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 A \'ocabulary for the Lower Standard"Tn Hindustan;. Containing the 
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 Hindustani Dictionary. Dictionary of Urdu and Classical Hindi and English 
 
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 The Btjstan of Sa'adi. Photographed from a MS., Collated and Annotated. 
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GAnr-EMTiER 
 
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GRAMMAR 
 
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PEEFACE. 
 
 The following work has been compiled with a view to 
 enable every one proceeding to India to acquire a fair know- 
 ledge of the most useful and most extensively spoken language 
 of that country. Of late years, a neW aera may be said to 
 have commenced with regard to the study of the Hindustani 
 language ; it being now imperative on every junior officer 
 in the Company's service to pass an examination in that 
 language before he can be deemed qualified to command a 
 troop, or to hold any staff appointment. Such being the case, 
 it is desirable that every facility should be afforded to young 
 men destined for India to acquire at least an elementary 
 knowledge of Hindustani in this country, so as to be able to 
 prosecute the study during the voyage. 
 
 A large impression of this work having been exhausted, 
 I have availed myself of the opportunity, in this new 
 Edition, of adopting such improvements as have been naturally 
 suggested by several years' experience in teaching. The plan 
 and arrangement of the work remain the same as before ; and 
 so do the numbers of the sections and the paragraphs. The 
 first section treats very fully of the Persi-Arabic alphabet, 
 and of the elementary sounds of the language. In this section 
 I have been enabled to introduce several improvements, and, 
 if I mistake not, the subject is now so simplified that a 
 learner of ordinary capacity will have no difficulty in making 
 some progress in this elementary part, even if he should not 
 have the aid of a teacher. The next three sections treat of 
 the parts of speech, to the defining and explaining of which 
 I have strictly confined myself. I have carefully avoided 
 mixing up the syntax of the language with that part of the 
 work which is and ought to be purely etymological. The 
 
Yl PREPAOB. 
 
 mode of confounding the syntax with the etymology, which 
 prevails in most grammars, I have always looked upon as 
 highly preposterous. It is utterly absurd to embarrass the 
 student with a rule of syntax, at a stage of his progress where 
 he probably does not know a dozen words of the language. 
 
 In the first four sections (up to p. 91), I have generally 
 accompanied every Hindustfoi word and phrase with the 
 pronunciation in Roman characters, in order that the learner 
 mignt not be delayed too long in acquiring the essential 
 rudiments of the grammar, and also to guard against his 
 contracting a vicious mode of pronunciation. When he has 
 made himself acquainted with what is technically called the 
 accidence — that is, the declension of the nouns and pronouns, 
 and the conjugation of the verbs — he may, after a few verbal 
 instructions respecting the arrangement of words, proceed to 
 read and translate a few pages of the Selections, by the aid 
 of the Vocabulary. This done, he may read over the Grammar 
 carefully > from the beginning ; for, in fact, the Grammar and 
 Selections mutually assist each other. 
 
 Section V. (from p. 92 to 135) treats of the Syntax of the 
 language. This is a portion of the work, in which, if I do 
 not greatly mistake, I have made many improvements. I 
 have been particularly careful in explaining those peculiarities 
 of the language in the use of which I have observed learners 
 most apt to err, when trying to translate English into Hindu- 
 stani. I have also, in several instances, ventured to diflfer 
 from all my predecessors on certain important points, which 
 of course I have justified by an appeal to the language itself. 
 
 In the sixth and last section, I have given a concise account 
 of the Devanagari alphabet, together with the mode of trans- 
 ferring the same into the corresponding Persian character, 
 and vice versa. To this I have added an explanation of the 
 various plates accompanying the work, together with a brief 
 account of the Musalman and Hindu calendars. The perusal 
 of the plates will initiate the student into the mysteries of the 
 manuscript character, which is much used in India, both in 
 
PREFACE. TU 
 
 lithographed and printed works, to say nothing of numerous 
 productions which still remain in manuscript. When the 
 learner is well grounded in the Nashhi, or printed character, 
 he should, as an exercise, endeavour to write out the same 
 in the TaHik, or written character. When he has attained 
 some facility in writing the latter, he will find it a very 
 profitable exercise to transcribe the various phrases, etc., in 
 my Hindustani Manual^ from the Roman character into the 
 TaHik, and at the same time commit them to memory, as 
 directed in the preface to that small work. 
 
 An elementary grammar of a language is incomplete without 
 a certain portion of easy extracts, accompanied by a suitable 
 vocabulary, and occasional notes explanatory of any obscure or 
 idiomatic phrases that may occur in the text. This is the more 
 essential in a grammar of the Hindustani, or of any other Asiatic 
 language, because the characters and words, being totally diffe 
 rent from our own, it is necessary, though it may sound strange, 
 to learn the language to a certain extent, before the grammar 
 can be perused to any advantage. As to the use of translation? 
 and other fallacious aids, such as giving the English of each 
 word as it occurs at the bottom of the page or elsewhere, it is a 
 method deservedly scouted by all good teachers. On the other 
 hand, to put a large dictionary in the hands of a beginner is 
 equally useless ; it is asking of him to perform a difficult work, 
 with an instrument so unwieldy as to be beyond his strength. 
 In order, therefore, to render this work as complete as possible, I 
 have appended to the Grammar a selection of easy compositions for 
 reading, commencing with short and simple sentences. All the 
 words occurring in the extracts will be found in the Vocabulary, 
 at the end of which I have added a few notes explanatory of 
 difficult passages or peculiarities of the language, with references 
 to the page and paragraph of the Grammar where further 
 information may be obtained. 
 
 In the extracts from the * Khirad Afroz,' a work which is 
 eonsidered to be the easiest and most graceful specimen of the 
 Jrdii dialect, I have left off the use of the jazm -^, except in 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 rery rare instances, in order that the student may gradually 
 learn to read without it. In like manner the virdmaT is omitted 
 in the last five or six stories of the Hindi extracts. I have been 
 careful, throughout, to give the essential short vowels, convinced 
 that without them the most attentive learner will be apt to com- 
 mit mistakes in pronunciation. I have also adopted a rigid 
 system of punctuation, the same as I should have done in the 
 editing of a Latin Classic. There may be a few individuals so 
 thoroughly wedded to what is foolish or defective, merely 
 because it is old, as to feel shocked at this innovation. They 
 will complacently ask, What is the use of punctuation, when the 
 natives have none in their manuscripts ? I answer — The use is 
 simply to facilitate, for beginners, the acquisition of a knowledge 
 of the language. When that is once attained, they will find no 
 difficulty in reading native works, though utterly void, not only 
 of punctuation but of vowel-points and other diacritical marks 
 The use of stops is merely a question of time ; four hundred 
 years ago we had no such things for our books in Europe, and 
 the excellent monks who had the management of these matters 
 went on comfortably enough without them. But, after all, it 
 was found that stops were an improvement; and so they are 
 admitted to be even in the East. Almost all the books printed 
 in India since the beginning of the present century have 
 punctuation; and those who would make beginners attempt 
 to translate from a strange language, in a strange character, 
 without the least clue to the beginning or end of the sentences, 
 seem to have a marvellous love for the absurd. All Oriental as 
 well as European books ought to have stops ; the omission is a 
 sure indication either of extreme idleness or culpable apathy 
 on the part of the editor. 
 
 In conclusion, I may safely say that I have spared no pains 
 to render this edition worthy of the extensive patronage which 
 ^e work has hitherto attained. 
 
 D. FORBES. 
 
 58. Burton Cbbsoent, 
 
HINDUSTANI GEAMMAE, 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 ON THE LETTERS AND SYMBOLS USED IN WRITINGS. 
 
 1. The Hindustani language may be printed and 
 written in two distinct alphabets, totally different from 
 each other, viz., the Persi- Arabic, and the Devanagari. 
 We shall at present confine ourselves to the former, and 
 devote a section to the latter towards the end of the 
 volume. The Persi- Arabic alphabet consists of thirty-two 
 letters, to which three more are added to express sounds 
 peculiar to the Hindustani. These letters, then, thirty- 
 five in number, are written and read from right to left ; 
 and, consequently, Hindustani books and manuscripts 
 begin at what we should call the end of the volume. 
 Several of the letters assume different shapes, according 
 to their position in the formation of a word, or of a 
 combined group ; as may be seen in the following table, 
 column Y. Thus, in a combination of three or more 
 letters, the first of the group, on the right-hand side, 
 will have the form marked Initial ; the letter or letters 
 between the first and last will have the form marked 
 Medial ; and the last, on the left, will have the Final 
 form. Observe, also, that in this table, column I. .con- 
 tains the names of the letters in the Persian character ; 
 
'2' 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 n. the same in Roman characters; III. the detached 
 form of the letters, which should be learned first ; and 
 rV. the corresponding English letters. 
 
 THE HINDUSTANI ALPHABET. 
 
 
 i. n. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 
 Nune. 
 
 Detached 
 Form. 
 
 Power. 
 
 Combined Form. 
 
 Exempllflcailoni 
 
 . 
 
 
 FlnaL 
 
 Medial. 
 
 Initial. 
 
 FlnaL 
 
 Medial. 
 
 Initial. 
 
 m 
 
 
 alif 
 
 \ 
 
 a, etc. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 b- 
 
 j\ 
 
 Ml 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 be 
 
 C-^ 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 f 
 
 A \ 
 
 v..^.^ 
 
 j^ 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 Lji 
 
 pe 
 
 C-> 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 
 V V 
 
 jk 
 
 
 cf 
 
 ^' 
 
 te 
 
 LU 
 
 t 
 
 Ll^ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 T" 
 
 s^ 
 
 z 
 
 i5 
 
 ta 
 
 <^ 
 
 t 
 
 LiU 
 
 .•: 
 
 
 ••y 
 
 \a^ 
 
 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 
 86 
 
 UL? 
 
 s 
 
 ^J^ 
 
 A 
 
 
 C^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 jr 
 
 rr 
 
 Jim 
 
 Ti 
 
 y 
 
 t 
 
 JS 
 
 5>- 
 
 / 
 
 * 
 
 J^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 che 
 
 ^ 
 
 cA 
 
 t 
 
 V 
 
 r 
 
 e 
 
 ^. 
 
 t V 
 
 f 
 
 ^ 
 
 he 
 
 z 
 
 A 
 
 t 
 
 .s 
 
 - 
 
 r 
 
 O 9 
 
 J^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 hhe 
 
 t 
 
 M 
 
 't 
 
 .s 
 
 £w 
 
 €■ 
 
 r^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ji^ 
 
 Ml 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 j^ 
 
 vX 
 
 
 
 Ju» 
 
 iji 
 
 
 2" 
 
 2fJ 
 
 da 
 
 « 
 
 d 
 
 K 
 j^ 
 
 
 R 
 
 RO>> 
 
 jh 
 
 JU 
 
 <? 
 
 JIJ 
 
 %dl 
 
 i 
 
 % 
 
 A 
 
 j^ 
 
 (i 
 
 iuiir 
 
 j^ 
 
 r4 
 
 T 
 
 '/J 
 
 re 
 
 J 
 
 r 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 j^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 r-^ 
 
 • 
 
 !? 
 
 ra 
 
 J 
 
 r 
 
 J 
 
 :; 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 9 
 
 > 
 
 !)^ 
 
 t» » 
 
 3 
 
 s« 
 
 %e 
 
 J 
 
 2 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 / 
 
 ! 
 
 fj'- 
 
 jj 
 
THE ALPHABET. 
 
 
 1. 11. 
 
 Kama. 
 
 in. 
 
 Detached 
 
 IV. 
 
 Power. 
 
 V. 
 
 Combined Form. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Exemplifications. 
 
 
 
 Form. 
 
 Final. 
 
 Medial. 
 
 Initial. 
 
 Final. 
 
 Uedlal. 
 
 InltiaJ. 
 
 <7 
 
 , 
 
 %he 
 
 J 
 
 sA 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 
 yh 
 
 ^ji 
 
 ^Jj 
 
 ^ 
 
 cr^ 
 
 sin 
 
 U^ 
 
 s 
 
 L/«. 
 
 AM 
 
 wJ 
 
 u- 
 
 c^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 shin 
 
 i. 
 
 sh 
 
 lA 
 
 
 dM) 
 
 u^ 
 
 p 
 
 
 =5ri 
 
 jU 
 
 sdd 
 
 u^ 
 
 8 
 
 U^ 
 
 «a 
 
 *c 
 
 (> 
 
 Ju^ 
 
 Ju? 
 
 ^ 
 
 jU 
 
 %U 
 
 u^ 
 
 z 
 
 (> 
 
 m2 
 
 *a 
 
 u^. 
 
 .r^ 
 
 I-i 
 
 CT 
 
 .5> 
 
 toe 
 
 L 
 
 t 
 
 L 
 
 k 
 
 \: 
 
 u. 
 
 c;l=V 
 
 ^> 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^> 
 
 we 
 
 )c 
 
 % 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 air*- 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 • 
 
 cr:''' 
 
 (tin 
 
 t 
 
 a, etc. 
 
 t 
 
 ,x 
 
 .c 
 
 e- 
 
 
 J^ 
 
 3T 
 
 * 
 
 cr4 
 
 ghain 
 
 t 
 
 gh 
 
 t 
 
 X 
 
 £. 
 
 t^" 
 
 >:5? 
 
 J-a*i 
 
 • 
 
 4 
 
 fe 
 
 i_i 
 
 f 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 .-i^ 
 
 >■ 
 
 J 
 'J' 
 
 • 
 
 ^U 
 
 Mf 
 
 J 
 
 k 
 
 J 
 
 il 
 
 i 
 
 (i^ 
 
 >- 
 
 Jj 
 
 ^ 
 
 >_il^ 
 
 hdf 
 
 d/ 
 
 k 
 
 ci5: 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 ^. 
 
 ^ 
 
 >> 
 
 3r 
 
 ^ir 
 
 gdf 
 
 ^ 
 
 9 
 
 ^ 
 
 f 
 
 r 
 
 ;^!; 
 
 A 
 
 .^ 
 
 off 
 
 r^ 
 
 Urn 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 J 
 
 r^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 •q- 
 
 r: 
 
 mim 
 
 r 
 
 m 
 
 r 
 
 ^'^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 r; 
 
 c)^ 
 
 cr' 
 
 ^ 
 
 wy 
 
 niin 
 
 li) 
 
 n 
 
 iir 
 
 - 
 
 > 3 
 
 u;-" 
 
 
 r 
 
 A 
 
 .•b 
 
 wdw 
 
 J 
 
 w?,etc. 
 
 J 
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 
 'yl 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 >^ 
 
 he 
 
 s 
 
 h 
 
 * 
 
 •^ « 
 
 J^ 
 
 iU 
 
 I. 
 
 ^ 
 
 j^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^.|. 
 
 s? 
 
 y,etc. 
 
 L5 
 
 A 
 
 '<! :l 
 
 s?^ 
 
 
 Ju 
 
4 OF THE ALPHABET. 
 
 The alphabet here described is used, more or less 
 modified, by all those nations who have adopted the 
 religion of Muhammad ; viz., along the north and east 
 of Africa, in Turkey, Arabia, and Persia, and by the 
 Musalman portion of the people of India and Malacca. 
 
 In pronouncing the names of the letters (column II.) let it be 
 remembered that the vowels are to be uniformly sounded as follows: — 
 The unmarked a is always short, as a in woman, adrift, etc. ; d is 
 always long, as a in war or art ; i is short, as in pin ; i is long, as in 
 police ; u is short, as u in bull, pull, etc. ; ii is the same sound 
 lengthened, and pronounced as u in rule, etc. ; e is sounded as ea in 
 hea/r ; o is always long, as in no ; ai is pronounced as ai in aisle ; and 
 au is sounded as in German and Italian, or very nearly like our ou in 
 %ound, or ow in cow. 
 
 2. Perhaps the best mode of learning the alphabet is. 
 First, to write out several times the detached or full 
 forms of the letters in column III. Secondly, to observe 
 what changes (if any) these undergo, when combined in 
 the formation of words, as exhibited in column Y. 
 Lastly, to endeavour to transfer, into their corresponding 
 English letters, the words given as exemplifications in 
 column YI. 
 
 a. It may be here observed that the letters i J J ^ J J j J ^^^ 
 ^ do not alter in shape, whether initial, medial, or final. Another 
 peculiarity which they have is, that they never unite with the letter 
 following, to the left ; hence, when the last letter of a word is pre- 
 ceded by any one of these, it must have the detached form, column 
 III. The letters \s and 1^, in like manner, do not alter, though they 
 always unite with the letter following on the left hand. 
 
 3. In the foregoing table, most of the characters are 
 sufficiently represented by the corresponding English 
 letters : it will therefore be necessary to notice only those 
 whose sounds differ more or less from our own. 
 
POWERS OF THE LETTERS. 5 
 
 ^^ The sound of this letter is softer and more dental than that of 
 the English t ; it corresponds with the t of the Gaelic dialects, or that 
 of the Italian in the word sotto. It represents the Sanskrit ff. 
 
 c3 This letter represents the Sanskrit Z"; its sound is much 
 nearer that of the English t than the preceding In pronouncing it, 
 the tongue should be well turned up towards the roof of the mouth, 
 as in the words tip, top. 
 
 lLj is sounded by the Arabs like our ih hard, in the words thick, 
 thin ; but by the Persians and Indians it is pronounced like our 8 in 
 the words sicTc, sin. 
 
 — This letter has uniformly the sound of our ch in the word 
 church. 
 
 _ is a very strong aspirate, somewhat like our h in the word haul, 
 but uttered by compressing the lower muscles of the throat. 
 
 ^ has a sound like the ch in the word loch, as pronounced by the 
 Scotch and Irish, or the final ch in the German words schach and huch. 
 This letter will be represented in Roman characters by hh, with »\> 
 stroke underneath [Teh). 
 
 J is much softer and more dental than the English d; it represents 
 the Sanskrit ^, and corresponds with the d of the Celtic dialects, and 
 that of the Italian and Spanish. 
 
 J This letter represents the Sanskrit ^, and is very nearly the 
 same as our own d. The tongue, in pronouncing it, should be well 
 turned up towards the roof of the mouth. 
 
 J is properly sounded (by the Arabs) like ou\: i-h soft, in the words 
 thy and thine; but in Persian and Hindustani it is generally pro- 
 nounced like our z in zeal. 
 
 J is always sounded very distinctly, as the French and Germans 
 pronounce it. 
 
 J This letter is sounded like the preceding, only the tip of th^ 
 tongue must be turned up towards the roof of the mouth. It is very 
 much akin to J, with which it often interchanges ; or, more strictly 
 speaking, in the Devanagari the same letter serves for both ; as wiU 
 be seen in the section on the Devanagari alphabet. 
 
 j is pronounced like the j of the French, in the word jour, or ov^ 
 c in the word azure. It is of rare occurrence. 
 
6 POWERS OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 jjfl In Arabic this letter has a stronger or mere hissing sound than 
 our i. In Hindustani, however, there is little or no distinction between 
 it and (jm, which is like our own a. 
 
 ^jo is pronounced by the Arabs like a hard d or dh ; but in 
 jBLindiistani it is sounded like %. 
 
 ]o and 1? These letters are sounded in Hindustani like CD and J, or 
 very nearly so. The anomalous letter c will be noticed hereafter. 
 
 ^ has a sound somewhat like g in the German word sagen. About 
 the banks of the Tweed, the natives sound what they fancy to be the 
 letter r, very like the Eastern 4 . This sound will be represented in 
 English letters hj gh, with a stroke underneath {gh). 
 
 jj bears some resemblance to our c hard, in the words calm, cwp ; 
 with this difference, that the ^ is uttered from the lower muscles of 
 the throat. 
 
 (^ is sounded like our ^ hard, in give, go ; never like our g in 
 gem, gentle. 
 
 .^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is sounded like our n in 
 the word now ; at the end of a word, when preceded by a long vowel, 
 it generally has a nasal sound, like the French n, in such words as mon 
 and son, where the sound of the n is scarcely heard, its effect being to 
 make the preceding vowel come through the nose. The same sound 
 may also occur in the middle of a word, as in the French sans. In 
 the Homan character, the nasal sound of ^ will be indicated by n, 
 with a dot over it ( w ). 
 
 4 is an aspirate, like our h in hand, heart ; but at the end of a 
 word, if preceded by the short vowel a (Fatha § 4), the n has no 
 sensible sound, as in <)L3lj ddna, a grain; in which case it is called 
 ^cr..^ (^Ito hde-mukhtafi, i.e., the obscure or imperceptible A.' As this 
 final h, then, is not sounded in such cases, we shall omit it entirely in 
 the Roman character whenever we have occasion to write such words 
 as <Oij ddna, etc. 
 
 a. At the end of words derived from Arabic roots, the final a is 
 Bometimes marked with two dots thus, i ; and, in such cases, sounded 
 like the letter C-> t. The Persians generally convert the 'i into clJ ; 
 but sometimes they leave it unaltered, and frequently t>^"^ omit the 
 
or THE PRIMITIVE TOWELS. 7 
 
 two dots, in which case the letter is sounded according to the general 
 rule. Lastly, the Hindustani usually receives such words in whatever 
 form they may happen to be used in Persian. 
 
 h. The letter JJ> or ^ is frequently employed as a mere aspirate in 
 combination with the letters «--^ c—? cu c3 — _ J J J l1:> 
 and i^f; as in the words 1^, pha ; \^:, tha, etc. In such cases the 
 learner must be careful not to sound the pJi and th as in English ; the 
 h is to be sounded separately, immediately after its preceding letter, 
 as in the compound words wp-hill, hot-house. In most printed books 
 the rouud form of the h (Ji> and ^) is employed to denote the aspirate 
 of the preceding letter, otherwise the form ^, is used ; but this rule 
 does not apply to manuscripts, particularly those written before the 
 days of Dr. Gilchrist, under whose auspices the distinction was first 
 adopted. 
 
 e. Much might have been said in describing the sounds of several 
 of the letters ; but we question whether the learner would be greatly 
 benefited by a more detailed description. It is difl&cult, if not impos- 
 sible, to give in writing a correct idea of the mere sound of a letter, 
 unless we have one that corresponds with it in our own language. 
 "When this is not the case, we can only have recourse to such languages 
 as happen to possess the requisite sound. It is possible, however, that 
 the student may he as ignorant of these languages as of Hindustani. 
 It clearly follows, then, as a general rule, that the correct sounds of 
 such letters as differ from our own must be learned by the ea/r — we 
 may say, by a good ear ; and, consequently, a long description is need- 
 less. This remark applies in particular to the letters lU ^ ^ d ^^ 
 jjo ^ jj and the nasal ^, 
 
 OF THE PEIMITIVE VOWELS. 
 
 4. In Hindustani, as in many of the Oriental lan- 
 guages, the primitive vowels are three in number. They 
 are represented by three small marks or symbols, two of 
 which are placed above and one beneath the letter after 
 which they are sounded, as in the following syllables, 
 k> da^ J J^, and j du ; or J^ sar^j^ sir, and^ sur. 
 
8 « WEAK CONSONANTS. 
 
 a. The first is called ^^sP^ fatha (by the Persians^j mhnr), and is 
 written thus, — over the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound 
 is that of a short a, such as we have it in the word calamm, which is 
 of Eastern origin, and of which the first two syllables or root, calam or 
 
 ialam, are thus written, Ji. In such Oriental words as we may 
 have occasion to write in Eoman characters, the a, unmarked, is under- 
 stood always to represent the vowel fatha, and to have no other sound 
 than that of a in calamus or calenda/r. 
 
 h. The second is called by the Arabs kasra s^ (by the Persians 
 -; \ zer), and is thus -^ written under the consonant to which it 
 belongs. Its sound is that of our short i in the word sip and fin, 
 which in Hindustani would be written c_^^*rf and ,. J. The unmarked 
 f , therefore, in the course of this work, is understood to have the sound 
 of t in sip and fin, in all Oriental words written in the Roman 
 character. 
 
 ■Si XI 
 
 e. The third is called by the Arabs zamma (or dhamma) <U->tf (by 
 the Persians, ^jL^i pesJi,) which is thus — written over its consonant. 
 Its sound is like that of our short u in the words pull and push, which 
 in Hindustani would be written Jj and ^Juj : we have also its true 
 
 sound in the English words foot and hood, which would be written 
 
 f tip 
 
 u5-Nd and JJb. We shall accordingly, in the following passages, repre- 
 sent the zamma by the unmarked u, which in all Oriental words in the 
 Eoman character, is understood to have the sound of u in pull and 
 push ; but never that of our u in such words as use and perfume, or 
 such as w in sun and/ww. 
 
 OF THE LETTEES \, Q , j, AND ^, VIEWED AS CONSONANTS. 
 
 5. At the beginning of a word or syllable, tbe letter 
 \, like any other consonant, depends for its sound on 
 the accompanying vowel; of itself, it is a very weak 
 aspirate, like our A in the words herh^ honour^ and 
 hour. It is still more closely identified with the spiritus 
 lenis of the Greek, in such words as airo, iirl, 6p6p6^, 
 where the mark [ ' ] represents the alif^ and the a, e, and o 
 
WEAK CONSONANTS. 9 
 
 the accompanying vowel. In fact, when we utter the 
 syllables ah, ib, and uh, there is a slight movement of 
 the muscles of the throat at the commencement of 
 utterance ; and that movement the Oriental grammarians 
 consider to be the ^^^ maJdiraj\ or ^ place of utter- 
 ance' of the consonant 1, as in 1 a) \ ^; and \ u\ just 
 the same as the lips form the makhraj of h, in the 
 syllables cl^ ha, l_? hi^ and c-> hu. Finally, the \ may 
 be considered as the spiritus lenis, or weak aspirate of 
 the consonant 2^. 
 
 a. The consonant c has the same relation to the strong aspirate _ 
 that \ has to i ; that is, the c , like the 1, is a spiritus lenis or weak 
 aspirate; but the malchraj, or 'place of utterance' of c, is in the lower 
 muscles of the throat. Hence the sound of the letter c , like that of the 
 letter \, depends on the accompanying vowel ; as c--vS ^al, c^^ '«3, 
 (..^■^ ^ub, which in the mouth of an Arab, are very different sounds from 
 L^\ ab, c->i ih, and c-^l uh. At the same time, it is impossible to 
 explain in writing the true sound of this letter; as it is not to be 
 found in any European language, so far as we know. The student 
 who has not the advantage of a competent teacher may treat the c 
 as he does the \ until he has the opportunity of learning its true 
 sound by the ear. In representing Oriental words in the Eoman 
 character, the place of the c will be indicated by an apostrophe, 
 thus, J-u*£ ^asal. 
 
 h. Of the consonants J and ^j- very little description is necessary. 
 The letter J has generally the sound of our w in we, went ; but occa- 
 sionally in words from the Sanskrit it has the sound of our v, which 
 must be determined by practice. The sound of the consonant ^j is 
 our own i/ in yow, i/et, or the German/ injener. 
 
 c. It appears, then, that the thirty -five letters constituting the 
 Hindustani alphabet are all to be considered as consonants, each of which 
 maybe uttered vrith any of the three primitive vowels, as \ a,\ i, and \ u; 
 <— ^, la, L^ hi, and C->, hu, etc. : hence the elementary sounds of the 
 language amount to one hundred and five in number, A.«ich consonant 
 forming three distinct syllables. . 
 
10 CONSONANTS — MOVEABLE ANU INERT. 
 
 6. When a consonant is accompanied by one of the 
 three primitive vowels, it is said to be <jj^ mutaharrik^ 
 that is, ^ moving or moveable,' by that vowel. Oriental 
 grammarians consider a syllable as a step or move in the 
 formation of a word or sentence. When, in the middle 
 or at the end of a word, a consonant is not accompanied by 
 a vowel, it is said to be ^L sdJdn^ 'resting or inert,' and 
 then it is marked with the symbol - or - called -♦J^ jazm, 
 which signifies ^amputation or cutting short.' Thus 
 in the word >% j^ mardum^ the rmm is moveable by fatha ; 
 the re is inert ^ having no vowel ; the dot is moveable by 
 zamma ; and, finally, the w^im is inert. As a general rule, 
 the last letter of a word is inert^ and in that case the mark 
 jazm - is unnecessary. 
 
 7. When a letter is doubled, the mark — , called 
 tashdidj is placed over it. Thus, in the word cljIj^ 
 skid-dat, where the first syllable ends with j (d) and the 
 next begins with t> (J), instead of the usual mode 
 ci?jj.-i) the two dais are thrown into one, and the mark 
 tashdid — indicates this coalition. The student must 
 be careful to utter each of the letters thus doubled, dis- 
 tinctly — the first letter ends the preceding syllable, and 
 the second begins the following; they must not be 
 slurred over as we do it, in such words as mummy ^ 
 summer. The meaning of the term tashdid^ is, 'strengthen- 
 ing or corroboration.' 
 
 ^ The term inert is here employed for want of a better. In most Arabic, Persian, 
 and Hindtast&,ni Grammars, a letter not followed by a vowel is called quiescent, which 
 is objectionable, as it is apt to mislead the beginner, the term quiescent being already 
 applied in the English Grammar in the sense of not sounded. For instance, the 
 letter g is quiescent in the word phlegm ; we cannot, however, say that m is quiescent 
 in the same word, though we may say that it is inert. The student will be pleased 
 to bear in mind, then, that a letter is said to be inert when it is not followed by a 
 ToweL 
 
LONG VOWELS. ' 1] 
 
 OF THE LETTERS \ . AND ^ VIEWED AS VOWELS Ofi 
 LEITERS OF PROLONGATION. 
 
 8. The letters \ j and ^ when mert, serve to prolong 
 the preceding vowel, as follows. When \ inert is pre- 
 ceded by a letter moveable by fatha.^ the fatha and alif 
 together form a long sound like our a in war^ or au in 
 /!«w/, which in Hindustani might be written ^Ij and JU-. 
 Now it so happens that the \ inert is always preceded by 
 fatha : hence, as a general and practical rule, alif not 
 beginning a word or syllable forms a sound like our a in 
 war^ or au in ^a^^?. In the Eoman character, the sound 
 of long \ will be represented by ^, whilst the unmarked 
 a is always understood to represent the short primitive 
 vowel fatha, 
 
 9. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a consonant 
 moveable by the vowel zamma^ the zamma and j together 
 form a sound like our oo in tool; which in Hindustani 
 might be written Jy, or, which is the same thing, like 
 oui' u in rule^ which might be written JjJ. The same 
 combination forms also another sound, like our o in mole^ 
 which would in the same manner be written jj^, or, 
 perhaps still nearer, like our oa in coat^ which might be 
 written <JL?^. In the Arabic language, the latter sound 
 of 3 viz. that of in mole^ is unknown ; hence Arabian 
 grammarians call it Majhiil^ or 'Ajami, i.e. the Unknown 
 or Persian ^ ; whereas the former sound, that of u in 
 ^•ule. is called MahHf the Known or Familiar j . If the 
 
12 LONG VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 letter j be preceded by a consonant moveable by fatha. 
 the fatha and j united will form a diphthong, nearly like 
 our ou in 8ound^ or ow in town^ but more exactly like the 
 au in the German word kaum^ which in Hindustani 
 might be written ^y. In the following pages the 
 MaWiif sound will be represented by u ; the Majhiil by o, 
 and the diphthong by au. If the ^ be preceded by the 
 vowel kasra^ no union takes place, and the j preserves 
 its natural sound as a consonant, as in the word \y^ 
 siwd, 
 
 I. When the letter j in words purely Persian is preceded by -t 
 (moveable by fatha), and followed by \ ; the sound of ^ is scarcely 
 perceptible ; as in the word }i\y>~ pronounced IcMh, not hhawdh. When 
 we have occasion to write any such words in the Eoman character the 
 w will be written with a dot under ; thus, ii\yi^ hhwdh. 
 
 10. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a con- 
 sonant moveable by kasra^ the kasra and the ^ unite, 
 and form a long vowel like our ee in feel^ which in 
 Hindustani might be written jli ; or, which is the same 
 thing, like our i in machine^ which might be written 
 jj-A^. The same combination may also form a sound 
 like our ea in hear^ which would be written Jo or like 
 the French e in the words pre^ donne, but longer; or the 
 German e followed by A in the words sehr, gelehrt In the 
 Arabic language, the latter sound of ^ is unknown : 
 hence, when the ^ forms the sound of ea in bear^ etc., 
 it is called Yde Majhul^ or Yae ^Ajami^ that is, the 
 Unknown or Persian ^s ] whilst the former sound- 
 that of ee in feel^ or i in machine — is called Yde Ma'riff^ 
 the Known or Familiar ^. When the letter ^ inert is 
 preceded by a consonant, moveable by fatha ^ the fatha 
 and the ^ unite, and form a diphthong, like ai in the 
 
LONG VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 13 
 
 German word Kaiser^ which in Arabic, Persian, and 
 Hindustani, is written j2Ji. This sound is really that 
 of our own i in wise^ size^ which we are pleased to call a 
 vowel, but which, in reality, is a genuine diphthong. 
 When the letter ^^ is preceded by zammaj no union takes 
 place, and the ^ retains its usual sound as a consonant, 
 as in the word j^j^ muyassar. Lastly, if the letter ^ 
 be followed by a vowel, the above rules do not hold ; and 
 the ^5 is to be sounded as a consonant, as in the words ^,Lj 
 hayan^ and ^bj ziyan^ not hai-an and zi-an^ to represent 
 which latter sounds the mark Tiamza (No. 15) would be 
 requisite. A similar rule applies to the j . 
 
 a. It must be observed, that there are very few Hindustani works, 
 printed or manuscript, in which all the vowels are marked as we 
 have just described ; the primitive short vowels being almost always 
 omitted, as well as the marks Ji- ja%m and jz. tasM'id. This omission 
 occasions no serious inconvenience to the natives, or to those who 
 know the language. To the young beginner, however, in this 
 country, it is essential to commence with books having the vowels 
 carefully marked ; otherwise he will contract a vicious mode of 
 pronunciation, which he will find it difficult afterwards to unlearn. 
 At the same time, it is no easy matter in printing to insert all the 
 vowel-marks, etc. in a proper and accurate manner. In the present 
 work, a medium will be observed, which, without over-crowding t^e 
 text with symbols, will suffice to enable the learner to read without 
 any error, provided he will attend to the following rules. 
 
 11. The short vowel fatha — is of more frequent 
 occurrence than the other two ; hence it is omitted in 
 the printing ; and the learner is to supply it for every 
 consonant except the last, provided he see no other vowel, 
 nor the mark/t^^m, nor the ^ (butterfly) form of the letter 
 he (par. 3, h) accompanying any of the consonants 
 aforesaid. 
 
14 PRACTICAL RULES. 
 
 a. The letter j at the beginning of a word or syllable is a con- 
 sonant, and generally sounded like our w, as in the words ^j^j tois, 
 ^. watan. "When j follows a consonant, that has no vowel-mark or 
 ja%m accompanying it, the^ has the sound of o long, as in the words 
 «m9 80, ^ ko. When the consonant preceding the ^ has the mark 
 tamma _L over it, the j has the sound of u in rule, or oo in fool, as in 
 the words ^ sii or soo, and ^ kit or koo ; and if the preceding con- 
 son ant has the vowel mark fat^ia -^ over it, thej forms the diphthong 
 aUf as j«9 sau or sow, ja kau or cow. 
 
 b. The letter ^^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is a con- 
 sonant like our letter y, as in ^j yih, t>lj i/dd. When the letter ^ is 
 medial or final, if the consonant preceding it has no vowel-mark or 
 jazm, the ^ is sounded like ea in bear, or ai in fail, as in the words 
 -*j ber, and r^-j ser. If the consonant preceding the ^ has the mark 
 kasra —r under it, the (^ has the sound of i in machine, or ee in feel, 
 as -J b\r or beer, and -»«3 «ir or s^er ; and if the preceding consonant 
 has the mark /a^A« -^ over it, the ^^ forms the diphthong ai as -o 
 bair or iyr^, and -*«; aair or «m*«. 
 
 c. There are a few instances in which the letters j and ^ unite 
 with the preceding consonant, as in the words ^^^y^ swdmi, and Li 
 kt/d; but such combinations being of comparatively rare occurrence, 
 they may safely be left to the student's own practice. Lastly, in a 
 few Arabic words the final ^ occurs with an \ alif written over it, in 
 which case the \ only is sounded, as in the words 1.^. ukbd; JJUj 
 tu'dld. 
 
 12. We shall now at one view exhibit the practical 
 application of the principles treated of in the precediQg 
 paragraphs. The vowels in Hindustani, as the student 
 may have ere now perceived, are ten in. number, the 
 manner of representing which may be seen in the fol- 
 lowing ten words. The upper Irue (1) contaius ten 
 English words in common use, iu each of which occurs 
 the corresponding sound of the Hindustani word beneath, 
 rhe lower line (3) shews the mode in which the Oriental 
 
EXAMPLES OF VOWELS MEDIAL OR FINAL. 15 
 
 vowels will be uniformly represented in Eoman clia» 
 racters in the course of this work. 
 
 1. fun fin foot fall foal fool fowl fail feel file 
 
 '^ j^ jt ^'^ d^ Jy Jy J^ L^ i-y jj 
 
 3. fan fin fut fdl fol fid faul fel f'll Jail 
 
 13. We have now, we trust, fully explained how the 
 vowels are to be represented when they follow an audible 
 consonant, such as the letter cJ / in the foregoing list of 
 words. In order to represent the vowels as initial or 
 commencing a word, it will at once occur to the student 
 that we have merely to annihilate or withdraw the letter 
 uJ from the above words, leaving everything else as it 
 stands, and the object is effected. This is precisely 
 what we do in reality^ though not in appearance. The 
 Arabian grammarians have taken into their heads a most 
 subtle crotchet on this point, which is, that no word or 
 syllaUe can hegin with a vowel. Therefore, to represent 
 what we call an initial vowel, that is, a vowel com- 
 mencing a word or syllable, they employ the letter 
 \ alif as a fulcrum for the vowel. We have already 
 stated (No. 5) that they consider the \ as a very weak 
 aspirate or spiritus lenis ; hence its presence supports the 
 theory, at least to the eye, if not to the ear. In order, 
 then, to exhibit the vowels in the preceding paragraph 
 as initial, we must, after taking away the letter uJ 
 substitute \ in its place, which \ being nothing^ or very 
 nearly so, the process amounts in reality to the with- 
 drawal of the letter t«i /, and the substitution of what 
 may be considered as mere nothing .^ thus — 
 
 1. >m in ddt all 61 661 owl ail eel aisle 
 
 2. J ^\ djf JU Jj\ j/ j/ J,\ J.t J,J 
 S an in id dl ol id ml el H ail 
 
16 INITIAL VOWELS. 
 
 Instead of writing two alifs at the beginning of a 
 word, as in JU dl, it is usual (except in Dictionaries) to 
 write one alif with the other curved over it ; thus JT. 
 This symbol — is called j^iL* madda^ ' extension/ and 
 denotes lb it tho aJlf is sounded long, like our a in water. 
 M. de Sacy (v. Grammaire Arabe^ p. 72) considers the 
 mark madda — to be nothing else than a ,♦ mm^ the 
 initial of the word madda; but our business is simply 
 with its practical use, and the reader if he pleases may 
 view it as a contraction of our letter w, meaning * Make 
 it long.' 
 
 14. If, iQstead of \ in the above series, we substitute 
 the letter c, we shall have virtually the same sounds, 
 only that they must be uttered from the lower muscles 
 of the throat, thus — 
 
 ^ ^^ l::^ JU Jy^ J/ J^ Jt?^ ct^ Jr^^ 
 'm 'in 'ut 'dl 'ol 'U 'aul 'el 'U 'ail 
 
 a. It appears, then, that when in Hindustani, a word or syllable 
 begins with what we consider to be a vowel, such word or syllable 
 must have the letter \ or c to start with. Throughout this work, 
 when we have occasion to write such words in the Eoman character, 
 1 he corresponding place of the t will be indicated by an apostrophe or 
 spiritus lenis ; thus, J-u*£- 'dsal, Jolc 'dlid, Sxj ha'd, to distinguish 
 the same from J-jI asal, jj! dbid, Jo lad, or Sb lad. In other 
 respects the reader may view the \ and c in any of the three following 
 lights. 1st. He may consider them of the same value as the spiritus 
 lenis ( ' ) in such Greek words as av, eV, etc. 2ndly. He may con- 
 sider them as equivalent to the letter h in the English words hour, 
 herl, honour, etc. Lastly. He may consider them as mere blocks, 
 whereupon to place the vowels requisite to the formation of the 
 syllable. Practically speaking, then, \ and ^ when i7iitial, and the 
 J and ^ when not initial, require the beginner's strictest attention, 
 aa they all contribute in such cases to the formation of several sounde 
 
OF THE MARK HAMZA. 17 
 
 15. We have stated that, according to the notions of 
 the Arabian grammarians, no syllable can begin with a 
 vowel. In practice, however, nothing is more common, 
 at least according to our ideas of such matters, than to 
 meet with one syllable ending with a vowel, and the 
 next beginning with one also. When this happens in 
 Persian and Hindustani, the mark -i- called hamza is in- 
 serted between the two vowels a little above the body of 
 the word, as in the words ^^ jd^m^ t^*b pd^e\ and 
 sometimes there is a vacant space left for the hamza^ like 
 the initial or medial form of the ye without the dots 
 below, thus [j] or [J as in the words ^jJli fd^ida ; ^J^ 
 Mji-e, The hamza^ then, is merely a substitute employed 
 in the middle of words for the letter 1, to serve as a com- 
 mencement (or as the Orientals will have it, consonant) 
 to the latter of two consecutive vowels. Practically 
 speaking, it may be considered as our hyphen which 
 serves to separate two vowels, as in the words co-ordinate^ 
 re4terate. It serves another practical purpose in Persian, 
 in the formation of the genitive case, when the governing 
 word ends with the imperceptible x h^ or with the letter 
 4^ as in the words JLj\^ ^^joj dida-i-ddnish^ ^the eye of 
 intelligence,' where the hamza alone has the sound of the 
 short i or e, 
 
 a. The sound of the mark ham%a, according to the Arabian gram- 
 marians, differs in some degree from the letter \, being somewhat akin 
 to the letter c, which its shape £ would seem to warrant; but in 
 Hindustani this distinction is overlooked. We have here confined 
 ourselves solely to the practical use of this symbol as applied in Persian 
 and Hindustani; for further information on the subject, the reader 
 may consult De Sacy's Arabic Grammar. 
 
 16. Before we conclude the discussion of the alphabet, 
 
 2 
 
18 LETTERS PECTJLIAELY ARABIC, PERSIAN, ETC. 
 
 it may be proper to inform the student that the eight 
 letters lIj ^^ ^^)i> * and j are peculiar to the Arabic ; 
 hence, as a general rule, a word containing any one of 
 these letters may be considered as borrowed from the 
 Arabic. "Words containing any of the letters ^ J j ox i 
 maybe Persian or Arabic, but are not of Indian origin. The 
 few words which contain the letter j are purely Persian. 
 Words containing any of the letters c-> ^ or c^ may be 
 Persian or Indian, but not Arabic. Lastly, words con- 
 taining any of the four-dotted letters db j J are purely 
 Indian. The rest of the letters are common to the Arabic, 
 Persian, and Hindustani languages. 
 
 17. As words and phrases from the Arabic language 
 enter very freely into the Hindustani, we cannot well 
 omit the following remarks. Arabic nouns have fre- 
 quently the definite article J^ 'the' of the language pre- 
 fixed to them ; and if the noun happens to begin with 
 any of the thirteen letters c:j«^jijj(jwj^^ ^\^^ 
 or ^ , the J of the article assumes the sound of the initial 
 letter of the noun, which is then marked with tasMid ; 
 thuSjyJl the light,' pronounced an-nur^noi al-nur. But 
 in these instances, though the J has lost its sound, it 
 must always be written in its own form. Of course, 
 when the noun begins with the J, the J of the article 
 coincides with it in like manner, as in the words iLLUi 
 al-lailat^ ' the night ;' and in this case the J of the article 
 is sometimes omitted, and the iaitial lam of the noun 
 
 marked with tashdid, thus, IL\ \ al-lailat 
 
 a. The thirteen letters (CL? etc.) above mentioned, together with 
 the letter J, are, by the Arabian grammarians, called solar or sunny 
 letters, because the word ^^u^^^Ji shams, *the sun,' happens to begin 
 ^th one of them. The other letters of the Arabic alphabet are called 
 
ARABIC WORDS AFD PHUASES. 19 
 
 hnar, because, we presume, the word^^ kamar, the moon/ begim 
 with one of the number, or simply because they are not solar. Of 
 course, the captious critic might find a thousand equally valid reasons 
 for calling them by any other term, such as gold and silver, hlach and 
 Hue, etc. ; but we merely state the fact as we find it. 
 
 18. In general, the Arabic nouns of the above descrip- 
 tion, when introduced into the Persian and Hindustani 
 languages, are in a state of construction with another 
 substantive or preposition which precedes them ; lil^e 
 the Latin terms jus gentium^ vis inertice, ex officio^ 
 etc. In such cases, the last letter of the first or govern- 
 ing word, if a substantive, is moveable by the vowel 
 zamma^ which serves for the enunciation of the \ of the 
 article prefixed to the second word ; and, at the same 
 time, the \ is marked with the symbol ss^ called ai^j 
 wasla^ which denotes * union ;' as in the words ^^^^^^ \ ^1 
 Armr -ul- mumimn^ ^ Commander of the Faithful ; ' 
 <djjJ \ JlJl IJchal-ud'daulaj ' The dignity of the state.' 
 
 a. Arabic nouns sometimes occur having their final letters marked 
 with the symbol called tanwin, which signifies the using of the letter 
 ^J. The tanwin, which in Arabic grammars serves to mark the 
 inflexions of a noun, is formed by doubling the vowel-point of the 
 last letter, which indicates at once its presence and its sound ; thus, 
 c_?b idhun, C-jb bdiin, bb Idhan. The last form requires the letter 
 1, which does not, however, prolong the sound of the final syllable. 
 The \ is not required when the noun ends with a hamza, or with the 
 
 letter 'i, as*^^-^ shai-an, <U^ hikmatan; or when the word ends in 
 (^ 1/e, surmounted by 1 [ Jc ] (in which case the \ only is pronounced), 
 LJl& Tiudan. In Hindustani the occurrence of such words is not 
 common, being limited^ to a few adverbial expressions, such as ^J^^ 
 Jcasdan, 'purposely,' [s\Ju\ ittifdhan, 'by chance.' In the Eoman 
 character the letter w, with a stroke underneath [«], will be used for 
 the nunation.' 
 
 19. "We may here mention, that the twenty-eight 
 
20 NUMERICAL VALUE OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 letters of the Arabic language are also used (chiefly in 
 recording the tdrtkh, or date of historical events, etc.), 
 for the purpose of numerical computation. The numerical 
 order of the letters differs jfrom that given in pages 2 and 
 3, being, in fact, the identical arrangement of the Hebrew 
 alphabet, so far as the latter extends, viz., to the letter 
 CL? 400. The following is the order of the numerical 
 alphabet with the corresponding number placed above 
 each letter; the whole being grouped into eight un- 
 meaning words, to serve as a ' Memoria technica.' 
 
 ill ill I ill 8S^8 S^gS Saao t.«» ^Mo«^ 
 
 ijoi Sri^ l:l^j^ ^joSlx^ {J-^^^ l5^ J ^ '^^■^« ^ 
 
 where \ denotes one, l-j two, ^ three, j four : etc. 
 
 a. In reckoning by the preceding system, the seven letters 
 peculiarly Persian or Indian, viz. c-^ lIs ^ "^ ] J> ^^^ ^> h^"^® 
 the same value as their cognate Arabic letters of which they are 
 modifications, that is, of c—? »-l^ ,- J j J, and CiJ respectively. 
 The mode of recording any event is, to form a brief sentence, such 
 that the numerical values of aU. the letters, when added together, 
 amount to the year (of the Hijra) in which the event took place. 
 Thus, the death of Ahli of Shiraz, who may be considered as the 
 last of the classic poets of Persia, happened in a.h. 942 (a.d. 1635). 
 This date is recorded in the sentence ^JJbl t>jJ ]y«-i ^Li>jb 
 'Ahli was the king of poets;' where the sum of all the letters be, 
 alif, ddl, etc., when added together, will be found to amount to 942. 
 The following date, on the death of the renowned Haidar 'AH of 
 Maisiir (a.h. 1196), is equally elegant, and much more appropriate: 
 {j:^j C-Jl^^b ,jU- * The spirit of Balaghat is gone.' 
 
 h. Sometimes the title of a book is so cunningly contrived as to 
 express the date of its completion. Thus, several letters written on 
 various occasions by Abu-1-Fazl, surnamed 'Allami, when secretary to 
 the Emperor Akbar, were afterwards collected in one volume by 
 '4bdu-s-samad, the secretary's nephew, and the work was entitled 
 
OF DATES. 21 
 
 ^Ic lTjUjIL* muMtahdf-i ^alldmk, * The letters of 'Allamf,' which 
 at the same time gives the date of publication, a.h. 1015. We may 
 also mention that the best prose work in Hindustani— the j^j ^ ib 
 * Bagh Bahar,' by Mir Amman, of Delhi, was so called merely because 
 the name includes the date ; the discovery of which we leave as an 
 exercise to the student. 
 
 c. It is needless to add that the marks for the short vowels count 
 as nothing ; also a letter marked with tashdid, though double, is to be 
 reckoned but once only, as in the word 'alldmi, where the lam though 
 double counts only 30. The Latin writers of the middle ages some- 
 times amused themselves by making verses of a similar kind, although 
 they had only seven numerical letters to work with, viz., i, v, x, l, c, 
 D, and M. This they called carmen eteostichon or chronostichon, out of 
 which the following eflPusion on the Eestoration of Charles II., 1660, 
 will serve as a specimen : 
 
 Cedant arma olesB, pax regna serenat et agros. 
 Here the numerical letters are c n m l x =1660. 
 
 d. In Arabia, Persia and India, the art of printing has been, till 
 recently, very little used ; hence their books, as was once the case in 
 Europe, are written in a variety of different hands. Of these, the 
 most common are, 1st, the NasTcM ^^s^ , of which the type employed 
 in this work is a very good imitation. Most Arabic Manuscripts, and 
 particularly those of the Kur'an, are in this hand; and from its com- 
 pact form, it is generally used in Europe for printing books in the 
 Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Hindustani languages. 2ndly. The 
 Ta^Vih Jf-3jO', a beautiful hand, used chiefly by the Persians and 
 Indians in disseminating copies of their more-esteemed authors. In 
 India, the Ta'lik has been extensively employed for printing, both 
 Persian and Hindustani works ; and within the last twenty years, a 
 few Persian books, in the same hand, have issued from the Pasha of 
 Egypt's press at Bulak. 3rdly. The SMkasta dCuL^Lt) , or 'broken' 
 hand, which is used in correspondence. It is quite irregular, and 
 unadapted for printing; but not inelegant in appeftiance, when 
 properly written. 
 
n 
 
 SECTION 11. 
 
 OF THB NAMES (Ul\ asmd) INCLUDING SUBSTANTIVES, 
 
 20. Oriental grammarians, both Hindu and Musal- 
 man, reckon only three parts of speech, viz. the noun 
 or name (J^\ ism), the verb (j*i JiH), and the particle 
 (uJ^ harf). Under the term noun, they include sub- 
 stantives, adjectives, pronouns, infinitives of verbs, and 
 participles. This verb agrees with our part of speech so 
 named ; and under the general term of ' particle' are com- 
 prised adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- 
 jections. The student will find it necessary to bear this 
 in mind when he comes to read or converse with native 
 teachers ; in the meanwhile we shall here treat of the 
 parts of speech according to the classification observed 
 in the best Latin and English grammars, with which the 
 reader is supposed to be familiar. 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 21. The Hindustani — ^and all the other languages of 
 India, so far as we know — ^have no word correspondiag 
 exactly with our articles the, a, or an; these being 
 reaUy inherent in the noun, as in Latin and Sanskrit 
 Hence, as a general rule, the context alone can deter- 
 mine whether, for example, the expression IfLj l^ U-ij 
 raja Jed hetd^ ^ regis filius,' signifies 'a son of a king,' 
 * the son of a king,' ' a son of the king,' or Hho son of the 
 
GENDERS OF NOTJNS. 23 
 
 king.' When, however, great precision is required, we 
 often meet with the demonstrative pronouns ^ yih, 
 Hhis,' and sj wuh^ ^ that,' together with their plurals, 
 employed in the same sense as our definite article. Our 
 indefinite article is expressed in many instances by the 
 numeral Lliol elc^ * one ; ' or by the indefinite pronoun 
 ^^J> ko^i^ ' some,' * a certain one '; as^;---> \lSS\ j^\ ^y* CSS\ 
 ek mard aur eJc slier ^ ' a man and a tiger '; (^^-^ ^j^^ 
 kojt shajchs ' some person '; but of this we shall treat 
 more fully in the Syntax. 
 
 OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 22. Substantives in Hindustani have two genders 
 only, the masculine and the feminine ; two numbers, the 
 singular and plural ; and eight cases (as in Sanskrit), 
 viz. nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, 
 locative, instrumental or agent, and vocative. The 
 ablative, locative, and instrumental, correspond with the 
 Latin ablative. It has been deemed proper here to 
 retain the Sanskrit classification of the cases, in accord- 
 ance with the grammars of the Marathi, Bengali, and 
 other cognate Indian dialects. 
 
 23. Gender. — ^To the mere Hindustani reader, it is 
 difficult, if not impossible, to lay down any rules by 
 which the gender of a lifeless noun, or the name of a 
 thing without sex, may be at once ascertained. With 
 regard to substantives that have a sexual distinction, 
 the matter is easy enough, and is pithily expressed 
 in the two first lines of our old school acquaintance, 
 Buddimau. 
 
 1. Quae maribus solum tribuuntur, mascula sun to. 
 
 2. Esto femineum, quod femina sola reposcit. 
 
24 GENDER OF INAJSIMATE OBJECTS. 
 
 This means, in plain English, that * All animate 
 beings of the male kind, and all names applicable to 
 males only, are masculine. Females, and all names 
 applicable to females only, are feminine.' 
 
 a. To the foregoing general rules, there is one (and perhaps but 
 one) exception. The word <d-J> habila, which literally means 
 tribe or family, also denotes a wife, and is used, even in this last 
 sense, as a masculine noun. Thus in the Bdgh o Bahar,' p. 27, we 
 have the expression U -f>Lj ^ l::---..s^«w-'%-wj <U tf iJ^ kahkle 
 ho la sdbab muhdbhat he sdth liyd, * Out of affection I brought my 
 wife with me,' where kahila is inflected like a masculine noun. 
 This, however, is merely an Oriental mode of expression, it being 
 usual with the people to employ the terms ' house ' or ' family,' when 
 alluding to their wives. Our neighbours, the Germans, without any 
 such excuse, have been pleased to decide that the word weibf ' wife,' 
 should be of the neuter gender. 
 
 24. With regard to nouns denoting inanimate objects, 
 the practical rule is, that those ending in ^Jyh ^^ ^j 
 and (j^ shj are generally feminine. Those ending in 
 any other letter; are, for the most part, masculine; 
 but as the exceptions are numerous, the student must 
 trust greatly to practice ; and when, in speaking, he 
 has any doubts respecting the gender of a word, it is 
 preferable to use the masculine. 
 
 a. It is said that there is no general rule without an exception, 
 and some have even gone so far as to assert that the exception 
 nbsolutehf proves the rule. If this latter maxim were sound, nothing 
 tould be better established than the general rule above stated re- 
 specting the gender of inanimate nouns. We have given it, in 
 substance, as laid down by Dr. Gilchrist, succeeding grammarians 
 having added nothing thereto, (if we except the Eev. Mr. Yates, who 
 in his Grammar has appended, as an amendment, a list of some twelve 
 or fifteen hundred exceptions.) This we have always looked upon 
 ss a mere waste of paper, believing as we do that no memory cuu 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 25 
 
 possibly retain such a dry mass of unconnected words. The fact is, that 
 the rule or rather the labyrinth, may be considerably restricted by the 
 application of a few general principles which we shall here state. 
 
 Principle \st. — Most words purely Sanskrit, which of course abound 
 in Hindustani, and more particularly in Hindi works, such as the 
 * Prem Sagar,' etc., retain the gender which they may have had in the 
 mother-tongue. Thus, words which in Sanskrit are masculine or 
 neuter, are masculine in Hindi ; and those which in Sanskrit are 
 feminine, are feminine in Hindi. This rule absolutely does away with 
 several exceptions which follow one of the favourite maxims of pre- 
 ceding grammarians, viz., that names of lifeless things ending in 
 i^ ~r i, are feminine,' huipdni, water,' moti, a pearl,' gM, 'clarified 
 butter' (and they might have added many more, such as mani, ' a gem,' 
 etc.), are masculine: and why? because they are either masculine or 
 neuter in Sanskrit. It is but fair to state, however, that this principle 
 does not in every instance apply to such words of Sanskrit origin as 
 have been greatly mutilated or corrupted in the vulgar tongue. 
 
 In the French and Italian languages which, like the Hindustanf. 
 have only two genders, it will be found that a similar principle pre- 
 vails with regard to words from the Latin. The classical scholar will 
 find this hint to be of great service in acquiring a knowledge of the 
 genders of such French words as end in e mute, the most trouble- 
 some part of that troublesome subject. 
 
 Principle 2nd. — Arabic nouns derived from verbal roots by the 
 addition of the servile c-l^ t, are feminine, such as Tchilkat, * creation, 
 people,' etc., ivom hhalaha, 'he created.' These in Hindustani are very 
 numerous, and it is to such only that the general rule respecting nouns 
 in CLi t, rigidly applies. Arabic roots ending in ci? t, are not 
 necessarily feminine ; neither are words ending in CD t derived from 
 Persian and Sanskrit, those of the latter class being regulated by 
 Principle Ist. Arabic nouns of the form J-J<iJ' are feminine, 
 probably from the attraction of the i in the second syllable ; the letter 
 i being upon the whole the characteristic feminine termination of the 
 Hindustanf language. To this general principle the exceptions are 
 very few, among which we must reckon c:^jJti sharhat, * sherbet,' and 
 Ju^O* ta^wiZi ' an amulet,' which are masculine. 
 
26 NUMBEE AND CASE. 
 
 Principle drd. — Persian nouns derived from verbal roots by tbe 
 addition of the termination ^JL~ wA, are feminine. These are not 
 few in Hindustdnf, and it is to such only that the rule strictly 
 applies. Nouns from the Persian, or from the Arabic through the 
 Persian, ending in the weak or imperceptible 2r h, such as <t<lj ndma, 
 a letter,* <Uij kiPa, a fortress,' are generally masculine. This again 
 may be accounted for by the affinity of the final a to the long d, which 
 is a general masculine termination in Hindustani. 
 
 Principle 4th. — Pure Indian words, that is, such as are not 
 traceable to the Arabic, Persian, or Sanskrit, are generally masculine 
 if they terminate in \ d. Arabic roots ending in \ d, are for the 
 most part feminine ; nouns purely Sanskrit ending in \ d, are regu- 
 lated by Principle 1st, but we may add, that the long d being a 
 feminine termination in that language, such words are generally 
 feminine in Hindustani. "Words purely Persian when introduced into 
 Hindustani, with the exception of those ending in iJL~ ish and a 
 already mentioned, are not reducible to any rule ; the Persian 
 language having no gender of its own in the grammatical sense of 
 the term. 
 
 Principle 5th. — Compound words, in which the first member 
 merely qualifies or defines the last, follow the gender of the last 
 member, as i^lfjlLl shiMr-gdh, 'hunting-ground,' which is feminine; 
 the word gdh being feminine, and the first word shikar qualifying it 
 like an adjective. 
 
 h. It must be confessed, in conclusion, that, even after the appli- 
 cation of the foregoing principles, there must stiU remain a con- 
 siderable number of words reducible to no sort of rule. This is the 
 inevitable fate of all such languages as have only two genders. 
 Another natural consequence is, that many words occur sometimes 
 masculine and sometimes feminine, depending on the caprice or 
 indijfference of the writer or speaker. "We have also good grounds 
 to believe that a word which is used in the masculine in one district 
 may be feminine in another, as we know from experience to be the 
 case in Gaelic, which, like the Hindustani, has only two genders. 
 
 25. Member and Case. — The mode in which the plural 
 Qumber is formed fi:om the singular, will be best learned 
 
DECLENSION. 
 
 27 
 
 by inspection from the examples wMch we liere subjoin. 
 The language has virtually but one declension, and the 
 various oblique cases, singular and plural, are regularly 
 formed by the addition of certain particles or post- 
 positions^ etc., to the nominative singular. All the sub- 
 stantives of the language may be very conveniently 
 reduced to three classes, as follows : — 
 
 Class I. — Including all substantives of the feminine gender. 
 Singular. 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 Nominative 
 
 Genitive 
 
 Dative 
 
 Accusative 
 
 Ablative 
 Locative 
 Agent 
 Vocative 
 
 .?v-; 
 
 y 
 
 u 
 
 -h, -My 
 
 j:j\ 
 
 J 
 
 :l^\ 
 
 / 
 
 J 
 
 D 
 
 Ji- 
 
 rdt, 
 rdt-kd, 
 rdt-hOf 
 rdt, 
 rdt-Jco, 
 rdt-se, 
 
 ^2^ C-JJ^ rdt-men, -^ar, 
 (J C-jIj rdt-ne, 
 iZj\j ^j\ airdt, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ".t 
 
 '!J 
 
 r 
 
 Nominative iji^]j ^dten, 
 
 ^Genitive ^- ^- l^ ij>y\j ^f^^on M, -ke, -ki, 
 
 ~ j^ ^J,y\) rdton-kOf 
 
 ffj^\) rdten, 
 
 LS*** li^yb rdton-sef 
 ji' ^^ i^yb '^o^ton-men, -par, 
 (J i^y^j rdton-ne, 
 ^^j ljS\ ^* rdto, 
 Feminine nouns ending in ^- i, add ^!- dn in the nominative 
 plural ; thus ^^*j roti, * bread/ 'a loaf/ nom. plur. ^V-!^J rotiydn. 
 In the oblique cases plural, they add ^y on as above. 
 
 In like manner a few words in ^ iiy 
 a wife/ nom. plur. joruwdn ovjorii,dh. 
 
 a. We may now take a brief view of the formation of the cases. 
 
 Dative 
 Accusative 
 
 Ablative 
 Locative 
 Agent 
 Yocative 
 
 the night 
 of the night 
 to the night 
 
 the night 
 
 from the night 
 
 in, on, the night 
 
 by the night 
 
 night ! 
 
 the nights 
 of the nights 
 to the nights 
 
 the nights 
 
 from the nights 
 
 in, on, the nights 
 
 by the nights 
 
 nights ! 
 
 add ^\^\ an, 
 
 JJJ^ joru, 
 
28 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 It will be seen that in the singular, the oblique cases are formed 
 directly from the nominative, which remains unchanged, by the addi- 
 tion of the various post-positions. The genitive case has three forms 
 of the post-position, all of them, however, having the same significa- 
 tion, the choice to be determined by a very simple rule which belongs 
 to the Syntax. The accusative is either like the nominative or like 
 the dative ; the choice, in many instances, depending on circumstances 
 which will be mentioned hereafter. The nominative plural adds en to 
 to the singular {dn if the singular be in 4). The oblique cases plural 
 in the first place add on to the singular, and to that they affix the 
 various post-positions ; it will be observed that the accusative plural is 
 either like the nominative or dative plural. The vocative plural is 
 always formed by dropping the final n of the oblique cases. Let it 
 also be remembered that the final ^ added in the formation of the 
 cases of the plural number is always nasal. Fide letter ^j page 6. 
 Class II. — Including aU Masculine Nouns, with the exception of such 
 
 as end in \ d (purely Indian), ^V\\ an, and s h. 
 Example, J^ 
 
 Singular. 
 
 K", J^ mard, man. 
 
 G. ^'iS -^ '^j^ mard-kd, etc., of 
 ^ " man. 
 
 D. jS J^ mard-ko, to man. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Ab. 
 
 dj^ mard, 
 ^ J^ mard-ko, 
 
 ^ J^ ma/rd-u, from 
 man. 
 
 o 
 
 ^* y* \:y^ 'V* '^(^d-men, -par, 
 in, on, man. 
 
 Ag. (J liy* «tar«?-w^, byman. 
 
 V. 4)^ t^i ai mard,0 man! 
 
 This class, throughout the singular, is exactly like class I., and 
 in the plural the only difference consists in the absence of any 
 termination added to the nominative, and consequently to the first 
 form of the accusative, which is the same. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 i'-^^-l^ 0''y^ ^^^^on-kd, etc., 
 " " " of men. 
 
 4$ /o"V* mardon-ko, to 
 men. 
 
 o 
 
 J-^ mard, ) ^ 
 
 y ^o^tV* mardon-ko, ) 3 
 
 LS*** d>^*^ mardon-se, from 
 men. 
 
 -par, in, on, men. 
 
 (J loJ'V* ^f^^^on - ne, by 
 men. 
 
 ^^y cfl ai mar do, Omen I 
 
DECLENSION. 
 
 29 
 
 All the other cases in the plural are formed precisely as before. 
 It must be admitted that the want of a distinct termination to dis- 
 tinguish the nominative plural from the singular, however, in Class 
 II. is a defect in the language. This, however, seldom occasions any 
 ambiguity, the sense being quite obvious from the context. The 
 German is liable to a similar charge, and sometimes even the English, 
 in the use of such words as * deer,' * sheep,' * swine,' and a few others. 
 
 Class III. — Including Masculine Nouns purely Indian ending in \ a, 
 a few ending in f^\ an, and several words, chiefly from the 
 Persian, ending in the imperceptible s or short a. 
 
 Example, l::*^ kuttd, * a dog. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 N. ^ huttdj a dog. 
 
 G. ^- ^- ^ ^ kuUe-M, etc., 
 " of a dog. 
 
 D. ^ ,J^ kutte-lco, to a 
 
 dog. 
 
 ( ^Icuttd, \ ^ 
 
 Ac. J y a dog 
 
 . ^ j^ii hutte-lco, ) 
 
 Ab. j<«o ,^^ kutte-se, from a 
 " ^ dog. 
 
 Loo. J- \*^ ^^ Tcutte-men, -pa/r^ 
 "in, on, a dog. 
 
 Ag. 
 
 (J ^^^ Tcutte-ne, by a 
 
 Voc. ^^ ^\ ai lutte, dog ! 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ^^ Icutte, dogs. 
 
 ^S' iS- ^ (^j^ hutton-lcd, etc., 
 of dogs. 
 
 /d.^ 
 
 kuttok-lco, 
 
 to 
 
 «,/' 
 
 dogs. 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 hutte, 
 
 it 
 
 ^^6 
 
 lutton-lco, 
 
 1 ' 
 
 ^uf^ 
 
 kutton-se, 
 
 from 
 
 — 
 
 -.9 
 
 dogs. 
 
 
 ji- ^^^ ^^ hutton-men, 
 
 -par, 
 
 ^9 
 
 in, on. 
 
 dogs. 
 
 tJ ^j5^ kutton - ne, hy 
 
 ^ o 1 ai kutto, dogs ! 
 
 a. In like manner may be declined many words ending in a, as 
 if Jaj landa, ' a slave,' gen. lande-kd, etc., nom. plur. lande, slaves,' 
 gen. handon-kd, etc. Nouns in dn are not very numerous, and as the 
 final n is very little, if at all, sounded ; it is often omitted in writing ; 
 thus ^jl-^ laniydn or Ljo haniyd, * a trader,' gen. haniyen-kd or laniye- 
 kd, which last is the more common. In the ordinal numbers, such as 
 ^^^•-jJ daswdn, the tenth,' etc., the nasal h generally remains in the 
 inflection, as ^jly^*^ daswen-kd, etc., of the tenth.* In the oblique 
 
80 GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION. 
 
 cases plnral, the ^^\ ah, is changed into ^j oh. "With regard to this 
 third class of words, we have one remark to add ; which is, that the 
 vocative singular is ^often to be met with uninflected, like the 
 nominative as l2-j i^\ at hetd for ^JLj i^\ , ' son ! ' 
 
 h. The peculiarity of Class III. is, that the terminations \ d and 
 S a, of the nominative singular, are entirely displaced in the oblique 
 cases singular and nominative plural by ^ e, and in the oblique cases 
 plural by ^^oh. This change or displacement of termination is called 
 inflection,' and it is limited to masculine nouns only with the above 
 terminations ; for feminines ending in \ ^ or s, are never inflected, 
 nor are all masculines ending in the same, subject to it. A consider- 
 able number of masculine nouns ending in \ a, purely Arabic, Persian, 
 or Sanskrit, are not inflected, and consequently belong to Class TI. 
 On the other hand, masculine nouns purely Indian, such for example 
 as the inflnitives and participles of verbs used substantively or adjec- 
 tively, are uniformly subject to inflection. In like manner, several 
 masculine nouns ending in the imperceptible a are not subject to 
 inflection, and as these are not reducible to any rule, the student must 
 be guided by practice. 
 
 c. Masculines in a from the Persian often change the a into \ in 
 Hindustani; thus i^j^ darja, 'grade,' 'rank,' becomes l^ju> darjd', 
 so ^U ma%a, 'taste,' becomes |u mazd. All such words are subject 
 to inflection, for by this change they become as it were Indianized.' 
 The final s is not inflected if in a state of construction (agreeably to 
 t.e rules of Persian grammar) with another word, as ^j^ {J^^ ^^„^ 
 d'lda-i hosh men, in the eye of prudence ; ' ^-^ i^^^^j ^^j zabdn-t 
 rekhfa men, in the Eekhta or mixed dialect.' 
 
 26. General rules for the Declension of Nouns, — 
 1. In classes I. and II. the nominative singular remains 
 unaltered throughout, the plural terminations being 
 superadded. 2. In class III. the nominative singular 
 is changed or inflected into ^^ e^ for the oblique singular 
 and nominative plural, and the terminations of the 
 oblique cases plural are substituted for, not added to, the 
 termination of the singular. 3. All plurals end in 
 
POST-POSITION. 
 
 ^j oh in the obliqne cases, that is, whenever a post- 
 position is added or understood. 4. The vocative plnral 
 always ends in^ o, having dropped the final ^ h oi the 
 oblique. 5. Words of the first and second classes, con- 
 sisting of two short syllables, the last of which being 
 fatha^ drop the fatha on receiving a plural termination ; 
 thus lJ)^ pmf^ 'aside,' nom. plur. ^Jjb prfeh^ gen. 
 l^ ^^Sjb prfoh-kay etc., not tarafeh^ etc. 
 
 a. A few words are subject to slight deviations from the strict 
 
 rule, among which we may mention the following. 1. Words ending 
 
 •3 nw, preceded by a long vowel, as y Ij ndnw, ' a name,' y b pdnw, 
 
 'the foot,' and yli gdnw, ' a village ;' reject the y nw, and substitute 
 
 the mark hamza on receiving a plural termination : thus, l^ (oj*^ pd,on 
 
 hd, etc. * of the feet.' 2. The word ^^'li gd,e, ' a cow,' makes in 
 
 the nominative plural ^^"^ gd,en, and in the oblique plural r^y\S gd,on, 
 
 thus resembling the oblique plural of yli' gdnw, 'a village.' 3. A 
 
 few feminine diminutives in u- ?ya, like randiyd, chiriyd, etc. form 
 
 the nominative plural by merely adding a nasal n, as ^V. Jrr" chiriydn, 
 
 which is evidently a contraction for chiriyd, en, the regular form. 
 
 4. Masculines of the third class ending in <1L> ya, may follow the 
 
 general rule, or change the ^^ y into a ham%a before the inflection ; 
 
 thus a;jLj sdya, a shade (of a tree),' gen. l^ ^Lj sdye-hd, or l^ ^J^Lj 
 
 / < Sr" " s.f 
 
 sd,e-hd. 5. The word ^^^j riipiya, a rupee,' has generally ^^j 
 
 rupa,e, for the nominative plural. 
 
 27. Post-position. — In this work, to avoid confasion, 
 we apply the term post-position only to those insepar- 
 able particles or terminations which invariably follow 
 the nouns to which they belong. They may be united 
 with their substantives so as to appear like the case 
 terminations in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, or they may 
 be written separately, as we have given them in the 
 examples for declension. The most useful and important 
 of them are the following, viz. : \^ My ^ Jce^ ^ h^ 
 
82 ADJECTTVES. 
 
 'of,' the sign of the genitive case; ^ ho * to,' the sign 
 of the dative, and sometimes of the accusative or objective 
 case; ^ Be 'from,' or 'with,' (also ^^ 8oh, ^^^^ sen, ,^^, 
 stUj are occasionally met with), the sign of the ablative 
 and instrumental ; jj par (sometimes in poetry <u pa), 
 'upon,' 'on,' 'at,' ,j^ men, 'in,' 'into,' tl^* tak, CJ^ 
 talak, v^ lag, ' up to,' ' as far as,' ' till,' one of the signs 
 of the locative case; and, lastly, J ne, 'by,' the sign 
 of the agent. 
 
 a. The post-positions require the words to which they are affixed 
 to be in the inflected fonn, if they belong to Class III. ; and they 
 are generally united with the oblique form in ^^ on of all plurals. 
 On the other hand, an inflected form in the singular can only occur 
 in combination with a post-position, expressed or understood; and 
 the same rule applies to all hond fide oblique forms in ^^ on of the 
 plural. There are a few expressions in which the oblique form in 
 ^j« oh is used for the nominative plural; and when a numeral 
 precedes, the nominative form may be used for the oblique, as will 
 be noticed more fully in the Syntax. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 28. Adjectives in Hindustani generally precede 
 their substantives, and with the exception of those 
 which are purely Indian words and ending in \ a^ together 
 with a few from the Persian ending in ^^ or short a^ they 
 are, as in English, indeclinable. Words purely Indian, 
 ending in \ a, change the final \ a into ^^ ^, when they 
 qualify or agree with a masculine noun in any case 
 except the nominative singular (or the first form of the 
 accusative, which is the same) ; and the \ a is changed 
 into ,c- * with feminine nouns. Thus, the adjective 
 i^^ Jchub^ ^ good,' ^ fair,' is the same before nouns of 
 either gcD-der or number in aU cases, as khiib jdnwar^ ' a 
 
ADJECTIYES. 33 
 
 fine animal ;' IcMb larJcij ^ a fair girl '; khub randiyan^ 
 ' line women,' khiib gJiore^ ^ beautiful horses.' Again the 
 adjective ^l^ Mdd, 'black,' is used in that form only 
 before masculine nouns, in the nominative or the first 
 form of the accusative singular; it will become Jl^ 
 kale^ before masculine nouns in the oblique cases singular 
 and throughout the plural, as Itdla mard^ ^ a black man,' 
 Icdle mard-Jcd^ ^ of a black man,' kale mard^ ^ black men,' 
 kale mardoh-se^ ^ from black men.' Lastly, before femi- 
 nine nouns, kdld becomes ^l^ kdli for both numbers 
 and in all cases, as kdli rdt^ ^ the dark night,' kdli rdt-se^ 
 ^ from the dark night,' kdli rdton-kd, ' of the dark nights,' 
 etc. 
 
 a. Hence it appears, as a general rule: — 1. That adjectives, 
 before feminine nouns, have no variation on account of case or number. 
 2. That adjectives terminating like nouns of the first and second classes 
 are indeclinable ; and lastly, that adjectives, terminating like nouns of 
 the third class, are subject to a slight inflection like the oblique 
 singular of the substantives of that class. 
 
 h. The cardinal numbers, ek, one,' do, two,' etc., are all inde- 
 clinable when used adjectively. The ordinals above pdnehwdn, ' the 
 fifth,' inclusive, follow the general rule, that is, pdnehwdn is inflected 
 into pdnchwen before the oblique cases of masculines, and it becomes 
 pdnchwin before feminine nouns. 
 
 0. Adjectives ending in ^ or short a, which are principally 
 borrowed from the Persian; are, for the most part, indeclinable. 
 There are some, however, which are inflected into ^ e for the 
 masculine, and ^_ i for the feminine, like those ending in I d; 
 among these may be reckoned i^Jul^ rdnda, 'rejected,' ^jLs sdda, 
 'plain,' uSas. 'tv^.w.., 'exalted,' i^jls ganda, 'fetid,' ^JoU mdnda, 
 
 tired,' ^Jj^ khtrmda, gluttonous,' ^Jo.^^ sharminda, ashamed, 
 A;wi^ lamina, ' mean,' ^^^J lecMra, * helpless,' sj^\j ndkdrc^ 
 
 ▼vseless/ ^^^XjjL w^i^^fl!, ' unseen,* iSi:t\y»\js>~ *{?fd.^-«e^^ 'base-lorn, 
 
34 PRONOUNS. 
 
 <ilL» <J-x> yaJc-sdlahy * annual,* * one year old,* <!dL: jJ do sdlak 
 biennial,* and perhaps a few more. 
 d. The majority of adjectives purely Indian, together with all 
 present and past participles of verbs, end in [ d (subject to inflection) 
 for the masculine, and ,^— i for the feminine. All adjectives in I d, 
 purely Persian or Arabic, are indeclinable, with perhaps the sole 
 exception of \>^s>' judd, 'separate,' 'distinct,' and a few that may 
 have become naturalized in Hindustani by changing the final a of the 
 Persian into I d, like UI5 fuldnd, such a one,' or ' so and so.' 
 
 29. Degress of Comparison. — The adjectives in 
 Hindustani have no regular degrees of comparison, and 
 the manner in which this defect is supplied will be fully 
 explained in the Syntax. SuflB.ce it here to say that 
 when two objects are compared, that with which the 
 comparison is made is put in the ablative case, like 
 the Latin. Thus, for example, Hhis house is high,' 
 ^ joL j^ ^^ yih ghar huland hai ; ' this house is higher 
 than the tree,' ^ jil; .^ e:^jj j^ ^, yih ghar 
 darakht-se huland hai, literally Hhis house (compared) 
 with the tree is high.' The superlative degree is merely 
 an extreme comparison formed by reference to the word 
 i_^wj sah, ' all,' as ^ jIL ^ ^^^ j^ ^ yih ghar sah-se 
 huland hai^ ^ this house (compared) with all is high,' or 
 ' this is the highest house of all.' 
 
 OF PRONOUNS. 
 Personal Pronouns. 
 
 30. The pronouns diflfer more or less from the sub- 
 stantantives in their mode of inflection. Those of the 
 first and second persons form the genitive m\j ra^ ^j 
 re J and ^^j rij instead of l^ ka^ etc. They have a distinct 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 35 
 
 dative and accusative form in ^5 ^ (singular), and ^^ eh 
 (plural), besides that made by the sign ^ ko. They also 
 form the oblique in a manner peculiar to themselves, and 
 admit generally of the elision of the termination ^j oht 
 in the oblique plural. They have the dative and accu- 
 sative cases in both numbers the same ; and lastly, the 
 cases of the agent are never inflected in the singular, 
 these being always maih-ne and tu-ne or taih-ne ; never 
 mujh-ne^ or tujh-ne. 
 
 The first personal pronoun is thus declined : — 
 •h-^ matUf I. 
 
 Singular. 
 N. ^jj^ main, I. 
 
 a i ^J^ \j^ merd, mere \ my, 
 
 D. & j L5f? ^ '"""J"^* j me, or 
 Ac. ( ^ ^"^ mujh-TcOf ) to me. 
 
 A. ^ .^^ mujh-se, from me. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Ub ham, We. 
 
 t^Ujb I^Ujb hamdrd, hamdre \ 
 i^Ujb hamdri, f. ) 
 
 us, or 
 
 ^ jjt> ham-ho, . 
 ^ ' 7 . , I to us. 
 ^ i^y^ namon-ko, J 
 
 -men, m me. 
 
 ^S' ci iji^ main-ne, by me. 
 
 se, I 
 w se, j 
 
 ^^-1^ aJI> ham-men, ) 
 
 from us. 
 
 hamoh men, j 
 
 m us. 
 
 ti *ii> ham-ne, \ 
 
 a ^y^ 
 
 US. 
 
 In this example we have three forms essentially 
 distinct from each other, viz., the nominative, genitive, 
 and oblique modification in the singular, as \yJ» main, 
 \j>f^ mera, ^^r* mujh; and in the plural u& ham, J^Ujb 
 hamdrd, and *ji> ham or ^yiJt> hamoh. From the oblique 
 modifications, — ^s^ w^^(;'>^, and ♦Ji> ham or ^^ hamQh,^ — the 
 
36 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 other oblique cases are formed by adding the requisite 
 post-positions, except that the case denoting the agent 
 is in the singular J ^ main ne, 
 
 9 X 
 
 The second personal pronoun y tit. or ^-J tain is declined in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 Singular. 
 N. ^ ox y til or tain, Thou. 
 G. ^jij^ \j^ terdf etc., thy. 
 
 B.&l ,^/njhe, I to thee, 
 Ac. ( ^ .^ tujh-h, } or thee. 
 
 A. j^ ..fsT tujh-se, from thee. 
 
 9 
 
 L. ^^^ ,^ssr ttyh men, in thee. 
 
 9 
 
 Ag. (J y tii-ne, by thee. 
 
 9 y 
 
 V. y c^l aitii, Othou! 
 
 Plural. 
 
 aJ ^Mm, You. 
 i^j- ^j- \J^ tumhdrd, etc.. 
 
 . / 
 
 your. 
 
 ( i^9 
 
 tumhen, to you. 
 
 
 tum-ko, or tumhon- 
 ko, you. 
 
 
 tum-se, or tumhon 
 86, from you. 
 
 turn-men, or ^mwj- 
 hon-men, in you. 
 
 
 tum-ne, or tumhon- 
 ne, by you. 
 
 rs^' 
 
 a» ^Mw, ye ! 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 31. In Hindustani the demonstrative pronouns, 
 'this, 'that,' 'these,' and 'those,' at the same time 
 supply the place of our third person 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' 
 and ' they.' They are the same for both genders, and 
 the context alone determiaes how they are to be rendered 
 into English. The word ^, T/ih, ' this,' 'he,' ' she,' or 
 ' it,' is used when reference is made to a person or object 
 that is near ; and nj wuh, ' that,' 'he,' ' she,' or ' it,' 
 M^neu we refer to that which is more remote. I'he 
 
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 37 
 
 proximate demonstrative ^^. yih^ ^ he,' ^ she,' ^ it,' ^ this,' 
 is declined as follows : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 N. M^^ yih, this, he, etc. 
 
 Q(.^-^-^ijJ\ is-hd, -h,-M,of 
 
 this, him, etc. 
 
 D. -**j^ ^ {j*)\ is-Tco or ise, to 
 
 this, to him, 
 etc. 
 
 Ac. ^ ijM\ ^^ yih, is-ko, ise, this, 
 ^g^\ him, «^<J. 
 
 Ab. ^^ (jm\ is-se, from this, 
 him, e^e;. 
 
 L. j>-^ {jm\ is-men, in this, or 
 in him, etc. 
 
 Ag. tj ^jm\ is-ne, by this, or 
 
 by him, etc. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 j^ ye, these, they. 
 
 ^- ^- 1^ jjl *w-^a, -^^, ^i, of 
 Stx St x" 
 
 these, of them. 
 
 :^\ ^ ^^\ ) i^-^0 ^ inhm, or 
 " ^ .T [ *^^^^*^^j *^ these, 
 J^ li?^ I ; or to them. 
 
 ^ ^ ^-> ye, w-^o, or inhen, 
 
 ^^P^\ these, them. 
 
 ^ ^ ^ in-se, from these, 
 
 from them. 
 ^j^ ^ in men, in these, 
 in them, 
 ci ^ in-ne, by these, 
 by them. 
 
 In this example we see that the nominative yih is 
 changed into is for the oblique cases singular, and the 
 nominative plural ye becomes in for the oblique plural, 
 just as in the English ^he' becomes ^ him,' and Hhey' 
 ' them.' In the oblique cases plural, it may be men- 
 tioned that besides the form ^\ in^ we sometimes meet 
 with ^\ ink and ^^\ inhoh, though not so commonly. 
 The dative singular has two forms, one by adding Jco^ 
 like the substantives, and another by adding ^ e^ as 
 is-Jco or is-e ; in the plural we have in-ko and in-heh. 
 The accusative is generally like the dative, but often 
 the same as the nominative, as in the declension of 
 substantives. 
 
 32. The demonstrative ^j, ' that,' ' he,' ' she. ' it ' 
 the interrogative ^^ kaun^ ' who ? ' ^ what ?' the relative 
 
38 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 
 
 ^ yo, * he who/ ^ she who,' etc., and the correlative ^ 
 », * that same,' are precisely similar in termination to ^^ 
 in the foregoing example ; hence it will suffice to give 
 the nominatives, and one or two ohliqne cases of each, 
 thus: — 
 
 Remote Demonstrative. 
 Singular. 
 
 N. 
 
 ij touh, he, she, it, 
 or that. 
 
 G. ^ \^ /jwl tts-Icd, etc. 
 D. ^^J\ if {jm\ m-ho, or me. 
 
 Plural. 
 fcj^j we, they, those. 
 
 P 9 
 
 l^ ^*^ \ l^ (^1 un-lcd, or unhon-kd. 
 ^p^\ ^ f^ un-ho, or unhen. 
 
 Interrogatwe (applied to persons or individuals). 
 
 N. 
 
 ^^ ^aww, who, which. 
 
 ^f kaun, who, which. 
 
 G. 
 
 l^ ijj kiS'M, etc. 
 
 l^ ^^i^ ^ ^j/ Mn-M, or kinhon- 
 
 
 
 kd, etc. 
 
 
 Interrogative (applied to matter or quantity). 
 
 », 
 
 L^ kgd, what. 
 
 Same as the singular. 
 
 G. 
 
 ^(^ Mhe-M, etc. 
 
 
 
 i2^^a^«W. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. 
 
 ^ Jo or j^^ yaww, He 
 
 y^ jo 01 jaun. They whft, 
 
 
 who, she who. 
 
 those who, or 
 
 
 that which. 
 
 which. 
 
 G. l^ \j*>^ jis-kd, etc. 
 
 li ij,^^^ ^ ^jp^jin-kd,jinhon-kdf 
 
 etc. 
 
 D. (<A«.5»" ^ u*^ j'is-ko, etc. ^^;:r^^ ^ ^j^ jin-ko, or jinhen. 
 
 Correlative. 
 
 N". »-j so or jjJ taun, That same. 
 G. l^ ^J^ tis-kd, etc. 
 
 j-j SO or ^^y ^aww, These same, 
 li ^^^f^* l^ ^JJ tin-kd or tinhon-kd, 
 etc. 
 ^j-^ ^ (jj tin-ko, tinhen. 
 
 * Sometimes l^ ^j «?»« kd, etc. ; and in the plur. l^ ^^j or ^^ ^^ 
 win-f winh', or winhori-, kd, etc. 
 
POSSESSIYE PEOifOUNS. 39 
 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 33. The genitives singular and plural of the personal 
 and demonstrative pronouns are used adjectively as pos- 
 sessives, like the meus^ tuus^ noster^ vester^ etc., of the 
 Latin, and in construction they follow the rule given 
 respecting adjectives in I a. There is, however, in addi- 
 tion to these, another possessive of frequent occurrence, 
 viz. ^\ apna^ ^\ apne^ ^\ ajpni^ ^own/ or ^belonging 
 to self; which, under certain circumstances, supplies the 
 place of any of the rest, as will be fully explained in 
 the Syntax. The word c-JT ap^ ^ self,' is used with or 
 without the personal pronouns ; thus, c-;T ^ main %>, 
 'I myself,' which meaning may be conveyed by em- 
 ploying lJ\ hp alone. But the most frequent use of 
 c-;T dp is as a substitute for the second person, to express 
 respect, when it may be translated, ^you,' ^sir,' ^your 
 honour,' ^ your worship,' etc. When used in this sense, 
 c-:T dp is declined like a word of the second class of 
 substantives under the singular form, thus : — 
 
 N. 
 
 c-^l dp, your honour. 
 
 G. ^- ^- ^ c->T dp-kd, -le, -li, of your honour. 
 
 D. & Ac. 
 
 if t-^T dp-ho, to your honour, your honour. 
 
 A. 
 
 ^ c-^t apse, from your honour. 
 
 L. 
 
 ^^ c->T dp-men, in your honour. 
 
 Agt. 
 
 J c-jT dp-ne, by your honour. 
 
 When the word c->T dp denotes ' self,' it is declined 
 
 as follows :— 
 
 - 
 
 W. 
 
 c->T , dp, self, myself, etc. 
 
 a 
 
 \^} -ijl liJ^ apnd, apne, apni, own. of self, <»f«. 
 
40 INDEFDflTE PRONOUNS. 
 
 D.&A.\^ ST^ < *o, ^ ^ ,. to-self, self. 
 
 \ ij^ |-X>1 OT apne ta,in, ) 
 
 The phrase ^^ ^^T apas-meh denotes ^ among our- 
 selves,' * yourselves,' or themselves,' according to the 
 nominative of the sentence. 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 34. Under this head we class all those words which 
 have more or less of a pronominal signification. The 
 following are of frequent occurrence : — clioj ek, ' one ;' 
 l^jj dusrd, ^another ;' y^j donOj or ^,y^j donohj ^hoth ;' j^\ 
 aur, ' other (more) ;' jJ. ghair^ ' other, (different) ;' ^^jAi_ 
 IcCze^ ' certain ;' l::^ bahut, ' many,' ^ much ;' c-^-c "sah, 
 
 * all,' ' every ;' ^ har, ' each ;' ajlj fuldna or liij fuldnd, 
 ^ a certain one ;' ,^^ ^o'^, ^ any one,' ' some one ;' ^^ 
 kuchh, ' any thing,' ' something ;' ^ ha^i and x^ chand^ 
 
 * some,' ^several,' ^many;' li^ Mtnd or \l^ kittd^ ^how 
 many ?' \j^ jitnd or IL?- y^#^, ^ as many ;' LjI ^Yw« or Ui 
 ^#a, ^ so many.' They are all regular in their inflec- 
 tions, with the exception of ^^ ko^i^ 'any,' and ^ 
 kuchh^ ' some,' which are thus declined : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 lS 
 
 ,f ko,i 
 
 N. (^ .i kOfi, Any one, some 
 
 one. 
 Obi. l^ (^ Msl-M, etc. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 t_^ ji ^,i or ^-S ^fl!,5, some, 
 several. 
 *l^ j«:^ A;mi-^a, etc. 
 
 .^ kiichh. 
 
 N. -fs^ ^w{?M, Any tiling, 
 
 something. 
 
 Obi. l^ ^-1^ Msii-M, etc. 
 
 ^s^ ^wcM, any, some, 
 * l^ ^i^ hinii-hd, etc. 
 
 * We have given tlie oblique forms of tlie plural kini and ktnu on the authority 
 of Mr. Yates ; at the same time we must confess that we never met with either oi 
 them in the course of our reading. 
 
INDEFINITE PRONOTJKS. 41 
 
 a. The word ^o,i, unaccompanied by a substantive, is generally 
 understood to signify a person or persons, as Tco^ihai? is tbere any 
 one ? ' (vulgarly qui hy) ; and in similar circumstances huchh refers to 
 things in general, as Tcuchh nahkn, there is nothing,' no matter.' 
 When used adjectively, ho,i and huchh may be applied to persons or 
 things indifferently, particularly so in the oblique cases. 
 
 h. The following is a useful list of compound adjective pronouns; 
 and as almost all of them have already been noticed in their simple 
 forms, it has been deemed superfluous to add the pronunciation in 
 Roman characters. They are for the most -part of the indefinite kind, 
 and follow the inflections of the simple forms of which they are com- 
 posed; thus eh ho,i, some one,' eh hisi-hd, etc., of some one.' If 
 both members be subject to inflection in the simple forms, the same 
 is observed in the compound, as jo-ho,i, whosoever,' jis-hisi-hd, etc., 
 of whomsoever,' so jo-huchh, * whatsoever,' Jis-hisu-hd, etc., ' of 
 whatsoever.' 
 
 The compound adjective pronouns of the indefinite kind are 
 jj\ uJoJ, lSAjJ\ or lL^\ \j>*ij<^, ' another,' ^^ '-^l * so°ie one,' 
 i^jf \j^^i^ or -fs^ ]/*^*^» * some other,' l1X>J ^ <— ^,^> * oiie or 
 other,' ^fj^i ' some one else,* ^sr jjl, * something else,' c^^ jjl, 
 * the rest,' ^^ ^j^ ^^ jj' ^s^' *some others,' (JJol l::^n.^, 
 ' many a one,' -fs^ "^^i-^, *much,'jjl ^-^^^^ 'many more,' ^^ c^^ 
 or ^ifjSbf ' everyone,' ^s^ c-^w: or "^ j^y 'every thing,' (Jiol i^^^^^ 
 CSj\ jib or ^jiS jib, 'every one,' l!Jo1 ^Jiif ' whichever,' jjl i^^^t 
 'some other,' ^^ y>- 'whoever,' ^s^ ^, * whatever,' J^ dj ^^ 
 some one or other,' lLx>1 -fs^ or ^^ ^% ' somewhat, 'jjt ^^, 
 some more,' ^^ ij ^^, 'something or other. The use and 
 application of all the pronouns wiU be fuUy explained under that 
 head in the Syntax. 
 
42 
 SECTION ill. 
 
 OF THE VERB ( jXi FI'l). 
 
 35. All verbs in Hindustani are conjugated in ex- 
 actly the same manner. So far as terminations are 
 concerned, there is not a single irregular verb in the 
 language. There is, strictly speaking, but one simple 
 tense (the aorist), which is characterized by distinct per- 
 sonal endings ; the other tenses being formed by means 
 of the present and past participles, together with the 
 auxiliary ^ to be.' The infinitive or verbal noun, which 
 always ends in l3 na (subject to inflection), is the form in 
 which verbs are given in Dictionaries ; hence it will be 
 of more practical utility to consider this as the source 
 from which all the other parts spring. 
 
 36. From the infinitive are formed, by very simple 
 and invariable rules, the three principal parts of the 
 verb, which are the following : — 1. The second person 
 singular of the imperative or root, by rejecting the final 
 \i na; as from Uy lolna^ Ho speak,' comes J^ hol^ ^ speak 
 thou.' 2. The present participle, which is always formed 
 by changing the final l3 na of the infinitive into b* ta^ as 
 UJ^j holna^ ^ to speak,' Wy lolta^ * speaking.' 3. The past 
 participle is formed by leaving out the ^ w of the infini- 
 tive, as li^j lolnd^ Ho speak,' j^ lola^ ^spoken.' If, 
 however, the U na of the infinitive be preceded by the 
 long vowels \ a or ^ o, the past participle is formed by 
 changing the ^ n into ^ y^m order to avoid a disagree- 
 able hiatus ; thus from 'J^ Idnd^ ^ to bring,' comes W lay a 
 (not V^ Id-d) ^brought;' so Ujj rond^ Ho weep,' makes 
 
ATTXILIARY VERB. 43 
 
 Ijj royd in the past participle. These three parts being 
 thus ascertained, it will be very easy to form all the 
 various tenses, etc., as in the examples which we are 
 about to subjoin. 
 
 37. As a preliminary step to the conjugation of all 
 verbs, it will be necessary to learn carefully the following 
 fragments of the auxiliary verb ^ to be,' which frequently 
 occur in the language, not only in the formation of 
 tenses, but in the mere assertion of simple existence. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 •j^ -j^ main h-kn, I am. 
 jjfc y til. hai, thou art. 
 ^ ifj wuh Mi, he, she, it is. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 \^ ^2^ main thd, I was. 
 Iff y til thd, thou wast. 
 Iff ^j wuh thd, he or it was. 
 
 hib J^J turn ho, you are. 
 
 ^f» AJb ham the, we were. 
 ^f/ mJ turn the, you were. 
 L5^ c^j w^ the, they were. 
 
 a. The first of these tenses is a curiosity in its way, as it is the 
 only present tense in the language characterized by different termi- 
 nations, and independent of gender. Instead of the form ^ hai, in 
 the second and third persons singular, ILa haigd is frequently met 
 with in verse ; and in the plural, xL^ hainge for /-J& hain in the 
 first and third persons. In the past tense, '»f» thd of the singular 
 becomes i^' thi when the nominative is feminine, and in the plural 
 j>*fi' thin. "We may here remark that throughout the conjugation of 
 all verbs, when the singular terminates in d (masculine), the plural 
 becomes e; and if the nominative be feminine, the d becomes i for 
 the singular, and kn (contracted for iydn) for the plural. If several 
 feminine terminations in the plural foUow in succession, the kn is 
 added only to the last, but even here there are exceptions. 
 
44 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 38. We shall now proceed to tlie conjugation of an 
 intransitive or neuter verb, and with a view to assist the 
 memory, we shall arrange the tenses in the order of their 
 formation from the three principal parts already explained. 
 The tenses, as will be seen, are nine in number — three 
 tenses being formed from each of the three principal 
 parts. A few additional tenses of comparatively rare 
 occurrence will be detailed hereafter. 
 
 
 Infinitive, Uj) holm, To speak. 
 ( Imperative and root J^ hoi, speak (thou). 
 
 Present participle ls)»J boUd, speaking. 
 
 P- I 
 
 \ Past participle ^^ hold, spoke or spoken. 
 
 1. TENSES FORMED FEOM THE ROOT I 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 English — I may speak/ etc. 
 
 uj^y- iJ^ ^**^ holun. 
 
 Jy y til hole. 
 
 jj4j i^ wuh hole. 
 
 tSb ham holeh. 
 
 J^ f^ turn holo, 
 ^ 4j ^ we holen. 
 
 Futv/re. 
 English — * I shall or will speak/ etc. 
 
 ^ J 4j -j^ main holiingd, 
 
 IxJjj y tii holegd. 
 
 &J»j a^ wuh holegd. 
 fern, holungi, etc. 
 
 English — *Let me 
 /.•J*j ^J^ main hol-kh, 
 Jy y td h6l. 
 ^^ Xj wuh hoU 
 
 ^^y^y, /^ ham holenge* 
 
 ^^^, [•J* turn hologe, 
 
 j^xLjJ^ t^j we holenge, 
 
 fem. holengin, etc 
 
 ve. 
 ., speak thou/ etc, 
 
 •J! jj Ub ham holm, 
 jiji J^J turn holo. 
 
CONJUGATION. 45 
 
 2. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE : 
 
 English (as a present tense) — ' I speak, thou speakest,' etc. ; 
 (conditional) — * If I spoke, had I spoken,' etc. ; (habitual) — I used 
 to speak.' 
 
 laly ^^ main holtd. 
 Isly y tit holtd. 
 y^ s^ wuh loltd. 
 
 ^jjy aA ham hoUe. 
 ^i!*j p tum holte. 
 
 Present. 
 English — I speak or am speaking,' etc. 
 
 ^^ Isly 1^^ main holtd Mn. 
 
 ^ \\ ' 
 
 ^ bJ^ jj tk holtd hai. 
 
 ^ bJy i^ wuh holtd hai. 
 
 -yjb ^c^ji z*^ ham holte hain. 
 yb ,<-J aj *J tum holte ho. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 English — I was speaking, thou wast,' ete. 
 
 l^ Is)^ ^j-^ jwaiw io^M ^Arf. 
 Uj Uy J ^li JoZ^fi thd. 
 \^ l:Jjj ^^ (^t«A 5o^^a ^Aci. 
 
 ^^* is4^ f^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^* 
 
 3. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PAST PARTICIPLE! 
 
 Fast. 
 
 English — * I spoke, thou spokest,' etc. 
 
 ^^ ^^^ main hold, 
 i^ jj til. hold. 
 sy^ Hj wuh hold. 
 
 ^Jy aJ^ Aaw hole, 
 ^y J tum hole. 
 Jy ^j we hole. 
 
 Perfect. 
 English — I have spoken, thou hast,' etc. 
 
 • ,yi> sy ^j^ main hold hiin. 
 ^Jb iy y td hold hai. 
 
 1 ^y oj wvih Ma mi. 
 
 ^^ ^y Ajb ham hole hain. 
 
 yb ^y aj tum hole ho. 
 \:J^ lJjJ ^^ we hole hain. 
 
 / 
 
46 
 
 FORMATION OF TENSES. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 English — I had spoken, thou hadst spoken/ ete. 
 
 \^ Lj ^,-^« main hold thd. 
 \^ "iyi y til bold thd. 
 l|7 iyi Sj ipuh bold thd. 
 
 ^^ ^^ j^ ham b&le the* 
 j^ff J^ aJ" turn bole the. 
 l5^ JjJ c^j we bole the. 
 
 4. MISCELLANEOUS VERBAL EXPRESSIONS : 
 
 Respectful Imperative or Precative. 
 
 JLI4J holiye or j-?^ Jo%o, You, he, etc.^ be pleased to speak.' 
 
 .0*^ boliyegd, 'You, he, e^^., will have the goodness to speak.' 
 
 Infinitive (used as a gerund or verbal noun). 
 
 TTom. U^ Jo^wi, * Speaking:' gen. l^ 15^^ bolne-M, etc., 'Of 
 
 speaking,' etc., like substantives of the third class. 
 
 -ZVoww of Agency. 
 
 ^b L5^y bolne-wdld, and sometimes IjU ^^^ holne-hdrd, 'A 
 speaker,' ' one who is capable of speaking.' 
 
 Participles, med adfectively. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Pres. y^J boltd or V^ U^ io?M 
 h-liyd, fern. ioZ^i or 
 
 Past. i!y Jo?a or V^ ^jj JoZaM,<i, 
 fern, boli or io?i M,i 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ^^ bolte or ^j^b ^^^ bolte 
 hiL,e, fern, boltin or JoZ^i 
 
 1^^ bole or t/Ji> ^J^ Jo?^ M,^, 
 fern. 5o?m or Jo?i hiiyin. 
 
 Conjunctive (indeclinable). J^ bol, Jy JoZ^, l^^^ JoZ^^, 
 i3y bolkar, ^^ J^ Jo? hvr-ke, or ^^^ J^j Jo? harhvr, * having 
 spoken.' 
 
 Adverbial participle (indeclinable). ^__^ lS^^ bolte-hi, On 
 speaking, or on (the instant of) speaking.' 
 
 a. "We may here briefly notice how the various portions of the 
 verb are formed. The aorist, it will be seen, is the only part worthy 
 of the name of tense, and it proceeds directly from the root by adding 
 the terminations /iw, tf, e, for the singular, and eh, 0, en, for th^ 
 
>ORMATION OF TENSES. 47 
 
 plural. The future is formed directly from tlie aorist by adding ga 
 to the singular and ge to the plural for masculines, or by adding gi 
 and giydk (generally contracted into gkn) when the nominative to the 
 verb is feminine. The imperative differs from the aorist merely in 
 the second person singular, by using the bare root without the 
 addition of the termination e. Hence, the future and imperative are 
 mere modifications of the aorist, which we have placed first, as the 
 tense par excellence. It is needless to offer any remark on the tenses 
 formed from the present participle, as the reader will easily learn 
 them by inspection. The three tenses from the past participle are 
 equally simple in all neuter or intransitive verbs ; but in transitive 
 verb» they are subject to a peculiarity of construction, which will be 
 noticed further on. The proper use and application of the various 
 tenses and other parts of the verb will be fully treated of in the 
 Syntax. 
 
 h. As the aorist holds the most prominent rank in the Hin- 
 dustani verb, it will be proper to notice in this place a few euphonic 
 peculiarities to which it is subject. 1 . When the root ends in d, the 
 letter w is optionally inserted in the aorist between the root and those 
 terminations that begin with e ; thus li^ Idnd, ' to bring,' root ^ Id, 
 Aorist, i^^i Idwi or tj-*^ Id^e. 2. "When the aorist ends in o, the 
 letter w is optionally inserted, or the general rule may be observed, 
 or the initial vowels of the termination may all vanish, as will be seen 
 in the verb hond, which we are about to subjoin. Lastly, when the 
 root ends in e, the letter w may be inserted between the root and 
 those terminations which begin with e, or the w being omitted, the 
 final e of the root is absorbed in the terminations throughout. Thus 
 UjJ dend, 'to give,' root t^J de, Aorist, deiin, dewe, dewe ; dewen 
 de,o, dewen ; or, contracted, ddn, de, de ; den, do, den. It is needless 
 to add that the future and imperative of all such verbs are subject to 
 the same modification. With regard to the respectful form of the 
 imperative and future, we see at once that it comes from the root 
 by adding iye, iyo, or iyegd ; if, however, the root happens to end in 
 the long vowels i or ii, the letter j is inserted between the root and 
 the termination. Thus L-j pind, ' to drink/ root, pi, respectful form, 
 pijiye, p'ljiyo, and pijiyegd. 
 
48 THE VERB 'to BE,* 
 
 39. We now come to the verb \j^ hond, * to be, or 
 become,' which, being of frequent occurrence, is worthy 
 of the reader's attention. It is perfectly regular in the 
 formation of all its tenses, etc., and conjugated precisely 
 like holnd, already given. The past participle changes 
 the of the root into u, instead of retaining the o and 
 inserting the euphonic 2/ (No. 36), thus V^ hu,d, ^been or 
 become,' not lyb hot/ a; so the respectful imperative is 
 huji;i/e, etc. ; but these slight peculiarities do not in the 
 least affect the regularity of its conjugation, as will be 
 seen in the paradigm. 
 
 Infinitive, \j^ hond, ^ To be, or become.' 
 
 Eoot^ ho, present participle \j^ hotd, past participle \^ hu,a. 
 
 Aorist. 
 * I may, or shall be, or become.' 
 
 ijy^" IJA?^ cLt^ main IiOfiin, or hon. 
 Jb- cftto- <-?jy^ y ^^ howe, ho,e or ho. 
 
 •Jb- t^tto- i-^y^ h ^^^ howe, ho,e, or ho, 
 
 4j5^" iji'i^' ijij?y^ (^ ^^^ howen, ho,en, or hon. 
 
 Jb- ji& tii turn ho,o or ho. 
 
 d>J^" crf^' d^«-y^ ^^ ^^ howen, ho,en, or hon. 
 
 Futitre. 
 
 *I shall or will be, or become.* 
 
 ICjjJb- Kjjiyb j-*^ main hojiingd, or hiingd. 
 l^- l^. lib- ^l 9>^ y ^^ howegd, ho, eg a, or ^o^rf. 
 
 l^ib- l>y.tA- ^.jy^ ^j ^^^ howegd, ho,egd, or Ao^a. 
 
 Joyb- Joj t&- j<^. 5^ (*-^ A^^ howenge, ho,enge, or Aow^a 
 
 , -S^fc- «;^»ti> ^* ^wm ho,oge, or Ac|^«. 
 
 lJ^'J^' lJ^J^" iJ^'^T^ *-^J ^*' ^^^^^i ho,enge, or A<>n^«- 
 
THE VERB 'to BE.* 
 
 49 
 
 Imperative. 
 Let me be, be thou," etc. 
 
 •ib- /oj^*^ Mt^* ^**^ ho-ikk, or ]ion. 
 
 ^ y 
 
 til ho. 
 
 \i^ 
 
 yi,- lJ^' ^J^ h ^^^ Jiowe, ho ,6,, or Ap 
 
 4ii^" dJ^'J^" iji*3^ f^ ^^^ Ao«^^w, Ao-6^w, or hon. 
 
 jJ&- j^ aj turn ho,o, or ^o. 
 Mt^" iji^' d^.J>>^ 4^J ^^ how en y ho, en, or Aow. 
 
 *I am, I might be, I used to be, or become.' 
 
 >Jb ham 
 
 fU^ mam 
 
 !fj wuh 
 
 hotd. 
 
 LS^y 
 
 aJ turn 
 ^3 ^^ 
 
 Ut^ 
 
 Present. 
 *1 am, or I become,' etc, 
 
 • jjfe byb ^-^ main hotd hiih. 
 ^ \j^ y til hotd hai. 
 |Jfc \j^ ^J w7wA Ao^<i Aat. 
 
 1%^ i<^y^ <*^ Aajw Ao^5 Aatn 
 
 ^^ 15^ y^ *-^-^ ^^ ^^^^ ^*^* 
 
 Imperfect. 
 *I was becoming,' dfe. 
 
 ^ byb 
 
 ,\j^ mam 
 J til 
 
 a^ wuh 
 
 hotd thd. 
 
 ^ J^ 
 
 Pmt. 
 *I became,' etc. 
 
 f ^^ mait 
 1^ ( y tu 
 
 \ *J wuh 
 
 hii,d. 
 
 .4 
 
 ^ ham 
 A>' tum 
 
 t^j we 
 
 lU,t 
 
60 IHJB VEKB 'TO BK.' 
 
 Terftci. 
 *I have become/ tiU, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 ' I*' ^ •• T. / . • 
 
 ^yb ufe \^ mam hu,a nun. 
 
 Jb \Jb J ik h^,d hat, 
 jJb \y^ Sj wuh hiijd hat. 
 
 *j^ mam 
 Iff 1^1 y~ tu \M,dthd. 
 
 il wuh 
 
 Plural. 
 jj-Jb t,^ aA ham hu,e hain, 
 
 9 9 
 
 i^ji^ uJ^ lS^ ^^ ^^>^ hain. 
 Phperfeet. 
 *I had become/ etc. 
 
 t ftib ham \ 
 L5^ u?^ < /J turn \ hu,e the, 
 [ ijj we ] 
 Respectful Imperative, etc. 
 i^-*5»- *ib hiijiye, y^^ hkjiyo^ or \>w*-.:>-jji kkjiyegd, be pleased to be, 
 or to become.' 
 Infinitive, or Verbal Noun. 
 li jjb Aowd, ' being/ hone-kd, etc., ' of being.' 
 
 JVbwn o/ Agency or Condition. 
 
 ^i*-Jyb honewdln, that which is, or becomes.* 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Pros. Uyb Ao^i, or V^ b^ Ao^a Att,^, being, becoming.' 
 
 Past. \^ hitfd, ' been, or become.* 
 
 Conjunctive Participle. 
 
 i^yb ^^ ^ ho, hoTca/r, hoTce, etc., * having been, or become.' 
 
 Adverbial Participle. 
 
 ^ ^Jy» hote-M, on being, or becoming.' 
 
 a. We may here observe that the aorist, future, and indefinite of 
 byb hand, * to be,' are sometimes used as auxiliaries with the present 
 and past participles of other verbs, so as to give us three additional 
 tenses. These, from their nature, are not of very frequent occurrencej 
 and some forms of them we confess we have never met with in any 
 work, printed or manuscript, except in grammars. They are, how- 
 ever, considered as distinct parts of the verb by native grammarians, 
 
ADDITIONAL TENSES. 51 
 
 therefore it is but right that they should find a place here. We 
 therefore snbj in them, together with their native appellations, re- 
 serving the account of their use and applicatioa till we come to tne 
 Syntax. 
 
 1 . H^dl^ mutashaikif literally; ' present dubious.' 
 
 English — * I may or shall be speaking.' 
 
 uJ^yb- i^^y^ ^y, (j--^ »wa«'w boltd ho,i,n or hOfinngd, 
 iLj^b- lS}^ ^y y t"^ holtd howe or howegd. 
 -^y^" ^3i^ ^^ *J ^^^ holtd howe or ho»joegd. 
 
 L5^-?y^' vl'i-?y^ Li^^ (*^ ^^"^ ^^^^^ Aozrew or Twwenge, 
 iS^^' j^ L5^^ f*"* ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^>^ ^^ ho,oge. 
 
 L5^«-?y^' (i^-jy* L5^-?^ ^J *^^ ^^^^^ A(W^ or howmge. 
 
 2. .3/<fzi mutashahU or Mashlckk, ' past dubious.' 
 
 English — I may or shall have spoken.' 
 
 UjjjJb- ^j^5^ ^^ j^;*^ »t«*w hold hoyiik or hoiingd, 
 u^j^b- <-ii>y^ V y ^^ ^'^^^ ^^^^ ^^ howegd. 
 
 ..jy^" ^rL?y^ ^^ ^ *^^^ ^''^^ ^^"'^ ^' howegd. 
 
 iXjjyb- J;ijy^ lJ^ (^ ^^''w* ^ofo AoM?«i or howenge„ 
 
 ^y^- jpi> iJy /J ^wm 5o?e Ao,o or ho,oge. 
 jJ^jjJb- jjijjJ^ (Jy c5^ M'^ hole howen or howenge. 
 3. Jf(£z4 shartiya or wazS ?ww^a?wawwi. 
 Pa«^ Conditional. 
 English — Had I been speaking,' or * had I spoken.* 
 / ^j-^ mam 
 byi jy ^ 'jyb ^j^ I y ^M I holtd hotd, ot hold hoU. 
 
 \ Sj wuh 
 
 IMfSb ham 
 ^ mm { holte hoUt, or hU h^* 
 iJj we 
 
62 TRANSITIVE VERBS. 
 
 h. Of these three tenses, the first is of rare occurrence ; the 
 iecond is more common, and the future form o! the auxiliary is 
 more usual than the aorist in hoth tenses. The third tense, or past 
 conditional, is of very rare occurrence under the above form, its place 
 being generally supplied by the simpler form liy^ ^^ main boltd, 
 the first of the tenses from the present participle, which on account 
 of its various significations we have given under the appellation of 
 the Indefinite Tense. In the Father of Hindustani Grammars,' that 
 of Dr. Gilchrist, 4to. Calcutta, 1V96, and also in two native treatises 
 in our possession, the various forms main boUd,' main loltd hotdj' 
 ' main boltd h{i,d Tiotd,^ and main bold hotd,'' are all included under 
 the appellation of mdzk sharti, or mdzi mutamanni, that is. Past 
 Conditional.' It is true, the form main boltd' has occasionally a 
 present signification, but to call it a present tense, as is done in some 
 of our grammars, is leading the student into a gross error, as we shall 
 shew hereafter. 
 
 40. We shall now give an example of a transitive 
 verb, which, as we have already hinted, is liable to a 
 peculiarity in those tenses which are formed from the 
 past participle. The full explanation of this anomaly 
 belongs to the Syntax. Suffice it here to say that the 
 construction resembles to a certain extent the passive 
 voice of the corresponding tenses in Latin. Thus for 
 example, the sentence, ' He has written one letter,' may 
 in Latin, and in most European tongues, be expressed in 
 two different ways, by which the assertion amounts to 
 exactly the same thing, viz., ' Ille unam epistolam scripsiV 
 or * Ab illo una epistola scripta esV Now these two 
 modes of expression convey the same idea to the mind, 
 but in Hindustani the latter form only is allowed ; thus 
 * us-ne ek chitKi likKi hai^'' literally, ' by him one letter 
 has been written.' Hence, in Hindustani those tenses 
 pf ^ transitive verb which are formed from the past 
 
CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VERB. 53 
 
 participle, will have their nominative cases changed into 
 that form of the ablative expressive of the agent. What 
 ought to be the accusative of the sentence will become 
 the real nominative, with which the verb agrees accord- 
 ingly, except in some instances when it is requisite that 
 the accusative should have the particle Jco affixed, in 
 which case the verb is used in its simplest form of the 
 masculine singular, as we have given it below. 
 
 a. It is needless to say that in all verbs the tenses from the root 
 and present participle are formed after the same manner, and the 
 peculiarity above alluded to is limited to transitive verbs only,— and 
 to only four tenses of these, — which it is particularly to be wished 
 that the student should well remember. In the following verb, 
 lijt* mdrnd, to beat or strike,' we have given all the tenses in 
 ordinary use, together with their various oriental appellations, as 
 given in a treatise on Hindustani Grammar, compiled by a munshi in 
 the service of Mr. Chicheley Plowden. It is a folio volume, written 
 in Hindustani, but without author's name, date, or title. 
 
 Infinitive (masdar) IjJU mdrnd^ ' To beat.' 
 iU mar, * beat thou ; bjt« mdrtd, * beating'; \j\^ mdrd, 'beaten.' 
 
 1. TENSES OF THE ROOT I 
 
 Aorist {mmdrV). 
 Singular. 
 
 ^^U» ^\j^ I may beat. 
 i^J^ y thou mayst beat. 
 <^U Sj he may beat. 
 
 UsJ^'w« ^^ I shall or will beat. 
 uojUt y thou shalt or will 
 beat. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ^2^ jt« ^ we may beat. 
 jjU >j you may beat. 
 j^jU (^ they may beat. 
 Future {mustaTcbil). 
 
 jXjjjL* >ji> we shall or will beat. 
 ^^VjjU aJ you shall or will 
 
 UjjU if he shall or will beat. 1 ^_^,jU tjrj they shall or M-iJ 
 
 beat, 
 y sh? 
 
 beut. 
 
64 
 
 CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VEEB. 
 
 ImperatHo {amr). 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 ^^U ^^-^ let me beat. 
 sv yi beat thou. 
 fc^U *j let him beat. 
 
 
 ^2^jU *Jb let UB beat. 
 
 jjU -J beat ye or yoiL 
 J. J jU 1^^ let them beat 
 
 Respectful form — MdriyBf mdrtyo, or mdriyegd. 
 
 2. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE : — 
 Indefinite, or Past Conditional fmd%l sharti or mdzi mutamannij. 
 
 ^J 
 
 ^j^ I beat, etc. 
 U^U ij he beats. 
 
 lj^t« y thou beatest. 
 
 tJ^U >Jb we beat. 
 
 iJ^U ^' ye beat. 
 
 (J;U tJj they beat. 
 
 Present {Ml). 
 
 ^j^ \J;U ^\py« I am beating. 
 j^ IjjU y thou art beating 
 ^Jb ujU ^ he is beating. 
 
 l^ Ij^U (j-^ I was beating. 
 Iff bjU y thou wast beating 
 If! \jj\y* ij he was beating. 
 
 dr?^ cj;^ A^i we are beating. 
 yi» cJ; t« w you are beating. 
 c^ 4j;U t^j they are beating 
 Imperfect (istimrdri). 
 
 ^ <J;V^ AJb we were beating 
 j^' ci;^ /W you were beating 
 l5^ <J;^ t^j they were beating. 
 
 Present Dubious fhdl i mutashahhij. 
 English — ' I may, shall, or will be beating.* 
 
 3. TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE : 
 
 Peculiarity. — AU the nominatives assume the case of the agent, 
 characterised by the post-position ^j ne, the verb agrees with the 
 object of the sentence in gender and number, or is used impersonally 
 in the masculine singular form. 
 
PKCULIAEITIES OF A TfiANSITIVE VEEB. 
 
 bb 
 
 Past Absolute [md%i mutlah). 
 
 English — * T beat or did beat/ etc. Literally, ' It is or was beaten bj 
 me, thee, tim, us, you, or them.' 
 Smgular. 
 
 (J ^-j.^ main ne 
 
 ij, y til ne 
 
 V- 
 
 mdrd. 
 
 <J U^ 
 
 \ us 
 
 mdrd. 
 
 Perfect or Past Proximate {md%i karib). 
 English — I have beaten.' Literally, * It has been, (is) beaten, by me, 
 thee, him,' etc. 
 
 ij aJ& ham ne 
 
 
 iJ ^2^ mam ne 
 
 (J, J tit ne 
 <J [jm\ us ne 
 
 mdrd 
 hai. 
 
 bh 
 
 mdrd 
 
 (J *j turn ne 
 
 ^: 
 
 Pluperfect, or Past Remote {mdzi ha^kd). 
 English — *I had beaten.' Literally, 'it was beaten by me, thee, 
 
 him,' etc. 
 
 mdrd 
 thd. 
 
 . . / <J ,*.f*^ main ne \ f d> i^ ^'^''^ *^ 
 
 \j\^ " V% \mdrd LU ^ ^ 
 
 \ ^ ^ til ne \ < ci /*^' ^Mw ne 
 
 ^" , ( Ma. "^- •. ^' 
 
 P«s^ Dubious {mdzi mashlcuTc). 
 
 English — *I shall have beaten,' i.e. 'it shall have been beaten by 
 
 me, thee,' etc. 
 
 
 ^ dr?^ 
 
 ma%n ne 
 
 sir 
 
 tk ne 
 
 mdrd 
 hogd. 
 
 l^ 
 
 ^J, tfib ham ne 
 (J A.J* turn ne 
 ti (jyg^ US ne J V S:^ c;' ^'^ ^^ 
 
 All the other parts formed as in the verb bolnd. 
 
 41. We have now, we trust, thoroughly explained 
 the mode of conjugating a Hindustani verb. There is 
 no such thing as an irregular verb in the language ; and 
 six words only are slightly anomalous in the formation 
 of the past participle, which last being known, the 
 
66 
 
 ANOMALOUS PAST PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLES. 
 
 various tenses unerringly follow according to rule. We 
 here subjoin the words to which we allude, together 
 with their past participles. 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 Ijl^j* j'dnd, To go 
 
 UJi karnd, to do 
 \jj^ marnd, to die 
 l3y& hond, to be 
 L> J dend, to give 
 
 Lj lend, to take 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Mas. Fern. 
 
 \^ gayd ^ ga.k. 
 
 \S kiyd ^ hi 
 
 Vy^ m{i,d ^y^ miifk 
 
 V^ M,d ij-ji h{L,i 
 
 bt> diyd ^c) di 
 
 U Uyd J Ik 
 
 Plural. 
 Mas. Fem. 
 
 ^ ga,e ^ ga,in 
 
 . -A-^ ki.e '*^ kin 
 
 V "y ^'\ 
 
 i^y m{i,0 ^j^^y mii,m 
 
 ^y h-dye (ItJ^ hiifkn 
 
 i^x> J di,e ^ J din 
 
 ^^^aJ lk,e ^ Un 
 
 a. Of these, jdnd and marnd are neuter or intransitive, and con- 
 jugated like lolnd. The conjugation of hond we have already given 
 in full, and that of karnd, dend, and lend, is like mdrnd, ' to beat.* 
 It vs^ould be utterly ridiculous, then, to call any of these an irregular 
 verb ; for, at the very utmost, the deviation from the general rule is 
 not so great as in the Latin verbs, do, dedi, datum ; or cerno, crevi, etc., 
 which no grammarian would on that account consider as irregular. 
 
 I. The peculiarities in the past participles of hond, dend,^ and 
 lend, are merely on the score of euphony. The verb jdnd takes its 
 infinitive and present participle evidently from the Sanskrit root ^T 
 yd, the y being convertible into j, as is well known, in the modem 
 tongues of Sanskrit origin. " Again, the past participle gayd, seems to 
 have arisen from the root ^^>., which also denotes * to go.' In the 
 case of karnd, to do, make,' it springs naturally enough from the 
 modified form kar, of the root ^ kri, and at the same time there 
 would appear to have been another infinitive, kind, directly from the 
 Sanskrit root, by changing the ri into i, ; hence the respectful impe- 
 rative of this verb has two forms, kariye and kiji^e, while the past 
 participle kiyd comes from kind, the same as pvyd from jsind, ' to 
 
 The verb dend makes dij'iye, etc., and lend, Ujiye, etc., in the respectful imperative 
 
JPASSIVE VOIC^. 57 
 
 drink.' Lastly, marnd, mar, is from the modified form of 1^ mri ; at 
 the same time the form mttwa, whence miL,d, may have been in use ; for 
 vre know that in the Prakrit, which is a connecting link between the 
 Sanskrit and the present spoken tongues of Northern India, the 
 Sanskrit vowel ri began to be generally discarded, and frequently 
 changed into u, and the Prakrit participle is mudo, for the Sanskrit 
 mrito ; just as from the Sanskrit verbal noun prichhana, we have 
 the Hindustani ^McMwa, to ask,' through the Prakrit ^wcMawa. 
 
 42. Passive Voice. — In Hindustani the use of the 
 passive voice is not nearly so general as it is in English 
 and other European languages. It is regularly formed 
 by employing the past (or passive) participle of an active 
 or transitive verb along with the neuter verb liU- jdnd^ 
 'to go,' or ^ to be.' The participle thus employed is 
 subject to the same inflection or variations as an adjective 
 purely Indian {v. page 33), ending m\ a. Of the verb 
 jidnd itself, we have just shown that its past participle is 
 gayd^ which of course will run through all the tenses of 
 the past participle, as will be seen in the following 
 paradigm. 
 
 Infinitive, UU- )jU mdrd jdnd^ ^To be beaten.' 
 Imperative, \:>- \j\^ mdrdjd, * be thou beaten.' 
 
 Present Participle, \j\>- \j\^ mdrdjdtd, ' being beaten.' 
 Past Participle, L^ \J^ mdrd gayd, ' beaten.' 
 
 TENSES OF THE ROOT. 
 Aorist. 
 
 Plural. 
 ^j^jU" uf )U AJb we may be 
 
 Singular. 
 ^j^l5>" l^U ^^p^ I may be beaten. 
 
 i^j^ i>^ y ^^°^ mayest be 
 beaten. 
 
 beaten 
 
 beaten. 
 
 jU- lJj^ (J you may be 
 beaten. 
 
 beaten. 
 
58 
 
 PASSIVE VOICK. 
 
 I\Uure. 
 
 Biiunilar. 
 
 \{w»^U- !jU ^^j-J« I shall or will 
 be beaten. 
 
 UJ^lsf- \jU» y thou shalt or 
 wilt be beaten. 
 
 Iwjlflj- l^U ij he shall or will 
 be beaten. 
 
 j^U>- ]^U ^%--^ let me be 
 beaten. 
 
 Uj- 5^U y be thou beaten. 
 
 j^lsf- \j\^ Kj let him be 
 
 Piuial. 
 
 j^iJjlsj- <^;»^ j*^ we shaJl of 
 will be beaten. 
 
 LtJ^ uf^fU aJ you shall or 
 will be beaten. 
 
 will be beaten. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 beaten. 
 
 jjjjU- (^U ^ let us be 
 beaten. 
 
 jc>- i^j^ (W be ye beaten. 
 
 d^J^ u^U ti;; let them be 
 beaten. 
 
 TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 IjU- V,U ;j^^\ if I be, or had 
 been, beaten. 
 
 \j\s^ \jl* J J\ if thou be, or 
 hadst been, beaten. 
 
 IjIsj- i^U «^ j^l if he be, or had 
 been, beaten. 
 
 tjlsj- tJ?;^ (*^ ^"^^ if we be, or 
 i »d been, beaten. 
 
 tiU- iJ?;^ f' f^ if you be, or 
 had been, beaten. 
 
 vjlsj- ^J^ u^ ^^ if they be, or 
 Lad been, beaten. 
 
 Present. 
 
 . yb \}Ip- ^U ^2j^ I am being 
 beaten. 
 
 Jb IjIsj- !^^y thou art being 
 beaten. 
 
 Jb ISUf- \;t« i![^ he is being 
 beaten. 
 
 ^^ iS^ ^.jj^ (^ we are be- 
 ing beaten. 
 
 yb ci^- 4-£;^ (*^ yeu are be- 
 ing beaten. 
 
 cT!^ ciW" ^sL'^ Sr^ they are be- 
 ing l^eaten. 
 
PASSIVE VOICSE. 
 Imperfect. 
 
 59 
 
 Singular. 
 
 l^* b'U- \j\^ ^.^ 1 was beaten or 
 being beaten. 
 
 l^* b'ls*- \j\^ y thou wast 
 beaten. 
 
 l^' b'lsj- \j\^ Sj he was beaten. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 , Jj ^U- u^jU j^a we were 
 Deaten. 
 
 i^ <J^- <^^ (*^ y^^ were 
 beaten. 
 
 ^ iJ\^ ^j^ (-/j they were 
 beaten. 
 
 TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 Past. 
 
 L^ \j\^ jj-^ I was beaten. 
 \^ \j\^ y thou was beaten. 
 L^ \J^ ^ he was beaten. 
 
 -jv^ t^U aJ& we were beaten. 
 
 JkS' t-^t« *J you were beaten. 
 
 ^^ jc^t* j^j they were beaten. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 ^^ \f \j^ ^^ I have been 
 beaten. 
 
 ^ LS I^U y thou hast been 
 beaten. 
 
 ^ L^ \jt« J^ he has been 
 beaten. 
 
 \^ 15^ fc^U >A we have been 
 beaten. 
 
 fi ,^_jls ^U aJ you have 
 been beaten. 
 
 dw^Lf^*-^^ *-0 they have 
 been beaten. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 \^ *\^ \j\^ \^ I had been 
 beaten. 
 
 l^ L^ \jU y thou hadst been 
 beaten. 
 
 l^ ^)»^ ^j he had been 
 beaten. 
 
 a. Muhammad Ibrahim Munshi, the author of an excellent Hin- 
 dustani grammar entitled ' Tuhfae Elphinstone,' printed at Bombay, 
 1823, would seem to conclude that the Hindustani has no passive 
 voice at all. He says, p. 44, Dr. Gilchrist and Mr. Shakspear arfc 
 of opinion that there is a passive voice in Hindustani, formed by com- 
 pounding the past participle of ictive verbs with the verb Ijlsj-; but 
 
 ^^ f^^ lSj^ /»^ we had been 
 beaten. 
 
 ^5^' L5^ ^j^ (^ y®^ ^^^ ^^^^ 
 
 beaten. 
 
 LS^ LS^ ^J^ S^ they had been 
 beaten. 
 
60 PASSIVE VOICB. 
 
 the primitive signification of this verb (' to go') seems so irreconcileabie 
 with the simple stnte of being,' as to render it improbable that it could 
 ever be used in the same manner as the substantive verbs of other 
 languages." Now, the fact is, that the worthy Munshf is carried too 
 far, principally from a strong propensity to have a slap at his brother 
 grammarians, Messrs. Gilchrist and Shakespear, whom he hits hard on 
 every reasonable occasion ; and, in addition to this, the passive voice 
 in his native language is of rare occurrence. But there is undoubtedly 
 such a thing as a regular passive voice occasionally to be met with, and it 
 is formed with the verb l) 1=^ j'dnd, * to go,' as an auxiliary. Nor is the 
 connection of j and, to go,' with the passive voice so very irreconcileahle 
 as the Munshi imagines. In Gaelic, the very same verb, viz., ' to go,' 
 is used to form the passive voice, though in a different manner, the 
 verbal noun denoting the action being used as a nominative to the 
 verb *to go;' thus the phrase, "he was beaten," is in Gaelic literally 
 " the beating of him went," i. e., ' took place,' which is not very 
 remote from the Hindustani expression. Again, in Latin, the phrase, 
 '*I know that letters will be written," is expressed by "Scio literas 
 scriptum iri," in which the verb to go,' enters as an auxiliary : to 
 say nothing of the verb veneo {ven + eo), to be sold.' 
 
 h. We have seen in the conjugation of mdrnd, ' to beat,' that those 
 tenses which spring from the past participle, have a construction similar 
 to the Latin passive voice. This construction is always used when the 
 
 agent is known and expressed ; as ^ \jV* dj^ <-^J ci ^V** U**^ 
 U8 sipdhi-ne eh mard mdrd hai, ' that soldier has beaten a man,' or 
 (more literally) ' by that soldier a man has been beaten.' Again, if the 
 agent is unknown or the assertion merely made in general terms, the 
 regular form of the passive is used ; as, ek mard mdrd gay a, ' a man 
 has been beaten,' and even this might be more idiomatically expressed 
 by saying ek mard-ne mar khd,k hai, a man has suffered a beating.* 
 
 e. One cogent reason why the passive voice does not frequently 
 occur in Hindustani is, that the language abounds with primitive 
 simple verbs of a passive or neuter signification which are rendered 
 active by certain modifications which we are about to state. Thus 
 LJl5>- jahid signifies ' to bum,' or *take fire,' in a neuter sense; and 
 becomes an active or transitive verb by inserting the vowel \ d, between 
 
DERIVATIVE VERB3. 61 
 
 the root and the termination li nd of the infinitive as, l3l5»- jaldnd, to 
 kindle or set on fire ;' and this becomes causal or doubly transitive 
 by assuming the form ^\j^ jalwdnd, to cause to be set on fire/ as 
 will be more amply detailed in the next paragraph. 
 
 DERIVATIVE VERBS. 
 
 43. In ffindustani a primitive verb, if neuter, is ren- 
 dered active, as we have just hinted, by certain modifica- 
 tions of, or additions to, its root. In like maimer, an 
 active verb may, by a process somewhat similar, be 
 rendered causal or doubly transitive. The principal 
 modes in which this may be effected are comprised under 
 the following 
 
 RuUa. 
 
 1. By inserting the long vowel \ d between thejoot and the U nd 
 of the infinitive of the primitive verb ; thus, from L^j pahnd, — a neuter 
 verb, ' to grow ripe,' 'to be got ready' (as food), — becomes \j\Li paMnd 
 (active), ' to ripen, or make ready,' 'to cook.' Again, this active verb 
 may be rendered causal or doubly transitive by inserting the letter • w 
 between the root and the modified termination \j\ dnd; thus, from 
 Ijl^ pahdnd, 'to make ready,' inserting the letter j w, we get the 
 causal form l3 ^^o pahwdnd, to cause (another) to make (any thing) 
 ready.' To show the use of the three forms of the verb, we wiU add 
 a few plain examples. 1. ^ib l::^ 1)1^ Tchdnd paUd hai, 'the dinner 
 is getting ready, cooking, or being cooked.' 2. ^Jb lj"lio Ul^ is^jV 
 hdwarchi hhdnd pakdtd hai, the cook is ( himself) cooking the 
 
 dinner or food;' 3. ^ Iji^ \j\^ J\dj\^i^ mihmdnddr hhdnd 
 pahwdtd hai, ' the host is causing dinner to be cooked.' These examples 
 show the copiousness of the Hindustani verb as compared with the 
 English. For whereas we are obliged to employ the same verb both 
 as neuter and active, like the word cooking ' in the first and second 
 examples, ^the Hindustani has a distinct expression for each. And the 
 form \j\(^ pakwdnd in the last example is much more neat and concise 
 
62 DERIVATIVB VERBS. 
 
 than the English 'is having,' 'i» getting,' or is causing* the dinner 
 (to be) * cooked.' In like manner, the neuter \:Xs^ j'alnd, * to burn,' 
 jaldnd, *to kindle,' and jalwdnd, to cause to be kindled ;' for example, 
 hattiJaUi hat, 'the candle burns;' a man will say to his servant, hatti- 
 ho jaldo, * light the candle (yourself),' but he may say to his munshf, 
 hatti-h j'alwdo, * cause the candle to be lit (by others).* 
 
 2. "When the root of the primitive verb is a monosyllable with any 
 of the long vowels \ d, j o or {i, and ,^ e or i, the latter are shortened 
 in the active and causal forms, that is, the \ of the root is displaced 
 by fatha, the j by zowwa, and the i^ by kasra ; as, U^U- j'dgnd, * to 
 be awake,' UUi*- jagdnd, 'to awaken,' or 'rouse up,' \j\^^ jagwdndy 
 * to cause to be roused up;' US4J lolndy 'to speak,' UL huldnd, 'to 
 call,' UljL hulwdnd, 'to cause to be called, to send for;' so U^ 
 hhiilndf 'to forget,' l)^ hhuldnd, 'to mislead,' Ijl^i^ hhulwdnd, 'to 
 cause to be misled;' \i3j letnd, to lie down,' liliJ litdnd, 'to lay 
 down,* Ijl^ll litwdnd, 'to cause to be laid down;' LLf hUgnd, 'to 
 be wet,' Ul^ hUgdnd, 'to wet, U^^^ lUgwdnd, 'to cause to be 
 made wet.' When the vowel-sound of the root consists of the strong 
 diphthongs • 1 au, and ^ C ai, these undergo no change, and con- 
 sequently such words faU under Kule 1 ; as, Ijjj J daurnd, to run,' 
 Uljji daurdnd; \jj^^ pairndy 'to swim,' l3]^ pairdnd. The verb 
 li^iLj haithnd, 'to sit,' makes Ulfb 5»YArfw(i or UI^ILj laithdndf 2l'&o 
 \j£fj Uthldndy etc. Vide No. 4, below. 
 
 3. A numerous class of neuter verbs, having a short vowel in the 
 last syllable of the root, form the active by changing the short voveel 
 into its corresponding long ; that \% fatha becomes 1 a ; as zamma 
 becomes J 0^ (or A), and hmra becomes ^ e (or k) : as, lib palnd, ' to 
 
 » The forms « and are by fer the most common ; the / and li comparatirelj rare. 
 
DERIVATIVE VERBS. 63 
 
 thrive, CfV be nourished,' Ul> pdhd, *to nourish;* Li^ hhutnd, *to 
 open (of itself' ), U^ ^Wwa, *to open (anything).* These form 
 their causals regulariy, according to Eule 1; as, ^\^ khuhcdnd, *to 
 cause (another) to open (any thing).' 
 
 4. A few verbs add l)^ Idnd to the root, modified as in Eule 2 •. 
 thus, \\\(y..^ s'lkhndy 'to learn,' UI^Lj sihhdnd, and l3^1JL*j sikhldnd^ 
 'to teach;' Ul^ Tchdnd, 'to eat,' U^ Mildnd, to feed;' U^ «owa, 
 * to sleep,' \j'L^ suldnd, ' to lull (asleep) ;' lv{V.«,> haithnd, to sit.' to 
 be placed,' has a variety of forms, viz., hithdnd, haithdnd, hithldnd^ 
 and laithldnd ; also laithdlnd and haithdrnd, to cause to sit,' ' to set,' 
 or cause to be seated.' 
 
 5. The following are formed in a way peculiar to themselves : — 
 ^iio UJcnd, 'to be sold,' lirs^ hechnd, *to sell;* \lSbj rahnd, 'to stay,* 
 liZ. rahhnd, 'to keep, or place;* Lj*!) ^A^wci, 'to burst,' 'to be 
 broken,' UfJ tornd, 'to break;' lv%"v- chhutnd, to cease,' to go off 
 (as a musket, etc.), Ijj^^^ chhornd, to let off,* to let go;' LSfj 
 phatndj ' to be rent,' l}Jlf> ^A^f/wrf, ' to rend,' l^Jj^ phiiind, ' to crack, 
 or split,' IjJ^ phornd, ' to burst open ' (actively). 
 
 6. Verbs are formed from substantives or adjectives by adding 
 \j\ dnd or IJ nd; as from Jl> pdni, 'water,' liUiJ paniydndj 'to 
 irrigate;' so from \jy^, 'wide,' chawdnd, ' to widen.* A few in- 
 finitives spring, as Hindustani verbs, regularly from Arabic and 
 Persian roots, by merely adding \j nd. If the primitive word be a 
 monosyllable ending with two consonants, a fatha is inserted between 
 the latter, on adding the l) nd ; as from {jmJj tars, ' fear, pity,' comes 
 L-y taras-nd, ' to fear ;' so from jjl lam, ' trembling,' \jjj laraz-nd ; 
 and from iJL.yssr hahs, argument,' lahas-nd, to dispute,' etc. 
 
 General Rule. — Primitive words consisting of two 
 short syllables, the last of which is formed by the vowel 
 fatha^ on the accession of an additional syllable beginning 
 
64 COMPOUND VERI^S. 
 
 with a vowel, whether for the purpose of declension, con- 
 jugation, or derivation, reject the fatha of the second 
 syllable. Conversely, primitive words ending in two 
 consecutive consonants, on adding a verbal termination 
 beginning with a consonant, generally insert a fatha 
 between ^Jjo two consonants, as we have just seen in 
 Eule 6. 
 
 COMPOUND VERBS. 
 
 44. The Hindustani is peculiarly rich in compound 
 verbs, though it must be admitted that our grammarians 
 have needlessly enlarged the number. "We shall, how- 
 ever, enumerate them all in the following list, and, at 
 the same time, point out those which have no title to 
 the appellation. Compound verbs are formed in various 
 ways, as follows : — 
 
 I. FROM THE ROOT. 
 
 1. Ii^TENsrvKS, BO Called from being more energetic in signification 
 than tte simple verb. Bx. Ul 3 jU mdr-ddlnd, * to kill outright,' 
 from L"»t« mdrnd, 'to strike,' and Ulj ddlnd, *to throw down;' 
 lij J ^j rakh-dend, ' to set down,' from U^ rahhnd, ' to place,' and 
 UjJ dend, ' to give ; l)U- l^ Ichd-jdnd, * to eat up,' from \j\^ khdnd, 
 'to eat,' and UU- jdnd, 'to go,' etc. The main peculiarity of an 
 intensive vsrb is, that the second member of it has, practically 
 speaking, laid aside its own primary signification, while at the same 
 time the sense of the first member is rendered more emphatic, as in 
 our own verbs ' to run off,' to march on,' to rush away,' etc. ; thus, 
 wuh MtM par se gir-pa/rdy ' he fell down from off (or, as the Hin- 
 dustani M^ it, more logically, from upon) the elephant.' 
 
 2. r>'^FTiALS, formed with L^ Boknd, 'to be able;' as UL-j Jy 
 lol-sahno, * to be able to sv^eak,* li^ Is*- jd-salcndy * to be able to go/ 
 
COMPOUND VERBS. 65 
 
 etc. The using the root of a verb in composition with saknd in all its 
 tenses may be viewed as the potential mood of such verb ; thus, main 
 bol-aaUd hun, * I am able to speak,' or ' I can speak;' so main hol-sakd, 
 
 * I could speak.' 
 
 3. CoMPLETivES, formed with \:Ss>- chuknd, ' *to have done;' as 
 \Ss>- \^ khd-chuhnd, 'to have done eating,' \:Jj>- ^ Uhh-chuhnd, 
 
 * to have finished writing.' The root of a verb with the future of 
 
 chuknd, is considered, very properly, as the future perfect of such 
 
 root; thus, jah main likh-chukiingd, when I shall have done writing,' 
 
 that is, ' when I shall have written,' postquam scripsero.' So, agar 
 
 main likh-chukiin, ' if I may have written, or h«ve done writing,' * si 
 
 scripserim.' 
 
 n. FROM THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 1. CoNTiNUATivEs, as IjU- li^ haUd jdnd, or L&j l::*^ hakfdrahnd, 
 to continue chatting.' This is no^ a legitimate compound verb ; it is 
 merely a sentence, the present participle always agreeing with the 
 nominative in gender and number, as, wuh mard haktdjdtd Jiai, that 
 man goes on chatting ;' we mard hakte jdte hain, ' these men go on 
 chatting;' wuh randi haUkjdtk hai, * that woman goes on chatting.' 
 
 2. Statisticals, \j\ ^"^ gdte dnd, 'to come singing,' or 'in 
 singing ;' Ujjj i^JJ ^^^"^ daurnd, ' to run crying.' Here the present 
 participle always remains in the inflected state, like a substantive of 
 the third class, having the post-position men, in,' understood, hence 
 this is no compound verb properly speaking. 
 
 m. FROM THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 1. Feequentatives : Ijji \j\^ mdrd-karnd, to make a practice 
 beating;' UJi \}\s>- jdyd-kdrnd, to make a practice of going.' 
 
 2. Desideeatives, as Liil^. ^^ hold-chdhnd, ' to wish, or to be 
 about, or like to speak.' 
 
 rV. FROM SUBSTANTIVES OR ADJECTIVES, HENCE TERMED 
 NOMINALS. 
 
 From substantives, as fi:om ^^ jo^t collection/ U^ CT^ 
 
 5 
 
66 COMPOUND YERBS. 
 
 fiwn' kamd, * to collect, or bring together,' and \jyt> ^^*^ j'om' hond, 
 ' to be collected, or come together ;' also from i^^ ^o!5a, * a plunge,* 
 IjjU iio^ ghota mdrnd, 'to dive,' 1)1^ <d?^ ^ta hhdnd, 'to be 
 dipped.' From adjectives, as ftom ^y^ ofthotd, ' small,' \jj^ ^JjF^ 
 ehhotd kamd, 'to diminish;' ^l^ ^aW, '' black,' Ij^ ill^ yfea/d Jtarwd, 
 ' to blacken,' such forms of expression, however, are scarcely to be 
 considered as compound verbs. 
 
 a. There is a very doubtful kind of compound called a reiterative 
 verb, said to be formed by using together two verbs, regularly con- 
 
 jugated, etc., as Ul>- Ujj holnd cJidVndj to converse;' but the use of 
 these is generally confined to tenses of the present participle, or the 
 conjunctive participle ; and they are not regularly conjugated, for the 
 auxiliary is added to the last only, as we holte cMlte Jiain, not holte ham 
 chdlte hain, ' they converse (chit-chat) together ;' so hol-chdl-kar, not 
 hol-har chdl-kar, ' having conversed.' Those which are called Inceptives, 
 Permissives, Acquisitives, etc., given in most grammars, are not pro- 
 perly compound verbs, since they consist regularly of two verbs, the 
 one governed by the other, in the inflected form of the Infinitive, 
 
 according to a special rule of Syntax ; as, 12 ,c^^ ^ wuh lolne lagd, 
 'he began to say;' Jb \zj<^ S^^ ^ ^^^ J^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^> *^® gives 
 (permission) to go;' ^Jb Ij'b (JU- Sj wuh jdne pdtd ^a*, 'begets 
 (permission) to go ; ' all of which expressions are mere sentences, and 
 not compound verbs. 
 
 h. Hence the compound verbs in the Hindustani language are 
 really five in number, viz. : the Intensive, Potential, Completive, 
 Frequentative and Desiderative. In these, the first part of the 
 compound remains unchanged throughout, while the second part is 
 always conjugated in the usual way. But among such of the nominals 
 as are lormed of an adjective vdth a verb, the adjective will agree in 
 gender with the object of the verb, unless the concord be cut off by 
 ^ ko. Thus : ^ ufj^ u-?;^ 90'r} hhark kar^ ox ^ \j^ ^ ^j€ gdri- 
 ko khardkar, 'stop "the carriage.' In the latter case only can the 
 verb IjJ^ \^ khard-karnd be regarded as belonglu^ to the class of 
 compounds. 
 
67 
 
 SECTION lY. 
 
 ON THK INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH CARDINAL AND 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBERS — DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF 
 WORDS. 
 
 I. ADVERBS. 
 
 45. The adverbs in Hindustani, like the substantives, 
 adjectives, and verbs, are to be acquired mainly by 
 practice. Hence it would be a mere waste of space to 
 swell our volume with a dry detached list of such words, 
 which in all probability no learner would ever peruse. 
 We shall therefore notice only those which have any 
 peculiarity in their character or formation. As a general 
 rule, most adjectives may be used adverbially when 
 requisite, as is the case in German, and often in English. 
 A series of pure Hindustani adverbs of frequent use is 
 derived from five of the pronouns, bearing to each other 
 a similar relation, as will be seen in the following table. 
 Dr. Gilchrist's old pupils will no doubt recollect with 
 what pains the learned Doctor used to impress upon 
 them the necessity of learning this ^quintuple series,' 
 or, as he called it, ^ The philological harp.' 
 
 a. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, when used adverbially, 
 remain uninflected in the simplest form, viz., that of the nominative 
 singular masculine ; as, ^J^ l:;^ l^\ '■^^•V^ ^J ^^^ laliut achcJiM 
 Uhhtd hai, ' he writes very well.' This is exactly the rule in German, 
 * er schreibt sehr gut.' In the following series, accordingly, number8 
 5, 6, and 7, are merely the adjective or iiidefinite pronouns, formerly 
 enumerated, employed as adverbs. 
 
68 
 
 H g 
 
 5 
 
 I' 
 
 1 
 
 3 * 
 
 ^ r 
 
 QUINTUPLE SERIES. 
 
 'Q "O 
 
 J ^^> J^l 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 a 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 s 
 
 I— I 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 :s 
 
 •s -^ 
 
 |,rt|Ji-J;,J'.J; 
 
 '^ ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 ^1> 
 1 
 
 J^%-^ 
 
 ^ .'J 
 1 S 
 
 
 I I 
 
 a 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 1 -J 's 
 
 
 -§' 
 
 
 f 
 
 y -l^^^"^ J ^5^5=3 ^j' 
 
 00 
 
ADYBBBS. 69 
 
 a. From the first class we have other adverbs rendered more 
 smphatic by the addition of jJb M, etc. Thus: ^^\ ahhi, just 
 now/ i_5^ kahM, ^^ kahhib, or ^'^ JcadM, ' ever,' etc. Erom the 
 second class, by changing ^ dn into •jj iw ; thus, (jtl-v^ yaMuj ex- 
 actly here,' ,^;»^ hahih, 'whereabouts, somewhere,' etc. Trom the 
 fourth, by adding j^ Un ; ,^j^^i yiinMuj 'in this very way,' 
 ^^^j w&nMn, ' thereupon, at that very time, exactly, the same m 
 before,' etc. 
 
 b. From among these may also be formed, by means of post- 
 positions, etc., a number of useful compounds ; as CSj c->t ab-talc, or 
 cl^b" c-jI ah-talah, ' till now ;' lISj k— ^ hah-tah, * till when,' etc. i 
 ^^ lstt^ ^«Mi Aa5A2, ' sometimes ; ' ^^^ ^ l5^ ^«M4 na kabU, 
 ' some time or other •' ^*^' ^l^ Jahdn tahdh^ here and there ;' 
 {1P^ (1)W^ y^Aa^ ^dAm, ' wherever ;' ^>>^jj^ «wr kahih, ' somewhere 
 else ;' i<^ '^r'^ i^^ ^«iAi, ' whenever ;' ^ ^yS kyiin kmr, * how ?' 
 
 c. A. few adverbs of time have a twofold signification, i.e. past or 
 future, according to circumstances ; thus, Ji kal, to-morrow, or 
 yesterday ;' ^j^jJ parson, the day after to-morrow, or the day before 
 yesterday ;' J;^-jy tarson, the third day from this, past, or to come ;' 
 ^y^y narson, * the fourth day from this.' The time is restricted to 
 past or future by the tenses of the verb and by the context of the 
 sentences in which such words are found. 
 
 d. Many adverbs occur from the Arabic and Persian languages ; as 
 \iLi> kazdrd (or .l^Ldi kazdkdr), 'by chance,' from Uijj kazd, 'fate,' 
 
 etc., and \j rd, the sign of the objective case ; <)jjjC>- chigiina, ' how ;' 
 i^j\i bdre, 'once, at last;' Ifc^b JdrM (pi.), 'often (times);' JoL^ 
 shdyad, perhaps (Hindustani ^ ^ ^ ho to ho, it may be) ;' }i\y6^ 
 ii\^ ^ hhwdh na Tchwdh, volens-nolens, positively, at all events •' 
 Sj^ J wa ghaira, ' et-cetera,' etc. ; kiii fakat, ' merely, finis.' 
 
 e. Adverbs purely Arabic occur chiefly as follows: 1. Simply a 
 noun with the article ; thus, iUlziill alkissa (literally, ' the story ') ; and 
 
 ^J^\ algharaz (literally, 'the end, purport,' etc.), 'in short;' JW! 
 nJMl (the y/esent), 'at this time;' i^\ albatta^ 'certainly;' etc 
 
70 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 2. The Arabic noun in the accusative case, marked with the termina- 
 tion 1- an (p. 20); thus, \i\sj\ ittifdkan, *by chance,' (from jUj^ 
 itti/dk, fortune, accident,' eic); 'La] aalan (or L?i asld), *by no 
 means ; * iLy* mislan, ' for example,' (from JL« mislf parable, 
 similitude * ) ; \*cya:>^ khusiisan, ' especially,' etc. Lastly, a noun 
 with a proposition ; as, Jxilb bi-l-Ji*l, 'in fact;' J Is' \ ^J Ji-l-hdlf 
 (in the present), jys^ \ ^J fi-l-fawr (in the heat), all signifying 
 ' instantly, immediately ; ' \jl^'sua^ \ ^ Ji-l-haUkat (in truth), 
 really ; * ^J*J^^ ya^nk, that is to say, to wit, viz.' 
 
 / Many adverbial expressions occur consisting of a pronoun and 
 substantive governed by a simple postposition understood, as, —Ja ^jwj 
 is tarah, *in this manner ;' —Jb ,j*S Us tarah, ' how ? ' etc. ; ,Ja«j\j ^j-*^ 
 his todste, why ? ' i.e. for what reason ? ' and so on, with many other 
 words of which the adverbial use is indicated by the inflection of the 
 accompanying pronoun. 
 
 ff. The pluperfect participle may also very often be elegantly 
 applied adverbially ; as, jL^iJb hanskar, laughingly,' j^j-^ soch- 
 kar, deliberately,' from \iZjLjb hamnd, ' to laugh,' ^^^y^ sochnd, to 
 think,' l^^ jL ^i.cJb (J (jm\ us-ne hanskar kahd, 'he laughingly (or 
 having laughed) said.' 
 
 n. PKEPOSITIONS. 
 
 46. The prepositions in Hindustani are mere sub- 
 stantives iQ the locative case, having a postposition 
 understood and sometimes expressed. Most of them 
 are expressive of situation with regard to place, and 
 thence figuratively applied to time, and even to abstract 
 ideas. Hence as substantives, they all govern the geni- 
 tive case, those of them which are masculine (forming 
 the majority) require the word which they govern to 
 have the postposition ^ he after it ; as, ^T ^ t^^ mard- 
 ke age^ ^before the man,' literally, ^ in front of the man '; 
 while those that are feminine require the word they 
 govern to have ^ ki; as, uJ^ s/>rv-^ shahr-ki taraf, 
 
PEEPOSITIONS. 
 
 71 
 
 ' towards the city,' literally, ^ in the direction of the 
 city.' It is optional to put the preposition before or 
 after the noun which it governs ; thus in the foregoing 
 example we might have said age mard-ke^ or mard-Jce age^ 
 with equal propriety. 
 
 The following is an alphabetical list of masculine prepositions 
 requiring the nouns which they govern to have the genitive with he, 
 for reasons explained in the beginning of the Syntax. 
 
 ^^^ dge, before, in front. 
 
 J Jul andar, within, inside. 
 
 j^\ i-par, above, on the top. 
 
 ci-%c.lj Ja'ts, by reason of. 
 
 jitXi hdha/Tf or hdUr, without 
 (not within.) 
 
 ^^*lsr la-jd,e, instead. 
 jj Jj hadle,OT^ ^ hadal, instead. 
 wji^Jo bid'&n, without, except. 
 y\ji bardhar, equal to, oppo- 
 site to. 
 i^\j hard,e, for, on account of. 
 
 C/ 
 
 Jaj ba'd, after (as to time). 
 yJtj baghavr, without, except. 
 1^ bin, liJ bind, without, 
 -^j b'lch, in or among. 
 
 j\i pdr, over (other side). 
 (jMi\j pds, by, near. 
 
 .^^:s\> pkchhe, behind, in the 
 rear, 
 jjj tale, under, beneath. 
 ^^j--u ta,in, to, up to. 
 — jW- MArij, without, outside. 
 
 jjU^J dar-miydn, in the midst, 
 between, among. 
 
 -^Lj sdth, with (in company). 
 
 ^^x^Lj sdmhne, before, in front. 
 
 c,>^«.o sabal^ by reason of. 
 
 \y^ siwd or 8iwd,e, except. 
 
 j^yi Hwaz, instead, for. 
 
 J-o kaU, before, (time). 
 
 iw^Oji Tcarkb, near. 
 
 ^^ hane, near, with. 
 
 J^ gird, round, around. 
 
 ^-0 liye, for, on account of. 
 
 tj£^L» mdre, through (in conse- 
 quence of). 
 
 ^ux^ mutdbik, conformable to. 
 (j^\yt miidfih, according to. 
 L--'C>-^ miijib, or c-.,c>-y4J Jtf- 
 
 mujib, by means of. 
 lIJoJ;} na%diTc, near. 
 (^_jsnj wk^^, under, beneath. 
 (<ia«:lj «^asif(?, for, on account of. 
 ^*U ^d^A, in the power o^ 
 by means of, 
 
72 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The following prepositions being feminine, require the words tikey 
 govern to have the genitive with H. 
 ti^b hdbat, respecting, con- Jb\:>' Ikhattr, for the sake of. 
 ceming. L larah, after the manner 
 
 LiJji ba-daulat, by means of. ^^' ^®- 
 
 (^^ijff tarqf, towards. 
 
 JA^ ha-madad, by aid of. . «- , . - ^ , 
 
 i^:^^jX^ man/at, by, or through. 
 
 >- yiAa^, on account of. <JLy^ ntshat, relative to. 
 
 Some of the feminine prepositions, when they come he/ore the word 
 they govern, require such word to have the genitive in ke, instead of 
 iH. This is a point well worthy of examination, and we reserve the 
 investigation of it till we come to the Syntax. 
 
 a. "We have applied the term preposition to the above words with 
 a view to define their use and meaning, not their mere situation. In 
 most grammars they are absurdly called Compound Post-positions, on 
 the same principle, we believe, that lucus, a dark grove, ^ is said to 
 come from lucere, to shine/ or lux, light.' But in sober truth, 
 what we have called prepositions here, are neither compounds, nor 
 necessarily post-positive ; and we make it a rule never to countenance 
 a new term unless it be more explicit than those already established 
 and familiar. In Greek, Latin, and Old English, the prepositions 
 frequently follow the word which they govern, but this does not in 
 the least alter their nature and use. 
 
 I. Besides the above prepositions, the following Arabic and Persian 
 prefixes are occasionally employed with words from those languages. 
 
 \\ a%, from, by. 
 
 V^ iUd, except, besides. 
 
 \i Id, with (possessed of). 
 <0 or J Ja (or 1%), in, by. 
 J he, without (deprived of). 
 ji bar, on, in, at. 
 ^\jj bard,e, for (on account of). 
 ti bild, without {sine). 
 J J dar, in, within. 
 
 JLLc ^ald, upon, above. 
 ^jC 'an, from. 
 JC..C 'ind, near, with. 
 
 l1/ ka, according to, like 
 
 J ^ or li, to, for 
 «-/• ma\ with 
 ^ min, from. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS — ^INTEEJECTIONS. 
 
 73 
 
 III. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 47. The conjunctions have no peculiarity about them ; 
 we shall therefore add a list of the more useful of them 
 in alphabetical order. 
 
 ^ hi, that, because, than. 
 i^\i tdU, that, in order that. 
 ^y^ hyiinhi, because, 
 b j^ goyd, as if. 
 d^^ go-hi, although. 
 ^^^ lehin, but, however. 
 ^^ magar, except, unless, 
 y \J^ '>^(^hkn-to, otherwise. 
 J-j ni%, also, likewise. 
 J 0, J wa, and, but. 
 jj war, for, ^J wa-gar, and if. 
 
 <)jjj war-na, and if not, 
 unless. 
 
 ♦Jb Afltm, also, likewise. 
 
 j>~jit) harchand, although. 
 
 jyjb hanoz, yet, still. 
 
 I) ya, or, either. 
 
 dZjj\\ az las-U, since, for as 
 much as. 
 
 ^\ agar, ^ gar, if. 
 t!o-^\ agarchi, although. 
 \!,«1 ammd, but, moreover. 
 ,^^ awr, and, also. 
 d^ Jflt/^e, but, on the con- 
 trary. 
 ^ bhi, also, indeed. 
 
 J par, but, yet. 
 ^jj^ pas, thence, therefore. 
 y to, then, consequently. 
 <J-X«o>- jahtak, until, while 
 
 ^ yo, if, when. 
 iCT JU- hdl-dnki, whereas, not- 
 withstanding. 
 i)\^ kkwdh, either, or. 
 
 IV. INTEEJECTIONS. 
 
 48. These scarcely deserve the appellation of ^ part 
 of speech ; ' we shall therefore content ourselves by 
 enumerating a few of common occurrence. 
 
 /pbUj shdhdsh (i. e. i^v jLij shdd hdsh,) * happiness or good 
 luck to you!' ,jJ^iT dfrin blessings on you,' i\j !i\^ wdh wdh 
 * admirable ! ' ^->^ ^ kyd Miib how excellent 1 * ^ J ^ J dhan-t 
 
74 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 dhan 'how fortunate!* ^^ ii\^ todhji, ^-fc CjIj L^ kyd hat hat 'what 
 an affair !' all express joy, admiration and encouragement, like 'bravo' 
 well done ! ' etc. But ijj t— >b bdp re (lit.f father) ' astonishing ! 
 dreadful !' tJ*U ^^'U h,de h,de, or ^ -Jb hat hai, t^'lj i^*\j wd,e 
 ipd,e, ibj t^*\J wd,e waild, ' alas, alas ! alackaday ! woe is me !' l::--Ji> 
 haty Lj^ Lf^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^* ' ty^Q^, pshaw, pish, fie fie !' .J dwr, 
 ' avaunt !' express sorrow, contempt, and aversion. ^^1 ai, ^\ o, ' Oh !' 
 4^ re or ^>jl ar^, holla you !' are used in calling attention : the two 
 last in a disrespectful way. i^j re (m.) or ^jj ri (f.) agrees in gender 
 
 with the object of address ; as, ,^j ^'^j launde re, you boy !' t^J^jl 
 ^jj laundi ri, you girl !' 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 49. The Hindustani numeral adjectives, ^ one,' ^ two,' 
 ' three,' etc., up to a hundred, are rather irregular, at least 
 in appearance, though it would not be very difficult to 
 account for the seeming irregularity on sound etymological 
 principles. This, however, would not greatly benefit the 
 student, who must, in the meantime, learn them by heart 
 as soon as he can. 
 
 FIGUEES. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 FIGURES. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 1 
 
 ABABIO. 
 
 HTDIAS. 
 
 CSA eh. 
 
 6 
 
 ABABIO. 
 
 IWDIAW. 
 
 <^5»- chha. 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 r 
 
 "^ 
 
 ^d do. 
 
 7 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 CjL sdt. 
 
 3 
 
 r 
 
 5? 
 
 ^Jin. 
 
 8 
 
 A 
 
 ■c 
 
 ^J dth. 
 
 4 
 
 p 
 
 8 
 
 jU- chdr. 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 £^ 
 
 y nau. 
 
 5 
 
 e 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^\jpdnck 
 
 10 
 
 w 
 
 ^o 
 
 {jMii das. 
 

 
 
 NUMERALS 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 PIGUEBS. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 FIGURES. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 11 
 
 ABABIO. 
 
 iHsiur. 
 
 ijlfi tffdrah. 
 
 31 
 
 ABABIO. 
 
 IITDIAIT. 
 
 jjo^l ««. 
 
 w 
 
 \\ 
 
 r\ 
 
 ^\ 
 
 12 
 
 \r 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 iSj\j hdrah. 
 
 32 
 
 rr 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 jjyw-:u hatia. 
 
 13 
 
 \r 
 
 \^ 
 
 ijZ Urah. 
 
 33 
 
 rr 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 14 
 
 \f 
 
 \8 
 
 Xi^y>- eJuiudah. 
 
 34 
 
 rf- 
 
 ^8 
 
 ^jtt^y>^ chautis. 
 
 15 
 
 U 
 
 \^ 
 
 !fj*^^ pandrah. 
 
 35 
 
 re 
 
 V^ 
 
 ^w;f..v^,,) paintis. 
 
 16 
 
 n 
 
 14 
 
 d^^ 86M. 
 
 36 
 
 n 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 17 
 
 IV 
 
 ^vQ 
 
 ^^ satrah. 
 
 37 
 
 rv 
 
 ^« 
 
 o ^ 
 
 ^M..%,u.o saintis. 
 
 18 
 
 u 
 
 1^= 
 
 iij\^\ athdrah. 
 
 38 
 
 TA 
 
 ^'^ 
 
 {jM^j\ at Mis. 
 
 19 
 
 n 
 
 \£- 
 
 9 
 
 39 
 
 ri 
 
 ^^ 
 
 (ja*JI:J1 ww^fi/is. 
 
 20 
 
 r* 
 
 V 
 
 U*^^ Ms. 
 
 40 
 
 f-^ 
 
 8« 
 
 ^^U- <jM/z«. 
 
 21 
 
 r\ 
 
 \\ 
 
 jwyJl Mis. 
 ^y 
 
 41 
 
 f-s 
 
 81 
 
 j^l:^! *y^^a/i5. 
 
 22 
 
 rr 
 
 \\ 
 
 {j**-i*^, ld,is. 
 
 42 
 
 rr 
 
 8"^ 
 
 ^Ij Je',a?^«. 
 
 23 
 
 rr 
 
 \\ 
 
 U^ t^M' 
 
 43 
 
 pr 
 
 8^ 
 
 jj^l:uj- jJe^a/zs. 
 
 24 
 
 rf 
 
 18 
 
 ^jM^y>- chauhis. 
 
 44 
 
 pjc 
 
 8tt 
 
 ^^i^ chau,dUs. 
 
 25 
 
 re 
 
 1^1 
 
 ^j»^, paeMs. 
 
 45 
 
 PC 
 
 81i 
 
 jjjk*JuLj paintdlis. 
 
 26 
 
 n 
 
 M, 
 
 
 46 
 
 f1 
 
 84 
 
 jjmu-jL^:>- chhifdl'is. 
 
 27 
 
 rv 
 
 ^-s 
 
 ^juuJ'liUrf satd,is. 
 
 47 
 
 fv 
 
 B^ 
 
 (jyuJli^M-j saintdVis. 
 
 28 
 
 TA 
 
 'l'^ 
 
 ^jj»j^''\^j\ athd,is. 
 
 48 
 
 PA 
 
 «^ 
 
 ^Jl^ji «^i^A^ti/i«. 
 
 29 
 
 n 
 
 !^e_ 
 
 ^^-sj^ untis. 
 
 49 
 
 PI 
 
 «£- 
 
 ^Wi unchds. 
 
 30 
 
 **»♦ 
 
 V 
 
 U^ ^^. 
 
 50 
 
 C* 
 
 V 
 
 (jM\s^pachd8. i 
 
7« 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 *iauMe. 
 
 NAMBS. 
 
 PIQUItBS. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 51 
 
 ilUBIO. 
 
 nrDiur. 
 
 ^jl^^ ihdwan. 
 
 71 
 
 ARABIC. 
 
 nTDiAir. 
 
 ^;Xy^\ ikhattar. 
 
 c^ y.1 
 
 vl 
 
 -o^ 
 
 52 
 
 cr 
 
 M.1 
 
 ^jj\j hdwan. 
 
 72 
 
 vr 
 
 ^!^ 
 
 ji^ hahattar. 
 
 53 
 
 cr 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^Jl t^P(in. 
 
 73 
 
 vr 
 
 ^^ 
 
 j^ tihattar. 
 
 54 
 
 ct^ 
 
 \9 
 
 jjij^ chauwan. 
 
 74 
 
 vp 
 
 -as 
 
 ^^ chauhattar. 
 
 55 
 
 cc 
 
 "iX 
 
 (j?^v pachpan. 
 
 75 
 
 vo 
 
 ^^L 
 
 J^^pacJihattar. 
 
 66 
 
 Cl 
 
 W 
 
 c;?«r chhappan. 
 
 76 
 
 VI 
 
 ^^ 
 
 J^'^^^^ chhihattar. 
 
 57 
 
 cv 
 
 H^ 
 
 jjjliLj sattdwan. 
 
 77 
 
 vv 
 
 VQVO 
 
 J^^^ sathatta/r. 
 
 58 
 
 CA 
 
 V= 
 
 ^jl^jl athdwan. 
 
 78 
 
 VA 
 
 ^t:; 
 
 j^^\ athhattar. 
 
 59 
 
 Cl 
 
 «f- 
 
 ^9 
 
 79 
 
 v1 
 
 vQt. 
 
 ^\j\ undsk. 
 
 60 
 
 V 
 
 A' 
 
 -fILj «df^. 
 
 80 
 
 A* 
 
 TZO 
 
 J^\ assi. 
 
 61 
 
 ^\ 
 
 i\ 
 
 
 81 
 
 A\ 
 
 ^x 
 
 (^l^! iMsL 
 
 62 
 
 ir 
 
 i\ 
 
 .fLiU hdsath. 
 
 82 
 
 Ar 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^_^Lj hi,d8i. 
 
 63 
 
 ir 
 
 i\ 
 
 -i^i-j^ tirsath. 
 
 83 
 
 Ar 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ,^]y tirdsk. 
 
 64 
 
 IP 
 
 48 
 
 ,.^fL:j£k» chausath. 
 
 84 
 
 AP 
 
 ^8 
 
 ^\jy>' chaurdsi. 
 
 65 
 
 To 
 
 H 
 
 u • 
 
 85 
 
 Ac 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^\£^^pachd8i. 
 
 66 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 .^L^j>- chMjdsath. 
 
 86 
 
 A1 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^L^ ehhifdsi. 
 
 67 
 
 IV 
 
 4^ 
 
 o 
 
 87 
 
 AV 
 
 ^^ 
 
 j^la*-j satdsi. 
 
 68 
 
 1A 
 
 4^= 
 
 .^■^, (.4 athsath. 
 
 88 
 
 AA 
 
 •cc 
 
 j^l^l athdsi 
 
 69 
 
 11 
 
 4^ 
 
 ^Jx^l unhattar. 
 
 89 
 
 Al 
 
 x:£-. 
 
 ^\y nauM- 
 
 70 
 
 
 j:^ mttar. 
 
 90 
 
 1* 
 
 ^o 
 
 t^Jj nauwL 
 
NUMEEAliS. 
 
 77 
 
 FIGURES. 
 
 NAMES, 
 
 FIGTJEES. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 91 
 
 AEABIO. 
 
 nrDiAjr. 
 
 t^yl^l ihdnawL 
 
 96 
 
 ASABIO, 
 
 HTDIAK. 
 
 
 11 
 
 £.\ 
 
 11 
 
 £_^ \jy\^c7iU,dnawe 
 
 92 
 
 U 
 
 f-*^ 
 
 i^yb hdnawi. 
 
 97 
 
 Iv 
 
 ^^ 't^yls-o satdnawL 
 
 93 
 
 ir 
 
 ^^ 
 
 i^y>\P tirdnawe. 
 
 98 
 
 1A 
 
 £.^ 
 
 i^yl^l atJidnawL 
 
 94 
 
 IP 
 
 f-8 
 
 ^y \j^s>-cJiaurdnawe 
 
 99 
 
 »,"i 
 
 £^^ 
 
 Ljy^ nindnawL 
 
 95 
 
 Ic 
 
 t<l. 
 
 jjy Ics^ pachdnawi. 
 
 100 
 
 1" 
 
 ^oo 
 
 ^ sau or ^ sa« 
 
 a. Some of these have names slightly differing from the 
 preceding, which we here subjoin : 
 
 11 ^US gydrah 
 
 18 \j\^\ athdrd. 
 
 9 
 
 19 {j**^^ unnis. 
 21 ij**-^} ^Ich. 
 31 (juu-iioj ^M«. 
 33 ^juu--:u-J taintis. 
 34 
 
 ^ja*--:xi»>- chauntis. 
 
 38 t/*:?Jj' ^^^** 
 
 39 (j-Jlsrl unchdlis. 73 
 
 i6 ^^ygjl::^ chhatdlis. 
 i8 ^'/^ or^a^i*. I 
 
 51 {j^^} ihdwan. 85 |^Lsi> 
 
 54 u^J^ chawgan. 
 
 55 (j^^^ pachdwm 
 61 -#^J ^>^««?A. 
 
 L!i-^.s*-l^ cJihdchhat 
 or ..^iLv^ ^ chha-sath. 
 
 -fi«3;i arsath. 
 j£^J ikhattar. 
 
 J-^^ tirhattar. 
 
 66 
 
 ,^Lsx> panchdsL 
 86 ^*«:l^rs- chhdsi. 
 •90 Jjj nauwad. 
 
 i^y 1^1 iMnawi or 
 ij-ylii ihdnauwL 
 
 my. 
 
 t^yb hdnauwSoi 
 
 LSy]j^ htrdnauwS, 
 
 "ft 
 93 «-0^J/ tirdnauwe. 
 
 ., •; . ^ - 95 (_f*3l.2^ mwcAawfl^^ 
 
 41 j^li^J ^y^i^a^i*. 76 Jjb^chha-hattar --^ v v^ 
 
 y 
 
 y. 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 82 
 
 ^^b Jrf*i 01 
 
 « y 
 
 .^\;i hirdai. 
 
 96 ijyl^ chhdnawL 
 
 y. y 
 
 99 
 
 ^^lij wwdwowtf;^. 
 
T8 
 
 PRACTIONAL NUMBEES. 
 
 a. The numbers above one hundred proceed somewhat like our own, 
 only the conjunction is generally suppressed ; as -^b ^ <^-^J ^^ «<*« 
 pdnohf one hundred (and) five ;' (jw J y^ jJ do sau das, * two hundred 
 (and) ten/ etc. The present year, 1855, may be expressed as with us» 
 ^J^^ y^ -$jT jl^ <-^.^ *^ hat&r dth sau pachpan, or ^^;-^, ^ ^'«^5^ 
 a^AdraA «aw pachpan, that is, one thousand eight hundred,' etc., (tr 
 * eighteen hundred,* etc. 
 
 h. The following are used as collective numbers : 
 
 \^ gandd, a group of four. 
 , ^l^ gdhi, a five. 
 ^^ hori, a score. 
 LyJU- chdlisd, a forty. 
 
 JjL-j saikrd, a hundred. 
 jUfe hazdr, a thousand. 
 ^i ^aM, a hundred thousand. 
 j£^ ha/ror, one hundred lakhs, 
 
 or ten millions. 
 
 c. The Ordinals proceed as follows : 
 
 ^ jt?aA?d or pahild, 
 
 1st. 
 
 l^j^ chauthd, 4th. 
 j2,U:srl> pdnchwdn, 5th. 
 
 j^l^5^ chhatwdhf 
 
 6th. 
 
 LLj ot paihld, 
 
 L*j.J <?tisrfi, 2nd. 
 
 lyu*-j ^isrti, 3rd. 1^%=- chhathd. 
 
 The * seventh' and upwards are regularly formed from the Cardinals 
 by the addition of ^\j wan. The ordinals are aU subject to inflection 
 like adjectives in \ a or ah, that is, d becomes e for the oblique mas- 
 culine, and i for the feminine. In like manner, dh becomes eh and i». 
 
 J. 
 
 d. Fractional Numbers. 
 
 j\j pd,o 
 ^fc>- chauth, . 
 ^c*\±)^^^ chauihd,k, ' 
 ^J*\^ tihdyi, i. 
 
 UC(J| UU/tMBf <y« 
 
 ^^ paun, 
 \jy>^ paund 
 \y^ sawd, ij, 
 ^ J ^A, Ij. 
 
 f 
 
 In the use of the fractional numbers, a few peculiarities oocux 
 
DERIVATION OF WORDS. 79 
 
 wnich it will be wtil to notice ; thus, J,jJ paune, when prefixed to a 
 number, signifies ' a quarter less ' than that number ; lj*-o sawd, a 
 quarter more ;' iJ^j^ sdrhe, ' one half more,' etc. To the collective 
 numbers for a hundred, a thousand, etc., th^ are similarly applied ; 
 thus, 5-0 i^J paune sau = 75 ; ^ ly-s sawd sau = 125. The words 
 derh and arhd,i. denote multiplication; as, j|jJJ> ^3 derh ha%dr = 
 1500, i. e. (1000 x IJ) ; jJjJb iJ'^J^ ^M^'^ ^^^"^ = 2^^^' ^' 
 (1000 X 2J). 
 
 e. It will be seen then, that altogether the management of the 
 numerals, whole and fractional, is no easy matter. The swre plan is 
 to commit them carefully to memory up to 100. As a check upon 
 this the learner should get the first ten, and the multiples of 10, as 
 20, 30, 40, etc. ; then, if he is not quite certain of any number (not an 
 
 o 
 
 unlikely occurrence), for example 35, he may safely say /^^ y l/**^ 
 tispar pdnch, 'five over thirty.' Lastly, let him get the first twenty 
 thoroughly, and then count by scores i^J^ kori ; thus, 35 is eh hori 
 pandraJi; but the more scientific mode is, of course, to carry the 
 hundred numerals in his head, and be quite independent. 
 
 DERIVATION OF WORDS. 
 
 50. The Hindustani abounds with derivative words 
 both of native origin and of foreign importation. Those 
 from the Arabic are generally single words modified 
 from a triliteral root, according to the grammatical rules 
 of that language. From the Persian, on the other hand, 
 not only derivative words are freely borrowed, but also 
 a multitude of compounds, for the formation of which 
 the Persian language has a peculiar aptitude, and to the 
 number of which there is no limit. In like manner, 
 compositions in the Hindi dialect abound in Sanskrit 
 words both derivative and compounded according to the 
 genius of that highly-cultivated language. Hence, in 
 omer no itnow Hindustani on sound etymological prm- 
 dples, a slight knowledge of Arabic, Persian, and 
 
80 DERIVATIVES. 
 
 Sanskrit is absolutely retiuifiite. To the majority of 
 students in this country, however, this is impracticable, 
 their time being necessarily occupied in the acquisition 
 of those essential branches of knowledge usually taught 
 at schools. As a general rule, then, we may take it foi 
 granted that an acquaintance with the words of the 
 Hindustani language, whether native or foreign, primi- 
 tive or derivative, must be ultimately acquired by prac- 
 tice in reading, with the aid of a vocabulary or dictionary, 
 together with exercises in composition. This being the 
 case, it will not be necessary for us to enter deeply into 
 the subject of derivation or composition; the reader, if 
 inclined, may consult Dr. Gilchrist's quarto Grammar, 
 edit. 1796, where he will find twenty-nine goodly pages 
 devoted to this department. 
 
 NOUNS DENOTING AGENCY OR POSSESSION. 
 
 51. We have already seen that the agent of a verb 
 is denoted by adding the termination ^\^ wdld (sometimes 
 5^U hard) to the inflected form of the infinitive, as holne- 
 wdld or holne-hdrd^ ' a speaker.' The same termiuations 
 added to a substantive denote in general the possessor of 
 such substantive, real or temporary ; as ^^j ^ ghai^-wdld^ 
 *the master of the house;' ^U J-J hail-wdld^ Hhe owner 
 of the bullock ;' or, simply, ^ the man with the bullock.' 
 A noun of the third class is inflected on the addition of 
 V\^ wdldj thus, J\j ^^ gadhe-wdla^ ' the owner of the 
 ass ;' or * the man with the donkey.' Yarious nouns of 
 agency, etc. are also formed by adding the following 
 termmations, thus : — 
 
 ^'u to jlj a garden, jjV^V ^^^^-*<iw, a gardener. 
 
 jb — 1^2^ a jest, J^l<A^ thatths-hdz, a jester. 
 
DEBIVAT1VE8. 61 
 
 J to i\j a road, jiAj rdh-har, a guide. 
 
 jjjj — <U5*- a pipe, J^*-^ ^^^^ hukka-larddr, a pipe-bearer. 
 
 Jjj — Ja3 a horse-shoe, JoJjtJ na^l-land, a farrier. 
 
 ^>. — Jjtil^ a torch, L<f^"^ masKal-cU, a torch-bearer. 
 
 ' iIj — Lip-V ^^^^» J^'^ c^J %amin-ddr, a landholder. 
 
 J — \jbji iron, jUjl Mdr, a blacksmith. 
 
 V — jj |)ad, j^'^ had-Mr, an evil-doer. 
 
 / — jj gold, ^^ %ar-gar, a goldsmith, 
 
 jl^ — 2(li^ crime, jl^ ifliS' gundh-gdr, a sinner, 
 
 jlj — Ju.^\ hope, jljJw«! ummed-wdry an expectant. 
 
 jj4ij •— jJ door, i^yV'^ dar-wdn, a porter. 
 
 jC — *Lw-j army, ^<^W' *^«^2, a soldier. 
 
 NOUNS DENOTING THE MEANS OR INSTRUMENT. 
 
 52. These signify the thing by which the action may 
 
 be performed, and are derived from verbal roots by 
 affixing 
 
 jj as J-J rolling, ^JuJ helan, a rolling-pin. 
 
 U — Aj playing, L^ ramnd, a park. 
 
 • — j:^ clipping, ci/^ ^a^ajrwi, a pair of scissors 
 
 J — j\^r sweeping, 3y^ jhdrji, a broom. Q 
 
 Others are formed from nouns, by affixing 
 ^y\ as {jij^ an hour, JVj^ gharkydl, an hour-bell ^ 
 
 ^T — ci-v^J the hand, <Oli«:J dastdna, a glove. ^ 
 
 C/ -— ajuajs- the eye, (.LiviAf*- chashmah, spectacles. 
 
 » — u:-^;> the hand, <fc:^J e?a«^», a handle, 
 
 * The terminations ddr^ bdz, and perhaps a few more, require the noun to be 
 mflected, if of the third class ; as, mazc'dary tasteful, thattht'bdzj a jester. 
 
82 DERIVATIVES. 
 
 NOXJNS DENOTING PLACE OR SITUATION. 
 
 53. These are formed partly by uniting two nouns 
 together, and also by adding certain terminations ; as, 
 
 jUT a city, j*^-^ Haidar, Mjj^ haidar-dbad, the 
 
 city of Haidar. 
 (^j\j ^j\i a garden, J^^ a flower, c?Jl^^^Ati?-M7dri, a flower- 
 garden. 
 j[^ a city, vj?)li Gh^, jj^ j^jU Ghdzi-pwryth.QQiiy 
 
 of Ghazf. 
 j\j multitude, ^)J a tulip, j\j i^'l Idla-zdr, a tulip- 
 
 bed. 
 JL or ilL a place, !j^ a horse, fjLiJ^ ghur-sdl, a stable. 
 
 jv>vi-j a place, j^ a grave, ^u^s^ kahr-istdn, a bury- 
 
 ing-ground. 
 ^^ a place, JSarose, ^ju^ gul-shan, a rose- 
 
 bower. 
 
 ^flTaplace, aI^T rest, i)^^\J\ drdm-gdh, o. ve^i- 
 
 ing-place. 
 
 j& city, ^jJm^ Kishn, ^^jL^ Kishn-nagoTj the 
 
 town of Krishna 
 
 ABSTRACTS. 
 
 64 Abstract nouns are formed chiefly from adjec- 
 tives, by affixing some termination, of which the follow- 
 LQg are of common occurrence : 
 
 \ to z^warm, ^^^flfr»^<f, warm weather 
 
 U ^ — fS little, i<^ kamti, deficiency. 
 
 \jf j^, or Uj — \^ a child, cJ?^ larah-pan, childhood. 
 
 ^ — ^2-^ sweet, (jwl^ mithds, sweetness. 
 
 j-T — ^Ijf fresh, L^^ td%ag\f freshness. 
 
DEEIVATIVES. 83 
 
 ^^ to W^l Hgh, u^^^^ uncMn, height. 
 
 ^J — \ji bad, ^^y. ^^^X badness. 
 
 — 5^ bitter, tiUJbljjp karwdhat, bitterness. 
 
 To Arabic nouns Cl> is generally added to form abstracts ; as, 
 Jis>^ huhm, a command,' ^^:l.-^^J>- hukiimat, * dominion ;' so z*^^ 
 hojijdm, a barber,' hajjdmat, ' shaving.' A few abstracts are formed 
 by a repetition of the word, with a slight alteration in the last, as 
 ^y* ^^^ jJikth-miithy falsehood.* • 
 
 VEEBALS. 
 
 55. The verbal noun denoting the action (in pro- 
 gress) is generally expressed by the infinitive. The 
 action, in the abstract, is frequently expressed by the 
 mere root; as, Jy hol^ ^speech,' j^U- chdti^ ^desire,' etc. 
 Others are formed from the root by adding certain 
 terminations; as, . 
 
 \ to ^ speak, l^ Tcahdy a saying. 
 
 ^\ — ^ sow, i^W *^>^»^» ^ sowing. 
 
 c->T — J-^ mix, ^-J^ mildp, a mixing or union. 
 
 {jt^ — . ^ drink, (jwjW P^V^^i desire to drink, thirst. 
 
 /^- — jj\j know(Per8.)(jijlj ddnish, knowledge. 
 
 ^ — Jj^ burn, ^J^ jaUn^ a burning. 
 
 \^ — ^ deceive, ^j^^ ihuldwd, a deception. 
 
 <3j — Ur* prepare, (^jlsr* sajdwat, preparation. 
 
 ^5J1 — c¥ feed, ^14 ^^^'^^^^ a feeding. 
 
 C*^ — • \i call, l2-^^ luUhaty a calling. 
 
S4 DETITVATTVF9. 
 
 DIMINUTIVES. 
 
 66. These are formed from other nouns, by adding 
 to them various terminations ; as, 
 
 \ to ^5-j a daughter, L2j hitiyd, a little daughter. 
 
 ^^>- or <i^ — t^-^*^ * cauldron, ^^_^f^'^ degcM, a kettle. 
 
 oj — i^,^iL a bedstead, u^J^ ^a^yri, a small bed- 
 stead. 
 CS — L^y a cannon, i^^y topak, a musket. 
 
 \j — J.^ a man, 1?^ ma/rdii,,d, a little man. 
 
 \i» — i:r*^ a brahman, IS-j^^Jb^ brahmanetd, a young 
 
 brahman. 
 Uj — j^j^ a deer, ^^1/^ Mranotd, a fawn, 
 
 w or Jj — jf^ a peacock, ^jy* moreld, a pea-chicken. 
 
 Jb^ — 4 b a garden, dL^lj lagUcha, a kitchen- 
 
 garden. 
 
 FEMININES FORMED FROM MASCULINES. 
 
 57. Names of males ending in 1 a or jl «, of the third 
 class, have the corresponding females in ^~ i] as ILj 
 hetd, ^ a son ; ' ^jLi^ hetiy * a daughter ;' \^^ ghord^ ' a 
 horse ;' cSj^ d^^x'h ^ ^ niare. ' In a similar manner 
 names of lifeless objects of the third class have some- 
 times a feminine form, generally significant of diminution, 
 as ^^ gold^ ' a bullet ;' J^ golij ' a pill.' Substantives 
 of the first and second classes form the corresponding 
 feminine by adding either ^- i, ^J ni, or ^- in, as 
 follows : — 
 
 
 
 5U malUy a teacher, 
 
 ^li muHdnL 
 
 
 
 jJ^i skwy a lion, 
 
 ^JjiA «^^^ 
 
 
 
 /i^ mihtar, a sweeper, 
 
 ^Jlp;.^ miUanAvA, 
 
 ' 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DERIVATIVES. 86 
 
 ^^y*Ji>\ji brahman, a Braliman, ^^^j>,AJb\jj hrdhmank. 
 
 ' / jjjU-j sunann, or 
 
 jU**s iundr, a goldsmith, ) ^^ ^ 
 
 a. A few are irregular in their formation ; thus, from ci*^^ M<i,{, 
 ^brother,' ,^ JaAw, 'sister;' (^-J leg or ^U- Tchdn, 'lord,' Xo 
 hegam or ^wU- Jchdnam, 'lady;' \s>-\j rdjd, 'king,' ^]j ^«w^j 
 'queen;' i^fil^ hdthi, m. 'an elephant,' ^^"^ hathnz, f. In other 
 cases, as l_>Ij bdp, ' father,' U wa, ' mother,' the words are totally- 
 different, as in our own language, and often taken from different 
 tongues, as J^ mard, man' (Persian), <^^jy^ 'aurat, woman' 
 (Arabic). 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 58. Adjectives are formed from substantives by the 
 addition of certain terminations, most of which will be 
 found in the following alphabetical list : their ordinary 
 meaning will be obvious from the various examples ; 
 thus, by adding 
 
 \ to ^^i hunger, l^^ hhitJchd, hungry. 
 
 &j\ — JiL? a child, <0laL tijldna, childish. 
 
 ^^ ^ " 
 
 j^\ — jj5J strength, J3\)3J zor-dwar, strong. 
 
 joj — J L^ arms, Jco^U^ hathydr-hand, armed. 
 
 ^b — lij fidelity, jbli^ wafd-ddr, faithful. 
 
 \j — <-^.^j foreign country, \y:^)^ wiMgat-zd, foreign-bora 
 
 jLj — s^ a. mountain, jLjbj^ koJi-sdr, mountainous. 
 
 j^ — J J the heart, j-^^ dil-gir, grieved. 
 
 ^j^ — aX sorrow, U^i*"^ gham-gin, sorrowful 
 
 ^ or j! — k^?V hehind, ^^^i pichhld, hindermost 
 
 JU^ — c:-JjJ wealtn, JCviol^J daulat-mand, wealthy. 
 
86 
 
 DERTVATiyES. 
 
 U to ^0 two, 
 
 CJ\j — J^ terror, 
 
 j\j — <^.^ grief, 
 J J — /•li name, 
 
 X — JL>j4^ two years, 
 ^ — j\j\i a market, 
 
 JjorL — ci^lo tooth, 
 ^^ <Uj or <!tjlj to t--V>- wood, 
 
 UjJ diindf double. 
 ci/Lifc& haul-ndk, terrible. 
 j^IjoJ rfi^dHt, slightly. 
 j^^y^ 8og-wdry grievous. 
 jj^U »<iw-M;ar, renowned. 
 <sSLjjt> do-sdla, biennial. 
 ijj\j^, hdzdrif of the market. 
 J-:i3j dantel, tusked. 
 ^^>- (jAoJk, wooden. 
 
 /♦li /aw and ^^ gun are added to words to denote colour ; as, 
 ^U \^J^] '^o^fardn-fdm, ' saffron-coloured,' .^^ J-J nil-giin, ' blue 
 coloured.' li^ ^owd and ^^ gosha are added to numerals to 
 express the figure of things; as, Ijj^^^ chau-kond, 'quadrangular, 
 <Lij^ (JmJ^ shash-gosha, ' hexagonal,' etc. /^j ^^7asA and j\^ wdr are 
 added to express likeness; as, «jj ^j harh-wash, like lightning,' 
 j\^ &j\Lij^ marddna-wdr, 'like a brave 
 
 man. 
 
 a. Many adjectives are formed by prefixing certain words; as 
 follows : — 
 
 J to l^ J seen, 
 
 5 — 
 
 lij trust, 
 j*^ patience, 
 -♦13 a name. 
 
 l^Jul an-delchd, unseen. 
 lijb ia-«;a/<i, trusty. 
 j f»> g; * J he-sahr, impatient. 
 /♦Uaj bad-ndm, infamous. 
 ^U-^ gJiai/r-Mmr, absent. 
 Jlc wisdom, jlcuJ^U- IcUldf-'aU, foolish. 
 ::-.>.«: fortime, t::^^.s?:j»i kam-laMitj unfortunate. 
 
 ^•U- help, ^^^ Id-cMra, helpless. 
 
 ^ 
 
 pUw present, 
 
COMPOUNDS. 87 
 
 I3 to u^y^ pleased, ^^d-U nd-^hush, displeased. 
 
 ^ — ^^s. age, JJXiJi) ham-umr, coeval. 
 
 59. In concluding our remarks on the derivation of 
 words, we would particularly direct the student's atten- 
 tion to the various uses of the termination , «_ «. 1. It 
 may be added to almost every adjective of the language, 
 simple or compound, which then becomes the corres- 
 ponding abstract substantive. 2. It may be added to all 
 substantives denoting country, city, sect, tribe, physical 
 substances, etc., which then become adjectives, signifying 
 of or belonging to^ or formed from^ etc., the primary 
 substantive. Lastly. It is used in forming feminines 
 from masculines ; and it is the characteristic of the 
 feminine gender in all present and past participles, as 
 well as in all adjectives purely Indian ending in \ a, 
 
 COMPOUND WOEDS. 
 
 60. In all works written in the Urdu or mixed 
 dialect of Hindustani, a vast number of compound words 
 from the Persian may be met with in almost every page. 
 These are generally formed by the union of two sub- 
 stantives, or of an adjective with a substantive. Many 
 of them are giv^ in dictionaries, but as there is no limit 
 to their number, the student must not place much re- 
 liance on that source. A few weeks' study of Persian 
 will make the matter clearer than any body of rules we 
 could lay down on the subject ; we shall therefore notice 
 here only the more important compounds, referring the 
 student for further information to our Persian Grammar, 
 last edition. 
 
88 COMPOUNDS. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 a. A Persian or Arabic substantive with its regimen is of fire 
 quent occurrence in Hindustani; as, i-^\^ <--'! dh-i-haiydt, ' watei 
 of immortality;* jjiulj'^fJjJ dida^i-ddniah, the eye of discernment ;' 
 f^j^jL^jU r^-6-zamin, the face of the earth.' In a similar form a 
 Persian substantive with its adjective occasionally occurs ; as, ^ J^ 
 mard-t-niM, 'a good man;' ^-jli Jlc ' dlam-i-fdni, 'the perishable 
 world.' These, when introduced into Hindustanf, are viewed as 
 single words, and form their various cases by adding the post-posi- 
 tions like nouns of the first or second classes; as, dh-i-havydt kd, 
 db-i-haiydt se, etc. 
 
 h. A numerous class of Compound Substantives is formed by the 
 mere juxta-position of two nouns ; as, &j\:>- ^^j}^. idwar-chk- 
 Ihdna, * cook-house, or kitchen,' from ij^^V cook,' and <ijl>- a 
 house ;' so, ^^/^j razm-gdh, * the battle-field,' from /^jj ' contest,' 
 and ii\^ *a place;' in like manner, ^L) (j^rT J<^hdn-pandh, the 
 asylum of the world,' *. e. 'your majesty,' from ^^^-^ the 
 world,' and iUj refuge;' so, <t«l3 Jjj roz-ndma, a day-book,' 
 <ulJJy>. Ichirad-ndma, 'the book of wisdom,' etc. In compounds of 
 this kind, the two words are generally written separate, though they 
 may also be united into one. These are upon the whole like our own 
 compounds, look-stall, coffee house, newspaper, etc., of which it is 
 customary to write some with a hyphen between, others quite 
 separate, and a few united into one word. 
 
 c. There is a class of verbal Nouns, not very numerous, consisting, 
 1st. Of two contracted infinitives, connected with the conjunction ^ ; 
 as, tJ^i-i) J ci-JS' guft shaniid, ' conversation,' literally, ' speaking 
 and hearing;' li^j j Ju«i dmad o raft or dmad o shud, coming and 
 j;oing, intercourse.' 2ndly. A contracted infinitive, with the cor- 
 
COMPOUNDS. 89 
 
 responding root ; as ^ j c:^vuuc»- j%t8t o /A, * searching ;* ^ j <:l^ 
 guft gii, 'conversation.' The conjunction j in such cases is occa- 
 sionally omitted; as, Jl^ Jw«i, j^ c:— i^, the same as vX^ j 4X^1, etc. 
 
 d. There are a few compounds similar to the preceding, consisting 
 of two substantives, sometimes of the same, and sometimes of different 
 signification ; as, /%^ j jy* or j^y^o j J^ marz h-km or mar% 
 kishwar, ' an empire ' or ' kingdom,' literally, * boundary and region ;' 
 bc^ \^ J c-^T ah hawd, 'climate,'- literally, water and air;' 
 l^ J jjuuJ nashv namd, rearing or bringing up * (a plant or animal). 
 In these, also, the conjunction j may be omitted, as L«u yJ^f 
 
 e. Compounds purely Hindustani or Hindf are not nearly so 
 numerous as those borrowed from the Persian ; the following are 
 occasionally met with : Ist. A masculine and feminine past participle, 
 generally the same verb, though sometimes different; as, (-^^ l^ 
 hahd-TcaU, 'altercation,' Jwj l^ Icahd-sunij 'disputation.' 2nd. Two 
 nouns of the same, or nearly the same signification; as, i^W iy 
 
 servants,' t^j '•^:^lj a custom or mode,' etc. Such expressions are 
 very common- in the ' Bagh Bahar,' which is the standard work of 
 the language. 3rd. Two words having something of alliteration about 
 them, or a similarity of rhyme ; as, AltoJ t*^^ hurly-burly,' j«j j^ 
 ' uproar,' ^^^^ 'trickery,' etc., all of which we should of course 
 vote to be vulgarisms, only that they occur in the very best writers. 
 Lastly, the Hindustani is particularly rich in imitative sounds, such 
 ^s ^Ji^ ^jis>- 'jingling,' ^ ^^ 'simmering.' 
 
 /. Arabic phrases, such as we described in p. 19 (No. 18), are 
 occasionally met with, such as c— jL**j^1 t— ,.^-m*v<, ' the Causer of 
 causes,' God,' ete»; but we believe that all such are explained in 
 good dictionaries. 
 
90 COMPOUNDS. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 a. A very numerous class of epithets is fonned by the union of 
 two substantives; as, ^j ajj Idla rukh, 'having cheeks like the 
 tulip ;' ^*^ i^jJ pdri-rii,6 or park-rii, * having the face of a fairy ;' 
 J J c^C;..i sang-dily ' having a heart like stone ;' i^ Jj^i shakar-lah^ 
 having lips (sweet) as sugar.' In English we have many instances, 
 in the more familiar style, of this kind of compound; as, 'iron- 
 hearted,' 'bull-headed,' 'lynx-eyed,' etc. 
 
 h. Another numerous class, similar to the preceding, is formed by 
 prefixing an adjective to a substantive; as, ^'».j i^y>- kMb-ritje, 
 * having a fair face ;* ,^*\j l1/1> pdk-rd,e, ' of pure intention ;' 
 J J ^,^Ji:J tang-dil, distressed in heart.' We make use of many 
 such compounds in familiar conversation and newspaper style, such at 
 'clear-sighted,' 'long-headed,' sharp-witted,' ' hard-hearted,' «^tf. 
 
 e. Perhaps the most numerous class of the epithets is that com- 
 posed of verbal roots, joined to substantives or adjectives ; as,^^ Jlc 
 'dlam-gir, world-subduing;' jSj] <5j»::>j fitna-ange%, strife-exciting;* 
 LjT ^o^" Jdn-dsd, 'giving rest to the soul;' ^^1:^-0 J<^ dil-sitdn, 
 'ravishing the heart;' ^ CS^ suluh-raw, 'moving lightly.' Our 
 best English poets frequently indulge in compounds of this class ; thus, 
 ' the night-tripping fairy,' * the temple-haunting martlet,' ' the cloud- 
 compelling Jove,' etc. 
 
 d. A knowledge of these Persian compounds will be absolutely 
 necessary, in order to peruse with any advantage the finest productions 
 of the Hindustani language. The poets in general freely use such 
 terms; nor are they of less frequent occurrence in the best prose 
 works, such as the ' Ba^ o Bahdr,' the * Ikhwanu-s-safa,' the * Khirad 
 
COMPOUNDS. 91 
 
 Afroz/ etc., for the thorough understanding of which, a slight know 
 ledge of the Persian is absolutely requisite. In proof of this, we 
 eould point out many compounds which occur in our own selections 
 from the ' Khirad Afroz,' not to be found in any dictionary, the 
 meaning at the same time being quite obvious to any one who knows 
 Persian . Such, for example, are l^^ ^j-^ marham-lahd, ' medicine- 
 money ; ' ^^ {j^ nafas-kmU, ' mortifying of the passions ; ' 
 ^\y* (i-i^ siif'i-mizdjf of philosophic disposition,' 
 
 e. We may reckon among the compounds such expressions as 
 L-->b L« md-hdp, 'parents,' j^J^ Idr-Jcapur, 'Lar and Kapiir,' names 
 of two brother minstrels who lived at the court of Akbar. It is 
 barely possible that this may be an imitation of the Sanskrit compound 
 called Dwandwa ; though the probability is in favour of its being an 
 idiomatic omission of the conjunction j^\ * and,' between two such 
 words as are usually considered to be associated together. In works 
 purely Hindi, translated from the Sanskrit, such as the * Prem Sagar,' 
 it is most likely that such phrases as IJW:?- Joj nandarjasodd, 
 *!N"anda and Jasoda;' ^^j ^J^^J^ hrishna-lalardm, 'Krishna and 
 Balaram,' are bona-fide Dwandwas ; but it would savour of pedantry to 
 apply the term to such homely expressions as ^^j^^ ^jj ' bread and 
 butter,' or the very un-classical beverage commonly called ^Jl) i^^jit 
 videlicet, ' brandy and water.' 
 
02 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 SYNTAX, OR THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 61. In all languages a simple sentence must necessarily 
 consist of three parts, expressed or understood: 1st, a 
 nominative or subject; 2nd, a verb; and 3rd, a predicate 
 or attribute ; as, ' fire is hot,' ^ ice is cold.' In many 
 instances the verb and attribute are included in one 
 word ; as, ^ the man sleeps,' ' the horse runs,' ' the snow 
 falls,' in which case the verb is said to be neuter or 
 intransitive. When the verb is expressive of an action, 
 and at the same time the sense is incomplete without 
 stating the object acted upon, it is called an active or 
 transitive verb, as, ' the carpenter made a table,' ' the 
 masons built a church.' In each of these sentences it is 
 evident that something is required beyond the verb to 
 complete the sense, for if we merely said ^ the carpenter 
 made,' Hhe masons built,' the hearer would instantly 
 ask, ^ made what?' ^ built what?' In Hindustani and 
 several of its kindred dialects, it is of the utmost import- 
 ance that the learner should discriminate the active or 
 transitive from the neuter or intransitive verb, in order 
 that he may adopt that mode of construction peculiar to 
 each. In a sentence whose verb is active or transitive, 
 we shall designate the three parts as agent, verb, and 
 object ; thus, the carpenter is the agent ; made, the verb ; 
 and a table, the object. 
 
 a. In the arrangement of the three parts of a sentence, different 
 languages follow rules peculiar to themselves; for instance, in the 
 
ARRANGEMENT OP WORDS. 98 
 
 sentence, *the elephant killed the tiger,' the Latin, Greek, and 
 Sanskrit languages have the option of arranging the words in any 
 order. The Arabic and the Gaelic put the verb first, then the nomi- 
 native, and lastly the object. The English and French follow the 
 logical order as we have given it, and the Hindustani and Persian 
 have also an arrangement of their own, which we shall now proceed to 
 explain, as our first rule of Syntax or construction. 
 
 62. The general rule for the arrangement of the parts 
 of a sentence in Hindustani is, "first, the nominative or 
 agent ; secondly, the predicate or object ; and, last of all, 
 the verb; thus, ^ /»X^T ag garm hai^ ^fire is hot,' 
 15^ tjiS ^j^\ \^ji parhez achchhi dawd hai, ^ abstinence is 
 good physic,' ^ ^^jjU ^ j^ J ^'l& hdtkt-ne sher-ko 
 mdr-ddld hai^ ^ the elephant has killed the tiger.' 
 
 a. Though the above rule holds in short sentences, such as those 
 we have just given, yet it is by no means of stringent application. 
 In the first place, poets are freely allowed the proverbial license of 
 the genus ; that is, to adopt that arrangement of the words which best 
 pleases the ear, or suits the metre. In prose, also, it may sometimes 
 be more emphatic to put the object first ; as, \i) \j>- y ^ ^jxi ^ \ 
 *thou hast stolen those images.' Sometimes the object is, for the sake 
 of contrast or emphasis, put last, in the place usually occupied by the 
 verb; as follows, ^ JUi JiU jj\— _j^JU ^ bj^ t_,JJ? J^U- 
 the fool seeks for wealth, and the sage for excellence,' where mdl-lco 
 and hamdl-lco are put last. 
 
 h. The Hindustani makes no difference in the arrangement of a 
 sentence, whether it be interrogative or affirmative. In conversation, 
 the tone of the voice, or the look, suffices to indicate whether or not a 
 question is asked, and in reading it must be inferred from the context ; 
 thus, i^^lss- (*J' may signify 'you will go,' or 'wiU you go?' There 
 ore, however, several words which are used only in asking a question, 
 such as those given in the middle column of p. 68. These, when 
 used, come immediately before the verb, as ^/^ jjly^ *j * where 
 
94 OOKCOBD OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 will you go ?' The word L^ is sometimes employed at the beginning 
 of a sentence to denote interrogation, like the Latin num or an ; as, 
 ^i-j ^J^ Jl^ ^ iJ aj L^ * have you not heard this proverb ? ' 
 
 CONCORD OF ADJECTIVES WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 63. The adjective, as in English, generally precedes 
 its substantive. If the adjective be capable of inflection, 
 that is, if it be a purely Indian word ending in \ «, the 
 following rule holds : The termination V d is used before 
 all masculine nouns in the nominative (or first accusative) 
 case singular ; the termination ^ e is used before mas- 
 culine nouns in any other case singular, or in the plural 
 nimiber ; and the termination ^5 _ ^ is used before all 
 feminine nouns, in any case, singular or plural ; thus, 
 
 i> j^ il^ ij wuh hhald mard hai^ * he is a good man,' 
 '^ Jy* ^J^ hhale mard-se, ' from a good man,' S^ ^J^ 
 hhale mard, ' good men,' ^ ij^'^j^ ^J^ hhale mardoh-se, 
 'from good men,' c-j^i^ ^J^, hhali ^aurat, ^ a good woman,' 
 ^ l;^>^ u5^ ^^^^^ '«^^mifo7^-^6^, ^ of good women.' 
 
 a. The same rule applies to such adjectives in ^ dn and a o, as 
 admit of inflection ; as, J^ (J^y^<^ ' the tenth man,' l^ J^ ^yi,y^^ 
 * of the tenth man,' Ll^lj ^,,y^^ the tenth night;' so,^Luu« i^jlssnj 
 *the helpless traveller,' ^ Jt\u*y* ^J^^. 'to the helpless traveller,' 
 
 jIj i_5^L^ * the helpless queen.' 
 
 h. If adjectives, capable of inflection, be separated by means of 
 the particle ^ from the noun which they qualify, and united with 
 the verb, they undergo no change ; as, ^^ t^ ^ .^ 15^^ * blacken 
 his face ; ' but in this sentence Mld-harnd is to be reckoned a com- 
 pound verb (p. 66, h). Adjectives, ending with any letter except 
 \, i and ^^f restricted as above, do not undergo any change 
 
GENITIVE CASE. 96 
 
 as, ;<^ST CS\j^ 'a pure man, <-^^ C/^ *a pure woman,' 
 L^ ci/b 'o ' an unclean thing.' 
 
 e. As a general rule, adjectives, when followed by their sub- 
 stantives, never receive the nasal terminations {an, en, or on) of 
 the plural ; and the same rule applies to such tenses as are 
 formed of participles with or without an auxiliary verb, it being 
 deemed sufficient to add the nasal n to the last word only; as 
 •j-jl:;^ isF*"^ fl!cA<?M? (not achchTu,dn) hitdlen, good books;' 
 (J ^vj^^Jl ^i^ hhale (not Ihalon) ddmiyoh-ne, by good men;' 
 •j,-^* ^J^j Lj^W" Li^^ S/J '^^ ^^^^^ J°'^^ raht'i thin, they (females) 
 continued going along.' Sometimes, however, the participle takes 
 the plural termination; as ^j^ cJ^jH ^^^ ij^ ij^^^Lr* ^^^^ 
 the adjective comes last (which may happen in verse), it sometimes 
 receives the plural termination; as, ^^V.J^ ij^\j '^^^^J (tedious) 
 nights.' (Yates's Grammar). 
 
 d. If an adjective qualify two or more nouns, some of which are 
 masculine, and others feminine, the adjective is used in the masculine 
 form, and the same rule applies to the participles and future tenses of 
 verbs ; as, j-Ji s/V* ^^ ^ l5^^ * ^^^ mother and father are dead ;' 
 '\j^ ^rM^.^ 1^ f L5% L5^ l5^/^ L5*^^ '^^ seeing his son and 
 daughter dead, said,' etc. If, however, the substantives be names of 
 inanimate things, the adjective generally agrees with that to which it 
 stands nearest; thus, ^^-Jb l5^^ ^'~^. u;^^ J^ liT'V ^^^ 
 ' the clothes, plates, and books are very good.' 
 
 CONCORD OP THE GENITIYE WITH ITS REGIMEN; ETC. 
 
 64. We have seen (p. 27, etc.,) that the genitive 
 case has three distinct terminations, M, ke, and ki, and 
 the rule which determines the choice of these is exactly 
 similar to that which regulates the termination of the 
 
96 GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 ^•djective ; in fact, all genitives in Hindtistanf are pos* 
 sesdve adjectives^ subject to inflection, and, like adjectives, 
 they are generally placed before the substantive which 
 governs them. If the governing word be masculine and 
 in the nominative case (or first form of the accusative^^ 
 singular, l^ Jed is used, as, j^ ^ S^ mard-kd ghar^ ' the 
 man's house,' or 'the house of the man,' ^j\S^^ lil^ l^ j^ 
 mard-kd kuttd wafdddr hai^ *the man's dog is faithful,' 
 jjjU c:-v* li^ l^ jj^ mard'kd kuttd mat mdro^ ^ do not 
 beat the man's dog.' If the governing word be mascu- 
 line, and in an oblique case singular, or in any case 
 plural, ^ ke is used, as, ^ j^ ^ cij^ mard-ke ghar-se^ 
 * from the man's house,' ^ ^^j^ ^ J% mard-ke gharon- 
 ko, 'to the man's houses.' Lastly, if the governing 
 word be feminine, in whatever case or number, ^ kl is 
 used; as, ^^ ^ Sy* mard-ki beti, *the man's daughter,' 
 •j-jIs^ ^ S^ mard-ki kitdheh, ' the man's books.' 
 
 ^. Although the general rule is to put the genitive case before 
 its regimen, yet the reverse is of frequent occurrence, particularly in 
 such works as have been translated or imitated from the Persian; 
 as ^ jjJj JuJ 'the thraldom of the body,' l^^Ci> i^Ssif 'the 
 worship of thanksgiving.' "We may here state that the Persian 
 genitive is formed by placing the governing word first, having its last 
 letter marked with the vowel I^asra; as, ^^Iti ^^ ganj-i ddnish, 
 'the treasury of wisdom,' where the short vowel t is the sign of the 
 genitive, similar in its use to our particle of in English. Persian words 
 ending with a and t_^- take * ; and those ending with i or j take ^^ 
 for the sign of the genitive; as, \jd^ iiX»i 'a servant of God,' 
 ^sT fc^^yj) ' air of the sea.* 
 
 ;i&. The genitive sign is employed idiomatically in such expressions' 
 
GENITIVE CASE. 97 
 
 as V — ^«3 Is w_^v-j 8ah-hd sal, * one and all,' l::-^-^ l^ ^-^^^^ Tchet-hd 
 khet, ' the whole (field) of the field,' Cjb ^ Cub hdt-hk bdf, ' mere 
 talk ;' and adjectivehj to convert a substantive into an attributive ; 
 thus, tt^sf l^ ^J***j 8one-hd taMita, a golden plate,' or * plate of gold;' 
 l^j^ l^^ ^jji *a boy with a large head.' ' ' 
 
 c. In some cases it is idiomatically omitted; as ^y^ ^j^^ daryd 
 kandre, 'on the river bank,' for ^^ ^J^ iS ^.J^ daryd-he 
 kandre-men, 'on the bank of the river.' It is also omitted in many 
 expressions in which the governing words denote weight or measure ; 
 as, c:^^-i3»^ -w: uJoJ 'one pound of flesh,' ^j^j ^<^^, '-^J *a 
 bigha of ground,' where the words are used merely in apposition, the 
 same as in German. 
 
 d. The genitive is also used to signify possession, value, etc. ,• 
 
 as, lf> ULj lIXjI ^ x\j^iS[.i^ pddshdh-KE [^pds or yahdn 
 
 understood] ek beta thd, ' the king had a son ;' in like manner, 
 ^^ 
 
 ^g^ JLj uJoJ ^^ ls^^ ws-ke \_pd8, etc.] hhi ek heti thi, * he 
 
 Sr^ Sr^"* '* Spy' STj^ i p 
 
 had also a daughter ;' Jy^ ^^ '>S^^3J ^--^.^ ^* rA^i,<'-Aci chdnwal, 
 ' one rupee's (worth of) rice.' 
 
 e. Compounds formed of two common substantives in English 
 will in Hindustani be expressed by the genitive case ; as J-^ ^ ij^ 
 likhne-ki mez, ' a writing-table ;' ci-^j l^ ci^ khdne kd wakt, 
 * dinner time ;' and sometimes the genitive sign is used in Hindustani 
 when in English it is inadmissible, as lail l^ J3 jikr kd lafz, ' the 
 
 word FIKE.' 
 
 /. Instances sometimes occur in which a genitive case is used in 
 consequence of a noun or preposition understood ; such a8y-«o yS^\ ♦J* 
 'hear ye him,' i.e. Cl-Jb ^_^^ * his word;' so in the tale of the 
 First Darwesh ( ' Bagh o Bahar,' p. 34,) we have ^l^* ^jj^Ujb i^\ 
 o' *y> ^^^" ^L.5^^ (where the word -.-u or ^^L^J is understood), 
 between you and me there has arisen a sincere friendship.' The 
 
 7 
 
98 PRErt>SITIONS. 
 
 editors of a recent Calcutta edition have made an ammdment here, by 
 using hamdri tumhdri / 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 
 
 65. The list of prepositions, page 71, beginning with 
 ^^ dge^ etc., govern the genitive with ^ Jce ; as 
 ^^ ^ j^ ghar-ke age, ' before (in front of) tie house ;' 
 ^L ^J l/Jj daryd-Jce pdr^ ' over (on the other side of) 
 the river,' etc. The less numerous list, beginning with 
 cr^b hdhat^ etc., page 72, govern the genitive with 
 ^ hi; as, i^jo y^ j^ shahr-ki taraf^ ^towards (in the 
 direction of) the city.' All the prepositions may be 
 optionally put before or after the word which they 
 govern, their effect on the substantive, with few ex- 
 ceptions, remaining the same. 
 
 a. The prepositions being all substantives in an oblique case 
 whose termination is (No. 64, c) idiomatically omitted, it is easy to 
 see from what we have just stated why they should govern the 
 genitive in Tee or U, but never in kd. There is however one pecu- 
 liarity attending some of the feminine prepositions which custom 
 seems to have established; though the rationale of it be not at all 
 evident. We have excellent authority for saying that the words 
 JA/ij, ^^-^, (— ^, and JcJU, when they precede the sub- 
 stantive, require the genitive in ^ Jce ; and when they follow, they 
 require ^ kk. In the second volume of the * Khirad Afroz,' p. 277, we 
 have ^S J^ ^^ hamadad 'akl-ke, by aid of the understanding.' 
 In the Bagh o Bahar,' ^ p. 40, we have ^ jy^ ^sjj^ L^ 
 
 1 Whenever reference is made to the ' B&gh o Bah&r,' it is understood to be the 
 edition recently edited by me, at the desire and expense of the Honourable the East- 
 India Company. It is not only the cheapest, but in every respect the best work that 
 the student can peruse, after he has gone through the Selections appended to this 
 Grammar. — D. F. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 99 
 
 be-mar%i hm^ir-h, * without consent of her highness the princess;' 
 and in page 188 of the same work, we have ^ ^^ ^J^ ^— ^J 
 eh tar of shahr-ke, ' on one side of the city ;* all of them with he 
 in every edition and copy, printed or manuscript. The wonder 
 is, how it escaped the critical amendments of the Calcutta editors 
 already alluded to ; but so it has, for even they have here followed 
 the established reading. 
 
 h. The preposition JcJw mdnand or mdnind has been amply 
 discussed by Dr. Gilchrist in several of his works, but it must be 
 confessed that the learned doctor does not in this instance appear as a 
 sound and fair critic. He assumes that one of the Munshis used he 
 instead of hi by mistahe, and that he had sufficient influence with all 
 the other learned natives of the country to make them take his part, 
 and sanction the error. This argument is so very ridiculous that refu- 
 tation is superfluous. Use is everything in language, and if in Hin- 
 dustani custom has ordained that several of the prepositions when they 
 precede the word which they govern, require the genitive with he, 
 and when they follow require hi, then it is the duty of the grammarian 
 fairly to state the fact. It is quite probable that many instances of 
 this mode of construction, in addition to those which we have shown 
 above, may yet be detected. 
 
 c. The adverbs ^l^j here,' and ^^Uj ' there,' govern the genitive 
 with he, like nouns or prepositions. When thus used, they convey 
 idiomatically the signification of at, to, or in the house of,' or 'in the 
 possession of.' ys>- ^^j ^^ c^s^Ls? go to the gentleman's house,' 
 which is not unHke the use of the French particle chez. The pre- 
 positions (>yl> and uioJjJ are used in the same general sense as 
 (jM\i ^^^ near or with him,* and more generally in his possession,' 
 * chez luiJ The word lLx> JJJ denotes idiomatically *in the opinion of,' 
 as uJoi^ ijj ^jj<X>a1ac in the opinion of the wise;' *apud 
 Bapientes.' 
 
100 DATIVE CASE. 
 
 d. Several of the propositions, when they follow their substantives, 
 may dispense entirely with the genitive signs ke and ki, thus shewing 
 a tendency to become real postpositions; as, {^^\j ^^\i 'near or 
 before the judge.' If the word they govern be a noun of the third 
 class, or a pronoun, the inflected form remains the same as if ke or ki 
 had been expressed; as, (jwb ^jS 'near the boy;' lij ^j^] 'with- 
 out him or her ; ' and if the word governed be the first or second 
 personal pronoun, when the genitive is thus dispensed with, the 
 oblique forms mujh and tujh are used ; as, (jywl> ..^^ * near me ; ' 
 (jm\j -^sT ' near thee.* 
 
 DATIVE CASE. 
 
 66. The use and application of tMs case is very 
 nearly the same as in most European languages. As 
 a general rule, an English noun, governed by the pre- 
 positions to or for, will be expressed in Hindustani by 
 means of the dative case. 
 
 a. The Hindustani dative sometimes corresponds with the Latin 
 accusative, expressive of motion to a place ; for instance, ^ j^ \^ 
 UL) A,>- ' I will go home,' ' ibo domum.' In this last sense also, the 
 sign ko is often omitted, which brings it still nearer the Latin ; as, 
 ^yi> \}i\>- j^ '^^ 'l am going home,' ' eo domum.' The dative 
 case is also used to express time when ; as, <^ ^i^ by day ; ' 
 ^ CL?1^ 'by night;' f ^^ 'at evening.' In such expressions 
 the post-position ko is frequently and even elegantly omitted; as, 
 ^ J CSsi\ * one day ; ' and if the word expressive of time be accom- 
 panied by an adjective or pronoun subject to inflection, the inflected 
 form of the latter remains the same as if ko had been expressed : ns» 
 ,^ J (jwgl ' on that day ; ' ci^j ^jS ' at w^at time ? ' ^ 
 
-ICCUSAIIVE CASE. 101 
 
 ACCUSATIYE CASE. 
 
 67. The accusative in Hindustani, as iu. English, is 
 generally like the nominatiye, but when it is desirable to 
 render the object of an active verb very definite or 
 specific, then the termination Ito (of the dative) is added 
 to the object. 
 
 a. We believe this rule to be quite sound as a general principle, 
 though by no means of rigid application. JVFany words are sufficiently 
 definite from accompanying circumstances, such as an adjective, a 
 genitive case, a pronoun, etc., so as not to require any discriminative 
 mark. Others again, though sufficiently definite in themselves, gene- 
 rally require the particle ho \ such are proper names, names of offices, 
 professions, etc.; as, j*L ^ cjjsjt* 'call Manik;' j*)Jj ^ j^'^j^ 
 * call the Sardar.' In these instances, however, the Hindustani 
 assimilates with the Greek, which would employ the definite article 
 in. like cases. 
 
 h. The use of the particle ho to denote the object of an active verb 
 forms one of the niceties of the Hindustanf, which can only be arrived 
 at by practice. A well-educated native, and many Europeans who 
 have studied the language and associated much with natives, will 
 without effort supply the particle ho in its proper place, and nowhere 
 else. It follows then that there must be some principle to regulate all 
 this, though it may be difficult to lay hold of, or to express within a 
 short compass. The rule given by Muhammad Ibrahim of Bombay, 
 and we assuredly know of no better authority, is in substance the same 
 as we have just stated. — Vide 'Tuhfae Elphinstone,' page 80. 
 
 c. When a verb governs an accusative and also a dative, both being 
 substantives, the first or nominative form of the accusative is generally 
 used, as the repetition of ho in both cases would not only sound ill, but 
 in many instances lead to ambiguity ; thus, jJ \j^ ^ J^ ' give the 
 horse to the man.' If, however, it be deemed essential to add ho to 
 ihe accusative, even this rule must give way ; as iu the following 
 
102 ABLATIVE AND LOCA^HVE. 
 
 Bentence : l> J ^ ^j^^ 15^^ ^ sS^^"^ L^ S^*^' L5*^^' S^ ^^ * ^® 
 gave his brother's share to his (brother's) wife.' When the iative is a 
 pronoun, the repetition of ko is easily avoided by using the termination 
 « or en for the latter ; as, L^ '^/?^ i^^ ^ ^Sy <J i<^^ * the 
 judge gave up to her the child.' 
 
 ABLATIVE AND LOCATIVE. 
 
 68. The ablative denotes the source from which any 
 thing proceeds; the locative, as its name imports, denotes 
 situation. In their use and application, they generally 
 correspond with the Latin ablative. 
 
 a. The ablative sign ^^ se signifies from* and with.' It is 
 applied to the instrument with which, but very seldom to the agent hy 
 whom, any act is done, unless in connection with a neuter verb. Example : 
 \j\^ i^ j^y^ ^ lJ"^ cJ t>^ the executioner smote the prisoner 
 with a sword.' In Dr. Gilchrist's Story-Teller (No. 97), we have an 
 instance of se denoting the agent, the onh/ one we have ever met with 
 in our reading; ^ ^ ^'\^ JjyS ^!ljj ^.j ^ .i=f 'how 
 is it that stale bread was eaten by thee ? ' With a neuter verb se 
 may be used to denote the source or origin of the event described ; 
 as follows, ^y^ (^jj^ jy^ -gjs^ ^ jcXj^ ^^^ ' by some poet {or 
 through some poet) a fault took place.' 
 
 b. With the verb bw^ kahnd, ' to say' or 'tell,' the particle ^ m 
 seems to be used idiomatically, and must often be translated in English 
 by to ; ' as, ^^Ji b^ ^ ^ ijm\ ^j^ I am saying to him,' or 
 
 telling him, truth ; ' because the sentence ^^^ \z^^ ^ ^ ^jj\ -.-^ 
 will mean, ' I declare him {or her, or it) to be true,' or ^ I call that 
 truth ; ' so ^^^Lf ^j-^-J <^ ;^^ ^li\ means * people do not caU 
 him a man.' The use of ^^--j %e with Ix^ therefore is obvious. 
 
 c. The locative sign ^^« men generally denotes in, sometimes to 
 
THE AGENT WITH * NE.' 103 
 
 or into ; as, Ji> ^^j^ j^J^ he is in the city;' LS v-^ ^-^ ij he 
 is gone to (into) the city.' The locative signs v-^ and j have fre- 
 quently the post-position ^^ joined to them; as, y j^jij" ^^ ^^j^ 
 he brought a sword from in the city;' ^y J> s^ ? <^>t^ L5^' *^J 
 * he fell down from on his horse.' Here the English idiom is * from 
 3ff ' his horse, which is less logical. 
 
 CASE OF THE AGENT. 
 
 69. The case of the agent, characterized by the par- 
 ticle <J ne^ is never used except with transitive verbs, 
 and when used it is confined to those tenses only which 
 are formed of the past participle (No. 40, page 55). The 
 verb then agrees with the object in gender and number, 
 unless it be deemed requisite to render the object definite 
 by the addition of the particle f ho (No. 67), in which 
 case the verb remains in the simple form of the third 
 person singular masculine. 
 
 a. In further illustration of this very simple rule, we here sub- 
 
 9 P 
 
 join a sufficient number of examples ; l^J b^ '■^.^ ti (jwi * he 
 saw a dog,' or, literally, by him a dog (was) seen;' likewise, 
 ^^-^j J kJj^4 ^ (J (jw^ ' he saw three horses,' or, ' by him,' etc. ; 
 sjfi,^ ^y*^ ^^} J ^/^^ * he saw a fox;' ^^j^^^^ ijVjK?^ '-^•W 4 U^^ 
 he saw many foxes;' in all which phrases the construction agrees 
 precisely with the Latin passive voice. Again, if it be deemed necessary 
 or elegant to add ko to the object, then the verb will be always the 
 same, that is, the masculine singular form ; thus, l^.J ^ ^^ ^j ^ 
 ' we have seen the dog ;' l^, J ^ UJU^ 4 (^ * ^^^^ y°^ ^^^^ *^^ 
 horses?' \^i^ ^ ^y*^ S^ '^T* U^^ S^^ 'when that man saw 
 the fox ;' l^J ^ ci^U"*-?^ (J /*-& ' we have seen the foiea.' 
 
104 THE AGENT WITH * NE.' 
 
 The same rule applies to all the tenses into which l^J enters 
 (page 55) ; as, ^ l^J l^ tlXtJ ^J ^j^\ *he has seen a dog ;' so, 
 ^^ ^<P^,^ ^jy^ {ji^ <^ U*'^ * lie had seen three horses.' As this 
 is a subject of great importance in the language, we would advise 
 the student to repeat each of the above phrases in all the tenses 
 given in page 55. 
 
 h. It must be remembered that the case denoting the agent in 
 the personal pronouns 7 and tJiou, are (J ^^^ main-ne and ,J J 
 tu-ne or (J ^ tain-ne ; as l^u^ yLsl ^J ^\^ * I saw him (her or 
 it) ;' ^^j**^ cW,'^ J^ '^. tJ y hast thou not heard this pro- 
 verb ? ' If, however, the pronouns be followed by a qualifying 
 word (substantive or adjective), the inflected forms .^"^ mujh 
 and ,^ tujh are used ; thus, in the ' Bagh o Bahar,' page 20, 
 
 wretched) obtained nourishment under the shelter of my parent^.' 
 
 c. The student should endeavour to remember the limited and 
 restricted use of this case of the agent. 1st. It is never used before a 
 neuter or intransitive verb. 2nd. It is never used before any of the 
 tenses formed from the root or from the present participle of anj'- verb 
 whatever. 3rd. It is never used before the verb Ll^ hohid, * to 
 speak or say,' nor before \jl land, to bring,' although they both seem 
 according to our notion to be intransitive. Bolnd appears to differ very 
 little from \uJ^ kahnd, which last requires the use of the agent with ne. 
 The verb land is a compound of le-dnd, the last member of which is 
 neuter or intransitive, and this leads us to a general rule, which is, 
 that ' compound verbs, such as Intensives, of which the last member is 
 neuter, though really transitive in signification, do not require the 
 agent with ne ;^ thus, ^^ ^^ l^ ^ tjl^^ ^L*^ ^^ * those 
 travellers have eaten up the dinner.' 
 
 d. When two sentences having the same nominative or agent 
 are coupled by the conjunction j^\ awr, 'and,' the first of which 
 has a neuter verb, and the following a verb transitive, it is noi 
 
THE AGEjNT with ^ NE/ 105 
 
 necessaiy to express the agent with ne in the second sentence, but the 
 construction goes on the same as if ne had been expressed ; thus, 
 \j^ j^ \ ^^M j^ ^-^W=r ^J ^^^ /^*? i'^^^ ^»^ ^^^ {u8-ne) hahd, she 
 quickly returned and said.' 
 
 e. This very peculiar use of the particle ne to denote the agent 
 prevails, with slight modifications, throughout an extensive group of 
 dialects spoken in Hindustan Proper. It is found in the Marathi, 
 the Guzerati, and the Panjabi, in the West. In the Nepalese it 
 assumes the form ^J le ; and it may be inferred that it prevails in 
 most of the intermediate dialects of Hindi origin, amounting to nearly 
 twenty in number. It does not exist in the group of dialects connected 
 mth the Bengali, nor in those of the Deccan. In ]the grammars of the 
 Marathi language, it is called the Instrumental case, a term inapplicable 
 in Hindi, as it never is used with the instrument, but solely with the 
 agent. What is called the instrumental case in Sanskrit, is applied 
 indifferently to the agent or instrument ; but in the modern dialects 
 above alluded to, particularly the Hindustani, ne is restricted to the 
 agent only. 
 
 /. Our great grammarians have succeeded wonderfully well in 
 mystifying the very simple (though singular) use and application of 
 this particle ne. Dr. Gilchrist, in the first edition of his grammar, 
 seems to have felt greatly embarrassed by it, without exactly knowing 
 what to make of it. Those who have merely followed the learned 
 doctor, with very few ideas of their own, have contented themselves 
 by calling it an expletive, which luminous explanation has stood for 
 years in one of the books hitherto read by beginners. Now, the term 
 * expletive ' in philology is as convenient, in its way, as that of the 
 humours in the jargon of quack doctors; it solves every difl&culty, and 
 forms a ready answer to all questions : it may mean anything or 
 nothing. To account philosophically for the mode in which this 
 particle is applied does not fall within our province ; suffice it merely 
 to say, that it is a form of construction very common in Sanski-it. 
 With regard, however, to its practical use and application, we trust 
 that all difficulty has been removed. The fact is, that the only real 
 difficulty likely to arrest the progress of the learner consists, not in 
 the use of ne to express the agent, but in that of ho to define thp 
 object of a transitive rerb. 
 
106 NUMERALS. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 70. When a noun is accompanied by a numeral 
 adjective, tlie plural termination on of the oblique cases is 
 generally dispensed with. If the noun be of the third 
 class, the inflected form in e is generally used. 
 
 a. Thus, \)^ y ^j^ J^ ci i^V*** (J^ 'three soldiers beat 
 four men.' We have reason to believe that the addition of ihe 
 termination on would render the substantives more pointed or definite; 
 thus, tin sipdhiyoh-ne would signify *the three soldiers (aforesaid).' 
 In the grammar prefixed to Dr. Gilchrist's Dictionary (London ed.), 
 we have \^ ^l,^, ^ <-r*|y ^j^ y^ ' a hundred horses were at the 
 Nawwab's,' which ought to be translated a hundred horse,' t. e. 
 ' a troop or collective body of one hundred,' whereas, ' a hundred 
 horses,' or 'a hundred boys,' would be ^j^ y^ and ^^ y^. 
 
 h. Collective numbers add on to denote multiplication or repe- 
 tition ; as, ^\^^,^H ^yf.^ * hundreds of battles;' j^ \l])j\}^ 
 ' thousands of cities.' Any numeral by adding on becomes more 
 emphatic or definite; as, jj-asr:**' ^jjjj*^ ti> those four persons.' 
 Words expressive of time, as year, month, day, etc., add on in the 
 nominative plural; as, t^Jo jj^*^ years have passed away.* 
 
 c. In Hindustani the conjunction, etc., is idiomatically omitted in 
 such phrases as ^-j jt) two (or) three,' //^ (jwi^ ' (from) ten (to) 
 twenty.' A doubtful number is expressed by adding lU^\ to the 
 numeral; as, lISj} ^juuJ i^^i^T about ten men;' {jjjjJ U-^J ^ 
 ' about a hundred years.' To signify fold,' Juj*- or LS is added to 
 numerals; as JOr^jJ * two-fold;' LS^ ^J 'ten-fold.' Distributives 
 are formed by doubling the number ; as, j J ^J * two by two,* or ' two 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIYES. 107 
 
 apiece.* Thus, suppose we wist to say, give these men three 
 rupees each,' or * three rupees apiece,' the Hindustani will be 
 •J ^<-^ ^J^ iji^ ^ ij^--^^^ ^ * ^^ these men, three three rupees 
 give.* 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 71. We have already observed that adjectives in 
 Hindustani do not admit of con^arison by any regular 
 or systematic terminations. The comparative degree is 
 indicated by merely putting the standard of comparison 
 in the ablative, and the superlative by prefixing to that 
 the word sah, ' all.' 
 
 a. The comparative and superlative are to he inferred in general 
 from the context, as the adjective has only one form, that of the 
 positive or simple word, thus ^-'l^ ^^ LUy ^ % >^ ^ L5^ 
 
 the miser is better than the liberal man if he (the miser) give an 
 answer quickly.' It is obvious that if the standard of comparison 
 should include the whole class spoken of, the adjective will express 
 the superlative degree. Ex. j^-Jfe S-^y^ j«^ ,<-j j;-./» ;j^/^ t.»-v«j 
 
 of all accomplishments two are best' (viz. learning and the art of 
 war). 
 
 h. To express the comparative degree, the particles jjl aur^ and 
 if Jb J ziydda, ' more,' may also be employed exactly as in French and 
 English; as, ^^ S-'*lr*" ^'^Vj ;^ e.i^ ^) oj 'those people 
 are worse than dogs.' The adjective is sometimes doubled to express 
 the superlative degree; as, \^\ \^\ 'very good;' but the wordt 
 most commonly used and prefixed for this purpose are Ijj 'great, 
 very;* L::-^^ much;' A>- 'beyond bounds;' <.::^i}^ 'extremely;' 
 L::.-vsf^ very' (generally in a bad or disagreeable sense); and Uj 
 ' most, very,' which last is added. It is to be *urther observed thai 
 
108 PERSOXAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 \^j, though thus used apparently as an adverb, agrees in gende^ and 
 number with the substantive ; as, Jb 101 s->]^ \y s^ 'heis a. very 
 wicked boy;' and again, ^ ^y '^^j=>- kJji *j she is a very 
 wicked girl.' 
 
 e. The particle L; sd {se, si), when added to a substantive, con- 
 verts such substantive into an adjective denoting similitude ; as, 
 jy\^ l1/IjI) Lj 11^ * a dog-like unclean animal.' When added to 
 an adjective, it seems to render the same more intensive, though fre- 
 quently it is difficult to find for it an equivalent English expression ; as, 
 jT J (^^ ^ 1;^' 'bring a little water ;' ^ ^,Uj j^^^€^ ^^ ^-^^:' 
 * there were many weapons there.' When the comparison made 
 by Lj alludes to one thing out of many, it governs the genitive case ; 
 as in the sentence ^ amjs^ Lj l^ ,^j^\ ^^ \M^ jo^ also have a 
 body exactly like theirs ;' Cl?^^ ^ [J J^ * ^^^"^ ^^® *^^^ °^ * 
 tiger.' 
 
 USB OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 72. The personal pronouns, as in Latin, are very 
 often merely understood, particularly before such tenses 
 of the verb as possess distinct personal terminations ; and 
 as a general rule, the pronouns need not be expressed 
 when the sense is quite clear without them, except it be 
 by way of contrast or emphasis. 
 
 a. When the third personal pronount become the object of an 
 active verb, they are generally used in the second (or dative) form 
 of the accusative ; as, jjU ^^ ' beat him ;' ^\ ^\ ' call them ;' 
 •t-s^ , ^i * take this away.' If, however, they are employed as 
 aajectives, along with their substantives, they may be used in the 
 nominauve form : as, ^ . ^^^-^ c:-'* V -^ ^ you hear this word.* 
 With the conjunctive participle, they are elegantly used in the 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 109 
 
 nominative form ; as, J^ ^^. 'having said this.' Sometimes, though 
 rarely, the nominative form may be used when a dative follows ; 
 as, /.^ J LfF?^ ^J (Irr^ ' -^ '^^ S^^^ ^^^* *® thee.' When the first or 
 second personal pronouns are governed by an active verb, the dative 
 form is always used ; as, ^ bjU ^^fs^ 2i^ or ^ bjU ^j^^ ^j 
 
 ' he is beating me ;' ^^ ^^.<^ ^f^) \J^ ijii^ ' I ^^^ t^^®-' 
 
 b. It may be observed that the personal, relative, and interrogative 
 pronouns have two distinct terminations for the dative and accusative 
 cases, viz. h or e for the singular, and Jco or ^w for the plural. Hence, 
 when an active verb governs an accusative (second form) and dative at 
 the same time, it will be easy to avoid a repetition of the termination 
 h) by employing e or en in the one case, and ko in the other ; thus, 
 ujjt> ^Lij ^\ ^j^ I will giveitto you ; L^ J^ ^\ ^^^j S^l5*^^ 
 ' the judge gave up the child to her.' In sentences of this kind, the 
 accusative is generally put before the dative, but not always ; thus, 
 in the Baital Pachisi,' a very sagacious young lady says to her 
 father, ^j^ ^^^ \^^k¥* ^ ^^ ^^ i ^--j f>- l^j ' father, who- 
 soever may be acquainted with all the sciences, give me to him,' or 
 
 * bestow me upon him in marriage,' but then, in another part of the 
 same work, we have a similar expression differently arranged, as 
 
 ? 9 
 
 Lj J itffsT* ^^J\ lij where the dative is placed first. 
 
 e. When the first and second personal pronouns are accompanied by 
 a qualifying word, the genitive of the whole expression is made by 
 h&, JcBf ki, not rd, re, ri, and the pronouns are used in the inflected 
 forms mujh and tujh ; as, l^ j-ii ^s'^ * of me wretched j' l^ UL^ .^^ 
 
 * of thee wise.' This oblique form is also used when the particle sd, 
 86, si is added to denote similitude ; as, iSuaXas. Lj ..^ss^ a sensible 
 man like thee.' 
 
 d. In Hindustani, as in English, it is customary to address an 
 
110 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 individual generally in the second person plural, the singular being 
 used in prayer to a deity, or to express familiarity or contempt j but 
 in the vulgar tongue they go a step further, and the speaker uses the 
 plural AJb ' we,' when it really refers to no more than himself. This 
 abuse has led to the nesessity of adding the word {^^ * people,' to 
 denote a genuine plural, as ham log, 'we (people),' turn log, 'you 
 (people).' Thus, ^\j^ l<^^" ^ *I know' (literally 'we know'); 
 and if a real plural is meant, then they say ham log jdnte hain ; so, 
 ^^ ^ ^ c->li^ 'give me (us) the book.' To testify great respect, 
 the third person must also be used in the plural when speaking of 
 a king, saint, or any illustrious or respected man in general; as, 
 d^ <JU/ ^ t/j *^® ^8 speaking truth' (literally, 'they,' etc.). 
 When the plural is thus used for the singular, it is generally un- 
 inflected ; but when a still higher degree of respect, or a more decided 
 plural is intended, it receives the inflection; as, L^ ^i loj^^ *they or 
 he (his honour, majesty, etc.) said.' 
 
 e. This confusion of numbers may have given rise to the following 
 idioms : ^'U ^^j^^ S^^'*^ ' ^^^ ^^'^ ^^^ ^ovoc hands,' that is, 
 into the hands of us two ; * |XJ«1>- aj ^ ham tum chalenge, ' we 
 and you {i.e. I and thou) will go,' meaning, ' we shall go.' The 
 speaker politely assumes precedence to himself; and when two 
 difi'erent persons thus occur in a sentence, the verb agrees with the 
 first person in preference to the second, and with the second in 
 preference to the third; as, ^^^jCi^jU- *J ^Jb *we and you wiU go;' 
 ^^ Jls^ ijTj aJ you and they will go.' 
 
 /. We here subjoin the rules laid down by Muhammad Ibrahim 
 of Bombay respecting the etiquette to be observed in the use of the 
 pronouns. "1. When the speaker and the person whom he addresses 
 are of the same rank, each should speak of himself in the singular 
 number, and address the other in the second person plural. 2. A 
 person of superior rank may speak of himself in the plural number, 
 but this is not considered to be polite, nor is it thought correct to 
 address even the lowest rank in the singular number. 3. The 
 pronouns of the third person may be used in the singular when speak 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Ill 
 
 ing of any person in their presence, unless they be of superior rank, 
 when they ought to be spoken of in the plural. 4. When one person 
 of rank addresses another of the same or superior rank, or speaks 
 of him in his presence, it is most correct to make use of the 
 respectful pronoun c-^l, or the great man's title, or some respectful 
 phrase, as Jjjljci- 'your honour,' iJLlfj^a^ 'honour, highness,' etc., 
 and the like, with the third person plural (of the pronouns and 
 verbs); and when an inferior addresses a superior, he ought at all 
 times to use similar expressions of respect, suitable to the rank of the 
 person addressed." We may further add, that an inferior at the same 
 time speaks of himself in the third person singular, under the 
 appellation of /♦ili your servant' or slave;' u^j^Xj your devoted;' 
 * Jcj your bondsman ;' ^j^^^ your sincere friend,' etc. 
 
 g. When a person relates the speech of another, he makes use of 
 the identical words which the person whose speech is reported is 
 supposed to have used. Hxample, He said he should go next day, 
 
 l$l3^ U- J^ ^^ ^ ^r^ s/ U^^ ^^^^' *^® ^^^^' ■'■ ^^^ ^° to-morrow.') 
 So in the sentence, He told me to go home, j'U- ^ <^ L^ ^J ^^wl 
 {lit. 'he said, go home.') This idiomatic use of the pronouns, and conse- 
 quently of the persons and tenses of the verb, is well worthy of the 
 student's attention. It is perhaps that point in which the Hindustani 
 differs most widely from the English, as will be seen in the following 
 sentence, which to save room we shall give in the Roman character. 
 Kal main-ne dp-Ice hete-ho shahr-men deTchd, wuh yaJidh dyd-chdhtd thd 
 tum-se milne-ho, par hahd hi ghord merd mar-gayd, aur hamen ishdra 
 hiyd hi dp-se %dhir Tcarnd U apn'i pdlhi mere wdste hhej-dend; fi-l-Ml 
 jo tumhdri pdlhi maujiid na ho, to mukhlis apni pdlhi us-he wdste hhej- 
 degd. ' I saw your son yesterday in the city, he wished to come here 
 to see you, but mentioned that his horse was dead, and desired me to 
 tell you to send your palki for him ; if your palki be not now at hand, 
 I shall despatch mine for him.' Prom the preceding sentence it will 
 appear that considerable attention and experience will be necessary 
 before the student can readily apply the pronouns agreeably to the 
 rules of grammar, idiom, and etiquette, which last is a point of great 
 importance among the Orientals. 
 
112 THi 
 
 USE OF THE POSSESSIYE * APNi.' 
 
 73. When there occurs in the complement of a sen- 
 tence a possessive pronoun belonging to the nominative 
 or agent, such possessive is expressed in Hindustani by 
 lJ\ apnd {-ne or -111). 
 
 a. We may define the complement of a sentence in general, as that 
 portion of it which in English follows the verb ; thus, in the sentences, 
 *he returned to his house,' 'he was transacting his business,' the 
 phrases 'to bis house,' and ' his business,' form the complement. 
 Again, in each of these, the possessive pronoun his, if it refers solely 
 to the nominative he, will be expressed by ajpnd in Hindustani; as, 
 LT »f> rf^ ^c^^ ^ and l^* \f^ *l^ UjI ij ; but if the pronoun his 
 refers to another person, then it will be expressed by \L^\ tts-kd {-he, 
 -M) ; for instance, 1>T j^ ^j^^ ^3 ' he name to his house,' meaning 
 not his own house, but the house of some other third person. 
 
 h. When the nominative of a sentence consists of the first or second 
 personal pronoun, and its possessive occurs in the complement, the 
 matter admits of no hesitation ; as, ' I am going to see my father ; ' 
 * we have seen our new house ; ' ' you are destroying your health ; ' in 
 all of which apnd would be used for ' my,' ' our,' and ' your,' respec- 
 tively. In the use of the third person, however, the English language 
 is liable to an ambiguity, for example, the sentence ' he was beating 
 his slave' has two meanings; it might be his own slave, or another 
 man's. The Hindustani is much more explicit; ' his own slave' would 
 be expressed by apne ghuldm-ho, and 'another man's slave' by us-Jce 
 ghuldm-ho', hence, as a practical rule, if the possessive in the com- 
 plement of a sentence denotes own, it will be expressed in Hindustani 
 by apnd {-ne, -ni). Sometimes, apnd is elegantly repeated, to denote 
 separation or distinction; as follows, ^^ j^ ^\ ^\ ^^y^J ^% 
 'they both went, each to his own house,' whereas a^pne gha/r would 
 merely denote ' their own house/ as common to both. 
 
DEMONSTEATIVE PRONOUNS. 113 
 
 0. It is needless to add, that if a possessive pronoun occurs in the 
 nominative part of a sentence, the use of apnd is inadmissible; as, 
 ^^CL|U- -j^ CS^ ^\ L-jb4^^j^l ^^j^ * I and my father will 
 go to our own country.' Here main aur merarldp is the nominative 
 of the sentence, and apne mulk men is the complement ; in the former, 
 the regular possessive mer&r is used; and in the latter, a^nd^ according 
 to our rule above stated. 
 
 d. When in the first clause of a sentence there occurs the 
 conjunctive participle, the possessive in it will be apnd ; as 
 lOj U- ^r^ (JJl* ^\ JJi -ft'L ^ c-jb ^\ ^^ *I, having 
 taken my father with me, will go to my own country.' Here, the 
 use of apnd is strictly according to rule, for the sentence is equivalent 
 to 'I will take my father with me; and I will go to my own 
 country.' 
 
 e. We occasionally meet with apnd used irregularly instead of 
 the other possessives ; as, LS lIX^j -^^ ,^ \^\ * my own 
 disposition even was led astray.' ('Bagh o Bahar,' p. 21.) In 
 ordinary discourse, according to Dr. Gilchrist, we may hear 
 such expressions as the following, namely, bji luoj llo IjjI ^ 
 
 * if my son had done so.' Lastly, apnd is used substantively in the 
 general sense of ' one's people, friends,' etc., like the Latin expression 
 
 * apud sues ;' thus, l^ <0 J^ ^\ cj ^y^}ji^ — V^ U**^ l/ tJ!^/^ *^ 
 *he came to his own, but his own received him not.' 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 74. The demonstratives -^ yih^ Hhis,' and /^ wuh^ 
 *that,' together with their plurals, are sometimes used 
 in the same sense as our definite article ^ the.' They are 
 applicable to both genders, and agree with their sub- 
 stantives in case, and generally in number. 
 
 8 
 
114 INl-EREOGATI VES. 
 
 a. We have seeu it stated in some grammar, 'tlmt a demon- 
 strative pronoun in the singular may be used with an Arabic 
 plural/ etc., from which the reader is left to infer that it is not 
 dsed with any other plural. Now, the fact is, that i/ih and wuh 
 are frequently used with any plural, and represent the plural even 
 without the substantive; as, ^J>^ (jwb ^ *^l5>- ^5*1^ e^^L?^ -W. 
 * these two brothers went to the magistrate ; ' and again, 
 
 give something.'^ It would be needless to multiply examples, as they 
 may be met with in any author. We have reason to believe, how- 
 ever, that when the singular is thus used, it is either to denote a 
 collective group, or in a disrespectful sense ; on a principle analagous 
 to that of applying the plural to one person in order to denote respect 
 or reverence. 
 
 INTERROGATIVES. 
 
 75. The interrogative ^^ kaun^ when used by itself, 
 generally applies to persons, and L^ hjd to irrational or 
 lifeless beings ; but if the substantive be expressed, kaun 
 will agree with it adjectively in case and number, 
 whereas the inflection of kyd is never used adjectively. 
 
 a. For example, in the phrase ^& ^^ 'who is there?' the 
 inference is, what person?' so, ^ ui signifies what (thing) is 
 it ?' At the same time we may not only say J^^ r^^ ' what man ? ' 
 4^ J^ ^jM^ ' to what man ? ' but also y^ ^^ ' what thing ? ' 
 l^ J-j»- ^jj^ * of what thing ?' We can also say, J^ L^ ' what 
 thing?' but we cannot say l^ -j>- ^l^ to denote *of what 
 
 1 Here is another instance oi a feminine preposition requiring the genitive in Ae, 
 agreeably to what we stated page 98, a. The example is from tlie ' B&gh o Bah&r,' 
 p. 144. It is the reading of half-a-dozen different copies (two of them manuscript), 
 as well as of the Calcutta edition, 1836, printed in the Roman character. — D. F. 
 
RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. 115 
 
 thinsr.' The oblique form Mhe is used only as a substantive ; as, 
 ,__^«^ ^ jb\^ 'a watch of what (substance, etc.)?' the answer 
 to which may be ^ i^y^ 'of gold,' etc. Sometimes hyd is applied 
 to a person or thing 3y way of exclamation ; as, bd\yt\js>^ Li what 
 a rogue !' cub Ls^ what an affair " When hyd is repeated, it seems 
 to convey the idea of ' what various »* iS, i^^Ls"^ lo l-^ what 
 various wonders ?' Sometimes, kyd is iised as a conjunction, meaning 
 'whether,' 'or;' like the Latin ?\v( ;' as, ^J^ '-^^tr^ ^ jV ^ 
 whether in the garden or in the field.' 
 
 b. The interrogative ig used for the relative in such sentences 
 ^^ L5^ ^f '^ cA?'^ ^'^ (:X^ 'l know who it is.' Also adverbs 
 derived from the interrogative {vide page 68) are in a similar 
 manner substituted for those from the relative; for instance, 
 l>j*l5^ c--^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ \s>' ^^j^ \>^ ' I do not know when he 
 •will go.' 
 
 e. Sometimes a question is used to denote negation or surprise; 
 as, iL jT ^li ^jj> ^j^ U ^ CS^ LjI 'all the territory which 
 thou hast taken will be of no use to thee;' literally, of what use 
 will it be to thee?' and again, ^j^ ^^ ^^l^^ ^ l^ U-1^ ^J^ 
 where is the king's son? and where this report?' meaning the king's 
 son has nothing to do with this report.' 
 
 RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. 
 
 76. Strictly speaking, the Hindustani does not pos- 
 sess a relative pronoun corresponding with, our ^who,' 
 'which/ and ^ that/ and as this want is a source of much 
 perplexity to the learner, we shall endeavour in the 
 following paragraphs to explain fully how the place of 
 the relative is supplied. 
 
116 RELATIVE AND COllRELATIVE. 
 
 a In page 38 vre have given the declension of ^>- and ^ 
 which from want of a better term we called relative and correlatioe, 
 respectively. The word ^5j- signifies he who,' she who,' or that 
 which,* and refers, not to an antecedent, like our relative 'who,' 
 but to a noun following, like our words * whosoever,' * what- 
 soever,* * whoso.' Hence *>- usually begins the sentence, and is 
 followed in a second clause by ^ and the use of the two together 
 generally forms a substitute for our relative pronouns * who,' 
 
 * which,* and * that,' as will be seen by the following examples ; 
 ^ .xLo LL^ J \^\j )^ - ^ ^5=s^ 4 (^ ^h^^ ^ 
 *the king much approved of the horses which you sent,' literally, 
 
 * what horses you sent, the king much approved of the same;' 
 Jj> ^ L-^^ y^ — ^ \^ (^ j^' ^ that is all true which you 
 
 have said,' literally, * whatever you have said, that is all true.' In 
 like manner, the relative and correlative adverbs usually accompany 
 each other; jU- ^I^j Jj^ jj^V^ - J^ «j;V -^^jjW^ * where 
 the treasure is, there is the snake ; and where there is a flower there 
 is a thorn.' 
 
 5. Sometimes, the remote demonstrative may be used instead 
 of the correlative, both pronominally and adverbially ; as follows, 
 wJ ^S-^ f-:>^ 15^-***^ '^^ ^^° ^^^ ^^ po^ ^^s ^^ sword' (he 
 who pays best, is best served); iJijj*l> l-^ l^""^ ^^^tr^ '^^ 7®^ 
 shall give, so shall you get.' In the following sentence, the demon- 
 strative a(?verb ^^5 is used; whereas in a few sentences before, 
 the author uses the correlative ^^ for the same expression 
 {vide Selections in Devanagari, page 8, lines 3 and 10); 
 
 UjU- UU- * where there shall be ninety-nine pitchers of milk, how 
 will a single pitcher of water be there discovered ?' "Wc may here at 
 
IMDEFINITES. 
 
 117 
 
 the same time see the negative effect of the question, as the speaker 
 means that ' there is no chance of detecting one pitcher full of water 
 among ninety-nine of milk.' 
 
 0. The conjunction i^ frequently accompanies the relative, and 
 sometimes occupies its place entirely; as in the phrases, 
 ^j^ &j ^r^^U- ^ LT?^ f Jb d ci^-jjl ^ 'let us not 
 bring into mind the trouble which has come upon us ; ' so also, 
 ^^y^ f jI^^aLsT^ ^J-^ ^^ I*^ ^ ^ b '^^^^ '^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ 
 man, who, before the commencement, thinks of the end of his work ; ' 
 l^ \3s>. ^ i)**^ ^ j./*^ ^ *the man who wrote the letter.* 
 Sometimes, the demonstrative is substituted, in imitation of the 
 Persian; thus, ^^ ^ ^jj-j l::^ ^^ ^^^ ^j*i\ i^ ^ ajlkuj 
 there is a temple in which there are several idols of gold.' 
 
 d. In many instances the relative ^ corresponds with our 
 'who,' 'which,' or 'that,' but the student must be careful not to 
 consider this as a rule, for it is only the exception ; as follows, 
 \J^ cjl^ ,<5-j ^ \^hj J*^ ' ^^^ ^^° loaves which my children 
 eat.' Here the word ^ is not put first, because there is another 
 word jt> already used to define roti ; but suppose the sentence were 
 the bread which I ate was very good,' we should have to say in 
 Hindustani, jo roti main-ne hhdX so (or wuh) bahut achchM tM.' 
 
 INDEFINITES. 
 
 77. The indefinite^*/ kOyi, ^somebody' or ^anybody/ 
 when used alone, refers to a person, whereas ^- kuc/ih, 
 ^something,' ^anything,' refers to matter in general. 
 As an adjective, however, ko^i may agree with any sub- 
 stantive, as, ^si ^*^ 'any or some man,'j-o- ^*^ ^any 
 or some thing.' ^ is seldom applied to persons in 
 
118 CONCORD OF VERBS. 
 
 the nominative, but in the oblique cases; kisi or Jcisu 
 seems to be equally applicable to persons or things. 
 
 a. The indefinites koX and Jcuohh, as well as the numeral uJot 
 vtty one,' frequently supply the place of our articles 'a,* 'an,' or *a 
 certain;' as, It* <^lj -^ j^ ^^^ Jc^k^Ij <-^.^ 'a sage 
 arrived in a certain city;' \jj jU-j yJti uiol c::-^^ ^^ 'on a 
 certain time a tiger fell sick.' The indefinite article frequently occurs 
 more than once at the beginning of a story, and it is a point of good 
 taste to use ko,i and ek alternately, as in the preceding examples, so as 
 to avoid the clumsy repetition of the same word. The emphatic 
 particle ^-i or ^Jb hi may be affixed to many of the pronouns; as, 
 ^Jb c-/r 'my (your, etc.) own self;' ^.^j 'this same;' ^j 
 that same.' Also in the oblique cases ^<-^^, ^^^\ etc., as in 
 ^ ,^\, ^ ,<->j1 'to this or that self-same person or thing.' Some- 
 times jj-J5 is added with the same effect. 
 
 CONCORD OF THE VEEB WITH THE NOMINATIVE. 
 
 78. As a general rule, the Hindustani verb agrees 
 with its nominative in number, person, and gender, 
 subject, however, to the following exceptions : 1. To 
 mark respect, a singular nominative has a verb in the 
 plural ; 2. If the nominative consist of different irrational 
 objects in the singular number, they may take a singular 
 verb ; 3. If the nominatives be of various genders, the 
 verb takes the masculine form, or agrees with that next 
 to it ; Lastly. If the verb be transitive, and in any tense 
 formed of the past participle, the nominative assumes the 
 case of the agent, and the verb follows a special rule 
 already illustrated, p. 103, IN'o. 69, etc. 
 
 a. We shall here add a few examples in illustration of the 
 
GOVERNMENT 01 VERBS. 119 
 
 preceding rule, embracing, as it does, the whole subject of verbal 
 concord, which differs in some respects from that of the European 
 languages. Thus, ^ ^SJ n^ he is writing; ^ ^^^ h 
 * she is dancing ; ' ^j^ ^yj t_fj they {males) are talking ; ' and 
 v^ L^^ tJ) 'they (females) are singing.' The following 
 examples refer to the exceptions: 1. ^yti ir jo joT ^^^L^ J iLijlj 
 ' the king having seen (this), became tearful,* or ' wept ; ' where 
 the verb ^^^ is plural, expressive of respect to the king,' 
 which is in the singular nominative. In like manner we have 
 
 ^S (-i/=r^ ^^ i^k^ ^ c^'^ '--r'^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ proper that 
 your majesty should submit.' 2. In the following sentences we have 
 two nouns in the singular number, coupled by a conjunction, whilst 
 the verb is in the singular, agreeing with the nearest noun ; as, 
 ^ ^-^V ll^J^^ <J^ L5^'^ **^^ bullock and horse have just now 
 arrived;' -.1 uT u-.->~j ^ ^jy^ \j^ 'r^J J^ c^^ kD^ * my people, 
 my wealth, and my kingdom, why are they not all gone (from mo) this 
 day?' 3. Several nouns of diflPerent genders occur in the next two 
 sentences, but the verb takes the masculine plural in preference to the 
 feminine ; as, ^ ^^^ ^ ^ u5t)U> ^J^\ ^^ ^\^ c-?lj U ^^S^\ 
 'her father, mother, and brother, were all three meditating the accom- 
 plishment of her marriage;' ^^-^ l5^W" ^"^ ^f^ ^"^^^ \J¥^ ^S^ 
 
 — " y •• -^ «r' 
 
 * his elephant, camel, and carriage are being loaded.* 
 GOVEENMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 79. In this department the Hindustani differs very 
 little from the English. Actives or transitives naturally 
 govern the accusative case, which, as we have shewn, is 
 generally like the nominative, and sometimes like the 
 dative {vide p. 101, IS'o. 67.) 
 
 a. Causal verbs, verbs of clotliing, giving, etc., may be considered 
 
120 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 aa ji:overning two accusative cases, or the accusative and the dative ; 
 fi^, ^\>- j^ ^fi^ \j\^ ^ L5V^ * having given the child food, go home;* 
 •l^j \^ ^j ^\ ' put on him these clothes;' andjJ ^}J CJ^\^^\ 
 give him a rupee.' 
 
 h. Some neuter verbs, as \j\ *to come,' liL 'to become,' \j\^ 
 
 o o ^ 
 
 to suit,* Uj^ to fall,' li.^^/J * to arrive,' LI^ * to become,' La>l>. 
 * to be desirable,' U^ * to remain,' U^^ * to appear,' IJj ' to unite,' 
 LL« 'to meet, to occur,' and IjJb 'to be,' govern the dative case, 
 and are frequently used impersonally ; as follows, ^ U ! f,»^j iA^ 
 
 I feel compassion;' ^Ji) ..^^ ^^^ Cl^b ^jtA ^^j^ I have some 
 doubt in this matter;' ^^J^^- ^J^J ^ l5"^^ ^""^ *^^ ^® desirable 
 that we should go there.' We may here observe that the form ^^^^U- 
 from chdhnd, is frequently used impersonally in the sense of *it is 
 proper,' 'it is fit;' like the Latin decet,' 'oportet.' When thus em- 
 ployed, governs the dative of the person, and either the past participle 
 or the aorist of the accompanying verb, as in the preceding example, 
 which might also be expressed ^^^\:>- bU- ^ *Jfe ' we must go.' 
 Sometimes, it may be used personally ; as, ^^^SjbU- L^ ^ ^J which 
 may mean ' what is proper for you,' or what do you require,' etc. 
 We could in this way say j^Aibl>- \j\^ (J^3 ^^ 7®^ must go 
 there,' or 'to go there behoveth you.' 
 
 c. Verbs meaning 'to sell,' or implying gain,' have ^'U 'hand,' 
 connected with them; as ^^ I^j ^'l& ^^^^ i^J^ '^^ whom 
 have you sold it?' bT -fflfc ^ lil ^'s' ^ ^^^^^. (^^ ^J 'that busi- 
 ness was accomplished with great difficulty;' in like manner, 
 uT *^U iAssT J4f> CS>i\ 1^1 *he gained a flower as his prize.' In 
 such expressions the word ^'Ife is used in the sense of possession.' 
 
 d. Verbs which in English require ' with,' ' from.' or * by' 
 after them, govern the ablative, and those which require *in,* 
 
TENSES OF THE ROOT. 121 
 
 ' within,' * into, ' the locative case ; as in the following sentencie : 
 
 ^j^jj^ t<-» this IS better, that by means of his friendship I 
 should escape from the hand of my enemies ; ' in like manner 
 W ^^j^^ ^^^ Jj^U- ^^j^ ^jij] bj 'going into his house, he 
 began to think within himself Yerbs of fear and caution require 
 the ablative case ; as, ^ \jjJ ^^ >!• Sj JaLi perhaps he is afraid 
 of you;' ^ liJfe; j^'^ji^ (^ U3^\y*\;^ J^^ '*^® ^^S^ keeps on 
 his guard against reprobates.' 
 
 TENSES OF THE ROOT. 
 
 80. We have already given the general signification 
 of each tense, in the various paradigms of the verb, 
 pp. 44 to 59. We shall now, following the same order, 
 briefly notice such peculiarities as some of them present. 
 The reader will recollect that they are three in number 
 — ^the aorist, future, and imperative, of which the aorist 
 is the most important, on account of its extensive use 
 and application. 
 
 a. The Aorist generally corresponds vsdth the present subjunc- 
 tive of the Latin, or what in English grammar goes under the 
 name of * present potential' ; hence the conjunctions <^ and <Ji^lj* 
 
 * that,' ^\ and ^ * if,' ^>^^\ ' although,' ulxi' ^-^=r * until,' and 
 \jL^ *lest,' generally require the use of this tense after them; as, 
 
 iy' P J 
 
 ^ L5^^ y ^J^ i LJj'^ ^^ ^. "-r^ i uJ'k^ J.':r* ./^ 
 
 * if I desire that he should stay till I come, what is it to thee ? ' 
 It further implies possibility or obligation; as in the sentences, 
 ^^ (Jbj ^^^ jJb .^ y>- ^ ' whatever it may be possible to do 
 to-day, that do;' i^ji^ -♦Wl^ a\^ -^^^ <J^ ^ Ju^l ijiy*^ 'our 
 hope is that this business may be brought to a conclusion;' 
 
122 TENSES OF THE ROOT. 
 
 T" J^ c^kj J^^ ^^'^ i^**l^ *^ * ^^^8 sends an ambassadoi to any 
 place, it is desirable that hie should be the wisest and the most 
 eloquent man of his tribe.' When the power of doing a thing is 
 designed to be expressed, the verb liX-s ' to be able, ' is used in 
 all its parts, with the root (or sometimes the inflected infinitive) 
 of the principal verb; as, ^ \::S^ ^^rV ^ b °^ ^^^^ frequently, 
 ^Jt> liLj ^j^ ciW" ^ ^6 cannot go.' 
 
 h. The aorist is very frequently employed to denote present 
 time when general and unrestricted, hence it is used much in 
 proverbial expressions, with which the language abounds; as, 
 4^ \s>- ^jlii JL« l^ ^^l) * the wealth of the wicked goes for 
 nought.' It also expresses time future or past, conditionally; as, 
 
 Jj^ j^lill^ JJj y ^j^ ^^ i^b ^\ ' if the nightingale find 
 thy abode, then will the rose-garden be forgotten ;' or, 'if the 
 nightingale found thy abode, then would the rose-garden be for- 
 gotten.' On the subject of this tense, Muhammad Ibrahfm has given 
 several sound remarks in his grammar, already alluded to ; p. 59, etc. 
 He gives it the name of * future of the subjunctive or potential mood.' 
 "We have discarded the term mood altogether, as utterly inapplicable 
 to the Hindustani language, and infinitely more perplexing than 
 useful. Lastly, the aorist is sometimes accompanied by the present 
 auxiliary tense ^j^^, etc., page 43, the precise effect of which it 
 is difficult to determine ; as, ^yn ^^ i /--^ I may speak ;' 
 
 Jt> ^j^ iJyu:9- Jasoda is or may be saying.' 
 
 e. The Future presents few peculiarities, save that in respectful 
 
 hnguage it is often employed for the imperative, and occasionally 
 
 for the aorist; as, ,X:Jt) Cj-;ls^ <-^-^^ l5^^ l^ ^ ui-^Lc w^o-Lj 
 
 * have the kindness, Sir, to give me a book ; ' so, likewise, 
 
TE2^SES OF THE PRESENT rAilTICIPLE. 123 
 
 am thinking that whatever they say may be from envy.' Our 
 /Second Future or Future Perfect is formed by the future of 
 L^j>- ' to finish,' to the root of the verb ; as, \SJ^^ \^ /^-^ * I shall 
 have eaten,' ^j^^ ^ ^j '^^ "w^l have eaten,' etc. 
 
 d. The Imperative is confined in its application, strictly speaking, to 
 the second person, singular and plural. The honorific form addresses 
 itself as to a third person by way of respect; as, ^j k— ^o^ 'be 
 silent ;' JT jJb til 'come hither;' ^^^^ssJ^ l_JU^ jLi^b pardon me,' or 
 * may he pardon me.' It is not considered polite to use the second 
 person singular of the imperative to any one, however low his con- 
 dition. The adverb l:i-^^ is applicable to the imperative mood alone, 
 A} is applied to it in common with the other modes, %^J is never 
 used with it; as, ^j^ ^^i^^ or e^^ ^^! ^^^'^ forget;' 
 jLj Lujl * don't do so.' The imperative mood is sometimes used 
 idiomatically, as in the following expressions : ^ y yb * perhaps it 
 is,' or * it may be ; ' jT y Jl ' come, if you mean to come.' 
 
 TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 81. Of these, the Indefinite claims most attention. 
 The name and signification given to it in most gram- 
 mars, is ' Present Indefinite Tense. ' The epithet of 
 present is misapplied, as the tense generally refers to the 
 past 
 
 a. Among the tenses of the present participle, the Indefinite 
 holds the same rank that the aorist does in those derived from 
 the root. Its most ordinary significations are, first, to denote 
 conditional past time, in which case it is generally preceded by 
 ^\ or ^ 'if,' and followed hj y then;' as in the sentences, 
 \jyb ij j^Ual) ^^ y \j\ Sj S\ if he had come, then there would 
 
124 TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 have been no loss ; ' \iLj «u ci^b ^^j^ y ^-^ ^;r* yr * ^^ ^ ^^ 
 spoken, lie would not have regai'ded what I said,' or 'if I should 
 speak, he would not regard.' So in the * Bagh o Bahar,' p. 71 : 
 
 «3^" If oir days were at all lucky, then we should have some- 
 where found Hatim, and having seized him, we should have 
 carried him to Nauful, then he would have given five hundred 
 ashrafis,' etc. The conjunction is frequently omitted in the 
 former or latter part of the sentence, and sometimes in both ; as, 
 bjLi ^yi^ ^^1 y wU>- jj--^ or \jj[^ ^-''^ l<^^ ^^ U^ ^^' 
 * had I gone, I should have beaten hira soundly ; ' in like manner, 
 b'l) <U ^^^^ \j^ lj*y> ^2^ 'had I been present, the horse should 
 not have been allowed to escape.* 
 
 b. In the second place, the indefinite is employed to denote 
 continuative past time, or to express an act or event that was 
 habitual ; as the reader may observe in the following passage : 
 ^i^ ^JL)1 tjj^ ^ \jU-^ Jili luo\ t-^ ^^^^-^ S^W S'^ 
 \jyt> (*y^ ^ i<-'^ L5^y ^ J^^ * When the gamester used to win 
 (jitfd) he used to become {ho-jdtd) so careless, that any one 
 might take off (utdr-letd) his clothes ; then even it would not be 
 {na hotd) known to him.' In like manner, 'Bagh o Bahar,' p. 9: 
 
 l:xi^^ <U ^^ - <JU" * All night the doors of the houses used not 
 to be fastened, and the shops of the market used to remain oper ; the 
 travellers used to go along,' etc. 
 
TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 125 
 
 c. The indefinite is occasionally used for the present by omitting 
 the auxiliary; as, l/J^ Li Sj 'what is he doing?' The student must 
 be carefiil, however, not to fancy that this tense coiTCsponds with our 
 present indefinite, as some of our grammars inculcate. Its use as a 
 present tense is the exception, not the rule. 
 
 d. The Present Tense is used both to express the precise point 
 of time when the action takes place, and also to denote a continuous 
 or habitual state of action ; hence it corresponds with both our forms 
 of the present tense ; as, ^ b'U- j^ Xj *he is (now) going home;' 
 but in the sentence ^ b'U- j^ ^jJu;^ ^ cl:\j s» it must be 
 translated, ' he always goes home at night.' The present is frequently 
 used for the future, when it is meant that the action will be done 
 quickly; as, ^^ \j'i \j\^ jlsj- ^^^^ *I am bringing (shall bring) 
 the dinner quickly.' 
 
 e. In vivid descriptions, when the narrator represents a past 
 occurrence in the same manner as he or the person of whom he 
 speaks originally saw it, and as if it were still apparent to the 
 view, the present is frequently used; as in the following passage: 
 ^,-.^ f^\3 iJSA jii> ^ l^.J ^"^ U**^ ^ c:-^£i-^t) (jwl v-^^ 
 
 ^.^ L5^ l/^^ j^^ - ^ J^ l/ u^^^ j^ ujfj^ ^Jr'^ 
 
 \^ (J>3^ j^l> o ^^^j^ j^ "~L5^ '^r'^?^ ''^^^ L^^ ^-^^.^^ t—J^b* 
 ^ bis*- ^!b»- u-i;!? *When he arrived at the tree, he saw that on 
 every branch of it a/re hanging hundreds of human heads; and 
 under it is a beautiful tank full of water, and the stream of it 
 is flowing towards the desert.' In such instances the past tense 
 may be used, but it is less animated and impressive ; as 
 
 ^ ^Ja^ ^ j^j^ {^S^ J-j * he went near the tree, and wha< 
 does he see but a marble slab was placed at the bottom of it' 
 
126 TENSES OF THE TAST PARTICirLE. 
 
 /. The Imperfect denotes a past action in progress, and corresponds 
 with onr own compound tense formed in a similar manner; as, 
 \C Is^ ij 'he was writing.* In most of our English grammars, 
 the Indefinite Past Tense, such as ' he wrote,' * ho spoke,' is very 
 improperly called the Imperfect. It is needless to state that these 
 expressions in Hindustani must be rendered by l^ y^<*^ ^^^ 
 ^i ,<^«-»^ that is, the simple past, of which we shall say more 
 immediately. 
 
 g. The tense called the Present Dubious (page 51) is generally 
 employed to denote a future action of uncertain occurrence; as, 
 ujjijJb or J^^yjJ \ij\^ J^ (perhaps) I may beat,' or be beating;' 
 so in ' Bagh o Bahar, p. 38 : Ifyb li^ L^ ^^r?^ [^^ \^} h * What 
 will he (or may he) saying in his own mind ? ' 
 
 TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 82. The main peculiarity in the use of these is, that 
 when the verb is transitive, the nominative must be put 
 in the case of the agent, as explained p. 103, etc. 
 
 The Past Tense corresponds with what is improperly called 
 the imperfect in most English grammars ; as, LT Is^ a^ ' he went 
 away ; ' l^ (J >j* * you wrote ; ' which expressions, though inde- 
 finite as to time, convey the idea of a complete or perfect action ; 
 hence the absurdity of calling it the imperfect tense. In addition 
 to its common acceptation, it is sometimes used with a present, 
 and sometimes with a future meaning ; as in the following : 
 ^? y ^^^ ^j jjU- o;^^ y J^ ^^ f^ ' i^ s^^ is found, 
 then my life remains; if not, it is gone ; ' IjI^ ^ by ^^ * what he 
 sows, that he reaps.' We have already stated that the present is 
 sometimes used for the future to denote speed ; the past is employed 
 for the same purpose. Thus a man says to his servant, ^'i ^^\J 
 
TENSES OF THE PAST PAETICIPLE. 127 
 
 hrlna: water,' and the answer will probably be Jj^^Jo- u^ I have 
 Drought it, Sir,' meaning, * I will bring it immediately.' It ia some- 
 times applied in an idiomatical manner, ; as, lyi> ^ !jA if it be so, 
 why be it so.' 
 
 h. The verb ' to be ' has, in Hindustani, two tenses expressive of 
 the past, viz. l^' 'was,' and \^ was' lor became), which 
 may often be translated by the same word in English. In many 
 cases these appear to be synonymous in their application ; the 
 student, however, must pay particular attention to the following 
 rule. lf>* is used in reference to simple existence at a distant 
 time or particular place, while \^ is applied to time or circum- 
 stances less remote, in the sense of ' became ; ' as follows : 
 \^ il^jb CJ<\ ^^^ CJ^-* (jw^ 'there was a king in that country;' 
 Lib (jW^ ^J *^® "^^^ (became) confounded.' In short, l^* de- 
 notes permanent existence, and \^ that which was^ or lecame 
 existing, through circumstances generally stated in, or easily in- 
 ferred from the context. 
 
 c. The Perfect answers to the Perfect tense in English, being 
 used to denote an action newly past and finished ; as follows, 
 ^ ^-^^ -/*^ Irr* ' ^y brother has arrived ;* ^ ^}^ f J^ ci i^r* 
 * I have eaten the fruit.' Sometimes it is used with adverbs of time, 
 in a manner that cannot literally be rendered in English ; as 
 j^yb LS ^^Uj J^ ^^y^ ' I have gone there yesterday,' for ' I went 
 there yesterday.' In this case, the usage of the French 'je suis 
 alle,' would have come nearer the Hindustani. 
 
 d. The Pluperfect in English will generally be expressed by 
 the Pluperfect in Hindustani, representing a thing not only as 
 past, but as prior to some other event ; as in the sentence, 
 \^* \^ kci- tj ^j^ ^^ ^ ^j^jsx^^ ^^\ 'l had written the 
 letter previous to his arrival.' "But the converse of this ru3Q 
 
128 TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 does not hold, the pluperfect being frequently used in Hindu- 
 stani where in English we employ the simple past; thus in Story 
 16, a learned Kayath orders his slave to get up during the 
 night, and see if it rains. The slave, feeling himself very com- 
 fortable where he is, concludes, without getting up, that it does 
 rain ; and gives the following ingenious process of reasoning : 
 
 ^ ^S^. — V "^y^ !f^^ s^ (I'tr* — L5^ *^*^ L5^ ' *^® ^^* ^*°^® 
 in, I put my hand upon her, she was wet' {ergo, it rains) ; but the 
 literal meaning is, * the cat had come in, I had put my hand 
 upon her, she had got wet.' The general rule is, that when one 
 definite past even precedes another past event in point of time, 
 the former is expressed in the pluperfect. It may happen that the 
 latter of the two events is not expressed, but merely passing in the 
 speaker's mind ; as in the above example, where the slave might have 
 added, as he no doubt meant, ' thence, I have ascertained that it is 
 raining,' which would have completed the chain of reasoning. 
 
 e. The tense called the Past Dubious (p. 51), formed of the 
 past participle and the aorist or future of UjJb is used to express 
 remote probability past or future ; as in the following examples : 
 l^ L^ LO^^ ^ ^ uy^ lij lr>- <U ^^ * I know not where he may 
 
 (or will) have gone;' l^ bb lH-Ju^ ^^^^. ci (*-' ,}jrt^ -f^ 'on 
 the way, you must have met with much difficulty.' The Fast 
 Conditional (p. 51.) is of very rare occurrence, and is under- 
 stood to express the event in a more remote manner than the 
 Indefinite (p. 45) ; thus, b'U- J\ s^ y \jyb ^j^ 1}s^j J ^ji:^ f^ 
 *if I had opened the cage, then it would have flown.' A kind of 
 expression like the Pauh-post-futurum, is expressed by Lfcl>- 
 ' to desire, ' with the past participle of another verb ; as, 
 ^ hjAs^ \j/9 a^ *he is about to die,' is dying,* or will soon 
 die.' There are also other ways of expressing the same idea; 
 thus, ^^ S/* ^j or ^ 1i\^ ci/* ^j or ^ l^ Sj^ ifj. 
 
INTINITIVE. 129 
 
 INFINITIYE. 
 
 83. The infinitive is used as a substantive to denote 
 the state or action of the verb ; it is frequently used for 
 the imperative, and occasionally it is employed adjec- 
 tively in connection with another substantive. 
 
 a. All Infinitwes used as substantives or adjectives are subject to 
 inflection like nouns of the third class ; thus, Jb l— -wjI^^ U \>- 1^1 
 *his departure is proper;' ^^ c:-^j ^^^, l^ ^^j>4 f*^^ 'this is 
 the very time for taking revenge;' 1)1 ^ ■,^^*^,'^ j4 ^ ^^ 
 \\ (Ja-^slj ^ ^j^ij^i^ j^ Hj *he has come to see the house.* The 
 infinitive is often used as an imperative, and as such it may 
 even have the negative mat before it ; as, Ij U5o >*uj> J^ * swear 
 not at all;' \j\s>- ci-w^ L;^^ don't go there,' or 'you must not 
 go there.' Sometimes it is used with the verb U^, instead of 
 the regular tenses of the verb which it represents ; as follows, 
 \^ I) ! ^-«j cLnL* ^j*S * from what country are you come ? ' 
 instead of ^ ^^\ ^ LliX* ^j^. It is also used with the verb 
 to be,' like the Latin gerund, to denote necessity or obligation ; 
 as, l^Jb liU- :.l&. ^ ^ 'you must go there;' so, likewise, 
 ^ Ijlss-J^^ -^ c..^ jj^ _ ^ ^j^ jl) CSi\ j^^A 'one must 
 die {moriendum est) some day at last, and must give up every thing.' 
 
 I. Sometimes the infinitive, together with its complement (that 
 is, the noun which it governs, along with its circumstances), 
 may form the subject or predicate of a proposition; as follows, 
 
 ^jb\j ^^ci\ j}^^ LiiJij c;,^ ^ ^^ j^ ^ ^y^^^^, 
 
 to laugh {lit. to display the teeth) in the presence of kings is 
 unmannerly.' In the following sentence from the ' Khirad Afroz,' 
 both the subject and the predicate are of this description: 
 
130 INFINITIVE. 
 
 children in the society of the vile, is to effect their ruin.* When 
 an infinitive thus used has a feminine noun for its complement, 
 it generally agrees adjectively with the substantive (like the 
 Latin participle in du8) by changing U into ^J or j-J ; thus, 
 i5t^^ ib^V^ L5^^ L^kj ^J^ s/ cT"* ' ^ ^*^® ^°* learned to 
 speak your language ;' ^ J^LL* ,^5^^ ^^^iXJi ^ ^^lAi ' it is hard to 
 put one's finger on a lancet.' So, in the Ba^ Bahar,' p. 32 : 
 
 ^ L^* -'^^'^ ^ L;si^ L5^ \J^ J^^^i"^ ' Sir, if it was your 
 \itention thus to act the stranger, then where was the necessity of 
 previously tendering your friendship with such ardour?' Here the 
 infinitive Tcwnh. agrees with n&-&BhnaJi and dodh. in the feminine 
 gender ; so, p. 35, ^^^^ ^-'^^ ^5^.*^ T l^^V^ *— ^r^ ^^ S^"^® 
 trouble to one's guest is not proper.' Sometimes (though 
 rarely) the infinitive does not agree with the feminine noun 
 which it governs ; as may be seen in the following sentence : 
 
 *to toil much for this world is in fact much-ado about nothing.' 
 If the infinitive, with the feminine noun which it governs, be 
 not the subject or predicate of a sentence, this concord does not 
 hold between the infinitive and the word which it governs; as 
 
 ilS 15*^^ * ^^ ®^^ ™^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^® came to cut wood (sticks), and 
 began to gather sticks.' Here the infinitives tornd and chunnd do 
 not agree with lakrii/dn, because they are neither subject nor predicate to 
 a sentence. We have been rather diffuse in explaining this peculiarity 
 of the infinitive, because the rule respecting it, as given in most 
 grammars, is, to say the least of it, unsound. It runs thus : " The 
 termination jj is used with certain verbs or with post-positions; 
 
PARTICIPLES. 131 
 
 J (»{), \-J (nin), or j^lJ (w^yaw), when a feminine noun singular 
 or plural is the object of tlie verb ; and b in all other cases ! " "We 
 have just shewn from the best authority that ne is used when there is 
 neither ' a certain verb ' nor post-position ' in the case, and that ni 
 is not necessarily used at all times when a feminine noun is the 
 object of the verb.' 
 
 c. The inflected infinitive with M (Jce or U) is also used adjec- 
 tively in a sense somewhat like the Latin participles in turns ; 
 as, ^^ l^ iJyb -^, * this cannot be ; ' l^ (JU- j^^ (^ \j^ ^^ 
 
 * now I do not mean to go to Persia ' (non sum iturus) ; so, 
 l^ ^U ^p^ j^ *I am not the man to believe, or submit.' 
 Lastly, the inflected infinitive is used with li>J when it means 'to 
 begin;' with Ljti *to grant leave;' and with l)l> * to get leave;* 
 as, W ^j^ b^ ' he began to say • ' j J «JU- ^ *j& ' allow us to go ; ' 
 M-^ «J^ cii i^ they are allowed to come.' The verb \j^s>- 
 
 to go,' may also govern the inflected infinitive of another verb 
 {ko being understood) ; as, ^J^ ^_^'^^ ^3 ' ^^^7 went to play.' 
 The verb l:iLj * to be able,' generally governs the root of another 
 verb, but it is often used with the inflected infinitive, particularly 
 when accompanied by a negative particle; as, IxJ^L^ J^ -.^ 
 
 * I shall be able to move ; ' \^ l::^^! cU ,Aj>- !i ' he was not able 
 to move;' lii^ ^j^ L5^^ il'^ ■'■ ^^^^^^ ^^7*' Lastly, the verb 
 hond, denoting obligation, may govern the inflected infinitive; as, 
 \^ (J\s>- ^dj ' you must go ; ' ISjJi ^ ^ ^^' ' you must write.' 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 84. The present and past participles, when used par- 
 ticipially and not forming a tense, generally add \^ (p. 
 46), and agree, like adjectives, with the noun which they 
 qualify. In many instances they are used adverbially 
 
132 PAKTICIPLE8. 
 
 in the masculine inflection, or, more strictly speaking, 
 they are verbal nouns in an oblique case. 
 
 a. The following examples will illustrate what we have just 
 stated regarding the participles when accompanied by h{i,d; 
 
 ^J / J^,/ 4^y lT^ yr d;-* '^. U?*/ ^ 'is t^ere any 
 one in Braj who will stop the departing Gopal ? ' So likewise, 
 ^U Jdb ^ jJ^ 4^ jJb ^*y ' the bones of a dead tiger ; ' and, 
 
 kettledrum suspended in a tree.' Sometimes the past participle is 
 used like a mere adjective ; as, lf» 6 Ij \^ 1^ <-^J * there was 
 a flowery and fruitful garden ' (not * flowered and fructified ' ) ; but 
 the words j^A^^a and^Aa/a here may be real adjectives (not participles) 
 derived from 'phiil, 'a flower,' and 'phal^ 'fruit,' by adding (f, which 
 is agreeable to analogy. In expressions like the following, they are 
 used adverbially; as, jjyi» -*sv«s 'when it was morning;' tjyi> /»L£> 
 ' when it was evening ; ' ^^^j i^j^ ' while I remain ; ' ^j^^i^ l5^^ 
 * at the sight of whom ; ' ;^^fsr*^ Lj * without understanding ; * 
 c::-.^^ L<j J at the time of giving.' The present participle is 
 doubled, to express the continuation or frequency of the act; as, 
 iJb ij ijyij ^Jy^ -^l^ j^Ujb * our work being and being, was not,' 
 i.e. continuing to be done, was not completed.' 
 
 h. From the present participle is formed the compound verb called 
 statistical (p. 65), by using the masculine inflection of the participle 
 together with some verb of motion; as, ^i> ^1 (JlS ^j she 
 comes singing.' The present participle in this case is employed 
 precisely like the ablative of the Latin gerund. Dr. Gilchrist has 
 suggested that M hdlat men should be considered to be understood '. thus, 
 wuh gdti H hdlat men dti hak, %he comes in the state or condition 
 pf (a person) singing;' but a moment's consideration will shew 
 
PAETICIPLES. 133 
 
 that this theory is more ingenious than sound. Tor instance, 
 ^ \j\ (jrt^ l::^!U- ^) ^^ Hj ' he comes (in the state of) one 
 singing,' is all very well, but, on the other hand, when the nominative 
 is feminine, as, ^£ ^"T (j;-^ l::JU- ^) ^^ ij ' she comes (in 
 the state of) one singing,' the expression is absurd ; because she is a 
 female, and the one singing is a male ; and we leave the authors of 
 the theory to account for the curious fact of her coming in the state 
 of {a male) singing, at that particular juncture. We believe that in 
 these instances the present participle is a verbal noun in the locative 
 case, similar to those Sanskrit verbals in ti, etc. (corresponding to 
 the tio of the Latin), which denote the abstract action or condition 
 of the verb. In fact we could add many instances where the participle 
 is clearly used like a mere substantive, as ^ ^y^ 'from sleep/ 
 evidently the same as ^ sA?^' 
 
 e. From the past participle are formed the compound verbs called 
 frequentative and desiderativy, by adding ha^nd and chdhnd respectively 
 to the simple masculine form of the participle. The only peculiarity 
 about these is, that the verbs \jj^ 'to die,' and UU- 'to go,' employ 
 the regular forms of the participle mard and Jdgd, in preference to the 
 usual forms m{L,d and gaga; as, wuh mard chdhtd hai, he is about to 
 die,' or will die,' or wishes to die;' so, wuh jdyd Tcartd thd, 
 *he was in the habit of going.' The past participle with h{i,d in 
 the inflected state is sometimes used like the conjunctive participle, or, 
 indeed, it may be a compound form of the latter, for ought we can say; 
 
 thus, Jb IfLjJ (-5*y^ 15^^ Li^J^^ L5"^^ ^^^} ' ^ ^^^ having 
 applied the smoke (by way of penance) is seated;' so likewise, 
 
 having put on various coloured garments, were dancing.' Some- 
 times the past participle of a neuter verb is used adjectively (that 
 
134 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 J3, agreeing with the nominative), elong with another verb ; as, 
 UU" 1>- ; thus, j^ (^[s^ L5^ *-^-^ 'they go along;* so, 
 l5^ LTi/^ 4^ 4^^r '^^' * ^"^^ "^^^ roaming about.' 
 
 d. The conjunctive participle, by connecting the similar 
 numbers of a sentence, saves the use of verbs and conjunctions; 
 it commonly refers to the agent, sometimes to the object of the 
 verb; as, j\ ^ jLS l->1::^ s^^**^ ^^ il>^? tt' * ^^^^S gone 
 there to-day, and having taken my book, return;' and again, 
 
 regret has come upon me (through) making haste in this business.' 
 The student will recollect that this participle has several forms, the 
 first of them the same as the root; the second, the same as the 
 masculine inflection of the past participle, or the second and third 
 persons singular of the aorist; but the context generally suffices to 
 prevent any ambiguity. 
 
 e. The masculine inflection of the present participle with the 
 addition of the particle ^Jb hi, forms what may be called the 
 adverbial participle. Its signification is very nearly the same as 
 that of the conjunctive participle above described; the adverbial 
 form conveying perhaps the idea of more speed or precision; as, 
 ^ ^J^^^ CL^V -;.J (immediately) on hearing this statement. 
 This participle may be applied in three ways, all of them tending 
 to prove what we have stated above, that it is merely a verbal noun. 
 Thus we may say, ^ ^J^-^*^ ^^*V -W. "^l^ere yih hdt is the first 
 form of the accusative; we may also say, ^ 15^-**' y ^-^V {j*>f 
 where is hdt-Tco is the second form of the accusative ; lastly, we may 
 say, ^ ^_5^^'^— ' ^ <-^V W'^^ on the hearing of this statement.* 
 Here, we see sunte in the first two expressions scting the part of a 
 transitive verb, and in the last that of a substantive. 
 
oaxcLUSiON. 135 
 
 85. We have littlb more now to add on the syntax 
 of the Hindustani language, which, we believe, we have 
 discussed more fully, and we would fain hope, more 
 intelligibly, than has yet been done. The following few 
 remarks may be still added, as belonging to no particular 
 department of the subject. 
 
 a. Sometimes a verb plural is used without a nominative case, 
 some such word as * they ' or * people ' being understood ; as in 
 the following examples: -..-.Jb ^^^^^ ^)^i thus they say;' and 
 
 (i;^^ ^J^ f iJvL/^^* l5*^ J^^ '— -^.^ * °^®^ ^^ thousands with one 
 sword.' In negative sentences, the verb to be ' is generally under- 
 stood; as, ^j^ ^^ ^ ^l-i ij^ Uis 'oppression (is) not 
 becoming your dignity.' The particle i^ hi is frequently used after 
 verbs of speaking, asking, etc., in the sense of thus,' ' as follows,* 
 etc. ; as, \Ji &j ^J, ^-^ ^ ^ <j> ^j*>^ * te said he had not done 
 it;' lit. 'he said thus, I have not done it.' This is very like 
 the use of the particle on as it frequently occurs in the Greek 
 text of the New Testament. In a sentence consisting of two 
 or more clauses, it is not necessary to repeat the auxiliary verb 
 in each ; as ^ ^jj ^ ^ j^\ ^ L5^ l/ CJ'^ 'V ^J^^. * ^^^^' 
 ness is the thraldom of the body, and sorrow that of the spirit.' 
 
 h. We may here state in conclusion, that throughout this long 
 section on Syntax, it has been our principal aim to illustrate those 
 peculiarities in which the Hindustani language differs from our own. 
 Such rules and principles as completely accord with those of the 
 languages supposed to be familiar to the reader, we have either passed 
 over unnoticed, or handled very briefly. It may further be stated 
 that there remains a difficult department of the language which must 
 be overcome by practice, viz., the use of idiomatical expressions. 
 These do not constitute the subject of grammar, and a knowledge of 
 them is to be acquired by reading the best authors, and by free 
 mten ourse with the natives of the country. 
 
186 
 
 SECTION YL 
 
 THE NlGAEI OR DEVANAGARI ALPHABET. 
 
 86. This is the character generally used by the 
 Hindus. It is read and written from left to right, like 
 our own. The alphabet, as used for the Hindustani, 
 consists of eleven vowel sounds, and thirty-three con- 
 sonants, aU arranged as follows : — 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^T 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Tl 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^-v 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 Hl 
 
 ii 
 
 r! 
 
 i 
 
 ai 
 
 6 
 
 «w 
 
 
 
 
 
 Consonants. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 -m 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^• 
 
 ^ 
 
 W 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 3? 
 
 Z 
 
 h 
 
 kh 
 
 9 
 
 gh 
 
 n 
 
 eh 
 
 d?M 
 
 y 
 
 j^ 
 
 » 
 
 t 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 fT 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 th 
 
 d 
 
 dh 
 
 n 
 
 t 
 
 th 
 
 <? 
 
 e^A 
 
 n 
 
 P 
 
 i^A 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 TT 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 W 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ¥ 
 
 ^ 
 
 h 
 
 hh 
 
 m 
 
 y 
 
 r 
 
 / 
 
 «?,r 
 
 sh 
 
 «A 
 
 « 
 
 h 
 
 a. To the above letters may be added the symbol *, called 
 anuswdra, which represents the nasal h (page 6), and the visarga \ , 
 which corresponds with the final weak » (p. 6) of the Persian 
 character. "We would at the same time draw the student's attention 
 to two compound characters, of which the elements are so disguised 
 as to have the semblance of single letters ; viz. ^ Icsh, compounded of 
 ^ and ^, sounded like our x in fluxion, or et in faction ; and "^ jn, 
 sounded like our gn in bagnio, or the French gn in ligne, champagne, 
 etc. The mark | is used in poetry to indicate the first member of 9 
 Mloka or couplet ; and at the end of a 8lol:a it is generally doubled || 
 
THE DA VA NAdAHl AL J'UA JiA' T 
 
 Vowels CoiiLa»unsLnt«. 
 
 InitiijU Secondary 
 
 f 111 
 
 ^ ^ T 
 
 3 3)^^ 
 
 " , " ,1 u 
 
 »•/ ^-7 ;^/ 7-Z. 
 
 ^ ^ "Tl "SI 3- 
 
 y r I w£rv strsk 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ,^ 
 
 VOMPltr JVl) hETTI^RS 
 
 A/r // /cy a^ ^/.^ chchJh 
 
 ^ 
 
 tt Cth, tn, dW^ 
 
 ^^'^l 2R^1,^ ^^^ 
 
 ty &w ..{/''/ l(/h drr) dy dw yit t^ th rvd n^/^h . 
 
 rt?7. rrn-' n.y jth pt pn py ps hd iJiy U 
 
 .C/f/ .s'hfA .--^^77 Sf 
 
 hnt Tty 
 
 Bar/it^ .-.rulp' 
 
 .V /r A,:rr .1 C- J.c'i 
 
OF THE VOWELS. 137 
 
 In prose the same marks serve to denote stops. In many books lately 
 published in India, in the Devanagarf character, the English stops 
 have been very properly and successfully introduced. 
 
 J. In naming the consonants, the short vowel & (the fatha of 
 the Persi- Arabic alphabet, p. 8) is inherent in each ; thus ha, TcM, ga^ 
 etc. : and in reading, this vowel is to be supplied after every letter 
 (except the final letter of a word), provided it be not accompanied by 
 any other symbol ; thus, ^«f^ han&h, * gold,' •f'T'5^ nagar, ' a city.' 
 If a word terminates with a compound consonant, the short a may be 
 frequently supplied at the end, as in "Q^ putra, * a son.' Whenever 
 a consonant in the middle of a word is not to be uttered with the 
 short a, the consonant is marked underneath with the symbol (n) 
 called virdma or * rest ' (the same as the jazm of the Persi-Arabic, 
 p. 10), as ^^«TT U)^ ' to speak ;' or the In may be combined into 
 one compound character, as ^«T ; but in works circulated among the 
 natives this nicety is not attended to. 
 
 c. The first of the vowels, ^ d, is never written except it begin 
 a word or syllable. With regard to the remaining vowels, they have 
 each two forms : that given above, which may be called their primary 
 form, is used only when they begin a word or syllable; but when 
 they follow a consonant, they assume a totally different shape, which 
 may be called secondary forms ; thus, j a, |^«, '^ i, — u, — ^, — ri, 
 
 ^ e, — at, *^ 0, *y au, as may be seen in the following ex- 
 emplification of them with the letter ^ ga: thus, 
 
 ^, TT, f^, -yft, ^, \, -Z, 5t, ^, ih, ^. 
 
 ga, gd, gi, gi, gu, git, gri, ge, gai, go, gau. 
 And the same rule applies to the rest of the consonants. 
 
 d. It will be seen that the secondary form of \, viz, f^ is 
 written before its consonant ^, though sounded after it ; and 
 
138 COMPOUND LETTERS 
 
 the student will do well to bear in mind this apparent anomaly. 
 
 The T and f take their place after the consonant ; the and ~ 
 
 are fixed to the letter beneath ; the ^ and ^ above ; and the 
 ^ and T are merely the T surmounted by the II and ^ The 
 vowels^ and "^ in combination with the letter "^ r, are written 
 ^ ru, and ^ or "^ ri ; and the vowel "7* joined to "^ h, is 
 written "^ hri. 
 
 87. The strict rule in Devanagari writing is, that 
 when two or more consonants come together, without 
 the intervention of a vowel, such consonants unite into 
 one compound group ; thus, in the word WrW matsya^ 
 * a fish,' the r{ '^ and ^ are blended as it were into 
 one character. For the formation of the compound 
 letters no general rule holds, except that the last of the 
 group remains entire, and the rest are more or less con- 
 tracted by omitting the perpendicular stroke, and some- 
 times by changing their primitive form. 
 
 a. The letter "^j being of frequent occurrence in compounds, 
 is subject to two special rules of its own ; 1st. It is written 
 over a letter, or group of letters, in the form of a crescent 
 (*) when it is to be sounded first, as in the words f|cff tarha, 
 ' reasoning,' and m^ pdrshwa, a side' ; 2nd. When the ?^ follows 
 another letter, or group of letters, it is represented by an oblique 
 stroke (>) imdemeath, as in 4^^ aiitra, 'rule,' and "^"^ chand/ra, 
 'the moon.' 
 
 h. In books recently printed at Calcutta, such as the Prem Sdgar, 
 the Baitdl PacMsi, the Adventures of Hdtim Td,i, etc., all in the 
 Devanagari character, very few compound letters occur; and as a 
 general rule they are very little used in any of the spoken languages 
 cf India, being chiefly confined to manuscripts and printed works in 
 
COREESPONDING NAGARI ANB PERSIAN LETTERS. 139 
 
 the Sanskrit language. The following, however, occur in our Selec- 
 tions, and a perusal of these will suggest the method by which others 
 may be formed. Compounds of which the letter "^ forms the first oi 
 last element, are purposely omitted, that letter, as we have just seen, 
 having special rules applicable to itself. 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 ^ 
 
 Jl 
 
 m 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Tl 
 
 c^r 
 
 Ick 
 
 U 
 
 hj 
 
 gn 
 
 9^ 
 
 chckh 
 
 Jf 
 
 
 25^ 
 
 tth 
 
 ^ 
 
 w 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 ¥ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 tn 
 
 tm 
 
 ty 
 
 tw 
 
 dd 
 
 ddh 
 
 dm 
 
 dy 
 
 dw 
 
 w^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 TT 
 
 ■sr 
 
 121 
 
 nth 
 
 nd 
 
 ndh 
 
 nn 
 
 nm 
 
 nj/ 
 
 nh 
 
 pt 
 
 i?w 
 
 py 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 "«f 
 
 ^ 
 
 ¥ 
 
 ¥ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 M 
 
 ps 
 
 Id 
 
 % 
 
 11 
 
 sht 
 
 sMh 
 
 shn 
 
 St 
 
 s^A 
 
 sn 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 ^ 
 
 w 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sm 
 
 8y 
 
 88 
 
 hm 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 c. Compounds of three letters are very rare, and when they do 
 occur, it will be found that they generally consist of one of the semi- 
 vowels ^ T ^ or ^ combined with a compound of two letters, 
 thus : ^ ktw, -^ ntr, "^ pty, ^ sty. As for compounds of four 
 letters, they are merely matters of curiosity, as "^''^ Ipsm, r[^ tsny. 
 
 88. The best dictionaries of the Hindustani language 
 are printed in the Persian character ; hence it will be 
 necessary for the student to know exactly how he may 
 convert the Devanagari letters into the former. This 
 he will be able to do efficiently by a reference to the 
 following tables: — 
 
 I. Initial Vowels. 
 
 y 9 
 
 1 T t il 1 ,1 J il >1 ,\ ,\ 
 
140 CORliESPONDlNG NAGARI AND PERSIAN LETTERS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 Gomonanta. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 5? 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 4 
 
 r 
 
 / 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 -«^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -R- 
 
 ly 
 
 (Jb 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 ;r 
 
 w 
 
 rT 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 
 u 
 
 CJ 
 
 -e^' 
 
 J 
 
 JbJ 
 
 U 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 W 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 •e^ 
 
 r 
 
 s^ 
 
 >> 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 
 i^or^ 
 
 U^ 
 
 * 
 
 III. SecondtMry Vowels. 
 ^ WT^ ftT ^T ^T ^T 
 
 ■€^ ^ %T ^^ <|Vt ^: 
 
 «- ^ X 
 
 J^ «XJ JuJ J^* jUi A.* 
 
 «. In the preceding table it will be observed that the ten aspirated 
 letters of the Devanagarf alphabet are uniformly represented by the 
 corresponding unaspirated letter, together with the round or lutterfly 
 form of the letter ib, ^h\ thus, "^T^ ghar, ' a house,' .6^; V^ dhoTy 
 a place,' Jr> J. The real h "% o^ the Devanagarf is represented in 
 the middle of the word by ^ ; as, ^^T he said,' \^ : if, however, 
 the letter preceding the Jb be t>, j, or j, then the form A must be 
 used, and the preceding letter marked with the appropriate vowel ; as, 
 ^^T«T dahdn, ' the mouth,' jjU^^. The cerebral letters Z and ^ are 
 represented by cl? and J, or CLi and 3. Sometimes the ^ and ^ 
 have the sound of a cerebral r and rh respectively; in which case 
 they are generally marked with a dot beneath, thus ^f and "3", and 
 and with J or j in the Persian character; as, <f^T hard, 'great,' 1^, 
 The various nasals of the Devanagarl are represented by the Persian 
 ^, which will be found sufficient for all useful purposes. 
 
PERSIAN AND ARABIC LETTERS. 141 
 
 h. The letter ^ is sometimes represented by — : the letter IJ 
 generally by /p , sometimes by (jw j and the letter ^ is more 
 frequently ^ than /^ . The compound ^ is generally represented 
 by -^rs- or ^, seldom by {Jm^ , its proper sound. The compound 
 "W is represented by ^'y as, ^T"^T dgi/d (djnd), \^ \ ; its real 
 sound, as already stated, is that of gn in the Erench words 
 champagne, ligne, etc. 
 
 89. It appears, then, that the Devanagan alphabet 
 may be represented with tolerable exactness in the 
 Persian character ; but the converse does not hold, as 
 the Persi- Arabic alphabet has fourteen letters which 
 have no exact counterpart in the Devanagari. The 
 plan adopted in this case is to represent the letters in 
 question with such Nagari letters as approximate them 
 in sound, which in some printed books are distinguished 
 with a dot underneath ; thus, 
 
 t 
 
 J" 
 
 d" 
 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 t 
 
 Z 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 • 
 
 ♦ 
 
 • 
 
 ♦ 
 
 ♦ 
 
 ♦ 
 
 ♦ 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 cJ 
 
 i 
 
 L 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 
 
 qr 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ etc. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 a. In a few printed books, attempts have been made to invent 
 distinct letters for the various forms of the Persian and Arabic 2, 
 which, it wiU be observed, are all represented by ^ ; but in reality 
 the subject is not worth the labour. In the first place, the Hindus, 
 who alone use the Devanagari character, are sparing in the use of 
 Persian or Arabic words, to one or other of which the various forms 
 of the letter z belong ; and, secondly, such words as they have in the 
 course of centuries adopted have become naturalized, or, if the critic 
 will have it, corrupted, so as to suit the elements of the N4garf: 
 
142 PERSIAN AND ARABIC LETTERS. 
 
 fhus, i^jMp[s-' is written and sounded ^Tf^"v ^4i^ri. In a new 
 edition, in the Devanagari character, of the ' Adventures of Hatim 
 ^a,f/ which we have lately received from India, almost all dots and 
 double letters are discarded, as a useless incumbrance. 
 
 b. The letter c is generally represented in Nagari by employing 
 the vowel with which it is connected, in the initial form, with a dot 
 under it J as, Jjc ^^^ ba'd; Ac X'^ 'ilm;y^ W^ 'umr. This 
 method is sufficient for practical use ; but it is by no means satis- 
 factory, as may be seen in the monosyllable ^^^^^ which in Persian 
 and Arabic is sounded ha'd (the a uttered from the bottom of the 
 throat) ; but, according to the rules of the Devandgarf alphabet, it 
 makes h&^dd, unless we use the virdma (s) under the ^, as ^^^ > 
 which would amount to something like an absurdity. 
 
 c. When, in a word, two vowels follow each other, the rule is, to 
 write the second vowel in the initial form; for though not at the 
 beginning of a word, it is the beginning of a syllable; thus, 
 ■^■^T Aw'a ; "^T^T Mo. This is precisely the same in principle as 
 the use of the mark ham%a (p. 17) in the Persi- Arabic alphabet. 
 
 d. The best mode of learning the Devanagari character is to write 
 out several times the whole of the single letters in Plate II. The 
 various elements of each letter will be found in Plate I. fronting the 
 title page; the small dot accompanying each shews where the pen 
 starts from in their formation. When the student has made himself 
 tolerably familiar with the letters, he may commence with the first 
 story, which is the same as the third story of the Extracts in the 
 Persian character. In like manner he will find that the Devanagari 
 Stories, from 2 to 7 inclusive, are old acquaintances. Stories 8, 9, 
 and 10 also occur in the other Extracts, but some of the words differ, 
 viz., those of Persian or Arabic origin are displaced in the Devanagarf 
 for words purely Indian and Sanskrit. The rest of the Extracts in 
 
OF MANUSCEIPTS. 143 
 
 this character are taken from the scarce and valuable 'Hindustani 
 and Hindi Selections,' edited by Tarini Charan Mitr, head Munshl 
 in the College of Fort William, Calcutta, 1827, in two vols. 4to. In 
 their style and grammatical construction they offer no peculiarity 
 differing from those of our Hindustani Extracts in the Persian 
 character. 
 
 OF MANUSCRIPTS. 
 
 90. We briefly alluded, at page 21, to the three most 
 prevalent handwritings in use among the Arabs, Per- 
 sians, and Musalmans of India. Of these, the [N'askhi, 
 being like the type used in this country, requires no 
 explanation ; and the Shikasta, from its extreme iiTegu- 
 larity, scarcely admits of any. We shall therefore con- 
 fine ourselves at present to the description of the TaHik^ 
 of which we have given fourteen plates of engraved 
 specimens at the end of this work. 
 
 a. Plate I. Division 1st presents all the simple elements of this 
 character, the small cross mark shewing the commencement of each. 
 The 2nd elementary form, here marked t—^ , with one dot subscribed, 
 so as io be equivalent to he, may, by a mere change of its dots, become 
 t_^ O? cl^ [p, tf s). The third form, now a _ /, becomes in 
 the same manner ^ ^ _ {ch, Ich, h). The 4th makes two letters, 
 t> J . The 5th, j j j and J . The 6th is represented as con- 
 sisting of two forms; one an indented, the other a protracted line, may 
 in either shape form the sin and sMn (s and sh), as the only distinction 
 between them is that the sin {s) wants, and the sMn (sh) has, three 
 dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The 7th form, ^Ja 
 and ^ . The 8th, L and \^ {t, %). The 9th, c and i. The 
 next letters are (_J J lL/ J (♦ c; J ^^^ ^ * Then follow the 
 initial, medial, and final forms of the 5 ^ ^ or he linked together 
 
144 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Lastly, the ^ * v^ (W, hamta, and y«), the latter under two varieties 
 of form, the last of which is now conventionally used hy the natives 
 to denote the yde nuyhid (p. 13). 
 
 I. Division 2nd exhibits the second elementary form (viz. that of 
 c--> c--> C-J cij ), and likewise that of ^ and ^ , as they appear 
 initially, when combined with each of the others following them. 
 Division 3rd shews the — (i.e. ^ ^ ^ or ^), prefixed in the 
 same manner to each of the others. Division 4th (PI. II.), the 
 (jw /Jj . Division 5th, the ^ ^JO . Division 6th, the 1? 1? 
 Division 7th (PI. III.), the c 4 . Division 8th, uJ and j . 
 Division 9th, the CS (^, and by leaving off the top part we shall 
 in most instances have the initial J . Division 10th (PI. IV.), 
 the (♦ . Division 11th, the Jb combined initially with the rest of the 
 elementary forms. The tail of the he is given only in hdy My hh, hi, 
 and hid, but omitted in aU the rest, according to the practice of 
 Oriental writers. Hence the initial form of this letter is often too apt 
 to be mistaken for the mim. The 12th Division contains the combi- 
 nation of the characters Jis arranged in alphabetical notation, noticed 
 in p. 20, forming the fanciful words, Ahjad, hawa%, hutti, Icaliman, 
 sa^as, Jcarashat, sakhaz, ^amgh,,^ and the last line may be read thus, 
 indicating the name of the chirographer : AVahd ul mu%nib, al faUr 
 *uhaid ulldhi husaini shirin rakam ghaffara mniibahu. 
 
 e. Plates V. to XIV. inclusive, consist of a series of words in 
 alphabetical order containing combinations of three or more letters. 
 The student should endeavour to transcribe these into the Roman 
 character, and after some time retranscribe thera, as an exercise, into their 
 original state. Thus, the first line of Plate V, forms the combinations 
 blcht, hhjt, bhsht, pnj, hlkh, and hind, and so on with regard to the 
 Test. Coming now to complete words, we may premise, as a general 
 
MUHAMMADAN CALENDAR. 145 
 
 remark, that when these contain of the letters ^-? c— > CLJ CL? ^ ^ 
 in the middle of a combination, it is usual to give the middle one a 
 bold dash upwards, terminating in a sharp point vertically, like the 
 n in ^^ tnhw (Plate Y. line 8), or like the y in c, •>*>»'^ syl (Plate 
 YII. Une 1). 
 
 d. Concluding rema/rhs. — ^In manuscripts the short vowels and other 
 marks seldom make their appearance; and even the diacritical dots 
 are often either altogether omitted or irregularly placed. It may be 
 useful to observe, then, that when from the ambiguous position of a 
 dot, it may apply to more letters than one, it should of course be 
 assigned rather to the letter, which is not complete without a point, 
 than to one which may dispense with it. Thus the third combination 
 Plate I. No. 2, should be read ITi, and the eighth ns, though the dot 
 be over the last letter as if it intended to be a ^jo. But in many 
 cases the sense alone can determine the point. Thus the last word of 
 No. 2 may be either he or pe ; and the dot over the ninth word of 
 No. 3 is so equivocally placed between that and the word above it, 
 that it may be read either ^^/ir>- j^^^ or J^jb^, according as the 
 dot is conceived to belong to one or the other, above or below. The 
 grand key, however, to the reading of manuscripts, is to know the 
 language ; at the same time many useful hints may be gleaned from 
 Ouseley's 'Persian Miscellanies,' 4to. London, 1795; Stewart's 
 'Persian Letters,' 4to. London, 1825; and 'Essai de Calligraphie 
 Orientale,' in the Appendix to Herbin's * Developpments des Principes 
 de la Langue Arabe,' 4to. Paris, 1803. See also a work entitled 
 ' Oriental Penmanship ; an Essay for facilitating the Eeading and 
 Writing of the Ta'lik Character,' by the author of this Grammar. 
 London: Wm. H. Allen & Co. 1849. 
 
 MUHAMMADAN CALENDAR. 
 
 91. The Musalmans reckon by limar time, their aerg 
 called the Hijra^ commencing from the day on whicJH 
 Muhammad departed, or rather retreated, from Mecca ti 
 
 10 
 
146 MUHAMMADAN CALENDAR. 
 
 Medina ; which, according to the best accounts, took 
 place on Friday, the 16th of July (18th, new style), 
 A.D. 622. Their year consists of 12 lunations, amounting 
 to 354 days and 9 hours, very nearly ; and hence their 
 New-year's Day will happen every year about eleven 
 days earlier than in the preceding year. 
 
 a. To find the Christian year corresponding to that of the Hijra, 
 apply the following rule: — ^From the given number of Musalman 
 years, deduct three per cent., and to the remainder add the number 
 621.54, the sum is the period of the Christian sera at which the given 
 current Musalman year ends. For example, we mentioned (p. 20), 
 that the death of the poet Ahlf happened, a.h. 942 ; from this number 
 deduct three per cent, or 28.26, and the remainder is 913.74. To this 
 last add 621.54, and the sum = 1535.28, which shows that the 
 Musalman year 942 ended in the spring of 1536. This very simple 
 rule is founded on the fact that 100 lunar years are very nearly equal 
 to 97 solar years, there being only about eight days of difference. A 
 more accurate proportion would be 101 lunar to 98 solar years, but 
 this would lead to a less convenient rule for practical use. 
 
 h. "When great accuracy is required, and when the year, month, 
 and day of the Muhammadan SBra are given, the precise period of the 
 Christian sera may be found very nearly, as follows : — Hule. Express 
 the Musalman date in years and decimals of a year; multiply by .97 ; 
 to the product add 621.54, and the sum will be the period of the 
 Christian aera. This rule is exact to within a few days, and if in the 
 Musalman date the day of the week be given, as is generally the case, 
 the vert/ day is easily determined. 
 
 e. The Muhammadan or lunar months are made to consist of thirty 
 and twenty-nine days alternately, but in a period of thirty years, it is 
 found necessary to intercalate the last month eleven times so as to be 
 reckoned thirty days instead of twenty-nine. The months retain their 
 Arabic names in aU Muhammadan countries, as follows : — 
 
MUHAMMABAN CALENDAB. 
 
 147 
 
 LUNAE 
 
 MOl^'I'HR. 
 
 
 / 
 
 DAYS. 
 
 
 DATS. 
 
 /^j^^ muharram 
 
 30 
 
 L^5>-j rq/aJ 
 
 30 
 
 Ju> safa/r 
 
 29 
 
 ^j^LXi. «Aff'5rf« 
 
 29 
 
 Jjil 1 *--jj Tobh. ul-awwal 
 
 30 
 
 ^Li^j ramazdn 
 
 30 
 
 
 i 
 
 Jlj-ij shawwdl 
 
 29 
 
 js>^ \ ^^j raM ul-dkhir 
 
 30 
 
 
 1 ,n 
 
 fjji \ jUw=»- jumdd-al-awwal 
 
 30 
 
 i(Ji« t_fj g^a'e?a 
 
 30 
 
 jjlill jUjs- jumdd-as-sdni 
 
 ) 
 
 ^^^^ i t/ J z*,? A^« 
 
 ) 
 
 ->.^ i jUj?" jumdd-al-dTchvr 
 
 29 
 
 <)Lsi^ tJj %i hijlfa 
 
 i " 
 
 (?. We here subjoin the days of the week ; on the left hand are 
 the names in use among the Musalmans of India, next those of the 
 Hindiis; and on the right, the Persian names, which last are much 
 used in the dates of letters, etc. 
 
 DAYS OF THE WEEK. 
 
 
 
 musalmXn. 
 
 HINDtJ. 
 
 ENO. 
 
 PERSIAN. 
 
 j\jj\ itwdr. 
 
 jL-jj rahi-bdr. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 
 jfj or j^j^y^ somtodr or pir. 
 
 j^y^ som-hdr. 
 
 Mon. 
 
 aJLijJ 
 
 JxX« mangal. 
 
 
 Tues. 
 
 
 if^ hudh. 
 
 jL&tXj hudh-hdr. 
 
 Wed. 
 
 o o, 
 
 cl:\j &jtA:>-juw>ardt 
 
 1 o ^ o _ 
 
 ' " hdr. 
 
 Thur. 
 
 • * 
 
 O 9 
 
 <U/«^ juma. 
 
 j^j^ sukra-ldr. 
 
 Eri. 
 
 iijj\ 
 
 j=f^ sankhar. 
 
 jL*i-c sani-hdr. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 ^zJiJb or iJLit 
 
148 
 
 HINDU CALENDAR. 
 
 92. The Hindus reckon by solar years, and luni* 
 solar months. Their principal sera is that of the Kali- 
 Yug^ of which the year 4956 expired about the 11th 
 of April, A.D. 1855, at which period their new year 
 generally commence. 
 
 a. The Hindu year is divided into twelve equal portions, which 
 may be called solar months ; but all festivals and dates are reckoned, 
 not by these simple months, but by the duration of the moon which 
 terminates in each. Hence, although the month haisdkh begins de jure 
 about the 11th of April, it may have commenced de facto from one 
 day to twenty-eight days sooner. When two new moons occur during 
 one solar month, which happens oiice in three years, there is an 
 intercalary month, and the month so intercalated receives the name 
 of the one which preceded it, that is, of the solar month within 
 which the two new moons may happen. 
 
 h. Beside the sera of the Kali-Yug, the Hindus in the northern 
 half of India reckon from the time of a renowned prince, by name 
 Yikramaditya, who lived (or died) about 57 years before the com- 
 mencement of our sera. Another common sera is that of a prince 
 named Salavahana, which commences 78 years after the birth of 
 Christ. The former of these aeras is called the Samvat, and the 
 latter the Saka sera. Several other seras are in use in certain parts 
 of the country, for a full account of which the reader may consult 
 a profound work devoted entirely to the subject, entitled *Kala 
 Sankalita,' 4to. Madras, 1825. 
 
 THE HINDU SOLAR MONTHS, 
 
 X\^J.^> 
 
 April. 
 
 U^^^. 
 
 August. 
 
 (jwjJ December. 
 
 -eW May. 
 
 ^T ^T' j^f September. 
 
 •^SU January. 
 
 
 June. 
 July. 
 
 or lS^J^ 
 
 October. 
 November. 
 
 Jjl^^ {February. 
 
 k.::^%-ȣ*- March. 
 

 ^TT^. rm ^'% I^IFT ^^T ^^T, f^^ ^^ %, ^ift^ 
 
 ^4^ ^ ^^T, ^^TiT q^T^! ^^T 'IV^T^ ^fTT TT 
 
 * * 
 
 ^T^, <rr ^^^TT '^T ^T fif^ ^T^ ^T^ ? 
 
»i, Tl^ ^^ ^T^ITT^ i ^'T f^^TJf ^ ^^ ^^T ^^T. 
 ^^rf^T ^^ ^ %. ^^HT^ ^ ^^T, ^T H^ f^^ 
 
 ^^T % ? ^ fft ^TT ^^T ^. ^^T f^-it ^Tt ^, ^^ 
 
 • • • 
 
'fiqiTT i^T, w^tt: ^*5r. f^^ ^^t, f% ^ ^^ ^ 
 
 ^^ %ST rf^T ^T^T ^T^T ^T ^RTT ? ^^T, ^Tf%W ! 
 
 '^ITf^T T^^ f^^ WT ^T '^^ I ; ^^T ^^ ^T ^^T ?T^ 
 
 ^ ^t ^^^ ^^ ^ f^^ f%^fTT ^T ; -q;^ qf ^ 
 
 err ^^ % f^it ^ f%^T, wj- ^^r{ €t ^m f^^'ft ^^ 
 
 ^ ^^ f%^ 'it ^f^ ^T ^^ "q:^ f^'^H- f^f^W I^T 
 I, ^T T^ f^it ^ T^fTT %. Y^ Wtm, ^^% if^ 
 
 <?V ^^ <5^TTT f%^T "^^T 'T^ ^^T. r^ ^J^^ ^ 
 ^^T f^T, ^m, Wir (5^ % ^^T f%?c[T ^^T 'Tff 
 t^ ; ^TT ^, f^^ ^T m^T ^ If ^ ^f%^T % ? 
 
 ^fTT m, T^ If ^t 'T^TT Mt ^^t ^T I^T, ^T ^HJ 
 ^■^ ^T ^^ ^^ t^ ^^'T fr fr^. T^ ^ fTfTT t'w 
 ^^ ^ ^TiTT f% f^^ ^t WTT ^^^ ^^T^ I ^ ^ffifl 
 
^"STT ^^T -^^T ^TTT ^^T ^T'f '^T^T, ftf ^^ if f!^ 
 ^ T^ wrf?r^ f%^T^ ; o!^ ^^ ^ fij^ XTTT ^, ^ ^^ 
 
 ^T^T ^ ^ij^ ^^ ^ ^it ^^it ^ i^T ^T, ^ 
 
 ^ ^^ ^ ^T ffT^^ ^TT. ^ ^ m^ WTT ^T 
 ^^T, ^Tf T^^ ! ^ ^T ^ ^11 ^ff, f^^ ^rT ^ 
 
XX ^Tt TT^ ^^^ ^ IZT ^^ft ^ ^^ ^^ 
 
 ji ^T, ^T "o:^ ^^T^ ^ T^^T ^^T ; Pr^T'T Ti:^ ^^ 
 
 ^ ^ ^TO ^ ^T'f ^ ^W^ ^T, ^T^T. ffr TT^^T^ ^ 
 ^<ft<t Hft "^ ^^T ft- ^^ ^ '^^T, f% f%ij$ wi" ^ 
 ^^ ^ iJt? ^T ^T^ TW, ^T% f% ^W ^%, Ctff ^^ ^ 
 
 ^^ ^i ^^ i ^T ^T W^- ^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ ^ ^^T, 
 ^ f%^^, ^1^3 ^^^, ^q^ Tlt?r. ^^ Wt^T WifT ^^ 
 
^. ^^ ^ ^^T, ^9^ t^ ^^T ^ 'T^ "^t, ^^1 
 ^^T ? f%^T^ ^^ ^ f%WT^ Tt% ^TT, ^T ^ ^^J^ 
 ^f^ fsTT ^T^- ^^ ^* ^ li:^ ^ ^^^^m ^ ^T^T, ftf 
 ^^ ! Wt ^T^H Tl", ^WT ftf^ f^^ iT^ ^^ ^^ ? 
 
 <rr (sS ^T f^^T, ^^ T^ ^ ^f( irt^T ; ^^t, tt^ 
 
 If Hft ^TfT ^ t^ ^fftf! ^^ ? ^^T T^ ^> If ^ 'T^' 
 
^^T^ ^T WT ^. T^ ^ ^^T, ^ err 5ri^, ^T wt ^ ^^ 
 
 ^^TTT^ ! ^^ ^^ ^TfT I, Wr ^ f%^T^ ^^ ^rT. I[T^ 
 ^ ^^ f%, "^^ ^^T^cT ^ -RTT^ %, ^ f%^ f%^ ^^, ^ 
 
f^tt ^ ^T^ ^tv ^tw ^T ^^T, ftr ^Tf T^T^ ! -^rH 
 
 ^T W ^, TTrT ^ 'T^T ^ T^ ^^ iTT% ^T^ ^ PlfT^, 
 
 irx:T "^T^ ^TTf ^T^ § m^T^ ^ ^-^^ #r f^^^r I, 
 
trWT. ^^^ ^^T, ^TT ^T^ ^ft #r ^^T %, ^i -^^ 
 
 ^. ^"f ^^ ^t ^ ^ "^^ f%^^. fttT t^"^^ f^ "^^ 
 ^ iT^^^'TT fe^^ft ^ lit ^ri* ^TT 'TTT fVfft I. 
 ^^ ^ qWT, ^ ^ tV^ I ? ^^^ ^^T, W ^T^r 
 
 ^Yt ^W ^^^ 4t^^^ ! ^ f?t^ fw^T^. ftT^^ ^ ^^ 
 
 ^T^T^ ^ ^^ qt^ ^t% ^T ^"f T, ^^^^ T^ ^T 
 
 ^^^ ^^, '^I'T f^^ "3^7 ^ft ^T^ ; ^T^^ ft ^ ^ 
 
 <T^ TT^ TWT ^^T fir^ ^T, ^T ^^ ^ ^Tftr^T 
 f%^ f^ Wt ^ ^T<t ^R, ^ ^¥ T^i #r ^, 
 
^T^Ff ^ '^IT^T ^, f% T^ ^ XT^T^ ^T m^ ^Wt 
 ^^T^. ^^ ^ ^^ fttT ^t? ^^ ^ ^li' ^^ ^^ 
 
 •ff^TT ^TfTT I ? f%^^ ^T^TT ^ ^^^ ^^ fwin* f%WT 
 
^ ^Tf ^^TT ^i #irt: ^ft f%^fT ^^T ^, ^ x^ ^^ ^^ ; 
 'r ftr^ #r ^ ^^* ; ^ w^ ^t ^^ 'Tft rfT, ffr T^^ 
 
 ^T^TT. T^^T ^"f , ^W 'T^ ^* ^'I^j iV^^ fTWTT ^^$ 
 ^^ ^ ^^ ^^ f^^T. ^^^ f ^T ^* ^T V^ ^. 
 
 ^ ! ^ft 5^ ^ f%^ I. ^T ^ ^T? ^ ^T ^ ^ ^. 
 
^T^T ! T^ x??: ?5^ ^fV, ^^ t"^*. ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^T. 
 
 If^, ^T ^H:T iSt$ ^ ^WfTT ^^T. T^ ^ ^t Tl^ 
 
 ^Z^T ^^T, ^T <fl" ^ T^ ^ ^^ ^^T it ; ^^T 
 ^^T xSti ^fft ^^^TfTT ^TrTT I, ^T ^TXT ^>i q^ "^JT 
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5 ^ ^ t^ '^^4y^ ^ 4 ^^'^V * i^ JV jy j^^ 
 
 ^^ U^ \fl LTV^JJ^ !> <-^ '^^W; S-i/ *J -y^ L^ '' U^ 
 
 u^i ^j^ *^ ^.j*^ J c^' - VVl'V !5^ '^J f * 
 
 9 ^ s* ^ 
 
 « c^J 5Jl «^jJ C;^ ^^J ^^ ^^i-^ l:r^i J'^ ti ^^ * i^ 
 * W^ ^!; dry -^ J3^ l/ ^j^^^ ^^r; W"^ ^J ^ ^ 
 
9 ' " 
 
 • i/' ^rlJi y ills' -v/* ^^ c^ u^y - W-Ji»sis* ^r' -^^ 
 
 O «,• CO 
 
*„ «'' / ^ ^ o ^ 
 
 ^ (jwl cSjy v::-^ * \^ jU-j *-L^ (JJoJ <J^ j^ JJU \^ 
 
 9 9 ^ , 
 
 '' O C y t9 9 
 
 ^^ tl^l * If? IsZ, ^_^^^ j_5«j Jr?^ L«-**^ i/asr*" lLX>J \C 
 * l&j5^ jU y^^f^ ^^„^ ^^ ^r^ * (2)^ LAi \J^^ k:^ y 
 
 C O w / , 
 
 14 
 

 / S^^ L<-» ^j*i ^2,nr* *^ - ^♦^ *'^>*^ (<vi ''^ - V'^ ^W 
 
 _ ly^ j^ ilii jL * ^^^}^ ! *WcjVr <*^ - ^ uir^ ^ i^ji^. • ^ 
 
 ^ S/J^ (*^ LT^ JjJ JJ^ J W^ y - ^-iJ^' y> ^^=^ 
 
' ^ J^y^' J^ - ^ L^/ Jr" ^Ir^^ L/-^J ^^ v/^ ssi '^ 
 
 ^^.^U ^ cl.i ^ (^1 ^y * ^^ ^^T ^l^ ^ ly ^'V: ^ri >?^^ 
 c:^" (^ c^" - ^5fc ^ - ^^ ^^ * ^^ V ^;b -yT^jl 
 
 - l^ l1^" -^^ ^^ ^ _ ^ by j*^ \«^- ^_^ . ^ 
 
 .O ^ 9 ^ 
 
 ^ • cM/ t^ jIt* v/^ J V ^ c/**^ vV ^ ^/ u-^ *^^ - ^/> 
 
\ 
 
 
 w " f y 
 
 /' t, c ^ 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 rv B.- -The letter m. signifies masculine, f. feminize, a activa u. neuter. It hae not 
 been deemed necessary to give the names of the different parts of speech, except when 
 a word belongs to more than one division. In the Hindustani words and phrases, 
 k. stands for karnd ; h. for hond ; d. for dend ; /. for jdnd ; and I. for lend. The letters 
 a, p, s, and A, at the end of each definition, denote respectively the Arabic, Persian, 
 Sanskrit, or Indian origin of the word explained,] 
 
 \ 
 
 (^\ ah, now, presently ; ah tale, till 
 now; ah-hd, of now, of the present 
 time. 8 
 C-^T dh, m. water, lustre, p 
 IjcjI ihtidd, f. beginning, a 
 ^^\ ahhdgi, ill-starred, wicked. 8 
 ^^\ ahhi, just now, immediately, s 
 -jjl aher, m. time, delay, h 
 c->T dp, self, selves ; your honour. 8 
 Ci^l aputrah, childless. « 
 
 JbjU^ aparddh, m. fault, trans- 
 gression, s 
 ^juJ \ dpas, our-, your-, or them-, selves, 
 one another ; dpas - men, among 
 themselves, etc. s 
 u:i^>^:luuj1 vpasthit, arrived, present. « 
 U»l apnd, belonging to self, own. s 
 lirsTvy I a pahunchnd, n. to arrive 
 at h f strip off. 8 
 
 \j )^\ utdrnd, a. to cause to descend, 
 
 jj\ uttar, m. an answer; the north, s 
 
 \jji\ utarnd, n. to descend, to alight. » 
 
 olaji ittifdkan, accidentally, a 
 
 liji itnd, so much, so many. « 
 
 -^Ji dth, eight. «. 
 
 Ijlfil utJidnd, a. to lift or raise up, 
 to take away. « 
 
 U^jI uthnd, n. to rise up, to be 
 
 abolished, to go away ; uth-jdnd, n. 
 
 to depart. 8 
 t_fl:ol asw<f^, in the midst, in the 
 
 course of. a 
 J)\ asa/r, m. impression, effect, a 
 — \ dj, to-day. a 
 
 Llij\s>-\ ijdzat, f. permission, orders, a 
 ^^j>-\ ajk, an interjection to call or 
 
 bespeak attention, as: Sir, hark 
 
 you! h 
 
 \^\ acJwhhd, good, ey^ellent, well. % 
 Jul Xi^, AmMd-dhdd, the capital 
 of Gujerat. p 
 
r 
 
 (2) 
 
 fjAi^\ ahmak, very foolish, a fool, a 
 ^}\^ \ ahwdl, m. condition, circum- 
 stances, events, a 
 ^ji^\ il^tird \ m. contrivance, in- 
 vention, a 
 )\p^\ %]ditiydr, m. choice, power, a 
 yi- \ dTchir, last, at last, the end. a 
 cl^^i dTdiirat, f. futurity, a future 
 
 state, a 
 ^^ \ dMiun, m. teacher, preceptor, p 
 1j1 add, performance; payment; blan- 
 dishment, a 
 {jm\S\ udds, grieved, dejected. « 
 4--JJ1 adah, m. institute ; politeness, 
 • manners; plur. dddh, ceremonies, 
 
 etc. a 
 ^/«Jl ddmi, m. f. a descendant of 
 Adam, a human being (man or 
 woman), people, a 
 UjT ddhd, half, « 
 jJt>j\ udhar, thither, h 
 y^J' idhar, hither, h 
 lIX&jI adhik, more, exceeding, s 
 liLj&jt adhydnd or adhyd-lend, a. to 
 
 halve, h 
 }iCi\j\ irdda, m. desire, purpose, a 
 (t\j\ drdm, m. comfort, health, re- 
 pose, f 
 ^j\ arth, m. substance, purport. « 
 ^jj\ drz{i, f. wish, desire, want. ^ 
 :fj^)\ drurh, mounted, riding. « 
 l \j\ urdnd, a. to dissipate, squander ; 
 
 to cause to fly. « 
 \ij\ umd, n. to fly, to soar up. s 
 
 ii\j\ d%dd, free, solitary ; a hermit, p 
 iwgujjl az-hm-ki, inasmuch as. p 
 ^^jj\ dnurdagi, f, affliction; din- 
 pleasure, vexation, p 
 iCijj\ dzurda, afllicted, vexed, p 
 ^Jjjj[^J\ s. f. dzmdjUh, trial. ^ 
 \jt>iij\ azhdahd, m. a dragon, p 
 fjj\ U8, that ; is, this ; inflections of 
 the pronouns wuh and yiJi ; is-men, 
 during this, in the meantime, h 
 {jm\ ds, f. hope, desire, reliance. « 
 ^^LjI dsdn, easy; dsdni, facility, p 
 L^\^\ asbab, m. causes ; goods and 
 
 chattels, a 
 jli*j| mtdd, m. a teacher, master, p 
 jLuuai-ji isUfsdr, m. searching for in- 
 
 information, inquiry, a 
 \j»^\ dsrd, m. refuge, s 
 L^\j^\ isrdf, m. prodigality, ruin, a 
 -.JaJ\ is-tarah, in this manner; 
 
 U8-tarah, in that manner, h a 
 ^--I-jI is-liye, on this account, h 
 ijUw«j! dsmdn, m. the sky, the firma- 
 ment, heaven, p 
 j\y^\ aswdr, riding, mounted ; aswdri, 
 
 act of riding. » 
 jja-jlj«j^ iswdste, for this reason, 
 
 uswdste, for that reason. 
 ^j**^, asks (or ds'is), f. a benedic- 
 tion. 8 
 iij\^\ ishdra, m. a hint, a signal, a 
 J^j^\ ashrdr, miscreants, scoundrels, a 
 uJj^l asJirdf, nobles, grandees ; 
 ashrdf-zddi, daughter of a grandee, a 
 
(S) 
 
 ^\ 
 
 Jj^Ja ashrafi, f. a gold coin so called. 
 The Calcutta ashrafi is worth a 
 guinea and a half, a 
 
 U-i»T dshnd, an acquaintance, lover, 
 
 Mend, p 
 OL-lT dshiydna, m. a nest, p 
 JJa«5^ istabal, m. a stable, a 
 
 J-tfl asl, f. root, origin, foundation, 
 capital, a 
 
 J-*-£>l asiZ, noble (as to blood or 
 origin), a 
 
 c^\ ittild\ f. manifesting, declaring; 
 investigation, knowledge, a 
 
 ^\jaja\ iztirdU, f. vehemence, pas- 
 ■ sionateness. a 
 
 ^Lucl i'tibdr, m. confidence, credit, 
 respect ; ftihdr-k to believe, or 
 confide in. a 
 jU:lc1 iHimdd, m. reliance, trust, a. 
 J^Lcl a' Id, higher, highest, a 
 ^WA a'mdl, (plur. of 'amal) actions, 
 
 conduct, a 
 Cl>lil dfdt, f. calamities, misfortunes, 
 
 evils, a 
 u^ I dfat, f. calamity, a 
 L^\:xi 1 dftdh, m. the sun, sunshine, p 
 ijhJ)\ dftdha, m. an ewer, p 
 ■ji,ji^ dfrin, f. praise, applause, p 
 <OUui' afsdna, m. tale, story. ^ 
 ^^iwjAwJl afsos, m. sorrow, regret, vexa- 
 tion, interj. ah ! alas ! afsos-k or 
 afsos-hhdnd, to lament. ^ 
 ^^i>il ^as, m. poverty, destitution, a. 
 ^jl:ilil AfidUn, m. Plato, a 
 
 lLnjI^^ ihdyah, on a sudden. ^ 
 ;-»^t Alcbar, name of the best and 
 greatest of the Mogul emperors, a 
 
 \^\ ihatthd, united, together, h 
 J^\ ahsar, most, many, much; for 
 
 the most part, a 
 l^T dhJid, m. a bag, sack. A 
 \^\ aheld, a. alone. « 
 4^1 a^, £ fire, a^-^. or lagdnd, to 
 
 set on fire ; dg-lagnd, to take fire. « 
 4_^jir i aycfr^, f. the fore part. « 
 i^lf T aya^, acquainted with, aware 
 
 of. p. 
 ^\ agoTy if, when, p 
 ^^\ agarchi, although, p 
 ^\ agid, prior, past, ancient. 8 
 ^1 dge, before, in front, formerly, 
 
 forwards ; in future, s 
 L^l dggd, f. an order, command. 8 
 ajJl alhatta, certainly, indeed, a 
 L-^1 alp, small, few; alp-lay ask, of 
 
 a tender age. « 
 Cjlbl^ iltifdt, f. courtesy, respect, 
 
 notice, a 
 (jwlcJl iUmds, m. f. beseeching, 
 
 petitioning, a 
 
 L^^ ulajhnd, n. to be entangled, to 
 quarrel. A 
 
 IjlfsM uljhdnd, a. to entangle, h 
 i^^alW al-Tcissa, in short, a 
 {^J^\ alag, separate, apart. 8 
 (ji-^1 ulfat, f. habit, familiarity, a 
 iii^^\ dliida, sullied, contaminated. 
 ^lyJI HMm^ divine inspiration. « 
 
ii\ 
 
 (*) 
 
 y 
 
 ^1 Hdhi, divine, a 
 
 *\^\ imdmf m. a leader in religion, 
 a prelate, priest, a 
 
 c:^t«\ amdnat, f. tmst, deposit, a 
 
 ^Ur^l imtihdnf m. proof, trial, 
 examination, a 
 
 *X<T dmad, f. arrival, coming, p 
 
 \j^\ umard (pi.) nobles, grandees, a 
 
 S^\ umed or ummed, f. hope ; ummed- 
 tpdr, hopeful, p 
 
 j^\ amir, m. a commander, a noble- 
 man, a grandee, a lord; amir- 
 %dda, son of a grandee ; amir- 
 %ddi, daughter of a grandee, ap 
 
 lyt\ dmez, (in comp.) mixed with, 
 fuU of. p 
 
 ^1 in, (inflection), plur. of yih, this ; 
 WW, plur. oiwuh, that; (vide Gram.) h 
 
 \j\ dnd, n. to come ; s. m. the 
 sixteenth part of a rupee. « 
 
 *j-J1 amboh, m. a crowd, multitude, 
 mob, concourse, p. 
 
 ^\ anuhhav, m. imagination, idea. « 
 ^Uaiil inti%dr, waiting, expectation, a 
 
 ^UstI anjdn, strange, unknown ; 
 
 anjdn-h. to act the stranger, s 
 jdj\ andar, within, inside,^; Indar, 
 the god of Swarga or the higher 
 regions. « 
 
 UjJi andhd, blind, dark, s 
 
 J^jJI andherd, dark. « 
 
 ^j^i^\ andheri, f. darkness. « 
 
 <LujJu andesha, m. thought, sus- 
 picion, anxiety, p 
 
 ^,laJ ^ t»«<f», m. man, a human being, 
 mankind, a 
 
 yu^\ dnsit, m. a tear. » 
 
 uJuaJI insdf, m. equity, justice, a 
 
 /♦Uil t»'d/>i, m. a present, a gift, a 
 
 JS3\ inkdr, m. refusal, denial, a 
 
 ^\ dhhh, f. the eye. « 
 
 Jxil ww^aZ, m. a finger's breadth. « 
 
 j^_^^ ww^/i, f. a finger, s 
 
 j^j^i angUU, f. a ring worn on 
 the finger. « 
 
 j^jt aw^^r, m. a grape, p 
 
 4X:oT dnand, m. joy, happiness. «. 
 
 -fJi and i^^\ inh and mAow, same as 
 
 ^\ in ; unh and unhon, same as «w, 
 
 (q.v.) h 
 
 j\j\ dwdz, f. noise, sound, voice, p 
 
 ^bj^ aubdsh, dissolute, depraved, a 
 ji^^\ iipar, up, upwards, upon. « 
 j^ or, f. direction, side, h 
 jji awr, (conj.)and, but; (adj.) more, 
 other ; aur Tcuchk, anything else, h 
 
 j^L-^^ amdn, m. courage, presence of 
 mind. h. 
 
 cijlijl aukdt (pi. of e^^a^^), times (of 
 devotion), a 
 
 (J!-^jl liw^, m. a camel. A 
 
 IsT^l Titwc^a, high, height. % 
 
 A dh, f. a sigh. p. 
 jUl dhdr, m. food, subsistence. « 
 
 cl-Jbl a^a^, f. a sound, noise, h. 
 
 Jjbl a^?, m. people. «. 
 
 t^l <jf, 0, Oh. p h 
 Jo} Ayyd%, a man's name. « 
 
V 
 
 (6) 
 
 W 
 
 ^y aiydm {gl.oiyaum],da.y8, seasons, a 
 
 lujj aisd, such as this, so. h 
 
 CJij\ eh, one ; (art.) a, an, frequently 
 
 joined to its substantive, as i^'^J 
 
 eh-ddn, one day. s. 
 ^j\Jj\ ehhdragk, all at once, p 
 j^UjI imdn, m. faith, belief, religion, 
 
 conscience, a. 
 j^JoUjI imdn-ddr, faithful, honest; 
 
 imdn Idnd, to believe, p 
 ^\ d,in, m. rule, law. p 
 
 \j\i hdhd, father, son, air. h 
 c— >Ij hdp, m. father, h 
 
 CLj\) bdt, f. a word, affair; hdt hahte 
 hk, on the speaking of a word, im- 
 mediately ; hdt-cMt, f. conversation, 
 chit-chat, h 
 
 jb hdd, f. wind. p. 
 
 iLl jIj hddshdh, m. a king ; hddshdM, 
 royal, p. 
 
 i_f jb bddi, m. a complainant, speaker, s 
 
 L5»-Ij 5a; wa, n. to sound, to ring, s 
 
 j\j bdr, m. load; fruit; time; door; 
 water, p h 
 
 2(jJ bar ah, twelve, h 
 
 ilTjlj bdrgdh, f. a king's court, p 
 
 'Xi bdz, back; bdz-dnd, to decline, 
 reject; baz-rahhnd, to keep from, 
 to prevent; (s.m.) a hawk. p. 
 
 j\j[i bdzdr, m. a market; hdzdri, one 
 who attends a market. ^ 
 
 ^^b bdzi, f. play, sport, a game, p 
 
 ^\} bdsan, m. a basin, plate, dish, 
 
 goblet, pot, etc. h 
 i\j bdgh, m. a garden, p 
 ^L&Ij bd^bdn, m. a gardener, p 
 Jb bdl, m. hair. «. ear of com. h. 
 
 wing, p 
 ^\i bdld, above, up, high, p 
 CS^\i bdlak, m. a boy. « 
 ^b dci?^, f. sand. « 
 (JIjIj bdndti, made of broad cloth, 
 
 woollen, h 
 1:^1} b bdntnd, a. to share, to distri- 
 bute, to divide; bdnt-l. to divide 
 
 and take, s 
 liJbJjlj bdndhnd, a. to bind, to shut 
 
 up ; to frame. « 
 liub bdnhd, foppish, impudent, s 
 jyi-jb Jd-M^w/M, notwithstanding. _^ a 
 jl^b bdwar, m. credit, faith; bdwar-i. 
 
 to believe. ^ 
 ^b JaA^V or iciAar, without, outside, s 
 AJ&b bdham, together, p 
 jLj 5'/5a(?, m. quarrel, fight. 8 
 d-^ 5^a^, f. misfortune, calamity. « 
 bbj bafdnd, a. to point out, to 
 
 teach, h 
 (^ Ja^^i, f. a candle, lamp. «. 
 blfb bithdnd, a. to cause to sit, to 
 
 seat, h 
 b^ls::^ ba-jd Idnd, a. to perform, 
 
 carry into effect, h 
 blflsT lajdnd, a. to sound, to play on 
 
 a musical instrument. » 
 
^ 
 
 (6) 
 
 u^ 
 
 ^^VrsT ba-jde or ha-Jd, in place, in- 
 stead of. p 
 
 ^^^-=f^ iijli, f- lightning, h. 
 
 La:^ iajnd, n. to be sounded, to 
 sound. 8. 
 
 li \^sf] hujhdnd, a. to explain ; to extin- 
 guish (a candle), h 
 
 ljl:s^ hichdrd, helpless, wretched, p. 
 
 \j\s^, lachdnd, a. to save, protect, h 
 
 lisT hachnd, n. to be saved, to 
 escape, h 
 
 AcsT" bachcha, m. an infant, a child, 
 the young of any creature, p. 
 
 Ul^:sr' hichhdnd, a. to spread, s. 
 
 ■J! JlasT la-Ml and, to recover, a. 
 
 ^jii-uL=sr bakhshish, f. gift, grant, for- 
 giveness. ^ 
 
 uAisT baJdiashnd, or baJchsh-d. or 
 bakhsMsh-k. a. to give, to bestow. ^ 
 
 ^^^Askr baMisU, m. a g^eral, a com- 
 * mander in chief. ^ 
 
 Jjir buMd, m. avarice, stinginess, 
 parsimony, a 
 
 J-*isr bakhil,a., a miser, niggard, a 
 
 JO Ja^, evil, bad ; used in compounds, 
 as bad-zdt, a rascal; bad-Tcho, ill- 
 disposed ; bad - surat, ugly, ill- 
 fa\ cured, j? 
 
 •j:^^sb^^Si bad - bakhf, unfortunate, 
 wicked, p 
 
 ^^Lj Jj bad-suluh'i, f. ill-usage. ^ a 
 
 ;^Jj badan, m. the body. ^ 
 
 'JL^^iX> ba-daulat, by favour of. a 
 
 ^Jj badi, f. badness, evil. p. 
 
 b Jj J«%d, f. science, knowledge. « 
 
 ^ Jar, f. bosom; produce; (prep.) 
 upon. p. 
 
 \ji bv/rd, bad, wicked, h. 
 jAji bardbar, equal, like, level, p 
 
 ijSJ^y, bardbari, f. equality ; compe- 
 tition, p 
 
 \j^S^j) barbdd k. or bar-bdd d. a. to 
 cast upon the wind ; to destroy or 
 waste, p 8 
 
 \j^ \iji bar-pd k. to excite, p 
 
 ij:^\jji britdnt, m. affair, circum- 
 stance. 8 
 
 ^Jjji barton, m. a dish, plate, vessel, 
 utensil, h 
 
 — . J Braf, name of a district, h 
 
 j\i}jy>~jj bar-khurddr, hap^j ; a term 
 applied to a son (p. 22). p 
 
 {jMji baras, a year. «. 
 
 Cl^Lrf^ barsdt, rain, the rainy sea- 
 son. 8. 
 
 L«j^ barasnd, n. to fall (as rain), to 
 shower, s. 
 
 ^ji baran, m. colour, complexion. & 
 
 t^ji barham, offended, confused^ 
 angry, p 
 
 j,ljyj biriydn, f. time, h 
 
 \ji bard, large, great, (adv.) very. 4 
 
 ^Vj bard,i, greatness, «. 
 
 I) l&jj barhdnd, a. to increase, to pra 
 mote. 8. 
 
 uJbJj ba/rhnd, n. to increase. ». 
 
 ^^^ybjj it«?^A«M?a», wise, intelligent. « . ^j-*^ ia#, enough, abundantly, p. 
 
(7) 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^\imJ histdTf m. extent, latitude. « 
 jumJ hasti, f. an abode, a village, s 
 
 \j^ i^-uuJ ha-sari karnd, a. to pass, to 
 
 spend (one's time), p 
 Jj ^-uuj bisan-pad, a song in praise 
 
 of Yishnu. 8 
 UjyuuJ lisiirnd, n. to weep, to sob. h 
 Cl^LaJ lasdrat, f. sight, vision, a 
 yallaj ha-zdhir, ostensibly, a 
 Jvxj 5«'(?, after, afterwards, at the 
 
 end. a 
 jji*j ha'z, some, certain ones, a 
 ^*4io ia'ze or ia'zi, some, certain, a 
 Jujo Ja'i^, remote, far off. a 
 Jje lagfjialj s. f. the arm-pit. i? 
 jJti laghair, ad. without, besides, 
 
 except, a 
 J lib iaM/, m. a grain-merchant, a 
 
 shopkeeper, a 
 1^ hahrd, m. a he-goat. 8 
 ^jLi lalri, f. a goat, a female goat. « 
 (jl^ lakhdn, m. explanation. « 
 ^ Jfl;^?d, m. a crane, a heron. 8 
 Jj J«7, m. a hole. « 
 ib bald, f. calamity, a 
 l) lb buldndf a. to call for, to summon. 
 
 billdnd, to cry. h 
 JJj Jw?Jw?, f. a nightingale. ^ 
 aj3j J«?H, yea, on the contrary, p 
 Jcjj buland, high, lofty. ^ 
 jJj i«7?i, f. a cat. s 
 JJk/*j ba-madad, with the kelp of, by 
 means of. p a 
 
 iJijAJ ba-martaba, in a degree, con- 
 siderably, p a 
 c»^^:?-^ ba-miijib, by reason, ou 
 
 account of. p a 
 ^ bin, without, not having. « 
 Ij lij bandnd, a. to make, to form. A 
 Mfyi banaj, m. trade, traffic. « 
 Jcj Jfl^w(?-/;.to shut up, to make fast.^y^ 
 ^^Jcj bandagi, f. slavery, service, 
 
 devotion. ^ 
 yUfeJcj bandhwdnd, a. to cause to be 
 
 fastened, h 
 UiJ iawwei, n. to be made, h 
 Ijlyj banwdnd, a. to cause to be 
 
 made. 7i 
 ^Jo Jfltwi, pi. sons, children; bant 
 Isrd^il, the Israelites, a 
 
 L:j 
 
 m. a shopkeeper, mer- 
 
 chant. 8 
 y bd or Jo, f. smell, fragrance, p 
 ..p-jj %';^, m. a load, weight. A 
 45j"y J^'A, f. understanding, idea, s 
 L^^ buj'hnd, a. to understand, 
 
 comprehend. « 
 Ul^ ioZwa, to speak, say. h 
 \j^ bond, a. to sow, plant. « 
 &j ba, by, with, in; ba-nisbat, with 
 
 regard to. p 
 l^ J«^a, m. price, value, p 
 Ijil^ bhdsM, see bhdkhd. s 
 l:Jjl^ bhdshnd, to speak, say. « 
 ,1^1^ bhdlM, f. language, dialect. A 
 4^1^ JAay, m. good luck; destiny. « 
 
w 
 
 (8) 
 
 LTl^ hhdgnd, n. to flee, to run away; 
 
 hhdg-j. to rim off. h 
 Ci-Jl^ bhdnfi, m. manner, mode, 
 
 way h 
 <0l^ bahdna, m. pretence, evasion, 
 
 contrivance, p 
 (Jl^ bhdfi, m, brother, friend. « 
 l::-^ JaAw^, much, many, very. 8 
 jx^ bihtar, good, well, better, p 
 1^-j^ bahuterd, much. «. 
 Ui^^ bhijwdndf a. to cause to be 
 
 sent. A 
 ^ JAar, full ; 'umr-bhar, during life; 
 
 din-bhaVf all day ; bhar-d. a. to pay, 
 
 to fill ; bha/r-pdnd, to be satisfied. 8 
 1^ JaAra, deaf; bJiard, full. A 
 jj.^^ hhraman, a walk. « 
 U^ bharnd, a. to fill. A 
 ujj^ bharosd, m. hope, faith. ». 
 ^1^ JaAra, m. portion, lot. p. 
 
 JUu^ M*s^z, bhisht'i or bihtsMi, m. a 
 
 water-carrier. ^ 
 Ijl^^ bahkdnd, a. to delude, to mis- 
 lead. A 
 1^ Ma^a, good, worthy; MaZti ddmi, 
 
 a gentleman. « 
 ^il^ bhaldyi, f. kindness, good 
 
 deed, h 
 *^ baham, together, one with 
 
 another, one against another, p 
 ^^ bhiLkhd, hungry. « 
 ij^ bhul, f. forgetfulness. » 
 J^ bkulnd, n. to forget, to mistake, 
 
 to be deceived, f 
 
 LXJj^ bhaunknd, n. to bark, f 
 ^-^ Mi, even, also. A 
 L^ bhaiydf m. friend, brother. % 
 c:-^ bhit, f. a wall. » 
 j:^^ bhktar, within, inside, h 
 Ls^ bhefnd, a. to send, convey. A 
 
 *x*^ JA^<?, m. a secret, separation, 
 
 secrecy. « 
 J-^ JA^r, f. a sheep, an ewe. a 
 ^j^i bheriy f. an ewe. « 
 l)J-^ bheriy d, m. a wolf. « 
 (jifc-^ JA««A or iA««, m. garb, habit. « 
 
 IC^ JAi^d, wet, moist (past part, of 
 UC^y, to be wet). 
 
 (^ be (also aJe), an interjection of 
 reproach, as : sirrah ! you rascal ! A 
 
 ^ be, (prep.) without; much used in 
 forming negative adjectives, as 
 be-adab, unmannerly, and these 
 again become substantives by adding 
 k, as be-adabi, rudeness, p 
 
 j^Lj baydn, m. explanation, relation, a 
 
 a^j bydh, m. marriage. « 
 
 ^^j^ be-ba8, helpless, destitute, p 
 
 ^j^ bibi, f. a lady; (vulgarly) a 
 
 wife. A 
 l::-^ Ja«Y, f. a couplet, poetry, a 
 
 <--?l:uj be-tdb, powerless, without 
 endurance; be-tdbi, helplessness, p 
 
 JiixJ'^^ be-ta^ alluki, f. freedom from 
 worldly ties, immediate communion 
 with God. p a 
 
(») 
 
 ^ 
 
 iLj hetd. m. a son, a child. A 
 lil^flo baithdnd, a. to set down, to 
 
 place, h 
 U.^ii-j haithnd, n. to sit, to be placed, h 
 ^i hij, ra. seed ; principle. 8 
 
 ls:u be-jd, ill-timed, ill-placed, im- 
 proper, p 
 
 /■^ he-jigar, cowardly; he-jiga/ri, 
 cowardliness, want of 'pluck.' p 
 
 ^ bkh, (prep.) among, between, 
 during, h; the middle, s; b'tch- 
 bichdw, mediation, intermediate 
 means, h 
 
 ^Isaj bechdra, helpless, p 
 
 l:»:snj bechnd, a. to sell, h 
 
 / " ^ beshtar, generally, for the most 
 part, p 
 
 ^l<A-j beddr, awake, wakeful, p 
 
 Jj;-j Birbal, name of one of Akbar's 
 
 ministers, h 
 ij**^^ bis, twenty, h 
 jl/K^ be-^humdr, incalculable.^. 
 ^1/ui^ ^^-^(^<^r, uneasy, restless, ap 
 <UlLj begdna, strange, undomestic, 
 
 foreign, p 
 
 Jlo begam, (fem. of beg), a lady, p 
 J-j bail, m. a bullock, h 
 ^U-J bimdr, sick, a patient, p 
 i^jU-j bimdri, f. sickness, p 
 \S^ bendd, crooked; absurd, h 
 L'^' h^^^f^) m. account, history, s 
 '— ^y^ i^-M'wM/, foolish, stupid, p a 
 
 j^jjb pdposh, f. a slipper, p 
 
 (3b pdt, a mill-stone. A 
 
 i^ljj jb pddshdh, m. a king (same as 
 
 bddshdh). p 
 j[j par, m. the opposite bank ; (adv.) 
 
 over, beyond ; pdr sdl, last year. 8. 
 Lj;1) pdrsd, devout, pious, p 
 (jywb pds, near, before, h 
 iJUyou pdsbdni, f. keeping watch, p 
 ^J-i b pdkiza, clean, fine, elegant. ^ 
 Jb ^d?, m. a shade, shelter. 
 ^^^b pdlH, f. a sedan-chair common 
 
 in India, h [cept. « 
 
 bb, pdnd, a. to get, find, reach, ac- 
 ^b pdnch, five. «. 
 iJub pdndd, a master; priest. * 
 yb pdnw, m. leg, foot. « 
 cib ^dwe, m. water ; lustre. 8 
 uj paid, m. token, indication, A 
 bj ^a^^ m. a leaf. « 
 ^;fij paUhar,,m. a stone, a rock. « 
 ,^jX> ^a^^z, f. a leaf; hemp. « 
 biJb pataTcnd, a. to dash, to beat. A 
 (jwbsr:, pachds, fifty. ^. 
 4->;W^ pichhdri, f. the rear; the 
 
 hind -quarter of an animal, s 
 1^, pichhld, latter, last, modern. « 
 ^j^^^sTy pacUs, twenty-five. » 
 j4X> ^a(?ar, m. {pidwr, A), a tather. p 
 
(10) 
 
 J^ 
 
 jj par, (conj.) but ; (postp.) on or 
 
 upon, at. A 
 J par, m. a wing, p 
 \j\j purdnd, old, ancient. « 
 ^Lj^ J prithwi-ndthfliOTd oie&rih, 
 
 your majesty. « 
 fJ:^ji pratit, f. trust, confidence. « 
 if J J parda, m. a curtain, a screen. ^ 
 ^xLjJ^ pardesM (or pardesi), a 
 
 stranger. « 
 A— J.J parisram, m. care, labour. « 
 ^-oj prasanna, pleased, content. « 
 LuJwy prasansd, f. praise. « 
 jjj^ purush, man, a person. «. 
 jl^ praldr, m. mode, manner. « 
 c!-^ pragat, current, well-known, s 
 2f Jjj paranda, m. a bird. ^ 
 ^j^ji pa/rwarish, f. breeding,nouri8h- 
 
 ment. ^ 
 Ljfej parhez, m. temperance, conti- 
 nence, control of the passions, p 
 ^ji pa/r'i, f. a fairy, p 
 (.j:^ J ^ri^, f. love, friendship. « 
 j^l^ij J pareshdn, scattered, ruined, 
 
 distressed, p 
 ^jLlj J pareshdni, f. destruction, dis- 
 tress, p 
 by parnd, n. to fall, to happen, h 
 ^^y pa/rosk, m. a neighbour. « 
 UU^ parhdnd, a. to teach to read, 
 
 to instruct. «. 
 ^•itojj parhnd, a. to read, to repeat, to 
 say, to speak. « 
 
 ^_^ ^a«, hence, therefore, p 
 
 JCwuuJ pasand, f. choice, approbation, jf 
 
 A-io pashm, f. wool, fur. ^ 
 
 ytj pashu (or j?<ww), m. an animal, 
 
 beast. 8 
 l)jl^ pukdrnd, a. to call aloud, to 
 
 bawl, to cry out. h 
 Ujio pakarnd, a. to catch or seize, h 
 Jl^ pahhdl, f. a leathern bag for 
 
 carrying water. « 
 l3l> pildnd, a. to give to drink. 8 
 U^j pinjrd, m. a cage. « 
 CLJJaj pandit, a learned brahman. « 
 L^jswy puchhnd, a. to ask, inquire. 8 
 jy paw, f. a door, gate. « 
 Viy jp?'t/*a, full ; accomplished. 8 
 ^j^ puri, f. a kind of cake, s 
 ijL-'^y post, m. poppy ; posti, one who 
 
 intoxicates himself with infusion of 
 
 poppy, p 
 C/Liy posMh, f. vestments, dress, 
 
 habits, garments, p 
 jl^ pahdr, m. a mountain, h 
 Ijjl^ phdrnd, a. to rend, to tear, t 
 
 l!i^ pJiatd, rent, torn (from phatnd, 
 
 n. to be rent). « 
 lijlsrV^, pakchdnnd, a. to know, to 
 
 recognize. 8 
 jj^^ pahar, a space of about three 
 
 hours, a watch (of the day or 
 
 night), p 
 ^ pMr, again, back. A 
 li^ pJiirnd, n. to turn 6aek, return h 
 
c^ 
 
 (11) 
 
 ,..\5 
 
 Jf) phal,m. fruit; effect; advantage; 
 
 progeny, 5 
 JLj pahld or pahild, first, before; 
 
 rather; ^a/J^, at first, previous to. h 
 Ul^ phxilnd, n. to bear fruit, to be 
 
 produced, s 
 bLsay pahuncMnd, a. to convey; 
 
 la-ham pahunchdnd, to get together, 
 
 to store up. h 
 Ussa^^ pahunchnd, n. to arrive. A 
 LajuO^ phansnd, n. to be caught in a 
 
 noose, to be strangled, h 
 l:^.^^ pahannd, a. to put on, to wear. A 
 Ll^ phulnd, n. to blossom, to bloom. « 
 L^^ pahiyd, m. a wheel (of a chariot, 
 
 etc.) h 
 rjf> i?A^r, back, again, h 
 ^j^ phernd ox pher-dend, a. to turn, 
 
 to circulate, to give back, h 
 IJ^ phailnd, n. to spread, to be 
 
 divulged, h 
 i^fjLj piydda, m. a pedestrian, an 
 
 attendant on foot ; piydda-pd, on 
 
 foot, as a pedestrian, p 
 iLj pydr, m. affection. « 
 \j\^ piydrd, dear, beloved. « 
 LjL) piydsd, thirsty. « 
 tiJLj p'lydla, m. a cup, goblet, p 
 lS-x-j ^e^, m. the belly, stomach, 
 
 womb. 8 
 .^i-j pUh, f. the back. « 
 ^^Lj paithnd, n. to rush in, to enter, s 
 »fsn.j picTihd, m. pursuit, following. A 
 ^l^:saj pichhdri, f . the hinder part. A 
 
 ^^^fsy pichhe, after, in the rear, ii 
 
 pursuit of. h 
 \ij> ^Juj paidd-h., a. to produce, ta 
 
 procure; paidd-h., to be bom; td 
 
 be found, h p 
 cJ^jyfj^^ pkr murshid, your highness, 
 
 sire, your worship, p a 
 lLS\j^ pair die, m. a swimmer, h 
 \ij>j pavrnd, n. to swim, h 
 Lu^j paisd, m. a copper coin, money, 
 
 cash, h 
 lijuu-j pksnd, a. to grind, triturate. « 
 <Lui-j ^65^^, m. trade, profession, p 
 (♦U-j paighdm, m. a message. ^ 
 
 (^U-J paimdn, m. a promise, an oath, 
 
 a compact, j? 
 Ljj pind, a. to drink. < 
 
 L-j\j tdh, power, endurance, p 
 *-jIj tdhi\ m. a subject; (adj.) sub- 
 missive, a 
 U>b* tdpnd, a. to warm one's self 
 
 before a fire. « 
 j^\i ta,sir, f. impression, a 
 ^b" ^azflj, fresh, new, green, young; 
 
 fat; happy, p 
 i^j\j tdzi, Arab, Arabian, a 
 li^b' tdhnd, a. to look, stare at. 8 
 ^ \j td-hi, so that, to the end that, p 
 J-^b ta,ammul, m. meditation, re- 
 flection, purpose, a 
 ^^j^^^ Tdn-sen, name of a musi* 
 clan. « 
 
(12) 
 
 e^ 
 
 K.^ tah, then, at that time, after- 
 wards; tahhi 8$, from that very 
 time. 8 
 i\j taldh, ruined, lost; tahdh-h. to 
 
 be in misery, p 
 d^lrsT tijdrat, f. trading, traffic, a 
 ,^sfr tuj'h, inflection of tit, thou. A 
 J--aaKr tahsil, f. acquisition, a 
 i^.'yrir^ takht, m. a throne, p 
 JJ tad, conj. or adv. then, h 
 jfjSi tadUr, f. deliberation, counsel; 
 
 management, a 
 ^jX) tadarv, a pheasant, p 
 J tar, moist; j:jJj tar ha tar, all 
 
 wet or weltering, p 
 \:J^\jj tardshnd, a. to cut or clip, to 
 
 shave, to shape out. p h 
 ci^^-j^' tarhiyat, f. education, a 
 Cjy tarh, abandoning, leaving, a 
 {J^jj tarhasJi, a quiver, p 
 ^jj Turki, of or belonging to 
 ^ Turkomania. p 
 
 li^Jj taraphnd, n. to tremble, quiver, h 
 ^jmj tis (inflect, of so), which ; tis- 
 
 par, whereupon, h 
 ji-uJ' tasalh, i. consolation, soothing, a 
 j^^^xjuU tishnagk, f. thirst, p 
 «_>jua}* tasdV, f. trouble, privation, a 
 ^ »Xa> tasdik, f. verifying, attesting, a 
 t^j>aj tasarruf, possession, use. a 
 ji,y^ taswir, f. a picture, an image, a 
 j.lC.s^ tazUh, i. ridicule, sport, a 
 u-.vi^' ta^ajljub, wondering, astonish- 
 ment, a 
 
 f^.y^ ia*rif, f. praise, description, a 
 *-la*j' td'zim, f. reverence, honouring, a 
 <JL^j\Ju tafdwut, m. distance, dis- 
 tinction, difference, a 
 ^jiJCi tafannun, m. recreating, re- 
 freshing, a 
 liliD' taMzd, m. demanding, (exact- 
 ing; urgency, a 
 ^^jJU takdir, f. predestination, a 
 ■M^aJLi taksir, f. fault, crime, blame, a 
 CS^ tak, postp. up to, as far as. h 
 u-aKj takalluf, m. ceremony, pomp, a 
 (.-ttJio taklif, f. trouble, annoyance, a 
 ^Jiiki taldsh, f. search, seeking, a 
 ^ talMi, bitter, p 
 lI^Oj talak, up to (same as tah), h 
 j\^ talwdr, f. a sword. « 
 ^^|uj Jj talawwun-mi%djk, f. fickle- 
 " ness of disposition, a 
 *j ^wm, you {tumh and tumhon in the 
 
 inflection). A 
 LiaUj' tamdshd, m. an entertainment, 
 show, spectacle, sight; tamdshd^ i, 
 a spectator, a 
 ^-j /»iUJ tamdsh-Mn, a spectator. ^ 
 /%UJ tamdm, entire, perfect, com- 
 plete, a 
 
 i, m a kind of drum, a 
 
 Ju^' tamMd, f. subterfuge, shift. <2 
 i^^^iX' tan-Miwdh, f. wages, salary. ^ 
 i^S^ tang, narrow, strait ; tang dnd, 
 
 to be disquieted, annoyed, p 
 j-i-jJ i^J^ tang-dasti, f. distress, 
 
 poverty, p 
 
(13) 
 
 c^V 
 
 yi to or taUj adv. then; tiif pron. 
 
 thou, h 
 Uy tord, m. a purse containing 1000 
 
 rupees, h. 
 Ujy tornd, a. to hreak, to change (as 
 
 coin), s 
 J^^iy taufik, f. divine direction, a 
 L!y tohid, a. to weigh, s 
 ^j J ^ow or taun, then, in that manner, h 
 Uj ^^a, was (verb auxil.). h 
 ^^' than, m. breast. 8 
 \jy^ thord, little, scarce, seldom, less, 
 
 few. h 
 ^X^ thaiU, f . a purse tied round the 
 
 waist, a bag. h 
 ,Lj" taiydr, ready, prepared, finished, 
 
 complete, a 
 t^Lj taiydri, f. preparation, p 
 ^J^ t'ltri, f. a butterfly, h 
 j^ tir, m. the bank of a river. « 
 j*j tir, m. an arrow, p 
 j^ tez, sharp. ^ 
 ^jM^ tis, thirty. ». 
 J^f^* tisrd (f. ^isri), the third, a 
 ^j^' ^iw, three ; tain, thou ; ^w, from. 
 
 J\j ^<i/{, f. a sort of musical instru- 
 ment, h. 
 <.^^\j tdny, f. the leg, foot, h 
 LiLj tapahnd, n. to drip. >i 
 Usry l!Uj tat-piinjiyd, bankrupt, h 
 
 U^ tatolnd, a. to feel, to handle. A 
 hC' ^w^r(i, m. a piece, a bit, a morsel. 
 \:>jy tiitnd, n. to break, h 
 J^Jy toral-mal, a man's name, h 
 l^j thathd, m. a joke, a jest. A 
 fj^^'jthathol, m. a jester, a buffoon. A 
 
 jj^^j thatholi, f. fun, humour,, sport, 
 
 joking. A 
 U^.^* thaharnd, n. to stay, to rest, to 
 
 be settled, h [deem, h 
 
 UL^j thahrdnd, a. to determine, to 
 Lu^'J thassd, m. vanity, ostentation, h 
 \Su^ thandd, cold, h 
 j^j ^^Aawr, f. place, spot, h 
 
 tip, m. a note of hand, h 
 
 iii 
 
 cJlS sdni, second, equal, a 
 aJu sika, trusty, confidential, a 
 HjAJ samra, m. fruit ; result, a 
 L^\y sawdh, m. the future reward of 
 virtue, a 
 
 \j\ff^ fdrd, m- cold, winter. « 
 \:^\p^Jdffnd, n. to awake, to be awake. 
 ^}\s>- j'dl, m. net. « 
 i^\s>-jdma, m. a garment, robe, veBt._p 
 ,^J<ff^ jdn, f. m. life, soul, spirit; dear, 
 
 beloved; jdn pahchdn, an intimate 
 
 friend, p 
 
C)V 
 
 (14) 
 
 ^[^-jdnd, n. to go ; to be ; to pass ; to 
 reach; to continue, jdtd-rahnd, to 
 Tanish. < 
 
 liasrU- Jdnchnd, a. to. test, to try, 
 prove. 8 
 
 j\i^\s>'jdn-ddrj a living being, p 
 
 liilsj- jdnnd, a. to know, to under- 
 stand, to consider, s 
 jy^ss^ jdnwar, m. an animal, a bird, p 
 
 JjiXp^ j'dhil, m. a fool; (adj.) barba- 
 rous, brutal, a 
 
 i^^cj- Jah, when, at the time when ; 
 jdb-na-tah, now and then, s 
 
 Ls»- j'uhd, young, youthful, s 
 
 uji i^.^'^p^ jaltah oTj'ah-tahk, so long 
 as, till when. » h 
 
 li5»- jtttd, as much (as), whatever 
 much, h 
 
 Ul:;^*- Jatdnd, a. to point out, to 
 teach. 8 
 
 Uij>- y*Yw<i, as many (as), how many 
 soever, h 
 
 \4Xp- j'udd, separate, apart, p 
 
 ^jms^ jiSf the inflection of the relat. 
 jOf who, which, h 
 
 i^^^:>- jast, f. a leap, p 
 
 .l^Urs- jafd-Mr, m. a tormentor, op- 
 pressor, a p 
 
 \j\x5j- jagdnd, a. to waken, to rouse 
 up. 8 
 
 „Sp^ jagah, f. place, quarter, room, 
 vacancy, stead, h 
 
 Jis^jaUdd, m. an executioner; (adj.) 
 cruel, hard-hearted, a 
 
 d^jald, expeditious, quick,quickly.^ 
 ^ jisj- jaldi, f. quickness, rashness, p 
 Uj>- jalndf n. to burn, to be kindled ; 
 
 to get into a passion. « 
 ii^s>- jalwa, m. light ; jahva-ga/r, 
 
 brilliant, beautiful, a 
 yAs^- jalevy f. retinue, attendance, h 
 ^-♦^ jam\ f. a congregation, collec- 
 tion ; sum total, number ; /awi'- h. or 
 -rahhnd or -Tcar-rahhnd, to collect ; 
 -hond, to be collected, a 
 ijj?- yaw, m. person, individual. 8 
 \ji*^ jins, f. genus; goods, com- 
 modity, a 
 J^lj?- jangal, m. a forest, a wood. « 
 L:.^ jannd, a. to bear, to bring forth, s 
 ^ jo, (rel. pron. ) he who ; jo-lo, i, who- 
 soever ; jo-kuchh, whatsoever, h 
 y>- jau, m. barley ; j6, if, when ,' y^, 
 
 searching. ^ « 
 \y>- ju,d, m. a yoke; dice, gambling, s 
 c->ljr>- jawdh, m. an answer, a 
 jj1^5>- jawdn, young, a young person ; 
 
 jawdn-mardif valour, p 
 iS^yr jawdni, f. youth or rather that 
 period of life to which the Eomans 
 applied the term j'uventus. p. 
 j^^y>- jawdhir, f. (plur. of ^^:?-), 
 gems, jewels ; jawdhir-Midna, a 
 jewel-house or treasury, a 
 ij$Jtiy>- jauJiarky m. a jeweller, a 
 \j^j'iitd, m. a shoe, a pair of shoes, h 
 CSj^ jotiky m. astrology. « 
 L^^fT jo^^h ao astrologer. « 
 
o^ 
 
 (15) 
 
 LSyr J^^'h a slipper, a small shoe, h 
 Lj^ Jotnd, to yoke, h 
 l3j^ jarnd, a. to join, clasp, h 
 ^y>- join or jaun, when, as ; jon-Mn, 
 
 OTJaun-Mn, the instant when, h 
 j^fT J^<^unpur, name of a city, s 
 j\^jMr, m. bushes ; continued rain, h 
 j^^ j\^ jMr-jhiir, f. a thicket, h 
 \\s>- jaM%, m. a ship, a 
 ci-Jl^^ jahdlat, f. ignorance, a 
 ^ W" j^^^cWi f- a fringe ; jMlar-ddr, 
 
 possessed of a fringe, fringed, 
 jjl^ jahdn, m. the world ; jahdni, 
 of or belonging to the world, man- 
 kind, p 
 (J^j^ Jahdn, where, in whatever 
 
 place, h 
 2flx> (jl^^ jahdn pandh, m. refuge of 
 
 the world ; your majesty ! p 
 -f=^W^ y^dwc^A, f. a cymbal. « 
 L^ l^ jhdnknd, a. to peep, to spy. ^ 
 lS-^ jhat, quickly, h 
 ^j^ jharnd, n. to ooze, to flow, h 
 ^jjpr jharohhd, m. a lattice, a 
 
 window, s 
 Ijxp- jhagrd, m. wrangling, quar- 
 relling, h 
 l3j^5>- jhaga/rnd, n. to quarrel. A 
 b'Ufsr^^^y^^m/'Afljmd^fi, glittering. A 
 r|x4.^ jhamaTcrd, m. splendour, 
 
 beauty. A 
 ^j^ jhan, m. a clashing sound of 
 
 metals, etc. A 
 •^^^ /Ai^Ay false; a lie. • 
 
 l^jj^ jh-kthd, a liar ; false. « 
 
 ,^^ yi, m. life, soul, mind : (added 
 
 to names, professions, etc., it 
 
 signifies sir, master). « 
 c-'^-^ jeh, f. a pocket, p 
 l:ui>- yi^a, alive, living, s 
 L:u5»- yi^wa, a. to win (at play), to 
 
 conquer. « 
 li-j^ yiwa, n. to live, to be alive. « 
 L*-j»- y<?«s<i, in the manner which, as, 
 
 such as. 8 
 
 (.IxjUw chdluh, m. a horsewhip, p 
 ujI^- chdbnd, a. to gnaw. A 
 ,^_ji-ijU^ chdshni, f. taste. ^ 
 Jl^ cAd^, f. way, practice. 8 
 CiJU- chdUk, active, fleet. ^ 
 (JjJU^ chdndn'i, f. a kind of cloth; 
 
 moonlight. « 
 u&U- chdhndf a. to love, to like, to 
 desire, to choose ; chdhiye (in Braj. 
 chdhiyatu), it is fit, proper, neces- 
 sary, etc. 8 
 b Law chaldnd, a. to gnaw. A 
 Lo- chibilld, stupid, impudent. A 
 
 L.^01- chup, \ 
 
 ,■' " J silent, speechless. A 
 
 o-j>- chupTcd, ) 
 
 chatur, clever; chaturdX ex- 
 
 pertness. « 
 
 l3 l^li>- chatMnd, a. to rend, split. A 
 
 ,^_^^i5^ cMthi, f. a letter, an epistle. A 
 
 ^1^ chird^ m. a lamp, a light. ^ 
 
\ 
 
 (16) 
 
 f^)/>- chardffdhf t a pasture, a 
 meadow, p 
 
 1>L&- ohardnd, to graze; churdnd,&. 
 to steal ; dnJchek churdnd, to with- 
 draw the eyes. « 
 
 LtoJ^ charhnd, n. to ascend, to come 
 up. h 
 
 \j\iby>- eharhdnd, a. to raise up. h 
 
 I) »i=»- cUriyd, f. a bird. A 
 
 «Uj*i>- cMrimdr, a bird-catcher, a 
 fowler. A 
 
 ,«Ad- cJiashm, the eye. jp 
 
 ^Uuio^ chashma, m. a spring, a well^ 
 a fountain, p 
 
 ^^JJti>- chugM't, slandering, back- 
 biting, p 
 
 w:-X>- chaUt, astonished. » 
 
 l:X^ chuhndj n. to have done, to 
 have completed, h (Yide Gram, 
 p. 65). 
 
 ^^S-^ ^AfltMi, f. a mill, a mill-stone. « 
 
 Ij1>- chilldnd, n. to scream out. h 
 
 Ul.>- chalnd, n. to move, to go, pro- 
 ceed, go off, pass (as coin), to be 
 discharged (as a gun) ; cJiald-j. to 
 go ; chald-dnd, to come. » 
 
 CX*^:^*- chamahy f. brilliancy, glitter, 
 beauty, h 
 
 i^A>- chamnn, m. a lawn, a meadow, p 
 
 cL=sr'L>- chundnchi, thus, accordingly.^ 
 
 cur*- cJiintd, f. care, anxietv- « 
 
 JfCi£s- changul, m. a claw; changul 
 mdmd, to grasp with the claw, p 
 
 fcy^^ (jA<>P, f. desire, selfishness. A 
 
 <0 1>^5»- cJiaupdya, four-footed, a quad- 
 ruped. 8 
 ^y>- chauthd, the fourth. « 
 j^ ehoTf m. a thief, a robber, s 
 ^]j^ chordnd, a. to steal. « 
 lJj^ chork, f. theft, robbery, a. 
 CS^ chiih, f. defect, error; chauhy 
 
 an open place in a city, h 
 {jM^y>^ chaukas, expert, alert. « 
 LS^>- chaugund, a. fourfold. « 
 ,^^^ choneh, f. beak, bill. « 
 J^ Jkj »is- chaundol, m. a kind of sedan 
 
 or palki. « 
 LSj>y>- chaunri, f. a whisk, a fly- 
 flapper, h 
 l&p- chiihd, m. a mouse ; chiihe-mdr, a 
 kind of haw ^ which feeds on mice, h 
 ..^ chha, six. h 
 
 (J\^s>^ chhdti, f. the breast ; chhdt'i se 
 
 lagdnd, to embrace, h 
 U-k^j>- chhipudy n. to be concealed, 
 
 hidden, absent, h 
 ^J-^ chhatrk, f. a covering or hood; 
 
 chhatri-ddr, covered, hooded, s 
 \j\j.^ chhutdpd, m. smallness. h 
 ,.|^jsir?" chahchaha, m. warbling. A 
 ^^.^ chihra, m. the face. ^ 
 l!j^f>- chhotd, little, small. A 
 Ixl^^rs- chhiifnd, n. to escape. A 
 j4^5»- e?Mor, m. end, extremity, h 
 ^j^^ chhornd, a. to release, leave, 
 
 let go. h 
 
>^ 
 
 (17) 
 
 rOrv. chhoTcard, m. a boy, h 
 Ju^j*- f?AA5<?, m. a hole, an opening, s 
 l:u.=^ (jAi^a, m. a leopard. « 
 j^ cAiz, f. a thing. ^ 
 li-.>- ehaind, m. a kind of com. «. 
 cA^wrf, millet. A 
 
 t_%5j-l*>- hdjib, m. an usher, a 
 c:.-c^U- Mjat, need, want, a 
 J^l>. ^as»7, m. produce, result, pur- 
 port, profit, revenue ; Msil-i-haldm, 
 in fine, in short; hdsil-h., to be 
 obtained ; hdsil-k., to obtain, a 
 -npU- M%ir, a. present, willing ; hdzir- 
 
 jawdl'i, ready wit. a 
 J)\^ hdUm, m. a ruler, a 
 JU- Aa/, m. state, condition, busi- 
 ness, affair; present time, a 
 (ji^U- Mlat, i. state, condition. « 
 j<A-cs- habsM, m. Abyssinian, Caffre. a 
 ^1:^ hujjati, cavilling, arguing the 
 
 point, a 
 *X£»- Aa<?(?, extreme, extremely, a - 
 jjo^ Mrs, avidity, greediness, a 
 l::^j»^ harahat, f. proceeding, con- 
 duct, a 
 ujb^ harif, an opponent (in play), 
 
 a rival, an associate, a 
 jS-^\ c-.-vuki>- hasbu-l-huhmf according 
 to command, a 
 
 Tuisad, f. envy, malice ; emula- 
 tion, ambition, a 
 
 i„a.^ Mssa, m. share, lot, portion 
 
 division, a 
 jnr^ ha%r, m. rest, repose, a 
 
 CLJj^s- hatrat; your or his majesty, 
 your or his excellency, etc. a 
 
 jt^-v huziir, m. presence, appearance ; 
 a regal court; his majesty, a 
 
 fjs>- hahh, just, true; the Deity; 
 right, justice; lot. hahhUnk, per- 
 ception of right, a 
 
 C-J^Us.. hihdrat, f. contempt, dis- 
 grace, baseness, a 
 
 L::.>^.<u.g,~v- hahikat, f. truth, a true 
 statement, an account. 
 
 Li--ol^ hilcdyat, f. a history, tale, 
 narration, a 
 
 S.=>. huTcm, m. order, decree, a 
 
 ^j:^^saL^ hikmaf, f. wisdom, know- 
 ledge, skill, contrivance, a 
 
 v^:--^^ylr^ huMmat, f. reign, rule, a 
 
 *-io" hakim, m. a sage, a philosopher, 
 a physician, a 
 
 jJl^U- halwdX m. a confectioner. <? 
 
 jjwlj^ hawdss, (pi.), senses, a 
 
 jjl^ hawdle-k. to give in charge, to 
 consign, a 
 
 CL>L^ A«ya^, life, a 
 
 fj\j^^ hair an, confounded, per- 
 plexed, a 
 
 CLij^^ hairat, f. confusion, a 
 
 lo-io- haif, (interj.) ah ! alas ! m. 
 iniquity, a pity ; haif-k. or -khdndf 
 to sigh, to express one's sorrow. <f 
 
 ^dgjv Ai^a, m. artifice, ruse, a 
 
 ,./.«o.. haiwdn, m. animal, a 
 
^\^ ( 18 ) 
 
 t 
 
 t^ldL M^??» select, peculiar, a 
 A?U>- Mtatiry f. the heart, mind; 
 
 ^dtir Wiwdh, cheerfully, heartily ; 
 
 Tduitir jam\ with heart at ease, 
 
 contented, a 
 (JJ'U- M^dk, f. earth, dust ; Tdidh-h. 
 
 to be destroyed, p 
 ^A\s^ Tdmlis, pure, a 
 jJU- Tdidl'tf bare, empty, a 
 ^:>' Man, a lord, a grandee ; khdn- 
 
 daurdn (p. 29), a man's name ; 
 
 khdn-khdndnf a man's name, a 
 <iUl>- Mtdnay m. house, place; (much 
 
 used in composition, as bdwarcM- 
 
 Jdidnaf a cook-house or kitchen.) p 
 j^ Idwha/ry f. news, information, 
 
 report, notice ; Miabar-ddr, careful, 
 
 attentive; khabar-giri, taking care 
 
 of. a 
 j^ Miachchar, m. a mule. p. 
 ijcv. Mmdd, m. God; Mmdd-shinds, 
 
 God-knowing, p 
 Juj\jcs- Jdmddwand, master, your 
 
 majesty, your worship, etc. p 
 (>::>% /<J>js»- Miidmat, f. presence, service, 
 
 duty; ]diid/mat-gdrj an attendant, a 
 
 servant, a 
 c->|^ khardb, bad, depraved, ruined, 
 
 depopulated, a 
 i<i^;^ Mmrdbi, f. ruin, destruction, a 
 «. ^ Jdm-ehf m. expenditure, p 
 
 U^ ^,,js^ Jdm-kd-h a. to purchase, hp 
 jj*^>. Mas, m. grass, straw, p 
 ^yns- Tdiusiis, especially, a 
 
 k^ Mhattj m. a letter ; a line ; mous- 
 taches, beard, o 
 
 Ikr^ ^aj{a, defect, error, missing, 
 deficient, a 
 
 Uri- M^a, angry. j> 
 
 if^ Mk^'f^^g'^'i ^' displeasure, anger, p 
 
 {^^Ji^ Jdwfif, vilified; Tdkafif-h. to 
 feel one's self affronted, a 
 
 d^\:>~ Tdmldsa, essence, the upshot or 
 finale ; the moral (of a tale, etc.) a 
 
 ^Ls- Tdialdyih, people, mankind, a 
 
 (J^^ Mialh, m. people, the world, 
 creation, a 
 
 L:i-JiL>- Mhilhat, f. people, a 
 
 y>~ khp, f. disposition, p 
 
 i^\^ khwdb, m. sleep, p 
 
 c-j'^rs- Miib, good, excellent, well; 
 kMb-siirat (adj.\ beautiful, well- 
 favoured, p 
 
 ij!y^ MiiiJ, f. beauty; comfort; good 
 deed, virtue, p 
 
 ij^^ khush pleased, cheerful ; ele- 
 gant ; Miush-dnd, to be agreeable ; 
 Miush - ay and, comely, elegant ; 
 khush - usliib or Tdmsh-dmil, well- 
 proportioned, elegant, p 
 
 lJj^ lA?^ Mk^^^-Mfl^^) f' good 
 news, pleasing tidings, p 
 
 L5*?^ U^^ Mk^^-i^^\ f» pleasan- 
 try, mirth, p 
 
Lh^ 
 
 (19) 
 
 ^J> 
 
 iJiiyi- Tdwshaj m. a cluster of grapes, 
 etc. p 
 
 \^y^ Mk^shi, f. delight, pleasure, p 
 
 .«-j^ Tdkauf, m. fear; ]diauf-h. or 
 -Midnd, to fear, a 
 
 ci>>- Mm wz, a murderer J sanguinary.^ 
 
 JW^- MiW^h m. thought, considera- 
 tion; phantom, vision; Miiydl-k. 
 to fancy ; Idbiydl-rahhnd, to keep in 
 mind, a 
 
 c:^ Uri- M«yawa^, f. perfidy, treachery, 
 embezzlement, a 
 
 -»:>- M^*h good, best, well ; m. good- 
 ness; health; Miair-Miwdh, well- 
 wisher, a 
 
 V3jJb J^L'> ddTdbil-h., n. to enter, to 
 
 arrive, h a 
 C>\d ddd, justice, p 
 ju'iJ ddrii, f. medicine, p 
 41 J ddgh, spot, stigma. ^ 
 /t\ii ddm, m. a snare, p 
 jj^Ij ddman, m. skirt, jp 
 j^^J <?(fw, m. almb, charity. 8 
 \j\d ddnd, wise, learned; a sage, p 
 t^ulJ ddnd,k, f. wisdom. ^ 
 Ii^i-JIj ddnt, m. tooth, s 
 ^jyujlj ddnish, f. knowledge, science, 
 
 wisdom, p 
 JCw^juJIj ddnishmand, wise, a learned 
 
 man. ^ 
 ylj (^d^jt^?, m. time, p 
 
 <01j <?dwfl^, m. grain, seedj speck, p 
 bbti dabdnd, a. to press down, h 
 ibj (i^Wd, thin, lean, poor. 8 
 l:jj dabnd, to be pressed. A 
 Jl>^j daMl, m. entrance, intrusion; 
 
 possibility, a 
 J J ^ar, (prep.) in ; (used in comp. 
 
 as dar-guzarnd, to pass away.)^ 
 j\ji^ dardz, long; dardz-k., to stretch 
 
 out. p 
 J^ji^ darldrt m. the court of a king 
 
 or prince, p 
 ijlj^j^ darbdri, m. a courtier, p 
 l}jJi> (jl-J J J darpesh hond, n. to occur, 
 
 to await. ^ 
 l::-cs.j J da/raMit, m. a tree, a stalk. ^ 
 
 l::-^<«jUjs.jJ darMiwdst, f. application, 
 
 request, wish, desire, p 
 JjJ ^fl^^, m. pain, affliction, pity, p 
 (^ji^jii daridri, poor, miserable, s 
 J^ji^ darMr, useful, requisite, p 
 ii€jd dargdhf f. a regal court, p 
 
 Atji^ diram, m. money ; a coin about 
 sixpence in value, p 
 
 jjL^ J da/r-miydn, in the midst : be- 
 tween, p 
 
 JojJ daranda or darinda, m. a beast 
 of prey, p 
 
 Hj^^j*^ darwdza, m. door, gateway, p 
 
 6 jjJ darogh, m. a lie. p 
 
 ^Juj^^jd da/rweshf m. a dervise, a 
 
 beggar, p 
 bjj darydf m. the sea, a river, p 
 
^J> 
 
 (20 ) 
 
 ^ 
 
 \j^ c;^bp darydft'h.f a. to con- 
 ceive, understand. A p 
 ^ J (^ (or dash), ten. » 
 
 '«::^^J da%t, m. the hand; dast-har- 
 
 ddr-h., to forbear, to desist, p 
 ^L:>yi-o J dastar-Tchwdn, m. the cloth 
 
 on which orientals eat. p 
 ^j^^ dushmany m. an enemy, p 
 ^i^J dushmani, f. enmity. ^ 
 -♦liwi J dicshndm, f. abuse. « j? 
 Ic J <?w 'a, f. benediction, prayer, wish, a 
 
 CJ*£b> da^wai, f. entertainment, ban- 
 quet, a 
 
 ^J (?mM, m. pain, labour; duhM, 
 grieved, afliicted. s 
 
 Ul^J dikhdnd and dikhldnd, a. to 
 shew, to point ou*^. « 
 
 J J <?«7, m. heart, mind, soul; dil- 
 pasand, pleasing, agreeable, p 
 
 Ij^J dildnd, a. to cause to give. « 
 
 ^ J du-latti, f. a kick with the two 
 
 hind legs, h 
 ^jt<i:>- Jj<?«iyam'-i,f.easeofmind.^ 
 JJj dalU, f. argument, proof, a 
 At) (^OT, m. breath, life, p 
 -♦J e^m, f. tail, end. p 
 ^ J d^», m. a day, s 
 \-jJ dunyd, f. the world; people, a 
 ^J <fo, a. two. ^ 
 
 Ij J <faw;rf, f. medicine ; a remedy, a 
 iljj (^fir, m. a door, a gate. « 
 i^J^J <^ii</A, m« milk, s 
 
 jjt, <?ir, f. distance; distant; diir^ 
 andesh, far-sighted, wise ; diir- 
 andesM, prudence, foresight. 
 
 UJJjJ daurdnd, a, to cause to run, to 
 drive. 8 
 
 lj?jj daurnd, n. to run. * 
 
 u^wjj J dost, m. a friend, lover ; dost- 
 
 rahhnd, to hold dear, to love, p 
 jj;«jj J dosti, f. affection, friendship, p 
 l^j J (/tisrcf, the second, other, next. « 
 ^jJ dosh, m. fault, defect. « 
 j^VijJ diblcdn, f. a shop. ^ 
 
 Lii^^J daulat, f. riches, fortune, em- 
 pire; daulat-mand, a. wealthy, a 
 
 j^^J <?Aw, low, vile, abject; dun- 
 himmati, low-mindedness. a 
 
 yj J or ^Tt^jt) <?owo or donon, the two, 
 both, h 
 
 Ajiai dharm,m. virtue; dJiarm-avatdry 
 incarnation or personification of 
 virtue; sire, your majesty. 8 
 
 IjybJ dharnd, a. to place, to lay. « 
 
 \JJii J dJiahM, m. a push, jolt, h 
 
 ^d dJian, m. wealth ; dhaniy 
 
 wealthy. 8. 
 I liJjb<AiJbt> dhandhalpand, m. fraud, 
 
 trickery, h 
 j^lJjbJ dhu,dn, m. smoke. « 
 
 (^ybJ t^AoJI, a washerman; dJiolin, 
 
 a washerwoman. A 
 |4.^J e?Aiim, f. noise, tumult, h 
 
 IjjJb J (?Aowfj, a. to wash ; dho-dhdnd^ 
 to wash thoroughly. $ 
 
j^LjbJ dhydn, m. mind, thonght. « 
 cLp-o l> J diydnat, f. conscience, honesty, 
 
 piety; diydnat-ddr, honest, just, a 
 ^j-jJ <?a«M, f. fate, by chance. « 
 j^Jo J d'lddr, viewing, seeing, p 
 i^JkJ J dkda, m. the eye. ^ 
 jt) e?<?r, f. a long time, late, p 
 jjjwjt3 (?^s, m. country, region, s 
 L^fc) dekkndy a. to see, experience, s 
 Uj J dend, a. to give, grant. « 
 jUj J (?kar, m. the name of a coin, a 
 
 ducat, a 
 jljojti dinddr, faithful, true, p 
 j\^ii diwdr, f. a wall, p 
 jj^jjJ diwdn, m. a hall of audience.^ 
 
 if J ddrh, f. a tooth, h 
 
 fc^j\^ ddrM, f. the beard. 8 
 
 Lllj ddlnd, a. to throw down, to pour 
 
 out, to rush forth; ddl-d.y a. to 
 
 throw away. h. 
 X)\j ddnd, m. retaliation; an oar; a 
 
 stick ; ddnd-l., to take revenge, s 
 
 I.I ^ 
 
 ubj duldnd, a. to cause to sink, h 
 
 Sj3 duhki, f. a dip, dive; duhU- 
 
 mdrnd, to bathe, h. 
 
 dar, m. fear. « 
 
 >i darnd, n. to fear. « 
 
 (21 ) 
 
 U^\ 
 
 D 
 
 J' 
 
 LJ bjj dwrvyd-l., to lead by the 
 bridle, h 
 
 \y^dakvdndf a. to cause to be thrown, 
 placed. ^ 
 
 lujjj dubnd, to sink, to be drowned. A 
 ijj doll, a plain kind of litter or 
 sedan, h 
 
 ;; a 
 
 t^iXJjJ <?ow^i, f. a proclamation, h 
 
 u-jl&J dhdmpnd, a. to cover up, con- 
 ceal, h 
 
 IcsT'U&j dhdnchdj m. a frame, frame- 
 work. ^ 
 
 (w-^J f?Afli, m. mode, manner, h 
 
 JybJ ^^oZ, m. a drum; dkolak, a 
 little drum. A 
 
 uJbJujJbi dhiindhnd, a. to seek, to 
 
 search for. » 
 j-JbJ ^A(?r, m. a heap, h 
 
 \jl3 derd, m. a dwelling, a tent; 
 (adj.) squint-eyed, h 
 
 JjkJ (?i?, m. stature; dAl-daul, size 
 and shape ; del, a clod, h 
 
 Hjd zarra, m. an atom, a little ; the 
 
 least bit. a 
 ^J %ilr, m. remembrance; zikr-hf +>» 
 
 mention, to praise, a 
 
 J 
 CLi\j rdt, f. night. « 
 Isj-'j rdjd or <^-[; r^;^, a king, a 
 J^^i/♦^!^ rdj-mandvr, m. a palace, a 
 Jn rcfz, m. a secret, a mystery, p 
 ci-^lj ras^, right, true; rdst-go^i^ 
 
 speaking truth, veracity, p 
 ^\j rdkhnd, to keep, stop, s 
 
p 
 
 ( 22) 
 
 ^!> 
 
 ^j^ ^j rdm-eherd, a name frequently 
 
 given to slaves, s 
 ci^-v)^ rdhat, f. quiet, ease, a 
 ii\j rah, f. road, way. p 
 ij\j rd,e, f. sense, opinion, a 
 <LJ; rutbuy m. rank, dignity, a 
 ^j rath, m. f. a chariot (four- 
 wheeled). « 
 (J; ra^i, f. a weight of about eight 
 
 barley-corns. « 
 <j: ^*a :^j rulchsat, f. leave, discharge, 
 
 ru^sat-h., to depart, a 
 ur»-j rakhnd, m. rent, hole. ^ 
 Lj^ rassdf, m. a rope. A 
 ULj^ risdnd, n. to be enraged, h 
 iz^j rasta, m. a road, way, mode, p 
 \y^j ruswd, exposed, disgraced, p 
 ^\j^j rmwdX f. ignominy, dis- 
 grace, p 
 ^j rassi, f. a string, cord, p 
 lLSj^j rasJih, m. envy, jealousy, p 
 \^j rizd, f. favour, a 
 \s.j roHiyyaty f. subjects, people, a 
 l:l-y4/> ra^Ja^, f. desire, liking, a 
 ^j^j rafkhf m. a friend, ally, a 
 <UJj rwF«, m. a letter, note, a 
 j\'^yj nkdb-ddr, m. a stirrup -holder, 
 
 groom, ap 
 u^ rakhnd, a. to place, possess, save; 
 rahh'd., to put down, to place; 
 raJch-h, to establish. « 
 l3\^^ rahhwdndy a. to cause to be 
 
 placed, or put. s 
 ^j ranj, pain, grief, p 
 
 as^^j ranjida, annoyed, vexed, p 
 
 a. 
 i^^j randi, a woman, h 
 
 tS-^j ranff, m. colour ; pleasure, p 
 ^J^J ranffin, coloured, gaudy, p 
 jj rd, m. face, surface, p 
 jj^jj ru-ha-rii, in the presence of; face 
 
 to face, before, p 
 \jt,j rkpd, m. silver, a 
 <U> JJ riipiya, m. a rupee. » 
 l5^JJ ro^i, f. bread, a loaf. « 
 rA^ ^^4> ^- ^^^» spirit, a 
 Jj)j ro2, m. a day. p 
 ijM^j ros, m. anger; ros-k, to feel 
 
 wroth. 8 
 cAj ^oshan, clear, illumined, j? 
 ^_^jj rosAwi, light, brightness. ^ 
 Ijjj rowcf, n. to weep; m. lamenta- 
 tion, grief. 8 
 tJjJij rahzani, f. robbery, plunder, p 
 ^J*Ji>J rahas, m. witticism, s 
 \iJbj rahnd, n. to stay, be, live, con- 
 tinue ; rahne-wdld, an inhabitant, h 
 j\^j rahwdr, swift ; (lit., fit for the 
 
 road.) p 
 Lii-^j ret, f. sand, filings ; rit, custom. A 
 j^iJ J riti, f. custom, habit. « 
 L^^fj ^b^nd, n. to be pleased, satis- 
 fied. « 
 
 ifjjj z<f(i!a, m. a son, child; (used in 
 composition, as shdh-zdda, a king's 
 son, a prince.) p 
 
^J 
 
 (28 ) 
 
 i^b ; %ahdn, f. the tongue, language, 
 dialect ; zahdn-i rekhta, the Urdu 
 or mixed Hindustani, p 
 ^^^^i^jij zabar-dasti, f. tyranny, op- 
 pression, p 
 jj zar, m. gold, wealth, money, p 
 fjj^J zamin, ground, a field, p 
 tjljj zandnh., belonging to women, p 
 jy^j zamhur, m. a bee. p 
 
 X ,^ /I. life, existence.^ 
 
 4jo JuJ zindagdni ) 
 
 {^S^j zang^ m. a small bell, p 
 
 jjj zoTf m. force, strength, p 
 
 J^J3J s5oraw?ar, powerful, strong, p 
 
 jSbj zdhr, m. venom, p 
 
 *jI»J ziydda, m. addition, additional ; 
 
 (adv.) more ; ziydda-h to increase, a 
 
 j^bj ziydn, m. loss, damage. ^ 
 
 J ; z^r, under, beneath, jp 
 
 Ij zist, life. j> 
 
 Lj «d (»«, *i), a termination added to 
 substantives or adjectives to denote 
 similitude or intensiveness. h 
 ^Li sdlih, formerly, a 
 «^i«o sdtJi, (prep.) with. « 
 j^'Lj sdtU, m. a companion, s 
 aS^ sdda, plain, unadorned, p 
 \jLi sdrd, all, the whole. « 
 UjL> sdrAa, with a half added. « 
 JVm) ^(«2| il. f amlture, harness, etc. p 
 
 (jwLs «d5, f. a mother-in-law. » 
 
 jLj sa^, f. the leg, thigh. 
 
 JLs sdl, m. a year, jp 
 
 j^i^L: sdmhne, (prep.) in front of. ^ 
 
 ^C^Lj 8d,ungi, f. a support for the 
 
 pole of a chariot, h 
 jl^JbL: sdhibhdr, m. a great merchant. » 
 ^^Lj sa,ls m. a groom, p 
 <bLj »dya, m. shadow, protection, p 
 i_-vwo saJ, all, every, the whole. « 
 c.„,-^-wj «<?J«J, m. cause, reason, motive ; 
 
 (prep.) on account of. a 
 ^J^ sabah, m. a task, lesson, a 
 lLx-«-j subuh, light, not heavy ; suhuh- 
 
 hdr, lightly burdened, p 
 _jl^^ suhhdv, m. nature, disposition. 8 
 
 \jj> J^ sKpurd-h. a- to give in 
 
 charge, to consign, p 
 ijsp*^ stri, a woman. « 
 bljjs^ sajwdnd, a. to cause to be 
 
 fitted, prepared. « 
 ^ sach or Ls**" sachchd, m. truth, 
 
 true. « 
 L::^•^.s:**'" saM^, hard, severe ; very, jp 
 ^^^ sflfMi, generous, liberal, a 
 \Xm sadd, always, « 
 J^ JLo Sudani, well-shaped, graceful, h 
 j^ sar, head ; sar-anjdm, m. livelihood, 
 
 success ; sar-anjdm-h. to succeed. ^ 
 --; sir, m. the head, the top. s 
 \ujs\j^ sardhnd, a. to praise, extol, h 
 i^\f*> sa/rde, f. a caravansary, house, p 
 j^i^j-^ sarddr, m. chief, ruler, p 
 
f^tij>^ sardif f. coldness, cold wea- 
 ther, p 
 ^^-.^j^ 8ar-zamin, f. empire, region, p 
 J^j'i sarkdr, f. court, mansion, p 
 j^j^ swdr, f. joy. a 
 U«j sazd, f. punishment, p 
 
 c: -\ * i 8tt8t, lazy, idle, p 
 
 ^^juajuj smti, f. laziness, dilatoriness. j? 
 c:-?jU-j sa^ddat, f. felicity ; sa'ddaf- 
 
 mandi, gratitude, felicity, a 
 yi-j safar, a journey, voyage, p 
 JuA-j ««{/»(?, sufaid, wliite. p 
 LiLs «a^»ff, n. to be able, a 
 jJcX-j Sikandar, m. Alexander. ^ 
 l^Lrf «eH<f (sihshd), a lecture. » 
 1)1^^ siMdnd, 
 \j^i^-^ aihhldnd 
 
 JL^x«j suM-pdl, m. a kind of sedan. « 
 U-Xg^ »iM«^ (sihshah), a teacher, 
 
 preacher. ^ 
 a1»^ «a?(i;7», salutation; hail! a 
 ^j:^^/tL^ saldmat, f. safety, safely, a 
 jjlLLo sultan, m. a sovereign; Ar. 
 
 pi. saldtin, sovereigns, a 
 C^^-" suliih, f. behaviour, treatment, a 
 <^»Lj saliha, m. skill, taste, a 
 ^^U-»Ls Sulaimdn, Solomon. <i 
 A-»o 8cmm, m. poison, a 
 iU>-U«-j samdchdr, m. news, tidings. « 
 jjUn-j samdn, like, similar. « 
 c:-.v4«-j «a»?^ or «m^, f. a way, path ; 
 
 point of the compass, a 
 ,^js^**' samajh, f. comprehension. « 
 
 a. to teach, s. 
 
 ufs:'*^ samajhnd, a. to comprehend, 
 
 understand. « 
 ^^^.^--j smaran, m. remembrance, re- 
 collection, h 
 jfcXiw*^ samundar, m. the sea, the 
 
 wide ocean. « 
 f^^j^*^ samay, m. time, season. « 
 \jL«j sundnd, a. to cause to hear. « 
 '^■^y-'***^ sampat, f. wealth. « 
 UAjfaXikM) sandesd, m. a message. « 
 jLuX«: sansdr, the world. « 
 ^ji^sU*^ singauti, f. an ornament of 
 
 gold, etc., on the horn of a bullock, a 
 ui**j sunnd, a. to hear. « 
 ^ «o, correlat. pron. that very, that 
 
 same ; sau, a hundred, h 
 \y^ siwd, except, besides, a 
 j\yj> sawdr, a rider, one mounted or 
 
 riding ; embarked, p 
 lsJ'^ sawdri, f. riding; equipage.^ 
 (j\y^ sawdl, m. request, begging, 
 
 petition, a 
 ^\y^ swdmi, m. master, husband, a 
 1^1^ siwde, same as siwd. a 
 -.y^ 80ch, thought. 8 
 u.>-j*j sochnd, to consider, reflect. « 
 1 J^ 8audd, m. a bargain, purchase, p 
 ^\dy^ 8auddgar, m. a merchant, p 
 t_^iJj*«) sauddgari, f. merchandize, 
 
 trade, p 
 Jj J j*»j 8&-daul, elegant, well-shaped 
 ^Iji^' siirdldi, m. a hole, cavity, p 
 _.j^ stiro;*, m. the sun. a 
 {jj\djy^ 8krdd8, name of a i)oet. A 
 
vi-^j«j saumpnd, a. to deliver over, 
 
 oonsign. Also li-Jj«j saunpnd. s 
 \jy^ sond, m. gold; sitnd, void, 
 
 empty, s 
 U^ sond, n. to sleep, to die. 8 
 l!l3^ amtd, m. a pestle. A 
 ^j-^j*<j sonhin, in front. A 
 ijl^-j sahdrd, m. aid, assistance. « 
 -tfif*** «aAq;, ease, facility. « 
 y***.^ saJiasra, a thousand. « 
 (-^ s<?AI, sure, certain. « 
 u:-wjL«3 siydsat, f. punishment, a 
 bL-j siydnd, wise, intelligent. « 
 i^L»*: s«2/a^, black; unfortunate. jO 
 Uju«} skdhd, straight, opposite. « 
 jf>^ sair, f. a walk, perambulation, a 
 jf^ ser, a certain weight, nearly two 
 
 pounds, h 
 ^TijJ^:*-* saikron, hundred, h. 
 \i'«{\;.».i sikhnd, a. to learn. 8 
 li^li--j senhnd, a. to parch, to warm 
 
 one's self, h 
 \±f'--- sing, m. a horn. « 
 
 ^Li shdkh, a branch ; horn. ^ 
 (JUiJLj shddmdnk, f. joy, gladness, p 
 ^JL^^\J^ sTidmat, f. spot, blemish, a 
 J.^U) shdmil, comprehensive ; ex- 
 tending to. a 
 *U. shah, m. a king, prince; shdh- 
 
 zdda, a royal son, a prince, p 
 ^^^..sr'Uj shdhjahdn, name of one of 
 the Emperors of Delhi. 
 
 (25) ^ 
 
 JoLl shdyad, possibly, probably, 
 perhaps, p 
 
 Ju-ij s^aJ<?, m. a voice, sound. « 
 
 <L-Jtf shabih, f. a picture, likeness, a 
 
 j^li^ shitdl'i, f. quickness, haste; 
 ** quickly. ^ 
 
 ^^ shutur, m. a camel. ^ 
 
 ci-^Lsr*^ shuj'd'at, f. bravery. ^ 
 
 (jo-si*^ shaMis, m. a person, indivi- 
 dual, a 
 
 ci?Jji shiddat, f. violence, force; 
 adversity, affliction, a 
 
 c-?!^ shardb, f. wine, a 
 
 L^ s^<w*^, f. condition, stipulation, 
 wager, a 
 
 ^j^ shwrm, f. bashfulness, modesty, 
 shame ; sharm-dnd, n. to feel 
 ashamed, p 
 
 ^^^i^j^ sharmandagi, f. bashful- 
 ness, shame, p 
 
 }iS:*^jti sha/rmanda or sharminda, 
 ashamed, abashed, p 
 
 c^^ shuriH , f. beginning, commence 
 ment. a 
 j>,j^ sharir, vicious, wicked, a 
 
 c:^^iiLiJ shafahat, f. kindness, affec- 
 tion, a 
 
 jIOj shihdr, m. hunting, prey ; 
 shihdr-gdh, f. hunting-field, p 
 
 i^J^ shikdri, relating to hunting; 
 
 m. a fowler, hunter, p 
 ^J:i shukr, m. thanks, gratitude, a 
 
 (JxJ^ shakl, f. shape, figure, a 
 
 Jj^i shikam, m. the belly; shikam- 
 parwar, a pamperer of his belly, p 
 
jyti shoTf m. cry, noise, disturbance, p 
 ^yJL skauk, in. desire, love, a 
 ^j^^ shauk'm, desirous; amateur 
 
 fanciers, a 
 Jl^ shahd, m. honey, p 
 -^ shahr, m. a city, p 
 d jI^h^ shahzdda, a prince ; shahzddi, 
 
 ft princess, p 
 jJii sJier, m. a tiger, a lion, p 
 ijjr^ sherni, f. a tigress, p 
 
 shirini, f. sweetness ; elo- 
 
 (26 J 
 
 t^ 
 
 quence. p 
 ^L-i shigra, quickly, s 
 
 *_^o-U> sahib, m. a lord, master; 
 companion ; possessed of, as, sdhtb- 
 Mdna, the master of the house; 
 sdhib-i '»s»ia^,possessedofchastity.a 
 (_JL? sdf, clean, clear, candid, a 
 ^40 8ubh, f. morning, dawn, a 
 -Mtf sabr, f. patience, endurance, a 
 s„L^,^s!^ suhbaf, f. society, a 
 cJLtf sarrdf, m. a banker, a money- 
 changer, a 
 i^j^ sarf, expenditure; sarf-k., to 
 
 spend, a 
 L^j^ sirf, merely, only, a 
 ^\su> safdX purity, beauty, a 
 ^^sus si/at, f. praise, quality, a 
 <^.s^ safha, face, surface, a 
 JLa saldh, f. counsel, advice, a 
 U-Ls saldhmt peaceably, advisably, 
 by way of advice a 
 
 jjXMtf sandiik, m.f. a box, a trunk, a 
 c-->l^ sawdb, m, rectitude, a virtu- 
 ous action ; success, a 
 CJj^ sitrat, f. form, face, a 
 SL*a saiydd, a hunter, a 
 
 said, f. game, hunting, chase, a 
 
 j^j^o %aritr or zttriir, necessary, ex- 
 pedient, a 
 
 5 za'if, frail, bedridden, a 
 iLj ziydfat, f. entertainment, a 
 
 jU? tdk, m. a shelf, a recess, a 
 Lii^lL tdkat, f, power, endurance, a 
 «JIL tdU\ fortune; star, a 
 »-J? tab\ m. constitution, nature, a 
 L-^^-J^ )[a5iJ, m. a physician, doctor. <i 
 — ^ l^oraA, f. manner, mode, a 
 jjs tarz, m. make, shape, a 
 (^Jb taraf, f. side, direction; ex- 
 tremity, a 
 (J^Jb tar'ik, f. way, path, a 
 <JJb Js tarika, m. way, rule of life, a 
 ui-'wIlL tasM, m. a basin. ^ 
 /*U1? ta^dm, m. food, victuals, a 
 <UjcL tyUma, m. food, bait. 
 
 Ail? ^«/?i, f. infancy, a 
 c--^ ^a?ai, f. search; demand, sum* 
 moning ; pay ; talab-k., to seek for, 
 to send for. a 
 *-*♦!» /am', f. avarice, greediness a 
 
J. 
 
 ^= 
 
 (27 ) 
 
 L)** 
 
 ji? taur, m. mode, manner, a 
 
 JsjL tiitk, f. a parrot, p 
 jjlijL tufdn, m. a storm of wind and 
 
 rain, a 
 J^ ?[ii?, m. length, a 
 <Uj^ tawila, m. a tether, footband; 
 tawela, a stable, stall, a 
 
 is 
 
 Ij^^ll? zdMr-k, a. to manifest, dis- 
 play, a h 
 Jlli za?»w, an oppressor, a tyrant. <i 
 Jis 2M?m, m. injustice, violence; zulm- 
 guddz, a melter of injustice, a 
 crusher of oppression, a 
 
 t 
 
 >-lc ^djk, weak, helpless, a 
 tjO>-lc 'tyVzi, f. weakness, helpless- 
 
 JJjlc 'aM, wise, a sage, a 
 Jlc 'a?a?w, m. the world, universe ; 
 'dlam-pandh, the asylum of the 
 universe, his majesty, a 
 Jlc 'dlim, a. learned, knowing, a 
 CJ^Lc ^ihdrat, f. term, expression, a 
 L-^oLs:"^ ^ajdfib, m. wonders, curiosi- 
 ties, a 
 c--.^^ '(?y«5, m. wonder, admiration; 
 
 a. wonderful, rare, a 
 <Ujjs-^ ^aj^iha, a. wonderfol, a strange 
 
 thing, a 
 l::-J1cXc 'addlat, f. justice, a 
 /%«Xc *adam, non-existence, a 
 
 jJlc 'wzr, m. excuse, a 
 ^j<i^ 'arz, f. representation ; a peti. 
 
 tion, request, a 
 Jjlc 'azkf precious, eminent, dear ; 
 
 (used substantively, like mon cher, ' 
 my dear friend.') a 
 lUjjUxc 'ishrat, enjoyment, a 
 (Jmjs- 'ishk, m. love, a 
 Lac 'asd, m. a stick, a 
 J Hoc 'attar, m. a perfumer, druggist, a 
 Jac 'akl, f. wisdom, opinion, a 
 iX^^AjJj:. 'akhnand, a. wise, a 
 -Is. 'ildj, m. cure, remedy, a 
 dLJ?lc 'aldka (or Hldka), m. connection, a 
 2(jlc 'aldwa, moreover, a 
 J-c '«7m, m. science, knowledge ; 
 
 Hlm-i-nujiim, astrology. 
 J^ 'old, upon, after; ^ald hdz-al 
 
 kiyds, in like manner, a 
 ^^^so^s. 'alaihida, distinct, peculiar, a 
 ax^^s. ^umda, noble, fine, a 
 j^s. 'umr, f. age, life, lifetime, a 
 J^«^ 'amal, m. action, practice, con- 
 duct, a 
 L-^li£ Hndyat, f. favour, gift, a 
 (jwUl a\^ 'awdm-unnds, m. the 
 
 common people, a 
 ci^jy: 'awra^, f. a woman, a wife; 
 
 (Arab, plur.) 'av/rdt. a 
 ^y. Hwaz, m. return, substitute, a 
 Ci; jLc Hyddat, f. visiting the sick, a 
 jLc 'a?yar, cunning ; a knave, a 
 ^ju«--c 'aishy m. pleasure, delight. « 
 ,j--c 'am, m. the eye, essence, the 
 
 very (thing, etc.). a 
 
(28 ) 
 
 14X5 
 
 j\£. ghdr, m. a pit, cavem, hole, a 
 
 JiiU ^afil, careless, negligent, a 
 
 c-^U ^d,ih, missing, a 
 
 \j£. ghflTra, impudence, a 
 
 fjOj£. gharaz, f. design, view; (ad.) 
 
 in short, in fine, a 
 *— ^. r^ gharkh, poor ; a stranger, a 
 \ij£. ffhurahd. the poor; pi. of^arih. a 
 j^y Ic ^aznavi, a. residing at 
 
 Ghazna. p 
 c:^iii^ ghaflat, f . carelessness ; moral 
 
 torpor, a 
 uJic ghiUf, m. a covering, p 
 jXs. ghuldmj m. slave, a 
 Jts. gham, m. grief, sorrow, a 
 l.«^-^-uC ghaihy the invisible world, a 
 -*£ ^a«V, other, different, a 
 C^^ glmiraty f. jealousy, a 
 
 ir4X*li /a,«<?«, m. profit, gain; fd,ida- 
 
 mand-h., to benefit, a 
 ^li /a,«^, superior, excelling, a 
 jjf fajr, f . morning, dawn of day ; 
 
 early, a 
 1^*^ jidwky devoted, loyal subject or 
 
 slave, a 
 \JL^s\Ji fa/rdghat^i. comfort, leisure, a 
 U^ \^y*\^ fardmosJi-Tc. to forget, p h 
 
 »-::-v,tf;i fur sat, f. opportunity, a 
 jjo^ far%-h. to grant, assume, a 
 IjI^ farmdndf a. to order, say, 
 
 speak, p 
 4^Uy9 farydd, f. complaint, j? 
 i_f jL>y faryddk, a. complainant, 
 
 plaintiff. ^ 
 c_-^y /ar^, fraud, a trick, p 
 tiLui fasdd, m. depravity, violence, a 
 J-aJ/asZ, f. time, season, harvest, a 
 J-iii fazl, bounty, munificence, a 
 laiii faTcat, merely, only, no more, a 
 j^ faUr, m. a beggar, dervise ; poor, 
 
 indigent, a 
 ^ fihr, m. f. thought, reflection, a 
 \ji3 fuldnd oxfuldna, a certain one. a 
 — ^ fauj, f. army, a multitude, a 
 \jij5 fauran, quickly, instantly, a 
 ^ fi, in (used in Ar. phrases, as, 
 fi,l-wdU, in truth ; Ji,l-faur, in- 
 stantly; fi,l-haU]cat, of a verity), a 
 
 Jjljf MUl, fit, worthy, a 
 
 ^^ Mzi, m. a judge, a 
 
 Li^^ii Mmaf, f. bulk, height, size, a 
 
 ^U Mni', contented, frugal, a 
 
 iUiJ kahza, m. grasp, possession, a 
 
 J^* ^aJ4?, m. consent; Jcabiil-kj to 
 
 agree, accept, a 
 ^ hatl, m. slaughter, killing, a 
 jJ> i^a(?^, m. stature, size, a 
 jjkjj ^atfr, f. worth, price, a 
 
*«3J 
 
 (29) 
 
 if 
 
 m6^ hadam, m. foot, footstep, a 
 *j jj Icadim, ancient, old. a 
 j\Ji Tcardr, confirmation, rest, a 
 f^Ji ha/rZy m. a loan ; Tcjvn dend, to 
 
 lend, a 
 jfMjj hasam, f. an oath; Tcism, kind, 
 
 species, a 
 jy^ kusur, m. want, fault, a 
 i^ Tcissa, m. a story, a 
 Lij ha%d, m. decree, a 
 jLaJJ ha%%dh, m. a robber; (hence 
 
 ^KLai ha%dhdr, by chance, a p 
 JLy^ Tca%iya, m. a quarrel, a 
 ajkis hatra, m. a drop, a 
 <uli M'«5, m. a fort, palace, a 
 u:^.cliJ5 >?;ma '«#, f. contentment, a 
 Jy teZ, m. a statement, a word, a 
 l::^^IJ liydmat, f. the general resur- 
 rection; calamity, a 
 Jui ^««^, f. fetter, imprisonment, a 
 kJ J^zTwa^, f. price, value, a 
 
 jI^ ^a^«5, m. a writer, a 
 LjI^ Mtnd, a. to cut. « 
 J^ Mr, m. use, business, service, 
 
 work, deed, p 
 ^^ J^ Jcdr-chohi, embroidered 
 ** cloth, p 
 X>jl^ Jcdriffar, skilful; a cunning 
 
 workman, 
 juil^ Jcd^M, m. paper, a scrap of 
 
 paper, p 
 
 ji\^ hdjir, m infidel, a 
 Jl^ Ml, m. time. » 
 aI^ ^(fw, m. business, action, use; 
 
 desire; ham and, to be useful, of 
 
 service, s p 
 (JU/«l^ hdmrdni, f. happiness, p 
 ^ Mn, m. the ear. s 
 ^j l^ Mmpnd,m. to tremble, to shiver. « 
 UjuI^ Mndhd, m. the shoulder, s 
 ^l^ Icdnlch, the armpit. A 
 ff!y^ ^ MnhMhja, the city of Kanoj. « 
 ^l^ Myath, m. name of a caste of 
 
 Hindus ; a scribe, a copyist. « 
 t-^ /;aJ, when ? « 
 ^^-»^ ^flfii, m. a poet. ^ 
 
 ^^ kahhic, ever, some time or other ; 
 
 hahhii-Tcabhu, occasionally ; ^^^ 
 
 hahU, same as habhu. s 
 \j^ kaprd, m. cloth, clothes. 8 
 dJ>^ ^ajpii^, unfilial. s 
 l:;^ Tcuttd, m. a dog. « 
 <«-jI::^ Mai, f. a book, writing, d 
 l:c>^ Utnd, how much ? how many ? » 
 J\^ kutwdl, an officer of police, s 
 lSjJ^ katori, f. a small metal cup. h 
 ,.^ kuchh, any, some, something, a 
 
 little ; kachhu, any, the least. Ji 
 \^^ kachcJihii^ a, m. a tortoise, s 
 uJ c5^ ^/ra^ Una or ^iVa^ mfl!?^y• 
 
 t^dwa, to get on hire, to borrow, h 
 ^Ji Krishn, the god Krishna. 8 
 \j^ karnd, a. to do, to place, i 
 2fJ^ krodJi, angry, wroth. * 
 
i^J^ 
 
 (30 ) 
 
 > 
 
 ^jtS iis, inflection of kaun, who? 
 
 frequently joined to the following 
 
 word, as kis-tarah, how ? his-wdste 
 
 or -liye, why ? h 
 jjUm^ Tcisdn, m. a peasant, farmer, h 
 j^-o**^ ^a«M, a prostitute, courtesan, a 
 Luu^ hasndj a. to draw, cover. A 
 ^juw^ or jAAA^ Awi or kis-kf inflection 
 " oikojk or kucJihy some, certain, any. h 
 \j:^J1j^ kisht, m. f. a sown field, p 
 fJ^jM^ kisMi, f. a boat, ship, p 
 J^ kal, to morrow, yesterday, s 
 aK Z^Zdw, m. a word, speech, a 
 d-Jilli kaldwant, m. a minstrel, 
 
 musician, h 
 JL^^ ^a%*«, m. the liver ; courage, h 
 
 4 kam, deficient, less, little, rarely ; 
 (used in composition : as kam-haMit, 
 ill-starred; a rascal), p 
 JU^ kamdl, m. perfection, excel- 
 lence; (used adjectively, as: ex- 
 treme, the utmost, etc.) a 
 j\^kamdnd, a. to earn one's living, h 
 \j^ kamard (camera), m. a room, 
 
 chamber. (Port.) 
 <^j^ kamina, base, mean fellow, p 
 iij\:^ kindra, m. shore, side, limit, p 
 ^fS^ kunji, f. a key. 8 
 JL^ kund, m. a cistern, basin. « 
 Jlxi^ kangdly poor, wretched. A. 
 ,j^ kane, near, beside, h 
 \^ kauwd, m. a crow ; M,f{, a well, 
 a draw-well, a pit. 8 
 
 i\jt^ kotdh, short; kotdh-k. to hold 
 
 back, to refrain, p 
 i^li^ kotdh'i, smallness, deficiency.^ 
 Jly^ kotwdl, m. the chief officer of 
 
 police. 
 cfj4^ ^othri, f. a room. 8 
 ^^ kkch, departure, p 
 ij^^ kucha, m. a lane, a street, p 
 \j^ kord, m. a whip, a lash ; hitrd, 
 
 rubbish, h 
 ^S komalf soft, weak. 8 
 ^^ kaun, who ? which ? what ? h 
 \j^ kond, m. a comer. 8 
 uf^^ kdndi, f. a mortar, h 
 LJj^ kaunsd, what-like? of what 
 
 sort ? h 
 S^ koh, a mountain, p 
 ^^ koX any, «ome one j 'artic.) a 
 ' or an, a certain (person, etc.). * 
 d^ hi, that, thus, as follows: (some- 
 times a relative, who ? wnich ?) ^ 
 l^ kahd, m. bidding, order; kahd- 
 
 sunk, f. altercation. 8 
 Jl^ khdl, f. skin, hide. 8 
 ^\^ kahdn, where? whither? h 
 \j\^ khdnd, a. to eat, suffer ; m. food, 
 
 dinner. « 
 CU>jl^ kahdwat, f. a byword, a 
 
 saying. « 
 UiLsr khujldnd, a. to tickle, to rub. $ 
 \i> ^ kharahd, m. a hare. 8 
 \j^ khard, erect, standing, h 
 ^Sj4 ^J^ifki, f. a window, h 
 
J^r 
 
 ( 31 ) 
 
 big^ Ihulnd, n. to be opened, to be 
 revealed; to clear up after rain. » 
 
 \A^ hhildnd, a. to give to eat, to 
 feed. 8 
 
 Ij^ J^ khil-Tchildnd, n. to laugh. A. 
 
 Ll^ khilnd, n. to blow (a flower), h 
 
 li^^ hahnd, a. to tell, say, bid, call, 
 
 affirm. 8 
 IjJi^ Ichodnd, a. to dig. A 
 
 UJ^ hholnd, a. to open, untie, let 
 
 loose. « 
 l}j^ khond, a. to lose, to waste. 8 
 L2>%.*£$i' ^A^^, m. a fleld. « 
 (^:u^ M(9^^, f. husbandry, crop. « 
 J-^i khel, m. play, game, sport. 8 
 LL^ kheind, n. to play, to sport. « 
 ^j-^ kaUn, somewhere, anywhere, 
 
 somewhat, s 
 Ur^U^ khenchnd or khainchnd, a. to 
 
 delineate, draw. A 
 ^^^ ka,i or ^fl5,e, some, a few. A 
 
 L^ fy<f, (pro.) what? how? why? 
 
 whether (or not) ; kyd MAJ, how 
 
 glorious ! what fan ! 8 
 l-^ Uyd, done, a deed ; (past part, of 
 
 karnd, to do, make.) « 
 Lu-^ kaisd, how? in what manner? 
 
 of what sort ? what like ? A 
 i^L-y^kJ, kaijiyat, f. nature, state, con- 
 dition, pleasure, a 
 ^y^ kyun, kyaun, why? how? well? 
 
 what ? kyiin ki, because j kyiin-kar, 
 
 how? A 
 
 
 i^j\^ gdri, f. a chariot, cart. A 
 
 jjlf ^a?i, f. abuse. 8 
 
 li Is ^awa, a. to sing. « 
 
 ^ If ydnth, a knot ; gdnth-kd piirdf 
 very rich. A 
 
 y l^ gdnw, m. a village. « 
 
 J IT ^az^, f. a cow. p 
 
 L-,^ (w-^ y«^ 8hap, chit-chat, con- 
 versation. A 
 
 <J|^ yujardti, belonging toGujerat. A 
 
 [ib^y^ yadhd, m. an ass, (metaph.) a 
 fool. 8 
 
 bjjk^ gudaryd, a shepherd. A 
 
 J^ljki^^wzara, m. passing, p 
 
 \'Ajd^ guzardnnd, a. to forward, p 
 
 \ij ^ gmarnd, n. to pass; dar-guza/rndy 
 to refrain, to forbear, p 
 
 ^ gur, m. a preceptor. « 
 
 <^ gard, f. dust (Scottice, ' stour.') p 
 
 d^ gird, (prep.) around, p 
 
 <— ;1j^ gtrddh, m. a gulph, whirl- 
 pool. ^ 
 
 jj J^ gardan, f. the neck. ^ 
 J l:^^ giriftdr, captive, p 
 
 Ul^ girdnd, a. to cause to fall, to 
 throw down. A 
 
 (♦^ ^«trw, hot ; garmi, f. heat, hot 
 season, p 
 
 \j^ girnd, n. to fall, to drop down. A 
 
 n^ji guroh, m. a troop, a class, p 
 
 IjJ^ garnd, n. to be buried, t 
 
S'J 
 
 (32) 
 
 H 
 
 i^ garh, m. a fortress, palace, h 
 
 ^Siii guftgii, conversation, p 
 
 JS gulf m. a rose ; gul-karnd, to ex- 
 tinguish, p 
 
 ^ gala, m. a flock of sheep, a herd 
 of cattle, p, the neck. A 
 
 c-^K^ guldh, m. a rose. ^ 
 
 i^ galla, m. a flock. ^ 
 
 ^i^ ^a/i, f. a lane. A 
 
 A^ ^ww, lost. ^ 
 
 U^ fj\A^ gumdn harndf a. to imagine, 
 fancy, opine. ^ A 
 
 ^ gun, m. skill ; ^Mwi, skilful. « 
 
 i^LS gundh, m. fault, crime, sin. ^ 
 
 ljL^ii^^ww^Ae/;aw<f, a. to cause to be 
 
 fixed (as a string). 8 
 \y^ ganwdr, m. a villager, a peasant. A 
 
 i\^ gawdh, a witness; gawdhi, evi- 
 dence, testimony, p 
 
 Jb *^ Gopdlf one of the names of 
 Krishna. « 
 
 j(^ ^or, m. the grave, tomb, p 
 
 L::^Jii^ gosht, m. flesh, p 
 
 iJiiS gosha, m. a comer. ^ 
 
 ^f golch, m. a portico. A 
 
 ^^^ gol, or golsd, round. « 
 
 Ujj^ gungd, mute, dumb. A 
 
 l> »f ^oy<£, as if, as one would say. p 
 
 cl:\^ ghat, an ambush. A 
 
 l1:\^ ghdt, m. a landing-place. « 
 
 ^ U-^ ghahrdnd, n. to be confused, 
 perplexed. A 
 
 4»ji»j lil^ ghatd-iop, m. a canopy, 
 covering. A 
 
 j^ ghar, m. house, dwelling. « 
 ij\j^ ghardna, m. house, family. « 
 l^^Aarti, m. ajar, pitcher. « 
 ^5J^ yAfl^i, f. an hour ; a watch. « 
 [:>jjj^ ghisnd, n. to be worn ; ghttmd, 
 
 to enter. A 
 i^lfli^ ghantdli, f. a small bell. « 
 ^^f^ ghungrd, m. a small bell. « 
 U^f5 ghord, m. a horse. « 
 U %^ gholnd, a. to dissolve, to pound. » 
 ^^ gM, m, clarified butter. « 
 LS ^flfya, gone (past part, of Jdnd). A 
 ^y^ gail, f. a road. A 
 li-i^ gaind, m. a small bullock. A 
 1^:*-^^ ^ami, f. a small chariot. A 
 ^V)^.^ ^^AAw, m. wheat. « 
 
 C^S ^a^, f. a kick. A 
 cL;!' Idt, f. trunk of a tree. A 
 jjlj^ Id-fdni, unequalled, unrivalled, a 
 J ?4/, m. shame. 8 
 L^\^'i Id-jawdh, silent, silenced, a 
 jl>-i Id-chdr, helpless, destitute, p. 
 J-tfU-^ Id-hdsil, useless, without 
 
 result, a 
 \jiSI Iddnd, a. to load, to embark. A 
 j^ ji Ldr Kapiir, two celebrated 
 
 minstrels at the court of Akbar. A 
 >^^ Idzim, necessary, urgent, a 
 ^)l Idlch, one hundred thousand. A 
 '% Idldf m. master, sir. A 
 ^"i Idlach, m. avarice, desire. » 
 
J^ 
 
 (33) 
 
 JU 
 
 ^^fi Idkhi, covetous, greedy. 8 
 oil land, a. to bring; to breed, pro- 
 duce, make. 9 
 Jj"^ IdjiTc, worthy, befitting, perfect, a 
 LIL! Itpafnd, n. to cling, to stick to. h 
 ufLJ lapetnd, a. to wrap up. h 
 Ijuill latlcdnd, a. to suspend, h 
 
 \j\J 
 
 lajdndy n. to be ashamed. « 
 
 l;:^^ la^'it, ashamed. « 
 o jJ ladnd, n. to be loaded, to ride. Ji 
 Jo jj Zaz2z, delicate, delicious, a 
 i^!j|J /«rff,i, f. battle, quarrel, war. h 
 l^ la/rkd, m. a boy, child, babe. « 
 IjJfJ Z^jrwci, n. to fight, to quarrel, s 
 liUjfJ lurhdnd, a. to spill, upset. « 
 UijfejJ lurhaJcnd, n. to be spilt, 
 
 upset 5 
 yluJ lashhar, m. an army. ^ 
 ujy /wi(/, m. pleasure, enjoyment, a 
 c:-^iJ«l Wnat, a curse. « 
 w^JU Zflt^ai, m. a surname, a 
 jjUiL) Luhmdn, name of a famous 
 
 Eastern fabulist, a 
 uJU lukmd, m. a morsel, mouthful, a 
 tj^J^ MH, f. wood, a staff, stick, h 
 L^ lilchnd, a. to write. « 
 \jlj^ lihhwdnd, a. to cause to be 
 
 written. « 
 /♦uJ lagdm, bridle, bit. « 
 Ij'uJ lagdnd, a. to attach, to apply. « 
 LxJ lagnd, n. to touch ; to begin j to 
 
 reach or come up to. « 
 UljxJ lagwdndf a. to cause to be 
 
 applied. < 
 
 uJ ?<mJ<l, long, tall, g 
 J^ langrd, lame. _^ A 
 LJ^ ^M^«a, a. to rob, plunder : lotna^ 
 
 to roll on the ground. 8 
 l^j! lukd, m. spark, flame. « 
 cL5^ %, m. people, s 
 iSy*y^ lomri, f. a fox. « 
 t^ijjl laundi, f. a slave. A 
 ^j! M^, blood. 
 Ifc^ /oA(f, m. iron. « 
 LL] ^^^wd, n. to repose, to lie down, h 
 IjUciJ lej'dnd, a. to take away, to 
 
 carry off. s 
 ^^^ leMn, (conj.) but, yet, however, a 
 1^0 lekhd, m. account, reckoning, s 
 l15v$^ lekhak, m. a writer, one who 
 
 is writing. 8 
 Lj LJ lild-pild, blue and yellow; 
 
 (applied to the appearance of the 
 
 eyes of a person enraged). 8 
 LJ lend, to take, accept ; set ; buy. « 
 ^jJ^ liye, for the sake of ^ 
 
 t« md, f. a mother ; md-ldp, parents. « 
 i^U mdjard, m. state, circumstance, 
 
 incident, a 
 U^JjU mdr-ddlnd, a. to smite, to kill.* 
 <.^t* »idry, m. a road, path. « 
 l3jt« mdrnd, a. to smite, strike. « 
 ^t« wdr^, by reason of, in conse 
 
 quence of. « 
 
 JU md^, m. property, wealth, goodi. a 
 
 17 
 
(34 ) 
 
 Jt« ma,dl, end, issue, a 
 tldU mdlik, m. master, lord, pos- 
 sessor, a [tressed, p 
 irjjU mdnda, left behind, tired, dis- 
 L&U mdngnd, a. to ask for, to beg. s 
 lijU mdnnd, a. to believe, obey, agree 
 
 to. 8 
 ^{^ md,i, f. mother. « 
 cl^L^ wwJdra/;, good, auspicious; 
 
 muhdrak-hddi, congratulation, a 
 ^^L"^ and l::^ mat and ma^a, f. mind, 
 
 judgment. « 
 v,^:-^ ma^, don't (used with iraperat.) h 
 cl:;^^ matd\ m. goods, property, a 
 j:^ mitr, a friend. « 
 (^Juai^ mufasaddi, an accountant, a 
 l-^.^js*^^ muta'ajjih, astonished, a 
 \j^ Mathurd, name of a province 
 
 and town near Agra. « 
 (j*i\^ mithds, sweetness, h 
 jJIL* mitM,i, f. sweetness, sweets, h 
 (^^ ww^Ai, f. the fist, a handful. # 
 ^-i< mitti, f. earth, dust. « 
 Jl^ wfl!«aZ, f . a fable, simile, proverb, a 
 ^_^^J-sr* majUSf f. an assembly, con- 
 vention, a 
 liU:'* machdnd, a. to make, stir up, 
 
 commit. A 
 ^jls'* muhdwara, m. idiom, usage, a 
 —liLs:'^ muhtdj, necessitous, needy, a 
 j\j (*jS-^ mahram-i rdz, privy to 
 
 secrets, a confidant, a p 
 ^^jsr^ tnahrUm, disappointed, ex- 
 cluded, a 
 
 «Jy4^s'* Mdhmud, a man's name, a 
 c^u.s'* mihnat, f. labour, misfor* 
 tune, a [ous, a 
 
 <UJcLs^ muTdUalifa, different, vari- 
 ^J>^^ majdifi, hidden, a 
 ^^jA^ maMiUsi, f. escape, deliver- 
 ance, a 
 LU^y^ muddat, f. a space of time, a 
 
 long time, a 
 JiX^ madad, f. aid, help; madad-ffdr, 
 
 a helper, auxiliary, a 
 Ujc^ mudd^d, m. desire, wish, a 
 ^iX^ mudda'i, m. a plaintiff, claim- 
 ant, a [grees. a 
 l---JU^ mardtib, m. (pi.) steps, de- 
 S\j^ murdd, f. desire, meaning, infer- 
 ence, a 
 <tJ^ martaba, m. a step, degree, 
 dignity, office, time; elc martaba, 
 once upon a time, a 
 /♦^>y.^ marhiim, deceased, the late, a 
 J^ mard, m. a male, a man, a hero ; 
 
 marddna-wdr, like a man. p 
 j\^j^ murddr, a dead body, p 
 St^j^ mv/rda, dead, a dead body, p 
 ^^j^ marzl, f. wish, inclination, p 
 4 j^ murgh, m. a fowl, bird, p 
 \ij^ marnd, n. to die, to expire; mar- 
 
 j'dnd, to die, expire. « 
 CJj^ murawwat, generosity. 
 — |j^ mtzdj, m. temperament, disposi- 
 tion, a 
 js\mj^ musdf/r, m. a traveller, a 
 ^Jcmj^ musta^rtk, immersed, ab- 
 sorbed, a 
 
(35) 
 
 \l^ 
 
 fjjiMj^ mastU, m. a mast, a 
 jJU«/« maati, f. intoxication, p 
 iiisf*^ masjid, f. a mosque, a 
 XjSif**^ masMiara, a jester, a 
 \j\J>Mj^ mushurdnd, n. to smile. Ji 
 ^UJuju^ Musalmdn, a Muhammadan, 
 
 a follower of Muhammad, a 
 CSJ^ mashh, f. a leathern bag for 
 
 water, p 
 iUjyL^ mashwarat, f. consultation, a 
 j^JL^ mash^hiir, noted, well-known, a 
 ^_,^%*-L2.^ musdhib, m. a companion, 
 
 friend, aide-de-camp, a 
 jy^^ mttsauwir, m. a painter, a 
 L::>w.»ga^ muslbat, f. calamity, afflic- 
 tion, a 
 Jp^jma^ wazJA^i, f. solidity, firm- 
 ness. « 
 J^lL/« mutdhik (prep.) conformable 
 
 to. a 
 c-->ii2^ matlah, m. a question, pur- 
 pose, meaning, a 
 «Jix^ muttaW, acquainted, in- 
 formed, a 
 ^jlL^ mutldk, in the least, at all. 
 ,^l>.jilx^ Mumjffvr-Midn, a man's 
 
 name. a. 
 ^^Ux^ mazliim, injured, oppressed; 
 mazl{im-nawdz, a cherisher of the 
 oppressed, ap 
 \xyt ma'an, together, a 
 uJU^ mu^df, absolved, forgiven, 
 excused ; mu^df-harnd, to forgive, a 
 j^i<x^ md^zjir^ excused, excusable, a 
 Jax^ mu^aUar, scented, perfumed, a 
 
 Ax./t mu^alUm, m. a teacher, doctor, a 
 aJjc^ ma^h'im, known, apparent; 
 
 ma^libm-h. to seem, to appear, a 
 U.*^ mu^ammd, m. an enigma^ an 
 
 acrostic, 
 t-ju-jt^ ma^yiib, blameable, disre- 
 putable, a 
 jyf^* maghriir, proud, fastidious, a 
 jt^ ma gh %, m. brain, p 
 Ln^^ muft, free, gratis, p 
 ^jSsu4 muflis, poor, wretched, a 
 j^Auii^ muflisi, f. poverty, a 
 uX-i^ mufid, profitable, usefal. a 
 J-«liU mukdhil, opposite. « 
 ^liU mahdm, m. place, occasion, a 
 jjL* muharrar, assuredly, a 
 jjlL« mahdn, m. a place, dwelling, a 
 .^^ muhh, m. mouth, s 
 ^_j^^ makkU, a fly. A 
 
 jX< magar, but, except. « 
 
 l*jl^ muldzim, an attendant, a 
 
 CjliiU muldkdt, f. meeting, inter- 
 view, a 
 
 <JJsL« »jw?^, m. a country, kingdom ; 
 malik, a king; (pi. Ar.) muliik, 
 kings, a 
 
 liL# maind, a. to rub, to tread on, to 
 anoint, h 
 
 uL< milnd, a. to be found, to meet s 
 
 ijC*^ mumkin, possible, a 
 
 ^ man, m. the mind, soul, s ; name 
 of a certain weight, a maund. p 
 
 ^^JU.^ 77i<7nd<^i, f. proclamation, a 
 
(36 ) 
 
 t^U 
 
 *:i?UicL^ muntakhahdt, selections, 
 
 extracts, a 
 \JCw^ mundd, open, exposed, h 
 
 }%^ssi^ manjholi, f. a small chariot, h 
 ^Jl*:^ manish, f. dignity, rank, p 
 iJuS^t manush, a person. ■<•. 
 ^It.^ mantih, m. logic, a 
 
 ■ftViv^^ mantihi, m. logician, a 
 «lJ.-^ maw', m. prohibition, a 
 \i\S>u^ mangwdnd, a. to cause to be 
 
 brought, h 
 -^i^ munh, m. the mouth, face ; munh- 
 
 %or, headstrong, obstinate, s 
 yt mil, a hair, p 
 
 \y w?t,<f,dead, (past part, oimarnd). 8 
 ^\y* muwdfik, conformable to. a 
 CJa^ maut, death, a 
 
 Jy fnoti, m. a pearl, s 
 15 •^ moid, gross, coarse, h 
 c^^s5>-4^ wA/VJ, cause, means, a 
 ^^y mocM, m. a cobbler ; saddler, h 
 ijy miirh, m. a fool. « 
 *^y« mamim or mausam, m. time, 
 
 season, a 
 
 7^ uV* ^^«A-^^^j a kind of hawk 
 
 which feeds on mice, p 
 t_3 J */« mauhiif, depending on ; mauhiif- 
 
 k., to conclude, to stop, a 
 Ay» mol, m. price ; mol-lend, to buy. h 
 A*y mom, wax ; mom-jdma, cloth 
 
 covered with wax, oil-cloth. 
 Jja^ mom-dil, soft-hearted, p 
 \jbSjy tniindhd, m. a footstool, h 
 
 IjL^ mahdhalk, powerful. « 
 ^5»-l^^ mahdjan, a rich merchant, a 
 J^il^ mahddol, a large sedan. A 
 ^Ul^^ mdhdrdj, great king ! sir ! sire! « 
 CL^X^ mahdrat, f. proficiency, skill, a 
 ijY* wiwAra, m. the thigh bone, p 
 IX^^ mahngd, dear, high-priced. 
 ^S^r^ waAw^i or mahnagk, f. dearth, 
 
 scarcity. 
 <u-^^ mahina, m. a month. ;o 
 (^L^ miydn, a master, gentleman. ^ 
 JGU^ miydna, m. a palkf. j!? 
 -«^ wir, m. a chief, a leader, p 
 \j^ mird, lord, heir, p 
 JLsTj^ mir haldisM, m. the pay 
 master-general, p 
 \\rf^ mirzd, a noble, grandee, p 
 y^ mez, f. a table, p 
 yM^ ^ muyassar, a. attained, attain- 
 able, a 
 \^ maild, a. dirty, defiled ; meld, a 
 fair; meld theld, m. a crowd of 
 people. 8 
 M^*^ menh, m. rain, rainy season. « 
 
 -J.&-I3 wd-cAi2, worthless, useless, p 
 l^^l) nd-Tdmsh, displeased, p 
 ^^^l3 nd-khmhi, f. displeasure. ^ 
 ^^jI) Wfi-(?a/j, a. ignorant, simple, p 
 tj,\^\j nd-ddni, f. ignorance, p 
 l^l3 wa'^a, m. a kne, avenue. A 
 
t^li 
 
 (37 ; 
 
 u'^ 
 
 * )^\j ndffourd, m. a kind of bullock 
 
 (of the country N'agaur). h 
 ^J^^ nd-gahdn, suddenly, unex- 
 pectedly, p 
 ,^\j ndldn, coraplaining, lamenting.^ 
 jjiJl) ndlish, f. complaint, lamenta- 
 tion, p 
 
 -xLil) ndlisU, complaining, a com- 
 plainant, p 
 , J31j ndlU, f. a sort of sedan for 
 
 princes, etc. h 
 <idlj ndla, m. weeping, lamentation.^ 
 Mt\j ndm, m. name, fame, reputation. » 
 (1;^=^^ nd-maJiram, unprivileged, ap- 
 plied to such males as are not 
 entitled to visit the harem, a 
 J^li nd-mard, unmanly, a coward, p 
 lS'^j^^ nd-mardi, f. unmanliuess. p 
 ^^Lf/«lj nd-mumhin, impossible, p a 
 (jwy^lj ndmiis, m. f. honour, dignity, 
 
 the female part of a family, a 
 ylj ndnWy m. name. « 
 ^U ndw, f. a ship, p 
 
 )\j nd,ih, m. a deputy, a. 
 
 m. representation. 
 
 statement. « 
 
 l.S>J w^fltp, very, exceedingly, h 
 
 A^sT w<j;'iM or nujiim, astrology, (lit., 
 stars), a 
 
 (j:.^^r<^najih, noble; naj'ib-zdda, noble - 
 bom, a gentleman; najib-zddi, 
 daughter of a noble, a 
 
 v:i.-v«\jJ naddmaifi. repentance, con- 
 trition, regret, a 
 
 ^IjJ niddn. at length, at last. « 
 
 ^SJ nadi or nadd'i, f. a river. « 
 ^^L) we'ras, hopeless, despair. « 
 ^y nirdld, apart, aside. « 
 Jy nir-uttar, without an answer. « 
 lIX'JJJ' nazd'ilc, (prep.) near; used 
 idiomatically like the Latin apudf 
 as ddnd,on-ke nazdiJc, apud 
 sapientes,' 'in the opinion of the 
 wise.' p 
 luJ nashd, f. intoxication, a 
 fJ^ U*a} msfd-nisfi, by halves; 
 ** with karnd, to divide into two 
 
 equal shares, p 
 ij:^'js^*aj nasihat, f. advice, admo- 
 nition ; nasihat-d. or -1c., to counsel, 
 instruct, reprove, a 
 UUaJ nmdrd, m. sight, looking, a 
 
 Jaj nazar, f. sight; nazar-dnd or 
 
 -pahunchnd, to come in sight, a 
 Li--v4jc5 nVmat, f. favour, benefit, 
 delight, aflB.uence. nVmat-Tchwdr, 
 a devourer of delights, a man of 
 pleasure, a ' bon vivant.' a 
 {jM^ nafis, precious, delicate, ex- 
 quisite, a 
 ^ .ij nafrin, f. regret, detestation, p 
 i^-iliij nakkdsMff. painting; nakhdshi- 
 
 ddr, painted, having paintings, a 
 iSJiJ naM, m. ready money, a 
 jjiiLftJ nahJi, m. painting, picture, 
 map, portrait; nahsh-i diwdr, a 
 painting on a wall, a 
 fjosJ nah, m. defect, failure, a 
 j^LaiiJ nuksdn, m. loss, defect, detri- 
 ment, a 
 
L^ 
 
 ( 38) 
 
 Ja, 
 
 Ji3 naW, f. a history, tale, a 
 
 uJl^ niMlnd, a. to extract, to take 
 
 out. 8 
 liKj nikdlnd, n. to issue, to result. « 
 \SS'i nikat, near, before, h 
 Uio nihammd, useless, worthless. « 
 JLijli nigdUdnk, f. watching oyer, 
 protecting. ^ 
 
 Xi na^ar, m. a city, a town. 
 ^ nUajj, shameless. « 
 jUJ n«wrf2, f. prayer, p 
 j\^y^ namMdr, apparent, p 
 ij JjJ nandold, m. a trough, an earthen 
 vessel. 8 
 
 l^ii nangd, naked, bare, h 
 y nau, new, fresh ; nau-jmodn, quite 
 young, i? 
 
 t_^l J nauwdh, a viceroy. A 
 
 Lii^y naubat, f. time, occasion. « 
 
 j^ niir, light, a 
 
 ^y naukar, m. servant, attendant. ^ 
 
 ^♦y -♦y naum-taum, sing-song, stuff. A 
 
 Ujj^y nma-yauland, quite young. « 
 
 <0 w», no, not. « 
 
 J\y m'^a?, a young plant, a shoot, j?. 
 pleased, exalted, h 
 
 <.:u^ly nihdyat, f. the extremity; 
 (ad.) very, much, excessive, a 
 
 ^^j^ nahih, no, not, nay. « 
 
 ••ii-oLj niydhat, f. deputyship. <? 
 
 ^snJ wi<?Ad, beneath, close under, h 
 
 ^^ nesh, m. stin^ (of a bee, etc.)^ 
 
 iIXj nek, good, virtuous ; nek-haJcht 
 of good disposition; nek-andeshi, 
 good intention, ji? 
 
 ^JLj neki, f. goodness, kindness. ^ 
 
 •yj »tfA, love, affection. « 
 
 jwaoro (conj.), and, but. a p 
 U^- liJ J u**il? wdpas- d. or /;., a. to 
 
 return, give back, h p 
 ^-.-o-lj wdjih, right, proper, a 
 Jjlj w?an<?, arrived; wdrid-h., to 
 
 arrive, a 
 |ia«jlj MJfisif^, (prep.) on account of, 
 ** for the sake of; because, a 
 laclj todfiz, m. a preacher, a 
 ^^^j wdki'i, verily, in truth, a 
 t-jiiij M?a^«/, aware, acquainted, a 
 
 ^Ij w?a?a, a termination added to the 
 
 inflected infinitive denotes the 
 
 agent ; added to nouns it denotes 
 
 the owner, wearer, etc. h 
 jjj^ wazir, a minister, counsellor; 
 
 wazlr-zddi, the daughter of a 
 
 wazir. a 
 <d^j wasila, m. means, a 
 licj wa'z, m. a discourse, sermon, a 
 y^j wa-ghavr(i, et cetera, and so 
 
 forth, a 
 ^^Ju>^ wasf, m. praise, encomium, 
 
 virtue, worth, a 
 
 jjl?^ wafan, m. native country, home, 
 abode, a 
 
oo^ 
 
 (39 ) 
 
 t^ 
 
 iJk^j wa^dttf m. a promise, a 
 
 \ij wafdy f. performing a promise, 
 
 sincerity, fidelity, a 
 c:--%j>^ wakt, m. time, season, oppor- 
 tunity, a 
 ^^ winy inflec. plur. of wvh, he, 
 
 she, etc. h 
 \p^^^ wonMn, that instant, h 
 ^ tt'wA, (pro.) he, she, that, it. h 
 j^U, wahdn, there, thither, yonder, h 
 ^^ wahi or m^mAJ, (pro.) he himself, 
 
 that very (person or thing). A 
 ^H«^j wuhkn, immediately h 
 (jTj w^^, they, those ; pi. of wuh. h 
 luuj J waUd, in that manner, so, like 
 that, such as that. A. 
 
 ^flto hdth, m. the hand, a cubit. < 
 
 j^lto Acf^Ai, m. an elephant. « 
 
 t3l& A<£(, f. a market. A 
 
 j^U^U hdr-mdn, despairing, helpless. 
 
 j^U Aaw, yes, even so. A 
 
 ^JuLj hdndi, f. a pot. 
 
 ^U hd,e, alas! M,e-k., to groan, 
 sigh. A 
 
 l:X)U hdnknd, to drive away. A 
 
 •iJb A^'^u, m. a Mend. 8 
 
 •L^-iiA hathydrt m. a weapon, offen- 
 sive armour. 8 
 
 ^jLsA hachlcold, m. jolt, jolting. A 
 
 j_^ JUb haddk, f. a hone. « 
 
 ^ Aar, each, every. ^ 
 
 \jib hard, a. green, fresh, verdant, s 
 ul5o^ Jb Aare^, (pro.) every one. p h 
 JJo-yj> harchand, how much soever, 
 howsoever, although, p 
 
 Jjj Jb har-roz (ad.) every day. ^ 
 liy& hargtz, (ad.) ever. 
 jo;Ji> Aw*a«, m. a stag, a deer. » 
 
 jVjH) hazdr, a thousand, p 
 (U& Aaz?, m. jest, joke, a 
 
 jUuJb hushydr (same as hoshydr), 
 
 careful. j9 
 ^LxLfc hushydri, f. wakefulness, 
 
 vigilance. ^ 
 lJj]}^ ^ -^-g-^ haft-hazdri, a com- 
 mander of seven thousand. j5 
 ci^lib haldkat, f. ruin, destruction, jj 
 Ulfc hildnd, a. to move, set in motion. A 
 \iiJi> A«7«a, n. to move or be moved. /» 
 U3ji> AaZ^fi, light, not heavy. A 
 AJb Aam, we ; plu. of main. 8. 
 ^.JL'^A^ himmatf f. mind, ardour, 
 
 energy, a 
 aJ& haniy a particle denoting * to- 
 gether,' used in composition, as 
 jjy>- aJ& ham-Joli, a companion. ^ 
 /♦Jc^Ji) ham-dam, m. a friend, com- 
 panion, p 
 
 jb\jAJb ham-rdM, m. a companion, 
 fellow-traveller, p 
 <ulgu.4J& ham-sdya^ m. neighbour 
 
 nighbourhood. ^ 
 jAS. j^ ham-umr, a companion, on€ 
 of the same age. p 
 
^^ 
 
 (40) 
 
 w -^ *v ^ 4^ ham-makfab, class-fellow.p | 
 
 i-iw»J& hamesha, always, ever, per- 
 petually, p 
 
 JCJb Hind, India. ^ 
 
 ^iXJn Hindis, a Hindu, one who fol- | Ij yd, (conj.) or, either. « 
 
 lows the faith of Brahmi. p ^^ y^^^ f^ memory, recoUection. p 
 
 ,.jli^« JCJb Hindiiatdn, m. India, ap i / ix.: j i 
 
 *-' -^ ' j\, t/dr, m. a mend, lover, p 
 
 jJb humr, m. art, skill, virtue: „ ,, ^ . ^ , . , 
 
 -^ , ,,.,«, ..•*&> yaAiw,m. certainty, certain, true.a 
 
 hunar-mand, skilful, p w- » • 
 
 jjb ydwar, propitious, p 
 uX> ya^, one, a, an. p 
 <ijlL> yagdna, kindred, single, incom- 
 parable, p 
 ^^ yiin or yow, thus, in this man- 
 ner, h 
 ^%-^^ yknMn, thus, even so. A 
 «^, y«%, this ; he, she, etc. h 
 j^l^^ yahdn, here, used with the 
 genitive (inflec.) to denote posses- 
 sion, etc., as mere yahdn, in my 
 possession ; apud me.' h 
 (^^ yihi, this same, h 
 ^^^^ yakin, here, in this very place, h 
 ^ yd. thoy, these, /i 
 
 hansnd, n. to smile- s 
 <t«lxx2b hangdma, m. an 
 
 tumult, assault. ^ 
 lyi> Aa«(?a, f. wind, air. a 
 ul?-jji> ho-jAnd, n. to become. A 
 jjiyb Ao«A, m. sense, consciousness, 
 
 perception, p 
 ^Ljj^ Jioshydr, intelligent, attentive, 
 
 cautious, p 
 uyb Aowa, n. to be, become, grow. « 
 ^ hi, (an emphatic particle) even, 
 
 indeed, very, h 
 ^j^ hin, even, indeed, h 
 ^J^ hin, void of, without. « 
 Lib hijfd, m. mind, Benae, h 
 
41 
 
 HINTS TO THE LEARNER. 
 
 1.— EXTEACTS IN THE PERSIAN CHARACTBR. 
 
 EXIBA.CT 1st. 
 
 %ivdn hai. Jaldi-Tcd phal naddmat 
 
 loss is. Haste-of (the) fruit regret 
 drdm-Tci Icunji hai. Mihnat-se hard,i 
 
 hai. 
 is. 
 
 hai. 
 is. 
 
 hai. 
 is. 
 
 hai 
 is 
 
 hai. 
 is. 
 
 Idleness-from 
 
 Kind' at 
 
 Contentment ease-of (the) key is. Labour-from greatness 
 
 Parhez achchi dawd hai. 'Akil-ko ishdra has 
 Abstinence good medicine is. (The) wise-to (a) hint enough 
 
 Khudd-lid Miauf ddnish-M ad hai. Gung'i zabdn bihta/r 
 God-of (the) fear wisdom-of the root is. Mute tongue better 
 
 jhiithk zahdn se. 'Ilm-M dfat Ihiil 
 
 lying tongue than. Knowledge-of (the) calamity forgetfulness 
 
 Imdf-se Tdialh-lco drdm hai. 
 
 Justice-from (the) people-to ease is. 
 
 In the same way as the above, let the student endeavour to 
 transcribe neatly into the Eoman character the first two or three 
 pages of the Extracts. Let him be careful to write every letter with 
 its appropriate mark; and, in the course of a week or two, let him 
 restore the same into the Persian character. This is one of the best 
 and speediest methods of making himself familiar with the elements 
 of the language. Let me not be misunderstood here, as if I recom- 
 mended the bare-faced quack system of the so-caUed " Hamiltonians." 
 No, what I recommend is, that ''every man should be his own 
 Hamiltonian," in which case he will be the gainer. It is utterly 
 absurd to expect that a language can be learned without labour and 
 thought on the part of the student. The Hamiltonians would persuade 
 us that it can ; but their system is a mere deception, which flatters the 
 vanity of the student with a show of progress utterly unreal, and which 
 admirably conceals the ignorance and incapacity of the teacher ; hence 
 its popularity. 
 
42 
 
 NOTES, ETC., ON THE FIRST FIFTY STOKIES IN THE 
 PERSIAN CHARACTER. 
 
 The following few notes and observations are intended to illustrate 
 Buch parts of the Reading Lessons as may appear least obvious to a 
 beginner. The figures refer to the particular page and paragraph in 
 the Grammar, in which the subject is fully explained. 
 
 N.B. In this work, the final niin ^ when it has the nasal 
 Bound (vide page 6), is marked with an extra dot over it, as in the 
 words ^^y^ main, and ^»^ tain. This should have been stated in its 
 proper place, but the author was not aware at the time those sheets 
 were sent to press that the printer had the ^ in his fount. 
 
 Extract 1. — Jaldi-hd phal, 'the fruit of rashness;' the genitive 
 placed first, 95. 64. It will be observed that these sentences are 
 arranged according to the rule, 93. 62, each sentence finishing with the 
 verb hat, 'is.' — Oungi zahdn, etc., 'a speechless tongue is better than 
 a lying tongue : ' in this sentence there are two clauses ; the verb hai is 
 expressed at the end of the first clause, and is consequently unnecessary 
 at the end of the second. 135. a. 
 
 Ex. 2. — Thordhhdnd, 'little eating;' the infinitive used substan- 
 tively, 129. a. — talab Ica/r 'ilm-ko, 'seek for knowledge' : talah karnd, a 
 nominal verb, 65, last line; here the verb, contrary to the general 
 usage, comes first. There are in this Extract a few more exceptions to 
 the general rule as to arrangement, agreeably to what we have stated. 
 93. a. 
 
 Ex. 3. — Jalne lagd, 'began to burn' — senhne lagd, 'began to warm 
 himself,' 131. c. — thathol-ne hahd, 'a jester said,' or, 'by a jester was 
 said.'— ^aZ^, 'bums,' tdpe, 'warms himself,' the aorist for the present, 
 122. h. 
 
 Ex. 4. — The sentences in this extract foUow the general rule as to 
 arrangement, which is, to commence with the nominative or agent, and 
 end with the verb, the remainder or complement of the sentence being 
 between these. — har-pd, literally, ' on foot.' — %iydda Mmrdh haih, ' an; 
 more wicked,' the comparative degree, 71. h. 
 
NOTES. 43 
 
 Ex. 5. — Bahut kdm, 'many uses;' the nominative plural of 
 
 masculinfe nouns of the second class (29), can be distinguished from 
 the singular only by the context, such as a plural verb, etc. — ba^'d,e, 
 ' in place of,' preposition requiring the genitive in ke, 98. — Mm ate 
 haih, ' become useful.' — handed jdtd hai, passive voice of landnd, 
 57^ 42. — Yide p. 47, note to ' Extracts from the Xra,ish-i Mahfil.' 
 
 Ex. 6. — Eh iint awr gadhe-se, between a camel and an ass.' — 
 safa/r da/r pesh hii,d, lit. 'a journey came in front,' i.e., 'they both 
 had occasion to travel;' — ma^l{im hotd hai, 'it appears; ' — diib-jdyungd, 
 ' I shall be drowned,' intens. verb, 64. 
 
 Ex. 7. — Jo ddnd, etc. 116. a. — le Tcahe, ' without being told,' 132.- 
 ddl-rahhtd hai, * tosses away,' intensive verb ; — hi jis-he wdste, ' on 
 whose account,' 117. c. 
 
 Ex. 8. — Eh hamkne aur hhale ddmi-se, ' between a base man and a 
 gentleman.' — hote-M, 'on becoming,' adverbial particip. 134. e. 
 
 Ex. 9. — Ek shaMs-ne, etc., ' by a certain person it was asked ox' 
 Plato;' respecting the use of the proposition w«, read carefully, 102, 
 etc. — hahut harson, 'many years,' 106. b. — hyd hyd ^ajd,ih, 'what 
 v^arious wonders,' 114. a. — dehhe, 'were seen' {tii-ne, 'by thee,' 
 understood). — yihi ^ajibba, ' this wonder merely.' 
 
 Ex. 10. — Kyd kdm did hai, 'what quality is S*.ost useful?' — ho- 
 " jdwe, ' should become.' 
 
 Ex. 11. — Chashme-pds 'to (or near) a fountain' {ke imderstood), 
 99. d. — charh na sakd, 'he was not able to descend.' — ufarne-se pahle, 
 * previous to descending.' — dekh na liyd, ' you did not thoroughly look 
 at,' intensive verb. 
 
 Ex. 12. — Sher-se kahd, 'said to the tiger;' the verbs 'to say or 
 speak' and 'to ask,' construed with the ablative, 102. b. — agar sher 
 mu^awwir hotd, ' if a tiger had been the painter,' 81. a. 
 
 Ex. 13. — Kuchh sawdl kiyd, ' asked something in charity.' — eh bdt 
 meri, ' one request of mine.' — mat mdng, ' ask not,' the negative 
 particle mat, ' don't,' used with the imperat., 123. d. — uske siwd, 
 ' with the exception of that.' 
 
 Ex. 14. — Ek-ne un-men-se, 'one of them.' — jd,iye and haithiye, 
 respectful forms of the imperative, 123. d. 
 
 Ex. 15. — Apni anguthk, 'thine own ring,' 112. — ydd karnd {tujh ko 
 understood), the infinitive used imperatively, like the Latin gerund, 
 129. a. 
 
44 KOTES. 
 
 Fjc. 16. — B*ni d,i thi, pluperfect tense, 127. d. — hij'hd de, • extm- 
 
 guish,' intenKive verb. — ^ard pard, etc., * all the time lying down, he 
 continued giving answers.' 
 
 Ex. 17. — Agar main bdzi na Jitdh, * if I do not win the game.' — 
 tir Ihar gosht, * an exact pound of flesh ; ' the ser is nearly two English 
 pounds. — tardsh-le, ' cut off.' — us-ne na-mdnd, * he did not (or would 
 not) agree.' — Jcdu-pds (for kdzi-ke pds), ' near the judge.' — ek ser-se el 
 rati %iydda, ' a single grain more than one ser. 
 
 Ex. 18. — 'Ain kiVe-ke nkche, 'close under the very palace.' — lutd 
 gayd, 'was plundered,' passive voice. — khidmat-meh, * in the presence.' — 
 '(W'z ki, * made representation,' ki, fern, of kiyd, agrees with 'arz, but 
 'arz kiyd is also used as a nominal verb. — chirdgh, etc., ' under the lamp 
 is darkness,' a proverb analogous to our own saying, * the nearer the 
 church, the farther from God.' 
 
 Ex. 19. — Anjdn hoka/r, 'as a stranger.' — kyd mujhe, etc., 'do you 
 not recognize me ?' kyd, here used as a sign of interrogation, 93. h. 
 
 Ex. 20. — Us-ke\ yahdhis here understood; mar-gay d and hdht-Tt 
 end urd-d{, all intensive verbs, 65. 44. 1. 
 
 Ex. 21. — !A.dmiyon-ko istabal-mehjdne detd, 'he allowed the people 
 to go into the stable,' 131. c. — -phirtd and kartd, continuative past 
 tenses, 124. h. — apnd kdm kar-liyd, 'gained his own object.' 
 
 Ex. 22. — Asnde rdh-meh, 'in the midst of the way.' — chirdgh 
 ghar-kd, etc., 'I did not put out the lamp of the house before I came 
 away,' literally, 'I have not come (after) having put out,' etc. — d,e ga,e, 
 
 * you have come and gone.'— Jutd na ghisd hogd, ' must not your shoes 
 have been worn ? ' 
 
 Ex. 23. — Is waktj 'at present;' ko, understood, 100. a. — honge and 
 na-deh, etc., the plural used out of respect, 118. 78.— ^b unhon-ne, etc, 
 ■ even should his worship have given the medicine.' — hdndhd-karegd 
 frequentative verb, 66. III. 1. — ma/rnd ha/r hakk hai, 'death is certain.' 
 
 Ex. 24. — Tabdh hokar, 'being in distress.' — -parhdne, 'to make read,' 
 
 * to teach;' casual form oi parhnd, 62. 43. — lete lete hi, ' even when 
 lying down;' the repetition of the conjunctive participle denotes a 
 continuation of the state, or repetition of the action, denoted by the 
 verb. — he hdth pdnw-ke hilde, ' without the mo\ang of his hands and 
 feet.' — hildydf the preterite participle, used as a substantive. 
 
NOTES. 4b 
 
 Ex.25. — Sab-Tce haw die hi 'he gave into the charge of each.' 
 kdt-ddli, 'cut olt';' the intensive oi hdtnd. 
 
 Ex. 26. — Donoh hd%{-ke pds ga,in, aur insdf ehdhd, 104. d. — eh eh 
 •one to each/ 106, c. — larhe-ho use supurd hiyd, 101, c. 
 
 Ex.27. — Chha roti-se, 'with six loaves;' the termination ow 
 denoting the plural omitted, 107. 70. — 'Wuh ddl-dene-men ddkhil hai, 
 ' that amounts to throwing it away.' 
 
 Ex. 28. — ^Arz hiyd, (a nominal verh), 'he represented;' 'arz hi is 
 also used in the same sense, vide Ex. 19. — dar-ldiwdst harnd, ' to make 
 request.' — do sawdl hejd (properly do sawdl-i-hejd), 'two improper 
 requests.' 
 
 Ex. 29. — lAhhni thin, ' were to be written,' 83. — dam hhd rahd, an 
 idiomatic expression, denoting, ' he remained quite silent,' lit., ' con- 
 tinued devouring his breath.' 
 
 Ex. 30. — Dehhne-wdle, 'the spectators,' 66. — diisre-he ghar {ho 
 understood), ' to the house of the other.' — samjhd, etc., ' he perceived 
 that it was not a screen.' — -farel hhdyd, ' were deceived,' lit., * experi- 
 enced deception.' 
 
 Ex. 31. — Sihhne-hd, etc., 'why then mention the learning of it?' — 
 itne-men, 'in the meantime.' — ha/r hdd hi, 'have cast away,' lit., 'placed 
 upon the wind.' 
 
 Ex. 32. — Dushndm di thi, pluperfect tense, 127. d. — dth dth dne, 
 etc., ' you share between you, each eight dnda ; ' observe that sixteen 
 dnds make a rvpt. 
 
 Ex. 33. — Ga/i'dan mdrnd, ' to decapitate.' — mere rii-ha-ru, ' in my 
 presence.' — marddna-wdr, ' like a man or hero.' — terd bard halija hai, 
 'thou hast great courage.' — -jawdn-ma/rdi, 'heroism' or 'courage.' — 
 dar-gu%rd, ' he passed over (or passed by) his fault.' 
 
 Ex. 34. — Eh hard saTdd, ' a very generous man,' 107. h. 
 
 Ex. 35. ^hahar harnd, the infinitive used as an imperative. 
 
 Ex. 36. Karte hiie, vide 131, 84. — wdjih-tar, Persian comparative, 
 by adding tar to the positive. 
 
 Ex. 37. Bdithd diyd, intensive of laithdnd. — la/ra, in the last line 
 means 'greater,' 'more important.' 
 
 Ex. 38. — Bard mom-dil, ' very soft-hearted.' — in miydn-hi, ' of this 
 reverend gentleman ; ' plural used out of respect. — a^nd is here used 
 for merd, 113. ^. 
 
46 NOTES. 
 
 Ex. 89. — Sue^h got gol sd, * something quite round.* 
 Ex. 40. — Suhh hote JU, ' immediately it was dawn of day.' — kaun si 
 j'ins, ' what sort of commodity.' — itni ddnd,{ par, ' notwithstanding 
 so much wisdom. — yiMfakaty ' this only and no more. — main bdz dyd, 
 etc., * I will have nothing to do with such wisdom ; ' past used for 
 the future, 126, a. 
 
 Ex. 41. — Jo wuh her mile, 'if that (lost) sheep should be found.' — 
 kkudd-M rdh-par, * in charity,' ' pour 1' amour de Dieu.' — Miudd-ki 
 kasam {hhdtd hiin) ' I swear by God.' 
 
 Ex. 42. — Admi-ke, etc., ' taller than a man's stature.' — Mkatt 
 pahunchne tak, etc., 'by (the time of) the letter's arrival, the (wheat) 
 season had expired.' — i'tibdr kijdwe, ' can be credited.' 
 
 Ex. 43. — Mahmud of Ghazni died, a.d. 1030. Ayydz was one of 
 his favourite slaves. Mahmud is famous both for his patronage of 
 learned men, and for his success as a warrior. He made several in- 
 cursions into India, in the last of which, a.d. 1026, he is supposed to 
 have carried away in triumph the gates of Somnath, of which we heard 
 so much some years ago. — Jauhar-MiAne men, 'into the jewel-house or 
 treasury.' 
 
 Ex. 44. — Jude jude makdnoh-meh, * in places quite apart,' or ' each 
 in a separate place. — saldmat, ' in safety.' 
 
 Ex. 45. — Sudani, * well-shaped,' ' elegant.' — had Tdw-wdle-ke, ' of 
 the man of a bad disposition.'— ;;oya^sa, etc., 'whatever sort (of seed) a 
 man may sow, the same will he reap.' 
 
 Ex.46. — Kasam kha,i, 'swore an oath.' — imdnddr, 'faithful' or 
 honest.' — rutha,e a^ld, 'very high rank.' — is hahdne-se, 'by this 
 pretext.' 
 
 Ex. 47. — Nau-joAodn, 'quite young:' the same phrase occurs in 
 the Devanagari Extracts under the Sanskrit form, nava-yauvand. — der 
 kar, ' though late.' 
 
 Ex. ^8.—Likhd hud, ' written :' the participle with hud, agreeably 
 to 131. — Ukhd hai; here the agent kisi-ne is understood. 
 
 Ex. 49. — Saldhan, ' by way of advice.' — hdtkahteht, 'immediately.' 
 — m-ke kahne ha-miijih, 'in conformity with what he said.' 
 
 Ex. 50. — Biyinat-ddr, ' conscientious.'— ^V« wakt, 'when,' or *at 
 the t^me when. — ^hdail-i-kaldrnf 'in short.' 
 
NOTES. 47 
 
 a.— EXTRACTS FROM THE 'KHIRAD AFROZ.' 
 (From page To to page TV). 
 These Extracts are selected as a specimen of genuine Urdu, the dialect 
 spoken by the educated classes of the Musalman population throughout 
 India. The style is exceedingly easy and elegant, and presents no 
 difficulty to those who have acquired an elementary knowledge of 
 Persian. Before the student commences with these, he is requested 
 to read with care from page 88 to page 100 of the Grammar, which 
 portion treats of Persian compounds, etc. I may here add (what 
 I am afraid has been omitted in its proper place in the Grammar) 
 viz., that "in phrases from the Persian, the adjective follows the sub- 
 stantive, and the substantive is in that case marked with the izafat, as 
 if it governed another substantive in the genitive." Thus mard-i pdrsd, 
 * a pious man ; ' mard-i neh, ' a good man.' The reader will see in 
 page 90, I. of the Grammar that when, in a Persian phrase, the 
 adjective comes before the substantive, the two together form a com- 
 pound epithet, as, tang-dil, ' distressed in heart : ' whereas ' a distressed 
 heart' would be written * dil-i tang.'' 
 
 3.— EXTRACTS FROM THE *ARA,ISH-I MAHFIL.' 
 (Page rV). 
 This extract from the * Ara,ish-i Mahfil' was for the first time cor- 
 rectly printed in the first edition of this work. In the Calcutta edition, 
 the printers misplaced the letter-press of two pages, so that, while the 
 paging appeared perfect, the text made nonsense. Several years ago I 
 discovered this when endeavouring to make sense of the passage as it 
 has all along stood in Mr. Shakespear's * Selections,' vol. i. p. 105. 
 Mr. S. has endeavoured to cement the matter by throwing in a few 
 connecting words of his own, which are certainly no improvement. A 
 conscientious critic would have stated the fact of such an amendment, 
 80 that the original author might not incur blame for the sins of the 
 Bengal printers, or of the English editor. I am glad to find that Mr. 
 Shakespear in his more recent edition has adopted my amendment 
 (without any acknowledgment, however), as preferable to his own. 
 
 The subject of the extract is a description of a kind of chariot 
 drawn by bullocks common in the province of Gujerat, more especially 
 in the city of Ahmadabad. An account of the same, accompanied by a 
 beautiful engraving, wiQ be found in the travels of Albert Mandelslo, 
 
48 NOTES. 
 
 who visited the spot in the reign of Shah Jahan. The edition of his 
 travels to which T allude is the folio, printed at Leyden, 1719, page 74. 
 In pages 21 and 22, of the same work there is an engraving of the 
 Great Indian Fig-tree, commonly called the Banyan Tree, alluded to 
 in our 5th Extract, page f It is the same as that mentioned by Quintus 
 Curtius, Lib. ix. cap. i. " Having thus vanquished Porus and crossed 
 the river (Acesines), he marched further into the country. There he 
 found forests of vast extent, in which were shady trees of prodigious 
 height. Most of their branches (or arms) equalled in size the trunks 
 of ordinary trees; for, bending down into the earth, they grew up 
 again in the same place, and appeared rather like separate tiees, than 
 boughs springing from another stem." 
 
 4.— EXTRACTS IN THE DEVANlGARf CHARACTER. 
 The first seven anecdotes in the Devanagari character correspond 
 respectively with stories 3, 8, 10, 6, 18, 16, and 23, in the 
 Persian character. They are the same word for word, and, conse- 
 quently, require no further notice here. I^os. 8, 9, and 10, in the 
 Devanagari, correspond respectively with Nos. 29, 38, and 39, in the 
 Persian character ; with this difference, however, that in the Devanagari 
 text, Arabic and Persian words are carefully excluded, and their places 
 supplied with words purely Indian : and this exclusion of Arabic and 
 Persian words, constitutes the m^in difference between the dialect of 
 the Hindus, commonly called ' Hindi,^ or ' Kha/ri Boli^ and that 
 of the Musalmans, generally called * Sindiistdnk,^ ' Urdit,' or 
 ' Zabdn-i RelMa' The style throughout is exceedingly easy, and 
 there is only one peculiarity in the orthography to which it may be 
 requisite to draw the student's attention in this place, viz., that in the 
 Devanagari character the letter "?J (y) is sounded like the vowel XT (e) 
 when following any of the long vowels ^J d, or ^gY ^'- ^^^^ 
 'WSX^ y«j^> f^^T^ ru&,e, "^V^ ho,e, etc., instead of ^TT^ etc. 
 I may mention, in conclusion, that in the last seven pages or so of 
 these extracts, the symbol called the vvrdma is purposely discontinued, 
 as the ja%m is in the selections from the 'Khirad Afroz.' The student 
 should always bear in mind that he must ultimately qualify himself 
 to read correctly books and manuscripts utterly void of vowel-points 
 and aU other orthographical lymbols, such as the ja%m, the tashdid, the 
 virdma, etc. 
 
43 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 It has beea suggested to me that a more detailed explanation of the 
 following fourteen engraved plates in the Ta'lik character would be 
 very desirable for beginners. I have discussed the subject rather briefly 
 in page 143, etc. ; and now, at the risk of a few repetitions, T deem it 
 advisable to enter upon it again more fully, by giving a literal transcript 
 of each plate in the Eoman character, together with a few additional 
 explanatory notes and observations 
 
 PLATE 1. 
 
 TEANSCEIPT INTO THE EOMAN CHABACTEE. 
 
 Div. 1, — a, h, J, Af z, r, z, s, sh, z, ^, ^, /, k, h, h, I, m, n, w, h, 
 hhhs, Id, y, y. 
 „ 2. — 5a, ht, hh, bd, br, bs, bsh, bs, bt, Je^, bf, bk, blc, bl, bm, 
 
 bn, bw, bs, bhbf bid, by, by. 
 „ Z.-^d, jty jh, jd, hr, hr, js, jsh, h%, U, h^ jf, jlc, j'k, jl, hm, hn, 
 hw,js,Jhs,Jld, hy, jy. 
 
 Division 1 . — The first division of this Plate shows the mere elements 
 
 of the ta^ik alphabet; the small cross mark indicates the spot where 
 
 the pen starts from in the formation of the letter, and a double cross 
 
 denotes an additional formation. The first elementary form on the 
 
 right hand is the alif, which differs very little from the printed 
 
 character. The second form is the letter be {b), which by a mere 
 
 cidange of its dots may become^, f, s. The third form, now Sijm (f), 
 
 uecomes, in the same manner, eh, M, h. The fourth makes two letters 
 
 18 
 
50 APPENDIX. 
 
 d and z. The fifth, r, z, zA, and r. The sixth is represented as con- 
 sisting of two forms — one an indented, the other a protracted line, and 
 either may be used as sin and shin (« and sh), as the only distinction 
 between them is, that the s(n {ftS wants, and the shin («A) has, three 
 dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The seventh form, 
 M and %dd. The eighth, t, z. The ninth, 'ain and ghain. The 
 next letters are /, hy 1c, I, m, n, w, and h, which are nearly the same as 
 the pnnted type. Then follow the initial, medial, and final forms of 
 the he linked together; then the Id and hamza; and lastly, the letter y« 
 under two varieties of form, the latter of which is now conventionally 
 used by the natives to denote the i/d,e majhid. 
 
 a. The ddl may at first sight appear to resemble the w ; the dis- 
 tinction consists in this, that the ddl has an angular top, whereas the 
 w has it round. 
 
 I. As the letters ^ain and the imperceptible he have no exact repre- 
 sentatives in the Roman character, they have been allowed to stand in 
 the transcript of the plates in their proper form. 
 
 c. The fe and last form of yd are written above the line to show 
 the mode they adopt where there are more words than the line will 
 contain. 
 
 d. The bottom of the Mf may be protracted, as in the second 
 example, to fill up the line, a liberty frequently taken with letters by 
 the Oriental penman. This letter is formed by two sweeps of the pen, 
 the first commencing from the top of the vertical line at the angle — 
 (marked in the plate with a single cross) ; the slanting top is put on 
 afterwards. In old NasTM, MSS. the slanting top is never used, but 
 instead thereof the mark =, is written over the letter. 
 
 e. The yd (y) has two forms in the Plate. The former was appro- 
 priated by Dr. Gilchrist for the sound i, the latter for the e (or yd,e 
 majhUl), a distinction still observed by the natives of India in writing 
 Hindustani. 
 
APPENDIX. 51 
 
 DrvTsiON 2 exhibits the second elementary form, viz. that of b, p, 
 t, 8, n, and y, as they appear initially, when combined with each of tha 
 others following them. Here are given all the combinations of the letter 
 be, with each of the elementary forms of division first. It will be seen 
 that many of the nuktas, or dots, are omitted ; as, for example, those 
 necessary to form bs, bt, b<^, J/, bm, bn, bh, by, and without them the 
 linear portion of the be, in these compounds, has no meaning. It may, 
 of course, become b, p, t, s , n, or y, ad libitum, by the addition (above 
 or below it) of one, two, or three dots. 
 
 Division 3 shows the initial form of the /, cJi, h, and k/i, pretixed 
 to each of the elements in their order. Here a similar irregularity of 
 punctuation occurs, but as the form — constitutes a perfect letter in 
 itself, without any dots, it is transcribed into the Eoman character by 
 h. It may be observed once for all, that the object of these Plates is 
 to exhibit the combinations of all letters of a certain form, independent 
 of the adventitious dots which each form may necessarily require. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 Div. 4. — sd, si, sj, shd, sr, 88, shs, «z, st, s^ sf, s, skk, si, xi/i, sn, 
 sJiw, 8}i, 8,hs, sld, sy, sy. 
 
 f, &. — «<£, stf sj, sd, sr, ss, ssh, sz, st, st, sf, sk, sk, zl, sm, sn^ 
 
 w), a, zi, %ld, sy, sy. 
 
 „ 6. — tdf ttf tj, td, tr, U, tsh, fz, it, t^ tf, tk, tk, zl, im, zn, 
 
 tw, ts, zs, tld, ty, ty. 
 
 Division 4 represents the sin or shin in combination with the rest 
 of the letters. It is needless to observe that the letters alif, ddl, re, 
 and waw, never join to the left — consequently they have no distinct 
 initial form. 
 
 Divisions 5 and 6 show the sad and to,e followed by each of th« 
 elementary forms. 
 
52 APPENDIX. 
 
 PLATE in. 
 
 Div. 7.~^d, ^f ^j\ ^rf, jT, j.«, ^«A, j^z, ^^, ^^, J./, ^^. ^i;, J./, «,//» 
 
 c-n, ^w;, t:f, ^A^f, ^/a, ^y, ^y. 
 
 „ 8.— /a, A fj\ fd, fr, fr, A fsh, fs, ft, 4, ^ fk, fk, fi, fm, Jn 
 
 fw, fs, Pin, fld, fy, fy. 
 „ 9. — kd, kt, kj, kd, kr, ks, ksh, kz, kt, k^ kf, kk, kk, kl, km, kn, 
 kw, ks, khs, kid, ky, ky. 
 
 Plate III. shows the letters 'am, fe, and kdf in combination with 
 all the rest ; and, with the exception of Id, the initial form of the Idm 
 is found by omitting the bent top stroke of the letter kdf. 
 
 Division 8. — The dots of the fe are again omitted in fa, fd, fr 
 (2nd), /«, /z, ft, /j., etc., leaving the letter imperfect. It may become 
 kdf, by superscribing two dots. 
 
 Division 9. — The formation of the kd (made by two sweeps of the 
 pen) commences from where the four lines meet ; the pen stops at the 
 top of the alif, made upwards, and then forms tlie slanting top. Kid 
 is made by three strokes of the pen, the alif, made downwards, being 
 the second, the slanting top of the kdf the third. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 Div. 10. — md, mt, mj, md, mr, ms, msh, m%, mt, m^, mf, mk, mi, 
 ml, mm, mn, mw, mh, mhn, mid, my, my. 
 „ 11. — hd, ht, hj, hd, hr, hr, hs, hsh, hz, ht, h^, hf hk, hk, hi, 
 
 hm, Jin, hw, hh, hhhhJis, hid, hy, hy. 
 ,, 12. — aljd, hwz, hty, klmn, scfs, krsht, sUiz, zzj[h, Id. 
 
 alJ>d, almznh, alfkyr, <^yd, allh hsyny shyryn rkm ghfr znwhh. 
 
 Division 1 1 . — The tail of the he is given only in hd, hd, hk. hi, and 
 hid, but omitted in all the rest, according to the practice of Oriental 
 writers. Hence the initial form of this letter is often too apt to be 
 mistaken for the mkm («). 
 
APPENDIX. 53 
 
 DiTisiON 12 contains the combinatioii of the characters as arrangtjd 
 in alphaoetical notation, noticed in p. 20 of the Grammar, forming the 
 fanciful words, ^ Ahjad, hawa%, hutti, haliman, sa'fas, karashat, sakhaz, 
 za%a^ ; and the last line may be read thus, indicating the name of the 
 chirographer : AV abd ul muzmh, al fakir 'ubaidu-l-ldhi husaini shirin 
 rakm ^affara sunuhahu. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Consists of words beginning with letters of the be class ; i.e., 4, p, t, a, in which 
 might be included w and y. 
 
 r.. 1. hkht, hhjt, bhsht, pnj, blkh, bind. 
 
 2. b^yd, bstr, pyghmbr, b lghy s, bkhshsh, b gh z. 
 
 3. byz, bsyt, by^ bkbk, pink, bkhyl. 
 
 4. bl(jihm, by km, bin, byn, bychw, byzi, bnkU, byshky. 
 ^- ^t y^> i^^yh} tklyd, tlmyz, tksyr, tksyr. 
 
 ti. tfyr, tj'ss, tftysh, tkhsys, tkhlys, tslt. 
 
 7. ^Vwc., tsnyf, tTchfyf, thkyk, tmsk, t^jyl* 
 
 8. tfzl, tksym, tmkyn, tlkyn, tnbw, thnt, tky. 
 
 Plate V — Coming now to complete words of more than two con- 
 sonants; we may premise, as a general remark, that when these contain 
 any of the letters b, p, t, s, n, y, consisting of a horizontal or sloping 
 line, with one or more dots, for each letter there should be an incurva- 
 tion in the continued running line, and at least two bends for the short 
 indented sin or shin. "When several such letters come together, for the 
 saKe of distinction it is usual to give the middle one a bold dash 
 upwards, terminating in a sharp point vertically. 
 
 L. 1.— The n of bind is protracted to fill up the line, according to 
 custom. The pink of line 9, bykm of line 4, with a dash on kdf, here 
 wanting, are intended for palang, ' a tiger,' and begam, ' a princess/ 
 this being a very usual omission, especially where the word cannot be 
 mistaken. In some works, indeed, the kdf is never distinguished from 
 the gaff neither is b from p, nor fim from che. 
 
64 APPENDIX. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 Contains a list of words commencing with letters of the inird tbrm, viz. /, eh. ^ or XA 
 
 L. 1. jnt, hshmt, Jilcmt, hhyJct, khllct, khili. 
 
 2. Jlij(f, J^d, hmt/d, hmd, khld, j\fr, hhjr, hshr. 
 
 3. IJimyr, khnjr, khnzr, jlys, hbs, jhyz^ jit. 
 
 4. mt, hf%, jmyt., jyf, Mkfyf, j'kfk, khllc. 
 
 5. chychk, khshk, jlyl, jmyl, jnkl, hml. 
 
 6. Jhnm, hlym, hkm hkym, khshm, j'byn, jstn. 
 
 7. hsn, khftn, j'lw, hzw, chmchs, khlyfi, hlki. 
 
 8. hgi, hknh, khyms, khtns,jhhj, hlcyky, khsmy. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 Consisting of words beginning with stn or $/im. 
 
 L. 1. syh, sib, sn/, slh sth sfyd. 
 
 2. stbr, slys, syhsh, sc/«, skyt, sm^. 
 
 3. skf, syf, shk, slk, sjnjl. 
 
 4. smsm, shm, shkyn, shw, sfyn^, ssty. 
 
 5. shkst, fhfkt, shy Mi, shhyd, shyr, shmshyr, shma. 
 
 6. shah, shMi^, shmyt, shm^, shny^, sh^?tf, sh/yk. 
 
 7. shlk, shkyl, shkl, shlghm, shkm, shbnm, shkstn. 
 
 8. ahstn, shfw, shknji, shyshi, shkyki, shky, shkftgii 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 "Words beginning with sdd, aid, .tfl,e or «>,*. 
 L. 1. s^bf slyb, sjibt, sliyh, slh, syd. 
 
 2. smd, sghtr, sfyr, .pnyh, x^/f. skyh 
 
 3. smkyk, nykl, smijm, shn, s^w, shyfi, ^yll^ 
 
 4. ilb, tbyb, tby^t, tykh, tpyd. 
 
 5. t^r, tnz, tshysh, tm^, tb^, tfyf. 
 
 6. Ibky tlyky tnk, tfl, tlyl, tkm. 
 
 7. thtPf tbhchs, tntns, t^ns, tbty, thty 
 
Al'PENDIX. 65 
 
 PLATE TX. 
 Words beginning with 'ain, ghamf fn or kdf. 
 
 ^ i- ^y^> tfli^ t?^^' ^'yj> t^'^' ^y^' &' 
 
 2. ^nbr, ^ss, Jcs, t^h^h, ^tsh, ^f^f, ^mlt. 
 ^' t¥y tkyh t^^f tJy^> ^hh, ^ynh, ^yl, ^kl. 
 
 4. j7Z, ^l, dm, c-Eym, zjyn, zjw, ^jh, ^jmy. 
 
 5. f^yht, fzylt, f^^yh, fth, fi^d, fjr. 
 
 6. fkr, fls, fysh, fy%, fy^, fyf. 
 7 flhy flk fysl, fyl, fi}- 
 
 H. fhm, fin, fiw, fshfw, fiyU, Jlsfy. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 Words beginning with kdf, gdf or lam. 
 L. 1. Icsh, Iclhy hht, kyfyt, knj, klknd, knhz, kmtr 
 
 2. kshnyz, khnis, kshf, ksys, ksht, kJc^, knyf, Jctf. 
 
 3. klk, kink, knk, kmk, khjshk, khl, klym. 
 
 4 kmyn, kfn, kshtn, kftn, kysw, kfchi, knjjs. 
 
 5. kyss, klms, kikts, khts, kshty, kmy, kyty, kyf% 
 
 6. Ikh, l^nt, Ijlj, Ikd, Inkr, Ishkr. 
 
 7. Imsj Ifs, lyMish, Ihys, Ight . 
 
 8. Tkyt^ Im^, Ityfy Iklky Ink, Ihm. 
 
 9. Ibn, lykn, Ihw, Ihy^, IkmS, Ihy, hjly. 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 
 Words beginning with mim, 
 L. I. msbl. mtlh, mnsf, mktb, mhtsh. 
 2. mt^jh, mtyh, mslht, mhlt, mshf. 
 8. mmlkt, mJchns, msjs, mlthj, mth, mykh. 
 4. mlMi, mtlMi, mhmd, msjd, m^tkd, mffrtui 
 5- mnjmd, mfsd, mst^t, mtfkr, m^tr, ^z/* 
 
 6. mntshr, mTMsr, m^kr, mnzr, mdtor. 
 
 7. m^sfr, m^jr, mnjt, mks, mjh. 
 
 8. tnfls. mnsh, mfdils, msTiTdis, nwfihz 
 
56 APPENDIX. 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 Words beginning with m(m — continued. 
 L. 1. mMz, mhyty mmtni, mti/^, rnjm^, mU^. 
 
 2. me<ilky mhlgk, mMitlf, mmf, mtfk, 
 
 3. mt^k, mnjnyk, mshk, mlk, mnisk. 
 
 4. mshky jnhml, mfsl, myl, mshtgM- 
 
 5. mkhml, m^tl, mt^lm, mthlm, mnjm, mkym. 
 
 6. msthknif mslm, mtmkn, msmn, mt<^yn. 
 
 7. mhmn, mmkn, mhw, mhkm:^, mntks, msAi^lchf 
 
 8. rndky, mfty, mnshy, mghny, mkhfy^ miky 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 Words beginning with nun. 
 L. 1. nsb, nsyb, njyh, nshyb, nkh. 
 
 2. n^t, nsyht, nkht, nyst, mj. 
 
 3. nhjt nkd, nshr, nyshkr, n^r. 
 
 4. »M«, nfys, w/«, nysh, n^h. 
 
 5. nksh, ngh%y nmt, nf^, nsf, nU. 
 
 6. nhnk, n^, nkl, nsym, nylm, nkyn. 
 
 7. nrnkyrif nhftrif nshsfn, nhw, nfks, n?^»i.'. 
 
 8. nhfiif, njkj nfshx, nfy^ nhy, nysty. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 Words beginning with Jie and yt. 
 
 1. hmt, hyltj hft, hsht, hnkft. 
 
 2. hychy hnd, hjr, hmnfs, hshysh, hbt. 
 
 3. hmy^, hlf, hyk, hshnk, hkhk, hykt. 
 
 4. hmm, hftm, hmsn, hjw, hlyh, hsty 
 
 5. yl^, yfth, y^td, ysyr, yksr. 
 
 6. yknfSf ytfz, yhn^, ylk, ylk. 
 
 7. y<^l, yshm, ykyn, ymyn, ymn, 
 fe. yhaiDj yMchgf ymm, yky, ykifuy 
 
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