THE HISTORY OF NATION5 4 FRANCE o o CO O fen O o THE HISTORY OF NATIONS HENRY CABOT LODGE.Ph.D.XLD. EDITOR-IN-CHIEF FRANCE Re vi s e d and edited from the work of EMILE de BONNECHOSE by FRED MORROW FLING.PhD. Professor of European History University of Nebraska Volume IX Illustrated The H .W. Snow and Son Company C 1\ i c a g o C^I>^K]{,ln, 1!)(1T. ]!v JDIIX 1). MORRIS & COAIPAXy C()P^Rl(;llT, I'Jlo Till' IT. W. SXOW & SOX COAIPAXY THE HISTORY OF NATIONS EDITOR-IN-CHIEF HENRY CABOT LODGE, Pk.D., L.L.D. Associate Editors and Authors ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LL.D.. Professor of Assyriology, Oxford Uni- versity SIR ROBERT K. DOUGLAS, Professor of Chinese, King's College, Lon- don CHRISTOPHER JOHNSTON, M.D., Ph.D.. Associate Professor of Oriental History and Archaeology, Johns Hopkins University C. W. C. OMAN, LL.D., Professor of History, Oxford University THEODOR MOMMSEN, Late Professor of Ancient History. Uni- versity of Berlin ARTHUR C. HOWLAND, Ph.D., Department of History, University of Penn- sylvania JEREMIAH WHIPPLE JENKS, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Political Economy and Pol- itics, Cornell University KANICHI ASAKAWA, Ph.D., Instructor in the History of Japanese Civilization, Yale University WILFRED HAROLD MUNRO, Ph.D., Professor of European History, Brown University G. MERCER ADAM, Historian and Editor FRED MORROW FLING, Ph.D., Professor of European History, University of Nebraska CHARLES MERIVALE, LL.D., Late Dean of Ely. formerly Lecturer in FRANCOIS AUGUSTE MARIE MIGNET. History, Cambridge University Late Member of the French Academy J. HIGGINSON CABOT, Ph.D., Department of History, Wellesley College JAMES WESTFALL THOMPSON, Ph.D.. Department of History, University of Chicago SIR WILLIAM W. HUNTER, F.R.S., Late Director-General of Statistics in India SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., Professor of Modern History, King's Col- lege, London GEORGE M. DUTCHER, Ph.D., Professor of History, Wesleyan University R. W. JOYCE, LL.D., Commissioner for the Publication of the Ancient Laws of Ireland VI ASSOCIATE EDITORS AND AUTHORS-Continued jusTin McCarthy, ll.d.. Author and Historian PAUL LOUIS LEGER, Professor of the Slav Languages, OSllcge de France AUGUSTUS HUNT SHEARER, Ph.D.. Instructor in History. Trinity College. WILLIAM E. LINGLEBACH. Ph.D., Hartford Assistant Professor of European History, University of Pennsylvania W. HAROLD CLAFLIN, B.A., Department of History. Harvard Uni- BAYARD TAYLOR, versity Former United States Minister to Ciermany CHARLES DANDLIKER, LL.D., President of Zurich University SIDNEY B. FAY. Ph.D., Professor of History, Dartmouth College ELBERT JAY BENTON, Ph.D., Department of History, Western Reserve University SIR EDWARD S. CREASY, Late Professor of History, University Col- lege, London ARCHIBALD CARY COOLIDGE, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of History, Harvard University WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A., Professor of Russian and other Slavonic Languages, Oxford University CHARLES EDMUND FRYER, Ph.D., Department of History, McGill University E. C. OTTE, Specialist on Scandinavian History J. SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., President Royal Geographical Society ALBERT GALLOWAY KELLER, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of the Science of So- ciety, Yale University EDWARD JAMES PAYNE, M.A., Fellow of University College, Oxford PHILIP PATTERSON WELLS, Ph.D., Lecturer in History and Librarian of the Law School, Yale l^nivensity FREDERICK ALBION OBER, Historian, Author and Traveler JAMES WILFORD GARNER, Ph.D., Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois EDWARD S. CORWIN, Ph.D., Instructor in History, Princeton Uni- versity JOHN BACH McMASTER, Litt.D., LL.D., Professor of History, University of Penn- sylvania JAMES LAMONT PERKINS. Managmi Editor The editors and publishers desire to express their appreciation for valuable advice and suggestions received from the following: Hon. Axdrew D. White, LL.D., Alfred Thayer Mahan, D.C.L., LL.D., Hon. Charles Emory Smith, LL.D., Professor Edward Gaylord Bourne, Ph.D., Charles F. Thwino, LL.D., Dr. Emil Reich, William Elliot Griffis, LL.D., Professor John Martin Vincent, Ph.D., LL.D., Melvil Dewey, LL.D., Alston Ellis, LL.D., Professor Charles H. McCarthy, Ph.D., Professor Herman V. Ames, Ph.D., Professor Walter L. Fleming, Ph.D., Professor David Y. Tho.mas, Ph.D., Mr. Otto Reich and Mr. O. M. Dickerson. vii INTRODUCTION THE study of history, when history is rightly understood, becomes something more than a pastime. An accurate and detailed knowledge of the past of society is the indis- pensable foundation of historical consciousness, and to a people that would play a role in world society historical consciousness is as im- portant a requisite as personal experience to the successful individ- ual. The peoples that have made history and the peoples that are making history furnish the most convincing proof of the truth of this assertion. Historical consciousness in a people consists in an exact knowledge of its complex relations with contemporary peoples and of the relation of its own social life to the social life of the world that stretches back through thousands of years. Just as the great captain of industry is distinguished from the day laborer by his com- prehensive and accurate acquaintance with the world of affairs, so the great peoples of to-day the English, the Germans, the French and the Americans are distinguished from the peoples of Africa and Asia by their highly developed historical consciousness, by the knowledge of their complex relations with the present and the past. The great awakening in historical study during the past generation was no accident ; it is one of the conditions of leadership in the struggle for supremacy in the affairs of the world. To-day a world society exists ; it is the product of all the past, and an accu- rate and detailed knowledge of the relations of each part, of each people, to the wdiole, to the present and to the past of that whole, is the condition of self-preservation, and cannot be disregarded with impunity. If examples are needed they may be found in Japan and China. The historical consciousness is more highly developed in Japan than in Russia, and very poorly developed in China. Japan has saved herself, saved China, and wrecked the prestige of Russia. As we are part of a great world society, the history of the peoples that have made that society is a portion of our own history, X INTRODUCTION and we can neglect it only at our peril. We must make their experi- ence our own by serious and sympathetic study, and we must profit by that experience. That " peoples learn nothing from history " never was absolutely true, and it becomes less true with each evolv- ing century. Never in the history of the world was so large a body of trained experts engaged in the work of developing histori- cal consciousness by supplying it with exhaustive and detailed knowledge concerning the past as to-day. Of all the historical peoples, none, with the possible exception of Greece and Rome, has had a past more valuable for its social experience than the people of France. Its history stretches over two thousand years, twice as long as the existence of the Roman republic and empire among the Latin speaking peoples, and it has dealt successfully with social problems that the Romans were in- capable of solving. Possibly they could not have been solved at that time; the point Is that there is social experience to be found in the history of France that cannot be found in that of Rome. Apart from all practical value, what could be more fascinating to the inquisitive mind than to trace the long and varied process by which the complex, social unit that we call France was evolved from the disparate elements that originally existed on the soil of Gaul or were introduced from contiguous countries? Concerning all the details of the process, historians are not as yet agreed, or these details are not yet perhaps never may be fully known to them ; but the main outlines are easily intelligible. The ethnic ele- ments out of which the people was constituted; the steps by which territorial unity was reached ; the manner in which language, law, administration, manners and customs were rendered homogeneous ; the relations of this territory to surrounding territories, how it v/as defined and defended by centuries of struggles all of these things v.-e know. We know too what the influence of France has been in this larger world of which it forms a part, and what it is contribut- ing to the solution of the social problems of our own day. The French people are a historical product, and although tlie process of formation has occupied thousands of years, the end is not yet. Among the living human beings that call themselves Frenchmen are descendants of the most unlike races. The rude cave-dwellers of the stone age, the half civilized Gauls, the cultured Romans, and the barbarous Germans have all contributed to the INTRODUCTION xi making of this people. The dominant element has been the Celtic. The change is still going on, but the process is a silent one, unlike the rude shocks that introduced the Roman and German elements into the population. In 1901 there were over a million foreigners residing in France, and in 1896 the population contained more thaa two hundred thousand naturalized Frenchmen. The significance of such figures is not fully realized. The unification and delimitation of the territory of France were two of the conditions of social union and of political independ- ence. Territorial unification was practically complete at the end of the fifteenth century; if the incident of Alsace-Lorraine is not yet closed, the question of delimitation is still a serious problem for France. In the formation of the territory, the chief role fell to the kings, who, struggling against decentralizing tendencies, finally formed one great state directly subject to themselves out of many discordant parts. The task was completed when the na- tional assembly, in 1789 and 1790, abolished the provinces and divided France into departments. The struggle for natural bound- aries led to wars for centuries with all of the surrounding peoples, with England, Spain, Germany, and Italy. The Hundred Years War gave France its Atlantic coast, but Calais was not recovered until 1557. The Spanish frontier was not fixed until the latter half of the seventeenth century, the Italian frontier received its last rectification in i860, and the frontier along the Rhine was modified as late as 1871. The evolution of a homogeneous language for the whole French people is not yet fully effected. The original Celtic was displaced by the popular Latin ; the Latin was transformed into various French dialects, and for six hundred years the dialect of the region about Paris has been making the linguistic conquest of the rest of France. The conquest is not yet complete; there are still remote districts in which aged men and women talk a lan- guage unintelligible to the mass of the French people (Brittany and Provence, for example). But that will soon pass away. Rail- roads and schools are fast changing all that, and old men who speak French but poorly are proud of the fact that their children read and speak the language fluently. The kings of France that gave it territorial unity did much for the development of homogeneous institutions within its borders. xii INTRODUCTION The centralized government of Rome had given way to feudal decentralization in the making of laws, the administration of jus- tice, the coinage of money, taxation, and the organization of the army. In all of these things the kings by the labor of centuries substituted centralization and uniformity for the chaos of conflict- ing practices. The work of the kings was completed by the revolution. As Rome gave to France its language and law, it also gave to it its religion. Pagan Gaul was converted to Christianity under the empire, and although the settlement of the Burgundians and Visigoths in Gaul, with their unorthodox Arianism, introduced a discordant element into the Church in the west, the conversion of the Franks to the dogmas of Rome was a victory for orthodoxy and led to the suppression of the Arian belief. By his support of the Church the King of France won the title of " His Christian IMajesty," and the French showed their religious zeal by the promi- nent part they took in the crusades. The religious devotion of the kings of France did not prevent them from becoming sturdy defenders of the rights of the state against the encroachments of the Popes and of the independence of the Gallic church. The Reformation, apart from the political complications that attended it, never seriously threatened the supremacy of Latin Christianity in France. The Huguenots were deprived of their political inde- pendence by Richelieu and of their religious freedom by Louis XIV. The Revolution led to a temporary separation of church and state, but Napoleon restored their old relations. They were finally separated in 1905. The contributions of France to the products of human culture have been as noteworthy as the work in social organization. Tt has produced a literature and art w^orthy of a place by the side of the literature and art of Greece ; it has produced great philoso- phers, historians and scientists. Its tongue was for a long time the common language of cultured and diplomatic Furope. In the very beginnings of its history the inhabitants of the country now called France made themselves felt far and wide in Europe. The Gauls that invaded Spain, Italy, and Greece were but the forerunners of Louis XIV. and X^apoleon I. They have established themselves in Africa and Asia and in N'orth and South America, and rank among the first of the peoples that are dominat- INTRODUCTION xlil ing the world, possessing the second largest navy and the third largest army, ranking after England on the sea and after Russia and Germany on the land. France has done many things well that from the point of view of social evolution are worth doing, and her history should make clear by what ways and means it has accomplished these things. This book can but suggest the outlines of the human web that has been aweaving for these thousand years, and still is incomplete. c/-- J>0^. The University of Nebraska CONTENTS PART I FROM BARBARISM TO KINGDO^vI. 58 B. C.-987 A. D. CHAPTER PAGE I. Independent Gaul and Roman Gaul ... 3 II. The Germanic Invasions and the AIerovingian Kingdoms. 387-752 a. d. , . . . -15 III. The Empire of Charlemagne. 752-987 . . 40 PART II FEUDAL MONARCHY. 987-1642 IV. Feudal France. 987-1180 . . . . .63 V. Reaction Against Feudalism : Philip Augustus AND Philip the Fair, i 180-1328 . . -75 VI. The Hundred Years' War. 1328-1422 . . -9^ VII. Joan of Arc and the Liberation of France. 1422- 1461 . . . . . . . .114 VIII. Territorial Unity and Wars in Italy. 1461-1547 121 IX. The Reformation and the Huguenot Wars. 1547- 1589 145 X. Henry IV. and the Reorganization of France. 1589-1624 ....... 166 XI. Richelieu and the Thirty Years' War. 1624-1643 183 PART III ABSOLUTE ^vIONARCTIY. 1643-1774 XII. Louis XIV. and the Supremacy of France in Europe. 1643- 1683 ..... 199 XIII. Louis XIV. and the Decline of the French Power IN Europe. 1683-1715 ..... 216 XIV. The Struggle against Ariutrary Power under Louis XV. 17 15- 1774 ..... 227 XV xvi CONTENTS PART IV THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1774-1799 CHAPTER PAGE XV. The Constitutional Monarchy. 1774-1791 . . 253 XVI. The Fall of the Monarchy. 1791-1792 . . 2^2 XVII. The First Republic. 1792-1795 .... 278 XVIII. The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon Bona- parte. I 795 -I 799 ...... 297 PART V THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD. 1799-1814 XIX. The Consulate. 1799-1804 . . . . .315 XX. The Empire of Napoleon I. 1804-1811 . . 324 XXI. Fall of the Napoleonic Empire. 181 1-1814 340 PART VI A CENTURY OF REVOLUTION. 1814-1910 XXII. The Restor.\tion of the Bourbons. 1814-1820 . 355 XXIII. The Reaction under Charles X. and the Revolu- tion OF 1830. 1 820- 1 830 .... 374 XXIV. The Monarchy of the Property Class. 1830- 1838 394 XXV. Guizot's Ministry and the Revolution of 1848. 1838-1848 415 XXVI. The Second Republic. 1848-1852 . . . 435 XXVII. The Empire of Napoleon III. 1852-1870 . . 445 XXVIII. The Third Republic. 1870-1910 .... 467 Bibliography ......... 495 Index ........... 505 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Charge of the Scots Greys (Photogravure) Frontispiece FACING PAGE Clovis, King of the Franks, Receives the Holy Sacra- ment OF Baptism - - iS The Last Merovingian King, Childeric III, Forcibly De- throned ,.<,.. 38 Roland, Paladin of Charlemagne, in the Battle of Ron- cesvalles , . . 42 Entry of Godfrey de Bouillon into Jerusalem .... 70 The Charge of the French Knights at the Battle of Cressy 94 Capture of John II of France at the Battle of Poictiers 1356 A. d. . 98 The Jacquerie 100 Joan of Arc on Trial before the Inouisition at Rouen . . 116 Louis XI of France in Prison at Peronne 122 Louis XI, King of France 126 Catherine de' Medici ....... ..o ... <. 142 Ambroise Pare during the Siege of Metz ...... 146 The Massacre of St. 1)Artiiolome\v ......... 158 Henry III and his I*et Dogs ........... 164 Cardinal Richelieu 184 Louis XIV^ at the Salon of Madame de ]\Iaintexon . . 216 Madame de Maintenon 226 Madame de Pompadour (Colored) . . , 244 The Court of Napoleon I 324 The Return of the Grand Army from Russia ..... 342 Napoleon on board the " IjEllerophon " 364 A Barricade during the Revolution of 1830 3(>3 Episode during the Battle of Gravelotte 464 A Petroleuse Haranguing hi:r Comrades during the Reign of the Commune in Paris 470 xvii xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Victor Hugo Alexandre Dumas, pere 490 TEXT MAPS PAGE France under Hugh Capet ,,..,. c .,c, , 64 France after the Expulsion of the English , , , , , 118 Border Lands of France and Burgundy . . . 122 The Three Bishoprics and Lorraine . , , c 146 Siege of Rochelle . = , . . c 186 The Barrier Towns ............ c o c 225 Battle of Waterloo ..... = o, o, o,. 362 Europe. 1815 . . . . . o o . . , ., e . . 373 War on the Rhine Frontier , . . .. , . o , 465 PART I FROM BARBARISM TO KINGDOxM 58 B.C.-987 A.D. HISTORY OF FRANCE Chapter T INDEPENDENT GAUL AND ROMAN GAUL TWO thousand years ag"o the country now called France was almost covered with immense forests and inhabited by a population of five millions, dwelling together in filthy villages or in primitive walled towns, and leading a half-civilized existence. The country was then called Gaul, and the inhabitants Gauls, but they had few interests in common and the terms applied to them by the Romans stood for a geographical rather than a social unity. To-day the forests have given place to wheat fields, vineyards, and olive groves ; the population has increased eight- fold ; the towns and villages have become cities famous for their architectural beauty, their cleanliness, and the wealth of art treas- ures that they possess ; the warring Gallic tribes have grown into a united, higlily complex and self-conscious state. France has be- come the leader of the civilized world in literature and art, playing in the world society of to-day the role that Greece formerly played in the society of the Mediterranean basin. How this transforma- tion was wrouglit, through what vicissitudes the French people passed in their struggles to become a nation, it is the purpose of this book to show. The Gauls were not the primitive inhabitants of France, but represented one of the latest of the human strata that from time to time have been deposited upon her soil. Thousands of years before the founding of Rome, thousands of years before the exist- ence of human records how many thousands no man knows even before the glacial period, human beings inhabited this region and left behind them as proof of their existence the uncanny evi- dence of their very bones and the objects cunningl)^ wrought by their own hands. These remains drawn from excavations in dif- ferent parts of France show that it was continuously inhabited from the most remote times until it became known to the people of the IVTediterranean, and that it passed through the ages of cut and polished stone, of copper, bronze and iron. Although some of their 4 FRANCE descendants are found among the population of modern France, the names of these primitive peoples are unknown to us, nor can we determine their relationship to those who came after them and who are known to us by name. The evidence of their monuments would seem to justify the inference that they were part of the Mediterranean race that built up the first civilization around that inland sea and later spread over Europe and the British Isles. The known predecessors of the Gauls were the Iberians, Ligu- rians and Greeks. The Iberians at one time occupied Italy, Corsica, Spain, and the south of France. Their descendants are the Gascons and the Basques different forms of the same name the Basques speaking even to-day the tongue of their Iberian ancestors, an ag- glutinative language similar to those spoken by the Hungarians, the Finns and the Lapps. The Iberians gave way before the Ligu- rians, who spread over Europe from the North Sea to the heart of Italy and of Spain. They had reached the former country as early as the twelfth century before Christ, but as late as 600 B.C. the Iberi- ans still maintained themselves in southwestern Gaul. Liguria, on the gulf of Genoa, was the last place of refuge of the Ligurians, who disappeared before the advance of the Celts. The Greeks established themselves at the mouth of the Rhone as early as 600 B.C., when the Phocsean colonists founded Marseilles. From this city the Greeks spread along the coast to Italy and to the southwest as far as the straits of Gibraltar. They built up a considerable com- merce, and for some time acted as middlemen between the Medi- terranean world and the Gallic hinterland. The necessity of defend- ing themselves against the Carthaginians led the people of Mar- seilles to ally themselves with the Romans, and it was as the ally of the Greek colony that the Romans first entered Gaul to protect the Greeks against their Ligurian neighbors. The presence of the Greeks in southern Gaul was not without its influence upon the development of the people. It was through tliem tliat the cultiva- tion of the vine and the olive was introduced into the south of France; they also acquainted the natives with the Greek alphabet and taught them how to coin money. The Celts tlic name by which the Gauls were originally known to the Greeks and Romans were in the fourth century before Christ the UKjst pcnverful of the barbarian peoples of Europe. From the valley of the Danube, by successive migrations, they spread into Spain and Portugal, into Italy and into the East as far GAUL 5 as the Black Sea, the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor. In central Europe they evidently dominated the Germans. The waking of the Germans was the great fact of tlie tliird century before Christ. Under the impulse of the southward push of the Germanic tribes behind them, the Celts invaded Greece and Asia Minor, Italy and Gaul, but were unable to hold for any length of time much of the territory thus acquired. In Spain they gave way before the Car- thaginians, in Italy before the rising power of Rome, and in cen- tral Europe before the Germans. In the second century before Christ little was left to them besides the region embraced by the Rhine, the Alps, the P^Tenees and the Atlantic. It was in this century that the name Gauls, as applied to the Celts, first appears in the writings of the Romans. Gaul was the name of the country within the limits already mentioned. It w^as divided, as Caesar stated, into three parts Aquitania, Celtica, Belgium. Acquita- nians, Celts and Belgians were known by the common name of Gauls. Our knowledge of the state of Gallic society at the time of the Roman conquest is drawn largely from the "Commentaries" of Caesar. In the portrait of the Gaul drawn by Roman writers are many traits that are noticeable in the modern Frenchman : " Courage pushed to temerity, an open mind, a sociable, communi- cative humor, taste and talent for oratory. . . . With that a blind enthusiasm, an insupportable braggartism, little continuity in their plans, little firmness in their enterprises, little constancy in reverses, of an extreme mobility, with little inclination for rule or discipline." The organization of the Gallic family was similar to that of the Roman, the father having the power of life and death over his children and over his wife. Curiously inconsistent with this position of slavish insubordination were the property relations be- tween man and wife. " Whatever sums of money the husbands have received in dowry from tlieir wives," Vv^rote C?esar, " making an estimate of it, they add the same amount out of their own estates. An account is kept of all this money conjointly and the profits are laid by; whichever of them shall have survived the other, to that one the portion of both reverts, together with tlie profits of tlie previous time." But two orders of men in Gaul possessed authority and dignity, the druids and knio-hts. At the bottom of the social scale were the 6 FRANCE slaves. The great mass of the population, in a state of clientage, dependent upon the knights or nobles, " dared to undertake nothing for itself and was admitted to no deliberation." The nobles most distinguished by their birth and resources had the greatest number of vassals and dependents about them. The intrigues and wars of these great feudal lords kept Gaul in a state of perpetual discord. The druids were priests and ministers of justice. They conducted private and public sacrifices and interpreted all matters of religion. They also decided " concerning almost all controversies, public and private; and if any crime had been perpetrated, if murder had been committed, if there was any dispute about an inheritance, any about boundaries, these same persons decided it; they decreed re- wards and punishments. If any one either in a public or in a private capacity did not submit to their decisions, they interdicted him from the sacrifices. Those who had been thus interdicted were esteemed in the number of the impious and the criminal. All shunned them and avoided their society and conversation, lest they receive some evil from their contact; nor was justice administered to them when seeking it, nor any dignity bestowed upon them." The druids did not go to war nor pay tribute like the rest, l^ut were exempted from military service and had a dispensation in all matters. The religion of the Gauls was a naturalistic polytheism, " They adored the forces of nature, conceived as so many animate con- scious beings whose favor was conciliated by certain rites and formulae." Lakes, rivers, brooks and trees w^ere objects of wor- ship. The list of the names of the gods of Gaul is a long one; of many of these we know nothing but the name. " The nation of the Gauls," wrote Ccesar, " is extremely devoted to superstitious rites; and on that account they who are trou1)led with unusually severe diseases, and they wdio are engaged in battles and dangers, either sacrifice men as victims, or vow tliat they will sacrifice them, and em]:)]oy the druids as the performers of these sacrifices ; because they think that unless the life of a man be offered for tlie life of a man, the mind of the immortal gods cannot be rendered ])ropitious, and they make sacrifices of that kind ordained for national pur- poses. Others have figures of vast size, tlie limbs of which, formed of osiers, they fill with living men, which being set on fire, the m,en perish in the flames. They consider that the oblation of such as have been taken in theft, or in robbery, or any other offense, is GAUL 7 more acceptable to the immortal gods ; but when a supply of that class is wanting, they have recourse to the oblation of even the innocent." The druids taught the immortality of the soul and its transmi- gration. "They looked upon the god of death (Dispater) as the father of all the Gauls . . . for is not death the source of life as well as its end? " Grouped with the druids were two other classes of men, the cubages, or divines, and the bards. The first performed sacrifices and attempted to discover the secrets of the future; they were probably a suborder of druids, performing a part of the druidical functions. The bards were the poets and singers of the Gauls. While their functions are very clearly determined, their place in the sacerdotal hierarchy is not at all clear. Perhaps they formed no part of it. " They narrated the adventures of gods and men, the glories of the past and the present, the exploits of heroes and the shame of the coward, accompanying themselves upon a harp or lyre." They were the accredited interpreters of the national and religious tradition. Among the Gauls each tribe had originally its special chief, who ordinarily assumed the title of king. Each tribe had also a species of military equestrian corps, composed of nobles or knights, and each of these nobles, according to his rank or standing, ex- tended his protection to a number of retainers, men of free though inferior condition, who escorted him everywhere, followed him to the wars and were ready to die for him. ]\Iatters affecting the com- mon interests of the whole community were discussed at certain periods, in an assembly formed by deputies from the different tribes. About 300 B.C. the royal government \vas abolished in most of the cities of Gaul in the midst of revolutions. The warriors and the druids fought for supremacy and the whole of Gaul was weakened by their divisions. This intestine contest was still going on when, 154 B.C., the Greek inhabitants of ^Marseilles invoked and obtained the assistance of Rome against some Gallic tribes in the vicinity. In 121 B.C. the Romans, taking advantage of disputes which had broken out between the .^dui, the Allobroges and Ar- verni, gained two great victories over them under the leadership of the consul Fabius. A portion of the country of the Allobroges, Dauphine, was reduced to a Roman province, as well as the entire 8 FRANCE 118-56 B.C. seaboard of the Mediterranean as far as the Pyrenees. There the Romans founded, ii8 B.C., a celebrated colony, that of Narbonne, and gave the name of Narbonensis to the province formed in the south of Gaul. They did not cross the limits of the colony until about the middle of the first century b.c. They had in the interval to repulse a formidable invasion of the Teutons, who were success- fully checked by Marius, 102 B.C., near the city of Aix. Forty years later came Julius Caesar, whose victories in Gaul made him absolute master, not only of that country, but of Rome itself. At the time of Caesar's arrival the opposing factions in Gaul were the /Edui and the Sequani, of whom the latter had gained for awhile the preponderance in the country by the assistance of Ario- vistus, King of the Suevi, whom they attached to themselves by presents and promises. The future conqueror first displayed him- self to the Gallic nations in the character of a protector. They were menaced by a formidable invasion. Three hundred thousand Helvetians, after burning their own towns and ruining their own fields, so as to destroy all hope of return, had just invaded the coun- try of the Sequani and the ^dui, and had fallen upon the neigh- boring Allobroges, when, summoned by these nations, Caesar appeared at the head of his legions, defeated the Helvetians in three sanguinary engagements and drove them beyond the Jura, into the deserts they had themselves produced. Some time later the Gauls conjured him to deliver them from Ariovistus and his Ger- mans, wh-o, called in l)y the imprudent Sequani, were now oppress- ing their own allies and the whole of eastern Gaul. C?esar re- sponded to their appeal and marched against Ariovistus. The Germans were totally defeated and their army dispersed. The domination of the Germans was succeeded by that of the Romans, and the Gauls, perceiving that they had given themselves a master in this formidable auxiliary, applied to the Belgians to deliver them from the Romans. The Belgians readily entered into a league with other Gauls, but Caesar had made an alliance with one of their most important tribes, the Remi, and, introduced by them into tlie heart of Belgium, he crushed the confederates on the banks of the Aisne, and then well-nigh exterminated the Nervii, people of Hainault, beyond the Sambre, and the Aduatici, a people encamped between the Sambre and the Meuse. His lieutenant, Crassus, thereupon subjugated Armorica, and already the whole GAUL 9 .56-53 B.C. of Gaul seemed conquered. But the resolutions of the Gauls were prompt and unforeseen. In the following year, 56 B.C., during Coesar's absence in Illyria, the Veneti, relying on the situation of their towns, which were inaccessible by land and defended by an internal sea, the gulf of Morbihan, with whose ports, isles and shoals the Romans were unacquainted, gave the signal for revolt. The tribes of Ar- morica at once followed their lead, and the Britons also promised them assistance. Caesar thereupon marched from Illyria, and, having built a fleet at the mouth of the Loire, sternly repressed the revolt. While Caesar was thus subjugating Armorica, his lieu- tenant Sabinus occupied, after several engagements, all the terri- tory between that country and the Seine, and Crassus, being also victorious in the south, between the Loire and the Garonne, and from the latter river to the Pyrenees, the whole of Gaul was again subdued. After defeating 400,000 Usipetes at the confluence of the Rhine and the Meuse, Caesar resolved to invade Britain, to punish the Britons for the assistance they had given the Veneti. He ef- fected a landing and defeated the Britons in several engagements ; but a tempest broke up and dispersed a portion of his fleet, and Caesar found himself compelled to abandon the expedition and re- turn to Gaul. Tliis precipitate departure, in spite of several vic- tories, resembled a flight. Ciesar consequently returned the fol- lowing year, 54 B.C., with several legions and a formidable fleet. He landed without opposition, pursued the Britons into the interior of the island, fomented divisions among them, attacked, defeated and subdued them. He imposed an annual tribute, received their hostages, and returned with a multitude of captives and without the loss of a single vessel. The Gallic war, in which up to this time most of the tribes had fought separately, appeared to be at an end. Unexpectedly they united, and it broke out again more terrible than ever. The two chiefs of the new confederation, which was first formed in Belgium, were Indutiomarus of the Treviri, and Ambiorix of the Eburones. The latter surprised a legion on the march and ex- terminated it, W'hile the v.'arlike tribes of the north of Camhrcsis and Hainault compelled anollier legion, quartered among tlieni, to seek safety in an entrenched camp. Ca;sar was a long \vay off, but he came in haste with only 7,000 legionaries, dispersed the multitude of Gauls, and liberated the camp. Winter suspended 10 FRANCE 53-52 B.C. military operations ; but both sides prepared for a new war. As soon as spring set in, Indutiomarus, the confederate of Ambiorix, marched against Labieniis, who was quartered among the Remi ; but the Gaul was defeated and his head sent to the general. Ccesar completely crushed the Treviri and then, marching through the forest of Ardennes, fell on the Eburones. In a few days this un- fortunate people was annihilated, and the whole of northern Gaul appeared for the time pacified. In the same year the general as- sembly of the Gauls, presided over by Qesar, was held at Lutetia, the capital of the Parish. As soon as Caesar had recrossed the Alps, all the nations of Gaul, stung into revolt by the barbarities committed in Belgium, combined against the Romans under a young Auvergnat chief named Vercingetorix. The rising commenced with the massacre of the Romans quartered in the city of Genabum, now Orleans. Soon after this Vercingetorix, who had taken possession of the fortified town of Gergovia (Clermont) and called on the Gallic tribes to rise in self-defense, found himself at the head of a numer- ous army, with which he prepared to march against the Roman legions scattered through Belgium. Suddenly it was learned that Caesar had reappeared in Gaul, and was now carrying fire and sword into Arvernia. Vercingetorix turned back to the defense of his native country, and Caesar was enabled to join the forces in the north from whom he had been separated. After the juncture had been effected. Caesar marched into the territory of the Bitur- ges. To check his advance, Vercingetorix burned many of tlie towns, only Avaricum (Bourges), one of the most prosperous in Gaul, being spared. This town C^sar soon took by storm, and then proceeded with his whole army to besiege Gergovia, where Vercingetorix had arrived before him. Caesar attacked it with his accustomed vigor, but Vercingetorix drove the Romans in disorder into the plain. There they were surrounded, and would have been destroyed had it not been for the immortal tenth legion, which checked the advance of the enemy and enabled the fugitives to re- enter their lines. This compelled Caesar to raise the siege and withdraw beyond the Loire to obtain reinforcements. He even thought of retiring temporarily to the Roman province. Vercinge- torix, however, moved rapidly forward to intercept the retreat of Caesar, and came up with him. A battle took place, in which the Gallic leader was defeated and obliged to seek safety, with the GAUL 11 52 B.C. -14 A.D. "relics of his army, behind the walls of Alesia, one of the strongest places in Ganl. Tliither Ca?sar immediately followed him. The sicg'e of Alesia is the most memorable event in the conquest of Gaul. Caesar undertook it with forces inferior to those of the besieged, and carried it on in sight of 200,000 Gauls, who had hurried up from all points to succor the city, which, being already closely invested and suffering from the horrors of famine, despaired of deliverance. A supreme effort made by this immense army to crush the Romans and relieve the city was frustrated by the German horse in Czesar's pay, who took the enemy in the rear just when the Romans were forcing them back in froiU. A panic terror seized on the Gauls. They fled in disorder, and fell in thousands beneath the swords of the Romans. Vercingetorix, being unable to prolong the defense of the city, surrendered to Ccesar, who sent him in chains to Rome. There he languished in prison for six years. Finally he died by the hand of the executioner. Gaul never recovered from the great disaster it had undergone at the siege of Alesia. One more campaign sufficed for Caesar to extinguish the smoldering revolt in all parts of the territory and bring it completely under his pow-er. Throughout the whole of this terrible war Cresar had shrunk from no cruelty, however atrocious and unwarrantable, to accomplish his purpose; but once undisputed master of a country whose in- habitants he knew to l)e too brave to be held in slavery by rigor, he resolved to win them by entirely different conduct, and rendered their yoke easy. The country was reduced to the state of a Roman province, but Caesar spared it confiscations and onerous burdens; the cities preserved their government and laws and the tribute he imposed on the conquered was paid under the title of " military pay." Reckoning on their support for the execution of his am- bitious plans, he enrolled the best Gallic warriors in his legions, conquered Rome herself liy their help, and gave them in recompense riches and honors. Even the Roman senate w^as opened to the Gauls. Thus Gaul lost its independence and became a part of the world empire of Rome. Caesar's successor, Augustus, w-ho gave an organization to Gaul, maintained the division of the country into four great provinces, but clianged their limits, and gave the name of Lugdunensis to Gallia Celtica, which w^as restricted to the terri- tory contained between the Seine, the Saone and the Loire, and detached from it on the east a territory to which he gave the name 12 FRANCE 14-272 A.D. of Sequanensis and joined to Gallia Belgica. The latter, when thus enlarged, had for its boundaries the Rhine, the Seine, the Saone and the Alps, Aquitania, hitherto enclosed between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, extended as far as the Loire ; and lastly, Gallia Narbonensis was comprised between the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, the Cevennes and the Alps. Eventually, under Diocle- tian, the Roman empire was divided into four great prefectures. That of Gaul, whose chief city was Treves, comprised three great dioceses or vicarships Britain, Spain and Gaul. The latter was divided for the last time at the close of the fourth century into seventeen provinces, containing one hundred and fourteen cities. Gaul remained for four centuries subject to the Romans. Every- thing there became Roman ; there were knights and senators, and the druids became priests of the Roman polytheism. The old laws disappeared, and in the fifth century there were few traces of Gallic institutions in Gaul. The Gauls ti"ansferred to the arts of peace that intelligent activity which for so many years they had fruitlessly expended in war, and Roman Gaul was for a long time flourishing. The forests were cut down ; roads were made ; new cities were founded, while those already in existence increased in extent and opulence. Lutetia, afterwards known as Paris, became the resi- dence of the Csesars, and schools, which soon became flourishing, were established in several cities. Christianity was introduced into Gaul towards the middle of the second century by some priests from the church at Smyrna. The pious missionaries settled in Lyons about the year i6o, and made many converts to tlie new faith. The Roman emperors, however, were hostile to Christianity, and amid the persecutions that they ordered no country counted more heroic martyrs than Gaul and no church was more fertilized by their blood than that of Lyons. Bishop Pothinus, ninety years of age, was stoned by the people, but L'enseus, surnamed the " Light of the West," collected at a later date the dispersed members of the church of Lyons, and towards the middle of the third century Christianity was carried into the rest of Gaul by seven bishops, who, leaving Rome, pro- ceeded to various points of the Gallic territory. All of them ac- quired the crown of martyrdom. Among these the most celebrated w'as St. Denis, who halted on the banks of the Seine at Lutetia. He was decapitated near that city on jMontmartre and interred in the plain which still bears his name. GAUL 13 260-359 A.D, Gaul, subdued by the civilization of Rome as much as by her arms, was, under the first emperors, tranquil and resig-ned. But eventually the country suffered g-reatly through the disorders of the empire and the perpetual revolutions that shook it, and for nearly two centuries Gaul served as the battlefield for the generals who contested the empire. Already the numerous and formidable tribes, formed into a confederation in Germany, had tried on several occasions to reach the left bank of the Rhine, and had occupied, on the frontiers, the principal strength of tlie Roman armies. In this incessantly returning peril and in the midst of the general disorder, the ties that connected the provinces to the empire became daily relaxed and towards the middle of the third century Gaul made an effort to detach itself. The legions of the prefecture of Gaul recognized as emperor, about the year 260, one of their generals, of the name of Posthumus, of Gallic origin. He was assassinated, but had, during thirteen years, several successors, known in history under the name of the Gallic Ccesars. Tetricus, the last of these, betrayed his army, and surrendered himself to the Emperor Au- relian. After the voluntary fall of the Gallic chief, the Germanic tribes invaded Gaul and ravaged it. Devastated by barbarians, crushed with taxes imposed by the various candidates to empire, and exhausted of men and money, the country at length fell into the most miserable condition. So great was its desolation that free- men frequently made themselves serfs or slaves in order to escape the obligation of bearing a share of the public burdens. A revolt of the serfs, towards the close of the third century, was crushed by Maximian ; but his victory did not restore life to the Gallic nation, for the decaying empire imparted its own distress to all the nations it had conquered. Gaul breathed again, however, during a few years under the protecting administration of Cassar Constantius Chlorus, who was called to the imperial throne in 305 by the double abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. After him, Constantine, his son, was proclaimed emperor by the army, and Christianity began its milder reign. Persecution ceased, and this prince, like his father, made great efforts to restore prosperity to the cities of Gaul and security to its frontiers, but the dissensions which troubled the empire upon his death drew down fresh calamities upon it. The barbarians drove back, as far as the Seine, the legions intrusted with the defense of the Rhine. Terror reigned in the ruined cities of Gaul, until 14 FRANCE 359-387 A.D. Julian, by a memorable victory gained in 359 near Strasburg over seven Alemannic chiefs, freed Gaul for some time from the pres- ence of the barbarians. He selected as his residence Lutetia and employed with indefatigable ardor the leisure of peace to repair the ravages of war. But Gaul was destined to find no permanent help in the empire, powerless to defend its extended frontiers against the repeated attacks of the German. In the disintegration of the great world- state in the fifth century Gaul was possessed, almost without an effort, by the hardy tribes from beyond the Rhine. Chapter II THE GERMANIC INVASIONS AND THE MEROVINGIAN KINGDOMS. 387-752 A.D. IN the third century of our era three formidable confederations closed Germany, from the shores of the Bakic to the sources of the Rhine and the Danube, against the imperial armies and fleets the Saxons in the north, the Franks in the west, and tlie Alemanni in the south, while the Goths were encamped on the left bank of the Danube. All these nations, among- which the Roman Empire of the West was eventually divided, did not attack it at the outset with the intention of destroying it. Impelled by irresistible causes to cross its frontiers, they were all eager to have their conquest legitimated by concessions and treaties which incorporated them with the em- pire, whose powerful organization and superior civilization filled them with astonishment and admiration. The Franks were among the barbarians who received large concessions of territory in Gaul long before the epoch assigned to their first invasion. Repulsed from the banks of the Weser by the Saxons, two of the principal tribes of the Frank confederation emigrated in the third century and drew nearer to the frontier of Batavia. The Romans gave these Franks the name of Salics, according to all appearance from that of the Isala, on whose banks they had been encamped for a long period. By favor of the civil wars and revolts which agitated northern Gaul at the end of the third century, they cr(jssed the river and estal)Hshed tliemselves in Batavia. The Emperor Alaximian, after attempting in vain to ex])cl them from the empire, allowed the Salic Franks to settle, about 387. as military colonists, between the Moselle and the Scheldt. A few years later two other Frankish tribes crossed the Rhine in order to support the claims of the usurper Carausius to the imperial throne. Constantius Chlorus and Con- stantine his son contended against them for a long time, and the Emperor Julian, after conquering them, allowed them to found a military colony between the Rhine and the Meuse. These Franks 15 16 FRANCE 387-451 were called Ripiiarii, from the Latin word ripa, because they settled along the banks of tlie Rhine. The Salic Franks and Ripuarian Franks occupied nearly the same respective positions in the fifth century. At this period the empire was divided between the sons of Thcodosius, Honorius reigning at Rome and Arcadius at Constantinople. Gaul formed part of Honorius's share, and under this weak prince, in the west the empire gave way on all sides. A multitude of causes had hastened its dissolution. Anarchy was supreme in the state ; the barbarians plundered that which they were badly paid to defend. In vain Rome humiliated itself so deeply as to become their tribu- tary, endeavoring to stop by presents these rude foes against whom it could no longer effect anything by its arms or the majesty of its name. The work of destruction commenced, and in spite of a few fortunate days for the Roman arms, the invading forces never halted till they had swallowed up the empire, and even Rome itself. The Suevi and Vandals entered Gaul in 406, and from that date up to 476, the epoch when a barbarian chief deposed the last emperor, Italy and Gaul were the scene of war and desolation, in which many peoples of different origin came into conflict. The Suevi and Vandals were followed by the Visigoths, or westeiTi Goths, from the left bank of the Danube, who, after ravaging one half of the empire and sacking Rome, obtained from the Emperor Honorius the concession of the southern territory of Gaul, situated to the west of the Rhone. The empire in the west was dismembered on all sides. The island of Britain had already been abandoned by the Romans, and the Armorican provinces of western Gaul rose in insurrection. In about the same period the Burgundians crossed the Rhine, and in 413 founded on Gallic territory a first Burgun- dian kingdom between Mayence and Strasburg. Valentinian III. succeeded Honorius in 424, and reigned in sloth and indolence at Ravenna, to which city the seat of the Empire in the West had been transferred. Aetius, brought up as a hostage in the camp of the Visigoth conqueror, Alaric, commanded the Roman armies. This skillful general, the last whom Rome pos- sessed, had subjugated several barbarous tribes established in Gaul the Franks, Visigoths, and Burgundians. But at this moment other barbarians pcjured over that country. The Huns, a Scythian people, the most cruel and savage of all, left the shores of the MEROVINGIAN K I N G D O IVI S 17 451-480 Euxine, led by Attila. Guided by the instinct of destruction, they are reported to have said of themselves that they were going whither the wrath of God called them. They entered Gaul and burned and devastated everything in their path as far as Orleans. They threat- ened Paris, and the Parisians attributed the salvation of their city to the prayers of St. Genevieve. Finally the Romans and Visigoths, allied under the command of Aetius and Theodoric, compelled the Pluns to retreat. Attila fell back into Champagne, and there, near Mcry-sur-Seine, a frightful battle took place in the year 451. It was won by Aetius. ATerovius, Chief of the Franks, fought with the Romans and Visigoths on this memorable day, and contributed greatly to the victory. Gaul remained the scene of brutal struggles between the dif- ferent tribes that occupied the country, and each moment of repose was followed by a new and frightful crisis. For a few years longer Roman generals struggled to maintain a vestige of imperial autlior- ity in Gaul. Majorienus, proclaimed emperor in 457, had chosen as his lieutenant in Gaul and master of the militia, yEgidius. who belonged to one of the great families of the country and was dis- tinguished by the most eminent qualities. IMerovius, King of the Salic Franks, having died in 456, was succeeded by his son Child- eric, who was proclaimed king in spite of his extreme youth, but w^as soon afterwards dethroned and expelled by the people w-bo had raised him on the shield. The Franks, no longer possessing a prince of the royal race, voluntarily subjected themselves to TEgidius and recognized him as their chief. But /ligidius, having been declared an enemy of the empire by the Roman senate, the Franks recalled Childeric, placed him again at their head and helped in the overthrow of /Egidius. Childeric, at a later date, was him- self invested with the dignity of master of the militia and fought for the empire against the barbarians who were rending it asunder. Thus, with the approval of the empire, did the Germans possess themselves of Gaul. The empire terminated its lengthened agony between the years 475 and 480. Gaul, upon the fall of the empire, was divided between the Visigoths, under Euric, in the south ; the peoples of Armorica, in the west; the Germans and Burgundians, in the east; and tlie Franks, in the north. The latter, still divided into two groups, the Salic and the Ripuarian, occupied nearly the same territory they had conquered, the possession of which had been confirmed to them 18 FRANCE 480-493 in the two previous centuries. The Ripuarian Franks, who occupied the two banks of tlie Rhine, extended on the Prankish side of that river as far as the Sclieldt. The Sahc Franks occupied, l)etween the Scheldt, the German Ocean, and the Somme, a territory wliich the}^ had conquered under their king. Clodion, towards the middle of the fifth century. They were divided into three tribes or small kingdoms, the principal cities of which were Tournay, Cambray and Therouanne. The chiefs, or kings, of these tribes all belonged to the royal race of Clodion and his son ]\Ierovius. The tribe of Tournay had acquired the first rank and predominant influence under King Childeric. A portion of Gaul between the Somme and the Loire had remained Roman, and maintained itself for some time after the fall of the empire, independent of the barbarians. It was governed at that time by the Roman general Syagrius. son of the celebrated zEgidius, the ex-master of the imperial militia. The Anglo-Saxons in this period, having invaded Britain, and established themselves in that island, a great number of the old inhabitants emigrated and settled at the extremity of the western point of Armorica. They were kindly welcomed by the natives, who had a community of language and origin with them. French Brittany derives its name from these expatriated Britons. About the same period a colony of Saxons, expelled from Germany, estab- lished themselves in lower Normandy, in the vicinity of Bayeux, while another colony of the same people, hostile to the Britons, occupied a part of Maine and Anjou. Such was the state of Gaul when in 481 Clovis, son of Chil- deric, and grandson of Alerovius, wdio gave his name to his dynasty, was elected King of the Salic Franks established at Tournay. His advent marks a new period in the history of Gaul. Under his rule the last remnant of Roman power disappeared and the different Germanic tribes were rendered subject to one ruler. The success of the Franks in that part of Gaul which had re- mained subject to the Romans was partly due to the state of oppres- sion into which the imperial government had plunged the people. Other causes favored their rapid progress in the countries occupied by the Visigoths and Burgundians. These were attached to the Arian heresy, while the nations they had concjuered were maintained by their bishops in the orthodox, or Catholic faith. The bishops, bound to recognize as their pattern and head the bishop of Rome, and to contribute by the unity of religion to the unity of the empire, /. N M E 11 O V I N G I A N K I N G 1) O ]M S 19 498-506 still labored, at the period of the conquest, to retain tinder the authority of Rome, by the bond of religious faith, countries in which the bond of political obedience was severed. The Visigoths and Burgundians did not recognize the authority of the bishops, who had greater hopes of a nation still pagan and free from preju- dices, as the Franks w^ere at that time, than of tribes who, already converted to Christianity, refused to acknowledge their creed or take them as guides. Clovis, elected Chief of the Franks, soon seconded the wish of the bishops of Gaul by espousing, in 493, Clotilda, daughter of Childeric, King of the Burgundians, the only woman of the Germanic race who at that period belonged to the Catholic com- munion. This event influenced in the most profound manner the history of Frankish Gaul. Soon after his election as King of the Franks, Clovis began a series of campaigns that rendered him master of Gaul, The first enemy attacked was Syagrius, the Roman general and governor of that part of Gaul still independent of the barbarians, whose capital was Soissons. Syagrius was conquered in 486, and the Franks extended their limits up to the Seine. Clovis then marched against the hordes of Alemanni, who were invading Gaul, and a l)attle took place in 496 at Tolbiac, Flard pressed in the early part of the day, he promised to adore the God of Clotilda if he gained the vic- tory: he triumphed and kept his vow. Several thousand Frank warriors imitated their chief and were baptized on the same day. It was thus that the Catholic Church gained access to tlic barbarians. Clovis at once sent presents to Rome, as a symbol of tribute, to the successor of the blessed apostle Peter, and from this moment his conquests extended over Gaul without bloodshed. In his future struggles against Arian, Goth, and Burgundian, Clovis was sup- ported by the orthodox population and the orthodox bishops of Gaul. All the cities in the northwest as far as the Loire, and the territory of the Breton emigres, opened their gates to his soldiers. The Burgundian bishops supplicated him to deh\er them from the rule of the Arian barbarians, and in 500 Clovis declared Vv'ar against the Burgundian King Gondebaud, made him his tributary and a convert to Catholicism. Six years later Clovis turned his attention to the fair southern provinces occupied by the Visigoths. lie negotiated with tlie Catholic bishops of tlicse provinces and offered himself to the Call)- olic population of the country as a liberator and avenger. Then, 20 FRANCE 506-509 marching southward, he terrified Alaric II. by the rapidity of his progress. This prince called to his aid his father-in-law, Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, who at that time was governing Italy with glory, but not daring, before the junction of their armies, to engage in a decisive action with the Franks, retreated before them. Clovis, however, pushing on, defeated Alaric's army in 507, near Vougle, three leagues to the south of Poictiers. Alaric lost his life in the engagement. Before long the greater portion of the country occu- pied by the Visigoths, as far as the sources of the Garonne, obeyed Clovis. Carcassonne checked his victorious army. A portion of his forces, under the command of his elder son, Theodoric, marched into Auvergne, in concert with the army of the King of the Burgun- dians, and the combined armies subjugated the whole country as far as Aries, the capital of the Visigothic empire, to which they laid siege. In the meanwhile the Ostrogoths were approaching, and the Franks and Burgundians, retiring before them, raised the siege of Aries and Carcassonne. Peace was finally concluded, after a battle gained by the Ostrogoths. A treaty insured the possession of Aquitaine and Gascony to Clovis. Theodoric, as the price of his services, claimed the province of Aries up to the Durance, the Bur- gundians kept the cities to the north of that city, with the exception of Avignon, and the monarchy of the Visigoths was reduced to Spain and Septimania, of which Narbonne was the capital. The Franks, thus checked in the south by the Ostrogoths, marched westward into the country of the Armoricans, who submitted and consented to pay tribute. The Breton settlers alone defended tlie neck of land in which they had taken refuge and managed to retain their independence. On his return from his expedition into Aquitaine Clovis fixed his residence at Paris. His attention was then turned to the north of Gaul, which was divided between the kingdom of the Ripuarian Franks, extending along the two banks of the Rhine, and the king- dom of the Salian Franks, enclosed between the Scheldt, the Sommc and the sea. Clovis held under his authority two-thirds of Gaul, but was still unrecognized by the tribes of his own nation, with the exception of the Salic tribe of Tournay, at the head of which he had gained all his victories. Tournay, where he had alone suc- ceeded in propagating Christianity, had become an episcopal see. The Salic Franks of the two other kingdoms, Cambray and Therou- anne, and the Ripuarian Franks had remained attached to pagan- MEROVINGIAN KINGDOMS 21 509-511 ism. Clovis resolved to subjugate them. Religion had neither repressed his ambition nor softened his ferocity, and he employed cunning and violence to attain success. He incited Cloderic, son of his ally, Sigibcrt, King of the Ripuarians, to assassinate his father and proclaim himself king. Clovis, however, constituting himself avenger of the murder he had provoked, procured the as- sassination of Cloderic, and, hastening to Cologne, declared that the murders of Sigibert and Cloderic would expose the Ripuarians to great evils, unless they accepted his protection and placed themselves under his laws. His words were listened to, and the Ripuarians proclaimed him their king. He thereupon marched against the Salic tribes of Courtray and Therouanne, whose chiefs, Chararic and Ragnachar, had maintained their independence, and subjugated them, rather by the aid of treachery than by the force of arms. Having obtained possession of the persons of Ragnachar and his brother Rignomere, he slew them with his own hand, and soon after caused Chararic and his two sons to be massacred in the city of Mans. Thus he became sole King of the Franks. Among the later events of his reign was the meeting of a gen- eral council at Orleans, of the bishops of the provinces over which his authority extended. In this he confirmed the gift of immense dominions to the church, and gave great privileges to the clergy, the bishops in their turn making numerous concessions which would serve to strengthen the power of the king. After the closing of the council of Orleans Clovis, on returning to Paris, busied himself with the propagation of Christianity among the Prankish tribes which he had recently subjected in northern Gaul. It is supposed that the same period should be assigned to the Latin edition which he issued of the Salic Law, or, more correctly, of the customs of the Salian Pranks, while modifying them so as to render them more in harmony with the new situation which he had made for his people in Gaul. The work of Clovis was now accomplished, and in the course of the same year, 51 1 , he died at Paris, after bestowing fresh largesses on the clergy, and dividing his states among his four sons, Theodoric, Clodomir, Childcbert, and Lothaire, who were all recog- nized as kings. Clovis thus destroyed the state that he had created. Before continuing the history of the Pranks under the race of Clovis, it will be advisable to take a glance at their religion, laws, and customs, and to explain the relations of the conquerors to the conquered. Royalty among the Pranks was at once elective and 22 FRANCE 511 hereditary: the title of king, in the German language (konig) merely signified chief, and was decreed by election. On tlie death of a king the Franks assembled for the purpose of choosing his successor. We have seen that they chose him from one family, that of Merovius, and that, when they had nominated him, they conse- crated him by raising him on a buckler amid noisy shouts. The chief mission of the ruler they gave themselves w^as to lead them against the foe and to pillage. He received the largest share of the booty, frequently consisting of towns with their territory. This constituted the royal domain and the treasure with which the king recompensed his antrustions or leudes, the name given to the com- rades in arms of the prince who devoted themselves to his fortunes and swore fidelity to him. These leudes formed a separate class, from which the majority of the officers and magistrates were selected. When a king died his sons inherited his domain, and, being richer than their companions in arms, were in a Detter position than other persons to secure suffrages. It was thus that the supreme authority was handed down from father to son in the race of Clovis, at first by election, and then by usage, which in time became law. The sons of Clovis, having all been recognized as kings, each took up his abode in the chief city of his dominions, so that there were from this time four capitals Paris, Orleans, Soissons and Rheims. All these capitals, residences of kings, were chosen to the north of the Loire, in a rather limited space, because the countries in which they were situated were alone considered the land of the Franks. The provinces to the south of the Loire were still filled with reminis- cences of the Romans. The great cities, far richer and more popu- lous than those of the north, and brilliant with the relics of im- perial grandeur, struck the barbarous Franks with a stupid aston- ishment. They found themselves uncomfortable amid the ruins of the civilized world, and hence they sojourned there only with repugnance. The authority of the kings was purely military. The legisla- tive power belonged to the entire nation of the Franks, who assem- bled in arms in the month of March or May, whence these malls, or national comitia, have been entitled " the assemblies of the field of March " and " the field of May." They took place regularly every year in the early period of the conquest, but when the Franks, after becoming landowners, were scattered over Gaul, they neglected to assemble, the kings ceased to convoke them regularly, and the MEROVINGIAN KINGDOMS 23 511 legislative power passed into the hands of the monarchs, their offi- cers, and the bishops. Each city was administered ])y its own municipality, under the direction of the bishop elected by the people and the clergy of his diocese. Justice emanated from the people. All the freemen in each district, designated by the name of armans or rachimbourgs, had the right of being present at the courts, where they performed the duties of judges, under the presidency of the royal officers, or centurions. No subordination existed between the several courts and no appeal was admitted. Each of the tribes that occupied the soil of Gaul retained its own laws. The Gallo-Romans continued to be governed, in their civil relations, by the Theodosian code, a collection of Roman laws drawn up by order of Theodosius II., and promulgated in 438. The Salian and Ripuarian Franks and the Burgundians each had a special code. The law which the Salian Franks obeyed, and which obtained from them the name of the Salic Law, was not drawn up till after the conquest, but it was based on maxims existing long anterior to the invasion of Gaul by the Franks. This law, moreover, established offensive distinctions between the races of the Franks and the Gallo-Romans. The repa- ration for the heaviest crimes was estimated in money. In this species of composition the law always valued the life of a Frank at double that of a Roman. Churchmen, however, were respected, and enjoyed many privileges. Under the sons of Clovis the penal laws became more severe, and the penalty of death was substituted in certain cases for fines. The law of the Ripuarian Franks, ])ro- mulgated by Theodoric I., cstal)lishcd compensation for offenses on principles similar to those of the Salic Law. The law of the Bur- gundians, called the loi Gomhcttc, after Gundobad, its author, was more favorable to the old inhabitants than the laws of the Salic and Ripuarian Franks, and admitted of no distinction between the Romans and the conquerors for crimes committed against persons. In Gaul, after the conquest, a distinction was made between the freemen as possessors of independent estates or owners of benefices, the colonists, and the slaves or serfs. The first among the freemen, whether Franks or Gallo-Romaris, were the leudes, or companions of the kings, and possessors of the royal favor; after the freemen, or owners of the soil, came the farmers, who cultivated it in consid- eration of rent or tribute, and, lastly, the serfs, some of whom were attached to the person of the master, and others to the soil, with which they were sold like cattle. The clergy formed a separate 24 FRANCE 511-532 and very powerful class. All the public oflices which, to be properly filled, required learning and knowledge, were given to the church- men, owing to their superior instruction. In this way they found means to increase the wealth which they derived from the liberality and piety of the faithful. The territorial estates were divided, among the barbarians, into two chief classes, allodia and benefices, or fiefs. The allodia were estates free from any charge, and be- longing entirely either to the conquerors or the conquered. The benefices were lands which the kings detached from the royal do- main in order to reward their leudes. The possession of benefices entailed the obligation of military service, and, at first, being only held for life, they could be recalled. The offices of duke and count, possessed by the first lords, were not transmissible by right of in- heritance to their children. But after a time the bravest warriors, enriched by the royal favor, formed a dangerous aristocracy. They became more powerful in proportion as the royal aufliority grew weaker, and, their claims having increased with their power, they rendered their domains and titles hereditary in their families. This usurpation on the part of the nobles was one of the principal causes of the downfall of the Merovingian dynasty. Devastating wars and frightful crimes marked the reigns of nearly all the descendants of Clovis. The sons of that prince divided his estates among themselves with barbarous ignorance, and this clumsy division was the source of bloody quarrels. Theodoric re- sided at Metz, the capital of the eastern Franks; Lothaire at Sois- sons, Childebert at Paris, and Clodomir at Orleans. The last three also shared among them the lands and cities conquered in Aquitainc. The first notable act of the new kings was the subjugation of the Thuringians, who had established a new monarchy on the banks of the Elbe and the Neckar. Theodoric and Lothaire defeated them in two battles, assassinated the Thuringian prince, put a part of the nation to the sword, and attached Thuringia to the territory of the Franks. Sigismund, son of Gondebaud, who forty years previously assassinated Chilperic, the father of Queen Clotilda, was reigning at this time in Burgundy. The widow of Clovis made her sons promise to avenge the death of Chilperic, their grandfather. Clodo- mir and Lothaire entered Burgundy, won a battle, and made King Sigismund a prisoner, and put him to death. Gondemar, brother of the conquered king, defeated and killed Clodomir, expelled the Franks, and was recognized as king by the Burgundians, over MEROVINGIAN KINGDO^NIS 25 532-547 whom he reigned till the year 532. Lothaire and his brother Childc- bert then conquered him and took possession of the kingdom. These two princes sullied their character by a frightful crime after the death of their brother Clodomir, king of Orleans, who had left three children of tender age. Lothaire and Childebert coveted the inheritance of their nephews, and the former murdered two of them with his own hands. Clodoald, the third son of Clodomir, escaped from the fury of his uncles, became a monk, and founded the mon- astery of St. Clodoald, or St. Cloud. Theodoric I., the eldest of the sons of Clovis, died in 534, after ravaging Auvergne, which had tried to shake off his yoke. His son, Theodebert, succeeded him. The empire of the Goths was at this period beginning to de- cline. Theodoric was dead. He left his two grandsons, Athalaric and Amalaric, between whom he divided his empire. Athalaric had the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy, with the provinces of Gaul up to the Rhone and the Durance; Amalaric, the son of Alaric H., reigned over the Visigoths in Spain and Gaul, from the base of the Pyrenees as far as the Lot and the Rhone. This prince resided at Narbonne, and espoused Clotilda, daughter of Clovis. Clotilda was a Catholic among an Arian people. Outraged by tlie populace, treated still more cruelly by her husband, she appealed to her broth- ers for protection. Childebert led an army of Franks to the fron- tier of Septimania, where he defeated the Visigoths. Amalaric lied to Barcelona, and perished there by assassination. Childebert gave up Narbonne to pillage, and then returned to Paris, loaded with the spoils of the rich province ; but as he neglected to secure the pos- session, it reverted to the Visigoths. The Ostrogoths, after the death of Athalaric and his successor, Theodatus, had selected as their ruler Vitiges, the most skillful of their generals. They were at that time engaged in a war with Justinian, the Emperor of the East, who asked the support of the Prankish king, Theodebert L, son of Theodoric L, against the Ostrogoths. Theodebert, equally appealed to by the latter to help them against Justinian, passed the Alps at the head of a numerous army and received gold from both sides. Then, breaking his engagements, he assailed both armies, ravaged Lombardy with fire and sword, and snatched Provence from the Ostrogoths. Theodebert was meditating an invasion of the empire of the east, when he died in 547, leaving the throne to his son Theodebald, who reigned only seven years. On the death of the latter. Lothaire, 26 FRANCE 547-567 his great-uncle, seized his kingdom. His other grand-uncle, Childc- bert, jealous of this usurpation, set up against Lothaire his son Chramme, and at first supported him with his army, but himself soon fell ill at Paris and died. Lothaire inherited his kingdom, pursued his own rebellious son, and had him burned alive, wnth his wife and daughters. He had now succeeded his three elder broth- ers, and held under his sway the whole of Roman Gaul, in which were comprised Savoy, Switzerland, the Rhenish provinces, and Belgium. Septimania alone remained to the Visigoths. Lothaire's authority extended beyond the Rhine, over the duchies of Germany, Thuringia, and Bavaria, and the countries of the Saxons and the Frisians. He made no use of this power, and the only memorial that remained of the two years during which he governed alone the monarchy of the Franks was the murder of his son. Lothaire was taken ill in 561, a year after this horrible execution, nnd, amazed at the approach of death, is reported to have said : " Who is this King of Heaven who thus kills the great kings of the earth? " Lothaire L left four sons Caribert, Gunthram, Chilperic, and Sigibert who divided his states among them. Caribert lived but a short while, and left no male child. From his death dates a fresh division among the three surviving brothers. The country situated between the Rhine and the Loire was divided in two, as if a diagonal line were drawn from north to south, from the mouths of the Scheldt to the environs of Langres, near the sources of the Saone. The part situated to the west of this line was named Neustria (Neuster: west) and the other part, to the east, was named Austrasia (Ostro: east). Neustria fell, in the partition, to Chilperic, and Austrasia to Sigibert. Burgundy formed the third great division of Gaul, and was the share of Gunthram. Countries afterwards conquered were regarded as appendices of the Frankish empire, and it was arranged that a separate division should be made of them. These were Provence, Aquitaine, and Gascony. The first was attached to Austrasia and Burgundy and was divided between Sigibert and Gunthram ; the second was di- vided into three parts, reputed equal, each of which formed a small Aquitaine; and, lastly, Gascony was divided between Cliilperic and Sigibert, to the exclusion of Gunthram. The German provinces, governed by dukes nominated by the kings, were scarce taken into consideration in this division. They were allotted, with Austrasia, to Sigibert. The three brothers made a strange convention with ^lEROVINGIAN KINGDOMS 27 567.575 regard to the city of Paris : owing to its importance, they promised that no one of them should enter it without the consent of the others. This celebrated division of the inheritance of Lothaire I. was made in the year 567, and from this moment commenced the long and bloody rivalry between Neustria and Austrasia. Chilperic and Sigibert distinguished themselves by their fratri- cidal hatred, but w^ere surpassed in audacity, ambition, and bar- barity by their wives, whose names acquired a great and melancholy celebrity. Sigibert had married Brunhilda, daughter of the King of the Visigoths. Chilperic, surnamed the Nero of France, jealous of the alliance contracted by his brother, put aside the claims of his mistress, Fredegonda, in order to espouse Gaileswintha, sister of Brunhilda. He had, at this period, three sons by his first wife, Andovera, whom he repudiated and imprisoned at Rouen. Shortly after his second marriage he had Gaileswintha strangled, at the instigation of Fredegonda, and took the latter for his wife. Brun- hilda swore to avenge her sister. After an unsuccessful war against his brother Sigibert, tlie King of Neustria submitted, asked for peace and accepted a treaty, which he violated almost immediately afterwards by taking up arms again. Sigibert marched on Paris, w'hich Chilperic had seized, laid the environs of the city waste, took it by storm, and forced his brother to shut himself up in Tournay, with his wife and children. The Austrasian army invested the latter town, and Sigibert declared that he would kill Chilperic. But he, wishing first to have himself elected King of Neustria, proceeded to Vitry, where he was pro- claimed king, but in the midst of the rejoicings two emissaries of Fredegonda stabbed him with poisoned knives. He died, and his army dispersed. Chilperic regained his crown and entered Paris as a victor. The widow of the assassinated King Sigibert, Brunhilda, was still in that city with her two daughters and her youthful son Childebert. By order of Chilperic she was arrested and kept as a prisoner with her children, but young Childebert was let dow^n in a basket from a window of the castle and carried to Metz, where he was proclaimed King of Austrasia in 575, as Childebert II. King Chilperic sent Brunhilda with her two daughters in exile to Rouen. Here she was joined by Mcrovius, the son of Chilperic and the unfortunate Andovera, whom she married in secret. Chilperic, informed of the marriage, took umbrage at it, and hastened to 28 FRANCE 575-584 Rouen, where he separated the couple. Brunhilda regained her hberty and fled into Austrasia, but Merovius was arrested by his father's orders, ordained priest, in spite of his protests and exiled to the monastery of St. Calais, near Mans. Escaping from his guar- dians, he tried to join his wife in Austrasia, but the Austrasian leudes drove him into Neustria, and at length, when just on the point of falling into the hands of his implacable father, he com- mitted suicide. Chilperic, after his recstablishment on the throne, set no bounds to his ambition and cupidity. He invaded the states of his brother Gunthram during a war that prince was waging against the Lombards, but Gunthram, after defeating the Lombards, recaptured all the places which Chilperic had seized. Six years later a new invasion of the Neustrians into Burgundy was repulsed, and Chil- peric perished soon after, being assassinated in the forest of Chelles. Of all the sons he had by Fredegonda, only one, Lothaire, survived him. The mother undertook the guardianship of her son, and, be- ing menaced simultaneously by all the enemies her crimes had aroused against her, she placed herself, with her child, under the protection of King Gunthram. Brunhilda was at this period disputing the guardianship of her young son, Childebert IL, with the nobles of Austrasia. The Frankish kings had, up to this time, been accustomed to set one of their leudes over the officers of their house, as steward of the royal domains. This officer, who had the title of major domo, was at a later date called " mayor of the palace of the kings," and was merely their first officer. But after the death of Sigibert the Aus- trasian nobles, jealous of Brunhilda's authority, elected one of their number mayor of the palace and added to his functions tliat of pre- siding over them and watching the youthful king. Brunhilda tried in vain to oppose the haughty aristocracy who claimed a share in the guardianship of her son. She therefore restrained herself till Childebert was of the age to govern by himself, and inspired him with a profound dissimulation. It was not alone in Austrasia that a reaction was visible against the descendants of Merovius. Royalty was no longer in Gaul what it had formerly been in the forests of Germany. The descendants of Clovis had gradually usurped an arbitrary and despotic authority over their own comrades in arms and the Frankish aristocracy, which the aristocracy, grown power- ful through their landed estates, struggled to resist. Llitherto MEROVINGIAN KINGDOMS 29 584 floating, they had become fixed. They had acquired perpetuity with property. A multitude of freemen resorted to them for their sup- port against the exactions of royal officers, and this patronage spread in spite of the prohibitions of the kings. The church itself, though it had at first favored the progress of the royal authority, grew weary of a despotism which no longer respected its immunities and privileges. The bishops leagued themselves with the principal feudatories. A formidable conspiracy was thus formed against the kings of Austrasia and Burgundy. The aristocracy desired a ruler who would be a passive instrument in their hands, and turned their at- tention to a natural and unrecognized son of Lothaire I., Gondevald by name, who, fearing the suspicious jealousy of the kings his broth- ers, had sought a refuge at Constantinople, at the court of the Em- peror Maurice, This man was induced by some of the feudatories of Burgundy and Austrasia to assert his claim to a share of the do- minions of Lothaire I., his father, and, on his arrival, was en- thusiastically received in the south of Gaul. The insurrection spread the furthest in those parts of Aquitaine subjected to the kings of Neustria and Burgundy. The most powerful men in those countries espoused the cause of Gondevald, who announced him- self as heir of Lothaire L, but respected the claims of Childebert 11. in Austrasian Aquitaine. Bordeaux, Toulouse, and other large towns opened their gates to Gondevald, and the larger portion of Gaul to the south of the Loire was gained over or conquered. Gun- thram, terrified by the progress of the revolution, invited his nephew Childebert IL to join him against Gondevald and drew him into the alliance by adopting him as his heir. On the approach of the formidable armies of Burgundy and Austrasia, defections commenced in Aquitaine, and Gondevald, abandoned by a great portion of the Aquitanians, was compelled to seek a refuge in the town of Comminges. After enduring a brief siege in this town, which nature and art had combined to render impregnable, his partisans, seduced by the gold and fair promises of Gunthram, surrendered him to the besiegers, who put liim to death. But this treachery was of no advantage to the traitors. The Austrasio-Burgundian army penetrated into the town, and faithless inhabitants, priests, and soldiers all perished by the sword or by fire. The two princes, uncle and nephew, then formed a new com- 30 FRANCE 584-612 pact in a solemn assembly held at Andelot. The common interests of the kingdoms of Burgundy and Austrasia were regulated there, and the survivor of the two kings was recognized as the heir of the other. After this, King Childebert, encouraged by his successes in Aquitaine, by the support of Gunthram, and by the genius of his mother, Brunhilda, shook off the yoke of his leudes, and put several of them to death. While the youthful Childebert was signalizing his reign in Austrasia by deeds of violence, old King Gunthram was terminating his in Burgundy by reverses. His armies were de- feated in Languedoc by the Visigoths, and fell back in Novempopu- lania before the Gascons, the ferocious mountaineers of the Pyre- nees. The old king died in 593, and Childebert, his nephew and adopted son, succeeded him. He did not long survive his uncle. After attempting an invasion of Neustria at the instigation of his mother, Brunhilda, in which he was unsuccessful, he died in 596, leaving two sons of tender age, Theodebert and Theodoric. At this time the three kingdoms of the Franks recognized as kings three boys. Lothaire H. reigned in Neustria, Theodebert H. in Austrasia, and Theodoric H. in Burgundy; the first under the guardianship of Fredegonda, the two others under that of their grandmother, Brunhilda. The implacable hatred of these two queens rekindled hostilities and in a great battle fought near Sens, by Fredegonda against the sons of Childebert, the Austrasians and Burgundians took to flight. Fredegonda entered Paris victoriously, reconstituted the old kingdom of Neustria in its integrity and died, after triumphing over all her enemies, either by the sword or by poison. Excited by their grandmother, the two brothers, Theode- bert and Theodoric, formed an alliance against Lothaire H. and the united Austrasian and Burgundian armies came up with the Neus- trians at Dormeille in the country of Sens. Lothaire was con- quered. Two years later Brunhilda, at the head of the Burgun- dians, gained another victory over the Neustrians at Etampes. Lothaire had all but fallen into her hands, when she learned that Theodebert, King of Austrasia, had treated at Compiegne with their common enemy, whom he had it in his power to crush. This peace saved the son of Fredegonda, but enraged Brunhilda, who from this moment only thought of punishing Theodebert. She armed The- odoric against his brother, and after a war that lasted several years, between the Burgundians and Austrasians, the two armies met on iVI E R O \ I N G I A N K I N G D O M S 31 612-628 the already celebrated plains of Tolbiac. Theodebert was con- quered, and fled, but fell into the hands of his brother, who put his young son to death before his eyes, while Theodebert himself was murdered by the orders of his implacable grandmother. Theodoric died suddenly in the following year, leaving four sons, of whom Sigibert, the eldest, was scarce eleven years of age. Brunhilda undertook to have him crowned alone and to maintain the unity of his father's states by evading the custom of division. This attempt excited a rebellion, and the nobles summoned to their aid Lothaire II., King of Xeustria. Lothaire was already on the Meuse, and marched to the Rhine. Brunhilda proceeded to Worms with her great-grandsons and sought support from the Germans. A portion of the Austrasian leudes had already passed over into Lothaire's camp : the others flocked round their king, in order to betray him more easily. The most distinguished of the conspirators were two powerful Austrasian lords, whose children became, by intermarriage, the founders of the second royal dynasty of France. They were Arnulf, afterwards canonized as Bishop of ^letz, and Pippin, of Landen, a town in Hainault. Both Arnulf and Pippin, under the authority of the celebrated Warnachair, mayor of the palace in Burgundy, aided the success of the famous plot whose object was the overthrow of Queen Brunhilda and her race. The combined Austrasian and Burgundian armies met the Neustrians on the banks of the Aisne in Champagne. The conspirators then declared themselves. Lothaire II. was hailed as king by all the Franks, and three of Theodoric's sons were surrendered to him. Fie had the young King Sigibert murdered, with one of his brothers, he exiled another to Xeustria, but tlic fourth escaped him, and never reappeared. Lastly, the haughty Brunhilda herself fell into the hands of the son of Frcdegonda, who had her fastened alive to the tail of a wild horse, and tlms dragged to death. After the death of Brunhilda Lothaire II. united under his scepter the entire Prankish monarchy, but soon discovered that the unity of his vast empire was only apparent. The nobles of Aus- trasia, in overthrowing Sigibert. had thougiit much less about rais- ing Lothaire than of aggrandizing themselves. They wanted a prince to reside among them, that they might direct him as they thought proper; and they forced the king to share his throne witli his son Dagobert, and give them the latter as their sovereign. Dagobert, who had scarce emerged from infancy, reigned under the 32 FRANCE 614-633 guardianship of Arnulf, Bishop of Metz. The most celebrated event in the reign of Lothaire 11. was the council, or synod, of Paris in 614. The famous edict, which this assembly of bishops and nobles promulgated, forms an epoch in history, for it marked the success of the reaction of the latter against the kings, by shaking the system of arbitrary government, which the latter had tried to found. One of the chief articles settled was that the judges, or counts, should always be selected from the landowners of the parts where their jurisdiction would be exercised. From this time the dignity of count belonged nearly always to the richest proprietor in each county, and the royal choice had narrow limits. But little more is known of the reign of Lothaire II. Wars broke out between him and his son Dagobert, whose independence he was compelled to recognize, and his life was ended in the midst of civil troubles. He died in 628, before he had been able to secure the establishment of his second son, Caribert. The rule of Dagobert extended over the three kingdoms of the Prankish monarchy Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy; and from these he detached Ac[uitaine, that is to say, the territory be- tween the Loire, the Rhone, and the Pyrenees, and gave it to his brother Caribert. The latter soon died, and his eldest son was assassinated, it is said, by a faction devoted to Dagobert, who re- sumed possession of his brother's states. The unity of the Prankish monarchy was thus once again restored. If a Merovingian king could have arrested the fall of his dynasty, Dagobert would have had this glory. Not one of the kings descended from Clovis caused his power to be more respected, or displayed greater magnificence. He had the Salic and Ripuarian Laws revised and written, as well as those of his Alemannic and Bavarian vassals. In the end, however, he gave way to debauchery and cruelty. He forgot the claims of justice, and imposed heavy tributes on his people. At the same time his arms were not suc- cessful. The Venedis, a Slavonic people, had established them- selves in the valley of the Danube, the great commercial route between northern Gaul and Constantinople and Asia, where they massacred and plundered a large caravan of Pranks. Dagobert marched against them to take vengeance for the deed, but his army was defeated, and the power of the Pranks was shaken through the whole of Germany. MEROVINGIAN KINGDOMS 33 633.-656 Dagobert, from this lime, confined bis attention to keeping bis own subjects in oljedience. Tbe Austrasians, ever ready to revolt, forced bim to sbare bis tbrone with bis son Sigibert, tbree years of age, and give bim to tbem as king, wbile another son, Ciovis, was recognized as King of Nenstria and Burgundy. In tbe last year of bis reign Dagobert repulsed an invasion of tbe Gascons, repressed a revolt in Aquitaine, and made a treaty with tbe Bretons, who recognized bis supremacy. In spite of tbe reverses of bis arms against the Venedis, and numerous causes of internal dissolution, Dagobert, who died in 638, remained to the end of liis reign powerful and feared. He combined, like many of tlie princes of bis race, a great fervor for religion and a superstitious devotion with licentious tastes. But despite all his vices, he surpassed in merit tbe majority of the princes of his family. When he died, a century and a half bad elapsed since tbe elevation of Ciovis to the throne of the Franks; and this period, marked by so much devastation and so many crimes, was the most memorable during tbe reign of the Merovingians. After tbe death of Dagobert I., the Merovingian family only offered phantoms of kings, brutalized l)y indolence and debauchery, whom history has justly branded with the title of rois faincantes. By tbe side of royalty had developed tbe power of the mayors of the palace, w'ho ultimately took advantage of the weakness of tbe Merovingians to usurp dc facto tbe entire authority. Elected by tbe leudes, they bad for a long period been supported by them in governing the sovereigns ; but when their power was thoroughly established they crushed tbe nobles, in order that there might be henceforth no other authority than their own. They then trans- mitted their office to their sons, and it was eventually regarded as the appanage of a family, in the same way as tbe scepter seemed to belong by right to the race of Ciovis, On the death of Dagobert, Aega was recognized as mayor in Nenstria, and Pippin of Landen in Austrasia. To tbem was confided the guardianship of tbe two sons of Dagobert, the monk-like Sigibert XL, and the debauchee, Ciovis XL, between whom his states were divided. These, in their turn, were succeeded in office by their sons Aega by Erkinoald and Pippin by Grimoald. On the death of Sigibert XX., Grimoald had tried to get the scepter into his family. Xle had the youthful Dagobert, son of Sigiljert, conveyed to Ireland, concealed the place 34 FRANCE 656-678 of his retreat, and dared to place the crown on the head of his own son. But the Austrasian nobles revolted against an authority which was independent of their choice, put Grimoald and his son to death, and recognized as their master tlie weak Clovis II., King of Neustria. This king passed cjuickly over the scene, leaving his scepter and empty royal title to Lothaire III., his elder son, who assumed sovereignty over the whole of his father's possessions. The famous Ebroin v;as at that time mayor of the palace in Neustria, but he did not succeed in long maintaining the apparent unity of the monarchy. The Austrasian lords desired a king who, like his predecessors, should be subject to their influence. They summoned the youthful Childeric, second son of Clovis II., greeted him as King of Austrasia, and gave him for guardian the mayor, ^^'ulfoald. The despotism of Ebroin soon drove the nobles of Neustria and Burgundy into revolt under Leger, the Bishop of Autun. The able mayor of the palace at first subdued the rebellion, but the death of Lothaire III. shook his power. He did not dare convene the nobles, according to custom, in order to elect a suc- cessor to this prince, who died childless, but he proclaimed as king, of his owm authority, the youthful Theodoric, third son of Clovis 11. The lords of Neustria and Burgundy were no more willing than those of Austrasia to see the mayors usurp the right of election to the throne, and they offered the crown of the two kingdoms to Childeric II., King of Austrasia. Ebroin, abandoned by all, was forced to take the tonsure, and was imprisoned in the monastery of Euxeuil. Theodoric III. was led as a prisoner into his brother's presence, and confined by his orders at St. Denis. Childeric II. removed his residence from Metz to Paris. This prince combined with the brutal passions of his degenerate race the energetic char- acter of his ancestors. The nobles, most of whom he contrived to offend, formed a conspiracy against him, for inflicting on one of their order a dishonorable punishment reserved for slaves. The conspirators surprised the king, while hunting in the forest of Bondy, near the royal mansion of Chelles, and murdered him, with his wife and children. Ebroin came out of captivity, defended the weak Theoderic, and exercised for a long time an uncontrolled power. A formidable opposition, however, was organized against Ebroin in Austrasia. After the death of Childeric II., Dagobert, son of Sigibcrt II., was recalled from Ireland and placed on the throne. Imitating the last king, Childeric, in his treatment MEROVINGIAN K I N G D :\r S 35 678-714 of the nobles, he was assassinated, and died wilhont leavnic^ an heir. Among- the murderers of Dagol^ert were several partisans and relatives of the old mayor. Pippin of Landen, whose grandson, the son of his daughter Legga, afterwards known in history as Pippin of Pleristal, was recognized, during the interregnum which followed the death of Dagobert, as one of the chiefs of the aristocracy of the dukes and counts of Austrasia. The nobles triumphed in that coun- try, and were crushed in Neustria and Burgundy. A multitude of exiles from these two kingdoms demanded vengeance of the dukes of Austrasia upon Ebroin, and a fresh collision took place. Neus- tria was victorious, but Ebroin was unable to reap the fruit of his victory. A lord, Ermanfroi by name, who had been proved culpable in office and threatened with death, anticipated Ebroin, bv cleaving his skull with an ax, and fled to Austrasia. where Pippin of Hcristal loaded him with honors. Ebroin, without sce])tcr or crown, had reigned for twenty years, with a power that no king had exercised before him. The feeble Theodoric was still reigning- in Neustria, when the mayor, Waratho, and after him Berthair, succeeded hlbroin in liis important office. The reins of government, on slipping from his powerful grasp, W'ere relaxed in their feeble hands. Civil discord agitated Neustria; hope was re-aroused in the banished lords. They renewed their applications to Pippin of Hcristal, who announced himself the avenger of the Prankish nobles and priests desi)oiled l)v the mayors of Neustria, and was proclaimed commander-in-chief. He encountered the Ncustrian army at Tcslry, in tlie county of Vermandois, in 687, gained a great victory, and made prisoner King Theodoric. He recognized him as monarch of Neustria and Austrasia, governing in his name as mayor of the palace, after de- stroying the rulers of the party opposed to the nobles. After the death of Theoderic, Pippin crowned in succession his two sons, Clovis in. and Childebert III., and then his grandson, Dagobert III., but he was the real military chief and sole grand judge of the nation of the Franks. The empire of the Frank's l)cgan to break up after the battle of Testry. The Saxons, Parisians, Alcmannians, Bavarians, and Thuringians, hitherto vassals of the Alerovingian kings, c<^nsidered themselves the eciuals of Pippin when they had contributed to his victory. Pippin contended against tliem, and, almost to his death. 36 FRANCE 714-719 had to sustain long and arduous wars on all the northern frontiers, while Burgundy and Provence shook off his yoke in the south. The men of Aquitaine rallied under the celebrated Eudes, Duke of Tou- louse, and descendant of the Merovingian Caribert, brother of Dag- obert I., to whom they gave the title of king, and rendered them- selves almost independent of the Prankish monarchy. Pippin had two sons, Drogo and Grimoald, by his wife Plcc- trude, and a third, of the name of Charles, by his concubine Alpaiva. Drogo died in 708, so Pippin invested his second son, Grimoald, with the office of mayor of Neustria. An implacable hatred sub- sisted between the mothers of Charles and Grimoald, who became deadly foes, Grimoald was murdered when Pippin lay dying. He sprang from his death-bed, destroyed all the authors of the murder, shut up his son Charles, whom he suspected of being an accomplice, in Cologne, and established Grimoald's son Theodebald, who was hardly five years of age, as mayor of the palace. This energetic act exhausted his strength. "He died in 714," the annals of the Franks tells us, " after commanding for twenty-seven years and six months the whole Prankish people, with the kings subject to him Theodoric, Clovis, Childebert, and Dagobert." Pippin left at the head of the monarchy two boys one king, the other mayor under the guardianship of the aged queen Plec- trude, the grandmother of Theodebald. The Neustrians revolted against Plectrude and her grandson and, choosing Regenfried as mayor of the palace, attacked and disarmed Austrasia. Pressed on all sides, the y\ustrasians in their turn deserted Plectrude and her son. Charles, the natural son of Pippin, escaped from prison and became the leader of the Austrasian Franks. Still, the name of the Merovingians possessed a certain prestige; and on the death of Dagobert HI. both factions elected a pretended member of this degenerate race as king, Chilperic H. in Neustria, and Lothaire IV. in Austrasia. They nominally reigned, while the two real masters of these states, Regenfried and Charles, prepared for a struggle which terminated in favor of the latter, for by the memorable vic- tory of Vine, near Cambray, gained in 717, the whole of Neustria became his conquest. The Neustrians summoned to their aid Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine, but Charles defeated the allied troops of Neustria and Aquitaine near Soissons, and pursued them up to Orleans. Lothaire IV., the puppet King of Austrasia, had just died, so Charles had Chilperic 11. , the imbecile King of Neustria, ]M E R O V I N G I A N KINGDOMS 37 71 9;- 741 recognized as sovereign of the whole empire of Clovis. On his death, two 3^ears later, he gave him Theodoric IV. for a suc- cessor. A terrible foe now menaced the empire of the Franks. Only a century previously Mohammed had founded a new religion in Arabia and formed a single state from the Arab tribes. Already the Mohammedan armies had invaded Asia, Africa, and Spain, and were advancing into Gaul. Narbonne soon succumbed to the Arabs, and they next menaced Aquitaine and the other possessions of Duke Eudes. This prince, however, gained two victories over the Saracens, but his states being again menaced by Abdul-Rahman, the leader of the Mussulmans in Spain, while he was still carrying on the war in the north of his states, against the invincible Charles, chief of the Franks, and feeling that he was too weak to contend against all these foes, and constrained to submit either to the Franks or Arabs, he proceeded as a fugitive to the court of Charles, recog- nized him as his suzerain, and obtained at this price the help of the Franks. Charles made a warlike appeal to all the warriors of Neus- tria, Austrasia and western Germany, and the formidable army thus raised encountered and completely defeated the countless hosts of Abdul-Rahman on October lo, 732, on the plains of Poitiers. The Arabs evacuated Aquitaine immediately after their disastrous de- feat, and this day, forever memorable, on which it was said that Charles had hammered the Saracens, gained him the glorious sur- name of Martel, or Hammer, which posterity has retained. One of the results of this famous campaign was to restore the great prov- ince, or kingdom, of Aquitaine and Gascony to the monarchy of the Franks, by the oath of vassalage which Duke Eudes had made to his liberator. Charles IMartel now turned his arms against several tribes of Gaul that had ceased to obey the unworthy successors of Clovis. He subjugated the Burgundians, penetrated into Septimania, and, by the capture of two famous cities, Aries and Marseilles, completed the subjugation of Provence to the monarchy of the Franks. Under his government the hitherto unchecked progress of the clergy in power and wealth was arrested in Gaul, for he was bold enough to confiscate part of the estates of the church in order to furnish re- wards for his warriors. He did not assume the name of king, but he appointed no successor to Theodoric IV., son of Dagobert HI., wliom he had crowned upon the death of Chilperic II. Death 38 FRANCE 741-752 surprised him in 741, when he was undertaking an expedition into Italy, to succor the Pope against the Lombards. Before dying, he (hvided his authority among his three sons, Pippin, surnamed the Short, Karhnann, and Grifo. Pippin and Karhnann dispossessed their brother, and divided the paternal heritage between them ; but they soon saw that Charles Martel had not handed down to them with his power the prestige attaching to his formidable and famous name; and, in order to support their authority, they drew from the monastery the last of the Alerovingians, who was proclaimed King of the Franks, by the name of Childeric III. Karlmann soon after became a monk, and entered the monastery of Monte Cassino ; while Pippin, under the title of mayor of the palace, remained sole master of the Prankish monarchy. Having gained the favor of the Pope by offering to defend the Holy See against the Lombards, he obtained permission from him to assume the title of king, and was crowned in 752. He then assembled the general comitia at Soissons, and, relying on his own power, the name of his ancestors, and the Papal sanction, he was elected King of the Franks. Childeric III. was shorn and re- turned to the cloister, which he was never to leave again. Pippin founded a second royal dynasty, to be called the Carlovingian, after his father's name. The power of the Merovingian kings had attained its apogee under Dagobert I. The Prankish empire had at that time for its boundaries the German Ocean, the Atlantic, the Pyrenees, the Medi- terranean, the Adriatic, the upper Danube, and the Rhine. The various nations inhabiting this territory recognized the authority of the Merovingian kings, some as being directly subject to them, others as tributaries. The great divisions of the Prankish empire directly subject to the Merovingian princes were Neustria, the country of the west, and Austrasia, country of the east, whose limits, as already de- scribed, varied but slightly during the whole existence of the dynasty; Burgundy, which also comprised Provence, and extended from the southern frontier of Austrasia as far as the Cevennes, the Mediterranean, and the Alps; and Acjuitaine, enclosed between the Atlantic, the Loire, and the Garonne. Round these larger states were others governed by separate chiefs, who frequently gave the Prankish kings no other sign of submission beyond a slight tribute. These countries were to the THE LAST .M KK(.V1 XCI \ N KK(K1\K^ TIIK Td \ S T I Vaiulni, N.,, Cli ll.DKKK III, 1()K( IIIIA DKTIlkONF.l), AMI IS K\( I.OISTKKF.I). J^^ \At. X !:. r. i.iiiiiiii.ii.. M E R O \^ I N G I A X KINGDOMS 39 752 north of Austrasia, between the Rhine and the Weser, Frisia and Thuringia ; to the east, Allcniania and Bavaria ; and to the west of Neustria, Brittany. Two countries south of Aquitaine still contended for independ- ence: these were Septimania, Xarbonensis Prima, which could not be torn from the Visigoths, and Vasconia or Gascony. This country, which occupied a portion of X'ovcmpopulania, lower Lan- guedoc, again formed, on the death of Eudes, a nearly independent state, which sustained, as we shall see in the reigns of the descend- ants of that prince, long wars against Pippin and Charlemagne. Chapter III THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 752-987 TFIE transition from hereditary mayor of the Franks to hereditary king of the monarchy was an easy one. The revokition that placed the crown on Pippin's head and founded a new hne of kings was so natural that contemporaries did not realize its gravity." In this revolution an important part had heen played by the Pope. The Lombards at that time possessed the whole northern part of Italy, and, at the time of the accession of Pippin, King Astolphe was contesting with Pope Zacharias the possession of the territory over which the Popes exercised temporal authority. Zacharias required a powerful supporter, and counted on the help of Pippin, if he could render him favorable to his cause. Consulted by some Prankish ambassadors concerning the relations of the foincantcs kings and the mayors of the palace, he replied that it was " better to call him king who had the kingly power." Pippin treated the utterance as a formal approval of his course. The Popes were not slow in claiming their reward. Stephen II. succeeded Zacharias. Menaced by the Lombards, he went to Pippin and implored his support. The king treated him with the greatest honor, and the Pontiff consecrated him a second time, with his two sons, Charles and Karlmann. In the sermon which Stephen preached on this occasion, he implored the Franks never to elect a king from any other family but that of Pippin, and excommunicated those who might be tempted to do so. Stephen had implored Pippin's assistance against Astolphe, King of the Lombards. The Prankish monarch collected an army, led it to Italy, was victorious, and ceded to the Pope the exarchate of Ravenna. Pippin successfully waged long and sanguinary wars with the P)retons, .Saxons, Saracens, and Aquitanians. The latter, more especially, offered him a stubborn resistance. After the defeat of the Saracens at Poitiers, Duke Eudes remained at peace with Charles Alartel, whose suzerainty he had recognized. He died in 735, leaving Aquitaine to his elder son Hunold, and Gascony to his second son Otto. Ilunold despoiled his brother of the greater part 4.0 C H A R L E M A G \ B 41 735-773 of his states, and resolved to break the bonds that subjected him to the kings of the Franks. He therefore waged war against Karl- mann and Pippin, the sons of Charles ^Martel. In 745, however, when Pippin invaded Aquitaine at the head of a formidable army, Hunold laid down his arms and swore fidelity to the Prankish kings. Ultimately he abdicated in favor of Waifar, put on a monk's robe, and shut himself up in the monastery of the Isle of Rhe, where his father Eudes lay interred. The war was suspended for several years between Waifar and Pippin, but when the latter had brought the Italian war to a successful ending, and had annexed Septimania to the Prankish monarchy, he invaded Aquitaine. Then com- menced a nine years' war, marked by frightful devastations, towards the close of which Waifar was assassinated by his countrymen. With him the name of Merovingians became extinct in history, and the grand-duchy of Aquitaine was again attached to the crown of the Franks. Pippin bestowed great largess on the clergy, and through his whole life displayed the greatest deference to them. He frequently assembled the comitia of the kingdom, to which he always sum- moned the bishops, seeking to interest them in the success of his enterprises. His character may be summed up in a few w^ords, by saying that he was brave, strong, moderate and prudent. Before his death in 768, when he had reigned seven years, he asked the advice of his nobles in dividing his estates between his two sons, Charles and Karlmann, and the result was that the assembly of nobles and bishops willingly recognized Charles as King of the West, and Karlmann as King of tlie East. Ambition soon armed Charles and Karlmann against each other. The death of the latter stifled the germs of civil war, and in 771 Charles usurped the states of his brother, to the prejudice of his nephews. The whole nation of the Franks from this moment recognized the authority of Charles, for whom his victories and great qualities acquired the surname of Great, or Magnus, and who is known in history by the name of Charlemagne. During a reign of forty-six years this prince extended his country's frontiers beyond the Hanuljc, imposed tribute on the bar- barian nations as far as the Vistula, conquered a portion of Italy, and rendered himself formidable to the Saracens. He first went into Italy, on the entreaty of Pope Adrian I., and marched to assist him against Didier, King of the Lombards, wh<\^c daughter he had 42 F R A N C E 773-778 himself married and repudiated. He made this king a prisoner, himself assumed the iron crown, and put an end to the Lombard rule in Italy, which had lasted for two hundred and six years. Charlemagne during this expedition went to Rome, where he pre- sented himself to the Pope, whom he had saved, kissing each step of the Pontifical palace. He believed himself called to subject to Christianity the barbarous nations of Europe, and when persuasion did not avail to the triumph of the faith, he had recourse to con- quest and punishments. The Saxons formed at this period a con- siderable nation, divided into a multitude of small tribes. They were idolators, and among other acts of cruelty toward the mis- sionaries who had gone among them, they burned the church of Deventer and all the Christians in it. Charlemagne heard of this, marched against them, and conquered them. After putting down several revolts against his authority, Charlemagne held, in 775, a celebrated assembly at Paderborn, where he obliged all the Saxons to receive baptism, and divided their principalities among abbots and bishops. Hence dates the origin of the ecclesiastical principalities in Germany, After conquering the Saxons Charlemagne turned his arms against the Saracens. Civil wars had broken out among them in the eighth century, the Mussulmans being divided between the fam- ily of the Abassides, who resided at Bagdad, and that of the Om- miades, who governed Spain. The latter country, however, was agitated by factions, and one of them entreated the aid of Charle- magne against Abdul-Rahman, lieutenant of the Ommiade Caliph. On this Charlemagne sent two powerful armies into Spain, expect- ing that, according to promise, Saragossa would open its gates to his troops. His expectations were deceived. Saragossa did not open its gates; the faction who had summoned him to their aid rose against him and the king was compelled to order a retreat. The defiles of the mountains were held at the time by the Basques. They were governed at this by Wolf H., who had inherited the hatred of his race for the family of Charlemagne. When he saw the iM-ankish army, on its retreat, entangled in the defiles of Roncesvallcs, he had it attacked by his mountaineers, who rolled stDucs anrl rocks rk,wn on it. The disaster was immense; the rear- guard was destroyed to the last man; and here. too. perished the tanu)iis paladin. Roland, who is hardly known in history, though so celebrated in llie romances of chivalry. RtlL.WU, I'Al.AHIN dl' ( IIAKI.KMACNK, ( AI.I.S l-di; srccok 1\ i' H K r.ATII.I-: 1)1' K(l.\lF.S\'AI,l.KS .''j/;i/.,< l<\- I. "Ill's (ri-yiirl CHARLEMAGNE 43 779-804 Charlemagne continued in llic following year the conquest of Saxony, which had again revolted and defeated his lieutenants. lie subjected it once again in 782, and, in order to keep it in check by a terrible example, he beheaded, on the banks of the Aller, four thousand five hundred Saxon prisoners. The Frisians, the Bretons of Armorica, and the Bavarians next revolted and attacked Charle- magne simultaneously. They were, however, crushed by the Prankish monarch one after another, the independence of the Ba- varians being destroyed, as that of the Lombards had been. Charles had given Aquitaine, with the royal title, to his son, Louis, under the guardianship of William Shortnose, Duke of Toulouse. Three other provinces were equally subject to the ciu- thority of the young king. They were, on the east, Septimania, or Languedoc; on the west, Novempopulania, or Gascony; and lastly, on the south, the marches of Spain, as the provinces conquered by the Franks beyond the Pyrenees were called. These were divided into the Alarch of Gothia, which contained nearly the whole of Catalonia, and the March of Gascony, which extended as far as the Ebro into Aragon and Navarre. This vast territory, bordered by the Loire, the Ebro, the Rhone, and the two seas, was attacked in 793 by the Saracen general Abdul-Malek, who defeated Duke \\'il- liam at the passage of the Obrin, and returned to Spain with im- mense booty. Charlemagne deferred taking his revenge. He was occupied with church matters, the opinions of the faithful being divided at the time between the second Council of Niciea, which, in 787, had ordered the adoration of images, and the Council of Frankfurt, wdiich condemned them in 794 as idolatry. Charle- magne energetically supported the decision of thiC last-named council, but Pope Adrian, who in reality supported the opinion of the Coun- cil of Nicsea, avoided the expression of any view, and evaded the c|uestion in order not to offend his powerful protector. Charlemagne next turned against the Avars, a people inhabit- ing the marches of LIungary, who, after several disastrous expedi- tions had been undertaken to subdue them, were ultimately con- quered by his son Pippin. The Saxons had joined the Avars in this w^ar. They had burned the churches, murdered the priests, and returned in crowds to their false gods. Charlemagne adopted against them a system of ex- termination, but the Saxons were not finally subdued till the year 804, after thirty-two years of fighting, revolt, and massacres. 44 FRANCE 795-814 Charlemagne, in order to watch and restrain them the better, trans- ferred his usual residence to Aix-la-Chapelle, which he made the capital of his empire. Leo III. succeeded Hadrian I. in 795 as Pontiff. A con- spiracy was formed to overthrow him in 799. Wounded and im- prisoned, he escaped and fled to Spoleto, where he implored the help of Charlemagne, who made a last journey to Italy for the purpose of restoring to Leo his crown. Charles on Christmas Day was on his knees and praying in the cathedral of St. Peter; the Pope ap- proached him and placed the imperial crown upon his head. The people straightway saluted him with the name of Augustus, and from that moment Charlemagne regarded himself as the real suc- cessor of the Roman emperors. After his coronation as emperor he had but insignificant wars to wage, and on attaining the supreme dignity he also reached the end of his most difficult enterprises. During the last eight years of his reign he promulgated decrees and instituted numerous administrative, ecclesiastical, judicial, and mil- itary institutions, which were all intended to strengthen the social order, and maintain all parts of his immense empire in union and peace, He convened, at the field of March, in the year 806, an assembly of the nobles of his kingdom, in order to arrange with them the partition of his states between his three sons, Charles, Pippin, and Louis. To the first he assigned the northern part of Gaul, with Germany; to the second he gave Italy and Bavaria, with In's conquests in Pannonia; the tliird had Acjuitaine, Burgundy, and tlie marches of Spain. This division, consented to by the nobles and the people, was sanctioned by the Pope. The last years of Charlemagne were saddened by domestic sorrows. He had to blush at the irregularities of his daughters and lamented the death of his sons, Charles and Pippin. The first left no children, the second had one son, Bernard, to whom the emperor granted the kingdom of Italy. He next wished to have the youngest of his legitimate sons, whom death had spared, Louis, King of Aquitainc, recognized as his successor, and summoned him to the great September assembly of Aix-la-Chapelle. There he presented him to the bishops, abbots, counts, and lords of the I'^ranks, and asked them to recognize him as emperor. All con- sented. Charlemagne was attaining the close of his notable career. He devoted the last months of his life to devotional works, and divided CHAR L E M A G N E 45 814 h"is time between prayer, the distribution of alms, and the study of versions of tlie gospels in different languages. He directed this task up to the eve of his death, which was caused by fever toward the middle of January, 814. He had entered upon his seventy- second year, having reigned for fort}'-six years over the Franks, forty-three over the Lombards, and fourteen over the empire of the west. He was interred at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the church of St. Mary, which he had built. The exploits and conquests of this great monarch, too often stamped with the barbarism of the age, are not his greatest titles to the admiration and respect of posterity. What really elevates him above his age is the legislative spirit and the genius of civilization, both of which he possessed in an eminent degree. Charlemagne undertook to substitute order for anarchy, learning for ignorance, in the vast countries that obeyed him, and to subject to law and a regular administration many nations, still savage, strangers to each other, differing in origin, language, and manners, and with no other link among them than that of conquest. The perpetual wars which Charlemagne waged in order to maintain the unity of his immense empire, and substitute in it civi- lization for barbarism, originated from his victories themselves ; and they rather bear testimony to the greatness of his efforts than to their success. His work remained incomplete, but his glory con- sists in having undertaken it; and if he did not complete it, it was because completion was impossible. Charlemagne understood that the most efficacious method of civilizing a nation is by instructing it ; he consequently sought to restore a taste for letters and the arts. He encouraged the laborious tasks of the monks, who preserved the celebrated writings of antiquity by transcribing them; he even obliged the princesses, his daughters, to occupy themselves in this task. He founded and supported schools in many places, frequently inspected them himself, and examined the pupils. He employed of preference, in affairs of state, those persons who were distinguished by their acquirements, and spared nothing to attract to his court men of letters and clever teachers. Among those who enjoyed his favor the most celebrated is the Saxon Alcuin, a prodigy of learning for the age in which he lived. In the empire of Charlemagne a distinction must be drawn between the countries directly subject to the emperor and adminis- tered by his counts, and those which were only tributary. The 46 ' FRAN C E 814 former alone constituted the empire properly so called, whose limits were: to the north, the German Ocean and the Baltic, as far as the Island of Riigen ; to the west, the Atlantic, as far as the Pyrenees ; to the south, the course of the Ebro, the Mediterranean, from the mouth of the Ebro, in Spain, to that of the Garigliano, in Italy, and the Adriatic, up to the promontory of Dalmatia; to the east, Croatia, the course of the Tlieiss, Moravia, Bohemia, a part of the Elbe, and a line which, starting from the angle which the latter now makes when turning westward, would run along the western shore of Riigen. The immense country comprised between these limits was ad- ministered by the free counts. We must, however, except the Amorican Peninsula or Brittany, which was only tributary, as well as the country of the Xavarrese and Basques, situated between the Elbe and the Pyrenees ; the states of the church, or patrimony of St. Peter, governed by the Bishop of Rome ; Gaeta, Venice and a certain number of maritime cities in Dalmatia, which were depend- ent on the Greek empire of Constantinople. Along these frontiers was a number of tributary states more or less in a state of dependence on the emperor. The principal peo- ples were, in Italy, the Beneventines; in Germany, several Sclavonic tribes on the banks of the Danube, the Elbe, and the Baltic, up to the Oder. The scepter of Charlemagne also extended, in the Mediter- ranean, though not without perpetual and sanguinary conflicts, over the IJalearic Islands, Corsica, and Sardinia. Some provinces upon the borders bore, as we have already stated, the name of marches. They were the Western March (Austria), the Alarch of Carinthia (the Duchy of Friuli), to which were attached all the countries to the south of the Drave, and the two Marches of Spain, Gotliia and Gascony. The empire that Charlemagne had built up fell to pieces almost as soon as his strong hand was withdrawn by death. It had been a personrd task that he had undertaken ; among his descendants none proved strong enough to bear such a burden. Louis I., surnamcd the Alild or the Piotis, youngest son and successor of Charlemagne, has been aptly named "a crowned ])ricst." At his father's death he was thirty-six years old. Unskill- ful in his conduct, and of weak character, but animated by a desire for justice and for ihe right, he hastened to order severe reforms; and ere he had established his authority on a solid basis he punished C H xV R T. E M A G N E 47 814-818 powerful culprits, and tried to destroy a multitude of abuses by which the nobles profited. The oppressed nations found in him a just judge and indulgent master, lie protected the Aquitanians, the Saxons, and Spanish Christians against the imperial lieutenants, and diminished their taxes, to the injury of their governors. He reformed the clergy, by obliging the bishops to remain in their dioceses, and subjected the monks to the inquisition of the severe Benedict of Aniane, who imposed the Benedictine rule upon them. Lastly, as an example of good manners, he tried to avenge morality by expelling with disgrace from tlie imperial palace his father's numerous concubines, and the lovers of his sisters. But he could not keep either his court or his warriors in obedience, and his weakness for his wives and children occasioned long and san- guinary wars. In the hour of danger all those whose interests he had vio- lently injured leagued against him. The first insurrection took place in Italy. The emperor had shared the empu'e with his son Lothaire, with the assent of the Franks assembled at the comitia of Aix-la-Chapelle in 817; tl:en he gave the kingdoms of Bavaria and Aquitaine to his other two sons, Louis and Pippin ; his nephew Bernard remaining King of Italy. The latter, whose father was the emperor's elder brother, was jealous at the elevation of Lothaire, for he hoped, after his uncle's death, to obtain the imperial crown as cliief of the Carlovingian family. A great number of malcon- tent lords and bishops invited Bernard to assert his rights, and col- lected troops. Louis marched to meet his nephew at the head of his soldiers. On his approach, Bernard, who was deserted by a portion of his followers, obtained a safe conduct from the emperor, and went into his camp, with several chiefs of his army. Louis, persuaded by his consort Ermengarde, had Bernard's accomplices tried and executed, while the unfortunate king himself was con- demned to lose his sight, and did not survive the punishment. His kingdom of Italy was given to Lothaire. A few years later the emperor, in a national assembly held at .Vttigny, in 822, did ])ublic penance for this crime. From this period he only displayed weak- ness. The frontier nations insulted tlie empire with impunity ; the Gascons and Saracens in the south, the Bretons in the west, and the Norman pirates in the north committed frightful ravages. Internal discord seconded their audacity: the imperial troops were defeated, and Louis saw his frontiers contracted in the north and south. In 48 FRANCE 813-833 this way the kingdom of Navarre was founded at the foot of the Pyrenees. Ermengarde, the wife of Louis the Pious, died in 818, and in 819 the emperor espoused Judith, daughter of a Bavarian lord. Pie had by her a son called Charles, to whom, in 829, he gave Alsace, Alemannia, and Rhaetia, which he formed into the kingdom of Germany. This drew dowm upon Charles the enmity of Lothaire, who looked with jealousy on the assignment of any portion of the imperial domains, which he considered dc jure as his own, to his young half-brother, although he had sworn to his father to main- tain Charles in the possession of any share that might be assigned to him. Shortly after, the majority of the nobles and bishops and the emperor's sons, Lothaire, Louis, and Pippin, jealous of the influence that Bernard, Duke of Septimania, and son of his old guardian, William Shortnose, exercised in the imperial council, declared war against the unfortunate Louis, who fell into the power of the rebels at Compiegne. Judith was confined by them in a convent; Ber- nard took to flight, and the emperor was placed in a monastery, while Lothaire seized the government of the empire. The nobles were divided between Louis and his sons. The latter were supported in their revolt by the inliabitants of Gaul, while the Germans remained faithful to the emperor. A general assembly of the estates held in 830, at Nimeguen, pronounced in his favor and against his sons. Lothaire was reconciled to his father by sacrificing all his partisans to him. Louis began to reign again, and once more disgusted the nation by his weakness. His sons Lothaire, Louis, and Pippin revolted once again, took up arms, and marched against their father. Pope Gregory IV. was with them, and tried in vain to prevent bloodshed. The two armies met near Colmar ; the emperor's troops deserted him. The unfortunate king fell into the hands of his son Lothaire, who, by the aid of a council of bishops, forced him to accuse himself publicly of sacrilege and homicide in the cathedral of Rheims, and humbly ask for abso- lution for his sins. As soon as this shameful ceremony was over, Lothaire conducted his father as a prisoner to Aix-la-Chapelle, the seat of the empire, a place which had formerly witnessed his gran- deur and now witnessed his ignominy. Louis the German and Pippin declared themselves the avengers of their outraged father, far less through affection for him than through jealous hatred of their brother; the latter, deserted by his C IT A R 1. 1-: M A G N E 49 833-840 partisans, took rcfug'e in Italy, while the emperor, with the assent of the estates assembled at Thionville, resumed his crown. He pardoned Lothaire, but in 838, at the estates of Kersy-on-the-Oise, he for a second time benefited his son Charles at the expense of his elder brother, and Louis the German consented to cede a portion of his provinces to his brother. Pippin, King of Aquitaine, died in the course of the year. He left a son of the same name, dear to the Aquitanians, who recognized him as king, under the title of Pippin II. The emperor, how^evcr, had other projects. He se- cretly reserved Aquitaine for his son Charles. On his side, Louis regretted the concession wdiich he liad made at Kersy of the great portion of his estates to his brother, and had taken up arms again. The Germans had followed his banner to the right bank of the Rhine, but the armies of Gaul, composed of a mixture of men of the Gallic and German races established for a long time in that country, had remained faithful to the emperor. He crossed the Rhine at their head. The Germanic army disbanded without strik- ing a blow ; Louis retired into Bavaria, and the emperor punished him by reducing his inheritance to that solitary province. The moment had arrived to secure Charles the share which his affection had always desired for him at the expense of his brothers. The empire was divided into two parts of equal size, destined for Lothaire and Charles. This new partition was pro- claimed in a diet convoked at Worms in May, 839. It was effected by a line which, starting from the mouths of the Scheldt, ran along the Meuse up to its source, and the Saone as far as its confluence with the Rhone and terminated at the mouth of the latter river. The choice was left to Lothaire, who took the eastern half of the empire, comprising Italy, Germany, less Bavaria, Provence, and a small part of Burgundy and Austrasia; Charles had for his share Aquitaine, Neustria,and the rest of Austrasia and Burgundy. Louis was passed over in this partition, and Pippin II., the emperor's grandson, was despoiled. These two princes took up arms, and the emperor, while marching into Germany to encounter Louis, was attacked by an illness which brought him to the grave at the end of forty days. He died, 840, at Ingelheim, at the age of sixty-two. Louis the Pious was not born for the throne, though he had some of the qualities of a good prince. His morals were excellent, and he paid great attention to the administration of justice and the instruction of his people, jjut he possessed neither strength nor dig- 50 FRANCE 840-843 nity, without which the supreme authority is but a vain word. Ilis imprudent weakness for Charles, the son of his old age, occasioned wars which were only extinguished with his race. In order to ensure him a vast em])ire, he embroiled all the frontiers of his states, and this partition accelerated the outbreak of great calann'ties. After the death of Louis the empire was plunged for ten years into anarchy. His three sons and his grandson, Pippin II., carried on an obstinate war against each other. The Emperor Lothaire united with his nephew Pippin to despoil his two brothers, Louis, who was called the German, and Charles II., who from this period was surnamed th.e Bald. The first possessed only Bavaria ; the second was master of the whole of Germany. The combined armies of the two kings encountered those of Lothaire and Pippin near Auxerre, in the plains of Fontenay. Lothaire was conquered, but renewed the struggle. Louis and Charles met at Strasburg, where they resumed their alliance, taking oath in the presence of tlie people. A new partition was made soon after at Verdun, in 843, l)etween the three brothers, and irrevocably separated the inter- ests of Gaul as a power from those of Germany. Charles had the countries situated to the west of the Scheldt, Saone, and Rhone, with the north of S]iain up to the Ebro. Louis the German had Germany up to llie Rhine. Lothaire, renouncing all supremacy, but retaining the title of emperor, connected to Italy the territory situated between his brothers' states. By the Treaty of Verdun, three kingdoms had been created, France, Germany, and Italy, and the most fragile part of Charlemagne's work territorial unity was destroyed. The antagonism of nationalities w'as the result of the Treaty of Verdun. .So many commotions and combats completely exhausted the kingdoms formed out of tlie debris of the empire. The frontiers were abandoned to foreigners. The Normans, united to the Bretons, in tlie nortli and west, the Saracens in the south, laid waste everything witli fire and sword. I'iouen, Bordeaux, and Nantes were burned; the Xonnans reached Paris, and while terror kept Charles sluit up at St. Denis, tliey plundered the capital and only left it to reappear there soon after in greater numbers and more formidable th,an before. These men of the north, called Danes in Fngknid, and Normans in Gaul, had remained pagans, and were still proud, even in the ninth century, of their title as sons of Odin. C H A R L E I\I A G N E 51 843-877 One of their chiefs, who was famous for his audacity and ferocity, the pirate Hastings, after ravaging France, penetrated into Italy and returned to spread desolation and terror through the whole country between the Seine and the Loire. Charles the Bald had intrusted the defense of this territory, with the title of Count of Anjou, to a celebrated warrior, Robert the Strong, who was already Count of Paris, and the founder of the family of the Capets, which afterwards occupied the throne of France. Robert, whom the chronicles of the time called the ]\raccaba:us of France, was killed, and from that moment nothing arrested the devastating torrent. In the midst of the general weakening of the empire, the clergv alone increased their fortune and power. The real master of Gaul was Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims. He it was who defended with the greatest success the authority of Charles the Bald against those who preferred to him his brother, Louis the German. The bishops supported the kings they had crowned ; they governed in matters temporal as well as spiritual, in war as well as in peace. It was Hincmar who convoked, in the king's name, the bishops and counts to march against the enemy. Lothaire I. had died in a monastery in 855, after sharing the empire for the last ten years with his son. Louis II., snrnamed the Young, and giving kingdoms to his otlicr sons, I'rovence to Charles, and the country contained between the ]\rcuse, Scheldt, Rhine, and Franche Comte to Lothaire II. It v^as called, after the name of its sovereign, Lotharingia, whence we have the name of Lorraine, which has adhered to it. Lothaire II. died at Rome in 869. Llis three sons survived him but a short time, and Louis the German and Charles the Bald divided their estates between them. On the death of the Emperor Louis II., in 875. his uncle Charles the Bald seized the imperial crown. It was but the shadow of tliat worn by Charlemagne. The empire was exhausted. In the midst of the constantly increasing anarchy, the freemen, preferring secur- ity to an independence full of perils, made themselves the vassals of powerful men capable of defending them. As early as 847 tlie weak Charles the Bald allowed to be drawn from him the Edict of i\Iersen, which provided that every freeman could choose a lord, either the king or one of his vassals, and that none of them should be bound to follow the king to war except against f^n-eigners. The king thus remained powerless and el, was drowned in the river Selef, near Seleucia. Philip and Richard (juar- reled over the siege of St. Jean d'Acre, and the former retnrncd to his kingdom, leaving a part of his army under the commaiul of 75 76 F RANGE 1194-1214 Richard, He swore, on leaving him, not to undertake anything ugainst him in his ahsence. Richard pursued his heroic career in Palestine. He gained brilh'ant but fruitless victories, wearing out the crusaders, who at length compelled him to quit the Holy Land. Saladin offered to the Christians peaceable possession of the plains of Judea, and liberty to perform the pilgrimage to Jerusalem : Richard agreed to these conditions, and embarked for Europe. He landed in Austria, upon the territories of Duke Leopold, his mortal enemy, who delivered him up to the Emperor Henry VL, whose hatred Richard had excited. Henry imprisoned him in the castle of Diirrenstein, and sent to inform the King of Erance of it. Richard was then betrayed by his brother John, who had possessed himself of a portion of his territories, but being ransomed by his subjects, he returned unexpectedly to his dominions, reduced his brother to submission, and avenged himself on Philip by forming an alliance with the most powerful of the barons inimical to the French mon- arch. The w^ar was ])rolonged between the two rivals with varied success; they finally signed a truce for three years. Richard was killed at the siege of the small fortress of Chains in Limousin, in 1 199. John, the youngest son of Henry H., seized the crown of England, and Philip supported against him the claims of Arthur of Brittany, his nephew, the son of Geoffrey, John's elder brother. This young prince promised homage to Philip for all his possessions in Erance, and ceded Normandy to him. War followed. Arthur, with his knights, was captured by King John, and met his death by assassination. John was cited by Philip to appear and do homage for his possessions in Erance. He did not present himself, and the court of peers condemned him to death, as contumacious. Nor- mandy, Brittany, Guienne, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, lands which he held in fief from Erance, were declared confiscated and reunited to the crown. Pursuing a policy in England that tended to diminish the power of the church, John was excommunicated by Innocent III., who offered the crown of England to Philip. The Erench king assembled an army to make a descent on England, but John submitted and made peace with the Pope. Philip turned his arms against Flanders. Old grievances existed between Ferrand, count of that province, and Philip ; the king could now obtain satis- faction by force oi arms. I'^errand hastened to league himself with John of England and with his father. Otto IV., Emperor of Ger- REACTION AGAINST FEUDALIS:\r 77 1198-1215 many. The French army achieved a brilHant victory over the alHes at the bridge of Bouvines. King- John rendered himself so odious that his barons forced him, on June 15, 121 5. to sign the charter which has become the basis of the hbertics of the Enghsh people, and which is known as Magna Charta. To this charter, however, the Enghsh king seemingly took oath only in the hope of being released from it by the Pope; and, in fact, he was so released. His barons then offered the crown to Louis of France, the son of Ph.ilip Augustus. This prince, despite his father's vow and the prohibition of the Pope, whose legate excommunicated him, crossed over to England. He was received with open arms by the barons and proceeded to possess himself of the kingdom; but King John died at this time, and his partisans proclaimed his young son Henry, king. The English peo- ple attached themselves to the youth, and Louis, abandoned by his supporters, returned to France, after having contributed to establish on a more solid basis the liberties of England. The event which agitated Europe most profoundly during the reign of Philip Augustus was the War of the Albigenses, or the crusade undertaken against the sectarians of the south. There were many of them in Provence, in Catalonia, and especially in Languedoc. In these countries the clergy were not distinguished, as in France and in the northern provinces, by their zeal in instruc- tion and in ditTusing the light of religion. They were notorious for disorderly living, and fell every day into greater contempt. The need for reform made itself felt before long in the breast of the provincial populations, and many reformers had already appeared, when the famous Innocent HI. ascended the Pontifical throne in 1 198. This Pontiff was the first to perceive the serious menace to the Catholic church of views which went so far as to break into revolt against her tenets, for the principles of the X'audoi-^ were almost identical with the opinions which, three ccnturio later, were preached by Luther. He saw with in(|uictiule and anger the new tendency of feeling in Provence ami Langue- doc, and proscribed the reformers, whose doctrines were favored by Raymond VI., the Count of 'J\)iilousc, and his nephew, R;i_\- mond Roerer, Viscount of Beziers. The in(|uisitors sent bv tlic Pope into the province of Narbonne to stille the heresy were badly received, and the Po])e's legate was assassinated by ilie scjuirc of ilic count, who was angered l)y the sentence of excomniunicatiwn tliat 78 FRANCE 1208-1229 had been put in force against his suzerain Raymond. This murder gave the Pope a pretext to preach a crusade in 1208 against the dominions of Raymond VI. and of his nephew. The immense prep- arations of the crusaders struck terror into Raymond VI., who, worn with age and unable to offer a vigorous resistance, submitted and was reconciled to the church. The young Viscount of Beziers, indignant at the pusillanimous conduct of his uncle, determined to resist to the last. The crusaders carried Beziers by assault. A large number of the inhabitants of the neighboring country had taken refuge within the walls of that city. A frightful massacre followed, and the city was reduced to ashes. The army of crusaders marched thereupon to Carcassonne, and was sharply repulsed by the Viscount of Beziers. Many of the inhabitants of Carcassonne were put to death, and the legate gave all the conquered country to the ferocious Simon, Count de Montfort. He delivered over to him also the Viscoimt of Beziers, who died by poison. A part only of the Albigenses had been subjected and destroyed in this first crusade, and it was determined by the Pope and his advisers to make an end of the remainder. By the Council of Saint Gilles, Raymond was ordered to deliver over to the stake those whom the priests pointed out to him. The aged count, whose valor was reawakened by indignation at this infamous order, boldly refused and prepared for war to the death. The crusaders arrived from all parts, led by Simon de Montfort, who distinguished him- self by frightful cruelties. Immense pyres were prepared, and in the same holocaust heretics and Catholics suspected of heresy were ruthlessly burned. The battle of Muret, fought in 1213, terminated this war. Don Pedro, King of Aragon, who had brought succor to the Count of Toulouse, perished there. The Albigenses were de- feated, and that defeat gave a mortal blow to their cause. The victorious executioners quarreled among themselves and fought; the people regained courage. Toulouse rose, and the war was continued with various successes, till at last all Languedoc rose in arms. Montfort was killed before Toulouse, which he was be- sieging. Count Raymond was recalled, but died shortly after his return, leaving his territories to his son and successor, Raymond VII., against whom this war of extermination was prosecuted from time to time with relentless cruelty. At length, after twenty-two years of atrocities, when the language, the arts and industry of these provinces had disappeared with the reformation, the war ceased REACTION AGAINST F E T^ D A L I S :\I 79 1223-1229 under the following reign, to the great advantage of France. Ray- mond VTI. ceded to it a portion of his territories by the Treaty of Paris, signed in 1229. Philip Augustus took no active part in this war of extermina- tion. He sought, on the contrary, to repair its disasters, and while fanaticism was steeping the southern countries with blood, he ex- tended his dominions and rendered them flourishing. The national assemblies had fallen into desuetude: Philip appealed to his chief barons to form his council and sanction his decrees. lie conquered Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Poitou, formerly forfeited to the King of England, and the county of Auvergne. Under his reign Valois, part of Vermandoies, and Amienois fell to the crown by the extinction of the families who possessed them. This king also reannexed Artois to the crown by his union with Isabelle of Flanders and Hainault. Finally he gave the inheritance of Brittany to Pierre ^.lauclerc, a member of his family, and a Capetian dynasty was founded in that country. Thus was formed the new duchy of Brittany, which became one of the great immediate fiefs of the crown of France. Philip Augustus was occupied all his life in war- fare, treaties, reforms, laws for his fiefs, and he secured upon a firm basis the relations between lords and vassals, which until then had been only in an unsettled and arbitrary condition, and was thus the principal founder of feudal monarchy. The military art owed some progress to him. Soldiers received pay, and for this purpose he established the first permanent imposts. He appointed three maritime armaments, and obtained by his activity, his prudence, and his talents the respect both of sovereigns and people. The im- portant foundations of the University of Paris dates from this prince, and the city itself was indebted to him for many useful alterations. Up to that time all the streets of the capital became, in rainy weather, infectious sewers; the principal thoroughfares were paved and embellished by his orders. He enlarged the city, eticlosed it with walls, built market-places, and surrounded tlie Cemetery of the Innocents with cloisters; he ])uilt a palace by the side of the large tower of the Louvre, and continued the cathedral, wliich had been commenced prior to his reign. He gained by his coniinests anil institutions the esteem of his contemporaries, and died at Xantes in 1223, after a reign of forty-three years, leaving a portion of his immense wealth to the priests and crusaders, and also making con- siderable gifts to the poor. 80 FRANCE 1223-1242 Louis VIII., son of Philip Augustus, reigned only three years. During his father's life he had been recognized as King of England by the barons hostile to King John, but being abandoned by his par- tisans he was obliged to quit the kingdom. On returning to France he took from the English Poitou, which they had reconquered, as well as several important places in Aunis, Perigord, and Limousin, among others Rochelle, and signalized the end of his reign by a second crusade against the unhappy Albigenses. The principal cities of Languedoc, Beaucaire, Carcassonne, and Beziers opened their gates to him, and the south of France, with the exception of Guienne and Toulouse, recognized the royal authority. Louis was marching against the latter city when an epidemic fever attacked his army, and he died at Montpensier, either from an attack of the malady, or, as some believed, from poison, administered to him by Thibaut of Champagne, who was violently enamored of Queen Blanche of Castile, whom the king left a wddow, with five children of tender years. The eldest of her sons was St. Louis. Louis IX., justly venerated under the name of St, Louis, was only twelve years of age on the death of his father, and the regency of the kingdom devolved on Queen Blanche, his mother. She gave excellent masters to her children, and had them carefully brought up in the fear of God. This pious queen also possessed political talent, and enabled France to reap the fruit of the horrible war with the Albigenses. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1229 between her and Raymond VII., Count of Toulouse, attached to the crown a large portion of lower Languedoc, forming the seneschalships of Beaucaire and Carcassonne, and Raymond recognized as his heir in the rest of his territory his son-in-law Alphonse, one of the brothers of Louis IX., declaring the inheritance should revert to him, if there were no child born of the marriage of Alphonse with his only daughter, Jeanne. Louis IX. was nineteen years of age when he married Margaret of Provence, then only thirteen. Queen Blanche separated them for six years, and always afterv/ards showed a jealousy about Margaret's influence over the king. A few years afterwards the sister of this princess married Henry III., King of England, who thus became the brother-in-law of St, Louis. Louis IX. had soon to contend against the great vassals and nobles, to whom his grand- father, Philip Augustus, had dealt such terrible blows. The Counts de la Marche, de Foix, and several other vassels united with Henry REACTION AGAINST F E T^ D A L I S M 81 1242-1249 III., who crossed the sea with an army, and claimed tlie j)r' evinces taken from John Lackland. Tlie Eng-hsh and their alhes were con- quered by Louis at the Eri(h;c cf Taillel)ourf^. in 124.?. and a<;:dn before Saintes, which city he united to the crown, with a part of Saintonge, by the Treaty of Bordeaux. The rebehious lords sub- mitted to a master wlio gener-^usly i)ardoned tliem, and Henry re- turned to England. All the East was agitated at this time in the expectation (jf a frightful catastrophe. The Mong')ls, emerging from upper Asia, had exterminated every nation they passed through. Their van- guard had invaded the H(;ly Land, and gained a victory over tlie Christians and ^Mussulmans, whom terr(>r had united, and Jerusalem had fallen into the hands of the ferocious conquerors. St. Louis was ill and almost dying when the news of this disaster readied Europe; but on his recovery he determined to undertake a new crusade for the delivery of the Holy Land from its conquerors; and, having assembled an army, left Paris on July 12, 1248, to embark at Aigues-]\Tortes, a town he had founded at a great cost, in order to have a port in the ^Mediterranean. He had resolved to proceed towards Egypt by Cyprus, instead of going to Syria by Sicily, a mistake which ultimately led to the failure of his enterj)rise. The king sojourned a year at Xicosium. the capital of Cyprus, and then set out for Egypt. On arriving in sight of Damietla he leaped into the sea. sword in hand, at the head of his knights, repulsed the enemy, and seized this strong city and all its immense resources. In this town he remained for five months inactive, and then marched w-ithout any precautions on iMansinirah. The 1'urks surrounded him on a burning plain, and hurled the terrible com- position known as " Greek fire " on his baggage and camp. Louis. in this desperate situation, gave orders for battle (T240V The Count of Artois, his brother, rushed imprudently on ^Tansour:ih and surprised the town, but was surnumded there and killed, with the knights who followed him. The kin.g. who had been unable to relieve them, fell back on a camp 01 the Saracens, carried it. and shut himself up in it. There disease and repeated assaults carried off one half of his army, and he was himself taken dangerously ill. He ordered a retreat on Damietta, where he had lel't the ([ueen and^ a powerful garrison, but Turkish galleys bltKkcd the i)assage of the river, and he fell, with all his knights, into the hands of the IMussulmans. Queen ALirgaret, at Damietta, proved herself worthy 82 FRANCE 1249-1256 of her husband. She kept the city as a pledge for the safety of the king, and it was offered, with 400,000 hvres, for the royal ransom. At this price Louis recovered his liberty. His barons returned to France, but he remained four years longer in Syria, exhorting his knights to rejoin him, and employing his treasures in fortifying D'Acre, Sidon, and other places in Palestine that belonged to the Christians. Queen Blanche died in 1252, after a wise regency, and the king felt the most bitter grief at his loss. He returned to France, and made his entry into Paris, in September, 1254, displaying on his countenance the seared impression of all his disasters. On his return Louis occupied himself actively with the reformation of his kingdom, and displayed the lofty qualities of a legislator. He completely destroyed the sovereign authority of the nobles by depriving them of the right of dealing justice arbitrarily. The code of Roman laws known by the name of the Pandects of Justinian, and which gov- erned the Greek empire, became known at this period in France. This collection of laws had at the time such a superiority over every other code that its application was desirable ; but the ignorance of the nobles was so great that it was found necessary to call in men versed in the study of the laws to explain it. Saint Louis was the first to introduce these lawyers into a parlement which he con- stituted as a court of justice. The lawyers ultimately succeeded in securing the entire management of judicial affairs. This tended to throw into their hands a great part of the feudal authority hith- erto exercised by the nobles, and while they sought to abridge the power of the peers and barons, they endeavored to render that of the king absolute, by actively seconding him in all his projects of reform and attacks upon feudal rights. This pious and humane monarch attempted to put an end to the private wars between his barons and prohibited judicial combats, ordering that judicial debates should be substituted for these en- counters, and considerably enlarged the authority of the crown by establishing " royal cases," in which he himself heard causes be- tween his subjects and their lords. The lawyers gave the greatest extension to these appeals. Nor did the king permit cities to be rendered independent of his authority; he transformed many com- munes into royal towns by the ordinance of 1256, which ordered them to put forward four candidates, from among whom the king should choose the mayor, who w'as to be responsible to him for his REACTION AGAINST FEUDALISM 88 1256-1258 conduct. It was then settled that the king- alone had the right t(j make communes, that they should owe him fidelity against all, and that the title of " king's citizen " should be a safeguard under all circumstances. Louis' last reform was that of the coinage. ]\Lany nobles had the right of coining in their domains, but the king fixed the value of the coinage in each case, and brought his own coin every- where into circulation. He also effected greater security on the highways of the kingdom, by obliging the nobles who levied a toll to guarantee the security of the roads through their domains. So much care devoted to the prosperity of the kingdom and to the salutary establishment of his authority did not so fully occupy the great mind of this king as to divert him from occupations of less general interest, but of no less useful kind. He founded a public library in Paris; created the Hospital of the Ouinze-vingts. intended to receive three hundred blind people, and built the Sainte Chapelle, which may still be admired at Paris, near the Palace of Justice, at that period the palace of the king. Nevertheless, in spite of his far-seeing wisdom and pure zeal, he committed several faults, the consequence of errors which be- longed to his age rather than to himself : he laid cruel penalties on Jev/s and heretics, and cast many merchants into dungeons for lending money on interest, which at that time was regarded as a crime. A scruple fatal to France disturbed the mind of this holy monarch. The conquests of Philip Augustus and the confiscation of the property of the English crown oppressed him, and appeared to him in the light of usurpations; and he concluded at Abbeville, in 1259, contrary to the advice of his barons and his family, a treaty, by which he restored to Ilenry HI. Perigord, Limousin, Agenais, Ouercy, and Saintonge; while Henry, on his side, gave up his claims to Normandy, Anjou, Alainc. Touraine and I'oitou. and recognized the King of Franxe as his suzerain for the posscs-;i( ^n^ on the Continent. Almost at the same time tliat Louis signed the Treaty of Abbeville he signed with the King of Arag-m the Treaty of Corbeil (1258), by which that prince gave up all the fiefs he still possessed in Languedoc and his claims to Provence, in return for which France surrended her suzerainty over the coimtries of Bar- celona, Roussillon, and Cerdagne. The King of Aragon only re- tained in France the lordship of Montpellier, and the Pyrenees became the frontier of the two states. 84 F R A N C E 1258-1270 Saint Louis had lost his eldest son, and several members of his family proved to be turbulent and dangerous to France. Charles of Anjou, his broliier, an ambitious and cruel prince, heir, by his marriage with Beatrice of Provence, to the powerful counts of that name, caused him very great anxiety, and with the intention of re- moving him Louis favored his projects with regard to Naples and Sicily, then possessions of the imperial crown. The illustrious house of Suabia was humbled ; Frederick IL, its last emperor, met with his death in struggling against the I^ope, who sold his heritage and offered to the King of France the kingdom of Naples, where Man- fred, the bastard son of Frederick II., then reigned. Saint Louis refused the offer for himself, but allowed his brother to accept it. Charles of Anjou left France with an army gathered together in Provence; and six years later, in 1266, the battle of Grandella, where ^lanfred perished, placed the crown of Naples and Sicily securely on his head. The East now attracted more forcibly than ever the attention of Saint Louis. The Latin empire in Constantinople was no more; the Greeks had retaken that city in 1261. Taking advantage of the divisions among the Christians in Syria, Bedocdard, the sultan of Egypt, made a series of rapid conquests in Palestine. Ca^sarea, Jaffa, and Antioch had fallen into his power, and thousands of Chris- tians had been massacred in the last-named town. On receiving in- telligence of this frightful disaster, Saint Louis took up the cross for the second time, and embarking again at Aigues-Mortes, in 1270, set sail for Tunis, disembarked close to the ruins of ancient Carthage, and had to suffer an infinity of evils, from the dryness of the soil, the lieat of the sun, and the arrows of the INIoors. The plague carried away part of his army, which he was compelled to hold back in fatal inaction. It struck down his second son., the Count of Nevcrs. and he himself was attacked at the end of the month, and died on August 25. 1270, after having appointed as regents of tlic kingdom Alathieu de Saint-Denis and Roger do Nesle. No other king was more worthy of the admiration of his fellow-men, and alone, out of all his race, the church bestowed on him the honors of canonization. The third s'm of Saint Louis. Philip III., called without any known rea^';n Plfili]) tiic Bcdd, did not follow the glorious example of his father, lie reigned surrounded bv valets, and wholly given up to superstition's })ractices. The same day that Saint Louis died REACTION AGAINST F E U D A L I S M So 1270-1285 lie received Charles of Anjoii, his uncle, who entered into Ih.c port of Carthage -with a fleet and an army. Peace was concluded that year, and then the army returned to Europe, diminished one halt by the heat, fatigue, and the plague. IMiilip reentered France pre- ceded by five colTms: those of his father, his wife, his son, Ins brother, the Count of Nevers, and his brother-in-law, Thibaut II., Count of Champagne, King of Navarre. His uncle Alphonscx wluj had married Jeanne, the daughter and heiress of Raymond VII., last Count of Toulouse, died shortly afterwards without offspring, and his death made Philip heir to the county of Toulouse : but a part of this great fief, the county of Venaissin, to which Philip had only doubtful rights, he ceded to Gregory X., one of the most venerable men that ever occupied the Pontifical throne. The reign of Philip III. left no glorious souvenir for France, either in the interior of the kingdom or in foreign lands, and tin's period w^as marked by the frightful disaster which overthrew the French government in Sicily. Charles of Anjou, after having caused his rival, the young Conradin, son of Conrad IV., to be condemned to death and executed, believed himself securely seated upon his new throne. Conradin was the last prince of the house of Hohenstaufen ; his death left tlie field clear for Charles of Anjt)a, who from that time believed that he could oppress Naples and Sicily under a frightful t3n"anny. Vengeance brooded in e\'ery he:irt. John of Procida became the soul of tlie consi^iracy; he was certain of the assistance of the Greek emperor, Alicliael Pakeologus, and of the King of Aragon, Don Pedro III. The latter assem1)]e(l a ficet, which he entrusted to the celebrated Rcger of Loria, his adnnral, W'ith the order to await events upon the coast of Africa. Suddenly. on March 30, 1282, the peo])le of Palermo arose at the mo- ment when the vesper bells sounded. At the stroke of this tocsin the French were massacred in tlie streets of Palermo, and in a month afterward the same thing had occurred througiiout the whole of Sicily. Charles of .Vnjou, furious, attacked Messina, but Roger of Loria destroyed his licet under his \ery eyes. I'edro was crowned King of Sicily. Charles demanded vengeance from King rhilij), liis nephew. The Pontiff, Martin I\'., sustained his cause with ardor; he declared Don Pedro de])r:\ed of the crown of Aragon. and named Charles of Valois, second son of Phili]). successor to Don Pedro, against whom he ureached a crusade. Philip III. commanded the 86 FRANCE 1285-1302 expedition against Aragon ; but it was a failure. The king returned to France ill and expired in the course of the year. Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, was sixteen years of age when he succeeded to the throne of Philip the Bold, his father. Pie at once continued the war against Aragon, which his father had com- menced, and which was prolonged for many years without any decisive success. It was terminated by the Treaty of Anagni, signed in 1295. This treaty recognized Alphonso III., son of Pedro III., King of Aragon, and Charles II., son of Charles of Anjou, King of Naples. Sicily, however, was detached from Naples and given to the King of Aragon, while Charles II., crowned by the Pope, ceded his hereditary domains, Maine and Anjou, to Charles of Valois, second son of Philip the Bold. Philip, whose character was hard, irascible, and rapacious, oppressed his subjects without pity, and his exactions were sup- ported by unprincipled men of law, notorious for their chicanery and base severity. These men were, under him, the tyrants of France. Their work, however, in so far as it touched legislation, had a useful influence which cannot be forgotten. They sought in political law to unite all the privileges of the sovereignty in the sole hands of the prince, while they asserted the equality of the subjects before the law ; they also endeavored to establish the civil law on a basis of reason and natural equity. In this manner they demolished the social order as it had been created under the feudal system, organized at the same time monarchial centralization, and became the true founders of the civil order in modern times. The court of the king, or Parlement, the supreme tribunal of the king- dom, became the seat of their power. This body, founded by Saint Louis with the political and judicial privileges of the time, was modified by Philip IV., the judicial element at this period being alone preserved, '^fhe Parlement in the meantime ceased to be itinerant. An ordinance of March 23, 1302, fixed it in Paris, and estaljlished it in the Cite, at the ancient palace of the kings, which took, from that time, the name of the Palace of Jus- tice. It was c()m])()sed of clerks and lawyers, all persons of the Third P^statc, and it became the focus of the anti-feudal revolution. In order to sustain this new form of government, and to execute the judgments of the men of law, it was necessary to have an imposing force. The king had to pay a judicial and administra- tive army, and as the maintenance of the horse and foot sergeants R E A C T 1 O N AGAINST F E IT D A L I S ]M 87 1302-1304 alone cost large sums, it was necessary to wrest this money by violence from the unfortunate population. Thence sprang the despotism, thence the cruel miseries, which held in sus])ense, for so long a time, the advantages of the central and monarchial power. This king, far from warlike, saw without emotion the disasters among the Christians, and the capture of Saint Jean d'Acre, their last stronghold in Palestine. The successes of Edward I., King of England, troubled him more. That prince, at the death of Alexan- der III., King of Scotland, caused himself to be recognized as arbiter between the aspirants to the throne, and had awarded it to John Baliol, whose w^eakness he knew. He threatened to invade that kingdom, when Philip caused him to be summoned before the Parlement of Paris as his vassal for Aquitaine, alleging as a pre- text certain troubles caused by the rivalry of commerce between the two nations. On this Edward persuaded the Count of Flanders to take up arms against France, while Philip promised to support the celebrated William Wallace, then in arms against the English king. The differences between the French and English monarchs, how- ever, were reconciled by Boniface VIII., who imposed a long truce upon the two kings, and united their interests by means of mar- riages. The King of England abandoned the Count of Flanders, and Philip no longer defended Scotland, which Edward seized for the second time. The French monarch then invited the Count of Flanders to place himself at his discretion, and that unfortunat.? nobleman gave himself up with confidence to the king. He was immediately thrown into prison, and all his states were seized b> Philip. The tyranny which the French exercised in Manders soon caused the people to revolt. Tlie trade corporations assembled, massacred the French in Bruges, and in the other towns, restoring independence to their country. The Flemish militia occupied Court- ray, in front of which town the French army was encamped. They went out to meet it, and waited ])ravcly for the ])attle, wliich resulted in the total destruction of the iMTnch, and the wholesale slaughter of the flower of the chivalry of France. This defeat weakened the feudal power in France, and strengthened royalty. Philip resolved to avenge in ])erson the defeat of his nobility at Courtray. He entered Flanders at the head of a powerful army, and occupied Tournay. His fleet overcame the Flemings at Zerik- see, and in 1304 his knights achieved a costly victory at !\Ions-en- Puelle. The brave citizens, however, of Ghent, Bruges, Ypres, 88 F R A N C E 1304-1312 and other towns in Flanders continued to resist. Peace was finally made in 1304, bnt war broke out again in 1309 and it was some time before the terms of the treaty could be executed. The Count of Flanders recovered his possessions as a fief of France. The assumption by the Popes of the right to bestow the king- doms of the world on whom they would, and the support given by Boniface VIII. to his legate, the Bishop of Pamiers against Philip, whom the prelate had insulted, deeply wounded the pride of the king, who caused the bishop to be arrested on a charge of high treason, and demanded his degradation from his metropolitan, the Archbishop of Narbonne. The Pope revoked the judgment and issued a bull against the king. Philip, supported by the University of Paris, caused the Pope's bull to be burned, and convoked, in 1302, the first Estates-General, where the deputies of the Third Estate had been summoned, alongside the barons and bishops. The mayors, aldermen, consuls of the good cities, came to Paris, and took their places in Notre Dame, where on A})ril 10, 1302, the first session was opened. At this the nobility, the clergy, and the Third Estate proclaimed the crown completely independent ot the church. Boniface avenged himself by excommunicating the king, who sent his representative, William of Nogaret, to Anagni, where Boniface resided, to make himself master of the Pope's per- son. Boniface was promptly released by the people of Anagni, but he expired at Rome, a month afterwards, of a fever caused by the shock and at the age of eighty-six years. For a year the Papal See w^as vacant, while secret intrigues continued in the college of cardinals. Finally Bertrand of Got, Archbishop of Bordeaux, was elected and took the name Clement V. It was a victory for the French cardinals. The new Pope did not go to Italy. He was installed at Lyons and finally took up his residence at Avignon. It was the beginning of the " Babylonian Captivity" of the church. Supported in his ruthless acts by the new Pope, the king immediately commenced a frightful persecution of the members of the Order of the Templars in France, before they even suspected his design. Confessions of evil doing were wrung from them by torture; their property was confiscated and their characters stained with horrible imputations without legal proof. Hundreds of blameless men then perished by the sword, by hunger, and by fire in France. But not content with this, Philip, then the most powerful king in Europe, invited all the sovereigns to follow REACTION A G x\ I N S T FEUDALISM 89 1312-1316 his example; Edward II., King- of England, and Charles IT., King of Naples, acceded to his wishes, and seized upon the Templars in their states; and fifteen thousand families, it is estimated, were broken up by this terrible measure. Philip IV., dishonored among- the people by the surname of the False Coiner, levied enormous taxes, debased the coinage, and, after the money was issued, refused to receive it at its face value. He was the most absolute despot who hud reigned in France : yet he was the first of his race who granted representation to the Third Estate. He expired in 1314. recommending to his son piety, clem- ency, and justice. Clement V., his accomplice in the spoliation of the Templars, died soon after him. Under Philip the Fair the domain of the crown was increased by La Marche and Angoumois, which he confiscated ; by Lyonnais, which he detached from the empire, and by a part of French Flan- ders. He had married Jeanne, heiress of the kingdom of Navarre, of the country of Champagne, and of Brie. The results of that union were favorable to France. Philip left three sons and one daughter. Louis X., the eldest, surnamed " Lc Hutin" or the Stubborn, was twenty-five vears of age at the death of his father, and had already worn for fifteen years the crown of Navarre, wliich he had inherited from his mother, together with tliat of Cliampagne and Brie. His two brothers, Philip and Charles, like himself, were given up to vicious habits, and their sister Isabella, wife of Edward IT., only dis- tinguished herself by crime and infamy. Marguerite of Burgundy, wife of the king, had been shut up, at the close of the last reign, in the chateau Gaillard des Andelys, on a charge of adultery. Louis caused her to be strangled, and afterwards married Clemcnce of Hungary. He always lived surrounded by prolligate young nol^le- men, wdiom he made the companions of his pleasures, and the nobility, taking advantage of their influence, obtained from him the restoration of their ancient privileges. Tic thus weakened the mainspring of the monarchy, so anxiously cared for by his father. But the king, pressed by want of money, issued also >ome decrees favorable to the national liberties, offering t(3 the peasants of the crown and to the serfs held in mortmain to sell them their liberty. But he gave no guarantee of the rights that he recognized, and such was the misery of the people, and such the distrust that the king inspired, that his decree was only received by a small number, and 90 F R A N C E 1316-1322 brought little money into the treasury. Great disorder in the finances, and the horrors of a famine, accompanied l^y astounding scandals, marked the rapid course of this reign. Louis X. died in 1 316, in consequence of an imprudence, leaving his wife, Clem- ence of Hungary, expecting the birth of a child. By his first mar- riage he had only one daughter, called Jeanne, then six years old. Philip v., called the Long, brother of Louis le Hutin, took possession of the regency, to the prejudice of the queen, who gave birth to a son, named John. This child only survived a few days. Philip, uncle of the Princess Jeanne, was already in possession of the royal authority. According to a contemporary chronicler, the States-General, called together by Philip in 131 7, laid down the principle that in France " women should never inherit the crown." This was the first application of the so-called Salic Law. The new king bestowed attention on the administration of the interior, appointed the captains-general of the provinces and the captains of the towns, and organized the militia of the communes, decreeing, however, that the arms should remain deposited in the houses of the captains till there was a necessity for their use. Save a rapid and useless expedition into Italy, he had no interior or exterior war to sustain. A horrible persecution of lepers and per- sons suffering from skin diseases was set on foot in this reign under the pretense that they had poisoned the wells of drinking-water throughout tlie kingdom. The accused were barbarously executed without any proof except that forced out by horrible tortures. The Jews, suspected of being in complicity with them, perished in the same torments. In the midst of these atrocious executions the king fell ill of a wasting disease, and died at Longchamp, in 1322. This prince gave letters of nobility to persons of mean origin. At last these letters were sold for money, and this innovation, in renewing the aristocracy, altered its character and weakened it. Among the numerous edicts of Philip V., those which organized the militia, the chambers of the exchequer, the administration of the forests and the office of the collectors, indicate the progress of order and the substitution of the despotism supported by law for the despotism sustained by the sword, Philip V. had one son and four daughters. His son died before him, and, as his daughters were excluded from the throne by the vSalic Law. his brother Charles inherited the scepter. He issued ordinances for the jjurpose of ameliorating the lot of the lepers and R E A C T I O N A G A T X S T F E IT D A L I S M 91 1322-1328 Jews. There are few things l}esidcs in his reign that history has handed down to ns. While the civil war desolated luigland. Charles, at the instiga- tion of his sister Isabella, wife of Edward II., usurped the rights of that prince in Aquitaine. The English monarch sent his son to him, in order to pay him homage. Charles held back the young prince at his court, as a hostage, and furnished soldiers and money to his sister, in order to fight against her husband. That unfortu- nate king was made prisoner, and shortly afterwards a frightful death put an end to his days. Charles IV. fell ill at this period, and died on Christmas Day, in the same year, 1328, carried off, like his brothers, in the vigor of his life. Chapter VI THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. 1 328-1422. WITH the new reign commenced a long series of disas- trous wars between England and France, filling a cen- tury and known in history as the " Hundred Years' War." The immediate cause of the war was the question as to whether a Frenchman or an Englishman should sit upon the throne of France: as to whether France should govern itself or should be governed from England. Jeanne d'Evreux, widow of Charles IV., gave birth to a daugh- ter after tlie king's death, and, according to the will of the late king, which provided for this contingency, Parlement was sum- moned to decide between the candidates for the throne. The prin- cipals were Philip of Valois, grandson of Philip the Bold, and cousin- german of the last three kings of France, and Edward III., King of England, son of Isabella, sister of those princes. The right of Edward to succeed through his mother was declared to be invalid, but the English monarch, dissatisfied with the decision of the French Parlement. declared that he would sustain his right with the sword. Many years, however, rolled away before he declared war against Philip of Valois. and in the meantime he still paid him homage for the fiefs which he possessed in France. Philip, Count of Evreux. another grandson of Philip the Bold, and husband of Jeanne, daughter of Louis X., the eldest of the last three Capetians, was the third candidate for the crown. He received frum the monarch the kingdom of Xavarre, to which his wife had legitimate rights through her grandfather, and which was also detached from the crown of France. But the royal domain, by the accession of Philip of Valois, gained the county of Valois. as well as tlie provinces of Alaine and Anjou, which had been ceded by the House of Anjou to tlie House of Valois, under Philip IV. Phihi]) VI. was thirty-six years old when, in 1328, he was recog- nized as king. I'his prince was brave, violent, vindictive, and cruel, skillful in all muscular exercises, but ignorant of the first notions 9-2 HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 03 1328-1341 of "the military art and of financial administration. The first act of his reign was an expedition into Flanders to assist Count Louis, who was always at war with his suhjccts. The bloody battle of Cassel, where some twelve thousand Flemings were slaughtered, restored to the count his states. The issue of a scandalous lawsuit caused the first germs of discord to spring up between luhvard III. and Philip VL Robert of Artois, brother-in-law of Philip, had vainly bribed witnesses, in order to obtain from the king and Par- lement that the county of Artois. adjudicated to his aunt Mahaut, should be given up to him. Robert was banished and his posses- sions confiscated. The superstitious monarch was led to believe that Robert was seeking to compass his death by witchcraft, and the latter, through fear of the king's vengeance, was compelled to find an asylum with Edward, whom he was constantly urging to make war on Philip. The cruelties of the Count of Flanders had again caused a revolt among his subjects. Ghent had risen, and placed itself under the celebrated master weaver and merchant, Jacques of Artevelt, who was the soul of a new league against Count Fouis and France. Having need of the support of England, Artevelt. in the name of the Flemings, recognized Edward as the King of France. The Ene^lish king- soon after entered Flanders at the head oi an armv and confirmed all the privileges of the Flemings, l^hilip sustained against him, with superior forces, a defensive warfare, refusing to engage in any general action. The English, nevertheless, took the French fleet by surprise, shut up in a narrow creek near Fxdusc. and obtained a complete victory (1340). France lost one hundred and seventy vessels and more than twenty thousand men. This battle was followed by an armistice between the two nations for a year. A bloody war broke out in the following year in Brittany. John IIP, duke of that province, had died without issue, and the right of succession was disputed by Charles of Blois, husband of one of his nieces and nephew of the King of France, and .MontfiMi, conqueror of the Albigenses, who was the younger brother ai the last duke, and had been disinherited by him. Montfort immediately made himself master of the strongest places, and rendered honiage for Brittany to King Edward, whose assistance he implored, 'i'lie court of peers adjudged the duchy to Charles of Blois. Tliis war, in which Charles of Blois was supported by I'rance and Montfori 94 FRANCE 1341-1346 by England, lasted for twenty-four years without interruption, and presented, in the midst of heroic actions, a long course of treacheries and atrocious robberies, among which the most notorious was the murder of Oliver Clisson and fourteen other nobles of Brittany, partisans of ]\Iontfort, who had been invited to a tournament by the king and there arrested. Montfort's party appealed to Edward to avenge this act of perfidy, and in the year following an Eng- lish army, commanded by Edward, disembarked in Normandy and ravaged the kingdom without obstacle until they arrived beneath the walls of Paris. Philip, appealing to all the nobility of France, assembled around him a formidable army, before which Edward retired. The retreat of the English was difficult. Very inferior in numbers to the French, they passed over the Somme at the ford of Blanchetache, and, compelled to fight, they fortified themselves upon a hill which commanded the village of Cressy, and there placed cannons, which were then for the first time used in European armies ( 1346). They produced much smoke and noise and did little harm. The French had come by forced marches. If they had taken some repose, by prudent arrangements, victory would have been assured to them, but the impatient Philip, who had scarcely arrived in sight of the enemy, ordered an attack to be made by his Genoese archers, who formed the advanced guard. They endeavored vainly to make him observe that they were exhausted by hunger and fatigue, and that the rain had rendered their crossbows useless. He renewed the order; they advanced witli bravery and were repulsed. Philip, furious, caused them to be massacred, and his brother, the Duke of Alengon, trod them down under the hoofs of his cavalry. This ferocious act caused the loss of the army. The English took advan- tage of the confusion in the front ranks and rushed upon them, and the advanced guard was thrown back upon the general body of the army, where a frightful carnage took place. Three thousand eight hundred Frenchmen lost tlteir lives, and among them eleven princes, twelve hundred nobles or knisfhts, and the chivalrous King of Bohemia, allied with Philip, who, although blind, caused himself to be led into the midst of the affray in order to perish valiantly. The celebrated Black I'rince, fifteen years of age, commanded the English, under King Edward, his father, and contributed to the victory. Philip, twice wounded, was forced from the field of bat- tle, accompanied by a few knights and sergeants at arms. HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 95 1346-1350 "'"' The taking of Calais was one of the most fatal results of the defeat of Cressy. The inhabitants of that town, reduced by famine to capitulate after eleven months of courageous defense, were sum- moned to deliver up to Edward six persons from among tliem wlio should suffer for the rest. On this the Sieur Eustaclie de Saint- Pierre and five others offered themselves for deatli to appease tlie wrath of Edward, and the whole six, with ropes rmind their necks and bearing the keys of the town, were conducted by the governor, John of Vienne, to the English camp. Edward, on seeing tlicin. called for the executioner; but the queen interceded for them and obtained their pardon. All the inhabitants of Calais were driven from the town, which became an English colony; and for two hun- dred years it was an entrance place into Erance for foreign armies. The capture of this important place was followed by a truce between the two monarchs. The disasters of the war took away nothing from the pride or the magnificence of Philip of Valois. To replenisli his trcasurv he altered the coinage and caused new taxes to be sanctioned, among which was the tax called la gabclle, transferring to the fiscal power the monopoly of salt throughout all the kingdom. Pliih']i VI. also rendered the power of the inquisition formidable in France ; never- theless, he authorized the appeals from abuse of the ecclesiastical tribunals to the Parlement. In 1350 he married the young IManche of Navarre, sister of King Charles, surnamed llie Bad. and died in less than a month afterwards, at the age of fifty-eight years. Tie had bought the seigniory of Montpellier, for 120,000 ecus, from James IL, last King of Majorca, and ac(|uired from Humbert II. the province of Dauphine, which was given in appanage to tlie eldest sons of the kings of France. I'^rcMn that time they bore tlie name of dauphins. The frontiers of the kingdom were thus extended as far as the Alps. John was more than thirty years of age when, in 1350, he suc- ceeded his father. ITis education, although it had been carefully conducted, had made him more a valiant knight tlian a wise and experienced king. Impetuous in character, irresolute in mind, rash rather than brave, prodigal, obstinate, vindictive and lull of pride, perfectly instructed in the laws of chivalry and ignorant of the duties of the throne, he was always ready to sacrifice to tlie prejudices of honor, as then understood, the rights of his subjects and the interests of the state. iM-ance was exhausted at the time 98 FRANC E 1355-1356 This act of violence drew down great misfortunes on the kingdom. Phihp of Xavarre, father of King Charles, and Geoffroy of Harcourt, uncle of the beheaded count, immediately united themselves with the King of England and recognized him as the King of France. Edward proclaimed himself the avenger of the executed gentlemen. He sent a formidable army into Nor- mandy, while the Prince of Wales ravaged Auvergne, Limousin, and Berry, and approached Tours. John called together all his nobility. The army assembled in haste in the plains of Chartres and overtook the English in the neighborhood of Poictiers (1356). The Black Prince had only ten thousand soldiers, and he saw before him an army of fifty thousand men, among whom, besides the King of France and his four sons, there were twenty-six dukes, or counts, and a hundred and forty knights banneret. He fixed his camp at Alaupertuis, two leagues north of Poictiers, upon a hill whose sides were covered with hedges, bushes and vines, imprac- ticable for cavalr}^ and favorable to sharpshooters. He concealed his archers in the bushes, dug ditches and surrounded himself with palisades and wagons. In fact he converted his camp into a great redoubt, open only in the center by a narrow defile, which was lined by a double hedge. x'\t the top of this defile was the little English army, crowded together and protected on every side. There was, moreover, an amluiscade of six hundred knights and archers be- hind a small hill Vv'hich separated the two armies. The French army was disposed in three battalions. The left and most ad- vanced wing was commanded by the Duke of Orleans, brother of the king; the center, somewhat further back, by the sons of the king; the right wing, or reserve, by the king himself. As the bat- tle was about to begin, the Cardinal de Perigord endeavored in vain to act as a mediator. An agreement was impossible and the fighting began. A corps c)f three hundred French men-at-arms rushed into the defile; a shower of arrows destroyed it. The corps which followed, disturbed by this attack, threw itself back upon the left wing and threw it into disorder. This was only a combat of the advanced guard, but the Englisli ambuscade throwing itself suddenly upon the center division, that also was seized with panic and terror and took to flight witliout having fought. The left wing took refuge, in disorder, ])eliin(l the division of the king, which was already in trouble, but intact. The Enghsh went out from the defile m HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 99 1356-1357 good order, and, advancing into the plain, found before them that division where were the king, his youngest son. and liis brilliant company of nobles. The French had still the advantage over their enemies, who were very inferior to them in numbers, but John. remembering to his misfortune that the disaster at Cressy had been caused by the French cavalry, cried out, " On foot ! on foot ! *' He himself descended from his horse and placed himself at the head of his own men, a battle-ax in his hand. The engagement was fierce and bloody. The French knights, unable to struggle on foot against the great horses of the English and the arrows of the archers, fought until they were all killed or taken. The king remained almost alone, with bare head, wounded, intrepid, fighting bravely with his ax, accompanied by his young son. who parried the blows of his enemies. He was obliged to surrender to the Black Prince. Such was the disastrous issue of the celebrated battle of Poictiers. The dauphin, already named by his father lieutenant-general of the kingdom, assembled at Paris in the same year the Estates of the Langue d'Oil. Eight hundred deputies were sent to the assembly, which was presided over by Charles de Blois, Duke of Brittany. On the de- mand for fresh subsidies, they answered by the election of several commissioners, taken from each order, who demanded the power to bring to judgment the counselors of the king and the creation of a permanent council of four prelates, twelve knights, and twelve bourgeois, in order to assist the young regent. Upon these condi- tions they agreed to furnish an army of thirty thousand men. But the dauphin was not disposed to comply with them, and at last the assembly separated without obtaining anything or granting anything. Desolation then reigned supreme throughout France. Coin- m.erce was annihilated; the soldiers, disbanded and without pay, ravaged the country; the fields remained uncultivated; the (Over- crowded towns were distressed by famine; while the h:ng]ish were approaching the gates of Paris. Nothing remained for the dauphin but to summon the Estates-General once more in 1357, but the new Estates reproduced the requests of the pa-ece.ling assembly, adding to them other pretensions and forcing upon all their demands. In exchange for a subsidy destined to furnish thirty thousand men, and which was to be collected and managed n 100 F R A N C E 1357 not by the people of the king, but by those of the Estates, the dauphin engaged solemnly to turn aside nothing for his personal interest from the money consecrated to the defense of the kingdom, to refuse every letter of pardon for atrocious crimes, no more to sell or farm out the offices of judicature, to establish good money, and to bring about no further change without the consent of the three Estates : such v.ere, in brief, the principal dispositions of the celebrated ordinance of 1357. The dauphin swore besides that he would conclude no truce without the sanction of the Estates, and that he would dismiss as " unworthy of all charge," twenty-two counselors, to whom public hatred attributed all the misfortunes of the country. King John had been conducted from Poictiers to Bordeaux, thence to London, and during the negotiations on the subject of his ransom, a truce of two years w^as concluded between England and France. About the same time the death of Geoffroy of Har- court freed the dauphin from an implacable foe. Charles breathed again. He had only given way b}^ constraint to the wish of the Estates, and he now repudiated all the promises that he had made, retaining the ministers whom he had promised to dismiss and prosecute. The new Estates, convened jointly by the dauphin and Marcel, the celebrated provost, or chief, of the merchants of Paris, assem- bled on November 17, 1357, but among the members were found only deputies for the cities. Marcel, as the dauphin braved public opinion by drawing nearer to his person the ministers and great officers condemned by the preceding Estates, and threatened to reestablish all the former abuses, had recourse to violent meas- ures. He made the Parisians adopt a national color, and gave them for a rallying sign a red and blue hood, the colors of the town of Paris. He appeared, fc^llowed by armed men, before the dauphin, and caused to be massacred in his presence the Lord of Conflans, marshal of Champagne, and Robert of Clermont, marshal of Nor- mandy, botli of whom had been proscribed by the Estates. The dauphin begged his life from Marcel, who placed upon his head the red and blue hood and conducted him to the Hotel de Ville under the safeguard of the popular colors. Marcel was king in Paris. The nobility and clergy, however, were indignant at seeing the despised bourgeois exercising a power equal to their own, and HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 101 1357-1360 the murder of the marshals caused (Hscord to hreak out. The no- bles of Champagne assembled and demanded vent^cance tnmi the dauphin, who called together the Estates at Compicgne, far from the center of agitation. The nobility alone presented themselves in great numbers and the reaction became imminent. Alarcel fore- saw the storm and prepared for the combat. Tie attacked the Louvre, then out of the capital, and took possession of it : he imitc were reestablished, am! Paris lost its municipal privileges, together with tlie right of elect- ing its provost and civil magistrates. Rouen and otiier towns tiiat had followed the lead of the ca])ital were treated in a similar manner. The Flemings, wdio, though crushed, were not conquered, sought the aid of Richard II. of I^igland. wlio sent an army into Flanders. The English trooi)s sacked the towns whicli were oc- cupied by French garrisons, ct^itrary to the wish of their inhab- 108 F R A N C^ E 1332-1392 itants. Charles VI. marched forward to meet the English, and Flanders became a theater of incendiarism and murder. At last both parties, tired of the strife, commenced to treat for peace. The Count of Flanders alone, furious against the town of Ghent for its prolonged resistance, impeded the negotiations, but his deatli put an end to hostilities. A truce was signed in 1384, and Flanders passed to the Duke of Burgundy, who had married ^larguerite, heiress to that powerful county. Ghent submitted to that prince in the following year, and preserved all its franchises. In 1386 Charles assembled a large army, gathered a great sum of money, and made immense preparations for a descent upon England, but the expedition was abandoned by the advice of the Duke of Berry. The supplies were abandoned to the pillage of the chiefs of the army, and three millions of livres were thus lost without profit either to the king or to the nation. Two years later Charles, always enamored of war, and directed by his uncles, sus- tained the Duke of Brabant, and made war for him. without suc- cess, against the Duke of Gueldres. Harassed and pursued by German marauders, his army returned to France in distress and burdened with humiliations. The eyes of the king were at length opened by tlie Cardinal of Laon and other ancient counselors of his father, wlio advised him to assume the government himself. Charles permitted himself to be convinced, and, in a great coun- cil, he signified to his uncles that for the future he alone would govern. This unexpected declaration announced a happy revolu- tion for the nation at large, and Charles VI. then turned himself to wise measures in the interests of the people. He would have done much more in the same direction if he had had more knowl- edge and less taste for pleasure. The king now turned his atten- tion to the interior of the kingdom and undertook a journey to the south of France. He found Languedoc wasted and depopu- lated through the ])arl)arity of the Duke of Berry, whom Charles dismissed from liis government. Fie afterwards freed the province from the brigands who infested it. Lastly, interesting himself in the progress of the morality of the people and in military instruc- tion, he closed the gaming-houses and opened everywhere shoot- ing-grounds for tlie bow and the crossbow. These happy omens of a better future were of short duration. The assassination of the Constable of ("lisson, chief of the government, was attempted by brigands in tlie pay of ^^lontfort, Duke of Brittany, his mortal HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 109 1392-1396 enemy. Clisson did not die from his wounds, and the king, in ,i fury, swore to avenge him. He commanded the duke to deliver up Craon, the chief of the assassins, who had taken refuge with him. Montfort refused, and Charles marched into Brittany, lie went out from Mans, at the head of his troops, in July, 1392, but on the march he was suddenly stricken with insanity. Then commenced the third and fatal epoch of that disastrous reign. The faction of the dukes again seized powen The Duke of Burgundy took possession of the right of the royal signature and exercised sole authority; the council of the king was broken up; the constable took flight and retired into Brittany, where he recommenced the war against ^lontfort; the Jews were driven from the kingdom ; the shooting-grounds for the crossbow were closed and the gambling-houses opened. Such were the first deeds which signalized that trying period. Sc^on after, frightful dis- sensions broke out among the princes themselves, and, as no funda- mental law existed which could regulate the future of the monarchy and decide between so many rival pretensions, the fate of the state was abandoned to a royal council which was ruled Ijy the uncles of the king, his wife, the Queen Tsabellc, of IVu^iria, a frivoidus and money-loving woman, and, lastly, by the Duke of Orleans, brother of the king, who was as despotic and avaricious as his uncles. Charles was still considered to be reigning, but always sul)ser\ient to the dominant party. He appeared to employ li-s few p;limmcr- ings of reason only in sanctioning the most tyrannical acts and the most odious abuses. It was in this manner that the Idngdom of France was governed during twenty-eight years. The unhappy monarch attributed his disease to the schism which desolated Christianity, and believed himself ])unislicd by Heaven for having neglected to extinguish it. Benedict XIII. had replaced the anti-pope. Clement VH. In vain the king urged him and the legitimately-elected Pope, Boniface IX., to a mutual cc- sion. To add to the disorder in Christendom, that was induced hy the quarrel of the rival Popes and their ])artisans, the (ircek l-Jnpiro and Plungary were invaded by th.e ferocious Sultan r.axezid. Si-is- mund, afterwards emperor and tiien king of Hungary, rcipicstcd assistance from France. A brilliant army of ten thousand set out under the orders of the Count of Xevers, eldest son n\ the Duke of Burgundy, but under the walls of Xicoi)olis ( !3()'0. in ihil- garia, the Christian army was exterminated by Baye/.id, and the 110 FRANCE 1396-1411 conqueror only spared the lives of twenty princes and high nobles, for whom he hoped to receive immense ransoms. It was in the interest of the council of the King of France to keep on good terms with Henry IV., who was now reigning in England in room of his cousin, Richard II., who had been deposed and murdered, but the Duke of Orleans, whose influence increased every day, was bent upon exciting his anger by deadly insults. He broke the truce and let loose the most frightful calamities upon the kingdom. This prince, after the death of his uncle, Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1404, exercised without curb an ab- solute power, but soon met with a formidable rival in the new Duke of Burgundy, the same John, Count of Nevers, who was conquered at Nicopolis, a vindictive, cruel and ambitious prince, fatal to his race and his country. He arrived from his county of Flanders at the head of an army. At his approach the queen and the Duke of Orleans retired to Melun, but Burgundy seized the royal princes and princesses and guarded them in Paris, where he flattered the popular passions. His rival assembled troops, and civil war was on the point of breaking out, when the two enemies were apparently recon- ciled. On the following day the startling news was spread that the Duke of Orleans had been assassinated. The Duke of Burgundy acknowledged his responsibility for the murder and was expelled from the council. Master of Paris, no one dared to speak openly against him, and his crime, indeed, was publicly vindicated before the court on the ground that the Duke of Orleans was deservedly put to death for tyranny. The murderer only consented at a later period to demand the pardon of the king and of the young princes of Orleans ; peace was sworn between them at Chartres, and the bad faith of those who signed the treaty caused it to receive the name of the " Underhand Peace." A slight calm succeeded these storms. But soon the members of the council, jealous of the ever- increasing popularity of the Duke of Burgundy, and disquieted about their own safety, quitted Paris and rejoined at Gien the young princes of Orleans, of whom the eldest married the daughter of Count Bernard of Armagnac. This pitiless man became the chief of the Armagnac party, as it was called, and, at the head of an army of Gascons, marched on Paris. A frightful war, interrupted by truces violated on both sides, commenced between the party of Armagnac and that of Burgundy. Both sides appealed to the English, and sold France to them. The Armagnacs pillaged and HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 111 1411-1415 ravaged the environs of Paris with unheard of cruelties, while the " Cabochiens,',' or corps of butchers, enrolled by the Duke of Bur- gundy, and so called from John Caboche, their chief, caused the capital they defended to tremble. The ILstates-Gencral, conv(jkeil for the first time in thirty years, were dumb, and the butchers made the laws. They pillaged, imprisoned and slaughtered with im- punity, according to their savage fury, and found judges to con- demn their victims. They besieged in his hotel the Duke of Guienne. dauphin of France, threatencil him with death, and mur- dered his friends and favorites. The king, always a slave to the party which ruled near him. a])proved ;md sanctioned, without un- derstanding all these excesses, which terrified even Burgundy him- self. The reaction broke out at last. Tired of so many atrocities, the bourgeoisie took up arms and shook off the yoke of the butchers. The dauphin, at the head of the militia, went to the Hotel de Ville, from which place he dro\e out Caboche and his brigands. The counter revolution was established. Burgundy departed, and the power passed to the Armagnacs. The princes reentered ]*aris and induced the king to declare war against Joh.n the I'earlcss, whose instrument he had been a short time before. His army was vic- torious, Burgundy submitted, and the Treaty of Arras suspended the war, but not the executions and the ravages. Henry V., King of England, judged this a jjropitious moment to descend upon France. The invaders disembarked without obstacle at the mouth of the Seine and in\-ested Hartleur, then a town of great maritime importance and one of the keys of the kingdom. which only succumbed after a month of heroic defense. During the siege the English army had suffered enormous losses by disease. and of thirty thousand men that Henry had brouglit cner not more than fifteen thousand remained. This numlier was insufficient to conquer the kingdom, and Henry, expectin.g to meet with little or no resistance on his way on account of the unsettled state of the country, resolved to march on Calais, where he reckoned upon halting and receiving reinforcements. After crossing the Somme the J^nglish found a French iwmy three or four times more numerous, under the Constable tTAlhret and the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, awaiting them on the oilier side of the river, near to the village of Azincourt. The armies passed the night opposite to each other, the French on horseback in the rain. On the side of the English, whose peril was inimineiu. 112 FRxVNCE 1415-1418 everything-, by order of the king, was said and done in subdued tones and in darkness. Among the French, on the contrary, great fires were h'ghted. and all was noise, agitation and confusion. The English after waiting the whole forenoon for the French to attack, began the battle. The French cavalry, restricted for want of space, dismounted under a shower of arrows and rushed upon the sharp stakes which the English had planted. On seeing the confusion in the ranks the English issued from their fortified enclosure and, with the king at their head, penetrated to the middle of the second line of the enemy. The rearguard of the French still remained intact, but seeing the first two ranks overcome, they hardly waited for the shock, but turned their bridles and fled. The battle was finished, when someone came to Henry V. and told him that the camp was attacked by a fresh army, and Henry, seeing the numer- ous prisoners that he had made, and for whom he expected heavy ransoms, ordered that all the captives should be put to death. The alarm was found to be false, but already nearly all had perished. Extended on the field of battle might be seen seven thousand French, nearly all nobles. Among the few surviving prisoners were the Marshal of Boucicaut, the Counts of Eu, Vendome, and Richemont, and the Dukes of Bourbon and Orleans. The conqueror king, master of the sad field, cast his eyes slowly around him, and having asked tlie name of a neighboring chateau, was told that it was Azin- court. " Well," said he, " this battle shall take the name of Azincourt, now and forever." In Paris, more terrible than before, civil war broke out. The Count of Armagnac. appointed constable, reigned by terror only. The Queen Isabelle of Bavaria alone could equal the authority of Armagnac ; she was sent into exile by her husband to Tours. Bur- gundy took away the queen from her guardians and proclaimed her regent. Soon after, the Burgundians entered P'*aris, from which place the provost, Tanneguy-Duchatel. carried off the young dauphin, Charles, the last and only surviving son of the king. The populace rose again under the leadership of the executioner, Capeluche ; they seized the Count of Armagnac with his partisans, and put them to death. The queen, Isabelle, brought back by the Duke of Bur- gundy, made her triuni])hal entry into the town sullied by so many horrors, and took in hand the sovereign authority. The faction of Orleans then conducted the dauphin to Poictiers and recognized him as regent. H U N 1) n !: I) Y E A R S ^ \V A R 1 1 .S 1418-1422 Henry V. pursued his ravag-es into the licart of the kin,u:tloni. He had entirely conquered Normandy; Rouen also had fallen into his power. Tlie Frencli ])rinces seemed at last to perceive the nccc> sity of union. The dauphin had ap])ointed an interview with tlie Duke of Burgundy on the bridge of Montereau ; the duke, after hesitating for a long- time, presented himself. Angry words were exchanged, hands sought the hilts of swords, ])ut before blood had been shed Duchatel led the dauphin away. A few minutes later the duke fell, bleeding from many wounds. ddiis murder made peace impossible. Philip the Good, the new Duke of Burgundy, in order to avenge his father, (jffered the crown to llenrv \'., iind tlic queen negotiated between her insane husbcUid and Henry \'. the shameful Treaty of Troyes, signed in 1420, bv which, in contempt of the rights of the royal princes of I-Vance, the cn^wn was be- stowed in perpetuity on Henry and his descendants, d^his treaty, which could not go into effect until the death of King Charles V^I., was immediately sealed by the marriage of her daughter to llcnry, to whom the regency of the kingdom during the m;dady of the king was entrusted. The treaty was solemnly :ippro\ed of by the Estates-General, convoked in the capital and ])resided o\ er by the king. The dauphin, sixteen years of age. was declared guilty by the Parlement of homicide on the person of the Drike y)\ P)urgundy and deprived of his rights to the tin-one. He succeeded, however, in detaching Languedoc from the I'urgundian ])arty and in making himself master of the south of France. The sudden death of Henry V., in 1422, prepared a new des- tiny for the dauphin. Charles Vl. died shortly afterward; he had occupied the throne for forty-two years. Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles \T. and wife of Henry V., had brought into the world a son who succeeded his father in 1422 under the name of Henry VT. 1 le wa^ then scarcely a year old and was crowned at Paris as King of 1- ranee and h'.ngland. The Duke of P>edford, eldest brother ..l Henry V., governed tiie kingdom in the name of his nephew and succeeded in attaclnng to himself the two greatest vassals of the crown, John \'\.. Duke of Brittany, and Philip the (iood. Duke of Purgundy. The latter, in order to avenge luore surely his fatlier's assassination, be^rnwed the hand of his sister on the Duke of Iknliord and was for a long time the firmest supporter of the English in l-rance. Chapter VII JOAN OF ARC AND THE LIBERATION OF FRANCE 1422-1461 nr HE dauphin Charles, then nineteen years old, had taken, immediately after the death of his father, the title of kin<^ JL and resided at Bourges with the queen, Marie of Anjon, liis wife. His authority was recognized in more than half of France, yet he made little effort to exercise it, and his enemies con- temptuously referred to him as the " King of Bourges." The sol- diers of the army of Charles were for the most part Scots and Gascons. His constable even, the Count of Buchan, was a Scotch- man, and the king, surrounded by savage men, appeared for a long time to take as little interest as the people themselves in his own cause. The battle of Crevant-sur-Yonne (1423), lost by his troops, and that of Verneuil (1424), still more disastrous, where the constable perished, caused Charles VH. to perceive the necessity of having powerful supporters. He fixed his choice upon the famous Richemont, brother of the Duke of Brittany, and made him con- stable. Richemont accepted only on condition that the Armagnacs should be driven from the court and that Charles should separ- ate himself from the assassins of John the Fearless. Tanneguy- Duclialel, the most powerful and the most guilty, left the first, and hastened by his voluntary exile the useful bringing together of Richemont and the king. Without character and without will, incapable of any serious occupation, indolent and voluptuous, Charles seemed incapable of doing anything to inspire confidence in his supporters : his party was weakening every day, and discord reigned in his camp. Already the English threatened Orleans, the most important of the towns still remaining faithful; they had made themselves masters of the head of the bridge and the outworks, not- withstanding the bravery of La liire, of Xaintrailles, of Gaucourt, and above all of the famous Dunois, bastard son of Orleans, the true and brave defenders of the JM-ench monarchy. Lastly, the defeat of the French at the Battle of the Herrings, in 1429, appeared to give 114 JOAN OF ARC 115 1429 the finishing- stroke to tlie fall of that town and to inllict a mortal wound upon the cause of Charles. But in proportion to the new triumphs g-ained by the English, their yoke became more intolerable, and developed in the kingdom a national sentiment capable of working prodigies if it were set in action by hope and confidence. Religious enthusiasm mingled it- self in the heart of the French, who, seeing in their misfortunes the chastisements of an avenging God, awaited the end of their sufiferings from the Divinity alone. Such were. i)i 14J9, the senti- ments of the mass of the nation, when a young girl of seventeen years, named Jeanne d'Acre, afterwards called Joan of Arc, born of poor parents in the village of Donn-emy, upon the frontiers of Lorraine, announced that she had received from God a mission to cause the siege of Orleans to be raised, to conduct the dauphin to Rheims to his coronation, and to drive the English from France. She declared that supernatural voices had revealed to her the heavenly will, and requested to be led to Chinon to Cluirles VI I. " She was a robust young girl with brown liair, in whom feminine charm w^as allied with masculine vigor. She talked willi malici(nis humor and a merry vivacity, having a response for everything. She did not have the somber rudeness of a Saint Catlierine ni Sienna, nor the languors of mystics burned by divine lo\'c. In the en- thusiastic outbursts that raised her from earth to heaven, slie main- tained a solid good sense and a fine sentiment of the reality." Brought into his presence, she distinguished him, it is said, upon the spot, among all his courtiers, and gofng to him she secretly an- nounced her mission. After submitting her to a series (jf interro- gations, conducted by theologians, Charles, placing faith in her word, caused a complete suit of armor to be gi\cn to lier. She wished to have a white standard s^jrinkled with lleurs-de-iis. The report soon spread among tlie two armies that a being endowed with supernatural power had come to figlit for Charles \"!1.. and. while the French saw divine intervention in this i)ro(ligy. the l\ng- lish, stricken with terror, only wished io recognize in it the in- fluence of the devil. For her lirst exi)Uiit, Jeanne, notwithstanding the strict blockade, conducted into Orleans an army which Iiad left Blois, and in a few days SufTold and Talbot, the genenils of the English troops investing the city, were compelled to raise the :.iege (1429). From that time Jeaiuie, under the name of the Maid (W' Orleans, soon became celebrated throughout the whole knigd.an. 116 FRANCE 1429-1433 France awoke, enthusiasm gained men's hearts, and a crowd of soldiers rushed to join the standard of Charles. Everywhere the English fell back. At last Jeanne and her army met them and defeated them with terrible slaughter after a long and obstinate combat at Patay, in the plains of Beauce (1429). After this glorious battle Jeanne d'Arc went to find the king at Gien, and conjured him to march boldly upon Rheims, there to cause himself to be crowned and solemnly to take possession of his kingdom. Charles allowed himself to be persuaded, and advanced across Champagne with his army. Troyes and Chalons opened their gates to him, and he arrived at last under the walls of Rheims, at the glorious end of his journey. The Burgundian captains, who commanded the town, evacuated it without giving battle. Charles on July 16 made his triumphal entry, and the next day he was crowned in the ancient cathedral. The Maid of Orleans placed herself near to the king and the principal altar during the cere- mony, standing erect with her standard in her hand. Jeanne's mission was not yet ended. She had come to drive the English from the kingdom. She continued to fight in the army of the king, was wounded at the unfortunate siege of Paris, and lastly taken prisoner in a sortie while heroically defending Com- piegne against the English and Burgundians. By the English she was delivered over to the inquisition, as suspected of magic and sor- cery, and by her merciless judges, at the head of whom was a French- man, Pierre Cauchon, Bishop of Beauvais, who was altogether devoted to the English by vengeance and ambition, she was con- demned to be burned alive, and suffered with fortitude and resigna- tion in the market-place of Rouen on May 30, 143 1. Charles heard of her death with indifference. He did nothing to prevent it or to avenge it, and waited for twenty-five years before ordering that tlie memory of the heroine should be reinstated. He had again fallen into his culpable indolence and failed again in his fortune, while his captains fought separately as chiefs of partisans; they received from him no order, no pay, no support, and submitted the ccjuntry where they ruled to frightful exactions. The English, however, were still more odious to the people; the foreigners and their allies, the Burgundians, were equally detested, and insurrec- tions broke out in all parts of the kingdom. In 1432, however, the Duchess of Bedford, sister of the Duke of Burgundy, died, and her death broke the ties of that duke with England. Burgundy sacri- JOAN OF ARC 117 1435-1449 ficed at last this long- resentment to the interest of France and ]jc- came reconciled to Charles VII. in the Peace of Arras. 1435. At last France was united, and the maintenance of the Engiish do- minion became impossible. Paris, after belonginic^ to the crown of England for seventeen years, opened her gates to her king, and soon the English only remained in Normandy and (juienne. After repressing the mercenary bands which infested and pil- laged many parts of the kingdom after the long war, Charles con- voked the Estates-General at Orleans, and asked and obtained from them a tax of twelve hundred tlK)usand livrcs for tlie pay of a per- manent army to insure the internal peace of the country. Some years later the king completed the organization of this army by com- pelling each parish to furnish, at the king's call, a good infantry soldier fully equipped, and on whom the military service conferred several privileges, high pay, and exemption from taxes. These foot soldiers were called free archers. This reconstruction of the mil- itary system produced important results. The king tluis obtained an army always numerous and always ready to concentrate in mass upon all points menaced by revolt or war. I'o the Estates-General of 1439 must be attributed, in fact, the merit of this creation, for it was by them that the first necessary funds were granted. How ever, they had only granted the tax of twelve liundred thousand livrcs for one year ; the king on his own authority made it ])er[)etual. Thus was established in France illegally the direct i)crmanent tax. At first it was popular, but there were bad readjustments of the impost, its amount was always increasing, and above all th.c innumerable imrnunities admitted later on in favor of the privileged classes ren- dered it hateful throughout the whole kingdom. L'nder the new regime commerce sprang up again, agriculture ])ccame tlonrisliing, and the king was hailed as the restorer of order. The mihtary aristocracy, however, could not see, without uneasiness, tlie prcgri'ss of the royal power, and broke into a revolt under the dauphin, wlio was afterwards Louis XL, and tlie princes of royal bk)od aiul ilic captains of the " Ecorcheurs " offered themselves. They wished to recommence a civil war, but Charles \1I., at the head c)i a disci- plined army, marched against the rebels, who one after the otlier submitted. One only remained formidable, and that was the prince who was heir to the crown. He retired into Dau[)hine, and from that time a deep enmity existed between father and son. After having pacified the interior, Charles \TI., proliting by 118 FRANCE 1440-1449 the civil wars which were exhausting England, tried to expel the enemy from the kingdom. In a year half of the fortified places in Normandy were reconquered, and the remainder of the province suhmitted to the king after the victory of Formigny in 1450. Guienne was socjn conquered by the victorious army, and. in 1453, of all its continental possessions England only preserved Calais. In 1444 the Emperor Frederick III. requested the support of France against the republican cantons of Switzerland. The assist- ance of Charles VII. was equally solicited by Rene, Duke of Lor- raine, against the free towns of Metz, Toul, Verdun, and some other towns, which called themselves subjects of the empire. Charles VII. complied with tliese rc([uests and sent two armies, one into Switzer- hmd and the otlicr into Lorraine. The Dauphin Louis commanded tlie first, whicli met and defeated that of the Swiss cantons at Saint Jac(|ues, near Bale. Struck with their bravery, the French prince made ])cace with them, and concluded an alliance with those whom lie h;id \an(|uislic(l. The events of tlie campaign in Lorraine were little decisi\e. The towns of Toul and Verdun recognized the king as their protector; Metz resisted, was besieged, and bought the maintenance of its liberty by a contribution of war. This rapid JOAN OF ARC 119 1449-1457 campaign gave a proof of the pretensions of Charles VII. upon a portion of Lorraine, but there was no other important result. The wounds of France closed, and prosperity began to spring forth anew. By the king's care the whole administration was re- formed. A special court, called the court of aides, was instituted for the hearing of all criminal causes connected with the taxes ; this supreme jurisdiction had soon numerous tribunals. By the crea- tion of the parlement of Toulouse, the king restricted the jurisdic- tion of that of Paris, wdiich then extended itself throughout the provinces. After having organized the army, the treasury and justice, Charles occupied himself with the church of France. It was he who, in 1438, promulgated solemnly, before the French clergy as- sembled at Bourges, the pragmatic sanction, proclaiming the liberties of the Gallican church, such as the council then sitting at Bale had defined. It recognized the superiority of the general councils over the Pope, restricted to a small number of cases the right to appeal to Rome, forbade the publication of Papal bulls in the kingdom be- fore they had been registered in Parlement, deprived the Pontifical court of the revenue of vacant benefices, and entrusted the election of the bishops to the chapters of the churches. In these works, which were so important and so diverse, the Estates-General had only a feeble part. Their last meeting had taken place at Orleans in 1439, and for twenty-two years Charles did not convoke them, but was seconded in his work by skillful counselors, who, for the most part, had been drawn from the ranks of the bourgeoisie. Charles had become the wisest and the most pow^erful monarch in Europe, but just causes of distrust and resentment with regard to the dauphin embittered his latter years. Louis had married as his second wife, contrary to the wish of his father, Charlotte, daugh- ter of the Duke of Savoy. The king ordered him to come and justify himself at his court; but the dauphin, fearing all the coun- selors of his father and not being able to obtain surety for his person, sought refugee in the court of Burgundy, where he was re- ceived by Philip the Good and by Charles, his son, with honor and munificence. The king took possession of Dauphine, and united that province to the states which were held directly from the crown. The dauphin had implored the pardon of his father, but the king knew his false and perverse heart, and vainly requested that he would ask for forgiveness in j^erson. Unfortunately, a formidable example had recently increased the distrust of his son. The Duke 120 FRANCE 1457-1461 of AlenQon, prince of the royal blood, accused by the king of treason and of coniph'cily with Juigiand, had been condemned to death by the peers of b' ranee. Charles commuted the punishment and caused the prince to be shut up in a tower of the Louvre; the dauphin de- clined to expose himself to a similar chastisement. The king from that time believed himself to be beset by the emissaries of his son. At last, fearing that he would be poisoned by them, and suffering besides from an abscess in the mouth, he refused all nourishment and allowed himself to die of hunger. He expired on July 22, 1 46 1, in his fifty-eighth year. Chapter VIII TERRITORIAL UNITY AND WARS IN ITALY 1461-1547 LOUIS XI. was thirty-ei|^ht years old Avhen he mounted the throne. " The new king was awkward and feeble - in appearance. His face, with its brilhantly piercing eyes, was cHsfigured by a hooked nose, excessively long. His legs were slim and deformed, his gait uncertain. He dressed very simply and wore an old pilgrim's hat, ornamented solely with a sacred medal of lead. When he entered Abbeville in com- pany with the fastidious Philip the Good, simple people who had never seen the king marveled at his appearance and exxlaimed. * Bless us ! and is that the King of France, the greatest king of the world? His whole outfit is not worth twenty francs horse, clothes, and all.' " This prince, who from being a fugi- tive became a king, was informed of the plots hatched against him in the court of his father, and also of the hatred whicli the most influential men in the kingdom bore him. He believed that he had need of the support of the people against his enemies, and promised at his accession to diminish the taxes. But his liberalities towards those whom he wished to gain exhausted the treasury and the taxes were augmented. One of the first acts of his reign was the abolition of the pragmatic sanction. Being passionately fond of the chase, he forbade that sport in the royal forests, much to the annoyance of the nobility. Economical himself, and strict in tlie administration of finances, he did not permit them to be pillaged by the princes of his family. His yoke bore equally upon all ; his ac- tive vigilance surveyed at the same time each part of the kingdom, and he would not sufTer any tyrant in the country but himself. The irritation became general, and the princes and nobles leagued them- selves against Louis XI. He, in seeking to divide his two most formidable neighbors, Francis II., Duke of Brittany, and the Count of Charolais, son of the Duke of Burgundy, excited them against 121 122 FRANCE 1464-1 463 himself. He had perfidiously given to both of them the govern- ment of Normandy, in the hope of seeing them dispute; however, they united against him. The resentment of the Count of Charolais, afterwards known in history as Charles the Rash, was, however, more vehement, because Louis had been loaded with benefits by Philip tlie Ciood, his father. It was around him and the Duke of Brittany that the princes of the royal blood rallied, together with the great nobles w'ho were discontented. They assumed the name of tlie League of the Public Good, and placed at their head the Duke of Berry, Charles of France, brother of the king, wdio claimed Nor- EJJ GLI S H C B A ArjTtis '''C. ^^ \coTbeU mandy from him as an appanage. The bloody battle of Montlhery (14O5), where Louis left the field of battle to the Count of Char- olais, was soon followed by the rising of Normandy in favor of the princes. The king, seeing himself the weaker, laid down his arms and had recourse to negotiations. He signed, in 1465, the Treaty of Conflans, by which he gave Normandy to his brother, and satisfied the exorbitant pretensions of the princes. Louis ceded to them towns, vast domaiiLs, and governments, and piled up dignities upon the rebel no])]cs. But Louis only gave with one hand to take back with the other wlicn the moment should arrive. He convoked the Estates-Ciencral at 1"nnrs in 1468, and by representing that those who had been in league against him only sought to enfeeble the state by dismembering it. he persuaded the Estates to annul the LOriS Xl ()! IkA.M K. J.\ l'KI>().\ AT I'F.KIiNNK. \ ( i\\ S I 1 1 K KKIJ TlOX OF A X'E'A" ( III K( li Til THK MnTHKK III-- I, nil 1 1- S 1 1 K I(IK WHOM HE HAS DOXK SO MrCH V.ll.l. XOW KKl'AN TllK I1F.I!T ]\\ HF.Li'IX(; HIM OFT OF HIS DIFFirri.TlFS I'iiinliii,L: hy llrniunni l\\iiilhii,-li TERRITORIAL UNITY 1^3 1468-1470 Treaty of Conflans, retaking- Normandy from Charles of France. Loni.s, having obtained from them all that he wished, was anxions to dismiss them. They only remained in assembly for eight days; and it was remarked, as a symptom of the progress of the bour- geoisie, that the three orders had voted in common. This was the only convocation of the Estates-General under this reign. Charles of France, irritated at losing Normandy, united again with the Duke of Brittany and with Charles the Rash, who had become Duke of Burgundy by the death of Philip the Good, his father. Louis foresaw their attack. He marched unexpectedly against the Duke of Brittany, who, separted from his allies, and seized with fear, submitted by the Treaty of Ancenis. The king then sought to gain over his people. He gave char- ters to many of the towns, protected commerce by wise ordinances, and reorganized the national militia of Paris, to which he gave the right to elect its own officers. Louis endeavored afterwards to find allies in the states of his most powerful enemy. The manufactur- ing towns of Flanders were prompt to revolt against the cruel vio- lences of the Duke of Burgundy, their sovereign. Louis sent an emissary into Liege, and excited it to revolt, promising his support. In the meantime, to prevent war he demanded from the duke a safe- conduct, and went to consult with him at Peronne. Scarcely had he arrived when the revolt of Liege broke out. Charles learned that the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, his relation and his ally, was massacred, and that Louis XI. was the author of the sedition. At this news his rage knew no bounds ; he held the king prisoner, and threatened to kill him. Louis, in order to get out of his peril, signed the Treaty of Peronne, which limited his so\ereignty in the states of Burgundy, and promised to give to his brother, Charles, Champagne and Brie as an appanage. England was then desolated by the War of the Roses. Louis XL, having taken the side of the red rose, united against Edward IV., with his relative Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI. Ed- ward, conquered, retired to Holland, and implored the assistance of Duke Charles, his brother-in-law. Louis, without anxiety on the part of England, followed up his advantages. He caused the Treaty of Peronne to be annulled by the inhabitants, under the pretext that Charles had only imposed it upon him by causing him to break his word. Louis, in disengaging himself from his obligations, created for himself new dangers. Edward IV., assisted by Charles the 124* FRANCE 1470-1476 !\ash. had regained his crown ; Henry VI. and his son were assas- sinated ; the Duke of Burgundy called into France the English mon- arch, and ])rt)mised Mary, his daughter and heiress, to Charles of France, Duke of Guienne, who had recently received that province from Louis XI. as an appanage; and the Duke of Brittany renewed his intrigues. The king thus saw himself threatened with a new storm, when his brother fell ill, and died after some months of suffering, poisoned, it is believed, by Louis. The Duke of Bur- gundy soon caused his troops to march into Picardy, and spread terror before his steps. The king, howe\er, negotiated separately with each of the rebellious princes, and by his maneuvers spread discord among the chiefs of the league. The Duke of Brittany signed a new truce, and the Duke of Alenqon, at the instigation of the king, was tried, and condemned to death for the second time, by the Parlement of Paris. Edward IV^., King of England, drawn over by the Duke of Brittany, was then in France with a numerous army. Charles, his ally, seconded him badly, and Louis XL, always more prompt to negotiate than to fight, gained by his bribes the confidence of King lulward, and was prompt in signing with him a truce of seven years ( 1475). Charles, abandoned by the English, also signed with Louis a truce for nine years. Each of these two enemies sacrificed on that occasion those on whom his adversary wished to take ven- geance ; Charles delivered to the scaffold the Constable Saint Pol ; Louis abandoned his ally, Rene, Duke of Lorraine, whose inheri- tance Charles the Rash coveted. Sovereign of the Duchy of Burgundy, Franche-Comte. Hain- ault, Flanders, Holland, and Gueldres, Charles wished, by joining to these Lorraine, a portion of Switzerland, and the inheritance of old King Rene, Count of Provence, to recompose the ancient king- dom of Lorraine, such as it had existed under the Carlovingian dynasty. Lorraine soon lay at his feet, and Xancy opened its gates to Charles the Rash. Irritated against the Swiss, who had braved him, Charles besieged the little town of Grandson and, in spite of a capitulation, caused all the defenders to be hanged or drowned. At this news the ])eople of the Helvetian republic rose, and attacked the duke before Grandson (1476) and dispersed his troops. Some months later, su])porled by young Rene of Lorraine, they exter- minated a second I'nrgundian army before ^lorat ( 1476). Charles. vanquished, assembled a third army, and marched in the midst of T E 11 R I T O R I xV L UNITY 125 1476-1483 winter against Nancy, which had fallen into the hands of the Swiss and Lorrainers. It was there that he perished, in 1477, betrayed by his mercenary soldiers, and overpowered by numbers. At this news Louis immediately seized the duchy of Burgundy, and claimed the guardianship of the daughter of Charles, "Mary of Burgundy. The more secure he felt himself to be, the more cruel he became. He caused the Duke of Nemours, whom he held as a prisoner, to be executed in the presence of his children, and these were after- wards thrown into dungeons, where they were subjected to horrible tortures. The peiiidy and ferocity of the king raised all the new states which he had seized against him. ^Maximilian of Austria, recently united to Mary of Burgundy, and who claimed her heritage, marched against him and fought the bloody and indecisive battle of Guinegate in 1479. This was followed by a long truce; and three years later, on the death of Mary, her daughter, then two years old, was promised to the dauphin. The Treaty of Arras (1482), con- cluded by Louis with the states of Flanders and the emperor, con- firmed to him the possession of the Duchy of Burgundy, and the counties of Franche-Comte, Macon, Charolais, Auxerre, and Artois. Old Rene of Anjou, sovereign of Lorraine and Provence and titular King of Naples, had died a few years before. He had for a long period abdicated the ducal crown of Lorraine in favor of Rene, the son of his eldest daughter. He left by will the rest of his estates to his nephew Charles of Maine, who only survived his uncle a short time, and bequeathed his domains in France and his rights to the crown of Naples to Louis XL, who had already ob- tained from the King of xAragon, as a pledge for a loan of two hundred thousand crowns, Roussillon and Cerdagne. The king was growing old, and trembled at the thought of dying. Shut up in his chateau of Plessis-les-Tours, his ordinary residence, a prey to fear of e\eryone who approached him, he gave himself up to the fanatical and superstitious practice of religious ceremonies, trusting in accordance with the vain belief of his age, that the externals of devotion were sufficient to efface the most enormous crimes. Fie died on August 30, 1483, leaving the scepter to his young son, Charles. France was indebted to Louis XL for many wise institutions, nearly all created with the design of centralizing the action of power. To attain this end, he tried to establish in the kingdom uniformity of customs, and of 126 FRANCE 1483-1484 weights and measures; he created posts, establishing on the great road couriers, solely destined to carry public news to the king, and to carry his orders; he replaced the corps of free archers by Swiss corps, and some privileged companies by a Scotch guard. He in- stituted three new parlements, at Grenoble, Bordeaux, and Dijon. The most remarkable edict of his reign is that which rendered a life tenure to judicial offices. That edict founded the independence and the power of the parlements, but was not inspired, however, by love of justice ; for no one more often than Louis XI. had re- course, in his criminal trials, to commissions and to illegal and violent means. The principal work of Louis XL was the abasement of the second feudality, which had raised itself on the ruins of the first, and which, without him, would have replunged France into anarchy. The chiefs of that feudality were, however, more formidable, since, for the most part, they belonged to the blood royal of France. The time was still distant when the royal authority would be seen freely exercised through every territory comprised in the natural limits of the kingdom. But Louis XL did much to attain this aim, and after him no princely or vassal house was ^powerful enough to resist the crown by its own force, and to put the throne in peril. Charles VIII., son and successor of Louis XI., mounted the throne at the age of thirteen years. He had two sisters, of whom the elder was married to the Lord of Beaujeu, of the house of Bourbon. Charles had passed a part of his solitary youth in the chateau of Ambroise, where long illnesses had deformed his body. Kept by his father in profound ignorance of everything, he did not know how to fix his attention on anything. Incapable of ap- plication and of discernment, and feeling his weakness, he lived for a long time in guardianship, though he was fully of age, according to the French regime, when his father died, having at- tained his fourteenth year. Anne of Beaujeu preserved the guardianship of his person, and took possession of the power conjointly with her husband. 11iis authority was disputed by the Dukes of Orleans and Bour- bon, and the Count of Claremont, all three princes of the blood royal and chiefs of the feudal reaction. The first was heir pre- sumptive to the throne, and the second eldest brother of the Lord of Beaujeu. At last, in 1484, in order to put an end to their dangerous rivalries, the Fstates-General were convoked at Tours. I.dll.- \l. Kl\(, Oi' IKAXCK Aficr ! roil! rill /y>r,n-Y puiiiliii:^ TERRITORIAL UNITY 127 1484 It was the first time that all of France had l)een represented in the Estates. The assembly laid its hands on all abuses, described all the reforms, and invoked the ancient French constitution, which, however,, was only written in the hearts of men, and existed only in name. The order of the cleri^y demanded the liberties of the Gallican church, contrary to the wish of the bishops; the nobility claimed anything that could restore its ancient military imp(jr- tance; the Third Estate solicited the abolition of " prcvotaV jus- tice, the diminution of the costs of law, the moderation of the tolls, and the surety of the roads ; then, presenting the picture of the miseries of the people, it entreated the king to reduce the expenses, and above all to abolish the land-tax. The whole of France, in short, ])y the mouth of its deputies, demanded a return to the government of Charles VII. The Estates named the Duke of Orleans president of the council, gave the sec- ond place to the Duke of Bourbon, constable, and the third to the Lord of Beaujeu; they decided that the Estates alone had the right to tax the people, ordered reductions in the army, and voted a tax of twelve hundred thousand livres for two years, with a supplement of three hundred thousand for that year. Soon the discussions degenerated into quarrels concerning the redivision of the land- tax in the provinces. Profiting by these divisions and the lassi- tude of the deputies, the princes promised everything for the king, and hastened to dismiss the Estates. No promise was kept, and none of the wishes expressed were heard favorably. The Duke of Orleans was soon removed by his sister-in-law, Anne, from the council. The wisdom and vigor vvith which this princess employed the royal authority caused the people to forget that she had usurped it. ijut in 1485 a league was formed against her, composed of the princes of the blood royal, the Prince of Orange, Philip de Commincs, and the Count of Dunois, son of the famous bastard of that name. These confederates, less guilty in having struggled against the usurpation of the regency than in opening the kingdom to foreigners, called to their aid Maximilian of Austria, and Francis II., Duke of Brittany. That province was a prey to anarchy. The old duke, Francis II., nearly imbecile, reigned only in name, the government being carried on by the son of a tailor, named Landais, whom he had made his treasurer and favorite. The nobles of Brittany were leagued together against him and against their duke. Anne of 128 FRAN C E 1484-1488 rJeaujeu, always actin^^ in the name of the king, made an alliance with them. She united herself in a similar manner with Rene of Lorraine and the Flemings, who had revolted at this period against ]\Iaximilian of Austria, their sovereign. In 1485 tlie Breton nobles seized Landais in the very cham- ber of their so\crcign, who delivered him up while asking for mercy. It was in vain: Landais was condemned to death and executed, without tlie knowledge of his master. Anne of Beaujeu l^rofitcd skillfu]l\- by the success of her allies. She subdued the south, and to()k Guicnne away from the Count of Comminge, who had embraced the side of the princes. The latter were in con- sternation. Dunois reanimated their courage, and drew over to or maintained on his side. Alain d'Albret, the lord of Beam, Maxi- milian of Austria, recently elected king of the Romans, and the powerful Viscount of Rohan. However, Anne caused her brotlier to summon to the throne, in the Parlement of Paris, the leagued princes and the principal nobles of their party. They did not ap- pear; and in the month of Alay following a sentence was issued by which Count Dunois, Lescun, Count of Comminge, Philip de Com- miiies, the Lord of Argenton, and many other nobles, were con- demned as being guilty of high treason against the king. Xo sentence was pronounced against the princes. Anne followed up her advantages. She entrusted her royal army to La Tremouille, who marched into Brittany and met the army of the princes near to S^iint Aubi-n du Cormier (1488). ^Marshal de Rieux, the Lord d'Albret, and Chateaubriand commanded it ; the Duke of Orleans and the Prince of Orange were in its ranks. They engaged in battle; it was gained by La Tremouille, and prepared the way for the union of Brittany with France. The Duke of Orleans, the Prince of Orange, and a great number of nobles were taken pris- rners. ]\Iany of the nobles were put to death. The Duke of Orleans and the Prince of Orange were led back into France, where Anne held them prisoners. The Treaty of Sable, concluded in the same year, suspended hostilities between France and Brittany. The constaljle, tlie Duke of P)Ourbon, was dead; his brother. Lord of Ikaujeu, had inlierited his title and all his power. Anne, who had bcc(jme Duclios of Bourlxni, lived, after the battle of Saint Aubin du Cormier, in possession of an authority which ceased to be contested. This princess had had for a long time in TERRITORIAL UNITY 129 1488-1491 view the union of Brittany with the crown. A few months after the signature of the Treaty of Sable, old Francis II. died. Charles VITI. claimed the guardianship of his daughters, of whom Anne, the eldest, was scarcely thirteen years old. Anarchy ensued in Brittany: many princes and nobles aspired to the hand of the girl-duchess, when, in 1490, the young Anne of Brittany, in order to escape from her persecutors, consented to marry the King of the Romans, iMaximilian of Austria. That prince was absent, and the marriage was only celebrated by proxy. Charles VIII. soon after surprised Rennes, where the duchess was, and carried her off. Then was accomplished a strange fact in the annals of his- tory. Anne of Brittany and Charles VIII. were betrothed, the former to Maximilian, and the latter to Marguerite of Austria, eleven years old, daughter of the same iMaximilian and I\Iary of Burgundy; but neither of the two marriages had been completed. Both contracts were annulled, and Charles VIII. married, in 1491, Anne of Brittany, wdio ceded to him all the rights of sovereignty, engaging herself, if she became a widow, to marry only the heir to the kingdom ; the king, in his turn, promising solemnly to re- spect the privileges of the Bretons. Charles, who was twenty-two years of age, was then the most powerful sovereign in Europe. Since the preceding year he had thrown off the prudent guardianship of his sister. The first act of his authority was to set at libert}^ the Duke of Orleans. He ap- peased Maximilian of Austria, whose wife he had carried off and whose daughter he had repudiated, by giving up to him, in 1495, by the Treaty of Senlis, the counties of Franche-Comte, Charolais, and Artois. The King of England, Henry VII., v;hom he had assisted in conquering his kingdom from Richard III., repaid him with ingratitude, and besieged Boulogne with an army. Charles obtained peace by recognizing in the Treaty of Etaples a debt of seven hun- dred and forty-five thousand gold crowns payable to that monarch. He lastly made up by the Treaty of Barcelona, to Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, vanquishers of the Moors, and conquerors of Grenada, the counties of Roussillon and Cerdagne, dearly purchased by I>ouis XL In peace with the neighboring states and with his people, Charles VIII. then gave himself up to his passion for distant adventures and chivalrous conquests. He thought, it is said, of conquering Constantinople, but bounded his ambition at first with Italy and Sicily. 130 F RANGE 1491-1494 For a long time Italy had excited the cupidity of the French. Louis XL, among- others, sought to obtain rights over it: it was at his instigation that the old King of Naples, Rene of Anjou, desig- nated as his heir Charles of ]\Liine, his nephew, to the prejudice of Rene IL, Duke of Lorraine, son of his eldest daughter. Charles of Alaine, on taking the title of King of Naples, named Louis, in his turn, his sole heir. This will was the only title on which Charles VIIL rested his pretensions to the crown of Naples and Sicily, then I)ossessed by a Prince of i\ragon, Ferdinand L, son of Alphonse the ^Magnanimous. A party in the kingdom of Naples, favorable to the House of Anjou, and called the Angevin party, had appealed uselessly to Rene of Lorraine to come into the kingdom ; in place of him they ad- dressed themselves to Charles VIIL, and offered to him the crow^n. This prince had still another supporter in Italy. Louis the Moor, son of Francesco Sforza. was all-powerful at T^Iilan, had held the regency of the duchy for his nephew, the young Duke John Galeas, who was incapable of reigning himself. Afiiicted by the divisions in Italy, he thought of uniting it into one body : but his genius provoked the jealous hate of all the sovereigns of that country. Threatened by the Venetians, and distrusting the new^ Pope, Alex- ander VI., he believed he needed the support of the French, and called them into Lombardy. From that time Charles VIIL no longer hesitated. Ferdinand I. was dead; he left two sons Alphonso II. , who succeeded him, already celebrated in his wars against the Turks ; and Frederic, to whom his brother entrusted the command of the Neapolitan fleet. It was in the month of August, in the year 1494, that the French army began to pass over the Alps. Italy rose at their approach. The king halted at Milan and saw the Duke, John Galeas Visconti, who died soon after his departure, when Louis the Moor took the title of Duke of Milan. The French army con- tinued its march across Lombardy, and arrived upon the territory of Florence, where the people rose against the head of the Floren- tine re]jublic, Pierre de xMedici, who sought a refuge in Venice. The Fl(jrentincs hailed the French with acclamations as their liberators, i'ierre's crime, in the eyes of the Florentines, consisted in having delivered up snme strong castles and towns to the French; but as Charles Vlll. jjromised to resj^cct their liberties, and restore the fortresses given up by the .Medici, at the end of the war, they T E R R I T O R I A L U N I T Y 131 1494-1495 lent him their support, and granted h.im a subsidy to help him in his enterprise. Ferdinand, son of Alphonso II., charged by his father to stop the French, was supported neither by the Pope nor by the Florentines. Too weak to struggle alone, he recoiled before the enemy, and Charles VIII. arrived almost at Rome without drawing sword. Alphonso abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand, and retired to Mazarra, in Sicily, where he died during the same year. Ferdinand II., abandoned by the army and excluded from his capital, was compelled to withdraw, with his family, to the island of Ischia. Charles VIII. arrived before Naples, all of the privileges of which he confirmed, and made a triumphal entiy into the city. The French, intoxicated with glory, thought only of enriching themselves promptly. Charles refused his followers nothing they chose to ask, and by this and his want of gratitude to the Angevin barons, who had espoused his cause, he soon raised a strong party against him in Naples. The powers of Europe became alarmed at his rapid successes. In 1495, Spain, jMaximilian, Venice, and the Pope leagued themselves secretly against him, and the soul of this league was his ancient ally, Louis the Moor, whom the French had refused to recognize as Duke of Milan, the Duke of Orleans claim- ing that title in virtue of the rights that he held from Valentina Visconti, his grandmother. Philip de Commines, ambassador from the King of Venice, hastened to give a warning to the king, and Charles ordered an immediate retreat, leaving his relation, Gilbert de Montpensier, viceroy of the kingdom, with a portion of the army. The Duke of Orleans, whom Charles had left at Asti, had attacked Louis the Moor, who, after having repulsed him, held him blockaded at Novara. All Lombardy arose. The Venetian army arrived and united itself with the Milanese, and Charles's retreat was cut off. The French army, very inferior in numbers, met them in Fornovo (1495). It was attacked in the pass of Taro and gained a signal victory. The king, by the Treaty of Ver- celli, made peace with Louis the ]\Ioor, and recognized him as Duke of Milan, and that prince declared himself in return a vassal of the crown of France, for the fief of Genoa, which then belonged to France. While Charles returned to his states, Ferdinand and Gonzalvo of Cordova attacked the French left in the kingdom of Naples. Gilbert de Montpensier was compelled to evacuate the capital, and engage to leave the kingdom. An epidemic cut down his troops ; he 132 FRANCE 1495-1500 himself died at Pozzuolo : barely five hundred soldiers survived liim. Charles VIII., on receiving the news of these disasters, projected a second expedition, but on April 7, 1498, he died of an accident in his chateau of Amboise, at the age of twenty-eight years. The Duke of Orleans was thirty-six years old when he ascended the throne under the name of Louis XII. He soon took the titles of King of France, of Jerusalem, and of the Two Sicilies, and Duke of ^lilan, in order that there might be no doubt in Europe as to his pretensions with regard to Italy. The first acts of Louis XII. were wise and useful. He diminished the taxes, reestablished order in the finances and the administration, and confirmed an ordinance signed by the late king, for the creation of a sovereign court or great council. This court, composed of the chancellor, twenty councilors, ecclesiastical or lay, and the masters of the petitions of royal mansion, was destined, said the king, to sustain his rights and prerogatives. It strengthened and adjusted the royal authority, and Louis XII. deserved the gratitude of the people on account of the wise reforms which it brought into the legislation. Queen Anne had retired into Brittany soon after the death of Charles VIII., her husband, and performed an act of sovereignty by issuing moneys and publishing edicts. Her duchy was about to escape from France if she did not espouse the king, and Louis resolved to accomplish this marriage. He was married to Jeanne, daughter of Louis XL, and although there was no legal motive for such a step, he solicited and obtained a divorce from Pope Alexander VI. (1499). the duchy by the marriage contract being declared transmissible to the second child of the queen, or, in default of a second child, to her nearest heir. Soon after this union Louis made his claims upon the Milanese profitable, altliough he could only invoke them in the quality of being granrlson of Valentina Visconti. They were sustained by a powerful army, which with the support of the Venetians and the Pope subdued the Milanese in twenty days. Louis the ]\Ioor took refuge with his son-in-law, the Emperor Maximilian. The admin- istration of the iM-ench at Milan was oppressive; a revolt soon bnjke out, and Louis returned with his forces. Fie was, however, besieged in Xovara by the h^rench under La Tremouillc. The Sui>s in In':, army cai)itulatcd and allowed him to be taken, and he was subjected to strict imprisonment in the castle of Lys-Saint- Georges in Berri till his death. Mnster of the Milanese, the king TERRITORIAL UNITY 183 1500-1506 assisted the Pope and the corrupt Cesare Borgia in subduing the Romagna ; then he turned his eyes toward Naples, the ephemeral conquest of Charles VIII. , where Frederic, in 1496, had succeeded his nephew Ferdinand IT. Louis XII. was not alone in coveting this beautiful country; Ferdinand the Catholic, King of Aragon, wished for his part. In spite of the ties of family which united him with Frederic, the King of Aragon acceded at Grenada, in 1500, to a secret treaty by which Naples and the Abruzzi were chosen by France and the southern provinces by Spain. Frederic, menaced by the French armies, solicited the support of Ferdinand, who hastened to send Spanish troops under Gonzalvo of Cordova into Naples, and then showed to the unfortunate Frederic, so shame- fully deceived, the treaty of division. The French and Spaniards, however, soon disputed about the revenues of the kingdom, and when Gonzalvo believed that he was strong enough hostilities broke out. He gained two consecutive victories, the one at Semi- nara, the other at Cerignoles (1503), and the French preserved in the kingdom only the single town of Gaeta. Louis XII. assembled two new armies, of which one marched upon Spain ; the other ad- vanced towards Naples, when suddenly the death of Alexander VI. deprived the king of his most powerful ally. Julius II., his successor, soon created for him in that country new perils and insurmountable obstacles. The French army, checked by Gon- zalvo on the banks of the Garigliano, was obliged to retreat. Gacta opened its gates to the Spaniards ; the French were everywhere repulsed; and the kingdom of Naples was lost a second time to France. While France experienced such great reverses abroad, a greater danger threatened her at home. Queen Anne wished her daughter Claude to marry young Charles of Austria, afterwards the famous Charles V. I'his prince, son of A.rchduke Philip, sovereign of the Low Countries, inherited Spain through his mother, Joan the I'oolish : and Louis XII., by the secret Treaty of Blois (1504), which was signed by the king when dangerously ill, ceded to him, as a dowry for Princess Claude, Brittany, part of the inheritance of the dukes of Burgundy united wdth France, and all his rights over the Milanese. In 1506 he received from the Estates-General, assembled at Tours, the surname of " Father of the People," and was entreated by them to marry his daughter Claude to his cousin Francis, Count of Angouleme, heir presump- 134 FRANCE 1506-1512 tive to the crown. This request anticipated the secret desire of the king, who, reproaching himself with the sad Treaty of Blois, had already seized an opportunity to break it. He heard with favor the wish of the Estates, and the royal betrothals were immediately celebrated. Louis XII., in spite of his reverses, had always fixed his eyes on Italy. Genoa then was in submission to the French, but, being oppressed by the government and nobles, the people revolted, drove out the French, and elected a doge. The revolt was promptly sup- pressed by the king, who entered, sword in hand, into the van- quished city, caused seventy-nine of the principal citizens, together with the doge, to be hanged, and burdened the rest with a tax of two hundred and forty thousand florins, a sum sufficient to ruin the republic. Venice had served as a buhvark for France against Germany and had shown itself her faithful ally in the campaign of Italy; but Louis XII. excited without motive the Emperor Maximilian, the Pope, and the King of Aragon against the Venetians. The Cardinal of Amboise was the soul of this league, known as the " League of Cambrai," from the name of the town where the treaty of alliance was signed, in 1508, between those sovereigns and Louis XTI. The French marched against Venice, and gained the victory of Agnadel. The king treated the vanquished with pitiless cruelty. But i'ope Julius II., whose design it was to make the Pontifical state dominant in Italy, to free the peninsula from the foreign yoke, and to constitute the Swiss guardians of its liberties, and who had only entered with regret into the Treaty of Cambrai, con- nected himself with the Venetians after their reverses, and, detach- ing himself from the League of Cambrai he formed another, which he called " The Holy," with the Venetians, the Swiss, and Ferdinand the Catholic (1511). All together attacked the French; nevertheless the latter obtained some brilliant advantages under the young and impetuous Gaston de Foix, Duke of Nemours, nephew of the king, who achieved three victories in three months. The battle of Ravenna, wliere this hero of twenty-three years, "a great captain before he had been a soldier," perished, dying at the moment of his triumph (1512), was the end of the successes of Louis XII. in Italy. A council lield, in 151 1, at Pisa by some schismatic cardinals, partisans of tlic King of France and the emperor, had suspended TERRITORIAL UNITY 135 1512-1515 the authority of the Pope. Julius II. responded to this boldness on the part of the king by signing the Holy League, and by con- voking the council of St. John Lateran, where eighty-three bishops from all, parts of Christendom recognized him as head of the church. New disasters for France marked out the course of that year. Genoa revolted, and Ferdinand the Catholic conquered Navarre, where the House of Albret, an ally of France, reigned. Julius 11. died in 15 13 and the Cardinal de Medici, as great an enemy of France, succeeded him, under the name of Leo X. Louis XII. at last became reconciled with Venice and united himself with that republic by the Treaty of Orthez, while Emperor Maximilian, Henry VIII., King of England, Ferdinand the Cath- olic and the Pope formed the coalition called the League of Malines against him (15 13). La Tremouille conducted into Lom- bardy a French army, which was defeated by the Swiss at Novara. It recrossed the Alps, abandoning the Venetians to themselves, and Italy was lost forever. The English army then gained in Artois, in 15 13, the battle of Guinegate, known in history under the name of the Battle of the Spurs, on account of the complete rout of the French royal troops. Pressed at the same time by the Swiss, who were besieging Dijon, by the Spaniards and by the English, de- prived of his ally by the death of James IV., King of Scotland, killed at the battle of Flodden, and lastly, tormented by his con- science, Louis XII. renounced the schism, abandoned the Council of Pisa, removed to Lyons and signed in 15 14 a truce at Orleans with the Pope and all his powerful enemies. The cost and the misfortunes of so many wars had compelled the king to increase the taxes, to reclaim his gratuitous gifts and alienate his domain. Queen Anne was no more, and in order to insure peace between lingland and France Louis asked and ob- tained in marriage the hand of Mary, sister to Henry VIII., en- gaging himself to pay during eight years a hundred thousand crowns per annum to the English monarch. This marriage be- tween a young princess of sixteen years and a man of fifty-three, exhausted and sickly, was fatal to Louis XTT. She was fond of a gay life, and to please her the king disobeyed his physicians, stayed out late at dances, gave tournaments and shows, and broke through all the regularity of his life. He died, without leaving a son, on January i, 1515, a few months after the celebration of his marriage. 136 FRANCE 1515 Under Francis T. all v.'as silence around the throne. The Estates-General were no more convoked : the parlcmcnts pro- claimed tlie doctrine of absnhite power: tlie submissive clergy in- voked the protection of the scepter, and tlie expiring genius of the old armed feudality was reduced to powerlessness by the irrev- ocable union of Brittany with the crown. Thenceforth, from the ocean to tlie Alps, from the Somme to the Mediterranean and the Pyrenees, was to be under the hand of one sole master. This prince, twenty years of age at his accession, was the son of Louisa of Savoy and Charles of Angouleme, cousin-german to Louis XIL, both descendants of the Duke of Orleans, brother of Charles VL As king, he considered himself absolute master of his own actions and of the nation. He maintained that every order that emanated from his mouth was a decree of destiny, and could not conceive that the Parlement, princes, nobility, or Estates- General could have the right to restrain his authority. Scarcely had Francis L seized the scepter than, follow^'ng the example of Louis XIL, he turned his eyes towards Italy. Desirous of conquering Alilan, where a Sforza still reigned, he raised a for- midable army, and having named his mother Regent of France, he crossed the Alps. On descending into the plains, Chabannes and the famous Bayard, the " knight without fear and without re- proach," as a first exploit surprised at table and carried off Pros- per Colonna, general of Maximilian Sforza, Duke of Milan. This important capture was followed by the battle of Marignano (1515), under the walls of Milan, in which Francis I., who fought like a hero, com])letely defeated the Swiss allies of the Milanese. This bloody battle cost the lives of some three thousand French and thirteen or fourteen thousand Swiss. The remains of the con- (|uered army a1)an(loned Italy. Francis I. asked, on the day after the battle, to receive the order of chivalry from the hand of Bayard, who was tlie most distinguished among his most valiant captains at Marignano. 1die ra])i(l conquest of the duchy of Milan was the result of this decisive victory. In order to insure its possession, the king concluded an alliance with the Swiss, and signed a con- cordat with/ \\)])e Leo X., engaging himself to maintain at Florence the authority of Lorenzo and Julian de' Medici, near relatives of the Pontiff, and to abolish the Pragmatic Sanction, which founded the liberties oi the Galilean church upon the decrees of the council of Bale. TERRITORIAL UNITY 137 1515-1520 The young rival of Francis I., he who was about, for so many years, to dispute with liim the first rank in Christendom, now com- menced to show himself upon the scene of the world. Ferdinand the Cathx)lic died in 15 16, leaving the throne to his daughter, Joan the Simple. Charles of Austria, sixteen years old, son of Joan the Simple, was associated on the throne with his mother by the Cortes of the kingdom. This young prince, known in after-time under the name of Charles V., was, through his father, Philip the Hand- some, inheritor of the Low Countries, and in 15 16 the Emperor Maximilian, his grandfather, left him his hereditary states. Be- fore he was twenty Charles found himself master of Sjiain, of the Low Countries, of Austria, of the kingdom of Naples, and the Spanish possessions in America; he was already the most powerful monarch in Europe. The relations between l-'rancis and Charles commenced by a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, signed at Noyon in 15 16, at the moment wdien Charles inherited the crown of Spain. This prince promised Francis I. to marry his daughter, then in the cradle; the marriage was to be accomplished \vhen she was twelve years old, and Francis had to give her as a dowry all his rights over the kingdom of Naples. The death of the Emperor ^Maximilian caused the breaking out between the two monarchs of the first symptoms of the strug- gle that was only to finish witli their lives. Both of them had pretensions to the empire ; but Germany, threatened by the Turks, had need of an emperor whose states would serve as a barrier to the Mussulman invasion and the Elector of Saxony, Frederic the Wise, having refused tlie imperial crown, caused it to be given to the young Austrian prince, so celebrated from tliat time under the name of Charles V. Francis I., \vounded to the heart in his am- bition, forgot the 'I'reaty of Noyon, redemanded Naples, taken by Ferdinand the Catholic from Louis NIL, while Charles V. claimed Milan as an imperial masculine fief, and the duchy of Burgundy as the inheritance of his grandmother Mary, daughter of Charles the Rash. The two rivals Ijoth sought the support of Henry VHL, King of England. Tlie interview between Francis L and the English monarcli took ])lace at Cuincs, near Calais. The exccssi\-e magnificence wliicli was displayed on both sides caused the name of the "Field of the Clotli of Gold" to be given to tlie j)lace of conference. After tliree weeks of rejoicing and splendid fetes, the two kings signed a treaty ui alliance, which became illusory; for 138 FRANCE 1520-1522 Charles V., having himself first visited Henry VITL, had seduced by his largesses, and by the hope of the Papacy, Cardinal Wolsey, minister and favorite of that prince. Nevertheless, in spite of so many motives of discord and jeal- ousy, neither of the two rivals was anxious to commence the war. Germanv, indignant at the shameful traffic in indulgences, had commenced to agitate, through the voice of Luther, who had burned in public at Wittenberg, in 1520, the bull of excommunica- tion issued against him by the Pope. An act so audacious filled Europe with astonishment, and in 1521 Charles Y. convoked a diet at ^^'orms, in order, as he said, to repress the new opinions, which were dangerous to the peace of Germany. Luther appeared at this diet, under the protection of the Elector of Saxony, Fred- eric the Wise, and defended his doctrines. The diet permitted him to retire, but soon afterwards outlawed him. He was seized on his return by the soldiers of the Elector of Saxony and conducted to the fortress of W^artburg, wdiere he lived shut up for nine months, concealed from his friends and protected against his enemies. It was there that he commenced his translation of the Bible. While these great interests divided Europe, Leo X. excited the French to the conquest of Naples, promising them his support ; then he treated almost immediately with Charles V. At last hos- tilities commenced. The imperial troops took ^Nlouzon in Cham- pagne, in 1 52 1, and besieged ]\Iezieres, wdiich was saved by Anne de ]\lontmorency and the Chevalier Bayard. Lautrec, lieutenant- general of the king, badly supported by the mercenary Swiss, was beaten at Bicoque, in Lombardy, in 1522, and Alilan was again lost. At the same time Henry VHT. united with the emperor against JM'ancis F, and both declared war against him, while Adrian VI., former preceptor of Charles V., ascended the Pon- tifical throne. Exhausted by the prodigalities of the king, the treasury was empty and nvjncy was necessary. It was not possible to gather sufficient by raising the land taxes and borrowing mr)ney, so, by the advice of the minister Duprat, the offices of the magistracy, the number of which was doublcfl. were sold for money. In vain the parliaments protested, the new magistrates were niaintained : and this dei)loral)le custom of venality, for the first time avowed and recognized, lasted until the French Revolution. About this time T F. R II I T O R I A L UNITY 1 39 1522-1525 the king's mother, Louisa of Savoy, then forty seven years old. proposed to the Constable Duke of Bourbon, tlie richest and most powerful noble of the kingdom, to marry her. ]3ourbon rejected these offers, adding irony to the refusal. The princess, furious, brought an unjust action against the duke. The Parlement did not dare to declare its opinion, but Francis, urged on by his mother, seized and united to the crown the immense possessions of the constable. Bourbon immediately treated secretly with Henry VIII. and Charles V. and invited them both to divide the kingdom. In- formed of these negotiations, the king tried to seize his person. Bourbon escaped into Germany, but reappeared soon afterwards at the head of the armies of the emperor. The war then com- menced w^ith advantages to France on all the frontiers. The Ger- mans attacked Champagne and Franche-Comte without success ; the Spaniards were repulsed in the south, while La Tremouille suc- cessfully defended Picardy against an Fnglish army in Italy, where Francis I. still dreamed of conquest; the French army, under the command of Admiral Bonnivet, was compelled to retreat, and in a skirmish with the enemy in 1524 the Chevalier Bayard lost his life. Bourbon and the Marquis of Pescaire invaded Provence and a number of towns submitted. Marseilles heroically sustained a siege, which \vas raised by the imperial troops, after forty days' continuance, at the approach of Francis I., who marched into Italy at the head of a third army and rapidly recovered the whole of the Milanese territory and besieged Pavla. Before this town the French and imperial troops engaged in battle on February 25, 1525. The French were totally defeated. The imperial army en- tirely surrounded the king. In vain Francis I. and his knights performed heroic exploits ; the king was twice wounded and taken prisoner, with Llenry d'Albret, the young King of Navarre. The latter w^as imprisoned in the citadel of Padua, whence he contrived to escape. Francis w^as concealed from observation in that of Pizzighettone and from there transferred to Madrid by order of Charles V. Although Francis I., before his departure, had conferred the regency of the kingdom upon his mother, the sovereignty remained entirely in his person. He alone could accept or reject the con- ditions imposed on his deliverance, and the emperor, who saw in the captivity of I'^rancis I. the humiliation and ruin of France, resolved to profit to the utmost by his victory. The king fell ill in 140 FRANCE 1525-1527 prison. Charles, wlio liad, imlil then, refused to see him, visited him and consoled him hy affectionate words, but soon after his recovery lie set him at liberty upon sad and dishonorable .con- ditions for iM-ance. By the Treaty of Madrid (1526), which b^rancis signed with a secret determination not to observe it, he ceded all his rights upon Italy, renounced the sovereignty of the counties of Flanders and Artois, and abandoned to the emperor the duchy of Burgundy; he engaged to marry Eleanor, dowager Queen of Portugal, sister of the emperor; he pardoned the Duke of Bourbon and concluded an offensive and defensive league with the emperor, promising to accompany him in person when he went upon a crusade against the Turks or against heretics. Charles V. on his side gave up the towns on the Somme which had belonged to Charles the Bold. After the" signature of this treaty the king was released. He believed that in escaping from his enemies he was ecjually free from the obligations which he had contracted with them, and replied to tlie messengers of the emperor that lie could not ratify the Treaty of Madrid without the consent of the Estates of the kingdom and of the duchy of Burgundy. He contented himself, however, with calling the princes, nobles and bishops., who then formed part of his court. This assembly disengaged him from his word. The states of Burgundy, on their side, declared that they did not wish to separate from France. Italy, however, had only escaped from the French to fall into the hands of the imperial troops. Francis then, impatient for ven- geance, presented himself to the people of Italy, no longer as master but as an ally; he offered the sword of France in order to free them. Venice, Florence, Francis Sforza, Duke of Milan, and the Pope ajjpcaled to him as a liberator, and the King of England himself, afraid of the colossal power of Charles V., entered into the Holy League (1526). In the name of the independence of Italy the Duke cjf Urbino raised an Italian army, but before the French troops had crossed the Alps the soldiers of the emperor, under the Constable de Bourbon, tlircw tlicmselves upon Rome, the center of the lioly League. The assault was made on May 6, 1527, Bourbon perished while placing a ladder at the foot of the ramparts, but Rome was taken, and the imperial troops avenged their general by sacking the Eternal City and by a frightful massacre. The Pope had to sustain a hmg siege in the castle of Saint Angelo, T E R R 1 T O R I A L V N I T Y 141 1527-1532 Henry VIII. and Francis I. resolved to set free the Pontiff and Italy, and declared war against the emperor, who heaped reproaches on Francis I., and received a challenge in answer. Lautrec entered Lomhardy in 1528, at the head of a French army, and penetrated into the kingdom of Naples, where his troops were destroyed by an epidemic, while he himself was attacked and died. Another French army, commanded by 'Saint-Pol, was defeated and dispersed at Landriano ; Saint-Pol was taken prisoner. France also lost about the same time the assistance of the celebrated Genoese Admiral, Andrea Doria. For this able sailor, being treated with disdain by Francis I., quitted his service for that of Charles V., and replaced Genoa, his country, under the protection of the emperor. Europe at tliis period was in fear of a new INTussulman inva- sion. Rhodes, in 1523, after a six months' siege, had surrendered to the Turks, and Charles V., pressed by them and threatened by the reformers, modified his pretensions with regard to France. New negotiations were opened at Cambrai, by Louisa of Savoy, in the name of her son, and Marguerite of Austria, ruler of the Low Countries, in the name of the emperor, her nephew. A treaty was concluded, in which the king abandoned the sovereignty of Artois and Flanders, renounced all rights upon Italy and abandoned all his allies to the resentment of the emperor. The duchy of Bur- gimdy still remained to the kingdom. This peace, which threw discredit on France throughout Iiurope, was signed in 1529, and was called the Ladies' Peace. By it all Italy fell again, almost without resistance, under the yoke of Charles V. The fatal Ladies' Peace was a new misfortune that France owed to Louisa of Savoy and her confidant .the Chancellor Duprat. The shameful administration of this man can only boast of one measure of positive utility. Francis I. until 1532 had governed Brittany only in the quality of duke of that province; Duprat counseled him to unite this duchy in an indissoluble manner with the crown, and he prevailed upon the states of Brittany tlieniselves to request this reunion, which alone was capable of preventing tlie breaking out of civil wars at the death of the king. It was irrevocably voted by the states assembled at Vannes in 1532, The situation of F.urope was then almost everywher? threat- ening or agitated. The greater part of the princes and tlie states of Germany had admitted the new religious opinions. Already 142 FRANCE 1532-1535 Frederic I. had accorded freedom of conscience to Denmark, while Gustavus Vasa adhered, with the church of Sweden, to the con- fession of faith drawn up at the diet of Augsburg by Melancthon. The German princes, who were partisans of the reformation, united in 1 53 1 against the emperor, in the celebrated League of Smalkalde. Lastly, Henry VIIL, in consequence of the refusal of the Pope to sanction his divorce from Catherine of Aragon and his marriage with Anne Boleyn, caused himself to be proclaimed the head of the Anglican church. The populace of a great number of countries became agitated. Many took up arms. The peasants of Suabia and Thuringia rose in insurrection; the latter, under the name of Anabaptists, followed the fanatical John of Leyden. They tried to join with the insurgents of Franconia, Alsace, Lorraine and the Tyrol, and did great injury to the cause of the disciples of Luther, who united with the Catholics in order to fight and exterminate them. Such was the religious state of Europe when Francis L com- menced his persecution of the Lutherans, or Protestants. His eyes were always turned upon Italy, the conquest of which the Pope could facilitate for him, and this motive, doubtless, led him to unite his cause with that of Rome by causing his second son, Henry n., to marry Catherine de' Medici, niece of Pope Clement VH. Pie did not. however, obtain the advantages that he had hoped for from this union. The Pontiff only survived the marriage a short time, and had as successor Alexander Farnese, who became Pope under the name of Paul III. Francis I., nevertheless, proved himself in France a cruel })crsccutor of the Protestants. He caused thirty- five persons to be burnt alive in Paris, January 25, 1535, and imme- diately after he issued an edict which proscribed the reformers, confiscated their goods to the profit of their denunciators, and forbade them to print any book on pain of death. In the same year, however, recognizing the necessity for relaxing these persecu- tions, he issued a declaration of amnesty, attributed in part to the influence of Antoine du Bourg, successor to Duprat in charge of the chancel lorsliip. The Mussulman invasion had made rapid progress. An innumerable Turkisli army, conducted across Hungary under the wall of Vienna, had been repulsed in 1529. Barbarossa, a famous corsair, had taken p(jssession of Tunis, and covered the sea with his vessels, pillaging the coasts of Spain, France, and Italy, and CA rni-:Ki .\K ]iy. m i-:iiu i After i! ct'iitciiil'i'rarv l^aii: T E R R I T () U I A I. U N I T Y 1 13 1535-1543 carrying off into slavery a mnltitiide of Christians every vear. Charles V. armed a formidable fleet ag-ainst him. commanded. under his orders, by Andrea Doria ; he conquered Barbarossa. to-ik Tunis and set free twenty thousand Christians. In the mean- while, Sforza, Duke of Alilan, died without issue. Francis claimed the inheritance for his second son, the Duke of Orleans. Alrcadv, France, without plausible motive, had declared war ac^ainst Charles III., Duke of Savoy, brother-indaw of Charles V. Tm-in and all Piedmont were rapidly invaded in 1536, and the French and imperial troops found themsches in each other's presence upon the frontiers of ]\Iilan. TTostilities broke out; the I'rench army fed back, and the emperor invaded Provence in the same vear. He found it a desert, as it had been laid waste previonslv by the French themselves. The imperial army, exhausted by fan.iinc and disease. retraced its steps wdthout havinq- fouc^ht. Idic war snl)se(|uently raged for some time in the Low Countries and Piedmont. At last, Pope Paul III. arranged that a truce of ten years sliould be signed between the rival monarchs (Xicc. 1538), wdio divided the estates of the unfortunate Duke of Savoy, and met, with apparent esteem and friendship, at Aigues-^Iortes. A revolt of Ghent soon called Charles V. into Fdandcrs; he was then in Spain, and his shortest route was through l-'rancc. He requested permission t(~) cross the kingdom, and obtained it after having promised the Constable Montmorency that he would give the investiture of Milan to the second son of the king. This promise, however, Charles did not keep, and the king. indign:int, exiled the constable for having trusted the word of the emiieror without exacting his signature and avenged himself by making an alliance with the Turks, the most formidable enemies of the empire. The hatred of the two monarchs was carried t() its height by these last events; they mutually outraged each other by injurious libels, and submitted their diflerences to the Pope. Paul HI. refused to decide between theiu, and they again toidv up arms. The king invaded Luxembourg and the dauphin Rousillon, and the third army Nice by land, while the terrible P.arbarossa attacked it by sea. The town was taken, the castle alone resisted, and the siege of it was raised. The diet brought against iMTUicis I. an army of twenty- four thousand men, at tlie head i^f wliich Charles V. penetrated into Champagne, while Henry VI II.. coalescing with the emperor, attacked Picardy with ten thousand Fnglish. The battle of Ccri- 144 F R A N C E 1543-1547 soles, a complete victory, gained during the year 1544, in Piedmont, by Francis of Bourbon, Duke of Enghien, against the imperial troops, did not stop this double and formidable invasion. Charles V. advanced almost to Chateau-Thierry. But discord reigned in his army; he ran short of provisions, and could easily have been surrounded. He then again promised Milan to the Duke of Orleans, the second son of the king. The war was terminated almost imme- diately afterwards by the Treaty of Crespy near Laon. The emperor promised his daughter to the Duke of Orleans, with the Low Countries and Franche-Comte, or one of his nieces with Milan, and gave up Burgundy. Francis restored part of Piedmont to the Duke of Savoy, and renounced all pretensions to Naples, Milan, Flanders and Artois. The death of the Duke of Orleans freed the emperor from dispossessing himself of iSIilan or the Low Countries ; he refused all compensation to the king, but the peace was not broken. Francis I. profited by the peace to redouble his severity with regard to the Protestants. In 1546 he sanctioned the massacre of many thousands of Waldenses, who dwelt upon the confines of Provence and the county Venaissin, and had entered into com- munion with the Calvinists. Twenty-two towns or villages were burned and sacked ; the inhabitants, surprised during the night, were pursued among the rocks by the glare of the flames which devoured their houses. The men perislied by executions, but the women were delivered over to terrible violence. This dreadful mas- sacre was one of the principal causes of the religious wars which desolated France for so long a time. Charles V. then crushed the Lutherans in Germany, and main- tained the Catholic faith in Spain by the inquisition, while Henry VHL struck equally at both Catholic and Lutheran sects. The war continued between him and Francis L The English had taken Boulogne, and a French fleet ravaged the coasts of England, after taking possession of the Lsle of Wight. Hostilities were terminated by the Treaty of Guines, 1547, which the two kings signed on the brink of their graves, and it was arranged that Boulogne should be restored for the sum of two millions of gold crowns. Henry VHL and Francis T. died in the same year shortly after the conclusion of this treaty ; the latter had reigned for thirty years. Chapter IX THE REFORMATION AM) THE HUGUEXOT WARS iS47-is8s n\ 'riK-roucnnr, wliich Charles V. razed in the i^-numd ; the battle <-^\ Reiui. in hdandcrs. where Guise, Coli^q-ni and Taxannes distinguished tlirmselves; lastly, the defense of Sienna hy Montluc: the ravai^in^; '>f tlic coasts of Italy by Dra.c^ut, an Ottoman admiral allied with the b'rench. and the fine campai.f^n made in ricdmont a^^ainst the Onke of Alva by INIarshal Brissac. After these wars, tlie advantages of whicli were equally balanced, and in the course of the q-re.at troubles in Germany, caused by the death of Maurice of Saxony, and the rivalry between Charles \'. and his brother I'erdinand. Kinq- of the Romans and hereditary sovereii^-n of I'oliemia. tlicre was opened at Augsburg a celebrated diet, in whicli it was decreed that the Cath- olic and Lutheran states sliould exercise their worshi]-) in freedom; and that it should be left to the civil power of each state to regulate its doctrine and religion. Such was. in great part, tlie decree of the Diet of Augsburg of Se])tcmber 25. 1555. and upon it for a long time, the religious peace (^f Germany re])oscd. This decree struck a fatal l)l(nv at the policy c^f Charles \'.. whose object was always to maintain the unity of the church under his sole dependence. Convinced that all would i)erish when he cotild not direct everything himself, he convoked the notables of the Low Countries at Brussels, and there on Octolier 25, 1555. he sol- emnly abdicated his hereditary crown, and jjlaccd it in the hands of I'hilip II., his son. lie still held the imperial crown for si:-: months; then he retired to the convent of the 1 lieronymitcs of San Yuste, where he died, Sepjtembcr 21, 1558. 1 lis brother I'A'rdinand, King of the Romruis, was his successor in the empire. As soon as Philip had ascended the throne, Henry II. signed a treaty with him at Vaucellcs. in 1555. of which the principal clause was a truce of five years. In virtue of this treaty. I'atd I\'.. W'ho declared that Charles V. was ])ri\y to a plot against his life. urged Henry to make war against tlic empire, promising to him, by a treaty signed at Rome, the investiture of the kingdom of Naples. Two parties then divided the court of France: the yiMing nobility wished for war; ^[(Mitmercncv was inclined for i)eacc. and wisely advised the king' in maintain it. 1 loslilitics. however, broke out suddenly between the Po])e and the Spaniards, in T557, and war was resolved upon. A French army, under the orders of the cou- 148 FRANCE 1557-1559 stable and his nephew, Cohgny, entered into Artois, and anothcr into Italy, under the Duke of Guise. The first was completely van- quished through the fault of the Constable Montmorency. The road to Paris was open, but the indecision of the conquerors saved France from great disasters. Guise was recalled from Italy, and signalized his return by a memorable exploit. Mary of England, who had married Philip II. of Spain, had sent troops into Artois to act in concert with those of her husband. To punish her inter- ference, the duke surprised Calais and retook it for France after it had remained for two hundred and ten years in the power of the English. France lost in the same year the battle of Gravelines. These two events were followed by the Peace of Chateau-Cam- bresis, signed in 1559. It was called "The Unfortunate Peace." Henry II. gave up his conquests with the exception of the three bishoprics ; he renounced all his rights upon Genoa, Corsica, the kingdom of Naples, and only retained in Piedmont, Pignerol and some fortresses. Henry, in order to provide for the expenses of the war and those of a prodigal and dissolute court, had recourse to deplorable expedients. He sold by auction new judgeships and offices of all kinds and compelled most public officers to purchase their title to office anew. He established by the same means a parlement in Brittany, and caused an edict of inquisition to be bought by the clergy; lastly, he gave the name of assembly of notables to a body of clergy and nobles, chosen by himself and devoted to his will, and he disguised under the name of loans the taxes that he exacted from them. The Edict of Inquisition which he sold to the clergy was not executed, as the Parlement of Paris resisted it. This resistance was not offered through pity for the sectarians, but because the Parlement was jealous of its rights and did not wish that another tribunal should have the privilege of prosecuting heresy and punish- ing it. Henry did not support his edict and the inquisition did not take root in France. The foreign war had, towards the end of this reign, wrought some relaxation in the Catholic persecutions. The Protestants grew bold, and manv princes of the blood royal, and with them illustrious vvnrriors and magistrates, embraced the new belief. Hie court and clergy feared that the opposition shown by the Parlement to the Edict of Inquisition would cause the Protestants to escape T II E II E F () R M A 7^ I () X 1 49 1559 punishment, and the powcrfnl Canhnal of Lorraine pcrsuadcl the king that it was his (hily to eensnre the Parlenient in pciM in and order tlie execution of several counselors who were known to he Protestants or to favor tlie reformed faith; while one of his min- isters, De Vieilleville. afterwards marshal of hh-ance, rccommentled him to leave the Parlement to itself and the punishment of heresy to the Cardinal of Lorraine and the priests. The cardinal's jjarty. however, ultimately prevailed with the king, wdio went to the chamher where the Parlement was assemhled and ordered the arrest of Anne of Bourg, Louis of L\aur, and five or six others who chose to sustain in his presence the right of freedom of opinion with regard to religion. These brave and devoted men Ilenn,- placed in the hands of Montgomery, the captain of his guard, and made him give instructions for their trial. The French Calvinists held in 1559 their first synod, and regulated the constitutions wdiich should maintain in union their scattered societies, and rule them under the same discipline, 'hhe king received the news in the midst of the fetes of the marriage of Elizabeth, his daughter, with Philip IL, widower of Queen ]\lary Tudor of England. Lie swore that he w'ould punish those whom he considered as rebels. Llis death prevented the accomplishment of his vow. Wounded in the eye, at a joust, by the lance of i\h:)nt- gomery, he died of the wound after a reign of twelve years, lie left four sons, of wdiom three wore the crown. Francis, the eldest, had married Alary Stuart, Oueen (jf Scotland, celebrated as much for her misfortunes as for her beauty ( 1559). Francis II. ascended the throne at the age of sixteen years. Under this young prince, in spite of his legal majority, the ])ower w'as divided between Francis, Duke of Guise, his brother, the Cardi- nal of Lorraine, and the queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici. The characteristic trait of this (jueen, who played so great a part under the reigns of her three sons, was a profound dissimulation, united with an intriguing and corrupt spirit. The i)arty oppcxsed to Cath- erine and the princes of Lorraine was that of Anthony of Bourbon, King of Xavarre, and of L(juis of Conde, his brother, both princes of the blood royal, issue of Pobert, Count of Clermont, youngest son of Saint Louis. It was to them that the old Constable of Mont- morency, without credit at the court and disgraced by the (pieen- mother, came and rallied against the Guises. Secret conferences were held at Vendome between all the malcontents, the ol.ijcct of 150 FRANCE 1559-1560 which was to convoke the Estates-General and take away the power from the Guises. The kitter, informed concerning these hostile projects, and knowing the weakness of Anthony of Bourbon, pre- vented further opposition on his part by showing him a letter from Philip II. of Spain, in which he promised to sustain in France, at any cost, the authority of the king and his ministers. The Guises triumphed. They then hastened to work out the destruction of Protestantism in France, and caused the trial of the counselor, Anne of Bourg, to be proceeded with. This brave man persisted in his faith, which he was ready to confirm with his blood. From that time his fate was sealed. Still, he could not perish without being avenged ; it was unfortunately by an assassin, Minard, his enemy, and the president of the council before which he was tried, was killed by a pistol-shot. This was the sinister signal for a bloody persecution. Sentence of death was pronounced against Bourg, and he was executed on December 23, 1559. They spared him the pain of the fire, having the grace to strangle him before throwing him into the flames. The death of Bourg seemed to give a new activity to the persecution. The Cardinal of Lor- raine designed, as he had already done for Francis I., a particular chamber, charged with punishing the reformers. Fire was the chastisement which it pronounced against them, and the cruelty of its judgments gave to it the frightful nickname of " The Burning Chamber." The Peace of Chauteau-Cambresis had left without employ- ment a crowd of gentlemen and soldiers whose only resource was war. A great number came to the court to petition, some for that which was due to them, others for pensions and pardons. The Cardinal of Lorraine threatened to hang all the petitioners who per- sisted in their importunities, and these men united with the nobles who were enemies to the tyranny of the Guises, and formed with them the party of " jMalcontents," which doubled its forces by ally- ing itself with the Protestants. The latter counted with pride in their ranks the Prince of Conde, a man of heart and head, brother of the King of Navarre, and the three brothers Chatillon, of whom the eldest. Admiral Coligny, was the most illustrious among the Protest- ant chiefs of France : Dandelot, one of his brothers, commanded the French infantry ; while his other brother, Odet Chatillon, a skillful diplomatist, had secretly embraced the reformed faith, and was married, although he was Bishop of Beauvais and cardinal. These T II i: R K F R M A T I () N 1 ol 1560 men became eminent aniono- the chiefs oi the (hsalTccted ]iartv. A vast plot, known in history nnder the name of the ("onspiracy of Ani- boise, was then fornieo, in secret bv the enemies nf ilie government, Catholic and Protebtanl. Their object was to carry off the king-, to reino\e him from tlic inllnence of the Cuiises. to ar- rest the hitter, and to canse them to be tried as gnihy of hij^h treason. The Gnises, nnder vagne snspicion, removed tlie court from the chateau of Blois to that of Amboise. The cons])irators persevered in their project with an increchljle audacity, but a traitor in their ranks revealed their plans to the (Inises. An attack made u])on the chateau of Amboise on March. \f\ i5r)o. was frustrated by troops called together in haste by llie Cinises. A collision took place, but the followers of C\)nde and Colignv were dispersed and the executions began. The vengence of the (inises was atrocious. The waters of the Loire carried away a multitude of cori)ses; the streets of Amboise ran v/ith human blood. For a month they did nothing but behead, hang and drown. Conde himself was in peril, but he escaped immediate danger by boldlv appearing at court and justifying himself before the king; he caused his accusers to be silent, but not the suspicions, and civil war appeared imminent. The two parties met together in arms at h^tntainebleau, in 1560, where the Guises had convoked the principal magistrates to consult concerning the means of establishing peace. Coligny in. this assem- Ijly presented uselessly a petition in the name of fu'ty thousand rcUgionnaircs, as those of the reformed religion were called, who asked permission to pray to G(k1 according to their hearts. The assembly requested that the listates-General be called together, and the princes of Lorraine acfphesced in this wish. On both sides plots were woven. Orleans had been fixed ui)on as the place of meeting for the Estates; the king betook himself there with a threatening display. 'J"hc two Ijourbon princes were drawn there ])y the Guises. The King (T Xawarre ran the risk of his life in an audience which I'rancis II. ga\e him, and Condc was made prisoner. A commissicjn, a])pointed by the Guises, condemned Conde to hise his head. The death of the feeble Francis Ik. in i 5CH), pre\ented the execution of the ])rince. This reign finished under the most sinister auspices, d'he wise and \irtuous Michel de rilopital, the chancellor of the kingdom, made the greatest effort to prevent the Guises from introducing into France the execrable tribunal of the inc[uisition, but he could only succeed in it by publishing the 152 FRANCE 1560-1562 Edict of Romorantin, which attributed to the prelates of the king- dom the knowledge of the crimes of licresy, May, 1560. Tlie Parlement modified this edict before registering it, and pernn'tted the laity to have recourse to the judge royal. Charles IX. was only ten years old when he succeeded his brother, Francis II. The Estates-General, still assembled at Or- leans, decreed the regency to Catherine de' Medici, and recognized the King of Narvarre in his quality of lieutenant-general of tlie kingdom. The Chancellor I'Hopital had refused to sign the arrest which condemned to death the Prince of Conde. Catherine de' Medici, by her counsel, declared Conde innocent of the crime of which he was accused, and Montmorency was recalled to the court, where, nevertheless, the Guises remained powerful and formidable. The queen-mother played fast and loose between the two parties, at one time relying on the Guises and the Catholics, at an- other attaching herself to the Protestants and the Bourbons. The former sought the support of the gloomy and cruel Philip II., King of Spain, and gained over the constable to their side on the plea that the Catholic religion was endangered. The Marshal Saint Andre was also gained over to the side of the Lorraine princes and formed with the constable and Francis of Guise a league which received the name of the triumvirate. An edict, dated in the month of July, 1 56 1, granted to the Protestants an amnesty for the past and ordered them to live in the Catholic religion under pain of prison and exile ; death would no longer be pronounced against them. This edict only made malcontents and was never observed. The queen endeavored to bring together Francis of Guise and Conde ; they embraced each other, but remained mortal enemies. The Estates-General assembled in the course of the year at Pontoise. The electors were assembled by province, and, each of the thirteen provinces having only named one deputy from each order, thirty-nine members alone sat in the Estates. In the same year a celebrated assembly was held, under the name of the Con- ference of Poissy, in which the Cardinal of Lorraine invited the Protestant ministers to discuss with him and the Catholic bishops the principal points (jf the two religions. The discussion finished like all theological disputes : each one remained more firmly fixed than ever in his own opinion. The Edict of July was not observed in any particular : the Protestants braved it openly, and united together in a gre.'it number THE RKFOllMATrOX !:>',} 1562 of places. Catherine de' Medici tlien i2:ave an order [') all tlie parlcments to appoint deputies who should assist in formin*;- an edict more suilahle to the circumstances. This new assemhly. held in 1562, was ])resi(led over by !/Ilopit:d. and the wise Indict of January was the result, it was therein decreed that the Calvinists should g-ive up the usurped churches, keep the fete days, .ar.d respect the exterior acts of the Citholic religion; thev were permitted, however, to meet together, in order to exercise their religion out- side the towns, but without arms, d'his celebrated edict was web corned by the Calvinists with an enthusiasm which doubled their confidence, while the C:itholics received it in a stern and mournful silence. The peace that it maintained between them was of bhort duration; each party strengthened and pre|)ared itself for war. Tiie Guises had drawn to them the King of Xavarrc; while Conde. his brother, declaretl himself chief of the rrotestant<. towards whom the f|ueen-mother ai)i)eared then to incline, ddie Catholics, alarmed at the favor which Cbndc enjoyed, called (iuise to Paris. 1 le passed through the little town of X'assy, in Cham[)agne. at the time when the Protestants were assembled in W(;rship. llis fanatical trooj), fell upon them sword in han.d. and sixtv CaK'inists were .slaughtered : this massacre loecame the signal for war. Ciiii-e entered Paris as a conqueror, amid the cheers of the i)eoj)iO. ddie tv.o parties in arms watched each other for many da_\'s in Paris, and the (juecn, in order to prevent the shedding of blood, arranged with tlieir chiefs, Guise and Conde, that they sliould ]ea\-e the capital, d hey obeyed, but in order to unite their partisans and to [)reparc them- selves for war. Conde thought of making himself master of the person of Charles IX., but the triumvirate prevented him. They removed the young king to I'ontaineblcau. and c< nthictetl him to Paris. whci"c Catherine h.erself accomjjanied him. d'he ct)nstal)le commenced open war by attacking and binaiing se\eral Protestant churches in Paris. Conde, Adnn'ral C'oligny. and his brother Dandelot hastened immediately U) Orleans, and assembled there their forces. Poili sides had recourse to foreign aid; the ( iuiscs were su]')])i)rted by the King of Si)ain and the Duke of Sax'o.y ; tlie Cadvinists negotiated with Fdizaljeth. and called into ['"ranee a l)o(l_v of (ierman knigliis. The army of the I Inguenois, or rroteslants. was remarkable \ov ii- line and se\-ere disei])line. hut i)oih leaders and men were inspired bv a fanaticism as glooniv and as cruel as that of tlie Catlujlic ai'm\'. 154 FRANCE 1562-1563 The most frightful atrocities were committed by both sides in cold blood. Beaugency was carried by assault by the Protestants ; Blois, Tours, Poictiers, and Rouen experienced first all the fury of this atrocious war. The town of Rouen, defended by Montgomery, the involuntary murderer of Plenry IL, had been besieged by the King of Navarre, Anthony of Bourbon, who was slain under its walls. Of all the great towns of France which he had taken, Conde possessed only Lyons and Orleans, when the two armies, the one commanded by that prince and the other by the constable, met near Dreux in 1562. The Protestants were defeated; Conde himself was made a prisoner, while, on the other hand, Montmorency was taken and the Marshal Saint Andre killed. This new triumph, the captivity of the constable and that of Conde, the death of An- thony of Bourbon and of Marshal Saint .Vndre, rendered Francis of Guise the most powerful man in the kingdom. He was appointed lieutenant-general, and hastened to march upon Orleans, the siege of which he pressed. This was the end of his success and of his life. A Protestant, John Poltrot of Mere, assassinated him by shooting him with a pistol ; his death was the safety of Orleans. The ascendency which the death of Francis of Guise had given to Conde, led Catherine to propose peace, and the prince, unknown to Coligny, and without sufficient guarantee, accepted terms which granted to the Protestant seigniors and nobles the right to exercise their religion in their seigniories or houses. The bourgeoisie obtained liberty of conscience, but they could only exercise their religion in one town of each bailiwick and in the places which were in possession of the Protestants. The death of the Duke of Guise had placed the party of Conde in a position to dictate peace, and this treaty, called the Convention of Amboise (1563), was received with indignation by Coligny, by Calvin, and by the Protestant chiefs. Peace, how- ever, was taken advantage of in order to attack the foreigners, and the constable, at the head of the rest of the royal army, drove the English from Flavre, and the clergy paid tlie expenses of the ex- pedition. Its goods, by the advice of L'Hopital, were alienated to the value of a hundred thousand crowns per annum. After the Convention of Amboise Conde forgot himself for a time among the pleasures of tlie court. A frightful plot for a general massacre of the Protestants, contrived by the Constable Montmorency, was baffled by the fiueen-mother, but the thunders of the Vatican, the anathemas of the Council of Trent, the entreaties of foreign princes, T H E U K F R M A T I \ 1 5") 1563-1567 all excilcd llic passions of the Cathclics, and evcrylhiiiL;- |)rc>a,L,^cd that peace would be nf short duralioii. At this jieriod Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Xaxarre, and widow of Anthony ^f r.ourhi 'm. having been suspected and convicted of heresy, a bull declafcd her deprived of her royal dignity, and delivered up the states to the first occupant. The Council of Trent approaclicd its end. after having existed twenty-one years from its first sessioii. Ikfore dissolving it issued some important decisions concerning dogmas and discii)line. All concessions to the spirit of the times was studiously refused. I'rance accepted the acts of the council relative to dogmas, but refused to be bound by those which referred to discipline, as being contrary to the principles of the Gallican church, ddie council was dissolved in December, 1563. Charles IX., in 1564, summoned at Moulins an assembly of the notables, to which were called, for the purpose of conciliation, the Duke of Guise, Admiral Coligny, and a great number of princes and nobles, and the presidents of the different paiiemcnts. During the session of this assembly LTIopital caused many celebrated ordi- nances to be passed, known under the name of the Juliets of Aloulins, embracing, among others, a code of reformation ior justice, based (mi principles full of moderation and e([uity. Ihil all his efforts, zeal- ously continued during the three years that preceded the next ajjpeal to arms, failed to bring together the Guises and the Chatillons. The latter had only too much cause for alarm. lA-erywhere the Con- vention of Amboise was vi(jlated by the Catholics. Catherine ne- gotiated with Philip II. for the destruction of the Protestant chiefs. and the Swiss guards, created by Louis XI., were at the same time strongly augmented. These i)recautions gave umbrage to tlie Protestants. They had warning of the jirojects of their enemies, and sought to prevent them by instant action. d"he admiral and Conde called their party to arms, and the second civil war was declared. The first imjjortant conllict in this war was the drawn battle of St. Denis, fought in 1 5(^)7, in which the t)ld constable lost his life. Although the battle of St. Denis had no decisive result, Cath- erine, alarmed by the earnestness with which the Protestants threw themselves into the strife, again made advances for ])eace, offering for the future to observe the Coiu'cntion of Amboise with t 23, 157-'. it was settled that the execution shotild commence on the following day, Saint Bartholomew's day. Tavamies gave the order, in the presence of the king, to the pro\-ost of the merchants, John Charron, to cause the com])anies of bouregois to be armed, .and to unite at midnight at the 1 lotel elf in arms in Ean.quedoc. ready to sus- tain him. An adwinlac^eons peace for tlie reformers was sij^ned in 1580, at Ideix, tlirouqii tlie intervention r.f the Duke of Anjuu, whose aid the Flenn'n^i^^s had implored in their struggie for hberty with Philip II. of S])ain, and whom, in return for the support promised by Henry 111. and tlie adxantages likely to accrue to them from his contemplated marriage w itii Queen hdizabcth of Knglrmd, they had proclaimed Count of j-danders and Duke of Ih-ahant. Profiting by the Peace of Ideix. and furnished with the consent of the king, the duke recruited an army among the I-'rench re- formers. With it he freed Cambrai and took 1-xdnse, but having exercised in Flanders a despotic power, and caused the inhabitants of Antwerp to be massacred l)y his troops, he was driven out of the comitry by those who had called him into it, and died in re- tirement in 1584. The King of Xavarre. chief of the House of Bourbon, becaine by the death of the l^uke of Anjou, the nearest heir to the tiirone. but in the eyes of the people his religion rendered him inca])able of holding' it. This circumstance reanimated the boldness auil efforts of the league, but the zealous Catholics turned their regards towards the old cardinal. Charles of Bourbon, uncle of the King of Navarre, depending upon his name, until they could throw away the mask and declare openly for the Huke of Cuise. The latter placed himself again boldly at the head of the leaguers. lie hesitated, howexer, to take arms until he was encouraged to do so by Philip II., who incited him to acti(m by promises and threats. The leaguers made the ])reachers thunder forth from the pulpit against the heresy of Henry of .Vavarre. and the people, rendered furious, demanded war and the extermination of the Calvinists. In 1585 Pope Sixtus V. fulminated a bull of excommunication against the King of Navarre, and declared him unable to succeed to the throne. Terrified at this popular effervescence, Henry III. had the weakness, by the Treaty of Xemours, to admit the jM'eten- sions of Henry of (luise. He forbade, under i)ain of death, the exercise of all religions excei)t the Rtnnan. thr<)ughout the king- dom; delivered the ])laces of safety to the duke, and paid his foreign troops. .Almost immediately the Calvinists took up ;irms. and this eighth war was called the War of the Three Henries. Henry of Navarre, in order to sa\e the blood oi the people. 162 FRANC E 1585-1588 vainly proposed to his enemies in the assembly of the Estates a council or a dnel, astonished them by his adroit maneuvers, and caused his authority to be recognized in many provinces of the south. But Conde was less skillful and less happy, and his army was dispersed without having fought. The brilliant Duke of Joyeuse, favorite of Henry III., commanding the Catholic army, met the Calvinistic troops of Henry of Bourbon near Courtras, in Perigord. A battle took place, and the whole of the army of Joyeuse was destroyed ; he himself perished fighting. But Henry did not know how to profit by his triumph ; he forgot himself in effeminacy, and in a short time his army was dispersed through want of pay. The Prince of Conde survived this victory only a short time ; he died, it was said, by poison. Elizabeth, the Protestant Queen of England, then tarnished her glory in 1587 by ordering the execution of Mary Stuart, widow, by her first marriage, of Francis 11., and Catholic Queen of Scot- land, who, frying from her revolted subjects nineteen years pre- viously, sought a refuge in the states of her rival. The tragical death of this queen, sister-in-law of the King of France, contrib- uted as much as the defeat of Courtras to increase the fanatical zeal of the leaguers and their contempt for Henry HI. Henry of Guise, however, as prudent as he was brave and ambitious, always skillful in watching his advantage, increased in public favor, and the boldness of the league v/as doubled. The leaders of the bourgeoisie of Paris declared in his favor, and summoned him to the capital, which he entered, in 1588, in opposition to the express orders of the king that he should not approach Paris, and amid the acclamations of the multitude, his feeble escort surrounded by an idolatrous crowd eager to see him and to touch his person or his dress. At an interview with the king he requested that war to the death should be made against the Huguenots and that the king's favorites and all suspected people should be driven from the court. The feeble monarch yielded, but on condition that the duke would assist in purging Paris of foreigners and peo- ple without occupation. Guise promised it, and the people mur- mured loudly. The king ordered the nobles to place themselves in arms round him and sent for four thousand Swiss to come to Paris. The sight of them rendered the people furious, and excited a general uprising; the streets in all directions were rendered im- passable by chains and barricades, and the royal troops saw them- T 1 1 1 : 11 i: F O 11 .M A T I () \ 1 6:5 1588 selves invested and attacked on all sides without hope of retreat or safety. The Duke (^f Guise, iKnvever. calmed the people and induced them to permit the unfortunate Swiss to withdraw. Later in the day. when the fjueen-mnther hastened to negotiate with him, he asked that tlie lM)url)ons should he deprived of their pri\ilesvs, for places of safety, for nuHiey and for war. Tn the midst of the interview^ the duke learned tliat the kin.q- had lied from Paris. Takinf^ advanta^-e of tlie tumult, Henry III. had left the capital at a gallop, and did not hclicve himself in safety till he was at Chartres, wdien he was rejoined hv his troops and C(~)urt. Tliis famous day, when the people delivered I'aris to the Duke of Guise. was called in history the Ilattlc of the Barric;idcs. Guise set to work to gain profit out of his \ ictory Iw exercis- ing the functions of the king before taking the title, hut finding himself unable to induce the Parlcment of Paris to sanction the measures he proposed, he sought by the advice of the fiuecn-mother to appease the king's anger. Negotiations were accordingly opened at Chartres. Henry consented to meet with the Duke of Guise; the famous lulict of Union ai)]ieared, in 158S, and the king seemed to be deli\'ered over to his enemy. ITe engaged by this edict to destroy the heretics even to the last man; he disinherited i lenry of Bourbon from the throne, named Guise generalissimo, with absolute power, and gave over to him, for m;my years, sc\-eral places of safety. These concessions. howe\'er, were onl}- made the better to conceal the designs of the king. He had already taken, without consulting his mother, an extreme resolution. :md to ac- complish it the l^^states-Gcneral were convoked again at I'^lois. Henry of Guise and the cardinal, his brother, presented themsehes there boldly. The deputies were numerous; the election had been made under the inllucnce of the Guises, and the greater ])art of tlie deputies belonged to tlie league. d"he king oi)ened the Estates on October 16, 1588. in the great salon of the chateau of Blois. He protested, in a ^ery remarkable discourse, his ardent desire to root out heresy and remedy the evils of the country, and, while deploring the necessity that there was for asking subsidies from the Instates, he threw the fault upon those who had wished to use violence towards himself, and wIk^ stirred up troubles in the state by means of leagues and illegal associations, pointing onl clearlv the Duke of Guise, u])on whom e\ery eye was turned^. Afier the meeting, however, the Duke of Guise comi)elled Henry to 164 FRANCE 1588-1589 promise to cut out from his harangue, in pubHshing it, the pas- sages where he and his followers were designated as factious. His project, which he little disguised, was to depose the feeble monarch and to cause himself to be proclaimed in his place. The king, al- though he had taken the sacrament wdth the duke at Blois, resolved to destroy him as speedily as possible, and bribed Loignac, chief of the gentlemen of the guard, to undertake his assassination. The hour and place were fixed. But rumors were circulated, the partisans of Guise were alarmed, and threatening notices came to him from all parts. When warned of the designs of the king, he is reported to have exclaimed, "He does not!" On De- cember 23 he presented himself to the council ; the doors were closed, and an officer notified him that he was required at the house of the king. He directed his steps towards the cabinet of the monarch ; just as he entered, Montlhery, one of the gentle- men of the guard, plunging a dagger into his breast, cried, " Traitor, you shall die ! " Others threw themselves upon him and struck him, while Loingnac thrust his sword into his back. The Cardinal of Guise, who, seated at the council heard his dying brother's cries of mercy to God, was immediately arrested and sent to the tower of Moulins, wdiere he perished the following day by assassination with all the relatives and friends of himself and his brother that happened to be in Blois and were unable to make their escape. The queen-mother only survived the Lorraine princes a few days. Before her death she had advised Henry to march at once upon Paris, where the storm was brewing, and swear anew in the Estates, to the Edict of Union, before dissolving them. This however, he did not do. He had, moreover, allowed many pris- oners of high importance to escape him at Blois. H[is two most formidable enemies, the Duke of Mayenne and Aumale, brothers of the assassinated Guises, remained at large, although closely pursued, and they hastened to raise the people and the army. The rage of the Parisians had no need for being excited. The news of the gloomy events of Blois provoked the explosion of their hate and fury. They proclaimed the Duke of Mayenne lieu- tenant-general of the kingdom ; the enthusiastic Bussy Le Clerc. governor of the Bastile, enclosed in it the majority of the members of the Parlcment, who were inimical to these j^roceedings. .and a new Parlemcnt was instituted. Erom that time all ho])es of con- ciliation with the partisans of the Guises faded away before Henry T II E R E E () R :\r A T T () \ 1 fir, 1589 III. Pope Sixtiis V. redoiibled the audacity of the enemies of the monarch by cxrommiinicatinL;- liitn for tlie murder of the cardinal. In danf.,'-er of hcins;- invested bv Maycnnc in the town of 'l^urs. one resource only remained to Henry, and he seized it ])y joining;' himself with the Kins^- of Xavarre, whom he had just disinherited. The frankness and loyalty of Henrv of Xavarre soon g-aincd the confidence of Henry III., and touched his heart. After a ^-lo- rious success at La Xoue. in Senlis. they marched too-ether upon Paris. Bourbon pitched his camp at Meudon and Henry arran,<;"ed his upon the heights of Saint Cloud, where he was mortally wounded on August i, 1589, by a fanatic named Jacques Clement, who had made a vow to assassinate him. The murderer was im- mediately killed by the king's guards. Henry of X"a\'arre, when informed of the event, hurried irom his quarters at ]\Ieudon to see the king, who had not many hours to live. Henry received absolution, and having exhorted his of- ficers to recognize as his successor the King of Xaxarre, the legi- timate beir to the throne, without regard to the difference of reli- gion, then he expired, in his thirty-eighth year, after reigning fifteen years. With the new king. Henry IV., tbic branch of the Bourbons mounted the throne ; tliat of the Valois had reigned two hundred and sixty-one years, and died out after having given thirteen kings to France. Chapter X HENRY IV. AND THE REORGANIZATION OF FRANCE 1589-1624 HEXRY IV. had been brought np by his pious and noble mother, Jeanne d'Albret, in the fear of God and in the principles of virtue. Tried early by adversity, he knew how to support it with courage and to conquer it. No prince had found himself in a more difficult position than was his after the death of Henry of Valois, having before him the league, the anathemas of the Pope, and the gold of Philip II. His prede- cessor had scarcely breathed his last when he was exposed to a trial. The Catholic chiefs held council, and declared to the king that if he wished to reign in France he must at once abjure the Protestant faith, which he refused to do. Upon this, eight hun- dred gentlemen-at-arms and nine regiments left his banners. A small number of devoted friends, with the Swiss, and some com- panies of cavalry, formed the permanent foundation of his forces. His followers came one by one to arrange themselves under his banner, and, in default of pay, they returned to their (jwn homes, to remain for some months. It was necessary, too, to go from town to town, struggling and negotiating without inter- mission. Fanaticism and delirium were carried to their height in Paris with the news that Henry III. was assassinated. The Parisians grossly insulted the memory of Henry III., and in their frantic joy at the king's death they declared his murderer to be a martyr. They also spread abroad furious invectives against Henry of Bourbon, recalling the Edict of Union, the bull of the Pope, and the decrees of the Sorbonne, which declared him deprived of the throne. They sought a chief, and their regards turned towards Mayenne, brother of Henry of Guise, and alone in liis family capable of directing affairs. Mayenne took the title of lieutenant- general of the kingdom, and caused to be proclaimed king, under the name of Charles X., the old Cardinal of Bourbon, whom HENRY TV IGT 1589-1590 Henry TV., liis nephew, held a prismier at Tours. Tie went mu; from Paris afterwards at tiic Iiead of twenty-fuc IhnuN-ind men. and met, near ]')ieppe. tlie feehle army of the kin,^-. composed alti>- g-ether of seven tliousand S'dfhers. Henry, Imwexer. won a signal advantage in a bloody combat which took ])lace near the villa.^c of Arqnes. Soon after he appeared Ijcfore I'aris. and attacked and plundered the suburljs. driving back the Parisians into the interior of the town. In vain he offered ])attle to tlie Duke o,f ]\Iayenne. Pie then quitted I'aris in order to subdue lower Nor- mandy, of wdiich lie made himself ma-ter. Discord reigned in France; some wished to crown Maycnne : others declared themselves for the old (.ardinal of Bourbon, while another faction supported the King of S])ain. who claimed the throne for his daughter, Isabella, the niece of the late four kings by her mother, Fdizabeih. 'Jdie Sorbonne declared that Henry was in a state of mortal sin. and excommunicated all those who should think of adopting him as king, even if he became a Cath- olic, The Parlement of I'aris ordered the recognition of Chailes X. ; the parlement sitting at Tours annulled the decrees of that of Paris, and ])roclaimed Henry IV. king. Henry IV, again approached the capital, and Mayenne barred the way. The two armies met near Dreux, in the j^lain of I\-ry, in 1590. On the morrow, at l)i"eak of day. arrangements were made for the battle. Henry ordered the charge, and the army (^f Alayenne, although \'ery superior in numbers, was almost de- stroyed. The conquerer immediately marched u]on Paris, and caused the town to be blockaded by his troo])s. The old Cardinal of Bourbon, rival and prisoner of llenry I\'.. died at this time. The blockade of the ca])ital brought famine and mortality into its walls, and caused terrible distress among the peo])le. At length, by order of I'liili]) H., Alexander l'\u-nese, Duke of I'arma, celebrated bv his exploits in bdanders, and bv the taking of Ant- werp, advanced upon Paris, with Mayenne, and ])enetrated as far as Meaux. Jle compelled the king to raise the blockade, forced his lines at Lagnv, and revictualled the ca]Mtal. Incapalile of com- ing to an understanding with the leaders of the bourgeoisie, and docile to the injunctions of King Philip, l'"arnese retreated an-l returned into Artois, harassed in his retreat by the royal army. Henry returned to establish his (piarters at Saint Denis, and attempted to surprise Paris by means of soldiers concealed under 168 FRAN C E 1590-1593 sacks of flour. This abortive attempt and the stratagem to which the king had recourse gave to this engagement tlie name of the Fkjur Battle. Discord reigned in Paris ; Mayenne agitated on one side for his house ; on the other a considerable faction agitated for Philip IL, who paid them to advocate the claim of his daughter, who was excluded by the Salic Law from the succession. A new chief divided the members of the league : the young Duke of Guise, son of the Balafre, recently escaped from prison, was received wdth transports in Paris, and many opposed him to Mayenne. Nevertheless, he played no important part. The new Pope, Greg- ory XIV., eager to sustain the league, sent him a reinforcement of soldiers, who only signalized themselves by the most horrible brigandage. The war continued with ferocity, and the Duke of Parma reentered France by skillful marches. Plenry rashly exposed him- self in the battle of Aumale (1592), wdiere he was w^ounded. Farnese nearly took him prisoner, and compelled him to raise the siege of Rouen. Although very inferior in forces. Flenry sus- tained the war with advantage, displaying a marvellous activity and the resources of a fertile and indefatigable genius, escaping from the enemy when the latter thought they w^ere about to seize him, and falling upon them unexpectedly, wdien they thought that he was far off. It was thus that, by a course of prudent and bold maneuvers, he shut up Farnese near Dieppe, between the sea, the Seine, and the three main bodies of his army, but the Duke of Parma, unkncnvn to the king, constructed a pontoon bridge in one night, deceived his vigilance, crossed the Seine, and covered his retreat. Henry again approached Paris, when the Estates-General of the league, convoked by Mayenne, at the request of Philip II., assembled together to elect a king. He caused himself to be well- informed in the Catholic religion ; and Mayenne, in the midst of the factions which divided the states, remained undecided between the two principals, of which the one consented to proclaim Flenry IV. if he abjured, while the other was devoted to Spain. At this juncture the king received unexpected support from the Parle- ment of Paris, the members of which were tired of the intimida- tion exercised by the leaders of the Spanish party. Upon the advice of Edward Mole, attorney-general, it ordered the president, John Lemaitre, to present himself to the lieutenant-general, in II i:\liY IV IG!) 1593-1594 order to recommend him to see t^ it that no t'orei.^'n hntise under the pretext of reh,L;i')n should ])laee itself on the thmne. declariuL,'- all the treaties made with tliis aim null and contrary to the Salic Law and tlie eon>titution nf ihc kiu-dom. ddiis une.\|)c>-ted declar- ation surprised and irritated M avenue, but John l.emaitrc sus- tained tliis decree hel'ore him witli coura.,i;-e. d'he matter was decided finally by the adoption of the Cathcdie faith by the kini^-, who proposed a trncc. at tlie same time fixiuL;' July J5 as the day on which the ceremony of his abjuration of i'rotestanism should take place. Mayenne, wdio saw the designs which he had entertained on the crown frustrated by this stej). forbade tlie Parisians to be witnesses, and ordered them to close their doors. Tliev xiolated his order and assisted in a crr-wd at the ceremony. Jlenrv made his abjuration at St. Denis, under the hands ^^\ tlie .Xrch.bishop of Bourges, July 25, 15^3. Tie proiuised to li\e and to die in the heart of the Roman Catliolic Cliurch. and to defend it a^'ainst all. He repeated his profession of faith at tlie foot of the great altar. then the "Te Dciim" burst out, wlule the ])eo])le interru]Ued with cries of " I'iz'C Ic roi! " ]\la\'enne, howe\er, held Paris until the fol- lowing year, and it was not until Alarcli 22. after Ma_\-enne had quitted tlie capital to raise new troo])s on tlie Ironticrs d C'Ikuu- pagne for the prolongation of tlie wai", tliat the gates of the city were th.riiwn r)j)en to llcnrw The I'arisians received him enthu- siastically, the factions (U" Mavetme rmd i-^pain holding back througii surprise and fear. His march was a triumph, and from that day he looked upon himself rmKnig the Parisians as in the midst of liis children, d^iie Spanish garrison left ]\aris on the same day with the honors of war. Tlie k'ing recei\-eion with distrust, ;iiid accused him of h\-pocris\-. j Je could only gain them over by la\idi- ing on them numerous fa\-ors. The latter, irritated at his abjura- tion, looked with impa'.irnce on tlie honors and b^ihcs heaped upon the ("atliolics. and ;ictai>cd tlie k"iug i^\ ingratitude. Alihoni^li I'aris had submitted, war coiuinucd in all parts of the kingdi'Ui. tlowever, .'Vmiens, lieauxais, ("ambrai. and C'h.ateau-Thierry ga\c 170 F R A N C E 1594-1596 themselves up separately after the taking of Laon. Soon, Mont- morency, Epernon, the Duke of Guise, La Chatre, and Bois- Dauphin submitted, but they fixed their submission at an enor- mous price. It was necessary that the king should deposit in their hands immense sums and an authority which nearly rendered them sovereign in their own governments and which, later on, was the cause of great troubles. An attenipt made in 1594 by John Chatel, at the instigation of the Jesuits, to assassinate the king caused the speedy expulsion of every one belonging to the order from France. Philip II. would then have consented to a peace if Henry had agreed to leave to him certain possessions in France ; the French nobles of his party were equally willing on condition that they were allowed to keep the provinces of which they were masters, at the price of homage to the crown. The king energetically repulsed these pretensions and declared war against Philip, whose mosts powerful supporters were the Duke of Mercoeur in Brittany, Aumale in Pacardy, and Mayenne in Burgundy. The last of the three, not long before chief of the league, and an aspirant to the crown, had become the instrument of Spain, He was accompanied by Valasco, Constable of Castile, when the king bore dow^n rapidly to receive him near Dijon. The battle of Fontaine-Francaise (1595), Vvdiere Henry, with only three hundred horse, held his own against two thousand, and exposed his life in order to save that of Biron, confounded the hopes of Mayenne, who declared himself ready to recognize Henry as soon as that prince should have received the absolution of the Pope. This was formally bestowed on the Abbes Duperron and D'Ossat, who w'ere selected as the king's representatives, by Clement VIIL, in St. Peter's, at Rome in 1595, and the Pope further proclaimed him King of France and Navarre. This solemn act took away all motive for war and all hope from the leaguers. iMayenne obtained from the king that his family should be declared' absolved from the crime of complicity with the murder of Henry III. ; he placed his submission at this price. The edict was promulgated. In 1596 Mayenne recognized Henry IV., and from that time served him faithfully. The king then assembled all his forces against the Spaniards, who had just taken Calais, Amiens, and many other places. Henry, without money, made an appeal to his people. The faithful Rosny, Duke of Sully, assisted him in raising some millions and an army. HENRY IV 171 1596-1599 Amiens was retaken in tlie f the treasure left by the late king, and when it was exhausted found herself deprived of the means of defense against those whose cu])idily (r ambition she had excited without possessing the means of satisfying theiu. The whole of France appeared to be delivered over to the mercy of a number of plunderers whose numbers insured them inmuuiity. The noljles demanded tolls on roads which were free and taxes in cities which were exempt from them. 'Jdiey created (jftices. patents oi nobility, and priviliges of all sorts lor money, and secretly increased the amount of every s]K^cies of duty and excise, ddie honest Sully, unable to supjiort a go\"ernment which coimived at such ]M\)ceed- ings, quitted the council and retired to his estates. The Guises .and the Condes. the liouillons and the l^peruims, remained the sole masters of the kingdom, and vied with each other 178 FRANCE 1614 in cupidity, egotism, and violence. In the midst of these disorders Marie de' Medici raised her favorite, Concini, Marquis of Ancre, an Itahan, to the highest pinnacle of honor and fortune. He was marshal of France, although he had never borne arms. A revolt burst forth at length, but it was not the excess of the public misfortunes which lit its flame. At the commencement of 1614 the Prince of Conde, the Dukes of Nevers, Mayenne, Bouil- lon, and Longueville, being leagued against Concini, seized Mezieres in the Ardennes, and raised the standard of insurrection. Conde was at the head of the movement, and published a manifesto which exposed, in bitter terms, the ill administration of the queen, reproaching her with having failed to observe the Edict of Nantes, and with having overwhelmed the poor with taxes, and openly attacking the insolent foreigners in whose hands was the govern- ment of the kingdom. This movement made by grandees in the name of the popular interests attracted however, but little popular sympathy. The queen, by the advice of Concini. bought off the malcontents, in 1614, by the Treaty of Sainte-Menehould, surnamed the " Paltry Peace." By this treaty the queen increased the dig- nities and pensions of the rebel lords, and promised a prompt assem- bly of the Estates-General. Louis XIII. was now in his fourteenth year, and was recog- nized as of age, but it was long after this ere he was anything save king in name. Marie de' Medici still retained her power, and for the purpose of executing the Treaty of Sainte-Menehould she convoked the Estates-General for October 26 of that year. These Estates were the last which assembled before those of 1789. The queen and her ministers endeavored to paralyze their influence by setting each order against the others, and in this they were suc- cessful. The assembly was dissolved in the course of the following year without having achieved any important result, and the deputies were dismissed with a vague promise that the government would examine their memorials and take into consideration their demands. The memorials of the Third Estate contained the elements of a portion of the reforms accomplished, at the close of the following century, by a more celebrated assembly. These were, a uniform system of customs and weights and measures, the abolition of mas- terships and wardships, the suppression of farmers-general of the finances and of exceptional tribunals and the diminution of the HENRY IV 179 1614-1616 excise duties, and of aids. But of all these wise and lc,c;itiiuate demands not one was ^ninted. The discontented party, and Conde especially, offered an ener- getic opposition to the marria.c^e of Louis XI IF. with the Infanta of Spain, afterwards celehrated under the name of Anne of Aus- tria, urc^ing the necessity of crushing the House of Austria rather than adding to its strength. The queen treated the\kir(juis of Force, resisted a siege which cost the Catholics the loss of eight thousand men and the Duke of Alayenne, the son of the famous chief of the league. There was a universal outcry in France against the Duke oi Luynes. to whom was attributed the blame of this reverse. In the course of this expedition the favorite had still further aggrandized 182 FRANCE 1621-1624 his position, and had added to his numerous offices those of con- stable and keeper of tlie seals. He knew that if he would retain his influence with the king he must be everything; but he did not long enjoy his new dignities, for a fever carried him off in four days. The Protestant Lesdiguieres, commander-in-chief of the royal army, became a convert to Catholicism, and was created con- stable. His conversion w^as the signal for numerous defections in the Protestant party. The Marquis of Force and the Count of Chatillon, Coligny's grandson, surrendered, the one Montauban and the other Aigues-Mortes, in return for large sums and mar- shals' batons. Rohan, however, remained incorruptible and desired peace, which was signed at Montpellier. The Edict of Nantes w^as confirmed, the king allowing the Protestants to assemble for the purposes of their worship, but prohibiting them to meet for political objects. Du Plessis, after the Peace of Montpellier, obtained the cardinal's hat, and henceforth became known under the celebrated name of Cardinal Richelieu, and was soon after made a member of the council. This able statesman soon obtained a great influence over the young king's mind by pointing out to him the vices of his government, the immense resources of France, and the secret of its strength, and ultimately became all-powerful, possessing the great art of rendering himself indispensable to the king, although the latter by no means liked him. Louis XHI,, in fact, who dearly liked arbitrary power, but was incapable of compelling obedience, found in Richelieu the strength of mind in which he was deficient, and believed that, with his aid, he was an absolute monarch, while in reality he was a slave all his life. Chapter XI RICHELIEU AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 1624-1643 A GREAT chatifje passed over France as soon as Richelieu seized with a firm liand the direction of affairs. The resolutions of the council, which the Spaniards, by the assistance of Anne of Austria, had hitherto always known, were now kept secret. The ambassadors were instructed to speak and act with boldness. The ambassadors from Rome having- pointed out to the cardinal the various steps which he should take in his neg'otiations with that court, Richelieu replied. '* The kino- is not willing to be trifled with; you will tell tlie Rope that an army will be sent into the Valtelline." This was the first step in the new path of French diplomacy. The Valtelline, a valley of the Tyrolean Alps, was important to Spain as a means of communication between the Tyrol and the Milanese territory. Idie people of this valley, who were Catholics, had been incited to revolt against the Protestant canton of the Orisons, to which they belonged, and f(^rts had been raised to command its passage, which, in accordance with a con- vention with Spain, were garrisoned l)y Papal troops. The Martpiis of Coeuvres, in j)ursuance of orders from l^ichelieu, arrived sutl- denly in the Valtelline with ;i body of troops, repulsed those of the Pontiff and rapidly took jjossession of the forts and all the strong places. The Spaniards avenged themselves l)y promising their sup- port to the Calvinisls, who complained that the conditions of the Peace of Montpellier had been ill observed. On this occasion they were the aggressors. Soul'ise. with a lleet, made a descent ui)on and seized the Tslc oi Phe. and Rohan raised a revolt in Languediic. Richelieu sent against tliem D'l^pernon, Themines. and Mont- morency. The latter dis[)ersed their lleet, d'oiras wrested friMu them the Isle of Phe, which was the defense of the port of Rochelle, and the minister granted a fresh ])eace to the vanquished. The Valtelline war was then terminated by the Treaty of ]\Ton- con, in Aragon (1625), by which the Valtelline was restored to the 183 184. FRAN C E 1625-1626 Grisons. The two queens, Marie de' jMedici and Anne of Austria, were in the highest degree jealous of RicheHeu's influence over the king, and condemned his poHcy of hostihty towards the Pope and Spain. Gaston, the king's brother, hated Richeheu because at first he had refused him any place or authority in the council ; and the courtiers, from whom Richelieu withheld all access to the public treasury, overwhelmed him with insults and accusations. It was against this formidable league that the cardinal now had to con- tend. The soul of the conspiracy was its principal concocter, the young and imprudent Chalais, a passionate admirer of the Duchess of Chevreuse, one of the cardinal's enemies. With Gaston and Chalais were joined the Duke of Vendome, governor of Brittany, the grand prior of Vendome, his brother, both natural sons of Henry IV., the queen, and a multitude of inferior accomplices. The object of this league was to overthrow the minister, and those of whom it was composed were even accused of a desire to depose the king, crown Gaston in his stead, and marry the latter to Anne of Austria, Informed of this vast conspiracy, Richelieu made the king acquainted with its existence, and cunningly frightened him by a prospect of dangers which only threatened his own ministry. The feeble Gaston betrayed his accomplices. The brothers Ven- dome were arrested and sent to the chateau of y\mboise. Chalais, discovered to have been guilty, by his letters to the Duchess of Chevreuse, of having insulted the king, and giving seditious advice to Gaston, was condemned to death by a. commission, and executed. The grand prior died at Amboise, while the Duke of Vendome was only released from prison after having made all the confessions required of him. The queen was subjected to the observance of a severe system of etiquette, and the entrance of men into her apart- ments in the king's absence was strictly forbidden. A great num- ber of nobles were disgraced and a guard of musqueteers was granted to the cardinal. Finally, Gaston, in return for the con- fessions which he made, and- his consent to espouse ]\Ille. Bourbon of ]\Tontpensier, received the rich duchy of Orleans, in exchange for the duchy of Anjou, of which he had hitherto borne the title. The result of this great intrigue was to increase the power of the minister, who exercised the sovereign autlKjrity without any of those who ])()sscsscd the great offices of the crown being able to counterbalance his authority. There was no longer any constable. that office having been abolished after the death of Lesdiguieres, ^JMI I ]{ 'J' \- V K A 11 S ' \V A U KS.-> 1626-162D and tliat of j^rand admiral had l)ccn converted into a .i:-(.'nrr;d >uj)er intendcncc u\ cnmucvcc and naval affairs, wliicli Kiciiclicn liaing oiilv a few galleys. The notables separated in l"e])rnarv. if-j^. aih! a commission was immediatelv appointed, to reilnce to a c. de or Ii'mK- of laws the reforms promised either to the last a-uckingham, v/ith a fornndable ileel. de>cen>',ed, in \()^j. np 'U il:e coasts of J'"rance. Many C"al\ini>t leadei-.. suji]) )rtedi tlie in\a-: ; . but their rising co.-,t tlieni de.ir. The bhighsh had h:d Scliomberg wuh nunur ous reinforcements, I'ncf ingh;Mn .^et >ail a.nd ab:indoned his ini ])rudcnt allies. 'J'he moment had now come tor ilie cirdnial to destnn' a p)eri)rtnal source of di ;;nrbanci', and tiie 1 ';-o;esi;iiit p,ir:\. In 1(32/ he laid .siege to Koehelle, cianmanding tl'e b Tces in pe'- son. The siege v;as a remarkable one for the courage and pe: 186 FRANCE 1627-1629 severance which were displayed on both sides. An attempt made by the EngHsh to relieve the besieged by an attack on the king's troops from the sea proved abortive, and at length, after an heroic defense of a year's duration, the Rochellois, driven to despair, con- sented to surrender. The result was that their town lost its privi- leges, but that they retained the right of worshiping according to their faith. France, delivered at length from the apprehension of civil war, now ardently desired peace. Richelieu, however, determined to carry out the projects of Henry IV. against Austria, Siege, of ROCHELLE rendering France the first nation in Europe. A pretext for war was not long wanting, Vicenzo di Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, died in 1627, and his cousin, Charles de Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers, claimed to be lieir of his states. But the emperor, the Spaniards, and the Duke of Savoy set up in opposition to him the Duke of Guastalla, a member of the -elder branch of the Gonzaga family, and supported his pretended rights by the invasion of the two princi- palities. Richelieu pointed out to the king how much it was to the interest of h'rancc to assist a prince who was half French, and especially to counterbalance the influence of Austria in upi)cr Italy. Louis XIII. arrived with his army in the depth of winter at tlie foot of the Alps, and having forced the pass or defile of Susa, and defeated the i^'edmontcse troojis which held it, the Duke of Savoy, terrified, abandoned the Spaniards, and signed at Susa, in 1628, a THIRTY YEARS' WAR 187 1629-1631 treaty wliicli secured to the Duke of Xevers the peacealjle possession of Mantua and Montferrat. J.ouis XI 11., on his return fnun i'led- mont, fell rapidly upon the small number of slroUi^ places still possessed by tlie rroief liis brother's mrirriaqe. ret'usi'd to saneti'Hi it. ami in- vaded Lorraine with a deniaiid that Charles IV. sImuM -ive In- sister into his hands, d'lie latter, lunvever. cseaped and j'^ine.! her husband at Ihaissels. In 1632 the \vh(3le 01 Lorraine was i Cardinal Xio'la- i'Vanci-. hi- brother, who hastened, witlxnu con.^ullinL;- Koine, to lav a>ide tlie hat, and to marry his cousin Claude. Soon afterwards he retired from Lorraine with his wife, ahancl inini;' his state.-, to the h'rench kiuf^, who everywhere established ^arrJMnis, pendiiiL,'' the surreniler of the Princess Mari^-uerite. While Loui > .XIll. tlui- endeax^M-ed, to annul this allia.ncc by force the Tarlenient of Paris. {'> whom he had referred the matter, declared Ca.-ti'u's n.arriai^'-e vi.iil, wdnle Richelieu endeavored, but in vain, to obtain frnm the ])rin.ce. who had returned to the h'rench court, a.n a\'ow;'.l that his ma!"ria,<;e was illeg'al. Tin's Gaston absiluiely refused to do. bnt an e\erit occurred three ycirs afterwards which reduced liim to a -ecMnd.irv position. A reconciliation h.ad tal-;en place between Lou:< .XIII. and the queen, wdio had Ioul;- lived :\\y.\v\. from him, ,and 1 'U Sru tember 5. 1^)38, Anne c^'ax'e birth to a son. who l)ecame L^ui- X!\'. At the i^eriod when the reins of ^'oN-ernment pa.ssed thus to a kin^ in a jjcrpetual state of pu])ila,i;e. from Coiicini t'l He Ln\-ne-. and from the latter to Richelieu, in whose han.ds they renriin.ed. pireat events, in which hd-ance had, imt as yet interfered, were tal-;- ing' place in Germany. The l-jn]H'ror Matthia.s. ha\ii;L;' no children, had chosen as his successor his ci 'nsin-<;-erman. h'erdir.and of Styria, grandson of h^crdinand I., brithei" >>\ Charles \^.. and h;id h.ad him elected King of I'ohenn'a in hi- lifetime, ddiis ])rince a.ttemptnl to deprive th.e Protestant I'ohemians of liberty of conscience, fi ^r which they took uj) arms ag;iinst him. In tlie meanuime Matilda- died, ai^l b'erdinand, besieged in Vienna by the victoid<. us l!ohemians, could hardly keej) pi '-ses-i' in of the crown. The f Ln-l;md;. and nephew of the stadtholder of Ibilland. I'rederick, in a bhxuly battle fought on the White Mountain, near Trague. Icst n^t only :;i.- new crown, btit also his hereditary sta.tes. lanhiildened b_\' tin- success, the em[)eror carried war into t!;e Palatine, anul threaiened 190 FRANCE 1625-1639 to extripate Protestantism throughout the whole of Germany. To save its Hberties, the Lower Saxon Circle, in 1625, under the leader- ship of Christian IV., King of Denmark and Duke of Holstein, pre- pared to resist the imperial armies. Then commenced the second period of the Thirty Years' War, called the Danish period. It was no less fatal than the first to the Protestant cause, for Christian, vanquished by the celebrated imperial generals, Tilly and Wallen- stein, was compelled to sign the humiliating Peace of Lubeck in 1629. The whole of Protestant Germany was under the yoke, and the cause of liberty of conscience seemed in desperate straits. Then, in 1630, assembled the imperial Diet of Ratisbon to discuss the great questions which for twenty years had agitated the German empire. Now there came a check to the fortunes of the House of Austria. The Catholic electors, alarmed at the growing power of Wallenstein, demanded his dismissal. It was at Ratisbon, also, that was regulated the succession of Mantua, wdiich the emperor had pretended to dispose of as an imperial fief. This was the second step which France took in its interference with the affairs of the empire ; the first being the occupation of the Valtelline. Richelieu saw with disquiet the progress ot the House of Aus- tria, but the time was not yet come for France openly to interfere. He contented himself with promising as a subsidy 1,200,000 livres a year to the young King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus, towards whom the eyes of all Protestant Europe were now turned. Vic- torious at Leipsic in 1631, and again at the passage of the Lech, where Tilly lost his life, he prepared to strike a final blow by attack- ing Ferdinand in his capital. The emperor, in terror, then recalled Wallenstein, whom he had disgraced, and the two rivals encountered each other at Liitzen in 1632. Gustavus was the victor, but died on the field of battle, leaving the command to Duke Bernard of Saxe- Weimar. The latter, however, after great successes, lost, in 1634, the decisive battle of Nordlingen against the Archduke Ferdinand, the emperor's eldest son. The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus were nullified and the House of Austria, which had been kept in check by the successes alike of the great Swedish king and of the hero of Weimar, began to raise its head anew. The emperor, Ferdinand II., pursued the war with untiring energy and persever- ance. He was now relieved from his chief opponents, and became once more all-powerful. Here ends the Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War and commences the fourth and last epoch, to TIIIUTY V EARS' WAR 191 1634-1639 which has l)ccn oiveii the name (if the iM-eiich iicriod. Iviclicheu made the greatest cfYnrts to secure tlie success of his inihtary plans. He formed an offensive and defensive aUiance with Holland and Sweden, and sio-ncd. at the same time, fresh treaties with the Dukes of Savoy, Mantua, and Parma, amon^' wln'm he i)n)mi>cil to di\ ide the Milanese tei-ritnry. Ili^ plans fnr war cmhraccd at ^nKv Flanders, the Rhine, tlie \';dtelliue, and Italy, and he farmed \"uv armies, intended to act simultaneously (n all those j)oints. I'.elicvinL,'" himself to be as great a general ;is he was a statesman, the cardinal resolved to direct from his cabinet all the movements of the armies in the fiekl. The army of the north, under Marshals C'hatilJon and Breze, was to join in Luxemlxjurg that of the I'^slates-Cleneral of Holland, for the purpose of driving out of Belgium the Si)aniards, commanded by Prince ddiomas o\ Carignan. This prince was de- feated in the plain of Avenues by the French, who elTected their junction with the Dutch, commanded by the T'*rince of Orange, before IMaestricht. The united armv ga\e itself up to the most frightful excesses. The sack of Tirlemont roused the Belgians against the French. They ran to arms, and thus ga\e time for the arrival of the imperial army, under Biccolomini. who forced the invaders to raise the siege of Lou\ain and remain in a state of in- action till the end of the camj)aign. The h'ranco-Swedish army of (icrmany divided into scxeral corps, under the command of Mar- shal Force and Duke r>crnard of Sa\e-\\'eimar, was i ijiposed to the imperial troo[)s led by Duke Charles of Lorraine and the celebrated (iallas, who blockaded a ])ortion ^A Bernard's army in Mayence and held that general himself in check at Sarrebnick. Duke Bernard was relie\e(l by a second hrench army, which was obliged through famine and disease to fall back on Metz. A third force under the king occupied Lorraine, and tliis ;md what remained of the other two armies, acting u])on the frontier ol the Rhine, co\-ered Champagne and Lorraine, n(/w threatened by the imperialists. In Italy the L^-ench army, under tlie command of Marsh C'rcqui, having failed in its attacl-; on h'rascorolo, had been compelled to raise the siege of Valan/.a, .and Cre(|ui retreated towards h'rance, abandon- ing the allies of b^-ance. the Dukes of Savoy, Rarma, and Mantua, whose states were immediately invaded. The Im-cucIi arms were only sucessful in the Valtelline. where tlie Duke of Rohan suc- ceeded in cutting off all communication between the im])erial troops of Lombardy and .Vustria. Victorious at Morbcguo. he repulsed 192 FRANCE 1635-1639 Ferramont in the Tyrol, and then drove Serbelloni and the Span- iards from the Vahelhnc, after the glorious battle of the Val de Presle. At this point only was the campaign of 1635 honorable for France. Richelieu entered upon the following campaign with as many armies as he had in the preceding one, and suffered great reverses. In 1636 the imperialist generals, the cardinal-infant, brother of the King of Spain, IMccolomini, and John der Werth, a Bavarian, en- tered France at the head of forty thousand men. The line of the vSomme was forced; Corbie, the last strong place on this frontier, fell into the hands of the imperialists, while a second army, under Gallas and the Duke of Lorraine, entered Burgundy. Terror reigned in Paris, and the popular fury was directed against the cardinal, who was accused of all the ills of France. But the latter, superior to fear, called to arms the nobility and the various trading bodies for the defense of the kingdom, and at the end of a month an army of forty thousand men marched to drive the enemy from France. The imperial generals did not await the onslaught, but hastened to recross the frontier. All the fortresses of Picardy were retaken by the French, the progress of the invasion in Burgundy was checked, the Spaniards who attempted an invasion of the southern provinces were beaten back, and French soil was delivered from foreign invaders. In Italy a bloody victory obtained by Marshal Crequi and the Duke of Savoy over the imperialists near Lake Maggiore had no result. The following year, 1637, was distinguished by the death of several of the sovereigns engaged in the war. The Emperor Ferdi- nand II. died after having had the King of Hungary, his son, elected as his successor, and France lost its two Italian allies, the Dukes of Mantua and Savoy. The only important military fact of this campaign was the evacuation by the Duke of Rohan of the Vallcl- line, whence he was driven' by the old allies of France, the Grisons, who had now turned against her. The war was continued in 1638 with results unfavorable to France. In the north it was found necessary to raise the siege of Saint-Omer, and on the Spanish frontier the French were forced to abandon the siege of Fontarabia. The victory obtained on the Rhine by Duke Bernard of Saxe-Weimar alone compensated for so many disasters. Compelled by John of Werth to raise the siege of Rhinefeld, he suddenly reappeared, cut the imperialists to pieces. TIIIKTV DEARS' WAR WM 1639-1640 and took Jnhii of Worth and three other L;'enei"als i)risMners. In ihe year h^llowin^- tliis able i^'eneral (heel, anil thie eoinniand <'i' In-- army was iL^aven to the Dnkc of LonL,'-neville. who earned on t',..- campaign durino- two years beymd the Rhine without any decided success, and at the same time withinit any dis-race. In I'-^g tiie success on the side of tlie I'rcnch was conlined to the captme nf IIcs. Prince of Carignan. brothers ()f the late duke, with the su])])'irt of the King of Spain, dis])uted the regency with his widmv. Christine. daughter of Ilem-y I\'., Henry of Lorraine, C'-unt of llarc -uri, victualled Casal, then besieged by Spaniards. He elYccted in ;idmir- able order a diflicult retreat from Chiari to Carignan, in tlie i)re-- ence of the much larger armies of Spain in riednioiu. and was victorious at the battle of La Uotta. The principal belligerent powers, I'^ranec, the cmjjire. and Spain, reaped no fruits from this disastruus war. The two king- dt)ms were exliausted, and in each there occiu'red simul'ane' i:-!y a popular outbreak, which led to verv ditYerent results. 1 )in-ing the last ye.'irs the taxes in k^rance had been rai>ed to a hundred md- lions, which was double the amount !e\ ied in the time of 1 lenr_\- 1\'. The burden f)f taxation had become intolerable. d'he poll tax, especially, was le\'ie(l upon the peasants with, frightful rigor. Alter ])aying ftjr themseK'es, those wh( ^\ere better olT tlnn their neigl;- bors were forced to pay the taxes of those who were unable to do so. At last, driven to despair, matiy of the inhabitants of lower Normandy took up arms and entrenched tltenwehes on the slope-- of .\\-ranches. k'oreign troops, under Colonel (iassion, drowned this insurrection in tlie blood of the instirgents. Tlie ])ark!neiit of Normandy was suspended, all franchises su])pressed. and an enormous sitm le\ied on the city of Kouen. d'he re\'ohs in .'^[):i;n were more serious. Catalonia, with its annexed ih.stricts of Ro'.i--d l(jn and Cerdagne. formed a pro\ince almost inde])endent of th.e Spanish monarchy, d'reated harshly by 01i\arez, the Catalans rose in insurrection, in I'Cp). and ga\e themsel\-es to ilie crown oi kTance. The I'ortuguese also, ensla\fd by Spain for sixty years, threw off the detestetl yoke. John of liraganza, descendent of their ancient monareh>, was elected king, anil he hastcneil to ally himself with IT'ance atul Holland against Spain. 194 FRANCE 1640-1642 The war continued in Germany, but the two principal scenes of mihtary operations, in 1640, were Artois and Piedmont. A numerous army assembled in Picardy under the three marshals, La Meilleraye, Chatillon, and Chaulnes, entered Artois and invested Arras, which capitulated, after the cardinal-infant had made fruit- less attempts to force the French lines and to drive back the be- sieging forces. The campaign of Piedmont was still more glorious to the French arms. The Count of Harcourt forced the Spaniards and Piedmontese to raise the siege of Casale, and then, advancing rapidly and boldly upon Turin, he invested it. An attempt to relieve the city ended in the defeat of the Spanish General Leganez and the capitulation of Prince Thomas of Carignan. In the campaign of 1641 France retained the advantages acquired during the preceding one in Artois and in Piedmont. Guebriant, the colleague of the Duke of Longueville, vanquished Piccolomini at Wolfenbiittel and Lamboi at Kempen, and all Saxony was reduced to subjection. In 1642 Richelieu resolved to strike at the very heart of Austria's power. The invasion of Spain was decided on and the royal army poured towards the Pyrenees. Before crossing the mountains, how- ever, it was important to complete the conquest of Roussillon, and Perpignan was besieged. Spain exhausted herself in her endeavors to save this place, but she was vanquished both by land and sea, and after an heroic re- sistance of four months the governor capitulated on Septem- ber 9, 1642. The battle of Lerida, in the same year, in which the Spanish General Leganez was beaten by Lamothe-Houdancourt, completed the conquest of Roussillon, which henceforth formed a portion of the kingdom of France. Louis XIII. and his minister survived the victory but a short time. During the campaign of Roussillon a final and bloody catas- trophe raised Richelieu's power and the terror inspired by his name to their greatest height. The cardinal had placed near the king the young Effiat, Marquis of Cinq-Mars, twenty-one years of age. This young man, appointed master of the horse, made rapid progress in the good graces of the sovereign, and, discovering the king's antipathy for the cardinal, conceived the hope of overthrowing him. With this object he allied himself with the queen, with Gaston of Orleans, and the Duke of Bouillon, who always flattered himself that he should one day replace Richelieu. The cardinal allowed the imprudent Cinq-Mars and his accomplices to implicate them- THIRTY YEARS' WAR 195 1642-1643 selves with the Spanish minister Ohvarcz. He hccanie possessed at length of the copy of a treaty of alliance hetween the Spaniards and the conspirators and sent it to Lonis. Cincj-Mars was immedi- ately seized, together with tlie yonng De Thou, his friend and c^'nti- dant, but not his accomplice. A commission was o])cned to try them. The crime of Citui-Mars was not proved, hut the cowardly confessions of the Duke of Orleans destroyed him. ("inq-Mars was condemned to death and executed ( if->42) with the young Dc Thou, who was guilty of not having denounced his friend. The Duke of Bouillon, who had been arrested, lost his principality, hut obtained his pardon in exchange, (kiston of Orleans obtained per- mission to live at I'lois in privacv. The queen-mother died in indigence at Cologne, and Richelieu followed her shortly afterwards to the t*)mb ( i^qj). I lis eyes had scarcely been closed when tlie king at once abandoned the conr>e pursued by the cardinal. The prisons were thrown o]ien and ban- ishments ceased. Vcndonic, k'Uxenf. P.assonipioi-re, and Guise re- appeared at court, and i)relu(lcd by emjjty (piarrels the stonn> wliich were to disturb the reign about to commence. Louis XIII.. in fact, only survived his famous minister six months, and died at Chateau- Neuf, Saint Germain, in \(^,]. at t'orty-two year> of age. A few- days before expiring he had nominated Aime of Austria regent, and Gaston, his brother, lieutenant-general of the kingdom, joining with them a council of regency, under the proidency of Conde. The results of Richelieu's life, whereon he stands for the judgment of posterity, are chiefly these: abroad, though a cardinal of the church, he arrested the Catholic reaction, freed northern from southern Europe, and made toleration possible: at home, out of the broken fragments of her liberties and her national pros- perity, he paved the way for the gk'ry of I'ranee. Those who worship strength and success will admire ;i man who, moving on his high course with resf)lute step, seems niiconscious of human infirmities, of pity, of humanity. \'et if we count the love of our fellow-man as the first (|u;dity of .a gre;it character, or think that land happiest in which the liberties of the subject are steadily and surely built up from age to age, then we shall condemn the strong man armed, who ga\'e no thought to his opjiressetl ami lal)oring countrymen, and m;ide constitution;d life impos>i])le lor b'rarice. It mav well be th;it this diil not ])resent itself to Richelieu's mind: he probably never told himself that his policy was based on the 196 F 11 A N C E 1642-1643 ruin of the French Hberties. The troubles of the sixteenth cen- tury, and the pecuhar aptitudes of the French people, may even have led him to believe it impossible to do otherwise than as he did. Yet, as we watch his career, we see one after another tlie elements of constitutional life disappearing: the law courts or parlc- ments resist in vain, and are reduced to impotence; the church becomes subservient; the Huguenot cities, which might have formed the nucleus of a living public opinion, are crushed into silence ; the independence of the noble goes; the Estates-General are not con- voked; the imposts are levied at the king's pleasure; the people overwhelmed with taxes and rewarded with neglect. It may be that Richelieu did but carry out tendencies long rooted in French soil, did but push one step farther that absolute and irresponsible monarchy which had already been seen and approved by France under Francis T. and Henry IV. It may be s(3; yet to have sys- tematized absolutism, to have formulated the terrible dogma that taxation is the affair of the king alone, and depends solely on his will, to have trampled out the last fires of French lil^erty, to have given a final form to that despotism which for a hundred and fifty years had France at its feet, can never be called the work of a true patriot or of a great statesman. And, indeed, Richelieu was a politician rather than a states- man; his mind, singularly acute and intelligent, was neither deep nor broad; ambiticjn for his country, a desire to raise her among the nations, a consciousness that unity would bring her strength, these were the ideas which ennobled his career. These give har- mony to his life: his marvellous tenacity of purpose, liis patience, fearlessness, sleeplesseness in use of any means to win his ends. All these qualities were bent on one object the abasement of Austria, the exaltation of France. For this he lived, defending with one hand his hard-won and precarious footing at home, while with the other hand he guided negotiations or led armies abroarl against the strong foes who in 1628 had seemed to be almost absolute masters of Europe. PART III ABSOLUTE MONARCF^Y. 1643-1774 Chapter XII LOUIS XTV. AND TWV. SUPRKMAC^' OF FRANCE IN EUROl'K. 1043-1 08.^ IAnrEDTATELY after tlic death of Emiis XHI. Anne of Aus- tria apjjlied to tlie I'arleinent of l'ari> to dissolve the council of reg-ency. Iler rc(iuest was o-ranted, and she was recogni/.eil as abscjkite regent and acknowledged to be at hherty to compose her council as slie chose. Cardinal Mazarin, who was a member of tlie council of regency, was of opinion that it ought to be dissolved. The (lueen rewarded his devotion by making him her lirst minister, and bestowed all her confidence on him. iM-ance now enjoved peace, as far as do- mestic affairs were conceiaied. for three years. Th.e war wdth the empire and Spain contiiuied. however, on all her frontiers. Eouis of Bourbon, Duke of luighien, so celebrated under the name of the great Conde, had gained in inanders. five days after the death of Louis XTIL (1643), the battle of Kocroi, over the Spaniards. The important capture of Thion\-ille was quickly followed bv the defeat of the b'rench under the Count of Rant/.au. at d'uttlingen, by the Duke of Lorraine and tlic two illustrious generals. John of Worth and iMercy. Ijrilliant successes, howexer. atoned for this rewrse. Jinghein, with Turenne under his orders. \-an(|uished Merc\' at I'^'eiburg. In the following year he marched to the assistance of Turenne, who had been surpia'sed and l)eaten at Marienthal, and gained the battle of Xiirdlingen (i('>44). The death of Mercy decided the victory. In h'la.nders the Duke of Orleans, the king's uncle, aided by Marshal Cas-ion, had seized Gravelines and Courtray and taken Mardick in the presence of an enemy's army. On the sea, also, the J'rench aians had been successful. Twenty of their galle}"S had \-an(|ui>lied. in i'i4^>. the .Spanish lleet on the coast of Italy, and in the same \ear the Duke of I'-ughien, assisted by the celebrated \'an Trnni]), ihe i )ulch admiral, gave Dunkirk to Erance. lie then set sail for Spain, where he met with a repulse before Lerida, the siege of which he was forced to raise. 195) 200 FRANCE 1647-1648 The years 1647 ^^^^ 164S were fatal to the House of Austria. Tnrenne, with the assistance of the Swedes, gained the hattle of Sonimerhansen ; General Wrangel took Little Prague, and the battle of Lens terminated the war. This battle was fought by the Duke of Enghien, now Prince of Conde, in 1648, against the Arch- duke Leopold, the emperor's brother. Broken down by so many reverses, Ferdinand IIL consented to negotiate, and peace was at length signed, in 1648, at Miinster in Westphalia. By this peace it was agreed that France should retain a great part of Alsace, the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, and the two fortresses of Philipsburg and Pignerol, the keys of Germany and Piedmont. The Peace of Westphalia put an end to the Thirty Years' War in Germany, but Spain refused to accede to it, and the war continued between that country and France. At the time when the celebrated peace was signed the interior of the kingdom was much disturbed. Mazarin, having become all- powerful, had roused against himself an almost universal hatred and indignation. Ridiculous by his accent and his manners and odious as a stranger, he was the object of numerous cabals. He wished, in common with Richelieu, that the royal power should be absolute, and his despotism excited as much hatred as did that of his predeces- sor. In addition to other arbitrary acts Mazarin desired to keep back four years' salaries from the members of all the sovereign courts, with the exception of the Parlement of Paris, and he threat- ened to abolish the law which secured to the families of magistrates the possession of their offices in perpetuity. This arbitrary proceed- ing aroused a universal clamor, and the Parlement assembled and passed the celebrated Edict of Union, in accordance with which two councilors chosen from each of its chambers were to confer with deputies from the other bodies in the common interest of all. Mazarin declared that such a decree was an attack on the rights of the crown, and Anne of Austria wished to inflict immediate pun- ishment on all those wlio had signed it. The chamber of St. Louis voted twenty-seven articles, which were to be submitted for the approbation of the Parlement and the sanction of the regent. Of these, some secured tlie payment of their bonds on the Hotel de Ville, relieved commerce of odious monopolies, and reduced by one- fcjurth the odious tax of the taiHe, which only fell on the humbler classes; while others prohibited, on pain of death, the levying of any tax sa\'e by verified edicts sanctioned by the sovereign courts, Lo r I s X r V 201 1648 and declared tliat none of the kin.i;'-^ Mihjccts >l]-uM he in c;r-t.Hlv more than twcnly-four hours without hciiiu;" inicrro-alcl and brought before a i)ro[)cr jud-e. The propositi, iiis of the chainlier of Saint Louis were jM-actically th,c l)ascs of a national con-^tiiutiMii. and the citizen classes received them with enthusiasm. The peM])le saw its own cause in that of the magistrates wIk; had ailopted them. and the Parlement deliberated uy.< ^n them in -pite of tiie ])rohihili< 'U of the regent, who called tliese articles srous>el and liberty!" The Parlement proceeded in a body to the i'alais Poyal, energetically rejire-eiiic 1 to the queen the danger which she incurred, rmd. supported by Alazarin, obtained the freedom of the two inagistr;ites. Ma/arin saw very clearly that moderation was necessary, and. guided by his advice, Anne (f Austria dissimulated, and sanctioned on Octo- ber _'4, ir)_j8, in a celebrated declaration, the greater number of the articles of the chrmiber of Saint Louis. On the same day pcice was signed with the empire at Miinster. S]xiin alone remaine 1 at war with I-'rance. A certain number of regiments were inimedi- atelv recalled from Idanders to the enxirons of the t-apital. In consecjuence of a (piarrel with the Luk-e ol Orleans the Prini'c of Conde had joined the ])arty of Ma/arin. wliian he detested, and promised him his support, and Anne of .\ustria now believed licrself 202 FRANCE 1648-1650 to be able to crush her enemies. Accompanied by the cardinal, she suddenly quitted Paris for Saint Germains, where she denounced the magistrates of the Parlement as guilty of a conspiracy against the royal authority, and of being in league with the enemies of the state, and moved troops upon the capital. The Parlement, on its side, raised money and soldiers, and published a decree which de- clared Mazarin to be a disturber of the public peace and ordered him to quit the kingdom within eight days. This was the commence- ment of civil war. Conde commanded the royal army. The greater number of the princes and greater lords of the kingdom, as Conti, Longueville, Nemours, Beaufort, Elbocuf, and Bouillon, embraced the cause of the magistracy. Turenne declared himself for the Parlement against the court, but after having endeavored, without success, to raise an army against Anne of Austria, he fled from France and joined the Spaniards. A first compromise took place w^ithout any decisive result to the advantage of the Parlement. The cjueen and the cardinal having reentered Paris, found them- selves insulted by frightful libels. They left it once more, with the young king, and determined to blockade it and to reduce it by fam- ine. Conde directed the military operations against Paris, and Mazarin sent to the Parlement a Icttre de cachet which banished it to Montargis. The Parlement replied by a decree which declared Mazarin an enemy to the king and the state, and again ordered him to quit the kingdom within eight days. Already, however, the Parisians were weary of war and hunger. The civil troubles proved advantageous to the Spaniards, who were in league with the Fronde, and the parties made peace at Ruel on March ii, 1649, which satisfied no one. The Parlement remained at liberty to assemble and the queen retained her minister. Conde, presuming on his great services, became insupportable to the queen in his pride and exaggerated pretensions. The h'ron- deurs vainly sought to attachdiim to themselves. Pie despised them, and commenced a process against the coadjutor, the Duke of Beau- fort, and Broussel, whom he accused of having attempted to murder him. Mazarin effected a reconciliation with the coadjutor, and chose the moment when Conde had rendered himself as hateful to the Fronde as himself to crush him. Having been enticed to tlie Palais Royal on January 18, 1650, under the pretense of the holding of a council, he was arrested with his brother, the Prince Conti, and his brother-in-law, the Duke of Longueville, and sent L O U I S X I V 203 1650-1652 to Havre. The Ducliess of Lontj^uevillc proceeded to Stenay. to Turenne, w iiiun she once nii re rt>iise(l as^'ainst the court. This L,Meat man, ahied with ihe Spaniards, was beaten at Retliel hy 1 )u]i!->-^;-- Prash'n. I'lie yoiinL;- Princess ot" (."onde, assisted hy l!ie l)ukc^ of Bouillon and Roch.efoucaiild, entered iJnrdeaux, which she induced to revolt, and raised the wliole pro\incc. Ma/.arin jjrocecded tlhther with Anne of Austria and tlie ydun.i,^ hin.-^:. The rehellion was sup- pressed, but Bortleaux remained attaclied to the princes. In the cardinal's absence fresli plots were conti"i\ed ai^'ainst him, ami when he returned U) I'aris he fcinid a formidable lea,L;iie readv in arms. The people received liim with murm.urs. The I'arletnent, at the instig'ation of the co:i'ijuior, demanded the freedom of the cai)ti\e princes, and the Duke of Orleans demanded the l)anishment of Mazarin. The cardinal l)owed before the storm. Quitting Paris, he proceeded to I fa\'re, where he set free the ])rinces, who treated him with contcm])t. Pani-^hed forever by the Parlement, he sought refuge with the hdector of Pologne. at Ihaihl. whence he continued to g"o\-ern the (pieen and tlie state. 'i"he enemies of Mazarin soon ceased t(j be frien.is with each (^her. Ponde controlled the i'arle- ment, and offended the (|ueen b\- his ])ride ruul suspicions. He re- proached her for retaining as her mini>ters Pe Tellier. Lyoime and Pouquet, creatures of the cardinal, and demanded their dismissal. Anne of .Xustria, thoroughly enraged, sent for the cc>;'djutor, and entreated him in th.e most urgent manner to emplo)v his intluence in favor of ]\Iazarin against the prince. Gondi, a mortal enemy of the cardinal, resisted all the (jueen's appeals in behalf of her fa\-orite, but he promised to remo\e Conde. The two rivals for power pre- sented themselves at th.e I'arlement on .\ugust ji, each ac- com})canied by a numerotis troop o| arme(l j)artisans. Tin-eats were exchanged, thousands of swords and daggers were drawn in the precincts of the ])alace. and the coadjutor was on the point of being assassinated. The I'arlement pronounced in. his fa\-or, and Conde, finding the (lueen. the l''ronde and the people all again>t him, quitted IV.ris and ])roceeded to (iuieinie. where, in concert with Spain, lie ])repared for war. Almost all the jjrovinces beyond the Loire, (iuiemie, i'oitou. Sainlougne and Angoinnois, declared in liis fa\'or. Anne of .Xn.^tria now once more left Paris, in. order to reduce the re\oJied pi'o\ inces ti > c Pedience. 1 la\ang reached Ihaige-^. she disp.atched to the I'arlement an edict, which declared Ponde a rebel and traitor to the king and b'rance, and which the Parlement 204 FRANCE 1652-1653 sanctioned. At this juncture (1652), in obedience to the wishes of Anne of Austria, tlie cardinal returned to France accompanied by an army of seven or eight thousand men, whose officers wore his colors, and who were commanded by Marshal Hocquincourt. The coadjutor immediately perceived the fault which he had com- mitted in permitting the court to remove from Paris, and raised the people against the partisans of Mazarin and the cjueen. The Parlement put a price on Mazarin's head, but he continued his march to join the court at Poictiers, and the king received him with every distinction. Anne of Austria eagerly replaced in his hands the burden of public affairs, and he returned to be more powerful than ever. Gaston of Orleans again declared against the regent, effected a reconciliation with Conde, then in Guienne, and joined to the troops of that prince, w^hich were commanded in his absence by the Duke of Nemours, all those at his own disposal. Nemours, at the head of an army of twelve thousand French, Germans and Spaniards, marched upon Guienne, in 1652, which Conde at that time defended against Plarcourt, while Anne of Aus- tria, with the object of reentering Paris, approached Orleans. Mademoiselle of Montpensier, however, sent by Gaston of Orleans, her father, to defend this place, persuaded the citizens to close the gates of the city against the king. The royal army, under the command of Turenne, who had come over to the queen's party, and Hocquincourt, ascended the Loire and crossed it at Gien, in the environs of Bleneau, almost in the face of the rebels, who were commanded by Nemours and Beaufort. Marshal Hocquincourt, contrary to the advice of Turenne, divided his troops among several villages around Bleneau ( 1653). Turenne took up his f|uarters and entrenched himself at Gien, where were the court and the king. Suddenly, in the middle of the night, a furious attack was made upon the royal army, the villages were set on fire, and five of Marshal- Hocquincourt's positions were carried in succession. This was done by Conde, who had arrived unex- pectedly and assumed the command of the rebels. He carried Bleneau and marched upon Gien, but Turenne awaited him there so skillfully posted that Conde found his progress stopped. Turenne had torn from him the prize of his victory, and had saved the king and army. Tlie court gained Lens and established itself in the en- virons of the capital. L O T^ I S X T V 1205 1653 Condc followed the royal rirmv. and braving" the decree r>\ ihc Parlement which condemned him, entered the eitv witli his princi- pal ofllecrs, I'caufort, Xemonrs. and La Rochet": )ncanld. :'av\ pre- pared to defend it against the kinq-. At th.e ap])roacli. iMwevcr. of the troops of ^Marshal de la h'erte. who son.c^lit to effect a junc- tion with Turennc. encamped at Saint-Denis, C'nnde endeavored to retreat upon Conflans by skirting- the walls of Paris, tnr>hservcd by the royal army. "Fnrenne. however, perceived the movement . and falling with his forces on the prince's tro(t])s, gave him bat'd'j in the suburb of Saint-.Vntoine. A desperate contlict en.sncd. Conde, Avhose troops were much inferior in n.nmber. was ah- ^nt to suffer defeat, when the ])(^pnlace. harangued bv M;idemoisel!e. the daughter of Gaston, rose in favor of the ])rince. Tlie g;ites of the city were opened and the ])rince's army was saved. I'aris now became the scen.e of frightful disorders. The two princes excited the populace against the council, which was ad\erse to them. The people besieged the Hotel de \hdle and pre]xired to set it on hre. Many magistrates issued forth in terror and were slain. Ariarchy and terror reached their height. The princes made P)roussel pro- vost of the merchants, and the Duke of lieaufort gm-ernor of Paris. The famous coadjutor, Paul of (jcjndi, always hostile to the Prince of Conde, put the archbishopric in a state of defense. The magis- trates whoin self-interest or fear marie submissive to the princes, proclaimed Gaston lieutenant-general of the kingdom, until the expulsion of the cardinal, and Gonde generalissimo of the forces. The king annulled this decree, and ordered the Parlement to trans- fer itself to Poictiers. Many members obeyed this order and went there, where they were presided o\er by Mule. Lach army, there- fore, was not supported by a ])arlement. as in the time of the league. The two i)arties were weary of this disastrous war, and as Mazarin seemed to be tlie only obstacle to the conclusion of a peace, the regent, yielding to the persuasions of the wiser of lier party, at length consented to dismiss him. a.nd he retired to Sedan. The people of Paris received the news of the cardinal's dismissal with enthusiastic delight. Conde was forced to (|nit the caiiital. and proceeded to allv himself with S]>ain. The coadjutor visited the king, received the red hat, rmd arranged the royal return to Paris, wdn'ch Louis XIV. reentered on October _m, 1653. amidst the acclamations of the people. The king banished from the capital the Duke of Orleans and the leaders of the revolt. The 206 F R A N C E 1653-1658 coadjutor, henceforth known as Cardinal of Retz, ahnost alone opposed the return of Cardinal Mazarin. Discontented with the court, he meditated a fresh attack against it, but Anne of Aus- tria anticipated him by having him arrested and lodged in Yin- cennes. The Spaniards had profited by the civil troubles in France. Gravelines, Mardick and Dunkirk had fallen into their hands and Conde advanced at the head of an army. Turennc, at the head of a smaller number of troops, checked his march. Anne of Austria, thereupon, recalled Mazarin to Paris, where she received him with transport, and the fickle populace with joyous acclama- tions (1653), The cardinal assumed an absolute authority and subjected the revolted provinces of Bordeaux and Guienne. lie triumphed over all his enemies, had Conde condemned to death by the Parlement and gave one of his nieces in niarriage to the Prince of Conti. Monsieur remained at Blois in retirement. The Cardinal of Retz, after having been transferred from Vincennes to the castle of Nantes, succeeded in escaping, and quitted the kingdom. Thus terminated the war of the Fronde. Conde alone still kept the field and Louis XIV. made his first campaign against him in Picardy under the guise of Turenne. The issue was suc- cessful, for Turenne attacked the enemy's lines before Arras, car- ried them, and obliged Conde to raise the siege of that place. That able general, however, continued to maintain himself in arms, and in 1657, when Turenne commenced a fresh campaign in Flanders, in which he took the offensive, he was compelled by Conde to raise the siege of Valenciennes. France and Spain at this time con- tended with each other for the alliance of Fngland, now become a republic, and governed by Cromwell as lord protector. He put a price on its alHance, and j\Iazarin carried it off from Philip IV. by promising, in 1656, to deliver Dunkirk to the Fnglish, if this place should be retaken by France, and to abandon the cause of the two sons of Charles I., who were both, through their mother, grandchildren of Hemy IV., and who passed from the camp of Turenne to that of Conde. On these conditions Cromwell fur- nished the French with a fleet and six thousand troops. Flanders was still the theater of war and the Battle of the Dunes (1658), in which Turenne triumphed over his illustrious rival, caused Dunkirk to fall into the hands of the victor, who immediately transferred it to the English. This victory, followed by the cap- LOTUS XIV 207 1658-1661 ture of a great nunihor (^f towns and fortresses, decided Pliili]) IV. in favor of peace, which was signed on \'ovenil)er 7, \^>^<). ddn's peace, known as tlie Peace of the Pyrenees, was tlie most useful and nienioral)le act (^f Mazaiin's life. Py it Philip IV. conhrnied tlie ce-sion of Pignerol, and a great porti'ui of Artois and Alsace to iMance. wln"ch restored Porraine. hut n-taincd the duchy of Par, Ponssilion and Cerdagno, up to the foot of the Pyrenees, and many t(.wns in Luxeml)'>urg. Tt was stipulated that Conde should suhmit to th.c king, with the assurance of a pardon and the government of P.nrgnndy, and that Ponis XiV. should espouse Maria ddieresa. the daughter of Philip IV. luirope was now at peace, and h'rance had arrived at tlie moiuent when Louis XIV. was to take tlie reins of goxernment into his own hands. Mazarin, for so many years tlie absolute ruler of the king- dom, was drawing near tlie close of his lil'e. 1 le died on March <), 1661. and the monarch of twenty years oi age atuvninced ^n the day following the death of his minister, in wlu'isc hands was hence- forth to be the chief authority. Harlay de Chanvallon, ]M-esi(lent of the council of the clergv. having asked him to whom he was mnv to a])j)lv with reference to affairs of state, Louis XIV. replied. '" d'o lue." h'roni this moment he became the sole ruler of PVance, and continued to be so till his death. The first acts of Louis XT\". revealed the jealousv he enter- tained with respect to his .'uUh(n"ily, and his deierniinati' ni to retain it excltisi\'ely in his own hands. In acct ird.'uice with the advice given him by Ma/arin, lie declared, in the first place, that he would ha\c no prime minister. 1 1 is council, formed l)y the cardinal, consL-^led of the Chancellor Segur, keeper of the seals; Le Tellier, minister ()f war; Lyonne. nu'ifister of foreign aiYairs. and I^^mquet, uu'nister of llnance. It was not long, however, that luiuquet held office, for the king, convinced l)y Colbert f)f his criminal exactions, caused him to be arrested at Xantcs .and tried before a tribunal apjiointed for the purpose. The punishment to wdu'ch he was con;lemned by liis judges was banishment, but Lotiis XIV. changed it to one of i)eri)etual deteiuion. In i66t the finances were intrusted to Colbert, with the title of ctjmptroller- general. and from this moment order took the [)lace of chaos in all the branches of the i)ul)lic adnu'nistration. Louis XIV. displayed an excessive jealousy with respect to 208 FRANCE 1661-1669 the honor of his crown and a great impatience to give to France the leading place among European nations. lie forced Philip IV. to acknowledge that Spain was the inferior power, because the Spanish ambassador had by force taken precedence of the French ambassador at a public ceremony in London. Imbued with the belief that power is the only law in politics, Louis suc- cessfully supported Portugal against Spain in defiance of the Treaty of the Pyrenees. He afforded a more honorable assistance to the Emperor Leopold against the Turks. A French corps, under the command of the Counts Coligny and La Feuillade, cov- ered itself with glory at the battle of Saint-Gothard, where Mon- tecuccoli completely defeated the grand-vizier, and by this victory procured a truce of twenty years' duration between Turkey and Austria, The king, by the advice of Colbert, concluded a useful commercial alliance with Holland and supported this republic against England until the Peace of Breda, in 1667. He intrusted, at the same period, to the Duke of Beaufort a fleet which freed the Mediterranean of pirates, and carried the terror of the French arms even to Algiers. He created a new army and with the as- sistance of his minister, Louvois, son and successor of Le Tellier, gave to this army an organization w^hich was the admiration and envy of Europe. France soon began to taste the fruits of Colbert's vigilant supervision of every branch of the administration. Brought up at a counter, and the son of a wool merchant of Rheims, he suc- ceeded in effecting the most difficult reforms and the execution of all his plans by the aid of a strong will and indefatigable industry. lie reduced the burden of taxation, but at the same time greatly augmented the revenue. He opened to France new sources of wealth and laid the foundations of its prosperity in commerce and industry. He established manufactories for the production of French point lace, looking-glasses, cloths, tapestries, carpets, silks and watches and took pains to secure outlets for all these products of French industry. He founded colonies, established chambers of commerce and insurance, storehouses, means of transit, and a new system of customs favorable to commercial transactions. On the other hand, he has been justly reproached with having too greatly sacrificed the agricultural interests to those of commerce, not only by prohibiting the exportation of grain, but also by pro- hibiting its free circulation in the interior. A navy was necessary lot: IS XIV ^09 1669-1672 for tlic protection of coninicrcc and Colljcrt in a sliort time di-^- played before tlic eyes of astonished lun-npe a liundred vessels of war. He liad the port of Ivocliefort. on tlie Cdiarenle. excavatrd, and tliose of Brest and Toulon, wliicli were fortified 1)\- Vanlxin, deepened. Finally his mode of adniinistraticjn furnished the king- with the means of covering the iM-ench frontiers on tlu? north and east with a line of fortresses and (jf regaining Dun- kirk, that city so necessary to the defense of the kingdom, which was shamefully S(dd to Louis XIV. by Charles II., in defiance of all the interests of England. The king lost his mother in 1669. Philip IV., his father-in- law, had died in tiie ])receding- year, and Louis, without paying- attention to the formal renunciation made by Maria Theresa, im- mediately set lip claims in her name to IHanders, to the exclusion of the rights of Charles II., the younger son of Philip IV., on the pretext that her dowry had not been jxaid. Tie gained over tiie Emperor Leopold to his side by making him hojie that he would obtain a share of the spoils wrung from Charles II., and took the field at the head of his army. In a few weeks he rendered himself master of Erench Elanders. This success was followed by the concjuest of Eranchc-Comte, a province ruled bv Spain, which was achieved within a month. Europe became alarmed at the rapid successes, and a tri])le alliance was formed against Louis between Llolland, England and Sweden. The grand-pensioner of Holland, John de Witt, became the stnd of this league, and it forced the king to sign the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (iT/hS). in accordance with which he retained Elanders, but was ccniipelled to restore Franche-Comte. During the continuance of the peace, Louis XIV. devoted his attention to the internal administration (^f the kingdom. Tie then considered how to avenge himself u[)on Holland and ])unish her for having taken part in the Triple Alliance. Offended by some medals which represented the Lnited Provinces as the arbiters of Tiurope, and irritated at the im])ertinence of certain gazetteers, the king sei.^ed upon these frivolous pretexts and, in 1672, de- clared war upon the Dutch. At the same time he detached from their alliance Charles XL, T-Cing of Sweden., and Charles 11.. King of England, always ready to sell his sui)port, and U) sacrifice the interests of his ])ei^i)le to his ])leasurcs. The 13utch lleets covered the seas ar,d secured the commercia! 210 FRANCE 1672-1674 prosperity of Holland by protecting its magnificent establishments in the East Indies. Lonis XIV. reinforced his own by fifty English vessels and entered Holland at the head of a hundred thousand men accompanied by Turenne, Vauban, Luxemburg, Louvois, and by Conde, who was in command of the army. To oppose a hundred thousand troops, supported by a formid- able artillery and commanded by the most celebrated generals, the United Provinces had about twenty-five thousand troops ill accus- tomed to war, commanded by Prince William of Orange, a young man of feeble constitution and only twenty-two years of age, who had seen neither sieges nor battles. Though brave and undaunted by reverses, he could not check the torrent which flowed down upon his country, and all the places on the Rhine and the Yssel fell into the hands of the French. The Prince of Orange, in default of sufficient troops to support the campaign in the open field, hastily formed lines beyond the Rhine, which he soon saw it would be impossible to defend. In the passage of this river, by the French, the Duke of Longueville lost his life, while Conde received a wound and resigned the command to Turenne. Within a few months three provinces and forty strong places had been taken, and Ams- terdam itself was threatened. An attempt made l^y the peace party under the grand-pensioner, John de Witt, to put an end to the war, signally failed, on account of the insulting and humiliating terms demanded by the king. Despair lent strength to the van- quished. They opened their dykes and laid the country under water, for the purpose of compelling the French to evacuate it. The Dutch Admiral Ruyter struggled gloriously against the combined squadrons of France and England, and the battle of Solebay secured the coasts of the republic from any chance of attack. Europe rose in favor of Holland. The Emperor Leopold, the kings of Spain and Denmark, the greater number of the princes of the empire, the Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, the founder of the high fortunes of his house all, alarmed at the ambition of Louis XIV., leagued themselves against him, while Charles II. himself was compelled by his Parliament to break off his French alliance. Louis XIV., threatened by so many enemies, could not collect together sufficient troops to carry on the campaign, and in a short time the whole of Holland was evacuated with the exception of Grave and Alaestricht. Franche-Comte, however, indemnified him for so many losses. The wdiole province was conquered in six LOUIS XIV n 1674-1675 weeks, in i6;-4, and a second time wrested hnm Spain, was never to return. The <^reat C^^ndc, having;- t!ie Prince of Oranpfe in fnnu (,f him, now fougiit liis last battle near Sencf, in Manders (lOy^). The French trained tlie victory, l)ut William rallied his troops and held the victors in check. Three times Condc attacked him without being able to dri\e him from his last and iiupenetrablc j)osition. The loss of each side was fric;-htful; seven thousand dead were left on the field of battle; Condc had three horses killed under him. The contest kistcd fourteen hours, and was a drawn battle. Turennc had then to defend the frontiers on the side of the Rhine, and after a rapid ;nid skillful m:u-ch he crossed that river at Philipsburg. took Sintzheim, and at the same time defeated Cap- rara, the emperor's general, and the old Duke (if Porraine, Charles IV. He next vanquished the Prince of Bournonville, near Ensheim and then retreated and toolc up his winter cpiarters in !. ir- raine, Tlie enemy belie\'ed the c<'un]iaigu to be at an end. but for Turenne it had only commenced. r>risach and Philipsl)urj;' were blockaded and seventy thousand Germ.ans occupied Alsace, but Turenne, with twenty thousand men and a few cav.'dry, suddenly appeared in upper Alsace in. the midst of the enemy, who bcliex'ed him to be still in Lorraine. lie vanfpushed succes>ively at .Mul- hausen and at Colmar the corps which f)ffered resislancc, and utterly routed a formidable body of German infaiUry at Turkheim. Alsace remained in the king's possession, and the generals of the empire recrossed the Rhine, closely followed into the Palatinate by tiieir conqueror. At length the emperor sent against Tin-ennc Monte- cuccoli, the first of his generals and the wanijuisher of the 'kurks at Saint-Gothard. The two great ojjponents were on the point of giving battle to each other near the village of Salzbach, in Paden. and Turennc was confident of \ictory, when, on \-isiting a battery, he fell dead, struck by a cannon b.'ill (1675). Montecuccoli, informed of his death, drove the hh'ench troops across the Rhine and pene- trated into /Vlsace. Conde was sent to o[)pose him. and was able to check the progress of the imperial arm}-, .and to force .Montecuo- coli to raise the sieges of Lhigemirui and Savcrne. Alsnce w;is evacuated. This brilliant cam[)aign was the last conducted by the tw^o illustrious rivals. The great Coiide hencefoiih li\-ed in retirement at Chantilly. where he died in i()S8; while Montecuecoli withdrew from the em[)eror's service. 212 FRANCE 1675-16S3 The Duke of Crequi was beaten in 1675 at Consarbriick. near Treves, by the Duke of Lorraine, but marked successes followed his reverse. Messina had shaken off the yoke of Spain and had placed itself under the protection of France. Assisted by the Dutch fleet, the Spaniards endeavored to retake it, but Duquesne defeated the combined fleets in the sea fights of Stromboli and Agosta, in the latter of which the Dutch Admiral De Ruyter lost his life. These operations were followed by two brilliant campaigns, conducted by the king in Flanders. The heroic capture of Valenciennes, made in the open day by the musqueteers those of Cambrai and St. Omer and the victory of Cassel, gained by the king's brother over the Prince of Orange, terminated this war, which was unjustly commenced, but was gloriously concluded. Louis now found him- self the arbiter of Europe. The Estates-General of Holland were weary of a struggle which had been maintained but by their sub- sidies, and a congress assembled at Nimeguen, at which peace was signed on August 10, 1678. Holland recovered all that had been taken from her during the war; Spain abandoned the Franche-Comte and many places in the Low Countries; the right of France to the possession of Alsace was confirmed. Lorraine remained in the hands of the French. Sicily was evacuated. To the advantages secured by the Peace of Nimeguen Louis added others, not less important, and which he obtained by fraud and violence. In addition to portions of the domains of the King of Sweden, of the Duke of Wiirtemburg, of Deux-Ponts, of the Elector Palatine, the Elector of Treves, and a number of other princes, which he claimed in a most arbitrary manner as dependencies of countries ceded to him by the treaty, Louis seized upon the free city of Strassburg (1681), and Vauban fortified it so as to make it the rampart of the kingdom against Germany. Justly irritated at these usurpations, the powers of Europe formed a fresh league on the day of the capture of Strassburg. But three hundred thousand Turks at the same time poured down upon the empire, and Leopold and a great number of the powers, being too feeble to recommence the war, protested, without taking any active measures. Spain alone dared to enter the field, and lost Courtray, Dixmunde and Luxembourg. A truce of twenty years, to which the emperor and FTolland acceded, was concluded at Ratisbon (1683), according to which the king was to retain, during his life, Luxembourg, Strassburg and all the annexations pro- LOriS XIV 215 1683 nounccd legitimnlc by tlic so\erci.Q-n coni-ts. l^vcrvwlicre the terror of his arms jjvevailed. The ships of Spain lowered tlieir fla^s before his. JXK|nesiie freed the Mediterranean of the jjirates which infested it, and Alt^iers, Tnnis and Tripoli made their sub- mission. Genoa accused, falsely perhaps, of having: assisted the pirates, was bombarded (1683-1684) and its dof,^e was forced to go to Versailles to implore the compassion of Louis XIV. The Roman court, already deeply humiliated by him, was l)eaten a second time on the subject of the droit dc rci^alc. This law, up to the time of Louis XIV., did not affect the churches of Guienne, Provence, and Dauphine, but by a royal edict, issued in 1673, they were now all rendered equally subject to it. The Pope, Innocent XL, vigorously opposed this innovation, and a long-continued strug- gle ensued. But at length, in 1682, an assembly of the French clergy drew up, at the instigation of Bossuet, the four famous articles, in wdiich is set forth the doctrine of the Gallican church. They are to the effect ist, 1'hat the ecclesiastical power has no authority over the temporal power of princes; 2d, That the general council is superior to the Pope, as was determined by the Council of Constance; 3(1, That the exercise of the apostolic power should be regulated by the canons and the usages in vogue in particular churches; 4th, That the judgment of the sovereign Pontiff in mat- ters of faith is not infallible until sanctioned by the church. The Pope condemned these articles and refused bulls to all those who had been members of the assembly of 1682. The bishops nominated by the king continued, however, to administer their dioceses, by virtue of the powers conferred on them by the chapters. This expedient, suggested by I'xjssnct, prevented perhaps a complete schism betw'een the Church (jf l''rancc and the Church of Rome. Louis XIV., feared by luirope, was an absolute king in his own dominions, and C(Aild say with trutli, "The State it is I!" He had destroved the few natujnal franchises which had hitherto been preserved rather by custom than by law. Everybody in tlie state rivaled each other in testifying their devotion and obedience to him. The high clergy had lost all poHtical inllticnce. The nobility was kept in suljmission by the h.abit of a brilliant servitude to the monarch and the enticements of court ])leasures and fetes; the Parlement found its functions limitetl to the administra- tion of justice, and the 1'iiird hastate lost its mtinicipal liberties by the definitive establishment of intendants and the sale of the [)er- 214 FRANCE 1683 petual mayorships. The three orders were finally reduced to a political nullity by the king's prejudice against the States-General, and his invincible resolution never to convoke them. The chains of a central administration, the occult power of the police, newdy established, and the maintenance of a numerous standing army, completed the reduction of the kingdom to a state of passive and slavish obedience a state in which the king kept it by the dazzling glory of his victories and the marvelous works effected during his reign. France now began to possess colonies, which, unlike those previously founded in the Floridas, Canada and Africa, were dependent on the mother country. Colbert purchased the estab- lishments at the Antilles in the name of Louis XIV., and placed under the protection of the French government a portion of the great Isle of St. Domingo, which had been taken by French fili- busters from the Spaniards. A West India Company, established by his efforts in 1664, purchased the French possessions in America, from Canada to the Amazons, and in Africa, from Cape Verde to the Cape of Good Hope. Another company, called the East India, also arose at this period. Founded at first at Madagascar, it soon quitted that isle and planted itself in the Indies. It established a factory at Surat and founded Pondicherry, which became the center of operations in India. Beneath all this grandeur, however, there were concealed many vices and numerous perils. Louis XIV. believed that he possessed an absolute right over the lives and fortunes of his subjects, and called himself " God's lieutenant upon earth." Dazzled by the prodigies effected in his reign, intoxicated by incessant praise, vic- torious over all opposition, he almost reached the point of per- suading himself that his glory, rendered lawful on his part, wdiat, in the case of other men, was most criminal in the sight of God. He gloried in triumphing over difficulties, and in undertaking what seemed impossible things, and Colbert saw with terror the public treasure engulfed at Versailles in gigantic and useless works. It was easy to foresee all the miseries with which France was threatened if the will of the prince, without counterpoise, should cease to be guided by the councils of genius, and should yield to those of ignorance and fanaticism, and if his prejudices and the interests of his power and those of his family should ever be in antagonism with the interests and requirements of France. These gloomy forebodings of superior minds were too soon justi- LOT IS XIV 215 1683 fied. Colbert died in 1683, and from tliat time the risinq: (jtus- perity of the reis^m rccci\c(l a check. The iirixhL^ahties of the kiiii; and the ex[)cnscs of the late war. which had heeii undertaken a^aiii.^t the advice of L'nlI)ort, had already ohiij^ed the latter to liave recmnse to loans and to vexatious taxes, which excited the nuirniurs of the people. After his death the finances fell into a frightful state of confusion, and it almost seemed as though this great minister had carried with him to the tumb the fairest portion of his master's glory and good fortune. Chapter XIII LOUIS XIV. AND THE DECLINE OF THE FRENCH POWER IN EUROPE. 1683-1715 THE health of Louis XIV. had suffered since 1682 an altera- tion which, while it soured his temper, inclined him to abandon himself without reserve to the fatal suggestions of Louvois and Madame de Maintenon. Tlie former, an egotistical, proud and cold-hearted man, had been the personal enemy of Col- bert; the latter, the talented widow of the poet Scarron, had raised herself from the obscure post of instructress of the children of Louis XIV. to the most elevated rank. For there is no doubt that the king secretly married her, and the year 1685 is that in which this clandestine marriage is said to have taken place. From that moment Louis XIV. appeared to have survived himself. Great talents still shone around him and glorious victories checked the current of his adversity, but his resolutions were ever subject to pride or superstition. Most of them hurried on the ruin of the monarchy and few of them really tended either to its greatness or prosperity. One of the first and most disastrous acts of this period of his reign was the revocation' of the Edict of Nantes. The decree by which this edict was suppressed was issued on October 22, 1685. It interdicted throughout the whole kingdom the exer- cise of the reformed religion, ordered all its ministers to leave the kingdom within a fortnight and enjoined parents and tutors to bring up the children in their care in the Catholic religion. Emi- gration on the part of the Protestants was prohibited under pain of the galleys and confiscation of property. But in spite of this, a hundred thousand industrious families escaped from France, and the foreign nations which received them with open arms became enriched by their industry at the expense of their native country. This odious decree intensified the hatred of the Protestants for their king and increased their resources and their strength, while it enfeebled those of the kingdom, for there were formed many regi- ments of French refugees who inflicted more than one severe blow on the persecuting monarch. 216 LOT IS XIV 217 1687-1690 ' The conduct of this prince in rcsjicct to straiit^crs was ncitlicr more just nor mc^rc i)ru(lcnt. His ovcrbcarin- prifle. the disdain with wdiich h.e treated all forcij^n powers, and his usurjxitions after the Peace of Ximc.q;ucn, which he maintained with so much arro- gance, and to which in iT.S; he added the seizure nf Avi-iiMU, wiiich for centuries had belonged tr^ the ]\>pes. dis-uicil to the Duke of Lorraine, Ch.arles V., t!ie Prince of W'aldcck, and the Elector of Brandenburg. Charles \'. retook Pi inn and May- ence, drove ]\Lu"slial Duras back into b^rance. and died in the midst of his successes, ^^^a]deck \an(|ui--hed M.arshal Ilumieics in Flanders. Luxembourg was then api)ii;nted to tlie e'>mmanil of the grand army of the north and justified the king's choice in the most brilliant mann.er. His first achievement was the defeat of 218 FRANCE 1690-1693 the Prince of Waldeck, near Fleurus, 1690. But the victory, which seemed to be a decisive one, had, nevertheless, no decisive result. The remains of the vanquished army joined at Brussels the army of the Elector of Brandenburg, while Louvois, jealous of the vic- tor, deprived him of a portion of his troops. The enemy was thus enabled to regain his supremacy and Luxembourg was reduced to acting on the defensive. Catinat now gained in Piedmont the bat- tle of Staffarde against Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, whose states were lost for France as soon as won. The Duke of Bavaria and Prince Eugene, a general in the sei^ice of the emperor, com- pelled Catinat to recross the Alps. James II. had gone in the preceding year to Ireland, where the Catholic population remained faithful to him, and still hoped, with the aid of Louis XIV,, to recover his crown. The decisive battle of the Boyne (1691), however, ruined his hopes, and in the following year the result of the battle of Aghrim planted the crown firmly on the head of William III. Louis XIV., wnth Luxembourg and La Feuillade, made a campaign in Flanders in 1 69 1, the only important results of which were the capture of Mons by the king and the glorious battle of Leuze, which resulted in the defeat of the Prince of Waldeck. This success, however, was of no permanent advantage to France. The distress which prevailed throughout the kingdom was now extreme. The treasury was exhausted by the king's prodigalities and the maintenance of four hundred and fifty thousand men in the field. A loan was opened for six millions of funds ; offices were created, which finan- ciers were compelled to purchase; considerable donations were demanded of the cities, while the king redoubled his efforts and made immense preparations for carrying on the war. He marched into Flanders himself at the head of eighty thousand men, with Luxembourg and the Marquis of Boufflers under his orders, while Catinat carried on the war in Piedmont. Louis XIV. now had before him his illustrious rival King William, who had come from England to command his army in Flanders. The king in person took X'amur, while Luxembourg, on the banks of the ^lehaigne, covered the siege, and held tlie forces of William in check. After this exploit, Louis XIV. quitted the army and resigned tlie com- mand to Luxemljourg, who covered himself with glory at the battle of Steinkirk, in which William was defeated and compelled to retire, a movement which he effected in good order. In the fol- L oris XI V 219 1693-1697 lowing year, 1693, at Neerwinden, Luxembourg again obtained a signal victory f)vcr tin's prince. 1)nt again failed to (leri\e any j)ar ticular advantage fruni it. William once more made an admiralile retreat and Lonis Xr\'.. who had formerly made so many con(|nesis almost Avithout figh'ing, ci)nld nijw scarcely achieve the con(|uest of I-danders after niimer()ns blood v victories. Catinat, no less suc- cessful than Luxembourg, was victorious in l^'iedmont. But all these glorious successes were counterbrdanced by the disastrous invasion made by \'ictor Amadeus into T'rovence and the fatal battle of La Iloguc, in which the French fleet uiider Tc)ur\ille was defeated and almost destroyed by an English lleet under Admiral Russell. This ruinous war was prolonged for three years, during which Europe hurled back on Louis XIV. the evils he had made her suffer. The Dutch seized Pondicherry, and ruined h^rench commerce in the Lidies. while the English destroyed the iMTnch plantations at Saint Domingo, bombarded Havre. Saint Malo, Calais and Dunkirk, and reduced Dieppe to ashes. Duguay-Tnuiin and Jean Bart avenged these disasters at the expense of the enemy's maritime commerce and Commodore Pointis surprised the city of Cartbagena. These successes, however, but ill repaired the great losses suffered by France. At length, after the ineffectual cam- paigns of Bouftlcrs on the Rhine and of Vendome in Catalonia, Louis entered into negotiations for peace. He first of all suc- ceeded, in 1696, in detaching from the league the Duke of Savoy. Victor Amadeus. who gave bis daughter in marriage to the Duke of Burgundy, grandson of Louis; while in Catalonia, X^endome, after many successes, achieved the important conciuest of Barce- lona. These last events, and especially the defection of the Duke of vSavoy, hastened the progress of the negotiations, .and at length peace was signed at Ryswick on Se])teml)er 20, 1697. ]]y this treaty the King of Spain resumed possessi(jn of many places in the Low Countries; the possession of Slrassburg was confirmed to France, biU she agreed to restore all the annexations with the excep- tion of Alsace, ddie bdector Palatine resinued possession of his domains, and the Duke of Lorraine that of his duchy, now dimin- ished by Longwy and Sarrelouis, wdiich remained in the hands of France, bdnally, the Dutch restored Pondicherry and signed an advantageous treaty with bVance, which kept her colonics and pre- served her possessions at Saint Domingo. 220 FRANCE 1697-1703 Charles II., King of Spain, languished in expectation of ap- proaching death. He had no children, and the Kings of France and England, and the Emperor Leopold, coveting his domains, had entered into a secret agreement to divide them, when Charles nomi- nated as his successor Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of his eldest sister, Maria Theresa, and second son of the dauphin of France. If Philip became King of Spain he was to renounce his eventual rights to the throne of France. Charles II. died in 1700. Louis XIV. knew that to accept this testament was to break the agreement which he had previously signed, and to expose France to a new war with Europe. But notwithstanding this, he accepted the will, recognized the Duke of Anjou as a king under the title Philip V. The emperor immediately protested, and a year had scarcely elapsed before Holland, England and the empire had made common cause with him against Louis XIV. This monarch had committed two serious faults : one in sending to Philip V. letters patent, by which his rights to the throne of France were preserved to him, contrary to the express will of the testator, and the other, in recognizing the son of James II. as King of England after his father's death, in spite of a formal clause in the Treaty of Ryswick. The confed- erate powers immediately made preparations for the terrible war, known in history as the War of Succession (1701-1713), in which the north of Europe, then divided between Peter the Great and Charles XII., took no part. Louis XIV. and Philip V. had as their allies against this formidable league only the King of Portu- gal, the Duke of Savoy, the electors of Bavaria and Cologne, and the dukes of Parma, Modena and Mantua. Hostilities first com- menced in Lombardy, where Prince Eugene commanded the im- perial army of forty thousand men. The French were defeated at Chiari, on the Oglio, after which Catinat, who directed a retreat, led tlie French across the Adda. Winter separated the two armies. In 1702 Eugene surprised Cremona, where Villeroi, wlio had been commander-in-chief, was made prisoner. The French speedily retook this city and the king appointed Vendome, who was adored by the soldiers, to the command of th.e army. Ven- dome reanimated the courage of his troops and signalized his ar- rival among them by the victory of Luzara (1703). In the course of tliis year the English general, Churchill, Duke of Alarl- borough, vanquislied in Flanders the Duke of Burgundy, heir presumptive to the crown, and Marshal Boufflers, and freed the I. o r I s XIV 2^1 1703-1704 course of the Mciisc from the occupation of Spanish troops; wliile the French and Spanisli llects were defeated in the p(n-t of Vigo, in Gahcia, liy Admiral Rooke and the Duke of Ormond, who seized the rich gaheons of Havana. ViHars, however, who commanded as a Heutenant-general a corps in ALsatia, partly counterbalanced in Germany these reverses by the defeat of the imperialists, under the Prince of Baden, in the battle of Friedlingen. This was fol- lowed by tlie victory of Donauwerth, which \^illars, who had been made a marshal of France, gained over the imperialists in the plains of ] h-ichstfidt. in concert with the I'dector of luivaria. and the road to \'icnna appeared open to the French. But there their successes ceased. The Duke of Saxoy abandoned T'rance and supported against Philip y. and the Duke of Burgundy. Ids two sons-indaw, the cause of the emperor. Villars \vas succeeded in his command by the C(junt of Marsin, on account of a want of concord between him and the Flcctor of r,a\-aria, whose troops were united with his own. He was sent to put down the Protestants, who had tied to Cevennes, and who had been driven to revolt by despair. Portugal then broke its alliance with France. The many reverses b'rance had now suffererl v/ere speedily followed by a still more terrible bk)w. Marshal Tallard, the Flector of P>avaria, and the Count of Marsin were completely defeated in the battle of I'lenheim (1704). by luigene and Marlborough; their united armies were destroyed and Tallard liimself was taken prisoner. This unfortunate battle cost the I'^rench hfty thousand men and a hundred leagues of coun- try. The enemy advanced into .Msatia, and took Landau. The frontiers had been crossed by the enemy and e\'erv day the war of the Cevennes became more fonuidable. Idie CaKdnist mountain- eers had formed themseh'cs into regular regiments, under the name of Camisards. Fouis XIV^ so far bent his pride as to treat, as one power treats with another, with their leaders just escaped from the scaffold, and one of them named Cavalier, cele- brated for his in\incil)le courage, who had formerly been a butcher's Ijoy, recei\ed from the king a pension and a colonel's commission. Villars arranged this necessary ]')acifiration. In 1704 the I'aigli^h lo(/k from .Spain ihe fortress o\ Gibral- tar, and in the same year foiiglit a drawn battle witli the l''rench ileet off Malaga. This combat seiionsly weakened the naval power of France under L(nn's XIV., and the remains of tlie tleet 222 FRANCE 1704-1707 sent under Marshal Tesse in the following- year to retake Gibraltar was destroyed by the English and by tempests. In 1705 the English under the Earl of Peterborough laid siege to and took Barcelona, where the Archduke Charles was proclaimed King of Spain. Vendome, in Piedmont, victorious over Eugene at the Bridge of Cassano on the Adda, in 1705, alone interrupted the torrent of misfortune which swept over Louis XIV. and Philip V. at this period. The year 1706 was still more fatal to these two monarchs, although the campaign opened in the north and south under the most favorable auspices. Vendome having gained, in the absence of Eugene, the victory of Calcinato over the imperialists, marched upon Turin, the only important place which remained in the hands of the Duke of Savoy, and laid siege to it. Villars drove before him the Duke of Baden as far as the German frontier, but in Flanders Villeroi was completely defeated by Marlborough at Ramillies, The loss on the side of the French was frightful ; twenty thousand were slain or taken prisoners. The whole of Spanish Flanders was lost; Marlborough entered Brussels in tri- umph, and Menin surrendered. The king now transferred Ven- dome from Italy to Flanders, and this measure was the cause of a new and terrible disaster. Eugene had already crossed the Po, in spite of the French army which closed against him the road to Turin, and effected at Asti his junction with the Duke of Savoy. Marshal Marsin had succeeded Vendome in the command of the army, with which was the Duke of Orleans, and being unable to check the progress of Eugene, had joined La Feuillade before Turin. Eugene threw himself upon the French entrenchments, and carried them. IMarshal Marsin was killed; the French troops were dispersed, and the military chest, together with a hundred and forty pieces of cannon, fell into the hands of the enemy (1706). The Milanese territory, Mantua, and consequently the kingdom of Naples, were lost for Philip V. Eugene marched unopposed upon France, while Lord Galway took possession of Madrid, where he proclaimed the archduke. The Emperor Leopold had died in the preceding year, but his son and successor, Joseph I., carried on the war with vigor. France, without allies, lay open to the enemy, when Villars, re- appointed to the command-in-chief of the army, took the lines of Stalhoffen, and advanced into Germany, but being unsupported. L O U I S X I V 223 1707-1711 he was compelled to retreat atvl reenter France. Marshal Ber- wick gained in Spain the battle of Almanza (1707), whicli re- opened to Philip V. the road to his capital, and Marshal Tessc forced the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eug-enc to raise the siege of Toulon. The army of Flanders, under the orders of the Dnkc of Ven- dome, amounting to a hundred thousand men. was the last hope of France. Louis XIV. appointed his grand-^on. the Duke of Pnir- gundy, to c(~>mmand it jointly with Vendome. An unfortunate misunderstanding divided the two generals, and the result was the defeat of Oudenarde (1708) and the captiu'e of Lille, in spite of the gallant defense made bv Poufllers. The enemy was allowed to take Ghent and Pruges. and all its military posts in succession. The road to Paris was now unprotected, and a Dutch corps, ad- vancing as far as \>rsaillcs. took prisoner on the liridge d Sevres the king's master of the horse, whom it mistook for the dauphin. The war had exhausted all the resources of France, and the severe winter of 1709 brought the general misery to its greatest depth. The people in many provinces perished of faiuine; revolts broke out in e\ery direction and ])aymcnt of the taxes was re- fused. Louis XIV. sent to propose peace to the Dutch, whom he had formerly so cruelly humiliated, but his envoy, the President Rouille, was received in Holland with haughtiness and Cfuitcmpt. The Grand Pensionary, Ileinsius. Prince luigene and Marlbt)r- ough scornfully rejected the propositions of Louis XIV., who offered to abandon the mc^narchy of Spain, and to grant to the Dutch a barrier which should separate them from France. He demanded that the king should give up Alsatia and a part of Flanders, and insisted that he should assist them against his grand- son. The President Rouille was (n^dered to convey this ultimatum to Louis XIV., and to quit Holland within four-and-twenty hours. By the king's orders the extravagant demands of the enemy were published throughout the kingdom, whereupon indignation aroused patriotism, and I'rance rc(l()ul)lcd its efforts. But on the other hand, Villars lost in l-danders, against luigene and Marl- borough united, the sanguinary battle of Malplaquet (1710). The result was that many strong i)laces fell into the hands of the allies, while in Spain the defeat of Saragossa compelled J'hili]) a second time to fly from his capital and to traverse his kingdom as a 224 FRANCE 1711-1714 fugitive. At this juncture unexpected events occurred to help France. Vendome reappeared in Spain, where his name effected prodigies. His victory of Villaviciosa, in 171 1, destroyed the army of the Archduke Charles, and saved the crown of Philip V. The death of the Emperor Joseph at this time also proved of con- siderable assistance to France. The Archduke Charles, his brother, the competitor of Philip V., obtained the imperial crown, and in- curred in his turn the reproach of aspiring to universal monarchy. From this time England w^as no longer interested in supporting his claims to the throne of Spain, and agreed to a truce wnth France. Marlborough was recalled, and the Duke of Ormond, his successor, received orders to remain neutral. Eugene, however, continued his career of conquest in Flanders. He was master of Bouchain and Ouesnoy and between him and Paris there was no strong fortress. Louis saw his capital threatened, and was over- whelmed wath domestic troubles, for in the space of a year he lost the dauphin, his son, the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy, and their eldest son. Vendome died in Spain. The court and the kingdom were paralyzed with fear, when Marshal Villars saved his country by carrying Prince Eugene's entrenched camp at Denain, in 1712, and defeating the combined dukes and imperial troops under this prince and the Duke of Albemarle. Having entered Denain as a victor, Villars immediately sent the Count of Broglie to Mar- chiennes, whence the enemy procured his provisions and munitions of war, while he himself pursued the vanquished along the Scheldt. The bridges broke down under the crowds of fugitives ; all were taken or slain and Eugene himself could not cross the stream. Marchiennes, Douai and Ouesnoy successively surrendered and the frontiers were secured against attack. This great success hastened the conclusion of peace, which was signed at Utrecht in 1713. Its principal provisions were that Philip V. should be acknowledged as King of Spain, but that his monarchy should be dismembered. Sicily was giv-en to the Duke of Savoy, with the title of king. The English obtained Minorca and Gibraltar, France also ceding to them Hudson's Bay, New- foundland and St. Christopher. Louis XIV. promised to dis- mantle the port of Dunkirk ; abandoned a portion of his conquests in the Low Countries and recovered Lille, Aire, Bethunc and Saint- Venant. The Elector of Brandenburg was recognized as king of Prussia, and obtained the upper Guelderland, the principality of LOUIS XIV 225 1714-1715 Xeiifchatc], and many other districts. Tlic Kmperor Cliarlcs \'I. refused at first to join in tliis peace, hut Villars forced him to do so !)} cro^.^iu;; the ixliiiic. and a preliminary treat)- was signed between \ illars and I'rince luij^ene at Rastalt ; peace bein*;' defi- nitely concluded on June 7, 1714. between L' ranee, the emperor and the empire. ]W this peace the emi)eror obtained the Low Countries, the Alilanese and the king-dom of Naples, detached from the monarchy of Spain, and also recovered Fribourg and all the forts on the right bank of the Rhine. France retained Landau and the left bank of the Rliine. The Elector of Bavaria was re- TOWN established in his rights anrl dignities. All the sovereign princes of the emi)ire recovered their states. Holland obtained, by a third and final treaty, which was signed in 1715. the right of g^arrisoning many places in the Low Countries which h'rance restored to it, but it retained the principality of Orange, with respect to which the I fouse of Xassau had ceded its rights t(j that of I^randenlnirg. Such were the results of tliis disastrous war of twelve years' duration. I'^ ranee preserved ils frontiers b}- the iV\ace of Ctrecht, but its im- mense sacrifices had oj)cned an abyss in which the monarchy was finally engulfed. 226 FRANCE 1715 Toward the close of his long life the king showed himself de- termined to set, for the sake of his family, his own personal will above the laws of the kingdom and every moral consideration. He married his natural daughter, Mademoiselle of Blois, to his nephew, Philip of Orleans, afterwards regent, and he caused his sons by ]\Iadame de Montespan the Duke of Maine and the Count of Toulouse to be legitimated, giving them precedence over all the first nobles of the kingdom. Finally, by an edict issued in 1 7 14, he granted them the right of succession to the throne in default of legitimate princes. The king was now grov.dng feebler day by day. His great grandson, who was to succeed him on the throne, was only five years of age, and the regency would devolve upon his nephew, Philip of Orleans. Anxious with respect to the future prospects of the two princes, wdiom she had brought up, Madame de Main- tenon persuaded the king to make a will, which limited the power of the regent by the establishment of a council of which the Duke of Maine and the Count of Toulouse, his sons by Madame de Montespan, w-ere to be members. Louis XIV, himself had little confidence that obedience would be paid to this testament, which he confided to the Parlement, with orders that it was not to be opened before his death. About the beginning of August, 171 5, the king complained of sciatica in tlie leg, which w^as found to be an incurable wound. On the 14th the malady declared itself. Louis nevertheless continued to work in his bed, rising from time to time. On August 24 he confessed himself to Father Tellier, and on the following day, feeling very ill, he received extreme unction from Cardinal Rohan. From this time he languished, calmly contemplating his end, till September i, when he expired at Versailles, in his seventy-seventh year, after a reign of seventy-two years. Madame de Maintenon, eighty-two years of age, retired to the house of St. Cyr, which she had founded for the education of three hundred daughters of the nobility of slender fortune, and she remained there till her death. M \I).\MK liK _M \l \ I KMN Museum ul l\-r.tteries. Idie crisis, how- ever, was by no means less iiuminent, when, in the midst of this general confusion of ail'airs the Scnichman, Law, began to rise into notice. This adventurer, who eventually became so famous, and who united to liigii financial conce[)tions errors which were the result of practical inexperience, enticed the regent by the noveltv of his theories, detailed, as they were, with great clearness. At first, however, in 1716, his genius was limited to operations with a bank of which the funds, divided into twelve hundred shares, amounted only to six millions. Law obtained the monopoly of it 230 FRANCE 1716 for twenty years. It managed the financial business of private persons, discounted bills of exchange, received deposits, and issued notes payable at sight and in coin of a fixed amount. It had a prodigious success, and caused the current of commerce once more to flow. The regent, anxious to make the government share in the profits of this bank, ordered that its notes should be received in payment of taxes and wished to be himself one of its directors. Law, however, encountered a lively opposition, and especially from the Parlement. His most formidable adversaries, the Chan- cellor Aguesseau and the Duke of Noailles, had been dismissed, and the former lieutenant of police, D'Argenson, and Dubois, were at the head of affairs, when the regent resolved to strike a decisive blow at once against the enemies of Law and the legitimated princes. Accordingly, he issued letters patent which deprived the Parlement of the right of remonstrating wdth respect to matters of finance and policy, and a decree by which the superintendence of the education of the king was taken from the Duke of Maine and given to his nephew and enemy, the Duke of Bourbon, a prince of depraved manners, singularly avaricious, and of the most lim- ited intellect. The councils established by the Duke of Orleans at the commencement of the regency were suppressed, and replaced by departments, at the head of which he placed secretaries of state, who were more directly dependent on himself. A conspiracy, which was supported by the Duke and Duchess of Maine, was set on foot by the Spanish ambassador, the Prince of Cellamare, by order of Cardinal Alberoni, with the view of detaching Louis XV. from the Quadruple Alliance, and depriving the Duke of Orleans of the regency. The plot, how^ever, was discovered by Dubois, and the Spanish ambassador was sent to Blois to await the orders of his court, while the Duke and Duchess of Maine were arrested and imprisoned. But on a free acknowledgment of their fault the regent as frankly forgave .them. A magnanimous forgetfulness of injuries was Iiis noblest quality. Nevertheless, there was but one feeling throughout France and Europe respecting the bad faith of the Spanish ambassador, and war with Philip V. was resolved on. Disturbances now broke out in Brittany, which was still, to a very great extent, uncultivated, and where there languished a poor and ignorant population in subjection to five or six thousand gentlemen. The latter, indignant at the domineering spirit of thp governor of the province, Marshal of Montesquiou, resisted some LOUIS X V 231 1716-1719 demands of the g'overnmcnt and were snpportcd in tlieir resistance l)y the ])arlement of lirittany. Alljeroni saw in these sparks I'f revolt the Impe nf a ]K")werful (h\-ersion in fa\(ir (^f I'hiHp \'.. and supported the leaders in their factious projects. The latter siL;-ncd an ai^reeinent ith the ex- ception of five hundred thousand crowns, which he had brought with him. The go\ernment endeax'ored, l)y means of a number of violent edicts, to restore to the notes of the bank a \alue which nothing but credit could ha\c made them sirstain ; but these meth- ods were of no awail, and in T72r the go\-ernment had again re- course to the (peration of examination, to ascertain the real amount of the state debt and the titles of its creditors. Of two thousand two hundred millions worth of ])aper securities, onc-lliird was declared null, while those that remained were reduced to a value nmcli b'clow that which they nominally bore, 'i'he ])rofes- sional sttjckjobbers, who had made enormous profits, were \'io- lently (lepri\-ed of the larger portion of their gains. The debt-^ Vv'hich had to be li(|uidated amounted to se\-enteen hundred nn'l- lions, and the state found itself much more in debt than it had been at the death of I>ouis XIV. Louis XV. was declared of age by the T\irlement in January, T723. On the attainment (d the king's majority, Dubois, who liad been made a cardinal by Po])e Innocent Xlll. for procuring the 234. FRANCE 1723-1725 recognition of the Bull Unigenitiis of Clement XI. in France a document which most French churchmen considered prejudicial to the liberties of the Galilean church was made prime minister, but dying shortly after his elevation, he was succeeded in office by the late regent, who himself died of apoplexy in December, 1723. The Duke of Bourbon then became first minister of the crown. Be- fore his death the Duke of Orleans had projected a marriage be- tween the king and the Infanta of Spain, a child four years of age, and sent his own daughter to Spain as the future wife of the Prince of the Asturias. Three persons only constituted the king's council ; these were the Duke of Bourbon, Fleury, Bishop of Frejus, and Marshal Villars. The first laws made under the authority of this ministry were both foolish and wicked. The legal value of tlie coin was re- duced to one-half, and the rate of interest to the denier trente. After a time the disastrous effects of this measure were perceived, and after having plunged the kingdom into confusion it was re- pealed. Heavy taxes of various kinds were levied throughout the kingdom, and barbarous laws were enacted against the Protestants. Through a jealous hatred of the Plouse of Orleans, and the fear that it might succeed to the crown, if the king should die without a direct heir, the Duke of Bourbon broke off the marriage which liad been projected between the king and the Infanta of Spain, whom he sent back to her own country, substituting for her Maria Leczinski, the daughter of Stanislaus, formerly crowned King of Poland by Charles XII., and who, stripped of his royal state, lived in obscurity at Weissenberg. This affront was keenly felt in Spain, when Philip V. learned the rupture of the projected marriage be- tween his daughter and Louis XV. At this news his anger was ex- treme, and he immediately sent away the two daughters of the regent, one of whom was the widow of his son, Louis, while the other, Mademoiselle of Beaujolais, had been intended to be tlie wife of the Infante Don Carlos. This was too little to satisfy his vengeance, and he concluded a treaty with the Emperor Charles VI., who was irritated at the opposition shown by the powers to liis pragmatic sanction, a law by which, in default of leaving male children, he appointed his daughter, Maria Theresa, to succeed him. Alarmed at this treaty, France, England and Prussia signed in 1725 that of Hanover, the basis of which was a neutral guarantee and alliance. LOT' IS XV 235 1725-1734 In the f(-)llo\vincf year tlie miserv of tlie people \vn> so Cfrent. and the outcries a!:jainst tlie <:^-i\ermneiiL so fierce and frequent, that it was found necessary to dismiss tlie Duke ol nnurhon from office. The khi^ declared that henceforth he wmild ha\-e no firouis XV. had declared, on the dismissal i>f t1ic Duke of Bourhon. that he would no lousier ha\-e a first minister, the functions of this ofllce were \-irtuallv discharc^'cd hy his old tutor I-deury. wlio had accpiired a i^l'cat ascendency o\-er the kinij-. j\verse to war, Fleury, wIkj had heen made a cardinrd in ijjf*. used his utmost ende;u-ors to maintain peace. A Q'enerrd congress was cpene(l at Soissons in T728. l^ut ^vas dissolved in the follMwin:^- 3'ear without ha\in_Q- achieved any practic;d result. While the deputies of the se\e!"al ])owers were discoursinc^-. hleury was ne^-o- tiating. lie formed an alliance between Sjiain and I'rance, and. in 1731. fresh treaties, entered into at A'ienna between I'rance. the emperor, S{)ain and Tbdland. guaranteed to Charles \'I. the execu- tion of his pragmatic sanctitni in f;i\-or of his daughter, to Don Carlos, the possession of the duchies of Parma and Piacenza and the successi()n to Tuscany. Put in s])ite of all his elTorts peace was broken, in consequence of the death of Augustus L, 1-dector of Saxony and King of Polrmd, in 1733. This ])rince had been raised to the thrfiue of Poland when Charles XIP had ceased to maintain on it Stanislaus Leczinski. ddie latter, father-in-law to Louis X\'., now conceived the ho])c of recox'cring the scepter which he liad lost. lie proceeded in disguise to Warsaw :nid was immediately proclaimed king. But the czarina, Anna of Russia, caused the election of I'h-ederick Augustus, the son of Augustirs I. This ])rince guaranteed the jjragmatic sanction of Charles YT., who as- sisted him with troo])S, while I'^rance could on]y assist Stanislaus, besieged by the Russians at Dantzig, with fifteen hundred French Soldiers. Dantzig ca])ilulated. and Stanislatis esca])ed thniugh the midst of a thoirt declare war di- rectly against the daughter of Charles VT., but it concluded a treaty \vith the Flector of l')avaria, the principal claimant to the succes- sion of Charles and the ini])erial crown. Spain, which co\c!ed the Austri.an ])ossessions in Italy, entered into this alliance, wliich was also joined successi\ely by the kings of I'mssia, Sardiuia, and Po- land. The jiartition to be made was llius arranged: CJiarlcs. the Elector of Bavaria, was to ha\c the imjicrial crown, t!ie kingdoni of Bohemia, u]iper Austria and tlie Tyrol: the hdcctor (f Saxony. Moravia and up])er Silesia the rest of this latter ]ir(nince was to be given to the King of j'russi;i; .and. fnially, the Austrian posses- sions in Italy were to be given to the King of Spain, as an estab- lishment for the Infante l^on I'hilip. To Maria Theresa, who had married Francis of Forraine, Grand Duke of Tu.sc.anv. were left ITungary, the Fow Cmintries and lower Austria. This jirincess had no other ally than Cicorge IT.. Fdect(^r of Ihanover and King of England. Two I'rench armies, each forU' thousand strong. entered Germany. ^Fhe war commenced by great successes in fa- vor of the allied powers. Tlie I'.lector of kiavaria and the iM-ench threatened \^ienna. Maiu-ice n\ .Saxony, then a lieutenant-general in the service of k^-ance. and CIic\crt took ])ossession of I'rague, where the I^lector of Ba\;iria was im^claimed King of Bohemia. A month afterwards he was elected emperor at lM"ankfort, by the name of Charles \'l \. In the meantime Maria Tliere-a con\-okcd the states of Hun- gary. In response t() her appeal, t'le lluugarian nobles, drawing their swords exclaimed. "We will die for our so\-ereign. Maria Theres-a." Froni])t results followed these words. An armv was raised which retook .Aust^ia'a, iiuadcd llawaria. forced tlie Marcjuis of Segur to ca])itulate at Fintz. and de])ri\ed the elector of all his states. Idle King of Sardinia had already ren(nmced the league. and declared in favor of M.aria ddieresa. The King of lh-ussi;i in his turn treated with her, on obtaining the cession of Silesi;i ;uid 238 FRANC E 1743-1744 the French found themselves reduced in Bohemia to thirty tliousand men, shut in between two armies. Prague was blockaded by the Austrians, and it was ultimately evacuated by the French, wdio retreated to Egra. Marshal Noailles received orders to watch on the Main the English and Hanoverian armies commanded by Lord Stair, and with which were also the English sovereign, George II., and his son, the Duke of Cumberland. The English troops were sorely pressed by famine and harassed by the move- ments of the marshal, who attacked them at Dettingen, in 1743. A sanguinary engagement ensued ; the marshal was compelled to re- treat and the English remained masters of the field of battle. In the meantime Marshal Broglie had been unable to maintain his position on the Danube against Prince Charles of Lorraine, brother of the Grand Duke Francis. Bavaria was evacuated, and it was impossible for Marshal Noailles, after Broglie's retreat, to main- tain his position in Franconia, where he had, during two months, held the army of the allies in check. Such was the unfortunate conclusion of the campaign of 1743, which carried the war to the frontiers of France. The Emperor Charles VII. no longer possessed any states, and he signed a treaty in 1743 by which he renounced all his pre- tensions to Austria, engaging himself, as well as the empire, to remain neutral during the continuance of the war, and leaving his hereditary possession, Bavaria, until a. general peace, in the hands of Maria Theresa, whom he had endeavored to despoil, and who, by the Treaty of Worms, strengthened her alliance with England and the King of Sardinia. The year 1744 saw the whole of Europe taking part in the war. Spain united her navy with that of France, and the two fleets, under Admiral Court and Joseph of Navaro, attacked Ad- miral Matthews, who was blockading the port of Toulon. The result was a drawn battle. Genoa, despoiled by the Treaty of Worms, declared itself against Austria ; and Frederick II., anxious with respect to the safety of Silesia, promised to retake the field. According to the plan of campaign adopted by France, the chief effort was to be directed against the Low Countries, and a great part of Flanders had already been taken, when information was received that Prince Charles of Lorraine, at the head of eighty thousand men, had crossed the Rhine at Spire, that he had taken the lines of Weissenburg and had repulsed Marshal Coigny, who LOTMS XV 23!) 1744-1747 had been ordered to reniain on the (lcfensi\e in Alsace. Tl was nMW necessary to clianq'e tlie plan of the campai.q-n. and a(-chemia and Mora\ia. and within twelve days had forced the .q'arrison of l^iTi^'ne, coii-i-;tin,c;" (J ei,^htecn thousand men, to capitulate. Prince Charles left the Rhine in all haste, 1)ut was not .able to pre\ent the c\acuation of Bawaria by the Austrians and the invasiiUT of Picdm-nt by the Prince and Don Phili]). Idle emperor. Charles \'ir., for a third time entered ]Munich, his capital, worn out by cha,L;T:n and. sickness, anrl died there in the following- year ([745). llis s^n, Maximilian Joseph, entered into negotiation with }^Iaria ddiertsa, and promised his support to the Grand Duke Francis, her luisband, whom she h.oped to raise to the imperial throne. Louis XV., irritated at this pretension, continued the war. Pie resolved to conduct the campaign witli the greatest activity in Italy and Flanders and to keep his army in (lermany on the de- fensive. Marshal Saxe in\ested Tournav, which was defended iw a Dutch garrison, and an Fnglisli army, under tlic command of the Duke of Cumberland, made great efforts U) rai>e the siege. Tn a battle that ensued near tlie village of Fontenoy, in 1745, the Fngiish, feebly supported l)y their Dutch and Austrian auxiliaries, were com- pletely defeated. Twelve thousand luighsh. wajunded or slain, re- mained on the field nf battle. A lew days kiter Tournay was taken, while almost the Avhole oi Inlanders was occui")ied and its principal towns and cities became the jirize of this ;mj)ortant \ictory. The French arms were no less fortunate in Iia!\- u.nder ^Farshal Noailles and the Infante Don Philip. All the Au^liaan po^ses^ions in Italy fell into the lu'inds of the ]'"rench, with the exception of a few fortresses, and the King of Sai"tHnia t'ound him.-elf reduced to his capital. In German}'. hiiwe\cr, the Austrians made head against the French, and recoxered lM-an]sia had, three months previtjusly, obtained a great victorv at Ibihen- friedberg, and the cession of the ])ro\iiice of Glatx, which was an- nexed to Silesia, rendered this monarch neutral. Germanv, Flan- ders, and Italy continued to be the -ccnes of a desi)erate war. ddie Austrians drove the hrench from Piedmont, seized Genoa, and in- vaded Prox'cnce. Genixa, subjecled l)y them to a voke of iron, heroically threw it off, and when it was again besieged Poufllers and 240 FRAN C E 1747-1748 Richelieu, flying successively to its assistance, secured its safety. Marshal Belleisle forced the Austrians to evacuate Provence, and Maurice of Saxony,victorious over Prince Charles at Rocoux, made the conquest of Brabant (1747). The sufferings of this war extended also to the east. La Bourdonnais, governor of the islands of France and Bourbon, besieged and took Madras, but Du- pleix, governor-general of the establishments of the French East India Company, jealous of his brilliant colleague, and relying on secret orders previously received from France, refused to recognize the capitulation which La Bourdonnais had signed, and depriving him of his conquest, took possession of it himself. De- nounced by Dupleix, La Bourdonnais on his return to France was loaded with chains in return for his glorious services, and was thrown into the Bastile. Dupleix then attempted to la;, the founda- tions in India of a French empire, but he was supported neither by the company nor his government, and had to succumb after he had maintained during several years a most heroic struggle in a most unequal conflict. A brilliant victory was gained at Lawfeld in 1747 by Alaurice of Saxony over the Duke of Cumberland, which opened to that great general the road to liolland. The conquest of many cities was the result of this battle; Bergen-op-Zoom being among others taken by General Lowentahl. The English, on the other hand, inflicted terrible blows on the French fleet, which was destroyed in two en- gagements, one off Cape Finisterre and the other near Belle-Isle. France now sighed for peace, and Maurice of Saxony, as the best means of bringing it about, hastened to invest the city of i\Iaestricht, whereupon the preliminaries of the much-desired peace were almost immediately signed at Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). By the terms of this peace the King of Prussia retained possession of his conquests ; Don Philip, the brother of Don Carlos, obtained the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, and finally, the English recovered Madras in India, and in the New World gave up Louisburg and Cape Breton, but acc^uired the whole of Acadia. France restored Savoy to the King of Sardinia, the Low Countries to the Empress Maria Theresa, and to the Dutch all the places she had taken from them. By this war, which added twelve hundred millions to the French debt, Prussia alone gained a considerable increase of terri- tory and influence, and suddenly became one of the great powers of the continent. L 1; I s X V '2n 1748-1756 Sonic salutriry edicts were issued duriiijiif tlic years wliicli ini- nicdiately folluwed the I'eacc of Aix-la-Cliapelle. .Anionj^ them was tlie famous Edict of Alachault, the comptroller-general, authorizing the free commerce within the kingdom in grain, which had hitherto been subjected to a thousand shackles injurious to agriculture. Louis XV., in spite of his shameful debaucheries, was extremely scrupulous in respect to the outward observances of religion, and took an actixc part in the religious fjuarrels by which France was agitated. They were renewed with scandal by the intolerance of 'M. de Beaumont, Archbishop of Paris, who went so far as to order that extreme unction slujuld be refused to dying persons suspected of adhering to the opinions condemned 1jy the Bull Unigenitus. The Parlement, supported by jniblic opinion, protested against this ex- treme measure, but the king's council enjoined respect for the bull as the law of the church and the state. Violent discussions fol- lowed between tlic Parlement and the archbishop, and, on the refusal of the sacrament to a nun, the temporalities of the prelate were seized- The king ordered the Parlement to stay its proceedings and exiled it. In its place a royal court was established. But the Chatelet, the criminal court of T\aris, refused to acknowledge its authority, the advocates, attorneys, and registrars refused to obey it and the course c>\ justice was thus interrupted during lour months. The king jjcrceived at length that he must effect a compromise, and on Augu>t _\^, 1754. .amid the rejoicings on the occasion of the birth of the 1 )uke of Berry, who was the unfortunate Louis XVT., the Parlement, recalled to J'aris. reentered it amid the acclamations of the i)o])u]ace. But fresh collisions soon occurred between the king and clergy cjn the one hand and the I'arlement on the other, and the latter refused to register the edicts for fresh taxes on the breaking- out of a war with JMigland. It then leagued itself with the other parlemcnts of the kingdom against the great council, endeavoring to form of all the su[)erior courts of the French magistracy one single body, which should be dixided into different classes, and which should be sutTiciently strong to resist the arbitrary measures of the court. ( )n this the king, on December 13, 1756. had three edicts registered, the i)rincipal pur])ort of which was tc renew the in- junction of respect to tlie P.ull I'nigenilus, to deprive every magis- trate of less thrui ten years' standing of a deliberative voice, to en- force the registration of edicts after the jiermitted remonstrances 01 the Parlement, and to suppress the major portion of the courts 242 FRAN C E 1750-1756 of inquests and requests, the usual sources of the most violent measures. These acts of royal power, and especially the last, struck the Parlement with dismay. The people encouraged the magistrates in their opposition to the court, and became exasperated to the highest pitch when it found that all but thirty-one members of the great chamber had given in their resignation. Such was the state of popular feeling in the capital when, on January 5, 1757, an un- happy wretch named Damiens slightly wounded the king at the gates of the palace of Versailles. This crime was attributed to the popular excitement caused by the violent opposition of the Parle- ment, and the magistrates trembled at the extent of their peril. Most of those who had sent in their resignations hastened to offer their services at Versailles and to protest their devotion. After the trial and execution of Damiens, Louis XV. endeavored to conciliate popular feeling. The greater number of the magistrates were re- called, and the Parlement resumed its habitual functions. The king's mistress, the j\Iarc[uise of Pompadour, who was dismissed from the palace while the king considered himself in danger from his wound, returned in triumph, and ^Machault and Argenson were dismissed from the council. At this period a general w^ar had already broken out in the two worlds. The governments of France and England had long since ceased to exchange pacific assurances, while their agents wer6 dis- puting in Asia and America for the possession of immense territor- ies. Dupleix by his talents and courage had rendered France the ruler over thirty millions of men occupying the Deccan from the River Kristna to Cape Comorin. The English only possessed at that time the city of Madras with its environs, and a few fortresses, of which the principal was Fort Saint David. Dupleix had caused Chunda Sahib to be recognized as Nabob of the Carnatic, but a single city, Trichinopoly, had declared for his rival, Mahomet Ali, who vs-as supported by the English. The troops of Chunda Sahib while besieging Trichinopoly were defeated by Robert Clive, after- wards Lord Clive, w^ho laid the foundation of the English empire in India, and the Nabob himself was killed. Dupleix renewed the struggle for supremacy with success, but the h>ench East India Company, finding its dividends decreasing, refused to support him in his efforts to win an eastern empire for France, while the French government, being anxious to avoid war with England, disavowed LOT IS XV 2t;3 1754-1756 his proccedinji^s. and ultimately recalled liini t^ I'rancc. Duplcix had scarcely (iuilted the soil of India when an ic^nominious treai\'. which was afterwards ratified in lun'oj^e, was concluded at Madras by the commissioners of the two ^MN-ernments in Octoher. 1754, which stipulated that neither of the companies should interfere in the internal politics of India; that .all ])laces and territories occupied by them should he restored to the Grand Moq'ul. with the CAcepiii 11 of those which they had se\erally possessed before the late war, and that all their possession-- sliould be i)laced on a footin;^ of perfect equality. Thus were lost in a few davs the fruits of the profound. policy and astonishino; efforts of a j^reat m,an. luii^land inherited in the Indies all the inlluence of wliicii f^'ance dc])rived herself, and she could now freely and fearlessly lay in the East the foundation of her future emi)ire there. The state of the th.in.c^s Awas not more j^ropitinus t^ the main- tenance of peace in Xorth America, where duriuL^ the preeedin.i;- hun- dred and f^ity years I^ni^iand and f ranee had founIo(,lge tlie l^'cnch from h^rrt Duquesne, on the Ohio, had been surri auided by a superior f< iree in a place named (Jreat Meadows, and had been forced to capitulate. Soon after, a bodv of tweh-e lunidred troops sent by the English government, under the command of General Ih'adtloek, to the assist- ance of Virginia, was assailed, in 1755, while on its way to attack- Fort Dufjuesne, bv a troop (^f Eremdi and Indians, and Braddi >ek himself, and se\en hundred of his soldiers, ])erished. The sea was less propitious to the bi-eneh arms. The squadron of Adnriral Boscawen attacked a I'rench di\i^ion o(T Xewfonndland, anil ioi)k two vessels, and sliorlly afterwards. l)y an order of the haiglisli 244 FRANCE 1756-1757 admiralty, the English ships of war fell upon the French mercantile marine and took three hundred merchant vessels without any pre- vious declaration of war. Thus the pacific hopes of the French court were frustrated in every direction, and at length the king saw how he had sacrificed in the Indies the prospect of an empire, by recalling Dupleix, and abandoning that great man's undertaking. His government de- manded an explanation of the English government of the acts of violence of which its navy had been guilty by the seizure of the French merchant ships. Its complaints were treated with con- tempt, and war was soon afterwards declared. The war which broke out in 1756 between England and France speedily embraced the whole of Europe, and its ravages extended over the entire world. Maria Theresa, hoping to recover Silesia, formed an alliance with the Empress of Russia, the Elector of Sax- ony, who was also King of Poland, and the King of Sweden. Louis XV. was gained over to support her cause by the inlluence of Madame de Pompadour, and soon all the forces of the kingdom were placed at the disposal of Austria. This terrible and deplorable war, known under the name of the Seven Years' War (1756-1773), commenced under circumstances favorable to France. An expedi- tion under the Duke of Richelieu was dispatched to conquer Mi- norca, which the English had captured during the War of Succession in Spain. Admiral Byng was sent with an English iieet to the assistance of the threatened island, but when he arrived off J^.linorca the French w^ere besieging the formidable citadel of St. Philip, which commands Mahon, the capital of the island, and its magnifi- cent port. The garrison, under General Blakeney, made an obsti- nate defense, hoping to be succored by Byng, but the English ad- miral, being worsted in an encounter with the French fleet, under Admiral Galissoniere, and, losing all hope of being able to relieve Minorca, abandoned it to its fate and sailed with his squadron for Gibraltar. The French now redoubled their efforts ; the garrison was soon compelled to capitulate and Minorca was won for France. Admiral Byng's defeat was imputed to treason, and, having been tried and found guilty, he was shot. Frederick II, of Prussia, in reply to the new league formed against him, hastened to invade Saxony, and took Dresden, from which the King of Poland was forced to fly. After defeating the Austrians at Lobositz, and compelling them to repass the Eger, he ..<\ MADAME DE POMPADOUR ** The most Parisian of the Parisiennes " L l^ I S X V 245 1757-1758 hastened to i'irna. where the Saxon army was blockaded, and com- pelled it to cai)iiulate. A body of I'Vench troops, under Marshal Estrees, entered Germany and threatened the electorate of Han- over, a possession of the Kini^ of Enc^Iand. Estrees vanquished Cumberland at 1 Lastenbeck, and Marshal Richelieu, who had been sent to replace I'Lstrees. forced Cumberland to sign the capitula- tion of Klostersevcn ( 1757), wdiich sent one ]K)rtion of his army home, condemned anotber to inaction, and placed the electorate of Hanover at the mercy of l-Vance. Frederick, victorious over Prince Charles of l^orraine at Pra_i;ue, was afterwards vanquished by Marshal Dann at Kolin, while his gericrals were everywhere de- feated. Overwhelmed by these reverses, and still more by the cajjitulation of the Eiiglish at Klosterseven, surrounded by several armies in Saxony, and held in check by Marshal Daun, Frederick appeared to be without .any resource, but he escaped the marshal with admirable skill, and boldly went to reconnoiter the I'^rench army commanded by Soubise, and that of the imperialists, which, united, were achancing to surround him. By a series of able maneuxers he induced Soubise to believe that he was anxious to a\-oid tlicm. and drew him on to make an attack on him, when en- camped in an advantageous position at Rossbach, in 1757. I he I'rench and imperialists were totally routed, and a great part of the atlaclcing forces lied witbout fighting. l-'rederick took no repose after this unhoped-for \ictorv, but, burrving into Silesia, which was ;dm(jst lost, won. against Prince Charles and Daini. the bloody bat- tle of Leuthen, near Jlreslau. d"he I'^ngiish then broke the cajiilu- lati(jn of Klostersex'cn, and the Hano\erian armv reappeared under b'erdinand oi Ih'unswick, its new comm.ander, who asserted that he had nothing to do with this military convention. The Count of Clermont lost in tlie folKjwing year the battle of Crevelt, against b^rdinand of I'.nnisw ick, and was superseded by tlie Marquis of Contades: Soubise. and., uniler him, the Duke of Broglie. partly re- paired, however, at Sonderliair^en and at Lutterberg, the disasters of this bloody battle, .and the l'"rench reentered Hanover; but in 1759 Brunswick, \an((uished by the Duke of Broglie at Bergen, vanquished in his turn the Marshal Contades at Minden in West- phalia. Frederick then fought with varied success against the Austrians and Russians. The most murderous battle of this cam- paign was that of Zorndorf, where thirty-three thousand men, of 246 FRAN C E 1758-1761 whom twenty-two thousand were Russians and eleven thousand Prussians, remained on the field of battle. Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham, was at this time at the head of the English Cabinet. He directed his attention to the colonies and gave fresh vigor to maritime operations. Quebec was taken by the English in 1759 and in the following year the whole of Canada was snatched from the grasp of France. In Africa the French lost Senegal, and in 1757 Chandernagore on the Ganges was taken from them. Count Lally, sent by Louis XV. to avenge the French defeats in India, seized Fort St. David, on the coast of Coromandel and razed its defenses, but differences which arose be- tween him and the commander of the naval squadron, the Count of Ache, were fatal to the interests of France. England was at this time threatened by the descent upon her coasts of two French armies, under Chevert and the Duke of Aiguillon, which were to be protected by two French squadrons. The first of these, how- ever, which was commanded by De la Clue, was destroyed by Admiral Boscawen off Cape St. Vincent, while two months later the second, under ]\Iarshal Conflans, underwent the same fate within sight of the coast of Brittany. The campaign of 1760 was glorious in Germany for Marshal Broglie, who vanquished the hereditary Prince of Brunswick at Korbach, near Cassel, for the capture of which he was preparing. One of the corps of his army, commanded by the Marquis of Cas- tries, took up its position near to Rhumberg, on the river bank, and being attacked by the prince, gained a brilliant victory which de- livered Wesel. Frederick now escaped in Saxony from the numer- ous armies which surrounded him, and vanquish.ing successively Laudon at Liegnitz, and Daun at Torgau, retook Silesia. Pondi- cherry, whose inhabitants the governor, Lally, had alienated by his pride and despotism, fell in the course of this year into the hands of the English. The Count of Ache, who was called upon to relieve this ])lace, did not appear, and seven hundred soldiers were all that remained for its defense. The town was taken and its fortifications razed, and Lally, returning to France, was accused of treason and paid for his defeat with his life. The Duke of Choiseul, who was now minister of war, offered to make ])eace with George HI., who had succeeded George II. on the English throne, but his overtures were rejected by the advice of Pitt. He then endeavored l(j secure the support of Spain, where Charles LOUIS XV 247 1761-1764 III. now reigned, and on August i6, 1761, liis exertions were crowned by the signature of the celebrated Family Treaty, which stipulated that the various branches of the House of Bourbon should reciprocally assist each other and declared that the enemies of any one branch should be regarded as the enemies of the others. On July 16, some days before the signature of the Family Treaty, ^Marshals Broglie and Soubise had been beaten by the Prince of Brunswick, at b^ilingshausen, near the Lippe, through a want of concert between them. The fault was attributed to the Duke of Broglie, who was banished and superseded by old Marshal Estrees. In the meantime, closely pressed by the imperial army and the Russians, Frederick was driven to bay, when the death of the Em- press Elizabeth, on January 2, 1762, released him from his perilous position. Elizabeth left her throne to Peter III., wdio was a pas- sionate admirer of the King of Prussia, and wdio undoubtedly would have aided him, but he was dethroned, after a reign of six months, by his own wife, who assumed the crown by the name of Catherine II. Some days afterwards the unfortunate Peter III. was assas- sinated. The emjM-css declared herself neutral and the results of the campaign of 1762, the last of this bloody war, left each party in the same state as before. England, France, Spain and Portugal then signed, on February 10, 1763, the Treaty of Paris, which was disgraceful to France. This power ceded to England a por- tion of Louisiana, Canada, and the island of Cape Breton. Eng- land retained Senegal, in Africa. In the East Indies each nation resumed possession of the territories it had held previous to the commencement of the w'ar. The island of Minorca atid Port St, Philip were restored to England, and France gave up to King George his electorate of HanoNcr. Peace was at the same time signed between the Empress Maria Theresa, the Elector of Saxony, and the King of Prussia. Frederick retained Silesia and Glatz, by ])romising his support to the son of Maria Theresa, the Archduke Joseph, who v^as selected as King of the Romans, and succeeded to the empire on iXugust 18, 1765. The last years of this war were signalized by the abolition of the order of the Jesuits in France. Their order was suppressed throughout the kingdom by an edict in 1764, which gave them permission to reside in France (Mily as simple private persons. All the Bourbon courts declared themsches at the same time against 248 FRANC E 1764-1770 the Jesuits, who were successively driven from Portugal, Spain, Naples, and Parma, and the total suppression of the order was ulti- mately procured at Rome from Clement XIV. (1773), who thus destroyed the firmest supports of the rights of the Papal court of Rome. Prussia and Russia were the only states who gave the Jesuits an asylum and protection, Madame de Pompadour died in 1764 and was soon afterwards succeeded as mistress to Louis XV. by a woman of low origin, afterwards known as the Countess of Barry. In the course of the next four years the king lost the dauphin, the dauphine, his father- in-law, Stanislaus Leczinski, and the cjueen, Maria Leczinski, who only survived her father two years. By the death of Stanislaus Leczinski, Lorraine had become incorporated, in 1766, with France, and Corsica was also added to the French crown two years later, with the right, however, of regulating its own taxes. The Seven Years' War added thirty-four millions of annual interest to the national debt. In each year the expenses exceeded the receipts by thirty-eight millions, and the taxes, which had enor- mously increased during the war, were not lessened at the peace. The Parlement of Paris endeavored to procure some relief for the public burdens, that of Besangon refused to register the royal edicts, and many of the opposing magistrates were exiled. Disturbances broke out in various provinces, and especially in Brittany, where the Duke of Aiguillon, governor of the province, rendered himself odious by his stern .and despotic administration. The parlement of Rennes took cognizance of the complaints which were brought against him, but they could obtain no satisfaction from the court, which lent a ready support to the duke. In defiance of justice and the efforts of the Parlement of Paris and the Duke of Choiseul, who espoused the cause of the magistracy, the opponents of Aiguillon were sent into exile. The Parlement protested in vain against this arbitrary punishment, and the Duke of Aiguillon acted with redoubled violence. He even had the boldness to present for acceptance by the states of Brittany a regulation which would have deprived them of the right of fixing and levying their own taxes. This produced a general outcry, and an address presented to the king caused the recall of the Duke of Aiguillon and the re- establishment of the parlement of Brittany in its integrity. The first act of the restored parlement was to commence a prosecution of the Duke of Aiguillon, whom it accused of abuse of L O U I S X V 249 1770-1771 power and of enormous crimes. The king, in accordance willi the suggestions of Chancellor Maupeou, first ordered that the Duke of Aiguillon should be tried by the court of peers and then, justifying the duke, determined that the whole process against him should be annulled. The parlement then issued a decree which attacked the duke's honor. The king annulled it. In 1770, the Duke of Choiseul, the most powerful of the supporters of the parlement, was disgraced and banished to his estate at Chanteloup, at the instiga- tion of ]\Iadame du Barry. His dismissal was followed by the ap- pointment of the Duke of Aiguillon to the ministry of foreign af- fairs, and had been preceded by that of Abbe Terray as comp- troller-general of the finances. These two men formed, together with Chancellor ]\Iaupeou, a triumvirate celebrated for the revolu- tion which it effected in the judicial order. On January 19, 1771, the members of the parlement were ordered to resume their functions, and in consequence of the unanimous refusal of the magistrates to do so, their ofiices were confiscated and they were sent into exile. iMaupeou nominated in their place councilors of state and masters of requests, and then formed an assembly which had less resemblance to a judicial body, composed of the members of the great council and men taken from the various bodies in different classes, who henceforth composed the parlement. Two edicts were immediately issued which abolished the old parlement and established the new. The public w'rath burst forth against a minister who tore from France, in the persons of her independent magistrates, the last guarantees against despotic power. All the princes of the blood, with a single exception, and thirteen peers of the kingdom lodged a protest against acts in which they saw the overthrow of the laws of the state. The provincial parlements made courageous remonstrances, especially those of Normandy and Brittany, raised complaints to which ]\Iaupeou replied by Icttrcs de cachet, which sent the murmurers either into exile or to the Bastile. Maupeou, however, overcame all resistance by promising the gratui- tous administration of justice, the abolition of the sale of offices, and the revisal of the criminal laws. At the close of 1771, in the space of less than a year, the new judicial arrangements were in force over the whole of the kingdom. While Maupeou thus violently altered the French magisterial system, Abbe Terray ordered an arbitrary reduction of the dividends payable by the state, which was in fact a shameful act of bank- 250 FRANCE 1771-1774 ruptcy. The taxes were at the same time raised to an exorbitant amount, and Terray destroyed the most glorious achievement of Machault the law which authorized the free circulation of corn throughout the kingdom. The duke of Aiguillon, minister for foreign affairs, and the third member of this triumvirate, at the same time allowed three powers to make a serious attack on the rights of peoples and the balance of power in Europe. Strong in her amity with Frederick 11. and Maria Theresa, and the supine indolence of Louis XV., Catherine II. signed in 1772, with the courts of Prussia and Vienna, a treaty for the dismemberment of Poland. This preliminary di- vision deprived the country of a third of its territory, and led to other treaties which effaced Poland from the number of independent nations. Louis XV., utterly apathetic in the midst of these serious events, continued to present to the world an example of shameful debauchery and complete indifference to scandal. He had Madame du Barry publicly presented at court, and gave her a distinguished place at the table at which were present, for the first time after their marriage, his grandson, the dauphin, and his young spouse, Marie Antoinette of Austria. At length, v/orn out by ennui, weary of pleasure, and disgusted wdth all things, he died, 1774, of the small-pox in the sixty-fourth year of his life, and after a reign of fifty-nine years, which is one of the most deplorable recorded in history. PART IV THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1774-1799 Chapter XV THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY. 1774-1791 LOUIS XVT. ascended the throne on ]May 10, 1774, at the age of twenty. His morals were pure, his intentions -^ upright and g-enerous, but to complete inexperience he added a great want of decision of character. He chose as his first minister Alaurepas, who recalled the old parlements. but knew not how to make them submit to useful and efficient reforms. They were reinstalled on November 12 and the minister, for the sake of procuring for the royal authority a fleeting popularity, raised up against it serious dangers in the future. Maurepas, anxious for the support of public opinion, replaced Abbe Terray by Turgot. a man already famous for his reforms, as comptroller-general of the finances. In the following year Lamoignon of Malesherbes, a magistrate of the highest merit, and a friend of Turgot, was placed over the king's household, and en- trusted with the leth'cs de cachet, no abuse of which was to be feared while they remained in his hands. The other influential members of the council were Hiie of Miromesnil, keeper of the seals, the Count of Saint Germain, minister of war, and Ver- gennes, minister for foreign affairs. Turgot planned extensive reforms and, devoting all his care to the promotion of the happiness of the people, undertook the suppression of a vast number of servi- tudes and burdensome privileges. He wished to make the privileged classes contribute to the taxes in the same proportion as the Third Estate and procured the issue of edicts which replaced the burdens that weighed lieavily nn the lower orders by a rate equally levied upon all classes, reestablished free-trade in grain throughout the whole interior of the kingdom and abolished apprenticeships and corporations. Tlie privileged classes burst forth into complaints and murmurs, the parlements refused to register these wise edicts and it was necessary to make use of the arbitrary power of the crown to enforce them. Soon, jealous of the popularity enjoyed by Turgot, and of his 253 254 FRANCE 1777-1778 influence over the king", Maurepas himself aroused enemies against the two ministers and alarmed the king with respect to the dangers that might arise from the spirit of the new system. Malesherbes sent in his resignation, but Turgot waited to be disgraced. The reforms were abandoned. Clugny, formerly governor of St. Do- mingo, and then Taboureau replaced successively, but without suc- cess, this great minister. After them the general management of the national finances fell into the hands of Necker, a Genevcse banker, who succeeded Taboureau in 1777. Necker made good faith and probity the basis of his system, which consisted in the attempt to reduce the expenditure to a level with the receipts, to make the national taxes serve to defray the national expense in ordinary times, to have recourse to loans only when circumstances imperiously required them, and to have the taxes assessed by the provincial assemblies. Unfortunately the war with England forced France to resort to loans and rendered her financial situation extremely critical. England, overburdened by debt after the peace in 1763, had endeavored to make her American colonies contribute to the taxes, and this the colonists, who were unrepresented in the British Par- liament by which the taxes were regulated, refused to do. An open rupture soon took place and both sides resorted to arms. At length the congress of the revolted colonies published, in 1776, an act of independence, by which it constituted itself a free power and independent of the English rule. Diplomatic agents were im- mediately dispatched to the various courts of Europe, to obtain the recognition of the independence of the American colonies, and Ben- jamin Franklin was selected by his country to solicit the support of France against England. Louis XVI. hesitated for some time to enter upon hostilities, but at length, in 1778, after the memorable battle at Saratoga, in which the British General Burgoyne, at the head of six thousand men, was compelled to lay down his arms, France concluded a treaty of alliance and commerce with the Amer- icans. Whereupon England recalled her ambassador, and war was resolved on. A fleet of twelve ships of the line, commanded by the Count of Estaing, made a vain attempt, in concert with Washington's army, to take Newport, in Rhode Island, one of the English arsenals. On July 27, 1778, in the same year, the French Admiral Orvilliers encountered Admiral Keppcl at the entrance of the Channel. The CO N S^r ITUTIOX A L MONARCHY 255 1778-1781 two tlects. after fighting for n wliole day, parted to refit, without having lust a single vessel on either side. This battle was at first celebrated in France as a brilliant victory. France concluded with Spain in the following year an alliance which doubled its naval strength. i\dmirals Orvilliers and Don Louis Cordova threatened a descent upon England, while the Count of Estaing seized, in the .'Vntilles, the islands of St. Vincent and Granada. In concert with General Lincoln he made a rash attack upon Savannah, but, being repulsed with loss, he raised the siege and returned to France. The war raged in every quarter of the globe. Tn Africa the French troops seized upon Senegal. Gambia, and Sierra Leone, but on the other hand the French establishments in Bengal fell into the hands of the English, and Pondichcrry had to yield, forty days after the trenches had been opened against it. In the following year, 1780, England found the number of its enemies still further increased. Russia, Sweden, and Denmark signed a declaration of armed neutrality, by which it was agreed that neutral powers should be at liberty to sail from port to port and on the coasts of the belligerent nations; and the merchandise belonging to neutrals should be free from capture; if not, northern powers announced that they would enforce respect for their declara- tion by warfare, if necessary. England, after having made a futile attempt to obtain the alliance of Holland, declared war upon the Dutch. The majority of the French ministry was at this time com- posed of men of merit and talent. \^crgcnncs made the kingdom respected abroad; Segur and Castries, soldiers worthy of high es- teem, carried on the war with energy, and Xeckcr afforded the king tlie means of continuing it. His celebrated " conipic rendu" of January, 1781, claimed an excess of ten millions of receipts over the expenditure; but ^^laurepas, offended by the unanimous praises lavished on Neckcr. maligned him to the king, and the eminent financier, perceiving that he no longer possessed his sovereign's con- fidence, sent in his resignation, which \\-as accepted on May 19. In July, 1780, a l-'rench army numbering six thousand men had disembarked at Rliodc Island under the Count of Rochamhcau. The English, however, succeetlcd in blockading the port at which the French had disembarked, and thus till the close of the year rendered their assistance almost useless. General (kites was beaten at Camden, in South Carolina, by Lord Cornwallis, and the whole of that province was consequently lost. France now advanced to ^56 FRAN C E 1781-1782 the United States, on the simple word of Congress, the large sum of sixteen milhon francs, and the French, under Admiral de Grasse, set sail for the Antilles, in March, 1781. Rochambeau had now joined Washington, and the powerful assistance rendered by France en- abled the latter to bring the campaign and the war to a close by the investment of Yorktown, in w'hich, after having become enfeebled with incessant conflicts with the American troops under Greene, the English forces under Cornwallis had entrenched themselves. The investment was completed by land, by Washington and Ro- chambeau, on September 28, while the sea was shut against the English by the fleet under Admiral de Grasse. On October 19, 1 78 1, Cornwallis found it necessary to capitulate, and surrendered, with eight thousand men. The Duke of Crillon having captured Minorca in 1781, under- took in the following year the siege of Gibraltar, which was closed against Admiral Howe by the fleets of France and Spain. Floating batteries were constructed for the purpose of bombarding the fortress, w'hich was defended by the brave General Eliott, but they were set on fire by a storm of shells and redhot shot. A few days after, Admiral Howe, taking advantage of the dispersion of the French fleet by a gale, succeeded in entering the port and revictualed the fortress, the siege of which was abandoned. In the same year a naval engagement, which ended disastrously for France, took place in West Indian waters, near the island of St. Lucia, between the French and English fleets under De Grasse and Rodney. The battle took place on April 12, 1782, and lasted ten hours. Rod- ney, favored by the wind, boldly broke through the French line, and by this able maneuver secured the victory. The French fought with the utmost heroism, but the admiral's flagship, the Ville de Paris, attacked by seven vessels, was compelled to strike, and De Grasse himself was taken prisoner. Out of the fleet of thirty-three vessels six were lost in the course of the action, two others foundered on the following day, and five which were cap- tured l)y the enemy had suffered so greatly that they sank before reaching the British ports ; among these was the Ville de Paris. India had been during four years the scene of a sanguinary war. The English, in 1778, had taken Pondicherry from the French. Their allies, Hyder Ali Khan, Sultan of Mysore, and his son Tippoo Sahib, who had marched too late to the relief of the French settlement, attacked the English possessions in the Carnatic, CONSTITUTION A I. :M O N A R C IT Y ^57 1782-1783 from which thev were compelled to withdraw hy Sir Eyre C'totc after having dcnie much injury. The French fleet, the arrival of which had been hmt^ announced, appeared at length at the commencement of 1782 on the coast of Coromandel. It was commanded by Suffren, one of the greatest seamen of whom France can boast. His presence reanimated the hopes of Hyder Ali, who still meditated, by means of a league be- tween all the native princes, the expulsion of the English from Hindustan. His death put a sudden end to these projects; the formidable Sultan of Mysore expired at the close of 1782, leaving his throne to his son Tippoo Sahib. Suffren in the meantime pur- sued his glorious career on the coast of Coromandel, Tip]:)()o Sahib seconding his operations by land. After vanquishing the English General Matthews, he hastened to the relief of Gondelour, besieged by the English, and encountered, within sight of the city, the fleet of Sir Edward Hughes. Although Suffren had but fifteen vessels against eighteen, he gained the advantage, and Gondelour was saved. Peace was at length signed at Versailles, September 3, 1783, between England on the one part, and France, Spain, and the United States, wdiose independence was recognized by it, on the other. England restored to France in America the isles of St. Lucia and Tobago, and in India, Pondicherry, and guaranteed to her in Africa the possession of the river Senegal and its depend- encies; and on the coast of Alalabar, ]\Iahe and an establishment at Surat. England did not conclude peace with Tippoo Sahib until the following year. Maurepas died shortly after the disgrace of Xecker. The defi- cit of the treasury had increased during the war, and it was in vain that, for the purpose of decreasing it, Louis XVI. gave an example by relinquishing a portion of his household and his guard, for no one followed it. Joly of Eleury and Ormesson succeeded Necker in turn without being able to discover a remedy for this, and Calonnc followed them, in 1783, in the management of the finances. This man adopted a system directly opposed to that of Xecker, endeavor- ing to strengthen the government credit by prodigality. A lavisli expenditure of money at first supported his system, and punctuality in payments for a certain time deceived capitalists, but after the peace he made numerous loans, and exhausted credit and then, when forced to allow the enormous difference which existed between the expenditure and receipts, he insinuated that the fault was due to 058 FRANCE 1783-1787 the proceedings of his predecessor, Necker, who was exiled. The refusal of the parlements to register either tax or loan edicts forced Calonne to resort to reform measures. He proposed to increase the revenus of the state by abolishing the privileges of the clergy and nobility in matters of taxing. Knowing that the par- lements w^ould not register such edicts unless pressure were brought to bear upon them, he sought to win the support of public opinion by laying his plans, in 1787, before an assembly of notables and asking their support. This body, composed of members of the privileged orders, was naturally unwilling to be taxed. It denied the necessity of increased taxes, and in the struggle that followed Calonne was driven from office. He was succeeded, in 1787, by Lomenie of Brienne, Archbishop of Sens, who adopted most of the measures proposed by Calonne to the notables. This assembly separated after having approved the creation of provincial assemblies, to superintend taxation in their several provinces, and devote attention to the public works and the improvement of agriculture. These assemblies, elected by the three orders, but containing a double number of representatives from the Third Estate, carried on their functions successfully from 1787 to 1790, when the new division of France into departments took place. The tax edicts rejected by the notables were presented to the Parle- ment of Paris, which refused to register them, and declared the States-General alone competent to decide in the matter of taxes. Registration was enforced, however, by the government, but at the same time Louis XVI. promised the annual publication of an ac- count of the finances, and the convocation of the States-General before five years. The magistrates protested against the violence to which they had been subjected, but the government would not yield. The Parlement was exiled to Troyes on August 15, but re- called on September 20, on the tacit understanding that it would consent to edicts creating a series of gradual and successive loans up to the amount of four hundred millions. A royal session was appointed for November 19. The votes w'ere taken, and the oldest magistrates were in favor of the registration of the last edicts. It appeared certain that there would be a majority in favor of the edicts, when the new keeper of the seals, Lamoignon, persuaded Louis XVI. to order the edicts registered by his express command. The king did so in spite of all remonstrance and then left the chamber. When tlie king had departed, the agitation of the C O N S T I T U T I O N A L M \ A R C II Y 5259 1787-1788 assembly became extreme, and t!ie session was terminated by a decision that the Parlcment would take no part in the illegal registration of the edicts relative to the loans. The king ordered that this decision should be erased frcnn the registers, but its protest was reiterated by the Parlement, which was supported by public opinion and the whole of the French magistracy in its struggle with the government. Brienne perceived that it was only possible to overcome the resistance of the parlements by suppressing those courts, and in conjunction with Lamoignon, the keeper of the seals, he per- suaded the king to agree to a plan which destroyed the political authority of the magistracy. By this scheme an assembly of the principal persons of the kingdom was to be constituted, endowed with all the authority of the plenary courts of the time of Charle- magne. This court was to regulate the general p(.^lice laws, and the edicts, which were no longer to be submitted to tlie parlements, the judicial functions of which were henceforth to be limited. The magistrates heard of this threatening project with the greatest in- dignation, invoked the fundamental although unwritten laws of the kingdom, demanded the regular convocation oi the States-General, protested against arbitrary im])risonments. and decreed their own inviolability. Brienne immediately ol)taincd from the king an order for the arrest of two of the magistrates v.ho were most prom- inent in their opposition, Duval of Eprcmesnil and ]\Iontsabert. Their arrest excited a universal indignation, but on ^May (S the edicts in cjuestion were registered and a court possessed of plenary powers was established. The excitement of public opini(;n con- tinued to increase. It was declared that the members of the new tribunal were connected with the court and that to bestow upon it the right of registration was equivalent to placing the ])ublic for- tunes solely at the mercy of the nn'nistcrs. The provinces of Brit- tany, Beam and Dauphinc distinguished themselves among all by the energy of their resistance. Idie parlement of Rennes protested, and was threatened with forced dissolution. Ci\i! war a]:)pearcd imminent in Jirittan)- and the disturbances in Beam were no less serious. The mountaineers descended armed into the town of Pan, forced the gates of the Palace of justice, w hich had been closed by the king's cjrders, and, terriiied by their threatening cries, the governor himself entreated the parlement to assemble. In Dauphine the disorders were e\en greater. All the provinces were 260 FRANCE 1788 in a state of agitation and almost everywhere the privileged classes, for the sake of preserving their own privileges, gave to the masses of the people a dangerous example of resistance and insurrection. Brienne, not knowing what measures to adopt, convoked an assem- bly of the clergy and asked of it pecuniary assistance, which was refused with a strongly worded declaration against the plenary court. Then, perceiving that the deficit in the treasury increased day by day and that there were no means of replenishing it, he en- deavored to seduce the nation by promises, and to acquire a right to its gratitude by issuing a decree (August 8, 1788), directing the assembling of the States-General for May i, 1789, and suspend- ing until then the action of the plenary court. These concessions were received without thanks and only increased the determina- tion with w^hich what he refused was demanded. The minister, to maintain his position, now^ descended to the lowest expedients. He seized the funds of the Invalides, issued government paper for the state payments, and vainly endeavored to conceal a bank- ruptcy by this disastrous measure. Brienne was resolved, at any price, to remain in power, but a court intrigue overthrew him. Jealous of his influence with the queen, Madame de Polignac de- clared herself his enemy, and the Count of Artois, the king's second brother, demanded his dismissal. The king dismissed Brienne, in 1788, and recalled Necker. The parlements resumed the exercise of their functions, and the edicts were annulled. Necker, having resumed the direction of affairs, was enabled, through the confidence he enjoyed with capitalists, to procure suf- ficient funds for the opening of the States-General. But, skillful as he was as a financier, this minister was not equal, as a politician, to the task of grappling with the perilous circumstances by wdiich France was now surrounded. He long hesitated to grant to the Third Estate a double representation that is to say, a number of deputies equal to those of the two privileged orders together and this vast question being undecided, became in every portion of the kingdom the subject of the most vehement discussions. It excited universal agitation, inflamed the passions of the middle classes, and enabled those who had the greatest interest in obtaining the double representation of the Third Estate to acquire the greatest influence over public opinion. Such w^as the state of things in France when, on Septemljer 27, 1788, the Parlement of Paris registered the edict which convoked the States-General, but decided that the C O N S T I T T^ T I O N A L 3,1 O \ A R C H Y 261 1788-1789 States-General should be called according to the form used at the time of their last assembly in 1614. The deputies at that period were C(jual in numl)cr for each class, and as they i^ave their votes, not individually, but by order, the result of the votes was necessarily in favor of the privileged classes. Xecker's system was to make the latter contribute, in proportion to their fortunes, to the expenses of the state ; and to procure the adoj^ition of this system it W'as necessary that the deputies of the Third Estate should be double in number to those of the representatives of the two other orders, and that the votes should be taken individually. The public had declared almost universally in favor of this o])inion, and the clause added by Parlement to the edict on September 27 deprived it at once of almost all its popularity. The nobility itself became divided into two parties, of which one energetically su])ported the cause of the Third Estate. The other, wdiich numbered in its ranks the Duke of Orleans and most of the gentlemen who had fought in America, formed in all the principal towns associations for the pur- pose of securing the triumph of this cause. "Jdie moment of the crisis drew near wdien the king convoked the second assembly of the notables, to which was submitted the question as to how the States- General should be convoked. It commenced its sittings on No- vember 9, 1788, and, as had been the case with the preceding- one, divided itself into seven committees, one of which alone that presided over by Monsieur the king's brother declared in favor of the double representation of the Third Estate. At last Louis XVI. decided that the deputies of the Third Estate should be e(]ual in number to those ol the other orders together, but left the (juestion of the general method of deliberation in abeyance. This declara- tion w^as received with favor, although it left the ([uestion of the greatest importance undecided. The Third Estate now perceived its strength. It reckoned with gO(Kl reason on the su])port of a portion of the nobility and the clergy, and foresaw that it w^ould be able to control the method of deliberation. The States-General commenced their session on May 4, 1789, at Versailles. The first and most important question to be decided was, whether the votes should be received by orders or in- dividually. By the adoption of the first method the deputies of the Third Estate would have lost the advantage of their numbers. The court, most of the nobility, and many of the clergy considered it of the highest importance that each order should vote separately 262 FRAN C E 1789 on all political questions, but the opinions of some of the nobles, and all the cures among- the deputies of the clergy, were very similar to those of the Third Estate, and the unanimity of opinion and numerical strength of the latter gave it an immense advantage. The latter proceeded to verify their powers, after having invited the nobility and clergy to verify theirs in common with them, and then, at the instigation of Sieyes, they constituted themselves on June 17 a national assembly. This assembly, consisting of the deputies of the Third Estate, sanctioned the temporary levying of existing taxes, consolidated the public debt, nominated a committee of " sub- sistences," and proclaimed the inviolability of its members. The general excitement was extreme when, on June 20, a royal session was announced and under pretense of necessary preparations an order was given to close the hall in which the States held their sit- tings. The violent measures proposed by the court were now evi- dent, and the deputies resolved to prevent their being carried into execution. They followed their president, Bailly, to a neighboring tennis court, and there, with one exception, unanimously swore, with raised hands, that they would not separate until they had bestowed a constitution upon France. Two days afterwards the majority of the clergy joined the deputies of the commons in tlie church of St. Louis, where they had provisionally assembled. Terrified at the immense power over public opinion acquired by the Third Estate by its first proceedings, the party opposed to Necker inspired Louis XVI. with its own terrors and persuaded him to annul the decrees of the assembly, to command the separation of the orders, and to decide alone upon all the reforms which were to be effected by the States-General. Such w^re the preludes to the royal session which took place on June 23. The king was received by a portion of the deputies in silence. lie annulled the acts of the Third Estate and com- manded the orders to me'et on the following day in their separate halls. In spite of the promises contained in a declaration of thirty- five articles, conceding many of the demands made by the coheirs, the Third Estate saw in this action of the government only an attempt to protect the privileged classes and to prevent the forma- tion of a constitution that should be a real check upon the arbitrary power of the ministers. After the departure of the king the mem- bers of the nobility and most of the clergy withdrew, but the commons retained their seats. The assembly persisted in maintain- C N S T I T IT T I N A L M O X ARCH Y 263 1789 in<,'- all its resolulions and, on the motion of Mirabcaii, decreed the inviolability of all its members. From thenceforth the royal an- thority was at an end. The j^reater nnmber of the deputies of the clergy resumed their seats in the assembly. The nobility persisted in their refusal to do so, in spite of the remonstrances of Count Clermont of Tonnerre and the more vigorous exhortations of Lally- Tollendal, the son of the unfortunate General Lally. These men wisely advocated a concession to popular feeling and the necessity of granting to the Third Estate and the millions that its members represented the proportion of rights wdiich justly belonged to them. Idle nobility, ho\ve\er, refused to listen, but on June 25 forty-seven members of the nobility, with the Duke of Orleans at their head, joined the Third Estate; the majority of the clergy had presented itself in the hall of the Estates on the preceding day. The fusion of the three orders, however, in a single assembly was not yet com- plete, and as this circumstance produced an extreme state of agita- tion, Necker again advised union. The queen and many influential persons supported his views. Eouis XVI. yielded, and after June 27 the clergy, the nobility, and the Third Estate formed only one assembly, which was indiscriminately named the national and later the constituent assembly. The deliberations were henceforth gen- eral and the distinction between the orders became extinct. All moral authority having passed from the monarch to the assembly, the advisers of Louis XVI. imprudently persuaded him to have recourse, too late, to force. Troops were assembled in large bodies around Versailles; X^ecker was exiled; ^Marshal Broglie. Galissonniere, the Duke of La Vauguyon, Baron Pireteuil, and the intendant b^oulon were appointed ministers. AW of them were im- bued move or less with the views of the court. The approach of the troops and the exile of X'^ecker produced a great feeling of excite- ment in I^aris. Camille Desmoulins, a young and ardent I'aris lawyer, harangued the populace in the garden of the Palais Royal and exhorted them to rush t() arin^. ddie crowd replied with accla- mations, and he jiroposed that a patriotic color should be adopteil green, the symbol of hope, ddie orator fastened a green sprig in his hat es- pierre jumped forward to reply to them, when a cry arose from every side of "Down with the tyrant!" Ilis arrest was imme- diately proposed. His brother and Lebas requested to be allowed to share his fate, and the assembly unaninnrusly ordered that they should be arrested along with Robespierre, Couthon. Saint-Just and Hanriot. The victory, however, was still uncertain. Robes- pierre and his companions were released and taken to the Hotel de Ville, wdiere the commune had declared for them. Hanriot had fallen into the hands of the committee of public safety, but soon after escaped and gathered a few thousand troops in the square before the Hotel de Ville. The convention now assumed the offen- sive, and put Robespierre and his associates bex'oiul th.c pale of the law. The sections and the clubs had not yet taken his side and the action of the assembly turned the scales against liirn. At mid- night a heavy rain dispersed the armed men gathered in the scjuare of the Hotel de Ville. The battalions of the sections swore to defend the assembly and marched at midnight upon the commune, to which Robespierre had been carried in triumph, and where he now sat motionless, and as though paralyzed by terror. The Hotel de Ville was surrounded witli cries of " Long live the con- vention ! " Despair and rage took possession of those who had been proscribed. Lebas killed himself; young Robespierre threw himself from a third-floor window and survived his fall; Couthon struck himself with a trembling hand; C(jiTinhal overwhelmed I Ian- riot with execrations, and threw him from a window into a sewer, and Robespierre probably attempted to take his own life, but suc- ceeded only in shattering his jawbone. He was seized, together with his colleagues and the jirincipal members of the commune, and on the following day thev were sent without trial to the scaffold. The spectators cursed Robespierre as he was draw n, trembling with fear, to the guillotine; and at the moment wiien his head fell 292 FRANCE 1794-1795 beneath the knife prolonged shouts filled the air. France once more breathed freely, and the reign of terror was at an end. Two new parties were now formed : that of the Committees and that of the Mountain, which had contributed with Tallien to the victory of July 2^. The first party relied on the Jacobin club and the suburbs, and the second on the majority of the conven- tion and the national guard, or armed sections. A great number of prisoners were set free during the days which followed the fall of Robespierre, and seventy-two members of the commune perished on the scaffold with Fouquier-Tinville and other prominent men among the terrorists. The members of the revolutionary tribunal were replaced and the powers of the committees were diminished. The odious law relative to the criminal procedure was abolished. The convention recalled to its assembly seventy-three deputies who had been proscribed for having protested against the condemnation of the Girondists ; revoked the decrees of expulsion issued against the priests and nobles; reestablished public worship; suppressed the maximum, and had the bust of Marat in its own Iiall broken. A new crop of evils, however, was produced by the sudden reac- tion. Millions of assignats had been sent into circulation, and when there were no longer any violent laws to enforce their cur- rency they immediately fell fifteen times below their first value; coin disappeared from circulation, and the prodigious fall in the value of the assignats was followed by a wild system of speculation which ruined a multitude of families. Monopoly succeeded the terrible law of the maximum, and the farmers avenged themselves for their long and cruel oppression by holding back provisions of all kinds. Famine now made its appearance, and the lower orders of the suburbs regretted the time when the system of government gave them bread and power, and once more had recourse to tumults. At last, on April 20, 1795, a. savage, hungry mob of armed men and women, who cared little for order and justice, and desired the renewal of the support that the revolutionary government had afforded them, marched upon the convention, which, taken by sur- prise, called the sections to arms. The doors of the hall of assem- bly were broken through, and the mob invaded the tribunes, crying out, " Bread ! and the constitution of '93 ! " The hall of the assem- bly speedily became a field of battle, and a few of the deputies, who were favoraljle to the insurrectionary movement, took the opportu- nity of seizing the bureaux, and decreeing by themselves alone the THE FIRST REPUBLIC 293 1795 articles contained in the insurgents' manifesto. But the battahons of the sections now arrived, possessed themselves of the Carrousel, entered the hall of assembly with fixed bayonets, and drove the crowd before them. The members returned in a body, annulled the votes which had been passed during the tumult, and ordered the arrest of fourteen of their number who had been accomplices of the insurgents. Three days after, the suburbs of Paris, which had supported the insurrection, were surrounded and disarmed. The convention then suppressed the revt)lutionary committee and abolished the constitution of 1793. Thus ended the rule of the peo- ple, and from this time the Girondist party became predominant in the assembly. During the last days of 1794 the cold became excessive, and the French troops, under Pichegru, crossed the Meuse and Waal on the ice, and entered Holland at several points, upon which the Duke of York and his army retreated in disorder upon Deventer, while the Prince of Orange remained immovable at Gorcum. Tn a short time the wIkjIc of Holland was conquered. The stadtholder fled to England and the States-General governed the republic, which formed a close alliance with France. Prussia, being now threat- ened, concluded a peace at Basel, and Spain signed a treaty which provided that the French conquests in the peninsula should be exchanged for the Spanish portion of St. Domingo. On the Rhine, Luxemburg was reduced by famine on June 24. but it w'as not until September 6 that the French could cross the river, the right bank of which w^as defended by the Austrians under Clairfait and Wurmser. The passage of the river, however, which was effected simultaneously by Jourdan and Pichegru, was rendered of little effect by the latter, who, having come to an understanding with the Prince of Conde, the leader of the emigrant party, allow^ed himself to be beaten disgracefully by Clairfait, and then shut himself up in Mannheim. Clairfait now marched against Jourdan, wdio was forced to retreat and cross the river, while the troops investing Mayence were compelled by the Austriatis to raise the siege and retire to the foot of the Vosges, on the left bank of the Rhine. The important treaty concluded with S])ain enabled the armies of the Pyrenees and of the maritime Alps to effect a junction, and Scherer, who had superseded Kellermann in the chief command, now attempted a bold stroke. Massena, by his orders, crossed the crest of the Apennines and divided the Piedmontese and the Austrians, 294 FRANCE 1795 while Serriirier deceived Colli, the Piedmontese general, by a feigned attack, and drove the Anstrians into the basin of the Loano. A complete xictory was the result of this skillful maneuver. The republican arms were no less successful in the Vendee, where the Marcjuis of Puisaye, the active agent of the royalist party in Brittany, requested and obtained the aid of England, and Admiral Bridport set sail with two divisions of emigrants, commanded by the counts of Plervilly and Sombreuil, a third follow'ing under the orders of the Count of Artois. An engagement took place off Belle- Isle between the fleet of Admiral Bridport and that of the republi- can admiral, Villaret-Joyeuse. Bridport, having gained the vic- tory, effected the disembarkation of the two divisions in the Bay of Ouiberon, near Vannes. The emigrants immediately marched against the republican army, but were repulsed, and mowed down by artillery. A storm had driven away the fleet and retreat was im- possible. Hervilly was slain, and Sombreuil and eight hundred of his troops, compelled to capitulate, were tried by military law and shot by order of Tallien. who would not recognize the capitulation. England made a fresh effort to support the civil war in the west, and an English fleet carried thither a French prince, the Count of Artois, and several regiments. At the summons of Charette all the coast of Brittany took up arms in the expectation of the prince's disembarkation, but after having remained for some weeks at Isle- Dieu, the Count of Artois returned to England without having set foot on the Continent. The royal cause seemed desperate, and in this year it had also lost the dauphin, the son of Louis XVI., who had been proclaimed King of France by the royalists after January 21 by the title of Louis XVII. The early death of this young prince was attributed to the cruel treatment he had suffered at the hands of a shoemaker named Simon, with whom he had been placed by order of the convention, and took place in June, 1795.^ Plis right to the throne passed to his uncle, Louis Stanislas Xavier, Count of Provence, whom the emigrants and foreign powers 1 li IS not at all certain that Louis XVII. died in prison. This is one of the disputed points of revolutionary history. The child buried as Louis XVII. could not have been he, as was sufficiently demonstrated a few years ago by an examination of the skeleton. If he escaped, the Republicans would wish to conceal it. The brother of Louis XVI. gladly accepted the report of the child's death, as it opened to him the way to the throne. In later years a person actually appeared claiming to be the young prisoner, but Louis XVIII. refused to recognize him. T H E FIRST R E PUBLIC 295 1795 thenceforth recog-nized as K'uv^ of I'^rance, under the title of I.oui.^ XVIII. A strong fechng- against the convention was now dominant among the middle class of Paris and the southern departments for the crimes it had sanctioned and permitted. Serious disturbances took place in many parts of France, and the reaction placed the convention in peril within the kingdom, while it was so triumphant abroad. The emigrant party, having lost all hope of being able to overthrow it by force, now^ had recourse to the sections of Paris, and endeavored to bring about a counter-revolution by means of the constitution of the year III. (1795), which placed the legislative power in two councils, that of the five hundred and that of the an- cients, while the executive power was intrusted to a directory of five members. The initiative in the proposal of laws was given to the five hundred, and the power of either passing or rejecting them resided in the council of the ancients. The five directors were chosen by the two councils and in each year the directory was renewed by a new member. The memories of the reign of terror had roused a reactionary feeling in the middle class against the convention, and its members, perceiving the danger of their position if the new councils should be chosen in accordance with the i)revailing opinions, in order to secure for themselves a majority in the choice of the directors, issued decrees in August, 1795, ordering that two-thirds of the members of the convention should be members of the new councils. This was the signal for a serious commotion. The royalist chiefs of the sections and the journalists loudly exclaimed against the convention's tyranny ; the burgesses composing the nati(3nal guard nominated a college of electors and swore to defend it to the death. The convention, justly alarmed, declared its session permanent, summoned troops to its aid, and dissolved the college of electors. Provoked to active hostilities by an attempt to suppress one of the sections, forty thousand burgesses were soon under arms, ready to march against the convention, llie latter made Bar- ras commander-in-chief, who obtained the assistance of a young general who had particularly distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon Napoleon Bonaparte. It was he who in October, 1795, made the preparations for the defense of the convention. The in- surgents advanced in several columns, and a most murderous con- flict took place at the Pont Royal and in the Rue St. Honore; the 996 FRANCE 1795 artillery at these two principal points broke the lines of the in- surgents and put them to flight. This victory enabled the convention immediately to devote its attention to the formation of the councils proposed by it, two-thirds of which were to consist of its own members. The members of the directory were next chosen, and the deputies of the convention appointed La Reveillere-Lepeaux, Carnot, Rewbel, Le Tourneur, and Barras. Immediately after this the convention declared its ses- sion at an end, after it had had three years of existence, from Sep- tember 21, 1792, to October 28, 1795. Chapter XVIII THE DIRECTORY AND THE RISE OE NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 1795- 1799 THE', directors were all. with the exception of Carnot, of moderate capacity, and this tended to render their position the more difficult. Their first care was to establish their power, and they succeeded in doing this by frankly following at first the rules laid down by the constitution. In a short time industry and commerce began to raise their heads, the supply of provisions became tolerably abundant and the clubs were abandoned for the workshops and the fields. The directory exerted itself to revive agriculture, industry, and the arts, reestablished the public exhibitions, and founded primary, central and normal schools. The wealthy classes, however, were still the victims, under the government of the directory, of violent and spoliative measures. The necessities of the republic were so vast and imperious that to meet them the govcrnmen.t had recourse to forced loans, and to territorial edicts, the latter of which were to be employed for the purpose oi withdrawing the assignats from circulation on the scale of thirty to one, and to l)ring coin into circulation. They possessed the advantage of being immediately exchangeable for the national domains which they represented and furnished the government with a tempc^rar)' resource. lUtt they subsequently fell into discredit, and conduced to a prodigious bank- ruptcy of thirty-three thousand millions. The war in the west was now only carried on by a few leaders. the chief of whom were Charette and Stofllet. floche vanquished the former and took him prisoner, and the latter was soon after given up to the republicans by treachery. Soon after these execu- tions most of the insurrectionary leaders laid (k)wn their arms and sought refuge in England. In 1796, again, the glory of h^rance was solely supported by its armies. Carnot had formed a plan of cam- paign in accordance with which the armies of the Rhine, of the Sambre and Aleuse, and of Italy might march upon Vienna in con- '29T 298 FRANCE 1796 cert and afford each other mutual support. The first two were commanded by generals who were ahxady celebrated iMoreau and Jourdan ; the third was intrusted to the young hero of Toulon and defender of the convention in October, 1795, Napoleon Bonaparte. He arrived at his headquarters at Nice on March 27, and sixteen days after gave battle to the ^Vustrians at Montenotte and defeated them. This victory rendered Bonaparte master of the pass of Montenotte and of the crest of the Apennines. He now had in front of him the Austrians, who rallied at Diego and guarded the road to Lombardy, and on his left the Piedmontese, who occupied the formidable gorges of Millesimo, the valley of the Bormida, and intercepted the road to Piedmont. On April 13 the conflict was re- sumed. An Austrian division was dispersed on that day at Mil- lesimo by Massena and Augereau and on the 15th Bonaparte in person completely wiped out at Diego the remnant of the corps that had been defeated at Alontenotte. Bonaparte now hastened in pursuit of the Piedmontese, and was again victorious at Monclovi, April 22, after which King Victor Amadeus, in fear for his capital and his crown, made offers of peace, and Bonaparte signed an armis- tice by which he was put in possession of Coni, Tortona, and Alex- andria, w^ith the immense magazines which they contained, while he preserved his communications with France. Bonaparte followed up his success. He deceived Beaulieu, the Austrian general, by feigned maneuvers, crossed the Po and laid the Duke of Parma under contribution. He then marched rapidly against that part of Beaulieu's army which occupied Lodi, on the Adda, and forced the passage of the bridge of Lodi, under a per- fect storm of round shot and musketry, and Beaulieu retreated, leaving behind him Cremona, Milan, Pavia, Como, and Cassano, wdiich the French entered. Bonaparte immediately seized the im- portant line of the Adige, aud then retraced his steps to receive the sul)mission of Genoa and Modena. The court of Naples, ruled by Queen Caroline, the sister of the unfortunate IMarie iVntoinette, and inspired with the most bitter hatred against France, had com- menced formidable preparations for war, but it trembled at the news of Bonaparte's victories, and resigned itself to neutrality. The Pope himself was compelled to submit, and Bonaparte levied upon him, as a contribution of peace, twenty-one million francs and a large number of the most famous works of art in his museums. At the same time that Bonaparte was conducting the Italian THE DIRECTORY 299 1796 campaign French armies were contesting witli tlic Austrians the possessicni of southern Germany. Ahjreaii, wlio had crossed the Rhine at Kehl at the head of the army of the Rhine, gave battle to the Archdnke Charles at Rastatt, between the Rhine and the Black Mountains, and defeated him. This induced the archduke to fall back hastily upon the Danube between Ulm and Ratishon. allowing Aloreau to march against him by the valley of the Necker, and Jourdan. at the head of the army of the Sambre and ATeuse by that of th.e Main, and then, towards the middle of the year 1796, the h^rench armies, masters of Italy and of half of Germany as far as the Danube, threatened to invade the rest. The old Austrian general, \A'urmser, now entered the Tyrol with 70,000 men and prepared to fcjrce the lines of the Adige, to raise the blockade of jMantua, and to crush the French army of Italy, shut up in a narrow space between the Lake of Garda on the north, the Adige on the east, and the Po on the south. He sent one army corps, under Ouasdanovitch, to operate to the west of the Lake of Garda, while he himself, with two others, advanced along the banks of the Adige. Bonaparte, whose headciuarters were at Castelnuovo, at the southern end of tlie lake, having learned that the positions of Salo, Corona, and Tivoli, which defend its two shores, had been taken, and that he was on the point of being surrounded, gave up the siege of Mantua, and recalled in all haste the division of Serrurier, which was em])loyed in its blockade. It was first of all important to check the progress of Ouasdanovitch, who was on the point of entering the plain to the west of the lake, for the purpose of closing against the French the road to Milan. Bonaparte therefore crossed the Mincio, and marched with the bulk of his fcjrces to Lonato, where the Austrian columns were repulsed and Salo reoccupied by the French. Bonaparte immediately changed the front of his army and hastened to meet \\'urmser. Each of the opposing armies rested, one wing on the I^ake of Garda and another on the heights of Castiglione; and it was on the celebrated ])lain3 of the latter n;une that was ncnv to be decided the fate of Itrdy. The action commenced at daybreak on August 5. Bonaparte had ordered the division of Serrurier to make a detour and attack the enemy in the rear ; and as soon as he knew by the sound of Ser- rurier's cannon that he had accomplished his object, he launched the divisions of Augereau and Alassena against the Austrian center. I'he enemy, caught between two fires, recoiled, and W'urmser, having 300 FRANCE 1796 ordered a retreat, reentered the Tyrol, after having lost twenty thousand men, and Italy. Bonaparte then entered the mrjuntains of the Tyrol in pursuit of the Austrians, but Wurmser had received reinforcements and resumed the offensive. The two armies met at Roveredo, and Bona- parte was again victorious, taking the whole of the Austrian artil- lery and four thousand prisoners. W^u'mser descended the valley of the Brenta to force the Adige and throw^ himself between the French army in the Tyrol and Mantua, which had been again block- aded. Bonaparte followed him into the basin of the Brenta, attacked him unexpectedly, and obtained a victory at Bassano with the divi- sions of Augereau and Massena. Wurmser then crossed the Adige at Legnano, forced the lines of the blockading division in front of Mantua, and shut liimself up in that city with fifteen thousand men. Bonaparte, relying upon the popular hatred for despotic gov- ernments, imposed a republican form of government on all his conquests. He united Modena with the territories of Reggio and the legations of Bologna and Ferrara, and formed with them on the south of the Po a Cispadane republic, while on the north of that river he made of Lombardy a Transpadane republic. These two republics formed in the following year but one republic, under the name of the Cisalpine republic. All Italy trembled before the van- quisher of Austria. Its princes scrupulously observed the treaties which they had made with the French republic, and at the conclusion of the last campaign the court of Naples tremblingly signed a treaty which was too soon to be broken (October, 1796). Moreau reached the banks of the Danube at the beginning of August, and Jourdan followed the course of the Naab, one of its tributaries. The Archduke Charles, after having been vanquished by Moreau at Neresheim, concentrated all his forces on the Danube and resolved to prevent the junction of Jourdan and Moreau, and to defeat them one after the other with superior forces. The army of the Sambre and Meuse, under Jourdan, being the feeblest, the archduke advanced against that. Jourdan halted to give battle at Wurzburg, but he was vanquished and driven in disorder upon the Rhine. In the meantime Moreau was approaching ]\Iunich, when he heard of the reverses suffered by Jourdan. The archduke returned against liim by forced marches, and the army of the Rhine, put in peril in its turn, had to fall back. Moreau ordered the retreat and reentered France, after having gained in the Black Moun- T II E I) I 11 K C T () R Y 301 1796 tains the battle of Biberach, and without having allowed himself to be once outmaneuvered. This retreat left the army of Italy exposed alone to the attacks of the Austrians, and consecjuently to great danger. Davidovilch had assembled about twenty thousand men in the Tyrol, and Al- vinczy was advancing with forty thousand on the Piave and the Brenta. To resist their sixty thousand troops Bonaparte had only thirty-eight thousand, of which twelve thousand were in the Tyrol, under Vaubois, ten thousand on the Brenta and Adige, under Mas- sena and Augereau, and the rest around Alantua. It was not long before the Austrians and the French again came into collision. Davidovitch defeated Vaubois and forced him to fall back as far as Corona and Rivoli, and this reverse forced Bonaparte, although victorious over Alvinczy on the Brenta, to retreat to Verona. Al- vinczy hastened to occupy a formidable position in front of Caldiero, which Bonaparte endeavored in vain to carry by fighting the un- fortunate battle of Caldiero, after which he was again compelled to retreat to Verona. He did not remain long in this city, but issu- ing forth on November 14, by the southern gate, he crossed the Adige at Ronco, some leagues to the south, returned to the south by the causeways which lead from Ronco across the marshes beyond the Adige to the positions then occupied by the eiicmy, and was on the point of making his troops defile by the enemy's rear, when they were checked at the bridge of Arcole, on the Alpone, by some troops that were posted there. The enemy, aroused by the sound of sharp fighting, hastened up from Caldiero, and a formidable array of artillery defended the opposite bank. The bridge was hotly con- tested, and it was not until the village on tlie opposite bank was taken by a French division that had crossed the river by a ford below Arcole that its passage was forced. A terrible battle now commenced, which lasted tlircc days and resulted in the complete defeat of Alvinczy. Bcjiiaparte then reentered Verona in triumi)h, and immediately marched against Ouasdanovitch, who had taken the positions of Corona and Rivoli, and had driven Vaubois as far as Castelnuovo. He attacked him on all sides, and comj^elled him to retreat in disorder into the gorges of the Tyrol. The campaign, however, w-as not yet ended. Austria knew^ that W'urmser was without resources in Mantua, and that to lose this city was to give up Lombardy to France. Emboldened by the success achieved by Prince Charles against the armies of the Rhine and Sambre 302 FRANCE 1796-1797 and Aleuse, she resolved once more to dispute with Bonaparte the possession of Italy. With this object she intrusted another army to Alvinczy and urged the Pope to send his own to the aid of ]\Ian- tua, with CoIH for its general. In the meantime, however, Bona- parte had received the reinforcements which he had so long expected, and had about forty-two thousand men at his command. He first took measures for holding the troops of the Roman states in check, and then prepared to meet the enemy on the Adige. Alvinczy, with forty-five thousand troops, was descending from the Tyrol by the route which runs along the foot of Montebaldo, which separates the Lake of Garda from the Adige, and a small body of troops marched along the opposite shore. The famous military position of Rivoli was the only one at which the enemy could be held in check between the lake and the river; and Bonaparte, perceiving the importance of this position, determined to await the Austrians there. Alvinczy's troops in vain made assault after assault upon the plateau on which the French were posted, and after two days' hard and continuous fighting w'cre defeated and forced to take refuge in the mountains. Massena immediately hastened towards Provera, who, with another army of twenty thousand Austrians, had crossed the Adige and marched to the relief of Alantua. A second battle took place opposite the suburb Favorite, while Serrurier repulsed a furious attempt made by Wurmser to force his lines, and drove him back into ]\Iantua. Provera, surrounded by Victor and Massena, surrendered with six thousand men. These battles decided the fate of Italy, and Wurmser, reduced to extremities in ]\Iantua, gave up the city and his sword to the young victor. In the meantime the Pope had sent a division of his army to Mantua. Bonaparte marched against it and defeated it near Imla, at Castel-Bolognese. The remainder of the small Pontifical army, commanded by the Austrian General Colli, surrendered before Ancona on the approach of a French division under General Vic- tor. Ancona opened its gates and the capital and its arsenal fell into the power of the French. Bonaparte and his army marched against Rome and had already reached Tolentino, when the Pope offered to negotiate, and a treaty of peace was signed in that city between the Holy Father and the French republic. By this treaty the Pope surrendered to France Avignon, the Comitat Venaissin, and the territory of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna. He also engaged to pay a fresh war contribution of fifteen millions, and to THE DIRKC^TORY 303 1797 abstain from entering into any alliance with llic enemies of the republic. Having- settled the affairs of Italy, Bonaparte 1)cgan his march against the Austrian capital, having the arclulnke in front of him. Carinthia, Styria, and Friuli were rajjidly snhdned ; terror reigned at Vienna. But it did not seem wise to jiusli the Austrians too hard. Bonaparte made overtures to the archduke and an armistice was finally signed at Leoben. ".According to its secret articles, Austria was to cede Milan and the duchy of ]\ro(lena td the newly created republic of Lombardy, while Pfclgium was to he gi\en to I'^rance ; Austria was, on the other hand, to ac(|uire the mainland of Venice as far as the Oglio; besides its dependencies (mi the eastern shore of the Adriatic, for which Venice was to be indemnified by the bestowal of the three former Pajxd delegations, l^)()1(\gna, h'errara and Romagna." Xa]X3leon thereupon toc^k possession of V^em'ce. having fomented trouble in. the republic that he might have cause for interference. Fie signed, at length, with .-\ustria (October 17. 1797). the Peace of Campo-Formio. In accordance with this treaty the emperor surrendered to France Belgium and Alavcnce, and consented that she should talce the Ionian Islands. It also recognized the Cisalpine republic. France, in return, gave up to Austria, on the east of the Adige, Veifice. with several of the Venetian possessions, Istria, Dalmatia and the niouths of the Cat- taro. Immediately after the signature o\ the ]ieace with Austria a congress w^as opened at Rastatt, to negotiate another with the German empire. The elections of 1797, of the year V., as it was termed in repul)lican h>ance, were made for the most ])art under the inHuencc of the reactionary party, which saw with terror that the exccuti\-e power was in the hands of men who had taken part in the excesses and crimes of the convention. Pichegru was made ])resident of the council of five hundred, and l)rn-])e-Alarl)ois president of the ancients. Le Tourneur was replaced in the director\- by Barthe- lemy, who. as well as Carnot. was o]ti)(tsed to \iolcnt measures; l)ut they only formed in the director.ate a minority which was power- less against Barras, Rewbel and La Keveillere, who soon entered upon a struggle with the two councils. The latter, among whom were many royalists and a still greater number of moderate^, as they were called, had voted pardons for many classes of proscribed persons, and consented U) the reestablishment of freedom of wor- 304 FRANCE 1797 ship in France. These and other measures gave offense to Barras and his two supporters in the directory, and they pretended to regard these two parties of moderates and royahsts as one, and falsely represented them as conspiring in common for the over- throw of the republic and the reestablishment of monarchy. But there was a more important point in which the councils incurred the displeasure of the directory, and which led to the interference of the army in affairs at home. The councils saw with anxiety their generals revolutionizing Europe, and creating abroad a state of things incompatible with the spirit of the old monarchies, which threatened to lead to a perpetual state of war between the republic and the other European powers. The council of five hundred energetically demanded that the legislative power should have a share in determining questions of peace and war. No general had exercised, in this respect, a more arbitrary power than had Bona- parte, who took offense at these pretensions on the part of the council of five hundred and entreated the government to look to the army for support against the councils and the reactionary press. He even sent to Paris, as a support to the policy of the directors, General Augereau, to whom the directory gave the command of the military division of Paris. The crisis was now approaching. A few influential members of the two councils endeavored to obtain some changes in the ministry, as a guarantee that the directory would pursue a line of conduct more in conformity with the wishes of the majority, but the directory, on the contrary, summoned to the ministry nien who were hostile to the moderate party, and henceforth a coup d'etat appeared inevitable. The directors now marched some regiments upon the capital, in defiance of a clause of the constitution which prohibited the presence of troops within a distance of twelve leagues of Paris. The councils burst forth into reproaches and threats against the directors, to which the latter replied by fiery addresses to the armies and to the councils themselves. It was in vain that the directors Carnot and Barthelemy endeavored to quell the rising storm; their three colleagues refused to listen to them and fixed September 6, 1797. for the execution of their project. During the night pre- ceding that day Augereau surrounded the Tuileries, in which the councils held their sittings, with twelve thousand troops and forty pieces of cannon. He arrested with his own hands General Pichegru, the president of the council of five hundred, and other T II E D III E C T R Y 805 1797-1798 iiiep.ibers of the council were driven away ur taken prisoner., just as they were on tlieir way lo tlie Tuileries. Tlic (h" rectors now [)ubhshecl a letter written by Moreau. which rexealed l'ichei;ru's treason, and at the same time nominated a committee for the ]nir- pose of watching- over the jiublic safety. Tn accordance with this law, which was declared to be one of public necessity, sixty-tlve l)ersons. members of the councils and oi the directory, were c^ju- demned to be transported to the fatal district of Sinnamari. The directors also had the laws passed in faxor of the priests and emi- grants reversed and annulled the elections of forty departments. Merlin of Douai and h^ran^ois of Xeufchateau were chosen as suc- cessors to Carnot and Barthelemy, who had been banished and proscribed by their colleagues. This revolution preceded by a few days only the Treaty of Campo-Formio, which had been signed by Bonaparte against the w ishes of the directors. The latter could not see without alarm a young general raised to the highest rank by a single camjxiign arbitrarily deciding questions of peace and war, but public opinion exulted in his triumphs, and the directory, as they did not dare to disavow him, wished to appear to share his glory by bestowdng upon him in Paris the honors which no general had hitherto received. A triumphal fete was therefore prepared for the ratifica- tion of the Treaty of Campo-Formio. This iiu])osing ceremony took place in the palace of the Luxembourg, and here Xapoleon Bona- parte, the young general who had raised the glory of the French arms to a height never reached before, and who was destined to hold such a prominent position in the history of iM-ance. llrsi sti.od face to face, in a position of the highest honor, with the people (jver whom he was socjn to sway the im])erial scepter. The Treaty of Campo-Formio and tlie C()iif^ d'clat of September raised for a short time the power of the dictators, among whom Treilhard succeeded Franc^ois de Xeufchaleau. to a great height, but its strength, which was more a|)paront than real, rested entirelv on the army, and this situation compelled tlie directors to kee]) troops in the lield and continue the war. It was determined to invade Egypt, and the directors intrusted Bona[)arte with the conv mand of the expedition, because it rcmo\ed from J\aris a man \\liom they feared. lie set forth from Toulon with a ileet of four hun- dred transports carrying 40,000 troops, and i)rotected bv sixtv- seven vessels of war, and a [)ortion of the army of Italy. The licet 806 FRANCE f798 set sail on May 19, 1798, nnder the command of Admiral Brueys, and first of all took possession of the island of Malta, which then belonged to the Order of the Knights of St. John, Prior to tliis, however, the directory had exercised an unwar- rantable interference in the affairs of Switzerland and Rome. The government was in a condition of extreme difficulty, and as it could provide neither for the support of the army nor the expenses of the state by legitimate means, it had recourse to those which were violent and illegal, and to unjust and rapacious proceedings towards other nations. It coveted the treasure of the city of Berne, valued at from eight to twenty millions, and the riches existing in Rome and all the resources, whether in money or material of war, pos- sessed by Piedmont. These three states were allies of France, and the directory formed a pretext for laying hands upon their pos- sessions. It had long since aroused the revolutionary spirit in Switzerland, and in January, 1798, had openly offered its protec- tion to the democratic party in Switzerland against the aristocracy, which only exercised authority In the cantons by means of the magisterial offices in its possession. By its intrigues and incen- diary proclamations it threw the country into a state of disorder, then marched troops into it, and, under pretense of freeing Switzer- land from every kind of oppression, seized the treasury at Berne and crushed the inhabitants beneath the burden of forced contri- butions. Several portions of Switzerland and the free town of Geneva were violently annexed to the French republic. Some can- tons which had not enjoyed equal rights with others to which they were in a measure subject were declared to be on a footing of com- plete equality with them. An assembly, convoked in Aarau, voted for tlie whole of Switzerland a constitution modeled after that of France and placed the executive power in the hands of a Helvetian directory. This constitution was rejected by the small cantons and threw all Switzerland into a state of disturbance. The French army was directed to reestablish order, and to enforce obedience to the new constitution. This directory at the same time brought about a revolution in the Roman states. It directed its ambassador at Rome to display, contrary to usual custom, the flag of the repub- lic in front of his mansion. This provoked a popular demonstra- tion against the ambassador, and the French General Duphot per- ished on the very threshold of the embassy in the tumult which he was endeavoring to quell. For this the directory resolved to exact THE DIRECTORY 307 1798 vengeance at the point of tlie sword, and General Berthicr was ordered to march upon Rome. A French corps entered the city unresisted; the temporal autliority of the Pope was declared ahol- ished and replaced by a republican government ; the public treasury was seized; the churches and convents were robbed and the Pope, Pius VI,, was made prisoner. He was dragged into exile to Valence, where he died (August 20, 1799), imploring pardon f(jr his enemies and blessing France, from which he had suffered so many injuries. The invasion of Switzerland and the Roman states excited the indignation and just alarm of the European powers. Tliey again formed an alliance against France, and the celebrated English min- ister, William Pitt, induced Austria and Russia to become members of the new coalition. The attack on Egvpt caused the Ottoman Porte to join this league, and the court of Naples did so also, and declared war against France in November, 1798. The directors immediately marched an army into Italy, but before invading the south they resolved to take Piedmont from Charles Emmanuel TV., the son and successor of Victor Amadeus ITT., who had faithfully observed the treaties concluded by his father with France. The directors had already excited in the city of Genoa a revolutionary movement, and the Genoese state had become, under the protection of France, th.c Ligurian republic. A similar revolution was set on foot in Piedmont by French agents, and at last Charles Emmanuel was compelled to abdicate the throne of Piedmont and retire with his family to tlie island of Sardinia, the last remnant of his possessions, where he protested against the shameful violence to which he had been subjected by the directory. A French armv now marched upon Naples and compelled the king to retire to Sicily. The kingdom of Naples became the Parthenopean republic, and the whole of Italy was for some time in the power of the French armies. The directorial government, although victorious abroad, and possessed apparently of arbitrary power, had in reality but a doubt- ful tenure of office in France. The violent democrats, by tlie elec- tions of 1797, had, it is true, gained tlie ascendency in the council of the five hundred, but as the directors had defied all law by the coup d'ciat of September 6, they could now only suppress violence by violence, and at length roused jiuhlic opinion against them. Tlicir situation became more and ukm-c perilous, and if the resources of 308 FRANCE 1798-1799 the government appeared immense, the obstacles against which they had to struggle were still greater. They had to govern not only France, but Holland, which had expelled the stadtholder and become the Batavian republic, Switzerland, and the many republics into wdiich Italy was now divided, while for want of a proper organiza- tion they could obtain neither men nor money. It was, neverthe- less, necessary to defend these various kingdoms, for war was immi- nent. The reestablishment of peace indeed was impossible, for Austria and England were more terrified at the revolutionary doc- trines of France than at its arms, and there could be no doubt that the Russian and Austrian armies would speedily march against Holland, Switzerland, and Italy. The directory resolved to antici- pate them, and with this object distributed the French armies from the mouth of the Rhine to the gulf of Tarentum. Ten thousand men defended Holland under General Brune ; the army of the Rhine was confined to Bernadotte; that of the Danube, consisting of forty thousand men, to Jourdan; Massena occupied Switzerland with thirty thousand troops ; Scherer commanded the army of Italy, which now amounted to fifty thousand men, and Macdonald was at the head of that of Naples. It was on the Danube and the Adige that the Austrlans were about to make their principal efforts, and the directory, in their anxiety to anticipate the enemy, ordered Jourdan to advance as far as the sources of the Danube, and Scherer to cross the Adige and to traverse the defiles of the Tyrol. The Archduke Charles defeated Jourdan at Stockach, in Marcii, 1799, and compelled him to fall back upon the Rhine in the direction of the Black Forest, while Scherer, in attempting to cross the Adige, was vanquished on the plains of Magnano, and after having been beaten in a number of combats, which resulted in the loss of the Adige, the iMincio and the Adda, and the reduction of his army to twenty thousand men, he resigned the command to Moreau. The illustrious general, v;ho was in disgrace with the directors, and who had been made a simple general of division under vScherer, never displayed more talent, coolness, presence of mind, and force of character than in tlie terrible position in whidi Scherer's rash- ness had placed the army. Moreau first of all covered Milan and then marched to cross the Po. Maintaining a formidable position at every lialt, he concentrated his forces below Alexandria, at the confluence of the To and the Tanaro, and took up an admirable THE DIRECTORY 809 1799 position at the foot of the Genoese mountains, there to awc'iit the arrival of Macdonald with the troops under his command. ]\Iacdonald, so lont^ impatiently expected, at length, on June i8, 1799, met Suvarov who had come to the aid of the Aus- trians with sixty thousand men in the valley of the Trcbbia and unfortunately gave him battle before he had completely effected his junction with Moreau. Macdonald was driven back beyond the Apennines upon Nova. Moreau hastened to his support, but could only cover his retreat. Italy, as well as Germany, was now lost to the French. The confederates, commanded by the Archduke Charles, now attempted to cross the barrier of Switzerland, defended by Massena, while the Duke of York landed in Holland with forty thousand men. The elections of April, 1799, were in favor of the democrats, while at the same time Sieyes, the chief opponent of the directory, succeeded Rewbel. The animosity of the councils to the directory caused the substitution in that body of Gohier. ex-minister of jus- tice. General MouHns, and Roger Ducos for Treilhard, ^NTerlin of Douai and La Reveillere. Henceforth Sieyes, sujiported bv Roger- Ducos, the council of ancients, the army and the middle classes, sought to destroy what remained of the constitution of the year III. The support of a victorious general was needed, and Bonaparte opportunely presented himself. The Kgvtian expediti(in had been brilliant. The Mamelukes, who alone made an intrepid resistance, were defeated at Chebreiss and at the foot of the I^yramids. Cairo opened its gates, Rosetta and Damietta submitted, and the Mame- lukes retired into upper Egypt. In the meantime. Admiral Brueys having imprudently posted the French navy in the roadstead of Aboukir, the English Admiral Nelson bore down upon it and almost entirely destroyed it (July, 1798). In spite of this great disaster, Bonaparte completed the subjugation of Egypt and then entered upon that of Syria, in the hcipe of penetrating as far as India and striking the English at the source of their power. His army marched upon Gaza, wdiich opened its gates. Jaffa and Caifa were carried, and Saint Jean d'Acrc invested. As Bonaparte, however, was without siege artillery, he failed to take this town, which was defended by the English commodore. Sir Sidney Smith. Junot vanquished the Turks at Nazareth, and ]'>onaparte, supported by Kleber and Murat, obtained the celebrated victory of Mount Tabor, after which he raised the siege of Saint Jean d'Acre and returned to 310 FRANCE 1799 Cairo, where he learned, through the journals, the unfortunate posi- tion of the repuhhc and the change in the directory. Anarchy reigned in France; the royalists of the west and the south had again risen against the directors. Italy was lost, Joubert had been killed, and the French defeated in the bloody battle of Novi, and the allies were marching towards the French frontiers through Holland and Switzerland, where they were stopped by Brnne and Massena. Bonaparte having learned the condition of affairs and the state of public feeling, resolved to return to France immediately. He was preceded thither by the report of a fresh and brilliant victory. Eighteen thousand Turks having made an attack in the roadstead of Aboukir, Bonaparte, supported by Murat, Lannes, and Bessieres, routed and annihilated them. Directly after this he set out, leaving Kleber in command of the army in Egypt, traversed the Mediterranean in the frigate Miiiron, escaped the English fleet as by a miracle, and disembarked in the gulf of Frejus on October 9, 1799, a few days after the celebrated victories of Zurich and Berghem, the first of which had been obtained by Massena over the Russians, while the second had been won in Hol- land by General Brune over the Duke of York. An alliance was soon formed between Bonaparte and Sieyes, with the view of overthrowing the constitution. The former, having obtained the military command of the division of Paris by the influence of Sieyes and his supporters, immediately attacked the directors by his proclamations and word of mouth, accusing them of having destroyed France by their acts. Sieyes and Roger-Ducos proceeded to the Tuileries on November 8, and laid down their autliurity. Their three colleagues attempted to resist, but Barras, in despair, sent in his resignation, while ]\Ioulins and Gohier were made prisoners. Now there commenced a struggle between Bona- parte and the council of five hundred. On November 9 the legisla- tive corps proceeded to Saint Cloud, accompanied by a strong mili- tary force. Bonaparte presented himself, first of all, to the council of the ancients, and then, when summoned to take the oath (A allegiance to the constitution, declared that it was vicious, that the directory was incapable, and appealed to his companions in arms. He afterwards proceeded to the council of five hundred, who sat in the Orangery, where the excitement was already at its heiglit. His presence tlicre created a furious storm, and Lucien, Bonaparte's brother, who presided over the assembly, attempted to defend him; THE DIRECTORY 311 1799 but, finding his efforts useless, quitted his seat of office. Bonaparte, after appeahng to the troops for sui)port, gave orders for the clear- ance of the hall in which sat the council of five hundred. A troop of grenadiers entered the hall, under the command of Murat, and executed the order. The grenadiers advanced, and the deputies escaped from before them by the windows, to the cry of " Long live the republic! " There was no longer any free representative system in h'rance, and the republic existed only in name. It is in the moral state of the country, and not, as some have claimed, in the indixidual fact of a disagreement between the ancients and the five hundred that one must seek the cause of the ninth of November. The disunity and weakness of the govern- ment of the directory and the unity of the army were in great con- trast to one another. Able men guided the directory, and for two years it maintained order throughout France; but the principles of the revolution, the party rivalries and jealousies which grew out from the revolution, and even the terms of the constitution itself, caused discord and divisions among its members, and as a conse- quence it lost the confidence and respect of the I"^-ench people. The directors represented the government of the old convention, and therefore kept the spirit of the revolution longer than the mem- bers of the legislative councils, who. after the elections of 1796 and 1797, became the representatives of the new national feelings. It was inevitable that a conllict should take place between the old and the new ideas. The Jacobins, legally at the head of the gov- ernment, represented old France; a patriotic, democratic majority of the nation, neither royalist nor Jacol)in and still loyal to the principles of the revolution, but opposed to the form it was taking, represented new hTance. This majority daily becoming more dis- satisfied with the directory and its methods naturally turned toward Napoleon Bonaparte, whose Italian victories and vv'ondrous success in concluding the Armistice of Leoben had attracted their atten- tion. Idle Jacobins won their last victory in the election of Sep- tember, 1797, but this election showed the weakness of the consti- tution and reminded France of the hopelessness of a government exposed to party conflicts and personal prejutlices. She could not but compare the chaotic and aimless government at Paris with the disciplined and orderly organization which had fought in Italy with such glorious success. To this was added indications of the inefficiency and unsound judgment of the directory in military and 312 FRANCE 1799 external affairs. Switzerland and the German states of the Rhine were antagonized by unwise interpretations of natural boun- daries; the Second Coalition was formed against France by Russia, Austria, England, Portugal, Naples, and Turkey; Italy was grad- ually being lost; a few forced loans, a law regarding hostages, and an uprising in the provinces, all these prepared the way for the cotip d'etat of November 9. Fearful of the situation, France will- ingly yielded herself to that person who more than anyone else was able to cope with the conditions. Napoleon was the personification of successful conquest, of unity, and order, and of the integrity and the prosperity of France. Realizing that the country was ex- hausted from the revolution, he was able to overthrow the direc- tory. " The Revolution has ended," he declared in his proclama- tion of December, 1799, and he spoke the truth. PART V THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD. 1799-1814 Chapter XIX THE CONSULATE. 1 799-1804 THOSE of the members of the two councils who had been Bonaparte's accomphces, or were fav(jrable to the revohi- tion of Brumaire, hastened to estabhsh the new s^overn- ment. Three consuls were provisionally appointed, Sieyes, Roger- Ducos, and Bonaparte. At the same time two lei^islative commit- tees were selected to j^repare a constitution. In this new constitu- tion the authorities intrusted with the drawing up and the main- tenance of the laws of the state were the council of state, the tribunate, and the legislative body. The council of state drew up the laws. The tribunate, consisting of a hundred members, pub- licly discussed the laws which were proposed, and voted their ac- ceptance or rejection; and in this latter case it sent three of its members to discuss the matter with three members of the council of state in the presence of the legislative body. The legislative body, after having lieard this discussion in silence, voted on the one side or the other. Finally, the senate, consisting of eighty members, was empowered to annul every law or act of the governmciit which might appear to be an infringment of the principles of the con- stitution. At the head of the executive power was placed, by Bonaparte's desire, three consuls, the first of whom, himself, was to have the initiative in and the suj^rcme direction of all public affairs. When Bonaparte had been ])roclaimed chief consul he selected as second and third consuls Cambacercs, formerly a member of the C(jn\enti()n, but who had taken part neither with the Girondists nor the ^lountain, and Le Brun. formerly a C(Xidjutor of the Chan- cellor Maupeou. The consuls having been thus appointed, nomi- nated thirty-one senators, who elected sixty more. The senate then chose a hundred tribunes and three hundred legislators. Bonaparte appointed the members of the council of state. The constitution of the year VIII. was submitted for the approval of the people, and received more than three millions of votes in its favor. Bonaparte, in compliance with the general wish of the nation, 315 316 FRANCE 1799-1800 offered to make peace with England, but that power refused his offer. Eng-land's prime minister was at this time the celebrated William Pitt, who, infusing all the energy of an inflexible will into his animosity against France, skillfully kept alive the fear and dislike which the continental monarchs felt for the First Consul, and finally seduced them into adherence to a system of extermination against France by the payment of enormous subsidies. In this way he long retained the support of Russia and Austria, but the former abandoned England in the campaign of 1800, and towards the end of the same year the Czar made himself the head of a maritime alliance, which was joined by Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia. These powers acted in concert with France and the United States, and renewed the celebrated declaration of an armed neutrality, signed in 1780, for the purpose of protecting the freedom of com- merce, and freeing the ocean from the tyranny of the English. Austria alone persevered on the Continent in the struggle against France, and English gold supported her armies. Bonaparte threw the whole military strength of the republic upon the Rhine and the Alps. Moreau had the army of the Rhine and the First Consul reserved to himself the army of Italy. The former, being ordered to invade the defiles of the Black Forest, took the important position of Stockach, and gained several victories in succession, which led Baron Kray, the general of the Austrian forces in Germany, to concentrate his troops to defend the line of the Danube, thus rendering himself unable to aid the Austrian army under Melas in Italy. Upon this Bonaparte proceeded to carry the war suddenly upon the Po, between Milan, Genoa, and Turin. The passage of the French troops and artillery was effected over the crest of the Alps in May, 1800, and the army speedily found itself at the foot of the further side of the Saint-Bernard, while Melas, without any fear, occupied with a portion of his forces the line of the Po. Seventeen thousand Austrian troops were on the Var, in France, and General Ott, at the head of twenty-five thousand men, was pressing forward the siege of Genoa, which still held out, in- trepidly defended by the feeble army of the Maritime Alps, under Massena, Soult, and Suchet. The pass of Susa was speedily trav- ersed by the French army, and Bonaparte, after crossing the Adda and taking a part of his troops over the Po, attacked General Ott at Montebello before he had had time to effect his junction with Alelas, and obtained a first victory. THE CONSULATE 317 1800-1801 On June 13, 1800, the French U)ok up a position between the Bormida and the village of Mareni^-o, which they rendered so famous. On the following day a desperate encounter took place in which the Austrians were completely defeated. Melas in vain attempted to defend Marengo, which was taken, and gave its name to this celebrated victorv, which rendered the h^rench masters of Italv. In a state of consternation he asked to negotiate, and the convention of Alexandria speedily restored to h^ance all that had been lost within the preceding fifteen months, with the exceptii:)n of Mantua. As this treaty w'as only a military convention it was necessary that the army of the Danube should force Austria to ratify it. Moreau forced the passage of Lech, took Augsburg, and obtained another victory at Neuburg. The Archduke John advanced with a hundred and twenty thousand men to meet Moreau, who defeated him. w^ith terrible loss, at llohenlinden, near the river Iser. This brilliant victor}^ and the capture of Salzburg opened to Moreau the road to Vienna. The victor pursued his march and obtained a fresh victory at Schwanstadt. The lines of Inn, the Salzach, and the Danube were crossed. The fortress of Linz was taken, and the French were now only a few marches distant from Vienna. In this extreme peril a truce was denKinded, which was only obtained on condition that Austria should renounce its alliance with Fngland. Peace was signed at Luneville on February 9, 1 80 1, between France, Austria, and the empire, and by thi.s France secured possession of Belgium and the Cjerman provinces on the left bank of the Rhine, which now formed the boundary line between France and (jermany. Separate treaties were signed by France with the courts of Spain and Naples, by which the latter powers engaged to close their ports against luiglish vessels. Spain, moreover, undertook to keep off such vessels from the coasts of Portugal, and received for this ]:)urpose a b^rench army, which the first consul placed under the orilers of tlie Spanish government. England now found itself alone in arms against the whole of the maritime powers, but tlie intlucnce of France in Egypt had been severely shaken. Klcber. considering himself unable to main- tain hold of the country without reinforcements, which were with- held, concluded the Convention of ('d-Arisch with the Sultan. l)v which it was agreed that the French should evacuate Egypt on hon- orable terms. The English fleet at this time was blockading the 318 FRANCE 1801 ports of Egypt, and Admiral Keith wrote to Kleber to inform him that England refused to recognize the Convention of El-Arisch and that it would consent to no capitulation unless the French troops laid down their -arms and surrendered themselves prisoners. Upon this Kleber prepared to fight and defeated the Turks at Heliopolis. He next subdued a revolt in Cairo excited by the Mamelukes, and would have maintained Egypt for France had he not been assassinated on June 14, the day of the battle of Marengo. He was succeeded as commander-in-chief by General Menou, who allowed himself to be surrounded by an English army. After the unfortunate battle of Canopa, Cairo capitulated. Alexandria, in which Menou had shut himself up, speedily shared the same fate and the French army was compelled to evacuate Egypt. England had taken possession of the Dutch colonies of Sinna- rnari, Guiana, the Cape of Good Hope, and Ceylon, together with the French colonies, and Malta had fallen into its power. Nelson had attacked Copenhagen and forced the Danes. Paul I., of Rus- sia, the most powerful supporter of the maritime league of the neutral powers, perished by assassination, and his young suc- cessor, Alexander, adopted a different policy. The league was then dissolved by the force of circumstances, and England re- mained sovereign of the seas. In the meantime various causes rendered England desirous of peace. The First Consul had col- lected at Boulogne, in preparation for the invasion of England, an immense flotilla of gunboats, which Nelson had attacked with- out being able either to destroy or disperse, and a French army was ready to cross the Channel. This and other circumstances rendered peace as desirable for England as it was for France. Pitt was replaced in the cabinet by Addington. England offered to treat, and the First Consul accepted the offer. The prelimi- naries of peace were signed by the two governments in September, 1801 ; while it was definitely concluded at Amiens on March 25, J 802. Separate treaties, the natural consequences of the Peace of Amiens, were signed by France with Portugal, Bavaria, Rus- sia, the Ottoman -Porte, Algiers and Tunis, and thus the world was for a time at peace. Hie First Consul had striven with all his energy to suppress factions at home. He revoked by a decree of amnesty the law which prevented a hundred and fifty thousand emigrants from TIIK COXSUT. ATE SIO 1801 returning' to France, and j^aincd over many royalist leaders. Georges Cadoudal and other Vendean leaders capitulated and the war in the west was brought to an end. Several plots, however, were formed against Bonaparte by the extreme republicans and royalists, but n(^ne of these was successful and all persons sus- pected of participation in them were jmnished in a most arbi- trary manner. Bonaparte from this time forth displayed on many occasions a \iolent and despotic character, and a party hostile to his government was formed in the great bodies of the state, wliich had at its head, in the senate. Lanjuinais. Gregoire, Garat. Cabanis, and. in the tribunate, Isnard, Daunou, Andrieux, Chenier and Benjamin Constant. The difficult circumstances in the nu'dst of which his autlv'^r- ity had come into existence rendered it almcxst indispensable that the dictatorship, of which at this period he genendly made a salu- tary use, should remain for some time in his hands. l-\)r anarchy, which prevailed in every direction, he substituted order. He established regularity in the cix'il and military administration, and the civil code which he now projected was a monument of genius, and became a model of legislation for Europe. The subjects of public instruction, the institute, commerce, industr}'. the r(\ads. the ports and the arsenals also attracted the notice and thought ful- ness of the h^irst Consul, ^\'ith the assistance of Alonge and Ber- thollet he gave a better organizatii^m to the polytechnic school, which had been established during the gv^vernment of the ciuu'cn- tion. Assisted b}' the a1)le minister Gaudin, he reestablished order in the finances, and being couxinced that re]igi(in is the surest support of morality, he reestablished public worship in h^rancc. and signed with Pope Pius VII. a concordat, by which the Cath- olic religion was recognized as that of the majority of the h^-ench. lie further res(dved to bestow a reward for merit in what- ever rank he might find it, rmd inr this purpose established the Order of the Legion of Honor, of which he declared himself the head. The First C(Misu1, while so active in promoting the national interest, neglected nc^thing which nu'ght C(.)nfirm his authority, and after having obtained for his consulate ten years' ]:)rolonga- tion, he caused himself to be appointed consul for life, and ob- tained the privilege of appointing his successor. Twi^ days later the constitution of the vear X. was decreed bv a srnalus c-i'usul- 320 FRANCE 1801-1802 turn. To the senate was given power to suspend the functions of the jury, to place the departments beyond the pale of the con- stitution, to annul the decisions of the tribunals which had been instituted in tlie departments and their subdivisions, and to dissolve the legislative corps and the tribunate. The number of the tribunes was reduced to fifty, and Bonaparte selected for him- self, in addition to the council of state, a privy council, small in numbers, whose principal duty was to deliberate on affairs which required secrecy. All the citizens had been invited to give their opinions v/ith respect to the establishment of the consulship for life, and out of 3,577,299 votes on the registers, only 8,000 were given against it. In January, 1802, the First Consul convoked at Lyons the deputies of the Cisalpine republic, which was to be henceforward known as the Italian republic, and bestowed a new constitution upon it, he himself becoming its president. In the course of the same year, 1802, Bonaparte compelled the Swiss cantons to ac- cept the celebrated Act of Mediation, which enforced equality of rights among the different portions of the Helvetian territory. The Act of IMediation preserved the sovereignty of the cantons, while it established a national diet for the purpose of superintend- ing the general interests of the confederacy, and this has remained almost the same to the present day. In addition to this he also succeeded in inducing the German diet, assembled at Ratisbon in 1803, to regulate the indemnities to be given to the princes, eccle- siastical and secular, wdio had been deprived of their domains by the arrangements of the Peace of Amiens, to remodel the whole constitution of the German empire, the composition of the diet, and that of the imperial body of electors in a manner favorable to France. The French colony of Louisiana in North America he sold to the United States for eighty millions of francs. In the meantime England had observed all the clauses of the treaty with one exception. The island of Malta was not yet evacuated, and this fatal delay was caused by the omission on the part of the French government to obtain the guarantees of Russia and Prussia for the execution of the Treaty of Amiens as agreed. To all the causes of jealousy and irritation which the First Consul had recently given to England by his almost despotic interference in the affairs of tlic Continent was nov/ added another by the sud- den annexation to France of Piedmont without ;iny compensation T II E C O N S U L A T E 321 1802-1804 to the king, Charles Emmanuel, the ally of England. So arbi- trary an act raised the exasperation of the English people to its height, and the outcries of the public press and of the members of the opposition in l'arli;iment. who were led by Grenville and Canning, would not permit the English government to evacuate Alalta before it had obtained from the l''irst Consul explanations with respect to these aggressive acts, and of his encroachments in Europe. Bonaparte replied by threats and in\"ectives against England and demanding the expulsion of the Bourbons from the country and the immediate evacuation of Malta. The English government proposed to surrender Malta after two years, in ex- change for another small island in the Mediterranean. But Bon- aparte, impelled by his pride, or, as he chose to phrase it, com- pelled for the honor of France to refuse any concession whatever, chose rather for the sake of tlie immediate possession of a rock in the Mediterranean, to tear in pieces the most glorious treaty v/hich France had ever signed, and luirope \Nas i)lunge(l into the horrors of an endless war. The war commenced on cither side by savage acts unworthy of civilized nations. I'he English fleet, on the one hand, fired on merchant vessels in various seas before hos- tilities had been openly declared, and the French consul, on the other hand, ordered, as a rej)risal, the arrest of all the Englisli traveling on the Continent, many of whom remained prisoners until the close of this long and frightful war. At the same time a dangerous plot was formed against tlie life of the h'irst Consul, and for the restoration of the b5t)urbons, by the Chouan and royalist chiefs. Pichegru and GecM-gcs Cadoudal were at their licad, and Moreau was their confidant, but not their accomplice. The conspiracy was discovered in h>bruary. 1.804, and Moreau, Piclicgru and Cadoudal were arrested. This event was followed ])y a scandak^iis \-iolation of the law of nations in the seizure of the Duke of Enghicn, the last of the j^irincely race of Conde, at Ettenlicim. in Baden, and his murder, for it was nothing better, in the moat of \'inccnnes, after going through the mockery of a trial before a military commission. Idie pre- text for this act was that the duke was seeking to conspire against Bonaparte's government and had taken ])art in a meeting ni emi- grants on the Rhine frontier. All P)ona]X'irte"s glorv has n<'t served to obliterate the rememl)rancc of this bloody catastrophe. Paris, France, and Europe were still deeply moved by so 322 FRANCE 1804 gross an outrage, when the trial of Pichegru and Moreau com- menced. Pichegrii, despairing of pardon from the First Consul or disdaining it, strangled himself in prison. Moreau was con- demned to two years' imprisonment, which Bonaparte commuted to exile to the United States. Out of forty-seven persons tried, seventeen were condemned to death, and among these were Georges Cadoudal, Charles of Riviere, and Armand of Polignac. The punishment of the two latter was commuted ; but the first died, as he had lived, without giving a sign of weakness. The war against Great Britain and Pichegru's conspiracy assisted Bonaparte to raise himself from the consulate to the imperial crown; but first of all he added to the powers of the senate, which had already been so greatly extended. This body was but a docile instrument in his hands, and when he had triumphed over all resistance in France he caused it to request him to govern the republic under the name of Napoleon Bona- parte, and with the title of hereditary emperor. Accordingly the empire was proclaimed on May i8, 1804. The constitution now underwent fresh modifications. The senate was constituted guar- dian of individual liberty; freedom of debate was restored to the legislative corps; the powers of the members of the tribunate were prolonged from five to ten years, but this latter body was divided into three sections, and it was forbidden to debate in a general assembly. Finally, a high imperial court was created, en- dowed with most of the judicial attributes which were subse- quently possessed by the court of peers. The new constitution recognized the emperor's two brothers, Louis and Joseph, as cap- able of being his successors, and they were nominated respectively grand elector and constable of the empire. The posts of arch- chancellor and arcli-treasurer were given to Cambaceres and Le- ])run. Beneath these and -two other great dignitaries, the arch- chancellor of state and the grand-admiral, were fifty grand officers, partly civil and partly military, at the head of whom were fourteen marshals of the empire, Berthier, Murat, Moncey, Jourdan, Mas- sena, Augereau, Bernadotte, Soult, Brune, Lannes, Mortier, Ney, Davout, and Bessieres. Napoleon desired that his reign should be sanctioned as well by the clergy as the people, and he obtained the approval of each. The new emperor w^as accepted by an immense majority of tlie French people, and at his earnest request Pope Pius VII. went to Paris to bestow upon his unheard-of success the seal of 1804 THE CONSILATE religious consecration. On Dcccniljcr 2. 1804. in the church oi Notre Dame, Napoleon, accompanied by his wife, Josephine, the beautiful widow of the Marcpiis of Beauharnais, and surrounded by the great bodies of tlie state and tlie great dignitaries of the church, was consecrated emperor of the h'rench by the sovereign Pontiff. But instead of receiving the crown from the Pope's hands, he took it from the altar himself and placed it on his own head. Chapter XX THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEOxN I. 1804-1811 NAPOLEOX now desired to add to the title of emperor of the French that of King of Italy, and the representatives of the ItaHan repubHc decided that that country should be made a separate kingdom. He immediately repaired to Milan, and girding his brows with the iron crown of the Lombard kings, declared that he only temporarily added it to his own, and appointed Eugene de Beauharnais, his stepson, viceroy of Italy. The estab- lishment of this kingdom, the sudden and violent annexation of the city of Genoa and the principality of Lucca to the empire, the im- mense exertions of the English government, now again directed by Pitt, and the indignation excited in Europe by the death of the Duke of Enghien, resulted in the formation of a third coalition against France by England, Austria and Russia. Bavaria made common cause with France, Prussia remained neutral, and Spain also was unwilling to join the enemies of France. England declared that Spain had broken its neutrality by affording a refuge to some French vessels blockaded in the ports of Ferrol and Cadiz, and demanded their expulsion. Upon its refusing to do so, England declared war against it and thus drove Spain into an alliance with France. Napo- leon at this time once more contemplated a descent upon England, and again assembled a vast force with this object at Boulogne, and an immense flotilla of light boats for the purpose of conveying the army of invasion across the Channel, and landing it on the opposite coast. But an English fleet defended the passage, and several of its divisions blockaded the French squadrons in the ports of Brest and Ferrol. A second English fleet, under Nelson, cruised in the ^leditcrranean and watched the French fleet shut up in the port of Toulon. The Toulon fleet was ordered to sail to Martinique, and there await the arrival of the Brest fleet, return with it to Europe, raise the blockade of Ferrol and the coast of Spain, and finally return to the Channel, where the united fleets, consisting of sixty vessels, would be superior to that of the English. Napoleon 324 T II E E M P I R E 325 1805 believed that this plan would render him master of the Channel for four-and-twenty hours, which would be suflicicnt time to enable him to land his army on the opposite coast, when Enc^land would be already conquered. In accordance with this plan, Villeneuve, who commanded the Toulon fleet, having escaped N^elson in the Mediter- ranean and joined Admiral Gravina and the Spanish squadron in Cadiz, proceeded to the Antilles, and after having waited in vain for the Brest fleet, sailed to Europe and fought a glorious battle off Ferrol with the English fleet commanded by Admiral Calder, after which they formed a junction with two fresh divisions, the one French and the other Spanish. The Brest fleet being too closely watched by the English fleet to quit the port, Villeneuve was ordered to raise the blockade of Brest and release the fleet there. Failing the success of this maneuver, he was ordered to sail, with all his forces, into the Channel, and protect Napoleon's passage, at the risk of losing half the fleet, if necessarv. Villeneuve could not under- stand that these orders were to be obeyed at any hazard, and firmly believing that the result of a battle was much more likely to be the destruction of the French navy than the conquest of England, he lost all confidence, and, instead of sailing to the English channel, he made for Cadiz. When informed of this fact, tlie anger of Napo- leon was equal to his grief, and it burst forth against Villeneuve in the most vehement and terrible expressions. No enterprise had ever been planned with greater care, and none more completely baffled by unforeseen chances.^ It now became necessary for Napoleon to march against the Russians and Austrians. A hundred and twenty thousand Austrians were marching in three corps, imder the archdukes I'^crdinand. John, and Charles, towards the Rhine and the Adigc, and two Russian armies were advancing to join them. Napoleon, quitting the camp of Boulogne, hastened to meet them, and within twenty days the h^rench army passed from the coast of the Atlantic to the banks of the Rhine. lie crossed that river in October, 1805, with a hun- dred and sixty thousand men, divided into six cor]is, and advanced by the Alps and Suabia across Germany. The Danube was cr^isscd in its turn and Napoleon's lieutenants fought a scries of glorious 1 It is not certain that Napoleon ever seriously intended to invade luigland. The camp at Bonlogne offered a good excuse for the maintenance of a lar,i;e army that mi.^lu on short notice be turned against Austria. See J'ourn.icr, " Napoleon 1.," p. 283 ff. 326 FRANCE 1805 conflicts. Murat was victorious at Wertin^en and at Giinzbiirg, General Diipont at Hasslach, and Ney at Elcliingen, while the Aus- trian army under Mack was driven back to the city of Ulm, where Mack capitulated on October 20. The Austrians in Lombardy, under the Archduke Charles, were prevented from marching to the assistance of Vienna by Massena, who, to stop them, fought the bloody battle of Caldiero. The archduke was compelled to fall back southwards, and Napoleon, driving the Austrians before him, crossed the Danube and entered Vienna, The Russians now entered Moravia, where they rallied the ranks of the Austrian army. Napo- leon encountered them in the environs of Brunn, on the plain of Austerlitz, where he gained a decisive victory over the allies on December 2, 1805. Fifteen thousand Austrians and Russians per- ished, twenty thousand were taken prisoners, and forty flags, with two hundred pieces of cannon, were the trophies of this memorable victory. Triumphant on the Continent, France suffered terrible disasters at sea. Tier fleet, united with the Spanish fleet under the command of Admiral Villeneuve, after having been beaten at Cape Finisterre, lost, on October 21, the celebrated battle of Trafalgar. This great victory, which cost the life of the English admiral, secured to England the sovereignty of the seas. The victory of the English at Trafalgar was productive of the most serious consequences to the court of Naples, which had recently bound itself by treaty to neutrality. Hearing that Prussia was about to join the coalition, and that the French fleet had been destroyed at Trafalgar, it con- cluded that Napoleon was lost and received into the kingdom twelve thousand English and six thousand Russians, with whom were joined forty thousand Neapolitans, for the purpose of exciting Italy to revolt in the rear of the French army in Austria. This caused the fall of the Bourbons of Naples, who were overlooked in the negotiations for peace after the battle of Austerlitz. Napoleon granted an armistice to the Austrians and Russians, and signed with Prussia, on December 14, 1805, at Schonbrunn, an offensive and defensive alliance, by which France ceded Hanover to Prussia in exchange for the duchy of Cleves, the principality of Ncufchatel, and the marquisate of Anspach, which Napoleon soon exchanged with Bavaria for the duchy of Berg. Ten days later, December 25, Naprdcon forced on the Emperor Joseph the hard Treaty of Presburg, by which Vcnetia, iM-iuli. Tstria and Dalmatia, were T H E E M P I R E 327 1805-1806 transferred from Austria to the kinoduni of Italy, and Austria also ceded the Tyrol to Ilavaria and received in exchan<:,re the ecclesiastical principality rif Wm-zburcif. The two electorates of Bavaria and \\'urtcmbur<:i- were raised to the rank of kinj^doms. k^inally, Aus- tria had to pay for the expenses of the war, a contribution of fifty millions. On returnincj to Paris Xapoleon set to work to remove the last vestige of the revolutionary institutions. The republican calendar was replaced by the Gregorian calendar, and it was ordered that on August 15 the fete of Xapoleon should be celebrated throughout the em])ire. Xapoleon further declared that the House of X'aples had lost its crown as punishment for tiic part it had taken in the late coaliticjn. and transferred the Xeapolitan scepter to his brother Joseph. He made the republic of the United Provinces a kingdom for his brother Louis, and made Prince Murat, his brother-in-law, Grand Duke (jf Cleves and Berg, lie endeavored to establish the military hierarchic regime of feudal times, and tr.ansformed various provinces and i)rincipalitics into grantl liefs of the empire, which he bestowed as rewards upon his ministers and most illustri(Uis gen- erals. Two years later he struck the final blow at republican institu- tions by creating a new hereditary nobility, in which those who were illustrious of old took rank for the most part after the celebrities of the day. In the year 1806 negotiations for peace were commenced be- tween b^rance and England. X^ajioleon, res(^l\etl to complete the ruin of the Bourbons, who still reigned in Sicily. dem;in(led that that island should be annexed to his brother's state, and to induce England not to oppose this fresh confjuest he offered in exchange thiC restoration of Hanover, which had alreatlv been ceded to I'russia. This, however, was refused, and the negotiations were Ijroken off. In the meantime X\a])oleon comi)leted the organiza- tion of his military empire by rendering the old Germanic con- federation dependent on him. On July u, 1806, fourteen princes of the south and west of Germany formed the Confederation of the Rliine, rmd recognized Xapok-ou as their protector. Tliis confederation enfeebled Prussia ;md Austria as much as it added apparently to the power of Xapoleon. The lunperor I^-ancis n. was. among the sovereigns of Germany, the one whose rights were UKjst infringed uj)on, but he was too weak to make any opposition. He abdicated the title oi lunperor of Germany, 328 FRANCE 1806 and retained only, under the name of Francis I., the title of Em- peror of Austria, which he had assumed in 1804. Thus ended the Germanic empire, after it had existed for a thousand years. In the meantime the King of Prussia, Frederick William, greatly irritated against Napoleon, who, after having guaranteed him the possession of Hanover, had offered it to England, had resolved to form in Germany a confederation of the states of the north, in opposition to the Confederation of the Rhine, and he demanded, as a first condition of the maintenance of peace, the retreat of all the French troops in Germany to the further side of the Rhine. Napoleon, indignant at a coalition which he regarded as an insult, would not allow Saxony and the Hanseatic towns to join the northern league, and rejected the Prussian ultimatum, upon which Frederick William determined upon war, and invaded Saxony. Russia, Sweden, and England immediately formed with Prussia the fourth coalition against France. Napeolon lost no time in marching to meet the Prussian army, and maneuvered with extreme celerity so as to surround the enemy, cut off his communications, and close against him his line of retreat. The enemy was successively driven hack to Schleitz and to Saalfeld. A few days afterwards the French army, as it was preparing to cross the Saale at three points, encountered at Jena a great portion of the Prussian army under Prince Hohenlohe. Napoleon ordered the attack and a general engagement ensued. His victory was as complete as it was rapid; the Prussians lost in a few hours twelve thousand men killed or wounded, fifteen thousand prisoners, a multi- tude of flags, and two hundred pieces of cannon. On the same day, f(jur hours later. Marshal Davout totally defeated the Prussians under the old Duke of Brunswick at Auerstadt. These two great hattles decided the campaign. Nothing now prevented Napoleon from marching to Berlin. He occupied in succession Leipzig, Wittenberg, and Dessau ; crossed the Elbe at three points, and on October 28, 1806. entered Berlin in triumph. The line of the Oder was promptly occupied. Murat, Soult, Lannes, and Bernadotte completed the conquest of western and southern Prussia as far as the shores of the Baltic. The unfortunate Frederick William retreated to Konigsberg, wliere he concentrated his last reserves, and within a month the despotic and military monarchy of Frederick the Great appeared to have been almost annihilated. T II V K M V I R E 329 1806 Napolcdii, cvcrvwhcrc \ icton'ous, now used tlic ri,<;lits con- ferred iip'iii him by victory and disposed of crowns In' his decrees. The Elector of Jlcsse was de])rived of his states for liavini;- refused to take part with France, w'hile the electorate of Saxony, whose prince had taken part with Prussia, against his will and even with regret, was added to the Confederation of the Rhine, and raised to the rank of a kingdom. Napoleon's next care was to attempt to pun- ish England for having joinetl the coalition, and on Xo\em!)er -'6, i8o6, there appeared at Berlin the famous decree for the closing of the ports of the Continent to the English. This decree declared the British Isles themselves in a state of blockade; interdicted any commerce or communication with them : and ordered the seizure of all English persons and English merchandise which should be found on tlie territories of b^ranre, or on those of her allies. Every nation which did not submit to the system set f(^rth in this decree was declared by it to be an enemy of France. This blow at British commerce, which ne\erthcless injured all the nations to whom commerce with the United Kingdom was a vital necessity, doubtless intlicted immense loss upon T-lngiand. but it did not place that power at her rixal's discretion, as Xapolcon had hoped, but led her, on the contrary, to adc^pt a series of measures which precipitated his fall. Frederick William, although vanquished and almf>st entirely dispossessed, had not lost all hope. He had collected, between Thorn and KcMiigsberg, under General Eestocq, about thirtv thousand men, his last resource, and Russian tri^ops under old (icneral Kraminski ach'anced to his aid across Pi 'land. l)i\"ided into two cor]is binder Cenerals P.cnningsen rmd Buntofden. tliev api)roached tlie X'istula, and would have attacked tlie b^rencli in concert with the Prussians if they had not been jn-evented by tlieir Vd\)\(\ mo\ements. \'ictorious on the fields of Jena and Aucrstadt, Napoleon had resoK'cd to marcli to light the Russians on the plains of Poland, rmd two I'leiu-Ii armies, each consisting of about eighty thousand men, and divided into nine corps, marched upon the Vistula at the commencement of No\-cmber. Se\-eral indccisix'e contlicts. in wliich the I'rench generally had the adxantagc, ti^ok place at tl;e C(>ninienc(Mnent of this cam- ])aign and on 1 )cceniber () tlie I'ronch obtained a decisixe \ ictoix- at Pultusk. whei'o Marshal I .annes x'anquished and repulsed Ik'H- ningsen's division. The inclemency of the season and snow com- 330 FRANCE 1806-1807 pelled Napoleon to halt in Poland, where he passed the winter, posting his various corps in front of the Vistula, from Elbing, near the Baltic, up to Warsaw, and sending Marshal Lefevre to invest Dantzic. The Russian general, Benningsen, however, ventured to carry on the campaign during the winter, and endeavored to surprise the French army in its cantonments by turning its posi- tions on the shore of the Baltic, and crossing the Vistula with the Prussian corps of General Lestocq, between Thorn and ]\Iarien- burg. But his plan was divined and frustrated. Then Benningsen concentrated his forces at the strong position of Jonkorvo, on the Alle, while Napoleon broke up his camps and marched to attack him. But Benningsen fell back before the French, who descended the course of the Alle in pursuit of him, and ultimately halted beyond Eylau and took up a position, resolved to give battle as soon as General Lestocq and the Prussians should arrive. There he was attacked by Napoleon just before the Prussians could effect a junction with him, on February 7, 1807. A desperate encounter ensued, in which Benningsen was defeated with immense losses, and compelled to retreat on the following day. Napoleon pursued the Russians as far as Konigsberg, and beyond the Pregel, after which he returned to take up his winter quarters beyond the lower Vistula, between Elbing and Thorn, in order to cover the siege of Dantzic, which, in spite of all the efforts made by Benningsen to relieve it, surrendered ]\lay 24, 1807. Turkey was at this time the scene of serious events. The French ambassador at Constantinople, General Sebastiani, was making great efforts to induce the Sultan Selim to ally himself with France, when forty thousand Russians suddenly crossed the Dniester under pretense of securing the execution of treaties. This sudden invasion of' Turkey had been concerted with the iLnglish government, who proposed to send its own fleet through the strait of the Dardanelles ; and when the Sultan ordered the Russian envoy to leave Constantinople, the English ambassador threatened to have the city bombarded l)y the English fleet if the Sultan did not immediately ally himself with England and Russia against France. The Sultan hesitated to incur the tlnxat- encd peril, but Sebastiani revived his courage and armed Con- stantinople with formidable batteries; so that when, in ]\larch, 1807, the English fleet appeared before the city, a terrible fire T II E K M P I R E 331 1807 compelled it to repass the Dardanelles coiisidcialjly dania.Qed. France, nevertheless, derived but little advantage from this suc- cess, for a revolt of the janissaries soon afterwards took place at Constantino|)lc, and Selim was deposed. The war continued in l\)land and eastern Prussia, where the Russians, under Ijenningsen and P)a,^"ration. reopened the cam- paign in the spring", and Xapoleon, after the fall of Dantzic. re- sumed the otYensi\-e. He marched upon Konigsberg, and de- feated the enemy in the battles of Gudstadt. Spanden. and rieilsbr.rg'. I'enningsen ha\ ing retreated for the pur])ose of coxering Konigsberg. Xa])oleon folbiwed him, and on June 14 encountered the Russians before I'^ricdland. Again they were de- featetl with great loss, and l-'ricdland was taken and burned. Konigsberg. after this bloody battle, opened its gates, and there remained nothing more of the Prussian nionarchv. Napoleon now marchetl towards the Xiemen in pursuit of the Russians, and on June 19 came up with them on the banks of that river, which flowed between the two armies. But there his victorious march came to a halt; for Alexander, vancjuishcd. asked for peace, and expressed a desire to see his concpteror. A raft was constructed near Tilsit, on the Xiemen, for the solemn interview between the czar and the emperor, and this interview took place in the sight of the two armies assembled on the river's banks. Peace was at length concluded at Tilsit by treaties signed by I'^'ance. Russia, and Prussia. 'I'he princ!])al clauses of this treaty were: the restoration to Prussia of okl Prussia. Pomerania, Brandenburg and Silesia; tlie cession to b'rance f)f all the pro\-- inces on the left of the hdbe. for the i)urpose of incorporating them with the grand duchy of I Icsse. and making of the wlu)le a kingdom (jf \\'est])ha]ia ; the con\-ersion of J'osen and Warsaw into a Polish state, which, under the title of the grand duchy of Warsaw, should be gi\en to the King oi Saxony, and sliould form part of the Confederation of the Rhine; the recognition of this confederation by Russia and I'russia and the recogniti(m of X'a- poleon's brotlicrs, Louis, Joseph and Jeron]e, :is the kings of Holland, Xaples and Westphalia. Finally, it was agreed, in a secret clause, to call u])on the Furojiean ])owers to adhere to the continental blockade, and to close their ports against luigland, and declare war against it. ]i!ngland was mucli dismayed when slie found Kussia with- 332 FRANCE 1807-1808 drawn from her influence. Wishing to retain at any price a foot- ing- in the Baltic, she demanded that Denmark should form with her an alliance offensive and defensive, and that, as a guarantee of good faith, she should surrender her fleet and her capital into her hands. The king refused, and on September 2, 1807, Copen- hagen was subjected to a frightful bombardment, and the Danish fleet fell into hands of the English. Denmark avenged herself for this act by immediately adhering to the continental blockade. At the end of 1807 Portugal was the only continental state which remained under the direct influence of Great Britain, and Napoleon signed on October 2^, 1807, at Fontainebleau, a treaty with Spain, by which Portugal, as a punishment for her alliance with England, was to be divided almost entirely between the Queen of Etruria and Godoy, who governed the Spanish mon- archy. This treaty declared Charles IV., King of Spain, suzerain of the two states thus to be formed out of Portugal. The Moniteur announced on November 15, 1807, that the House of Braganza had ceased to reign. A body of French troops, under the orders of Junot, were sent to Lisbon, charged with the execution of this sentence, and before their arrival the Prince Regent of Portugal embarked for Brazil, abandoning to the in- vading army his capital and fleet. This rapid success, and the scandalous divisions in the Spanish royal family, inflamed Na- poleon's ambition, and he accustomed himself to look upon the Peninsula as his conquest. The weak Charles IV., who was en- tirely under the influence of Godoy, the queen's favorite, had rendered himself contemptible in the eyes of all his subjects, while his son, Ferdinand, Prince of the Asturias, had become their idol by declaring himself the opponent of the odious favorite. In 1808 Napoleon sent an army into Spain. Charles IV. and the queen were struck with consternation. Godoy advised them to retire to the southern provinces, but I-'erdinand opposed the exe- cution of this project, and having called on the people and the troops to support him, arrested Godoy, made his father prisoner, and forced him to abdicate, and then made a triumphal entry into Aladrid as King of Spain, Murat had preceded him with his army. Charles IV. protested against his forced abdication, and Alurat refused to recognize Ferdinand as king. Napoleon then invited the king and his son to meet him at Bayonne. os- tensibly to decide upon their differences, but having gcjt them T U E K :\r P T R E 333 1808 into his power, lie detained l-'erdinand as a ])risoner, and sent the king to Comi)iegnc, after indueing him io resign the crown in his favor. In the meantime Murat kept possession of Machdd. and the council of Castile, under the pressure of French influence, requested that Joseph, Napoleon's eldest l)rother, become King of Spain. An assembly of Spanisli ntjtables was immediately convoked at Bayonne. where the emperor organized a junta to carry on a provisional gt)vcrnment. Joseph gave up to Murat the crown of Xai)les. and immediately ([uitting that capital, reached Ijayonne on June 7, when he was declared King of Spain. The assembly at IJayonne voted a constitution, which Jose|)h swore to observe, and on July 9 he was on his way to Si)ain. But already tlie Spaniards, indignant and furious, had risen in arms. A provisional gcnernment assembled at Seville annulled all the acts of the junta at Bayonne. The Spaniards signalized their vengeance in Cadiz and other places by massacres and atrocities, declaring war to the death against the h^rench, and the Portu- guese following their example. In the meantime Bessieres was victorious at Aledina de Rio-Sccco. and his \-ictory opened the gates of ]\Iadrid to King Joseph, who luade his entrance into that capital on July 20. But immediately afterwards General Dupont made a disgraceful capitulation at Baylen atid surrendered with twenty-six thousand troops. This terrible check shook the powci" of the French in the Peninsula, and reanimated the Spaniards, the result being that Joseph had to quit Madrid eight days after he had entered it in solemn state. Portugal also rose, and an English army disembarked there under the orders of Sir Arthur Wcllesley. afterwards Lord Wellington. Junot, with ten thousand men only, ventured to fight the battle of A'imiera against twenty-six thousand luiglish and Portuguese. lie was soon vancpiishcd, and soon after signed the Capitulation of Cintra, which at least allowed him to retreat to France with honor. Portugal was now evacuated by the Frencli, and Josc])h's only possessions in Spain were BarceU^ia, Xavarre, and Biscay. Xapoleon chafed when he learned the reverses suffered by his arms in the I'eninsula. and resolved that his best generals and his German and Italian armies should cross the IVrenees to efface the disgrace sufTcrcd at Baylen and stitle at ils birth an insurrection so threatening and unexpected. Xapolcnn being resolved to subdue .Sj)ain, confirmed at Erfurt, in Septcm- 334 FRANCE 1808-1809 bcr and October, 1808, his alliance with Alexander. The Russian troops had taken possession of Finland in the north and in the south had invaded the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, while the French troops invaded Spain. The two sovereigns signed a treaty at Erfurt in 1808, by which Napoleon recognized the three provinces invaded by Russia as an integral portion of that empire, and Alexander, in return, recognized the Napoleonic dynasty in Spain, and, in case France should be at war with Aus- tria, engaged to assist her against the latter power. Napoleon now marched into Spain, accompanied by his great captains and at the head of his veterans, and victory, therefore, was certain. The Spaniards were defeated on November 10, 1808, by Soult, at Burgos, and on the following day by Victor at Espinosa and by Lannes at Tudela. In December the French army entered Madrid, and Joseph Bonaparte was replaced on the throne. A division of the English army in Portugal, under the orders of Sir John Moore, was on its march to cover this capital, but at the news of the disasters suffered by the Spanish armies it retreated before Napoleon upon Astorga and Corunna. Marshal Soult followed it up closely and attacked the British troops when on the point of embarkation at the latter port (January 16, 1809). He was repulsed by Sir John Moore, who lost his life in the action, and the English embarked on the following day. In the meantime Austria emboldened by the absence of Na- poleon, and by the revolt of the Tyrolese against the Bavarians, formed a fifth coalition with England. The Archduke Charles accepted the command of the troops, which amounted to five hundred thousand men, divided into eight corps. Two, under the Archduke Ferdinand, were to invade Poland ; three others, under the Archduke John, were to march into Italy and the Tyrol, while the other corps, assembled on the Bohemian frontier, were to march upon the Rhine, arousing on their way the whole of Germany. The French troops in these countries did not amount at this time to more than a hundred and thirty thousand men, who were dispersed from the Baltic to the Danube, under tlie command of ]_)avout and Oudinot. Eugene de Beauharnais occu- pied Piedmont and Italy with a few divisions. At the first rumor of the intention of Austria, and the movement of her armies, Napoleon left Spain, and on April 17, 1809, arrived on the Danube, wlien owing to his orders for the concentration of his T II E E M r I R E 335 1809 troops havinpf been misunderstood hy Berthier, he found Dav(nit at Ratisbon, and Massena thirty Ica.cfues (hstant, at Au<::^sbur^-, the allies of France, the Bavarians, the Wurtenibert^ troo])s. and the rest of tlic army of the C(~)n federation (^f the Khinc occuj^vinL;' a position midway between them. The intention of tlic arch(lu!ridges across the stream at hd)ersdorf and occupy the large island of l.nbau. wliich was carried on May 20. Lannes and Massena then crossed from tlie island to tlie left bank of the stream, when the_\' look tlie \illages of b'.ssling and Aspern. where they sustained during two da\'s the assault of a hundred thousand Austrians. Tlie \illages were fi\e times taken and re- taken, and gave their names to these terrible battles. At length S3(5 FRANCE 1809 another portion of the army effected the passage, and joined the intrepid divisions of Lannes and JMassena. That under Davout was to follow, but Napoleon, without awaiting his arrival, in his impetuosity attacked an enemy twice as strong, numerically, as himself. Lannes pierced the Austrian center; the archduke was in full retreat, and Napoleon was preparing to follow up his vic- tory when he heard that Davout's corps, on which he had im- plicitly relied, had been unable to effect the passage of the Danube ami that the bridges over the river had been broken. He now found himself compelled to order a retreat, upon which the Aus- trians rallied and returned against the French in formidable masses, with the intention of surrounding the latter and driving them into the river. But the communications of the French with the isle of Lobau had not been cut off, and it was to this island that Napoleon now led back his troops. Here he was joined on June 14 by the army of Italy under Eugene, who in his march thither had defeated the Austrians under the Archduke John at Piave, Tarwitz, Goritz and Raab, the last of which victories enabled Napoleon to resume the offensive. After forty days' labor, three immense bridges spanned the Danube, and opened a passage for fifty thousand troops and five hundred pieces of cannon. The army crossed the river on the stormy night of July 4, exposed to a terrific cannonade, and on the following day carried the formidable entrenchments which liad been erected opposite the island, between Essling and Aspern. On the follow^ing day a fruitless attack was made on the enemy, who occupied strong positions on the hills of Wagram and heights of Russbach, but on July 6 a sanguinary and obstinate contest and the splendid victory of Wagram, as the battle was called, once more placed Austria at the mercy of Napoleon. Francis I. had to obtain peace by means of the most serious sacri- fices, and by a treaty of peace signed at Vienna on October 12, 1809, he ceded on the various frontiers of his states, to Italy, Bavaria and Ru'ssia, several circles and provinces, and three millions of subjects. He promised, moreover, to pay a heavy war contribution and to adhere to the continental blockade. Tlie English, in the course of this campaign, had landed in Holland, in the island of Walcheren, forty-five thousand men. Flushing had fallen into their hands after a desperate resistance and they already threatened Antwerp. But fever mowed down T H E E M P I R E 337 1809-1810 the English troops by tlionsands in the island of Walcheren and they were compelled at length to evacuate Zealand, wb.ere tlic town of Fhishing alone remained in their ])ower. On Napoleon's return to Paris he found that a serious mis- understanding had arisen with the court of Rome. Pope Pius VII. had not closed his ports against tlie English, and. justly dis- pleased at Napoleon's encroachments on his territory, had re- solved to refuse the Pontifical bulls to the new I'^rench bishop'^. The emperor irritated at this, forthwith deprived the Pojie of his temporal pcnver, and was excommunicated. The excitement of the Roman populace placed the French trooj-js in Rome in a posi- tion of great peril. General ]\riollis, the governor of the city, considered that the removal of the Pope was necessary, and Pius VIL, after having been violentlv torn from the Pontifical palace, was first removed to Savona and then to Fontainebleau. There he remained in durance for four years, while the ancient capital of the world was transformed into the chief town of a French department. The Spanish insurrection had become much more general immediately after the emperor's departure. The ])opulace arose in every direction and the desire for national independence was a bond which united all parties against I-'rance. It was in vain that Napoleon's generals obtained numerous victories; that Sebastiani triumphed at Ciudad-Real, Victor at Madelin. and Soult at Oporto; for the examjile of Palafox. the defender of Saragossa, and the heroism of its inhabitants, who allowed themsehes to be binded under its ruins rather than submit, excited the entlmsiasm and patriotism of the Spaniards, ^\hile the luiglish successfully seconded their efforts. On Julv 28 the I'^rench under Victor atiil Sebastiani were re])ulsed at d^davera by Sir Arthur Wellesley and compelled to retreat after an obstinate contest, which lasted two days. Put Sebastiani was \ictorious over the Spaniards (;n August 21 at .Mmonacid. and Mortier at Ocana on November it), and Andalusia fell into the power of the I'rench. Sixain, how- ever, was not yet concpiered, and in iSio was commenced a fresh campaign as nuu-derous as the preceding. Marshal Suchet in- vested the fortresses of Aragon, and held that province in check wdiile Marshal Soult took in succession Granada, Seville, and Malaga, and compelled the prcnisional junta of Seville to retire to Cadiz, which French troops besieged. A third army, under the 338 FRANCE 1810-1811 orders of Massena, had to struggle against the Anglo-Portuguese army of Wellington, which was very superior in numbers, but which ne\erthcless retreated before it towards Lisbon. Ivlassena sustained defeat at the bloody battle of Busaco, and was stopped by Wellington before the lines of Torres Vedras, wdiich protected the capital, and received, on October lo, the whole British army. Wliile the Peninsula devoured the best troops of the French army. Napoleon attained the highest point of his prodigious destiny. Equally influenced by his desire to have an heir, and by his ambition to be allied with the old dynasties of Europe, he repudiated Josephine de Beauharnais, his first wife, and married, on March 30, 1810, Maria Louisa, Archduchess of ^Austria, the daughter of the Emperor Francis. In the course of this year Holland was annexed to France, while one of his generals, Bernadotte, the Prince of Ponte-Corvo, was elected by the Estates-General of Sweden as successor to Charles XIIL, who was childless. The annexation of Holland, which deprived his brother Louis of his crown, w^as followed by an act still more unjustifiable, for Napoleon, on December 13, 1810, without any preliminary announcement, annexed to his empire, by a scnatus consul fum, the Valais, the Hanseatic towns, and the coasts of the Baltic from the Ems to the Elbe. Among the princes who had been deprived of their possessions was the Grand Duke of Oldenburg, the uncle of the Emperor of Russia, and Alexander regarded this decree, wdiich forcibly dispossessed a member of his family, as a personal insult to himself. He now listened to those about him who were most eager that he should break with France, and on December 31 replied to the scnatus consultuni by a commercial ukase which closed Russia against a large number of French products, and opened its ports to the products of the English colonies when conveyed In neutral bot- toms. Fresh levies of troops were ordered throughout his domin- ions, his armies marched upon the Niemen, and Europe awaited fresh and sinister events. In the Peninsula Suchet retained the upper hand in Aragon and Catalonia ; but in Estremadura, Andalusia, and Portugal the armies of Soult and Massena endured great hardships and strug- gled against immense difficulties. Soult had captured Badajoz, and fnjm tlicncc had marched to Cadiz, to hasten the reduction of that important place, but the English speedily besieged Bada- Tin: KMIMRE 339 1811 joz in their turn and compelled Sonll to return to l-'^stre- niadura. Masscna, liavini^ failed to force the formidable lines of Torres Vedras, liad found himself compelled to return to Spain, and had retreated to Salamanca, closely pursued by Wellington. At the end of April. iSit, having' received rein- forcements, he made an effort to relieve Almada. which the Eng^lish were besieging'. On his way thither he encountered the enemv on ^Fav 3. 181 1, at the village of Fuentes d'Onoro, half- way between jMmada and Ciudad-Rodrigo. There ^vTassena en- g'ag'ed Wellington. A terrible battle took place, but after sustain- ing the contest for three days, Massena was compelled to fall back and retreat upon Salamanca. Xapolcon reproached him for not havingf Ijccn victorious and replaced him in his command by Marshal Alarmont. ddie empire was in a state of decline, but fate still g'ranted to the emperor a g'rcat and much longed for fa\'or. Tie had a >"n born to him in March, i8[i, who was proclaimed King of Rome in the cradle. Napoleon now desired to terminate his protracted differences with the court of Rome, and assembled a g"encral council in Paris for the purpose of regulating, with the assistance of that assembly, the ecclesiastical affairs of the empire. The sovereign Pontiff, up to this time, had persisted in refusing to institute the b^rench bishops appointed l)y the emperor, the num- ber of which had been raised to twenty-seven. X'apoleim desired that the Pope should acce])t at the expense of France a sumptuous but dependent estal)lishment at Rome, at Paris, or at Avigivin. and should thus renounce his tcm]")oral power. Tie demanded, moreover, on the ground of the necessities of the several dioceses, that the bishops should be canonically instituted and sought some legal method of j^roviding for their in-tituti(Mi, should the Pope refuse tei])sic, where a most sanguinary battle took place, which lasted three days (October 16-19, 1813), and in which Xa])oleon was defeated. Tie retreated upon the Rhine, ciosel}' ])ressed by the rdlied armies. .V corps of sixty tliousand Austrians and Ba- varians, under General Wrede. endeav(;red near Manau to inter- cept the I'rench retreat, but unsuccessfully, as Xapoleon dispersed the cnemv, and encamped his army on tlie Rhine, while the allies took u]) a position opposite to him, and selected Frankfort as their head([uarters. Meanwhile, the French were being driven out of Spain. Two ureat battles had l)een lost, Salamanca bv Marmont, in 181 j. 344 FRANCE 1813 and Vittoria by King Joseph, in 1813, and Wellington was en- abled to march to the western Pyrenees, where Soiilt, after hav- ing struggled in the Peninsula with very unequal forces, was not in a position to oppose him successfully. In this extremity Na- poleon did not hesitate to sacrifice his brother's crown, and in the faint hope of arresting the progress of the Anglo-Spanish army at the Pyrenees he engaged, by a treaty signed at Valengay, wdiere he still kept King Ferdinand captive, to acknowledge him as King of Spain and to open the doors of his prison as soon as the treaty should be accepted by the regency at Cadiz and the Cortes. Prince Eugene, faithful to France, still struggled at this period in Italy, and heroically defended the course of the Adige, 1)ut the weak ]\lurat, to save his crown, now declared against Napoleon. The old generals and supporters of the empire including even Ney, Marmont and Macdonald now openly spoke of peace as indispensable, and pressed the emperor to conclude it, and the ministers of England, Russia, and Austria Lord Aberdeen, Nesselrode and Metternich assembled at Frankfort, proposed in concert to Napoleon, on November 13, the immediate con- vocation at Mannheim of a congress, for the purpose of ne- gotiating peace on the basis of the reestablishment of the king- dom of France within its ancient limits the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Rhine as they had been guaranteed in 1801 by the Peace of Luneville. Napoleon at first gave an ambiguous reply to the propositions of the foreign ministers. After three weeks' delay, when he sent in his assent to the proposal made at Frankfort, it was too late. Holland had risen in insurrection, and chosen the head of the House of Orange for its king; Alurat had separated his fortunes from those of Napoleon, and England, perceiving how readily Holland had freed' herself, conceived the hope of depriv- ing Napoleon of Antwerp and Belgium. Immense resources w-ere now required for the defense of France, which was exhausted both in men and money, and Napoleon, having assembled the senate and legislative corps on December 19, 1813, explained to them the necessities and perils of the country, and desired their assistance. The reply of the senate was moderate [ind submissive, but the legislative corps voted, in answer to the speech from the throne, an address in which it demanded, in respectful but nevertheless firm and distinct terms, F A L I. O F T II E K M PI R E 315 1814 the abandoiiinciil of coikiucsIs and llic rcstoralioii of a lc,:;al form of govcnmicnl. This oppc^sition was denominated treason ])y the emperor, and provoked his wrath. By his orders .all the copies of the address were seized; he proro<;'iied the legislative assemhly. and on tlic follow- ing" day, January i, 1814, received a deputation from that body with a storm of reproaches. From this time parties hostile to the emperor were formed throughout the empire, and Europe understood from this imprudent outbreak on the part of Xapoleon that France no longer supported him as one man. The whole virile population of the state was summoned to arms; thirty thou- sand national guards of Paris were mobilized and incorporated with the active army, and the hist resources of the nation were called into requisition. Xapoleon declared Maria Louisa regent. confided his wife and child, whom he was destined to see no more. to the national guard, and took the field, after having given the command of the capital to his brother Josc[)h. The English and Spaniards advanced on the soutli. and were alreafly at the Pyrenees; sixty thousand men under Schwarizcn- berg marched upon France by Switzerland and inundated the I'ranche-Comte ; sixty thousrmd Russians and Prussians under Bliicher penetrated into Lorraine and Alsace, and a hundred thousand Swiss and Germans inwaded Iklgium under P)ernad(Ule. Napoleon confided to General liaison the defense of the frontier of the north, and that of Lyons to Augercau. and, while Soult and Suchet still faced the enem\- at the Pyrenees, he onlcrcd Marshals Ney. Victor, ]\Tarmont, ALacdonald, and ApM-tier to fall hack \\\[h the feeble remnants of their various coriis to the emirons of Chalons, where he himself arri\-ed on January 25. His first step was to march rapidly from Chalons to Saint Dizier; thence lie ])r()ceeded to meet Pliicher. and encountered him under the walls of Brieime, where he gave him battle and gained a victory. Bliicher was dislodged from Brienne v>ith great loss .and dri\cn back upon La Rotliiere, whence he retreated as far as Trannc. In formed of iUucher's defeat, Schwartzenberg hastened to elfcct a junction with him opp(xsite the jilateau of La Pothicre. wliere t!ic emperor had hrdted. At this spot there took place on I'ebrnary I, 1814, a despci-ate conlliet. which listed eight hours and enijed without any decided result, the enemy being unable to eanv t'lr positions of the French, but retaining their own. It was nece-- 346 F R A N C E 1814 sary to fall back before the formidable masses of the allies, and during the night Napoleon effected in good order a retreat upon Troyes. From all sides now came news of fresh disasters. IMurat declared openly against Napoleon, and was marching to crush Prince Eugene; the Spanish regency of Cadiz refused to recognize the Treaty of Valencay, as Ferdinand would remain in captivity, and the Anglo-Spanish arms retained a large portion of the French troops on the x\dour and Pyrenees. Schwartzen- berg and Bliicher continued their march, and hostile forces al- ready made their appearance at a few leagues' distance only from the capital. Nothing, however, could crush Napoleon. Pie di- rected his brother Joseph to fortify Paris and defend it to the last extremity; ordered Suchet to withdraw the French troops from Catalonia, and to send them to him without delay; recalled Eugene, ordering him to evacuate Italy and to unite his forces with those which Augereau had assembled at Lyons ; had the Pope conducted back to Italy, and set at liberty Ferdinand VII., after having obtained his promise that he would execute the Treaty of Valencay; sent Caulaincourt, Duke of Vicenza. to rep- resent France and to negotiate peace at the Congress of Chatillon, which had assembled on the demand of England and Austria. Bliicher was now marching upon Paris by the valley of the Marne, while Schwartzenberg followed the course of the Seine. Leaving a portion of his forces in the environs of Nogent and ^Nlontereau, under Victor, Oudinot, and Gerard, to watch and hold in check Schwartzenberg, Napoleon threw himself with tlie rest, upon the army under Bliicher. Four days sufficed Napoleon to overtake and vanquish the four corps of Bliicher's army one after the other. On February lo he engaged and destroyed the Russian corps of Olssouvieff at Champ-Aubert ; on the following day he fought and defeated General Sacken, at Alontmirail; on February 13, 1814, he defeated General Yorck and Prince Wil- liam of Prussia at Chateau Thierry, and on the 14th encountered Bliicher at Vaucliamps, vanquished him, and drove him beyond Etogcs. six leagues from Chalons. Napoleon thus victorious, re- solved to advance without delay against Schwartzenberg, and ar- rived on l-'cbinary 15 at Guigncs. On the 17th he assumed the offensive, attacked the enemy, and put him to flight with consider- able loss at the battles of Mormont, Nangis, and Villeneuvc, and again on the i8th at ]\Iontereau. Schwartzenberg, completely F A L I. O 1-^ T H E K M P 1 H E ;3n 1814 beaten, ordered a retreat upon I'royes. which he only i)assed throui^h, and wliich Napoleon reentered as a victor on I'ehrnary 24. Idle representatives of the ]M)\vcrs at the Conc^ress of Cha- tillon had by tliis time (h'awn up definite con(h'tions of i)eace. which jn-ovided tiiat 1'" ranee sIkjuUI reenter tlie boundaries within wdiich she liad been confined in !/<)-', and take no part in the ar- ran^-ement of tlie other states in Europe, ddiis was to dej^rive her of the Rhine and Alps boundary lines, which had been left her by the Erankfort propositions, and of her rank as a Euro- pean power. Xajjoleon rejected these offensive jiropositions witli ang-er ami contempt. lie was determined to have the Rhine boundary, which had been offered at h'rankfort, and demanded that which his enemies had already resolved not to grant him. The allied powers now signed at Chaumont a new treaty of alli- ance, by which each of them engaged to furnisli a contingent of a hundred and fifty thousand men until tlie conclusicMi of the war. and England further offered an annual subsidy of six millions sterling, to be divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 'J'lie powers mutually agreed, moreover, that they would se\-erally keep up during twenty years after the signature of peace an army of sixty thousand men to be at the disposal of whichever of them France should attack. This treaty, so fatal to b^rancc, served as the basis of the famous treaty sul)se(|uently known by the name of the Holy Alliance. With reference to the proposals made at the Congress of Cdiatillon, a term was fixetl after which, it was declared, the negotiati(Mis with Xap(deon would be broken off and never renewed. Bliicher, who in the interval had almost repaired his disasters, had been reinforced by fifty thousand men from Bernadotte's army and had taken up a strong position behind the .'\isne on the plateau of Craonne, between Soissons and Eaoii. Erom this, however, he was forced by an impetuoais attack of Na- poleon and compelletl to withdraw to Laon, where, after two days' desperate fighting, he managed to retain his positicMi. Un- able to defeat Blucher, to whose assistance Schwartzenlierg was ra])idly a])proacliing, Xapoleon ordered a retreat, but, with a des- perate hope of checking the junction of the allied triiops by a vic- tory over Scluvart/.enhcrg 011 his way. he suddenK- marched to Arcis-sur-Aube, where he ga\-e that general battle. Victorious so far only as the maintenance of positions ni:ike a \ictorv. the em- peror, finding himself unable to tlo more than slightly check 348 FRANCE 1814 Sclnvartzenberi^'s march, retired to St. Dizier, hoping to draw the allies after him and away from Paris, or in event of their march- ing on Paris to gain time to collect more ta'oops and returning to the capital to crush them there. Napoleon had now allowed the fatal period to expire without replying to the proposals of the Con- gress of Chatillon and the congress was dissolved. The allied sovereigns announced that they were not at war with France, but only with Napoleon, and it was to Paris that they resolved to march without delay for the purpose of dethroning the emperor. France w^as equally invaded on the south, the Anglo-Spanish army, under Wellington, having already crossed the Pyrenees. Soult gave them battle at Orthez, and being defeated, was com- pelled to order a retreat and fall back upon Toulouse, leaving Bor- deaux uncovered, which opened its gates to the English, and on March 12 declared for the Bourbons, Marmont and Mortier, who had occupied a strongly en- trenched position behind the Ourcy canal, had fallen back upon Paris, after having sustained a defeat at Pere Champenoise. No obstacle now hindered the march of the allies, and on March 29 their columns took up positions around the capital. Consternation reigned in the immense city, for whose protec- tion and defense no preparations had been made. The government itself was in a state of profound stupor. The Empress Maria Louisa in obedience to orders left by the emperor in case such an emergency should happen, set out for Blois, carrying with her the King of Rome, but her flight completely paralyzed the defense. Paris was already invested on every side, and on March 30 the attack commenced on the one side, in front of La Villette, La Cliapelle, and Montmartre, and on the other, between Vincennes, Charonne, and the heights of Belleville. The battle lasted till the evening, when at length, to. stop the effusion of blood and to spare the aipital the horrors of capture by assault, the marshals capit- ulated, having obtained a free retreat for their troops, and quitted Paris during the night, while King Joseph and all the ministers of the imperial government hastened to Blois, Napoleon, who was hastening towards Paris, heard of the capitulation and the events which had preceded it, at Fromenteau, near Essone, but hoping yet to retrieve the disasters which had happened, he proceeded to Fon~ tainebleau, which he made his headquarters. Paris now received within its walls the allied sovereigns, at the F A L I. F T IT K E :\I P I R K 340 1814 head of their armies. The Emperor of Russia entered the ra{)ital on March 31, tog'ether with the Kin^^ of Prussia, and was received with demonstrations in favor of the IJourhons. His hrst act \vas to pubhsh, in the name of the alhcd sovereigns, a celebrated declar- ation that they would never neg-otiate with Xap(deon Bonaparte or with any member of his family, that those sovereic^ns would recognize and guarantee the constitution which h'rancc should choose for herself, and that the senate was invited to form a pro- \isional go\crnment to provide for the government of the country and to ])repare the new constitution. The senate accordingly a])pointed a provisional government of hve members, the I'rince Talleyrand, the l^uke of Dalberg, (len- eral Beurnonville, the Abbe de ^Montesquiou, and M. de Jancourt, who immediately formed a ministry. On the following day. April 2, 1 8 14. the senate proceeded to declare Xapoleon deprived of the throne, and released all h'rench subjects from tlicir oaths of fidelity to him and his family. Napf)leon, however, still had powerful resources at his com- mand. The army under Augercau at Lyons, the armies of Soult and Suchet in the south, that of luigene in Italy, and seventy thou- sand men, under his own direct command at h^tntainebleau, and he determined to make a supreme etTort to recover Paris. But although the trooi)S were willing to follcTw him. his marshals, when sum- moned to a council of war by the emperor, before setting out for Paris, did not hesitate to declare to him that if he jiersisted in his desperate enterprise he must not reckon upon their assistance. l'"inding himself on the i)()int of being abandoned by the illustrious companions with wdiom he had so often been victorious, his resolu- tion gave way. lie offered to abdicate in fa\'or of his S(Mi, who would reign under the regency of his mother, and sent Caulaincourt, Xcy, Macdonald. and r^larmont to Paris, to negotiate on this new basis. Alexander, however, told Caulaincourt and the marshals that Napoleon must make an unconditional abdication, and that, in re- turn, he should be treated with all due consideration. The nego- tiators were consequeiuly sent back t*) j-'ontaincbleau t(^ demand and obtain such an abdication. The em])eror. looking steadilv at the state of aifairs. saw clearly that there was little hojie of saving his crown, or of reco\-ering for Prance her frontiers, lie resigneil himself to his fate, therefore, and signed his abdication. 'J'lien. G50 FRANCE 1814 summoning around him his marshals, who had been impatient to obtain it, he addressed to them a few sad and serious words, and read to them his deed of abdication, which he then handed to Caul- aincourt to exchange in Paris for one in which should be set forth the fate reserved for himself and his family. The senate had already voted for France a constitution by which it voluntarily recalled to the throne, under the title of the King of the French, Louis Stanislas Xavier, the brother of Louis XVI., and conferred upon him the hereditary royalty. This con- stitution established on the throne an inviolable king, the sole de- pository of the executive power, which he was to exercise by means of responsible ministers, and provided that he should share the legis- lative power with two chambers ; an hereditary one, consisting for tlie most part of the mem.bers of the senate, and an elective one. It also provided for an irremovable magistracy, liberty of worship, in- dividual liberty, and the liberty of the press. Immediately after the publication of the senatorial constitution, as it was called, the pro- visional government drew up, at the request of Alexander, a treaty which assigned the island of Elba to Napoleon in full sovereignty, gave Parma and Piacenza to the empress and the King of Rome, promised a principality to Eugene, and finally bestowed incomes on Napoleon and his family. This treaty, which was signed on April II by the ministers of the allied sovereigns, and by Talleyrand in the name of the royal government, was immediately exchanged for the emperor's deed of abdication ; and on the following day the Count of Artois, the brother of Louis XVIII. , entered Paris, when the white flag was substituted for the tricolor. The prince received a cordial welcome from the national guard, and groups of royalists greeted him with enthusiastic shouts. On April lo a battle took place under the walls of Toulouse, between Soult and Wellington, when the former, after an obstinate contest which was prolonged for twelve hours, was defeated and compelled to retire on Villafranca. The treaty of April 1 1 was presented to X^apoleon for signa- ture on the evening of that day, but he hesitated and endeavored to escape the humiliating necessity of signing his own dethronement and that of his descendants by taking poison which he had carried on his person ever since his reverse at Moscow.^ The poison, how- 1 Historians are divided as to whether Napoleon attempted to commit stiicide. The evidence does not justify the positive statement contained in the text. F A T. T, () F TIT V. F. M P I U E 351 1814 ever, (lid not have the effect that he expected and on recoverinj:^ from a deep lethar<^y which followed his attempt to commit suicide. he placed, without further resistance, his signature to the treaty, and some days later, on April 20, at I'^ontainebleau, in the presence of the foreig'u commissioner charj^ed with the care of his person, took leave of his brave army, lie then threw himself into his carriai;e. and set out for the island of hllba, which was bestowed upon him in full so\erei<^'nty. and whither he was preceded by a battalion of his .c^uard. lie arrived at his destination on ^^lay 4 after a pain- ful j(5urnev throui^h the departments of the S(nith. throue:;h the midst of populations whom lon,^- and cruel wars had exasperated, and who did not spare the illustrious exile the insults he had too truly anticipated. French historians differ on the question of the g^reatness of Xapoleon, but the estimate of the En<:i;'lisli statesman. Lord Rose- bery,^ may be taken as an impartial criticism. " Into a career of a score of years," he says, '' Xapoleon crowded his own dazzlini^ career, his cf)nquests, his triumphant assault on the Old WorUl. In that brief space we see the lean, huni^^ry conqueror swell into the sovereign, and then into the so^-creign of sovereigns. Then comes the catastrophe. He loses the balance of his judgment and becomes a curse to his own ccnmtry, and to all others. He has ceased t(^ be sane. The intellect and energy are still there, but. as it were, in caricature; they have Ijccome monstrosities. Bcxly and mind are affected b}' the ])rolongcd strain to be more than mortal. Then there is the ine\'it;ible colla])se. " I'here is one question which ])Cople ask about great men. which one cannot put witli regard to Xapoleon, without a sense of incongruity which ap])roaches the grotcsc|ue. Was Xapc^lecMi a good man? The irresistible smile with which we greet tlie (|ues- tion ])ro\-es. we think, not the ])ro\-e(l inicpiit}'. but the exceptional ])osition of this uni(|ue personality. Ordinary measures and tests do not ajipear to a])ply to him. We seem to be trying to s])an ;i mountain with a ta])e. lUit that he was great in the sense of being extraordinary and supreme we can have no doubt. If greatness stands for natural ])ower. for predominance, for something human beyond humanity, then Xapoleon was assuredly great. Besides that indefinable spark which we call genius, he represents a com- bination of intellect and energy which has ne\er perhaps been. M.ord Ro-cbcry, " Xapolroii ; Tlic Last Pliasc." 352 FRANCE 1814 equaled, never, certainly, surpassed. He carried human faculty to the farthest point of which we have accurate knowledge. Na- poleon lived under the modern microscope. Under the fiercest glare of scrutiny he enlarged indefinitely the limits of human con- ception and human possibility. Till he had lived no one could realize that there could be so stupendous a combination of military and civil genius, such comprehension of view united to such grasp of detail, such prodigious vitality of body and mind. ' He con- tracts history,' said Madame d'Houdetot, ' and expands imagina- tion.' ' He has thrown a doubt,' said Lord Dudley, ' on all past glory; he has made all future renown impossible.' This is hyper- bole, but with a substance of truth. No name represents so com- pletely and conspicuously dominion, splendor, and catastrophe. He raised himself by the use, and ruined himself by the abuse, of superhuman faculties." PART VI A CENTURY OF REVOLUTION. 1814-1910 Chapter XXII THE RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS. 1814-1820 TEIE liead of the royal house. T.ouis Stanislas Xaxier. whom the senate called upon to rei<::^n under the name of Louis XVin., had acquired in his youth, as Count of Provence, a certain popularity by votint;. in the second assembly of the notables, for the double representation of the Third Estate. He had, more- o\'cr, while in exile in Juigland, resisted the rej)ublic and protested against Napoleon by claiming his rights to the crown. Idie Count of Artois had preceded the king, his brother, and had entered I'aris on April 12 with the title of lieutenant-general of the king- dom. The prince invited the provisional government to form his council, to which were added Marslials Oudinot and ^^loncey. and General Dessoles. This council, which was named the upper royal council, set to work as soon as it was constituted, and the govern- ment of the Bourbons C(Mnmenced. d"he first care of the ])rince and his councilors was to atYord some immediate relief to the provinces de\'astated bv war, and still occupied by the enemy. With this praiseworthy object, it signed a burdensome con\-ention, by which iM'ancc un(lert(~)ok to surrender to the allied j^owers. within the briefest ])ossil)le space of time, all the ])laces which her troops still (K'cupied on their se\eral territories, with most of the material of war which the}' coiUained. in return for the immediate release of the soil of I'rance from foreign troops. This con\-enti(Hi was signed on April 23. On the following dav Louis XV' III. arri\ed at Calais, which he entered .amid the enthusiastic acclamations of the populace, and from wln'ch he set out lor Paris. Jealous of his hereditary pri\-ileges. tlie king would not ac- knowledge that the senate had a right to impose a constitution upon him. lUit ne\ertheless. yielding to the earnest re])resentations of the I''m]ieror Alexander and the ad\ ice of Talleyrand, he preceded his entry into his capital by a celebr.aied declaration, dated .at Saint- Ouen, by whicli he guaranteed to h'rance the liberties ])romised by the senatorial constitution. On the following da}-, May 3, the 356 FRANCE 1814 king, the Duchesse of Angouleme, and most of the princes of the family of the Bourbons entered Paris in solemn procession and received everywhere a warm reception, for the declaration of Saint- Ouen began a new era for France. Reliance w-as placed on the royal promises and the hearts of the people w"ere open to hope. The king confirmed in its attributes the consultative superior council established by his brother under the name of the royal council, and in subordination to which another council, that of the ministers, exercised the executive power. It w^as, however, soon perceived with anxiety that among the ministers were some who were op- posed to the liberal spirit, and who had been selected by the monarch on account of personal liking or of services rendered before the revolution, such as Dambray, who had been made chancellor of France and keeper of the seals, the Abbe Montesquiou, minister of the interior, and the Count of Blacas, minister of the king's house- hold. General Dupont was minister of war, Talleyrand, for foreign afifairs, jMalouet, for the naval department. Baron Louis, of finance, and Beugnot, of police. Active negotiations for the establishment of peace w^ere imme- diately commenced, and it was concluded on May 30, 1814, by a treaty signed at Paris, by wdiich France was restricted, with a fevv^ trifling increases in territory, to the limits within which she had been confined in 1792. She had to surrender three of her colonies Santa-Lucia, Tobago and the Isle of France, and finally it w-as agreed that the vessels constructed by order of her government in foreign parts should be divided between herself and the allied pow-ers. Shortly after the signature of the Treaty of Paris the French soil was freed from the presence of foreign troops. On June 4 the king convoked the senate and the legislative body, and on the same day. in their presence solemnly bestoW'Cd upon the French a constitutional charter, which established a representative government composed of a king and two chambers, one of which was made up of peers nominated for life by the monarch, while the other consisted of the deputies of departments. It abolished confis- cation and the odious conscription law, secured individual liberty, the freedom of the press and of public worship, the inviolability of prop- erty, the irrevocability of the sales of the national property, the re- sponsi!)ility of the ministers, the annual voting of taxes, and the payment of the interest on the national debt, and reestablished the old nobility in their rights while it maintained those of the new. RESTORATION OF BOURBONS 357 1814 Immediately after the charter had been read the chancellor pn^duced the decree which estabhshed the chamber of peers, which was composed of most of the old senators, of the marshals, and a great number of dignitaries of the old court and noblesse. The promul- gation of this charter was accompanied by one serious fault. The king had refused to accept it as a condition of his elevation to the throne, and had granted it simply as an act of his sovereign will, and had dated it the nineteenth year of his reign. This was to ignore all that had taken place in h>ance during twenty-five years, and to expose the charter to peril by placing it at the mercy of the supreme power. The dangerous nature of the ground on which the monarch rested his power soon become manifest. A number of persons who had been dissatisfied with the return of the Bourbons received the new order of things with distrust, and the press, im- placable and violent, spread abroad alarms and threats. The jour- nals were subjected to a censorship, but while the partisans of the revolution were compelled to be careful how they wrote, the royalist papers were permitted full license of language, and many intemperate articles, which were not suppressed, w'ere attributed to the instiga- tion of the government. Louis XVIII. also committed the fault of reestablishing, at a great expense, the old military appendages to the royal household the companies of household troops and the musqueteers, which were composed of young noblemen, who were all recognized as officers at the commencement of their career, in the presence of an army in whicli during twenty years military rank had only been obtained at the price of blood and glorious services. Many decrees were issued which were offensive either to the army or to the people. The clerical ])arty ordered tlie j)o1ice to prevent any commercial transactions or labor on Suntlays and fete days, a measure rendered untimely and unpopular by the manner in which it was carried into effect. The suppression ui the concordat was negotiated at Ivome, and there seemed reason to fear that the clergy would be reinstated in their old privileges. Many priests thundered against the present ])roprietors of the national property, and, finally, many bishops oj^enly expressed their adherence to the bull of l'oi)e Pius V'll., which reestablislied the order of the Jesuits. The army, stationed in (jbscure garrisons, found itself deprixed by General Uupont of a multitude of oft'icers who had gr(_)wn old in its ranks, and who were succeeded by men uhose only title to comuKuul was their birth or services in foreiun ranks. Irritation and anxietv 358 FRANCE 1814 filled the breasts of all whose interests allied them virtually with the revolution, and they formed two powerful parties : the imperialist party, which was supported by almost the whole of the army, and the revolutionary or republican party, which obtained the sympathy of most of those who were now in possession of the national property. Opposed to these parties was a third called the ultra-royalist party, and composed of most of the old nobility and the clergy, which was led by Monsieur, the king's brother, and which never ceased to urge Louis XVIII. to unpopular acts, which were as contrary to the spirit of the charter as to the monarch's personal inclinations. Finally, a fourth party, named the constitutional party, consisted of all those whose wishes and necessities were satisfied by the char- ter, such as Lafayette, Royer-Collard, Lanjuinais, Carnot, Benjamin Constant, Madame de Stael, the Duke of Broglie, Boissy d'Anglas, and others. This party, which was supported by the national guard of Paris, was powerful among the citizens of the chief cities and had the majority in the two chambers. The chambers assembled on June 4, Chancellor Dambray being the president of the chamber of peers, and M. Laine that of the chamber of deputies. The financial measures of Baron Louis were immediately adopted, but their ex- ecution was accompanied by much suffering, for it was necessary, for economy's sake, to suppress a multitude of offices, and to reduce to half-pay a number of good officers, who overflowed Paris and moved its inhabitants by their complaints and their wretchedness, while extreme Irritation was caused by the continuation of all, even the most vexatious taxes, the suppression of which had been either promised or hoped. The censorship of books and journals was one of the most serious questions discussed in the chamber. It was temporarily maintained. The attempt to restore to the emigrants a portion of the property confiscated by the state, but not yet sold, raised a violent storm, not' so much on account of itself as on ac- count of what it seemed to foreshadow. The chamber did not pass this measure until it had undergone considerable modifications, but the ill-judged expressions of M. Ferrand, the minister who had introduced it, were regarded as the expressions of opinions of the king and his government and, spreading rapidly through France, gave a fresh and unfortunate activity to the dangerous hopes of some and the sullen rage of others. The public excitement was great, and was increased by many alarms. There was no end of rumors of conspiracies, and a plot for tlie restoration of the empire REST O R A T I \ 01' ROT R R () N S 359 1814-1815 was actually fnrmctl b}' snnic imprudent i^'cncrals. The army was the most fm-midahle t'> ^cus cf discontent, and instead of doin<;' all in its ])(nvcr ;.i attach it to itself, tlie i4o\ernment was constantl} puttini;' me;isui-cs into execution which could not fail to alienate it. The minister of war, (icneral Dupout, proposed to the chambers to suppress many branches of the Hotel i\c:=, hualides, and some es- tablishments for the education of the children of members of the Lcg"ion of Honor, while the ccoverniuent at the same time pensioned S(jme of the Vendeans and Chfjurms. Tublic indig'nation was ex- cited by these i)rojects. The economical measures relative to the Invalides and the orphans of the Leg'ion of Honor were rejected, (leneral Dup(jnt was oblig'ed to resiq-n, and was succeeded by Mar- shal Soult. Shortl}' ;ifterwards the session (jf the chambers was closed and adjourned to A,la\' 15, 1S15. In October, J814. a cont^'ress had been assembled at Vienna, for the purpose oi reconstructing the map of luirope, and was still sitting at the o])ening of the new year. ]'>y this it was arranged that Prussia slunild ha\e the electorate of Saxony, .^^^wedish I'ome- rania, and a great ])ortion of the territory between the Rhine and the Meuse. Ivussia ac(|uired the grand ducliv of Warsaw, under the name of tlie king-dom of I'oland. Austria recovered Lombardy and all its old possessions on the two shores of the Adriatic. Tus- cany was given to the Archduke b^erdinand, (lenoa to the King of Sardinia, and I'arma to the ex-i'Jnpress >,laria Louisa, but only for her life, d'hc foreign policy of .all the states of (lermanv was ren- dered subject to the decisions of a federal diet, of which Austria was to ha\'e the perpetual presidency. Sweden obtained .\orway, while haigland retained the Cape of (lood jjope. the Isle of b'rance, .Malta and Heligi'land, and exercised he(l l)\- the .\ct of Mediation of j.So^, and raised the total number of caiUMiis to twenty-two. Talley- rand, who rej)i"esenled hrance, further insisted that Xa|)oleon should be remo\ed to a greater distance than bdba and that Murat should be dethroned. This led Murat {o seek' a reconciliation with Xapo- leon, whom he invited to Ital)' and \<) whom he promised ])ower- ful support, Siach was in Lebruary, 1815, the general position of 360 FRANCE 1815 Europe, Avhen an astounding event suddenly startled it throughout its length and breadth. This was nothing less than the escape of Napoleon from Elba and his disembarkation on March i, in the Gulf of Juan, between Cannes and Antibes, with eleven hundred men, four pieces of cannon, and three generals, Bertrand, Drouot and Cambronne. The news of his landing spread around Louis XVIII. terror and consternation. The king convoked the two chambers and the Count of Artois, with the Duke of Orleans, was ordered to ad- vance with troops upon Lyons in concert with Marshal Macdonald. Ney accepted the command of the troops spread over Franche- Comte, and took an oath of fidelity to the king. The Duke of Feltre replaced Marshal Soult as minister of war, and a royal de- cree declared Napoleon Bonaparte a traitor and a rebel, and enjoined all Frenchmen to treat him as such. In the meantime Napoleon was on his way to Paris. A first attempt made on the garrison of Antibes had failed, and for some days he advanced without encountering any troops either friendly or hostile. It was resolved by the authorities in the south, who appeared to be struck with stupor at Napoleon's landing, and in- capable of acting with energy, that Grenoble should be defended, and all the disposable troops in Dauphine were concentrated there. A detachment commanded by a resolute officer named Lessard was sent some leagues beyond Grenoble to destroy the bridge of Pon- thaut, and having met on March 7, with the imperial advanced guard under Cambronne on the Mure, prepared to dispute his ad- vance. Plowever, on an impassioned appeal from Napoleon, the cry of " Vive Vcmpcreur! " was raised by Lessard's men, and was a thousand times repeated. The two bodies of troops fraternized and marched together to Grenoble. Soon afterwards, in the neigli- borhood of Vizille, Colonel la Bedoyere hastened up with his regiment to join Bonaparte, whom the unfortunate young man almost worshiped. Grenoble and Lyons opened their gates in suc- cession ; the soldiers everywhere responded to the appeal of their old general ; Ney's corps followed this example, and Ney himself was induced to do the same. Napoleon embraced him and continued his march towards Paris. As Napoleon was approaching, Louis XV [II. held a review in Paris, but the troops would not respond to the cry of '' Vive le roll " The monarch understood this silence, and, yielding to the force of necessity, he precipitately quitted his R K S r ( ) R A T I O \ O ] B C) T^ R B O \ S ;5f)l 1815 palace on the nii;1it cf Afarcli \q. On the cvcnin;,'' of Marcli 20 Napoleon reentered the caj)ital. withont havini^ hrcd a single . sliot. lie had mrule known In's acceptance of the Treaty of Paris, and liad protested his intention of keeping- the peace, bnt his cnnriers were arrested (m the frontiers, tlie alhed sovereii^ns ])laced no re- liance on his assnrances, and by a frcsli treaty, signed on March 25. renewed camong themselves the alliance of Channiont. The Congress of V^ienna declared Xa])nleon to be out of the pale of public and so- cial law, and from seven to nine hundred thousand men were pre- paring once more to pour down upon I'^rance. It was necessar\-, therefore, that Xajioleon. if he were to reign, should receive froiu the hands of victory fresh and bloody consecration. The first imperial decrees, dated at Lyons, v.ere energetic. They declared the chambers of Louis XX'IIL dissolved, convoked the electoral colleges in an extraordinary assembly for tlie purpr^se of modifying- the constitution of the empire in the interests of the jjeople, abolished the old nobility, and declared all the jjroperty of the Bourbons secjuestrated. Napoleon admitted into his coimcil the celebrated conventionist, Carnot. as minister of the interior, and ap- pointed l^nu^.e. Duke of Otranto, minister of ])olice. l-'inally he recjuested the celebrated publicist. T.cnjamin Constant, to draw up an "Additional Act to the constitutions of tlie empire." which created. in the first place, two legislative chambers, those of tlie ])cers and the representati\-es, the first hereditary, nominated by the emperor. anf the followin.'T session, Pcyr(Hniet. the keeper of the seals, piresented to the deputies a law. tlie object of which was to re-train ih.e liberty of the press Vvitlun the narrowest limits in respect to jiamphlets and bo(jks. and to stille it alto^f^ether in respect to journals and periodicals. The proposed law excited an almost universal feeling of intli^matiou, the brench Academy a])poini(.d a committee of its members to draw up a petition to the kinp; for the withdrawal of the project. This petition Charles X. refused to recei\-e. and replied to it b}' the infliction of j)unishment, depri\in,i;- \'illemain. L;ictretelle, :md Midland of their oftices. The law, which was ado])!ed by the chamber of deputies, was \'eiicmentK- opjjosed in that of ihe peei'S. The cal)inei foresaw that, even if tliis chamber accejiletl it. it \\t;tld at lcat partv. And \-et the cabinet per-evered, determined to brave e\'erything. as though fascinated by the decepti\e prestige of a factitioa> [)arli;i- 386 FRANCE 1827 mentary majority, the result of the double vote, and torn from France by an unlimited administrative centralization. Charles X., while thus opposing every liberal feeling, was nevertheless anxious that the French should be personally attached to him. He had long been hurt at the silence of the people when he passed among them, and after having witnessed the enthusiasm of the Parisians on the occasion of the withdrawal of the law respecting the press, he ordered a general review of the national guard for the following Sunday. The king was favorably received, but in almost every instance the cry of " Vive Ic rui! " was mingled with a shout of hostility against the ministers. The princesses who were present at the review were also exposed to insult, and at the instigation of the offended members of his family and Villele and Corbiere he dissolved the national guard. The liberal press and the opposition journals vehemently reproached the president of the council for this inconsiderate act of vengeance, and immediately after the session the censorship was arbitrarily reestablished. A strong opposition against the decree which dissolved the national guard arose in the chamber of peers, and appeared also in the chamber of deputies, wdiere the minority hostile to the ministers increased every day in strength. Already many members had declared that although a recent law had sanctioned the septenniality of the legislature, they had been elected only for five years, and could not retain their seats for any longer time in the chamber. Villele resolved, therefore, to secure the duration of his power and the execution of his plans by the election of a new septennial parlement which should be more docile than the existing one, and in November, 1827, appeared the decree by which the chamber of deputies was dissolved. The elec- toral colleges were convoked and seventy-six peers created, most of the latter being members of the majority of the old chamber and large landed proprietors whose great fortunes recommended them to the royal favor. The cabinet had overstepped the mark, and public opinion, so long misconstrued, crushed and braved, now exploded simultane- ously in every part of the kingdom. All the members of the left who had been rejected in the preceding election reappeared, and the result of the appeal to the popular vote tln-oughout France was the formation in the chamber of an imposing constitutional majority. i\Tany of them returned to it dee])ly irritated, dis- posed to make the most violent resistance to the policy of the C IT A R T. K S X 387 1827-1828 cabinet. It was in vain tliat X'illclc still endeavored to retain ctVice by sacrificing' those of liis colleagues who were the most comprcj- niiscd, and in vain that he exhansted e\erv si)ecies of combination for the formation of a conncil in harmonv with the new chamber, and in which, at the same time, he might iiimself have a place. 1 le was comjielled at length to confess his p(nvcrlessness, and fell before that ]nil)lic opinion which he had too hanghtilv disdained. Jlax'ing shown the chief points in which the X'illele ministrv had rendered itself odions to all parties, it mav now be well to notice a few more satisfactory measnres which it etTccted in its financial operations and foreign jiolicy. It I'avored the increasing credit which France now Ijcgan to enjoy, the clTorls i)i its manufacturing industry, and its tratlc with other nations. It emancipated the old colony of S.-int Domingo, on condition of the p:iyment of a con- siderable indemnity to the dispossessed colonis<;s, and Ijy the treaty of July 6, ii^J/, the I'^'cnch go\'ernment joined with baigland and Russia for the purpose of putting a stop to hostilities between ^i'urkey and Greece, ddie >on of AIehemet-.\li. Ibrahim Pasha, ha\'- ing been summoned to his aid by the sultan, arri\cd in the Morca with a formidable licet, and had it not been for the inler\enti(Mi of the powers the (ireeks, who were utterly exhausted, must ha\e been lost. Ibrahim refused to observe the armistice pre.-cribed by the powers, and this refu.^al led to tlie celebrated battle in which tlic French scpiadron, under Admii'al Kigny, together with the JMiglish and Ivussian S(|uadrons. ;ittack"ed and destroyed the l\gyptian llect in the i)ort of Xaxarino. Octoljcr jo, 1827. d'his \'ict(M'y sa\'ed the (irceks and raised them to tlie rank' of a n.ation. 'fhe new council \\as formed time in inlri iduciug si mie imjx nlant laws concci\ed in a liberal spirit. ( )ue of these abolished the cen- sorship, and others sanctioned liie s\--leni of s])ecialit\- in the great divisions of the budget, and tlie permanence of the electoral h'sts. and C(jntrolied the action of goveninunt oifieials in rcs])ect to elec- tions. Finallv, the right of inlei"preting tlie laws was recognized as belonging to the two branches of the lcgi>lature. ddie most ditlicult achie\ement of the ministry was the issuing of two decrees, which forbade the Jesuits to take part in llie in- struction of youth. IH' one of these decree.^ the secondary ecclesiasti- 388 FRANCE 1828-1829 cal schools were placed under the common law, and l)y another it was ordained that no one should either teach in or direct them who helonged to any society not authorized hy law. These decrees were the most painful concessions which Charles X. made to the demands of the age, and no sacrifice could have cost him more. The Congre- gation felt itself wounded by them to the heart, and the king was surrounded by cries of anger and indignation. The distrust with which Charles X, had always regarded the ministry which had been forced on him by the pressure of public opinion was now changed into aversion, and he saw with satisfaction the opposition Martignac and his colleagues encountered from the liberals, who began to be more eager in their demands for strong guarantees against the return of the royalist party to power than for the passing of laws which would tend to the good of France. The king hoped that the moment would come when the ministers would be condemned by the people at large, and he trusted to be able to find in their dismissal by the popular voice a reason or a pretext for returning to the men of his choice. About this time two important laws, one of which related to the organization of the municipal councils, while the other regulated those of the departments and the arrondisse- ments, were submitted to the chamber of deputies. Men of all parties concurred in refusing to support them, and an announcement from the ministr}^ in conformity with the king's orders that no modifica- tion of the proposed laws would be permitted, having been followed by a division in favor of an amendment, they were immediately withdrawn. The court rejoiced in the defeat thus suffered by the cabinet, Charles X. resolved to dismiss his council, and on August 8, 1829, after the vote for the budget of 1830, and the close of the session, appeared the decree which created a new cabinet. Three noteworthy men, the I'rince of Polignac, Bourdonnaye, and Bourmont, were made members of the new cabinet as a sort of defiance to public opinion. The first was the living expression of the Congregationist party, the second represented all that was most violent in the unpopular chamber of 1815, and the third, an old leader of the Chouans, was only known to the people and tlie army as a deserter from the French camp at Waterloo. As soon as the names of the new ministers were announced the press i)assed by turns from expressions of rage to those of insulting pity, from dis- dain to threats. Pre[)arations were made to offer a vigorous re- sistance to the court by means of the elections, and in every part (' II A R L F. S X 389 1829-1830 of the kin,Q-(i(,ni ri \Ti>t a^socialii ;] .,;.- f.-nueil f -i' ])rcv<,ii- tii)n of the semhle(l depnties and ])eers Ids firm intention to maint;dn e(inal!y intact the institutions of t'le country and the ]M-crogatives of the crown. l'\\c composition of the adtlress from tlie deputies in answer to the speech from the thrcMie g-a\e rise io a very animated dehate, in whic'i two alreadv famous men, (luizot and I'crryer, made their entrance, on opposite sides, into parliamenta.ry life, d'he address wliich was proposed ])ointed out to the kiiii;- that the composition of his cabinet was dan.i^-erous and threatening;- to the ])ublic liberties, rmd it also explained that the necessary harmony between the political views of the s^overn- ment antl the views of the nation did not cxi-t. and entreated him to reestablish it. It was carried bv a majoritv of forty in a liouse of four hundred and two, and Charles X., after 1l'i\-- ing heard it, displayed much irritation, and declared that his reso- liuions were known a.nd would remain immutable. The chamber was prorogued and then dissol\-ed. The kin^- issued a decree which ag"ain convoked the electoral collei^es. The two hundred and twenty- one sii^'uers of the address were almost all reelected, and the oppo- sition was reinforced by many new members. In the meantime an alTrout offered to the I'h'ench consul .q"ave llie ministry an opportunity of ])uri;'in_g' the se;i of ti'.e Itarbar}- pirates. An expedition was sent a^'ainst Alio'crs, under liourmout. the luiinster of war, and Admiral Duperre, and the city was taken. The political strui^^t^'le at leni^lh aj)])roaclied its determina.lion. The ;'eneral result of the elections was known, ami th.e minis:i-y found itself in front ()\ a majoritv still more conipacl, imi)at:eni. and hostile. Most oi the members of the majority. ho\\e\er, did noi \\';-h for the o\erthrow en' the thnme. and were sincerely attached to the constitution, but to be de\-oteue 390 FRANCE 1830 decrees for the safety of the state, also authorized him to leave the path of legahty if the state, being in peril, could not be saved by legal measures. In his eyes the safety of the monarchy depended on the continuance in office of the ministers he had appointed, and the triumph of the throne over a chamber which he accused of wish- ing to overtlu'ow it. At the same time he was not conscious that he was violating the charter or perjuring himself when he made the article above named an excuse for violating it. During the last days of July the king remained inflexible, but his ministry still deliberated, and either because it hesitated or because it wished to change pub- lic opinion, sealed letters were sent to the members of the two chambers convoking them for August 3. Five members of the council spoke of the danger of having recourse to violent and illegal measures, but as the king, by interpreting every refusal as a sign of weakness and an abandonment of himself at the moment of danger, had thus transformed the c[uestion of state into one of honor, a blind feeling of devotion was alone attended to. On July 26 the Monitcur published an explanation drawn up by Chantelauze, and followed by the famous decrees signed on the previous evening, which suppressed the liberty of the press, annulled the late elections, and arbitrarily created a new electoral system. A prolonged and sullen murmur spread through Paris at the publication of these decrees, and on the following day there appeared in the opposition journals an energetic protest, signed by forty-three of their principal contributors or editors, among whom were Remusat, Thiers, Mignet, Armand, Carrel, Bande, and Chatelain. They declared that they could not submit to illegal decrees, and urged the deputies to resist them, to regard themselves as legally elected, and to protest with themselves. Orders were given for the destruction of their presses, and a struggle took place in the printing offices, which was speedily transferred to the streets', in which the multitude on the same even- ing tore down the insignia of monarchy, with the cry of " The charter forever! " and improvised numerous barricades. Paris was declared in a state of siege, and Marshal jMarmont, Duke of Ragusa, who was placed in command of the troops, led them against the in- surgent populace, occupied all the strategical points, and summoned additional regiments from the neighboring garrisons. But already the Hotel de Ville, abandoned by the two prefects, had fallen into the hands cjf the insurrectionists; the tricolor was raised there, and the word " republic " was echoed again and again by the excited C li A R L E S X 391 1830 crowd. A portion of the opposition deputies who were in Paris, and aniniio- whom were C'asimir IV'-rier. Laftittc. Lafayette, the elder Dupin, Charks Dnpin, (niizot. X'illeinain. Sebastiani, Benjamin Con- stant, Salverte, Puiraveau, and iMau,i;in, having assembled on the morning- of the jSth, voted, with some modifications, a declaration drawn up by Guizot, in which they forcibly protested against the decrees of the 26th, and declared themselves legally elected and in- capable of being replaced save by virtue of elections conducted ac- cording to the forms ordained by the law. By the evening of the 28th the whole of Paris with the exce])tion of the quarter of the Louvre and the Tuilerics had fallen into the hands of the insurgents, and on the morning of the day following the deputies who had tlrawn u]) the ]u\)test in compliance with the wishes of the chief citizens made Lafayette commander-in-chief of the national guard, and nominated a municipal committee charged with the duty of providing for the safely of life and property, and of providing for the government of the city. This committee, with Lafayette and his staff, immediately took ])osscssion of the Hotel de V'ille, where it installed itself in the midst of a crowd excited by victory, but which knew how to respect itself by prohibiting, on pain of death, devastation and pillage. On the morning of the 29th the struggle still continued in the capital with all that increasing audacity with which the multitude had been insjiired by the success of the previous evening. The cimntry around I'aris had risen and cut off communication with the city. The royal army was devoid of the necessary supplies, and as it received neither provisions nor reinforcements was much dis- couraged. Reduced in numbers by w'ounds, death, and desertion, it was unable to maintain its position in Paris. The Louvre, which was ill defended, was taken by the people, and ]\Larmont ordered a retreat U[)on Saint Cloud, where the king and court then were. The king up to this time had remained intlexible in the luidst of tliose who entreated him to revoke his fatal decrees, and it was not until -Marniont liatl exacuated Paris and had reapjieared at Saint Cloud with the remains of his battalions that Charles X. yielded, revoked his decrees and ordered the Duke of Alontemart to form a ministry. But it was too late. Too much blood had been spilled and the municipal committee of Paris rejected the court's overtures. The danger of the latter grew greater every hour. Whole regiments 392 FRANCE 1830 appeared in the ranks of tlie insurgents, and Paris was preparing to march ujjon Saint ("loud. During the night of July 29 Charles X. retreated I0 Versailles. There was, however, much reason to fear that the union mainlained among the citizens of the immense capital during the conilict would be broken at the moment of selecting a new government. Some wished to establish a republic, while others, representing the immense majority of the citizens, desired to retain a monarchical and constitutional government. But to effect this it was necessary to find a man already elevated above all by his private position, and who had given incontestable pledges of his devotion to the public liberties. Such a man existed in the person of the Duke of Orleans. This was the opinion of the deputies who had spontaneously assembled at the Palais Bourbon, and, at the suggestion of Benjamin Constant, they voted a declaration to the effect that his royal highness, the Duke of Orleans, should be requested to proceed immediately to the capital for the purpose of exercising there the functions of lieutenant-general for the kingdom. The declaration at the same time expressed a wish that the colors raised by the insurrectionists should be retained as those of the nation. A deputation which was appointed to carry this declara- tion to the prince at the chateau of Neuilly did not find him, but left their message. On the following day the prince entered Paris. Time pressed, for the insurrectionary movement in defense of the charter was rapidly changing into an agitation in favor of a republic. The next day (July 31) the duke published a manifesto to the French people ending with the words, " From now on, the charter will be a reality." The conservative class, led by a group of deputies, rallied to his suj)port, and the duke, betaking himself to the Hotel f Broglie, Guizot and T.ouis, X(n-cmber. 1830, he made Laftittc min- ister of finance and president of the council. In spite, however, of the changes in the ministry, while the trial of Polignac and his col- leagues lasted, disturbances in Paris continued to rage v.itli a feroc- ity which called to mind the most fatal days of the revolution. Calm in the midst of this frightful crisis and unanimously refusing to pass a capital sentence, the court of peers condemned I\dignac to transportation and his three colleagues to perpetual imprisonment. But a savage mob demanded their heads and threatened to inllict the most desperate outrages on tlie prisoners and their judges, anil its rage was with difficulty held in check by the national guard. The minister of the interior and General Lafayette were foremost in striving to defend the condemned men, and for this purpose nobly risked their lives. Their efforts were successful; Paris was jire- served from the horrors of a new second of September, and the con- demned ministers were conveyctl from Vincennes to the castle of Ham to undergo their punishment. During the short existence of this ministry the chambers passed the most liberal and popular laws of the new reign. One law decorated the citizens who had particularly distinguished themselves in the days of Jnly. and others submitted offenses committed by the jiress to the judgment of a jury, rendered the munici- pal councils electixe and ga\e a new organization to the national guard. This latter law confided arms to everyone witlii)ut distinc- tion and rendered tlie appointment of most of tlie c^ftlcers a mere matter of election, without any interference on the part of the crown, and thus created a great danger to the crown. Italy fell into a state of insurrection, and the Po])e had already lost a great prjrtion of his provinces when, being threatened them- selves with the loss of their Pombard and Venetian possessions, the Austrians hastened to interfere, stilled the insurrection, and re- established the shaken tlironc. About the same tinu- an insurrection burst forth in I'oland antl almost the whole oi the Pussian kingdom of Poland fell into the hands of the insurgent niition. The ducliy of Warsaw and its capital believed that thev were freed, and llie dethronement of the Romanovs was shortly afterwards declared by the diet. In Prance these great events were sympathized with by 896 FRANCE 1830-1831 almost all classes of the population. The revolutionary party loudly demanded that France should simultaneously oppose Russia which was now preparing to fall upon Poland Austria, the conference in London, and tlie Pope. It loudly demanded war at a time when France had only a disorganized army, when its finances were in the worst possible state and when its credit was at the lowest ebb. It is to the honor of Louis Philip that he energetically opposed this dangerous course, and while he did liis duty by negotiating in favor of the Poles, he abstained from threatening demonstrations, which, to have been effectual, must have been followed by the revolutionary measures of a sinister epoch. Popular discontent burst forth with renewed violence in Paris on February 14, 1831, on the celebration of a funeral service for the Duke of Berry at Saint-Germain TAuxer- rois by a great number of the partisans of the late regime, who now began to be commonly called legitimists. The ceremony proved the means of exciting a fierce riot, which the authorities were slow to suppress. The next day the church and the sacristy were shame- fully pillaged, and the archbishop's palace was destroyed. The chambers, justly indignant, held the government and the municipal authorities responsible for these barbarous acts, and the two prefects of Paris, Baude and Odillon Barrot, were deprived of their offices. At the same time the deputies opened the way for the formation of a new chamber by remodeling the Electoral Law. This law abolished the double vote, reduced the amount of taxes, the pay- ment of which qualified a man to be eligible as a member of the chamber of deputies, to five hundred francs, and gave the electoral vote to all who paid two hundred. The scenes which had taken place in Paris were repeated in many of the departments, and to many causes of discontent, troul)le and disquietude were added those arising from the alarming state of the finances. On the eve of the dissolution of the chamber and the cabinet, Laffitte demanded a supplementary credit of two hun- dred millions for the purpose of miCeting the extraordinary necessi- ties of the state, and this supply he obtained only with much diffi- culty at the hands of an uneasy and angry majority. This and other circumstances, especially the disturbed state of Paris and the principal cities of the kingdom, which paralyzed commerce and industry, caused the king to dismiss Laffitte and his colleagues and intrust the formation of a new ministry to Casimir Perier, March II, 1831. In this cabinet, which was presided over by Perier as THE P R O P E R T Y C LASS 309 1831 minister of the interior, the princi])al portfohos tliose of justice, foreign affairs, war and finance were confided to Barthe, vScbas- tiani, Soult and Baron Louis. Perier laid before the chambers a statement of tlic pohcy he intended to ]nn-sue; demanded a vote of confidence for the purpose of enabhng him to pass the provisional clauses of the budget, and with their concurrence took energ'ctic measures fiM" the recstablislituent of equilibrium in the finances and peace in the streets. The chamber was dissolved on April 30 and the ekctoral colleges convoked for the following month of July. The foreign policy of the government at this period as enun- ciated by Perier was strictly one of non-intervention, based on the principle that foreigners have no right to interfere by force in a nation's internal affairs. This policy, which was also that of the king, was followed with firmness to central Italy after the failure of the insurrection, when Frencli diplomacy, adding its efforts to those of the other powers, obtained from the new Pope, Gregory XVL, a formal engagement to introduce into his states many neces- sary reforms wdiich had been long ardently desired, and persuaded the Austrian government to withdraw its troops from Italian terri- tory. It was necessary, however, to have recourse to arms in Portugal, where the usur])er Don Miguel had ill-treated I-Vcnch subjects. All satisfaction having been refused to the French consul, Admiral Roussin, under the hrc of the Portuguese cann(~)n, forced the mouth of the Tagus. destnn'cd the batteries of the forts, and by this brilliant feat obtained for the French amis a complete rep- aration for their rc\erscs. The great question pending between Holland and Belgium kept a portion of western luiropc in continual disquiet. Belgium, accord- ing t(j the decision of the conference, surrendered to Holland a i)or- tion rif Liniburg and Luxemburg, which was an hereditarv posses- sion of the House of Nassau, and which formed, morcver, a pov- tion of the Germanic confederation, and had taken on itself half the national debt of the previously united countries, on which terms its independence was recognized. The crown of Ijclgium was first offered to the Duke of Xeniours, the second son of Louis Philip, but as his father declined t(^ allow him to .accept it. the I'clgians elected as their king Leopold. I'rince of Coburg. who had been Iieir- prcsumptive to the Fnglish throne. The marriage of that monarch in the course of the following year with the eldest daughter of the 400 FRANCE 1S31 King- of the French doubly strengthened the alliance between France and Belgium. Leopold had scarcely accepted the crown when King William, refusing to acknowledge the armistice, marched upon Louvain. Leopold in this extremity demanded the aid of France, and Marshal Gerard immediately entered Belgium at the head of an army of fifty thousand men, before wliom the Dutch army fell back without fight- ing. Belgium was thus a second time saved by France, and three months later, on November 15, a treaty called the " Treaty of the Twenty-Four Articles," regulating in a definite and irrevocable man- ner the separation of the two kingdoms, was signed by Belgium, and the conference guaranteed to the King of the Belgians the execution of its clauses. At the same time France obtained from the four other great powers the demolition of the fortresses of Menin, Ath, Philipville, Mons and Alarienburg, maintained since 181 5 as a barrier against France. The treaty, however, was not accepted by the King of Holland, whose troops occupied Antwerp, and peace was not yet reestablished. The legislative session had been open in Paris from the com- mencement of hostilities. The chamber passed, among other finan- cial laws, one which fixed the civil list for the reign at twelve mil- lions, an amount less by more than one-half than that of the previous civil list. But the chief business of the session was the revision of the article of the charter relating to the peerage, which was changed from an hereditary one into one for life, and although the crown preserved the right of nominating its members, it could only select them from certain classes. The chamber had sat for some weeks only when great excite- ment was produced tliroughout France by the fall of Warsaw. A general cry in favor of assisting her arose in Paris, and the public wm'sIi became manifested iii noisy demonstrations which soon became seditious and which had to be suppressed by force. The agitation produced by the affairs of Poland was not calmed when a formida- l:ile insurrection broke out in Lyons, caused by a great depression in the silk trade, which threw eighty thousand operatives out of work and deprived them of the means of subsistence. The insur- rection was suppressed by force, but no measures were taken by the government to rclic\e t!ie suffering workmen and their families. Although the sn])pression of the revolt in Lyons tended to strengthen th.e ministry, numerous conspiracies were now set on THE PROPERTY CLASS 401 1831-1832 foot in ['aris for llie restoration (^f tlie rcjiublic, the empire and tlic eldest l^rancli (>f tlie P)Ourbons. hin the cnerg-y of tlic ,q-overnnient enabled it to triumph over all these plots, and its attention was speedily called to foreii;ii affairs in resjjcct lo Italy. The promises exacted from the Pontifical g(n'ernment had not been kept, and no reform had been made in an administration wliich was arbitrary, oppressive and absolute. The irritated people a^^^ain rose in the Pontifical states, and the Austrians, having- been called to his aid by Gregory X\T., took possession of Bolog^na. The ]"rcnch government, indignant at finding its inter\cntion despised and the most formal engagements ignored, resolved to enforce by arms in central Italy the jjrinciple of non-intervention. .\ naval division carrying troops, under the command of Colonel Combes, was ordered to proceed to and take possession of Ancona. This order was rapidly executed, and on February 22 the city of Ancona, with its citadel, was in the hands of the I'^rcnch. By this bold act of aggression Casimir Pcrier provoked not only the anger of the court of Rome, but the loud remonstrances of the other European powers. The occupati(Mi of Ancona, however, was popular in France. The chambers approved the act of the min- ister, and the bitter complaints made against the government abroad strengthened it at home. The Vendee was at this time the scene of sanguinary disturbances, and in Marseilles an attempt at insurrec- tion, instigated by the legitimists, W'ho were agitating in the south for the purpose of raising the Duke of Bordeaux to the throne, had been suppressed (April, 1832), when the cholera appeared in ]\'iris, where it made great ravages. It carried oft Casimir Perier in May. 1832, and to all the private causes for mourning there was thus added a great public one. The legislati\e session, which closed a few days before his death, left France in a ])recarious and disturbed state, but at least inspired with the salutary conviction that a general war might be avoided, and that the demon of civil war, revolt and anarchy \\as not imincible. The death of Casinn'r Peiier altered but very slightly the com- position of the cabinet, in which Montalivet, who gave up the portfolio of pul)lic instruction to Cerard. became minister of the interior. The situation of the country was serious; and its perils, as well as the faults which had been committed, were ])ointed out with much bitterness in a document celebrated under the name of the comptc-rcndii, which was signed by the deputies of the upposi- 402 FRANCE 1832 tion. \Mint was true in this document was misconstrncted and did not bear fruit, and what was false and dangerous in it did much harm. The comptc-rcndu inflamed the popuhn* passions to the highest point, and hastened, perhaps, the explosion of a re- publican insurrection which placed the monarchy in the great- est peril. After the death of Casimir Perier hope returned to the parties which had been held in check by his vigorous hand. They became eager to try their strength once more; and they found an oppor- tunity of doing so at the funeral ceremony of General Lamarque, whose obsequies attracted, on June 5, 1832, an immense concourse of persons, most of whom came armed. An insurrection suddenly burst forth to the cries of " Down w^ith Louis Philip ! " " Long live the republic!" and it was not until after a severe struggle, which lasted till the evening of June 6, that it was suppressed. At th.is time civil war burst forth in the west, excited by the presence of the Duchess of Berry. This was speedily repressed by force and the duchess herself was betrayed at Nantes and im- prisoned in the citadel of Blaye, wdiere she gave birth to a child. On this her marriage with Luchesi Palli, a Neapolitan marquis, Avas made ])ublic, and the duchess was liberated as being no longer worth detention. To all these causes of agitation and alarm were added great anxiety with respect to the opposition made by the King of the Netherlands to the Treaty of the Twenty-Four Articles. It was proposed to deprive the Dutch of the citadel of Antwerp and some fortresses which were still occupied by their troops, and France and England agreed to act in concert in this measure, and overcome tlie king's resistance by force. In the presence of so m.any perils the new monarchy had more than ever need of the strength derived from unity of opinion among the moderate men of all parties, and the recognized necessity of this led to the formation of the ministry of October, 1832. in which, under Marshal Soult as the nominal head, the most eminent of the doctrinaires, Broglie and Guizot, were united wnth some very inipDrtant members of the left center, Thiers, Barthe, and Humann. The new ministry pursued the same policy as Casimir Perier, and the particular characteristic of their administration was a steady resistance made to tlie legitimist party on the one hand and tlie re\ olutionary demagogues on the other. 1 he foreign policy of the ministry was wanting neither in force T II K PROP E R T Y (" LASS 403 1832-1834 nor dignity. The government everywhere sliowed itself, in a just and moderate manner, favorable to llie constitntional canse, while it avoided putting tlie peace of Europe in i^eril. and witli tins object strengthened its alhance with England In accordance with the arrangement already entered into with that power, a h'rench army entered Belgium and laid siege to Antwerp, which capitulated in Deceml)er, i'^32. and was handed over to the Belgian government. In Spain the government promised assistance, if necessary, to IMaria Christina, the widow of the late King Eerdinand VII.. in defense of the rights of the Infanta Isabella, tlien two years old, against Don Carlos, her uncle and rival to the th.rone, and in Portu- gal lent support to the cause of tlie young Oueen Donna M;iria against her uncle Don ]\Iigucl, by partici])ating in a treaty witli England, Spain, and Portugal, by which the Regent of I'ortugal and the Queen- Regent of Spain undertook- to unite their efforts for the expulsion of Don Carlos and Don Miguel. The King of Great P)ritain and the King r)f the I'^'cnch jM'omised to assist towards this end in a defined and limited manner. Such was the fanvnis Treatv of llic (juadruple .\lliancc. wliich was signed in April, 1834, between the four constitutional courts of the west. In the h^ast. Il)rahim Pasha, the son of Mchemet AH, pasha of Egypt, who had revolted against his suzerain, the Sultan of l\w- kcy. had occupied the \\hole of S}'ria and defeated the Turki>li troops at Konieh. The sultan appealed to Russia for aid, but France and England induced Ibrahim to desist from further attacks on Turkey, in considcrati'in t-^f tlie rmncxation of Syria to Egypt. After tlie withdrawal of the Russian licet, which had been sent into the Bosi)horus, it became known that a secret treaty had been con- cluded at L'nkiar-Skelessi (July. 1S33), between the Ottoman Porte and Russia, by which the .Sult.an undertook, in return for the Czar's perpetual protection, to close the Dardanelles against all foreign sh.ips of war. I'jigland and bh'ance vehemently [)rotested against this treaty, and being supported by .\ustria. forced the Czar to refrain from availing himself of the advantages exacted by the convention from the weakness of tlie .*^ultan. The cabinet of October 11, 1833. suiijiortcd by a majority in each of the two chambers, procured the adoption of some useful and important laws during the }'ears 1S33 and 1S34. d'he finances were restored to a regular state and an excellent law was iiUro- duced by Guizot and passed, providing for ])rimary instruction for 404 FRANCE 1834 children in every commune of France; but as this at first sHghtly increased the communal taxes, the poor country population looked upon it rather as a new charge than a decided benefit. The working- classes still suffered from the disorder in industrial and commercial affairs caused by the revolution in 1830, and their discontent with the existing state of affairs was materially increased and sustained by the action of the secret societies, wdiich were for the most part born of the revolution of 1830. The chief of these was the Society of the Rights of Man, whose chief aim was the establishment of the republic of 1792. These societies were closely connected with editorial committees of the democratic journals, against which the government brought a multitude of actions, in which it was not always successful ; and they seemed to derive an increased bold- ness, as well from the judgments which condemned their conductors as from those which acquitted them. The popular passions were influenced by the expressions of hatred and fury of parties, not only in the journals, but also in a multitude of cynical pamphlets, which were cried in the public streets and distributed by tens of thousands under the protection of the law. It was necessary to modify the existing state of the law on this point, and the chambers passed a law which submitted the profession of crier and seller of writings on the public ways to the surveillance of the municipal authorities. The government also submitted to tlie chambers another preventive law, which forbade the existence of any association for religious, political, or other purposes, unless sanctioned by a government license, which was always revocable. This law could not touch secret societies, while it overstepped its object by depriving peaceable citizens of natural and vital liberty and seriously attacked the liberty of worship granted by the charter. .Having been adopted on jNIarch 25 by the deputies, it passed the chamber of peers on April 9, 1834. But (luring this short interval an unexpected vote of the deputies had led to important modifications in the composition of the cabinet, without altering either its tendency or course of action. This vote was caused by the presentation of a proposal for the payment of an indemnity demanded by the United States for American vessels captured during the empire, and wliich had Ijcen fixed in 1831 at twcnly-five millions by a treaty executed between France and America. A portion of the opposition, nevertheless, denounced the proposal as an act of weakness, and it was rejected by a majority THE p II o r V. n t v c' l a s s 405 1834 of eight. De Broglie, the minister for foreign affairs, would n>>[ submit to this rcljuff. ruid resigned ]i:s pru'tfolio. lie was sunccdcd by Admiral Rigii\' ; Thiers, while retaining the portfcjlio of [)ul)Iic w(;rks, i)eeanie nnnisler ui the iiUerior; Duchalel had the [)orU'olio of trade; and Pcrsil replaced I'arthe as minister of justice. E\erything now conspired to bring about a final struggle with the republicans, who were indignant at the indefinite and fatal adjournment of many popular measures which had been promised in principle by the charter of 1830, and at the neglect of many (Vdiers which had been extolled by the men now in i)ower. Imbued as they were with the principle that the so\ereignty properly resieled in ihe peoj)le, they regarded the new ])owcr as a.n usurped power which the people had not been called upon to sanctiou. d'he strug- gle commenced in 1834 in the departments. Lyons and many other cities, such as Saint luicnne, Clermont, Ferand, Vienne, Chalons, Artois, Luneville, Grenoble, and Marseilles, were almo^t simul- taneously the theaters of insurrections or serious disturbances. In every direction the branches of the secret societies ga\e the signal for revolution, calling all the enemies of the goxernment to arms. In Lyons a reduction in the wages t)f the workmen, made by some of the master-manufacturers, caused a strike, and the arrest of the ringleaders emboldened the republicans to make an attempt to secure the city. Barricades were erected an.d it was only after a struggle which lasted for five da\s that the re\oIt was (juelled. It had been vanquished, indeed, in all the departments, wlien it ap- peared in I'aris, where it hatl already lost its principal leaders. On April 13 the signal was given for the attack, and the republicans opened fire on the military. The confiict, which was intrejiidly maintained by the nationaJ guard and the troops of the line, wh(~) were brigaded togetlier under tliC orilers of Marshal Lobau, lasted two (lavs, and on April 14 the insurrection was put down in I'aris. Manv prisoners had been made in all tlie cities in which it had burst forth, and, as their guilty attempts all referred to one vast conspiracy, their trial was referred to the coint of peers, 'fo pre- vent the recin-rence of similar attempts the government presented to the chambers the jirojects of two laws, which were jxassed in the following session, one of which increased the strength of the armv, while the other ]irohibited the possession (^f arms and munitions of war. .A few da\s afterwards the session \\-as brought to a close, and the chamber of deputies was dissolved. 'I'lic government lixed 406 FRANCE 1834 Jtme 21 for the general election, which resulted in the return of but few openly-declared republicans, while twenty legitimists, in- cluding Berryer. were sent to the new chamber, and the ranks of the conservati\e party were considerably augmented in point of number, but \\eakened through the want of that unanimity of opinion which had hitherto prevailed among the members of this party. The state of Algeria gave rise, immediately after the elec- tions of 1834, to a fresh ministerial modification, the real cause of which was the want of a good understanding between Marshal Soult, the president of the council, and its most influential and elo- quent members, Guizot and Thiers. The entirely military nature of the government of the French possessions in Africa, which w'as ob- stinately defended by Marshal Soult, the minister of war and presi- dent of the cabinet, had given rise to numerous abuses, and in the eyes of many the moment seemed to have come when it ought to be replaced by a civil administration. This opinion was that of Thiers and Guizot, as well as of the majority of the members of the council. The marshal, persisting in his views, tendered his resignation July 18, 1834. The king accepted it and appointed as his successor Marshal Gerard, one of the most eminent members of a body in the chamber which now began to be known as the " Third Party, " and which was composed of conservatives wdio thought the policy advocated by the party of resistance was too ir- ritating and dangerous to be persisted in, and, while they were averse to the opinions expressed by the party of progress, thought it was time to initiate conciliatory measures and endeavor to effect a compromise between the ardent and irreconcilable views and de- sires of the other parties. The elections of 1834 raised the numer- ical state of the third party to eighty deputies, Tvlarshal Gerard thought that the time had come for the declar- ation of a general amnesty. He had always expressed a wish that it might be granted and, now that he had become the head of the cabinet, he insisted upon obtaining it, being in this supported by tlie tliird party, but opposed by the majority in the council and the two cliambers. The marshal's wish, in fact, appeared to be prema- ture, for tlic two thousand accused persons wdio had been taken with arms in their hands, relying on their numbers and encouraged from wiiliout, for the most part protested in advance against any pardon, and defied the government to try them. Under these cir- THE PROPERTY CLASS 407 1834-1835 cumstanccs an amnesty was impossible, and tlie kinj:;^ refused it. This refusal caused tlie rctircmeiU of Marshal (Icrard. which was speedily {(dlowcd by the resii;natinii of almtvst the wlmle cabinet. The long and anxious crisis that followed lasted eight months, dur- ing which we find a ministi'y of three days' duration, under the presidency of the Duke of Bassano. and then the old cabinet, re- constructed under the Duke of Trevisa, which lasted three months. At length on March 12, 1835, the policy of October 12 still pre- vailing, the Duke of r>roglie accepted the presidency of the council and ^^ as joined by Thiers and Guizot. The persons inculpated in the great trial now to be carried on bet\)re the court of peers, numbering about two thousand, were di\idetl into classes, according to the cities in which the insurrec- tion had broken out. \\'ith respect to the greater number it was declared that there was no evidence against them, and they were set at liberty. The court summoned l>efore it a hundred and sixty- four accused persons, only forty-three of whom were contumacious. It was continually interrupted by the violence of the accused, en- couraged by the journals of the o[)position and the sympathy openlv exjjressed of many members of the extreme left in the chamber of deputies. Twenty-eight of the principal prisoners contrived to escape. Of the remainder a hundred and six accused j'jersons, in- cluding many who were tried in their absence, were found guilty and sentenced to various punishments, the severest of which was transportation. The court of i)cers displayed, in the conduct of this dirficult matter, as much moderation as courage and was rcallv the rampart of threatened society. The trials lasted nine months, and lung before their conclusion jniblic attention was diverted from it by an attempt to assassinate the king on July _'S, iS,^5, when on his way to hold a review of the national guards. Tlie rnyal cortege had already arri\ed as far as the b(jule\ar(l of the Temple when suddenly a jet of flame, ft^llov.cd by a loud report, issued from a neighboring house. On c\ery side of the king there arose frightful cries. The monarch and his sons were spared, but the ground around them was covered with killed and wounded. iMUty persons were struck and eighteen mortally injured. Marshal ^>[or- tier, General \'erigny. two coK)nels, several national guards and a young girl being among the latter. A ball had grazed the king's forehead, another had penetrated the coat of the Duke of P^roglie and five generals were among the wounded. Idie instrument of 408 FRANCE 1835-1836 tlie crime was an infernal machine, armed with twenty-five barrels, directed toward the boule\ard, and had been invented by a Cor- sican named iMeschi, the principal author of the plot. He was seized, together wdth his accomplices, Marcy and Pepin, and tried by the court of peers. All three were condemned to death and died upon the scaffold. A few days after the solemn funeral of the victims the chambers were convoked and the keeper of the seals presented to the deputies the drafts of three laws relating to the court of assizes, to juries, and to the press. These laws were all intended to protect the king, his family and the new monarchy against the hatred and fury of their enemies, and some of their clauses tended directly to this end. They abridged the proceedings before the courts of assize, gave greater independence to juries by means of the introduction of the system of secret voting, prohibited the journals from making any attack upon the king and the members of his family, or the principle even of the established government, and increased the responsibility of the conductors of them. But to these measures, which circumstances rendered reasonable, the government had added others, which diminished in the courts of assize the chance of ac- quittal hitherto possessed by the accused, demanded enormous se- curities from the journals, subjected them to exorbitant fines, and finally, in certain cases, in direct opposition to the sixty-ninth article of the charter, removed the consideration of crimes of the press from juries by enabling the government at its will to declare them to be outrages against the crowai, and thus cause them to be tried by the court of peers. In spite of a serious opposition, led in the chamber of deputies by Royer-Collard, who had kept silence for many years, and by Villemain and Montalembert in the cham- ber of peers, the projects were adopted and converted into laws, which have remained famous under the name of the " Laws of September." The effect of these lav^s, which intimated an inten- tion on the part of the government to persevere in a course of se- verity, strengthened the links that connected the sections of the oppositifin and increased the want of harmony among the conserva- tives, while at the same time they did not strengthen the ministry. France was, it is true, peaceable during the four months which fol- l(*wed their promulgation, but this calm was only the natural result of the depression felt by the republican party after so many defeats, and the cabinet was overthrown at the commencement of the fol- T II !: PRO p i: 11 T Y r l a s s 409 1336 lowing session (1836) on the question of the conversion of tiie rciilcSj which was carried in the chaml)cr a.^ainst the cal)inet l)y a majority of two a majority narrow enough, it is true, hut suffi- cient to com])el the resignation of nu'nisters who had imprudently made tlie decision of the chamher on this serious suhject a (juestion as to their nu'nisterial existence. The {irinci]xal fact which marked the formation of tlie new ministry was the separation of Thiers from Guizot and the d"C- trinaires. Xone of the latter had places in the cahinct formed by Thiers, in which he was hin.iself minister for foreign affairs, and in which sat three members of the third party. Sauzct. Telet (of La L(VATe). and Passy. who were respectively ministers of jus- tice, public instruction, and commerce. This ministry, wliicli had declared that there could be no alteration in the condtict of the gov- ernment and th.at it still adhered to the policy C)[ resist.ance. lasted a still shorter time than the preceding one. and. among the small number of measures carried int(^ execution during its administra- tion, was one useful law for facilitating the construction of coun- try road.s and a praiseworthy sacrifice made to ])ubhc moi-alitv of a revenue oi a.beut six millions by the suppression of gaming houses. The session was brought to a close in June, 183^1, and a few days afterwards the king ])ro\"idcntially escaped another attack made against his ]K'rson. The author of this crime was a votnig fanatic named Alibaud, who, being tried and condemned ])y the court of peers, lost his head upon the scaffold, 'j'ranfjuillity now began to be reestablished in tlie interior, hut the ])olitic;d horizon was glooniv abroad. Th.e last remains o\ the ancient independence o\ l\)lan(l ])crished with the re[)ublic td' Cracow, which was occupied jointlv bv Russia. Prussia, and Au-^tria. under tiie l)reten^e oi stilling and destro\-ing a focus nf ])oliticaI tri-ubles. Switzerland at this time ap]ieai"ed aii asylum t(.) the revolu- tionists, and Thiers, in compelling tiieir cxpulsiiMi. excited in Switzerland an unfortunate feeling of resentment against the I'^rench go\-ernmeiU. In S])ain the horrors of ci\'il w.ar were added to the spectacle of .anarchy and a demagogic rex^olution. Carlists and Christinns ri\-aled each other in fury and cruelt\', and in luh'. 1836. the (|ueen UK -tlier in\oked the clauses of the Treatv of tlie (jnadruple Allianc-e l^'V the pm-po-;e of obtaining the aid (*f the jjowcrs who had signt'd it against I )on Carlos. The onlv forei'.Mi auxiliaries of the constitutional cause at that time in the (pieen'^ 410 FRANCE 1836 armies consisted of a leg-ion of about three thousand men of various nations, called the foreign legion, and a small body of English volun- teers, under General Evans. King Louis Philip v^as reluctant to engage the French government in the sanguinary struggle which was then going on, but Thiers proposed that the Spanish govern- ment should recruit from the army of observation of the Pyrenees a sufficient number of volunteers to raise the foreign legion to ten thousand men, who were to be placed under the orders of a French general, and act in concert with the corps under General Evans. Louis Philip sanctioned this project, but before it was carried into execution a military insurrection burst forth, in the month of August in Spain, and the cpieen-regent was compelled to subscribe to the constitution of 1812, in which royalty was a mere phantom. In this new crisis Louis Philip wished the volunteers incorporated in the foreign legion to be dismissed, while Thiers insisted that they should be retained in the service, to be ready to act when order should be reestablished. As his views were directly opposed by the king he resigned his portfolio. All his colleagues, with the exception of Montalivet, followed his example, and the ministry was dissolved. The formation of a new ministry was now entrusted to Mole, under whom as minister for foreign affairs and president of the council, Guizot had the portfolio of public instruction, Gasparin that of the interior and Duchatel that of finance. The existence of this cabinet was a very agitated one. The relations between France and Switzerland became embittered and the disturbed relations be- tween the two countries precipitated probably the execution of a plot, the author of which was Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, son of the ex-king of Holland. This prince, who had been brought up in Switzerland at the castle of Arenberg by Queen Hortense, his mother, had associated himself in 1831, while still very young, with the disastrous enterprise of the Italian patriots, and since the death of the Duke of Reichstadt (Napoleon II.), which took place in ied b\- the rejection of 412 FRANCE 1837 the law of disjunction for trying military prisoners apart from civilians implicated in the same crime, which the chamber of dep- uties; threv/ out on March 9 by a majority of two. INFole per- ceived that the moment had come for moderating- the rigorous system which had hitherto ])een in force. A ministerial crisis en- sued, during which the king applied successively to Guizot and Thiers, inviting them to form a cabinet, but each of them had to give up the task. The king then returned to Mole, who, resolved to adopt a conciliatory policy, took four new colleagues, Barthe. Montalivet, Salvandy, Lacave-Laplagne, and they held respectively the portfolios of justice, of the interior, of public instruction, and of finance. Thus was formed the ministry of April 15, 1837, under the presidency of Mole, a cabinet which did not reckon among its members any of the great orators of the elective chamber, although it was composed of capable and enlightened men, who were ani- mated by a desire for the general welfare. The first acts of the new ministry tended to inaugurate a more conciliatory policy. The irritating projects recently presented to the chamber relative to a settlement on the Duke of Nemours, the punishment of persons who should fail to reveal conspiracies, and the substitution of soli- tary confinement for transportation, were withdrawn, and the king granted an almost general amnesty to persons accused of political offenses. No important change, however, was made in the general conduct either of home or foreign aft'airs. After the session the chamber of deputies was dissolved, and the month of October ap- pointed for the general elections. The radical party concentrated all its forces for the electoral struggle which was about to com- mence, but all its efforts only resulted in the return of a few more Kepublican. deputies. The third party also gained many new mem- bers, and the various parties in the chamber remained, in spite of the introduction of many fresh members, almost of the same re- spective strength as formerly. The ministry of Mole did not make much greater efforts than preceding ministries to carry out in a lihcrrd spirit the promises of the charter, and it failed to pay any more attention than they had paid to the social questions, properly so called, which had for their especial object the amelioration of the condition of the working classes, and which now began to occupy public attention. Whatever reproaches, however, the ministry of Mole may have justly incurred, it must be acknowledged that the T II K PROP E U T V C LASS 4.13 1837 period which elapsed fruni April 15, 1837. to its fall was a jim--- perous period, the most iniitful in useful laws in prMporUMU to its duration, and the UK^st tranquil of all the reij^n. The rise in the puhlic funds nre the acci anplishment of the reff>rm piiin extended and confirmed the ])owcr of hh'ance (wer all the tribes of tliat pro\incc. I'rance had at this time just demands to make or offenses to ])unis!i in various countries of tlie new world. In l!a}'ti. in the ArL;'entine Keptiblic. now t\"ranni/ed over b_\- President Rosas, and in Mexico, mid she cxerywhcre made her power lespected. The I'rench na\y in pai'- ticular cowred itself with t;iory in the expedilii)ii directed a.Q'ainst .Mexico bv .\dmiral J>audin. who was \-ahainIy seconded bv the Prince of Join\ille. the third ^i>n i)i the Kim;' (W' tlie Ih'ench. Thi- rapid cam])aii;"n was terminated by the attack- on and ca'pture of the Fort Saint Jean dTdkxa. the princi|)al defen>e of \'era Cruz. That place capitulated and the \ictiM"y cbtaine 1 by the h^'encli squadron was subse(|uentlv followed by a treat}-, the conditions of which were dict.ated by hh-ance. Louis Phili]) was at this time at the heii^ht of his fj'reatness. He celebrated at l'\)innainel)leau the marriatj-e fetes of his eldest 414 FRANCE 1839 son, the Duke of Orleans, who espoused the Princess Helen of Mecklenbnrg-Schwerin, the rare quahties of whose mind and heart rendered her worthy of the throne. The same year witnessed the splendid inauguration of the historical galleries of Versailles. For- tune contmued to smile upon him ; a grandson was born to him, and no mourning had yet fallen upon his brilliant family; no somber cloud, in spite of the existence in the country of so much implacable hatred, hung between the king and his people. Chapter XXV GUIZOT"S MINISTRY AM) THK RKVOLLTIOX OF 1848 18.^8-1848 y4 LTIIOUdll Mole had found it necessary in the rcconstrnc- /-\ tioii of his cal)inet to exchide (luizot from any oflice in it, -A- JL it was on the nienihers of tlie two centers, who were more I)articular]y under tlie inilnencc of Cluizot and Thiers, that the president of the council found himself forced to rely. Tint the motive spirit of the i^overnment no lon^-er came from them, and appeared, too openly, io emanate heyond the walls of the chamhers from the royal will, which was oheyed by the olTicers of the crown and the crowd of functionaries who sat on the conservati\e benclics. The leaders of the old majority, althon^'h far from satisfied with the secondary ])osition in which they were placed, appeared at first to be resigned to it, and the ministry held power so lono; as they afforded it their support. They became weary, at len,[;th, of this state of affairs, and being' too weak to q-overn by themselves, formed a lean^ue aijainst the cabinet with the third party and their old adversaries of the moderate left. The stru^'L;ie o])enl_\- commenced in the journals in the interest of the now uniicd parlies. Dux-er^ier de Ilauranne, a zealous spokesman of the doctrinaire j)arty, caccused the administration of Mole in the ]\c:'ur l'i\iiicaisi' <^\ inc;ipacit\- and weakness, while the conser\-ati\-e journ.als, with the exception of the Prrssc and the Dcbats, rivaled the x'iolence, in this intestine war, of the [)ai)ers most hostile to the monarcliy. it w.'is ini])nted as a crime to the jj^overnment that it had abandoned the foreij^n policy of 1830. an) each tliat sliarc of inllnence ov authority which he had a right to claim. They all failed, one after the other, and as it was found ahsolutely imjios.^ihle to fonu at this juncture a durable administra- tion, recourse was had to an interiuediate or transitit)n cabinet, which died only a few weeks after its creation, without leaving any trace. Tn proportion as the friends of the constitutional monarchy became discouraged, the hopes of the demagogues became raised, and from all this chaos tliere resulted, on May u. 1839, a furi^Ais riot, wliich was set on fiutt by the members of the secret Society of the Seas'Mis, which ad\-ocated the etpial di\-ision of property and the a.bo'lition i'i all laws which guaranteed its possession. The principal leaders of the Society (jf the Seasons were nianqui. I'jarbes and Mar- tin I')ern,'ii"d. and these men. forced to act with rash ])remeditation 1)}' those whose hopes they had cherished. (Ordered a general rising. The insu.rgcnts hoisted the red llag and surj)rised the Hotel de Ville and se\'eral other important positions. 'i"he national guards and the regular trooj)s. h(jwevcr, repressed the outbreak and order was speedil}' retstablished. This audacious attempt hastened the conclusion of the mim's- terial crisis, and on the \ery dav on which the insurrection burst forth a ministrx' consisting of members (^f the two centers was formed under the ])residency of Marshal Soult. The jirinciiial leaders of the coalition IkkI no share in the new cabinet, which lasted ])\\i nine months, while its short career was marked by few incidents, tlie princip:d one being the trial of the insurgents of May u before the court of peers. Sentence of death was j)assed on Harbes and l>Irm(|ui. but the king commuted this punishment. .".gainst the ruKice ni his ministers, into that i)i solitary confinement. J-'ome useful laws were passed under the auspices of this ministrv for the better organization of the staff of the army, the improvement of the ])ons. and the increase of the strength i)\ the navv. ddie cham])ers al.Mi di>CLr^sed important laws relating to literaiy prop- ert\', rai!ro;i(l< and ])arliamentarv reform, which were incessantly adjourned a.r.il became e\er_\- day more desirable, 'i'o turn to for- eign aft'airs. the govei'ument made jieacc with Mexico, from which countrv it obtained a war indenuiitv. and hostilities continued in La Plata without any tlecisi\e result. In spite yii the devastating incur- 418 FRANCE 1839-1840 sions of Abd-el-Kader in tlie plain of the Metidja, French dominion in Algeria made peaceful progress. The cabinet appeared to have gained the support of a strong majority when it struck against an unforeseen rock on the occasion of the marriage of the Duke of Nemours. A draft of a law, the object of which was to settle on the prince an annual income of five hundred thousand francs, and to secure to his wife, in case she should survive him, an annuity of three hundred thousand francs, was presented to the deputies and rejected, witliout discussion. This defeat led to the fall of the cabinet, and all the ministers gave in their resignation (February, 1840). Tlie moment appeared to have come for the formation of a new administration under Thiers, who accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs, and was entrusted with the formation of a new ministry. He selected his colleagues from the left center. Guizot, who had lately become the French ambassador in London, promised the cabinet the support of himself and his friends, on con- dition that Thiers would resign any idea of electoral reform or of the dissolution of the chamber. The natural tendencies of the new ministers led them towards the left, while the most imperious neces- sity forced them to be leagued with the right, and the result was that the cabinet was driven into a state of utter inertness. One of the first acts of Thiers was to present a law the object of which was the transfer from St. Helena to France of Napoleon's remains, and as the English government did not offer any obstacle to the accomplishment of this great national act, the remains of the em- peror v/ere brought to Paris in December, 1840, in the midst of an immense concourse of people, and deposited with great pomp at the Hotel des Invalides. Three months after the passing of this law, Prince Louis Napoleon made a fresh attempt to gain possession fjf the throne, which he considered to be his by inheritance, at I-Ioulogne-sur-Mer, and was again unsuccessful. The prince, now once more a prisoner, was on this occasion tried by the court of l)eers, condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and shut up in the f(jrtress of Ham. in Sj^ain, during this year the queen regent, Maria Christina, was f(jrced to abdicate, October 10, and fled to France, while a new government was established in Madrid, under the presidency of (icneral l^spartcro, Duke of Vittoria, who was soon afterwards him- self prijclaimed regent of the kingdom. In the East hostilities had REVOLUTION OF 1848 HO 1839-1840 aq'aiii broken nut between Ibe sultan and liis jxiweiful vassal. Mehcmct Ah', tlie ]\aslia of Eo^yjit. ll)raln'in, ?klelieinet's snn, liav- ing crossed the lui[)hrates, gained in Syria the victory of Xe/ib, June 24, 1839. Tlie Turkish army was routed and a few days afterwar(ks the whole of the sultan's fleet surrendered to the Kq-vp- tians. The sultan now had neither ships nor troops, and his whole empire appeared to i)e on the e\c of dissolution, wlien I'^rench diplomacy again checked Ibrahim's \iclorious march. England, Russia, Prussia and Austria having pri)])osed to France that she should enter with them into a convention for the piu'posc of depri\- ing Meheiuet of Syria, which he h;ul accpiired bv the valor of his arms, the b^rench go\-ernment refused, on the ground that, as it had stopped the advance of Jbrahim's army, it could not allow his king- dom to be curtailed. 'Jdie four powers then negotiated \vithout the concurrence of b^'ance. and entered into a treatv with the sultan, July 15, 1840, which limited "Mehemet Ali to the hercditarv pos- sessions of b^gypt, and ordered hiiu to ew'icuate S\Tia within a certain time. Idiis treaty left b^rance in the state of isolatiiMi in which she found herself in 1830, and she was, witli good reason, seriously offended. The b'rench cabinet protested and ma]i regiments and decreed tliat ]\iris sliould l)e for- tified bv a continuous wall and a series of detaclied f^rls. Tn the meantime, the period fixed for tlie exacuation of Svria bv Mehemet ha\"ing elapsed without Ibrahim's witlidi"a\val, an b'.ng- bsh s(|uadron bombarded IJeyrout and tlie dethronement of Mehemet Ali was declared by the sultan, b'pon this the l*'rench go\enmicnt inunediately declared that anv attempt to de])i"i\e the Taslia ^^i l^gvpt would be regarded by it as a signal for war. and the lU\t was ordered to prejiare for sailing. 'I'he session opened in tlie luidst of these serious e\'ents .and tlie excitement caused b\' a fresh attem])t on the king's life, ddie cabinet had inserted in llu' speech to be delivered by the king from the throne some expressions which were a species ()f threat or defiance to bairope. but Fouis I'liilip thought it better to asstnne a le>s pro\-oking attitude in rcs]U'Cf to the other jiowers. 1 ie refused to use the language suggested to h.im l)y his ministers and recalled his fieet, wliicli was alreadv sailing for Syria, upon which the cabinet resigned. The king accepted t!ic resignation of Thiers and his colleagues, and transferred tlie port- i20 FRANCE 1840-1842 folio of foreign afifairs to Guizot, whom he requested to form a new ministry, in concert with Marshal Soult, who had the portfoHo of war, and became president of the council. Guizot was its most influential m.ember. He ultimately became its president and the chief pow^r did not leave his hands until the end of the reign. One of the first acts of the new ministry, whose meml^ers were unani- mous in supporting a peace policy abroad, and in offering an obsti- nate resistance to all plans of reform at home, was to bring France once more into combined action with the European powers, by sign- ing with them and Turkey the Treaty of July 13, 1841, which reestablished Mehemet AH in the hereditary possession of Egypt, without restoring to him Syria, and which closed against the ileets of all nations the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. The grand project relative to the fortifications was resumed by the cabi- net in the session of 1841 and sanctioned by the chambers, but owing to the first expenses caused by these immense works and the increase of the army, the charges in the budget were enormously increased, and it was found necessary to negotiate at various periods a loan representing a capital of four hundred and fifty millions. The min- istry neglected or rejected all projects relative to the internal poh'c}^ of the kingdom, but it presented in this and the following session (1841-1842) several useful laws respecting literary property, judi- cial sales, and the great lines of railroads. The cabinet failed, how- ever, to calm the spirit of agitation. Many important cities, such as Lille, Clermont, ]\Iacon and Toulouse were the scenes of serious disorders, and publications of great virulence provoked, during two years, numerous prosecutions of the editors of journals and writers of pamphlets. An odious attempt to assassinate one of the king's sons, the Duke of Aumale, on his return from an expedition in Algeria, failed in its object, and gave rise to a criminal prosecution before the chamber of peers, which resulted in the condemnation of the would-be assassin and his accomplices. The elective cham- ber was dissolved in June, 1842, and the general elections, greatly intlucnced by the cabinet, returned a new chamber, which consisted of almost precisely the same elements as the preceding. This year was marked by a circumstance as fatal as unforeseen. The Duke of Orleans, prince royal, being ruii away with by his horses, sprang out ot liis carriage, had his licad fractured in the fall, and expired a lew hours afterwards. Tlic sudden death of tliis ])rincc was a fatal blow to the dynasty of Orleans, already beaten by so many REVOT. rriOX of is 48 421 1842-1844 storms. He \vh heliiiul liiiii two vcrv vounc^ cliildron, tlic Count of I'aris and the Duke of Chartres. and in anticipation of a minority, the chambers decided, in concert with the L;-overnment. that in case the sovereij^n sliould be a minor tlic reo-ency should belong to his nearest relation in the paternal line, and the royal majority was fixed at eighteen years. Few years have been so sterile in legislative measures of great interest as the year 1843, during which Louis I'hilip received at the chateau d'lui a fricntlly visit from the \n of this righit. The haigiisli cabinet had to g'i\'e way in its turn. It abandioned the right of searcli. .and a treaty negotiated on other bases, and less efficacious for th.e re])ressii n of the slax'e trade. wa< signed by the two ])owcrs on Ma.}- j(^ 1845. The \var in Algeria was warmly prosecuted in 1 843- 1 8.44 by ?^[arsiial Ihigeauid. The numei'ous Arab tribes raided in revolt by A1)d-el-l\a(U r were chastised, and made their subnu'ssion. and tlie Duke of Aumale took the .Smala. or cam]), of the emir, Abd-el- Kader, who lied into Morocco, and ])ersuaded the l'jn]KM"or Mulc}'- Abder-Khaman to take up his cause. On this, a breut-h llect. under the order- of t'le I'la'nce of Joim-ille, attacked Tangiers. and then took- posses^ i< >u of the i^lrnid of Mogador. .and ])> )mbarded the cit\- of that name, which was the central point of the Moroccan commerce. On the same day ( Augu-^t 14. 1844) Marshal I'.ugeaud totallv defeated the army of Morocco on tlie banks of the b-^ly. This \ic- tory was followed in Se]itember by the Treat\- of Tangier-;, which gave to I'h-ance all the satisfaction she demanded and put Abd cl- Kader out of the pale of the law in the cm[)ire of Abjrocco. d'hs 424 F R A N C E 1845-1846 treaty was the subject of vehement attacks on the part of the opposi- tion in the following session, and the satisfaction caused by the victory of Isly was lessened by the persistent refusal on the part of the government to make any real reforms. The legislative ses- sions of 1844 and 1845 were in this respect completely sterile. A few laws of general utility were passed, but almost all those pro- posed which bore the impress of a really liberal spirit were rejected, or at least deferred. Various circumstances concurred to aggravate the serious aspect of affairs at the commencement of the following year. There was a state of almost famine in the country districts, and great disturbances had been caused in the industrial world by extrava- gant speculations in railroad property. To these causes of anxiety were added the discontent caused by the ever-increasing charges of the treasury and some reverses suffered by the French arms in Al- geria, where Abd-el-Kader had excited a serious insurrection. The turbulent Kabyles were, however, held in check by General Lamo- riciere, who had replaced Marshal Bugeaud for a short time, and on the return of the latter to his government the insurgent tribes were completely reduced to submission. y\ll these subjects united occupied public attention at the commencement of the new session, 1846, which was only remarkable for the formation of a powerful opposition under the leadership of Thiers and Odillon Barrot. The most important law passed in this session gave the gov- ernment an extraordinary credit of ninety-three millions for the purpose of increasing the strength of the navy, both in men and ships. Many projects of great political or social interest were voted by the one or the other chamber in the course of this ses- sion, but did not become law. The cabinet, absorbed in the diffi- cult operation of consolidating its power, rejected or adjourned every proposal the adoption of which might have had the effect oi weakening its majority in the next elective chamber. It was under these circumstances that the elections of 1846 took place. The influence of the administrative power over tlie electoral body had never been more marked since 1830 than at the general elections of iH^ih, and owing to this the cabinet, in direct opposi- tion to pu1)lic opinion, unduly obtained a large majority in the election chamber. It happened, indeed, that in proportion as the cabinet became nvjrc unpopular in the country its majority be- came greater and greater in tlie elective chamber a great danger REVOLUTION OF 1 8 i 8 425 1846 both for the state and tlie thrcMie. T;i tlie midst of tlicse serious internal affairs q'ra\c cHssensions arose l)et\vcen France and Eng- land in conseqnence f f the nnfortnnatc affair known as the Si)anish marriag-es. In Spain, in 1844, the (|ueen-mother had been recahed, and in 1845 the Cortes had declared her daui^hter, Oueen Isabella, of aq'C. In 1846 the yonnq; qnecn married her consin. Francis do Assise of Bonrlxm. while her sister, the Infanta Donna Lnisa. espoused the Duke of Montpensier, the fifth si^n of the King' ni the h^rench. The luii^lish government through Lord Aberdeen, in re- turn for the promise of the King of h'rance that the Duke of Mont- pensier should take no steps to procure his marriage with the In- fanta Donna Luisa until the Queen of Spain should have a child, had engaged that no prince of the House of Coburg should become a suitor to Queen Isabella. Lord Palmerston. however, did nc^t adhere to the engagement entered into by his predecessor, but sanctioned the candidature of the Prince of Coburg for the queen's hand, d'hc King of the l'^*ench then considered that he was re- lieved from his promise and authorized the simultaneous publica- tion of the two marriages. On receiving tin's unexpected news the F.nglish cabinet denounced the marriage of the Duke of Montpen- sier as a direct \iolation of nuQ of the clauses of the Treaty of Utrecht, which declared that the crowns of l-'rance and Spain should never rest on the srune head. These accusations were evidently ill- founded, but nevertheless found an echo in the two hVench cham- bers, wliere it was said that the government, after having recently in the IVitch.ard alTair sacrificed the honor of the C(iuntry for the sake of remaining on cordial terms with 1'higland. had now sacri- ficed tin's alliance for the sak'e of mere famil\- interests. Hn's un- fi>i-tunate misunderstanding between the two countries rendered the northern ])o\\ers less ;ipprehensi\e of offending the h'rench go\'- ernment and led to the ruin of the last remnants of ri)lish natii^n- ality. :\t the close of the insurrection which led to the occupation of the city of Cracow bv the three northern powers, the latter did what they had not hillicrto \rnlured to do, and Austria annexed Cracow with the assent of Russia and I'russi.a. biance and I'.ng- land protested against this proceeding, but se])aratelv .and. bv re- fusing to act in CDiicert. jjrotested in \ain. The (Opposition made tliis circumstance a grountl for redoubling il^ \iolenee and the go\- ernment was condemned on all sides for having ist)lated JMance in Europe by its errors, and for having been as imbecile in its man- 426 FRANCE 1846 ae-ement of foreicfn as home affairs. In the meantime the neces- sity for certain reforms was so generally felt and the public feeling on the matter was so loudly expressed that Guizot himself at length, in a celebrated speech delivered at Lisieux after his reelection, showed himself extremely favorable to a wisely progressive policy. After this France had reason to hope that the ministry would sup- port, in 1847, the liberal measures and reforms acknowledged to be the most urgent. But it was not so, for this session surpassed the preceding in insignificance, and no law of any importance, political or social, was carried out. The escape of Prince Napoleon from the fortress of Ham and two attempts against the king's life had recently caused fresh anxiety in the public mind, and the session opened in the midst of the general dismay caused by destructive inundations, a partial fam- ine caused by bad harvests and a financial crisis. It was difficult, doubtless, under the pressure of the financial necessities of the moment to make any serious and immediate reforms in the taxa- tion of tlie country, and the cabinet made this circumstance a pre- text for rejecting all that were proposed. At the same time it refused to listen to all the other reforms, all the great measures which were considered urgent even by its own n:ore enlightened supporters an exhibition of obstinacy on the part of the French government which was so much the more astonishing because it was in strange contrast with the liberal movement which was at this time taking place in all the countries of Europe. Germany was again demanding the fulfillment of the promises made in 1813, and most of its states were engaged in establishing new constitu- tions. Holland had introduced great modifications into its own ; Spain was attempting under its young cjueen to enter upon a con- stitutional and parliamentary course" in Italy the venerable Pius IX., who had been recently elevated to the Pontifical throne, w^as inaugtn-ating a new era of liberty, after having commenced his reign by a general amnesty; similar reforms were being made in I'iedniriiit by King diaries Albert, and Great Jjritain now began to reap the fruits of her great parliamentary reform. The general necessity for reform was felt even in the Turkish empire, and the Snltan Abdul-AIedjid had of his own accord granted a charter to his subjects. Louis Philip's government at this time followed the policy which had been fatal to that of the restoration by confounding in 11 i: \ () L U T I () N () V 1 S 1 S 4^27 1846-1847 ail almost ecinal condemnation all the opponents of the caljinet with the enemies ot" the monarchy, I'carini;- that if it made conces.-^ions to the former it mii^dit he hnrried by the latter into a revolutionary course. This perseverance in a polic}' of stains quo at a time when luirope j^enerally was in a state of movement and in the presence of numerous (piestions whicli urgently demanded Sfjlution the daut^erous oh tinac\', aj^'ainst which not only a i^reat p(jrtion of the conser\ati\ e party protested, but e\en the principal or^rm of the j4o\ernmcnt and the moral head of the c;'o\crnment at leni^th led the dis(|nieted aiul anxious nation to look for its cause in a ([uarter ^vhich was higher than the ministry. The i)r(jtectini;;" \eil which the constitution had dniwn around the crown had lont^ been rent, and at no period had the sovereign been less shielded by the ministers than now. The king was growing ok! and had attained that age at which a mari's opinions become permanently fixed, while the remembrances of his early years return to his heart with increased force. The memories of Louis IMn'Ii]) kei)t him constantly in mind of tlie bloody episodes of the re\-ohitionary period, and showed to him, as was also the case with Charles X., a virtuous but feeble king, led through one concession after another to the scaffold, his family slaughtered (jr in exile, and b'rance ruined and twice inwaded. Then he re- marked that when he had received the crown he had calmed the tem])est. reintroduced order and prosperity within the kingdom and maintained peace abroad, lie remembered th.at b'rance and all lui- rope had attributed these great results to his wisdom and to the intlexible resistance made by his go\ernment to factious attempts as well as to the exaggerated tlemands of ])ariies, and he belie\"ed that it was now necessary to continue this policy, and to adhere to it irrev(-cably and constantly. As this ])rince ne\ertheless ob- served, under e\'ery circumstance, the strict letter of the constitu- tion, the honor of having done so remains his in history, although it was i)owerless to preser\e his throne against the course of events. While the action of the go\ernment seemed thus paralvzed. as it were, within the country, it was also j)owei'less abroad in con- se{|uence of its fatal dissension with haigland on the subject of the Spanish marriages. The two powers were, lujwe\er, agreed in su])- ])orting in Porttigal the throne of the young Queen Donna Maiia. which had been shaken by the twofold insurrecticjii of the Miguch>ts and the ultra-radical party. The l''rencli government, ho\\e\cr. 428 FRANCE 1847 failed in its attempt to mediate between the contending parties in Switzerland, where the radicals, who had a majority in the diet assembled at Berne, suppressed by force of arms a league called the Sonderbund, which had been formed between the seven Catholic cantons for the purpose of preserving their cantonal authority against the usurpers of the federal power. A circumstance still more injurious to the influence of France had recently taken place in Italy. Astonished and disturbed by the liberal reforms of Pius IX, in the Papal states, and emboldened also by the rupture between England and France, Austria had entered the possessions of the Holy See for the purpose of preserving her Italian possessions from the con- tagion of liberalism. Her troops had entered Ferrara, in spite of the energetic protests of the cardinal legate, in August, 1847, and the occupation of that fortress by the Austrians had thus all the characteristics of an armed invasion. Irritated public opinion asso- ciated this fact with the deplorable act by which the republic of Cracow had been, in the course of the preceding- year, annexed to Austria, with the consent of Russia and Prussia, and it bitterly reproached the cabinet with its abandonment of the liberal cause in Europe, with its ill will towards Italy and its weakness and power- lessness in its relations with Austria and the other great powers of Europe. Such was the position of home and foreign affairs when, in consequence of the retirement of Marshal Soult, Guizot became president of the council, September, 1847. The opposition organized an agitation throughout France, and had recourse also to other means for rousing and agitating the people. To this end, for two months past, banquets had been organized in Paris and the principal towns in the kingdom, at which those who wished to strike the dynasty at its roots had unhappily mixed with many who desired, by reforming, to strengthen it. The prejudiced opinion of the public led them to receive and to credit the most absurd and often the most unfounded charges, and a fatal concurrence of circumstances during the year 1847 g^ve dangerous food to the popular ill will and irritation. Various inquiries, forced on the public outcry, revealed, in some of tlie offices under the ministers of war and marine, con- siderable frauds committed, to the great injury of the state, by subaltern agents of those in power. These revelations, though grave enough in themselves, proved but the prelude to still greater scandals. Two peers of France, Teste and Despans of Cubieres, both of REVOLUTION OF 18 1-8 V2d 1847 them formerly ministers, and till recently members of the cabinet, were accused, with their accomplices, and sent to trial, the fnrmcr for rcceixinLj;- bribes in the exercise of his duties, the second for having facilitated the concession of a mine by means of corruption exercised on a minister of state. d"he court of peers did not shrink from their duty, and pronounced them l)oth c^uilty. To these and other i^M'cat scandals, amcjU"; which may be mentioned the attempt at suicide by Teste, the suicide of Count IJresson. the bVcnch ambassador at Xajjles, and the frightful murder of the Duchess of Praslin bv her husband, who subscciuently poisonerl himself, were then added ,qreat misfortunes. The ])erturbations brou.L:;ht into cominercial affairs as the result of the trcjublcs of the two preceding; }ears. and still more the unbridled abuse of si)eculation rmd tl;c fe\er of stockjobbing', had caused in all ranks numberless f.ailurcs. In vain the gallantry of the anuy in Africa threw a last luster upon the reigii ; it had subdued the Kabyles and dri\"en the Emir to his fmal retreat. ,\bd-cl Ivadcr surrendered to Lamoriciere. thus bril- liantly inaugurating the Duke of Aumale's go\ eminent of Al- geria. But at this epoch, as under Charles X.. after the conquest of Algeria, the country showed itself but little touched by a glory of which some part belon.ged to an unpopular n>inistry, which, by holding on to ])ower after the oi)inion of the couiury was against it, had inflamed, strengthened, and rallied against itself the entire opposition assembled at the numerous l)an(iucts which agitated b^'ance in the name of parliamentary and electoral reform. vSuch were the e\ents preceding the legislative session oi 1848. the last of the reign. At the end of the year 1847 nothing was irrexocably lost. Matters, it is true, were i)ushed to an extreme, but the elasticitv of constitutional institutions is great, and the throne o\ July, al- though tottering and threatened, might ha\e still recoN'cred itself. had not Cuizot blindly ])crsisted in his oj)position to ])(ij)ular opinion in resisting the l-'.lectoral Law and the ([ualitication for candidates for the chamber of dej)u;ics. Impotent to gain the public \'Ote for himself, he disdained it. he bra\ed it. and while the storm was threatening from e\erv poiut of tlie political horizon, the cabinet presented itself l)i)ldlv before the re-assembled chambers. It acceler- ated the tempest by inserting, at the commencement of the session, in the address to the throne, after some promises of })r(igressive ameliorations, an imprudent phrase, by which the ojjpusition consid- 430 FRANCE 1847 ered that all the opponents of the administration were accused of cherishing blind or guilty passions, and were stigmatized as enemies to the monarchy. The drawing up of the address in answer to this speech gave rise to a discussion in the two chambers, which was rendered solemn by the serious position of affairs. The principal interest of the debate in the chamber of peers was centered in the foreign policy of the cabinet, which was accused of having displayed, in the speech from the throne, too much deference for Austria, by remaining silent with respect to the reforms promised by Pope Pius IX. and some other of the Italian princes. Guizot replied to this reproach by pointing out the danger of exciting the revolution- ary passions, already too much inflamed in Italy, where demagogism, rallied under Mazzini's flag, threatened, as usual, to compromise, by lamentable excesses, the reforms already effected or projected. These great questions were discussed with even more force and vehemence in the debate on the address which took place in the elective chamber. Many of the most eminent orators, including Lamartine, Odillon Barrot, and Thiers, denounced the cabinet to the country as guilty of having sacrificed to Austria the liberal cause in Poland, Italy, and Switzerland. Guizot had recourse, in his defense, to the principal arguments already produced in the cham- ber of peers, and produced proofs that, in respect to Poland, his wishes had been overruled by the force of circumstances, and that in Italy and Switzerland he had defended really liberal interests, but added that he could not blame Austria for opposing the rash and dangerous' attempts of the revolutionary radicals. The ministry, however, displayed great weakness when it attempted to rebut the reproach of electoral corruption hurled against it by eminent orators on every bench of the opposition, and, among others, by Billault, who submitted the following amendment to the draft of the address : " We associate ourselves, sire, with the wishes of your majesty Ijy demanding of your government that it should before all things exert itself to the utmost to develop the morality of the people, and no longer to enfeeble it by fatal examples." Billault then ap- pealed to the conscience of the chamber, by showing that the electors sold tlieir votes for offices, that the deputies looked to the ministers to reimburse them for the expenses of their election, and that the nu'nisters, although, doubtless, honest themselves, governed by these detestable means. Tie also reproached Guizot and Duchatel with having abandoned their principles on various occasions for the sake REVOLl'TION or 1818 431 1847-1848 of retaining power; and in supi)ort of ihcsc accusations he eiuinicr- ated a long scries of facts which were already known, and the fa:al conse([uences of which to the morality of the country he forcihly set forth. A stiU more violent debate took place respecting the answer to that phi-ase of the s]K>ech from the throne, hv which many peers and a hundred deputies, who had taken jiart in the I)an(|uc1s hy whicli iM'ance liad been agitated, considered themscK'cs to be par- ticularly attacked, and the legality of i1ksc ban(|ucls was at the same time discussed with extreme vi'i!t.'nce. Tlie keeper of the seals. Ilebert, in an eloquent and sensible spi^'ccli enumerated the groundis on which the government W(^uld ha\e the right to ])re- vent such assemblies when they tended to disturb the public jieace. and declared that it wotild not give \\:i\' befiire any seditii^us manifestation. To this defiance Du\ergier de I laiu'anne replied by atiother. He would not yield, he said, {o the ukase of a miin'ster, and he was readv to join .all who. b_\' some decided act of resistance. would prove that the rights of I-'renchmen miglu not be destroyed by a mere decree of the ]> 'lice. This prijof was to ciMisist in the assembly of the jM'incipal deputies of th.e opposition .at a reform banquet wdiich had been alreadv arr.angetl to t.ake place in the I2th arrondissement of P.aris, ;md which had been interdicted bv the authorities. ddn's formidable dicfiancc. wliich had the effect of transferring the debate fr( 'Ui the tloors of the ch.ambers to the public th<)rough fares, was followed b_\' the \ote of tlie .address, in wdiich the r)p])osition had not succeeded in procuring ;i single amend- ment, or the insertir)n of any decided j)ronn'j)eeches deliva'red ;it the se\'ent\- reform b;ni(juets which had t;dNen place in the prir.cij)al cities of the kingdom. The hope of obtaining tl;e re\enge so long postp(jned had retinaied to the re])ublic,an .and legitimist enemies of the dynasty, .and the secret socielies. the .an.archi^i-. .and the political refugees, recruited by tlie demagogues, recowred their cour.age. silently armed themscKes. and prepared for the linal struggle wilii the monarchy. Inlimidated. witli {0,0 much reason. b\- these terrif\-- ing symptoms, the deputies of the dynastic oppositii.ui .and the cabi- 432 FRANCE 1848 net itself hesitated to provoke a dangerous explosion. They agreed that the banquet demonstration should be reduced to a simple meet- ing, and such formal proceedings as would be sufficient to enai)le the legal authorities of the country to decide the question of the right of holding public meetings. The radical opposition which desired to struggle at any price would not rest contented with so peaceful an arrangement, and called upon the schools, the national guard, and all Paris, in fact, to take part in a decided, although pacific demonstration, which was announced on February 21 for the morrow in the radical journals. The National and The Reform. On the unexpected appearance of this programme, Odillon Bar- rot and hij friends of the dynastic opposition determined not to take part in the banquet. Being divided, however, between the honest sentiment which led them to abstain from what they thought might cause public misfortunes and a dread of losing their popularity by appearing to shrink from danger, and being at the same time con- trolled by their antecedents and a fatal position, they deposited in the bureau of the chamber a formal accusation against the cabinet, which, without proving of any advantage to themselves, added fresh fuel to the popular excitement. The dreaded revolution burst forth on the 22d of February, amid shouts of " Long live reform ! " "Down with Guizot!" Feeble at first, and uncertain, the insurrection appeared, on the first day. at several points at once: at the Champs Elysees, on the Place de la Concorde, and in certain suburbs, where barricades were erected and abandoned. The fire which was everywhere smoldering, was slow to burst forth, but being only timidly sup- pressed, it speedily grew fierce, and on the second day had involved all Paris. All hope, however, was not yet lost. The resources of the government were great, the garrison did its duty, and various regiments hastened to march upon the capital. But the national guard answered badly to the government summons, and the few weak battalions which took up arms appeared much more disposed to interfere between the regular troops and the insurgents than to oppose the latter. The adoption of this attitude by the national guard at Icngtli made the king resolve to yield to necessity, and on the evening of February 22 it became known that he had invited Mole to form a new cabinet. Paris now immediately illuminated, and this news was everywhere received with tremendous accla- mations as a happy omen of conciliation and peace. P>ut on this REVOLUTION OF 18 4 8 433 1848 same ovcniui;- a fatalit}- caused cvcrylhinq' to he lust. A Ijattalirm of infantry of ilie line, stationed in fnuit of the forcit^n rjlVicc, in the Boulevard des Capucines, Hred without orders upon tlie nioh which crowded tlie boulevard and the adjacent streets, and in an instant tlie q-nnmd was strewn with victims. At this sig^ht the furv of the peoj)le was once more aroused tD its utmost pitch. The fatal news llew fr(mi mouth to mouth: the suburbs arose; Paris became covered with an interminable network of barricades, and by tlie mornint^' the (juarter of the Tuileries was almost entirely co\-- ered with them. I'efore such perils at these Mole was powerless, and withdrew, while the C(mrt perceived that a vig^nrous and desperate resistance had become absolutely necessary. The victor of Tsly, Marshal Buq^eaud. was appointed before daybreak to the command oi the troops, and every preparation was made for a bloody and decisive battle. Tn the meantime the k'nvji; entrusted the Conduct of affairs to the leaders of the jvudiamenlary opposition, 'Jdiiers and Odillon I>arrot, who. trusting; to(j implicitly to their popularity, beliexed that they could appease tlie re\'olution by their mere words and presence. Tliev put a sti ip to the firing of the trooi)S, and recalled Ijugea-ud, who, with crrief and rage, saw his sword broken in his hands. Distracted by contrary orders, the soldiers remained Some time in a state ot indecision and inacti^Mi, then aband(jned the barricades to the insurgents, and to a great extent fraternized with them. After this the insurgents becaiue innumerable, and adwinced in a dense mass towards the Tuileries. l.ouis JMiili]!. at the instigation of the (|ueen. mounted his horse and re\'ie\\e(l in the Carrousel several regiments and a few weak battalions n\ the national guards. The regular troops receivetl liini with cries of " I'irr Ic Roi! " but the n.ational guards replied with the cry of "Reform! reform!" the password of the re\()lu- tioni-ts. and the discouraged monarch reentered his palace. I'rom this time the irresolution of the king, and all who possessed e\'en a semblance of autlu^rity. became greater and greater, while the insurrection incessantly increased, filled all the approaches to the ])alace, knocked at its doors and was at the point of bursting through tlieni. Louis J'hilip still deliberated. Beside him was the (|ueen filled with inex])ressible grief, but resigned. Around him were the |)rincesses in tears, stupefied courtiers, mute generals. ])owerless and terrified ministers, 'flie word abdication was ut- tered. Alany voices repeated it, and urged the king to consent 484 FRANCE 1848 to it and to sign it. Louis Philip, apparently calm and emotionless, took his pen and wrote these words, " I abdicate in favor of the Count of Paris, my grandson, and I hope that he may be happier than I have been." After he had signed this act of abdication the king retired by the only means of exit which remained free, and the mob forthwith burst into the palace. A woman clothed in mourning the Duchess of Orleans was the last to leave the Tuileries with her two children, and in this extremity many voices expressed a wish that the regency, which the law gave to the Duke of Nemours, could be conferred on the duchess. Courageous and resolved to brave death in the fulfill- ment of a great duty, she passed through the threatening cro\\'d in order to present her son to the two chambers. She proceeded under the escort of the Duke of Nemours and the protection of a few friends to the chamber of deputies, where Dupin introduced her as the regent of the kingdom, ^^''hen the duchess took a seat in front of the tribune with her brother-in-law Nemours and her two sons, Dupin and Odillon Barrot endeavored to procure such an enthusiastic reception for the new king by the dep- uties as had been accorded, after the revolution of July, to the Duke of Orleans. But the elective chamber, which did not repre- sent the nation and public opinion, as it did in 1830, had no in- fluence with the public and was also penetrated with a sense of its own weakness. Its place of assembly was violated, while it was actually sitting, by armed bands, and its president, Sauzet, himself abandoned it. Four deputies Cremieux, Marie, Ledru- Rollin and Lamartine demanded the nomination of a provisional government, the members of which were immediately pointed out with acclamations by the voices of the insurgents and those of a few deputies mingled together. Chambers, regenc3^ royalty, all disap])eared in the tempest, and on the following day the provisional go\ernment proclaimed the republic. Chapter XXVT THK Si:C()M) RI'l'L'iJLIC. 1S4S1SS2 AS soon ris it was c\i(leiU that there wa^ n^ hope of cs(ahli-h- ZJm iiiq- the Count of Paris on tlie tln-oiK' of hi< q-raml father, X -A^tlic Dncliess o\ Orleans ami her hrothers-in-law, tlic Dnke^ of Xcnionrs and of .Montpensier, hastened to leave Paris and re- paired to I'ai^iand with the ex-Kini^' and (hieen of the l'"rench and took up their residence in Claremont, which was ])laced at their disposal !)} Leopold, Kin^' of the l'>eli;-ians, to whom the palace then belonged. The prnicipal members of the i)ro\isional goNcnunent of Febru.arv -V], iS.jS. were l)u])ont de Thau'c, ])ret'ri\ Pediai-Pi ilh"n. for ll;e interior, ( iond,chau\. foi- linance. AraL^o. f, m" nawal affairs, Carnot. for public inslrnclion. I'.etlinr ul. Um" com- merce. Mai'ie, for public w'lnks. and ( icneral SubeiA'ic. for w '.r. Colonel Courlais was appointed coninia.nder of the national canard (^f P.aris and ( iarniei'-Pa.L;'es ma\or i\ that catv. with CMnM"''l of the police; ^vhilc (iencral C"a.\aignac wa.s made go\eiaior of .\lL;"ct ia in jilace of the Duke of Aumale. In addition to the-e the ])rocla.nL-i- tions of the go\-ernment were signed b\" Armantj Marrast. Idocon. Louis J'.lanc and Albert, who, in that spirit of pride which is apt to ape bumilitw (wIentalionsK- added ''//:T/Vr (aiii'-an'\ t'l his signa- tm"c; l)ut these men held no higher otVice tlian ih.at of secretaries to the government. The llrst act of the nc-w go\\Tnnient was the proc- lamation of the rei)ul)lic from the Motel de \'dle on k'cbrua.rv j'l. At the same time another proclamati( ui was i.- 436 FRANCE 1S4S for the country. It was to be composed of nine hundred members. Every Frenchman of twenty-one years of age was to be entitled to vote, if nothing untoward had occurred to deprive him of civil rights, and each department w-as to return members in proportion to its population. It is not to be supposed that the members of the provisional government occupied a position that was free from danger during their period of office. Troubles arose through the dissatisfaction of the officers and men of the old national guard at the manner in which the new body was reorganized, and on March 26 a great demonstration of the working classes was directed against the gov- ernment. But any evil that might have arisen was prevented by the calmness and tact of Lamartine, who appears to have acted with judgment and moderation during his continuance in office. A more serious attempt to overthrow the provisional government and to prevent the establishment of the republic on a safe and sure basis was made on April 16 by the insurrectionists and members of the revolutionary clubs, the red republicans, as they were aptly termed, who at the instigation of Barbes and Blanqui sought to postpone the elections indefinitely, which had already been put off to April 2.2,, and to form a " Committee of Public Safety " after the pattern of the body of that name in the revolution of 1793. The govern- ment, however, had timely information of their intention. The command of the troops was given to General Changarnier, and as the insurgents commenced a movement on the Hotel de Ville they found themselves literally surrounded by the thousands of national guards, who had hastily run to arms at the summons of Lamartine and his colleagues. No further opposition was then offered to the elections. On May 4 the national assembly was formally opened. The members of the provisional government resigned office, and on the loth an' executive commission w^as appointed by ballot, consisting of Arago, Lamartine, Marie, Garnier-Pages and Ledru-Rollin. Scarcely had this been done when the reds, led hy Barbes and Blanqui and encouraged by Louis Blanc, took advantage of a proposal to send aid to Poland, which was to be discussed in the assemljly, and to which Lamartine and three of his colleagues were known to be opposed, to attempt to create new disturbances. On May 15 the Palais Bourbon, then the legislative palace, in which the meetings of the assembly were held, was invaded by twenty thousand armed rioters, General Courtais, who had the command of T II i: s E c X D II i: p i^ u 1. 1 r 437 1848 the national miard, havini:;- taken no prccautiDiis to prevent tlic attack. ]'\)r a few hours the men of tlie suburbs had it their own way. and e\"en went so f;ir as to cstablisli a jjrovisional govcrninent at the Hotel de Villc, but bv nine in the evening-, owing to tlie promjn measures taken by Lamartine. l>arl)es and Raspail, with others of the leaders, were arrested and the riot was brought to an end. General Cavaignac was then a])pointed minister of war, and General Courtais was replaced in the command of the national guard by Colonel Clement ddiomas. On th.e following day a grand re\iew of the national guard was held in the Champ de ]\Iars, and shortly after l)lan([ui was arrested and sent to Vincennes. Among the earliest acts of the new national assembly was a decree declaring the perpetual banishment of T.ouis Philip and the Orleans jjrinces, and teiuporarv revi\al of the decrees against the Jjonaparte family, in consecjuence of the return of Prince ]-,ouis Napoleon for the department of the Seine and three other depart- ments. Consefjuentl}' the ])rince did not take his seat as a member of tlie assembly. Although the late attempt of the reds to sub\"ert the go\-ernment had been frustrated, the revolutionists were in no way disposed to suljmit, and in conse(|uence of the declared intention of the go\ernment to close the national workshops, the working classes, incited by the clul)bists and revolutionary agents, ran to arms throughout Paris on the night of June 23. On tlie foil -wing morning Paris, brislling with barricades, was declared in a state of siege by General Cavaignac, who proin|)tlv drove the insurgents from tlie left ba.nk of the Seine. Severe fighting and much blood- shed followed, and it was not until the e\ening of the 25th that the subvu'b of the d"em])le, the last stronghold of tlie insurgents, was stormed and taken after a hea\y cannonade, and the city once more brouglit under t!ie control of the government. Affre, the Arch- bi>ho]) of J'aris, was mort.ally wounded in a barricade in the Place de la lastille while he was imj)l(jring the insurgents to lav down their arms, and it is estimated that at least sixteen thousand ])ersons were killed and wounded in this outbreak, \\-hile ekwen thousand were taken j^risouc-rs or arresled for having been concerned in it. iXmong the chief instigators of the re\'olt were Louis lilanc and Caussidiere, but being jjresent when a motion was brought on fiir their ])rosecutit)n in the national assembly, they made their escape and tied to i'ngland. General Cavaignac was then appointed head of the executive, with the title of i)resi(lent of the council, and on 438 FRANCE 1848- 184S July 4 a formal announcement was made of the suppression of the national workshops. The national assembly now turned its attention to the prepara- tion of a constitution for the new republic. By this it was provided that there should be but one legislative chamber, and that the head of the executive should be a president who should be elected by uni- versal suffrage every four years, as in the United States. The tem- porary enactment against the return of the Bonapartes to France, to which reference has been made, was revoked by the assembly, and Prince Louis Napoleon, who had taken his seat in September for the department of the Seine, became a candidate for the office against General Cavaignac, Raspail, Ledru-Rollin and Lamartine. The last three got but few votes, and the contest lay in reality be- tween the republican general and the heir of Napoleon I., of whom the latter was elected by 6,048,072 votes to 1,479,121 registered for his opponent. The prince was formally proclaimed as President of the French Republic on December 20, his tenure of office to continue till May 9, 1852. On the following day he took his oath of office to preserve the republic inviolable, and shortly after announjed the formation of his cabinet, at the head of which was Odillon Barrot. The extreme section of the republican party were by no means contented with the measures that had been taken to reestablish order in France, and undeterred by their defeat in the preceding June, again sought to rouse the working classes into action against the government in January, 1849. Information, however, respect- ing the intended outbreak was conveyed to the government, and prompt measures w^ere taken to prevent a rising. The revolution- ists had their friends in the national assembly, and these, disap- pointed at finding that the governing powers were stronger and more on the alert than they had hoped, proposed the impeachment of ministers through their chief spokesman, Ledru-Rollin, and even carried the proposal by a small majority in the national assembly. The ministry was strong enough to disregard thi's and, to show how little they feared the attacks of the red party, either within or without the assembly, immediately took measures for bringing the instigators of the insurrections of J\Iay and June in the pre- ceding year to trial before a high court of justice, held at Bourges in March, 1849. The result was that Barbes and Albert {ouvricr) were transported fur Hfe, Blanqui fcjr ten years and Raspail and others for shorter terms. It was not only in France that the revo- THE SECOND REPUBLIC 439 1849-1850 lution of 1848 worked mischief to all classes. Discontent and re- bellion against duly constituted authority broke out in fever llushes of insurrection in many ]Kirts of ]iuro])e, and in the Papal states a constituent assembly was formed in 1849. and the Roman re])ublic proclaimed. The Pope appealed to the Cathohc states of Europe tor aid against his rebellious subjects, and I-'rance, contrar\' to the general ex[)ectation. was the first to respond to his cry for assist- ance. A large majority in the national assembly decided on giving immediate support to the Pope by armed intervention, and (leneral Oudinot was sent to Italy at the head of a considerable force, and after landing at Civita Vecchia, marched on Rome and made i)re[)- arations f(jr ;in attack on the city on the west side. The siege com- menced on June 3, 1849, but the defense was Ijravely sustained by Garibaldi for more than three weeks. In spite of his efforts, how- ever, several of his positions were carried by assault, and on June 30 Rome was taken. The Pope's authority was immediately re- establislied throughout his dominions, but he was not sufficiently powerful to repress any further outbreak that might hap])cn. It was thought best that Cicneral Oudinot and his troops should ()ccui)y the city and secure the Pope against a second expulsion from his territory, 'flie .-.teps taken by the French government to destroy the newlydjorn Roman rei)ublic were extremely distasteful to the reds, who saw in it onl\' too certain a proof of the strength of the ministry. On June 14 Ledru-Rollin and the chiefs of the red party made a fresh attempt to incite insurrection in Paris. A few barri- cades were thrown up here and there, but the rising was s]>eedily suppressed, and tlie instigators of the outbreak comjielled to pre- serve their liberty by immediate llight to Juigiand, whose hospitality tliey vi(;lated by constant plotting against the government they feared and hated. This for some years was the last open act of rebellion against constituted authority in Paris. The year 1850 was not marketl in I'Tance by any incident, social or political, that deserves ])arlicular notice, except the measures that were taken in September of that year t(j place certain restrictions on freedom of discussion, in con- se([uence of the undue license of language used by a great part of the b'rench press against the president and his ministers. The new re])ressi\e ])ress laws were, as might ha\e been exj^ected, dis- tasteful to the republican j)art_\'. (ieiieral Changarnier, an Algerian veteran, who was commander-in-chief of the national guards of 440 FRANC E 1850-1851 Paris and the troops of the first mihtary division, did not hesitate to express freely his opinions of tlie course sanctioned by the presi- dent, and this led to a misunderstanding which resulted in his re- moval from his command in January, 1851. The legislative assem- bly also took occasion to express its disapproval of the acts of the president and his ministry. Odillon Barrot was now no longer in office, his cabinet having been dismissed in 1849 ^^^ ^^^ decisions on many questions which were presented to the members for discussion. A vote of want of confidence in the ministry was proposed, and carried by a large majority, and this was followed by a conditional acceptance of the president's dotation bill. A motion for the re- vision of the constitution was passed, it is true, on June 19, but the majority in favor of the motion not being large enough accord- ing to French parliamentary law at that time, it was declared to be rejected. It was clear that a gulf was opening between the president and the national assembly that could be bridged over by nothing except arbitrary measures on one side or the other, which would tend to destroy the party, whichever it might be, against whom they were directed. The assembly thwarted the president and his ministers, and strove to throw on them the odium of all repres- sive measures that might be passed, while the president himself, when on a tour of inspection in some of the departments, did not hesitate at Dijon to speak of the assembly as being willing enough to sanction any laws of repression that were proposed to them, al- though they took care to offer the most persistent opposition to any measures that were proposed by the government for the ameliora- tion of the condition of the people at large. It must be remembered, in considering the event that is about to be described, that Louis Napoleon, from an early period of his life, had always aimed at attaining supreme power in France, and that his conduct since his elevation to the presidential chair had been sedulously shaped to the realization of that end. His defense of tlie Pope's rights in Italy had won over the clergy to his side; his frequent reviews and addresses to the French troops, in which, naturally enough, he dwelt on the glory reaped by the soldiery of I'Yance under the empire, secured the army, while the rural popula- tion were attracted by the desire, which he so frequently expressed (luring his tours, to effect an amelioration of the condition of the artisan classes, whether agricultural or manufacturing. It was dif- licult tu procure any fundamental change in the constitution through T II K SECOND U i: P r in . i ( " 44-1 1351 the legiskitive assembly, because it could nnt be made witlinut the sanction of three-fourths of the members, and there were too many of the republican party in the assembly to render success in any project of extendinsf the term of the president's authority ])y this means even probable. Xothini^ remained but t(^ effect this by the subversion of the existing' constitution, and as the legislative assem- bly had rejected, in November, a bill introduced at the =:ugc' -stii^it of the president for the establishment of universal sufirage in France, it was resolved by Louis Napoleon and his advisers to resort to violent and indeed unconstitutional means for the accomplish- ment of his chief object, his continuance in ])o\ver. A c.uify d'etat was resolved on, and this was carried into effect on December 2. 185 1. Various decrees were issued, bv one of which the legislative assembly was declared dissolved, while by another universal suffrage was ordered to be reestablished throughout J'rancc. Paris was also declared in a state of siege and it was proposed that a jiresident should be elected for ten years and commissioned to prepare a con- stitution for I'Yance. It would ha\e been dangerous to the presi- dent's projects to have those men at liberty wlu) were likely to be most able and most willing to take steps to thwart them, and accordingly Thiers and the republican generals ("hangarnier. Cavaignac, Bedeau, Lamorciere and Lcflu. uith about seventy others, were arrested in their houses a little before tla\\n. and taken quickly and silently to the castle of Vincennes. licrryer. the eminent legitimist barrister, and about one hundred and eighty meml)cr> of the assembly, who attem])ted to meet when tlie news was spread abroad on the following day, were rdso ])l;iced in durance, and ex'cry part of Paris was f)ccupic(l by troop^^. which h;id been marched to their destination in the dead of night. Py xigorous and welP directed action the president had reninved all wlio were likely to offer serious opposition to the course he had adopted, and pre- vented much of the bloodshed that niu>t have follcnved had tho.-e whom he arrested been at large. .As it was. an a.ttcmjit at instirrec- tion was made in many parts of l\aris on December 3. 1851. and the day following. Barricades were erected and many fell under the fire of the troops, but the priiUiptness of the generals in com mand brought matters to a close on the 5tli, and Paris was spared much of the destruction, loss of life and horror that would Iia\e ensued had the ;\-!stance to tlie <<'<7/' d'ctal been general. It may be well to pause here a moment and note the names i^)\ the men u ho 442 FRANCE 1851-1852 were mainly instrumental in aiding Louis Napoleon in carrying out his bold stroke for arbitrary power in France. Those most inti- mately associated with him were Persigny, afterwards Count Persigny, who had been concerned in all his previous plots, and for long years the most devoted of his adherents; ]\Iorny, after- wards the Duke of Morny, a clever schemer and financier, possessed of many great personal gifts, and General Fleury, one of his aides- de-camp, a good horseman and without any scruples of conscience in carrying out anything he might undertake. Subordinate to these were General, afterwards Marshal, St. Arnaud, who had been made minister of war on October 27; Maupas, who had been appointed prefect of police at the same time ; General Lowoestine, commander of the national guard ; and Generals Alagnan, Forey, Canrobert and others, many of whom acquired considerable renown tmder the empire in subsequent years. In accordance with the principle of universal suffrage enun- ciated in one of the decrees of December 2, 1851, the people were asked on December 21 to vote, throughout the whole of France, for or against the following plebiscite : " The French people desire the maintenance of the authority of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, and delegate to him the powers necessary for establishing a consti- tution upon the basis proposed in his proclamation of December 2.'' The result showed that 7,439,216 persons voted in the affirmative. while only 640,737 signified their dissent from the plebiscite. On New Year's Day, 1852, the president was formally installed in oflice and took up his residence in tlie Tuileries. Soon after this Changarnier and most of those who had been imprisoned in the castle of Vincennes were conducted across the Belgian frontier and set at liberty, on the condition that they would not seek to return to France without permission. Upwards of eighty memljers of the late legislative assembly were sent into exile, and about six hundred more who had taken up arms to resist the coup d'etat were trans- ported to the penal settlement of Cayenne. The national guard was disbanded and immediately reorganized, and on January 14 a new constitution was promulgated, and the titles of the French nobility, which had been abolished at the revolution of 1848, were restored. In the new constitution regulations for the election of tlie second chamber were duly propounded. One deputy was to be returned by every 35,000 electors in a department, witli one in addition, if there should happen to be a surplus population of 25,000 in the depart- THE SECOND REPUBLIC US 1852 merit. Thus, for cxninple, if a department contained 105,000 dec- tors, it was to return three members; but if the surphrs over tliis number brought the total up to I30,ocxd or upwards, it was entitled to four members. Every department was to be divided into as many eleetor;d districts as it was entitled to deputies, according to the number of electors that it contained. All l^^enchmen above the age of twenty, being in full posscssitju of all civil and political rights, were entitled to vote. It was not until March 29 that the new legislative chambers met in the Tuileries. The session was ojXMied in considerable state by the prince-president, who sought to disabuse the minds of his hear- ers of the thought that, perchance, might be lurking there, that it was his intention to seek the revival of the empire, by boldly declar- ing that he had no intention of doing so, unless the conduct of sedi- tious factions compelled him to adopt such a coin'se. " Let us." he said, " maintain the republic; it menaces nobody, but reassures all." The birthday oi Xapijleon L, August 15, was iirdered to be kept as a fete-day throughout 1 'ranee, and the good understanding that as- suredly existed between the governor and gcjverned in the country was increased by an act of amnesty which permitted the return of Thiers, Changarnier and other political exiles of December 2 to 1'' ranee. There can be l)ut little doubt that one thought had been ])redi)minant in Louis Xapoleon's mind since he had grown to man- h(j()(l, and that that thought was the rexival of the empire. Whether measures were taken by himself and his supporters to set the tide of public opinion in the direction which it assuredly took soon after his inst.allation as president for ten years it is impossible to say. llowexer it may ha\e been excited, the wish for the restoration of the empire was at this time paramount in France. It was openly menticjued in all parts of i'rance. In Se])tember a ])etition was presented to tlie senate asking for the " reestablishment of the hereditary jxiwer in the Jjonai^arte family," and this was io\- lowed 1>\- many others to the same eliect. At Lyons, whither the president had gone to l)e j)resent at the inauguration of an ecpies- trian statue of Xa[)oleon I., the s[)ectators broke out into enthusiastic cries of " /'/:'( iciiipcrciir." At J'ordeaux, in a tour through the southern deparlments, the presitlent. in allusion to the evident wish for the re\i\al of the empire, took occasi(jn to say, *' The empire is peace," an a\()wal, in fact, of his intention to promote industry, commerce and the arts of peace thr()ughout h'rance as long as the 444 F R A N C E 1852 country remained under his rule. It was during this tour that he performed a graceful act of clemency towards a fallen foe of France by permitting Abd-el-Kader to retire to Asia Minor, on condition that he would never again take up arms for the recovery of Algeria. At last, when the senate met in November, yielding to what appeared to be the wish of the nation at large, the prince-president ordered that a plebiscite should be issued respecting the revival of the em- pire, for or against which the people might record their votes on November 21. The plebiscite ran thus: "The French people wishes the resuscitation of the imperial dignity in the person of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, with succession in his direct legitimate or adopted descendants." The number of votes recorded in favor of the plebiscite was 7,824,189 ; only 253,143 were registered against it. On December i, 1852, the senate and legislative body proceeded to St. Cloud to acquaint the president with the result of the voting, and Louis Napoleon signified his acceptance of the imperial crown and his intention to assume the title of Napoleon IIL On the fol- lowing day, the anniversary of the coup d'etat, the empire was pro- claimed at the Hotel de Ville, and the emperor entered Paris amid the acclamations of the people. Such was the ending of the second republic, after a brief existence of four years and ten months. Chapter XXVII THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON HE 1852-1870 OXE of the first acts of Xapolcon HE, after the reception of the imperial crown, was the ])ninnilG;'ati()n of a decree confirming' the snccession to Jerome E))naj)arte, ex-Kinj^- of Westphaha, and his male lieirs. if he himself should die witlmiu issue in direct legitimacy, and having provided for this contingency he hcgan to seek for a suitahle consort. Tt is said that he was at first anxious to contract an alliance with the Princess Caroline Vasa of Sweden, but that the northern powers refused to give their con- sent to the match. h\ailing in this (luarter. he ofi'ered his hand to the Countess Eugenie Marie of ]\Iontijo. the daughter of the Count of Montijo, a grandee of Spain, a young lady of twenty-six years and of great personal !)eauty. The m.arriage took i)lace in the cathedral of Notre Dame on January 30, 1853, and was immediately fol- lowed by an amnesty by which between four thcnisand and five thousand persons, who were undergoing punishment for political offenses, were pardoned. This act of clemency had but little effect on the republican party, or the extreme section of it, who l)efore the year had expired concerted a ])lot against the emperor's life, h^ortunately, it was discovered i)efore it cuM be carried into etYect, and the intended assassins were variously ])unished according to their comijlicity and im}i()rtance by transportation iov life, or im- prisonment for a greater or less nnmbtr of yea.rs. Vov many years of his life a resident in luigland. the em])eror, besides hax'ing become im[)resscd with the \alue vi free institutions and real personal liberty, was imbued with a feeling of genuine liking and real friendship towards t!ie country that had affored him an asylum in the time (if adxersity, and soug'it rvcry o])j)(irlunity of cultivating a good understanding, n^t only between the goxeni- ments of E'rance and bjigland, but also ijetween the peojjle o\ the respective countries. About this time the luistern Ouestion, as it was called, was f)ccupying the attenti.Mi of Juu"' 'pe. especially a^ Rus- sia was seeking to turn it to such account as would enable her to ii5 446 FRANCE 1853-1854 carry out the designs she had long entertained against Turkey. The Emperor of Russia, as head of the Greek church, had for some time been endeavoring to persuade the Sultan of Turkey, by virtue of former treaties, to give to that church the principal authority over the holy places at Jerusalem at which many of the chief events in our Saviour's life were said to have taken place. The Emperor of France as " eldest son of the church " supported the right of the Latin or Roman Catholic church to claim and exercise an equal de- gree of authority over these spots, and the dispute was still in abeyance when the Czar suddenly claimed from Turkey the protec- torate of the Greek Christians in that country and the right of settling all complaints that might be lodged against the Greek patriarchs and bishops in Constantinople. He even went so far as to suggest to England that it was time to divide Turkey between England and Russia, an overture which the British government promptly declined, asserting plainly at the same time its intention of upholding the integrity of Turkey at any cost. At this juncture the emperor also declared his intention of acting in concert with England in behalf of Turkey, and a combined French and English fleet was sent to the Dardenelles. Reassured by the friendly atti- tude of the western powers, the Sultan no longer hesitated to refuse to accede to the demands of his northern neighbor, and on July 2 a Russian army crossed the Pruth and occupied the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. On October 4 the Porte made a for- mal declaration of war against Russia, and entered into the struggle with spirit and alacrity. England and France exhausted every en- deavor to induce the Czar to forego his demands, withdraw his troops and resume friendly relations with Turkey, but finding that their efforts to preserve peace were futile, the}^ declared war against Russia and immediately dispatched troops to the East. After a delay of five months, which was spent in accumulating men and materials of war at Varna, the allied French and English armies sailed across the Black Sea and landed in the Crimea on September 14. The disembarkation of the troops was unopposed by the Rus- sians, but in their march southward on Sebastopol the allies found a strcjng Russian force under Menschikov posted in a commanding position on the south bank of the Alma to dispute the passage of the river. The English troops made a vigorous attack on the center and the right of the Russian position and carried it, while the Russian left, resting on the sea, was turned by General Bosquet's N A r () L i: () \ III 417 1854-1855 division, consistinc;;' of zoiia\'cs and other i)ickc(l I-"rcnch troops, who scaled the chffs abiUting^ on the sea and. by their unexpected aj)- pearance on the Russian llank, completed the victory lor the allies. Menschikov ininiediately fell back and entered Sebastopol. whither Lord Raglan, the English commander-in-chief, wished to I'iiIImw him at once and to attempt io carry the cit\' h\- a rouj-' dr Ditiiii. but Marshal Saint Arnand, who held the command-in-chief of the French and who was worn ont with illness he died nine da} > after the \ictory was indisposed to agree ti> Lord Raglan's propo>~al. and the troops of the allies, passing the citv by a flank march to the left, took up a position on the ]:)lateau to the soutli o\ Sebastopol. and having secured Cdmmnnication with the tleets oi llalaklava Day, proceeded to commence operations for the in\cstment of the city. The Russians having gradually recovered frmn the depression produced by their defeat on the Alma, conimenced a ^^cries of strenur)US efforts to dislodge the allies from their ])osition-, and to interrupt them in their preparations for the siege, which wa< com- menced on October 17. Sortie after sortie was made, but (m Octo- ber _'5 a general action took ])lace in the walle}' c\ llalaklawa. by which the Russians sought to crudi the allies l)etween the city and its forts, and the attacking party from without. This was followed. on Xovember 5. by the battle of Ink'ernian. in which a large body of luiglish troops, after having exhausted their ammunition against the Russians, who rctui'iied repeatedly to the attack, were succored bv the timely arrival r>f the b^-ench. P>oih of these battles termi- nated in the repulse of the Russian-^. Xo further attack n\ an\- im- portance was made by the be-^ie^'cil, and the batteries of the be- siegers seemed to make but little impression on the outworks of the citv during the long and dreary winter that ensued, and in which the allied trt)oi)s endured the greatest har(lshi])s and pri\a- tions. ShortK' after the death of the (zar Xicliolas of l\u--^ia, who was succeeded by his son Alexander 11., Sardinia joined the West- ern powers against Russia in i^^.^S. and in the s])ring of th;it year sent a small contingent of troops to the seat of war. On jraic ^> and the following day tlie FiTiich obtained possession of the \\']i!;e Works and Mcaiuelon, but an attack on the Malakoff by the b'rench and on the Redan by the baiglish on June iS proved a failure. At this time General I'dis'^icr. who had seen much service in Algeria. had superseded General Canrobert in the coiumand of the bhxuch. and shortly after General Simp>on a>>umed the chief com- 448 FRANCE 1855-1856 mand of the English, Lord Raglan having died in camp on June 25. On August 16 an attack was made on the English and Sardinian camps in the valley of the Tchemaya, which was repulsed, and on September 8, after a terrific bombardment for three days, the French carried the Malakoff, but failed in their assault on the Little Redan, as did the English in an attack on the Redan. In the evening, however, the Russian troops evacuated the city and with- drew to the north side of the harbor, and on the following day the allies to<.:)k possession of it. Austria now interfered to bring about peace, and in February, 1856, an armistice was signed and hostili- ties suspended. Peace was definitely signed on ]\'Iarch 30, 1856, Russia pledging herself to regard the Black Sea for the future as neutral water, closed to the fleets of all nations, and to keep up no maritime force therein. Nothing of importance had occurred at home during the year 1855, except an interchange of visits between Napoleon IIL and Queen Victoria. On April 17 the former, accompanied by the em- press, arrived at Windsor on a visit to the queen, and were enter- tained by the lord mayor of London at the Guildhall on the 19th, while on August 18 the queen and prince consort made a brief stay in Paris. On April 28 an attempt was made on the life of the emperor, while riding in the Champs Elysees. by an Italian named Pianori, who was captured on the spot, tried and sentenced to death. On May 15 the Paris Universal Exhibition of Industry was opened, being the second of the series of industrial displays which had been inaugurated by the exhibition in London in 1851. An- other attempt was made to assassinate the emperor on November 8, but tlie assassin was arrested by a police agent, who struck down his arm as he was about to fire. The man proved to be a dangerous lunatic. The year 1855 was further marked by the readiness with which the French people responded to the call of the government for a loan of 500,000,000 francs. So great was the confidence and such was the prosperity of all classes in France at that time that nearly twice this sum was offered in a few days, although a loan of 250,000,000 francs had been subscribed for at the commencement of the war. A few months after a third loan, of 500,000,000 francs, was asked for, and in response more than three times the sum re(|uircd was offered, principally by small investors, who sought llms to turn their earnings to good account. The year 1856, which witnessed the restoration of peace, is noteworthy for the NAP()Li:()_\ III 449 1836-1858 birth of Napoleon's only child, the Prince Xap^leon Eu.c^ene Louis, born on iMarcli iC>. an event whicli was liailed with the utmost sat- isfaction l)y the I'^-cncli nation rmd which at that time 1)1(1 fair to secure the niainlcnance of the dynasty. The national ])rospcrity. howe\er, suffered a check in the latter part of the year by destruc- tive inundations in the south of France, wliich caused great loss of life and property, while there was much distress in the m(3ney market, and numerous important commercial failures. The work- ing" classes, in spite of these occurrences, were ])rosperous and happy, for work was abundant, owing to the measures adoptctl by the government for the improvement of the capital. Althougli the conduct of the emperor since his accession to power had been such as to merit the affection and esteem of all his subjects, the revolutionary faction were untiring in seeking to as- sassinate him. On January 14, 1858, as the emperor and empress were proceeding along the Rue Lepelletier on their way to the opera, several detonating shells were thrown under the carriage in which they were seated. These exploded without injury to the emperor, but killed or wounded more tlian one hundred and fifty persons, riddled by seventy-six projectiles, ^l^e chief conspirators were an Italian, named Orsini. fieri, another Italian, Rudio and Goiuez. They were arrested shortly after, and Orsini and Tieri, being sentenced to death, were guillotined on March 13. This anil other similar plots were undoubtedly hatched in England. A remon- strance was addressed to tiie haiglish government, urging theiu to make their laws more strict against jiolitical refugees. Lord Pal- merston, who was in office at the time, brought in a bill for this most Tiecessary and desirable pui"]K)se, but the bill was re- jected by the House of Commons, and Lord Palmcrston resigned. This tended, in a measure, to impair the corihal understanding be- tween tlie governments of I'rance and I'.ngland. wliich in tlu' ])re- vious year had sent a combined lleet and army to China, to punisli the Chinese for their fre(|uent attacks upon foreigners and to com])el them to respect the treaties into wliich tlicy had enlcn-d from time to time. Canton was bombarded and taken on December 29, and the allies then ])roceedcd nortliward to Peking. Having en- tered the Peiho and taken the forts at the entrance to that ri\er, the Chinese became alarmed and made oxertures for ])eace. which was concluded at Tien-tsin on June j<), and signed by Lord Llgin and Baron Gros, the plenipotcntaries of England and b'rance, re- 450 FRANCE 1856-1859 spectively. The failure of Lord Palmerston's " Conspiracy to IMur- der " bill, as it was called, and the acquittal of Simon Bernard, a Frenchman who was implicated in Orsini's plot against the em- peror's life, and wh^ was brouglit to trial for the offense in London, caused a great deal of angry feeling in France, and a portion of the army clamored loudly for w-ar with England. A public safety bill and some restrictions on the press were adopted at this time in the French legislative chambers, but not without protest on the part of Emile Ollivier, who was already coming into prominence as one of the chiefs of the liberal party. At this time France was di- vided into five great military commands, for the better security of the country against attacks from wdthout and within. The most notable event of the year was the opening of the new naval docks at Cherbourg, in the presence of the emperor and Queen Victoria. This port had been rendered a secure harbor of refuge by the completion of the breakwater, which had been commenced in the year 1783, while the strong cordon of forts with which it was surrounded towards the sea rendered it impregnable to any attack from that quarter. Since 1856 the peace of Europe had remained unbroken, but public confidence in its maintenance was shaken by the words ad- dressed by Napoleon IIL to the Austrian ambassador at the usual New Year's Day reception of the representatives of foreign powers at the Tuileries, January i, 1859. " I regret," said the emperor, " that our relations with your government are not so good as for- merly." Napoleon had formed a secret alliance with Sardinia for the expulsion of Austria from Italy, and the time had come for action. The marriage, on January 30, of Prince Napoleon, the son of Jerome Bonaparte, wnth Clotilde, the daughter of the King of Sardinia, seemed to point to a good understanding between France and Italy, but the full meaning of the emperor's remark to the Austrian ambassador was not revealed until the following month, and Austria called on Sardinia to disarm, and menaced her with war in case she refused to comply with the demand. On this the emperor openly declared his intention of assisting Sardinia, if Aus- tria declared war against her. This having been done in conse- quence of the steady refusal of Sardinia to disarm, a French army was sent across the .Alps and entered Italy in the beginning of Alay. The Austrians, who had entered Piedmont, were compelled to retreat. They were beaten in a succession of battles at Monte- N A P O L E ON III 451 1859-1860 hello. I\iIestro, Ma^q-enta, and Melcq-nano by the FrancoSardinian army, and, on June 8, 1859, the Emperor Napoleon and Kin^ Vic- tor I'jnnianucl entered Milan. A few days after the victnry of Solferino, in which fortune again declared for the allies. Xai)ole()n made peace overtures to the Emperor of Austria. This action was due to the threatcningf attitude of Prussia^ to the spread r*f the movement for unitv in central Italy and to the opi^osition to the war that now became pronounced in court circles in Paris. An armistice was concluded and the terms of peace arran^^ed at \'il- lafranca on July 8. although peace was not definitely signed until November. By this treaty Lc^nbardy was ceded to th.e Emperor of the French, who. in accordance with his engagement to that effect, handed over the ceded territory to Victor Emmanuel. Tliis was the first link in the chain of events which cuhninated. in i^Cu, in the acqiu'sition of the entire peninsula nf Italy hv X'ictor ]^m- manuel. with the exception of tlie territory surrountling Rome and Venetia. In 1860. while these events were yet in pr(\grcss, a treaty was concluded between h'rancc and Itrdv by which Sa\'oy and Nice were ceded to the former power as compensation (or the union of the states of central Italv to Sardinia. Meanwhile b'rance had not neglected its interests in Asia. After the conclusion c^f the I'eace of Ticn-t^in it had been agreed that ambassadors from France and JCngland shoaild f' ir the futm^e take up their residence in Peking, but the cn\'o\s and their escort were fired on while jiassing the Peiho fiwts. Tliis compclk^l the iMx-ncb and English governments to send anotlicr expediti-'U to China, under the orders of Lord Elgin and Paron dros, and com- manded by Sir Hope Grant and General Montcanban. d'lie Taku forts, at the mouth of the Peiho, were carried bv a^sruiU and de- stroyed, and the allies sacked and burned the Chinese emperor's summer palace, near reking, .and in\-ested the capital. Once UMre the Chinese authorities found themsebcs eompelled to sue for iicace, and a treaty, on fa\'orabIe terms to tiie luiropean jxnvers. was concluded at Peking on October 24. iSrto. At home the year was marked b\- the CMnclu^icn of a coin- mercial treaty between b" ranee and I'aigland. a.rranged by Cob- den, the eminent ad\ricatc of free-trade, by which the pr(^ducts and manufactui'cs of each countrv were receix'Cil in t!ie other, duiv free, or at merely nominal rates c^\ duty. Tlie emperor also took occasion, about this time, to neutralize the ill etYect produced by a 452 FRANCE 1860-1862 portion of the French press, which was always clamoring against the alhance with England, by writing a letter to Count Persigny. the French ambassador in London, in which he disavowed any feeling whatever of hostility towards England on the part of the French government, and, as if to give evidence of this by some tangible proof, he proposed to allow Englishmen to enter France without passports on and after January i. 1861. This period of Napoleon's reign found him not only endeavoring to promote a feeling of cordiality and good-will between England and France, but doing his utmost to extend political and religious liberty in his own do- minions. Greater freedom of speech than heretofore was permitted in the senate and legislative assembly, while many of the restrictions on the press were relaxed. Up to this time the clergy, almost to a man. had supported the emperor, but a bitter feeling was roused in them against him when he suffered a speech, made by Prince Napoleon, against the tem- poral power of the Pope, to pass by without reproof. It also tended to alienate the more rigid Catholics from the emperor, wdiile so openly shown was the hostility of the priests to the throne that it was found necessary to forbid them to meddle with politics, and to remind them that there were duties which they owed to Napoleon, as their temporal sovereign, as well as to the Pope, the spiritual head of the church. This was followed by embarrassments in the finances, which caused the emperor to summon the eminent finan- cier, Achille Fould, to his aid. This able man then became minister of finance, but the only step he could take towards relieving the pressure on the state coffers was to reduce the 4^ per cent, bonds to 3 per cent, and impose new taxes and stamp duties. He also prevailed on the emperor to abstain from contracting any loans in future without the sanction of the legislative body. In 1862 the Mexican expedition was attracting considerable attention, not only in France but throughout the whole of Europe. The misconduct of the Mexican government towards foreigners of different nationalities residing in that country had become so glar- ing that England, France and Spain resolved to send an allied fleet and army thither, to compel the Mexicans to make suitable repara- tion for past offenses and to promise to abstain from similar acts for llic future. The Sjjanish troops, who were the first to arrive in the Gulf of Mexico, landed and occupied Vera Cruz in Decem- ber, 1861, arid early in 1862 the French and English contingents N A P I. E \ III 453 1862-1863 arrived. Juarez, president of Mexico, entered into a convention witli tlie allied troops at Solcdad. tlie terms (^l" wliirli wore satis- factory t(j tlie En,^-!ish and .S])an;sli _c;'')\ ernnients, but n { to tlie French, who determined to j^rosecute the war in the h{ re- establishing a stable government in the country. Xajjoleon IH.. in short, proposed to establish an em])irc in Mexico and place the Archduke Maximilian, brother of the hjnperor of .Vustria. on the throne. The French troops, under General Forey. remained in Mexico, though the iMiglish and Spanish contingents were with- drawn. Considerable reinforcements were sent out and arrange- ments entered into with the Mexicans who were hostile to Juarez, for the re\i\-al of the Mexican em])ire. Tn 186:; a ])ro\-isi( mal go\- ernment was f(M"med and the crown was fi>rmally < Me red to Maxi- milian, who did not arrive in the country, howexer, until ^Lav jg, 1864. Meanwhile Forey had been recalled and l^azaine had as- sumed the C(nnmand of the French troo])s. In Asia the l-'rench arms gained, in 1862, more nestable successes than in America. A large part of Cochin China was conquered and annexed as a de- ])endency of the I'h-ench empire, and a treaty of peace and commerce was concluded with the ruler of Anam. At home afTairs were beginning to wear a gloomy ai)pearance. Considerable distress had arisen in the manufacturing districts, as the civil war then raging in America between the northern and southern sections of the Ihiited States had sto])i)ed the su])- ])ly of cotton, on which the prosperity of the cotton manufacture v/as of course entirely dej)en(lent. This was folhnved b_\- discon- tent among the workiiig classes, which was ])rompt!\' \\H)rked on by the revolutionary parly, by whom :ui agitation against the emj)eror was immediately set on foot. lln> agitation was aided, indirectly, b}' the opposition shown l)y the liberal jtarty in the legislative chamber, to the system of ])ersonal gox'ernment which had hitherto been ado])ted, and carried out with success, by the emperor. Just at this ])criod the legislatixe bod\- wa-^ dis the emperor's \-iews. lie failed, ho\vc\-ei\ to carry the elections. Thiers, Jules k'avre, ()lli\ ier, Jules Simon, bhaiest Picaixl and other 454 FRANCE 1863-1865 well-known opponents of the government were returned for Paris, and Persigny and other members of the cabinet, finding the results generally unfavorable to tliem, resigned. Billault also, the min- ister through whom the views and wishes of the emperor were gen- erally expounded to the legislative chamber, died in October, 1863, and was succeeded as minister of state by Rouher. Towards the close of 1863 the emperor made a proposal for a general European congress to settle any differences that might exist and to regulate matters in the future, but although most of the states of Europe were, without doubt, willing and even desirous to accede to the proposal, England declined participation in it on the plea that dis- sensions might arise in the course of the discussions that might place the general relations of the states in a worse position than they were before; and so the matter fell to the ground. The legislative session of 1865 was opened by a speech from the throne which promised fairly enough, as far as the words went in which it was couched, and the assurances which it contained. The country was congratulated on the probability of the continued main- tenance of peace and a revival of prosperity, and the withdrawal of the French troops from Rome, which had been maintained there since 1849, was spoken of as an eventuality which would probably happen. A repeal of the French navigation laws and a consequent extension of the principles of free trade was promised, and meas- ures for the extension of the powers of local management in depart- ments and communes, without the intervention of the state. The right of provisional release from detention before trial, with or without bail, as might be found necessary, even in criminal cases, and a total suppression- of personal arrest for offenses in civil or commercial matters, were to be considered. It was also desired to provide for compulsory instruction throughout France, but a bill to this effect which was introduced by Darney, the minister for instruction, was negatived by the legislative chamber. The realiza- tion of these proposals would have been an advance in the right di- rection towards the attainment of a fuller system of personal free- dom in France, but at the same time the government took measures to stitlc public discussion by the suppression of public meetings. In- deed, no more than twenty persons were allowed to meet together for this purpose, and Garnier-Pages and several of his friends who had come together at his private residence to talk over some election business were actually punished with fines for violation of \ A P () L i: ON III 455 1865-1866 this law". nniiii^;' tlie session ihc nppn>iti<)n. and a threat part of the French [ness, wcie nnanimous in cnndcmnini^ the Mexican oc- cupation as a j^ravc error, and in demancHng' the recall of the I'^rench troops. The emperor, to satisfy the wishes of the nation, ag^reed to the withdrawal of the army of occupation in the followin.q' year. This was done, and Maximilian, who had been induced to accept the crown on the understanding;' that tlie emperor would accord him the support of tlie l^-ench arms as lonj^ as mic^ht be necessary, was abandoned to his fate. For a short time he struc^q-led to maintain his crown ag-ainst the attacks of the followers of Juarez, l)Ut he was betrayed into the hands of his enemies at Querataro on May 15, and after beinj^ tried by court-martial was shot by order of Juarez on June 19, 186-. It is necessary now to flirect attention to the l)rief but bloody war that occurred in 1866 between T^'russia and Austria. These powers had combined in i8r)4 to crush Denmark and depri\-e her of the duchies of Sclileswii^ and Holstein. o\-er which she had ^ong held jurisdiction. Denmark was defeated in the unecfual ci^ntest. and Austria and Prussia were unable to ai^rce aliout the di\'ision of the territory. An .appeal to arms was the conse(|ucnce. I^aissia, thoroup^hly jirepared for war. at once took the field, and, after a brief contest, now known as the " Seven Weeks" War." opened the road to Vienna l)y the \-ictor\- of v^adowa. or K(")nio;q-ratz, over the Austrians. At this point Xapoleoii ITl. ofl'ered himself ;is a medi- ator, but as it was notorious that he was unable at that time to place a lars^'c army in the field, Ins interference was of little value to Aus- tria and of no ad\anta,L;e to [~rance. In kee])inq- with the aq"reement made before the war. lt;ily. wliicli had combined witli I'russia to attack Austria, was i,d\en X'enice. thous^li the Italian troops were defeated in more than one en,<4'ai;-enient by the Austrians. i'Vom this time the animosity that had been cliei-islied for years towards I'rance 1)\' I'russia (lee])ened in intensit\'. P)oth countries felt that war must e\eiUuaIly Ijreak out between them, and tcuik no con- ciliatory measures to pre\ent it. 'flie ill-feeliuL;" was further aui^- niented on both sides b\' the rejection by Count Bismarck, the prime minister of I'russia, i)\ a re(|nest made by the French ,f^o\-ernnient that the rectification of the J'rench frontier to what it had been in 1814 should be taken into consideration by Prussia. 'Jdiis applica- tion met with a peremptory and uncourteons refusal. iXnioiii;- other e\ents for uliicli the \'ear 1866 is noteworthy 456 FRANCE 1866-1867 is the withdrawal of the French troops from Rome. Tlie evacua- tion was commenced in the winter of 1865. and the last detachment left the eternal city on December 13, 1866, after receiving the blessing of the Pope, who took no pains to conceal his regret at their departure. The withdrawal of the French troops revived the desire of the Italians to make Rome once more the capital of united Italy, but the Italian government took no steps to encourage their aspira- tion in this direction. After a declaration, made by Rouher in the legislative assembly, to the efifect that Italy should never seize Rome to the prejudice or injury of the Pope, a substitute was found for the army of occupation in a new Pontifical army, which was re- cruited from the most enthusiastic of the Catholics in France, Ireland, and other countries. The lead which had been taken by England in the promotion of the comparison of industrial progress made from time to time by all nations was carefully followed by France, and as the first exhibition in London in 185 1 was succeeded by a similar one in Paris in 1855, so the second international exhibition, held in the metropolis of the British empire in 1862, was followed by a great international exhibition in France in 1867. The building in which it was held was erected in the Champ de Mars, and while it was open the inaugural ceremony was held on April i it was visited by the Czar of Russia, the King of Prussia, and others of the crowned heads of Europe. While this great display of the world's art and manufacture was being held in Paris, a conference was opened in London with respect to Luxemburg, whose fortress, which belonged to the King of Holland as Grand Duke of Luxem- burg and was considered a part of the German empire, was occu- pied by Prussian troops. France, jealous of the maintenance of this fortress on her northeastern frontier by Prussia, called on that power to withdraw its troops, and, by a treaty signed in London on May II, 1S67, by the representatives of France, England, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Italy, Holland and Belgium, it was agreed that the delcnsive works of Luxemburg should be dismantled and the ter- ritory henceforward should be considered neutral. Public attention had for some time been directed by the gov- ernment to the necessity that existed for the reorganization of the French army, and a proposal made with this object in tlie legislative asscni1)1y in 1867 ^^^^^^ iriet with rejection. The uncertainy, how- ever, of any long continuance of peace had much to do with weak- X A r () L E O X III 457 1867-1868 ening the opposition that had previously been sliown to tliis meas- ure, and in 1868 a new army l)ill was passed through t!ie senate and legislative assembly, by which it was arranged that 100.000 men should be added to the armv annually, tlie period of service being fixed at twelve years. This would have placed a standing army of 1.200.000 men constantly at the disposal of the govern- ment, and the j^lan. if it had been prr)perly carried out, we the nio'st scurrilous .and ofi'ensiNe w.as /.(/ Lantcruc. a journal whose satire was as weak as its language w;i< disgusting, which was edited by TTenri l\(^chefort. a man of gd. uj birth, who aped the sans culottism of the infamous Philip l\g.alite and other men of rank who made themselves notorious as the abett(M-s of the great French re\ olution and the excesses which sprang from it. P)Ut even while instituting ])roceedingN :ignin->t the prf,-<, the go\c'rnmeni certainly showed no disposition at this time to >title free discussion. us FRANCE 1868-1369 for despite the law which forbade more than twenty persons to meet together for purposes of poHtical discussion, large private meetings were held in different parts of France to determine the line of con- duct to be pursued at the approaching general election in 1869. As the government showed no disposition to interfere with them, it was considered that the right of the people to hold political meetings at pleasure was fully conceded. At the customary reception of the representatives of foreign powers on January i, 1869, the emperor again took occasion to de- clare that everything promised the continuance of peace and that the internal prosperity of the country was increasing. A great part of the press, however, declared that the prosperity of France could never be placed on a secure basis until the emperor abandoned his system of personal government, and a bitter outcry was raised against Rouher, whose position as " speaking minister,'' or mouthpiece of the emperor in the legislative assembly, as well as his alleged subserviency to his imperial master and his inability to conceive or carry out anything for the real benefit of the country, rendered him an object of popular dislike. That the emperor spoke more truthfully than the press can be substantiated by the fact that the financial position of France at the time was good. Reduction of taxation had been promised, the floating debt had been lessened, and it was estimated that the revenue for the financial year 1869- 1870 would exceed the expenditure by about 100,000,000 francs. Still a feeling against the emperor, his advisers, and his policy had sprung up and, being carefully nurtured by the opposition, bore its fruit in the general election of 1869, which was held in June, the legislative assembly having been dissolved on April 26. The elec- tions in Paris were attended with attempts at insurrection, but these werd promptly suppressed by the government. The result, in the capital, was the return of several candidates notoriously hostile to the emperor, among whom were Thiers, Jules Favre (the republi- can barrister), Garnier-Pages and Jules Ferry, while among the representatives for the department of the Seine were Gambetta, Jules Simon, Ernest Picard, Eugene Pelletan, and other extreme republicans. The suppression of La Lantcrnc in France and appar- ent persecution of Rochefort by the government exercised consider- able influence on the elections. The journal, whose publication was continued in Belgium, whence it was smuggled into l^-ance, was eagerly purchased in the capital. To such an extent did Rochefort XAPOLKOX Til 459 1869-1870 cany the scuvrillily of his laiiL;'ua,L;c that in June tlio ;^-o\cniiiK-nt coninienccil a pn Lsecution ai^ainst liiiii. atKh bcinr^" seiitcnccil to pav a fine of ten thousand francs or to be imprisoned for three years, with loss of civil rights in default, he made his escape into Belgium to avoid arrest. When the new legislative chamber assembled at the end of June, it was found that t!ie opposition had nearly trebled in number, and the emperor, who had given a I'orecast of his in- tentions in the Prcssc before the elections took jilace, now an- nounced his abandonment of ]:)ersonal go\-eriiment for the future and the introduction of ministerial res|X)nsibility, the ministry to be selected as in luigland, in accord:mce with the views of the party who possessed for the time tlic majority in the chamber. This was followed immediately by the resignation of Rouher and his colleagues. Ivouhcr beca.me president of the senate and Chas- scloui)-].aub:tt to. >]< tlie post of president of the new cabinet, in wln"ch Marshal Xiel was minister for war. I'^iu^cade de la l\0(|nette for the interior, and T.a 1'our d'Aux-ergne for foreign affairs. Tn August. liowe\er, Marshal Xiel died, and his place was filled bv Ct'ueral Lebrcuf. It was not long, however, that tin's min- istry remained in office, for they resigned on neceml)er 27 in conse- (jiirnce of the opptjsition shown by tlie cliamber to all the measures which the}' ])roposed, rmd the evident leam'ng of the majorit)' towards the programme of T-'mile Ollivier and his partisan^, Vihich comi)ri'^ed a thorough reN'i^ion of the bdectoral Law. tlie aboli- tion of ofllcial candidatures and a complete municipal reform. .\ re\-ision of tlie army bill was also a pronu'nent feature, as well as restoration of trial by jury and the relaxation of the press laws. In Xovember a fresh election having become necessary for Paris, T\ochefort l^ad reentered brancc to offer himself as a candidate. He was arrested soon after crossing the frontier, but the emperor ordered him to be pro\ided with a safe conduct during the election, which ternu'naled in his return to the legislati\e chamber. The reception of the foreign ambassadors on Xew ^'ear"s Da\- was promptly followed by the arniotmcement of the new liberal nn'nisters. The new cabint't was formed of Ollivier, minister for justice, Count Darn, for foreign alTairs. Chev.alier de \'aldoiuie. for the interior. Marshal Lelxeuf, for war, and Admiral Rigault de Genouilly, for nawal affairs. Among other changes l>aron 1 lauss- mann, who hatl acquired deserved celebrity \nr the improvements he had elYected in I'aris. was replaced as [)refect of the Seine by 460 FRANCE 1870 Chevreau, who had hitherto been prefect of the Rhone. Hardly had the new ministry assumed office wlien an event happened which was eagerly taken advantage of to rouse the passions of the mob against the emperor and his family. The notorious Rochefort had repaid the clemency lately shown him by the emperor by the publi- cation of an extreme republican organ, called the Marseillaise, in which he indulged in the same scurrilous animadversions against the emperor and his family that had distinguished La Lanterne. Prince Pierre Bonaparte, one of the emperor's cousins, a man of indifferent character and violent passions, had retorted on the writer of one of these articles, a man called Grousset, in a Corsican paper, and Grousset sent two of the staff of the Marseillaise, a journalist called Salmon, who wrote under the assumed name of Victor Noir, and another, Ulric of Fonvielle, to the prince with a challenge. The prince refused to fight any one but Rochefort, whereupon Victor Noir, as the prince asserted, struck him in the face, while Fonvielle drew a revolver. On this Prince Pierre Bonaparte also took a revolver from his pocket, and fired two or three shots, one of which mortally wounded Victor Noir, who died a few minutes afterwards. The prince immediately surrendered himself to the police, and was tried in March at a high court of justice held at Tours. He was acquitted of any intent to murder, but was ordered to pay twenty-five thousand francs as compensation to the family of the man whom he had shot. The funeral of Victor Noir attracted a considerable number of persons, but nothing seri- ous took place. Rochefort was prosecuted for an article which ap- peared in the Marseillaise immediately after Noir's death, and sentenced to pay a fine of three thousand francs and be imprisoned for six months. The enforcement of his sentence and his arrest caused an outbreak in Belleville and some of the suburbs of Paris, but it was promptly suppressed by the authorities. Among other occurrences which occupied public attention at this time was the strike of the engineers and workmen at the great works of Schneider, the president of the legislative chamber, at Creuzot. This was fomented mainly by a certain Assi, the agent of the Inter- national Society. Much surprise was occasioned towards the end of March by a letter written by the emperor to Ollivier advising certain modifica- tions of the constitution, which were to apply more especially to the senate, and had the effect, in one respect, of assimilating the func- X A ro I, 1:0 \ 1 I T 4()1 1870 tions of the Icf^islativc clianihcr to tlmsc (^f the British llon^c oi Commons in determining" that suppHes should he voted and ini])crial taxation (Hrected l)y that body only. The senate was still permitted to initiate bills, but only twenty senators per annum might he added to their ranks besides those who sat there Ijy right. Any modifica- tion of the constitution was to be made by the sovereign alone, who would submit the proix)sed change to the nation at large through a plebiscite. The proposed step was ado])ted by the senate and prep- arations were made for submitting it to the national vote. In the legislative chamber it \\as strenuously o]-)posed on the plea that the whole arrangement looked very much like a returii to the principle of personal government, and Count Darn and others of the cabinet resigned. The emperor, however, issued a proclamatimi calling on the people to ratify the change and Ijy their vote to place order and liberty on a firm l^asis and render the transmission of the crown from himself to his son in time to come easier than it might be un- der tlie constitution as it then stood. The nation responded to his appeal, the number of votes in the afilrmative being 7.527.370, while those in the negative numbered 1.530.009. A giood deal of rioting occurred on the day of voting .and on the two following days, but tlic barricades that were thrown up were soon taken and dc- stroxed and the ringleaders were arrested. The Ollivier mim'stry was reconstructed, the principal appointment being that of the Duke of Crammont for foreign affairs. The j^ilotlers against the em- peror's life were as active as e\'er. One was detected in Aj)rii rmd the conspirat(~)rs arrested, \\hile another was (lisc(nered by the j)olice in July, just about tlie time that the Orleans princes de- manded from the senate permission to return to h'rance, which was refused by 173 votes to 3r. That we cannot tell what a day or an hoiu' may bring fortii is as true in ])olitics as in ordinary events of life, and after tlie solemn ratification of the enijieror's acts by the k'rench nation thi"(nigh the ])lebiscite of Mav 8. it seemed unlikely that .anything would occur immediately to iin]).air tlie stability of the dx'ua^ty and cut short the reign of Wapolenn 111. In iShS ;i revoluti'ui had drixen Isabella If. from the throne of Spain, and from that time the govermnent had been carried on first by a Ixxly ]>ro\-ision:illy chosen from among its leaders and instigators and tlien by Marslial Serrano ;is regeiU. Great efforts had l)cen made to procure .a candidate for the x'.acam crown, and .at l;i--t it was accepted, with the ;ip])ro\;d of the King 462 FRANCE 1870 of Prussia by Prince Leopold Hohenzollcrn-Sig"maringen. The French government were by no means desirous of seeing a cadet of the royal family of Prussia on the throne, as they considered naturally enough that if Prussia made war on France, Spain under her influence would make common cause with her and attack France on the south. The Duke of Grammont requested Benedetti, the French ambassador at Berlin, to signify to the King of Prussia that the candidature of Prince Leopold for the Spanish crown was most distasteful to his government, and to request him to order his relative to withdraw from it. Before the king had replied, Prince Anton, acting for his son, announced that he would not accept the Spanish crown, and Benedetti was then directed to ask the King of Prussia to guarantee that the prince should not accept the Spanish crown if perchance it should again be offered to him. This the king- refused to do, saying that he had nothing to do with the matter, although he approved of the renunciation of Prince Leopold. Benedetti attempted to press the matter, but the king politely declined to consider it farther. There was no open rupture, the French ambassador being present at the railroad station the next day to pay his respects to the departing king. The incident might have ended then had it not been for Bismarck. He received a dis- patch describing the meeting at Ems, and realized that it contained no casus belli. Prussia was ready for war and France was not ; war was inevitable between the two states, and Bismarck decided to fight when he could do so to the best advantage. He so modified the dispatch by excisions that it left the impression that the French ambassador had been insulted by the King of Prussia. Thus modified the dispatch was published and produced its efi^ect. The asserted insult to France in the person of her ambassador was dwelt on in both chambers, and war was resolved on amid the cheers of the senate, the acclamations of all save a few members of the left in the legislative chamber, and the frantic cries of the Pa- risians, who, in ignorance of the weakness of the army, thought that a few weeks would see their troops at Berlin. That war was as welcome to the German authorities as it was to France there can be no doubt. The Emperor Napoleon, incapacitated by illness from inquiring as sedulously into the condition of the army as he had in the early part of his reign, and trusting to the false reports of Mar- shal LelxjL'uf and others, who had reported the organization of the troops and material of war to be perfect, and every regiment at its NAPOLEON III 463 1870 full Strength, thonr^li more iiicliiicil for ])cace as far as lie was i)cr- sonally concerned, thoui^ht that a successful contest with Trussia and the rectification of the Rliine fnnlier nii,i[;iit add to the stability of his dynasty: while Bismarck saw in it the (-ipportunily of render- ing Prussian inllucnce paramount in Germany by the consolidation of the minor German slates into an empire the crown of which should be hereditary in the Prussian royal family, d'lic ]h-ussian system of military training", which obliged e\ery man to serve in the army during a certain |X}riod of his life and riftcrwards to be liable for service in the reserve, enabled Bismarck to take the field with oxerwhelming forces ami to assemble ^ast masses of troops on the French frcMitier before the declaration of war was a fortnight old. In the meantime, too, he had secured the co(")]:)eration of the minor German states, who furnished a considerable contingent to the allied armies. The iMnjieror Napoleon III. took the field at Metz on July jS, at the head of an army of about 268,000 men. divided into seven army corps under ^larshals MacMahon. Bazainc and Canr(.l)ert and Generals b'rossard, Padmirault and De I'ailly. ddie Germans num- bered about 600.000 men, of whom about iqo.ooo were disposed about the b^dbe and in llanover, to resist invasion in tliat (piarter. while of the remainder. 135,000. under Prince brederick Charles, formed the right wing. 85,000, under \^)n Ste-nmet/, the center, and 200.000, under the Crown Prince of Prussia, the left wing. The King of Prus>ia took the command of his army in ])erson, the famous Prussian strategist Yon Ab)hke being second in command. Tiie I'rench were overmatched in numbers as well as in intelligence. t!ie Germans being superior in the "absolute unity of their com- mand and C(jnccrt of operation, in tlieir superior mechani-^m in e([ui])ment and supplies, the su[)erii)r intelligence, steadiness and discii)Iine of the soldiers, the superior education oi tlie officers and the dash and intelligence of the ca\-alry," as was fully e\dnced bv the e\"ents which subse([uently happened. The frst operation was an attack of a French armv corps on about fifteen hundred Prussians at Saarbriicken. a.t which tiie emperor and prince imperial were present. August 2. 18-0. and wdien the Prn>sians were dislodged from the t-scil the l.auter. cntcrril Fr.aiu'e and lorced back the -^iTDnd ,arm\' corp^ under bh'ossard with fearful loss, afier stormiii"- the line-^ of 464. F R A N C P: 1870 Weissenbiirg and Geisberg. The battle of Woerth followed on the 6th, in which the crown prince defeated the army of the Rhine under AlacMahon and compelled him to retire on Nancy, while on the same day the Prussian center reoccupied Saar- briicken, and took the French town of Forbach. Nothing was left to the French then but to fall back along the whole line. Marshal Bazaine assumed command of the French at Metz, while MacMahon and Canrobert endeavored to rally and reconstruct their broken battalions while retreating on the Moselle. The news of these disasters in Paris enforced the resignation of the Ollivier min- istry, while a new cabinet was form.ed under General Montauban, Count of Palikao. The Germans left the French little or no time to recover from the shock of the first disasters. They occupied Nancy, laid siege to Strassburg. and while considerable numbers pressed on in pursuit of MacMahon, the main mass was directed against Bazaine and the troops before Metz. Here three famous battles were fought. Von Steinmetz gaining the battle of Courcelles on August 14, Prince Frederick Charles that of Vionville on August 16, and the combined forces of these generals under the king in person winning that of Gravelotte on the i8th. These defeats in successioh prevented Bazaine from continuing his retreat to the westward and forced him to shut himself up in the district round Metz. The emperor had managed to leave Bazaine on the 14th and join MacMahon at Chalons two days after. i\TacMahon then started northwards with his army in an endeavor to effect a junc- tion with Bazaine, but in consequence of the slowness of his move- ment he was unable to effect his object. Bazaine, closely watched by Prince Frederick Charles, made a sortie from Metz in the hope of breaking through the Prussian lines and marching to effect a junction with MacMahon, but his efforts to escape were ineffecti\'e. In the meantime the Crown Prince of Prussia had occupied Chalons and was pressing forward in pursuit of MacMahon, v.diom he over- took and defeated near Beaumont, between ]\Iouzon and Moulins, on August 30, partial engagements having taken place at Bugancy on the 27th and Stenay on the 29th, in which the French were de- feated. On the 31st, while Bazaine was endeavoring to break out from Metz to join MacMahon a second time, the Germans entered Carignan, and after defeating the French on the plains of Douzy, compelled MacMahon to fall back on Sedan. The encounter was renewed before Sedan on September i. MacMalion had his thigli II- III i; I M , I 1 1 i I ; \ 1 1 1. 1 ii" i,i; \\ 1 i.'ir rr. NA1M)LK()\ III 4G5 1870 broken in tlic ac;irms of capitulation were accordingly arranged by General W'impffen, on wbnui the command of the b^rench bad now^ devolved, and the emperor, after a brief interview with the King of Trussia at the Chateau of Bellevue, was sent bv WAR FOR THE RHINE FRONTIER FRANCO - PRUSSIAN WAR, 1870 . the latter tn \\'ilhcimsh(ihe, near Cassel. where be was to remain a prisoner of war till the conclusion cf the coiUest. Alarmed, and justly so, by the rapid advance of the (Germans after W'oertb and the continued reverses of the armies in the field, energetic mcasin-es were taken for the defense .and \ictualing of I'aris 1)}' (jeneral 'J'rochu as early as August iS, the general ha\ing been ajjpoinled governor ot the ciiv on the ])receding (l;iv. On .*~^eptcmber 3 uni\ersal consternation, which subsequentiv dcc])ened into a feeling of excitement against the emperor, was paramount in i'aris on tlie recejjtion of the news of the defeat of MacMahon. tlie cajiitukalion of S.diin and the surrender of the emperor y this statement, the so-called '' Com- pact of Bordeaux," it was understood that he pledged himself to make no use of his power to favor any one party or form of gov- ernment. Thiers at once returned to Versailles to begin with Bismarck the negotiations for the final peace. An agreement was at last reached February 26, 1871. France was to pay five billion francs and surrender xMsace-Lorraine, together with the fortress of ]\retz. Bismarck had originally demanded Belfort, but had agreed to with- draw that claim if the German troops were allowed the satisfaction of entering Paris and remaining there until the assjmblv had ratified the action of Thiers. March i the assembly accepted the terms that Thiers had brought to Bordeaux, and the same night the telegraph flashed the news to Paris. The folknving day Bismarck was ofli- cially notified, and on March 3 the Germans, who had entered Paris ]\Iarch I, \vithdrew from the city. The preliminaries having been accepted, the negotiations for the final treaty began in Brussels in March. They were interrupted for a time bv the struggle with the commune, renewed at l-'rankfort in May, and the treaty was finally signed at h'rankfort May 20, 1871. Germany bought the railroads in the ceded tt'rritory for 325,000,000 francs and consented to renounce the commercial treaty of 1862 upon which it had insisted at Brussels. After voting for ])eace at I'.ordeaux, the assembly had ad- journed to Versailles. The go\ernnKnt had passed a few days at 470 FRANCE 1871 Paris, but had retreated before the communal revolution. The frat- ricidal struggle that followed between the insurrectionists of Paris and the national government at Versailles filled two months. The German army looked curiously on. The uprising was due to the conditions resulting from the long siege and to the socialistic ideas of some of the leaders of the Paris populace. During the siege the payment of rents and of debts had been suspended by order of the provisional government, and na- tional guardsmen had received a franc and a half each day. The assembly permitted again the collection of rents and debts, before Paris had returned to normal economic conditions, and deprived the guardsmen of their stipend unless they presented proof of actual need. Add to this the fear on the part of the masses that this royal- ist assembly was about to overthrow the republic, and it becomes evident that Paris was ripe for revolution. The national guard had not been disarmed and the battalions of the suburbs, seizing a park of artillery that was not properly protected, had drawn the pieces to Montmarte and there stood guard over them. As early as iMarch 13 a central committee of the guards had been formed, under the influence of the socialist leaders that were to play a prominent role during the commune. For several days the government allowed matters to take their course. On the morning of the 1 8th the Parisians awoke to find the streets in the vicinity of Montmarte in the possession of the regular troops. All things but one had been provided for there were no horses to drag the cannon away. While this defect was being made good the national guards had time to gather and offer resistance. The troops proved unrelia- ble, fraternizing with the insurrectionists and permitting them to seize General Lcconte and some of his officers. Later General Clement Thomas, in command of the national guard of Paris, fell into their hands. Both generals were taken at once before a so- called council of war, condemned to death and shot. The com- mittee of the insurrectionists then took possession of the Hotel de Ville. They met with practically no opposition from the national government, that considered itself fortunate to be able to withdraw its troops from the city before all discipline had disappeared. Some resistance was, however, attempted by the conserva- tive citizens of Paris. The national guards of the well-to-do districts made a demonstration in favor of law and order, but it led only to a massacre and a victory for the insurrectionists. The mayors of A l'KTK(M.Kr>K 1 1 AkA .\( ,1 ' I \( , liKk (dMUA|i::> to i \(i:\1i| \kism 1HK1\(, THK kKl(,.\ (II- illK idMMI M; in I'AKIr, I'aintiiiii b\ i\ J. du-drdct THE THIRD REPUBLIC 471 1871 the various (inarters of I\iris sought to mediate between the govern- ment at Versailles and the group at the Hotel de Ville. Hiey ol)- tained a delay in ihe colleetion of rents and (lel)ts, the right of the national guard to elect their own officers, and the election of the communal council of Taris by universal suffrage. In the elections that took place March 26 the supporters of the central committee secured a strong majority in the council, and the conservatives that had been elected refused to sit. The rupture was complete. The national government had abandoned Paris, not even supporting the national guards who had opposed the insurrection, had evacuated the forts about the city and concentrated its troops around Ver- sailles, to defend the assembl3^ The government of Paris was now assumed by the council, but the central committee continued to sit, " in order," as it said, '* to serve as a link between the commune and the national guard.*' The national guards favorable to the government at Versailles were disarmed, compulsory military service for all able-bodied men was established, and the acts of the " Versailles government " were de- clared void. The commune adopted the revolutionary calendar and the red flag, but it had no definite socialistic programme. It appealed through proclamations and delegates to the other cities of France, urging them to follow the example of Paris and establish absolute communal autonomy. "The unity of France" would thus be as- sured by the association of " the communes adherent to the con- tract " ; each commune should be sovereign, and the communes should be united by a federal tie. IMarseillcs, Toulouse, Lyons and a few other cities attempted to follow tlie example of Paris, but outside of the capital the disturbances were of but short duration and of slight consequence. The commune never p(\ssessed a properly organized government. Ten committees had been appointed, but the direction of affairs was in the hands of an " executive committee " oi nine delegated from the other committees. '' Fach of the nine took the title of minister, as if he were at the head of a department." Mxercising an absolute authority in civil and military affairs, the commune em- ployed for the conduct of its business revolutiijuary journalists and club orators. In some of the offices day laborers were installed, men entirely unknown and never elected to membership in the com- mune. Little time was given for sober thought concerning social reforms, even had the men in control of the city government l)een 472 FRANCE 1871 capable of it; the revolutionary government from its very inception was forced to fight for its life against the assembly at V^ersailles. At the outset the communists took the initiative and attempted to attack Versailles. It had an army of 194,000 men and 8500 officers. With this force and in possession of the forts that the government had evacuated, it took the offensive on April 2 and 3. The troops of the commune were driven back with great slaughter. One thousand prisoners were taken, conducted to Ver- sailles, tried by a court-martial and shot. All through the struggle Thiers refused to recognize the insurrectionists as belligerents. So serious at this time did the danger attendant upon self-govern- ment by the cities of France seem to him that he threatened to resign if the assembly did not place the power of appointing mayors in cities of more than twenty thousand inhabitants in the hands of the national executive. Although MacMahon was substituted for Vinoy April 3, 1871, in command of the national troops, it was not until April 25 that the government abandoned its defensive attitude. On that day 128 batteries opened fire on the forts and walls of Paris. The bombard- ment lasted for two weeks. May 9 the fort of Issy was taken. May 14 that of Vanves and May 16 Montrouges. These successes only served to increase the fury of the insurrectionists. As the struggle became more desperate, the leadership fell into the hands of the more daring and unscrupulous. Treason and conspiracy were suspected in all quarters ; a committee of public safety sprang into existence by the side of the central committee and the council of the commune ; wholesale arrests were made and acts of violence in- creased; the Vendome Column was overthrown and the house of Thiers was gutted. It was even proposed in the council on May 20 that when the government troops entered Paris all the pub- lic buildings of the city should be destroyed by fire. On May 21 and 22, 1871, the troops entered the city. For four (lays and five nights the battle raged in the streets of Paris. Then the threats of destruction previously made were carried out. On the night of the 23d flames broke out from the Tuileries and the Louvre. In a short time fires had been set in the Palais Royal, the prefecture, the Hotel de Ville, the various ministries, in churches, cloisters, st(n-es and railroad stations. Many of these were saved, but some of the most valuable historical buildings of Paris, including the Tuileries and the Hotel de Ville, were destroyed. In the mad- T II E THIRD R i: PUBLIC 473 1871 ness of the last hours Archbishop Darljoy and other (h'stinguishctl persons who had been seized as hostages were put to death. The loss on both sides was serious. 1 low many thnusaml per- ished will never l)e known. Some twenty-five thousand prisoners were taken, and for five years the court-marshal was enc;'a!:^c(l in passing judgment upon them. A few were executed, several tlK^i- sand were exiled or deported, and twenty tliousand released. The commune was completely crushed and the assembly could now turn its attention to the reorganization of b'rance. The political situation of France at the close of the war was decidedly anomalous. The empire had been abolished, but nothing definite had taken its place. An asscm])!y elected without term, a president also serving for an indefinite term, responsible to tlic assembly, his own prime minister, but surrounded by a cabinet of his own choice, these were the temporary organs of the central government. What the outcome would be no man could foretell. For a few months, however, the question of what form the govern- ment should assume was subordinated to the more iinportant ques- tion of the evacuation of the country by the German troops. They were to remain until the indemnity was paid, and to meet this claim at once was the serious task that Thiers set himself. The problem was solved with a rapidity that filled Europe with astonishment and admiration. Two loans were made, one in June, 1871, for 2.000,- 000,000, another in July for 3,000,000,000 francs, and were sub- scribed for many times over. It was a magnificent display of the resources and of the patriotism of the French pco-^lc and of the confidence of foreign capitalists in the future c^f France. The opera- tions were not concluded until 1873, a short time after Thiers had retired from the presidency. In September of that year the last German soldier marched over the frontier, and France was free once more. For some time the government of the country showed the effects of foreign and civil war. The large cities remained in a stale of siege and an arbitrary authority was exercised over the press. The municipal law, passed in 1871, allowing all cities with less than twenty thousand inhabitants to elect their mayors, but for cities with a larger population placing the ai)p(^intmcnt in the hands di the executive, was an indication of the impression that the com- munistic uprising- had made U[)(M1 Thiers. In the same year a departmental law increased the powers of the dcjiartmental cc^m- cils, thus taking the first step in the (lirectiIahon. attempted to get control of the chamber by a new l^lcctoral Law limiting the franchise. The measure was defeated by a union of the legitimists and the republicans. A new ministry was thereupon formed, dominated by Bonapartists. They governed in such a way as to strengthen their party and to arouse the fears of the monarch- ists of the Orleanlst group that allied themselves with the republi- cans, and forced a consideration of the constitutional laws, so long- delayed. The three laws passed in February and July, 1875, constitute the so-called Constltutic^n of 1875, by which iM-ance is now go\- erned. The central government consists of a president, senate, and chamber of deputies. The president is elected by the senate and assembly in combined session for a term of sc\en years. lie is the Irresponsible head of tb.e state, acting through liis niinislcrs. who are responsible to the senate and cliamljcr. With the appro\ al of the senate he may dissolve tb.e chamljcr. While the presidcnl Jias the right to a[)point the ministers, in practice he has simply 480 FRANCE 1875-1876 chosen the representatives of the parliamentary majority in the chamber. The senate consists of three hundred members, three-fourths chosen by electoral colleges in the departments, for nine years one- third rei)laced every three years ; one-fourth was originally selected for life by the chamber, and vacancies caused by death were to be filled by the senate itself. The senate can take the initiative in intro- ducing all measures except those dealing with the budget, and has a veto power on the action of the chamber. It sits as a high court of justice to try ministers and others charged with high treason. The chamber is elected by universal suffrage and is renewed as a v/hole every four years. It has a legal right to one session of five months each year. The president may adjourn the chamber for a month, but not more than twice in one session. The constitution may be revised by the two houses sitting together as a national assembly, but the revision can take place only when two houses have voted separately to hold the joint meeting. The constituent assembly elected one-fourth of the senators, and when the elections for the remaining three-fourths and for the chamber had taken place in January and February, 1876, the new constitution went into effect March 8, 1876. The national assem- bly had closed its last session December 31, 1875, having remained in power for five years. The majority in the new chamber was republican; the senate had a small monarchical majority, while the president was a mon- archist. The republic had been established, but the attempt was to be made to administer it without republicans. The struggle between MacMahon, supported by the senate, and the chamber, lasted for three years. The president selected a ministry from the conservative republicans, but insisted on keeping three places war, navy and foreign affairs out of politics. The chamber demanded the removal of officials hostile to the republic, but this was only partially conceded. The freedom of the press was reestablished ; the interference of the government in elections was offset by the rejection of deputies that had been elected through official aid; in 1876 an act was passed restoring to municipal councils the right of electing the mayor, except in the case of the chief town of each canton. Because of the interference of the clergy in politics, the chamber prepared bills to exclude them from teaching in the primary schools, to deprive the Catholic universities of the right of prepar- THE THIRD REPT^BLIC 481 1876-1879 ing students for state examinations, and refused to vote money for military almoners. The crisis was reached in May. 1877. The president had accepted a rcpnhlican ministry, but he con- sulted his old ministers and continued to receive the advice of the conservatives, as the former monarchists were now called. Acting on their advice, he dismissed the republican ministry, May 16, 1877, took a conservative ministry, adjt)urned the chamber for a month, and then, with the consent of the senate, dissolved it. The plan of the president and his party \vas to make use of the power they possessed to manipulate the elections and thus obtain a conservative majority in the chamber. To obtain more time for preparation, the ministry violated the constitution, extending l)y three weeks tlie period within wdiich the constitution refpiired that the electors should meet. " It changed at a stroke the whole administrative body and appointed new fighting ofticials; it embarrassed by prohibitions or prosecutions the sale of republican journals, political meetings, and agitation for the republic; it suspended republican municipal coun- cils, substituting for them municipal commissitMiers. At the elec- tions it presented official candidates, indorsed by the president of the republic, and published presidential manifestoes to the French people." The republicans forgot their differences and united to resist the attack of the conservatives on the republic. " They posed as defenders of the republic against the revolutionary coalition of monarchists and clergy as defenders of the sovereignty of the peo- ple against the personal power of the president." It was in this campaign that Gambetta pronounced the famous phrase : " Our foe is clericalism." In the elections the republicans obtained a major- ity of the deputies. The ministry resigned. iMacMahon selected a conservative ministry outside of the chamber, but the chamber refused to recognize it. The advisers of the president counseled a coup d'etat, but he refused to go to such extremes, and finally sub- mitted, accepting a republican ministry, December, 1877. This was the overthrow of the conservative party. The officials dis- missed in May were restored to office, and fifty elections, made imder administrative or clerical pressure, were annulled. Mac- Mahon remained in office a year longer, but when the renewal of one-third of the senate gave the republicans a maj(M-ity in that body, he resigned and w^as succeeded in January, 1879, by Jules Grevy, a radical republican. Since that time the republicans have remained in control of the government. 482 F H A N C E 1879-1881 Tlic choice by the national asscmbl}' of Grcvy was approved both l)y France and by ICuropc. It seemed manifest tliat the most wortliy had been raised to the supreme magistracy. The new jiresi- dent was seventy-two years of age at the time of his election. One of the most distinguished members of the Paris bar, an orator of unusual al)ility. and a staunch republican, he was the natural choice for the high oflice that now passed for the first time into the hands of the republicans. Among the first acts of the new government were the transfer of the chambers from Versailles to Paris (June, 1880), and the institution of the annual celebration of July 14 the date of the taking of the liastile. It announced a programme of reforms, including freedom of the press and of public meetings, universal elections of mayors by municipal councils, purchase of all railroads by the state, and free and compulsory primary education by lay teachers. This last measure was aimed at the church. Ferry, min- ister of public instruction, presented in 1880 a measure relating to Catliolic universities, the seventh article of which forbade members of unauthorized religious orders to teach in secondary schools. Wh.en the bill reached the senate, more conservative than the cham- ber, this article was struck out. The government called out of abeyance certain old laws against " unauthorized congregations," and ordered all such bodies to disperse. When they refused to obey they were expelled by force. From 1880 to 1886 several important measures that served to strengthen the republic were passed. Education was rendered compulsory, free and by lay teachers ; complete freedom of the press and complete liberty of public meeting were established. In 1884 a partial revision of the constitution abolishing the life members in the senate was agreed to by that body. As vacancies occurred in the senate they were to' be filled by the election of senators for the nine-year term, the election to be by departments. Pleasures that for some time had been demanded by the radicals amnesty for the l)roscribed communists and the removal of conservative judges were ])asscd during this period. After the elections of 1881 the republican majorities were so large both in the senate and the cham- ber that the conservative party gave up the political contest. It was in this same year that Gambetta, who had been president of the chamber, was called upon to form a cabinet. His first mistake was to compose his ministry from men of his own group and to ignore T H i: T IT I R D R E r U B L I C '48 ^ 1881-1885 the leaders of the other groups composing the republican majority. He had already aroused the hostility of the extreme left by his lordly bearing, his authoritative L'uiguage, and his practice of sur- rounding himself with his personal followers. When he proposed to revise the constitution and make the vote liy general ticket an article of the constitution, the discontented of the right and left, moved probably more by personal sentiment than by sound reasons, united to overthrow him. Gambetta's ministry had bistcd from November, 1881, to January, 1882. He died in Decendjcr of tlie same year. As time went on, the majority of the republicans grew more conservative, and even compromised upon many of the reforms that had constituted their original programme. A division took place in their ranks, the supporters of Gambetta and of a conservative republican policy being duh.bcd " Opportunists " by tlic extreme left, to whom the name " Radicals " was given. This latter group had adopted many of the reforms that had been abandoned by tlie majority of the republicans. They demanded the withdrawal from the senate of the right of voting tlie budget and of dissolving the chamber, the separation of church and state, and th.c establishment of an income tax. They also opposed the colonial jjolicy rejire- sented by Jules Ferry, the head of one of the longc>.t-lived cabinets that had existed under the republic. Ferry's policy of forming a new colonial empire for France was little appreciated, and the oppo- sition took advantage of unfavorable war news from Tonking to force him to resign (^vlay, 1885). In the electoral campaign of this year, 1885, the opportunists were opposed by the radicals and the conservatives. The ques- tions at issue show the changed nature of the political contest. It was no longer a question of the form of government, but of policies. In addition to its foreign or colonial policy, the financial policy of the ministry was the object of criticism, Tlie yearlv expenditure; had exceeded the annual revenues. The government had made no attempt to maintain a balanced budget, but had spent money frcclv for railroads, school buildings, and for colonial expeditions. Tlie commercial crisis of 1882, by decreasing the revenue, rendered the situation wnrsc llian it ntlicrwise would ha\e been. The ciuiscrwa- tivcs being united, wlu'lc the republicans liad {wo tickets in llic held. and the use of the general ticket for the first time being favorabk- to the conservatives, the government lost manv seats. 484 FRANCE 1885-1887 In the new chamber the repubHcans had a majority when they v/ere united, and the first pohcy tried was that of the so-called " repubhcan concentration," or government by a ministry drawn from all the republican groups. Such a ministry necessarily aban- doned all attempts at positive reforms and devoted their efforts to the establishment of a balanced budget and the settling up of the Tonking affair. In December, 1885, Grevy's first term expired and he was re- elected for a second term of seven years. During the first year of his new term the man sprang into public notice who was to gather a motley party about him and for a short time terrify France with the specter of a military dictatorship. Boulanger was simply a military adventurer and an unscrupulous politician. The party opposed to Ferry's colonial policy, who called themselves the " patriots," because they wanted a war for revenge with Germany to recover Alsace-Lorraine, had taken him up. In 1886 the radi- cals made Boulanger minister of war, but he was dismissed with the return of the opportunists to power in the same year (1886). This party continued its agitation during the two succeeding years, and finally during the Wilson scandal and the forced resignation of Grevy the attempt was made by the patriots to fish in troubled waters. Wilson, the son-in-law ' of the president, was found guilty of trafficking in offices and in the decorations of the Legion of Honor. Grevy was slow to see the bearing of the revelation, and did not abandon Wilson. The chamber forced Grevy to re- sign, and his second presidency came to a lamentable end. During the days of indecision, while Grevy wavered and the question of his successor was being agitated, the " patriots " en- deavored to retain Grevy in office, fearful of the man fixed upon as his successor, Jules' Ferry, and were untiring in their efforts to arouse a public demonstration in Paris in favor of Boulanger. When Grevy finally did resign, it was found impossible to elect Ferry. It is true that he had the support of the majority in the two chambers, but the threats of the radicals and the announcement of the city council that they would not be responsible for order if he were elected, made the choice of another candidate imperative. The choice fell upon Carnot. Immediately after the election of the president tlic temporary union between the patriots and the radicals came to an end ; tlie latter favored revision, the former were op- posed to parliamentary government. They wished to dissolve the THE THIRD REPUBLIC 485 1887-1889 present chambers and form a g-overnnient after the model of the repubhc of 1848, with a president and a single chamber, each re- sponsible to the people. The followers of Boulanger took the name of " Nationalists " or " Revisionists." Their rallying cry was " Dissolution, revision, constituent assembly." The main thing was to place General Boulanger in power, the rest would follow\ They appealed to the conservatives and the Catholics, who joined with them to destroy the constitution. Money for the campaign was supplied by the Count of Paris and the Duchess of Uzes, and the campaign was " promoted by advertising devices similar to those used in com- merce; reams of posters, portraits and biographies of General Boulanger, songs in his praise, crowds hired to shcnit ' J'iz'C Ic General Boulanger! ' " Boulanger conducted himself in such a man- ner that he was excluded from the army. He thereupon managed his campaign openly. Badly received in the chamber to which he had been elected, he set himself the task of obtaining from the country at large a plebiscite in his favor. Whenever a vacancy occurred in the chamber demanding an election. P>oulanger appeared as a candidate, and, as on the general ticket the whole departiuent was obliged to vote to fill every vacancy, the demonstration was not insignificant. At an election in Paris in January, 18,89, he re- ceived 240,000 votes against 165,000. Great things were ex])ccte(l from the general election of 1889. The alarm was widespread throughout France. Abroad, publicists freely predicted that the third republic would not outlive the centenary of the revolution. The outcome offered but an(ither proof of llie fallabilit}- of human judgment. Before the elections took place the government abol- ished the general ticket and made it unlawful t'or a j)crson to present himself as candidate in more than one district. This act was followed by a summons to Boulanger and his fellow-conspira- tors to present themselves before the senate, constituted as a Iiigh court for the trial of offenses against the state. Boulanger escaj^ed in disguise into I?elgium, followed l)y the laughter (:f his counlrv- men. The tragedy had been transformed into a comedv. Men breathed freely once more, forgot their past fears, and even won- dered if the danger ever had been real. The exposition of 1889 soon consigned the Boulanger incident to forget fulness. The grou])ing of parties to-day in the chamber has little in common with that of fifty years ago. In 1893 a new party made 486 FRANCE 1879-1906 its appearance, occupying the extreme left. It was the party of the socialists, representing the new demands of the working classes. The old conscrxatives have ])raclically disappeared. The riglit in the assemljly has joined the moderates, forming a party of social conservatism resting on the middle and capitalist class, the clergy, and the office-holders. The socialists and the radicals form a party of social reform and appeal to the masses. At present the latter party controls the government. The attempts of the nationalists, the successors of the supporters of Boulanger, aided by the clerical orders, to overthrow the republic at the time of the Dreyfus affair, resulted in failure. The campaign recently carried on by the radicals and socialists against the congregations is the outcome of that affair, but only an incident in the long struggle that the republic has ever prosecuted against the church. The law of 1901 abolished all unauthorized congregations. Although Waldeck-Rousseau re- signed before the measures to enforce the law had been carried out, his successor, Combes, adopted his policy, and in his vigorous action against the Catholic orders received the consistent support of the radical and socialist deputies. A general election in 1902 had shown that the majority of the electors were in sympathy with the policy of the government. In this same year several proposi- tions looking to the separation of church and state were laid before the chamber of deputies, and later a commission was selected to receive and examine all such propositions. It was not, however, until the break with the Vatican that the government took any action in the matter. The protest of the Papal secretary at the time of President Loubet's visit to Rome led to the recall of the Frencli ambassador accredited to the Papal government; the strife arising over the interference of the Pope in the bishoprics of Laval and Dijon produced the final rupture between the French government and tlie Pope. In the same year (1904) Combes laid before the chamber a project for the separation of church and state. It was nf)t sufficiently radical to satisfy the majority. Combes fell and was succeeded by Rouvier, who brought in a measure that passed the assembly July 3, 1905. It was favorably passed upon by the committee of the senate and on December 9 became a law' by a vote of i(Si to 102. Its final adoption and execution led to the complete secularization of the state and formed an epoch in the religious historv of France. On January 17, 1906, on the expiration of President Loubet's T TT 1'^ T IT T R D II K V I' B I. 1 C 4b7 1879-1909 term of orficc, Al. Arniand [^illicres \va- elected jjresident of the repiihllc. ("ii Jaiiuarv 2, l')0'/. President I-'allieres si_q-iied a -tij^ple- mcntary act to the Separation Law of 1905, which provided that the building's for pubhc worship, together with their furniture, should continue at the disposition of tlie ministers of religion and the worshippers for the exercise of their religion; but in each case there is recpiired an admiiiistrative act drawn by the prefect as re- gards buildings belonging to the state or the departments, and by the Diairc as regards buildings belonging to the communes. In j\Iarch, 1907, there was a strike in the Paris electric-lights works caused by a proposal to reduce the pensions of employes on retirement. The matter was cpiickly adjusted. An important issue was raised in the Chamber of Deputies by the assertion of the Socialists that public servants had the right to form trade- unions; the government denied this, and wdien the question was put to the vote the result was a large majority for the govern- ment. An important industrial disturbance of 1907 was the ri(~ts among the \vine-growers of southern b>ance. They demanded that the government take some action against the adulteration of wine, and on June 22, 1907, the Wine Fraud Act was passed. The chief bills before the parliament in 190S were: (i) The Income Tax Bill, on wdiieh no agreement was reached ; (2) the Old Age l^ensions Bill, which also failed to jiass because of a lack of unity; and (3) a Bill for the Purchase of the Western Railway, wdiich was passed and became a huv on Jidy 12. General elections were held in l-'rance on January 3, 1900, re- sulting in a go\ernment gain of fifteen se;its. On January 9, it was decided to return to the use of the guillotine for capital jnm- ishment, and three murderers were executed b\- that means. An extradition treaty was also signed in that month (Januarv 6) with tlie United St;ites. A general strike of ]:)ostal and telegra])h employes in Paris was called on March 15, 1909; it spread ra])id]3' and for more than a week the business of the country was upset. The immediate cause of the trouble w^as the proclamation by the government of a reg- ulation providing for a luerit system of i~)romotion instead of the old traditional system of seniority. Sympathetic strikes of em- ployes of the postal and telephone services throughout the provinces followed, involving more than 50,000 ])crsons. This caused a tre- mendous congestion of mail matter at the Paris postoffice, and 488 FRANCE 1879-1909 prevented the receipt of news by telegraph or telephone, thus caus- ing many newspapers to suspend publication. Premier Clemen- ceau employed troops to deliver the mail. On March 26, parlia- ment by a large majority passed a vote of confidence in the min- istry. The strikers demanded the removal of the Under-Secretary of Posts and Telegraphs, M. Julien Simyan, and the right to form trade-unions. The government ofHcially declined to dismiss the under-secretary, but implied that he would be shifted to another department. The government also refused to acknowledge the right of state employes to form trade-unions or to affiliate with the General Confederation of Labor. However, it did agree that there should be no dismissal of or discrimination against the men who had struck, and that the soldiers and police occupying the post- office should be withdrawn. Immediately after this agreement was made the strikers returned to their duties. In the meanwhile the parliament was again struggling with the Income Tax Bill, also known as the Caillaux Bill, providing a system of taxation having as its basis the income, those earned being taxed less than those derived from inherited or invested capital, and aliens paying more than French subjects. This bill was passed by the Chamber of Deputies on March 9 by a vote of 407 to 156. On March 26, 1909, a parliamentary committee was appointed to investigate the state of French naval affairs. They reported to parliament on June 22 that gross inefficiency and waste of money had prevailed. After a long and violent debate M. Clemenceau and his associates resigned their portfolios on July 20. M. Aristide Briand, who had been chief aide to M. Clemenceau, succeeded to the premicrslii]). His ideas were almost identical with those of his predecessor, and the cabinet change did not in any way effect the French financial market. At the opening of the French parliament in October, 1909, two (|uestions of great import came before it. The first of these related to a declaration of the French Catholic Church urging parents to keep their children from the public schools and to send them to the church institutions. Certain text-books used in the state schools were interdicted by the church authorities as im- proper for study by Catholic pupils. The other question had to do with the manner of voting. Two electoral systems have figured in French republican history, the scrutin dc liste and the scrutin T HE Till \l I) U K I' r r> L 1 C 480 1879-1910 d' arrondisscuicnt. Under the first system the voter casts his bal- lot for all the deputies to which his department is entitled. Under the second each department is divided into an'oiidissoiicnts or single member districts and each \i)tcr \t)tes only for the one candidate of his district. The scniiin dc lisle system was in use from 1871 to 1876, the arro)idissciiiciil system i87f)-i8S5, the scndin dc listc 1885-1889 and the arru>idissciiu'>it from 1889 to the pres- ent time. Notwithstanding all the laws that have been passed in the last quarter of a century, education is not yet free in I'^rance. Only a few grades in the public schools are actually open to all. By the side of this really free education, representing about eight grades, stands another system, extending from the primary school to the university and supported largely by tuition. About half, and the best, of these schools are in the hands of the teaching congrega- tions of the Catholic Church. Here, the republicans claim, the young people of LTance are filled with sentiments hostile to the republic. The schools must be in the hands of the state, they claim, and taught by lay teachers. The expense has been, in the past, the main obstacle to the development of secular schools. The central government did not build all the schools itself, and the cities and communities throughout hVance f()und it more economical to allow the congregations to build the schoolhouses and pay the teachers. A law of July 7, 1904, decided on the suppression of all congrega- tional teaching within a period of ten years. Among the support- ers of these measures were men hostile to the church and to re- ligion, but the majority were not influenced by such a polic}'. Whether the schools can be secularized remains to be seen. The republic is nearly half of a century old, and though there arc still those w^ho declare that France will be happy only under a Caesar, there are others who believe that the republic has a bright future. While the republic was being established, I'rance was strix-ing to recover the prestige in Europe that she had lost as a result of tlie Franco-Prussian war. At the close of the war she was isolated, and it was the policy of IHsmarck to keep her so. So long as slic remained weak and without allies, little was to be feared from her threats of revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. In 1875 the reorganization and enlargement of the hVencli aniu" was looked upon by Bismarck as a threat to Germany, and a warning was sent to Paris. The countries seemed on the verge of war, tliis time 490 FRANCE 1871-1891 France being on the defensive. The interference of Russia in be- half of France quieted the rising storm, and was the first indication of the rapprochement that was to end in the Dual Alliance. Many years were to pass, however, before this alliance took shape. The republic gave proofs of vitality in its foreign relations by the adoption of colonial policy that, although lacking consistency and wisdom at first, has made of her at length a great colonial state. Tunis was brought under French domination in i88i, but in 1882 France abandoned Egypt to England by refusing to con- trol the Egyptian government by an appeal to arms. Had Gam- betta remained in office, it is doubtful if France would have com- mitted such a blunder. In China, France had begun to acquire territory under the second empire, and the same policy was fol- lowed in the East during the ministry of Ferry, resulting in the acquisition of Tonking, and later of contiguous territory. In Africa, France has steadily increased its acquisitions, until the Sahara and the most of the surrounding coast territory are now in its possession. Perhaps none of the colonizing countries of Europe have lands more desirably located than the French possessions in northern Africa. It is here, in truth, that France had done its colonizing. From Marseilles to Algiers is but a short sea voyage, and soon railroads will connect Algeria with all parts of the French territory. The other colonies are less promising, because too remote from the mother country. In these remote colonies the number of Frenchmen outside of office-holders and soldiers is very small. The almost stationary population of France does not supply it with the increase necessary to people these posses- sions over sea. It is noticeable, however, that the excess of births over deaths is much greater in Algeria than in France. The formation of the Triple Alliance of German}'-, Austria, and Italy, the hostility towards Germany on the Rhine, towards England in Egypt and Asia, towards Italy in Tunis, naturally led France to draw near to Russia as the only ally that could save her from the isolation into which she had been forced. Nowhere did their interests conflict, and they were the common rivals of England, but in different parts of the world. In 1891 the Czar made open advances to France; a French squadron was received with great solemnity at Kronstadt, and the Czar sent a telegram to the President of the Republic, in which he spoke of "the pro- found sympathies that unite France and Russia." A Russian loan HM f \^\i- ^ im ^ir " ^^^n Hflj&.^L^^^s^^A \ ' m Bk -- ^'^i:^\>^^iy I^HIh y|^:^'^ii' x^fm T II ]: T II I II I) K E P I' P> L 1 C 491 1879 1908 was opened in France and covered by French sul)scri1)crs, and in 1893 a ixus.sian scjnadron was received at 'I'nnlon and sent a de- tachment of sailors to Paris. Finally, in 1896, Nicholas II paid a visit to the French capital, and was received with tremendous enthusiasm. For a time the affairs of Europe were dominated by the opposition between the Triple and the Dual Alliances, But with the new century there were changes. The question of Alsace-Lorraine ceased to dominate French diplomacy. French troops served under a German field marshal in China (1900) ; France and Germany united with Russia in forcing Japan to sur- render the fruits of the war with China (1895). France made an arbitration treaty with Italy and endeavored to settle with it in a friendly wa}- the interests of the two countries in Africa. France also made an arbitration treaty with England, and although Eng- land was allied with Japan, and Russia was suffering severe re- verses at the hands of the island empire during the late war, France did not feel bound to go to its assistance. The overwhelming de- feat of Russia by Japan modified the diplomatic situation in Europe. On June 10, 1907, a b>anco-Japanese agreement was signed. The attempt of France, in alliance with England, to establish a protecto- rate over Alorocco met with an energetic protest from (iermany, and for a few weeks the war clouds seemed to hang threateningly over Europe. The I'rench ministry refused, however, to support Delcassc in a vigorous policy and forced him to resign his portfolio, after long years of brilliant service. The new policy is one of rapprochcmoit with Germany. It is a policy that is prepared to look upon the Alsace-Lorraine incident as closed and refuses to be guided in the future simply by the desire for revenge. The year 1905 marked a turning-i)oint in the diplomatic, as well as in the religious, history of h^rance. In 1908, two incidents occurred, each of which at the time seemed likely to cause a rupture of friendly relations between Ger- many and I'Tance. The first of these was Germany's attitude in the recognition of Mulai Ilafid as Sultan of Morocco. She de- manded that he be recognized immediately after he had been pro- claimed sultan on August 23, while France and Spain contended that the initiative belonged incontestably to them and that the new sultan should fulfill certain conditions before he should be recognized ; on September 23, Germany replied that she agreed with the conditions. The second incident was the Casablanca 492 FRANCE 1879-1910 Affair: five (according to some accounts six) soldiers of the l'>ench Foreign Legion, including three Germans, deserted and concealed themselves under the protection of the German Consul at Casa- blanca ; when a German steamer came into the port, the deserters under escort from the consulate went on board; French gendarmes after a struggle arrested them ; the German consul then demanded the release of the Germans, but the French military authorities re- fused; the Germans claimed that although serving in the French Foreign Legion they retained all their national rights and priv- ileges; the French expressed a willingness to submit the matter to The Hague Tribunal, which was done. A Franco-German Agreement relative to Morocco w^as issued on February 9, 1909, having been signed at Berlin on that day. It defined the scope given by the two governments to the various clauses of the Algeciras Convention and aimed to avoid future mis- understandings. The meeting of Czar Nicholas of Russia and President Fallieres at Cherbourg on August i, 1909, apparently strengthened the Franco-Russian alliance in the direction of peace. Americans were much interested in the opening of the Amer- ican hospital at Neuilly, Paris, which occurred formally on Octo- ber 28, 1909, as they were also, although from different motives, in the action of the government with regard to the tariff question. On November i, 1909, the government imposed the maximum tariff on American goods, which, although their statesmen declare is not intended to work any serious changes in imports from America, was regarded as indictive of the country's feeling with regard to the tariff bill of the United States. On December 29, of this same year, the French Chamber of Deputies passed a high pro- tective tariff of their own, although it is not probable that the I'Vench Senate can reach it in time to let the law go into opera- tion before 191 1. New interest in labor circles was awakened by the resolution of the French State employes on November 26, to form a national federation. During January, the French minister made a spirited reply to certain attacks brought by the Catholic deputies against the system of education promulgated by the gov- ernment, speaking in the Chamber of Deputies. The most serious event of past years in France, however, is the terrible flood of 1910, which threatened the entire city, and did not begin to subside until the end of January. The Palace of T Fl E T II J R 1) li K P U 15 L I C 402a 1879-1910 Legion of Honor, the St. Lazare Station, the Palace Bourbon, Hotel Lambert and Hotel Lauzan, the Esplanade Des Invalided, the Luxembourg Garden, the Champs Elysccs, the Place de la Con- corde, the Isle St. Louis and Isle de la Cite, the Palace de Glace, the Palace de L'Opera, the Comedic Francaise, the Tuillcrics Gardens, the Louvre and Museum, the Institute Des Beaux Art-, the Mazarin Palace, the Bois de Boulogne, the Grand and i^ctit Palaces and many other buildings of national importance and his- torical association were threatened with destruction. The area covered by the flood, irrespective of the overflow in the back streets from sewers, comprised nine square miles, or one-fourth of the entire city. The destitution was pitiable, and offers of help were tendered from all the other countries, who many of them had rea- son to remember similar generosity in past calamities. The internal development of I'Vance during the last forty years is even more noteworthy than its foreign policy. The crushing defeat of 1870 had a wholesome effect, and the energy that was freed at that time has not exhausted itself in the reconstruction of the political structure of French society. Looked at from every point of view, the social efficiency of the I'rench people has in- creased enormously. No nation surpasses it in the care for the soil and in the industries connected with it. France can boast of more than sixteen million acres in v^heat ; the annual output of its vineyards is valued at fifty million dollars ; its henls of cattle and its fowl have increased one-third in numbers in a score of years; two million and a half of hives are scattered among the farms of France; it has given an exam])le \o tb,e world in afforesta- tion and draining, and the department of forestry received close to five million dollars a year from the w'ood alone. In science and invention, the record is no less creditable. France has led the world in the invention, manufacture and use of automobiles, of submarine boats, and of nu)l)ilc heavy field artillery. The country is covered with a network of railroads whose roadbeds, bridges, and tunnels are models of engineering skill. To mention the Suez canal is to think of De Lesseps. The world looks upon Pasteur as one of its greatest benefactors. The years since the war wMth Germany have been marked in France by an educational renaissance. Secondary education has been practically created. In fourteen years the number of children in the public schools has doubled. The University of Paris has 492b FRANCE 1879-1910 been reorganized, and for the first time rival universities are l)eing developed in the provinces, many of them possessing important local educational characteristics. There are signs not a few that the leadership in historical writing is passing from Germany to France. The best general history of Europe that exists is the work of French scholars, and a group of young French writers under the leadership of Lavisse are producing a history of France such as German scholars have not yet produced for their country. France is still the artistic nation par excellence. In literature, painting, sculpture, and architecture she stands without a peer. The artistic spirit permeates the whole life of the people, and whatever their deft fingers touch is thereby transformed. It is not without reason that the young artists and architects of Amer- ica fill the studios of Paris, or that Virot and Worth dictate to the women of the world the shape of their hats and the style of their gowns. The dictatorship is theirs by the right of superior merit, of the merit of genius. There is nothing to indicate that that artistic primacy is about to pass from France. The world has changed much since the days when the legions of Caesar conquered Gaul and made it a part of the civilized world. The Roman empire has disappeared ; the primacy of the world has passed from Rome ; the center of the world is no longer the inland sea that receives the waters of the Tiber. A world civilization has come into existence embracing continents, oceans, and peoples, and dwarfing in its magnitude the civilization of the olden time. States have been formed outstripping the empire of Rome in area and in population, and possessing a social unity such as Rome never dreamed of. In this world-society it is hardly prol)able that France will be able to play the dominating role that she played in Europe under Louis XIV. and Napoleon. Extent of territory, natural resources, population, and native energy are the conditions upon which world leadership must rest, and in these things France is unable to compete with several of the great world powers. Her leadership must be of another kind, and one, on the whole, that has a more lasting value. The future may see France fall to the place of a second-rate power, her armies and navies surpassed in numbers by those of England, Russia, Ger- maiiy, and the United States, but this relative loss in political power need in no way diminish her primacy in all those things that in the past have made France truly great. In the world of T TI K T II 1 \l 1) i; K V V \) I, T C 4y2c 1897-1910 literature, art, science, and philosophy she may continue to play the part in tlic society of the future that Greece played in the world of the Mediterranean basin. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A knowledge of the French huiguage is indisjKMisalile tn one who would make something more than a general study of French history. The complete histories of r'rance translated into l-jiglish are more or less anticiuated, and the histories written originally in Fnglish never were satisfactory. So much has heen written on French history during the last thirty years that it might fairly he said that our conception of the history of that country has heen transformed. Great masses of historical material have heen hrouglit to light and utilized for the first time; thousands of monographs have been written dealing in the most minute way with the various periods of French history, and at the present moment, under the direction of M. Lavisse, a history of iM-anee from the earliest times to the Revolu- tion is being published. It is to consist of sixteen vohmies, and already more than half the number have appeared. It supersedes all the other histories of France that have been written, although for the INIiddle Ages Michelet's work Vv'ill still be worth reading because of its brilliant synthesis. It is not likely that this large history will be translated into English; it would hardly paj-. The value of the histories of France in English has been profoundly affected by its appear- ance even more than that of the older hYench histories. One can feel pretty cer- tain in reading any of the liislories in English written twenty-five years ago, that he is not getting the last word of t';c hist^)rian upon any period that he studies. What is said of the secondary works does not, of course, apply to the sources of French history accessible in English translation. The absolute value of a source never changes, and a library made up of sources increases rather than decreases in value. The young student of history, engaged in collecting a library, would do well never to lose sight of this fact. Monod's " Bihlioi^raphie de I'histoin' de France," Paris, 1888, offers an excellent bibliography, but, of course, goes only to 1879. At the time of its publication it was very complete, but needs to be supplemented to-day by the bibliographies in the different volumes of Lavisse's " Ilisfoire dc France." I'or the contemporary output on modern French history, a very exhaustive bibliography is published annually by the Revue d'histoirc inuderiie et contcuipora'nic under the title, "Repertoire victhodiquc de I'histoire viodcriic ct cotitciiiporaiiie de la France." geni-:ral histories Kitchin, G. W. "A History of France." 3 vols. Third edition, revised. Oxford, 1892. This work is considered the best history of ITance in English. It goes to 1789. Dealing chiefly with political history, it is defective on the side of the economic, industrial, and artistic development of France. To one acquainted with the history of Lavisse it U'a\'es much to be (U'sired. Crowe, I'l 1''. "The History of France." 5 vols. London. 1858-1868. A good piece of v-.ork in its day, but like most of the histories written forty years ago it is antiquated in many parts. 496 BIBLIOGRAPHY Guizot, R " A Popular History of France." In various editions. One of the best known histories of France in English, but a very unreliable piece of work, although a very readable one. It cannot be regarded as anything more than a " popular " history. Duruy, V. " History of P>ance." New York, 1896. Probably the best short work in English on French history, although needing to be controlled by recent French histories. Adams, G. B. " The Growth of the French Nation." An excellent short sketch of the political history of France. Hassall, A. " The French People." New York, 1901. An excellent short sketch of the political history of France, more detailed than the preceding account. Lacombe, Paul. " A Short Flistory of the French People." New York, 1875. A brief, popular, but good account of the formation of institutions in France up to the eve of the Revolution. Jervis, W. H. " The History of France." New York, 1862. Based largely on Martin and, consequently, like all the older histories, now out of date. Lavisse, E. " Ilistuirc de France depuis Ics origincs jusq'a la revolution." Paris, 1900. The importance of the work, now in course of publication, has been emphasized above. WORKS ON SPECIAL PERIODS Baird, Henry M. " History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France." 2 vols. New York, 1879. A scholarly piece of work, tlie best in English on the subject. Belloc, H. " Robespierre. A Study." New York, 1901. Brilliant, but not sound. ^"Danton." New York, 1899. Better than the later work, but still somewhat too imaginative for a histori- cal contribution. Bodley, J. E. C. " France." 2 vols, 1898. In spite of the thesis that Mr. Bodley feels compelled to defend, namely, that parliamentary government is a failure in France and that France will never be happy until it falls under the rule of a Csesar, his work is well worth reading. Seven years of residence in France preceded the writing of these volumes, and one linds here matter that can be found nowhere else in English. One often wishes that he discussed less -and described more. The two volumes are devoted to the treatment of the central government in France. Carlyle, Thomas. '" The French Revolution." Fletcher, editor. 3 vols. New York, 1902. This work is more properly classed as literature than as history. " Carlyle's Impressions of the French Revolution " would be a more correct title for it. The volumes have been carefully edited by Mr. Fletcher, and the reader may now enjoy his Carlyle and at the same time get some reliable information concerning the French Revolution. Farmer, J. E. " Essays on French History." New York, 1897. Contains two essays: "The Rise of the Reformation in France" and "The Club of the Jacobins." These papers are semi-scientific presentations of the sub- jects treated. A thoroughly satisfactory treatment of the Breton Club will be BIBLIOGRAPHY 497 found in the monograph by Dr. Charles Kulilmann, "Influence of the RrctDii Deputation and the Breton Club in the French Revolution," Lincoln, Nebraska, 1903. Fournier, August. " Napoleon the First." New York, 1903. Translated from the tliree volume German work. The best volume in English and the best life that has yet been written. It contains a very full bib- liography. Gardiner, Bertha Al. " The French Revolution."' London, 1S90. One of the '" Epochs of Modern History." Brief, but well written and sound. Godwin, Parke. "The History of France." Vol. i. Ancient Gaul. New York, i860. This volume carries the history of France to 843. Although an old book, it is based upon the sources and is still the best volume in ICngli^h on the period. Grant, A. J. "The French Alonarchy " (T483-1789). 2 vols. Cambridge, 19DO. A work intended for the general public. It forms a part of the " Cambridge Historical Series." A good sketch. Hanotaux, G. " Contemporary France." Translated from the French. New York, 1903. The work is to consist of four volumes when complete. Only one has ap- peared. It deals in a popular way with the history of tlie third republic. Al- though not intended for scholars, it is the work of a man who has already made a reputation by his history of Richelieu, and is well known as a former minister of foreign affairs. Hassall, Arthur. '" Louis XIV." New York, 1895. Good short sketch. Hazen, C. D. " Contemporary American Opinion of the French Revolution." Baltimore. From 1784 to 1794 the United States was represented in France by Jefferson, Morris, and Monroe. Dr. Hazen shows the impression that the Revolution made upon them, by drawing from their journals and letters. Much of this material is quoted verbatim. Hodgkin, T. " Charles the Great." New York. Best short account in English. Hoist, H. von. "The French Revolution Tested by Mirabeau's Career." 2 vols. Chicago, 1894. A series of lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute in Boston. Dr. von Hoist had been for some years a lecturer upon the French Revolution and a serious student of Mirabeau's career. It is the best account in English of Mira- beau and the National Assembly. Jerrold, Blanchard. " 'i"he Life of Napoleon 111." 4 vols. London, 1S71-1S74. A history written by a contemporary, who drew his information from " state records, from unpublished family correspondence, and from personal testimony." Jerrold began to collect his material soon after 1852, and had the active assistance of the imperial family. Although sympathetic toward the emperor, the work is the best in English on this period. Kirk, John Foster. " History of Charles the Bold." 3 vols. Philadelphia, 1864- 1868. An old but good work, based upon the sources. Lamartine, Alphonse de. " The Girondists." 3 vols. New York, 1868. More literature than history, the work of a poet unal)le to distinguish be- tween fact and fancy. Works like those of Thiers, Taine, Carlyle, and Lamartine 498 B I B L I O G R A r H Y attract readers by tlie brilliancy oi their style, and thus spread broadcast a dis- torted conception of the Revolution. Lowell, A. Lawrence. "Governments and Parties in Continental Kuropc." 2 vols. New York, 1897. Two chapters in the first volume are devoted to the description of the political institutions and political parties in the France of to-day. It is a sound piece of work. Lowell, Edward J. "The Eve of the French Revolution." New York, 1892. A very excellent account of the state of French society in the latter part of the eighteenth century. It rests upon very careful research and is one of the best volumes that has been written on the subject. Lowell, F. C. " Joan of Arc." Boston, 1897. Excellent. The best in English and based upon a careful study of the sources. Mahan, A. T. " The Influence of Sea Power Upon the French Revolution and Empire." 2 vols. Boston, 1894. A history of the French navy from 1793 to 1S12, written by a distinguished officer of the United States navy and president of the United States Naval College. Mathews, Shailer. "The French Revolution. A Sketch." One of the best "sketches" in English. Michelet, Jules. "History of the French Revolution." (Bohn Library.) One of the older histories of the Revolution, but written by a man who was trained in research and knew his sources as Thiers did not. Michelet was a partisan of the Revolution, and almost makes an epic in prose of his history. It is a brilliant piece of writing. Mignet, F. A. " The French Revolution." London, 1868. Translated from the French. Deals with the Revolution and Napoleon, 1789-1815. Although an old work, it is still one of the best volumes on the Revolution in English. Morley, John. " Voltaire." New York, 1872. ' Rousseau." 2 vols. London, 1873. "Diderot and the Encyclopaedists." 2 vols. London, 1878. All of these volumes of Morley are good. Perkins, James Breck. " France Under Mazarin." 2 vols. New York, 1887. An excellent work based upon the best sources, some of them manuscript, and the most recent monographs. " France Under the Regency." New York, 1892. A continuation of the above work and equally valuable. " France Under Louis XV." 2 vols. New York, 1897. Continuation of the abovp work. " Richelieu and the Growth of French Power." New York, 1900. This little volume, v."rittcn for the general public, has the merit of being the work of a man who knew his period well. The same subject is treated in the volumes on " France Under ^Nlazarin." Poole, Reginald Lane. "A History of the Huguenots of the Dispersion at the Recall of the Edict of Nantes." London, 1880. An account of what became of the Huguenots who left France and what in- fluence they exerted in other cotmtries. A scholarly work. Ranke, L. von. " Civil Wars and Monarchy in France." New York, 1S54. Translation of a portion of Ranke's excellent work on France in the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries. BIBLIOGRAPHY 499 Remiisat, Paul de. " Thiers." Chicago, 1889. A transhition of a vokime of the series entitled " The Great French Writers," published in France. It is an excellent sketch of Thiers' life by one who knew him well. Rocquain, F. " The Spirit of the Revolution." New York, 1892. Translated from the French. One of the most important volumes on the Revolution written in the last century. Rocquain shows the part played by the parlements in bringing on the Revolution and in producing the crisis of 1789. The book is based upon a large amount of source material, some of which had never been used before. Ropes, J. C. " The First Napoleon." Boston. 1891. Very much prejudiced in favor of Napoleon. Contains good accounts of various campaigns and has some good plans of battles. Rose, J. H. " Napoleon." 2 vols. New York, 1902. The latest work on Napoleon in English and one of the best. Rose made use of unpublished British sources that had never been used before. Rosebery, Lord. " Napoleon, the Last Phase." New York, 1901. Treats of Napoleon at St. Helena, and is the best single volume that has been written upon the subject. Say, Leon. '' Turgot." Chicago. A volume of " The Great PVench Writers," by a distinguished French econ- omist. Seeley, J. R. " A Short History of Napoleon the First." Boston, 1886. Although not friendly to Napoleon, this is the best sketch of the man and his work that has ever been produced in English in the same compass (2^3 pages). Seignobos, Charles. " A Political History of Europe since 1814." New York, 1899. This volume devotes about a hundred pages to the political history of France in the nineteenth century, and contains an excellent bibliography. Sloane, W. M. " Life of Napoleon Bonaparte." 4 vols. New York. 1896. One of the fullest and best lives of Napoleon in English. It appeared orig- inally as a serial in the Century, and bears some of the marks of its origin, especially in the interesting but fanciful illustrations that accompany it. " The French Revolution and Religious Reform." New York, 1901. This volume is " based on the Morse lectures for 1900 before the Union Theological Senu'nary." It is the only book in English that deals with this subject, but one could conceive of a more helpful book in the same compass, with less discussion and more attention to what actually took place. Sorel, Albert. " Montesquieu." Chicago. Another volume from the collection of "The Great French Writers" by one of the most brilliant of living French historians. Stephens, H. Morse. " Revolutionary Europe," 1789-1815. London, 1900. A well written and reliable sketch. " A History of the French Revolution." 2 vols. New York, 1886 and 1891. This work treats the period from 1789 to, but not including, 1794. The best work in English on the Revolution, but very unequal in execution and in some parts unreliable. Sybel, Heinrich von. " History of the French Revolution." 4 vols. London, 1866-1868. The title of the German work of which this is a translation is " History of the Revolutionary Period." It is the history of the Revolution and Europe, or the 500 BIBLIOGRAPHY diplomatic history of the period 1789 to 1800. The work is based upon much diplomatic correspondence, unpublished at the time Sybel wrote. Although the same subject has been more fully treated by Sorel in the last fifteen years, SybeFs work is still the best in English. Taine, H. A." The Revolution." 3 vols. New York, 1878-1885. A brilliant piece of w^ork, reactionary in its character and believed for a long time, and by many to-day, to contain the last word on the Revolution. Sober, critical study of the work has discredited both the methods and the theses of Taine. It should be read after one is sufficiently familiar with the facts of the period, as presented in the most recent histories, to be able to control Taine's generalizations. Tarbell, Ida M. " A Short Life of Napoleon." New York, 1895. Valuable on account of its 250 illustrations. " Madame Roland." New York, 1896. An excellent life, based upon a careful study of the sources. Thiers, A. " History of the French Revolution." 5 vols. London, 1853. One of the earliest histories of the Revolution, the first edition being pub- lished in 1827, when Thiers was thirty years of age. It has passed through num- berless editions and is still read, although as a piece of historical writing it has few merits apart from the brilliant style in which it is WTitten. "' History of the Consulate and the Empire of France Under Napoleon." 20 vols. London, 1845- 1862. A translation of Thiers' great work. Much more carefully done than the work on the Revolution, it was for a long time the most important life of Na- poleon. It needs to be controlled by later and more critical works. Tocqueville, Alexis. " France Before the Revolution of 1789." London, 1856. One of the best books ever written on the causes of the Revolution. Based upon much research, it is a safer guide than the volume by Taine. White, Henry. " The jNIassacre of St. Bartholomew." New York, 1871. This volume covers the same ground as that covered by Baird, the purpose being to show the massacre of St. Bartholomew as the culmination of the wars in France. Willert, P. F. ' Mirabeau." New York, 1898. The best short life in English. " Henry of Navarre." New York, 1893. Good short sketch. " The Reign of Louis the Eleventh." London, 1876. A good brief account of this reign. A popular work and not a scientific treatise. SOURCES Anderson, F. M. " Constitutions and Other Documents Illustrative of the His- tory of France." 17S9-1900. University Book Store, Minneapolis, 1903. A very valuable collection of sources for those who read only English or do not have access to the originals. Bingham, D. A.'" A Selection from the Letters and Dispatches of the First Napoleon." 3 vols. London. 1884. Bourienne, Louis. ' Memoirs dc Napoleon Bonaparte." Translated from the French. 4 vols. CrovvcU & Co., New York. These volumes arc the work to what extent is not known, see the intro- duction of Napoleon's private secretary. As Napoleon dismissed him in dis- grace, the record was not made with any kindly feeling toward Napoleon. The BIBLIOGRAPHY 501 volumes are used by historians in writing the Hfe of Napoleon, but always care- fully controlled by other sources. Broglie, Duke of. ''The King's Secret; Being the Secret Correspomleuce of Louis XV. with his Diplomatic Agents from lys- t" 1/74' This volume contains the secret correspondence concerning foreign affairs that the king carried on for twenty-two years behind the hacks of his ministers of foreign affairs and the regular French representatives abroad. Besides mak- ing one acquainted with the views of Louis XV. on foreign affairs, this collection casts a curious light upon the king's character and the governmental methods in France in the eighteenth century. Busch, Moritz. "' Bismarck in the Franco-German War." 2 vols. New York, 1879. Busch was in intimate touch with Bismarck for twenty-five years. Commines, Philippe de. " Memoirs." 2 vols. New York, i8qo. A contemporary account of the reigns of Louis XL and Charles VIIL by the secretary of Louis XL One of the most valuable sources of the period. Eginhard. " Life of Charlemagne." New York, 1880. A translation of the Latin life of Charlemagne by his secretary. Eginhard. The little volume is well edited, with a brief life of Eginhard, a good map, and notes. Froissart. " Chronicles." New York, 1895. An account of the period of the Flundred Years' War by a contemporary. One of the most important sources of the history of France in the fourteentli century. Joinville, John de. " Crusade of St. Louis," in " Chronicles of the Crusades," in the Bohn Library. A contemporary account of the crusade. Loyd, Lady Mary. " New Letters of Napoleon L" New York. 1807. Moltke, Helmuth von. "The Franco-German War of 1870-1871." New York. 1892. An account of the war written by the commander of the German armies. Monstrelet. " Chronicles." 2 vols. London, 1867. A continuation of Froissart, recording the events of the fifteenth century of French history. Morris, Gouverneur. " Diary and Letters." 2 vols. New York, 1881. Diary kept by Morris in Paris during the Revolution, and letters written from the same place. A valuable source. Normanby, Marquis of. " A Year of Revolution, from a Journal Kept in Paris in 1848." 2 vols. London, 1857. A valuable source for the revolution of 1848. Normanby was the English ambassador in Paris at the time. Pasquier, Etienne-Denis. "A History of ^Ty Time," 1789-1815. 3 vols. New York, 1893, 1894. Contemporary account by one high in authority under the empire and during the early restoration. Remusat, Madame de. " Memoirs." 3 vols. New York, 1880. The recollections of a brilliant member of the court of Napoleon L con- cerning the life of the court and the peculiarities of the emperor. Rigby. " Dr. Rigby's Letters from France, etc., in 1789." Rigby spent July and a part of August of 1789 in France, writing home ac- counts of what he had seen and he saw much while the impressions were still fresh. 502 BIBLIOGRAPHY Saint-Simon, Duke of. " The Memoirs of the Reign of Louis XIV. and the Regency." 3 vols. London, 1833. A daily record of the events of the last years of Louis XIV. and the first of Louis XV. kept by one of the most distinguished noblemen of the court. Senior, Nassau William. " Journals Kept in France and Italy from 1848 to 1852." 2 vols. London, 1871. Senior was a distinguished Englishman who moved in the best circles in France and Italy, conversed with the leading statesmen and kept a record of their conversation, even having his records corrected by them. " Conversations with M. Thiers, M. Guizot, and Other Distinguished Persons During the Second Empire." 2 vols. London, 1878. A continuation of the Journals. Simon, Jules. " The Government of M. Thiers, from the 8th of February, 1871, to the 24th of May, 1873." 2 vols. New York, 1878. An account of Thiers' government written by a colleague and a friend. It is a valuable source. Sully. Duke of. " Memoirs." 4 vols. London, 1877. The account of the age of Henry IV. written by the Duke of Sully, the minister of Henry and the man who was his chief instrument in reorganizing France after the religious wars. " Table Talk and Opinions of Napoleon Bonaparte." London, 1868. Talleyrand. " Memoirs." 5 vols. New York, 1891-1892. Published long after Talleyrand's death, this work raised a controversy among the historians concerning its genuineness. No conclusion was reached, but it is probable that the original text was tampered with. Tarbell, Ida M. " Napoleon's Addresses." Boston, 1897. Selections from addresses, proclamations, and letters. Washburne, E. B. " Recollections of a Minister to France." 2 vols. New York, 1887. These are the recollections of a representative of the United States at the French court, covering the years 1867 to 1877. Young, Arthur. " Travels in France During the Years 1787, 1788, 1789." Third edition, London, 1890. Probably the most valuable source in English on the condition of France at the outbreak of the Revolution. Young rode through the length and breadth of France, examining everything with the eyes of a trained observer and record- ing his observations each night in his note-book. INDEX INDEX A Al')igcnscs. War of the, 'jy Abbeville. Treaty (if (i_'5Q), 83 Albret, Alain d', Lord of Rt'arn : joins Abdul-Rahman. Mohammedan caliph: nobles at^ainst Anne of Beaujeii. at war with Franks, yj uS Abcnsberg: battle of (i8og), 335 Albret, Constable d' : at battle of Azin- Aboukir: battle of (17QQ), 310 court, iii Ache, Count of: his campaign in India, Alengon, Frangois. Duke of: see Fran- 246 (Cois, Duke of Anjou Adalberon, Bishop of Laon : crowns Alesia : siege of (52 B.C.), II Hugh Capet, 59 Alexander VT, Pope: grants divorce to Adda: battle of the (1705), 222 Louis XII of France from Jeanne, Adrian T, Pope : asks aid of Charle- 132 magne, 41 .'\le.\andcr I, ttnpcrnr of Russia: acccs- Adrian VI, Pope: accession of. 138 sion of, 318 Aega : made mayor of the palace. 2,}^ Alexandria, C( nvention of (1800), }^\'j /TSgidius : made master of the militia in Alexis Conimenus, emperor of the b'.i-t : Gaul, 17 his treatment of the crusaders. 70 Aetius : career of, 16 Alibaud: attempts to assassinate Louis Affre, Denis Auguste : Archbishop of Philip. 400 Paris: death of, 437 Alma: battle of the (1854), 446 Agapetus II, Pope: intervenes in strug- Almanz.a : b;ittle of (1707), 223 gle between Louis IV and his Almonacid : battle of ([8og), 2>2)7 rebellious nobles, 56 Alphonso III. king of Aragon : rccog- Aghrim : battle of (1692), 218 nized as king, 86 Agiiadel : battle of (1508), 134 Alphonso II, king of Naples and Sicily: Agosta: battle of (1676), 212 at w:ir with Charles VI II of France, Aguesseau, Henry Francis d' : opposes 130; abdic-ition of, 131 Law's schemes. 230: given the direc- Alvinczy (Alvinzi), Joseph, Baron \o\\ tion of Law's bank, 233 Bar])crck : his campaigns against Aiguillon, Armand Vigucrot Duplessis Napoleon. 301 Richelieu, Duke of: his government Amalaric, king of the Visigoths: reign of Brittany, 248; reforms of. 24() of, 25 Aisne : battle of the (57 \\x\~). 8 Aml)iosix. chief of the Fburones : at war Aix-la-Chapelle : made capital of I'Yank- with Rome. () ish empire, 44 Amboise. Conspiracy of (1560). 151 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of: (i()68), Amboise. Convention of (1563), 154 209; (1748). 240 Amiens, Peace of (1802), 318 Alais, Peace of (1629), 187 Anagni, Treaty of (1295), 86 Alaric II, king of the Visigoths: defeat Aiicenis, Treaty of (1468), 123 and death of, 20 Ancre, Marshal d" : see Concini, Concino, Albert, Archduke of Austria: his cam- Marquis of Ancre paign in the Franco-Austrian War, Andrieux, hVanc^ois Cuillaume Jean 279 Stanislas: opposes Napoleon, 319 505 506 INDEX Angouleme, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of: his campaign in Spain, 380 Anjou, Henry, Duke of: see Henry HI, king of France. Anjou, Louis, Duke of: see Louis I, king of Naples Anne, daughter of Jaroslav of Russia: marries Henry I of France, 68 Anne of Austria : marries Louis XHI of France, 179; made regent of France, 199 Anne of Beaujeu: rules as regent of France, 126 Anne of Brittany: marries Charles VHI of France, 129; marries Louis XH of France. 132 Anthony of Bourbon, king of Navarre : opposes policy of Catherine de' Me- dici, 149 ; death of, 154 Antin, Duke of : president of the council of home affairs, 227 Antwerp: siege of (1832), 403 Arago, Dominique Frangois : member of the provisional government, 435 Arce, Jeanne d' : see Joan of Arc Arcis-sur-Aube : battle of (1814), 347 Arcole: battle of (1796), 301 Argenson, Marc Rene Voyer, Count d' : made chancellor, 230 Ariovistus, king of Suevi : defeated by Caesar, 8 Aries: siege of (506 a.d.), 20 Armagnac, Bernard, Count of: at war with the Duke of Burgundy, no; made regent of France, 112 A.rmand : opposes the decrees of July 25, 1830, 390 Arnulf, Bishop of Metz: rebellion of, 31 Arques: battle of (1589), 167 . Arras: siege of (1640), 194; battle of (1654), 206 Arras, Treaties of: (1435), 117; (1482), 125 Artevelt, Jacques of: revolt of, 93 Arthur, Prince: claims throne of Eng- land, 76 Artois, Charles, Count of: see Charles X, king of France Asfeld, Marquis of: his campaign in Germany, 236 Aspern: battle of (1809), 335 Astolphe, king of the Lombards : at war with Pope Zacharias, 40 Athalaric, king of the Ostrogoths : reign of, 25 Attila: leads Hun invasion, 17 Auerstadt: battle of (1806), 328 Augereau, Pierre Francois Charles, Duke of Castiglione: his campaigns under the directory, 298; given com- mand of the military division of Paris, 304; made marshal of the empire, 322 Augsburg, Peace of (1555), 146 Augsburg, Diet of (i555), I47 Augsburg, League of (1688), 217 Augustus I, elector of Saxony and king of Poland : death of, 235 Augustus HI, elector of Saxony : claims imperial crown, 236 Augustus, Caesar Octavius, emperor of Rome: condition of Gaul under, 11 Aumale : battle of (1592), 168 Aumale, Charles of Lorraine, Duke of: supports claims of Philip II of Spain to the crown of France, 170 Aurai : battle of (1365), 103 Austerlitz: battle of (1805), 326 Austro-Prussian War, 455 Auvergne, Charles de Valois, Count of : leader of discontented nobles, 172; joins conspiracy of Entragues, 174 Auxerre: battle of (843 a.d.), 50 Avenues (Avein) : battle of (1635), 191 Azincourt: battle of (1415), in B " Babylonian Captivity," 88 Badajoz: siege of (1811), 338 Baden, Prince : defeated at Friedlingen, 221 Badly Established Peace, The (1568), . ^56 Bailly, Jean Sylvain : president of the States-General, 262 ; appointed may- or of Paris, 264; death of, 287 Balaklava: battle of (1854), 447 Baldwin V, Count of Flanders : guardian of Philip I of France, 68 Bale : see Basel Baliol, John : made king of Scotland, 87 Bande : opposes the decrees of July 25, 1830, 390 Barante, Aimable Guillaume Prosper I N D i: X 507 Brugiere, Baron dc : leader of the doctrinaires, 372 Barbarossa : his conquest of Tunis, 142 Barbaroux, Charles Jean Marie : incites insurrection in the departments, 284 Barbe-Marbois. Frangois, Marquis de : made president of tlie ancients, 303; made minister of justice, 367 Barbes, Armand : leader of the Society of the Seasons, 417; opposes the pro- visional government, 436; trial of, 438 Barcelona: sie.t^e of (1705). 222 Barcelona, Treaty of (1493), 120 Barnave, Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie: death of, 287 Barras, Paul Jean Francois Nicolas, Count of: made commander-in-chief of convention forces, 295 ; appointed member of the directory, 296 Barrere de Vieuzac, Bertraiul: made member of the committee of safety, 285 Barricades, Battle of the (1588). 1O3 Barrot, Camille llyacintlie (Jdillon: o])- poses abolition of capital punish- ment, 396; leads opposition to Gui- zot's ministry, 424; opposes Cuizot's foreign policy, 430; placed at tlie head of first republican cabinet, 438 Barry, Jeanne Been, Countess of: her relations with Louis XV, 248 Bart, Jean: destroys Fnglish conmicrce, 219 Barthe: made minister of justice, 399; in Soult's ministry, 402; given port- folio of justice in Mole's cabinet. 412 Barthelemy, Frangois, Marciuis de : ban- ished and proscribed, 305 Basel, Peace of (1795). -"M Bassano: battle of (i79f>). 3"" Bassano, Ungues Bernard Maret, Duke of : his ministry, 407 Bastile: siege of (1789), 264 Baudin des Ardennes, Charles: his expe- dition against Mexico, 413 Bautzen: battle of (1813). 343 Bayard, Pierre dn Terrail. Chevrdier de : his campaign in Italy, 136; saves Mezieres, 138 Bayezid I, sultan of Turkey: invades Greece and Hungary, 109 Inizaine. I'rauQois Achille: his campaign in Mexico, 453; in the Franco-Prus- sian War, 463 Beaufort, Francois of Vendome, Duke of: commands troops of Conde agaitist Ainie of Austria, 204; his campaign a<;ainst the pirates, 208 Beauharnais, Alexandre: death of, 287 Beauharnais, Fugene de : made viceroy of Italy, 324 Beaulieu, Jean Pierre. Baron de : his campai.un against Xapoleon, 298 Beainnont : battle of (1870), 414 Beaumont. Christophe de, Archbishoi) of Paris: intolerance of. 241 Beckct. Tlmmas a, Archbi>hop of Can- terbury : nuu'der of, 74 Bedeau. Marie Alphonse : arrest of. 441 Bedfcjrd. John Plantagcnet, Duke of: regent in France, 113 Bedocdard. sultan of ['"gypt : his con- quests in Palestine. 84 Belgians : revolt of, 8 Belle-Isle: battles of (1747), 240; (1795), 294 Belleisle. Charles Louis AngU'^te Vnn- quet, Diike of: in the War of Aus- trian Succession, 240 Belluno, Claude Perrin Victor. Duke of: made minister of war. t,jH Benedetti. Count Vincent: ambassador to Berlin, 462 Benedict XI! I. anti-Pope: his struggle with Boniface IX, 109 Benningsen (Bennigsen), Count Levin August Tlieoi)hil : his campaign against Napoleon, 321) Beresina : battle of the (i8[2), 342 I'ergen : battle of (1759), 245 I'ergerac, Pe;ice of (1577). ito Berghem : brittle of (179^;), 310 Berlin Decree (t8o')). 329 Bernadotte, Jean Ha])tiste Jules: see Charles Xl\^ king of Sweden Bernard, Saint, Abbot of Clairvaux : preaches the second crusade, 7Ji Bernard, king of Italy: accession of, 44; death of. 47 Bernard, Count of Armagnac : see Ar- magnac, Bernard, Count of Bernard, Major: conspiracy of, 375 Bernard. Martin: leader of the Society of the Seasons, 417 508 INDEX Bernard, Simon : trial of, 450 Bernard of Saxc-Weimar, Duke : his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, 190 Berry, Charles of France, Duke of: at head of the League of the Public Good, 122; death of, 124 Berry, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of: as- sassination of, Zl^ Berry, Jean of P>ance, Duke of: claims regency for Cliarles VI of France, 106; dismissed from government of Languedoc. 108 Bcrryer, Pierre Antoine : enters parlia- mentary life, 389; arrest of, 441 Bertha, widow of Eudes I of Bois : mar- ries Robert II of France, 67 Bertha, daughter of Coimt Florent of Holland : marries Philip I of France, 71 Berthair, mayor of the palace : reign of, Berthier, Alexandre : his campaign in Italy, 307; made marshal of the em- pire, 322 Berton, Jean Baptiste: instigates a Bo- napartist plot, 378 Bertrade : marries Philip I of France, 71 Berwick, James Fitzjames, Duke of: his campaigns in Spain, 223, 231 ; his campaign in Germany, 235 Bcssieres, Jean Baptiste : made marshal of the empire, 322 Bethmont: member of the provisional government, 435 Beugnot, Jacques Claude : made minister of police, 356 Bcurnonville, Pierre Riel de : liis cam- paigns in the Franco- Austrian War, 276; member of provisional govern- ment, 349 Beyrout: bombarded (1840), 419 Biberach: battle of (1796), 301 Bicoque: battle of (1522), 138 Billaud-Varennes, Jean Nicolas : made member of the committee of safety, 285 Billault : opposes Guizot's foreign policy, 430; death of, 454 Biron, Armand Louis, Duke of: death of, 287 Biron, Charles dc Goutant, Duke of: leader of discontented nobles, 172; death of, 173 Blacas, Count of: made minister of the king's household, 356 Black Prince : see Edward, Prince of England Blakeney, General : defends St. Philip, 244 Blanc, Jean Joseph Charles Louis : leads revolt, 437 Blanche of Castile: made regent for Louis IX of France, 80; death of, 82 Blanche of Navarre : marries Philip VI of France, 95 Blancmenil, Nicholas Poticr de Novion de : arrested, 201 Blanqui, Louis Auguste: leader of the Society of the Seasons, 417; opposes the provisional government, 436 Bleneau : battle of (1653), 204 Blenheim: battle of (1704), 221 Blois, Charles de, Duke of Brittany: presides over the Estates (1356), 99; death of, 103 Blois, Treaty of (1504), 133 Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von : his campaigns against Napoleon, 346; his campaign in Belgium, 362 Boissy d' Anglas, Count Frangois An- toine de : leads constitutional party, 358 Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon : see Napoleon III, emperor of the French Bonaparte, Joseph : made constable of the empire, 322; made king of Na- ples, 327; made king of Spain, 2)2>i\ given command of Paris, 345 Bonaparte, Louis : made grand elector, 322; made king of Holland, ;>y2.'] Bonaparte, Lucien: attempts to defend Napoleon before the council of five hundred, 310 Bonaparte, Napoleon: see Napoleon (I) Bonaparte Bonaparte, Prince Pierre Napoleon : kills Victor Noir, 460 Bonchamp, Charles Melchior Artus, Marquis de : supports insurrection in the Vendee, 283 Boniface VIII, Pope: reconciles Edward I of England and Philip the Fair of France, 87; death of, 88 INDEX 509 Boniface TX, Pope : his struggle with Benedict XIII, 109 Bonnivet, Guillaume Goufiier de : his campaign in Italy. 139 Bordeaux, Compact of (1871), 469 Bordeaux, Treaty of (1242). 81 Borodino: battle of (1812). 341 Boscawen, Edward : in tlic war with France, 243 Boso, king of Provence: usurps the throne, 52 Bosquet, Pierre Joseph Franqois : in the Crimean War, 446 Bouillon, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne. Duke of: joins conspiracy of Biron, 173; revolt of, 178; conspires against Richelieu, 194 Boulanger, Georges Ernest Jean Marie : rise of, 484 Boulogne: siege of (1492). 129 Bourbon, Louis Henry, Duke of: given the superintendence of Louis XV's education, 230; member of king's council, 234 Bourdonnaye : made member of the council, 388 Bourg, Anne of: persecution of, 149; trial of, 150 Bourg, Antoine du : influences Francis I of France, 142 Bourmont, Louis Auguste Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de : made member of the council, 388 Bournonville, Prince of: defeated at battle of Ensheim, 211 Bouvines: battle of (1214), '/] Boyne: battle of the (1691), 218 Braddock, Edward : defeat of, 243 Breda, Peace of (1667), 208 Brenneville: battle of (1119). 7- Breteuil, Baron : made member of coun- cil, 263 Bretigny, Treaty of (1360), loi Breton Club: formed, 269 Breze, Urbain de Maille: his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, iQi Bridge of Taillebourg: battle of (1242), 81 Bridport, Lord : commands fleet against the French, 294 Brienne: battle of (1814), 345 Briennc. Gauthierde, Duke of Athens: leader of nobility, 96 Brienne, Lomenie of: made miui'-ier of (inance, 258 Brissac, Charles de Co^se. Count iXc : his campaigns in Piedmont. 147 Brissot de Warville, Jean Pit_Trc : leads Girondist party. 272 Britain : invaded by Cnssar. 9 Brittany, Francis II. Duke of: rel)(.l-- against Louis XI. 121. 124; at war with Anne of Beaujeu, 127 Broglie, Achille Charles Lt3once Victor, Duke of: leads constitutional party. 358: leader of the doctrinaires. 371: minister of public instruction and worship, 396; in Soult's ministry. 402; his ministry. 407 Broglie, Frangois Marie. Count of: his campaign in Italy. 236 Broglie, Victor Frangois, Duke de : made member of cabinet, 263 Broussel : arrested, 201 Brueys d'Aigalliers, Frangois Paul de : commands fleet for Egyptian expedi- tion, 306, 309 Bruges, Truce of (1375), 105 Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne: hi.-, cam- paign in Holland, 308: made mar- shal of the empire. :^22 Brunhilda: marries Sigibert. 27 Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of: his campaigns against France, 274, 287 Buckingham, George Villiers. ist Duke of : his campaign in l*"rance. 185 Bugancy : battle of (1870). 464 Bugeaud de la Piconnerie, Thomas Kolj- ert : his campaign in Algiers, 423 ; in the revolution of 1848, 433 Buntofden, General : his campaign against Napoleon. 329 Burgos: battle of (i8aS). 334 Burgundy, John the Fearless, Duke of: see John the Fearless, Duke of Bur- gundy. Burgundy, Philip the Bold. Duke of: see Philip the Bold. Duke of Bur- gundy Busaco: battle of (1810), 338 Buzot, Frangois Nicolas Leonard : in- cites insurrection in the departments. 284 Byng. John : in the Seven Years' War, 244 510 INDEX Cabanis: opposes Napoleon, 319 Caboche, John : leader of a corps of butchers in the service of John of Burgundy, in Cadiz: siege of (1810), 22,7 Cadoudal, Georges: capitulates, 319; plots against Napoleon's life, 321 Caesar, Caius Julius: his campaign in Gaul, 8 Cahors: taken by Henry of Navarre, 161 Calais: captured by the English (1346), 95; captured by the French (iSS8)> 148 Calcinate: battle of (1706), 222 Calder, Sir Robert: at battle of Ferrol, 325 Caldiero: battles of (1796), 301; (1805), 326 Calonne, Charles Alexandre de : made minister of finance, 257 Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis de, Duke of Parma: appointed consul, 315; made arch-chancellor of the empire, 322 Cambon, Pierre Joseph : made member of the committee of safety, 285 Cambrai: siege of (1794), 289 Cambrai, League of (1508), 134 Campo-Formio, Peace of (i797), 303 Canopa: battle of (1801), 318 Canrobert, Frangois Certain: assists schemes of Napoleon III, 442; in the Franco-Prussian War, 463 Canton: bombarded (1857), 449 Cape Finisterre : battles of (1747), 240; (180s), 326 Cape St. Vincent: battle of (1759), 246 Carcassonne: siege of (506 a.d.), 20 Caribert, Prankish king: reign of, 26 Carignan, Prince Thomas of: his cam- paigns in the Thirty Years' War, 191 Carnot, Lazare Hippolyte: made mem- ber of the provisional government, 435 Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite: made member of the committee of safety, 285; appointed member of the directory, 296; banished and proscribed, 305 ; leads constitutional party, 358; becomes minister of the interior in Napoleon's council, 361 ; made member of provisional gov- ernment, 365 Carnot, Marie Frangois Sadi, president of the French Republic: election of, 484 Carrel, Armand : opposes the decrees of July 25, 1830, 390 Casal : siege of (1639), 193 Casimir, Prince, of the Palatinate : aids French Protestants, 159 Cassano, Bridge of: battle of (1705), 222 Cassel: battles of (1328), 93; (1677), 212 Castcl-Bolognese : battle of (1797), 302 Castelnaudary: battle of (1632), 188 Castiglione (Castiglione delle Stiviere) : battle of (1796), 299 Castries, Charles Eugene Gabriel de la Croix, Marquis of: in the Seven Years' War, 246 Cathelineau, Jacques : leads insurrection in the Vendee, 283 Catherine II, empress of Russia: acces- sion of, 247 Catlierine de' Medici : marries Henry II of France, 142; regent for Fran- cis II of France, 149; regent for Charles IX of France, 152; regent for Henry HI of France, 159 Catinat, Nicolas: his campaign in Ger- many, 217; his campaigns in the War of Spanish Succession, 220 Cauchon, Pierre, Bishop of Beauvais : condemns Joan of Arc, 116 Caulaincourt, Armand Augustin Louis de, Duke of Vicenza : member of provisional government, 365 Caussidiere : revolt of, 437 Cavaignac, Eugene Louis : made gov- ernor of Algiers, 435 ; made minis- ter of war, 437; made president of the provisional government, 437; arrest of, 441 Cellamare, Prince of: conspires against the Duke of Orleans, 230 Celts : description of, 4 Cerignoles : battle of (1503), 133 Cerisoles: battle of (1544), 143 Chalais, Henry de Talleyrand, Count I N 1) E X 611 of: conspires against Cardinal Rich- elieu, 184 Chalons-sur-Mariic : sec Merj'-stir-Scinc Champ-Aubcrt : battle of (1S14). 346 Chandernagore : taken by the luiglish (1757). 246 Changarnier, Nicolas Anne Theodole : given command of the troops of the second republic, 436; arrest of, 441 Chapelier: death of, 289 Chararic, chief of Courtray: death of, 21 Charette de la Contrie, Frangois Atha- nase : leads insurrection in the Ven- dee, 283; arouses royalists in Brit- tany, 294; taken prisoner, 297 Charlemagne, Holy Roman emperor: consecrated, 40; reign of, 41 Charleroi: siege of (1794), 290 Charles (I) the Great, Holy Roman em- peror: see Charlemagne Charles (H) the Bald, Holy Roman emperor (T, king of France) : fa- vored by his father, 48; reign of, as king of the Franks, 50 ; becomes emperor, 51 Charles (HI) the Fat, Holy Roman emperor (H, king of France) : reign of, 52 Charles V, Holy Roman emperor: ca- reer of, 137 Charles Vl, Holy Roman emperor: ac- cession of, 224; death of, 236 Charles (VH) Albert, Holy Roman emperor: claims imperial crown, 236 ; accession of, 237 ; death of, 239 Charles I, king of France: see Charles (II) the Bald, Holy Roman em- peror Charles H, king of France : see Charles (HI) the Fat, Holy Roman em- peror Charles (III) the Simple, king of France : reign of, 53 Charles (IV) the I'air, king of France: reign of, 90 Charles V, king of France : regent for his father, 99; reign of, 102 Charles VI, king of France : reign of, 106 Charles VII, king of I<>ance : claims throne, 114; reign of, 116 Charles VIII, king of France: reign of, 126 Charles IX. king of France: reign of, Charles (X) of Bourbon, titular king of bVance : declared king, i()6 Charles X, king of France : leaves France, 265 ; attempts invasion of France. 294 ; returns to France, 350 ; his campaign against Napoleon, 360; reign of, 382 ; abdication and exile of, 392 Charles II, king of N^aples: recognized as king, 86; persecutes the Tem- plars, 89 Charles II, king of Navarre: declares war against John of France, 96; taken prisoner by John of France, 97; made captain general of Paris- ian forces, lOl Charles II, king of Spain: death of, 220 Charles IV, king of Spain: abdication "f. 332 Charles (XIV) John (Jean Baptiste Jules I'ernadotte), king of Sweden and Norway : commands the army of the Rhine, 308; made marshal of the French empire, 322; elected heir to the Swedish throne, 338 Charles of Anjou, king of the Two Sici- lies: accession of, 84 Charles, Archduke of Austria: his cam- paigns against the l'"rench. 290, 3aS, 325 Chark"^, Duke of Bourbon (d. 1527) : joins the emperor Charles V, 319 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy : aids Louis XI of I'rance, 1 19; rebels against Louis XI, 122 Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine : ob- tains Lower Lorraine, 58; claims throne, 59 Charles III, Duke of Savoy: at war with Francis I of France, 143 Charles of Blois : at war with jMontfort, 93 Charles of IVtaine: will of, 125 Charles of Valois : named as successor of Pedro III of Aragon, 85; receives Elaine and Anjou, 86 Charles Albert, king of Sardinia : his reforms in Piedmont, 426 Charles Fmmanuel I, king of Sardinia 612 INDEX (III, Duke of Savoy) : forms alli- ance with France, 235 ; claims duchy of Milan, 236 Charles Emmanuel II, king of Sardinia (IV, Duke of Savoy) : abdication of, 307 Charles Emmanuel (T) the Great, Duke of Savoy: at war with Henry IV of France, 172 Charles Emmanuel III and IV, Dukes of Savoy : see Charles Emmanuel I and II, kings of Sardinia Charles Martel : career of, 36 Charlotte of Montmorency: her rela- tions with Henry IV of France, 175 Charlotte of Savoy: marries Louis XI of France, 119 Charton : arrest of, ordered, 201 Chasseloup-Loubat : ministry of, 459 Chateaubriand, Frangois Rene Auguste, Viscount of : at the Verona Con- gress, 379 ; forms a new opposition party, 381 Chateau-Cambrcsis, Peace of (1559), 148 Chateau Thierry: battle of (1814), 346 Chatel, John : attempts to assassinate Henry IV of France, 170 Chatelain : opposes the decrees of July 25. 1830, 390 Chatillon, Odet : plots against the Guises, 150 Chatillon: Count of: his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, 191 Chaulnes, Marshal : his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, 194 Chaumont, Treaty of (1814), 347 Chebreiss : battle of (1798), 309 Chenier, Marie Joseph de : opposes Na- poleon, 319 Cheverny, Bishop of Troyes : made member of the council of regency, 227 Chevert, Frangois : in the War of the Austrian Succession, 237 Chiari : battle of (1701), 220 Childebert I, Frankish king: reign of, 24 Childebert IT, Frankish king: reign of, Childebert HI, Frankish king: reign of, _ 35 _ Childeric I, Frankish king: reign of, 17 Childeric II, Frankish king, reign of, 34 Childeric III, Frankish king: reign of, . 38 . . - . Chilperic, Frankish king : reign of, 26 Choiseul (Choiseul-Amboise), fitienne Frangois, Duke of: urges peace with England, 246; disgraced and banished, 249 Chramme, Frankish prince : rebellion of, 26 Christian IV, king of Denmark : takes part in the Thirty Years' War, 190 Chunda Sahib, nabob of the Carnatic : recognized by the French, 242 Cinq-Mars, Effiat, Marquis of: conspires against Richelieu, 194 Ciudad-Real : battle of (1809), ZZI Clairfait (Clerfayt), Frangois Sebastian Charles Joseph de Croix: his cam- paigns in the Franco-Austrian War, 279 Claremont, Count of: claims guardian- ship of Charles VIII of France, 126 Claude, daughter of Anne of Brittany : marries Francis, Count of Angou- leme, 133 Clausel, Bertrand : governor-general of Algeria, 411 Clemence of Hungary: marries Louis X of France, 89 Clement V, Pope : accession of, 88 Clement VII (Robert of Geneva), anti- Pope : election of, 105 Clement VIII, Pope : absolves Henry IV of France, 170 Clement XIV, Pope: suppresses Jesuits, 248 Clement, Jacques : assassinates Henry HI of France, 165 Clerfayt: see Clairfait Clermont : see Georgovia Clermont, Louis de Bourbon-Conde, Count of: in Seven Years' War, 245 Clermont, Robert of. Marshal of Nor- mandy: death of, 100 Clisson, Oliver: murder of, 94 Clisson, Oliver de : his campaign in Flanders, 107; attempted assassina- tion of, 108 Clive, Robert, Baron Clive of Plassey: his campaign against Dupleix, 242 Cloderic, king of the Ripuarian Franks: reign of, 21 I N D 1 : X 513 Clodoald, Saint : founds monastery, 25 Clodomir, Prankish kinj:;;: roi.tjn of. 24 Clootz, Jean Baptiste dii Val de Ciracc, Baron of: dealli of, 288 Cloth of Gold. Field (^f. 137 Clotilda, Saint: marries Clovis, 19 Clotilda, daughter of Clovis : marries Amalaric, 25 Clovis I, Prankish king, reign of. 18 Clovis TI, Prankish king: reign of. 33 Clovis III, Prankish king: reign of. 35 Clugny de Nuis, Jean ritienne liernard : becomes minister of 'finance, 254 Cobden, Richard : arranges commercial treaty between Prance and England, 451 Coburg (Saxe-Coburg), Priedrieh Jo- sias, Prince of: liis campaign against the Prench revolutionists, 283 ; be- sieges jNlaubeuge, 287 Cocherel : battle of (1364), 103 Coeuves, Marquis of: his campaign in the Valtelline, 183 Coigny, rVangois de : his campaign in Italy, 236 Colbert, Jean Baptiste : becomes minis- ter of finance, 207; sketch of, 208; death of, 215 Colignon : draws up the Edict of Nantes, 171 Coligny, Gaspard de : his campaign in Artois, 148; plots against the Guises, 150; death of, 15S Coligny-Saligny, Jeati, Count of: at battle of Saint-Gothard, 208 Colli, Baron: commands I'iedmontese army, 294; conmiands Auhtri.an army, 302 Collot d'ilerbois, Jean Marie: made member of the connnittee of safety, 285 Colmar: battle of (1674). 211 Colonna, Prosper: captured by l'"rench, 136 Combes, Colonel : his campaign in Italy, 401 Commincs, Philip de: rebels against Anne of Beaujeu, 127; warns Charles VIII against the League of Venice, 131 Commune, Rising of the (1870), 470 Conflans, Treaty of (1465), 122 Concini, Concino, Marquis of Ancre : made mar^lial of Prance, 178; death of, 180 Conde, lleiiry (T) of B(iurl)Oii. I'rinee of: bcennies ch;mipinn nf reliyious free75), 212 Constance, daughter of the Count of Toulouse: marries Robert II of Pr;uice, 67 Constant de Rebecque, Henry picnja- min : opposes Napoleon. 310: leads constitutional party, 358; draws up the Additional Act to the Constitutions of the I'.mpire." 3()i ; his relations to the revolution of 1S30, 3i)r; suggests tlie Duke of (3r- leans ;is successor of Charles N, },^)2. Constant ine: sieges of (1S36), 411 ; siege of (1837), 413 Constantine (1) the (^reat, emperor of Rome: condition of Gaul luuler, 13 Constantinople: captured by the Greeks (1261), 84 Constantius (1) Chlorus, Caesar, em- peror of Rome: condition of (Jaul imder, 13 Constitution of 1875, 479 Consulate, The. 315 Contades, Louis George P.rasme. Mar- quis of: in the Seven Years' War, 245 514 INDEX Conti, Prince of: leaves France (1789), Colli i, Annaiul of I'ourbon, Prince of: arrtstcd, 202 Coote, Sir Ryrt- : liis campaign against tlic siiltaii of Mysore, 257 ("o[)ciiliagcn : bonihardment of (1807), rorlnil, 'IVealy of (1258), 83 Corhirrc, Jacfines, Count of: admitted to llie council, 375; made minister of the interior, 378 ((jrday, Ciiarlolte : slays Marat, 285 Cordova, Don i.ouis: in war with luig- iaiid, 255 Cornwallis, Charles, Lord: In the Amer- ican War, 255 (^orsica: annexed to France, 236 Corunna: battle of (i8oq), 334 Corvetto: made minister of finance, 367 Cotton, l''ather: secures recall of Jesuits to I'"raiice, 175 Courcellcs: battle of (1870), 464 Court, Admiral: at battle of Toulon, 238 Coiirtais, Amable (iaspard Henry de : ap[)ointt'd commruider of the na- tional guard of Paris, 435 Cour(r;is: battle of (1587), 162 Court ray: battle of (1302). 87 Coiithon, (leorges: made member of the committee of safety, 285; forms tri- umvirate with Robespierre and Saint-Just, 2S9; arrest and death of, jgi Cr;iou. John de. Archbishop of Rheims : leader of clerical party, OO Craou, Peter de : attempts to assassi- nate Clisson, 108 ("rassus Hives, Pul)lius Liciiiius : his camiiaigns in Caul, 8 (."rciuieux, Isaac Mo'tse: member of the pro\ isioiud gmernment. 435 Creiuoua : cajitured by luigene of Sa- voy, JJO Creipii, b"rani;ois de Bonne, Marshal de : his campaigns in Italy. 10 1 ; defeat- ed at Consarbriick, J12 Crespy (near Laon), Treaty of (1545). 144 Cressy : battle o{ (1346^ 04 Crevaut-sur-Yonue : battle of (1423), 114 Crevelt: battle of (1758'). 245 Crillon-Mahon, Louis, Duke of: his campaigns against b^ngland, 256 Crimean War, 446 Cromwell, Oliver: forms alliance with I'Vance, 206 Crusades, The, 70 Cumberland, William Augustus, Duke of : in the War of Austrian Succes- sion, 238 ; in the Seven Years' War, 245 Custine, Adrun Philippe, Count of: com- mands the army of the north, 285 ; death of, 287 D Dagobert T, Prankish king: reign of, 31 Dagobert II, Prankish king: sent to Ire- land, 33 ; reign of, 34 Dagobert III, Prankish king: reign of, 35 Dalberg, Duke of : member of provi- sional government, 349 Dambray : made chancellor and keeper of the seals, 356 Damiens : attempts to assassinate Louis XV, 242 Damietta : captured by Louis IX, 81 Dandelot, brother of Coligny: plots against the Guises, 150 Danton, Georges Jacques : excites insur- rection, 270; leader of the Cordelier club, 272 ; leader of the Mountain, 278: death of, 288 Dantzig (Danzig, Dantzic) : sieges of (1733^. -:>i\ (1807'). 330 Darboy. Georges, Archbishop of Paris : death of, 473 D'Arce, Jeanne: see Joan of Arc Darney: introduces compulsory educa- tion bill. 454 Daru. Count: made minister for foreign affairs. 459 Daun. Leopold Joseph Maria, Count von : in the Seven Years' W\ar, 246 Daunou. Pierre Claude Franqois : op- poses Napoleon, 319 Davidovitch : his campaigns against Na- poleon, 301 Davout. Louis Nicolas. Duke of Auer- stadt and Prince of Eckmiihl : made marshal of the empire, 322 INDEX 516 Decazrs, filie: made minister of police, 367 ; made minister of the interior, 370; forms ministry, 372 Delacroix : attacked by mob, 284 Denain : battle of (1712), 224 Denis, Saint : martyred, 12 Dennewitz ; battle of (1813). 343 Desmoulins, Renoit Camille : induces populace to arm against court party, 263, 270; leader of the Cordelier club, 272 ; death of, 288 Despans of Cubijres : scandal concern- ing, 428 Dessoles : made member of Louis XVIII's council, 355 Dessolle, Jean Joseph Paul Augustin, Marquis : ministry of, 370 Dettingen : battle of (1743), 23S Didier, king of the Lombards : at war with Charlemagne. 41 Diego: battle of (1796), 298 Dijon: siege of (1513), I3S Directory, The, 297 Donauwerth : battle of (1703), 221 Doria, Andrea : enters service of the emperor, 141 ; defeats Barbarossa, 143 Douai, Merlin of: made member of the directory, 305 Douzy: battle of (1870), 464 Dragut (Torghud) : ravages coast of Italy, 147 Dresden: battle of (1813), 343 Drcux : battles of (1562), 154; (1590), 167 Dubois, Guillaume : negotiates alliance with England, 228; made prime min- ister, 233 Dubouchage : made minister of marine affairs, 367 Duchatel : becomes minister of trade, 405 ; made minister of nuance in Mole's cabinet, 410 Ducos, Roger: made member of the di- rectory, 309; appointed consul, 315 Duguay-Trouin, Rene: destroys luiglish commerce, 219 Dumouriez, Charles Frangois : member of ministry, 273 ; his campaigns in the Franco-Austrian War, 276; joins Austrians, 283 Dunes, Battle of the (1658), 206 Dunkirk: siege of (1793), 286 l^unois. Count of, son of John of Or- leans : rebels against Anne of Beau- jeu, 127 Dupcrre, Victor Guy: his expedition against Algiers. 389 Dupetit-Thouari?, Abel Aubert : takes possession of the Society Lslands for France, 422 Duphot, General : death of. 306 Dupin, Charles: his relations to the rev- olution of 1830, 391 Dupin, Jean Henri: his relations to the revolution of 1830, 391 Dupleix, Joseph Frangois, Marquis of: his career in India, 240, 242 Duplessis-Praslin : defeats Turenne at Rethel, 203 Dupont de I'Etang, Count Pierre : made minister of war, 356 Dupont de TEure, Charles Jacques : keeper of the seals, 396; member of the provisional government, 435 Duport-Dutertre : death of, 287 Duprat: advises sale of offices of the magistracy, 138; plans union of Brittany with France, 141 Duras. Jacques Henri de Durfort. Duke: his campaign in Germany, 217 Durfort, Henry of: his campaign in Germany, 217 Duvergier de Hauranne, Prosper : op- poses Mole's ministry, 415; opposes Guizot's ministry, 431 East India Company, French : organ- ized, 214 Eastern Question, The, 445 I-^broin : mayor of the palace, 34; death of, 35 Eckmiihl : battle of (1809), 335 I'xduse: battle of (1340), 93 Edgeworth of Firmont, Henry Essex : attends Louis XVI, 281 Edward I, king of England : his differ- ences with Philip HI of France, 87 Edward II, king of England: persecutes the Templars, 89 Edward III, king of England: claims French crown, 92 Edward IV, king of England : invades France, 124 516 INDEX Edward, the Black Piince: at battle of Cressy, 94 EI-Arisch, Convention of (iSoi), 317 Elbee, Gigot d' : supports insurrection in the Vendee, 283 Elchingen: battle of (1805), 326 Eleanor of Aquitaine : marries Louis VI of France, ']2; marries Henry Plan- tagenet, 74 Electoral Law, (1817), 369 Elgin, James Bruce, Earl of: his expe- dition to China, 451 Eliott (Elliot), George Augustus, Baron Heatherfield : defends Gibraltar, 256 Elizabeth, daughter of Francis I of France: marries Philip II of Spain, 149 Elizabeth, Princess of France : death of : 289 Empire of Napoleon I, The, 324 Empire of Napoleon III, The, 445 Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bour- bon-Conde, Duke of: death of, 321 Enghien, Louis of Bourbon, Duke of : see Conde, Louis of Bourbon, Prince of Ensheim: battle of (1674), 211 Entragues, Count of: conspiracy of, 174 Entragues, Henrietta d' : see Verneuil, Henrietta d'Entragues, Marquise of Epernon, Jean Louis de Nogaret de la Valette, Duke of: leader of discon- tented nobles, 172 ; conspires with Marie de' Medici, 180 Epremesnil, Duval of: arrest of, 259; death of, 289 Erfurt, Treaty of (1808), 334 Erkinvald : made mayor of the palace, 33 Erlon : at battle of Waterloo, 363 Ermanfroi : kills Ebroin, 35 Ermengarde, queen of Louie the Pious : plots against Bernard of Italy, 47; death of, 48 Espinosa : battle of (1808), 334 Essling: battle of (1809), 335 Estaing, Charles Hector, Count of : com- mands fleet to aid 'American colo- nies, 254 Estrees, Louis le Tellicr, Count of: president of the council of marine affairs, 227; in the Seven Years' War, 24s Etampes : battle of (ca. 600 a.d.). 30 Etaples, Treaty of (1492), 129 Eu, Count d' : execution of, 96 Eudes, king of France : defends Paris, 53 ; elected king, 53 Eudes, Duke of Toulouse and Aqui- taine: rebellion of, 36; at war with Charles Martel, 36 Eugene of Savoy, Prince : his campaigns against the French, 218; his cam- paigns in the War of Spanish Suc- cession, 220 Eugenie Marie of Montijo: marries Na- poleon III of France, 445 Evangelical Union, 175 Evans, Sir George De Lacy: his serv- ices in the Spanish cause, 410 Evreux : battle of (1364), 103 Eylau: battle of (1807), 330 Fabius Maximus, Quintus, surnamed Allobrogicus : his campaign in Gaul, 7 Fabre d'Eglantine, Philippe Frangois Nazaire : leader of the Cordelier club, 272; death of, 288 Failly, Pierre Louis Charles Achille de: in the Franco-Prussian War, 463 Family Treaty or Compact (1761), 247 Farnese, Alexander: see Paul III, Pope Farnese, Alexander, Duke of Parma : his campaigns in France, 167 Farnese, Ottavio, Duke of Parma : at war with Pope Julius III and Em- peror Charles V, 145 Faur, Louis of : persecution of, 149 Favorite: battle of (1797), 302 Favre, Gabriel Claude Jules : in the elec- tions of 1869, 458 ; proclaims the third republic, 466; made a member of the provisional government, 467 Feltre, Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke, Duke of : made minister of war, 360 ; minister of war, 367 Ferdinand I, Holy Roman emperor : ac- cession of, 147 Ferdinand II, Holy Roman emperor : ac- cession of, 189; death of, 192 Ferdinand III, Holy Roman emperor: his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, 190 INDEX 517 Ferdinand TT, king of Naples and Sicily : flees before Charles VIII of I'raiu-e, 131 Ferdinand (V) the Catholic, kini^ of Spain: concludes alliance with Lonis XIT of France, T33 Ferdinand VIT, king of Spain: acces- sion of, 332 Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria : his campaigns against France, 325 Ferdinand of Brunswick : in the Seven Years' War, 245 Ferrand, Count of Flanders : at war with Philip Augustus of France, 76 Ferrol : battle of (1805), 325 Ferry. Jules Francois Camilla : in the elections of 1869, 458; minister of public instruction, 482; ministry of, 483 Field of the Cloth of Gold, 137 Fieschi Plot, The (1835), 408 Filingshausen : battle of (1761), 247 Fleix, Peace of (1580), 161 Fleurus : battles of (1690), 218; (1704), 290 Fleury, General : assists schemes of Na- poleon TIT, 442 Fleury, Andre Hercule de, P.ishop of Frejus: member of king's council, 234 Fleury, Joly of: made minister of finance, 257 Flour Battle, The (1590), ifxS Flushing: siege of (1809), 336 Foix, Count de: revolts against Louis IX, 80 Foix, Gaston de, Duke of Nemours: his successes in Italy, 134 Fontainebleau, Treaty of (1807), 332 Fontaine-Franc^aise : battle of (1595), 170 Fontenay: battle of (843 a.d.), 50 Fontenoy: battle of (1745). 239 Forcade de la Roquette : made minister of the interior, 459 Force, Marciuis of: defends Montauban, 181 Forest, Pierre de la. Archbishop of Rouen: oi)ens the Fstates (135s), 96 Forey, ftlie Frederic: assists schemes of Napoleon 111. 442; his campaign in Mexico, 453 Formigny : battle of (1453). 118 I'ornovo: battle of (1405^). 131 l'\)rt Saint Jean d'Ulloa: siege of (1837), 413 I'ouche, Jo'^eph, Duke of OtrantcK be- comes minister of police in Napo- leon's council, 361 ; made minister of police, 365 ; member of provi- sional government, 365 Fould, Achille: becomes minister of finance, 452 r^oulon : made member of council, 263 Fouquet, Nicolas : arrest and imprison- ment of, 207 Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine Quentin : death of. 292 France, History of: independent Gaul and Roman Gaul, 3 ; the Germanic invasions and the Merovingian king- doms, 15 ; the empire af Charle- magne, 40 ; feudal France. 63 : reac- tion against feudalism: Philip Au- gustus and Philip the Fair, 75; the Hundred Years' War, 92 ; Joan of Arc and the liberation of France, 114; territorial unity and wars in Italy, i2i ; the Reformation and the Huguenot wars. 145; Henry IV and the reorgani;:ation of France, i(>6; Richelieu and the Thirty Years' War, 183 ; Louis XIV and the su- premacy of France in Europe, 199; Louis XIV and the decline of the French power in Europe. 216; the struggle against arbitrary power under Louis XV, 227; the constitu- tional monarchy, 253; the fall of the monarchy, 272; the First Republic, 278; the directory and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, 297 ; the con- sulate, 315; the empire of Napoleon I, 324; fall of the empire, 340; the restoration of the Bourbons, 355 ; the reaction under Charles X and the revolution of 1830. 374; the monarchy of the property class, 394 ; Guizot's ministry and the revolution of 1848, 415 ; the Second Republic, 435; the empire of Napoleon III, 445 ; the Third Republic, 467 Francis II, Holy Roman emperor: abdi- cates imperial title, 327 Francis (I) of Angouleme, king of 518 INDEX France : marries Claude, 133 ; death of, 136 Francis II, king of I'rance : reign of, 149 Francis II, DLil 3^6 Gensonne, Armand : leads Girondist party, 272 Gerard : becomes minister of public in- struction, 401 ; ministry of, 406 Gergovia (Clermont) : siege of (52 B.C.), 10 Gibraltar: taken by the English (1704), 221; siege of (1782), 256 God, Pea'^e of: published, 68 God, Trttce of: published, 68 Godfrey of Bouillon : leads crusade, 70 Godoy, Manuel de : influence of, 332 INDEX 519 Gohier, L. Jerome : made incml)cr of the directory, 309 Gomez : attempts to assassinate Napo- leon III, 449 Gondebaud, king of Burgundy : at war with Clovis, 19 Gondelour: siege of (1783), 257 Gondcmar, king of Burgundy: defeats Clodomir, 24 Gondcvald : rebelHon of, 29 Gondi, Paul of, Cardinal of Rctz : be- comes leader of parliamentary par- ty, 201 ; removes Condc from power, 203 ; arre^ted, 206 Gonzaga, Charles de, Duke of: revolt of, 178; becomes Duke of ]Mantua and Montferrat, 186 Gonzalvo of Cordova : his campaign in Italy, 133 Goritz: battle of (1809), 336 Goslin, Bishop of Paris : saves Paris, 53 Goudchaux : member of the provisional government, 435 Grammont, Duke of: made minister for foreign affairs, 461 Granada: siege of (1810), 3,^7 Grandella: battle of (1266), 84 Grandson: siege of (1476), 124 Grant, Sir Hope: his expedition to China, 451 Grasse, Franqois Joseph Paul de : in the American War, 256 Gravelines: battle of Ci558), 148 Gravelotte: battle of (1870), 464 Greeks : settle in France, 4 Gregoire, Abbe Henri: opposes Napo- leon, 319 Gregory IV, Pope: attcmi)ts to recon- cile Louis the Pious and his sons, 48 Gregory V, Pope : excommunicates Rob- ert II of France, 67 Gregory VII, Pope: reforms of, 69 Gregory X, Pope : character of, 85 Gregory XI, Pope : death of, 105 Gregory XIV, Pope : supports claims of Charles of Guise, 168 Gregory XVI, Pnpc : promises to make reforms in tlie Pa])al states, 399 Grenada, Treaty of (1500), 133 Grenier : member of provisional govern- ment, 365 Grcvy, Jules, President of the French Republic : presidency of, 481 Grimnald, son of Pippin of Landen : made mayor of the palace, 33 Grimoald, son of Pippin of Heristal : made mayor of the palace, 36 Gros : his expedition to China, 451 Grosbeeren : battle of (1813), 343 Guadet: see Gaudet Guastalla: battle of C1734). 236 Gudstadt: battle of (1807). 331 Guebriant : his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, 194 Guerande, Treaty of (1365), 103 Guesclin, Bertrand du : career of, 102 Guignes: battle of (1814), 346 Guincgate : battles of (1479), 125; _ (1513), 135 Guines, Treaty of (1547), 144 Guise, Charle sof Lorraine, Duke of: see Lorraine, Charles of, Duke of Guise Guise, I'rancois of Lorraine, Duke of : see Lorraine, FraiiQois, Duke of Gui.ic Guise, Henry of Lorraine, Duke of: see Henry of Guise Guizot, FrauQois Pierre Guillaumc: leader of the doctrinaires, ^,72 ; en- ters parliamentary life, 389; his re- lation to the revolution of 1830, 391 ; made minister of the interior, 3{)(i; in Soult's ministry, 402 ; made min- ister of public instruction in jSIoIc's cabinet, 410; ministry of, 415 Gunthram, Prankish king: reign of, 26 Giinzburg: battle of (1805), 326 Gustavus (1) \'asa, king of Sweden: adheres to the Augsburg Confession, 142 Gustavus (II) Adolphus, king of Swe- den: his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, 190 H Hanau : battle of (1813), 343 lianovcr, Treaty of (1725), 234 Hai-iriot (Ilenriot) : arrest and death of, 291 Ilarcourt, Count of (d. 1355) : execu- tion of, 97 520 INDEX Harcourt, Henry of Lorraine, Count of: see Lorraine, Henry of, Count of Harcourt Harfleur: siege of (141S), m Harold, king of England : defeated by William the Conqueror, 68 Hasslach: battle of (1805), 326 Hastenbeck: battle of (i7S7), 245 Hastings: battle of (1066), 68 Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims: mas- ter of Gaul, 51 Hebert, Jacques Rene : death of, 288 Heilsburg: battle of (1807), 331 Helen Louise of Mecklcnburg-Schwerin : marries the Duke of Orleans, 414; appointed regent of France, 434 Heliopolis: battle of (1801), 318 Helvetians : defeated by Csesar, 8 Henries, War of the Three, 161 Henriot: see Hanriot Henry (I) the Fowler, Holy Roman emperor : at war with Rodolph of France, 55 Henry IV, Holy Roman emperor : at war with the Pope, 6g Henry VI, Holy Roman emperor : im- prisons Richard Cceur de Lion. 76 Henry (II) of Transtamare, king of Castile: accession of, 103 Henry I, king of England : at war with Louis VI of France, 72 Henry II, king of England : marries Eleanor of Aquitaine, 74; death of, 75 Henry HI, king of England: at war with Louis IX of France, 80 Henry V, king of England : invades France, iii; death of, 113 Henry VI, king of England and France : accession of, 113 Henry VII, king of England : besieges Boulogne, 129 Henry VIII, king of England: at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, 137; forms alliance with Francis I of France, 141 ; declared head of An- glican church, 142 Henry T, king of France: reign of, 67 Henry TI, king of France: marries Cath- erine de' Alcdici, 142; reign of, T45 Henry III, king of France: at the battle of Jarnac, 156; becomes king of Poland, 158; reign of as king of France, 155 Henry (IV) of Navarre, king of France : becomes champion of religious free- dom in France, 156; marries Mar- garet of Valois, 157: reign of, 166 Henry d'Albret, king of Navarre : taken prisoner at Pavia, 139 Henry of Guise: plots to obtain throne of France, 160; acknowledged as heir to the throne, 161; death of, 164 Herbert, Count of Vermandois : at war with Hugh the Great, 54; makes alliance with Hugh the Great, 56 Herrings, Battle of the (1429), 114 Hervilly, Count of: joins allied forces, 294 lioche, Lazare : his campaign in the west, 297 Hocquincourt, Charles de Monchy, Mar- shal de : in insurrection of the Fronde, 204 Hohenlinden: battle of (1800), 317 Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Prince Freder- ick Louis of: defeated at Jena. 328 Holy Alliance, The (1815), 374 Holy League, The (1511), 134 Holy League, The (1526), 140 Hondtschoote : battle of (1793), 286 Honorius, Emperor of the West: reign of, 16 Hood, Samuel, Viscount : his campaign in France. 285 Hooghlede : battle of (1794), 290 Houchard, Jean Nicolas : commands army of the north, 286; death of, 287 Howe, Richard, Earl Howe: at siege of Gibraltar, 256 Hugh the Great or White, Duke of France: career of, 54; excommuni- cated, 57 Hugh Capet, king of France : becomes Duke of France and Count of Paris, 58; accession of, to throne, 59; reign of, 63 Hugh of Bcauvais: murder of, 67 Hughes, Sir Edward : at battle of Gon- delour. 257 Humann: in Soult's ministry, 402 Hundred Years' War, 92 I N D p: X 521 Ilunold, Duke df Aquitainc: reign of, 40 Hyder Ali Khan : at war with the Eng- lish, 256 T, J, K Ibrahim Pasha : revolt of. 403 Indutiomarus, chief of the 'J'reviri : at war with Rome, g Inkerman : battle of (1854), 447 Innocent IV. Pope : excommunicates John of England, 76 Innocent XI. Pope: his struggle with Louis XIV of France, 213 Innocent XIII, Pope: makes Dubois a cardinal, 233 Investitures, War of, 69 Ircnasus, Saint, Bishop of Lyons : builds up the church at Lyons, 12 Isabella II, queen of Spain : driven from her throne, 461 Isabella of France, queen of Edward II of England : character of. 89 Isabelle of Bavaria, queen of I'rance : character of, 109; made regent of France, 112 Isly: battle of the (1844). 423 Isnard, Maximin : leads Girondist party, 272; opposes Napoleon, 319 Jacquerie, Rising of the, loi James II, king of England : deposed, 217; attempts to regain his crown, 218 James IV, king of Scotland: death of, 135 Jancourt, De : member of the provi- sional government, 349 January: Edict of (1562). 153 Jarnac: battle of (1569), 156 Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre : de- clared to have forfeited her royal dignity, 155; leads Protestants, 156 Jeannin: draws up the Edict of Nantes, 171 Jemappes: battle of (1792), 279 Jena: battle of (1806), 328 Jesuits: expelled from France (1594), 170; recalled to France (1603), 175; suppressed in France (1764), 247; forbidden to instruct children, 387 Jews: persecuted by Pliilip V of France, 90; expelled from France, 109 Joan of Arc: career of, 114 John, king of ICngland : revolts against Henry II. 75; accession of. 76 John II. king of iVance : reign of, 95 John (IV) of Braganza. king of Por- tugal : accession of, 193 John, Archduke of Austria : his cam- paigns against the French, 317, 325 John (I) the Fearless, Duke of Bur- gundy: his campaigns against the Turks, 109; procures assassination of the Duke of Orleans, no; at war with the Count of Armagnac, no; at battle of Azincourt. ni John II. Duke of Burgundy: claims guardianship of Charles VIII of France. 126 John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster : in- vades France. 104 John of Leyden : leads uprising of Ana- baptists, 142 Joinville, Frangois Ferdinand Philippe Louis Marie d'Orleans, Prince of: his expedition against Mexico, 413; his campaign in Algiers. 423 Joseph I, Holy Roman emperor: carries on the War of Spanish Succession. 222; death of. 224 Joseph of Navaro : at battle of Toulon. 2.38 Josephine, empress of tlie French : crowned, 323 ; Napoleon repudiates, Jourdan, Count Jean Baptistc: his cam- paign against the allied forces. 287; made marslial of the empire. 322 Jourdan, Camille : leader of the doctrin- aires, 37T Joyeuse, Anne, Viscount de : at battle of Courtras, 162 Juarez. Benito Pablo; at war with the French, 453 Julian the Apostate, emperor of Rome: his campaign in Gaul, 14 Juliers: siege of (1610), 177 Julius II, Pope: favors Spaniards in Italy. T33; death of. 135 Julius HI, Pope: at war with the Duke of Parma, 145 July, Edict of (1561). 152 Junot. Audoche: his campaign in Portu- gal, 332 522 INDEX Karlmann, son of Pippin I and king of the Franks : reign of, 41 Karlmann (d. 884), Prankish king: reign of, 52 Karlmann, son of Charles Martel : ca- reer of, 38 Katzbach: battle of (1813), 343 Kellermann, Frangois Christophe : his campaigns in the Franco-Anstrian War, 276; at battle of Waterloo, 363 Kempen: battle of (1641), 194 Keppel, Augustus, Viscount: in battle with Orvillicrs, 254 Kleber, Jean B.iptiste : commands army in Egypt. 310; concludes the Con- vention of El-Arisch, 317 Klostcrscven, Convention of (i7S7), 245 Kolin: battle of (1757), 245 Konieh: battle of (1832), 403 Koniggratz: battle of (1866), 455 Korbach: battle of (1760), 246 Kraminski, General : his campaign against Napoleon, 329 Krasnoe: battle of (1812), 341 Kra3% Paul, Baron of Krajowa: his cam- paign against the French, 316 Kulm: battle of (1813), 343 Kutusoff (Kutusov), Mikhail Ilariono- vitch Golenishtcheff : at battle of Borodino, 341 La Bedoyere, Count Charles Ange- lique de : death of, 368 La Bourdonnais (Labourdonnaie), Ber- trand Frangois Mahe de: his career in India. 240 La Feuillade, Count of: at battle of Saint-Gothard, 208 La Hogue : battle of (1692), 219 La Meilleraye : his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, 194 La None: battle of (1589), 165 La Reveillere-Lepeaux, Louis Marie: appointed member of the directory, 296 La Rochejacquelin, Henry du Verger, Count : supports insurrection in the Vendee, 283 La Rothicre: battle of (1814), 345 La Rotta: battle of (1639), 193 La Tour d'Auvergne: made minister for foreign affairs, 459 La Tremouille, Louis U, Sire de : his campaign against the rebel princes, 128; besieges Novara, 132 La Tremoville, Duke of: leader of dis- contented nobles, 172 La Vauguyon, Duke of: made member of council, 263 Lacave-Laplagne : made minister of finance, 412 Lacroix : death of, 288 Ladies' Peace (1529), 141 Ladmirault, Louis Rene Paul de : in the Franco-Prussian War, 463 Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert du Motier, Marquis of : elect- ed vice-president of the national as- sembly, 264; at the Champ de Mars, 268; his campaign in Belgium, 273; leads constitutional party, 358; his relation to the revolution of 1830, 391 Laffilte, Jacques : his relation to the rev- olution of 1830, 391 ; ministry of, 397 Laine, Joseph Henry Zoachim, Viscount : made minister of the interior, 367 ; admitted to the council, 375 Lake Maggiore: battle of (1636), 192 Lally, Thomas Arthur, Count of: his campaign in India, 246 Lally-Tollendal, Trophime Gerard, Mar- quis of : urges nobles to resume their seats in the assembly, 203 Lamarque, IMaximilien, Count: his cam- paign in the Vendee, 361 ; funeral of, 402 Lamartine, Alphonse Marie Louise : op- poses Guizot's foreign policy, 430; member of the provisional govern- ment, 435 _ _ Lamballe, Marie Thercse Louise de Sa- voie-Carignan de, Princess de : death of, 276 Lamoignon : keeper of the seals, 258 Lamoriciere, Christophe Leon Louis Juchault de : his campaign in Al- giers, 429; arrest of, 441 Lancaster, John, Duke of : see John of Gaunt, Did'ce of Lancaster Landais: influence of, 127; death of, 128 Landrecics: siege of (1794), 289 Landriano: battle of (1528), 141 I N D E X o^^;^ Laiijuiiiais, Jean Denis, Count: pleads for Louis XVI's life, 2S1 ; incites in- surrection in the departments, 284; opposes Napoleon, 319; leads consti- tutional party, 358 Lannes, Jean : made marshal of the em- pire, 322 ; at hattle of Pultusk, 329 Laon: battle of (1814), 347 Latour-]\Iaubourg, Charles Fay, Mar- quis of: becomes minister of war, y72 Laudon, ]jaron Gideon lu'iist von: in the Seven Years' War, 246 Lautrec, Marshal de : his campaign in Italy, 141 Laverdi : death of, 289 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent : death of, 289 Law, John : schemes of, 229 Lawfeld: battle of (1747), 240 Le Brun (Lebrun), Charles Frangois : appointed consul, 315; made arch- treasurer of the empire, 322 Lc Tellier, Michel: minister of war, 207 Le Tourneur: appointed member of the directory, 296. 303 League of the Public Good, 122 Lebas, Philippe Frangoih : arrest and death of, 291 Lebocuf, Fdmond : becomes minister of war, 459 Lech: battle of (1631), 190 Leconte, Claude ?^lartin: captured by th.e commune, 470 Lcdru-Rollin, Alexandre Anguste : mem- ber of the provisional government, 435; attempts to incite insurrection in Paris, 439 Leflo, Adolphe Emmanuel Charles : ar- rest of, 441 Legcr, P)ishop of Autun: rebellion of, 34 Legion of Honor, Order of: established, 310 Legnano : battle of (r79(iL 300 Leipsic: battles of (1031), J 90; (1S13), 343 Lemaitre, Jolm : presents w ishes of the Parlement to Mayenne, i()8 Lens: battle of (1648), 200 Leo ITT, Pope: implores aid from Char- lemagne. 44 Leo X, Pope: accession of, 135 Lcoben, Treaty of (1797), 303 Leopcild T. king of Belgium: accc>>ion of, 390 Leopold, Duke of Austria : betrays Rich- ard Cccur de Lion, 76 Lerida: battles of (1642), 194; (1646), 199 Lescure, Louis !Marie, Marquis de : sup- ports insurrection in the Vendee, 283 Lesdiguieres, Constable: conversion of, 182 Lestucq, Count Johann Hermann: his campaign against Napoleon, 329 Leuthen : battle of (1757). 245 Leuze: battle of C1691), 218 Liege: revolt of, 12^^ Liegnitz: battle of (1760). 246 Lis^ny: battle of ('1815), 362 Lions, Treaty of (1601), 172 Lobrui, George Mouton, Count of: at battle of Waterloo. }<:^^ Lobositz: b.attle of (1756). 244 Lodi. Bridge of: battle of (1796), 298 Lonato: battle of (171)6). 299 Longjumeau, Peace of (1568), 156 Longucville, Duke of: revolt of, 178; ar- rested, 202; death of. 210 Longucville, Anne Genevieve of Bour- bon-Conde, Duchess of: routes Tu- renne against the court, 203 Loria, Roger of: commands fleet against Charles of Anjou. 85 Lorraine, Charles IV, Duke of: at war with Louis XIII of b'rance, 189; de- feated by Turenne, 21 r Lorraine, Charles V, Duke of: his cam- paign against the I'rencli, 217 Lorraine, Charles of. Duke of Guise: claims throne of I'raiice. i(>8: his campaign in the Thirty Years' War, 191 Lorraine, Charles of Guise, Cardinal of: urges persecution of ProtestaiUs, \Y)\ regent for I'Tancis H of I'rance, 140 Lorraine. bTancis. Duke of Guise : cap- tures Calais, 148: regent for I'Tancis 11 of I'Tance, 149; death of, 154 Lorraine. Henry of. Duke of Guise: see 1 lenry of (aiise Lorraine. Henry of. Count of Harcourt : his caiupaign in the Thirty ^'ears War. 193 Lothaire I, Holy Roman emperor: asso- 524 INDEX ciated with Louis I as emperor, 47; revolt of, 48; death of, 51 Lothaire I, Prankish king: reign of, 24 Lothaire IT, Prankish king: reign of, 51 Lothaire III, Prankish king: reign of, Lothaire, king of Prance: reign of, 58 Loudun, Treaty of (1616), 179 Louis (T) the Pious, Holy Roman em- peror: crowned king of Aquitaine, 43; acknowledged as emperor, 44; reign of, 46 Louis (II) the Young, Holy Roman em- peror: reign of, 51 Louis the Germnn, Prankish king: at war with Lothaire, 49 Louis I, king of Prance : see Louis I, Holy Roman emperor Louis (II) the Stammerer, Prankish king: reign of, 52 Louis III, Prankish king : reign of, 52 Louis (IV) d'Outre Mer, king of Prance : reign of, 55 Louis V, king of France : reign of, 59 Louis VI, king of France : reign of, 71 Louis (VII) the Young, king of Prance : associated in the government with Louis VI, T2 ; reign of, 73 Louis VIII, king of Prance : invades England, '^y ; reign of, 80 Louis (IX), Saint, king of France: reign of, 80 Louis X, king of France : reign of, 89 Louis XI, king of Prance: leads rebel- lion against military reforms, 117; marries Charlotte of Savoy, 119; reign of, T21 Louis XII, king of France : claims guar- dianship of Charles VIII, 126; reign of, 132 Louis XIII, king of France: birth of, 173; reign of, 177 Louis XIV, king of France: birth of, i8g; reign of, 199 Louis XV, king of France : reign of, 227 Louis XVI, king of France: birth of, 241 : reign of, 253 ; death of, 282 Louis XVII, titular king of France: pro- claimed king, 285; death of, 294 Louis (XVIII) Stanislaus Xavier, king of France : declared deprived of re- gency, 272; recognized as king, 294; accession of, 350; reign of, 355; death of, 382 Louis I, titular king of Naples (Duke of Anjou) : claims regency for Charles VI of Prance, 106 Louis, Count of Flanders : solicits aid from Charles V of Prance, 106; his struggles to retain his throne, 107 Louis, Baron : made minister of finance, 356 ; made minister of finance, 370 ; made minister of finance in Perier's cabinet, 399 Louis of Bourbon, Prince of Conde : see Conde, Louis of Bourbon, Prince of Louis Philip, king of France : his cam- paign against Napoleon, 360; made lieutenant-general of the kingdom, 392 ; accession of, to throne, 393 ; reign of, 394; abdication of, 434 Louisa of Savoy : proposes marriage to the Duke of Bourbon, 139; negoti- ates the Ladies" Peace, 141 Louisiana : sold to the United States, 320 Lovers, War of the, 160 Louvet de Couvray, Jean Baptiste : in- cites insurrection in the departments, 284 Louvois, Frangois IVlichel le Tellier, Marquis of: creates a new navy for France, 208; orders ravaging of the Palatinate, 217 Lowentahl (Lowendal), Count Frederic Waldemar of: in the War of the Austrian Succession, 240 Lowoestine : assists schemes of Napo- leon III, 442 Lubeck, Peace of (1629), 190 Luckner, Count Nikolaus : his campaign in Belgium, 273 Luneville, Peace of (1801), 317 Luther, Martin: sketch of his career, 138 Lutterberg: battle of (17,^8). 245 Liitzen: battles of (1632), 190; (1813), 343 Luxemburg: siege of (1795), 293 Luxembourg, Francis Henry, Duke of: his campaigns in the War of the League of Augsburg, 217 Luynes, Charles d'Albert, Duke of: in- fluence of, 180 Luzara: battle of (1703), 320 Lyonne : minister of foreign affairs, 207 INDEX 525 M Macdonald, fitienne Jacques Joseph Al- exandre : commands arni\- in Na- ples, 308; his campaign against Na- poleon, 360 Machault, Edict of, 241 Machault d'Arnouvillc, Jcasi Baptistc : death of, 289 MacMahon, Marie Ednni Patrice Mau- rice de : in the I'ranco-Prussian War, 463 ; elected president of the French Republic, 477 Madelin: battle of (1809), 337 Madrid, Treaty of (1526), 140 Maestricht: siege of (1748), 240 Magdeburg: battle of (1792), 275 Magenta: battle of (1859), 451 Maggiore: battle of (1636), 192 Magnan : assists schemes of Napoleon III, 442 Magnano: battle of (1799), 3c8 Mahomet Ali : claims of, supported by the English, 242 IMaille: death of, 289 Maillotins, The, 107 Maine, Louis Auguste de Bourbon, Duke of: given tutorship of Louis XV of France, 227; conspires against the the regent, 230 Maintenon, Madame de : her relations with Louis XIV, 216; closing days of, 226 Malaga: battle of (1704), 221; taken by French (1810), 337 Afalakoff: captured by the French, 448 Malesherbes, Christian William de Lamoignon of: placed over the king's household, 253 ; resigns, 254 ; counsel for Louis XV I, 280; death of, 289 Malines, League of (1513). 135 Malojaroslawetz (Maloyaroslavets) : bat- tle of (1812), 342 Malouet, Victor : made minister of the naval department, 356 Malplaquet: battle of (1710), 223 Man, Society of the Rights of: organ- ized, 404 Mandat, A. J. Gaillot de : death of. 275 Manfred, king of Naples : death of, 84 Mansourah: battle of (1249), 81 Marat, Jean Paul : leader of the Moun- tain, 278; lends movement to crubh Girondists, 2R4 ; death of. 285 Marcel, ftticnne : leader of Tiiird Estate, 96: power of. too; death of, 101 Marche, Count de la : revolts again.>t Louis IX. 80 Marengo: battle of (1800), 317 ^Margaret of Provence: marries Louis IX of France, 80; holds Damietta, 81 Margaret of Valois : marries Ifenry of Navarre, 157; divorced frc^m Henry, 171 IMarguerite of Austria: negotiates the Ladies' Peace. 14T IMarguerite of Burgundy : death of, 89 Marguerite of Lorraine : marries Gaston of Orleans, 188 Maria Leczinski : marries Louis XV of France, 234 jNIaria Louisa, empress of the French : marries Napoleon, 338 Marie : member of the provisional gov- ernment. 435 ]\Iarie Antoinette, ciuecn of France: death of. 2S7 Marie de' Medici: marries Henry IV of France, 172; claims the regency of France for Louis XIH. 177; exiled from court, iSo Marignano: battle of (1515). 136 Marillac, Louis de : death of, 188 Marlborough. John Churchill, Duke of: his campaign in I-"lamlers, 220 Marmont. Auguste I'rederic Louis Vicsse de. Duke of Ragusa : his cami)aign in the Peninsula, 339; placed in conunand of Paris, 390 Marriages, 'i'he Si)anish (1846). 425 Marseilles: founded, 4; siege of (1524), 139 Marsin (}>Iarchin). la'rdinand. Count of: his campaigns in the \V';ir of Sjianish Succession. 221 ; death of, 222 Martignac. Jean ]^)aptiste Sylvere Gaye. Viscount: ministry of. 387 Martin IV, Pope: siipi)orts Charles of Anjou. 85 Mary of I'urgundy: sketch of, 125 Mary Queen of Scots: death of, 162 IMary Stuart : marries Louis XII of France, 135 59t6 INDEX Massena, Andre: his campaign against the allied forces, 293 ; his campaigns under the directory, 298; his cam- paign in Switzerland, 308; made marshal of the empire, 322 Matthews, Admiral : at battle of Toulon, 238 Matthews: his campaign in India, 257 Maubeuge: ^iege of (i793), 287 Maugin : his relation to the revolution of 1830, 391 Maupas : assists schemes of Napoleon in, 442 Maupeou, Rene Nicolas Charles : re- forms of, 249 Maurepas, Jean Frederic Philippe, Count of: made prime minister, 253; death of, 257 Maurice, Duke of Saxou}' : given elec- torate of Saxonj', 145 Maurice of Saxony : see Saxe, Count Maurice de Maximian, emperor of Rome: his cam- paign against the Salic Franks, 15 Maximilian I, Holy Roman emperor: at war with Charles VIII of France, 127 Maximilian (Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph), emperor of Mexico: ac- cession of, 453; death of, 455 Mayence: siege of (1793), 283 Mayenne, Henry of Lorraine, Duke of: revolt of, 178 Mayenne, Charles de Lorraine, Duke of: his campaign against the Protestants (1577). 160; proclaimed lieutenant- general of the kingdom, 164 ; sub- mits to Henry IV of France, 170; death of, 181 Mazarin (Mazarini), Jules Giulio : made prime minister, 199; banished, 203 ; returns to France, 204 ; dis- missed by Anne of Austria, 205 ; recalled to Paris, 206; death of, 207 Mediation, Act of (1802), 320 IMcdici, Catherine de' : see Catherine de' Medici Medici, Pierre de : Florentines rise against, 130 Medina de Rio-Secco : battle of (1808), 223 Melegnano : battle of (1850), 451 Menou, Baron Jacques Frangois de: made commander-in-chief in Egypt, 3i8_ Menschikov (Menshikoff), Prince Alex- ander Danilovitch : in the Crimean War, 446 !Mercoetir, Duke of: supports claims of Philip II of Spain to the crown of France, 170 Mercy, Claudius Florimond, Count : his campaign in Sicily, 231 Merovius, king of the Franks : at battle of Mery-sur-Seine, 17 Merovius, Frankish prince : marries Brunhilda, 27 Merseburg: battle of (933 a.d.), 55 Mersen, Edict of (847 A.u.), 5t Mery-sur-Seine (Chalons-sur-Marne) : battle of (451 A.D.), 17 Mettcrnich, Prince Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von : summons the Carlsbad Conference, 374 Metz: siege of (1552), 146; capitulation of (1870), 468 Mezicres: siege of (1521), 138 Michaud : his campaigns against the allied forces, 290 Michel de I'Hopital : opposes introduc- tion of the inquisition, IKJ Mignet, Frangois Auguste Marie: op- poses the decrees of July 25, 1830, 390 Milan, Duchy of: conquered by the French, 136 Milhaud, at battle of Waterloo, 363 Millesimo: battle of (1796), 298 Minden: battle of (1759), 245 Mirabeau, Gabriel Honore Riquetti, Count : makes motion decreeing in- violability of members of the na- tional assembly, 263 ; his efforts in favor of the court, 269 Miromesnil, Hiie of : made keeper of the seals, 253 Mogador: bombarded (1844), 423 Mole, Louis Matthieu. Count: made minister for foreign affairs, 396; ministry of, 410; attempts to form a ministry, 432 Mole, Edward : advises refusal of the claims of Philip II of Spain to the throne of France, 168 INDEX 627 Moltke, Count Ilelmuth Karl P.cniliard von : in the Fran^o-Prus^ian War, IMolwitz : baUle of (}j\\), j^^.~ Monccy, Bon Adn'cn Jcannol de : made marslial of the emi)ire, pi22; made % member of Louis XVIIl's council, 355 JMoncontour : battle of (1570), 156 Mondovi: battle of (1796), 298 i^Iormont: battle of (1814), 346 Mons-en-Puelle: battle of (1304), 1S7 Monsieur, Peace of (1576), 159 Montalembert, Charles Forbes, Count: opposes the September Laws, 40S IMontalivet, Camille de : becomes min- ister of the interior, 401 ; made minister of the interior in Mole's cabinet, 412 Montauban : siege of (1621), 18 r jMontauban : his expedition to China, 451; ministry of, 464 Montebello: battles of (1800), 316; (1859), 450 Montecuccoli, Count Raimondo : at battle of Saint-Gothard, 20S: his campaign against the French, 211 IMontemart, Duke of: ordered to form a ministry, 391 Montenotte: battle of (1796), 298 Montereau : battle of (1814), 346 Montesquiou, Abbe de : member of pro- visional government, 349; made minister of the interior, 356 Montesquiou, Marshal of: his govern- ment of Brittany, 230 Montfort, John de, Duke of Brittany: plans assassination of Clisson, 108 IVIontfort, Simon de : leads crusaders against the Albigenses, 78; at war with Charles of Blois, 93 Montgomery, Gabriel : death of, 159 Montiel: battle of (1369), 104 MontlbcTy: battle of (1465), 122 Montlosier: opposes the Jesuits, 384 Montluc, Blaise de Laiseran-Massen- come, Seigneur de: at siege of Sienna, 147 Alontmirail, Peace of (1169), 74 Montmirail: battle of (1814), 346 Montmorency, Anne de : saves Alezicres, 138; his influence over Henry II of France, 145; plots against the Guises, 149; plots massacre of the Protestants. 154 M()ntni()n.iK"y, Henry H, \h\kv of: re- belli2>7\ consecrates Napoleon, 322; reestablishes the order of the Jesuits, 357 Pius IX, Pope : reforms of, 426 Plantagenet, Geoffrey, Count of Anjou: claims English throne, 72 Plebiscites: (1851), 442; (1852), 444 Poictiers : battles of (507 a.d.), 20; (1356), 98 Poictiers, Battle of (732 a.d.), 27 Pointis, Jean Bernhard Louis Desjeau, Baron of: captures Carthagena, 219 Poissy, Conference of (1561), 152 Poland, Partitions of, 250 Polignac, INIadame de : urges dismissal of Brienne, 260 Polignac, Armand of : plots against Na- poleon's life, 322 Polignac, Jules Auguste Armand Marie, Prince of : made member of the council, 388; trial of, 397 Poltrot, John, of Mere : assassinates Francis of Guise, 154 Pompadour, Madame de : her influence over Louis XV, 244 Pondicherry: founded, 214; captured by the Dutch, 2:9; captured by the English (1760), 246; captured by the English (1778), 256 Pont-de-Ce: battle of (1620), 181 Portal: made minister of marine affairs, 370 Posthumus, emperor of Rome: accession and death of, 13 Pothinus, Bishop of Lyons : martyred, 12 Prague: battle of (1757), 245 Prague, Battle of (1620) : see White Mountain Presburg, Treaty of (1805), 326 Prignano, Bartholomew : see Urban VI Pritchard Case, The (1842), 422 INDEX 531 Procida, John of: leads conspiracy against Charles of Anjou, 85 Public Good, Leagtie of the, 122 Puiraveau : his relation to the revolution of 1830, 391 Puisaye, Joseph, Marquis of: joins the allied forces, 294 Pultusk: battle of (1806), 329 Pyramids, Battle of the (1798), 309 Pyrenees, Peace of the (1659), 207 Quadruple Alliances: (1716), 228; (1834), 403 Quasdanovitch : his campaign against the French, 299 Quatre-Bras: battle of (1815), 362 Quebec: taken by the English (1759), 246 Quinette : member of provisional gov- ernment, 365 Raab: battle of (1809), 336 Rabaud-Saint-Etienne : speaks in behalf of Louis XVr, 281 Raglan, Fitzroy James Henry Somerset, Baron : in the Crimean War, 447 Ragnachar, chief of Thcrouanne : death of, 21 Ramillies: battle of (1706), 222 Rantzau, Count of: defeated at battle of Tuttlingen, 199 Rastatt: battle of (1796), 299 Rastatt, Peace of (1713), 225 Ratisbon: battle of (1809), 335 Ratisbon, Diet of (1630-1631), 187, igo Ratisbon, Truce of (1683), 212 Ravaillac, Francis : assassinates Henry IV of France, 176 Ravenna: battle of (1512), 134 Raymond (IV) of Saint Gilles, Count of Toulouse : leads crusade, 70 Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse : fa- vors the reformers, 'j'j Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse : con- tinues the war against the Pope, 78 Raymond, Roger, Viscount of Bcziers : favors the reformers, 'JJ Regenfried : made mayor of the palace, .36 Reille, Honore Charles Michel Joseph, Count: at battle of Waterloo, 363 Remusat, Count Francois Marie Charles de : opposes the decrees of July 25. 1830, 390 Rciie, Duke c>f Lorraine; defeats Charles the Rash, 124 Rene of Anjou, Duke of Lorraine and Provence and titular king of Na- ples and Sicily: requests aid from Charles VII of France, 118; aban- doned by Louis XI of France, 124; death of, 125 Renti: battle of (1552), 147 Republics of France: first, 278; second, 435; third, 467 Rethel : battle of (1650), 203 Revolution, The French, 251 Revolution, The Swiss, 306 Revolution of 1830, 374 Revolution of 1848, 415 Rewbel, Jean Frangois : appointed mem- ber of the directory, 296 Richard (I) Coeur de Lion, king of Eng- land: accession of, 75; joins cru- saders, 75 Richard II, king of England: accession of, 105 ; aids Flemings, 107 Richard the Fearless, Duke of Nor- mandy : accession of, 56 Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel du Plessis, Duke of: first ministry of, 367 ; second ministry of, 372 Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Car- dinal and Duke of: enters the gov- erning council, 179; negotiates peace between Marie de' Medici and Louis XIII, 180; made cardinal, 182; ca- reer of, 183 RicheHeu, Louis Frangois Armand du Plessis, Duke of : in the Seven Years' War, 244 Richemont, Arthur de Bretagne, Count of : made constable of France, 1 14 Rigault de Genouilly, Admiral : made minister for naval affairs, 459 Rights of Man, Society of the : organ- ized, 404 Rigny, Henry Gauthier, Count of: at battle of Navarino, 387 ; becomes minister for foreign affairs, 405 Rivet-Vitet Law (1871), 475 Riviere, Charles of: plots against Na- poleon's life, 322 Rivoli: battle of (1797), 302 532 INDEX Rhine, Confederation of the : formed, Rhumberg: battle of (1760), 246 Robert I, king of France: saves Paris, 53; elected king, 54 Robert 11, king of France : reign of, 66 Robert the Strong, Count of Anjou: in- trusted with defense of the northern frontier, 51 Robert (!) the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy: aids Henry I of France, 67 Robert If, Duke of Normandy: leads crusade, 70 Robert of Artois : career of, 93 Robert of Geneva : see Clement VII Robespierre, Augustin Bon Joseph : ar- rest and death of, 291 Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isadore : rules the Jacobin club, 272 ; leader of the Mountain, 278; leads move- ment to crush Girondists, 284 ; made member of the committee of safety, 285 ; forms triumvirate with Saint- Just and Couthon, 289; arrest and death of, 291 Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeure, Count of : his campaign in America, 255 ; his campaign in Belgium, 273 Roche- Abeille : battle of (1569), 156 Rochefort, Henri : edits La Lanterne, 457; persecution of, 458; publishes the Marseillaise, 460 Rochelle: sieges of (1572), 158; (1621), 181; (1627-1628), 185 Rocoux : battle of (1747), 240 Rocroi : battle of (1643), 199 Rodney, Sir George Brydges : at battle of St. Lucia, 256 Rodolph, king of I'Vance : reign of, 54 Roger de Nesle : appointed regent, 84 Rohan, Viscount of: joins rebellion against Anne of Beaujeu, 128 Rohan, Henry, Duke of: leads Hugue- not uprising, 183; goes into exile, 187 Roland, de la Platiere, Jean Marie: member of Girondist ministry, 273 Rollo, Duke of Normandy: reign of, 54 Rome: sieges of (1527), 140; (1849), 439 Homorantin, Edict of (1560), 152 Rooke, Sir George : at battle of Vigo, 221 Rosebek: battle of (1382), 107 Roses, War of the, 123 Rossbach : battle of (1757), 245 Rostopchin, Count Feodor: sets fire to Moscow, 342 Rouen: siege of (1562), 154 Rouher, Eugene : becomes minister of state, 454 ; becomes president of the senate, 459 Rouille: peace envoy to Holland, 223 Roussin, Admiral : his expedition against Portugal, 399 Roveredo : battle of (1796), 300 Roy, Count Antoine : becomes minister of finance, 372 Royer-Collard, Pierre Paul : leads con- stitutional party, 358; leads the doc- trinaires, 371 ; opposes the Septem- ber Laws, 408 Rudio : attempts to assassinate Napo- leon III, 449 Ruel, Peace of (1649), 202 Russell, Edward, Earl of Orford : at battle of La Hogue, 219 Ruyter, Michel Adriaanszoon de : his . struggles against the French and English, 210; death of, 212 Ryswick, Peace of (1697), 219 Saarbriicken: battle of (1870), 463 Sabinus, lieutenant of Caesar's : his cam- paign in Gaul, 9 Sable, Treaty of (1488), 128 Sacken : his campaign against Napoleon, 346 Sadowa: battle of (1866), 455 Saint Andre, Jacques d'Albon de: forms league with the Guises, 152; death of, 154 Saint- Antoine : battle of (1653), 205 St. Arnaud : assists schemes of Napo- leon III, 442; in the Crimean War, 447 Saint Aubin du Cormier: battle of (1488), 128 Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of (1572), 157 I N D E X 533 Saint Cloud. Convention of (1815), ,365 Saint-Cyr, Gouvion : his reforms in the army, 366; minister of war in Rich- eheu ministry, 367 St. Denis: battle of (1567), 155 Saint-Denis, Mathieu de : appointed re- gent, 84 Saint Germain, Peace of (1570'), 157 Saint Germain, Claude Louis, Count of: made minister of war, 253 St. Gilles, Council of (1212), 78 Saint-Gothard : battle of (1664), 208 Saint Jacques: battle of (1444), 118 St. Jean d'Acre, sieges of: (1194), 75; (^79^). 309 St. John Lateran, Council of, 135 Saint-Just, Antoine : made member of the committee of safety, 285 ; forms triumvirate with Robespierre and Couthon, 289 ; arrest and death of, 291 St. Lucia: battle of (1782). 256 Saint-Ouen : Declaration of (1814), 355 St. Philip: siege of ('1756), 244 Saint Pol, Louis de Luxembotirg, Count of: execution of, 124 Saint-Pol, General : his campaign in Italy, 141 Saint-Simon, Louis de Rouvro)-, Duke of: made member of the council of regency, 227 Sainte-Menehould, Treaty of (1614), 178 Saintes : battle of (1242), 81 Saladin : conquests of. 75 Salamanca: battle of (1812), 343 Salic Law : first application of, in France, 90 Salvandy: made minister of public in- struction, 412 Salverte : his relations to the revolution of 1830, 391 Salzbach: battle of (1675), 21: Sancerrc : siege of (1572), 158 Santerre, Antoine Joseph : leader of the populace, 272 Saratoga: battle of (1778), 254 Saragossa : battle of (1710), 223 Sauzet: made minister of justice, .}09 Saxe, Coiuit Maurice de (Maurice of Saxony) : in the War of the .Aus- trian Succession, 237 Saxe-Coburg, Friedrich Josias, Prince of: see Coburg, Friedrich Josias, Prince of Scherer, Rarthelemy Louis Joseph: his campaigns against t!;e allied fnrce.^, 293; command^ army in Italy, 308 Schomberg, Henry, Cfniiit of: draws up the Fdict of Nantes, 171 SchTmbrunn, Treaty of (1805), ;^2(') Schwanstadt : battle of (1800), 317 Seasons, Society of the: instigates a riot, 417 Sebastiaui, Count Fran(;(iis Ilnrace Pa- tien : negotiates treaty with the sul- tan of Turkey, 330: his relations to the revolution of 1830. 391 ; inadt' miiu'ster for foreign affairs, 390 Sebastopol : siege of (1854-1855), 447 Sedan: battle of (1870), 464 Segur, Chancellor: keeper of the seals, 207 Seminara: battle of (1503). 133 Senef: battle of (1674), 211 Senegal : taken by the English, 246 Scnlis, Treaty of (1495), 129 Sens: battle of (ca. 600 A.n.), 30 September, Laws of (1835), 408 Serrano y Dominguez, Francisco, Duke de la Torre: regent of Spain, 461 Serrc, Hercule, Count of: made keeper of the seals, 370 Serrurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert: his campaign against the allied powers, 294; his campaigns under the direct- ory, 290 Seven Weeks' War, 455 Seven Years' War, 244 Seville: taken by French (1810), X^7 Seze, De : counsel for Louis XVI, 280 Sforza. John Galeas (Gian Galeazzo), Duke of ^lilan: reign of. 130 Sforza, Louis, surnanied the Moor, Duke of Milan: attemjits to unite Italy in one body, 130; joins league against Charles \M IT of b'rauce, 131 Sicilian Vespers (1282), 85 Sienna: siege of (1554-1555), 147 Sieyes, Count Fmmanuel Joseph: insti- gates tlie formation of a national assembly, 262; made member of the directory. 309: forms alliance with Napoleon, 310; appointed consul, 315 684 INDEX Sigibert T, king of Austrasia: reign of, 26 Sigibert II, king of Austrasia: reign of, ^^ Sigibert, king of Burgundy, rcign of, 31 Sigibert, king of the Ripuarian Franks: assassination of, 21 Sigismund, king of Burgundy: death of, 24 Simeon: made mmister of the interior, 373 Simon, Jules: in the elections of 1869, 458 Simpson, General : in the Crimean War, 447 Sixtus V, Pope : excommunicates Henry of Navarre, 161 ; excommunicates Henry HI of France, 165 Smalkalde. League of (1531), 142 Smith, Sir Sidney: defends Saint Jean d'Acre, 309 Soissons: battle of (720 a.d.), 36 Solebay (Southwold) : battle of (1672), 210 Solfcrino: battle of (1859), 451 Sombreuil, Charles Virot de: capture and death of, 294 Somerset, Fitzroy James Henry, Baron Raglan : see Raglan, Fitzroy James Henry Somerset, Baron Sommerhausen : battle of (1647), 200 Sondcrhauscn: battle of (1758), 245 Soubise, Benjamin de Rohan, Seigneur de: revolt of, 183 Soubise, Charles de Rohan, Prince of: in the Seven Years' War, 245 Souham, Joseph: his campaign against the allied forces, 289 Soult, Nicolas Jean dc Dieu, Duke of Dalmatia : made marshal of the em- pire, 322; his campaigns in Spain, 334; made minister of war, 359; made minister of war in Perier's cabinet, 399; first ministry of, 402; second ministry of, 417; third min- istry of, 420 Southwold : see Solebay Spanden : battle of (1807), 331 Spanish Marriages, The (1846), 425 Spurs, Battle of the (1513), 135 Stacl, Madame dc : leads constitutional party, 358 Staff arde: battle of (1690), 218 Stair, John Dalrymple, Earl of: negoti- ates treaty with France, 228; in the War of the Austrian Succession, 238 Steinkirk: battle of (1692), 218 Steinmetz, Karl Friedrich von : in the Franco-Prussian War, 463 Stenay: battle of (1870), 464 Stephen II, Pope: asks aid from Pippin I, 40 Stephen I, king of England ; his struggle for the crown, 72 Stockach : battle of (1799), 308 Stofflet, Nicholas : leads insurrection in the Vendee, 283 ; death of, 297 Strasburg (Strassburg) : battle of (359 A.D.), 14; siege of (1870), 464 Stromboli : battle of (1676), 212 Subervie, General : member of the pro- visional government, 435 Succession, War of Spanish, 220 Suchet, Louis Gabriel : his campaign in Spain, 337 Suffold, General: at siege of Orleans, 115 Suffrcn, de Saint-Tropez, Pierre Andre de : his campaign in India, 257 Sugcr, Abbot of Saint Denis : manages government of France, 7S Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, Baron of Rosny and Duke of: assists Henry IV to raise army and money against Spain, 170; administration of, 173 Surat : French establish factory at, 214 Susa, Treaty of (1628), 186 Suvarov, Count Alexander: his cam- paign against the French, 309 Syagrius : governs Roman possessions in Gaul, 18; defeated by the Franks, 19 Taboureau : made minister of finance, 254 Tafna, Treaty of (1837), 413 Taillebourg, Bridge of: battle of (1242), 81 Talavera: battle of (1809), 337 Talbot, John, Earl of Shrewsbury: at siege of Orleans, 115 .Tallard, Camille de la Baume, Count of: defeated at Blenheim, 221 INDEX 535 Talleyrand-Pen'gord, Charles Maurice de : proposes that the clergy give up their possessions, 267 ; member of provisional government, 349; made minister of foreign affairs. 356; made president of Louis XVIII's ministry, 365 Tallien, Jean Lambert : resists Robes- pierre's views, 290 Talmont: supports insurrection in the Vendee, 283 Tangiers, Treaty of (1844). 423 Tanneguy-Duchatel, provost of Paris: rescues the dauphin, 112; exile of, 114 Tarwitz: battle of (1809), 33^ Tavannes, Gaspard de Saulx dc : at bat- tle of Jarnac, 156; gives the orders for the Massacre of Saint Bartholo- mew, 157 Tchernaya: battle of the (1855), 448 Tchitchagoff (Tchitschakov), Paul Vas- silievitch : his campaign again>t Na- poleon, 342 Templars, Order of the Knights : perse- cutions of, 88 Terray, Joseph-Marie, Abbe: reforms of, 249 Tessc, Rene de Froulai, Count of: in the War of the Spanish Succession, 222 Teste : scandal concerning, 428 Testry: battle of (687 a.d.), 35 Tetricus, Cains Pivcsus : surrenders to Aurelian, 13 Thann: battle of (1809), 335 Theodcbald, Frankish king: reign of, 25 Theodcbald, grandson of Pippin of llcr- istal : made mayor of the palace, 36 Theodcbert I, Frankish king: accession of, 25 Theodcbert II, Frankish king: reign of, 30 Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostro- goths: attempts to aid Alaric II against the Franks, 20 Theodoric I, king of the Visigoths : his campaign against Attila, 17 Theodoric I (Thierry), Frankish king: his campaign against Auvcrgnc, 20; reign of, 24 Theodoric II, Frankish king: reign of, 30 Theodoric III, Frankish king: reign of. 34 Theodoric IV, Frankish king: reign of, Therouenne : razed to the ground, 147 Thibaut, Count of Champagne : accused of poisoning Louis VIII of France, 80 Thiers, Louis Adolphe : opposes the de- crees of July 25, 1830, 390; in Soull's ministry, 402; becomes minister of the interior, 405; first ministry of, 409; second ministry of, 418: leads opposition, 424; opposes Guizol's foreign policy, 430; arrest of, 441; elected to the assembly, 458; can- vasses luirope to obtain aid for France, 467; made "head of the ex- ecutive power," 469; becomes presi- dent of the I'rench Republic, 475 Thierry: see Theodoric Tliionville: battle of (1639). I93 Thirty Years' War, The, 183 Thomas, Clement: made commander of the national guard, 437; captured by the commune, 470 Thou. Christopher de : approves the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, 158 Thou, Franqois Augustc de: death of, 195 Thou, Jacques-Auguste de : draws up tlic lulirt of Nantes, 171 Thouret: dismisses the national assem- bly, 271 ; death of, 289 Three Henries, War of the, 161 Tiberias: battle of (1187), 75 Tien-tsin, Treaty of (1858), 449 Tilly, Johann Tserclacs, Count : his cam- paigns in the Thirty Years' War, 190 Tilsit, Treaty of (1807), 331 Tippoo Sahib: at war with the Fnglish, 256 Tolbiac: battles of (496 a.d.). 19; (612 A. a), 31 Tolentino: battle of (1815), ^f^z Tolcntino. Treaty of (1797), 302 Tonnerrc, Count Clermont of: urges nobles to resume their seats in the assembly. 2b}, Torgau : battle of (17G0), 246 Torres Vedras: battle of (1810), 338 Toulon: battle of (1744), 238 536 INDEX Toulouse: siege of (1216), 78; battle of (1814), 350 Tournay: siege of (1745), 239; battle of (1794), 290 Tours, Battle of : see Poictiers, Battle of Tourville, Anne Hilarion dc Cotentin, Count of: at battle of La Hogue, 219 Trafalgar: battle of (1805), 326 Trebbia: battle of (1799), 309 Treilhard : made member of the direc- tory, 305 Trent, Council of (1545-1564), 155 Trevisa, Duke of: his ministry, 407 Trichinopoly : siege of (1750), 242 Triple Alliances: (1668), 209; (1715), 228 Trochu, Louis Jules: defends Paris, 415; assumes presidency of provisional government, 466 Tronchet, Frangois Denis : counsel for Louis XVI, 280 Troyes, Treaty of (1420), 113 Truce of God : published, 68 Tudela: battle of (1808), 334 Tuileries, The : burned, 472 Turcoin: battle of (1794), 290 Turenne, Henry de La Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount of: joins the Fronde, 202; joins queen's party, 204; his cam- paigns against Conde, 206; his cam- paigns against the Dutch, 210; death of, 211 Turin: siege of (1706), 222 Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques : made comptroller-general of finances, 253; disgraced, 254 Turkhcim: battle of (1674), 211 Tuttlingcn: battle of (1643), 199 TM^enty-Four Articles, Treaty . of the, (1831), 400 U, V Underhand Peace, The (1407), no Unfortunate Peace, The (1559), 148 Union, Edicts of (1588), 163; (1648), 200 Unkiar-Skelcssi, Treaty of (1833), 403 Urban II, Pope: preaches the first cru- sade, 70 Urban VI (Bartholomew Prignano), Pope : election of, 105 Urbino, Duke of: raises an army for the defense of Italy, 140 Utrecht, Treaty of (1713), 224 Uxelles, Marshal : president of the coun- cil of foreign affairs, 227 Val de Presle: battle of the (1635), 192 Valdonne, Chevalier de : made minister for the interior, 459 Valenc^ay, Treaty of (1813), 344 Valentinian III, Emperor of the West: reign of, 16 Valmy: battle of (1792), 277 Valognes, Treaty of (1355), 96 Vassy: massacre of (1562), 153 Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre of: his campaign in Germany, 217 Vaublanc: made minister of the interior, 367 Vaubois, Henri Belgrand, Count of: his campaigns under the directory, 301 Vaucelles, Treaty of (1555), 147 Vauchamps : battle of (1814), 346 Vendome, Duke of: conspires against Richelieu, 184 Vendome, Louis Joseph, Duke of : his campaigns in the War of Spanish Succession, 220 Veneti : revolt of, 9 Vercelli, Treaty of (1495), 131 Vercingetorix, chief of the Auvergnats : leads rebellion against Rome, 10 Verdun: sieges of (985 a.d.), 59; (1792), 276 Verdun, Partition of (843 a.d.), 50 Vergennes, Charles Gravier, Count of: made minister for foreign affairs, 253 Vergniaud, Pierre Victurnien : leads Girondist party, 272 Verneuil: battle of (1423), 114 Verneuil, Henrietta d'Entragues, Mar- quise of : her intrigues with Henry IV of France, 172; arrested, 174 Verona, Congress of (1822), 379 Versailles, Peace of (1783), 257 Vervins, Peace of (1598), 171 Victor Amadeus I, King of Sardinia (II, Duke of Savoy) : at war with the French, 218; forms alliance with French, 219 INDEX 537 Victor Amadeus TT, King of Sardinia : concludes peace witli Napoleon, 2qS Victor Amadeus T, Duke of Savoy : at war with France, 187 Victoria, queen of Great Britain and Ireland and empress of India: visits Napoleon III, 448 Vieilleville, Marshal de : opposes perse- cution of Protestants, 149 Vienna, Congress of (1814), 359 Vienna, Treaty of (1809), 336 Vigo: battle of (1703), 221 Villafranca, Treaty of (1859), 451 Villaret-Joyeuse, Louis Thomas, Count: at battle of Belle-Isle, 294 Villars, Louis Hector, Duke of: his cam- paigns in the War of the Spanish Succession, 221 ; president of the council of war, 227 ; member of king's council, 234; his campaign in Italy, 235 Villariciosa: battle of (1711), 224 Villele, Count Jean Baptiste Seraphin Joseph de : admitted to the council, 375; made minister of finance, 378 Villeman, Abel Frangois : his relations to the revolution of 1830, 391 ; op- poses the September Laws, 408 Villeneuve, Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste Silvestre de : commands Toulon fleet, 325 Villeneuve: battle of (1814), 346 Villeroi, Frangois de Neuville, Duke of: taken prisoner by Eugene of Savoy, 220 ; policy of, 228 Vimiera: battle of (1808), 333 Vine: battle of (717 a.d.), 36 Vionville: battle of (1870), 464 Vitiges, king of the Ostrogoths : reign of, 25 Vittoria: battle of (1813), 344 Vougle: battle of (507 a.d.), 20 W Wagram: battle of (1809), 336 Waifar, Duke of Aquitaine: reign of, 41 Waldeck, George Friedrich, Prince of: his campaign against the French, 217 Waldenses : persecution of, 144 Wallace. William: rebellion of. 87 Wallenstein, Albrecht F.nsebius vo!i : his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War, 190 Walter the Penniless: leads the cru- saders, 70 War of the Three Henries, 161 Waratho, mayor of the palace : reign of, 35 Washington, George, president of the United States : in the I-Vench and Indian Wars, 243 Waterloo: battle of (1815), 362 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Viscount: his campaigns in the Peninsula, 333; his campaign in Belgium, 362; at the Congress of Verona, 379 Wertingen : battle of (1805), 326 West India Company, French, 214 Westcrmann. Joseph : death of, 288 Westphalia. Peace of (1648), 200 White Mountain: battle of (1620), 189 William (I) the Conqueror, king of England : conquers England, 68 William (III) of Orange, king of Eng- land ; his campaigns against the French, 210: becomes leader of the League of Augsburg, 217 William V, Prince of Orange: his cam- paign against France, 286 William, Prince of Prussia: his cam- paign against Napoleon, 346 William X, Duke of Aquitaine and Count of Poitou : supports claims of Geof- frey Plantagenet, 72 William Longswood, Duke of Nor- mandy: invites Louis IV to come to I'rance, 55; death of, 56 William Shortnose, Duke of Toulouse: appointed guardian for Louis the Pious, 43 Wilson Scandal, The (1887), 4S4 Wimpfen, Baron Felix de : leads army of insurrectionists, 285 WimpfTen. Emmanuel Felix de : in the Franco-Prussian War, 465 Witt, John de : leader of the Triple Alliance. 209 Wittgenstein, Ludwig Adolf Peter, Prince of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Lud- 538 INDEX wigsburg: his campaign against Na- poleon, 342 Woerth: battle of (1870), 464 Wolf II, king of the Basques : at war with Charlemagne, 42 Wolfenbiittel : battle of (1641), 194 Wolsey, Thomas : seduced by Francis I of France, 138 Worms, Treaty of (1743), 238 Wulfoald: made mayor of the palace, 34 Wurmser, Dagobert Siegmund, Count of: his campaigns against the French, 287. 299 Wurzburg: battle of (1796), 3CM) X. Y, Z Yorck : his campaign against Napoleon, 346 York, Frederick Augustus, Duke of: at siege of Dunkirk, 286 Yorktown : siege of (1781), 256 Ypres : siege of (1794), 290 Yser: battle of the (1793), 286 Zacharias, Pope : at war with the Lom- bards, 40 Zeriksee: battle of (1303), 87 Zorndorf: battle of (1758), 245 Zurich: battle of (1799), 310 si/ 48 ^ r^-'\!^J \ f'!'^ ft^'-^'^f te.de Birflg^r Si Pierre Pt. \ Cai / ! / ; ^'; ??"'" \ Carteret' StlVl8ry en Cui - ^\ l/rfL*-^ SEIN ^INF f RIK - ^^ (urnaj BrfueS L\ OlK Breti -S;c5JaRB ^ 2>t>uamen2 _te-du ffazC -dudierne J3\ /& rt.da Penmaroti^^ Olenan /s,-qjJ> yi^ Brie Pontivjfl^ W^^a^^-' rg. Foiigerei Argentj Majenno Beajn^tt l~ n liouli Ihiy'tr oves /Bonn ^ j!\'endd Noirmoutier /. Beau 1.. Sable. ''0>nl^'' ;><^t.^,|^, vA /. de B^^Jl^'^^^f^ , , I '"oi^/S- Vr5cT!C.ii /. d- p/eronU^cHAKfej^ ^ . ,^ v -, x^ ^^^ . . Lal-rere^M,renB^ , ^f '^AREMTE^rH""'' I La l-rere^Maronne oe la Couh r% 1 . CO Canals 20 dO Railroads o~ Submarine Cables .... 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