recent times. We know from old authorities that these Celts were honored by 
 their neighbors as a lettered people. By the ' Scots ' writers, whether of Dalriada or Ireland, 
 the Saxons are spoken of, without any aflfectation, as barbarians, just as they would have been 
 spoken of by the Komans. Prom the other side, even in Bede's [Anglo-Saxon] narrative, the 
 sense of inferiority is distinctly apparent." 
 
 Map Study.— See modern maps for Antrim, Armagh, Lismore, Clonmacnoise, Bangor, 
 Argyle, Ross, Perth, the Hebrides, lona, the Grampians, Kent, Northumbria, Durham, York, 
 Leinster, Ulster, Franche-Comte, Lake of Constance, Kildare, the Forth, the Tweed. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES. 
 FROM 794 TO 1014. 
 
 The Danish Invasions. — For the period of Irish history after 
 St. Patrick's mission in the 5th century, down to the 9th century, 
 the details of royal genealogies, dates, and deeds of the Irish kings, 
 are sufficiently distinct. But interest attaches to these features of 
 history only when related at length, and attention to such matters 
 in brief histories is apt to obscure the salient and important points. 
 
 In the account given of the Irish learning and its influence over 
 Europe, it will be noticed that few of the distinguished names of 
 Irish residents on the Continent dated later than the 9th century. 
 At this time Continental Europe, disciplined and civilized, as far 
 as then possible, by the efforts of the Church, was reorganized by 
 Charlemagne, and his work was carried on by the German emperors 
 of the 10th century. But Ireland was now destined to make the 
 experience in a less degree of the terrible effects of the foreign inva- 
 sions which had scourged the rest of Europe in the 5th and 6th 
 centuries. 
 
 These later invasions were simply a continuation of the earlier 
 Germanic invasions, but were carried on by sea and by tribes of Ger- 
 manic race living to the north of Germany, still Pagan, cruel and 
 bloodthirsty. 
 
320 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 The Angles and Saxons who settled in England in the 5th cen- 
 tury were Germanic 
 tribes from the shores 
 of the Baltic and the 
 Peninsula of Den- 
 mark. There was no 
 real distinction of 
 blood or nature be- 
 tween them and the 
 Danes proper, or the 
 Northmen of the 
 Scandinavian penin- 
 sula, excepting that 
 the latter had a more 
 imaginative and po- 
 etic temperament, a 
 more chivalric charac- 
 ter. 
 
 The incursions by 
 which Ireland was 
 devastated began in 
 794, when the North- 
 men landed on the 
 
 A Landing of the Danes. j^j^ ^^ Rathliu, and 
 
 lasted till 1014, when Brian Boru defeated them on the field of 
 Clontarf. 
 
 During" the intermediate time they also ravaged the coasts of Prance and overran 
 England. By the settlement in Normandy, hence named, of a hand of Northmen under RoUo, 
 in 911, France was protected from the further ravages of their brethren (p. 178). The general 
 result of these Danish invasions was the civilizing and Christianizing of the Scandinavian 
 nations, by contact with the people whom they ravaged and persecuted. The Christianizing 
 process first became general after 1000 a. d. Meantime, England's struggle out of Anglo-Saxon 
 barbarism was nlpi^ed in the bud. Ireland's more advanced civilization suffered less?, but 
 suffered greatly. 
 
 The monastic foundations, as seats of wealth and prosperity, offered the most tempting 
 prizes to the piratical expeditions, and they were the most accessible to them in location. 
 
THIRD PERIOD. 321 
 
 Armagh was plundered seventeen times during the two hundred years of war. By constant 
 war and suffering the morals of the nation were impaired and weakened. 
 
 The landings of the Northmen were made with fleets counting as high as 120 
 vessels. The largest ships carried from 100 to 120 men, and expeditions of 6,000 or 7,000 
 warriors were not unusual. The peculiar geography of Ireland, with rivers opening out into 
 inland lakes, admitted the Danes to the very heart of the country without obliging them to 
 abandon their ships. The necessity of meeting the Danes in all quarters, without waiting for 
 assistance from a distant royal power, tended to weaken the royal authority. The period of the 
 invasions is therefore also filled with intestine feuds, and as the Danes became settled on the 
 coasts they are often found in alliance with the local Irish princes. 
 
 Five important towns were ultimately held and peopled by 
 the Danes— Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick. 
 Meantime, during the reign of Flan '* of the Shannon/' about 900 
 A. I)., the predatory incursions diminished under the stem rule of 
 the Norwegian king, Harold the Fair-haired. . In the middle of the 
 10th century, occurred, in Dublin, the first conversions of the 
 Danes. 
 
 In the third quarter of this century the brothers Mahon 
 and Brian opposed the Danes in Munster. They were resisted in 
 Meath by Melaghlin (or Malachy), after 979 Malachy II. At the 
 time of the accession of Malachy II., Brian Born, trained up to 
 deeds of bravery under his brother Mahon, had succeeded this 
 brother as King of Munster (978). The jealousy between North 
 and South was apparent in the contentions of these two kings; 
 Brian really the more powerful and able, Malachy II. with the legal 
 title. 
 
 Brian Boru King of Ireland.— In 1001 Malachy finally yielded 
 his title to Brian, and the latter was acknowledged, not only by the 
 Irish princes in general, but also by the Danes of the coast cities, as 
 king of the whole Island. 
 
 Just at the time when the Danes under Canute established them- 
 selves as ruling power in England, a last great eflPort was made to 
 subdue Ireland. An immense armament was gathered from the 
 Scandinavian countries, and from the Orkneys and Hebrides, then 
 under Northman rule. This army was defeated by Brian Boru, in 
 1014, on the field of Clontarf, near Dublin. Brian fell in the battle 
 
3^^ IRELAND. 
 
 with his son and grandson. This was practically the end of the in- 
 vasions, which reach a few years on either side of the 9th and 10th 
 centuries (794-1014). The Danes of the coast towns mentioned had 
 already mixed and intermarried with the Irish. They were soon 
 thoroughly amalgamated with them. 
 
 The reign of Brian Boru is celebrated by the annalists for its vigor and good order. 
 In his palace at Kinkora he practiced a truly royal hospitality. The interests of the Church 
 were carefully regarded in the matter of endowments. Roads, bridges, and buildings of public 
 utility were constructed or repaired. The preservation of the public peace, remarkable in a 
 time following the long devastations of foreign war, was strictly enforced. But a strongly 
 organized monarchy was not in the genius of the Irish people. It had not existed before Brian, 
 and it ended with him. 
 
 The most remarkable feature of Irish society was its development of the family 
 tie into a governmental and social system. The consequent existence, side by side, of a num- 
 ber of family chiefs— heads of the great clans and their subdivisions— of really equal position 
 and of locally separated territorial rule, made the office of over-king or " Ard-righ" rather one 
 of honor than of actual royal power. 
 
 The national custom of " tanistry," i. e., nominating the king's successor, "Roy- 
 damna," in his life-time, was rather a result than a cause of the loose power of the chief Irish 
 king. It is to be noted about the frequent contests of Irish rival kings and chieftains, that 
 they did not disturb the social fabric, but grew out of its peculiar character. If the system of 
 Irijih monarchy was a complex and unsettled one, it had one grand redeeming feature. The 
 relations of the subjects to these petty kings were never those of oppression, of extortion, or of 
 subjection. They were relations of affection, devotion, kUulred blood and patriarchal equality. 
 Therefore, in the disputes and wars of the rivals we do not find personal aggrandizement or 
 personal greed as a motive power. 
 
 Map Study.— See modem maps for Island of Ratblin, Dublin, Wexford, Watcrford, Cork, 
 Limerick, Munster, Meath, the Orkneys. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. "KINGS WITH OPPOSITION." 
 FROM 1014 TO 1170. 
 
 The Century and a half after Brian Boru is called the time 
 of kings ** with opposition." Tlie five provinces of Ulster, Meath, 
 Leinster, Munster, and Connaught now appear as five nearly equally 
 balanced local principalities. The exaction by the nominal king of 
 any decided recognition was frequently opposed by the local jealousy 
 of the rival provinces. 
 
 To these provinces correspond the great families of the 
 
FIFTH PERIOD. 323 
 
 O'Neils in Ulster, the O'Melagblins in Meath, the McMurroghs in 
 Lehister, the O'Briens in Munster, and the O'Connors in Connaught. 
 Such family names now replace the earlier tribal and clan designa- 
 tions. Their general use dates from the time of Brian Boru, who 
 recommended or enforced it. Tiie O'Briens were the descendants of 
 Brian. The O'Neils correspond to the Nials. The distinction between 
 clan and family now made indicates a more closely organized society. 
 Norman Conquest of England.— The 11th century, begin- 
 ning in Ireland with the victory and death of Brian Boru, opened 
 in England with the establishment of the Dane Canute on the Eng- 
 lish throne. He was followed by his two sons. Then came the reign 
 of the Saxon Edward the Confessor, followed by his minister Harold. 
 In 1066 took place the landing of the French Northmen in Eng- 
 land and the Korman conquest of that country (p. 181). 
 
 FIFTH PERIOD. NORMAN INVASION AND SETTLEMENTS. 
 FROM 1170 TO 1509. 
 
 Norman Settlements. — It was in the natural course of events 
 that a Norman conquest of Ireland should be attempted after that 
 of England. The Normans had not forgotten the two centuries of 
 war which their Northman relations had waged with Ireland, only 
 closed fifty years before the English conquest. From the same 
 natural association of the Normans in England with their own 
 Northman persecutors, the Irish were naturally sympathizers with the 
 Anglo-Saxons and with the Welsh. An Irish force had assisted the 
 brothers of Harold, Edwin and Morcar, in their continued resistance 
 to William the Conqueror after Harold's death, had threatened Bris- 
 tol and landed in Devonshire. This the Normans had not forgotten, 
 and they knew that Ireland, by its sympathies, had become a resort 
 for refugees from England. 
 
 Since the time of the Danes in Ireland, complaints had also 
 reached Rome of disorders and laxness of discipline in the Irish 
 
su 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Church. The English king Henrj 11. is said to have sought and 
 obtained, in 1155, a commission from Pope Adrian IV. for the 
 reformation of these abuses ; but the Norman invasion of Ireland 
 was thirteen years later and had no reference to such a commission.* 
 Cause of the Norman Invasion. — Dermid McMurrogh, 
 Prince of Leinster, had carried off Devorghoil, wife of O'Ruarc, 
 
 Prince of Breffni (Lei- 
 trim). For this crime 
 he was deprived of his 
 kingdom of Leinster 
 and of his patrimony, 
 by Roderick O'Connor, 
 titular king of Ireland, 
 king of Con naught, and 
 ally and friend of 
 O'Ruarc. The abduc- 
 tion of O'Ruarc's wife 
 was in 1153, when the 
 father of Roderick had 
 incurred the hatred ot 
 Dermid by compelling 
 him to restore the lady 
 to her husband. Der- 
 mid was not expatriated till 1168, when he refused submission to 
 the new king, Roderick. 
 
 In this year he resorted for assistance to Henry II. in Acqui- 
 taine, and received from him a patent authorizing enlistments. The 
 natural starting point for an expedition against Ireland was Wales, 
 and from the Anglo-Normans of this country Dermid sought his 
 assistants. Chief among them was Richard Strongbow, Earl of 
 Pembroke ; assisted by Robert Fitzstephen, Raymond le Gros, and 
 
 ♦ Its existence has been frequently questioned by Irish historians. See, on its presumed 
 forgery a communication from the Eight Rev. P. H. Moran, D D. Bishop of Ossoiy (now Car- 
 dinal, Archbishop of Sidney) in the "N. Y. Tablet" of Dec. 7, 1872. This article is by a 
 Bcholar whose researches and opportunities give his opinion more than ordinary weight. 
 
 Gate of Cong Abbey. Residence of Roderick O'Connor. 
 
FIFTH PERIOD. 325 
 
 Maurice Fitzgerald, with other Norman knights, their men at arms, 
 bowmen, and Welsh and Flemish mercenaries. The Flemings were 
 settlers in Wales. 
 
 In 1168 Dermid returned to Leinster with a party of Flemings. 
 He made no claim to the restoration of his kingdom of Leinster, 
 and after some opposition, on delivery of hostages and payment of 
 fine, was allowed to resume his patrimony. 
 
 In May, 1169, Fitzstephen landed in the Bay of Bannow, 
 near Wexford, with a small force of Anglo-Normans. Wexford 
 was besieged and taken. Eoderick summoned a national muster of 
 the Irish at the hill ot Tara. This was well attended. The force 
 proceeded to Dublin, but finding no attack threatened, the army 
 partially disbanded. 
 
 By the treaty of Ferns, Dermid agreed to do homage to Rod- 
 erick, and to take no more Normans into his service. But in the 
 same winter, always secretly intriguing to recover his kingdom of 
 Leinster, he welcomed the arrival at Wexford of Maurice Fitzgerald 
 with an additional force, and employed it in threatening Dublin. 
 
 In May, 1170, Raymond le Gros sailed into the harbor of 
 Waterford and fortified himself near the town. In August, 1170, 
 Richard Strongbow joined him with the largest force yet sent over. 
 Waterford was taken, and Strongbow married, by previous agree- 
 ment, Eva McMurrogh, with the dowry of the kingdom of 
 Leinster, after Dermid's death. This death took place in 1171. 
 
 Meantime, Dublin had been besieged and taken, while Roderick, 
 who had done his best to relieve the city, retired into Oonnaught. 
 
 In October, 1171, Henry II. landed, near Waterford, with 
 500 knights and 4,000 men at arms from a fleet of 400 transports. 
 Garrisons were placed in Limerick and Cork, and many chiefs of 
 Munster and Leinster made feudal submission. The chiefs of 
 Ulster uniformly refused submission. Henry spent Christmas at 
 Dublin, then held a synod at Cashel for the reformation of the 
 Church abuses, staying altogether seven months in the island. The 
 persecutor of Becket probably did not materially transform the 
 
336 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Irish Church, but in a military sense Henry did not take an 
 actively aggressive attitude in Ireland. It was at the moment of his 
 disgrace with the See of Rome for Becket's murder (see English 
 
 The Rock of Cashel. 
 
 history) that he undertook the Irish expedition, and probably to 
 gain favor with the commissioners sent to inquire into Becket's 
 murder that he held the synod of Cashel. 
 
 Extent of Norman power in Ireland.— The weak organism of Irish monarchy 
 already explained made the settlement of the first Anglo-Norman invaders an apparently easy 
 matter. Sometimes by marriage, as in the case of Richard Strongbow ; sometimes in the 
 service of contending Irish princes ; oftener by violence, they made themselves possessions 
 and built castles in many parts of the country. In Munster, Leinstcr, and Meath, they were 
 most numerous ; in Connaught less numerous ; in Ulster there were scarcely any. The Irish 
 were opposed, by national habit, to the use of armor and of castles, whereas the Normans 
 were the military experts of all Europe. Notwithstanding this apparent superiority, the 
 history of the Anglo-Normans in Ireland is that of a constantly decreasing power. They were 
 never themselves masters of the country, and their own feudal tendency to oppose the author- 
 ity of the English monarchs prevented this authority of the English kings from being in any 
 way established. 
 
 One cause preventing the Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland was a traditional 
 jealousy between the English kings and their Norman-Irish nobles. Another was the thor- 
 oughly gallant and spirited Irish military opposition— not the less effective because it was not 
 combined to win or lose all in a single battle, as with Harold and William the Conqueror. The 
 most decided influence was exerted by the amalgamation of the Normans with the native pop< 
 
FIFTH PERIOD. 
 
 327 
 
 Illation. The former, by intermarriage and gradual adoption of Irish manners, language, and 
 fashions, became " more Irish than the Irish." 
 
 Extent of the "Pale."— Three hundred years after the Anglo-Normans landed in Ire- 
 land, the territory under English law, known as the " English Pale," was confined to the coun- 
 try immediately surrounding Dublin. The English " Pale," in its earlier and widest extent, 
 took in about one-half of the island, by a line drawn diagonally from northeast to southwest 
 through the centre. 
 
 Tlie history of Ireland, from Henry II. to Henry VIII.— i. e., from 1170 to 1509— 
 is the process of the absorption or re-conquest of the Anglo-Nonnans. After Henry II. we 
 pass through the reigns of the English kings Richard I., John, and Henry III., to the time of 
 Edward I., about 1300, without finding either intervention or presence of these kings in Ire- 
 land, two rapid and resultless visits of John excepted. These were made to overawe insubor- 
 dinate Norman barons. In the reign of Edward I., and at the time of his Scotch wars, after 
 1290, the Norman-Irish barons, chief among them the " Red Earl " of Uls^tcr, obeyed his sum- 
 mons to feudal service in Scotland. Meantime the power and oflice of " Ardrigh" were gen- 
 erally maintained west of the Shannon and in Ulster. 
 
 (Henry II. had recognized the sovereignty of Roderick over all territories not actually in 
 possession of his own subjects, accepting Roderick's feudal submist ion in return. Cathal 
 O'Connor, Irish king of Connaught and Ardrigh, co-operated with John in 1210. Feidlim 
 O'Connor of Connaught was on friendly terms with Henry III., and attended his war in 
 
 Kilkenny Castle, Seat of the Ormonds. 
 
 Wales. In Meath, Leinster, and Munster the power of Irish and Norman-Irish chiefs was 
 about equally balanced. In the time of Edward I. the " Red Earl," Richard do Burgh, 
 descended on one side from the granddaughter of Roderick O'Connor, was the most powerful 
 of the Norman-Irish, and his rule was recognized in Connaught and Ulster. His descendants 
 adopted the Irish clan system and the name of Mac Willi am.) 
 
 Edward II. carried on war with Scotland till the English defeat of Bannockbum 
 made Robert Bruce secure in this country. In consequence of this Scotch victory (1314) the 
 
328 IRELAND. 
 
 leading Irish chieftain, Donald O'Neil of Ulster, called on David Bruce, brother of Robert, 
 to make Ireland an independent kingdom, and abdicated in his favor the title of Ai*d- 
 righ. 
 
 The campaigns of the Bruces in Ireland carried them over the island, but the pro- 
 posed kingdom was shattered on the opposition of the Munster Irish and the old jealousy of 
 North and South. David Bruce was defeated and killed by a Norman force at Faughard, near 
 Dundalk. His tombstone still stands on the site of the battle. 
 
 The Desmonds and Ormonds.— Bruce's own Scotch family was of Norman extraction. 
 Many Norman-Irish barons had sympathized with his ambition and assisted it. From the 
 confiscations which thus followed their participation in his campaign dates the great impor 
 tance of the two branches of the family descended from Maurice Fitzgerald (hence called Ger- 
 aldines), the Geraldine Earldoms of Desmond and Kildare, and of the family of the 
 Butlers, now raised to the Earldom of Ormond. (Theobald Walter, a follower of Henry H., 
 was raised to the feudal dignity of his chief " butler" in Ireland.) 
 
 Kilkenny was the seat of the Ormonds, and capital of the Pale, and the Ormonds became 
 the representatives of its English tendencies, although themselves much Hibemicized. 
 
 The Principality of Desmond comprised parts of the counties of Waterford and Tip- 
 perary, with all Cork and Kerry. The chief seat of the Desmonds was Kilmallock (now called 
 from its ruins the " Balbek of Ireland "). They became the great representatives of the Irish 
 Normans as opposed to the Norman-Irish Ormonds. 
 
 Thus, after the time of David Bruce (1318) till Henry VII. (after 1485) the domi- 
 nant family of Munster was the Hibemicized Desmond branch of the Geraldines. Connaught 
 was thoroughly Irish. Ulster was thoroughly Irish. Meantime, the limits of the Pale were 
 steadily receding, and in the time of Eihvard III. (1327-1372) his son Lionel, to whom had 
 passed by marriage the nominal title of Earl of Ulster, was sent over to assert the English in- 
 terests. He was defeated by an O'Brien of Munster, but his name of " Clarence " originated 
 in his fictitious victories in County Clare. From the efforts of Clarence date the famous 
 Statutes of Kilkenny, 1367, 
 
 The Statutes of Kilkenny enacted that marriage, nurture of infants, or •'gossipred" 
 with the Irish (i. e. fostering), or submission to Irish Brehon law, should be deemed high 
 treason. Any man of English race tr.king an Irish name, using the Irish language, or adopting 
 Irish customs, was to forfeit goods and chattels until he gave security that he would conform 
 to English manners. It was declared highly penal to entertain an Irish bard, minstrel, or 
 story-teller, or even to admit an Irish horse to graze on the pasture of an Englishman, These 
 statutes were never fenforced beyond the County of Kilkenny, and were enforced imperfectly 
 there. They are best understood by parallel with old sumptuary laws against extravagance of 
 food or dress. Such laws really exhibit the general prevalence of the customs they strove to 
 reform, and are thus the most perfect illustration of their own futility. 
 
 English jealousy.— These statutes have, notwithstanding, a deep significance for the 
 future course of Irish history. They show the jealousy constantly exhibited by native English 
 governors and administrators for the English-born natives of Irish soil. They show the inca- 
 pacity of English nature to comprehend the virtues of a society different from their own, and 
 the intolerant spirit of England towards Ireland. Notwithstanding the large numbers of 
 Anglo-Norman settlers, it appears that about 1500, and before the " Reformation," Ireland 
 was essentially a homogeneous country. The " conquests" subsequent to 1500 differ from all 
 earlier ones in really carrying into efifect the spirit which the Statutes of Kilkenny in their own 
 time but impotently breathed. 
 
FIFTH PERIOD. 329 
 
 Through the 14th century the cutting down of the limito 
 of the English Pale steadily continued. The great liberator of 
 Leinster was Art McMurrogh, and his power is well illustrated by 
 the campaigns of Richard IL, 1377-1399 (successor and grandson 
 of Edward III.). These campaigns were undertaken on account of 
 the tribute paid by the English to McMurrogh and other Irish 
 lords for right of way through their territories, which had become a 
 tax on the English treasury. 
 
 In 1394 Richard II. landed at Waterford with an army of 
 30,000 archers and 4,000 men at arms. In order to reach Kilkenny 
 he unfurled the banner of Edward the Confessor, as more popular 
 with the people than the Norman leopards. But he could not 
 march beyond Carlow. The way was blocked by McMurrogh, and 
 his opposition obliged the king to turn aside and reach Dublin by 
 the sea-shore. 
 
 A second expedition of 24,000 men was equally unsuccess- 
 ful in 1398, in penetrating into Leinster beyond the coast territories. 
 For the expenses of the second expedition, Richard had confiscated 
 the estates of Jolm of Gaunt, his uncle, just deceased. This was 
 the cause of the return to England of the banished Henry of Lan- 
 caster, son of John of Gaunt. Richard was put to death, and the 
 House of Lancaster came to the English throne with Henry IV. in 
 1399. 
 
 Henry IV., 1399-1413, was absorbed with trouble at home. Henry V., 1413-1422, was kept 
 busy by his French wars. In the reign of Henry VI., 1422-1471, and Edward IV., 1471-1483, 
 the Wars of the Eoses left Ireland undisturbed. 
 
 At the accession of Henry VII., in 1485, such was the 
 practical independence of Ireland that the 8th (Geraldine) Earl of 
 Kildare, then Lord Deputy, was not removed by Henry, although 
 he took the part of Lambert Simnel, a pretender to the English 
 crown. The Geraldines of Kildare, under the leadership of this 
 earl, were now the ruling family of Ireland, being united by inter- 
 marriage with the Irish chiefs of Ulster and Leinster. The 8th 
 
330 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Earl of Kildare continued in office till 1513, the fourth year of 
 Henry VTII., king of England, after 1509. 
 
 Map Study.— Sec modern map for Connaught, Leitrim, Wexford, Ferns, Waterford, 
 Limerick, Cork, The Shannon, Dundalk, Kilkenny, Tipperary, Kerry, Kilmallock, Carlow. 
 
 SIXTH PERIOD: 1509-1690. FROM HENRY VIM. TO THE 
 BATTLE OF THE BOYNE. 
 
 In the accounts given of the Rise of Monarchy, as opposed to Feudalism, some 
 
 explanations have been given 
 of the general causes contribu- 
 ting to raise up a system of 
 absolute monarchies in the 16th 
 century (p. 208). 
 
 The policy pursued by any 
 individual monarch was often, 
 perhaps generally, inspired by 
 personal ambition ; but certain 
 interests of the people contrib- 
 uted to his success. These in- 
 terests were in general those of 
 stable society, as opposed to 
 one of feuds and petty warfare. 
 But the rise of a strong mon- 
 archy in England was attended 
 with fatal consequences for the 
 adjoining island, not only be- 
 cause of the contemporary Prot- 
 estant revolution in England, 
 but also because the English 
 laws of land-tenure and succes- 
 sion were diametrically opposed 
 to those of the race which 
 religious intolerance and mercenary greed now combined to persecute. 
 
 During* the reigrn of Henry VIII. the approaching overthrow of Irish institutions 
 was not yet apparent. To the more peaceful society which a strong monarchy seemed to 
 promise, Irish public sentiment was not opposed. The kings were the natural antagonists of 
 powerful territorial nobles, and the fact that an almost independent country in 1485, the date of 
 Henry VII. 's accession, generally accepted Henry VIII. as king in 1541 is explained by the 
 policy pursued in the intervening time. 
 
 This policy was to break the i)owcr of the great lords in Ireland by favoring the small 
 ones, and thus we have the singular spectacle of an English policy which for the time being 
 favored and supported the interests of the small Irish chiefs against th(? great nobles in general 
 and the Geraldines in particular. The 9th (Geraldine) Earl of Kildare. at first allowed to suc- 
 
 8t. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. Begun 1196. 
 
SIXTH PERIOD. 331 
 
 ceed his father, was then repeatedly t-ainmoned to London, and finally confined in the Tower 
 on various charges. His son attempted an abortive insurrection, incited thereto by forged let- 
 ters announcing his father's execution. The imprisoned earl died in 1534; his son was exe- 
 cuted in 1537. 
 
 In 1541 Henry VIII. was formally recognized as king of Ire- 
 land by a parliament at Dublin, and most of the territorial interests 
 not then represented were subsequently bought over. The conver- 
 sion of mauy Irish chiefs into nobles with English titles produced, 
 however, disaffection among the clansmen. The destruction of shrines 
 and abolition of monasteries, first begun in 1539, increased the dis- 
 affection, but it had no leader. The use of artillery gave tlie Eng- 
 lish king a supreme advantage, and the time of purely local insurrec- 
 tions destined to success was over. 
 
 At the death of Henry VIII. in 1547 no great headway had, 
 however, been made or seriously attempted towards overturning the 
 Catholic Church in Ireland. 
 
 With the reign of Edward VI., 1547-1553, the raid on the 
 Churches and the old faith began to take large proportions, backed 
 by an army of 10,000 men, and, more important than any number of 
 men, a heavy train of artillery. The accession of Mary, 1553-1558, 
 reversed this religious revolution, but did not reverse the natural 
 policy of the English sovereigns to make themselves as absolute in 
 Ireland as in England. ♦ 
 
 Mary's reign, though it once more favored the Catholics, still 
 levelled the way for the Protestant Elizabeth to reverse the order of 
 things. The Anglicizing of Ireland required the overthrow of the 
 clan system, in which every member held an equal share in the land, 
 in favor of a system of primogeniture in which the eldest son of a 
 lord owned all the land of the clan. In Leinster, at least, this new 
 system made headway under Mary. 
 
 On the accession of Elizabeth, 1558, an Irishman took up 
 the gauntlet for his country, who held this revolution of the land 
 system in check during his lifetime. John or Shane O'Neil, Lord 
 of Ulster, proved himself the equal of the English deputies. Eliza- 
 beth made peace with him, practically on his own terms, but he was 
 
332 IRELAND. 
 
 killed, in 1566, by Highlanders dismissed from his service, who 
 refused to abandon Ulster. 
 
 The Irish Revolt. — Meantime, in 1564, active steps had been 
 taken to introduce the Protestant faith into Ireland. In 1569 Eliza- 
 beth was excommunicated by Pope Pius V. The Geraldine Des- 
 monds were practically kings of Munster, and the 16th Earl of 
 Desmond now took up arms, in 1573, for the old religion and the 
 native institutions of Ireland. The sympathies of the Catholic 
 countries of the Continent were with the Irish. But a small arma- 
 ment despatched by the Pope and the King of Spain served to rouse 
 all the energies of England against the devoted province, and to 
 clear the way for wholesale confiscations of the enormous estates of 
 Desmond (570,000 acres) and of the lands of Munster generally 
 (1584). 
 
 Some years before, Elizabeth had written to her Lord Deputy, in anticipation of a rising 
 by Shane O'Neil, to assure her lieges in Dublin that " it would be for their advantage, for there 
 will be estates for them who want." It was in this spirit that insurrections were fomented and 
 then put down. The more merciless and sweeping the confiscations, the sooner a new revolt 
 might be expected, and a new lot of estates for English adventurers. The sovereign who 
 swelled her private purse by the sale of uegro slaves from Africa, forced by English pirates 
 on the American dominions of Spain, showed no mercy to Ireland. W^ith Elizabeth's " colony " 
 in Munster began the system of planting Ireland by English adventurers, who drove out the 
 gentry to starve and reduced the free clansmen to menial and poverty-stricken laborers on the 
 lands to which, by national law, they had an equal claim. 
 • 
 
 A new rising in the North under Hugh O'Neil, the son of 
 Shane, and O'Donnel of Donnegal, assumed national proportions in 
 1598. The victory of Ballinaboy, two miles from Armagh, spread 
 panic over all the English settlers in Ireland. The Earl of Essex, 
 himself the son of an English adventurer settled in Ireland, was 
 given an army of 20,000 men and three-fourths of the EngHsh 
 annual revenue, but failed to make headway. He was disgraced in 
 consequence. 
 
 The Articles of Mellifont. — Mountjoy, his successor, was more 
 successful ; but after three years' effort, during which a Spanish 
 armament of 3400 men was obliged to capitulate at Kinsale, he 
 gave honorable terms of peace to thq Irish leaders. The war had 
 
SIXTH PERIOD. 333 
 
 absorbed all the revenue and energies of England during the last years 
 of Elizabeth. The Articles of Mellifont allowed free exercise of 
 religion, 1603. Elizabeth was already dead when these articles were 
 signed, but they were violated by her successor, James I., under 
 compulsion of the English Protestants. 
 
 Ireland under James I. — O'Neil and O'Donnel were driven 
 from Ireland by an intrigue which involved them in the suspicion of a 
 new conspiracy, and the way was now open for a '^^ colonization" of 
 Ulster. The entire province was declared a forfeit to the crown. 
 Two-thirds of the North of Ireland were given to Scotch and Eng- 
 lish settlers by a stroke of the pen. To the trading guilds of Lon- 
 don 209,800 acres were given, including Derry ; since called London- 
 derry. The ancient owners were not even to earn their living as 
 day-laborers unless they denied the supremacy of the Pope; but this 
 law could not be executed. 
 
 In the last years of James I. (died 1625) similar confiscations, 
 amounting to 450,000 acres, were carried out in the midland 
 counties of Ireland. But there was still left something for the 
 Puritans of Cromwell. 
 
 Ireland under Charles I. — The troubles between Charles I. 
 and his parliaments gave new hopes of Irish independence. These 
 aspirations were stimulated by the harsh government of his min- 
 ister, Strafford, the devious course of Charles toward his Irish 
 loyalists, and the vnsh to restore the ancient laws and rehgion. In 
 1641, just before his final break with the English parliament, 
 Charles I. had sacrificed Ireland to a momentary turn of policy, by 
 confiding its government to two Puritans, Parsons and Borlace. 
 Parsons had declared that within twelve months he would not 
 leave a Catholic in Ireland. Pym, the leader of the Puritan party 
 in England, spoke to the same effect. An Irish rising in the 
 North, under Phelim O'Neil, was stained by cruelties which were 
 the natural result of the English oppressions of Ulster. 
 
 Ireland under Cromwell. — The war thus begun was con- 
 tinued with general success for the Irish cause till the landing of 
 
334 IRELAND. 
 
 Oliver Cromwell in 1649, after the execution of Charles I. Mas- 
 sacres at Drogheda and at Wexford by his Puritan soldiers stunned 
 the opposition of other besieged towns. Cromwell remained in 
 Ireland less than a year, leaving his son-in-law, Ireton, to continue 
 the war. It was ended by the capitulations, after heroic defense, 
 of Limerick and Gal way, 1652. 
 
 The measures were now taken which completed the misery of 
 Ireland. Over 3,000,000 acres, in addition to all previous confisca- 
 tions, were taken from the Catholic owners, and only the wild and 
 barren lands of Connaught were left to the Irish Catholics. Here, 
 under penalty of outlawry, the expelled inhabitants were to congre- 
 gate before the 1st of May, 1654, and they were not to appear after- 
 wards within two miles of the Shannon or four miles of the sea. 
 
 Results of the Confiscation.— In speaking of Blarney Castle, near Cork, a writer on 
 Ireland says: "The fate of the once formidable clan of the MacCarthy is similar to that of 
 nearly all the ancient families of Ireland. The descendants in the direct line may be found 
 working as day-laborers around the ruins of castles where their forefathers had ruled ; and as 
 in many instances a period of little more than a century and a half has passed between their 
 grandeur and their degradation, it can excite no marvel if at times they indulge the idea that 
 what was swept from them by the strong tide of conquest, the eddy of events may bring back 
 to them again. We have ourselves seen the legitimate heir of one of the ancient owners and 
 rulers of West Carberry pause as he delved the soil, lean on his spade, and point to the moun- 
 tains and the valleys stretching as far as the eye could reach, and speak as if they were still his 
 own." 
 
 Of the family of Lord Roche of Fermoy, whose estates were parcelled among the soldiery 
 of Cromwell, it is related that a Lady Roche was remembered as begging charity through the 
 streets of Cork in a tattered and faded court-dress. Of the last Lord Roche, it is said that he 
 was, in the early part of the 19th century, a stable-boy in the County of Tipperary, living with 
 the servants in the kitchen, but that he would accept no wages. 
 
 The fidelity of the Irish to their religrion under these oppressions is attested by 
 exact figures. In a country of 2,000,000 people, but sixty had embraced Protestantism down to 
 the reign of James I.—Thebaud. " Irish Bace.'*^ 
 
 The Restoration of Charles II., 1660-1685, did not alle- 
 viate the condition of the Irish. The public -sentiment of England 
 was Royalist at home, but would not suffer the restoration of Irish 
 to their rights, at the expense of Cromwellians in Ireland. 
 
 Under James II., 1685-1688, little was done for Ireland, 
 except the temporary gift of religious freedom. Events related in 
 
SEVENTH PERIOD. 
 
 335 
 
 the English history led to the dethronement of this king. His 
 behavior, when seeking by Irish aid to regain his throne, did not 
 show chivalry or gain personal popularity. In the battle of the 
 Boyne, 1690, the troops of William III., his successful opponent, 
 were double the Irish force, having beside an immense superiority 
 in artillery. This defeat reflected no discredit on Irish bravery. 
 
 Map Study.— See modern map for Mellifont, Londonderry, Drogheda, Limerick. 
 
 SEVENTH PERIOD. TIMES OF THE PENAL CODE. 
 FROM 1690 TO 1782. 
 
 Notwithstanding the personal unpopularity of James II., 
 the Catholic faith of his dynasty — the exiled Stuarts — made 
 them dear to the Irish. From 1690 to the death of the last 
 Stuart "Pretender" in 1788 (Genealogy, p. 389), they endured 
 persecutions more terrible than any as yet related for the sake of 
 their religion and the 
 dynastic preference 
 which this religion 
 carried with it. 
 
 These sympathies 
 with the Catholic Stu- 
 arts, whose cause was gen- 
 erally supported or favored 
 by France, explain the im- 
 mense numbers of Irish in 
 French service through the 
 18t.h century. From the capit- 
 ulation of Limerick, 1691, 
 when 25,000 Irish soldiers were 
 allowed by the terms of capitu- 
 lation to pass under French 
 colors, till 1745, 450,000 Irish 
 soldiers died in the service of 
 France. Thirty thousand more 
 were enlisted in her armies 
 after this date. 
 
 Limerick is called "the City of the violated Treaty." The 
 terms here accorded by WiUiam III., at the conclusion of the war 
 
 The " Treaty Stone " of Limerick. 
 
336 IRELAND. 
 
 in favor of James II. , 1691, promised freedom of religion and an 
 oath of allegiance which should not include the Church supremacy 
 of the English sovereign ; but these terms were soon violated by the 
 English Parliament. They were signed on a stone near the town, 
 which has been made a monument of this breach of faith. 
 
 From the time of William III. (1688-1703), through the reign 
 of Anne (1703-1714), of George I. (1714-1727), and of George 11. 
 (1727-1760), the enactments of the Penal Code against Irish Cath- 
 olics were made more and more rigorous, and continued in force 
 until the time of the American Revolution. Then first relaxed, 
 they were not removed till 1829. The period of William III. 
 opened for Ireland with a confiscation, by the Protestant parliament 
 of that country, of 1,060,792 acres. Thus, at the time when the pro- 
 visions of the Penal Code against Catholics began to be sharpened, 
 they had been robbed, by the various confiscations, of six-sevenths 
 of the soil, without reference to the inferior value of the land still 
 left them. 
 
 The following" account of the Penal Code is from Bancroft's American History, 
 Vol. v., Chap. IV. : " Besides exclusion from Parliament and from the elective franchise, a Cath- 
 olic could not gain a place on the bench, nor act. as barrister or attorney or solicitor, nor be 
 employed as a hired clerk in courts of law, nor sit on a grand jury, nor serve as sheriff or jus- 
 tice of the peace, nor hold even the lowest civil office of trust or profit, nor have any privilege 
 in a town corporate, nor be a freeman of such corporation. 
 
 " If ' papists ' would trade and work, they must do it even in their native towns as aliens. 
 They were expressly forbidden to take more than two apprentices in any employment, except 
 in the linen manufacture only. A Catholic might not marry a Protestant. The priest who 
 should celebrate such a marriage was to be hanged. A Catholic could not be a guardian to 
 any child, nor educate his own child if the mother declared herself a Protestant ; or even if his 
 own child, however young, should profess to be a Protestant. 
 
 "None but those who conformed to the Established Church were admitted to study at the 
 Universities, nor could degrees be taken but by those who hatl taken all the test oaths and 
 declarations. No Protestant in Ireland might instnict a ' papist.' ' Papists ' could not supply 
 their want by academies and schools of their own. For a (/atholic to teach, even in a private 
 family, or as usher to a Protestant, was a felony punishable by imprisonment, exile, or death. 
 Thus 'papists' were excluded from all opportunity of education at home, except by stealth 
 and in violation of law. It might appear that schools abroad were open to them ; but, by a 
 statute of King William, to be educated in any foreign Catholic school was an unalterable and 
 perpetual outlawry. 
 
 " The child sent abroad for edacation, no matter of how tender an age, could never after sue 
 in law or equity, or be guardian, executor or administrator, or receive any legacy or deed of 
 
SEVENTH PERIOD. 337 
 
 gift. He forfeited all his good? and chattels, or forfeited for his life all his lands. Whoever 
 sent him abroad, or maintained him there, or assisted him with money, incurred the same lia- 
 bilities and penalties. The crown divided the forfeiture with the informer ; and when a person 
 was proved to have sent abroad money or a bill of exchange, on him rested the burden of prov- 
 ing that the remittance was innocent. 
 
 " The Irish Catholics wei-e not only deprived of their liberties, but even of the opportuni- 
 ties of worship except by connivance. Their clergy could not be taught at home, nor be sent for 
 education beyond seas, nor be recruited by learned ecclesiastics from abroad. Such priests as 
 wer6 permitted to reside in Ireland were required to be registered, and were kept like prisoners 
 at large within prescribed limits. By an Act under Queen Anne— all 'papists' exercising 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction, all monks, friars, and regular priests, and all priests not then 
 actually in parishes and to be registered, were banished from Ireland under pain of transporta- 
 tion, and, on return, of being hanged, drawn, and quartered. Avarice was stimulated to 
 apprehend them by promise of a reward. He that should harbor or conceal them was to be 
 stripped of all property. When the registered priests were dead, the law, which was made 
 perpetual, applied to every priest. By the laws of William and Anne, St. Patrick would have 
 been a felon. 
 
 " Any two justices might call before them any Catholic and make inquisition as to when he 
 heard Mass, who were present and what Catholic schoolmaster or priest he knew of, and the 
 penalty of refusal to answer was a fine or a year's imprisonment. The Catholic priest abjuring 
 his religion received a pension of thirty, afterwards of forty pounds. 
 
 "No nonconforming Catholic could buy land or receive it by descent, devise or settlement, 
 or lend money on it as the security, or hold an interest in it through a Protestant trustee, or 
 take a lease of ground for more than thirty-one years. If under such a lease he brought his 
 farm to produce more than one-third beyond the rent, the first Protestant discoverer might sue 
 for the lease. Even if a Catholic owned a horse worth more than five pounds, any Protestant 
 might take it away. 
 
 " The dominion of the child who became Protestant over the property of the Popish parent 
 was universal. The Catholic father could not in any degree disinherit his apostasizing son ; 
 but the child, in declaring himself a Protestant, might compel his father to confess upon oath 
 the value of his property, in which the court might out of it award the son immediate main- 
 tenance, and after the father's death any establishment it pleased." 
 
 Restrictions on Commerce and Manufactures. — As far as 
 
 exclusion from electoral rights is concerned, the Presbyterians of 
 Ulster were also included in the disabilities of the Irish. The 
 narrowness of English policy toward Ireland is illustrated by this 
 treatment of the English settlers. The importation of cattle to 
 England was forbidden, and all possible steps were taken to cripple 
 the agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial interests of the 
 island. 
 
 Catholic Relief Bills. — After half a century of this oppres- 
 sion, the first Catholic Relief Bill was passed shortly after the 
 15 
 
338 IRELAND. 
 
 beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756), in 1757. It conceded 
 only the rights of petition and of public meetings. In 1777 the 
 second Catholic Relief Bill allowed the lending of money on mort- 
 gage, the leasing of land, the right to inherit and bequeath landed 
 property. The coincidence of these measures with the Seven Years' 
 War, 1756-1763, and the American Revolution, 1776-1783, respect- 
 ively, will be noticed. The policy of propitiating Irish sentiment 
 during these times of strain on the English government is apparent. 
 Thus, in 1776, the first slight relaxation of trade restrictions was 
 made. 
 
 The Irish Volunteers. — After the capitulation of Burgoyne at 
 Saratoga and the French alliance with America (p. 288), the drain of 
 regular troops from Ireland required the passage of the Militia Bill, 
 by whiph the defence of Ireland was confided to its own volun- 
 teers. Following this creation of the Irish volunteers, and the con- 
 sequent sense of power toward England, the Irish (Protestant) 
 Parliament began to take strong ground in favor of free-trade for 
 the island. In 1780 free-trade in most respects was granted. In 
 1782 the same sense of power enabled the Irish Parliament to obtain 
 an Act of Legislative Independence for Ireland. 
 
 EIGHTH PERIOD: LEGISLATIVE INDEPENDENCE OF IRELAND. 
 
 1 782- 1 800. 
 
 The Irish Parliament was limited, as before, to Protestants, 
 and was not, even under this limitation, a truly representative body. 
 Still, this period of legislative independence did much to break 
 down the divisions of religious jealousy and intolerance. 
 
 In 1793 was passed an act of Catholic Emancipation from all 
 provisions of the Penal Code, except that afie'cting the right to hold 
 the highest offices of state, to sit in the Parliament, or act as judge. 
 These beginnings of conciliatory tendencies towards the Cathohcs 
 were naturally developed by the events of the French Revolution 
 (after 1789), and the consequent sympathies of all conservative 
 
EIGHTH PERIOD. 
 
 839 
 
 interests. In 1795 was established the Catholic College of May- 
 nooth, the first since the reign of James I., when the last Catholic 
 College of Ireland, St 
 Nicholas at Gal way, was 
 closed, for non-con- 
 formity of the Principal. 
 Meantime, the 
 spread of French 
 Revolutionary prin- 
 ciples over Europe, un- 
 settling all society and 
 government, although 
 carrying also some true 
 ideas as to the rights 
 of the governed and 
 the injustice of social 
 oppressions, divided Ire- 
 land in two parties. 
 The Revolutionary 
 prejudice against sovereigns in general harmonized with Irish 
 aspirations for independence from England. Thus the Irish peas- 
 antry, the Presbyterians, and the extreme advocates of French prin- 
 ciples, were combined in sympathies against the conservative sen- 
 timents of the Catholics of the upper orders and of the Anglo-Irish 
 loyalists. 
 
 The terrors of England were excited by the menacing attitude 
 of the French toward England (especially following the rise of 
 Bonaparte, after 1795), by various landings of French expeditions in 
 Ireland, and by the constantly threatening preparation of more 
 formidable expeditions than really appeared. 
 
 The Irish rising in 1798, under direction of the United 
 Irishmen (organized since 1791), was therefore put down with piti- 
 less and relentless cruelty (Battle of Vinegar Hill). Meantime, the 
 Irish volunteers had been suppressed, since 1793, on account of 
 
 The Parliament House in Dublin before the Union. 
 {Now the Bank of Ireland.) 
 
340 IRELAND. 
 
 the cliange of parties and of .sentiment toward England following 
 the outbreak of the French Revolution. 
 
 The harsh proscriptions of the Protestant parliament after the 
 rising, alienated the Irish national feeling in favor of continued 
 legislative independence. On the other hand, the anti-French and 
 anti-revolutionary sentiments, common to England and so many 
 Irish, favored the legislative union with England. This was made 
 in 1800. 
 
 IREUND SINCE THE PARLIAMENTARY UNION OF 1800. 
 
 The general state of the country during the next few years, 
 the period when the career of Bonaparte constantly excited hopes 
 of independence, may be argued from the army force kept in Ire- 
 land. In 1803 an army of 50,000 militia was under arms and pay, 
 besides a force of 70,000 enrolled volunteers. 
 
 In this year took place the miscarriage of the rising headed by 
 the gifted Robert Emmett, his consequent execution, and famous 
 death-speech. 
 
 Catholic Emancipation. — Meantime the agitation for Catholic 
 representation continued. It assumed colossal proportions after 
 1821, under the leadership of Daniel O'Connell. In 1828 this great 
 man took the decisive step of procuring his election to Parliament 
 in County Clare, in advance of any relief of Catholic parliamentary 
 disability, and presented himself at the bar of the House of Com- 
 mons. The Relief Bill, proposed in consequence of his step, pro- 
 cured Catholic emancipation in 1829. O'Connell himself was 
 obliged to procure a re-election, as the Relief Bill was not allowed 
 to react on his individual election, made before its passage. 
 
 " A lofty column on the walls of Derry bore the effigy of Bishop Walker, who fell at the 
 Boyne, armed with a sword, typical of his martial inclinations rather than of his religious call- 
 ing. Many long years had his sword— sacred to liberty or ascendency, according to the eyes 
 with which the spectator regarded it— turned its steadfast point to the broad estuary of Lough 
 Foyle. Neither wintry storms nor summer rains had loosened it in the grasp of the warlike 
 churchman's effigy, until, on the 13th day of April, 1829— the day the royal signature was given 
 
EIGHTH PERIOD. 341 
 
 to the Act of Emancipation— the sword of Walker fell with a prophetic crash upon the ram- 
 parts of Derry and was shattered to pieces."— (ilfc(ree.) 
 
 After 1840 O'Connell began an agitation for Eepeal of the 
 Union (Home-rule), by public meetings which reached colossal pro- 
 portions. The English government interfered, forbade the meet- 
 ings, and prosecuted the great orator and his associates. He was 
 fined and sentenced to a year's imprisonment. The sentence was 
 reversed by the House of Lords after three months. O'Connell died 
 in 1847 at Genoa. 
 
 After the terrible famines of 1846 and 1847 began an enormous 
 emigration to America, amounting since that time to about 4,000,000, 
 in addition to the earlier emigration. Georgia, North Carolina and 
 South Carolina were originally mainly settled by Irish. 
 
 Disestablishment of the Irish Church. — Next in importance 
 to the Emancipation Act of 1829 must be placed the disestablish- 
 ment of the English State Church in Ireland, under the Premier- 
 ship of Gladstone, in 1869. Down to this year Ireland had been 
 taxed for the support of an English State Church which did not repre- 
 sent even the bulk of Irish Protestants, who were Presbyterians. 
 
 Agricultural Distress.— Under the conditions established by the English confiscations 
 in and after the time of Elizabeth, all details of Irish history sink into hisignificance before 
 one grand disturbing element— the constant agricultural discontent and suffering. The oppres- 
 sive treatment which began with confiscation was continued toward the dispossessed population. 
 This harshness of treatment was increased by the difference of race between conquerors and 
 conquered. The evil of " absenteeism," i. e., of the residence of the foreign land-owners in 
 England, prevented the establishment of local ties and sympathies between landlords and 
 tenants. The system of short annual leases, and the law which deprives the tenant farmer of 
 any right to his own improvements, the habit of managing the confiscated estates by middle- 
 men, whose only interest is the extortion of the largest sum of money, and the generally 
 oppressive laws as to Irish industry and trade, have produced the frightful state of pauperism 
 in Ireland which still continues. 
 
 Criminal outrages and violence were the natural result. Among the soldiers disbanded 
 'after the Treaty of Limerick began the combination afterwards* kuown as Kapparees and 
 White Boys. These first became prominent in the disorders which broke out in Tipperaiy 
 between 1760 and 1775. Similar bands of peasants, leagued against the oppressive land system, 
 were known in 1785 as Right-boys. At the same time an organization in Ulster, which visited 
 and searched the houses of C;itholics for concealed arms, was known as that of the " Peep- 
 o'-day Boys," the precursors of the Orange Association. (The Orange Lodges were founded 
 f^fter 1775.) Thejr were opposed by the "Defenders," afterwards absorbed in the "United 
 
342 IRELAND. 
 
 Irishmen," founded by Theobald Wolfe Tone in 1791. These again appear after 1798 as 
 "KibbonMen." 
 
 The Fenian orgranization of our own time is a later development of associated 
 secret resistance to English oppression. 
 
 The Land-leagrue, headed by Mr. Pamell, was a combination to effect, by legitimate 
 means and the pressure of public sentiment, a permanent 
 improvement in the Irish land-laws and in the condition of 
 the Irish peasantry. Evictions for non-payment of rent, 
 supported by constabulary and soldiers, roused Ireland in 
 1881 to a pitch of excitement which led the English govern- 
 ment to proclaim martial l:iw. This exertion of military 
 force against an entire class of unfortunate debtors, whose 
 ^^. misery has been caused by an oppressive system, is without 
 a parallel in the history of nations. 
 ^\ In 1882 a Relief Bill was passed by the Gladstone 
 
 ■ " Ministry, conceding to farmer tenants a system of govern- 
 
 mental commissions, with power to lessen rents. This step 
 •1 if^^/^^^^^^' •^^ ' was supported by the appointment of a Lord Lieutenant and 
 
 Charles S Pamell Chief Secretary to the charge of Irish afliairs known to be 
 
 acceptable to the Land-league ; but a band of revolutionists 
 caused the assassination of the Chief Secretary, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and the Under- 
 Secretary Burke. This crime was committed to block the conciliatory policy inaugurated, 
 and to embitter once more the antagonism of races, and of history. The discovery of the 
 guilty association was effected, and the trial and execution of the assassins followed; but 
 the unhappy results for Ireland will be long apparent. 
 
 Distinguished Irishmen.— Notwithstanding her misfortunes and op- 
 pressions, Ireland has contributed more than her share to the distinguished 
 men of Great Britain. In oratory and eloquence her renown begins especially 
 with the names of Henry Flood, Henry Grattan, and John Philpot Curran, be- 
 fore and during the legislative independence of Ireland. A still greater Irish- 
 man, Edmund Burke (before and during the French Revolution), was probably 
 at once the mo.st brilliant and the most solid mind of all British statesmen. 
 
 Of the same time are Barre, famed for his defense in the English Parliament 
 of the American Colonies, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan (speech against 
 Warren Hastings). Of the following period are Daniel O'Connell and Richard 
 Lalor Shiel. 
 
 The great virtue of Irish eloquence, as represented by these illustrious men, 
 is its union of inspired expression, with solid argument and logical debating 
 power. No orator of English birth has ever reached the same combination of 
 sense and form. To Ireland belongs also the name of Arthur Wellesley, Lord 
 Wellington, victor of Waterloo (p. 297). 
 
 In English literature the 18th century boasts, in its early period, of 
 the famous Dean Swift and Richard Steele, the associate of Addison in the 
 
DISTINGUISHED NAMES. 343 
 
 " Spectator," as names belonging to Ireland. Oliver Goldsmith and Lawrence 
 Sterne belong to the middle of the 18th century. To the latter part of the 18th 
 century belongs Sir Phillip Francis, reputed author of the Letters of Junius. 
 Miss Edgeworth, the novelist, and Thomas Moore, the poet, belong to the close 
 of the 18th and opening of the 19th century. Sheridan, already mentioned as an 
 orator, was also distinguished as a dramatic author. 
 
 In philosophy and metaphysics Great Britain can boast no more illustrious 
 name than Bishop Berkeley, first half of the 18th century. Balfe and Sullivan, 
 the two distinguished musical composers of England in the 19th century, are 
 Irish ; also James Sheridan Knowles and Boucicault, the dramatists. 
 
 In foreign countries, during the 18th century, the Irish held conspicuous 
 positions. The Governor of Cadiz and Spanish Ambassador at the Court of 
 Louis XVI., was Alexander O'Reilly. Another O'Reilly saved the remnant of 
 the Austrians at Austerlitz, and in the Austrian array list of the century there 
 are forty Irish names holding ranks from Colonel to Field-Marshal. 
 
 In French service the Irish were too numerous for individual mention. 
 General MacMahon, the hero of Magenta (p. 298), and late President of the 
 French Republic, is a descendant of one of these Irish-French families. 
 
 Among distinguished men of Irish blood in America, besides 
 the famous Patrick Henry, are nine of the signers of the Declaration of Inde 
 pendence, and six who took part in framing the Constitution. Of the Revolu- 
 tionary heroes, Montgomery, Moylan, Sullivan, Wayne, Clinton, Stark, Knox, 
 Hand, Dillon, were Irish. The same holds of Commodore John Barry, "the 
 father of the American Navy ; " of George Clinton, first Governor of New York ; 
 Robert Fulton, American inventor of the steamboat ; De Witt Clinton, pro- 
 moter of the Erie Canal ; of John C. Calhoun, the South Carolina statesman; 
 Gen. Andrew Jackson ; and of Commodores Stewart, Shaw, and McDonough, 
 the latter all prominent in the war of 1812. 
 
 Sixteen thousand Irish soldiers fought on the side of the Colonies in the 
 War of the Revolution. In the Union armies of the late civil war were one 
 hundred and fifty-five thousand of Irish birth, and nearly double that number 
 of Irish descent. Large numbers also fought for the Confederates. 
 
 For many of the statistics and names quoted above, acknowledgment is made to Eev. James 
 J. Brennan's " Catechism of Irish History." 
 
 Special acknowledgments for this abridgment are due Rev. Father Thebaud's " Irish Race,'" 
 and Darcy McGee's valuable Summary of Irish History. The te^t of the latter especially has 
 been freely used. 
 
344 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 REVIEW OF THE PERIODS OF IRISH HISTORY. 
 
 Celtic and Phoenician Period, ante-dating b. c. 1000, until a.d. 432 
 
 Great time of Irish Christian learning and influence " 432- 794 
 
 Time of the Northmen and Danish Piracies, to Brian Boru '* 794-1014 
 
 Period of Provincial Kings to the Norman-English Invasion. ... *' 1014-1170 
 
 Period of Anglo-Norman settlement ** 1170-1509 
 
 Period of English Encroachment, Confiscation, and Violence. .. '* 1509-1690 
 
 Period of the Penal Code and Commercial Oppression " 1690-1782 
 
 Period of Legislative Independence " 1782-1800 
 
 Period since the Union ** 1800 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Celtic settlement from Spain of unknown antiquity. 
 
 Phoenician commerce as early as B. o. 1300 
 
 The famous royal palace at Emania, about " 300 
 
 Irish colony in Argyle founded A. d. 258 
 
 St. Patrick's mission " 432 
 
 St. Columbkill died " 596 
 
 St. Cohimbanus died " 615 
 
 Danish invasions began " 794 
 
 Kenneth McAlpine subdues the Picts " 843 
 
 Battle of Clontarf ends the Danish invasions " 1014 
 
 Norman settlements after : "■ 1170 
 
 Statutes of KUkenny " 1367 
 
 Richard II.'s invasions, just before " 1400 
 
 Henry \'1II. acknowledged by an Irish Parliament " 1541 
 
 Shane O'Niel died " 1566 
 
 Elizabeth's conflscatious in Munster " 1584 
 
 Articles of Mellifont. Confiscations in Ulster " 1608 
 
 Irish Revolt subdued by Cromwell and Ireton " 1658 
 
 Irish war in support of James II. Battle of the Boyne " 1690 
 
 Rights of petition and public meeting granted " 1757 
 
 Second Relief Bill " 1777 
 
 Legislative Independence " 178S 
 
 Rising of the United Irishmen " 1798 
 
 Legislative Union " 1800 
 
 Catholic Emancipation " 1829 
 
 O'Connell's agitation for Repeal of the Union, after " 1840 
 
 Famine and immense Emigration to America in 1846 and " 1847 
 
 Disestablishment of the Protestant State Church " 1869 
 
 Agitation of the Land League after *' 1880 
 
TABLE OF IRISH HISTORY. 345 
 
 TABLE OF IRISH HISTORY SINCE THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO EMPHASIZE 
 THE RELATIVE DURATION OF THE PERIODS. 
 
 1st Century.— Druid Celtic Civilization. 
 2d Century.— " " " 
 
 3d Century.— " 
 
 4th Century.— 
 
 .5th Century.— Christian Celtic Civilization. 
 
 6th Century.- 
 
 7th Century. 
 
 8th Century.— 
 
 9th Century.— Danish Piracies. 
 
 10th Century.- 
 
 11th Century.— Local Kings. 
 
 12th Century.— Local Kings and Anglo-Norman Settlements. 
 
 l?th Century.— Normans amalgamate with the Irish. 
 
 14th Century.- 
 
 15th Century.- 
 
 16th Century.— English Land-tenure and Confiscation. 
 
 17th Century. 
 
 18th Century.— Penal Code. 
 
 19th Century,— Partial Emancipation. 
 
146 IRELAND 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON IRISH HISTORY. 
 
 FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 From what country was Ireland probably settled by the Celts ? (P. 309.) 
 
 Of what race is the Irish nation a member? 
 
 To Avhat family of nations does this race belong ? (P. 31.) 
 
 Name the other races of this family. (P. 31.) 
 
 Name the remaining great families of language. (P. 31,) 
 
 To what family of nations do the Phoenicians belong ? (P. 32.) 
 
 What civilizations did they unite and spread V (P. 25.) 
 
 How early did they reach Ireland ? (P. 27.) 
 
 From what place besides Syria and Carthage did they saD there ? (P. 308.) 
 
 Mention characteristics of the Irish nation, and similar traits in other peoples of the same 
 race ? Compare p. 174. 
 
 Why is Ireland the most characteristic representative of these general race tendencies ? 
 (Pp. 308, 309.) 
 
 What were the peculiar institutions, forms of government, and social life of early Ireland ? 
 (Pp. 310, 311.) 
 
 When does her first historic period end ? 
 
 What resistance was ofiered Christianity ? 
 
 What Inference as to earlier Irish civilization ? 
 
 What is the date for St. Patrick's mission ? 
 
 Were there Christians already in Ireland ? 
 
 What great revolution in Roman history was taking place in the century of St. Patrick ? 
 
 Did this revolution aflfect Ireland ? 
 
 What influence on the succeeding centuries of Irish history ? (P. 313.) 
 
 How do you show the power and glory of Ireland at this- time ? (Pp. 313-319.) 
 
 Mention distinguished Saints, missionaries, men of learning, and give details of their indi- 
 vidual lives. 
 
 SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What were the leading Irish schools ? 
 What famous monastery near the coast of Scotland ? 
 What famous monastery on the coast of Northumbria ? 
 What is the name and time of the Irish Apostle of Northumbria f 
 How is the name Scotland derived ? 
 When was the Irish colony in Scotland first settled ? 
 When did a king of this colony subdue the Picts ? His name ? (P. 817.) 
 When were the Lowlands of Scotland added to this kingdom ? (P. 818.) 
 How had they been civilized ? 
 
 Name once more the date when the Picts were subdued, and the kings of the Irish line 
 became supreme in Scotland * 
 
 What contemporary event of French and German history ? (P. 155.) 
 When did the Danish invasions begin ? 
 
QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 347 
 
 What towns did the Danes settle ? 
 
 What battle Anally stopped the incursions, and what was the date ? 
 
 What Irish king died in this battle ? 
 
 What was the character of his reign ? 
 
 What was the character of the following period as to government ? 
 
 Why was a strong monarchy not developed in Ireland ? 
 
 What were the local divisions of the country at this time ? 
 
 And the corresponding families ? (Pp. 322, 323.) 
 
 What were the features of English history in the 11th century ? (P. 323.) 
 
 THIRD REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 When did the Normans invade Ireland ? 
 
 What general causes ? 
 
 What particular cause ? 
 
 Who was the king of England at the time ? 
 
 Was he a Norman? Ans. No ; he belonged to the House of Anjou (p. 187). 
 
 What were the relations between the English kings and Norman barons in Ireland ? 
 
 Did this tend to prevent a Norman conquest of Ireland ? 
 
 What other causes prevented it ? 
 
 What was the broadest extent of the English Pale ? The narrowest extent ? 
 
 What became generally of the Normans in Ireland ? 
 
 What statutes show the tendency to amalgamation by trying to forbid it ? (P. 328.) 
 
 Name the English kings between Henry II. and Edward I.? (P. 327.) 
 
 Were they present in Ireland ? 
 
 What defeat did Edward 11. suffer in Scotland ? 
 
 What result for Irish history ? 
 
 What became of David Bruce ? 
 
 Why did confiscations result ? (P. 328.) 
 
 What families built up their fortunes by these confiscations ? (P. 328.) 
 
 Which headed the English interest ? 
 
 FOURTH REVIEW LESSOK. 
 
 Name the English kings after Edward I. to Richard II. ? Ans. Edward II., Edward in. 
 What king among these came over to Ireland ? (P. 329.) 
 What expeditions show the general independence of the country at the time ? 
 How long before 1400 were these expeditions? 
 Name the English kings after 1400 to Henry VH. ? (P. 329.) 
 Why were these kings not connected with Ireland ? (P. 329.) 
 What family practically ruled Ireland in the time of Henry VII. ? (P. 330.) 
 How did a country so independent so easily acknowledge the authority of Henry VIII. f 
 (P. 330.) 
 
 When was this ? (P. 331.) 
 
 Give the dates for the reign of Edward VI. (P. 331.) 
 
348 IRELAND. 
 
 What was the course of events for Ireland now ? 
 
 Give the dates for Queen Mary ? (P. 331.) 
 
 What transformation in the land system still went on ? 
 
 What relation has Mary's reign to the reign of Elizabeth as to Irish matters ? 
 
 What province was Anglicized under Mary ? 
 
 What are the dates for the reign of Elizabeth ? (Pp. 331, 333.) 
 
 What Irish chieftain held Elizabeth in check ? 
 
 When did he die ? 
 
 When was Elizabeth excommunicated ? 
 
 When did the rising of the Geraldine Desmonds of Munster take place ? 
 
 With what result ? 
 
 When were the confiscations of Munster accomplished ? 
 
 FIFTH KEVIEW LESSOl^. 
 
 When was the next Irish rising against the oppressor ? 
 
 Who were the generals of the English ? 
 
 What was their success ? 
 
 What were the Articles of Mellifont? 
 
 When were they made ? 
 
 When did Elizabeth die ? 
 
 Who was her successor ? 
 
 How did he keep the Articles of Mellifont ? 
 
 In what province were the confiscations now made ? 
 
 What province had been " colonized " by Elizabeth ? 
 
 What province had been Anglicized under Mary ? 
 
 What province had been mainly always in the limits of the English Pale ? Ans. Meath. 
 
 Who succeeded James I, ? 
 
 What acts of Charles I. caused disaffection in Ireland? 
 
 When did this disaffection end in revolt ? 
 
 Who suppressed this revolt ? 
 
 By what massacres ? 
 
 What became of the Irish Catholics ? 
 
 Give the approximate time of Cromwell— of the Restoration ? (P. 834.) 
 
 What English king after Cromwell ? 
 
 What was done to relieve Ireland from the Cromwellians ? 
 
 Who succeeded Charles IL ? 
 
 What events led to his overthrow ? Sec English history. 
 
 Where did he attempt retrieval ? (P. 335.) 
 
 Qive the date for his defeat and name the battle. 
 
 SIXTH REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What treaty concluded this war ? 
 Who was English king? His date ? (P. 336.> 
 What were the conditions of the treaty ? (P. 836.) 
 How were they kept ? 
 
QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 349 
 
 Why did the Irish Catholics sympathize with the cause of the Stuart? ? (P. 335.) 
 
 How did they show this sympathy ? (P. 335.) 
 
 What was the amount of French enlistments of Irish in the 18th century ? 
 
 What confiscation in the reign of William III. ? 
 
 How much laud was left for Irish Catholics ? (P. 3:36.) 
 
 Mention provisions of the Penal Code ? 
 
 Under what sovereigns was this Code elaborated ? 
 
 Give the dates for Anne, George I., George II. 
 
 When was the Penal Code first relaxed ? 
 
 What are the dates for the Seven Years' W^ar ? (P. 338.) 
 
 When was a Second Relief Bill passed ? 
 
 Name its provisions ? 
 
 What are the dates for the American Revolution ? (P. 388.) 
 
 What led to the creation of the Irish Volunteers ? 
 
 How did this aJBEect the Irish Protestant Parliament as regards England f 
 
 What measure was therefore passed ? 
 
 What was the period of legislative independence ? 
 
 What influence on Ireland and the Penal Code ? 
 
 What great statesmen before and during this period ? (P. 342.) 
 
 What Catholic College was established in 1795 ? (P. ^39.) 
 
 SEVENTH REVIEW LESS0:N^. 
 
 What leading event of European history at this time ? 
 What influence on Irish parties ? 
 What rising followed ? 
 What was the date ? 
 
 What body was active in harsh measures afterward ? 
 How did this favor the legislative union of Ireland and England ? 
 What sympathies worked in the same direction ? 
 What is the date for the Legislative Union ? 
 What great event followed ? 
 Give the date. 
 
 Name the man who secured this result. 
 What was his subsequent effort ? 
 What success ' 
 
 What event stands next in importance to Catholic emancipation ? (P. 341.) 
 What general feature of Irish history is more important than its details since the English 
 Confiscations ? (P. 341.) 
 
 What fraternities and organizations have resulted ? 
 What names among English statesmen belong to Ireland ? 
 What names in English letters belong to Ireland ? 
 What part has been played by the Irish in Europe ? 
 What leading names of American history belong to Ireland ? 
 
350 IRELAND. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 What great event of European history took place in the 5th century b. c. ? (Pp. 143-146.) 
 
 How long after St. Patrick's mission did the Anglo-Saxons invade England ? (P. 145.) 
 
 How long before St. Patrick's mission did the Visigoths establish their empire in Spain and 
 France ? (P. 143.) 
 
 Same question as to the Burgundians in France. (P. 144.) 
 
 Same question as to the Vandals in Africa. (P. 144.) 
 
 How long after St. Patrick's mission was the great battle with the Huns ? (P. 145.) 
 
 How long after this date did Clovis establish the Frankish State ? (P. 148.) 
 
 How long after this date did Theodoric establish the Ostrogoth State in Italy ? (P. 146.) 
 
 How long after 432 did Alboin found the Lombard State in Italy ? (P. 147.) 
 
 How long after 432 was the Christian mission of Augustine to the Anglo-Saxons ? (P. 149.) 
 
 What Anglo-Saxon State rose to importance after 600 ? Am. Northumbria. 
 
 How long before died Columbkill, and how long after died Columbanus ? 
 
 What Anglo-Saxon State was important after 700 ? Am. Mercia. 
 
 What Anglo-Saxon State was important after 800 ? Ans. Wessex. 
 
 What was the relative state of Irish civilization at this time ? 
 
 What led to a decline of Irish civilization after 800 ? 
 
 What shows that this decline was merely relative ? Am. The continued ascendency of Irish 
 culture over Scotland. 
 
 When did the Northmen first invade Ireland ? 
 
 When did they first invade England ? 
 
 When did they settle France ? 
 
 Who was king of England at the time of the battle of Clontarf ? 
 
 Who was French sovereign in the time of Brian Boru, 1014 ? (P, 180.) 
 
 Who was German sovereign ? (P. 163.) 
 
 How much later was the First Crusade ? (P. 183.) 
 
 Who was French king in the time of Roderick O'Connor ? (P. 182.) 
 
 Who was German sovereign at this time? (P. 163.) 
 
 What were leading events of European history between 1170 and 1509 ? (Pp. 170, 209.) 
 
 Who was Emperor when Henry VITI. was acknowledged king of Ireland in 1541 ? (P. 228.) 
 
 Who was the natural ally of Ireland in the time of Elizabeth ? Am. Spain. 
 
 What prevented James I. and Charles I, fi-om justly treating Ireland ? Am. The theory of 
 an English State Church supremacy, making religions conformity essential to political unity. 
 
 What caused the cruel treatment of Ireland in the 18th century ? Am. Hanoverian dread 
 of the Stuarts and their Catholic sympathizers. 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 ENGLAND BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 Our first information as to the early inhabitants of Britain dates frotib 
 the time of the invasion of Julius Caesar (p. 105). In 55 B. c. the Conqueror of 
 Gaul landed on the island, and repeated his expedition in the following year. 
 No settlement or conquest resulted from these expeditions. They were in- 
 tended to overawe the inhabitants and prevent combinations for assisting and 
 Inciting revolt among the recently subjugated Celtic tribes of Gaul. 
 
 The ancient British were of the same Celtic race, and the accounts 
 given by Caesar of the Gallic 
 tribes supplement his accounts 
 of the British, with whom he 
 was so short a time in contact. 
 We are also assisted by our 
 knowledge of the Irish Celts, 
 which is more perfect, to a gen- 
 eral conception of the British. 
 
 Their condition was in- 
 ferior to that of their Gallic 
 and Irish brothers, but was far 
 superior to that of the mere 
 barbarism sometimes imagined. 
 Phoenician commerce was not 
 without its influence. The tin 
 
 mines of Cornwall and the Scilly Islands had, from the 14th century b. c, 
 brought Phoenician navigators to Britain. The lead mines of Somerset and the 
 iron mines of Northumberland were also worked in antiquity. Gold coins were 
 used before the Roman invasion, arguing not only a certain civilization, but 
 showing also in their design an influence derived from the Greeks of Marseilles 
 and Southern France. 
 
 The famous remains of Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, are 
 
 Stonehenge. 
 
352 ENGLAND. 
 
 among the most remarkable of the stone Celtic monuments common to Britain, 
 Ireland, and France, Caesar, in his account of the Druids, the priests of 
 Celtic paganism, says that those of France made studies in Britain. 
 
 FIRST. SECOND. THIRD, AND FOURTH CENTURIES. 
 
 Nearly a century elapsed after Oaesar^s visit before the 
 Eomans again set foot in Britain. Meantime the influence of com- 
 merce, and intercourse with the Romanized Celts of Gaul, Avas pre- 
 paring a way for the conquest to be accomphshed. Here, as else- 
 where, Roman conquest was a process owing its permanence to the 
 civilization which partly went before, and which, partly coming 
 after, solidified and strengthened the victories of force. 
 
 It was in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, a. d. 43, 
 that the general Aulus Plautius began the permanent Roman occu- 
 pation of the Island. It was in the reigns of the Emperors Ves- 
 pasian, Titus, and Domitian that Agricola completed the conquest, 
 A. D. 78-84. A line running between the Friths of Forth and 
 Clyde — i. e., between Edinburgh and Glasgow — was the boundary on 
 the North, and here was constructed a Roman wall, in the times of 
 the Emperor Antoninus Pius, of which vestiges still remain. 
 
 Roman Remains. — A more remarkable work was the earher 
 wall of Hadrian, seventy miles in length, between the Rivers Tyne 
 and Solway. Its ruins are a testimony not only to the engineering 
 skill and science of the Romans, but also to the barbaric valor of 
 the Celtic Picts of the Scottish Highlands, and to the care which 
 protected the rest of Britain from their ravages. Beyond the wall 
 of Antonine, Scotland is covered with vestiges of Roman camps of 
 the armies sent against the Picts. Some of these camps are esti- 
 mated to have held armies of 30,000 men, and along the wall of 
 Hadrian at least 15,000 soldiers must have been kept in garrison. 
 
 For the condition of Britain under Boman mle the matter explanatory of the 
 Empire in general is in point (pp. 136-130). All its provinces resemble one another in the 
 description there given. Besides the ruins of the fortifications mentioned, remains of the 
 Roman period stUl exist in mosaic pavements of villas and town houses, and in subterranean 
 constructions for the heating of buildings. Coins, and minor works of art and industry are 
 
FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES, 
 
 353 
 
 abundantly found. On a coin of Hadrian appears the first figure of Britannia. The names of 
 towns ending in "■ Chester " indicate a Koman origin— from castmm or castra, camp. Names 
 ending in "coin " also indicate Roman origin— from colonia, colony. 
 
 Th.e early diffusion of Christianity among the Roman British is attested by the firm 
 support given the Emperor Constantine during his rise to power by his British legions. 
 Names of the Bishops from Britain appear ia ecclesiastical synods of the 4th century. The 
 first British martyr, St. Alban, died at Verulam in England during the persecution under 
 Diocletian, in 304. 
 
 Map Study.— See modern maps for the Forth, the Clyde, Edinburgh, Glasgow, the Tyne, 
 the Solway. 
 
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 P^ 
 
 W^ 
 
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 P^ 
 
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 ^^B 
 
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 FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 In the opening of the 5th century after Christ, Britain 
 had been a Roman province for a longer period than is covered by 
 its whole Protestant 
 history. It was in 
 A. D. 411, in conse- 
 quence of the troubles 
 in Italy, France, and 
 Spain resulting from 
 the invasions of the 
 German tribes (p. 
 144), that the Em- 
 peror Honorius with- 
 drew the Roman Brit- 
 ish legions for service on the Continent. Britain was not at the 
 moment in apparent danger, nor was it intended to abandon the 
 province permanently. But the thickening disasters of the Conti- 
 nental provinces kept the island deprived of her regular military 
 force. The Picts of the Highlands grew continually bolder and 
 more successful in their predatory expeditions. In these they 
 were assisted by "Scots" from Ireland and the Irish settlement 
 in Argyle, and by pirates from the tribes of North Germany. 
 
 Amongr the tribes of Q-ermany, those on the Baltic shore and on the North Sea had 
 been naturally most remote from Roman influence. They were therefore not Christians, as 
 were, for instance, the Goths. By nature they were the dullest, as they were in locality the 
 least favored, of the Germans. The three tribes which effected the conquest of England were 
 
 Roman Ruin at Leicester. 
 
354 ENGLAND. 
 
 known to the Bomans, by a general name given to the population of North Gennany, as 
 Saxons. The Saxons who settled in England were from the modem province of Holstein. 
 Above them, in Sleswick, were the closely related Angles. Most powerful of the league, their 
 name was adopted by it, and gave the name to England. In the Peninsula of Jutland (Den- 
 mark) were settled the Jutes, whose bands landed first in Kent under Hengist and Horsa. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons, under which name the Jutes are included, 
 although long known along the east coast of England as piratical 
 marauders, and just previously engaged in hostile attacks on 
 Britain, had been employed by the British to protect them from the 
 Picts and Scots. Quarrels as to pay arose and, instead of hired pro- 
 tectors, the Anglo-Saxons became the conquerors and exterminators 
 of the British, a. d. 449. (See p. 145.) 
 
 The German settlement of England differs remarkably from the German settle- 
 ments of other Roman provinces. The East and West-Goths, Franks, and Lombards were 
 
 joined to the subjugated Roman popula- 
 tions by the ties of religion. The con- 
 querors settled among the conquered, 
 respecting their superior civilization and 
 striving to acquire it. But the conquest 
 of Britain was one of dispossession and 
 extermination. The wealthier and edu- 
 cated British, who escaped the sword, fled 
 to France— especially to Brittany, hence 
 named— or they crowded toward the moun- 
 tains of Wales, and lost their habits of 
 British and Saxon Relics, found in the Thames. refinement in the distress of poverty and 
 
 of warfare, and in the forced association 
 with their more illiterate peasant brethren. The conquest of England was not rapid or im- 
 mediate. Its gradual process did not, however, lead to a mixture of British and Anglo-Saxons. 
 The latter remained pagans. 
 
 KINGDOMS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN ORDER OF FOUNDATION. 
 
 Kent Y'^f 
 
 Sussex (South Saxons) " ^"'^ 
 
 Wessex (West Saxons) " ^^^ 
 
 Essex (East Saxons) 
 
 Bernicia " ^^'^ 
 
 Deira " 5«« 
 
 East Anijlia ^''^ 
 
 Mercia " ^®' 
 
. SEVENTH AND EIGHTH CENTtJRTES. 355 
 
 Map Study, with reference to Modern Map of England.— The position of 
 Mercia was that most advanced toward the west m middle England. It lay in the upper 
 valley of the Trent, by which river line middle England was invaded, and spread from that 
 centre. East Anglia lay mainly between the Ouse and Stour, comprehending the counties 
 of Norfolk and Suffolk (North-folk and South-folk). Deira lay between the Humber and Tees. 
 Bernicia lay between Tees and Forth. The positions of Essex, Kent, and Sussex are 
 implied in those of the modern counties. The kingdom of "Wessex first centred about Win- 
 chester, was bounded on the east by Essex, Kent, and Sussex, and on the west had a grad- 
 ually extending border, reaching to the Severn after 552. 
 
 Down to the year 600, one hundred and fifty years after the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon 
 settlements, the British had maintained possession of the whole western side of Britain. The 
 extension of the kingdom of Wessex to the west had already, however, in reaching the Severn, 
 separated "West Wales " (Somerset and Cornwall) from "North Wales" ; corresponding to 
 the modern Wales, but reaching further east (to the Severn). 
 
 In 607, the same king Ethelfrith who united Bernicia and Deira in one Northumbrian king- 
 dom, pushed its territory westward to Chester and then added to it Lancashire. Thus the 
 British were parted into three divided and therefore weakened sections. North of Lancashire 
 lay the third British State, reaching to the Clyde and called Strathclyde. (That part of Strath- 
 clyde lying below the present English border was called Cumbria.) Southern Scotland was thus 
 far, therefore, on the west, part of a British State, and on the east, part of Anglo-Saxon North- 
 umbria. Beyond the Forth and Clyde were the Picts, of the same Celtic race with the British, 
 and in Argyle and spreading gradually beyond it, the Irish " Scots," also of the same blood 
 with Picts and British, and at this time superior to either. 
 
 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH CENTURIES. 
 
 England about 600 A. D. — In the constant changes of fron- 
 tier during the expulsion of the British and the wars between the 
 different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, the year 600, not far removed from 
 the first beginnings of Mercian power, is a convenient dividing date. 
 It was just after this year, in 603, that Bernicia and Deira were united 
 as the kingdom of Northumbria, thus reducing the " octarchy " of 
 kingdoms to a " heptarchy." The date 600 also fixes the time at 
 which the heathenism of the Anglo-Saxons began to yield to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 The first Christian missions arrived in England in 597, 
 despatched from Rome by Pope Gregory the Great. The rival of 
 the Northumbrian Ethelfrith was Ethelbert, king of Kent, whose 
 sway extended also over Essex and East Anglia. The marriage of 
 Ethelbert with Bercta, daughter of a Frankish Merovingian king 
 (Charibert), opened the way for the mission headed by Augustine. 
 
356 ENGLAND. 
 
 For Bercta, herself a Christian, came to Kent accompanied by a 
 Christian bishop. 
 
 " Tears before, when but a young deacon, Gregory had noticed the white bodies, the fair 
 faces, the golden hair of some youths who stood bound in the market-place of Rome. ' From 
 what country do these slaves come?' he asked the traders who brought them. 'They are 
 Angles,' the slave-dealers answered. The deacon's pity veiled itself in poetic humor. ' Not 
 Angles, but angels,' he said, ' with faces so angel-hke. From what country come they f ' ' They 
 come,' said the merchants, ' from Deira.' ' De irS,' was the untranslatable I'eply. ' Aye, 
 plucked from God's ire and called to Christ's mercy ; and what is the name of their king ?' 
 ' Aella,' they told him, and Gregory seized on the word as of good omen. ' Alle luia shall be 
 sung there,' he cried and passed on, musing how the angel-faces should be brought to sing it. 
 Years went by, and the deacon had become Bishop of Rome, when Bercta's marriage gave 
 him the opening he sought. 
 
 " ' Strangers from Rome ' was the title with which the missionaries first fronted the English 
 king. The march of the monks, as they chanted their solemn litany, was in one sense the leturn 
 of the Roman legions who had retired at the trumpet call of Alaric. It was to the tongue and 
 thought, not of Gregory only, but of such men as the English had slaughtered and driven over 
 sea that Ethelbert listened in the teaching of Augustine. Canterbury, the earliest royal city 
 of German England, became the centre of Latin influence. The Latin tongue became again 
 one of the tongues of Britain, the language of its worship, of its correspondence, its litera- 
 ture. But more than the tongue of Rome returned with Augustine. Practically his landing 
 renewed the union with the Western World which that of Hengist had destroyed. The new 
 England was admitted into the older commonwealth of nations. The civilization, art, and 
 letters which had fled before the sword of the English conquest, returned with the Christian 
 faith. It is impossible not to recognize the influence of the Roman missionaries in the fact 
 that the codes of customary English law began to be put into writing soon after their 
 &rri\a.\.''— (Green, '"'■ Sfurrt History of the English Peopled) 
 
 Times of Northumbrian Ascendency. — In G17 the North- 
 umbrian king, Ethelfrith, was succeeded by Edwin, whose name is 
 retained in Edinburgh (Edwin's-burg), a reminder of the extent and 
 power of Northumbria over Scotland (by union of Bernicia and 
 Deira). Under this king, Essex and East Angha passed from Kent- 
 isli supremacy to the Northumbrian, and the other Anglo-Saxon 
 states also acknowledged its over-lordship. 
 
 With a daughter of the Kentish king, who married the North- 
 umbrian Edwin, the Roman missionaries made their way to North- 
 umbria, and in beginning its conversion secured for the Christian 
 faith the supremacy which the power of North umbria over England 
 conveyed. Mercia represented the heathen opposition. Its king, 
 Penda, by the battle of Hatfield, G35, in which Edwin was defeated 
 
SEVENTH AND EldHTH CENTURIES. 
 
 357 
 
 and slain, checked for the moment the advance of Christianity. 
 But under the new Northumbrian king, Oswald, who summoned 
 missionaries from the Irish 
 monastery at lona, was founded 
 the Irish monastery on the 
 Island of Lindisfarne, which 
 thenceforth became the strong- 
 hold of Christianity in North 
 Britain. The opposition of 
 heathen Mercia was broken in 
 655 by the battle of Winwced, 
 near Leeds, won by the North- 
 umbrian Oswi. 
 
 In 668 Theodore of Tarsus was 
 
 dispatched to England from Rome as Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. From liim dates the 
 organism as to dioceses, even of the modern 
 English Chm-ch. " The conquest of the con- 
 tinent had been wrought either by races such 
 as the Goths, which were already Christian, 
 or by heathens like the Franks, who bowed 
 to the Christian faith of the nations they 
 conquered. To this oneness of religion be- 
 tween the German invaders of the empire 
 and their Roman subjects was owing the 
 preservation of all that survived of the 
 
 Roman world. The Church everywhere remained untouched. The Christian bishop became 
 the defender of the conquered Italian or Gaul against his Gothic and Lombard conqueror ; the 
 mediator between the German and his subjects, the one bulwark against barbaric violence and 
 oppression. To the barbarian, on the other hand, he was the representative of all that was 
 venerable in the past, the living record of law, of letters, and of art. But in Britain the priest- 
 hood and the people had been exterminated together ; the very memory of the older Christian 
 Church which existed in Roman Britain had passed away. 
 
 " In his work of organization, in his creation of parishes, in his arrangement of dioceses, and 
 the way in which he grouped them round the See of Canterbury, Theodore was unconsciously 
 doing a political work. The policy of Theodore clothed with a sacred form and surrounded 
 with divine sanctions a unity which had before rested on no basis but the sword. The regular 
 subordination of priest to bishop, of bishop to primate, in the administration of the Church, 
 supplied a mould on which the civil organization of the* state quickly shaped itself. The 
 councils gathered by Theodore were the first of all national gatherings for general legislation. 
 It was at a much later time that the Wise men of Wessex, of Mercia or Northumbria, learned 
 
 Portal of the Saxon Church at Monkwearmouth, 
 Durham, built in 674. 
 
358 ENGLAND. 
 
 to come together in the " Witenagemote " of all England. It was the ecclesiaBtical synods 
 which, by their example, led the way to national parliaments, as it was the canons enacted in 
 Buch synods! which led the way to a national system of \&w.^'— Green. 
 
 Caedmon and Bede.— To the kingdom of Northumbria belong the two most famous 
 names of Anglo-Saxon Christianity before Alfred the Great, namely, Caedmon, author of an 
 Anglo-Saxon Biblical poem of the 7th century, and Bede, of the 7th and 8th centuries. Caed- 
 mon, a cowherd, became a monk in the monastery of Whitby. 
 
 Bede, " the Venerable," spent his whole life in the monastery of Jarrow. "He became, as 
 Burke rightly styled him, the father of English learning. The traditions of the older classic 
 culture were first revived for England in his quotations of Plato and Aristotle, of Seneca and 
 Cicero, of Lucretius and Ovid. In his own eyes, and those of his contemporaries, his most 
 important works were the commentaries and homilies upon various bo6ks of the Bible, wbich 
 he had drawn from the writings of the Fathers. But he was far from confining himself to 
 theology. In treatises compiled as text-books for his scholars, Bede threw together all that 
 the world had then accumulated in astronomy and meteorology, in physics and music, in 
 philosophy, grammar, arithmetic, medicine. In his Ecclesiastical History of the English Na- 
 tion, Bede was at once the founder of medieval history and the first English historian. His 
 last work was a translation into English of the Grospel of St. John. The completion of its last 
 sentence was the moment of his death, 755 (bom about 674)."— Green. 
 
 The place held by Northumbria as the leading Anglo-Saxon state of the 7th century, 
 was lost before its close. Cumbria, the English portion of Strathclyde, had been conquered 
 from the British, and it was in attempting to subject the Picts beyond the Forth and Clyde 
 that the Northumbrian power was broken— battle of Nechtansmere in Fife, 685. 
 
 Mercia became the leading Angrlo-Saxon state in the 8th century.— This 
 state now comprised all Central England, from Wales to the Eastern Coast. It reached from 
 the neighborhood of Manchester and Sheffield to the mouth of the Severn, the line of the 
 Thames and the Ouse. Through the 8th century Mercia controlled both Northumbria and the 
 South English states. East Anglia, Sussex, Kent, and Wessex. 
 
 NINTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 9th CENTURY. 
 
 Egbert a. d. 802-836 
 
 Ethelwolf. " 836-858 
 
 Ethelbald " &-58-860 
 
 Ethelbert " 860-866 
 
 Ethelredl *' 866-8n 
 
 Alfred the Great " 871-901 
 
 Rise of Wessez. — Through the policy of Charlemagne, and 
 his opposition to the growing strength of a kingdom which did not 
 acknowledge his Imperial rule, the power of Mercia was crippled 
 in the 9th century, and replaced by that of Wessex. Egbert, the 
 nominee of the Frankish Court, by its favoring policy established 
 
NINTH CENTURY. 359 
 
 the over-lordship of Wessex over Mercia and Northumbria, after 823. 
 Egbert styled himself king of the English. (See map at p. 154.) 
 
 The Danes. — From the opening of the 9th century and a little 
 earlier, a new barbarian influx began to retard or overthrow the 
 work of Christian civilization in England. The inhabitants of Den- 
 mark, of Norway, and of Sweden, also of Germanic blood and nearly 
 related to the English, but destitute of the relative though very 
 backward civiHzation which three centuries of settled life and two 
 centuries of Christian faith had achieved, began their piratical raids 
 on England. The " Danish " invasions — for as Danes the North- 
 men generally were known in England — ^broke the rising power of 
 Wessex, and for two centuries blocked the progress of England. 
 
 Danish Settlements. — Between 866 and 871 the Danes passed 
 from pillage and raids to regular settlement. The larger part of 
 England was conquered and held by them — namely. East Anglia, 
 Mercia, and Northumbria — leaving for the kings "of England" 
 only the southern part of the Island and Wessex proper. Thus, in 
 the time of Alfred the Great, 871-901, this king was hard pressed 
 by the Danes in his own little kingdom, and in his times of greatest 
 success his territory reached only a short distance north of the 
 Thames. 
 
 This easy conquest by the Danes of more than two-thirds of all England resulted from 
 the jealousy of Northumbria and Mercia, the hitherto powerful states, towards Wessex. and 
 from their indifference as to its success in establishing a new supremacy. 
 
 Alfred the Great. — The efforts of Alfred to support the stag- 
 gering Anglo-Saxon culture were not, however, the less praiseworthy 
 because confined in their range. History has unanimously accorded 
 this king the character of a conscientious and earnest friend of 
 civilization. 
 
 " While the country was overrun by the Danes he was said to have entered a peasant's hut, 
 and to have been bidden by the housewife, who did not recognize him, to turn the cakes which 
 were baking on the hearth. The young king did as he was bidden, but in the sad thoughts 
 which came over him he forgot his task, and bore in amused silence the scolding of the good 
 wife, who found her cakes spoiled on her return." 
 
360 ENGLAND. 
 
 TENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 10th CENTURY. 
 
 Edward the Elder a. d. 901- 925 
 
 Athelgtan " 925- 940 
 
 Edmund " 940- 947 
 
 Edred " 947-955 
 
 Edwig '^ 955-959 
 
 Edgar " 958- 9T5 
 
 Edward the Martyr " 975- 978 
 
 Ethelredll " 979-1016 
 
 After Alfred, who died in 901, the kings of Wessex experienced varying fortunes in their 
 efforts to be kings of all England. The Danes of Northumbria and Mercia seem to have 
 been so far incorporated with the old population that the resistance of England beyond the 
 Thames to Wessex was at least as much local as Danish in its character. During this century 
 foreign invasions of Danes were not frequent or troublesome, 
 
 Alfred was succeeded by Edward the Elder, 901-925, who subjected all England. 
 A dangerous revolt of North England followed his death, but Athelstan, 925-940, maintained 
 the supremacy of Wessex, adding to its dominions West Wales, --e. «., Cornwall. 
 
 Notwithstanding Athelstan's famous victory of Brunanbuxgrh, 937, his suc- 
 cessor, Edmirad the "Magnificent," once more yielded up to Danish supremacy all England 
 north of Watling Street, the road from London to Chester— the boundary in Alfred's time 
 of greatest success. His minister, Dunstan, the greatest Englishman of his time, succeeded 
 in restoring the power of Wessex by abandoning to Scotland the Northumbrian territory 
 lying beyond the Tweed and reaching to the Forth and Clyde (p. 318). Thus was established 
 the present boundary between England and Scotland. With a reduced teiritory to rule, and 
 a balance on the north in Scotland against the Danes of Northumbria, Dunstan continued to 
 hold them in check. His administration lasted through the reign of Edred, 947-955, of Edwig, 
 955-959, of Edgar, 959-975. 
 
 The reign of Edgrar is the great time of Anglo-Saxon England. His ships annually 
 cruised round the whole of Britain. 
 
 In the reign of Edward " the Martyr," 975-978, the national policy of Dunstan, which had at 
 once ruled and reconciled the northern Danish part of the English dominions, was overturned, 
 and Dunstan died. 
 
 The succession of Ethelred "the Unready," 979-1016, found the kings "of Eng- 
 land " once more confined to Wessex and Kent. 
 
 " The daily life of even the noblest of Anglo-Saxons was that of a half-savage people. 
 Their wars and turbulence were not favorable to the cultivation of the domestic virtues. When 
 not engaged in war, the nobles amused themselves in hunting and hawking ; and when the 
 sports of the day were over, all— master and servant— met in the great hall. At the upper end 
 of this, on a dais or raised part, was placed a rude table, canopied with hangings of cloth to 
 serve as a protection from draughts of air and from the rain, which often leaked through the 
 roof, and round this sat the lord, his family, and his guests. This table was served by slaves, 
 who knelt as they ofiiered to each huge joints on the spit, from which the chiefs cut slices with 
 their daggers." 
 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 361 
 
 ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 11th CENTURY. 
 
 Ethelred II. the Unready. A. D. (979)-1016 
 
 Edmund Ironside, son of the ioregoiug — " 1016 
 
 Canute the Dane " 1016-1035 
 
 Harold, Harefoot, son of the foreg.iing " 1035-1040 
 
 Hardicanute, brother of the foregomg " 1040-1043 
 
 Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred the Unready " 1042-1065 
 
 Harold *' 1066 
 
 William the Conqueror, of Normandy " 1066-1087 
 
 William II., Rufus, son of the foregoing " 1087-1100 
 
 A massacre of the Danes in Wessex, 1002, roused among 
 their brethren in Denmark a spirit of vengeance. The conquest of 
 all England was undertaken by King Sweyn, and after his death 
 was accomplished by his son Canute. Edmund Ironside, the son 
 and successor of Ethelred the Unready, had resisted the Danes 
 bravely, but died in a few months. 
 
 Canute. — Although Canute was a Christian convert, his con- 
 quest and his early reign were stained by cruelty, but for this he 
 atoned by the justice and wisdom of his later rule. His empire 
 comprised England, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. 
 
 The 11th century thus witnessed the final amalgamation of the English Danes with the 
 Anglo-Saxons. But no sooner was this process in completion than a new overthrow and over- 
 turning of English society began with the Norman Conquest. 
 
 The reigns of Canute's sons, Harold, 1035-1040, and Hardicanute, 1040-1043, and of the 
 Saxon Edward the Confessor, 1042-1065, made no change in English history, except that during 
 this latter reign the way was opened for the Norman Conquest by the Introduction of Norman 
 favorites and fashions. 
 
 Edward the Confessor.— Tlie popularity of Canute as English king had been strength- 
 ened by his marriage with Emma, the widow of Ethelred the Unready. Edward the Confessor, 
 who succeeded the sons of Canute, was the son of Ethelred and Emma. But this widow of two 
 English kings, one Anglo-Saxon and one a Dane, was herself sister of Richard Duke of Nor- 
 mandy. Her son, Edward the Confessor, had been brought up at the Norman Court; his own 
 preferences were for the French civilization which Normandy possessed. 
 
 Harold.— At the death of Edward the Confessor in 1065, his 
 minister Harold secured for himself the succession in the absence 
 
362 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 of legitimate heirs. The lack of a hereditary title on Harold's part 
 inspired the ambition of William Duke of Normandy to make him- 
 self the English sovereign. This ambition was supported by the 
 Norman tendencies of Edward the Confessor's Court, and by the 
 fact that the Danes, who had given three kings to England, 
 and to whom Harold himself belonged on the mother's side, were 
 themselves foreigners in England and of the same blood with the 
 Normans. 
 
 The Norman Conquest— William had, during the lifetime of 
 
 Edward, secured the consent of 
 ,^-' ' • ■'-'• •• j' -,,, Harold to his succession, and 
 
 claimed to have received that 
 of Edward. He thus consid- 
 ered Harold's election as a per- 
 sonal defiance, and landed in 
 England with an army of 60,000 
 men. In the battle of Senlac, 
 near Hastings, 1066, the Eng- 
 lish army was routed, and Har- 
 old was killed. 
 
 Not without bloody resist- 
 ance did William master the country subsequently, but the supe- 
 riority of Norman discipline was too great for any permanent check 
 to his plans. The resistance was sufficient, however, to excuse a 
 general confiscation of the Anglo-Saxon landed property. The 
 Saxons were reduced to the level of an inferior and disinherited 
 race. At least 60,000 estates were parceled out for the foreigners, 
 and the word "bond," which originally meant an Anglo-Saxon free 
 farmer, gained the new sense indicated by the word bondage. 
 
 Castle of Robert " the Devil," father of William 
 the Conqueror, at Falaise, in Normandy, 
 
 Notwithstanding- the suflfering- and misery inflicted by the Norman conquest, 
 England first gained by it the union of her hitherto rival and contending provinces, and the 
 beginnings of all her later civilization. 
 
 William the Conqueror was a great organizer and legislator. He abolished the Eng- 
 lish slave-trade, hitherto carried on at Bristol in great extent. He abolished the death penalty, 
 and protected the Jews. The " Star-Chamber" was so called from the " etarrs," or bonds, of 
 
TWELFTH CENTURY. 363 
 
 the Jews there deposited. The genius of William suppressed the insubordination of the nobles 
 he had enriched, by the use of the old English local law. He thus supported the authority of 
 the crown by courts of justice to which the barons were obliged to pay deference. The com- 
 pleteness of system by which William reorganized England is indicated by the still existing 
 Domesday Book, a complete register of the landed estates. 
 
 GENBALOaT OF THE NORMAN AND PLANT AGBNET LINES IN THE IITH AND 12TH CENTURIES. 
 
 William the Conqueror. 
 
 Robert. William Rufus. Henry I. Adela = Count of Blois. 
 
 Stephen. 
 Matilda, - Gcoftrey of Anjou. 
 * Henry II. 
 
 Richard. John. 
 
 TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 12th CENTURY. 
 
 Henry L, son of the Conqueror a. d. 1100-1135 
 
 Matilda, granddaughter of the Conqueror ** 1135-1153 
 
 Stephen, grandson of the Conqueror " 1135-1154 
 
 Henry IL, son of Matilda «' 1154-1189 
 
 Richard I., son of the foregoing " 1189-1199 
 
 Union of Normandy, Brittany, and England. — William 
 the Conqueror had left the Duchy of Normandy, with Brittany and 
 Maine, which he had also conquered, to his eldest son Robert, and 
 England to his second son William Rufus. But after the death of 
 Rufus, in 1100, the third son of William, Henry I., united JSTor- 
 mandy, Brittany and Maine under one government with England. 
 
 Edmund Ironsides, the valiant defender of the Saxons against the Danes, had left two 
 sons, who made their escape to Hungary. One of these sons, Edgar Atheling, had been elected 
 English king, after the death of Harold, by the Saxon opposition to William the Conqueror. 
 The sister of Edgar Atheling married Malcolm, king of Scotland— the daughter of this marriage 
 married Henry I. ; thus the Saxon and Norman lines were united. 
 
 Times of Stephen and Matilda.— The only son of Henry I. was drowned at sea. 
 By the king's will, his daughter Matilda, was to succeed him. She had been married to 
 Geoffrey Plantagenet, son of the Duke of Anjou. The succession of a daughter to the 
 throne was not in accordance with Norman feudal ideas. (The law of primogeniture— e. e., 
 succession of the eldest son, was brought to England from Normandy.) The daughter of thQ 
 
364 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Conqueror, Adela, had married the Count of Blois. Stephen, the son of this marriage, and 
 grandson of the Conqueror, became a rival claimant for the English throne. The contentions 
 
 of the parties of Matilda and Stephen 
 filled England with disorder and blood- 
 shed till 1153. In this year a compro- 
 mise gave to Stephen the throne, and to 
 Matilda's son Henry the succession. 
 This fell to him with the death of Ste- 
 phen, a year after, in 1154. 
 
 The line of Plajitagenet (the 
 name is derived from iHanta genista, 
 the broom plant which Geoffrey wore 
 in his helmet), is also called the An- 
 gevin (Anjevin), from the province of 
 Anjou. The natiAC French of Anjou 
 were of different race from the Nor- 
 mans, and on account of close neighbor- 
 hood to Normandy, the more bitterly 
 inimical. The feudal rivalries of 
 French provinces in the early Middle 
 Age were fully as pronounced as na- 
 tional rivalries in our own day. The 
 intermarriage with Anjou had been 
 arranged by Henry I. to conciliate this 
 hostility, but the distinction between 
 the Norman line ending with Henry I. 
 
 Norman Gateway at Bristol. 
 
 and the Angevin line beginning with Henry II. is highly important. 
 
 The Line of Ax^ou acquires Acquitaine. — Before the acces- 
 sion of Henry II., 1154-1189, he had married Eleanor of Poitou, 
 heiress of Acquitaine, a word implying, at this time, the Southwest 
 Provinces of France — Poitou, Saintonge, Auvergne, Perigord, the 
 Limousin, the Angoumois, Guienne, and Gascony. Thus the Line 
 of Anjou was a dynasty of French barons, ruhng the larger part of 
 France, whose dominions also included England. It is customary 
 to speak of EngUsh possessions in France, but, till a century later, 
 fact and feeling would have warranted the opposite phrase, of French ' 
 possession in England. The Anjous were far more powerful than 
 the French king. (See map for the age of the Crusades, p. 182, and 
 compare p. 187.) 
 
 The policy of Henry II. in England was not, however, anti-English. As a sov- 
 ereign, he showed much political moderation, but this moderation was devoted to an impos- 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 365 
 
 Bible end, the combination of really unheterogeneous dominions. In his famous struggle with 
 Thomas a Becket, he exhibited that error of a purely political conception of the Church often 
 found in English and in other sovereigns. 
 
 Thomas k Becket had served the king as soldier and Chancellor, but when appointed to the 
 See of Canterbury he resisted Henry's efforts to control the appointments of bishops, and to 
 bring the clergy under control of the secular courts. The irritation consequently engendered 
 cost him his life. Four knights of Henry's train, seizing on an impatient word, perhaps in- 
 tended to excite them to the act, murdered Becket in his own Cathedral. The affection in 
 which the memory of the martyr was held by the people, the immense riches heaped on his 
 shrine, its reputation throughout the Middle Age all over Europe, show that the cause which 
 he died to protect was dear to the common people. 
 
 The reig-n of Bichard I., 1189-1199, was more that of an adventurous French knight 
 than of. an English king. He was called Cceur de Lion (the lion-hearted). His adventures on 
 the third Crusade belong to the details of the Crusades rather than to English history. He 
 was succeeded by his brother John. For mention of Richard I. see pp. 186, 195. 
 
 THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 13th CENTURY. 
 
 Jolin, brother of the foregoing king A. d. (1199)- 1216 
 
 Henry III., son of the foregoing " 1216 - 1272 
 
 Edward I., " " " " 1272 -(1307) 
 
 John was wicked, bold, and enterprising. These traits were 
 apparent in his treatment of his nephew, Arthur of Brittany 
 (p. 190), who was legal heir to the throne as son of John's elder 
 brother, Geoffrey. The cause of Arthur was supported by PhiHp II. 
 of France, and this led to England's loss of all her French provinces 
 but Gascony and Guienne. The French Normans had lost sym- 
 pathy with their kindred, so long established in England, and they 
 preferred the rule of the French king to the rule of the hated 
 Anglo-French Angevins. The Channel Islands, Alderney, Jersey, 
 and Guernsey, are still retained by England — a relic of the loss of 
 Normandy under John. 
 
 The Magna Charta, conceded by John to his Barons at Run- 
 nymede in 1215, was wrung fi'om unwilhng hands. The English 
 Constitution of modern times looks back to this charter as its 
 foundation. The complaints of the Anglo-Norman Barons which 
 
366 
 
 ENGLA ND 
 
 the charter was granted to satisfy, had been especially caused by 
 the favors, offices, and estates showered by the Line of Anjou 
 
 on its own French kin. But 
 Stephen Langton, Primate of 
 Canterbury (appointee of Pope 
 Innocent III.)? chiefly instru- 
 mental in the execution of the 
 charter, took a national stand- 
 point as a churchman above 
 the discontents of the feudal 
 party, and used it to assert 
 the personal liberty of the 
 subject in general. 
 
 A copy of the ch.arter still hangs 
 in the British Museum, injured by age and 
 fire, but with the royal seal still hanging 
 from the brown shriveled parchment. "No 
 freeman" (ran the memorable article which 
 lies at the base of the whole English judi- 
 cial system) " shall be seized, or imprisoned, or dispossessed, or in any way brought to ruin ; 
 we will not go against any man, nor send against him, save by legal judgment of his peers, or 
 by the law of the land. To no man will we sell " (runs another article) " or deny or delay 
 right or justice." 
 
 Jolin was succeeded by his son Henry III., 1216-1272. Henry's mother had remained 
 in Poitou and in place of Angevin favorites England was now overrun by Poitevin favorites. 
 The king's marriage with Eleanor of Provence had also given rich offices to French Proven9al8. 
 Henry's disposition was easy, his tastes refined. The Abbey of Westminster dates from his 
 reign. The same disposition to rule as a Frenchman over foreigners exhibited by John and 
 Richard continued. 
 
 Beginnings of a House of Commons.— Therefore, as in the reign of John, the 
 feudal insubordination of the Barons coincided with the national English interest. This 
 baronial party was headed, but in the national sense, by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, 
 son of the Simon de Montfort of the Albigensian wars (p. 190). 
 
 Prom his summons of a Parliament in 1264 is dated the germ of the House of Commons, two 
 citizens being summoned from every borough. " It was the writ issued by Earl Simon which 
 first summoned the merchant and the trader to sit beside the knight of the shire, the baron, 
 and the bishop, in the Parliament of the realm." 
 
 • With Edward I., 1272-1307, the English sovereign first be- 
 came a really national ruler. Parliamentary government was now 
 so far established that statutes of this reign, if unrepealed, are still 
 
 Magna Charta Island, near Bnnnymede. 
 
THIRTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 367 
 
 valid English law. The organization of justice and of government 
 was generally amended. In addition to his activity as administra- 
 
 Choir ot Westminster Abbey, London. 
 
 tor and organizer, Edward I. accomplished the English conquest of 
 Wales, which he ruled justly after conquest. His son, afterward 
 Edward II., was the first who bore the title "Prince of Wales," 
 since given the eldest son of English kings. 
 
 Wars with Scotland. — The reign of Edward I. is also distin- 
 guished by the wars with Scotland, continued in the time of his 
 successor, Edward II., and finally leading in the reign of Edward 
 III. to the wars with France, which lasted till the middle of the 
 15th century. 
 
368 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Summary of Scotch history until the time of Edward I.— After the time when 
 the barbaric Picts had, by their ravages, brought about the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain, 
 
 the Irish colony of "Scots " (p. 317), 
 first settled in Argyle, had gradually in- 
 creased in territory and influence until, 
 with Kenneth McAlpine, about 843 
 A. D., the " Scottish " line of kings 
 ruled the whole territory of North 
 Britain as far as the borders of North- 
 umbria. This territory was called, in 
 consequence, " Scotland." The Anglo- 
 Saxon kingdom of Northumbria in- 
 cluded the Lowlands of modem Scot- 
 land, reaching to Edinburgh and 
 Glasgow. But in the 10th century the 
 Lowlands were ceded by Dunstan, 
 thus fixing the Tweed as the southern 
 border of Scotland. As the Scotch (or 
 Irish) kings now controlled a country 
 settled by Anglo-Saxons, they assimi- 
 lated with them, and relations of 
 friendship were cultivated with the 
 Anglo-Saxons of England, on account 
 of the mutual hostility toward the 
 Danes. 
 
 After the Norman conquest of Eng- 
 land, the daughter of the Scotch king, 
 Malcolm, who had married the sister 
 of the Anglo-Saxon Edgar Atheling (p. 363), was married to the Norman king, Henry I. Friendly 
 relations were consequently cultivated with the Anglo-Normans, many of whom gained estates 
 in the Scotch Lowlands, Among these Normans were the families of Balliol and of Bruce. 
 
 During a revolt of the barons against Henry II., the Scotch king William the Lion took 
 part, and was made prisoner by the English king. To gain his freedom, William consented 
 that the Scotch lords should pay direct allegiance to the English crown. This direct feudal 
 dependence was remitted by Richard I. for a sum of money, but a theoretical over-lordship was 
 still conceded to England. 
 
 The Scotch Succession.— Edward I. attempted to replace the theoretic English over- 
 lordship over Scotland by direct supremacy, under the following conditions : Alexander III. 
 of Scotland, dying in 1290, left as only heir his grandchild, the daughter of a Norwegian king, 
 hence called the " Maid of Norway." It had been arranged that she should marry the son of 
 Edward I., but her death on the voyage to Scotland left the throne vacant. Of thirteen pre- 
 tenders to the succession, the three most important referred their dispute to Edward I. Pend- 
 ing its settlement, he occupied Scotland as its feudal over-lord. By the extinction of the line 
 of William the Lion, the right of succession passed to the daughters of his brother David. 
 John Balliol rested his claim on descent from the first of these. Robert Bruce was descended 
 from the second. 
 
 Edward's decision in favor of Balliol was accepted by Scotland, bat the English 
 
 Salisbury Cathedral, 13th centniy. 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 369 
 
 king proceeded to require judicial dependence of tlie country on au English court of appeal. 
 Foreign military service from tiie Scotch barons was also demanded. Balliol first consented, 
 but Scottish sentiment forced him to retract his consent. A secret alliance with Prance em- 
 boldened the Scotch to take an attitude of open defiance. Balliol refused to attend Edward's 
 parliament and besieged the town of Carlisle. Edward's answer was the siege of Berwick and 
 massacre of its citizens. " The massacre only ceased when a procession of priests bore the 
 host to the king's presence, praying for mercy, and Edward, with a sudden and characteristic 
 burst of tears, called off his troops." Edinburgh, Stirling, and Perth opened their gates. 
 Bruce joined the English army, and Balliol himself surrendered and passed without a blow 
 from his throne to an English prison. 
 
 Williatn Wallace.— The disgraceful submission of their leaders brought the people them- 
 selves to the front. " The genius of an outlaw knight, William Wallace, saw in their smoulder- 
 ing discontent a hope of freedom for his country, and his daring raids on outlying parties of 
 English soldiery roused the Lowlands into revolt. The instinct of the Scotch has guided them 
 aright in choosing Wallace for their national hero. He was the first to sweep aside the techni- 
 calities of feudal law and to assert freedom as a national birthright." His victory near Stirling, 
 in 1297, was followed by the defeat of Falkirk, in 1298. After some changes of fortune Edward 
 succeeded, 1305, in reconquering the whole of Scotland. A general amnesty was extended to 
 all who had shared in the revolt. The execution of Wallace was the one blot on Edward's 
 clemency. 
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH KINGS OF THE 14th CENTURY. 
 
 Edward I., son of the foregoing king a. d. (1273)-1307 
 
 Edward II., '' " " " " " 1307-1S37 
 
 Edward III., " « " " " " 1327-1377 
 
 Richard II., grandson of the foregoing king " 1377-1399 
 
 Robert Bruce. — "Edward was preparing for a joint parliament of the two countries at 
 Carlisle, when the conquered country suddenly sprang again to arms under Kobert Bruce, the 
 grandson of one of the original claimants to the crown. The withdrawal of Balliol gave new 
 force to his claims. The discovery of an intrigue which Bruce had set on foot so roused 
 Edward's jealousy that Bruce fled for life across the border. In the church of the Grey Friars 
 at Dumfries he met Comyn, the Lord of Badenoch, to whose treachery he attributed the dis- 
 closure of his plans, and after the interchange of a few hot words struck him with his dagger 
 to the ground. Bruce, for very safety, was obliged, six weeks after, to assume the crown in 
 the Abbey of Scone." 
 
 The new Scotch war thus begun was crippled by the death of Edward I. in 1307, and 
 under his son Edward II. the English lost their hold on Scotland. The battle of Bannockburn, 
 1314, was the decisive victory of Bruce. " For centuries after, the rich plunder of the English 
 camp left its traces on the treasure and vestment rolls of castle and abbey." 
 
 Edward II., 1307-1327, lacked the force of his father, and his reign is filled with the suc- 
 cessful resistance of the barons to the rule of his ministers and favorites. 
 
 Under Edward III. troubles with France caused the final abandonment of Scotland, 
 in 1339. 
 
370 ENaLAND. 
 
 Reign of Edward III., 1327-1377.— The loss of Normandy, 
 of Brittany and other provinces under John, had left the English 
 kings still masters of part of the inheritance of Eleanor of Acqui- 
 taine; of Guienne, Gascony, and the Limonsin (p. 195). For 
 these provinces the English kings owed feudal homage to the 
 French sovereigns. The tendency of the French kings to absorb 
 the feudal provinces under royal government thus made them heredi- 
 tary foes of England. 
 
 The Anglo-French "Wars. — The outbreak of the war with 
 France under Edward III., in 1339, was really caused by this French 
 jealousy, which led France to take advantage of the Scotch wars for 
 acts of open or concealed hostility. Philip IV. had seized Guienne 
 during the war of Edward I. in Scotland. Edward III. now laid 
 claim to the French throne, but his claim was simply a form of de- 
 claring war. 
 
 Claim of Edward HI. to the French Throne.— Edward III. was jjrandson of Philip 
 rv. by his mother, and as a measure of war claimed the French throne agaiiipt Philip VI. (king 
 since 1337), grandson of Philip III. Philip VI. was farther removed, but on account of being 
 in the direct male line, he was the legal French heir. (Genealogy, p. 196.) 
 
 Treaty of Bretigny. — Soon after the brilliant English victory 
 of Crecy, in 1346, Calais was also taken, and four years after the 
 English victory of Poitiers, in 1356, the treaty of Bretigny was con- 
 cluded. By this treaty the English claim to Normandy and Brit- 
 tany, and to the French throne, was abandoned, 1360. But the 
 possessions of Southwestern France, generally comprised under the 
 title of Guienne, were given to the English, not as feudal fiefs, which 
 the}' had been hitherto, but as absolute possessions (map, p. 200). 
 
 Notwithstanding this treaty, under Charles V. the Wise, 
 successor of the French king John who had been made prisoner at 
 Poitiers, the French national spirit renewed the war. The English 
 were practically cleared from France for the time being. Calais, 
 Bordeaux, and Bayonne alone were still held. The Black Prince, 
 the English hero of the wars with France, died before his father. ' 
 
 Richard II., 1377-1399, son of the Black Prince, came to the 
 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 371 
 
 throne just at the moment when public dissatisfaction with the 
 disasters abroad was aggravated by taxes laid to prosecute the war. 
 Thus was occasioned the popular rising under Wat Tyler, 1381. 
 The serfs and peasants who supported this revolt had no hostility to 
 the king personally, and by his bold and shrewd management the 
 insurrection was suppressed. But " the brilliant abilities which 
 Eichard II. shared with the rest of the Plantagenets were marred by 
 fitful inconstancy and a mean spirit of revenge." Henry of Lan- 
 caster, the eldest son of the late king's brother (John of Gaunt, 
 Duke of Lancaster), had been by this temper unjustly driven into 
 banishment. For the expense of a campaign in Ireland (p. 329) his 
 inheritance was confiscated at the death of his father. 
 
 Henry of Lancaster, taking advantage of Richard's absence in 
 Ireland, landed in Yorkshire with a small band. This rapidly 
 ■increased, so that when the king returned to England his cause was 
 already lost. The personal resentment of Henry of Lancaster was 
 supported by the general discontent of the nation, especially excited 
 by Richard's peace policy toward France. The king was deposed in 
 1399, dying, probably by violence, in the next year. 
 
 Civilization.—" Gradually the higher classes became more refined. The use of spices in 
 cookery gave new relish to their food ; glass windows, earthen vessels, coal fires, and candle- 
 light added to the comfort of their homes ; but furniture was still scanty. The use of tiles 
 instead of thatch improved their dwellings. The leading merchants dealt in wool. Even the 
 kii)gs did not disdain this trade. The value of money is shown by wages. Haymakers got a 
 penny a day; carpenters, twopence ; and masons, threepence. The courtiers wore a coat half 
 blue, half white, with deep sleeves; trousers reaching to the knee, stockings of different 
 colors, and shoes with toes so long that they were fastened by golden chains to the girdle. A 
 close hood of silk, embroidered with strange figures of animals, enclosed the head. The ladies 
 wore a towering head-dress like a mitre, some two feet high, from which floated a whole rain- 
 bow of gay ribbons. Their trains were long ; their tunics of many colors. They wore two 
 daggers in a golden belt, and rode to the tournament and the forest on steeds of fiery spirit. 
 The tournament was still the first of sports ; but there were also tilting at the ring, when 
 knights strove at full horse-speed to carry off on the point of a leveled lance a suspended ring, 
 and tilting at a wooden figure, which, swinging on a pivot, bore with outstretched arm a wooden 
 sword. He who struck fairly in the centre was untouched ; but if the lance struck too much 
 on one side, the awkward tilter caught a sound blow from the wooden sword as he rode past 
 the whirling image (p. 180). The great pastime of the lower classes was archery. 
 
372 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
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FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 373 
 
 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 ENGLISH KINGS OF THE Ioth CENTURY. 
 
 Henry IV. of Lancaster A. D. 1399-1413 
 
 Henry V., son of the foregoing " 1413-1432 
 
 Henry VI., ' " " 1422-1471 
 
 Edward IV., of York " 1 471-1483 
 
 Edward V., son of the foregoing " 1483 
 
 Richard III., uncle " " '• 1483-1485 
 
 Henry VII. (Tudor Line) " 1485-(1509) 
 
 Henry IV. had been made king by the party in favor of war 
 with France, but various revolts during his reign, especially that of 
 the Percies (the Earl of Northumberland and his son Henry Hot- 
 spur), and of Wales under Owen Glendower, kept him busy at 
 home. 
 
 Henry V. took up the war which was needed to support the 
 popularity of the House of Lancaster. France was divided by the 
 internal party quarrels of Orleanists and Burgundians (p. 201). 
 The French king, Charles VI., was insane. The surrender of Acqui- 
 taine w^as offered, but Henry was bent on the reconquest of Nor- 
 mandy. The English victory of Azincourt, 1415, was no less brilliant 
 than those of Crecy and Poitiers. The English had already con- 
 quered Normandy when the assassination of the Duke of Burgundy 
 on the bridge of Montereau (p. 203), in the presence of the Dauphin 
 (whom he had met there under flag of truce) threw the Burgun- 
 dian party into an English alliance. Having possession of the mad 
 king, the Burgundians married his daughter Catherine to Henry V., 
 declaring him French regent and next in succession. (Treaty of 
 Troyes, 1420.) 
 
 Henry VI., 1422-1471, but nine years old when his father 
 died, was the heir of these pretensions, and was afterwards actually 
 crowned king of France at Paris. In this closing period of the 
 Anglo-French w^ars, when the fortunes of France appeared at low- 
 est ebb, the heroism of Joan of Arc and the new national spirit of 
 
374 ENGLAND. 
 
 the French freed their country by degrees of the invader, at whose 
 mercy it had appeared to be. In 1454 Guienne was finally and 
 entirely lost by the English. Calais was the only remnant of their 
 possessions in France. 
 
 Rivalries of York and Lancaster.— The unsuccessful conduct of the foreign war 
 created a discontent at home which found an outbreak in the Kentish rebellion, headed by 
 John Cade, 1450. Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, whose maladministration had caused this 
 rebellion, resumed his place at the head of the royal council after its force was spent. In the 
 childlessness of the king this Duke, son of an illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, appeared to be 
 aiming at the crown, although excluded from succession by the act of Parliament which recog- 
 nized the House of Lancaster. His ambition was favored by the fact that the regencies 0',\'ing to 
 the minority of Henry VI. were now replaced by regencies owing to incapacities by sickness. 
 
 Tlie Duke of York opposed the ambition of Somerset. He was son of Anne Mortimer 
 and Kichard, Earl of Cambridge, and claimed to be heir presumptive by descent from Edmund 
 of Langley, fourth son of Edward III. (p. 373). He was made Protector during a malady of the 
 king by Parliament. The recovery of the king caused the restoration of Somerset. A struggle 
 ensued between the two Dukes. The Duke of Somerset (Edmund Beaufort) was slain at St. 
 Albans, 1455. The title passed to his brother (John Beaufort). 
 
 Wars of the Roses. — Meantime, to Henry VI. had been born 
 a son. Hence a new claim of the Duke of York, as the son of 
 Anne Mortimer and descendant of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, second 
 son of Edward III., to be the legitimate king instead of Henry VI. 
 (While York had expected to succeed the king, this claim to sup- 
 plant him had been held in reserve.) The white rose was the badge 
 of York, the red rose the badge of Lancaster. The contests of York 
 and Lancaster are therefore known as the'* Wars of the Koses." 
 Their general result was the self-destruction of the feudal baronage 
 of England. They lasted thirty years, from 1455 to 1485. 
 
 With Edward IV., son of the Duke of York, who finally sup- 
 planted Henry VI. in 1471, tlius began, by this self-destruction of 
 the barons, the period of royal absolutism in England. Richard III., 
 1483-1485, the brother of Edward IV., usurped the crown at his 
 death, but held it only for two years. His rule was statesmanlike, 
 but the murder of his nephews (Edward V. and his brother) in the 
 Tower of London deprived him of national sympatliy. Slain in the 
 battle of Bosworth Field, 1485, he gave place to a sovereign who 
 united the claims of York and Lancaster, 
 
FIFTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 375 
 
 Henry VII., 1485-1509, grandson of John Beaufort, Duke of 
 Somerset, was the only surviving Lancasterian, i. c, descendant of 
 John of Gaunt (p. 372). He 
 married Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Edward IV., thus setthng 
 all difficulties of succession. 
 The use of artillery gave him 
 complete ascendency over feu- 
 dal insubordination. 
 
 Knights of the 15th Century. Dcsi^ of the period 
 
 William Caxton.— In the reign of 
 Edward IV. William Caxton introduced 
 the printing press into England, 1476. 
 Caxton' s own accounts show us the un- 
 certainties still existing in his time in 
 the use of English. 
 
 " Common English that is spoken in 
 one shire varyieth from another so much, 
 
 that in my days it happened that certain merchants were in a ship in Tliames, for to have sailed 
 over the sea to Zealand and for lack of wind they tarried at Foreland and went on shore for to 
 refresh them. And one of them, named SheflSeld, a mercer, came into a house and asked for 
 
 meat and especially he asked for eggs. And the 
 good wife answered that she could speak no French. 
 And the merchant was angry, for he also could speak 
 no French, hut would have had eggs, hut she under- 
 stood him not. And then at last another said he 
 would have eyren, then the good wife said she un- 
 derstood him well. Lo, what should a man in these 
 days now write, eggs or eyren ? " 
 
 The testimony of langraag-e proves that the 
 whole period from the Norman Conquest to Henry 
 VII. (1066-1485) was required to unite the Norman- 
 French and Anglo-Saxons in the nation of modern 
 English. Before William the Conqueror English 
 was Anglo-Saxon, that is a dialect of German ap- 
 proaching the Dutch. After the conquest French 
 was long the only language of polite society and 
 literature. Henry 11. and Richard I. did not know 
 English. The amalgamation of the two tongues was 
 fairly advanced in the time of Chaucer's Canterbury 
 Tales (14th century), hut all public documents were in French tiU the time of Henry VTE. (They 
 were in Latin from William the Conqueror to Henry HI.) 
 
 The birth of English literature, as regards its matter, was in the districts bordering 
 on Wales. Geoffrey of Monmouth (time of Henry I.) gave to England the stories of King 
 
 Ladies' Head-dies'* , 15th Century. 
 
 {Elizabeth WoodviUe, wife of 
 
 Edward IV.) 
 
376 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, fables which had been carried to Brittany by 
 fugitive Britieh, and were then returned to Wales (p. 307). 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 16th CENTURY. 
 
 Henry VII. (Tudor Line) A. d. 1485-1509 
 
 Henry VIII., son of the foregoing " 1509-1547 
 
 Edward VL, " " " " '' 1547-1553 
 
 Mary, sister " •* " " 1553-1558 
 
 Elizabeth, sister " " '* " 1558-1603 
 
 Henry VIII., 1509-1547, was the second king of the Tudor 
 line. This line is so called from Owen Tudor, a Welsh knight, 
 
 who married the French widow 
 of Henry VI. and was paternal 
 grandfather of Henry VII. 
 
 Period of Charles V.— In the active 
 development of the 16th century maritime 
 discovery, assisted by the mariner's com- 
 pass, was enlarging the conception of the 
 world. Italian cultivation was spreading 
 over Northern Europe. The art of print- 
 ing was widening the field of knowledge. 
 Modern State governments wer» replacing 
 the disorderly violence of feudal institu- 
 tions. England, under these influences, 
 played her part in the wars and diplomatic 
 controversies of the period of Charles V. 
 and Francis I. Her alliance was alternately 
 sought in the quarrels of these princes, and 
 her importance increased from this position 
 of third party and make-weight in Conti- 
 nental affairs. The celebrated tournament 
 of the Field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520, on 
 occasion of an alliance between Henry VIH. 
 and Francis I., indicates the general luxury 
 and extravagant display of the time and its 
 new sources of wealth. 
 The contemporary Lutheran schism now exerted an unhappy influence over England. 
 Henry VIII. had written a book against Luther, for which Pope Leo X. gave him the title of 
 "Defender of the Faith," nor did he in most matters of Church doctrine appear later as the par- 
 
 King's College Chapel, Cambridge ; 1479-1615. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 377 
 
 tisan of novelty. His temper, however, was stubborn, and he did not distinguish his position 
 as an almost absolute ruler of England— a position to which here as elsewhere the anti-feudal 
 and popular tendencies were favorable— from a position of spiritual insubordination to the 
 Head of the Church. His wife, Catherine of Aragon, was a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella 
 of Spain. She was first man-ied to Henry's elder brother Arthur, who soon after died. 
 
 The Act of Supremacy. — A Papal dispensation had allowed 
 Henry to marry his deceased brother's wife. The absence of male 
 heirs is said to have created conscientious scruples in the king's mind 
 as to the validity of such a marriage, notwithstanding the dispensation. 
 The king, however, with some inconsistency, did not doubt that a 
 divorce under Papal dispensation would be valid. This he could 
 not obtain. A passion for Anne Boleyn, one of the ladies of his 
 court, thus led Henry VIII. to separate his kingdom from its re- 
 ligious subordination to the Koman Pontiff. The Act of Supremacy, 
 1534, made the English sovereign head of the English Church. 
 Henry did not hesitate to execute the death penalty on those who 
 refused to swear allegiance under the new forms — for instance, on 
 Sir Thomas More, his former minister, "in the general opinion of 
 Europe the foremost Englishman of his time." 
 
 The separation of Engrland from the Roman Church was prompted by the 
 royal anxiety for a divorce, and had nothinof to do with even the pretense of a " reformation," 
 but it opened the doors for the overthrow iu England of the forms and of the faith of the 
 Church. For the time being, however, the death penalty was inflicted equally on those who 
 denied Transubstantiation and on those who denied the king's supremacy. 
 
 During the ascendency of Henry's minister, Thomas Cromwell, who suc- 
 ceeded Cardinal Wolsey (his first groat minister), the suppression of monasteries and destruc- 
 tion of shrines was carried on with ruthless hand, as a means of filling the treasury of a king 
 who still inflicted the death penalty for denial of the Real Presence. It even happened that a 
 " Sacramentary " (denier of Transubstantiation) was burned with the wood of a statue from 
 a shrine. 
 
 Throughout the reign of Henry VIII. the Mass was retained, although a year 
 before his death the substitution of an English Communion Service had been proposed. 
 
 After the execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of infi- 
 delity, Henry had married Jane Seymour, who died after the birth 
 of a son. He then married, successively, Anne of Oleves, from 
 whom he was divorced ; Catherine Howard, who was beheaded for 
 infidelity, and Catherine Parr, who outlived him. By these three 
 
378 ENGLAND. 
 
 later wives he had no children. His daughter Mary was the child 
 of Catherine of Aragon ; his daughter Elizabeth was the child of 
 Anne Bolejn. 
 
 Iid'^vard VI., 1547-1553, was a youth without genius or de- 
 cided character, who died before any influence in the government 
 was allowed him. England was governed by his uncle and guardian, 
 the brother of Jane Seymour. The " Protector " owed his title of 
 Duke of Somerset and his power to this relationship. From his 
 rule dates the institution of the Protestant forms of worship in 
 England. 
 
 The Engrlish. Reformation.— The position of the Protector was without the stability 
 of royal hereditary right, and required a party support. "The hope of support from the 
 Protestants united with Somerset's personal predilections, in his patronage of the innovations 
 [in religion] against which Henry had battled to the last. Priests were permitted to marry ; 
 the new Communion, which had taken the place of the Mass, was ordered to be administered 
 in both kinds; an English Book of Common Prayer, the Liturgy, which with slight alterations 
 is still used in the Church of England, replaced the Missal and Breviary, from which its con- 
 tents are mainly drawn, 1548.* The power of preaching was restricted, by the use of licences, 
 to the friends of the Primate, Cranmer. While all counter arguments were rigidly suppressed, 
 a crowd of Protestant pamphleteers flooded the country with vehement invectives against the 
 Mass and its ' superstitious ' accompaniments. The assent of the nobles about the court was 
 won by the suppression of chantries and religious guilds, and by glutting their greed with the 
 last spoils of the Church. German and Italian mercenaries were introduced to stamp out the 
 wider popular discontent which broke out in the East, in the West, and in the Midland Coun- 
 ties. The Cornishmen refused to accept the new service, ' because it is like a Christmas Game.' 
 Revolt was everywhere stamped out in blood ; but the weakness which the Protector had shown 
 in presence of the danger, and the irritation caused by the sanction he had given to the agra- 
 rian demands of the insurgents, ended in his fall. He was forced by his own party to resign, 
 and his power passed to the Earl of Warwick, to whose ruthless severity the suppression of 
 the revolt was mainly due. The change of governors, however, brought about no change of 
 system. The rule of the upstart nobles who formed the Council of Regency became simply a 
 rule of terror. All that men saw was religious and political chaos, in which ecclesiastical 
 order had perished, and in which politics was dying down into the squabbles of a knot of 
 nobles over the spoils of the Church and the Crown. But while the courtiers gorged them- 
 selves with manors, the treasury grew poorer. The coinage was debased. Crown lands to the 
 value of five millions of money [i. «., twenty-five millions of dollars] had been granted away 
 to the friends of Somerset and Warwick. The royal expenditure had mounted, in seventeen 
 years, to more than four times its previous totsdy— {Green's ** Short History qf the Etiglish 
 PeopUy The extracts are condensed from pages 864, 365, 866, 867.) 
 
 * "The most beaatifhl portions of the English Prayer Book are translations from the 
 Boman Breyi&rj,''—Froude''s History of England. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 379 
 
 In the reign of Mary, 1553-1558, the Catholic worship was 
 restored by almost unanimous vote of the Parliament, and the author- 
 ity of the Pope over the English Church was re-estabhshed. But 
 the marriage of Mary with Philip II. of Spain roused the national 
 English jealousy of foreign interference and damaged her personal 
 popularity. Her reputation with later times has been much injured 
 by her persecution of the Protestants. Among many others who 
 suffered death by this persecution, was Archbishop Cranmer, who 
 had himself, during the reign of Edward VI., inflicted death by fire 
 on those who denied the divinity of Christ. 
 
 Calais, the last English possession in France, was lost at the 
 close of this reign, 1558 (p. 266). 
 
 Lady Jane G-rey.— At the opening of Mary's reign the Protestant party had attempted 
 to revise the provisions of the vi'ill of Henry Vni. regulating the succession. Lady Jane Grey, 
 grand-daughter of a sister of Henry VHI., had been proposed in her stead. The ambition of 
 the Protector, Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland (who succeeded Somerset in 
 1549), had procured the marriage of Lady Jane Grey with one of his sons, Guildford Dudley, 
 and the signing by Edward VI. of a will in her favor. Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen 
 by Northumberland's influence, but the temper of the people rebelled against this usurpation, 
 Northumberland was obliged by public sentiment to abandon the cause of hiB daughter-in- 
 law, and she was confined in the Tower. 
 
 A second rising, headed by Lady Jane Grey's father, on announcement of Mary's proposed 
 marriage witli Philip II., caused the execution of the unfortunate lady, and of the lords whose 
 ambition had placed her in a false position. Her learning and goodness, and her own inno- 
 cence of ambitious designs, have excited much sympathy for her unhappy fate. 
 
 Elizabeth, 1558-1603.— According to the will of Henry VIIL, 
 Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth were all made heirs to the throne, 
 and the latter succeeded her sister without opposition. She had 
 been educated in the Protestant faith, and soon after her accession 
 the Protestant party was again brought into power, and the Prot- 
 estant worship was re-established. 
 
 Elizabeth refused the title of Head of the Church, opposed the man-iage of 
 clergy, and favored many usages of Catholic worship which were obnoxious to the Protest- 
 ants, such as altars, candles, crosses, and images, but her character was worldly, her predilec- 
 tion for Catholic forms a matter of sentiment rather than of religious feeling, and it was her 
 policy not to disaflfect the powerful English Catholic party. 
 
380 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 The acknowledged legitimate successor of Elizabeth 
 was Mary Stuart;, Queen of Scots, grand-daughter of Henry Eighth's 
 sister Margaret (p. 372). The English Catholic party, in expecta- 
 tion of Mary's succession, viewed with less repugnance the govern- 
 ment of Elizabeth. 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots was brought up in France ; her first 
 husband was Francis II., who died in 
 1560 (p. 266). She then returned to 
 Scotland and married her cousin, Lord 
 Darnley. The marriage, made for 
 state reasons, was an unhappy one. 
 Darnley murdered Rizzio, her Italian 
 State Secretary, in Mary's own presence. 
 The mysterious assassination of Lord 
 Darnley, and Mary's sudden (perhaps 
 compulsory) marriage with his pre- 
 sumed murderer, the Earl of Both well, 
 were followed by her imprisonment in 
 Lochleven Castle, 1567. Thence she 
 fled, in 1568, to England, and placed herself in the hands of Eliza- 
 beth for safety. 
 
 For eighteen years she was kept in captivity. Being not only 
 legal heir, as all conceded, but also, in view of Elizabeth's illegiti- 
 macy, the legally existing queen in Catholic estimation, there was 
 every probability that her party would at once place her on the 
 English throne, if she were allowed her freedom. If, on the other 
 hand, Mary's life were sacrificed, there would no longer be a Cath- 
 olic successor in prospect, and an immediate revolt of the Catholic 
 party against Elizabeth was then to be expected. Hence her long 
 captivity. But this captivity was a constant invitation to plots and 
 revolts against the government, and to this state of things she 
 finally became a victim. 
 
 The execution of the Queen of Scots in 1587 for alleged 
 complicity in the "Babington" conspiracy was the signal for all 
 the disturbances of Elizabeth's later reign. 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots. 
 {From a portrait of the time.) 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 381 
 
 The sentence reached Fotheringay on the "Tth of February. Mary listened, as it was read 
 to her, with an unmoved countenance. " My lords," she said, " the day has arrived at last 
 long expected by me, and long desired ; for what better end can I look for than to give up my 
 life for my faith ? Nevertheless, as to the death of the Queen, your sovereign," she continued, 
 placing her hand, as she spoke, on a Testament that lay on the table, " listen to my last words. 
 I call God to witness, I never sought it, T never imagined it." 
 
 The Spanish Armada.— The rage of Elizabeth at the agents 
 who had obtained from her the death-warrant against Mary has been 
 generally viewed as hypoc- 
 risy, or as a feminine and 
 momen tary rem or se. It is 
 more likely that her polit- 
 ical foresight as to the 
 consequent peril for her- 
 self is the explanation. 
 For it was not till 1588 
 that Philip II. despatched 
 his famous Armada ; al- 
 though English privateers 
 had harassed Spanish com- 
 merce and made war on 
 tbe Spanish colonies for 
 over twenty years, with 
 Ehzabeth's connivance, 
 and without any sort of apology or reparation.* The Armada was 
 destroyed by the superior sailing qualities of the smaller, more easily 
 handled English vessels, and by the elements. 
 
 The Irish Revolt. — But no sooner was the danger passed than 
 the revolt of the Irish Cathohcs absorbed the energies of EHzabeth 
 (p. 332). For the rest of her reign three-fourths of the English 
 annual income had to be devoted to the Irish war. 
 
 Elizabeth's last years were miserable and friendless. She had refrained from mar- 
 riage lest the birth of a Protestant heir should endanger her own hold on the throne by rousing 
 the Catholic party to her overthrow. 
 
 English Man-of-WiU- ; 16th Century. 
 (From a drawing by Holbein.) 
 
 * Detailed accounts of these piracies in Fronde's " History of England. 
 
382 ENGLAND. 
 
 The Elizabethan period of English Literature boasts the names of Mar- 
 lowe, Ben Jonson, Spenser, and Shakespeare. 
 
 The dramas of Marlowe are distinguished 
 by rugged force and virile power. 
 
 Ben Jonson exhibits in his dramas the influ- 
 ence of the Latinity of Italian classic learning. 
 
 Spenser's Faerie-Q,ueen shows the poetic 
 word-capacities of English speech in most wonder- 
 ful flexibility and rhythm. 
 
 Shakesx>eare combines all these qualities with 
 
 his own matchless human comprehension of human 
 
 grandeur and human weakness. 
 
 , , , _. Lord Francis Bacon began his career in the 
 
 Shakespeare s Globe Theatre. ^. - -r^,. r. x.. i .. i. ■ • ,i ^ 
 
 , _ , , . . time of Ehzabeth, but belongs more especially to 
 
 {From an old engrcmng.) ° f j 
 
 the time of James I., when scientific pedantry was 
 
 beginning to replace poetic inspiration. The contributions of this learned man to philosophy 
 
 are more highly rated by his countrymen than by the critics of continental Europe. 
 
 Civilization.—" Brick and stone were beginning to be used in the houses of the great, 
 and glass windows became common. The poor lived in hovels made of wattles plastered over 
 with clay. The fire was in the middle of the floor, and the smoke escaped through a hole in 
 the roof. This was the case in all houses until the reign of Henry VU., when chimneys began 
 to be built. The floors were commonly of clay strewed with rushes. In early Tudor reigns a 
 straw pallet, a coarse sheet and rug, and a log of wood for a bolster, were commonly used. 
 Tlie man who lay on a pillow of chaff was thought luxurious. Servants lay on bare straw. 
 Before Elizabeth dishes and spoons were wooden ; then pewter platters and silver or tin spoons 
 came into use among farmers and those of the same class. About 1580 coaches were intro- 
 duced: before that time ladies rode on a pillion behind their chief servants, whom they held 
 by the belt. 
 
 " Hops were now first grown in England. Cabbages, cherries, gooseberries, plums, apricots, 
 and grapes might now be seen in English gardens. Potatoes were brought by Sir Francis 
 Drake from Sante F6 in America. They were introduced into Ireland by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 Raleigh also brought tobacco from the West Indian island Tobago, and taught the English 
 its use. 
 
 " The country folk wore a doublet of russet-brown leather. The court fashions were, like 
 those of our own day, always changing. Queen Catherine Howard introduced pins f^om 
 France ; and, as these were expensive at first, a separate sum for this luxury was granted to 
 the ladies by their husbands. Hence the expression 'pin-money.' The farthingale was 
 introduced from Spain in Mary's reign. It was a large hooped petticoat. Ruffs of plaited, 
 linen were worn by both sexes on the neck and wrists. 
 
 " During this period the ladies often joined in the chase and shot at the game with arrows. 
 Hawking was beginning to decline, for the gun was coming into use. Bear-baiting and buU- 
 baiting were sports of the highest in the land. The principal country sports were archery, 
 foot-races, and various games of ball. 
 
 " Christmas was the great season of sports. From the sovereign to the beggar, all England 
 then went a-mumming in strange dresses and masks. May-day was another festive season in 
 Old England. Green branches were pulled immediately after midnight, a lord and lady of May 
 were chosen, and dances were kept up around a May-pole crowned with flowers." 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 383 
 
 IMPORTANT DATES OF ENGLISH HISTORY, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Act of Supremacy a. d. 1534 
 
 Demolition of Shrines " 1539 
 
 Mass abolished " 1548 
 
 Shakespeare born " 1564 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots executed " 1587 
 
 Spanish Armada * ' 1588 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 17th CENTURY. 
 
 James I., son of Mary Stuart a. d. 1603-1625 
 
 Charles I., son of the foregoing " 1625-1649 
 
 Commonwealth (Oliver Cromwell, +1658) " 1649-1660 
 
 Charles II., son of foregoing king " 1660-1685 
 
 James II., brother of " " " 1685-1688 
 
 j William III. of Orange, grandson of Charles I... " 1688-1702 
 
 I And Mary, daughter of James II " 1688-1694 
 
 James I. of Englaiid (and VI. of Scotland), the son of Mary 
 Queen of Scots and Henry Stuart, Lord Damley, was the first of the 
 Stuart line in England. The Presbyterian Calvinists, led by John 
 Knox, ruled the Lowlands of Scotland after Mary's flight to Eng- 
 land. James had thus been brought up in the Protestant faith. His 
 accession marks an important point in history — the union of the 
 Scotch and English Crowns. The parliaments of the two na- 
 tions were not united till a century later. 
 
 James was a pedant, but a man of learning. His person and 
 manners were not engaging, but he was not lacking in shrewdness. 
 It was said of him that he was the wisest fool in Europe. 
 
 The t'wo great features of James's reign are the American 
 Settlements and the development of a "High-Church" and a 
 " Puritan " party. 
 
 English colonies in America. — At the opening of the 17th 
 
384 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 century France and England, whose fishing vessels had for some 
 time visited the coast of Newfoundland, began to make settle- 
 ments in America. Captain John Smith made the beginnings of 
 a colony in Virginia in 1606. A little earlier, 1603, the French 
 began to estabUsh settlements in Canada, and a little later, 1620, 
 the English began to settle Massachusetts, Ehode Island, and Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 The first English colony sailed from Holland, a band of 
 Brownists (Congregationahsts or Independents, founded by Brown, 
 reign of Elizabeth), who had settled there for free worship. But 
 the rapid rise and increase in number of this Plymouth Colony 
 resulted from the persecution of the English Puritans under the son 
 and successor of James. 
 
 Charles I., 1625-1649, inherited from his father the division 
 
 in the English Church, and the 
 theory of the " divine right of 
 kings." This theory was neces- 
 sary to bolster up the institution 
 of apolitical Church supremacy. 
 No sooner had the English 
 Church come into existence than 
 sectarian divisions began to dis- 
 turb it. The Puritans, earnest 
 but often uncultivated people, 
 often, but not always, from the 
 lower orders of society, were 
 offended by the hollowness of 
 the forms which the English 
 High-Church made obligatory. 
 The Catholics were perse- 
 cuted, but Puritans were forced 
 to submit to external forms 
 borrowed from the Catholic. The famous Archbishop Laud modeled 
 
 Costume of the 17th century. Henrietta Maria, 
 wife of Charles I. (P. 2?2.) 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 385 
 
 the English Church on a basis closely resembling the modern 
 Eitualistic Episcopal ceremonial. 
 
 Charles I. met his first decided repulse in his attempt 
 to extend this Church system over Scotland. The Scotch Presby- 
 terians refused to use the .English Prayer Book, and rose in arms. 
 To subdue them the king needed armies and money. To procure 
 this money he resorted to methods of taxation, by " ship-money," 
 which were unusual and calculated to arouse popular discontent. 
 
 Ship-money was a tax originally levied in the maritime coun- 
 ties for coast defense, and extended by Charles to all England. The 
 House of Commons, of Puritan tendencies, seized on the question of 
 money supplies as a means of crippling the king in his religious 
 policy. This parliamentary opposition was strengthened, supported 
 and magnified by the Scotch revolt. 
 
 The Bill of Rights, 1628. — Thus was forced from the king 
 his consent to the famous Bill of Rights, by which no money sup- 
 plies could be raised without parliamentary consent, the most im- 
 portant feature of the modern English Constitution. From this 
 moment until his death, Charles I. never abandoned his attempts to 
 reverse this arrangement, and to rule 
 without parliamentary advice and sup- 
 plies. 
 
 Cavaliers and Roundheads. — 
 Hence his wars, supported by the 
 " Cavaliers," the party of the court 
 aristocracy, against the Parliament and 
 Puritan party of the " Roundhertds " (so- 
 called from their cropped hair — the 
 Cavaliers wore the hair long). These coin, with Head of cromweii. 
 wars, between 1642 and 1649, owed their 
 
 successful issue for the Puritan party to the military genius of Oliver 
 Cromwell, and to the alliance of Scotland. 
 
 The Execution of Charles I. in 1649 v/as the result of a long 
 course of diplomatic duplicity and double dealing on his part, which 
 
386 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 convinced the Puritan leaders that as long as the king was alive he 
 would never abandon intrigue. 
 
 It need not weaken our sympathy for the fate of the king to understand that his violent 
 death was the result of a determined conflict between two irreconcilable methods of govern- 
 ment, the Parliamentary and the Absolute form, of which the former was most suited to the 
 genius of the English, 
 
 The Commonwealth,— Between 1G49 and 1660 the govern- 
 ment of England was in form a Commonwealth, i. e., a Parlia- 
 mentary Republic, but in substance it was a despotism under Ohver 
 
 Cromwell (till 1658), sup- 
 ported by a strong division 
 of public sentiment. The 
 despotic rule of Cromwell 
 produced, however, a new 
 revolution of public senti- 
 ment after his death, and a 
 restoration of the Stuarts 
 in 1660. 
 
 The Restoration of 
 Charles II., 1660-1685. 
 — Experience proved that 
 parliamentary government 
 could not exist in England 
 without a king. Hence the 
 compromise, tacitly made, 
 by which the Restoration was procured, and the son of Charles I. 
 was made king. From the Stuart Restoration dates the existence 
 of the English '' Dissenters." The Puritan clergymen were turned 
 out of their livings to the number of two thousand, about a fifth of 
 the English clergy. The king's own temper was tolerant, but he 
 was controlled by the Parliament in matters of religion. A Te^t 
 Act was passed, requiring adhesion to the Church of England as 
 condition of holding civil or military office. 
 
 New St. Paul's, London. Begun 1675. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 387 
 
 The character of the king was frivolous, and yet he was not lacking in sense. A 
 courtier suggested as an epitaph the following : 
 
 Here lies our sovereign lord the king, 
 Whose word no man relies on ; 
 Who never said a foolish thing. 
 And never did a wise one. 
 
 " It is true," said Charles, " my deeds are my ministers', my words are my own." 
 
 Charles II. never defied his Parliament, altliough his own 
 tastes and policy were generally in opposition to its tendencies. His 
 alliances with Louis XIV. and French sympathies have made him 
 generally odious to English historians. Charles died in the Catholic 
 faith, although he never openly had professed it. 
 
 James II., 1685-1688, who succeeded his brother, had publicly 
 embraced Catholicism when Duke of York. He was a man of 
 upright but cold and unsympathetic nature. His absolutist tenden- 
 cies, hateful to the nation in general, and exerted without reflection 
 or policy in the Catholic interest, provoked a revolution by which 
 the Stadt-holder of Holland, William Prince of Orange, obtained 
 the throne of England for himself and his wife Mary, the king's 
 daughter. James attempted to regain his throne with Irish assist- 
 ance, but was defeated in the Battle of the Boyne, 1690. 
 
 The Revolution of 1688 was the turning point in the forma- 
 tion of the modern English Constitution. By it the " Habeas 
 Corpus" Act, passed in 1679, and violated by James (the act which 
 led to his downfall), became a recognized feature of the Constitu- 
 tion. This act forbids the imprisonment of an English subject 
 without process of law. But the most important change was that 
 by which the income of the king and the pay of the standing army 
 were made dependent on the annual vote of the Parliament. An- 
 nual parliaments were thus made necessary, and the king became 
 dependent on them. This arrangement soon led, in following reigns, 
 to another, — government by a Ministry, which carries out the 
 measures of the majority of the House of Commons, and which 
 changes with the change of this majority. Thus the stability 
 
388 ENGLAND. 
 
 of monarchy was united with the mobility of popular govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Science and Literature.— In the reign of Charles 11. the studies in Science and Natural 
 History, which Bacon''s Philosophy favored, made great progress. The name of Sir Isaac 
 Newton, 1&42-1727, represents the discovery of the law of gravitation. 
 
 In this reign appeared the " Paradise Liost" of John Milton, the poet of Puritan 
 England. His poem is the work of a noble and high-minded man, whose learaing and mastery 
 of poetic form were remarkable. Milton's English is especially pure and vigorous. A later 
 poetic contemporary of Milton, living over into the 18th century and the reign of Anne, 
 was John Dryden. 
 
 American Colonies.— Throughout the whole 17th century, following the settlement of 
 Massachusetts in 1620, the English continued to gain ground in America. New Hampshire, 
 Connecticut, Maryland, Rhode Island, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, South Carolina 
 and Pennsylvania, were all settled in the 17th century. 
 
 Conquest of Jamaica.— During the time of the Commonwealth, Jamaica was conquered 
 from Spain. It is still an English possession. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Elizabeth died. James I. succeeds A. d. 1603 
 
 French Settlements in Canada after this date " 1603 
 
 Gunpowder Plot " 1605 
 
 Captain John Smith in Virginia. " 1606 
 
 Henry rv. of France assassinated. Louis XIII. succeeds " 1610 
 
 Shakespeare died " 1616 
 
 Thirty Years' War began " 1618 
 
 Puritans in Massachusetts " 1620 
 
 Francis Bacon died '• 1626 
 
 Bill of Rights " 1628 
 
 Civil Wars between Charles I. and his Parliament after " 1642 
 
 Peace of Westphalia " 1648 
 
 Execution of Charles I. Cromwell in Ireland " 1649 
 
 Restoration of Charles n. Majority of Louis XR'" " 1660 
 
 Great Fire of London " 1666 
 
 Molidredied " 1673 
 
 Miltondied " 1674 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act " 1679 
 
 ComeUle died " 1684 
 
 Charles n. died. James 11. succeeds " 1685 
 
 James II. replaced by William in " 1688 
 
 Battle of the Boyne " 1690 
 
 Racinedied " 1699 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 389 
 
 IMPORTANT DATES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Union of Scotch and English Crowns A. d. 1603 
 
 Death of Shakespeare " 1616 
 
 Bill of Rights " 1628 
 
 Execution of Charles I " 1649 
 
 Restoration. Test Act '* 1660 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act " 1679 
 
 Revolution of " 1688 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 18th CENTURY. 
 
 William III. of Orange A. D. (1688H'J'02 
 
 Anne, sister of Mary " 1703-1714 
 
 George I. of Hanover ** 1714-1727 
 
 George II., son of the foregoing " 1727-1760 
 
 George III., grandson of George II *' 1760-(1820) 
 
 THE STUABT LESIB, CONNECTED WITH WILLIAM OF ORANGE AND THE HOUSE Or HANOVER. 
 
 Henry VII. 
 
 Margaret. = James IV. of Scotland. 
 
 James V. 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots. =Henry Stuart, 
 - IDa 
 
 Lord Damley. 
 
 James I. 
 
 I 
 
 Charles I. Elizabeth. Frederick, 
 
 ! I Elector Palatine, 
 
 II I I the " Winter King." 
 
 Mary. Charles n. Anne Hyde. = James n.=Mary of Modena. ' 
 
 Sophia=Emest Augustus 
 
 William III. of Orange.r=Mary. Anne, 
 
 of Hanover. 
 
 George I. 
 James Francis Edward Stuart, _, I __ 
 
 The " Old Pretender," George II. 
 
 1688-1766. „ . L„, , 
 
 I Prince of Wales. 
 
 Charles Edward Stuart, „ I .„ 
 
 the " Young Pretender," George III. 
 
 1720-1788. 
 
390 ENGLAND. 
 
 William IH. owed his election as English king to his marriage 
 with James II.'s daughter, to his own descent from Charles I. whose 
 daughter Mary was his mother, and also to his position as head of 
 the Protestant party in Europe, Since France was allied with the 
 cause of the Stuarts, it was necessary for England, in expelling them, 
 to enter the anti-French alliance which William had organized be- 
 fore becoming an English sovereign (pp. 255, 281). William III., 
 on his part, used England as one more agent in his continental 
 schemes. Hence the English share in the War of the Spanish Suc- 
 cession, 1700-1713 (pp. 241, 254, 284). 
 
 The reign of Anne, 1702-1714, is distinguished by the Legis- 
 lative Union of Scotland with England — the 
 union, that is, of the parliaments. This queen 
 inherited the policy of William III., and the 
 English share in the War of the Spanish Suc- 
 cession begun by him. 
 
 Lord Marlborough, whose victories of 
 Blenheim, Ramillies, and Malplaquet are famous, 
 was the controUing mind in EngHsh politics tiU 
 his loss of power in 1711. This was the pre- 
 
 Queen Anne. ^ ■'^ 
 
 lude to the Peace of Utrecht. 
 
 The conditions of this peace are mentioned at pp. 256, 284, 
 — among them the English acquisition of G-ibraltar, the key 
 of the Mediterranean, and therewith the naval ascendency in the 
 Mediterranean, which England has always since retained. By the 
 same treaty France abandoned the cause of the Stuarts and recog- 
 nized the Hanoverian Succession. This was already in prospect 
 through the failing health of Anne and the absence of direct heirs. 
 
 By an Act of Settlement, made in 1701, the succession was 
 to pass from Mary and Anne, in default of heirs, to the House of 
 Hanover. A daughter of James I. had married the Elector Palatine of 
 Germany (the Winter King, p. 247). The daughter of this marriage 
 became the wife of a Hanoverian Elector, Ernst August, and the 
 mother of the Hanoverian English king George I. (See Genealogy. ) 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 391 
 
 The party divisions of "Whigs" and "Tories" now first 
 became prominent. Tlie Tories affected the cause of the Stuarts, as 
 the cause of legitimacy and hereditary right. Tlie Whigs were the 
 moderates, the supporters of the existing order and of the Hanoverian 
 succession. In later times, when the Stuart cause was no longer in 
 question, the names were still retained. In our own time the Tories 
 are supposed to represent the strict conservative ideas and reaction- 
 ary tendencies ; the Whigs are the moderate liberals. 
 
 George I., 1714-1727, Elector of Hanover, united a German 
 principaUty with an English kingdom — a union which continued till 
 the accession of Queen Victoria (1837), and which largely explains 
 the later continental wars of England down to the time of Bona- 
 parte. 
 
 G-eorge II., 1727-1760, was, like his father, German in tastes 
 and nature, caring little for England, and content to play the role 
 of a constitutional king controlled by his ministry. For twenty- 
 one years, 1721-1742, England's government was managed by the 
 great Whig Minister, Sir EoJDcrt Walpole. 
 
 Walpole's policy was to assist agriculture, commerce and 
 manufactures by keeping the country at peace. His rule was as 
 uneventful as it was conducive to prosperity. But this prosperity 
 made England grasping and ambitious. Her merchants were jealous 
 of the riches to be derived from trade with the Spanish colonies, 
 from which they were excluded by the general colonial policy of the 
 time. Thus Walpole was finally driven from power, in 1742, by a 
 war party which had already, in 1739, forced the country to declare 
 war on Spain. 
 
 The War on Spain.— After the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713, both Spain and France were 
 governed by the French Bourbon family. Although these countries were sometimes at vari- 
 ance, their eympathies were generally allied, especially in questions of their foreign colonies. 
 England was jealous of the French settlements in Canada and of French enterprise in develop- 
 ing the territories reaching from the Great Lakes to the mouth of the Mississippi, and the war 
 on Spain indicated a general colonial policy of attack on the possessions of the Bourbons. 
 
 War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-1748.— The declaration of war on Spain in 
 1739 was followed in 1740 by the war of the Austrian Succession (p. 256), and England, already 
 involved in broil, could not preserve the neutrality which Walpole had proposed. Since Eng- 
 
392 ENGLAND. 
 
 land was the rival of France and Spain, she was the natural ally of Maria Thereat. By Eng-^ 
 land's advice Silesia was ceded to Frederick in 1742 (p. 257), thus disposing of one enemy. 
 English subsidies gave victory to the Austrian armies elsewhere. But after the fall of Walpole 
 (in 1742), who had opposed the policy of war in general and confined himself to the protection 
 of the Austrian power, England, in alliance with Austria, changed to a general policy of attack 
 on the French and Spanish Bourbons. 
 
 The success of the English-Hanoverian and Austrian alliauce threatened so great an 
 aggi-andizement of Austria, that Frederick in 1744 allied himself with France, while Austria 
 combined with Russia for the partition of Prussia. In 1745 the French, to ciipple England, 
 aided a landing of the Stuart Pretender, Charles Edward, gi'andson of James IT., in Scotland. 
 Although a victory at Preston Pans, won by his Highlanders, and a second victoiy at Falkirk, 
 in 1746, had no results (his expedition into England was a failure), England was forced by this 
 attack in fhe rear to ally herself w ith Frederick of Prussia and to withdraw from the alliance 
 with Austria. Thus was vindicated Walpole's previous policy of peace with France, which 
 had protected England from the attacks of the Stuarts. The war on the Continent ended in 
 1748, with a mutual restoration of conquests, in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle between France 
 and Austria, Frederick retaining Silesia. 
 
 The Seven Years' War. -This peace was really a truce only. Spain and France, joined 
 in a " family compact," were now aroused by the hostility of England to anticipate further at- 
 tacks. By a sudden turn of policy, Austria, no longer threatened by these countries, joined 
 with them as a means of recovering Silesia. Thus the interest of Prussia to hold Silesia 
 against Austria, united with the interest of England to supplant the Spaniards in their own 
 colonial commerce and to resist the progress of France in the Ohio Valley. From the Missis- 
 sippi French traders had worked up the basin of the Ohio ; and the crest of the Alleghanies 
 now set a bound to the previously undefined limits on the west of the English American colo- 
 nies. Thus came about the outbreak of a war in America which set the whole of Europe in 
 
 The beginning of the Seven Years' War, 1756-1763, was the English expedition under 
 (Jeneral Braddock against the French post, Fort Duquesne, established at the fork of the 
 Alleghany and the Monongahela where they join in the Ohio. The name of Pittsburg, on the 
 site of Fort Duquesne, commemorates the activity of the minister, William Pitt (the Earl of 
 Chatham), who now directed the destinies of England. 
 
 On the continent of Europe, Prussia, supported by the money of England, contended against 
 the coalition of France, Saxony, Austria, and Russia (p. 257). The withdrawal of Russia from 
 this alliance at a critical moment saved Prussia, and the Peace of Hubertsburg, 1763, once more 
 secured to her the possession of Silesia. By the peace of the same year at Paris, Spain ceded 
 Florida to England (a cession not permanent), and France ceded to Engrland Canada 
 and the Mississippi Basin— (to Spain her claims west of the Mississippi). France aban- 
 doned all right to military settlements in India. 
 
 British Empire in India.— From this Seven Years' War dates, therefore, the British 
 Empire in India, founded by Robert CUve. 
 
 In the time of Elizabeth an East India trading company had been organized, but during the 
 century following, only three small trading posts had been acquired— Madras, Bombay, and 
 Calcutta. During the War of the Austrian Succession the French, at this time more powerful 
 in India than the English, attempted to expel the latter. Clive, who was a clerk of the Eng- 
 lish Trading Company, entered its military force, and overthrew the French ascendency in 
 Southern Hindoostan. Recalled by ill-health to England, he returned to India at the opening 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 393 
 
 of the Seven Years' War, and by the victory of Plassey, in 1757, gave the East India Company 
 the practical mastery of Bengal. In 1760 he established securely the English influence in 
 Southern Hindoostan. 
 
 In 1773, Warren Hastings, a clerk promoted by Clive, was made Governor-General of India, 
 and by his conquests and combinations laid the foundation of British rule over the whole 
 country. 
 
 George III., 1760-1820, was grandson of the last king. 
 The peace of 1763 had been owing to the new king's opposition to 
 the military ardor of Pitt. George III. was a man of narrow char- 
 acter but upright intentions. His personal prejudices had much to 
 do with the next important feature of English history — the loss of 
 the American colonies. 
 
 The most important cause of this separation was the cession 
 to England, in 1763, of the French American territories, as result 
 of the Seven Years* War. As long as the French territory hemmed 
 in the English Americans on the north and west, and French power 
 could unite the Indian tribes against the English colonies, these 
 felt the need of English assistance and protection. Relieved 
 from this pressure, the colonies were able to stand' alone, and 
 accordingly assumed the independent attitude in opposition to 
 British taxation which brought 
 about the American Revolution, 
 1775-1783. (The more obvious 
 and direct causes generally men- 
 tioned are suflBciently known.) 
 
 The American Revolu- 
 tion. — Once more the earlier 
 hostility of England, after Wal- 
 pole's time, to the French and 
 Spanish Bourbons had here its 
 effect. It was the alliance of 
 France and Spain, after 1778, 
 with the American colonies that 
 turned the balance in their favor 
 and secured the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. The naval 
 
 William Pitt, 1759-1806. 
 
394 ENGLAND. 
 
 victories of Admiral Rodney saved England any further humiliation 
 in the Treaty of Paris, 1783, than the loss of the American colonies. 
 Florida was re-ceded to Spain. 
 
 By the outbreak of the French Revolution, in 1789, 
 which owed at least its external impulse to the rise of the American 
 Republic, England was drawn into a new series of Continental wars. 
 The second William Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, was the great 
 English minister at this time. Some mention of these wars will be 
 found in the sections relating to the French Revolution and to 
 Bonaparte. The sections for the contemporary Irish history will 
 also be supplementary for this period. The reign of George III. 
 continued beyond the limits of the century. 
 
 Literature.— The 18th century is a distingnished one in English literature. The poet 
 Dryden has been already mentioned. Dean Swift was a vigorous controversial writer. 
 The "Spectator" essays of Addison and Steele are still quoted for their good diction. 
 Pope, as a poet, well represents the general character of his time, refined but artificial. These 
 names belong to the earlier part of the century, to the reigns of Anne and George I. In the 
 middle period of the century flourished Daniel Defoe, author of " Kobinson Crusoe "; Bich- 
 ardson and Fielding, the novelists ; Dr. Johnson, essayist and critic ; Oliver Gold- 
 smith, poet and dramatic author ; and Laurence Sterne. To the latter part of the century 
 belong the historians Robertson, Hume, Gibbon, the political economist Adam Smith. 
 
 The Methodists.- From the year 1738, when John Wesley became widely active as a 
 preacher, dates the rise of the Methodists. " Wesley considered himself a member of the 
 Church of England, and the body he had formed as a lay society dependent on it."— Green. 
 
 John Howard, philanthropist and prison reformer, was active after 1774. 
 
 The steam-engine was developed into a practical, mechanical force by James Watt in 
 1765. 
 
 GENEALOGY OP THB HANOVERIAN LINE {CorUintied^ 
 
 George I. 
 Georffc II 
 Frederick, Prince of Wales. 
 George III. 
 
 George IV. William IV. Etlward, = Victoria of Saxe-Coburg. Ernest Augustus, 
 
 Duke of Kent. Duke of Cumberland 
 
 I King of Hanover af tej 
 
 Prince Albert :r^r=r Queen Victoria. 1837 till 1851. 
 
 of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. I ,„ L „ 
 
 I George IV. of Hanover, 
 
 Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, _ Died 1878. 
 
 born 1841. (Hanover conquered 
 
 ' ^ by Prussia, 1866.) 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 39£> 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH HISTORY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 War of the Spanish Succession begins a. d. 1700 
 
 William III. died. Anne succeeds " l'<^02 
 
 Union of Scotch and English parliaments " 1707 
 
 Peace of Utrecht. Gibraltar to England. France abandons the Stuarts " 1713 
 
 Anne died. George I. of Hanover succeeds " 1714 
 
 Walpole's ascendency till 1742, after. " 1721 
 
 George I. died. George II. succeeds " 1727 
 
 War on Spain declared " 1'''39 
 
 England leagued with Austria till the Pretender's invasion " 1746 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Conquests mutually re-exchanged, but Prussia keeps Silesia. " 1748 
 Seven Years' War. England supports Prussia on the Continent. Contests French 
 
 ascendency in India and America, after •• " 1756 
 
 Peace of Hubertsburg and Peace of Paris. England gains Canada and the Mississippi 
 
 and Ohio Basins, and founds her power in India " 1763 
 
 War with the American colonies " 1775 
 
 Peace of Paris. England loses the American colonies " 1783 
 
 England heads the European Coalitions against France till 1815, after " 1793 
 
 IMPORTANT DATES REHEARSED. 
 
 Peace of Utrecht. End of the Spanish Succession War A. D. 1713 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. End of the Austrian Succession War " 1748 
 
 Peace of Paris and Hubertsburg. End of the Seven Years' War " 1763 
 
 Peace of Paris. End of the American Revolution " 1783 
 
 England heads the Coalitions against Prance " 1793 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS OF THE 19th CENTURY. 
 
 George III A. d. (1760)-1820 
 
 George IV " 1820-1830 
 
 William IV *' 1830-1837 
 
 Victoria " 1837 
 
 The English Sovereigns.— The reign of George III. lasted 
 nominally till 1820, but attacks of insanity made it necessary, in 
 the later part of his reign, to establish a Regency of his son. This 
 son succeeded as George IV. in 1820, reigning till 1830. His 
 brother, William IV., followed, reigning till 1837^ 
 
396 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 Houses of Parliament, London. 
 
 Queen Victoria, his successor, was daughter of the third 
 
 son of George III., the 
 ^ 0^^ Duke of Kent. The 
 
 fourth son of George 
 III., the Duke of Cum- 
 berland, became king of 
 Hanover at her accession, 
 thus separating Hanover 
 from England. In 1866 
 Hanover was conquered 
 by Prussia, and united 
 with this State (p. 299). 
 The important features 
 of England's internal 
 history, in the early 19th century, were Catholic Emancipation, and 
 the reform of the Representative system. For England's share in 
 Continental history at this time, see pp. 293-297. 
 
 Measures of Reform. — The Catholic Emancipation Bill, ad- 
 mitting Catholics to seats in Parliament, was passed in 1829, It 
 had been long deferred by the personal opposition of George III. 
 In 1832 the Reform Bill broke down the so-called rotten-borough 
 system. By this system many of the largest towns had been left 
 without representatives, while places which had lost their impor- 
 tance and population, or which had been given members because 
 they could be controlled by personal influence, were allowed seats 
 in the House of Commons. 
 
 Foreign Events. — The close of the wars with Napoleon, after 
 1815, left England at peace until 1853, when she leagued with 
 France to support Turkey against the attacks of Russia. This 
 war in the Crimea, begun 1854, ended in a triumph for the allies, 
 1856. It was followed in 1857 by a mutiny in India of the native 
 troops in English pay (Sepoys). After the suppression of the 
 revolt the government of India was transferred frpm the East Indi^ 
 Company to the English sovereign. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTtJRY. 397 
 
 A new Reform Bill, passed by Mr. Disraeli (later, Earl of 
 Beacousfield) in 1867, extended the franchise by conditions which 
 admitted large numbers of the working classes. For the later 
 Reform Bill of Mr. Gladstone see Irish history. 
 
 The year 1850 witnessed the restoration of the Catholic Hier- 
 archy of England, and two years later the first provincial synod of 
 the English bishops was held at the College of Oscott. 
 
 The most important features of English history in the 19th century are her 
 immense manufacturing and commercial prosperity, and tlie power of her colonial empires in 
 India, Australia, and Canada. 
 
 On the other hand, sources of constant expense and annoyance are found in small foreign 
 wars with barbarous nations to "preserve the prestige" of the British crown. Recent wars 
 with Abyssinia, with Dahomey, and with the Dutch Boers of South Africa, come under this 
 head. 
 
 A second source of trouble lies in the English jealousy of Russian advance in Asia, where 
 the Russians, in approaching the boundaries of India, are supposed to threaten the security 
 of the Indian Empire. It is undoubtedly true that if the Hindoos should become seriously dis- 
 affected, a foreign European power on the frontier would tend to promote trouble. 
 
 The third cause of trouble for England lies in the agitation and dissatisfaction of her Irish 
 subjects. The sources of this dissatisfaction are indicated in the Irish history. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH HISTORY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Slave-trade abolished a. d. 1807 
 
 Battle of Waterloo. English participation in the Congress of Vienna " 1815 
 
 Death of George HI " 1820 
 
 First Steamboat on the Thames " 1823 
 
 Catholic Emancipation " 1829 
 
 Death of George IV " 1830 
 
 First Railway opened " " 
 
 Reform Bill " 1832 
 
 Slavery abolished in the Colonies " 1833 
 
 Death of William IV. Accession of Queen Victoria " 1837 
 
 Penny Post " l&iO 
 
 Electric Telegraph first practically worked " 1847 
 
 Catholic Hierarchy restored " 1850 
 
 First Great Exhibition " 1851 
 
 Crimean War, 1854 to " 1856 
 
 Sepoy Rebellion ' " 1857 
 
 Submarine Telegraph to America " 1858 
 
 Extension of the Franchise by Disraeli " 1867 
 
398 ENGLAND, 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE ON ENGLISH HISTORY. 
 
 FIRST REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 What German Principality was separated from English rule by the accession of Qneen 
 Victoria ? 
 
 When was Hanover united with England ? (P. 391.) 
 
 What large increase of territory had Hanover obtained about that time ? (P. 262.) 
 
 Who was the founder of the House of Hanover ? (Pp. 161, 162.) 
 
 By what relationship did the House of Hanover obtain the English crown ? (P. 389.) 
 
 Name the English sovereigns of the House of Hanover ? 
 
 Name, by reference to the table (p. 397) or otherwise, important events in the reign of Vic- 
 toria ? In the reign of George IV. ? Of George HI. ? Of George II. ? 
 
 When did George I. begin his reign ? 
 
 Who was the last of the Stuart sovereigns ? (P. 390.) 
 
 When did she die ? (P. 389.) 
 
 Whose daughter was she ? 
 
 Who preceded her ? 
 
 What was the foreign policy of her predecessor? (P. 390.) 
 
 When was the Dutch Republic founded ? (P. 246.) 
 
 What important war during the reign of Queen Anne ? 
 
 What did England obtain by the Treaty of Peace ? (Pp. 390, 284. 260.) 
 
 What did she gain by the Seven Years' War ? (P. 392.) 
 
 What influence had this gain in promoting the American Revolution ? (P. 393.) 
 
 Where was the beginning of the Seven Years' War ? (P. 392.) 
 
 What Continental power was at this time allied with England ? 
 
 How far was Hanover (Brunswick-Lflneburg) from Prussia ? See map for 1748, p. 256. 
 
 What province was Austria endeavoring to reconquer from Prussia ? (P. 257.) 
 
 In what war was England the ally of Austria ? (P. 391.) 
 
 Why did she abandon this alliance ? (P. 392.) 
 
 When did the Stuart Pretender land in England ? (P. 392.) 
 
 Why had Walpole favored an alliance with France ? (P. 392.) 
 
 SECOND REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 In whose reign did Walpole's ministry begin ? (P. 391.) 
 
 What colonial policy did England pursue after his time ? (P. 391.) 
 
 Who assisted the American colonies to obtain independence ? (P. 893.) 
 
 When were the American colonies first settled by the English ? (P. 384.) 
 
 Why did they grow rapidly by later emigration ? (P. 884.) 
 
 In whose reign ? 
 
 Who was the first Stuart king of England ? (P. 888.) 
 
 What are the most important events of his reign ? 
 
 Why did an English party oppose the government of Charles I. ? (P. 384.) 
 
 Why did he need money ? 
 
 Why was the Bill of Rights passed f When ? 
 
QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 399 
 
 What is the date for the Peace of Westphalia ? (P. 250.) For the execution of Charles I. ? 
 For the accession of Louis XIV ? (P. 276.) 
 
 What French sovereign was the contemporary of Charles 11. ? (P. 276.) Of James II ? 
 
 What battle defeated the effort of James II. to regain his throne ? (P. 387.) 
 
 What feature of the English Constitution dates from the time of William of Orange ? 
 {P. 387.) 
 
 What relation was he to Charles I. ? (P. 389.) 
 
 What French Minister was the contemporary of Cromwell ? (P. 276.) 
 
 Who was the mother of James I. ? (P. 389.) 
 
 When did she die ? (P. 380.) 
 
 How long before the Spanish Armada? (P. 381.) 
 
 What trouble had Elizabeth after the Spanish Armada ? (P. 381.) 
 
 What part of the 16th century is taken up by the reign of Henry VIII. ? (P. 376.) 
 
 Mention some contemporary Continental events. (P. 239.) 
 
 What E^rench reigns correspond to that of Elizabeth ? (P. 264.) 
 
 What Spanish reign corresponds to hers ? (P. 241.) 
 
 What English reigns correspond to that of Charles V. ? (P. 376.) 
 
 Who was the father of Henry VIII. ? 
 
 What wars were closed by his accession ? (P. 375.) 
 
 In what century ? 
 
 How caused ? 
 
 THIRD REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 Who was the first Lancaster ian king ? (P. 373.) 
 Name the Lancasterian kings ? (P. 373.) 
 When did Richard II. die ? (P. 371.) 
 To what line does ho belong ? 
 Whence the name of Plantagenet ? (P. 864.) 
 What other name have the Plantagenets ? (P. 364.) 
 Who was the first Plantagenet ? (P. 364.) 
 
 What French possessions were ruled by the Norman kings before him ? (P. 363.) 
 What French possessions did he add? (P. 364.) Note that Anjou, at this time, included 
 Touraine. 
 
 Who first lost a portion of those provinces? (P. 365.) 
 
 Why? (P. 365.) 
 
 Date the Magna Charta ? (P. 365.) 
 
 What made the English Norman Barons dissatisfied with John ? (P. 366.^ 
 
 Who was the French contemporary of Henry HI. ? (P. 189.) Of Edward I. ? (P. 189.) 
 
 Why were the French kings antagonists of the English at this time ? (P. 370.) 
 
 Who assisted the Scotch in the time of Edward I. ? (P. 370.) 
 
 What war did this cause ? (P. 370.) 
 
 When was the Peace of Bretigny ? (P. 370.) 
 
 What difference did it make as to English possessions in France ? 
 
 In whose reign were these possessions finally lost ? (P. 374.) 
 
 What English king lost favor by failing to prosecute the French war ? (P. 371.) 
 
 What relic does England preserve of her old French possessions ? (P^ '^65.) 
 
400 ENGLAND. 
 
 FOURTH REVIEW LESSON. 
 
 By what conquest was the Anglo-Saxon period of English history ended ? (P. 362.) 
 
 What relation were the Normans to the Danes ? (P. 362.) 
 
 When did Danish attacks on England begin ? (P. 859.) 
 
 What assisted Danish power in England ? (P. 359.) 
 
 Who assisted the rise of Wessex ? (P. 358.) 
 
 What Anglo-Saxon State preceded Wessex in greatness ? (P. 358.) 
 
 What Anglo-Saxon State preceded Mei'cia ? (P. 356.) 
 
 When does the greatness of Northumbria begin ? (P. 355.) 
 
 When did Roman missionaries first convert the Anglo-Saxons ? (P. 356.) 
 
 Was this the first establishment of Christianity in Britain ? 
 
 When were the British first Christianized ? (P. 353) 
 
 Who overthrew the British Christianity ? (P. 354.) 
 
 How long was the Roman rule of Britain ? (Pp. 352, 353.) 
 
 How long was the Anglo-Saxon period ? (Pp. 353-362.) 
 
 When does the modem English language begin its existence ? (P. 375.) 
 
 Of what languages is it composed ? 
 
 Who was the first national king of England ? (P. 366.) 
 
 How many English kings were also French barons ? Ans. All between William the Con- 
 queror and Henry III., inclusive. 
 
 Name these kings. 
 
 When was the feudal relation of the English kings to the French kings finally severed ? 
 (P 370.) 
 
 Map Studies.— England under the Romans, see p. 116 (where, however, only a small por- 
 tion of the island appeai-s). 
 
 England under the Anglo-Saxons, pp. 140, 154, 156. 
 
 England under the Normans and French Angevins (or Plantagenets), pp. 132, 200. 
 
 England in the 16th century, p. 228. 
 
 England during the wars of Charles I. with the Parliament, p. 250. 
 
 England in the 18th century, pp. 254, 256. Notice the section map. 
 
 England in the 19th century, pp. 292, 296, 298, 300. 
 
 Observe the use of the same color for England and Hanover at p. 254 and later maps. 
 
SCAN DINAVIA. 
 
 PAGAN PERIOD, TO A. D. looo. 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have been comprised, since the time 
 of the Romans, under the general term of Scandinavia. They were peopled 
 before the Christian era by a race' of the Germanic 
 family which still spoke a common language in the 
 8th century after Christ. The early literature and 
 forms of this language have been best preserved in 
 Iceland, because this country, of all those peopled by 
 the Scandinavians, has been most isolated and unin- 
 fluenced by change. 
 
 The Scandinavian countries were un- 
 doubtedly frequented by Phoenician traders in early 
 antiquity. They were visited by the Greek voyager 
 Pytheas of Marseilles in the 4th century b. c. They 
 were chiefly known to the Romans by the amber 
 found on the shores of the Baltic, which was highly 
 prized by the Roman ladies. 
 
 In the early Middle Ages the Scandinavians 
 were known as Northmen or Danes. As Northmen 
 we hear of their settlement in France. In England 
 
 tliey appear as Danes In Ireland they were known by the latter name, and also 
 as Ostmen (men from the east). The Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, who settled 
 earlier in England, belonged to the same branch of Germanic race, and the ter- 
 ritory left vacant by them in Sleswick-Holstein and Jutland, was simply re- 
 peopled by other "Danes" of the same family. To the Scandinavian branch 
 of the Germans belonged also the Goths of the German invasions. The divi- 
 sions of East and West Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths) existed before their 
 migration from the southern part of Norway and Sweden. 
 
 Stone Implements of early 
 Scandinavia. 
 
iO'l 
 
 SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 Norman Ship. From a Tapestry of the 11th Century. 
 
 The main occupation of the Scandinavians, down to the year 1000 A. D., 
 was piracy. After this date, they gradually became Christianized and fixed in- 
 habitants at home or in the settlements made elsewhere before this time. 
 
 Navigration.— As implied in the length and numher of their voyages, the shiphuilding art 
 was carried to high perfection. A nearly constructed galley, in perfect preservation, surrounded 
 
 with all carpenter's tools and ship- 
 building accessories, has recently 
 been unearthed and is now pre- 
 served near Christiana. 
 
 Characteristics.— The 
 Northmen believed that their 
 chief divinity, Odin (Woden), was 
 to be propitiated by gold, and this 
 was one cause of their piratical 
 expeditions. Their treasures were 
 often buried with them. A wild 
 and ferocious bravery was a na- 
 tional characteristic. Certain war- 
 riors, to show their contempt for 
 life, made a practice of fighting 
 in their shirts (sarks) and were called Bersekers (bare-sarkers). Another custom was the 
 " holm-gang " (holm, an island), the practice of resorting to some small and untenanted island 
 in order to fight out a quarrel to the death. From the word "vik," a bay, was derived the 
 word "viking," that is, to go out on a piratical excursion; and the sea-marauders were thence 
 called Vikingar. From the same word, "vik," are 
 derived names of EngUsh towns ending in " wick." 
 Nautical terms in English are mainly of Danish origin. 
 The Pagranism of the Scandinavians was like 
 their national character—a mixture of cruelty and 
 imaginative mysticism. Human sacrifices were habit- 
 ually offered as late as the 11th century. Influences 
 of Phcenician Moloch-worship are very apparent, 
 although the Scandinavian mythology has many points 
 of contact with the ancient Greek and other Aryan 
 religions, and had the same origins. 
 
 Siigras.— Much attention was paid to genealogies, history, and mythological poetry. Nar- 
 rations on these subjects were called Sagas. The Sagas were recited from memory by the bards 
 or Skalds. 
 
 Qoverninent.— The Scandinavian countries were divided into a multitude of petty king- 
 doms, imtil the general divisions of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark became gradually recog- 
 nized as separate kingdoms in the 9th and 10th centuries a. d. 
 
 The migrations from the Scandinavian countries, recorded in order of 
 time, begin with those of the Goths, who left their own country to settle above 
 the Danube in the 3d century A. D. (p. 133). Tlie Anglo-Saxons It^ft Sleswick, 
 Holstein, aud Jutland in the 5th century A. D. (p. 354). Mixed bauds of Nor 
 
 Viking Swords. Museum of Bergen. 
 
PAGAN PERIOD. 403 
 
 wegians, Swedes and Danes were engaged in constant piratical attacks on all 
 shores of Europe from the close of the 8th to the close of the 11th century. 
 
 Reg-nor Lodbrok, king of Denmark, led in person the first attacks on England (the first 
 recorded by English annals). In 793 he sacked Lindisfame, and was killed in Northumbria the 
 following year, after which his kinsmen made permanent settlements in Yorkshire. The Scan- 
 dinavian chronicles claim conquests in Northumbria a century earlier. Beside the settlements 
 in Ireland (p. 321), Norwegian Northmen also ruled Man, Anglesea, the Hebrides, the Orkneys, 
 the Shetlands, and the Faroe Islands— after 800. Scotland did not regain the Hebrides and 
 Orkneys till 1262, nor the Shetlands till 1470. Swedish Northmen ruled Russia after 862. The 
 dynasty of the Northman Rurik continued there till 1598. 
 
 The Norwegian king Harold Fair-haired, after 863, exerted himself to r^ress 
 piracy on his own shores. This led discontented freebooters to migrate to Iceland— first 
 visited by Northmen two years earlier— and to France (legal possession of Normandy, 911). 
 From Iceland Greenland was settled after 963, and America after 1003. French Normans 
 ruled Naples and Sicily after 1059, and England after 1066. 
 
 The body-gruard of the Byzantine Emperors was also composed of Northmen (the 
 " Varangians ") largely drawn from Sweden. It was the passing of these warriors through 
 Russia, to and from Constantinople, which led the way to their rule in Russia above men- 
 tioned. 
 
 In 826 a Danish prince who took refuge in exile with Louis the Pious at 
 Ingelheim, was baptized with his family. At the emperor's instance, Ansca- 
 rius, a monk of Corvey, then undertook a mission to the pagans of Scandi- 
 navia. He became the first Apostle of the North, and its Patron Saint. 
 
 St. Ansear labored constantly in Denmark and Sweden until his death, 
 865, against incredible difficulties and obstacles. As first Archbishop of Ham- 
 burg (founded by Charlemagne), he worked with his own hands at making 
 ropes and nets for subsistence until the town was burned by the pagan Danes. 
 His mission was the first effort to struggle with a barbarism which for nearly 
 two centuries longer generally resisted Christianity. 
 
 Beginnings of Denmark. — Nearly contemporary with the death of 
 St. Ansear is the accession of Gorm, after 860, the first Danish king who united 
 the countries of later Denmark ; viz., the Peninsula of Jutland, Zealand, Funen, 
 and adjacent islands, and the adjoining coast-provinces of Southern Sweden, 
 Skaania, Halland and Bleking. (These Swedish provinces were generally Danish 
 till 1658.) Gorm's Norwegian contemporary was the Harold Fair-haired already 
 mentioned. Sweden being more remote, is less known; but this is also the 
 time when the Swedish Varangians founded the Northman dynasty in Russia, 
 863 A. D. 
 
404 
 
 SCANDINAVIA 
 
 MEDIEVAL PERIOD, A. D. 1000-1500. 
 
 Christianity first began to be firmly established under the Dane Canute 
 the Great, 1014-1035, during whose reign the Scandinavian countries were 
 united with each other and with England (p. 361). When separated again at 
 his death, Denmark continued to be the most conspicuous country, because most 
 nearly in contact with civilizing influence. 
 
 The great time of Medieval Denmark was the age of the Valde- 
 marS, from the middle of the 12th to the middle of the 13th century (Valde- 
 mar I., 1157-1182 ; Canute VI., 1182-1202 ; Valdemar II., 1202-1241). 
 
 To the time of Valdemar I. belongs the famous Danish Archbishop 
 Absalon. His efforts raised to importance Copenhagen, the present capital of 
 Denmark. By his care also have been preserved the popular tales and folk-lore 
 of Denmark. Under his direction was written, to this end, the work of Saxo 
 Grammaticus, a monk of Sorce, near Copenhagen. From Saxo Grammaticus, 
 through French transmission, Shakespeare drew the story of Hamlet ; and in 
 this author, who wrote a century before William Tell, is found the story of the 
 father shooting an apple from his child's head. It is told of a freebooter 
 named Palnatoke, contemporary with Sweyn, the father of Canute. The sister 
 of Canute VI., Ingelburga, was married to Philip II. of France. Pope Innocent 
 III. protected her from desertion by this king. 
 
 The Wends. — The Valdemars were active in combating a nation which, 
 
 in piracy and pagan barbarism, 
 rivaled the Scandinavians of 
 earlier time, the Slavonic 
 Wends of the Island of Rugen 
 and of Pomerania. Valdemar 
 II. was also commissioned by 
 Pope Honorius III. with the 
 subjugation of the Pagan Fin- 
 nic populations of Esthonia, 
 where Revel was founded by 
 the Danes. 
 
 It was at this time that 
 
 the Sword Brothers, 
 
 founded 1201 by the Bishop of 
 
 Riga, and given the Order of the Temple by Pope Innocent III., began their 
 
 crusading mis-sion against the Pagan Lithuanic population of Courland and 
 
 Cathedral of Drontheim, 13th century. 
 
MEDIEVAL AND MODERN PERIODS. 405 
 
 Livonia. In Prussia Proper the same task was undertaken, after 1325, by the 
 Order of the Teutonic Knights. The two brotherhoods were united as the 
 Teutonic Order, 1337, and subsequently also held Esthonia. 
 
 The 12th. century is marked for Sweden by the conquest of Finland, 
 after 1154 (retained till 1809), and the first beginnings there of Christianity. 
 
 In the 13th century Norwegian rule was extended to Iceland (till then 
 a Republic), and to the Greenland colony (extinct in the 14th century). 
 
 At the close of the 14th century Norway, Sweden, and Denmark 
 were united under one government by the Union of Calmar, 1397. 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, AFTER A. D. 1500. 
 
 Oldenburg Dynasty. — This Union of Calmar was permanent for Den- 
 mark and Norway till 1814. These countries were ruled, after 1448, by a 
 German dynasty — the House of Oldenburg — a Principality bordering the 
 western bank of the Weser where it enters the German Ocean. 
 
 Vasas in Sweden. — The Union of Calmar was rather nominal than real 
 for Sweden till 1530, after which date Gustavus Vasa, a Swedish noble, estab 
 lished once more a separate dynasty. The expenses of the war, by which Swe- 
 den was separated from Denmark, led Vasa to supply his exhausted treasury by 
 levying on the property of the Church, for which the contemporary Lutheran 
 schism offered an excuse. In Denmark and Norway, also, Lutheranism was 
 favored and largely introduced by the influence of selfish political and personal 
 motives ; the temptation of sudden wealth to be gained for king and nobles. 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, AFTER A. D. 1600. 
 
 In the 17th century the Scandinavian countries played a prominent 
 part. Christian IV. of Denmark was engaged against Austria in the early part 
 of the Thirty Years' War (p. 347). In its second period Gustavus Adolphus 
 of Sweden was the leading opponent of Austria, and the Swedes remained in 
 Germany till the Peace of Westphalia, 1648. 
 
 By the acquisition of the Bishoprics of Bremen and Verden in 
 this Peace, Sweden controlled the commerce of the Weser and Elbe. By the 
 acquisition of Western Pomerania she controlled the Oder. The entire mas- 
 tery of the Baltic was secured, with the Provinces of Carelia and Ingria, 
 ceded by Russia, 1617, Peace of Stolbova, and of Esthonia and Livonia, ceded 
 by the Peace of Oliva, made with Poland in 1660. (Poland had obtained 
 these provinces through the dissolution of the Teutonic Order after 1570.) 
 
406 SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 Poland was ruled at this time by a Catholic branch of the Vasas, and the 
 wars with this state, ended by the Peace of OUva, resulted from claims of 
 the Polish Vasas to the Swedish throne. Two years earlier, the Peace of Roes- 
 kilde with Denmark had given Sweden the provinces of Skaania, Halland, and 
 Bleking, 1658. 
 
 An interesting episode of Swedish history in the ]7th century is the abdica- 
 tion and conversion to Catholicism of Queen Christina, daughter and heir of 
 Gustavus Adolphus. Her cousin and successor was Charles X., who was suc- 
 ceeded by a son and grandson of the same name. 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden was only fifteen when he became king in 
 1697. His youth and presumed inexperience tempted Russia, Poland, and 
 Denmark to combine for the overthrow of the empire so largely built up at 
 their expense. Denmark opened the war, and was forced in one short campaign 
 to make a humiliating peace by the treaty of Travendal, 1700. 
 
 Peter the Great's Russian army of 63,000 men was next beaten by 
 8,000 Swedes in the famous battle of Narva, 1700 (in Ingria). In this, as in all 
 his battles, Charles XII. was foremost as personal combatant. The states of 
 Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony and king of Poland (after the death of 
 Sobieski, 1696), were next overrun. Frederick Augustus was deposed in Poland 
 in favor of Stanislaus Leczinsky, a Polish noble. After spending five years in 
 Poland, Charles turned against Russia. He was diverted from his march on 
 Moscow by the proposals of the Cossack chief Mazeppa. Mazeppa was a Pole, 
 and in youth the page of a nobleman whose anger he incurred. As punishment 
 he was bound to the back of an unbroken horse, which was set free to roam at 
 will. He was borne to the plains of the lower Dnieper, where he was rescued 
 and cared for by the Cossacks. 
 
 Mazeppa offered to raise the Cossacks in favor of Charles XII. The 
 Russian Tzar anticipated this projected revolt, and took such measures that 
 only a small number of Cossacks and no provisions reached the Swedes. These 
 were meantime exhausted by incessant marches over desolate territories, and 
 by the terrible severity of Russian winter weather. 
 
 In the battle of Pultava, 1709, the Swedes were utterly defeated by 
 Peter the Great, and Cliarles XII. took refuge in Turkish territory at Bender. 
 He spent here several years, endeavoring to push Turkey into a Russian war. 
 The Turks did declare war, but made an easy peace with Peter when his army 
 was entirely surrounded by them on the Pruth in 1711. Charles did not 
 abandon his hopes of rekindling the war till 1714 ; remaining in Turkey while 
 his enemies in the North (now joined by Prussia, and the Elector of Hanover, 
 eoon to bf George I. of England) w^re making constant progress. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 407 
 
 In 1714 he returned to find the Swedish German possessions and the Baltic 
 provinces almost entirely conquered. After an unsuccessful effort to hold 
 Stralsund, he passed over to Sweden and continued war on Denmark by in- 
 vading Norway. One motive of this campaign was to secure a base for an 
 expedition against England in the cause of the Stuarts. The Swedish terri- 
 tory of Bremen and Verden had been conquered by Denmark in the absence of 
 Charles XII., and was turned over to the Hanoverian state of George I. (king 
 of England after 1714) ; hence this project. But Charles was killed at the siege 
 of the Norwegian town of Fried rickshall in 1718. His military trophies and his 
 uniform are still kept in Stockholm. 
 
 The result of his career was the overthrow of Swedish ascendency in 
 North Germany, to be replaced by Prussia, and of Swedish control of the 
 Baltic, to be replaced by that of Russia. Russia became mistress of the sea 
 where twenty years before she had not a single ship, and of the Baltic provinces 
 of Carelia, Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia, a most important part of her modern 
 territories. (Peace of Nystad, 1721.) 
 
 To Prussia was ceded that part of Swedish Pomerania commanding the 
 Oder (the western part of Swedish Pomerania not Prussian till 1815, p. 800). 
 
 The increase of Hanover by the territories of Bremen and Verden 
 was a most imiwrtant one. The constant participation of England in the Con- 
 tinental wars and politics of the 18th century (War of the Austrian Succession, 
 Seven Years' War, etc.), and also in the time of Bonaparte, is made clearer 
 when we understand that the English king was sovereign of an important 
 German province controlling the commerce of the Weser and Elbe. 
 
 Charles XII. is one of the most singular characters of history. His obstinate personal 
 bravery and willing endurance of soldier hardship are without parallel. To his unbending 
 hardihood he owed the most astounding successes and the most humiliating defeats. 
 
 "When Frederick Augustus of Saxony endeavored to obtain some mitigation of 
 his humiliation from Charles, and the two monarchs met in the Swedish camp in Saxony, the 
 Swede was in his usual homely garb— a coarse blue coat with gilt brass buttons, buckskin 
 gloves that reached to the elbows, and a piece of black taffety tied round his neck for a cravat. 
 Not a syllable was uttered on the subject of the journey. The conversation turned wholly on 
 the king's jack-boots, which he told his royal guest he had worn constantly for six years, 
 never laying them aside except when he went to sleep. ... He mounted his horse thrice 
 a day, rose at four in the morning, dressed himself with his own hands, drank no wine, sat at 
 table only a quarter of an hour, exercised his troops every day, and knew no other pleasure 
 but that of making Europe tremble." In the first war on Denmark, at the attack on Copen- 
 hagen, Charles landed his troops in small boats under heavy fire, and when driven back he 
 reformed them in the water as though on parade, and led them forward to victory. At Narva 
 the Swedes charged in a blinding snow-storm, 
 
 Puring- his stay in Turkey, the Ottoman government, which had treated him with 
 
408 ' SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 great hospitality, furnishing money and supplies liberally, at length became wearied with his 
 intrigues and caprices, and anxious to hasten his return. His allowance was retrenched, but 
 this only made him spend with the greater profusion. His subterfuges and evasions made it 
 obvious that force alone could accomplish what had been attempted in vain by more lenient 
 means. A resolution of the Turkish State Council to that efffect was conveyed to Charles. 
 " Obey your master if you dare," said Charles to the bearer of the mandate, and began to 
 adopt measures of defence, by employing his domestics in barricading doors and windows and 
 throwing up regular entrenchments. These operations being finished, in which he assisted with 
 his own hands, he sat down to chess and afterward went quietly to sleep, as if everything were in 
 a state of perfect security, although his household was deprived of provisions and invested on 
 all sides with an army of 26,000 Turks and Tartars. On the following morning, with cool 
 intrepidity, he went through all the formalities of arranging a pitched battle. The cooks and 
 grooms had their respective stations assigned them, while the defence of others was intrusted 
 to his chancellor and secretary. After a desperate conflict, in which the Turks with much 
 bloodshed were repulsed from the house, the Pacha, ashamed of sacrificing a whole army to 
 capture a single individual, ordered the premises to be set on fire. The inmates, after trying 
 to extinguish the confiagration with a cask of brandy, mistaken for a barrel of water, rushed 
 like maniacs from the burning pile and attacked their assailants sword in hand. In this sally 
 Charles fell, entangled with his spurs. The Turks sprang upon him instantly, and carried him 
 by the arms and legs to the tent of their commander. No sooner was he completely over- 
 mastered than the violence and irritation of his temper at once subsided. He even spoke of 
 the " battle of Bender" in a strain of playful jocularity, and next morning he was found by 
 his attendants sleeping on a sofa (having declined the luxury of a bed), bareheaded and in 
 boots, his eyebrows scorched and his whole body covered with dust and blood. This episode 
 occurred some time before the departure from Turkey. 
 
 After the changes which preceded or immediately followed his death, 
 
 the Scandinavian countries occupy a subordinate place in history. Since the times 
 of the Vikings, Norway was always of minor importance, on account of its rugged 
 and barren territory. Denmark's position at the entrance to the Baltic gave 
 her, however, an influential commercial position. The Sound dues, levied on 
 passing foreign ships, ostensibly for the maintenance of light-houses, &c., were 
 an important source of revenue. 
 
 In the times of the French Revolution and of Bonaparte, Sweden 
 was generally a determined opponent of the French— at one time England's 
 solitary ally. Denmark was in general an ally of the French or hostile to 
 England. 
 
 Sweden's Loss of Finland.— By refusing to follow the Russian policy, after the Peace 
 of Tilsit in 1807 (p. 295), of commercial exclusion toward England, Sweden was involved in a 
 Russian war which cost her Finland, in 1809— a most important gain for Russia, as securing 
 St. Petersburg. This loss to Sweden was not balanced by the union with Norway in 1814, which 
 Denmark was obliged to cede in consequence of her misfortunes as ally of Bonaparte. Denmark 
 was given in return the remaining portion of Swedish Pomerania, but immediately passed it 
 over to Prussia for a sura of money and the small principality of Lauenburg, as addition to 
 Holstein, making the Slbe her border on the south. 
 
CHRONOLOGY. 409 
 
 This boundary was not a permanent grain for Denmark, which, in 1866, lost the 
 whole of Sleswick-Holstein to Prussia. Quite lately Iceland has been made independ^t. 
 
 Notwithstanding her recent misfortunes, Denmark is one of the best governed of modem 
 kingdoms, and the standard of State education is exceptionally high. 
 
 The united kingrdom of Norway and Sweden, confined to its natural boundaries 
 and offering no temptation to foreign aggression, is a well-governed and peaceful State. Since 
 about 1830 both this kingdom and Denmark have been ruled by constitutional monarchy. 
 Absolute monarchy was, with some intermission, the government of both from the close of the 
 16th until the 19th century. This form of government was distinctly recognized as a protec- 
 tion for the lower orders against the nobility— an interesting parallel to the history of other 
 states (p. 278). In Denmark the German Oldenburg line still continues (reigning king 
 Christian IX.). In Sweden the present dynasty, represented by Oscar II., dates from the 
 French General Bernadotte, who was elected Crown-prince in 1810, and became Charles XIV. 
 in 1818. 
 
 Amonir distingruished men of science Denmark boasts the name of Tycho Brahe, 
 astronomer of the 16th century (died 1601). He preceded and influenced the celebrated German 
 astronomer Keppler, with whom he finally was personally associated in Prague. To Sweden 
 belongs the name of Linnaeus, Professor of Botany in the University of Upsala after 1742. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 What general European war was contemporary with the campaigns of Charles XII.? 
 (P. 254.) 
 
 What French and English sovereigns were his contemporaries ? (Pp. 283, 395.) 
 
 What Russian sovereign ? (P. 260.) 
 
 Mention contemporary sovereigns in time of Gustavus Adolphus, reign 1611-1632? 
 (Pp. 270, 383.) 
 
 Who was English contemporary of Gustavus Vasa ? (P. 376.) 
 
 What German emperor was contemporary of Valdemar I. ? (P. 163.) 
 
 What Pope was contemporary of Canute VI. ? (P. 404.) 
 
 What French king ? (P. 189.) 
 
 How long after Charlemagne (p. 154) did Northman rule begin in Russia ? In Iceland ? 
 (P. 403.) 
 
 Map Study.— For Danish possessions in Southern Sweden, noted at p. 403 (Skaania, Hal- 
 land, and Bleking), see " Europe in the 12th century," p. 182. 
 
 See map at p. 200 for Rugen and Pomerania. 
 
 See " Europe in 1648," p. 250, for the following countries or provinces : Finland (southern 
 portion), Carelia, Ingria, Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, Swedish Bremen and Verden (mouth of 
 the Elbe), Swedish Pomerania, Oldenburg. 
 
 See the same map for the following localities : Hamburg, Copenhagen, Calmar, Oliva, Roe- 
 ekilde, Travendal, Narva, Pultava, Bender, Frederickshall, Nystad. 
 
 Notice the section map for the lower Dnieper at p. 254. 
 
410 
 
 SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 NORWAY. 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 Gorm, 
 
 after 860. 
 
 St. Anscar, 
 
 t865. 
 
 Settlements in 
 
 England and Ireland 
 
 before and after 
 
 Gorm. 
 
 Harold Fair-haired, 
 
 after 863. 
 Iceland then settled. 
 
 Normandy, 911. 
 
 Greenland settled, 
 
 933. 
 
 America nettled, 
 
 1003. 
 
 Kurik in Russia, 
 
 after 862. 
 
 Varangians in 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 before and artcr 
 
 this time. 
 
 Canute the Great, 
 1014-1085. 
 
 Christianity 
 established. 
 
 Age of the 
 
 Valdemars, 
 
 1157-1341. 
 
 Union of Calmar, 
 1397. 
 
 Oldenburg Dynasty 
 after 1448. 
 
 Canute the Great, 
 1014-1035. 
 
 Christianity 
 established. 
 
 Iceland and Greenland 
 
 ruled by Norway, 
 
 13th century. 
 
 Union of Calmar, 
 1397. 
 
 Oldenburg Dynasty, 
 after 1448. 
 
 Canute the Great, 
 1014^1035. 
 
 Christianity 
 
 established. 
 
 Finland 
 
 conquered, 1154. 
 
 Union of Calmar, 
 1397. 
 
 Oldenburg Dynasty, 
 after 1448. 
 
 Lutheran schism in Scandinavian countries, 
 after 1520. 
 
 Christian IV. in the Thirty Yeare' War. 
 
 War with Sweden, Peace of Roeskilde, 
 
 1658, see opposite column. 
 
 War with Sweden ; no changes ; no reference in text. 
 
 Peace of Copenhagen, 1660. 
 
 War with Sweden, Peace of Travendal, 
 
 in 1700. 
 
 Denmark renews the war after Piiltava, 
 
 in alliance with Russia, Prussia, and Hanover. 
 
 War cloi-ed by death of Charles XII. at Frederickshall. 
 
 Denmark the ally of Bonaparte. 
 Loses, in consequence, Norway, 1814. 
 
 Vasas in Sweden, after 1520. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, aft« 1611. 
 
 Carelia and Ingria. 
 
 acq. 1617, from Russia. 
 
 Bremen, Verden, Pomerania, 
 
 acq. 1648, from Germany. 
 
 Skaania, Halland, Blekinc:, 
 
 acq., 1658, from Denmark. 
 
 Esthonia, Livonia, 
 acq., 16G0, from Poland. 
 Charles XII., 1697-1718. 
 
 Loss of German territories 
 and Baltic provinces. 
 Decline of Sweden. 
 
 Finland to Russia, 
 1809. 
 
 Denmark acq. Lauenburg 
 and the Elbe boundary, 
 
 1815. 
 
 Loses Lauenburg and 
 
 Sleswick-Holstcin to 
 
 Pru^:'«ia 1866. 
 
 Union of Norway with Sweden. 
 
 Line of Bcrnadottc, as Charles XIV. 
 after 1818. 
 
RUSSIA AND POLAND. 
 
 BEFORE THE TARTAR CONQUEST. 
 
 The first accounts of Eastern Europe are found in Herodotus, whose 
 knowledge was drawn from the Greek settlements in the Crimea, around the 
 Sea of Azof, and along the northern coast of the Black Sea. Beyond these 
 Greek colonies lay the Scythians — some wandering, some agricultural — and 
 other savage tribes. 
 
 It is probable that the ancestors of the modern Russians formed a portion of 
 this population. But nothing is known of them until after the disturbances 
 and displacements caused by the German migrations, when the Slavonian 
 peoples are found reaching into Germany as far as the Elbe (p. 154). 
 
 To the Slavonian family belong, beside the tribes afterward subdued 
 or expelled in this part of Germany, the Tzechs of Bohemia, the Servians and 
 Bulgarians, the Poles and the Russians. 
 
 In the 9th Century A. D., when our knowledge of Russian history 
 begins, the Russian Slavonians were centred in the territory in which the 
 Dniester, Dnieper, soutbern Dwina and Ilmen take their rise. The Finns ex- 
 tended over Northern Russia, above the upper Volga and its tributaries. The 
 lower basin of the Volga on the west side, and the basin of the Don, were 
 peopled by mixed Finnish and Turkish tribes. East of the lower Volga and in 
 the country of the Ural river were Turks or Tartars. 
 
 During the course of Russian history the Slavonic clement has generally 
 assimilated or swallowed up the once widely extended Finnish and Tartar 
 populations. These, however, were not all entirely barbarian. The Empire of 
 the Khazars, mixed Finns and Turks, in and above the Crimea and covering 
 the lower valleys of tbe Dnieper and Don, was in the 9th century a flourish- 
 ing State. 
 
 Although the lower Dnieper was thus held by a foreign power, it was the 
 
412 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 channel by which, civilization came from the Byzantine Empire (pp. 135, 136) 
 to the Russian Slavonians. Their rulers, on the other hand, came from the 
 north — from Sweden (p. 403). Swedish Northmen, familiar (as Varangians, 
 p. 403) with the Slavonic country, as the route to Constantinople, were invited 
 by the disorganized and jarring tribes to rule over them. A band headed by 
 Rurik accepted the invitation, 862. (The Swedes were called by the Finns 
 " Russ," hence the word Russia.) 
 
 Hurik established himself at Novgorod on the Ilmen ; an important port 
 
 of Baltic commerce, by its connection 
 through Lake Ladoga and the Neva. 
 His son Igor made Kief, on the 
 Dnieper, his capital. Igor's widow, 
 Olga, succeeded him, and visited 
 Constantinople, where she became a 
 Christian convert. 
 
 The beginnings of Chris- 
 tianity in Rossi a date, then , after the 
 middle of the 10th century. (Igor 
 died 945.) They came from Constan- 
 tinople, so that the Russians belong 
 to the Greek Church. The relative 
 barbarism of modern Russia results 
 not only from the disadvantages of 
 climate and position, but also from 
 the inferior vitality of the Eastern 
 Church, whose forms she adopted ; 
 while Poland and Bohemia, as con- 
 verts to Roman Catholic Christian- 
 ity (p. 158), were thus connected with 
 Western civilization. 
 
 The Northmen of Russia 
 engaged in frequent warfare both 
 for and against the Byzantine state, 
 and the accounts of the Normans in France and elsewhere give us a fair 
 idea of their character. 
 
 In the 11th century the Norman ruling family was intermanicd with 
 many of the West Euro^^ean states, The Grand Prince Jaroslaf sheltered the 
 sons of Edmund Ironsides (p. 863). His reign (till 1054) was the glory of Kief 
 •' the city of four hundred churcheB." 
 
 Russian painting of the Madonna at Vladimir. 
 {Twelfth Century.) 
 
TARTAR INVASIONS. 413 
 
 After this time the habit of dividing the state among the heirs of the 
 prince, and the feudal tendencies of the age, broke Russia into a number of 
 principalities, but all were ruled by descendants of Rurik. Besides Novgorod 
 and Kief may be mimed Pskof on the Peipus, Smolensk on the Dnieper, Tver 
 on the upper Volga, Riazan on the Oka, and Vladimir on the Kliazma. The 
 towns on the upper Volga and its branches were at this time the advanced posts 
 of Russia against the Finnish fiopulations on the east, and were especially 
 developed by Vladimir the Great, 12th century. 
 
 Kief, on the other hand, declined ; because the Khazars had been replaced 
 in the 10th century by the barbarous Patzinaks, who interfered with the com- 
 merce on the Dnieper. Kief was afterwards incorporated with Galicia, and 
 then passed with that originally Russian province to Lithuanian Poland for 
 many centuries. The ascendency of Kief was replaced after 1169 by that of 
 Vladimir on the Kliazma (a branch of the Volga), capital of the principality 
 of Souzdal. 
 
 From the Grand Princes of Souzdal, or Vladimir, descend the later 
 Princes of Moscow, This town has its name from the Moskwa, tributary of the 
 Oka, and sub-tributary of the Volga. Meantime the powerful commercial 
 republic of Novgorod, ruling over the whole of northern Russia, had developed 
 a semi -independence only held in check by its dependence on Souzdal for corn. 
 
 FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Mongol Invasion. — By the colonies established on the upper tributaries 
 of the Volga the Russian Slavonians were beginning to win their way as colo- 
 nists down the valley of this river beyond Nijni Novgorod, when a Tartar 
 invasion from Mongolia enslaved Russia for two hundred years. Dschingis 
 Khan (p. 168) had extended his power from the territories north of China over 
 Turkestan and into Europe. The Tartars were wandering herdsmen belonging 
 to the same race as the Huns of Attila (pp. 142, 145), absolute barbarians, cruel 
 in character and repulsive in manners and appearance. 
 
 In 1224 a Tartar army invaded the country of the Pelovtsi, barbarian successors of the 
 Patzinaks in the basins of the Don and lower Dnieper. These begged help of their enemies, 
 the Eussians of Galicia. Help was accorded, but the united armies were defeated on the 
 Kalka, a small river flowing into the Sea of Azof. Notwithstanding this victory, the Tartars 
 turned back to Asia, and were absent thirteen years, engaged in the conquest of China. When 
 they returned, in 1237, it was by way of the Volga. They marched to within fifty miles of Nov- 
 gorod, destroying everything in their path. They then turned south to sack Kief and ravage 
 Galicia. At the call of this province Pope Innocent TV. summoned Christendom to arms. The 
 
414 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 Tartars, although victorious, weie checked at Liegnitz in Silesia, and at Olmfltz in Moravia hy 
 the Bohemians and Moravians. They were turned back by the approach of a German army 
 and the news of their emperor's death in China. 
 
 They contimied to hold all Russia in tribute and subjection, but 
 remained as settled conquerors in the country of the lower Volga, reaching as 
 fur north as the city of Kasan. They were known as the " Golden Horde," and 
 after 1260 were independent of the great Mogul (whose seat was on the Amour 
 or in China). The Tartars of the Golden Horde became converts to Moham- 
 medanism after 1272. 
 
 Lithuania and Poland.— While Russian power was broken on the east by the Mongols, 
 much territory on the west was absorbed by Lithuania, and then joined with that state to 
 Poland. The Lithuanians (an Aryan nation) belonged originally in the basin of the Niemen, 
 reaching on either side toward the Vistula and the (southern) Dwina. In the 13th century 
 they attained political unity. Li the 14th century (first Christianized after 1345) they pushed 
 south over the intervening Russian territory to the conquest of Galicia, and as far as the 
 Dnieper and the Ciimea. In 1386 this Lithuanian state was united with Poland (by marriage) 
 under the Jagellons. In 1410, by the battle of Taunenberg, the Teutonic Order was crushed, 
 
 and Lithuanian Poland was 
 
 extended to the Baltic, divid- 
 ing the knights in Prussia from 
 those in Livonia. With some 
 intervals of separation before 
 1601, Poland and Lithuania 
 were finally united after that 
 date, and became ah elective 
 monarchy after 1569. 
 
 /C 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 i'i 
 
 /A 
 
 
 " \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 ^m>Dieii>e; 
 
 -J 
 
 m^l 
 
 The Princes of 
 Moscow. — Among the 
 subject Russian princes 
 under the Mongol yoke, 
 those of Moscow raised 
 themselves to power by 
 farming the capitation tax 
 levied by the Tartars (to 
 which end was made a 
 census of the whole peo- 
 ple), and by using Tartar assistance in their contests with other Russian princes. 
 During tlu? 14th and early 15th c^^nturies was thus gotten together a territory 
 reaching from Tver to the neighborhood of Kasan and from the upper valley 
 •f the Don to the latitude of Lake Onega 
 
 Church of St. Basil, at Moscow. 
 iBuUt by Ivan the Terrible.) 
 
PRINCES OF MOSCOW. 415 
 
 Ivan III. the Great, 1462-1505, is the sovereign under whom Russia 
 escaped the Mongol slavery. He refused the tribute in 1480. He reconquered 
 from Lithuanian Poland, Russian territory to the Desna and Soja (eastern 
 branch of the Dnieper), and subjected Novgorod with its inimense territories. 
 Ivan III. married Sophia Palseologus, niece to the last Byzantine emperor, an 
 alliance arranged by Pope Paul II. From this time Russia has conceived her- 
 self the heir of Byzanz (conquered by the Turks in the preceding reign, 1453), 
 and hereditary enemy of the Turks. The double-headed eagle crest of modern 
 Russia was adopted by Ivan, who added to the Russian eagle that of East- 
 Rome. Many Greeks and Italians came into Russia with the Princess Sophia, 
 and did much to bring the country nearer to the civilization of Western 
 Europe. 
 
 Ivan the Terrible. — Following the reign of Vassili Ivanovitch, 1505-1533, 
 comes Ivan IV. the Terrible, 1533-1584. He conquered the Tartar khanates of 
 Kasan and -Astrachan, giving to Russia (for the first time) the whole course of 
 the Volga. The Cossacks of the Don also subjected themselves. With his 
 son and successor, Feodor Ivanovitch 1584-1598, ended the line of Rurik. 
 
 Serfdom. — A Russian noble, brother-in-law of Feodor, put to death the 
 heir Dmitri and usurped the throne. To this Boris Godounoff is ascribed the 
 measure by which serfdom became general. The binding of the peasants to 
 the soil as serfs was intended to protect the small landholders, on whom fell 
 the burden of military defence. Serfdom was intended to secure them from 
 losing the laborers needed to work their farms, against the competition of 
 wealthy landholders able to pay a higher price for labor. 
 
 House of RomanofiE — The death of Boris Godounoff was followed by 
 disorders and disturbances to which Poland and Sweden contributed, 1605-1613. 
 From these troubles Russia was rescued by Michael Romanoff, 1613-1645, the 
 grandfather of Peter the Great. 
 
 Under his son Alexis Michailovitch, 1645-1676, through a Cossack rehellion agamst Poland, 
 Kief and the comitry of the lower Dnieper (known as the Ukraine) were reunited with Russia. 
 The Cossacks of this country north of the Black Sea were nomad marauding soldiers, largely 
 composed of reftigee serfs. They were engaged in constant border warfare with the Tartars 
 of the Crimea, and as the protectors of the Polish or Russian frontiers were tolerated and 
 accorded more or less independence. Although now much diminished in numbers, the Cos- 
 sacks still furnish the Russian army with an effective light cavalry. 
 
 Alexis was succeeded by three children— Feodor Alexievitch, 1676-1682; his daughter 
 Sophia, Regent, 1682-1689 ; and Peter the Great, 1689-1725. 
 
 Map Study.— Russian Slavonians in the 9th century, p. 154. Poland and Grand Duchy of 
 Vladimir, p. 182. Poland and Lithuania, pp. 200, 228— united as an Elective Monarchy, pp. 250, 
 256. For localities and rivers, see map of modem Russia. 
 
416 RUSSIA. 
 
 PETER THE GREAT AND LATER SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 The significance of Peter the Great's reign for Russia will be 
 apparent by noting the course of her rivers and the position of her territories so 
 far enumerated. From Europe in general Russia was separated by the bleak 
 phiins of Lithuania and Poland. The mouth of the Dnieper was in the hands of 
 the Crimean Tartars, who were subjects of the Ottoman Turks. So also were the 
 mouth of the Don, and the Sea of Azof. By the Volga and the Caspian Russia 
 was connected only with Asia. Ingria and Carelia (since 1617), Livonia and 
 Esthonia (since 1660), belonged to Sweden (p. 405) ; tlius Russia was entirely 
 cut off from the Baltic. Her only intercourse with Europe was by means of 
 Archangel and the White Sea, which, on account of the ice, is open to navi- 
 gation only from June to September. 
 
 To civilize Russia it was necessary to open the Baltic. Hence Peter 
 the Great's participation in the wars on Charles XII. The victory of Narva 
 was entirely barren for Charles. During his absence in Poland, Peter had 
 already founded St. Petersburg, 1703, as a Russian capital, replacing Moscow, 
 which should keep open communication with Europe. By the Peace of 
 Nystad, 1721, securing Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and Carelia to Russia, her 
 supremacy in the Baltic was assured. (Compare frontier, at pp. 250, 300.) 
 
 In opening up the Black Sea, Peter was less fortunate, but this was of less 
 consequence. He took Azof, the key of the Don, in 1796 ; but lost it after his 
 campaign against Turkey on the Pruth, 1711. 
 
 Character of Peter the Great.— Peter's greatness was not simply that of a states- 
 manlike conqueror. At his accession he harried to Archangel and learned to be a practical 
 sailor, in order to encourage his countrymen in marine enterprise. He served as bombardier in 
 the campaign on Azof, and marched on foot as a captain in the triumphal procession on return 
 to Moscow, in order to give an example of military subordination and discipline. In 1697 he 
 started for Holland, learned the trade of a ship-carpenter, dressed in workman's clothes in 
 Saardam, took lessons as a workman in manufacturing paper and ropes, and also studied a 
 little medicine and surgery. In England he spent three months in learning shipbuilding, and 
 returned home by way of Vienna, where he studied the military art. Kevolts in his absence 
 against European innovations led him to wage war on the long beards of the Russians, the 
 symbol of their conservative prejudices, for to shave the beard was sacrilege. Therefore he 
 caused the beards to fall, and with his own hand shaved several of his lords. With the same 
 terrible earnestness he even acted as executioner, beheading some of the ringleaders of the 
 military mutiny which caused his return. Even his death was characteristic. To rescue a boat 
 in distress he threw himself into the icy water of Lake Ladoga, thus contracting a fatal cold. 
 
 The first Emperor of Russia, the founder of St. Petersburg, forgot to build himself a 
 palace. " His favorite residence of Peterhof was like tlie villa of a well-to-do Dutch citizen." 
 
PETER THE GBEAT 
 
 417 
 
 They delight in repeat- 
 
 The people have preserved his memory in their songs and traditions, 
 ing " he worked harder than a peasant." 
 
 The life of Peter shows the absolute dependence of Russia on the personal will of the sov- 
 ereign, partly a result of Eastern and Tartar influence, but also a result of the Byzantine ideal 
 of government. Until his time, the head of the Russian Church had been the Patriarch of 
 Moscow. The suppression of the Patriarchate for a Synod, of which the Tzar is really master, 
 dates from Peter. 
 
 RUSSIAN SOVEREIGNS SINCE THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Ivan III A. D, 
 
 Vassili Ivanovitch " 
 
 Ivan IV " 
 
 Feodor Ivanovitch " 
 
 Boris Godounoff " 
 
 Interregnum " 
 
 Michael Romanoff " " 
 
 Alexis Michailovitch " 
 
 Feodor Alexie vitch " 
 
 Sophia as Regent " 
 
 Peter the Great " 
 
 Catharine I '* 
 
 Peter II 
 
 Anne Ivanovna 
 
 (Ivan VI.) 
 Elizabeth Petrovna. 
 
 Peter III 
 
 Catharine II 
 
 Paul I 
 
 Alexander I.. 
 
 Nicholas I 
 
 Alexander II. 
 Alexis 
 
 1462-1505 
 1505-1533 
 1533-1581 
 1584-1598 
 1598-1G05 
 1605-1613 
 1613-1645 
 1645-1676 
 1676-1689 
 1682-1689 
 1689-1725 
 1795-1727 
 1727-1730 
 1730-1740 
 
 1741-1762 
 
 1762 
 
 1762-1796 
 
 1796-1801 
 
 1801-1825 
 
 1825-1855 
 
 1855-1881 
 
 1881 
 
 GENEALOGY OP RUSSIAN SOVEUEIGNS AFTER PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 (1) 
 
 Ivan, brother of Peter the Great = First wife = Catharine I. 
 
 Catharine=Dnke of Mecklenburg. Anne. 
 I (3) 
 
 Anne=Duke of Brunswick. 
 
 Ivan VI. 
 (4) 
 
 Alexis 
 
 Peter II. 
 (2) 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 (5) 
 
 Anne = Duke of Holstein. 
 
 Peter III. = Catharine II. 
 
 (6) I (7) 
 
 I 
 
 Paul I. 
 
 I 
 
 Alexander I. 
 Alexander II. 
 Alexis. 
 
 Nicholas L 
 
4J8 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 SUMMARY OF RUSSIAN SOVEREIGNS SINCE PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 Catharine I., 1725-1727.— Peter the Great's second wife— a Livonian peasant and 
 widow of a Swedish dragoon. She saved the army of Peter on the Pruth in 1711, when at the 
 mercy of the Turlcs, by sending her own jewels and all she could collect from the Russian 
 officers as a present to an influential official of the Grand Vizier. Notwithstanding her humble 
 origin, she was crowned empress in the lifetime of Peter, and ruled successfully after his 
 death. 
 
 Peter's son Alexis, by his first wife, was detected in conspiring against hie reforms, and 
 perhaps in plotting his father's overthrow. He died mysteriously, during the judicial inquiry 
 into his crime. The son of this Alexis became— 
 
 Peter III., 1727-1730.— A short reign, showing the increase of Germanizing tendencies 
 at the court— no direct male heir. 
 
 Catharine I. and Peter had two daughters— Anne (who married the Duke of Holstein, and 
 had a son, after\vard Peter III.) and Elizabeth. The Council of State wishing to increase its 
 power, and hoping to gain more favor from indirect heirs, set aside these descendants and 
 chose a daughter of Peter's brother Ivan. She reigned as— 
 
 Anne Ivanovna, 1730-1740.— Germanic tendencies continue. Polish Succession 
 was 1733-1738. War with Turkey, 1736-1739 (p. 428). 
 
 A second daughter of Ivan, named Catharine, had married the Duke of Mecklenburg, Their 
 daughter Anne married the Duke of Brunswick (Genealogy), The son of this marriage had been 
 
 declared the heir of Anne Ivanovna, 
 as Ivan VI. A revolution, however, 
 l)laced on the throne the daughter of 
 Peter the Great and Catherine I.— 
 
 Elizabeth Petrovna, 1741- 
 1762. — An able sovereign. Time of 
 the Austrian Succession and Seven 
 Years' Wars. Succeeded by — 
 
 Peter III., 1762, son of Peter's 
 daughter Anne and the Duke of Hol- 
 stein. His rule was unpopular, and 
 was overthrown by a revolution 
 which made his wife S()i)hia of An- 
 halt-Zerbst empress. (Peter III. died 
 mysteriously.) She reigned, adopt- 
 ing a new name, as— 
 Divisions of Poland (p. 418). Two wars with Turkey. A 
 Followed by her son- 
 
 Palace of the Hermitage, St. Pctcibburg 
 iBuUt by CathaHne 11.) 
 
 Catharine II., 1762-1796 
 remarkably able sovereign. French tendencies at the court 
 
 Paul I., 1796-1801.— A determined enemy of the French Revolution, but an enthusi- 
 astic admirer of Bonaparte, with whom he allied himself. His death was a severe blow to 
 Napoleon. His son followed— 
 
 Alexander I., 1801-1825.— Prominent in the coalitions against Bonaparte till Peace 
 of Tilsit, 1807 ; then ally of Bonaparte till 1812 ; afterwards most active toward his over- 
 throw. 
 
 Nicholas I., 1825 1855.— Brother of the last Tzar. A rigid martinet and dieciplmarian, 
 
RUSSIAN SOVEREIGNS. 419 
 
 but not badly disposed ruler. (He forbade his subjects to violate the Chinese law against the 
 opium traffic, while the English made three wars to force this drug on the Chinese.) He died 
 of grief at the result of the Crimean War (p. 298). His son succeeded, 
 
 Alexander H., 1855-1881.— Famous for his liberation of the Russian serfs in 1861. 
 His assassination by the Nihilists placed on the throne his son, the ruling Tzar Alexander III. 
 Russian "Nihilism" has some support from the old Russian antagonism to the foreign inno- 
 vations introduced by Peter the Great and his successors, but it is essentially only the Russian 
 name for the party of auarchy and socialism now becoming rampant all over Europe. 
 
 TERRITORIAL HISTORY OF RUSSIA AFTER PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 During: the 18th century important additions in Europe were made at the expense 
 of Turkey and Poland. War with Turkey from 1768 to 1774 (Catharine U.) closed with the 
 Peace of Kainardji, giving Russia control of the ports commanding the Don and Sea of Azof, 
 and preparing the way for the acquisition, 1783, of the Crimea and the control of the Black 
 Sea. (Compare section map, p. 254, with map, p. 298.) 
 
 A second war with Turkey, 1787-1793 (Catharine II.), gave Russia, by the Peace of Jassy, 
 the river Dniester as boundary, thus gaining entire control of the Dnieper. (Compare as above.) 
 
 The three partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 (Catharine II.), carried the Russian boun- 
 dary on the west to the Niemen and Bug, a branch of the Vistula. Russia only gained at this 
 time territories which once belonged to her in the Middle Age, and were afterwards conquered 
 by Lithuania, but Poland proper was divided by Austria and Prussia, associates in this 
 national crime, by her assistance. (Compare Russian frontier at pp. 256, 292. The Bug is 
 marked at p. 300 ; another river of the same name at p. 254.) 
 
 Later Acquisitions.— Finland was conquered from Sweden in 1809 (Alexander I). 
 Bessarabia (the coimtry between Dniester and Pruth) and the mouths of the Danube were 
 taken from Turkey in 1812 (Alexander I.). The portions of Poland given to Austria and 
 Prussia by the second and third partitions were united by Bonaparte after 1807 (Peace of 
 Tilsit) as the Duchy of Warsaw. The Duchy of Warsaw was united to Russia by the Congress 
 of Vienna, 1815, but under separate government. (Compare maps, pp. 293»29C.) Discontent 
 of the Poles at this arrangement led to the revolt of 1830, after which the Duchy of Warsaw 
 was united directly with Russia and very harshly treated, especially since the rising of 1863. 
 
 By the Crimean war, 1853-1856 (Nicholas I.), the Danube mouths were lost, all 
 fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea were to be abandoned, and no Russian ships of war 
 were to be allowed there. These last conditions of the Treaty of Paris have been disregarded 
 by Russia since the Franco-Prassian War of 1870-1871. 
 
 In consequence of the Bulgrarian massacres in 1876, Russia declared war on 
 Turkey, and her armies reached the walls of Constantinople. Only some territory in Armenia, 
 with the important fortresses of Batoum and Kars in Asia Minor, were ceded Russia. The 
 power of Turkey in Europe was, however, almost entirely crippled. 
 
 TERRITORIAL ADVANCE IN ASIA. 
 
 In the reign of Ivan IV. (died 1584), Russian explorers had passed the Ural Moun- 
 tains into Siberia. Before the end of the 16th century the Russian possessions in Asia reached 
 
420 HUSSIA. 
 
 to the Obi and Trtych, by which trade was opened with Bokhara. By the end of the 17th cen- 
 tury the Russian possessions in Asia reached to the Pacific and took in KAmschatlai, whither 
 Peter the Great sent an exploring expedition. Thus far only the territory drained by rivers 
 flowing into the Arctic Ocean was ruled and colonized. During the 18th century no perma- 
 nent advance was made in Asia. Tn the 19th century Russia has conquered the Caucasus, and 
 her territory now reaches in Asia Minor beyond the Araxes. On the Pacific she gained in 1858 
 the country of the Amour, from China ; and in 1875 the Island of Saghalia, from Japan. Alaska, 
 occupied in 182"2, was ceded to the United States in 1875. Acquisitions begun in Northern 
 Turkestan after 1844 have resulted in gaining Tashkent, 1865, Samarcand, 1868, Khiva, 1873, and 
 Khocand, 1875. 
 
 The approach of Russian territory to the British frontier in India on the 
 Bide of Afghanistan by the Sir Daija (Oxus), which flows into the Sea of Aral, and forms in its 
 lower course the valley and Khanate of Khiva, has much excited the solicitude of Great 
 Britain, and has been lately a fertile source of diplomatic controversy and state jealousy. The 
 wars lately waged by England in Afghanistan have been intended to anticipate and head oflf 
 the Russian advance. On the other hand, late Russian expeditions against the Turcomans of 
 the Tekke Oasis ai-e intended to establish new points of foothold on the Afghan frontier. The 
 Oxus flowed, in ancient times, into the Caspian, but was turned oflf into the Sea of Aral by a 
 dike constructed by the Turcomans. One object of the Russians is, by cutting the dike, to 
 turn the river into its old channel, thus restoring the ancient water communication between 
 the heart of Asia and Central Russia by way of the Volga. A canal connecting the Volga and 
 the Don would, by way of the Black Sea and Danube, establish Russia as a powerful rival of 
 England in the commei-ce between Europe and the East. 
 
 SUMMARY OF RUSSIAN HISTORY. 
 
 Rurik, 862. 
 
 Power of Kief, till the middle of the 12th century. 
 
 The principality of Souzdal then takes the lead till the Mongol (Tartar) in- 
 vasion?. 
 
 Mongol power over Russia from 1224 to 1480. The western provinces of 
 Russia are conquered by Lithuania and so united with Poland. 
 
 The Grand Princes of Moscow (originally a town of Souzdal) threw off the 
 Mongol yoke in 1480, under Ivan III. Territorial increase on the west and on 
 the north (Republic of Novgorod). 
 
 Ivan IV. adds the Khanates of Kazan, 1552, and Astrachan, 1554 (basin of 
 the lower Volga), and the country of the Don. 
 
 Peter the Great, central date 1700, adds the Baltic provinces and so opens 
 Russia to Europe. 
 
 Catharine II. adds Lithuanian Poland and the Crimea, after 1772. 
 
 Alexander I. adds Finland 1809, and the Duchy of Warsaw after 1815. 
 
 The Russian advance in Asia, which had reached Kamschatka about 1700, 
 begins to approach the British possessions in India, after 1844, by the rivers 
 entering the Sea of Aral. 
 
QUESTIONS. 421 
 
 SYNCHRONISTIC QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 How long after the Treaty of Verdun was Rarik's power in Russia established ? (P. 155.) 
 
 Who was German emperor at the death of Jaroslaf the Great (Glory of Kief), 1054 ? 
 (P. 163.) 
 
 How long is this date before the Norman conquest of England ? (P. 362.) 
 
 What century ends the Crusades ? (P. 191.) 
 
 With what century begins the Mongol rule in Europe ? (P. 169.) 
 
 Of what territories will you deprive modem Russia to understand its size in the time of 
 Ivan in. and before his conquests ?~i. e., enumerate all acquisitions since Ivan HI. 
 
 How long before the death of Ivan III. was Charles V. bom ? (P. 228.) 
 
 Who was Germanic emperor at the accession of Ivan IV. ? (P. 239.) 
 
 When did the dynasty of Rurik end ? (P. 415.) 
 
 Who was English sovereign then ? (P. 379.) 
 
 Who was Spanish sovereign ? (P. 241.) 
 
 What Russian Tzar made serfdom general ? 
 
 Who emancipated the serfs ? 
 
 Who was English king at the accession of Michael Romanoff ? (P. 383.) 
 
 Who was English king at the accession of Peter the Great? (P. 387.) 
 
 Who was French king at this time ? (P. 381.) 
 
 What general European war was waged in the reign of Peter the Great ? (P. 854.) 
 
 What Prussian king was contemporary with Catherine 11. ? (P. 259.) 
 
ARABS AND TURKS. 
 
 THE MOHAMMEDAN ARABS. 
 
 Until the age of Mohammed, born 569, the Peninsula of Arabia is 
 known to history mainly through the spices and incense which it exported 
 from the earliest times. Although relatively unknown, the coasts of Arabia 
 possessed a high degree of civilization. The Bedouin or wandering Arabs of 
 the interior desert were then, as now, barbarian, and are to be distinguished 
 then, as now, from the settled and commercial Arabs. 
 
 From contact with Christians and Jews, the Arabs gradually became su- 
 perior to their original paganism, and this progress was formulated and made 
 general by Mohammed, a self-styled prophet. 
 
 The Mohammedan era is calculated from the year a. d. 622, when the 
 prophet was driven for the time being to fly from Mecca (the " Hegira"), but 
 also found the faith and constancy of his followers equal to the test thus im- 
 posed on them. He died ten years later. 
 
 His caxdinal doctrine was the belief in one God, in opposition to the previous Arab 
 polytheism ; but submission to the will of God was conceived by him and by his followers in a 
 way which led to stagnant indiflference to the evil Christians are bidden to combat. Many 
 objectionable, and some laudable doctrines and teachings were advanced by this man. As in 
 all other human religions, this one also exhibits its good or evil aspect according to the individ- 
 ual or national temperament and surroundings. It is known that Mohammed himself was 
 subject to epileptic fits, which he conceived to be divinely inspired trances, and it is not neces- 
 sary to suppose him a conscious impostor. His teachings, given out in disjointed and frag- 
 mentary utterances, and written down on palm leaves and pieces of bone in his lifetime, were 
 collected after his death in the Koran. 
 
 The personality and self-confidence of Mohammed inspired his 
 nation with a zeal for its new faith which launched it on the most remarkable 
 religious war known to history. All nations were to become converts or be put 
 to the sword, except Jews and Christians, "the peoples of the Book." These, 
 according to the Koran, were to be allowed life and liberty if they paid tribute. 
 
THE MOHAMMEDAN ARABS. 
 
 423 
 
 Egypt, Syria, and North Africa were wrested from the Byzantine Empire about 
 the middle of the 7th century a. d. (p. 150, and map, p. 154). Spain was con- 
 quered from the Visigoths at the opening of the 8th century. Toward the 
 east the Mohammedan conquests reached into India. 
 
 The rulers of the Mohammedan world were called Caliphs. They 
 combined spiritual and temporal authority till the middle of the 10th century, 
 when they lost their temporal power. 
 The first four successors of Moham- 
 med were Abu Bekr and Omar, his 
 fathers-in-law, and Othman and Ali, 
 sons-in-law of the prophet. The 
 sons of Ali, who were murdered, 
 were conceived by some to be the 
 next legal successors — hence a sect 
 called the Shiites (to which the Per- 
 sians have always belonged) denying 
 the authority of the later Caliphs. 
 
 The Ommaiads.— The ortho- 
 dox Mohammedans or Sunnites, 
 whose leading modern representa- 
 tives are the Turks, acknowledged 
 as next Caliph, in 661, Moawiyah, founder of the line of the Ommaiads ; seat 
 at Damascus. 
 
 The Abbasides.— The Ommaiads were overthrown, in 750, by Abbas, 
 founder of the Abbaside Caliphs ; seat at Bagdad. An Ommaiad named Abder- 
 rhaman, who escaped to Spain, founded there, in 756, an independent power — 
 the Caliphate of Cordova (map, p. 154). 
 
 Various independent dynasties rose soon after in various parts of the 
 Mohammedan world, paying more or less homage to the Bagdad Caliphs, till 
 these were overthrown by the Mongols in 1258 (see contemporary accounts of 
 the Mongols in Russian History), 
 
 The Arab Civilization had reached its highest pitch in the centuries 
 after Mohammed. Through the culture and literature of East-Rome, of which 
 three provinces — Syria, Egypt and North Africa — were in Arab hands, they 
 rivaled that heir of ancient Rome in material civilization and in knowledge. 
 
 The Turks. — In the time of Arabian decay which preceded the Mongol 
 desolation of western Asia, the Turkish tribes of the steppes east of the Cas- 
 pian, who were converts to Mohammedanism, became first the military de- 
 fenders and then the rulers of the Mohammedan countries. It was the oppres- 
 
 The Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem. 
 {OnginaUy a Christian Church of the 4th Cent.) 
 
 \ 
 
424 ARABS AND TURKS. 
 
 sion of the Christians and Christian pilgrims in Syria by the Turks which led 
 !» the Crusades. These Turks were called from their first leader, the Seljuk 
 Turks. Their most important State was a large part of Asia Minor wrested from 
 the Byzantine Empire. The Crusaders who marched by way of Constantinople 
 had to encounter this Sultanate of Iconium (map, p. 183) before reaching Syria. 
 
 SUMMARY OF DATES. 
 
 Mohammedan era .a. d. 632 
 
 Four successors of the Prophet to " 661 
 
 Ommaiad Caliphs (Damascus) to " 750 
 
 Abbaside Caliphs (Bagdad) to " 1358 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 How far did the Arabs extend their conquests on the east ? 
 How far on the west ? 
 
 What Byzantine provinces were included in these conquests ? 
 
 What people— converts to Mohammedanism— finally replaced the Arabs as military rulers in 
 the eastern countries ? 
 
 What invasion overthrew the Abbaside Caliphs of Bagdad ? 
 
 What Anglo-Saxon State was ascendant in the time of Mohammed ? 
 
 How long before 622 did Roman missionaries land in Kent ? 
 
 What battle in 732 prevented the Mohammedans from conquering western Europe f (P. 150.) 
 
 What Abbaside Caliph was contemporary of Charlemagne ? (P. 155.) 
 
 What Byzantine province was mainly conquered by the Seljuk Turks ? 
 
 What caused the Crusades ? (P. 183.) 
 
 THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 
 
 The Tribe of Othman. — The Turks now known to us in Turkey are not 
 the Seljuk Turks. The Sultan of Iconium took into his service, in the latter 
 part of the 13th century, a band of 440 Turkish horsemen, who had wandered 
 with their families, first from Turkestan east of the Caspian to the Euphrates 
 and then into Asia Minor. They were commanded by Ertoghrul. His son 0th 
 man gives the name to the "Ottoman" Turks of modern times. From the 
 Seljuks was borrowed their symbol, the Crescent. 
 
 Ertoghrul and Othman were made lords of a territory in Northwest 
 Asia Minor, bordering the remnant of the Byzantine territory. By the death of 
 the last Sultan of Iconium, Othman became the most important Turkish chief 
 of Asia Minor, after 1307, and reigned till 1326. He was buried at Brussa, con- 
 
THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 425 
 
 quered from the Byzantine Empire in the year of his death. His tomb existed 
 as a noted shrine of the Turks till our own time, when it was destroyed by fire. 
 His sabre is still used in investing a new Sultan. 
 
 Othman's son Orchan reigned from 1326 to 1359. By 1336 his power 
 was firmly established over all Northwest Asia Minor, from which the East- 
 Romans were by this time expelled, and in 1356 the Turks set foot in Europe 
 on the Thracian Chersonese. They came as allies of a claimant of the Byzan- 
 tine throne and remained as allies of the Byzantine Emperor, making constant 
 headway by the feuds and divisions in his State. Under Orchan were organized 
 the Janissaries, the first standing army known to Europe. They were recruited 
 by a forced annual levy of one thousand Christian children, who were then 
 educated as Mohammedans. This levy was continued annually till 1673. 
 
 Anmrath I. crossed the Hellespont in 1360, one year after his accession, 
 took Adrianople in 1361, defeated a Christian army of Servians, Bulgarians and 
 crusading allies on the river Maritza, near Adrianople, in 1363, subdued the 
 Servians (Slavonians, Greek Church) after 1376 ; crossed the Balkans in 1389, 
 and perished in the Turkish victory on the plain of Kossova, in Servia, in 
 that year. Bulgaria and Wallachia were made Turkish tributaries as result of 
 this victory. Bulgaria was peopled by Slavonian Greek Christians. Like 
 Servia, it was at times included under Byzantine rule, at times indajoendent — 
 and in this latter condition when conquered by the Turks ; for the Byzantine 
 Empire had begun to fall in pieces before the Turkish conquest. 
 
 Bajazet I. succeeded his father. The flower of French and Hungarian 
 chivalry was destroyed by him in the famous battle of Nikopolis on the Danube 
 in 1396, and Greece was then made Turkish to the Isthmus of Corinth (Athens, 
 Turkish, 1397). 
 
 The battle of Nikopolis seemed to lay Christendom open to the Turks, but 
 the Mongol desolators of Asia saved Europe. Bitter enemies of the Turks, the 
 Mongols invaded Asia Minor under Timur-lenk (Tamerlane), whose empire 
 reached from China to Central Russia. They defeated Bajazet I. and made him 
 prisoner in the battle of Angora, 1402. Timur retired from Asia Minor to attack 
 China, and died on the march. After a family feud lasting till 1413, the Turks 
 once more, under Mahomet I., began to gather power. 
 
 His successor was Amurath II., 1421-1451, who crossed the Bos- 
 phorus, in 1440, by Genoese assistance, and defeated the Hungarian hero Hun- 
 yades at Varna in 1444. The Hungarian Hunyades and the Albanian Scander- 
 beg performed prodigies of valor against the Turks, and to their efforts is 
 mainly owing the preservation of Italy and western Europe from invasion. 
 
 The next Sultan w^iS Maliomet II. j 1451-1481. He toofe Copstapti- 
 
4^ 
 
 ARABS AND T.URKS. 
 
 nople in 1453 (p. 13'j), and proceeded then to overthrow the last remnants of 
 Byzantine rule in the Peloponnesus and on the Black Sea, His advance on 
 western Europe was checked at Belgrade, in 1456, 
 by the heroic efforts of St. John Capistran, a Fran- 
 ciscan monk. 
 
 A feud with the Genoese resulted in the Turk- 
 ish conquest of Kaffa and the Crimea, 1475 (p. 237). 
 An attack on Rhodes failed in 1480, but in 
 that year the Italian city of Otranto, the key of 
 Italy, was captured by the Turks. Mahomet II. 
 had threatened to feed his horse on the altar of 
 (the old) St. Peter's Church, but his death spared 
 Italy from invasion, 
 
 Bajazet II., 1481-1512, wasted his forces in feud 
 with his own brother and son. 
 
 Selim I., 1512-1520, is renowned for the ad- 
 dition of Northern Mesopotamia, of Syria, and 
 of Egypt to the Turkish states. These countries 
 were conquered from the Mohammedan Mame- 
 lukes, a cavalry force recruited from slaves, whose 
 chiefs had ruled Egypt since 1204. The Mame- 
 lukes had protected the successors of the Caliphs 
 of Bagdad ; and the power of the Caliph, as head of the Mohammedan world, 
 was now transferred to the Turkish Sultan. 
 To him were transferred, also, the sword, 
 mantle, and banner of the prophet Moham- 
 med, which are still preserved at Constanti- 
 nople. The banner is borne before the army 
 on occasions of urgent peril. 
 
 Solyman the Great, 1520-1666, raised 
 Turkey to its highest power. He conquered, 
 from Persia, Bagdad on the Tigris, which has 
 ever since been Turkish, and received the allegi- 
 ance of the Mohammedan states of North Africa 
 — viz!, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli — thus almost 
 making the Mediterranean into a Turkish lake. 
 Solyman took Rhodes from the Knights of 
 St. John in 1522. ' ~ 
 
 In 1526 he defeated the Hungarians in the battle of Mohacz, and in 1529 
 
 St. John Capistrau. 
 {From a 'portrait of his time.) 
 
THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 
 
 427 
 
 besieged Vienna. The city was saved, but nearly all Hung^ary became Turkish 
 (till 1699). In the reign of Solyman the Turkish artillery was the best in 
 Europe, and his army was 
 the most dreaded, but the 
 Turkish power declined from 
 his time. (See p. 333.) 
 
 SeUm II., 1566-1574, 
 degraded his reign by a de- 
 gree of vicious self-indulgence 
 remarkable even in a Turkish 
 Sultan. 
 
 Cyprus was taken from 
 the Venetians in 1571, but 
 this loss was avenged in the 
 same year by the famous 
 naval victory of Lepanto, on 
 the Gulf of Corinth. The 
 Christian fleet was organized 
 by Pope Pius V., the Vene- 
 tians, and Philip II. of Spain, 
 and was commanded by Don 
 John of Austria (half brother of Philip II 
 
 Papal Galley. Time of the Battle of Lepanto. 
 
 The fame of the battle of Lepanto 
 rests on the almost total destruction of the dreaded 
 Turkish fleet by an inferior force, and on the confi- 
 dence which this victory gave Christendom to continue 
 its struggle with the infidels. Until this time all Med- 
 iterranean coasts were scourged by the Turkish cor- 
 sairs, who carried off thousands of Christians to slav- 
 ery (ten thousand were liberated from Turkish galleys 
 at Lepanto). 
 
 Amurath III. began the practice of selling ofl&cial 
 positions, and the Turkish state consequently in his 
 time already reached that degradation of official cor- 
 ruption and cruel oppression which still continues. 
 
 Shield presented Don 
 John of Austria by 
 Pope Pius V. 
 
 The first half of the 17th century, which witnessed the decay of Turkey, was also 
 the time of the Thirty Years' War. Thus Europe could not profit by Turkish weakness. 
 After 1656, a succession of vigorous viziers somewhat restored order and strength, and in 
 1663 war was declared on Austria in connection with a revolt in Austrian Hungary. An 
 iQunense Turkish anny marched on Vienna, and reached the Kaab, but was defeated at St. 
 
428 ARABS AND TURKS. 
 
 Gotthard by MontecucuUi, a noted Italian general in Austrian service. This victory demon- 
 strated that European discipline and military science were now far above the Turkish. A 
 truce with Austria followed, during which Poland and Russia were at war with Turkey. The 
 Polish general, Sobieski, won brilliant victories in this war, which prepared him for the glorious 
 triumph of 1683 (p. 351). 
 
 The Turks had encamped around Vienna with an army numbering altogether nearly a 
 million men. The city was defended by 11,000 soldiers. Sobieski, with 70,000 men, came to 
 the rescue, and by brilliant generalship utterly routed the last Turkish army which seriously 
 threatened to overpower Christendom. 
 
 Meantime, in 1G69, Crete (Venetian since the Fourth Crusade) was won by the Turks, but 
 the Venetians conquered the Peloponnesus. A succession of Austrian victories, won by Prince 
 Eugene, carried the Austrians to the Danube, and resulted in the Peace of Carlowitz, 1699, by 
 which all Hungary was regained (p. 251). 
 
 Austria had made peace in anticipation of the Spanish Succession War (p. 254), but in 
 alliance with Venice resumed hostilities after 1715. 
 
 The Peace of Passarowitz, in 1718, gave back the Peloponnesus to Turkey, but carried 
 Austria below the Danube. This acquisition was abandoned in 1739 by the Peace of Belgrade, 
 ending a three years' war in which Austrian over self-confidence occasioned terrible reverses. 
 
 Meantime Russia was replacing Austria as the formidable rival of the Turks. 
 Between the Turkish Tartars of the Crimea and the Cossacks of Southern Russia was waged a 
 constant warfare which the respective authorities sometimes could not check and sometimes 
 would not. (In 1570 an army of Crimean Tartars had even sacked Moscow.) When, with the 
 accession of Peter the Great, the policy of extending Russia to the Baltic and Black Seas began, 
 his first undertaking was an expedition, in 1695, against Azof, the port controlling the naviga- 
 tion of the Don. This conquest was abandoned after his disastrous campaign of 1711 on the 
 Pruth (p. 416). 
 
 In the war just mentioned as closed by the Peace of Belgrade, Russia had taken active and 
 successful share, but was obliged to abandon her conquests by the disasters of Austria. But 
 the war between Turkey and Catharine II., opened 1768, resulted in the Russian acquisition of 
 the Crimea, thus securing the Don. Important ports were acquired here by the Peace of Kai- 
 nardji in 1774, and the entire occupation took place after 1783. A second war under Cath- 
 arine II. carried Russia to the Dniester, thus securing the navigation of the important river 
 Dnieper. (Peace of Jassy, 1792, p. 418.) 
 
 Times of the French Revolution.— In the complications and rapid changes of alliance 
 among European states after the French Revolution and during Bonaparte's time, Turkey 
 was entirely controlled by foreign countries, to whose jealousies she owes her later ex- 
 istence. 
 
 Beside the losses of territory so far noted, Servia obtained a position of semi- 
 independence after 1804, since transformed into entire independence, 1878. Moldavia and Wal- 
 lachia were governed by elective Hospodars subject to Russian approval after Catharine II., 
 and only paid tribute to Turkey. Russia lost her protectorate over these provinces by the 
 Crimean war. They were united as "Roumania" in 1859, and have been since governed by a 
 prince of the Prussian House of HohenzoUern. Since 1878 they are no longer tributary to 
 Turkey. The Roumanians claim descent (as their name implies) from Roman soldier colonists 
 of the time of Trajan (p. 123). . 
 
 The Greeks revolted against Turkey in 1830. Russia, France and England united to assist 
 them, and the entire Turkish fleet was destroyed at Navarino, west coast Peloponnesus, 1827. 
 
THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 429 
 
 Greek freedom was secured by the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 (p. 29). Since this time Greece 
 is an independent kingdom, recently enlarged by the addition of Thessaly. 
 
 Egypt through the 18th century was but loosely connected with Turkey. Under the rule 
 of Mehemet Ali, in the early 19th century, it threatened not only to sever connection with 
 Turkey, but to conquer from her Syria and Asia Minor. In 1841 Egypt was made a hereditary 
 possession of Mehemet All's family, subject only to tribute and to furnishing a war contingent 
 to the Sultan. 
 
 The Crimean War (p. 298) gave Turkey a new lease of life by depriving Russia for a 
 time of naval ascendency in the Black Sea. 
 
 But atrocious massacres in Bulgaria by Turkish Irregulars, 1876, so roused the 
 sympathies of other Slavonians and of members of the Greek Church, that first Servia, then 
 Russia declared war. The Russian army reached Constantinople, but was forbidden by Great 
 Britain to occupy the city, and Rnssia was too exhausted to stand a new war with a fresh enemy. 
 
 The Treaty of Berlin, 1878, gave Russia only a slight increase of territory in Armenia 
 (Kars and Batoum). Turkey in Europe was much diminished. Bulgaria, between the Balkans 
 and Danube, was lost entirely. Eastern Roumelia, south of the Balkans, was made a semi- 
 independent principality, subject to Turkish tribute and supervision. Bosnia was occupied by 
 Austria. According to a secret clause of the Berlin treaty, Cyprus was occupied by Great 
 Britain. Servia and Roumania were made independent, as noted on preceding page. 
 
 The little mountaineer State of Montenegro, on the Adriatic, has never been 
 conquered by Turkish troops. It is a centre of constant active or smouldering guerilla war 
 against them. 
 
 The Herzegovina is the mountain district (a portion of Bosnia) above Montenegro, 
 nominally subject to Turkey, in which began the revolt which extended to Servia and Rou- 
 mania after the Bulgarian massacres just mentioned (map, p. 300). 
 
 GENERAL ASPECTS OF LATER TURKISH HISTORY. 
 
 An inxportant source of decay in the Turkish State, the sale of offices by the Sultan 
 to recruit his private purse, has been mentioned. Another was the insubordination of- the 
 Janissaries who, after 1600, dethroned, assassinated, or terrorized over the Sultans at frequent 
 intervals. The Janissaries were suppressed by Mahmoud II. in 1826, after a terrible struggle. 
 
 Another cause of decay was the habit, after 1600, of secluding the children of the 
 Sultan in the palace instead of giving them posts of trust in the lifetime of the sovereign. 
 This measure, intended to prevent family feuds, made the sovereign effeminate or imbecile, 
 and threw all active part in the government into the hands of a Grand Vizier. 
 
 The countries held "by the Turks in Europe were all inhabited originally by 
 Christian populations. There are Armenian Christians in Asia Minor, Maronite Christians in 
 Syria, and Kopts in Egypt. Besides the large numbers of Christians remaining in Asiatic 
 Turkey they still form in European Turkey four-fifths of the population. These Christians in 
 Europe— aside from the Greeks, of whom there are many in Turkey besides those in Greece— are 
 nearly all Slavonians, and thus doubly allied, by blood and by religious sympathies, with Russia. 
 Hence constant revolts and disturbances, tending to draw this country into war with Turkey. 
 On the other hand, Austria discountenances Russian extension on the side of European Turkey, 
 as tending to endanger her control of the mouths of the Danube. England objects to Russian 
 control of Constantinople, as threatening to cripple her own hold on Asiatic commerce, Ger- 
 
430 ARABS AND TURKS. 
 
 many does not wish to see Russia more powerful in Europe. Thus an entirely bankrupt and 
 corrupt government continues to exist. Countries which in the time of the Romans and 
 Greeks, of the Egyptians and Assyrians, were covered with prosperous and powerful cities, 
 and still of the highest possibilities in the way of civilization, are desolate and depopulated. 
 
 The miserable condition of Turkish countries, aside from other causes of decay, 
 results from a system of tax-farming by which contractors, for a certain sum furnished the 
 Sultan, have unlimited power of oppression and extortion over the provinces. Land is uncul- 
 tivated and trade idle, because wealth is only a summons for the extortions of the tax-collectors. 
 
 The Turks themselves are a naturally intelligent and well-disposed people, but corrupted by 
 European and Eastern vices and mixed with a multitude of renegades who in all centuries have 
 been the most depraved and vicious of their officials. Moreover, they are unfitted by religion 
 and social habits to assimilate and adopt those features of European civilization which would 
 bring them into sympathy with the subject European populations. 
 
 The Turkish langruagre is Turanian (p. 32), but mixed with Arabic. In literature and 
 poetry the Persians have served as their models. 
 
 Tobacco, although we cannot now imagine a Turk without his pipe, was first used after 
 1604. Coffee first appeared in Constantinople in the reign of Solyman the Great. 
 
 The character of Turkish government was doubtless superior in its prime to many 
 other eastern despotisms, but it was usual, until 1600, for the new Sultan to put to death his 
 brothers in order to forestall their rivalry. One of the Sultans thus killed nineteen brothers. 
 The punishment of death was inflicted by many Sultans for the slightest offences. A Sultan 
 of the 17th century put to death one hundred thousand persons. A Grand Vizier of the 17th 
 century, renowned for his justice, put to death thirty-six thousand persons in five years. It 
 is true that these executions were partly caUed for by the crimes and insubordinate violence of 
 the Janissaries, but this does not better our conception of the Turkish State. In the time of 
 Bonaparte it was still usual for Turkish soldiers to disperse after, or even before, victory, to 
 collect the heads of their slain enemies. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISE. 
 
 What nations were engaged in the wars closed by the varioas treaties mentioned in the 
 summary on the next page ? 
 
 What changes of territory were involved in each one of these treaties ? 
 
 What was the leading feature of French and English history at the time of the battle of 
 NikopoUs? (P. 198.) 
 
 From what time do you date the Byzantine Empire, overthrown in 1453 ? 
 
 Who married the Byzantine heiress soon after ? (P. 415.) 
 
 Mention the sovereigns of Europe contemporary with Solyman the Great ? (P. 239.) 
 
 What territory was gained by the Turkish victory of Mohacz ? (P. 233.) When lost ? 
 (P. 428.) By what treaty? 
 
 What conquest roused Christendom to the triumph at Lepanto ? (P. 427.) 
 
 What was the government of Cyprus at this time ? (P. 427.) 
 
 When did the Turks lose Cyprus ? (P. 429.) 
 
 Who was king of France when Sobieski defeated the Turks f 
 
 What gains were made by Russia at the expense of Turkey in the 18th century f (P. 418.) 
 
 What territories has Turkey lost in the 19th century f (Pp. 428, 429.) 
 
^THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 431 
 
 SUMMARY OF TURKISH HISTORY. 
 
 Otiiinan in Asia Minor after A. D. 1300^ 
 
 Turks first landing in Europe ; reign of Orchan " 1356 ' 
 
 16tli Cent. 
 
 Amuratli I. took Adrianople " 1361 )■ 14tli Cent. 
 
 He died in the victory of Korsova " 1389 I 
 
 Bajazet I. ; victory of Nikopolis •' 1396 J 
 
 Bajazet I. ; defeat of Angora ** 1402 \ 
 
 Mahomet II. took Constantinople " 1453 [• 15th Cent. 
 
 " the Crimea " 1475 ' 
 
 Selim I. conquered Syria and Egypt " 1517- 
 
 Solyman I. the Great took Rhodes " 1523 
 
 " " " victory of Mohacz " 1526 
 
 " " " before Vienna * ' 1529 
 
 Selim II. conquered Cyprus ; was defeated at Lepanto. . . " 1571 
 
 Turkish defeat on the Raab " 1664 ^ 
 
 Turks defeated before Vienna by Sobieski " 1683 [ 17th Cent. 
 
 Peace of Carlowitz *' 1699 ' 
 
 Peace of Passarowitz " 1718' 
 
 Peace of Belgrade " 1739 
 
 Peace of Kainardji *' 1774 
 
 Peace of Jassy " 1793 J 
 
 Revolt of Servia after " 1804 
 
 Independence of Greece after " 1829 
 
 Semi-independence of Egypt after " 1841 
 
 Crimean War ends by the Peace of Paris " 1856 
 
 Semi-independence of Roumania after " 1859 
 
 Peace of Berlin. (Conditions?) " 1878. 
 
 Map Study.— Geographically the Ottoman Turkish countries were all portions of the 
 Byzantine Empire, and Turkish history relates eiflher to Turkish assimilation or to Turkish 
 debasement of Byzantine civilization, therefore the sequence of maps for the Byzantine 
 Empire should be examined. Its connection and identity with the Roman Empire should 
 be also observed. See pp. 116, 140, 154, 156, 182, 200, 228. See maps of European Turkey at 
 pp. 296, 298, and 300. At p. 298 are best indicated the dimensions of Bosnia, Servia, Wallachia, 
 and Moldavia. At p. 300 see Montenegro. Localities are mentioned in the order ef refer- 
 ence. Brusa, Adrianople, p. 296; Kossova, in Servia; Nikopolis, p. 298; Angora, in Central 
 Asia Minor; Varna, p. 296; Belgrade, p. 256; Constantinople, p. 296; Kaffa and the Crimea, 
 p. 296, section map ; Otranto, see Tarent, p. 300 ; Mohacz, p. 228; Lepanto, Gulf of Corinth ; 
 Carlowitz, north of and near Belgrade ; Passarowitz, p. 256 ; Jassy, p. 296 ; Navarino, p. 296. 
 
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